Sp^f 1 PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE; OR, A COMPLETE SYSTEM BEST METHODS OF PLANTING, AND THE IMPROVED MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY R. W. DICKSON, M. D. Pater ipse colendi Haud facilem csse viam voluit. VIRG. CEORC. LIB. A NEW EDITION, IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. LONDON : PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, BRIDGE-STREET, BLACKFRIARS ; BY W. FLINT, OLD BAItEY. 1807. ^ C-, \ - "V^ ^ \ " o. \ CONTENTS VOL. II. PART THE THIRD. TILLAGE CULTIVATION. SECTION I. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS. PAGF. GRAIN CROPS 1 Laud for them should be in a fine condi tion of surface-mould 2 Attention necessary also to a proper state of dry ness in 3 WHEAT - ibid. Different sorts of ibid. Most proper kinds for cultivation in different cases . - ibid. & 5 Spring wheat - 5 Nature of .6 Time of sowing - ibid. Proper methods of management, in the experience of different cultivators ibid. Egyptian or prolific wheat - 9 Common wheat - 10 Succeeds best on strong rich soils - ibid. After what crops sown 11,13 Preparation of land for it - ibid. Time of sowing in different cases 16 Proportions of seed necessary under dif ferent circumstances - - 18 Modes of after-culture - 19 Practice of transplanting - 22 Advantages and disadvantages of feeding with sheep - - 23 Insects prejudicial to it - 25 Modes of destroying them - 27 Vegetable diseases in - 29 Mildew . - ibid. Blight . - 30 Blast,and smut 33 PAOE. Steeps for removing them 34 Free air proper for this purpose 35 Weeds injurious to wheat - 37 Charlock, and corn- poppy - ibid. Cockle darnel and couch 38 Coltsfoot - 39 Produce of wheat-crops - 40 RYE, different kinds of - - 41 Time and method of sowing - 42 Quantity of seed - - .43 After-culture - - ibid. Use of this grain - - 44 BJCK-WHEAT, utility of crops of 43 Soils proper for it - ibid. This is a sort of crop little known to farmers ibid. Modes of preparation for it - ibid. It is liijhly valuable for sow ing grass-seeds with - . ibid. Proportion of seed - - ibid. Time of sowing . _ ibid. After- culture - - ,. ibid. Application of the crop - P 45 In soiling cattle, and for milch-cows ibid. In being fed down green by hogs ibid. Advantages of it after tares, as a preparation for wheat . ibid. Sometimes usefully cultivated instead of bar- Icy - ibid. Circumstances to be attended to in harvesting it - ibid. BARLEY, kinds of ibid. Soils proper for . 47 CONTENTS, PAGE. Crops which it is cultivated after - 47 Preparation of laml for - 48 Time of sow ing - 52 Quantity of seed - 53 After-culture of the crop - 56 Its produce - - - 57 OATS, kinds of 58 Preparation of land for 60 Time of sowing - 61 Proportion of seed - 62 After-culture of the crop 63 PEAS, kinds of - 64 Soil and preparation for ibid. Time of sowing, and proportion of seed 65 Modes of putting in the crop - 67 Culture afterwards - - ibid. Methods of gathering them green . 68 Reaping the crop - 70 BEANS, kinds ofthem cultivated 72 Soil and preparation for 73 Time of sewing - 74 Quantity of seed 75 PAGE. Different methods of putting them in . 75 Bean-drill proper . 77 After-culture of the crop . 78 Implements proper for this 79 Improper practice of blendings 81 Crops injured by the black dolphin ibid, By the blight - - ibid. Signs of their ripening - ibid . Methods of reaping, and of preserving the crop - - 82 Modes of setting up - - ibid. Produce of crops of different kinds - ibid. The straw highly useful as food for animals ibid. For litter - ibid. Caving- chaff a good manger food for horses - - 83 Application of the crop - - ibid. The stubble should be immediately removed, when wheat is sown after - ibid. This may be readily effected by spuddling ibid. That practice most proper on heavy, ibid,, and improper on light, hands - SECTION II. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LANDROOT AND PLANT CROPS, PACE. ROOT AND PLANT CROPS 86 What necessary in cultivation of ibid. POTATOES - - ibid. Nature and importance of - ibid. Capable of much improvement 87 Most useful cultivated varieties of - ibid. Soils most proper fer 88 Preparation for - 90 Manures proper for - - 91 Advantages of different sorts of - ibid. Quantity of necessary in different kinds 94 Proper period of planting - - 95 Dry season best - ibid. Seed proper for - ibid. What necessary in choice of - ibid. Cuttings 96 Proper size of - ibid. Eyes or root-buds necessary in- 98 Shoots sometimes used ibid. Less proper . - ibid. Implements proper for cutting with^ where root-lxu s are used - - ibid. Scoops - - ibid. PAGE., Different sorts of 98- Different ways of plan ting - - 100 Methods of planting general crops in different districts . ibid. With the plough . ibid. With the spade - - 103; In the drill manner - 104 After-culture of the crop - 106 Best effected by the harrow and horse- hoe - - - ibid. Harrow proper for - 107 Double earth-boarded plough - ibid. Common plough used in Lancashire 108 Harrowing depended on in plain-sur face planting -. -- ibid. Earthing wp objected to by some ibid.. These objections not well-founded ibid. Expences of cultivation - 109 Supposed advantages of plucking blossoms, not real - . 110 Diseases; the curl - 111 N Its causes . - ibid*. Remedies; none effectual yet discovered 113 CONTENTS y IMGE. Signs of their full growth - 115 Taking up the crops - - ibid. Best methods of doing this- ibid. Haulm first cut off - 116 Produce of crops - - 117 Methods of preserving them - 118 What necessary in doing this - ibid. In proper houses ibid. In pits in the ground - ibid. Other methods - - 121 Application of them in animal food 122 Modes of preparing them in this view ibid. By steaming-apparatus - - ibid. In ovens for that purpose . ibid. In human food - ibid. Modes of washing them - 123 Effects of these crops on soils - ibid. They are deteriorating - ibid. Modes of preventing the waste of them 1 24 TURNIPS - - ibid. Different kinds of - 125 Soils most proper for . 126 Preparation for - 127 Manures proper for . 128 Quantity of seed 131- Times and methods of sowing . 132 Early crops less nutritious - 133 Sowing in the drill-method on ridges - ibid. In the broadcast plan on flat surface ibid. Cases in which the former is mos-t pro per ibid. Objections to the raised-drill mode 134 It is in general most advantageous 136 Seed covered by slight harrowing - 137 Method of doing this by the drill ibid. In northern districts, it is performed by the plough 138 Drill-machines proper for - 139 Quick vegetation of seed beneficial in ibid. Steeping of seed useful for this 141 After-culture of crops - - ibid. Effected by the hoe of the -horse or the hand kind - 142 Methods of performing indifferent cases ibid. Northumberland practice - ibid. Harrowing sometimes used 143 Hand-hoeing used in broadcast sowings- ibid. Implements proper for in different cases 144 Crops injured by lly, slug or caterpillar 146 Modes of preventing these- ibid. Anbury, caues of - - 151 Modes of preventing it ibid. What is necessary where crops are destroyed bytheily - - 152 Most favourable seasons for them - ibid . TAGE. Produce of crops - . 15^ Cultivation for seed . 153 What necessary in - ibid. Produce in this way - 154 Methods of-application of those crops ibid. What necessary to be attended to in 15/i Nature of in different cases 156 Machines for slicing - 157 Hurdles useful in - 159 Modes of preserving them 16 2 What necessary in first turning the animals on them - ]fi5 RUTA. BAGA, OR SWEDISH TURNIP ibid. Nature of . ibid. Collecting seed of ibid. Quantity of this - 166 Tin.es and methods of sowing . ibid. After-culture of - ibid. Manner of hoeing 1C7 Liable to injury from various causes ibid. Quantity of produce .r> .- ibid. Best application of this crop - ibid. With cattle- 16S With sheep - .. ibid. Useful in the northern districts as a late food - ibid. CABBAGES . . 169> Utility of . ibid. Proper kinds - - ibid. Advantages of different sorts - 170 Seed - 171 Quantity of - ibid. Time of sowing - - ibid. Seasons of transplanting - 172 Methods of planting out - 173, Proper distances of ibid. Should be well fixed in the earth . 175,. Expences of, in different cases - 176 After-culture of ibid. Hoeings proper for - 177 Modes of performing these ibid. Liable to be injured by slugs - 178 Quantity of produce ibid. Proper application of this - 1 79 With neat cattle - ISO With sheep - ibid. With hogs . ibid. With horses - ibid.. Should be removed from the ground 181 Where beneficial - - ibid. Crops of, compared with turnips ibid. TURNIP-CABBAGE - 182 Soils proper for, -. 183 Preparation for ibid. Seed, and times of sowing ibid,. CONTENTS. Different mctlioils of planting out 183 After-culture of 18t Different according to the mode of planting ibid. By the plough - - ibid. By the hoe ibid. Advantages of this crop - ibid. Proper application of it . - 185 With cows ibid. Modes of taking up the crops ibid. Turnip-rooted cabbage Another useful plant Soils proper for Proper preparation of Collecting of seed of (proper times of sowing W hat nect ssary in . Modes of planting out A fter-culture of Produce of Proper application of the crop With sheep, how used ibid, ibid. 186 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 187 ibid. 188 ibid, ibid. Its hardy nature advantagous in thisway!89 -Capable of preservation out of the ground without injury - ibid. Is an useful assistant to turnip-crops ibid. RAKE, OR COLE - ibid. This is an useful plant ibid. Soils proper for it - ibid. Modes of preparation of, indifferent cases 190 Crops which it is grown after - ibid. Proper seed for - - ibid. Times and methods of sowing - 191 Different cases of, and what necessary in ibid. .After- culture of - - 192 Expences of 194 Utility of this crop - - ibid. When seeded, it exhausts the soil 194 Objected to on this account 194 Proper application of it for sheep 195 For neat cattle - - ibid. In seeding it, birds should be kept off 1<X> CARROTS ibid. First introduced from the Low-countries ibid. Variety proper for culture in the field ibid. Soils proper for ibid. Modes of preparation of ibid. Seed proper for - - 197 Collecting of this - - ibid. Substances blended with it in sowing ibid. Times and methods of sowing - 198 Quantity ofseed necessary After-culture of Hand-hoeing necessary - Mode of performing this - Proper times of hoeing - Hand-weeding necessary Setting out plants to proper distances Where the plough may be useful iti Expences of - Taking up and preserving the crops Different modes of this in practice Expciices of - Consumption ofthe crops By horses and cattle By sheep May be converted to other uses - Great advantage of this husbandry PARSNIPS - Nature of soils proper for - Proper preparation of - Collecting seed of Proportion of this necessary - Times and methods of sowing Transplanting the crops, what necessary After-culture of Modes of performing this - Crops which it is cultivated after - Proper modes of using the crop By cows in milk By swine - - By horses Modes of preserving it MANGEL WUIIZEL Nature of - - Land proper for - - 1 roper preparation of . Seed, and seasons of sowing . Modes of sowing - . Transplanting of . Proper after-culture - - Modes of consumption . . Both tops and roots useful - Expences of cultivating . LETTUCES - - Their utility, and varieties - Preparation for them Seed, and time of sowing . Method ofsowing . . After-culture - - Successions of them should be provided Their nutritious properties > 199 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. 200 ibid. Ibid. ibid. 201 ibid. ibid. 202 ibid. 203 ibid. 204 205 ibid. ibid 205 ibid. ibid. in 207 208 ibid. ibid. 209 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid, 210 ibid. ibid. ibid. 211 ibid. ibid. ibid. 212 212 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid, 213 ibid, CONTENTS. SECTION III. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND. PLANTATION CROPS. PLANTATION CROPS Nature and uses of HEMP Nature of Lands proper for growth of Proper preparation of PAGE. 215 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 216 Proportion of seed, and modes of sowing ibid. Long cultivated on the same land 217 Methods of after-culture of the crops ibid. What necessary in this - ibid. Signs ofits ripeness - - ibid. Should stand longer when for seed 218 After-management of the produce ibid. By dew-reting - ibid. By w?ter-reting ibid. This latter a better method - ibid. Mode of performing it - ibid. Produce of the crops - - 120 Expences of the different operations in ibid. Its profit considerable - ibid. Management in seeding crops of it 221 Proper time for disposing of the crops 222 May be a good preparation for wheat ibid. FLAX - - - fold. Nature of - - ibid. Soils and preparation proper for ibid., 223 Crops which it is grown after 223 Proportion of seed for it - ibid. Best kinds - ibid. The Baltic - ibid. The American - ibid. Times and methods of sowing 225 Broadcasting - - ibid. Drilling, and what necessary in ibid. Proper modes of after-culture in different cases - - 226 Methods of pulling the crops 228 After-management of them - ibid. Watering, or reting; and what neces sary to be attended to in - ibid. Ripling ibid. Breaking, or scutching 231 Produce of the crops ibid. What necessary in growing it for seed 232 Situations in which it may be grown to ad vantage - - 233 Flax- cake* - - ibid. PACK, Jelly, its uses in fattening animals 223 HOPS, . ibid. Nature of ibid. Kinds of ibid. Situations and soils proper for plantations of 2.34 Planting out sets . . 236 Methods of performing this - ibid. Proper distances for ibid. Proper pits for . - - 237 Should take no crop the first year - 238 Necessary attention in the second year 239 Poling, what to be regarded in 240 Picking, circumstances to be regarded in 241 Drying the hops . ibid. Hop kiln, or oast . 242 Description of bagging - . 243 Goodness of samplejonwhat it depends 244 Stacking poles 245 Removing bind - . ibid. Produce of crops - 247 Expences and profits of them in different districts ... ibid. Diseases of - - 249 Flea, green fly, red spider, otter moth, honey-dew, fen mould or mildew, blights, and blast - - ibid. Remedies of these different cases ibid. Different advantages of the culture of this plant 253 WOAD . . ibid. Nature of - . ibij. Soil pro per for . . ibid. Seed, and time and modes of sowing 255,256 Proper after-culture, of . 257 Gathering the crop . . 258 Preparation of the woad . 259 Ad vantages of this crop - 260 WELD . . 261 Uses of ibid. Land proper for - ibid. Preparation of soil for - ibid. Quantity of seed - . ibid. Time and modes of sowing - ibid.. What necessary in this process 262 After-culture and management of the crop 363, CONTENTS. Produce of - Liable to be injured by blight Advantage of its culture .MADDER Nature of 1/aud proper for Preparation of Sots proper for Time and methods of planting Manner of doing this ia Holland FACF. 264 265 266 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 267 ibid. 2 63 Proper methods of after-culture of the crop ibid. Jiy the spud 269 Signs of the best madder - ibid. What necc.-sary where it is to stand for seed ibid. Hovv cultivated to advantage 270 TEASELS - ibid. Uses of - ibid. Situation, soil, and preparation, properfor ibid. Proportion of seed 271 Time and modes of sowing ibid. After culture proper for ibid. PA or.. Preparation of . 273 Their produce 273 Profit and advantages ibid. Land left in a proper state for wheat crops afterwards - 274 LIQUORICE ibid. Nature of - ibid. Soils most proper for the preparation of ibid. Sets proper for ibid. Time and modes of planting ibid. Proper culture of afterwards 275 Methods of taking up the roots ibid. Cases in which it is capable of being grown to advantage - 276 LAVENDER ibid. Utility and advantages of - ibid. Nature of ibid. Preparation and soil proper for ibid. Time and methods of planting ibid. After-culture and management of the crop ibid. SECTION IV. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND-^MANAGEMENT OF GRAIN AND OTHER CROPS. PAGE. FIELD-CROPS 279 Different modes of cutting, harvesting, and securing of - - ibid. CUTTING AND HARVESTING grain-crops ibid. Different in different cases -ibid. By the scythe - - ibid. By tiie sickle - ibid. lleaping-niachines contrived for - 80 Not found effective in general - ibid. Pluncknett s an improvement of ibid. Where reaping is employed, the grain is bound up in sheaves - - ibid. Set up into stocks, and hooded - ibid. Methods of performing this ibid. Bagging another mode of cutting ibid. Different heights of cutting ; ibid. Comparison of the advantages of the differ ent methods of cutting - 281 Experiment on high and low cutting ibid. The latter method found the most bene ficial - 282 PAGE. Importance of a good reaping-machine to farmers - 282 Proper periods of cutting different sorts of crops 283 Crops should not stand till too ripe ibid. Propriety of binding into sheaves in all cases - - ibid. Loose method of harvesting, only proper in particular circumstances - ibid. Middling-sized sheaves to be preferred ibid. Time necessary to remain in field after cut ting, in different kinds of crops 284 Much longer in barley and oats than wheat or rye - ibid. Modes of proceeding when mown crops are bound into sheaves ibid. Use of reaping-fork in this business 285 This methoxl preferable to reaping ibid. But reaping a neater practice ibid. Methods of proceeding where mown without being bound ibid. Modes by gaiting and hutting 286 CONTENTS. Stacking belter than housing grain-crops 287 Modes of stacking grain - 288 Stands proper for ibid. Methods of forming these - ibid. Best sorts and forms of - ibid. Proper modes of building stacks 289 Proper sizes of ibid. Number of persons necessary in tins business 290 Manner of placing materials in different cases of - ibid. Use of a large sail-cloth in 291 Funnels or chimneys in - - ibid. Uses of these in wet seasons - ibid. THATCHING of grain-stacks - - 292 Materials proper for - ibid. Modes of preparation of ibid. Methods of application of thatch in dif ferent cases - - ibid. Modes of securing ibid. Proper time of performing 293 Causes of objections to - - ibid. Horse-stubble rake useful in providing mate rials for 294 Proper modes of trimming stacks ibid. PAGE THRASHING- , 294 Different mcthoda of ibid. By the flail ibid. By the machine - ibid. Superiority of the latter 295 Saving of expence by 296 Modes of proceeding in 297 Rough chaffy matter necessary to be finaie. diately separated - 29S Quantity thrashed by the flail ibid. Should be fresh-thrashed when for fodder 299 Grain should be immediately cleaned ibid. Machines proper for performing this ibid. Utility of screening it - 300 PUESFR?ATION of grain - ibid. What necessary in - ibid. Frequent stirring beneficial 301 Air, light, and due ventilation, impor tance of . . ibid. Preserving in deep wells or pits 303 Proper granaries for 304 Methods of construction of these ibid. Grain should be as little stored as possible ibid. Much loss by storing - 305 Advantage of bringing it quickly to market ibid. SECTION V. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND LAYING DOWN TO GRASS. PAGE. LAYING DOWN TO GRASS - 307 Lands proper for tillage and grass ibid. Nature of them described - 308 Low moist lands proper for grass . ibid. Richer kinds of sandy soil 309 Peaty lands . - - ibid. Converting lands to grass - ibid. Difference of soils for taking on grass ibid. Propensities of grasses to be regarded in 310 Varieties of these to be particularly noticed - 311 Kinds of, in different sorts of natural grass-lands ibid. Description of from different districts ibid. Principles to be considered in - 314 Preparation of lands for grass-seeds 315 Importance of - . ibid. What necessary in ibid. VOL. Ji, PAGE. Fine state of fertility, and cleanness from weeds, essential - 315 Fineness of surface proper 317 Proper kinds of natural grasses for ibid. Causes of difficulty in providing these ibid. Those shown by experience to be useful 318 Sweet-scented vernal grass v ibid. Description of - ibid. Nature of . ibid. Proportion useful in ibid. Meadow fox-tail grass ibid. Nature of - ibid. Description of 319 Soils proper for - ibid. Great, or smooth-stalked, meadow-grass ibid. Earlinessof - - 320 Nature of ibid. Description of . - ibid. Situations proper for - ibid. Modes of using it . ibid, b CONTENTS. Is apt to decline in some cases Common, or rough -stalked, meadow-grass Its great similarity to the preceding Situations proper for - Soils in which it succeeds - Necessary to attend to seeds in sow ing - Meadow fescue.grass - .Properties of - Less useful thjn others - Where necessary - Sheep s fescue-grass - Niiture of - Description of What soils proper for - Hard fescue-grass - - Properties of - Uses of Crested dog s-tail grass - Uses to which applied - Where found abundant - Say or rye grass - - Nature of . Kinds of - - Soils adapted to . New varieties of, more useful Where most beneficial Properties of - Causes of objections to - Meadow soft grass, or Yorkshire white, Nature of . Situations for Uses to which applied - Rough cock s-foot grass - Properties of - - Where found naturally - Affords much seed - Tall oat-grass - - Where found naturally Benefits of - Proper feeding of Meadow cat s-tail grass, or Timothy Where found naturally Soils proper for Seeds may be procured from America -Hay-seeds - - Best modes of collecting - "V arrow, circumstances to be attended to in using Nature of Properties of Its great utility White clover Soils proper for Different properties of - PACE 320 321 ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 323 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 324 ibid, ibid, ibid. 325 ibid. 326 ibid. 327 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 328 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 329 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. 330 Used with other seeds to/ advantage 339 Cow-grass - ibid. Known by the name of marl-grass ibid. Properties of - ibid, Soils on which useful - ibid. Trefoil - ibid. Succeeds in diiferent soils ibid. May be mixed with other seeds to advan tage - 331 Bcnciieial on soils of the chalky and dry kinds - - ibid. Bird s-l ooi trefoil - - ibid, Its description and uses - ibid. Rib-grass, or Rib-wort plantain ibid. Soils proper for - ibid. Varieties of - ibid. Highly useful in marine situations 332 Burnet - - ibid. Description of - ibid. Seed, and time of sowing ibid. After-management of - ibid. Its properties - - 333 Great produce of - ibid. Other sorts of plants that may be found useful - - ibid. Sorts of grasses most useful ibid. On clayey soils - ibid. On loamy soils - ibid. On sandy soils - - 334 On chalky soils - ibid. On peaty soils ibid. Those proper in point of early herbage ibid. In point of abundant produce ibid. Grass-seeds, how readily provided^ ibid. Proportions of seeds for diiferent soils 335 For clayey soils . ibid. For loamy soils - - ibid. For. sandy soils - - 336 For chalky soils . . ibid. For peaty soils - - ibid. Times and methods of sowing in, different cases, with or without grain. crops 337 In spring with corn . 333 In autumn without - ibid. Cases in which each may be practised with advantage - - ibid. August probably the best season when it can be done . . ibid. Use of having surface fine for 341 After-management of new- grass-lands 342 Feeding - - ibid. Manuring - 345 Effects produced on them by different sorts of substances used as manures 347 CONTENTS. SECTION VI. CULTIVATION OF ARABLE LAND. -ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. PAGE. ARTIFICIAL GRASSES 353 Modes of introduction of - - ibid. Natures of - ibid. Should be adapted to the nature of the soil ibid. RED or BKOAD CLOVER - ibid. Properties of - ibid. Soils proper for ibid. Preparation of land for 354 Nature and proportion of seed ibid. Seasons and methods of sowing in. different cases - - ibid. Different sorts of crops with which sown ibid. After-management of the crop 357 Manure sometimes useful in ibid. Methods of disposing of the crop 358 By mowing for hay - ibid. 13y its being cut green for soiling ani mals - ibid. By feeding it downwith sheep or other sorts of stock - - ibid. Modes of making hay of it ibid. Quantity of produce - - 360 Uses of this sort of hay - ibid. Seeding of it ibid. Advantages of this method ibid. Modes of separating the seeds 361 More profit by cutting green for soiling 362 Different advantages of this mode 353 Feeding crops down - - ibid. What necessary in - 364 Danger of it explained ibid. Necessary to attend to animals in feeding on 365 They are liable to be hoveu with it ibid. Remedies for this case ibid. .Disadvantages of (his crop 366 Modes of rendering it more durable ibid. WHITE or DUTCH CLOVER, and COW-GRASS 367 Different uses of - ibid. TREFOIL ... ibid. Nature and uses of - ibid. Various advantages of - ibid. Manner of seeding - 368 Less valuable than clover ibid. SAINTFOIN - - ibid. Utility of - ibid. Nature of * - ibiJ. not hove animals 368 Soils most proper for - ibid. Preparation of land for - ibid. Mode of selecting the seed - ;J69 Proportion of this necessary ibid. Times and methods of sowing - ibid. With barley. crops most proper ibid. Should not be mixed with other sorts of seeds 370 After-management of this crop - ibid. Different methods of - ibid. Various modes of cutting - ibid. Produce ibid. Manuring . - 371 Modes of its application ibid. Seeding it 372 Is much injured by grass-plants 373 LUCERN - - ibid. Advantages of . ibid. Soil and preparation for ibid. 37-t Seed proper for 374 Season for soAving - 375 Different modes of doing this described ibid. Quick vegetation useful - - 377 After-management of this crop ibid. Different in different cases - ibid. Expences of its culture 379 Proper application of the crop 380 In soiling with different sorts of ani mals - 381 Result of different experiments with 382 Advantages of this crop - 384 What necessary in breaking up crops of this sort 385 TARES - ibid. Vast advantage of this crop ibid. Different varieties of - 386 Winter tare . ibid. Spring tare . ibid. White tare - 387 Preparation of land for - - 388 Seed proper for in different cases . - ibid. Proportions of this ibid. Season of sowing ibid. Different according to the intentions of the farmer . ibid. Proper methods of sowing XII CONTEXTS. PAGE. Crops which they are grown after - 3S9 After-management of this crop ibid. Modes of making it into hay 390 Seeding the crop ibid. Applications of it - ibid. In soiling animals most advantageous ibid. Vast advantages of (arc-crops in different districts 391 They are an ex eel lent preparation for wheat 393 Bush-vetch, tuftedvctch, and everlasting pea; uses of each - o<)3, 3*)4 More attention necessary to this class of plants - - 591 CHICORY - ibid. Nature of this plant ibid. Proper soils for it ibid. Preparation of land for ibid. Choice of seed - - 39.5 Quantity of this necessary - ibid. Season for sowing ibid. Modes of doing this business ibid. After-management of the crop ibid. Ils produce, and proper applications of this 396 Experiments with. - ibid. Its utility as a sheep-feed 397 PIIOPER Proportions between Arable and Grass Land on the same Farm 398 Influenced by circumstances ibid. In clayey soils - ibid. . hi loamy soils - 3<;;-> In sandy soils - - ibid. In calcareous soils - 399 In peaty soils - - ibid. Regulated much by modes of application of farms ibid-. HIRING and Stocking Farms ibid. IX scn > much attention ibid. Have been treated of fully by Mr. Young ibid. HIRING- - , ibid*. Time usual for - ibid. Circumstances to be attended to in 4oO. Peculiarities of soil and situation to be consi dered - . ibid. In arable lands - - ibid. In grass lands . 40 > Compactness of farms an advantage 40 I feature of leases to be considered - ibid, Means of calculating rents - ibid. Modes of paying - - ibid. STOCKING FAU.MS - ibid. ^V hat necessary in - ibid. Ex pence of, per acre - - ibid. Much aifected by situation - 405 A good capital necessary - ibid. Warren farms require least capital ibid. Marsh and hop lands require large capi tals ibid. Should make 12 or 15 per cent. ibid-. Great attention necessary to live stock on 40G Need not regard fine breeds - ibid.. PART THE FOURTH. SECTION VII. CULTIVATION OF GRASS LAND MEADOWS. PAGE. GRASS LANDS 408 Kinds of ibid. Proper application of ibid. MEADOWS, and other hay lands 409 Different situations of ibid. Difference of management in - ibid. Time for surface-draining of - ibid. Clearing from stock 410 Times proper for, in different cases - ibid. Should not be eaten much in spring when for hay - 411 Removing obstructions to the scythe 412 Co arse weeds and plants ibid. Moss Utility of sward-dresser in Scarifying, advantage of in Sticks Stones Cattle-dung hills Ant-hills Mole-hills Catching and destroying moles MANURING Proper times for Kinds of manure PAG!. 1 . 413 415 ibid. ibid. ibid. 416 ibid. 418 419 420 421 423 States in which applied with most benefit ibid CONTENTS: M. PAGE. Proportion of, neeessary ^ 423 Repetition of 424 Some sorts used as top. dressings cannot be often repeated - ibid. Chalk marl, chopped woollea rags, &c. - ibid. Capable of being more frequently used in composts - - 425 Lime, with vegetable substances, often em ployed .is top-dressings ibkl. Peat-ashes, coal-ashes, and soot - ibid. Best applied after rain in March - ibid. Setting out manures - ibid. Attention necessary in ibid. Mr. McDonald s contrivance for - 426 Spreading of - ibid. Bush-harrowing - 427 Rolling . ibid. Proper times for - - ibid. Methods of restoring grass-lands - 428 WATERED MEADOWS - 429 Nature of - ibid. Situations and soils proper for - 430 Methods of forming 432 Spirit-level useful in - ibid. Irrigation or watering - 433 Modes of conducting the process - ibid. Catch-work watering - - 438 Where capable of application - ibid. Circumstances to be attended to in - ibid, often derived in watering, from stir, ring mud in bottoms of mains, and the use of lime or other substances - 442 Causes of the beneficial effects of watering, ibid. PACT, Vast utility of - - 442. Proper seasons f,;r - - 415 Proportions of water necessary in different cases - 4-16 Lengths of time for continuing this process 4 16 Mr. Wright s opinion of it ibid. Mr. Boswell s 417 Circumstances to be regarded in eating down watered lands - ibid. Useful in producing early grass ibid. Mr. Tcmplcr s improvements by watering 4 18 note Improvements by it in Yorkshire - 449 note In Cheshire, by Mr. Fenna - 450 WARPING, a practice in Lincolnshire - ibid. Only slightly useful on grass-lands - ibid. MOWING - - ibid. Proper periods for - - ibid. Methods of performing 4.51 llAY-M.AICING 4.52 Best methods of - ibid. Stacking and thatching hay 456 Best methods of performing - ibid. Modes of preventing stacks from heating. 457 Mr. Ducket s method, by making holes in the sides - ibir 1 * Staclting.-stages ibid. Hay -sweeps and sledges. 460 AFTER-GllASS ibid. Modes of management of ibid. Best application of produce of 461 Past\i ring of - - ibid. Utility of, in this view ibid. SECTION VIII. CULTIVATION OF GR/1SS LAXD PAGE. PASTURE LANDS 467 Grounds most proper for ibid. Coarse-grass-lands may be made useful for ibid. Particular properties in grasses necessary in ibid. Situations of, and modes of inclosing, influ ence the uses of, - 468 Subject to be injured by various causes ibid. By moss ibid. By ant and mole-hills ibid. These should be removed ibid. Modes of effecting this - ibid. Shrubby and other plants must be eradicated ibid. p vt;i: Draining sometimes necessary .i ;f 4CS/ And manuring ibid. Effects of proper modes of feeding tlrcin down - 470 Proper soils of manure* for - 47 I Improvements by feeding sheep upon them ibid. Proper periods of turning stock on ibid. Difference of opinion on this subject ibid. A middle degree of growth in grass is best for - ibid. Proportion of eating down most useful 47-i Diversity of- opinion on this ppiut - ibuf CONTENTS, I ACE. Should probably never be overstocked - 472 Disadvantages of over and of under stock- ing - 473 Mixtures of stock sometimes advised - ibid. Much ad vantage iu their being kept regularly fed down - 474 Utility of frequent shifting by a head stock and followers - 475 This method more useful than having different sorts of stock on at the same time - ibid. ^Disadvantages of mixed stock on - ibid. Near cattle and sheep, best sorts of , 476 Advantage, of keeping pastures regularly and evenly fed down ibid. Injury siislainedby grass running up to seed- stems - - ibid. A good bite of it necessary from May to August 477 Propriety of stocking the. whole, or only in divisions, in eating down ibid. Difference of opinion on this subject ibid. Difficulty of ascertaining the point - 478 The latter method probably most be neficial - ibid. -Quantity of stock for, various 479 Nature and size of animal to be consi dered in this respect - - ibid. State of sward must also be attended to ibid. Only dry pastures can be turned upon in winter - - ibid. Advantage of eating off with ewes and lambs in early spring - - ibid. Prinking-ponds f 480 Advantage of lands being supplied with ibid. What necessary in making ibid. Proper situations for - ibid. Season for forming - * 481 Forms of setting out ibid JKxpences of forming 482 Dimensions of - ibid. Constructed with mason s work in some situations 483 Expences in this way note 484 ,COW.KEEPING . 484 Beneficial in particular situations ibid. Proper sorts of cows for - ibid. 485 Largo breeds principally employed in Middlesex 486 Circumstances to be attended to in the management of 487 Bulls should be kept with them - ibid. Modes of ascertaining their being in calf 488 Signs of calving - ibid, PAGE, Disposing of calves - 488 Attending to binding up, and having proper bottoms to yards, necessary ibid. Proper feeding of - 48f) With succulent food most proper - ibid. What necessary to be attended to in ibid. Modes of feeding near London - 400 In the country districts 491 Observations of baron D Alton upon ibid. Milking, what necessary in - 492 Experiments of different persons on note ibid. Times most proper for 493 Usual number of persons necessary in this business - 494 Profits of this system of management ibid. Statements on - note, ibid. Few servants requisite in . 49.5 SUCKLING OF CALVES - 490 Advantages of - ibid. Cows proper for - - ibid. Feeding of 497 Nature of suckling-house - ibid. Different methods of 498 Length of time proper for - ibid. What necessary in - - ibid. Sucklcrs supplied from large towns 499 Diseases to which they are subject : scouring, and remedies for it - ibid. Necessity of buying-in young calves con stantly in this system - 500 Prices of them - - ibid. Profits of this practice - - ibid. What sorts of cakes fatten fastest ibid. Disadvantage of keeping them till old 501 Profits of a cow in this practice stated ibid. REARING OF CALVES - - 502 Necessary where good cow-stock is wanted ib>d. Ditfercnt methods of this practice ibid. In Yorkshire - - ibid. In Cheshire ibid. In Gloucestershire - ibid. In Sussex - - ibid. In Suiiblk - 503 In Norfolk - ibid. In Scotland ibid. Other modes described - ibid. Diseases of calves: the skit ; and remedies for it ibid. Necessary attention to them in these cases - ibid, WEANING OF CALVES 504 Best season for . ibid. Best modes of - ibid. Substitutes used for milk - 505 CONTENTS, XT PAGE. Hay-tea and linseed proper - 505 L/scd in Lincolnshire - ibid. Duke of Northumberland s method - ibid. Mr. Crook s 506 Time of castrating calves - ibid. Necessary attentions after weaning - Ibid. Buds, or yearling calves - 508 Young heifers - - ibid. Young cattle-stock should be well fed ibid. DAIRYING - - ibid. Lands proper for different kinds of 509 The profit depends much on the manage ment - 511 Minute attention necessary to this ibid. Must not be trusted to common ser vants - - ibid. A proper dairy-house necessary - ibid. High degree of cleanliness useful in ibid. Proper apparatus for -. ibid. Cows proper for this business- - ibid. What necessary in choosing - 512 Must be plentifully fed - 513 Modes of winter-feeding - ibid. Times of milking - - 514 Summer and winter food most proper for Labour necessary in - 5-17 Number of persons proper ibid. Cows should be examined after milkers ibid. Proper management of milk - 518 Modes of disposing it for creaming 519 Heat necessary for this - 5*21 Circumstances to be attended to in churning 524 What necessary in . 525 Making butter - 5 26 Processes necessary in ibid. Circumstances to be attended to in 527 Making cheese * - 5 t 29 Proce.sses proper for ibid. Best seasons - - il/id. Various points necessary to be attended to in - - 530 Skim-milk cheese - 532 Preparing the rennet - ibid, Colouring - - 533 Setting the curd - 534 Breaking and gathering it, - 537 Management in the press - 540 Salting - - 541 Management in the cheese-room 61 i Profits of different sorts of dairies -.- ibid. 515 SECTION IX. CULTIVATION OF GRASS LAND METHODS OF FATTENING ANIMALS, FATTENING ANIMALS Different in different cases GRAZING Kinds of lands where most profitable Situations for PAGE. 546 ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid. Circumstances which shouH be regard ed in ibid. On what it depends - ibid. Proper mode of stocking lands in - 547 What necessary to be considered in this - - ibid. Should be adapted to the nature of the land - ibid. Purchasing animals for - 548 What necessary in this i ibid. Principles to be regarded in - ibid. Different situations require a difference in animals of both the cattle and sheep kinds . - . 549 PAGE. Advantages of different sorts of ibid. What to be regarded in their age 550 Sheep-stock - . - 551 Soils most beneficial hi different sorts of grazing-land - - ibid. Different systems of management ibid. Advantages of each ; with cattle ibid. With sheep - 563 Importance of having early grass-lambs 554 Circumstances to be attended to in this respect ibid. Proportions of different sorts of cattle and of sheep-stock in different cases 555 Land should never be overstocked 5o5 Disposal of fatted stock - - ibid. Farmers must be directed by circum stances in 557 Advantage of gra/ing is influenced by a variety of causes - - ibid. CONTENTS, PAGE. Statements of profit of in different cases - note 558 to 561 Horses may sometimes be admitted on graz- ing-grouncls - - 560 Improved system of turning swine upon clover, when properly sorted 561 Benefits of this practice 562 SOILING AND STALL FEEDING ibid. Highly advantageous systems : the former in summer, and the latter in winter months - - ibid. Soiling too little attended to ibid. Has been objected to on different ac counts - - 5o3 These objections not well-foundedibid. 56 I Its great superiority shown - 564 Is useful in producing abundant ma- n u re What necessary in this practice Proper yards and shi ds requisite Culture of proper crops for Much depends on proper foddering Litter a great object Stall-feeding, close attention necessary in Substances that may be used in it 565 ibid. 566 ibid. 567 ibid. 569 ibid. PACcE Proper management in ; cattle must be kept perfectly clean 569 Great attention necessary to them 670 Litter proper for them - ibid. Season for commencing this practice 571 - Varying of food necessary in ibid. Proper sorts of food - ibid. Proportions of it necessary , 572 Greenkindfi useful; carrots ;andpotatoesibid. Cabbages, grains, and turnips 573 Dry kinds proper : ibid. Oats . ibid. Oil-cake - 574 Bran and distiller s wash 676 Points necessary to be regarded in all 577 Statements of results of experiments in - note ibid, (u 580 HOUSE-LAMB SUCKLING 578 Proper lamb-house or suckle necessary 579 Kinds of ewes for - 580 Careful feeding of ewes necessary ibid. Management of them in the Iamb-house581 Good supplies of food necessary to pre vent the exhaustion of ewes 582 Time lambs arc kept ibid. Profit which they afford * ibid + SECTION X. -CULTIVATION OF GRASS LAND. PL ANTING FRUIT AND TIMBER TREES. PAGE. 584 ibid. PLANTING Lately much attended to - Profit of it - AVith different sorts of trees better under stood ibid. Soils proper for fruit-trees ibid. For oftier sorts of trees ibid. Lands and situations most proper for this sort of improvement 585 Vast advantage of it ; and statements on this subject note ibid. FUTJIT-TREES - 587 This sort of planting of much importance in many districts ibid. APPLE-TREES - ibid. Sorts of soil proper for 588 Dry soils most proper ibid. Dftierent ones have been used 589 Kinds of apple-trees used for cyder in different districts - note 588 PAGE. Pear trees are less difficult in soil 591 Aspects and situations most propef for ibid, ibid, ibid. 592 ibid. For early and for late soils Should be adapted to the situation Different methods of planting used Circumstances to be attended to in Proper distances between rows and trees in different cases - ibid. Where raised at least expence 5^)4 Modes of managing the stocks ibid. Proper seasons for making plantations of - - 596 Modes of pruning them - jbid t Causes of their not producing fruit ibid. Methods of gathering the fruit 597 Of keeping it - ibid. Process of converting it into cyder note ibid. Pear-trees ; modes of planting and mana- CONTENT^ XTM PAGE. ittg them nearly the same as for apple- trees ... 598 Should have more room - ibid. Forms and varieties to be attended to in - - 599 Only one sort in a rovr - ibid. Produce of the land more than from apple-trees 600 Jaoss of land by this sort of planting not great - ibid. Vast advantage that may in some cases be attained in this way - ibid. TlMBER-THEES - 601 "What necessary in - . ibid. Soils most proper for different sorts of ibid. Necessity of draining and fencing in the land for . ibid. Tabular view of soils for - 603 What to be regarded in planting in differ ent situations - 604 In high situations . - ibid. In low lands - - ibid. On the banks of ri?ers - ibid. On the sea-coast - - 605 Modes of providing trees - ibid. Lands proper for nurseries of - ibid. |?roper preparation of lands for the recep. tion of the trees - - 607 By the plough ibid. By the spade ibid. Modes of pitting - . 608 Size of plants proper for - ibid. What necessary to be attended to in roots of - - ibid. Distances and methods of planting - 609 In exposed sites - - ibid. In belts , stripes, and clumps - ibid. In sheltered sites - ibid. Number of plants on an acre in the duke of Portland s plantations 610 Modes of setting the trees ; proper mixture of them - - - ibid. PAfJE. Shelter of them - - 611 Best season for planting out ibid. Methods of performing this Gl:i Necessary management afterwards 614- The plants must be kept clean ibid. Coarse plants must bo removed; and broom, furze and briars - ibid. Filling up vacancies; what necessary in 615 Planting hedge-rows ibid. Propriety of this not ascertained ibid. When practised, larger trees necessary 616 What necessary in planting these ibid. Proper thinning of plantations necessary 617 What to be regarded in doing this ibid. P/opcr times for performing it; in woods, and in underwoods . ibid. Willow, or osier plantations - 6 18 Kinds of - - ibid. Modes of performing. . ibid. Expence of . 619 Their advantages, on lands proper for them - - ibid. Management of woods - ibid. Cattle should be kept out of them 620 Preventing decay of ibid. New stocks to be occasionally raised ibid. Should not be too old before cutting ibid. Coppice or underwood kind, Improving of 6 1 2 1 Proper times of filling up 6 22 Question respecting growth of poles of 623 Times of cutting over . ibid. Practice of doing this in different districts ; in beech-woods of Buck- inghamshire, in Worcestershire, and in Staffordshire - 621 Seasons or times of cutting Underwood for barking, &c. . G25 This work mostly performed by mea sure - ibid. Managed differently in different places ibid. Sometimes regulated according to USDS 6 2n" *l CONTENTS. PART THE FIFTH. METHODS OF BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGING, DOMESTIC ANIMALS. SECTION XL LIFE STOCK. NEAT CATTLE. SHEEP. HORSES. PAGE. LIVE STOCK, Importance of 631 Great attention to ibid. Further improvement of, necessary ibid. Additional facts and experiments wanting for - - ibid, icumstan ccs to be attended to in 632 Shelter and -warmth, with a high degree of fertility of pasture, useful ibid. Systems of practice pursued in, different ibid. Crossing the breeds - - ibid. Supposed advantages and disadvantage!: of this method " 533 Though useful, should be practised with caution - 635 Injury easily done by it when injudiciously performed - ibid. Various proofs of this - note 637 Breeding from the same line 636 Advantages of this method - ibid. Principal object of the farmer: profit 638 Form of animal most proper for ibid. Properties to be regarded in ibid. Shape - ,639 What necessary iu ibid. Most perfect kind of - ibid. "Which most advantageous in the view of the grazier ibid. The most perfect probably best 640 Size ... ibid. Question concerning, not fully settled ibid. Opinions differ, from the quantity of food consumed not being well ascer tained ibid. A number of small animals consume less than of large ones - 641 Mr. Knight s opinion favourable to large size for fattening - - 642 Consumption of food not in proportion to size ... ibid. Advantages of small-sized animals ibid. Smaller sizes best for milk 643 Sizes must be much regulated by pas ture or herbage - 644- PACE. On rich pastures, large breeds most profitable - 644 On inferior dries, ths smaller sorts ibid. Tameness of disposition ; great utility of this in domestic animals - ibid. Hardiness, a desirable property in ibid. Marks of this - ibid. Early maturity advantages of this to the farmer . 645 Circumstances most favourable to ibid. Good feeding, and warmth, while young . ibid, Quality of flesh properly depends on breed, ;md not on size of animal ibid. Goodi. . v; of flavour, in some measure, on food - ibid. Badness of colour, perhaps morbid 646 Appearances of good meat ibid. Effects of difference of age and of sex on the appearance - ibid, Disposition to fatten, highly necessary to be attended to - ibid. Principle of this not fully investigated ibid. Much influenced by form and breed, iu Mr. Bakewell s practice - 647 Advantages and disadvantages of too much fattening - ibid. Fattening the only means of procuring good lean meat - - ibid 1 . Much attention to this property neces sary in raising live stock - ibid*. Hide 648 Necessary feel of - ibid. Utility of, in exposed situations ibid. Property of supplying milk largely ibid. Nature of animals for this - ibid. Should probably be an exclusive breedibid. Sir John Sinclair s opinion of a breed suited for this purpose, and for that of the grazier - - ibid. Aptitude for labour, a property necessary in certain circumstances - ibid. What proper to be considered in ibid, CONTENTS, Xl.t PAGE. Blood, or inherent quality of a breed 649 Utility and advantages of this in breeding- animals _ ibid. Much regard necessary to all these proper ties in breeding - - ibid. Modes of conducting the business ibid. On what its success depends ibid. Choice of live stock 650 Various circumstances to be considered in _ ibid. Vast advantage of improving live stock, shewn . 651 NEAT CATTLE ... 652 Breeds of, very numerous ibid. No perfect arrangement of ibid. Methods that have been attempted in this respect - ibid. By the horns - note ibid. 13y the names of the counties or dis tricts where they prevail most ibid. Different breeds described: long-horned 652 Middle-horned - - 654 Short-horned - - 656 Welsh breed . . 637 Suffolk dun breed - . ibid. Polled or Galloway breed - ibid. Kyloe breed - 658 Fifeshire breed - - 659 Aldcrney breed - - ibid. Wild breed - - 660 Different breeds proper for different purposes of the farmer - - ibid. Circumstances to be regarded in this in tention - - ibid. Cow stock . . 662 Means of providing good sort of ibid Breeding and rearing young stock ; what necessary in . 663 Farms proper for - ibid. Best methods of, in different circum stances .... ibid. Kinds of food most advantageous for ibid. Winter management of - ibid. Manner of foddering of 664 Question of being tied up, or loose, con. sidered - - ibid. Summer pasture for - - ibid. Proper age of putting heifers to the bull 665 Best season for calving - - 666 In calf, stock should be well fed - - ibid. Bulls - - ibid. Duration of vigour of - ibid. Should be well supplied with food in rear ing. . .. jbid. PAGE. Mr, Bakewell s practice in 66G Oxen for labour - 667 Proper management of, in Herefordshire and Devonshire - ibid. Time of bringing into work . ibid. Best modes of shoeing - 66H Age of cattle, how ascertained - ibid. Diseases of cattle, and remedies proper for 669 Scourings - - ibid. Yellows - - ibid. Blo;>dy urine - - ibid. Foul - - ibid. Garget - - ibid. Wounds - - ibid. SHEEP - - ibid. Importance of, in different views ibid. Nature of, in different kinds - 670 Distinguished into classes or breeds in dif ferent ways - - ibid. According to the nature of their woo], the situations in which they are chiefly found, and various other circumstan ces - ibid. Standard form of, in the ram - 671 Attention necessary to this and other properties in improvement of sheep, breeds - - 672 Different breeds described - ibid. New Leicester or Dishly breed - ibid. Lincolnshire breed - - 673. Tees- water breed - ibid. Romncy-marsh breed - - 674 Dartmoor breed . 675 Exmoor breed - ibid. Dorsetshire breed ibkl. Herefordshire breed - - 67G South-down breed . 677 Norfolk. breed . 678 Heath breed ~ - ibid, llenhvick breed . 679 Cheviot breed - ibid. Dim-faced breed. 680 Shetland breed - - ibid. Merino or Spanish breed - ibid, What breeds most suitable under different circumstances of soil, climate, and situation - 681 With the intention of profit from, the carcase - . ibid. From the wool ibid. Mr. Marshall s opinion of different breeds in respect to different manufactures ibid; Cireumstanccs to be regarded iu intro duction of new breeds - ibid, . c 2, 7,X CONTENTS. PAGE. Fine wool may be obtained without injury to the mutton 082 MANAGEMENT OF SIIKEP - ibid. Putting rams to ewes 683 -Selection of cues lor - ibid. Proper time of - ibid. ..L.ite. duke of Bedford s practice hi ibid. Best age for - - ibid. ,Proper keep of ewes while in lamb - 684 Great attention to, necessary at lambing- timc ... ibid. Necessary provision of food for - ibid. Utility of turnips in this way - ibid. Modes of eating of, with most advan tage - ibid. Lauds much improved by this - 685 In good breeds, bran and oil-cake useful ibid. Baiting with hay necessary - ibid. jCotting, great utility of - ibid. Brought through winter well in this May - - ibid. Preserved grass ; vast benefit of it for this use in early spring 686 Watered meadows may be depended on, where sufficiently extensive - ibid. >Othcr means of support - ibid. Turnip-shoots - - ibid. Kay-grass and clover ; Mr. Young s opinion of these - - ibid. Cabbages better in April - 687 Turnip-cabbage - ibid. Ruta baga - - ibid. Boorcole, importance of - ibid. Burnet, great use of it at this season ibid. In summer, turning upon the pastures . ibid. What necessary in - - ibid. Best methods of ibid. Attention to the fly necessary - ibid. Weaning the lambs - - 688 Best modes of - ibid. Proper feed should be provided for them ibid. Ewes to be kept at a distance - ibid. Directions respecting setting lamb-stock ibid. Management in down and mountain sheep 690 Salving orsmcating - - 691 Inutility of tlfts practice - no(e 692 Profit of sheep in various cases - .693 In Mr. Macro s estimate - ibid. In Mr. ^Ellman s - .. ibid. In the duke of Grafton s - ibid. Folding - - 694 Mr. Young s objection to it in certain .cases . ibid. Cause of the practice - 695 Advantage of it in sheep-yards 696 On tillage lands 6Q8 Shearing sheep - - ibid. Best method of washing ibid. Circular method of clipping, an improve ment ... 699 Origin of this 700 Introduction of it by the earl of Egrc- mont, late duke of Bedford, and Mr. Coke - ibid* Management of this business - ibid. Expences of it ibid. Winding the wool ibid. Frequent clipping .. 701 Ellectsof this . . ibid. .Clothing sheep . . ibid. Effects of it not. fully shown . ibid. Time of clipping lambs . 702 Of castrating them .. . ibid. Produce in wool, different in different breeds ibid. Qualities of it adjusted by wool-staplers ibid. Qualities necessary for shepherds . 703 Modes of determining age of sheep - ibid. Diseases of sheep - - ibid. The fly ... ibid. Foot-rot - - 704 Scab ... ibid. Rubbers . ibid. Blindness - ~ ibid. Rot . . 705 Turn, or giddy . . ibid. Resp, or red- water - 706 Braxy . ibid. Black-water - . 707 Skits - . ibid. Us.es of common salt in preventing diseases in sheep - ibid. HOUSES - . ibid. Utility and advantages of them in different views - - ibid. Qualities necessary for those employed in the business of husbandry . ibid. Different breeds described - 70S Blood-horse, too fine ibid, Cleveland bays - ibid. Suffolk punches ibid Clydesdale horses . ibid. Heavy blacks ... 709 Welsh and Scotch horses - ibid. Farm-horses should be selected from the first three kinds recommended - ibid. Heavy kinds less used from the introduction of the blood sort . ibid. Breeding them can only be atempted under certain circumstances - ibid, CONTENTS, PAGE. Itfelhod of management in - 710 Time of putting mares to the horse ibid. Importance of having foals early ibid. Tinte of going with Ibal - ibid. Should be well kept during this period ibid. Care to be taken in working them ibid. Modes of rearing the foals - ibid. "System pursued when breeding is not prac tised - - > 712 Time and method of castrating ibid. Practice in Yorkshire in this respect 7-13 Mode of breaking in ibid. Making up young horses for sale - ibid. Question of the comparative utility of hor ses or oxen as teams - 714 . Cases in which each kind may be useful ibid. Best method of feeding teams 716 Various estimates - note 717 Means of lessening expcnce in keeping them - - 718 Utility of bruising the oats ibid. Barley may be employed with advantage 719 ^Feeding ox-teams - ibid. Working of teams 720 What useful in 720 Difierent utility of the stable and of the shed system - 72C Expences of keeping teams differ much 7 1 23 Necessary proportion of teams to the extent of land in different sorts of farms 724 Ass and mule teams, where useful 755 Diseases of horses ibid. Wounds - ibsd. Bruises - 72() Strains - ibid. Warble tumours - - ibid. Colds - - ibid. Colics - - ibid. Staggers 727 Strangles <. ibid. Yellows - - ibid, Worms - ibid, Bots - 728 Glanders ibid. Farcy . ibid. Grease ibid. Mange - - 729 SECTION XII. LIFE-STOCK. SKINS. R4BBITS. POULTRY, $e. PAGE. WINE - - 731 Proper form of - ibid. Large breeds of - - ibid. Berkshire . ibid. Hampshire - * ibid. Shropshire - - 732 Gloucestershire - ibid. Herefordshire - - ibid. Large breeds should be attended to - ibid. Small breeds of - ibid. Chinese - . ibid. White ibid. Swing-tailed - * ibid. What necessary in the breeding of - ibid. Utility of convenient sties 733 Circular form of, advised by Mr. Young ibid. Advantages of these ibid. Expence of building them note 734 Age of putting to boar - 735 Produce of ibid. Best seasons for rearing - ibid. Dijfcreut sorts should, be kept separate ibid. Proper sorts of food to be provided in abundance - > 735 Crops proper in this view - 736 Proportions of ibid. Modes of feeding different sorts ibid. With dairy-wash . ibid. Other sorts of wash ibid. Peas-soup ibid. Boiled and other roots, cabbages, &c. ibid. Lettuces useful for sows with pigs 737^ Soiling hogs more beneficial . 733 Moresows capable of being kept in this management than under the dairy- system 733 Best periods of selling in this management ibid. Expenceof store-keeping of, various - ibid. Advantages of breeding and rearing pigs ibid. Fattening ibid. Seasons for . ibid. Substances used in - ibid. Best means of employing them - 740 Adrantage of different sorts of food iu the producij,oa ?f pork - ibid/ xxu CONTENTS. PAGE. Pigs pay for keep equally well as other sorts of stock - 742 Modes of curing bacon, pork, and hams 743 Diseases ot hogs . - 744 , Mange ... ibid. Crack in ears - - ibid. Swellings in udders - - ibid. RABBITS - - ibid. Where kept with advantage - ibid. Proper breeds for warrens - 745 Methods of managing them - ibid. Modes of taking by nets and traps 746 Statements of proiits from them note 747 POULTRY - - 748 Where usually kept ibid. Common fowls - - ibid. Different breeds of ibid. Proper conveniences for - ibid. Management in setting, breeding, rearing, and fattening them - 749 Expences of them - - 751 Mrs. Boys s system of management ibid. Diseases of them - 752 Guinea fowl ibid. Uses of them - - ibid. Turkeys - - ibid. Breeds of them - - ibid. Proper management - 753 Reason of fineness of those in Norfolk ibid. Living and dead weights of them 754 PAGE, WATER FOWL * 754 Ducks - - ibid. Kinds of - - ibid. Best modes of management - ibid. Utility of them in destroying worms, slugs, &c. on grain crops - 755 Geese - - ibid. Kinds of - ibid. Proper modes of hatching and rearing 750 Manner of plucking them ibid. Methods of fattening 757 PIGEONS - ibid. Where kept with advantage - 758 Best managf-;nent of - ibid. Dovecotes should be kept clean, and frecfrom vermin - 759 BEES - - 760 May be kept with advantage in some cases ibid. Most proper situations for (hem - ibid. Methods of purchasing stocks of them 762 Best consiruction of hives - 768 Profits of them ibid. FISH-PONDS - - 764 Advantageous in some cases - ibid. Methods of constructing - ibid. Expenccs of them - 765 Manner of stocking them in different cases ibid. With carp 760 Tench, perch, &c. - ibid. Profit of them under different circumstances 767 APPENDIX. COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL LAWS RELATING TO AGRICULTURE, ^ I PAGE. CHAP. L Of the relative rights of land- lord and tenant, in including a concise statement of the doctrine respecting leases 1 CHAP. II. Forms of leases, with notes illus trative of the operation and effect of the covenants The lease of a farm for twenty-one years, with covenants directing the course of hus- toaudr), according to the Western prac tice 7 Form of a Uase of a farm in theMidland dis trict, for twenty one years, commencing as to several parts at distant periods, and subject to rents and reserva tions - 12 PAGE. Form of a lease for a long term of years, from the lord of a manor, determinate on the death of the lessee 20 Form of a lease of lands in Devonshire for a term of twenty-one years, determinable at the end of the first seven or fourteen years on a notice from either of the par- tics - 25 Form of a contract used in Dorsetshire and. other counties in the West of England, for letting a dairy of cows 30- Form of a lease for a further term of years, before the expiration of the exist : ng term, by an indorsement on the original demise or lease . . . 33 CONTENTS; Xtffi PAGE. Form of an assignment of a lease by indorse ment - 34 Form of an agreement for a house and land ; and to grant a lease at the end of the term, if required. - - 36 CHAP. III. Of the duration of leases ; and herein of the means by which they may be determined 38 CHAP. IV. Of rent and taxes - 39 CHAP. V. Of tithes; and herein of the maa- fAGE. ner of setting out and taking the same, conformable to the statutes and adjudged cases respecting ttthes 49 CHAP. VI. Of the highway duty 44 CHAP. VII. Of wrongs in respect to the rights of landlords . 5* CHAP. VIII. Wrongs in respect of the rights of tenants . - - 53 INDEX - 63 MST OF PLATES* IN THE SECOND VOLUME* I. Herefordshire Bull .:........ to face the Title, II. Bean Drill to face Page 77 III. Potatoe Harrow ..... . 11 6 IV. Turnip Slicers ............................. . 157 V. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass...... ........ ....... .... 313 VI. Meadow Foxtail Grass 319 VII. Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass t 320 VIII. Rough-frtalked Meadow Grass 321 IX. Meadow Fescue Grass.... 322 X. Sheep s Fescue Grass...*.. -- ibid. XI. Hard Fescue Grass 323 XII. Crested Dog s tail Grass ibid. XIII. Common Ray Grass i 324 XIV. Rough Cocksfoot Gvass 327 XV. White Clover - 329 XVI. Trefoil, or Nonsuch 330 XVII. Bird s-foot Trefoil --, 331 XVIII. Red Clover. 353 XIX. Saintfoin 368 XX. Lucem.-.. . . ...... .. . .... 373 XXI. Irrigation.. .......--.------ ................... 436" XXII. Watering of Land , 43i> XXIII. Watering of Land r 442 XXIV. Sussex Bull 654, XXV. Sussex Oxen.... ........... ibid. XXVI. Herefordshire Oxen ^ 655 XXVII. Dishly Ram 672 XXVIII. Dishly Ewe ... ibid. XXIX. SouthDowu Ram 6?7 XXX. South Down Ewe ibid.- XXXI. Suffolk Punches... 708 XXXII. Horses ^ 709 XXXIII. Swine 731 "XXXJV, Macbiue for weighing Live .Stock. ....... ....... .....732: PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. PART THE THIRD. TILLAGE CULTIVATION, SECTION I. Cultivation of Arable Land, Grain and Puke Crops. CROPS Landfor,Jfiould be in ajine condition of furf ace mould atten tion neceffary alfo to a proper Jiate ofdrynefs in proper modes of culture in different forts of. WHEAT different forts of moft proper kinds for cultivation in different cafes oft Spring-wheat nature of time of f owing of proper methods of management of in the experience of different cultiva-- tors. Common wheat fucceeds left onjlrong rich foils after what crops fown proper preparation oflandfoi proper crops for being cultivated M * after proper time of fowing in different cafes of- proportions of feed ne* ceffary under different circumftances modes of after-culture ofpra&ice. of tranfplanting of- advantages and difadvant ages of feeding ofwilhjhecp.-~ Infe&s prejudicial to~-mode$ of dtftroy ing of ~ vegetable difeqfes VOL. II. B <g Cultivation of Arable Land* dew blight blaft -fmut -fteeps for removing of free air proper for weeds injurious to whcat~*~charlock corn poppy cockle, darnel couch coltsfoot. Produce of wheat crops. RYE, different kinds of time and method of fowing of quantity of feed after-culture of- ufeof. BUCK WHEAT, utility of crops of foils proper for a fort of crop little known to farmers proper modes of preparation for highly valuable for fowing grafs- feeds with feed, proportion of time offowing of after-culture of crops of application of crops of in foiling cattle, and for milch cows in Icing fed down green by hogs advantages of after-tares as a preparation for wheat fame times nfefully cultivated injlead of barley cir cum fiances to be attended to in harvejling it. BARLEY kinds of preparation of land for crops cultivated after time of f owing of quantity of feed for after culture of crops of produce of . OATS, kinds of preparation of land for time offowing of proportion of feed after-culture of crops of* PEAS, kinds of-foil and preparation for-time of fowing proportion of feed modes of putting in crops of- culture afterwards methods of gathering green reaping crops of BEANS, kinds of cultivated foil and preparation for time of fowing feed neceffaryfor different methods offowing of bean-drill proper for after-culture of crops of implements proper for improper practice of blending! crops of injured by black dolphin blight on figns of ripening of methods of reaping and preferring crops of cut by reaping-hook mowing oj pulling of modes of tying upofJheaves ff /hould not be too large Jetting up of what neceffary in produce (f crops of- in different kinds ofJlraw of highly ufeful for purpofes of food for animals for purpofes of litter caving chaff of a good manger* food for horfes application of crops offiubble of Jhould be immediately removed when wheat i* fown after this readily effected by /puddling this mojl proper on heavy lands improper on light lands. jl N the cultivation of moft forts of corn crops, it is eflentially necciTary that the foil fhould be reduced to a confiderable degree of finenefs, or what by writers on hufbandry is termed tilth, as where this is not the cafe they can neither be fo well provided with nourifhment nor be kept fufficiently clean from weeds. There arc alfo other reafons that demand the fuperfieial parts of foils to be in a fine con dition for the reception of grain crops, which are ihofe of the tender roots of the Cultivation of Arable Land* <~TV hctit t different Sorts of. 3 -young plants being thus rendered more capable of cftablifhing themfclves per fectly in the mould, and of drawing from it a more regular fupply of food from the more equal diffufion of moifture that mud take place. Beftdes, it is favoura ble in other ways; the feed is not only more perfectly but more equally covered, in confequcnce of which the vegetation of the grain is more equal and expeditious.* But, independent of the ftate of the foil in regard to tilth, it fhould be in a fuitable fituation in refpect to drynefs ; as, where the feed is put in where there is too great a degree of moifture in the foil, it may fuftain injury by becoming rotten before the vegetative procefs commences, as frequently .happens to pea and other garden crops when put in during the winter months ; and where the land is in too dry a ftate at the- period of fo wing the grain, injury may be fuftained by the want of that degree of moifture which is necefTary for perfect vegetation. Befides, under this laft circumftance, it may be more liable to be deftroyed by worms, grubs, or other infects. In thefe views the agricultor mould therefore be equally attentive to the preparation of the land, and the ftate or condition, in which it may be cropped with the greateft chance of fuccefs. Wheat. This is a fort of crop which, from its being capable of fuftainingthe feverity of winter in moft cafes without much injury, muft be conftdered of a hardy nature. Of this kind of grain there are two diftinct fpecies cultivated in this country; thefmooth or polled wheat, and that which has a rough or bearded ear. The firft fort, of which there are many varieties, is by much the moft cul tivated, as it affords the fineft kind of flour ; but the latter, which is frequently termed rivet wheat, from its being capable of yielding a large produce on the more ftiffand wet clayey forts of foil, as well as from its being lefs, liable to difeafe, and injury from wet when cut, is not unfrequently grown where fuch forts of land prevail. The common wheat is moft adapted to the dry and mellow kinds of foil, but may be cultivated on others where proper care is taken to keep the moifture from ftagnating too much on the land.j- * Section on Fallowing of Land. t It is observed by Mr. Boys, an intelligent cultivator in the county of Kent, that the number of forts of this grain is annually increafmg, by importation from foreign countries. And that the old forts, are the brown and yellow lammas, the white straw, Fulham, and the white or egg-shell. The brown lammas was the fort chiefly cultivated in that county, till within thefe twenty or thirty years; but it has now given way to a variety of new kinds, as well as fome of the other old forts. He found it from experiment the leaft productive of the several kinds. It is, he fays, the common brown-strawcd wheat, that grows with a long jointed ear, the chaff of a B 2 4 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat, different Sorts of. The bearded or rivet kind is likewife faid, by fome cultivators, to be the moft fuited to fuch kinds of rich land as have been newly broken up, where there may dark brown colour, the ft raw long and apt to fall, the hull or bran thin, the flour very white, and the Corn mellow in grinding, for which reafon it is elleemed by the millers as the beft of the old forts for their ufc. The yellow lammas referubles the brown in every refpect, except that the colour of the grain is of a yellow hue, and the chaff of a fomcwhat lighter colour. Mr. Young mentions a red lammas which has a red ftraw. red ear, and red kernel ; it is reckon ed by many farmers the beft of all the forts hitherto known ; yielding the fineft and whiteft flour. The -chite-strawcd wheat takes its name, Mr. Boysobferves, from the colour of its ear; and in other counties bears the appellation of the Kentish -white-straw. It fends out a greater number of ftems from the ftool or plant than the other forts, and by that means is often a very thick crop on the land. The ftraw is generally Come what fhorter than that of many other forts, and not quite fo liable to fall in. rainy feafons. It is on thefe accounts much fown in the eaftern part of that county ; but, from its dull colour, its having a thick bran, and often grinding very fteely, is not much approved of by the mil ers. The FuUiam, it is alfo obferved, produces a white ftraw, which grows fhort and coarfe : it is very productive, efpecially on poor land ; but the grain is very coarfe, and the bran thick : from which, eircumftances it is the leaft valuable to the millers of any of the above kinds. The white., or egg-shell wheat, is known by its producing a white ftraw, a fraooth white chaff, and very white grain ; the bran of which is fomcwhat thick, but the flour remarkably white. It works mellow in grinding, is very early ripe, and fo free in the ear as to blow out in windy weather. The new forts of wheat in that county are the hoary white, tinenonpartil, thepilbeam, the square-ear, aud the hoary brown. The hoary white, by fome called the velvet -eared, is by far the moil valuable;, tecaufe it is very productive, and the beft for the millers ufe. The ftraw is white and fhort, the chaff covered with a thick fine down, fomewhat of a brownifh hue; the grain remarkably fmall, and of a dull white colour ; the bran very thin, fo that fome grains are alinoft tranfparent when held up to the Jight. It grinds very mellow, and makes a beautiful fine white flour. From the quantity of down upon the chaff, arid its fmall ears binding up very clofe in the fheaf, in a rainy feafon it is apt to vege tate very freely in the field ; on which account it is not fo proper to cultivate in a moift climate, and in fmall inclofures that are not open to the winds and fun. The nonpareil is a fort faid to be brought into this country from America ; it has a bright ftraw with brown ear ; and the grain is very white, large, and plump. It is very productive on all foils, thrafhes very free, and yields, in that operation, the greater part of its chaff; thereby producing a great quan* tity of horfe-meat. It grinds very mellow, and is well efteemed by the millers. The pilbeam is a brown wheat, growing very ftiff, and is generally thick on the land. The ^rain is mall and plump, fomewhat of a yellow brown. It is faid to be very productive on rich lands and is a valuable kind to mix with others, but will not of itfelf make good bread, from its not working pro perly in the act of fermentation. The square-cared wheat is a very productive kind ; but is apt to drop out in the field before it is ripe and in gales of wind, from which it is not much cultivated. TUe hoary brown is but lately introduced, and therefore little known. Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat > different Sorts oj. Spring-Wheat. $ be danger of the crop lodging from too great luxuriance, as it pofTcfTes the pro perty of a greater firmnefs of draw.* Among the numerous varieties of the fmooth or polled kind of wheat, the white and the red are the moft efteemed in general ; the former affording the whiteft flour, while the latter has the greater produce. There is likewife another fort of this grain that may probably be cultivated to advantage in particular cafes, as where the turnip fyftem is much practifed, or other forts of green vegetables produced on an extentive fcale for the winter fup- port of animals, and where the fituation is warm, and early. This is the kind known to farmers by the name of fpring wbsat y from the circumftance of its. being put into the ground at that period. The culture of this fort has,, however, hitherto been introduced only in a partial manner. The Rev. Dr. Pike, upon the conviction ofmanyexperiments,obferves "that wheat will thrive as well and produce as full a crop, if fown in the fpring, as if it had been committed to the ground the autumn before; and in many fituation she is of opinion (where it is fubject to much wet during the winter] the crop will be much better in quality and more abundantin quantity. <f I have frequently fown/ fays he, " in the Ipring both the white and the Kentifh red wheat, fometimes as late as the mid dle of March, and never had a crop fail that was fbwn at that time : nor have I ever found any conliderable difference in the times when the autumnal and the fpring crops ripened." Dr. Wilkinfon, ofEnfield, an intelligent agricuitor, recommends the cultivation of fpring-wheat, as a fpecies of grain which, although fown fo late as the i ithof May, he has found, by experience, to ripen with the autumnal wheat. He ob- There is alfo a loary white fort, which has white ftraw, ear and grain. And Clarke wheat, which has a red blofibm, chaff, and ftraw, but white grain, is much cultivated in. Suflex. Hedge -wheat, which is white and very productive. Velvet wheat, which is diftincl from the hoary white, but is white, and though not weighty, affords much flour, having a very thin fkin. There are alfo different varieties of cone wheat, and this fort is named from the form of the ear. There are two forts of rivet wheat, the white and brown ; neither of which are much cultivated in Kent. They both ripen late in the feafon, and are fo coarfe and fteely as to be unfit for making bread, wnlefs mixed with a large proportion of a better fort of flour. They, however, produce very abund ant crops on ftrong wet lands. * This fort, Mr. Young fays, is productive on very poor, cold, wet land ; but it is a coarfe grain, felling at an inferior price. <6 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat, different Sorts of* Spring-wheat* ferves " that fpring- wheat was known to the Romans as a fpecies diftincT: from the common wheat, and defcribed as fuchby Columella, who conceived it very accepta ble to the farmer, when, on account of floods, or rains, or other caufes, he had been prevented from fowing the autumnal kind . And Mr. Dickfon, in his account of the Agriculture of the Antients, took it for granted that it had never been cultivated in England, and exprefTed a wim that the experiment might be made. Heconfiders it as well adapted to the wet climate of Scotland, where, owing to heavy rains, the farmers are frequently reftricled in regard to the quantity of wheat that can be fown. Common wheat, he fays, has been fown in fpring in Scotland, but has frequently failed. By Linnaeus it is termed Triticum aftfaum, fummer or fpring wheat. " It has four flowers in the calyx, three of which mofily bear grain : the calyxes ftand pretty diftant from each other on both fides of aflat fmooth receptacle. The leaves of the calyx are keel ihaped, fmooth, and they terminate with a fhort arifta. The glumes of the flowers are fmooth and bellying, and the outer leaf of the glumes in every calyx is terminated by a long arifta ; but the three inner ones are beardlefs. The grain is rather longer and thinner than the common wheat. It is fuppofed to be a native of fome part of Tartary.* " Mr. Ray alfo, he fays, clafTes it as a diftincT: fpecies. It is generally fuppofed to have been introduced into this country about the year 1773, under the name of Siberian wheat, Switzerland wheat, or bled de Mars. It is however mentioned by Harrifon, an hiftorian in the time of Elizabeth, though he fays it was known only to few hufbandmen. " In Defile s Memoirs of Agriculture and other (^Economical Arts, Vol. III. a de tail, the Docftor obferves, is given of fome experiments on the cultivation of this wheat, communicated by feveral gentlemen to the Society of Arts. The obferva- tions there recorded, he fays, agree with his own experience. The lateft fown, how ever, was the latter end of April; the produce is dated at three and two quarters per acre. The experiments feem to agree in deciding, that no advantage was gained by fowing it early. Wheat fown in April is ripened as early as what had been fown the beginning of March. That it does not tiller like common wheat, but moots up immediately from its firft appearance above ground. That the grains are fmaller than common wheat, but increafe in fize when Yown on rich land. That it is liable to the fmut. That it would fucceed in the fens and low lands, * Bryant s Flora Diaetetica. Cultivation of Jr able Land Wheat, different Sorts of. Spring-wheat. 7 which are fubjecl: to winter-floods. That it would be worth trying in the moun tainous parts of Derbyfliire, Yorkfliire,.&c. where little or no wheat is fown, the fit nation being too cold for wheat fovvn in the autumn to Rand the feverity of winter frofts, and rain, without perifhing. In the fir ft volume of the Tranfactions of the Society of A rts> Sir Wm. Fordyce, he remarks, gives an account of an experi ment on fpring or Siberian wheat, in which two bumels of wheat produced two- quarters of grain. It was fown the beginning of April, after turnips, and was found to prove an excellent nurfe of clover and rye-grafs, fown at the fame time. The turnips had been drawn, and not fed off by fhcep : the foil a mixture of gravel and clay. And in the Annals of Agriculture, Vols. VII. and X., fome im portant experiments on fpring wheat are recorded by Mr. Ruggles, of Clare, Seed two and three bumels per acre ; the produce from two to three quarters. Time of fowing the end of March. Mr. Ruggles obferves, that this wheat is apt to receive injury from froft and dry weather. That it requires a dry mouldy foil ;, if moift, fb much the better; but he does not conceive the crop equal to fpring corn, unlefs the price of wheat mould exceed the average difference between that grain and barley, or when, from an uncommon quantity of rain in autumn, the wet lands may not have been fown. The weight lixty-three pounds. and a quarter each bufhel, containing eight gallons three pints. Mr. Ducket, the Doctor fays, has cultivated fpring-wheat on a large fcale. He drills two bumels per acre,, about the middle of March. He has grown it on the fame land for three years fucceflively. He has reaped this wheat on the 25th of July, got in turnips, and then wheat again in fpring. And Mr. Marfhall, in his Survey of the Midland- Counties, remarks, that fpring-wheat is cultivated and approved of in that diftridh- It was likewife Hated in the General Evening Poft of November i2th, 1800, that in an account of an experiment made that year on the genuine fpring-wheat : (< A perfon at Bridgenorth fowed ten acres with the above wheat on the 29th and 3oth of April, which produced on the average more than twenty. one threaves, com- mon-fized fheaf, per acre; and, from a trial made of its produce, yielded more than fixty quarts of fine wheat per threave. Seven acres was a two-year old clover- Jey, cold clay land, ploughed more than feven months before fowing. Four acres of the above feven were manured with four hundred bumels of lime before fowing, the other three with one hundred bufiiels of foot fix weeks after. The remaining three acres were fown on rather light land after turnips. The whole fown on one ploughing, and houfed early in September." The refult of the Doctor s extenfive experience on the cultivation of fpring Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat, different Sorts of. Spring-wheat. uheat is as follows : " i. That it is a diftincl: fpecies of wheat, as obferved by Columclla, Linnaeus, and Ray. He has fown it in fpring, at the fame time, and in the fame field, with common wheat. The common wheat failed, while the fpring-wheat rofe to a crop, idly, That being liable to be hurt by the froft, no ad vantage is gained by early fowing. That though the proper feafon may be about the middle of April, yet it may be fown fo late as the 1 5th of May, as he found by experience laft year, when, notwithftanding the unfavourable feafon, it ripened before barley fown at the fame time, and on the fame field, and was cut on the 2oth of September, immediately after the autumn-fown wheat; the crop two quarters per acre. 3dly, That about two bulhels may be the proper quantity of feed per acre ; uhen drilled, lefs ; his has been fown broad-caft. That the average produce may be about two quarters per acre, unlefs when fown after turnips fed off by fhcep, when he has gained three quarters per acre. 4thly, That the ave rage value may be about is. lefs per bufhel than the common wheat. He fold this year the fpring wheat at IDS. while us. was given for the common fort. 5thly, That being a fmallcr grain than the common wheat, it ripens earlier and with lefs fun : in a wet harveft, therefore, it dries fooner for grinding, as he ex perienced laft year. That it receives but little injury from a wet fummer and au tumn, but will ripen earlier than barley in fuch a feafon. And, tfthly, That when harrowed in on autumn-fown wheat, in places where the crop has failed, it will ripen at the fame time without injuring thefample; which would not be the cafe with either barley or oats. It may therefore, he thinks, on a larg farm, de- fervethe attention of the hufbandman, and be worth his while always to cultivate a fmall quantity, as the beft means of reftoring a thin wheat crop. Magazan beans, when dibbled in, will anfwer the fame purpofe, but perhaps not equally well, as they may be longer in drying than the wheat.*" But though Dr. Wilkinfon recommends the Triticum <eftfoum as beft adapted for fpring culture, Dr. Pike thinks that in fome northern parts ofthe iiland, where the common wheat is generally found to fail when fown in fpring, it may probably be fo : but continues his afTertio-n that he has repeatedly fown both the common red or Kentifh wheat, and the white, in the fpring, and had excellent crops. Dr. Pike has not, however, mentioned the nature of his land. The former of the above writers has likewife given fome ufeful obfervations, *he refult of his own experience, on the nature and cultivation of another kind of -* Monthly Magazine, Vol. IX. p. 244. Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Soils proper for. 9 wheat, ufually known by the title of Egypt Jan or prolific wbraf, though little at tended to by writers on hufbanclry. He found the fir (I year, on three acres of inoift loam, which had been previoufly fallowed, that nine buihds of feed produced nine quarters of wheat. In .the fame field, after a fimilar preparation, the fame proportion of white wheat, fown at the fame time, produced three quarters four bufhcls per acre. In both cafes the fallow was drefled with about one hundred bufhels of lime per acre, at yd. per bufhel delivered. Four bufliels of the Egyp tian wheat, though weighing four pounds more than the fame quantity of white wheat, yet produced twelve pounds lefs of flour, the bran being coarfer and heavier. " After the month of May the growth was more rapid than that of common wheat ; on which account, he mould fuppofe it might be fown with advantage in fpring. The enfuing fpring will prefent a fair opportunity for the trial. The flraw fo nearly refembles a reed, that it has been called reed wheat. Being heavy and tough, it is cut with difficulty ; on which account the reapers require an ex traordinary price. It is excellent for thatching, and he has employed it for this purpofe on a large hay-barn. The truiTes, on account of their weight, would appear fo finall that the flraw would apt be faleable in the London market. The ears are bearded like the cone wheat, but in fhape referable the fquare wheat or rivet. The length of the flraw and weight of the ear make it liable to lodge. " On expofing it tofale, he found the millers not inclined to purchafe it. They complain that it is of too homey a nature; that it grinds hard, and obliges them to fet their floncs too clofe. The flour is coarfer and darker than that of the com mon wheat. A miller who purchafed fome was charged by his cuflomers with grinding rivets. Great part of the crop fold at a price but little above that of good barley. As the crop, though apparently thin on the ground, had yielded three quarters per acre, he entertained hopes that the cultivation might anfwcr, even at the price of barley, if on lighter land, and a warmer foil, he could fecure a larger produce. With this view, therefore, the following year, he fowed on a lighter loam two acres with this wheat, and the remaining fix acres of the field with the common red wheat : the whole on a clover ley. The produce of the red wheat was three quarters per acre, but of the Egyptian not above two quarters per acre ; and he found great difficulty in difpofing of it even at the price of barley. He concludes, therefore, that this wheat will not anfwer in this country, where wheat of a fuperior quality can be cultivated to advantage, unlcfs it can be intro duced as a fpring corn. He has ilnce met with an account of this grain having VOL. II, C 10 Cultivation of Arable Land. JVheat. Soils proper for . been fovvn in the fpring as Egyptian or Siberian barley, under which name it was introduced into this country in the year 1767*." " The Rev. Dr. Pike has fown it as fpring corn in the middle of April, and has had above four quarters per acre. It was on very good land, and kept perfectly clean from weeds. If it be truly a native of Egypt, he fhould have judged, that a light but very rich foil might have been mod proper for it : neverthelefs, he thinks he has found, that (like Englifh rivets) ftrong land fuits it bed. It gives a very bold, plump, found grain, of a good colour. He cannot think that it is the fame as the Siberian wheat (or barley, as fomehave called it). The grains do not an- fwer the defcription which fome authors give of that fpecies. That was, he fays, introduced into this country about the year which Dr. Wilkinfon mentions : but this was known here at leaft above 1 20 years before ; for he has found a fhort def cription, and a tolerably good figure, of it in Parkinfon, page 1120, under the name of Triticum multiplici fpicd. In the figure, its very remarkable diftinction from all other forts -is well exprefled, by a number of fhort ears growing out of the lides of the chief ears. He calls it in Englifh double-eared wheat, and fays that it grows about Lyons in Francef." Common wheat is a kind of grain found from experience to fucceed in general to moft advantage on fuch foils as are of the more deep, ftrong, and fertile nature; but where the fuperficial parts are not fo ftifF or adhefive as to be incapable of falling down or breaking into a fine ftate. It may, however, be grown on the lighter defcriptions of land, and in many inftances afford good crops, though it has been well remarked by a practical writer, that, when introduced on fuch foils as are very light, whether of the fandy, gravelly, or chalky kind, a practice too common in moft diftricts where they prevail, great lofs muft be fuftained in a na- jtional point of view, from fuch lands being more adapted to the production of other forts of crops ,*J Wheat is the fort of grain moft generally fown where the land has received the preparation of a complete fummer fallowing; but it is probable that, except in particular kinds of land, as thcfe of the ftifF clayey nature, and under particu lar circumftances, as where they are moift, and have much tendency to the throwing up of weeds, jj it may Li: grown to much more advantage after many * Monthly Magazine, Vol. XVI. p. 132. f Ibid. + Donaldfon s Modern Agriculture, p. II Seftion on Fallowing of Land. Cultivation of Arable Land Wheat. Preparation of Land for. 1 1 different kinds of green root and other crops.* In this way it may be fown after clover, tares, peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, and many fimilar crops, ac cording to the quality and the ftate of the land. In diftricls \vhere the flax and hemp culture is praclifed, it may likewife in fome cafes be put in after fuch crops. Mr. Young confiders well cultivated beans as the beft preparation for this crop, and from experiment has found clover next, and then tares. In Norfolk, wheat is feldom fown after the preparation of a complete fummer fallowing ; there, wheats almoft invariably fucceed clover, unlefs a pea or bean crop beinterpofed, and the land is fcarcely ever fallowed for it, except in the cafe of lajlardfwnmer-tills. But in whatever method, or after whatever kind of crop, this fort of grain may be cultivated, the foil mould conftantly undergo that degree of preparation that may be fufficient, according to the particular circumftanees of the land, to bring it into aflate of confiderable pulverization and mellownefs, efpecially in the more fuperficial parts, as well as to prevent as much as- poflible the rifing of weeds ; for, whoever has attended to the progrefs of this fort of crop in fuch lands as have been well broken down and reduced, and in fuch as have been left in a lumpy crude ftate at the time of fowing, will have found the difference to be very confiderable. When this kind of crop is taken after clover, the land feldom undergoes more than one ploughing, which is moftly given immediately before the feed is fown. But as the gralfy matter in many cafes where this mode is adopted, is extremely apt to rife and injure the crops in the more early flages of their growth, it may be better to follow the practice adopted in fome diftric ts of uling a ikim-coultered plough,-)- as by this contrivance the remains of the * It has been well remarked by Mr. Young in his valuable Calendar of Hufbandry, that 41 if there is one practice in hufl>andry proved by modern improvements to be worfe than another, it is that of fowing wheat on fallows: all he (hall therefore obferve under this head is, to note that in fome counties the fallows are ploughed juft before harveft on to two bout ridges, ready to plough and fow under furrow in the fpraining method, a feedfman to every plough which reverfes the ridges. In others they lay their lands into ten or twelve furrow flitches or lands, and fow fome under furrow, fome under the harrow. Ridges vary exceedingly, according to their wetnefs ; and in Kent they have by means of the turn-wreil plough , no lands at all, but a whole field one even Surface. It wouM be ufelefs, he says, to expatiate on the circumftanees of fallow-wheat, which ought no where to be found. If fallows be, or are thought neceffary, kt them y says he, be fown with barley or oats, or with. any thing but wheat. i This purpofe may be effected by any common plough, to the coulter of which an iron fin or plate is attached by means of a fcrew or rivet, at the diftance of about four inches from the point, 13 Cultivation of Arable Land. H 7 hcat. Preparation of Land for. clover weeds and grafTy material on the furface may be cut or fkimmed off, and turned into the bottom of the furrow, where they are immediately covered with the loofe mould from below, to fuch a depth that little or no inconvenience can be fuftained from them, while the land is thus rendered more clean, and capa ble of being harrowed in a more perfect manner than where the common plough only is employed. Befides, perhaps a better bed of mould is turned up in this way for the feed to vegetate in, provided the furrow is not made of too great a depth and breadth, and remain fome time before it be fown, which mould con- flantly be attended to by the agricultor in preparing this fort of ground for wheat crops. But it is the cuftom of fome places* where the land is often continued for nearly two fcafons in the ftate of clover, to break them up about the latter end of June, in the fecond giving them two and fometimes three ploughings. Where the fituation is favourable, and the weather turns out fuit- able for reducing the foil to a proper ftate of tilth, this may bean advantageous practice, as by fuch means great benefit may be obtained by cutting the grafs in the beginning of the feafon in which it is to be ploughed up ; but where circum- frances of fo favourable a nature do not occur, fuch a method of preparation muft be lefs beneficial than that of giving only one ploughing. A fingular experiment of Mr. Ducket s is mentioned in the Farmer s Calen der in preparing clover lay for wheat <f he had a field in which wheat rarely ef. caped being greatly ot-fallen: not to lofe fowing it with that grain, and at the fame time to guard againft the experienced malady, he fcarified it repeatedly, till he had torn up the clover, and alfo gained tilth enough for drilling in; then he collected the clover fragments, and carted them into the farm-yard to make dun"" and drilled the field ; the wheat having a firm bottom in an unftirred foil, efcaped the difeafc, and yielded an ample produce : very fingular huibandry, Mr. Youno- cbferves, and admirably adapted to the peculiarity of the foil. The clover-bulb which would have fecured the dreaded loofencfs had it been turned down, made a large quantity of dung, and therefore was not loft to the farm, though the parti cular field was deprived of i.e. No faving in expcnfc was here made, it is added but an extraordinary one incurred - f but it fecured a crop where other wife there would have been none," J t has been juftly remarked, by an agricultor of confiderable experience, that * This is the pra&ice i.n the counties of Norfolk and Warwick, according to the author of Modern Agriculture, Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat* Crops cultivated after. 13 in cafes where the clover crops have been fuch as to leave the land in a foul con dition in refpect to weeds, it would be highly improper to fow them with this fort of grain, as from its remaining for fuch a great length of time upon the ground, they may be liable to have their feeds perfectly evolved and brought into the flare of vegetation. In fuch cafes, he fuggefts it as more advantageous to have recourfc to fuch forts of crops as may require the frequent operation of hoeing during their growth.* Wheat crops fometimes fucceed thofe of the pea kind,; but this is a practice that may probably be purfued with the moft propriety and fuccefs in thofe diftricts that are from the nature of their fituation fufficiently early to admit of the land being fully cleaned and prepared by repeated ploughing and harrowing after .fuch crops have been removed, before the proper time of fowing fuch grain. But where they are fo late as only to allow of the land being prepared by one plough ing before the period of fowing, it is fuppofed by fbme to be an extremely ha zardous practice to attempt the culture of wheat after fuch crops, as unlefs the ground be in a high ftate of tilth, there is little chance of a good crop being pro duced, -j* In Norfolk, however, they are in the conftant habit of fetting wheat uponapea- flubble with a fingle ploughing, and coniider it very fafe and excellent hufband ry : the pea-crop ought to have been kept clean, and, after it is harveftcd, the haulm harrowed off. They never plough a bean Hubble more than once. It is the regular practice of fome counties to cultivate beans and wheat alter nately on the fame land for fome time. This is the cafe on the ftrongcr kinds of foil in the county of Kent, on which it is found to anfwer in a very beneficial manner. And where wheat is only occafionally fown after fuch crops, as is the cafe in many diftricts, it is alfo frequently found an ufeful practice ; but in all fuch cafes the beans fhquld be cultivated in drills at from twenty to thirty inches diftance, in order that they may admit of being hand and horfe hoed in the moll perfect manner. If this method has been followed, and thebufmefs of hoeing during the growth of the crops effectually performed, the land may be fuffi ciently prepared for the fucceeding wheat crops by once ploughing, as the foil, from being thus kept clean, and in high tilth, canfcarcely fail of affording a good produce.^ * Miildleton, in correftcd Report of Miildlefcx. i Modern Agriculture, vol. II, p. 273. % It is obferved by Mr. Young that where the farmer has a bean ftubble intended to be fown \\ith 14- Cultivation &f Arable Land. Whtat. Crops cultivated ftffer. In the more early diftricfls, and where the lands are preferved in good order by judicious modes of cropping, wheat may alfo be grown after beans, whether cultivated in the drill or broadcaft fyftem, with fuccefs, as there may be fufficient time to give the neceiTary preparation before the period of fowing ; which cannoc be the cafe, as has been feen, where they are late, and there is only time for once ploughing.! In other places it is, however, found advantageous when this fort of crop is ta be grown after either peas, beans, or tares, to plough the land in as light or fhal. low a manner as poflible, and then harrow and rake out the roots and weeds, fo as that they may be con fumed on the ground in heaps ; the field being after this formed into proper ridges for the reception of the feed by ploughing again a few inches deeper than at the firft. And in fome cafes it is even harrowed after the fecond ploughing, and ploughed a third time. J Wheat is occafionally cultivated after turnip crops ; and which may in many wheat, he fnould give it the due tiHage as early as poffible which fhould be regulated by the foil, as ore fome it may be better to truft to the (kirn, fcarifiers, and fcufflers, than the plough. Where the land is very clean, the great fkim of the ifle of Thane t is capable of culling through every thing, and loofer* the furface fufficiently to enable the harrows to render it as fine as poflible, being picked and burned by women- Where not fo clean, the Kentifh broad -mare maybe more effective. In other cafes- the fcuffler may be fufficient for the purpofe. It is added, that " when he has got the furface to his mind, he is to confider whether or not he mould plough it, which is advifable if the foil be of a firm, folid, tenacious quality, and if he does not intend to drill the wheat: if he (the farmer) ploughs fuch. a foil, he may not have any apprehenfion of root-fallen wheat, failing roots from a loofe bottom ; but he will bring up a new furface that may drill with difficulty, whereas that which has received the influences of the crop, atmofphere, and of his late operations, will be in exactly the right temper for the drill to work in. If the foil is of a more loofe, friable quality, and he fhould plough down the fine furface he has gained, he will give the wheat too loofe a bottom, and he will run the chance of a root-fallen crop. In all fuch cafes, or in any that have a tendency to this circumftanee, he- fhould determine not to plough at all, but drill directly ; a method in which he faves tillage, and has the probability of a better produce. This is a new practice on ftrong land, but he has feen, fuch fuccefs in it as leaves no reafon for doubting the foundnefs of its principles. Mr. Ducket, on a fandy foil, did it, he fays, for years, and with great effect. It fhould be remembered, that whatever other circumftances may influence the growth of this grain, it loves a firm bottom to root in, and rarely flourifhes to profit when it is loofe and crumbly ; nor will a depth of fueh mould do if the under ilra- tum in which it will attempt to fix its roots, be from its quality repellent. The heft bafis is the iil- tivatablc earth firm from not having been lately difturbed." i Donaldfon s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. J Middleton s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefex, p. 166, Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Crops cultivated after. u cafes be practifed to advantage on the heavier turnip foils, efpecially where they have been kept clean from weeds by repeated hoeing, and confumcd upon the land, at fuch early periods as to admit of the ground being prepared by once ploughing in a light manner. The late crops on the lighter forts of land may be more properly managed by fowing them with fpring wheat, or leaving them for barley, for either of which they may be prepared by two or three mallow ploughings. Spring wheat in this mode of preparation has, in fome cafes, been, found to approach that of the autumnal fowing. Where the turnip crops are late, and cannot be confumed in fufficient time for the land to be prepared fo as that the feed may be put in before December, it is probably the moft fafe method to let it remain to be fown in the fpring, as by fuch means there will bean opportunity of getting the ground into a proper ftate of preparation for the reception of the feed, which could not otherwife be the cafe. And under fuch circumflances it is undoubtedly the moft advantageous plan to employ that fort of wheat which is ufually known by the name of fpring wheat , as from its early nature it is more adapted to be fown at fuch a feafon. Where this fort of crop is intended to be cultivated after potatoes, which as they have a great tendency to lighten the foil in a very great degree, as well as to exhauft it, fliould never be the cafe on the lighter forts of land in backward Ctuations, or under any circumftances where a fufticient proportion of manure has not been applied for the potatoe crops, one light ploughing immediately before the feed is put in may be in moft cafes an adequate preparation, as where proper attention has been beftowcd in the culture of fuch crops, the foil is generally left in a fufficiently fine condition. It has, indeed, been obferved by an intelligent cultivator, that the caufe of \vheat not fucceeding well after potatoe crops in many inftances is, that, befides the land being rendered too light and porous by the growth and cultivation that are requifite for them, the wheat is more expofed to the injurious attacks of the grub, earth-worm, and other infects ; and in fome expofed fituations, from the feed-time being too long protracted, the practice becomes obvioufly improper.* In fituations where flax and hemp are grown, this kind of grain may frequently be cultivated to advantage after them, in which circumftances, as weeds are apt to rife, it is always proper that the land fliould be ploughed over two or three times, in order that a fine ftate of tilth may be produced. The cuftom of giving * Middleton, in Report of Middlefex, }6 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Crops cultivated after. 1 . but one earth after (uch forts of crops can feldom or ever inftire an abundant pro* duce. Experience has fhcwn, in the mod clear and fatisfactory manner, that this fort of crop fnou Id never, where it can be avoided, be grown after other kinds of grain crop, as rye, barley, or oats; and that the manure mould not be applied to it, but for fuch crops as may precede it.* Where the contrary practice is adopted, the crop is not only liable to be injured by the rampant growth of weeds, but from its being more apt to be difeafed. Whatever the nature of the ground may be, or the kinds of crops that pre cede this fort of grain, it- "would feem that the preparation mould always be fuch as has a tendency to reduce the foil to a pretty high degree of pulverifation, as under fuch circumfbmces the vegetation of the crop is not only more perfect and uniform, but, from the evennefs of the furface, and compact Irate in which it is left, is more fit for affording fupport arid protection to the roots of the plants, by allowing them to fpread and extend themfclves with greater readinefs in the fine mould thus provided, as well as by its falling down moreclofely about them. It has, notwithftanding, been maintained by fome agricultors, probably without fufficiently attending to the fubject, that a rough or cloddy fhite of the furface is the moft proper condition for the reception of this fort of crop, as the young plants are thereby better guarded agai ntt the effects of the fevere cold that fre quently occurs in the winter feafon. It is probable, however, that cold is feldom hurtful in any great degree to this fort of grain, except where combined with too much moifture, or where fudden frofts and thaws have the effect of render ing the fuperficial parts of the foil fo light and open as to be incapable of afford ing a proper fupport for the roots of the young plants. Time of /owing. The exact periods at which this fort of grain maybe put into the ground with the greatefl chance of fuccefs, under different circumihnces of foil and climate, have not yet, fo far as we know, been fully afcertained by experiment. In addition to the obfervations that have been already made in fpeakingof fowihg in general, it may, however, be ufeful to remark, that the earlier the feed of the autumnal fowings can be put into the foil, the greater chance the youngplants will have of being well eftablifhed in the ground before the frofts take place, which we have juft feen to be a circumftance on which the welfare of the crop in a great meafure depends. Befides, the ftate of the land .. * Middleton s Report of the Agriculture of Middlefcx. Cultivation cf Arable Lan<l*-^-Whzat* Time of Sowing. i? and that of the feafon, is much more favourable for the procefs of vegetation when the crop is put in at an early period, than when it is delayed to a late one ; the date of the weather in the latter cafe often admitting of only a very languid and imperfect growth until the fpring, by which the crop mud be ex~ pofed to much danger from various caufes. Indeed experience has abundantly (hewn that late fown wheats feldom fucceed fo well, or afford fuch plentiful crops as thofe that are put in early. But when fown too early, there may not- withftanding be danger of the crop running too much to draw, and confequently of the grain proving light in the ear. From the beginning of September to the middle, or even the end, of October, may probably be confidered as the mod fa vourable period for thisbufinefs. This is, indeed, confirmed by the edablifhcd practice of the moft correct farmers in almoft every didrict of the kingdom, where this fort of grain is grown*. If fown earlier, efpecially en the heavy kinds of foil, the land is for the moft part in too hard and lumpy a date to al low of the feed being properly covered by the harrow: and in the lighter ones in too dry a condition for the grain to vegetate in a proper manner : and, when delayed later, the ground, in one cafe, is apt to beome too wet and clofe by the falling of the autumnal rains, and in the other too loofe and porous from the action of the frods on it. It is remarked by the writer jud mentioned, that more than four-fifths of the whole of this fort of grain is fown between the middle of the firfl and the end of the lad of the above months. Mr. Young thinks September the bed feafon for cold backward wet foils, and October for thofe of the more dry and warm kinds, after there has been a pretty plentiful rain. There are, however, circumdances that may render the times of fowing dif ferent from the above ; as where the foils are of the rich, fertile, loamy, chalky, or gravelly kinds, it may be better to defer it in many indances to a confider- ably later period, as when fuch warm forts of land are cropped too early, they are apt, it is faid, to pufli the plants forward in fuch a rapid manner, that they become weak and fpindling in the early fpring months ; and at the fame time, the crops are more liable to be infeded with weeds, on account of the feafon feeing then more favourable to their growth-)-. The practice of putting in crops of this fort fo late as the latter end of No vember and beginning of December frequently depends on the crops that pre cede them not being capable, from the latenefs of the fituation, or other caufes of being taken off fo early as that the land may be made ready for the wheat * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 275. f Bannifter s Syr.opds of Ilufuand y. VOL. II. D j $ Cultivation of Arabic Land. Wheat. Quantity of Seed crop in the proper time. This is often the cafe after peas, beans, tares, turnips, and other iimilar crops. In thefe cafes, on the lighter forts of foils, and where drill culture is employed, it may often be a more advifable practice to fow in the fpring, as by fuch a delay the ground may be brought into a more perfect ftate of preparation than could be the cafe in fowing it fo late in the winter. When this method is adopted, that fort which is known by the name of fpring wheat may be the mod proper, though it is evinced, by the fuccefs of experi ments in fowing at this feafon, that any of the white thm-fkmned forts of wheat may be employed not only with fafety, but with the profpect of affording a good produce*. The rnoft proper periods for this fort of fowing are the latter end of April, or the beginning of the following month, as when fown earlier, in the ex perience of fome it has been found to become fhri veiled and to be liable to the blight. Other fprmg grain crops, however, in general, probably pay better. Seed. The quantity of feed that is to be made ufe of in different cafes we have already feen to depend upon and be regulated by a variety of different cir- eumftances, but in general from two to three buihels, according to the flate of the foil, the nature of the climate, and the period in which it is put into the ground, may be efteemed the moft fuicable proportion for foils of a medium de gree of fertility, under the broadcafb method of hulbandry ; but where the drill fyftem of culture is practifed, a conftderably lefs proportion may be Sufficient for the purpofe, as has been explained in a more full manner in fpeaking of the mature of fowing, or putting different forts of grain crops into the earth. In the drilling and dibbling methods of fowing, which are unqueftionably the -heft, where they are performed with correctnefs, fix pecks of feed is fufficient : in rhe latter mode two rows being put in on a flag, care being taken to have the land rolled, after having been ploughed a fortnight or more, and the feed dibbled in to a fufiicient-depth, without fcattering, covering it in by bufli harrowing. Where the lands have a known difpofition to mildew, a larger proportion of feed mould be given, whatever the foil or feafon in which it is put in, may be. Much lefs feed is ncceffary in early than late fowings. On the rich foils of Glouceflerfhire, the quantity generally fown has been jftated to be about feven pecks ; while in many other diflricts, as Yorkfliire, it is from eight to twelve -]. Where the lands, are in a fuitable ftate of tillage for receiving crops of this grain, ten pecks have been advifed by a practical write* as the medium proportion^. Larger quantities are likewife frequently fown ia "*-F\ter, io Bath Papers, vol .IX. -f- Marshall s Rural Economy* . Donaldion s Modern Agriculture, vol. IL Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Methods of After-Culture. the northern parts of the kingdom*; but it is obvious, that, where fuch proportions of feed are made ufe of, the plants muft be liable to be drawn up too much, and the crops in confequcnce to become weak and imperfectly, fed, as well as fmaller in the fize of the ears. There may alfo be difadvantageg from making ufe of too fmall proportions of feed, from the ground not being properljr covered with plants : but where care is taken in the after-culture, of the crops, lefs danger is probably to be apprehended from this than the other extreme, as a great number of plants will be fupplied by the tillering or mooting out of new Items from the joints about the furface, in confequcnce of the mould being laid up again ft them. On this account the drill method of culture, as has been fec.% may be the moft proper when this fort of grain is raifed upon light foils that are in a ftate of fufficient cleannefs, as well as from its affording a more loofe and pene trable earth for the coronal roots to ftrike and be formed in. The broadcaft method is, however, that which is the moft commonly employed, efpecially on the heavy kinds of land, whether of the clayey or loamy defcriptions, the feed being caft over the fur face of the ground foon after the laft earth or ploughing has been given by the hand, and immediately harrowed in by the lighter kinds of harrows. There is, however, another practice that prevails in fome diftricts, which is. that of lowing the feed in a partial manner, one portion being turned in by the fccond or third ploughing, and the other afterwards harrowed in. This method would feem to be attended with an additional expenfe, without any adequate advantage being derived from it ; and if great care be not taken to turn the feed in with, a veiy ebb or light furrow, efpecially in wet feafons, and where the land is of a heavy and retentive quality, inconvenience may be fuftained by much of the grain being deftroyed before the procefs of germination is effected. Befides, there muft be great inequality in the growth of the crop, a circumftance which, we have feen to be injurious to the welfare of the wheat. After the feed has been put in, the land fhould conftantly be laid as dry as poflible, by the conftructing of proper drains and water-furrows, fo as in all feafons to keep the water from ftagnating upon it. They fliould be in fome cafes deepened by the fpade, and where there are double Hopes, performed in a double manner, according to circumftances, foas to effectually difcharge the water from the different defccnts. After -culture. The manner in which the crop has been put into the ground, the ftate of the land, and the preparation on which it was Town, may produce fome differences in the culture that is neceffary while it is growing. In every cafe * Corrected Reports of Mid Lothian and Perthfliire. D 2 !?0 CultiwttiQti oj Arabic. Land. (Vhcat. Methods of After-Culture. it nuiir, however, be kept perfectly clean and free from weeds, cither by means of the horfc or hand-hoe, as they not only injure the crop in its growth, but leflen the value of the fumple at the market. But the fUrring of the mould on thefurface among the plants may frequently be ufeful in other intentions befides that of pre venting the growth of feed weeds ; for, as in the heavy kinds of foil, that are moft adapted to this grain, the more fupcrficial parts are liable to become fo hard and baked as not to be eafily penetrated by the new-formed or coronal roots of the plants in the early fpring months, efpecially when they are very dry and have been preceded by much wet, loofcning of the earth, by any means whatever, muflbeof confiderable utility. This effect is generally fhewn to have taken place by the ap pearance and prcgrefs of the crop, which becomes of an unhealthy yellow colour, and advances but little in its growth. In fuch cafes it has been fuggefted that harrowing once, or oftener, in a place, may be of much fervice in the early fpring months*. Where the crops are thin and of feeble growth, this operation may pro duce beneficial effects, by affording a fort of earthing-up to the weak plants, and thereby promote a more vigorous growth, at the fame time that a number of new ihootsare fent off from the joints thus covered, and the crop, in confequence, ren dered more full and abundant; and where the grain is too thick upon the ground, it may alfo be ufeful by drawing out and deftroying many of the plants. It has like- wife been fufpected by an acute writer, that many of the root fibres, by being torn in the operation, may prevent the over luxuriance of the ftern and leaves, and by that means promote the more early fructification of the plantsf . The practice of fcarifying the young wheats is an important part of the drill cul ture, which mould conftantly be performed in an effectual manner, and not later than March. Some have not fuppofed it fo beneficial from not performing it at the proper time. Mr. Cook has contrived two implements for thisufe, a fixed harrow and fcarifier, the former executing its work merely by common tines or teeth, having three rows, which, by varying the pofition diagonally one, two, or three of them may be brought to act in the space of nine inches, without injury to the rows of wheat plants. "If two," Mr. Young fays, " they may be drawn in a breadth of three inches ; if three, in that of four inches, and thefe fpaces widened at pleafure, but dill fo as to keep quite clear of the rows of wheat. By loading the harrow, the teeth are forced to, a proper depth." And it is added that "the fcarifier has teeth of various breadths ; but for working at this feafon, between nine or twelve rows, the narrowest, are to be preferred. By the action of thefe tools, the * Midtlleton s Report jf MiJdlefc *. t Darwin s Phytologia, p. 323, Cultivation of Arabic Land. Wheat. Methods of After-Cut! ure. I furfacc mould is loofened and the air admitted, being performed to the depth of two inches with fafety, and without mould being raifed, fo as to cover or bury het plants, the earth being only loofened and not difplaced. The beneficial effects mentioned above are of courfe very fully produced. By thefe contrivances much work can be accompli (lied in a very fhort time, which is a circumftance of much confequence at this bufy feafon. Where this method of practice is not adopted, the drilled and dibbled crops, cfpecially in the latter, where only one row is planted on a flag, muft be hand- hoed in the intervals, which mould be done the firft time in the beginning of the* above month, and a fecond time towards the end of it or a little later. Some likewife do it to the broadcaft wheats, but this has been fuppofed injurious by many. The bufinefs of thiftling the wheat crops Ihould alfo be carefully per- formed in May, or the very early part of the following month. Rolling the land, either without having recourfe to the harrow or after it has been employed, efpecially where the furface is cloddy, and the operation is per formed when the ground poflefles a medium degree of moifture, may be of utility in the fame way, as well as by forcing the roots of the wheat into the earth, and by that means caufing new flems to rife*. On all the light thin foils, when this fort of grain is cultivated upon them, much benefit may alfo be produced by the ufe of the roller, by the roots of the plants being thereby prevented from being fo eafily loofened and thrown out of the ground. And the fame practice is re commended as generally ufeful where clover or grafs feeds are fown with wheat crops, as a means of rendering vegetation more fccure \. The former operation may likewife be practifed with advantage, in the way of preventing the deftructive ravages of the worm +. In cafes where the land is not in a fufficient flate of fertility or preparation to bring the crops to perfection, it may be neceflary to make ufe of top-d re flings. Subftances of both the folid and fluid kinds have been made ufe of for this purpofe ; the firft conlift chiefly of the dung of different forts of birds after being brought into a powdery ftate, bone-duit, foot, peat-afhes, and various faline matters. The latter are principally the drainings of dung-hills and other fimilar liquid materials. The former mould be thinly fown over the crops, with as much evennefs as poflible, as early in the fpring as horfes can be ad mitted upon the land without injury; and if it can be done when the weather is inclined to be moift, it is the better. A roller may then be paifed over the * Darwin s Pbytologia, p. 292. t Corroded Report of Midcllefex,. \ Syncgfis of Huibarulry, p. 63. 22 Cultivation of Arabic, Land. Wheat. Transplanting of. crop with advantage. Where the latter fubflances are made ufe of, care fhould always be taken that the plants be not injured, by having too large a quantity of fuch fluids applied to them. In this pradlife the expence fhould be a primary confederation, and fmall trials firft made where dungs are nottobeufedi The proper fcafon is the middle of February*. The practice of tranfplanting wheat may be had recourfe to in particular cafes, probably with beneficial confequences, as where there are fome parts of fuch crops too thickly fct upon the ground, while others are too thin, irregular, or patchy, as by thinning and fetting out the plants of fuch over-abundant parts among thofe that are deficient, much fervice may be done to each of them. The firft will be rendered more capable of admitting the operation of, the hoe, and thereby of fupplyiflg more abundant nourishment for the luxuriant vegetation of the plants ; and the latter be fupplied with the proper number of plants, which could not be accomplimed in any other way. It has been fuggefled, that, when cultivated in the garden, one acre would be capable of affording fets for an hundred, when planted after being properly divided, at the diftance of nine inches from each other and as the bufmefs of tranfplanting is to be performed ; in the fpring, it is fuppofed that crops of this grain may be raifed in this manner on lands that poiTefs a. greater degree of moifture than is fuited to the healthy growth of wheat in general. Befides, clean crops may be produced in this way with much greater certainty, as where the ground is ploughed over juft be fore the plants are fet out, the grain may rife much quicker from the plants than the weeds from their feeds, and the crop, in this way, overpower fuch noxious plants f. Many advantages of other kinds -have been ftated by other writers as the refult of this practice J. An intelligent farmer in Norfolk had, in the year 1800, a piece of drilled wheat, confiding of nearly eight acres and a half, unfeeded by the careleffnefs of his man. The vacant places were dibbled, but to no purpofe ; the vegetation was fo languid, that, in the courfe of the winter, all the young fprouts died, or were eaten up by vermin. On the fecond of March, 1801, fome women were hired to take up with a bricklayer s trowel plants of wheat from another field, where the crop was very luxuriant. Thefe were planted into the vacant fpaces by chil dren, large holes for them being previoufly made by the handle of a fpade, pointed .at its end. The children were watched very attentively, making them ar- * See manuring of tillage lands. t Darwin s Phytologia, p. 2<U, I Bogle, in Bath Papers, vol. Ill, Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Feeding Crops of. 2.3 range the roots of the plants, and with a flick break the edges of the holes, than the mould might cover them. Wet weather was purpofely felected for the occa- fion ; but it proved fo wet^ that they were delayed for more than a week ; during the whole of which time two or three wheelbarrows full of plants were lying cx- pofed on the tumbrel ready for infertion. Thefe plants were ufed, not without fome apprehenfion. The t ran fp Ian ting was not concluded till the sift of the month (March). At harveft-time it would have been impoflible to have diftinguifhed the tranfplanted from the drilled wheat, but that the plants of the former were placed confiderably wider from each other. It is imagined, from recollection only, that the plants, on an average, formed fquares of from twelve to fourteen inches with each other. They branched abundantly, and bore well ; the ears were as numerous and as heavy as the drilled wheat. There were certainly four acres tranfplanted. The expenfe of the bufinefs cannot be well eftimated, becaufe of its irregularity in this particular cafe. At the time it was tranfplanted, wheat fold at about iixty-five millings per coomb. Two bufhels an acre would have been in- fertcd, and the fetting, on account of the irregularity, would certainly have been, twelve (hillings per acre. . Setting four acres, at 1 2s. 28 o Two coombs of feed, at 6^s. _ 6 10 o 8 18 o It is not believed that the expenfe of the undertaking much exceeded a fourth; part of this. .It is fuppofed that the whole bufinefs of tranfplanting might be done for thirteen or fourteen millings an acre ; and one acre of feed plants would fuffice for a great many acres. When the plants are taken from a crop which is intended to remain, the holes which the trowel makes fliould be prefTed down with the foot,, in order that they may be rilled with earth, and not expofed to drought or too much wet. In trying experiments of this fort, it is bell not. to venture on too large a- fcale at firft. The feeding of wheat, crops, where too forward or luxuriant in the early fpring months, by means of flieep, is a practice that has been found of much be nefit in many cafes. The good effects in fuch inftances are fuppofed to arife from the removal of the upright central items, by which means different new lateral 1 Hems or root-fc ions are fent off or brought forward with more vigour, by the.- acquifition of. a larger proportion of nutritious matter from the joints in confe 24 Cultivation of si cable Land. Wlitat Feeding of Crops. quence, that muft otherwife have been exhaufted in fupporting the central ftems . This practice has been found by experience to be the moft ufeful on fuch ftrong and fertile lands as are apt to produce a larger proportion of draw than can be properly fupported. In thefe cafes advantage has frequently been de rived by feeding off the blade at two or more fuccedive times ; but in managing the bufmefs, great care is ncceffary, to fee that the whole is completed before the crop begins tofpindle, otherwife more injury than good may be produced. But on the lighter and more poor defcriptions of foil, the practice muft be employed with great caution, as on fuch lands the growth of the crops may be fo retarded, as to become weak and fpindly. Befides, on thofe lands where they are very light, and the crops thin, injury may frequently be done, by many of the plants being pulled up on account of theclofenefs of the bite of the fheep. They mould, therefore, never be fuffered to remain upon the crops when the weather is wet and the furface of the ground much loofened, or after fudden frofts and thaws ; as in fuch cafes much harm may be done by the plants being pulled up and deftroyed. The treading of the animals may, however, be of great fervicc in all the light forts of land, and where the crops are thin, as by that means the earth will not only be preffed more clofely about the roots of the plants, but the ftems in many inftances fo forced into the ground and covered up, that new moots will be fent off laterally, and the crops be thus rendered more full on the land. But where the foils are very fliffand adhefive, the growth of the crops may be checked and retarded by the practice, and ofcourfethe moots thus caufed become weak, affording only fmall ears and light grain f. The obfervation and experiments of the fame writer have indeed fully convinced him that wheat ought not to be fed down with fheep, unlcfs it be very rank in January, and that fuch crops mould only be fed as were fown early. But though this practice has much relation to that employed in gardening, of flopping the growth of the main ftems of fome forts of plants, as thofe of the cucumber and melon kinds, by rubbing off or cutting away the central buds, in order to expedite their fruiting; yet, in wheat crops, \vhere the principal ftems are eaten down, except when they are early and of very luxuriant growth, the cars of the new moots may not have time to perfect their feed, and of courfe become ligh: and fhrivelled in the grain j and the new ftems, from their weak- nefs, be more apt to fall down and be lodged. Thefe are circumftances that * Boglo, m Bath Pupers, vol. III. f Bath Papers, vol. I. p. 66. 2 Cultivation of Aralh Land. Wheat Infefts, DeftruRhe of. &5 have been frequently obferved to occur in the feeding down of wheat crops by means of fhecp.