*w.*J 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 %eceived 
 
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 1S9Z. 
 
 <^ccessions No. 
 
 ^c|^^.^. 
 
 Class No^ 
 
 ' 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 I 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/coursesmethodshaOOprinrich 
 
COUESES AND METHODS. 
 
 A HAl^DBOOK FOE TEAOHEES 
 
 PRIMARY, GRAMMAR, AND UNGRADED 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN T. PEINCE, 
 
 i^OENT OF MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION; FORMERLY 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 
 
 WALTHAM AND WATBBTOWN, MASS. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UlflVEESITT 
 
 i'lPO 
 
 foB.1^ 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. 
 
 1888. 
 
(-'7 
 
 1 
 
 i+Q If *K 5 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1886, by 
 
 JOHN T. PRmCE, 
 in the Office of the Libraiian of Ck>Dgres8, at Washington. 
 
 J. 8. CusHiKe & Co., Pbixtebs, Boston. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 rpmS book is not intended to be an exhaustive or 
 -^ philosophical treatise upon Education ; nor does the 
 author claim for the ideas advanced in it much that is 
 new or original. It is written in response to a frequently 
 expressed desire in various quarters for a brief plan of 
 studies that may be pursued in elementary schools, and for 
 a simple and direct statement of good methods of organ- 
 ization, teaching, and discipline. While the hints and 
 suggestions are directed mainly to untrained and inexperi- 
 enced teachers, it is hoped that they may commend them- 
 selves to the judgment of the best teachers, as being based 
 upon correct principles of teaching. 
 
 A Course of Studies may be so general as to be of little 
 direct use, or so definite as to apply to few schools. It 
 has been the aim in preparing the courses here presented 
 to avoid both extremes, with the understanding that they 
 may be modified to suit existing conditions. The best 
 Course that can be made is simply a guide for the teacher, 
 in pointing out wha'. subjects are to be taught, the order 
 in which subjects and parts f subjects are to be pre- 
 sented, and the approximate amount o be done in a given 
 time. The best use of such a Course will be determined 
 not so much by the rigidity with which it is followed as 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 by the way it is interpreted and applied to the wants of 
 the pupils. In other words, the subjects of stud}- are of 
 less consequence than the way in which they are taught. 
 It is for this reason that comparatively little space has 
 been given to the course or plan of studies and much to 
 methods of teaching. 
 
 Nearly all of the topical outlines presented in Part II. 
 have been tried in the schoolroom and found to be prac- 
 tical and helpful. A few of them were taken in the first 
 instance from professional books and periodicals, with no 
 thought of republication, and therefore their authorship was 
 not presei-ved. So far as the authors are known, due credit 
 has been given. 
 
 It should be said that while the suggestions given in 
 Parts II. and III. are meant to apply to any Course of 
 studies, the Course as here outlined should not be used 
 alone. The bare outline of subjects as given in Part I. 
 would be likely to be misunderstood and misapplied with- 
 out the explanations given in Part II. 
 
 Teachers of each grade should familiarize themselves 
 with the requirements and methods of all other grades, so 
 as to know what has been, or what should have been, 
 previously done, and also to know the kind of work for 
 
 which they are to prepare their pupUs. 
 
 J. T. P. 
 Waltham, Mass., 
 Nov. 1, 1886. 
 
 I 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 — ♦— 
 
 I. COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 1. Course for Graded Schools 1 
 
 2. Course for Ungraded Schools 21 
 
 11. METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 1. Importakce of Method 27 
 
 2. Objects of Education 29 
 
 3. General Principles ., 33 
 
 4. General Suggestions. 
 
 Graded and Ungraded Schools 40 
 
 Purpose and Plan 42 
 
 The Recitation 43 
 
 Objects 43 
 
 Teaching 43 
 
 Drill 44 
 
 Supplementary Information 44 
 
 Topical Study and Recitation 44 
 
 Attention 45 
 
 Economy of Time 46 
 
 Examinations 46 
 
 6. Reading. 
 
 (1) Definition . 48 
 
 (2) First Steps „ 48 
 
 (3) Transition 51 
 
 (4) Silent Reading 52 
 
 (6) Oral Reading 52 
 
 Objects 52 
 
 Natural Expression 53 
 
Yl CONTENTS. 
 
 PA6B 
 
 Pronunciation 55 
 
 Clear Enunciation 56 
 
 Vocal Drill 57 
 
 Fluency and Sight-Reading 58 
 
 Regular Reading-Lessons 59 
 
 Preparation of Lesson 60 
 
 (6) Principles 62 
 
 (7) Cultivation of Taste .> 64 
 
 6. Writing. 
 
 (1) When begun 66 
 
 (2) Appliances 66 
 
 (3) Grading 66 
 
 (4) Objects and Means 67 
 
 Words and Sentences 67 
 
 Single Letters 68 
 
 Position 68 
 
 Movements 70 
 
 Copy-Book 71 
 
 Rate 73 
 
 7. Spelling. 
 
 (1) Objects, etc 74 
 
 (2) Study 74 
 
 (3) Recitation 76 
 
 (4) Rules 77 
 
 (5) Examination and Correction 77 
 
 (6) Reviews and Recreations 78 
 
 8. Language. 
 
 (1) Defined 80 
 
 (2) Objects 80 
 
 (3) Means 81 
 
 Regular Studies 81 
 
 Imitation 81 
 
 Copying 82 
 
 Object-Lessons 82 
 
 Actions 83 
 
 Pictures 84 
 
 Dictation 86 
 
 Information Lessons - 87 
 
CONTENTS. Vll 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Story-Telling and Sight-Reading 87 
 
 Paraphrasing 89 
 
 Letter- Writing 89 
 
 Business Forms and Notices 90 
 
 Elliptical Sentences 91 
 
 Compositions 92 
 
 Outlines 93 
 
 False Syntax 96 
 
 (4) Correction of Written Work 97 
 
 9. Grammar. 
 
 (1) Defined 101 
 
 (2) Outline of Study 101 
 
 (3) Definitions 103 
 
 (4) Etymology 104 
 
 (5) Syntax 106 
 
 (6) Parsing 107 
 
 ^7) Analysis 108 
 
 (8) Synthesis 109 
 
 (9) Correction of False Syntax 110 
 
 10, Arithmetic. 
 
 (1) Objects, etc 112 
 
 (2) First Steps 113 
 
 (3) Primary Drill 117 
 
 (4) Practical Problems 119 
 
 (5) Notation and Numeration 120 
 
 (6) Fundamental Processes 121 
 
 (7) Fractions 123 
 
 (8) Applications 127 
 
 Weights and Measures 127 
 
 Percentage 128 
 
 (9) Definitions and Rules 131 
 
 (10) Mental Arithmetic 132^ 
 
 (11) Explanations 135 
 
 (12) Short Processes 136 
 
 11. Geography. 
 
 (1) Objects .' 137 
 
 (2) Preparatory Lessons 138 
 
 Local Geography 138 
 
Vm CONTENTS. ^ 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Plan-Drawing 143 
 
 Study of Maps 146 
 
 Moulding-Board 146 
 
 (3) General Lessons from Globe and Maps 146 
 
 Earth as a Whole .' , . . 146 
 
 Continents 147 
 
 (4) Countries and Sections 149 
 
 (5) Mathematical and Physical Features 153 
 
 (6) Map-Drawing 157 
 
 (7) The Recitation 159 
 
 (8) Geographical Reading 161 
 
 12. HiSTOEY. 
 
 (1) Objects 162 
 
 (2) Preparatory Work 162 
 
 (3) Topical Study 165 
 
 (4) The Recitation 167 
 
 (5) Topical Reviews 169 
 
 (6) Historical Reading ■*: . . 171 
 
 (7) Historical Recreations 172 
 
 13. Physiology and Hygiene. 
 
 (1) Object of Study 173 
 
 (2) Means 173 
 
 (3) Outline and Methods 173 
 
 (4) Dissection 178 
 
 (5) Emergencies 180 
 
 (6) Use of Tobacco 181 
 
 (7) Use of Alcohol 181 
 
 14. Obsekvation Lessons. 
 
 (1) General Suggestions 188 
 
 (2) Schedule of Subjects and Times 189 
 
 (3) Color 191 
 
 (4) Place 193 
 
 (5) Human Body 195 
 
 (6) Plants 198 
 
 Primary Grades 198 
 
 Grammar Grades 202 
 
 (7) Animals 209 
 
 Primary Grades 211 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 PAGH 
 
 Grammar Grades 213 
 
 (8) Minerals , 226 
 
 (9) Astronomy 231 
 
 (10) Physics , . . 233 
 
 15. Information Lessons. 
 
 Primary Grades = 245 
 
 Grammar Grades 247 
 
 Newspaper 248 
 
 Civil Government 249 
 
 Animals, Plants, Minerals 249 
 
 16. Drawing. 
 
 Form 252 
 
 Industrial Drawing 259 
 
 Materials « 259 
 
 Preparation of Lesson 259 
 
 Working Drawings 260 
 
 Construction of Objects 260 
 
 Perspective 260 
 
 Invention and Design 261 
 
 Outline of Study 261 
 
 17. Singing. 
 
 Illustrative Lessons 267 
 
 The Scale 267 
 
 Two-part Measure 268 
 
 Three-part Measure 270 
 
 Pour-part Measure 271 
 
 Singing from Figures , 272 
 
 Regular Staff Notation 275 
 
 Notes and Rests 277 
 
 18. Memory Lessons 279 
 
 19. Busy-Work 280 
 
 20. Physical Exercise » 283 
 
 ni. ORGANIZATION, MORAL TRAINING, AND 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 1. Organization. 
 
 (1) School Buildings 290 
 
 Locality 290 
 
I 
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Privies 290 
 
 Size of Schoolrooms 290 
 
 Lighting. . . . o 291 
 
 Ventilation and Jleating 291 
 
 Furniture and Furnishings 293 
 
 Blackboards 294 
 
 (2) Apparatus 294 
 
 (3) Reference Books 295 
 
 (4) Classification 305 
 
 Graded Schools 305 
 
 Basis of Classification 306 
 
 Size of Classes 306 
 
 Divisions „ 307 
 
 Intervals 307 
 
 Partially Graded Schools , 309 
 
 Ungraded Schools 309 
 
 (5) Daily Programme of Recitation and Study 311 
 
 (6) Records and Reports 316 
 
 ?. Moral Training. 
 
 (1) Importance 321 
 
 (2) Regular Studies, Means not Ends 322 
 
 (3) Influence of Example 324 
 
 (4) Regular Talks , 325 
 
 (5) Incidental Instruction 326 
 
 (6) Devotional Exercise 326 
 
 (7) Memorizing Gems 327 
 
 (8) Government 328 
 
 Defined 328 
 
 Formation of Habit 329 
 
 Obedience 330 
 
 truthfulness 331 
 
 Industry 332 
 
 Order and Neatness 333 
 
 Politeness 333 
 
 Contamination 334 
 
 Condition of the School Premises » 335 
 
 Punishment 336 
 
 Conditions of Good Government 337 
 
 Seif-Control 338 
 
 Illustrative Example 339 
 
 (9) Sympathy 343 
 
?yp' 0? THE 
 
 IVBESIT7] 
 
 Part I. 
 
 COFESE OF STUDIES FOE GEADED 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 D^*:c 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 
 
 The following course includes a plan of work for 
 nine years, divided into periods of five months each. 
 The work of the ninth year may, if it is desired, be 
 incorporated into one of the courses of the high school, 
 making the grammar school course complete at the 
 close of the eighth year. 
 
 In addition to the subjects named, instruction in the 
 following subjects is given throughout the entire 
 course. 
 
 DRAWING, SINGING, MEMORY LESSONS, GL NERAL IN- 
 FORMATION LESSONS, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 For plan of work in these subjects, see Part II., 
 where specific directions in reference to methods of 
 teaching will be found. Attention is also given to 
 
 MORALS AND MANNERS and to PHYSICAL CULTURE. 
 
 For details in these important departments, see pages 
 321 and 283. 
 
L COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 FIRST YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Color. — Differences and resemblances. 
 
 Form. — Differences and resemblances. 
 
 Size and Weight. — Relative. 
 
 Place. — Opposites; as, over, under; above, below; be- 
 hind, before. 
 
 Qualities. — Most prominent ; as, rough, smooth, hard, 
 soft, heavy, light. 
 
 Plants. — Common flowers observed and compared. 
 
 Human Body. — Parts of body and movements. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Talking. — Facts and stories in connection with obser- 
 vation and reading lessons. 
 
 Reading. — Words and sentences from blackboard, 
 chart, and first pages of two First readers. 
 
 Writing. — Words and sentences from blackboard and 
 from cards. Practice upon letter ^'with and without 
 copy. 
 
 ARITIOCETIC. 
 
 Develop numbers from 1 to 5. Count objects to 10. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Color. — Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray, 
 brown. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 3 
 
 Form. — Spherical, cubical, and cylindrical bodies; 
 points, lines, angles; moulding and drawing. 
 
 Size and Weight. — Relative. 
 
 Place. — Objects arranged from dictation ; position, di- 
 rection. Plan-drawing begun. 
 
 Human Body. — Parts of body and movements. 
 
 Plants. — Flower, leaf, stem ; common plants observed 
 and named. 
 
 Animals. — Most familiar animals compared. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Sentences from blackboard, chart, and sev- 
 eral First readers. 
 
 Spelling-. — Words from readers. 
 
 Talking and Writing. — Statements and stories in 
 
 connection with reading and observation lessons. 
 
 Copying from blackboard and from cards. Practice 
 
 upon letters 
 
 ^^ U^j -HA, 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Develop numbers to 10 by objects. Express by words 
 and figures all combinations to 6 at sight. Counting 
 objects to 50. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Color. — Shades and tints of common colors. 
 Form. — Surface, edge, corner, triangle. Design with 
 splints, colored paper, etc. 
 
4 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 Place. — Relative distance ; also inch, foot, yard. Plans : 
 
 top of desk, floor of schoolroom. 
 Qualities. — Tough, brittle, elastic, fragrant, opaque, 
 
 transparent, porous, fluid, solid. Parts of objects; 
 
 form of parts ; uses. 
 Plants. — Parts of plant : root, stem, leaf, bud, flower. 
 
 Names of common plants. 
 Human Body. — Organs of senses. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Heading:. — Easier pieces of two Second readers. Easy 
 sight-reading from several First readers daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Words from readers. Oral and written. 
 
 Composition. — Oral and written statements and stories 
 in connection with reading and observation les- 
 sons. Teach use of capitals, period, and question- 
 mark. 
 
 Writing. — Copying from blackboard and cards. Writ- 
 ing fi'om dictation. Practice upon letters 
 
 ARITHJyiETIC. 
 
 Combination with objects to 15 ; without objects to 
 10. Teach halves and fourths. Original problems with 
 objects. Counting to 100. Expression by words and 
 figures. Signs +, — , X, -i- used. 
 
 I 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 6 
 
 SECOND YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Color. — Hues, tints, shades. 
 
 Form. — Prism, pyramid, cone, square, oblong ; designs 
 with splints, colored paper, etc. 
 
 Weight and Measure. — Pound, ounce, peck, gallon, 
 quart, pint, gill. 
 
 Place. — Points of compass. Plan-drawing of school- 
 room and yard. 
 
 Plants. — Parts and shape of leaf: blade, veins, mar- 
 gin ; parts of flowers : petals, stamens, pistils ; names 
 of common plants and trees. 
 
 Animals. — Common birds and fowls. External parts 
 observed and compared. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Second readers completed. Sight-reading 
 from several First readers daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Words from readers. Oral and written. 
 
 Composition. — Punctuation and capital letters. Letter- 
 writing. Stories from pictures. Statements and stories 
 in connection with observation and reading lessons. 
 
 Writing. — Copying from card or blackboard. Writing 
 from dictation. Copy-book practice. Special prac- 
 tice upon 
 
 Oj e-j c-j ^j H^j Sj 'Cj ^ 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Operations to 25. Building of tables; teach thirds 
 and sixths. Original problems, with and without objects. 
 
COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 I 
 
 Dozen, score, quire. Coins of United States. Writing 
 of numbers to 100. Roman notation to XX. 
 
 ^^^1 
 
 THIRD YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Growth from seed to fruit traced. 
 
 Color. — Complementary colors. Harmony of colors. 
 
 Arrangement in designs. 
 Form. — Spheroid, circle, ellipse, oval. Invention and 
 
 design. 
 Place. — Simple plans drawn to scale. 
 Human Body. — Parts of body. Movements. Uses 
 
 of parts. Health of parts. 
 Home Greography. — Observation of neighborhood. 
 
 Plans drawn and moulded. Land surface. Water 
 
 surface. Give geographical names. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Easier pieces of two Third readers. Sight- 
 reading daily from several Second readers. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences selected 
 from the readers. 
 
 Composition. — Statements and stories in connection 
 with observation and reading lessons. Letter-writing. 
 
 Writing. — Copying from blackboard, cards, and read- 
 ers. Writing from dictation. Practice upon 
 
 ^. ^ o< (^ c^C c^ c^ 
 
 Copy-book practice. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Operations to 50, in addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
 tion, and division. Teach eighths. Reading and writ- 
 ing of numbers to 1000. Roman notation to L. 
 Building of tables, including common weights and 
 measures. Original problems involved in common 
 transactions and making change. 
 
 . THIRD YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Color. — Continuation of work of First Half. Review. 
 
 Form. — Systematic review of entire work. 
 
 Human Body. — Continuation of work of First Half. 
 
 Animals. — Common birds and insects. Parts and 
 habits observed and compared. 
 
 Home Geography. — Teach geographical ideas based 
 upon observation, using geographical language : bodies 
 of land ; bodies of water ; projections of land and 
 water ; climate (weather) ; soil ; productions ; draw- 
 ing and moulding of neighborhood and town. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading". — Selection from two Third readers. Easy- 
 sight-reading daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences dictated 
 from readers and from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Statements and stories in connection 
 with observation and reading lessons, and pictures. 
 Letter-writing. 
 
8 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
 book practice. 
 Practice upon 
 
 fj // fj y, f, -^ ^ Cr, (^, Ci. 
 
 ARITHIVIETIC. 
 
 Operations to 144, in addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
 tion, and division. Ninths, twelfths. Reading and 
 writing of numbers to 100,000. Roman notation to M. 
 Original problems involved in doing errands at a store. 
 Rapid and accurate adding of columns of two figures. 
 
 1 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Name and description of parts of a plant, of 
 
 a leaf, of a flower. 
 Animals. — Sponge and coral examined. Star-fish and 
 
 sea-urchin examined and compared. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Beading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Statements in connection with observa- 
 tion lessons. Abstracts from memory. Stories from 
 pictures. Letter-writing. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 9 
 
 Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
 book practice. 
 Single-letter practice upon 
 
 ^ ^ /, / ^, 4 -^ a? ^ 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Operations to 10,000, in addition and subtraction. 
 Tenths and hundredths written decimally. Oral exer- 
 cises daily, involving yards, feet, inches, gallons, quarts, 
 pints. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Preparatory work reviewed and continued. People 
 (races, occupations, settlements, government, religion, 
 states of society). Study of maps of known places 
 (scale, natural features, etc.). 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Work of First Half continued. 
 Animals. — Oyster, clam, and snail examined and com- 
 pared. Lobster and crab examined and compared. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Keading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling". — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 
10 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 Composition. — Same as First Half. 
 
 Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy 
 
 book practice. 
 
 Single-letter practice upon 
 
 C A eS, -Q, Qi. (I 
 
 Of; a: (^, p, 0. 
 
 ARITHISIETIC. 
 
 Operations to 10,000, in multiplication and division 
 Writing and reading whole numbers. Teach by objects 
 to add and subtract easy fractions in halves, fourths, and 
 eighths. Notation in United States money. 
 
 Oral exercises daily, involving yards, feet, inches, gal- 
 lons, quarts, pints, bushels, pecks, dozen, quire. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Earth as a whole: form and motions of the earth; 
 hemispheres ; bodies of land ; bodies of water ; climate ; 
 productions; commerce. 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — History of plant life. Embryo, growth, bud. 
 Animals. — Spider, daddy-long-legs ; grasshopper, drag- 
 on-fly ; squash-bug, beetle ; examined and compared. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 11 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Statements and compositions in connec- 
 tion with the observation, reading and information 
 lessons. Abstracts from memory. Dictation exer- 
 cises. Stories from pictures. Letter-writing. 
 
 Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
 book practice. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Operations in whole numbers to millions, involving 
 common weights and measures. Addition and subtrac- 
 tion of fractions, both common and decimal, to twelfths 
 and thousandths. Oral exercises, abstract and concrete. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Study of North and South America by topics. 
 Map-drawing by tracing. 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — History of plant life. Flowers, fruit, seeds. 
 Animals. — Flies, butterflies, and moths; ants, wasps, 
 and bees ; examined and compared. 
 
12 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading:. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daih\ 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 
 
 Writing. — Copying and writing from dictation. Copy- 
 book practice. ^B 
 
 ARITHMETIC. ^^ 
 
 Multiplication and division of fractions, both common 
 and decimal, to twelfths and thousandths. Operations 
 involving use of United States money and common 
 weights and measures. 
 
 Oral exercises with abstract and concrete numbers. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Study of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia by 
 topics. 
 
 Map-drawing by tracing. 
 
 1 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Differences in stems, roots, leaves. 
 Minerals. — Common minerals compared and named. 
 
 Compared with reference to hardness, color, form, 
 
 structure, lustre. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 13 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading-. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Statements and compositions in con- 
 nection with the observation, reading, and informa- 
 tion lessons. Abstracts from memory. Dictation 
 exercises. Stories from pictures. Letter-writing. 
 
 Writing. — Copy-book practice. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Factors and multiples. Addition and subtraction of 
 common and decimal fractions. Oral exercises involv- 
 ing common weights and measures. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Study of countries and sections by topics: United 
 States, Mexico, West Indies, British America, Brazil. 
 Map-drawing. 
 Earth as a whole : mathematical and physical features. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Differences in flowers, fruits, and seeds. 
 Minerals. — Work of First Half continued. 
 
14 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading'. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from speR- 
 ing-book and from other sources. ^\i 
 
 Composition. — Work of First Half continued. ^H 
 
 Writing. — Copy-book practice. 
 
 ARITHJVIETIC. 
 
 Multiplication and division of fractions, common and 
 decimal. 
 
 Oral exercises involving common weights and meas- 
 ures. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Study of countries and sections by topics: British 
 Empire, France, Germany, Russian Empire ; also State 
 and section in which pupils live. Map-drawing. 
 
 Mathematical and physical features of the earth as a 
 whole. 
 
 I 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Differences in habits. Many kinds of shrubs 
 
 and trees compared and named. 
 Animals. — Marked and essential characteristics of 
 
 fishes; frogs and toads; reptiles; birds; mammals. 
 
 As many of each examined as practicable. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 15 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling-. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Original compositions. Abstracts from 
 memory. Paraphrasing. Letter-writing. Correction 
 of false syntax. Business forms. 
 
 Writing. — Copy-book practice. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Compound numbers, including all practical operations 
 in long, square, and cubic measures, avoirdupois weight. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Important features of the countries of Asia and Africa. 
 Mathematical and physical features of the earth as a 
 whole. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Composition and uses of different parts of 
 plants. 
 
 Animals. — Varieties of mammals, as flesh-eaters, gnaw- 
 ers, cud-chewers, etc. ; also of birds, as climbers, birds 
 of prey, swimmers, etc. ; described and compared. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
16 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words and sentences from spell- 
 ing-book and from other sources. 
 Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 
 
 AKITHMETIC. 
 
 Compound numbers, including metric system and all 
 practical operations in all the weights and measures. 
 Percentage. Simple interest. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Important features of sections of Africa, Australia, 
 Islands of Pacific. Also State and section in which 
 pupils live. Mathematical and physical features of 
 the earth as a whole. 
 
 EIGHTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Forest trees named and compared with refer- 
 ence to size, stem, bark, leaves, fruit, wood. 
 
 Minerals. — Teach to distinguish quartz, mica, feldspar, 
 granite, galena, pyrite, halite. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Beading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words from spelling-book and 
 from other sources. 
 
 Composition. — Exercises three times a week upon 
 work indicated for the seventh year. 
 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS. 17 
 
 Grammar. — Sentence, subject, and predicate. Parts 
 
 of speech. 
 Writing. — Copy-book practice. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Percentage, including commission and brokerage, in- 
 surance, taxes, duties. Oral exercises daily. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Three exercises a week upon countries and sections 
 of Western Hemisphere by topics. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Connected reading of American history up to the 
 time of the Revolutionary War. Recitation by topics. 
 
 EIGHTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Plants. — Work of First Half continued. Grains rec- 
 ognized; parts compared. 
 
 Minerals. — Teach to distinguish fluorite, corundum, 
 magnetite, asbestos, hornblende, garnet, tourmaline, 
 talc, serpentine, gypsum, calcite. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Beading. — Prescribed reader for study. Easy sight- 
 reading daily. 
 
18 
 
 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 Spelling. — Writing of words from spelling-book and 
 
 from other sources. 
 Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 
 Grammar. — Adjective, objective, and adverbial ele- ,, 
 
 ments ; kinds and properties of noun, pronoun, verb, 
 
 adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction. 
 Writing. — Copy-book practice. 
 
 4 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Interest, problems in interest, discount, notes, par- 
 tial payments, banking. Oral exercises daily. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Three exercises a week upon countries and sections 
 of Eastern Hemis]3here by topics. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Connected reading of American history from the 
 beginning of the Revolutionary War up to the present 
 time. Recitation by topics. 
 
 NINTH YEAR. FIRST HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Physics. — Teach matter, body, substance, extension, 
 volume, impenetrability, mobility, divisibility, poros- 
 ity, compressibility, density, expansibilit}^, elasticity, 
 resistance (inertia, friction), velocity, momentum, 
 
FOK GRADED SCHOOLS. 19 
 
 energy, effect of several forces acting together, 
 cohesion, adhesion. 
 Astronomy. — Form and motions of the earth. 
 
 Sun: Effects, composition, comparative size, spots, 
 
 eclipses. 
 
 Moon : Light, phases, eclipses. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading". — English history and works of standard 
 authors. 
 
 Spelling". — Written reviews twice a week. 
 
 Composition. — Exercises twice a week upon work in- 
 dicated for Seventh Year. Essays monthly. 
 
 Grammar. — Analysis continued ; words, phrases, 
 clauses, complex and compound sentences; rules of 
 construction taught and applied in parsing and in 
 correction of sentences. 
 
 AEITHINIETIC. 
 
 Ratio and proportion, square and cube root, and their 
 application in mensuration of land, lumber, etc. Oral 
 exercises daily. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 Simple forms of accounts. 
 
 GEOGKAPHY. 
 
 General review once a week by topics. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Work of Eighth Year reviewed. 
 
20 COUKSE OF STUDIES. ^^^B 
 
 NINTH YEAR. SECOND HALF. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Physics. — Application, by experiments, of facts learned 
 during First Half, as balance, steelyard, pop-gun, 
 lifting-pump, forcing-pump, barometer. 
 
 Astronomy. — Planets: Appearance, movements, names, 
 relative size, length of year, moons and rings, phases, 
 conjunction. 
 
 Fixed Stars : Appearance, distance, stars of first mag- 
 nitude observed and named, constellations observed 
 and named. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reading. — Work of First Half continued. 
 Spelling. — Work of First Half continued. 
 Composition. — Work of First Half continued. 
 Grammar. — Parsing and analysis ; constant application 
 of rules of syntax in writing and correcting. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 General review, involving definitions, formulas, and 
 principles. Practical business problems and short proc- 
 esses. Oral exercises daily. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 Simple forms of accounts. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 General review once a week by topics. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 General topical review by subjects. 
 
 1 
 
COURSE OF STUDIES FOR UNGRADED 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 3»<C 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 
 
 The subjects to be taught are arranged in three 
 groups, each group covering the work of three years. 
 The work as here laid down is not intended to mean 
 that the school should be divided into three classes and 
 that each class should take the subjects indicated. The 
 outline is given in three groups so as to indicate in a 
 general way what ground should be gone over in a 
 given time. For hints upon classification, see Classi- 
 fication and Teaching of Ungraded Schools, page 309. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD (THREE YEARS). 
 
 Beading and Spelling. 
 
 Reading from blackboard, chart, and several First 
 and Second readers. At end of Period to be able 
 to read at sight and with good expression any ordinary 
 Second reader. Vocal drill. Use of words in original 
 sentences. Oral and written spelling of all common 
 words of readers. 
 
COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 "Writing. 
 
 Short, easy words in the beginning, and sentences 
 as soon as possible. Use ruled or spaced lines. During 
 first half of Period, provide copies ; during last half, 
 let the pupils write without copies. Practise with and 
 without copy upon the following letters in the order 
 given : — 
 
 i-j ^ -^^y ^ -yyi^j i^y "U-^ Oj €'j Oj ^ 2^^ 
 
 ^ /^4 4 c< cj: cjf, cf:s: 
 
 /V-' T' P P ^ 9:^ (?, Q, (2. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Accurate and rapid combinations and separations up 
 to 100, carrying on the four fundamental rules together. 
 Use objects up to 20. Children to make their own 
 tables. Common store problems to be practised upon, 
 using ordinary weights and measures. Teach halves, 
 fourths, eighths, also pointing ofP for dollars, cents, and 
 mills. 
 
 Ijanguage. 
 
 Daily practice in one or more of the following exer- 
 cises : cojDying sentences from cards or blackboard ; 
 talking and writing after information and object les- 
 sons ; oral and written abstracts after reading ; writing 
 gems from memory ; literal descriptions of, and imagi- 
 nary stories from, pictures ; writing of letters. 
 
 J 
 
FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 23 
 
 Observation licssoiis. 
 
 At least one lesson of fifteen minutes daily upon 
 some one of the following subjects: form, distance, 
 direction, color, human body, plants, animals, rocks. 
 
 Home geography and plan-drawing. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Drawing of leaves and other objects. Copying from 
 drawing-cards. 
 
 Singing by rote simple songs. 
 
 Memorizing gems, from five to ten lines weekly. 
 
 Information lessons. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD (THREE YEARS). 
 Reading-. 
 
 Several third and fourth readers; Frequent practice 
 in sight-reading. Vocal drill. New words in original 
 
 sentences. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Chiefly written. Half of the time from spelling- 
 book, other half from readers, geographies, written 
 papers, etc. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Practice upon single letters continued in following 
 order : — 
 
24 
 
 COURSE OF STUDIES 
 
 Three copy-books with pen and ink. Penmanship to 
 be considered in language and other written exercises. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Four fundamental rules to 1000, and afterwards to 
 higher numbers; also tenths, hundredths, and thou- 
 sandths. Applications in United States money, weights, 
 and measures. Fractions, such as are involved in ordi- 
 nary business, adding, subtracting, niultipl3dug, and 
 dividing. Daily exercises in mental' problems. Short 
 processes in practical problems. 
 
 Geograpliy. 
 
 Home geography reviewed. Plan-drawing of neigh- 
 borhood. General study of earth and continents from 
 globe. United States, British Empire, France, Russia, 
 Germany, Spain, Mexico, New England States, Massa- 
 chusetts. Study and recite by topics. Map-drawing. 
 Voyages and travels. 
 
 lianguage. 
 
 Same kind of exercises as given in First Period, only 
 more complex. Correction of false syntax. 
 
 Observation Liessons. 
 
 From May to November ; natural history, plants, trees, 
 flowers. From November to May : rocks and animals ; 
 common phenomena : dew, rain, snow, etc. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 In DRAWING, SINGING, MEMORY LESSONS, INFORMA- 
 TION LESSONS, MORALS, and MANNERS, select from 
 outlines given in graded course. 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 25 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. (THREE YEARS.) 
 
 Beading. 
 
 Several advanced Fourth and Fifth readers or their 
 equivalent. Easy sight-reading of histories and geo- 
 graphical readers. Vocal drill. Use of new and diffi- 
 cult words in sentences. Definitions and synonyms. 
 Use of dictionary in defining and pronouncing. 
 
 SpeUing. 
 
 Writing of words and sentences from spelling-book. 
 Half the time should be given to words selected from 
 the reader, written examinations and other papers. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Three copy-books. Blank books for practice and for 
 copying topics and pieces of poetry. All written work 
 to be carefully written. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Fractions, common and decimal. Weights and meas- 
 ures. Mensuration. Percentage, including interest, 
 insurance, i)rofit and loss, discount and all ordinary 
 business problems. Mental work daily, with explana- 
 tions. Book-keeping in simple forms of accounts. 
 
 Lianguage and Grammar. 
 
 Language work of previous Periods continued. Part 
 of the time during latter half of Period to be given to 
 the study of grammar and analysis. Correction of false 
 syntax, with rules for correction. Composition-writing. 
 
26 
 
 COURSE OF STUDIES. 
 
 Observation Lessons. 
 
 Lessons of Second Period continued, one hour a 
 week. Also elementary lessons in physics. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Effects of motions of the earth. Latitude, longitude, .. 
 climate, zones, winds (kinds and cause). Formation jl 
 of land surface. Topical study and map-drawing of ^' 
 countries not previously studied. Latter part of period 
 given to reviews. Books of travel to be read. 
 
 History. 
 
 Easy books of history and biography to be read at 
 sight and talked about. Topical study with regular 
 text-book during latter part of period. 
 
 m 
 
 / 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 In DRAWING, SINGING, MEMORY LESSONS, PHYSIOL- 
 OGY and HYGIENE, and information lessons, select 
 from work given in Part IL 
 
Part II. 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 3^*i< 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF METHOD. 
 
 The importance of method in all kinds of skilled work 
 has always and everywhere been recognized. The artist 
 and the skilled artisan know that patient study and labor 
 are necessary to the best success, and they are willing 
 to spend years in. acquiring their art. On the other 
 hand, there are some kinds of work, like shovelling sand 
 or turning a grindstone, which place method in a rela- 
 tively subordinate position. On which side shall we place 
 teaching — on the side of skilled or unskilled work? Is 
 teaching an art which requires thought, purpose, and 
 method, or does it belong to that other kind of work 
 which requires little or no method ? 
 
 In determining the place and character of teaching, 
 we should not regard instruction as the whole of educa- 
 tion, nor should we be misled by the practice of some 
 teachers whose teaching consists of assigning and hear- 
 ing lessons from a book. We should think of the 
 teacher not simply as a purveyor of facts, but as a 
 moulder of the human mind. If we think of him in 
 this way, his work is exalted in our estimation and 
 
28 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 placed where it should be — alongside of that other 
 \vtJrk whose object is the cure of disease and the promo- 
 tion of bodily health. Thus the work of the teacher, 
 like that of the physician, becomes a profession in which 
 there are clearly defined methods based upon laws and 
 principles. 
 
 But why, it may be asked, should there be any more 
 care and solicitude in feeding and training the mind 
 than in feeding and training the body ? For very obvious 
 reasons. In the first place, however important it is to 
 have a sound body, it is still more important to have a 
 sound mind. Moreover, it is far easier to keep the body 
 in health and vigor than to build up the mind com- 
 pletely, and to keep it in a condition to do all that it is 
 capable of doing. While the laws of both body and 
 mind are fixed and constant in their operation, the laws 
 of the mind are more obscure and more difficult to un- 
 derstand than are those of the body. Unlike the body, 
 the mind does not hang out its danger-signals of aches 
 and distortions when food of an improper kind is given 
 or when there is improper training. It is for this reason, 
 and also because they are hidden from sight, that weak- 
 ness and deformity of the mind are not guarded against 
 as are weakness and deformity of the body, although the 
 former are quite as common as the latter and far 
 more deplorable. Repugnance to study, want of appli- 
 cation, idleness, defective observation and memory, unre- 
 liable judgment and reasoning, and moral turpitude, all 
 may result, in part at least, from wrong methods or no 
 methods of teaching and affect the whole future life of 
 the boy or girl. The best safeguard against these de- 
 fects is a good school, taught by a teacher who un- 
 
OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 derstands and perseveriiigly follows right methods of 
 teaching. How shall we determine what methods are 
 right and what methods are wrong ? 
 
 OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 To know the means of doing anything, it is all im- 
 portant that we should have a clear idea of what we 
 desire to accomplish. One of the chief causes of de- 
 ' fective methods of teaching is want of purpose on the 
 . part of teachers. Without purpose there can be no 
 definite plan, and without plan there will be mistakes 
 and wasted energy. Our first question should be, there- 
 fore. What is the end or use of education ? " To pre- 
 pare us for complete living," Spencer says, "is the 
 function of education." No one is likely to find fault 
 with such a statement, especially if the highest and 
 best service to others is regarded as an essential ele- 
 ment of complete living. Assuming this to be the end 
 of education, let us see what objects of school educa- 
 tion are to be sought by the teacher. 
 
 The conditions of the highest and best service to 
 others are a sound body and a well-informed mind. 
 Bodily health should be promoted both directly and 
 indirectly in the school. Physical exercises of the right 
 kind and amount should be practised, habits of regu- 
 larity should be formed, and the business of the school 
 should be so regulated as to prevent over-work and 
 over-worry on the part of the pupils. Moreover, thor- 
 ough instruction should be given in physiology and 
 hygiene, that the pupils may know tlie importance of 
 
30 METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 keeping the body in health and that they may know 
 how it can be done. 
 
 / The second condition of the highest and best ser- 
 vice to others, is a well-informed mind. What is 
 meant by a "well-informed mind"? If it is simply 
 a mind possessed of knowledge or facts, there would 
 be little need of carrying school studies beyond the 
 rudiments, for books and lectures could do the rest. 
 Or, if it were thought best to carry on such an educa- 
 tion in the schools, books could be placed before the 
 children to be memorized and recited, — a practice which 
 can hardly be called teaching, although it passes for 
 such in some schools at the present day. The posses- 
 sion of facts, even though they are gained in this way, 
 may be useful ; but unless more has been done for the 
 child than this, or rather unless he has done more for 
 himself than this, he cannot be said to be properly edu- 
 cated. The life which awaits him as a worker in some 
 useful occupation, as a citizen and as a man, needs a 
 well-developed mind, which he does not possess. His 
 active powers, both of intellect and will, have not been 
 strengthened by exercise. He has not formed the habit 
 of concentration or prolonged attention ; his powers of 
 observation and of reasoning are defective ; what he 
 has acquired does not lie in his mind in an orderly way 
 so as to be ready for use ; and most of all, his moral 
 nature has not been so trained as to enable him to con- 
 trol his acts, both in refraining from evil and in doing 
 good to others. 
 r 1. The first object of education, so far as the mind 
 \ is concerned, is knowledge. What is knowledge ? If a 
 rubber ball is placed before a child, certain ideas are 
 
OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 31 
 
 formed in his mind, in agreement or disagreement with 
 ideas previously formed. Ideas of color, form, hard- 
 ness, etc., are thus formed; and if names are applied 
 to them, he says that the ball is white, round, and 
 hard. This constitutes his knowledge of the ball. If 
 the child had never seen a ball, or if he had never seen 
 anything white or felt anything round or hard, no 
 ideas of whiteness or roundness or hardness could have 
 been formed in his mind by simply telling him that 
 the ball was white and round and hard. 
 A Words, then, are not knowledge, nor do they convey 
 knowledge of material things to any one, unless the 
 , words are associated with ideas that have been previ- 
 ^ ously formed by the aid of the senses. The same prinA 
 ciple is true of acts of the mind, which we may also call' 
 objects of thought. If, for example, we say " we form 
 judgments," no idea of that act would be formed by any 
 one who has not observed such an act in himself. In 
 seeking knowledge, therefore, and in instructing others, 
 we must not make the mistake of supposing that knowl- 
 edge can be gained from words only or that memoriz- 
 ing the product of other people's thinking is thinking 
 itself. To lead pupils to think for themselves and to. 
 acquire knowledge, objects of thought should be so 
 presented as to lead them to know the objects them- 
 selves by recognizing their resemblances and differences 
 and by perceiving the relations which their parts have 
 to one another. 
 
 2. The amount of knowledge which the young grad- 
 uate of the school or college has is very small. He 
 may be able to tell much of what others know, and this 
 may be of use to him, but what he really has as the 
 
32 
 
 METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 result of his own thinking, or what he has that will 
 stay by him for any length of time, is comparatively 
 little. What he most relies upon for assistance in the 
 duties of life is his well trained powers of mind. If 
 his memory only is trained, he has but little to aid him ; 
 but if his powers of observation, attention, judgment, 
 and reasoning have been strengthened by orderly ex- 
 ercise, he has in his developed powers constant assist- 
 ance in whatever he undertakes. Indeed, the difference 
 between an educated and an uneducated person is seen 
 ^lore in the difference of mental development than in 
 the difference pf amount of knowledge possessed. 
 
 3. But the powers of the mind to be developed in- 
 /clude the sensibilities and will as well as the powers 
 >of the intellect. The usefulness of a man, for which 
 his early education prepares him, depends quite as much 
 upon his desires and purposes as upon the thought em- 
 ployed in carrying them into effect. It is important, 
 -therefore, that there be a harmonious development of 
 '■■ all the powers of the child if he is to be truly edu- 
 ^cated. 
 
 To attain these objects of education, the wise teacher 
 acquaints himself with the j)rinciples of mental growth 
 and development which have been deduced from much 
 observation and experience, and which will serve as a 
 guide for him in his difficult work. 
 
 A few general principles of teaching are here given 
 in the hope that they may suggest to young teachers 
 the importance of having a well defined purpose in all 
 their methods. They may also serve to explain the 
 reason for some of the methods recommended in the 
 following pages. 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 33 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. Education aims to develop all the powers of the child,— 
 physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual. 
 
 Complete living calls for all the assistance which 
 every power of mind and body is capable of giving. 
 The efficiency of each power depends upon the develop- 
 ment of all, because they are closely connected and 
 dependent upon one another. The activity of willing 
 depends upon feeling, and feeling depends upon know- 
 ing. Moreover, the developed mind needs the devel- 
 oped body through which to act. 
 
 2. The powers of mind and body are strengthened and devel- 
 oped by exercise. 
 
 Weakness is the result of inaction, — a fact no less true 
 of the mind than of the body. Teachers do not recog- 
 nize this important principle when they do for their 
 pupils what the pupils can do for themselves. Telling 
 is not teaching, and helping a pupil over every obsta- 
 cle is no kindness to him. Self-development and self- 
 instruction are the ends of teaching which is to lead the 
 pupil to gain new knowledge through his own efforts. 
 It is by these efforts that his faculties become strong 
 and ready to act in any emergency. 
 
 The cultivation of each faculty of the mind strength- 
 ens that faculty and all the rest, and the neglect of any 
 faculty tends to lessen the efficiency of all. Some exer- 
 cise of the feelings and will is necessary to thought, 
 while excessive indulgence of the feelings prevents clear 
 and effective thinking. 
 
34 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 3. Exercise of the mental facalties should be jndicions and 
 harmonious. 
 
 The subjects and methods of teaching should be 
 progressive, and always adapted to the strength and 
 capacity of the learner. Too much exercise may be as 
 harmful as too little, and a wrong kind of development 
 may do incalculable injury by neglecting some facul- 
 ties which need to be exercised, and by exercising other 
 faculties which are not ready for action. Again, modes 
 of mental action differ greatly, and different treatment 
 is needed for the proper development of each faculty. 
 
 4. The natural deyelopment and capabilities of the mind are 
 the guides to teaching. 
 
 The teacher does not develop the minds of his pupils, 
 nor does he determine the order of their development. 
 ^Nature is the real educator, of whom he is only an as- 
 sistant, and to whom, in general and in particular, he 
 constantly looks for guidance. By observation and 
 study, the teacher becomes acquainted with the laws of 
 mental growth and development, and is governed by 
 them in choosing objects of knowledge, and in present- 
 ing these to his pupils. 
 
 5.-^he mental powers are most vigorous when they are exer- 
 cised voluntarily. 
 
 As a rule, we can do those things best which we most 
 desire to do, and we generally desire to do that which 
 is most pleasing to us. The degree of effort exerted is 
 also measured by our willingness to do certain work, or 
 to accomplish certain results. K this is true, it is 
 plainly the duty of teachers to conduct their teaching 
 
GENERAL PKINCIPLES. 36 
 
 in such a way as to make study pleasurable and volun- 
 tary. The work done by pupils need not necessarily be 
 easy to be pleasurable. It is a mistake to suppose that 
 children enjoy any work because it is easy. Food and 
 physical exercise are pleasurable to the healthy body, 
 but they are no more so than truth and mental exercise 
 are to the healthy mind, provided the truth and exercise 
 be of the right kind. Want of interest in school and 
 aversion to study are frequently due to the fact that 
 wrong subjects are taught or that a wrong kind of men- 
 tal exercise is demanded. 
 
 Sometimes teachers believe it to be necessary to give 
 to pupils extra inducements to study or to attend to the 
 work in hand, such as fear of punishment, loss of 
 privilege, hope of reward, desire for a high rank or 
 mark. Pupils may be made to work harder for a time 
 under such stimulants, but like artificial stimulants of 
 the body, their effects are temporary and harmful. 
 There is in the right kind of mental exercise a positive 
 enjoyment which acts as an incentive to increased 
 effort. It may be impossible with many requirements 
 and a large number of pupils, to reach all in the right 
 way; but a constant effort should be made by the 
 teacher to make the work of every pupil voluntary and 
 pleasurable. 
 
 6, All mental acts depend for their eflaciency upon the power 
 of attention, which should be assiduously cultiyated from the 
 beginning. 
 
 The great value of attention and concentration of 
 mind is unquestioned by any one. The difference be- 
 tween a disciplined and an undisciplined mind is shown 
 
36 
 
 ISIETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 by the difference in the degree of attention of which it 
 is capable. Some even go so far as to say that to learn 
 to give attention is all there is of education. 
 
 To cultivate the power of attention, the teacher 
 should see that the mind of the pupil is not bent upon 
 one subject too long; that there are few diverting 
 influences, at least until the habit of voluntary atten- 
 tion is fixed; that the objects of attention are suited 
 to the capabilities of the pupil ; and that the illustra- 
 tions, anecdotes, and information are such as will arouse 
 interest or an expectant curiosity, and not divert the 
 attention from the subject in hand. 
 
 7. Education consists largely in the formation of habits. 
 
 The importance of forming correct habits in child- 
 hood cannot be overestimated ; indeed, the principal 
 work of all who have the care of the young is in this 
 direction. A young person who enters upon the duties 
 of life with correct habits of thought and action can be 
 said to be well educated. Among the best habits to be 
 formed in school are those of industry, attention, obser- 
 vation, correct judgment, desiring to do good to others, 
 doing good to others. 
 
 These and all habits are formed by many repetitions 
 of the same act, until there are both inclination to act 
 and facility in acting. The best w^ay, therefore, to form 
 good habits or to correct bad ones, is to lead the child 
 to do what we desire him to do, in such a way as to give 
 him pleasure, and with such frequency as to render the 
 act easy to him. 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. ^7 
 
 8, The perceptive powers shoald be most exercised in cliild- 
 liood. 
 
 Although the powers of the mind are in a greater or 
 less degree active in all periods of life, it is a matter of 
 common observation, that during childhood the observ- 
 ing powers are more active and the reflective powers 
 less active than at a later period. Facts and phenomena 
 of the external world are to be known primarily through 
 the senses. Objects or representations of objects should 
 be constantly presented, so as to affect the mind and to 
 lead it to know new truth. Resemblances and con- 
 trasts should be observed, and the judgments formed 
 should be correctly expressed. 
 
 9. Following tlie order of natural deyelopment, memory and 
 imagination should be cultivated during the entire course. 
 
 The qualities of a good memory are, retentiveness, by 
 which ideas are retained in the mind ; and readiness, by 
 which the ideas are reproduced when needed. These 
 qualities may be gained by (1) observing distinctly, 
 attentively, and accurately, and (2) repeating the judg- 
 ments formed in the order of observation and with the 
 strictest accuracy. Memory depends upon association 
 of ideas and attention. Thoughts of visible things are 
 held more strongly than those of other things. Models, 
 diagrams, and illustrations are therefore helpful. The 
 principal laws of association are, resemblance ; conti- 
 guity in time or place; cause and effect. The last- 
 named law is very important, and should be emphasized 
 in the higher grades. 
 
 The power of imagination needs most careful guid- 
 ance so that the images formed may be pure and re- 
 
38 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 fined. For the purpose of having good materials to 
 draw from, the child should come in constant contact 
 with objects of beauty, beautiful pictures, refined con- 
 duct, and poetical language. The imagination may be 
 exercised by practice in writing and drawing, in observ- 
 ing beautiful objects and pictures, and in listening to or 
 reading good imaginative stories or poems. Simple 
 imagination, or the power of combining thoughts of 
 parts of different wholes so as to make a new whole, 
 may be exercised in the primary school. Invention 
 seeks to discover new truths, and should be exercised 
 in the higher grades. 
 
 10. Elementary instraction should proceed from the known to 
 the unknoTHi. 
 
 Very much is involved in this generally accepted but 
 much abused principle. In the primary school, or 
 while the perceptive faculties are most active, the 
 child's knowledge is gained through the senses, passing 
 from the whole to its parts or properties, from ideas 
 to words, and from thoughts to sentences. Later, the 
 child's knowledge of individual objects is extended to 
 a class, facts are formulated into principles, and causes 
 are inferred from known effects. To follow this order 
 fully will take much time and patience, and more will 
 seem to be accomplished sometimes by following a re- 
 verse order or by leaving out the first steps ; as very 
 much more would seem to be accomplished by putting 
 all of a given amount of effort into a building and 
 neglecting the unseen foundation. 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. * 39 
 
 11. General forms of truth are derived from particulars. 
 
 Rules, definitions, and principles should not be given 
 pupils to be memorized without first being taught in 
 accordance with the principle that generals are derived 
 from particulars. The definition of a noun, for example, 
 would be taught by presenting many nounS in sen- 
 tences and by having the pupils discover one or more 
 common characteristics of the given nouns. The state- 
 ment formed by the pupils may then be corrected in 
 respect to form of expression and memorized. 
 
 Rules of arithmetic should be taught by having pupils 
 discover the steps of a given process, and subsequently 
 give a general statement containing the steps taken in 
 their proper order. Rules of grammar are general 
 principles which are derived from the observation of 
 many examples. 
 
 12. A proper cultivation of the feelings tends to promote 
 happiness, to stimulate thought, and to provide good mo- 
 tives of action. 
 
 The conduct of little children is guided more by 
 feeling than by an intellectual perception of right. 
 Cultivation of the feelings consists of (1) repressing 
 those emotions which are injurious, as anger, hatred, 
 envy, vanity, pride, and all forms of excitement which 
 hinder clear thinking and rational willing; and (2) 
 stimulating the higher emotions, as love of the beauti- 
 ful, reverence, pity, respect, sympathy, and love of 
 home, companions, and study. The higher feelings are 
 promoted more by association and the influence of ex- 
 ample than by direct instruction. 
 
 Among the motives to be encouraged in school in 
 
40 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 the order of merit from lower to higher are, obedi- 
 ence to authority, respect for the opinions of school- 
 mates, respect for the opinions of the teacher, a sense 
 of right and duty, and a desire to serve others for their 
 sake. 
 
 13. Self-control belongs primarily to the will, bnt is applied 
 to the thoughts, feelings, and actions. 
 
 There are all stages of self-control, depending upon 
 the motive involved, from that which has in it the 
 gratification of sense to that in which the welfare and 
 happiness of others are involved. The faults of the 
 will which sometimes result from improper training are 
 indolence, irresolution, impulsiveness, and obstinacy. 
 With as few rewards and punishments as possible, by 
 gradually widening the circle of the child's freedom, 
 and by constantly appealing to his honor and self-re- 
 spect, the wise teacher leads his pupils to control them- 
 selves in forming habits of choosing wisely, firmly, and 
 quickly between two courses of action, of persevering 
 in whatever is undertaken, and of treating others as 
 they themselves would be treated. 
 
 1 
 
 x\^ GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 ^''^ Graded and Ungraded Schools. 
 
 In order to avoid the danger of misdirected effort, it 
 is always well for teachers to know the advantages and 
 disadvantages of the circumstances in which they find 
 themselves placed. There is no question that the graded 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 41 
 
 school, all things considered, has a great advantage over 
 the ungraded school ; and yet there are some dangers of 
 the graded system which teachers should understand and 
 carefully avoid. There is danger, unless care is taken, oi^ 
 turning pupils out after the same pattern, of repressing 
 their originality and individuality, and of abusing compe* 
 tition. It is impossible, of course, to consider the needs " 
 and characteristics of each pupil of a large school, and 
 yet it is not necessary, even in a large school, to oblige 
 every pupil to do the same work in the same way as every 
 other pupil ; neither is it necessary or wise to stimulate 
 the exertions of pupils by marking and ranking. Th6\ 
 school exists for the pupil, and not the pupil for the 
 school. System and order are good, but they should'\ 
 always have in view the common good, and interfere 
 with the individual rights of pupils as little as possible. 
 Some pupils are physically strong, some are weak ; the 
 intellects of some pupils are bright, of others dull; 
 some pupils have much outside work to do, others have 
 none. It is necessary, so far as possible, to fit the re- 
 quirements of the school to these various conditions. 
 There is little danger of pupils taking advantage of a 
 difference of requirements or privileges, provided the 
 teacher is uniformly just in his dealings with them, and 
 provided the teaching is what it should be. 
 
 There is another danger in graded schools scarcely 
 less imminent than those which have been named, and\ 
 that is the danger of not allowing time and opportunity ' 
 for uninterrupted study and independent thinking. A 
 large class of forty or fifty pupils often spends five-sixths 
 of the school time in recitation, and the little time left 
 for study is frequently interrupted by explanations 
 
42 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 from the teacher; so that the pupils get scarcely more 
 than a few minutes at a time for uninterrupted and 
 independent study. The remedy in part lies in a divis- 
 ion of the class into two sections in some of the studies, 
 80 as to allow one section to study while the other is 
 reciting. 
 
 The disadvantages of ungraded schools are too ap- 
 parent to need mention here. The danger is, however, 
 that the disadvantages will be unduly magnified in the 
 minds of teachers of those schools. It is not to be 
 expected that the pupils of ungraded schools can be as 
 carefully trained, or that they can have the same incen- 
 tives to study as pupils of graded schools, and yet it is 
 wrong to assume that good principles of teaching can- 
 not be applied in ungraded schools, and that the pupils 
 of such schools must necessarily have little interest in 
 their studies. The w^ant of time so often spoken of as 
 an excuse for poor teaching or no teaching, is obviated 
 to some extent by care in classification, and by allowing 
 the older pupils to recite but two or three times a week 
 in some studies. These and other points will be spoken 
 of more at length under the head of Classification. 
 
 Purpose and Plan. 
 
 The teacher who wishes to succeed, and who does not 
 wish to waste his strength, must have a purpose in all 
 that he does, and a distinct and definite plan of action, 
 both in general and in particular. Preparation for all 
 recitations that need it should be made in providing 
 means of teaching and illustration, in laying out the 
 next day's lessons, and in giving supplementary infor- 
 mation. 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 43 
 
 The Recitation. 
 
 The uses of the recitation are various, depending 
 upon the subject and the age of the pupils. The prin- 
 cipal uses are (1) to discipline the mind, (2) to encour- 
 age right methods of study, (3) to awaken interest in 
 the subject, (4) to impart information. It is evident 
 that these objects, or any one of them, cannot be gained 
 to the fullest extent by a simple examination of pupils 
 to ascertain what they have learned, especially if the 
 examination is conducted by the question and answer 
 method, and seeks to bring out only what the pupils 
 have learned from a text-book. Neither are the best 
 objects of the recitation gained- by what may be called 
 the "j)Ouring in " or lecture methpd. Examination and 
 talking are useful as a means of encouraging study and 
 of giving information; but something more is needed 
 to gain the most impiortant objects of the recitation. 
 
 Teaching. — The active faculties of pupils should be\ 
 exercised, and true ideas of the different subjects should-' 
 be awakened. These ends can only be accomplished 
 by teaching, and by teaching is meant the presenting of^ 
 objects as the occasions of thought and of knowledge. 
 Every new subject, and every new phase of a subject, 
 should be taught by leading the pupils to think, and to 
 discover the facts for themselves. It takes much time 
 and patience to teach in this way, and there is often 
 great temptation for a teacher to tell the facts instead, 
 or to present the words of the book to be learned. The, 
 teaching of a subject may occupy an entire recitation, 
 as when a difficult subject is taken up ; or it may be 
 interspersed with other parts of the recitation, as when 
 
44 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 some part of a lesson is not quite clear to the pupils ; 
 or it may be done at the close of a regular recitation in 
 preparation of a new lesson which is given out for 
 study. 
 
 Drill. — When the knowledge of a fact or principle 
 is gained, it is necessary to fix it in the mind by much 
 repetition. This is called drill, and may occur both in 
 study and in recitation. Care should be taken in drill- 
 ing, as in teaching, that all the pupils are actively think- 
 ing of the subject in hand, and that there is no obscurity 
 of mind or dependence upon others. Answering in 
 concert, therefore, is to be largely avoided. Prompt and 
 complete answers to all questions should be given by 
 individual pupils, the teacher seeing to it that the 
 pujDils, and not he, do most of the talking. By con- 
 stant change of method, by arousing the curiosity of 
 the pupils, and by skilful questioning, the attention of 
 every pupil is secured. 
 
 Supplementary Information. — In some studies — as 
 reading, geography, and history — the giving of infor- 
 mation in addition to what is found in the regular text- 
 book should be encouraged. The information may be 
 gathered from people and books away from the school, 
 and from reference-books in the school or public library. 
 The teacher should also be ready to give additional in- 
 formation and to answer questions. Some of the ques- 
 tions may have to " lie upon the table," to be answered 
 by teacher or pupils at a subsequent time. 
 
 Topical Study and Recitation. — Instead of the ques- 
 tion and answer method quite generally pursued in the 
 schools, carefully prepared topics should be used. There 
 are many reasons why this form of recitation is to be 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 45 
 
 preferred. In the first place, it is more likely to gain 
 the interest and thoughtful attention of pupils than the 
 question and answer method, and it enables them to ex- 
 press their ideas in entire and connected sentences. If 
 the topics are carefully arranged, the facts learned fol- 
 low one another in the order of their dependence, and 
 are so connected as to enable the pupil to remember 
 them. 
 
 The character of the recitation in any branch deter- 
 mines the character of the pupils' study. If original 
 thought and independent expression are encouraged in 
 the recitation, the pupils' study will be likely to be 
 thoughtful. For this reason also the topical method is 
 to be preferred. 
 
 Topical study will be found especially useful for re- 
 views. Frequently the pupils themselves will be able 
 to prepare the topics, but the teacher should see to it 
 that they are arranged in such a way as to give a good 
 general view of the subject and to assist the memory. 
 Teachers who have not been trained in preparing top- 
 ics, would do well to consult the best text-books, in 
 which good outlines will be found. 
 
 Attention, — The best uses of the recitation will not 
 be gained unless the close attention of every pupil is 
 secured. As soon as the slightest inattention is observed, 
 the teacher, by skilful questions and illustrations, should 
 bring back the wandering thought to the subject in 
 hand. Nor should the teacher be deceived by an atten- 
 tive manner on the part of pupils. An earnest gaze 
 does not always betoken interest in, or attention to, what 
 is said. Members of the class should be ready to ask 
 questions or to add thoughts of their own as soon as a 
 
46 ISIETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 topic is recited. In all teaching exercises and explana- 
 tions, the teacher should occasionally question individ- 
 ual pupils to test their knowledge of what is taught or 
 explained, and to secure attention. 
 
 Economy of Time. 
 
 The large number of pupils in some schools and the 
 number of recitations to be heard make it a matter of 
 great importance to employ the time of the school to 
 the best possible advantage. This will depend chiefly 
 upon the selection and distribution of subjects to be 
 taught, — including both course of studies and daily 
 programme, — the classification of the school, and the 
 wisdom of the teacher in directing the study and reci- 
 tation of the pupils. To direct wisely the work of the 
 school, the teacher should prepare beforehand, as far as 
 possible, for the busy work of young children and for the 
 recitation of all classes, especially the plans and illustra- 
 tions for teaching. He should discourage too frequent 
 calls upon his time to give special assistance to pupils 
 between and during recitations, should not repeat the 
 answers of pupils given in reply to questions, should 
 not, as a rule, call for voluntary answers to questions by 
 the raising of hands, should follow as closely as possible 
 a prescribed order of recitations, should discourage 
 desultory and irrelevant conversation during any exer- 
 cise, and should begin and close a session and pass from 
 one recitation to another promptly, without unneces- 
 sary formalities. 
 
 !Exam iuations. 
 
 In addition to the examinations which are given 
 daily, and which are largely oral, there should be given 
 
 I 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 47 
 
 occasionally short written examinations, the principal 
 objects of which are (1) to indicate to the teacher how 
 much of what has been taught is retained and what 
 needs to be reviewed, and (2) to give pupils practice in 
 making clear, concise, and correct statements of what 
 they know. These examinations may be given at regu- 
 lar intervals or at the close of a general subject, and 
 the questions should be made out by the teacher. 
 
 Examinations by the supervisor are given to indicate 
 to the teacher the kind of work which is expected to be 
 done, and to show to the supervisor whether the teach- 
 ing and instruction have been of the right kind. 
 
48 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 READING. 
 
 To read is to form in the mind ideas and thoughts 
 by means of the written or printed signs representing 
 them, and to read aloud is to express orally those ideas 
 and thoughts so as to be heard^ understood., and felt. In 
 reading, as in talking, there is an association of ideas 
 with their proper signs, and in both acts, when the signs 
 are perceived, the ideas represented by them are formed. 
 The process of learning to read, therefore, is not unlike 
 that of learning to talk, and the ways of teaching a 
 child to read are in many respects like the ways by 
 which he was taught to talk. 
 
 First Steps. — As soon as the child enters school, he 
 should be led to express his thoughts freely and natu- 
 rally. The time of two or three reading recitations may 
 be profitably spent in making him feel " at home " in the 
 schoolroom. The freedom he acquires in talking will 
 be of great assistance to the teacher in every way. Be- 
 ginning by the natural method already suggested, the 
 teacher first leads the child to think by presenting some 
 object or picture. It may be the picture of a man. The 
 child recognizes it, and says, in reply to the teacher's 
 question, " Man." The word is then written upon the 
 board, and named by the children. In the same way a 
 dozen simple words are taught first by occasioning the 
 idea, and then having^ the children give its oral sign or 
 name. When these words can be named at sight, let 
 the sentences be taught in a similar manner, thus : — 
 
 Teacher. " What is that ? " (^Pointing to a hat.') 
 
 Pupils, " That is a hat." 
 
EEADING. 49 
 
 T. "I will write what you have said." (Writing,) 
 *' What am I writing?" 
 
 P. " That is a hat." 
 
 T, " Now read this story on the board." 
 
 P. "That is a hat." 
 
 Other sentences, as, " This is a ," " I see a ," 
 
 " Oh! see a ," " Here is a ," " There is a ," 
 
 " I have a ," " You have a ," should be taught 
 
 in the same way, using words which have been taught 
 and other words to the number of fifty or sixty. The 
 words and sentences should be carefully written upon 
 the board many times before the children, who should 
 be led to read with as good expression as they talk. 
 Talking by the children serves a double object. It not 
 only serves as a model for their reading, but also tends 
 to increase their interest in and attention to the read- 
 ing lesson. Care should be taken, however, that the 
 talk be not aimless, and that the interest of the children | 
 be not taken away from the subject in hand in their 
 eagerness to tell what they know. 
 
 Do not point, or have the children point, at each word 
 separately, but have them read the sentence exactly as 
 they would speak it. If they do not do this at first, 
 ask them a question the answer of which will be in 
 the words of the sentence required to be read. For 
 example, if the sentence is, " The dog is on the mat," 
 and they pause after " is " or " on," ask where the dog 
 is, so as to bring out the reply, " The dog is on the mat." 
 Then ask them to read the story as they told it to you. 
 
