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 THE ADDRESS 
 
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 HELD AT THE HOUSE OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, 
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 The President, 
 
 SIR GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., M.P., 
 
 Past President of the Royal Society, 
 
 IN THE CHAIR. 
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 BY EDOUARD NAVILLE. 
 
 THE route which the Israelites followed when they were 
 leaving Egypt is a topic on which travellers and com- 
 mentators of Scripture have dwelt at great length, and on 
 which they have put forth most divergent views. Though 
 there are still many doubtful points on which we cannot 
 pronounce with certainty, the excavations made recently 
 have thrown much light on several points of the Exodus, 
 especially on the first days of the journey. They have 
 contributed to elucidate the passage of the Red Sea, the 
 crowning episode, the historical character of which is not 
 denied even by authors of well known rationalistic tenden- 
 cies.* This great event I consider also as the limit of my 
 subject. I do not intend to follow the Israelites beyond the 
 
 * Wie indess auch der eigentliche Vorgang dieses in seiner geschicht- 
 
 lichen Geivisslieit feststehenden Ereignisses gewesen sein mag Ewald, 
 
 "Gesch. der Volkes Israel," II., p. 109. 
 
 VICTORIA INSTITUTE, 1891, 
 
 OFFICE 8, Adelphi Terrace, Charing Cross, London, W.C. 
 
 PRIVATE PROOF. COPYRIGHT. 
 
 1 a
 
 EDOUARD NAV'ILLE. 
 
 borders of Egypt, but I should like to describe how the 
 scriptural narrative of the Exodus seems to me to be ex- 
 plained in the light of the late discoveries in Egypt. 
 
 I shall recall only in a few words what concerns the 
 arrival of the Israelites in Egypt. Most Egyptologists have 
 adopted as correct the statement for which we are indebted 
 to the Byzantine chrono graph er Syncellus, who says that it 
 was under the king Apophis, in Egyptian Apepi, that Joseph 
 attained the high dignity which is described in Scripture. 
 Apepi is known to us as one of the last, perhaps even the 
 very last, Hyksos king. The Hyksos were foreign invaders, 
 and, in all probability, Mesopotamians, who had been driven 
 out of their country by great events which took place in 
 the valley of the Tigris and the Euphrates. They were 
 a mixed race ; the mass of the population seems to have 
 been Semitic, while their rulers, judging from the type of 
 their faces, such as they are seen on the monuments of 
 Tanis and Bubastis, were of Turanian origin. Undoubtedly 
 their invasion had been marked, as is related by Manetho, 
 by destruction, plunder, and violence, as is usual in Eastern 
 wars ; but the Hyksos had soon yielded to the influence of 
 the more cultivated race over which they reigned. The 
 conquered had by degrees overcome the conquerors, who 
 had adopted the customs, the language, the writing, the 
 civilization of the Egyptians ; all except the religion. For, 
 notwithstanding several centuries of dominion, the religion 
 still raised between the Hyksos and their subjects an in- 
 separable barrier. " They reigned ignoring Ra," meaning 
 in hostility against the Sun-god. Such is the way in which 
 a native queen describes their rule two centuries after the 
 first rebellion against them. 
 
 It is probable that the fact of the Hyksos kings being Meso- 
 potamians, contributed to dispose them favourably towards 
 the Hebrews who had the same origin. It is well known 
 that for Abraham and his family, and especially Jacob, 
 Mesopotamia, Aram Nahara'im, was above all their country,* 
 whereas they considered themselves as strangers in Canaan. 
 " An Aramean ready to perish, or, wandering, was my father," 
 says the author of Deuteronomy, t The tradition lasted down 
 to the time of Josephus. This Jewish writer relates the 
 events of Genesis in a narrative which is parallel to that 
 of Scripture, and which is based on the Holy text. When 
 
 * Genesis xxiv., 4, 11, etc. 
 
 t xx vi., 5, margin of the Ee vised Bible. 
 
 2
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODCS. 
 
 he reaches the point of the arrival of Jacob into Egypt, like 
 Genesis also he interrupts his narrative in order to introduce 
 the description of the family of the patriarch; but before 
 beginning it he gives the following curious reason for quoting 
 all the names: "I thought it necessary to record those 
 names, in order to inform those who do not suspect it, that 
 we are Mesopotamians and not Egyptians.* 
 
 It is easy to notice in the narrative of Scripture that there 
 is a difference between the king and bis subjects. The native 
 Egyptians could not look favourably on the establishment of 
 strangers who belonged to the race whose rule they hated. 
 ' Every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." I 
 believe that this passage must not be understood as referring 
 to all shepherds in general. We must remember that in the 
 Egyptian inscriptions the most usual name of the Hyksos is 
 the shepherds or the nomads of Asia, and it is natural that the 
 Egyptians should have felt towards the Hebrews the same 
 antipathy as towards their rulers who had the same origin as 
 the Hebrews, and who were hostile to the Egyptian gods. 
 This is the origin of the ill will, the Suo-KoX/a, which according 
 to Josephus existed between the Egyptians and the Hebrew 
 immigrants. 
 
 The Israelites were settled in the land of Goshen. The 
 excavations which I made in 1885 at Salt el Henneh, six 
 miles East of Zagazig, have enabled me to determine the 
 exact site of the land of Goshen, at least of the territory 
 which was originally assigned as residence to the family of 
 Jacob ; for we must admit that when the people increased in 
 number, they extended beyond the limits of the laud which 
 had been allotted to them at the beginning. They spread in 
 the south towards Heliopolis, in the north towards Tauis, and 
 in the east in the direction of the Red Sea. I shall here 
 briefly sum up the information which we derive from the 
 hieroglyphical inscriptions and the ancient authors, apart 
 from Scripture, in reference to the land of Goshen. f 
 
 The word Goshen, ^VZ, has been translated by the Sep- 
 
 tuagint rVcrez/ '/l/aa/3ia<?, Gesen of Arabia. The name Arabia 
 must be interpreted here as meaning the nome or province of 
 Arabia mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy, and by Pliny, 
 and the capital of which was called by the Greeks Phacusa. 
 Let us go back not to the time when the Septuagiut made 
 then- translation, viz., under Ptolemy Philadelphos, when great 
 
 * Joseplms, "Ant. Jud.,' : II., 177, ed. Nu>r. 
 t See "Goshen," p. 14-^ ). 
 