* The lame philofophical writer alfo fuggefts that, in refpedl to the culture of wheat crops, the moft beneficial method is that of promoting as much as poflible the time of bloflbming, while that of ripening is protradtcd,t as it is for the farinaceous refcrvoir of nutriment depofited in the cotyledon of the new feed, in order to fupport the growth of the corculum or frefh embryon, that the plant is cultivated ; which farinaceous depofition is effected in the in terval between the bloflbming and ripening of the corn, either before the im pregnation of the pericarp or feed-veffels, or afterwards ; and the weight and plumpnefs of the grain is thus augmented. The eating down of crops by fheep may therefore often be hurtful, by retard ing the period of bloffoming, as well as by reftricting the growth of the flems.j But befides the advantage derived from the feeding down of wheat crops with fheep, they may fometimes be employed with benefit in other views ; for as the coronal parts of the roots of fuch crops are liable to be laid bare and expofed for fome inches in length, about the furface of the earth, during fevere f roily winters, the turning in of fheep upon them in fuch circumflances, when the ground is moift, and keeping them, in motion, may tend to prefs them into th.e loofe foil, and in that way produce new roots, as well as afford covering and protection to fuch as have been denudated, It is likewife a practice with fome farmers, who contend that much advan tage is derived from it, to turn meep upon the crops where danger is appre hended from worms, flugs, or other infects ; in order that, by keeping them con- ftantly in motion, fuch animals may either be wholly deftroyed, or fo fixed in the furface mould as tocaufe their more gradual death. There are many infects that are highly injurious to wheat crops in mild and open winters, as well as during the fpring, and fometimes in the early fummer months, by eating off and destroying the ftems at the joints about the furface of the earth, which are in fuch parts fweet and tender, from their containing a por tion of faccharine matter, and being of young growth. In thefe cafes the blades of the wheat plants drop down and become withered, by which the crops are frequently in a great meafure deftroyed. The principal of thefe deftructive animals does not yet feem to have been de- * Tull s Horfe-hoeing Husbandry, 4to. edit. + Ibid. p. 147. J Darwin s Phytologia, p. 14*. Corrected Rep >rt of Middlefcx. VOL. II. E <J Cultivation of Arable Land.lVheat Infefts, Definitive of. fcribed with fufficient correctnefs by writers on agriculture j* it is, however, probable that there may be different varieties of the fame grub, that may be hurtful to grain crops. One kind of grub is afiferted to be annually found in wet fituations in larger or fmaller quantities, according as the preceding feafon has been hot or cold : and that while it continues in the ftate of egg it cannot be injured by any feverity of weather that may occur. Even in the grub flate it is not capable of being much injured; and when in that of the fly it is equally hardy. The only period in which it appears to be fufceptiblc of injury, is that of its tranfmutation from the grub to the aurelia ftate, in which ftage it is ca pable of being deftroyed by cold and wetnefs ; and aa this change moftly takes place fome time about the end of May, or in the early part of June, at which times rain generally falls in abundance, the whole, except fuch as have fecured themfelves in dry hills of mould, in meadows, or the borders of ditches, are an nually killed. On arable lands few or none are believed to efcape to effect the purpofe of propagating their kind, unlefs in fuch feafons as are unufually droughty during the time of their change into the aurelia ftate.f Hence the rains that fall at fuch periods are not only beneficial in promoting the crop, but in deftroying this fort of infect. Befides this, it is obferved in the fame work that there are feveral other grubs brought forth at all feafons in dry lands, which are not lefs injurious to corn crops than that juft defcribed. They equally polfefs the power of refilling the hurtful effects of the weather in every, ftage but that in which they are changed into the aurelia ftate, when moifture and cold have the power of readily deftroy ing them. The whole of the grubs that are produced on foils of the more dry kind are faid to be of the moth tribe. It is added, that the grub, when the autumn has been mild and warm, is brought into exiftence about the latter end of October, and proceeds in its growth as long as vegetation continues in any degree ; after which, probably from the want of food, it feems to remain at a ftand till the fpring feafon, when its ravages foon become evident. It begins to increafe in fize towards the end of February, and continues to grow till the early part of May, when it is often more than an inch in length, and one third of an inch or more in circumfe- * It has been fuggefted by the author of a paper in the twenty-fifth volume of the Annals oij Agriculture as belonging to the genus tipula. t Farmer s Magazine, vol. IJ, p. 365. Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat In/ efts, Deftru&ire of. .27 rence. It is faid to be then extremely deftructive, eating through the roots of the ftrongefl ftems of corn plants in a very quick manner. And it is dated, that on taking one of them, and putting it into earth, confiding of a foft black loam, about mid-day, covering it well, at the root of a plant of oats that had fent out thirty-feven off-fets, and which had been well earthed up, the plant on being examined about the fame time the fuccceding day, was found to have its leaves hanging down in a declining ftate, and the root, with the whole of the off-fers, fo injured as to be utterly incapable of recovery. In mild feafons, that are favourable for the propagation of grubs, they become numerous and highly detrimental ; but, as has been juft obferved, they moftly perifh annually, the race being preferved only by the depofition of ova in the borders of ditches, plantations, and coarfe fogged herbage, in which the aurelia h protected from injury by moiflure. It has been found that the grub commits its principal injury on corn crops juft: after the germination or fprouting of the grain, by devouring or eating away the young (hoot before it mews itfelf above the ground. When the plants are up above the furface, and have acquired conliderable fubftance, there is much lefs danger from the ravages of thefe animals, except where they are very nu merous. During the day they are faid to be moftly found from half an inch to an inch and a half below the furfacej and they are not fuppofed to come much above the ground during the night.* Various means have been fuggefted for the purpofe of deflroying thefe ani mals, and preventing their ravages on grain crops, but hitherto probably with out much fuccels. The fubftances that have been chiefly employed in this in tention are lime and faline mattersf ; but it is probable that neither of them arc fully effectual in preventing the deftructive ravages that are often experienced from fuch animals, as it has been found by experiment that the mixing of fuch materials, efpecially the lime with earth, by which it is foon faturated, does not prevent them from propagating and continuing in the mould4 and confequently has but little effect in preferving crops from their attacks. But though lime, when combined with the mould of foils, foas to become perfectly effete by the ab- forption of carbonic acid both from it and the atmofphere, may not have much * Annals of Agriculture, vol XXV. p. 407. I Of the latter kind are soapers ashes, bleachers ashes, refuse pot-ash, &c.~&c. J Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. p. 406. ; Darwin s Phytologia, p. 3G2. ; and Farmer s Ma gamine, vol. II. p. 3()5, E 2 S8 Cultivation of Arable Land.JFkeat Infcfts, DcftruQfoe of. . power in deftroying the grub : there can be little doubt, that when applied in its cauflic or moft active ftate, it will prove destructive to it, as well; as moft other animals of the infect kind. It has indeed been remarked, that both hot lime and alkaline falts arc capable of deftroying fuch noxious infects as feed upon the roots, Hems, and leaves of field plants, by the property they poffjfs of com bining with and reducing the organization of their bodies.* This effect would not however feem to be produced on living animals, except where fuch fubftan- ces are laid on in very large proportions, by which the crops would be in danger of being deftroy ed. It is added by the fame author, that neutral fal ts may often be made ufe of with fuccefs in the fame intention. Thefe are fuppofed to produce their deftructive effects on mails, fiugs, grubs, and other limilar animals, by caufing fuch exceflive evacuations, by their power ful action, that they are incapable of with Handing them. In this view it is pro bable that, in the neighbourhood of the fea, fuch fand as has been constantly for along time covered by the tides might be employed with advantage in the way of a top-dreffing where wheat or other crops are injured by fuch animals. But when either cauftic lime or fea-falt is laid on in the way of top-drefling for grain, crops, in order /to deftroy the grub, when exifting at their roots, immediately! below the furface of the ground, grear care mould be taken that they be not poffeffed of fuch caufticity, or applied in fuch quantities, or fo unevenly, as tot hurt the young plants by their too powerful operation on them. Soot is likewife a faline fubftance that has-been much made ufc of in differ ent diftricts for fowing over young wheat and other grain crops when injured by worms, grubs, or other infects that feed upon and deftroy the tender items, leaves, and roots of fuch plants. It is a material which, in addition to carbo naceous and earthy matters, confifts of mineral or refmous oil made capable o folution in water by the large proportion of faline fubftance which it contains. The folution thus formed, it is afferted, " is an extremely bitter, high coloured^ oily liquor, which not only poifons the infect on which it may fall, but alfo com*. municates a bitter tafte to the furface of the roots and leaves of plants, thus rendering them unfit for the food of fuch infects. "t But the effects of this- fubftance may be ufeful in other ways befides that of deftroying infects ; the growth of the plants may be fo quickly promoted by the bituminous oily folu tion formed by the faline principle of the foot, as to allow no time for the ravages of the infects on them.J.. * Dimdonald s Connexion of Agriculture with Chemiftry, p. 136. i Ibid,. 1 Ibid, p, 138, 3 Cultivation of Arable Land. IFheat Mildew, Blighf, fyc. on. 29 It has alfo been fuggefted, that where the grub is prevalent, rolling the- iand in the early fpring months, foon in the morning, may have a tendency to crufh and deftroy them : and that where the fly is found to abound, and come out in the fummer evenings on the grafs lands or fallows, it is probable that, by rolling at that time the return of it into the earth, as well as the depofit of the ova, may be prevented, and the future propagation of the infect be guarded againft.* As the ova of this deflructive animal is found to be chiefly deposited in the long grafs on the fides of hedges and ditches, it has been propofed, as a fure mode of preventing the propagation of the grub, to keep the tops of ditches and hedge-fides perfectly clean and free from the coarfe long herbage with which they are ufu ally covered.-^ And, on the fame principle, the keeping of clover flubbles clofely eaten down by fheep or other animals after the hay has been taken, till the wheat crop is nearly ready to be put in, has been found in fomemeafure an effectual remedy againft the deftructive attacks of this infect.* Befides grubs, there are other infects which fometimes commit depredations on grain crops. One of thefe, which is believed to be the Thrift Pbyjapus of Linnaeus, is found to attack the late blofibming flems on their coming into flower, on which account early fowing may be the moft effectual remedy. But, in addition to the attacks of thefe animals, wheat crops are often expofed to injuries of other kinds, fuch as the mildew, blight, blaft, and fmut. The firft of thefe vegetable difeafes is frequently found to affect wheat and other crops, in their more advanced flages of growth, in fuch feafons as are wet and gloomy, for fome length of time together, without much fun. The nature of this mucor mould, or mildew, feems not yet to have been fully invefti- gated by writers on hufbandry ; but, from the obfervations contained in an in genious paper in the feventeenth volume of the Annals of Agriculture, there appear to be two varieties of it, the Hack and trie red. Various conjectures have been entertained by writers concerning the caufe of the difeafe ; the mofb probable of which feems to be, that it is a plant of the fungus kind, which, like others of the fame fort, is capable of proceeding in its growth in clofe fhaded fituations without much change of air, and which by its roots penetrates the veffels of the plants to which it attaches itfelf, but which were probably, however, previoufly in a morbid condition. * Darwin s Phytologia, p. 869. t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. f Farmer s Magazine, vol. II. p. 365. Tranfaftions of Linuwan Society, yol, III. 30 Cultivation nf Aralle Land. Wheat Blight in* This is rendered ftill more probable as the caufe of this mifchievous difeafe from the obfervations which have lately been prefented to the public by the Right Honourable Sir Jofeph Banks in a valuable pamphlet, acccompanied with magnified reprefentations of the difeafed ftates of the grain. And various inte- refting facts on the fubject may likewife be feen in the forty-fourth volume of the Annals of Agriculture. As moifture, and a confined ftate of air from fhade or other fimilar caufes have ebvioufly much effect in producing the mildew in wheat and other grain crops, it fcems not improbable that the beft method of preventing or removing it would be that of not having the plants too much crowded together, but thin and open, fo that light may be fully admitted, and a free circulation of air take place among the plants. This may be the moft perfectly accomplifhed by the corn being fown in rows, with fufficient diftances between them. Therefore on lands that are fubject to mildew, the moft advantageous method may be that of fowing the grain by means of the drill, and not too thickly in the rows. Where the difeafe is prefent, the moft advifeable method, in order to its removal, may .be that of thinning out the weakeft plants as much as pofllble, that more air and light may be let in, and by that means the ftrength and vigour of the crop be increafed and die difeafe eradicated. It has, indeed, been lately fuggefted, that, " as the greater dampnefs of fbme land fupplies one permanent caufe of mildew, as well as its being too much over- fhadowed by thick foliage, the methods of prevention muft conlift in properly draining the land, and ufing drier kinds of manure, as coal afhes and bone afti es, as well as by thinning the crops." And it may be advifeable, in the fame view, ct to fow early in the feafon, for the purpofe of procuring forward crops, as this difeafe is faid more to injure late crops, owing to the greater dampnefs of the ground in auturnn.f The blight J is an affection of the vegetable kind that not unfrequently at tacks wheat crops in feafons that are more than ordinarily moift. It has been found, that in this difeafe, the green blades and ftalks are befet with fmall fpots of a black or rufty colour, before the ear becomes affected ; and that after the grain has begun to fhoot, and is fairly come into ear, many of the heads are often completely empty, but, in fome cafes, only empty in the upper half, : It would probably be better, and certainly more economical, tp make ufe of bones in tbe ftate 01 a coarfe powder. t Darwin s Phytologia, p. 121. * The urcdo frumenti of fome writer*, Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat Blight in-, g i the under remaining perfectly full. In others again, the ears are found to h:-.ve alternately a plump well-filled pickle and an empty hufk ; and that in fome,. though not quite empty, they include only Ihrivelled imperfect grains, or what are termed hungry pickles by dealers. In different inftanccs ears are obferved, that are partly hungry and partly filled in a proper manner; and in a large proportion^ therein an hungry and well- filled grain alternately; in fhort, that various ears, that appear well-filled, on opening the hufks are difcovered to be covered with fpots of a black and rufty caft. A number of the ftems are in fome inftances met with that are perfectly withered their whole length. When ripen ed, the crop, in particular cafes, is obferved to have a dirty fpotted appearance, as if fprinkled with foot, rather than the ufual clean healthy yellow afpect ; and the parts of the draw, or ears, that are not thus fpotted, are neither white nor yel low, as is ufual, but of a colour of the dufky or am kind.* Thefe appearances, which mew themfelves in the different ftages of the blight, are fuppofed by the fame author, to prove the exigence of an infect as the caufe of this vegetable difeafe ;j- and that as the greateft injury is almoftia * Somcrville in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. p. 207. f In the paper juft mentioned, which contains much valuable obfervation refpecting the nature of the blight, an infeft that produced much injury to the. ears of the grain is thus defcribed. It bears, fays the writer, a ftriking refemblance to a louse, and when it is firft diftinguifhable by the eye, is of a red colour, nearly refembling that of a boiled lobfter, and fo foft and tender as to be killed by the flighteft preffure ; as it increafes in fue, the colour gradually changes from red to a dirty black r when it becomes ftationary, and continues fo till it dies. During its growth, it alfo lofes this foft tender texture, and in its black ftate feels hard, and as if it were covered with a cruft or fhfill upon the back. It does not appear that this is a new infect, for moft of the farmers with whom the writer has converfed feem well acquainted with it, and all of them, afiert, that, if they are care fully looked for, fome of them may be met with even in the beft fields of wheat every year. It ap pears, however, that they are infinitely more numerous and deftructive in late wet feafons, than in fitch as are earlier and more favourable. In the year 1782, for inftance, when, the crop was uncom monly late, and the feafon very wet and cold throughout, the wheat crop, he fays, almoft entirely failed from the depredations of this infect; and every other inftance that can be recollected of their mifchievous effects, has always taken place in thelateftand coldeft feafons. The obfervations which he made a few fummers ago confirm him in that belief : for he uniformly found that, in propor tion as a field of wheat was early, the injury done was not only muck lefs, but the number of vermin fmaller; while, on the contrary, as the crop was later the mifchief was- in: the fame proportion greater, and continued fo throughout the feafon. The inference he draws from thence is, that wet feafons are more favourable to the generation of thefe infects than dry ones, and that though they are bred in confiderable numbers even in the beft years, yet they come into exiftenceat a period of the feafon \vhenthecropistoofaradvancedto be injured by them. This laft idea was confiderably flrength- aed by trials which he lately made, of placing the iiifefts upon healthy plants at different pe~ 5 a -. THK 32 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat Wights in. every cafe done to fuch crops as have not been perfectly covered after fowing, or when the feed is very near the furface, while fuch as are depofited to a greater depth almoft wholly efcape, it is fuggeftcd, that, by depofiting the grain more deeply in the foil, and covering it in a more perfect manner, as by drilling or dib bling, much may be effected in the prevention of this malady. Others, however, confider the difeafe as a fungus of the linear, oblong, tawny, black kind, that attaches itfelf to the ftems of the wheat plants at the period when the grain is nearly ripe, in fuch feafons as are very moift, affording a footy appearance to the crop. It is aiTerted that the ftems are apparently Iplit, and the growth of the plants greatly impaired and reftricted.* The author of Phy- tologia fuppofes it to be a malady in fome meafure fimilar to the rubigo or ruft,, a difeafe that attacks particular plants that are previoufly in an unhealthy con dition, and which may probably be prevented, or remedied, by the expofure of them to more light, and a greater degree of ventilation, as in the mildew or white mucor. Some alfo affert the caufe of this affection to be a vitiated ftate of the juices of the vegetables proceeding from obftruction, induced by fudden alternations of heat, cold, and moifture, without fufficient fun to caufe the abforption of the latter, in confequence of which infects are generated in the plants, and their growth thus injured, and, on thefe grounds, advife fimilar modes of removing it to thofc that have been mentioned above.f It is well obferved that the blights occafioned by froft generally happen in the fpring, when cold nights fucceed to warm funny days, as the living power of the plant has then been previoufly exhaufted by the ftimulus of heat; and is therefore I efs capable of being excited into the actions which arc neceffary to vegetable life, by the greatly diminifhed flimulus of a freezing atmofphere. But whether the malady originate from riods of their growth : when put upon plants in the flower,and while the ftalks and blades were green -and tender, they adhered firmly, and completely effected the deftru&ion of the ear; but when put upon, fuch as had made fome progrefs towards rilling the blades, and the ftalks of which were begin ning to harden and become tough, they not only entered upon them with more difficulty, but if the growth and filling had advanced beyond a certain period, and the blades, &c. had loft their faccha- rine tafte, they would not remain upon them ; or if they did, they died, feemingly of hunger. He tried them upon feveral hundreds of healthy ears in this way, and with the fame refult ; from which he thinks it is at leaft prefumable, that a certain degree of hardnefs in the ftalks and hulks of the wheat is a fufficient protection againft this infecl ; and that after the grain has pail the milky ftate, it is be yond the reach of being injured by them. * Lambert, in Tranfaftions of Linnxan Society, vol. IV. -f New Farmer s Calendar, p. 408. Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Blaft and Smut in. -S3 infers, the action of other plants, a corrupted ftatc of the vegetable fluids, or fome peculiar defect in the vegetative proccfs of the plants, it is probable the beil mode of preventing or removing it will- be the expofure of the plants as much as pofiible to the influence of the air, by fovving the grain with larger fpaces, or thinning them out, when too thick and clofe, by the hoe. in the later .fpring months, when the ftate of the crop is fully afcertained. That fuch me thods may be beneficial, is clearly mewn by the general obfervation, that hilly diftricts are much lefs expofed to the difeafe than fuch as are low, flat, and confined. The blajl is an affection of vegetables that proceeds from -lightning, or the intenfc action of the fun, when the plants are in a flate of considerable aptitude for the action of ftimuli. It is the mod common in hot climates ; but Dr. Dar win, from having found that extenfive wood-cutters often find trees cracked on being fawn through, fuggefts lightning as a more frequent caufe of the difeafe in this country than is commonly fuppofed. The effects of thefe caufes on wheat crops have been noticed by Tull, and defcribed as occurring in blackifh patches indifferent parts of the fields. As the vital power of the plants is moftly, in thefe cafes, either completely exhaufted by the great and fudden operation of fuch fthmili, or their vafcular fyftcm deftroyed by their expanlive action, no remedy can be of any great utility.* The ufilagO) orfwuf> is another vegetable difeafe to which wheat and other grain crops are often expofed, and in which a fort of black meal is produced in the place of feed. It has been afcribed to many different caufes by writers on agriculture. It is remarked in the Memoirs of the Bath Agricultural Society, that this is a difeafe that only occurs when the weather is wet during the period of flowering, in which the anthers may burfl, and the farina be warned away. The difeafe is there fuppofed not to be produced by any infectious fubfrance, or the ova of infects that may adhere to the grain, as fmutty ears and found ones were found proceeding from the fame root, and, in fome inftances, both fmutty and found grains to be contained in the fame ear; fome of the corns having even one end fmutty and the other found. It is therefore fuppofed to arife in confequence of the want of due impregnation, from the farina fecundans being faulty, and that putrefaction takes place on the death of the corn. This opi nion is fupported by the experiments of Spallanzani, who difcovered that the * Darwin s Pbytologia, p. 332* i VOL. n. F 34 Cultivation of Arable Land. JPheat. Smut. Uft of Steeps in. feed is produced in the plants long anterior to impregnation, which cannot be performed until the flower is open, and the duft of the anther fully ripe. Onthefe grounds, it is conceived that, for want of impregnation, or the vivify ing principle, the wheat corn may putrify, as is the cafe with the addle eggs of oviparous animals.* The enquiries of a writer who feems to have paid much attention to the fub- ject, are, however, highly in favour of the opinion, that the malady is produced by the attacks of an infect ; and that, though unqueftionably infectious, it may be prevented, or cured, by the ufe of different kinds of fteeps, fuch as have been already defcribed.f Others have likewife fuggefted that fteeps, prepared with aloes, tobacco, and hellebore, may be ufeful for the fame purpofe, when ap plied during the growth of the crop, by means of a piece of flannel immerfed in them, and drawn different ways of the ridges, by two perfons walking in the furrows, fd as to touch the ears.J The proper time of performing this bfi nefs is when the weather is fine and dry.|| * Darwin s Phytologia, p. 323. f Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. p. 226. J Ibid. |j The fads and observations on which thefe conclufions are founded, are detailed in the following manner by Mr. Somerville, in the fecond volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture. Some years ago, he fays, he collected a quantity of fmutted ears from one field of wheat, in which they were very numerous, and a number of healthy well filled ears from another field, in which there was no fmut. The grains were rubbed out of both, intimately mixed, and kept in a box for two months, at the end of which they were rubbed between the hands in fuch a manner as to break the whole of the fmutball. The parcel was then divided into two equal parts, oneof which was three or four times warned with pure water, and well rubbed between the hands at each wafliing, and after wards fown in a drill in his garden : the other half was fown in another drill without any wafliing or preparation whatever ; the foil and every other circumftance was equal. Both parcels vegetated at the fame time, and for about two months thereafter there was no vifible difference in their appearance ; about that period he, however, obferved that many of the plants in the drill, that had been fown without being warned, were ofa darker colour than the others ; thefe, when narrowly examined, were of a dirty green. The plants in the drill that had been warned were a-U of one colour, and feemin<*Iy healthy ; as the feafon advanced, the difference in colour became more ftriking, and continued to in- creafe till the grain was fairly out of the blade ; about which time many of the dirty green ears be^an to exhibit fymptoms of decay. Asfoon as the ear was fairly /hot out, the whole of thofe in the un-f xvafhed drill, that had the dirty green appearance above defcribed, were found to contain nothin" but fmut ; and thefe fmutted ears were in the proportion of more than fix to one of the healthv ones: while, on the contrary, the drill in which the wafhed grains had been fown, and which conlifted of: feveral hundred grains, had hardly a fmutted or unhealthy ear in it, The fame experiment was re* Cultivation of Arable Land.-jrheatSmut-Ufeof.-Frec Circulation of Airing But though thefe methods may be employed in order to prevent the propa gation of the difeafe, it is probable that it can only be effectually guarded againft by fovving the feed in fuch a manner as to admit of a perfectly free cir culation of air among the plants, and of thofe modes of after-culture that are adapted to promote their healthy and vigorous growth. peatcd the following feafon, and with nearly the fame refult. Satisfied with knowing that complete, wafliing would be found a remedy for the difeafc, lie made no farther enquiry upon the fubjed till lali autumn, when he was employed in making obfervations on the blight, in the couri e of which, he met with a good deal of fraut in many fields ; and being at the time pofl cfied of fume excellent glafi es, he carefully examined fome of the fmutted plants. This at firft was clone more as a matter of amufement, than from an expectation of difcovering any thing that might contribute to throw light upon the fubjecl. Upon a near infpeclion with the g!afs, he found that the dirty green colour of the blades of the fmutted ears was owing to a number of fpots infinitely fmall, and bearing a near refem- blance to thofe upon blighted ears: his obfervations were continued throughout the whole period of the ripening, in the courfe of which he made no additional difcovery, except obferving, that the leaves and ftalks of the fmutted ears decayed fooner than fuch as were healthy. About the end of autumn, however, having one day brought home fome fmutted ears of rather ar unufual appearance, he examined them rery narrowly, and obferved that the balls were perforated in many places with final I round holes, a thing he had not before obferved in any that he had met with : this he afcribcd to vermin ; and upon fricking one of the grains upon a pin, and placing it under the glafsina very bright fun, he could diftindly obferve feveral fmall tranfparent fpecks upon the beard, or downy part of it. He examined feveral more, and met with exactly the fame appearance ; but be ing called haftily away, upon bufinefs, he was under the neceflity of leaving them upon the table, with out being able to afcertain whether the objects he had feen were eggs or infects. In the evening when he came home, he refumed the inveftigation by candle-light ; in the courfe of which, as he was under the necefiity of holding them very near the candle, the heat foon relieved him from embarraffment, by putting them in motion, and he then difcovered that the fpecks above mentioned were real infecls, refembling wood-lice in fhape. Next day he repeated the fame trials by fun light with new fmut- balls, and difcovered the fame appearances, but without being able to make any of the infecls ftir. Difappointed and vexed at not being able to fee them in motion with fun light, and recolltcling the heat of the candle, he threw the concentrated rays of the fun upon them with a burning-glafs, which completely anfwered his purpofe of putting them in motion, and fhcwing them in every different point of view. To defcribe minutely an infect fo fmall as not to be diftinguiftiable by the naked eye, would, fays he, be no eafy matter; it is fufh cicnt to fay, that its general appearance is very fimi- lar to the woodloufe, though infinitely fmaller. As foon as he was clearly ufcertaJKed of the exiftence of this infect, his mind was, he fays, per fectly at cafe with regard to the caufe of the diftemper; but though he could very readily conceive that vermin, in the early ftages of the growth of a plant, might fo injure the ftamina as to render it unfit to produce any thing but fmut, he could not fo well underitand how it was poffible for the mere touch of the black earth contained in the fmut-balls to produce the fame effect. After fome reasoning he, however, gives it as his opinion that fmut is occafioned by the fmall in FG 36 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Influence of /Feather otn It has been fuggefted that grain difcoloured with the fmut may be readily rendered proper for fale by warning and drying it upon a malt kiln, as the found corn is fome time in faturating itfelf with moifture. Sand may alfo be ufed for the fame purpofe, which, after being mixed and well agitated with the grain, may befeparated by means of a fieve.* There are particular ftates of the weather that have confidcrable influence on the wheat crops at particular periods of their growth. When the feafon is fufficiently dry, there is feldom much injury done to them during the winter months, however fevcre they may be in other refpects ; nor in thofe of the fummer, provided the weather is not too moift about the blooming feafon, as where that is the cafe the crops are moftly deficient.-)- ff& above defcribed, as feen by the glafs in the downy part of tile grain ; and that when the balls- are either broken in the operation of thrafhing, or come in contact \vithclean healthy grains, the in- lects leave thefmuttcd grains, and r adhering to fucli as are healthy, are fown with them, and wound; the tender Hem in fuch a manner as to render the plant incapable of producing any thing but fmut, . It is not an ealy matter to account for the manner in which this takes place ; but a little attention to the circumftances he is now to mention will perhaps, throw fome light upon ir It is known that plants of very oppofite natures and qualities will grow and produce abundantly upon the fame foil where the nourifhment is feemingly the fame. This effccl is alfo known to be owing to the ftrufture of their veflels by the aclion of which the juices that circulate through them are differently prepared: jn every different plant. From this ftriking difference, owing confeiTedly to organifation, is it not, fays he, prefumeable that the fmut in wheat is produced by the infedts wounding the veffels of the plant in fuch a manner as to render them incapable of taking up any other principle from the foil but the fmut contained in the balls, which upon examination feems to have no quality different from the fineil vegetable earth ? This opinion he thimcs is ftrongly fupportcd from the circumftance of, certain pickles being found a cure for the malady. The effecT: of thcfe pickles is, however, com pletely mifunderftood ; for in place of fnppoiing, as is erroneoufly done, that they, operate by itrengthening the grain, and thereby removing that debility which has been long confylered as the t-aufe of fmut, their benefit depends upon the powers they poffiefs of deftroying the infefts above de fcribed : but to fliew the abfurdity of the commonly received opinion in a more ftriking point of view, it is only neceffary, he adds, to ftate, that many of thefe preparations, which are fuppofed to be- fo friendly to vegetation, are in fut highly inimical to it, unlefs they are ufed with the utmoft cau-* tion ;cven ftale urine, which has long been confulered as a fafc and innocent remedy, is, under cer-- lain circumftances, highly pernicious. After he had difcovered the infeft, he made trial of all the fubftances commonly ufed, and found all of them, when properly applied, deilruclive to it. Is it not therefore, continues he, more agreeable to plain common fenfe to fuppofe, that the virtue of thefe preparations confifts more in the power they have of defrroying vermin, than in any ^lengthening., quality they poflefs ? * Phytologia, p. 323. i Synopfis of Hufbandry* Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. CharlocU and Corn-Poppy in. 37 There are feveral different forts of weeds that become injurious to wheat crops, where they have been put in upon lands in an imperfect ftate of prepa ration. On the lighter kinds of foils, efpecially thofe of the calcareous^defcrip- tion, charlock* is often extremely troublefome. It is a weed that bears a yellow flower in fome of the kinds, and a white one in the other, and is not therefore one individual plant, as generally fuppofed by the mod part of farm ers, but three diftinct fpecies each of which, is- prevalent in different places. Thefe are the rough-leaved charlock, or wild muftard ; the fmooth-leaved, or wild rape ; and the rough-leaved wild radim having white flowers. f They are all annual plants, arifing from feed which they afford in great abundance, and which, if fuffered to be fhed on the land, remain for a great number of years enveloped in the clods, in a condition fit for vegetation oaexpofu re to the in fluence of the air and a fuitable degree of moifture, by means of ploughing, or any other method of breaking up and reducing the foil. Such plants mould, of courfe, never be permitted to run to feed, but be extirpated in their young ftate, cither by hoeing or fome other means : as, by attention in this way, much in convenience may be avoided, as the increafe by feeding is hardly to be con ceived. Bindweed is alfo a weed of the parafitical fort, that is highly injurious to wheat crops on thi& fort of land. It is of two kinds, the common and the black,j; and may be removed with greater eafe than the above,, by affording fufficient tillage. > The corn poppy is another weed, that is often injurious to thefe crops on the chalky forts of land 1 . It moftly makes its appearance about May, proceeding \vithfuch rapidity in its growth, both in height and laterally, as foon to over top the grain, and deftroy the crop, by the made that it produces, the corn be ing rendered thin and defective in the ear. In thefe cafes it is the cuftom of fome diftric ls to obviate the mifchief by eating the weeds in, the early fpring, as about May, by hogs, which are faid to be fo particularly fond of the plant as to- devour it with avidity, and in preference to the young wheat. ^[ The practice feems, however, dangerous, and a better and more fafe remedy is at hand in due tillage of the land, and the early extirpation of the plants by the hoe. * It is often, bcfides this, known by the different names ofcadlock, Jdtlock, kilk,\n particular J- The sinapis mgra, the brassica napus, and the re.phanus raphanistrum, of botanifts. 3 The convolvulus arvensis, and the poligonum convolvulus, of botanifts. The papaver rhoeas of botanical writers, H Synopfis of Huftandry, p. 78. Stf Culircatian of Arable Land. Wheat. Cockle. Darnel. Couch in* Cockle * is likewifc a. weed that often proves hurtful to crops of wheat. It is :of great increafe, frequently fending off feverat flems from the fame root, each containing many pods filled with feed. It ufually blows about June, with a pink-coloured blofTom, and may then be eradicated without much difficulty, by pulling up the plants as they come up. There are two forts of this weed, .the common and ear cockle. The latter, according to a late practical writer, varies from the former, in being confiderably fmaller in fize, and by its peculiarity of growing within the ear of the wheat plant; in fome inftances the whole ear affording no other produce than this, while, in others, one part of it contains per fectly formed wheat, and the other ear-cockle. It is afferted, on the authority of much obfervation, to be a degeneracy in the wheat, from its being too frequently jfonw on the fame land from which it was produced. f If this be the fact, the remedy Tmift obvioufly confift in a frequent change of feed. It is, however, more probable that this weed is produced by fowing the feed with the wheat, and may of .courfe be prevented by care in fowing clean wheat. Whitt darnel % is another very prolific weed that does much injury to wheat crops, both during the time of its growth, and when at market, by fpoiling the fample. It is an annual plant, the flem of which has a flight refembla.nce to that of grain, and may probably be beft prevented by attention to the putting in fuch feed wheat as is perfectly clean. Where it occurs, the fafeft method is to draw it out by the hand. Puck-needle || is a weed that is often abundant on fuch lands as are hard tilled, and almoft equally injurious with the above in leflening the value of the fample at the market. As the feed of this wheat is not eafily feparated in cleaning the corn, much care is always neceffary in order to prevent its being fown with the feed. Couch, or what in many diftricts is better known by the name of fquitch, is a weed that is highly injurious to wheat crops, and extremely difficult and expenfive in its removal to the cultivators of fuch arable lands as thofe defcribed above. It does not comprehend the roots of any one particular, but of feveral forts of peren nial graffes, efpecially thofe of the bent kind, the dog s grass, the creeping foft * The agrostemmagithago of writers on botany. , i Bannifter s Synopfis of Husbandry. J This is i\\eloliumtemulentum of botanifts, and is often known to farmers by the names of drake or droke. ,. , 11 The scardix pecten rencris of botanifts, and what is often known to agricultors by the names oi Shepherd s needle, Beggar s needle, &c. Cultivation of Arable Land. Wheat. Coltsfoot in. *9 grafs, the tall oat grafs, &c.* The roots of thefe different gralTes are not unfre- quently in fuch lands as have been exhaufled and worn out by improper tillage, fo interwoven with the foil, and in fo matted a condition, as to obftruct the pro- grefs of the plough. They are found to be mod abundant in the lighter and more mixed kinds of foil. Weeds of thefe kinds are only capable of being completely removed and deftroyed by having them drawn out, while the land is under fal low, by means of heavy harrows constructed for the purpofe, with a greater number of teeth, or tines, than is neceffary for thofe of the common fort, and placed fo as to incline more forward. When brought into heaps in this way, they may either be confumed by fire, or reduced into a compoft, by the incor porating of lime, in its unflaked or moll cauftic (late, with them, and afterwards adding dung, or rich mould, in a fuitable proportion. The latter is by much the mod economical method when lime can be readily procured, and is not at. tended with much trouble, as fuch compofts may be formed in the corners or other parts of the fields where the weeds are produced. The ufual method of picking out the roots by hand labour, which is termed couching, is not only tedi ous and expenfive, but feldom effectually performed. The well-known property of thefe roots to propagate and encourage different forts of grubs, worms, or other infects, affords a ftrong inducement to effect the dedruction of fuch root weeds by every poflible means, efpecially where wheat crops are to be grown. Befides thefe weeds, there are others that are equally hurtful to wheat crops in lands that have not undergone a proper preparation by tillage, and are rather ilrongand moid, fuch as the corn crow foot, the tare, &c.| In grounds where the latter predominates, care mould conftantly be taken to deftroy it, by reducing them into a (rate of fine tilth before the wheat is put in. Coltsfoot + is a weed that, in foils of the moid and rather heavy kinds that have been confiderably exhaufted by tillage, is liable to become troublefome and of great difad vantage to the wheat crops. As this weed begins to fhevv its flower rewards February and : March, and foon afterwards ripens its feeds it fhould not by any means be neglected at fuch periods, as from the levity of them, and their downy nature, they are quickly conveyed to. a diftance, by which means they foon eftablifh themfelves in different places. Repeated ploughing during the fummer feafon, by rendering the foil light and mellow, may render * Theagrostii, the triticum repens, the holcus mollis, and the avcna clalior of botanical authors, t The ranunculus arrf nsis and croamtet rasper narn of botanists. J The tvffilagofarfara of writers ou botany. * 40 Cultivation of Arable Land. Ifflieat Produce of. them capable of being more readily extirpated by weeding. And as they de light in moiflure, laying the foil more dry by the forming of proper drains may alfo be of great utility. But from the roots of the plants fpreading themfelves extenfively near the furface of the land, they will conftantly require to be com pletely extirpated. Wheat is known to be ripe and ready for the reaper, by its ftraw turning of a yellow colour, its cars beginning to bend in the neck and hang down, their having no greennefs in the middle of them, and the grain becoming hard and plump.* The quantity of wheat produced upon the acre muft vary confiderably according to the circumftances of foil and preparation, as well as the ftate of the feafon ; for it has been found, that fome years the yield is under twenty while in others it is upwards of thirty bufhels the acre, the foil and culture being in every refpeft the fame.)- The average return of this crop throughout the whole of the kingdom, is probably not more than from three to three and a half quarters. A practical writer has, indeed, dated it at not more than three.J In Middlefex, the greateft crop of wheat of which the author of the Report of that diftricl: has any account, is, he fays, fixty-eight bufhels per acre; the lead about twelve. The medium between thefe extremes is forty, which, he thinks, would be the average of land highly conditioned. But the average produce of Britain does not, he fuppofes, exceed one half of this quantity, and yet, fays he, wheat is as certain a crop as any that is cultivated.^ This, he thinks, affords a clear proof that " the lands of England are reduced con-fider- * See feftion IV. On the Management of Grain and other -Crops, i Correftcd lleport of Middlefex. J Donaldfon s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 276. ^ According to Mr. Middleton, " the proportion which corn bears to the flraw ia that tHflrid if nearly as follows ; namely, The yield of 1793 was 17 \ bufhels to a load of iiraw $ of 1794 8f ditto ^ of 1795 11 ditto; of 1796 $f ditto ; The medium of four year* 11* ditto; Straw fold during the fame period from 25$. to 40*. per load. The load confifts of 36" truflfes at 36 lb. per trufs. Two loads of wheat ftraw per acre is reckoned a tolerable crop, which may be averaged at eight pence a trufs, or 24s. a load, or 21. 8s. per acre. In other parts of the kingdom, the yalue of the .ftraw is fuppofed equal to nearly the expense of reaping, Pej-haps at an average of 30*. Cultivation of Arable Land. Rye. 41 ably below par, "which," in his opinion, " can only have happened by a too frequent repetition of corn crops, and general bad management, which has of courfe lefTened the quantity of live flock, and with that, the beft means of rail ing manure. Let farmers," continues he, " be induced to fow crops to be eaten on the land by cattle, fo that they may there leave their* dung and urine, and corn will then be grown in double quantity ; and the live (lock, fupported by fuch green crops, be clear gain to the community." In order to afcertain the goodnefs of a Cample of wheat, it is necefTary to judge by the eye whether the berry be perfectly fed, or full, plump, and bright, and whether there be any adulteration proceeding from fprouted grains, fmut, or the feeds of weeds ; and by the fmell, whether there be any improper im pregnation, and whether it has been too much heated in the mow or upon the kiln; and finally, by the feel, to determine if the grain be fufficiently dry, as when much loaded with moifture it is improper for the ufes of the miller. Where the fample handles coarfe, rough, and does not flip eafily in the hand, it may be decided not to be in a condition either for grinding or laying up in the granary. The fame means may alfo ferve to determine the weight; but con- fiderable experience is necefTary to decide with much correctnefs. It is ob- fervcd by the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, that it " is a good fample of wheat where the weight ofafack, at eight gallons the bufiiel in meafure, arrives at four bufhels three and a quarter pecks in weight, or 2 cwt. i qr. jSlb. If," continues he, "a fack of this meafure weigh half bufhels and quarter, the fample is not bad, which is 2 cwt. i qr. 4.1b." In the technical language of the farmer and miller, it is ufual, he adds, " to drop the bufhels, and mention only the odd weight ; thus, in the firft inflance the wheat weighed three pecks four, and in the latter half bufhels four. If there are no odd pounds, it is faid to weigh half bufhels, or if from large meafure the weight comes to 2 cwt. 2 qr. then it is faid to weigh <; bufhels." Rye. This is a fpecies of grain which probably approaches nearefl to the nature of wheat of any that is at prefent in cultivation. It has two varieties, the winter and fpring rye, or what is often farther diftinguifhed into the black and white or (it has lately been as high as 3/. 12s.) which is on the corn, equal per bulhel to - \ .0 2 7 Short ftraw and chaff -.001 Wheat, at an average price for many years . - "-* 5 6 The entire produce of wheat per buflie), is full 8 2 The weight of the wheat grown in the ftrong laud diitrift, is ufually 6l or 62lbs, per bufhel. * VOL, ii. G 42 Cultivation of A ruble Land. Rys. Times of f owing. Dantzick rye. The former fort is the largeft, and the mod plump and hardy, confequently the mod frequently grown by agricultors ; but the fpring kind may often be employed withfuccefs. This grain is ib capable of refilling the effects of the weather, that, when fown in the autumn, it is feldem much injured by the mofl fevcrc winter. Iris more early in the fpring than wheat, and, though not equally valuable, is more certain of producing a good crop. This fort of grain is capable of being cultivated on mod kinds of land ; but the light dry fandy foils, that cannot be converted to the purpofe of wheat or barley- crops, are perhaps the only ones .on which it can be grown to advantage, from: their being the mofl adapted to it, and from few of them being fb light or poor as not to afford good crops. It can, of courfe, only be introduced with fuccefs on fuch lands as arc incapable of producing other forts of corn to advantage,, and where the improved methods of cultivating wheat crops have not been had recourfe to.. Even upon fome of the pooreft forts of fancy foil,, wheat is fuppofed in fome didricts to be grown with more benefit to the cultivator, the quality of the land being/ the fame, than this grain.* And frra fowls being lefs fond of it than mod other forts of graii^ it may be the mod proper, to be cultivated on thofe portions of grounds that are fitaatcd ciofe around the farm houfes. It is a kind of crop that ismodly grown after early-fed turnips, clover, peas, and other fimilar products-, as well as after naked fallows, in particular cafes. When cultivated on the cold and heavy kinds of foil,, the grain is much later in- becoming ripe than on fuch as are dry and light- This crop, like that of wheat,, requires the land to be in a tolerable date ofpul- verifation, and perfectly cleared from weeds. In many didricts,, when intended to dand for a crop, it is the cudom t-o put it in upon fome fort of fallow; but: where it is only to be fed- off by (beep, feldom more than one ploughing is given, the land being broken up and fallowed for turnips immediately after the crop has been fufficiently eaten down by fheep or other animals. It- is the practice in fome places to apply manure immediately for this-crop ; but where the foil is in a fuit- able date of preparation, and has not previoufly been too much deteriorated by the growth of other grain crops, it may be more advifable, efpecially where it is not to be fed off, to defer the application of the manure, in order that it may be employed for the turnip or ether green crop thatmay fucceed it,., the ufe of manure being apt to bring up weeds. Time of failing. The periods of putting this kind of crop into the foil are, in- * Young * corrected Report of Suffolk) p. 57, Cultivation of Arable Land. Rye. Quantity of Seed Jfter-Cullurc of. 43 general, pretty much the fame as thofe of wheat ; but when cultivated for green food, it may be advantageous to fow early, as in Auguft and September ; but it majr be fown in October, and during the winter months, until the beginning of March, in particular cafes, as where the early fowings have failed, or there is an intention of having a fucceffion of this fort of feed for Iheep. Seed. The general allowance of feed, where the crop is defigned to remain for grain, is in mod fituations from about two bufhels to two and a half; but when the intention is to feed it off, three, or even more, may be a better propor tion, as the plants in fuch cafes fhould ftand confiderably thicker upon the ground, in order that the largefl: poiTible quantity of green food may be provided. As the procefs of germination in this fort of grain is rather flow, it may be advifable to put it into the ground when it is in a tolerably dry condition, otherwife much of <[t may perilh, efpecially in wet feafons. Jt was formerly a prevailing cuftom to blend fevcral other forts of feed with that of rye, and the practice flill continues in fome diflridts in rcfped to wheat and winter tares ; but it is by no means either judicious or ufeful, fince, in the jfirfl cafe, the rye is in a Hate fit for reaping long before the wheat, confequently much lofs muft be fuftained ; and, in the latter, it is moftly in a condition to be cut as green food fome weeks before the tares, and becomes ripe at much too early a period for them.* Where wheat is combined with rye, it is in many diflricts termed me/Jin, the proportion of the latter to that of the former being regulated by the nature of the foil, and the judgment of the cultivator, the principle being that of giving the largefl: proportion of rye to the lighteft kinds of foil.f After-culture. When this fort of crop is grown for the purpofe of the grain, it will be conflantly neceflary to keep it clean in the early ftages of its growth by hand weeding and hoeing, when they may appear requifite ; but where the inten tion is merely that of affording a fupply of green food for the ufe of fhccp or other animals in the more early fpring months, no further culture will be wanted after the crop has been put into the ground. This fort of crop is known to be ready for the fickle by the ftraw of the (terns becoming of a yellowifh colour, the ears hanging down, and the grain feeling hard, and in a plump and full condition. In the poor fandy foils of Suffolk, good crops of this fort are feldom afforded, * Modern Agriculture, and Correfted Report of Middlcfex. t Correftcd lloport of tljc North Riding of Yorkflure. G 2 44 C ulircatlon of Arabic Lund. J?j/i% Application and Ufts of. and on thofe of a better uality the produce is rarely more than from two to three quarters on the acre. But in the north riding of Yorkfhirc, it is flated by the able author of the Agricultural Report of that diftrict, to amount to from three to fix quarters. When this fort of grain is free from weeds, and cut when the weather is fine, it may be fccurcd in the flack as fa ft as the rcaping proceeds. The ft raw of this grain is fuperior to that of wheat, both for the purpofe of thatch, and for the ufe of the collar-makers. This is a kind of grain that is alfo cultivated in particular cafes, as where the ground is fufficiently light and dry, to be turned down as a manure; when this is the cafe, the crop fhould always be turned in while in its molt green and fuc- culent ftate, and when the weather is moderately dry, in order that it may be more quickly reduced by the procefs of putrefaction. It is fometimes the practice of farmers, when rye is intended to fland for a crop, to feed it with flieep in the early fpring, as in the beginning of March; but this mould never be done except where the crop is very luxuriant, and at fo early a period as that there may not be any danger ofdeftroying the new-formed ear. In the fouthern part of the kingdom it is alfo often cultivated for the ufes of thofe engaged in the bulinefs of tanning leather ; but more frequently as a green food for fheep in the fpring, before the turnip crops are ready. When grown ia this view, it is necefTary to have attention to different circumftances, in order to derive the utmoft advantage from the crops. As this grain begins to fhoot out, or fpindle, as it is termed by farmers, much earlier than wheat, care, as has been juft obferved, mould be taken that the feeding of it down is begun at a fuffici ently early period before the ear is formed in the hofe> as the latter end of Febru ary or beginning of March; otherwifethe flem or blade becomes firm and Micky, and the fucceflion of green feed, after the fTrfi: eating, extremely fmalL Indeed this may be done earlier than the firfl of thefe periods, in cafes where the feafon is mild and open, and perfevered in till the end of April. In all cafes it is, how ever, advifable to let the crop be fo advanced in its growth as to cover the ground tolerably before the fheep are turned in. As this fort of green food is faid to have much effect in promoting the flow of milk in fuch ewes as have lambs, pro bably from its fucculency, and its fHmulant properties being applied immediately after the feverity of the winter feafon, when. the bodies of animals.are known to be more capable of being excited by the action of flimuli, and when there is jBcarcely any other fort of green feed that can leflen its operation by being taken along with it, the culture of it mufl be the moll advantageous where fheep-huf~ 4. Cultivation of Arable Land.-*Buck-wheat.~Sced and Times of facing. 45 bandry is extenfively combined with that of tillage, cfpecially that department of it \\hich. relates to the feeding of lambs ; as by this means, from the quantity of fucculcnt nutritious food that is provided, the lambs are prevented from being ftinted in their growth while young, which is a matter of the utmofl importance in their future feeding. In feeding this fort of crop off by fheep, it will likewife conftantly be necef- fary to keep the fields properly divided by means of hurdles, as in this way the lofs of food will be much lefs, and fome parts will become frefh while the others are eating down. Buck-wheat. This is a fort of crop that may frequently be cultivated with ad van. tage in different points of view. Its utility has been much extolled by fome cuU tivators^ while others have thought lefs favourably of its benefits : with .good far mers it may however be a valuable crop. It is capable of being grown on mofr. forts of foil, provided they be fuffici- ently dry and in a tolerably fertile ftate; but anfwers beft on thofe of the thinner kinds, efpecially where they are of a fandy nature. Mr. Young remarks than c< nineteen parifhes out of twenty through the kingdom know it only by name. It has numerous excellencies, perhaps as many to good farmers as any other grain, or pulfe in ufe. It is of an enriching nature, having the quality of preparing for wheat or any other crop." It is added that tr it is as valuable as barley, and where known it fells at the fame price. It alfo equals it for fattening hogs and poultry." And further that " for fowing grafs-feeds with, it is the beft of all crops, as it gives them, the fame fhelter as barley or oats, without robbing or exhaufting the land." In the preparation of the land it is lefs difficult than many other plants, being fometimes fown with fuccefs upon one earth. It is beft to plough and harrow the land well in April for the reception of the crop in the following month or later ; a fine clean Hate of tilth being the belt, as grafs-feeds are moftly fown with it. Seed and Time of Sowing. The proportion of feed that is necefTiry in railing a crap of this fort is about a bumel to the acre ; and it may be fown at different times, in the fp ring and fummer feafon, as in May, and about the end of June, or beginning of the following month. As it is a tender plant in-its early growth, it mould never be fown too early, fo as to be in danger from frofts. It is gene rally fown in the broadcaft method, being well harrowed in. After-management. As crops of buck wheat ufually cover the ground there is fddom much attention neceffary in their culture afterwards* 46 Cul treat ion of Arable Land. Barley, Kinds of. In the application of the crop, it is either fuffered to remain for the purpofe of feed, cut and ufed green for cattle, or ploughed under as a manure. In the firft method, the produce is from four or five to feven or eight facks,* which is made ufc of in feeding horfes, fattening hogs, and keeping poultry. If ground, it affords a white flour. In foiling cattle, it may be mown twice in the fummei feafon. When given to milch cows, it is faid to incrcafe the flow of milk in a con- iiderable degree. In feeding it down green by hogs, it has been found to pro duce an inebriating effed upon them.f The quantity of food that it affords in this mode of confumption does not feem to be well afcertained. The method of ploughing it under for the purpofe of manure has been.already noticed in [peaking of manures. When cultivated after tares, in Mr. Mofelcy s trials it was found to be highly advantageous as a preparation for wheat, preferving the land, after their removal, from the effects of the fun till the period of the wheat being put in. In Mr. Young s opinion much is effected by .this combination of crops: " a coat of manureis gain- .ed at no expenfe, #he year carried through from Michaelmas to Michaelmas ; and three crops put in, on three ploughing?, viz. tares, buck-wheat, and wheat." It Is not, he fuppofes, eafy to form a more complete fy ilerrL.J Jn particular fituations and circumftances, as where barley or other fpring corn cannot be put in fugicicntly early, t the culture of this plant may be practifed with .great advantage. In harvefting it is very liable to fried, of courfe when ripe it is beft to cut it while the dew is upon it, and leave it to dry in the field. In fome cafes it fhould likewife be carted in the dew for the fame reafon. The grain is of a black colour, of courfe cannot be injured in this way. It is moflly ripe about the latter end of September. Barley. This is a much lefs hardy fort of grain than either of thofe that have been defcribed ; but from its great utility in the compofition of malt li quors, and in the preparation of various kinds of fpirit, it is extenfively culti vated in fuch diftrids as, from the nature of their foils, are adapted v to its growth. It .may, indeed^ be confidered as the next grain in value to that of wheat. There are feveral kinds <of this grain cultivated in particular parts of the kino-, dom, as the fpring or common larky, the long-eared barley, thefprat or battledore barley, the bear or Jyiare barley^ and the big barley. The firft fpecies of bar- * Suffolk Report. t Synopfis of Husbandry. J SuffoUc Report CitJiivution of Arable Land. Barley. Kinds of \ 47 Icy is grown pretty extcnfivcly in the fouthcrn as well as the eaftcrn parts of the ifland ; and the fecond, or long eared fort, may frequently be-met with, but iVoni the great- length and. weight of its cars, it is more apt to lodge, confcquently is more hazardous than that of the common or fpring kind. The fprat or battle dore fbrt isl>roader in the car than any of the others, and has at the fame time a fh orter and more tapering ftcm, with erect ears, 0:1 which accounts it is lefs dif- pofed to lodge or fall to the ground. It is often diftinguifhed by the title of Ful- ham barley, from its having been Extenfi vely cultivated in the neighbourhood of that place. The bear or four- rowed barley, and < the big or fix -rowed barley, are grown to confiderable extent-ail the north -weftcrn parts of England, as well as in; Scotland, Thefeare winter barleys, and require ro be put. into the ground in the. autumnal. feafon, fomewhat ifi<themannerof wheat. From the tender and delicate nature of this fort of grain, efpecially in the more early Mages of its growth, it is incapable of being cultivated with advantage on the ftiff, heavy, and wet descriptions of foil, or fuch as are of a cold and tenacious quality. It is faid to grow in the mod perfect manner in a-loamy fand, or fuch foils as are moderately dry and fufficiently light; The.moft plump and thinnerl- rined grain is aflerted to be produced on fuch lands as are dry, light and mellow ; and thefe are the qualities that are confidered as the mtoft eftimable. Light poor land, when dry and xvarm in refpect to foil and fituation, is even capable of af fording barley that is much Superior in quality to -fuch as is grown on ftrong lands that are of a cold and moift nature. Thisfort of grain is culti vated after almoft every kind of crop; but it has been found to fucceed to the moft advantage after thofe of the green or ameliorating kind j as turnips^ potatoes, carrots, peas, tares, &c. However, .from the nature of grain crops, it can feldom be cultivated to great advantage after wheat, rye, or oats : in fuch cafes it has generally been obferved that the crops were blighted and im perfectly fed, even upon foils the moft adapted to this fort of grain.* Where flax, hemp, or rape, are grown, .barley may fometimes be fown after them. When fown. after any^ of thefe improving crops, manure is feldom neceflary ; as in many of them the foil muft be rendered fuitable by the feeding of them oifby animals, and in the others, from a large proportion of it being required for the growth of fuch crops, it muft be equally unneceflary. If, however, a wheat or other fort of ftubblebe chofen for the purpofe> manure will be requifitCj which mould . * Donaldfon s Prefent State of Husbandry in Great Britain. 43 Cultivation of Arable Land. Barley. Preparation for. always be well mixed and incorporated with the mould before the feed is put in, and be in a confiderable ftate of reduction before it is applied. After whatever fort of crop this grain may be grown, as the root is ex tremely tender, and requires much fupport during the firft {rages of the growth of the plant, from the quick manner in which the procefs of vegetation is carried on, the foil mould conftantly be reduced into a ftate of much finenefs and pul- verifution, fo as to become properly open and porous, in order to fecure a more certain, equal, and perfect vegetation. This is to be effected by different flight or ebb ploughings and harrowings, as well as by occafional crofs-ploughing and rolling. In very wet feafons, on the heavier kinds of barley land, and where there are land fprings, it may be advifable to plough the ground into final! ridglets, of about eighteen or twenty inches in width, inftead of leaving them flat; as by fuch means the land may be kept dry in any feafon, at leaft to fuch a degree that by two or three dry days it may become in a condition for un dergoing the operation of harrowing, in order to the fecond ploughing; and in cafe the ftate of the weather mould ftili continue improperly moift, the ground on this ploughing might be ridged up in a fimilar way until the period of fowing, when a few days more of fine weather would be fufficient to render it proper to be reduced by the harrow or fcuffle, fo as that the feed might be put in ; or when the land is in a more moift ftate than is fuitable for this crop, a third ploughing may be given before the feed is put in.* It is likewife fuggefted in the lame work, that the uiingof the fcuffle, inftead of the plough, in the fecond earth, would not only expedite the bulinefs of preparation, but be a confiderable faving of expence. In foils that are free from weeds, it is afTerted that fcuffling would be equal to a crofs-ploughing, and in fuch as are not perfectly clear from root weeds, it vvouid ftill be more advantageous by bringing them within the power of the harrow ; at the fame time that it would accomplish more than double the quantity of labour with an equal number of men and horfes, belides leaving the ground equally ready for the harrow and the roller, preyioufly to the putting in of Che feed. The improved fyftem of management in preparing all the heavier forts of land for the reception of this and many other fpring crops, is that of ploughing the lands in autumn on to fuch forms of ridges as may be fuitable for the particular method of fowing that may be practifed, and to render the furface fine for the feed by Scarifying and fcuffiing at the feafon of putting it into the ground. * Middleion s Report of Middlefex., Cultivation of Arable Land. Barley* Preparation for. 49 It has been obferved by Mr. A. Young that in putting this crop in after turnips, it has been long the practice in Suffolk to do it by means of drilling without any ploughing. For this purpofe, as well as for many others, the furface of the land is, he fays, thrown on to lands of fu-ch breadths as fuit in an exadl man ner for one ftroke or going of the drill machine, or for two, which is termed a lout. The fhafts of the drill are fixed like thofe of a cart for one horfc that quar ters ; the horfe-hoeing implements, fcarifiers, and fcufflers that may be em ployed, being prepared according to the drill machine, fo as to fit the lands OF ridges exactly. Suppofing the turnips to have been drilled or fown on lands fixty-fix inches in width, which admits feven rows of barley to be drilled at nine inches apart leaving twelve inches for each furrow. Thefe lands being cleared of the roots by eating them with fheep^ or by carting them off with carts fo contrived as that the horfes and wheels may pafs along only in the furrows, the furface foil being in fomemeafure mellowed and rendered fine by the frofts, the queftion is how to prepare it for barky or oats. " The hufbandry univerfal till very lately was, Mr. Young fays, that of ploughing fuch land once, twice, or thrice for fpring corn ; the better farmers thrice, others once, and a few twice. Up on very dry foilsj the evil was little more than that of a ufelefs expenfe, except pro bably a. greater diUipation of the volatile particles of the urine of the fheep that had fed on the turnips : but upon all other foils more ftiff and unmanageable, the furface which had been rendered friable by the frofts, being turned down, and. the more ftiff and clung bottom not influenced in the fame manner by thofe natural, agents being brought up, it might alfo, if very favourable weatber enfued, be brought into good order; but if thefeafon proved the leaft unfavourable, the far^ rner could have no chance of obtaining fo fine and fafe a. tilth as the furface. was capable of, without any fuch reverfal of it by ploughing : the new fyftem is, he, fays, to apply the fcarifiers inftead of fuch ploughing.. Mr. Cook s, with his caft- iron beam, or any. other- heavy enough, is ufed, the horfes walking only in the fur rows, and confequently without any trampling of the land. Thefe fcarifiers are of different breadths, but all narrow, ufually about three inches, or at moft four, and. they will go as deeply as may bethought proper. They ought, he thinks, to ftir to the depth to which it would have been ploughed, whether four, five, or fix in* ches. They completely loofenthe foil, let down the air, to dry it at bottom, give a very good tilth with the material advantage of not burying that pulverifed furface which frofts. have given, and which, if once loft, may not be regained in time for barley. In fome cafes, one fcarifying and two or three harrowings will, he obferves,, VOL. II. H .0 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Barley. Preparation for. effect the preparation ; in others two. Three operations may be wanted in others, that is, two fcarifyings and one fcuffling, with broader triangular (hares. Thefc variations will depend entirely on the degree in which the foil is tenacious, and to afcertain which the farmer s eye and foot can alone enable him to judge. Thefe operations go off very quickly, and leave the land or Hitches in excellent order for the drill-machine to follow, and depofit the barley feed ; the farmer, during the whole of thefe operations, being as little liable to be thrown out by unfavourable weather, as it is poffible he fhould be, and much lefs fo than if he had ploughed the land. Thofe, fays Mr. Young, who are ufed to attend to the effects of til lage on different foils, know well that loams and clays of various degrees of tena city, if they have been properly formed into lands for winter, and not poached by horfes trampling, receive the frofts to advantage, and are found with a friable fur- face in the fpring. If rain comes, it dries and leaves the furface (till in good order, and ready for any operation; but plough fuch land, and turn up the more adhefive bottom, not acted upon by froft, and let rain fall on fuch frefh turned furrows ; it remains ft iff and faddened ; it does not become porous again ; the air cannot get into it : and if drying marp winds at north-eafl follow, the furrows become lon gitudinal flices of clod, very difficult to be acted upon by any inftrument, and the farmer finds himfelf in a moft unpleafant Situation. He no more recovers a fine friable furface, and it becomes twenty to one whether he has a good crop. His only chance, is to have abundance of patience, to wait for favourable weather, and lay his account to fow very late." The reafon for this advice of avoiding fpring- ploughings is,the fame writer fays, " not drawn from the practice of a few farmers, but from thofe of an extenfive well cultivated diftrict." And " thefe directions are not, he remarks, confined to the drill hufbandry, but are applicable to the preparation of the land for broad-cafting;" but in this laft method, fimilar attention mufl be given to the breadth of the lands, as the opera tions muft be effected by horfes walking only in the furrows ; and when the feed is covered by harrowing, the fame regard muft be paid to that circumftance. It is the common practice in fome well-cultivated heavy land diftricts, as EfTex, to Cow barley on afummer fallow. Mr. Young remarks, that there the farmers plough, their f illows in Auguft or September on two-bout ridges of three feet breadth : if in Auguft, fome reverfe the ridges immediately after wheat fowing, others before it. They water grip the field well, and in February plough and fow, ftill on the fame ridge, but harrowed nearly flat, by harrows made for the purpofe. If they have a dry fcafon to plough and fow, they get good crops:-much conftantly depends Cultivation of Arabic Land.- Barky. --Preparation for. 5i upon this in fpring tillage. * There the above practice would, he fuppofes, alfo be highly advantageous. When this fort of crop is introduced upon green fallows, fuch as turnips, &c. it is fometimes the cuftom to prepare the land only by one ploughing ; but a better practice is that of giving two earths, the firft as early in the fpring as it can be done, and the fecond immediately before the feed is put in. This is the practice moftly adopted in Norfolk, where the barley hulbandry, on turnip fallows, is, in moft inflances, well performed. Ploughing but once for fummer corn has however been advifed by fome : this practice, it has been obferved by an intelligent farmer, though certainly not gene ral in the county of Norfolk, is yet by no means uncommon. His crop of bar ley was never more abundant than it was laft year from a {ingle ploughing. He has now between forty and fifty acres, which have the appearance of being very productive at the enfuing harveft, not one acre of which has been ploughed twice. This practice certainly faves expenfe, faves time, and is very fimple. He does not, however, mean to recommend it merely becaufe he adopts it himfelf; every man muft be guided by circumftances : if his land is foul he muft clean it, and frequent ploughing is at once the cheapeft and moft effectual method he can pur- fue. If, however, the land be thoroughly cleaned by the ufual laborious prepara tion of turnips, it cannot be very foul for barley or oats, one of which is moftly the fucceeding crop jandhefufpects the neceflity of frequent ploughings for fum mer corn is generally attributable to the fiovenly injudicious, manner in which the fummer leys for turnips have been managed.* Without venturing to recommend the practice, a Norfolk farmer ftates a fact i In the year 1800, he fowed between forty and fifty acres of barley upon turnip land ploughed only once, and thrafhed fomewhat more than eleven coombs : three bufhels per acre. This was in the year of fcarcity. In 1801, he grew only twenty-four acres of barley ; about half of which was drilkd, the land having been previoufly pulverized by repeated ploughings, the other half once ploughed only after the turnips were off. The refult was much in favour of the broadcaft barley: but it fhould be obferved that the drill did not deliver the feed with fufficient regu larity : hegrew eight coombs : two bufliels round. The year following h- fowed forty-two acres of barley broadcaft : wanting to bring his land upon fimilkr ridges, he worked if about : the crop of barley was very great. He has already Monthly Magazine, Vol. X. p. 13&. H a 52 Cultivation of Arable Land. Barley. Timcoffowing. thrafhed about ten coombs per acre, and calculates that he has between two and three coombs per acre yet in the ftraw. By his advice, his tenant has this year fown almoft his whole barley crop with a fmgle ploughing, his turnip-land being clean, with the exception of one piece, which he was advifed to plough feveral times. The weather having continued remarkably dry, was the reafon of the -recommendation. By ploughing land two or three times and harrowing it as often in dry weather, whatever moifture there is muft evaporate. Corn depofited in land in this fituation comes up at two different times ; the fuperficial corn, that which being lightly buried feels the influence of dews, and fprouts up ; that which .lies deeper will not germinate till a mower, of rain comes. At harveft time one half of the .farmer s crop would be {helled be fore ihe other would be ripe. The year before,, the feed-time was dropping as the farmers call it, or he mould not have worked his land forauch about." In fowing this grain after peas, or other pulfe crops, it is ciiftomary in mod diftricts to give the firft earth or ploughing in the autumn, which .mould always be performed in fuch a manner, as that the greateft poffible .extent of furface may be expofedto the influenced the atmofphere and the action .of the frofts ; the ridges being at the fame time fo laid up, as that no injury may be produced by the wetnefs that may take place during the winter feafon. The fecond earth or furrow* is moftly. given about March, when the oat crop has been put into the foil t By this ploughing, two different pjurpofes are effected in many cafes ; the root- weeds, fuch as thofe of couch, and other noxious .plants, may be loofened, fo as to be more readily extirpated by the application of the harrows immediately afterwards, and the foil reduced to fo fine a tilth, as that thofe of the feed kind may be induced .to vegetate freely, and in confequence be more perfectly removed by the action of the plough and harrow at the period of putting in the feed ,,f If this kind of grain be introduced after wheat, or other forts of corn crops, which, ash as been fhewn, is by no means a practice to be recommended, the preparation of the land is moftly conducted in the fame mannner as the above. Time of /owing. The period of putting this fort of crop into the foil muft, of courfe, vary in fomc degree according to the nature and quality of the land, and its fituation in refpect to climate. In moft of the more fouthern diftricts * This is fometimes termed the steering furrow in the northern diftrifts. i Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 282. 3 Cultivation of Arable Land. Barley. Quantify of Seed. 53 of the kingdom it generally commences about the latter end of February, or the beginning of March ; but in the northern parts of the ifland it often begins a month or fix weeks later. The largeft quantity of feed is ufually fown from the middle of March to the latter end of April. The earlier it can be put into the foil in a proper ftate the better the crop will be in general ; but much muft always depend on the circumftances of the feafon and the condition of the land. d. The proportion of feed that may be neceflary muft be different, as the foil is of a richer or poorer quality, as the feafon of putting it into the earth is more early or late ; and according to the manner in which it is put into the ground. The nature of the crop after which it is cultivated may alfo render fome difference in the proportion of the feed requifite. Much lefs feed is demanded where the foil is rich and fertile, than where it is poor and exhaufted ; and the drill method of fowing lefs than where the broadcaft plan is purfued Early fowifig alfo requires lefs feed than where a late period is adopted. It has been obferved, that on a medium foil, in proper condition, fown broadcaft, the proper proportion may be in March three and a half, in April four, and in May four and a half, buftiels to the acre. Such is the difference of rich foils, that it is fuppofed that it can hardly be fown too thin : one bufliel and a half fown early- having afforded as much as could ftand ; where, if three or four had been put in, the grain would have been lodged, and of courfe greatly reduced in its valued- After turnips, and other green crops, a much lefs quantity is generally neceflary, as fuch lands are moftly in a perfectly fuitable ftate for the reception of barley crops. It is obferved by Mr. Young, that ff early fown crops have more time to tiller than late fown ones." As this fort of grain is apt to come up in an irre gular manner, and of courfe to become ripe at different periods, by which means thefample often fuftains great injury, it is probable, that by fteeping the feed for fuch a length of time as might be fufficient to impregnate it with a due propor tion of moifture, the procefs of vegetation might be rendered not only more regular, but even much more expeditious. The feed is put into the foil in different me thods, being in fome cafes fown under the furrow, and in others above it. Where the firft practice is adopted, the feed furrow mould be very light, otherwife the grain may be depofited to fuch a depth as to greatly retard, or even prevent, much of the feed from coming up in proper time. When fown on the furface, great A> r * Corrected Report of Middlcfex, 54 Cultivation of Arable Land. -Bar ley .-Methods of /owing* care fhould be taken that the feed be well harrowed into the foil, and fo cover ed, as that the grain may vegetate, and grow up in as equal and regular a manner as poflible. It is the practice of many diftricts to fow clover, and other grafs feeds, with this crop ; but where the foils are very rich, and of a good quality, this method of hufbandry is improper, as much inconvenience and injury may de bone to the grain by the rapid and over-luxuriant growth of fuch crops, rendering the plants weak and imperfectly fed. On the thinner and lefs fertile foils where the growth of fuch graiTes is lefs vigorous, it may however be adopted with advantage in many cafes, as little injury will be done to the grain, while the draw may be confidera- bly improved in the way of fodder. Where this mode of management is had recourfe to, the fowing of the grafs feeds may be deferred for fome time after the grain has been fown ; and when they are put in, a light harrow may be pafled over them, and the land be after- ter wards well rolled. Thefuccefs that has attended the ufe of the drill and the fetting of grain in particular cafes, fuggefb the propriety of attempting limilar practices in the cul tivation of this fort of crop, efpecially on the richer defcriptions of barley foils, as by fuch methods it feems probable that the quality as well as this produce may be greatly improved. It is fuppofed by fome able cultivators that the method be comes more important as the feafon advances, on account of the greater danger of veeds ; as it is much eafier to clean drilled grain from them than to weed fuch as have been fown in the broadcaft method. Where this fyilem is purfued themoft proper diftanceis probably nine inches. Though the practice of keeping this kind of grain before it is put into the ground is not in general ufe with farmers, it is probable, as has beenjuft obferved, that much advantage might be derived from it, efpecially as the feafon is common ly hot and dry when it is performed, from the more quick and uniform vegetation of the crop. It is likewife fuppofed by fome agricultors, that by mixing foot with fuch fteeps the danger from infects may be diminished. In the choice of feed, attention mould conftantly be paid to the colour and the ftate of the (kin or rind of the grain ; as that is efteemed the beft which has a pale lively bright appearance, without having the tails of the corn flamed in any way, and which is full and plump, or what is often termed well-bodied. It is common with practical farmers to change the feed of barley every year or two, from the iuppofitiqo that the grain becomes coarfer by the repeated fowing of the fame kind Cultivation of Arable Land. Choice of Seed. 55 of feed. The neceflity of this cuftom may, however, probably a rife from the nog- led of making ufe of fuch feed as is full-bodied and perfectly fed and ripened. In oppoiition to an opinion (rated by Mr. Kerrich, that " out of a coomb of dif- coloured barley, more than two bufhels will not in mod inftances work on the malting floor;" and that he is of opinion, it cannot be relied upon for feed, ct as the feeds do not vegetate belter in the ground than they do upon the floor ; an intelli gent Norfolk farmer determined to try the vegetative powers of barley in different tints of difcoloration ; and found, as he expected, that the mere circumfiance of difcoloration had nothing to do with the procefs of germination when the feed is committed to the ground. If the corculum, the fpeck of vitality, be not injured, the feed, he believes, will invariably germinate : the cotyledons are merely organs of nutrition, which convey the oily farinaceous matter of which they are compo- fed, to the infant plant : if the nutritious fubftance be liberally communicated, which we fuppofetobe the cafe when the cotyledons are large, plump and firm, the plant, it is obvious, will thrive better and more rapidly, than when the coty ledons, fhrunk and fhrivelled, diftribute a pamrfionious mucilage. Still, howe ver, the deficiency of natural nourimment in this latter cafe may, he is perfuaded, be in a great meafure fupplied by imparting an additional fecundity to the foil. He felected from a heap of barley, which lay in his barn, twenty kernels, the moft thin and meagre which he could find ; this was during the fevercft part of winter. He planted them in fome very rich mould, and kept the pot in his ftudy ; where every one of them germinated, tardily indeed at firft, but the radical fibres foon fpread, and the plants grew luxuriantly. In his garden he afterwards planted fome of the blackeft barley he could find, a large proportion of which grew, and was healthy: the corculum of fome few kernels had been injured, probably rotted by exceflive rains, and thofe kernels made no effort to germinate. 1 * In contradiction of thefecond pofition, he f * picked from the floor of a neighbour ing maltfter fixty kernels of barley, which having been in the heap (as he was af- fured by himj for nineteen days, had refufed to malt. He told him, perhaps, truly, that thofe kernels would certainly not vegetate, however long they remain ed on his floor. He planted them in his garden ; and out of fixty, forty-five grew as rapidly and vigoroufly as he ever faw barley in his life. In fhort, it id evident that warmth and moifture, however efTential to germination, are not of themfelves fufficient to induce it. Is it not probable, fays the experimenter, that the corculum of thefe kernels which refufed to germinate on the floor, was ftimu- lated into action by the larger proportion, of oxygen which the mould of the gar- 56 Cultivation of Arable Land* Barley. After-Culture of. den contained ? If fo, and the fact is very eafily afcertained, the maltfter is no fo much at the mercy of the feafons as Mr. Kerrich would lead us to imagine : he may ftirely contrive to impart a portion of oxygen to his malt-heap without much difficulty, and without much expenfe. " Encouraged by the fuccefs of his little experiments on the growth of difcolour- ed barley, he fold bis brightefl corn, and trufted his whole crop to the moft ordina^ ry and the darkeft feed he had. And the prcfent appearance of his crop, confut ing of more than forty acres, gives him reafon. to expect an abundant produce. Although barley will grow in the ground after having received confiderable dif- coloration, nay after an incipient germination has taken place in the ear as it has lain on the ground, yet it certainly may be fa injured as to be very unfafefor feed. He agrees, therefore, with Mr. Kerrich in earneflly recommending to thofe, who at any future feafon may be difpofed tafow dark barley,. tc firft to try a fmall quantity of what they may referve for feed, that they may afcertain whether it will grow or not, before they fow their general crop.*" After-culture. As this fort of crop is moftly fown broadcafl, it feldom re ceives any improvement by culture afterwards. It is obvious, however, that by occaiionally ftirring and Icofening the mould about the roots of the plants, and keeping them clean and perfectly free from weeds, much advantage might be ob tained in many cafes in the cultivation of this fort of grain; as it may thereby: be rendered not only more abundant upon the ground, but the fample be con- fiderably improved. The drill-fown crops have obvioufly an advantage in this refpect, as has been noticed above, and which (hould of courfe recommend the practice. When the feafon turns out dry and unkindly in the early fpring months, this fort of crop is often much injured by the attacks of the worm ;, which is obvious from the fudden change in the appearance of the plants, from a healthy green to a yellow caft. On the firft appearance of this change, the ufe of the roller mould be had recourfe to, in order that the fuperficial parts of the foil, which are probably become too loofe and porous, may be effectually prefled, and thereby rendered too clofe and compact to admit the worm to prey upon the tender roots of the young plants. That this effect may be produced in the moft effectual manner, the roller fhould be of fuch a fize, or fo loaded, as to afford a preffure equal to the draught of three or four horfes, which mould be yoked double, in order to increafe the * Monthly Magazine, Vol. X. p. 132. Cultivation of Arable Land. Barley* Produce of. $7 effect by their treading. It has been fuggefted, that, if by this method the njury can be counteracted until fuch time as rain falls, there need not be any apprehen- iion of the crop, as the plants will foon pufh forward in fuch a manner as to be come too ftrong to be in danger from this infect.* It is probable too, that top- dreffings, fuch as have been recommended for wheat, fown over the crop imme diately before the ufe of the roller, might be of utility in leflening the ravages of this deftructive worm. And it is found to be of the utmoft confequence to the fuccefs of barley crops, that the weather prove moift about the period in which the plants fhoot out into the ear ; as where the contrary is the cafe, the crops arc liable to fuftain much injury, from the want of that fupply of food which is ne- ceffary for the perfect formation of the grain. The produce of this kind of grain, like that of moft others, varies confiderably according to the ftate of the foil, climate, and the cultivation that is employed ; but the average over the whole kingdom is probably from about twenty-feven to thirty bufhels the acre. In the county of Middlefex, according to the report of that diftrict, the average produce is about four quarters of grain and two loads of draw to the acre ; and in Yorkfhire, on the turnip lands, the produce is nearly the fame ; but in many other diflricts, it does not average more than three and a half. It is ftated that, in Middlefex, the draw generally fetches about one guinea a load when delivered in, which, together with the chaff and thin grain, is equal to one milling and fix pence the bufhel on the corn, and that, as the corn averages three millings, they produce together four millings and fix pence the bufhel, or feven pounds four millings the acre. In foils where barley crops become too rank and luxuriant, as may be the cafe in very open fpring weather, on fuch lands as are in a high ftate of fertility, it may often be neceffary to reflrict the over-vigorous growth of the crops, by either feeding them down with fheep, or cutting them with a fcythe as a green food for animals ; the latter method is faid to be preferable, as by it the rank tops are only removed, while in the former the whole is indifcriminately con- fumed, and particularly the ftems of the plants at the joints about the furface of the ground, where they are fweet and nutritious from the quantity of faccharine matter that is depofited in them, by which much injury may be done to the future profperity of the crops -)-. It is probable, however, that, independent of this cir- cumftance, barley crops can in but few inftances, from their tender nature, and expedition with which they (hoot into ear, be fed down by fheep without * Synopfis of Ilufbandry, p. i)l. t Englifti Encyclopedia, Art, Husbandry. VOL. II. I 58 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Oats Kinds of. injury; as by the mutilation of the new-formed cars, and their being much re tarded in their progrefs, the maturation of the grain may be too long delayed to be effected in a perfect manner. The practice, when neceffary, can therefore only be had recourfe to with propriety at an early period. This fort of grain is fhewn to be ripe by the difappearance of the reddifli caft on the enr, or what by farmers is termed red roan> by the ears beginning to droop and bend themfelves round againft the Hems, and by the (talks becoming brittle and of a yellowifh colour. Barley mould conftantly remain out in the field until it be perfectly dry and free from moifture, other wife it is liable to heat in the (lack, and the fample be thereby greatly injured both for the purpofes of feed and malting. It is found by experience that the Fulham barley, which has been once fown on ftiff loamly foils, is the moft fuitable for the purpofes of malting, as the (kin is thinner, and the quantity of meal coniiderably larger. From its quicker growth it is of courfe lefs expofed in the field to the effects of moifture, which is known to be highly injurious to this grain, and on which the good qualities juft mentioned may in a great mcafure depend. It is the fine white clear thin- fkinned barleys that bring the higheft prices at the markets, whether they be fold for the purpofes of malting or thofe of feed. Oats. -The cultivation of this fort of grain has of late years been confidcr- ably increafed, probably on account of the greater demand for them in confe- quence of the great increafe in the number of pleafure horfes that have been kepu It is a fpecies of grain of which there are many varieties in cultivation; as the white t the Hack, the red, the llue t and the naked oat. There are likewife other varieties of thi scorn \*hich are diftingurfhed by the names of the countries from which they have been introduced ; as the Poland^ the Tartarian or Siberian and the Friejland oat. The firft affords a plump and fine grain on foils of the dry warm kinds. The white oat is a valuable kind, and where the foil is dry, rich, and in a good ftate cultivation, may be grown to great advantage, as it moftly brings the beft price at the market, and yields the moft abundantly in threfhing out. It is cultivated the moft extenlively where the ufe of oat bread is general, as it affords the whiteft meal. The black oat may be grown where the land is inferior in quality : it is nearly- equal in value, from its being found fo highly nutritious as a food for cattle and horfes. It ftands a wet harveft well, and anfwers well on moift foils. The red or brown oat is likewife proper for the ftronger forts of land ; ic is a very hardy kind, and affords a great increafe. The grain is full and heavy ^ Cultivation of Arable Land. Oats. Sorts of Land proper for. 59 on which account it is probably to be preferred for the purpofc of feeding animals to the above forts. The blue oat is only cultivated in particular diftricts. It is fuggefted in Mil ler s Dictionary as the fort known to farmers under the title of Scotch Greys. The naked oat is a kind that is but little cultivated, except in particular places. It has however, the property of threfhing clean out of the hulk. This fort has not, according to Ray, a hard hufk as in the common oat, but feverai thin chaffy coats. The grain is alfo fmaller, but fuller in the body, and inclining to a tawny colour. It may be cultivated on the poorer forts of land. The Poland oat has a fhort full-bodied grain ; but it has yet been little intro duced into cultivation, probably on account of the thicknefs of its fkin or rind. The ftraw is fhort, the grain fet fingle, and without awns. The Friefland oat has a thin-lkinned grain, and a large proportion of ftraw. The corns are for the moft part double, the larger, of which is in fome cafes awned, the awn being fituated high. It is moft fuitable for the better forts of land. It is known in fome diftricts by the title of the Dutch oat. In the Siberian or Tartarian oat the grains are thin and fmall, the largeft of which are awned, but the fmall ones without awns. The ftraw is tall and reedy, on which account it is improper for the purpofe of fodder for cattle. It may however be grown on the poorer forts of foil. The TLfCexfaort Smalls ; fo named from its remarkable fhortnefs. It is very weighty, and fucceeds well on all moderately dry lands. Cburche s oat is a white fort that affords well, and comes into ear the fooneft of any. The Potatoe oat has lately been much cultivated in the more northern parts of the ifland, and is faid to be productive and afford much meal. This fort of grain is hardy, and may be cultivated upon almoft any kind of foil ; but, as in others, it is the moft productive on fuch as are ftrong, rich, and rather adhefive, and which have not been long broken up from the ftate of old grafs. It is however probably better to cultivate peas or beans according to the nature of the land on newly broken up old lays than oats, except where the practice of paring and burning has been had recourfe to. It is fuggefted, that though this fort of grain generally fells lower than barley, yet from its being a more certain crop, the fuperior utility of the ftraw for the food of cattle, and the increafe in the quantity of produce, it is equal to barley for medium loams. And that for ftronger forts of lands, and thofe of the fen kind, it is great-. 12 60 Cultivation of Arable Land. Oats. Preparation for. Jy fuperior to it, though apt to leave the land in a more foul and compact con* dition.* On the cold, tenacious, fenny, and wet defcriptions of foils, the oat may indeed in many cafes be fovvn with more advantage than any other kinds of crop, and likewife where lands cannot be put in a proper condition for barley- crops. Oats fucceed well after almoft every fort of green and root crops, but mould not be cultivated after wheat, rye, or barley, where it can poflibly be avoided, as ths foil by fuch cropping wouid be too greatly exhaufted. It has been obfervedj that in diftricts where improved methods of hulbandry are adopted, oats ars generally grown upon fuch hinds as have been newly broken up from the ftate of grafs, and that the practice is (hewn to be perfectly correct, by the abunv dance of the produce in fuch cafes. The cuftorn of cultivating oat crops in fuc- ceilion for feveral years is equally abfurd and improper, and mould be generally ex ploded, t In regard to the preparation for this fort of crop, it is recommended by an in* telligent cultivator that when it is intended to be grown after cole, tares, early peas, or fuch other crops as do not come off the ground later than the beginning of June, on foils that are too wet to admit of being ploughed in the. winter feafon to make a clean baftard fallow, laying the land up into ridges proper for being fown in the early fpring. Or when after fuch clean crops as come off too late to admit of baftard fallowing, to plough only once, which mould be as early as the bufinefs of the farm will admit, into ridges proper for the put-ting the feed in. J In all cafes, it is a good practice to have the land in a fine (late for the growth of this crop which is bed effected in the fame way as for barley. It is perfectly abfurd to fuppofe that.it will not be equally profitable to the farmer to have the. land in as good a ftate of preparation fox this fort of crop as that :of barley. It is remarked by Mr, Donaldfoa, in his account of the prefeot ftate of hufban^- dry in this country, that whatever may have been the nature of the crop that pre-*. ceded this, it. is but in very few cafes that more than one clean furrow is afforded, Jn fome diftricts it is, he afferts, the. common practice to plough the lands over that are intended for oats, in the autumn in a particular manner, fo as to exppfe as large an extent offurface to the influence of the atmofphere as poflible. This in fbme places is termed by farmers rib-furrowing, and in othersy/^-///rroa;wg- j .it * Corroded Report of Middlefe x. t Modern Agriculture, vol. II. Ibid, Cultivation of Arable Land. Oats. Time of f owing- of. 61 is performed by turning over the furrows at the diftance of from twelve to eighteen inches from each other on the unbroken land. In this way one half of the fuper- ficial part of the land remains unmoved, and the furrows- being thrown on it much furface is expofed, and the foil p;reatly improved, at the fame time that the root weeds are deftroyed. If this procefs be accomplimcd in. the rnoft perfect manner, and in the autumnal feafon, the foil is considerably ameliorated and im proved by the frofts during the winter, and by being- well broken down by the harrow in the fpring, having a complete ploughing immediately before the feed be put in, s the foil becomes in an excellent condition for this fort of crop, even \vhere the land, is of the ft iff and heavy kind. There can indeed be little doubt but that, by the land s undergoing a more full and complete preparation than is ufual for this crop, the quantity of produce maybe greatly increafed, as the fibrous roots of the plants are more enabled to extend themfelves in the loofe earth and thereby to afford a. more perfecl fupport to the plants. In ibrne cafes as where, the land has been much reduced and exhaufted by the previous cropsj or in breaking up thin poor foils where the proportion, of turfy material is incon- fiderable, and when the prices of other forts of grain are low, it may be advan~ tageous to have. recourfe to the ufe of manure, as by fuch means it is probable that a third more produce at leaft might be grown.. Time of Jo-wing.. In this bulinefs it is necefTary to keep in mind that the earlier the feed is put into the. ground the fooner in general the crop will be ready to cut. In the more, fou them parts of; the kingdom, it is often the cafe to put this fort of feed into the earth towards the latter end of February, when the feafon is dry and fine; but March is in . general the oat feed feafon. And in fome experiments this fort of crop has been found to fucceed well when put in early in January. On fuch foils as are naturally dry and parching it is by much the bed practice to fow early, in order that the crop may be .well eflablifhed before the hot weather com- mences. And befides there may be a greater chance of the grain efcaping the ra vages of the worm that often attacks fuch crops ; and when this infect is prefent its ravages may be more eafily prevented. As this fort of crop is liable to be Injured by. very fevere winters, it can feldom be fafe to put it in the autumn, efpecially in the northern parts of the ifland ; but inthefouthern diftricts it may be done with propriety in particular cafes, as where the land is of a very dry and friable nature, large crops having been aflerted to have been grown in this way in combination with tares in fome inftances.,* * Corrected Report of Middlefex, p. 187V - 52 Cultivation of Arable Land. Oats. Quantity of Seed. Seed. The proportion of feed that may be required muft differ according to the difference of the circumflances that have been already ftated, but on foils of a middling quality, four bufhels may be fufficient for the more early fowings, and five for the later ones.where they are put into the ground in the broad-caft method, which fhould conflantly be the cafe where the firft modes of preparation are adopt ed. In fome of the fouthern diftricts the Poland oat is fown at the rate of about four bufhels the acre for the firft fowings ; and it has been found in practice that the earlieft fown crops conftantly afford the moft perfect fample, and in general the moft abundant produce. It is however often the cafe tofow larger proportions of this fort of grain. In the practice of Mr. Walker, of Lincolnfhire, advantage was found from fowing eight bufhels to the acre, the crop being found better and the fample more equal than with a lefs quantity. " The oats are lefs taily, having no tillers to give different degrees of ripenefs, and the crop being ready to cut four or five days fooner than with thinner fowing." Mr. Ducket is faid to hold the fame opinion, and to drill five bufliels per acre.* With the oats, clover may be fown when necefTary, the feeds being covered by harrowing fuitably to the condition of the land, and where the foil is very light or mel low, a roller mould be palfed over it as foon after as poffible, in order to prefs the mould to the feeds ; but in other circumftances it may be more advifable to defer the rolling until the feafon is dry, and the crop fomewhat advanced in its growth. The practice of fowing oats under furrow, though it has been at tempted on the lighter and more dry forts of land, is not by any means to be advifed, as in fuch a method the feed is apt to be depofited to too great a depth, and to be in danger of either being in fome meafure deftroyed, or of coming up in an irregular manner. The ufe of the drill has not been fo much practifcd with this fort of crop as with many others, but its utility cannot be doubted in many cafes ; nor has that of dibbling been fo fully employed as in other cafes, but on old layers ploughed before the winter frofts commence, it has been had rccourfe to in the fpring when the land was fufficiently dry, and in fuch a condition as to permit the holes to Hand without being filled by the falling in of the mould. As this kind of grain is fuppofed to be more liable than moft others to dege nerate, by being too long continued on the fame land, it has been the practice of fome diftricts to change it for fuch as has been imported from other coun- * Farmer s Calendar. Cultivation of Arable, Land. Oafs. After-culture of.- Crops of. 65 tries*. It is probable, however, that by collecting and fovving the beft and moft perfect of our own produce, this cxpenlive practice may be rendered unneccf- fary. By fimilar attention moll of the different forts of oats are alfo capable of being greatly improved both ia the quality and appearance of the grain. When this fort of grain is cultivated on fuch leys as are newly broken up, there may frequently be danger, efpecially where the land has been long in the Hate of grafs, both from the deftructive attacks of infects, and the foil becom ing too light, open, and porous, from the decay of the grafly material, for the fupport of the plants. The firft may probably in fome meafure be obviated, by eating fuch lands very clofely wirh fheep previous to their being broken up, as by fuch a method the ova of fuch infects may be much deftroycd, and their propagation prevented. And the treading the crops by (heep, as well as the roller, may likewife be beneficial in both refpects. Horfes have alfo been turned in for the fame purpofc by forne cultivators.]" For the above reafons, it has been fuggefted as improper to put oat crops in on newly broken up land, or even in the fecond year s cultivation of them, or what in fome diftricts it termed a lea lreecb%. Peas and beans, according to the nature of the foil, are, as has been feen, generally conlidered as the moft proper forts of crops in thefe cafes. It is moftly confidered by writers on agriculture as a better and more correct practice to fow grafs feeds with this crop than barley, as the tillage requifite for the latter may difpofe it to become rank and be lodged, by which the grafs will be drawn up weak through it, and in that way be greatly injured ; as well as the barley, by the humidity thus produced, require a longer time in the field, and in that way be expofed to more danger in cafe of a wet feafon fucceeding, while with oats there is little rilk in thefe refpects, as the ftraw is much ftiffer and more firm. Where oat crops are thin upon the ground, they grow ftrong, and are confequently better capable offupporting themfelves without falling on the ground. After Culture. The only culture that is neceflary for this fort of crop while growing, is that of keeping it as clean and free from weeds as poflible, by means of hand-weeding, and the ufe of the forceps. It is alfo a practice in fome places to pafs a light roller over the crop after it is advanced a few inches in height, when the ground has been (lightly moiftened by rain, by which the * Correfted Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire. t BanniJfter s Synopfis of Huflbandr/, p. 101. + Ibid. p. 102. t>4 Cultivation of Arable Land. Peas. Sorts of. cloddinefs of the furface is reduced, and the plants in feme mcafure earthed up, and the progrefs of the crop not only much promoted, but, where thin, the plants rendered more thick upon the land by the tillering that is thus produced. Oat crops are ready for the fcythe, or fickle, when the draw exhibits a yel- lowifh caft, the grain becomes hard, and the chaff opens in fuch a manner as to render it in fome degree naked. This fort of crop does not require to be fo dry when put into the ftack as thofe of either wheat or barley. It is fometimes a practice in this fort of crop, as well as that of wheat, when there is danger of its being too rank or luxuriant in its growth, to feed it down with fheep in the fpring months. This is not, however, a method that is to be adopted, except in particular circumftances, as where there is great difficulty in procuring Iheep feed at fuch periods, or where the worm is committing its ravages upon the plants ; as this fort of grain is not in general apt to be injured cither by the luxuriancy of its growth, or by being lodged. Pens. This is a crop which is lefs certain than moft others, and even when productive moftly inferior in value, ex cept in particular fituations, as near large towns, when produced early for the table, to thofe of the grain kind. Yet from fuch crops when full, having much tendency to improve the lands on which they are cultivated, as well as to render them clean and free from weeds, they are cultivated to a confiderable extent in many diftricts of the kingdom. The varieties of peas employed in cultivation are extremely numerous; but thofe adapted to field culture are generally diftinguifhed into two kinds, the early and the late : of the former are the early Cbarlton, the golden hotfpur, and the common white ; of the latter, all thofe of the gray kind, as the Marlborougb gray, the horn gray, the maple gray, &c. The firft of thefe forts is generally confidered the beft for field husbandry. This crop may be grown upon almoft any fort of foil, but fucceeds bed on fuch as are dry and poflefs a middling degree of lightnefs, with a tolerably mellow con dition, having a portion of calcareous matter in their compofition, as without this ingredient peas are faid not to fill or ripen fo perfectly. Pea crops are moftly put in after wheat, oats, or other kinds of grain. They may likewife fucceed clover or fainfoin in many cafes with advantage ; and on old ley grounds, when newly broken up, where danger is apprehended from the worm, they may often be found a beneficial crop. But after whatever fort of crop peas m?.y be cultivated, it will generally be neceffary to have the foil reduced into a tolerable Hate of pulverifation Before they arc put in, and, where it can be fpared, a portion of manner applied Cultivation of Arable Land. Peas. Time offowing Quantity of Seed. 65 On all the more ftiff forts of land this preparation fhould be given by autumnal ploughing, into a fuitable ftate for the fcarifiers and fcufflers in the fpring fo as to be fovvn without any further ploughing. For this purpofe, a compoft of earth, dung, and lime, may be the moft ufeful, efpecially where there is little or no calcareous matter in the foil. Pea crops may thus be rendered not only more abundant but better filled, and ripened at an earlier period. Mr. Young however objects to the life, of any fort of manure for this crop, as \vhere the land is in a good condition and the peas put in upon a layer they do not ftand in need of it, large crops being produced without any. Befides, <f dung makes them run to long ftraw, and that is not favourable for podding pro ductively." It alfo encourages weeds which cannot, from the nature of the crop, be eradicated in the advanced ftages of its growth. Time of /owing. In fowing this kind of crop, much muft depend upon the inten tions of the cultivator: when the peas are intended for podding, in order to be fent green to the market, which may be the moft advantageous appropriation of the crop near large towns, where they can be readily difpofed of, they mould be put in fucceflion at the diftance often days or a fortnight from about the middle of January to the latter end of March, beginning with the lands that are moft dry and mellow, and proceeding to fuch as are more moift and heavy. In this mode of culture regular fupplies may be kept up for the daily confumption of the markets. The white early forts are in thefe cafes to be employed. It is however, the practice in fome of the fouthern diftricts, in order to have them more early, to fow the feed in the autumn, as a little after Michaelmas. This, from the frofts during the \vinter, is often, however, a. dangerous method, and mould perhaps never be attempted except where the land lies extremely dry and warm, and is very rich in quality.* In this cafe the hardy hog kind is the moft proper. But for the general crops, when the cultivator has no view of the above kind, they may be fovvn as early in March as the foil can be put into a proper ftate of preparation. In thefe cafes the gray forts are moftly employed. When the feed is put in at a later period, as in April, the white or more early kind fhould conftantly be preferred, as the produce becomes ripe more early, which is a matter of importance in pea crops. Seed. The proportion of feed muft vary according to the difference of the circumfhmces under which the crop is cultivated, the manner in which it is put in, and the intention with which it is grown. When the feed is put in on rich ground s ju lw * Synopfis of Ilufbandry, p. US. VOL, II. K 6S Cultivation cf Arable Ztwrf. - Peas Quantity of Seed. in the autumn, with the defign of pulling the pods green, ic may be in the quantity of three bufhels and a half or four bufhels to the acre ; a larger proportion than in other cafes being generally allowed. The peas in thofe cafes fhould be put in in rows, at the diftance of about three feet from each other, in order that proper culti vation may be applied afterwards. This mode of practice is common about Dartford in Kent, where the green pea fyftem of hufbandry is carried on extenfively and with much profit to the farmer. But for the general fowing, when the land is in tolerable condition, from three to three bufhels and a half is the common allowance, the earlier fowings requiring rather the mod feed. Mr. Young mentions two bufhels and an half as the ufual quantity to the acre in planting eveiy flag. And where they are drilled at larger diftances fix or feven pecks may befufficient. Some have only employed one bufnel, but that hefuppofes too fmall. In our experience however, there has always appeared an advantage in having thefe crops rather thickly fown. If the view of the cultivator in the growth of pea crops be chiefly that of cleaning and ameliorating the land for the reception of other forts of crops, as thofe of grain, turnips, &c.orthe producing much draw, a larger quantity of feed may be ufeful, as by that means the furface of the foil may be more perfectly covered, and a more clofe and ftagnated ftate of the air produced upon it in confequence; at the fame time that the plants are drawn up to a greater length of ftem or flraw, by which the land will be greatly mellowed and enriched, and the fmall weeds fmothered and deftroyed at the time that a larger proportion of fodder is produced. But in cafes where the principal object is that of the crop of corn that is to follow, the proportion of feed may be lefs, as in that way there will be a more free circulation of air, and a more perfect admiflion of light and heat from the fun, for the growth and maturation of the pea crop, and at the fame time lefs exhauflion of the foil. It is ufual in thefe cafes, in many diftricts, to put the feed into the ground in the broadcaft method; but the drill or row fyftem is conftantly to be preferred, as being more regular, (living con- iiderably in the proportion of feed, and admitting of cultivation afterwards with .more cafe and advantage. In this laft method two bufhels, or two bufhels and a half, may often be a fufficient allowance of feed. Different implements have been contrived for this ufe, but the moft convenient is probably a fmall light fort of wheel-plough, to the body of which a fort of feed-box is attached, through the bottom of which the axis of a light wheel paffes, by which the fow;ngis regulated, and which is pulled up and prevented from letting the peas be depofited at the ends of the ridges, or other places, as in turning by a firing Cultivation of Arable Lattd-~Pea$--nrtllin-g-~-Dit>bling attached to the handle. It may be conveniently employed with one or two horfes. The proper diftance of drilling this kind of crop is moftly in equi-diftant rows at about twelve or fixtecn inches for hand-hoeing ; but where the horfe-hoe is employed, from two to three feet ; and the depth to which the feed is depofited, from two to three inches. In Norfolk they never drill peafeat a greater diftancc than nine inches. When they are dibbled they plant two rows on a flag, fo that they cannot be above four inches from each other. In feme diftricts the feed is put by the hand into drills moftly made crofT- ways of the ridges, but occafionally in the direction of them, at the diftance of about fifteen inches from each other, and afterwards covered in by means of hoes. In fome inftances alfo, a bum-harrow is drawn over the furface, by which the land is rendered fmooth and even.* Where this fort of crop is cultivated on a ley preparation, the beft method is probably, to dibble the feed in. This is the practice conftantly followed by the beft cultivators in fome diftricts. -j- In fome of the fouthern diftricls this is done in two rows on every flag of nine or ten inches in breadth, and fometimes only in one row in the fame fpace. Where horfe-hoeing is practifed or much hand-hoeing to be given, double rows at nine inches with eighteen inches intervals anfwer very Well, in Mr. Young s opinion, but thegreateft crops he has feen have been from planting every flag. Though the practice of fteeping this fort of feed is feldom had recourfe to by the cultivators of peas, it is probable that the later fown crops may be greatly benefited by it, as the vegetation of the plants may be rendered more quick, regu~ lar, and uniform. It is the cuftom in Hertfordfhire, and fome other dift rifts, to fow beans, or even oats, fometimes with the peas, with a view of keeping them up. Thefe mix tures are, however, practices that can never be adopted with advantage, as the different crops, from their being of unequal growth, muft conftantly be liable to injure each other. After-culture. The ufe of the hoe in ftirring the intervals, and earthing up the young plants where the crop is put-in in rows by the drill or dibble, is of cffential advantage in promoting their growth, and protecting them from the in juries of the feafon. Where the horfe hoe is made ufe of, the firft operation may * Correded Report of Middlefex, p. 19*. + Corrected Report of Suffolk, K2 68 Cultivation of Arable Land. Pea $. After-culture of. Hating* turn the earth from the row?, and the latter lay it up to them by fplitring the in tervals. Where the method of hand-culture prevails, it is the general cuflom to have rccourfc to two hoeings ; the firft when the plants are about two or three inches in height, and again juft before the period in which they come into blof- fom. In this way the vigorous vegetation of the young crop is fecured, and a frefh fupply of nourifhment afforded for the fctting of the pods and the filling of the peas. At the laft of thefe operations, the rows mould be laid down, and the earth well placed up to them, the weeds being previoufly extirpated by hand labour.* In fome parts of Kent, where this fort of crop is much grown, it is the prac tice, when the diftance of the rows is fufficiently great, to prevent the vegeta tion of weeds, and forward the growth of the pea crops, by occafional edge-hoeing^ and the ufe of the break-harrow, the mould being laid up to the roots of the planrs at the laft operation, by fixing a piece of wood to the harrow. This mould however only belaid up on one fide, the peas being always placed to that which is the moft fully expofed to the effects of the fun. The edge-hoeing is perform ed at the rate of from two to three fhillings the acre, according to the nature of the land. There are many inducements to the cultivation of this crop, on fu-i table foils, in the vicinity of large towns, where the demand for green peas- is confiderable ; fuch as the ready fupply of money that is thus provided for the other expenfive operations during the fummer months, the facility of thus rendering the land proper for the growth of turnips, and the large fupply of fodder that is afforded by the ftems of the plants when properly fecured; notwithstanding the danger of fuch crops during the winter, and even in the fpring months, when the fca- fons prove unfavourable, and the heavy cxpences incurred in the gathering and difpofal of them. It is frequently a practice with the large cultivators of early green pea crops > in the neighbourhood of London, to difpofe of them, by the acre, to inferior per- fons, who procure the podders ; but the fmaller farmers for the moft part provide this defcription of people themfelves, who generally apply at the proper feafon for the purpofe. The bufincfs of picking or podding the peas is ufually perform ed by the labourers at a fixed price for the fack, of four heaped bufhels. The number of this fort of perfons is generally in the proportion of about four to the. acre, the labour proceeding on the Sundays as well as other days. It is foine- * Cosrefled Report of Middkfex. I Cultivation of Arable Land. Peas. Produce of. 6<j times the cuftcm to pick the crops over twice, after which the reft are fuffcred to ftand till they become ripe for the purpofe of feed. This, however, moflly arifes- from the want of pickers, as it is confidered as a lofs, from the peas being lefs profitable in their ripe ftate than when green. Befides they are often improper for the purpofe of feed, as being the word part of the crop. It is therefore bet ter to have them clear picked when hands can be procured. After this they are loaded into carts, and fent off at fuitable times, according to the diftance of iitua- tion, fo as to be delivered to the falefmeri in the different markets, from about three to five o clock in the morning.* In many cafes in other parts, the early ga therings are, however, fent to the markets in half-bufhel fieves, and are frequently difpofedof at the high price of five fliillings the fieve ; but at the after periods they are ufually conveyed in facks of a narrow form, made for the purpofe, which, contain about three bulhcls in each, which, in the more early parts of the feafon, often fetch twelve or fourteen fliillings the lack, but afterwards moftly decline con- fiderably, in fome feafons fo much as- fearcely to repay the expences. This fort of crop affords the moft profit in fuch pea feafons as are inclined to be cool, as under fuch circumftances the peas are moft retarded in their maturation or. ripening, and of courfe the markets kept from beingover-abundantly fupplied. The expenfe of gathering green peas is different, according to the difficulty o procuring podders, the bulk or abundance of the crops, ar.ithe kind of pea or lizeof the pods. Thofe of the larger fort, fuch as. the marrowfats, being in the county of Middlefex about one {billing, and thofe of the fmaller kinds, as the, Charlton, from fifteen to eighteen pence, the fack.f In Kent the ufual price is about fourteen pence the fack for podding, one fhilling for conveying them to the market, and three pence the fack for the falefman.J The produce of both the early and late pea crops vary much according to the nature of the feafon, and many other circumftances. The average of the early crops in Middlefex is fuppofed, by the author of the Report of that diftricl:, to be from about tw.enty- five to thirty facks the acre, which, felling at from eight to eighteen millings the fack, afford about eighteen pounds the.acre. The author of the Synoplis of Hufbandry, however, ftates the produce about Dartford, in the county of Kent, at about forty facks the acre, though he fays fifty have fometimes been gathered from that fpace of land. *" Middleton s Report of Middlefex,. + Ibid. + Synfipfis of Hufbandry. The produce and expence of cultivation of a field of fix acres, in June, 1796, that was not at all 70 Cultivation of Arable Land. -Peas. Modes of reaping of. But for the later crops that ftand to ripen, it is fuppofed by fome to be from three and a half to four quarters the acre ; others however imagine the average of any two crops together not more than about twelve bufhels.* And that on the whole, if the value of the produce be merely attended to, it maybe confidered as a lefs profitable crop than moft others. As a means of ameliorating and improv ing the foil, at the fame time it is, however, to beefteemed as of great value. The greateft danger to the early pea crops is to be apprehended when the weather during the more early fpring months is hot and funny in the day-time, attended with fharp frofts in the nights, as in this way great mifchief is often done, the crops becoming attacked with the mildew, and not ripening in a proper manner. While the peas are proceeding in their growth, and ftill more particularly at the periods when they come into blofTom and begin to fet their pods, it is of great importance to have rather moift weather, as by that means the vegetation of the crop is promoted in a more perfect manner, and there is a greater chance of the peas being well podded. The chief figns of the healthy and vigorous vegetation of pea crops are thofe of their leaves pofTeflmg a fine bloom of a bluifh caft, and hav ing the outermoft large leaves of the bloflbm extending backwards. f In the late or general pea crops, after they are reaped or rather cut up by means of a hook, it is the ufual practice to put them up into fmall heaps, termed wads, which are formed by fetting fmall parcels againft each other, in order that they remarkable for more than a common crop, are thus Hated byMr. Middlcton in his Survey of the Agri culture of Mlddlefex. Number, 40 facks, of four bufhels each, of pods fent to market, and fold from 6s. to 13s. average 7s, Gd, each - -.1500 Haulm, Hacked, and given to draught horfes, one ton per acre, worth two- thirds as much as hay, but fay only - - 300 Produce -, .18 EXPENCES. Ploughing once from clover ley .0 10 Seed, four bufhels, at 12s. 280 Drilling, covering, &c. - 070 Hoeing twice - - - 0100 Podding at ISd. per fack, on 40 300 Marketing, diftance ten miles, land carriage - 150 800 Remains - - - -.1000 * D onaldfon s Moitern Agriculture. * Englifh Encyclopedia, Art. Husbandry. Cultivation of Arable L&nd. Peas. Modes of reaping of. After-crops. 71 may be more perfectly dried both in thefeed and ftem, and be kept from being injur ed by the moiftureof the ground. But in the early crops the haulm is hooked up into ioofe open heaps, which, as foon as they are perfectly dry are removed from the ground and put into ftacks for the purpofe of being converted to the food of animals, on which they are faid to thrive nearly as well as on hay.