 Much depends, in these first steps, upon the teacher's 
 ability to keep the attention of the children, and to have ' 
 each child follow every part of every exercise. This is a 
 
50 METHODS OF TEACHING, 
 
 difficult matter, especially with a large class. But with 
 a dozen pupils or fewer it can be done, if the teacher 
 is alert in the use of those expedients which primary 
 teachers come to know. When the interest flags, ques- 
 tion those who are least attentive, arouse their curiosity 
 by writing a new story on the board, praise each honest 
 effort, and appeal to the pride of each one to do as well 
 as some other one has done. Do not keep the children 
 too long in recitation, and constantly vary the exercise, 
 so that it may not become monotonous or tiresome. 
 
 If any of the words of a new sentence are unknown 
 to the pupils, teach those words upon the board before 
 the reading of the sentence is attempted. After the 
 words are known, and recognized on the board or in the 
 book, ask the pupils to read the sentence silently first, 
 and then orally. If any pupil still falters, tell him he 
 is not ready to read it aloud, and that he must read the 
 story or sentence over again to himself. 
 
 The first fifty words taught should represent ideas 
 .rf^lready familiar to the children ; that is, they should be 
 words which are in their spoken vocabulary. In select- 
 ing the w^ords to be read first, reference also should be 
 had to phonic resemblance, so that when the time for 
 analysis comes, the words known can be arranged in 
 groups, as man^ fan^ cat^ rat. It will generally be a safe 
 rule to teach from the board or chart all of the words 
 and sentences on the first four pages of the primer 
 which is to be first placed into the hands of the children. 
 
 When the book is taken, as it may be, in two or three 
 months after the children enter school, there will be lit- 
 tle difficulty in reading the first few pages, if the words 
 and sentences on those pages are thoroughly taught 
 
READING. 61 
 
 from the board. But when the book is taken, do not 
 give up the board and chart work. Every new lesson 
 will have to be taught from the board first, and frequent 
 reviews will have to be made in the same way so that 
 the words may not be forgotten. Soon after the book ( 
 is taken, analysis of words by sound should be begun, 
 first by pronouncing the words very slowly, as m-a-n, 
 then more slowly, until the sounds of the word are sepa- 
 rated and their signs are recognized. After this practice 
 has continued for some time, new words will be recog- 
 nized at sight by unconsciously putting the known 
 signs into new combinations. For instance, if the words 
 maji, mat^ eat^ rat^ are analyzed, and the signs of each 
 word are readily recognized, the children will know the 
 words can and ran without being told them. Slow 
 progress must be expected at this stage, and great pa- 
 tience must be exercised until the children are able to 
 analj'ze without help all the words they have learned. 
 Phonic drill may be given for the purpose also of secur- 
 ing clearer enunciation. 
 
 Analysis by letter need receive no special attention. 
 The spelling of words will be learned by degrees after 
 the first half-year, and before the close of the first year 
 the pupils will be able to spell orally the words they 
 read, without much time being spent in teacliing them 
 the names of the letters. In oral spelling daring the first 
 and second years it would be well to have the pupils 
 "spell by sound" first, then by letter, and lastly give ' 
 the name of the silent letter or letters. 
 
 Transition, — To pass from script to print will not 
 be found difficult if care is taken not to present new 
 or unfamiliar words in the new form. If the learner 
 
52 METHODS OF TEACHING. ] 
 
 has begun in script, the transition will of course be 
 made when the book is taken. If it is found at all diffi- 
 cult for him to read the printed words readily, let the 
 two forms, script and print, be placed together upon the 
 board and read. After two or three lessons of this kind 
 there will be no difficulty. After the book is taken, let 
 the reading of both forms go on together throughout 
 the course. i 
 
 SILENT READING. '^ 
 
 Much of the reading we do after we leave school is 
 done silently. We should therefore encourage the pu- 
 pils to read silently in the best way. There may be a 
 regular exercise for the purpose in which pupils are 
 given a piece to read silently. It is also done in a reg- 
 ular reading recitation when members of the class read 
 silently while one of the class reads orally. The main 
 object to be secured in these exercises is to get the pu- 
 pils to think of what they are reading. This is done 
 by questioning with the view of having them reproduce 
 the thought in their own words. Put into the hands of 
 the pupils a piece which they have not seen before, and 
 give them time to read it over carefully once. Then 
 have them lay the piece aside and talk or write about 
 what they have read. Such exercises will cultivate the 
 power of attention and lead the pupils to gather quickly 
 the thoughts expressed on the printed page. Exercise 
 in silent reading is also had in preparing the regular 
 reading lesson. 
 
 ORAL READING. 
 
 Objects. — From our definition we learn that the 
 object of oral reading is " to be heard, understood, and 
 
 I 
 
READING. 53 
 
 felt." The good teacher of reading keeps this object in 
 mind in all of his teaching, and makes his pupils feel 
 that when they read anything, it is for the purpose of 
 making others understand and feel what is read. But 
 they cannot do this without themselves understanding 
 and feeling what they read. In other words, the reader 
 should not direct the words he utters to the page of the 
 book, but to a listening audience. There should be a 
 constant effort on the reader's part ix) enter into the 
 feelings and thought of the author. If there is a 
 description of natural scenery to be read, the reader 
 should as far as possible form the mental picture of the 
 described scene. If there is a conversation between 
 two people to be read, the states and thoughts of the 
 speakers should be shared by the reader. If from the 
 beginning the pupil is constantly taught to feel and 
 think while he reads, the chief obstacle to good reading 
 will be overcome. 
 
 If, n«w, we analyze the g^eneral purpose of reading, to 
 ascertain what particular ends are to be sought in teach- 
 ing reading, we may find three principal ends, or objects; 
 viz., (1) naturalness of expression, (2) correct pronun- 
 ciation, (3) fluency. 
 
 Naturalness of Expression. — To read naturally is 
 to read as one should talk, for the reason that in both 
 acts there is an effort on the part of the speaker to be 
 understood and felt. In reading, as in talking, the 
 thought precedes the expression, and if the thought of 
 the writer is readily understood by the reader, and the 
 words are quickly recognized, there ought to be as little 
 difficulty in reading naturally as there is in talking natu- 
 rally. How shall we lead the pupil, first, to think the 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 thoughts expressed in print or script, and, secondly, to 
 express those thoughts to others so as to be understood 
 and felt? The conditions mentioned under the general 
 head of "Object of Oral Reading" should be alwa3\s 
 observed. Lead the pupil to think and feel what he 
 reads by constant questioning. Question him before he 
 begins to read a given lesson. Question him after he 
 has read a paragraph or a sentence, or whenever you 
 think his mind is wandering from the subject. Let the 
 questions be such as will encourage him to enter into 
 the feelings and thoughts of the writer, and to become 
 interested in what is to follow. Sometimes the ques- 
 tions may be such as will oblige the pupil to answer in 
 his own words, and sometimes they may be such as will 
 allow the answer to be in the words of the book, to 
 serve as a model for expression in reading. 
 
 But to know the thought expressed in any sentence, 
 the pupil must know what each word means. Difficult 
 and unfamiliar words, therefore, should be taught before 
 the pupil reads either silently or orally. It is true that 
 the meaning of words is known, especially nice shades 
 of meaning, by observing their use in spoken and 
 written language ; but in forming habits of correct ex- 
 pression, it is well to know the use of all the words 
 which are to be read. Pupils who are allowed to halt 
 before every unknown or difficult word, waiting to spell 
 out or to be told the word, cannot give much attention 
 to the thought to be expressed. Difficult words of a 
 new lesson should be taught at the close of every lesson, 
 objectively or by familiar illustrations. The following 
 words, from a single page of a third reader, could be 
 taught in this way : distant, stretched, engineer, whistled. 
 
HEADING. 65 
 
 notice^ gladness. After these words have been taught, 
 they may be used in sentences b}^ both teacher and 
 pupils, and written upon the board for special study. 
 In preparing the next day's lesson, the pupils will write 
 out sentences of their own, putting in the words which 
 have been taught, and other difficult words. 
 
 Correct Pronunciation. — Words may be very natu- 
 rally read, but if they are not correctly pronounced, 
 they may not be understood, or the attention of the 
 hearers may be diverted from the thought of the author 
 to the blunders of the reader. It is necessary, therefore, 
 to teach the pupils the correct pronunciation of words. 
 
 Correct pronunciation is gained by imitation, by cor- 
 rection, and from the dictionary. Children of all ages 
 learn to pronounce by imitation, and sometimes a bad 
 example is more powerful than that which is set before 
 them in the schoolroom. Constant correction in all of 
 the oral exercises of the school, supplemented by special 
 lessons in connection with the reading lessons, may do 
 much to counteract the influence of careless or ignorant 
 companions outside of school hours. The difficult words 
 of every new lesson should be pronounced by the teacher 
 if the pupils are young. Older pupils should learn to 
 use the dictionary for correct pronunciation. 
 
 Pronunciation matches, by " pronouncing down," or 
 by choosing sides, may help to create an interest in the 
 subject, and encourage study. Difficult words or words 
 most frequently mispronounced may be placed upon the 
 blackboard from time to time and practised upon. The 
 following list is given as an example : — 
 
 Lenient, tiny, exhaust, finance, contents, carbine, debris, depot, 
 jugular, lien, squalor, mitten, often, naive, beneath, oaths, truths, 
 
56 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 sacrilegious, bronchitis, nape, extant, isolated, suite, coadjutor, 
 comely, deficit, exhausted, matinee, gondola, cognomen, tirade, 
 epicurean, vagaries, precedence, complaisant, decade, lyceum, 
 notable, heinous. 
 
 Clear Enunciation. — One may read naturally and 
 pronounce the words correctly and still fail to give that 
 clearness and distinctness of utterance which are neces- 
 sary to make the expression agreeable to the ear. In 
 other words, we cannot always take the enunciation of 
 words spoken in conversation as a standard for reading. 
 Sounds of words are frequently run into each other or 
 omitted altogether. "Wrong and impure tones are used, 
 or the tones are uttered in a drawling manner. To cor- 
 rect these common faults of sj^eech, and the not uncom- 
 mon dialects, both foreign and native, which are heard 
 in many schools, vocal exercises should be given daily, 
 either in connection with the reading lesson or as a 
 general exercise. \ Purity of tone and distinctness of 
 articulation are the two objects to be sought in these 
 exercises. \ Arrange carefully a few short exercises 
 which have in view one or the other of these objects, 
 and encourage the pupils to practise upon them out of 
 school. Correct, by individual and concert practice, 
 impurities of tone, such as the nasal, guttural, and pec- 
 toral quality. The broad vowel sounds, either alone or 
 in words, should be practised upon to secure pure tones. 
 In such exercises see that the jaw is used freely, and 
 that a free action of the vocal organs is not hindered 
 by a poor position of the body. 
 
 To secure distinct articulation, have the pupils prac- 
 tise upon those exercises which will give an easy action 
 of the lips, tongue, and palate. Careful analysis of 
 
 I 
 
READING. ' 67 
 
 words by sound will be found to be useful in securing 
 distinct articulation. Exercises like the following may 
 be used for a similar purpose. Other exercises will be 
 found in the various school readers. 
 
 1. Pronounce clearly, moving the jaw freely, the 
 following : — 
 
 ah e 00 aw 
 
 o a 1 oy ow 
 
 Pronounce the same with the sound of k ; as, kah^ ke^ 
 etc. 
 
 2. Pronounce vowel sounds : — 
 
 a, a, a, S,; e, e; i, i; o, 6, 5; ii, u, u; oi, ou. 
 
 Pronounce the same with the sound of k: kd^kd^ 
 etc. 
 
 3. Practise upon the following until the action of 
 the organs of speech is accurate and energetic. Do not 
 use much breath in the exercise, and let the touch of 
 the tongue, lips, and palate be of the shortest possible 
 duration. 
 
 iltl 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 k 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 g 
 
 
 at 
 
 ap 
 
 ak 
 
 ad 
 
 ab 
 
 ag 
 
 
 et, 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 it. 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Repeat 
 
 at first 
 
 slowly 
 
 and then 
 
 rapidly 
 
 :- 
 
 He talks in earnest. 
 On either side is an ocean. 
 She sought shelter. Shelter sought she. 
 The railroad ran directly across the rapid river. 
 With a thick thimble, Theresa Thornton thrusts thirty-three 
 threads through the thick cloth. 
 
 Skilful pilots gain their reputation from storms and tempests. 
 Round the rough rock the ragged rascal ran. 
 Shoes and socks shock Susan. 
 
58 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Pronounce distinctly : — 
 
 Help(P>, elf^*), else^"), felt<''), child, milk, lamp, tent, dance, ink, 
 sharp, task, health, Welsh, Welch, nymph, di*eampt, ninth, strength, 
 depth, steps, apt, fifth, fifes, left, broths, wasp, post, looks, act, 
 alps, gulped, gulfs, twelfth, lamps, stamped, triumphs, tempts, 
 tenths, against, prints, lengths, ringst, harps, warped, serfs, earths, 
 first, droopst, adepts, fifths, laughst, rafts, lookst, facts, asps, posts, 
 desks, satst, patched, lookst, acts, helpst, twelfths, mid'st, halt'st, 
 filched, limp'st, attemp'st, want'st, flinched, precincts, thinkst, 
 sixths, texts. 
 
 The quality of tone and articulation often depends 
 upon the control or management of the breath. For 
 this purpose breathing exercises such as are given else- 
 where,^ will be found helpful, especially to older pupils. 
 
 Fluency. — By fluency is meant the ability to recog- 
 nize quickly and to pronounce readily the words as 
 they are seen in reading. This can be gained only 
 by constant and long-continued practice in easy reading 
 at sight. 
 
 Sight-Reading. — In addition to the regular reading 
 lesson, which may be short, there should be frequent 
 practice in reading at sight by pupils of all grades.- 
 Four or five pages may be read daily at sight in 
 almost every grade ; but care should be taken that 
 the reading of this kind be sufficiently simple for the 
 pupils. The regular reading lesson may be quite diffi- 
 cult, that is, it may contain several new and difficult 
 words which should be taught in the way indicated 
 above ; but in the sight-reading there should be few 
 words not previously known, the object being to accus- 
 tom the pupils to recognize the words quickly as they 
 
 ip.284. 
 
READING. 69 
 
 come to them. The sight-reading should not be 
 "studied" or read silently beforehand unless it is too 
 difficult to be read easily at sight. If there are some 
 words which the pupils have not met before, they should 
 be taught before the reading begins ; and if the reader 
 still finds difficulty in reading the sentence or paragraph, 
 it may be read silently before it is read orally. 
 
 To encourage thought in reading, it is always well to 
 follow the reading by questioning. Let the questions 
 be such, however, as will oblige the pupils to give long 
 answers and to give them in their own words. In the 
 lower classes, well-graded reading-books will be found 
 best, for sight-reading, although there are some simply 
 written books of other kinds admirably fitted for the 
 purpose. In the higher classes, voyages, books of 
 travel, histories, and biographies will be found useful 
 not only for sight-reading, but also for the purpose of 
 interesting pupils in geography and history. Occasion- 
 ally it may be found well to allow the pupils to select 
 pieces or stories to be read to the entire school. 
 Such practice will give them confidence and help 
 them to feel that their object in reading orally is to 
 interest others. 
 
 Regular Reading Licssons. — Important as sight- 
 reading is for securing the principal objects of oral 
 reading, the use of the regular reading lesson should 
 not be lost sight of. Unlike reading to be read at 
 sight, the books for assigned lessons should be some- 
 what difficult for the pupils. The advantages of having 
 regular reading lessons a little in advance of the pupil's 
 comprehension are, (1) new words are added to the 
 pupils' vocabulary, (2) the thought of the pupils is 
 
60 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 raised to a Ligher plane. If all that the pupils read 
 is so simple as to be wholly within their comprehen- 
 sion, they are not likely to learn many words new to 
 them, and the thought expressed is so simple as to call 
 for little mental exertion. It is a mistake to suppose 
 that children like that only which is simple and easy. 
 It is true that, by want of proper exercise, their minds 
 may become incapable of much effort; but with careful 
 training children may read understandingly and come 
 to like the best of our English classics, both in prose 
 and poetry. It will be found well in reading such 
 literature to encourage the pupils to give their idea of 
 the meaning of a figure of speech or of a difficult phrase 
 or sentence, and gradually, by judicious assistance, lead 
 them to discover its full meaning and force. Such ex- 
 ercise will be found as interesting as guessing a puzzle 
 or working out a problem in arithmetic. Occasionally, 
 after a chapter or poem has been read, the pupils will 
 find it profitable and agreeable to write an abstract of 
 it in their own words. 
 
 Preparation of Lesson. — It cannot be expected that 
 very young children will " study " a reading lesson to 
 any extent. The most that they can do is to practise 
 in copying the words and sentences of their lessons 
 from the blackboard. Neither can older pupils pre- 
 pare a reading lesson in the right way unless they are 
 shown how to prepare it, or unless the recitation leads 
 them to do it. The character of the recitation in every 
 branch of study determines the character of the study. 
 This is especially true in reading. Just before the read- 
 ing lesson begins, some or all of the class should be 
 called upon to give the substance of the lesson in their 
 
READING. 61 
 
 own words. This exercise, if rightly conducted, fur- 
 nishes practice in oral expression, and at the same time 
 encourages pupils to find out the story or the thought 
 of the author before they come into the class. Again, 
 at the close of the recitation, the teacher should teach 
 the most difficult words of the next lesson, and if his 
 pupils be young, ask them to bring into the class writ- 
 ten sentences of their own construction containing the 
 words thus taught. By this practice, the pupils will 
 become more familiar with the difficult words of the 
 lesson and at the same time add to their vocabulary. 
 The sentences should be glanced at or looked over by 
 the teacher, to see that no mistakes are made in the use 
 of words, and to encourage pupils to write the sentences. 
 
 To induce the older pupils to consult the reference- 
 books of the school library, inquiry should be made in 
 recitation for facts connected with any name or place 
 mentioned in the text, and for synonyms, derivation, 
 and definition of words. 
 
 The greatest value of questioning as an incentive to 
 study will not be seen if it is done wholly by the 
 teacher. After a paragraph or sentence has been 
 read, the pupils themselves should be encouraged to 
 question the reader in regard to its general meaning or 
 concerning any part of it. Thus there may be called 
 for the definitions and synonyms of difficult words, 
 explanation of figures, location of places, facts about 
 persons and past events mentioned in the text, and 
 such other information as the ingenuity and previous 
 study of the questioners will suggest. Pupils in pre- 
 paring for questioning will be likely to be more partic- 
 ular and earnest than in preparing simply to answer 
 
62 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 questions of the teacher. Moreover, questioning by 
 the pupils greatly adds to the interest of a reading 
 exercise. 
 
 Principles. — The pupils up to the age of twelve or 
 fourteen years are learning to think as they read, and 
 to acquire the art of reading so as to be understood 
 and felt. Up to this time nothing has been said of 
 pitch, emphasis, or any of the principles which underlie 
 good reading. When the art has been acquired to a 
 tolerable degree of proficiency, the older pupils may 
 begin to learn principles which may aid them in under- 
 standing and reading difficult or obscure passages. In- 
 stead, however, of presenting the rules and principles 
 ready made, they should be taught as in other depart- 
 ments of study. For example, if it is desired to teach 
 emphasis, let the pupils read the following sentence with 
 the desire to tell how the horse trots: "The black horse 
 trots rapidly." Again, ask the pupils to read the same 
 sentence so as to tell which horse trots rapidly. A few 
 questions will bring out the idea that certain words 
 were uttered with more force than others, or in a dif- 
 ferent way. They may be told that such words were 
 emphasized, and be asked to emphasize other words. 
 When they have well in mind the idea of emphasis, 
 lead them to discover the principle of correct emphasis. 
 For example, place upon the blackboard a number of 
 sentences like the following : " John is here," " Thomas 
 is here," " We are all here," and ask the pupils to read 
 them naturally. After they find that " Thomas " and 
 " all " are emphasized, lead them to see that those words 
 express new ideas, or ideas not previously expressed. 
 After a sufficient number of examples of this kind have 
 
READING. 63 
 
 been read, they will give a rule of their own making : 
 "Words expressing new ideas are emphasized." Jn 
 the same way develop the rule that " Words express- 
 ing important ideas are emphasized," and also the rule 
 that " Words expressing contrasted ideas are empha- 
 sized." By combination, the general rule is formed: 
 " Words expressing new, important, and contrasted 
 ideas are emphasized." 
 
 The next point to bring out may be the kinds of em- 
 phasis and the various terms used to express them. The 
 pupils, by reading understandingly and feelingly several 
 sentences like the following, will see that some words 
 are emphasized by using more force, some by making a 
 pause after the words, some by raising or dropping the 
 voice, and some by prolonging the words ; — 
 
 T assure you that the charge is false. 
 
 The boy ! oh, where was he ? 
 
 One^ if by land^, and two^ if by sea^. 
 
 The day is c-o-l-d and d-a-r-k and d-r-e-a-r-y. 
 
 After sufficient practice of this kind, the names of the 
 kinds of emphasis may be given : (1) stress, (2) pause, 
 (3) inflection, (4) time. 
 
 It will be interesting and useful for the pupils to 
 apply the knowledge of emphasis which they have 
 gained to passages in their reading lessons. Take, for 
 example, the lines, — 
 
 " Scarcely a man is now alive 
 Who remembers that famous day and year." 
 
 Nine out of ten pupils would at first emphasize the 
 words " day " and " year." Application of their rule of 
 
64 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 emphasis will teach them, that " remembers " is the word 
 to be emphasized. 
 
 Pupils in the higher grades are much inclined to 
 emphasize too many words — so many as to destroy 
 the effect of emphasis where it belongs. To prevent 
 this fault, application of the rule of emphasis should be 
 constantly made, and the reader should be asked why a 
 particular emphasis is made. If, for example, a pupil 
 reads the sentence, " Put a ring on his hand and shoes 
 on his feet," and emphasizes, as he is likely to, ring^ 
 hand, shoes, and feet, the application of the rule will 
 lead him in a second reading not to emphasize hand 
 ?ind feet as if they expressed important ideas. 
 
 The same course should be pursued in teaching other 
 facts, relating to quality of voice, movement, pitch, force, 
 and inflection. The teacher should first gather such 
 facts as may be thought useful, from reading or other 
 books, and then teach the facts by first presenting the 
 examples and leading the pupils to deduce the facts or 
 principles from the examples given. 
 
 Cultivation of Taste. — It is the privilege as well 
 as the duty of the teacher to do much toward elevating 
 the reading tastes of the young. In no way can the 
 extensive reading of the worthless and demoralizing 
 literature which now fills the shops be more effec- 
 tually checked than by creating a desire and demand 
 for something better. Good methods of teaching will 
 do much in this direction ; for the pupil in being led 
 to think as he reads, finds positive pleasure in reading 
 thoughtful books, and having learned to read such books 
 easily at sight, he is no longer attracted solely by the 
 excitement of the narrative, or by the simplicity of the 
 
READING. 65 
 
 language, but is willing and glad to read the best books 
 witliiu his reach. Moreover, the constant use of good 
 supplementary reading in school has given him a taste 
 for good reading and a distaste for what is worthless 
 and bad. 
 
 In addition to the direct influence which is exerted 
 in the reading classes, the teacher should direct the 
 outside reading of the pupils by suggesting good books 
 in all departments. Every high and grammar school 
 should have a carefully selected library from which 
 books can be taken home by the pupils. If there is no 
 library connected with the school, the teacher should 
 suggest to the pupils what books of the public or circu- 
 lating library will be best for them to read. The geog- 
 raphy, history, observation, and information lessons 
 will afford a good opportunity for the teacher to sug- 
 gest books or periodicals from which the pupils may 
 learn other interesting facts in connection with the sub- 
 jects studied. 
 
 Frequently, or as often as once a week, time should 
 be taken to talk with the pupils about what they have 
 read out of school, occasionally calling for an abstract 
 or synopsis of a book when completed, and their 
 opinion of it. 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 The art of writing legibly should be acquired as early 
 in the school life of the child as possible ; first, because 
 it is a direct assistance to the other work of the school, 
 and secondly, on account of the shortness of time dur- 
 ing which many cliildren attend school. 
 
 Appliances. — During the first year there should be 
 provided ruled slates, and sharpened slate-pencils at 
 least four inches in length. The lines for the small 
 letters may be one-fourth of an inch apart, and even 
 wider for work of the first few weeks. After the 
 first year, paper and lead-pencils should be provided in 
 addition to the slates and slate-pencils. The spaced 
 lines may be, during the second year, three-sixteenths 
 of an inch apart for the small letters. The proper 
 height of capitals and tall letters should also be indi- 
 cated in the ruling. During the next two years, or as 
 long as spaced lines are thought to be necessary, the 
 lines for the small letters may be a little more than one- 
 eighth of an inch apart. Copy-books of a suitable kind 
 should also be provided as early as the second year, and 
 pen and ink at the beginning of the third year in 
 school. Blackboard and crayons will be found indis- 
 pensable by the teacher, and writing-charts and card- 
 board copies will be of great assistance. 
 
 Gracling-. — In graded schools all the teaching exer- 
 cises in writing should be given to the entire school, 
 and much of the practice should be carried on together. 
 Special assistance, however, will have to be given to a 
 few of the poorer writers during the lesson. Opportu- 
 
WKITING. 67 
 
 nity should be given these pupils to take extra time 
 for practice upon a lesson, and they should be advised 
 to practise out of school hours. 
 
 It may be found advantageous in writing, as in draw- 
 ing, to divide the ungraded school into two sections 
 both for teaching and for practice. At least two uni- 
 form lessons a week should be given each section. At 
 other times the pupils might go on in their copy-book, 
 independent of each other ; but at no time should undue 
 haste or scribbling be allowed. 
 
 Objects and Means. — Legibility first and rapidity 
 afterwards are the ends to be reached in writing, and 
 they are reached only by constant practice either in 
 imitating good models or in following rules which have 
 been taught. 
 
 Words and Sentences. — The first copies for imitation 
 may be the words and sentences which have been taught 
 and placed upon the board in the reading exercise. 
 The earlier efforts of the children in writing will be 
 very crude, and it may take many trials before any 
 appreciable progress is made ; but with the help of the 
 teacher in making the copy upon the slate and in 
 guiding the hands of the children, it will be found 
 that easy words like man^ on, and cat will soon be 
 made so as to be recognized. It will be well to 
 encourage the children at first by giving for copies 
 words which they can write the best, leaving the more 
 difficult words until they have a good command of the 
 hand. 
 
 The copies upon the blackboard and slate should be 
 made in the presence of the children, that they may 
 know how the letters are formed. In order to have the 
 
68 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 form of the letters clear and distinct, the copies should 
 be written at first in a large hand, and the writing of 
 the children should also be large, as indicated by a 
 wide ruling. Time may be saved by placing cardboard 
 copies before the children instead of writing copies 
 upon the board or slate ; but this should be done only 
 after the words have been written in the children's 
 presence. 
 
 After the first year the children may be able to write 
 without a copy, and yet the work of imitation must go 
 on until all of the letters are accurately formed. Much 
 depends upon the teacher's ability to write well before 
 his pupils. While it is true that a poor writer may, by 
 substituting the copies of others, lead his pupils to 
 write well, it should be understood that a teacher who 
 can present the proper form for imitation has a great 
 advantage over one who cannot write well, or who has 
 to write his copies out of sight of the children. 
 
 Single Letters. — While the copying of words and 
 sentences is required in the lower grades, drill upon 
 single letters should also be carried on in regular order, 
 C^ indicated in the " Course of Studies." The aim in 
 thfcse exercises is accuracy. No new letter should be 
 taken up until the preceding letters are made with 
 almost j)erfect accuracy. For example, the children 
 are given i to write during the first half-year. Let 
 them pracdse upon it a little every day until there can 
 be no improvement, and then they may take the next 
 letter, u. This pi^ctice will lead them into that control 
 which is necessary to the good writer, and will give a 
 good foundation for suosequent work. 
 
 Position. — During the first two years, or while the 
 
WRITING. 69 
 
 children are confined to the use of the pencil in writing, 
 due attention is given to position ; but as we do not 
 wish to make the difficulties too great in the beginning, 
 we seek more to secure perfect forms than perfect move- 
 ments. As soon as the pen is taken, however, special 
 attention should be given to (1) position of the body, 
 (2) position of the paper or book, (3) position and 
 movement of the hand and arm. 
 
 Different positions are recommended by different 
 teachers, and doubtless each has its advantages. The 
 following positions are suggested as having few objec- 
 tions and as being useful for the purpose designed. 
 
 It should be said, however, that, whether these or 
 other positions are taken, there should be uniformity 
 throughout the course. 
 
 The face nearly front, the left side of the body being 
 slightly turned toward the desk ; the left hand above or 
 on the upper part of the paper or copy-book, and the 
 body slightly bent; the paper or copy-book in an ob- 
 lique position so as to allow room for the right forearm 
 to rest upon the desk ; the pen and holder held between 
 the thumb and first two fingers so as to allow the freest 
 movement of the fingers, the holder resting upon the 
 forefinger between the first and second joints and point- 
 ing nearly over the right shoulder; the wrist slightly 
 raised from the desk, the third and fourth fingers rest- 
 ing lightly upon the paper. These, or some other 
 equally good positions, should be taught at the beginning 
 of the third year or when the pen is first taken, and the 
 pupils should be constantly corrected until a correct 
 habit is established. Some teachers find the tracing- 
 book helpful during the first few weeks of pen-and-ink 
 
70 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 practice, or while the pupils are learning a good posi- 
 tion and movement of the hand. 
 
 3Iovements. — Movement practice should be begun as 
 soon as the pen is taken, and continued until there is a 
 free and easy movement of the fingers and arm. In the 
 early practice, the movements should be made with a 
 pencil or a dry pen. First show by example what the 
 arm movement is, and have the pupils practise on slides, 
 with the fingers fixed and in a good position. The 
 slides may be made by the direction "forward — back," 
 given slowly. After some facility is gained in this sim- 
 ple arm movement explain as before, by example, the 
 finger movement, and have the pupils practise it, first 
 by bending and straightening the fingers without touch- 
 ing pencil or pen to paper. Then with tlie dry pen 
 upon paper, combine the slide and the simple up-and- 
 down finger movement in the following exercise : — 
 
 Give slowly the direction " slide — down," by whicK 
 the movement is guided, and after some practice let the 
 same exercise be written with ink. 
 
 To secure accuracy of finger and arm movements, 
 practice in parallel lines, both curved and straight, in all 
 directions, will be found useful. These and other 
 exercises for securing freedom and accuracy of move- 
 ment may be found in the copy-books, and should be 
 practised daily for the first two or three years after ink 
 is taken, or until the pupils can write easily with the 
 combined arm and finger movement. As soon as the 
 
WKITING. 71 
 
 pen is taken, and in all subsequent writing, care should 
 be taken to have the pupils hold the pen very lightly in 
 the hand, so as to make smooth and light lines. A 
 firmer grasp may be allowed for pupils who have an 
 unsteady hand, but even these should be encouraged to 
 hold the pen lightly as soon as they are able to write 
 rapidly. 
 
 Copy-Booh. — In addition to practice in writing from 
 copies made by the teacher, and in connection with the 
 language lessons, there should be throughout a greater 
 part of the course, copy-book practice at least three 
 times a week. The copy should be taught from the 
 blackboard before practice is begun, each principle or 
 letter being made carefully, and the correct and incor- 
 rect forms being pointed out. Every pupil should be 
 provided with paper or blank-book for practice, and 
 when a fair degree of accuracy is attained, the letter, 
 word, or sentence may be written in the copy-book. In 
 using the copy-book, lead the pupils to imitate the copy 
 and not their own writing. To encourage thoughtful- 
 ness and care in imitating the copy, it may be well to 
 have all the pupils write the same line at the same time, 
 and when the line is written, to compare each letter 
 they have made with the copy. Sometimes interest is 
 increased by criticising each other's writing, marking 
 slightly with lead-pencil the errors. 
 
 Special and separate attention should be given to the 
 shape, size, slant, distance apart, and shade of letters. 
 The first four points should be attended to from the 
 first. The shading should receive no attention until 
 the pupils are able to form the letters and join them 
 together with almost perfect accuracy. Generally it 
 
72 
 
 IklETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 takes two years of practice with pen and ink before the 
 pupils are ready to give attention to shading. 
 
 The rule in regard to the relative height of letters 
 may be understood and followed by pupils as early as 
 the second year in school. During the first four years 
 the pupils may have the aid of spaced lines to guide 
 them in making letters of proper and uniform height. 
 This assistance should be gradually removed until 
 equally good work is done without the lines. 
 
 The slant should be about fifty-two degrees. For 
 board and slate work, the proper slant may be ascer- 
 tained by drawing a parallelogram, thus, — 
 
 four parts high, three parts wide. The diagonal dS 
 will be nearly the proper slant. 
 
 The proper distancing of letters and the proper shad- 
 ing can be gained only by imitation and practice. In- 
 deed, this is true of all good writing. Practice in 
 imitation of good models for accuracy, and afterwards 
 practice for rapidity, should be encouraged both in and 
 out of school. For " home study," practice in writing 
 is especially useful, as no possible harm can be done by 
 injudicious assistance. 
 
 Pupils should not be allowed to repeat their faults 
 until they become a habit. To avoid this they should 
 be led to observe closely correct forms and to detect 
 any faulty line which may be made. First present a 
 
WlilTING. 73 
 
 correct form of the letter upon the board and call atten- 
 tion to the position or direction of its parts. Then ask 
 one or more of the pupils to make the same letter upon 
 the board for the inspection and criticism of the rest. 
 In this way they will be prepared to criticise and cor- 
 rect their own writing in the copy-books. 
 
 Rate. — In all the writing of the first few years, let 
 slowness be encouraged. The child who can write 
 slowly, can be taught to write well, and only when he 
 can form every letter accurately without a copy, should 
 rapidity be encouraged or allowed. For this reason 
 every written exercise, whether it be in spelling, lan- 
 guage, copy-book, or examination, should be an exercise 
 in penmanship. No careless writing should be allowed 
 to remain upon the slate, and all carelessly written ex- 
 ercises upon paper should be destroyed and rewritten. 
 By the fifth or sixth year in school, the pupils, if they 
 have been properly taught in the lower grades, should 
 be prepared to quicken their movements in writing. 
 Practice in rapidity may be had first upon single letters 
 and words, and afterwards upon sentences, until by the 
 eighth year the pupils will be able not only to write 
 well but with a good degree of rapidity. 
 
 It is expected that book-keeping, and the writing of 
 compositions and examination-papers, will afford suffi- 
 cient practice for writing in the ninth year. 
 
74 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 Objects. — In teaching spelling we have to lead the 
 pupils to arrange in proper order the letters of a word. 
 In addition to this, other forms of expression should be 
 taught incidentally, as use of capital letters, punctua- 
 tion, possessive forms, common contractions and abbre- 
 viations, division into syllables, pronunciation and dia- 
 critical marks. 
 
 The correct form of words is learned by observation 
 and practice. Accurate habits of observation should 
 be encouraged as early as possible, and opportunity 
 given for much practice in writing. In the first year 
 there should be daily practice in copying words and 
 sentences from the board and from cards. In the 
 second year, and afterwards, there may be some prac- 
 tice in copying from the reader. Instead of allowing 
 pupils to copy by writing only a letter or two after 
 each inspection of the copy, lead them to get an accu- 
 rate picture of one or more words before writing. 
 Write a word or sentence upon the board, ask the 
 children to look at it carefully, then to write it without 
 looking at the copy, and lastly to see if their word or 
 sentence is written correctly, and, if not, to erase and 
 rewrite it. Lead them to do the same in copying from 
 books. 
 
 Study. — Pupils should be taught early in the course 
 how to study a spelling lesson. It will be well to have 
 the spelling lesson copied plainly upon the board by 
 the teacher, and when the time for studying the lesson 
 comes, to have the pupils copy the words upon their 
 
 I 
 
SPELLING. 76 
 
 slates, as has been described. Whenever a mistake has 
 been made, instead of having them erase and correct 
 a part of the word, have them erase the entire word 
 and rewrite it. Some practice of this kind under the 
 teacher's direction will lead the pupils to form in the 
 mind correct pictures of the words at a single glance, 
 and enable them to study profitably alone. For the 
 younger pupils, draw a line through the silent letters, 
 and encourage them to do the same in copying and in 
 writing from dictation. This will lead them to notice 
 the silent letters. 
 
 Recitation. — Tlie spelling lesson may be recited 
 orally or in writing. For obvious reasons, the writing 
 of words is far more useful than spelling orally by 
 letter. As soon as the pupils can write without copy, 
 or after the first year, the words and sentences of the 
 spelling lesson should be written from dictation, in 
 books provided for the purpose. In the latter part of 
 the first year, spelling "by sound " and by letter should 
 be practised. In the second and third years there may 
 be some oral spelling ; but generally with the exception 
 of spelling reviews and recreations, the lessons should 
 be written. 
 
 During the first three years the school readers may 
 be used as text-books for spelling. Afterwards regular 
 spelling text-books should be used, time being allowed 
 for practice upon words from other sources. Sometimes 
 the spelling lesson may consist of the words misspelled 
 in the written examination papers and compositions; 
 sometimes the technical words of other lessons may be 
 given, or the difficult words of two or more paragraphs 
 of the reader, or a review of the difficult common words, 
 such as the following : — 
 
76 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Knife, money, shoes, ladies, which, whose, where, there, their, 
 piece, would, watch-chain, lead-pencil, window-curtain, yours, 
 comb, crayon, door-key, floor, believe, guess, through, threw, 
 dropped, walked, laughed, aunt, father, ought, ache, dozen, fruit, 
 Wednesday, beautiful, flowers, sugar, color, collar, brother's, baby's, 
 whole, pair, eight, half, twelve, tough, button, caught, neighbor, 
 minute. 
 
 These are among the words which children should 
 write correctly in sentences before they leave the pri- 
 mary school ; but it will be found that not all grammar 
 school pupils will be able to write even half of them 
 correctly, without being reviewed. 
 
 The words and sentences should be generally dictated 
 by the teacher, and, if possible, but once. In this way 
 the power of attention is cultivated, and time is saved. 
 In giving out words to spell it is well sometimes for 
 the teacher or the pupils to give a sentence containing 
 each word or, in the higher grades, to give synonyms or 
 definitions. Sometimes it may be well for the pupils to 
 give out the words of a lesson from memory ; but no 
 word should be spelled whose use or meaning is not 
 understood. 
 
 All misspelled words should be rewritten correctly 
 and reviewed frequently. The lessons should be of 
 varied length, depending upon the character of the 
 words. Sometimes a long lesson of easy words or of 
 words spelled alike may be assigned ; in which case the 
 hardest words of the lesson only will be given out. In 
 no case should haste or carelessness in writing be al- 
 lowed. 
 
 Derivations, synonyms, and definitions should be 
 learned in connection with the spelling lesson in the 
 higher grades, and may be recited at the time of, or 
 
SPELLING. 77 
 
 after dictation of the words. In these classes the dic- 
 tionary should be in constant use by the pupils. Small 
 dictionaries in the desks of older pupils, and one large 
 dictionary for reference, on the teacher's table, will be 
 found necessary for the preparation of reading and spell- 
 ing lessons. 
 
 Homonyms in sentences should be frequently given, 
 and in the higher grades, words derived from the same 
 root should be selected and explained. The force of the 
 various prefixes and suffixes may also be taught in the 
 same way. Syllabication should be taught in connec- 
 tion with the regular spelling lesson, the syllables being 
 separated by short spaces and not by hyphens. In oral 
 spelling the sjdlables may be indicated by slight pauses, 
 without pronouncing each syllable. 
 
 Rules. — It is not well to burden the pupil with 
 many rules for spelling, the exceptions being frequently 
 so numerous as to defeat the end sought. Yet there 
 are some rules which may be profitably learned; as, for 
 example, the rules for joining suffixes to words ending 
 in y and e^ and rules for the formation of the plural of 
 nouns. These, and other rules which have few excep- 
 tions, may be of some assistance. 
 
 Methods of Examining and Correcting. — In small 
 classes, and with young pupils, the teacher should 
 examine and correct each slate or paper. Pupils may 
 be allowed to correct their own exercises, rewriting the 
 misspelled words upon a separate paper. Or pupils 
 may exchange slates or papers, and examine each 
 other's exercise, the right of appeal being allowed when 
 the exercise is returned. Instead of slate or paper, it 
 would be well to have each pupil provided with a spell- 
 
78 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ing blank-book. From the lists of misspelled words the 
 teacher should occasionally prepare review lessons. 
 
 To avoid temptation, which might exist if the papers 
 were examined by the same pupils every day, or if the 
 pupils simply exchanged their papers, it is well to have 
 two or three different directions for passing the papers 
 to be examined. At the proper time the teacher may 
 say, "pass back," "front," "to the left," or "to the 
 right." If the order to " pass front " is given, the pu- 
 pils in front will immediately stand and pass their books 
 to the pupils in the rear. All the rest will pass their 
 books to the pupils directly in front of them. If the 
 order to " pass back " is given, the pupils in the rear 
 will carr}^ their papers to the front, and all the rest will 
 pass their papers to the pupils behind them. 
 
 It is desirable to have the pupils write the lessons 
 with pen and ink, and to mark misspelled words with 
 a lead-pencil. The books should occasionally be col- 
 lected and passed to the teacher for inspection. 
 
 Reviews and Recreations. — Oral review lessons by 
 " spelling down " and choosing sides will be found to 
 be valuable aids. A choice of sides to continue for a 
 month or term has been found to stimulate the efforts 
 of some pupils. When a class becomes indifferent, or 
 consists of many poor spellers, let two of the best 
 spellers choose sides, — the side which misspells the 
 fewest words in the month to have some privilege or 
 mark of honor. If carried on in the right way, great 
 interest will be manifested, the better spellers "spell- 
 ing " the poorer spellers out of school hours, and the 
 poor spellers making greater effort. 
 
 Occasionally the " word game " may be played, in 
 
SPELLING. 79 
 
 which words are made up from the letters of a given 
 word. For example, from the word Congregational the 
 pupils may be asked first to make as many words as 
 they can beginning with <?, and using any letters found 
 in the given word. After three or five minutes' trial, 
 the same may be done beginning with o, and so on. 
 
80 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 The term Language may be used in different ways. 
 As a faculty of the mind, it is the association of ideas 
 with their proper signs. The term is also applied to 
 the expression of ideas and thoughts, generally by 
 words and propositions, spoken or written. By the 
 study of language the power of association is cultivated 
 and the ability is acquired of expressing ideas and 
 thoughts correctly and easily, both in speaking and in 
 writing. In its widest application, language as a 
 branch of study includes reading, writing, spelling, 
 grammar, and expression or composition. As generally 
 used, however, the term is applied to the last-named 
 subject, or that study which has for its object an easy 
 and correct expression of ideas and thoughts. Such a 
 study is elementary in character and precedes the study 
 of grammar, which is scientific. 
 
 Objects. — The two chief ends to be sought in ele- 
 mentary language work are correctness and fluency. 
 Correctness of spoken language consists in correct pro- 
 nunciation, in the use of correct words, both in kind 
 and construction, and in having the words of a sentence 
 follow each other in proper order. Correctness of 
 written language, in addition to the last two features, 
 consists in correct spelling, punctuation, and capitaliza- 
 tion. 
 
 In securing fluency of expression, it should be the 
 aim of the teacher, first, to see that the pupils have 
 right and useful thoughts to express ; secondly, to see 
 that the thoughts are clear and distinct ; and thirdly, to 
 
LANGUAGE. 81 
 
 see that the expression is direct, simple, free, and 
 natural. 
 
 Means. — Regular Studies. — All of the objects named 
 cannot be attained by attending to expression merely. 
 Without clear and distinct thoughts of a useful kind, 
 there can be no good expression ; and without proper 
 expression, the thoughts are likely to be indistinct and 
 fleeting. It is important, therefore, that language cul- 
 ture should be an essential feature of all the regular 
 studies of the school. Every fact observed and every 
 tliought acquired should be expressed in language clear, 
 accurate, and original. 
 
 Imitation. — First among the most effective means 
 of acquiring correct expression is imitation of good 
 models. Every one knows by experience and by ob- 
 servation how much good language depends upon early 
 influences. No amount of study in school will entirely 
 overcome a habit of using incorrect language which has 
 been acquired in early life. The importance, therefore,\ 
 of correct speech in the schoolroom can hardly be over- 
 estimated. The teacher should carefully guard himself 
 against the use of language which would not be regarded 
 as a model of excellence for his pupils to imitate. 
 
 Correction. — In all the exercises of the school, both 
 teacher and pupils should be ready to correct every in- 
 correct expression which is made. If this is done con- 
 stantly, and the correct forms are written out and 
 frequently reviewed, much will be done to overcome the 
 influence of poor models in the home and on the street. 
 It is not necessary, nor is it well, to interrupt the 
 thought of a pupil in the midst of a statement by 
 the correction of mistakes. When the pupil has fin- 
 
82 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ished what he has to say, mistakes may be pointed out 
 and the proper corrections made. 
 
 Copying. — Constantly during the first year, and 
 occasional^ afterwards, the copying of sentences and 
 words from accurately written copies should be prac- 
 tised. The copies may be on the blackboard, paper, or jl 
 cardboard, and should always be most carefully written. ™ 
 No poorly or carelessly written copies should ever be 
 placed before the children, and care should be taken ]l 
 that habits of writing slowly and carefully are formed 
 from the first. 
 
 After the first year, or as soon as the child can form |l 
 letters correctly without a copy, copying from the read- 
 ing-book may be practised, both for the purpose of learn- 
 ing the use of capital letters, marks of punctuation, etc., 
 and for securing greater familiarity with the words. If 
 the pupils are properly directed, a habit of attention and 
 of picturing in the mind, words and groups of words, 
 is also gained by this exercise. Lead the pupils to h 
 look carefully to the words of a phrase or sentence be- 
 fore they write it. After the copy is made, ask them to 
 see whether they have copied the words correctly in all 
 particulars. If any mistake has been made, have them 
 erase what has been written and try again. After a 
 time good habits of attention will be formed, and the 
 copying may be done in study time. Unless care is 
 taken, pupils, even in the higher grades, will be found 
 stopping in the middle of words to look at the copy, 
 thus forming thoughtless and mechanical habits. 
 
 Object Lessons. — The first essential for correct ex- 
 pression is the possession of clear ideas, and these are 
 best received through, or by means of observation les- 
 
LANGUAGE. 83 
 
 sons. Whenever in such lessons an idea or thought is 
 developed, it should find expression first orally and 
 afterwards in writing. After the object lesson is com- 
 pleted, the various statements which the pupil has 
 made should be brought together in proper form. For 
 example, when the shape and color of an envelope have 
 been taught and named, the statement may be, " The 
 shape of this envelope is oblong, and its color is buff." 
 Or when a lesson upon a plant is given, the name and 
 description of the different parts may be made as soon 
 as they are observed. Afterwards these facts should be 
 brought together so as to make a connected statement 
 of what has been learned. If there is not time to 
 do this in the time allotted for the observation 
 lesson, let it be done as a part of the next lesson in 
 language. 
 
 Further suggestions will be found in connection with 
 what is said upon observation lessons. 
 
 Actions. — One form of object lessons of interest and 
 value to young children, especially for the purpose of 
 expression, is actions. The teacher may do something, 
 as walk across the floor, and then ask his pupils to tell 
 orally in an entire sentence what he did, and afterwards 
 to write the sentence. Thus a simple act, or several acts 
 in succession, may be described, the number and com- 
 plexity of them depending upon the ability of the 
 pupils. By this means, the spelling of many common, 
 difficult words may be taught, as well as the use of capi- 
 tal letters and marks of punctuation. 
 
 The following sentences will suggest to teachers 
 what actions may be described in the various grades : — 
 
84 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 John rang the bell. 
 
 You walked across the room. 
 
 You placed two pencils on the desk. 
 
 You picked two petals from the flower. 
 
 I heard you stamp your foot twice. 
 
 Mary passed her knife to Julia. 
 
 Thomas raised the window-sash. 
 
 Did you shut the door? 
 
 You dropped your handkerchief on the floor. 
 
 You put John's hat on the desk. 
 
 John and William put their hats on their heads. 
 
 William, James, and Sarah went to the teacher's desk. 
 
 You threw a ball into the air and caught it when it came down. 
 
 Thomas went to the wash-basin, wet his sponge, and returned 
 to his seat. 
 
 James went to the teacher's desk, took from it all of the pupils' 
 writing-books, and distributed them to their owners. He then went 
 to his seat and began to study his geography lesson. 
 
 Use of Pictures. — Next to the objects themselves, 
 pictures are most valuable in exciting ideas and 
 thoughts, and are therefore useful as a means of lan- 
 guage study. They may be used as objects are used 
 when a description of what is seen is called for, or they 
 may be used as a basis for imaginary stories. 
 
 In describing the parts of a picture, young children 
 will need special assistance and direction from the 
 teacher. Place a large, interesting picture — not too 
 complex at first — before the class or school, and ques- 
 tion somewhat as follows : — 
 
 " How many boys are there in the picture ? " " What 
 are they doing?" "What animal is following on be- 
 hind?" "What kind of dog is it?" "What is one 
 of the cows doing ? " The answers should be in entire 
 sentences, and should afterwards be written out connec- 
 
LANGUAGE. 85 
 
 tedly under the direction of the teacher. After some 
 practice of this kind the pupils may be able, without 
 much assistance from the teacher, to state in full all 
 they can see in a given picture. Care should be taken 
 that the description does not consist of short statements, 
 poorly arranged or connected together by many "and's." 
 The final description of the picture suggested above 
 might be as follows : — 
 
 "I see two boys driving some cows. One of the 
 cows is eating grass by the side of the road, and one is 
 going into a field. A large shepherd dog is running 
 behind the boys." 
 
 Another scarcely less valuahie use of pictures in 
 teaching language is to suggest imaginary stories to 
 be told by the pupils. The pictures used for young 
 children should be simple and somewhat striking. By 
 presenting a good plan or by asking questions, lead the 
 pupils gradually into good habits of tliought and con- 
 struction. With the picture above indicated the ques- 
 tions might be somewhat as follows : What shall we 
 call the boys ? Where do they live ? Do both live on 
 the farm? Which one is the visitor from the city? 
 What relation are they to each other ? Who came with 
 Charlie to the country ? What are they doing ? What 
 else do they do on the farm ? etc. After questioning, 
 the story may be told orally by one or more of the pupils, 
 and afterwards written out in full. Older pupils may 
 be able to write the story out in full after a given plan, 
 without preliminary questioning or without first telling 
 it orally. The correction and revision of the papers 
 may be made during the time of a regular recitation, or 
 may be given out as a language lesson. Encourage as 
 
86 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 far as possible independence and originality of expres- 
 sion. 
 
 Dictation. — In every grade after the first, exercises 
 in dictation should be given. Avoid the mistake of 
 repeating the phrase or sentence so often as to make 
 the exercise of writing mechanical. The giving out 
 of a short sentence once, with possibly one repetition 
 for younger pupils, should be enough. Long sentences 
 may be repeated two or three times. 
 
 The chief value of the dictation exercise lies in the 
 correction of papers by the pupils. Read, letter by letter, 
 the sentences, or place upon the blackboard the correct 
 form, asking them to |Piace a cross above each mistake. 
 
 Care should be taken to select sentences for dictation 
 which will involve practice in all marks of punctuation, 
 capital letters, and the spelling of difficult common 
 words. The use and spelling of words pronounced 
 alike but spelled differently may also be taught in this 
 way. The following sentences will indicate the kind of 
 dictation exercises which may be given during the sec- 
 ond, third, and fourth years in school : — 
 
 The book is very large. 
 
 I have two cents in my pocket. 
 
 Where is your slate ? 
 
 There are eight boys in my class. 
 
 Which book shall I take? 
 
 Mary's doll is very pretty. 
 
 The man ate four pieces of bread ? 
 
 Where did you put my penknife? 
 
 Are you sure that you heard me speak ? 
 
 Many girls wear their hair too short to curl. 
 
 I was very weak last week. 
 
 Wait a moment, and I will tell you the weight of the sugar. 
 
LANGUAGE. 87 
 
 Col. and Mrs. Smith called to see us last evening. 
 
 This is day of , 188-. 
 
 Never separate the letters of a syllable by a hyphen. 
 There are sixty minutes in an hour, twenty-four hours in a day, 
 seven days in a week, and fifty-two weeks in a year. 
 
 "Where did you buy those oranges?" asked William. 
 " I bought them at Mr. Robinson's grocery store, and I paid two 
 cents apiece for them," replied John. 
 
 Oh, what a great piece of maple sugar you have ! 
 I buy all my stationery at Lee and Shepard's. 
 I have a Worcester's and a Webster's dictionary. 
 
 Information Lessons, — It is very important that facts 
 learned in connection with the information lessons be 
 fixed in the mind by talking and writing. Correctness 
 and ease of expression are also gained by such practice, 
 and a good opportunity is afforded to teach a proper 
 combination and arrangement of short statements. 
 After an information lesson has been given, the cus- 
 tom should be to talk and write about what has been 
 learned. The statements may first be given in answer 
 to definite questions, and then they may be combined 
 in proper order and connection ; or the lessons may be 
 presented by topics, which can afterwards be brought 
 together in connected statements. One method is best 
 suited to younger pupils, the other to older pupils. 
 Occasionally the description may be given without 
 preliminary questioning or topical arrangement. 
 
 Story-Telling and Sight-Reading. — Every teacher of 
 young children should know how to tell stories, partly 
 for the sake of interesting and instructing the children, 
 and partly for the sake of furnishing material for lan- 
 guage lessons. A well-told story serves as a model for 
 the pupils, which they will unconsciously imitate. More 
 
88 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 direct help to a correct and easy expression may be 
 given if, when the story is told, the pupils are asked to 
 reproduce the principal points of it in their own words. 
 Let the story be such as will interest the children, and 
 teach a useful lesson without bringing out the moral 
 too plainly. 
 
 If the teacher has not the art of telling stories, he 
 may read from a book such stories as the children have 
 not seen. Better than this, however, is reading at sight 
 by the children. If they know that such reading will 
 be followed by a reproduction of the thought expressed, 
 their interest in and attention to what is read will be 
 increased, and a greater number of ideas will be gained. 
 The same course in respect to talking and writing 
 should be pursued, ^nd the same cautions in respect to 
 combination should be observed, as have been spoken 
 of before. In the lower grades the subject-matter may 
 be brought out by skilful questioning. When this is 
 done, the children should be encouraged to give the 
 story in a connected form, and always in their own lan- 
 guage. Unless care is taken, they will seek to remem- 
 ber words only, and give the language of the book. In 
 the higher grades, with little or no questioning the pu- 
 pils should be able to give the substance of the article 
 read, first orally and then in wTiting. The written work 
 should be carefully examined, corrected, and rewritten. 
 One of the most common faults is the making of short 
 and disconnected sentences, — a fault which is allow- 
 able with beginners, but which should be corrected as 
 soon as possible. Let the sentences be made so as 
 to read smoothly and pleasantly, without many breaks 
 and without the use of too many connectives. 
 
LANGUAGE. 89 
 
 Paraphrasing, — In connection with the reading, the 
 higher-grade pupils may with profit occasionally write 
 out the substance of a difficult piece of prose or poetry. 
 It will not be necessary to rely upon the memory to do 
 this, but, with the book before the pupil, he may freely 
 translate the essay or poem, being more careful to pre- 
 serve its sense than its letter. Besides directly assist- 
 ing him in composition, such an exercise will leM 
 him to understand many expressions which he might 
 otherwise pass by. 
 
 Letter- Writing, — The writing of letters of one form 
 or another should occupy the attention of all grades of 
 pupils. The proper form of dating, addressing, sub- 
 scribing, folding, and directing letters should be taught 
 as early as possible, and afterwards attention should be 
 given to the body of the letter. The good letter-writer, 
 like the good talker, has something to say, and says it 
 in a direct and natural way. At first it may be neces- 
 sary to give to the children some hints of what they 
 should say in a letter. For example, the teacher may 
 say, " Suppose you write a letter inviting your cousin, 
 whom you may call John or Mary, to come to see you 
 for a week during your next vacation. Tell him or her 
 when your vacation is, and then what you could do 
 to entertain yourselves." Similar directions may have 
 to be given to the children in the second or third year 
 in school ; but as soon as may be, lead the children to 
 compose their letters without help ; encourage in all 
 possible ways originality of thought and naturalness of 
 expression. Imaginary journeys and visits may be 
 described in letters to friends at home, thus bringing 
 in what has been learned in geography and history. 
 
90 METHODS OF TEACHE^G. 
 
 Letters descriptive of familiar scenes may be written 
 to distant friends, and the story of their own experi- 
 ence in vacation time be given in familiar letters to 
 each other. In these and other ways the teacher will 
 encourage the pupils to write good, naturally expressed, 
 and original letters, being careful not to tell too much 
 on the one hand, and not to discourage by too little 
 assistance on the other. 
 
 In addition to letters of friendship, pupils in the 
 higher grades should give attention to writing business 
 letters of all kinds. Ask your pupils to write letters 
 applying for board or a situation, or giving an order for 
 goods. Cut out advertisements from the column of 
 "wants," and give one to each pupil to answer in a 
 proper way. 
 
 Business Forms and Notices, — Before leaving school, 
 pupils should be able to write in proper form ordinary 
 business papers, such as notes, receipts, orders, bills, and 
 notices of all kinds. Let them practise in writing no- 
 tices advertising a lecture or a concert, an auction sale, 
 or a private sale of goods of any kind, the loss of a dog 
 or the finding of a pocket-book. For practice in con- 
 densation, the writing of telegrams is useful, in which 
 the most is to be said in the fewest words. 
 
 The composing of items of news for the newspaper 
 is both interesting and instructive practice. It may do 
 no harm to have the pupils sometimes see the result of 
 their efforts in print. A fire or an accident, or any other 
 event which has occurred in the neighborhood, may be 
 described by the pupils, with the understanding that 
 the best description will be sent to the local newspaper 
 for insertion. They should be taught that a j)lain, 
 
LANGUAGE. 91 
 
 direct statement of facts is to be preferred to the ex- 
 travagant expressions which are so frequently found in 
 newspapers. 
 
 Elliptical Sentences. — The supplying of ellipses is 
 good practice, especially in learning the proper word 
 and correct forms of words to be used. The distinc- 
 tion in the use of such words as may and can^ would 
 ( and should^ lie and lay^ sit and set, in and into, invent 
 and discover, between and among, beside and besides, alone 
 and only, remember and recollect, ago and since, like and 
 as, may be learned in this way. The correct use of the 
 words should first be taught, and afterwards exercises 
 like the following may be given : — 
 
 I go the recitation room to get my book? 
 
 he lift the stone ? 
 
 I now ^ on the lounge. 
 
 Yesterday I on the lounge. 
 
 I the books on the table. 
 
 The books on the table. 
 
 Come and by me while I read to you. 
 
 the pitcher on the table. 
 
 He went the house. 
 
 The same method of teaching the correct forms of 
 words may be found useful, as illustrated in the 
 following : — 
 
 John and Mary in school. 
 
 One of the boys ill. 
 
 They sent Mary and to school. 
 
 John is taller than . 
 
 do you wish to see ? 
 
 Who borrowed my pencil? . 
 
 Which is the of the two ? 
 
 Neither James John ready to recite lesson. 
 
 These are ' bonnets. 
 
92 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 Oompositioris, — In addition to the daily practice in 
 language work, such as has been indicated, the older 
 pupils should be expected as often as once a month to 
 write a composition upon a given subject. Care should 
 be taken to select subjects about which the pupils know 
 something, or which are within their comprehension. 
 Dislike to composition-writing is generally due to the 
 fact that the pupils are called upon to give expression 
 to ideas which do not exist in their minds. The aver- 
 age school boy or girl has very dim ideas, or no ideas at 
 all, of such abstract subjects as hope, beauty, and perse- 
 verance, and it is no wonder that discouragement and 
 disgust follow any attempt on their part to write upon 
 them. When we remember that the greatest writers 
 have chosen for their themes the simplest subjects, we 
 can hardly make the mistake of giving too simple topics 
 for our children to write upon. 
 
 The following list of subjects will be found suggestive 
 of what may be given to older pupils of the grammar 
 grade : — 
 
 My home. 
 
 My grandfather's farm. 
 
 The town in which I live. 
 
 Our school. 
 
 Trees. 
 
 The coffee plant. 
 
 A picnic excursion. 
 
 A sleigh-ride. 
 
 A visit to the country. 
 
 A visit to the city. 
 
 A visit to Mammoth Cave. 
 
 How I spent my last vacation. 
 
 A journey to England. 
 
 A letter from Egypt. 
 
 Our baby. 
 
 George Washington. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 William E. Gladstone. 
 
 Joan of Arc. 
 
 The reminiscences of an old 
 tree. 
 
 Autobiography of a cent. 
 
 History of a loaf of bread. 
 
 The old horse's story. 
 
 What my dog would say if he 
 could talk. 
 
LANGUAGE. 
 
 93 
 
 Good manners. 
 
 "A rolling stone gathers no 
 moss." 
 
 " All is not gold that glitters." 
 Intemperance. 
 Cruelty to animals. 
 A hundred years ago. 
 
 A tramp's diary. 
 Six reasons why a boy should 
 not smoke. 
 How a shoe is made. 
 How a barrel is made. 
 A visit to a paper-mill. 
 A visit to a hospital. , 
 A visit to a prison. 
 
 During the latter part of the grammar-school course, 
 pupils should learn to separate their compositions into 
 paragraphs. They may receive some assistance in this 
 direction, by studying carefully the paragraphing of 
 prose in their histories and reading-books. 
 
 Outlines. — All original written work should be done 
 according to some definite plan. At first the plan or 
 outline may be provided by the teacher. By degrees, 
 however, the pupils should be led to make their own 
 outlines, which should be submitted to the teacher for 
 approval and correction. For the younger pupils the 
 outlines should be very simple, scarcely more in some 
 cases than two or three questions to be answered in en- 
 tire sentences ; as, for example, in describing an object 
 the teacher may say: What are the parts? What is the 
 shape of each part? What is the use of each part? 
 Or in writing upon any material, as wood or paper, 
 the pupils may answer the questions : Where obtained ? 
 How prepared? For what used? Varieties? 
 
 • In giving an object lesson, the teacher or one of the 
 pupils should write upon the blackboard the principal 
 facts as they are discovered. These statements will 
 constityte material out of which the composition may be 
 written. Frequently it is well for the pupils to analyze 
 a short sketch for the purpose of making an outline. 
 
94 
 
 lyiETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 The following outlines will suggest to teachers what 
 may be given to, and required from pupils as a guide 
 to their writing upon simple subjects : — 
 
 Any natural produc / ^' Q^^liti^s. 
 
 tion (as salt) . . ] ?* }^^' 
 
 L 3. Where, when, ana how obtained. 
 
 
 '1, 
 
 Qualities. ^^H 
 
 Any manufactured ^ 
 article (as glass) . 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Uses. ■ 
 Kinds. ^1 
 ra. Materials. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 How made <| b. AVhere procured. 
 
 \c. Order of manufactiu-e. 
 
 
 fl- 
 
 Size and covering. 
 
 ra. Name. 
 Parts -{ b. Description. 
 
 Any animal , . .- 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 Ic. Uses. 
 
 
 .3. 
 
 Habits. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Time of birth. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Circumstances of parents. 
 
 Biography . . . . - 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 Events of boyhood or gu'lhood. 
 Education. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Subsequent events in order of occurrence 
 
 
 .6. 
 
 Leading traits of character. 
 
 
 '1. 
 
 Name and general appearance. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Parts: 
 
 a. Root 
 
 b. Stem 
 
 
 
 Any plant . . . . - 
 
 
 c. Leaves J- Describe each. 
 
 d. Flowers 
 
 e. Fruit 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 
 .4. 
 