 3
 
 EDOUARD NA.VILLE. 
 
 changes had taken place in the division of the land ; but as 
 far as the XVIIIth or the XlXth dynastry, when the Israelites 
 still occupied the land which they had received as allotment 
 from the Hyksos king. At that time Egypt of the North, 
 the Delta, was divided into 15 nomes or provinces, instead 
 of 23, which existed under the Ptolemies and the Romans. 
 One of the largest in extent had for its capital Heliopolis,* 
 called in Scripture Aven and On. It comprised the greatest 
 part of the land which is crossed by travellers going from 
 Cairo to Suez, and where are at present the cities and 
 villages of Kalioub, Shibeen el-Kanater, Belbeis, Zagazig, and 
 Tell el-Kebir. The great city of Bubastis, one of the chief 
 residences of the Hyksos kings, was also included in this 
 province, which was limited on the east by the nome of 
 Pithom, called under the Ptolemies, Heroopolitau. The 
 nome of Arabia and that of Bubastis, which later on were 
 separated from the nome of Heliopolis, did not yet exist as 
 distinct administrative divisions. About six miles east of 
 Bubastis was the region called Kesem or Kes, which seems to 
 have been also styled the water of Ra. A Dutch scholar, 
 Van der Hardt, had already suggested in the last century 
 that the root Kes of the name Kesem was to be found in the 
 second syllable of the name Phacusa where it is preceded by 
 the Coptic article pa or pha. Phacusa we know from Ptolemy 
 to have been the capital of the nome of Arabia. As late as 
 the 4th century of the Christian era, a woman coming from 
 France and going to the Holy Land and to Egypt, Silvia 
 Aquitana, mentions repeatedly in the narrative of her 
 pilgrimage, that the land of Goshen was in her time the 
 nome of Arabia, civitas Arabia.^ 
 
 In the hieroglyphical inscriptions there seems to be an 
 allusion to the presence of the Israelites in that region ; for 
 a text written at the time of Menephthah, the King of the 
 Exodus, speaking of the neighbourhood of Pi-Bailos, the 
 present Belbeis, says " that the country around was not culti- 
 vated, but left as pasture for cattle, because of the strangers. 
 It was abandoned since the time of the ancestors." This 
 proves that the land of Kes or Kesem was not inhabited ; 
 
 * The fact that Goshen belonged to the nome of Heliopolis, explains 
 the passage of Josephus, who says that Pharaoh allowed Jacob to live at 
 Heliopolis, where his shepherds had their pastures : o-uvfxupTjvtv OVTU> 
 ?iv . . . . (v 'HXiov TroXei tv fKfivrj yap KOI 01 Troifif'ves OVTOV ras vofias d\oi>. 
 Jos., "Ant. Jud.," ii., 188. 
 
 t Silviae A quitanae, " Peregrinatio ad loca. Sancta." Ed. Ganmrriui, 
 2 ed., p. 1820. 
 
 4
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 it was a region of pastures, and could be given to strangers 
 for grazing their cattle, without driving out the natives or 
 depriving them of their land. A country of that kind was 
 much more convenient for shepherds like the Hebrews, than 
 other parts of Egypt, well cultivated, and where the popula- 
 tion was very dense. In that sense Goshen was for them 
 the "best of the land."* 
 
 Moreover, as we know from the excavations at Bubastis, 
 this city was one of the chief residences of the Hyksos 
 kings, who raised there more important constructions even 
 than those of Tanis, which was generally considered as 
 having been their capital. It is quite possible that Joseph 
 resided frequently at Bubastis, which was at the entrance of 
 the land of Goshen. Therefore he had his family close by, 
 and he could easily communicate with them. Thus Goshen, 
 properly speaking, w r as the region situate east of Zagazig, 
 towards Tell el-Kebir, and extending in the south beyond 
 Belbeis in the direction of Heliopolis. It is a country which 
 is familiar to the travellers who, as is the fashion now, take 
 the road of Port Said for coming into Egypt or for leaving 
 it. They pass through the land of Goshen in its whole 
 length, and not only the original Goshen of the family of 
 Jacob, but all the region to which this name was given, and 
 which extended further in proportion as the people increased 
 in number. It is probable that all the land occupied by the 
 Israelites was called Goshen, and thus it became synonymous 
 with another name which is purely Egyptian, and which 
 dates only from the XlXth dynasty, I mean the name land 
 of Rameses, which is found as late as the Septuagint, and 
 even afterwards. 
 
 It is probable that this name dates from Barneses II., a 
 vain and boastful king, who, as far as we can ascertain, w r as 
 the persecutor of the Israelites, and whose chief desire seems 
 to have been to cover the land with as many constructions 
 as possible bearing his name, either by raising new ones or 
 by usurping on a large scale the works of his predecessors. 
 There were several elites of Ramenes in Egypt ; one of them 
 was certainly in Goshen. In the same document which I 
 quoted before, the narrative ot the pilgrimage made by a 
 woman in the 4th century, the author says that " going 
 towards the city of Arabia she passed through the city of 
 Barneses, the ruins of which were considerable; but the only 
 monument to be seen was a stone on which were sculptured 
 
 * Genesis xlvii., 11. 
 5
 
 EDOUARD NAVILLE. 
 
 'two statues, said to be Moses and Aaron." If this tradition 
 is to be trusted as to the site of the city, Rameses must have 
 been in the vicinty of Saft el-Heuneh (Goshen), east of 
 Zagazig, not far from Tell el-Kebir. 
 
 According to historical synchronisms, Rameses II. must have 
 been the persecutor of the Hebrews, whereas the Exodus took 
 place under the reign of his sou. Since the history of the 
 reign of Rameses has become better known, his prestige and 
 glory have declined considerably. It has been recognized 
 that he was bent chiefly on dazzling his subjects and the future 
 generations by his outward show and his magnificence, which 
 concealed but imperfectly the rapid progress of decay in his 
 weakened and exhausted kingdom. He saw near his 
 residence of Bubastis a foreign race, which had never amalga- 
 mated with his subjects, and which at any time might become 
 a danger to his kingdom. He knew by experience that the 
 Asiatics in the East were troublesome neighbours ; he could 
 remember the difficulty he had found in beating the Khetas, 
 to whom nevertheless he had been obliged to offer an honour- 
 able peace. The strangers, the Hebrews, were settled in a 
 district which was the very gate of Egypt, and the key of 
 the kingdom. Nothing is more natural than that Rameses 
 should wish to make profit for his realm out of the presence of 
 those strangers, instead of their being a constant threat to its 
 safety. We should even say that it was good policy on his 
 part. Why not turn them into useful workmen and labourers ? 
 Scripture says that Pharaoh employed the Israelites in build- 
 ing the store cities of Pithom and Raamses ;* in other words, 
 he compelled them to be masons. He changed their manner 
 of life, and instead of grazing their cattle, they had to make 
 bricks and to raise walls. Josephus gives a more complete 
 account of what they had to do : " they had to divide the 
 river into many canals, to fortify cities, and to build dykes so 
 that the river might not overflow and make lakes." Pharaoh 
 treated the Israelites as if they had been prisoners. In a 
 famous picture of the time of Thothmes III. which is found 
 in a tomb at Thebes, we see prisoners with a Semitic type 
 occupied in making bricks ; some of them dig out the clay, 
 others pour water over it, others knead the clay, others put 
 it in moulds. The work is done under the eye of the overseer, 
 who is sitting with a stick in his hand, and waiting patiently 
 until he shall have to make use of his sign of office. These 
 men are called war prisoners, therefore they are not Hebrews ; 
 
 * Exodus i, 11. 
 (5
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 but tins picture gives a good idea of the manner of life which 
 the oppivs.sor enforced upon them. No doubt the yoke of 
 Pharaoh was heavy; besides, a sudden and compulsory change 
 of habits does not take place easily. It is not without pain 
 and Buffering that shepherds accustomed for generations to 
 the free and easy-going life of driving their flocks in pastures, 
 are tied down to tli? work of bricklayers and masons, under 
 the eye of harsh and tyrannical overseers. 
 