* When intend ed for horfes, the beft method would feem to be that of having them cut into chaff and mixed with their other food. It is the practice in fome diftricts to remove the haulm as foon as it has been cut up, by hooks conftructed with fharp edges for the purpofe, to every fifth ridge, or even into an adjoining grafs field, in order that it may be the better cur ed for ufe as cattle food, and at the fame time allow of the land being immedi ately prepared for the fucceeding crop. What are ufually termed winter peas, or fuch crops as have been fown in the autumn, generally afford the largeft propor tion of cattle fodder. It is of confiderable importance in the economy of a farm, when the nature of the foil is fuitable, to have recourfe to the early forts ; as by fuch means the crops may in many cafes, be cut and fecured while there is leifure, before the commence, ment of the wheat harveft. Where the nature of the foil is dry and warm, and the pea crop of a fufficient- ly forward kind, it may be eafy to obtain a crop of turnips from the fame land in the fame year. But in this view it is the beft practice to put the crops in in the row method, and keep them perfectly clean by means of attentive hand and horfe-hoeing ; as in that way the land will be in fuch a ftate of preparation for the turnips, as only to require a flight ploughing, which may be done as faft as the pea crop is removed, and the turnip feed harrowed in as quickly as pollible upon the newly turned up earth. In fome particular diftricts a third crop is even put into the fame land, the turnips being fold off in the autumn and replaced by col- lards, for the purpofe of greens in the following fpring. This, according to Mr. Middleton, is the practice in fome places in Middlefex. It is a method of cultivation that can, however, only be attempted on the warm and fertile kinds of turnip foil, and where the pea crops are early ; on the cold, heavy, and wet defcriptions of land, it is obvioufly impracticable. With the marrowfat and other late forts of peas, the ufual practice is to either prepare the land for wheat, or to put in crops of favoys or other late forts of cab bages, which are methods of hufbandry that may often be had recourfe to x event * Corrected Report of Middlefex,. p. 285. "72 Cultivation of Arable, Land. Beans. Kinds of. .on the more heavy forts of land, with fuccefs. Erom pea crops rendering the lands on which they are cultivated more light, open, and porous, they are fuppof- ed to be lefs proper for preceding wheat than thofe of beans ; on the more ftifF forts of ground this cannot, however, be an objection of any great confequence, und even on the lighter kinds it may often be obviated, by giving the feed earth early, fo that .the crop may be put in upon a ftale furrow, by the ufe of thefheep- foid, either immediately before or after the grain is depofited in the foil, and by repeating the fame practice occasionally afterwards, as well as by rolling. The portion of peas that is not confumed as human food is moftly appro priated to the purpofes of fattening hogs and other forts of domeftic animals ; .and, in particular inftances, fupplies the place of beans as the provender of la bouring ho rfes ; but care mould betaken, whenufedin this way, that they be fufficiently dry, as, when given in their green Hate, they are faid to be apt to pro duce the gripes. -Beans. This is afpecics of crop that may be cultivated to much advantage on all the more heavy wet kinds of land, which are improper for moft other forts of -crops, both on account of the utility of the produce, and the improvement that is effected in the nature of fuch foils ; as by this means, as has been already feen, the ground may in many cafes be rendered proper for the growth of wheat, without having recourfc, as has been ufually done, to the uneconomical practice of pre paring it by a naked fallow. There are different kinds of beans cultivated indifferent diftricts, according to the intentions of the farmers, and the nature of the foils ; but they may be fufficiently diftinguifhcd by dividing of them into field and garden beans. Of the firft fort the common horfe-bean is the moft generally cultivated on the ftrong lands, as it is found to grow to a greater height in the ftem, and of courfe to -cover the furface of the land more effectually. The tick bean is, however, fup- pofed by fome cultivators to afford a larger produce. The large ticks are the fort moftly grown in the county of Kent, where the bean huibandry is pradifcd to fome extent; but in Effex, where the fyftem of cultivating beans alfo prevails in a coniiderable degree, the fmall ticks are held in the higheft eftimation, as on the ftrong lands of that diftrict they are moffly found to afford an abundant pro duce. And in the market this is the fort of bean that generally fetches the belt price. Some of the latter or garden kinds have lately been introduced into the field with confiderable advantage in particular diftricts. Of thefe the rnazagan and mumford, the long pod, and the Windfor, are the forts that arc in general culti- Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans. Kinds of. Soils proper for. 73 vated. The firft is an early kind that does not grow to any great height, feldom more than about two feet. The ftem is (lender, but moftly well bcfet with pods, which contain beans of rather a fmall fize. This fort of bean, from its not grow ing tall, and having but a {lender ftem, may probably be grown with profit on the lefs ftrong and heavy forts of ground. It has alfo the property of becoming ripe more early than any of the other garden beans. The Mumford bean is alfo pro per on the fame fort of land. But the long-pod is of a much taller growth, and confiderably more ftrength of flem ; it confequently requires greater depth and ftrength of foil for its advantageous culture. It is a fort of bean that affords a large produce where the land is fuitable to its growth. The Windfor bean is of a ftill larger kind than the long-pod, the feed approaching to fomewhat the fquarc form. It grows ftrong and tall like the long-pod kind, but feldom yields fo large a produce. Thefe large kind of beans are rarely, however, cultivated in the field, except in the vicinity of large towns, where they can be fold in the pods green. This is a fort of crop that may be cultivated with fuccefs, as has been feen, ort almoft any of the ftronger kinds ofmoift foils. It thrives equally well in the ftiff clayey lands, and thofe of the ftrong loamy kinds. The foil of the lands, where bean crops fucceed to the greateft advantage, is generally of a good depth ; as in fuch the roots are enabled to get down fo as to be capable of fuppl/ing themfelves with a fuitable proportion of nourifliment, which cannot be the cafe "Where the ground has a thin foil. Bean crops are grown after wheat and oats, as well as on fuch lands as have been newly broken up from the ftate of ley. And alfo after clover and other feeds. On the leys they may be cultivated with great propriety and advantage where danger is apprehended of corn crops being injured by the attacks of the grub or other infects. And, befides their utility in this way, they may be of great benefit in cafes where the fward is tough, by breaking down and reducing the parts of the foil, as well as in promoting the putrefaction and decay of the turfy or grafly material, and the deftruction of weeds, by the fhade and fmothering clofenefs which they produce on the furface of the ground. Though this fort of crop is capable of being cultivated after moft forts of vegetable productions, it feems probable, from its poffeffing a tap root, and ftriktng deeply into the earth, that it may be grown to the moft benefit in fucceflion to fuch forts of plants as are of the fibrous-rooted kinds. The common method of preparing the foil for the reception of bean crops is merely by giving one ploughing at the period when the feed is put into the ground in the fpring months. But it is a much better practice to plough the VOL. ir. L 74 Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans. Preparation for, and Time offowing* land into ridglets of about two feet fix inches or three feet in width, as early as poffible in the autumn, after the manure has been applied, which mould conftantly be laid on when beans are fovvn after grain crops ; in which ftate it fhould remain until the period at which the beans are to be put in. By the ufe of a portion of manure in this manner, the crops are rendered more flrong and vigorous in their growth, at the fame time that the branching of their lateral moots is confider- able promoted. There is no crop to which manure is moreufefully applied, than to this. In thefe cafes the lands fhould always be ploughed into that form which fuits the particular method of fowing which is to be practifed : where the crops are to be drilled, they mould have the exact breadth which fuits the drill-machine ; but where dibbling is made ufe of, that which is proper for the operation of the fcuffler or fcarifier. By this method of ridging up the land in the autumn, and manuring it, on tht moift kinds of heavy foils, much advantage is produced. This form of ridge preserves the ground dry, and in a healthy condition, during the winter months, and at the fame time prevents the manure that is included in the middle of them from being diffolved and wafhed away by heavy rains ; and, in addition, the land is kept in fo dry a flate at the feed-time, as to afford the cultivator aa opportunity of putting in the beans whenever the weather is fair/ Proper attention mould likewife be paid to having the bufinefs of water furrowing well performed in> the autumn at the time of ploughing the land. Where the drill culture is practifed, more frequent ploughings will be requ>- fite,. in order that the land may be brought into fuch a ftate of tilth as that the drill machine may diftribute the feed with uniformity. But a better practice is that of making ufe of the fcarifier and fcuffier, with*. ut having recourfe to the plough, in the winter o-r fpringfeafon. Time of f owing. The feaforv of putting this crop into the ground mult do- pend in fome meafure upon the nature of the climate and ikuation. In the more mild and lefs expofed places, in the fouthern diftrids, they may be pot inta the earth with propriety during the whole of the month of January ; and in Aich as are more expofed, as early in February as the bufmefs- can be accorn- plifhed with propriety* But in the more northern parts of the kingdom, a later period may be more fuitable, as in March. When the period of planting. is * Cerrcded Report of Middlesex. Cultivation of ArahhLatid.--Bean&.~Quantily of Seed. -Methods of Coning. ;tf delayed too long, tlicre may ofcen be danger of the crops not being fuflkicntly eftabliflied in the foil before the weather becomes too hot and parching. And, on the contrary, when they are fet too early, there may be danger from the frofts, which, when fcvcre, are known to injure them greatly at the time they firft mew themfelves above the furface of the ground, and when accompanied by fudden thaws to be capable of wholly deftroying them.* Where the lands are fufficiently dry, they may, however, fometimes be put into the ground in the autumn or winter. For this purpofe the mazagan fort is the mofl proper. Seed. The proportion of feed that may be neceffary, mud:, of courfc, be dif ferent, according to the nature of the foil, the period of putting the crop into the ground, and the manner in which the bufinefs is performed. Where the broadcaft method is purfued, and the land is of the medium bean kind, from three and a half to four bufhels is the quantity that is moft commonly allowed to the acre. This mode of practice lliould, however, never be attempted when the others can be had recourfe to. Under other methods of putting in the beans, a much lefs proportion of feed is, however, required, the quantity varying according to the diftance of planting from two to three bufhels and a half to the acre, or in fome cafes perhaps rather more, of the fmall forts, and five or fix of the large kinds. When planted in rows at the diftance of two and a fcalffeet, the quantity of feed that is moft proper has been found to be about two bufhels to the acre ; but when put in rows at the diftance of only fifteen or eighteen inches, it will be three and a half bufhels, or perhaps rather more.f The manner of putting this crop into the foil differs confiderably in different diftricts. In fome the method of fowing broadcaft is ftill in ufe; but in this the feed is liable to be left uncovered on the furface of the land, or covered fo lightly that the bean plants are incapable of vegetating in a proper manner, from which the crop often becomes weak and feeble in its early growth, and feldom acquires proper ftrength afterwards. Betides, in this method, from the irregularity of the crop, there is great danger of its being injured by the growth of weeds, as they cannot be conveniently deftroyed by the hoe. In others they are firft fown over the land, and then ploughed in with a light furrow. It is the cuftom in fome of the more fouthern diftricls to plant this kind of crop in rows, by means of a line and dibble, which, though an expenfive * Correaed Report of Middlefex, f Ibid. L2 7(5 Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans* Methods offorving* practice, is greatly preferable to the above, both in admitting of the land being kept clean, and in the economy of feed. In this way the rows are ufually marked out to the diftance of a foot from each other, and the beans depofited in hoes about two inches apart, the lines being ftretched acrofs the ridges, which are formed of different breadths, according to the circumftances of the land, but in many cafes about fix feet over. In this mode, after one row is planted, the pegs to which the lines are attached are moved exactly to the distance that is requifite until the whole field is finifhed. It is an excellent method for layers. The expence of this mode of fetting beans is generally about nine pence or a (hilling the peck. In fome places it is done by the gallon at the rate of about four pence. In performing this buiinefs care muft conftantly be taken by the employer to fee that the beans are regularly depofited in the holes ro a fuitable depth, and not thrown away or otherwife wafted, in order to obtain greater wages. After the beans are thus depofited, a bufh-harrow or very fliort- tined common harrow, drawn by horfes in the furrows, is generally pafTed over the ground in order to cover them. In fome parts of Effex they have a practice of dibbling beans on two bout ridges of three feet in breadth, in double rows on the crowns nine inches apart, leaving an interval of twenty feven. The Kentifh farmers have however a much neater and more expeditious me thod of fo wing beans, which is, to ftrike out furrows in the proportion of about eleven to a rod in breadth, in which the feed is thinly depofited by means of & fowing-box, which is held by a perfon following the flriking-plough, and who, by (lightly agitating it when filled with beans, drops them with regularity into the- furrows as they are formed. The feed is then covered by harrowing down the inequalities of the ground. It is ftated that in this method, with two men and two or three horfes to the plough, a perfon to manage the box, and a boy with: two horfes to perform the bufmefs of harrowing, the fpace of three acres may be completed in the courfe of a day.* In accomplifhing this bufinefs, it is, however, the cuftom of fome agricultors. to make ufe of a drill plough ; but as beans are liable to confiderable inequality of fize, they are feldorn delivered in a fufficiently regular manner faom the hop per, large beans occasionally interrupting the fowing in fuch a way as to ren der the crop vacant or uneven in different places, defects which the picking of the feed over is not even capable of removing. In fpeaking of implements;,, drills have however been defchbed that feem to depofit the beans with much: correctnefs* * Synopfa of Husbandry, p. 110. DKILI. PLOUGH. Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans. Methods offowing. 77 And in the annexed plate is a bean drill the invention of Mr. Amos, which Mr. Young has recommended as having much merit. It delivers the beans in a different manner from many others, as it fcatters the feed on the flice of the preceding furrow, while they moftly drop it into the furrow. It has been exten- fively employed by the inventor; and on wet lands mud be highly ufeful, by depofiting the feed while the land is ploughing, and thereby preventing the ne- ceflity of going a fecond time upon it, which is often injurious. The drilling of this fort of crop is performed at different diftances, as from twelve to twenty- four inches. The practice in Suffolk is frequently twelve, but which on good land is too near, as the ftems are drawn up weak and without pods- below. Eighteen inches is a more proper diftance.. In Kent fourteen and fixteen inches are in ufe by many cultivators. The diflance fhould however vary with the nature of the land, the largefl being given where the foil is the richeft. Mr. Young mentions a particular cuflorn in Berkfhire, which is that of planting them in clutters of four or five beans in a hole, at the diflance of nine inches, the fpaces between the rows being proportioned to the goodnefs of the land. In this way they have large and productive crops. In the fowing of this fort of crop, experiment has ihewn that, on the poor and more moift kinds of loamy foils broken up from the ftate of ley, it may fre quently be more advantageous to put the beans into the ground in rows at nine inches, or on every furrow, than at eighteen inches or every other furrow, though on rich fertHe tillage lands the latter may often be the moil proper, or even ftill larger diftances in forne cafes,* From the nature of the root of the bean plant, it has been inferred, that it fhould conftantly be planted to a good depth in the foil, not lefs than five or fix inches below the fettled furface of the land, as by the lateral fibres which con- ftantly pafs off from the portion of root above the feed to the upper part of the ground, large fupplies of nourifhment may be conveyed to the plants, which could not be the cafe when put in/ more fuperficially, as that part of the root below the feed is not furnifhed with fuch fibres. f The putting in of this kind of feed by the drill is a practice that may be per formed wifh the rnoft benefit and fuccefs on the drier and more mellow kinds ef bean lands that have been fome time in a ftate qf cultivation ; but on the * Young s Annals of Agriculture, vol. VII. p. 204. i Vancouver, in Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV, p, <J5, 73 Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans. #ft wet and ftrong grounds it is frequently a difficult and troubleforne procefs : it is therefore probably a better method to dibble them in upon the feed earth, efpe- cially in breaking them tip from a ley, as where they have been previoufly ploughed, early tillage in the fpring, however neceflary, is jmpoffible, it being only capable of being accomplifhed on a ley. In thefe cafes a row may be put in by the dibble on every fccond furrow, by which they will be equidiftant eighteen inches : or by dibbling two furrows together and miffing one they will be in double rows at nine inches, with intervals of eighteen, which is equal to one row at every thirteen and a half inches.* It is the cuftom in Norfolk to dibble beans in the fame manner as the peafc, &c. except that they never fet more than one hole on a flag. The plants are perhaps eight inches afunder, but are rarely buried above an inch. They turn Iheep in when the beans are two or three inches high, to crop any grafs which may have got up between the furrows. Sheep do not eat the beans, or in any degree injure them. With this mode of management they can grow from ten to fourteen coombs an acre. They always hand-hoe beans twice and fometimes thrice. Where the ground is very ftiff and hard, they harrow once or twice in a place before they dibble. After-culture. Where the broadcaft method of putting in the crop prevails, little or no advantage can be afforded to it afterwards, which is a circumflance that renders that practice improper in inoft cafes, as few crops derive more benefit from after-management than thofe of beans. In fome inftances, indeed, the large weeds are removed by a hoe or hook, and in others fheep have been turned in for the fame purpofe, as from their diflike to the bean plant they are faid not to injure the crop either by eating the young plants or breaking them off.f The practice is however too hazardous to be attempted except in particular cafes. But where the crop is planted in rows, either by the drill, dib ble, or other methods, the ground admits of being frequently ftirred and laid to the roots of the plants by the hand or horfe hoe, and of being kept perfectly clean by weeding ; upon the proper performance of all which the perfection of the bean hufbandry confifts. It has indeed been well obferved by a correct and attentive cultivator, that thefe different operations are abfolutely effential, and that where a wheat crop * Young s Corrected Report of Lincolnfhire. f Mufeeum Rutticum, vol. III. ; Synopfis of Hufbandry ; and Modern Agriculture, Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans. After-Culture Horfe-IIoeing. 79 is to follow, the more money there is beftowed in this way, the better it is for the farmer ; thofe of Kent being dilTatisfied if it does not amount to from feven- teen to twenty millings the acre, as their wheat crop is fure to fuffer where there has been any neglect in thefe procelTes, beans well managed by the hoe being an excellent preparation for wheat crops.* In the methods of planting in rows, at the diftances of fifteen or twenty-four as well as on ridges at thirty inches, the horfe-hoe may be molt conveniently employed, but for narrower fpaces the hand-hoe can only be made ufe of. The practice in Middlefex is, when the crops are about five or fix inches high, to- constantly hand-hoe the intervals, and clean the rows by weeding, and to repeat the fame operations about the time of their coming into bloffom, in which the earth mould be carefully brought up to the roots of the plants, which has. much effect, by the quantity of nourifhment thus provided, in promoting the fetting as well as filling of the pods. It has alfo been remarked, that, where the ground is in a fituation to admit of the action of a fmali light plough, or a horfe-hoe, to earth up the rows, great benefit may be thus produced, but that on the clayey loams this is only capable of being performed for a little time after they have been well moiftened with rain.f In the county of Kent it is frequently the cufliom to apply the roller and the harrow to the bean crops about the middle or latter end of March, by the firftr of which the cloddy parts are broken down and reduced, while the latter im mediately following renders the baked furface-mould fine and powdery ; by which means new fupplies of nourimment are pro-vided, and the advancement of the young plants greatly promoted. At no diftant period after this the beans are edge-hoed, and then braked, the latter of which is a method of practice chiefly- confined to that diftrict, and which is considered by fome cultivators as much preferable to the application of the hoe to the whole furface of the fpaces be tween the rows, not only as- being performed at a much lefs expence, but on account of its being more effectual in the removal of weeds, and providing more abundant fupplies of fuch fu>b (lances as contribute to the nutrition: of plants, by loofening and newly aerating the furface-mould of the foil, as well as throwing it up to the roots of the beans* It is cuftomary in many parts to re peat this procefs every fortnight or three weeks, from the early part of May till the feafon at which the crop blooms. t And it is obferved, that the earthing up * S^nopfis of Ilufbamlry. + Corroded Report of I Annals of Agriculture, vol. IX. 1?t) Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans. After Cultures Horfe-Hoeing. may he accomplimed with facility by the above implement, merely by fixing a fmall piece of wood on the/r/g of it, the diameter of which regulates the height of earthing up the ftems of the beans as they advance in growth.* In other bean rliftricts, as in Berkfhire, v/here they fow triple rows at eight or nine inches, and leave intervals of two furrows width, it is the practice to plough t\vo furrows up each interval from the beans, making a ridge in the middle, bjr ^i fmall light plough contrived for the purpofe, which is drawn by one horfe, a moift feafon being chofen for the bufinefs. After this the ridges arc to be har rowed by means of a triangular harrow, by which the fuperficial parts of the *oil are rendered light and mellow, fo as to admit the lateral fibres to moot in it with facility, and draw forth fupport for the crop more effectually. Both in May and June the fhirns and hand hoes or weeding with the hand mould be kept well at work when the wea-ther is dry enough for the purpofe. In the latter, the ufe of the Berkfhire fhims of breadths proper for the work with cutting plates fuited to the intervals as well as the ftate of growth of the crops, fhould be had recourfe to. In thelafl horfe-hoeings in July, whether the fhim or double mould-boarded plough be employed, great care is neceffary from the height of the ftems. Mr. Young advifes that they fhould be drawn by a whipple-tree as fhort as will permit the horfe to work, hung upon a fpring fixture at the end of the beam, by which the whipple is raifed to fuch a height that little injury is done. It may be regulated to the height or growth of the crops by a wheel. The block of the fhim in this cafe fhould be in a longitudinal pofition with the rows, to prevent the breaking of the ftems. The earthing up muft now be well per formed, and all weeds effectually removed by the hand or fmall hoe. The manuring of the land is found from actual trials to be of very great ad vantage in the culture of this fort of crop ; as even a very fmall portion of it, as from thirty to forty loads, of about eighteen bufhels each, has been found of fervice both in promoting the crop and preventing the beans from becoming what is termed ro/t-beaded.-\ It has likewife been found, that by preparing the ridges in the manner that has been defcribed above, and including manure in the middle of them, the feed may be put in much fooner than when they are flat and broad ; and that by the ufe of the horfe-hoe, the plants tiller more, the x:rops arc forwarder, and fubject to lefs injury from the attacks of infect s.t In forne diftricts it is the practice to fow beans and peas together, or what is * Synopfis of Hufbandry. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. IX. % Correfted Report of Midtllefex, Cultivation of Arable Land. Beans, Difeafcsin. Hfai&-jtj Bllglit. 81 termed Mendings ; but this is moftly an improper method, as plants of different forts never ripen well or equally together. In fuch fummers as are dry, beans are frequently liable to be much injured; by the attacks of the black fly, or what is often termed the do!pbin t the whole field in particular cafes being in danger of being deftroyed in the couifc of a, few days. In order to prevent this mifchief, it is the practice in fome places to cut off the tops by means of a fey the or other lharp implement, as it is moltlv on the tops of the plants that the infect firft appears.. When this method is adopted, it mould be performed on the very firfl appearance of the fly, other- wife little benefit can be produced; as perhaps by removing the firfl: infects that iliew themfelves, their propagation may in fome degree be prevented. The blight likewife fometimes proves deftructive to the bean crops about June or July, when the weather is hot and foggy in the day with cold nights. Jn this cafe the bloflbms fall off, and no pods are formed. But though much injury may often be done in this way, the crops fometimes turn out better than was expected ; they fhould not therefore be given up too nattily. The ripening of the beans is (hewn by the pods or kids turning of a black co lour, which moftly happens about the latter end of Auguft, after which they begin to open at the ends : but they fhould always be cut or drawn up a week or ten days before this would happen ; for though in fome parts of the crop the kids may not be perfectly turned, this mould not delay the bufinefs, as they will become ripe and hard after being cut or drawn up by the roots, by fetting the fheaves upright, and leaving them expofed to the influence of the fun and air for feven or eight days. When cut or drawn up fome time before they are in a fuitable ftate of maturation, they fhrink and become wrinkled; and if it be done when they are too ripe, they are liable to be loft by being ihed in the field : it is a better practice, however, to reap them before they are fully ripe,, than to let them (land until they are over-maturated. When they have be-- come too much ripened, it is recommended to cut or draw them up while the dew is upon them, and to convey them in the fame (late to the iiack. The parts of the crop that are not fo perfectly ripened maybe cut or pulled during the dry part of the day. When the feafon is moift, and the land of a good quality, bean crops conti-. nue to proceed in their growth to a late period, and the pods formed on the upper parts of the Items remain green when thofe on the lower parts are in a, perfectly ripe ftate. In fuch cafes it is not neceffary to delay the bulinefs of re-, moving the crop, as by their remaining a little longer in the field no injury vvilli, VOL. iz.. M 83 Cultivation of Arabic Land.* Beans.* Reaping the Cr$ps.- Produce of. be done either in the flack or to the fample. Indeed, as this fort of vegetable is extremely fucculent, it is proper in moft cafes to let it remain out after being cut for a confiderable length of time, in order that the exceifive moiflure majr be fully diffipated, otherwife the fample may fuflain great injury from mouldi- ncfs, and taking on too great a heat in the flack. It may alfo on thefe ac counts be necefTary for them to remain in the flack for fome time before they are threihed out. There are different methods of removing this fort of crop from the land : !n fome diflri<5ls it is the practice to reap or cut it clofe to the ground with a fliarp hook contrived for the purpofe ; in others it is mown ; and in a few it is pul led up by the roots, being afterwards bound up into pretty large fheaves by woollen yarn, old ropes, tarred cord, or ftraw ropes, and fet up three or four tether. In cafes where wheat, tares, or other fimilar crops, are to be fown after beans, they mould be fet up in fuch a manner as to cover as little ground as poflible, in order that the cleared ground may immediately undergo a fuitable preparation for fuch fucceeding crops. The quantity of produce of beans is different according t the nature of the foil, the kind of feed, the method of planting, and the exactnefs with which the after-culture of the crop is conducted. In Middlefex it is flated to be from three and a half to four quarters the acre : and in Yorkfliire, when cultivated as a preparation for wheat, from four to fix quarters the acre; but where the crop precedes a fallow, only from two to three quarters. In other diftridfo, as in Kent, where the bean hufbandry is more perfect, the common tick beans arc faid to afford from two to fix quarters, according to circumflances ; the maza- gan, and other fmall beans of the fame fort, from three to five quarters, and fometimes confiderably more ; and the Wind for, long-pod, and other large forts of beans, from three or four to ten quarters the acre.* Taking it through out the whole kingdom, it is aflerted by an able writer to vary from fixteen to forty bufhels the acre, but that a good average crop can feldom be flated at more than twenty. f The flraw of this crop is ufeful for various purpofes. When well broken by threming, it forms a durable litter for working horfes, as well as hogs and other animals. It is alfo alferted to be a hearty and nutritious food for cattle * Correded Reports of Middlefex, North Riding Yorkshire, and Kent, ,.-|- Dojialijfon b Modern Agriculture, vol. II, Cuftfcatfon of Arable Land. Bcatis.JppKcathn of. Cleaning Stubble* of. ss during the winter feafon ; and that both oxen and horfes, when not wrought, thrive well upon it. And as the reduced parts,, or what is termed the caving- chaff, have been found valuable as a manger food for the labouring teams wherv blended with other fubftances, it is probable that in particular cafes the ftems might be cut into chaff with advantage. But when made ufe of in thefe me thods, it mould be taken as frefli as pofilble from the flail. The fmaller kinds of beans are principally employed in the feeding of horfes, hogs, and other animals; and as they contain a third more meal in a given por tion than oats, and at the fame time probably afford a more durable nourifh- ment, it mud be economical to make ufc of them in the feeding of labouring, horfes. And on the fame principles they mud be advantageous when ufed in, the fattening of tattle, &c. But when hogs are fed with this fort of food, it is aflerted that the pork is indifferent from the meat becoming hard; though for bacon it is extremely good. Bean crops have in the trials of fome ingenious cultivators been found ufeful \vhen grown, for the purpofe of being confumed when podded, but while in their green ftate, by different forts of animal s, a practice which will be further confider- cd in fpeaking of ftall-feeding. Where the beans are to prepare the land for wheat, it is eflentially neceffary that the ftubble, with fuch weeds as may have been left, fhould be removed as cxpcditioufly as poflible after the beans are taken off. This purpofe is well accomplimcd in fome bean- diftricts, and at the fame time a great degree of pul- verifation effected, \sy /puddling the land with a kind of plough, to the mare of which an iron plate is attached crofsways, at the diftance of about four or five inches from the point, the fame axle-tree and wheels being employed as were ufed in ftriking the furrows. By this implement, with two horfes and a man, it is afTerted three acres of land may be finifhed in a day, by fetting the point of the marc in the intervals in fuch a manner as that the plate or fin may extend to a row on each fide. After this operation has been performed, by pafling the harrow and the roller over the land, the whole is cleared with little expence, and left ready for the feed earth.* On the more thin and light kinds of foils, whe ther of the chalky or gravelly fort, fuch a procefs may, however, be improper^ as fuch lands may be rendered too open and porous for wheat crops by it, * Synopfis of Husbandry. M 2 SECTION II Cultivatioji of Arable Land, Hoot and Plant Crops. ROOT AND PLANT CHOPS. What neceffary in Cultivation of. POTATOES, Nature and Importance of capable, of much Improvement moft ufeful cultivated Varieties of Soils moft proper for Preparation for- Manures proper for Advantages of different Sorts of Quantity of Seed neceffaryin different Kinds of proper Period of Planting of dry Seafon beftfor Seed proper for what neceflary in Choice of Cuttings of proper Size of Eyes or Root-buds ntceffary in Shoots offometimcs made Ufe of lefs pro per for Implements proper for cutting with where Root-buds are ufed. Scoops different Sorts of Slarks Dublin Good Crops raifed in this way Different ways of planting of Methods of planting general Crops of in different Diftricis with the Plough zcith the Spade in the Drill Me thod in the flat Surface After-culture of the Crop ieft effeQed by the Harrow and Horfe-Hee Harrow proper for Double Eartk-boankd Plough common Plough ufed in Lamajhire Harrcwing depended on in- plain Surface planting Earthing up objected to by fame Ojeciions to not it ell founded Expences of Cultivation of fuppo fed Advantages of plucking Blqffoms of not real Difeafts of Curl Caufes of- Remedies of no effectual ones yet dif covered Signs of full Growth of taking up Crops ofkeft Me thods of doing it Haulm firft cut of Produce of Crops of Methods nfpre* fermng of what neceffary in in proper Houfcsin ike Ground in JP//S Marnier of in each other Methods ff Application of in Human Foed in Animal Food Method of in the lafl cafe Modes of preparing of for by Beaming Apparatus inOvensfor thepurpofc Mvdet ofwajhing of Effects cj thefe Crops on Soils are deteriorating Modes of preventing the li aftc ofthefe Crops. TURNI PS different Kinds of Soils mojl proper for prn- per Preparation for Manures proper for Quantity of Seta of Times and Methods of forcing Early Crops left nutritious in the Drill Method on Tlidges in broad-ccift Plan on flat Surface Cafes in which moji proper Cultivutlon of Arable Land. 85 Objc&ions to rai fed Drill J\f ode -is in general mojl advantageous See d cover ed by flight Harrowing Method of by the Drill in NorthernDiftriftsper- formed by the Plough DrillMachines proper for quickVegetaiion of Seed beneficial infteeping of Seed ufeful for After-culture of Crops cffecled by the Hoe of the Horfe or Hqnd Kind Methods of performing of in dif ferent Cafes of Northumberland Practice in Harrowing fometimes nfcd Hand-Hoeing ufed in Broadcaft fowings Implements proper for in diffe rent cafes of Crops of injured by Fly, Slug, and Caterpillar Modes of preventing of- different Sorts of Anbury, Caufes ofModes of prevent ing of- what neceffary where Crops are dejlroyed by Fly r.wjl favourable Seafons for Produce of- cultivating for Seed what neceffary in Pro duce in this way Methods of Application of Crops of what neceffary to attend to in Nature of in different Cafes of Machines for slicing qf Manner of in larger Animals with Horfes with Sheep Hurdles ufeful in Modes of preferring of what necejffary in firjl turning Animal on. RUT A 13 AC A, or Swedish Turnip Nature of collecting Seed of Quan tity of Times and Methods of fowing of Methods of performing of* After-culture of Manner of hoeing of liable to Injury from various Caufes Quantity of Produce of bejl Application of Crops ofwithCattle with Sheep ufeful in theNorthernD iftri&s as a late Food. CABBAGES Utility uf proper Kinds of Advantages of different Sorts ofSeedQnan- tityofTimc of fowing Seafons of transplanting drilling where they are to grow Methods of planting out~-proper lYijlances ofJhouhl be well fixed in the. Earth Evpences cfin different Cafes of After-culture ofJweings proper for Modes of performing of liable to be injured by Slugs Quan tity of Produce of proper Application of with neat Cattle with Sheep with Hogs with Horfes Jhould be removed from the Ground where beneficial Crops of compared with Turnips. -Tuns IP CABBAGE, Proper ties of Cape Cabbage probably the Kalilrabi Soils proper for Prepa ration for Seed and Times of fowing different Methods of planting out -^-After-cull u re of different according to the Mode of planting by the Plough by the Hoe Methods of with each Advantages of this Crtjp proper Application of with Cows Modes of taking up Crops of Turnip* rooted Cabbage another ufeful Plant Soils proper for proper Prepa ration of collecting of Seed of proper Times of fowing what neccffary in JModts of planting out of what neceffary in After-culture ofPro^ duce of proper Application of Crops of with Sheep how ufed hardy Mature of ufuj ul in this Way capable of Prefervalion out of Ground without Injury vfcful AJijlant to Turnip Crops, RAPE or COLE is 86 Cultivation of Arable Land. an ufeful Plant Soils proper for Modes of Preparation of in dif ferent Cafes of- Crops grown after proper Seed for Times and Me thods of fowing of different Cafes of what necefjary in After-cul ture of Crops of in different Cafes ofExpcnces of where Seed is wanted Utility of Crops of when feeded exhaufts the Soil objected to on this Ac count proper Application of Crops qfjbr Sheep for neat Cattle a bene ficial Ufe of in feeding it Birds Jhould be kept off. CARROTS introduced from the Low Countries Variety proper for Culture in the Field Soils proper for Modes of I* reparation of Seed proper for collecting of Subftances blended with it in fowing Times and Methods of fowing of- different Modes explained Quantity of Seed nece/Ja ry for sifter-culture of hand- hoeing necejfary Mode of performing of proper Times of hceing kand*> weeding necejfary fetting out Plants to proper Diflances where the Plough may be ufeful in Expences of- taking up and preferring Crops of different Modes of in Practice Expences of Confuwption of Crops of by Horfes and Cattle by Sheep Utility of m each may be cvnterted to other Ufes great Advantage of this Hujbandry. PARSNIPS Nature of Soils proper for proper Preparation f 01 cotlcBing Seed for Proportion $f necejfary Times and Manners- of fowing the Crops different ones de fer ibed. transplanting Crops of what necejfary in After-culture of- Modes of performing of- Crops cultivated after proper Modes of ujing the Crops by Cows in J\lilk by Swine by Horfes Modes of preferring of MAN GLEWURZE L Nature of- Land proper for proper Preparation of Seed and Seafons of fowing of- Modes of fowing of tranfplanting of proper After -culture of- Proper Modes ofConfumption of- both Tops and Hoots ufeful Expences of cultivating of. TT J^N the growth of moft forts of crops of thefe kinds, a fine degree of pulveri zation and mellownefs is of great advantage, as it is principally by thefe means, and thofe of preferving a perfect flate of cleannefs and vegetation in the plants, by frequent proper ftirring and changing the earth about them, that the moft full and abundant crops can be produced. Potatoes. The cultivation of this highly valuable vegetable has rapidly in- creafed within thefe laft twenty years, fo that it may now be confidered as ftand- ingnext to wheat in refpect to human food. Though the varieties of this plant that are cultivated are extremely numerous on account of their being raifed continually from feed, there does not appear Cultivation of Aralk Land. Potatoes-*-Varieties of. 7 to be more than two diftinct fpecies; the red-rooted^ or that which bears a pur ple bloilbm or flower, and the white-rooted , or that which has a white flower. It is fuggefted by an intelligent practical writer, that much ftill remains to be performed in refpecl: to the improvement of the quality and productivenefs of this plant, by railing it from feed. The farmers in Yorkshire, it is obferved, adopt this method. " In autumn when the apples are beginning to fall fpon- taneoufly, they are gathered by hand, and preferred among fand until the fpring, when they are mafhed among the fand, or among frefh mould, feparating the feeds, and mixing them evenly with the mould. So foon as the fpring froftsare judged to be over, they are fown in fine garden mould ; and as faft as the plants get into rough leaf, and are ftrong enough to be handled without injury, they are tranfplanted into another bed of frefh mould in rows, which arc kept clean during fummer. In autumn, bunches of fmall potatoes are found at the roots of thefe plants, varying in fize, the firit year from an hazel nut to that of a crab apple. Thefe being planted in the fucceeding fpring, produce potatoes of the middle fize ; but they do not arrive at their full bulk until the third or fourth year. When the ufe of the ftove or the garden frame can be procured, this procefs may be fhortened; the feeds being fown within thefe early in the fpring, the plants will be fit to be planted out as foon as the frofts are gone, by which means the fize of the roots will be much increafed the firft year, and will, in the fecond year, rife nearly to perfection."* It is alfo added, that, in felecting proper plants from feedling potatoes, two circumftances are neccffary to be at tended to ; which are, the quality of the potatoe, and its productivenefs. In cafes where thefe different properties are combined in the fame plant, there can be no difficulty in deciding in its favour. The varieties of this root, that are at prefent in cultivation in different parts of the kingdom, arc extremely numerous. In Lancafhire, where the potatoe hulbandry is well underftood and largely practifed, there are, according to the account of Mr. Kirkpatrick, upwards of twenty forts of the more early kinds, and more than half as many of thofc of the late.f * Donaldfon s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. I Thefe different varieties are thus denominated in his Traft on the Culture of the Potatoe- Early kinds, Smooth yellows, Mather s feedlings, Red champions, Kerkham marbles, White ditto, * Donbobin s feedlings, Lady queens, Poor man s profit, Drunken landlord, Golden gulleon?, Birchal s golden yellow, -Invincible, 8.8 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Varieties of Sells proper for. The old winter red is an excellent variety for the table i:i the fpring, when moil other forts have loft their flavour, and are become unfit for ufe by fprout- ing. It is faid likewifs to have the property of not being liable to the curl. The blacks are likewife a late fort, which keep well till about Auguft. As cattle potatoes, the ox noble and the clujlcr are the varieties principally cultivated, as they are both large in fize and very productive. The white and apple forts are however mo ft proper for being made ufe of in the early part of the feafon. And the pink-eyes and capper-plates are of a hardy nature, and probably capable of being grown with lefs perfect culture than moil of the other varieties. But though a number of trials have been made in order to determine the differences in the produclivenefs of the different varieties, yet from the effects which the differences of foil, climate, culture, and other caufes produce, the matter has not been decided with much corredlnefs.* The royal or Cumberland early is very productive and of a large lize, with a good flavour ; and betides, it ripens early. The foil in which this root is capable of being produced to the greateft ad vantage is a rich loam of the light fandy kind, that pofTefles a medium degree of moifture. They may, however, be grown with fuccefs on lands that are Smith s fecdlings, Broughtoi/s dwarfs, Foxe s ditto, Hatley s nonefuch, Bofkow s kidneys, Early perrins, Enghfli champions, Forcing dwarfs, P.rition s dwarfs, Early Manleys. Bates s ditto, I. ate kinds. American white rangers. Ox noble, Ditto red ditto, Lords, Derbyfhirereds, Seedling varieties, Late champions, Balmer s feedlings, Ditto kidney, Budworth s duiters, Pink eyes, Irifli apples, Pink-nofed kidneys, Winter kidneys. *The produfts i the experiments of Mr. Young, with the three following forts, under the fame management, iu the drill method, were theie : Kinds. Produce. Clufter 360 bufliels. Red-nofed kidney 144 Golden tags e 20 ^ Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Soils proper for* 89 much ftronger, \vhere proper attention is bellowed in their culture. On grounds of the peat-mofs kind they have likewife been found to fucceed in a high de gree. In Mr. Townley s experiments, though the more ftiff and tenacious fort of lands do not feem to have been tried, the produce appears to have been the largefl on the ftrong kinds of foil ; but, in every cafe, it is efTentiai that they be dry, the ftagnation of moifture being highly detrimental to the growth of this The potatoe, though it is found to fucceed to advantage in the more open and porous forts of land, is not well fuited to thofe of the perfectly fandy kinds, as they feldom retain a fufficient degree of moifture to enable the tubrous roots of the plants to fwell out and become of a good lize, nor is there, in general, a fufficient proportion of vegetable mould in fuch foils to promote the moft perfecT: growth of the crop. It is only in fuch as poflefs a confiderable degree of light- nefs and good carbonic earthy matter, that they are enabled to propagate their fubterraneous wires or root-buds, become fully diftended, and attain their utmoft fize and increafe. And the refults of Mr. Baker s trials in Ireland, in comparing different forts, are thus ftated : Sorts. Produce. Commonwife - - - - 21 Ib. 6 oz. Apple .... 20 2 Red French - 15 1-2 Muniler white ifl Crones - - - - - l(j 6 Spanifh - 15 10 On repeating the experiment, the refult was : Sorts. Produce. Black - - - - 111 barrels per acre. Quakerwife .... 108 Red French ... 33 White ditto - - 85 Commonwife ... 103 Apple - ... 76 Englifh white .... 33 White Munfter 79 Spanifh - 70 Crones - - 60 * The refults on planting four eyes of the clutter potatoe, on four different forts of foil, were thcfe : Kinds of Soil. Produce. On a ftrong rich loam - - - 34 Ib. On a light rich loam 29 On a good gravel - 19 Onafand - - - J9 VOL. II. N 2 Cultivation of Arable Land Potatoes Preparation of Land for Manures-. ever, fcems to recommend well-rotted horfe-dung, though the long dung is no. ticed as being the next in value.* The nature of the foil in which this was the cafe is not diftihdtty mentioned ; it was probably of the fandy kind, in which there can be little doubt but that horfe-dung, in a highly reduced ftate, would be of the mod benefit, as a larger proportion of carbonaceous earthy matter would thereby be immediately provided for the growth of the crop, and the ground be more preferved from becoming too dry, light, or porous. The dung of hogs has alfo been found, by the experiments of the fame cul tivators* to be nearly equal to that of the horfe, in railing crops of this highly, valuable root. When this fort of crop is cultivated on the ftiff and more heavy defcriptiona Manure per acre. Crop : Bushels*. 32 Loads of clung 16*0 bufhels lime - - 480 32 Ditto, and 480 gallons urine ... 570 In Mr. Young s trials, the refalts.were thefe : First Year. Second Year. No> 1. No manure, - produced 120 bufhels per acre. 140 2. Night-foil, 10 waggon loads . 600 - - 640 3. Ditto, 6 ditto - . 650 . . 500 4. Ditto. 2 ditto - - 500 - - 300 5. Bones, 10 ditto . 650 - - 640 6. Ditto, 6 ditto - 640 - - 560 7. Ditto, 2 ditto - 560 - - 240 8.. Hog dung, 90 bne-horfe cartloads 4-80 - - 300 9. Ditto, 30 ditto - - 4,30 - , 160 10. Yards compoft 60 ditto - - 300 . - 240 11. Ditto, 120 ditto . . 480 - - seo 12. Ditto, 30 ditto - - 140 - . 140 In Lancafhire, Mr. Townley, on comparing different defcriptions of manures, found that Manures. Produce. No. 1. Coal afhes only, produced 211 Ib. , rather fmall. 2, Stable dung and coal afhes mixed - 344, very fine. 3, Stable dung alone. 315, ditto. 4, No manure 134, very fmall. 5*. Compoft, dung lime, and foil - - 20.4., middling. 6. Stable dung covered with common yellow mafs 438, remarkably fine, 7. Soaper s wafte . 383,very fine. 8 k . Stable dung and lime - 268, tolerable. 9* Lime alone . 137, ditto. "* Billingfly s Report of Somerfetfhtre; and Wimpey, in Bath Papers, vol. VI, Cult It v? lion of Arable Land Potatoes Preparation of Land for Manures. 93 of loamy foils, on the principle of keeping the earth light and open by their very gradual decay, in order. that the roots may have room to extend them- felvcs, many other fubftances beficles littery dung have been employed. Wheat It raw, furz, broom, heath, and other iimilar matters, after having been in fome meafure reduced by chopping, are depofited in the drills, and, from their gra dual decay, good crops are frequently produced. Clover, tares, vetches, and other fucculent vegetable productions, when .en-* clofcd in the foil in their green ftate, at the time of planting, have alfo been, found ufeful as manure in the growing of crops of this kind.* Peaty or turfy materials have likewife been made ufe of for the fame pur- pofe on different- forts of land. On the light, thin, and open foils, they are aflertcd to have good effects, in contributing to the nourimment and flipper t of the crop, in rendering them more capable of retaining moifture, and by in- creafing their flaple. And in the heavier foils they become of much ufe, by keeping them in a more open condition, and thereby allowing the moifture.to pafis off more readily, and the roots of the plants to fwell out in a proper manner. It is probable likewife that frcm vegetable earth, and decayed leaves collected, from woods or other places, may be of fervice in this way, as well as in the. manner that has been mentioned above* The trials that have been made with lime render it probable that it may be: tifefully employed in the cultivation of the potatoe on the ftiffer forts of foils, when combined in a fmall proportion with rich earth and dung; but, in its fim- ple ftate, according to the experiments of Mr. Somerville, it has a tendency to Manures^ Produce. No. 10. Coal aflies and lime - - - produced 19, tolerable 11. Stable dung and foaper s waile - - 298, very good. 12. Soot, foil, and coal afhes - 27.1, Ib. very good, 13. Salt and foil - - 200, ditto. 14. Saw-dull and coal aflies - 190, fmaller. 15. Stable dung and faw dull " - - 307, very fine.. 16. Dung of poultry and coal afhes - 236 , pretty fine. 17. Dung of poultry and land - - #ir - 156 , rather fmall. 18- Saw-dull and lime - 197, ditto. 19... Decayed rufhes and lirneu . f ^ r 20.8, very goodi 20. Tanner s bark and lime - ^ ,. 76, very poor. 21. Bark and liable dung - 141, rather larger. 22. Bark alone 35, very poor. 23. Stable dung and lime fpread over the IkniT- ; - - * *; 230, pretty fine. 24. Chopped whins, with a covering of lime over .them ? , > ; 256, very fine* In thef trials the manure was placed in furrows of five-feet lands, * Billingfly, in Bath Papers, vol. Vlt: 91 Culthat Ion of Arabic Land Potatoes Preparation of Land for induce the curl ; and in the garden culture of this root, we have conftantly found it difadvantageocs by producing the canker, whether employed in the effete cr flare of carbonat^ or in its more adive or caujlic one. But though lime in its uncombined (late may not be capable of being made ufe of with much utility j where the practice of paring and burning is had re- courfe to, and there is a condderable portion of aflies from the combuftion of the fward and the coarfe vegetable products upon it, full crops of potatoes may be raifed by the ufe of the afhcs alone. In this way, the coarfe unpro ductive pafture grounds in various parts of the kingdom, and extenfive tracts of ufelefs waftc lands, may be brought into a ftate of cultivation in an cafy and profitable manner ; as after a crop of potatoes, put in in this method, the land will, in mofl inftances, be in a proper condition for the growing of grain crops. On the fea coafts, in the northern parts of the ifhnd, fea-weed is faid to have been found ufeful in the growth of the potatoe.* Whatever fort of manure may be made ufe of in the growth of potatoes, it i& neceffary that the quantity be fully fufficient for the purpofe of providing not only a fuitable bed for the eftablifhment of the roots of the plants, but alfo for affording a due fupply of nourimment during the whole time of their growth, as upon thefc circumftances the fuccefs of the crop feems in a great meafure to depend. After a very full and extenfive experience in the cultivation of this vegeta ble, an able and intelligent agricultor advifes, that not lefs than twenty cart loads, of thirty bufhels each, fliould be applied, as the richer the ground the more abundant the crop ; and that, however ftrong the foil may be, the farmer mould not depend upon it to the exclufion of manure.f Mr. Young advifes the proportion of from twenty-five to thirty-five cubical yards to the acre to be made ufe of. And where it is very long or littery the quantity of forty. Where the fets are put in in the drill method, the manure fliould be depofited as evenly as poflible at the bottoms of them ; and in the other modes it muft conftantly be fpread out in a regular manner, in order that the crops may be brought forward with as much uniformity as pofltble. In railing crops of the early kinds of potatoes, it may be a more advantageous practice to apply the manure for the previous crop; as where the contrary is the cafe, the haulm or ftems of the plants arc apt to become too luxuriant, and thereby prevent the roots from acquiring a proper fize. Befides, it is probable that the flavour of the potatoe may be better, and the fubftance lefs watery. * Englifli Encyclopaedia, art. Husbandry ; and Bath Papers. i Billingfly, in Bath Papers, vol. VI, 5 Cultivation of Arable Land Potatoes Times &f planting Choice of Seed. <J;5 Time of planting. The putting of this fort of crop into the ground fhould always be performed in the early fpring months, as foon as pofllble after the danger of froft is over, which, in the more fouthcrn ditlricts, is generally from about the middle of March till the latter end of April; and, in the northern ones, it is moftly from about the middle of April until towards the clofe of May, according to the difference in the ftate of the climate. The earlier the crop can be got into the ground, the better it becomes, as the potatoes are fuid to turn out more mealy, and of a finer flavour. Befides, they have a bet ter chance of being taken up and removed from the land, while the feafon is dry; and there is lefs rifk of injury from moifture and frofts after they are fit for taking up. It may alfo be added, that the land will derive much advantage from being ploughed up while it is in a dry condition, after the potatoes have been removed, as in this way it is preferved in a lefs moid ftate during the win ter, and the weeds are more effectually deftroyed.* But at whatever period the crop may be put into the ground, the bufinefs mould be performed as much as poflible when the weather is dry, and the land not too much foaked with moi- fture, as under fuch circumftances the early vegetation of the crop always proceeds in a more regular and expeditious manner, by which the produce is generally rendered better in quality and more abundant.. Seed. In the choice of potatoe feed for the purpofe of planting, it is neceflary to attend to the differences in the varieties, in refpect to forwardnefs, their quali ties as- food for manor animals, and the variation in their productivcnefs j as upon the properly adapting thefe tothe nature of the foil and climate, as well as the views of the cultivator, much advantage may probably be obtained in the cul ture of the crop. It is generally recommended, that the fets- mould, be taken; from fuch potatoes as are the- fineft and moft perfect of their kinds, as By fuch, means better crops may be produced, at the fame time that there will be lefs rifk of their being attacked by difeafe. And it is. contended by fome, that;, from the eyes being ftronger in fuch largc-fized potatoes, ftronger and more vigorous, plants are produced, and of courfe a larger produce afforded-; the difference between the ufe of large and fmall potatoes, for the purpofe of feed, being in the proportion of thirty facks to the acre in favour of the former. f It may alfo be of great advantage in the culture of this root, to take the. feed or fets from fuchv varieties as have not been too long cultivated, as it has been found, that the con tinuing the cultivation of the fame forts for fome length of time has a tendency not only to injure the quality, but leffen the quantity of the produce. J It has; * Campbell, in Bath Papers, vol. IX.. f Experienced Farmer, vol. JL t Bath Papers, vol. IX. 96 Cull hat ion of Arabic Land. Potatoes. Sets proper for. like wife been fuggefted, that the potatoes intended for feed mould be raifed with out manure in fuch foils as are of the fertile kind ; and on thofe that are of a poor quality, by a lefs proportion than is ufually the cafe, and without fo much earth ing up in the after-culture of the crop, as, by. fuch means, it is fuppofed there may be lefs danger of the crops becoming affected by difeafe.* In the fame intention, it has been recommended by different cultivators to change the feed every two years, carefully collecting fuch as is brought from a confiderable diftance. It \vould feem probable, however, that, in guarding againft accidents of this kind, much depends upon the ground being well prepared for the reception of the crop, and on the after-culture being perfectly performed. In refpect to the feed or fets, different modes have been advifed by different- cultivators, fome preferring whole potatoes, or large cuttings, while others think fmall cuttings, fprouts, or even the eyes, the moft beneficial. All thefe different forts of fets are, indeed, found in practice to produce good crops ; though it feems probable, from the various experiments that have been made upon the fubject, that the middle-fized whole potatoes, and the large cuttings of large ones, are in ge neral more productive than either the fmaller fort of whole potatoes, fmall cuttings, or the eyes or moots alone. f * Corre&ed Report of Middlefex, and Tran factions of the Society of Arts, &c. f The refults of the experiments made by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, as ftated in the Bath Papers in order to ascertain the fuperiority of the different kinds of fets, and the moft proper diftance of plant ing in refpedt to the rows, are thefe : Indies distant Value of produce per Rows. in rows. acre, seed deducted. . s. d. EXPERIMENTS IN 17^0. 1. Small whole potatoes - - 6 - 16 6 7 2. Large pieces 3 15 iff 6 3. Large pieces - 6 15 8 6 4. Large pieces - 12 J3 4 1 EXPEIU MENTS IN 179l * Large whole 6-18 18 I 1 2. Small whole - - 3 . IS 1 4^ 3. Small whole - 6 - 17 ji 91. 4. Small whole - - 12 17 3 6 5. Small pieces - 6 - 16 1 5 r - ZXPERIMENTS IN 1792. 1. Small whole - - 6 . 19 7 1^ 2. Large whole 6 1818 If 3. Large whole . - 12 - 13 9 91 4. Large pieces 6 18 3 5 Small whole - 12 - 18 1 3^ 6. Large pieces . 12 .. 1696 Cultivation of Arable Land* Potatoes. Sets proper for. .97 If, indeed, the ex pence in feed, where whole potatoes are made ufe of, be taken into the account, it is probable that the large cuttings of middling fized po tatoes, where only one or two eyes are preferved, may be the moft proper and fuccefsful in producing crops ; as where whole potatoes are employed, from the great number of eyes, and the confequent production of numerous ftcms, the crops may be liable to be too thick or clofe on the ground, and in that way be rendered weak, and the produce of courfe fmall and deficient, the bulbs not being able to fwellout and diftend themfelves fufficiently. It is remarked by the ingenious experimenter mentioned above, that cr the great er the number of ftrong fibres and roots, the more they fearch for food, and the more earth they difplace in the courfe of their growing, which divides the foil more minutely and gives it the advantage of better pulverifation ; and the greater abun dance there is of leaf, the more nourimmeRt is extracted from the air, and which are thus made to co-operate more with the vegetable pafture in the foil in bringing the plants to perfection ; and the thick foliage of the crop, by its umbrageous clofenefs, has the fame ameliorating qualities with a heavy crop of peas, or beans, in deftroying weeds, retaining the dews, and preventing the drought from penetra ting and exhaufting the foil." Inches distant Value of produce per Rows. in rows. acre, seed deducted.. . *, d. EXPERIMENTS IK 1794. l. Middle-fized whole 12 32 8 o/ ? 2. Middle-fized, confined to one eye andftem &*> < - 12 ; .; 23 12 1||. 3. Middle-fized whole; ..,. .6 . 25 7 3-J-g 4. Small pieces . 12 29 19 2^ 5. Small pieces - 6 28 17 frfi 6. Small whole - - 12 - 2.9 2 4-^ 7. Small whole . 6 . * 29 19 3^ ExPlRIMENis IN 1795, without dung, after dunged potatoes. 3. Shoots ^ ...., - 12 15 11 9^ 2. Large pieces - 12 26 I 10 T ^ 3. Large whole 12 23 10 8-ff 4. Small whole J -i ; 12 . 4 22 ll^ f 5. Middle-fized whole 12 - - 24 2 1] T * ? 6. Middle-fized whole - 9 23 19 7. Middle-fized whole - 6 28 11 VOL. II. O 98 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes* Sets proper for. He adds, however, that tc it is to be obferved, that too many as well as too few ftems are unfavourable to the prevalence of fibres, and to the luxuriance of the leaves." Jt is therefore concluded, that perhaps pieces about two ounces in weight are the inoft proper for being planted, and whole potatoes from that weight to one ounce ; thefe, fays he, may be called large pieces and fmali potatoes ; and from them, it is probable, there will iffiie a fufficient number of ftems to produce as rna- ny roots as the immediately furrounding earth can bring to perfection. To pro duce more, he thinks, would make the roots fmall ; to produce fewer, would give a lefs quantity of root from the acre. On thefe accounts,therefore, as well as from large whole potatoes, and large cuttings, confuming fo much feed, it is evident that they can feldom be employed with advantage, efpecially as the refult of experiment has fhewn that fuch whole potatoes as are moderate in fize, and fuch cuttings as are not too large, are general ly capable of producing the bed and moft abundant crops.* It is ncceffary, however, where cuttings are made ufe of, to take care that they contain a fufficient proportion of matter about the eyes or root-buds } to afford nou- rifhment and fupport to the plant during the procefs of germination, and until it be perfectly eftablifhed in the foil. On the principle of faving feed in fcarce and dear feafons, it has been advifed by fome to have recourfe to the fhoots,| and, by others,:]: to the eyes only ; but the ufe of thefe, except under fuch circumftances, is liable to many objections. Where the moots are employed, the crops are found to be confiderably more backward in becoming ripe, confequently more expofcd to the danger of cold winds and frofts about the period of their being taken up ; befidcs, from their be ing more tender than fets taken from the cuttings of potatoes, they cannot be put into the ground at fo early a period. But the moft material objection is, in many of the plants being foweak and imperfect in their growth, as to afford little or no produce. Where the plough is made ufe of in planting them, there may likewife be danger of their being injured by the trampling of the horfes, except great care be taken to prevent it. Where the eye or root-bud of the potatoe is employed as feed, it is ufually cut out of it by afcoop or implement contrived for the purpofe, to the thicknefs of about half a crown. Different implements for effecting this purpofe have been contrived, which may be feen in Plate XXIII. Figs. loand u. But though this mode of fets is faid to have been made ufe of with fuccefs by fome cultiva- * Bath Papers, vol. IX. i Maunfell, in Tranfaftions of Dublin Society, vol. II. 1759. J Stewart, in ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Sets proper for. <)<? tors, it is probably liable to moft of the inconveniences that attend the fetting of (hoots. Good crops are, however, alTerted to have been obtained in this way by dif ferent cultivators, in particular defcriptions of foil ; but others of equal credit allure us, that it is but in very few infhmces, as where the foil is peculiarly adapted to potatoe crops, that fets of this kind fucceed in any tolerable manner. It was found by an intelligent agricultor, in making an experiment withfcooped fets, and fuch as were prepared by cutting with a knife, in the ordinary way, from potatoes of the fame kind, that on nine of the beft- looking fets of each, kind be ing planted on the fame land, in alternate drills, the cuttings came up and pro ceeded in their growth without fuftaining tha lead injury; while the fcooped fets, though they grew, continued in a perfectly dwarfifh ftate when compared \viththem. And on being taken up and preferved in feparate bafkets for about a month, and then weighed, the produce of the former afforded by much the greateft weight; the cut fets giving one ftone and half a tron, while the fcooped ones yielded only three quarters of a ftone, the fmall fractions not being noticed. And in another trial, where one peck was cut with the knife, and the fame quan tity prepared by the fcoop, and fet in the fame field, there was no perceptible difference in the growth of the crops while upon the ground ; but, on taking them up, the difference of the produce in meafure was a peck and a half in favour of the cut fets.* It was, however, found on planting cut and differently fcooped fets alter nate^ on a light earthy foil, in the drill manner, at the diftance of twenty- four inches between the rows, the fcooped fets being prepared to three-fourths and feven-eighths of an inch, and the after-culture performed in the fame way in each ; that on taking up the different drills, and meafuring them feparately, the quantity of produce was nearly equal in every cafe. Hence it is concluded, that " fcooped feed, and even the fmalleft of the fcooped feed, produce equal to large ones, or thofe cut in the ordinary way."f Similar fuccefs feems likewife to have attended the planting of fcooped feed under the direction of Mr. Ford, in Suffolk. | However, though fuch forts of fets may occafionally, under favour- able circumftances of foil and fituation, afford full crops, it is probably a me thod of pradice that mould feldom be had recourfe to but in cafes where there is a difficulty of procuring a proper fupply of other kinds of feed. On the whole, though there is reafon to fuppofe, from the various experi ments that have been made on the nature of the feed, or fets of potatoes, that: * Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. p. 103. + Ibi I J Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. III. O 2 100 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Methods of planting of. the quantity of produce is not, as has been fuppofed, exactly in proportion to the weight of them, yet that it is in fomc meafure influenced by that circum- ftance, and their having a fuitable number of root-buds, as well as a due pro portion of pulpy material furrounding them, to enfure the perfect evolution and fupport f f the plants in the early ftages of their growth, and until they become completely eftablifhedin the ground. With refpect to the quantity of feed or fets, in general from twenty-five to thirty buftiels will be required for the acre, when dibbled in at ten inches diftance in every direxiic", and from eight to twelve when every other furrow is planted at a foot from fet to fet. Methods of Planting. In the putting of potatoe crops into the ground, dif ferent modes a re adopted in different circumftances of foil and fituation. On all the more dry and fandy defcriptions of land, the furface of the ground fhould not be raifed, but kept as much as pofTible on the flat ; but where the climate is damp, and there is more moifture in the foils, and iefs danger of their becoming too dry for the perfect growth of the potatoe, and on all the thinner forts of foils, it may be the moft ad vifable method to raife the land into what is termed one-bout ridges ; as, in this way, the depth of the ftaple is considerably aug mented, the manure is more concentrated for the fupport of the crop, a better bed is provided for the fibrous roots and wires of the plants to eftablifh and ex tend themfelves in, the danger of ftagnant moifture guarded againft, and the after culture of the crops rendered more eafy, beneficial and convenient, by which they may be kept more clean and free from weeds, and be earthed up at different times fo as to infure the moft full and perfect extenfion of the roots in the fine mould t hat is thus conftantly laid up. And as the whole of the procefs is capable of being performed by means of the common plough and a horfe or two, it is pro bably the moft advantageous where fuch crops are cultivated on land that has been fome time in the ftate of tillage. Where the ridges are only required to be fmall, the operation is completed in one bout of the plough, or by going up with one furrow and laying another up to it in returning, fo as to produce a ridge in the middle. This is the method that is the moft commonly purfued in thofc diftricts that are the moft engaged in the cultivation of this valuable root. It is the cuftom in the Lancafhire practice of planting, after the land has been harrowed fine and level on the furface, to make equidiftant drills, the length of the field, in doing which, the plough, after making a furrow up the field, muft be drawn down again on the contrary fide clofe by the fame, throwing the foil equal heights on each fide. Thefe drills are made as wide and deep as will make them capable of containing the dung, which is to be laid in the bottom of Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Methods of planting of . 101 each. The diftancc of the drills is fuch, that when the horfes ftand in one, each wheel of the cart or tumbril may be in the middle of the next drills on each fide. The next operation is to carry in the manure ; and as the horfes ftand in one drill, and each wheel of the cart in a fimilar fituation, the neatnefs and or der of the land is very little injured. The dung is then to be thrown out of the cart in fmall heaps, fufficient to fupply the three drills which the horfes and the wheels of the cart occupy a moderate fcattering of which is to be put into the bottom of each. This will be completed in a very fhort time by perfons with forks of two tines. Where long ftrawy dung, lately thrown out of the (tables or cow-houfes, or collected from the farm-yard, can be procured, it is employed. When the drills are thus prepared, the fets are put into them upon the dung about fix inches diftant from each other. The plough is then to be run on both fides of each drill, to throw the earth which was raifedout of it upon the potatoes. This ope ration will elevate it in the middle, and caufe it to lie floping on each fide like the roof of a houfe. The bufmefs is thus complete until the ftems of the pota toes begin to make their appearance above ground. But in the Weft Riding of Yorkshire, where the culture of the potatoe is well performed, according to the Report of that diftrict, after the land has been properly prepared, the beft cultivators begin to ridge it up by ploughing a fur row round it down, and then taking a fuitable diftance according to the nature and qualities of the foils, as from about two feet eight inches to three feet, Juch as are rich and fertile requiring more fpace of ridge than fuch as are poor and exhaufted. The manure, where neceflary, is difpofed with regularity in rows by means of a labourer with a fork, in the ridges, the potatoe fets being then placed at fuitable distances upon it, and covered by the plough. The method recommended by other cultivators in the northern parts of the ifland, after much experience, is, after the ground has undergone a thorough preparation, and is made perfectly level by repeated ploughing and harrowing in different directions, to draw ftraight parallel furrows by means of a double earth boarded plough, drawn by a fingle horfe, at the diftance of two feet and an half from each other. This operation is performed in the mod correct man ner, by pafTmg ihe plough twice in the fame track, which, when the land lies floping or uneven, {hould be down hill the firft time. The manure is then brought on in carts from the upper fides of the fields where they are hilly, the horfes pairing in one furrow, and each of the wheels in others on the different fides; they are then emptied by the drivers, who walk behind them withcrookeil three-pronged forks conftructed for the purpofe, leaving it in fmall heaps i 11 102 Cultivation of Arable Land.Potatoes.Method of planting of. the furrows in which the horfcs go, in fufficient proportions for the three drills. It is then divided and fpread out in the different rows in as equal a manner as poffible by women and children, the fets being put in upon it at the diftances of about twelve inches from each other, the whole afterwards covered in by the plough, by fplitting the ridges betwixt the rows, pafling twice in the fame track as in opening the furrows for the rows. There is another method of planting this root, that prevails pretty generally in the more dry diftricts, which is that of fpreading the manure over the whole furface of the land in an equal manner after it has been well prepared by twice ploughing and harrowing ; the fets are then planted in every third furrow, the dung and fine mould being turned upon them by the plough. This mode of fet- ting potatoes is probably the moft adapted to thofe forts of foil and fituation in which the moifture is apt to be too readily diflipated, as by p refer v ing a level furface it may be more fully preferved in the interfaces of fuch porous foils. As the whole of the furface is in this way covered with dung, it is obvious, how ever, that a confiderably larger proportion of manure will be neceflary, than where it is depofited in the drills only; it muft of courfe be an improper mode in fituations where that article is not eafily procured. And in the county of Chefter, where this ufeful root is extenfively cultivated,, it is moft frequently the cuftom to form the land into narrow beds of about five feet in breadth by the plough, the manure, when riecefTary, being previoufly fpread out evenly upon the ground, and turned down. The fets are then planted by means of a dibbling- (tick to the depth of about three inches in rows ten inches apart, and alternately ten and twelve inches in them,, fo as that the root-moots of the plants may occupy the ground as completely as- poffible with out interfering with or injuring each other. When the fhootsi of the plants fir ft appear upon the furface, each of the furrows or divifions between the beds is dug out to the depth of about one fpit ; the loofe earth thus raifed being cail as evenly as poffible over the plants in the beds, by which they, as well as any weeds that may have fprung up, are covered, and the growth of the former greatly promoted, while the latter are in a great meafure deftroyed. And in cafes where the ftaple of the land will admit of it, in about a week or ten days afterwards a fecond covering is dug out and thrown over the crop in the fame manner, by which its growth is ftill farther promoted. In this mode of plant ing, as much frefh earth is from time to time applied to the plants, their vi gorous vegetation is not only fecured, but the extenfion of the roots rendered more full and complete. As a quantity of frefh earth is thus annually furnifhed for be growth and fupport of the potatoe, it is afferted that repeated crops Cultivation of Arable Land Potatoes Methods of plan ting of. 103 may be taken from the fame land, eve.t where manure is not made ufe of, with out its being exhaufted in any great degree.* It may therefore be had re- courfe to with advantage where manure cannot be eafily procured. And from its being well fuited to the keeping of the foil dry, it may be well adapted to fuch lands as are too much inclined to the retention of moifturc for the p crfecl growth of potatoe crops. But from the great quantity of hand labour, it muft be a practice attended with too much expence to be generally employed. Where this fort of crop is planted upon fward-Iand, it has been recommended by an intelligent cultivator, after the land has been prepared by the ufe of a plough that juft pares off the furface and depofits it in the furrow, to place the fets upon the inverted fod, and cover them with the loofe mould from be low by means of a common plough.-j- In this cafe the fets may alfo be put in by a dibble where that method is preferred ; but the former is probably the better practice : as the turfy material on which the fets are put, in this method of planting, foon begins to decay, the purpofe of manure is in Tome meafure anfwered. It is therefore a plan that may be advantageous where manure is fcarce, as in bringing wafte and other coarfe grafs lands into the (late of tillage. Thcfe are the principal modes of planting that are employed where the plough is had recourfe to; but where labour is cheap, crops of this fort are frequently fet by the fpade. Where this is the cafe, after the lands have been once well dug over from the Hate of fward, it is frequently a practice to form a trench acrofs the end of the ridge to the width of about three feet, and from ten to fifteen inches in depth, according to the ftaple of the land. After this another trench of the fame dimenfions is made on the fide of the former, the furface materials, to the depth of fix or feven inches, being thrown into the bottom of the preceding trench upon which the proper fupply of manure is laid, and the potatoe fets put in at the diftance of eight or ten inches from each other, after which the neccflary quantity of earth is raifed from the bottom of this trench to cover the fets in the firft, and bring it to its proper level. This, though a laborious me thod of proceeding, and not by any means calculated for the extenfive culti vator, provides an excellent bed for the reception of the feed, and leaves the land in a high ftate of preparation for fuch crops as may be afterwards grown. Befides, as the graffy material anfwers the purpofe of manure by its gradual decay, it may probably be had recourfe to where that article cannot be eafily obtained. * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. I. p. 76. i Mr. Somerville* 1(H Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes Me thods of planting of. There is ft ill another mode of planting the potatoe by thcfpade; which is hat of forming the ground into beds of about fix or feven feet in width, ac cording as the land may abound or be deficient in moifture, three or four feet on each fide being left to be dug for trenches. The furface of the bed is then to be dug over, and a fuitable proportion of manure applied equally over it, the fets are then planted upon it at fimilar diftances to thefe juft mentioned, and covered by means of the mould dug from the fide trenches, to the depth "of three or four inches. In fertile good flapled foils, from the roots of the plants hav ing plenty of loofe mould to fix and extend themfelves in, in this method of planting good crops are often produced ; but on the poor and thin forts of foil it is a mode that can feldom be attempted with fuccefs. It is perhaps the bed adapted to fuch lands as are inclined to the retention of moifture, as in fuch the largenefs of the trenches has the effect of removing the injuries arif- ing from the flagnation of water about the roots of the plants. This is gene* rally termed the lazy-led method of planting. Where the (hoots of the potatoes are made ufe of as fets, it has beeji advifed to place them in half-drills, or fuch as are made by throwing the earth off on one fide only, which may be formed by the fpade, or even by a very fmall plough contrived for the purpofe, at the diftance of eight or ten inches from each other, after being carefully picked from off the potatoes, and feven or eight inches apart in the rows, the root of the moot being put downwards. This may be performed by children. A fmall proportion of dung is then to be laid thinly over them, and the earth from the fides of the drills lightly drawn over them, fo as to guard them againft any froft that may happen. When they have thrown out leaves, and are about four inches above the ground, an other covering is to be.given, fo as to leave about two inches above the furface; and as they advance in growth, continue to cover them in this manner, till the earth between the ridges raifes the drills at lead twelve or fourteen inches in height. Shoots that are employed in this way mould be ftrong and vigorous, about fix inches in length, and planted while frefh and in a flate of perfect growth. The moots may be preferved for planting by taking them off from the potatoes, either all at once or occasionally as they are ufed, without bruif- ing and laying them crofTways upon each other, a light covering of earth being placed over them. In this way they may be kept a month or fix weeks till the land is ready for their reception.* It has likewife been fuggefted, that crops of this fort may be raifed by tranf- * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. VI. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Method? of Planting of. 1 05 planting fuch young plants as have come up by chance on grounds that have had potatoes, or been prepared for the purpofe in beds of rich earth and dung. And it is indeed afferted to have been found by experiments attentively made, that planting the feed on moderate-fized dunghills for about three weeks before they are put into the ground, renders them forwarder by five or fix weeks than in the ordinary manner, and that the heat afforded by the dung fecms to communicate a healthy vigour to the plants that is maintained during the whole of their after-growth.* But as much injury muft conftantly be done to the (hoots of the plants in the operation of taking them up, and as roots of the potatoe kind feldom grow very well after being removed, it is probable that fuch a method of planting can fcarce- ly ever be adopted with advantage, except in filling up the rows when defective, or in procuring more early crops, whether in the field or garden culture of the root. In whatever method potatoe crops are put into the earth, experience mews that it is neceflary that care be taken not to plant the fets to too great a depth, as the potatoe hasaconftant tendency to rife towards the furface; four or five inches is moftly fufficientinall the drier forts of foil, and in thofe of the more moid and heavy nature lefs may be proper. There is another circumflance that deferves great attention in the planting of this moft ufeful vegetable ; which is that of the fets, of whatever kind they may be, being depofited in or covered by fuch mould as is in a fine Hate of mellownefs and pulverifation : as, where the earth by which they arc furrounded is in a lumpy and unbroken condition, the crops are never fo fine or productive. In proof of this, a ftriking fa<5l has been recorded by a correfpondent of the Board of Agri culture, who on viewing a crop of about three quarters of an acre, planted by a gardener of the name of Watt, near Leicefter, remarked that an eighth-part of it was at lead fix inches higher than the other. On enquiry it was found that the land, which was of an equal quality throughout, was all prepared by digging in the fame manner, had an equal proportion of manure applied to it, the fets being of the fame fort, and moft of them planted the fame day, the only difference being, that on the part in which the crop was the rnofl full and luxuriant, the planting was performed in drills made by a hand-hoe about a foot afunder, while the other, by accident, were put in by the dibble at the fame diilance. The fu- periority of the drilled over the dibbled part was eafily perceptible during the whole of the fummer, and to the period of taking the crop up, when it was ncar- * Farmer s JNIggazine, vol. III. p. 142. VOL. II. P 106 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. ~ After-culture of, ly a foot higher in the ftem, and about a month earlier, fomc of the dibbled being taken up at the fame time, in order to fhew the difference. The whole was hoed three times in the fame manner during the fummer j and when taken up, on com paring the different crops, the drilled was found to produce a quarter more than the dibbled. Befides, the potatoes were larger and nearly a month earlier, both which are advantages of considerable importance.* It has alfo been fuggefted as neceflary, where potatoes are planted in rows on land without manure, or where the manure has been previoufly incorporated with the foil, to draw the furrows or drills much fhallower than when the manure is to be placed below them, otherwife injury may be done by the crop being put in to too great a depth. t After -culture. The proper management of the potatoe plant, after it begins to appear above the ground, is a point of great importance in its culture, as it is only by proper attention in this refpect that full and abundant crops can be pro* duced. As it has been already feen that the roots of this fort of plant rife towards the furface while they are in a ftate of growth and forming their knobby bulbs under the ground, it muft be obvioufly of great advantage to have the mould in a loofe mellow condition frequently applied to them, as by fuch means the branching out of the ftringy root-fhocts or wires is not only greatly promoted, but the diften- fion of the bulbs more perfectly fecured, as well as the diligence of the cultivator fully repaid by the increafe of produce. In order to effect thefe purpofes, it is the general practice in the beft-cultivated potatoe diftricts to have recourfe OQ- eafionally d u ring almoft the whole growth of -the crop, to fuch means as pulve~ rife, clean, and bring up the fine mould thus provided to the roots of the plants. Thcfe are the harrow, the (him, the hand, the horfe-hoe x and the double mould boarded plough ; by the former, the furface mould is rendered fine and powdery, while the latter is beneficial in bringing it up to the rotfs of the plants. In per forming thefe operations, it is the practice of a cultivator who has had much ex perience in raifing potatoe crops, to harrow the land over when the growths from the fets under the furface are advanced about an inch ; which is only to be afcer- tained ay infpection, as the germination of the fets varies confiderably according to the circumftances under which it takes place. The above period is fuppofed the moft proper, from the more advanced growth of the weeds rendering their extirpation more complete, as well as from there being danger of injuring the young moots by breaking them off when delayed much longer. This procefs is Englifti En cyclopaedia, ait. Husbandry* t Bath Papers. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Ajtcr-culturt of. 107 conveniently performed by a fmall fold ing- harrow invented by the writer, which is drawn along the intervals by a fingle horfe, in which operation it applies mould to the oppofite fides of two contiguous rows, deftroys the weeds, and pulverifes the foil, without the inconvenience of levelling the ridges, which would not only era dicate and break offmany of the roots and fhoots, but prevent the advantage of their being kept dry. After this, when the potatoes are wholly up, the earth and weeds are to be removed from them by going as clofe as poflible with an ebb furrow, and laid into the middle of the intervals by a fmall plough with a very narrow earth-board. This is to be performed exactly under the above circumftances ; as, when done earlier, there may be inconvenience from thofe plants that are not fully up being deftroyed, and, when delayed much longer, there will not be an equal degree of benefit derived from the operation. It is likewife recommended that, in a few days after the firft hoeing, the fame implement be paffed in the fame track to a greater depth. By thus ftirring the earth in the intervals that had been trampled down by weeders or other means, it is rendered free, and the weeds that had been removed completely covered ; and after the weeds, thus covered up in the inter vals, arc fully decayed and converted into new vegetable food, the earth is returned to the plants with a double-earth-boarded plough, by paffing twice in the fame track, and turning a flight furrow to each lide, the firft being made down hill where the field is uneven, a perfon following the plough to remove the earth from fuch plants as may have been covered in the rows by the procefs, as when left in that manner, their growth is either wholly prevented or very much reftricted. And in places where the plants are left without having the mould applied round them, it is to be brought into contact with them by means of the hand-hoe. After the plants have advanced to the height of about fix inches, the earth is again laid up to them (till higher by means of the double- earth-boarded plough, paffing twice in the lines of the former earthings, but ftill confiderably deeper than before. In this way the hoeing of the crop is completed.* By this method of conftantly keeping frefh mould applied to the ftems of the plants during the period of their growth, the produce has been found to be greatly increafed, as it affords a facility to the wires for extending themfelves in the loofe earth thus laid up, as well as contributes to the perfect growth of the plants. It has been afcertained by different trials instituted for the purpofe, that each feparate hoeing or earthing up of the plants is ufeful in promoting a frefh fet of runners, and that the potatoes are produced in tiers, according as the different hoeings have been performec^; and it has alfo been found, that where the fecond and * Campbell in Bath Papers, vol. IX. Pa 106 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. After-culture of. ly a foot higher in the ftem, and about a month earlier, fomc of the dibbled being taken up at the fame time, in order to mew the difference. The whole was hoed three times in the fame manner during the fummer ; and when taken up, on com paring the different crops, the drilled was found to produce a quarter more than the dibbled. Befides, the potatoes were larger and nearly a month earlier, both \vhich are advantages of considerable importance.* It has alfo been fuggefted as neceffary, where potatoes are planted in rows on land without manure, or where the manure has been previoufly incorporated with the foil, to draw the furrows or drills much fhallower than when the manure is to be placed below them, otherwife injury may be done by the crop being put in to too great a depth. t After- culture. The proper management of the potatoc plant, after it begins to appear above the ground, is a point of great importance in its culture, as it is only by proper attention in this refpect that full and abundant crops can be pro duced. As it has been already feen that the roots of this fort of plant rife towards the furface while they are in a ftate of growth and forming their knobby bulbs under the ground, it muft be obvioufly of great advantage to have the mould in a loofe mellow condition frequently applied to them, as by fuch means the branching out of the ftringy root-moots or wires is not only greatly promoted, but the diften- fion of the bulbs more perfectly fecured, as well as the diligence of the cultivator fully repaid by the increafe of produce. In order to effect thefe purpofes, it is the general practice in the belt-cultivated potatoe diftricts to have recourfe OQ- calionally during almoft the whole growth of the crop, to fuch means as pulve~ rife, clean, and bring up the fine mould thus provided to the roots of the plants. Thcfe are the harrow, the (him, the hand, the horfe-hoe, and the double mould boarded plough ; by the former, the furface mould is rendered fine and powdery, while the latter is beneficial in bringing it up to the rotfs of the plants. In per forming thefe operations, it is the practice of a cultivator who has had much ex perience in raifing potatoe crops, to harrow the land over when the growths from the fets under the furface are advanced about an inch ; which is only to be afcer- tained Isy infpection, as the germination of the fets varies confiderably according to the circumftances under which it takes place. The above period is fuppofed the moft proper, from the more advanced growth of the weeds rendering their extirpation more complete, as well as from there being danger of injuring the young moots by breaking them off when delayed much longer. This procefs i* Englilh Encyclopaedia, ait. Hufl>amlry i Bath Papers. Cultivation of Arable Land. Pot atoes.-~ After-culture of. J07 conveniently performed by a fmall folding-harrow invented by the writer, which is drawn along the intervals by a fingle horfe, in which operation it applies mould to the oppofite fides of two contiguous rows, deftroys the weeds, and pulverifes the foil, without the inconvenience of levelling the ridges, which would not only era dicate and break offmany of the roots and fhoots, but prevent the advantage of their being kept dry. After this, when the potatoes are wholly up, the earth and weeds are to be removed from them by going as clofe as poflible with an ebb furrow, and laid into the middle of the intervals by a fmall plough with a very narrow earth-board. This is to be performed exactly under the above circumftances ; as, when done earlier, there may be inconvenience from thofe plants that are not fully up being deftroyed, and, when delayed much longer, there will not be an equal degree of benefit derived from the operation. It is likewife recommended that, in a few days after the firft hoeing, the fame implement be palfed in the fame track to a greater depth. By thus ftirring the earth in the intervals that had been trampled down by weeders or other means, it is rendered free, and the weeds that had been removed completely covered ; and after the weeds, thus covered up in the inter vals, arc fully decayed and converted into new vegetable food, the earth is returned to the plants with a double-earth-boarded plough, by paffing twice in the fame track, and turning a flight furrow to each fide, the firft being made down hill where the field is uneven, a perfon following the plough to remove the earth from fuch plants as may have been covered in the rows by the procefs, as when left in that manner, their growth is either wholly prevented or very much reftricted. And in places where the plants are left without having the mould applied round them, it is to be brought into contact with them by means of the hand-hoe. After the plants have advanced to the height of about fix inches, the earth is again laid up to them (till higher by means of the double- earth-boarded plough, pafling twice in the lines of the former earthings, but ftill confiderably deeper than before. In this way the hoeing of the crop is completed.* By this method of conftantly keeping frefh mould applied to the ftems of the plants during the period of their growth, the produce has been found to be greatly increafed, as it affords a facility to the wires for extending themfelves in the loofe earth thus laid up, as well as contributes to the perfect growth of the plants. It has been afcertained by different trials inftituted for the purpofe, that each feparate hoeing or earthing up of the plants is ufeful in promoting a frefli fet of runners, and that the potatoes are produced in tiers, according as the different hoeings have been performec^; and it has alfo been found, that where the fecond and * Campbell in Bath Papers, vol. IX. Pa 108 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. After- culture of. Earthing up. third earthings have not been attended to, the produce has been confiderably diminifhcd.* In Lancafhire the potatoe crops are moftly kept free from weeds by means of the plough, by turning the earth in the intervals of the rows towards the young plants as foon as they prefent themfelves above the furface of the ground, and in a hcrt time afterwards by turning it back again from each fide of them ; and occa- fionally, when the land is very foul, by pafling a fmall triangular harrow between each of the rows. After the weeds have been removed in this way, the mould is again applied to the plants in the fame manner as before, or by means of a double- mould-boarded plough. In this way the crop is rendered clean, and the fine re duced mould well laid up to the ftems of the plants. It is, however, the cuftom in fome diftricts, where the planting of this ufeful root is performed on the plain furface without ridges, to depend upon repeated harrowing during the early growth of the crop, for keeping the lands free from weeds as well as for earthing up the plants ; but it is evident, that by this me thod the ground, efpecially when inclined to be moifr, is not only rendered too flat, but little afliftance afforded from the fmall portion of mould that can be brought to the root ftems of the plants. Befides, thefe operations can only be continued for a fhort time during the early growth of the crop. As it is attended with lefs expence, it may, however, be practifed where the foil is light, thin, and liable to become too dry. But, in general, the more perfect and the longer the ftirring of the ground between the rows can be continued, provided the implement does not prefs too deep in the latter ones, the more vigorous and abundant the crops will be. The earthing up of crops of potatoes by means of the plough has been objected to by fome cultivators, on the principle that it has a tendency to injure ordeflroy the knotty wires of the plants that extend themfelves laterally; but this can fel- dom be the cafe when the plants are put in at proper diftances, and the operation carefully performed ; but, in order to remove any danger in this way, the procefs may be well executed by means of a fort of cultivator termed a brake, which is much employed by the Kentifh farmers for this purpofe, as well as for cleaning and earthing up different forts of podded crops. Mr. Billingfley, however, on the authority of much experience, advifcs that the hoe be never made ufe of after the potatoe plants have begun to throw out their wires or firings, and form their bulbs ; as, fhould weeds afterwards arife, they jriay be removed by means of hand-labour. * Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. p, 145. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. E.rpences of Culture of. 10,9 Mr. Young advifes the different hoeings to he performed from the beginning of May till Auguft according to the crops and the manner in uhich they are planted, the work being effectually executed in each operation, whether with the hand or horfe-hoes. The frcond horfe-hoeing is ufcfully given with an implement that cuts and loofens thefurface of the ground without turning any furrow, the rows being earthed up with a double-mould-boarded plough ; but the laft operation of this fort is beft executed uith a {him that ftirs the earth of the intervals well by- means of fmall triangular {hares or only coulters ; the loofened mould being well laid up to the rows in the courfe of eight or ten days afterwards by the fame fort of plough as above. The expence of cultivating crops of this root, though it will vary much accord ing to the nafure and condition of the foil, the method of planting, and various other circumftances, yet, from the preparation and labour ncccffary in bringing the ground into a fuitable Mate for the reception of the feed, and in putting it in, it muft conftantly be high. It may in general be ftated to be from about five or fix to eight or nine pounds the acre, according to the differences of the land, and the difficulty of obtaining labourers.* Crcpsof this fort are not, however, tobecon- fidered merely in regatd to the immediate profit they may afford, butalfoas the means of preparing and bringing the lands on which they are produced into a fuit able condition for the growtn of grain. As the cultivation of roots of this nature anfwers thepurpofeof an expenfive fummer fallow, the farmer has an advantage even where they only repay the expences incurred in manure and other articles; bui they will, moftly, where proper attention is bcftowed, do confiderably more notwithftanding the heavy expence of preparing the ground, and planting fuch crops. * In the Weft Riding of Yorkshire, according to the Agricultural Report of that diftricl, the ex- pence and profit on an acre of potatoes are thus ftated i DU. Expences> r. s. d. Land rent - 150 Produce. en. Working and ridging 150 . s. d. Seed potatoes, fix facks, at 7s. 220 By 60 fucks, at 5s. 6d. per fuck 16 10 Cutting ditto, and fetting. 020 810 Manure an i leading - 220 Hoeing, weeding, and taking up 150 Profit . 8 9 810 Various eftimates of expence and produce on a large fcale, under different modes of preparation and: planting, may befeen in an ingenious paper by Mr. Billingfley, in the fixth volume of the Letters and-i Papers of the Bath Agricultural Society. 1 10 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Cutting Blojjbms of, It has been advifed by fome cultivators to cut away the parts of the potatoe plants which contain the flowers before the bloflbms begin to blow, in order to increafe the fize of the potatoes ; but this is a practice that has been fhewn to be too tedious to be generally adopted, though it feems probable that the production of the fruit or apple may be detrimental in drawing away the nourifhment of the bulbs below the ground at the period when they fland moil in need of it. And, in the few trials that have been made in this view, fome have fuppofed an advantage to be derived from it; as after planting different kinds in drills, and picking the flowers care fully from off the plants in fom e of them as foon as they appeared, in others after they had expanded or even made fome progrefs towards fetting the fruit, and in others again after it was formed and half-grown, while other drills between them \vere left untouched, it was found that the crop, in the firft method of plucking the bloflbms, was in mod cafes nearly double to that in which the apples were permitted to become ripe. Where the flowers were fuffered to wafte themfelves only, the crops werelefs productive ; and where the apples had made fome progrefs, it was Hill fmaller ; but in both confiderably greater than in the untouched rows. It was likewife remarked, that the Hems of the plants, in the cafes where the bloflbms had been picked off, continued in a more full and vigorous ftate of growth much longer than where they were permitted to remain, And the fame circumftances took place where the apples were gathered early.* The trials of other experimenters feem, however, to contradict thefe ftatements ; as in plucking the bloflbms from fome drills, and leaving others in their natural flate, on taking up the crops not the leaft perceptible difference could be perceiv ed in the produce. \ But though beneficial confequences may perhaps in fome inftances be produced by the pulling off the blofibms of potatoe plants, in order to prevent the feed from being formed, as is the practice in particular cafes in gar dening, the experiments of different writers have clearly mown that the cutting over the haulm or ftraw is invariably injurious to the fuccefs of the crops, the large produce and great luxuriance of the plants probably requiring the affiftance of the leaves and items to perfect their growth. When cut at different ftages, in fome trials the deficiency of the produce was found to be exactly in proportion to the earlinefs of the operations being performed ; and that the potatoes were badly ri pened, as well as of a bad quality, while thofe growing on the fame land clofe to them, but in which the haulm had been left uncut, were extremely good.* It has indeed been recommended by an experienced cultivator of this root, never to cut the ftems of potatoes at any period of their growth ; as the roots not only con- * Farmer s Magazine, vol. II. p. 412. t Ibid. vol. II. p. 412. J Ibid. vol. III. p. 103. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Difeafes of. Curl. 1 1 f tinue to improve till the ftems have decayed fo as to be of no utility, but ceafe the inftant they are deprived of them.* Curl* Befides the injury that may arife to crops of this fort from the above practice, they are frequently liable to be much hurt by the curl-, a difeafe in which the leaves of the plants are, as it were, fhrivelled or curled up, and the healthy appearance and vigour of the crop greatly impaired. The reafon of this perni cious vegetable affection appears not yet fully inveftigated, as it has been a- cribed to many different caufes by writers on hufbandry. Mod of the early- authors confidered it in general as originating from diftempered feed, which caufed it to appear in the crops wherever it was made ufe of. But in an in- terefting paper in the fccond volume of Communications to the Board of Agri culture, it is fuggefted as proceeding from imperfect culture, or fuch circum- (lances as have a tendency to leflen and impair the vigor of the growth of the plants; as the improper nature of the foil, or the want of fufficient preparation of the land on which the crops are grown. It has likewife been fuppofed to owe its origin to the continued propagation of potatoes by fubterraneoos buds, or root-wires, iaftead of feed, as by fuch means they acquire hereditary dif eafe j as happens in gardening, in the cafe of canker, to fuch apple-trees as have been a great length of time propagated by grafting the fcions. In oppofition to this, it has, however, been maintained by fome cultivators, that they have found the curl to prevail in the potatoe plants in fuch crops as had been raifed from feed of the fecond year. By others it has alfo been afTerted that infects at tacking the leaves may be the caufe of the curl ; and ftill others, that the pota toe roots, the leaves of which are attacked with the curl, remain hard and lefs diflbluble in the foil.-j- And it has lately been contended, that this difeafe in potatoe crops proceeds from infects beneath the ground deftroying the nutritive part of the fets after they are depofited in the foil-; as it was found that from a potatoe planted in a field as feed, there proceeded four ftems, two of which were weak and delicate, having their leaves attacked with this difeafe, while the other two were in a highly vigorous fbate, and their leaves frefh and free from the curl. On the root being taken up, it was difcovered, that all the part from which the curl- leaved ftems proceeded was excavated, the fubftance being wholly confumed by infects. And on more frequently examining fuch roots as had their leaves affected, it has constantly been found that they have been deflroyed by infects cither of the fnail, centipede, or beetle kind. Sometimes it is, indeed., fup pofed, that the difeafe may be caufed by the leaves only becoming the prey oi * Campbell, in Bath Papers, v.ol, IX, + Pyteology, p. 175. 1 1 2 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Difeafts ofCu-rt. numerous minute animalculne, but that the general caufe is in the feed itfelf being confumed. On this account it is, therefore, that the difeafe abounds more in potatoe crops in the rich foils in the vicinity of cities, and in that of well-manured gar dens ; as in fuch, infects are the mod predominant. Jt is alfo fufpected that fome forts of potatoes are more liable to be attacked by animals of the above kinds than others, as they have fcarcely ever been ob- ferved to meddle with the yam. Such varieties of the potatoe as have been brought from backward diftricts, and which have not bem perfectly riprned, are likewife, it is thought, feldom reliihed by thefe infedts. But fuch as have been made in any degree fweet and mellow by the action of froft, are fure to be attacked by them.* As the general experience of cultivators has fully (hewn that the crops of fuch potatoe fets as have been brought from high cold climates, where the potatoe fcarcely ever arrives at that (late of perfect maturity in which feed is produced, .is rarely if ever affected with the curl for the firft year, this opinion is rendered extremely probable. -( And the trials of a very extenfive cultivator not only clearly demonftrated that there was not the leaft difference in refpect to the production of this difeafe, whether whole potatoes, large cuttings, fmall cuttings, or the eyes merely, were employed ; but that fuch potatoes as were brought from the late districts about Dumfries in Scotland, were never known to afford curled crops the firft year. The cultivator is, however, cautioned againft ufing them in the third year, as, however rich the land or good the manure may be, they will almofl all be affected with the curl if fet in the fame foil.j It is added by the former of thefe experimenters, that the produce of fuch potatoe plants as have once been under the influence of this difeafe will con- ftantly, if planted in the fame ground, continue to produce difeafed crops. There is (till another caufe to which this baneful difeafe in the leaf of the potatoe plant has been afcribed ; which is, that of the feafon. It is remarked that where the early part of the feafon is mild and warm, in fuch a degree as to permit the plants to vegetate and fpring up in a perfect manner and to eita- blifh themfelves well in the ground, there will be little or none of the difeafe ; but that where the crop has been planted at too early a period, or where the advance of warm weather is flow and late, the difeafe will (hew itfelf in a high degree. Thus, where the fpring is late, cold, and frofty, and the potatoes fet at # partner s Magazine, vol. III. p. 217* + IM. J Billingfley, in Bath Papers, vol. VJ, Ibid, p. 218. Cultivation of A ruble Land. Potatoes* Dij cafes oj. Curl. \ ] 3 an early period, the crop is moftly injured by the curl ; while thofc that are planted at a later period, and which are not fo much expofed to the effects of cold and froft in their early growth, are more free from the difeafe. In proof of this, it is obferved, that potatoes planted on elevated, hilly, and moift fituations, which cannot befet fo early as in lower and more warm diftricts, and which fel- dom appear perfectly above the ground before the latter end of May, are almoft wholly free from the curl, on which account they are generally had recourfe to as fced. But though many of thefe different caufes may operate in producing a ten dency to the production of the curl in potatoe crops, they do not any of them feem fully fufficient lo account for the difeafe in a perfectly fatisfactory man ner. Further in veftigation into the nature of the difeafe is ftill wanting, in or der fully to elucidate its caufe. It appears probable, however, that imperfect culture, too early planting, celd, froft, and backward feafons, or other caufes that have a tendency to diminim the vigor of the plants in the early ftages of their growth and bring on a ftate of debility, may render the items as well as leaves more fweet, and confequently more liable to be devoured by the attacks of ani malcule, at the fame time that, from the imperfect confumption of the fweet nu tritious material elaborated in the fet for the fupport of the young plant, in fuch cafes, the roots may be more expofed to become the prey of infects, and in this way the difeafe be produced. That fomething of this nature takes place feems evident, from the circumftance of only fome of the plants being difeafed, while others nearly adjoining them are in a healthy and luxuriant condition. But from whatever caufe this vegetable-malady may take its origin, no effectual remedy feems yet to have been difcovered, but that of a frequent change of feed, and having recourfe to fuch as is brought from a diftance, and from fuch diftricts as are later, and have foils different from that in which they are to be planted. Where the convenience of fhipping admits of it, the beft method is probably to have the feed potatoes from Scotland, or fome of the northern counties of Eng land; as experience has (hewn, that feed potatoes from thcfe parts of the ifland feldora produce many difeafed plants for the firft or fecondyear.* Where infects or animalcule are confidered as the caufe of curl, the changing of the feed muftalfo be a principal mean of preventing the difeafe, as in this way we have juft feen that fuch kinds of potatoes may be employed as they are not difpofed to attack. But, befides this, it may be advifable to have this fort of crop planted as little as poflible on the rich field or garden foils that have been long in a ftate of tillage, and which of courfe abound moft with infects. * Rillingfley, in the Bath Papers, vol. VI. VOL. II. Q 114 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Dtfeafes of. Curl. And as it has been found that the produce of fuch potatoes as have been once effected with the curl will, when planted on the fame land, uniformly continue to afford curling plants, a change of the feed of the potatoe may in all fituations be more effentially requifite than that of moft other forts of crops. It has likewife been remarked, that on taking up the potatoes in a field that had been partly planted with fuch feed as had been produced on the land, and partly by that from a colder climate, and confequently a later, that the produce in the former cafe was at leafl in the proportion of three to one lefs than in the latter.* In the idea that the difeafe is produced by the devouring attacks of infects on the fets, it feems not improbable but that advantage might alfo be derived from the impregnation of them with fuch liquid fubflances as they are found to avoid, or which are noxious to them, in the way of fteeps. In performing this, great care mould, however, be taken that fuch materials be not employed as have a tendency to injure their vegetative quality. Befides thefe, it may be of great utility in guarding againft the difeafe to be particularly attentive to the preparation of the ground, the proper feafon of plant ing according to the nature and fituation of the land, and to the accurate after culture of the crop; as there is reafon to fuppofe, that where thefe points are either wholly neglected, or performed in an incomplete manner, the crops arc more liable to be injured by the curl. f In Mr. Chappie s experiments, confiderable advantage feemed likewife to be derived from felecting the bed and moft perfect potatoes for feed, from fuch as had been grown upon a piece of ground fet apart for the purpofe at a diftance from, the others, and during the after-culture of the crop picking out the difeafed plants. J It has alfo been lately fuggefted, that by ufing the dark-brown coloured ex- crefcence that grows to the fize of a large horfe-bcan on the haulm orftraw of the potatoe near to the ground, or what is termed ira fome places potatoe bean t for feed, the curl may be prevented. Thefe beans have the form of the potatoe, and prefent a number of eyes, from one of which two fmall leaves generally iffue. In an experiment made with thefe, in order to afcertain their vegetative pro perty, it was found that they produced a large number of potatoes of the or dinary fize, but of inferior quality. Thefe, however, on being cut and planted the following year, afforded potatoes of an excellent quality, and in great abun dance. Encouraged by thefe trials, a fufficient proportion of this fort of fets has been annually collected and planted for the purpofe of fupplying feed for the en- * Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. and Bath Papers. f- Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. \ Bath Papers. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Taking up of Crops of. 115 fuing year s crop. It has been the invariable practice of the cultivator to plant them at the fame diftance as in the ordinary method for thofe of common fets, and to manage the crops every way in a fimilar manner. The quantity of produce has moftly been equal to th.at with the common feed : and under this plan, it is afierted no other change in the feed has ever been found neccffary.* But however effectual fuch a method may be in preventing the curl in potatoc crops, it is obvioufly too tedious and expenfive to be introduced into the field culture of the root with advantage. Yet, if further experience mould confirm the above, it feems not improbable but that it might be an ufeful practice in the more limited fcale of garden culture. The produce of this fort of crop is fhewnto have attained the full fize, and to be in a proper ftate for being taken up, by the leaves beginning to wither and fall off, and the Hems to decay ; after fuch appearances, they mould, therefore, as, foon as poflible, be removed from the ground, in order that they may be fecure from the danger of froft, which is fometimes apt to take place about the pe riod when the late planted crops become ripe. About the latter end of Sep tember, or beginning of October, is thcfeafon in which the general crop is moftly taken up ; but the garden and other early crops may be taken up at any time, fo as to fuit the particular views and convenience of the cultivator, after the Hems have attained their complete growth, which is known in mod cafes by the pro duction of bloffom. The manner of performing this bufmefs is different, according to the extent of the crop, and the mode in which it has been planted. In the garden, and where the fpace of ground occupied by it is but fmall, digging the potatoes out by means of a broad three-pronged fork is probably the beft practice ; as in this way the ground may, at the time the potatoes are taken up, be dug over, and left in an even and regular ftate : but where the crop is of confiderable extent, and the land not of fo light and mellow a nature, but planted in drills for the ufe of the horfe- hoe, the plough may be the moft economical, as the earth feldom digs well. For this purpofe, it will only, however, be neceffary to make ufe of a light plough without any coulter, turning up the earth of the rows by the mare ; as by that means the potatoes are lefs in danger of being injured. In this method, in fome cafes, it is the cuftom to fet the fhare againft the rows to a good depth, and at once turn them upj while in others it is the ordinary practice firft to turn a furrow from each fide of the drills, and afterwards to plough up the middle part, in which moft of the potatoes are lodged. And in fome other cafes, after the fide * Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. p. 13. ] 16 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Taking up of Crops of. furrows have been removed, it is ufual to turn over the part that principally con tains the potatoes by hand labour with a three-pronged fork.* In whichever way the crop is taken up, the haulm or ftems fhould firft be cut efFclofe by the furface of the ground, or pulled up and removed from the land. Where the crop is taken up by hand-labour, one perfon will generally be fuffi- cient for picking up the potatoes ; but in taking them up by means of the plough, the number muft be increafed according to the circumftances of the crop, always being fufficient to keep up with the plough, otherwife there xvill be great lofs in the economy of time from the team occafionally remaining unemployed. Some likewiie recommend the land to be once or twice harrowed over after wards, in order to bring fuch potatoes as may have efcaped the pickers to the fur face. -f The annexed plate contains the reprefentation of a harrow contrived by Mr. Young, for the purpofe of preventing the great labour and expenfe of breaking the furrow flices in taking up crops of this fort by the plough : it is worked by a man and horfe. The curved iron flides againft the unploughed land, at the bot tom of the open furrow, and thereby keeps the teeth diagonally placed, to avoid driving the earth in heaps in their work. In friable foils three teeth may be em ployed, but in ftifFer ones only two. It is a tool that performs its work well, and which has faved in his practice from 175. to 2Os. an acre. Ft. In. The tfimenfions in Fig. i. are from i to 2 5 8 i to 3 4 6 4 to 5 2 6 4 to 5 o 5 4 to 6 o 5 7 to 8 i 9 Plate 9 o 3 broad. Do. o oi thick. 10 to ii o 5? Do. breadth of the iron o 3 In the curve o 7 Breadth of curved iron 03 12 to 13 ftraightline acrofs. Iff accomplifhing this work, it is of much advantage to feparate the fmall and bruifed from the middling and large potatoes. It is likewife of confequence to * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. and Lancafhire Report. t Experienced Farmer, vol. I, TA TOJ<: FfAmt ow. * J Cultivation of Arable Land Potatoes. -Produce of .Crops of. 117 choofe as dry a time as poflible for the bufinefs ; as \vhen this fort of crop is taken up wet, it is never found to keep well. After the whole of the crop has been raifed from the ground, it fhould be fpread thinly upon a dry floor, and be allowed fome days in order that it may become perfectly dry before it is depofited in the fituation in which it is to remain during the winter. The produce in crops of this as well as other kinds muft vary much, according to the circumftances of foil, cultivation, and feafon. It has been flated by Mr. Donaldfon, to be from five to eight or ten tons, and on the average over the whole kingdom about fix tons, to the Englifh ftatute acre. In Mr. Billingfiey s exten- five experience in the growing of this vegetable, he appears never to have had a greater produce than about a lack in a perch of ground, or one hundred and iixty facks on the acre, of the eating kinds of potatoes, but he is aware that a much larger produce may be obtained of thofe forts employed in feeding of cattle, though he feems to think them lefs nutritious. In Yorkfhire, according to the Agricultural Report of that diftricT:, from three to four hundred bufhels of thofe forts that are commonly made ufe of at the table, are confidcred as a good produce ; but thofe cultivated for cattle purpofes moftly yield from fifty to one hundred buihels in addition.* In fome cafes, in the county of Kent, four bufliels are faid to have been dug up from a lingle fquare rod of ground, which is at the rate of fix hundred and forty bufhels to the acre; which, at the price of only one milling the bu ftiel, would afford thirty-two pounds as the value of the produce.t Crops do not in general, however, afford by any means fo large a profit. Still larger quantities have, indeed, been aflerted to have been produced * The value of the grofs produce of potatoe crops under different methods of cultivation is thus ftated by Mr. Campbell, in the ninth volume of the Bath Papers: EXPERIMENTS IN 1794. HOIKS. Value of gross produce per acre. * d. 1. Undunged potatoes after dunged turnips 25 ly 8 T 3 ? 2. Undunged after dunged fallow - 27 10 2- 6 T 3. Undunged fubftituted for a fummer fallow 14 10 4-j- 1 ^- 4. Purple-hearted dibbled in the top of a, well-dunged row 48 10 (1-5 5. White kidney planted in fame manner - ; - 27 2 5^- 6. Ditto, ditto on much dung in row - - 29 7. Ditto, ditto on little dung in row .,-." <. 24 16 8. White fla. potatoe on ditto, ditto - - 30 1<) i Bannifter s Syuop.fi-of Husbandry. 118 Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Prefervation of Crops of. in particular cafes in the trials of different cultivators, as from feven hundred to a thoufand bufhels ; but in fuch inftances the land muft have been very rich, and peculiarly fuitable for the purpofe, and the feafon unufually favourable to the crop. Many different methods of prefervation have been attempted in order to prevent the injurious effects of froft, moifture, and germination, on the potatoe, during the winter and early fpring feafons : as by the firft it is rendered wholly ufelefs as an article of food ; dampnefs makes it quickly liable to become rotten ; and by fprouting its flavour is confiderably impaired, confequently it is lefs proper for the purpofe of eating : but no perfectly effectual and at the fame time con venient mode fecms yet to have been difcovered. As by too much humidity and heat the vegetative procefs may be excited too expeditioufly, while on the con trary the deftruction of the vital principle may have a tendency to haften the pu trefactive fermentation, the great art of obviating fuch effects in this as well as other roots, when removed from the earth, would feem to confifl in preferving them in fuch a flate of life, and in fuch fituations, as that they may not be liable to receive injury by too high degrees of either heat or cold, or by excefTes of moifture. This may be accomplifhed by keeping them perfectly dry, and as much as poflible in a medium degree of temperature, between the extremes of about forty-eight and thirty-two of Fahrenheit s thermometer ; in the former of which the procefs of germination for the moft part takes place, and in the latter the deftruction of the vitality of the roots by the occurrence of froft.* Such a fteady temperature, under the conftantly varying circumftances of this cli mate, is not however eafily attained, and the roots at the fame time preferved in a ftate of fufficient drynefs. It has, notwithstanding, been attempted by burying them in pits below the furface of the ground, by depofiting them in vaults and cellars or other fimilar fituations, and by placing them in houfes conftructed for the purpofe. The firft method, though practifed in many diftricts, is feldom completely fuc- cefsful, except where the foil is of a very dry and porous quality, and the inclofing of the potatoes conducted with great care and attention. And, indeed, what ever care may have been beftowed in the ftoring of them in this manner, there is moftly danger from their becoming too much impregnated with moifture from the furrounding earth, and from the clofenefs and warmth of fuch fituations dif- pofing them to vegetate too quickly in the early fpring months. Where it is employed, the beft means of guarding againft thefe effects is, however, to have * Darwin s Phytologki, p. 483, t Ibid. Cultivation of Arabk Land* Potatoes* Prefcrvation of Crops of. I lf> recourfe to pretty thick linings, of fuch fubfbnces as, while they refift the effect of cold, have but little capacity for tranfmitting heat or abforbing moifture. In this view, all forts of coarfe, woolly, or hairy materials, ftraw, fine fhavings, faw-duft, and many other (imilar matters, may probably be made ufe of with ad vantage. And on the principle of abforbing or taking away fuch putrid exhala tions as may be generated among bodies thus clofely packed together, as well as from its indeftructible nature, the coarfe powder of charcoal has been advifed. This is firft to be applied over the roots to an inch or two in thicknefs, and after wards layers of one or more of the other materials to fuch depths as may be fuf- ficient to preferve them in the proper (late of temperature, and protect them from froft.