 Where found. 
 
LANGUAGE. 
 
 95 
 
 Places seen 
 
 A journey (real 
 or imaginary) 
 
 ' 1. Location. 
 
 2. Surroundings. 
 
 3. Parts or divisions. 
 
 4. What is contained or produced. 
 
 5. Objects of interest. 
 
 6. Reminiscences. 
 
 1. Time and place of starting. 
 
 2. Intended destination. 
 
 3. The route taken. 
 
 4. Mode of travelling. 
 
 5. Description of country. 
 
 6. Objects of interest on the way. 
 
 7. Description of place visited. 
 
 8. Manners and customs of people. 
 
 9. Incidents and anecdotes. 
 
 It is well sometimes to give in the outlines some topics 
 which will stimulate thought and investigation. Care 
 should be taken that the information furnished be not 
 too extended. The following outline ^ is an example of 
 what may be given to pupils in advanced and grammar 
 grades : — 
 
 WINDS. 
 
 1. Beneficial on land, as they — 
 
 a. Carry moisture. Where from? 
 h. Equalize the temperature. How ? 
 
 c. Purify the air. How ? Name places benefited. 
 
 d. Carry seed. What kinds ? How a benefit ? 
 
 e. Pump water and grind flour. How and where? 
 
 2. Beneficial on the sea, as they — 
 
 a. Aid in navigation. How? 
 
 I. Produce ocean currents. How ? Value of the currents ? 
 
 3. Injuries on land by — 
 
 a. Hurricanes. Illustrate. 
 
 h. Carrying seed. Illustrate. 
 
 c. Spreading diseases. Explain how. 
 
 1 From Intelligence, Chicago. 
 
96 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 4. Injuries on the sea by — 
 
 a. Cyclones, etc. 
 
 b. Hindering navigation. How ? 
 
 A few pointed, suggestive questions upon a subject 
 when it is assigned, often give direction and method to 
 the work of the pupils; as, — 
 
 RAILROADS. 
 
 4 
 
 1. When first built and where ? 
 
 2. How do they benefit western farmers and eastern manufac- 
 turers in our country ? || 
 
 3. How do they aid the poor ? '' 
 
 4. How do they promote the settlement of new countries ? 
 
 5. Do they affect the value of the land? 
 
 6. Illustrate their value in carrying news, merchandise, and 
 people. 
 
 Correction of False Syntax, — Mention has been made 
 of the desirability of correcting mistakes as they occur. 
 These mistakes, and others which are most frequently 
 made, should be made a special object of criticism and 
 correction even before the rules of correction are learned. 
 Read the incorrect sentences, or write them upon the 
 blackboard, and ask the pupils what correction should 
 be made. Erase the incorrect form and have the correct 
 form supplied, after which, let the pupils write the cor- 
 rected sentence in a blank-book. Sometimes the sen- 
 tence may be written with certain parts omitted, and the 
 pupils be asked to supply the missing parts. Thus the 
 
 teacher may write, "One of the boys here." The 
 
 pupils are to be led to say whether is or are is to 
 be used in the sentence, and then they should write the 
 sentence in full as before. Sometimes correct and in- 
 correct sentences may be placed upon the board and 
 
LANGUAGE. " 97 
 
 the pupils asked to write correctly all the sentences 
 they see. This plan is especially good for examination, 
 when pupils will not be helped by guessing, as they are 
 when something in every sentence is to be corrected. 
 Let the most common errors receive the most attention, 
 and review often enough to have the corrections fixed 
 in the mind. 
 
 Do not let the incorrect forms remain upon the board, 
 for fear they will be imitated by children in their writ- 
 ing. Only the correct forms should be written in the 
 blank-book by the pupils, or, if incorrect forms are writ- 
 ten, they should be erased or marked with a cross. 
 
 Correction of Written Work. — The value of language 
 lessons, so far as accuracy is concerned, depends largely 
 upon the extent and manner of correction. If the in- 
 correct language of pupils is left uncorrected, the errors 
 are impressed upon their minds, and the use of incorrect 
 forms of speech becomes a habit with them. It is 
 advisable, therefore, to allow no language work to be 
 done without correction. 
 
 It is well to have each pupil, beyond the first year, 
 provided with a language-exercise book. For the 
 younger pupils, the book may be made by binding 
 together from twelve to twenty leaves of primary ruled 
 paper. Upon the left-hand page the language exercise 
 can be written ; and upon the right-hand page the same 
 exercise, after it is corrected, can be rewritten in a 
 correct form. 
 
 In dictation and other exercises in which all the 
 pupils are supposed to have the same forms of expres- 
 sion, the proper correction may be made by the pupils 
 themselves as the exercise is repeated by the teacher or 
 
yo METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 placed upon the blackboard. In other exercises, such 
 as abstracts, letters, etc., in which the language of each 
 pupil is different from that of every other one, the cor- 
 rection of errors should be made by the direct assistance 
 of the teacher. Some corrections may be made at the 
 time of writing, the teacher passing among the pupils 
 and pointing out their errors; but most of the errors 
 will have to be corrected after the papers are collected. 
 Such corrections should be so made as to have the 
 pupils ascertain the correct form and rewrite the given 
 exercise entire. If a slate is used, the sentence contain- 
 ing the error should be erased and rewritten correctly. 
 If books are used, such as have been suggested, the 
 errors may be corrected and the exercise be rewritten 
 on the opposite page. 
 
 But it will not be well to have all the corrections 
 made by the teacher. In the first place, such work, if 
 done thoroughly, would take up much of the teacher's 
 time, both in and out of school ; and secondly, cor- 
 rections made by the teacher are not so useful as 
 those which enable each pupil to see the mistakes of 
 all the rest and know how they are to be avoided. 
 This, of course, is most difficult with the younger 
 pupils, and yet it may be done to some extent even with 
 them. In correcting mistakes, as in teaching, do not 
 attempt too much at a time. The time of an entire 
 recitation may profitably be taken to correct a single 
 exercise of a few sentences. When a correction is pre- 
 sented to a class, drill upon it as soon as convenient, 
 so that the mistake may not be made again, or, if it 
 is made, that it may be corrected by the pupils. 
 
 One way of correcting is as follows: Let as many 
 
LANGUAGE. 99 
 
 pupils write their exercises upon the blackboard as can 
 be accommodated there, and call the attention of the 
 entire class to the corrections you make in ea-ch, fre- 
 quently appealing to the class for assistance. One pupil 
 may have punctuated the sentences improperly ; another 
 may have failed in the use of capital letters ; the sen- 
 tences of another may be poorly consi^-ucted. 
 
 When some of the corrections have been made, ask 
 the pupils to re-examine their papers and mark the 
 errors they see. Then after exchanging papers they 
 may correct the mistakes of one another. After all this 
 is done, the teacher, by glancing over the papers, can 
 tell whether they may be copied into the language 
 books as they are, or whether another recitation will 
 be necessary to correct the papers. By this method 
 the teacher's work will be materially lightened, and 
 the pupils will acquire the power of correcting their 
 own and one another's errors. 
 
 With older pupils a key for the correction of errors 
 may be used. The following key has been tried with 
 success in some schools : — 
 
 W. — Careless writing. 
 S. — Error in spelling. 
 P. — Error in punctuation. 
 C. — Error in capital letter. 
 Wd. — Error in use of word. 
 G. — Error of grammar. 
 V. — Vague; meaning uncertain. 
 F. — Error in figure. 
 B. — Borrowed. 
 Par. — Place of beginning paragraph. 
 [ ] — Passages within brackets to be recast. 
 ? — To inquire about. 
 X — Some fault too obvious to require particularizing. 
 
100 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Underline the error, and place the letter indicating 
 correction in the margin. 
 
 A simpler form of marking would be to draw an ob- 
 lique line through an error of spelling, punctuation, or 
 use of capital letter ; to underline a word wrongly used, 
 and, if the sentence should need reconstructing, to en- 
 close it in a paren4:hesis. Anything more than this, to 
 be indicated by writing. 
 
 One good method of correcting the compositions of 
 older pupils is to have two or three pupils write their 
 compositions, or a part of them, on the board each morn- 
 ing. During the day the other members of the school 
 may correct what is written, using the signs of a given 
 key. Before the session closes, the teacher, with colored 
 crayon, may go over the work, correcting each error that 
 has been made. The attention of the school should be 
 called to these corrections, and the pupils be asked to 
 copy the signs of correction and rewrite their compo- 
 sitions. The same course may be pursued each day with 
 other compositions. In this way each pupil learns to 
 avoid errors which he and others have made. The pu- 
 pils also by degrees acquire the ability to correct one 
 another's errors; so that after a time the papers may 
 be distributed among members of the class or school, 
 for correction, subject to final correction by the teacher. 
 The importance of having the pupils rewrite their com- 
 positions after correction should not be forgotten. 
 
I 
 
 GHAMMAK. 101 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 During the first seven years, in school the pupil has 
 been learning to express his thoughts with accuracy and 
 facility. In this work he has acquired an art which will 
 be of the greatest practical value to him, and he has 
 also laid the foundation for the study of principles. 
 He may now begin the study of grammar, which treats 
 of the relations and forms of words in sentences. He 
 may also study the elements of logic and rhetoric, 
 which are closely related to grammar, — logic treating 
 of the thought expressed, and rhetoric treating of the 
 manner in which the thoughts are expressed. Analysis 
 of sentences and the choice of words and phrases do 
 not really belong to grammar, which has reference 
 mainly to the construction of sentences. It is impor- 
 tant that the teacher should keep in mind these dis- 
 tinctions, though the three subjects may be carried on 
 together. 
 
 Outline of Study. — During the last two years of 
 the grammar-school course — if the course is nine years 
 — the study of grammar and analysis may be pursued; 
 but only the simpler facts should be learned in the 
 grammar school, the more abstruse and difficult parts 
 of the subject being left for the high-school course. A 
 book may be used, but it should not be rigidly adhered 
 to either in the order of topics or amount taken. Some 
 things will have to be supplied by the teacher, and in 
 the case of many books much will have to be left out. 
 
 The following outline will indicate both the order and 
 amount of work which may be taken in two years : — 
 
 /^^ OF THE^^^ 
 
102 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 1. Sentence: — 
 
 Subject, Predicate \ Copula. 
 
 ( Attribute. 
 
 2. Parts of speech : — 
 
 (1) Xoun. 
 
 (2) Pronoun. 
 
 (3) Adjective. 
 
 (4) Verb. 
 
 (5) Adverb. 
 
 (6) Preposition. 
 
 (7) Conjunction. 
 
 (8) Interjection. 
 
 3. Sentences: — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 Declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory. 
 
 (2) Forms: 
 
 Simple, complex, compound. 
 
 4. Analysis : — 
 
 (1) Principal elements : 
 
 ^ If y entire, simple. 
 Predicate > 
 
 (2) Subordinate elements : 
 
 (a) Uses and kinds : 
 
 Objective, adjective, adverbial. 
 
 (b) Form: 
 
 Word, phrase, clause. 
 
 5. Nouns : — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 Common, proper. 
 
 Collective, abstract. 
 
 Simple, derivative, compound. 
 
 (2) Properties: 
 
 Numbers, genders, cases. 
 
 6. Pronouns: — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 Personal, interrogative, relative, adjective. 
 
 (2) Properties: 
 
 Persons, numbers, genders, cases. 
 
 4 
 
GEAMMAE. 103 
 
 7. Adjective: — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 Descriptive, pronominal, numerals, articles. 
 
 (2) Variations of form : 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 8. Verbs : — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 Regular, irregular. 
 Transitive, intransitive. 
 
 (2) Forms: 
 
 Simple, derivative, mode inflections, voices, tense in- 
 flections, persons, numbers (conjugation). 
 
 9. Adverbs : — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 (a) Simple (in relation) : 
 
 Manner, place, time, degree, cause, etc. 
 
 (b) Conjunctive. 
 
 (2) Properties: 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 10. Prepositions. 
 
 11. Conjunctions : — 
 
 (1) Kinds: 
 
 Co-ordinate, subordinate. 
 
 (2) Uses. 
 
 12. Interjections. 
 
 I>efiiiitions. — The object of study in grammar is 
 the sentence, precisely as the mineral is the object of 
 study in mineralogy or the plant in botany. Beginning 
 with the sentence, therefore, or with several sentences, 
 we first lead the pupils to know and define a sentence 
 and its related parts. Two points are to be observed 
 in teaching definitions : first, to see that they are con- 
 structed by the pupils upon facts which they themselves 
 have observed; secondly, to secure accuracy of state- 
 ment. When the definitions have been properly taught, 
 and when the statements are made by the pupils in 
 
104 
 
 IVIETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 accordance with the facts observed, it may be well to 
 compare those statements with others which are found 
 in the text-book, and which may sometimes be substi- 
 tuted for their own. But even the text-books are not 
 always correct, as when it is stated that " the subject of 
 a proposition is that of which something is said " and 
 that " a noun is a name." 
 
 To illustrate how definitions may be made, the fol- 
 lowing examples are given : — 
 
 The pupil is first asked to express a thought about 
 the book, the crayon, and the schoolhouse. These and 
 other expressions are placed upon the blackboard, and 
 the name "sentence" is given to each expression. The 
 pupils soon see and state that " a combination of words 
 expressing a thought is a sentence." By observing the 
 sentences it becomes apparent that there are two dis- 
 tinct parts in every sentence, one part expressing that 
 of which something is said, and the other part telling 
 what is said of that expressed by the first part. The 
 definitions of subject and predicate are accordingly 
 made from these facts. 
 
 Etymology. — The parts of speech and their proper- 
 ties are also learned by observation. Sentences as be- 
 fore are written upon the blackboard, and the attention 
 of the pupils is directed to those words which name 
 objects of thought, or things of which we may think. 
 A noun, then, is seen to be a word which names an 
 object of thought. By this definition which they have 
 made the pupils should point out the nouns in many 
 written and printed sentences until the nouns of any 
 sentence which they understand are quickly recognized. 
 
 From what has been said it will be seen what use 
 
I 
 
 GKAMJVIAR. 105 
 
 should be made of the book. It may be used by the 
 pupils after the topics have been taught, chiefly for 
 guidance in accuracy of statement and in furnishing 
 suitable sentences for illustration and study. 
 
 Much practice will be found necessary before the 
 parts of speech can be readily distinguished and named. 
 It is well for the pupil also to give definitions as he 
 names the parts of speech. 
 
 When the parts of speech can be readily distinguished, 
 they may be taken up separately, beginning with the 
 noun. As before, present to the pupils sentences con- 
 taining nouns having various uses and properties. As 
 these uses and properties are distinguished, they should 
 be classified, named, and defined. The following exam- 
 ple will illustrate the method of teaching the kind and 
 properties of all parts of speech. Place several sen- 
 tences upon the blackboard ; as, — 
 
 The boy lost his knife in Boston. 
 John bought an apple for his sister. 
 The man's coat was torn. 
 William's sister Kate went to the city. 
 The girls went to the concert. 
 There are seven days in a week. 
 The dog is named Donald. 
 
 First ask the pupils to select those nouns which name 
 an individual object. The nouns Boston^ Jolin^ Wil- 
 Hani's^ Kate, and Donald would be selected, to which 
 the name proper would be given by the teacher. Proper 
 nouns should then be selected from the reading-books 
 and defined. The other nouns will be seen to be, not 
 the names of individual objects, but the names of classes 
 of objects. These are named and defined as before. 
 
106 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Further classification of the kinds of common nouns, as 
 collective, abstract, and verbal, may be made in the 
 same way, and each kind be defined. 
 
 Numbers and genders are easily taught. The pupils* 
 knowledge of language will enable them to distinguish 
 and define these terms at once. Cases are also easily 
 recognized and defined when it is known that there are 
 only two case-forms of nouns, — one used to denote 
 possession, and the other all other relations. The sub- 
 jective and objective relation of nouns should be indi- 
 cated in parsing, and in the case of pronouns the names 
 of the cases should be given. Persons of pronouns 
 should be taught by placing before the pupils many 
 sentences in which different forms are used to indicate 
 whether they denote the speaker, the person spoken to, 
 or the person or thing spoken of. The pupils will see 
 that only some pronouns have person, and will call 
 these personal pronouns. The cases of pronouns should 
 be taught in a similar manner, and when the various 
 forms indicating the different relations are easily distin- 
 guished and named the definition should be given. The 
 inflection will follow, and should be made, as far as pos- 
 sible, by the pupil alone. 
 
 The other parts of speech and their properties should 
 be taught in the same way. First present many exam- 
 ples of the fact which it is desired to teach, and when 
 the fact is well understood, lead the pupils to apply the 
 knowledge gained in many different sentences. 
 
 Syntax. — The right construction of sentences is the 
 object of the study of grammar, and its rules should be 
 considered as soon as possible after the study of gram- 
 mar is begun. Greater interest in the study will be 
 
GRAMMAR. 107 
 
 awakened when its practical bearing is- seen, and a 
 greater variet}^ and amount of practice in correcting 
 false syntax will be had by learning the rules of syntax 
 early in the course. As soon, therefore, as the proper- 
 ties of the parts of speech are known, their rules of con- 
 struction should be learned. The rules are taught in 
 the same way as are definitions. Put upon the black- 
 board many sentences like the following : — 
 
 John struck his ball. 
 I saw him in the city. 
 He taught me to read. 
 Etc., etc. 
 
 By observing these sentences the pupils will be led 
 to see the changed forms of the nouns and pronouns in 
 different relations, and will also discover that in certain 
 relations the same form is used. From the facts thus 
 learned the rules will be made. 
 
 Parsing-. — Parsing consists in giving the parts of 
 speech, their kinds, properties, uses, and the rules for 
 their construction. The use of parsing is to apply in a 
 convenient form the facts and principles which have 
 been learned. The form of parsing should be simple, 
 and at first definitions and inflections should be given 
 mainly for the purpose of fixing them in memory. The 
 following form for parsing a pronoun may be used by 
 beginners : — 
 
 In the sentence "He came to see me," "me" is a 
 pronoun because it is a word used instead of a noun. 
 (Declined : nom. I, etc.) It is a personal pronoun be- 
 cause it has person ; first person, because it denotes the 
 speaker; singular number, because it stands for one 
 object ; objective case, object of " to see," according to 
 
108 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 the rule, — A pronoun used as the object of a tran- 
 sitive verb or its participles must be in the objective 
 case. 
 
 After some practice of this kind is had, a shorter 
 form may be used, as : " me " is a personal pronoun, 
 first person, singular number, objective case. Rule : A 
 noun or pronoun, etc. 
 
 The order for parsing the various parts of speech in 
 the shorter form may be as follows : — 
 
 1. Noun: — 
 
 (1) kind, 
 
 (2) number, 
 
 (3) gender, 
 
 (4) case, 
 
 (5) rule of construction. 
 
 2. Pronoun: — 
 
 (1) kind, 
 
 (2) person, 
 
 (3) number, 
 
 (4) gender, 
 
 (5) case, 
 
 (6) rule of construction. 
 
 3. Adjective: — 
 
 (1) kind, 
 
 (2) (number), 
 
 (3) degree of comparison, 
 
 (4) relation. 
 
 4. Verb: — 
 
 (1) kind, 
 
 (2) (voice), 
 
 (3) mode, 
 
 (4) tense, 
 
 (5) agreement, 
 
 (6) rule. 
 
 5. Adverb: — 
 
 (1) kind, 
 
 (2) (deg. of comparison), 
 
 (3) relation. 
 
 6. Preposition : — 
 
 use. 
 
 7. Conjunction: — 
 
 (1) kind, 
 
 (2) use. 
 
 Analysis. — While the study of the parts of speech 
 is progressing, there should be taught the various kinds 
 and forms of sentences and analysis as indicated in the 
 outline. The phraseology used in the outline may not 
 be the same as that which is used in the text-book ; but 
 
GRAMMAR. 109 
 
 whatever form is used,* there should be kept constantly 
 in mind the purpose of gaining a clear perception of the 
 thought of the author, and a knowledge of the proper 
 form and order of elements. Let the progress in analy- 
 sis be very gradual, allowing each new fact learned to 
 be reviewed in many sentences. At first the sentences 
 studied should be of the simplest kind, and when the 
 elements of such sentences are learned, the same kind 
 and form of elements may be found in other and more 
 complex sentences. The following form of analysis will 
 illustrate the use of terms given in the outline : — 
 
 The tidings of the death of his son filed the old man's heart with 
 anguish. 
 
 A simple, declarative sentence. 
 
 The entire subject is " The tidings of the death of his son.''* 
 
 The simple subject is " tidings.''' 
 
 The entire predicate is ^'filled the old man's heart with anguish." 
 
 ^he simple predicate is ^^ filed.'' 
 
 " Of the death of his son " is an adjective phrase and modifies 
 « tidings." 
 
 " Of his son " is an adjective phrase and modifies " death." 
 
 *' The old man's heart" is an objective phrase, and modifies 
 "filed." 
 
 " With anguish " is an adverbial phrase, and modifies "filed." 
 
 The form and relation of separate words are given in 
 the parsing which follows the analysis. 
 
 Synthesis. — Composition-writing of all kinds, as 
 outlined in another place, should be carried on through- 
 out the entire course. In addition to this there may be 
 practice in combining, contracting and expanding the 
 elements of a sentence. Such work as the following 
 will be found profitable : — 
 
110 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Writing sentences having any desired kind and form 
 of element ; expanding words into phrases ; expanding 
 words and phrases into clauses; contracting clauses 
 into phrases ; contracting phrases into words ; combin- 
 ing two or more simple sentences into a compound or a 
 complex sentence.. 
 
 Correction of False Syntax. — Rules of syntax are 
 used not only in forming sentences correctly, but also 
 in testing the construction of sentences already formed. 
 For reasons already given, it is desirable that the prac- 
 tical benefits of the study of grammar should be derived 
 as early as possible. As soon as a rule of syntax is 
 learned, it should be used as a guide in correcting un- 
 grammatical sentences. Many sentences containing 
 violations of a rule just learned, and of rules previously 
 learned, should be placed before the pupils for correc- 
 tion and for the reasons of correction. 
 
 To test the knowledge of pupils, and at the same time 
 to make them thoughtful in applying rules, both correct 
 and incorrect sentences may be placed upon the black- 
 board for them to write out correctly upon paper and 
 to give reasons of correction. This will be found to be 
 much better than to place before the pupils sentences 
 having only incorrect forms which can frequently be 
 corrected "by guess." The following exercise is a good 
 test for pupils who have studied the construction of 
 nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 
 
 Write correctly the following sentences, and give 
 reason for every correction made : — 
 
 He called to see John and me but neither of us were at home. 
 
 Whom do you think I saw in New York ? 
 
 Who was it that touched the bell ? Was it me or James ? 
 
 
GRAMMAR. Ill 
 
 Ten men fell into the water and not one of them were drowned. 
 
 Eveiy one of the witnesses testifies to the same thing. 
 
 Whom do you take me to be ? 
 
 Do you use Webster or Worcesters dictionary ? 
 
 W^hom did you come with ? 
 
 He told John and 1 to come when we was ready. 
 
 » 
 
112 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Akithmetic may be defined as a knowledge of num- 
 bers. ' The objects of its study are, first, to acquire skill 
 in those computations which are of use in the affairs of 
 life ; and secondly, to train the faculties of the mind. 
 To gain these ends it is obvious that there should be a 
 careful selection of topics to be taught, and that the 
 topics should be presented in such a way as to secure 
 a proper kind and amount of mental training. 
 
 The topics to be presented, and the order in which 
 they should be presented, will be seen in the course of 
 studies. It will be observed that much that is found in 
 many text-books is omitted in the prescribed course. 
 The subjects are limited in order to give needed time 
 to teach and practise upon the more practical parts of 
 arithmetic. Advanced work in mensuration and com- 
 plicated business problems are also dropped from the 
 course, for the reason that grammar-school pupils are 
 not mature enough to grasp these subjects which would 
 better be taken up in the high school. 
 
 Nearly all the faculties of the mind are developed by 
 the study of arithmetic, and we, should see that they are 
 developed in an orderly way. 'While it is doubtless 
 true that the power of reasoning is greatly strengthened 
 by this studyy we must be careful not to force it by a too 
 early application to difficult problems. The teacher 
 should keep constantly in mind the necessity of pro- 
 ceeding from the concrete to the abstract, and from the 
 simple to the complex. In computations, first accuracy, 
 and secondly rapidity should be secured. Do nothing 
 
ARITHMETIC. 113 
 
 for the pupils which they can do for them^lves, and 
 always encourage originality, both of thought and of 
 expression. 
 
 When the idea is awakened or the course of reason- 
 ing made plain, there should be a repetition of the 
 - mental act, until the idea or the reason is fixed in the 
 mind. Frequent reviews and drill exercises are there- 
 fore necessary, and should be given in such variety of 
 form as will test the pupils' knowledge of the subject 
 and enable them to recognize quickly a difference as 
 well as a resemblance of conditions. 
 
 First Steps. — Ideas of number are first gained by 
 means of visible objects. Blocks, splints, shoe-pegs, etc., 
 should be placed in the hands of children as soon as 
 they enter school, and with these objects the various 
 combinations of numbers should be made, beginning 
 with two, and proceeding by slow degrees, until, with- 
 out the aid of objects, the combinations are known at 
 sight. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divis- 
 ion should be taught together because it is found that 
 operations by synthesis assist the pupils in analysis, and 
 that the combination and separation by equal parts lead 
 directly to shortened forms of expression. For exam- 
 ple, when the pupils see that two put with two makes 
 four, they can learn at the same time that four less two 
 makes two, that two twos are four, and that four divided 
 by two is two. 
 
 As soon as possible, the pupils should be led to apply 
 the knowledge of numbers they have acquired. When 
 an operation is performed with the blocks, stories based 
 upon the given combination may be made. In these 
 stories encourage as far as possible originality of expres- 
 
114 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 sion. Gradually the pupils may be led to make up tlie 
 stories without the objects, and at last combinations 
 may be expressed without reference to objects. Early 
 in the course, also, practice should be given in solving 
 problems involving the common weights and measures. 
 First with the objects themselves, and afterwards with- 
 out them, problems of a practical nature may be solved 
 while the pupils are yet learning the simple combi- 
 nations. 
 
 As soon as the pupils acquire a thorough knowledge 
 of the combinations with objects, drill upon abstract 
 numbers may be begun. Generally it is best to keep 
 the practice upon abstract numbers a little behind the 
 practice with objects. For example, while the num- 
 ber eight is being taught with objects, practice in 
 abstract numbers to four may be given. To show how 
 objects may be used in teaching numbers, and how the 
 applications and abstract drill work may be done, the 
 following outline of statements and questions is given. 
 The exercise is intended for a class of first-year pupils 
 who have learned the combinations to seven. They are 
 supposed to be standing around a table, with the blocks 
 before them. The teacher sits at one end of the table, 
 and directs and questions as follows : — 
 
 Put one block with the seven blocks. Do you know how many 
 you have now? You have eight blocks. Put one block on the 
 table. Put seven more vdth it. One block and seven blocks are 
 how many blocks ? One boy and seven boys are how many boys ? 
 Tell me a story about one and seven. Put six blocks on the table. 
 Put two more with them. How many have you ? Put the eight 
 blocks together. Put two of them behind you. How many are left 
 on the table ? Eight blocks less two blocks are how many ? Tell 
 a story about eight less two. Put eight blocks on the table. Put 
 
 4 
 
ARITHMETIC. 115 
 
 them into groups of two. How many twos in eight ? Put them 
 into groups of four. How many fours in eight ? If one apple costs 
 two cents, what will four apples cost ? If one orange costs four 
 cents, what will two oranges cost? If you have eight cents, how 
 many oranges can you buy at a cent apiece ? How many at two 
 cents apiece ? If you have six cents, how many pencils can you buy 
 at two cents apiece ? Go to the store with six cents and buy pears 
 at three cents apiece. Tell me a story about two threes. About 
 three twos. About two fours. About four twos. Here are eight 
 mittens; how many pairs? How many horns have three cows? 
 How many ears have four boys ? Tell me a story about pairs of 
 shoes. About pairs of bracelets. 
 
 How many twos in four? in six? in eight? Look and see how 
 many gills in a quart. How many? How many gills in a pint? 
 How many pints in a quart ? in two quarts ? If one pint of milk 
 costs two cents, what will one quart cost ? What will two quarts 
 cost ? If one gill costs one cent, what will one quart cost ? 
 
 Divide four blocks into groups of two. What is one-half of four 
 blocks ? of six blocks ? of eight blocks ? Divide eight blocks into 
 groups of two. What is one-fourth of eight blocks ? One-eighth of 
 eight blocks ? 
 
 Now without your blocks, quickly: One and one? Two and 
 one? Two less one? Two and what make three? Three less 
 one? Three less two ? Two ones and what make three? Three 
 and one? One and three? Four less three ? Four twos are how 
 many ? How many twos in four ? How many ones in four ? How 
 many threes in four ? One-half of four ? One-fourth of four ? 
 
 It should be understood that it will take several reci- 
 tations to go over the ground covered by the above 
 exercise, provided that time is given for the stories and 
 for teaching the measures and fractions. It will also 
 be understood that the recitation will not always take 
 this precise form or that the combinations, stories, and 
 illustrations will be limited to what is given above. 
 See that every child is attending to the work in hand, 
 whether it is in teaching, telling stories, or drilling, and 
 
116 
 
 JSIETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 when members of the class are inattentive or tired, 
 change the exercise or stop the recitation. 
 
 Objects should not be used for teaching numbers 
 beyond 20 in the primary course. Knowing the com- 
 binations to 20, all others to 100 are easily learned. In 
 addition and subtraction beyond 20, the pupils are made 
 to see that little work is needed. They have only to 
 apply the knowledge they already have. For example, 
 in the problems 28 + 6 and 34 — 8, they instantly recog- 
 nize the results of 8 + 6 and 14 — 8, and have only to 
 think of the tens in getting the answer. At first the 
 teacher leads them to see this ; afterwards they do it of 
 their own accord, until adding and subtracting of all 
 numbers less than 10 are done at sight. 
 
 In multiplication and division, the pupils should be 
 led to make their own tables from what they know of 
 addition and subtraction. Adding and subtracting by 
 twos, threes, etc., will enable them easily to construct 
 their own tables, and after they have constructed them, 
 they should learn them so well as to be able to multiply 
 and divide numbers at sight. 
 
 The plan as laid down for the primary grades in- 
 cludes all combinations to 144, and for the first division 
 of ungraded schools, all combinations to 100. It is not 
 intended in this plan to add or subtract numbers greater 
 than 10 or to use a multiplier or divisor greater than 
 12. Yet if the pupils become very proficient in 
 this work, it may be well to have them practise in 
 other combinations, such as 28 + 64 ; 83 — 25 ; 18 X 4 ; 
 64 -^ 16. To add and subtract large numbers, lead the 
 pupils to add or subtract first the tens, and afterwards 
 the units: thus in the problem 28 + 64, first add 60, then 
 
ARITHMETIC. 117 
 
 4. The pupil would say 28, 88, 92. In subtracting 25 
 from 83, he would say 83, 63, 58. After considerable 
 practice of this kind the computations can be made at 
 sight. 
 
 Primary Drill. — To secure accur^acy and rapidity of 
 work, it will be found necessary, especially in the third 
 year, to spend much time in drill. It is not enough to 
 recite the tables. Pupils may do this, and still not be 
 able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide at sight. 
 Practice upon the combinations may be had in prepar- 
 ing a given lesson, and in the recitation. 
 
 In giving work for the pupils " to study " at their 
 seats, the teacher may give a lesson in a book, or put 
 the problems on the blackboard. Time may be saved 
 by putting the problems on pieces of cardboard. These 
 slips may be used by different pupils and classes. The 
 following exercises for study will suggest what may be 
 placed upon the board or cards : — 
 
 
 
 42 + 6 = 1 
 
 38-6 = ? 
 
 
 
 38 + 9 = ? 
 
 40-9=? 
 
 
 
 41 + ? =48 
 
 35-? = 29 
 
 
 
 ? +26 = 34 
 
 ?-6 = 32 
 
 
 
 8x3=? 
 
 42-7 = ? 
 
 
 
 9x? = 36 
 
 36h-? = 9 
 
 Add 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 18 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 -9 X8 
 
 _ _ ^^ 
 
 The same exercises may be used for drill in recita- 
 tion. In addition to these the following exercises are 
 suggested. 
 
 Add by columns, the teacher or pupil pointing, begin- 
 ning with very short columns and easy numbers, thus : — 
 
118 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 The pupil will say one, three, six ; two, six, eleven ; 
 three, nine, eleven ; and so on. Increase the length of 
 columns gradually, until the pupils can add quickly 
 twenty or more numbers expressed by a single figure 
 without mistake. 
 
 Another method of drill is to place four columns on 
 the board, thus : — 
 
 + 6 
 
 x4 
 
 -5 
 
 -4-3 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 As the teacher points to each number, let the pupil 
 add, subtract, multiply, or divide, as indicated above the 
 columns. By changing the figures above the columns, 
 a great amount of work may be dictated in a little time. 
 The pupils may give the result with or without giving 
 the formula. 
 
 Still another method of drill is to place figures near 
 the circumference of a circle, and add until a certain 
 number is reached ; or subtract, beginning with a cer- 
 tain number. 
 
 Add by 2's, by 3's, etc., beginning with 2, with 3, etc. 
 Subtract by 2's, by 3's, etc., beginning with 40, with 50, 
 etc. 
 
 ™ 
 
ARITHMETIC. 119 
 
 Place in the centre of the circle described above 
 a figure or figures. Point to any figure in the 
 circumference, and require the pupil to multiply 
 or divide. By occasionally changing the figures in 
 the circle, a large number of problems may be given. 
 Keep the attention of ever}^ pupil to the recitation 
 of every other pupil, and require answers only as you 
 point. 
 
 Practical Problems. — Mention has been made of 
 the advisability of making stories in connection with the 
 learning of combinations. When the combinations are 
 known, they should be applied as soon as possible to 
 practical problems. These problems should contain the 
 common weights and measures, and should be of such a 
 nature as to induce pupils to think. The following 
 problems will suggest what may be given daily during 
 the latter part of the third year in school. Some of the 
 problems will have to be carefully taught with objects 
 before they can be understood by the pupils. Encour- 
 age the pupils to give one another original problems of 
 a similar kind. 
 
 What will three j)iuts of milk cost at eight cents a quart ? 
 
 How many cupfuls of milk in a quart, if each cup holds half a 
 gill? 
 
 A piece of tape six inches long costs three cents. What will a 
 yard cost at the same rate ? 
 
 How many apples, at the rate of two for a cent, can I buy for 
 twenty cents ? 
 
 What will six apples cost, at the rate of two for three cents? 
 what at the rate of three for two cents ? 
 
 I buy 12 two-cent stamps at the post-ofRce, and give a half- 
 dollar. What change will be given me ? 
 
 Eighteen eggs are worth what at twenty cents a dozen ? 
 
120 
 
 IVIETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 What will one pound and four ounces of meat cost at twelve 
 cents a pound ? 
 
 If you should walk six rods north, and then turn and walk eighi 
 rods south, how many rods would you be from the place where yoi 
 first started ? how many yards ? how many feet ? 
 
 If a peck of potatoes will last a family one week, how many 
 weeks will two bushels last them ? 
 
 At one dollar a yard, what will be the cost of a piece of carpet- 
 ing twenty-four feet long ? MM 
 
 Notation and Numeration. — The writing and read- 
 ing of numbers should be begun in the fourth year, 
 but it is not well to give numbers of more than seven 
 or eiglit places at this time. Sticks, and bundles of 
 tens and hundreds should be used to teach notation. 
 The sticks may be counted, and the number expressed 
 by figures on the blackboard. Eighteen sticks should 
 be counted as one ten and eight, the ten being bound 
 into a bundle. When two more sticks are placed with 
 them, they will make two bundles of ten sticks each, and 
 should be called two tens, or twenty. When ten bun- 
 dles of ten sticks each are counted, they should all be 
 bound together into one bundle and called one hundred. 
 As the numbers are thus taught, the expression should 
 be placed upon the board in figures and read. It may 
 not be necessary to teach notation in this way beyond 
 thousands. When this is done, the pupil will see that 
 ten of one denomination will make one of the next 
 higher, and can write and read numbers readily to 
 millions. In the fifth year billions, trillions, and quad- 
 rillions should be taught. 
 
 Numbers of two places of decimals should be taught 
 and used in the fourth year. Pupils should learn to 
 write decimals at first through a knowledge of writing 
 
ARITHMETIC. 121 
 
 dollars and cents. When they can write and read num- 
 bers in dollars and cents readily, lead them to see that, 
 as there are one hundred cents in a dollar, one cent is 
 one-hundredth part of a dollar, and that one-hundredth 
 is expressed precisely as one cent is when written with 
 a decimal point. Six dollars- and one cent is expressed 
 thus, $6.01, and may be read six dollars and one cent, 
 or six and one-hundredth dollars. From this it may 
 be readily seen that any number of cents represents so 
 many hundredths, and may be read as hundredths. 
 The first figure at the right of the decimal point repre- 
 sents the number of dimes, and may be called tenths of 
 a dollar. This may be taught in the same way as hun- 
 dredths is taught. Numbers of three places of decimals 
 can be taught in the fifth year. As one thousand mills 
 make a dollar, one mill is one-thousandth of a dollar ; 
 and therefore one mill, when expressed by figures, may 
 be read one-thousandth. 
 
 Fundamental Processes. — At the beginning of the 
 fourth year in graded schools, and of the second period 
 in ungraded schools, the pupils are supposed to have a 
 thorough knowledge of the four fundamental processes 
 to 144 or to 100. They can, without hesitation, add 
 and subtract twelve and all numbers below twelve. 
 They can with equal facility multiply and divide, when 
 the multiplier and divisor do not exceed twelve. They 
 l^ve learned to express in figures the numbers to 144, 
 and can count to one thousand. They have learned to 
 use and to write the fractions |, J, J, J, J, in connection 
 with the combinations, and have had much practice in 
 the application of their knowledge of numbers to prac- 
 tical problems. 
 
122 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 All of this work should be constantly reviewed in 
 the fourth year, while other things are being taught. 
 As soon as pupils have acquired a knowledge of units 
 and tens in writing numbers, addition of numbers of 
 two figures should be begun. This should be taught 
 with sticks, beginning with the addition of two num- 
 bers that will not require "carrying." We may, for 
 example, wish to add 22 and 21. 
 
 22 sticks and 21 sticks are placed in position, properly 
 separated into tens and units. Putting the one unit 
 with two units, we have three units. Putting the two 
 bundles of tens with the other two tens, we have four 
 tens. Answer, four tens and three units, or forty-three. 
 The figures should be written out in proper order, and 
 each result indicated as we go on. Several problems 
 equally easy should be wrought in the same way. 
 
 When the pupils have had sufficient practice of this 
 kind, take an easy problem in which the sum of the 
 units is more than nine. Thus, in the problem 24 + 38, 
 take the sticks as before, and put the 4 sticks with the 
 8 sticks, making 12 sticks equal to 1 ten and 2 units. 
 Put together the 10 sticks in one bundle, and add the 
 tens thus, 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 tens. Answer, 6 tens and 2 
 units, or 62. 
 
 Subtraction can be taught by taking from a given 
 number of sticks a part. Thus, to teach 34 — 22, we 
 would take 2 sticks from the 4 sticks and 2 tens from 
 the 3 tens, leaving 1 ten and 2 units, or 12. 
 
 To subtract 17 from 35, we should put before the 
 pupils 35 sticks, consisting of 3 bundles of tens and 5 
 units. Asking them to first take 7 units from the 6 
 units, they will see at once that they will have to untie 
 
ARITHMETIC. 123 
 
 one of the bundles and put the 10 sticks with the 5 
 sticks, making 15 sticks. Now the}^ take 7 sticks from 
 15 sticks, and have remaining 8 sticks. 1 ten from 2 
 tens leaves 1 ten. Answer, 1 ten and 8 units, or 18. 
 
 Multiplication and division should also be taught 
 with objects, each operation being expressed in figures. 
 It will not be necessary to carry the objective teaching 
 beyond hundreds, but it will be found useful to have 
 considerable practice with smaller numbers before num- 
 bers of the higher denominations are taken. No num- 
 ber higher than ten thousand should be used during 
 the fourth year, so as to allow time for a sufficient 
 amount of drill and for work upon practical problems. 
 
 Fractions. — According to the prescribed course, 
 fractions are taught during the sixth year in the graded 
 school, or the latter part of the second period in the 
 ungraded school. Before this, simple fractions have 
 been taught objectively, and used to some extent in the 
 various operations. Circles of pasteboard will be found 
 to be the most convenient means of teaching fractions. 
 The idea of a fraction should be first taught by present- 
 ing the circles cut into halves, fourths, eighths, thirds, 
 and sixths. The expression may follow, first oral and 
 then written. Three-fourths will be seen to be three 
 of the four equal parts into which the circle is divided^ 
 and is expressed by placing one figure above another, 
 and a line between them. The lower figure will be 
 seen to express the size of the parts, and the upper fig- 
 ure to express the number of parts taken. Considerable 
 practice of this kind, with the fractional circles and 
 expressions, may be followed by giving the terms denom- 
 inator and numerator^ and having them defined by the 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 pupils. The same objects may be used in teaching 
 redaction of mixed numbers to improper fractions, of 
 improper fractions to mixed numbers, and of fractions 
 of one denomination to those of another. Care should 
 be taken to occasion the idea before the expression is 
 given. Thus the reduction of 5^ to fourths, 4| to 
 eighths, 3f to sixths ; of |, f , |, to whole or mixed num- 
 bers ; of I, f , f , -j%, to lower terms, should be known by 
 means of objects before the operation is expressed in 
 \f writing. When these facts have been presented many 
 ^"^^^^^imes to the pupils, they may be expressed in figures, 
 and the pupils may be led to see the process by which 
 the answers are obtained. For example, in the state- 
 ment 5f = -\^-, the pupils should be led to see, after the 
 fact has been taught by objects, that the answer could 
 be obtained by the following course of reasoning. In 1 
 there are 4 fourths, in 5 there are 5 times 4 fourths, or 
 20 fourths ; add 3 fourths, and the answer is ^. If it 
 is thought advisable, the rule could be deduced in the 
 same way. 
 
 In teaching addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
 division of fractions, the same method should be pur- 
 sued. First use the objects, and afterwards express the 
 operations bj^ performing them in figures on the board. 
 Practise much in this way with small numbers before 
 the book is used, and from the problems performed lead 
 the pupils to deduce their own explanation or rule. 
 
 To illustrate the method of teaching fractions the 
 following examples are given, one for teaching addition, 
 and one for division. It will be understood that reduc- 
 tion of fractions has been taught before these subjects 
 are reached. 
 
ARITFTMETIC. 125 
 
 Look at these circles and fractions as I hold them before you. 
 How much is 2 of a circle and ^ of a circle ?f+i'?i + i1 i + f? 
 
 f+ji ^ + k'i i+f^ f + ^^ li + r? 1^ + 1? i + v i+v 
 
 i + f? i + f? ^ + 1? Let us now express in figures the answers 
 you give me: ^ + ^ = 1; f + J=l; i + i = f; etc. 
 
 Do you see how we added the halves and fourths ? How did 
 we add the fourths and eighths ? Give an example adding halves 
 and fourths, fourths and eighths. Your lesson to-morrow will be 
 these fifty problems on the board (or chart). 
 
 The problems given for study are of course similar 
 to those which they have had with the circles in the 
 class. 
 
 The first part of the following exercise is designed to 
 show how to teach the division of a fraction by a whole 
 number. The second part illustrates a method of 
 teaching the division of a whole number by a fraction. 
 The directions and questions should be many more than 
 are here given, and each exercise may be enough for 
 two recitations. 
 
 Divide this circle into two equal parts ; how much in each part ? 
 Divide this half-circle into two equal parts ; how much in each 
 part? Divide these two cu'cles into four equal parts; how much 
 in each part? Divide these two circles into eight equal parts; 
 how much in each part? Divide this half -circle into four equal 
 parts ; how much in each part? Divide one-fourth of a circle into 
 two equal parts; how much in each part? Divide three-fourths 
 into two equal parts; how much in each part? Let us now see 
 what you have done (writing on the board) : — 
 
 l-2 = i; i-^2 = i; 2-4=^; 2-^8^^; i-4-^; i-2 = ^; 
 f-f-2=.f. 
 
 Who will divide any of these fractions into equal parts and 
 place the result on the board ? 
 
 Practise in this way with halves, fourths, and eighths, 
 and then with thirds and sixths. When a laijge num- 
 
l26 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ber of problems and answers is placed upon the board, 
 lead the pupils to see and express for themselves the 
 fact that we may divide by a whole number b}^ dividing 
 the numerator or multiplying the denominator. When 
 they have done this, give out a large number of simple 
 problems for them to perform before the book is taken. 
 To divide an integer by a fraction. 
 
 Call these cii'cles pies. I have eight pies, and give them to the 
 persons in the room ; each person receives four pies ; how many 
 persons in the room ? Put down on your slate each operation as 
 you find it. I have eight pies, and give to each person in the 
 room two pies; how many persons in the room? I have one pie, 
 and give to each person at the table one-half a pie; how many 
 persons at the table? I have one pie, and give to each person at 
 the table one-fourth of a pie ; how many persons at the table ? I 
 have two pies, and give to each person at the table one-half a pie ; 
 how many persons at the table ? etc. 
 
 Now let us see what you have on your slate. Yes, — 
 
 8--4 = 2; 8--2 = 4; 1-^ = 2; 1-^ = 4; 2-^=4; 2--J = 8; 
 2-^ = 6; 2-i=:12. 
 
 Keep these upon your slates, and do as many more as you can 
 before to-morrow. 
 
 Now call the circles cents. I have four cents (holding up four 
 circles) ; if apples ai'e one cent apiece, ho\7 many apples can I 
 buy ? how many at ^ cent apiece ? how many at ^ oi a, cent apiece ? 
 If the apples were three times as much apiece, how many could I 
 get; more or less? what part as much? If these apples were f of 
 a cent apiece, how many apples could I get? Now let us take 
 eight cents. Who will give us the same kind of a problem? 
 What are the expressions on your slate ? Let us put them on the 
 board : — 
 
 4^1 = 4; 4--^=8; 4--i = 16; 4- f = Jg^ = 5J; 8-4-| = 16; 
 8-1 = ^3^ = 51; 8-i = 32; 8--f = ^=10f. 
 
 From this work both the explanation and rule may 
 be deduced by the pupils. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 127 
 
 Applications. — From the time the child enters 
 school he is led to apply his knowledge of numbers in 
 making and doing practical problems of various kinds. 
 With a knowledge of common and decimal fractions his 
 work of this kind can only be limited by his immatu- 
 rity. As the pupil matures, his field of study and prac- 
 tice widens. Some part, at least, of all kinds of business 
 he may know, and the teacher should gather from every 
 source material with which to work ; several reference 
 books, both written and mental, should be upon the 
 desk to suggest ways in which the pupils' knowledge 
 of numbers may be applied. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — These subjects, according 
 to the prescribed course, are taken in the seventh year. 
 During all the preceding years the pupils have per- 
 formed problems which involve nearly all of the weights 
 and measures commonly used in every-day life. They 
 will not, therefore, have to spend much time in learning 
 the tables. The metric system, and some parts of the 
 tables of square and cubic measures, and of Avoirdupois 
 and Troy weights, will have to be learned : also miscel- 
 laneous facts, such as the weight of different commodi- 
 ties, the number of units in a gross, and score ; number 
 of sheets in a quire and ream, and the value of common 
 foreign coins. All of these tables which will be of use 
 to the pupils should be made and learned by them. 
 When they are learned, they should be reviewed and 
 applied so frequently that the pupils will not have to 
 go to the book for information. 
 
 In choosing work for the pupils, give only that which 
 is practical. Omit all parts of compound addition, sub- 
 traction, and division, which are rarely or never used. 
 
128 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Do not give impossible areas or volumes to measure or 
 absurd puzzles to solve, but let the work be such as 
 occurs, or may occur, in practical life. 
 
 The time may be well spent in the reduction of com- 
 pound numbers, both ascending and descending, the 
 computation of longitude and time, and tlie mensura- 
 tion of surfaces and solids, such as papering and carpet- 
 ing rooms, measuring boards, wood, bins, etc. Select 
 from two or three .books placed upon your table for the 
 purpose such problems as you think most practical and 
 best adapted to your pupils. If the reasoning of any 
 problem is complex, give the same problem first with 
 small numbers, and always encourage the pupil to 
 use blocks and diagrams to illustrate the problems. 
 The practice of illustrating problems by diagrams 
 cannot be too early begun or too constantly insisted 
 upon. 
 
 Very much time need not be spent upon the metric 
 system. It is enough to teach by objects the different 
 measures, and to lead the pupils to work enough upon 
 the various applications to see the great saving of time 
 which would follow the introduction of the system. As 
 the denominations are rarely used in practice at the 
 present time, they would be soon forgotten if learned 
 ever so well. Therefore, not so thorough work in the 
 application of metric measures should be attempted as 
 in those measures which are in common use. 
 
 Percentage, — The kind of work to be done in per- 
 centage is indicated in the best text-books upon the 
 subject. The amount to be done is limited only by the 
 time of the pupil, for very much drill is needed to 
 distinguish readily the various conditions of problems 
 
ARITHMETIC. 129 
 
 which are classed under the head of percentage. In no 
 })art of arithmetic is the necessity greater of passing 
 slowly from the known to the unknown than in per- 
 centage. Teach each part of the subject with great 
 care, using familiar illustrations and small numbers. 
 Avoid, so far as possible, all work by rule, but lead the 
 pupil by slow degrees to understand the principle in- 
 volved in each problem as it is presented. Review fre- 
 quently, and arrange the problems in such a way as to 
 encourage the pupils to think. Sometimes pupils are 
 directed to look over a " model solution," and to perform 
 all the problems of a given lesson by it — a course which 
 is likely to discourage independent thinking. To indi- 
 cate how the subjects may be taught, a few illustrative 
 examples are here given. The process of each problem 
 should be indicated upon the blackboard as the ansvv^ers 
 are found, and when the principle is understood, drill 
 with small numbers upon many similar problems should 
 be given. Present for a lesson problems containing 
 various conditions, so as to induce the pupils to consider 
 carefully each step of the work. 
 
 1. Given tJie cost and selling price, to find the rate per cent, 
 
 I buy a book for $4, and sell it for Zo. What do I gain ? What 
 part of the cost is the gain ? How many hundredths of the cost is 
 the gain ? What per cent ? 
 
 I buy a book for |5, and sell it for $4. What part of the cost 
 do I lose ? What per cent do I lose ? 
 
 Give other problems of a similar kind containing 
 small numbers. 
 
 2. To find the simple interest of any sum of money. 
 
 I lend you .115190. To whom is a favor done? Who should pay 
 whom for the use of it? Money paid for the use of money is 
 
130 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 interest. The money loaned is called the principal. Suppose you 
 were to pay me 8 per cent of the principal (-$100) for the use of it 
 for one year ; what would you pay me ? What would you pay me 
 for the use of it for two years ? Six months ? Suppose you were 
 to pay me 6 per cent a year ; how much would you pay me for one 
 year? For six months? For three months? For two months? 
 For one mouth, or thirty days? For six days? For twelve 
 days? etc. 
 
 Suppose I were to lend you 8600 at 6 per cent a year; how 
 much would you pay me for six months ? For one month ? For 
 one day ? For four days ? For six months and four days ? 
 
 When this method is well understood, by much prac- 
 tice teach any one of the shorter methods in the same 
 way, and allow only that method to be used. 
 
 3. Given the sum sent to an agents and his commission, tojind what 
 is expended. 
 
 First teach by familiar examples the terms commission^ con- 
 signor, consignee. 
 
 Upon what does a commission merchant always reckon his com- 
 mission ? If he buys goods for »8100, and his commission is 2 per 
 cent, what does he get for his trouble ? What would be sent him 
 to pay for the cost of the goods and his commission ? If I should 
 send my agent ^102 with which to purchase goods after deducting 
 his commission of 2 per cent, what w ould he expend ? What would 
 he have for his trouble ? The cost of the goods represents how 
 many hundredths, or per cent, of itself ? The commission is how 
 many per cent of the cost ? What I send him is how many per 
 cent of the cost ? How will you get 100 per cent ? (If the pupils 
 hesitate here, use the familiar problems like the following : John 
 has one-third more money than James. John has 20 cents ; how 
 many cents has James ?) 
 
 William has 50 per cent more money than Thomas. William 
 has §3 ; how much has Thomas ? 
 
 Repeat such problems until the pupils see the princi- 
 ple involved, and can readily perform the problems in 
 which the base is not given. 
 
AKITHMETIC. 131 
 
 4. To assess a tax upon the property of an individual. 
 
 First suppose that $100 is to be raised in a school of fifty pupils, 
 each pupil to pay an equal share without reference to the amount 
 of property he has. What part of the whole amount would each 
 pay? What per cent? How much would each pay? Suppose 
 that the $100 is to be paid by the pupils in proportion to the prop- 
 erty they held, and all together had $1,000 ; how much on one 
 dollar would be raised? If John had $50, what would be his tax? 
 Again, assuming that every one of the pupils should pay one dollar 
 whether he had property or not, how nmch would be raised in this 
 way? How much left of $100 would have to be raised on the 
 property? How much now would have to be raised on one dollar? 
 What would John's tax be? 
 
 Increase the difficulties slowly until large numbers 
 can be easily dealt with. 
 
 Notes, bills, receipts, insurance policies, bonds, and 
 other business papers should be brought into the class 
 and used in such a way as to give reality to the work 
 and to fix the principles taught. Parties concerned in 
 business transactions may be personated by members of 
 the class. For example, one pupil may be the maker of 
 a note, another may be the payee, another may be an 
 endorser, another may represent the cashier of a bank. 
 The whole subject of notes, including interest, partial 
 payments, and bank discount, may in this way become 
 real and interesting, and be firmly fixed in the minds 
 of the pupils. 
 
 Definitions and Rules. — Definitions and rules should 
 be taught in the higher classes of the grammar grade, 
 not by having the pupils commit them to memory, but 
 by a process of analysis. For example, to teach the defi- 
 nition of subtraction the teacher might take any num- 
 ber, as ten blocks, and take away three blocks to see 
 how many blocks remain. The pupil will observe the 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 process, and define subtraction as " the process of tak- 
 ing part of a number away to find bow many are left." 
 Rules are also taught in the same way. Let the pupil 
 observe each step of a given process, and state in gen- 
 eral terms the order in which the steps were taken. 
 
 The use of formulas should be largely avoided in all 
 grades except the highest. Whenever formulas are 
 used, they should be made by the pupils from princi- 
 ples which are already understood. 
 
 Mental Arithmetic. — The use of mental arithmetic is 
 unquestioned. It aids in developing the powers of at- 
 tention, memory, and reasoning, cultivates the power 
 of language, and greatly assists pupils in their writ- 
 ten number work. Oral exercises should be given 
 separately, and also in connection with written arith- 
 metic. 
 
 The oral exercises which are given in connection with 
 written arithmetic are mainly for the purpose of illus- 
 trating principles, and for drill both in abstract and 
 in concrete work. 
 
 Illustrations of the use of small numbers in teaching 
 a new subject or principle have already been given. 
 By concentrating the thought mainly upon the reason- 
 ing processes, the pupil is led to see plainly what he 
 could not see if he were dealing with large numbers. 
 Mental exercises should therefore very frequently pre- 
 cede or introduce a regular recitation in written arith- 
 metic, and they may also be given whenever pupils fail 
 to understand a process or the conditions of a problem. 
 For example, there may be some pupils who do not un- 
 derstand the process of finding the present value of a 
 note due at some future lime. The principle involved 
 
ARITHMETIC. 133 
 
 is found to be very simple when such problems as the 
 following are given : — 
 
 John has 4 cents, which is J as much as James has ; how much 
 has James? John has 6 cents, which is | as much as James has; 
 how much has James ? John has a certain sum of money ; after his 
 father gave him J as much more, he had 6 cents ; how much had 
 he at first? 
 
 By giving many problems similar to these, and in- 
 creasing the size of the numbers gradually, the pupils 
 can readily see that the present value is \^ of itself; 
 and if it gains yf^^ in six months, it will be worth Hf of 
 its present value in six months. Knowing its value 
 then in money, the present value can be easily ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 When a principle is w^ell understood, it needs to be 
 fixed in the mind by doing mentally many simple prob- 
 lems involving that principle, and others which have 
 been taught previously. For example, when division of 
 fractions is well understood, problems like the following 
 should be given in great number : — 
 
 I divide 8 apples equally among some boys, giving each boy -^ of 
 an apple ; how many boys received a part ? 
 
 To how many boys could I give G apples, if each boy has J of 
 an apple? 
 
 How many sticks IJ feet long can be cut from a stick 6 feet 
 long? 
 
 How many bushels of potatoes at | of a dollar a bushel can be 
 bought for $6 ? 
 
 Four men earned in one day |8^. If this money were divided 
 equally among them, how much would each man receive? 
 
 When coal can be bought for $7 a ton, what part of a ton can be 
 bought for $2.} ? 
 
 Drill follows teaching, and serves to fix in the mind 
 
134 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 what is taught. It may consist of practice upon abstract 
 work, in which rapidity is the end sought, or upon con- 
 crete work, in w^hich the main object in view is the cul- 
 tivation of the reasoning powers; or it may combine 
 both of these operations, and aim to promote both 
 thought and rapidity. Besides the means already sug- 
 gested for drill, the teacher might place upon the black- 
 board or upon manilla paper drill tables like the follow- 
 ing. By extending the tables to 10 or 15, several 
 hundred problems may be given from each table : — 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 * 
 
 J 
 
 ¥ 
 
 2 
 
 li 
 
 i 
 
 IG 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 f 
 
 ¥ 
 
 4 
 
 3| 
 
 H 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 If 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 * 
 
 f 
 
 ¥ 
 
 8 
 
 5| 
 
 2| 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 ■ff 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 6 
 
 ^ 
 
 3| 
 
 14 
 
 The table may be used as follows 
 
 A + B, 
 
 B + C, 
 
 A + C, 
 
 B + E, 
 
 B + D, 
 
 A + E, etc 
 
 A-B, 
 
 A-C, 
 
 A-B, 
 
 D-E, 
 
 D-F, 
 
 I — A, etc 
 
 AXB, 
 
 BxC, 
 
 A XI, 
 
 AxJ, 
 
 AXF, 
 
 AXE, etc 
 
 I^A, 
 
 i^c, 
 
 A-f-I, 
 
 J^I, 
 
 A-B, 
 
 A -- C, etc 
 
 Reduce I pounds to ounces. 
 
 Reduce E feet to inches. 
 
 What will A pounds of meat cost at L cents a pound ? et<j. 
 
 Besides the oral work which is done in connection 
 with written arithmetic, there should be a few minutes 
 set apart each day for miscellaneous mental practice. 
 The problems given sliould be of a varied character, 
 sometimes consisting of operations with abstract num- 
 bers, in wliich accuracy and rapidity are mainly sought; 
 
ARITHMETIC. 135 
 
 at other times the problems should be of such a nature 
 as will call into active exercise the reflective faculties. 
 As no one book would furnish a sufficient variety of 
 problems, there should be upon thp teacher's table sev- 
 eral different mental arithmetics, from which to gather 
 and give problems of a proper kind. It will not be 
 found best for the teacher or pupils to read the prob- 
 lems from a book. Let the teacher glance over two or 
 three pages of a book, and select such problems as will 
 induce the pupils to think, giving them in language of 
 his own. Sometimes the problems may be analyzed and 
 explained, and sometimes, especially in examination, 
 answers only may be required. One good method of 
 examining a class in mental arithmetic is to give out 
 the problem slowly and distinctly, ask the pupils to do 
 it mentally and to keep the answer in their minds. 
 After a suiBcient time has elapsed for all to do the 
 problem, give the direction, " Write the answer," and 
 after they have had time to write the figures of the 
 answ^er, ask them to put the pencils down and to take a 
 good position. If the answers are given in large figures, 
 the slates may be examined by having them held up, 
 asking pupils who have the wrong answer not to hold 
 them up. 
 
 Explanations. — Great freedom should be allowed 
 in the form of explanations, especially to pupils of the 
 lower grades. The pupils' attention should be directed 
 mainly to the thought, and not to the language, as is 
 frequently the case when complicated and set forms are 
 insisted upon. Sometimes a pupil will understand how 
 to perform a problem, but cannot give the reason. Let 
 similar problems be given with smaller numbers, and 
 the exjiression of a reason will come in time. 
 
136 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Short Processes. — Always encourage the pupil to 
 perform a problem in the shortest way, provided the 
 problem is equally well understood by the short process. 
 It will be found generally best in the lower grades to 
 have but one method of performing problems of a given 
 kind. In the higher grades, however, the pupils should 
 be encouraged to perform problems with the fewest 
 figures, provided, of course, accuracy is not sacrificed. 
 
 I 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 137 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Geography is a knowledge of the earth on which 
 we live. Physical geography treats of the earth in its 
 natural condition, including land, water, climate, and 
 productions. Political geography treats of the earth as 
 modified by man, its countries, cities, towns, society, 
 religion, government, etc. 
 
 Geography may be elementary or scientific. Ele- 
 mentary geography is a knowledge of facts and is pur- 
 sued in the primary and grammar schools. Scientific 
 geography is a knowledge of causes and relations, and 
 may be begun in the highest class of the grammar or 
 ungraded school and be continued in the high school. 
 It should be said, however, that the facts to be studied 
 in the lower grades may include as much of the relations 
 of cause and effect as are within the comprehension of 
 the pupils of those grades. 
 
 Objects. — The knowledge acquired in the study of 
 geography should be a real knowledge of the earth as 
 the home of man, providing for him food, clothing, and 
 shelter, supplying objects for his enjoyment and study, 
 and so being a means of social, intellectual, and spirit- 
 ual progress. As a means of mental culture, also, the 
 study of geography is of great use. Observation, imag- 
 ination, memory, judgment, and language are all exer- 
 cised in the study, and by it the child's interest in the 
 world about him is awakened in such a way as to 
 increase his sympathy and love for his fellow-men. 
 
 It is evident that these great objects cannot be at- 
 tained by learning and reciting facts ordinarily found 
 in a text-book, especially if the facts stand in the pupils' 
 
138 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 minds in a disconnected way and unrelated to any expe- 
 rience of theirs or to an}^ direct use. 
 
 Preparatory Licssons. — Before geography as a study 
 is begun, children need to acquire a proper habit of 
 observation, and to gather facts which will aid them in 
 their subsequent study. During the first three or four 
 years, therefore, the plan of study includes lessons in 
 Form^ Place, Plants, Animals, and Minerals, which are 
 intended to give such knowledge as will make the study 
 of geography more intelligible and therefore more prof- 
 itable. The methods to be pursued in these subjects are 
 to be treated under the bead of Observation Lessons. 
 
 Local Geography. — Further preparation for the study 
 of geography is made in the third and fourth years by 
 lessons to teach geographical ideas and geographical 
 language. The knowledge thus gained is sometimes 
 called local geography because much of it is gained by 
 observation in the locality of the school. 
 
 The simpler subjects of the following outline should 
 be taught during the third year, the more difficult being 
 delayed until the fourth year, when all preparatory work 
 should be reviewed. 
 
 1. HiU 
 
 3. Plain: 
 
 base. 
 
 slopes. 
 
 summit. 
 
 hill range. 
 ^ hill system. 
 
 field. 
 
 woods. 
 
 meadow. 
 
 swamp. 
 
 prairie. 
 . desert ; oasis. 
 
 I. Bodies of Land. 
 
 2. Mountains 
 
 ^ base, 
 slopes, 
 summit, 
 peaks, 
 mountain range or 
 
 chain, 
 mountain system. 
 