 " The Israelites built for Pharaoh store cities, Pithom and 
 Raamses." I mentioned before that the exact site of Raamses 
 had not yet been discovered. It must have been in the 
 neighbourhood of Phacusa, not far from the present Tell 
 el-Kebir. As for Pithom, my first excavations determined 
 its exact site, and even laid bare some ruins of the city 
 and its temple.* On the south side of the Freshwater Canal 
 which runs from Cairo to Suez, through the Wadi Tumilat, 
 about twelve miles from Ismailia, are the ruins of European 
 houses now abandoned, but where a few years ago was a 
 settlement of engineers and workmen who dug the canal. 
 The French have called it JRamsts. The Arab name is Tell el- 
 Masklmtak, which means " the mound of the statue," because 
 of a monolith in red granite which stands there, and represents 
 Ramses II. sitting between two gods. The existence of this 
 statue and the fact that other monuments bearing the name 
 of the same king were discovered in the garden of the chief 
 engineer who resided there, induced Lepsius to consider Tell 
 el-Maskhutah as being the site of Raamses. I settled there 
 to begin excavations, in the hope of finding proofs that it 
 was the city of Raamses. But the result of the work, the 
 inscriptions discovered, showed that it was not Raamses but 
 Pithom, and that the region around it had the name of 
 T/niket, which the Israelites interpreted as Sukkoth (tents). 
 
 Pithom is the Egyptian Pi or Pa Turn, and means " the 
 house," or " the sanctuary of Turn," the setting sun. Pithom 
 was the religious name of the city, as Pi Beseth was the 
 religious name of Bubastis, Pa Amon, or No Amon, that of 
 Thebes, Pa Neith that of Sai's. The civil name of the city 
 was Thtikit, or Thuket, which was also that of the region 
 around it, a region which the hieroglyphical inscriptions show 
 to have been a border land. Brugsch has pointed out that 
 the name of Thuket was the origin of the Hebrew Succot/t ; 
 and I believe this interpretation to be perfectly in accordance 
 
 * See "The Store City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus," 
 3rd edit. 
 
 7
 
 EDOUARD NAVILLE. 
 
 with what we see not only in Egypt, but in all countries 
 where two languages are spoken. In passing from one 
 language to another, a proper name is generally not trans- 
 lated, it is only altered sufficiently to have a sense familiar 
 to the people who have to use it. This new name may be 
 totally different from the original one. Examples of this 
 fact are numerous in Egypt; it occurs also frequently in 
 England where Norman words pronounced by Saxons took a 
 sense absolutely different from their original meaning ; * and 
 in my own country, in the cantons where German and French 
 are spoken together. The Semitic form of Thuket was 
 Succoth, a word familiar to the Hebrews, as it means tents. 
 
 Thuket, Succoth, was a district before being a city; its 
 name is often mentioned in papyri of the XlXth dynasty. 
 Its governor was an aden, evidently the same word as the 
 Hebrew adon. There is a statue of one of those officials in 
 the British Museum which was found at Pithom. From the 
 papyri we get very important information concerning the 
 district of Succoth. Its name is generally written with the de- 
 terminative of foreign lands, although it was part of Egypt, 
 thus showing that it was a border land. It contained what is 
 
 called in Egyptian (1 S "v\ <~> ]\ sega'ir, the same word 
 as in Hebrew, 1JD . It means a wall or an enclosure of some 
 
 kind, which was either a means of defence, a wall destined 
 to prevent passing from the desert towards Egypt, or, 
 perhaps, an enclosure for the cattle of the king, which were 
 grazing in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Further information is given by a passage which I must 
 quote in full,t following Brugsch's translation. It is a 
 letter written by an official : " We have allowed the tribes 
 of the Shasu, of the land of Atuma, to pass the stronghold 
 of king Menephthah of the land of Succoth, towards the 
 lakes of Pithom of king Menephthah of the land of Succoth, 
 in order to feed themselves, and to feed their cattle in the 
 
 great estate of Pharaoh " We learn from this passage 
 
 that in the district of Succoth there were lakes or ponds 
 of fresh water, near which there was good pasture land; 
 and also a farm or estate belonging to the king, where the 
 Bedouins of the desert asked to be allowed to feed their cattle. 
 
 * I shall quote only one instance, the French buffetier became in 
 English Beefeater. 
 
 t "The Store City of Pithom," p. 28. 
 
 8
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 These ponds or lakes are called by a Semitic word, 
 
 J.-9 <-.,. v /> n ft. ~\ ft "vww 
 ^s v ft <J *~" J== ^^ the Hebrew n2"tl, Arabic 
 
 _/-! I jk?a. ~s\ II U 1 <\AA/\ 
 
 The access to these lakes from the desert was possible 
 through a stronghold called by a Semitic name 
 kJn'ton. A khetem is a kind of fortification which 
 
 need not be considerable. It was specially destined to block 
 a passage or a road ; it might be translated more correctly 
 a blockhouse. There were several khetem in Egypt. One 
 of the most frequently mentioned is the Khetem of Zar, which 
 was situate at the place now called Kantarah, on the Suez 
 canal. There is a representation of it on a wall of the great 
 temple of Karnak. It shows that the stronghold consisted 
 of two gateways, with walls and towers placed on each side 
 of a bridge, or possibly of a ford which crossed the Pelusiac 
 branch of the Mile. It is natural to suppose that the Khetem 
 of Succoth was of the same nature as that of Zar, and that 
 it closed the place where, as we shall see further, the Red 
 Sea could be crossed. 
 