* The bufinefs of picing potatoes is managed in fomewhat a different manner in different diftricts : in fomc the ground is excavated or hollowed out to the depth of two, three, or more feet, and the potatoes deposited in the pit, as well as piled up confiderably above it, fo as to terminate in a fort of point or ridge ; in others they are only, however, piled up on the level furface in the lame forms ; but whichever method is adopted, the cuftom is moftly to cover them with dry ftraw, about five or fix inches in thicknefs, and afterwards apply over it a good thick covering of earth, raifed from a trench dug out all round the heap, and well beaten together by the back of the fpades, over the whole. It is like- wife the practice in fome inftances to perforate the crufts or coverings of thefe re- pofitories, both on the fides and about the tops, with fmall holes to the depth of the ftraw, and at the diftances of about two yards from each other, in order to let any noxious effluvia, that may have been extricated, efcape, but which are to be well clofed as foon as this purpofe has been fully accomplifhed.f This would, how ever, appear to be quite unneceffary where the potatoes have been put together in a perfectly dry ftate, and the bruifed or wounded ones have been carefully feparated from the reft ; but when the contrary is the cafe, the fluid difcharged from them may have a tendency to bring on or run into fermentation, and thus in jure fuch as come near or in contact with them. This mode of prefervation is, however, only adapted to fituations where the foils are of a dry, gravelly, or fandy nature ; as the retention of moifture in thofe that are of the more heavy kind muft conftantly endanger the fafety of the root. And as even the drieft defcriptions of foils are apt, in particular inftances and feafons > to become loaded with much humidity, it is probably the beft mode to fink the pics as little as pofiible in all cafes, as in this way the rifk of injury may be lefs. It has been recommended, that the fituation of thefe repofitories fhoufcl be fuch, asthatone of the ends may conftantly face the north, and that they bealways thatched Darwin s PHytologSa, p. 483, t Correfted Report of Lanca&iie. >Q Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes. Prefervation of Crops of. : v upon the earthy coat with ftraw in the manner of corn flacks, as by fuch , ins the danger of froft and moifture is more effectually guarded againft.* In : ition to thefe, where this method is followed, it is alfo probably ufeful to have rccourfe to fome of the other materials befides ftraw for forming the internal coats or coverings for the potatoes. And as much inconvenience as well as rifk attends the opening the heaps, it may be advifable not to have them too large, as by at tention in this refpect the whole may be removed at once, and almoft immediately converted to ufe. But in whatever manner this method may be performed, it feems to be lefs con venient as well as lefs fecure than that of ftoring them in deep dry cellars or vaults of other kinds, where they can not only be eafily removed as occafion may require, but be more perfectly fafe againft moifture. In this mode, the fame attention will, however, be requiftte in the covering of them up in the winter months as in the .others. The moft perfect practice is perhaps that of having houfes conftructed of fuit- able materials exprefsly for thepurpofe, as in this way the conftant trouble and ex- pence of covering and uncovering may be avoided. Where the cultivation of this root is carried on to a confiderable extent, and the produce kept during the winter and early fpring months, it may, therefore, be ad vifable to have a houfe conftructed for the purpofe, fomewhat on the principle of the dairy-houfe, or fo as conftantly to preferve as much as poflible an uniform (late of temperature between the extremes that have been mentioned, in which the pota- toe is found to remain in a perfectly found and uninjured condition. For fuch a building a perfectly dry fituation, and which is as little expofed to the fun as pof- fible, mould always be chofen. In very dry foils it may be the beft method to have it funk fomething below the furface of the ground, both for the convenience of preferving and ftoring the crops ; but in fuch as are more retentive of moifture, it will be better to have it wholly above the level of the furface, in order more fully to guard againft the effects of dampncfs. The outfide walls may be of earth, welLwrought clay, or any other denfe material ; but of whatever fubftances they may be formed, they fhould be conftructed double, or in fuch a manner as that fome kind of light material, fuch as faw-duft, coarfe hair, fern, ftraw, &c., which has a tendency to refift the action of fevere froft, may be lightly fluffed in betwixt them : and the roof after being well boarded over, fhould be covered with an ex tremely thick coat of good wheat or rye ftraw. The door may alfo be formed dou ble in .the fame way as the fide walls, and be fo contrived as, on being opened, to * Experienced Farmer, vol. I. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes Prefer nation of Crops of. f<M % prevent the entrance of the air as much as pofljble, being always placed in that part of the building that has a fouthern afpect. By this fort of houfe, and proper attention to the nature of the materials of which it is formed, it feems not impro bable that potatoes may be equally guarded from the danger of intenfe frofi and that degree of heat which is necefTary to theirgermination in the early fpring fea- fon. It has, indeed, been fuggefted, on the principle that clay or earth conftitutes the warmed building for the winter feafon, and the cooled for that of the fumrner, that houfes made wholly of fuch materials might anfvver well for the prefervation of potatoes.* It is obvious, however, that where fuch fubftances are employed alone, they muft be lefs proper, on account of their difpofition to abforb and re tain moifture, and the neceffity of their being made ufeof to a very great thicknefs,. as well as from their being extremely liable to crack and form openings ; incon veniences that are in a great meafure avoided in the method juft defcribed, and at thefame time the potatoes more perfectly fecured. Befides thefe means of preferving potatoes from injury while in their perfect ftate, others have been fuggefted as capable of being employed with fuccefs without the great expence of fire, where they are reduced into lefs bulky forms.. Thefe are chiefly by bringing the fubftance of the potatoes into a pulpy Hate, either by rafp- ing, pounding, or grinding, by machines or mills constructed for the purpofe, and afterwards confining the pulp in a cloth, and reducing it into the form of a thin cake by means of prefiure. The cakes, after this, are to be well dried, by placing them upon (helves, and turning them frequently. In preparing potatoes in this manner, it was found, that fuch potatoes as were peeled thinly before they were reduced into pulp afforded more clean white cakes, and fuch as appeared to keep better than where they were merely cleaned and formed into cakes without peeling. And that, though the fubftance of the root is comprelfed into a fixth of its ordinary bulk, and lofes nearly two thirds of its weight in the procefs, yet on being dreifed, either by ftcam or in any other manner, it affords almoft the fame proportion of food. Befides, by the addition of water in an equal quantity to that of the juice,. which is forced from the pulp during the time of its comprefiion, a portion of fine white flower or ftarch proper for the better forts of paftry is depoiited. It is conceived that, by a machine of considerable power, the cakes might even- be formed at once, by merely prefling the potatoes, without their having undergone the preparation mentioned above, the black fpecks and other impurities only being firft removed ; and that a common cyder or cheefe prefs, with the afiiftance of a.. kver to increafe the power, might be employed for the purpofe. f * Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. p. 318. f Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. II. p. VOL. II. R Cultivation of Arable Land.-*- Potatoes. Application of Crops of- This mode of preferving the ftibfianceof the potatoe may behighiy beneficial in many initances, but particularly where it is neceffary to be kept a long time, and ufed in large quantities, as it is fa id to be capable of being packed in one fixththefpace that would be requifite under other circumftancesand to remain perfectly good many years.* It feems probable likewife that potatoes might be rendered capable of keeping fvveet and good for a confiderable length of time without undergoing the above procefs, by being cut in thin flices, and expofed to heat in a gradual manner in an oven or upon a ftove or kiln until the whole of their moiftu re is expelled, and they become perfectly dry, when they mould be inclofed in cafks or other vefTels, and placed in dry fituations. And it is flared by a late practical writer, that this root may be kept perfectly found for a long time, merely by fpreading them thinly on a dry rloor early in the fpring, and carefully rubbing off the eyes or fprouts as they appear ;j~ but the flavour of the potatoe appears to be confiderably altered as foon as the procefs of germination takes, place, the whole fubftance being rendered more foft and fweet, confequently lefs palatable. This root, joined with hay, flraw, chaff, and other fimilar matters, has been found ufeful in many cafes, efpecially in the later winter months, as a food for horfes and other forts of live ftock ; and with thefe fubftances, as well as in com bination with other materials, as bean or barley meal and pollard, in the fattening of neat cattle, fheep, and hogs : but as there is confiderable trouble and expence in preparing them, it being found that they are much more fafe and nutritious for fuch animals when fteamed or boiled, they do not appear to have paid greatly \vhen employed in this way. They have been found to be greatly improved by being fteamed in an apparatus for the purpofe defcribcd in the firfl part of the work, and ftill more by being baked in proper ovens, as has been noticed in the fame place. The refults of numerous trials detailed by different writers in the Annals of Agriculture do not mew them to have been in this mode of application worth more in general than from four penceto five pence the bufhel. When given to horfes, it may be fortieth ing more, as there is more difficulty in afcertaining the favings in other articles of fodder that are thereby made, and the advantages that are gained by the animals. It has been flated to beabout ten pence the bufhel. The moft general as well as the moft ufeful application of this fort of crop is in that of human food, for which purpofe the roots are rendered mealy, nutritious, and fit for undergoing the different proceffes of digeftion, by means of heat, either in water or fteam, their acridjuices being in this way converted into mucilage, and probably fomc portion of that into a fine farinaceous or ftarchy fubftance. * Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. II. p, 256, t Donal .fon s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. Auuals of Agriculture, vol. XXJX. p. 62. Cultivation of Arable Land. Potatoes Application of Crops of. J23 Experience feems to prove, that where the heat is properly applied through the medium of fleam, the potatoes become more meaiy and nourifhing than where water is made ufe of for the fame purpofe. But the difference.^ in the mealinefs. produced by the boiling of this root is fuppofed by fome to depend more upon the nature of the foil on which it is grown than on any other circumftance. And it has been fuggefled, that the mealinefs of fome potatoes that have undergone the operation of boiling, may be fometimes a fie died by the acidity of the water in which they have been boiled : but it is believed to depend more generally upon the mu cilage in fome of them being more coagulable than in others, a circumflance the caufe of which has not yet been fully invefligated.* The warning of this root, where it is employed upon an extend ve fcale, is fre quently a troublefome operation ; it may, however, be performed with great eafe and convenience, by having a veffel conftru<5led fomewhat in the form of a barrel, with fmall flrong narrow laths on the fides, nailed to the folid boards, forming the ends at fuch diflances as may be fufficient for preventing the potatoes or other roots from falling through, and at the fame time for admitting the water to pafs freely. The potatoes are to be introduced and evacuated by means of a door fixed in one of the fides. The vefiel being thus prepared, is to be hung upon a frame of wood over a large fquare tub containing water, in fuch a manner as that about one half of it may be immerfed ; a crooked handle projecting at one of the ends, by quickly turning which, when the potatoes are put in, a large quantity may be expeditioufly warned. There fhould likewife be a contrivance in the frame higher up and nearer the fide of the ciflern for lifting the barrel from the place in which it turns into, in order that, by opening the door and turning it round, the wafhed roots may be eafily delivered into a barrow or other velfel placed below and ap propriated to their reception. An improved contrivance for effedling this pur pofe has been noticed in the fedlion on Implements. There is flill another circumflance in regard to potatoe crops that deferves to be noticed, which is the effects they produce on the foil. It feems probable, both from the nature of the root and the large portion of manure that is necelfary to in- fure a good crop, except under particular circumflances of the land, that the po tatoe is a fort of plant that has a tendency to draw a large quantity of nourifhment from the foil on which it is grown, confequerttly to exhaufl and impoverifh it in a confiderable degree, though thefe injurious efFedls are in fome mcafure counter acted by, the great abundance of flem and the clofenefs of the foliage, producing a ftagnated flate of the air, and a confiderable depofition of vegetable and other mat ter on the furface, as well as by thepulverifation and aration that is afforded in the- * Darwin s Phytologia, p, 450. Fv2 1 24 Vultrcat ion of Arabic Land-Potatoes- Application of Crops of. culture and removal of the crop from the ground. It is perhaps in this way only that the contradictory accounts of the effects of this fort of crop on the foil, and the occasional fucceffivc production of full crops on the fame land, can be well rccon- -ciled. The experience of potatoe cultivators in general appears, indeed, to fup- port the conclufion ; as upon the more ftrong and heavy forts of foil, \vhcre be nefit can be produced in the above manner, full croj^s may often be taken in fuc- ccflion without much injury being fuftaincd ; while on the lighter kinds, where much Jefs advantage is derived in this way, they become too open and exhaufted for the fuccefsful repetition of this fort of crop, and even for the growth of wheat. * And in Mr. Young s trials with the potatoe, introduced in a great many different courfes of crops, it was found that the ftate of deterioration of the foil was in pro portion to the frequency of the occurrence of fuch crops in the rotations. -\ The experience and obfervations of the writer of the Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire, however, incline him to the opinion that this kind of crop does not impair the fertility of the foil on which it is produced ; as he has found the grain crops after the potatoes, and thofe of the grafs feeds in fuccefTion to the grain, equal to fuch as fucceeded crops of turnips. + The nature of the land to which his practice and obfervation were confined is not, however, mentioned. On the whole, it may probably be concluded with fafety that, notwithftanding the property which crops of this nature polTefs of mellowing and rendering the foil more loofe and friable, they rob it of much fertility, and of courfe mould not be often repeated, or have grain crops too frequently cultivated after them, without the ground being replenifhed either by an adequate proportion of manure, or by be ing laid down to the ftate of grafs. ]| It is alfo obvious from the circumftances that have been mentioned, that pota toe crops are only proper and advantageous as a preparation for wheat in the ftiffer and more heavy forts of land, on the lighter affording a ftate of foil more fuitable for turnips, barley, and other crops that require the land to be loofe and porous. It has been ingenioufly fuggefted, that much of that wafte may be prevented which arifes from the digging up of potatoe crops before they arrive at a ftate of perfect maturity, as is often done by fmall cultivators, by taking up fuch of the -roots as prefent themfelves near the furface with care by the hand, as in that way the part of the crop that remains will be improved inftead of being injured. Turnips. The introduction of this root into field culture has produced confider. able alterations and improvements in the management of arable land, as well as in * Young s Annals of Agriculture, vols. XX. & XXIII. + Ibid, vol. XXIII. J Tuke s Corroded Report of the North Riding of Yoikfhire. ]| Marshall s Rural Economy of Yorkfhire. Culf fccttton of Arable Lttnd. Turnip s Sorts- of mofi proper, t * the feeding and maintaining of different kinds of live ftock. It has contributed to leffen the necefiity, and remove the lofs fuftained by the practice of making naked fallows, and at the fume time provided an abundant fupply of food for the fupporr and fattening of cattle, fheep, and other animals. In this combined view, it may of: courfe be confidered as forming thebafis of theprefcnt improved hufbandry oa all the more light and friable loamy foils, where its cultivation can -be fuccefsfully car-, ried on upon an exteniive fcale ; the nature of the plant and that of its culture re - taining the land on which lit is grown in a perfectly clean condition, and under a ftate of admirable preparation for various crops, but particularly fuch as require a fine, mellow, and weil-pulverifed bed of earth to grow in, as barley, grafs- feeds, and many others. The turnip has a roundifh fiefhy root, which differs greatly in form and colour according to thecircumftances of foil, fituation, and culture; but the varieties that have been principally cultivated in the field in different parts of the kingdom are thofe of the round and long roofed kinds. The firft fort, which varies greatly in colour both in the root and top, has com monly a round flattim root, and is diftinguiihed by cultivators into the round red or purple topped, the green topped, the white topped, the yellow, the black or red rooted^ \\\eftone, and the Dutch turnip. The fecond fort, inftead of having a round (hape, and fpreading fomewhat flatly on the ground, as in the above kind, has a longifli cylindrical form, and is known to agricultors under the titles of the tankard, the tap-rooted^ and the pud ding turnip. All the varieties of the firft kind, from their roots being formed more in the earth than thofe of the fecond, which often Hand naked above the furface of the ground, are better adapted to the purpofe of being cultivated in the field, where there is danger of their being expofed to the feverity of froft ; but in other cafes, as for providing food at an early period for the fupport of fuckling ewes, or the fattening of fuch fheep as are forward, the latter may be the moft advantageous and proper, as they are faid to be adopted with fuccefs in thefe intentions in the practice of Hertford (hi re.* The cultivators in different diftricts prefer different varieties of the firft fort; but where the fituation is open and expofed, thofe that root deep or fland moft in the ground fhould probably be chofen, cfpecially where they are to be ufed in the winter feafon without being previoufly drawn and preferved, as experience has (hewn that they are the moft fecure from the danger of froft. The green * Bannifter s Synopfis of Hufbandry, 126* Cultivation of Arabic Land, Turnips Soils ifioft proper for. and white topped are generally efteemed more fweet and nutritious than the red topped, which poffefles a degree of bitternefs, and is apt foon to become ftringy. The white topped, on the better kinds of foil, is perhaps the moft proper and ad vantageous; as, while it has the property of being hardy, it grows to a large lize. This and one of the ftone or fmall hard fort are the moft commonly culti vated, and held in the higheft eftimation in fome of the beft turnip diftrids in the northern parts of the kingdom. The latter is fuppofed by fome Northum berland cultivators to ftand the feverity of the winter feafon much better than moft of the other forts ; but that the produce on the acre is confiderably lefs.* And by others it is believed to bulb quicker, have a greater fpecific gravity, a finer grain, a thinner fkin, and to be fmoother in the crown of the bulb, con- fequently lefs liable to injury from wetnefsand fevere froft. And that though it may not grow to quite fo large a lize, that defect may be obviated by leaving the plants a little thicker on the ground at the time of fetting them out by the hoe.f The common white turnip is, however, much cultivated in this as well as inoft of the fouthern diftricts where the turnip hufbandry prevails.^ The green topped turnips have been much recommended by others, both on account of the qualities juit noticed, and their being of a large growth, and continuing long in a Itate fit for ufe.|( Mr. Young advifes the fowing of the great round Norfolk white turnip, which lies above ground, and adheres to it merely by a tap-root. It grows to a larger fize than any of the other forts, and has the valuable property of being capable of being made ufe of in the winter feafon with more eafe and faci lity than thofe which root quite under the ground. The yellow or ftraw-colour- c d turnip is firm and fweet tafted, but has not yet been fo much cultivated as the other varieties, fo that its properties are not fo perfectly known. The red fort was formerly much in efteem by farmers, but has now moftly given way to other forts : 3nd the black rooted is very rarely cultivated. The early Dutch is but feldom grown, except in the garden. Where an early crop is required, it might, however, probably be employed with advantage. The foils that are moft adapted to the turnip hufbandry are thofe of the light loamy or deep medium fandy kinds j but it may be.pradifed on thofe of a thin, gravelly, or chalky nature, and even on loamy clays, in fome cafes when not too retentive of moiftu re, with advantage, provided proper attention be paid in the preparation and manuring of fuch lands. It is evident, indeed, from the fuccefs- * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland, p. 81. f Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding ofYorkfhire, p. 14(J. 1 Donaldfon s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. jl,, Martyn s Edition of .Millar s Dictionary} art. Brassica Rapa. Cultivation of Arabic Land TtirmpsPrepara tfan proper for* 12T ful culture of this ufeful root upon lands that differ greatly in their qualities, thai. it admits of more latitude in regard to foil than many other plants, though the opinion feems to have been too general among farmers, that it is o I/ capable of being introduced with benefit on fuch as are of a very light and friable texture. This has probably had confiderable influence in preventing the cultivation of the turnip root from becoming fo general, as from its great utility and importance it ought to have been at this period. But though the turnip may be grown to advantage on foils that vary in a confiderable degree in refpect to their natural friability and competition, it is con* ftantly neceffary to the healthy vegetation and fuccefs of the crop, that at leaft the more fuperficial parts of the land, or the bed in which the feed is to be depofited, be brought into as fine a ftate of reduction or pulverifation as poflible ; as more is found from experience to depend upon this being effectually performed, than even on the richnefsof the foil.* This is ufeful in different ways : as, by its promot ing the growth of the fmall feed weeds, they are capable of being more perfectly eradicated, and the young turnip plants of courfc lefs endangered by them i while at the fame time, a more fine and mellow bed is provided for the reception of the feed, and its vegetation rendered more quick and vigorous in confequence of the more equal diffufion of moifture that muft thus take place. In order fully to effect thefe objedts, it is the practice in thofe diftricts where the turnip hufbandry is carried on in the mod complete and fuccefsful manner, when the feed is put in on a fallow, to have recourfe to four, and frequently five, ploughings, hav ing the cloddy parts of the land well broken down in the intervals, by harrowing in different directions and the occafional ufe of the roller, as by thefe means almoft every particle of the foil becomes expofed to the influence of the atmofphere, and is perfectly aerated and faturated with moifture. The firft earth being given to wards the clofe of the year in a mallow manner, foas merely to fkim off the rough furface, it may then remain in this fituation till about March, when it mould be well reduced by harrowing and crofs-ploughed to the full depth. If weedy, it is to be again broken down by the harrow in the courfe of about a fortnight; but, when clean, it is better to remain in its rough ftate. It may then be left in this condition till about the middle of May, when it mould have another ploughing to the full depth ; and, when the feafon is dry, and the foil of the more ftiffkind, im mediately harrowed, but where it is light this may be deferred for a week or more. Thefe repeated operations, when well performed, generally bring the land into a per fectly fine and clean condition j but if that be not the cafe, more muft be had recourfr * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. 1 C 8 Cultivation of Arabh Land, Turnips Preparation proper for. to.* Other cultivators, however, advife the firft: ploughing to be to the full depth, and that the after-ploughings and- harro wings be continued to the middle of June. t Thefe mutt, however, in general be regulated by rhe nature of the foil, the circum- dances of the feafon, and the convenience of the agricultor. But when the feed is put in after grain, early peas, tare, or other fimilar crops, the preparation is fel- dom extended to fo many ploughings. In fome diftricts two ploughings and har- rowings, the ftubble and weeds being at each operation brought together and con- furned on the land, are found fufficient with the feed earth. + In others, where turnip crops are made to fuccccd clover orgrafs feeds, it is the practice to pafture the land in the fpring with fheep tofo late a period as only to admit of ploughing two or three times. And the fowing of this fort of crop on old pafture land upon one earth, is like wife ftated as a fuccefsful practice on the experience of fevcral years ; the method of management in which is to plough the land pretty deep in winter, eating any grafs that may arife from the edges of the flag clofe by fheep, and afterwards, before the feed is put in, reducing it well by harrowing, u Thefe arc not, however> modes of practice that are in general to be attempted, though they may fucceed in particular inftances. But in many cafes, after the furface of coarfe pafture and other old grafs lands have been reduced by means of paring and burn ing, good crops of this root may be grown on one earth, or by once ploughing over the land, theafhes being previoufly fpread on the furface in as equal a manner as poflible. The ploughing in thefe cafes fhould be performed to only a flight depth, in order that the crop may derive the fulleft advantage from the action of the fire and the faline principles of the manure on the foil. The Norfolk heavy drill roller is very effective in thefe cafes when pafTed over the land before and im mediately after the fowing of the feed. The principal aim of the agricultor in the culture of this root mould conftantly, however, be that of rendering the foil on which it is to be grown as fine and mel- lo w as the nature of the land will admit ; as without fuch cultivation his expectations mud be frequently difappointed. In regard to. the application of manure for turnip crops, in the firft methods of preparing the land, and where it is of the calcareous kind, as lime, marl, or other firmlar fubftances, it may be the beft practice to apply it after the fecond or third ploughings, in the firft kind, in the proportion of from one and a half * Kent s HintSj p. 110. t Corrected Agricultural Report of the County of Suffolk. | Corrofted Agricultural Report of the County of Middlefex. . | Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Rising of Yorkfliire. Cultivation of Arabic Land. Turnips Preparation for Manures. 1 29 to about three chaldrons ;* and in that of the latter, from eight to ten or fifteen ordinary cart-loads, according to the circumftances and nature of the land ; as in this way fuch matters may become the moft perfectly blended and incorpo rated with the mould of the foil. Lime is fuccefsfully made ule of for this crop in Yorkmire, and moft other dirrricls where it can be procured. And the ufe of marl has been attended with equal benefit in the county of Norfolk in England, and Angus in Scotland. | The former would feem to be the moft proper on fuch forts of land as are inclined to be in fome meafure ftiffand adheftve. When dung can be procured, the experience of different cultivators of the turnip, however, mews that it is the moft fuited to the growth of the root. For fuch foils as pofiefs a fufficient degree of lightnefs, and are in a fine mellow con* dition, that which is become confiderably reduced by fermentation, or in a more rotten and Ihort ftate, may be the moft proper, as it can be the moft intimately incorporated with them ; but where they have greater ftiffnefs and cohefion, the longer kinds may be more beneficial, as they will not only tend to prefervc fuch lands in a more open and porous fituation, but, by their gradual decay in the earth, render them more mellow. Some, however, think it the moft pro per when it is neither in a very Ihort nor very long ftate, but in a medium condi tion between fuch extremes.* Compofts confifting of dung and different forts of materials, as maiden earth, marl, and the mortary rubbifh from old walls, in the proportions of one-fifth, well mixed, by having the dung laid over them in the winter, and afterwards blended together more intimately by turning before they are made ufe of, have alfo been employed with fuccefs.|| The duft of malt, or what is frequently termed combs, is likewife another fubftance that the fame writer has recommended as an ufeful application in the way of manure in the culture of turnip crops. And the dung of rabbits, pigeons, and poultry, chop ped rags, rape cake, river weeds, and other fimilar matters, may frequently be employed. Dung, when employed as manure for this fort of crop, fhould vary in fome mea fure in the manner of its application, according to the nature of the land and the mode in which the root is cultivated : in general, however, it ought to be depofited in the foil as nearly as poflible to the period at which the feed is fown ; as in this method, in confequence of the new fermentation that muft * Thirty-two bufhels. t Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkftiirc; and Dcwaldfon s ["Modern Agriculture, vol. II. I Corrected Agricultural Report of Suffolk. j[ Kent s Hints, p. 112. VOL. II. t S 130 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Preparation forManures. take place in the foil, the crop may receive the greatcft benefit from it. Where the feed is to be fown in the broadcaft method, it may, therefore, be fpread equally over the land, and turned in with the feed furrow; though fome advife it to be lightly turned in by the ploughing that precedes the feed earth, and to be well incorporated with the foil by harrowing juft before that earth is given.* The former appears however to be the better practice when the dung is in a fuf- ficiently reduced date, as the plants will have the more full advantage of it. The quantity that is neceflary muft depend upon the different circumftances of the ibil and the richnefs of the dung; but lefs than ten or twelve good threc-horfe- cart loads to the acre can feldorn be employed with advantage. If a compoft ma nure be made ufe of, the proportion mould probably be much larger. In Norfolk, according to Mr. Kent, they employ ten cart-loads ; but in other diftri&s twelve are made ufe of, and in others again it varies from fix to ten ; each containing about thirty bumels.f Where the crop is fown in the drill manner, as it is confined to the middle of the ridges, and does not occupy the whole furface of the land, a fome what lefs quantity may be fufficient. A liberal allowance mould, however, always be made, as the fafety and advantage of the crop depends much upon the rapidity and vigour with which the young plants are pufhed forward by fueh means. When the lands have, however, been well manured for the preceding crop, the- turnip crop may frequently be put in without the ufe of any manure. In whatever method the dung is made ufe of, it fhould conftantly be fpread out evenly, and turned into the foitwith as much expedition as poflible ; as where this is neglected much lofs muft be fuftained by evaporation, efpecially when the feafon proves hot and droughty. When mal t-duft or combs is had recourfeto, the quantity that is commonly applied is about twenty facks, of three heaped bufhels each, to the acre.J The dung of birds in its dry and reduced ftate, and other fubftances that have a powdery form, when ufed for this fort of crop, are moftly laid on in the pro portion of from about twenty to thirty bufliels to the acre. In applying fuch manures, as they require only to be put into the foil to a flight depth, harrowing in many cafes may be fufficient for the purpofe; which mould be done juft before the feed is fown, care being taken to have them firit difperfed in an equal manner over the land. * Kent s Hints, p. 11<2. i Corrected Agricultural Reports of the Counties of Suffolk and York, + Kent s Hints. $ Synopfis of Hufbandry. f! Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Quantity of Seed proper for. 1 3 1 Rape cake, when brought into a powdery form by mills* conftructed for the purpofe, is dated to have been ufed in Norfolk by Mr. Styleman, an intelligent cultivator, with much fuccefe, in the proportion of a quavter ^ r a ton to the acre; I the powder being placed over the feed in the drills by means of Mr. Cook s drill machine, merely by fubftituting proper cups and funnels. In Mr. Coke s practice the rape cake duft is drilled at the fame time with the turnip feed from the fame machine. This has been a common manure in Norfolk ufed by being fown over the land in a coarfe powder five or fix weeks before the turnip feed is put in; but in Mr. Coke s management, by having it ground into a perfect powder, it is not found necefTary to be applied before hand. And in this way a ton is fufficient for fix acres inftead of three. This method may alfo be adopted with various other forts of manures, fuch as bone duft, coal and wood afhes, foot dried, and powdered pigeons dung, night- foil in powder, and many other fimilar materials. The foot will, however, require fome other fubftance to be blended with it, in order that it may be delivered more evenly. Thefe are cheap methods of applying manures for thefe crops, and which have the effect of promoting the quick growth of the young plants, which is of much advantage in preferving the turnips from the fly.* When river weeds, which have been tried with fuccefs in the fame county by Mr. Coke and Mr. Branthwaite, are made ufe of, they are laid on the ground in their wet ftate immediately after being removed from the water, and as foon as pofHble turned in by a light furrow. This fubftance, from the danger of the vegetation of the feeds, can probably only be ufed with propriety on fuch foils as are of a very dry quality. There is dill another method of providing and applying manure for this crop, practifed in fome diftricts ;|| which is that of folding fheep on the land after the firft ploughing of it up, until the feed earth is given. As the treading of the ani mals may often be apt to render the land fo hard and compact as to be afterwards reduced to the proper ftate of pulverifation with difficulty, it may be the beft practice in fuch cafes only to ufe the fold in dry weather, always ploughing the ground lightly over as foon as podible after the fheep are removed. Quantity of Seed. It is difficult to afcertain the proportion of feed that may * The mills employed for this purpofe, according to Mr. Kent s Report, are constituted each of two cylinders revolving towards each other ; the firft breaking the cake into pieces of the Size of a wal nut by means of cogged cylinders ; while the other reduces it into powder by plain cylinders fimikr to thofe employed in reducing clay for the forming of bricks. + The expence in 1796 was not more than il. 5s. + Farmer s Calendar. Corrected Agricultural Reports of Suffolk. f| Corrected Agricultural Reports of Norfolk and Hertfordshire. S 2 1 32 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Seafons of f owing of. be requifite in different cafes, as much mud depend on the nature of the foil, the period of fowing, and the methods and c i re um (lances under which it is put into the ground. In Norfolk, where this fort of huibandry is carried to a con- iiderable extent in the broadcaft method, it is generally from about one pound to a pound and a half; while on the fandy lands in Suffolk, and thofe of the lighter kind in Yorkmire, a pound or pint is found to be fufficient. But on the turnip foils in Middlefex nearly two pounds are employed. It is always, howe ver, a good practice in fowing turnips not to be too fparing in the ufe of feed, as the unneceflary plants may be eafily thinned out at the time of firft hoeing over the crop. The calcareous or chalky foils, in general, require the largeft pro portions of feed. But in cultivating the root in the drill method, as the feed is delivered with more co rrectnefs, and the whole of the ground is not to be occupied by plants, fome faving may be made in the quantity of feed made ufe of. As much of the fuccefs of turnip crops is found from experience to depend on the quick vegetation of the feed, and the plants pufhing expeditioufly into broad leaf, it may be a practice of great utility in thefe views to have the feed fteeped a few hours in water or fome other liquid, before it is committed to the foil. When the feafon is dry, this will be particularly neceflary. In the trials we have made in the garden practice, the fteeped feed has conflantly fucceeded j while that which has been fown without immerfion has frequently failed. Time and Methods of Sowing. The periods of putting crops of this nature into the ground muft be principally regulated by the intentions of the cultivator in regard to the difpofal of the produce. For the general more early confu mptiori of the root, the moft proper feafon for performing this operation may be about the beginning of June j but when it is intended that the crop fhould fcrve as food for animals in the early fpring months, it is a better practice to delay the fowing till towards the end of it or beginning of July. When the root is, however, cul tivated upon an extenfive fcale, it may be advantageous to vary die times of putting the feed into the ground more confiderably ; as by fuch means the plants not only- come more infucceflion to the hoe, but like wife for the purpofes of confumption.* In fome diftricts, as thofe where the practice of lamb-fuckling is carried on, very early crops are occafionally required ; in which cafes the feed is generally put into the ground as early as poflible in the month of May ; fuch land as is in a fine ftate of tilth, and perfectly clean from weeds, being chofen for the purpofe. * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. and Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of York-* Calthation of Arable Land. Turnips Methods of f owing of. 133 In general, Jvwever, the carly-fown crops of turnips are not only lefs fweet and nutritious, but more expofed to injury from mildew and other caufes, than thofe that ate put in later; but, notwithftanding this, the fowing fhould not be deferred fo long as that the plants cannot have time to cover and fix themfelves well in the foil before their growth is retrained by the coldnefs ot the autumn and winter feafons. There a re different methods pracYifed of putting this fort of crop into the foil in different diftrids ; in moft of the fouthern counties it is the more general practice to fow turnips in the broadcaft manner on the level furface ; while in the northern parts of the ifland, where this fort of hufbandry has been confiderably improved. it is the more ufual method to employ the drill machine, depofiting the feed in rows, either on ridges formed by one bout of the plough, or on the level furface ; at the diftances of from twenty-four to thirty inches in the ridge method, according to the circumftances of the foil and the intentions of the cultivator, and from ten to twelve or thirteen when on the plain furface. It is probable that both thefe methods may be had recourfe to with advantage under different circumftances of the land. On the very light, deep, fandy, or gra velly foils, ihat are apt to part with their moifture quickly, and of courfe become ton dry and parched for the healthy growth of the turnip plant, it may be the moft fucctfsful practice to put the feed in in the broadcaft method on the level fur- face, as by iuch rrua is the neceffary pr portion of moifture may be better preferved for the fupply of the crop. But where the foils are of a rather more heavy quality, and not fo liable to pnrt with their moifture, the ridged drill method, by the pulverifation which it affords, as well as its tendency to preferve the plants from being injured by the ftagnation of too much moifture about their roots, maybe the moft proper and ufeful. And befides being more beneficial in thefe ways, it poffcffes ad vantages in other refp-cTis ; as on the thinner-ftapled foils the turnip, on account of its long tap-root moftly re quiring a depth of mould of ten or twelve inches, can fcldom be grown in a perfect manner. The ridging up of the land may be of utility in providing a more fuitable depth of cultivated foil, and better bed for the reception of the feed, the operation having been found to more than double the ordinary depth of mould of fuch grounds. It may likewife be added, that the manure.from its being merely confined to the rid ges, is lefs expofed to the weather,and need not be employed in fo large proportion, conff quently a greater extent of land be converted to the production of this crop ; while, by its concentration, and the feed being placed immediately upon it, the nourimnru m and fupport of the crop may be more effectually promoted, and a lar ger produce afforded : and for the purpofe of early fowing, and being eaten off in. T3-t Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips. Methods of f owing of. the winter months, fo late as January, it may alfo be preferable, as the turnips can he more readily obtained for the cattle when there is a conftderable depth of fnow upon the^ground.* There are alfo other circumftances in this mode of cultivating tur- njpciops.that appear of importance : the hoeing and cleaning of the rows can be more eafily performed, and in a more perfect manner, women or children being capable ol being employed in the bufinefs ; while the weeds in the intervals are capable of being eradicated, and the mould laid up to the plants by the plough. And it has been even fuggeiled by fome, that the danger of fheep, from being call in the fur rows, is confiderably leifened if not wholly obviated ; as on one-bout ridges they cannct lie down on their iides, or roll on their backs, as is frequently the tafe in the .other methods :f though others think the contrary the cafe, and recommend ronilant attention while the fheep are feeding upon them.J From the narrownefs 01 the furrows in fuch cafes, the firft conclufion would feem to be well founded. The only objections to the raifed drill method that appear to have much weight are, that from the root being more elevated and expofed, it is not fo capable of {landing thefeverity of the winter ; and that larger fpaees are allowed than are neceffary for the roots to attain a fufficient fize, confequently that the quantity of produce will not be fo great. It would feem probable, however, that from the pafture of the plants being greatly enlarged, and the crops thereby rendered more healthy and vigorous, the amount of produce muft be rather increafed than lefTen- d.<$ It has alfo been contended, that in the raifed method there is a difficulty of reducing the land to a level ftate again ; and that the ground in the intervals be comes unproductive from not having the advantage of manure : it is obvious, how ever, that by making the ridges in a proper manner, according to the nature of the land, thefe inconveniences may eafily be avoided. * Jolfon, in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. f Midclleton s Correfted Agricultural Report of Middlefex. % Tuke s Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkihire. It is obferved by a cultivator in vol. III. of the Farmer s Magazine, who has long paid great at tention to the difference in turnips raifed in drills with broad intervals and thofe produced in other inodes, that they arrive at a much greater fize in the former than in any other methods which he has feen. In judging of the weight of fuch crops by the acre, it is the opinion of many, that the largenefs of the turnips is not to be fo much attended to as the greatnefs of their number. This he fufpecls may have led to erroneous conclufions. But taking the intervals in the narrow method at about thir teen inches, and the diftance of the plants in the row, at about twelve, an acre will contain about 40,200 turnips; and in the raifed drill method, at the width of twenty- feven inches in the intervals, and the diftance of about eleven in the rows, the fame fpace of land will contain about 21,100. And that in refped to the real fixe of the turnips, he has no doubt of being fupported by the generality of the moft experienced cultivators in maintaining, that when the various circumftances of soil, climate, Cultivation of Arable Land.Turnips-~Methods of /owing of. r?>5 On dry level grounds it is advifed in this view to have the drills in the dia gonal direction over the field ; and where the ridges are high, directly acrofs them, the plough being drawn down the furrows to difchargc the water. It has likewife been adduced as an additional inconvenience in the raffed drill method, that where the lands are of the more wet and heavy kinds, and have but little declination of furface, though larger crops of turnips may be produced, the grounds are fo much injured by being pouched in conveying them off, that the grain crops which follow will be diminifhed in a larger proportion than can be: compenfated by the extra value of the turnips. In fuch cafes it is, therefore, re commended as more advantageous to form the land into ridges, fufficiently round ed to convey the water with facility into the furrows, aud of fuch breadths, as about fifteen feet, that a cart can be eafily conducted along them, without prefling the earth in and obftructing thefe furrows, the feed, where the land is difpofed to the throwing up of annual weeds, being put in drills on their furfaces, as by that means the bufinefs of hoeing may be rendered more eafy : but where this is not the cafe, and where the fowing is performed at a late period, or the land is infelled with the grub, the broadcaft method may be preferable, as being more certain from the circumftance of the plants being left fo near to each other at the firft hoeings as to admit of thinning and the removing of fuch as are weak and un healthy at the fucceeding operations. Befides, they are fuppofed to have the ad vantage of growing more vigoroufly from their fheltering each other more fully, ploughing, manuring, seed, time of sowing, &c. are equal, that where thofe in the drills with narrow in tervals grow to fix inches diameter, thofe in the drills with broad intervals will grow to eight and a half inches upon an average. Now, fays he, as fimilar folids are in a triplicate ratio, the weights of the turnips will be as the cubes of their diameters, or as 2l6 is to 6l4 ; &y experiments in neighing will prove where the turnips are fpherical, which is moftly the cafe in the beft kinds. Hence the weight of the 40,200 to that of the 21,100, is as 86 to 129 nearly ; and, confequent y, when the latter are wortli 61. the acre, the former will only be worth 4l. 5s. As it may be objected (hat he has taken the turnips in- the former mode smaller and in the latter larger than they really are, it is added, that, even fuppofing the latter had been taken at confiderably lefs than eight inches diameter, the 21,100 would have out weighed the 40,200 by about one-eighth part, which is, he fays, equal to fifteen /hillings the acre. lie is perfectly convinced, however, that the refults of properly conducted experiments will fhew that he is right in taking the proportions upon Trhich he firfl calculated. The ccnclufion, therefoce, is, he thinks, that, befideji the faving of expence, and the other important advantages that have been mentioned, the method of cultivating turnips by the drill with wide inter vals produces a weight of turnips on the acre greater by about one-third than where the narrow- %aced drill plan is followed.. 1 36 t Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Methods offowing of. as well as from the ground being lefs rtirred about them in the early period of their growth, before their tap roots are fufficiently fixed to fupport them.* It would fcem, however, from the fuccefs that has attended the putting in of this fort of crop by the drill in different dift rifts, and the greater eafeand cheapnefs with which the after-culture of the crop can be performed, that it is in general the moft advantageous method ; but that at the fame time it may often be necefTary to vary the nature of the ridges and the diftance of the rows according to the quality and circum (lances of the foil. f * Jobfon, in Communications to the Hoard of Agriculture, vol. If. t The following are the refults of an experiment on the weights of fix different parcels of turnips taken from u field of fifteen acres, which had been fown in June, 1797, with the view of determining I he comparative value of the drill and broadcatt methods. The whole being in a ftate of equal tilth, and manured in iis equal a manner as poffible, immediately before the feed was fown, with well-rotted fold-yard dung, in the proportion of about feventeen cart-loads to the acre, each containing twenty- flight Wincheftcr bufhels ; and with the view of rendering the trial as fair and accurate as poflible, different breadths of land, of twenty yards each, were fown in the drill and broadcaft methods alter nately throughout the, whole : part of the drills being on one-bout ridges of twenty fevcn inches each, and the dung depofited immediately underneath the rows of feed, and the remainder in drills on the level furfaces, at twenty-one inches diftance. The produce per acre being calculated on the weight of four fquare perches, or the fortieth part of a ftatute acre, of each; the tails or fibrous parts of the roots being firft cut off and rejected, taking the weights of the tops and roots afterwards feparately. ll is added, that though the crop, efpecially on the drilled part of the field, was not a very good one, being too much thinned and otherwife injured by the grub after the plants had been finally fet out, it was found that the turnips on the one-bout ridges exceeded the others ill weight ; the whole being taken from an inferior part of the field, in order to afford a fairer average. No. 1. Drilled on one-bout ridges, at 27 inches diftance 2. Drilled with Mr. Bailey s machine on a level fur- face, at 21 inches diftance 3. Broadcatt 4. Drilled on one-bout ridges, at 27 inches diftance 5. Broadcaft (thefe and the preceding were round white turnips) 6. Broadcaft (red) Times of weigh ing. lumber upon 4 square perches Weight on four square perches, or the fortieth part of an acre. Weight per statute acre. Average weight of each turnip. Average distance oi each turnip. Roots. cwt. qr. Ib. Tops, cwt. qr. U>. tons. cwt. qr. Ib. Ib. oz. Jan. 354 8 1 1 1 1 3 19 1 20 3 0| l6 in* by 27 Ditto Ditto 428 568 7 1 15* 7 2 12| 1 1 5| i lli 17 7 1 8 17 8 1 26 2 4* 1 11| 17 in. by 21 l6| each way Mar. 2. 334 830 1 1 22 20 7 3 12 3 6| 17 by 27 Ditto Ditto 628 561 8 2 22 6 3 26| i 1 8 235 20 2 24 19 11 i o I 12| 1 U% 16 each way l6| ditto Cultivation ofArab leLand.Turuij)&.~Mthod# of fowing.- - Broad-caking. \ 37 In cafes where the broadcaft method of fowing turnip feed is practifcd, it is of confiderable importance that the furface of the land be rendered as fine and even as poilible before the fowing is performed, and that the feed be delivered or difperfed over it in a perfectly equal manner, and as foon as poflible after it has been ploughed up; as upon thefc operations and circumftances being properly conducted and attended to, the fuccefs of the crop in a great mcafure depends. The latter can feldom be executed by the hand in a proper manner by perfons who have not been in the habit of fowing the fmaller kinds of feeds : but a fort of box, or a machine conftructed for the purpofe, is often made ufe of by thofe who have not been much accuftomed to the bufinefs ; and, when proper care is taken to fee that the perforations do not become obftructed by two or more feeds being faf- tened in them, maybe extremely advantageous in delivering the feed in an uniform and regular manner. The feed, after it has been distributed over the furface in fome of thefe methods, is moftly covered by means of harrowing ; a light {hort-tined harrow being the mod adapted to the purpofe, as, from the turnip plant forming its bulb in a great meafure above the ground, it fhould probably not be put in to too great a depth. It has been advifed in performing this operation topafs the harrows over the land only twice in the fame direction, walking the horfes in the firft, and trotting them gently in the laft, in order to give a neater finifh ; the ridges having been laid out to the breadths of from four to ten yards, according as the foil may incline to moif- tureor drynefs*. In the drill method of putting in the crop, the land, after being prepared in the manner that has been directed above, is cither formed into ridges by the plough,, or the drills are ftuck in the level furface, as has been already noticed. The manner of performing the firft operation is by a furrow being firft drawn as ftraight as poflible down the field, and in returning another furrow from the other fide being laid up againft it, by keeping the orT-lide horfe in the firft made furrow; a fuitable proportion of land being given to the plough for forming a It is obferved, that by noting the average diftance of each turnip in the laft column, it is intended to mew at one view how many plants there were wanting in the drills to have made them a full crop ; for if 550 be dated as a medium number in., full crop upon the fortieth part of an acre, they will ba found to occupy afpace of 17 inches each way in broadcail, 10|- by 27 inches on the one-bout ridges, and of 13| by 21 inches in thofe drilled on the level furface ; whence it may bo eafily feen how rnuck thofe were wider in the nJws than they ought to have been. * Kent s Hints, p, lie. VOL. II. T M8 Cultivation of ArablcLand. Turnips* Methods of facing of. Drilling. lidge of proper height, fomewhat in this way A. The work is then to be continued in a fimilar method throughout the whole field, which when finally accompli ft ed will have the appearance of alternate ridge and furrow, fomewhat in this manner AAAAAAAA. A diftance, as has been obfervcd above, of from about twenty-feven to thirty inches is preferved between the ridglets, in order to admit of the plough pafiing between them in the after-culture of the crop, but which in lefs diftances cannot be the cafe. After the bufinefs has proceeded in this way, the manure is to be placed in the drills ; which is the moft conveniently effected by employing fmall carts, and having them to proceed along either every third or every fifth furrow, depofit- ing it in fmall heaps in them ; proper perfons with fmall three-pronged forks being ftationed fo as to follow and place it in an even and regular manner in the bottoms of the three or five furrows, or thofe in which the manure is drop ped from the carts and thofe on each fide of them. After this has been accom- pliflied, the fmall ridges before thrown up are fplit down, the earth from each covering the manure up in the middle, fo as to form new ridges in the -fame manner as before. The tops of thefe ridges are then to be flattened by fome means or other: the moft common is a fmall light roller, that pafTes along two of them at once. The turnip feed is then put in exactly in the middle of the flattened parts of the ridges, by means of a drill contrived for the purpofe, and which is frequently fattened to the flattening roller by a rope fix or feven feet in length, and directed behind by a perfon for the purpofe. The bufinefs, when -; s s s s finimed, appearing in this way " A/ ^ V ~ A/ ~ A/ ^@^ A ^ V ~ ; S rcprefenting the feed, 1> I) D D I) and D the manure immediately underneath it. Moft of the drill barrows are implements that may he attached to the ploughs in the fame manner. The Toilers and drills are moftly drawn -by a fingle horfe, driven by a boy ; but the perfor that regulates the latter may alfo direct the horfe, when it is properly trained and accuftomed to the work.* Sometimes, inftead of the roller, a kind of fled, made of wood or iron, is employed for flattening the furface of the one- bout ridges; but a light roller feems to be the neatert and moft convenient implement. The operations of forming the ridglets and inclofing the manure in them, arc generally, in the northern diftricts, performed by a common light fwing-plough ; but they may probably be accompliihed with greater expedition and regularity by a light double-mould-boarded plough. * Correded Agricultural Report of Northumberland* Cultivation ejf Arable Land Turnips. Methods of fowing of. Drilling. 1 39 For the purpofe of putting in the feed, drill machines of both the barrow and other kinds are employed ; but thofe that are attached to the plough or roller, and of courfe perform the different operations of ploughing and fowing at the fame time, are, perhaps, in general to be recommended. Great attention is, however, conftantly neceffary, to fee that the feed be regularly difperfed and de~ polited in the foil ; as, from the fmallncfs of the perforations in the revolving cylinders of moft of fuch machines, the feeds are liable to be obftructed, and the regularity of the fowing thereby prevented. But where the drills are formed upon the level furface without being raifed, which is the practice in fome diftricts, and efpecially when made at narrow diftances, as twelve or thirteen inches, the larger fort of drill machines, which fow a number of rows at a time, may be had recourfe to with advantage, as being more expeditious.* In whatever manner the turnip feed may be put into the ground, experience has (hewn it to be of much importance to have it depofited in the foil in fuch a way and under fuch circumftances, as that its germination and early growth may be as expeditious as poflible, as upon this the fuccefs of the crop in a great meafure probably depends, as has been already mown. It has been maintained by fome, that the feed, in order to fecure thefe effects in the mod certain manner, mould be placed in the foil to the depth of three or more inches : and they have contended, that the fuperiority of the drill method partly arifes from the feed being depofited to a greater depth, and growing more rapidly in confequence of having more moifture, fo as to become fooner out of danger from the fly or other infects ;-f while others, from the circumftances that have been noticed above, think that it mould be covered only in a light manner. J As it has been already fhewn that air is neceffary as well as moifture to the vegetation of feeds when placed in the ground, it would feem probable that the quick vegetation of fuch crops may be the moft effectually fecured by only putting them in to a middling depth, and according to the particular nature of the land and ftate of the feafon as from an inch and an half to two or more inches, as the foil or feafon may be inclined to be dry or the contrary. In this, way, the inconveniences arifing from the feed being too much exficcated by its expofure near the furface, and from the want of the action of the air on account of its too great depth, may be equally obviated. But as crops of this fort are * Se&ion on Implements. t Extcr, in Tranfaftions of Society of Arts, vol. XVI. p. 191 . J Corre&ed Report of th$ North Riding of Yorkfhire. Note. T2 140 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips.-- Methods offowing of. moftly put into the earth during the hotter months, there is another circum- fiance that may be of equal confluence in promoting the quick growth of the young plants; which is, that the feed, efpecially in dry hot feafons, be in a great meafure faturated with moifture, and of courfe with the oxygenous prin ciple of the air, before it is committed to the ground ; as by fuch means thefe will not require to be drawn from the furrounding mould, but the procefs of vegetation almoft immediately commence. Jn the culture of this root in the garden, by adopting fuch methods, we have not, even where the feed was fown in the hotted feafons, failed having good crops ; as the plants, from the quicknefs of their growth, are but little expofed to the attacks of the fly, it being chiefly fuch only as from their weak and imperfect growth become fweet and tender that are devoured by this destructive infect.* * It is obfervcd by the Rev. II. B. Stacey, in an ufeful pamphlet on the failure of turnip crops, that the fir ft procefs towards vegetation in this feed is its fwelling, by having imbibed a certain quantity of moifture : it is then able to exert its vital powers ; and, in order to fecure its future increafe, when the demand for nourifhment is in proportion to its growth, it fends forth its radicle or little root, which as it lengthens begins to branch out, being covered with very fine hairs refembling down ; which, by fowing a fingle feed clofe to the infide of a glafs veflel filled with moift earth, may be eafily obferved. And that when the radicle has proceeded about half an inch, it fends forth its germ, c^i.fifting of the ftem and feed-leaves, with the bud of the future plant in embryo, Thefe feed-leaves are fuppofed to contain proper nourifhment for the plant during the firft ftage of its growth ; the radicle being then too fmall and weak to furnifh food fufficiently delicate. That every injury, therefore, done to thefe leaves, either from being pun&ured by infects, or deprived of a fupply of moifture, muft affift in checking the growth of the plant. And further, after fufpefting heat and drynef.s to be the principal caufes, that where the feed is fown in fuch feafons there is fcarcely fufficient moifture to caufe it to fprout; and that uwlefs it be depofited to fuch a depth as that it may be fcreened from the a6tion of the fun, its vegetative powers may be deftroyed. But though a great part of it may imbibe fufficient moifture from the dews and dampnefs of the furround ing earth during the night feafon to render it capable of vegetating, its progrefs muft be retarded by the heat of the fucceeding days ; and by being thus alternately moiftened and dried, its vital princi ple be much impaired, if not entirely deftroyed. And even if, as is fometimes the cafe, the feed finds moifture fufficient to enable it to produce both its radicle and germ, and even to raife its feed-leaves above the furface of the ground, ftill the fame deftruftive effects may be ultimately produced ; the heat then exerting its influence on the external parts of the plant, by evaporating its moifture fafter than it is fupplied by the radicle, by which it either withers away, or is fo much injured that it never com pletely recovers itfelf ; and that there is no doubt but that many acres of turnips are annually fpoiled in this way. In proof of the above, though it is admitted that turnip crops may be materially injured by the ravages of infefts, the following experiments were made: In hot dry weather, in the year l?i)3, fome turnip feed was fown in (hallow drills, drawn by a hoe,, on a light poor foil; and notwithftanding the fly was accufed of having deftroyed many crops in Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Methods of fowing of. 14 i The general fuccefs of agricultors in raifing thefe crops, by putting the feed in immediately after the plough, while the foil is in a moift condition, not only proves the correctnefs of thefe principles, but (hews that great utility may be derived from fteeping the feed in fome watery liquid before it is committed to the ground whenever the feafon is hot, and the furface of the land in a very dry and parched Mate; as by fuch a practice good crops of turnips may fre quently be produced, where they would otherwife almoft wholly fail. The prefervation of the turnip crops in China have, indeed, lately been chiefly afcribed to this practice.* And in farther confirmation of the practice, it has been contended, that when the feed is fown in the time of rain, or when it quickly fucceeds the fowing, the plants grow fo rapidly as to receive no injury On the fame principle, as has been already noticed, it has alfo been maintained, that, by putting the feed in deeper than in the ordinary broadcaft method, as by depofiting it in drills, a more certain crop is produced, from the circumftance of the plants proceeding in their growth with greater rapidity. f As it has, how ever, been Jhewn that the atmofpheric air has much effect in promoting the quick vegetation of moft forts of feeds when put into the ground, care mould be taken 3 as has been fbewn above, not to place them at fuch a depth as that it may be prevented from affording its moft beneficial influence. After -Culture. On this part of turnip husbandry being performed in an ef fectual manner, and at fuch periods as are the moft fuitable for promoting the growth of the young turnip plants and preventing thofe of the weed kind from in juring them by the obftruction and (hade which they produce, much of the fuccefs the adjoining grounds, the feed came up and produced a good crop. And in 1794, the fame experi ment was repeated with fimilar fuccefs, although the fly was more general than in the former year. But in order to afcertain whether any advantage would be derived by fowing the feed deeper, under an idea that the germ would require more time to force its way to the furface, and the radicle at the fame time be increafing its power downwards, and confcquently be more capable of withftanding the fun s heat, thirty-two turnip feeds were fown at different depths, in glafs veffels filled with comirion garden mould, and plunged into the earth; on the fourth day after fowing they were examined, and Ihe refults were as follow : The feed fown at 4 in. depth, had mot forth a radicle, 3 in. long, germ 1 in. 3 ditto ditto 24 ditto ditto 4" ,. I on an avrage. 2 ditto ditto 2 ditto ditto | f 1 ditto ditto 1-f- ditto ditto -J J * Sir George Staunton s Etnbafiy to China, vol. Ml. p. 310, 8vo. edit.; and Oillet in Bath Papers,-, vol. II. r, in Tranfaftions of the Society, of Arts, vol. Xtl. ; and Stacey s Observations, p. 20. 142 Ctiitfoation of Arable Land. Turnips After-culture. Hoeing. of the crops muft in general depend ; as, without confidcrable attention in this idpeci, the labour and expence that have been employed in preparing the foil and putting in the crops muft in a great meafure be thrown auay, the produce being feld <m fufficient to repay the cultivator in an adequate manner. This culture is to be accomplifhcd by means of the hoe. Where the crop has been pu: to the ground in the broadcaft method, the hand-hoe only can be cm- pi* ved ; but where the feed is fown in rows by the drill, and a fufficient fpacc of interval allowed, thofe of the horfe kind can be made ufe of, either alone, or in addition after the plants have been properly thinned out in the hand method. Jt is ufual when the plants have produced four or five leaves, or when they Cover a circle of from three to four inches in diameter, which, in kindly feafons, will moftly happen in about a month or fix weeks from the time of fowing, to begin thefe operations. Jn the firft of which, fuch plants as (land too clofc muft be thinned out to a fu.table diftance, according to the circumftances of the feafon, th: nature of the foil, the period of fowing, and the ufe to which the crop is to be applied. When the feafon is hot and dry, the thinning in the firft hocings ftiould not be to too great a diftance; as by keeping the plants pretty clofe together the moifturcof the land may be better preferved, and the crop rendered more fecure : but in rich foils, when early fown, and when intended to be confumed by cattle at an early period, more thinning may at firft be advantageous. The moft ufual cuftom is to leave the plants in the fir ft hocings at the diftance of from fix to eight inches from each other ; and fome cultivators prefer a ftill greater diftance.* In the fecond hoeing, which fhould be performed in the courfe of about a fortnight or three weeks from the firff, according as there may be necefllty, the plants that are to remain for a crop may be left at the diftance of from ten to twelve or fourteen inches in the -broadcaft practice ; and at thofe of from nine to fifteen, or fometimes more, in the rows where the drill fyftem is employed. In the fecond hoeings, the mould between the plants ihould always be- well ftirred, in order that it may be perfectly aerated, and any weeds that may have rifen be effectually deftroyed. The future hoeings of crops of this kind muft be regulated by the particular circumftances of the cafes; but the mould mould never be allowed to become too compact about the roots of the plants, or weeds fufFered to interfere with the crops. Jn the county of Northumberland, where the turnip culture is performed in * Kent s Hints. Cultivation of Arabic, Land. Turnips After-culture Hoeing. 143 a very perfect manner, it is the general practice in the drilled crops, as they have fo much room laterally, to leave them at not more than eight or nine inches apart in the rows. In performing the operation, the labourers proceed fide- wavs, puling the furplus plants and weeds into the hollow intervals between the one-bout ridges, the plants being left perfectly regular in the rows. The work is accomplilhed with much cafe and facility by women or children. After this, when the turnip plants become perfectly eltabliflied again in the foil, which is moftly the cafe in about eight or ten days, the earth is taken from the rows where the turnip plants (land, by a light plough contrived for the pur- pofe, and turned upon the plants and weeds left by the hand-hoes in the inter vals of the ridges. And when they have recovered themfelves from this opera tion, and are become again in a vigorous condition, or when other circu en hances render it neceffary, the mould, which was in the former procefs turned from the turnip rows, is now divided and laid up equally to the different rows by the fame implement, or a fimilar one with a double mould-board. In this way, where the land is clean and free from weeds, the bufinefs is completed ; but when the contrary is the cafe, additional hoeings and ploughings muft be given according to the flate of the land.* With fome cultivators it is a practice to pafs a light harrow over the land once in a place, as foon as the plants are fufficiently ftrong, in order to render the firft hoeing more effectual; and even in particular cafes, where they pufh forward rapidly, it is made ufe of a fecond time in the contrary direction. f In- performing this bufinefs, great care is, however, necefTary, efpecially where the plants are thin upon the ground ; otherwife too many of them may be dragged up and deftroyed. It has been obferved, that, by having the feed put into the ground at different periods, great advantage may be obtained in the hoeing of the crops; it having been found that, by adopting fuch a practice, fix labourers are capable of ac- complifhing the work twice over one hundred acres or more, while in the con trary cafe a much larger number will be required. :{; It is obvious that the hand- method of hoeing turnip crops, which is the only method that can be employed where the broadcaft plan of fowing is purfued, is not only much more troublefome and expenfive, but more confined and lefs. beneficial in its effects than that by means of the horfe-hoe or plough. In the * Com&ed Agricultural Report of the County of Northumberland. t Corrected Agricultural Report of the County of Suffolk. Ibid, 144 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips dfier-culture Hoeing, former mode the expence of the two hand-hoeings arc generally from fix to right or nine {hillings the acre; while in the latter it rarely amounts to more than four or five, Befides, by the ufe of the herfe-hoe or plough in the inter vals, the crops are not only kept more clean, but a more continued and more abundant fupply of nourifhment provided for the growth of the plants, on account of the repeated full aeration of the mould that muft take place. In performing the turnip culture in this way, many different implements have been recommended by different cultivators ; but it would feem that the operation may be accomplimed with fufficient exactnefs by any fmall light plough. In many diftricts, the hoe- plough is employed in this bulinefs with fuccefs. The Northumberland farmers chiefly make ufe of a fmall light plough, about five inches in width at the bottom behind and eleven at the top, which is drawn by a fingle horfe, for the purpofe of ploughing the intervals between the rows, which is found to anfwer extremely well ; but Dr. Anderfon con tends that the work may be performed in the moft perfect manner by the com mon light fwing-plough. Jn earthing up the rows, the double-mould-boarded plough may, however, be probably more expeditious and convenient. Im proved double ploughs of this fort have been contrived for the purpofe of clean ing turnip crops, and are fa id to be employed with confiderable fuccefs and ad vantage; as by their capability of being readily fet to different diftances, fo as to fuit the different widths of the rows, they not only perform the bulinefs of removing or paring off the earth from both fides of the rows at the fame time, but by neing brought clofe together effect the operation of earthing up the plants. In conducting the procefs with this implement, there is obvioufly not only an advantage in double the quantity of work being performed, but the opera tions are accomplimed with more correctnefs, both in refpect to the ftirring of the earth in the intervals of the drills and the application of the mould to the Hems of the young plants.* Others, however, contend that thefe advantages may be equally attained by performing the bufinefs in a particular method by means of a fingle-mould- hoarded paring- plough, drawn by one horfe, while the danger and inconve nience of being obftructed by ftones or other matters is lelTened or wholly re moved. This is that of paring only one fide of the ridge at a time, leaving the other to be performed fome days afterwards. After the turnip plants have been properly fet out, the work is faid to be begun and conducted in this manner ; * Farmers Magazine, vol.1, p. 413. Cultivation of Arabic Land. Tuhilpi Aftef-tutiurt lioeing. 145 the ridges of the field lying in the direction of eaft and weft, the opefation is be gun from the caft end of them and the north fide of the field ; the ploughman counting off to his right hand, on that fide, a certain number of ridges, as fof inftance iix, enters upon the feventh, and, proceeding wed, pares a furrow-flice from the north fide of it, and turning to the left, in returning does the fame to the fouth tide of it.* Continuing in this way to go weft, the fame operation is per- formed on the north fides of each of the fix ridges that lie to the north of that from which he fet out ; and in returning eaft, on the fouth fides of the fame number of ridges which lie to the fouth of it. After having completed in this manner one pitch of work, confiding of thirteen ridges, he is to begin again in a fimilar man ner, and proceed in the fame way till the whole of the field is gone over. After the weeds turned in by this firft operation are fuppofed to be perfectly decayed, the fame work is performed in the contrary direction on the other fides of the ridges, or thofeleft in theother operation, over the whole field. -j- This method of hoeing or cleaning turnip crops, which appears to have been practifed with much fuccefs on. a light fandy foil, free from ftones, by Mr. James M Dougal, a farmer at Linton in Scotland, is, it is obferved, carried on as long as the flems of the turnip plants will admit the plough to pafs. In this mode the plants are never earthed or fet up, it being the opinion of the above cultivator that they thrive better without that operation. And, befides that, in feeding them off with fheep, they get bet ter at them, and have a more eafy footing, as well as more comfortable lying. In accomplifhing thefe operations, it is obferved that great care is neceflary to keep the plough as near as poflible to the plants on the ridges, as by that means dif ferent advantages are attained, fuch as the greateft poffible proportion of weeds being removed from the plants ftanding on the pared ridges ; the l.irgenefsof the furrow flices thus raifed being fufficient to cover up all the weeds that grow in the intervals, between the drills of turnips on the pared ridges and thofe upon which the furrow flices are turned. Befides, the moifture may be better prefcrved in droughty feafons for the growth of the crop, and the foil more perfectly aerated, in confequence of being more frequently ftirred. It is obvious alfo, from one fide of the ridge only being pared at a time, and the other left firm and unpared, that the plough may be capable of being brought nearer to the turnips without the rifK. of loofening them too much, or turning over the earth on which they fland, than could be the cafe if both fides were pared at the fame operation. ;[- * This ridge is fometimes provincial!) denominated thefain ng ridge. t Farmer s Magazine, vol. II. p. 50. J Farmer s Magazine, vol. II. p. 5. VOL. II. V 146 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips After-culture Hotings. In Bcrvvickfhire they have a I8rt of hoe plough which effectually cleans the in tervals of drilled turnips, by going up one interval and down another, being drawn by one horfe. It is an extremely light convenient tool. In whatever way the operation may be performed, or whatever plough or hoe may be madeufe of, it muft be of the greateft advantage to have the mould well loofened near to the plants, efpecially on the heavier defcriptions of turnip foils ; and in thefe, as well as thofe of the more light kinds, the turnip plants mould never be fuffered to be annoyed or incumbered by any fort of weeds growing near them. Turnip crops are expofed to danger from different caufes during the early ftagesr of the growth of the plants ; but the chief are the attacks of the fly,* the flug, and the black caterpillar. The firft chiefly prey upon the tender ficcharine feed-leaves of the young plants, and its prefenceis rendered fufficiently evident by its leaving many little brown fpots on them, and by eating away their ilcfhy green parts down to the fibres. They are faid to increafe both in number and fize until the plants are confumed. The ravages of the flug may be eafily traced, by obferving the edges of the leaves ; as it is upon them it firft begins to feed, gradually pro ceeding from one part to another till each of them is more or lefs confumed, and the whole of the plants in many cafes deftroyed. It has been well remarked,, that a field of young turnips, when attacked in this way, exhibits fome of the leaves as having loft a quarter, others one-half, fome three- fourths, and others the whole, the ftems only remaining,^ and in fome inftances thefe are alfo attacked. The depredations of the black caterpillar principally take place after the crops are in a more advanced ftate of growth, and the plants have formed confiderable tops, and are in what is ufually termed rough leaf: the green parts of the leaves being eaten through and deftroyed, and of courfe the growth of the plants pre vented. Various means of preventing the young turnip plants from being deftroyed by animals of thefe kinds have been fuggefted at different times ; but hitherto probably without any of them being effectual. It would feem, however,, from what has been already advanced, that their fafety and prefervation depends much both on the land being fo enriched by manure, and in fuch a condition in refpecl: * This highly mifchievous infect, according to Linnaeus, belongs to the Genus Coleoptcra, and is defcribed under the titles of Crysomela oleracea and Crysomela, nemorum ; the former being of a dark- blue colour tinged with green, and the latter black ftriped with yellow on the different fliells, and fomething larger than the other. J Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex, p. 210. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Dtfcafcs of Fly. 147 to moifture, as that the germination of the feed and aftergrowth of the plants may be fuch as to render them quickly in the Hate of rough leaf. This, as h^s been feen, may likewife be further promoted, efpecially in hot and dry feafons, by fleeping the feed in fome watery or other liquid before depofiting it in the foil. In thefe as well as other views it has been recommended to make ufe of new feed and fuch as is one year old together, as in this way the crops, by coming up at different times, may be lefs in danger of being wholly deflroyed j or what is pro bably a better practice, to fteep one-half the feed, after being thus mixed, in water for twenty -four hours, and then blend the other half with it, fowing the whole in the ufual manner. In this management the plants, by rifing at many different periods, may have a greater chance of efcaping in fufficient quantity for the purpofe of a crop.* This method is indeed particularly inforced by the obfervation, that the infects frequently make their attacks fuddenly in large numbers, deftroying the plants as fad as they rife, and as fuddenly difappear, leaving fuch as come up a few days afterwards untouched. The fuccefs that has attended the fleeping of turnip feed in the juices of different kinds of vegetables, and alfo in train-oil, lin- feed oil, or other oleaceous liquids, as has been advifcd by different cultivators, feems to depend on the fame principle, and affords an additional proof of the ad vantages that may be derived in this way.f Where fuch oily fubflances are em ployed, it is ufual to let the feed remain in them twenty-four hours or more; and after it has been taken out, to drain them well from it by means of a fine fieve, linen bag, or other contrivance ; then mix with it finely fifted earth or fand, depo fiting it in the foil as quickly afterwards as poflible. In this method the fame oil may ferve different times. On thefuppofition that fome other forts of plants are more agreeable, and con- fequently more fubjecttobe fed upon by this devouring infect than the turnip, the practice of fowing other forts of feed with that of the turnip has been lately revived and recommended. J In this intention it has been advifed to mix and fow radifh feed with that of the turnip, in the proportion of about two pounds to the acre. It is evident, however, that this plan mud be extremely uncertain, as it cannot be fuccefsful except where the two kinds of plants rife exactly at the fame time, which from the great difference in the vegetative powers of the two feeds, * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. r Annals of Agriculture, vol. VI. pp. 9^> 156, and vol. IX. p. 389; and Tranfa&ions of tke So ciety of Art*, vol. V. p. 38. + Tranfactions of the Society of Arts, c. and Commercial and Agricultural Magazine, vol. VII. U 2 148 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Bife&fes of Fly Remedies for. will probably feldom be the cafe. If any advantage is to be gained in this way, it muft be by employing a plant which is preferred to that of the turnip, and the feed of which is fomewhat quicker in its germination and growth ; as where this is. not the cafe, the turnips may frequently be deftroycd before the other plants be in a ftate to be fed upon.* It has been fuggefted that the ruta baga> or Swedifh turnip, may be a more ufeful fubftitute in this view than the radifh ; as by its being ftceped and the turnip feed fown dry, the plants would rife well together, and thc^fly is well known to be fo eager in feeding upon it, that it is with difficul ty the cultivator can prefcrve a fufficient plant. In this cafe it is hinted as a fur ther advantage, that when both forts of plants remain without fuftaining any ma terial injury, the farmer may have the option of cutting out either of them, as he ,nay End themoft convenient and bcneficiaLf * Commercial and Agricultural Magaxine, vol. VII. p. $0. + It is iloubrful whether the radifh plants are always preferred by this in ft (ft or not; as we have 4>ffen remarked in the garden, that where turnip and radifh crops were cultivated adjoining each other {he leaves ot the former were equally devou-red with thofe of the latter. Mr. Marftvall, in the fecouti -volume of the Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, after remarking that the infecl; is no* a jlii, but a beetle of the latter of the kinds dei cribed above, gives, the following very accurate description *>f it: The whole length of the body and head is, fays be, from one-twelfth to one-tenth of an inch, and its width or breadth about half its length. The antennae confift of two points, and are about two- thirds of the length of the body. The wing-cafes are concave, and join by two ftraight edges,, hav ing the colour of- daik chocolate, with a ftripe of yellow white along the middle; occupying about one-third of the ftirface, which is dimpled, polifhed, and fbeil-lrke, both fides the fame, the texture being brittle as egg-fhelL The wings are folded back under the cafes, being membranous and nearly twice their length, having two or thr.ee ftrong nerves Funning, about half their length. Their colour a light brown or that of lione, but that of the nerves a dark brown. The legs fix and black, the two fcind outs clubbed upwards. The head and breaft black and polifhed. The abdomen the fame, hav-^ ing four articulations. In taking- t-his infeftfor the purpofe of examination, the author difcovered that he had bruifed a Dumber of fot t infects oa the under-iides of the feedling leaves, which led him to examine them more tart&illy, and to find thattbey were paved over with minute animals of the appis kind, having different colours, as yellow, green, b!-ack> and two or three long-winged flies. On Itill more minutely examining them ? Jie found that, both the animalcules and the flies were individuals of the fame infcft in different ftatcs. He gives the following defcription of the flies : The body and head are black, fhort, nearly egg_- fhaped, and about one-twentieth of an inch long, being fomewhat larger than a grain of milliard feed. The wings four ; two wry long, Handing > high above the tail, more than twice the length of the body; two very fhort, aot fo long as the body ; but both pairs tranfparent, and ftrengthened by a few opake fkaight nerves. The shmie coppery and elegant. The antennae long, flender, and taper- iyg, f but .the joints indiftinft, the former about three fourths of that ol the body. The colour black. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips D if cafes of Remedies for. }4<> Remedies of this nature are probably, however, much lefs to be depended upon than thofe that have been mentioned above. As the effects of the flug, which is an animal of the white fnail kind, on turnip crops, are often equally, if not more, deftructive than thofe of the fly, from its at tacking them at a later period, and confuming not only the leaves, but the more iblid parts of the plants, it is necefTary for the cultivator to guard againft them alfo as much as poffible. In this intention various means have been propofed, but probably without any of them being completely fuccefsful : from its having been remarked, that thefe flugs chiefly quittcrreftrial habitations during the night-time, or early in the morning before the fun rifes, when the furface of the foil is moift from the dews, it has been advifed, by the older as well as the more modern writers on agriculture, to have recourfe to rolling in the night with a roller of confiderable weight, in order to crufh and deftroy them before the light or heat of the day induces them to retire into the foil.* The fecond of thefe writers feems indeed to believe that the practice may be ufeful againft the fly, where thefe infects exiftin great numbers, and the operation is performed while the furface is wet, by licking them up with the clammy earth, and in that way wholly removing them. It may alfo be beneficial againft fuch infects, by confining the moifture more effectually in the foil, or preventing the germs of the young turnip plants from appearing before their roots are fully eftablifhed in the earth. The difperfing of different fubftances, fuch as vegetable afhes, lime, and foot, in the ftate of fine powder, over the turnip crops by the hand, may likewife be occafionally employed with advantage both againft the fly and flug, in the pro portion of about ten or fifteen bufhels of the firft, and twenty of the others : the former by the powers which they poffefs of deftroying fuch animals, their attract- The legs fix, but of a lighter colour than the body. The probofcis large, long, cylindric, and jointed, and ending in a point, which the infed in either ftate infens into the leaf. When the animal couches a feed, this appears to iffue from the abdomen, but on being raifed upon the legs, it evidently pafies to the fnout. In walking it is carried under the belly, lying clofc to the thorax, and reaching about halt the length of (he body. The abdomen nearly globular, flatted at the apex, with a minute black club ftanding out on either fide, as in the fly and loufe. From thefe infects having been obferved to be extremely numerous, on the feedling leaves of turnip, plants, not eating, but, as it were, sucking their juice or fap through long probofces, that fcrve to attach them to the leaves in the manner of leeches, the intelligent author is led to conclude that they may be the caufe of the very flow progrefs that is fometimes made by the young turnip plants to pufli into rough leaf. * Ellis s Agriculture Improved, vol. II. ; Reynolds in TranCaclions of the Society of Art? : Mills s Practical Treatife on HufbaBdry; and Vagg s Letter. 150 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Difeafes of Remedies for. ing humidity from the atmofphere, and their furni flung more abundant fupplies of nourifhment to the young plants ; the laft by its rendering the young plants nau- feous and unfit to be fed upon, as well as the promoting of the more rapid growth of the plants. The fprinkling of water in which tobacco-leaves have been infufed over the plants, from the tail of a cart, has alfo been fuggefted as ufeful on the fame principle as foot againft the flug ;* or, what is probably better, efpecially where the crop is not extenfive, as being found highly fuccefsful in garden prac tice, the mixing of the tobacco-water with foap-fuds and urine. The ufe of this compofition is faid not only to bring them up from their holes and habitations, by which they quickly die, but to deftroy the ova depofited in the foil.j- There are ftill other methods recommended for the purpofe of preventing the depredations of this animal, one of which feems equally cheap, convenient, and effectual ; which is, that 0f fowing barley chaff over the whole of the crop imme diately on its firft appearance, as by this means the flugs become directly entangled and deftroyed. In the way of a palliative, it has likewife been fometimes a prac tice to turn a flock of fheep upon the turnip lands, keeping them conftantly in motion by means of a dog and perfon to attend them.J In this mode the flugs are fhaken from the young plants, and deftroyed by being trodden into the ground. Againft the ravages of the black caterpillar, which, as has been obferved, take place in the more advanced growth of the turnip plant, the ufe of the tobacco infufion or mixture juft mentioned may frequently be ferviceable, and even the application of the barley chaff over the crop on the caterpillars firft fhewing themfelves, taking care at the fame time to pafs a light bum-harrow over it in order to difplace the animals from the plants to the ground. It has alfo been hinted, that the fly, from which this fort of caterpillar is produced, might be prevented from fixing upon the plants, by caufing any thick offenfive fmoke to pafs over the field, provided the period of its coming could be exactly known, and the ftate of the wind be at the fame time favourable. From the great uncertainty of thefe circumftances, the practice can probably feldom be had recourfe to with fuccefs. Indeed, though an able and intelligent writer has prefcnted us with much valuable information concerning this deftructive caterpiU * Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex, p. 210. + Forfyth on Fruit Trees, 8vo. edition, p. 3Q5. J Corroded Agricultural Report of Middlefex, p. 210. Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Difcafes of Remedies for. 151 lar,* we are probably frill too imperfectly acquainted with its natural hhtrry, economy, and habits of life, to direct the moft fpeedy and effectual method of deftroying it. Befides the difeafes arifing from thefe caufes, and which affect the leaves of the plants, the turnip is fubject to difeafe in its root. This is a large excrefcence forming itfelf below the apple or bulb, which, after becoming in a ftate of matu rity, takes on the putrid fermentation, and fends forth a moft offcnfive fmeli. It has obtained the title of anbury* In feveral fpecimens examined by Mr. Marfhall, the apples of the turnips were found juft forming, as about the fiz of walnuts in. the fhell, while the anburies were as large as the egg of a goofe, being awkward and irregular in their form, with inferior excrefcences, fomewhat refembling races of ginger, depending from them. On being cut, their general afpect was that of a hard turnip ; but on being examined with more minutenefs by means of a mag nifier, veins or ftring-like vefTels were obferved difperfed through the pulp : the fmell and tafte being in fome refpect fimilar to that of the common turnip, but without its mildnefs, having an auftere difagreeable flavour, approaching to that of an old ftringy turnip. The tops in fuch as were much affected, turned yel low and flagged by the heat of the fun, being eafily diftinguifhable in the day time from the healthy plants. This difeafe has often been afcribed by farmers to the land being too long continued under this fort of crop; but the experience of the author ftrongly oppofes it, as he found the difeafe in turnips taken from land that had probably never borne that fort of crop before. The caufe has, perhaps, not yet been fully inveftigated ; but Mr. Marlhall feems to fufpect it to proceed from the wound or puncture of fome fort of grub in the veffels of the tap-root, by which the courfe of the fap is diverted, and inftead of the natural apple or bulb being formed, this excrefcence takes place. This is further confirmed by the circumftance of the difeafe being much connected with the drynefs of the feafon. The only remedy that can be of much utility in cafes of this kind, is probably that of removing the difeafed plants as foon as poffible, and flirring the earth about thofe that remain, in order to fupply them more abundantly with nourifhment*. But in order to wholly avoid the difeafe in thofe diftricts where it is apt to occur, turnips (hould only be fown on fuch lands as have been fully prepared and well en riched by manure. On light thin foils, in dry feafons, the mildew is alfo a difeafe that is fometimes apt to affect turnip crops, and do great injury to the young plants by reftricting Marfliall s Rural Economy of Norfolk, vol. II. 152 Cultivation of Arable Land, Tuniips Di/qafes of Remedies for* their growth. The only remedy in this cafe is probably that of properly thinning the plants,and ftirring the earth well about their roots occafionally, by means of the hoe, in order to provide them more fully with nouriihment. Where it occurs in lands of a more retentive quality, advantage may likevvife, perhaps, be obtained, by rendering them drier by deepening the ridge furrows, or fome other fimilar me thod. It occafionally happens that turnip plants, infiead of fwelling and forming bulbs, fend off numerous ftringy roots, which foon decay and come to no account.* It- occurs mod generally where the crop is fown on frefli land, and no remedy is faid yet to have been difcovered to prevent it.f More perfect tillage and the ufe of fuch manures as have a tendency to render fuch lands more mellow and friable, may perhaps be beneficial. Jt is frequently a practice in many places \vhere turnip crops have been eaten off by the fly, ordeftroyed in any of the ways that have been mentioned, to fovv the fame land over again, and harrow the feed in, without having recourfe to the plough : this, however, is a method that mould feldom or ever be adopted, as in fuch a mode of proceeding there muft constantly be great danger of the plants of the fecond fowing being deftroyed in a fimilar manner. It is perhaps always a better practice either to give the land a fcuffling or a mallow ploughing, by means of a light plough, before fuch fecond fowing is performed, or to leave it entire ly for a crop of wheat, j The feafons moft fuitable for turnip crops are thofe in which the weather is warm, with frequent fhowers, but little continued rain. In the autumn and winter pe riods, when frequent changes from frofts to thaws and rain take place, turnips commonly experience great injury, being rendered extremely fubject to decay, and become rotten ; and even fuch as withftand fuch feafons feldom afford a due proportion of nourimment to the ftock that may be fed upon them. Rooks, if not prevented, often do confiderable mifchief to turnip crops in the winter time, by picking holes in the bulbs, admitting the wet, and thereby caufing them to decay . The produce of turnip crops varies greatly according to the feafon, the nature of the foil, and the method of cultivation that is practifed : but a medium crop, where the foil is good and fuitable for the purpofe, may afford fifteen tons, or * This ftate of the turnip plant is often provincially diflinguifhed by the iurmsjingers and toes ) Corrected Agricultural Report of JLiucolnfliire, p. 136". J Synopfis of Husbandry, p. 146. Ibid, p. 148, Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Seeding of. i .53 ibmething more, on the acre ; in many inflances it will, however, bemuchlefs. The value of thefe crops will depend upon various circumftances : as their quality and abundance; the manner in which they are confumed, as on the land or in cribs or ilalls ; in fattening or rearing different forts of live flock ; and the flate of the markets in refpect to the fale of fuch flock. In general it may be from about three to fix or feven pounds the acre. It is found by experience that an acre of good turnips will be fufficient to fatten a bead of about forty llo le, or eight fheep.* In feeding offin the open field, they are fou :d to pay from two {hillings and fix pence to four millings and fix pence the ton, a crop of tweity tons producing in beef or mutton from fifty fh llings to four pounds re;i (hillings,, befides the dung and urine, which may be equal to fifty millings more. Wnen confumed by cattle in flails, they are dated, however, to afford one milling a ton more than when eaten by them in the fieldf In cultivating turnips for feed fome attention is neceflary, as, where it is col lected from fuch turnips as have been fown three or four years in fucceflion, the roots are apt to be numerous and long, and the necks or parts between the bulbs and leaves coarfe and thick : and when taken from fuch as have been tranfpl anted every year, thefe parts are liable to become too fine, and the tap-roots to be dimi- nifhed in too great a proportion. ; The moil certain method is to procure feed from turnips that are tranfplanted one year and fown the next ; or, if they be tranfplanted once in three years, it is fuppofed by fome that the flock may be p refer ved in a proper flate. The method of performing this bufinefs is tofelect fuch turnips as are of the befl kinds and of the mofl perfect forms, from the field crops, and, after cutting their tops off, to tranfplant them, about the month of November or December, into a piece of ground that has been put into a fine flate of preparation by repeated ploughing or digging over, and which mould be fituated as near the houfe as poflible, in order that the birds may be better kept from it. The feed will, in general, be ready for gathering in the July or Auguft following.}} Some, however, recommend that the feed collected from a few turnips thus tranfplanted, fhould be preferred and fown in dnlls, in order to raife plants for feed for the general crop, drawing out all fuch as are weak and improper, leaving * DonaHfo-. s Modern Agriculture* vol. II. p. 318. f Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex, p. 208. J Kent s Hints. Ibid, and Experienced Farmer, vol. I, p ;&, (I Corre&ed Agricultural Report of Northumberland. VOL. II. X 154 Cultivation -of Arabic Land. Turnips Seeding -of. only thofe that arc ftrong and which take the lead ; and that when thcfe have ap- pled or formed bulbs, to again take out fuch as do not appear good and perfect, as by this means turnip feed may be procured, not only of a more vigorous nature, but which is capable of vegetating with lefs moifture, and which produces flronger and more hardy plants. The practice of tranfplanting the whole of the turnips for feed for the main crops being contended to be not only highly expenfive but injurious, by diminifliing the ftrength of the plants from the deftruction of their tap-roots.* Good feed may, however, be raifed in either of the methods. When the feed is become fully ripened, which is moftly about the times juft mentioned, it is in fome diftrids reaped by cutting part of the ftems, and after wards tying them up into fheaves, which, when fufficiently dry, are built into long (lacks, and kept through the winter, in order to be threfhed out about the periods when it is wanted, as in April or May. f But as in this way much feed is liable to be loft, by its readinefs to cfcape from the pods or (heaths in which it is contained, it is perhaps a much better practice to have it immediately thrafhed out either upoii a cloth on the fpot where it grew, or in fome convenient place at home. It Ihould then be put into proper bags or veffels, and placed in a perfectly dry (ituation. As crops of this fort are fubject to much injury and lofs in various ways, the quantity of produce muft be variable ; but it may in general be eftimated at not lefs than from twenty to twenty-four bufhels the ftatute acre. The price of turnip feed being feldom lefs than feven or eight (hillings the bufhel on account of the great demand fork, this fort of culture may at firft fight appear highly advantage ous ; but if the exhaufting nature of the crop, the lofs fuftained in that of a grain one, and the quantity of manure that muft afterwards be applied, be confidered, it is probably only in particular (ituations of foil and climate that turnip feed can be grown to much advantage. In the application of turnips to the purpofes of feeding and fattening dif ferent forts of live (lock, there is much variety in the practices of different dif- tricts; but the mod economical and advantageous modes of confuming this highly ufeful root under different circumftances of foil, climate, (ituation, and animals, have probably not yet been fufficiently inveftigated or afcertained by cultivators. Though few experiments appear to have been inftituted with a view of de- * Experienced Farmer, vol. I. p. 56. i Correfted Agricultural Report of Northumberland* Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Application of Crdps of. 155 fermining the particular ftate in which thefe roots afford the greateft propor tion of nourishment to the animals that feed upon them ? it would feem, from their containing a much larger proportion of nutritious faccharine juicy matter while in their frem or green ftate before being taken from the ground, than when taken from the land and preferved by being packed up in fheds or other places,* to be a more economical and beneficial practice, efpecially where the nature and fituation of the ground and the ftate of the feafon will admit of it, as on the dry foils in moft of the fouthern diftricts, to confame them under the former than the latter crrcumftances ; but in the more cold expofed fituations-,. as in many diftricts in the northern parts of the kingdom, and wherever the lands are much inclined to rnoifture, as the roots may be greatly injured by the frofts> and the animals receive much injury from the coldnefs of fuch places, while feeding on them, as well as the lands be much damaged by their treading, it may be better to eat them under the latter. There are like wife other fitua- tions in which it may be particularly neceffary, as well as advantageous, to make ufe of turnips after being drawn and removed from the land to places of fecurity ; as thofe where it is difficult or inconvenient to raife other forts of green cattle food for winter and fpring ufe. But wherever crops of this kind are taken from the ground to be confumed by animals in other places, as from their large growth and luxuriant nature they muft tend greatly to exhauft and draw away its fertility,-)- it will constantly be neceflary to return an equivalent in manure, otherwife the injury fuftained in this way may more than equal the advantages of the turnip crops. The tap-roots of the turnips fhould, like- wife, be broken off and left on the land, that neither foil nor manure may be carried away by adhering to them.J Where the lands are fufficiently dry, in a high ftate of fertility, and con ducted under a judicious fyftem of hufbandry, it may often, however, be an advantageous and economical practice to have a partial recourfe to both the methods j by having one part of the crop drawn and removed to be eaten in fome convenient fituation off the land, according to the particular circum- ftances of the cafe, and the other confumed in the field where they grow : as by fuch means a much larger quantity of ground may be benefited and improved,, without injury being done to the crops that may be afterwards cultivated on * This is evident from their lofing their firmnefs, and becoming foft, wrinkled, and flabby, andi 4imini(hing considerably in weight. t Corrected Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire, p. 148. $ Corrected Agricultural Report of Mid dlefex. X 2 1,,(7 Cultivation of Arable Land. --Turnips- Application of Crops of. the land.* This method of rendering arable grounds proper for the growth of turnip crops feems to have been too much neglected, confidering the great ad vantage* that may be derived from it in the feeding and rearing of live ftock, ;as well as in the amelioration of the land.t The nature of the animals by which turnip crops are confumed muft obvioufly introduce differences in the manner of their application. When they are em ployed in the rearing or fattening of neat cattle, they are generally pulled up .and eaten either after being conveyed to fome convenient dry piece of ground in the ftate of grafs or ftubble, or fome place of fecurity contiguous to the llraw-yards or feeding-houfes ; in the latter methods, the turnips being given to the animals in bins or cribs, or placed before them in flails conftructed for the purpofe, in which the cattle are tied up. The laft is probably the better .practice, though not fo frequently employed ; as there is the leaft poflible wafte, ,at the fame time that the dung and urine of the animals are the moft effectually preferved. In the firft method the fat ftock are firft admitted, the lean follow ing to eat up what may remain; they are often conftantly confined upon the turnips, except when prevented by the feverityof the feafon, in which cafe the ftraw-yard is generally made the place of their confumption. The lands to which alfo turnips are removed in this way of feeding, are, in fome diftricts, thofe in tended to be ploughed up the enfuing year for wheat or other forts of grain, con- fequently each field, in its turn, has the advantage of having fuch crops confumed upon it, which is found more beneficial than feeding them on the land where they grow.j The turnips in thefe cafes mould not be fcattered over the ground in too thick a manner : as, where that is the practice, much lofs muft be fuf- tained by their being crufhed and bruifed by the feet of the animals. All thefe different practices are met with in the county of Norfolk, where great numbers of different breeds of cattle are annually fattened upon turnips. , V * Kent s Hints, p. Il6. f Ibid. It is obferved by the fame writer, that \vhere the crops are good " twenty acres will at leaft fatten fifteen bullocks and fupport ten followers, or ftore cattle, for twenty-five weeks; or flieep in the proportion of eight to one bullock ;" befides the advantages in preparing the land for other fuc- ceeding crops, which he confiders as far greater than the other " in point of real profit." For he thinks it is evident, that moft of the eftates in the county of Norfolk have been improved in the proportion of at leaft forty per cent, folely by marling and adopting this mode of raifing turnips; as many thoufaud acres now produce fine crops of gain and turnips, and fupport a prodigious number of ftieep and other forts of ftock, which were formerly covered with various kinds of coarfe plants and unpro ductive. J Corre&ed Agricultural Report of Northumberland. UMVER$ n Y - c> ; *sSSi./f.-nafti\ Fig. P. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Application of Crops of. 157 In mott of the turnip dittridls in the northern parts of the ifland, when con verted to the purpofe of rearing young (lock, they are generally confumed in the draw-yards, when the farmers have the advantage of fuch conveniences; but in other cafes, in the fame manner as above. Near large towns, where milk is a principal object, turnips may lilcewife often be applied in the way of a rich fucculent food for milch cows,but in this mode of ufmg them great care mould be taken that all the putrid and decayed leaves or other parts of the turnips be removed, otherwife the milk may be liable to derive an unpleafant flavour from them.* The offal produced by thefe means may be made ufe of for the dry llock, and of courfe little or no lofs be futtained. Turnips have alfo been found to be capable of being applied in the feeding of labouring horfes with much fuccefs ; as by their ufe the ufual quantity of corn may be lefTencd in the proportion of nearly one-half, and the animals not only- improve in condition, but perform their bufmefs with greater eafe and be lefs fub- je<5l to complaints of the bowels than when fed in the ordinary way.-)- Where em ployed in large proportions in this mode of application, as they are extremely Succulent, it may be advantageous to have them prepared by means of fire, as by fteaming, but in other cafes, where they are ufed in only a fmall quantity, they may be given raw, after being diced or cut into fmall pieces by a machine con, ftructed for the purpofe, a proper proportion of dry food being given at the fame time. In the annexed plate, at Fig. i. is reprefehted an improved Turnip Sliccr t itu vented by Mr. Martin of Clifton, Nottinghamftiire. A. Fig. 2. Plan of the trough, mowing the iron plate, &c. to receive the cut ting-knives, with the conductors, a a, made of plate iron fattened with bolts, nut, and fcrew, b b. B. Fig. 3. A fection of the machine, mowing the cutting-knives, &c. a a, edge ways, which are fuppofed to be drawn down : b, the fpring with brafs wheels at the end : c is for the purpofe of railing the knives with more eafe, and is kept in its place by two fmall pieces of iron plate fattened ro the bottom of the knife-frame, fo as to allow for the different lengths of the fpring according to its fituation : d t an iron rod hooked into a fwivel in the knife-frame, and extending to the treadle e. N. B. The treadle may only be ufed occasionally, when the handle * Correfted Agricultural Repoft of the County of Perth, p. 184. It is obfcrved in the fame work that where fuch a tafte prevails, it may be completely removed by making ufo of a, very weak fol tion of nitre in water. t Farmer s Magazme, vol. II. p. 24. 158 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Application of Crops of. is not found fufHcient : fff, iron braces for Readying the legs and fupporting the fpout g. C. Fig. 4. Shows the frame through which the knives with their frame Hide,, grooves being made in the fides, a a, to receive the fame. The circular part at top, marked c t is bent back (as may be feen) in the fection B, to make room for the nut and fere w which fallen the handle to the knife- frame. This frame is faf- tened to the bottom, dd t by cheeks, as may be feen in the plan A. In the fectiorv of the bottom d d, are (hewn the holes through which the fmall knives pafs. D. Fig. 5. The cutting knives and frame: a t the great knife which, when in action, finks into the long groove up to the fhouldcrs, bb\ cc c t the fmall knives- which are fixed at right angles, with the large one, the tops of which are ri- vetted into the large knife ; the lower ends of the fame are kept at equal dif- tances, by being let through a fmall bar, and fattened with a nut, a worm being made at the end of the knives. The frame which carries thefe knives is fattened only to the great knife, b b: d, a hole in the frame to fatten the handle to. The fides, f e> have a worm at the bottom, by which the bar /is faftened to the fame with nuts : g the fwivel for the treadle bar : b b the guides for the brafs wheels to the fpring. It will appear that the great knife being faftened to the frame, the fmall knives will neceffarily project before the fame. E. Fig. 6. The handle and guide to the fame : at a the handle is fixed with a fcrcw-bolt and nut to the knife-frame, fo as to move eafily : b, a brafs wheel fixed in an iron ftrap fcrewed to the machine, fo contrived that the end of the handle will pafs through an opening below the wheel, the ufc of which is to act as a reft to the extremity of the handle, and to prevent friction, its fituation varying confi- derably with the motion of the knife-frame. F. Fig. 7. Plan of the iron fpring which raifes the knives, made two inches wide at one end and about one at the other, and a quarter of an inch thick, faftened at the end with a nut and afcrewto the bottom of the trough with a ftrap near the end. G. Fig. 8. Plan of the fpout. The turnips, when fmall, are put to the knives by a piece of board, the length of the knives, about four inches broad, with a handle at the back. Great turnips may be put to the knives, without this inftrument, but in fmall ones there is danger of cutting the fingers. The machine will cut turnips into pieces *. inch by .3. fquare ; and, of courfe, (if the turnip be large enough) 4*. long. 7v>. 9, Reprefents a Turnip Slicer upon a different principle : The turnips in Cultivation of Arable Land. lurnips "Application of Crops of* )59 this machine are cut by means of a knife fixed on the fly whcef a, being brought to it through the inclined trough or box b. In the con fuming of turnips by fheep, which, where the mod valuable breed* are introduced, is the mod extenfive application of fuch crops, the moil general practice, where the lands are light and fufficiently dry, is that of confining them upon a fuitable proportion of the crop, by means of nets or hurdles, removing them to frefli portions or breaks every eight or ten days, or oftener, according to -circumftances ; but if the grounds be of the more heavy kind and fomewhat reten tive of moifture, it is a better and more economical method to have the turnips conveyed off the land to fome neighbouring field, as has been already noticed, as by this mode there is not only lefs injury and wade, by the treading of the turnips into the ground, but the fheep get a more regular fupply of frefh food, and the fhells, by being left clean, are more completely eaten up by the (lore cattle that are to follow.* In performing of this bufinefs the drills mould be fo contrived that the wheels and horfes may pafs in the furrows, and by that means prevent poaching. Where the cuftom of eating on the ground is employed, it is alfo fometimes, as when the land is poor, a practice to draw every other ridge of turnips, and remove them from the field to be eaten in another place, while the remainder is confumed upon the land on which they grew.j- In folding upon turnips it is moftly the cuftom to turn the ihecp upon them while danding in the field ; but, except where the bulbs are much expofed above the furfaceof the land, it is probably a much better practice to have them drawn up before the hurdles are fixed or the fheep turned in, as the animals are not only lefs apt to break and foil the turnips, but feed much better upon them. This is a method of proceeding not unfrequently had recourfe to in the county of Norfolk. J Whatever method may be adopted in fixing the hurdles, attention mould be paid to fet them in fuch directions as that expence and labour may be faved as much as poffible. It has been fuggefted by a late writer, that much lofs is often fuftained in thefe modes of folding fheep upon turnips, efpecially where they are cultivated under the broadcaft fyflem, and it is the cuftom to give the fheep large folds or breaks at a time, from the occurrence of froft and fnow. In fuch cafes he * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland. + Ibid, and Corrected Agricultural Report of Norfolk* % Modern Agriculture, vol. II. p. 3l6. 160 . Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Application of Crops of. thinks the drill or ridge methods far preferable ; it being eaiy to have fheep- pens or turnip-trays made and fixed in fuch a way as tp coriflitute a fort of move- able trough, the bars or trays being fet near the tide of the rows of turnips, and boards from ten to twelve inches in breadth, having flakes of fuitable lengths, ac cording to the depths of tht foils, nailed to them, fattened on the fides from which the fheep feed : the narro \vcr-.-t he fpaces the turnips are included in, the better. As it may be apprehended that the animals may get in among the turnips thus fenced off, it is remarked, that fuppofing they occupy a regular fpace of about twelve inches, the troughs may be made little more than a foot in width at the bottom, having- a Hoping direction upwards. The trays or bars may likewife have an inclination towards the fheep, and hang over the troughs or parts in which the turnips are inclofed, and thus prevent them from getting in. In this way it is fuppofed the fheep will have their food quite clean, and by fetting off at a time only the quantity necefTary for a day, they may eat it with more avidity and without the danger of fpoiling fo much by their excrement. If it mould be objected that this method is only fuited to fmall concerns, he maintains that, on examination, it will be found even on a large fcaleto be better in many refpects, as well as confiderably cheaper, as " on the loweft calculation three fheep may be kept in this way to two by the old method perhaps even double the number, and they will fatten much fooner."* It is added, on the prin ciple that animals do not feed fo well when a redundance of food is placed before them, that if the fheep in fuch cafes were driven into the ftraw-yards during the night, and even to eat ftraw in the morning, they would retain the turnips longer, and fatten quicker j and in the mean time the perfons employed in looking after them might move the hurdles a row further, and thus little time be loft. If * The advantages of tins method are calculated by the author this way : Suppofe, fays he, two hundred flu-op to employ one man and boy every day, and admitting the boy to be unneceflfary in the common method, but allowing one (hilling per day for him ; and efti mating the fame quantity of tur nips to keep three fheep that was employed for keeping only two ; then three hundred fheep may be kept where only two hundred were kept: and eftimating the profit on one hundred fheep at only two pence a-head per week, the amount will be l6s. Sd. for that length of time ; and deduding from it the extra expenceof 7*. for the boy, there will remain a clear profit of Qs. 8d. per week. But where the flock is larger, tue profit will, it is obferved, increafe in proportion ; as a man and boy are capable of managing four hundred fheep. Two hundred are, however, fufficient to be fed together; but by dividing four hundred equally, they can be managed by the above number of perfons. The writer is, however, clearly of opinion that two fheep may be kept in this way for one in the other. If fo, fays he, the amount would be ll. 13s. 4rf. per week, which in twenty weeks would come to 331. 6s. 8rf, a fura that would more than clear the expences of the boy and the extra pen the flrft feafon. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Application of Crops of. 1 6 I fcoth feeding and flore fheep fhould be kept in this way, it would be advifable, lie obferves, to give the feeding flock rather more than are fufficient for the day, and to turn in the (tore Iheep the fucceeding day to confume what may be left. Jn this method the length of turnips that is heceffary without much wafte being commit ted may foon be difcovered.* This plan of confuming turnip crops may be economical and advantageous where the number of fheep is not great ; but where it is very large, theconftant trouble, difficulty, and expence, of procuring the hurdles and fixing the folds, mufl fre quently render it incapable of being put in execution, It has been found in the fattening of fheep with this root, that they make the greatefl progrefs juft before the turnips begin to run and form their feed-flems j a circumftance which probably depends partly upon the turnips containing at fuch periods the largeft proportion of faccharine nutritious matter, and partly on the weather becoming more dry and warm. Hence it is a practice in fome diflricts, towards the latter and of March or beginning of April, according to the flate of the feafon, to mow off the moots or flems that are advanced, with a fcythe; as by this means, from the numerous lateral moots that are fent forth, a more" copi ous fupply of green food is not only afforded, but the roots or bulbs of the turnips preferved longer in a flate fit for ufe.-f In folding flieep on turnips, it frequently happens that after frofts or fnows the hurdles get loofe, and are either thrown down by the animals or the wind : great care mould, therefore, be taken to have them at firfr. well fet into the ground, and fecured by flakes of fufficient length, with proper "wytbs for tying them together* The hurdles employed for this purpofe are generally of two kinds, either flatted orrodded: the former being made from fmall poles of afh, willow, or other tough forts of wood, by fplitting them ; and ,the latter from rods of hazel, or other fuitable woods, by wattling them clofe together with fuitable crofs pieces like flakes. The flatted hurdle, or what in fome diflricts is termed waddle, is much preferable to the cloft-rodded or wattled kind, as being much more durable. The firft coft of them is, however, confiderably greater. + There is alfo another fort of material made ufe of in fome diftrids for this purpofe ; which is a fort of net- work, formed of fmall cord, called toiling. This method is, however, * Experienced Farmer, vol. I. p. 59. f Synopfis of Huibamlry, p. 148. J The former fort are moftly fold in the neighbourhood of London, at from about \6s, to l$s. a dozen, and the latter at from 10*. to 125. the dozen. Toiling is generally from about 2j. IQd. to 3s, Gd. the rod. VOL. ir. y Vol ( ultlcatiOH of Arabic Land. Turnips -Preferring of Crops of* mote expensive than that of hurdles, and kfs convenient ; bat may fave fomcthin* in carriage, where hurdles arc to be brought from a confidenible alliance. Where turnips are intended for the feeding of cattle, or other forts of (lock, in the winter and fpring mouths, as they are extremely liable to l:e deftroycd by che fuddcn alternations of froft and thaw, becoming in many cafes quite rotten and unfit for ufe, it is nccelfaiy to prcferve them by forne means or other during that fcalon. For this purpofe many different methods ha\c "been attempted, but probably without any of them being completely iuccels- ful. The only perfcdlly fecuie method of protecting them againit the effects of intenfe frod in fuch feafons, is perhaps that oi having them drawn, topped, and piled up with -dry ftraw in houfes conflructed for the purpofe, contiguous to the cattle-meds, or feeding- flails. This mode is, however, liable to objec tion, as being both troublefomc and expenfive, efpccially where turnips are cul tivated upon an cxtenlive fcale. There is, however, another method which has been found veiy effectual, and which is lefs expenfive, and attended with but little trouble; which is that of flacking them upon the field where they grow, with layers of dry ft raw betwixt thole of the turnips. This is a mode frequently practifcd in the county of Hertford, where they ufe one load of 11 raw to about thirty or forty tons of turnips. The manner of performing the bufi- ncfs is this: the turnips being drawn during a dry time, and the tops and tap roots removed, a layer of ft raw is fprcad on a dry part of the ground, and a layer of turnips placed upon it to the thicknefs of eighteen inches or t\vo feet; iifter this another layer of ftraw, and then a layer cf turnips, proceeding alter nately in the fame manner till the heap or ftack is brought to a ridge or point; when the edges of the different layers of ftraw are turned up, which ferves to prevent the turnips from falling out, and at the fame time affords a fort of external covering to the heap, which is completed by being thatched well over the top with long ftraw. They have alfo been attempted to be prefervcd by- being -formed, without ftraw, after the tops have been cut off" and u fed as a green food, into what are termed pies, in the way that potatoes are fometimes kept, being well thatched over on the outfide.