 , ( crater 
 
 volcano : ■{ , 
 
 < lav; 
 
 4. Table-land. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 139 
 
 5. Valley: — 
 
 River valley. 
 Gorge, or canon. 
 Pass. 
 
 
 beach. 
 
 cliffs. 
 8. Coast: W^^^^^ 
 
 ^ projections : 
 
 9. Islands : 
 
 ' continental, 
 oceanic, 
 volcanic, 
 coral. 
 
 6. Highlands. 
 
 7. Lowlands. 
 
 cape. 
 
 promontory, 
 peninsula, 
 isthmus. 
 
 IT. Bodies of Water. 
 
 1. Spring: 
 
 3. River: 
 
 /■ pure water. 
 J mineral. 
 I hot. 
 ^ geysers. 
 
 r source. 
 
 branches. 
 
 banks. 
 
 bed. 
 
 current. 
 
 channel. 
 
 water-falls. 
 
 mouth. 
 
 uses. 
 
 river system. 
 
 river basin. 
 L water-shed. 
 
 2. Brook: 
 
 4. Pond 
 
 ^1 
 
 source, 
 branches, 
 banks, 
 bed. 
 current, 
 channel, 
 mouth, 
 water-shed, 
 system. 
 basin, 
 system, 
 basin. 
 
 sea (archipelago), 
 gulf, 
 bay. 
 harbor, 
 strait, 
 channel. 
 I sound. 
 III. Climate (weather). 
 
 {hot. 
 cold, 
 temperate. 
 Spring, summer, autumn, winter; day, night. 
 
 5. Lake: 
 
 6. Oceans 
 
140 
 
 METHODS OF TKACHIJSG. 
 
 
 ' wind. 
 
 
 
 vapor, 
 dew. 
 
 
 
 frost. 
 
 
 2. Ail' and moisture:^ 
 
 cloud, 
 fog. 
 mist, 
 rain, 
 hail, 
 snow, 
 .ice. 
 
 
 IV. Soil: 
 
 ' loamy. 
 
 sandy. 
 
 clayey. 
 
 fertile. 
 
 arable. 
 . barren. 
 
 V. Productions. 
 
 ' for food. 
 
 
 1. Plants : 
 
 for clothing, 
 for building-material : < 
 for fuel, 
 for medicine. 
 I for oils and dyes. 
 
 ^ for food. r furs. 
 
 - houses. 
 
 ships. 
 . utensils. 
 
 2. Animals: 
 
 for clothing : } skins, 
 for labor. I leather. 
 
 f or utensils :|^^^^- 
 ( bone. 
 
 ' houses. 
 
 3. Minerals: 
 
 r for building-material : < 
 
 for fuel. 
 ^ for food. 
 
 ships. 
 . utensils. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 141 
 
 1. Races: 
 
 VI. People. 
 
 ' Caucasian. 
 Mongolian. 
 Malay. 
 African. 
 
 American. 
 
 2. Occupations: 
 
 3. Government: 
 
 4. Religion : 
 
 f agriculture, 
 fishing, 
 mining, 
 manufactures. 
 
 ^ exports. 
 
 commerce 
 
 republic, 
 monarchy : 
 
 C imports. 
 
 absolute. 
 
 limited. 
 r Pagan. 
 J Jewish. 
 I Christian. 
 V Mohammedan. 
 
 /• savage. 
 
 5. States of Society : <^ , ,„ . .„* , 
 •^ half-civilized. 
 
 V civilized. 
 
 Some of the foregoing subjects will be found difficult 
 to teach satisfactorily. Let it be remembered, however, 
 that no amount of telling or reading can take the place 
 of teaching, and that the teacher may be content to 
 teach very little of a subject, provided the facts are dis- 
 covered and expressed by the pupils themselves. 
 
 Among the most difficult of these subjects to teach is 
 climate, a thorough study of which belongs to a later 
 period. Some ideas of the subject may be gained by 
 calling attention to the temperature and moisture of the 
 
142 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 atiijospliere from time to time, making comparisons of 
 the weatiier of different seasons and of different places. 
 It may be noted that the temperature is more equable 
 near the sea than at a distance from it, and that it is 
 lower upon a high hill than it is in the valley. 
 
 Some general ideas of the formation of dew and rain 
 may be gained by simple experiments. Call attention 
 of children to the fact that some of the water which was 
 left in a dish on the stove the day before has disap- j 
 peared. Bring out the statement from them that the 
 water has "gone into the air." Call attention to the 
 rising steam, and ask them for familiar instances of 
 the same thing. Give them the name evaporation. 
 Hold a cold plate over the steam, and let them observe 
 the drops of water formed on the plate. 'Call attention 
 to the deposit of moisture on the Avindow-pane in a cold 
 day, and upon the outside of a pitcher of ice-water in a 
 warm room. From these illustrations the children get 
 the idea of condensation ; and, by a little questioning, 
 they may see that the same conditions exist in the for- 
 mation of dew and rain as exist when drops of water 
 are seen to form on the plate and pitcher. 
 
 Most of the topics in the above outline, under Bodies 
 of Land and Bodies of Water, may be taught by lead- 
 ing the children to observe the various features of land 
 and water in the vicinity of the schoolhouse. The ob- 
 servation should be made from the schoolhouse at the 
 time of recitation and at recess, or it may be made in 
 little tours of inspection by the school either as a whole 
 or in groups. Frequently it will be found well to direct 
 the attention of children to certain things, and have 
 them bring the results of their observation into the 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 143 
 
 recitation. It will be useful, also, to call attention to 
 their past experiences, and to use the results of their 
 experience in the recitation. 
 
 As an assistance both to observation and to memory, 
 it will be found well to draw and to mould representa- 
 tions of the various objects observed, and to have the 
 . ])upils express correctly, in their own language, all the 
 facts observed. 
 
 For the purpose of teaching productions, bring before 
 the class as many specimens of native and foreign prod- 
 ucts as can be found. From the stores, from the 
 neighboring woods, and from the homes of pupils, there 
 may be obtained a large number of vegetable, animal, 
 and mineral productions, some of which may be kept 
 permanently in the school. 
 
 To teach ideas relating to people, first lead the chil- 
 dren to think of the condition of the people of their own 
 town and State. Subsequently, by means of stories and 
 pictures, lead them to compare the people of other coun- 
 tries with those of their own country in respect to occu- 
 pations, religion, government, race, and state. 
 
 Plan-Drawing. — Before maps of unknown places are 
 drawn or studied, careful attention should be given to 
 the drawing of plans, first in connection with lessons 
 upon Place.^ After drawing the outline of various sur- 
 faces, and indicating the place of objects upon them, 
 drawing to scale should be begun. One foot to the 
 inch when drawn upon the board, or four feet to the 
 inch when drawn upon the slate, may be a convenient 
 scale for drawing the floor of the schoolroom. Do not 
 assist the pupils much, neither allow them to be discour- 
 
 1 p. 193. 
 
144 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 aged for want of assistance. When the floor of the room 
 is carefully drawn, let the different objects — as the 
 teacher's desk, stove, etc. — be indicated upon the plan. 
 As the object is to associate representations with the 
 things represented, the pupils should sometimes be 
 called upon to point out, in the room, certain objects 
 represented upon the plan. 
 
 The first plans upon the board should always be made 
 upon the north side of the room ; and if made upon 
 the slate, the upper part of the slate should be toward 
 the north. By degrees the pupils may learn that the 
 upper side of the slate or plan represents north, the 
 lower side south, the right-hand side east, the left- 
 hand side west. Objects in the room may now be 
 indicated in the plan by dictation, as follows: Draw 
 the platform on the west end ; the stove four feet 
 from the north side ; the ventilator near the south-east 
 corner, etc. 
 
 Passing from the room, the next step will be to draw 
 the school grounds and neighborhood. Here the prog- 
 ress should be slow, and the steps carefully taken, for 
 there are many important points to be presented, — direc- 
 tion of streets, brooks, and fences, and the location of 
 liouses, ponds, hills, etc. A progressive plan may be 
 made, with the schoolhouse as a centre, the pupils 
 drawing, day by day, three or four additional objects, 
 until a complete plan of the neighborhood is made. 
 After this, good maps of the town and country should 
 be studied carefully, and those places which the pupils 
 have seen be particularly noted. There should be a 
 good map of the town and adjoining towns hung up 
 in the schoolroom for occasional reference. If such a 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 145 
 
 map is not provided, one may be made upon manilla 
 paper or upon the blackboard. 
 
 Much of the plan-drawing should be done in the 
 third year, in connection with the study of local or 
 home geography; but it should be reviewed occasion- 
 ally in the fourth year, that good ideas of maps may be 
 had before the pupil draws maps of continents and 
 countries. 
 
 As a means of reviewing the subjects which have been 
 taught in the preparatory lessons, and of introducing 
 the pupils to the use of topics, topical outlines for the 
 study of the town should be given. These topics may 
 include terms which have been taught, and the pupils 
 should be encouraged to use geographical language in 
 their recitation, which should be made without ques- 
 tions. The following topics, so far as they belong to 
 the town studied, may be used : — 
 
 1. Outline : boundary (bays, capes). 
 
 2. Size ; length and breadth. 
 
 3. Surface: — 
 
 (1) Mountains, hills, ranges, peaks. 
 
 (2) Valleys, plains. 
 
 4. Drainage : — 
 
 (1) Brooks, rivers : 
 
 Source, outlet, branches. 
 
 (2) Ponds, lakes : 
 
 Outlets, inlets. 
 
 5. Climate : — 
 
 Moisture, temperature. 
 
 6. Soil. 
 
 7. Productions: — 
 
 Animal, vegetable, mineral. 
 
 8. Industries. 
 
146 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 9. Exports and Imports : — 
 Railroads. 
 10. Interesting facts of history. 
 
 Study of Maps, — The study of maps of known places 
 may well follow the preparatory observation lessons, 
 and should precede the study or drawing of maps of 
 continents and countries. The maps studied should be 
 of places with which the pupils are familiar, or which 
 they have seen. They should be studied with reference 
 to relative distances (scale) and the location of known 
 objects. They should be compared with maps made by 
 the pupils, and be a means of reviewing lessons upon 
 physical features. 
 
 Moulding-Board, — Moulding has the same place in 
 teaching geography as plan and map drawing ; i,e.^ for 
 illustration. It may be used in teaching the natural 
 bodies of land and water, and other parts of local 
 geography after the real objects have been observed ; also 
 in making relief models and in representing the parts 
 of a continent or section. It will be found especially 
 useful in representing the physical features of a town, 
 adding with bits of cardboard and sticks the principal 
 roads, houses, etc. 
 
 GENERAL LESSONS FROM GLOBE AND MAPS. 
 
 Earth as a Whole, — In the fourth year, elementary les- 
 sons upon the globe should be begun. The subjects to 
 be taught at this time are as follows : — 
 
 1. Form of the Earth. 
 
 Illustrate with clay or croquet ball flattened at two opposite 
 sides. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 147 
 
 2. Motions op the Earth. 
 
 Use knitting-needle or wooden needle for axis, and teach 
 the effects of rotation and revolution. Only the most 
 general and simple facts should be taught at this time. 
 Teach equator, poles, and hemisphere. 
 
 3. Land and Water Hemispheres. 
 
 Draw a line around a globe so as to lead pupils to see that 
 most of the land is in one hemisphere and most of the 
 water in another. 
 
 4. Northern and Southern Hemispheres. 
 
 Show with a globe the relative amount of land and water 
 north and south of the equator. 
 
 5. Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 
 
 Why called old and new worlds? 
 
 6. Bodies of Land. 
 
 The names and relative size and position of the continents 
 should be taught from a mapped globe. Lead the 
 pupils to discover similarity and difference in shape, and 
 character of outline. 
 
 7. Bodies of Water. 
 
 Teach the name and relative size and position of the 
 oceans from the globe. Lead the pupils to see which 
 are in the Eastern, and which in the W^esterii Hemisphere. 
 
 8. Climate, 
 
 Hot, cold, and temperate parts. ♦ 
 
 9. Productions and Commerce. 
 
 A few of the principal productions should be named and 
 the climate and localities in which they are produced. 
 Some ideas of commerce, both domestic and foreign, 
 should be given by showing where and how the various 
 productions are carried. 
 
 Some of these elementary lessons may best be given 
 by drawing with a crayon upon a plain black globe. 
 
 Continents. — When the first lessons upon the earth 
 as a whole are completed, the study of continents should 
 
148 METHODS OF TEACHING. ^M 
 
 be begun. Books may now be placed in the hands of 
 pupils, but every lesson should first be taught from a 
 mapped globe or a good outline map. 
 
 An introduction to the map of the hemispheres and 
 continents is made by opening a globe so that its hemi- 
 spheres may be placed side by side, and be compared 
 with outline maps of the same. 
 
 In these lessons only the most general features should 
 be considered, somewhat as follows : — 
 
 (1) Position of continent on globe: show what part is hot, 
 cold, temperate ; direction from other continents. (2) Relative 
 size : compare with other continents. (3) Outline : character of 
 coast line compared with other continents ; principal indentations ; 
 outline drawn by pupils from cardboard models. [See ]\Iap- 
 Drawing.] (4) Mountain systems : approximate length and width; 
 comparative height ; direction of slopes. (5) Principal rivers and 
 lakes : only a few of the largest ; source and outlet ; relative 
 length. (6) Most valuable productions : where obtained. (7) Im- 
 portant countries: position in continent; comparative size. (8) 
 Best known cities: position; comparative size. (9) People : races; 
 occupations. [Reading of such books as "Seven Little Sisters" 
 and " Each and All."] (10) Special and peculiar features. 
 
 After one continent has been studied, points of re- 
 semblance and difference should be constantly referred 
 to, as direction and length of mountain systems, size of 
 rivers, condition of people, etc. In giving the special 
 and peculiar features of a continent, select those which 
 will be of most interest to the pupils, as volcanoes, pyr- 
 amids, curious animals and plants. 
 
 After the outline is traced, it may be kept for the 
 purpose of inserting the various features as they are 
 studied. The order of study is indicated in the follow- 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 149 
 
 ing topics, which may need some changes and additions 
 for some of the continents. 
 
 I. Position. 
 Surrounding water and land. 
 Latitude, zones. 
 II. Contour. 
 
 Comparative shape, regularity of coast line. 
 
 III. Size, compared with other continents. 
 
 IV. Surface. 
 
 1. Highlands J "l"'"''''"^- 
 
 ( plateaus. 
 
 2. Lowlands: \^f:>y'- 
 
 L plains. 
 
 V. Inland Waters. 
 Large lakes and rivers. 
 VI. Climate. 
 
 Comparative temperature and moisture. 
 VII. Productions. 
 
 Vegetable, animal, mineral. 
 VIIL People. 
 
 Races, employments, and customs. 
 IX. Political Divisions. 
 Countries, large cities. 
 
 Countries and Sections. — After the general features 
 of the continents have been studied, the more impor- 
 tant countries and sections should be taken up, begin- 
 ning with the United States. The sections should be 
 studied and recited by topics as before, the topics being 
 more minute than those of the continents. The study 
 should also be pursued in connection with map-drawing. 
 The pupils' own State and section should be known 
 much more thoroughly than other sections, and should 
 therefore be reviewed more frequently. The indus- 
 tries, states of society, commerce, etc., of other coun- 
 
150 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 tries should be constantly compared with those of our 
 own country, so as to make the facts learned seem as 
 real as possible. 
 
 Interesting facts of history also should be given in 
 connection with places, and, in studying about the cities 
 and productions of a country and the occupations of 
 the people, constant reference should be made to the 
 marine column of 'the daily or weekly newspaper, where 
 will be found the destination of vessels and the ports 
 from which vessels have sailed, together with what is 
 exported and imported. \\ 
 
 Frequent use of pictures should be made in teaching 
 the ph3^sical features of a country, its cities, and the 
 manners, customs, and occupations of the people. Scrap- 
 books or alphabetical letter-files may be used for the pur- 
 pose of preserving pictures cut from illustrated books 
 and papers. With the aid of pupils any teacher can 
 make a large collection of pictures which will be of 
 great value in giving interest and vividness to the sub- 
 jects taught. Care should be taken to so arrange the 
 pictures that those of a particular section can be easily 
 found at any time. 
 
 In teaching and in giving information in any part of 
 geography, let the facts be linked together as much as 
 possible, especially the facts of cause with those of effect. 
 Thus there should be given the names and descriptions 
 of animals together with the climate and physical fea- 
 tures of the country in which they live ; the position of 
 a country, and its climate ; the commercial and manufac- 
 turing cities, and their peculiar location with reference 
 to mines, rivers, etc. ; the physical conditions of a coun- 
 try, and the character of the people. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 151 
 
 On many accounts it will be better to take up large 
 sections for study rather than small sections or single 
 states. Among the advantages of studying large sec- 
 tions are (1) the relative size and position of the states 
 may be better observed ; (2) the climate, soil, and pro- 
 ductions may be better compared and remembered; (3) 
 trivial and unimportant details are less likely to be 
 dwelt upon. The last point is one of great importance. 
 The really important features of any distant state or 
 country are few, and the time and strength of the pupils 
 should be given to these to the exclusion of such details 
 as the heights of mountains, the length of rivers, abso- 
 lute areas, capes, small rivers, and insignificant towns. 
 In general it may be said that those features of a coun- 
 try or section should be most emphasized which most 
 affect and represent the life of the country and which 
 most concern ourselves both as a country and as indi- 
 viduals. With this view, topics relating to life should be 
 especially noticed in the study, such as climate and its 
 causes, occupations and habits of the people, land and 
 water communications and what is carried over them, 
 government, and important cities. Certain sections 
 also demand more attention than others, depending 
 upon their importance and their relation and near- 
 ness to us. Next to our own State and country, those 
 countries should be most carefully studied which have 
 most to do with us and which are the most highly 
 civilized. 
 
 The following topics may be a guide for study and 
 recitation upon countries and sections : — 
 
152 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 I. Position. 
 
 1. Boundaries :^^*°^- 
 
 c water. 
 
 2. Latitude, longitude, zone. 
 
 n. Size. 
 
 1. Length and breadth. 
 
 2. Relative size. 
 
 in. SUKFACE. 
 
 {systems. 
 ranges, 
 peaks 
 Lpiaieaus. (volcanoes). 
 
 2. Lowlands. 
 
 Plains :j'°'«"''^- 
 ( coast. 
 
 IV. Drainage. 
 
 1. Water-partings. 
 
 / source. 
 
 - _,. direction. 
 
 2. Rivers: 
 
 j principal branches. 
 V. uses. 
 
 uses. 
 3. Lakes. 
 
 T . • ( salt. 
 
 Location : ■{ ^ , 
 ( fresh. 
 
 V. Climate. 
 
 {temperature, 
 moisture, 
 healthfulness. 
 ' latitude, 
 elevation. 
 
 2. Causes : i a S air. 
 
 j currents : < 
 
 ( water. 
 
 y nearness to sea. 
 
 VL Productions. 
 
 1. Fertile and sterile sections. 
 
 2. Mineral, vegetable, animal. 
 
GEOGPwAPHY. 153 
 
 VII. People. 
 
 1. Races. f agriculture. 
 
 2. Occupations: -j manufactures. 
 
 ' commerce : 
 
 domestic, foreign, 
 exports — where sent.* 
 imports — from what place, 
 means : 
 
 railroads, rivers, etc. 
 
 3. Manners and customs. . 
 
 4. Education. 
 
 5. Government. 
 
 6. Religion. 
 
 VIII. Political Divisions. 
 
 States. 
 
 Important cities and towns. 
 For what noted ? 
 
 Mathematical and Physical Features. — In addition 
 to the elementary lessons upon the earth as a whole, 
 given in the fourth year, there should be given in the 
 higher grades more advanced lessons, including motions 
 of the earth, latitude, longitude, and some physical 
 features. As much of the following outline as can be 
 understood should be taught in the sixth and seventh 
 years, the more difficult subjects to be left until the 
 first part of the eighth year, when the whole should be 
 reviewed. The facts learned should be applied to par- 
 ticular sections as they are taken up. 
 
 I. Form of the Earth. 
 
 Four proofs. 
 II. Motions of the Earth. 
 1. Rotation (evidences). 
 Axis, poles, equator. 
 
154 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Effects of rotation : 
 
 a. with axis horizontal. 
 
 b. with axis upright. 
 
 c. with axis oblique. 
 2. Revolution (evidences). 
 
 Effects of revolution : 
 
 a. with axis upright. 
 
 b. with axis oblique. 
 Tropics and polar circles : cause of location. 
 Zones, par^lels, meridians. 
 Variation in the length of day and night in different 
 
 parts of the earth. 
 
 III. Latitude and Longitude. 
 
 1. Length of degree on large circles ; on small circles. 
 
 2. Latitude ; measured where and from what ? 
 
 3. Longitude; measured where and from what? 
 
 4. Difference in longitude and time. 
 
 IV. Land Surface. 
 
 1. Formation of continents. 
 
 2. Coral formations. 
 
 3. Volcanic effects. 
 
 4. Causes of depression and elevation of surface. 
 V. Winds, 
 
 1. General cause. 
 
 2. Kinds and causes of each : 
 
 (1) Trade winds. 
 
 (2) Monsoons. 
 
 (3) Cyclones. 
 
 (4) Local winds. 
 
 3. Uses of winds. 
 VL Water Movements. 
 
 1. Springs : kinds and causes. 
 
 2. Waves, what and how caused. 
 
 3. Tides: 
 
 Kinds, ca^^ses of each. 
 
 4. Ocean currents : 
 
 (1) Kinds and causes. 
 
 (2) Polar and equatorial. 
 
Character of each. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 155 
 
 (3) Principal currents. 
 
 (4) Influence in navigation. 
 
 (5) Influence upon climate. 
 
 (6) Take imaginary voyages to show effects of ocean 
 
 currents. 
 VII. Climate. 
 
 Formation of dew, mist, fog, clouds, rain, snow, frost, hail. 
 
 Amount of rain, how aifected in various parts of the earth. 
 
 Temperature depends upon what. 
 VIII. Soil (sub-soil). 
 
 1. Thickness. 
 
 2. Composition. 
 
 (1) Loam. 
 
 (2) Sand. 
 
 (3) Gravel. 
 
 (4) Clay. 
 
 (5) Organic matter. 
 
 3. How made. 
 
 (1) Water freezing in crevices of rocks. 
 
 (2) Effects of atmosphere. 
 
 (3) Effects of running water. 
 
 (4) Effects of roots and rain. 
 
 (5) Effects of insects. 
 
 4. Kinds. 
 
 (1) Calcareous. ^ 
 
 (2) Sandy. > Character, and how made. 
 
 (3) Clayey. J 
 
 5. Fertility. 
 
 (1) Depends upon what. 
 
 (2) Degree of fertility. 
 
 6. Adaptation of soil to different plants. 
 
 These subjects should be carefully taught each day 
 before they are "studied" in a book. For means of 
 illustrating and teaching some of the topics the teacher 
 should consult good reference books and use simple 
 apparatus. 
 
156 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 To teach the motions of the earth and thek effects 
 in producing a variation in the length of day and night 
 and change of seasons, use a ball with a cardboard disk 
 to separate the light and dark hemispheres. The ball 
 should have a knitting-needle for an axis, and be placed 
 in various positions before a lighted lamp to represent 
 the sun. By rotating the ball with the axis in an up- 
 right and in a horizontal position, and placing the disk 
 between the light and dark hemispheres, there may be 
 shown the lighted hemispheres and the relative length 
 of day and night, if the axis of the earth were in those 
 positions. Incline the axis 2S^ degrees towards the 
 north, making both motions of the ball (rotation and 
 revolution), and there are represented many useful 
 facts, such as the relative length of day and night in 
 different parts of the earth, three causes of change of 
 seasons, cause of position of tropics and polar circles, 
 difference of longitude and time, and the position of the 
 sun in various parts of the earth at different times of 
 the year. To teach some of these and other points, it 
 would be well to have a blacked ball upon which chalk- 
 marks may be made. 
 
 To teach the causes of winds, place a bit of lighted 
 candle on a piece of glass. Over it place a lamp-chim- 
 ney so that the chimney will project over the edge of 
 the glass. By holding a thread at the bottom and at 
 the top of the chimney, the facts may be observed that 
 cold air moves toward the flame below, and that warm 
 air ascends. From this illustration, and from others 
 showing the unequal heating of the earth's surface by 
 the sun, the pupils may learn the causes of some local 
 winds, and of the surface and upper currents, north and 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 157 
 
 soutli, changed by the rotation of the earth into con- 
 stant northeast and southeast winds, or trade winds. 
 
 Map-Drawing. — After careful practice in plan- 
 drawing, and observation of good maps of the town and 
 county, the pupils are prepared to begin the drawing of 
 maps. In giving the first lessons upon continents the 
 globe should be used, and it would be well for the teacher 
 to prepare pasteboard outlines of the continents. These 
 outlines will give a good idea of the relative shape and 
 size of the continents, and afford at the same time 
 models for tracing. When the outline of a continent is 
 traced, the different parts may be represented as they 
 are studied, as mountain systems, rivers, and produc- 
 tions. 
 
 In the sixth year, when the study of the United States 
 is taken, the pupils should draw the outline, first by 
 copying, and afterwards from memory. Fine and 
 artistic efforts should not be attempted in any part of 
 the course, — the object being merely to fix in the mind 
 facts that are learned. Direction, distance, and loca- 
 tion are in this way impressed upon the mind as they 
 can be in no other way. The first efforts in imitation 
 may be by tracing upon thin paper. Afterwards the 
 pupils may attempt to copy with the map before them, 
 and then see what they can do from memory. The first 
 attempts at memory drawing will be very crude, but the 
 pupils should be encouraged to try, and generally it will 
 be found to be agreeable employment. The first topic 
 in the study of the United States will be " outline." 
 At the time of recitation each pupil may draw the 
 outline upon the slate or board from memory, and indi- 
 cate the boundaries — natural and artificial — by initial 
 
158 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 letters. For example, Gulf of Mexico, Chesapeake 
 Bay, and New Brunswick may be indicated by G. M., 
 C. B., N. B. Day by day the map should grow as new 
 topics are taken up. A progressive map may be kept 
 by the pupils on paper or placed upon the board ; but 
 they should be ready to draw each day all that has been 
 previously studied ; so that at the close of the lessons a 
 completed map may be made by every pupil, embracing 
 the principal mountains, rivers, cities, and production 
 areas. 
 
 In the seventh year, when latitude and longitude 
 have been studied, the preparatory study may include 
 parallels and meridians. With the book open, the 
 teacher by skilful questioning may draw out from the 
 pupils many facts in regard to distances and latitude ; 
 afterwards by a little direction the pupils may draw, 
 free-hand, the parallels and meridians, which will be 
 sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. They 
 will then be prepared to draw the outline, imitating the 
 map in the book. When this has been done two or 
 three times, the map may be drawn from memory, 
 without the parallels and meridians. In recitation, also, 
 the drawing of parallels and meridians from memory 
 should not be attempted, the outline only being drawn, 
 with no construction lines. In the pupils' study, in 
 which the map is drawn by parallels and meridians, the 
 shape and relative dimensions of the country are im- 
 pressed upon the mind, and when they draw the outline 
 from memory, the shape and dimensions are found to 
 be sufficiently accurate. 
 
 It may be well sometimes to indicate the high and 
 low land by different colored crayons, as for instance, 
 
GEOGEAPHY. 159 
 
 shades of brown and green. When the topic " produc- 
 tions ',' is reached, areas of the principal products 
 may be indicated by enclosed lines. The climate and 
 animals of a given section may be indicated by small 
 printed or written words. 
 
 Memory maps of any given subject, such as surface, 
 drainage, productions, or cities, may be called for at any 
 time, and the pupils by constant practice should be 
 ready to answer the demand. For example, a river 
 map of Europe may be drawn from memory, as a review 
 lesson, the names or their initials being written or 
 printed. In the same way examinations may be made. 
 More can be indicated upon a map in a single hour than 
 could be written out in three hours. 
 
 It will be seen that the drawing of maps, both in 
 study and recitation, constitutes an important part of 
 the work in geography as here laid down. The reasons 
 for emphasizing map-drawing will become apparent as a 
 saving of time, an increased interest in the study, and 
 superior results are seen. 
 
 The Recitation. — What has been said of the advan- 
 tages of topical study and recitation applies with pecu- 
 liar force to geography. Outlines, more or less minute, 
 should be given to the class as a guide to study. The 
 same outlines should also be a guide to each pupil's 
 recitation, the teacher giving as little assistance as pos- 
 sible. A review of the previous lesson or lessons may 
 be given during the first few minutes of the recitation, 
 so as to connect together related subjects. 
 
 When a pupil has told all that he can of a given topic, 
 encourage the rest of the pupils to ask questions of the 
 one who has recited. It will, of course, be understood 
 
160 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 that the answers to such questions, as well as the facts 
 given in recitation, need not necessarily be found in the 
 text-book, but may be gathered from all reference books 
 to which the pupils have access. Very' often a part of 
 the class may be sent to the board, and the rest take 
 slates, for the purpose of drawing the outline of the 
 country studied, and indicating, or representing, such 
 facts as have been learned, as mountains, rivers, cities, 
 etc., each pupil reciting as all draw. In drawing the 
 outline of a country, for example, one pupil may men- 
 tion the body of adjacent water or land and the direc- 
 tion of the boundary line as the class draw; then 
 another pupil may continue the description. They may 
 proceed in like manner with the other topics, following 
 the order in which they were learned. In this form of 
 recitation it will be seen that the teacher says very lit- 
 tle, most of the talking being done by the pupils. 
 
 The question and answer method, by which the teacher 
 uses many more words than the pupils, should very 
 rarely be used. After a country has been studied, a 
 page of map-questions may be given out for a lesson. 
 In the recitation of such a lesson one pupil may read 
 the questions for the pupils whom the teacher designates 
 to answer. Or each pupil may be asked to write five 
 questions, and after he has answered one he may give 
 another to another pupil, naming the pupil who is to 
 answer after the question is given. 
 
 In the map-questions and in other lessons the outline 
 wall-maps may sometimes be used, one pupil pointing 
 out the places named. Generally, however, the answers 
 should be given without the map being in sight. An 
 occasional exercise with the outline map will be found 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 161 
 
 profitable, in which the teacher points upon the map to 
 certain places, which the pupils name or about which 
 they tell what they know. 
 
 Geographical Reading-. — After a subject or country 
 .has been studied by topics, there should be class reading 
 of journeys and other descriptions for the purpose of 
 gaining interesting and useful information. At least 
 one-third of the time given to geography, and some of 
 the time set apart for supplementary reading, should be 
 given to such reading. It is not necessary for every 
 pupil in the class to have a book. Three books, or even 
 one book, passed from one pupil to another, will suffice. 
 Half a dozen good books of travel upon the countries 
 studied should be accessible to every teacher of the 
 grammar grade. They will do much to give interest to 
 the study and direct the future reading of the pupils. 
 
162 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 The chief objects to be kept in mind in teaching his- 
 tory are : (1) to create an interest in history and a taste 
 for reading it ; (2) to teach important facts of history 
 so that they will be remembered ; (3) to show the relation 
 of past events to the present in such a way as to prepare 
 pupils for the varied duties of life ; (4) to cultivate the 
 powers of memory, imagination, and reflection ; (5) to 
 cultivate language. 
 
 Preparatory Work. — Story-telling and story-read- 
 ing should precede the iormal study of history, and may 
 be begun very early in the course. True stories of cele- 
 brated persons, especially of their child life, will be 
 interesting and instructive to children of the primary 
 school. During the fourth and fifth years in school the 
 stories should continue to be largely about persons, and 
 may be somewhat disconnected ; that is, no special ef- 
 fort need be made to follow in chronological order the 
 history of our country, the main purpose being to make 
 enduring impressions upon the pupils, of the principal 
 characters in history, and to create an interest in them. 
 The story may be sometimes told by the teacher, and 
 sometimes read after a few of the principal facts have 
 been told. Sometimes one pupil may read the story to 
 the rest, and sometimes — perhaps oftener than in any 
 other way — the pupils may read in turn at sight. All 
 of these exercises should be followed by talking and 
 writing upon the subjects given, in order to encourage 
 attention, to fix the points in the minds of pupils, and to 
 cultivate the power of expression. 
 
HISTORY. 163 
 
 During the sixth and seventh years in school, story- 
 telling and reading should be continued, but in a more 
 systematic manner and with a wider purpose in view 
 than during the preceding years. To teach what history 
 is, and to lead the pupils into the possession of histori- 
 cal ideas as a basis for subsequent study, will now be 
 the purpose of the teacher. Ideas of peaceful life, of 
 war, and of government, are best gained by observation 
 of present affairs, by reading and hearing what has 
 transpired in the past, and by tjomparing what is heard 
 with what is known from observation. 
 
 Begin, then, by calling the attention of pupils to the 
 necessary accompaniments of peaceful life, — useful em- 
 ployments, schools, government, religion, etc. Lead 
 them to state in detail what they see in every-day life 
 about them, and what is transpiring at the present time 
 in places remote from them. Several talks of this kind 
 will bring out all the essential ideas of peaceful life, and 
 make the pupils realize that history is a real thing of 
 the present as well as of the remote past. When this 
 has been done, lead them to compare the present condi- 
 tion of their neighborhood and country with what it 
 was in early colonial times. Have them read stories 
 of the early settlements, dwelling especially upon the 
 privations that were endured, the absence of schools, 
 railroads, and telegraph, the primitive home life, and 
 the means of travel. ' 
 
 The local history of the town or neighborhood should 
 be first considered. There are few places which have 
 not most interesting stories connected with them. The 
 more personal and real these stories are, the better. 
 After the pupils have read and talked about the early 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 history of their own neighborhood and State, let them j 
 do the same with the history of other places, it being | 
 kept constantly in mind that the story should convey a 
 vivid impression of real life. Pictures will aid the pupil 
 to get a clear idea of some things which cannot be well 
 described by words. Photographs of places, and pic- 
 tures cut from illustrated papers and pasted upon card- 
 board, coins, and relics of every description, — all will 
 be found to be a valuable aid to the teacher of history. 
 
 The same method of teaching ideas of war should be 
 used as is used in teaching ideas of peace. In the stories 
 read and talked about, the causes of wars, their necessity, 
 and the methods of warfare should be considered. It 
 would not be well at this stage to dwell much in detail 
 upon campaigns and battles. 
 
 Ideas of government, the objects of government, the 
 different kinds of government, and the duties of citizens, 
 should be taught in connection with stories illustrating 
 both peace and war, and with what exists in their own 
 town, State, and country. 
 
 During the latter part of the seventh year, one ele- 
 mentary book of United States history may be read 
 through in regular order, for the purpose of getting a 
 connected account. As before, the reading should be 
 followed by talking and writing, in which the principal 
 events are brought out clearly in the pupils' own lan- 
 guage. All the whUe, the geography of the section 
 talked about should be carefully studied from outline 
 maps. Progressive maps, with changes in the boundary, 
 may be drawn by the pupils. Chronological tables may 
 also be made, consisting of the dates of the most impor- 
 tant events. If the dates of five or six events of a 
 
HISTORY. 165 
 
 century are kept in mind, all other events may be distin- 
 guished as occurring before or after one of these dates. 
 For example, if the time of the landing of the Pilgrims 
 is known, some other events could be remembered as 
 occurring either before or after that event. 
 
 Topical Study. — At the beginning of the eighth year 
 in school, history should be taken up as a distinct 
 study. Instead of one book being used for study, it is 
 better to have several, each pupil deriving the benefit 
 of the study of others from different books. Topics 
 should be arranged carefully by the teacher, and placed 
 upon the blackboard. These topics can be copied by 
 the pupils into topic-books provided for the purpose. 
 Some time will be needed and not a little direct assist- 
 ance before the pupils can use the topics as they should 
 be used in study, and before they can give long and 
 connected statements in their own words. 
 
 The following general outline may be a guide of work 
 to be attempted during the eighth and ninth years : — 
 
 I. America before Columbus. 
 
 Traces of inhabitants : Northmen. 
 II. Discoverers and Explorers. 
 1. Spanish. 
 
 ng IS . I ji^portant discoveries and explorations. 
 
 3. French. ^ ^ ^ 
 
 4. Dutch. 
 
 III. English Settlers. 
 
 1. In New England. 
 
 2. In Middle States. 
 
 3. In Southern States. 
 
 (1) Permanent settlements. 
 
 (2) Cause of settlers coming. 
 
 (3) Life of people. 
 
 Manners, customs, laws, religion. 
 
IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 (4) Government. 
 
 (5) Growth and change during colonial period. 
 
 (6) Wars. 
 
 The French in North America. 
 The Revolution. 
 The Confederation. 
 
 1. Reasons for. 
 
 2. Principal events. 
 
 3. Defects. 
 
 The United States. 
 
 1. The Constitution. 
 
 (1) Formation and adoption. 
 
 (2) Features. 
 
 (3) Amendments. 
 
 2. Presidential administrations. 
 
 (1) When begun, length. 
 
 (2) Principal events. 
 
 3. Internal progress. 
 
 (1) Population. 
 Industries. 
 Productions. 
 Exports. 
 Education. 
 Inventions. 
 
 4. 
 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 (5) 
 (6) 
 Wars. 
 
 n 
 
 (1) England (1812). 
 
 (2) Mexico. 
 
 (3) Civil. 
 
 Cause. 
 Duration. 
 Principal events. 
 Result. 
 
 The topics of the general outline wiU have to be 
 elaborated somewhat as the various subjects are 
 reached. The following topics, for example, may be 
 given upon " The French in North America." 
 
 The territory acquired. 
 
 (1) What region. 
 
 (2) By whom discovered and settled. 
 
HISTORY. 167 
 
 (3) First settlements. 
 
 (4) Time (relative). 
 
 2. Government. 
 
 (1) Kind. 
 
 (2) Results. 
 
 3. Loss of territory. 
 
 (1) Claims. 
 
 (2) Allies. 
 
 (3) Opponents. 
 
 (4) Parts abandoned, and when. 
 
 The following topics for the study of wars may be 
 used : — 
 
 1. Parties. 
 
 2. Cause. 
 
 3. Occasion. 
 
 4. Elements of strength and weaknetts. 
 
 5. The campaigns. 
 
 (1) Plan. 
 
 a. Objective points. Where? Why? 
 h. Routes. 
 
 c. • Forces and commanders. 
 
 d. Advantages and difliculties. 
 
 (2) Movements. 
 
 (3) Decisive battles. 
 
 (4) Results. 
 
 (5) Consequences. 
 
 6. Results of the war. 
 
 7. Consequences of the war. 
 
 The Recitation A short time should be taken at 
 
 the beginning of each recitation for reviewing such 
 topics of past lessons as have any connection with the 
 lessons of the day. Such reviews will also fix in mind 
 the important facts which have been studied. 
 
 To bring out the points clearly, and to make the 
 study interesting, maps and diagrams should be in con- 
 
168 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 stant use in the recitation. Engraved maps may be 
 consulted, but special attention should be given to the 
 di-awing of maps by the pupils. Progressive maps, or 
 maps which grow with the study of a section, may be 
 made from day to day, and the pupils should be ready 
 to draw at any time rapid sketches, which will illus- 
 trate the relative position of places, the movements of 
 armies, or the growth of territory. 
 
 In recitation, the pupil should be expected to take a 
 topic and tell, in his own language^ what he has ascer- 
 tained in regard to it, with as little interruption as pos- 
 sible. After he has finished his statement, the other 
 pupils may add anything which has been omitted, cor- 
 rect any misstatement which has been made, or ask 
 questions to bring out the points more clearly. If 
 there are several different books in the hands of the 
 class, the statements made by the various members will 
 vary considerably. One will give a story not told by 
 the pupil who first recited. Another will show the re- 
 lation which the event described bears to others. Still 
 another will derive from the event a practical lesson for 
 our o\vn people and time. All will help to make the 
 story more complete and more likely to be remembered. 
 Emphasize especially those features which are directly 
 related to present affairs, or which may lead the 
 pupils into a higher appreciation of their duties as 
 citizens, and give them a better understanding of those 
 duties. 
 
 A recitation in history properly conducted will en- 
 courage the pupils to gather information from all avail- 
 able sources. The gazetteer, cyclopaedia, biographies, 
 and histories of various kinds will be sought and read 
 
HISTORY. 169 
 
 for the purpose of gaining and giving all possible infor- 
 mation upon the topics to be recited. Such study and 
 recitation will encourage a spirit of investigation and 
 tend to the formation of a habit of using reference 
 books, which will be of incalculable service to pupils 
 after they leave school. 
 
 Selections of poetry and prose bearing upon the sub- 
 jects studied may be memorized and recited with great 
 profit to the pupil. Patrick Henry's "Appeal" and 
 Mrs. Hemans's "Pilgrim Fathers" have done more for 
 some pupils than all else they have studied. Feelings 
 of patriotism may be excited and the imagination may 
 be stirred in this as in no other way. 
 
 Topical Reviews. — In the latter part of the ninth 
 year, and occasionally at other times, topical reviews 
 should be given consisting of the details of a single sub- 
 ject. The following outlines may be suggestive of the 
 manner of taking up reviews in which the history 
 of a single subject is traced with comparatively few 
 details : — 
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 1. What territory occupied, past and present. 
 
 2. Mode of living. 
 
 3. Claims to the soil. 
 
 4. Government support. 
 
 5. Present condition and prospects. 
 
 SLAVERY. 
 
 1. Origin. 
 
 2. Slave trade. 
 
 3. Early opposition. 
 
 4. Recognition in Constitution. 
 
 5. Louisiana purchase. 
 
 6. Missoui-i Compromise. 
 
170 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 7. Abolitionism. 
 
 Garrison, Phillips. 
 John Brown, Lovejoy. 
 Emancipation. 
 By individuals. 
 By state. 
 By country. 
 
 EXTENSION OF TERRITORY AND SETTLEMENT. 
 
 1. Settlement of Kentucky and Tennessee. 
 
 2. Settlement of the Northwest. 
 
 3. Louisiana purchase. 
 
 4. Florida purchase. 
 
 5. Settlements west of the Mississippi. , 
 
 6. Annexation of Texas. 
 
 7. Mexican War. 
 
 8. Settlement of the Pacific coast. 
 
 9. Purchase of Alaska. 
 10. Settlement of the Southwest. _3t^ 
 
 Biographical reviews, especiall}'- of the lives of those 
 persons who have had a prominent part in the affairs 
 of the country, will also be found interesting and use- 
 ful. Many of the leading features of history will in 
 this way be brought out clearly and be connected in 
 such a way as to make them remembered. The follow- 
 ing names are suggested for review: — 
 
 John Smith, Columbus, Cabot, Cortez, La Salle, Wolfe, Wash- 
 ington, Braddock, Lafayette, Franklin, Adams, Putnam, JefEerson, 
 Madison, Clay, Webster, Scott, Lincoln, Grant, Garfield. 
 
 In these later lessons upon a country, it will be well 
 to encourage the pupils to ask questions in recitation, 
 the answers to which they have previously looked up. 
 Much interest will in this way be developed and the 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY. 171 
 
 pupils will be encouraged to consult reference books at 
 home, in the public library, and in the schoolroom. 
 
 Historical Reading. — One of the chief objects of 
 the study of history in school is to awaken an interest in 
 the subject to such an extent as to induce persons to 
 read good books of history and biography after they 
 have left school. Doubtless this object is gained, to a 
 great extent, by following good methods of study and 
 by frequently reading good books in school. Yet more 
 than this may be done, first by directing the outside 
 reading of pupils, and secondly by encouraging such 
 reading by means of special exercises. There should 
 be given to the pupils a list of books, both of biography 
 and history, suitable for them to read. If any of the 
 books named are not in the public or school library, 
 the teacher should use his influence to have them put 
 there. Generally trustees of libraries are very glad of 
 such suggestions, and are willing to co-operate with 
 teachers in leading the young to read good books. 
 
 A course of reading by subjects may be laid out for 
 a term, and once a week, perhaps on Friday afternoon, 
 thirty or forty minutes may be well spent in question- 
 ing pupils upon what they have read. For example, 
 the subject for one week might be The Mound-Builders. 
 The pupils would be asked what they have read upon 
 the subject during the past week or at any previous 
 time. From one and another of the pupils information 
 of where the Mound-Builders lived, what they built, 
 use of mounds, what is found in them, and where they 
 are now seen, together with such a description of the 
 utensils discovered as will lead the pupils to infer the 
 condition and occupations of this curious people. Such 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 exercises help the pupils to gain valuable information, 
 and will also stimulate them to read upon the subject 
 to be discussed. 
 
 Another means of stimulating pupils to read is to 
 give out historical or biographical subjects for composi- 
 tion. Knowing that they are to write upon a given 
 subject, they will read with the view of gaining all the 
 information they can. For some reasons it may be well 
 to have such compositions written during a specified 
 time in school. 
 
 Historical Recreations. — It will be useful to take 
 half an hour occasionally for a game or for miscella- 
 neous questioning. One way of spending the time 
 would be to have each pupil bring in five questions 
 somewhat out of the usual course ; such as, "Whose 
 dying words were, 'Don't give up the ship'?" "Was 
 Washington ever wounded in battle?" "Who was 
 ' Rough and Ready ' ? " 
 
 A useful game is to have each pupil assume some 
 character of history, and by a story or a little account 
 of himself lead others to guess who he is. Another 
 game consists in having one of the pupils leave the 
 room, while the others select for him some historical 
 character. On his return he is to guess from the re- 
 marks of his mates what character he represents. By 
 careful management these games will prove profitable 
 and interesting to aU. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 173 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Hygiene, or a knowledge of the means of preserving 
 health, should be especially emphasized in the primary 
 and grammar grades, and only such parts of anatomy 
 and physiology should be taught as will help pupils to 
 a good understanding of the laws of health. In the 
 primary school, observation of external parts alone 
 should be made ; and only as pupils are prepared to 
 observe should the structure and function of the vari- 
 ous internal organs be taught. 
 
 Means. — By means of parts of animals, procured at 
 the butcher's, the structure of nearly all parts of the 
 body can be taught. If a manikin is not provided, 
 good anatomical charts should be near at hand for con- 
 stant reference. As the various parts of the body are 
 studied, their location should be pointed out by pupils, 
 either upon their own bodies or upon the bodies of 
 others. 
 
 While books may be in the hands of pupils of the 
 higher grades, the teacher should under no circum- 
 stances allow the pupils to memorize and repeat what 
 is not clearly understoocj. 
 
 Outline and Methods. — Instead of laying down a 
 definite amount for each term and year, the following 
 general outline is given for the teachers of all grades 
 above the primary.^ Only the most general features of 
 the subjects should be taken up in the lower grades, 
 the study and observation being more minute as the 
 pupils grow in maturity and in ability to comprehend 
 
 1 The course for primary grades is given upon page 195. 
 
174 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 the functions of the various parts. For the daily study 
 it will be necessary to subdivide the topics. 
 
 A few suggestions in regard to methods of teaching 
 are added to each subject. Other suggestions will be 
 found in good text-books, several of which should be 
 upon the teacher's table for reference. 
 
 I. Waste Matters of the Body. 
 
 Show by observation that water and carbon constantly escape 
 from the body through the breath, and that salt escapes by means 
 of perspiration. To show the existence of carbonic acid in the 
 breath, breathe into lime-water, and observe the same effect as when 
 lime-water is mixed with carbonic acid. This is shown by thrust- 
 ing red-hot coal into a dry test-tube and adding lime-water to the 
 gas generated. 
 
 II. Food and Drink, . . 
 
 Show by observation and experiment the principal kinds of 
 food, as the albuminous foods, sugars and starches, fats, and min- 
 eral foods. Hints of methods will be found in any good text-book 
 of physiology. In directing the observation of pupils, keep con- 
 stantly in mind the purpose of showing what kind of food is best 
 to build up the body, to repau* waste, and to supply heat. 
 
 III. Digestion and Assimilation, 
 
 1. Organs and parts : — 
 
 (1) Name ; (2) location ; (3) construction. 
 
 2. Process of digestion. 
 
 3. Hygiene. 
 
 Conditions of health in respect to eating, drinking, and 
 exercising. Effects of use of tobacco. 
 
 Examine structure of teeth procured from a dentist ; also teeth 
 of lower animals. For location and external shape, let the pupils 
 look into one another's mouths, and, with the aid of a mirror, in 
 their own mouths. Dissect a cat, rabbit, or frog, to see the loca- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 175 
 
 tion and structure of organs. Make drawings, and compare witli 
 chart. Get specimens from the butcher's, and examine structure. 
 Examine bits of pig's stomach to see coats and openings of gastric 
 tubes. 
 
 Consult text-books for experiments to show the action of saliva, 
 gastric juice, bile, and pancreatic juice upon various kinds of food. 
 Lead pupils to know what food is most nutritious, and length of 
 time taken for digestion. Let the pupils infer reasons for laws of 
 health in relation to care of the teeth, manner of chewing the food, 
 times of eating and exercising, kind of food to be eaten, times of 
 drinking, etc. 
 
 IV. Circulation. 
 
 1. Organs and parts : — 
 
 (1) Name; (2) location; (3) construction; (4) function. 
 
 2. Composition and uses of blood. 
 
 3. Hygiene : — 
 
 (1) Nature and causes of diseases of organs. 
 
 (2) Health of organs in relation to food, exercise, clothing, 
 
 and air. 
 
 (3) The use of tobacco and alcohol. 
 
 Dissect a sheep's heart to show its structure and the position of 
 parts. Refer to text-book and chart for guide in dissecting and 
 in finding the parts. Make drawings of parts discovered, and com- 
 pare with chart. Observe witli microscope the blood circulatin^j 
 in frog's foot. Listen with the stethoscope to the heart-beats. No- 
 tice pulse in the wrist and in other parts of the body. For experi- 
 ments to show the composition of the blood, consult good text- 
 books. 
 
 V. Respiration, 
 
 1. Organs and parts : — 
 
 (1) Name; (2) location; (3) construction; (4) function. 
 
 2. Breathing : — 
 
 Action of inspiration — expiration. 
 
 3. Voice : — 
 
 (1) Organs ; (2) sound and speech. 
 
176 
 
 ^rETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 4. Hygiene: — 
 
 (1) Action of air in lungs. 
 
 (2) Cause and prevention of disease; ventilation; disinfec- 
 
 tants; loose clothing; exercise. 
 
 Listen to respiration with stethoscope in inspiration and expira- 
 tion. Note the difEerence. Examine carefully a sheep's lungs and 
 windpipe attached. Distend lungs witii air, and examine. Exam- 
 ine sheep's windpipe ; cut lengthwise in front and behind to show 
 vocal cords ; notice the cartilages that form the larynx. 
 
 VI. Muscles and Tendons, 
 
 1. Structure and arrangement. 
 
 2. Kinds. 
 
 3. Action and use. 
 
 4. Hygiene. 
 
 Health and strength of muscles in relation to exercise, rest, 
 food, pure air. 
 Examine boiled lean beef to observe fibres, bundles, and con- 
 nective tissue. Get sheep's leg with hoof on to show the struc- 
 ture and action of tendons; also, to show the contraction and 
 relaxation of muscles. Examine the tendons of a fowl's leg and 
 foot. Let the pupils locate muscles, and observe the action of 
 tendons and muscles upon their own bodies. Let the pupils infer 
 from the construction and use of muscles the need of exercise ; 
 also, the proper amount and kind of exercise. 
 
 VII. Bones. 
 
 1. The skeleton. 
 
 2. Composition and structure. 
 
 3. Periosteum. 
 
 4. Cartilage. 
 
 5. Joints and ligaments. 
 
 6. General uses. 
 
 7. Hygiene. 
 
 Food; exercise. 
 
 Dissolve mineral matter of bones by soaking them in weak 
 muriatic acid. Destroy animal matter by burning. Examine 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 177 
 
 bone with microscope. Examine partially decayed bone. Cite 
 instances to illustrate circulation of blood in bones and the growth 
 of them. Have pupils infer the general uses. Examine with 
 knife and forceps joints, coverings, and cartilage procured at the 
 butcher's. 
 
 In examining the skeleton, the number, form, and position of 
 the bones should be noted, and so far as it seems best the name of 
 each bone may be given. The common name should be given in 
 preference to the scientific name. Encourage pupils to feel of 
 bones to ascertain their shape in every part, and have them infer 
 the motions and other uses of parts fi*om a knowledge of their 
 shape and structure. 
 
 If the school does not own a skeleton, it may be borrowed from 
 a physician. If none can be procured, examine bones of lower 
 animals. Use charts constantly. 
 
 VIII. Nervous System, 
 
 1. Organs and parts : — 
 
 (1) Name ; (2) location ; (3) construction ; (4) function. 
 
 2. Hygiene : — 
 
 (1) Name and cause of disease. 
 
 (2) Health of organs, how preserved. Occupation, recrea- 
 
 tion, sleep. 
 
 Dissect a calf's brain, and compare parts observed with diagram. 
 Let pupils infer from the structure and function of the brain and 
 nerves the need of rest and sleep, the time in which rest should be 
 taken, the duration of mental exercise, and the kind of food and 
 clothing needed. The eifect of the use of tobacco and alcohol 
 upon the nerves should be inferred from observation of its use. 
 from what is known of the nervous system, and from familiar 
 experiments. 
 
 IX. Senses. 
 
 1. Touch 
 
 2. Sight 
 
 3. Hearing 
 
 4. Taste 
 
 5. Smell 
 
 Organs and parts 
 Structure. 
 Function. 
 Hygiene. 
 
178 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 By experiment show what parts of the body are most sensitive. 
 Let pupils infer the cause and reason. 
 
 Show by experiments the assistance which the senses give one 
 another in giving impressions. 
 
 Dissect the eye of an ox or a codfish to observe the structm"e. 
 Let the pupils infer from the structure causes of disease and the 
 kind of care which should be taken of the eyes. 
 
 X. Skin, 
 
 4 
 
 1. structure and use of parts : — 
 
 (1) Cuticle, hair, and nails ; (2) true skin ; (3) perspiration- 
 tubes; (4) oil-tubes. 
 
 2. Complexion. 
 
 3. Hygiene : — 
 
 (1) Diseases and their causes. 
 
 (2) Healthy condition of skin in relation to general health. 
 
 (3) Cleanliness; clothing. 
 
 Examine skin with microscope. Scrape off cuticle with a sharp 
 knife. Observe blisters and callous places. Examine perspiration- 
 tubes on palm of hand with microscope ; also, hair and finger- 
 nails. Let pupils infer from the use of parts the kind of care 
 needed. 
 
 Dissection. — Reference has been made in the above 
 outline to the dissection of a cat or rabbit. To do this 
 well it will be necessary for the novice to get some 
 assistance either from books or from some one who has 
 had practice in dissecting. The following suggestions 
 copied from The American Teacher may be of assistance 
 to some teachers. 
 
 [A blow on the temple will kill a rabbit ; for a cat, with its 
 proverbial "nine lives," chloroform may be used. This can be 
 given on a sponge, placing the animal in a close box, or by putting 
 it down the throat by means of a pipette. Experience proves that 
 the village doctor is often glad to encourage the study of physi- 
 ology by thus preparing the animal for dissection. If the subse- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 179 
 
 quent work is tenderly and reverently done, — as it should alicays 
 be, — the pupils will have a fuller appreciation of the " fearful and 
 wonderful " way in which the Creator has fashioned the human 
 body than is possible from the mere study of the book. No 
 teacher should undertake this work who cannot thereby increase 
 the reverence of his pupils for the " temple of the soul," and thus 
 disarm all criticism upon dissection as " developing cruelty." 
 
 Materials. — A rabbit or cat ; a board large enough to hold the 
 animal when stretched out ; hammer and tacks ; a sharp knife and 
 scissors ; a needle, strong thread, and a pair of light forceps.] 
 
 1. Place the animal upon its back, on a board, holding it in 
 position by driving a tack through each paw. 
 
 2. Parting the fur, carefully slit the skin with the scissors from 
 the neck to the posterior part of the chest ; make short cross-cuts 
 at the end of this slit, and draw back the skin with the fingers, 
 being very careful not to disturb any of the tissues or organs 
 beneath. 
 
 3. See and feel the trachea and larynx under a thin layer of 
 tissue ; note, on each side and "just behind the angle of the lower 
 jaw," the external jugular veins. 
 
 4. Between the trachea and each of these veins, just under the 
 tissue layer, lies a muscle (stern o-mastoid). Study its position, 
 and the meeting of the two; the subject of muscles is often a 
 puzzle to the pupil, his ideas thereon being very misty. 
 
 5. Clear away on the left the thin layer of tissue, being very 
 careful not to prick a vein, so as to get blood upon the specimen. 
 If any small branch must be cut, tie it in two places first, and cut 
 between. Another muscle (the sterno-hyoid) will now be seen, 
 between the stern o-mastoid and the trachea. Pull the latter muscle 
 outward, trace slowly and carefully with the fingers through the 
 connective tissue between the two muscles, and the carotid artery 
 and some large nerves will be found. Be sure that the pupils see 
 the latter, and understand clearly that nerves are tangible cords, 
 not mere " impressions." 
 
 6. Cut the sterno-mastoid muscle where it joins the breast-bone, 
 turn it one side, gently lift the carotid artery in your forceps and 
 trace it forward, separating it with care from adjoining parts, till 
 you reach its division at the angle of the lower jaw. Following 
 
180 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 up the external carotid artery, find the submaxillar}^ gland, "a 
 soft, roundish mass about the size of a hazel-nut." Note its 
 slender duct passing into the mouth. A little farther along, the 
 artery is crossed by a tendon and nerve. 
 
 7. The large pneumogastric nerve is nearly parallel to the 
 carotid artery ; upon it, near the skull, is a ganglion. 
 
 8. Repeat this dissection on the right side, then cut across the 
 inner ends of the muscles from the chest to the shoulders, and, 
 turning them outward, note the arteries, veins, and nerves passing 
 to the trunk and fore limbs. 
 
 9. Raise the front end of the sternum in your forceps, cut 
 through the muscles and rib cartilages on each side, turn back the 
 sternum, cut it across near the lower line of the chest cavity, and 
 remove it. Notice the diaphragm (size and shape), the pericardium 
 inclosing the heart, and the collapsed lungs. Carefully dissect 
 away adjoining parts, turning heart and lungs as needed, so as to 
 trace the main blood-vessels. 
 
 10. Continue the cut of the skin into the wall of the abdomen, 
 make cross-cuts, and reflect the skin and muscles. 
 
 Note shape and position of the oesophagus, stomach, intestines, 
 and liver. 
 
 In many respects, the frog is the best animal from 
 which to learn the structure and arrangements of the 
 internal organs of the human body. To kill the frog, 
 put it into a little alcohol, or into a mixture of ether 
 and water, in a closed bottle or fruit-jar. Lay aside the 
 skin with a sharp knife, and lead the pupils to see and 
 describe the arrangement of organs ; also, so far as they 
 are able, to examine the structure of each part. 
 
 This work will be found very profitable, and is 
 within the power of every teacher to do. 
 
 Emergencies. — Special lessons should be given in 
 the higher grades to show what may be done in times 
 of emergency before the physician arrives. A knowl- 
 edge of what to do when the body is cut or injured in 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 181 
 
 any part, when poison is taken, and when a partially 
 drowned person is taken from the water, might be the 
 means of preserving a valuable life, and at no time can 
 such knowledge be more advantageously given than 
 while the structure and functions of the organs are 
 being taught. Detailed directions, found in any good 
 text-book upon physiology, should be frequently re- 
 viewed. 
 
 Use of Tobacco. — In connection with the lessons 
 in Physiology and Hygiene, the effects of the use of 
 tobacco upon the system should be clearly and forcibly 
 explained. The character of the constituents of tobacco 
 — carbonic acid, ammonia, and nicotine — should be 
 taught, and their effects upon the stomach, lungs, blood, 
 brain, and nerves, be made known. The teacher should 
 dwell especially upon the harm which smoking and 
 chewing tobacco have upon young people, not only in 
 its physical effects on account of the delicacy of tissues, 
 but also in its mental and moral effects. 
 
 Use of Alcohol. — The effects of alcohol as a poison 
 may sometimes be forcibly shown objectively, even to 
 little children. In primary grades, however, most of 
 the instruction in the effects of the use of alcohol must 
 consist of citing examples of the direct injury which 
 has been done, and of telling and reading proper 
 stories. 
 
 In the higher grades, in addition to the means em- 
 ployed in the lower grades, more direct teaching of the 
 subject may and should be done. The following out- 
 line of lessons prepared by Mr. Arthur C. Boyden, of 
 the Bridgewater (Mass.) State Normal School, shows 
 what may be done in the grammar school : — 
 
182 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 These lessons are intended to suggest a method of teaching the effects 
 of alcohol on the human hody. Each part of the subject is introduced by 
 simple experiments from which the teacher may derive the points to be 
 impressed. For the grammar grade selection of the more important parts 
 may have to be made, but for the higher grade all the points can be taught, 
 understood, and explained. In the primary grade preparation for this 
 work should be made by simple lessons on the parts and systems of the 
 human body, and by stating in simple terms the more apparent facts in 
 regard to the effects of alcohol. 
 
 I. Origin of Alcohol. 
 In Fermented Liquors. 
 
 Experiments. — Exp. 1. Add molasses to water in a bottle till 
 it is of a deep brown color, then add a teaspoonful of yeast, allow 
 it to stand in a warm place for a day or two. Obs. The mixture 
 has the odor of alcohol, later a sour, acid odor ; the mixture has 
 a sharp taste. Inf. The little yeast plant has changed the sugar 
 of the molasses to alcohol ; this will change to an acid if left alone. 
 Call the yeast plant a "ferment," and the process of changing 
 " fermentation." 
 
 Exp. 2. Allow apple juice to stand exposed to the air for a few 
 days. Obs. The liquid has the odor of alcohol, also the biting 
 taste. Later it has a sour, acid taste like vinegar. Inf. Very 
 small ferments from the air have changed the sugar of the apple 
 juice to alcohol. Call the liquid "cidei." The alcohol will change 
 to vinegar if left exposed to the air. 
 
 Cider is formed by the fermentation of apple juice in the air. 
 
 Wines are formed by the fermentation of grape juice, etc., in 
 the air. 
 
 Ales and Beers are formed by the fermentation of the sugar of 
 gi'ains. (Malt liquors.) 
 
 Alcohol is an essential constituent of all these fermented liquors. 
 Nature will change it to an acid if left to itself. 
 
 2. In Distilled Liquors. 
 
 Exp. 3. Heat cider or wine in a test-tube over an alcohol lamp, 
 pass the steam through a glass tube into a bottle which is wrapped 
 in a wet cloth to condense this steam. Obs. The odor and taste 
 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 183 
 
 are more marked than in the fermented liquors ; often there is a 
 bitter taste. Inf. The condensed liquor is stronger than the fer- 
 mented liquor, and is changed into new substances oftentimes. 
 Call this process of evaporating and condensing " distillation," and 
 the resulting liquid a "distilled liquor." 
 
 Brandy is distilled from wines. 
 
 Gin is distilled from beer, and flavored with juniper berries. 
 Whiskey is distilled from the wort of fermented grain. 
 Rum is distilled from fermented molasses. 
 
 II. Properties and Uses of Alcohol. 
 
 Exp. 4. Examine alcohol for its color, odor, and taste. Place 
 a little on the hand. Obs. Alcohol is a transparent liquid, has a 
 strong odor and a biting taste. Inf. The rapid evaporation of the 
 alcohol makes the hand feel cool ; it is a volatile liquid. 
 
 Exp. 5. Place a little in a spoon, apply a lighted match. Obs. 
 It burns with a blue, hot flame. Inf. Alcohol is inflammable 
 because it unites easily with the oxygen of the air. 
 
 Exp. 6. Shake a little powdered resin in alcohol. Obs. The 
 alcohol changes to the color of the resin ; finally the resin disap- 
 pears. Inf. Some resinous substances are soluble in alcohol. 
 