 A very important fact concerning Succoth, for the know- 
 ledge of which we are indebted to the excavations made at 
 Pithom, is the vicinity of the Red Sea, which extended much 
 further north than it does now. Besides Pharaonic and 
 Ptolemaic texts, there were found two stones with Latin 
 inscriptions, giving us the Latin name of the city, Ero, or 
 Ero crt^w, in Greek Ilerodpoli*. This city is often quoted by 
 Greek and Latin authors, who are unanimous in stating that 
 the city was built at the head of the Arabian Gulf, also called 
 Heroopolitan. Strabo and Pliny say it in the most distinct 
 way. Agathemeros says that the Arabian Gulf began at 
 Heroopolis. Artemidoros, quoted by Strabo, states that the 
 ships which went to the laud of the Troglodytes sailed from 
 Heroopolis. Ptolemy fixes the latitude of the head of the 
 Heroopolitan gulf at one-sixth of a degree south of the city. 
 If it was so as late as Ptolemy; if in his time the sea had not 
 y.-t receded to its present limits, certainly it had not at the 
 time of the Exodus. The extent of the Red Sea, at least as 
 far as the northern end of the Bitter Lakes, is proved also by 
 geological arguments. It is the opinion of Professor Edward 
 Hull,* and Sir William DawsonJ But I believe that at 
 the time of the Exodus the Red Sea extended still further, 
 
 * "Journal of the Victoria Institute," Vol. XXI., pp. 13 and 21. 
 t " -Modern Science and Bible Land.*." pp. 392, 397. 
 
 ! b
 
 EDOUARD NAVILLE. 
 
 comprising also the present Lake Timsah. This view, the 
 possibility of which is admitted by Sir William Dawson, has 
 been expounded admirably by the French engineer Linant,* 
 who travelled in the country repeatedly between 1820 and 
 1830. According to his researches, the sea included Lake 
 Timsah, covered the valleys now called Aboo Balah and 
 Saba Biar, and reached as far as the village of Magfar. 
 
 Whether the sea extended only as far as the northern end 
 of the Bitter Lakes, or whether, according to Linant, it went 
 still further, the well established fact of the vicinity of the 
 sea to the district of Succoth. and to its capital Pithom 
 Herob'polis, of which we know the site, is a very important 
 element in determining the route of the Exodus. The 
 identity of Pithom and Ero, which came out of the excava- 
 tions in such a striking way, could already be concluded 
 from the comparison of the translations of Gen. xlvi., 2!>, 
 which reads thus: "And Joseph made ready his chariot, and 
 went up to meet Israel his father, to Goshen." Here the 
 Septuagint, instead of "Goshen," read "near Heroopolis," and 
 the Coptic translator, who generally follows the Septuagint, 
 has a variant, and reads " near the city of Pithom." Hero- 
 6'pohs being a Greek name, it is natural that the Egyptian 
 writer should replace it by the old native name. Many 
 commentators have made use of this passage to disparage 
 the value of the two versions, which now turn out to be 
 quite correct. 
 
 A great Ptolemaic tablet, which was discovered in the 
 excavations at Pithom, mentions another locality of the name 
 nome, Pi Kerehet, the hoi;se of the serpent. The inscription 
 shows that it was a temple of Osiris, or what the Greeks 
 called a Serapeum. The god was worshipped there under 
 the form of a serpent. Considering as before in the case of 
 Succoth, not the sense of the word, but its sound, it is cer- 
 tainly very like the Pi Hahiroth of Scripture, which is one of 
 the places mentioned on the occasion of the Passage. Pi 
 Hahiroth would thus be a locality in the district of Succoth. 
 As it was a Serapeum, it is important to notice that the 
 Itinerary of Antoninus mentions Serapiu as being eighteen 
 miles from Ero. Standing on the pier of Ismailia, and 
 looking over the Lake Timsah, the horizon is limited on the 
 south by a flat ridge, a kind of table mountain, now called 
 Gebel Mariam. Just at the foot of the mountain, on the 
 
 " Memoires sur les principaux Travaux d'utilite publique executes 
 tn Egypte," p. 195 et suiv. 
 
 10
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 south, and on the very bank of the Suez Canal, is an im- 
 portant Roman settlement, partly covered by the lagoons, but 
 the ruins of which above the water cover an area of 500 
 yards square. This I believe to be Serapiu, Pi Kerehet. Its 
 distance from Ero agrees nearly with the Itinerary, fourteen 
 Roman miles instead of eighteen. 
 
 Let us now revert to the papyri, in order to get infor- 
 mation about two other places mentioned as landmarks for 
 the camp of the Israelites, Baal-Zephon and Migdol. As for 
 the first, I quite agree with several scholars * that it must 
 not be considered as a city or even a village ; it was a place of 
 worship of a Semitic divinity in the form of a Baal. It was, 
 as the Targum explains it, the sanctuary of an idol, the shape 
 of which we do not know, but which may have been a mere 
 stone. I believe it was something like the tombs of sheikhs, 
 generally placed on hills, hundreds of which are met with in 
 Egypt, and where people go for worship or to make pilgrim- 
 ages, especially women. We might compare it also to the 
 solitary shrines or chapels which are often seen in Roman 
 Catholic countries. The word e^evaim'a?, "over against," used 
 by the Septuagint, seems to indicate that Baal Zephon was on 
 the other side of the sea. It was the point towards which 
 the camp of the Israelites was to make front, the direction in 
 which they were to march. It is very like the name of Ba<il- 
 Zapuna, which is read in one of the papyri of the British 
 Museum ; and if we adopt Philo's view, that Zaphon is the 
 North wind, f Baal Zephou was a divinity connected with the 
 Avind, and with the navigation on the Red Sea. We have 
 no precise indication where it must be looked for ; but as both 
 Pi Hahiroth and Migdol were in the district of Succoth, I 
 should place Baal Zephon on one of the heights between Lake 
 Timsah and the Bitter Lakes, like Sheikh Ennedek. 
 
 We have more information about Migdol. It also is 
 derived from a papyrus in the British Museum ; a letter from a 
 scribe who relates a journey very similar to that of the 
 Israelites, in the following words : J " I started from the great 
 hall of the royal palace on the ninth day of the mouth of 
 Epiphi, at the time of night, going after two slaves. When 
 I arrived at the enclosure (segair) of Succoth, on the tenth of 
 
 * SeeGraetz, in Thayer, "The Hebrews and the Red Sea," p. 129. 
 Dillmann, " Exodus," p. 142: "Der Ortsname war ohneFragehergenommen 
 von einer dort befindlichen Cultusstatte einer Form des Baal . . . ." 
 
 t Ebers, " Durch Gosen zum Sinai," p. 525. 
 
 J Brugsch, " Diet. Geog.," p. 51.
 
 EDOUARD NAV1LLE. 
 
 Epiphi, it Avas said to me, they spoke of the south, saying, 
 
 let us cross over (to the desert) on Epiphi. When I 
 
 arrived at the stronghold (khetem) it was said to me, the 
 two grooms going towards the mountain have crossed the 
 wall north of the tower (Migdol) of Seti Merenphthah." 
 