* It has likewife been fuggefted, that the difficulty of getting them up, and the danger they are expofed to during frofty feafons, as well as the inconveniences the cattle experience in feeding upon them from their coldnefs, may be pre vented by piling them up in fmall ftacks, the tops outwards, near to the places * Corrected Report of Middlcfex, p. 209. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips- Prcfening of Crops of. "where they are intended to be coiifumed, with a little ft; raw between the dif ferent layers, covering them over with \vattlesor hurdles, lined with ft raw. If this practice was adopted on final 1 portions, it is fuppofed that much advantage would arife from it to the cattle in t roily weather, beiides the turnips being: preferved and prevented from exhauftmg the land by remaining fo long upon it. The fame advantage may alfo, it is believed, be obtained, by finking beds about two feet deep, and of considerable breadth, in the ground where the turnips grow, putting five or fix layers of turnips into each, with a little -frefh earth between every one of them, and covering the tops over with fir-aw.* This method feems, however, only capable of being employed with fafety where the foil is of a light porous Tandy quality, and of courfe not retentive of nioillure. There are (till other methods that have been recommended for preferving this root. The practice of drawing the turnips, cutting offihe tap-rocts, and carting them to a piece of pafture ground adjoining the farm-yard, to be fee together upright upon their bottoms, as dole as poffiblc, hcs been found fuc- ceisful in fomc diftricts. The growth of the tops is, it u> obieived, in this way but little interrupted, thus confequently affords a full compenfation for any wafte of bulb that may take place. And it is believed that the quantity of nutritious food is increafed. Thebufmefs is beft performed when the weather is dry and windy, as the tops are then lefs brittle and the roots in the clean eft- condition, f It has alfo been advifed, by the intelligent author of the Corrected Report of the Agriculture of the County of Middlefex,, that trials be made cf carting the roots during the time of hard frofts into heaps, placed on bottoms of ice, and blending with them ice and fnow in fuch a manner as that they may be preferved in a frozen ftatc as long as may be neceflhry, as the end of April- In this view they fhould be placed either in proper buildings,, or be well co vered over with ftraw, fern, or heath, and have earth placed over fuch cover ings in the fame way as is practifed in pying potatoes in particular diflricts. Thia method, it is conceived, may be of great utility, as the frozen heaps will be fecure againft the thaws that take place on the breaking up of every intcnfe froft. Jn ufing the turnips thus packed up, it is recommended that they be given to the animals after the froft has been removed by putting them into cold -water. And as the land may in this way be cleaned of fuch crops at a. more car- * Kent s Hint?, p. 121. t C( r.eftecl Report of the County of Suff Ik, Yg J 64 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnips Preferring of Crops of. ly period than ufual, great advantage may, it is contended, he gained to the crops that arc afterwards cultivated on it. As the living principle of vegetable roots is extremely liable to be deftroyed by freezing, and their tendency to putrefaction thereby increafed, it is probable, however, that in this way the turnips will be in great danger of becoming rot ten, if they be not immediately confumed after the heaps ars firft opened, and of courfe much lofs be fuftained. Mr. Mannings of Norfolk, preferves thefe roots againft frofts by covering them by a deep furrow, at a dry time towards the end of November. His turnips are drilled on the flat furface, but the practice may be equally or more proper on thofc raifed on ridges. Jt fcems not improbable but that turnips might be -well preferved againft fe- vere frofts, at leaft on a fmall fcale, by the application of ftraw, fern, or any fimi- lar light fubftance that has the power of refilling its operation, along the rows as they ftand in the field, as is frequently practifed in the garden culture of different kinds of vegetables. Such forts of materials might be applied in a cheap, conve nient, and expeditious manner, by women and children ; proper means, according to circumftances, being provided for fecuring them upon the plants ; the matters thus employed being afterwards either removed or turned into the foil, as may be found moft fuitableand convenient to the cultivator. Whenever the prefervation of this root is attempted in heaps, great care mould be taken not to have them too large or too clofely packed together, as by that means the danger of their heating and being fpoiled may be confiderably leffened. By thefe means, it is obvious, turnips may be preferved both as a winter and fpnng food for different forts of live flock, even in fituations and feafons that are the moft expofed and fevere. When fheep hufbandry is carried on upon an exten- live fcale it may indeed frequently be a more advantageous practice to have recourfe to this root for the ewes in the fpring months, than to confume them during the winter in fattening neat cattle ; as in this way they will be better enabled to bring forth and provide for their lambs, which are circumftances of great importance. But in mild feafons, \vhen fheep do not fland in need of them, or are not kept in any great number, it may be the moft beneficial method to apply them to the fat tening or keeping of ftore cattle; in the latter of which the animals will be brought into fuch a ftateof forwardnefs, as to be readily completed on grafs in the enfuing fu miner.* * Corrected Report of the County of Perth f Cultivation of Arabic Land. Ruta Baga, or SwediJJi Turnip. ] 65 In feeding turnips off by all forts of animals, attention (liquid be paid on their firft being turned upon them, that they do not remain too long, otherwife they may be much injured by the diftention which is occaftoned by their eating too greedily of them. Ruta Baga y or Swedijb Turnip. This is a root of the turnip kind, that has long been known, but only lately introduced into cultivation with much advantage. It has been confidered by feme as a variety of the yellow turnip, but it differs greatly from it both in its texture and properties. In its top it has fomething of the appearance of the rape or the cabbage; the bottom, or that part of the root which is above the ground, is covered by a thick green tough cuticle or fkin, and the internal flefhy part is of a denfe firm confidence, have ayellowifh tinge. It is fufpected by fome cultivators that there are two varieties of this plant, the one hav ing a white and the other a yellow root, the latter being confidered much the belt. This may, however, probably arife from their having been grown in the neighbourhood of plants of the turnip or cole kinds.* The principal inducements to the cultivation of this root are, according to Mr. Young, firft, that where the fanner rf has the right flock of feed, the root yellow in flefh and rough in coat, it lafts through all frofts, and may be depended on for fheep quite through the month of April, though drawn two months before, and fpread on a grafs field. 2. That it is an excellent and nourifhing food for flieep, and alfo for any fort of cattle. 3. That it is equal to potatoes, keeping Jlock fwine, a point of very great confequence. 4. That it is, next to carrots, the very beft food that can be given to horfes. And 5. That it is fown at a feafon which leaves ample time, in cafe of a failure, to put in common turnips, or cab bages." It may be grown to advantage on moftof thofe foils that are too moift and hea vy for the common turnip, but the land mould be brought into a tolerable ftate of pulverifation, and be well impregnated with manure, before the feed is put into the ground, or the plants put upon it. Such a preparation as is fit for turnips an- fwers well in this cafe: paring and burning is perhaps the beft fort of preparation of any for this kind of crop. It is perhaps from the want of this due preparation of the land, and the putting in feed of a bad kind and at too late a period, that cultivators have fo frequently failed in obtaining good crops of this valuable root. Seed. The feed fhould be conftantly collected from fuch plants as have been tranfplanted, and which are the moft perfect of their kind ; as where this is neg- * Corre&ed Agricultural Reports oi the North Riding of Yorkshire, and Nottinghamshire, Cuftti&twn of Arable Land.- Stuedi/h TurnipTime and Method of facing. leclcd, the cultivator can never be certain of having his plants of the proper fort. The quantity of feed that is made ufe of where the broadcaft method is employed is generally from about two to three pounds the acre, but where the drill plan is purfued a fmallcr proportion maybe fiifficient ; but as it is moftly found difficult to produce a Efficient plant, it may be advifable never to be too fparing in the ar ticle of feed. New feed is conftantly to be preferred, and when the feafon is dry it , may be of utility to have it prepared by deeping. Time and method of/owing. As this plant is much flower in its vegetation than that of the common turnip, it ought to be put into the ground at an earlier perioq ; by which means it will not only be more forward for the hoe, and more fully eftablifhed in the foil, but better protected from the attacks of the fly and the heats of the enfuing fummer months. It has been the ufual practice to fow this crop at the fame time with that of the common turnip ; but if put in three vvecksor a month .fooner it will be found more advantageous, as from about the tenth of April to the tenth of May, or perhaps a little later in the northern dif- tricls.* And it may be ufeful in many cafes to put in a fecond crop in June ; or where the firft has been deft royed by the fly, to re-fow the land after being well fcuffled over. Different methods are practifed in railing this fort of crop : fometimes in- flead offowing the feed over the land in broadcaft or drills, it is fown upon beds of good earth j and after the plants are fufliciently advanced, as when they are about the fize offmall cabbage-plants, they are tranfplanted into the field, and jfet out in rows at a diftance of eight or nine inches from each other, and a foot or more in the intervals. The bufmefs of tranfplanting fhould, if poffrble, be per formed when the weather is moift. This may be the beft method where fuch crops are cultivated only upon a final! fcale ; but where they are grown more extenfively, the former are to be preferred,, as being more expeditious and convenient, as well as more certain of affording a: fufficient plant. And in this mode of fowing, the feed mould be put in where the plants are to- grow, as they do not anfwer fo well where tranfplanted even under the rnoft fa vourable circumftances. Aflcr-adlure. In tnis part of its management, the Swediih turnip, from its- growing- in a more flow manner than the common one, requires more attention, in. order that it may be kept perfectly clean and free from weeds, which, under. * Corrected Reports of the Northern Counties of Scotland, and Nottinghamshire. of Arabk Land. S^Jjh Turnip sifter culture of: iro- fach circum fiances, are extremely apt to life. This is alfo of vaft advantage in pufliing forward the plants to the Rate ot" rough leaf. The operations of hoe- ing arc to be. performed in afitnilar manner to thc-fe for the common turnip, and repeated as frequently as iruy be neccffary, keeping the mould u cl i broken and laid to the roots of the plants. Thefe plants, befides being fubject to injury from the fame caufes as thofe of the common turnip, are liable to be greatly hurt by hares, rabbits, and different kinds of birds, feeding upon both their tops and roots, which fbmetirnes are almoft wholly con fumed by them. In rcfpedt to the quantit) of produce, there feems to be a confiderable difference of opinion among cultivators ; but where the crop is put in fufficiently early, and the ground prepared and managed in the manner that has been directed above, it will probably nearly equal that of the common turnip. And when it is coniidercd that the roots are more folid, and abound more with nutritious matter, the real quan tity of food which they afford may probably be greater, in an experiment in the tranfplanted method, upon ridges of the fame dimeniions as thofe ufecl for the com mon turn : p, the produce was found, after they had fuftained the fro ft s, in the month of March, without cither tops or tails, and when perfectly free from dirt, to be thirty-two tons on the acre.* And as an advantage in the feeding of horfes for a few acres, they have been, eilimated as high as thirty pounds the acre.t With others the crops, on trial, have likewife been found in general to be heavier than thofe of common turnips; though in appearance, from the clofenefs of their texture, they did not fcem to equal them. i It is obvious, however, that in common the quantity of produce on the acre muft fall confiderably below fuch eftimates, and the value of the crop in any application be rated much lower. \-^ There can be little doubt but that this root may be of great utility and advan tage in its application in the keeping of live flock in the late winter and early fpring months, when the common turnip is liable to fpoil and run to feed ; as it is much moreeafy to preferve in a found ftate, being found, when taken up, to iciift the effects of the feafon without any difficulty or trouble, though when left in the ground fomctimes liable to be injured. By being ftackcd, and having the tops removed when they firft begin to (hoot, they may be kept till the latter end of May,|| or even much later. In this way they fupply the farmer with a valuable * Clofc, in Bath Papers, vol. IX. i Daikiu, in Corrected Report of Nottinghamfhire. I Tuke s Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkshire. Anftruther, in Young s Annals, vol. XVI. j] Clofe, in Bath Papers, vol. IX. 168 Cultivation of Arable Land. Swedijh Turnip Application of Crops of. food, for the difficult and diftrefling period when turnips or other forts of food be come fcarce, ufelefs, or exhaufted, and thegrafs is not ready. Every cultivator, who has ground fuitable for it, ought therefore to have a quantity of this fort of crop proportioned to that of his live ftock, to bring to his affiftance the latter end of March and in April, or perhaps later. Neat cattle are faid to fatten confiderably fafter upon this root than that of the common turnip : and when given to milch cows, it has not it is faid the effccl: of in juring the flavour of the butter fo much, but communicates to it a fine yellow colour.* It has alfo the property of rendering the milk more rich. Sheep arc found to be extremely fond of feeding upon it; but its hardnefs renders it more difficult of being eaten. And for hogs it is faid to be equal to potatoes.f In the keeping of labouring horfes it is likewife averted to be of the greateft utility, rendering lefs oats neceflary, and not proving of fo laxative a nature as mod other roots. The method of applying it in this intention is, after cutting off the tap-roots, to have the reft of the bulb cut or chopped, being firft well warned, into rather large pieces, by means of a fharp hoe acling in a perpendicular manner, a fuitable quantity of the roots being put into a fort of high tub contrived for the purpofe. More than are neceffary for the confump- tion of the day fhould not be cut at a time, as they are liable to be much in jured by becoming dry. But though the ruta laga appears to be a root of confiderable utility, efpe- ciaily for the more northern diftricts, where the common turnip muft frequently fail from the feverity of the winters, it has been objected to as being injurious to the teeth of fheep from its great hardnefs, as difficult of being raifed from the ground on account of the number of its roots or fangs, and as hurtful to the land from its being continued upon it to fo late a period : but where it is culti vated and managed in the manner that has been mentioned above, there will be little danger to be apprehended from the firft ; and in taking up the roots, where the foil has been in a proper condition for the crop, there is by no means that diffi culty or trouble that has been fuppofed : and the hurtful effects of their remaining upon the land to fo late a period, and thereby preventing it from being feafon- ably prepared for other crops, may beeafily obviated by drawing and flacking, or by arranging the roots clofe to each other in an upright manner in any con venient fituation, as inthefe ways they will not fuftain any injury from the fe-* * C >fe, in Bath Papers, vol. IX. f Cor reded Report of tJe North Riding of Yorkshire. Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages Sorts of proper for, 169 verity of the feafon. There can be little doubt, therefore, from the many valuable properties which the root poffeffes, in addition to that of its continuing foh d, juicy, and fit for the purpofes of food, which is not the cafe with the common turnip after it has perfected its feed, that it may be found of great advan tage as an afliftant to turnips on all fuch farms as Hand much in need of late fpring feed for the fupportof live flock. Cabbages. That the culture of this vegetable is of great importance, as a winter and fpring food for different forts of live fcock, on all thofe ftiff and ftrong foils that are too moift and heavy for the fucccfsful practice of the turnip hufbandry, is fufikiently mewn by the great advantages that have been derived from it in thofe diftricts where it is grown to a confiderable extent. And this is farther enforced, by the little da nger that attends the crop, and the largenefs of the quantity of food that is produced ; as it has been found to be confider- ably larger, in proportion to the fpace of ground that is occupied, than that of turnips. In the field culture of cabbages, feveral different forts are capable of being employed ; but thofe varieties that are the moft ufeful as cattle food, and the moft capable of withftanding the feverity of the winters in this northern cli mate, are the Scotib> the Drum Head, the American, and the Open Green cab bage or Spring Kale. The firfr., when of the true firm flat-topped kind, has been found to be wholly incapable of being injured by froft, except, in .fome cafes, a few of the outfide leaves. The fecond fort, or true drum-head, is likewife extremely hardy, and more clofe in its texture than many other va rieties being of courfe very heavy in proportion to its fize. It admits of being planted clofer than the large American cabbage, which in particular fitua- tions is an advantage. This fort is known in fome diftricts by the name of the .tallow /0<?/cabbage ; but it would feem to differ from it in fome refpects. As this kind is not found fufficiently hardy to bear the effects ofvery fevere frofts, a mixed Hock is frequently employed, which is produced by planting it and the com-* mon red cabbage together, and, after the feed-pods are formed, cuttino- down the latter and leaving the former for feed. This mixed kind, which is of a deep green colour veined with purple, befides retaining the fize of the drum head, poffeffes the hardnefs of the red cabbage. The third, or American kind has not only a large fize, but continues good to a late period in the fpring.* Thelaft, or kale fort, is perfectly hardy, and capable of being converted to uic * Bath Papers, and Young s Annals. VOL. II. Z J70 Calf motion of Arable Land Cabbages Preparation of Land for. as a cattle and fneep food, at the latter end of April or beginning of May, when other forts of green feed are extremely fcarce and difficult to be procured.* Befides thef c, the varieties known by the titles of the Flat Dutch, the York- Jbire, the Savoy, and fcveral others, may be made ufe of in fituations where the climate is more mild.f The chief advantage of planting large-fized cabbages in the field is, that of their being capable of being fet out at fuch diftances as to readily admit of being cleaned and kept in order by the plough, without any lofs being fuf- tained in the quantity of produce. Where the foil is not of great ftaple, and the expcnce of hand labour reafonable, the fmaller forts may occafionally be ma<ie ufe of with advantage. From the great iize, and the roots of plants of the cabbage kind penetrating into the ground to a considerable depth, they fliould constantly be planted out in fuch foils as are ftrong and have a good depth of mould ; as where this is not the cafe they feklom attain their full growth. The moift friable loams and loamy clays, on which turnips cannot be grown to advantage, are probably the beft adapted to this fort of crops ; but they may be raifed with fuccefs on almoft any of the heavier defcriptions of land. In the preparation of the ground, as the roots of the plants run deep, and (land in need of a large proportion of nourifliment, a confiderable degree of pulverifa- tion fhou Id be effected, and the foil be well lobfened to a good depth. Theft ef fects may be produced in the moft perfect: manner, by repeated deep ploughing, and expofing as large a furface as poflible to the action of the frofts during the winter feafon by laying the land up into pretty high ridges. Three plough- ings are moftly found fufficient for this purpofe ; but the number fliould always vary according to the nature and Hate of the land. When this fort of crop fucceeds wheat, barley, oats, or beans, the land is generally ploughed up in the autumn by a pretty deep furrow, and formed into ridges of about three feet in width ; in this ftate it may continue till the fpring, when it fhould be well broken down by harrowing in different directions. It is then to be ploughed again, but with fomewhat lefs depth than before. After this, as near as pof- fible to the time of planting, the ground may again be well harrowed over, and a furtable proportion of good ftable manure applied, as from fifteen to twenty three-horfe cart loads to the acre ; or, where compofts are made ufe of, from twenty to thirty, and immediately turned into, or inclofed in, the middle of the jsidges. After this is accomplifhed, the land becomes ready for the reception * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. i MarfynV Edition of Miller s Diftienary, art, Brassica* Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages Seed proper for. 171 of the plants. In fomc diftricts, however, a practice prevails of fp read ing the manure upon the land and turning it in with the firft ploughing. In this way the ground ii fuppofed to be prevented from becoming too open by the action of the manure, and the danger of the plants being injured in droughty feafons prevented. It is obvious, however, that in this mode much of the benefit to be derived from the manure mud be loft by its remaining fo long incor porated with the foil before the plants are put in, and that the great advan tage of having it in its moil active and concentrated ftate immediately below the roots of the plants muft be wanting. Seed. In the felecting of feed for railing young cabbage-plants, great care (hould be taken that it be procured from themoft perfect plants of the different kinds, and fuch as have feeded without any others of the fame tribe blowing near them, as it is perhaps only in this method that they are capable of being kept of a true kind. In this intention it may be of great advantage to have the plants intended to Hand for feed planted out by themfelves in apiece of ground at a diftance from the others ; and as birds are remarkably fond of the feed, we?l fee u red from them. In purchafing feed of this fort, fuch as is new mould always be preferred, as it not only vegetates much quicker,- but is more to be depended upon for a proper upply of plants. In dry feafons, fteeping the feed in water, or forne other liquid, may alfo be of utility. The beds on which the feed is fown mould be of a good rich quality, well prepared by digging and the application of manure ; as, where the foil is poor and not fufficiently enriched by manure, the plants are apt to be weak and (tinted in their growth, as weM as much injured by the rifing of weeds. Much injury frequently arifes to young cabbage plants from the feed being fown too thick ; care fhould, therefore, be taken to have them properly thinned out whenever they come up in too thick a manner. One ounce or an ounce and a half of good feed may in general be fufficient for fowing a bed fourteen or fifteen feet long, and five or fix feet in width, or for Taifing two or three thoufand good plants; in which proportion half a pound will afford more plants than are fufficient for planting an acre.* Time off owing. The periods of putting the feed into the ground muft de pend much upon the intentions of the cultivator : where the produce is to be confumed during the winter months, as in December, January or February, the feed ihould be fown in July or Auguft the preceding year, and the plants be put out in March, April, and May, the following year ; but if it be intended for con- * Young s Annals, vol. V, Z 2 172 Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages Proper Seafon of fowing of. fumption in March, April, or May, the feed fhould be put in about the latter end of February or beginning of March in the former year, and the plants be fet but the firft or fecond week in June and July in the fame year. By continuing to fow with regularity in the months of February, May, and July or Auguft, fuc- cefllve crops of young healthy plants may be fecured, and the round of cab bage hufbandry be effectually preferved. Thefe periods of fowing and tranf- plaming fhould, however, be attended to with confiderable exactnefs, in order to fee tire good and certain crops, and the feed- beds be well protected from birds. And that the cultivator may not be dilappointed in the number of plants, it may be ufeful tofow a little feed at different times, at the difhmce of a few days, always choofing as moift a time as poiTible. But by haftening or pro- tradling the times of tranfplanting, or fetting out the crops, the growth of the plants may be fo managed as to have them ready for ufe either more early or later, according as e i re um fiances may require. In both the fpring and autumn plantings it is, however, the beft practice to be fufficiently early ; as in the former cafe the plants will have the great advantage of the fpring fhowers, and be lefs in danger from the heat of the fummer feafon, and in the latter more fully eftabiifhed in the foil before the winter fets in, as the growth of the plants after September cannot in any degree be depended upon in field ^culture. Be- fides, from the length of time which is requifite for their attaining their full fi2e, it muft always be advantageous to have them fet out early. They feldom arrive at their full growth in lefs than four months. By fowing very early in the fpring, and fetting the plants out as expedi- tioufly as poffible, both full and forward crops may often be obtained. There is, however, in general, an advantage in the autumn plants, that though they be mere liable to be injured in the winter by flugs, and other caufes,. they are in a ftate to be planted out very early in the fpring, while thofe of the fpring fow- ings can feldom be fet out till the fummer is much advanced.* In this planting different methods have been attempted > fuch as fetting out the plants to ftand the winter in the field, and letting them remain in the feed-bed to be put out in the fpring ; the former is the moft advifabie in mild winters and fheltered fituations^ as the crop will be much more forward ; but incxpofed fituations the latter may ibmetimcs be adopted with advantage. By fowing in May or June, forward crops of large cabbages may be pro cured the enfuing year, or coleworts for tlie following fpring ; but in this laft intention, they fhould be planted clofer together than ufual. In this way the * Miller s Dictionary, art, Brassica, Cultivation of Arable Land.C abb ages Methods of planting of. 1 73 lofs of weight, and danger of cabbage crops in the winter months, are fully obviated. On the whole, the fooner the autumnal plants are put out in the field after the froffo are over, the better ; and the fpring plants fliould be placed out as foon as poffible after them, as before the end of April. It is the cuftom of fome nice cultivators to prick the plants out from the feed-beds, while very young, into other beds ; and the practice is certainly advantageous, not only in checking their too forward growth, but in rendering them more fit for planting and lefs liable to run to feed when tranfplanted into the field.* The expence and trouble of this operation is, however, too great, where the cabbage culture is conducted on an extenfive fcale, to admit of its being generally performed. Method of planting. In the planting out of this fort of crop, care mould be taken to have the bufinefs performed as foon as poffible after the land has been well faturated with rain j as in this cafe the plants much fooner efta- blifh themfelves in the foil, and fewer vacancies are left by their decay to be afterwards filled up. The plants are likewife much more readily raifed from the feed beds, and with much lefs injury to their roots, which is a matter of more importance than is generally fuppofed. The bufinefs is performed upon the land when in its fiat or level (late, and alfo when raifed into ridges by means of the plough ; but the latter method is the more general, and ought probably to be preferred wherever the foil is much inclined to the retention of moifture. On the lighter and more dry foils the flat furface may, however, be more ad yi fable. The diftance of planting muft depend in a great meafure upon the ftrenoth and goodnefs of the foil, and the natural fize of the variety of cabbage that is employed ; but in general it mould be fuch as that the ground between them may be cultivated and kept clean by the plough, and yet admit of bearing a full crop. It is obvious that where the plants ftand thin they will attain a larger fize, while in clofe planting there will be a greater number upon the land, which may compenfate the difadvantage of want of fize. It feems probable, however, that both cabbages and turnips may be fet out too thin, as the increafc of fize is not always equal to that of number. It is the pradtice of fome diftricts, where this culture is well performed, to fet them out regularly, at the diftance of three feet each way, as in this method the plough in cleaning and earthing up the crops can be conducted both in a * Miller s Dictionary, art. Brassica ; and Young s Annals. 374 Cu-l twation of Arable Land. Callages Methods of planting of . longitudinal and crofs direction, and of courfe the foil between the plants be not only ftirrcd in the molt effectual manner, but the mod completely laid up to the roots of the plants, and their growth the rnoft fully promoted. Where the larger varieties of cabbage are employed, and the land is fufficiently ftrong, this may therefore in general be the moft advantageous diftance ; but where the fmallcr varieties are made life of, and the ground is of a lefs ftrong and rich quality, two feet and a half may be the molt proper and beneficial diftance. Other cul tivators, however, follow a different practice ; fome preferring four feet by two feet and a half, while others advife only two feet by twenty inches, or even eighteen inches. In thefe diftances the cabbages are, however, under thenecefiity of being hand-hoed between the plants in the rows; the intervals only being clean ed by the plough.* The culture cannot, of courfe, be by any,means fo perfectly performed ; the foil in the former method being wholly removed except the fmall portions immediately about the roots of the plants ; while in thefe, much of it muft remain untouched, and be not only left in a more foul condition for fuc- ced ing crops, but lefs beneficial in promoting the growth of the cabbages. f But whatever diftances may be thought the moft advantageous, it will con- ftantly be neceflary to attend to the manner of fetting them out, the fize of the plants, and the mode of taking them up from the feed-beds, as much de pends upon thefe operations being properly performed. In fetting the plants out, in the ridge method, it is neceflary to have them placed in lines as regularly as poflible, according to the diftances employed, along the middle or crown of * MarfhaU s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, vol. I. p. 211 ; and Young s EafternTour, vol. IV. T The experiments and observations of Mr. Baker, in the cultivation of cabbages in the field, led him to recommend the following as the moll fuitable diftances for the different varieties which he employed. Varieties. Season. Distances. Long-fided Cabbage Winter Plants 2 feet by 4, or 18 inches fey 4 feet- Flat Dutch Cabbage do. do. do. by do. or do. by do. Scotch Cabbage do. do. do. by do. or do. by do. Flat Dutch Cabbage Spring Plants 18 inches by 4 feet. Scotch Cabbage do. do. do. by do. Turnip Cabbage do. do. 1 foot by do. The nature of the foils on which they were cultivated is not defcribed. For all .{he larger forts of cabbages on the different forts of ftrong rich foils, the moft advantageous diftances may be three feet each way ; and on the more light foils two feet anil a half. But for the fmaller forts two ieet each way on the ftrong foils, and eighteen or twenty inches in fuch as are light. Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages Drilling Seed where to remain. 1 75 the ridges, immediately upon the pare in which the manure has been inclofed.;. as by having this accomplifhcd in an accurate manner, they not only admit of being cultivated betwixt with more eafe and convenience, but derive the utmofl polTible advantage from the manure, and at the fame time, from its being more concentrated, require a final ler proportion to be employed. The fize of the plants is likewife a circumftance of much confequence, as the large (lout plants not only take root with more certainty, but are lefs ex- pofed to danger from flugs and other caufes.* In removing the plants from the feed or other bed, for the purpofe of being planted out, it is alfo of nuich utility to have their roots as little broken or otherwife injured as poflible. Moid or rainy weather is the mod fuitable for this operation ; but in dry fea- fons it may be well accomplished after the plants in the beds have been well watered. The number of plants that are employed muft obvioufly be different, according to the diflances at which they are planted ; but from five to feven. thoufand are generally fufficient for an acre of land. In fetting the young plants out into the ground, it is neceffary to fee that the labourers fix them well in the foil, by applying the mould fo firmly round their roots by means of the dibble, that they cannot be eafily drawn out by taking hold of their uppermofl leaves. The plants are moftly dropped at proper di- fiances, by women or children, and the dibblers follow, having a flick for mark ing the diflances with in an exacl: manner. In this way an ordinary labourer will plant a quarter of an acre or more in a day, and an expert gardener nearly as much more. In the courfe of a fortnight or three weeks after the firft fetting out of the plants, it will be requifite to fill up all the vacancies that have been produced by the failure of particular plants ; in performing which a moifl time, if it be poflible, mould be chofen. Mr. Young has however advifed it, as a more certain and advantageous method, to drill the feed where the plants are to grow in the beginning of April, after fome fort of hoeing crop, fuch as turnips, tares, potatoes, beans, &c. prepared by being ploughed into three or four feet ridges. In March the manure fhould be dcpo- fited in the furrows of thefe ridges, to the quantity of from twenty to thirty cubical yards the acre, according to the land. After having remained in this Hate a fortnight, the lands mould be harrowed where flirTor heavy, but in other cafes omitted ; the feed is then drilled in by the Northumberland drill hung to a roller eight feet in length, where the ridges are four feet, and fix feet in length, * Correaed Report of Suffolk, 176 Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages After-culture of Crops. where they are three feet in breadth. This is done by ftaples for the purpofe in the frame of the roller, a chain hooking the drill to them. The roller covers the ridge which is drilling, and one in advance to be drilled by the next turn. The work proceeds regularly in this manner ; four pieces of jack chain about two feet in length being attached to the drill, and drawn after it in the centre, ferve to cover the feed. The depth of depofiting the feed is regulated by preflure or weights laid on the drill. When the plants arejuft above the ground, it is bene ficial to drill foot over them by a properly contrived drill, in the proportion of ten or twelve bufhels to the acre, as a prefervative againft the fly. The expence of planting out, as well as of all the other operations in crops of this fort, muft be liable to vary greatly, according to the circumftances of the foil, and the fituation in refpect to labourers. In Suffolk, according to the writer of the Corrected Report of the Agriculture of that diftrict, it is in general about three fhillings the acre ; but in other places it is frequently a little higher, the whole charge of an acre being eftimated as fhewn below.* After-culture. There is fcarcely any fort of crop that derives more advan tage from having the mould or foil frequently ftirred and applied to the roots of the plants, than that of the cabbage. It is only by a due repetition of thefe ope rations that the plants attain their moft perfect growth and fize. The work is * Expences of Cabbage Culture on one Acre. . s. d. Charges for llent -- - - -0100 Tythes - 1 6 Poor rates - - - - -O13 Ploughing land five times - - - 1 Harrowing twice ------ -006 Manuring - -- ---200 Seed-bed and feed, &c. - o ] 6 Planting out ----030 Filling up deficiencies --. _ -006 Hand-hoeings ----- -040 Horfe work in hoeing ----040 Cutting and cartage one fourth of a mile - - o 15 In this eftimate, the whole of the expence of manure is, it is obferved, charged to the cabbage- crop ; but the advantage ought properly to be divided, which would lefTen the expence considerably, Cultivation of Arable Land Cabbages After culture of Crops of. \ 77 accomplished by means of ploughs, horfe and hand-hoes. Where the plants arc fee out in a regular manner at fufficient diftances, the bufinefs may be performed in the moft cheap and effectual way by the ufc of the horfe-hoe, or the com mon light fwing-plough ; but where narrow diftances are employed, this work can only be well executed by means of the hand-hoe. Sometimes both the horfe and the hand-hoe are made ufe of; as" where the crop is planted clofe in the rows, with wide intervals. The number of hoeings muft in general depend upon the ftate of the land and the nature of the feafon ; but three will in moft cafes be neceflary. The firft fliould be given about three weeks or a month after planting, according to the growth of the plants ; and the fecond at about an equal diftance of time. The third may be repeated as the necef- fity of the crop may require, attention being constantly paid to keep the land perfectly clean from weeds, and the earth or mould well loofened and laid up to the plants. In the firft operation it is ufual to turn the mould or foil from the plants, but in the fubfequent ones to apply it up to them, which, where the plants are fet regularly in fquares at the diftance of three feet, may be per formed in both directions of the ground, in the moft perfect manner. In this way the cultivator not only in a great meafure avoids the heavy cxpence of hand- hoeing, but contributes to the growth of the crop in the moft effectual manner. In executing the work, by means of horfe labour, fome make ufe of the horfe- hoe, others the double mould-boarded and common hoe ploughs; and it has been contended, that it may be effected with equal exactnefs and in an equally effectual manner by any common light fwing-plough.* After thefe hoeings have been accompli fried, the hand-hoe may be occafion- ally employed juft about the roots of the plants, if there mould be neceflity. And where the crops are planted out at narrow diftances either wholly or in the rows only, it muft altogether or m a great degree be depended upon for the after-culture of the crops. In thefe cafes, two or three hoeings are moftly found neceflary. -] The expence of each hand-hoeing in fuch crops is in ge neral from two (hillings to half-a-crown or three millings the acre.J Where the crops are fown in the drill method in April where the plants are to remain, they mould be thinned ont the following month when the plants arc about three or four inches in height, by hand-hoeing, in order to the next opera* * Anderfon s Recreations in Agriculture, &c. vol. II. f See Hoeing. J Correded Report of SuffpU;. VOL.II. A a 178 . Cultivation of Arabic Land. Cabbages Difcafcs of, tion of this kind, which is to leave them at the proper diftances, as eighteen or twenty- four inches as the nature of the foil may be. Cabbage as well as turnip crops are liable to be injured by the attacks of animals of the infect kind at different periods of their growth. While the plants are young and tender in the feed-bed, the beetle or fy often greatly in jures or deftroys them by its ravages. The plants likevvife cccaiionally fuffer in the feed-bed from the attacks of the caterpillar, produced by the cabbage but terfly,* though lefs frequently, as this infect makes its appearance in general too late to do much injury to field crops. ThcJIug fometimes alfo does much harm to cabbage plants while young, and on their being firft planted out, but afterwards they are little expofed to its at tacks. The depredations of the fly or beetle, as well as the caterpillar, may in general be in a great meafure prevented by the fowing or difperiing of wood- afhes, foot, or other fimilar matters in a powdery flate, over the young plants on the firft appearance of the infects among them. And the ravages of the flug may be guarded againft by the means that have already been recommended for turnips. But befidcs the attacks of infects on the leaves of the plants, cabbages are fubject to adifeafein the roots; in which they become f \velled-out and knobby, and the plants weak and of imperfect growth. This vegetable difeafe has been fuppofed to be caufed by the attacks of grubs below the furface of the ground, and to be chiefly prevalent where the fame fort of cabbages are fown and planted on the fame fpots of ground for feveral years together .t When care is taken to plant out the proper hardy forts of cattle cabbages there is little danger of their being injured by the fe verity of the frofts during the winter months, as feldom more than a few of their large outfide leaves have been found to fuffer. Many of the hardy varieties of cabbage have in deed been found to ftand the winter frofts equally, or even better, where there are frequent thaws, than thofe of the borecole or kale kinds ; but the latter would appear better adapted as a green food, efpecially for fheep,,in the early fpring months, as it may be repeatedly eaten down or cut over, j It is fcarcely poffible to afcertain the quantity of produce that may be de rived from an acre of land under a crop of this kind, as it muft depend in a great degree upon the quality of the foil, the proportion of manure that is employed^ * Papilio Brafficae. t Stokes, in Withering s Botanical Arrangements, J Modern Agriculture, vol. II. Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages Application of Crops of. 179 the method of culture, the goodnefs of the plants, and the favourablenefs of the feafon about the time of planting them out. It may probably in general be elh- mated at from twenty to thirty tons. In comparing the produce of cabbage crops with thofe of turnips, in different modes of planting and on different kinds of foil, it was found, taking the bed parts of the crops, that a medium acre of the former, on good land, well managed, produced twenty-five tons, and of the latter fifteen tons.* The value of the crops muft likewife be affected by various circumitances, as the kinds of live flock by which they are confumed, the manner in which it is ac- complifhed, and the fituation of the cultivator in refpect to markets; but in com mon they may be calculated at from four or five to feven or ten pounds the acre. In the application or expenditure of cabbage crops, as they are often lia ble to a confiderable diminution in the quantity or weight of food which they contain, by (landing over the winter to the fpring months, it may be the beft and moft economical practice to make ufe of thena late in the autumn, while their leaves are in perfection, in completing the fattening of fuch neat cattle or fheep as have been brought confiderably forward in the paftures during the fummer feafon.t In this way there is much lefs lofs fuftained than is generally the cafe where they are fuffered to ftand for fpring feed, by the decay and deftruc- tion of the outfide leaves and other parts of the plants. In the feeding of milch-cows at the fame period they may likewife be of very great utility, as fupplying a large proportion of green food, whether the whole plant be made ufe of, or only the more loofe green leaves, which may often be removed without much injury to the cabbages. J In this method of application they have been fhewn to be more beneficial than hay, given in any proportion, when only com bined with draw ; and that the butter is not in any way injured by them while they are given in a found ftate. When employed in this way without any combination of other forts of food, as hay or ftraw, an acre has been found to be fufficient for four or five cows, and with ftraw and a little hay for feven or eight.fj In this mode of confuming cabbage crops, the cows fhould always beconfined to the farm yards, and not fuffered to eat them after being fcattered on the ground; as in the latter way the farmer muft fuftain injury, both in the treading of his lands and in the lofs of a large portion of valuable manure. Befides, we fufpect that fuch fort * Young s Annals, vol. XII. f Young s Eaftern Tour, yol. IV. + Corre&ed Report of Suffolk. \ Fanner s Magazine, Yol. III. |j Bath Papers. A a 2 180 Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages Application of Crops of. of food will go much farther when carefully applied in the yard, than vvrrn con- fumed on the land, as much waftemuft be unavoidable in the latter method.* In the fattening of neat cattle, an acre of good cabbages may be nearly fuf- ikient for three beads of from forty ro fifty ftone each wrueh have been grazed in the paftures during the fummer. A middle-fized bullock confumes, in ge neral, of this fort of food, in the proportion of about one hundred pounds in twelve hours; but much in this bufincfs mvtfl: conftantly depend on the Hate of the ftomach and the methods of feeding the animals. It would, however, feem probable, that cabbages poflefs the property of fattening cattle, not only more cxpeditioufly but in lefs proportion than turnips ; an acre of the former having been found to fatten one in four more than the fame extent of the latter crop.f In feeding this crop off with fheep it has been obferved, that fuch as weigh about twenty pounds the quarter confume in the proportion of from eight to ten pounds in twelve hours, half an acre being nearly fufficient for one hundred fheep when the crop is good. The cabbages, when run to feed in the fpring months, are alfo confumed with avidity by thefe animals ; but this practice fhould never be attempted, as much injury muft always be fuftained by the land. The refufe of cabbage crops may, however, fometimes be ufefully applied in the more early fpring months, before they begin to run, to the feeding of lamb ing ewes, as by fuch means the quantity of milk is much increafed, and the lambs of courfe better fupported.| Store hogs are likev/ife faid to be kept upon this vegetable with advantage, and to prefer it to turnips. In the trials that we have been enabled to make with the finer breeds of this fort of animals, we have not, however, found it a beneficial mode of applying fuch crops, as they conftantly rejed: both the cabbage and tur nip for moft other forts of food, and, unlefs prepared by heat, feldom eat them up clean. Though few experiments have been made in the feeding of horfes with this fort of food, it is probable that, after being chopped, cut, or fhaved down by means of a ftock or other knife, and blended with fome fort of dry cut fodder, it might be employed with great advantage both in the faving of other more valuable kinds of food and in promoting the condition of the animals ; as, from their containing much faccharine matter, there can be little doubt of their poflefling a highly nu. tritious quality. In this ufe, the more fweet and delicate forts of cabbage ought * Correded Report of Suffolk. t Bath Papers. % For by in Annals of Agriculture, Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbage* Application of Crops of. ] 81 probably to be preferred. That the application of this fort of crop in this way has been fcarcely attended to is fully (hewn by the obfefvation of Mr. Marfliall, in his Account of the Midland Diflricts, who regiflers it as extraordinary, that neither in that nor any other diflrict an inftance had been met with of cabbages being made ufe of in the way of food for horfes. Where cabbages are employed for winter and early fpring confumption, it has been advifed by fome cultivators to have ihem cut or drawn while in full perfec tion, and piled up in houfes for the purpofe, or flacked in the open air, being clofely covered over by means of fh aw, broom, rufhes, or any other fimilar cheap material ; as in this way they areconflantly ready and at hand, when they cannot be procured from the field, on account of the wetnefs of the land or the effects of froft and fnow.* The practice is find to have been made ufe of in Germany with fuch fuccefs as to keep them in a good flate of prefervation during the whole of the winter feafon. P rom the fweet juicy nature of the vegetable, we are, however, difpofed to believe that it will be liable, in this method, to be injured, not only by taking on too much heat, but by becoming mouldy. Befides, by keeping in fuch ftacks they, like the turnip, fhrink confiderably, and are probably much impaired in their quality. In carting this fort of crop from the ground the fame attention mould be had to the wheels of the carts and the horfes palling in the ridge furrows only as has been advifed for turnip crops. In whatever manner cabbages are confumed, it is of importance to the fuc- ceeding crops that they be wholly removed from the land in the early part of the fpring, before they begin to throw up their flowering; flems and run to feed. On the whole, as cabbages may be cultivated at no great expence, are much lefs expofed to danger, and capable of refilling the fe verity of the winter feafon more effectually than turnips, and at the fame time become equally palatable and nutritious to various kinds of animals, there cannot be any doubt but that they may be had recourfe to with great advantage in fuch foils and fituations as are not adapted to the turnip hufbandry, and efpecially wherever a large pro portion of green food is wanted for the fupport of milch-cows in autumn and winter. It has indeed been fuggefled by a late writer, that in cafes where turnip crops have either wholly or in part failed, and the foils are of an ordinary depth, the lands may be recropped with cabbages at a cheap rate, and with the great- * Farmer s Magazine, vol. JII. 182 Cultivation of Arable Land. Cabbages. Turnip-Cabbage. eft chance of fuccefs.* This may, therefore, be a point that deferves the notice of the extend ve turnip cukivator on all the ftronger kinds of turnip land. The evidence that has been laid before the public by the intelligent writer of the Corrected Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Suffolk feems todemonltrare, that crops of this kind become injurious to the land both in their growth and their removal of the produce; and that the objections to their cul ture have chiefly been raifed on thcfe grounds. It appears probable, however, that, if the circumftances of the quantity of produce in cabbage-crops being, in general, considerably larger than in thofe of turnips, and that part of their dete riorating effects depends on the flalks or flems being improperly left in the ground till they fprout afrefh, and by that means leffen the fertility of the foil, as well as that of their being removed from the ground with more convenience and lefs inju ry to the land, from the nature of the ridges on which they are planted, be duly confidered, they will not be found to impoverifh the land on which they are grown, in any very great degree, more than thofe of the turnip kind. The tri als of different cultivators are likewife ira favour of the fame conclufion.f They may of courfe be confidered as a proper and beneficial crop for all thofe forts of land that are too ftrong and retentive of moifture for the fuccefsful growth of the common turnip, efpecially where dairy hufbandry is practifed to any ex tent. Turnip Cabbage. This is a plant that has been long known to the horticultu- rilt, and which was attempted to be introduced into field culture many years ago, but without complete fuccefs, notwithflanding the refults of the experiments that were then made upon it, appear to have been much in its favour.j In this va riety of the cabbage the bulb or apple is of a roundilh flat form, appears princi-, pally above thefurface of the ground, and is as it were an enlargement of the ftem of the plant, the leaves that furround it having much refemblance to thofe of bro. coli. It is faid to be more hardy againft frofts than the Swedifh turnip, which is a property that muft render it highly beneficial in many cafes. It has fome- times been cultivated under the title of Cape Cabbage , and often confounded with the Turnip-rooted Cabbage t by thofe cultivators who have not furficiently attended to the circumftances by which they are diftinguifhed. It feems to be the plant * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. + Forby, in Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIX, &c, Tranfadions oi Society of Arts, &c. | Bath Papers, vol. IX, Cultivation ofArabU Land. Turnip Cabbages-Methods of planting. \ S:> cultivated in many parts of Germany under the tide of Kobbta ~f t and which is faid to be extremely hardy. The foils that are the mo ft adapted to the growth of this plant are thofe of the more light and dry kinds, that have fome degree of elevation in refpecl to fituation, and which are in a good Mate of fertility, from previous tillage. The land is to be prepared by ploughing three or four times, in nearly the fame manner as for the common turnip, being laid up in the autumn, in order to be rendered fine and mellow by the action of the fro 3s and other caufes during the winter. After being thus well prepared, at the time of planting, it is to be ploughed into fmall two-bout ridges, and a fuitable proportion of manure, ac cording to the ftateof the foil, turned in. On the ridges, when flatted by alight roller, the plants are to be fet out. Seed t and Time of Sowing. In collecting the feed, the fame method mould be purfued as has been advifed for cabbages, in order that no adulteration may take place. In cultivating this plant the feed is fometimes fown in beds in the fields, \vhencethe plants are afterwards to be fet out, and at others in drills or broadcast, where the plants are to remain, being only thinned out to proper di fiances by the hoe. The firft method is probably in general to be preferred, though fome culti vators contend that the plants fucceed better when not removed from the places in which they were depofhed when fown. Where the tranfplanting method is practifed, the feed mould be fown fufficiently early to have the plants of a proper fize, as of about fix or feven weeks growth, at the time of tranfplanting. About the middle of March or beginning of April may be the properefl periods. The feed in thefe cafes mould be fown very thin, and the weak plants afterwards thin ned out, till they are left at not lefs than three inches diftance from each other. Five or fix ounces of feed will in general be a proportion fufficient for affording plants for fetting out an acre of ground. In the drill method the fame propor tion of feed may alfo in common be fufficient, which mould be put into the foil about the beginning or middle of April ; but if fown later, as in May or June, it frequently fucceeds. On the broadcaft plan, from the plants not coming quick ly to the hoe, the latter end of March may probably be the moft fuitable period for fowing. In this method, the proportion of feed muft be fomewhat increafed. Method of Planting. Crops of this fort may be planted out either upon the plain furfaceof the loughed ground, or after it has been thrown up into ridges in the manner defcribed above ; but the latter is by much the beft method, efpecially where the land is not perfectly dry. The mofl eligible time of performing the bufinefs of planting is, as in the common cabbage, when the land has had a good 184 Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnip-Cabbage After-culture of. fhowcr of rain, the operations of ploughing and letting out the plants proceeding together; but neither operation fhould be attempted when the land is much foak- cd with the rain, as much injury is not only done to the land, but the plants feldom thrive well.* In planting out different diftances are practifed, fome pre ferring the diflance of two feet from row to row, and eighteen inches ap;irt in the rows where the foils are good, but in thofe of interior quality, not more than twelve;-)- while others advife their being planted two and a half or three f et afun- der on tw r o-bout ridges } | the plants being placed as nearly as pofliblein the middle, immediately upon the dung, as has been recommended for cabbages. After-culture. This buiinefs mud be performed in different ways, according to the methods of lowing or planting that have been pradlifed. When the feed is put in by the hand, the crop can only be kept clean by means of the hand-hoe, which fnould be applied as frequently as is neceffary for the purpofe. In the drill mode, as well as where the crop is planted out with broad intervals, and narrow diftances in the rows, it may be convenient to make ufe of both the plough or horfe-hoe and the hand hoe, employing ihe former in ftirring and clearing the intervals, and the latter in keeping the ground between the plants clean. When the crop is planted on ridges, it is recommended, that as foon as the plants have become firmly eftablifhed in the foil, and weeds begin to appear, to throw a furrow from each fide of them by means of a fmall plough that is narrow behind, ftirring the parts not thus moved by the hand-hoe ; and after the decay of the weeds thus turned down, but before the plants get too large, to return them to their former fituation, care being taken not to cover the hearts of the plants with the earth. Thefe operations may be repeated as frequently as the ftate of the crop may require. It may be neceflary to obferve, that in the after-culture of this plant, as it forms its bulb above the furface of the ground, the earth or mould mould never be laid up fo much to the roots of the plants as in the common cabbage, as it may contribute not only to prevent the fwelling of the bulbs, but promote their deftrudion. In dry feafons this plant may probably be cultivated with greater advantage than that of the turnip, as not being fubjecl: to the deftructive attacks of the fly, and being lefs expofed to danger from other animals that are liable to deftroy crops of that fort. When iituated clofe to turnips that have been almoft wholly devoured by the fly, we have never perceived that plants of this kind were in the lead touched by it. * Bath Papers, vol.- IX. t Miller s Diftionary, art. Brassicce. J Bath Papers, vol. IX. Cultivation of Arable Land. Turnip-rooted Cabbage. 1 85 In good ground the bulbs or roots of thcfe plants frequently attain a confidera- ble fize, the largeft fometimes weighing eight or ten pounds, and are faid to be much more hardy than the common turnip, though not fo much fo as the turnip- rooted cabbage. The quantity of produce on the acre is not probably in general equal to that of the common turnip. Its application is chiefly in the feeding of neat cattle and fheep, during the au tumn or fpring months, according as it may be fovvn more early or late ; but the moft profitable confumption of it is probably in the latter feafon, as from the middle of March till it is removed from the ground. In this way it may become an ufeful affiftant to crops of the turnip kind. For this ufe it poffelTes a particu lar advantage, in being formed, as it were, upon a foot. ftalk above the furfaceof the earth ; as it can on that account be more conveniently got at and removed dur ing the time offroft, or when fnow is upon the ground, than the common tur nip. The proportion of nutritious matter contained in crops of this fort is confi- derable, and of a rich quality. Cows thrive extremely well on this food, when it is given them in a judicious manner. When fed off by (heep, the bed method is that of hurdling, in the manner praclifed for common turnips. In this mode of application they are faid to require little or no hay, even where the intention is to fatten the animals, as they make a greater progrefs with them than on any other fort of food, except that of oats. Both cows and fheep have been found to feed upon the fprouts with avidity, after their having bloffomed and been cut and left to wither. But this practice mould feldom or never be attempted, as much injury muft conftantly be done to the land by the plants being fuffered to run to feed. After the bulbs are fhrunk and withered from being cut and packed up in houfes, they are faid to form a nutritious food for horfes. Inftead of cutting off the bulbs below the parts where they are formed, in or der to preferve them in houfes for the above purpofe, it is the practice of fome cultivator* to plough them up wholly, ufmg a common plough, without any coulter, having only a round mare with a blunt edge, for the purpofe.* This ispaffed along under the rows, and performs the work with mucheafe and expedi tion. Turnip-rooted Cabbage. This is another plant of the cabbage kind that has been introduced into field-culture with confiderable fuccels. It differs principally from the former in forming its bulb or protuberance below the furface of the Aground, in having it of an oblong fhape, and in the leaves having a confiderable fimilarity to thofe of the common turnip. * Young s Annals of Agriculture, . ii. B b J86 Cultivation of Arable, Land Turnip-rooted Cabbage Time of fowing. The moft fuitable foils for the growth of this fort of vegetable are thofe of the more friable loamy kinds, or fuch as have been formed by the gradual depofition of earthy matters from the overflowings of large rivers or the fea. But of whatever kind the foil may be, the particles of it mould have been well broken down and re duced by means of tillage, and not be too retentive of moifture, when plants of this fort are cultivated upon it. In preparing the land for the crop it will therefore be neceflary to have it brought into a confiderable fUte of puiverifation or finenefs, by repeated plough- ings, and the pafiing of harrows over it ; and alfo enriched by the application of manure, in the proportion of eight or ten waggon loads to the ftatute acre, which iliould be turned in with the laft ploughing in forming the one-bout ridges for the reception of the plants. This is fometimes performed by the common plough, but it may probably be executed with more exactnefs by one with a double mould- board. Seed. This is to be conftantly collected from the bed and moft perfect plants of the kind, in the manner that has been already directed for the com mon cabbage. It fhould likewife be employed while it is perfectly frem, as fuch feed as has been kept for fome length of time feldom comes up well, or with much regularity. But where it is necefTary to make ufe of it, the belt method is to deep it in water for a few hours before it is fown. Time offowing. This is to be performed fooner or later, according to the in tentions of the cultivator in refpect to the confumption of the crop, but for the fummer planting, the beft time may be about the latter end of March, or begin ning of April. For this purpofe a piece of ground fhould be prepared by re peated turning over during the winter, fo as to become perfectly fine and free from weeds. This muft now be covered over by fome well-reduced farm yard manure, adding a little frelh horfe-dung from the ftable. This is then to be turned lightly in by means of the fpade or plough, and a fuitable proportion ef feed fown over the whole, being covered in by means of a ftrong rake or light harrow.* As the plants rife, attention is to be paid to the fly, guarding againft its attacks by the ufe of wood-ames or foot, when it firft appears. When the plants are found to grow too faft or advance too high in the ftems be fore the period of fetting them out in the field, fo as to attain an improper fhape Where this fort of preparation has not been made, a piece of old grafs land, reduced by paring and burning, may (Mr. Tugwell, an experienced cultivator, obferves) be drefied in a fimilar manner ; or the fubfoil of a wiater iheep-fold, the ftraw, dung, and thin turfy material, having been previoufly temovedv Cultivation of Arabic Land. Turnip-rooted Cabbage Method of planting. \ 8 ?" not eafily afterwards removed, it may be neceffary to draw up the whole of the plants clean on one fide of the bed, digging or turning the foil over in the place where they flood, to the depth of four or five inches, with the fpade, putting the plants in the trenches in the proportion of forty or fifty in each yard, the roots being covered by the earth taken out of the fucceeding trench, and (lightly trod den down upon them. In this manner the whole of the plants that require it, arc to be entrenched : by which their improper growth may not only be checked, but the plants be rendered more lit to be fet out in the field. Where the land for the feed-bed has, however, been properly prepared, and is perfectly freed from weeds, this procefs will feldom be found requifite.* Method of Planting This fort of plants may be fet out in the fame manner as the turnip cabbage, either upon the plain ploughed furface, or after the land has been raifed into ridges, in the way defcribed above. The latter is, how ever, to be preferred, efpecially where the foil is inclined to be moid. They are planted at different diftances, according to the goodnefs of the land, but the molt general practice is from two to two and an half or three feet. In the ridge method it is ufual to fet them on the middle of the ridges, at the diftance of two feet in the rows. The plants are to be carefully drawn from the feed bed towards the latter end of June, for the fummer planting, when of the fizeof good large cabbage-plants. And in order that as little injury as poffible may be done to their roots, this bufinefs mould be performed immediately after rain, or after the beds have been well watered. They are then to be made up into fmall bundles, and distributed by women or children fingly along the ridges, or on the plain furface of the land, at proper diftances, to be directly put into the foil by the dibblers ; in doing which, they mould be plunged up to the place of the branching out of the leaf flems, the mould or foil being firmly clofed about them in the manner recommended for the common cabbage plants. It is particularly neceflary to attend to this laft operation in dry feafons, as the fuccefs of the crop in a great meafure depends upon its being properly performed.! Care mould likewife be taken that a greater number of plants be not drawn from the feed-bed than can be planted out the fame day, and that they be as little as poflible expofed to the action of the fun and wind. It is alfo neceflary for a few days to guard againft their being pulled up by rooks or other birds. After-Culture. This is to be carefully attended to here, as well as in all other crops of a fimilar kind. In about ten days or a fortnight, when the plants grow > < ., " * f "t t ; i ; f- fc iO * Tugwell in Bath Papers 3 vol. IX. t Bath Papers, vol. IX. J88 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Turnip-rooted Cabbage. After-culture. well/they will in general require the attiltance of the hand-hoe, to clear the ridges and give the plants a flight d reding. And as foon afterwards as may be conve nient", the intervals may be cleared either by the common plough or any other more fuitable implement, by patting them twice along each, turning the furrows, where the land is clean and not too clofe or com pad:, up towards the rows, being careful not to earth up the plants to too great a height ; but where the contrary is the cafe, they mould be turned from them, fo as to form a ridge in the mid dle of the interval, the implement being patted within a few inches of the plants in performing the operation. This ridge in dry feafons mould be fplit down and returned to the rows again in the courfe of a few days ; another hand- hoeing being given as foon afterwards as may be found convenient. This laft operation may frequently be unneccflary on the more light and clean de fcriptions of land, but on the firong and more compact foils it may be had recourfe to with advantage, both in refpedt to the prefent and future crop, fo as to com- penfate any expence that may attend it. The produce in crops of this kind is frequently found, on good land, to be from twenty-five to thirty tons on the acre. In a practice of twenty years, the produce of an acre of this crop was on an average invariably found to be equal to the fupport of feventy fheep for a month, in the molt hungry, trying, and difficult part of the year : and this on land then not worth more than thirteen millings the acre, but which contained between feven and eight thoufand plants, averaging above four pounds each in weight.* As the plant is a native of a more cold and northern climate, it of courfe re- rains in fome meafure the late habits of the fituation from which it was originally brought, and becomes proper for the purpofes of feeding live ftock at a later pe riod in the fpring than many other plants to which it has a refemblance. It is i eldom before the middle of April that the juice begins to rife and the plant be come proper for being fed upon. About this time, however, as is fhewn by the bufhy appearance of its top, it begins to pufh forward and be in a condition to be made ufe of. When employed before this period, it is faid to be comparatively of little advantage, and in fome cafes even injurious to the animals that teed upon it,f Its principal application is in the feeding of fheep, which animals are confined upon portions of the crop by hurdles, in the manner practifed for the common turnip. The roots are, however, to be pulled up and prepared by being cut in two by means of an implement of the mattock kind, having a claw on one fide nine * Bath Papers, vol. IX. f Ibid. p. 271. Cultivation of Arable Land.Rape or Cole. f $9 inches long, with atranfverfe edge at its end two inches in width, and on the other a fort of cleaver; with this tool, acting as a lever by means of the handle, the roots are readily taken up ; after which any dirt that may adhere to them is fhaken off by a blow or two, and the roots fplit by the cleaver. By this means the meep be gin in the centre of the roots and proceed outwards, eating them with more eafe and much more completely than in any other method. When they are not cut, the hard fubfrance of the rind rendersthem difficult of being eaten by thefe ani mals.* One-year-old meep, or what are frequently denominated tegs, wethers, and all dry meep, may in preference be fed on this root ; but when ewes and lambs are to be kept upon it, the hurdles muft be fo contrived as to admit the lambs to pafs through them to feed at large, as by this means both they and the roots will be much benefited. f This root may be found on the whole, from its hardy and other properties, to conltitute an excellent nutritious food for meep at thofe periods in the fpring when few other forts of green food can be procured or depended upon. The culture of it, in proportion to the quantity of meep that may be kept on the farm, mould not therefore be neglected. This vegetable has been alferted to be capable of being preferved for fome time out of the ground, without its properties being in the leaft injured ; but as in moil other bulbous roots, the beft and moft economical practice is probably that of employing it in its frefh flatc. When thus made ufe of, there can be little doubt of its proving a valuable afiiftant to the turnip crop as a late fpring feed for meep. Rape or Cole. This is a plant of the cabbage kind +, but which differs from it in not forming a clofe head. As being of an hardy nature, and affording a large proportion of green food for the winter fupport of meep and other animals, it has been fome time introduced as an article of field-culture. It has likewife been cultivated for a confiderable length of time for the ufe of the feed, which is ex- preffed in mills conftructed for the purpofe, in order to form the oif known by its name. The foils moft adapted to the culture of this plant are thofe of the deep and more fertile kinds : when it is grown on lands that have been long in tillage, the friable loamy kinds are found to anfwer the beft ; but it may be grown with perfect fuccefs on the fenny, marfhy, boggy, and other coarfe wafte lands, that have been long in the ftateofgrafs, after being broken up and reduced into a proper ftate " Bath Papers^ vol. IX. p. 271. t Bath Papers, vol. IX. J. Brassic -napus-,. Cultivation of Arabic. Land. Rupt or Cole Preparation of Land for. of preparation. As a fir ft crop on fuch defcriptions of land it is often the beft that can be employed. When fown on old tillage lands, the method of prepara tion is pretty much the fame as that which has been given for the common turnip ; the land being ploughed over four or five times, according to the condition ir may be in, a fine ftare of pulverifation or tilth being requifite for the perfect growth of the crop. In this view the firft ploughing is moftly given in the autumn, in order that the foil may be expofed to the influence of the atmofphere till the early part of the fpring, when it fhould be again turned over twice, at proper diftanccs from each other; and towards the beginning and middle of June one or two addi tional ploughings mould be performed upon it, in order that it may be in a fine mellow condition for the reception of the feed. But if the feed be intended to be put in upon lands that are newly broken up from the flate offward, they muft be rendered perfectly clean and in a fuflickntly fine flate of mould for the reception of the feed, either by frequent ploughing in the common way, and afterwards harrowing the furface well by light fhort-tined harrows j or by having recourfe to the practice of paring and burning, which may be performed in the manner already defcribed.*" The laft is by much the moft effectual, cheap, and advantageous method, where the furface contains a large quan tity of coarfe graffy matter, as it can fcarcely be reduced by any other means with out much time and trouble: This is the fort of preparation that is generally em ployed when the crop is intended to ftand for feed, j- If fown on the firft fort of preparation, it is the beft practice for it to fucceed wheat or barley crops. When the former, barley or oats, with grafs -feeds, may be put in after it ; but if the latter, it may be fucceeded to the greaieft advantage by wheat, as it is found to be not only an excellent preparation for that fort of grain, but to afford itof the fineft quality; and by its being taken off early there is fuf- fkient time allowed for getting the land in order for the wheat crop.J Where the tillage land is not in a good ftate of fertility, manure of the fame kind and in the fame proportion as for turnips fhould be applied and turned in with the laft ploughing for the feed. Seed. For this crop fuch feed as has been perfectly ripened, is quite frefli, and has a fine black colour, is conftantly to be preferred, as vegetating in the moft perfect and expeditious manner. The quantity of feed that is made ufe of is in general from a quarter to half a peck, according to the manner of fowing that may be practifed. Where the crop is intended to be confumed as a green food * Section on Paring and Burning. f Modern Agriculture, vol. II. + Kent s Hints. Cuttivati&n of Arabic Land. Rape or Cole Time and Method of fowing. \ y I for animals, a larger proportion of feed may, however, be neceflary than where the obtaining of feed is the chief object of the cultivator. Time and Method of Sowing. This fort of crop is fown at different times accord ing to the different methods of its application : when intended as a Cheep feed, it may be put in any time in June or July ; but if it be for feeJ, Augult is the proper feafon. In the Flemilh method, according to Mr. Young, it is fown on a feed-bed for being tranfplanted in October and November, being fet out on an oat (kibble after one ploughing. The mod common practice here in putting this crop into the ground is that of difperfing it in as reguhr a manner as poffible over the fur- face of the ground by the hand, covering it by means of a bum or other light har row. In (lead of this, it is, however, fometimes ploughed in when cultivated on the more light and open kinds of foil, a larger proportion of feed being allowed,, and the furrows made narrow with but little depth. In fuch cafes this has been fuggeftcd as preferable to the former method.* The drill method has alfo been pradlifed with this crop, the feed beingdepofitcd to the depth of one inch in rows on every other land, twelve inches afunder. The fuperiority of this mode over that of the broadcaft appears confiderable in the ftate- ments that have been made of it, as the land is capable of being kept clean with lefs difficulty and expence.f It has been fuggefted likewife as a defirable method to fow the feed in beds, for the purpofe of being afterwards tranfplanted into the field and fet out in the man ner of cabbage-plants. Half a rood of land in this way would be fufficient to fur- nim. plants for five or fix acres.- In this manner, as well as by pulling the plants from the places where they may (land too clofe in the field, the vacancies that fre quently occur in this fort of crop may be filled up, the work being performed by dibbles.* And even the tranfplanting the whole crops by beginning at one fide of the field, and proceeding gradually, from one land to another, till the whole is fi- nifhed, would, it is believed, be highly advantageous ; as in this way the land would be provided with the beft plants, and fuch as are of equal fize j and by their being placed at regular diflances, the crops would ripen in a more equal manner, while at the fame time free admiflion would be given to the hoe, and the intervals be kept clean by narrow horfe-hoes,^ This bufinefs may be performed about the beginning of September or Odo*- ber, according to circumftances. For this purpofe the plough is made ufe of>. * Kent s Hints. t Amos on Drill Husbandry. J Marfhallj in Rural Economy of Yorkfhiref ^ Ibid. 192 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Rape or Cole After-culture of Crops of. the plants being placed by women in a leaning portion in every fecond furrow about a loot apart, and the roots covered by the next furrow ; after which another is added, and more plants placed in as before, proceeding in the fame manner rill the whole is finifhed. The plants of courfe Hand at about the diftance of eighteen or twenty inches by twelve. Where land that has been pared or ourned is managed in this way, the firft or feed -ploughing mould be in a crofs dired:ion, and that for tranfplanting lengthways, in order to render the land dry in winter. Thefc methods appear better adapted for fuch crops as are dcfigned for feed than for thofe intended as green food for live flock ; as by the perfect culture that may be thus given them, and the ufe of manure, the inconveniences attending the feeding of rape crops may perhaps in a great meafure be obviated. When cultivated for ufe as green food, the feed mould, as has beenfeen, be fown more early than where the crop is to ftand for feed, or be employed in both ways ; but fufficiently early to get a ftrong leaf without running to Hem the firft au tumn.* The middle of June and the laft week in July, as mentioned above, may be the moft proper periods. After-Culture* In the general broadcaft method of cultivating this crop, proper attention in hoeing and keeping it clean from weeds is feldorn beftowed, though it is equally necefiary as in almoft any other, and in order to enfure a full and abun dant produce ought never to be omitted. Where this bufinefs is attended to, it is the practice, after the plants have attained two or three inches in height, put out fix leaves, and begun to fpread and (hew themfelves perfectly above the ground, to hoe them over by means of a hand-hoe fomewhat fmaller than that employed for turnip crops, fetting the plants out to the diftances of from fix to eight or nine inches from each other, according to their vigour or ftrength and the fertility of the foil. This is the only hoeing that is in general given ; but in many cafes, as where the land is poor and difpofed to throw up weeds, much ad vantage may be derived from a repetition of the operation, not only in cleaning the ground, but promoting the growth of the plants, by ftirring the mould round them. This fhould be done about a month or five weeks after the firft hoeing. The expence of performing the work once, is moftly about fix or feven millings the acre. But in the row methods, whether by drilling the feed or tranfplanting the young plants, the bufinefs of hoeing may be performed in a more perfect and * Miller s Dictionary. Cultivation of Arable Land. Rape or Cole Heaping Crops of. 103 cheap manner, on account of the greater diftances of the plants admitting the earth in the intervals to be ftirred by the plough or horfe-hoe, while hand-labour becomes only neceffary between them in the rows. In this way a garden clean- nefs may be preferred in fuch field crops at no great expence. When the produce is intended to be confumed as green food, the crop will in general be fufficiently advanced for the purpofe, if there fhould be a neceffity for it, towards the latter end of November ; but except where the feed is to be after wards taken, it is probably a much better .practice to refer ve it as feed in the fpring months. When cut or fed down in the autumn, the plants moftly advance fo in the fpring as to form a fecond crop in April. But in this method of feed ing off the crop care mould be taken that the plants are not pulled up and de- ftroyed by the animals being confined too long upon them. If the intention be to let crops of this fort ft and for feed, without feeding them down in the autumn, which is a practice often adopted ; after they have been well cleaned by hoeing, nothing further is neceffary till the latter end of June or be ginning of July, when the feed becomes ripe. This is fhewn by the pods putting on a brownim appearance, and the feeds in the forwardeft of them turning a little black. This mould be nicely attended to, as, if fuffered to remain too long un cut, much feed may be loft. They are ufually reaped with the fickle, and laid in thin grips or reaps upon the place where they grow, until they be in a proper con dition for threftiing. This is known by the ftraw becoming of a whitifh colour, and the feed appearing perfectly black. If however they remain upon the ground too long, much of the beft feed may be loft, and if threflied in too green a ftate, much may be left in the pods, as well as what is threflied out be difficult to cure or prefer ve.* In thefe cafes, the feed is threfhed out in the field upon cloths about twenty- yards fquare laid upon the ground, or what is better, upon wattled hurdles, fo placed as to have an inclining direction, cloths being placed underneath to fecure the feed. The rape is conveyed to the place by means of fledges, the bottoms and jfides of which are lined with cloth in order to preferve the feed that rmy efcape in the operation. It is fometimes likewife cleaned in the field, and put into facks for the market. | When large quantities of feed are brought quickly together, as they are liable to heat and become mouldy, it may be a better method to fpread them out thinly over a barn, granary, or other floor, and turn them as often as may be neceflary. * Marshall s Rural Economy of Yorkftiire. + Kent s Hints. VOL. II. G C 194 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Rape or CV//e Heaping Crop* of. In fome parts of Yorkfliirc this bufinefs formerly conftitutcd a fort of fcftival ; * hut it is now much on the decline, the method of binding the crop in fmiii fheaves and (lacking it in the field being much adopted. The barn ought, how ever, to be preferred. The expenccs of the different operations, fuch as reaping, turning, thrcfhing, d re fling, and depofiting the feed in ba^s, may in general be eflimated at from twenty-five to thirty (hillings the acre. When this fort of plant fuccceds well, and the feafon is favourable for fecurinir the feed, the crops are extremely profitable to the cultivators, forty or fifty bufhcls or more being frequently produced on the acre. Mr. Marfhall thinks, indeed, that on the whole * it may be confidered as one of the mod profitable crops in hu(bandry. There have been," fays he, <( inftances on cold unproductive old p^ifhire lands, in which the produce of the rape crop has been equal to the pur- chafe value of the land.f" The feed is fold by the lad of ten quarters, for the purpofe of having oil exprefled from it, by mills conftructed for that ufe ; the hufks, after the oil has been in a great meafure fqueezed from them, forming the cakes employed in feeding cattle. The price varies confiderably, but lately has feldom been much below thirty pounds the laft. Rape crops are, however, precarious, both in the early cultivation and the fe- curing of the produce : being often much injured while young by infects, fome- \vhatinthemannerofturnip crops; when in blow, or in the period between bloffoming and forming the feed pods, in the fpring, as about the beginning of May, by frofts, blight, and mildew ; and in fecuring the crop, if the time of cutting be not nicely attended to, or much rain fall, there is much danger of its being loft or deftroyed. The culture of this crop for feed has been confidered by many as objection able, on account of the great degree of exhaufiion of the land that it is fuppofed to produce ; but where it is grown on a fuitable foil and preparation, with proper attention in the after-culture, and the draw and offal, inftead of being burnt, as is the common practice, converted to the purpofes of feeding and littering cattle,J * In the Rural Economy of that diftricl; Mr. Marfhall has given a full and very interefting de- fcription of the bufinefs. f Rural Economy of Yorkfhire. It is remarked by Mr. Marfhall, in the work juft noticed, that "the value of ft raw to cat tle in winter is very confulerable. The stover (pulls and points broken off in threfhing) is as accep table as hay, and the tops are eaten with an avidity nearly equal to cut ftraw, better than wheat ftraw. When well got, the fmaller butts will be eaten up clean. The offal makes excellent litter for the farm-yard, and fcufeful for the bottoms of mows, ftacks ? &C," Cultivation of Arable Land. Rape or Cole Application of Crops of. 1.95 it may in. many inftances be the mofl proper and advantageous crop that can be employed by the farmer.* The moft general application of this fort of crop is, however, as a green food or fheep, in which ufe it is fcarcely furpafTed by any other vegetable, in fo far as refpects its nutritious properties, and thofe of being agreeable to the tafte of the animals ; but in quantity of produce it is inferior to both turnips and cabbages. In this application the crops are fed offoccafionally from the beginning of November to the middle of April : being found of great value, in the firft period, in fattening dry ewes and all forts of old fheep ; and in the latter, for fupporting ewes and lambs. The fheep are folded upon them in the fame manner as is practifed in the confumption of turnips. In this way they are found to pay from fifty to fixty fhillings the acre, that quantity being fufficient for the fupport often fheep for ten of twelve weeks. Rape has been found by experience to be fuperior to turnips in fattening fheep, and in fome cafes even to be apt to deftroy them by its fattening quality. It is likewife obferved that that which is grown on frefh land has the ftem as brittle as glafs, and is fuperior to every other kind of food in fattening thefe ani mals ; while in that produced on old tillage land, the ftem is tough and wiry, and has but little proof in it.f When neat cattle are put upon this food in its green ftate, care is neceflary that they have not too much of it at firft, as they are very liable to be hoven by it. It has been fuggefted by a late writer, that the cultivators of this crop, in order to turn it to the beft account, fhould conftantly keep in view the circumftance of its being capable of a double application : as by feeding it off with fheep in autumn, the fucceeding crop may not be much injured; confequently a large fupply of winter food be procured, without the quantity of feed being much, if at all, lefTened. This is, therefore, conceived to be the moft profitable management in crops of this kind.}: In fome foils and fituations this may be the cafe; but in general, feeding the crop lefTens the quantity of feed, as a much larger produce is moftly obtained where this is not practifed. Whether cultivated for the feed or as a green crop for the fupport of live fteck, rape may in many cafes be had recourfe to as a firft crop in breaking up coarfe wafte lands, by paring and burning, with great advantage ; but in the for- * Kent s Hints. + Corrected Report of Lincolnfliire. J Modern Agriculture, vol. II. Ibid. C C 2 Cultivation of Arable Land Carrots Preparation of Land for. mer view it can fcldom be repeated with propriety at any very fhort diftance of time. In letting the crop Hand for feed, birds are to be carefully kept from it, as they arc apt to devour large quantities from their being particularly fond of it. Carrots. Though this valuable root has been cultivated in a local manner for a great length of time in this country, it is only within the lad ten or fifteen years that it has been much applied to the puipofe of feeding live flock by the farmer. It would fee m to have been introduced into the fouthern parts of the ifland from the Low-countries, where its culture and ufe as food for horfes had been long known nndpracitifed. Although there are many varieties of the common carrot,* there feems to be only one that is proper for being cultivated in the field for the purpofe of feeding animals. This is the fort ufually termed the orange carrot, in which the colour is much more dark than in the other varieties, and the fteih more faccharine and jui cy. The root of this variety moftly rifes to nearly double the fize of that of the pale yellow kind. The foils on which crops of this root fucceed to thegreateft advantage are thofe which have confiderable depth of fine mould, either of the friable, loamy, fandy, or vegetable earthy, kinds ; but they may probably be cultivated to advantage on moft forts, except thofe of the ftiff clayey and thin gravelly or chalky defcriptions. The black deep vegetable, and the rich deep fandy, foils, appear however the beft cal culated for this fort of crop, as well as moft other kinds : and the medium fands and fandy loams ftand next, as beft adapted to its culture.-j- In the preparation of the land for carrot crops, as the roots of the plants are of the tap kind, repeated deep ploughing is particularly necefTary, in order that they may be enabled to pufh downwards, and diftend themfelves with facility in the foil ; as in this fort of hufbandry, where due pulverifation is not effected to a con fiderable depth, the roots are liable to become forked and of very limited growth, fending off numerous lateral roots, in confequence of their inability to get down ; by which the quantity and value of the produce are greatly leffened. This deep tillage may be perfectly accomplimed either by means of the trench-plough fol lowing the common one, or by the common one alone, with a good ftrcngth of team ; but the former method is to be preferred, wherever the lands are inclined so be ftiff or heavy. Three ploughings are moftly found fufficient, where the * Daucus Carota*. f Young s Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV, Cultivation of Arable, Land. Carrots Preparation of Land for. ] 97 fsind has been previoufly in a flateof tillage ; but more may in other cafes be ne- cefTary.The firft ploughing fliould be made to the depth of ten, twelve, or fourteen inches, and be performed when the foil is tolerably dry, about the beginning of Oc tober. It may remain in this condition till towards the middle of February, when it fliould be turned over a fecond time, but in a crofs direction, to nearly the fame depths. In March a third ploughing may be given, in order to the putting in of the feed. This maybe fomewhat lighter than the preceding ones. By the two deep ploughings being thus given in the autumn and winter months, the ground be comes more open and porous, from being fo much expofed to the action of the frofts and other caufcs, than could otherwife have been the cafe. At the lad: plough-, ing in March a fuitable proportion of well-rotted farm yard du/gg fliould conftant- ly be turned into the foil ; the furface of the ground being immediately afterwards well reduced and rendered as level as poflible by harrowing. The land is now ready for the reception of the feed. It has been fully Ihewn, by various trials detailed in the Annals of Agriculture and other books on hufbandry, that, though good crops of carrots may be occafionally grown without the ufe of manure, it is only by the liberal application of that fubftance that the greateft produce poflible can be obtained, as they are in general found to bear a relative proportion to the quantity that may have been employed. In Suffolk, where the carrot hufbandiy is practifed to the greateft extent, it is however the common method to give no tillage to the land till the time of putting in the crop. Seed. The cultivator of carrot crops fhould always be careful in faving his own feed, by felecting annually fome of the moft perfect and befl-fhaped roots of the preceding year s growth, to be fet out feparately about the beginning or middle of March, in an open piece of ground, for the purpofe. The feed will be ready about Augufl. By this means the agricultor will always be in pofTef- fion of fuch new or frefh feed as may be depended upon, which is feldom the- cafe when purchafed ; old and imperfectly ripened feed being frequently blend ed with the new, by which the crops often either wholly fail, or come up in a very imperfect and unequal manner. Befides, feed of the pale yellow kind, or what is termed the born carrot, a fort often cultivated in the Low-countries and in France, but which, as has been obferved, does not grow to any thing near the fize of the deep orange kind, is often difpofed of to the cultivators of this vegetable. From the lightnefs of this kind of feed, and its adhering foclofely together, other fubftances have been found neceflary to be mixed or blended with it, in or der that the feeds may be feparated, and fown or difperfed over the ground with more regularity. Saw-duft, bran, aflies, dry earth, and dry fand, have been occa- 198 Cultivation of Arable Land. Carrots Seed Time, $c. offering of, fionally made ufe of for this purpofe ; but the two firft are probably the moft pro per, as being the moft nearly of the weight of the feed. Some cultivators, how ever, think that it may be fown more evenly without any of thefe matters being incorporated with it, by only being well rubbed and pafled through a fieve, to feparate it perfectly, after having been well dried in the fun.* The proportion of feed that is made ufe of varies coniiderably among different cultivators ; but from four or five to fix pounds, when fown in a broadcaft method, may in general be the moft fuitable quantity, according as the land recedes from a fandy quality .f But where the drill plan by a machine is followed, two pounds lo the acre are faid to be fully fufficient.J The period of putting this fort of feed info the foil is generally about the mid dle of March ; but it mould not on any account be protracted later than the beginning of April. It may, however, be put in much earlier, when the land is in a ftate of preparation for it, without any danger being apprehended from the feafon. Method of Sowing. The moft common practice in putting carrot crops into the ground is that of the hand or broadcaft method, the feed being difperfed as evenly as poflible over the land, after the furface has been reduced to a very fine ftate of pulverifation by harrowing, in order to provide a fuitable bed for it to ve getate in ; being then covered in by means of a light harrow. As the feed of the carrot is not of a nature to be depofited with much regularity by the drill, and as the young, plants can be eafily fet out to proper diftances in the operation of hoeing, this is probably the moft appropriate method of putting fuch fort of feed into the ground. And an additional proof of it is indeed found, in its being that which is almoft univerfally adopted in thofe diftricts where carrot hufbandry is practifed to the greateft extent. || With the view of having the after-culture of the crops more perfectly per formed, and at the fame time to fave the great expence of hand labour in hoeing the crop, the drill method has, however, been attempted by fome cultivators, but we believe without complete fuccefs. The work is finifhed in equi-diftant rows at the diftance of from twelve to fifteen or eighteen inches from each other, according to the mode of hoeing that is practifed. In this bufinefs fome cultiva tors do not make ufe of drill-machines, but ftrike the land into fmall furrows by hoes or other implements contrived for the purpofe, a.id then caft the feed over * Annals of Agriculture. t Corrected Report of Suffolk. J Amos, on Drill Hufbandry. || Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Carrot a After- culture of. the ground by the hand, covering it in either by flight harrowing, or hoeing in the tops of the ridglets.* In this method, where the drill machine is ufed, it has been advifed by an intel ligent cultivator to depofit the -feed to the depth of one inch in the rows, leaving the fpaces of fourteen inches between them as intervals ; the feed in thefe cafes being previoufly fteepcd in rain water for twenty-four hours, and left to fprout, after which it is mixed with faw-duftand dry mould, in the proportion of one peck and a half of each to a pound of the feed. The land is afterwards lightly har rowed over once in a place. Two pounds of feed in this mode is found, as has been obfervcd, fufficient for an acre of land.t After-culture. As plants of the carrot kind while young are of a rather delicate nature, and do not rife quickly, it is of great importance to keep them from being too much crowded together, and as free as pofTible from being (haded by weeds, in their fitft growth. This may be accomplifhed by means of very fmall narrow hand-hoes about three inches in width, with handles not exceeding a foot and a half or two feet in length, the labourers refting upon their knees in making ufe of them. But as in this way there is considerable danger of too many plants being deftroyed, where the workmen are not expert, it may be a better practice to have recourfe to hand-weeding, as in this mode the weakeft plants may with certainty be removed until the reft are left at their proper diftances, and the weeds at the fame time be wholly taken away. This operation may be rendered lefs difficult by having the crops fown on ridges of fuch breadths as may eafily be managed by two or three perfons. By this means the bufinefs may indeed be performed in nearly as expeditious a manner as by the hoe, the trouble of feparating the weeds from the plants in that way being fo confiderable, and by the operation being performed in this effectual manner at firft, there will be lefs trouble in future hoe- ings. A fecond hoeing mould be given in the courfe of three or four weeks from the firft, according to the growth of the crop. This may be executed by means of the common hand hoe, the operators carefully fetting out the plants to their proper diftances. Thefe vary in practice from nine to eighteen inches, twelve being that moft generally adopted.^. In the county of Suffolk, where carrot huf- bandry is carried to a confiderable degree of perfection, the moft ufual diftance is fifteen or eighteen inches each way. And at thefe diftances they have found, by long experience, that the crops are finer and the roots larger, than when the plants * Young s Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. f Amos on Drill Husbandry, J Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. 5200 Cultivation of Arable Land. Carrots Expencesof. are permitted to ftand nearer to each other.* The tops of the plants by thefe dif- tances have likcwife full room to diftend themfelves and cover the furface of the foil, by which it is kept perfectly moift and mellow, and consequently in the befl Hate for the nutrition of the plants, as well as for the roots fwelling out to their full fi/e. A third hoeing is commonly p radii fed fome time in June, according as the growth of the plants or weeds may require. In this, the weeds are to be com pletely removed ; and where the carrot plants (land double or too clofely toge ther, the weak eft plants are to be cut out, till the whole are left at their limited diftances. Further hocings rnay occafionally be rcquifite, of which the cultivator muft judge, as it is of the grearcft importance in this hufbandry to keep the land well flined and the crops perfectly clean, their goodnefs materially depending upon fuch operations being duly performed. In the drill method the intervals may be cleaned by a fmall light plough for the purpofc, or the horfe-hoe. Even when executed by the hand-hoe, before the plants appear, as has been pradtifed by fome cultivators, it may conftitute an advantage in the drill method.f The expence of this bufinefs is different in different fituations, according to the expertnefs of the perfons employed, and the method in which the work is performed. The average expence of different experimenters in various foils and iituations, as ftated by the intelligent editor of the Annals of Agriculture, is il. 1 6s. the acre ; but in Suffolk, where the culture is familiar, and the work of courfe executed with much facility and expedition, it only cods from i6s. to i8s. or a guinea the acre. It is the practice with many cultivators of this ufeful vegetable to let the roots remain in the foil during the winter feafon, to be taken up as they may be occa fionally wanted in the feeding of cattle or other animals. But as the crown of the root, by its retaining moifture, is not only extremely liable to rot and decay in thefe feafons, but the other parts of it from their faccharine quality to be greatly confumed by grubs or other infedls below the ground ; it is a cufrom that ought not to be recommended, efpecially as the crops can be preferved with the greateft eafc and fafety in any dry fituation under cover. The difficulty or impoflibility of getting up the roots in many cafes of hard froft or deep fnow, when they are wanted, alfo renders the cuftom highly injudicious and improper. The taking them out of the ground is, therefore, to be conftantly advifed. The proper pe- * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. f Legrund, in Annals of Agriculture. Cultivation of Arable Land. Carrots Taking up Crops of. 201 riod of performing the bufinefs is in September or October, when the tops firft begin to turn of a yellowifh colour, and to iofe their frefhnefs. Thcfc points fhould be nicely attended to ; as, if the work be delayed too long, much lofs will be fuftained, in the tops being confiderably decreafed in bulk, and rendered almoft incapable of being confumed by fvvine or neat cattle ; and when performed too early, the roots will not by any means keep fo well. In taking up the crops two methods have been practifed ; thofe of raifing the roots by means of the plough, and the fork. The firft is the moft expeditious, but the roots are apt to be much broken ; while by loofening the mould by three- pronged forks of fufficient length, and at the fame time drawing up the plants by the tops, they may be raifed with great facility, and without fuftaining injury. This method, though perhaps rather more expenfive, ought in general to be adopted. After being raifed from the ground, the roots mould be fuffered to remain in the field for two or three days, that they may become perfectly dry. With this intention they are fometirnes piled up in fmall heaps or wads. When fully dry, the tops are cut off, and the roots packed up in heaps with dry ftraw, or, when in fmall quantities, with dry fand, in fome dry clofe building, a good covering of the former being laid over them. This is the moft fecure method. But when the crops are extenfive, they are fometimes built up in the field or other convenient place, in rows or ridges, at the diftance of two feet from each other, tops outwards, with dry ftraw, to about four feet in height: the intervals being then fluffed, and the tops well covered over by it, fedge or fome other fimilar material being applied by way of thatch. The outfides are alfo protected by ftraw, kept clofe by means offtakes or hurdles.* In this mode, which can only be pracrifed in very dry fituations, there is a great lofs from the tops not being removed and eaten before they were put up. In dry fituations they may, however, be well pre- ferved without this trouble or expence, in fheds or other convenient places. But in whatever way they may be preferved, they fhould not be put up in too large quantities or too clofely together, as they are liable to be much injured by heating. The expence of taking carrots up muft vary much with the goodnefs of the crop, the nature of the land, &c. The average of feveral trials on different kinds of foil, under different forts of culture and management, and in different fituations, has been calculated at 17*. Sd. the acrc.t In many cafes it will not, however, * Annals of Agriculture, ro,l. II. t Ibid. vol. XXV. VOL. ii. D d $02 Cultivation of Arable Land. Carrots Taking up Craps ofE much exceed half the fum. Cleaning, topping, and carting in the fame trials, un der fimilar circum Ranees, were found on the average to be 155. 7^. the acre r the whole expence of procuring crops of this kind, in fuch cafes, being in the propor tion of fix pounds four {hillings and eleven pence the acre ; or, in relation to the quantity of produce afforded, about two pence three farthings- the bufhel : the quantity of produce, on an average of the whole of the different experiments, be- ingabout five hundred and twenty-nine bufhels the acre.* The expence of cultivat ing this root on a- poor fandy foil, not worth more than five (hillings the acre, is- ftated as below by the writer of the Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Suffolk :+ the produce in this cafe being about two hundred bufhels on-> the acre. The firfl coft, of courle, about three pence the bufhel. In medium crops of middling forts of land the produce may in general be from three hundred to three hundred and fifty bufhels on the acre,+ the expenses of cultivation being from three to four pounds. On comparing them, in thefe crops, with thofe of the turnip kind, the difference has, been found to be about one pound in favour of the latter.^ It is obvious from the above ftatements, that though the expences of carrot hu~ bandry are very conilderabte in moft forts of land, the largenefs of the produce, its utility in the feeding of various kinds of live flock, and the improved condition- in which the foil is left by it, warrant ks introduction, wherever the cultivator is poffeffed of thofe fandy or other defcriptions of foil that are fuitable for it, as the* mod advantageous that can bepurfued. The confumption of this fort of crop has been chiefly in the feeding of horfesj and the keeping of different forts of cattle, fheep, and hogs ; but as, from its firm- fiefhy nature, and its containing much faccharine matter, it is found to poffefs the- property of quickly rendering animals fat without being employed in very large * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. . s- d. + Deep ploughing once - - . - - o 7 0. ; Expence of feed and fowing -- - - - - 046" Hoeing - - - - - 1 1 Taking up and topping 5 loads, of forty bulhels each - - 050- Carting . . . . .. . 05O Bent, t)?the, and rates - - -- . 070 .2 9 Modern Agriculture, vol.11, Ibid. Cultivation of Arabic. Land. Carrots Application of Crops vf. 203 proportions, its mod advantageous application would fecm to be in that vie\v. It has indeed been obfcrved, on the authority of experience, that it may be made ufeof with the grcated profit in the fattening of bullocks.* And the experiments of other cultivators have fhewn, that in fattening other forts of animals it is equally if not more advantageors.f When madeufe of in this way, the quantity mud be proportioned to the fize of the animal, a fuitable proportion of good hay or cut chaff being employed at the fame time. In the early parts of the feafon, while the root is in its mod juicy (late, more of this dry food fhould be given than after wards, when much of it is diflipated by ekeping. This root is h ghly relilhed by ail forts of cattle ; ftore neat flock are found to thrive well upon it; and when given to milch-cows, the quantity of both milk and butter is faid to be greatly increafed, without their flavour being in any way- impaired ; but crops of this nature can perhaps only be employed in this way with profit under particular circumftances, as where there is not live flock to be fatten ed. In the fattening of llieep^t has been found in fomc diflricls to be particularly beneficial, one acre of it being equal to two and a half of turnips.^ Hogs readi ly become fat upon this food, when it is prepared by boiling ; but when given in a raw flate, it has not, in fome trials, anfvvered well; though in others the ani mals have foon been made fat by it. But the mod general confumption of carrot crops has been in the feeding of working horfes ; in which they have faved much corn, without the animals fuf. taining any inconvenience. In this application the general daily allowance is from forty to fifty pounds each horfe. When joined with cut chaff and a little hay, they are found to keep the animals in proper condition for performing all the different purpofes of farming labour. This fort of food is modly begun to be given them towards Chridmas, and continued till the latter end of April. It is fuppofed by fome, that it is better for fpring than winter ufe ; they of courfe give a much fmaller proportion at the latter feafon. This is probably owing only to the root being more frefh and fucculent, and of courfe requiring more dry food to be joined with it. The value of crops of this nature mud be different according to the way in which they are applied in their confumption. y The difference has been found * Correded Report of Suffolk. t Young s Eaftern Tour. J Modern Agriculture, vol. II. Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. p. 99. || In the trials of different experimenters, as llated by Mr. Young in the twentieth volume of the Annals of Agriculture, the refults were thefe : Dd 2 204 Cultivation of Arable Land. Carrots Utility of Crops of. to be from two-pence halfpenny to two (hillings ; but in general it may be from fix pence to eight pence or ten pence the bufhel, which on four or five hundred buftiels is confiderable. On the whole, from the facility of cultivating carrot crops, the little danger that attends them, their great application in feeding and fattening various kinds of animals, the vaft quantity of manure they produce, and their utility in prepar ing the land for grain, they may in general not only be confidered as fuperior to turnips, but much better adapted and more advantageous on all pure fands or light fandy loams. This is indeed ftill more fhewn by their having been found by experiment to be capable of being grown with profit in fucceffion on the fame land ;* as, though the cultivator may only have a fmall proportion of ground fuitable for this root, he may conftantly be provided with it. Notwith- itanding the neglect that has attended it, probably from its properties and value not having been well afcertained, it fhould be more generally cultivated wherever the foils are proper for it, not only as the means of faving the great confumption of oats and beans by horfes, but as of much utility in the feeding and fattening of different forts of live ftock. It feems probable too that carrots, after being prepared by boiling, might be converted to thepurpofes of fattening different kinds of poultry with great advan tage, as they are extremely fond of them. Parfhips have been found highly ufe- ful in this mode of application, as will be feen below. It has been attempted, in order to render the large tops of carrots ufeful, to convert them into a fort of hay, by mowing them over while green and juicy, without wounding the heads of the roots, and afterwards drying them on the ground. In this way two tons of fodder are faid to have been produced from an acre of land.-}- It is obvious, however, from plants of this fort taking in part of their nourifhment by their leaves, that if cut while perfectly green, much injury Value per bushel. Application. . s. d. Jn feeding all forts of cattle - - C-i The average in different ways - - - 010 In fattening oxen ... .. 6 In fattening hogs, boiled - - - - 020 Ufed initeiul of oats for horfes - - - - 6 In fattening hogs, raw - - 008 In fattening fheep - 004 * Young s Eaftcrn Tour, vol. IV. i Baker, in Tranfadions of Dublin Soioty, Cultivation of Arabic Land. Parfnips. 05 muft be done to the growth of the roots. But indrpendent of this, fuch a method muft be uneconomical from the great lofs that mud be fuftained in rendering the tops dry and proper for being put together in ftacks. It is a much lefs waftcful practice to take up fuch crops gradually, making ufe of the tops in the feed ing of hogs, neat cattle, horfes, or fheep: all of which are extremely fond of them. When it is thought neceffary to warn the roots before they are made ufe of in the feeding or fattening of animals, it may be performed with eafe and expedition in the lame manner as has been recommended for potatoes. Parfnips. This is another plant of the tap-rooted kind that has been occafion- ally cultivated, though in a very limited manner, for the purpofes of hufbandry. The garden parfnip * is the fort employed in field culture : which when properly cultivated has a long flefhy root, confiderably larger than the carrot, and equally fweet, nutritious, and juicy ; and, from its being capable of withftanding the fe- verity of the winter feafon, is probably better adapted to the northern parts of the ifland. From its eafy culture, and the great quantity of food that it affords, it would feem to demand more attention than has hitherto been bcftowed upon it by the Britifh farmer. The foils moft fuited to this plant are thofe of the rich, deep, mellow, loamy or fandy kinds, in which the roots can run down to a great depth, and diftend themfelves with facility. On the gravelly and the pure clayey foils they can ne ver be cultivated to much advantage-^ Whatever the nature of the foil may be on which this root is cultivated, it muft, in the fame manner as for carrots, be broken up to a confiderable depth, and have the mould brought into a fine ftate of pulverifation. In diftricts where the plant is grown for the purpofes of hufbandry, there are two different methods purfued : the firft is that of ploughing the ground by means of a light plough, which is regulated in the fore part by two wheels being fixed to it, one of which runs in the furrow, and the other on the unploughed land, the former being four teen or fifteen inches higher than the latter, and which opens down and turns the mould to the depth of about five inches ; after which, the furrow is dug down with a fpade, fo as to form a trench of about fixteen inches in depth, proceeding in the fame way till the whole of the field is prepared : but the latter, which is by means of two ploughs of different kinds, one following in the fame track after the other, is by much the moft expeditious and economical. The light plough * Pa&tinaca sativa. t Hazard, in Bath Papers. 206 Cultivation of Arable Land. Par pups Preparation o-f Land for Seed. juft defcribed anfwers very well in performing the fir ft p:irt of the operation ; but in the lecond, one ofthelrencb kind mull be made ufe of, by which the mould is railed from the bottom of the furrow made by the firft, ant! applied over the ilice it had turned up. In this way the foil is not only broken up to a great depth, but the furface left in a fine ftate of mould. Where this fort of tillage is practifed, the work is generally performed in the more dry forts of land about the middle of February; and in thofe that are retentive of moilhire, towards the latter end of March. The ground, after being thus expofed to the influence of the atmofphere for a week or a fortnight, is harrowed lightly over in order to render it fit for the feed. In fome cafes, however, a flight ploughing is given to the lands intended for this crop in September, the ufe of the other ploughs being had recourfe to in January in the fucceeding year. The principal object in this buli- ncfs is that of loofening and rendering the foil mellow to as great a depth as pof- fible. The ufe of manure is not in general fo ncceffary for this crop as many others ; but where the land is not in tolerably good heart, it fhould conftantly be employed in fuch proportions as may be thought fufficient. The well-rotted farm yard dung is in common the belt adapted to this crop, being turned into the foil by a light ploughing immediately before the time of putting in the feed. Seed. Seed for this crop mould be collected from the bed and mofl perfect plants, by tranfplanting,* in the manner that has been already directed for other forts of feed-crops ; and mould always be made ufe of while perfectly frefh, old feed frequently cither wholly failing or coming up with great irregularity. The proportion of feed that may be employed muft be different, according to the nature of the foil, and other circumrtances ; but in general about four-twelfths of a bufhel to the acre may be fufHcient.f Mr. Young advifes five pounds of feed to the fame proportion of land. Time and Mctbod of Sowing. The mod ufual period of putting this kind of crop into the ground is in the early part of the fpring, as foon as the frofts will admit of it ; as about the beginning or middle of February. It is, however, fometimes fovvn in the autumn of the preceding year, immediately after it has been ripened and collected from the plants, as about the beginning of September. It is contend ed that in this way the plants will appear more early in the following fpring; and of courfe become large and ftrong before any weeds rife to injure them: and that as the plants are in little or no danger from the feverity of the winter feafon, this is, oa * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. f Ibid. Cultivation of Arabic Land, Par/hips Time and Metlied of Jawing, soy the whole, the moft eligible period. Where the foil is, however, in a proper fhite of preparation, as there can be no apprehenfions of their being inconvenienced by the growth of weeds, the former may be the mofl fafe and convenient feafon for the purpofe. If the tranfplanting method be intended to be praclifed, which may perhapg- fometimes be attempted where the land cannot be got into a fuitable ftate of preparation for receiving the crops at the above period, but which does not in general anfwer with tap-rooted plants, the parfnip feed fhould bcfown at the time juft mentioned, upon fmall beds of good rich ground, rendered fine by repeated digging and raking, either in the garden, or the field in which they are afterwards to- be planted ; the feed in this cafe being fown thinly, and. the plants, where they ftand too clofely together on coming up, thinned out to proper di (lance?,, in? order that they may become ftrong at the time of tranfplanting in the fpring. The moft ufual method of fowing the parfnip feed is in broadcaft over the land, being afterwards covered in by means of a light harrow. It is probable that this fort of crop might be fown in rows, either by means of the drill machine, or by having fmall furrows made in the land and fowing the feed over it in the broadcaft method, afterwards lightly harrowing it into them.. In this mode, by having the rows at fufficient diftances, the crops might be kept more clean and at lefs expence than in the fimple broadcaft method.. In tranfplanting this fort of crop, great care fliould be taken to injure the roots; of the plants as little as poflible in drawing them from the feed-beds. They are then to be put into furrows made by the plough to the depth of five or fix inches*, at the diftance of eight or ten inches from each other, the plants being regularlv, difperfed along the rows for the purpofe. In performing this work, care fhould be taken that the roots of the plants are not bent, and that the plants ftand upright, their leaves being free from mould. After the earth has been brought about them,, which fliould be done by perfons immediately following the planters for the purpofe, the next row is to be put in in the fame manner,, at the diftance of eighteen inches from the former, and the whole field finifhed in the fame way,. The dibble is objected to in thefe cafes, on account of its rendering the ground hard,, and improper for being penetrated by the tender fibres of the roots of the plants.* This method of putting in parfnip crops is beft performed in the beginning of" April, if the ftate of the feafon will permit. In. diftddls where parfnips are much cultivated as a field crop, it is the commom * Bath Papers, 208 Cultivation of Arable Land* Parfnips After-culture of Crops of. practice to have beans at the fame time with them, either planted in fingle rows, at the diftance of four feet and a half, and about eight or ten inches from ea^h other, or double ones at the diftance of twelve feet and eighteen inches in the rows. In this manner two crops are obtained from the fame piece of ground ; but unlefs care be taken to remove the beans in good time, great injury may be done to the parfnips. As, though there may have been much leaf and ftcm before the roots of thefe plants begin to fwell out and acquire their fize towards Auguft, the beans ought never to be fuffered to remain longer than that period upon the ground.* It may, however, be better in many inftances, efpecially where they are cultivated in the drill method, to have only the parfnip crop ; as, while the land can be kept equally clean, the roots will probably be much larger in fize. After-Culture. Crops of this fort require to be kept perfectly clean and free from weeds during the early part of their growth; frequent hoeing and weeding are, therefore, to be pradlifed. Where cultivated in rows at fufficient diftances, the intervals may be cleaned by the plough or horfe hoe. It is fomctimes ufual, where this fort of crop forms a part of field hufbandry, to have recourfe to the harrow- before the procefs of hoeing or weeding is begun. This muft be performed about the time the feed firft begins to germinate ; as by harrowing too foon, the weeds will not have rifen, and if deferred too long, there will be danger of deftroying the buds of the parfnips. This is fuppofed more neceflary on the ftiffer forts of foil, as it renders them more eafily weeded. The firft weeding may be performed about the beginrj. tjrg or middle of May, according to the forwardnefs of the plants, being at this operation only partially thinrled out where they appear to ftand much too clofe together. The fame operation is to be again performed about the beginning of July ; when the plants muft be carefully fet out to the diftance of fix inches. This fort of work is executed either by means of a fmall fork with two prongs, or a kind of very fmall fpade having a fhort handle; the labourer, in making ufe of it, kneels on one knee, and holding it in his right hand, digs and turns the mould, while with his left he pulls up and removes the weeds.f After this fecond weeding nothing further is found requifite in the parfnip culture. As this fort of root ftrikes downwards to a great depth, and of courfe draws much of its nourilhment from below, it may with propriety be introduced after moft forts of fibrous-rooted crops. There is little hazard in the cultivation of parfnip crops, except from the falling of too much rain immediately after fowing, by which the feed may be in danger of being wafhed away ,- or, when dry weather * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. t Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Parsnips. Mangle JVurxcl* 209 fucceeds, from the baking of the land rendering the plants incapable of pufhing their roots fufficiently down. They are feldom injured by frofts or other caufes during the winter feafon, or liable to be deftroycd by any kind of infects. The produce of this fort of crop, when cultivated on a proper foil and in a fuitable manner, will, from the great fize of the roots, be probably equal if not greater than that of carrots. The application of this root is much the fame as that of the carrot. In the fattening of cattle it is found equal if not fuperior ; performing the buiinefs with as much expedition, and affording meat of exquilite flavour and a highly juicy quality. The animals eat it with much greedinefs. It is reckoned that thirty perches, where the crop is good, will be fufHcient to fatten an ox of three or four years old, when perfectly lean, in the courfe of three months. They are given in the proportion of about thirty pounds weight, morning, noon, and night ; the large ones being flit in three or four pieces, and a little hay fupplied in the intervals of thefe periods. When given to milch-cows with a little hay in the winter feafon, the butter is found to be of as fine a colour and as excellent a flavour as when feeding in the beft paftures.