 Exp. 7. Mix a little oil of turpentine with alcohol ; shake. Obs. 
 The turpentine mixes with the alcohol. Inf. Alcohol will mix 
 with some oils. 
 
 Exp. 8. Add alcohol to the white of an egg (albumen). Obs. 
 The alcohol changes the moist mucilaginous albumen to a white, 
 stringy solid. Call this " coagulation." Inf. Alcohol coagulates 
 albuminous substances by extracting the water from them. 
 
 Properties. — Alcohol is a transparent liquid, — odorous, — has' 
 biting taste, — is volatile. It dissolves many resinous substances 
 — and mixes with most oils. It is inflammable — great affinity for 
 oxygen. It coagulates albumen — attraction for water. 
 
 Uses (resulting from these properties). — External application to 
 allay inflammation. Alcohol lamps for heating purposes. A sol- 
 vent for gums in preparing varnishes. In preparation of perfumery, 
 medicine, etc. Preservation of museum specimens. 
 
184 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 III. Effects of Alcohol on the Human Body. 
 1. Alcohol impairs Digestion. 
 
 Exp. 9. Place with the finger a little alcohol on the inside 
 membrane of the mouth (a mucous membrane) ; repeat this several 
 times. Obs. The membrane stings, the saliva flows freely, finally 
 there is a dry, puckery feeling. Inf. Alcohol inflames the mem- 
 brane, excites the flow of the liquid which it secretes, and absorbs 
 the moisture in it. 
 
 Application. — The lining membrane of the mouth also lines the 
 stomach and the other organs of the digestive system. A small 
 amount of alcohol will cause a profuse flow of the gastric juice and 
 passes very rapidly into the blood. A larger amount inflames and 
 irritates the lining membrane of the stomach. A continued use 
 weakens the quality of the gastric juice by the unusual and irregu- 
 lar flow, also impoverishes the blood from which it comes. It iiTi- 
 tates the constantly inflamed membrane of the stomach, leading to 
 an ulcerous condition and chronic inflammation. (See Dr. Sewall's 
 diagrams, p. 44 of the Standard League Documents, !No. 3, 36 
 Bromfield Street, Boston.) 
 
 Exp. 10. Add alcohol to raw meat; also rub some meat in 
 water till it is well colored with blood. Add alcohol to this blood. 
 Obs. The liquid is full of white particles, and the meat seems 
 hard. Inf. The alcohol has coagulated the albumen of the meat 
 and blood. 
 
 Exp. 11. Add alcohol to some of the pepsin of the gastric 
 juice. Obs. The pepsin contains white, stringy particles. Inf. 
 Alcohol coagulates pepsin. 
 
 2fote. — To prepare the pepsin, get from the butcher the inside mem- 
 brane of a pig's stomach ; cut into fine pieces, and soak it in glycerine for a 
 few hours. The glycerine dissolves the pepsin; strain through a fine cloth. 
 Prepared pepsin can be bought of the druggist. 
 
 Application. — Pepsin is the active solvent of the gastric juice. 
 Alcohol tends to harden the food and coagulate the pepsin, thus 
 retarding digestion. Continued use tends to chronic indigestion 
 and to the intensifying of any diseases of the digestive system. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY A^Tb HYGIENE. 185 
 
 2. Alcohol absorbs the "Water of the Body. 
 
 Exps. Refer to Exps. 8 and 9. 
 
 Alcohol not only absorbs wat'er from the albumen which it 
 coagulates, but the whole system floods it with water to dilute it 
 and render it less harmful. Hence alcohol absorbs the water of 
 the saliva, of the gastric juice, of the blood, of the tissues, and of 
 all the secretions. This soon results in a craving for fluid to 
 supply the body, really a " thirst " for water requiring time for its 
 absorption throughout the system, but temporarily satisfied by 
 more exciting. 
 
 3. Alcohol destroys the Blood-Corpuscles. 
 
 Exp. 12. Prick with a pin under the finger-nail and draw a 
 drop of blood. Place this on a bit of glass, and examine with a 
 magnifying glass. Observe the way in which the little blood-cor- 
 puscles are arranged. Touch them with the smallest amount of 
 alcohol. Obs. The corpuscles are of an irregular shape, and have 
 lost part of their color. Add more alcohol. Obs. The corpuscles 
 are in an irregular mass of a whitish color. Inf. Alcohol coagulates 
 the albumen of the corpuscles, and dissolves the coloring matter. 
 Refer also to Exp. 5. 
 
 Application. — Alcohol at once enters the blood, seizes the oxy- 
 gen that the red corpuscles are carrying to the various parts of the 
 body, dissolves the coloring matter, and coagulates the albumen of 
 these corpuscles. Hence the blood partially fails in its work of 
 carrying new matter to the tissues and in eliminating the waste 
 matter. The result is a clogging of the system with effete matter, 
 poisoning of the blood, diseases of the skin, liver, and kidneys. 
 The retarding of the combustion within the body lowers its tem- 
 perature in direct proportion to the amount of alcohol taken. 
 
 4. Alcohol ruins the Blood-Vessels. 
 
 Observe the crust of earthy matter on the inside of bottles of 
 grape wine. Inf. The earthy matter which was soluble in the 
 grape juice is thrown down by the alcohol in the wine. 
 
 Application. — The mineral matter which is being carried by the 
 blood to the bones is precipitated by the alcohol and forms a crust 
 
186 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 in the blood-vessels and in all the tissues, making them weak and 
 brittle. As a result blood-vessels burst under any unusual strain, 
 and apoplexy results. 
 
 5. Alcoliol paralyzes Nerve Matter. (A narcotic.) 
 
 Exp. 13. Etherize or chloroform a frog by soaking a wad of 
 cotton and putting it in his mouth, or place a spoonful of ether in a 
 jar of water and immerse the frog. When insensible, carefully 
 cut open the skin and flesh of the leg till the nerve is exposed. 
 Touch a drop of alcohol to the exposed nerve. Obs. The nerve 
 becomes stiff and white, the trembling of the limb ceases. Inf. 
 Alcohol has paralyzed the live nerve matter. 
 
 Applicatio7i. — A small dose of alcohol causes incipient paralysis 
 of the nerves of the tissues and brain ; this causes an extra activity 
 for the purpose of diluting and expelling the poison from the sys- 
 tem, manifested by the " animated appearance, the throbbing of 
 the arteries, the flush of the face, and the sparkle of the eye." 
 This paralysis also numbs any feelings of pain, apparent benefits 
 arising from previous paralysis. The paralysis of the nerves con- 
 trolling the muscular walls of the capillaries weakens their elasti- 
 city; at the same time the heart increases its action: hence the 
 blood tends to remain near the surface, and an extra radiation of 
 heat takes place — a second reason for the lower temperature of the 
 body. 
 
 Increase the dose, and the paralysis of the brain increases in this 
 order: 1. Of the delicate nerve matter of the superior brain (cere- 
 bellum), blunting the highest functions, reverence, modesty, love, 
 etc. ; its reflex action is the loss of control of the connecting 
 nerves ; thus moral power fails, and the lower natm-e is supreme. 
 2. The part of the brain controlling voluntary motion is paralyzed ; 
 at the same time the nerves of sensation are paralyzed, resulting 
 in an insensibility to pain and injury; this goes on till a person is 
 " dead drunk." 3. The last part of the nervous system affected is 
 that which controls the involuntary actions, breathing, etc. ; this 
 paralysis causes death. 
 
 Continued use leads to a degeneracy of nerve matter and tissue 
 by the constant paralysis and repair, because the structure of the 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 187 
 
 nerve matter is changed ; hence " disorders occasioned by the strain 
 imposed on the system, diseases traceable to the general degenera- 
 tion of the system, and diseases which might otherwise be averted 
 or resisted"; finally the insatiable demand for alcohol, diseases of 
 tne nerves, delirium and death. 
 
188 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Besides the objective work required to be done in 
 connection with the teaching of all the common 
 branches, there should be given regularly in all pri- 
 mary and grammar grades and in the ungraded school, 
 observation lessons upon minerals, plants, and animals. 
 It should be understood that the aim of these lessons 
 is not so much to teach many facts as it is to cultivate 
 the pupils' powers of observation, and to awaken an 
 interest in, and a love for, the things of nature that lie 
 directly about them. Let this part of the work there- 
 fore be slowly and carefully done. Use no book in the 
 recitation, give out no lessons to be learned, and tell 
 nothing to the pupils which they can ascertain for them- 
 selves by their own observation. Learning one fact by 
 their own unaided powers is better than memorizing a 
 hundred facts which have been given them. 
 
 Do not let the fact that you have not much knowl- 
 edge of science discourage you from making the effort 
 to teach the subjects required to be taught in these 
 elementary lessons. With three or four elementary 
 books of science from which to learn some facts and 
 methods of illustration, any teacher can after a little 
 time conduct the exercises so as to secure good results. 
 Again, let it be urged upon you not to use books in 
 teaching these lessons, but have the pupils study objects 
 only. Make a careful preparation of every lesson, even 
 though the subject be familiar, and so far as possible 
 provide each pupil with something to do or to see. 
 Have a definite object in your mind in presenting a les- 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 189 
 
 son, avoiding the aimless and irrelevant conversation 
 which is frequently carried on in a lesson of this kind. 
 Avoid a uniform question and answer method, and do 
 not encourage or allow the use of set and formal expres- 
 sions. The " Model Lessons " found in books and peri- 
 odicals should serve as a hint only of what may be 
 done. No two lessons should be conducted precisely in 
 the same way. The best object lessons are those in 
 which there is the freest expression of what the pupils 
 actually see. 
 
 Do not extend the lessons beyond the point at which 
 the pupils' interest flags, nor rob the lessons of their 
 proper time. It will be well to have a definite time 
 allotted to them. Two ten-minute lessons every day 
 in the primary grades, or during the first three years, 
 and two lessons a week, of thirty or forty minutes each, 
 or one lesson a week, an hour in length in the higher 
 grades will give time to do much valuable work. In 
 order to give each subject a proper share of time, and 
 give the teacher something definite to work by, the follow- 
 ing arrangement of subjects and times is suggested : — 
 
 First Year. — First Half. 
 
 Plants, 8 weeks. •\ Fonn, 4 weeks. \ 
 
 Place, 8 weeks. > A.M. Color, 4 weeks. 
 
 Human Body, 4 weeks. J Qualities, 8 weeks. 
 
 Size and Weight, 4 weeks. 
 
 First Year. — Second Half. 
 
 Plants, 8 weeks. ^ Form, 4 weeks. 
 
 Animals, 4 weeks. > A.M. Color, 4 weeks. 
 
 Place, 8 weeks. J Human Body, S weeks. 
 
 Size and Weight, 4 weeks. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 
190 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Second Year.— First Half. 
 
 PlantSf 8 weeks. ^ Fonn, 8 weeks. n 
 
 Human Body, 4 weeks. > A.M. Color, 4 weeks. I P.M. 
 
 Place, 8 weeks. J Qualities, 8 weeks. J 
 
 Second Year. — Second Half. 
 
 Plants, 8 weeks. ^ Form, 4 weeks. % 
 
 Animals, 4 weeks. \ A.M. Color, 8 weeks. i 
 
 Place, 8 weeks. ) Wt. and Meas., 4 weeks. ( 
 
 Human Body, 4 weeks. J 
 
 Third Year. — First Half. 
 
 Plants, 8 weeks. ^ Foim and Color, 8 weeks. ^ 
 
 Place, 4 weeks. > A.M. Human Body, 4 weeks. }- P.M. 
 
 Home Geog., 8 weeks. J Animals, 8 weeks. J 
 
 P.M. 
 
 Bks. > 
 
 '• 1 
 
 Third Year. — Second Half. 
 Place and Home Geog., ? a lyr Form and Color, 8 weeks. 
 20 weeks. > Human Body, 8 weeks. J- P.M. 
 
 Animals, 4 weeks. 
 
 Grammar Grades. 
 
 Plants. — From April to November. 
 Animals. — From November to April. 
 Minerals. — From November to April. 
 Astronomy. — From April to November. 
 Physics. — From November to April. 
 
 For the Observation Lessons, ungraded schools should 
 be divided into two sections, each section being taught 
 separately, and upon subjects required for graded 
 schools. The following arrangement of topics and 
 times is suggested for 
 
 Ungraded Schools. 
 
 To the younger pupils give two short lessons daily. 
 Plants or Animals. — Once a week. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 191 
 
 Size and Weight, or Qualities. — Once a week. 
 Color or Form. — Once a week. 
 Place or Home Geography. — Once a week. 
 Human Body. — Once a week. 
 
 To the older pupils give one long lesson a week upon plants 
 from April to November, and upon animals or minerals fi'om 
 November to April. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 The apparatus for teaching color should consist of 
 different-colored worsteds, papers, cards, pigments, etc. 
 A color-chart will also be a valuable aid. 
 
 Differences and resemblances of colors should be 
 taught by having the children select colors differing 
 from and resembling a given color. The name of the 
 color should then be given, and the pupil be asked to 
 select that color from among others, and to point to it 
 in any part of the room. At the end of the first year 
 the pupils should be able to distinguish and name all 
 of the common colors, as indicated in the Course of 
 Studies. Color and form may be taught together by 
 using different-colored cards of various shapes. 
 
 In the second year shades, tints, and hues of common 
 colors should be taught as before, with their names : 
 scarlet, pink, crimson, straw, indigo, purple, lavender, 
 salmon, buff, etc. Matching colors, shades, and tints 
 will be found to be a useful exercise. Envelopes con- 
 taining various colored bits of paper may be given out, 
 from which the pupils may select a color to match a 
 given color held up before them. At the end of the 
 second year pupils should be able to distinguish and 
 name all of the common colors, and their tints and 
 shades. 
 
192 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Color and form should be ^taught together in the 
 secoud year, considerable time being given to the mak- 
 ing of designs in which forms and colors are combined. 
 
 In the third year there should be some practice in 
 mixing pigments of different colors. Orange from red 
 and yellow, green from yellow and blue, and purple 
 from red and blue, should be produced before the pu- 
 pils, either by mixing the pigments or by passing the 
 sunlight through pieces of colored glass. Hues should 
 also be produced by mixing pigments of unequal pro- 
 portions, as, for example, a reddish hue of yellow from 
 the mixture of a very little red with yellow. 
 
 Prismatic colors in proper relations should be shown 
 from a glass prism in a sunny window, or from a soap 
 bubble. An imitation of the solar spectrum sliould bo 
 made by the children by arranging threads of worsted 
 upon any surface, or by drawing them through perfor- 
 ated cardboard. In the same way, scales of colors from 
 the lightest tint to the darkest shade should be made. 
 
 Colored designs in connection with the study of form 
 should be made, special care being taken to have the 
 lessons properly graded. These lessons should be pre- 
 ceded aud accompanied by lessons to teach harmony of 
 colors. If the teacher does not know the harmonic or 
 complementary colors, he should consult good books 
 upon the subject, and show the children what colors 
 are harmonious and hov/ the complementary colors may 
 be found. 
 
 Much information may be given in connection with 
 the color lessons as to the diflerent plants and metals 
 used for dyes, emblematic colors, colors of horses, 
 etc. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 193 
 
 Further and more explicit suggestions to teachers 
 will be found in Miss Crocker's " Lessons on Color in 
 Primary Schools." 
 
 FORM. 
 
 See Drawing, page 252. 
 
 PLACE. 
 
 The subject " Place," in the Course of Studies, is in- 
 tended to include position, distance, and direction, all 
 the lessons to be constantly illustrated by plan-drawing. 
 
 Teach use of the terms of relative position by hav- 
 ing the children place an object, as a small pasteboard 
 square, in different relations to a book or upon the 
 desk. This should first be done in imitation of the 
 teacher, and afterwards from dictation. Statements 
 expressing the relative position of two objects may 
 sometimes be made by the children. 
 
 The following will indicate some of the work which 
 children should do during the first year : — 
 
 The (square) is 
 
 on, under, over, below, above, behind, 
 before, at the right of, at the left of, 
 in front of, in the centre of, at the 
 right side of, at the left side of, at 
 the right-hand corner of^ at the left- 
 hand corner of, at the upper right-hand 
 corner of, at the middle of the right 
 side of, at the middle of the front 
 edge of, etc., the desk. 
 
 Little drawings of the top of the desk, with an object 
 upon it in different positions, should be made by the 
 children, the teacher first showing how upon the black- 
 board. 
 
194 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 The relative position of different objects in the school- 
 room should be described; as, "The teacher's desk is 
 in the front part of the room," " The clock is above the 
 blackboard," " John sits behind me," etc. As soon as 
 the points of compass are learned, the statements in 
 regard to position may be extended ; as, " There are 
 two windows on the north side of the room," " The 
 stove is near the northwest corner of the room," etc. 
 
 Relative distances should be taught at first, such as 
 the relative length and width of two books, of two 
 tables, of the length and width of the room, etc. The 
 inch, foot, yard, and rod should be shown by actual 
 measurement, and much practice should be had upon 
 estimating lengths by these standards. Lines upon the 
 slate and board, of an inch, a foot, and a yard in length, 
 should be made many times by the children, the work 
 being tested and corrected by the aid of a measure. 
 Various distances within sight of the children should 
 be first estimated, and afterwards ascertained by meas- 
 urement. This work may well be continued through- 
 out the course. 
 
 The points of compass (cardinal and semi-cardinal) 
 should be taught early in the course, and applied in all 
 the Place lessons of the primary grade. It is well to 
 place upon the floor of the room lines indicating North, 
 South, East, and West. Teach, and have your pupils 
 tell, the direction in which the rows of seats extend, 
 the road, the fences, etc. ; also, the direction which an 
 object is from any other object, using the terms North, 
 Northeast, etc. 
 
 Other suggestions of methods to teach Place are given 
 under the head of Phm-Drawing.^ 
 
 1 p. 143. 
 
OBSEKVATION LESSONS. 195 
 
 HUMATsT BODY. 
 
 It is not natural or well for young children to exam- 
 ine very minutely the structure and functions of the 
 various parts of the body ; nor can they learn with 
 profit many of the reasons of the laws of health. It is 
 important, however, that they know by observation the 
 external parts of the body, well enough at least to lead 
 them to compare the parts with corresponding parts 
 of the lower animals, and to know the proper use and 
 care of the various parts. 
 
 Considerable information will have to be given in 
 these lessons, although the pupils should be led to ascer- 
 tain and infer as many facts as possible from observa- 
 tion. They should locate the parts as they are named 
 by pointing at or touching their own bodies and the 
 bodies of others. Sometimes parts of lower animals 
 should be brought before the class for observation, as 
 for example when the structure of muscles or the shape 
 of bones are taught. Charts and pictures should also 
 be near at hand for constant reference. 
 
 Much use of simple illustrations and stories should 
 be made in giving lessons upon hygiene to young chil- 
 dren, especially upon the effects of the use of tobacco 
 and alcohol. The various primary physiologies now 
 published, will be found very suggestive to teachers 
 in respect to both matter and method. As a rule, these 
 lessons should be taught orally, no use being made of 
 books by the pupils. 
 
 The following topics, prepared by Dr. Larkin Dunton, 
 of the Boston Normal School, will be found useful as 
 showing what subjects should be taught in the pri- 
 
196 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 mary grades and the order in which they should be 
 taught. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 I. Parts of the Body. 1. Head, neck, and body or trunk. — 2. Arms, 
 right and left. — 3. Legs, right and left. — 4. Limbs. — 5. Posi- 
 tion of body compared with that of common animals. — 6. Arms, 
 wings, and forelegs compared. 
 
 IL Parts of the Head. 1. Crown, back and sides. — 2. Hair, 
 combing and brushing. — 3. Face, complexion, and washing the 
 face. — 4. Ears, right and left. 
 
 IIL Parts of the Face. 1. Forehead, temples, cheeks, chin, and 
 lips. — 2. Eyes, eyebrows, eyelashes, and eyelids. — 3. Nose, nos- 
 trils, and bridge of the nose. — 4. Mouth, teeth, and tongue ; cleans- 
 ing the teeth. 
 
 IV. Neck. 1. Throat and back of tlie neck. — 2. Protection 
 and cleanliness. 
 
 V. Parts of the Body. 1. Back, chest, and stomach. — 2. Shoul- 
 ders, sides, and hips. 
 
 VI. Arms. 1. Movements. — 2. Joints; shoulders, elbows, and 
 wrist. — 3. Upper arm, forearm, and wrist. 
 
 Vn. Hand. 1. Back, palm, thumb, and fingers. — 2. Johits, 
 fists, and knuckles. — 3. Forefinger, middle, ring, and little fingers, 
 and thumb. — 4. Motions, strength, and use. — 5. Nails and their 
 uses. — 6. Cleanliness ; paring and biting. 
 
 VIIT. Legs. 1. Motions, proper walking, and hip, knee, and 
 ankle joints. — 2. Thigh, shin, calf, and foot. 
 
 IX. Feet. 1. Sole, instep, heel, ball, and arch. — 2. Tight and 
 short shoes, and cold and damp feet. — 3. Cleanliness of feet, and 
 neat shoes and stockings. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 X. Eye and Sight. 1. Color of the eyes. — 2. White of the 
 eyes, iris, and pupil. — 3. Change in the pupU for light. — 4. Bony 
 socket and eyeball. — 5. Eyelids, eyelashes, eyebrows, winking, and 
 tears. — 6. Too little and too much light, and reading at twilight. 
 — 7. Holding work too near, looking cross-eyed, and cleanliness. 
 
OBSEKVATION LESSONS. 197 
 
 XT. Ear and Hearing. 1. Sounds known by the ear ; trans- 
 mitted by the air and by solids. — 2. Direction, pitch, and quality 
 of sounds. — 3. Shape of the ear, internal ear, and cleanliness of 
 ear. — 4. Care of the ear : cold draughts, pulling, and shouting 
 into. — 5. Listening attentively, and eavesdropping. 
 
 XIL Nose and Smell. 1. Odors : pungent, aromatic, spicy, etc. — 
 2. Use of smell : determining good food, pure air, etc. — 3. Scent 
 in animals compared with smell in man. — 4. Colds, draughts, ven- 
 tilation, cleanliness, etc. 
 
 XIIL Tongue and Taste. 1. Tongue and saliva. — 2. Kinds of 
 flavors : bitter, sweet, astringent, etc. — 3. Chewing gum, tobacco, 
 etc. — 4. Hot drinks and strong drinks. — 5. Thirst, and proper 
 time to drink. 
 
 XIV. Touch. 1. Use of fingers, and delicacy of touch. — 2. 
 Rough, smooth, etc. ; cold, hot, etc. ; shape, size, etc. — 3. Cleanli- 
 ness, blisters, callouses, etc. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 XV. Teeth. 1. Enamel, crown, and root. — 2. Cutting teeth, 
 eye-teeth, and double teeth. — 3. Two sets, shedding, and number. 
 — 4. Cleansing: how and how often. — 5. Effects of hot drinks, 
 candy, pickles, biting hard substances, etc. 
 
 XVL Skeleton. 1. Skull, spine, ribs, etc. — 2. Structure of 
 bones, hollow and light. — 3. Kinds of joints, why joints move 
 easily, and danger from pulling. 
 
 XVII. Muscles. 1. Appearance ; lean meat. — 2. Attachment 
 to bones. — 3. Action of muscles. — 4. Exercise, proper kinds of 
 play and work, and rest. 
 
 XVIII. Skin. 1. Elasticity, pores, and perspiration. — 2. Cold 
 draughts and proper clothing. — 3. Cleanliness : bathing, dand- 
 ruff, etc. 
 
 XIX. Circulation. 1. Where the blood is, uses of the blood and 
 heart, and the pulse. — 2. Arteries and veins. — 3. Tight bands, 
 tight clothes, warmth and exercise, wounds. 
 
 XX. Respiration. 1. Pure and impure blood, windpipe and 
 lungs, how to breathe. — 2. Pure air, and how to get it. — 3. Odors 
 and dust, clean bodies and clothes, and out-of-door exercise. 
 
198 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 XXI. Digestion. 1. Use of teeth and saliva, eating slowly, 
 drinking when eating. — 2. Proper kinds of food and drink ; tea, 
 candy, pickles, etc. — 3. Regular and late meals, chewing gum, etc. 
 
 PLANTS. 
 
 It will be seeD in the Course of Studies that some of 
 the topics of Plant Lessons which are prescribed for 
 grammar grades, are also prescribed for primary grades. 
 The reason of this arrangement will be seen when it is 
 understood that in the primary grades only the most 
 general and obvious features of a plant are to be ob- 
 served, and that while a simple classification is made 
 by pupils of the lower grades, the attention there is 
 mainly given to developing the observing powers. 
 
 In the first year, little more than what some of the 
 children already know should be taught, the chief ob- 
 jects being to awaken an interest in the plants them- 
 selves, and to encourage a spirit of investigation. Lead 
 the children to recognize some simple differences and 
 resemblances in common plants in respect to size, length 
 of stalk or trunk, and size, color, and shape of the flower 
 and leaf. For example, statements like the following 
 might be drawn from the children, while a buttercup 
 and an anemone are being examined : — 
 
 They grow at different heights from the ground. 
 
 The flower-leaves of the butter-cup are yellow, and those of the 
 
 anemone are M'hite. 
 The flower-leaves of the buttercup are wider than those of the 
 
 anemone. 
 They are not fragrant. 
 
 When any plant is examined and talked about, en- 
 courage the children to bring other plants similar in 
 
OBSELIVATION LESSONS. 199 
 
 respect to shape of leaves, color of flower, etc. The 
 teacher should sometimes assist the children in their 
 observation, by drawing shapes and parts of the leaf 
 and flower ; and the children should be encouraged to 
 draw the various shapes as they are observed. 
 
 Many of the most common trees, shrubs, and wild 
 flowers should be examined in the way described during 
 the first year. 
 
 In the second year, the principal parts of the plant 
 and of the root, stem, bud, leaf, and flower should be 
 observed, the pupils noting resemblances and differences 
 as before. When the different parts are recognized, 
 the names of the parts should be given b}'' the teacher 
 and written upon the blackboard ; and as the facts are 
 learned, they should be put into sentences by the pu- 
 pils. For example, the children may observe the facts 
 (the teacher giving the names) and afterwards put 
 them into sentences as follows: — 
 
 The parts of a flower are the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils. 
 The parts of the calyx are called sepals. 
 The parts of the corolla are called petals. 
 
 The following facts may be learned in the same way 
 during the second year : — 
 
 I. Stems, Stalks, or Trunks. 
 
 r round. 
 1. Shapes: ■{ three-sided. 
 
 I four-sided, 
 bark. 
 
 2. Parts 
 
 r 
 
 wood, 
 pith, 
 threads. 
 . fibres. 
 
200 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 3. Colors: 
 
 4. iJses. 
 
 r green. 
 
 red. 
 . brown etc 
 
 II. Leaves, 
 
 
 1. Shapes: 
 
 - oval. 
 
 oblong. 
 
 egg-shaped. 
 
 heart-shaped. 
 . needle-shaped, etc, 
 
 2. Color: jg^f^' 
 (red. 
 
 8. Parts: ^ 
 
 ^ stem. 
 
 r apex. 
 , blade : < margin. 
 
 L surface. 
 
 4. Veins: \ 
 
 " net-veined. 
 
 parallel-veined. 
 . forked-veined. 
 
 5. Shapes of margin : \ 
 
 ' plain or even. 
 
 wavy. 
 ~ toothed. 
 
 6. Kinds of surfaces : •< 
 
 '- smooth. 
 
 rough. 
 
 woolly. 
 
 hairy. 
 . silky. 
 
 in. Buds, 
 
 
 1. Kinds: ^ 
 
 2. Shape: \ 
 
 3. Color. 
 
 4. Parts: t 
 
 leaf -bud. 
 flower-bud. 
 round, 
 cone-like. 
 
 germ, 
 (scales). 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 201 
 
 IV. Flowers. 
 1. Shapes: — 
 
 Rose-shaped, bell-shaped, trumpet-shaped, 
 wheel-shaped, funnel-shaped, etc. 
 
 calyx, sepals. 
 
 2. Parts: 
 
 cross-shaped, 
 
 3. Colors: 
 
 4. Shapes of petals 
 and sepals. 
 
 corolla, petals, 
 stamens. 
 . pistils, 
 red. 
 blue, 
 white, 
 pink. 
 
 scarlet, etc. 
 5. Number of petals and se- 
 pals. 
 
 From the common trees, shrubs, and wild flowers, the 
 children should observe the most obvious peculiarities 
 of each, and try to find others having similar peculiar- 
 ities. 
 
 As the parts are observed, the children should put 
 the facts they have learned into a simple description, 
 like the following: — 
 
 This flower has a light-colored stem and heart-shaped leaves. 
 It has five green sepals and five light blue petals. 
 The petals are all of the same shape. 
 It is called a violet. 
 
 Similar descriptions should be made of many of the 
 common plants of the neighborhood. Do not insist 
 upon or encourage a set form of description, but let the 
 pupils exercise freedom and originality in giving the 
 statement of facts which they have observed. 
 
 In the third year some of the 
 
202 IklETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 nected with the history of plant life should be observed. 
 Put various kinds of seeds in water and in the earth, 
 and watch their development from day to day. Let 
 the children notice that the seed contains the germ of 
 the plant, and that the root grows downward, while the 
 stalk grows upward. Let them see also that the leaf- 
 buds have a hard covering like varnish, and that some 
 of them have scales on the outside and a woolly lining 
 on the inside. The development of the flower-buds, 
 flowers, and fruits should also be observed. Most of 
 these lessons would best be given in the spring of the 
 year. 
 
 During September and October of the third year the 
 uses of each part of the plant may be observed, espe- 
 cially of the common plants used for food. Li this way 
 the classification of fruits, vegetables, and grains may 
 be made and their various difl'erences and resemblances 
 noted. The growing and ripening grains will afford 
 excellent means of observation. 
 
 The study of plants in the Grammar grades should be 
 more minute than in the Primary grades. Parts of the 
 plant which were not before observed are now noticed 
 and additional names are given. The following hints 
 for elementary plant lessons, suggested by Mr. George 
 H. Martin, will assist teachers in the selection of topics 
 and in methods of teaching. 
 
 The Roman numerals indicate the grade in which the 
 lessons should be given — although teachers of Primary 
 grades will find the simpler parts of the outline none 
 too difficult for their pupils. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 203 
 
 OUTLINE OF STUDY. 
 IV. Lessons to teacli the Parts of a Plant. 
 
 1. To teach to name the parts. 
 
 Root, Stem, Leaves, Hah's, Buds, Flowers, Fruit, Seed. 
 
 2. Teach to describe the parts. 
 
 Root. The root lives in the ground. 
 Stem. The stem bears leaves. 
 Leaves. The leaves grow on the stem. 
 
 The leaves are thin. 
 
 The leaves are flat. 
 
 The leaves are green. 
 Hairs. The hairs grow on the leaves and on the stem. 
 BuDSs The buds grow on the stem. 
 
 The buds are full of little leaves. 
 
 Leaves grow from buds. 
 Flowers. The flowers grow on the stem. 
 
 The flowers are bright colored. 
 
 The flowers smell sweet. 
 Fruit. The fruit grows on the stem. 
 
 The fruit has seeds in it. 
 Seeds. The seeds grow in the fruit. 
 
 3. Teach to name and describe the parts of a leaf. 
 
 Petiole, Blade, Stipules, Veins. 
 Petiole. The petiole is narrow. 
 Blade. The blade is broad. 
 Stipules. The stipules are like little blades. 
 
 The stipules are at lower end of the petiole. 
 Veins. The veins are in the blade. 
 
 The veins are hard. 
 
 4. Teach to name and describe the parts of a flower. 
 
 Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistils. 
 Sepals. The sepals are on the outside of the flower. 
 The sepals are green. 
 
 (All the sepals form the Calyx.') 
 
20i 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Petals. The petals are next inside the calyx. 
 The petals are bright colored. 
 (All the petals form the Corolla.) 
 Stamens. The stamens are next inside the corolla. 
 The stamens have two parts. 
 
 One part is like a thread. (Call this the Fila- 
 ment.) 
 The other part is on the top of the filament. 
 
 (Call this the Anther.) 
 In the anther is a yellow powder. (Call this 
 Pollen.) 
 Pistils. The pistils are in the middle of the flower. 
 
 The i^istils are larger at the bottom and the top. 
 (Call the large part at the bottom the Ovary. 
 Call the large part at the top the Stigma. Call 
 the part between the Style.) 
 There are some little bodies in the ovary. (Call 
 them Ovules.) 
 
 V. Lessons to teach History of Plant Life, 
 
 1. Embryo. 
 
 Illust. A bean soaked a few honrs in water. 
 There is a little stem in the seed. 
 There are two little leaves in the seed. 
 There are two thick parts to the seed. 
 
 2. Growth. 
 
 Illust. Bean-plants in different stages. 
 
 A root grows down from the seed into the ground. 
 
 A stem grows up from the seed. 
 
 The two thick parts come above the ground. 
 
 The two little leaves unfold and make larger leaves. 
 
 3. Buds. 
 
 Illust. Same as above. 
 
 There is a bud between the two leaves. 
 
 This bud opens, and a stem, and more leaves grow from it 
 
 The plant keeps growing from buds. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 205 
 
 4. Flowers. 
 
 Illust. Pear, apple, or cherry flower-buds. 
 The flowers come from flower-buds. 
 
 5. Fruit. 
 
 Illust. Apple, pear, or cherry flowers as the petals are falling 
 away. 
 The ovary grows. 
 
 The other parts of the flower fall away. 
 The ovary makes the fruit. 
 
 6. Seeds. 
 
 The ovules in the ovary make the seed in the fruit. 
 
 Home Study. — Cover the surface of water in a tumbler with 
 cotton. On this place seeds of different plants, — bean, corn, flax, 
 and others, — and put in the sunlight. Observe carefully daily, 
 and report germination of each kind, and subsequent changes. 
 
 VI. Lessons to teach Differences in Parts of Plants. 
 
 Note. — The order of the study of the parts is unimportant, and may be 
 determined by the season. Stems may be studied earlier than leaves or 
 flowers. 
 
 1. Difference in Stem. 
 
 Illust. A section of stem of elder one inch long, 
 (a) In structure. The elder stem is soft inside. 
 The elder stem is soft outside. 
 The elder stem has a hard ring between. 
 Call the soft part inside Pith. 
 Call the hard ring Wood. 
 Call the outside part Baric. 
 Illust. A section of banana stem one-half inch long. 
 
 Tlie banana stem has hard threads scattered through a 
 
 soft part. 
 The thread looks like the wood in the elder. 
 (&) In shape. \ 
 
 (c) In color. V Teach these topics as above. 
 {d) In surface. 3 
 
206 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 - 2. Differences in Roots. 
 
 Illust. Beet, Grass, Dahlia. 
 (a) In constitution. The beet root is fleshy. 
 
 The grass root is fibrous. 
 (h) In shape. The dalilia root has several parts. 
 The beet root has only one part. 
 
 3. Differences in Leaves. 
 Illust. A variety of leaves. 
 (a) In shape. The geranium leaf is round. 
 
 The grass leaf is long and narrow. 
 
 The white bii-ch leaf is pointed at the top. 
 
 The plum leaf is round at the top. 
 
 The horse-chestnut leaflet is broad at the top. 
 
 The horse-chestnut leaflet is narrow at the base. 
 
 The maple leaf is broad at the base. 
 
 The madeira-vine leaf has an even edge. 
 
 The chestnut leaf has an uneven edge. 
 
 Teach these topics as above. 
 
 (h) Jn shape, 
 (c) In surface. 
 (*/) In color, 
 (e) In size. 
 (/) In venation. 
 {g) In composition. 
 ( K) In phyllotaxy. 
 (i) In vernation, 
 (y) In completeness. 
 ( k) In form, size, etc., 
 •of petiole. 
 
 iV^ofe. — Have shape, venation, composition, phyllotaxy, and vernation 
 of leaves shown by drawing on slate or board. 
 
 4. Differences in Flowers. 
 
 Illust. Such flowers as can be obtained for the purpose, 
 (a) In arrangement of parts: 
 
 The lilac flower has the sepals united. 
 The lilac flower has the petals united. 
 The lupine flower has the stamens united. 
 
 1 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 207 
 
 (5) 
 
 (c) 
 
 (d) 
 
 ie) 
 
 (/) 
 
 (9) 
 
 (A) 
 
 (0 
 U) 
 (k) 
 
 (0 
 (m) 
 
 The apple flower has the pistils united. 
 
 The violet flower has the stamens on the end of the stem. 
 
 The apple flower has the stamens on the calyx. 
 
 The lilac flower has the stamens on the corolla. 
 
 The apple flower has the calyx attached to the ovary. 
 
 In color. 
 In odor. 
 
 Teach these topics as above. 
 
 In size. 
 In number. 
 
 In arrangement on stem. 
 In order of opening. 
 In completeness. 
 In symmetry. 
 In regularity. 
 In number of parts. 
 In shape of parts. 
 In arrangement of parts in 
 bud. 
 
 Note. — Have size of flowers measured. Have symmetry, regularity, 
 and shape of parts shown by drawings. 
 
 5. Differences in Fruits. 
 
 Illust. Such fruits as can be obtained. 
 (a) In condition when ripe : Oranges are juicy. 
 
 Apples are fleshy. 
 Grapes are pulpy. 
 Corn is dry. 
 
 Teach these topics as above. 
 
 6. Differences in Seeds. 
 
 Teach differences in number, size, shape, color, surface, 
 
 arrangement, germination, number of cotyledons. 
 Have shapes shown by drawings. 
 
 (*) 
 
 In size. 
 
 (<') 
 
 In surface. 
 
 id) 
 
 In color. 
 
 w 
 
 In flavor. 
 
 (/) 
 
 In shape. 
 
 (ff) 
 
 In openings. 
 
 (A) 
 
 In constitution. 
 
208 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 VII. Lessons to teach Differences in Habits of Plants. 
 
 (a) In position : The elm grows erect. 
 
 The squash lies on the ground. 
 
 The grape climbs by stem tendrils. 
 
 The ivy climbs by rootlets. 
 
 The pea climbs by leaf tendrils. 
 
 The bean twines. In what du-ection ? 
 
 The hop twines. In what direction ? 
 (5) In growing : The ehn grows tall with one woody stem. 
 
 The currant grows low with several woody 
 stems. 
 
 The peony grows low with soft stem. 
 In fruiting. 
 
 - Teach as above. 
 
 (</) In locality, 
 (c) In storing food, 
 (/) In branching. 
 (g) In blooming. 
 (A) In multiplying. 
 
 VII. Lessons on the Uses of Plants. 
 
 For what? 
 
 1. AVhat part of plant is useful ? 
 
 Illust. — The potato plant. 
 
 The underground stem of potato is used for food. 
 Starch is obtained from it. 
 
 2. In what ways useful ? 
 
 (a) For food : It is nutritious. 
 
 It has not a strong flavor. 
 
 It is easily cultivated. 
 
 It yields abundantly. 
 (h) For starch : It contains much starch. 
 
 Note. — Care is needed in these lessons to adapt the subject and the 
 method to the capacity of pupils. The lesson outlined above is not suited 
 to youngest pupils. 
 
 ^ 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 209 
 
 VIII. Lessons on Special Subjects. 
 
 Forest Trees. 
 
 Illust. — The chestnut-tree, 
 (a) Size. The chestnut is a tall tree with long, spreading 
 
 branches. 
 (&) Stem. It has one straight stem. 
 
 (c) Bark. The bark is gray, hard, and close ; has long par- 
 allel cracks. 
 (<Z) Leaves. The leaves are very long. 
 
 The length is times the breadth. 
 They are long and pointed at the top. 
 The edge has hollows separated by sharp points. 
 The leaves are paler on the under side. 
 They have a short leaf stem. 
 (e) Fruit. The fruit is covered with a bristly burr and con- 
 tains from one to three nuts. 
 (/) Wood. The wood is coarse-grained and has large pores. 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 Some of the lessons on animals may have to be giyen 
 by means of pictures, although, so far as it is possible 
 to do so, the animals themselves, either alive, stuffed, 
 dried, preserved in alcohol, or mounted, should be 
 brought before the pupils for observation. Generally, 
 the preserved specimens will be found better for class 
 use than the living animals. A collection of specimens 
 should be in a cabinet close at hand, the pupils being 
 encouraged to add to it a few specimens each year. 
 
 The work involved in collecting and preparing speci- 
 mens for observation may deter some teachers from 
 carrying on these lessons ; but if a beginning is made, 
 and the co-operation of pupils is secured, there will be 
 little danger of failure on this account. Some of the 
 
210 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 specimens may be found all ready for observation, as jl 
 the crab, starfish, coral, sponge, and a few of the insects. 
 StuflPed birds may be bought for a small sum of a tax- 
 idermist, and a few of the animals needed may be pro- 
 cured at the provision store. A large number of the 
 animals, however, wiU have to be caught, killed, and 
 prepared for class use by the teachers and older pupils. 
 
 Insects may be caught with a net made of a stick, 
 hoop, and mosquito netting. For killing the insects, 
 have a bottle of chloroform, ether, or benzine, with a 
 camel's-hair brush attached inside to the cork ; or they 
 may be killed by throwing them into a bottle containing 
 cotton saturated with ether. When they are dead, they 
 may be dried and mounted upon cards or slices of cork, 
 with pins thrust through the thorax. For some pur- 
 poses, it will be found best to preserve the insects in 
 alcohol. When this is done, let the insects be soaked 
 in water for a time before using, to take out the alco- 
 ho\jc odor. Further suggestions for mounting and pre- 
 serving specimens will be found in any good text-book 
 of zoology. 
 
 If one specimen for each pupil cannot be provided, 
 allow three or four pupils to look at one specimen ; or if 
 there is only a single specimen for the entire class or 
 school, have the specimen examined by the pupils in 
 groups. 
 
 In all grades, both teacher and pupil should use the 
 pencil and chalk freely in drawing the shapes of the 
 several parts, and in locating the parts, after they have 
 been observed. 
 
 The use of animals, and the importance of kindness 
 toward them, should be impressed upon children of aU 
 ages in connection with these lessons. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 211 
 
 Primary Grades. — The first lessons should be upon 
 those animals which are most familiar, as the cat, dog, 
 horse, cow, rabbit, hen, duck, pigeon, frog. These and 
 a few others of which these are types, will be all that it 
 will be well to observe during the first year. In these 
 early lessons only the most obvious features of each 
 animal should be considered, as, for example : the num- 
 ber and shape of ears; number and shape of legs: 
 number and shape of toes or claws ; kind of covering ; 
 uses of parts ; etc. It will be remembered that parts of 
 the human bod}^ are studied in the primary school.^ 
 This work will greatly assist in the observation of parts 
 of the lower animals, and should go on at the same 
 time. 
 
 *In the second and third years, observation and com- 
 parison of common animals, including domestic animals 
 and the common fowls, birds, and insects, should be 
 continued. The observation and naming of parts should 
 occur throughout the course, care being taken not to 
 tell what the children can see for themselves, and not 
 to proceed too rapidly. Such animals and specimens as 
 can be most easily procured should be observed. What 
 the children observe is of far less consequence than the 
 fact that they do observe some animal every day in a 
 proper way. It may be necessary to direct the atten- 
 tion of children to certain animals which cannot con- 
 veniently be brought into the schoolroom. Their 
 observation of such animals will have to be made out 
 of school hours, the facts observed to be subsequently 
 stated in recitation. 
 
 Only the most prominent parts of insects should be 
 
 1 p. 195. 
 
212 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 observed at this time, such as the head, thorax, and 
 abdomen ; feelers, eyes, wings, and legs. Interesting 
 facts and stories may be told or read to children in con- 
 nection with the lessons upon insects. 
 
 Resemblances and differences in the parts and habits 
 of animals should also be taught during the second and 
 third years. These lessons may be pursued in the fol- 
 lowing order : (1) resemblances and differences in 
 many parts of two animals ; (2) resemblances and dif- 
 ferences in a few parts of three animals ; (3) resem- 
 blances and differences in single parts of several ani- 
 mals. The resemblances and differences in the habits 
 of animals may have respect to manner of locomotion, 
 of getting food, and of eating and drinking. 
 
 In comparing animals, resemblances are given first; 
 afterward, differences. Let the children draw their own 
 inferences. 
 
 As an illustration of what points are to be developed 
 in these early lessons, the following examples are given. 
 The questions and statements merely indicate the kind 
 of observation which may be made. 
 
 1. To teach resemblances and differences in parts and habits of two 
 animals. — Compare hen and duck, as to size, shape of head, length 
 and shape of bill, comb, shape of body, shape of legs, size and 
 shape of wings, thickness of feathers, tail feathers, condition of 
 feet, habits in getting food, habits in walking, habits in eating and 
 di-inking. 
 
 2. To teach resemblances and differences in several j)arts of ani- 
 mals. — Compare horse, cow, and sheep as to (a) size ; (6) cover- 
 ing; (c) teeth; (rZ) tail; (e) horns, etc. 
 
 Write complete sentences. 
 
 3. To teach resemblances and differences in animals in respect to 
 one part. — What animals have hair ? What have wool V What 
 
 I 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 213 
 
 have feathers? What birds have long bills? What birds have 
 short bills ? What have straight bills ? What wide ? What nar- 
 row? 
 
 In the same way teach differences of animals as to (a) mouth ; 
 (b) feet ; (c) ears ; (d) wings. 
 
 Grammar Grades. — The aim of the work during 
 the fourth and fifth years is mainly to lead pupils to 
 observe for themselves the parts of several animals. It 
 will be well at this stage to have some system or order 
 in the observation. The animal should first be exam- 
 ined as a whole, and afterwards in parts, in regular 
 order. Some facts respecting the size, form, surface 
 color, position, and uses, should be observed and stated 
 by the pupils, the teacher merely directing the observa- 
 tions and correcting errors. 
 
 The names of animals to be observed are given in the 
 course for graded schools. The observation, of each of 
 these animals — or others of which these are types — 
 should be as minute as time and the ability of pupils 
 will permit. Only a few points should be observed at 
 each lesson, care being taken to allow time for every 
 pupil to observe each point. Complete statements of 
 facts observed should be made by the pupils, but they 
 should be given freely and naturally. 
 
 To show what it is possible for pupils of the lower 
 grammar grades to see, and also to show a good method ^ 
 of directing their observation, the following lessons are 
 given. They are by Miss J. M. Arms, of Boston. 
 
 THE LOCUST, OR "GRASSHOPPER," 
 The children may begin the study of insects with the locust, or 
 "grasshopper," as it is commonly called, because it is a good type 
 
 1 For method, see the forthcoming Guide for Science Teachincf, No. 
 VIII., by Alpheus Hyatt. 
 
214 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 of the whole class of insects, and is familiar to them. To insure 
 the best success, each child should be provided with an alcoholic 
 specimen, which may be pinned to a small strip of cork to aid in 
 handling. The children observe the body first, afterwards the 
 parts fastened to the body. By questions the teacher leads the 
 children to tell her that the body is long, and that a part of it is 
 round. She asks, " Is it round like a ball, or round like a tube ?" 
 [showing ball and tube], and they answer, "Round, like a tube." 
 
 They tell her that the body is yellow, brown, and red. She asks, 
 *'Are the two sides alike or unlike ? " They think the sides are 
 alike, so that the locust has a right and left side, like their own 
 bodies. 
 
 They say that the body is divided into three parts, — a head, a 
 "tail," which the teacher calls the abdomen, and between these two 
 parts, a middle and larger part, which (having taken the lesson on 
 the lobster) tliey think is the thorax. 
 
 Having obsei-ved and described the body, as a whole, they next 
 observe the three parts more closely. The head, they say, is long 
 in an " up and down " direction, and the teacher gives the word 
 vertical, and writes it on the board. They say that it is narrow, 
 that it has two "horns" which the teacher calls *' feelers," and 
 that it has two " things " which they think are eyes, one on each 
 side. 
 
 Before this they have noticed that the head moves quite freely 
 up and down, or in a vertical direction, and sideways ; also, that 
 when the head moves, the forward part of the thorax moves. 
 
 Observing now the thorax, they often describe the forward part 
 as a cape. [We have noticed that little girls are very apt to call 
 it "a cape," and little boys "a saddle."] They think that the 
 thorax looks somewhat " like a box," flat on the lower side, with 
 " queer marks " on it, and with lines on the sides. The teacher 
 gives the word "seams" for these lines, so that the thorax is 
 seamed. The children find that the legs and wings are fastened 
 to this part of the body. 
 
 The "tail" is longer than the head and thorax. The children 
 see lines running round it. 
 
 The teacher asks, " What have I in my hand ? " The children 
 answer at once, " A ring." 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 215 
 
 " Is it a gold ring V " " 'No, it is a paper ring." 
 
 " What is this ? " asks the teacher. ' " Three or four paper rings 
 fastened together with tissue-paper." 
 
 " Do the rings move upon each other, or are they fastened 
 so tightly together that they cannot nio\ie?" " They move upon 
 each other." 
 
 " Now look at the locust's ' tail,' and tell me something more 
 about it." Most of the children are pretty sure to say that the 
 "tail" is ringed, and that the rings move upon each other. Some 
 count six rings, others seven, and two or three are sure there are 
 eight. The number of rings is a matter cf little importance, 
 as it is difficult to make out, and is, therefore, work for older 
 pupils. 
 
 The children next see the line or crease running from the tho- 
 rax to the end of the "tail." Above the crease on each side 
 they see, if their eyes are very keen, a row of tiny slits. These, 
 they are interested to know, are the breathing-holes of the locust. 
 This offers an opportunity to the teacher to speak of the wonder- 
 ful little tubes and sacs which the locust possesses, and which, 
 when filled with air, lighten the weight of the body, and help the 
 insect to fly. At the end of the " tail " they see the organ which is 
 used for boring holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited. 
 For this reason the organ may be called an egg-depositor. 
 
 Having carefully observed the body, they are ready to examine 
 the parts fastened to it. They say the feelers are long, like " big 
 threads," and " made of little pieces." Below the feelers they find 
 the upper lip, with the two hard, dark-brown " teeth " beneath, 
 and back of these, four little organs they often call "whiskers," 
 but which the teacher tells them are organs used, possibly, in ob- 
 taining food. 
 
 The children are too young to make out the three pair of mouth- 
 parts satisfactorily. A blackboard drawing will show these parts, 
 if the teacher wishes to resort to such a drawing, but I prefer to 
 pass over the subject till the children are old enough to find the 
 mouth-parts and make their own drawings. It often happens that 
 some niember of the class has seen a locust eat, and can tell the 
 others how it bites and chews grass, and how the " teeth " move 
 sideways instead of vertically, like their teeth. 
 
216 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Looking at the parts fastened to the thorax, every child can 
 describe the three pair of legs. Every child sees that each leg is 
 made of pieces which move upon each other, so that the leg is 
 jointed. Every one finds that each leg has two little hooks at its 
 end, the use of which ejJfch must try to find out when the summer 
 comes again. Ever}^ one sees that the last pair of legs is longer 
 and larger than the other two pair, and are prettily marked. Many 
 are eager to tell their teacher that the locust jumps with these legs, 
 and all agree that the insect is a good leaper. 
 
 In the lesson on the lobster, the children have seen the feelers, 
 mouth-parts, and walking-legs on a large scale, and can better 
 understand the structure of these parts in insects. 
 
 The children spread out the wings on one side. The first or 
 upper pair they say are long, narrow, brown, with stiff " things " in 
 them, which the teacher calls "veins." They cannot see objects 
 distinctly through them. These the teacher calls "wing-covers." 
 The second or lower pair they say are broad, white, with stiff veins 
 in the longest part, and " little veins " in the shortest part. They 
 can see objects distinctly through them. They say these wings 
 are folded like a fan, and lie straight with the body. The teacher 
 calls them true wings. The children compare the true wings with 
 the wing-covers. 
 
 Observing the egg-depositor, they say there are four distinct 
 parts that are hard and strong ; two of these parts curve upward, 
 and two downward. 
 
 After the observations are finished, simple drawings and written 
 descriptions are required. 
 
 Outline of the Lesson on the Locust. 
 
 1. Body. General description : long ; tube-like ; yellow, brown, 
 red ; two sides alike. Divided into three parts : head, thorax, tail. 
 
 Parts described: (I) Head: long vertically ; narrow; bears two 
 feelers ; has two eyes ; set upon a neck ; moves vertically and side- 
 ways. (2) Thorax: box-shaped; forward part like a cape; flat on 
 lower side ; seamed ; bears legs and wings. (3) " Tail ": long ; ringed ; 
 has two rows of breathing-holes ; bears organ for depositing eggs. 
 
 2. Paj'ts fastened to the Body. One pair feelers : long, thread- 
 like. One pair "teeth": brown, stout, notched, move sideways. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 217 
 
 Two pair thread-like organs. Three pair legs : jointed, hooked, of 
 unequal length and size ; last pair (leaping-legs), long, large, strong. 
 Two pair wings (wing-covers and true wings). Wing-covers brown, 
 stiff, not transparent, veins large. True wings white, transparent, 
 folded like a fan, lie straight with body. Egg-depositor, — four 
 distinct parts, — stout, curved, horny. 
 
 THE DRAGON-FLY. 
 
 When the locust is familiar, the dragon-fly is observed in the 
 same order, and afterward compared with the locust. 
 
 We will omit the observations on the dragon-fly, and pass to the 
 comparative work. 
 
 The children tell their teacher that the dragon-fly is like the 
 locust because it has a long, tube-like body ; because the two sides 
 of the body are alike ; because the body is divided into three parts, 
 which they are now ready to call the head, thorax, and "tail." 
 They say that the head has two eyes, like that of the locust ; that 
 the thorax, or middle part, bears the legs and wings; that the 
 " tail " is long and ringed. 
 
 They also see that the dragon-fly resembles the locust in having 
 one pair of feelers, an upper lip, and one pair of dark ** teeth." 
 They are not sure of the little organs back of the " teeth," but 
 they are sure that the dragon-fly has three pair of legs and two 
 pair of wings, like the locust. They also see an egg-depositor at 
 the end of the tail. 
 
 When the children look for differences, they are quick to say 
 that the body of the dragon-fly is longer than that of the locust, 
 and that the three parts look, as a little child once told me, " as if 
 they were not put together very tight," which is another way of 
 saying that the parts of the dragon-fly are not as closely consoli- 
 dated as those of the locust. They say that the head is shorter 
 vertically, and broader; the eyes a great deal larger; the head 
 "ever so much looser," or, as the teacher says, much more loosely 
 attached ; the thorax more hunch-backed ; the " tail " more 
 slender. 
 
 They also say that the feelers are shorter; the legs smaller, 
 and more nearly equal in size; the wings longer, more finely 
 veined, and more useful as flying-organs. They have come 
 
218 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 to tins last conclusion by their own efforts, unaided by the 
 teacher. 
 
 After these comparisons have been made, the children draw tlie 
 inferences that the dragon-fly bites its food, and that it is a good 
 flyer, and not a leapier. 
 
 In this way the interesting habits of insects, and their wonderful 
 powers of adaptation, are brought out clearly. 
 
 The following statements of facts, prepared from 
 observation of specimens by pupils of a normal school, 
 will be helpful to some teachers. Pupils of grammar- 
 school age may not be able to observe all the points 
 that are indicated in the notes ; but with a good mag- 
 nifying-glass most of the facts may be ascertained and 
 expressed by the pupils. 
 
 With a good elementary text-book as a guide, similar 
 notes upon other animals may be made. It is advisable 
 for teachers to examine a specimen, aiicl to Jiote the 
 various points to be observed, before the lesson begins. 
 
 THE COMMON ANT. 
 
 Color. — Brownish red. 
 
 She. — About one-fourth of an inch long. 
 
 Parts. — Three divisions: head, thorax, and abdomen. 
 
 The head is about one-fourth the size of the whole animal, and 
 is slightly triangular in shape, looking at it in front. There are two 
 eyes, one on each side of the head. Projecting from the front of 
 the head, near the eyes, are two antennse, ^hich are twice jointed, 
 the second joint being notched. The mouth is provided with 
 strong jaws, called mandibles, for tearing the food, and under- 
 neath are the inner jaws. 
 
 The thorax connects the head and abdomen, and is smaller in 
 diameter than either of the other parts. It is covered on the toj) 
 by a sliield-shaped portion. The juncture of the thorax and ab- 
 domen is very slender, and consists of one knob, or ring. 
 
 H 
 
fesERVATffWTlrlisSWNSr 219 
 
 The ant has three pairs of legs, all placed upon the thorax. The 
 legs are five-jointed, the first joint being the smallest ; and from 
 the third is a projection called the spur. The spur on the two 
 front legs is larger than on the others. The last joint is notched, 
 or toothed, a great many times. 
 
 The abdomen is marked by rings, which separate it into six 
 segments. These segments differ in size, the last one being the 
 smallest; and the effect is to make the abdomen taper to a point. 
 These segments allow of the abdomen's being bent very easily. 
 The sides of the abdomen are covered with little hairs. 
 
 THE DOR-BUG. 
 
 Size. — About seven-eighths of an inch long and one-half of an 
 inch wide. 
 
 Form. — Oblong in shape, slightly rounded at both ends. 
 
 Color. — Dark brown on the upper side ; yellowish brown on the 
 under side. 
 ' Parts. — Three parts : head, thorax, and abdomen. 
 
 The head is the smallest of the three parts. All the divisions 
 of the body are jointed. It has two compound eyes, one on 
 each side of the front part of the head. Between the eyes 
 are the antennce, which are about one-fourth of an inch long, 
 and have little oblong knots at the end. They are used as 
 feelers. On the forward portion of the head are the mouth- 
 parts. These are so small that only the jaws can be seen, and 
 those with the greatest difficulty. The jaws come from the sides 
 of the mouth. 
 
 To the under side of the thorax are attached three pairs of legs. 
 The legs of the first pair have three parts. The division nearest 
 the body is smooth, and larger than the other two. The middle 
 division is shorter, and notched. The last division is jointed, 
 notched, and at the end has two little claws. The notches and 
 claws enable it to fasten itself to objects. The second and third 
 pairs of legs have the same structure as the first pair. On the 
 upper side of the thorax are two pairs of wings. The outer pair 
 are brown, oblong, pointed at the back, glossy, and firm of texture. 
 This pair is attached to the second segment of thorax. Under 
 
220 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 this is a pair of gauzy wings. The second pair are larger, are 
 shaped like half a lilac leaf, and have several strong veins run- 
 ning through the thin tissue. One strong vein extends along the 
 straight edge, and enables the wing to cut more easily through the 
 air. This pair is attached to the third segment of thorax. When 
 at rest, they are folded under the thicker wings, which protect them. 
 The back of each wing folds under the front part, and both cross 
 imder the shield-wings. 
 
 The abdomen is oval in shape. It has divisions, or segments. 
 The largest segment is near the thorax. From this they diminish 
 in size to the end of the body. 
 
 BLACK SPIDER. 
 
 d 
 
 Black, with some brown markings upon it. Width, not includ- 
 ing legs, about one-fourth of length. of an inch long. 
 
 Body consists of two principal parts of about the same size, 
 connected by a small, narrow part. On the forward part of one of 
 the large divisions is the head, which is simply a continuation of 
 the division. On the top of the head are a pair of eyes about 
 one-eighth of an inch apart : below these, on the front part of head, 
 are another larger pair of eyes nearer together ; and below these, 
 on the lower part, are four more eyes, arranged in a horizontal line. 
 From the lower part of the head projects downward a pair of jaws 
 which are long and strong. On the end of each jaw is a little 
 hook pointing inwards. In the end of each hook is a tiny hole. 
 Passing a pin between the jaws, teeth are discovered on the sides 
 of the jaw nearest together. These teeth extend about half-way 
 up the sides of the jaws. Under the jaws is the mouth, which has 
 a lower lip, but no upper lip. Attached to the back of the upper 
 end of each jaw is a jointed part, or feeler, consisting of four joints. 
 On the under side of the forward division (cephalo thorax^ are 
 four pair of legs. They are seven-jointed. The first pair are 
 larger than any of the others, the second pair next in size, the 
 third pair are the smallest. The legs are covered with little black 
 hairs, especially numerous on the lower joints. 
 
 The second large division (abdomen) is almost spheroidal in 
 form, and on the upper side is covered with hairs. On the under 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 221 
 
 side of the abdomen, on the end nearest the thorax, is an opening 
 on each side of which is a semicircular slit. Below these parts 
 on or near the end are projections arranged in the form of a circle. 
 
 CLAM. 
 
 1. Shell. 
 
 (1) Three to five inches long, two inches wide. Ovate and 
 convex in shape. Edge entire. Thinnest part near the edge. 
 Broader end called anterior end ; narrower end called posterior 
 end. If posterior end is nearest you and hinge is up, the part of 
 shell to the right will be the right valve ; the part of shell to the 
 left will be the left valve. (2) On the inside of shell there is a 
 narrow band of dull white near edge; broader band of glossy 
 white inside of this, from which a portion projects toward centre 
 at posterior end. In centre a dull white portion, at anterior end, 
 is a glossy white elliptical spot. At posterior end is a glossy 
 white circular spot. (3) The outside of shell is dull white in 
 color. There are concentric rings which grow farther apart as 
 they near the edge. Rather rough surface. (4) In the hinge 
 there is a projection from left valve; depression on right valve. 
 
 2. Live animal. 
 
 (1) Mantle. Covers the outside of valves except w^here worn 
 in exposed parts. Internal parts covered by mantle, which serves 
 also as lining for valves. The part of mantle exposed when valves 
 are opened is thickened and of a darker color. (2) Muscles. 
 Lying near inner end of shell is a thick muscle which protects 
 the interior from injury. A dark brown elastic substance placed 
 where the two valves fit into each other serves to keep the valves 
 apart. The anterior adduct r is attached to the glossy spot in 
 the anterior portion of the valves ; composed of many thread-like 
 bands of muscle which serve to close the valves. The posterior 
 adductor is attached to a circular portion in posterior end. 
 (3) Siphon. Projection from posterior end; tubular in shape; can 
 be extended during life eight or ten inches ; dark colored, covered 
 by mantle ; tough texture ; two openings leading into tubes ; little 
 fringe around openings. (4) Gills. Extending from between 
 two anterior openings of siphon to beyond hinge of valves ; fan- 
 like in shape ; marked with parallel ridges extending from base to 
 
222 METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 edge; both gills same form and size; edge entire. Two similar 
 gills below the body. (5) Body. Same size as gills ; light color 
 with dark streaks ; thickened and rounded in form ; projection at 
 anterior end (foot) ; attached to line of division. (6) Ribbons. 
 Anterior end of body; length the width of gills; thin and narrow; 
 all alike ; two above and two below the body. (7) Month. Dark 
 colored spot situated where four ribbons unite; entrance into 
 body. (8) Foot. At lower anterior end of body; thickened 
 tough projection; expands on absorbing water; protrudes from 
 slit in muscle. (9) Slit. Situated in lower anterior portion of 
 muscle which lies around edge of shell. 
 
 CORAL. 
 
 Materials. — Pieces of the skeleton of one kind of coral, enough 
 for each pupil i-o have one piece. A whole mass of the same kind 
 of coral, if it can be obtained. The Galaxea coral is a particularly 
 good one for study because the parts are large. 
 
 Observation of Skeleton of Galaxea. — It is white, com- 
 posed of little cylindrical tubes imbedded in a white porous sub- 
 stance. When scratched with a knife-blade, the tubes and porous 
 substance are equally marked. When a bit of each is placed in a 
 separate glass with a little muriatic acid, the acid froths, and the 
 bit of coral is dissolved. [We infer from the equal hardness and 
 the like behavior with muriatic acid that both parts of the skele- 
 ton of coral are of the same material. Both are carbonate of lime, 
 the same substance as marble.] 
 
 The tubes rise from above the coral about one-fourth or one- 
 third of an inch. At the top the tubes are about one-eighth of an 
 inch ill diameter, the edge is uneven, and the sides of tubes are 
 marked with longitudinal lines. Inside the tubes are six large 
 partitions, extending longitudinally from the circumference to the 
 centre. Six shorter and thinner ones, alternating with these and 
 extending not quite to the centre, and in some of the tubes twelve 
 verj^ short partitions alternating with the twelve longer ones. 
 