 We do not know exactly the place where the scribe started 
 from. The great hall of the royal palace is rather a vague 
 expression; however, if we compare this letter with the 
 others which are contained in the Anastasi papyri, we see 
 that the city of Rameses is often mentioned. Several of the 
 officers who write belong to the palace in the city of Rameses, 
 so that we may fairly suppose that the same city was the 
 starting point of our scribe. He starts in the evening, 
 and after having probably travelled all the night, he reaches 
 the next day the enclosure, the Avail Avhich protected 
 Succoth on the east. His errand consists in getting 
 information about two grooms, Avho have fled to the 
 desert. At Succoth he is told that the fugitives have been 
 heard to say that they Avere going to the south. Whether 
 the report is true or not, it is natural that he should try to 
 catch them in following the same direction. No doubt he 
 goes south ; and when he reaches the stronghold or block 
 house, he hears that the two grooms haA r e passed over the 
 wall which is north of the tower, the Migdol of Seti 
 Merenphthah. Evidently the tower and the wall must have 
 been in the immediate vicinity, otherwise the people of the 
 stronghold would not have been able to give him this piece 
 of information. Their testimony is like that of eye-Avitn esses, 
 therefore the fugitives could not have traA'elled a long 
 distance before crossing the wall. 
 
 This blockhouse or stronghold we know already from the 
 other text quoted before ; it was the stronghold of King 
 Menephthah which belonged to Succoth, and which closed the 
 way to the lakes of Pithom and to the pastures of the royal 
 farm. But the second text adds to our information tAvo very 
 important points the stronghold was south of Pithom, which 
 was first reached in coming from Egypt, and besides it con- 
 tained a toAver or migdol. South of Succoth there was a 
 stronghold which, judging from analogy with the other of 
 which we have a picture, closed a passage over the water. 
 This stronghold had a to\ver, called in Egyptian by the same 
 
 word as in Hebrew, ^\ \ [ : t C~D Maktar or Maktal, 
 
 _M*-^i^ 01 <rr>LF 
 Migdol. From the aspect of the country, I should place 
 
 Migdol on the height called by the French the Serapeum, and 
 
 12
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 where, until a few years ago, there was a bilingual tablet, 
 Egyptian and cuneiform, dedicated by King Darius, which 
 was most wantonly destroyed at the time of the digging of 
 the canal. This Migdol was a watchtower, and it was also a 
 protection against the raids of the nomads who, thanks to a 
 phenomenon which took place occasionally, found the sea open, 
 or could easily wade through, in order to pillage the royal 
 domains on the Egyptian side. As it was, it proved to be a 
 defence sufficiently effective to compel the nomads to ask 
 permission from the officials stationed there, when they wished 
 to pass for getting food for their cattle. 
 
 Knowing now the exact site of Pithom and of the region 
 of Succoth, and the vicinity of the sea, which possibly 
 extended as far as Magfar; having also determined con- 
 jecturally the sites of Pi Hahiroth, Baal Zephon, and Migdol, 
 let us revert to the narrative of Scripture. The Israelites arc 
 dwelling in the Wadi Tumilat. From the original Gosheu, the 
 territory allotted to them near Bubastis, they have spread in 
 the land of Rameses, on the east, as far as Pithom, which they 
 have built, and on the south towards Heliopolis. The recent 
 excavations made at Bubastis have shown that not only 
 under the Hyksos kings, but also at the time of Rameses II., 
 the city had a great importance : it probably was one of the 
 chief resorts of the kings in the Delta, and the starting; point 
 of the expeditions to Syria and Palestine. I found there the 
 statue of one of the sons of the king who was the fifth in 
 the series, and who after the death of his elder brother 
 became first cavalry officer of his father, and chief of the 
 horse, meaning the chariots, which were an important part 
 of the Egyptian armies, while there seems to have been only 
 very little real cavalry. It was an officer of this rank who 
 had the command of the chariots which perished in the Red 
 Sea. Menephthah, the King of the Exodus, seems also to have 
 resided at Bubastis ; and it is quite possible that during the 
 events which preceded the departure of the Israelites, the 
 king was at Bubastis, very near the Israelites, and not at 
 Tanis. as was generally supposed. This circumstance would 
 considerably shorten the distances, and make the narrative 
 more intelligible. 
 
 "And the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to 
 Succoth." * We have seen before that the site of the city of 
 Rameses has not yet been determined ; it must have been 
 somewhere east of Saft el-Henneh, near Tell el-Kebir. 
 
 * Exodus xii., 37.
 
 EDOUARD NAVILLE. 
 
 Rameses must not be taken here as meaning- the store city 
 of this name, it is the district around it, just as in the case of 
 Succoth, their first station. The fortified city of Pithom did 
 not open its gates to them ; they encamped in the neighbour- 
 hood. At the time of the pilgrimage of Silvia Aquitana which 
 I quoted before, Succoth is spoken of as being a slope of 
 moderate size.* The Israelites seem to have made the 
 journey from Rameses to Succoth in one day, like the officer 
 who followed the fugitives. Along their way they must 
 have followed the canal dug by Rameses which watered the 
 cities of the Wadi Tumilat, and which at the place Avhere it 
 emptied itself into the Red Sea formed those lakes to which 
 the Bedouins asked for access. 
 
 In going to Canaan they had the choice between two 
 different roads. There was one in the north which passing 
 through Tanis and Daphnas, reached the Mediterranean, and 
 skirted its coast. It was decidedly shorter, but it passed at 
 first through cultivated and well irrigated land, and also 
 through important fortresses like Tanis, with large garrisons. 
 It was the way of the great conquerors of the XVIIlth 
 dynasty, and it is styled by Scripture " the way of the land 
 of the Philistines." From the first, before any other indica- 
 tion is given as to the direction they were to follow, it is said 
 that " God led them not by the way of the land of the Philis- 
 tines, although that was near."f The other was the southern 
 road which their ancestor Jacob had taken when he came to 
 Egypt, since, according to the Septuagint, it was at Heroopolis 
 Pithom, that father and son had met after many years of 
 separation. A few years ago the Bedouins coming from 
 Syria frequently followed the same route, which was less con- 
 venient for an army, but well adapted for a people of nomads. 
 
 Leaving Succoth, its pastures, and its lakes, the Israelites 
 had only to push straight forward ; they skirted the northern 
 end of the Red Sea ; they had no river or sea to cross, and 
 they could easily reach the desert. They began carrying out 
 this plan, for "they took their journey from Succoth, and 
 encamped in Etham, in the edge of the wilderness."! 
 Etham is a name which has not yet been satisfactorily 
 explained. From it the desert was named in which the 
 Israelites journeyed during three days. At Etham the 
 
 * " Soccoth autem est clivus modicus in media valle, justa quern colli- 
 culum fixerunt castra filii Israel." 
 
 t Exodus xiii., 17. } Exodus xiii. 20. 
 