* Indeed, the refult of experiment has mown, that not only in neat cattle, but in the fattening of hogs and poultry, the animals become fat much fooner, and are more bulky, than when fed with any other root ,or vegetable. Befidcs, the meat is more fweet and delicate.f When chopped and ufed with dry cut meat:, horfc* are alfo faid to eat them freely and thrive well upon them. But, befidesthe root, the tops afford much green food for cattle and hogs, either after being cut off when taken up, or when confumed in the field. In the latter method the proper time of turning the animals upon them is when they firft begin to fhrink and grow dry.J In order to preferve them for fpring ufe, they may be dug up, in the fame man ner as carrots, in the clofe of the autumn, and be packed up in the fame wayi As this root is capable of being grown to advantage on foils that are too heavy for the carrot, and poflefTes equal, if not fuperior, properties for the feeding and fattening of various kinds of animals, it would feem to require more attention than has hitherto been beftowed upon it by cultivators. Mangle WurzeL This is another of the tap-rooted kind of plants that ha& been introduced into field culture.^ It is probably a variety of the common * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, tol, I. f Ibid, t Ibid. $ Beta major. VOL. ir. E e Cultivation of Arable Land. Mangle Wurzcl Seed, $c. beet. The plants grow to a large fize, both in their roots and tops, the former being of a whitifh red colour. The leaves in the latter are of an oblong ihape, extremely thick, flefhy, and fucculent. They are faid to be equal in quality to Spinach, and, from their frequently extending in length more than thirty inches, and in breadth above twenty, to greatly exceed that vegetable in point of produce. This, like all the other tap. rooted plants that have been employed for the purpofcs of huibandry, thrives beft in the deep, friable, fandy, or light loamy kinds of foil. In preparing the ground, it is necefTary to render it as deep and fine as pof- fible in the mould. This may be beft effected in the heavier forts of land, by means of trench ploughing, in the manner that has been recommended for the parfnip; and in thofe of the lighter kinds by repeated common deep ploughing. In both cafes the frequent ufe of the harrow will likewife be requifite. A pro portion of good manure fbould alfo be turned in, fo as to render the ground fufficiently rich for the perfect growth of the plants. After this, at the time of putting in the feed, the land mould be thrown into two-bout ridges, which leaves the tops about two feet in breadth and the furrows one. In this way a confiderable increafe in the depth of mould is provided for the roots of the plants. And in- foils that are in fome meafure retentive of moifture, the lands are kept by it much dryer, and in a ftate more fit for the growth of the plants. Seed> ar.d tme offowing. The feed mould be carefully felected from fuch plants as are the moft perfect of their kind, and that have been cultivated at a diftance jrom other forts. It fhould have arrived at a full ftate of ripenefs, and be made ufe of while frefh. The proper time for putting the feed into the ground, in the common method of lowing, is in the early part of the fpring, as fbon as the feafon will admit, as in the beginning or middle of April ? but where the tranf- planting method is intended, it fhould be fown much earlier, and very thinly, as the beginning of March, in order that the plants may be in a ftate to fet out early. Method offowing. The moft common method, where the furface of the land is flat, is to fow thinly over the ground, in the manner that is practifed for carrots, covering the feed in by means of very light harrowing. In this way the plants are afterwards fet out by the hoe. But where the land is raifed into ridges, in the manner juft defcribed, another mode is practifed ; the feed is dropped fingly by the hand into little holes made by a dibble to the depth of about half an inch all along the middle of them, at the diftanee of eight or nine inches from each other, the plants thus Handing at the diftances of three feet from row to row, and eight ar nine apart in them. But as it is not neceflary that they fhould ftand nearer. Cultivation of Arable Land. Mangle Wurzd After-culture, $c. 211 than fixteen or eighteen inches, every other plant may be removed, and ufcd for filling up the vacancies where they occur, or if not wanted in that way, wholly removed by the hoe. In this mode the intervals can be kept perfectly clean by the plough or horfe-hoe, and the rows by hand-hoeing. Where the practice of tranfplanting is adopted, the plants fhould be removed when not more than three or four inches in length, and be planted in rows upon ridges prepared as above, at the diftance of eighteen inches each way. In per forming the work the holes fhould be made fufficiently deep to admit the roots without their being bent. The tops of the plants may be taken off before planting; but the roots fhould not be touched, nor fhould they be put in too deep. A rather moid feafon fhould be chofcn, if poffible, for this bufinefs. But though the plants grow well in this method, the roots feldom become fo large as when they have remained in their original fituation-. After-Culture All that is necefTary in this crop is to fet out the plants to pro per diftances, where put in in the firft methods, and keep them clear and free from weeds by one or more hoeings, according to the manner of fowing that may have been practifed. The application of this vegetable has been chiefly in the feeding of neat cattle and hogs ; in which both the tops and roots have been employed, but without that fuccefs which might have been expected from the manner in which it was brought to the notice of cultivators. It is probable that, upon the whole, the root has neither been found to be equal in quality as a cattle food, nor to afford the quantity of produce, that was fuppofed on its firft introduction ; but, from its be. ing of a hardy nature, and not liable to be injured either by infects or the effects of drought, as well as from its leaves being capable of being repeatedly cut over,* it may be occafionally cultivated in fituations where green food is much wanted in the latter end of the year for milch-cows, or other forts of live flock. In fomc trials, the plants fecm, however, to have afforded a large produce in leaves, when gathered every two or three days from July till late in September, t Others have not found the whole produce in leaves and roots equal to that of the large cab bage on the fame kinds of foil, while the culture was confiderably more trouble- fomc and expensive, and the crop not fo ufeful for the purpofe of winter con- fumption. In the trials of an ingenious cultivator, the tops were found to be eat with * Where this practice is adopted, the roots will probably feldom rife to any great fize, f AnnaU of Agriculture, vols, XI. and XII. Jbid.Yol, XI. p. 53. 2 1 2 Cultivation of Arable Land. Lettuces Time and Method of Sowing. much greedincfs by cows, calves, and hogs, when cut green, during the latter part of the fummer and in autumn; but the roots were almoft wholly rejected at thefe periods, though in winter, after they had been taken up, they were eaten very well.* The roots frequently rife to the weight of from five to eight or ten pounds, according to the goodnefs of the land, and may be preferved in the winter by being taken up and packed in the manner that has been recommended for car rots. The chief objections to this vegetable as a field plant are, the great expence of its culture, its being liable to degenerate, and the fibrous nature of the roots render ing their preparation as cattle food troublefome. Lettuces. This fort of plants has been lately advifed for being cultivated as a good fummer food for pig flock, efpecially fows. There are many different foits of thefe plants, but that which is mod fuitable for this culture is probably the -white cofs, as growing freely and to a large fize, and being extremely fweet and nutritious. But many of the other forts may be grown. In the preparation of the land for this crop, Mr. Young advifes that the land fhould be ploughed before the frofts in winter, turning in about twenty loads of rich well-rotted dung per acre, forming the lands of the right breadths to fuit the drill machine and horfe hoes. In February and at the period of fowing, the land fhould have good fcarifyings given it, being well harrowed afterwards. Seed, and time of fowing. The feed (hould be fuch as has been provided frefh from the laft plants of the fort that may be made ufe of. The quantity of feed is moftly about three or four pounds to the acre. The f nvings may be performed at different times from the beginning of March to the latter end of April or later, in order to have a proper fucceflion of crops. Method of fowing. The feed is put in by means of the drill, in equidiftant rows at one foot apart, being covered in by means of a light bum or grafs har row. After- Culture. The plants mould be afterwards thinned out when they have attained a little growth to the diftance of about ten inches in the rows, by means of hand-hoeing, as where this is neglected they are apt to be drawn up weak, and never become good plants. This work may be well done by women. After they are about fix inches in height, they may be horfe-hoed by means of a fcari- fter or fcuffler, with the hoe four or five inches in breadth. They fhould * Wimpey, in Bath Paper*. Cultivation of Arable Land. Lettuces After-culture. 213 alfo be occafionally hoed, fo as to ftir and loofen the earth about them after wards. It has been recommended by the above cultivator that the farmer fhould pro. vide proper fucceflions of thefe vegetables, in order to prevent the great neceffity, for grains and corn in the feeding of hogs. Small portions of land may be at firft tried, in order to fee how the foil anfwers for this fort of crop. There can be no doubt of the nutritious properties of this fort of green food, or of its utility tor pig ftock, as they are extremely fond of it and thrive well upon it* . SECTION III. Cultivation of Arable Land. Plantation Crops. PLANTATION CROPS Nature and Ufesof. HEMP Nature of Lands pro- per for Growth of proper Preparation of- Proportion of Seed and Modes of f owing of long cultivated on fame, Land Methods of After-culture of Crops of what neceffary in Signs of Ripenefs ofJhouldfland longer when for Seed After-management of Produce of- by Dew-re ting by Watcr- reting latter better Method Modes of performing of Produce (f Crops of Expences of different Operations in Profit of considerable Manage ment of in feeding Crops of Proper Time of difpojing of Crops of-^may be a good Preparation for Wheat. FLAX Nature of Soils and Preparation proper for Crops of Crops grown after Proportion of Seed for beJIKinds of for the Baltic the American Times and Methods offowing Crops of Broadcajling Drilling what neceffary in proper Modes of After-cul ture for in different Cafes of Methods of pulling the Crops After ma nagement of Watering or reting what neceffary to attend to in Ripling Braking Scutching what neceffary in growing it for Seed Produce of Crops of Situations in which it may be grown to Advantage Cakes Jelly t Ufes of in fattening Animals. HOPS Nature of Kinds of Situations and Soils proper for Plantations of- planting out Sets Methods of perform ing of proper Dijlancesfor proper Pits for Jhould take no Crop thefirjl Year neceffary Attention to in fecond Year Poling, what to be regarded in picking)CircumJlances to be. regarded in drying the Hops Hop Kiln or Oafl Defer ipt ion of Bagging Goodnefs of Sample on what depends ft ack- ing Pohs removing Bind Produce of Crops of Expenccs and Profits of in different Diftricts dijferent Difeafes of Flea Green Fly Red Spider Otter Moth Honey Dew Fen Mould or Mildew Blights Blajl Remedies of in the different Cafes of different Advantages of Culture of.~WoA.D-Na- Cultivation of Arable Land, Plantation Crops Hemp* 215 t ure of Soil proper for Seed, Time and Modes of Solving proper After culture of gathering the Crop Preparation of the IVoad Advantages of. WELD Ufes of Land proper for proper Preparation of Soil for Quan tity of Seed Time and Modes of Sowing what neceflary in After-culture and Management of Crop of Produce of liable to be injured by Blight Advantage of Culture of. MADDER Nature of Land proper for pro- per Preparation of- Sets proper for Time and Methods of planting of Manner of in Holland proper Methods of After-culture of Crops of by the Spud Signs of left Madder to ft and for Seed what neceffary in how cul tivated to Advantage. TEASELS Ufes of Situation, Soil, and Preparation proper for Proportion of Seed Time and Modes of forcing of After culture proper for Preparation of- Produce of Profit and Advantages of Lands left in a proper State for Wheat Crops after. LIQUORICE Nature of PlantSoils moft "proper for the proper Preparationof Sets proper for Time and Modes of planting proper Culture in afterwards Methods of taking up the Roots Cafes in which capable of being grown to Advan tage* LAVENDER Utility and Advantages of Nature of Preparation and Soil proper for Time and Methods of Planting of After- culture and Management of Crops cf* JJESIDES the various kinds of crops that have been already defcribed, and which ferve either for the purpofe of human or cattle food, there are feveral others which are not applicable in thefe ways, but which are extenfively cultivated in different places, in order to be converted into different forts of manufactures, or for their application in the arts of brewing, dyeing, &c. Thefe, as they require particular modes of culture, and are frequently grown on the fame fpots of ground for a confiderable length of time, may with propriety be termed plantation crops. Hemp. This is a plant of the herbaceous fibrous -rooted kind,which has a thick ftrong ftem, that rifes to a confiderable height, and affords a rind or covering of a firm ftrong texture, that is valuable for the purpofe of being manufactured into cloth, cordage, &c. The foils moft fuited to the culture of this plant are thofe of the deep black putrid vegetable kind, that are low and rather inclined to moifture, and thofe of the deep, mellow, loamy, or fandy defcriptions. The quantity of produce is gene rally much greater on the former than on the latter;, but it is faid to be greatly inferior in quality. It may, however, be grown with fuccefs on lands of a lefs rich and fertile kind,, by proper care and attention in their culture and pre paration.. 2 1 6 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hemp.~~Seed, and Method of Solving. In order to render the grounds proper for the reception of the crop, they fhould be reduced into a fine mellow ftate of mould, and be perfectly cleared from weeds, by repeated ploughing. When it fucceeds grain crops, the work is moftly accomplifhed by three ploughings, and as many harrowings ; the firft being given immediately after the preceding crop is removed, the fecond early in the fpring, and the lafl or feed earth juft before the feed is to be put in. In the laft ploughing, well rotted manure, in the proportion of fifteen or twenty, or good compoft in the quantity of twenty-five or thirty three-horfe-cart loads fhould be turned into the land, as without this it is feldom that good crops can be produced. The furface of the ground being left perfectly flat, and as free from furrows as poflible; as by thefe means the moifture is more effectually retained, and the growth of the plants more fully promoted. Seed, and method of f owing. It is of much importance in the cultivation of hemp crops that the feed be new and of a good quality, which may in fome meafure be known by its feeling heavy in the hand, and being of a bright fhining colour. The proportion of feed that is moft commonly employed is from two to three bufhels, according to the quality of the land ; but as the crops are greatly injured by the plants ftanding too clofely together, two bufhels or two bufhels and a half may be a more advantageous quantity. As the hemp plant is extremely tender in its early growth, care mould be taken not to put the feed into the ground at fo early a period as that it may be liable to be injured by the effects of frolt, nor to protract the fowing to fo late a feafon as that the quality of the produce may be affected. The beft feafon, on the drier forts of land, in the fouthern diflricts, is probably as foon as poflible after the frofts are over in April j and, on the fame defcriptions of foil, in the more northern ones, towards the clofe of the fame month, or early in the enfuing one : but when the ground is more inclined to moifture, it may be a better practice to delay the lowing to a later period in both cafes, choofing, if poflible, a time when the land is neither too dry nor too moiit for performing the bufinefs. Sowing as early as poflible is, however, in general, to be preferred; as where this is the cafe, by the crops becoming more ftrong and vigorous in the early part of their growth, the hemp is found to withftand the various operations that are afterwards to be per formed upon it in a better manner.* * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. Cultivation of Arable Land. Hemp. After culture of Crops of. 2! 7 The moft general method of putting crops of this fort into the foil is the broad- cad, the fred being difperfed over the furface of the land in as even a manner as pofilble, and afterwards covered in by means of a very light harrowing. It is probable, however, that in many cafes, efpecially where the crops are to Hand for feed, the drill method in rows at fmall diflances might be had recourfe to with advantage ; as in this way the early growth of the plants would be more effectu ally promoted, and the land be kept in a more clean and perfect (late of mould, which are circumftances of importance in fuch crops. In whatever method the feed is put in, care mud conftantly be taken to keep the birds from it for fome time afterwards. This fort of crop is frequently cultivated on the fame piece of ground for a great number of years, without any other kind intervening j* but in fuch cafes manure mult be applied with almoft every crop in pretty large proportions, to prevent the exhauftion that muft otherwife take place. It may be fown after jnoft forts of grain crops, efpecially where the land poflefTes fufficient fertility, and is in a proper ftate of tillage. After-Culture. As hemp, from its tall growth and thick foliage, fbon covers the furface of the land, and prevents the riling of weeds, little attention is ncceffary after the feed has been put into the ground, efpecially where the broadcaft method of fowing is practifed ; but when put in by the drill machine, a hoeing or two may be had recourfe to with advantage in the early growth of the crop. In the culture of this plant it is particularly necelTary that the fame piece of land contains both male, and female, or what is fometimes denominated fimble, hemp* The latter kind contains the feed. When the crop is ripe, which is known by its becoming of a whitilh yellow colour and a few of the leaves beginning to drop from the Items, and is common ly about thirteen or fourteen weeks from the period of its being fown, according as the feafon may be dry or wet, the firlt fort being moltly ripe fome weeks be fore the latter, the next operation is that of taking it from the ground, which is effected by pulling it up by the roots in fmall parcels at a time, by the hand, taking care to make off the mould well from them before the handfuls are laid down. In fome districts the whole crop is pulled together, without any diltinc- tion being made between the different kinds of hemp; while in others it is the practice to feparate and pull them at different times, according to their ripenefs.f * Mr. Young, in the Agricultural Report of Suffolk, has remarked it to have been grown in fuo ceffion for feventy years together. t Correfted Report of Suffolk. VOL. II. F 2 IS Cultivation of Arable Land. Hemp After-management of Crops of. The latter- is obvioufly the better practice ; as by pulling a large proportion of the crop before it is in a proper Mate of maturity, the quantity of produce muft not only be confiderably lefTened, but its quality greatly injured, by being rendered lefs durable.* The expence of this operation varies confiderably in different diftricts ; in fome it amounts to eighteen or twenty {hillings, while in others it is equally well performed for eleven or twelve. After being thus pulled it is tied up in fmall parcels, or what are fometimes provincially termed .baits. But where crops of this kind are intended for feeding, they mould be fufFered to (land till the feed becomes in a perfect (late of maturity, which is eafily known by the appearance of it on inflection. The (terns are then pulled and bound up as in the other cafe, the bundles being fet up in the fame manner as grain, until the -feed becomes fo dry and firm as to (lied freely; it is then either immediately threfhed out upon large cloths for the purpofe in the field, or taken home to have the operation afterwards performed. The after-management of hemp crops varies greatly in different places where their culture is encouraged ; in fome it is the practice to only what is called dew ripen or ret the produce, while in others the general cuftom is to water ret it. In the former method, the hemp, immediately after being pulled, is carefully fpread out in a very even, regular, and thin manner, on a piece of level old pafture, on which it is to remain for five, fix, or more weeks, according to circumfhinccs, being occafionally turned during the time. When the weather is (howery, this is moftiy done three times in the week ; but in other cafes twice is commonly fufficient. When the rind or hempy fubftance becomes eafily feparable from the woody part or ftem, it is taken up and tied into bundles, either to be (lacked up on the fpot, or carried home and placed in fome convenient fituation, where it may remain until it can be manufactured. In this procefs, which is termed grafting t great attention is requifite to prevent the texture of the hemp from being injured by its remaining too long on the grafs. But the latter practice is much better and more expeditious, as well as more general. In this the hemp, as foon as pulled, is tied up in fmall bundles, fre quently at both ends. It is then conveyed to pits or ponds of ftagnant water about fix or eight feet in depth, fuch as have a clayey foil being in general pre ferred, f and depofited in beds, according to their fize and depth ; the fmall bundles being laid in both a (traight direction and croffwife of each other, fo as to bind * Modern .Agriculture, vol, 111, + Corrected Report of Suffolk, Cultivation of Arable tetnd.Hempdfter management .of Crops of. Jiy per feel !y together; the \vholc being loaded with timber or other material, fo as to keep the beds of hemp juft below the furface of the water: the quantity of art acre, or three final 1 waggon-loads,, being in fome inftances piled in one bed ; but as the action of the atrnofpheric air is elTemially necefiary to produce that degree of putrefaction which is requifue for deft roy ing the frmll fibres and vegetable gluten by which the bark or hempy fubftance adheres to the bun or ftem, it may be more advantageous to build them in much fmallcr beds; as by fuch means the bufmefs may not only be more expeditioufly accomplished, but the danger of rotting the hemp too much prevented. And on the fame principle the depth of the ponds mould not exceed the dirnenfions given above. It is not ufual to> water more than four or five times in the fame pit, till it has been filled with frefn water.* Where the ponds are not fufficiently large to contain the whole of the produce at once, it is the practice to pull the hemp only as it can be admitted into them, it being thought difadvantageous to leave the hemp upon the ground after being pulled. It is left in thefe pits four, five, or fix days, or even more, according to the warmth of the feafon, and the judgment of the operator, on his examining whether the hempy material readily feparates from the reed or Mem ; and then taken up and conveyed to a pafture field which is clean and even, the bundles being loofed and fpread out thinly ftem by ftem, turning it every fecond or third day, efpecially in damp weather, to prevent its being injured by worms or other infects. It fhould remain in this fituation for two, three, four, or more weeks, according to circumflances, and be then collected together when in a per fectly dry ftate, tied up into large bundles, and placed in fome fecure building until an opportunity is afforded for breaking it in order to feparate the hemp. By this means the procefs of graffing is not only ftiortened, but the more expenfive ones of breaking, fcutching, and bleeching the yarn, rendered lefs violent and troublefome. Befides, the hemp managed in this way fells much dearer than, that in the former method. After the hemp has been removed from the field, and the bufinefs of graffing properly performed, it is in a ftate to be broken and fwingled ; operations that are moftly performed by common labourers, by means of machinery for the purpofe, the produce being tied up in ftones. The refufe collected in the latter proceffes is denominated Jbeaves> and is in fome diftricts em ployed for the purpofes of fuel, being fold at two pence the ftone.-|- After having undergone thefe different operations, it is ready for the purpofes of the ma* nufa&ureri * Correaed Report of Suffolk. t Ibid. Ff2 220 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hemp Produce and Expences of. The produce of hemp crops is extremely variable and uncertain. In Suffolk it fometimes rifes to forty-five and fifty, or even more, flones on the acre; but in other cafes it does not much exceed half thefe quantities. The average of crops of this fort, when made ready for the heckle, is dated by a late writer to be from hirty-eight to forty ftones of fourteen pounds each. The price is generally from about fevcn (hillings and fix pence to eight or nine millings the (tone, exclufive of the bounty allowed by government, which often amounts to fifteen or twenty (hillings the acre more.* When fold on the ground as the crop (lands, it generally fetches in Suffolk about one milling the rod, or eight pounds the acre. In cafes where the hemp (lands for feed, the moft common proportion is from about eleven to twelve bumels on the acre, the price being from four or five to fix fhillings the bufhel. The expences of cultivating and managing the different operations in crops of the hemp kind, from their requiring the bed forts of foil, much manure, and great attention and trouble, muft of neceffity be confiderable. From the fiatements of the able writer of the Survey of the County of Suffolk, they however appear highly beneficial to the cultivator. They arc as below ;f but it is obvious that they mud be liable to vary greatly according to circumftances. * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. t At Hoxne the expences and profit were found to ftand thus : EXPENCES. . s. d. Rent, ty the, and rates - - 1 10 Manure, 25 load*, at Is. 6d. - - 1176. Three earths, at 4d. harrowing included - 12 Seed ... o 16 6 Sowing - -- .. . 006 Pulling - 12 10 Watering - - - -0120 Grading - - 10 Breaking - - - -2 12 6 Carriage and delivery - *f . 9 8 10 PRODUCE. Forty-five ftone, at 7s. 6d. - . l6 17 6 Expences - - - 9 * 1O Profit ~ - - . 7 8 8 Cultivation of Arable Land*-~Hemp &i pences r/. 2J!l Though the profit on hemp may appear confiderable in thefe cftimates, its cultivation has not increafed in any very rapid manner ; which is probably owing to its requiring a larger proportion of manure than can commonly be fpared from the other forts of crops, as well as its demanding a great and conftant attention through the whole of its management, which frequently interferes with the other operations of the farmer. In diftricts where its culture is the moft extended, it would feem, however, to be of great utility and advantage to the poor, by afford ing them much employment in the different procefles and manipulations through which it is neceffary for it to pafs before it becomes in a ftate fit for the manu facturer. When hemp crops ftand for the purpofe of procuring the feed, they fhould remain upon the ground till perfectly ripe; when, after being pulled, the produce ftiould be placed thinly upon its root end againft a wall, paling, or other convenient fituation, according to the ftate of the weather, until it becomes quite dry : the top parts containing the feed are then cut off, the feed being threfhed out immediately and cleaned ; as when it is fuffered to remain any length of time in its moift unclcaned ftate, its colour is liable to be much injured, and the fubftance fo much impaired as not only to be improper for the purpofe of fovving, but on But at Beccles, where a very different mode of calculation takes place, and rent is valued, they were thefe : EXPENCES. . S. d. Rent, tythe, and rate* - - 4 Manure - 3 O Tillage - 140 Seed, twelve pecks ~ 1 16 Pulling - - 19 Watering - 12 Grafting . - - - 10 Breaking - 1 12 Fifty ftone, at 8< 20 Expences 14- 11 Profit - - . . .590 Cultivation tif Arable Lattd.*-Hcmpi)fflf>jpng of Crops of. Flax. being crulhed for oil to afford a Icfs quantrty,and fuch as is of an inferior quality,* The buns or ftcms of the hemp may afterwards cither be put into the pond to be watered, or dew retted in the manner defcribed above : the former practice is,, however, in general to be preferred ; as where the latter is adopted the hercpy fubftancc feldom becomes of fo good a colour. f According to a late writer the mod advantageous period for the farmer to difpofe of hemp crops, is while they it-main upon the ground, ju ft before the feafon of pulling them ; as by this means he avoids the trouble and uncertain expence of the different operations which are requifite in its preparation for the market, and v.hich are fo liable to interrupt his ether bufinefs. In cheap populous diftricts,, where the foil is fuitable, and there is a large extent of grafs or other forts of green- crops in proportion to the arable, hemp crops may probably be introduced and cultivated to great profit by the attentive farmer ; but while the demand for grain continues fo great, it is not very likely that its culture fhould become extenfive in ether fituations. As hemp, from Its growing to a great height and being very (Lady in the leaf, leaves the land in a perfectly clean condition, it- may, where the foils are proper,, be an excellent preparation for wheat crops ; and where they are too light for that fort of grain, barley or turnips may be had recourfe to with advantage. The hemp produced in this kingdom is in general confidered as fuperior to that imported from abroad, and of courfe more proper for being converted into the various finer forts of cloths and cordage. Flax.. This is another plant of the fibrous-rooted kind, cultivated in the field : for the purpofe of the cortical fubdance covering the fiem and the feed. It is the common flax plantj that is employed in this culture, which rifes in ftem to the height of from two to three feet. The foils mod fuitable for crops of this fort are thofe of the more deep and friable loamy kinds, and fuch as contain a large proportion of vegetable mould in their compofition. On drong loamy clays that have been well broken down and reduced by tillage, they have alfo been found to anfwcr well. The fandy or very light gravelly lands are feldom found to fucceed well with flax crops. But whatever the nature of the foil may be, it fhould neither contain too large a proportion of moidure nor be too dry; but have the mould in a fine and well pulverifed condition. Such lands * Farmer s Magazine, vol. I. t Corre&ed Report of Suffolk. | Litwm witatwiimum. Cultivation of Arable Land. Flax Preparation of Land for Seed. 223 as arefituatcd rather low, as upon the banks of rivers, are found by cultivators to be well adapted to the growth of flax. It has indeed been contended by fome, that where the foil contains water at no great depth below the furface, it is the moft beneficial for the growth of this crop j as in thofe parts of Holland and the Low- countries where it is grown in the greateft perfection, the ground is always found to be deep, and rather inclined to ftiffnefs and the retention of moifture at fome depth below the furface. The lands for this crop fhould neither be in too rich nor too poor a condition : as when the former is the cafe the flax is apt to grow too luxuriantly, and of courfeto produce a coarfe fort; and on the contrary, where they are in the latter fituation, the plant by growing weakly affords only a fmali produce. In the preparation of the land, as it is neceffary that it Ihould be made perfectly fine in the mould, it muft be repeatedly ploughed over, and broken down by harrowing. When the land is to be broken up from the (late of fward, the firft. ploughing mould be given late in the autumn, and be left in that condition till the beginning of the fucceeding year ; when it Ihould be well reduced by harrowing with a pretty heavy harrow, and afterwards, in the courfe of a week or two, ploughed over a fecond time, in which fituation it may be left till the period of putting in the feed, when it ought to be again harrowed over by a lighter harrow, and ploughed with a very light furrow : but where flax is fown after grain or other forts of crops that keep the land in a clean ftate, the firfl: ploughing need not be given until the beginning of the year, in which ftate it may remain till it becomes tolerably dry in the early fpring, when it muft be well broken down by harrowing and rolling, and after it has continued in that fituation for eight or ten days or more, according to circumftances, the land will be ready for the feed, or, if not perfectly fine, another light ploughing and harrowing may be given previous to the putting in of the feed. Flax crops are cultivated after moft forts of grain, as wheat, rye, and oats, as well as after different kinds of green crops, as turnips, potatoes, and feveral others, but when put in after the latter the flax in general fucceeds the beft. Seed That which is frefti and fufficiently ripened mould conftantly be prefer red ; which is known by its being more bright and mining in its colour, more oily in the feel, and more weighty in the hand. Seed of home produce is fome- times made ufe of for fowing ; but more generally that which is imported from other countries, as Holland, the Baltic, and America ; that brought from the firft is, however, moftly held in the higheft eftimation, from its quality of ripen ing more early than the others, and affording a more abundant produce of that 24 Cultivation of Arable Land. Flax Quantity of Seed. fort of flax which is mod ufcful in the different manufactures ; that brought from the Baltic is fupp^fed to produce a coarfer fort of flax, but a larger proportion of feed/ than any of the other kinds. The American feed yields in general a flax fufficiently fine j but the feed pods being fmali, there is not fo large a quantity of feed obtained from it. In Yorkfhire they frequently fow the feed of home produce for white flax ; but where feed is intended to be taken, the Baltic fort is preferred, which, for the- fucceeding and a year or two afterwards, is found to anfwer well as white flax. And in the northern paits of the kingdom it is often a practice- to fbw feed obtained from the crop of the preceding year, efpe- cially where it w*s raifed from imported feed. It is fuppofed by the cultivators of this fort of crop, that thrir fuccefs in raifing it depends greatly on the feed being frequently changed, and fuch as is imported from abroad being made ufe of. It is probable, however, that if that felected from the fined and mod per fectly ripened feed of our own growth was employed, it would be equally productive both in the flaxy fubdance and the quantity of feed, and at the fame time afford the lormer of an equally good quality for all the purpofes of the manufacturer. In Ireland they prefer the American feed for their lighter and more elevated grounds, and ihe Dutch or Baltic for thofe of the more heavy kind.* Quantity of feed, The proportion of feed is variable according to the cir- cunidances of the foil, the ufes to which the produce is to be applied, and the method of fowing that is practifed; but in general from two bufhels to two and a half may be confidered as diffident for the acre, when fown in the broad- caft manner. It- mould never be ibwn very thick, except where the flax is re quired to be very fine in quality. For, when the feed is fown too thick, the plants, from being fo clofe together, are liable to be drawn up to a great height and become weak, consequently to fall down upon the ground in cafe of much wet weather, and the produce be thereby greatly injured in its colour and other properties. But in the drill mode of fowing, a much lefs proportion of feed will be found fufBcient. If the didance of the rows be eighteen or twenty inches, lefs than one half of the above quantity will anfwer the purpofes of the cultivator. In (hort, where the crop is intended to dand for feed, in whatever manner the fowing is performed, a much lefs proportion of feed ftiould be employed than where the flax is the chief object. * Martyn s edition of Miller s Di&ionary, art. Lin urn* Cultivation of Arable Land. Flax Seed Time- and Method of fowing. 225 Time and method of fowing. The period of putting flax crops into the ground is different, according to the fituation and nature of the foil; but from the be ginning of March to the middle of April may in general be confidered as the mofl proper feafon. In Yorkfhire, when this crop is cultivated upon land broken up from the ftate of grafs, the feed is moftly fown before the fecond week in April, if the weather will admit of it;* and on fuch lands as have been in the Mate of tillage, the period of fowing is feldom protracted more than a week or ten days longer. Early fowing, where it can be fafely adopted, has the advantage of enabling the flax plants to cover the ground well before they can fuftain much injury from thofe of the weed kind, or from the effects of the dry hot fummcr feafon. The broadcaft method of fowing is that which is the moft generally em-- ployed in putting crops of this fort into the ground, cfpecially where they are intended only for the purpofe of flax ; but where the feed is the chief object, they are fometimes put in in the drill method : and it is contended by forne that in this way better feed may be produced, than by the former mode; as where the feed is fcwn thickly the plants run up more in height, and produce a flaxy fubftance which is of an extremely fine and foft quality; but the feed, from the weaknefs of the plants, is fmall in the grain, and not large in quantity; while, on the contrary, when fown thinly the (terns of the plants, not riling fo high, are more ftrong and vigorous, fending off more numerous branches towards the top, by which not only a greater abundance of feed is afforded, but fuch as is much better filled, and more plump and heavy. In fowing the crop in the firft method, much care is necefTary in the feedf- man to diftribute the feed over the furfaceof the land in as regular and uniform a manner as poflible, as without this care the crop will fuftain great injury by coming up too clofely together and in tufts. It is afterwards to be harrowed in by one or two light harrowings in a place; or, where the furface of the ground has been rendered very fine and even, a bufh-harrow may anfwer the purpofe equally well. The feed mould not in either way be covered in too deeply, as the quick vegetation of the crop may by fuch means be too much retarded. Where the drill is employed, the diftances of the rows may vary according to the circumftances of the foil, or the intentions of the cultivator; but when the crop is to be -kept clean by the hand-hoe, fmall intervals, as twelve inches, are moftly recommended ; but where horfe-hoes or cultivators are to be made ufe of, inter- * Corrected Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkfliire. VOL. II. Gg 226* Cultivation of Arable Land. Flav After-culture of Crops of. vals of eighteen or twenty inches, or perhaps more, may be proper, care being taken that the machine does not depofit the feed to too great a depth in the foil. After the operation has been performed, a bum-harrow, or light harrow of the common kind, may be once pafTed over the furface juft to render it even. When the foil is of a dry kind, and the feafon is inclined to be dry, in either method of fowing it may be advifeable to pafs a light roller over the ground immediately after the feed has been put in, in order that the moifture may be more effectually prefer ved. After-Culture. Although it is feldom the practice of the cultivators of flax crops to weed them, efpecially when fown in the broadcalt method, yet as the plants are extremely tender in their early growth, and of courfe liable to be much injured and retarded in their vegetation by the rifing of weeds, a hand-hoeing or weeding mould conftantly be given them, as foon as the plants are fully come up and fliew themfelves. This is particularly neceffary where proper attention has not been beftowed in cleaning and preparing the ground by repeated ploughing, harrowing, and carrying off or burning the weedy materials. In performing the bufinefs of weeding great care mould be taken that no injury be done by cutting up or treading under foot the flax plants. It is perhaps only by keeping the land perfectly clean and free from weeds in this way, during the early growth of the plants, that good crops of this kind can be produced. It is recommended that this operation mould be performed as foon as the flax plants have advanced three or four inches in height, the weeds that are drawn out being carefully picked up and conveyed from the land.* By having the foil well prepared before the feed is put in, much expence in this way may, however, be avoided. In the drill method of fowing, where narrow intervals are preferred, the crop is moftly kept clean by the ufe of the hand-hoe; but where the diftances of the rows are larger, a fmall plough, the horfe-hoe, or what is termed a cultivator, may be made ufe of in order to preferve the land in a perfectly clean condition. A fort of triangular harrow has alfo been found to be a very convenient tool for this purpofe. From its having handles behind, it is capable of being guided with facility, and at the fame time made to pafs deeper or fhallower, according to circumflances, without the danger of railing the mould againft the rows of the plants. In this way the bufinefs may be accomplished by one horfe at but little expence, much ground being gone over in a fmall fpace of time. In thefe * Modern Agriculture, vol. Ill, Cultivation of Arable Land. Flax Pulling of Crops of. 297 cafes, however, the rows mufl be cleaned by means of hand- weeding, which is ac compli (lied with much lefs difficulty and harm to the crops, from the room that is afforded by the intervals. No other fort of plant mould ever be grown with that of flax, though fuch methods may have been in feme Lnflances practifed, as the crops in fuch cafes mufl always be in danger of being greatly injured. The young flax plants are fometimcs liable to be deflroyed or greatly injured in their growth by the attacks of infects; where this is the cafe, it has been found ufeful to fow foot or wood afhes thinly over the crops, as from the vegetation of the plants being in this way promoted, they become improper for the food of fuch animals. As crops of this kind, from the tallnefs of their growth, are apt to fall down and lodge upon the ground, by which the flaxy fubftance is liable to be injured in its colour and other properties, it has been propofed to fupport and keep them up by means of long flender poles, or fmall cords, pafTed in different directions of the ground, and fixed at the angles by flakes. Thefe methods are, however, troublefome ; and when the crops are not fown too thick, will feldom or ever be neceffary. The cultivators of flax crops are not yet fully decided in refpect to the degree of ripenefs at which they may be pulled with the greatefl benefit; forne con tending that it ought to be done before the greennefs of the flems wholly dif- appears, in order that the fibres of the flax may be finer and have a greater de gree of foftnefs. Others with fimilar intentions maintain, that it mould be pulled before the feeds are perfectly formed ; while others again infifl that the opera tion mould not be performed until fome of the capfules containing the feed begin to open, afferting that the fibres of green flax are not only tender b ut run too much to tow. But, notwithflanding this, experience has fliewn that the fibres of over- ripened flax are conflantly harfh,and poflefs too great a degree of fliffnefs; and befides, feparate from the reed with more difficulty, and are more tedious in the operation of bleaching. Hence it would feem that both extremes ought to be carefully avoided, and that the mofl proper period for accompli fhing the bufi- nefs is immediately on the flem or reed beginning to change from green to a yellowifh cafl, and the lower leaves to fall off, the feed afTuming a brownifh colour. Where the feed is the principal object of the grower, the crop fliould, however, befufFered to remain upon the ground until it becomes perfectly ripened, which is eafily known by the feed-pods turning hard and (harp in the points, and the Gg 2 Cultivation of Arable Land.~-Flav Rippling of, capfules beginning to crack and open. This generally happens towards the latter end of July or beginning of Auguft. In pulling, the flax is laid in fmall parcels or beats upon the furface of the ground, in fuch a pofition as that it may have the full benefit of the fun. It is then to be tied up, and conveyed as foon as poffible to the place of watering, As where this fort of crop is cultivated upon a large fcale, from the great differ ence in the foil and other caufes, there will be considerable variations in the quality of the flax, fome being fine, others coarfe; fome long, and others fhort ; care mould be taken at the time of pulling to feparatc and put the different forts together ; as by this means the injuries fuftained by fubjecting flax of fuch different qualities to the fame operations and proceffes may be avoided. It has been remarked by an intelligent writer, that inattention in flax cultivators to this neceffary precaution, is the chief caufe why crops of this kind often turn out of fo little value, and the principal reafon of the fmallnefs of the proportion of fuch flax as is of a good quality in comparifon with that of the tow or inferior fort : the different manu facturers, in the courfe of their operations, being under the neceflity, on account of the mixed condition in which they receive it from the cultivators, to reduce the quality of the whole to a much lower degree than would be requifite if the different kinds were forted at the time of pulling the crops, and delivered under fuch circumftances.* When the feed is intended to be faved, it is the ufual practice in pulling the crop to place the handfuls partly acrofs each other, as by this means the bufinefs of rippling is greatly facilitated, the operators not having the trouble of feparating them from the large bundles. The operation of rippling mould be performed as foon as poflibleafter the crops have been pulled. This is accomplimed by means of a fort of iron comb with ftrong triangular teeth of considerable length, fet upright, pretty clofely together, and fixed upon a ftrong flat piece of wood, fo as that the operators can fit at each end, and by frequently flriking the feed- end of the flax upon it, and pulling it through with rapidity, the feed pods are forced off with much expedition, and in a very perfect manner. Where the feed thus obtained is intended to bepreferved, a large cloth fhould be fpread out previoufly in fome convenient fituation for the purpofe of receiving it from the ripple, and it fhould be immediately afterwards fpread cut thinly, and expofed to the fun, till the capfules containing it become perfectly r rifp and dry j they are then to be broken and the feed feparated from them by * Donaldfon s Prefent State of Agriculture, vol. III. Cultivation of Arable Land. Flax Water-retting. lightly threfhing or treading upon them ; the whole of which being afterwards well cleaned by winnowing and fifting, and laid up in a dry room. And when a large quantity is put together, it mould at firft be frequently turned over in order to prevent its being injured by heating. The feed which is procured from fuch crops as are intended for flax, and which have not Hood till it is perkxSHy ripened, may be collected and fold for the purpofc of having the oil expreffed from it; but it is improper for ufe as feed. Some experienced cultivators of Max, when grown for feed, fet up the produce/ when ried into (heaves, in the manner of grain, and when it is become perfectly dry, have it (lacked up until the enfuing fpring, when, by placing the tops of the fheaves towards each other.and making ufe of a roller, tne feed is eafily forced out. In this way more time is fuppofed to be allowed for the after-ma lag-ment.* In mod diftricts where much attention is bellowed, it is 1 kewife the practice, even when the crops are only cultivated for the purpofe of the flax, to ripple off the feed pods before the bufmefs of watering is commenced ; as it is found from experience, that when it is put into the water without this having I een done, the water, irom its quickly becoming putrid, is liable to do much injury to the flax. The ftem parts are tied up into fmall parcels containing two or three handfuls, in a rather loofe manner, in order to their being carried to the pond for the purpofe of watering, which is the next operation that becomes neceffary. The intention of this procefs is that of inducing a flight degree of putrefaction, by which the fubftance that unites the flaxy material to the ftem or reed is deftroyed, and the flax of courfe rendered eafily feparable. In this crop, as in that of hemp, there are two methods practifed for the purpofe of accomplifhing the bufinefs ; one of which is immerfing it in ponds of ftagnant water for fome time, and the other by expofing it to the influence of the atmofphere till the fame circumftance takes jJace. The former is the moft general practice, and com monly efteemed more certain as well as more fafe from injuring the flax j the exact point of putrefaction that is requinte not being fo eafily afcertained in the latter method. Whichever practice is adopted, the length of time which is required for accompliming the purpofe, depends confiderably upon the (late of ripenefs at which the crop has been pulled, the quality and temperature of the water in which it is placed, and the moifture or drynefs and warmth of the feafon in which it is expofed. * Perth Correded Report, 330 Cultivation of Arable Land. FlaxDetv-rttting of. In water-rating the flax, ponds of ftagnant foft clear water are conftantly prefer red, as being found much fuperior to thofe of other kinds. The greater the degree of warmth the water has attained before the flax is immerfed in it, the fooner the procefs is effected, the heat of the water greatly promoting the perfect reparation of the harl or flaxy material from the reed. The rule for judging when the flax has undergone a fuflficient degree of maceration in the water, is that of the cuticle or fkin readily peeling off from the bun or (talk the whole length ; the latter breaking as if rotten, and appearing of a deep yellow colour. The manner of depofiting the flax in the water is much the fame as that al ready defcribed for hemp : in forne cafes, however, inftead of the fmall bundles of flax being placed croffways over each other, they are fet in an erect pofition, the tops of every layer except the loweft being upwards. And inftead of keep ing the whole down below the furface of the water by (tones, wood, or other heavy materials, earth is made ufe of, to the depth of a few inches, and men em ployed to tread the whole down occafionally once or twice a-day at firft, fo as to keep it from riling above the furface ; as when that happens, the flax becomes "black and the fale is injured.* The firft feems, however, the moft fimple and -eafy method. After having thus remained in the water a proper length of time, as five, fix, or more days, according to the particular circumftances of the cafe, the flax is taken from the pits by means of drags, and laid on the fides perfectly ftraight for a few hours, in order that it may become fomevvhat dry ; it is then removed to a pafture or grafs field that has been lately mown, where it is to be fpread out "thinly in rows in as even and regular a manner as poflible, each row overlapping the other a few inches, in order the better to prevent their being difturbed by the wind. When left in lumps and not fpread evenly, the flax is liable to become green, and never afterwards to be capable of being made a good colour. After having remained in this fituation for a few days, it fhould be turned, which is belt done after a mower or two of rain. When the colour is become perfectly bright and even, and the cuticle or {kin begins to rife, blifter, and feparate from the ftem or reed, it is ready to be taken up. For this bufinefs a fine dry day fhould be chofen, if poflible; and the flax, after being bound into pretty large bundles, may either be ftacked up for ufc afterwards, or be imme diately broken and fcutched in the manner already advifed for hemp. In the fecond or dew-retting method, which is much practifed in fome of the fouthern diftricts of the kingdom, as in Dorfctfhire, the flax, immediately after * Corrected Report of ibe Weil Riding of Yorkshire. Cultivation of Arabic Land. Flax Scutching of. 23 1 being pulled, is fpread out in rows thinly upon a grafs field, where it is occa- fionally turned until the procefs of putrefaction has, in a more flow and gradual manner than in the above practice, affected the condition which is necefiary for the eafy and perfect feparation of the flaxy material from the reed or ftem. But in this mode there is considerably more danger, from the flax being, under the neceflity of remaining a much greater length of time expofcd to the action and effects of the weather and other caufes. But in whichever method the flaxy material is brought into the proper condition for being feparated from the reed or flem, great care fliould be taken that it be not damaged by continuing too long upon the grafs, as in many cafes, efpecially in rainy feafons, the under fide next the grafs is liable to be rotten or greatly tendered, before the upper one is nearly in a luitable flate of preparation. The fuppofition that expofure in the field tends to expedite the procefs of bleaching in the manufactured article is not well founded ; in practice no cloth being found to bleach with fo much expedition, or in fo uniform a manner, as that made from fuch flax as has been water-retted in a complete and equal manner.* Before the bufinefs of breaking or Jcutcbing the flax can be performed, which is the next operation that it undergoes, it becomes neceffary either to expofe it to the heat of the fun, by placing it againfl a wall or paling in a flaming pofirion; or the effects of fire, by putting it over hurdles, or, what is much better, placing it in an oven heated by means of the refufe of the flax. In either cafe the fire fliould be applied in fuch a manner as that the heat may be very moderate. The flax fliould only be permitted to remain fuch a length of time as may bejuft fufficient to remove any damp it may have acquired. In thelc ways the dampnefs is difpelled in a more equal and fafe manner than by any other method except that of the fun, which is always to be preferred when poffible. In regard to produce, there is fcarcely any crop that varies more confiderably than that of flax, either in the quantity or quality of the article. From twenty to fixty or feventy flones of fourteen pounds each have been obtained from an acre of land, according to circumftances; but from forty to fifty (tones maybe reckoned a medium crop. The expence incurred in the cultivation and after- management of this fort of crop is very confiderable, arifing from eight to ten or twelve pounds an acre on the average, where the object of the grower * Corrected Agricultural Report of Perth* 232 Cultivation of Arable Land. Flax Produce of Crops of. is the flax.* When thefe crops are difpofed of before pulling, which is the practice of different northern diftricts where the culture of flax is extenfive, the price is in general from about fix or feven to ten pounds, or upon the average fomething more than feven pounds. When flax feed is the aim of the cultivator, the quantity of that fort of pro duce is generally from about fix to ten or twelve bufhels on the acre. The price depends upon various circumftances, as the quantity of foreign feed that is im ported, the demand there is for it for the purpofes of being exprefled for its oil, or for being formed into a fort of jelly as food for fattening cattle. It is moftly about half the price of that which is imported from Holland for the purpofe of fowing. On the average it may be probably eftimated at from about three or four to five or fix {hillings the bufhel. It feems probable from thefe ftatements, that flax may be grown with great profit * It has been efti mated by fome in this way : EXPENCES. . s. d. General expences in preparing land, fowing, &c. 6 Rent, taxes, tythes, &c. - 2 13 4 PRODUCE. Forty flones, at PS. per ftone - ) Bounty at 4d. per ftone - - ) Profit .10 But in other calculations the profit is not fo great. In the Correfted Report of the State of Agricul ture in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire it ftands thus: EXPENCE PER ACRE. S <*. Working the land - - 16 Seed . - - - - 110 Soding and weeding - - - - - -050 Pulling - - 10 Leading, diking, &c. - - 10 Taking out and fpreading - - - - - 0120 Turning and taking up - - - - - 050 Rent of land when lett to flax -grower - - - - 550 Dreffing 50 ft ones at Is. fid. per ftone - 3 15 Profit - - - - 7 11 . 20 10 PRODUCE. 50 flones of flax at 8s. per ftone - 20 10 o Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops. 33 and advantage in many fituations, as in grafs diftricts, \vhere labourers can be eafily procured to perform the different operations it requires about the harveft feafon, where the produce of grain crops more than fupplies the demands of the inhabitants, and where there are means of providing, due fupplies of manure. But under other circumftances, as from the fibrous nature of its root, the fize of its ftem, the fmallnefs of its leaf, and the quantity of feed which it affords, it cannot but exhauft and impoverifh the land without returning any thing in the way of manure, it mould perhaps feldom be had recourfe to. When grown after other crops, thofe of the turnip and potatoe kind are thofe that moft commonly precede it.* The cakes produced in the procefs of expreffing the oil from flax-feed arc made ufe of for the purpofe of fattening cattle with great fuccefs, and in con. fequence the price has of late been unufually high. A mucilaginous or jelly-like fubftance is alfo prepared from flax-feed, by means of boiling, or the pouring of water in a boiling ftate over the feed when crufhed, which is much employed in the fattening of live ftock. Hops. The hop is a plant of the fibrous-rooted perennial kind, which climbs to a confiderable height, under the fupport of poles. There is only one fpecies of this plant in cultivation/! but which has feveral varieties, as the red-bind, the green-bind, the white-bind, &C.+ It is chiefly grown for the fake of the bud and flower, which are employed in the brewing of beer and other malt liquors for the purpofe of imparting an agreeable bitter to them. The firft of the above varieties affords a very fmall hop ; but, from its hardy nature, is capable of being cultivated in expofed fituations, and where the climate is cold and not adapted to the other forts. || It is faid to pofTcfs the property of refitting the blaft more effectually than any of the other varieties, often appearing healthy and vigorous, in feafons when the other kinds are greatly infefted with * It is remarked by the intelligent writer of the Cerre&ed Report of the State of Agriculture in the County of Perth, that in the law of Scotland a crop of this fort is confidered as a green crop, and that of courfe actions brought againft tenants by proprietors for fowing flax crops inftead ol thofe of the ameliorating kind, would be loft by the latter. It is, therefore, fuggefted that this ftiould ho guarded again!! by having claufes in the leafes fpecifying in a particular manner the quantity of land to be annually cropped with flax. f Huwulas luptilus. J They are likewife fometimes diftinguiflied into the Flemish, the Canterbury, the Goldings, the rurnlittm, c. Modern Agriculture, vol. III. VOL. n. Hh 234- Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Varieties of. flies and lice;* and at the period of picking to be lefs expofed to injury from the effects of the fun or rain than thofe of other forts. The fecond or green-bind, though lefs hardy than the preceding kind, is con- fiderably more productive, and on the middling defcriptions of land, in fituations that are not too much expofed, often fucceeds very well. But the third or white-bind, which is {till more delicate and tender, is the moft in eftimation, on account of its being more early, and the produce felling at a much higher price. In hops there are alfo male and female plants; but the latter only afford the produce for which they are cultivated ; the former mould of courfe be extirpated as improper and ufelefs. It is obvious, that as thefe different varieties mult of neceffity fuit different forts of foil, and become ripe at very different periods, the planter mould be cautious that plants of the different kinds are not let out in the fame plantation; as when this point is wholly neglected, or not fufficiently attended to, there is much inconvenience experienced in the after-management of the crops, efpecially where they are large, from the difficulty of procuring a fufficient number of labourers to proceed with the bufmefs in fo expeditious a manner as may be requifite for their fafety ; while by planting the feparate forts together in a detached manner, the bu- finefs of fecuring and preferving the produce may be accomplifhed with greater convenience, as the crops become ready at different periods. The moft proper fituations for plantations of this kind are thofe that have an eafy, natural, Hoping pofition towards the fouth, or which are more level, and poffefs the advantage of a fouth. wefterly expofure, and which are well protected and flickered from the effects of the north and north-eafterly winds, by high grounds, tall fences, or trees of the foreft kinds, rifingat fome diftance from them. But, as the plants grow clofely together, and rife to a confiderable height in the Items, they mould not by any means be confined, or too much clofed up in the plantations themfelves, but have the benefit of a full and perfectly free admiifion and circulation of air, as well as light and the influence of the fun ; as thefe have not only the effect of promoting the vigour and healthy growth of the binds, but, by quickly diffipating and drying up the fuperabundant moifture that may reft upon them, prevent the crops from being fo much injured by the blqft or mildew. This is fully fhewn by the circumftance of the middle or more clofe parts of fuch crops, efpecially where they are extenfive, being greatly injured in this way, while the outride parts, that have the advantage of being more fully expofed to the air a fuftainno injury at all in thefe refpects. * Synopfis of Hufbandry, Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Sells and Preparation proper for. 235 It has been remarked by a late writer, that fuch fituations as are in the immediate vicinity of the fea, or near marfhy and fenny levels, feldom anfwer for the culture of the hop-plant, as they almoft invariably mifc"arry in bad feafons.* The foils moft adapted to the culture of the hop-plant are thofe of the more deep, ftrong kinds, whether of the loamy, clayey, or fandy qualities. They mould be fuch as incline to drynefs, without being too deficient of moifture, and that have a confiderable depth of good, rich, vegetable mould. The thin, gravelly and chalk foils are wholly improper for the growth of plants of this nature ; the former not being fufficiently retentive of moifture for the vigorous growth of the plants; and the latter, from its abforbent quality, imparts its humidity to the roots of the binds in too fcanty a proportion for the healthy fupport of their luxuriant vegetation. There is, however, a fort of thin flatey foil, intermixed with good rich mould, which has an under ftratum of (tone, that is found, by experience, to be admirably fuited to the growth of the hop-plant, and on which it often rifes to its fulled height and luxuriance, producing an equally abundant produce with thofe of the moft deep, ftrong, and fertile kinds. Hops are extenfively cultivated on a foil of this defcription in the vicinity of Maidftone in Kent.* Hops may be cultivated on fuch lands as have been in a ftate of tillage ; but in thefe cafes it is abfolutely neceflary that a fufficient proportion of manure be applied, to bring them into a proper ftate of fertility for the perfect fupport of the plants. Such land as has been long in a ftate of pafture, and which has, in con- fequence, accumulated a large proportion of vegetable matter, as that of old orchards, rich dry meadows, or other grafs land, is however the moft proper for the purpofe. In either cafe the ground mould be reduced to a perfectly fine ftate of mould, by repeated ploughing and harrowing, or digging it over with the fpade. This laft is the moft effectual method where the land is to be broken up from the ftate of fward, and mould be performed in the autumn, in order that it may have the advantage of the effects of the frofts during the winter feafon. By thefe means the plantations are not only to be brought into a perfed: ftate of pulverization, but alfo rendered clean, and free from all forts of weeds. In the laft operations, the ground (hould always be left in as even and level a fituation as poffible, if it be fufRciently dry; but where it is inclined to the retention of moifture, it may be ridged, in order more effectually to remove the fuperabundant wetnefs. And immediately before the feafon f planting, a quantity of compoft, formed from * Synopfis of Husbandry. t Bamiifter s Synopfis ofHufbandry. Hh 2 236* * Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Times and Methods of planting. well rotted dung and good frefh vegetable earth, by being intimately blended together and remaining in that ftate fora confiderable length of time, fh >uld be applied in fmall heaps, fo as to afford about half a bufhel for each hole. The bufinefs of planting out the fets is then to be commenced, which is performed at different times, according to the nature of the plants. Where fets from the cuttings of old binds are made ufe of, the work is beft performed in the jatter end of February, in March, or the beginning of April, as the feafon may fuit ; as thefe are the periods of cutting over and drefiing the old binds, when fets of this fort can be the mod eafily obtained ; but, when bedded, or root fets are employed, as may fometirr.es be the cafe on digging up former plantations, the autumn is the moft proper feafon, as about the end of October, or beginning of No vember. In the firft of thefe methods the fets or cuttings fhould be made from the moft healthy and vigorous binds, each being cut to the length of about five or fix inche?, having two or three eyes or joints, which arc the buds, from which the roots and Hems, or new binds, proceed. They are fold by the hundred of fix fcore, at from fixpence to a (hilling. In the planting, different forms and diftances are preferred by different planters, according to the manner in which the after-culture of the crop is performed. Where it is executed by means of horfe labour, the beft me thod is that of fetting them out in rows, at fuitable diftances, fo as to form ftraight jines in every direction. But, in cafes where it is to be executed by the handj this is not offo much confequence, provided a fufficient fpace be allowed for the healthy growth of the plants. In this way fome practife the row method, while others prefer a triangular plant. It is evident, however, that the planting in equi- diftant rows, fo as to admit of the ground between the plants being kept clean by the harrow and nidget, muft be much lefs expenfive than that of the irregular mode, in which hand labour muft be employed. The diftances at which the plants are fet out, or rather thofe of the holes and hills formed for their reception, are different according to circumftances. Some cul tivators advife fix feet and a half or feven feet, while others prefer a five or fix feet plant. As the hop-plant, from the luxuriance of its growth, rifes to a great height, and fends forth much bind and foliage, it muft of neceflity require confi derable fpace, as where the plants ftand too clofely together they are not only more liable to become difeafed, but to boufe or run together above the poles, by which fo much fnade is produced, as to prevent the hops below from completing their growth ; and of courfe the quantity of produce is much leffened. On thefe grounds it would appear that this plant cannot be cultivated with per- Cultivation of Arable L(tnd*--Hops Methods of planting of. 57 feel: fuccefs in lefs fpace than from fix to feven feet: on good rich foils the latter diftance may be the moft advifable, as the plants will be more at liberty to died: their full growth. In this way there will be a diftance of from eight to nine feet from the centre of the hills. The holes are fet out in different ways, according to the particular cuftom or practice of the cultivators; fome making ufe of a line, in which knots are formed at the diftances intended, which is extended the whole length of the plantation, fmall fticks being then thruft down at the knots, and the land meafured eff from thefe by fticks of a proper length; others mark the holes off at once by means of flakes drove down into the ground at fuitable diftances each way : but a more ex peditious method than either of the above is that of ftriking furrows by the plough in different directions of the plantations, at proper diftances, fo as to form a fort of fquares, the holes being made in the angles where the furrows crofs each other. In making the pits or holes, the earth is taken out by a fpade or fpud, to the depth of about twelve inches in a circular form, having the diameter of about eighteen inches, the bottom mould being a little ftirred. Thefe are then partially filled with the earthy compoft mentioned above; and the mould that was taken away replaced upon it fo as to make a little riling or hillock. On thefe hillocks feven fets or roots are moftly planted by means of a dibble, one in the middle or top of the hill, and the others around it, at equal diftances, about four or five inches from the fides of the holes. The fets are generally put in to the depth of about two inches in the compoft, and fo as to have the tops wholly covered by the mould on the furface of the hills. Some planters, however, prefer covering them lightly with the fine earth taken from the holes, after they have been planted out in the compoft, to the depth of an inch and a half or two inches. Nothing further is now neceffary till about the middle of May, except keeping the ground about the plants clean from weeds; when, from the increafing growth of the young plants, it will be proper to apply an addition of fine mould about them on the hills, which may be fcraped up from the intervals. And in order to check the growth of the young {hoots, and thereby increafe the vigour of the roots, fome twift them together into a fort of knot. Others, however, advife that two fmall fticks, about a couple of yards in length, be fet in each hill in order to direcl: the climbing of the (hoots, three or more being led up each ftick, and tied occa- fionally during the fummer with bafs or fedge. A fecond moulding up will be required about the latter end of July or beginning of Auguft, which is to be per formed in the fame manner as before. There is ftill another mode of planting praclifed in fome diftricts where the 238 Cultivation of Arable Land.-~-Hops-~~ Plantations of, land is of the boggy kind and much inclined to moifture,* This is that of forming the plantations into a fort of beds about fixtcen feet in width, by digging out trenches three feet in width, and from two to two and a half in depth, fpreading the earth thus removed evenly over the beds previou fly prepared. On thefe thefets are put in, after the holes have been made a fpit in depth, twelve inches in diameter, and fix feet apart in each direction, fo as to admit three rows on each bed, in the Jame manner as in the other methods. The plants in this mode are poled in the courfeof about three weeks with old ihort poles, to each of which two or more of the binds are tied ; the land being afterwards kept in order by hoeing and raking. The operation of hilling is performed in the latter end cf June or beginning of July. This appears, however, a tedious and expenfive plant without its pofiefllng any fuperiority except that of rendering the lands fomewhat more dry. It is the cuftom with fome planters to cultivate other forts of crops at the fame rime with the hops, as common beans, cabbages, French beans, and onions j but this is a practice by no means to be recommended, as much injury may be done by their crowding the plants, and preventing the free admiflion of air, light, and fun to them, efpecially thofe that arc of tall growth. The onion is the lead objectionable, as not rifing to any great height, and being capable of being fownat the time the fcts are planted out. Jt is feldom advifable to take any produce the firft year, as where this is attempted mrch injury is frequently done to the future produce of the plantations. In the Suffolk method of planting, a produce of three, four, and even five hundred weight of hops is fometimes however afforded the firft year.f And where bedded or root fets are made ufe of, a fmall crop may be afforded the firft feafon, as the plants or binds will be nearly as forward at that time, as thofe from cuttings are in the fee nd feafon^ Where hop-plantations have been carefully formed in thefe methods, and the land is perfectly fuitable to the growth of the plants, they will continue to bear well for twenty years or more, care being only taken to fupply the defects that may occur in particular hills from the deftruction of plants. But though this fort of plantation may be continued in the above manner, it is fuggefted as a more advifable prac i:e, in many inftances, to renew them at much fhorter diftances of time, or even to keep renewing particular parts occasionally as may be necefTary. And in order to render them the mod prrductive, whether they are managed by the plough, the fpade, or the hoe, the ground in the intervals fhould be well ftirred * Correfted Agricultural Report of Suffolk. tlbid. J Synopfis of Hulbandry, Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops-*- After -management of. 23<J two cr three times when the feafons are favourable, and in orher cafes more" frequently.* In the following winter after the plantation has been formed, it will be ncceffary to provide and prepare the poles. Where the hop-binds are healthy and vigorous in their growth, two poles may be fufficient for each hill, or in the proportion of two thoufand fix hundred to the acre. But where the plants are weak and lefs luxuriant in their vegetation, a great number of poles will be required, as three to each hill, or at leaft to each other hill, which in the latter cafe will be in the proportion of three thoufand two hundred and fifty to the acre. But as the poles need not befo long, or of fo much ftrength, there will probably be but little dif ference in theexpence. In bringing the poles they mould not be carted upon the ground, but be placed at the outfides, to be afterwards removed by the labourers to the places where they are wanted. In the fecond year of the plantation it is feldom neceffary to apply any manure to the hills, but the land in the intervals mould be ftirred in the autumn, in the fame manner as in the firft ; but in the early part of the fpring,when the weather is fuitable, as about the middle of March, the hills muft be opened, and the earth be well cleared away from the principal roots by means of a tool which has the title of a. picker, in order to afford the means of pruning and dreffing the flocks; in which operations all the preceding year s bearing ftems are cut off within a joint or two of the roots, and all fuch ihoots or fuckers as were not permitted to attach them- felves to the poles, or which have rifen on the edges of the hills, fully cleared away, nothing being fuffered to remain that can poffibly injure or prevent the vigorous growth of the new binds. In performing this bufinefs, care mould be taken to bare the different ftalks and roots fo compleatly, and to fuch a depth, . that every thing that is hurtful may be difcovered and wholly removed. And in the cutting experienced labourers mould, if poflible, be employed ; for much depends on the work being properly executed, as great injury may be done by leaving too great a length of bind, as well as by cutting the flocks too clofely. In the former cafe the crops may be expofed to the canker> and, in the latter, the hills be fo much weakened as not to afford moots in fufficient abundance. f It is therefore neceflary that the work fhould be carefully overlooked. After the bufinefs of pruning and drefling has been thus accomplifhed, the earth fhould be raked back again upon the plants, fo as to rife into hills as before. At this period all fucb plants as have been deftroyed, or that have a weak and * Modern Agriculture, vol. HI. t Synopfis of Husbandry. 240 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Poling of. unhealthy appearance, fhould likewife have others put in their (lead, in order that the plantations may be kept as perfect as pofllble. Such of the prunings as are cut from themoft healthy and vigorous plants may be referved for the purpofc of forming new plantations. In this fcafon, as well as the preceding, three hoeings and one good moulding fhould be performed ; the firfl about the beginning of May, the fccond in June, and the third in July ; a little mould each time being drawn to the root of the plants on the hills in order to keep them fufficiently moift. The moulding fliould take place in the early part of Auguft, the earth being well laid upon the hills round the root-ftems of the plants ; and it mould be executed, if poflible, foon after fome rain has fallen. In the poling, which is the next operation to be performed, the common rule is to begin as foon as the binds have advanced two or three inches above the fur- face of the ground, which is in general about the latter end of April, or beginning of May. The number of poles that are the moft proper and advantageous for each hill has not been yet well afcertained by planters : but as it has been mown that a full and free admidion of air, light, and fun, is effentially neceflUry to the healthy growth of the plants, they mould never be too much crowded. Three is the mod ufual allowance, though a greater number is often employed. They mould be placed in fuch a manner as to leave the largeft fpaccs or openings towards the fouth or fouth-weft, that the plants may derive the more full influence of light and heat ; and the ftouteft on the fide which has a northern afpect, the more pow erfully to refift the winds. The poles are moft commonly fixed in the ground by means of an iron crow, with which holes to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches are formed, and the (harpened root ends of the poles forcibly placed in them, the earth being immediately afterwards well rammed or trodden about them. The difficulty of this bufinefs chiefly confifls in pitching the holes to proper depths, in fetting the poles down with fuch exertion as that they may fix them- felves firm at the bottom, and that the tops of the poles may have fuch a direc tion outwards as to obviate, as much as can be, the bou/ing of the binds. Where due attention is not beftowed on thefe points,much injury and lofs may be fuftained by the deftrudlion of the plants. When the poles are fet, two or three of the binds may be directed up each of them, being tied, in the manner advifed above, in different places by labourers employed for the purpofe, and which is to be re- peated as there may be occafion for it. When the poles are high and the binds itrong, (landing ladders may be ufeful in tying them near the tops. It has been obferved that this work demands particular attention in the early Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Picking of. 341 part of the fummer. When fhort and flender poles have been put to hills where the binds prove offtrongand vigorous growth, it may fomctimes repay the trouble to have them removed, and others of a taller and flrong?r kind put down in their Head. The benefit obtained by this pra-5Hce is often confiderable.* During the fummer, in the more early growth of the plants, the fuperfluous binds of every kind mould be repeatedly removed as they prefent themfclves, referving only one or two on each hill to fuply the places of fuch as may be hurt in being trained to the poles at firft, as accidents of this nature often occur in confequence of the tender buds being bruifed or rubbed off by the agitation of the winds. This is the whole of the culture that is required till the feafon at which the hops become ripe, and are ready to be picked, which is known by the fragrant fmell which they emit, their becoming firm, and acquiring a brown colour. It is ufually about the beginning or middle of September. Much care and circumfpection is necefTary in the performance of this bufinefs, to fee that every thing proceeds with regularity and difpatch,as there is always much danger from delay, the crops being equally expofed to injury from the winds as continued rain. As a preparation for this bufinefs, bajkfts^ bins, or cribs, arc procured or formed, in number proportionate to the extent of the plantation and the pickers that are to be employed. The latter are conflructed by nailing four or more pieces of boards on as many upright ports as frames fet into the ground. When finimed, they are about feven or eight feet in length, three feet in breadth, and about the fame in height. The apparatus being thus made ready, the hop-binds are cut over clofe to the furface of the land by a perfon accuftomed to the work, and the poles drawn up by a tool for the purpofe, which is termed a dog or pulling- hook. They are then placed upon the frame with the bind upon them, moftly two, but fometimes three, in order to be picked; three, four, or more pickers being em ployed in clearing the binds of the hops on each fide of the different frames : thefe, with the perfon engaged in forting the poles, are denominated a fet. Women and children are frequently employed in this work. The hops, after being carefully feparated from the leaves and binds, are dropped into a large cloth hung round on tenter-hooks within, underneath the frame. When this has been filled, the hops are put into a large fack, in order to their being taken home, to be dried on kiln* for the purpofe. This mould always be performed as expeditioufiy as pofllble after the hops have been picked, that they may not fuftain any injury by remain- * Kftnt b Hints. VOL. II. I 1 f 42 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Drying ofQaftfor* ing together in their green moift ftate; as where this is the cafe they are often jiable, especially when the weather is warm, to be much damaged, both in colour .and ilivour, in the courfe of a few hours, by the heat which they take on. For rthis rcafon, it is neccffary to keep the oajl or kiln conftantly at work, both night snd day, during die time of picking. The number of pickers mould therefore be as nearly as pofliblc, proportioned to the quantity of hops that can be dried off. i>y the oaft. And where, from the nature of the feafon or other caufes, the undried ,!iops are f offered to accumulate, they fhould always be placed only a few together, v. ithout being clofel.y packed. In cafes where the crops are.-pretty abundant, a diligent picker will feparate from eight to ten bumels a day, which, when dried, may weigh about one hundred veight. Jt is-ufual in many places to let the picking of this crop by the bufhel. The price .-is variable according to the abundance or fcarcity of .labourers. From fixteen to twenty expert pickers will be neceffary, in favourable feafons, and where the produce is rather abundant, to keep an oaft at work that is capable of drying off .eighty bumels at each meafuring.* Befidcs the pole-puller and pickers, another perfon will be xequifite in the hop plantation, in order to pick up the fcattered branches of the binds, and convey the produce to the ki!n. A boy is in general employed in this bufinefs, who, from the nature of his work, is commonly called the poke boy. The conveyance of the iiops is accomplished by means of a cart, horfe, or hand-labour, according to the ciifbnce of the plantationTrom the kiln.. The drier, or perfon employed in the kiln, fhould be perfectly acquainted with the bulinefs, .regular and fleady, as much of the planter s profit depends upon this work being properly performed. To this part of the management, as well as that of the pickers, the hop farmer ought to be careful to direct his attention us much as poflible. The wages of the different perfons engaged in thefe operations are always con- fiderably influenced by local and other circumftances. In Kent, before the late advances in the price of all forts of farm-labour, it was ufual for the pole-pullers to have from eighteen-pence to two Ihillings the day 4 with frnall beer ; the driers half a crown, with an unlimited allowance of both beer and fpirits; the picJkers from three halfpence to twopence the bufhel, with allowances of fpirits, &;c. Thefe wages, however, at prcfent are greatly advanced. Jhe.ftru#ure of the .hop kiln, or oajl> is not very different from that employed in. * Synapfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land.- Hops Drying of Q aft for. 24^ drying malt. It may be of different dimenfions, as twelve, fourteen, or fixtcerr feet fquare ; and have a fuitable proportion preferved between the height and> breadth and the fides of the Meddle that contains the fire: thus, where the kiln is twelve feet fquare on the top, it mould be eigl r frrr :n height from the fire ; t and the fteddle fix feet and a half fquare. It is covered with hair cloth, on which the- hops are fpread out, in an even manner, to the depth of from fix or feven, to eiaht, ten, or twelve inches, according as the feafon is more dry or moid, and the hops are more or Icfs advanced in ripenefs. Before the hops are laid upon the kiln it mould be rendered a little warm, and the heat afterwards kept up by a regular gentle fire, increafing it gradually till, by the heat of the kiln and the warmth of the hops, ic is found to have attained the proper height. An even d eady degree of heat mould then be preferved for eight, ten, or more hours, according to the date of the hops- at the time they are applied ; by which the ends of the hop dems become in a per fectly fhrivelled and dry condition j which, with that of their rattling o j; being touched, is the principal- indication that they have attained the proper ftate oO dryncfs. Much practical experience is however neceflary to conduct the procefe- with the bed effect, and in the mod economical manner in refpect to fuel. Where what is termed a cockle oaft is made ufe of, fea coal is modly employed^ as fuel, a chaldron being confidered the proper allowance-to a load of hops. But where hair kilns are in ufe, as the fmoke of that fort of coal would be injurious, charcoal is had recourfe to for the purpofe, which in Kent is generally bought for about fifty millings the load, which confirts of fifty Hicks.* After the drying has been properly performedi the hops are removed" from the kiln, by means of a fhovel, into an adjoining room constructed for the purpofe, which is called thejlowage room. In this chamber they are kept five, or fix, or more days, according to circumdances, before they are in a proper condition to be put into the bags; as when they are bagged too foon they are brittle, and do not: drawfo good a fample, or weigh fo heavy. They fnould always remain fo long; as to attain a tolerable degree of toughnefs, which may be eafily judged of by the feel. For the convenience of bagging the hops, a round hole -or trap is prepared ii the floor of the dowage room,, exactly equal in -fize to that of the mouth of the bag, on which a frame. of wood is placed,, to which the edges of the opening, of the bag are fecurcly attached all round. A very fmall handful of hops being then tied! firmly in each of the lower corners, the bag i s let fail below, .and a-perfon termed- * Synopfis of Li z 244 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Bagging of. the packer gets in, and with a heavy weight, which he keeps continually moving round, where he is not immediately treading,tramples and prefles the hops down as clofely as pofilbleinto the bags, as they are thrown in, infmall quantities, by ano ther perfon employed for the purpofe. In this manner he proceeds until it is quite filled, when each of the upper corners has a few hops inclofed in them in the fame \vay as the others, which ferve the purpofe of handles ; and the bag is drawn up, and the mouth of it well fecured, after being difengaged from the frame. In per forming this bufinefs, the clofer the hops are prefled into the bags the better, as they preferve their colour, fmell, and tafte more perfectly.* In the operations of drying and rendering hops proper for the bag, fome lofs of weight muftof courfe take place. According to fome, lixty bufliels of well ripened frem gathered hops, which have not been attacked by the fly, will produce when, dried and bagged about one hundred weight. The goodnefs of a fample of hops depends upon different circumftances, as the clammy feel of the yellow,farinaceous, powdery fubftance which is fprinkled over them, and their colour. The former, in the language of the hop planter, is termed the condition, and the fample is efteemed the more or lefs valuable by the buyers in. proportion as the feel is more or lefs clammy : and in regard to the latter, it is of the utmoft importance in the fale of the hops, that it mould be preferved as bright as poflible, though it is not always the cafe that thofe which are the brighteft in their appearance are the ftrongeft in flavour. It is this property, however, that induces the planter to make adiflinction in the bagging of the article. The brighteft hops, and thofe which have the fineft colour, are put into bagging of a better quality, and termed pockets; while thofe of the brown kind form bags, being put in bagging of a coarfer and more heavy fort. The firft fort are made ufe of in the brewing of ales and all the finer forts of malt liquor; but the latter chiefly in the making of porter. Where hops are to be kept for fome length of time, the coarfe bagging is however the beft. The length for a bag is about two ells and a quarter, and that for a pocket nearly the fame, each having an ell in width. The former, where the hops are good, well cured, and tightly trodden in, weigh about two hundred and a half ; and the latter, when of the Canterbury pocketing, about one hundred and a half: where they much exceed or fall fhort of thefe weights, it may be fufpected that they are either of an inferior quality, or have been injured in their preparation. The planter will be beft di reeled in refpect to the duty on hops, by a copy of the excife laws reflecting them. * Kent s Hints. Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Stacldngup Poles of. After thefe operations have been performed, it will be proper to clear the poles of the binds, and fet them up in Hacks as foon as poflible, unlefs,as isfometimes the cafe, it has been done at the time of picking, as they are apt to fuftain much in jury by remain irrg upon the ground \viththebind upon them. The work is ufually performed by the acre, the poles being piled up into fquare flacks ; thirty or forty poles being fet to each corner, which ihould ftand about twelve feet apart in each direction at the bafe, the tops uniting as clofely as poffible. In this way an opening is formed below, which contributes to dry and preferve the poles. At this period all fuch poles as are too fhort, or in any way improper for further ufe, mould be laid afide, in order that fuch of them as are fuitable may be employed in the new plantations ; and that the planter may fully afcertain the proportion of frefh poles that may be neceffary for the following feafon, which it is of great advantage to have provided, brought upon the ground, fet up conveniently in ftacks,and fharpened, when there is leifure in the winter months. The points of the old ones may alfo be put in order at the fame time, and nothing be thus left to interrupt the bufinefs of poling at the proper feafon. The beft poles, which are thofeof am, chefnut, and willow, of the length of from eighteen to twenty-four feet, will fcldom lafl longer than fix or feven years ; and thofe of an inferior kind, as from beech, maple, oak, &c. not nearly fo long. The bark is fhaved off all the forts except thofe of the am kind, (in which it feparates of its own accord in the fecond year,J in order to prevent their being deftroyed by worms lodging in them. After the poles have been flripped and Hacked up, the bind fhould be cleared away,which,in fome diflricls, is done by tying it up into bavins or fmall bundles when perfectly dry, and putting it in Macks, fheds, or other convenient places, for the purpofe of fuel in ovens, &c. This work is performed at the rate of about fixpencc the hundred. In others it is burnt upon the ground; and, in fome, the labourers are permitted to take it home for their own ufe. But whatever method is adopted, it fhould invariably be removed, to prevent its interfering with the fu ture digging of the plantation, which is the next operation to be performed.* This fhould be executed as early as poflible in the autumn or winter months, in order that the land may have the full influence of the frolls. The work fhould be performed in a dry feafon, and be accomplifhed with as much expedition as pof- * Synopfis of Hufbandry, 246 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Manuring of. fible, the mofr, careful and trufty labourers being always employed. It is ufually done at a fixed price for one hundred hills, as from two millings to half a crown* The labourer makes ufe of a three-pronged fork, which in fome places is termed zJtp.d, for the purpofe, each prong being about an inch and a half in breadth. It is of gnat confequence that this operation be executed in a very perfect manner,, much of the fuccefs of the plantation depending upon it. If there mould be any binds of an improper kind, they may be now removed, and others of the proper forts put in their ftead. And though manure may fometimes be omitted in the fecond year where the foil is very rich, it fhould be carefully applied before the bufinefs of winter-digging commences in each fucceeding one, in the proportion of about twelve full cart loads to the acre; fifteen loads of good frefti vegetable earth having been well blended and incorporated with it by frequent turning, for ten or twelve months before. In putting this comport upon the land, fmall one-horfe carts with three wheels are fometimes recommended as the beft adapted to the purpofe. It mould be laid in fmall heaps ; and, in digging the plantation, be well blended and in termixed with the mould that furrounds the hills,at the difhmce of about a foot from them.* The old flocks, when they begin to decline, as every tenth or twelfth * The prices that were ufually paid by the hop planters in the county of Kent, before the late ad vances in the ratts of labour, for the feveral different operations in plantations of this fort, are thus t.ated by Mr. Bannifter : Eipences per acre, g. s* tl. Stripping and flacking poles - 5 O Winter digging - - - - 18 O Cutting - . - - -OOO I oiing : - 12 O Sharpening old poles, at 2d. per ftack - - 010 Sharpening new poles, at 3d. per hundred - 02 Shaving fet at - - .Q 4 Tying - - - - - 10 O Summer digging (if ufed) - - - - 18 Hoeing - - - - 5 O- Jiilling .... - 030 Deduct furamer digging Add nidgcting ..... - . 10 O 4 11 -\ Picking at-frorr 1 :?. to 2d. per bufliel, and bagging at 8d. coarfc, and 6d. fine, Cultivation of Arabic Land. Hops Expenc&of. S47 yrtar, or n*;ich longer in fomc cafes, fliould be taken up, and another portion of ground frefh planted ; or, what is better, a fuitable proportion of the old plantation, and an equal portion of new, broken up and planted annually, or every other year, fo as to preferve a regular fucceflion, at an eafy and gradual expenfe, as has been already obferved. There is fcarcely any fort of crop that varies more in the quantity of pro duce than that of hops, affording, under different circumftances of foil and feafon from two hundred to upwards of twenty hundred weight on the acre. On me dium foils, in tolerably favourable years, it may be eftimated at from fix to eight: or nine hundred weight, from ten to fourteen being confidered as good crops. A produce of twenty hundred weight but rarely occurs, and is much too large for the planter in general to fix his expectations upon. The whole of the expenfes incurred in the cultivation of thefe crops, and the profits which they afford, are flated in the following manner by Mr. Kent, in his ufeful Hints to Gentlemen Farmers :* * Expences per Acre. . $. d. Medium price of an acre of land fuitable for hops - 1 10 Digging the ground - - 13 Drefling and pruning - - -080 Poling - la O Three hoeings - - - 9 Once moulding - - . o 3 6 Tying the binds to the poles - - - - 12 Stripping the binds off the poles - - - 3 Stacking the poles . *> > 4. Sharpening the poles * .0 10 10 Manuring - - - 2 Picking, drying, and duty, at ll. 10s. per hundred, the crop being eftimated at 12 cwt. the acre - 18 Bagging and occafional expence of bags, about - - . o 16 Afh poles, eftimated at 30,250 to the acre, and fuppofed to laft eight years, me dium price, 18s, a hundred at the flub, eighth part of which is nearly 313 Carriage of ditto, eftimated at - - - . - 150 31 2 4 Produce. 12 hundred per acre, and that the medium price is 41. the hundred, the amount will be - - - - - - 48 00 And the expenfes deducted cut of the produce will leave a medium profit of 16 17 8 648 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops New Plantations E.vpences of* The expence of forming new hop plantations is very confiderable. In Suffolk it is eftimated at from feventy-five pounds to one hundred, when every thing that is requifite is included j the annual charges being nearly the fame as thofc which have been ju ft Hated.* In the county of Kent, where the practice of letting out the culture of crops of this fort to labourers who are experienced in the bufinefs in fome meafurc prevails, they are faid not only to find a laving of expence, but to be fo much relieved, in refpecl to the trouble of the different operations, as to confider it the moft advifable mode.-j~ In thefe cafes, where" fummer digging is omitted, and recourfe is had to the ufe of the nidget, the expence will be a few millings more, as is mown in the firft eftimate ; the difference in favour of this practice from that where the planter procures and pays the workmen, being about one pound the acre. The weather moft favourable to crops of this fort, in the different ftages of their growth, is that which is warm without much rain, and where fouth or fouth-wefterly winds prevail j as the hop is a plant which never fucceeds well in fuch feafons as are wet, or when either eafterly or northerly winds continue for any great length of time during the fummer months. Hot gleams of fun-mine after rain, or after foggy mornings, in the latter fummer months, alfo prove highly detrimental to thefe crops. High winds towards the approach of the picking feafon like wife produce confiderable mifchief, by bruiftng and otherwife injuring the hops. When unfavourable weather takes place, about the period in which the plants are in blofTom, it is feldom that the produce is good or abundant, as many of the burs generally fuffer in fuch a manner as to prevent their forming perfect hops. * Corre&ed Agricultural Report of Suffolk. . *. d. fr The account is ftated in this way : Undertaker s charge, he paying and finding labourers for the different operations - - - - - - 3100 Picking, drying, and duty - - - - 13 Rent of land .... . 100 Poles - - 500 Manure - - t 2 10 Tythe - - - - - 10 Bagging cloth - .... 200 ,2S 10 O * Synopfis of Haibaudrj. Cultivation of Arable Land. Hops Difcafcs of Pica. 243 In mod cafes the very forward binds fuffjr more from all the different. accidents to which hop crops are expofed, than thofe that are later and of a lefs Vigorous growth. It may, on this account, therefore, fometimes be advifable to remove all the very forward binds. Thefe crops are expofed to the attacks of difeafe at almod every period of their growth. In the very early dage of the growth of the hop plant, it is liable to be \vholly devoured, as it rifes above the furfuce of the ground, by the ravages of the flea. And, in a more advanced date, it is fubject to the dill more prejudicial attack of the green or long- winged fly , redfpider, and otter moth : the fird of thefe, by the depofit of their ova, afford the means of producing lie: in great abundance ; by which the plants are often very greatly if not wholly deftroyed, and the larvae of the lad prey upon the roots, and thus render the plants weak and liable to be attacked by other difeafes.* The honey dew is likewife another difeafe to which the crops are expofed about the fame time, and by which they are often much hurt. The mould or fen moftly occurs at a fomewhat later period, but Is equally prejudicial in its effects. There are ftill other injuries to which hop- crops are expofed, fuch as the blight, and what is termed the blaft, which occur at different times, but moftly towards the latter periods of the growth of the plants. 1\\tflea> which is afferted to be an infect of the fame kind as that which is fo deftructive to the young turnip, is faid to make the grcatefthavock in thofe feafons when the nights are cold and frofty and the days hot and inclined to be dry. In its attacks it eats off the fweet tender tops of the young plants ; and which, though they are not wholly deftroyed by it, (hoot forth afterwards in a much lefs ftrongand vigorous manner ; from which they become more expofed to the attacks of other vegetable difeafes. It has been remarked that this infect is the mod apt to commit its depredations on the plants in thofe grounds that have received a proportion of dung the fame year. And on the fuppofition that dung in its crude date has a ten dency to encourage the production of this infect, it has been fuggeded that the manure employed for the purpofe of covering the hills mould be previoufly well mixed and incorporated with good frefti mould for a confiderablc length of time before it is made ufe of, as has been already directed ; and that ii mould be applied either over the whole of the land, or only the hills, immediately after the plants have- been cut over: the firft is the mod advifable practice where manure can be eafily obtained. * Withering s Botanical Arrangement, vol. II. VOL. ii. K k 250 Cultivation of Arable Land. HopsDifeafes of -Green Fly, fyc This infect commits its greateft depredations in the more early cold fpring months, as the latter end of April and beginning of the fucceeding monthy difap~ pearing as the feafon becomes mild and warm.* The principal remedy in this cafe is that of having the land in a fufficient ftate of fertility, to enable the young plants to moot up with fuch vigour and rapidity as to become quickly incapable of being fed upon and devoured by the infect.. Stirring the mould about the roots of the plants by means of the hoe may alfo be of utility in the fame intention. The green or long-winged fly generally makes its appearance about the latter end of May, and in the two following months* The prevalence of north eafterly winds about the above period has much effect in producing thefe infects, which are very deftructive of the young leaves of theplants. Under fuch a ftate of the wind they are faid to fcarcely ever fail covering the leaves;, and by dropping their ova produce an abundance of lice, by which the crops are often much injured, as when; they have once obtained complete pofFcflion of the plants they feldom or ever leave them before they are wholly deftroyed. The forwarded and mofb luxuriant hop- binds are faid to be in general the mod difpofed to be attacked by infects of this fort. The removal of the infects chiefty depends upon a change taking place in the wind from the above points- more to the fouth, and the fetting-in of mild and; warm weather. The otter moth, by producing its larvae upon the roots of theplants,. fubjects them to be attacked by thenr^ and the healthy growth of the hops- to be in that way greatly impaired, the crops being of courfe much injured in refpect to their; produce. In this cafe,, ftirring the earth well about the roots of the plants may probably fometimes be fervieeable. The honey dews moftly occur after the crops have been attacked by fome of the above kinds of infects, and when the weather is clofe, moift, and foggy. lir*. thefe cafes a fweet clammy fubftance is produced upon the leaves of the plants, which has the tafte of honey. They have at firft a fhining appearance, but after wards feon become black. The nature of this vegetable affection does not feem to be yet well afcertained.. It is fuppofed by fome to be the excrement of infects of the aphis kind, depofjted by them upon the leaves of the plants after it has been extracted by their puncturing the leaves. Others however contend that it as a morbid exudation proceeding from the plants thtmfelves ; which is much more * Synopfis of Hufbandry. Cultivation of Arable Land. Heps Difeqfes of-*-Fen Mildew. 25 1 probable, and more confonant to analogy j fince from its tafte, which refcmbles that t>f the vernal fap-juice of plants, and its fupporting bees, ants> and other infects, it muft be of a nutritious quality.* This fuppofition is rendered (till more probable from the circumftance of its occurring after the infects have been fome timeprefent upon the plants, and difappearing long before they leave them.t It would appear indeed that this exudation may in fome meafure be caufed by the punctures of the infects, as it moft commonly takes place after the nights have been cold, moift, and foggy, and the fucceeding days hot and funny, the irritability of the plants being fo much incrcafed by the former as to render the action of the latter more powerful in promoting the circulation of their juices, and confequently in forcing their pafTage more abundantly through the fine openings afforded by the punctures of fuch infects. This difeafe moftly happens in the more forward drops. The chief dependence of the planter for its removal is that of heavy thunder mowers taking place, as by this means, when the deftruction of the hops has not proceeded too far, they are often much reftored, the infects that devour the leaves and binds being greatly de- ftroyed.the growth of frefli (hoots promoted, and a favourable bloom brought on.j Thefen mould, or mildew, is a difeafe to which the hop is expofed at a later period of its growth. It chiefly attacks the part where the hop is attached to the ftem. Its production is greatly promoted by moift damp weather and a low fuuation ; thofe hop-crops that grow on low, clofe, rich grounds being the mod liable to be attacked by it* It is found to foon fpread itfelf over the whole crop, after it has once feized upon any part of it. The nature of this vegetable difeafe is not pro bably yet perfectly underftood. It has lately however been ingcnioufly fuggefted to be a plant of the fungus kind, that is capable of growing without light or change of air, attaching itfelf to the plants already in a morbid condition, and by its roots penetrating their vefTels. On this fuppofition, the bed remedy is believed to be that of thinning the plants or wholly removing thofe immediately about it, in order to afford a more free circulation of air, and admit the light more extenfively ; by which the vigour of the hop-plants may be reftored, and the difeafe be of courfe removed. If this opinion ef the nature of the difeafe be well founded, it is proba ble that by planting the hills more thinly, and making them at greater diftances from each other, this vegetable malady might be in a great meafure prevented from occurring in thofe fituations where it moft frequently fhows itfelf. Blights are frequent in hop crops; but the caufes of them do not appear to .* Danvin i Phj-fologia. t Ibid. \ Synopfis of Husbandry. Danrin ; Phytologia. K k 2 552 Cultivation of Arabic Land, Hdps~- Dif cafes ofB aJl. have been yet nicely inveftigated. They are found to happen at different periods of the growth of the plants, but moft frequently in the more early ftages of their rifing from the hills, while the nights are cold and frofty in the fpring months, and the days have much fun and heat. The living powers of the plants being in thefc cafes greatly exhaufted in the day-time by the ftimulus of heat, may of courfc be much injured, or wholly deftroyed in the nights, from being expofed to a freezing air, which is incapable of exciting the actions necefTary to the prefervation of ve getable life. The Ihijl is likev/ife a difeafe that hop- crops are expofed to, efpecially in the latter periods of their growth. This is in general fuppofed by planters to depend upon or proceed from the particular ftate of the air or weather. It is more probable however that it may be the efftct of lightning, as it occurs for the moft part at thofc feafons when it is the moft prevalent, and takes place in a very fudden manner. And befides, lightning is known to produce fimilar effects on plants, by exhaufting their irritability, and thus rendering their vital actions incapable of being excited by the ordinary powers that fupport them.* This is rendered ftjll more probable from the practical fact, that the moft forward and moft luxuriant binds are the moft fubject to be affected in this way. In expofures that are particular ly liable to have the crops injured in this manner, it may be advifable to keep back the growth of the plants as much as poffible, by extirpating all the moft forward moots, as well as by employing a lefs proportion of the earthy compoft in their cul ture. By having the plants to ftand at greater diftances than ufual from each other, advantages may likewife probably be obtained. In the former of thefe two laft difeafes, the prefence of which is fuppofed to be much connected with the prevalence of winds from the northern or eafterly quar ters, there is frequently a fta produced of a fimilar kind to that which attacks the binds in their early growth. This is highly prejudicial by preying upon the condition of the hops, and thereby diminifhing their weight, and changing them to a brown colour ; which is of much injury in their fale.f It is. the practice in fome diftricts for planters to fow turnips or fet cabbage plants, or fome other fimilar crops, in the intervals of crops of this fort j but it is an injudicious method, which fhould feldom or never be attempted, as the hops may be greatly injured by being thus deprived of their due nourifliment and fup port, as well as of the full aeration of the foil, which can only be effected by the operations of frequently ftirring and turning over the particles of the mould j. * Danpin sPby tologia, f Synopfis of Husbandry. Cultivation of Arable L&nd.~~-IFo(fd, 53 which under fuch circumftances can never be properly performed, Ik-fides, as fuch crops muft prevent the hop-plants from being kept fo perfectly clean and free from weeds as might otherwife be the cafe ; and cannot admit of the turnips or other crops being eaten olf upon the land, or of being drawn and carted away, without much injury being fuftained by poaching and the treading down of the hills ; it is much the belt way to exclude every fort of feconduy crop from the plantation. The advantages of the cultivation of hops have been differently Hated by dif ferent cultivators ; fome contending that it is beneficial in a very high degree, while others are equally pofuive i i affirming that it is a fort of culture that only affords a very trifling profit. It is evident however that in many fituations the growth of this plant muft be extremely beneficial, though,, like moft others, it mult be fubject to vary, according to the circumftances of foil, culture, and climate. Experiment has indeed mown, that on the deep boggy foils, after being rendered fufficiently dry, the black vegetable moulds and rich loams., it is a culture that an- fwers to a very high degree; and that, under other circumftances of a much lefs favourable nature, it is fo profitable as to far exceed common hufbandry.* It may indeed be concluded, that though on lands that are perfectly adapred to thefe crops, and fo fituated as to afford poles, manure, and labourers for performing the bufmefs of picking and other operations in fufficient proportion and on reafbnable rates, they may be highly beneficial both in refpect to the immediate money profit they afford, and the great improvement that is accompliflied in the lands from the nature of their culture; yet under other circumftances, from their precarioufnefs, and their being attended with much trouble, it may be better either to wholly omit them, or only cultivate them on a limited fcale. And where they are cultivated in connection with farms, it mould only be to fuch an extent as that no injury may be fuftained by the other parts either in tillage or manure.f lyoad. This is a plant which has a thickifh ftrong fibrous root that penetrates to a considerable depth in the foil. It is principally cultivated for the leaves, whichj after being properly manufactured, are employed in the art of dyeing in order to produce a blue colour, and alfoas the bafis of black and fome other colours.* From the nature of its root it obvioufly requires a foil which has much depthv and which is rich and perfectly frefh. Thofe of the rich, mellow, loamy, and putrid vegetable kinds are in general the moft adapted to it. In Lincolnfhire, where its cul ture is carried to a conliderable degree of perfection by fomecultivators,| the deep,, * Young s Eaftern Tour. i Kent s Hints. J It is the Isatis tinctoria, or dyer s- woud,. J. Cartwright, efq. of Brothertoft, near Bofton. 254 Cultivation ofslrable Land. Woad Soils and Preparation proper for* rich, putrid, alluvial foils on the flat tracts extending upon the borders of the lar^e rivers are chiefly chofen for the growth of this plant. And experience has fhovvn that it fucceeds in the mod perfect manner when they are broken up from a ftate of fward immediately for its reception. It is frequently the practice of cultivators of this plant to take lands of this defcription at high prices, for the purpofe of break ing them up and growing it upon them for a few years ; on the more low rich foils, fometimes for four years, but in thofe of lefs fertility only for three ; and in fome which are more elevated and expofed in their fituations, two is thought fuf- ficient;* perfons accuftomed to this fort of culture, who move from place to place and form a fort of colony, being engaged in the bufinefs. It has been found however, by the ingenious cultivator mentioned above, to be capable of being con fined to one fpot with equal ormore fuccefs, by having a fufficient extent of ground for changing the place of its growth as may be neccflary, and for appropriating art adequate proportion annually to the railing of the plant, by which the houfes and machinery that are neceflary for its preparation may be kept regularly in employ. In preparing the land, it is recommended by fome to plough it up with a good deep furrow, juft before the winter commences, laying it in narrow high ridges that it may have the full effect of the frofts. Early in thcfpring another ploughing ihould be given in the contrary direction, leaving it in the fame kind of ridge as before. After it has remained in this ftate fome time, and weeds begin to appear, it muft be well harrowed down with a pretty heavy harrow, repeating the operation as frequently as may be neceflary to render it perfectly fine and clean. In the begin ning of June a third ploughing (hould be performed to the full depth with a nar row furrow, the land being afterwards well harrowed down as in the former cafes. And about the end of July or the beginning of the following month the final ploughing muft be given, which fhould be light, and the furface left as even as poflible for the reception of the feed.f Other cultivators, however, take much lefs trouble in this bulmefs. Where the foils are fuflkiently dry, they break them up early in the month of February ; but where the contrary is the cafe, it is deferred to a later period. In performing the work, great care is taken to plough it in a perfect manner to the depth of about five inches. And in order that the furrow- flices may be well turned, laid flat, and nicely jointed, a perfon is employed in the furrows with a fpade for the purpofe. This is found requiiite to prevent thegrafiy matters from rifingin the feamSi After * Correfted Agricultural Report of Lincoln flu re. r Martyn s Edition of Miller s Dictionary, art. Isat u* Cultivation of Arable Land. Woad Seed. 25J this the furface is repeatedly harrowed over,in order to raife a fufficient depth of good mould for the drill to work in ; and before the feed is put in a roller is palled over it.* This method is probably however inferior to that firft described, as the land cannot be brought by it to nearly fo fine a ftate of mould, or the grafly material be fb effectually deftroyed ; it will therefore be apt to rife and injure the woad plants. But there is ftili another method which is more expeditious, and at the fame time equally effectual with the firft; and which has an advantage over it in more com pletely deftroying the grubs and infects which are apt to feed on the plants in their early growth. This is that of paring and burning. It is however chiefly practifed where the fward is rough and abounds with names, fedge, and other coarfe plants^ After this, in the laft two methods, the land is to be carefully drained by making grips in fuitabie directions, by means of the fpade, as wherever water ftagnates the woad plants are fure to be deftroyed -jv Seed. This is collected from a portion of the ground that has been left covered with the beft plants from the preceding feafon, as they only run up to ftem and produce feed in the fecond year. It is fometimes a practice to crop the leaves of the plants that are intended to ftand for this purpofe, two or three times in the firft feafon ; but this is an improper cuftom, as they are thereby much weakened in their growth, and, not only arford a lefs quantity of feed, but fuch as is of an inferior quality. It is a better method either not to crop them at all, or but once, as by fuch management, feed of the moft perfect quality may be obtained! The fterrr fhould be fuffered to remain till the feeds in the hufks become perfectly ripened j which is known by their attaining a brownifh yellow colour, and the pods having a dark blackifh appearance. The feed mould then be gathered as foon as poffible,. which is beft performed by reaping the ftems in the fame manner as grain, and then- fpreading them in rows- thinly upon the ground if the weather be fine ; when in the courfe of a few days they will be in a condition to be threfhed out fronr the hufks. When they are fuffered to remain too long, the pods are apt to open, and fhed the feed. The hufkor pod, in which the feeds are included, is of a large fize, but the feeds are lefs than thofe of the turnip. It is always the beft to fow new feedj when it can be procured, in preference to fuch as has beea kept for fome time ; when of the latter kind, it fhould be fteeped for twelve or fifteen hours before it is fown. In refpect to the proportion that may be necefTary to be fown upon \ an acre, it: muft depend much upon the foil, and the manner in which it is fowm Where the * Correfted Agricultural Report of Lincoln/hire, ^ Ibid, 256 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wood Time and Method of /owing. drill is employed, >lefs will be neceflary than in the broadcaft method. A rood of land, where the crop is good, will in general a fiord (ced ftfficient tor tight or ten acres. In feme places fix bufhels are made ufe ot to the acre, in the broadcaft method.* Time and method of fencing. The period of putting crops of this fort into the ground mud depend in feme mcafure upon the method of preparation that has been adopted. Where the fn ft of the methods that have been mentioned is fol lowed, it mu ft be much later than in the other cafes. Early fowing is in general to be preferred, as there w ill be lefs danger of the plants being deftroyed by the at tacks of the /y or grub.\ When the weather is fuitable, and the land in a proper ftate of preparation, the feed may therefore be fown in the latter end of Febru ary or in March, continuing the fowings, in different portions of land, till about the middle of May, at fuitable intervals, to vary the times of cropping the leaves of the plants. The late fowings are generally performed about trie latter end of July, or beginning of the following month. In Scmerfctiliire they fow it in June. The manner in which the feed is put into the ground is different, according to the nature and ftate of preparation of the land. When it is in a fine ftate of mould, the drill or row method, is the moft generally pradifed ; and is by much the beft, as the plants ir.ay be kept n ore eafily clean from weeds, and become more vi gorous from the earth being more ftirrcd about the plants: but where the contrary is the cafe, the broadcaft plan is moftly followed j though it does not by any means admit of the plants being kept fo free from weeds, or of the mould being fo well flirrcd about them. In the firft method, the feed is put in by a drilling machine, fuch as is employed for turnips, in equi-diftant rows, about eight or nine inches apart, being covered either by means of a harrow which is attached to the implement, or by paffing a light common harrow over it afterwards once in a place; and if there be any clods, they {hould be raked off" to the fides, or into the furrows. In the latter mode, it is difperfed by the hand in as equal a manner as poflible over the whole of the land, being then harrowed in by a light harrow, fo as to Itave the land in as even and level a. ftate as poffible. In either way the land is frequently rolled afterwards, in order to leave the furface as even and neat as it will admit of. When the feafon is favourable and the feed is of a good quality, the plants moftly appear in the courfe of a fortnight ; when much attention (hould be paid to them to * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland. t Laurence, on Agriculture and Gardening, folio edition. Cultivation of Arable Land. Woad After-culture of Crops of. 2/>7 fee that they are not deftroyed by the turnip-fly^ or the frofts in thofe of the more early fowings ; as, where that is the cafe, the land Hhould be immediately fown again. In fome places it is not uncommon to fovv the greateft part of the crops two or three times over. And in the very late fowings, where the crops are thin on the ground, it is fometimes a practice to render them more thick by forming holes with a triangular hoe in the vacant fpaces, and directing perfons to drop feeds into them by the hand :* women and children may be employed in this bufinefs. This mode is often practifed for the late fpring fowings till the beginning of June, or even later. After-culture. As the goodnefs of the woad plants depends upon the luxuriance of their growth and the thicknefs of their leaves, much attention is neceflary to the after-management of the crops. In the fpring- fown crops, as well as thofe that are put-ia in the latter part of thefummer, the firft hoeings Ihould be performed as foon as the plants are fully diftingui (liable ; as by this means the weeds will not only be prevented from retarding the vegetation of the plants, but thefe, by being thinned out to greater diftances, will be more at liberty to advance, and become vigorous in their firft growth, which is a matter of great importance to the fuccefs of the crop. In the fecond hoeings, which (hould be given in the courfe of four or five weeks after the firft, the plants are to be thinned out to the full diftances at which they are to (land, which may be fix or fevcn inches, or more, according to the ferti lity of the foil, always leaving fufficient fpaces to prevent the plants from being in any way crowded. This bufinefs is in fome cafes executed in the fame man ner as for turnips, by means of hand hoes ; but in others it is performed by fmall ftiortfpuds, managed with one hand, while the other is employed in clearing away the weeds ; the labourers, who are moftly women and children, kneeling while they are at work. After this nothing more is done till the firft cropping of the leaves has been performed, when the plants are again immediately well Deeded ; and after each cropping the fame operation is had recourfe to ; the extent of crop cleared in the day being, in moft cafes, weeded before night.f In the late mode of fowing, after the fecond weeding in October, nothing further will be requifite till the fpring, about the middle of April, when the work fiiould be again well executed, the mould being fully ftirred about the root* of the plants, in order that they may derive the fulleft advantage from the pro- cefs. This will be fufficient to keep the plants clean till the taking of the firft crop j after which the plants muft be again weeded, and the fame operation * Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincolnflii re. f Ibid. VOL. II. L 1 258 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Woad -Gathering the Crop. be performed after each cropping of the leaves of the plants, as in the former cafe. The expenfe of performing this bufmefs will be different in different cafes ; but where labourers are in fufficient number, the fii ft hoeing will moftly be done at about fix ot feven (hillings the acre, and the fucceeding ones at about half the price, provided it be executed before the weeds have rifen to too great a height. Jn many places,the buiinefs of weeding and cropping the leaves of the plants is per formed by the fame perfons, at a fixed price for the acre, according to circumftances. Gathering the crop. In the fpring-fown crops the leaves are generally ready to be gathered towards the latter end of June or beginning of July, according to the nature of the foil, feafon, and the climate. But when put in at a later period in the fummer, the crops are often fit to be gathered earlier. This work fhould, how ever, always be executed as foon as the leaves are fully grown, while they retain their perfect green colour and are highly fucculent ; as when they begin to turn pale much of their good nefs is expended, and they become lefs in quantity and of an inferior quality. In performing the bufinefs, a number of bafkets are provided in proportion to the extent of crop, and placed in the field, into which the leaves are put as foon as they are taken from the plants, which is done by the hand, by grafping them firmly and giving them a fort of twift. On good foils, in favourable feafons, the plants will often rife to the height of eight inches or more ; but in other circumftances they feldom attain more than four or five : and where the lands are well managed, in refpect to the culture of the plants, they will often afford two or three ga therings ; but the beft cultivators feldom take more than two, which are fome- tiines mixed together in the manufacturing of them. The after croppings, when they are taken, areconftantly kept feparate from the others, as they would in jure the whole if blended together, and confiderably diminifh the value of the produce. The beft method, where a third cropping is either wholly or only par tially made, is to keep it feparate, forming it into an inferior kind of woad. The produce upon an acre of land, when well managed, in favourable feafons, is moftly from about a ton to a ton and a half. The price varies confiderably, but for woad of the prime quality it is often from twenty. five to thirty pounds the ton, and for that of an inferior quality fix or feven. In the parts of the crops that are referved for feed, it is a pradice with fomc cultivators to crop the leaves two or three times the firft year, and then leave the plants to run up to feed in the following ; but it is a better practice to only remove the fide leaves, as in this way the plants are lefs weakened, and the pro- Cultivation of Arable Land. JToad Preparation of. cs<) duce of feed is much greater. The plants are likewife fometimes fed down by fheep during the winter feafon ; but this, from its tendency to weaken them, is equally improper. In the preparation of the woad feveral procefTcs are r.cc:fTary after being ga thered into the bafkets : it is, in the improved method, conveyed in one-hojfe carts, fo contrived as to be lifted from the axis, and, by folding doors in the bot toms, to difcharge their contents upon the floor above the, mill, on being hoifted up to their proper fituation : round this floor holes are formed for putting the plants down through, in order that they may drop under the grinding wheels. The mills for this purpofe have feveral wheels for grinding the plants, which have lefs diameters on one fide than the other, and are about three feet in width, being conftructed with iron bars for crufliing the woad. They are wrought by horfes, or any other power, as may be the moil convenient. The materials are preferved under the grinding wheels by proper contrivances, which, as foon as they are fufficiently reduced, force it out of the tracks upon the ftone floors on the fides ; thus making way for new parcels without the mill being flopped. The bruifed woad is then thrown into rooms on the fides of the mill, deftined for its reception, by means of fhovels. In thefe it remains till the juice is fo much drained off as to leave it in a proper condition for being formed into balls ; which is done by labourers, with apparatus for the purpofe, and then laid upon trays to be conveyed to the drying ranges, in which they are placed upon grating fhelves that Hide on ledges in the drying houfes. Thefe are placed on the fides of galleries for the convenience of being eafily placed upon them and removed again. It is kept in thefe till it is fufficiently dry to be laid up in other rooms, until the whole of the crop has undergone the fame operations,and the workmen are ready to manufacture it. In order to prepare it for ufe in the art of dyeing, it is neceffary for it to take on a proper ftate of fermentation. This is accomplifhed in the courfeof feven or eight weeks, and, in the technical language of the art, is termed couching. It is effected by regrinding the balls, in the fame mill as before, to a fine powder,and then fpreading it upon the floors of the rooms in which the balls were formed, to the thicknefs of about three feet ; where it is thenmoiftened with water, fo as to keep it in a proper flow ftate of fermentation ; and fo managed by turning as that it may pervade the \vhole in an equal manner. In this bufmefs the direction of an experienced work man is neceffary. In the turning, it is of much importance that the parts of the materials be perfectly divided, which can only be effected by a nice management of the (hovel.