 The tubes show the same partitions where broken off at the 
 bottom of piece of coral as at the top of tubes. At the bottom the 
 tubes are smaller than at the top, and they tend toward each other. 
 Occasionally in the bottom of piece the tubes are united. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 223 
 
 Prom the rough and broken appearance of pieces we judge that 
 they are parts broken from a large mass. 
 
 ANGLE-WORM. 
 
 Materials. — A live angle-worm for each pupil placed in a white 
 plate which has been rinsed in cold water and left wet. One live 
 angle-worm placed on a dish of moist earth. For more minute 
 examination, worms killed and hardened by lying in alcohol, one 
 for each pupil. A pot of moist earth with a small plant of grass 
 or clover growing in it, and several live angle-worms for children 
 to observe habits. 
 
 Observation of Live Angle- Worm on Plate. — The angle- 
 worm has no distinct head or limbs, is cylindrical in shape, inches 
 
 long, inch through, light reddish brown on the upper side, 
 
 paler on the lower side, often iridescent, and marked by lines 
 encircling it, which divide it into mauT/ rings or segments. 
 
 Toward one end of the body is a thicker portion in which the 
 rings are less distinctly marked. [This thicker part is called the 
 saddle.'] The end of angle-worm which is nearer the saddle is 
 forward as the worm moves, and on the under side of the first 
 segment is a hole. [The mouth. This forward end of angle-worm 
 is called the anterior end, and the part of worm back of saddle the 
 posterior end.] 
 
 On the upper side a dark line extends through the middle, and 
 when the worm shortens itself, this line is crinkled. [This dark 
 line is the food-tube, or intestine, seen through the skin of worm, 
 and made dark by the earth which the worm swallows. The 
 mouth opens into the food-tube, and there is a small opening from 
 the food-tube in the last segment of the body.] 
 
 Lying above the food-tube is a slender red line, which also is 
 crinkled when the worm shortens itself. \_This tube holds red blood, 
 and is called the heart.] 
 
 The worm stretches out both ends of the body, and, on the plate, 
 does not succeed in moving onward much -in either direction. 
 
 Observation of Angle-Worm on Moist Earth. — The 
 worm makes anterior part of body more pointed, stretches it out, 
 fastens it in earth, and draws posterior part of body up to position 
 
224 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 of anterior part. Then repeats the movements in the same order, 
 and so moves along. 
 
 Examination of Worm hardened in Alcohol. — The 
 worm is a light slate color, is shorter and more stiff and tough 
 than the live worms, with the segments much nearer together. 
 The three parts of worm, anterior part, saddle, and posterior part, 
 can be seen more plainly. 
 
 On each side of worm are two parallel lines of little dots. 
 When the angle-worai is held between the thumb and finger of one 
 hand, and drawn through the fingers of the other hand, these little 
 dots are felt as points projecting from the sides of angle-worm. 
 These points are the ends of tiny bristles which the angle-worm 
 uses as hooks to fasten the forward part of his body until he has 
 brought the back part of body up to the position of the forward 
 part. 
 
 Observation of Angle-Worms living in Pot of Earth. 
 — As angle-worms work only in the dark, all tliat can be seen of 
 their habits is the castings left on the surface of the earth, and 
 possibly some change which the worms have made in the position 
 of pebbles and sticks on the surface. If children can be induced 
 to keep angle-worms at home, and to watch them just at dusk, they 
 may succeed in seeing them come from their burrows, and, when 
 disturbed, return to them, closing the burrow with a pebble or 
 chip. They can also prove that angle-worms perceive light, by 
 suddenly bringing a light near when they are out of burrows. 
 
 In the latter part of the fourth year, something of the 
 growth and change of insects should be taught. The 
 best illustration of this change is perhaps the butterfly. 
 To secure the best results, several lessons should be 
 given at different times upon the various changes which 
 are observed. Show a leaf or twig containing the 
 eggs of the insect, and encourage pupils to bring other 
 specimens of the same kind. The same may be done 
 with the young, just after they have emerged from 
 the egg. The full-grown caterpillar and the cocoon 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 225 
 
 can be easilj'" found, and will be interesting objects of 
 study. By putting the cocoon into a box with holes 
 in it, the growth of the butterfly may be seen ; or, 
 better still, by putting the caterpillar into a glass 
 box, with some of the leaves of the tree upon which it 
 was found. The various stages of development may be 
 observed until the butterfly is formed. The same may 
 be done with other insects, as the frog, fly, mosquito, 
 June-bug, potato-bug. Some practical lessons may be 
 taught in connection with the food of the maggot, grub, 
 and caterpillar, and the time and place in which injuri- 
 ous insects deposit their eggs. 
 
 During the seventh year, the pupils learn by observa- 
 tion to group animals according to resemblances of 
 parts and habits. The animals which have been pre- 
 viously examined, and others, both familiar and unfamil- 
 iar, are to be classified first by pointing out the essential, 
 characteristics of fishes, frogs and toads, reptiles, birds, 
 and mammals. So far as possible this classification 
 should be made by the pupils' own observation. 
 
 The varieties of birds and mammals may then be dis- 
 tinguished, the class giving as much time to the exam- 
 ination of specimens as time will permit. The most 
 valuable part of this year's work, as indeed of the work 
 of all grades, is the observation of adaptation of struc- 
 ture to use. Lead the pupils constantly to infer the 
 special use of each part as it is observed, and knowing 
 the habits of certain animals, to infer and prove the 
 necessary structure of the various organs and parts. 
 
226 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 MINERALS. 
 
 The prescribed course provides for minerals to be 
 taught only during a part of two years, — the sixth and 
 eighth years of the course. Not much can be done in 
 this time, but enough, it is hoped, to enable the pupils 
 to know some common minerals by name and to know 
 how to distinguish them. 
 
 It is thought best in these elementary lessons to con- 
 fine the study to the solids or rock forms and to direct 
 attention especially to those rocks wliich are most com- 
 mon. The first two or three lessons may be given to 
 teaching what a mineral is. By comparing the mineral 
 form with the vegetable and animal forms, it will be 
 seen that one is organized and that the other is unor- 
 ganized, and that a fragment of the mineral, unlike that 
 of the animal or vegetable, has the same properties and 
 composition as the whole. 
 
 The next step is to teach the difference in minerals 
 in respect to, — 
 
 1. Natural form. 4. Lustre. 
 
 2. Structure. 5. Transparency. 
 
 3. Hardness. 6. Color. 
 
 Other distinctions, as streak, refraction, polarization, 
 phosphorescence, and those qualities which are tested by 
 heat and chemicals are important, but may be deferred 
 to the high-school course. 
 
 To teach difference in natural form, compare, witli 
 reference to form of crystals. Rock salt, quartz, sul- 
 phur, alum, ice (snow) may be good specimens in 
 which the form of crystals may be easily observed. If 
 it can be done, the formation of crystals in the fusing 
 
OBSEllVATION LESSONS. 227 
 
 and cooling of sulplmr would be interesting and in- 
 structive. A few simple technical names of crystal 
 forms may be learned ; as, cubic, hexagonal, pyramidal^ 
 etc. 
 
 To teach structure, puncture the mineral with a knife 
 or some pointed instrument to see if it has cleavage or 
 can be readily split up into thin layers like mica, talc, 
 gypsum, and slate, or into fibres like asbestos, or into 
 little cubes like galenite. 
 
 No definite degree of hardness can be taught in these 
 elementary lessons. Test with the point of a knife or 
 of any hard metallic substance, the hardness of tlie 
 mineral and give the names hard, medium hard, soft. 
 Talc, gypsum, and zinc would be called soft ; quartz, 
 feldspar, and toj)az would be called hard. Other 
 minerals could be compared with these. 
 
 To teach lustre, take three minerals, as galenite, 
 feldspar, and jasper, and show, or rather have the pu- 
 pils see and say for themselves, that galenite is bright, 
 or has lustre ; that feldspar is less bright, or has less 
 lustre ; and that jasper is not bright, or has no Instre. 
 To give technical names to the different kinds of Instre, 
 compare the lustre of vaiious minerals with lead, glass, 
 and pearl. If the mineral is like lead in lustre, it has a 
 metallic lustre ; if like glass, it has a vitreous lustre ; 
 and if like [)earl, it has a pearly lustre. 
 
 To teach difference in minerals in respect to trans- 
 parency, the mineral may be placed before the eye, and 
 if objects can be seen through it, it is said to be trans- 
 parent. If only light can be seen through the mineral, 
 or objects very dimly ,Jt is said to be translucent. If 
 neither objects nor light can be seen through the min- 
 eral, it is said to be opaque. 
 
228 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 While these differences are being observed, the pupils 
 are learning incidentally the names of the common min- 
 erals. But it is not enough for them to know the 
 names of a few minerals. If it can be done in these 
 early lessons, it is desirable that they should learn to 
 distinguish minerals when they see them, or at least to 
 be able to distinguish a few. 
 
 For example, to teach to distinguish quartz, we should 
 if possible place before each pupil a specimen of quartz, 
 with such other appliances as will lead him to examine 
 it with reference to the qualities already spoken of. 
 He will -see, and by being given the terms can say, that 
 the quartz has crystals in the form of a hexagonal 
 prism or shaft, terminated by a hexagonal pyramid; 
 that it has no cleavage ; that it cannot be scratched w^ith 
 a knife, and that it scratches glass easily; that it has a 
 vitreous lustre ; that it is transparent, translucent, and 
 opaque ; that it is commonly colorless and white. 
 
 Although the chief object is to lead the pupils to 
 observe, it would be well to give with the teaching 
 such information as will be of interest or value. For 
 example, when the color of the quartz is observed, it 
 would be well to tell the pupils that when quartz crys- 
 tals are purple, they are called amethyst^ and that 
 quartz occurs also in uncrystallized or massive forms, 
 in which case, when colored and translucent, it is called 
 carnelian and agate; and when opaque, jasper^ opal, 
 and /?mf. An inspection of specimens of these minerals 
 will greatly add to the interest of the pupils. 
 
 Knowing so much of quartz, it will not be a difficult 
 matter for the pupils to distingijish that mineral from 
 others, and it would be well to have some time given 
 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 229 
 
 to the work of examining various minerals for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Of course such work is necessarily slow. Two or 
 three lessons may be profitably given to quartz. An 
 equal number of lessons may be given to each mineral 
 named in the following outline of lessons prepared by 
 Mr. Chas. P. Worcester. 
 
 1. Galena (Lead Ore). — (1) Form: cubic. (2) Cleavage: 
 
 good, cubical; i.e., it divides and subdivides readily into 
 cubes. (3) Hardness : can be scratched readily with a 
 knife. (4) Lustre: metallic. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: blue 
 gi-ay. 
 
 2. Pyrite (Iron Pyrites). — (1) Form: usually cubic. (2) No 
 
 cleavage. (3) Cannot be scratched with knife. (4) Metallic 
 lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color : brassy yellow, or yellowish 
 white. 
 
 3. Halite (Rock Salt). — (1) The crystalline form of salt that 
 
 is rained is cubic. The coarse crystals sold as rock salt are 
 from salt water by evaporation, and are of the square hopper- 
 shape. (2) No cleavage. (3) Can be scratched with the 
 nail. (4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Transparent or translucent. 
 (6) Colorless: white or stained brown or red. (7) Taste: 
 salt. 
 
 4. Fluoiute (Fluor Spar). — (1) Form: cubic, or modified cubic ; 
 
 i.e., cubic with the edges bevelled or the corners cut off. (2) 
 Some cleavage, clipping the corners of the crystal. (3) Can 
 be scratched with the knife. (4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Trans- 
 parent or translucent. (6) Color : white, bluish, or of vari- 
 ous colors. 
 
 5. Corundum (commonest form is emery. Sapphire and ruby are 
 
 rarer forms of this mineral). — (1) Form : sometimes rhom- 
 bic ; i.e., as if originally a cube which had been flattened out 
 by a diagonal pressure exerted on one edge, but more often 
 massive ; i.e., without crystalline form. (2) No cleavage. 
 (3) Very hard ; quartz can be readily scratched by it. (4) 
 Vitreous lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Usually black. 
 
230 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 6. Magnetite (Magnetic Iron Ore). — (1) Form : octohedron 
 
 usually ; i.e., the crystal formed as if by the union of two 
 four-sided pyramids, base to base. (2) Xo cleavage. (3) 
 Can with difficulty be scratched with knife. (4) ]\Ietallic 
 lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: black. (7) In a powder 
 it is sti'ongly attracted by a magnet. 
 
 7. Asbestos. — (1) Form : silkj^, flexible threads. (2) Cleavage: 
 
 fibrous. (3) Lustre : silky. (4) Opaque. (5) Grayish 
 white. 
 
 8. Hornblende. — (1) Form : usually rhombic or six-sided 
 
 prisms. (2) No cleavage. (3) Slightly softer than quartz. 
 (4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: black or 
 greenish black. (7) Often a constituent of granite, syenite, 
 and gneiss rocks. 
 
 9. Garnet. — (l)Form: usually well-defined dodecahedrons ; i.e., 
 
 twelve-sided crystals. (2) Cleavage : not good. (3) Hard- 
 ness : about like quartz. (4) Lustre : vitreous or dull vit- 
 reous. (5) Transparent, translucent, or opaque. (6) Color : 
 red or brown. 
 
 10. Mica (conniionest variety, Muscovite). — (1) Form : not 
 
 readily made out. (2) Cleavage : perfect, into flexible 
 leaves of indefinite thinness. (3) Can be scratched with 
 the nail. (4) Transparent. (5) Vitreous lustre. (6) 
 Color: gray and yellow. 
 
 11. Feldspar (commonest variety, Orthoclase).— (1) Form like 
 
 that of a book that is flattened out by a diagonal pressure 
 applied on one edge. (2) Cleavage good; usually in two 
 directions parallel with the crystal faces. (3) Usually some- 
 what softer than quartz, but with difficulty to be scratched 
 with a knife. (4) Lustre : vitreous or pearly. (5) Opaque, 
 or rarely translucent. (6) Color: usually white, may be 
 stained brown or red. 
 The main constituent of granite, syenite, gneiss, and the most 
 important of the common rocks. 
 
 12. Tourmaline. — (1) Form : hexagonal prisms, usually of a 
 
 roughly triangular cross-section. (2) No cleavage. (3) Hard 
 as quartz. (4) Vitreous lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: 
 brown black. 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 231 
 
 13. Talc. — (1) Form: not easily made out ; often massive. (2) 
 
 Cleavage : when crystalline, good in one direction. (3) Very 
 soft ; feeling very characteristic, soft and soapy. (4) Pearly 
 lustre. (5) Opaque. (6) Color: gray. 
 
 14. Serpentine. — (1) Form: massive. (2) No cleavage. (3) 
 
 Can be scratched with the knife, but not with the nail. 
 (4) Lustre : dull, waxy. (5) Opaque or translucent. (6) 
 Color : dark green. 
 
 15. Gypsum. Varieties : fibrous (satin spar) ; massive (alabas- 
 
 ter); burned (plaster of Paris). — (1) Form: sometimes in 
 single rhombic crystals, but more often in flat crystals, in 
 general shape like an arrow-head. Such are called twinned 
 crystals, and are really modified single crystals of the regular 
 form. Imagine a regular rhombic crystal to be cut in two 
 by a diagonal plane, and then one-half the crystal rotated on 
 the other, half-way round, and you have the twinned crystal. 
 
 (2) Cleavage : perfect. (3) Can be scratched with the nail. 
 (4) Lustre: vitreous, pearly, or dull. (5) Transparent, 
 translucent, or opaque. (6) Color : white or brown. 
 
 16. Calcite, Varieties : transparent crystals (Iceland spar) ; 
 
 massive (marble, limestone); burned (lime). — (1) Form: 
 usually hexagonal pyramids or rhombohedrons, with only 
 half as many faces as hexagonal pyramids. (2) Cleavage : 
 perfect, parallel to the faces of the rhombohedral crystal. 
 
 (3) Can be readily scratched with the knife, but not with 
 the nail. (4) Lustre: vitreous. (5) Transparent, trans- 
 lucent, or opaque. (6) Color : white, or variously stained. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 In the twenty lessons assigned for this subject 
 comparatively little can be done. Not all of the work, 
 either, can be purely observational, some of the facts 
 being known only by inference, or upon the authority 
 of others. The first few lessons may include subjects 
 which have already been partially taught in connection 
 
232 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 with geography. These facts shoukl be reviewed, and 
 other facts learned with as much minuteness as the 
 ability of the pupils and time will permit. The fol- 
 lowing outline of topics and questions will indicate in 
 a general way the subjects of study, and the order and 
 methods of presenting them. The Roman numerals 
 indicate the order of lessons. Some of the observations 
 will have to be made in the evening, and results be 
 brought into the class. 
 
 
 I.-V. 
 
 1. Form of Earth. 
 Proofs. — (a) Vessel coming in sight. (&) Shadow of earth in 
 
 eclipse, (c) Horizon, a circle, (d) Voyage around the world. 
 
 2. Size of Earth. 
 
 Diameter. Circumference. (Illustrate by time of railroad 
 train.) 
 
 3. Motions of Earth. 
 
 (a) Rotation. — Evidences. Effects. (Illustrate by ball in sun- 
 light. Lighted hemisphere changing — why? Observe effects 
 with axis of ball in various positions : 1st, horizontal, and 
 toward the sun ; 2d, upright ; 3d, oblique. Illustrate sun- 
 rise, noon, sunset, midnight, in the same way. Practise with 
 globe, and find relative times for different places.) 
 
 (J) Revolution. — Illustrate with ball and lamp and paper disc. 
 Axis inclined 23i° toward the north. Why does the sun rise 
 and set at different times ? Why is the sun higher at noon 
 in the summer? Which pole is in sunshine in elune? In 
 December ? When is sun directly over equator ? Effect in 
 length of day in different parts of the earth. Length of day 
 at the equator. At the north pole. Change of seasons caused 
 by what? Show by illustration that three conditions must 
 exist. Place tropics — why 23i° north and south of equator? 
 Polar circles — why 23 1° from poles ? Orbit of earth. Plane 
 of orbit. Why does sun seem to move? Lead pupils to ob- 
 serve difference in path of sun. 
 
 ■ 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 233 
 
 VL, VII. 
 
 The Sun. 
 
 Comparative size. Distance from earth. (Illustrate by railroad 
 
 train.) 
 Spots. — What supposed to be ? Change of form indicates 
 
 what? 
 Eclipses of Sun. — How caused ? Kinds. Illustrate, and draw 
 
 conclusions from pupils. 
 
 VIII., IX. 
 The Moon. 
 
 Light, caused how? Cause of phases? Illustrate. Distance 
 from the earth ? Position and names of spots ? Spots indi- 
 cate what? Probable appearance from the moon of our 
 earth? Eclipse explained. 
 
 X.-XII. 
 
 Planets. 
 
 Appearance and movements of planets that are in sight? 
 Names? Planets in sight at different seasons? Relative 
 size of each? Comparative length of year? Comparative 
 length of day ? Moons and rings ? Which planets have 
 phases? Conjunction of planets? Probability of habitation? 
 
 XIII.-XX. 
 Fixed Stars. 
 
 Appearance, how different from planets when seen through 
 
 telescope? Why? Give idea of distance by railway train. 
 
 Do they change their relative position as do the planets? 
 
 Cause of difference. Position and names of stars of first 
 
 magnitude. Constellations observed and named; position 
 
 of stars noted. Results of observation brought into the 
 
 class. 
 
 PHYSICS. 
 
 In conducting lessons in Physics the teacher should 
 be careful to lead the pupils to correct conclusions 
 through their own observation. The observation is 
 
234 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 what is actually seen, and should not be confounded 
 with the experiment which precedes it nor with the 
 inference which follows. The experiments should be 
 made by, or in presence of, the pupils, with simple 
 apparatus. To show the order and character of the 
 work which may be done, and the kind of apparatus 
 used, the following outline of topics for twenty lessons 
 is presented. It is taken largely from the elementary 
 course pursued in the Bridgewater (Mass.) State Nor- 
 mal School. 
 
 The Roman numerals indicate the lessons, but some- 
 times not so much can be done. 
 
 I. Matter, Body, Substance. 
 
 Exp. 1. Place a pencil upon the table. Put another in the 
 same place without moving the first. Obs. Cannot do it. Inf. 
 Pencil takes up room [occupies space]. 
 
 Exp. 2. Fill a bottle with water. Put more in. Obs. Cannot 
 do it. Inf. Water occupies space. 
 
 Exp. 3. Close one end of a glass tube. Press other end into 
 the water. Obs. Water does not fill. Inf. Air occupies space. 
 
 Call anything that occupies space "matter." Call a limited 
 portion of matter a *' body." 
 
 Exp. 4. Taste salt and sugar. Obs. The taste is different. 
 Inf. They are different kinds of matter. 
 
 Exp. 5. Feel of soap and stone. Obs. They feel different. 
 Inf. They are different kinds of matter. 
 
 [In the same way smell of coffee and of tea ; examine color of 
 leaf and bark ; strike on wood and glass, etc. Bring out the infer- 
 ence that they are different kinds of matter.] 
 
 Call a kind of matter a " substance." 
 
 [Much of the time of the first lesson may have to be given to 
 leading the pupils to distinguish the difference between an experi- 
 ment and an observation, and to lead them to make correct infer- 
 ences. If care is not taken, they will be inclined to infer too 
 much.] 
 
 
 ^\ 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 235 
 
 11. Changes in Matter. 
 
 Exp. 1. Examine a match. Obs. A red end with peculiar 
 smell, a yellow tip, white wood. Inf. Made of different substances. 
 
 Exp. 2. Burn and then examine. Obs. Smell goes off with 
 the smoke, red and yellow disappear, also the white wood ; a soft, 
 black substance is left. Inf. Change of substance. Call such a 
 change in matter a " chemical change." 
 
 Exp. 3. Drop a match. Obs. Change of place. 
 
 Exp, 4. Examine the dropped match. Obs. Looks the same 
 as at first. Inf. No change of substance. Call such a change a 
 " physical change." 
 
 Exp. 5. Leave a match on table. Obs. No change. Inf. 
 Change must have a cause. 
 
 Call a cause of change in matter " force." 
 
 Call a cause of chemical change in matter " chemical force." 
 
 Call a cause of physical change in matter "physical force." 
 
 Call the knowledge of physical force and its effects " physics." 
 
 Call the knowledge of chemical force and its effects "chemistry." 
 
 Exp. 6. Tear paper with fingers. Obs. A change in paper. 
 Inf. Force exerted by fingers caused the change. Call this " mus- 
 cular force." 
 
 Exp. 7. Take plaster of Paris, wet and pour out on glass plate. 
 Obs. From powder it soon becomes solid. Inf. Force holds the 
 parts together. Call this force " cohesion." 
 
 Call any force that draws or holds bodies together an " attrac- 
 tive force." 
 
 Exp. 8. Mark with lead-pencil on paper. Obs. Particles of 
 lead stick to the paper. Lead and paper are unlike. Inf. Force 
 holds the unlike parts together. It is an attractive force. Call 
 this force " adhesion." 
 
 Exp. 9. Drop a pencil. Obs. The pencil moves downward to 
 the floor. Inf. Force causes it to fall. It is an attractive force. 
 Call this force " gravity." 
 
 III. Changes in Matter. 
 
 Exp. 1. Hold a piece of sealing-wax near the flame of a match. 
 Obs. Wax softens and melts. Inf. Force caused this change. 
 Call this force " heat." 
 
236 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Exp. 2. Prepare two pieces of paper with nitrate of silver. 
 Keep one in the dark. Obs. No change of paper in the dark. 
 
 Exp. o. Cover part of other with card, and expose to light. 
 Obs. The part exposed to the light turns dark. Inf. Force caused 
 this change. Call this force " light." 
 
 Exp. 4. Burn a match. Obs. Wood changed to different sub- 
 stance. Inf. Force caused this change. Call this force " chemical 
 affinity.'* 
 
 Exp. 5. Put a knife-blade on magnet. Touch it to some iron 
 tacks. Obs. Tacks are drawn to knife. Inf. Force caused this 
 motion. It is an attractive force. Call this force " magnetism." 
 
 Exp. 6. Rub a stick of sealing-wax with a piece of dry flannel, 
 and bring wax near bits of paper. Obs. The bits of paper are 
 drawn to the wax. Inf. Force caused this motion. It is an 
 attractive force. Call this force " electricity." 
 
 Exp. 7. Touch a metal button to cheek. Obs. Button feels 
 cold. 
 
 Exp. 8. Rub button briskly on sleeve, and then touch to cheek. 
 Obs. Button feels warm after rubbing. Inf. By using nmscular 
 force "heat" is produced. 
 
 Exp. 9. Rub sealing-wax with diy flannel, and bring near bits 
 of paper. Obs. Paper is drawn to wax. Inf. By using muscular 
 force "electricity" is produced. 
 
 Exp. 10. Burn match, and while burning look at it; hold a 
 hand near it. Obs. Flame is bright; hand is warmed. Inf. By 
 using chemical affinity "heat" and "light " are produced. 
 
 Exp. 11. Bring a match near the flame of a burning match. 
 Obs. Match kindles and burns. Inf. By using heat "chemical 
 affinity" is formed. 
 
 These forces are so related to each other, that by using one 
 we may get some of the others. 
 
 lY. States of Matter and Qualities of Bodies. 
 
 Exp. 1. Place a pebble on the table. Press it with the finger. 
 Obs. No change. Inf. Body tends to keep its form ; parts held 
 together firmly. Call such a body a "solid." 
 
 Exp. 2. Place drop of water on the table, and press it with the 
 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 237 
 
 finger. Obs. Water spreads out, and the parts move away from 
 one another. Inf. The parts are held together loosely and move 
 freely among themselves. Can change its form easily. Call such 
 a body a " liquid." 
 
 Exp. 3. Boil a little water in a test-tube over a candle-flame. 
 Obs. Steam rises and disappears in the air. Inf. Parts are not 
 held together, and tend to separate without pressure. Call such a 
 body a " gas." 
 
 Call liquids and gases " fluids." 
 
 Exp. 4. Pass the finger along edges of a book. Obs. The finger 
 can move up or down, right or left, forward or backward. Inf. 
 Body extends in three directions. Say that the book has " exten- 
 sion." 
 
 Exp. 5. Repeat Exp. 4. Obs. The finger can move only a 
 certain distance in each direction. Inf. The extension is limited. 
 This gives the book " form " or " shape." 
 
 Exp. 6. Close the fingers of one hand around one finger of the 
 other hand. Take out finger, leaving an opening. Put other hand 
 in. Obs. Cannot do it. Inf. Hand occupies more space than the 
 finger. Call the amount of space occupied by a body its " size " 
 or "volume." 
 
 Exp. 7. Put book on table ; put another in same place without 
 moving the first. Obs. Cannot do it. Inf. The two books cannot 
 occupy the same space at the same time. Say that the book has 
 " impenetrability." 
 
 Exp. 8. Put book on table ; push it. Obs. The body moves. 
 Inf. A body can be moved. Say that the book has " mobility." 
 
 V. Qualities of Bodies. 
 
 Exp. 1. Put book on table ; do not touch it. Obs. The book 
 does not move. Inf. The book cannot move itself. Say that the 
 book has " inertia." 
 
 Exp. 2. Hold book in the hand. Obs. Hand is pressed down- 
 ward. Inf. Book presses hand downward. Call this pressure 
 « weight." 
 
 Exp. 3. Tear a piece of paper ; tear each piece. Obs. The piece 
 is divided into parts ; each piece is divided into parts. Inf. The 
 
238 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 body can be divided indefinitely. Say that the body has "divisi- 
 bility." 
 
 Exp. 4. Look at a bit of sjxjnge. Obs. There are open spaces 
 in sponge. Call these *' pores." 
 
 Exp. 5. Put a drop of water on table ; dip into it a bit of blot- 
 ting-paper. Obs. The water disappears in the paper. Inf. There 
 are open spaces or pores in the paper. Say that these bodies are 
 " porous," and have " porosity." 
 
 Exp. 6. Fit a cork into a test-tube or a bottle ; through this 
 cork pass tightly a glass tube ; fill bottle and part of tube with 
 W" ater ; tie string around tube at surface of water ; set bottle in 
 dish of hot water, or wrap around it a cloth wet in hot water. 
 Obs. The water rises in the tube. Inf. The parts have separated 
 from each other. Say that the body has " expansibility." [By ex- 
 periments with a soft cork infer that the body regains its form by 
 its own effort. Say that the body is " elastic," and has " elasticity."] 
 
 YI. Effects of Force. 
 
 Exp. 1. Place a marble on table ; strike it with finger. Obs. 
 Force exerted ; marble moves. Inf. The force caused the motion. 
 
 Exp. 2. Rest the book on the hand, just above the table ; take 
 away the hand. Obs. Downward pressure on the hand; the book 
 falls. Inf. The force which caused the book to fall caused the 
 pressure. 
 
 Exp. 3. Place book on floor ; lift it to the table. Obs. Force 
 exerted; work done. Inf. The force does work; force causes 
 "motion" and "pressure," and "does work." 
 
 Exp. 4. Put marble on table ; strike it with finger just hard 
 enough to move. Obs. Marble moves. 
 
 Exp. 5. Put book on tabb and strike it with same force. Obs. 
 Book does not move. Inf. Something prevents motion. 
 
 Exp. 6. Place smooth paper on sleeve ; move finger along paper 
 and then along sleeve. Obs. Motion is lessened when sleeve is 
 reached. Inf. Something lessens motion. Call anything that pre- 
 vents or lessens motion a " resistance." 
 
 Exp. 7. Hold a marble in one hand and a bullet in the other. 
 Obs. Bullet is heavier than the marble. 
 
 I 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 239 
 
 Exp. 8. Place each on the table. Obs. Neither moves. Inf. 
 Both have inertia. 
 
 Exp. 9. Strike marble with little force ; strike bullet with more 
 force. Obs. Marble does not move ; bullet does not move. Inf. 
 Inertia is a " resistance." 
 
 Exp. 10. Strike marble with just force enough to move it; 
 strike bullet with same force. Obs. Marble moves; bullet does 
 not move. Inf. Heavier body offers more resistance — has more 
 inertia. 
 
 Exp. 11. Place book on table and apply force enough to move it. 
 Obs. Book moves. Inf. Book has inertia ; inertia overcome. 
 
 Exp. 12. Put another similar book on first, and apply the same 
 force. Obs. No motion. Inf. Two books have more inertia than 
 one. The more matter, the more inertia. [In the same manner, 
 by experiments with paper, rough and smooth, a stick and a marble, 
 lead the pupils to infer that, (1) air offers resistance ; (2) surface 
 of paper offers resistance (friction) ; (3) pressure increases the 
 friction ; (4) cohesion offers resistance ; (5) body tends to keep 
 moving (inertia) ; (6) force has " direction " and " intensity."] 
 
 VII. Properties of Motion. 
 
 [Apparatus needed : marble, pencil, shingle, bullet, Jilbert, brick.'] 
 Teach following properties of Motion : Direction, Velocity, Mo- 
 mentum, Energy. 
 
 The various inferences from experiments observed will be, (1) 
 The motion has direction. The motion is the same as the direc- 
 tion of the force which produced the motion. (2) The greater 
 distance was passed in the same time because more force was applied. 
 (Call the distance passed in a given time "speed" or "velocity.") 
 (3) The marble in motion exerted force. It got this force from 
 the hand. (Call the force of a body in motion "momentum.") (4) 
 Inertia of shingle greater than momentum of marble. (5) Momen- 
 tum of bullet more than momentum of marble. The heavy body 
 has more momentum than a light one moving at the same rate. 
 (6) Inertia of book greater than momentum of marble. (7) The 
 body has more momentum because its velocity is greater. The 
 momentum depends upon the force used. (8) The motion of the 
 brick enabled it to do work. (Call the power to do work "energy.") 
 
240 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 VIII. Effect of Several Forces actixg together. 
 
 (1) In same direction. (2) In opposite direction. (3) At an 
 angle. (4) Parallel. (5) Unlike. (6) Equilibrium. 
 
 Exp. 1. Suspend a pulley, and over it pass a cord; to one end 
 attach a two-ounce weight ; attach a two-ounce weight to other end. 
 Obs. The first weight is held up. 
 
 Exp. 2. Take off second weight. Obs. The first weight falls. 
 
 Exp. 3. Raise second weight a little with the hand. Gbs. The 
 first weight moves downward. Inf. The second weight holds up 
 the first weight. 
 
 Exp. 4. In place of second weight attach two one-ounce weights. 
 Obs. The first weight is held up. 
 
 Exp. 5. Raise small weights with hand. Obs. The first weight 
 moves downward. Inf. Two one-ounce weights do same work as 
 two-ounce weight in same direction. Each force does same work as 
 when acting alone. 
 
 [In the same way show that a three-ounce weight in one direc- 
 tion, and a one-ounce weight in an opposite direction, do the same 
 work as a two-ounce weight in the direction of the three-ounce 
 weight. Each force (in opposite direction) does same work as 
 when acting alone.] 
 
 Exp. 6. Place a marble on the table ; snap it directly to 
 the right, then directly forward, and observe the motion in each 
 case. 
 
 Exp. 7. Snap it in both directions at same time. Obs. The 
 marble moves in a direction between two former motions ; it moves 
 iji a straight line. Inf. Each force does the same work as when 
 acting alone. 
 
 Exp. 8. Take a piece of lath one foot long, make a hole in the 
 middle, and suspend by a string ; make similar holes one inch 
 apart on each side, first hole one inch from the middle; make 
 hooks by bending pins, and suspend from each of the holes. Mark 
 off with a ruler a piece of sheet-lead one inch square, and cut 
 several of them ; make a hole in one corner of each, and put in a 
 thread to suspend it by. With this piece of apparatus show, (1) 
 Equal weights at equal distance from middle do same work. 
 (2) By doubling the distance of the weight from middle, we make 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 241 
 
 it do double tlie work. (3) By doubling the weight at the same 
 distance, the work done is doubled. (4) By doubling both weight 
 and distance, four times the work is done. 
 
 IX. Cohesion and Adhesion. 
 
 Exp. 1. Press two bullets together. Obs. They come apart 
 easily. Inf. Cohesion does not act. 
 
 Exp. 2. Scrape one side of each bullet; press together, and 
 pull apart. Obs. They do not come apart easily. Inf. Cohesion 
 holds them together. 
 
 Exp. 3. In a tumbler of hot water slowly put powdered alum ; 
 continue till alum begins to fall to bottom of tumbler. Obs. Alum 
 disappears in the water. 
 
 Exp. 4. Take a twig from some plant, clean, and hang in the 
 water; let the water cool quietly. Obs. The particles of alum 
 have been brought together again ; the body has a definite form. 
 Inf. Cohesion has acted ; cohesion has arranged the particles in a 
 definite way. 
 
 [In the same way teach the following effects of Cohesion : Hard- 
 ness, Tenacity, Elasticity, Flexibility, Ductility, Malleability, Brittle- 
 ness. Also lessons on Adhesion, showing that solids adhere to 
 solids, that solids and liquids adhere, and that solids and gases 
 adhere. 
 
 X., XI. Gravity. 
 
 Direction, Supporting Forces, Centre of Gravity, Stability. 
 
 To teach Direction, give the following experiments, having pupils 
 observe and infer as before. — Exp. 1. Take one end of a string 
 in each hand; hold left hand still, moving right hand toward the 
 right; stretch the string; do the same upward; do the same dcf> - 
 ward. 
 
 Exp. 2. Tie a stone to one end of a string, and hold other end 
 in hand. 
 
 Exp. 3. Draw circle upon paper, and from two points outside 
 draw lines straight toward the circumference ; extend these lines 
 into the circle. 
 
 To teach Supportinr/ Forces. — Exp. 1. Place on table a soft 
 lump of salt ; on this place a heavy book. 
 
242 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Exp. 2. Place the same book on a small stone. (Cohesion 
 overcomes gravity.) 
 
 Exp. 3. Moisten linger, touch to bit of paper, and raise finger. 
 (Adliesion overcomes gravity.) 
 
 Exp. 4. Bring steel pen near a knife-blade, and remove the 
 hand. 
 
 Exp. 5. Rub knife-blade on magnet, and repeat Xo. 4. 
 
 Exp. 6. Bring bits of paper near a stick of sealing-wax, and 
 remove the hand. 
 
 Exp. 7. Rub wax on sleeve, and then repeat Xo. 6. 
 
 To teach Centre of Gravity. — Exp. 1. Place book on table. 
 
 Exp. 2. Balance a pencil horizontally on finger. 
 
 Exp. 3. Cut pasteboard in form of a triangle ; make a hole near 
 each end ; tie in a string to hold it by ; make a plumb-line, and 
 suspend string and plumb-line from the same finger ; mark on the 
 pasteboard the direction of the plumb-line. 
 
 Exp. 4. Suspend from each corner, and repeat Xo. 3. 
 
 Exp. 5. Rest the pasteboard on the point of a pin at the point 
 of intersection of the lines. 
 
 Exp. 6. Make a pin-hole at this point, put pin through, and 
 turn body into different positions. ^ 
 
 Exp. 7. Suspending pasteboard by a string, draw body to 
 one side. 
 
 To teach Stability. — Exp. 1. Rest a small piece of board on 
 end; overturn it by turning it on one corner; observe force used, 
 and motion of centre of gravity. 
 
 Exp. 2. Overturn by turning on edge ; observe as before. 
 
 Exp. 3. Balance pencil on point of finger. 
 
 Exp. 4. ]Move it in either dii'ection. 
 
 Exp. 5. Suspend a plumb-line from hand. 
 
 Exp. 6. Move body either way, then free. 
 
 Exp. 7. Roll a marble on table. 
 
 XII., XIII. Weight. 
 
 In this lesson explain principle of Balance and Steelyard by 
 simple experiments. 
 
 Take same stick as in study of parallel forces ; cut two pieces 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
OBSERVATION LESSONS. 243 
 
 of sheet-lead exactly two inches square ; hollow in middle to make 
 little pans ; make a hole in each corner of each, and by threads 
 from corners suspend from hooks on each end of stick. Call this a 
 Balance. Suspend by middle string; in one pan put one lead 
 weight, in other pan put some sand. 
 
 Take a piece of lath and make a balance with unequal arms, 
 like a steelyard ; from longer arm hang a stone, and call it P. 
 Hang one weight on hook on short arm ; move stone till they bal- 
 ance. Mark place 1 ; put 2, 3, 4, 5 weights, and mark place where 
 P balances. Hang piece of wood from hook, and move P till they 
 balance. (Each pupil should construct his own balance.) 
 
 XIV. Pendulum. 
 
 Suspend a bullet by a fine thread from a fixed support. 
 
 Exp. 1. Draw it to one side ; free it. 
 
 Exp. 2. Draw it a little to one side, and free. Count oscilla- 
 tions for fifteen seconds. 
 
 Exp. 3. Repeat, only drawing farther. 
 
 Exp. 4. Make string six inches long. Oscillate, and count as 
 before. 
 
 Exp. 5. Make string twelve inches long. Repeat. 
 
 XV. Effect of Gravity on Liquids. 
 
 By experiments show that, (1) Gravity causes water to fall. (2) 
 Falling water has momentum. (3) Gravity causes water to run 
 down hill. (4) Running water has momentum. 
 
 To teach the effect of gravity on liquids supported, give the fol- 
 lowing experiments : — 
 
 Exp. 1. Tie a piece of thin rubber on one end of an Argand 
 lamp-chimney ; fill chimney with water. 
 
 Exp. 2. Fit a cork tightly into other end of chimney ; through 
 a hole in cork pass a glass tube with a bend near one end ; hold 
 chimney horizontally, and partially fill tube with water. 
 
 Exp. 3. Fill tube wholly. 
 
 Exp. 4. Cut a piece of lead a little larger than lamp-chimney j 
 suspend by a string through a hole in the middle ; insert chimney 
 
244 ivrETHODS of teaching. 
 
 in a jar of water, and hold lead close to the bottom by the string 
 through the chimney ; release the lead. 
 
 Exp. 5. Release the lead near the surface. 
 
 Exp. 6. Close one end of a tube with finger, and press open 
 end into a jar of water. 
 
 Exp. 7. Remove the finger. 
 
 [The facts to be shown by these experiments are, that water 
 presses downward and laterally; that pressm-e depends upon depth 
 of water ; that within the water there is upward pressure ; and 
 that upward pressure at the bottom of tube is due to the down- 
 ward pressure of the water around it. Prove also that water tends 
 to have the same level, and that pressure is transmitted through 
 the water downward, laterally, and upward.] 
 
 XVI. Loss OF Weight. Floating Bodies. 
 
 By familiar experiments show that a body immersed in water 
 weighs less than out of it ; that upward pressure of water supports 
 a part of the weight ; that the body displaces its own volume of 
 water ; that loss of weight equals weight of water displaced. Also 
 show that lead is heavier than equal volume of water ; that a body 
 sinks because it is heavier than an equal volume of water ; that a 
 body floats because it is lighter than an equal volume of water ; 
 and that heavier liquids hold up the lighter. 
 
 XVII. Pressure and Elasticity of Atmosphere. 
 Barometer. 
 
 With an Argand chimney, covered at one end with rubber, show 
 that atmosphere presses the rubber downward, upward, and later- 
 ally. Also, by pressing open end of chimney into water, show 
 that air in the tube is compressed; that the compressed air is 
 elastic. 
 
 To illustrate principle of barometer : — 
 
 Exp. 1. Take an empty horse-radish bottle, having a tight-fitting 
 cork, and partly fill with water. In the cork make two holes for 
 two glass tubes. Through one put a bent glass tube. Close one 
 end of a long straight tube with a cork, fill with water, insert, and 
 pass through other hole so that the open end shall be below the 
 
INFORMATION LESSONS. 245 
 
 level (Jf the water. Obs. The water stays in the tube above the 
 level of the water in the bottle. Inf. The pressure of the atmos- 
 phere on surface of the water in bottle holds up the water in the 
 tubfe. 
 
 Exp. 2. Through tube draw air from -bottle. Obs. Water falls 
 in the tube. 
 
 Exp. 3. Admit air again. Obs. Water vises in the tube. Inf. 
 The height of water in the tube varies with the pressure of the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 XVIII.-XX. 
 
 The time of these three lessons may be well spent in making 
 siphon, common lifting-pump, and forcing-pump. With lamp- 
 chinmey, corks, leather, and small pieces of wood, the pupils can by 
 degrees construct the pump^nd explain all the principles involved. 
 
 INFORMATION LESSONS. 
 
 In addition to the information given in connection 
 with the regular lessons, there should be taken ten or 
 fifteen minutes daily for what may be called an informa- 
 tion lesson, in which facts of a general character are 
 given. 
 
 PRIMARY GRADES. 
 
 In the primary grades the information should be 
 of a very simple character, the aim being to lead the 
 children to think and inquire about common things 
 around them. Frequently the subjects talked about 
 may be suggested by the observation lessons. Interest- 
 ing facts which cannot be gathered by the child's ob- 
 servation may be told ; as for example, the description 
 of wild animals or the kind of life half-civilized and 
 savage people lead, or the kind of plants which grow 
 in tropical regions. Sometimes the information may 
 
246 IVIETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 be given in answer to questions. Two or three ques- 
 tions may be written on the blackboard, to be answered 
 the following day. What the children cannot answer 
 should be supplied by the teacher. 
 
 The following questions may be of some assistance 
 to teachers of primary and ungraded schools: — 
 
 What is flour made of ? 
 Why do we plant trees ? 
 
 Where does the rain come from, and where does it go to? 
 Of what are baskets made ? Boxes ? Bags V 
 When the tin wears off, what is left ? 
 What is a grocery ? A dry-goods store ? 
 What would you probably see in a fUrm-yard ? 
 Name some articles made of iron. Of wood. Of tin. 
 Why do people gather hay in summer ? Why do they dry it? 
 Why should we be kind to animals ? 
 Tell me all you know about hay. Com. Flour. 
 Of what use is a thermometer ? A weather-vane ? 
 Tell me something the horse can do. The dog. The cat 
 AVhat animal does mutton come from ? Veal ? Beef ? Pork ? 
 What becomes of snow when it melts ? 
 Should we stare at strangers ? Why not ? 
 
 Tell me the names of the different kinds of birds you have seen. 
 Why do we not see the stars in the daytime ? 
 Where and how is coal obtained? Wood? Oil? Cheese? Paper? 
 Where does tea come from? Sugar? Rice? Raisins? 
 What do people use for fuel ? For light ? 
 Name the different modes of travelling. 
 Where do the different kinds of fruit we eat grow? 
 What would you find at the seashore ? 
 
 How are ships useful to us? How large are they? Of what are 
 they made ? 
 
 Of what is each article of our dress made? 
 Name the country, State, county, and town in which you live ? 
 Who is President of the United States ? Governor of this State? 
 What is it to be useful? Selfish? Benevolent? 
 
 J 
 
INFORMATION LESSONS. 247 
 
 What is meant by a flock ? A drove? A swarm? 
 
 Mention a polite act. Some rude acts. Some kind acts. 
 
 What plays do you like best ? Wliat books ? 
 
 Of the objects you have seen to-day, which are natural and 
 which are artificial? ^ 
 
 Tell the seasons of the year, and some pleasant things of each. 
 
 Name the days of the week. The months of the year. 
 
 If everything you can see were taken out of the schoolroom, of 
 what would it still be full ? 
 
 If the sun does not shine in the room till afternoon, which way 
 does the room face ? 
 
 Why are the 22d of February, the 17th of June, and the 4th of 
 July, holidays ? 
 
 What do w^c call the young of the goat ? Of the horse? Of the 
 cow? Of the cat? 
 
 From what are bricks made? How? 
 
 Of what is bread made ? 
 
 Where do potatoes grow? Apples? Strawberries? Blueberries? 
 
 AVhere does the moon get its light ? 
 
 W-'hy do we not see the moon in the daytime ? 
 
 Who is meant by grandfather? Grand-daughter? Uncle? Aunt? 
 Cousin? Nephew? Niece? 
 
 How long does it take the minute-hand of a clock to go round 
 once? 
 
 How many things does it take to make a dozen ? A score? 
 
 Of what are buttons made? Glass? Cotton cloth? Woollen 
 cloth? Linen cloth? Leather? 
 
 GRAMMAR GRADES. 
 
 General information for older pupils should take a 
 wide range, including subjects which may be classed 
 under the following heads : — 
 
 1, News of the day or week. 2. Civil government. 3. Ani- 
 mals, Plants, Minerals. 4. Morals and Manners. 
 
 The amount of time to be given to each of these 
 subjects cannot be definitely prescribed, it being well 
 in such a matter to be guided by circumstances. 
 
248 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 At the time of the town, city, or State election, 
 considerable attention to civil government should be 
 given ; and wlien interesting or important events 
 are transpiring, it would be advisable to spend more 
 time upon the newspaper exercise. Sometimes the 
 observation lessons may excite such an interest in nat- 
 ural history as to make it desirable to give two or three 
 general exercises a week upon information connected 
 with animals, plants, and minerals. Generally, how- 
 ever, it will be well to be guided by the rule of having 
 two lessons a week in News, one in Civil Government, 
 one in Natural History, and one in Morals and Manners. 
 
 Newspaper. — An excellent opportunity is afforded 
 to study geography, history, and all the political and 
 social questions of the da}^ by means of the daily or 
 weekly newspaper. There is a variety of ways in which 
 this exercise may be conducted. Three or four pupils 
 may be appointed to give at each lesson an abstract of 
 the news, with such explanations and comments as they 
 can give. Or volunteers may be called for from the 
 entire school to give some item of news. Care should 
 be taken that the news selected or related be of an 
 important or useful character. Merely exciting and 
 unimportant events should be passed by, one object of 
 the exercise being to interest the pupils in that part of 
 the newspaper which is of most importance to them, and 
 to lead them into good habits of reading the newspaper. 
 
 Sometimes it may be well for tlie teacher to give the 
 items of news, asking one and another of the pupils to 
 locate certain places spoken of, and to tell w^hat they 
 can in explanation of the events related. For example, 
 certain acts of Parliament' or of Congress maybe spoken 
 
INFOKMATION LESSONS. 249 
 
 of, such as home-rule or the tariff. The pupils could 
 be asked what legislation had been attempted before, 
 and what would be the possible effect of the present 
 law. Events in Russia or Greece might suggest ques- 
 tions of boundary, government, religion, and labor or 
 other social questions. Atlases and maps should be 
 consulted by the pupils to ascertain the location of 
 places unknown to them. 
 
 The following topics may be suggestive: — 
 Acts of Congress, Parliament, and other legislative bodies. Ex- 
 isting wars : progress and cause. Expeditions and their purpose. 
 Market reports. Shipping news : arrivals and departures ; exports 
 and imports. Important court decisions. Results of elections. 
 
 Civil Government. — For the purpose of giving 
 pupils a better idea of government, and of instilling 
 into their minds high ideas of the duties of citizenship, 
 regular instruction should be given in the grammar 
 grades upon the following topics : — 
 
 Duties, manner of election, and time of service, of Selectmen, 
 Assessors, School Committee, Town or City Treasurer, Collector, 
 Aldermen, Mayor, County Commissioner, Sheriff, Register of Deeds, 
 Judges, Members of State Legislature, Governor, Secretary of 
 State, Attorney-Cjeneral, State Treasurer, Members of Congress, 
 President, Members of Cabinet. 
 
 Names of officers elected at the last' National, State, and town 
 elections. 
 
 Necessity and use of government and law. 
 
 Duties of citizens in respect to the laws. 
 
 Advantages of co-operation and arbitration. 
 
 Laws in relation to schools, to property, highways, etc. 
 
 The civil service. Foreign service. 
 
 Existing political parties. Principles of each. History. 
 
 Animals, Plants, Minerals. — The time of the obser- 
 vation lessons is given mainly to observing things 
 
in nature. Such lessons will constantly suggest other 
 interesting matter, which may be told the pu[,'ils, or 
 which the pupils may learn from books. Such subjects 
 as the following will profitably occupy the attention of 
 the pupils at least once a week : — 
 
 Habits of animals, both wild and domestic. 
 
 Uses of animals, alive and dead. 
 
 Manner of growth and culture of all articles of food, including 
 tropical fruits, spices, grains. 
 
 Description, value, and use of precious stones and other 
 minerals. 
 
 Sometimes questions like the following may be given 
 out, to be answered by the pupils or teacher on the 
 following day : — 
 
 How is salt got from sea- water ? 
 
 What is saltpetre, and what is its use ? 
 
 How is gunpowder made ? 
 
 What is phosphorus, and what is its use ? 
 
 What is soda, and what is its use ? 
 
 W^hat is potash, and what is its use ? 
 
 How is lime obtained ? 
 
 What is marble? AVhat kinds are there, and where found? 
 
 What is chalk ? Plaster of Paris ? 
 
 How are lead-pencils made ? 
 
 What is peat, and how is it prepared for fuel? 
 
 What is coal made from ? 
 
 What is petroleum or kerosene oil, and how is it prepared for use ? 
 
 How are bricks made? Earthenware? 
 
 Of what and how is porcelain made? 
 
 How is glass made ? How is it made into bottles, goblets, etc. ? 
 
 How are school-slates and slate-pencils made? 
 
 How is iron got from the ore ? 
 
 What is wrought iron ? 
 
 What is steel ? Uses ? 
 
 What is bronze ? Kinds and uses? 
 
 
INFORMATION LESSONS. 251 
 
 How are pins made ? 
 
 How are looking-glasses made? 
 
 Where do we get lead from? How obtained? 
 
 What are stereotype plates, and how are they made ? 
 
 What is tin? How used? 
 
 Of what and how are coins made ? 
 
 How is gold obtained from rocks? From sand? 
 
 Uses of nickel ? 
 
 What is dynamite, and how made ? 
 
 How are macaroni and vermicelli made ? 
 
 How is starch made, and what is its use? 
 
 What is malt? Its use? 
 
 What is the difference between fermented and distilled liquors ? 
 
 What is sago ? How made ? 
 
 What is tapioca ? How made ? 
 
 Place and manner of growth of the gourd ? the leek ? garlic ? 
 cauliflower? peanuts? pineapples? dates? figs? raisii^s? banana? 
 pomegranate? tea? coffee? cloves? etc. 
 
 What is candy made of? AVhat ingredients are imhealthful? 
 
 How is camphor made ? Uses ? 
 
 From what is gum arable made ? India rubber ? 
 
 How does flax grow, and what is made from it ? Hemp ? Cotton ? 
 
 What is tow ? Jute ? 
 
 Describe cambric ; lawn ; muslin ; canvas ; nankeen. 
 
 How and from what is lace made ? Calico ? 
 
 From what and how is paper made? Different kinds of paper? 
 
 Uses of oak ? Maple ? Willow ? etc. 
 
 How is resin made, and what are its uses? Tar? Lampblack? 
 
 Place, manner of growth, and uses of mahogany ? Ebony ? Bam- 
 boo? Logwood? Palm? 
 
 Manner of making cheese? 
 
 What are Durham cattle? Ayshire? Alderney? Jersey? 
 
 How are candles made ? Soap ? 
 
 Difference between woollen goods and worsted goods ? 
 
 What kinds of woollen goods ? 
 
 What is felting? 
 
 How are carpets made ? Different kinds of carpets ? 
 
 How is leather made ? Uses ? 
 
252 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Kinds of fur, and where obtained? 
 
 Uses of ivory? How obtained? 
 
 How is wax made, and what are its uses? 
 
 How and where is silk made ? 
 
 What is velvet? Satin? Brocade? Gauze? Crape? 
 
 What is obtained from the whale ? 
 
 What is mother-of-pearl, and what are its uses? 
 
 What are shell cameos? 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 Form. — The study of Form is a necessary accom- 
 paniment of drawing, and is begun in the first year of 
 school. The apparatus needed for the Form lessons 
 given in the primary grades are sphere, cube, cylinder, 
 pyramid (rectangular and triangular), prism (triangular 
 and square), cone, spheroid. Forms similar to those 
 already named should be provided as they are needed, 
 as rubber ball, orange, boxes, dice, lead-pencil, top, etc. 
 Clay and proper conveniences for moulding should also 
 be provided. It would be well for the pupils to have 
 small forms for close observation, and the teacher to 
 have a large form by which to direct the attention of 
 pupils. The first few lessons will consist of simple 
 comparison of familiar objects with respect to form. 
 An object (as a ball) may be presented, and the pupils 
 be asked to find another object like it in form. In this 
 way resemblances and differences of form may be ob- 
 served before the forms are named or before the parts 
 are examined. 
 
 The first object for particular study is the sphere. 
 It is first presented as a whole, and the following facts 
 are observed and expressed by the pupils : — 
 
 I 
 
DEAWING. 253 
 
 It is round. 
 
 It will roll ill all directions. 
 
 It has an evenly-curved surface. 
 
 The teacher then gives the name of the object, and the 
 pupils say, " It is called a sphere." 
 
 The cube and cylinder are next presented, and facts 
 observed as follows : — 
 
 1. General shape. 
 
 2. Number of surfaces (faces). 
 
 3. Form of surfaces. 
 
 4. Equality of surfaces. 
 
 5. Edges: 
 
 (a) number ; (b) kind ; (c) equality. 
 
 6. Corners : 
 
 (a) number; (&) kind. 
 
 7. Things which its form enables it to do. 
 
 8. Similar forms : 
 
 (a) to the entire object ; (b) to each part. 
 
 The object is then moulded in clay, and the surfaces 
 drawn upon the slate or paper. It will be seen that the 
 study of surfaces, lines, and angles will be carried on in 
 connection with the study of solids. The simple names, 
 plane and curved, straight and curved, square, blunt, 
 and sharp, may first be used in describing the surfaces, 
 edges, and corners. 
 
 After the sphere, cube, and cylinder have been 
 studied, they may be divided into two or more sections, 
 and the parts may be studied in the same general way 
 as the original wholes. The triangular and square 
 prism, pyramid, the cone, and spheroid are next taken 
 in order, and studied as were the cube and cylinder. 
 The introduction o^ more technical names may be begun 
 at this point, as the names of the angles and triangles : 
 
254 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 also diameter, diagonal, circumference. Invention may 
 also be begun here, color being combined with form. 
 The sticks or colored paper of different shapes may be 
 placed in order, beginning with the most simple designs, 
 and proceeding slowly in complexity. At first the pupils 
 will require considerable aid from the teacher. By 
 degrees the pupils will be led to depend more upon 
 themselves, until the designs are entirely original. 
 
 The following plan of Form lessons pursued in the 
 Practice Department of the Framingham (Mass.) Normal 
 School will be found helpful to teachers who can give 
 more attention to the study of Form than is indicated 
 in the Course of Studies. The outline is prepared by 
 Miss Ellen A. Williams, critic teacher of the school. 
 
 FORM. 
 Primary School. — First Year. 
 
 It is best not to take up this subject during the first three 
 months of the child's attendance at school, as he has so many 
 other new things to learn. Some lessons in Color should also 
 precede those in Form. 
 
 After the child has learned the name of the form, and has become 
 familiar with its use in little oral sentences, — " The sphere is on 
 the table," " Mary gave the sphere to the teacher," etc., — he 
 should learn by his own observation the following points about each 
 form, and should also be led to tell truthfully, in his own words, 
 the result of each observation. 
 
 Note. — At first too much stress should not be laid upon the child's 
 form of expression ; but as the work progresses through the different 
 grades, great care should be taken to draw from him exact and concise 
 statements. 
 
 Subjects of First Year's Study. — The sphere, cube, and cylinder. 
 The first course of lessons should deal with these forms as wholes ; 
 that is, without dividing any of them. 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 255 
 
 Name : Spelling learned from written word. Perfect familiarity 
 ■with the spelling should be secured by having the child write a 
 sutiicient number of short sentences containing the name. 
 
 Form : Sides — number of, shape, relative size, and relative 
 position. Edges — number of, kind, relative length, relative posi- 
 tion, and formation. Corners — number of, kind, and formation. 
 
 Appearance of form from different points of view when at 
 rest. 
 
 Appearance of form from different points of view when twirled. 
 
 Things which its form enables it to do. 
 
 Naming of objects of approximate form which they have seen, 
 bringing as many to class as possible. 
 
 Drawing of free-hand pictures of plane surfaces bounding the 
 solid. 
 
 Drawing of fi-ee-hand outlines of objects of approximate form. 
 
 Moulding in clay the perfect form. 
 
 Moulding in clay simple objects of approximate form* 
 
 Copying in colored papers simple geometrical designs based 
 upon the square, when they study the cube ; upon the circle, when 
 they study the cylinder ; and upon combinations of square and 
 circle, when they have completed the study of both cube and 
 cylinder. 
 
 Drawing of these designs upon slate, both in free-hand and by 
 tracing around cardboard squares and circles. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Divisions of Sphere, Cube, and Cylinder. 
 
 NEW FORMS OBTAINED. 
 
 Sphere 
 
 Cube . 
 
 . 4 
 
 twu eqi 
 
 icii jjai us . 
 
 « ( 
 
 
 four ' 
 
 
 (( ( 
 
 
 eight ' 
 
 
 « ( 
 
 ( « 
 
 . Hemispheres. 
 
 . Plinths. 
 
 . Triangular prisms. 
 
 . Oblong blocks. 
 
 . Triangular prisms. 
 
 . Cubes (not new forms). 
 
 . Square prisms. 
 
256 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ' Into two equal parts . 
 
 Cylinders (not new). 
 Half -cylinders, having two 
 Cylinder . . ^ semicircular faces. 
 
 Half-cylinders, having an 
 ellipse for one face. 
 
 The study of each of the new forms obtained by division should 
 be carried on in the same order, and as thoroughly as the study of 
 the sphere, cube, and cylinder during the first year. 
 
 Last Part of Second Year, or First Part of Third Year. 
 
 Oblate and prolate spheroids, quadrangular, triangular, and 
 hexangular pyramids, and the cone. 
 
 This series of lessons to be taken in the same way as the two 
 preceding series have been. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Divisions of Spheroids, Pyramids, and Cone. 
 
 Each of the spheroids may be divided into two equal similar 
 parts in three ways; but as the new forms obtained by these 
 divisions are not specific geometric forms, and as they present no 
 new surfaces for the child's investigation, it seems wise to spend 
 considerably less time upon these forms than upon those which 
 precede or follow them. 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 "cc ::: 
 
 NEW FOEMS OBTAINED. 
 
 " Into two parts Frustum of 
 
 pyramid. 
 
 Truncated and 
 
 oblique pja-amids. 
 
 Rectangular 
 
 pyramid. 
 
 Triangular 
 
 pyramid. 
 
 Into two parts Frustum of 
 
 pyramid. 
 
 « « « Truncated and 
 
 oblique pyramids. 
 ^^ ^^ ^^ ( from apex through ) Oblique triangu- 
 
 ( centre of base ) lar pyramid. 
 
 from apex through 
 Into two equal parts j ^^-^^^^^^^ ^f ^,^,^ 
 
 ( from apex through 
 diagonal of base 
 
top 
 
 DRAWING. 257 
 
 ' Into two parts Frustum of 
 
 pyramid. 
 
 " " " Truncated and 
 
 oblique pyramids. 
 
 Into two equal parts Trapezoidal 
 
 pyramid. 
 « « « « Pentagonal 
 
 o 
 
 pyramid. 
 
 Into two parts Frustum. 
 
 " « " " Truncated and 
 
 ^ l_ oblique cone. 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 1. A review of previous work. 
 
 2. A study of surfaces, lines, and angles. 
 
 Here, as in all the preceding work, the things to be studied are 
 to bo presented to the child, and he is to learn from his own observa- 
 tion, and is to make his own definitions. 
 
 Several illustrations of the special subject of study should be 
 presented to the child, and the name given by the teacher. 
 
 The child notes the common characteristics, and gives a de- 
 scription. 
 
 An exact and concise definition is gradually drawn from him. 
 
 Pie gives other illustrations of the same surface, line, or angle. 
 1. Surfaces, lines, and angles derived from the sphere and its 
 divisions. 
 
 (1) Curved surface. 
 
 Spherical surface (convex surface, concave surface). 
 
 (2) Plane surface. 
 
 Circle : circumference (arc), chord, segment, diameter, 
 
 semicircle, semicircuinference, greater arc, lesser arc, 
 
 degree, radius, sector, quadrant, sextant, octant, angle 
 
 (vertex), right angle, oblique angle (acute angle, obtuse 
 
 angle). 
 
 The child should discover the number of right angles which can 
 
 be made with their vertices at the centre of a circle ; also the 
 
 number of acute and obtuse angles which can be placed in the 
 
 same way. 
 
258 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 5. 
 
 7. 
 
 Surfaces and lines derived from cube and its divisions. 
 
 Square : parallel sides, perpendicular sides, diameter, oblongj 
 diagonal, triangle (vertex, base, altitude), right angles 
 (isosceles, scalene), trapezoid, trapezium. 
 Surfaces of cylinder. 
 
 Cylindrical, ellipse (focus, centre, diameter, major axis, minor 
 axis). 
 Surfaces of spheroids. 
 Spheroidal surface. 
 Surfaces of pyramids. 
 
 Equilateral triangle, hexagon, pentagon. 
 Surfaces of cone. 
 
 Conical surface. 
 Lines. 
 
 (1) From divisions of sphere. 
 
 Citrved (circular), straight. 
 
 (2) From cube. 
 
 Parallel straight lines, perpendicular lines, horizontal 
 lines, vertical lines, inclined or oblique lines. 
 
 (3) From cylinder. 
 
 Elliptical lines. 
 
 Fifth Year. 
 
 4 
 
 The pupil begins his w^ork in inventional geometry, foUowin^ 
 Spencer's text-book on the subject. 
 
 Hitherto nearly all his descriptions and definitions have been 
 oral ; from this point they should be written in a blank-book 
 devoted to the purpose. 
 