 14
 
 THE ROLTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 Israelites received a command which at first must have seemed 
 to them most extraordinary.* " And the Lord spake unto 
 Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, that they 
 turn back and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol 
 and the sea, before Baal-zephon : over against it shall ye 
 encamp by the sea. And Pharaoh will say of the children of 
 Israel, They are entangled in the land, the wilderness hath 
 shut them in." Certainly this command was of a nature to 
 shake the confidence of the Israelites in their leader. They 
 had reached the desert, they had nothing in front of them, 
 and instead ot hastening towards the wilderness so as to be 
 as soon as possible out of the reach of their oppressors, they 
 were told to change entirely their route, to retrace their 
 steps so as to remain on Egyptian soil, and even to put the 
 sea between themselves and the desert. Surely it would 
 encourage Pharaoh in his pursuit. For the king, the reason 
 of this sudden change and of this extraordinary move was 
 obvious. The Israelites were afraid of crossing the desert. 
 They were entangled and wandering in the land of Egypt, 
 because the desert was for them an insuperable barrier. This 
 is in my opinion the right explanation of the words, "the 
 wilderness hath shut them in ;" viz., the desert which is in front 
 of them prevents them from going out. Curiously the word 
 translated here shut in is the Hebrew "^D ; the same word 
 met with before, in Egyptian, in the description of the district 
 of Succoth. The desert is for the Israelites a segair, 
 
 S ^\ ] ji, a wall closing the passage, as we saw there 
 
 was one in Succoth. 
 
 It is to be noticed that whereas in other parts of Scripture, 
 and especially in the description of the route in the wilder- 
 ness, the geographical data are sometimes vague and always 
 very concise, here they are given with a remarkable precision. 
 It is not said to the Israelites merely that they are to stop 
 near the sea in the most favourable camping ground, or 
 something of the like. They are to reach a definite spot, 
 the landmarks of which are given ; on the north, Pi-hahiroth, 
 the sanctuary of Osiris ; on the south, Migdol, the watch 
 tower on the hill, now called the Serapeum ; in front, the sea : 
 and on the opposite side, the shrine or the stone of Baal 
 Zephon. The reason of this description seems to be the fol- 
 lowing : at that particular spot a phenomenon occurred which 
 was to be the means of escape for the Israelites the sea 
 
 * Exodus xiv., l. 
 15
 
 EDOUAKD NAVILLE. 
 
 receded under the influence of the wind. " The Lord caused 
 the sea to go back by a strong east wind all the night, and 
 made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided."* It 
 has often been noticed by travellers in Egypt, that under the 
 influence of a strong wind the sea recedes sometimes for a 
 great distance, and comes back again to its former bed when 
 the wind ceases or changes its direction. This phenomenon 
 i not rare in Lake Menzaleh, which communicates with the 
 sea ; in Lake Bourlos, or even along the track of sand which 
 lines the Mediterranean on the east of the Suez Canal to- 
 wards the Syrian coast. There is nothing extraordinary in 
 this taking place in the part of the sea between Lake 
 Timsah and the Bitter Lakes ; there the slow rising of the 
 ground, which in later times cut off Lake Timsah from the 
 Bitter Lakes, was already being felt ; the sea must have been 
 shallow and probably not very wide. I should even go 
 further, and say that it had been known before that this 
 phenomenon occurred at that particular spot, and that this is 
 the reason why the spot is pointed out so exactly to Moses ; 
 that is also, in my opinion, the reason why the Pharaohs 
 built there a khetem, or stronghold. I imagine that the 
 result of the action of a strong wind was, in most cases, 
 to cause the water to recede, and to create there a temporary 
 and occasional ford, which people could easily wade through, 
 as was seen north of Suez, at the end of the present Red 
 Sea, before the canal was dug. As the wind in lowering 
 the depth of the water could sometimes create a passage, it 
 was necessary to close it ; and, for this purpose the Pharaohs 
 built there a watch tower, a Migdol, in order that the 
 nomads coming from the desert, and who might be attracted 
 by the rich pastures of Pithom, could not pass without being 
 seen. 
 
 To the action of the wind we must add that of the tide, 
 which is now felt in the Bitter Lakes. As for the wind alone, 
 its effects on the sea are known in Egypt to the present day. 
 That it should affect shallow water in a flat country is 
 easily intelligible. Much more striking instances of the 
 power of the wind compelling even a strong current to stop 
 for a certain time have occurred elsewhere, and especially 
 in my native country. On the title page of a book 
 printed at Geneva in 1495, and which is called "le Fardelet 
 hystorial" (htt., the historical bundle), one reads the following 
 
 * Exodus xiv.j 21. 
 16
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 words :* " Printed in Geneva, in the year 1495, in which 
 year there was such a very strong wind, on the ninth day of 
 January, that it drove back the Rhone into the lake as much 
 as one-fourth of a league above Geneva, and it looked like a 
 wall of water, and it lasted nearly an hour before the water 
 could flow." This extraordinary event could take place 
 when the river was much wider than it is now. The 
 southern part of the city not being built, the river expanded 
 into ponds and marshes ; its depth and the strength of the 
 current were much less than now, since its bed has been 
 restricted everywhere by houses and embankments. A 
 clergyman, Des Gallars, in Latin Gallasius, who wrote a latin 
 commentary on Exodus, in the middle of the following cen- 
 tury, alludes to this fact as proof of the opening of the Red 
 Sea, and he adds that in his time there were still some ocular 
 witnesses of this extraordinary event, f 
 
 The same thing happened again in 1645, and is related by 
 several Genevese historians. J On the 19th of January, during 
 a very strong wind, between seven and ten in the morning, 
 the inhabitants could go down on dry ground between the 
 bridges, and pass from one bank to the other. Instances of 
 the same kind might be quoted from several other countries. 
 
 * The passage reads thus in its picturesque old French : " Imprinie a 
 Geneve, 1'an 1495, au quel an fit si tres grand vent, le IXe jour de Janvier, 
 qu'il fit remonter le Rh6ne dedans le lac bien ung quart de lieue au dessus 
 de Geneve, et semblait tre une montagne d'eau, et dura bien 1'espace 
 d'une heure que 1'eau ne pouvait descendre." 
 