 The problems should be solved by the pupil, and not by the 
 teacher. So far as possible the pupil should give reasons for the 
 successive steps in his work. 
 
 Work in inventional geometry should be continued in the 
 grammar school until the last year. 
 
 During the last year there should be a thorough, scientific 
 analysis and classification of all the geometrical knowledge which 
 the pupil has acquired during the entire course. Correct concep- 
 tions of the geometric solid, surface, line, and point should be 
 acquired at this time. 
 
DRAWING. 259 
 
 Industrial Drawing-. — The order followed in the 
 primary form lessons is to be continued in all of the 
 subsequent work in drawing. From models and other 
 objects knowledge is first gained, and afterwards is 
 expressed by drawing. Following this, the knowledge 
 acquired is combined in new forms by invention and 
 design. Whatever books are used, therefore, the pupils 
 should not be allowed to draw from " flat copy " with- 
 out previous instruction. 
 
 Materials. — Some of the materials used for drawing 
 should be provided, and kept for use at all times. 
 Other materials may be gathered or made from time to 
 time by the pupils themselves. The following mate- 
 rials will be found necessary for good work : geometric 
 forms, and other forms for observation, such as boxes, 
 leaves, flowers, etc. ; sticks and paper (white and col- 
 ored), lead-pencils (hard and soft), rulers, compasses, 
 rubber erasers, drawing-paper and tracing-paper. 
 
 Preparation of Lesson. — To accomplish good results 
 in drawing, it will be necessary for the teacher to care- 
 fully prepare each lesson. The plan and purpose of the 
 books in use should be understood ; and, if a teacher's 
 edition is provided, the directions for giving each lesson 
 should be carefully studied. The correct position of 
 book, hand, and body in drawing, the use of eraser and 
 ruler, and all other specific directions given in the books, 
 should be well understood and observed by the pupils 
 under the guidance of the teacher. 
 
 The following hints in regard to the kind of work to 
 be done are not intended to take the place of what 
 will be found in the books prescribed, but are given to 
 assist the teacher in seeing the purpose of drawing, and 
 in suggesting valuable supplementary work. 
 
260 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Working Drawings. — A working drawing is one Dy 
 means of which an object of a definite form and size 
 may be made. As soon as pupils have had some prac- 
 tice in drawing the faces of geometric forms, let them 
 draw some plane surfaces to scale. The surface of a 
 book may be drawn, reducing the dimensions one-half. 
 The floor of the schoolroom may be drawn, one inch 
 for every foot, etc. Say to the pupils that you want a 
 box made of certain dimensions, and ask them to draw 
 hasty working views of the top, side, and end, such as 
 they would give a carpenter. After practice of this kind, 
 draw upon the board free-hand working views of an 
 object, and ask the pupils to draw with instruments 
 accurate working views. 
 
 All of this work is of the most practical kind, for, 
 besides training the hand and eye, it will enable one 
 to give proper directions for the manufacture of any 
 article. 
 
 Construction of Objects, — The modelling of objects in 
 clay is carried on in the primary grades, and may be 
 continued to some extent in the grammar grades. This 
 work will be especially useful in connection with work- 
 ing views. Small cubes, cylinders, cones, etc., may also 
 be made with paper or cardboard from drawings pre- 
 viously made. The work may be further pursued by 
 encouraging the pupils to make articles at home from 
 drawings, such as boxes, brackets, and picture-frames. 
 
 Perspective. — The facts of objects are represented 
 by working drawings; the appearance^ by perspective 
 drawings. In making a working drawing, the eye is 
 supposed to be opposite each part drawn ; in making a 
 perspective drawing, the eye is supposed to be kept 
 
 I 
 
DllAWING. 261 
 
 in one position. The perspective view of a surface 
 placed squarely in front of and near the eye may not 
 be unlike the working view in form. Carry the object 
 further away, or turn it from a square position, and the 
 surface appears smaller. The free-hand drawing of this 
 reduced appearance should be begun early in the gram- 
 mar school course, and be continued throughout the 
 course. Objects having plane surfaces may be first 
 drawn, and afterwards "other objects, as an apple, an 
 orange, a bell, a hat, etc. Not until the later years of the 
 grammar school should rules and problems, or instru- 
 mental perspective, be taught. 
 
 Invention. — Invention and design, begun in stick 
 and paper laying, in the primary grades, should be con- 
 tinued throughout the course, both in drawing and ap- 
 plied work. With the units of design given (geometric 
 and plant forms), and by the judicious direction and 
 assistance of the teacher, the work in design will be at 
 once the most practical and enjoyable part of the course. 
 The rules of arrangement may be found in any good 
 series of drawing-books, and will not be difficult to 
 understand. 
 
 Home work in making brackets, shades, lamp mats, 
 tidies, etc., will not be the least valuable part of the 
 lessons in design. 
 
 Outline of Study. — Teachers may be guided by the 
 following outline of an eight years' course of instruction 
 for primary and grammar schools used at the Massa- 
 chusetts Normal Art School, and in State work under 
 direction of the Massachusetts Board of Education, by 
 Charles M. Carter. 
 
262 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL DRAWING.^ 
 
 Notes. 
 
 Industrial drawing as herein presented is regarded by mai^ 
 educators as the foundation of industrial training. 
 
 It gives skill in the use of hand and eye, good habits of thought, 
 and appreciation of the beautiful. 
 
 Drawing and designing are here combined with the construction 
 of objects. 
 
 Where workshop instruction is introduced, the drawings and 
 constructed work may be of practical examples, referring to courses 
 in manual training. This plan shows how the natural tendency 
 of children to occupy themselves in making objects at home can 
 be made fruitful by intelligent direction. 
 
 It may be used either with or without text-books. Using it as 
 a basis, teachers can determine whether to omit or add to the 
 exercises of the book. 
 
 All work may refer to the following or their combinations: — 
 1. Working drawings. 2. Perspective drawings. 3. Invention or 
 design. 4. Constructed objects. 
 
 Outline of Each Year. 
 
 Ideas of form come from observation, they lead to expression^ 
 and may be combined into new forms by invention or design. 
 
 First Year. — Ten minutes daily, using slates and 
 hlacTchoard. 
 
 Observation of the forms of objects in each year, by eye and hand. 
 
 Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 
 General form of objects: sphere, cube, cylinder, square prism, 
 triangular prism. Teach objectively as wholes. Construct each 
 of clay. 
 
 Observation and expression further developed by moulding 
 simple objects based on them, as an orange, dice, stick of candy, 
 etc. From the objects first used teach the common qualities of 
 form, viz., surface (plane and curved), line, and point. 
 1 Copyright, 1885, by C. M. Carter. 
 
DRAWING. 263 
 
 Commence teaching and representing the details of these quali- 
 ties from models and objects : — 
 
 1. Points : position (centre, above, below, right, left). 
 
 2. Lines : direction (straight, curved) ; position (vertical, hori- 
 zontal, oblique) ; relation (parallel, perpendicular, inclined) ; color 
 (light, dark). Dividing into halves and fourths. 
 
 3. Angles : right, acute, obtuse. 
 
 Objects and figures containing the above should be drawn. 
 Invention. Optional. If taught, to be similar to that of the 
 second primary year. 
 
 Second Year. — Fifteen minutes daily, using slates, paper^ 
 and blackboard. 
 Review work of the first primary year, including moulding. 
 Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 From the following models, — triangular prism, square prism, 
 pyramids, etc., — teach : — 
 
 4. Triangle : right-angled, isosceles, equilateral. 
 
 5. Square : diagonals, diameters. 
 
 6. Oblong: judging, measuring, dividing, and ruling distances. 
 Draw single free-hand working views of models, objects, and 
 
 ornament illustrating the above plane figures. Construct them of 
 clay, paper, wood, etc. 
 
 Substitute paper for the slate during the last half of the year. 
 
 Invention. Principles: symmetry, repetition, and alternation. 
 Materials : sticks, colored paper triangles, squares, etc. 
 
 Teach pupils to arrange the materials so as to express the prin- 
 ciples. Subsequently replace the materials by lines. Tracing 
 around units allowed. 
 
 The materials may also be used to represent various objects, as 
 house, ship, etc. Teach the names of colors represented by the 
 sticks and papers, and cultivate a taste for beautiful combinations. 
 
 Continue at times in the same lesson, — form, drawing, inven- 
 tion, color, arithmetic, language, etc. 
 
 Third Year. — Thirty minutes three times a week, using 
 paper and blackboard. 
 The first exercises review the work of previous grades, in order 
 that special attention may be given to the proper use of paper and 
 pencil. 
 
I 
 
 264 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Expression^ employing construction, drawing, and language^ 
 From models and objects teach : — 
 
 7. Circle : semicircle, quadrant, circumference, diameter, radius. 
 
 8. Ellipse : long diameter, short diameter, foci. 
 
 9. Oval. 
 Draw single free-hand working views of models, objects, and 
 
 ornament illustrating the above plane figures. Construct them 
 from drawings, using wood, paper, etc. Compare the beauty of 
 curvature illustrated by different forms. 
 
 Invention and Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, and 
 alternation. Materials : colored paper geometric forms, both sim- ^ 
 pie and varied. When pupils create the variations of units, the H 
 arrangements are called designs. 
 
 Ruling allowed. In all grades teachers should be -familiar with 
 the principles of growth, contrast, repose, etc. 
 
 Fourth Year. — Thirty minutes three times a loeek, using 
 paper and blackboard. 
 
 Review the circle, ellipse, and oval. 
 
 Expression^ employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 
 From models and objects teach : — 
 
 10. Compound curves ; reversed curves. 
 
 11. Hexagon. 13. Octagon. 
 
 12. Pentagon. 14. Spiral. 
 Draw single free-hand working views of models, objects, and 
 
 ornament illustrating the above plane figures. Construct the plane 
 figures, and objects based on them, of paper, wood, etc. 
 
 Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, and alternation. 
 Materials : conventionalized leaves, flowers, and buds. 
 
 Ruling allowed. In all work striye for beauty of form. 
 
 \ 
 Fifth Year. — Thirty minutes mree times a week, using 
 paper and blackboard. 
 
 Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 From models and objects teach and draw : — 
 Free-hand working views, single and combined, illustrating 
 plans and elevations. Construct the models of paper, first making 
 
 I 
 
DRAWING. 265 
 
 simple developments. These models will be useful in teaching 
 free-hand perspective. 
 
 Perspective views (free-hand). The effects of foreshortening 
 and distance explained in connection with drawing spherical 
 objects, circles, cones, cylinders, and objects based on them. Ex- 
 plain that in a working view the eye is supposed to be opposite 
 each part of the view represented. In perspective drawing the eye 
 remains in one position. 
 
 Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, alternation. Making 
 arrangements on given main lines introduced. Materials : conven- 
 tionalized plant form. Use ruler and tracing-paper. 
 
 Designs may be applied to objects, as pen-wipers, book-marks, 
 etc., constructed by puj)ils. In this and the following years have 
 pupils take "main lines" from good examples, and clothe them 
 with different material. Cultivate taste by comparing examples 
 of good and bad design. 
 
 Sixth Year. — Thirty minutes three times a tveek, using 
 paper and blackboard. 
 
 Expression^ employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 
 From models and objects teach and draw : — 
 
 Working views, free-hand and instrumental, single and com- 
 bined. Two views given to find a third. Marking dimensions ; 
 simple sections. Construct simple objects from working views, 
 especially models useful in free-hand perspective. 
 
 Geometric problems, and their applications. 
 
 Perspective views (free-hand). The convergence of parallel 
 lines ; drawings made from the cube, oblong block, etc., and 
 objects based on them. 
 
 Design. Principles : symmetry, repetition, and alternation. 
 Materials : conventionalized plant form. 
 
 Use rulers, compasses, tracing-paper, and geometric problems. 
 Make more elaborate bisymmetrical arrangements, with and with- 
 out outlines. Exercises may be planned in which designs are 
 applied to objects constructed by pupils. Historic ornament or 
 naturalistic views of plant form occasionally. Use them as a means 
 of cultivating taste. 
 
266 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Seventh Year. — Thirty minutes three times a week, using 
 paper and blackboard. 
 
 Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 
 From models and objects teach and draw : — 
 
 Working views : free-hand and instrumental, single and com- 
 bined ; marking dimensions ; advanced developments ; simple 
 intersections. From measurement make full-sized, and scale draw- 
 ings; also encourage home construction from drawings of such 
 objects as lamp-shades, picture-frames, foot-stools, etc. 
 
 Geometric problems completed. 
 
 Perspective views (free-hand). General review. Prisms, pyra- 
 mids, plinths, and objects based on them. Groups, tinting. 
 
 Design. Principles: symmetry, repetition, alternation, and 
 balance. Materials: conventionalized plant form and details of 
 historic ornament. Use instruments, tracing-paper, and geometric 
 problems. Designs may be applied to objects constructed by 
 children, such as lamp-mats, pin-cushions, match-boxes, etc. 
 
 Historic ornament or naturalistic views of plant form, occa- 
 sionally. In all exercises cultivate appreciation of the beautiful. 
 
 Eighth Year. — Thirty minutes three times a week, using paper. 
 
 Expression, employing construction, drawing, and language. 
 
 From models and objects teach and draw : — 
 
 Working drawings (free-hand and instrumental). Instrumental 
 w^ork to employ the T-square, scale, triangles, and drawing-board. 
 Practical illustrations of drawing applied in industrial pursuits, 
 sections, intersections, and developments. Continue to encourage 
 home construction from drawings of useful objects, such as boxes, 
 bird-houses, tool-boxes, brackets, trays, etc. 
 
 Perspective views (free-hand). Frames, crosses, and objects 
 based on them. Leaning objects, groups, tinting. 
 
 Design. Optional. Principles previously studied combined with 
 those of applied design. Materials : conventionalized plant form, 
 historic ornament, nature. 
 
 Design wall-paper, inkstand, paper-weight, hinge, etc. Occasionally 
 have objects designed that may be constructed by needle-work, etc. 
 Miscellaneous ornament illustrating the highest forms of beauty. 
 
 Use drawing freely each year in illustrating other studies. 
 
SINGING. 267 
 
 SINGING. 
 
 Of the value of singing as a regular exercise in 
 school, it is unnecessary to speak. Neither should there 
 be any question as to whether it should be regularly 
 taught as other subjects are taught. The fact that 
 teachers cannot sing, or do not know how to read 
 music, should not deter them from introducing the 
 subject in their schools. However useful it may be for 
 teachers to give good tones as a model for their pupils, 
 it is true that many of the most successful teachers of 
 singing are those who do not sing. The various school 
 singing-books and charts now in use will furnish sug- 
 gestions as to the order and amount of work to be done, 
 and methods of teaching. 
 
 The following illustrative lessons, prepared by Mr. 
 L. W. Mason, of Boston, will assist the regular teachers, 
 especially teachers of ungraded schools : — 
 
 I. Finding out how many know the Scale. 
 
 Teacher. All listen to me, and tell me what I sing. (^Teacher 
 sings.) 
 
 $ 
 
 a^ ^gfE^ gia^iaga^ 
 
 * 
 
 Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do 
 
 Pupils. You sang the scale. 
 Teacher. All may sing as I did. 
 
 [Eight or ten of the class sing correctly, and the teacher should be very 
 careful to let the whole class share the credit.] 
 
 ^'^'^ OF THb"^ 
 
 I73SRSIT7] 
 
268 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Teacher. That was very well. Singing as you have just done, 
 from the lowest sound, upwards, is called the ascending scale. You 
 may commence with the highest sound and sing 
 the scale downwards. 
 
 [The same pupils sing correctly.] 
 
 Teacher. This is called the descending scale. 
 
 8 
 
 Do 
 
 
 7 
 
 Si 
 
 
 6 
 
 La 
 
 
 5 
 
 Sol 
 
 
 4 
 
 Fa 
 
 
 3 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 2 
 
 Re 
 
 
 1 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 
 DIAGRAM OF THE SCALE. 
 
 Teacher. I am glad that so many of you can 
 sing the scale up and down. I have drawn a 
 picture of the scale, or Music-Ladder, and have 
 written the scale-names, 1, 2, 3, etc., upon each 
 step ; also the syllables which are used in sing- 
 ing the scale. You should know the sounds 
 of the scale, so you can sing them in order or 
 skipping about any way. 
 
 II. Developing the Idea of Two-Part Measure in Con- 
 nection WITH singing the Scale, Ascending and 
 Descending. 
 
 Teacher. All listen to me, and tell me what I do. 
 [Teacher sings with marked accent.] 
 
 ^=t- 
 
 ^— 1^ 
 
 m 
 
 t=^ 
 
 ^-=t 
 
 I 
 
 Do Do Re Re Mi Mi Fa Fa Sol Sol La La Si Si Do Do 
 
 Teacher. What did I do? 
 
 Pupils. Y'^ou sang two of each of the sounds of the scale. 
 Teacher. You may sing as I did. 
 [It is done correctly.] 
 
 Teacher. That was well done. You may sing the scale down- 
 ward, beginning with 8, in the same way as you sang it upward. 
 [The pupils do it correctly.] 
 
SINGING. 269 
 
 Natural Rhythm. — Teacher. Singing two of each of the sounds 
 of the scale up and down, as you did just now, you sang the first 
 of each pair louder than the second. 
 
 You did this naturally; that is, without thinking about it. 
 When the time in music arranges itself into groups of twos, one 
 loud and one soft, each pair is called a two-part measure. The 
 loud part of the measure is called accented; and the soft part, 
 unaccented. 
 
 Beating Two-Part Measure, or Double-Time. — Teacher. To 
 realize more fully, while singing, the accented and unaccented 
 parts of measures in Double-Time, as music in two-part measure is 
 called, certain motions of the hand are used. This is called 
 beating time. 
 
 Directions for Beating Time. — Teacher. 1. Stand erect, poising 
 a little forward. 
 
 2. Place the left hand directly in front of the body, as high as 
 the waist, palm upwards, elbow against the side of the body. 
 
 3. Place the right hand in the left, so that the middle finger 
 falls into the centre of the palm of the left hand. (^Teacher gives 
 the example.^ 
 
 4. liaise the hand, from the wrist only, about 45 degrees. Strike 
 down, and say Down. Hold the hand down ! Strike up, from, the 
 wrist only, and say Up. Hold the hand up ! 
 
 These are the motions in beating Double-Time. They should be 
 as regular as the tick of a clock, and should be made as quickly as 
 possible; and the hand should be held perfectly still during the 
 time from one beat to another. 
 
 Treacher. We will now proceed to sing the last exercise ; that is, 
 two sounds of each of the scale, ascending and descending, while 
 beating the time. 
 
 [Done correctly.] 
 
 Teacher. I fear you will become tired if you sing all the time ; 
 so I will form the class in two divisions, in order that one division 
 may rest while the other sings. 
 
 Those on my right we will call the First Division ; and those on 
 my left, the Second Division. 
 
270 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 
 I wish you to sing the scale up and dow n in this way ; namely, 
 the First Division to sing the first measure, and the Second Divis- 
 ion to sing the second measure, and so on. 
 
 You must continue to beat the time, whether you sing or not. 
 In this way each division will rest during every other measure. 
 
 Now! all ready, and see if you understand what I want you 
 to do. 
 
 [Enough of the pupils in each division understand so as to do it very 
 well.] 
 
 Teacher. You have done that much better than I thought you 
 
 could. 
 
 III. Development of Three-Part Measure. 
 
 Teacher. Who can tell what I sing now, that is different from 
 anything I have sung before ? 
 [Teacher sings.] 
 
 =^=^=t^ 
 
 i=^ 
 
 atzztd 
 
 Do Do Do Ke Re Re Mi Mi iCi Fa Fa Fa 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i 
 
 8ol Sol Sol La La La Si 
 
 ZT 
 
 Si 
 
 Si 
 
 Do Do Do 
 
 Pupils. You sang three of every sound of the scale. 
 
 Teacher. Yes. I will sing the same again, and you may tell me 
 which one of the three I sing loud. 
 
 [Teacher sings.] 
 
 Pupils. Y'ou sang the first of the three loud, and the other two 
 soft. 
 
 Teacher. Yes. You may sing as I did. 
 
 [Pupils sing correctly.] 
 
 Teacher. That is right. This kind of measure, with three parts, 
 — one loud and two soft, — is called a three-part measure. 
 
 Teacher. You see that this is another way in which sounds fall 
 into groups naturally; that is, by threes, the first of which is 
 accented, and the second and third unaccented. 
 
SINGING. 
 
 271 
 
 Special Drill in Beating Triple- Time. — Teacher. In three-part 
 
 measure there are three different motions of the hand. The first 
 
 beat is the same as in two-part measure. The second beat is made 
 
 by bringing the hand smartly to the left, so as to touch the body. 
 
 The third beat brings the hand into position for the down-beat of 
 
 the following measure. 
 
 [The pupils are to practise this kind of measure, saying, while beating, 
 Down, Left, Up, till the class can do it perfectly, accenting the down-beat. 
 When this is accomplished, they will be able to do the following dictation 
 exercises.] 
 
 EXERCISES IN THE SCALE, ASCENDING AND DESCENDING, WITH 
 TRIPLE-TIME. 
 
 Teacher. I will sing the last exercise while beating; then I 
 
 want you to do it. 
 
 [The teacher sings the exercise, and the pupils do the same, being care- 
 ful to accent the down-beat.] 
 
 Teacher. That is very well. Now you may sing it by divisions, 
 
 one measure at a time, up and down the scale. 
 
 [This is done correctly.] 
 
 IV. Four-Part IVIeasure. 
 
 Teacher. You may sing four of each of the sounds of the scale, 
 by the syllables. 
 
 [The pupils sing.] 
 
 Teacher. That is very well. You may sing the same exercise 
 again, and accent the first and third sounds in each measure, the 
 first a little louder than the third. 
 
 ?r T ft T fT T TT T 
 
 p; 
 
 t^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 m 
 
 Do Do Do Do Re Re Re Re Mi Mi Mi Mi Fa Fa Fa Fa 
 
 TT T TT T . TT T TT T 
 
 ^=1: 
 
 il 
 
 t:^=^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 Sol Sol Sol Sol La La La La Si Si Si Si Do Do Do Do 
 
 [The pupils sing the exercise very well. The leading singers show that 
 they feel the time, or recurrence of the accent, — some by an extravagant 
 nod of the head, some by throwing forward the whole body, and others by 
 stamping their feet, — all quite unconsciously.] 
 
272 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Teacher. You observed the accented parts very well ; but it was 
 very funny to see the different motions you made as you became 
 interested in keeping the time. Regular practice in beating the 
 time will prevent these awkward motions of the body and stamp- 
 ing of feet. 
 
 [The pupils may now take position for beating four-part measure.] 
 
 Teacher. The four beats in Quadruple-Time are ; Down, Left, 
 Right, and Up. 
 
 The Down-beat is made the same as in double and triple time, 
 by bringing the tip of the middle finger of the right hand into 
 the centre of the palm of the left. 
 
 The Left-beat is made like that of triple time. 
 
 The Right-beat is made by bringing the fingers of the right hand 
 from the body on to the fingers of the left hand. 
 
 The Up-beat is made by bringing the hand up again to the posi- 
 tion for making the down-beat. 
 
 Now sing — by the syllables — the last exercise, beating the 
 time. 
 
 [The pupils do as directed.] 
 
 Teacher. Now sing by divisions, up and down. 
 
 [The pupils do it correctly.] 
 
 Teacher. I am very glad you have become so much interested 
 in learning how to sing the scale in the different kinds of time, 
 that you have not asked for any songs. If you go on in this way, 
 you will soon be able to read music well enough to learn songs by 
 the notes, without having ever heard them sung before. 
 
 V. Singing from Figures. 
 
 Teacher. We can \NTite exercises and tunes in figures. I will 
 WTite a few exercises which you will sing without any difficulty. 
 
 You are to understand that a figure with a comma after it means 
 a short sound ; and with a dash after it, means a long sound. Also 
 a cipher with a comma after it means a short rest ; and a dash, a 
 long rest. {To he sung without heating time.) 
 
 The following may first be sung by the teacher and pupils, then 
 by divisions, the first division* singing the teacher's part. 
 
 I 
 
SINGING. 
 
 273 
 
 PITCH IN D OR E. 
 I. 
 
 f \ r 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 ^ r 
 
 Pupils. Teacher. 
 
 1, 2, I 3- II 1, 2, I 3- I 3, 2, 1 1- I 
 
 1, 3, 1 2- II 1, 3, I 2- I 2, 3, I 1- II 2, 3, | 1-- || 
 
 Pupils. 
 3, 2, I 1- 
 
 II. 
 
 t s c 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 Pupils. Teacher. Pupils. 
 
 1, 3, 1 5- II 1, 3, I 5- I 5, 3, I 1- II 5, 3, I 1- 
 
 1, 4, 
 
 I 1, 
 
 6, 4, I 1- II 6, 4, I 1- II 
 
 III. 
 
 Teacher. Pujnls. 
 
 1, 3, 1 5, 5, 1 1, 3, 5- II 1, 3, I 5, 5, 1 1, 3, I 5- | 
 5, 3, II, 3, I 5, 3, 1- II 5, 3, | 1, 3, | 5, 3, I 1- || 
 
 IV. 
 
 5, 5, 4, 2, 11- 3-1 5, 5, 4, 2, | 1- 0- | 2, 2, 4, 4, | 3- 5- | 
 
 2, 2, 4, 4, I 3- 0-1 5, 5, 4, 2, | 1- 3- | 5, 5, 4, 2, | 1- 0- || 
 
 In speaking of the sounds of the scale as represented by figures, 
 always use the names of numbers. In singing, always use the 
 syllables at first, then La, or any other syllable. 
 
 PITCH IN D, E, OR F. 
 I. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 2, I 3, 4, 5- I 5, 4, 3, 4, j 3, 2, 1- || 
 
 II. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, I 5, 
 
 6, -5, 4, 3, I 2, 2, 1- II 
 
274 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 m. 
 
 3, 2, 1, 2, I 3, 4, 5- I 6, 5, 4, 3, I 4, 3, 2- I 
 2, 3, 4, 5, 1 6, 6, 5- I 5, 4, 3, 4, | 3, 2, 1- 1| 
 
 5, 4, 3, 1, I 2, 3, 2- 1 5, 5, 3, 1, | 2, 2, 2- I 
 2, 3, 4, 5, j 6, 6, 6- I 5,- 3, 1, 3, | 2, 2, 1- || 
 
 5, 3, 1, 3, I 2, 2, 2- I 4, 3, 2, 1, | 5, 5, 5- 1 
 1, 3, 5, 3, I 4, 5, 6- I 5, 5, 3, 1, | 2, 2, 1- || 
 
 PITCH IN C OR D. 
 VI. 
 
 1, 2, I 3, 2, I 3, 4, I 5- I 6, 7, | 8, 7, | 6, 7, | 8- || 
 
 VII. 
 
 8, 7, I 6, 5, I 4, 3, I 2- I 3, 4, | 5, 4, | 3, 2, | 1- || 
 
 Nos. VI. and VII. may be sung with beating the time, — Two- 
 part Measure or Double-Time. Also the following : — 
 
 TWO-PART SINGING. 
 
 Divide the class into two equal parts, taking care to have a few 
 of the leading voices on each part. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 FIRST /^ 
 
 8FX^ONT> 
 DIVISION. 
 
 (0, 0, 
 (1, 2, 
 
 3, 3, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 3, 3, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 4, 3, 
 
 2, 2, 
 
 1- 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 1, 2, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 4, 3, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 2, 2, 
 
 1- 
 

 
 
 
 
 ox 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 
 
 Aifj 
 
 FIRST I 
 DIVISION. \ 
 
 i^' 
 
 3, 
 
 2, 
 
 2, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0- 
 
 4, 4, 
 
 3,3, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 0- 
 
 SECOND 
 DIVISION. 
 
 fo, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 1, 1, 
 
 1- 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 2,2, 
 
 2- 
 
 
 [3, 
 
 4, 
 
 5, 
 
 4, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 5,4, 
 
 3,2, 
 
 1- 
 
 
 lo, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 3,3, 
 
 2- 
 
 X. 
 
 3,4, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 3,2, 
 
 1- 
 
 FIB8T 
 DIVISION. 
 
 CO, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 5,6, 
 
 7,8, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 4,3, 
 
 2,1, 
 
 HKCOND 
 DlVISIOy. 
 
 U 
 
 2, 
 
 3, 
 
 4, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 7,8, 
 
 XI. 
 
 8,7, 
 
 6, 5, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 2,1, 
 
 FIRST 
 DIVISION. 
 
 (0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 1, 3, 
 
 5- 
 
 0,0, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 5, 3, 
 
 1- 
 
 SECOND 
 DIVISION. 
 
 (1, 
 
 1, 
 
 3, 
 
 3, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0- 
 
 XTI. 
 
 5,5, 
 
 3, 3, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 1- 
 
 FIRST 
 DIYI8I0N. 
 
 (8, 
 
 8, 
 
 7, 
 
 7, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0- 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 5,3, 
 
 2- 
 
 SECOND 
 DIVISION. 
 
 (0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 6, 6, 
 
 5- 
 
 5, 5, 
 
 6, 5, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0- 
 
 
 [0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 3,4, 
 
 5- 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 6, 7, 
 
 8- 
 
 
 U 
 
 3, 
 
 4, 
 
 4, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0- 
 
 XIII. 
 
 5, 5, 
 
 6, 5, 
 
 6,7, 
 
 8- 
 
 FIRST 
 DIVISION. 
 
 (5, 
 
 3, 
 
 6, 
 
 4, 
 
 5,3, 
 
 6- 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 0- 
 
 SECOND 
 DIVISION. 
 
 (0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 0- 
 
 5, 3, 
 
 6,4, 
 
 5, 3, 
 
 6- 
 
 
 (5, 
 
 3, 
 
 0, 
 
 0, 
 
 6,4, 
 
 0, 0, 
 
 3,6, 
 
 5,4, 
 
 3,2, 
 
 1- 
 
 
 h 
 
 0, 
 
 6, 
 
 3, 
 
 0,0, 
 
 6,4, 
 
 3, 6, 
 
 5,4, 
 
 3,2, 
 
 1- 
 
 VI. — Regular Staff Notation. 
 
 If the pupils have mastered the foregoing lessons, it will be 
 very easy to read from the regular notation. 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 THE PITCH-NAMES OF THE SCALE, IN ADDI- 
 TION TO THE SCALE-NAMES AND SYLLABLES. 
 
 The Letters and G-Clef. — 1. The pitch of 
 sounds is named by the first seven letters of 
 the alphabet : a, ft, c, c?, e, /, and g. 
 
 2. You see by the diagram, that the pitch 
 of 1 is c; 2 is rf; 3 is e; 4 is/; 5 is g; 6 is a; 
 7 is & ; and 8 is c. 
 
 3. You will notice that c is used as the 
 pitch for both 1 and 8. We distinguish the 
 c's by the number of marks over them. The 
 pitch of 1 is called " once-marked c " ; and of 
 8, " twice-marked c." 
 
 4. Upon the fifth degree of the scale / Q.\ 
 you will observe this character, which f ^^ J 
 is called the ^-Clef or Key, and always ^xJ^ 
 stands for that letter or pitch . 
 
 We have already sung exercises in three 
 kinds of measures : Two-part measures, Three-part measm-es, and 
 Four-part measures. 
 
 The Staff. — Music is written upon five lines and the spaces 
 between the lines. The lines and spaces, called the Staff, are 
 named from the lowest upwards ; thus : — 
 
 k 
 
 8 
 
 c 
 
 Doj 
 
 7 
 
 b 
 
 Si 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 La 
 
 5 
 
 ^7f 
 
 ^Sol 
 
 4 
 
 f 
 
 Fa 
 
 3 
 
 e 
 
 Mi 
 
 2 
 
 d 
 
 Re 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 Fifth line. 
 Fourth line. 
 
 Third line. 
 Second line. 
 
 First line. 
 
 i 
 
 Fonrth apace. 
 Third space. 
 Second space. 
 First space. 
 
 Sometimes the spaces below and above the staff, and also short 
 added lines, are used ; thus : — 
 
 First added space above. 
 
 First added line above. 
 
 First added space below. 
 
 fust added line below. 
 
SINGING. 277 
 
 VII. Notes and Rests. 
 
 In the regular musical notation the different lengths of sounds 
 are represented by characters, called Notes. Their shape and 
 names are as follows : — 
 
 The Whole-note (<:::?), which may represent the whole time of a 
 quadruple measure in one sound. 
 
 The Half-note (f^), two of which would be contained in one 
 
 measure. 
 
 The Quarter-note (^), four of which w^ould fill one measure; 
 and the Eighth-note (J), eight of which would fill a measure; 
 according to the following example : — 
 
 It is usual to take the note as a standard for reckoning the time, 
 which corresponds to one beat. In the above example the quarter- 
 note is the standard, four of which fill a measure ; the figures at 
 the beginning of the example, in the form of a fraction, read, /owr 
 quarter-notes in a measure, or their value in other notes. 
 
 f means tivo quarter-notes in a measure, or their value in other 
 notes ; as, 
 
 [|-r — H-Lj' r \-:.j-LT-\r~n 
 
 I means three quarter-notes in a measure ; thus, 
 
 li-r— r— rHr — Hr— r— Hr— i—ll 
 
 Rests, or Marks of Silence. — Each note has its corresponding 
 rest. They are of this form : — 
 Whole-rest. Half-rests. Quarter-rests. Eighth-rests. 
 
 All these and other characters should be taken up, and their 
 use demonstrated as they are needed. 
 
 From this stage of progress, we would recommend a choice from 
 the many excellent text-books of recent publication. 
 
278 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 The following synopsis indicates briefly the course which may 
 be followed : — 
 
 1. A few exercises and songs within the compass of the scale 
 in the key of C. 
 
 2. The extension of the scale upwards four sounds, and down- 
 wards five sounds, in the same key. 
 
 3. Instruction in time extended to two sounds of equal length 
 in each part of the measure, in |, |, and f time ; also the dotted 
 quarter (I**) note. 
 
 4. The Chromatic scale, ascending by sharps and descending 
 by flats. 
 
 5. The formation of the scale in the keys of G, D, A, E, F, Bb, 
 Eb, and Ab. 
 
 6. The introduction of Triplets. 
 
 7. The introduction of f time. 
 
 8. The fonnation of f time, as made up of two measures of 
 f time. 
 
 9. Exercises and songs in Natural Harmonies, in all the above 
 keys, avoiding difficult forms of Measure and unmusical Rhythms ; 
 that is, exercises with Jive, seven, and eleven measures, these being 
 forbidden by the natural laws of rhythm. 
 
 If the time-names are used, they should not take the place of 
 heating time with the handf in developing the sense of measure. 
 
 
MEMORY LESSONS. 279 
 
 MEMORY LESSONS. 
 
 For the purpose of cultivating the memory and at 
 the same time of storing the mind with choice thoughts, 
 there should be regular practice in memorizing and re- 
 citing what has been written by the best authors — 
 both in poetry and in prose. To accomplish all that is 
 desired to be accomplished, it will be necessary to give 
 a definite time to the work, and to assign a given amount 
 to be done in a given time. From five to ten lines a 
 week should be committed to memory and recited by 
 every pupil, and one hour a week of school time should 
 be given to it. One or more books of good selections 
 should be upon the table of every teacher, from which 
 to- copy what the pupils are to memorize. When the 
 selection is placed upon the blackboard, all difficult 
 words should be taught, and the selection be explained 
 in such a w^ay as to make it clearly understood by every 
 pupil. It should then be memorized, and at the next 
 memory-lesson hour it should be recited both in con- 
 cert and by individual pupils. In all grades, a simple 
 and natural expression of the author's thought is to be 
 sought rather than attempts at oratorical display. Each 
 week the selections of previous weeks should be recited. 
 In the higher grades it may be well to have only one- 
 fourth of the school recite or declaim each week, every 
 pupil being expected to repeat from twenty to forty 
 lines. The first part of the hour should be given to 
 the recitation of pieces learned, and the latter part to 
 teaching a new piece to the whole school, although 
 
280 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 only a fourth part of the school are expected to memo- 
 rize it. 
 
 In addition to the regular memory lessons, birthdays 
 of noted persons may be celebrated by giving sketches 
 and anecdotes of their lives, and by reading and reciting 
 what they have written. The pupils will greatly enjoy 
 such exercises, by means of which a real interest in sci- 
 ence, art, politics, and the best literature may be awak- 
 ened. It is suggested that four birthday exercises be 
 given every year in all grades above the primary, and 
 that the parents and friends of the pupils be invited to 
 attend them. 
 
 BUSY-WORK. 
 
 Few habits acquired in school are more important 
 than a habit of industry. The aim of the teacher should 
 be to keep all pupils employed every moment of the 
 day, except during times of recreation. But it is not 
 enough that they be kept employed without reference 
 to ivhat they do, for their natural activity may lead 
 them to do that. There should be in their employment 
 an element of training, or something which will help to 
 develop their faculties. How to provide such employ- 
 ment for pupils of all ages is indeed a difficult matter. 
 It cannot be done if the natural capabilities of the pupils 
 are not considered, — that is to say, if the work given 
 is not adapted to the pupils' requirements and needs. 
 
 To keep the older pupils busy will not be very diffi- 
 cult. If their regular studies and teaching are what 
 they should be, they will be pleasantl}^ as well as profit- 
 ably occupied in the preparation of lessons. 
 
BUSY-WORK. 281 
 
 Younger pupils will need special attention and direc- 
 tion. It will not be enough to place in the hands of 
 the children toys and pictures, and bid them amuse 
 themselves as best they can. They must be directed 
 how to use the things which are given them before they 
 work with them independently and alone. Do not 
 keep the children occupied too long upon any given 
 work, but change the occupation as often as once in 
 every fifteen minutes. The following kinds of busy- 
 work may be suggestive ; — 
 
 Every child should be provided with a good slate 
 and a sharpened pencil, with which he will be occupied 
 half of the time he is in school. At one time he may 
 be copying words and sentences which are upon the 
 cards or blackboard. At another time he may be do- 
 ing number-work or drawing, alternating the slate-work 
 with other exercises. Shoe-pegs and splints will afford 
 occupation for a few minutes at a time in making de- 
 signs in imitation of what is placed before him. With 
 the pegs, also, the child may place in rows the number- 
 work; as (letting each mark represent a peg), 111 + 11 = 
 1 1 1 1 1. After covering the top of his desk with such 
 work, he may represent upon the slate what he has 
 done ; as, 3 + 2 = 5. Children can be profitably em- 
 ployed with colored pegs, sticks, splints, and papers, in 
 making combinations taught in previous color and form 
 lessons. Outlines of common objects, such as a ladder, 
 fork, rake, or chair, may be drawn upon the blackboard 
 for the children to imitate with the pegs or splints. 
 
 The kindergarten games are full of suggestion for 
 primary teachers. Paper-folding, weaving, and stick- 
 laying are especially useful for busy-work. It is not 
 
IklETHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 necessary to buy many materials, or to follow closely 
 the order given in the kindergarten. Wooden tooth- 
 picks, splints, and different kinds of paper will con- 
 stitute much of the needed material for these games. 
 Pictures may be pasted upon cardboard which can be 
 cut into pieces for the younger children to put together. 
 The same may also be done with designs upon card- 
 board. 
 
 Forms of animals and other objects can be made of 
 cardboard or pasteboard and given to the children for 
 tracing. After the form is traced, the children should 
 be encouraged to draw lines representing the various 
 parts. 
 
 Second and third year pupils can be kept busy in 
 language-work, copying from the reader, making sen- 
 tences with given words, or making statements or stories 
 from pictures placed before them. 
 
 Letters upon paper or cardboard for making words, 
 and words for making sentences, will be found useful in 
 keeping children busy. The letters and words can be 
 bought in boxes, or they can be cut out and collected 
 by the pupils and teacher. The older children of the 
 primary and ungraded schools may be called upon at 
 times to collect and distribute the cards, splints, etc., 
 and they may sometimes assist the little ones in their 
 slate-work. 
 
 It is not expected that the very youngest children 
 will be in school during the whole qf two sessions. 
 They should be dismissed when the session is half 
 through, or if the distance to their homes is too great 
 for them to go alone, they should be allowed to go to 
 the playground or anteroom to play. 
 
 
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 283 
 
 PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Play in the open air is undoubtedly the best exercise 
 for children; but when large numbers of children are 
 brought together on the playground, there are certain 
 dangers which can only be avoided by the teacher's 
 presence. To see that all are exercising, and that the 
 exercise is not excessive, — not to mention still weightier 
 reasons, — it is necessary for the teacher to oversee the 
 games, and perhaps to participate in them. Whenever 
 this cannot be done, or whenever the weather is cold or 
 stormy, the recess should be omitted, and in its place 
 there should be marching or other gymnastic exercises. 
 It is not well to have the physical exercises immedi- 
 ately after recess or at the commencement of a session ; 
 neither should they be given just before dismissal. 
 They should be given in the middle of a session when 
 there is no recess ; or if there is a recess, about three- 
 quarters of an hour before they leave the room. 
 
 The exercise will be more enjoyable and the interest 
 will be better maintained by having the movements 
 made to music. If nothing better can be provided, a 
 boy may mark the time with clappers, or the teacher 
 may count. In the primary and kindergarten singing- 
 books there can be found pretty motion songs, in which 
 the children are led to combine motions with singing. 
 
 If the physical exercises are given merely as a diver- 
 sion, the motions may be gently given ; but if the exer- 
 cises are meant to quicken the circulation and strengthen 
 the muscles, the motions should be made with great 
 rapidity and exactness. If, for example, the arm is to 
 
284 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 be raised to a horizontal position in front, much greater 
 strength is required to raise it directly in front in a 
 straight line very rapidly, and to stop it as soon as it 
 has reached a horizontal position, than to raise it slowly 
 and carelessly. 
 
 The following exercises have been used in some 
 schools, and may be of assistance to teachers : — 
 
 I. Breathing Exercise. 
 (^Shoulders thrown back, hands 012 hips.^ 
 
 1. Draw in the breath slowly, and expel it slowly (indicated by 
 motion of the teacher's hand). 
 
 2. Draw in the breath slowly, and expel it quickly. 
 
 3. Di'aw in the breath quickly, and expel it slowly. 
 
 4. Draw in the breath quickly, and expel it quickly. 
 
 5. Repeat each exercise, holding the breath a few seconds. 
 
 II. Breathing Exercise. 
 
 {Good exercise for straightening the body.) 
 
 1. Stand with arms folded behind, and one foot eight inches in 
 front of the other. 
 
 2. Draw the head back, and tip it as far down behind as you can. 
 
 3. Hold the chin up high. 
 
 4. Rest there a moment, and then stand up straight again. 
 Repeat the exercise six times. 
 
 Breathe deep, full breaths all the time, — slowly, and as large 
 breaths as you can. 
 
 III. To enlarge the Chest. 
 
 1. Raise the chin as high up as you can, until your eyes look 
 up at the ceiling right over your head. 
 
 2. Hold your chin this way a moment. 
 
 3. Take two or three f uU inspirations slowly. Repeat three times. 
 
 4. Put your hands upon your hips, fingers in front. 
 
 5. Draw your chin up ; throw your head back. 
 
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 285 
 
 6. Take one good, full inspiration, very slowly, and resume the 
 erect position. 
 
 7. Repeat this exercise three times. 
 
 Whatever lifts the chin and throws the shoulders back, enlarges 
 the chest and makes the lungs stronger. 
 
 IV. Movements for Young Children. 
 
 I. Position. — Sit erect ; eyes steadily in front ; shoulders thrown 
 back ; arms hanging by the side ; feet in front ; heels four inches 
 apart; toes turning out, forming with each other an angle of 
 twenty-five degrees. 
 
 2. Arms folded. 
 
 3. Hands clasped and resting on edge of desk. 
 
 4. Right hand thrown horizontally in front. 
 
 5. Left hand same as right in No. 4. 
 
 6. Strike hands together in front five times. 
 
 7. Right hand on head. 
 
 8. Both hands on head. 
 
 9. Strike hands together five times over head. 
 10. Fingers resting on top of shoulders. 
 
 II. Strike hands together five times in front. 
 
 12. Hands on top of head. 
 
 13. Strike hands together five times over head. 
 
 14. Hands twirling over head. 
 
 15. Hands brought suddenly to desk with noise. 
 
 16. Arms folded. 
 
 17. Fingers resting on top of shoulders. 
 
 18. Hands on top of head. 
 
 19. Strike hands together five times over head. 
 
 20. Fingers twirling rapidly over head. 
 
 21. Hands brought to desk, softly tapping with tips of fingers, 
 in imitation of rain. 
 
 IRemarks. — The force of the storm may be graduated by signals 
 from the teacher. The pupils may at the same time whistle in 
 imitation of wind. Two or three of the pupils may be designated 
 to strike heavily on their desks with the fists, at intervals, imitating 
 thunder.] 
 
 22. Fold arms, sitting perfectly still. 
 
286 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 V. Free Gyi^inastics. — Sitting. 
 
 (The counting is in measiu'es from one to eight, each measure 
 taken four times.) 
 
 A. 
 
 1. Hands on hips, fingers front. 
 
 2. Hands on shoulders (arms at side). 
 
 3. Hands on head. 
 
 4. Clap hands above head. 
 
 5. Hands on head. 
 
 6. Hands on shoulders (like 2). 
 
 7. Hands on hips (like 1). 
 
 8. Arms folded in front. 
 
 (Take four times.) 
 
 B. 
 
 (Two movements only.) 
 
 1. Hands on hips. 
 
 2. Clap hands in front. 
 
 Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 
 
 C. 
 
 1. Strike left shoulder lightly M'ith right hand. 
 
 2. Return right hand to right hip. 
 
 3. Strike right shoulder with left liand. 
 
 4. Return left hand to left hip. 
 Repeat to complete thii-ty-tw^o counts. 
 
 D. 
 
 Position. — Hands on hips, fingers front. 
 
 1. Carry right hand to right shoulder (arm at side). 
 
 2. Carry left hand to left shoulder. 
 
 3. Return right hand to position. 
 
 4. Return left hand to position. 
 Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 
 
 1. Right hand on right shoulder. 
 
 2. Right hand up above head (arm straight). 
 
 3. Left hand on left shoulder. 
 
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 287 
 
 4. Left hand up above head (arm straight). 
 
 5. Snap fingers of both hands. 
 
 6. Like 5. 
 
 7. Like 5. 
 
 8. Hands on hips. 
 
 Repeat to complete thirty-two counts. 
 
 VI. Free Gymnastics. — Standing. 
 
 Position. — Heels together ; toes out, so that the feet may form a 
 right angle ; shoulders and hips drawn back ; hands naturally at 
 sides, unless otherwise specified ; hands firmly clenched ; all thrusts 
 are from the chest, unless otherwise specified. 
 
 Time. — Each number extends through what may be called one 
 strain of 4 — 4 music, or eight accented and eight unaccented beats. 
 Time may be kept also by counting the numerals from one to eight 
 for the heavy beats, and for the light beats, saying "and." 
 
 Hand Movements. — 1. Thrust II. II. down from chest twice ; L. 
 twice ; alternate twice ; sinmltaneous twice. 
 
 2. Repeat No. 1, thrusting out at side. 
 
 3. Repeat No. 1, thrusting up. 
 
 4. Repeat No. 1, thrusting in front. 
 
 5. R. H. down once ; L. once ; drum-beat (R. a little in advance 
 of L.) once; simultaneous once; same out at sides. 
 
 6. Repeat No. 5, thrusting up and in front. 
 
 7. R. H. down once ; L. once ; clap hands ; same out at sides. 
 
 8. Repeat No. 7, thrusting up and in front. 
 
 Foot Movements. — 9. Hands on hips ; divide a circle about the 
 body, with a radius of from two to three feet, into eight equal 
 parts, by stepping forward, diagonal forward, at side, diagonal 
 back, etc., with R. F. keeping L. knee straight and the feet at 
 right angles, except last two steps, bending R. knee each step. 
 
 10. Repeat No. 9 with L. F. 
 
 11. Same movement, alternating R. and L. half around. 
 
 12. Complete the movement of No. 11. 
 
 13. Charge diagonal forward with R. F., advancing with three 
 steps, bending R. knee, L. straight; same on the L. side ; same 
 diagonal back on R. side ; same L. 
 
 14. Repeat No. 13. 
 
288 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Body Movements. — 15. Hands on hips; twist upi^er body half 
 round to R., then to L., alternately, stopping in front on unac- 
 cented beats. 
 
 16. Bend upper body to R. and L. 
 
 17. Bend forward and back. 
 
 18. Bend body to R., back, L., front; then reverse, bending to 
 L., back, R., front ; repeat, becoming erect only on last beat. 
 
 Head Movements. — 19. Same as 15, except that the head alone 
 is moved. 
 
 20. Same as 16, except that the head alone is moved. 
 
 21. Same as 17, except that the head alone is moved. 
 
 22. Same as 18, except that the head alone is moved. 
 Miscellaneous Movements. — 23. Arms extended in front, thumbs 
 
 up, raise hands about a foot, and bring forcibly to shoulders. 
 
 24. Arms same as No. 23 ; raise R. H. to perpendicular over 
 head twace ; L. twice ; alternate twice ; and simultaneous tw ice. 
 
 25. Thrust hands down, out at sides, up, in front, twisting the 
 arms at each thrust ; repeat. 
 
 26. Repeat No. 25. 
 
 27. Thrust hands to floor, not bending knees ; then over head, 
 rising on toes, opening hands at each thrust. 
 
 28. Hands at sides open ; swing them overhead, clapping them, 
 at same time stepping R. F. to L., and L. F. to R., alternately. 
 
 29. Stamp L. F. ; then R. ; then charge diagonal forward with 
 R. ; bend and straighten R. knee, at same time throwing arms back 
 from horizontal in front. 
 
 30. Repeat No. 29 on L. side. 
 
 Vn. Bean-Bag Exercises. 
 
 These exercises are performed by couples, partners standing 
 from six to ten feet apart, facing each other, unless otherwise 
 specified. 
 
 The bag should be made of strong cloth, strongly sewed, and 
 should be from eight to twelve inches square inside of seam; 
 should be about tw^o-thu'ds filled with beans, or other grain, 
 and should be entirely free from dust. 
 
 1. Throw from chest with both hands. 
 
 2. Throw from chest with R. H. 
 
 I 
 
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 289 
 
 3. Throw from chest with L. H. 
 
 4. Bag behmd the head, throw over the head with both hands. 
 
 5. Same with R. H. 
 
 6. Same with L. H. 
 
 7. Partners standing R. side toward R., throw with both hands. 
 
 8. Same with R. H. 
 
 9. Same with L. H. 
 
 10. L. to L., throw with both hands. 
 
 11. Same with R. H. 
 
 12. Same with L. H. 
 
 13. Bag behind the back, throw over head with both hands. 
 
 14. Same with R. H. 
 
 15. Same with L. H. 
 
 16. Throw with R. H. behind the back, grasping R. elbow. 
 
 17. Same, throwing with L. 
 
 18. Back to back, throw over head with both hands, catching in 
 same position. 
 
 19. Throw bag from R. elbow; catch with both hands. 
 
 20. Same from L. elbow. 
 
 21. Throw bag with feet; catch with both hands. 
 
 22. Two bags ; throw at same time with R. ; catch with L. 
 
 23. Same, except thi-owing with L. and catching with R. 
 
 24. Throw with both hands at the same time ; catch with both. 
 
 25. Three bags ; throw with R., catch with L. 
 
 26. Three bags ; throw with L., catch with R. 
 
Paet III 
 
 ORGANIZATION, MORAL TRAINING, 
 AND SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 >X^c 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 School Buildings. — Locality. — The first considera- 
 tion in fixing the locality of a schoolhouse is healthful- 
 ness. The ground upon which it is placed should be 
 high, and the soil sandy, so as to allow good drainage. 
 It should be located with reference to the convenience. 
 of the pupils attending the school, and so retired that 
 the school will not be disturbed by noises from without. 
 
 Privies. — Privies should, if possible, be separated 
 from the schoolhouse, and have a separate apartment 
 and approach for each sex. Dry earth should be placed 
 daily in the vaults, which should be frequently cleaned 
 out. Great care should be taken in the construction of 
 water-closets located in the schoolhouse, and constant 
 attention should be given to the matter of cleansing and 
 disinfecting. The closets should be placed as far from 
 the furnace as possible, and should be thoroughly ven- 
 tilated by means of pipes and windows. 
 
 Size of School-rooms. — The size of schoolrooms 
 
SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 291 
 
 should depend upon the present and prospective num- 
 ber of pupils. There should be sufficient room for the 
 seats and desks of pupils, recitation-seats, platform 
 and desk of teacher, and apparatus. In determining 
 the size of rooms reference should be had also to proper 
 ventilation and heating, and to ease of speaking. 
 
 A school of thirty or forty pupils can be well ac- 
 commodated in a room twenty-six feet by thirty, the 
 teacher's desk being placed at the end of the room. If 
 the number of pupils is fifty, or is likely to be fifty, the 
 size of the room should be twenty-eight or thirty feet 
 by thirty-six. For the sake of good order the gatheriijg 
 of a large number of pupils into one room should be 
 avoided so far as possible. At least should the number 
 of recitation-rooms belonging to a school be limited to 
 one, located, if possible, on the same floor as the large 
 room. 
 
 Lighting. — Windows should be placed if possible at 
 the left and behind the desks of pupils. The window 
 surface of a room should be from one-eighth to one-fifth 
 of its floor surface. The amount of light admitted 
 may be regulated by curtains or inside blinds. Win- 
 dows should not be in front of pupils as they sit in 
 their seats. 
 
 Ventilation and Heating. — Two things are to be ac- 
 complished in ventilation : first, to get rid of the bad 
 air; and secondly, to introduce fresh air. To accom- 
 plish the first-named object there should be one large 
 or, what is better, two small ducts connecting the 
 room with the outer air. These ducts should extend 
 from floor to ceiling, and should have openings in the 
 upper and lower parts. To make strong and constant 
 
292 OKGANIZATLON. 
 
 the out-going current, the ducts should be heate3~Tn 
 some way. In buildings heated by steam, the ducts 
 can be heated by means of pipes running through them. 
 In other buildings the ducts can be constructed next 
 to the chimney or smoke-stack, or they can be warmed 
 by lamps or a kerosene stove. One of the best means 
 of carrying away impurities is the open fireplace found 
 in a few schoolrooms. At a comparatively slight ex- 
 pense this excellent means of ventilation can be pro- 
 vided in most of our country schoolhouses. 
 
 Having provided means of getting rid of the impure 
 air, the next thing is to introduce pure air to take its 
 place. To get a proper supply of fresh air, it is gener- 
 ally found necessary to open the windows, thereby 
 exposing the pupils to draughts of cold air. This may 
 be obviated in some degree by placing a strip of board 
 five or six inches wide under the lower w4ndow-sash, so 
 as to allow a current of air to pass upwards between 
 the upper and lower sash. But it is neither economical 
 nor healthful to bring into circulation air which is not 
 first warmed. In rooms heated by stoves it is easy and 
 entirely practicable to introduce a supply of warm fresh 
 air. A covering may be made to encase the stove so as 
 to form a hot-air chamber communicating with the outer 
 air by a cold-air box. This is done in some places, and 
 found to be of great service in ventilation. 
 
 Tlie hot-air furnace is supposed to furnish a constant 
 supply of warm fresh air. Great care, however, must 
 be taken that poisonous gases do not enter the room. 
 Constant attention must be given to the ventilation of 
 the basement, to the cold-air boxes, to evaporation, and 
 to the diaughts of the furnace. Steam-heating by 
 
SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 293 
 
 direct radiation is not uncommon, even in new and 
 costly buildings, but it is little better than heating by 
 stoves, so far as ventilation is concerned. There may 
 be a saving of money, but not of health, by heating a 
 building in this way. Some of the dangers may be 
 avoided by constructing hot-air chambers about the 
 radiators, to which fresh air can be introduced from 
 without through cold-air boxes. Steam-heating by in- 
 direct radiation furnishes a constant supply of warm 
 pure air, and is therefore the best method of heating 
 schoolrooms. With properly arranged ducts for tak- 
 ing away the impure air, there need be little difficulty 
 in securing good ventilation in rooms heated in this way. 
 
 If it is found necessary to heat the schoolroom by 
 stove, two stoves will be found better than one. With 
 two stoves a more equable temperature may be main- 
 tained than with one, and there will be less danger from 
 an overheated surface, which burns the surrounding air. 
 A dish of water should be placed upon the stoves for 
 evaporation. 
 
 The temperature of the room should be kept as near 
 as possible at 68° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Furniture and Furnishings. — Single desks for the 
 pupils should be placed in rows two feet apart. The 
 seats and desks should be constructed with special ref- 
 erence to the health and convenience of pupils. They 
 should be of such a height and be placed at such a dis- 
 tance from the desk as to enable the pupils to take a 
 comfortable position, with the feet upon the floor. Tlie 
 desks should be of sufficient size to allow the books to 
 be placed inside, and to allow the pupils to take a good 
 position in writing. 
 
294 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Ink-wells with covers should be placed in all desks 
 designed for pupils who write with pen and ink. 
 
 Besides desks and seats for pupils, the following 
 articles are necessary in every schoolroom: desk for 
 teacher, chairs for teacher and visitors, crayons, erasers, 
 pointers, clock, bell, thermometer, broom, ink-filler, 
 dustpan, dusters, closet or bookcase, and table for 
 number-work. 
 
 In addition to the above-named articles many school- 
 rooms have the following: waste-basket, sponge-pail, 
 wall-ornaments, toilet appliances, moulding-table, and 
 piano or organ. 
 
 Blackboards. — Blackboards of natural slate or some 
 well-tried artificial preparation should be placed entirely 
 around the room, wherever spaces are left between 
 windows and doors. They should be at least four feet 
 in width and sufficiently near the floor to enable the 
 pupils to reach them easily. If the liquid slate is used, 
 care should be taken to have the foundation firm and 
 smooth. 
 
 Apparatus. — The kind and amount of apparatus 
 used in teaching indicate in no small degree the char- 
 acter of the work done. Therefore, the question so often 
 asked. What apparatus is needed in the schoolroom? 
 becomes a serious one. It is not always desirable to pur- 
 chase apparatus which is the most costly. Indeed, much 
 of the most valuable apparatus used maybe made or gath- 
 ered by the teachers and pupils — especially that which 
 is needed in the Observation Lessons. Charts of any 
 kind can be made of thick Manilla paper, marked with 
 artist's crayon, or with a rubber pen. The following 
 list comprises the minimum amount which should be 
 
APPARATUS AND REFERENCE-BOOKS. 295 
 
 found in every schoolroom, or at least, which should 
 be accessible to every teacher. Blocks, splints, and 
 shoe-pegs for number and "busy-work"; measures 
 (dry, liquid, linear, metric) ; balance, toy money, globe, 
 wall maps ; charts for number, reading, writing, anatomy, 
 and music; numeral frame, drawing models and com- 
 passes, toys and other objects for reading ; forms for 
 mensuration; pictures for language, geography, his- 
 tory, etc. ; cardboard for number, language, etc. ; colored 
 worsted, colored cardboard for form and color ; plants, 
 minerals, mounted insects; appliances for busy-work ;i 
 pen-holders and pens, slates and pencils, sponges or 
 slate-cloths, lead-pencils, paper (white and brown), 
 blank-books, ruler; coarse files for sharpening pencils 
 when pencil-sharpeners are not provided. 
 
 It will be seen that the above list does not comprise 
 some of the means of teaching physiology and other 
 observation lessons, which may be gathered from day to 
 day, such as flowers, leaves, and plants, which are of 
 temporary use only, and the parts of animals obtained 
 from the butcher's. Neither does the list include the 
 little contrivances used for illustrating mensuration of 
 boxes, walls, etc. 
 
 Reference-Books. — In addition to the text-books 
 regularly used there should be within easy access books 
 of all kinds for both teachers and pupils. For the 
 higher grades an encyclopsedia, a gazetteer, a large dic- 
 tionary, and several small dictionaries will be found 
 useful in connection with the geography, history, and 
 reading lessons. Histories, biographies, illustrated 
 books of travel, and other supplementary reading-books 
 
 1 See page 280. 
 
296 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 should be used for silent and sight reading daily ; such 
 reading will greatly increase the interest of the pupils 
 in their regular studies. 
 
 The following list contains the names of a few books 
 which will be found useful for reference. Among the 
 books named, those marked with a star should be used 
 by the teachers exclusively. Titles printed in italics 
 name books which are specially adapted to primary 
 grades ; all others are adapted to the higher or to all 
 grades. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Arithmetical Problems. Fish. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Arithmetic for Primary Grades. Fisher. N. E. Pub. Co. 
 
 Book-Keepiug for Grammar Schools. Meservey. T., B., & Co. 
 
 Bradbury-Eaton Series. Thompson, Brown, & Co. 
 
 Common School Book-Keeping. Bryant ^ Stratton. I., B., & Co. 
 
 Crittenden Commercial. Eldredge & Co. 
 
 Exercises in Arithmetic. Wentworth ^ Hill. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Franklin Series. Wm. Ware & Co. 
 
 First Steps in Number. Wentworth Sf Reed. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Grammar School Arithmetic. Wentworth. Ginn & Co. 
 
 * Grant's Arithmetic for Young Children. Ed. by Small. L. & S. 
 
 Greenleaf (New Series). Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn. 
 
 Hagar's Series. Cowperthwait & Co. 
 
 Harper's Graded Arithmetics. Harper & Bros. 
 
 Intellectual Arithmetic. C album. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co, 
 
 MacYicar Series. Taintor Bros. & Co. 
 
 Numbers Applied. Rickoff. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Numbers Illustrated. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Number Lessons for Supplementary Work. L., S., & S. 
 
 Walton's Arithmetical Tables. Wm. Ware & Co. 
 
 White's Graded School Series. Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND TRAYELS. 
 
 Arctic Explorations. Kane. 
 
 Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. Kirby. 
 
 I 
 
REFERENCE-BOOKS. 297 
 
 Common School and Primary Geographies. Appleton's, GuyoCsj 
 
 Harper's^ Maury's, McNally's, Our World, Swinton's. 
 Compendium of Geography and Travels ; 6 vols., Ulus. Stanford. 
 Each and All. Andrews. Lee & Shepard. 
 Earth and Man. Guyot. Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 
 * Geography for Young Children. Grant. 
 Geographical Reader. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 Geographical Reader Series. G. Philip & Son. 
 Geographical Reader. Johonnot. D. Appleton & Co. 
 Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe. Yonge. MacMillan & Co. 
 Man and Nature. March. 
 
 ♦Methods of Teaching Geography. Crocker. Bos. Sch. Sup. Co. 
 ♦Physical Geographies. Geike's., GuyoVsy Johnston's, Mrs. Soiner- 
 ville*s, Maury's. 
 
 * Physiography. Huxley. 
 
 Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World, Lippincott & Co. 
 Seven Little Sisters. Andrews. Lee & Shepard. 
 Statesman's Year-Book. 
 
 World at Home. Six nos. T. Nelson & Sons. 
 World by the Fireside. Kirhy. T. Nelson & Sons. 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Abbott's Series of Biographies. Harper & Bros. 
 American Biography. Sparks. 
 
 American Statesmen Series. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 Aunt Charlotte's Stories of American History. D. Appleton & Co. 
 Bodley Books. 
 
 Boys of '76. Coffin. Harper & Bros. 
 Boys of '61. Coffin. Harper & Bros. 
 Child's History of England. Dickens. 
 Child's History of England. Yonge. 
 
 Discoveries and Inventions of the 19th Century. Routledge. H. & B. 
 First History of Greece. Sewell. D. Appleton & Co. 
 First History of Rome. Sewell. D. Appleton & Co- 
 History of American Politics. Johnston. Holt & Co. 
 History of America. Bryant. Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 History of the United States. Scudder. J. H. Butler & Co. 
 
298 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 History of the United States. Eliot. Win. Ware & Co. 
 