 + Nunc ad dividendas aquas et patefaciendam per invia suo populo 
 viam ventum immisit : idque ab Oriente, quoniam ab ea parte vehementior 
 in illis regionibus esse solet. Quum igitur ventorum vi operatur Deus, in 
 authorem ipsum potius quam in organa quibus utitur aut effectus ipsos, 
 oculos ac mentes defigamus. Novum autem videri non debet, absistere 
 maria ac findi itnpetu venti, quum ordinario naturae cursu ipsa impelli 
 ac veluti in cumulos et montes efferri, atque interdum longe a litoribus 
 summoveri videaraus. Intellexi a viris fide dignis, se paulo ante hsec 
 tempora hie Genevee in eo loco ubi Rhodanus lacu exiens alveum suum 
 iugreditur, vidisse aquas Austri violentia ita represses ut iis velut in 
 acervum cumulatis, alveus siccus fere per horse spatium inanserit. Atque 
 eius rei superstites adhuc sunt oculati testes nonnulli. Nam ed fere uni- 
 versa plebs concurrit. (In Exodum commentarii Nicolao Gallasio authore, 
 p. 88.) 
 
 | I shall quote only one authority, Calandrini, in a note on a Latin 
 poem : Anno 1645, die Dominica Januarii decimft nona, horis inter octavam 
 decimamque Genevae tarn terribilis extitit impetus, ut celerem Rhodani 
 fluxum retroageret usque in Lemanum lacum, undfeque muri instar coacer- 
 vatfe cursum suum sisterent, adeo ut vado sub binis pontibus locisque 
 vicinis facto, novitate rei numerosa commota plebs deambulaverit quasi 
 in sicco, et pisciculos, etiamque majusculos manu collegerit quam plurimos. 
 
 17 c
 
 EDOUARD NAVIILE. 
 
 In the case of the Israelites, Scripture relates in the plainest 
 words what occurred : in a place where, as I said, the water 
 was shallow, a strong east wind opened the sea and made a 
 way through which the people passed. The mountains of 
 water which are mentioned seem to indicate that there was 
 a current of some kind which must have been produced by 
 the tide. It has been objected that an east wind would have 
 driven the water towards the Israelites, and not opened the 
 sea, as the wind never acts as a wedge.* It may be 
 answered that here we must not take the word east as 
 meaning east sharp ; it is much more likely south-east, the 
 well known Khamseen, which blows frequently at that time 
 of the year, and often changes direction in the course of the 
 day from east to south- west, f The Septuagint translate 
 ave/io<? VOTO?, and the Vulgate ventus iirens. In my opinion, 
 which I express only as a conjecture, the Khamseen acted 
 on the tide as the wind did on the Rhone, it stopped the cur- 
 rent, 1 should say the ebb, and prevented the water from 
 flowing. In the morning, the wind ceasing suddenly, the 
 water took its level violently, and swept off everything 
 which was on its way. 
 
 In the description given above of what to my mind seems 
 to have been the route chosen by the Israelites, there is a 
 point which I consider as very important : it shortens con- 
 siderably the distances over which they had to travel. We 
 have seen that it was quite possible that Pharaoh was at 
 Bubastis when he received the visits of Moses and Aaron. 
 The city of Rameses was in the Wady Tumilat, not far from 
 Tell el-Kebir ; Succoth was the district around Tell el-Mask- 
 hutah ; and the place where they crossed the Red Sea was 
 about fifteen or seventeen miles south of Succoth. The 
 whole covers a space which in width was not more than forty 
 miles. I consider the distance to be one of the chief objections 
 to the place proposed by Prof. Ebers for the crossing of the 
 sea, immediately north of Suez. Besides, this opinion is open 
 to the same objection as the place advocated by Sir William 
 Dawson, the southern part of the Bitter Lakes, viz., the 
 Israelites would have had to pass over the ridge of Gebel 
 GeneiFe, of no inconsiderable height, and no easy access. In 
 travelling by railway from Ismailia to Suez, before reaching 
 the Bitter Lakes, the way seerns entirely closed by the Gebel 
 GenefFe and its highest summit the Peak Chebrewet. The 
 
 * Dillmann, "Exodus," p. 150. 
 t Linant, 1.1., p. 207. 
 18
 
 THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS. 
 
 Israelites in their flight towards the south would have had 
 either to climb over the mountains, or to follow a narrow 
 track, if there was any, between the sea and the mountains, 
 where they would have been easily destroyed.* Josephus 
 alludes twice to the fact that they had in front steep moun- 
 tains projecting into the sea, and that they were shut up 
 between the sea and mountains. Seen from a distance of 
 a few miles, the mountains would produce on the Israelites 
 the same effect as they do now on travellers ; they would 
 appear as entirely barring the way, even if there was an 
 open path along the sea, which is doubtful, and it explains 
 the despair of the Israelites described by Scripture and 
 Josephus. 
 
 The site which I assign for the passage of the Eed Sea agrees 
 with the views of Linant, Lieblein, and Lesseps. These 
 three authorities admit that the passage took place north of 
 the Bitter Lakes, in the space which divides them from Lake 
 Timsah, not far from the present Serapeum. I believe this 
 is in accordance not only with the monuments, but also with 
 the aspect of the country ; and I advise the numerous 
 travellers who go through that region, so full of glorious 
 remembrances, to look at it in that light, f 
 
 * Linant, 1.1., p. 205. 
 
 t "Journal of the Victoria Institute," Vol. xxi., p. 21.
 
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 JOURNAL OF TRANSACTIONS. 
 
 VOL. XIX. 
 
 73. /On the Inductive Logic. By Prof. K. L. DABJTEY. D.D., LL.D. Speecbes by Sir H. 
 
 BAHKLY, K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.E.S., Sii- J. LBFROY, K.C.M.G., i ? .E.S., &c. 
 I On Evolution by Natural Selection. J. HASSELL, Esq. 
 / Remarks on Evolution by Professor VIKCHOW. 
 
 74. lOn the Recency of the Close of the Glacial Epoch. By D. MACKINTOSH, Esq., F.G.T,. 
 
 ( 'ominunicatious from Prof. T. KVPKRT JONES, F.K.S., and others. 
 \0n the recession of Niagara (with the United States Government Survey Diagrams). 
 /On the Religion of the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Professor J. AVBKY. Remarks 
 
 by General HAIG, Mr. H. RASSAM, and others. 
 
 On the Evolution of Savages by Degradation. Rev. F. A. ALLEN, M.A. 
 Some Thoughts on the Evolution of Religions. By Rev. W. R, BLACKETT, M.A. 
 On the Relation of Fossil Botany to Theories of Evolution. By late W. P. JAMES. F.L.8. 
 
 Remarks by Sir R. OWEN, F.B.8., Prof. W. CAKKVTHEKS, F.R.S., Dr. J, BRAXTON 
 
 HICKS, F.R.S., &c. 
 
 Was Primeval Man a Savage ? By J. HASSELL, Esq. 
 Remarks on Evolution and Development. By Bev. J. WHITE, M.A. 
 On Some Characteristics of Primitive Religions. By Rev. R. COLLIXS, M.A. 
 Human Responsibility. By Rev. G. BLENCOWE. 
 On the Worship and Traditions of the Aborigines of America. By Rev. M. EELLS, M.A. 
 