 History of Our Country. Richardson. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 North American Indians. Catlin. 
 
 Old Times in the Colonies. Coffin. Harper & Bros. 
 
 * Methods of Teaching and Studying History. Ed. by Hall. D. 
 
 C. Heath & Co. 
 Pictorial History of the Revolution. Lossing. 
 Story of Our Country. Monroe. Lee & Shepard. 
 Ten Boys who lived on the Road from Long Ago to Now. L. & S. 
 Young Folks' Heroes of History. Toide. Lee & Shepard. 
 Young Folks' History of America. Butterworth. Estes & Lauriat. 
 Young Folks' History of the United States. Higginson. L. & S. 
 
 INFORMATION LESSONS. 
 
 Child's Book of Nature. Three parts. Hooker. Harpers. 
 
 Civil Government. Martin. Barnes & Co. 
 
 Childhood of the World. Clodd. 
 
 Commercial Law. Clark. Clark & Maynard. 
 
 Government Class-Book. Young. Clark & Maynard. 
 
 Homes without Hands. Wood. 
 
 Household Economy. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 How we are Governed. Dawes. Int. Pub. Co. 
 
 Information Cards. Cambridge Series. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Lessons on Manners. Wiggin. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Lessons on Practical Subjects. Little, Brown, & Co. 
 
 Little Folks in Feathers and Fur. Miller. Dutton & Ca 
 
 Little People of Asia. Miller. 
 
 Manual of Commerce. Browne. 
 
 Natural History Series of Readers. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Natural History Series of Readers. Wood. Bos. Sch. Sup. Co. 
 
 Natural History Stories. Prang Educational Co. 
 
 Our Government. Macy. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Politics for Young Americans. Nordlioff. Harper & Bros. 
 
 Popular Science Reader. Monteith. Barnes & Co. 
 
 Quizzism and its Key. Southwick. 
 
 Siiver Wings and Golden Scales. Cassell. 
 
REFERENCE-BOOKS. 299 
 
 Talks with my Boys. Mowry. 
 
 The Citizen and Neighbor. Dole. 
 
 Young Folks' Catechism of Common Things. CTiamplin. H. & Co. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 INCLUDING WRITING, SPELLING, COMPOSITION, AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 Child's Book of Language. Stickney. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Elementary Lessons in English. Parts I. and II. Knox. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Essentials of English Grammar. Whitney. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Graded Instruction in English. Bright. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Graded Spelling Book. Harrington. Harper & Bros. 
 
 *Grammar Land. Neshitt. Holt & Co. 
 
 Grammar for Common Schools. Tweed. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Handbook of Punctuation. Bigelow. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 How to Talk. Powell. Cowperthwait & Co. 
 
 How to Write. Powell. Cowperthwait & Co. 
 
 *How to Write Clearly. Ahbott. Roberts Bros. 
 
 New Word Analysis. Swinton. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 School Composition. Sivinton. Harper & Bros. 
 
 Selected Words for Spelling and Language Lessons. A. Lovell & Co. 
 
 Some Topics in English Grammar. Hinds. 
 
 *Study of Words. French. 
 
 Thought and Expression. Greene. Cowperthwait & Co. 
 
 *Treatise on Punctuation. Wilson. Potter, Ainsworth, & Co. 
 
 W^ord Lessons. Reed. Clark & Maynard. 
 
 MEMORY LESSONS. 
 
 Ballads and Lyrics. Sel. by Lodge. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 Five-Minute Declamations. Ar. by Fobes. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Five-Minute Recitations. Ar. by Fobes. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Golden Treasury for Children. Palgrave. 
 
 Graded Selections. Ed. by Peaslee. Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co. 
 
 Little Gems of Literature. Potter, Ainsworth, & Co. 
 
 Memory Gems, in prose and verse. Ed. by Lambert. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Memory Gems. 3 vols. Northend. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 One Hundred Choice Selections. Several vols. P. Garrett & Co. 
 
 Pieces to Speak. Ballard. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
300 OUGANIZATION, 
 
 Poetry for Children. EUnt. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 Select Poetry for School and Home. Ed. by Campbell. L. & S. 
 
 Simple Poems and Easy Rhymes. Ed. by Campbell. L. & S. 
 
 H 
 
 OBSERVATION LESSONS. 
 
 Astronomy by Observation. Bower. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Lubbock, 
 
 Botany for Beginners. Masters. 
 
 Boys and Girls in Biology. Stevenson. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Butterflies. Scudder. 
 
 Easy Experiments in Physical Science. Cooley. I., B., & Co 
 
 Elementary Lessons in Botany. Oliver. 
 
 ♦Exercises for the Improvement of the Senses. Grant. L. & S. 
 
 Elements of Physics. Gage. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Fairy Land of Science. Buckley. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 First Book of Botany. Youmans. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 First Book in Geology. Shaler. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 First Book of Zoology. Morse. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 First Principles of Natural Philosophy. Sheldon & Co. 
 
 Geological Excursions. Winchell. Griggs & Co. 
 
 Geological Story briefly Told. Dana. 
 
 ♦Guides for Science Teaching. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Guide to the Study of Insects. Packard. 
 
 How Plants Behave. Gray. Tvison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 How Plants Grow. Gray. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 How to Find the Stars. Clarke. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Insects, How to Catch, etc., for Cabinet. Manton. L. & S. 
 
 * Improvement of the Senses. Grant. Ed. hy Small. Lee & Shepard. 
 Insects Injurious to Vegetation. Harris. 
 
 *Lessons on Color, with Color and Form Cards. Interstate Pub. Co. 
 
 Life and her Children. Buckley. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 ♦Manual of Mineralogy. Dana. Wiley & Sons. 
 
 Natural History of Animals. Tenney. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Natural Philosophy. Cooley. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Object Lessons of Botany. Wood. 
 
 Physics. Hotze. Central Publishing Co. 
 
 * Primary Object Lessons. Calkins. Harpers. 
 
REFERENCE-BOOKS. 301 
 
 Science Primers. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Short Course in Astronomy. Kiddle. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Tenants of an Old Orchard. McCook. 
 
 The Earth in Space. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Winners in Life's Race. Buckley. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Young Folks' Astronomy. ChampUn. H. Holt & Co. 
 
 Zoology. Colton. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Zoology. Packard. H. Holt & Co. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 BlaisdelVs (Lee & Shepard) ; Brand's (Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn) ; 
 Dalton's (Harper & Bros.) ; Hooker's (Sheldon) ; Dunglison's 
 (Porter & Coates) ; Hutchison's (Clark & Maynard) ; Huxley's 
 (MacMillan & Co.) ; Martin's (Holt & Co.) ; Smith's (Ivison, 
 Blakeman, & Co.). 
 
 * Foundation of Death. Gustafson. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 Health Notes for Students. Wilder. Putnam & Sons. 
 History of a Mouthful of Bread. Mace. 
 
 How to get Strong. Blaikie. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 * School Hygiene. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Sound Bodies for Boys and Girls. Blaikie. 
 Serv^ants of the Stomach. Mace. 
 
 * Skeleton Lessons in Physiology and Hygiene. Guernsey. Inter- 
 
 state Publishing Co. 
 Temperance Physiology. A. S. Barnes & Co. 
 The Tobacco Problem. Lander. Cupples, Upham, & Co. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 
 
 [Titles of other books suitable for sight-reading will be found under 
 " Geography and Travels," "History and Biography," and "Information 
 Lessons."] 
 
 Age of Fable. Buljinch. 
 
 A. B. C. Reader. For first half-year. Lowell & Co. 
 
 Appleton's Series of Readers. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Barnes's New National Readers. 
 
 Book of Fables. Ed. by Scudder. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 Butler's Series of Readers. 
 
302 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Classics for Children. Several books for all grades. Ginn Si'Sc 
 
 Edward's Analytical Readers. Tain tor Brothers & Co. 
 
 Franklin New Readers. Wm. Ware & Co. 
 
 From Blackboard to Books. Calkins. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Grandfather's Chair. Hawthorne. 
 
 Harpers' New Readers. Hai-per & Bros. 
 
 ^McGuffy's Eclectic Readers. Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co. 
 
 Modern Classics. 33 vols. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 Monroe's New Readers. Cowperthwait & Co. 
 
 Sheldon's Readers. Sheldon & Co. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. Ed. by Tweed. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. Parker Sf Marvel. L., S., & S. 
 
 Swinton's Series of Readers. Ivison, Blakeman^ & Co. 
 
 Stickney's Classic Readers. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Tanglewood Tales. Hawthorne. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 Wonder Book. Hawthorne. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co. 
 
 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Book of Days. Chambers. 
 
 Calisthenic Songs. Parsons. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Cyclopsedias. Appleton's (16 vols.); Chambers's (10 vols, or 5 
 
 vols.) ; Johnson's (8 vols, or 2 vols.). 
 Cyclopaedia of English Literature. Chambers. 
 Dictionaries. Webster's and Worcester's. 
 English Synonyms. Soule. Little, Brown, & Co. 
 First Weeks in School. Stickney S^ Peabody. Ginn & Co. 
 First and Second Lessons in Geometry. Hill. 
 Model and Object Drawing. Baker. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 National Music Course. Mason. Ginn & Co. 
 Normal Music Course. Tufts Sf Holt. Wilson, Winkle, & Co. 
 
 * Power and Authority of School Officers. 
 
 Industrial Education in Public Schools. Straight. Ginn & Co. 
 Inventional Geometry. Spencer. D. Appleton & Co. 
 Learning to Draw. Le Due. Putnam & Co. 
 
 * Manuals and Teachers' Guides for Drawing-Books. 
 Political Economy. Walker. Henry Holt & Co. 
 School Amusements. Root. 
 
PPwOFESSIONAL BOOKS. 303 
 
 School Studies in Words. Gilbert. Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn. 
 
 Statutes of the State. 
 
 Theoiy and Design. Baker. Ivison, Blakeman, & Co. 
 
 Three Thousand Words. Handbook of Pronunciation. L, & S. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 Application of Psychology to Teaching. Hailmann. Small. 
 
 Art of School Management. Baldwin. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Common School Education. Currie. 
 
 Education. Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Educational Reformers. Quick. 
 
 Form Discipline. Sedgwick. 
 
 History of Education. Painter. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 History of Pedagogy. Compayre'. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Infant School Education. Currie. 
 
 John Amos Comenius. Laurie. 
 
 Lectures on Teaching. Fitch. 
 
 Lectures on Science and Art of Teaching. Payne. 
 
 Life and Work of Pestalozzi. Kriisi. Van Antwerp, Bragg, & Co. 
 
 Manuals for Teachers. Five vols. Eldridge Bros. 
 
 Methods of Instruction. Wickersham. 
 
 On Teaching. Calderwood. 
 
 Outline Study of Man. Hopkins. 
 
 Philosophy of Education. Tate. 
 
 Principles and Practice of Teaching. Johonnot. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 Record of a School. Peabody. 
 
 Reminiscences of Frobel. Von Bulow. Lee & Shepard. 
 
 School at Hofwyl. 
 
 School Management. Landon. 
 
 Some Thoughts on Education. Locke. 
 
 Teachers' Handbook of Psychology. Sully. 
 
 The Kindergarten and the School. Milton Bradley & Co. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching. Page. 
 
 True Order of Studies. Hill. 
 
304 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL PERIODICALS FOR TEACHERS. J 
 
 American Journal of Education. St. Louis, Mo. 
 American Teacher. Monthly. Boston, Mass. 
 Carolina Teacher. Monthly. Columbia, S. C. 
 Colorado School Journal. Denver, Col. 
 Central School Journal. Monthly. Keokuk, Iowa. 
 Education. Monthly. Boston, Mass. 
 
 Monthly. Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Monthly. Richmond, Va. 
 Toronto, Canada. 
 
 Toronto, Canada. 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Educational Courant. 
 Educational Jom-nal. 
 Educational Monthly. 
 Educational Weekly. 
 Illinois School Journal. 
 
 Indiana School Journal. Monthly. Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Intelligence. Monthly. Chicago, 111. 
 
 Journal of Education. Monthly. Madison, Wis. 
 
 National Normal Exponent. Monthly. Cincinnati, O. 
 
 New England Journal of Education. Weekly. Boston, 
 
 INew Orleans School Journal. New Orleans, La. 
 
 Normal Monthly. Iowa. 
 
 North Carolina School Journal. Raleigh, N. C. 
 
 Ohio Educational Monthly. Akron, O. 
 
 Oui' Country and Village Schools. Monthly. Illinois. 
 
 Popular Educator. Monthly. Boston, Mass. 
 
 School Bulletin. Monthly. Syracuse, N.Y. 
 
 School Education. Monthly. Minnesota. 
 
 School Herald. Chicago, 111. 
 
 School Journal. Weekly. New York. 
 
 School Journal. Monthly. California. 
 
 School Journal. Monthly. Lancaster, Pa. 
 
 School Journal. Semi-monthly. Missouri. 
 
 School Moderator. Semi-monthly. Lansing, Mich. 
 
 Southwest Journal of Education. Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Teacher. Monthly. Philadelphia. 
 
 Teacher's Institute. Monthly. New York. 
 
 Texas School Journal. Dallas, Texas. 
 
 Western School Journal. Monthly. Kansas. 
 
 Wisconsin School Journal. Madison, Wis. 
 
 Mass. 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 306 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 The importance of bringing together pupils of nearly 
 equal attainments into one class, in each of the sub- 
 jects taught, is recognized by all. The practical ques- 
 tion for teachers to consider is. How shall the classifica- 
 tion be made so as to secure the greatest good to the 
 greatest number, and at the same time encourage to 
 the greatest extent, or rather discourage to the least 
 extent, the natural propensities and activities of each 
 individual ? 
 
 To accomplish these ends, it is evident that those 
 only who know the needs, capacities, and acquirements 
 of the pupils should make the classification. The result 
 of a single examination, or of any number of examina- 
 tions, alone should not determine the class into which 
 pupils shall go. The age, health, habits, and purposes 
 of the pupil should be considered in determining his 
 place, the only question being. Where can the pupil do 
 most for himself ? 
 
 Graded Schools. — A close classification would make 
 all the pupils of a school recite in the same classes in 
 all studies. There are certainly advantages in this plan ; 
 but it is a question whether it may not be well some- 
 times to allow pupils to recite in a higher or lower class 
 in one or two studies. For example, a boy is by nature 
 or by extra study farther advanced in arithmetic than 
 in reading and geography. If he has but a limited time 
 to attend school, it would seem to be right to have him 
 recite with one class in reading and geography, and 
 with another class in arithmetic. 
 
 Again, there are occasionally pupils who, by reason 
 
306 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 
 of weakness or ill health, cannot take all the studies 
 taught in the school. Such pupils should be allowed 
 to omit one or more of the regular studies, and even 
 be excused from school attendance, except when their 
 classes are reciting. 
 
 There is of course danger in such irregularity of 
 classification, and the number of cases must be 
 limited; but there are instances when it is not only- 
 justifiable, but necessary for the best interests of the 
 pupils. 
 
 Basis of Classification. — The rights of active and 
 bright-minded pupils should be protected, no less than 
 those of the weak and dull. Inequalities both in the 
 abilities of pupils, and in the amount accomplished, 
 should be recognized in classifying, as well as in 
 arranging the course of studies and conducting the 
 recitation. The average abilities and attainments, there- 
 fore, should be the basis of classification, so far as the 
 amount of work required is concerned. Where close 
 classification is required, as it should be required gen- 
 erally in graded schools, it is customary to take read- 
 ing as the basis in the primary schools, and arithmetic 
 in the higher grades. 
 
 Size of Classes. — The mistake should not be made 
 of making the classes too large. The number should 
 be sufficiently small for the teacher to reach every 
 individual member, at least to the extent of knowing 
 the peculiarities of each pupil, and of adapting the 
 teaching and instruction to the needs of each. Thirty 
 pupils in primary grades, and forty in grammar grades, 
 are quite as many as one teacher can be expected to 
 teach, and teach well. A less number would doubtless 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 307 
 
 be better for individual pupils, while more would tend 
 to force the teacher into mechanical ways of teaching, 
 making one pupil do the same work as every other one, 
 and in precisely the same way. 
 
 Divisions. — If there is but one grade in a room, it 
 should be divided into two divisions, so as to allow 
 time for one division to study while the other is recit- 
 ing. There are several reasons why a school of thirty 
 or forty should not recite together in arithmetic, read- 
 ing, or geography. First, as has been intimated, the 
 wants of individual pupils are not attended to as they 
 should be. Secondly, the time for independent study 
 and reflection is exceedingly limited, and even the brief 
 time for study is frequently interrupted by remarks and 
 explanations from the teacher. 
 
 Intervals between Classes. — In most graded schools 
 at the present time, the classes are one year apart; that 
 is, the gradation is so made as to render a readjustment, 
 or "promotion," necessary only once a year. This plan 
 of grading may be necessary in some places and under 
 some circumstances, but where there is a sufficient 
 number of pupils, the intervals should be shorter and 
 the promotions more frequent. The aim should be to 
 have the work adjusted as nearly as possible to the 
 wants and capacity of each pupil. If this aim is a true 
 one, it is manifest that the shorter the interval between 
 the classes, the better, provided of course the transfer 
 of pupils from one grade to another does not cause too 
 great interruption. An interval of only ten weeks, or 
 one-fourth of a year, has been tried with success in some 
 places. In other places the interval is twenty weeks, or 
 half of a year. This plan is entirely feasible in most 
 
308 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 n 
 
 of our cities and large towns, and its adoption would do 
 much to overcome the faults of the system of yearly 
 promotions. In writing, drawing, and other general 
 exercises, all can work together ; but in all other studies 
 the divisions will recite separately, one division studying 
 while the other is reciting. In this way one great fault 
 of too much help and recitation is avoided, and the 
 benefits of independent work assured. Concentration 
 and originality are gained when pupils are required to 
 work independently and alone a portion of the time, to 
 a degree far greater than when much time is spent in 
 recitation, and when too much assistance is given in 
 study. The advantage of semi-annual promotions is 
 most clearly seen in classifying new pupils or those who 
 have been absent a part of the year. It is a well-known 
 fact that, under the system of yearly promotions, pupils 
 are frequently obliged to go over once or twice work 
 which has been done before, and in some cases pupils, 
 notably those who work a part of the year in the factory, 
 do not get beyond the merest rudiments before they are 
 fourteen years of age. Under the other system, these 
 faults are largely overcome, and pupils are much bet- 
 ter accommodated. Moreover, if a pupil is not well 
 enough to do the whole work of the class, he may do a 
 portion of it and lose but six months instead of a year, 
 — time which he maybe able to gain later in the course. 
 Many a pupil under the system of annual promotions, 
 discouraged by the loss of several months, leaves school 
 long before he otherwise would. 
 
 But the feature of shorter intervals between classes 
 commends itself most strongly in the greater facility 
 with which the work of pupils may be adapted to 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 309 
 
 their capacity and strength. A system of classifi- 
 cation which practically permits no difference in the 
 amount of work to be done by pupils, but forces dull 
 pupils beyond their strength and keeps back bright 
 ones, is harmful alike to both classes. When only five 
 months' work lies ahead of a bright and ambitious 
 pupil, it may easily be overcome, especially when the 
 plan of study is graded to the average capacity only of 
 a class. Many pupils will be able to work into higher 
 divisions, who otherwise would form habits of idleness 
 and distaste of study in being obliged to do only the 
 required work of less fortunate pupils. To avoid the 
 danger of undue pressure, the parents in every case 
 should be notified, and the child be given extra work 
 only by their consent. The mistake of slighting impor- 
 tant parts of the course is also avoided by having the 
 pupil work into the higher division gradually, — an 
 additional argument for having two divisions in a room. 
 
 Partially Graded Schools. — In some places the con- 
 ditions require all the pupils of a neighborhood to be 
 placed in two or three rooms. When this is the case, 
 it is necessary to make the intervals between the classes 
 one year or more, and to have three or four classes in 
 each room. With such an arrangement of classes it 
 is not difficult to follow* the plan as outlined in the 
 graded course, making a careful selection of work 
 assigned for general exercises. 
 
 Ungraded Schools. — The classification of ungraded 
 schools will depend much upon circumstances. If there 
 are two teachers (as there should be if there are more 
 than twenty-five pupils), more minute classification may 
 be made than if there is only one. In some ungraded 
 schools the older pupils predominate; in others, the 
 
310 OKGANIZATION. 
 
 1 
 
 younger. In some places the older pupils are taken 
 from the ungraded district schools and placed in a cen- 
 tral grammar or high school ; in other places no higher 
 school of any kind supplements the work of the un- 
 graded school. No exact rule, therefore, for classifying 
 ungraded schools can be laid down. But in general it 
 may be said that no close classification should be at- 
 tempted in ungraded schools, but that every pupil 
 should recite in the class for which he is best fitted, 
 whatever the subject may be. For instance, a pupil 
 may be in the first class in arithmetic and the second in 
 reading ; while another pupil may be in the second class 
 in arithmetic and the first in reading. Again, there 
 should be as few classes as possible consistent with the 
 good of all. The false pride of pupils and the igno- 
 rance of parents as to what is best for their children 
 should not prevent the teacher from doing his duty in 
 this regard. Too often the pupil and parent alike meas- 
 ure progress in education by the number of pages of 
 the book that are "gone over." And too often, also, 
 there is some disgrace attached to a pupil who is put 
 into another class. All of these hindrances to good 
 classification must be met and overcome in one way 
 or another. The parents may be made to see that the 
 older pupils should recite only two or three times a 
 week in some studies, and that there may be a less 
 minute classification in some studies than in others. 
 In geography, for example, they may see that a knowl- 
 edge of one country does not depend upon a knowledge 
 of another, and that drill in one part of the spelling- 
 book may be as useful as drill in another part. The 
 following classification might be made in many ungraded 
 schools, consisting of pupils from five to fifteen years of 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 311 
 
 age : four classes in reading, including one class in the 
 reading of history ; five classes in arithmetic ; two classes 
 in geography, besides the class of younger pupils who 
 are reciting orally lessons in home geography; four 
 classes in spelling, two of which may be heard at the 
 same time ; one class in physiology, — the rest to be 
 heard orally ; one class in history ; one class in English 
 grammar ; and one in language. The singing, drawing, 
 and observation lessons may be taught as general exer- 
 cises to all the pupils at once. 
 
 It may not be well for a new teacher to make such a 
 classification at once, nor carry out all at once the plan 
 of hearing the older pupils recite on alternate days. It 
 might be better for him to adopt for a time the classifica- 
 tion which he finds, in the hope that he may gradually 
 change it for the better. 
 
 Daily Programme of Recitations and Study. — The 
 good teacher always has, either in mind or on paper, 
 a carefully prepared programme in which the times and 
 subjects of recitation and study are well defined. With- 
 out a definite plan of work, there is danger of unequal 
 attention being given to the subjects, and of disturbance 
 in the preparation of lessons. To make a programme 
 in which a proper share of time is giv^n to recitation, 
 and to study, and in which the time allotted to each sub- 
 ject is commensurate with the importance of that sub- 
 ject, is no easy task. It is obvious that no one programme 
 would be suited to all schools, or even to all schools of 
 the same kind and grade, so widely dissimilar are the 
 conditions in different schools, and even in the same 
 school at different times. The following programmes, 
 which were found in actual operation, may be sugges- 
 tive to teachers : — 
 
312 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 VI. GRAMMAR GRADE.— Two Divisions. 
 
 
 TIME. 
 
 RECITATION. 
 
 STUDY. 
 
 Begin. 
 
 Length. 
 
 A Division. 
 
 B Division. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 9.00 
 
 MIN. 
 
 5 
 15 
 
 Devotional Exercise 
 Singing 
 
 \ 
 
 
 9.05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9.20 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 General Exercise 
 Arithmetic. A. 
 
 
 
 9.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.00 
 
 10 
 20 
 
 Arithmetic. A. & B. 
 B. 
 
 
 
 10.10 
 
 Reading 
 
 
 
 
 10.30 
 10.45 
 
 15 
 20 
 
 Recess. 
 Reading. A. 
 
 — 
 
 Reading 
 
 
 
 1105 
 
 20 
 35 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 Reading. B. 
 
 Language. A. & B. 
 
 Intermission. 
 Writing or Drawing. A. & B. 
 Geog. & Sight-Reading. A. 
 
 Geography 
 
 
 11.25 
 
 12.00 
 
 P.M. 
 
 1.30 
 2.00 
 
 Geography 
 
 
 
 230 
 
 30 
 15 
 
 Gebg.&Sight-Reading. B. 
 
 Recess. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 
 3.00 
 
 — 
 
 315 
 
 16 
 30 
 
 Spelling. A. & B. 
 Gen'l Exercise and Study 
 
 
 
 3.80 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4.00 
 
 — 
 
 Dismission. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 Friday. Physiology, Observation Lessons, Memory Lessons, etc. 
 
DAILY PEOGKAMME. 315 
 
 UNGRADED SCHOOL. 
 
 Thirty-five pupils^rom five to sixteen years of age. 
 [One afternoon each week given to general exercises.] 
 
 Time.— Min. 
 
 6. Devotional Exercise. 
 
 10. Singing. ' 
 
 15. First Reader and Number. 
 
 15. Second Reader. 
 
 20. L Arithmetic. 
 
 15. IV. Arithmetic. 
 
 15. Recess or Gymnastics. 
 
 15. III. Arithmetic. 
 
 15. II. Arithmetic. 
 
 15. I. and II. Spelling. 
 
 20. Primary and Intermediate Language. 
 
 20. General Exercise (Observation Lesson). 
 
 INTERMISSION. 
 
 15. Grammar. 
 
 15. First Reader and Number. 
 
 15. Second Reader. 
 
 20. Third Reader. 
 
 25. Writing or Drawing. 
 
 15. Recess or Gymnastics. 
 
 15. I. Geography or History. 
 
 15. II. Geography. 
 
 20. Fourth Reader. 
 
 25. General Exercise. 
 
316 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Records and Reports. — The time and strength of 
 the teacher should be given to no work which does not 
 directly or indirectly conduce to the welfare of the 
 school. No records for mere show should be kept, nor 
 reports and averages be made out which appeal to the 
 pride of any one, or which serve as an artificial stimu- 
 lant to study. 
 
 Statistics of the age and attendance of pupils in ac- 
 cordance with the requirements of the State should be 
 kept, and such records as will enable the teacher to note 
 the progress of his pupils and to aid him in placing them 
 where they will do the most for themselves. 
 
 For the purpose of informing the parents of the 
 character of their children's work and of securing their 
 co-operation, blanks should be filled out either periodi- 
 cally or when occasion requires. It is well for parents 
 to receive a report as often as once a month. This 
 report should indicate in a general way how the pupil 
 is doing in each branch of study and what his conduct 
 is. It should not contain the standing of the pupil 
 with reference to others in his class, nor is it necessary 
 to indicate fine distinctions, such as would be made by 
 per cent marks. All that it is necessary to give in the 
 report is what the teacher would give in ve-ply to the 
 parents' questions : How is my child doing in each 
 branch of study ? What is his behavior ? What is his 
 attendance ? The following report for grammar-school 
 pupils is suggested. It should be upon a card six or 
 seven inches long and four or five inches wide. The 
 months can be indicated to suit the circumstances. 
 
 
RECORDS AND REPORTS. 
 
 317 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 — "^A'^' 
 
 — 
 
 y 
 
 School. 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 For the 
 
 Month 
 
 of 
 
 •5 
 
 s 
 
 bb 
 
 1 
 
 .2 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 bo 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 "1 
 Q 
 
 Q. 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 CS 
 
 £ 
 i- 
 
 Signature of 
 Parent or Guardian. 
 
 SEPT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oct! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NOV. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DEC. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JAN. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To the Parent or Guardian: 
 
 A means Excellent ; B, Good ; C, Fair ; D, Poor ; E, Very Poor. 
 
 If the Scholarship or Deportment continues to be poor, will you 
 please call at the schoolroom for further particulars, especially if 
 
 poor health or any other circumstance prevents h from doing 
 
 more work. Irregularity of attendance greatly interferes with the 
 
 progress of the pupil, and may oblige h to repeat the work of a 
 
 term or year. You are cordially invited to visit the school at any 
 time. 
 
 Please sign and retnrn as soon as possible. 
 
 Teacher. 
 
318 
 
 ORGANIZATION, ETC. 
 
 School, 
 
 M_ 
 
 You mill see hy 
 
 Monthly Report th<it is not doing thoroughly 
 
 the worh of the School, Thus far this term neither 
 the written examination ivor daily worh indicate 
 
 that it will he hest for to go into a higlier 
 
 division next , but that it may he 
 
 necessary to review the present studies anotJzer term. 
 
 If, however, you thinh it possible or hest for 
 
 to do more ivoj^h, will you please call here at tlie 
 Schoolroom, or drop me a note, so that we can have 
 
 a better understanding of needs and capacity, 
 
 and arrange tlxe worh with reference to them. 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Please sign and return this. 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 [Place for signing.]. 
 
RECORDS AND EEPORTS. 319 
 
 School, 
 
 ., 188. _^. 
 
 M_ 
 
 deportment 
 
 at school is not satisfactory. 
 
 I think it best to inform you of the fact, that all 
 influences may he brought to bear upon 
 
 before any serious form of punishment is resorted to. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 To aid in maintaining good order, please sign and return thiSi 
 
 [Place for signing.] , 
 
320 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 [To be sent to the School Gominittee or Superintendent.] 
 REPORT OF THE PUNISHMENT 
 
 QJ^ [NAME] [AGE] 
 
 Residence. 
 
 Date of Punishment, 188 
 
 THE TEACHER WILL PLEASE WRITE ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING: 
 
 1. In what manner was the above-named pnpil punished ? 
 
 % 
 
 "What was the offence? 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 What was his general character? 
 
 4. 
 
 Wbat cio yon Iriiow of tbe bomft inflnences sxirronnclinp bim? 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 What other means have you employed for his reform? _ _ _ 
 
 
 
 6. Were his parents duly notified of his conduct before you resorted to corporal 
 
 punishment? 
 
 What was the response? 
 
 7. Has he ever been referred to the Principal or Superintendent? 
 How many times? 
 
 8. What was the result of the punishment? 
 
 Teacher. 
 
MORAL TRAINING. 321 
 
 MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 If we ask ourselves seriously the question, What is 
 education for ? there will arise in our minds a train of 
 reasoning which will lead to the conclusion that the 
 building up of character is not only a great and impor- 
 tant part of education, but that it is really the only end 
 to be sought. To know how to buy and sell commodi- 
 ties, to be able to learn the ideas of others through the 
 printed page, and to be able to express to others our 
 ideas by writing, — all these acquirements are good and 
 useful for us to have ; but they are good and useful only 
 so far as we put them to a good use in right living, — 
 only so far as our actions are the expression and ultima- 
 tion of a high and unselfish purpose of being useful to 
 others. 
 
 Acknowledging that moral training for the young is 
 necessary, we have first to inquire whether any part of 
 that work belongs to the school. It is said by some 
 that the function of the school is to cultivate the intel- 
 lect alone, and that moral training belongs to the home. 
 There is no question that the home should have a large 
 share in the moral training of the child. It is a fact, 
 however, patent to all, that there are many homes in 
 almost all communities which do nothing to elevate the 
 condition of the young, and if example counts for any- 
 thing, as we know it does, there are thousands of chil- 
 dren to-day who are becoming worse rather than better, 
 by constant association with unprincipled parents. For 
 the sake of these children and for the protection of the 
 
322 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 community some means must be provided to do what 
 parents leave undone. 
 
 But it is said that moral training belongs to the 
 church. An hour or two a week of counsel and in- 
 struction, however good the counsel and instruction 
 may be, is not enough to counteract the bad influences 
 constantly surrounding the child. And even if the 
 church should do more than it now does, it cannot afford 
 to scorn assistance which the school is able to give. 
 Again, we are told that there is moral power gained by 
 cultivating the intellect alone. This is undoubtedly true 
 to a certain extent, but the elevating influence of mere 
 mental training is much exaggerated in the minds of 
 most people. Indeed, when we see the rapidly increasing 
 amount of worse than useless literature which is being 
 read by persons possessed of the rudiments of learning 
 only, we may well wonder if a little learning or only 
 learning is not a most dangerous thing. No ; it belongs 
 to the school, and to the school mainly, to lead the young 
 into habits of " complete living," which depends quite as 
 much upon the cultivation of the sensibilities and will 
 as upon the cultivation of the intellect or the acquisition 
 of knowledge. 
 
 Regular Studies, Means, not Ends. — "But," says the 
 overworked teacher, struggling with his crowded coarse 
 of studies, " where is the time for all this ? " Here is 
 implied the greatest mistake of our common-school 
 system, — the notion that the branches of study are so 
 many separate subjects to be taught and studied as ends 
 rather than as means. The subjects which may be 
 classed under the general head of " Morals," and which 
 should be taught in school, may perhaps take no set 
 
MORAL TRAINING. 323 
 
 time for presentation ; yet there should be no time of 
 the school in which they are not in the mind of the 
 teacher, ready for use whenever an opportunity presents 
 itself. The instruction need not be by formal lectures, 
 though these are by no means as objectionable as many 
 would have us believe, especially if they are given in 
 the form of familiar illustrations or stories. But the 
 spirit of these virtues should so pervade the atmosphere 
 of the schoolroom as to give to the child every hour of 
 the day newer and higher ideas of his relation to others. 
 Even in the regular studies must the teacher keep in 
 mind their ethical side. 
 
 In reading, the children should be brought into close 
 contact with all that is good, true, and beautiful in 
 human life. By means of the printed page the best 
 examples of practical wisdom and goodness are set 
 before them. While they are learning these lessons, 
 they are learning to look for goodness in others, and 
 they are also learning to incorporate it in themselves. 
 Continuous practice in reading will make such employ- 
 ment easy and pleasant ; and if the reading is rightly 
 directed, the habits thus formed will lead the children 
 to seek the best literature after they leave school. 
 And this direction should not be merely general and 
 occasional : it must be particular and constant. Instead 
 of talking about good reading, such reading should be 
 brought into the schoolroom and read there. School 
 libraries should be formed in every grammar and high 
 school building, and the books from these libraries and 
 from the public library should be used under the direct 
 supervision and encouragement of the teacher. Let us 
 not for a moment lose sight of the dangers which 
 
324 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 threaten our young people in the bad and unwholesome 
 literature with which the shelves of our shops are 
 loaded. That it is to-day poisoning the intellectual and 
 moral life-blood of our people, no one who keeps his 
 eyes open to what is going on about him can deny. 
 As teachers we cannot expect to bring into healthy life 
 these diseased minds. But we can and should do much 
 to counteract the evil influences of our time by making 
 the poison bitter or nauseous to the taste, and by creat- 
 ing a desire and love for the best literature. 
 
 What is true of reading is true of every branch of 
 study taught in the schools. The end to be reached is 
 not to cultivate the intellect of the pupils alone, nor to 
 help them to gather facts together merely for the sake 
 of possession ; but it is to prepare them for the duties 
 of life — to ennoble and to make more effective the 
 empio^nents upon which they are to enter. Therefore, 
 in every subject taught, whether it be language, or 
 history, or mathematics, or science, the one great end 
 of education, "complete living," should be kept con- 
 stantly in mind by the teacher. 
 
 The direct influence of good methods of teaching 
 upon the behavior of children can scarcely be over- 
 estimated. When subjects are presented in the right 
 way, the interest in study and in the subjects studied 
 is so great that the inclination to wrong-doing is pre- 
 vented; and if the child has evil tendencies or has 
 formed bad habits, they can be corrected much more 
 easily if he has acquired a good method of doing, and 
 a love of doing, some useful work. 
 
 Influence of Example. — We must recognize the fact 
 that a child is guided in his early years more by his 
 
MORAL TRAINING. 325 
 
 feelings than by any intellectual perception of right and 
 wrong. We must remember, also, that he is by nature 
 imitative in all his acts, and that the influence of exam- 
 ple is especially powerful in these early years. What- 
 ever is wrong in the conduct of the parent or teacher 
 will be, we may be sure, incorporated to some degree 
 in the child's life. The personal surroundings of the 
 child, therefore, come to be an important factor of his 
 education. Reverence, truthfulness, sincerity, and unself- 
 ishness make their first and strongest impressions upon 
 the child when they are practised in the lives of those 
 who are about him, and especially of those in whose 
 charge he is and to whom he naturally looks for guid- 
 ance. 
 
 The principle that the teacher should be all he would 
 have his pupils be is a most important one, and exacts 
 from him more than at first appears. Both in school 
 and out he must be watchful, lest by the slightest word 
 or act he swerves from the path in which he would lead 
 his pupils. This high standard of living is demanded 
 of the teacher not only for its direct influence upon the 
 young, but also for the added power which his words 
 of counsel will have. 
 
 MORAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Can anything more be done in school than is done in 
 the regular studies to accomplish the highest ends of 
 education? Two direct ways present themselves — 
 ways that are at once practicable and effective. The 
 first of these ways is instruction. 
 
 Regular Talks. — The use of regular talks with pupils 
 upon subjects connected with morals has been spoken 
 
326 MOKAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 of. It is true that these exercises are deprecated by- 
 many teachers. But a little observation may convince 
 us that those who deprecate most strongly the practice 
 of giving regular talks to their pupils, seldom resort to 
 other and better methods. Of course it would not be 
 necessary or well to give set discourses upon the various 
 virtues to young children. But if — say upon every 
 Monday morning — the teacher should direct the atten- 
 tion of his pupils to some one subject, such as honesty, 
 forgiveness, temperance, justice, kindness to animals, 
 and the like, by giving appropriate illustrations and 
 anecdotes, who can say that some seed may not be sown 
 upon good ground? The stories may be of incidents 
 in the lives of illustrious men and women, or they may 
 be of incidents which have actually occurred within the 
 observation of the teacher. 
 
 Incidental Instruction. — But useful as such exer- 
 cises are, they should not take the place of what may be 
 called incidental instruction. In every school events 
 are constantly happening in connection with which 
 some good lesson may be given at the time of their 
 occurrence. A boy has, perhaps, found a knife and not 
 restored it to the owner ; or a pupil has copied a lesson 
 or an examination from a classmate's paper; or the 
 boys have been found playing marbles "for keeps": 
 these and a hundred other incidents of school life may 
 furnish the very best text for a talk with the pupils, 
 when the wrong or injury done is fresh in their minds. 
 
 Devotional Exercise. — There is another exercise of 
 the school which should have an elevating influence 
 upon the children, and that is the devotional exercise. 
 As commonly conducted, this exercise has little or no 
 
MORAL TRAINING. 327 
 
 good moral influence ; indeed, wlien conducted, as it 
 too often is, in a cold, careless, or perfunctory way, 
 there may be more harm than good done b}^ it. Indif- 
 ference on the part of the teacher induces indifference 
 and disorder on the part of the pupils, and when dis- 
 order accompanies the devotional exercise, there is 
 encouraged in the children a spirit of disregard and 
 contempt for serious things which may affect the whole 
 future of their lives. The devotional exercise must 
 be marked by a devotional spirit on the part of the 
 teacher. More will depend upon that than upon what 
 is done. When the hands of the clock indicate that 
 the time for opening has come, let every pupil be in 
 his seat; and when there is absolute stillness in tlie 
 room, — not before, — let the teacher take the Bible 
 reverently in his hands and read slowly a few verses. 
 Then let him repeat slowly and devoutly the prayer 
 with which all are familiar, and to conclude let the 
 children sing two stanzas of some familiar hymn. It 
 may take less than five minutes for all this ; but if it 
 is done as it should be, in a subdued and devout spirit, 
 it will have an effect upon all the subsequent work 
 of the day. Moreover, it will lead the children to 
 respect and venarate all the counsels that the teacher 
 may give, for they see better than any one else that 
 such counsels come from a Christian spirit of love. 
 
 Memorizing Oems. — Akin to this exercise in its 
 effect is the recitation by the children of gems, — noble 
 sentiments in prose and poetry. A stated number of lines 
 weekly — say from five to ten — should be memorized 
 and written correctly in books prepared for the purpose. 
 For this purpose two or three of the best books of selec- 
 
328 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 tions should be upon the table of every teacher. These 
 and the ordinary reading-books will furnish material 
 with which the children's minds may be elevated and 
 enriched. 
 
 The second direct means of teaching morals is the 
 regulation of conduct in the 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 Morals, as defined by Webster, is "the doctrine or 
 practice of the duties of life, — manners, conduct, be- 
 havior." It is not necessary to discuss here the relation 
 of morals as thus defined, to the morals which belong 
 to religion ; nor that other question which is constantly 
 forced upon us, namely, whether we are not trenching 
 upon ground which properly belongs to the church 
 when we depart from purely intellectual training. 
 Suffice it to say, that the morals which it is incum- 
 bent upon us to teach relate to the outward conduct 
 of the individual in his relations with others, and that 
 the character thus formed is the basis of the religious 
 experience and life which follow. This idea by no 
 means precludes the necessity of giving close attention 
 to motives in older children. Indeed, without such 
 attention the child may be led to believe that outward 
 order or correctness of living is the only end to be 
 sought independent of the governing motive. In this 
 way hypocrisy — the most insidious of evils — uncon- 
 sciously creeps into the life hidden behind a kind of 
 "smartness," which is too often regarded as the highest 
 virtue to be sought. 
 
 Toward what, then, shall we direct the steps of our 
 children ? To do contentedly and happily some useful 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 329 
 
 work in the world ; to resist temptations to do wrong, 
 independent of external restraints ; and in all the rela- 
 tions of life to treat others as he himself would be 
 treated, — these are the characteristics of the life of a 
 good man, and they are the ends toward which we 
 should work in school. These can best be secured in 
 the government of the school, by which is meant every- 
 thhig pertaining to the school life of the child. 
 
 There is nothing in the life of the good man or 
 woman that cannot find its counterpart, or at least its 
 image, in the schoolroom. The conditions of life in 
 the school and in the world are much the same, and he 
 is a wise teacher who makes the experience of the one 
 a direct preparation for the experience of the other. 
 
 Formation of Habits. — We all know the tendency of 
 repetition which the child has. If he does pleasurably 
 or easily an act at any time, the presumption may be, 
 that he will repeat the act at a convenient opportunity, 
 and again repeat it, until a habit is formed. If the 
 habit thus formed is a good one, as, for example, the 
 habit of attention or of truthfulness, it will be a powerful 
 means of mental or moral growth ; but if it be a bad 
 habit, as the habit of inattention or of deception, it will 
 stand in the way of progress until by hard experience 
 it is removed. The formation of a habit, therefore, is 
 everywhere recognized as a powerful agent for good or 
 ill in the child's education. Indeed, the usefulness of 
 the school consists mainly in the formation of good 
 habits. The habits of observation, of attention, and of 
 industry, for example, are much more to the child than 
 all the information he acquires; while in matters of 
 conduct, the habits he forms in school are worth to him 
 more than all other things combined. 
 
330 MORHrrRAINlNG, ETC. 
 
 We desire first of all to get the child into the habit 
 of doing just what we hope to have him do in after 
 life. We desire to have the good habits so fixed that he 
 will involuntarily act from them during the first few 
 years of childhood, and that afterwards they will be a 
 bulwark of defence against temptations, and will be 
 followed from a free and happy choice. 
 
 Obedience, — The habit of obedience stands first 
 among'^ the best habits of childhood. In his earlier 
 years the child obeys implicitly, without asking for rea- 
 sons ; that is, he thus obeys if we have not been care- 
 less, inconsistent, and vacillating in the exercise of our 
 authority. Our will is his will in these early years, and 
 lie is satisfied to have us regulate his conduct. Later, 
 he begins to desire to exercise his will, and demands 
 more frequently than before reasons for our denials of 
 his requests. All this may be a sign of development, 
 and his growing independence should be respected, and 
 even anticipated. We must not assume that the child 
 is always obstinate or wilful when he demurs or hesi- 
 tates. The fault may be partly our own. If we give a 
 thoughtful consideration to every request before our 
 decision is made, and then uniformly adhere to the 
 decision when it is made ; if all our judgments are for 
 the best interests of the child, and we take pains to 
 make them appear so to him ; if, in a word, the child 
 has confidence in our wisdom, there will be little or no 
 opposition on his part to our judgments as they are 
 given. But if we give our decisions in a hasty way, 
 considering them after they are given rather than be- 
 fore, or if our decisions are arbitrary, with no apparent 
 justice in them even to the child himself, there will be 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 331 
 
 much opposition on his part, not only to our unjust 
 decisions, but to all decisions we may give. 
 
 It cannot be denied that even with the greatest care 
 from the first, our will and the will of the child may 
 sometimes come into collision. Adverse conditions may 
 exist over which we have no control. The child's mind 
 or our own may be in an unhealthy state through sick- 
 ness of the body ; frequent change of masters may be 
 made whose methods do not agree ; or the child may 
 inherit a quick temper, which sometimes shows itself 
 very early in lifel All these conditions or any one of 
 them may prevent prompt and willing obedience. But 
 generally it may be said that, if proper care is taken, 
 there will be little need of an active exercise of au- 
 thority on our part, and that we shall never need to do 
 what some parents and teachers regard as necessary, 
 namely, break the will of the child by severe punish- 
 ment. Sternness, and even severity, may be at times 
 necessary, but they should be exercised — and be seen 
 to be so exercised — in love and sorrow, rather than 
 in a hasty or angry manner, as too many commands 
 and punishments seem to be. 
 
 Truthfulness. — There are few qualities of childhood 
 more full of grace, and at the same time more full of 
 promise for the future, than that of open-hearted, sincere 
 truthfulness. How to secure it is indeed a difficult 
 task, all the more difficult from the fact that the earliest 
 forms of untruthfulness are likely to escape our notice 
 because they are so hidden. Sly evasions both in word 
 and deed, unfulfilled promises, exaggerated descriptions 
 of what has been seen, one-sided and colored accounts 
 of wrong done, — all these and many other forms of 
 
332 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 untruthfulness need most careful management. It is 
 surprising how careless we become in some matters 
 which may have little effect upon our characters, but 
 which have great influence upon children. It is a com- 
 paratively small thing, for instance, to tinge the descrip- 
 tion of an event or thing in such a way as to give a 
 wrong impression to others. We may even encourage 
 the children to do this, by manifesting interest or sur- 
 prise in their descriptions when we know that they 
 are not strictly accurate. Success or non-hindrance in 
 equivocating leads the child still further on, until, 
 before we are aware of it, deception and falsehood have 
 fastened themselves upon his acts and words. The 
 remedy lies in our vigilance in detecting the fault, and 
 in our patience in correcting it every time it is seen. 
 How this may be done will be spoken of in another 
 place. 
 
 Industry. — The influence of the good school is in no 
 way more plainly manifest than in the formation of the 
 habit of industry. When the child first enters school, 
 he should be given employment of a suitable kind ; 
 by frequent change he should be kept profitably and 
 pleasantly occupied all the time he is in school. Gener- 
 ally, it may be said that idleness on the part of pupils 
 indicates an improper kind or insufificient amount of 
 work required. It is true that many pupils who are 
 irregular in attendance find it difficult to apply their 
 minds to the same kind of work as is given other pupils ; 
 and it is also true that, to do justice to all, the teacher 
 cannot spend much extra time on these irregular pupils. 
 But to as great an extent as possible, the requirements 
 should be made to suit the state and capacity of every 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. SSS 
 
 pupil, to the end of keeping all pupils at all times 
 properly employed. 
 
 Order and Neatness, — To inculcate proper habits of 
 order, the teacher finds it necessary to attend to little 
 things which to an outsider may seem trivial. Such 
 trifling offences as littering the floor with paper, or 
 throwing the books in a heap together in the desk, or 
 not returning a book to its proper place, must be cor- 
 rected constantly; and it can be done in no better way 
 than by having the child do properly what is left un- 
 done. The same may be said of carelessness and untidi- 
 ness. No punishment is so good for the prevention of 
 these faults as the prompt and unvarying correction of 
 them by the pupil himself. It is well sometimes to 
 appoint for each week a committee of two whose duty 
 it is to inspect the desks and other parts of the room, 
 and report to the teacher daily their condition as to 
 order, etc. 
 
 It is desirable to have toilet appliances constantly at 
 hand for the use of pupils who need them. 
 
 Politeness. — The duties of politeness, and a regard 
 for the feelings of others, should be taught objectively 
 in the every-day life of the school. Constant attention 
 to these things will do much to fix a good habit, and 
 make the common acts of courtesy in after life less irk- 
 some and difficult. No rudeness like laughing at the 
 mistakes of others, or annoying them in any way, should 
 ever be allowed. For every favor received proper ac- 
 knowledgments should always be made, and for every- 
 thing done which disturbs or incommodes others excuses 
 should be given or an apology be offered. Who has 
 not seen the marked effect of such a course of training 
 
334 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 given by some faithful teacher, and who can doubt tliat 
 the improved manners of the children react in stimu- 
 lating a better feeling toward otliers? 
 
 Contamination. — One of the most common charges 
 against the public schools is that there is danger of con- 
 tamination. It is a serious charge, and one to which 
 we should give great heed. Wink at it as we may, there 
 is real danger, where so many children are thrown tor 
 gether, that the better and more sensitive children will 
 suffer by contact with others at recess and before and 
 after school. Is it too much, under such circumstances, 
 that the parents of such children ask, nay, demand, from 
 us all the protection that we can give ? To add to the 
 teacher's burden of care, which is already great, seems 
 almost unreasonable ; but knowing as much as you do 
 of the bad influence which some of j^our pupils may 
 exert over others, what would you wish done, if you 
 were a parent? Would you not prefer that your child 
 should have no education if, in getting that educa- 
 tion, he must be exposed to the degrading influence of 
 vicious companions? But it must not be forgotten 
 that while you are protecting the innocent and good, 
 you are at the same time correcting the habits of the 
 bad. The longer you keep a boy from the use of bad 
 words, the less likely will he be to form the habit of 
 using them. These are the principal reasons why you, 
 or some teacher, should be within sight or hearing of 
 your pupils at recess. There are other reasons. By 
 directing and sympathizing with the children in their 
 play, you will find that your hold upon them will be 
 stronger in the schoolroom, and that you can lead them 
 better there. Besides, you will find the fresh air and 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 336 
 
 exercise as good and necessary for your bodily health 
 as they are for your pupils. For all of these reasons 
 we see that it is not only well, but necessary, for a 
 teacher to be with his pupils all the time they are 
 committed to his care. 
 
 The Condition of the School Premises. — It is not 
 necessary to allude to the degrading effects of the 
 improper words and pictures that are found on too 
 many of our buildings. There is absolute demoraliza- 
 tion and degradation not only to the authors of these 
 markings, but to all the young and innocent children 
 who see them, — evil effects which can never be effaced. 
 Where defilement and symbols of impurity exist, it is 
 absolutely necessary for somebody to do something to 
 remedy the evil. The teachers who do not report to 
 the school committee the bad condition of the buildings, 
 and the committees who do not remedy it, aie guilty of 
 a most grievous wrong. When the objectionable mark- 
 ings are removed, and the buildings are restored, there 
 should be constant vigilance on the part of the teachers. 
 The doors of all buildings should be locked, and a sys- 
 tem of inspection be inaugurated that will prevent a 
 repetition of the evil. 
 
 We are inclined to place all these things outside of 
 what we call the government of the school, whereas 
 they are an important part of it. The truth of the 
 "ounce of prevention " adage is nowhere more apparent 
 than in the precautions which have been mentioned. 
 But of all the precautions that can be taken by the 
 teacher, none are more powerful in preventing disorder 
 and cultivating the will than that of leading pupils to 
 govern themselves. 
 
336 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 Punishment. — Few schools can be conducted for any 
 length of time without punishments of some form ; and 
 the success or failure of a teacher frequently depends 
 upon the manner in which the punishments are ad- 
 ministered. It becomes a matter of some importance, 
 therefore, to know how to punish judiciously. The 
 statement of a few principles and cautions may be help- 
 ful to- some teachers. 
 
 1. Kindness, firmness, and justice should characterize 
 every punishment. Punishments which tend only to 
 irritate or degrade the offender should be avoided, such 
 as pulling the hair or ears, confining pupils in a dark 
 room, putting pepper upon tlie tongue, compelling 
 pupils to wear a dunce-cap, using ridicule or sarcasm. 
 
 2. Punishments should never be arbitrary, but should 
 as nearly as possible naturally follow the offence. 
 Extra tasks, for example, should never be given pupils 
 for misconduct, not only because there is no connection 
 between the offence and punishment, but because such 
 a course tends to make pupils dislike study. 
 
 8. Penalties should be consistent and uniform; that is, 
 an offence should not be punished at one time, which is 
 passed over in silence at another time. Never threaten, 
 or at least never promise what cannot be carried out 
 to the letter. Inconsistency and vacillation in the mat- 
 ter of punishment have caused more failures in disci- 
 pline than anything else. 
 
 4. While the power to punish corporeally should not 
 be denied teachers, such punishment should be given 
 but seldom. A teacher who teaches well, and who 
 is able to keep his pupils constantly employed, one who 
 is quick to detect the signs of disorder, and who is skil- 
 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 337 
 
 ful in preventing it, is likely never to have a case of 
 corporal punishment. Others, through want of expe- 
 rience and tact, may be obliged to resort to corporal 
 punishment to maintain their authority. If such pun- 
 ishment is unavoidable, let it be clearl}^ known what it 
 is for, and let it be dispassionately given. It might 
 be well, to avoid any danger of passion, to keep the 
 instrument used for punishment in a place not 'easily 
 reached. An hour at least should intervene between 
 the offence and the punishment. The punishment 
 should be upon the hand, and with a light rattan. It 
 should not be so slight as to excite contempt, nor so 
 severe as to do injury to the mind or body of the 
 offender. As a rule, it should not be administered in 
 the presence of other pupils. As a safeguard against 
 mistakes, a report of every case of corporal punish- 
 ment should be sent to the school committee or super- 
 intendent. A blank for such a report is given on page 
 320. 
 
 Conditions of Good Government. — The most frequent 
 and at the same time the gravest fault of discipline, is 
 the encouragement of deception. The offence, in the eyes 
 of the pupils, is generally " being found out^^ not the 
 wrong done. A good disciplinarian is, in the estimation 
 of many, not only one who is strong enough to punish 
 his pupils vigorously, but one who is sharp enough to 
 catch them at their tricte. Too many schools are gov- 
 erned on the assumption that the governor and the gov- 
 erned naturally pull in opposite directions; that the 
 children are necessarily the sworn enemies of the 
 teacher, and he of them. The essential elements of 
 good government are, first, a friendly public sentiment 
 
338 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 in favor of law and order; and, secondly, a disposition 
 on the part of the larger portion of the governed to 
 do right, not merely because they are coramanded by 
 law to do so, but because it is right. Without these 
 conditions no government can long continue, and with- 
 out them society can scarcely be called civilized. With- 
 out these conditions, also, no school can be said to be 
 civilized, or at least civilizing in its influence. It is a 
 wrong estimate to make upon the moral strength of 
 older boys and girls, to assume that they need to be 
 tended like babies, on the one hand, or watched like 
 criminals, on the other, — an assumption wliich tends 
 to deprive them of the opportunity of exercising their 
 freedom of choice between right and wrong. 
 
 Self- Control. — ^\th the young child this principle is 
 kept out of sight to a great degree ; but as he advances 
 in age he is led to depend less and less upon others and 
 more upon himself. It is for us, therefore, to place 
 before him higher and higher motives of action. At 
 least, we should not appeal, as many do, to the low 
 motives ; such as the fear of punishment and the desire 
 for high per cent marks. 
 
 We should encourage, so far as we can and so soon 
 as we can, the performance of duties based upon the 
 principle that the doer is to exercise self-control and 
 self-denial, because it is best for him to do so. The 
 school is a miniature world^nd there are few trials, 
 perplexities, privileges, and enjoyments of active life 
 in the world which are not experienced to a greater 
 or less degree in the schoolroom. Who are the best 
 citizens? They who govern themselves. Who are the 
 most useful members of society ? They who look to the 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 339 
 
 welfare and comfort of others. Who are best prepared 
 to meet the difficulties which contact with the world 
 is sure to bring ? Plainly, they who have met and mas- 
 tered similar ones while they were young. Self-govern- 
 ment and a sacred regard for the welfare of others 
 should, therefore, be the guiding principles in the gov- 
 ernment of the school. 
 
 Illustrative Example. — To see more clearly how 
 children may be led into habits of truthfulness and 
 self-control, let us go somewhat into details. You are, 
 it may be, before a new class or school. What is your 
 first duty? Plainly, not to read a lecture upon the 
 importance of being good ; nor to expound a long set 
 of rules. Let your manner, on entering the school, 
 give them assurance that you are the friend of the 
 pupils and glad to be with them. If you say anything, 
 simply say that you have come to help them, and that 
 you hrope they will let you. Nothing need be said of 
 order. Let the assumption be at the outset that there 
 will be no disorder. Set the school to work as soon as 
 possible, and endeavor to make the work pleasant and 
 agreeable. Upon the first violation of good order, say 
 to the offender and to the school that that particular 
 offence, and everything like it, ought never to be 
 committed, and then tell them the reason why. Be sure 
 that this is not omitted, for you must remember that 
 your first purpose is to bring your pupils over to your 
 side, and you can best do this by establishing a reputa- 
 tion for kindness and fairness at the start. Soon there 
 is, perhaps, more disorder of a similar kind. Now 
 comes your first really practical lesson in self-control. 
 Your question is, " Did you know that I do not want 
 
340 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 that done?" or, "Would you have done that if I had 
 been looking?" If the pupil says that he did not know 
 that you do not want it done, tell him plainly again, 
 and the reason for the prohibition, as before. It is 
 neither right nor politic for the teacher to assume, 
 as many do, that every offence comes from malicious 
 intent. Then may be given what will have to be 
 repeated hundreds of times, in one form or another, the 
 Golden Rule of the schoolroom, "i>o nothing that you 
 would not do if the eye of the teacher were upon you^ 
 Either the words or spirit of this rule must be kept 
 constantly in mind and uniformly followed. 
 
 So far you have imposed few restraints. Let this 
 course be continued as long as possible, and whenever 
 the liberty of pupils is abridged, see to it that they 
 have a good reason for it. Also impress upon them 
 by practice the fact that the rules which govern their 
 behavior are practically made by themselves, and that 
 to abuse any privilege they may have, ought of course 
 to deprive them of the privilege. 
 
 But to go back to the first day with our new class. 
 By your kindness and evident fairness, you have won 
 the respect of the better part of your class. This will 
 be a powerful help to you in leading the more wilful 
 and refractory part of your school. You go on with 
 the work of the school, showing that you trust every 
 member of it. At length there is disturbance in the 
 room from one or more, or it may be that you leave 
 the room for a moment and find upon your return 
 evidences of disorder. Stop the work, and ask the 
 attention of the school for a moment. Say to them 
 that you are sorry to know that there is any one who 
 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 341 
 
 is willing to do wrong because he is not watched. 
 Show how weak such a boy or girl must be. Compare 
 him with those unfortunate and weak men and women 
 who have to dodge the policeman for fear he will see 
 them ; show the injustice that is done others in making 
 you suspect some who are really innocent, and who are 
 trying to do their best. Now is the time to get them 
 to agree with you that it is much better, and entirely 
 within the power of every pupil, to govern his own con- 
 duct. Then it will be an easy matter for you to exact 
 a pledge from every boy and girl under your charge 
 that an effort will be made in this direction. Do not 
 require too much at this point. They have made a 
 reasonable promise, one they are able to keep, whea 
 they promise to try to take care of themselves. If they 
 promise no more than this, you will have a far greater 
 hold upon them than if you made them promise that 
 they would govern themselves. You know, and they 
 will discover after a time, that they would break such a 
 promise ; but you know, and they know, that they can 
 and ought to keep the promise to try. 
 
 Sooner or later you come to the time, in the natural 
 order of events, when one or more of your pupils have 
 not done as they promised to do. That is, you have 
 found them dodging you, or doing something disorderly 
 behind your back, or in your absence from the room. 
 The first case of this kind demands your prompt atten- 
 tion. It is a most trying time for you. The pupils' 
 estimate of their teacher's wisdom and justice is in sus- 
 pense. Upon your action at this time may depend the 
 success or failure of your plan. The punishment must 
 not be too slight, nor must it be too severe. Above all, 
 
342 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 it must not be arbitrary ; but this, as every punishment, 
 must naturally follow the offence. What is the offence? 
 Deception. Doing a thing because you were not look- 
 ing. Plainly, then, the punishment for him should be 
 that he must be watched, — he of all the school ; no one 
 else. It is a notoriety that he does not like ; but he 
 sees, and all his mates see, that it is just. Let him 
 understand, however, that he will be trusted as he 
 proves his sincerity in really trying to govern himself. 
 
 By this time your pupils are thoroughly convinced 
 that you are in earnest (that is, if you are in earnest) 
 in discouraging something wrong. What is it? Decei> 
 tion in every form. They learn, too, that you are in 
 earnest in encouraging something good and right. 
 What is it ? Obedience to authority and self-control. 
 
 You may have occasion to resort to various appeals 
 before you can bring your pupils to do right in all 
 things because it is best. One means of encouragement 
 may be the "roll of honor," consisting of all who 
 are not in the least deceptive, but who are open 
 and honorable in all their actions. They are trusted 
 fully and entirely by you, and they will be found to 
 assist in everything pertaining to the welfare of the 
 school. Again, there may be others, — a very small 
 number if the right methods are pursued, — who do not 
 control their own conduct, and who are not making an 
 effort to do so. These pupils demand your serious atten- 
 tion. They are afflicted with a moral disease, and they 
 should be most carefully treated. They should be labored 
 with, both in and out of school. The help of their 
 parents and of the other pupils should be sought, and 
 every inducement placed before them to change their 
 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 343 
 
 >urse. When punishment is resorted to, it should be 
 in a kind and just spirit, and as near as possible a direct 
 consequence of the offence. In extreme cases all social 
 privileges may be taken away from the offending pupil 
 while he is in or near the schoolhouse, he not being 
 allow^ed the privilege of playing with or speaking to his 
 mates. He is to be kept entirely apart from the rest 
 of the school, on the principle that his influence is dan- 
 gerous and harmful. 
 
 Thus you will go on from day to day, following out 
 patiently this or some other well-defined plan, until 
 success crowns your efforts; not the fullest and most 
 complete success, perhaps, but such a degree as encour- 
 ages you to believe that every one of your pupils is 
 affected by a desire and purpose to do right, — not from 
 fear of any external consequence, but from choice. 
 
 Sympathy. — But whatever you do for your pupils, 
 whether it is by example or precept, whether it is to 
 enlarge their understandings or to elevate and strengthen 
 their purposes, do not forget that crowning grace of 
 the teacher — sympathy. It is a bond between the 
 teacher and his pupils by means of which his influence 
 will be felt, and without which the highest results of his 
 work cannot be realized. 
 
 The example of the wisest teachers may well be fol- 
 low^ed by us. Shall we ever forget the pictures drawn 
 for us in " Schooldays at Rugby," where the old doctor 
 is seen at all times as a sympathizing friend and com- 
 panion to the boys ? Can we wonder at the influence of 
 Pestalozzi which has extended throughout the world, 
 and which is felt to-day by us all, as we call to mind the 
 patience with which he worked among those beggar 
 
344 
 
 MORAL TRAINING, ETC. 
 
 I 
 
 children at Stanz, gaining their love by the power of his 
 love and sympathy ? Do we not recall with gratitude 
 the devotion with which the founder of the kinder- 
 garten studied the games and plays of little children, to 
 know how best he could enter into their states and lead 
 them ? It is for us to imitate the noble example of these 
 great teachers, and, so far as we can, work with and for 
 the children who are placed in our care. Whether we 
 have to do with the child of poverty or the child of 
 wealth, whether the child is bright or dull, whether 
 good or bad, we must remember that the destiny and 
 happiness of a human being are partly in our hands, and 
 that only as we perceive the states and feel the needs of 
 the child are we instrumental in guiding him into a 
 higher manhood. 
 
 1 
 
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