 Remarks by Professor J. 0. DORSBY, U.S. Survey. 
 Note on Comparative Religions. 
 
 VOL. XX. 
 
 Special Address by the Institute's President, Sir G. G. STOKES, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., 
 President of the Royal Society. 
 
 Physical, Historical, Lite'i-ary, and Social. By J. LESLIE POUTER, D D., D.C.L. 
 (the late). Remarks by the Ear) of BELHORE, Right Hon. A. S. ATRTON (the late) &c.
 
 On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor DUNS, D.D 
 
 F.E.S.E. Remarks by Eight Hon. Lord GRIMTHORPE, &c. 
 78. On Agnosticism. By J. HASSELL, Esq. 
 
 On the Structure of the Gorilla. By E. CHARLESWORTH, Esq., F.G.S. ; with illustration. 
 Notes on the Antiquity of Man. By the EDITOR. The Chronology of Animal Life on the 
 
 Earth prior to the Advent of Man. By Sir J. WILLIAM DAWSON, K.C.M.G., F.R.8., 
 
 President of the British Association. 
 Historical Evidences of the Migration of Abram. By W. ST. C. BOSCAWEN, F.R. Hist. Soc. , 
 
 with drawings. Notes by Professor SAYCE, E. A. W. BUDGE, Esq., &c. 
 A Samoan Tradition of Creation. Rev. T. POWELL, F.L.S. (the late) ; Notes on the Islands. 
 70. The Fundamental Assumptions of Agnosticism. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE. 
 
 On Miracles. By Rev. H. C. M. WATSON. Remarks by Lord GRIMTHORPE, &c. 
 On Accounts of the Creation. By W. P. JAMES, Esq., F.L.S. (the late). 
 
 80. On Final Cause. By Professor R. L. DABNEY, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 On Structure and Structureless. By Prof. LIONEL S. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S. 
 
 On the Meteorology of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. POST, F.L.S. (with chart). 
 
 Remarks by Sir JOSEPH FAYRER, K.C.S I., F.R.S., &c. 
 On the Geographical Names on the last of Thothmes II L By Professor G. MASPEKO 
 
 (with map). Remarks by Sir CHARLES WILSON, K.C.B., K.O.M.G., F.R.S. , Major 
 
 C. R. CONDER, R.E., Dr. WKIGHT, &c. Note on Excavations round the Sphinx. By 
 
 Prof. MASPEKO. 
 
 VOL. XXI. 1887-88. 
 
 81. Results of an Expedition to Arabia Petrsea atid Palestine (with chart). By Professor E. 
 
 HULL, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland. 
 
 Jewish, Phoenician, and Early Greek Art By Rev. J. LESLIE PORTER, D.C.L. (the late). 
 The Discoveries at Sidon. 
 
 The Empire of the Hittites. By Rev. W. WRIGHT, D.D. Note on the Hittites. 
 Canaan, Ancient and Modern. By Professor TRISTRAM, F.R.S. 
 On Caves. By Professor T. McK. HUGHES, F.R.S. (Cambridge), with comments by Sir 
 
 J. W. DAWSON, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, F.R.S., and others. 
 Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKEK, D.D., F.L.S. Notes by S. T. KLEIN, Esq. , 
 
 F.L.S., and others. 
 
 Petra. By Professor E. HULL, F.R.S. (with chart). 
 On Krishna. By Rev. R. COLLINS, M.A. Notes by Sir M. HOXIER-WILLIAMS, K.C.I. E. 
 
 Professors MAX MULLER, E. B. COWELL, DOUGLAS, DE LACOUPEUIE, DR. LEITNER, and 
 
 Dr. EDERSHEIM (the late). 
 The Pedigree of the Coral Reefs of England. By S. R. PATTISON, F.G.S. Remarks by 
 
 Sir G. G. STOKES, Bart., P.R.S. 
 
 Practical Optimism. By the Most Rev. Bishop SAUMAREZ SMITH, D.D. 
 Traditions of the Aborigines of North Aniericn. By Rev. S. D. PEET (with illustrations). 
 On the Beauty of Nature. By Lord GRIMTHORPE, with special paper by Rev. W. 
 
 ARTHUR, M.A. 
 
 VOL. XXII. 1888-89. 
 
 Annual Address by the President, Sir G. G. STORKS, Bart., M.P., President of the Envoi 
 Society. Speeches by Sir H. BARKLY, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir RISDON BENNETT, F.E.S., 
 Sir F. L. MCCLINTOCK, F.E.S., Mr. H. EASSAM, &c. 
 
 Note by the President on the one Origin of the Books of Eevelation, and of Nature. 
 
 On Time and Space. By the Eev. W. ARTHUR. 
 
 6. On the Names on the List of Thothmes 111. at Karnac, their Geographical, Ethnographical, 
 and Biblical Relations. By G. MASPERO, with communications from Sir C. WILSON, 
 K C.B., F.R.S., Professor A. H. SAYCE, Rev. Canon LIDDON, Mr. LE PAGE RENOUK, 
 Eev Dr. EDERSHEIM, Major C. R. CONDER, Rev. H. G. TOMKINS. Map by the Author. 
 
 On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor DUNS, D.I)., 
 with remarks by Lord GRIMTHORPE, the Most Rev. the BISHOP of SYDNEY, and others, 
 and a note by Mr. T. FRANCIS RIVERS, F.L.S. 
 
 On the late Professor ASA GRAY. By the EDITOR. 
 
 Note on the importance of Babylonian Excavations. By the EDITOR. 
 
 On Human Foot-prints in Nicaragua. By Dr. D. G BUINTON. 
 
 87. The Aborigines of Australia, their Ethnic Position and Relations, by J. FRASER, LL.D., 
 
 F.E.S. (N.S.W.), with remarks by many travellers, also opinion of Prof. MAX. MU'LLBH., 
 Oriental Entomology. By Eev. F. A. WALKER, D.D.. F.L.S., remarks by .several 
 entomologists, including a note by Mr. E. B. POULTON, F.E.S., on Mimicry. 
 
 88. A Physical Theory of Moral Freedom. By JOSEPH JOHN MURPHY; remarks by Sir J. 
 
 FAYRBR, K.C.S.I., F.E.S., the Hon. J. M. GREGORY, LL.D., of Washington, &c. 
 The Botanical Geography of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. POST, 'D.D., M.D., 
 
 with notes by Eastern Travellers. 
 On Flint Arrow Heads of delicate structure. By the Et. Hon. Sir C. MURRAY, K.C.l!., 
 
 a'.so a note on Cave Deposits.