* * Young s Corroded Agricultural Report of Lir.colnfliire, L 1 2 260 Cultivation of Arable Land. Wood Preparation of. Much advantage has been found in the goodnefs of the v:oad, from the drying and fVoring of it being performed in a careful manner. When this attention is neglected, the woad will not, on being broken between the finger and thumb,draw out into fine hair-like filaments, or, in the language of the manufacturer, heaver well ; as theufe of thisfubftance, in the blue vat of the dyer, is not merely to afford the colour of the plant, but, by bringing on a very gentle fermentation, excite the indigo in the fame vat to yield its colouring principle more perfectly. This is even neccflary for its own colouring matter being fully imparted. The fubftance fhould therefore be fo prepared in the different operations as to produce this effect in the moft certain and perfect manner. When the heat in the procefs of couching has gene too far, the fubftance will be what is termed foxy ; and when it has not pro ceeded to a fufficient degree, it will be what is called heavy. If the material be good, it does not foil the fingers on being rubbed between them; but fuch as is heavy does. In the concluiion of the procefs, the cooling is effected in fo gradual a manner as to render it not fit for taking on the fame procefs; and ofcourfe proper for being preferved in calks, or in any other way. It is then ready for life.* This is a fort of crop that appears befl adapted to the rich fertile lands that are on thefe accounts, on being firil broken up, unfit for oats orany other fort of grain-crop, as it may in thefe cafes be had recourfe to for a year or two, when they will be in a proper clean Mate for grain ; as, from its not returning any thing to the land, it muft of neceffity be in fome meafure an exhaufting crop : but it does it in a more moderate way than many other forts of deteriorating crops ; and at the fame time, from the nature of its culture, leaves the land in a more clean and perfect condition for the growth of other crops. The ingenious cultivator mentioned above has introduced this plant as a regu larly returning crop in the rotation of woad for two, three, or four years; then oats for one or two years ; after that cole, then oats again j the land being then laid down to grafs, with white clover, ribgrafs, a flight portion of trefoil, the belt hay-feeds, fomeparflcy, and a little ray-grafs. Land left in this way, if conftantly fed down with (beep and a few neat cattle, it is fuppofed, would be in a condition to be planted again with woad in the courfe offeven or eight years.-jr But as the demands for this article are in fome degree confined, it is not a fort of culture that can be extended in an unlimited manner. Belides, as there is much rifk and anxiety attending the cultivation and preparation of fuch forts of * Young s Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincolnshire. + Ibid. I Cultivation of Arable Land IFeld Seed Time and Method offowing. 261 crops, and a great cxpence of machinery, it is probable that many other kinds of root and other crops that are Icfs expoled to hazard in their growth, and trouble in th. ir preparation a^.d after-management, may be grown on foils that are proper for this plant, with more profit and ad vantage. Where the culture of the plant is however eftablifhed, and the nccelTary appa ratus provided, its cultivation, by confining it to a particular place, and introducing it in a regular cotirfe as juft ftated, may be extended, and rendered more eafy and profitable. H eld. This is another plant that is cultivated for the fake of its flower-ftems, which arc employed in the art of dyeing, for the purpofe of producing the bright yellow and lemon colours.* The foils moft adapted to the culture of this plant are thofe of the more fertile mellow kinds, whether of the loamy, fandy, or gravelly defcriptions ; but it may be grown with confiderable fuccefs on thofe of a poorer quality. In the former, the plants will however rife to a much greater height, and produce much larger leaves than in the latter. In the preparation of the ground, it is neceflary that there mould be a confider able degree of finenefs produced in the mould. This may be effected by different ploughings performed in the more early fpring-months, and by occafional harrow ing. In giving the feed furrow, the land mould be left in as even and level a lituation as pofllble on the furface, in order that the feed may be difperfed over it in a more equal and regular manner. Seed. It is necefTary that this mould be collected from the beft plants, and that it fhould have remained upon the ftems till it has been rendered perfectly ripe: as that which is well ripened never vegetates well. The plants defigned for feed ihould not, however, be let ftand too long in the field, as the feed is liable to fiied ; and it mould be perfectly frelh when fown, as that which has been long kept never comes up well, or in fo even a manner. As the feed is very fmall, the furface mould, by bfing left in a fine condition, is more fit for its being difperfed over it equally. The proportion of feed that is necefTary is generally from about two quarts to a gallon the acre, according to circumftances, where it is fown alone; but when mixed with other crops a little more may be required. It mould be mixed with a little fand at the time of fowing it. Time and method of fo wing. In this, as in thf preceding crop, the feed may be put into the ground either in the fpring, as about the latter end of April or be* ginning of May ; or in the clofe of the fummer, as about the beginning of Auguft ; * It is the Xweefa Luteola, and is commonly known by the names of Woold, Wdd, and Dyer s Weed, 2(v3 Cultivation of Arable Land. Weld Method of Sowing. but in the former periods, it is moftly fown in conjunction with other crops. But uhen fown alone at the latter feafon, the produce is in general the moft abundant. In Norfolk they fow it in April with barley in the proportion of from one quar ter to half a peck to the acre, in the manner of clover, and frequently with clover at the fame time, to be mown or fed in the following year after it is pulled. This fort of crop is commonly fown broadcaft, whether it be grown in mixture with other plants or alone; and as the feeds are of a very fmall fize, it requires an expert feedfman to perform the bufinefs with regularity and exactnefs; which is a matter of much importance to the fuccefs of the crop, as, where the plants (land too cloftly together, much unnecefTary trouble and expenfe muft be incurred in the thinning them out by the hoe afterwards; and where they ftand too thinly upon the ground, there muft be great lofs from the deficiency of plants. In order that the fowing may be executed with more regularity, it is the cuftom with fome cul tivators to blend fome other fubftance with the feed that has nearly the fame weight, fuch as that which has been juft noticed, as, in this way, they fuppofe it to be effected with greater facility and difpatch. Where the weld is grown with ocher forts of crops, as barley, buck- wheat, beans, peas, clover, or grafs feeds, it is put in after them; in fome cafes immediately, but in others, not till fome time has elapfed. With the firft and fecond, when fown fo late as the beginning of May, it is moftly the practice of the beft cul tivators to put it in directly afterwards, giving the land a flight harrowing with a very light clofe-tined harrow, to cover it.* With fome, the barley being put in under furrow, the weld feed is immediately fown upon the furface, lightly har rowed in, and then rolled. f But where the barley feeding is performed fo early as March, or the beginning,of April, the fowing of the weld feed is beft deferred till May, when it may be difperfed over the land, and left in that manner to be waflied in by the rains.J But with beans and peas, it is often put in before the laft breaking or hoeing of the crops in the latter end of June, or beginning of the following month. When cultivated with clover and grafs feeds, it is fometimes put in at the fame time with them j but it is probably a better practice to delay it till fome time afterwards, as both thefe crops require to be fown at too early a period for this plant. Where no other fort of crop is grown with the weld, the ufual method is that of fowing it evenly over the furface of the land, and covering it in by harrowing * Synopfis of Hufbandry. + Annals of Agriculture, vol. I, + Ibid. Corrcfted Agricultural Report ol" Kent, Cultivation of Arable Land. Weld After-culture, S^c. of Crops of. 2-?S v/.th a light common or bufh-harrow, finifhing, when the foil is of the light kind, by paffing a roller over it. After -culture. In the common practice of cultivating crops of this fort, no at. tention is afterwards paid to them. But as the p ants are of flow growth, and of courfe liable to be greatly injured in their progrefs by the rifing of weds > it mull be of much advantage not only to keep them perfectly clean from them, but alfo to have the mould ftirred about the roots of the plants. In the courfe of about a month from the time of Cowing, the plants are moflly in a ftate to be eafily diftin- guifhed ; a hoeing mould, therefore, be then given when the weather is dry, which may be performed in the fame manner as for turnips, making ufe of fo me what: fmaller hoes for the purpofe. It is advifed by fome to fet the plants out, in this operation, to the diflance of three or four inches ; but it will probably be better to let them have more room, as fix, feven, or eight inches ; which will not only leflen the expenfe of the bulinefs, but contribute to the advantage of the crop. When this operation is well executed, nothing further will be necefTary till the fpring, when a fecond flight hoeing may be practifed about March, in a dry time j and if any weeds rife afterwards, a third may be performed in May. But where the land has been well prepared, one in the autumn and another in the fpring may be fully fufficient. In fome cafes hand-weeding is practifed, but it is in general too expenfive a method. The mod proper time for pulling this fort of crop is when the bloom has been produced the whole length of the ftems, and the plants arejuft beginning to turn of a light or yellowifii colour; which is ufually about the beginning or middle of July in the fecond year. The plants are ufually from one to two feet and a half in height. It is thought by fome cultivators to be advantageous to pull it rather early, without waiting for the ripening of the feeds, as by this means there will: not only be the greateft proportion of dye, but the land will be left at liberty for the reception of a crop of wheat or turnips.* In this cafe a finall part mufl be left folely for the purpofe of feed. In performing the bufinefs the plants are drawn up by the roots in fmall handfuls, which are ufually fet up to dry, after each handful has been tied up by one of the flalks, in the number of four together in an erect portion againft each other* Sometimes they, however, become fufficiently dry by turning without being fet up.. After they have remained till fully dry, which is moflly effected in the courfe of a>. week or two, they are bound up into larger bundles, that contain each fixty hand*- * Martyn s Edition of Miller s Dictionary, art. Reseda Lutcola,. CU Cultivation of Arable Land. Weld Produce (J Crops of. fuls, and which arc of the weight of fifty-fix pounds each : fixty of thcfe bundles conllituting a load.* Thefe lad are tied up by a firing made for the purpofc, and fold under the title ofwoold c-ord. As the weld plant is extremely uncertain in its growth, and the whole crop feldom becomes in a (rate to be pulled at the fame lime, it is neceffary to have an ex perienced labourer to direct the bufinefs of pulling, in order that the pullers may not proceed at random, but take the different parts as the plants become ready, or in danger from the blight. In this laft cafe ths greateft poffible difpatch fhould always be made, as the lofs of weight in the produce will daily increafe, and the grower be of courfe greatly injured. When the weld is fufficiently dried, which may be known by the crifpnefs of the leaves, and the Hems turning of a light colour, a f id when the plants are ripe, the feeds (helling out ; according to fome, it fhould be Hacked up lightly in the barn in order to prevent its taking on too much heat \-\ while others advife, that it fhould be Hacked up clofely in the manner of wheat, being left to fweat in the fame way as hay, as the more this takes place the better ; the quality of the weld being there by increafed, if there be no mouldinefs. J If the crop has flood till it is perfectly ripe, the feed may be taken before it is put into the barn, which may be eafily procured by rubbing, or flightly beating each of the little handfuls againfl each other over a cloth, tub, or any other con venient receptacle, as, by thrcfhing, the quantity of the weld would be much re duced in weight. The price of this fort of feed is moflly about ten or twelve fhil- Jings the bufhel, which may be fold to the feedfmen. The produce of crops of this kind is in fome degree uncertain, much depending upon the nature of the feafon ; but from half a load to a load and a half is the quantity mofl generally afforded, which is commonly fold to the dyers at from five or fix to ten or twelve pounds the load, and fometimes confiderably more. It is moflly bought by perfons who afterwards difpofe of it to the dyers occasionally as they find it convenient. The demand for it is fometimes very little, while at others it is fo great as to raife the pi ice to a high degree. The expence of cul tivating this fort of crop has often been eflimated below one pound the acre ; but that is much too low where proper attention is beflowed in preparing the land, and in the hoeing and other management of the crop afterwards. Without taking in the value x>f the land, tythes, or other charges, it muft conftantly fland much higher.[| * Synopfis of Husbandry, t Ibid. \ Carter in Annals of Agriculture, vol. I. Jl Without any regard to the preparation of tlie land or the crop, with which it is blended, where that mode of culture is adopted, it may ftand thus per acre : Cultivation of Arable Land. Weld Difcafcs of. Blight. 265 Crops of this kind are particularly liable to be injured by the bligbt, which is probably the reafon that has induced cultivators to raife them with thofe of other forts, efpecially thofe of the grafs kind, as by that means, where the weld does not fucceed, a portion of fheep-feed may be afforded for winter and fpring ufe. The blight frequently comes on fo fuddenly, that crops which appear healthy and in a vigorous ftate of growth during the winter and fpring, promifing a large produce, are about the month of May attacked fo as to be nearly deftroyed. It is known by the plants, efpecially about the lower parts of the ftems, turning of a yellowifh or pale reddifti colour, while the upper parts remain green and fcem healthy. When it appears early in the month of May there is always danger of the crop being deftroyed ; but when it comes on at a later period, or where the plants from other caufes, as the drynefs of the feafon, begin to change colour in the fhanks, the only chance is that of having them pulled as expeditioufly as pof- fible. Although the practice offowing weld with other crops has been common, it would feemmore proper to cultivate it alone ; as in that way it muft be much in jured and reftricted in its growth, from the great clofenefs and fhade produced by the plants that furround it. The only objection to the cultivating of it alone is, as has been juft feen, in the danger of the crop being deftroyed by the blight, in which cafe the farmer will have nothing left to repay him for his expencc and trouble ; whereas, when grown with other crops, they may in fuch cafes in fome meafure defray them.* It is ufual with the cultivators of weld when it is grown with other crops, ef pecially thofe of the grafs kind, to feed them down, in the winter and fpring, with fheep or other forts of live ftock, under the notion that they will not touch the weld plants : but this, is not the fact, as they are found to feed upon them, and Expcnces, . $. d. Seed, . &c. - 013 Sowing - o 3 Two hoeings - - - - - 7 G Pulling the crop and tying it in handfuls - - -080 Binding into bundles - * o 1 6 Woold cord - 1 O ! Curling, and ftacking - - 3 -o i 2 o * Synopfis of Hufbandry. ., VOL. II.. M m Cultivation of Arable Land. Madder Soil and Preparation for* muft of courfe be greatly injured in their growth : caution muft therefore be ufcd in directing the feeding down of clover or other crops where the weld plant is prefent. There can be little doubt but that crops of this fort may be cultivated with much profit in fome cafes, where the foil is adapted to its growth, and from its nature notdifpofed to the blight, or to lofc its moifturetoo much in the fummer months ; but under the contrary circumftances its culture mould not be attempted, Befides, from the great confumption of vegetable matter which it caufes, with out contributing any thing in the way of manure to the land, it can only be intro duced with propriety, perhaps, in fituations where manure can be eafily obtained.* In thefe cafes, where the crops are cultivated withfufficient attention,it may be a good preparation for wheat or turnip crops. When the weld cannot be difpofed of foon after it is pulled, it may be preferved perfectly good feveral years by being put up in flacks, either in the barn or the open air, care being taken to keep it from being injured by the attacks of rats or other vermin. Madder. This is another plant of the perennial kind, that is fometimes cultivated in large plantations in the field, for the fake of its long thick flefhy root, which is employed in the art of dyeing, for the purpofe of giving a fcarlet colour.f It \\ as formerly much more cultivated in particular diftricts than it is at prefent ; the importations fromHolland having leffened the demands, and reduced the price of it fo much as to render its culture incapable of being conducted with profit to the farmer; The foils the moft fuited to the cultivation of this plant arethofe of the deep fertile fandy loams that are not retentive of moi flu re, and which have a confider- able portion of vegetable matter in their compofition. It may alfo be grown on the more light~defcriptions of foil that have fufficient depth, and which are in a proper (late of fertility. In the preparation of the land for the reception of the crop, it will beneceflary to plough it up deeply before the winter into high ridges, in order that it may be cxpofed to the action and influence of the frofts. And it mould be well water- furrowed, that it may be kept quite dry. Early in the fpring thefe ridges fliould be well harrowed down by a heavy long-tined harrow, and then ploughed again in the contrary direction to a good depth ; and when, after this, it is not perfectly clean from weeds, or not rendered fufficiently fine and mellow, another * Marshall s Rural Economy of Norfolk. f It is the Rvbia tinctoria, Cultivation of Arable Land. Madder Sets Time, $c. of planting. 67 ploughing and harrowing may be given. In the laft operations, the ground fhould be left in as level a ftate as poffible. It is then ready for the reception of the plants. Sets. The plants may be obtained either by fowing the feed upon a bed of earth which is rich, and made perfectly fine by digging and raking, in the fpring, it being lightly covered in, or from offsets or fuckers from the old plants. In the firfl method, on the plants appearing they mould be made perfectly clean by weed ing, and be fet out to the diftance of three inches in the beds by the hoe. In this way, by keeping the ground quite clean and well ftirred about the plants, they will be ready to fet out in thefecond autumn, though it will moftly be better to defer the bufinefstill the fpring. The latter practice is the better in this climate, if the fets can be procured, as the plants feldom ripen their feed perfectly, or afford it in a (late to vegetate well. It requires about twenty thoufand plants for fetting an acre of land. Time and method of planting. The proper time of taking the fets is mown by the plants having obtained the height of ten or twelve inches from the ground, and the fuckers having thrown out fibrous roots at their bottoms. This may be feen by drawing up a few of the plants, and is ufually about the latter end of Mi/ or be ginning of June. It is quite neceflary that the fets have formed root fibres at the bottoms before they are removed, as where that is not the cafe they fcarcely ever fucceed well. The plants being in this fituation, and the land prepared as before directed, a fufficient number of labourers are to be provided, that the work may be performed as expeditioufly as poffible. In taking off the fets, much care is necefTary not to- injure them. Some perform it by means of a dibble with a flat edge, and which is mod with iron : this tool, on being thruft into the ground on the fide of the fhoots, divides and feparates them by depreffing the handle, without hurling the fine fibrous roots. The number of plants that can be fet in a fhort fpace of time mould only be taken up at once. They mould be prepared by having about a third of their top parts cut off. A fort of thin batter fhould likewife be made by mixing good vegetable mould and water well together, into which the roots of the fets mould be dipped before they are placed in the earth, as by this means the neceflity of watering the plants afterwards is prevented. This work is executed by a perfon before the planting commences. Two others are employed afterwards in diftributing the plants fo as to be convenient for putting into the ground.* * Corre&ed Agricultural Report ot Kent, M m 2 Sr73 Cultivation of Arable Land. Madder After-cu liure of. There are different methods employed in fetting the plants: in fome cafes they are put in the furrows by means of the plough, while in others they are fet in beds by a dibble. The former is probably the better method, and, as being the mod expeditious, is the bed adapted to the culture of the plant on an extenfive fcale. In this, the planter begins by drawing a ftrait furrow on one fide of the plantation to a good depth : a row of plants is then laid in it by a perfon for the purpofe, at thediftance of five, fix, or more inches from each other, according to the circumftances of the land, in fuch a manner as to lean off from the plough: an other furrow is then formed, by the mould of which they are covered. In this man ner the work proceeds until the whole is finimed. In the other method the fets, after the land has been formed into beds of five feet in breadth, with two feet between each for intervals, are pur in by means of a line and dibble, beginning at the didance of fix inches from the outfides, and fetting a row of plants at fuitable diftances from each other, as juft mentioned; then re moving the line two feet further on them, and putting in another row ; after which it is again removed two feet, and a third row of plants fet in, which finifhes the bed ; the work proceeding in the fame manner till the whole of the plantation is com pleted. In this way, each bed contains three rows of plants at two feet diftance each, three feet being left between the rows on the different beds. In Holland, where the culture of this root is extenfive, their method is a little different from the above. The plants, after being taken from the older plantations about the month of May, are immediately fet in rows at the didance of three or four inches from plant to plant, and about fifteen inches from row to row, the beds being ten or twelve feet in width, with intervals of only about two feet. As, in whatever manner the plants are fet, fome of them even in the mod favour able feafons are liable to die foon after the work has been performed ; it is necef- fary in the courfe of a fortnight or three weeks to look over the ground, and put frefli vigorous plants in the places where the others have been dedroyed. By this means the plantations may be rendered more perfect and productive. After-culture. Whichever method of planting is practifcd, it is of the greated confequence to the fuccefs of the crop that it be kept perfectly clean from weeds, and that the mould be occafionally dirred about the roots of the plants. The fird is accornplimed by means of hand-weeding and hoeing, during the fummer feafon ; and the latter, either by the ufe of a hand-hoe or a light plough. This lad is the mod eafy and expeditious. In this manner, or by digging the intervals of the rows, the mould is alfo laid up to the plants once each year, after the ftemshave Cultivation of Arable Land. Madder ColleBing Seeds of. 69 been removed in the autumn feafon*. Where the bed practice is followed, they are fometimes earthed up in the autumn, after the items have been cut down, by- paring the intervals fomewhat in the manner of thofe of the fparagus kind. This method is however, in general, too expenfiveand troublefome where the plantation is extenlive. The crops are to be managed in this manner until the third autumn after plant ing, when the plants will be in a ftate to be taken up. This is known by their (talks beginning to wither, and is generally about October. This bufinefs is -per formed either by trenching the land over with a fpade, or by means of the plough. The firft is the more certain though much lefs expeditious method. In executing it, the workmen dig along the rows to the depth of about two feet, breaking and reducing every fpit of earth as perfectly as pofnble ; each being attended by two perfons who pick out the roots of the madder. But when the planting has been done in narrow beds, it is fometimes the practice to take the roots up, by turnino- the earth into the intervals by &Jpud t or broad threc-tined fork. In this way it is fuppofed that the roots are taken up more perfectly, and with lefs danger of being injured. But the molt ready method is by means of the plough, which, after havino- the earth-board and coulter removed, is pafTed along each fide of the rows, fo as fiilly to loofen the mould ; perfons being employed to pick out the roots, loofening fuch parts of the earth as may have efcaped the action of the plough by their fpades. When the roots have been taken up, they mould be expofed fome time to the air, in order that they may be rendered fo dry as to be cleared from the mould. They are then to be conveyed to a kiln, fuch as is employed for the purpofe of drying malt or hops, where they are to be brought into fuch a ftate of dryncfs as to be per fectly brittle : this is done to prevent the danger of their being injured by becoming mouldy, or from running into a ftate of fermentation ; but much caution is necef- fary in conducting the procefs. After this they are packed up in bags in order to be difpofed of to the dyer, who reduces them into a powder, by a mill, before they are made ufe of as a colouring ingredient. The beft madder is that which, on being broken, has a brightilh-red or pur- plifh appearance, without any yellow calt. In order to collect the feed of the madder plant, it is neceffary to let the plants remain in the field till the feed is almolt wholly ripe, which is generally in the month of September; the heads are then to be feparated from the (terns ; and cx- * Corrected Agricultural Report of Kent, 70 Cultivation of Arable Land. Teqfil. pofed on a cloth in the fun till the feed can be eafily forced out by flightly beating them. It is then to be rendered perfectly clean, and afterwards placed in a funny Situation until it is become quite dry j for if the leaft dampnefs remain it will grow mouldy, and its vegetative power be either greatly impaired or wholly deftroyed. When thus properly dried, it mould be put in fmall bags, and hung up to the ceiling of a room where a fire is conflantly kept. The produce from the root of this plant is different, according to the goodnefs of the foil, but moftly from ten to fifteen or twenty hundred weight where they are fuitable to its culture. It feems probable that the cultivation of madder might be rendered a profitable article of field hufbandry in different diftri<ts, if the importation of the root from Holland was prohibited ; as the event of different trials has mown that full crops of good madder are capable of being raifcd. It is fuppofed by an intelligent cul tivator, that if the price was never lower than three pounds the hundred weight, it might be grown not only with profit by the farmer, but without injury to the con- fumer.* From the high degree of culture which land under this fort of crop muft neceflarily undergo, and its not being fo much exhauftedas in many other cafes, it muft bean excellent preparation for wheat or any other crop that requires a clean and fine pul verized condition of the ground. Teafel. This is a plant of the thiftle kind, which is cultivated in the field in fome diftridh for its ufe in the drefling of cloths, the head being conftkuted of different well-turned vegetable hooks.-)- The foils moft adapted to the culture of this plant are thofe of the more ftrong and deep kinds, but which are not too rich, as loamy clays, and fuch as have mar- ley bottoms and are fit for the growth of wheat crops. If broken up from the flate of old ley, it is the better; but wheat ftubbles are fometirnes made ufe of for the purpofe. The fituations the moft favourable are thofe that are rather elevated, open, and incline to the fouth. The high grounds, efpecially where the country is inclofed, are the moft advantageous, as the natural fuperabundant moifture in the heads of the plants is more completely diffipated in wet feafons, which in other more low fituations is apt to lodge fo long upon them as to caule them to decay* In the preparation of the ground when it is a ley, the beft method is to plough k up deeply in the beginning of the year, as in the firft part of February ; and where * Boys s Correfted Agricultural Report of Kent, t li is the Dipsacus Fullo?ium } or Fuller s Thiftle, Cultivation of Arable LctniL~>>Teafd~~Sccd~~Time, fyc. of facing. 271 it is inclined to the retention of moifture, this fliould be done in narrow ridges of about three bouts each, the furrow flices being laid as even and regular as poffible, the fine mould from the furrows being raifed by the plough or fpade fo as to cover the furface. But in lands that are fufficiently dry, and which are broken up from ftubble, the ploughing may be deferred to a later period, and be laid in ridges of much greater breadths and more flat. In either cafe the furface fliould be left in as fine a ftate of mould as poffible for the reception of the feed. Seed. In collecting the feed, it fliould conftantly be taken from fuch plants as are the moft perfect of their kind and the moft productive in heads, as there is much difference in the quantity that is afforded by different plants, fome producing nearly a hundred, while others do not afford more than three or four.* It fliould be fuffered to remain till it becomes perfectly ripened, and be ufed while frefli, as fuch as has been long kept feldom vegetates in a perfect manner, The proportion of feed that is mof-Hy employed on the acre is from one to two pecks,f but fome make ufe of a larger quantity. It is difadvantageous, however, to fow the feed too thick, as the plants arc injured in their early growth by ftand- ing tooclofely together. Time and method of /owing, Crops of this fort are commonly put into the earth about the beginning of April. As the feeds vegetate in the moft expeditious and perfect manner when put in while there is a considerable portion of moifture in the foil, the fowing ihould never be deferred much longer than this period. It is moftly fown in the broad-caft method evenly over the furface, in the man ner that is practifed with turnips. But before this is performed the land fliould be well harrowed down, in order to afford a fine flate of mould as a bed for the feed. It is then to be covered in by a flight harrowing with a light fhort-tined har row. This fort of feed may Hkewife be fown in rows in the drill method, at the dif- tance of eight, twelve, or more inches from each other, in the fame way as that of the turnips. This method is not, however, much employed by thofe who arc in the practice of railing teafel crops. After-culture. As much in the cultivation of crops of this kind depends on the land between the plants being kept perfectly clean and free from weeds ; in having them fet out to proper and fufficient diftances ; and in having them well earthed up, it is neceflary that the cultivator fliould fee that thefe operations are performed in a perfect manner. The digging between the plants is ufually executed by * Billingfle^ s Corre&ed Agricultural Report of Somcrfet, f Ibid. 72 Cultivation of Arable Land. Tcafel After-culture of Crops of, means of fpades which have long narrow bitts not more than about four inches in breadth, having the length of fixteen or eighteen inches. With thefe the land is commonly worked over in the intervals of the plants three or four times during the fummer months ; and about the beginning of November, when they fland too clofc ly together, they mould be drawn out, in order to fill up any vacancies that may have occurred. When there are flill too many plants remaining, it is fome- times a practice to prepare another piece of ground, into which thefe are tranfplant- ed. It is, however, found that thofe plants which are never removed produce the bcft heads.* In the enfuing winter, as about the latter end of February, the land between the plants is to be again worked over by the narrow fpades, care being taken that none of the mould falls into the hearts of the plants. And about the middle of May, when they begin to fpindle, another digging over is given, the earth being raifed round the root-items of the plants, in order to fupport and prevent them from being blown down by the wind. Some cultivators perform more frequent diggings, that the ground may be rendered cleaner and more mellow ; confequent- ly the growth of the plants be the mod effectually promoted, f This bufinefs is commonly termed Jpaddling t and is executed with great difpatch by labourers that are accuflomed to it : the ufe of the hoe has been attempted by fome in perform ing it, but without fuccefs. j; After thefe diggings nothing further is neceffary till the period of cutting, which is generally about the month of July, which is known by fome of the uppermofl heads beginning to blow ; as, when the bloflbms fall, they are ripe, and in a ftate to be cut. This is a work that mould be performed as the heads become ripe ; but is moff- ly executed at three different times, at the diftances of about ten days or a fortnight from each other. It is done by means of a knife, contrived for the purpofe, with a fiiort blade and a firing attached to the haft. This lafl is done in order that it may be hung over the hand. A pair. of flrong gloves is likewife necefTary. Thus prepared, the labourer cuts off the ripe heads along the rows, with about nine inches of flem, and ties them up in handfuls with the ftem of one that is more perfectly ripened. On the evening of the day on which they are cut, they mould be put into a dry fhed ; and when the weather is fine and the air clear, they mould be taken out, and expofed to the fun daily till they become perfectly dry. Much care mult however be taken that no rain falls upon them. In doing this, fome make ufe of long fmall flakes or poles, on which thefe handfuls are hung. * Correfted Agricultural Report of Somerfet, t; IbicL \ Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Teafil Produce of Crops of, After being completely dried, they fhould be laid up in a dry room, in a clofe manner, till they are become tough and of a bright colour, and ready for ufe. They are then to be fortcd or feparated into three different kinds, by opening each of the fmall bundles. Thefe are diftinguifhed into kings t middlings, und/cruZs, according to their different qualities. They are afterwards made into packs, which,of the firft fort, contain nine thoufand heads, but when of the fecond twenty thoufand; the third fort is of very inferior value,*- By fome, before forming them into packs, they are done up into what are termed Jtav&s, by means of fplit (ticks. The produce in crops of this nature is very uncertain, there being fometimes fifteen or fixteen or more packs on the acre; and at others fcarcely any. The produce- is difpofed of to the cloth manufacturers in Somerfetfhire, Wiltmire, and Yorkfhire, and in general averages about forty millings the pack. From the circumftance of the land being under the neceflity of being kept in a high ftate of pulverization and cleannefs, the expences of cultivation muft be confiderable.f This kind of crop is extremely precarious, as the plants, efpecially when the feafon proves wet about the time of bloflbming, are liable to rot and be de- ilroyed. The uncertainnefs of teafel crops has induced the cultivators to blend other plants with them the firft year, fuch as beans, &c. in order to repay them in fome meafure for the great expence of tillage and keeping the land clean : but this is a practice * Correded Agricultural Report of the County of Somcrfet. f Mr. Billingfley, in his able Agricultural Survey of Soraerfetfhire, eftimates them in the following manner : Expences per Acre, . * * Two years* rent - - - - 3 Ploughing - - - 15 Workmen s labour in digging, &c, - - 315O Making out in bundles, tying together, and bands, at 2s. per pack 0140 8 4 O Profit 5 16 Seven packs at 40s. In this eftimate tythes and taxes are not however valued. VOL. jj, Nn 14 Average Produce. ^74 Cultivation of Arable Land. Liquorice. Soils proper for.. that fhould be avoided as much as poflible, as the.growth of the .teafcl plants mud onfl:antly be injured by it. . . From the nature of the foil, the preparation that it; undergoes in rendering it fit for the growth of the plants, and the fine ftate of pulverization and cleannefs that it, is kept in by the after-culture which is neceffary, it becomes well, adapted for the reception of a wheat crop after the teafels are removed, and which may moftly be put in on one ploughing. But as the teafel robs the foils on which it is grown of a. confiderable portion of their fertility, as is evinced by its fucceeding the moft per fectly on lands that are newly broken up from the (late of old fward ; it may not be advifabie to follow it by fuch grain-^crops, except when the.grounds are very, rich; but to interpofe fome fort of green crop, either of the bulbous-rooted or. ftem kind, Liquorice* This is a plant fometimes cultivated in the field for the fake of its. roots, which are made ufe of for various purpofes. It is a hardy perennial of the ( deep-rooted -kind. The fpecies mcftly grown is the common fort ;* the roots of which are faid to be more fweet and juicy than thofe of the others. An "open Situation is always to be preferred for this plant. . The foils moft fuited to the growth of the liquorice plant are thofe of the deep light fandy loams, as the goodnefs of the crops depends upon the roots penetrating to a confiderable depth. The preparation of the land is effected either by the fpade or the trench plough ; but the firft is the more perfect method. In either way the ground muft be well loof- ened to the depth of three feet or more, the autumn before the planting is intended ; and a fufficient proportion of well rotted dung then intimately incorporated with the mould. In this iiate the land is to remain till the time of planting, when another ftirring of the earth mufr. be performed to the fame depth, the mould being Jeft as light as poflible. The land being thus prepared, it is neceffary to provide a fufficient quantity of fets. Thefe mould be taken off from the fides or heads of the old plants, care be ing taken that each of them have one or two good eyes cr buds, and that they be perfectly found. They mould be about ten inches in length. Time and method of planting. The bed feafon for putting the fets into the ground is in the early part of the fpring, as foon as the frofts are over, as about the latter end of February or beginning of March. There are different methods of putting the plants in, fome preferring the fet- * The Gtycyrrhiza glabra. -Cultivation of Arable Laml. Liquorice Time and Method of pianting. 275 trng them on the plain furface, while others have recourfe to fmall beds. On foils that are dry and porous, the firft may be the moft advifable practice ; but in fuch as are retentive of moiftu re the bed -method may be preferable. In the firft mode, the fets are ufually put in by means of a line, with a dibble of confiderable length, in rows at the diftance of two feet from each other, and one foot or more in the rows ; the fhoots being put in ftraight downwards, fo as to be covered over about one inch with earth on the top. Where the intervals between-, the rows are fufficiently fpacious, there are confiderable advantages in the cultiva-r tion of the roots, as the earth may be ftirred and kept clean at little expence by- means of the plough, and at the fame time the roots will have room to attain a more full growth. Where the planting is performed in the latter method, it is the practice in fome diftricts to put the fets in on beds three feet in width raifed into ridges.* In both thefe methods, it is the cuftom with many to fow, at the time the planting is ex ecuted, fome fmall feed-crops, fuch as onions. In the bed method they are fovvn in the alleys : but though in this way fome advantage may be immediately gained, without much care in removing them from about the liquorice plants, they will be prejudicial to their growth: befides, they prevent the land, in the intervals of the rows and alleys, from being ftirred and kept in a perfectly clean ftate, a circumftance on which much depends in the culture of the liquorke root. After-culture. It is highly necelfary that the plants be kept free from weeds by repeated hoeing and hand-weeding during the fummer months and towards October, after the onions or other crops, where they are grown, have been removed and the land been well cleaned, a flight covering of well rotted dung mould be applied. In this ftate the plants may remain until the following March ; when: the ground between the rows, or in the alleys, mud be lightly ftirred, either by digging or the plough, in order to promote the growth of the plants. Some like- wife advife the tops of the liquorice plants to be annually cut over.f Thefe methods are to be purfued till the third year after planting, when the roots will be in a con dition to be taken up, but which mould not be performed until the ftems are wholly decayed, as when raifed too early they fhrink greatly and decreafe much in weight. The method of taking up the roots is generally by means of trench digging to the full depth of the roots, which is moftly about three fpits in depth. In executing the work three workmen generally follow each other with fpits, be ginning on the outlide of the rows with the trenches, the laft having a mattock. * Corre&ed Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire, -f- Ibid, N. n x 2/6" Cultivation of Arable Land. Lavender Time and Method of planting. to afllfl him in railing the roots. After the roots are taken up, they are thrown on the ground on the fides of the trenches. The fame method is purfued with each of the rows until the whole crop is taken up. In fome cafes, the land in thefe trenchings is left in fuch a flate as to be ready for replanting. The fmall lateral roots are then trimmed off, the largeft being cut into proper lengths for new fets, and the main roots tied up into bundles for the purpofe of fale. This fort of crop can only be cultivated in a local manner, as it requires land that has great depth of foil, and which poffefies confiderable fertility. Befides^ it is in fome meafure expofed to uncertainty, being liable to become rotten in wet feafons, and to be much injured in its growth by fro (I in the fpring, and dry weather in fucceeding months. As the value of this root depends much upon its being kept in a fucculent ftate, and there is confiderable lofs in weight by its being kept dry, it is the mod advifable practice to difpofe of the produce im mediately after it is taken up ; but where this cannot be done, it fhould be depo- fited in a moift fituation till it can be fold. Lavender. This is a plant of the fmall (hrubby kind, which is fometimes cul tivated in the field, and found to afford a confiderable profit in the fpikes of flowers, which are made ufe of for being diftilled for the purpofe of lavender water. Near large to wns, where the farmer has land that is fuitable for its growth, and time to attend to fuch fort of culture, he mould not forget it. The foils moft adapted to the growth of this plant are thofe of the dry gravelly or loamy kinds. In the preparation of the land it is eflential that it be rendered perfectly clean from weeds, and brought to a tolerable ftate of finenefs in the mould, in order that the plants may ftrike root and eftablim themfelves more readily. It mould be prepared by two or more good ploughings and harrovvings in the autumn, and one more flight ftirring before planting in the fpring. Time and method of planting. The moft proper feafon for performing this bufi- nefs is from the latter end of March to the beginning of the following month ; at which time a fuitable quantity of flips or cuttings of the young (hoots mould be provided according to the extent of land that is to be planted. Thefe mould be planted out by means of a dibble in rows at the diftance of two and an half or three feet, the land being previoufly laid up into fmall ridges, and one and an half or two feet apart in the rows, the mould being very well clofed about them. Some, however, prefer ftriking them in a rich lhady border before they are fet out in the field. After-culture* The plants mould afterwards be kept perfectly clean and free Cultivation of Arable Land.^La-vender^-Produce of, Sf 7 from all forts of weeds by repeated hand or horfe-hoeing during the fummer months, the mould or earth being laid up to the roots of the plants towards the beginning of the autumn. At this period the dead ftems and leaves mould likewife be cut and cleared away. The plants moftly afford good fpikes of flowers in the fecond fummer after being planted out. They are fit to be gathered in June or the following month, and tied in fmali bunches to be fold to the perfumers. A plantation of this fort when once formed lafts many years, only requiring the management mentioned above, and proper pruning fo as to keep the plants in due order. SECTION IV. of Arable Land. Management of Grain, and other Crops. FIELD CROPS. Different Modes of Cutting Har/veft mg and Securing of Cutting and Harvejling Grain Crops different in different Cafes of- By the Scythe by the Sickle Reaping Machines contrived for not found effective in general Pluncknett s an Improvement of Where Reaping is em ployed the Grain is bound up in Sheaves Advantages of Set up into Steaks and hooded Methods of performing of- Bagging another Mode of Cutting Different Heights of Cutting Comparifon of Advantages oftjie different Methods of Cutting Experiment on high and low Cutting latter Jlfc- thod found more beneficial Importance of a good Reaping Machine to Far mers Proper Periods of Cutting different Sorts of Crops Crops Jhould not J ttutd till too ripe Propriety of binding into Sheaves in all Cafes Loofo Mcihod of Harvefting only proper in particular Cafes Middling fized Sheaves to be preferred Time neccffary to remain in Field after Cutting in different Kinds of Crops Much longer in Barley and Oats than Wheat or Rye diodes of proceeding when mown Crops are bound into Sheaves Ufe of reaping Fork in This Method preferable to Reaping- Heaping a neater Me thod Method* of proceeding where mown without being bound Modes by Gaiting and Hutting Stacking better than Houjing Grain Crops Modes of flacking Grain Stands proper for Methods of forming of bejl Sorts and Forms of- proper Modes of Building ofproper Sizes of Number of Per fons neceffury in-;- Manner of placing Materials in different Cafes of Ufe of a large Sail Cloth in Funnels or Chimneys in Ufesofin wet Sea fons. THATCHING of Grain Stacks Materials proper for Modes of Preparation of- Me- ihods of Application of in different Cafes of Modes of fecuring of- pro per Time of performing of- Caufes of Obje&iona to proper Modes of Trim- Cultivation of Arable Land. Catting and Harvejling Grain Crops. 27<) ming of HorfeStubble Rake iifeful in providing Matcrialsfor THRESHING Different Methods of by the Flail by tJie Machine Different Advan tage* of Superiority of the latter Method Saving ofExpenceby- Modes of proceeding in Rough chaffy Matter necejfary to be immediately fcparated Quantity, thrcjhedby the Flail Should be.frejh threjhed when for Fodder Grain jhoitld be immediately cleaned Machines proper for per forming of Utility of fcrecning of. PRESERVATION of Grain fl hat nc- ceffctry in Frequent Jiir ring beneficial Air, Light, and due Ventilation Importance of Preferred in deep Wells and Pits Proper Granaries for Methods ofConJlruclion ofGrainjhouldbeas little Jlered as poflible* Much Loft by Advantage of bringing quickly to Market. AVING in the preceding feclion defcribed the methods of culture that appear the moft advantageous and proper in the different forts of field-crops, we fhall now confider the different modes of cutting, harvefting, and fecuring which are in life, and that are the moft economical and belt adapted to thofe of the corn or other kinds. Cutting and Harvefling Grain Crops. The times and methods of cutting down grain crops, as well as thofe of harvefting and fecuring them, vary confiderably in different diftriclis, and under different circumftances and kinds of corn. In fome, as thofe of the midland and more fouthern counties, the harveft commences early, as towards the latter end of July or beginning of Auguft; and the grain is chiefly cut by means of fhort ftiff fcythes * conftrucled for the purpofe, with bows of fmall flicks, or what are fometimes termed cradles, fixed to the handles in fuch a manner as to depofit the heads or ears of the corn, as much as pofliblc, in one direction. In this practice, the produceis frequently bound up into a fort of fheaves or bundles ; while in cafes where the naked fcythe is made ufe of, the binding is but rarely, attempted, the crops being merely raked together, and put in fmall heaps, till they are in a proper Hate to be fee u red in the barn or ftack-yard. But in moft of the more northern diftricl:s, and in Scotland, where the cutting of the grain begins at a much later period, as about the middle or latter part of Auguft, the bufinefs is chiefly performed by means of the fickle or reaping-hook; the handfuls, as foon as cut, being placed upon bands made by twifting a few of * The fcythes ufed for cutting grain crops fhould neither be fo long nor fo thin in the edges as thofe employed in mowing grafs, as it js not necefiary to take fo great a breadth; and where the edg(: of the fcythes are thin and fine they are liable to be broken by the ftifinefc of the ftraw. 280 Cultivation of Arable Land* Cutting and Haroefling Grain Crops. the ftems together at the ear ends, Thefe are moftly afterwards bound up into {heaves of different fizes, according to the nature of the fituation and climate. Different machines have been contrived for accompliihing this tedious bufinefs, but \ve believe without being generally applicable tothepurpofe. Mr. Pluncknet has lately conftructcd an implement for this ufe, which is intended to cut not only grain crops but alfo thofe of the grafs kinds. The manner of engaging men for the performance of harveft work is very different in different diftricts; infomeit is thecuftom to agree with them by the acre for executing all the different forts of operations which belong to it, fuch as thofe of reaping, or mowing, (hocking, making, and carting to the barn or ftack, as well as fecuringit in them. Butin others this fort of labour is performed by the day, week, or month. In either method the greateft attention is ncceffary from the farmer to fee that the different branches of the work be properly and feafonabiy executed, and that the men ftick clofe to their labour. The expence of this fort of work has lately increafcd in a very confiderable degree, as from four or five to ten or twelve (hillings per acre, and in fome diflrids much marc. In the above mentioned mode of cutting and binding the grain, it is rnoftly fet up into what are provincially termed Jlooks, Jlouks, Jhocks t or hattocks t which is accomplimed by fet ting fix, eight, or ten (heaves together, with the tops or ear ends inclining againft each other ; after which the whole is capped, or covered over, by dividing two (heaves quite up to the bands and flipping them over the others, in fuch a manner as that their butt ends may meet in the middle, while the ear ends fpread fully over the upright (heaves, and prcferve them from the wet. Thefe top (heaves, from the manner in which they cover the others, are termed booders. In almoft every (ituation, both in the fouthern and the more northerly parts of the kingdom, the wheat and rye crops are however cut by the fickle or the reap ing-hook, as it is fcarcely poflible to cut them with the fcythe without confiderable Jofs. And befides, it is of great advantage, in refpecl to the ftraw, to have the crops bound up into (heaves in a regular manner. Sometimes a hook which is iharpon the edge, but without teeth, is made ufe of; the labourer, in perform ing the bufinefs, hooks up the grain towards him, cutting it very clofe to the ground. This is in fome diftricts termed bagging. In the cutting of grain crops, whether by the fey the or the fickle, there is much difference in different places, in the height at which the operation is performed. In fome it is the practice to mow or reap the crops as clofe to the furface of the Cultivation of Arable Land. Cutting and Harovfting Grain Crops. 2$ ground as it can be conveniently executed; but in others, eight, ten, fifteen, or more inches of Hubble are left. There are advantages and inconveniences attending the cutting of grain crops, both in the fcythe and fickle method. The firft has the advantage of being expe ditious, and at the fame time of being capable of being executed with any degree of clofenefs that may be required; but it leaves the produce in an irregular and uneven fituation, which renders it not fo fit for being bound up into (heaves. And. befides, where the corn is very ripe, it may be more liable to be fhed during the operation, when performed in this manner. It is, however, often the practice, where corn is cut by the fcythe, to have it bound up into iheaves, as well as to let it remain in the fwaths until it is ready for the (lack ; but where the former is the cafe, the grain is moftly mown inwards towards the crop, the cut grain reding againft the (landing corn ; while, in the latter, it is cut outwards, and formed into fwaths in the fame way as with grafs. Where the fickle is employed, the crop is placed with more exactnefs and regu-*, larity, and of courfe is capable of being bound up with greater eafc and facility. And it is probable that there is lefs lofs of grain incurred in the operation. The bufinefs is, however, more tedious and difficult of execution in this way than by the fcythe. It feems obvious therefore, that where labourers are fcarce the former method mull be the moil advifable ; but where the contrary is the cafe, it may be the mod advantageous to have recourfe to the latter. In regard to the height of cutting grain crops, as the Hubble which is left in mowing or reaping them is not only nearly ufelefs to the land, but frequently fo troublefome in the culture of it afterwards as to be under the neceflity of beino- removed ; it would appear to be the beft and moll economical practice, in either cafe, to have them cut as clofe as the nature of the ground will admit, By thfe means the agricultor will not only have more litter at command for the bedding of his yards, (lalls, and other places, and confequently an increafe of ma nure, but have the bufinefs more expeditioufly performed, and with much lefs wafte of the grain ; and at the fame time be freed from the trouble and expenfc of removing the ftubble.* It has been fhown by careful experiment made with the view of afcertaining the difference between high and low cutting, that there is much advantage in favour of the latter mode.f In this trial, four ridges in the fame field, apparently * Donaldfon s Modern Agriculture, vol. II. and PerthflMre Agricultural Report. i Corrcfted Agricultural Report of the Weft Hiding of Yorkfliire. VOL. II. OO 82 Cultivation of Arable Land Cat ting and Harrying Grain Crops. equal in quality, were two of them reaped clofe by the furface of the ground, and the other two at fomc height, though not fo high as in the general practice of the diftricl:. Each of the portions was found to meafure fomething more than a quarter of a Scotch acre, which is more than a fifth larger t nan that of the Englifh ftatute acre. The produce was then fet up feparately into jlooks ; and the length of time that fight reapers took to the part that was cut low t was found to be one hour and twenty-four minutes; and that taken up by the fame number, in the part cut high, only forty-eight minutes. Theexpenfe in wages was eighteen-pence each the day, and that of maintenance fix-pence. The refult of the experiment on the grain being thrdhcd out and meafured, and the ft raw weighed, was found to be greatly in favour of low cutting.* In order to facilitate the bufinefs of cutting grain, different attempts have been made to conftruct machines for the purpofe ; but hitherto we believe without com plete fuccefs. An implement of this kind, which could perform the operation in an eafy, correct, and expeditious manner, would be of van: importance to the arable farmer in this uncertain climate, efpecially as the difficulty of procu ring a fufficient number of labourers infuch bufy feafons has been lately much increafed. It is thus dated in the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Vorkihire. Result. . s. d, Eight fliearfrs (renpers), one hour and twenty-four minutes, at 2s. per day, or 2 d. per hour - - - - - -024 Same number of labourers, 48 minutes - -014 Difference of expenfe in favour of high cutting Or per acre - - - - - 4 O One peck and a quarter of wheat more from the low cut portion than that cut high, at Is. 4d. the peck, is - - - - 1 S Fourteen ftones (22 avoirdupois pounds) more of ftraw, at 2d. per Hone, is 024 4 Q Or per acre - - - - - 16 Deduct the increafed expenfe of cutting, and there will remain in favour of low cutting per acre - * - 12 Cultivation of Arable Land. -^Cutting and Harvefling Grain Crops. <JS3 If the machine mentioned above fhould be found on full trial to anfvvcr the intention, this object will be attained. In refpcct to the proper period of cutting the different kinds of corn, it is beft mown by the appearance of the crops, as when the grains are become plump and \vell filled, and the grcennefs in a great meafure removed from the ft raw and ears by the bleaching effects of the oxygen of the atmofphere, it will in general be necefTary to begin the bufinefs of cutting. It is, however, the beft practice in mofi cafes to begin before the crops are too ripe, efpecially when the fcythc is made ufe of, as there will be lefs danger of wafte. And the bufinefs fhould always, if pofllble, be performed when the crops are perfectly dry ; as when cut down while wet, they are extremely liable to become mouldy, and injure the fampic. Whether the fcythe or fickle be made ufe of in cutting grain crops, it is probably the moft judicious and fafe practice to bind the produce up into fheaves. It has been remarked by an experienced agricultor, that there are many advantages refulting from it : the wafte of grain is much lefs ; the crop is more quickly placed out of danger from the weather ; the labour of carrying, .houfing, or ftacking, is greatly lefTened ; the ftraw, in wet feafons, is much better for the purpofcs of cattle-fodder, and the grain preferves its colour far better. On the whole, it is likewife concluded that the quantity of labour is rather diminimed than increafed : befides, the bufinefs of threfhing, efpecially where the work is performed by the ma chine, is thus rendered much more eafy and expeditious.* The loofe method of harvefting, if practifed at all, can only be employed in the more fouthern diftricts, where the harveft commences at an early period, and where the climate is mild, regular, and fteady ;| as there muft under other circumftances be much danger from the crops being fo fully expofed to the weather. In the binding of grain crops, middling- fized fhcaves are conftantly to be pre ferred to thofe that are very large, as there is not only lefs danger of their becoming mouldy within, but they are more eafily penetrated by the winds and dried by the fun. In tying the bands, care fhould be taken that they do not flip too much towards the ear ends of the corn ; and that they be made fufficiently tight for the ftraw not to flide through them during the time of fetting them up in the field, conveying them to the barn or ftack, or in the operation of ftacking ; as, where this is not properly attended to by the workmen, there is often much trouble and inconvenience afterwards from the fheaves falling afunder. Marftiall s Rural Economy of Yorkshire. f Modern Agriculture, vol. I/.. OO 2 Cultivation cf Arable Land. Cutting and HarVefting Grain Crops, Wheat and rye crops, as being moftly free from weeds and having the ft raw but little imbued with moilture, will only require to be expofed to the influence of the fun and air for a fhort time, as a few days, in order to render the grain plump, ilippery, and a good fample. Much may be effected in this way, by fpreading out and ^xpofing t^je grips, handfuls, or any fmall portions of the crops, as they are cut down, to th-e full action of fuch powers, turning them occafionally, and carefully binding them up before the evening dews fall upon them. A very little rain is capable of making thefe crops grow, and thereby injuring the value of the grain. It is generally the practice in thefe cafes to fet the fheaves up during the funny parts of the day on their root ends, putting them into hat locks during the night. In this way they foon become fit for the barn or flack. But in barley and oat crops as well as thofe of the pulfe kind, a much longer time is requifite in the field to prepare them for being put up either in the barn or the fhck. The neceiTary length of time will depend much upon the cleannefs of the crops from any weedy or grafTy matters. After being cut, they muft remain, according to the manner in which the operation has been performed, for fuch a length of time in the field as is fufficient to render the ftems of the grain, as well as any grafly material they may contain, in fuch a ftatc of drynefs, as that when clofely Hacked up they will take on little or no heat ; as, where the contrary is the cafe, the grain is liable to be fpoiled by becoming mow burnt, or greatly injured in the colour of the fample. Oats take much lefs harm in the field than any other fort of grain. Where the grain is reaped by the fickle, the produce is often placed loofely upon the bands in the day, and tied up into fheaves towards night, being then fet up into batlocks. Thefe, when the weather is fine, efpecially if the feafon be wet, are ex pofed to the action of the fun and air by taking off the hood, or cap-fheaves, in the day time, carefully replacing them as the evening approaches. In bad weather the root ends of the fheaves are likewife turned up towards the fun. This practice when properly executed, fo as that the fun and air may enter, is highly beneficial, and ihould not be neglected. Mr. Young alfo mentions a method that may in fome fituations be practifed with advantage on the wheat crops, which is that of covering the (hocks with mats. It is faid to be employed in the neighbourhood of Sandwich and Dover with fuch benefit in improving the fample, that the bakers in the latter place give a decided preference to grain that has been managed in this way. And in mowing corn crops, where they are afterwards bound into fheaves, a fimilar inethod is- purfued in bringing them into a proper condition for being piled up in Hacks. In executing the bufinefs it is ufual for the mower to be followed by a Cultivation of Arable Land. Cutting and Harvefting Grain Crops. 285 woman and boy, the latter of whom prepares the bands, while the former, with a long-toothed wooden rake having a fhort handle, collects the cut grain into parcels about the fize of {heaves, depoiiting them in a quick eafy manner in the bands, without flooping or touching them with her hands. The mower having proceeded to the end of the fwathe, binds them up as he returns, placing them either upon their root ends, or fetting them intoftooks; and in the mean time the ftubble is raked over by the woman in fo clean a manner that fcarcely a flem is left ; this is per formed with much eafe and expedition where the land has been well harrowed over and rolled at the time the crop was put in. A reaping fork is fometimes made ulp of for collecting it into {heaves. This is conflructed with two prongs below, fomewhat in the manner of the common hay fork, to which are added at the upper part two upright prongs, by means of which the grain is removed from the fwathe and collected into fheaves, the lower prongs railing it up, while the upper ones prevent its falling backwards, and determine the quantity which is proper for the fheaf. By this fimple contrivance the grain may be gathered more regularly and much more expeditioufly into fheaves than by mere hand labour* After the grain is become perfectly dry by expoling it to the fun and wind in the manner defcribed above, it is put into the flack. This method of cutting and harvefling grain would appear to be better than that of reaping, as being much more expeditious, and confequently reducing the num ber of labourers that would otherwife be necefTary, and which in many fituations are difficult to be procured. The neateft harveit work is, however, made by the fickle, and it is probably the beft method where a fufficient number of hands can be procured. The fickle with teeth fhould be employed in preference to the reaping-hook with a cutting blade which is ufcd in fome places, as it is a much more expeditious and convenient tool, and performs the bufinefs in a much better manner. Where the corn crops are cut by the fcyihe, and fecured without being bound up into fheaves, the fwathes are in fome cafes repeatedly turned over till they become fufficiendy dry to be put into the (lack ; but in others, after being a little dried in the fwathes, they are formed into a fort of heaps, or cocks, in which they remain till they are ready to be carried into the barn or the flack-yard. As foon as they have attained this Hate, they are conveyed as quickly as poffible to the barn, or flack, a number of labourers being employed to rake over the ground. The method of harvefting grain crops in this cafe has much fimilarity to that purfued in the hay harvefl. It is, however, a fljovenly wafleful practice, which does not by any means deferve encouragement, as there mufl conflamly be great hazard of fecuring the produce when the feafon is not favourable.. Beans are always either reaped or pulled, C86 Cut.rcatlon of A ruble Land. Cutting and Harwflhig Grai an the former is probably the better practice. And all ftrong crops of peas (hculd be ho-.ikcd not mown, as is often the cuftorr. Befides thefe methods, when the harvcfl is late and unfavourable, and die diffi culty of preferving the grain greatly increafed, others are fometirncs had recourfe to, fuch as gailiug and but ling the corn. The fi i ft of thefe operations is chiefly practifed -when the crops are cut lute and in a wet condition, and is performed by tying the fheavcs in a rather locfe manner in the ufual place, and then flipping the bands up to the cars. They are afterwards fet down on the ground on their root ends, in fo forcible a manner as to give them a good bafis to reft upon : with experienced labourers, the hand is then thruft down through the middle of the flieavcs, by which the butt ends are fpread out and the central parts left open and hollow, more efpeci- ally thofe that face towards the fouth ; as, by that means, the air and the rays of the fun enter and pafs through more freely, from which the grain is better and more .quickly preferved and rendered fit for the mow or the flack.* The kultinv of grain in the field is moftly had iccourfe to in late wet harvefts, and is a practice often attended with much fuccefs in the more northerly climates, cfpecially when it can be accompliflied while the corn is in a tolerable ftate of dry- nefs, immediately after being cut and bound into (heaves. The huts are formed by building the (heaves together in fuch a manner as to (hoot off the wet as much as poffiblc, to the height that the labourer can reach as he ftands upon the ground, being fo narrowed up as that they may be covered at the tops by a (heaf or two, fpread outfo as to let the water readily pafs away. They generally contain from about twelve to twenty Jbock s, in proportion as the draw is more or lefs bulky. When thus properly constructed, the grain may be preferved, however bad or long continued the harveft feafon may be. Grain managed in this way has been found, on the huts being taken down after they had been expofed to the moft fevere and heavy rains of the worft harveft feafons for five or fix weeks, in an aftoniihing ftate of prefervation, little injury having been done, except to a few of the top fheaves ; while that in fields adjoining not treated in the fame manner, though carefully fet up in (looks and hooded, was compleatly grown and matted together, fo that each (look was a connected mafs of vegetable vegetating matter. f This fact (hows the advantage of the practice in the mod clear and fatisfactory manner, in diftricts where the harvefts are protracted to a late period } and the weather on that account apt to be wet and unfavourable. After the grain has been rendered, by fome of thefe modes, perfectly dry and in * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. f Ibid. Cultivation of Arable La ml. Cutting and Harvefling Grain Crops. 87 a proper fituation for the ftack or mow, no time (hould he loft in ca yino- :he crops. In performing the bufinefs, whether carts or waggons are made ufe of, the grain is moftly put upon them by labourers ftationed in the fields for the pur-- pofe ; and after they have been btought home, arc forked up to the Hacks, fcc.by the drivers. Where this fort of work is on a large fcale, and there are plenty of teams, fome ad. vife having three carts or waggons in employ ; one loading in the Held, another unloading, and one upon the road, tor all of which five or fix hoiTes may be fuffi-- cknt. In this way, with two men to pitch, an equal number to load and unload, and one to drive the teams, much work may be quickly difpa-tched. Others, however, fu^pofe that one-horfe carts have a great fupeiiority in executing this fort of farm work. The wheat-crops are in many d ftricts chiefly prcferved in the barns. This is- particularly the cafe in the midland and fouth-eafterly counties, wher they are large; but in various other parts it is the practice to build this fort of grain, as well as thofe of barley, oats, peas, beans, &c. into ftacks in yards contrived for the- purpofe.* This laft method, when properly performed, is probably the beft and moft convenient, as the grain is not only more fecure from \eimin, but preferved much more free from muftinefs, and at the fame time capable of being got at with more cafe and facility. Befidcs, the vaft expenfe and inconvenience of the build ings are not only avoided, but the danger of cxpofing the corn longer out in the field than would otherwife be necefTary obviated, and the wafte of grain by fhed-- ding, in confequence of fuch drynefs > in loading and carrying, in a- great meafure prevented. f Wheat is likewife found to " carry a finer countenance" out of a ftack than: the barn; the free admifiion of air is fuppofed to give it a brighter colour. There are however in this way fome inconveniences in getting in the ftacks for being threfhed in the barn, as it is dangerous to leave broken ones out,, or to take them in when the feafon is wet. It has been well obferved by Mr. Young that the bufmefs of (tacking corn : " muft receive an entirely new arrangement in the cafe of building a threming mill. By means of no other additional expenfe than that of an iron rail- way, and placing the ftacks on frames refting on block wheels, two feet diameter, a very con- fiderable annual expenfe in labour may, he fays, be faved in carting ftacks to the; barns, in lofs of corn, and in waiting for weather, as well as in the faving * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. t Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. !2SS Cultivation of Arable Land. Slacking of Grain Crops. ing by flails, and all the attendant evils of pilfering and leaving corn in the draw. * It is a point of great importance, and mould therefore be particularly at tended to. In the reaping and fowing of crops of turnip, cole, and other fimilar forts of fmall feeds great attention, care, and exertion is neceffary to guard againft lolTes that muft othcrwife inevitably take place. No time mould on any account be loft while the weather is fine in getting the work forward, as thefe forts of crops fhould be conveyed to the threfhers as fait as they are reaped, and not placed in houfes or Itacks. In performing the bufinefs of reaping it is neceflary for the labourer to bellow much attention in order to avoid fhedding the feed : and fimilar care is requifite in removing the reaped crop to the threming place. The beft method is probably by the ufe of fmall trucks or carriages moving on low wheels with poles and cloths (trained over them, as they come cheap and are extremely convenient. The turnip or rape is lifted up gently and depofited in them at once fo as to pre vent any lofs ; being afterwards immediately conveyed to the threlhing-floor. In this way the work proceeds in a regular and expeditious manner. Stacking of Grain Crops. It is a common practice, when grain is fecured in (tacks, to allow it to be depofited upon a bafis formed of large pieces of timber or other kinds of wood, and filled up in the middle with brum-wood fagots, or any other materials of a fimilar nature, a little (traw litter being thinly placed over the whole* This is, however, a dangerous and flovenly method, that ought never to be at tempted by the correct agricultor. It is a much fafcr, better, and upon the whole a more economical practice, where this mode of preferving corn is in ufe, to have the (tacks built upon frames constructed of wood, (tone, or brick. When confti- tuted of the firft fort of materials, they are ufually raifed upon (tone pillars or fupporters, to the height of from two to two feet and a half, the tops being capt or covered over with flat rcund (tones of confiderable dimensions, fo placed as to prevent the entrance of vermin. But when made with (tone or brick, they are built to the fame height as in the former cafe, in a rather (lanting manner out wards, and covered on the tops with copings of oak planking or flat (tones, which project over the edges feveral inches, and in that way prevent the depredations of rats and mice on the grain, as well as their lodging in the (tacks. In both cafes pieces of timber are placed as a frame in the middle to fupport the grain. The firft of thefe forts of corn-ftands is in general the beft, as being more eafily as well as more cheaply constructed, and at the fame time permitting the air to enter and circulate with more freedom underneath, in the bottom of the (tand. In refpect to the form of thefe (lands, it varies according to that in which the Cultivation of Arable Land. Stacking of Grain Crops- Stands proper for. 289 In refpect to the form of thefe ftands, it varies according to that in which the ftacks are made, which is different in different diftricts. The circular and ob long forms are the mod ufual ; but the long narrow fhape is probably to be pre ferred, as it is faid to keep the corn better, more dry, and freer from heating.* It is an advantage in this fort of ftands that the crops, efpecially thofe of the wheat, may be carried and (lacked upon them much fooncr after being cut than in other circumftanc.es.. f They have likewife the advantage of preferving the grain in a more fweet condition, when kept till the following fumm:r, or for a greater length of time. Though very different forms are in ufe in buildirg corn (lacks, thofe of the long, narrow, fquare fhape are probably the mod advanta, ejus where the quan tity of grain is confiderable ; as they ftand more firmly, have a better appear ance, are more conveniently built, and preferve the corn better than thofe of other forms. Beiides, they require lefs thatch as well as labour in putting it upon them. But where the grain is only in a fmall proportion, the round or oblong fhape may be more proper and fuitable, as being more readily drawn up in the roof. The circular with a conical top and cylindrical body, diverging a little at the eaves, is efteemed the bed form, by fcme.J In the building of the ftacks the ftems mould be fuffered to fwell outwards, in a very gradual manner, quite up to the eaves, and not be brought up in a perfectly upright or plumb method, as is the cafe in fome diftricts ; as by this means they will not only be more effectually fecured from the penetration of moifture, but require a Itfs extent of ftand. And if well built, they ftand with equal firmnefs and folidiiy. The proportions that ou^ht to be preferved in their conftruclion, are in general about two-thirds of the whole, or fomething more, for the ftems, and one-thud ror the roofs ;. but the difference of form may admit of (light variations i.) thrfe refp Cts. The liz;s of ftacks of this fort muft of courfe vary confiderably according to circumftu Ke> ; but they mould never be made too large, as there is a great deal rrmre ri(k in fecuring and getting in the grain for them ; and from their being built at different times, they do not fettle all together in fo perfect a manner, or. rdift the effects of ihe weather, and keep the grain fo well as thofe of lefs di- mcn(ions, that can be completed at once. Bolides, they are more inconvenient in threfhing out, efpecially where the flail is employed. The only advantages they. * Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland. + Ibid, J Corre&ed Agricultural Report of the County of Perth. VOL. II. P p 2.90 Cultivation of Arable Land. Stacking of Grain Crops Mocks of. poffefs are thofe of taking fomething lefs in thatch and labour in covering them. Jn general, from about twenty to thirty two-horfe cart-loads may be fufikient for one flack. Where grain is ftacked loofe, in the manner of hay, it is the common practice to have feveral perfons upon the flack as for hay, the corn being forked up and placed on the fides all round in a fimilar manner ; after which other parcels arc laid round on the infide of thefe, fo as to bind them in a fecure manner from flip ping outwards ; proceeding in the fame way till the whole middle fpace is well filled up; when the operator commences another courfe in the fame method, and goes on in this mode, courfe after courfe, till he has formed the whole of the Hem ; when he begins to take in the roof, in a very gradual manner, in every courfe until he brings the whole to a ridge or point, according as the ftack is formed. In order that the roofs may throw off the water in the mod perfect manner, they fhould be differed to have a flight degree of fulnefsor fwell a little about the mid dle, and not be made flat, as is frequently the cafe. But where the corn is bound into meaves, feldom more than one perfon is em ployed in performing the bufinefs of building the flack, except where the dimen- fions are very confiderable ; in which cafes it is found neceffary to have a boy to receive the (heaves from the pitcher, and hand them to the man who builds the flack. In executing this work it is of the greateft importance that the centre of the flack be conflantly kept in a fomewhat raifed ftate above that of the fides, as by this means the /heaves have a floping direction outwards, by which the entrance of moifture is more effectually guarded againft. To accomplifli this in the moft perfect method, it is the beft practice for the operator to begin in the middle of the ftand or fladdle, fetting the flieaves together, fo as that they may incline a little againft each other, placing the reft in fucceflive rows againft them till he comes to the outfide, when he carries a courfe of flieaves quite round, in a mere Hoping manner than in the preceding courfes. Having thus formed the bot tom of the ftack, it is afterwards ufual to begin at the outfide, and ad vance with different courfes round the whole, placing each ccurfe a little xvithin the other, fo as to bind them in a perfect manner, till he comes to the middle. Different courfes arc to be laid fomewhat in the fame way, till the whole of the fttm is completed j when the laft outfide row of flieaves is, in fome cafes, laid a very little more out than the others, in order to form a fort of projection for the eaves. Where the ftem of the flack is however formed in the manner advifed above, this may be omitted without any inconvenience, as the water will be thrown off without touching the wafte of the ftack. The roof is to be formed by placing Cultivation of Arable Land, Stacking of Grain Crops. Modes of, the (heaves gradually a little more in, in every courfe, till it comes to a ridge .or point, according to the form of the Hack. In making this part of the Hack, great care mould be taken to give the ear-ends of the (heaves a fufficiently Hoping direction upwards, in order that they may be the better fecured from wetnefs. And the outfide mould be well rounded, in the manner that has been directed above. Where proper attention is beflowed in building corn-flacks in this way, every fheaf in the whole will have fuch a Hoping polirion outwards of the Hack, or to wards the root ends of the (heaves, as will afford the moH perfect iecurity againft damp and moiHure.* In Hacking wheat-crops, thefe directions require more particular attention; as the flieaves mould have a rather more Hoping direction when placed in the Hacks, on account of the tallnefs of the Hraw, in order that they may be the better fe cured againft the injurious effects of damps. It is of much convenience and advantage, in the Hacking of grain as well as hay, to have a large (beet or fail-cloth to place over them in cafe of mowers or bad weather, while they are building, and before the thatch is put on ; as where this convenience is not at hand, much injury is frequently fuHained at thefe times by the fudden falling of rain. It is the practice in fome diflricts, efpecially where the Hacks are made of a circular form, and the weather is wet and unfavourable, to have a funnel or chim ney left in them, in order to prevent their taking on too much heat. This is ef fected by tying a Qieaf up in a very tight manner, and placing it in the middle, on the foundation of the Hack, pulling it up occafionally as the building of the Hack pro ceeds all round it. And in fetting up ricks in bad harveHs, it is a practice in fome places, particularly with barley crops, to have three or four pretty large poles tied together, by winding ftraw ropes round them, fet up in the middle, round which the Hacks are then built. Where grain Hacks are not placed upon elevated frames or Hands that are open in the bottoms, it may be ufeful in fome cafes to leave one or more openings in the lower parts of the Hacks, that there may be a free cir culation of air underneath them. -j- But except the Hacks are large, or the grain when put into them in an imperfect condition, fuch openings are quite unne- cefTary.J It may likewifebe ufeful, in building large corn ricks, to have * ftadtmgfagf* ,- i^ * Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. t Ibid. J In the northern parts of the kingdom they are denominated fawtes. !?i)2 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Thatching of Grain Slacks. fo contrived as to be capable of ftanding clofe to their fides, and by that means enable the workman to pitch the fheaves with more eafe and convenience to the perfons employed in forming the (lacks. Aneafy contrivance of this fort will be defcribed in fpcaking of the methods of (lacking hay. Thatching ofGririn-flacks. In the thatching and trimming of corn-flacks, confider- able experience, ingenuity and art are necefiary, in order to perform the bufincfs in a complete manner. The mod fuitable maternl for the purpofe is good wheat- ftraw that has not been much bruifed in threfhingout the grain. But when this cannot be had <in diffident quantity, rye- ft raw maybe fubftituted in its place ; which, however, from its rough and ftubborn quality, is neither fo neat in its ap pearance, fo durable, nor affords fo fecure a covering. Barley and oat draw are fometimcsinade life of for the purpofe ; but they form ve-ry indifferent coverings, and fuch as are not by any means lafting. There is Mill another material that may be made ufe of with propriety and ad vantage in fame fituations. This is the flubble of fuch wheat-crops as have been -cut at a great height ; which, alter being mown clofe to the ground and raked up, Icrve the purpofe very well. In preparing thefe fubflances for application, after being well moiflened with water, they aredrawn out inhandfuls perfectly flraighl and even into regular lengths, and the fhortflraw feparated, leaving them placed in convenient bundles to be car ried to the thatcher. In the application of the thatch, different methods are purfued according to the nature of the materials employed. When long ftraw is made ufe of, the operator ufually begins at the eaves or bottom of the roof, depofiting it in handfuls in regular 1 breadths till he reaches the top, the different handfuls being fo placed endways as to overlap each other, the upper ends being conflantly pufhed a little into the bottom parts of the fheaves. In this manner he gradually proceeds, breadth after breadth, till the whole of the roof is covered, which is ufually done to the thicknefs of about four or five inches. And in order to retain the thatch in its place, fliort fnarp- pointed flicks are occasionally thrufl in, in a flanting direction upwards, and fbmetimes fmall flicks fharpened at the ends are bent and thruft in along the top parts and fides. Bnt as the water is apt to follow the courfe of the flicks, it is a better practice to make ufe of ropes of twifled flraw for this purpofe. In fome cafes thefe are applied only round the bottom parts of the roof and the fides ; while in others, which is a much better and more fecure method, they are applied in fuch a manner over the whole flacks as to form a fort of coarfe net- work nine or twelve Cultivation of sir able Land Thatching of Grain Sittclm. t)3 inches in width in the medics ; the ends being well fattened, either to belt ropes patted in fuitable directions for the purpofe, or to different parts of the ttraw of the flack. This method of tying on the thatch fhould conttantly be practifed where the ttack-yards are much expofed to the effects of the wind, as without fuch pre caution great injury may frequently be fuftaincd. Where flubble is tifed in the way of thatch, it is put on by flicking one of its ends into the roof of the ftack, in a regular and exact manner, fo as that it may ttand very clofe and thick : the other, with fi ch loofe ttraws as rnay occur, is then cut over, or pared off with a very (harp tool, for the purpofe, fo as to form a neat and impenetrable thatch, having the appearance of a newly thatched houfe.* It is well fecured in its place by fhort pegs made for the purpofe. In whatever way the thatching of corn-flacks is performed, it fhould never be attempted until they have fully fettled ; as where the contrary is the cafe, it is fure to rife into ridges afterwards, and by that means admit the water to pafs down into them. The expence and trouble which attends the thatching of corn-flacks has been brought as an objection by fome againft the practice of fetting grain up in that method ; but it is not by any means neccffary, in order to have them neat and fe- cure, to beftow either fo much labour or materials upon them as to juftify fuch an objection, though it may be done in fome inttances. As they are feldom dc- figned to ftand for any great length of time, it is quite furHcient that they be thatched in fuch a manner as to effectually prevent the entrance of water, and fo fecured" that the winds cannot difturb them. To have the work performed in any other way would be totally incompatible with that difpatch which is conftantly requifite 2t fuch feafons. Narrow oblong ricks rounded at the ends pofiefs many advantages, both in the economy of labour and thatch, over thofe of other forms that have the fame contents: befides, they admit of the thatching being performed at one end be fore the other is finiihed, or as the Hacking proceeds. But in any cafe the expence of thatch is of no great importance, as, when removed from the flacks, it ferves very well as litter for the cart-horfes and other cattle.f And even barley, or oat-draw will anfwer the purpofe perfectly well when drawn in an even manner and put on with fuflicient care.j In diftricts where the ftubble is left high, it may likewife be employed as thatch for grain-flacks, as has been already feen. But when it is intended to make life of * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. i Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. I. $ Ibid. .94 Cultivation of Arable Land.* Threjhing of Grainin the Flail- Met hod. it in this way, it mould be mown as clofe to the ground as poffible immediately after the corn has been removed from the field, being then raked together by means of a large horfe ftubble-mke* and carried to the farm-or flack-yard in order to be put up in a fort of flack for future ufe. When not applied as thatch, it may be made ufe of in the way of litter for the cattle-fhills and fold-yards with great advantage. The practice of collecting it from the fields mould therefore be conflantly attended to as much as pofiible, as other forts of ft raw may be faved thereby, and at the fame time much manure produced. In regard to the methods of trimming grain. flacks after they have been fet up and thatched, they are differently performed in different diflricts. In the fouthern parts of the kingdom, where the injudicious practice of houfing grain lo-jfe fre quently prevails, it is an ufeful mode to pare or cut the outrides of the flems of corn-flacks in an even neat manner, by means of a fharp hay- knife or fome other iharp tool. In this way the rain is more effectually prevented from being ahforbed or taken into them along the loofe flraws. But where the grain is cut by the fickle and bound up into fheaves this is unnecefTary, if the operator take fufficient care in build ing the flacks. In this, as well as the preceding method, it will, howev r, be advantageous to have the thatch evenly cut round the eaves and other parts where it may project, as the rain will thereby be lefs apt to fall againfl the bodies of the (lacks in bad weather, and at the fame time give them a neater appearance. Tbrejbing of Grain. In threfiiing out grain different methods are purfued. The wheat-crops, in fome diflricts where the draw is much ufed for the purpofe of thatching faijm buildings, is lafhed out over a flrong wattled hurdle,flone, or other limilar contrivance. In other cafes, this as well as all the other crops are threflied out by means of the flail or the threfhing machine. The flail method, from its being an extremely flow, tedious, and expend ve procefs, and at the fame time one that requires a great number of labourers, can, perhaps, only bepractifed with advantage on the fmaller kind of arable farms, that are cheap ly fituated in refpect to the command of workmen, and where the expenfe of large machines would be much too great for the quantity of grain which they produce. But even in thefe cafes, if the fmall hand threfiiing- engines that are conflructed on cheap fimplc principles, and which occupy but little room, mould be brought to perform the bufinefs in an eafy, expeditious and effectual manner, which feems not improbable from the improvements that have been recently made in this fort of machinery, it will mod probably be to the advantage of fuch farmers to abandon * Section on Implements, Cultivation of Arabic. Land. Tkre/hinf of Graiti ~*by the Machine. Q9& it, as the faving in various ways muft foon repay them the cxpence of the machines, and at the fame time afford them a confiderable profit. Befidcs, where the threfhing is performed by the flail, expenfive barn floors, cither of the fixed or moveable kind, will conftantly be neccffary. The latter fort may, indeed, fometimes be capable of being converted to other purpofes. In this way too the produce is conftantly expofed to the depredations of the perfons that are employed in executing the bufinefs, which in many cafes proves afourceof great lofs to the farmer, as he cannot by any means prevent the impofitions to which it is liable. It has been well obferved by the intelligent furveyor of a fouthern diftrict, that where thrcmers are employed by the day, they frequently do not perform half the work that ought to be done in the time, nor even that in a perfectly clean manner ; and, that if it be executed by the quarter or the trufs, the freed corn is threfhed out and the reft left in the ear.* The fame thing takes place in a greater or lefs degree in every other method that can be adopted for having the threfhing performed by the hand j it is consequently only by the general introduction and ufe of the threfhing machine, that the property and intereft of the farmer can be fully fecured, and the work be executed with that degree of economy which the greatly increafed price of labour demands. The fuperiority of the method by machinery over that of the flail is very con fiderable in many other refpects, befides thofc of its executing the work in a much more clean and perfect manner, ^ and with infinitely greater -difpatch, fo as to admit of the farmer being prefent during the procefs. Sufficient fupplies of both corn and ft raw may at any time be almoft immediately provided, either for the purpofes of feed, the market, or the feeding of animals, without the other opera tions of the farm being in any degree interrupted. It is like uife obtained with much lefs wafte of the grain, and with lefs danger of its being injured by being bruifed. From the increafing fcarcity of labourers, the great advances in the price of labour in all the well-cultivated diftricts, and the impoflibility of having this fort of work performed in a clean manner by the flail, the neceflity as well as utility of * Corrected Agricultural Report of Middlefex. t It was found by the author of the Survey of Kent, on having different parcels of wheat-ftraw of thirty-fix pounds each threfhed out clean by the flail, by different farmers, and the fame weigh; of raw threfhed after it came from the machine ; the average produce of corn left in the ft raw by t if> common mode of threfhing was half a, pint in every thirty-fix pounds of ft raw, more than that left in the machine method. 96 Cultivation of Arable Land.ThreJhiitg of Grain by the, Machine. .thefe machines feems eftablifhed. The principal obftarles to machines of this na ture being more generally made ufe of, are chiefly thofe ofexpence in their erection, and the flovenly practice which prevails in fome of the more fouthern diftricts, of fecuring grain crops in a loofe manner. The fiift of thefe objections may probably, however, be obviated by the conftruction of handthreftiing-engines j and the lat ter by thedifcoveries and improvements that are daily taking place in this fort of machinery. The objections that have been raifed again ft the practice, on the fcore of its depriving labourers of employment during the winter feafon, are fcarcely deferving of notice, as experience has fully fhown that no injurious confequences can refult from it, as there mud always be work enough of other kinds at fuch peri ods, where farms are under a judicious mode of cultivation** And the inconveni ences that rmy attend the largenefs of the quantity of ft raw that muft be at once produced in this method, may be eafily obviated either by placing it immediately in clofe ftacks, or by having a part of it cur into chaff and laid up in a well- ventilated granary, as, in this way, there can be little doubt but that it w ; ll keep well, provided the operation has been performed while the ft raw is dry. Befides, by the ufe of one-horfe or hand-machines the work may proceed without this trou ble, as the ftraw is wanted for the ufes of the farmer, which, in the cafe of ftore cattle being fed with it, may be a more advantageous practice. But where the fold-yard and cattle-ftalls are kept littered, and as frequently changed as may bs neceffary for promoting its converfion into manure^ the farmer will feldom be much incurnbered with ftraw. Thefavingol expenfe in this mode of threfhing, over that by the flail, muft be different according to the nature of the machine and the power by which it is wrought, as well as the ftate and condition of the grain, and the regularity with which it is fupplied. By fome it is ftated as about one half, while others makeit muchlefs than that proportion. f With the beft conftruCtcd machines we appre- * Modern Agriculture, vol. II. t In the different forts of grain the expenfe and produce of a day s threfhing are thus ftated by the author of the Corrected Agricultural Survey of the County of Kent : Wheat. L. s. d. Eight men, at Is. 8d. each - - - - 13 4 Four boys, at Is. each - - - - . 040 Four horfes, at 2s. 6d. each - - 10 Cleaning and meafuring 24 quarters, at 3d. each 060 1 13 4 Cultivation of Arable Land. ThreJIiing of Grain By the Machine. 297 liend it will be performed, on an average of different forts of grain and different (fates of them, at one-third the expenfe of the flail method, or, perhaps, much lefs, without taking into the confideration any thing for the great faving in grain,* or the other operations that may be performed at the fame time, fuch as thofe of winnowing or cleaning the corn, cutting ftraw into chaff, bruiting and grinding the grain for cattle food or other ufes. Where threfhing-machines are made ufe of, it is advifed by the writer of the. Which is about Is. 4d. per quarter, or nearly half the price of the flail method. Barley. Gleaning and meafuring 32 quarters, at 3d. each - Other expenfes, as above --- 1 15 4 Oats. Gleaning and meafuring 40 quarters, at Id. each Other expenfes, as before - 1 10 8 Or a little more than half the price of that by (he flail ; this fort of grain being commonly threfhed at about Is. 3d. per quarter. This is without the late improvements in the machines of this kind, by which they are capable of performing the work with much fewer hands, as well as of cleaning the grain and executing feveral other operations, by all of which the above charges would be ftill much leffened. But in the Corrected Agricultural Report of Northumberland it is remarked that a threfhing-machine is employed there that has been found on trial to threfli at the rate of thirty-three bufhels in the hour, or two hundred and fixty-four in the day of eight hours. The ejcpenfe in the attendance of the threfhing and drcffing parts of it being merely that of three women ; one to feed in, another to hand the (heaves to the feeder, and a third to take away and riddle the corn after it is winnowed: confequently the threfh- ingand dreffing the above number of bufhels only cofts one (hilling and fixpence, while the threfhing the fame quantity by the flail would be one twenty-fifth part, or ten and a half bufhels, which at two /hillings the bufliel, is twenty-one (hillings ; to which muft be added two millings for the expenfe of a man and two women to affift in winnowing : which makes in all twenty-three millings. In the north riding of Yorkfhire, according to the Corre6ted Agricultural Survey of that diftricT:, threfhing by the machine is undertaken in oats for fixpence, and wheat a (hilling the quarter, the farmer finding horfes. * In the fame work it is likewife ftaled, that in this, fome reckon a profit of at lead five per cent.; others, as equal to the feed and price of threfhing, which is fomewhat more than half the price of the. flail method ; this fort of grain having of late been ufually thrcmed at about Is, 6d. the quarter. VOL, ii. 29S Cultivation of Arabic Laud. Thre/hiijg of Grain. By the Flail. Agricultural Survey of the Weil Riding of Yorkfhire, that the barns in which they are erected fhould extend into the Hack-yards, as by that means the machines are more conveniently fupplied, and ac much lefs expenfe of labour, with the grain in the ftraw. Thefe threfhing engines mould likewife be adapted to the fize of the farms, as by proper attention in this refpec t much expenfe may frequently be faved. In th refhing corn by the flail it is the practice in fome diftridh for only one per- fon to be employed upon a floor; but as two can threili together with equal if not greater expedition, it muft be an uneconomical and difadvantageous mode. But v here, more than two labourers threfli together, which is fometimes the cafe, there muft be frequent interruptions, and a confequent lofs of time. The tool by which this fort of bufmefs is performed fhould be well adapted to the fize and ftrength of the pcrfon who makes ufe of it, as when difproportionately heavy in that part which acls upon the grain, it much fooner fatigues the labourer, without any advantage being gained in the beating out of the grain. The beft method of attaching the different parts of the implement together is, probably, by means of caps and thongs of good tough leather: iron is however fometimes employed. In threfhing moft forts of corn, but particularly wheat, the operators mould wear thin light fhoes, in order to avoid bruiiing the grain as much as pofTible. In the execution of the work, when the corn is bound into fheaves, it is ufual for the th re fliers to begin at the ear ends, and proceed regularly to the others, then turning the (heaves in a quick manner, by means of the flail, to proceed in the fame way with the other fide, thus fini filing the work. "When much threfhed grain has accumulated on the th re fh ing- floor, it is neceflary to feparate the fliort ftraw and chaffy matter from it,by paffing the whole through a wide riddle or five for the purpofe. This fliould always be done before too much grain has been collected, as in that way the bruifing of the grain may be more effectually prevented. The fhort chaffy fubftance thus fenarated is in fome dif- tricls termed covings, and is capable of being employed with advantage in the feeding of horfcs or neat cattle. After this has been accomplished, the loofe grain fhoulu be thrown up to the fides of the floor, or, what is better, into a chamber conveniently formed for its reception, where it fhould remain till a fu flic lent quan tity has been collected to render the clearing of it by the winnowing machine or other contrivance ncceflary. It is almoft impoflible to afcertain-the quantity of grain that a labourer can threfli out in the courfe of any given period of time, as it is obvious that much muft de pend on the nature of the grain, the freenefs with which it threfh.es., and the exer- Cultivation of Arable Land. Thrcflung of Grain IFinnotoing of. 99 tions of the labourer: in general it may be of wheat from, one to one quarter and a half; of barley from one and a half to two quarters ; of oats, moftly about two in the day. The exertions of labourers in this fort of work in the northern di ft rifts of the kingdom, are however much greater than in thofe of the fouth ; of courfe a much larger proportion of labour muft be performed. In fome places it is the practice to threm by the meafure of grain, as the bufhcl, quarter,. &c. while in others it is done by the threave, of twenty-four (heaves, and in fome by the day. In Kent, before the late rife in the price of labour, it was ufual to pay from two {hillings and fix-pence to three millings the quarter, for the firft of the above forts of grain ; two millings the quarter for the fecond ; and one milling the quarter for the third.* And in the midland and northern dillricts the prices are nearly the fame, or perhaps a very little lower in the latter. In the above county beans are likewife threflied at one (hilling the quarter, and peas from one (hilling and iixpence to two (hillings the quarter. But in whatever way the farmer has this fort of bufi- ncfs executed, there is always much neceffity for his conftant inflection, in order to prevent the frauds and impofitions that are too frequently practifed. All forts of grain and pulfe, when the ft raw is intended to be made ufe of as cattle fodder, fhculd only be threfhed out as the ftraw is confumed, as it is eaten much better, and is more nutritious in this frefh Mate than when given them after it has been laid by fome time after being threfhed. And the fame is the cafe with the caving-cbtff or other material fcparated from the grain.-f The grain as foon as threflied out (hould conftantly be cleaned from the chaff and other extraneous matters, as by delay in this reflect the fample is liable to be much injured. There are different methods of having this bufinefs performed ; the beft is probably by means of the improved winnowing machines, as the work is- executed in this way in a very cheap perfect manner, and at the fame time with much eafeand difpatch. In fome diftricts it is however the common practice to have the grain cleaned by means of the cafting-Jbovel and flat broom, which is denominated zfpry, which fcrves the purpofe of fweeping off the chaffy materials and the fmall portions of ftraw that are detached by the wind from the corn. Where the barn-floors are fufficiently large in all directions, this mode of clearing grain is conceived by fome to be the beft and moil expeditious, but that where the room is confined, winnow ing machines will not only do the work better but perhaps at a more cheap rate.* The other methods of rendering grain clean by exposing it to the action of the wind,, / * Synopfis of Husbandry. t Ibid. J Boys s Agricultural Survey of Kent. 2- 300 Cultivation of Arable Land. Preferring of Grain* on the threflung-floor of the bam, or before the fails of a machine, though pra&ifed in fome diftricts, are fo imperfect and troublefome as to deferve no attention from the enlightened agricultor. Where the corn is cleaned in the firft of the above methods, there is in moft of the improved machines of the winnowing kind a fcreen through which the grain pafTes after it has been cleaned from the chaffy fubftances, and by which the fmall feeds of all forts, as well as other foreign matters, are readily feparated from the corn. This procefs is particularly neceffary with wheat and barley. And if thefe grains be cleaned without the winnowing machine, it will of courfe be requifite to Jet them through a corn-fcreen afterwards, in order to remove any fmall feeds they may contain, as well as the ova of different forts of infects, by which the produc tion of the weevil, moth, beetle, &c. is prevented and the depredations which they commit, while in their vermicular Mate, on different forts of grain, effectually obviated. Implements of this nature may be had feparately, but the bufmefs is much more conveniently and cheaply executed at once by the winnowing machine. Preferring of Grain. After the grain has been thus rendered clean, it is in a pro per condition either to be fent to the market, or for being laid up in a ftate of pre- fervation. As the prevention of all forts of corn from being affected by the dif ferent caufes that hav a tendency to injure it,when laid up for the purpofe of keep ing, depends upon its being put by in a perfectly dry condition, and on its being afterwards preferved in that fituation, in order to effect thefe objects in the molt perfect manner, it is of the greatefl importance to keep the corn, from the firft pe riod of its being threlhed out of the ftraw, as much as pcflible from coming in contact with earth, ftone, or other forts of floors that are placed near to or upon the ground,as they have conftantly much difpofition to communicate moifture,and by that means greatly injure the grain. And another method is by prevent ing the entrance of the atmofpheric air as much as can be done, whenever it is in a heavy damp ftate, by being too much loaded with humidity ; as in this way, from the vaft extent of furface that is expofed to its influence, it is fubject to be very much damaged, the large quantity of moifture thus imparted to the corn bringing on a fort of mouldinefs, which is attended with a mufty difagreeable fmell that leffens its value in a very cor.fiderable degree, as well as prevents its keeping. The chief remedy in the firft cafe, is by cautiouily avoiding the too common practice of permitting the grain to remain upon the threfhing-floors.efpecially thofe of the earth or ftone kinds, after it has been thremed out, before bring cleaned from the chaff; or, after being cleaned, by depoliting it upon them either in a loofe ftate Cultivation of Arable Land.Preferving of Grain Circumstances in. 501 or when put up in fucks. A perfectly dry room or bin mould conftantly be pro vided for its immediate reception, the bufinefs being performed as much as poffible in a dry ftate of the atmofphere. And in the fecond, a great deal may be accom- pliflied by means of proper flides, mutters, or other fuitable contrivances being con veniently fixed in the pipes, funnels, or other openings intended for the purpofe of ventilation, in the corn-rooms or granaries, which mould be kept clofely fhut up whenever the atmofphere is fo much charged with moifture as to prove detrimental to the grain. And as frequent turning or ftirring the grain, and ventilation,arefound by experi ence to be eflentially neceffary for preferving and keeping it perfectly fweet and fit for fale, it is obvious, on the above principle, that this fhould only be attempted when the weather is fine, or the air in a dry elaftic ftate. In damp weather, or when froft prevails, it mould be excluded as much as poffible. Befides air, light is like- wifc advantageous in the prefervation of corn, under fimilar circumftances, as, with out its being admitted, a fort of vegetable mucor, ufually denominated mould, is apt to fix upon the grain and produce much mifchief, as it is faid to poflefs the fame property as that of other fungufes, of growing where there is fcarcely any change of air, and in fituations where there is little or no light, provided there be a fuitable degree of warmth and moifture.* On the fame principle, with the intention of retaining the grain in a (late as free as poflible from dampnefs, it might be ufeful to have well conftructed ftoves in the bottom parts of corn chambers or granaries,- for the purpofe of occafionally communicating fuch moderate degrees of heat to the grain as would be fufficient to dry up and expel any injurious moifture, that it might have attracted in damp wet feafons. On this ground it has indeed long ago been ad- vifed on the bafis of experience, by an intelligent writer, f to preferve wheat by ex- pofing it to the action of a funftiine degree of heat, on a hair cloth in a malt kiln, pro duced by the combuftion of clean ftraw, for fuch a length of time as may be necelfary to remove the dampnefs j as from four or five to ten or twelve hours, according to the proportion in which it may exift. In this method the heat mould always be kept fo moderate as not to deftroy the vegetative property or life of the grain ; as by that means its putrefaction and decay would be promoted. The degrees of heat that would be the moft calculated to anfvver the purpofe in different cafes would be eafily regulated by thofe instruments that are in common ufe for meafuring the heat and moifture of the atmofphere. The principles advanced above, aflift us in reconciling the differences of * Darwin s Pbytologia. i Mr. lull. S0 ; 2 Cultivation of Arable Land. Preferring of Grain Management in. opinion, that have fo long prevailed in refpect to the uff of air in the prefervation of corn in granaries; as they fufficiently fhew that when admitted in its perfectly dry and elaftic Mate, it mi:ft -be particularly ufeful in carrying off any moifture or difagreeable fmell that the grain may have contracted by remaining clcfely heaped together for fome length of time ; as by the (Hiring which moftly accompanies the ventilation it muft operate in a very extenfive manner ; but that when applied in its moift heavy ftate, it muft be detrimental in an equal proportion, by imparting its humidity to the corn, and by that means caufing it to become mufty. The ventilation of grain fhould confcquently be performed when the weather is fine, but never when the air is in a damp condition, or in the time of fro ft. This is the moft completely effected by ftirring the corn by proper flides or other contri vances in the floors, windows, and other openings in the granaries or corn-rooms ;* but it may be accornplifhed in a more flow and of courfe in a more uneconomical manner, by fhovels, rakes, or other fimilar tools. But in order that this operation maybe more readily as well as more perfectly executed, the grain mould never be fpread too thickly over the floors of fuch granaries or ftore rooms. From one to two feet or two feet and a half in depth, in proportion as it gets more dry and free from moiflure, is fully fufficient for the purpofe ; as from the natural moifture of the corn when heaped together to too great a thicknefs at firft, it is fometimes apt to take on too much heat, by which the quality or fample is greatly injured. Soon after its being depofited, frequent fcreening fhould alfo be practifed, and after wards occafionally according to circumftances. There are likewife other circum- Hances to be attended to, by which the due ventilation and prefervation of the corn is much influenced, fuch as thofe of having the doors, windows and other principal apertures of the buildings placed towards the fouth, and as clofe to the ceiling as may be, fo that the rays of the fun may enter as freely as poflible. Be- iides, the linings of fuch corn- rooms (hould always confift of materials that have not a tendency from their coldnefs to precipitate the moifture from the atmof- phere, which is often the cafe when warm damp fouth-weft winds take place after cold north-caft ones, and in that way impart it to the corn that comes in contact with them.f In every cafe the prevention of the entrance of wet or moifture fhould be effected by flickering boards, flides, or other fimilar contrivances. Some management in the turning or ftirring of the grain is alfo requifite. in order that ventilation may take place in the fulleft and moft complete manner. When the grain is firft depofited and poffefTes much natural moifture, it fhould * Seftion oji Implements. + Phytologia, Cultivation of Arabic Land. Preferring of Grain Effects qf Infecls on. 30 -j be much more frequently turned over, than afterwards when it has acquired a greater decree of drynefs Once or twice in every week or ten days may be re- quifite the firft month ; afterwards, for four or five months longer, about once in the fortnight may in general be fufficient ; and after that period only once in the month, except when the feafon proves very moift and warm.* In fomeplaces empty fpaces are left on the iides of the heaps of corn and other parts, into which they may be turned over when necetfary. But in others, fquare holes are formed in the ends of the floors, and round ones in the middie, by which contrivances the grain is thrown from the upper to the lower chambers, and back again, by which it becomes more perfectly agitated and expofed to the air. This method is practifed in fomc parts of Kent. As fuch frequent turnings in thefe methods are extremely troublefome and ex- penlive in being executed by the fhovel, fliding mutters have been contrived in the middle of the different floors which have an inclination towards the centre of the granaries, by the occafional removal of which, and the opening of the windows and ventilators, the grain is turned and ventilated at the fame time with great faci lity and convenience. Monfteur du Hamel has found this mode of preferving grain to anfwer extremely well, even in cafes where it was laid up in a moift ftate. But grain may be preferred without having recourfe to the procefs of ventilation, by having it depofited, when in a perfectly dry ftate, in fuch dry deep wells, pits, or other fituations below the furface of the ground, as that it cannot be affected by heat, or the changes that take place in the feafon. But though corn has been known to have been preferved in this method for a great length of time in countries where it is the practice to ftore it up for times of fcarcity, it is not by any means fo fafe or fo convenient a mode as the former. In whichever method corn is fecured, care mould be taken that fuch as is moift or has been badly harveftcd, be not laid up with that which is dry and in a perfectly found condition ; as from the quantity of moifture that it contains, and the ftatc of germination that takes place in confequence, a mufty bad fmell is apt to be im parted to the whole, and the fample be wholly fpoiled.f But befidcs the danger to which grain is expofed when laid up, from the want of drynefs and ventilation, it is liable to be deftroyed by the depredations of ani mals of different kinds, in the ftates before they allume that of the infect. + As thefe are produced from ova depofited among the grain by the animals uhen in their mo re perfect or infect growth, it is ob\ious that the beft means of guarding againft j- Communications to the Board of Agriculture:, vol. I. + Modem Agriculture, vol. II. $ The Moth, Weevil, and Beetle. 304s Cultivation of Arable Land. Preferring of Grain in Stacks, fyc. their ravages is that of preventing their generation by the deftruction of the ova before they aflame the vermicular ftate. This is bed effected by frequent fcreen- ing and expofure to a current of frefh air j as by thefe means the nefts which contain and protect them are broken and deftroyed, and the animals after pafling through the fcreen in the different operations are wholly removed with the other extraneous matters. The expofure of grain to the free action of the atmofpheric air has been condemned by fome from the circumftance of the ova of infects being liable in that way to be depofited among the corn ; but it is more probable, when the economy of fuch infects is confidered, that theirovaare either depofited originally among the grain in fuch fituations, or brought in with different parcels of corn from other places. On this lad account great caution fhould be ufed in bringing frefh parcels of grain to be laid up, and the ufe of the fcreen be conftantly had recourfe to before it is attempted. Where corn is to bepreferved for aconfiderable length of time, though it may unqueftionably be kept with fafety by proper care and attention in granaries or corn- chambers, it is probably a much better, as well as more certain and economical practice to fuffer it to remain unthremed from the ear, in the flack, efpecially when built on proper ftaddles in the manner that has been defcribed above. In cafes where the corn is ground, and afterwards preferved in the flate of meal, it is the ben; practice to pack it as clofely as poflible, by treading it into perfectly dry fmall clofe rooms, as when laid up in proper condition in this way it will keep per fectly fafefor feveral years. When it is neceffary to preferve grain for any length of time after it has. been threfhed out, it is obvious that proper granaries fhould be provided ; the fize of \vhich mould conftantly have a relation to the extent of the farm, being always fufficient to contain one half of the corn that is produced when it is threfhed out. In their erection the proprietor mould probably, in all cafes, except where there are very long leafes, be at the whole of the expenfe. But though the practice of preferving grain in ftacks or granaries, from the convenience and advantages that may in fome cafes arife from it, both to the farmer and the public, may be in fome degree neceffary, it is evident from the refult of experiments carefully made,* that the ftoring of corn in either way fliould be carried to as little extent as poflible, as there is found to be a conftant decreafe in its weight, from the period at which it has been harvefted or laid up, but that at firft * Holt, in Hunter s Georgical Efiays, vol. II, Cu Itivation of A rable Land* Preferring of Grain. 305 this lofs is considerably greater than when the corn has been kept for fome time.* On thefe grounds it is therefore fufficiently obvious, that thefooner the produce is brought to the market, the greater muft be the advantage to the proprietor, provided other circumflances be the fame* * In thefe experiments, Wheat, On being rubbed out in the hot fun, and weighed the 31ft of Auguft, lb. oz.drs. 1789, ibon after being cut, afforded . - - 0211 On being weighed again on the 18th of October 027 Lofs of weight per bufhel of folbs. nearly -683 Or almoft one tenth of the whole in forty days. Of this wheat thirty-two grains weighed one penny weight. It is however obferved that this is the greateft poffible lofs that grain can fuflain, as though it was fully ripened it had neither had the advantage of being dried by expofure to the fun after beiiif cut r undergone the procefs of fermentation after being put together. lb. oz. drt Another quantity weighed on the 2 3d of October, produced ~ o 6 3 Weighed again twenty-four days afterwards, afforded - Q Q o Lofs in that time per bufhel, at the rate of - - - 2 1 15 A further quantity weighed on the Sth of January, 1790, produced - 022 Loft per bufheljon being weighed again thirty-two days aftrwardsj,at the rate of 2. o 1J Barley, On being weighed September the 2d, under fimilar circunaftances, pro duced - - - - - . - - * . . 022 On being again weighed Oclober the I Sth, afforded - I 12 Lofs of weight per bufliel of ftOlbs. - - - - - - 84. 22 Or about one feventh of the whole in forty-feven daya. Twenty-four grains of this barley weighed one penny-weight two grains. VOL. ii. R r SECTION V. Cultivation of Arable Land. Lai/ing down to Grass. LAYING DOWN TO GRASS Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs Nature of de- fcribed Low moljl Lands proper for Grafs richer Kinds of fandy Soil- peaty Lands converting Lands to Grafs Difference of Soils for taking on Grafs Caufes of Circumftances to be attended to in Propensities of Graffes to be regarded in Varieties of to be particularly noticed in Kinds of in different Sorts of natural Grafs Lands Defcription of from diffe rent Diftritts Principles to be coiifidered in Preparation of Lands for Grafs-Seeds Importance of what neccffary in fine State of Fertility and Cleannefs from Weeds effential Finenefs of Surface proper for proper Kinds of natural Graffes for Caufes of Difficulty of providing thofe Jhown by Experience to be ufeful Sweet fcented Vernal Grafs Defcription of- Nature of Proportion ufeful in Meadow Fox-tail Grafs Nature of Defcription of Soils proper for Smooth-talked Meadow Grafs Ear- line fs of Nature of Defcription of Situations proper for Modes of ujing of apt to decline in fome Cafes Rough Jlalhed Meadow Grafs great Similarity of to former Situations proper for Soils in which fucceeds in neceffary to attend to Seeds in fowing Meadow Fefcue Grafs Proper ties of lefs ufeful than others where neceffary Sheep s FefcueGrafs Na ture of- Defcription of what Soils proper for Hard FefcueGrafs Proper ties of Ufes of Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs Ufes to which applied where it is found abundant Ray or Rye Grafs Nature of Kinds of Soils adapted to new Variety of more ufeful wheremoft beneficial Proper ties of various Ufes of Caufes of Objections to Meadow Soft Grafs Nature of York- jhire Grafs Properties of Situations for Ufes towhich applied Rough Cocks-foot Grafs Properties of--where found naturally affords Cultivation of Arable Land. Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs. 507 Seed Tall Oat-Grafs where found naturally Bcnef.ts of proper feeding ofMeadoa Cat"s-tail Grafs Timothy where faund naturally Sells pro per for Seeds may be procured from America Hay Seeds bejl Modes of collecting of- Circumftances to be attended to in ufing of Yarrow Na ture of- Properties of great Utility of IV kite Clover Soils proper for - different Properties of- u fed with other Seeds to Advantage Cow Grafs known by thcTitle of Marl Grafs Properties of Soils on which ufeful Trefoil fucceeds in different Soils may be mixed with other Seeds to Ad vantage beneficial on Soils of the chalky and dry Kinds Rib Grafs >Soils proper for Varieties of highly ufeful in Marine Situations Burnet Soils where ufeful on Nature and Properties of great Produce of Im portance of having good Seed of other Sorts of Plants that may be found nfeful Sorts of Graffes mojl ufeful on clayey Soils on loamy Soils on fandy Soils on chalky Soils on peaty Soils t ho fe proper in point of early Herbage hi point of abundant Produce Grafs Seeds how readily provided Proportions of Seeds for different Soilsfor clayey Soils jor loamy Soils for fandy Soils for chalky Soils for peaty Soils Times and Me thods of forcing in different Cafes of- with or without Grain Crops in Spring with Corn in Autumn without Cafes in which each may be prac* fifed with Advantage Auguji probably bejl Seafon when it can be done Ufe of -having Surface fine for After" Management of New Grafs Lands Feeding manuring what neceffary in each Methods of "performing of in each Eff efts produced on by different Sorts of Subftances ufed as Ma- mires .HAVING explained in the former fection the culture which is necelTary in tillage lands, and the various modes of cutting, managing, and preferring the different forts of produce, we fhall proceed to the means of refloring them to grafs, or the flate of fward. Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs. It is obvious from what has been already- advanced that fome forts of land are much better calculated for the production of grain crops than thofe of the grafs kind ; while, on the contrary, there are others that are much more fuitable and better adapted to the railing of grafs than corn crops. There are flill others that may be cultivated under a convertible fy Item of corn and grafs, with more fuccefs than in either of the other methods alone. R r 2 308 Cultivation of Arable Land. Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs. Of the fir ft defcription are all thofc lands which pofiefs a fufllcient degree of drynefs, whether they have much ftaple or depth of mould or not, and which in their natural ftate have but little tendency to produce good herbage, fuch as thofe covered with different forts of coarfe plants and vegetable productions, whether in an open or enclofed Mate. It has been well obferved by a late writer, that grounds cf this nature are of considerably more value when in a ftate of tillage than in paf- ture ; as they are particularly adapted to the improved modes of hufbandry, and in addition to the quantity of grain to be produced from them, will afford a greater quantity of vegetable food for animal flock when in a tillage (late, than they did when kept entirely in pafture.* There are various defcriptions of light lands that may likewife be kept in a Mate of tillage with more advantage than in that of grafs, as they are peculiarly fuited to thofe improved modes of cultivation that are necefTary for raifing large fupplics of green food for the fupport of live Mock of different kinds. The poorer forts of Hind lands, where marl, clay, chalk, or other fimilar fubllances can be readily procured, are much more proper for the purpofes of tillage than thofe of grafs, as is fufficiently fhown by the Improvements that have been made in many of the more fouthcrn diftricls of the kingdom. t Lands of the chalky kinds, whether of the more fuperficial or deep defcriptions, are in molt cafes better fuited for tillage than grafs, as from their wetnefs in the winter fealo.-, and their opennefs and friability in the fummer, it is almoft impoflible to cfbblifh good herbage. t And there is ftill another fort of land that is better for the purpofes of tillage than thofe of grafs, which is that which in the fiate of grafs is conftantly fo difpo- fed to the production of mofs, as to afford but a very fcanty fhareof good herbage. Moft of the clayey and more heavy defcriptions of land, efpecially when fituat?d in valleys, or oiher low confined expofures, though they may be capable of affording good crops cf particular kinds when under the plough, as thofe of the wheat and bean kind, are, on account of their retention of moifture, the increafcd expenfes of labour, and the uncertainty of feafon for tilling them, as well as their inaptitude for moft other forts ofcrops, and their fitnefs for the production of good herbage, much more beneficial in the (late of grafs than in that of tillage. Where there is an opportunity of procuring fra fand, and of applying it at an eafy expenfe, they may however be converted to the purpofes of tillage in a profitable manner. Moft of thofe fhong cold grafs lands which in a Hate of tillage would be improper for the growth of turnips, and other applications of improved cultivation, fhould alfo eonftantly remain in the ftate of grafs. And likewife thofe lands that are lituated * Davis iu Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. f Ibid. J Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Lands proper for Tillage and Grafs. 309 near large towns, where manure is plentiful, and of courfe capable of being procu red at a reafon able rate ; and where the produce of fuch lands is always in great demand, and therefore capable of being difpofed of to great advantage. Such lands as are fituatedon the banks of large rivers or brooks, which are capable of being improved by means of watering, arelikewife more beneficial when kept conftantly under the grafs fyftem than any other mode of cultivation that can be prac- tifcd. The lands of a calcareous nature which are distributed in the valleys ot fhe more mountainous diftricts, where old grafs land isfcarceand of much importance, and mod: part of that in the Irate of tillage incapable of being converted co the con dition of good grafs, may alfo be the moft advantageous when continued in a permane.it Hate of herbage. The forts of land that are the moft adapted to the practice of convertible hufbandry are thofe of the loamy kinds, which are not too ftrong for the growth of turnips. Tiiefe in all their different varieties are capable of being changed from the ftate of tillage to that of grafs, and the contrary,. not only without fuftaining any injury, but frequently with the m.ift evi dent ad vantage, as the practice of fome of the weftern and midland diftricts has fully proved.* The richer kinds of fandy lands are in mod cafes alfo well fuited to this fort of ru;fb-indry ; tfpecially where marl is at hand, to be applied at the time of laying them down to the (late of grafs. And grounds of the peaty fort may in many cafes be the moft beneficially em ployed in this mode of culture, as, from their producing little elfe than plants of the aquatic kind, it is obvious that they mult be completely deftroyed, and thofe of the proper grafs kind be introduced, before any ufeful herbage can be produced. And this is capable of being accomplimed in by much the moft perfect manner un der the ftate of tillage. But as they are in mo ft inftances much too tender and moift for the purpofe of remaining long in the ftate of tillage, as foon as the above intention has been fully effected, they Ihould be reftored to the ftate of permanent grafs. f Converting .Lands to Grafs. It is evident therefore "that fome forts of foil arc much more difficult to be brought into the ftate of grafs than others, and thar, when this object has been attained, fome are much more profitable and advantageous than others, as affording a much better and more permanent herbage. In fome diftricts the bufinefs of reftoring the land to the ftate .of fward, after it .has been in that of tillage, is effected with the greateft cafe aiad facility : the ground, on being left in an unploughed condition, from its natural tendency .to the production of * Communications to tie Bowl of Agriculture, vol. III. + Ibid, 310 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Laying down to Grafs What neceffary in. herbage,returns to the ftate of fward, almoft without trouble, feed, or expcnce; while in others all the art of the mod careful agricultor is found infufficientfor accom- plifhing rhepurpofe. It has been remarked that "after twenty years fruitlefs ex pectation and expence, the landholders have frequently been obliged to rcftore ,the Jand again to a ftate of tillage.*" But befides this difpofition in foils for taking on the growth and eftablilhment ofgrafs crops, there are other circumftanccs to be confidered in reftoring them to the ftate of fward after they have been under the plough ; fuch as thofe of their poftefling either too much or too little moifture, and that of their having a fuffici- ent ftaple or depth of mould for the full and fecure eftablilhment of the grafs plants. As where the foils are too wet, or too retentive of moifture, they will fuftain much injury if not be wholly dcftroyed during the winter feafon, when there is much rain and froft, as well as be quickly fuperfeded by plants of thecoarfe aquatic kind, fuch as therufh, &c. And where they are too dry, the grafTes will be liable to be de- ftroyed by heat during the fummer months, by the little moifture which they con tain being thus carried away, and of courfe leave their places to be fupplied by other forts of coarfe plants, fuch as thofe of the mofs, fern, and heath kinds, accor ding to the nature of the ground. A good depth of mould or foil is likewife re- quilite, in order that the roots of the grafs plants may penetrate or run down to fuch a depth below the furface, as to be in a great meafure out of danger from the effects of heat and evaporation in the fummer feafon. On this as well as other accounts it is therefore better that the lands intended for grafs, efpecially where they are to be kept in a permanent ftate of fward, ihould incline in fome meafure to a ftate of moifture, or be in fuch a degree retentive of it, as to preferve that ftate of humidity which is neccftary for the healthy and vigorous growth of the plants,with- out endangering the deft ruction of their roots by putrefaction, from its ftagnating in too large a proportion about them. It is chiefly on this principle that the more light, thin, dry defcriptions of foil are better fuited for the production of grain, or the occafional practice of convertible hufbandry, than for that of permanent grafs. There areftill other circumfrances connected with the nature of the foils, which are neceflary to be particularly attended to in the laying of lands down to the ftate of grafs, as thofe of properly adapting the grafs plants to their qualities, fome forts of grafles being much more impatient of wet than others, confequently more proper for the drier forts of land ; fome more capable of relifting the effects of heat and drought, and of courfe morefuitable for the thinner and more porous kinds of foil ; * Davis in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. Cultivation of Arable Land. Lai/ing down to Grafs What ncceffaryin. 311 while others delight in a moid or wet foil, and are incapable of being grown with any fuccefs on fuch as are of a dry quality % They likevvife differ much in refpect to their hardinefs,fome refilling the effects of cold much more effectually than others, of courfe are more adapted to highexpofed fituations. Betides thefe, they vary in other refpects, fome fucceeding to the rnoft advantage in foils of the clayey kind, others in thofe of a loamy quality, while others delight in thofe of a fandy nature, a few in thofe of the calcareous kinds,and fome in thofe which partake much of the nature of peat. And in addition to thefe different natural propenfities, there are fome graffes that have the property of riling to a great height in the Mem, and of courfe of af fording a large coarfe produce, while others are more limited in this reflect, bu c fpread and extend themfelves more in a lateral direction, affording a k fs proportion of produce, but which is of a finer quality. The former, with certain reftrictions, would feem better adapted to the purpofe of hay,though the latter may be applied to the fame ufe, where the finenefs of quality is preferred to quantity of produce. There are likewife fome forts of graffes that contain much larger proportions of faccharine matter in their competitions than others,as well as more leaves and fewer flower-Hems j and which, from the avidity with which they are fed upon by dif ferent forts of live flock, and the fuccefs that attends their being thus confumed in the improvement of fuch flock, would appear to poflefs the largefl proportion of nourifhment ; and of courfe to be the mod proper for being introduced where the lands are intended for the purpofc of grazing, or fattening animals by means of vegetable food in its graffy (late. There is another property of graffes in which they differ confiderably ; and which it is of much confequence to have regard to in the laying lands to the flute of fward. This is that of early growth, which is a circumflance of vaft import ance in a grazing point of view, as there is in general a great deficiency of grafs for the fupport of (lock in the early part of the fpring. It is indeed the opinion of a late intelligent writer,* that in the forming of good meadows, or other grafs-Iands, there mould be a combination of thefe different circumflances, as it is chiefly by the firft, or the quantity of produce, that the cul tivator is enabled to fupport his live (lock, and pay his rent ; of courfe no expenfe in labour or manure is fpared to obtain it by the prudent farmer. It does not however follow, he fays, that this mould be folely regarded, or that to attain it the coarfeftfort of plants jGhould be cultivated; nor will the graffes that are recom- * Mr. Curtis, 312 Cultivation of Arable Land. Laying d^tcri to Graft What neceffaryin. mended merely for their being relifhed by cattle, or for the fvvcetnefs of their foliage, if they are found to be deficient in the quantity of produce, fully anfvver the views of the farmer or grazier, as, to constitute a good meadow or pa ft u re, an abundant produce is neceffary. Though animals prefer fome forts of food toothers, it is not poffible to indulge the live flock that is to be fupported conftantly with the fined: and moft delicate hay, or herbage. Bcfides, it is not improbable but that the productive graffes may in fome cafes be highly nutritious, or that cattle may eat as eagerly the herbage, or hay, made from the coarfe as the fine graffes. And cattle are frequently known to thrive on food to which they are habituated by neceffity, though at firft they could fcarcely be prevailed on to eat it. In making experiments, perfons are apt, he conceives, to conclude too haftily from the appearance which a plant affumes on its being firft planted or fown ; as the moft infignificant vegetable will often make a great (how, when its fibres have frefti earth to moot into : but the trial comes when the object of the experiment has been in a meadow or pafture fcveral years, when its fibres, from long growth, are matted together, and it meets with powerful neighbours, to difpute every inch of ground with it : if it then continues to be productive, it muft have merit. It is \vell known, he fays, that lucern, when left to itfelf, is foon overpowered; and if broad-leaved clover, which is undoubtedly a perennial, the firft year be fown, a great crop is produced ; but let the field be left to itfelf, and the clover, like the lucern, will yearly diminifti, not becaufe it is a biennial, as has been often fuppofed, but becaufe plants hardier, or more congenial to the foil, ufurp its place: this (hows therefore that at the fame time that a good plant is introduced, it (hould be a pow erful one, and fuch as is able to keep poffeflion, and continue to be productive. In refpect to the property of cattle s thriving on the food they eat, it is unquef- tionably of great co.ifequence; and it is to be regretted that our knowledge of the moft nutrient kinds of herbage is fo confined ; but of thofe plants which have been in cultivation we are enabled to fpeak with fome certainty : it is well known that clover, lucern, fainfoin, tares, and feveral other plants, have a great tendency to fatten cattle ; but what natural grafTcs, or other plants, which have not been fub- jected to feparate culture, have this particular tendency, and in what degree, re mains to be afcertained by the teft of experiment. But as leguminous plants are in general found to agree with cattle, it maybe reafonably conciuded,he thinks, that a certain quantity of them may be proper and advantageous in paftures. It is well known that certain paftures are more difpofed to fatten animals than others ; but how far this depends on Situation, and their particular produce, re* mains to be afcertained. Cultivation of Arabic Land.Laying down to G raj s ff hal mceffary in. 51* With refpecft to the property of early growth, the want of early herbage in, the fpring is the general complaint of farmers and graziers in all the beft grafs diftricts of the kingdom : tliofe plant?, therefore, which are found to fh ot at an early period, and to put forth early foliage, efpccially when it is fuch as is grateful to cattle, mud be deferving of great attention. As far as graffcs have to do in this bufmefs, the few mentioned hereafter rmy, he fuppofes, effect all that can be ex pected in this way: much mult, however, depend on fcafons : if the winter fhould befevere, or north-caderly winds prevail in the fpring months, graffy herbage will be backward,!!! fpite of all that can be done ; but in order to counteract the bad effects of fuch feafons as much as poffible, pafturcs and grafs-lands fhould, in his opinion, be warmly iituated, and not drenched too much with moifture, being dickered by thick hedges, and divided into fmall enclofures. But where early pafturage is the great object of the cultivator, there are other planes that may deferve a place among them, fuch as thofe mentioned below. And though early herbage is highly valuable for pafturage, it is not lefs fo for the purpofes of hay; as by the middle of May at the lated, a meadow of this fort would be fit for cutting; and the fecond hay-making might begin by the time that hay-making ufually takes place in other cafes ; and by this means the double advantage be obtained, of a larger produce, and lefs rifk in fecuring it. On the principles that have been already explained, there can be little doubt but that by a judicious and due attention to the different circumftances and ufes for which grafs-lands are intended, as well as to the felecting and mixing of the beft and moft proper grafs-feeds, and adapting them to the particular nature and cir cumftances of the foils, after they have been brought into a fuitable condition for receiving them, thofe grounds which have been in a ftateof tillage may be laid down to the Hate of fward, in a much better and more beneficial manner than has been the cafe under the indifcriminate ufe of fuch as were in, or which have fown themfelves on the lands from the contiguous paftures. It has indeed been long flnce remarked as extraordinary, that cultivators fhould have neglected to make a proper advantage of plants of fuch importance, and which, in moft iituations, conftitute the principal food oi live ftock, from the want of properly diftingu idling and felecting fuch as are the moft advantageous and ufeful under different circumftances of the land.* Some have likewife contended that the beft grafs-feeds cannot be collected at too high a rate, as it is poflible by fuch means to render lands, which are fuited for the production of grafs, much more valuable than can be done by the common modes of laying them down.f * Stillingfleet s Mifcellaneous Trads. + Kent s Hints, and Anderfon sEflays, vol. II. VOL. II, S S 314 Cultivation of Arable Land Laying down to Grafs What necefjary in, Much difficulty has without doubt been thrown in the way of introducing the mod proper forts of grafles, in laying lands down to fward, from their near refem. blances to each other, in many inftances, requiring the niceft difcernment to diftm- guifli them, and from the want of other means of procuring them. It has been lately obferved by an intelligent botanical writer, that if grafs-lands, fuch as downs, paftures, and meadows, be carefully examined, they will all, except fuch as have been recently laid down with rye grafs or clover, be found much in a ftate of nature, replete with an indifcriminate mixture of plants, fome of which pro duce cattle-food of a good kind; others, fuch as is of a very indifferent defcription;, fome affording good crops, while others fcarcely yield any at ail.* It is therefore * Curtis s Practical Obfervation onBritifh GraCe . This accurate botanift, on procuring fmall turfs, taken indiscriminately from different downs and c immons in Hampshire and Sufiex, employed as fheep pafiures, found, on their being planted in his garden, that they produced the following forts of plants: Turf from Seldom Common. Produced Plantago lanceolata. Agroftis capillaris. Avena flavefcens, Daftylis glornerata. Feftnca duriufcula. Poa annua. Cynofurus criftatus. Trifolium repens. Crepes te&orum. Achillea Millefolium. Galium Terurn. Hypochaeri radicata. Hieracium Pilofella. Thymus Surpyllum. Turf from Oakhanger. Trifolium repens. Holcus lanatus. Poa annua. Agroftis capillaris. Agroftis paluftris. Turf from Deortwn. Ranunculus repens. Lolium perenne. Holcus lanatus. Prunella vulgaris. Feftuca- duriufcula, Agroftis paluftris. Trifolium repens. Crepis te^orum. Achillea Millefolium. Turf from GlyndHill. Medicago lupulina. Aehillea Millefolium. Poa pratenfis. Turf from the same* Avena flavefcens. Feftuca duriufcula. Feftuca ovina. Hieracium Pilofella. Agroftis eapillaris. Trifolium repens. Thymus Serpyllum. Turf from Short Heath. Feftuca bromoides. Aira praecox. Juncus campeftris. Poa aniiua. Agroftis capillaris. Turf from Mount Cabron. Jlumex Acetofa. Daucus Carota. Medicago lupulina. Poterium Sanguiforba. Feftuctr duriufcula. Avena flavefcens. Turf from Ringmer Down. Linum catharticum. Scabiofa columbaria. Ornithopus perpufillus. Avena flavefcens. Feftuca duriufcula. Trifolium repens. Hypochoeris radicata. Crepis tetforum. Lotus corniculatus. Juncus campeftris. Hieracium Pilofella. Feftuca ovina. Thymus Serpyllum. Poa pratenfis. In fix fmall turfs, taken from different parts of the uncommonly productive meadow near Salisbury, Cultivation of Arable Land Preparation of Land for Grafs Seeds. 3 1 5 ftifficiently obvious, that by a careful attention to the procuring of the bcft and moft fuitable forts of grafs-feeds, and applying them according to the principles which have been given above, much fuperiority may be attained in the forming of pafture or other forts of grafs-lands. Preparation of Land for Grafs Seeds This is a part of management that is of v-aft importance to the fuccefs of forming good grafs lands, but which has been much neglected in the practice of laying them down. From the fmallnefs of the feeds, and the fibrous nature of the roots of the grafs-plants in mod cafes, it is evident tbat lands which are intended for being laid down to the ftate of fward, whatever their quality may be in refpect to foil, mould conftantly be brought into as fine a ftate of pulverization and mellownefs as poflible before the feeds are put in. As where the contrary is the cafe, from the lumpinefs of the furface mould, the feeds can neither be fown with fo much regularity, vegetate in Ib equal a manner, or extend their roots, and eftablifh themfelves at firft fo per- fevtly in the land, they are of courfe more liable to be deftroyed by hot feafons coming on afterwards. It is probable that in this way much new laid down grafs- land is greatly injured the firft fummer, efpecially when it turns out to be hot and ilry. The neceflary finenefs of mould may be obtained in different modes, accord ing fo the nature of the lands. In the more ftiffand heavy ones, by ploughing before winter, and leaving them to be expofed to the action of frofts and other caufes during that feafon; having recourfe to fevere harrowing and occafional byStilrjngflee-t, and particularly defcribed in the firft ^volume of the Memoirs of the Bath. ral JSocietj, the produce was In Turf I, trivially Ranunculus acris, Triticum repens, Agroftis rmluftris, Jn Turf 2. Poa trivialis. Alopecurus pratenfis. Triticum repens, Jn Turf 3. Poa trivialis, Agroftis paluftris, In Turf 4, Poa trivialis, Triticum repens, Peucedanura Silaui, Jn Turf 5. Poa trivialis, Alopecurus pratentls, Agroftis paluftris, Avena elatior. Triticura rcpns, From this trial it i proved, the writer fuppofes, that the great produclivenefs of this meadow did not depend on any new grafs peculiar to it, but on the concurrence of different and unufual circumilances; favouring, in an uncommon degree, the growth of certain well-known grafles, as the Poa trivialis and dgrostis jwlustris, $82 ;jlf5 Cultivation of Arable Land. Preparation of Land for Grafs Seeds* rolling in the early fpring months ; and by the frequent interpofition of fuch forts of crops, in the courfes that precede thofe of grafs, as have a tendency, from the peculiar nature of their roots, to loofen and render the foils fine ; fucb as thofeof the bean, cabbage, rape, and clover kinds. The lighter forts ot land may be brought into a proper condition for the reception of grafs-- feeds, by repeated ploughing and harrowing, or fcuffling, and the frequent introduction in the pre vious crops of fuch forts of green fallow crops, as have a power, by the great de gree of made and stagnation which they afford, as well as by the culture which they require while growing, of bringing the foil into a fine friable (rate. Thefe are turnips, potatoes, tares, fainfoin, and others of a ilmilar defcription. It has been obferved by an intelligent cultivator, that where the grafs- feeds are to be put into the ground with grain crops in the fpring, the tillage mould be performed with more than ordinary attention ; which, in the cafe of turnips, will depend greatly upon their being confumed at fuch an early period as will admit of the ground being thoroughly broken down and reduced j for if there be much delay f and the fcafon prove unfavourable, a bed of mould, fufficiently loofe and mellow, will not be procured for the reception of the feeds : and when grown with fpring corn, the lands mould be ploughed over three times : and where the firft of thefe earths can be given early enough to be influenced by the vernal frofls, it will be found to be much more beneficial.* The ufe of the harrow and the roller will be occasionally necefTary after the different ploughings, according to the nature and ftate of the land. Btit where the fowing is executed in Auguft the fame degree of attention is not believed by fome to be fo neceflary, as the time and feafon afford fo full an opportunity of bringing the ground into fuitable order, that the moft in attentive cultivator can fcarcely experience any other difficulty than what originates from an unufual wetnefs of feafon. f But befides this finenefs of preparation in the foils, it is neceflary that the method of cropping and application of manure in the preceding courfes be fuch as to leave them in a (late of high fertility and richnefs ; as no good grafs-land can befuppofed to be produced where the lands have been worn out and exhausted by the pre vious crops, a practice which has, however, been too general in the returning of arable lands to the condition of grafs. Mr. Marfhall has indeed very juftly ob ferved, that the want of proper condition in the lands at the time of their being laid down to fward, added to thofe of improper forts of graffes and bad feeds, is the chief caufc of their not fucceeding. According to fome, manure ought to be * Clofe in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. Ill, + Rev. A. Young in Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Proper Kinds of Natural Graffes. 317 applied with every other crop, and always with that which immediately precedes the grafs. This is a practice that (hould be adopted as much as poflible. In order to have grafs-lands of the beft kind, it is likewife of great utility to have them fo managed in the preparation, as to be rendered perfectly clear and free from all forts of weeds, as by their riling with greater rapidity than the fown grafs- plants, they are often liable to fhade and deftroy them, or greatly injure their growth. It has been advifed by an experienced cultivator, in reftoring old worn-out lands to the ftate of good pafture, to clear the land from injurious weeds by means of a full winter and fummer fallowing, or, inftead of the latter, by a crop of potatoes well manured for, and kept in a perfectly clean ftate by attentive culture while growing, fucceeded by winter vetches fed off in the early fpring.* In all the more light forts of foil, it is unqueftionably the mod beneficial practice to bring the ground into that fort of fine tilth, which is proper for the reception of grafs- feeds, by a judicious mixture of green crops of different forts with thofe of the corn kind, according to the nature of the foil. The moft appropriate methods of intermixing thefe with each other have been already explained. f When the lands have been by thefe methods brought into a good ftate of fertili ty, and reduced into a fufficiently mellow and friable condition of mould, the fur- face (hould be made as fine, loofe, and even as poflible. Where the grounds are much inclined to moifture,the ridges may be prefer ved, which (hould be of confide- rable breadths with very flight furrows? but in the more light and porous defcrip- tions of land, the whole mould belaid as even as poflible without any ridges or furrows. In the former cafes, in fome diftricts they prefer making the ridges fix, eight, or more yards in breadth, which when the land is to be under the fcythe is in a much better ftate for being mown, and if for pafture there will be lefs danger of the animalsbeing injured by being caft in the furrows. And in the latter the furface will not only be more agreeable in its appearance, but be more advantageous for all the purpofes of grafs management afterwards.;}; Proper Kinds of Natural Graffes. The circumftances that have been already ob- ferved, render it fufficiently evident that the proper choice and application of grafles muft be a matter of great confequence in the laying down lands to the ftate of fvvard. But it is obvioufly a bufinefs attended with uncommon difficulty, from the number * Billingfley s Corrected Report of Somerfetfhire. i Rotation of Crops in Section on Cultivation of Arable Land. J Corrected Agricultural Report of Lancafliire. 318 Cultivation of Arabk Land. Swtet*fanted VernalGrafs. of trials that have been yet made, being very inadequate for affording the means of fully deciding upon their properties, advantages, and ufcs, in many cafes, as well as from their habits, and the foils to which they are the belt fuited, being often very imperfectly known ; and alfo from the great trouble and inconvenience of obtain ing their feeds genuine, and in a proper ftate for the purpofes of healthy vegetation. The grafs plants of the natural kind which have been found by experienced cultU vators moft ufeful and beneficial in the different views that have been before fug. gefted are : the Sweet-fcented Vernal Grafs ; Meadow Fox-tail Grafs 5 Smooth* (talked Meadow Grafs ; Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs ; Meadow Fefcue Grafs j Sheep Fefcue Grafs j Hard Fefcue Grafs ; Tall Fefcue Grafs \ Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs j Ray or Rye Grafs ; Yorkmire White j Cock s-foot Grafs | Tall Oat Grafs ; Timothy Grafs ; Yarrow ; Burnet ; White Clover j Trefoil j Cow Grafs ; Rib Grafs j and a few others which will be defcribed below. Moft of thefe different forts of graffes will be found ufeful in laying lands under different circumftances of foil, fituation, and moifture, or drynefs, to the ftate of fward. Swee t-f cent ed Vernal Grafs* This is a fort of grafs that comes early into blofTom j it is of courfe valuable as an early grafs, and it is alfo valuable for its readinefs to grow in moft kinds of foil and fituation, being found in bogs, in woods of low growth, or which have had the underwood removed, in rich meadows, and in dry paftures ; but in point of crop it is not fo productive as forne, yet more fo than others : cattle are faid to be fond of it, and it is well known to be the only grafs of this climate which i$ odoriferous; the agreeable fcent of new-made hay being produe~ edalmoft entirely by it ; and the green leaves,when bruifed.readily impart this odour to the fingers, by which means the foliage may conflantly be known } and it may be readily diftinguifhed when in blofTom by its having only two threads or ftamina. to each flower. But it is lefs productive in point of feed than many of the other grafles. In certain fituations, efpccially in dry feafons, its leaves are apt to bo blighted, from adifeafe which changes them to an orange hue, and which has prov. cd highly injurious to the plants when in a cultivated ftate.f From conftantly flowering in hard flocked pafture lands, forne fuppofe that it is not much relifhed by cattle in common. In a flight proportion, as that of one eighth, it may however anfwer well.J Jt thrives well on poor fandy foils. Meadow Fox-tail Grafe. Is a fort of grafs that fends forth its fpike almoft ag foon, and in fome fituations full as early, as the Sweet-fcented Vernal j it is * AntoyantJium odoratum, t Curtis s Praflical Obfervations, | Sole in Bath Papers, voj. JX $ Alopecurm pratentis, 6 P.L.V. T SCENT En \ T I:KNAL GRASS oiforatum ./ Cultivation of Arable Land Meadow Vox tail Grafs. 319 confequcntly equally valuable as an early grafs ; and as it is much larger and quicker in its growth, it is of courfe much more productive : it (hoots very rapidly after mowing, producing a very plentiful aftermath: and where the land is rich, and two crops are not thought too much for it to bear, of all thegraiTes of this climate it appears to be the rnoft adapted for fuch a purpofe, and ought to form a principal part of the crop in fuch cafes. Its foliage may feem coarfe to fome ; but it muft be kept in mind that no grafs can be productive that is not in fome degree coarfe. If it be mown early, juft as it comes into bloom, though the leaves are large, the hay will not, however, be coarfe. In general, the great advantage proceeding from the earl inefs of thefe two grafies is entirely loft in thofe diftricts where hay-making begins at a late period > and \vhereacropofindifcriminate herbage is waited for by the cultivator. It is in fome meafure diltinguifhed by the largenefs of its foliage, and by its producing a foft fpike on a long ftalk about the beginning of May. This is a great objection to it, as the feed cannot be always obtained in plenty.* On a fituation where it was perfectly eftablimed with thick herbage it was found to produce but few feed-ftems.f In refpect to the places of its growth, it is more confined than the firft fort, grow, ing naturally in a moift foil only : on this account fome think it beft adapted for improving fuch wet grounds as may be drained of their fuperfluous moifture, or for forming or meliorating meadows that have a moift bottom, and are not apt to be burnt up in dry fummer feafons.J Others, however, fuppofe that there is fcarcely a better grafs for moift loams and clays, as it is extremely early, and abides nine or ten years on foils upon which the Meadow Fefcue gives way to thofe of other kinds. || It has likewifc by fome been found hardier againft froft and exccflive cold.^[ Others fpeak of it as excellent, both for pafture and hay, as being highly product- rive, and the firft as a dairy grafs.** The feeds are eafily collected, according to the accounts of fome accurate obfervers;tf but a great number of them, in certain feafons, are liable to be deftroycd by a very minute orange coloured larva, or maggot, which feeds on the embryo of the feed, and moft probably produces fome fmall fpecies of fly.jt Great or Smooth-flatbed Meadow Grafs. In this grafs the foliage alfo begins to * Young in Communications, &c. vol. III. f Ibid. I Curtis sObfervations. || Young in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. Ill* If Mr. Majendie. ** Sole in Bath Papers, vol. IX. it Martyn s Flora Rustica, vol. I. and Curtis s Obfervations. JJ Ibid. ^ Poa protensis* Cultivation of Arable Land. -Great or Smcoth-Jtalkcd Meadow Graft. (hoot and to affume a beautiful verdure at an early period in the fpring; but the flowering ftems are not produced fo foon, by a week at lead, as thofe of the lad : this flight difference, in point ofearlincfs of flowering, does not, however, prevent it from being properly ranked with the two preceding graffes. Where early grafly paflurage is the great object of the cultivaror,it cannot probably be better obtained than by a judicious combination of thefe three graffcs. If quantity of crop be at the fame time in view, the Meadow Fox-tail Grafs mould predominate in a ; confiderable degree.* It in fome meafurc affects a rather dry than a moid lunation, on which account 4t keeps its verdure in long-continued dry feafons better than molt other forts; but it is capable of thriving in either pretty well, though more luxuriantly in rich meadows. It is liable to fome objection from its creeping root, which when efbblifhed is difficult to extirpate : it fliould of courfe be cautioufly introduced where the land is not intended to remain in a permanent date of f ward. -i- .By fome it is confidered, however, as a highly valuable grafs, as all animals are fond of it ; and it affords the bell hay, as well as the richefl paflurage. In addition to its other qualities, it has the property of abiding continually in the fame ground, while mod other forts are liable to change. On rich loams it has been found, by fome, a highly valuable grafs, fucceeding well with different cul tivators.]] According to Mr. Curtis, this grafs is now readily diftinguifhed from the Com mon or Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs, as it has a fmooth flalk, while the other has a rough one, which is perceptible when dra^n betwixt the thumb and finger, and which proceeds from little (harp points, vifible when the fheaf of the leaf, which covers the ftalk, is magnified ; befides, the latter has a long pointed membrane at the bafe of the leaf, while in the former it has a fhort blunt one. And further, it only throws up flowering-dcms or bent ones in a feafon ; from which pecu liarity, combined with its hardinefs and verdure, it appears well-fuited for the Jawns or grafs-plats of pleafure grounds. Not vrithftanding what has been juft obferved in regard to its property of re maining in the land, in dry foils the crop from this grafs has fometimes been found to diminifli in quantity annually, and to become ultimately very fmall, efpecially * Curtis s Practical Obfervations. i Curtis in Ibid. J Major Cartwright. || Sole in Bath Papers, vol. IX. PLATE SMOOTH STALK n MEADOW GRASS . r>t -<i te n j- /> . / rrnn ROUGH STALKb MEADOW G trivia Us . / Cultivation of Arable Land. Rough-talked Meadow Grafs. 3 21 when the roots have become matted, and exhaufted the ground, which they feem much difpofed to do ; but in moid meadows this effcd: has not been fo much noticed.* It has been remarked by Mr. Saliibury, that this grafs is likely to be a fcarce kind in cultivation, as the feed is not to be collected in any quantity, neither does it produce it abundantly when grown on purpofe. Common or Rough-ftalktd Meadow Grafs.-\ Though this grafs has much fimilaritjr to the preceding in its appearance, efpecially in the mode of flowering, it differs effentially in its qualities, as the former is chiefly found in dry paftures, while the latter principally occurs in moift meadows. It delights in moifture, and fitua- tions that are flickered ; on which account, though there are few more productive, or better adapted for the purpofe of hay or pafturage, it is tender, and liable to be injured by fevere cold or drought : and in moid rich ground it has been obferved to grow tall, while in poor land it has been found equally diminutive. It is faid by fome cultivators to be a grafs well adapted to good, found, moilr, loams. On the continent it is greatly efteemed both for dry paftures and water meadows, as it multiplies much by feed as well as root. It is therefore necefiary to permit the feeds to fall, in order to preferve the quantity undiminimed. The produce is admirable for the feeding of all forts of cattle.J It is, however, con- lidered by fome as inferior to the laftfort, from its property of going off after being cut, being fupplanted by thofe of the bent kind : but its radical- as well as ftem- leaves grow larger. According to Mr. Saliibury, this grafs in certain fituations is to be ranked among the beft and moft productive grafles ; but on examining the plant in many other places where it grows fpontaneoufly, he finds it fo very fmall and poor, that unlefs circurnftances were much in its favour, agricultors mould, he thinks, be careful how they hazard the fowing it ; the places where it is obferved to thrive beft, are, he^fays, in low wet foils confifting of a heavy loam and clay : farmers who have lands of this defcription would certainly do well to felect this kind for the purpofe, as it is fweer, and feems to poffefs all that is neceflary for either paftu rage or hay. As the feeds of this as well as thofe of the laft fort are apt to be entangled, and adhere to each other, it is difficult to difperfe them evenly in fowing. This cir- cumftance fliould therefore be attended to in putting them into the land. * Curtis s Observations. f Poa trivialis. J Young in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. Sole in Bath Papers. VOL* II. T t SQQ^Cultivation of Arabic Land Meadow Fefcite, Sheep s Ft fine Gi aijls* Meadow Fefcue Grafs * This is a grafs that comes near in its appearance to Kay Grafs, but to which it fecms greatly fuperior, at leaft for the purpofe of form ing or improving meadows ; as being larger, and more productive of foliage. In is frridlly perennial and hardy, thriving well not only in wet but in dry grounds ; orowinf in all lunations, from the fund-pits at Chariton to the ofier-grounds at Batterfea ; and it abounds in the belt meadows, in the be ft hay difh icts : in fliort, it feems well calculated to fupply the defects of Ray Grafs. Beiides, it has the quality of producing more feeds than mod of the other forts of grades, which arc eafily gathered, and grow readily. It is however inferior to the three fir It of the above grades in one property, which is, that it does not produce its flowering-Hems fooner than about the-midcile of June, which is a fortnight or three weeks later than the fecond of them ; though it cannot be confidered as a late grafs, as thole of the bent and fome other forts flower later by three weeks or more.-j- The able botanift mentioned above obferves, that no plant whatever deferves more the attention of the farmer than this, it being of certain growth, eafy cul ture, productive, and remarkably fweet. It will thrive in either dry or wet foils, an advantage which moft others do not podefs ; it appears to be little inferior to fox-tail, except in point of the early growth. One reafon why this as well as many other grades were not formerly more ge nerally introduced into cultivation, was the difficulty of diftinguifhing the grades from each other; but which, from the fludy of agricultural botany, is now in fome meafure done away : but a greater till lately, has always prefented itfelf, which was the difficulty of procuring pure feeds of the different forts : this too has now been in a great degree remedied by the exertions of Mr. Salilbury, who, with fome country gentlemen, have laid down land fudicient to fupply the princi pal feedfmen and others with large quantities ; and it may be expected that in a ihort time the markets will be generally fupplied with them as well as with rye- grafs, which was the only one to bepurchafed till within thefe few years. Sheep s Fefcue.% This grafs has been much praifed by fome, both for the pur- pofes of pafture and hay ; fheep and other forts of live flock being very fond of it, and foon rendered fat in paftures where it prevails. But from its affording in dry heathy expofed fituations, and commons, but a very fmall produce, and its foliage being hard and wiry, as well as from its appearance in dry fummers being unplea- fantly brown; and in rich moift ones, where the foliage retains its verdure, and becomes much taller ; from its being in its nature a fmall plant, it cannot be pro- Festuca pratensis. i Curtis s Observations. J Fcstuca ovina. ; 2JOGS TAIL C t t/ tij it //<< C* v of >> FES CUE G / f csfncfi f/nt y //,i t // /<t, . J - Pi.X SHEEP S FESCUE GRASS. MEAD OW FESC UE GK.l SS. fj- f.rtnra f>ratc/isi.r.} Cultivation oj Arable Land Hard Fefiuc, Crefted Dog s-tail, Grajfts. 3-23 duftive, confequently cannot be confidcred as in any way fit for a hay grafs.* It is faid by fome to be capable of thriving on any foil/ but bed on thofe of the light fpongy kinds, as it can live with lefs moidure than mod other grafTes. And it is afferted to be one of the excellencies of this grafs, that it will eftablifh itfelf upon fuch foils as fcarcely any other plant can be made to fucceed on ; being of courfe of much utility in covering barren fpots, that might otherwife have remained uncovered fora great length of time, -j- Ochers however obferve, that if it were fown on rich moid foils, the grades and other plants, which are natural to fuch lands and fituations, would foon overpower it, and in a very fhort time there would fcarcely be a blade remaining to be feen on the ground. And were it for the purpofe of fheep feed to be fown on the high down and heath lands, the animals would darve upon them in dry fummcrfeafons.+ Where a clofe matted turf, without a great produce, is required, it may, however, be found ufeful. Hard Fefcue.h This is an early and productive grafs with fine foliage, which OTOWS well on downs and rich meadows. It is well adapted for being combined with other grades in forming fheep padures ;|| and by fome it is faid to conditutc the bed hay. Mr. Saliiburyhas not found the fame fault in the culture of this o-rafs as is mentioned by Mr. Curtis, which is, that it is apt to become thin and almod difappears after a while; on the contrary, he finds it (lands the dried foil equal to any, gets matted together and forms a mod delightful turf in very dry weather. Crejled Dog s-tail Grafs.*; This is a g-rafs that has been much recommended as a favourite and wholefome food for flieep. It is found in the founded and bed padures, but grows bed in dry fituations, and will not thrive in meadows that are very moid. It flowers nearly at the lame time as the Meadow Fefcue Grafs, but is not very productive of foliage.** The appearance of its bents in poor, high, moid padures, fuggeds the idea of its being an indifferent plant. But its abound ing in mod of the riched grazing padures in different parts of the kingdom, and its being in fome the principal herbage, leads us to conclude that it is an ufeful grafs. ft As its flowering dems and heads are fcldom confumed by cattle, its feeds may be collected, where the padures are fed, with great facility ; and as they are abundant, may be gathered by children at about one milling the pound. * Anderfon s Eflays, vol. II. i Curtis s Obfervations, &c. + Curtis s Oblervations. ^ 1 cstuca (hiriusciila. || Sole in Bath Papers, vol. IX. 5[ Cynosnnts cristatus. * * Ibid. tt Young in Communications, &c. vol. III. and Marflmll s Rural Economy. Tt 2 :>4 Cultivation of Arable Land. Hay Grafs Nature of Soils proper for. Land may be laid down with it in a fuccefsful manner, if proper attention be beftowed in having the feed collected when fully ripe, as it has been known to fail on this account.* On the continent it is in high eftimation as a pafture grafs. \ From the fibrous nature of its roots, not admitting the running down much into the foil, there may be danger of its being deftroyed in dry fummer feafons. As ir abounds greatly in the bed paftures, and is a blade grafs that (hoots up the fir ft after the hnd has been mown, its thicker! tufts are faid to afford much food for fheep in the time of fnow and fevere weather in the winter feafon. Thofe who nrc not accuftomcd to diftinguifh the difference of gnfles with much accuracy, may, it is obferved, defpife it, as of an improper and ufelefs kind ; but the fheep and the ox, who rnuft be allowed better judges, will foon convince them of its importance. From the rapidity of its growth it may be apt to get coarfe, if not cut down more quickly than is often the cafe. The feed is fmall and fine, but may be obtained with much facility by paffing the ftem in a tight manner through the hand. It has been procured at fixpence the quart. % Ray or Rye Grafs.^ This is a fort of grafs that has been much in cultivation, but is deficient in fome of the properties neceffary for meadow or pafture lands. The objection on the fcore of its producing little more than flower-ftems or bents, is faid to be only found valid when it grows in upland paftures and dry fituations ; in rich moift meadow its foliage is more abundant ; and it feems probable that it is highly acceptable and nutritious in feeding cattle : its foliage is of rapid growth, the flowering ftems continually mooting forth. ^[ It is, however, a grafs that varies greatly, according to fituation and circumftances. It is beft adapted to the loamy and fandy defcriptions of foils ; but it will fuc- ceed on any except ftiffclay, and even on that it may be grown. On the richer forts of the two firft kinds of land, it frequently turns out both a good vernal and permanent pafture grafs when employed in due mixture with other forts ; and It is particularly fuited to be fed by iheep. It is not, however, fo early as fome of the grafles that have been defcribed above. This grafs, Mr. Salifbury fays, feems to chiefly afFect a loamy foil, is not very productive, but, being a ftrong perennial, has been much recommended: it flowers about the time of the hard fefcue, and is confidered good for fheep food ; and the butter made from paftures^ where it grows is generally efteemed excellent. * Young in Communications, &c. vol. III. and Marshall s Rural Economy, r Atti <li .Milano, vur. loc. J Goring in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. Ij Lolium pcremie. fl Curtis s Obfervations. Young in Communications to the Board, &C., vol. III. Pl.XIU COMMON HAY GRASS Xo fin HI >frr Cultivation of Arable Land. Ray Grafs Ncic rarictlcs of. :>25 Some of the varieties of this grafs, as thofe cultivared by Mr. I\-acry, arc faid to be much fuperior to the common kind, by thofe who have h.id great experience of them. Some cultivators fuppofe the reafon of its not producing a thick well-conneflcd fward in fome fituations is, that it is only fuited to lands that are in a rich and fertile condition, though it may be occafionally found in thofe of the contrary kind. It is, indeed, well obferved by an intelligent writer, that Cf when land is in a proper flate of manure, ray-grafs, united with white clover, will form a perfect fward the latter end of the fecond year after it is fown. A particular field, of about five acres, that was fown with thcfe two graffes only, was more perfectly grafted over than others, which had the addition of trefoil and rib grafs, and which were fown at the fame time. A neighbour of his, the only man in the country that had tried ray-grafs, told him it would not anfwer, and referred him to a par ticular field where fome had been fown. The fadl was, that he had cropped this field with oats, until it was no longer worth ploughing; and then, with his lad feed, he fowed ray grafs, which certainly did not flourifh. But his argument would have been equally conclufive againft any grafs or grain whatever. The ray-grafs languifhed, and, finally, died away, giving place to the vegetation fuited to the flate of the land. If it be expected that ray-grafs, or any other good grafs:, fhould thrive and produce abundant crops on exhaufted or poor land, it mull: not, he fays, be in the foil which occurs here.* The following remarks of the fame author are deferving of the notice of the cultivator : " On converting ray-grafs into hay, it is neceffary, he fays, to cut it at a period previous to its being fo ripe as to have perfected its feed, and change to a yellow colour; for in this cafe a great part of the juices of the plant, which conftitute a principal part of the nutriment it is to afford, will be converted into a fpecies of ftraw, and its nutritive properties be proportionably diminifhed. When it is made into hay, perfons not acquainted with its qualities are apt to object to its apparent coarfenefs, which proceeds from its confiding almoft entirely of flowering-ftems, the ray-grafs having a comparative fmaller pro^ portion of leaves than any other grafs. Whether this be a defect or a merit, will, he thinks, depend upon a folution of this queftion : Do the flems and flowering parts of grafs, or the leaves, taken weight for weight, contain the greater propor tion of nutriment ? It does not appear that this has been determined by experi-i raents inftituted for the purpofe ; but it feems probable, from the ftems being fo * Campbell in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. I1L 326 Cultivation of Arable Land. Ray Graft Properties of. much fvveeter than the leaves, (which is particularly perceptible upon chewing them when about half dry,) and from thofe vegetables which contain much fac- charine matter being particularly nutritious, that the greater proportionate quantity of nutriment will be found torefide in the ftalks ; and if fo, the advantages of ray- grafs will be decifivc. But, however" this may be, it is certain that, fuppofing wet weather comes on during the procefs of hay-making, the firft part of the grafs that decays is the leaf, which foon becomes yellow, and then black, lofing all preten- fions to nutritive properties ; in which cafe, it is evident that almoft the whole nutriment contained in the hay muft refide, excluiively, in the flowering ftalks. Ray-grafs then has, in unfavourable hay feafons, an advantage over all others, inafmuch as, from having fewer leaves, it is not fo apt to be injured by a continu ance of rain: and it is befides, when in the cocks, more acceflible to the air and wind, from lying more open and light ; and confequently not fo apt to heat and mould as other grafles in fimilar fituations and feafons." On the whole, he conceives that " it certainly poflefies the following valuable properties : i. That there are few grafles fo early in the fpring. 2. That there are none better relimed by cattle, or more nutritive. 3. That it has the power of .refifting the effe&s of bad weather, in ticklilh hay feafons, in a greater degree than other grafles. 4. That there is a greater facility in collecting its feed than of any other grafs." It is conceived that the prejudices againft it have arifen, i. < From its having been fown in land not capable of producing a full crop of any good vegetable. 2. From allowing it to moot up fo far as to have formed the feed in the flowering- ftalk, before cattle have been turned into pafture, or that it has been cut for hay. Ray-grafs appears to partake more of the nature of grain than any other grafs. Hence, when it has perfected itsfeed,it moots out no more ftalks,and but few leaves that feafon, as lord Kaimes hasjuftly obferved. Hence it is neceffary to turn cattle into a field of this grafs early in the fpring, and to keep it well under by a fufHcient quantity of flock ; in which cafe it will continue to put out frefh flowering ftalks and leaves during the whole feafon. 3. The hay, for the reafons juft afligncd, jfhould be cut before it becomes a mere draw. Common hay grafs, being cornpofed of grafles in various ftages of growth and ripenefs, admits of a greater latitude than a field of ray-grafs, becaufe many of them will generally be in a proper ftate for cutting, although others may have pafled their prime." The following fuels, adduced by this accurate obferver, fully eftablifh its nutri tive properties : "No hay, he fays, could be better relifhcd by his horfes than this was ; not a particle of it was wafted by them, or left in the rack ; no animals JiOlTGH COCKSFOOT f Z)<i ctifftis </ /out erafnf.j Cultivation of Arabic Land.-- Meadow fof I Grafi~*Kough Cock s foot Grafs. 327 could thrive, coat, or do their work better than they did, whilfl they had this ray grafs hay to take to. Never was there a greater contrail than when they were put to the natural hay-grafs of the country after they had finifhcd the other. They were literally flarved into the eating it ; and in fpiteof an additional quantity of corn they fell away (agreeably to his farming man s mode of exprefficn) a limba- piece. This year nothing can look better than his horfrs do upon this hay, (with which fome red clover is mixed), and this, with the addition of very little corn, and that moftly light, the tailings of oats and barley." Meadow Soft Grafs, or York/hire White.* It is common in meadows and paftures, and is hardy and productive of foliage, but flowers much later than the firfl of the above grafies : its foliage is foft and woolly.-)- It thrives beft on foils of the more moifl kinds ; but may be grown on almoft any that are not very dry and in poor condition; and even on thefe it is fomctimes met with. By fome cultivators it is chiefly advifrd to be made ufe of with a view to fheep paflure, as it has not been found equally good for other forts of flock. And it has been found to anfwer beft when kept very clofely fed4 It has been fuppofed ufeful for neat cattle, but very indifferent for horfes. It grows in a quick manner, and affords good fheep-feed in the winter feafon ; and would feem, from the following fact, to be much relifhed by live flock : on two fields being laid down adjoining each other, one with this grafs, and the other with rye-grafs (Loliu m perenne), the former was eaten much clofer than the latter, by the flock turned upon them.y Rough Cock s-foot Grafs.y This is a coarfe, rough grafs, but very hardy and productive. It is common in meadows ; and rather early.** Some condemn it as not only an indifferent grafs, but one that is often rejected by cattle/ft Others, however, on the authority of experience, confider it as highly valuable on moift loams where the bottom is of a clayey marl nature ; and in cafes where the grafTcs of a finer kind are liable to be overpowered and deftroyed by thofe plants that are common to the foil. When it is kept very clofely fed down, it conflitutes excellent paflurage for fheep j but when this is neglected, like many other grafles, * Holcus lanatus. \ Curtis s Pra&ical Obfervations. J Young in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. Ill* Marshall s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties. 1| Goring in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. I. 1F Dactylis glomerata. ** Curtis s Obfervations, &c. -ft Sole in Bath Papers, vol. IX. 32S Cultivation of Arable Land. Tall Oat GrafsMeadow Oafs-tail Grafs. it getsccarfe: iffown with red clover, in the proportion of two bufhels of the grafs feeds to ten pounds of the clover, it forms a better fward ; for as the latter wears out or difappears, the former re fumes its place, and lads better in the land. It is a grafs that vegetates better during the winter feafon than many others.* It affords much feed, and \vhich may be gathered at but little expenfe, as about four (hillings the bulhcl.f It has been found highly beneficial in affording an early feed for.mecp.J Tall Oat GY0/}.[ This is a grafs fometimes found abundantly in meadows. It is early, .coarfe, and productive; but affords a plentiful aftermath. In excellence it approaches the meadow fox-tail, for which it may, in many cafes, prove no indiffe- ,rent fubditute.|| It is cultivated on the continent with advantage. This, like the preceding grafs, is found the mod beneficial when retained in a el ofe date of feeding.** It makes good hay, and experiment has Ihown it to afford a greater weight of produce than mod other graffes.ft On the continent, in comparifon with common grafs, it is found to yield in the proportion of twenty to two.JJ Meadow Cat s-Tail Grafs, or Timothy. ^ This grafs fucceeds bed in moid foils and fituations,is very productive, but coarfeand late. It pofleffes no advantages over the meadow fox-tail. Itis the mod proper for clays, the moider kinds of loams, and thofe of the peat nature. When cultivated on moid loams with a fubdratum of the clayey marl defcription, it has been found on trial very ufeful, efpecially when kept clofely fed down by fheep.||j| According to the accounts of travellers in America, it conditutes the principal fupport of cattle and other animals, wherever the lands ape of the meadow kind. It affords plenty of feed, of which a bumel is faid by fome to be fufficient, when mixed with thofe of other forts, to fow four or five acres of land. They are capable of being procured in a perfectly clean date from America, in any proportion, at the eafy expenfe of about a guinea the bufhel.j. Hay-Seeds. Thefe are the feeds collected in hay-lofts and chambers, or frcm un der the dacks ; and mud of courfe be a mixture of the feeds of various forts of grades both good and bad, as well as of other forts of plants that may have been upon the * Young in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. t Ibid. ^ Young s Eaftcrn Tour, vol. I. ff Avena elatior. \\ Curtis s Practical Obfervations. ^ Annals of Agriculture. ** Youngin Communications, &c. vol. III. i f Swfiync s Gramina Pascua, Fol. edit. j; J Obf. Soc. de Bretagne pour 1 Annee 1759 *T5! Phlcumpratensc. ^Curtis s Practical Obfervations. HI) Young in Communications, &c. 4 Ibid. Dl TCHOT? WHITE ( 7,O17>:/i / j ti/i ftum rf/ fujt . J Cultivation of Arable Land. Farrow. White Clover. land from which the hay was taken. They mould confequently never be indifcrinoi - nately made life of in laying down lands to the (late of fward, as has been the r.cr> common practice. The only way in which they can beufed with propriety is, by {"elect ing them from the bed gralTes on the fields after their being cut down, and afterwards threfhing them out, as by this means the feeds of the bad and improper plants may avoid being mixed and blended with thofe that are valuable and of the proper forts. Another method has been advifed by an able practical cultivator, which is that of taking them from fuch old pafture meadow, or marfh lands, as abound in graffes of the beft kinds ; being careful that the foils from which they are taken be fimilar to thofe on which they are to be fown ; and inftead of cutting them at the com mon period of hay-time, to let them ftand till the yellow oat grafs begins to turn its colour, which being one of the lateft kinds, all the others will have attained perfection : they mould then be cut down, and afterwards thrcfhed out on a cloth in the field, or fccured to be threfhed in the winter feafon.* But in this way, with the greateft care, improper and ufelefs plants may often be propagated. There are other plants befides thefe that may be of great advantage in laying down lands to grafs, by the large quantity of herbage they produce, fuch as the following : Yarrow, f- This is a plant that fends forth a great abundance of leaves, which conftitute good herbage, and which are confumed with great avidity by cattle and fheep ; but from the flower-ftems being fometimes rejected, it has been too much neglected. It forms the principal herbage in many fine rich paftures, but where they are kept clofely fed down is but little perceived.;}. It is predominant on moiftjoamy foils, in nearly an equal degree as on thofe of the dry, burning, fandy, gravelly, or chalky kinds. It is of much utility in refilling the effects of drought in the molt dry, parched, clofe-fed lands ; often preferving the fpots where it prevails in a green (late, while others are burnt up and become quite brown. It is faid to anfvver well, when cultivated with a view to be fed by fheep. It is therefore a plant of much value, and which deferves greater attention than has hitherto been beftowed upon it. The feeds may be collected in October, without much diffi culty, and at the rate of about five millings the bufhel.|| White Clover.^ This has been greatly depended upon by moft cultivators, in bringing lands into a ftate of fward. It is an extremely ufeful plant on the more rich and dry, fandy and loamy foils, as well as in the clayey and peaty defcriptions * Boys in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II f. t Achilltza Millefolium. + Anclerfori s Efiays. $ Young in Communications, &c. vol. Ill, || Ibid. $ Trifolium repcns. VOL. II. U U 330 Cultivation of Arabic Land. White Clover. Cow-Graft. Trefoil. of land, where they have been well drained from moiflure ; but on the more wet and poorer forts of loamy and clayey lands, it is not by any means fo proper or ufeful, as it is not lading, but gives place to plants of the aquatic kind, as well as others of an indifferent defcription. It is fuppofed by fome not to afford fo fweet an herbage as broad clover or many other plants : with us it has, however, always been eagerly fed upon both by fhcep and neat cattle; and where clofely fed down, we have little doubt of its great utility. That which comes up naturally by the application of manure is faid to be much more hardy than that which is fown, as well as more lading in the foil.* It has been juftly remarked as a proof of good land, that it runs quickly, of its own accord, to this plant.t It may be intro duced with moft forts of feeds, and contribute greatly to the fuccefs of the cultivator. Mr. Salilbury thinks this an extremely ufeful plant, which makes good paftu rage and hay, but which thrives only in a loamy foil. It is frequently found wild in wafte lands where the foil is good ; and, in fact, he confiders it as a juft criterion to judge of the fertility of a foil by. In Suffolk and EfTex, according to the account of a late writer, it has been lately cultivated alone for feed with great advantage, affording according to the difference of price from feven pounds to fifteen pounds the acre ; the firfl crop in this cafe being feeded which is contrary to the practice with red clover. Some, however take a fpring feeding firfl. Cow- Graf . !*. This is ufually known to farmers, under the title of Marl Grafs. It is faid to be a more lading plant than the common red clover. On clayey foils and loamy ones of the ftrongcr kind, it is found to fucceed to the greateft cer- rainty. And its cultivation his been attempted on thofe of the fandy defcription, with fuch fuccefs as to afford good crops. [| The feed can always be procured with facility. It is faid to fucceed well on all the heavier forts of foil, and to be of great utility when fown with other graffes, where the lands are to remain in the (late ofgrafs.fr Ir is recommended to be fown on the flone-bralh lands, in large proportions, with other forts of clover, by an intelligent cultivator.** TrefoiL~\-\ This is another plant which is capable of fucceeding on foils of different kinds. It may be objected to as being only a biennial; but as it annually flieds * Goring in Communications, &c. vol. III. + Young in Communications, &c. + TnJi-Uum medium. Young in Communications, c. Corrected Report of JUncoinftiire, U Sir John Sinclair in Communications, &e. **Jb uh i t McdiwQ hiultna. TREFOIL OR .PL..X\ r i VaL-l.p.836 Cultivation of Arable Land. Rib Grafs or Plantain Varieties of. 53 1 much feed, it is faid to feldom wear out of the lands on which it is eftablifhcd. This plant is often difHnguifhed by the titles of Noncfuch, Yellow Clover , &c. As it is always of much importance to the farmer to have the land he lays down for pafture to produce an ample crop the firft year ; and as there are fome grafTes or plants which require two or three years to eftablifii themfelves, and acquire their perfect growth, while others arrive at their extreme growth and expanfion the firll year after they are fown j fome of the latter fort fhould be chofen, among which trefoil will be found highly valuable. This proves the advantage of mixing it with other fown graffes. Some think the quantity of four pounds of trefoil feed to the acre is too fmall ; and intend in future either to double it or add as much red clover feed, which may be more proper. In this quantity, it is fuppofed, they will not injure the other grafs feeds fown at the fame time, but furnim a copious vegetation until the others come to perfection, at which period both the trefoil and red clover have a natural tendency to difappear or wear out.* The feed may be readily pro. cured, and without much expence. It has likewife been found to anfwer on the (lone-bram foils by Mr. Davies.f On chalky, and all the drier forts of foil it is recommended as proper and beneficial. J Bird s-foot Trefoil. This has been found ufeful for cultivation in meadows which are inclined to moifture, as growing to a great height, and affording good hay, It is cultivated in Hercfordfirire as pafturage for fheep.j] Rib Grafs or Rib-wort Plantain. This is a plant much relimed by neat cattle and horfes j and on grounds that are rather foft and porous, as fands and loams, it good heart, and which have a tendency to moifture, it affords a large produce of herbage ; but on thofe that are very dry and binding, its produce is but fcanty.^ But on thefe it is afTerted to anfwer for meep-pafture, though inferior to others.** It has been long eftabliihed in fome diftricts, where it is in much efteem for fheep- feed, but from its fueculent nature improper for hay.|f According to a late writer, it feems a good plant for thickening the bottom of the grafs. Cattle are faid to have a diflike to it, by fome ; but certainly the flo wer- ing-ftems are here eagerly eaten by all forts of flock. It is early in flower, and flourimes particularly in mofs lands that have been drained in a perfect manner.^ It affords feed in great plenty. The Grafs-leaved Plantain \\ \\ is alfo a plant ca pable of being employed with advantage in the laying down lands to pafture, It is faid to fucceed on barren foils and clays. It has the property of refitting the * Campbell in Communications to the Board, &c. t Ibid. J Boys in Ibid. {) Withering s Botanical Arrangement. Plantago lanceolata. 1f Anderfon s Efiays, vol. II. ** Ibid, ft Marflwll s Rural Economy of Yorkfhirc. JJ Ibid. U|| Plantago tenuifolia. UU2 334 Cultivation of Arable Land. Burncl SeedTime of -clFecls of the fra air, and, as growing well on land liable to be covered with fait water, may be a valuable plant in fuch forts of ground. Its leaves, from their fmallnefs, have the appearance of the thicker and better forts of grafs. Both cattle, fheep, and horfes, feed upon its leaves with much greedinefs, but particu larly fheep, which pare it as clofe as poffible.* It affords much feed, which is capable of being eafily collected. Burnet.-\- This is a plant which has a perennial root that ftrikes deep into the foil, with a (talk a foot or more in height. Though the utility of it as a field grafs has been difputed by feme, it is mown by the repeated trials of others, that it may be had recourfe to with much advantage on fuch foils as are fuited to its growth. Seed. In the culture of the plant it is of vafl importance to have good feed, and that which is of the proper fort. It may be the belt procured by felecling a part where the plants are good, as they afford it in a large proportion. Where the land is intended as a fhcep-pafture it fhould befown broadcaft over the ground ; but in other cafes it admits of being cultivated in drills, in the fame manner as lucern. The proportion of feed which is neceffary is moftly about one bufhel to the acre. Time of /owing. The moft proper feafon for fowing this fort of grafs feed is in the early fpring, as in April ; in which cafe it is ufually fown with barley or oats, being covered in by two harrowings. It may likewife be fown in May with buck-wheat with much propriety. It has alfobeen fuggefled that it may befown; fo late as the latter end of July or beginning of the following month on land that has failed for turnips. Itanfwers very well when mixed with Ray-grafs or Cock s- foot grafs feeds in the proportion of one bufhel of either of them to three pecks of the Burnet feed. After-management. It requires but little attention after k has been put into the foil, except being kept clean, till the periods of its being mown, when left for that purpofe, which is in July, when care mould be taken in cutting it, as the feed is liable to fhed. It mould be threflied out in the field, where it can be done with convenience, in the fame way as cole feed ; the ftraw being made into hay . After, it has been mown for feed or a fecond crop of hay, the ftock fhould be kept from it during the whole of the autumn and winter, that there may be a full bite for flieep in March, which i& its peculiar advantage, and the circumftance upon which, its utility in a great meafure depends. Under the contrary management it is much, ,kfs beneficial. * Anderfqn s .Eflays, vol. II.. t Polerium sang.nise.rba,. Cultivation of Arable Land* Arrangement of Grafts, for different Soils. S33 It is a plant that may be cultivated for cattle ; but its principal ufe is, as has been feen, for fheep paftu rage. It fucceeds on moil forts of foils, as thofe of the fandy, clayey, and peaty kinds. It is aflerted to form a large proportion of the natural parturage of cxten five tracks on the moft fertile parts of the South Downs; and it abounds much on moft other downs of the chalky kind.* Its moft benefi cial application is in the way of an early green feed for ftaeep, or other forts of ftock. It mould be always made ufe of while in its more young and tender ftate of growth, as being better relifhed by the animals. In foils that are fertile and fuited to its cultivation, it is faid, under proper management, to fometimes afford good pafturage in the latter end of January, and through the whole of the two fol lowing months. The fevere weather in winter affedls it lefs than moft other her baceous plants, being fo hardy as in fome cafes to vegetate in that feafon, when the weather is a little open. If not fed down, it may be cut at the above period as a green food for animals. Its property of refilling the effects of drought in the fummer feafon, is likewife a circumftance of much importance in its favour. It has alfo the quality of getting thicker and more clofe on the land by time.f For the purpofe of hay it is a plant that is faid to afford a large produce, but which requires to be cut rather early, to prevent its coarfenefs. The feed is faid to be of much advantage in the feeding of horfes, and alfo the chaffy material. % There are many other plants, both of the tare or vetch and fvveet pea, as well as other forts, that are faid to have been found highly valuable, efpccially when kept clofely fed down by cattle; but the trials that have yet been made with them arc much too few to allow us to fpeak of them in this place. The different field-grafles and herbaceous plants which have been defcribed above, may be arranged and found ufeful in refpect to foil, allowing for particu lar circumftances, fomewhat in the following order : for Clayey Soils. Marl or Cow Grafs ; Rough Cock s-foot Grafs ; Crefted Dog s- tail j Meadow Fefcue Grafs ; Meadow Fox-tail Grafs ; Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs ; Tall Oat Grafs ; Trefoil ; Meadow Soft Grafs, or Y orklhire White ; Mea dow Cat s-tail or Timothy Grafs. Loamy Soils.- White Clover; Ray or Rye Grafs ; Meadow Fefcue Grafs ; Mea dow Fox-tail Grafs; Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs ; Poa or Common Meadow Grafs ; Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkftiire White ; Meadow Cat s-tail or Timothy Grafs; Smooth-ftalked Meadow Grafs; Sheep s Fefcue Grafs ; Hard Fefcue Grafs; Yarrow, and Lucern. * Young in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. t Annals of Agriculture, vol, XXJ. * Ibid, 3.14 Cultivation of Arable Land. Arrangement ofGrqffes* Sandy Soils. White Clover ; Ray or Rye Graft ; Meadow Soft Grafs, or York- (hire White ; Sweet-fccnted Vernal Grafs; Sheep Fefcue Grafs ; Yarrow; Bur. net ; Trefoil ; Rib Grafs. Chalky Soils. Yarrow; Burnet; Trefoil; White Clover ; Saintfoin. Peaty Soils. White Clover ; Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs ; Rough Cock s-foot Grafs ; Rib Grafs ; Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire White; Ray or Rye Grafs ; Meadow Fox-tail Grafs ; Meadow Fefcue Grafs ; Meadow Cat s-tail or Timo thy Grafs. Conliderable latitude mufi:, however, be allowed in the ufe of thefe, both on account of the variations of foil, and the differences in the dates of preparation in t he lands, as well as the convenience or difficulty of procuring the feeds of them. Early Herbage. In this point of view they may alfo Hand fomewhat in the fol lowing manner ;* Sweet-fcented Vernal Grafs ; Meadow Fox-tail Grafs ; Smooth- (talked Meadow Grafs ; Rough-Hal ked Meadow Grafs ; Tall Oat Grafs ; Rough Cock s-foot Grafs ; Hard Fefcue Grafs ; Burnet ; Rib Grafs ; Ray Grafs ; Tre foil ; Broad-leaved Clover. Abundant Produce. In this refpect the following order may perhaps be proper t Ray Grafs; Tall Oat Grafs; Broad Clover ; Burnet; Meadow Cat s-tail Grafs ; Meadow Fox -tail Grafs. Too few experiments have yet been made with regard to the differences in the feeding properties of different grafies, to afford any correct arrangement of them in that view ; yet, as didenfion, as well as the nutrient principle, is requifite in the fupport and fattening of all animals, it may not be improbable but that thofc grafies or other plants that abound in fweet-jointed (terns, and at the fame time afford much foliage, may be the mod nutritious. The fuperior utility of thofc graffes that run much to (tern, as well as of broad clover, tares, and other (imilar plants, in the fupport of different forts of flock, feem to countenance the fuppofl- tion. And it is probably on the fame principle that the firft crops of hay are better capable of fupporting work-horfes than thofe which arifc from the foft laxative herbage of the aftermath. Grafs-Seed. As mod of the bed grafs-feeds may now either be purchafed in the feed-mops, or be eafily obtained in the manner that has been mentioned above, there will of courfe be much lefs difficulty in laying down land with proper jgraffes than was formerly the cafe. * Curtis** Praftical Obfervations, Cultivation of Arable Land. Grafs-Seeds Proportion of neceffary^ 335 In refpedl to the proportion of feed that may be the mod proper and advan tageous under different c ire urn (lances, it muft depend in a great meafure vpon the nature of the foil, the fituation of the land, the (late of preparation to which it has been brought, and the intentions of the cultivator in its application. But old til lage lands will in general require a much larger proportion of feed than thofc which have been more recently broken up.* Cold expofed fituations alfo (land in need of a greater quantity of feed than thofe that are low and warm; and where the lands are defigned for pafture a larger proportion than where hay is the prin cipal obj eel:. Clayey Soils. On thefe fome advife the following proportions as the moft pro per : Marl or Cow Grafs, fibs.; Trefoil, fibs. ; Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs, iolbs. ; Meadow Fefcue Grafs, one bufhel ; Meadow Fox-tail Grafs, one bufhel. And where the three laft cannot be procured, Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire White, twobufhels; Meadow Cat s-tail or Timothy Grafs, 4lbs. : or Meadow Cat s- tail or Timothy Grafs, 4lbs. ; and Yorkfhire White, one bufhel. f Others recommend, on the heavy forts of lands that are to be broken up in a year or two, from ten to fourteen pounds of red clover; but where they are to remain in permanent grafs, Marl or Cow Grafs from 4lb$. to 61bs., and White Clover 4lbs. J Loamy Soils.*- Thefe are fuppofed to require the following proportions by fome experienced cultivators: White Clover, fibs. ; Crefted Dog s-tail, jolbs. ; Ray Grafs, one peck ; Meadow Fefcue Grafs, three pecks; Meadow Fox-tail, three pecks ; Yarrow, two pecks. Or where the fecond cannot be had, Ray Grafs, one peck ; Rib Grafs, 4lbs. ; and in the room of the laft three, Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfhire White, half a bufhel ; Meadow Cat s-tail or Timothy Grafs, 4lbs. ; Marl or Cow Grafs, fibs.} There are others, however, that advife, on all dry foils, White Clover, 4lbs. ; Marl or Cow Grafs, from 4 to 61bs. ; and of Hop or Yellow Clover, from 2 to 4lbs. And for permanent pafture it is the practice of an intelligent farmer in Dcvonfhire to fow White Clover, Marl or Cow Grafs, and Hop or Yellow Clover in the quantity of each from 61b. to 7lbs. with the beft Ray Grafs, in the propor tion of one bufhel. In this method a conftant fucceffion of food is fuppofed to be preferved for five or fix months in the year ; as the Hop Clover and Rye Grafs flourifh in the early part of the fpring, the Marl or Cow Grafs being in perfection * Sir John Sinclair in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. I Young in CommoBtcirtMM to the Board, c. vol. III. + Ibid. ^ Ibid. 336 Cultivation of Arable Land. Grafs-Seeds Proportion of neceffary. in about the middle of fummer, when the former begins to difap pear, and the White Clover becomes in its perfect: ftate a month or fix weeks later, continuing through the reft of the fcafon.* On fuch loams as have a fubftratum of the ftone-brafh kind, it is recommended by an experienced agricukor to fow per acre : of Ray Grafs, one bufhel ; Marl or Cow Grafs, lolbs. ; White or Dutch Clover, 3lbs. ; Hop Clover or Trefoil, rib.t Without difcriminating the particular kind of foil, Dr. Wilkinfon, who has had much experience, recommends the ufe of White Clover in the proportion of j 2lbs. Broad Clover, Trefoil, and Rib Grafs, of each 4lbs. Sandy Soils. On this defcription of land the following proportions have been found by fome the moft ufeful : White Clover, jibs.; Trefoil, 5lbs. ; Burnet, 61bs. ; Ray Grafs, one peck ; Yarrow, one bulhel ; or inftead of the laft, Rib Grafs, 4lbs. ; Ray Grafs, one peck.J But on the fame forts of foil other experienced agricultors only make ufe o-f White Clover and Trefoil in the proportion of 5lbs. each, with a bufiiel of Ray Grafs, and about an equal quantity of collected grafs-feeds to the ftuute acre. As grades even in the richer forts of lands of this nature are liable to be much injured by the moifture being too quickly conveyed away in the fummer feafbn, it would feem proper to put in a full proportion of feeds in all cafes. On the poorer and thinner forts, the quantities recommended in the above cafes may often be aug mented, efpecially in the Burnet and Ray Grafs, with advantage. Chalky Soils. Thefe are found to fucceed with the following quantities : Burnet, lolbs. ; Trefoil, 5lbs.; White Clover, ^Ibs. ; Yarrow, one bufhel ; or in its place, Ray Grafs, one bufhel. || On this defcription of foil, Mr. Boys, an intelligent cultivator of much experience, advifes Rib Grafs, gibs. ; White Dutch Clover, and Marl or Cow Grafs, each 4lbs. ; and Yellow Trefoil, 4lbs. He alfo fpeaks highly of the ufe of Saintfoin in fuch cafes. And as in this, as well as the preceding foil, the grades are apt to be injured by the heat of the fummer ieafon, the land (hould conftantly be well flocked with grafs plants. Peaty Soils. In this fort of land the proportions of feed advifed below are found to fucceed well by fome : White Clover, lolbs. ; Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs, lolbs. ; * Sir John Sinclair in Communications to the Board, &c. + Davis in Ibid. [ Young in Communications, &c. ^ Grecnall in Communications to the Board, &c, vol. Ill, tl Young in Communications to the Board, &c. Cultivation of Arable Land. Grafs-Seeds Proportion of neccflary. 337 Ray Grafs, one peck; Meadow Fox-tail Giafs, two ditto, Meadow Fefcue Grafs, two ditto ; Cat s-tail or Timothy Grafs, one ditto : or in the places of the fecond, fourth, and fifth, Meadow Soft Grafs, or Yorkfture White, fix pecks : Rib Grafs, 5lbs. ; Marl or Cow Grafs, 4lbs.* An able and experienced agricultor thinks it a matter of the greateft importance, that a full quantity of feeds Ihould be fown in all cafes where the land is intended for pafturage.f In the laying down land for the purpofe of good Meadows, the following propor tions of thefe different grafs feeds have been recommended per acre, for lands that are of the moifter kind : Meadow Fox-tail grafs, and Meadow Fefcue Grafs, each two pecks and a half; Rough-ftalked Meadow Grafs and Smooth- (talked Meadow Grafs, each a peck and a half; Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs and Sweet-fcented Vernal Grafs, each three quarters ofa peck ; White or Dutch Clover, and Wild Red Clover or Broad Clover, each one peck and a quarter. Where the grounds are much in clined to moifture, the Crefted Dog s-tail Grafs and Smooth-ftalked Meadoxv Grafs may be left out. Thefe are faid to foon form a good turf ; and, from their being hardy perennials of vigorous growth, are not liable to be overpowered by the coarfe indigenous plants of fuch lands. j In lands which are to be conducted under a convertible fyftem of corn and grafs, it will in moft cafes be the mod advifable practice to fow feeds of the artificial grafs kind, as Broad Clover, Saintfoin, &c., according to the nature of the foil, with thofe of White Clover, Ray Grafs, and fome others. In cafes where the lands are to be kept in a permanent (late of fheep pafture, though it has been advifed by fome to have recourfe to the finer forts of grafles, it is probably a matter of lefs importance than has been commonly fuppofed, as the coarfer forts, when in a (late of fufficiently clofe feeding, become gradually finer and better ; but in order to produce this effect in the fulleft manner, they mould conftantly be fo eaten down, as to prevent any of the feed-ftems from advancing. The Tall Oat Grafs, the Cock s-Foot Grafs, and the Meadow Soft Grafs, have, under this fort of management, become fufficiently fine, and the fame effect has long been known to be produced on Rye Grafs, by the clofe eating of it down by animals. Time and method of Jawing. In accomplifhing thefe different operations, different modes are pradifed according to the manner of preparation and the particular cir- * Young in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. t Wilkinfon in Communications to the Board, Sec. vol. III. J Curtis s Praftical Observations. VOL. II. XX .358 Cultivation of Arable Laud. Cf raft-feeds* Time ana Method of f cumftances of the land. In refpect to the firft, or the periods of putting in the grafs feeds ; the mod ufual has been in the fpring, at the time that the grain crops are fown : but where the ground has been brought to a fuitable ftate of prepara tion by means of green or other fallows, the latter end of the fummer, as about Auguft, has been the more general feafon. In the former cafe they are commonly put in with the grain crops ; but in the latter, without any other fort of crop. There has been much divcrfity of opinion among agricultural writers with regard to theiuperior utility of thefe different feafons of introducing the feeds, as well as with regard to their being fown with or without other forts of crops. The advan tages of the autumnal over thofc of the vernal fo wings are contended to be : thofe of the grafs pflants being lefs expofed to danger from the fhade, clofenefs, and choking that muftneceflarily occur at the latter feafon ; there being lefs rifle of flocking the ground with noxious weeds in cafe of the feeds of hay chambers being indifcriminately fown ;* their being put in upon a better preparation and more mellow and fertile ftate of the land ; their growth being more ftrong and vigorous from their not being robbed of their proper nourifhment by other exhaufting crops, .and the great fuperiority of the hay produce : while on the contrary it is main, taincd in fupport of the vernal fo wings, that belides their being lefs precarious, ihade is neceffary in the early growth of the grafs plants to protect them from the effects of heat ; the moifture is better preferved in the foil for their fupport ; ikiall annual weeds more effectually prevented from rifing to injure them ; and the lofs the farmer mult fuftain from the want of the grain crop guarded againft.f But though fome of the arguments urged on bath fides of this controverted point may be objected to, the autumnal fowings not preventing the perennial weeds from rifing and fhedding their feeds in the following fummer, nor the great clofenefs of grain crops being without injury to the growth of the young grafs plants; there are facts that render it not improbable but that each method may have advantages under particular circum (lances. In the more fouthern diftricts, where the feverity of the winter feafon is later in its approach, the autumnal feafon may frequently be * Clofe in Communications to the Board, Sec. vol. III. It is remarked by this author, that " sowing rubbifli in Auguft is not of fo great importance as in the fpring. In the former feafon all the annual feeds vegetate, and if the beginning of the winter be mild, they will blolTorn; but they cannot perfect their feed and the firft froft deftroys them. If fown in the fpring they vegetate, bloflbm, perfe& and fhed, their feeds, and thus ftock the land with noxious weeds. The fads he has ftated muft,he fays, do way the objections to fowing rubbifli. It is immaterial, he thinks, what you fow, if you do but obtain an abundant crop, and leave your land clean and in good order." t Anderfon s Eflayj, vol. J. Cultivation of Arable Land. Grafs-Seeds. Time and JfeiJiod&f facing. made ufe of with advantage, after fallow crops, for fowing grafs feeds, efpecially in cafes where the lands are in too rich a condition for the fuccefsful gro\?th of corn. But in the more northern parts of the kingdom, and expofed fituatlons, where the frofls fet in at an early period, it may be in general the moft advifable practice to put the feeds in, in the vernal months, with fuitable crops of the grain kind. An intelligent writer of much experience has indeed obferved, that grafs feeds an fwer almoft equally well in either method ; he prefers the Auguft fowing without corn, though the fuocefs of his trials in the different feafons has not juftified any dcci- live conclufion.* It is even admitted that in moory and mountainous fituations,, where the fnows come early, autumnal fowings are not advifable, or to be perform ed later than the very early part of Auguft; the vernal feafon with oats for being cut young for foiling, or hay, is conftantly to be preferred. Mr. Dalton, in; Yorkmire, after trying other methods, recommends^ the autumn without corn as< the mod advifable. And the Reverend Mr. Clofe Hates that " a friend of his,wi(h- ing to procure a good meadow or pafture around his houfe, fallowed the land for barley; but the fpring proving wet, and the foil being a ftrong loam, he could only put half of it in order for that crop, which was fown, .and laid with clover and rye grafs. The other part was fallowed, and fown in Auguft with the fweep-- ings of hay chambers. The barley was a good crop, and the clover and rye grafs; were probably equal to the firft year s cut of hay. The fecond year the artificial : gralfes began to fail ; worfe the third, fourth, and-fifth : the fixth year, after hav ing received two dreflings, the fpontaneous product of the foil began to give a fleece over the furface of the land. About ten years after thefe lands were fown; Mr. Clofe faw this field, when the part fown in Auguft was worth at leaft fifteen: Shillings per acre more than the part which had been fown with artificial grafles in the barley. Thus from adual experiments, numbers of which he could adduce,. he concludes that fowing the fweepings of hay chambers in Auguft is preferable to fowing artificial graffes in the fpring with any crop of corn. Suppofe, fays he, the corn worth five pounds per acre, the difference in the produce in hay or feed in the fecond, third, fourth, and fifth years would more than counterbalance this ; and the proprietor would find a permanent improvement in his land of from fifteen Ihillings to twenty millings per acre." On comparative experiments being made with corn in the. fpring months, and i without.it in Auguft, the latter was found by much the beft mode by different? cultivators.f * Rev. Mr. Young in Communications to the Board, &c. vo i III. t Mr. Lyeftcr ii> Lincolnftiirej and M. Burgoyne, Efq. in Aannls. of Agriculture, vol. X X 2 340 Cultivation of Arable Land- Graft- Seeds Time and Method of fowing. But in the experiment of an accurate agricultor, mentioned by the Rev. Mr. Young,* in comparing different methods of vernal fowings, in which four acres were fown with feeds alone, on peas and buck-wheat ploughed in the preceding autumn; five acres with barley; and five more with the feeds put in alone with out corn or manure: the portions fown alone were overrun with weeds, and only preferved from being fmothered and destroyed by being eaten down by a dairy of cows. Others, after repeatedly trying the experiment of fowing in the fpring with corn and the autumn without, and from long and exteniive practice, conclude, " that, even if we were to have no regard to any other circumftance except thegrafs crop alone, it would always be beft to fow it with fome kind of grain; but when we confider likewife the lofs that the farmer thus fultains for want of a crop of grain; the practice of fowing alone muft be looked upon as highly pernicious to the farmer."-) It is probably in this laft refpect that the grcatcft difadvantage of the practice confiftsjas without it the farmer can derive no immediate recompence for his great expenfe of tillage and preparation of the land. Where the vernal fowing with other forts of crops is had recourfe to, barley is that which is the moft ufually recommended, and " there feems to be no queftion, that barley is in general the fitted grain to be fown with grafs-feeds. The fame tilth which anfvvers for the one is requifite for the other. Barley has a difpofi- tion to loofen the texture of the ground in which it grows; a circumftance highly favourable to the vegetation of grafs-feeds, which require a free and open foil to ex tend their roots in; the tender and delicate fibres of which have much difficulty in contending with the refiftance of a ftubborn foil. And this points out the reafon why grafs-feeds fo frequently fail on ftrong land not in a proper ftate of cultivation. Jn the choice of barley, that fort mould be preferred which runs le;>ft to ftraw and which is the fooneft ripe.J" But as from the grafly nature of the Stem, and the large fize of the ear in this fort of grain, a considerable degree of clofenefs and Shade muft constantly be kept up, it Should never be fown fo thickly as in other cafes where there are no grafs-feeds. Some object to fowing grafs-feeds with barley on other principles as thofe of its drawing its nourimment from the furface, which is alfo the cafe with the grafs plants, and that in confequence they muft be greatly retarded in their growth from the want of due fupport. Where the land is in a * Mr. Dixon of Belfoni. t An-.krfbn s Effays, vol. I. t Curtwrigltt in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. | Dalton in Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Grafs-Seeds* Time and Method of Sowing. 34, 1 proper Hate of preparation and tillage, if fown with oars, they will be apt to become fo luxuriant as to greatly injure, if not wholly deftroy, the young grafs- plants by the clofenefs of their (hade.* In fome cafes they, however, fuccced tole rably with this fort of crop. On the ft ranger kinds of land thefowing of grafs- Teeds, has been found to anfvver well with thin crops of beans. In an experiment of this kind, Mr. Dalton found that the beans did not " rob, but flickered and .nouriftied," the grafs -plants, the plan anfwcring beyond his expectations. The importance of having the furface mould in a fine ftate in order to the more regular distribution and more perfect vegetation of the grafs-fecds, has been already noticed. But to effect thefe purpofes in the moft complete manner, the fcedfman fhould be accuftomed to the bufmefs, and the feeds, as being of different weights, as little mixed with each other as poffible. It is much better to have more cafts than to blend the feeds together for the fake of difpatch. For all the finaller forts of feeds, it has been fuggefted as preferable to deliver them by means of the Nor folk turnip trough, which has lately been adapted to clover and ray grafs. t This operation fhould always be performed as foon after the land has been plough ed as poffible, as under fuch circumftances the feeds vegetate in a much more quick and vigorous manner. But it fhould never be attempted in fuch a wet ftate of the land as produces any great degree of tenacity or adhefivenefs in the mould, as in fuch circumftances the feeds would be apt to come up in a tufty un equal manner. Nor for the fame reafon fhould the lighter forts of grafs-feeds ever be fovvn in windy weather; as the delivering them in an equal and regular manner is a point ofconfequence to the forming of good grafs-land. In the co vering in of the feeds, care mould be taken that none are left in an expofed ftate on the furface of the ground, as when that is the cafe many of them will be deftroyed or picked up by birds, and the fward appear patchy. This bufinefs is executed in the moft complete manner by a pair of light ftiort-tined harrows at one tining. The practice of employing bufli harrows is improper, as in that way the feeds are liable to be drawn into lumps. In all the lighter and more fpongy defcriptionsof land, it may be advantageous to pafs a light roller over the furface immediately af ter the feeds have been well harrowed in. In cafes where the tenants and not the proprietors of the lands are to lay them down to grafs, it may be the moft advifable practice for the latter to procure the feeds ; but at the expence of the former ; efpecially where they have a fufficient intereft in fuch lands, as, without this precaution, from their general propensity * Clofe JH Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. $ Youog in Ibid. 3-^2 Cbftvaation tf Arable Land. After-management of new Grafs Lands*. ro keep the grounds irnder the plough, and their indifference in refpect to the ob taining of the tnoft proper forts of feeds, there may be danger of the bufinefs being impropely performed,* Afta -management of new Grafs Lands. This is a matter of confiderabie im portance, and upon which much of the fuccefs of forming good grafs land depends, As foorcas the crop with which the feeds have been fown has been removed, it 3s advifed by fome to have recourfe to rolling the land with a moderately heavy roller, when it is in fuch a ftatc of drynefs as juft to admit the impreflion of the implement rt as by this means, from the mould being preffed clofely about the roots of the plants, their early growth may be much benefited, and the danger of drought prevented. The practice is, however, the moft necefTary in the more light and porous defcriptions of land. Others likewife recommend the applica tion of manure at this period, in order to promote the growth and fupport of the young grals-plants; |; but this would feem quite unneceffary when the mode of pre paration that has been juft defcribed has been attended to. As the furface of fuch grounds as have been newly laid down to the (late of fward is, from the previous tillage which they require, extremely tender, and readily broken into holes for fome time even in the drier defcriptions of land, the turning in of cattle with the view of feeding them down muft in moft cafes be highly prejudicial by the treading which they caufe. The bell practice is therefore probably to fuffer no fort of ftock to be put upon fuch lands till the fpring after their being laid down ; or where the farmer finds itabfolutely neceflary to turn- upon the lands, the lighted fort of ftock fhould conftantly be felected for the pur- pofe. It has been obferved that the advantage of feeding fuch lands during the autumn and winter feafons is fcarcely a matter of any confequence, as the fpring feed for Iheep, where it is omitted, is of fo much greater utility, a very early paf- turage being in this way afforded for ewes and lambs.|| As to the advantages in the fucceeding management that may be had recourfe to, in different cafes and circumftances, there is much contradiction in the opi nions of different experienced cultivators, fome maintaining the fuperiority of keeping the ground clofely fed down by fheep or neat cattle, while others conceive mowing or feeding as preferable. There feems little reafon to doubt but that feed- * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, var. loc. vol. III.. + Cartwright and Maxwell in Ibid. + VVilkinfon in Ibid. Maxwell in Ibid, tl. Young in-Coramunications.to the Boardj. &c. Vetithaikn of Arulle, Land. Af4vr~man<i*cmctil of aw frr .//> Lands, .04,:? ing by fome fort of Hock is a much better practice than thofe of ckhcr mowing or feeding ; thcchicfdifficulty is in rcfpccl to the fort of Heck that is the mo ft proper. On the more dry and firm forts of ground a mixed Hock may be the mod advatv- tageous, as neat cattle and fheep, as in that way the new pafture may be f d dowii in the mod regular manner ; but on thofe that are of a more open, porous, ami Jefs firm quality, fhcep, by their eating fo clofdy, may do much harm, cfpecially in the firft years of the new lay, by pulling up the youngand imperfectly eftablifhexl grafs-plants. Several inftanccs ofthis kind we have noticed in fuch foils. In lands that are more inclined to moifturc, the con fuming ofthe produce by neat cattle muft conftantly be liable to do mifchief, except in very dry feafons ; they mufl of courfe be principally fed down by fheep. And in all cafes where the new lay is chief! v y conftituted of the morecoarfe forts of graffes, fhecp would feem to be the moil oro^ per kind of (lock, as the graflesare thereby conflantly becoming more fine and Aveer. Many facts of this nature have been noticed by cultivators. The fwectr.cfs of the paflurage on many fheep downs has been remarked to depend more on their being krpt clofe fed down than any other circumftance, as on being neglected in this re- fpect it becomes coarfe, and is rejected.* It has been well obferved, indeed, that; <f fheep-feeding not only ameliorates by enriching the foil, and fining the herbage, but alfoby destroying weeds. "f We have been affured by a very extenfive and experienced cultivator in Somerfetfhire, that under this fort of management, not only many coarfe grafTes but other forts of plants become fine, and eargely fed upon by animals. Doctor Wilkinfon, who has been much in the habit of comparing different prac tices, advifcs the grazing conftantly with fheep, and for the firfl fix years never t permit the fcythe to touch the lays. And the Reverend Mr. Young has well obfer ved, that it is not merely the firft year that feeding with fheep is the beft pradice on new lays, but it may be fo managed the fecond, and if it extend to the third it is the better : and though there is not any neceffity for adhering to it any longer, k has been found to anfwer well in his practice, four, five, or even fix years ; and in general he thinks it may be concluded, that the more the land is fed with fheep, the greater the improvement will be. But in this management the improverifhing ab- furd fyftem of removing the animals to be folded in other places, is not to be had recourfe to. It has been long the practice in many diftricls with the moft improved cultivators* Agricultural Reports of Wiltfhire and Stirlingfhire. i Young in Communication* to the Board) Ice. -vol. IIL 344 Cultivation of Arable Land. After-management of new Grafs Lands. to have recourfe to the method of fheep-feeding for fome time after laying the lands down to grafs,as two years or more.* And where ray grafs and white clover are in tended to remain fome years, it is found, by fome, advantageous toeat them thefirfl year by fheep,in doling, thickening, and rendering them more permanent. f Thefe facts are all in evidence of the great propriety and utility of the practice of feeding new grafs lands. It mufl however be obferved, that in order to render the practice as fafe and beneficial as poffible,the new lays fhould not be fed during the autumn, or the flock turned into them at too early a period in the fpring. Nor mould they be too heavily flocked, or the flock kept in the paflures too long, efpecially when it confifts principally of fheep, as they may do much harm by paring and eating the plants fo clofely down, as immediately to kill them, or expofe their roots too much to the deflructive effects of drought. And in cafes where the grafTes have run up much to flem, if the lands be fufficiently Mocked with pl.mts, it may be an ufeful method to cut them over by means of a flrong fey the before their feeds are formed, as by this means they will become more ftrong and vigorous : but in the contrary circumflances, they are better left for the purpofe of providing a more abundant fupply of young grafTes, as the benefit obtained in this way will more than counter balance the injury fuflained by the running up of the old plants. But though the practice of feeding new laid graffes in the firft years appears to be the moft advantageous and proper mode of management, efpecially for lands intended for paflure, there are many cafes in which they may be mown with great fuccefs. This practice is perhaps always the moft beneficial and proper, and in deed the only one that can be fafely adopted in fuch foils as pofTefs any great de gree of moi flu re, as under fuch circumflances the feeding them down with any fort of live flock mufl in mofl feafons be injurious to the fward. And, befides, where the object and intention of the farmer is chiefly hay, the grafs-plants, by being kept clofely eaten down by live flock for a confiderable length of time be fore the fcythe is applied, may, from their becoming thereby difpofed to a low and lateral fpreading growth, be afterwards more unfit for the production of hay crops. Several fads of this nature are related by writers on hufbandry. In one cafe, where different divifions of land of the fame kind were laid down in the fame manner, on one of them being kept in a flate of paflure and the other alternately mown and paflured, after fome years both being fhut up for hay, that which had been paflured afforded a much inferior produce to the other. J The fame thing * Correded Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkflure. t Correded Report of Perthfhire. J Wight s Saltern of Hufbandry, vol. IV. Cultivation of Arable Land. Aftcr-managtmcnt of new Graft Lands. 345 has happened in other cafes of old paftures being converted to hay lands, even when the moft favourable feafon prevailed.* On thefe principles it may be a more judicious practice to manage lands de- figned for hay without having them for any great length of time, previoufly to their being mown, fed clofely down with flock, as in this way a larger produce of hay may be afforded. Where the new lays are mown the firft year after being laid down, which is not a method to be generally recommended, it is an excellent practice to apply a mo- ** derate coat of manure over them in the autumn, efpccially when the itateof the land and the feafon is fuch, in rcfpect to drynefs, as to admit of its being done without injuring the furface fward 5 as by this means the graft-plants not only be come more ftrong and vigorous, but better eftablifhed in the foil, and of courfc bear cutting with much lefs injury. As it may fometimes happen, though it can be but feldom, where the methods that have been detailed above are fully attended to, that the cultivator may fail either in part or wholly of producing a good lay : in the firft cafe it is the beft practice to have recourfe to fowing frefh feeds, which mould be performed in ths early part of the fpring, when the weather is in a moift ftate, the feeds being advi-^ fed by fome to be trodden in by putting fheep upon the land either indifcriminate- ly, or by very open folding, as the ufe of the roller will not be effectual, and that of harrowing cannot be practifed without injury. Doctor Wilkinfon has found advantage from putting the feeds in before the manure was applied in the new- lays, which are fometimes too haftily ploughed up. By either method the fward of fuch lays may often be much thickened and improved. And in cafes where the grafles have runup much to flem, if the lands be fuffici- ently flocked with plants, it may be an ufeful practice to cut them over by means of a fharp fcythe before their feeds are formed, as by this means they will be more ftrong and vigorous and the lands be kfs injured ; but in the contrary circumftan- ces they are better left for the purpofe of providing a more abundant fupply of young graffes, as the benefit obtained in this way will more than counterbalance the injury fuftained by the old plants. Where there is a complete failure from particular caufes, the moft advifable practice is, in cafes where the feeds have been put in in the fpring with grain crops, to take off thefe crops as foon as they will admit of it ; and after giving the land one ploughing, directly toharrow in frcfh feeds. The bufinefs fhould be accorrv Young ia ComrauDiwtioos to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III. t. Ibid. ii. y " Cultivation of Arable Land. Aft er- management of new Grafs Lands. plifhcd as early in the beginning of Auguftas pofllble. A rollermay.be applied over the land, when in a fuitable dry condition about Ocilobcr. But where the lat ter end of fummer has been the period of fowing, it is recommended that the land ihould have three ploughings performed upon it in the early fpring months, when the weather is fufficiently dry, and the grafs-feeds be again put in with a crop of buck wheat in May, \\hich, though it is not a fuitable crop for the heavy wet forts of land, fometimcs anfwers well in dry feafdns ; and in wet ones, as affording but little feed, may be mown, when in blofibm as a green food for cows. From its not robbing the land .much, of its fertility, it is . well adapted .for. the above pur- pole.* In regard to the application of manure to new laid down grafs lands, though it will ftldom be abfolutely rcquilite, where they have been returned to the date of fvvard under the degree of fertility and preparation that has been already advifed, it may in mod cafes be had recourfe to with great advantage and improvement,, as it is probably one of the belt means of preferving a good clofe date of fward when judicicufly employed. It has been remarked by an experienced cultivator* that though in general no manure will be wanted till the land has been mown for hay, there can be little doubt but that great additional improvement will be produced where manure of any fort can be applied, and that . " the oftener the land is manured, the greater w v ill be the improvement."-)-. Jf the lands have been laid to grafs with corn crops^ the application of a flight drcffing of manure in the autumn following may, as has been already feen, be of great utility in fixing and encouraging the growth of the young grafs-plants; but in other cafes the latter end of the fummer following, or very early in the autumn^ are fuppofed by feme to be. the mod beneficial periods for the purpofe : but as at thefe times, in many indances, much lofs of manure may be fudained both by . evaporation, and the warning of heavy rains and fnows, it may be a better and more advifable practice to perform the buiinefs in the early fpring months, efpecially where the lands are to be conducted under the fey the, as in this way the enriching material will be ready to exert its influence at the moment the young plants begin to fend forth their new moots ; and thus not only afford more aflidance in thick ening and invigorating the new fward, but be lefs in danger of being ufelefsly diflipated and wafted . But whtre manure cannot be fpared. for repeatedly drefllng new grafs lands, as * Young in Communications te the Board of Agriculture, vol. Ill, -f Maxwell in Ibid, Seftion on Manures* "^Cultivation of Arabic Land. Aj I cr- management vf new Grafs Lands. 3 7 the grafles are often, efpecially on lands not well fuited to their growth, liable to decline and become thin, in fome inftances it is fuppofed from the fown grades difappearing before the fpontaneous ones have attained fu-fficient vigour and ftrength,* but more generally, probably, from the grounds not having been in a proper Mate of fertility or finenefs of furface mould at the time the feeds were put in, or the particular unfavourablenefs of the feafon, about the clofe of the third fummer after their being fown, it is believed to be a better pra6tice to defer the ufe of manure till that time on fuch lays as are paftured ; and when they are undei- the fey the, till the hay crop has been taken from the ground, f We have no doubt of the fuccefs of the application of dung top-dreflings at thefe periods, though they muft evidently be made ufe of in a lefs economical manner than at a Liter feafon in the autumn, or an earlier one in the fpring. And it is the mod common opinion that all the finer and more foluble kinds of top-dreffings are ap plied with the greateft benefits in the very early fpring months, as about the latter end of February, or the beginning of the following month. The differences in the effects of thefe forts of manure have, perhaps, not yet been fully ascertained. In encouraging and fupporting the growth of the natural grafles when the fown ones decline abeut the third year an experienced cultivator, J who feems to favour the opinion of manure being the mofl ufefully laid on land early in the autumn, or on hay lands immediately after the crops have been taken off, dates that he has c< ufed coal afhes with great fuccefs, to the amount of three chaldrons per acre. He has laid of this manure en grafs land above 50 chaldrons in a year. About eight years ago he laid down a field of 12 acres with broad clover principally, intending it to (land only for two years. In the fummer it was mown twice, next year it was grazed ; the clover was but weak. As he had particular reafons for al tering his mind, and for wifhing it to continue in grafs, he refolved to try the ef fects of grazing it with fheep. On the fourth year it looked fo very bad, the clover almoft difappearing, that he was tempted to plough it up. He, how ever, refolved to continue the grazing, and to give it a drefling of three chaldrons per acre of coal-afhes. The next year he obferved the white clover and natural grafles beginning to form a clofcturf, and the field is now an excellent piece of fward, without the aid of any hay-feeds." It would appear from the further trials of the fame intelligent agricultor, that the following fubftances have much effect, not only in promoting the growth and * Wilkinfon in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. ;t Young in Ibid. J Dr. Wilkinfon of Enfield. Yy 2 348 Cultivation of Arable Land. dfter-management of new Grafs Lands. rendering the herbage more fine and fweet, but in renovating the fvvard. " The fcrapings of the road, or fand-drift, are, he fays, of great fervice in producing a fweet herbage. Wherever the fweepings of his own walks have been laid on an adjoining common, he has obferved the coarfe grafs difappearing, and the fine benrs fb ow ing themfelves. fie has a field now in his own occupation which, from a piece of coarfe herbage, has been brought into fuch a luxuriant ftate of fward that it is efteemed the beft piece of grafs land in the parifh. The improvement was in part owing tt> its fituation near a brook, which brought down from a contiguous com-, mon a quantity of leaves and fand-drift : thefe were carefully collected and laid on the meadow every year." And he has ufed fold-yard liquor with advantage. " Having laid down a field to grafs immediately adjoining his fold-yard, which was fituated above it, by means of pipes and trenches he had the liquor from the fold-yard conducted over the field, after having collected it in a refervoir: the effect of it in deftroying coarfe grafs, and producing a fweeter fward, was very remarkable. * The effects of watering have likewife been found powerful in the reproduction of fward ; " and where it can be had at command, land may with great facility be broken up for corn, and afterwards returned to a ftate of meadow. In two different meadows, which during the winter were frequently flooded, he has pared off part of the turf, and has obferved that the ground became green the firfl year, arid on the fecond it was fb covered with grafs that he could with difficulty diftinguifh where the fvvard had been taken off. He has known the fame land pared a fecond time in three years, and fpeedily covered again with a coat of fward after having been frequently flooded." The effects of the following manures^ according to the experience of the fame cul tivator, would feem to be chiefly in promoting the luxuriance of the graffes, and ofcourfeto be principally advantageous in rcfpcct to the quantity of produce.. " Tallow-chandler s graves on being ufed to the amount of a ton an acre, at half a- crown a hundred weight, the grafs was rendered fo rank that for fome time cattle would not touch it, and the hay was too coarfe for fale. On account of its rank- nefs he generally ufcs it mixed with mould or ditch earth. Its effects are vilible for fomc years after it has been laid on in the fuperior verdure of the grafs." It is obferved, that the effedts of "night foil have been abundantly proved both in Flanders and the neighbourhood of London. The quantity ufed on grafs land is about three loads an acre. It isaftronger and more permanent manure than vommon dung." In the fixing, producing, and rendering the white clover more permanent, the Cultivation of Arable Land. After -management of new Grafs Lands. 34.9 following fubftances have been found by the fame gentleman to have confidcrable powers. On (t the application of marl he mentions one fact, which is, that he has known it fuccefsful in fixing the white clover on ftrong cold land, from which it is very apt to difappear. He has like wife found folding of great advantage in fixing and forwarding the white clover. Coal-aihes will, he fays, produce this clover on wet land ; but unlefs the land is drained, it wiM foon grow weak or difappear." It has alfo been obferved, that on the drier clayey lands in Cornwall, " fea fand is found to mellow the clay and make them hold the graifes." And or what are often termed ftone brafh lands the ufe of marl is found of great utility, when applied in the latter part of the fummer of the firft year of the lay. But it is neceflary, to the fuccefs of this fort of application, that the ground be well covered with grafs before it is applied, as where the furface is much expofed the marl is liable to plafter and cake together, and the young grafs-plants to be in confequence expofed to much injury from the heat of fummer. This fubflance feems to bring up the bed fort of natural grafles. In time this is, however, funk below the reach of vegetation. About thirty cart loads are fufficient for the acre. And chalk on the deep loamy clays is found an ufeful application the ftrft year on new lays, in the proportion of about twenty loads to the acre.* And on the more fandy defcriptions of land clayey marl may be of great advantage in eftablifhing the grafs. On peaty or moory lands marl and other fimilar materials will be of ad vantage in rendering them more compact, and better fuited for prefer ving the gralfes; and fand and road Huff for fining the herbage. The advantages from the two following fubftances do not feem fo important. Soot has been much ufed as a top-drefling, but Dr. Wilkinfon has not obferved * the effects to lad beyond the firft year. He has tried it to the amount of fixty bufhels per acre, at Sd. per bufhel ; perhaps it mould be ufed in larger quantity. Lime is nearly as dear, and of that he has ufed 160 bumels per acre on arable hind. If he ufes foot again he intends to lay it on to that amount. But he has ufed fugar- baker s fcum with great fuccefs to the amount of two loads an acre, at half a guinea per load, which has been found a ftrong warm manure, highly ferviceable on cold land, its effects being permanent." Lime is found ufeful on the more friable red Joamy foils, by fixing and rendering them more clofe, to keep the vegetation more to the furface, as well as to promote the growth of the natural graffes, and prevent- their roots from being injured by the heat of the fun. The following materials are probably chiefly ufeful in protecting and nourifhing * Davis in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. 3.)0 Culticaiion of Arable Land. After-management of new Grafs Land*. the young grafs plants in their more tender growth ; but they are more flow in pro ducing their beneficial effects. "Woollen rags, though not generally ufed as manure on grafs land, yet, when chopped fmall, have been fpread with advantage on young clovers before winter to the amount of about 10 cwt. per acre.* * On applying, in order to compenfate for an immediate crop of hay, and to thicken the fward, on one part of a field rotten dung about eight tons to the ftatut; acre; on another part woollen rags chopped at the rate of 100 ftoncs to an acre ; and on third a rich marl in the proportion of about 80 tons to the ftatute acre, Dr. Campbell, on comparing their effects two years after their application, found that <c the dung had produced the greater luxuriance. The woollen rags had a iuperior verdure,a deeper green : but as they had not yet been properly incorporated with the land, by the grafs growing over them, their ultimate produce could not be afcertained. An acre of land may, he fays, be manured by this means for about 3!. effectually, ihould they be found to anfwer the purpofe." The fame is the cafe with " the marl, which having covered the ground into which it is not yet carried down by the rains, and the grafs not having grown through, it has at prefent rather done harm than good." On this account it is fuppofed that marl is long in producing its beneficial effects, and the return of which cannot be looked for in Jefs than two or three years. Thefe facts fufficiently mow that different effects may be produced on grafs lands by the application of different forts offubftances to them in the manner oftop- .dreffings after they have been laid down. That where fine herbage is the principal object in view, coal afhes and compofls of the earthy kind, formed from fand, mud, fcrapings of roads, and other fimilar materals, intimately blended and incorporated \vith fuitable proportions of well rotted dung, may be the molt advantageous ap plications. The liquor of fold-yards and watering may alfo be ufeful in the fame intention, as well as thofe of reftoring the fwards, and promoting the luxuriance of the crops. But where the increafe of produce is chiefly intended, good duno 1 in a well reduced ftate, tallow-chandler s graves, night foil, chopped rags, foot, fcum of fugar, and other manures of the more animal kind, are the moft beneficial and proper. In other views, as thofe of eftablilhing and preferving the different grafles marl, lime, chalk, the folding of fheep, and other fubftanccs and operations of the fame nature will be the moft fuitable for producing fuch effects. And in rendering the lands more firm and folid,the laft three fubftances may pro* bably be had recourfe to with the greateft benefit and fuccefs. * \YiUunfon in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. SECTION VI.. Cultivation of Arable Land. Artificial Grasses ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. Modes of Introduction of N aturts ofJJiould ber adapted to the Nature of the Soil. RED or BROAD CLOVER Properties of Soils proper for Preparation of Land proper for Nature and Propor tion of Seed Seafon and Methods of fowing in different Cafes of different Sorts of Crops with which fown After -management of Crops ofMa nure fometimes ufeful on Methods of difpojing of Crops of- by mowing for Hay by being cut green for foiling Animals by feeding down with Sheep or other Sorts of Stock Modes of making Hay of Quantity of Produce of Ufes of this Sort of Hay feeding of Advantages of Modes of feparating Seeds of- more Profit by cutting green for foiling different Advantages of this Mode feeding Crops down what neceffary in Danger of it explained Purpofes to which applied neceffary to attend to Animals > in feeding of liable to be hoven with Remedies for Difadvantetges of Modes of rendering more durable. WHITE or DUTCH CLOVER. Cow-- grafs Different Ufes of. Trefoil Nature and Ufes of Various Advan tages of Manner of feeding of Lefs valuable than Clover SAINTFOIN Utility of Nature of does not hove Animals Soil s mojl proper for Prepa ration of Land proper for Mode oj fele&ing the. Seed of- Proportion of ne ceffary Times and Methods of Sowing with. Barley Crops moj^ proper Jkould not be mixed with other Sorts of Seeds After-management of Crops of- different Methods of Produce of various Modes of cutting of manuring of Modes of Application of feeding of much injured by Grafs Plants l*ucs,RH-*Advi.intages of Soil andPreparation proper for Seed proper for- 35$ Cultivation of Arabic Land. Artificial Graffes* Seafonforfowing ofdifferent Modes offowing defcribsd quick Vegetation ufiful After-management of Crops of different in different Cafes Efpcnfcs oj Culture of- proper Application of Crops of- in foiling with different Sorts if Animals Refult of different Experiments with Advantages of Crops of- what neceffary in breaking up Crops of. TARES vaft Advantages of Crops of different Varieties of J Pinter Tare Spring Tare JVhiteTare Preparation of Land for Seed proper fcr in different Cafes of Propor tions of in different JCafes of S eafon offowing Crops of different according to the Nature of Intentions of the Farmer proper Methods of f owing of Crops grown after After-management of Crops of Modes of making into Hay feeding Crops of Applications of Crops of foiling Animals mojl advantageous vajt Advantages of Tare Crops in different Diftri&s tare an excellent Preparation for Wheat Bujh Vetch Tufted Vetch Evertafting Pea Ufes of each more Attention neceffary to this Clafs of Plants. CHICORY Nature of Plant proper Soils for proper Prepara tion of Land for Choice of Seed Quantity of neceffary Seafonforfowing of Modes of fowing of without Crops mojl beneficial After-management of Crops of Produce of Crops of proper Applications of- Experiments with Utility of as a Sheep Feed. Proper Proportions between Arable find Grafs Land on the fame Farm influenced by Circumftances on clayey Soils in loamy Soils in fandy Soils in calcareous Soils in peaty Soils regulated much by Modes of Application of Farms. HIRING and STOCKING FARMS deferves much Attention has been treated of fully ly Mr. Young Hiring Time ufual for Circumftances to be attended to in Peculiarities of Soil and Situations to be conjidered in in Arable Lands in Grafs Lands Compaclnefs of Farms an Advantage in Na ture of Leafes to be conjidered Means of calculating Rents Mode ( lf P a y m S f- STOCKING FARMS what neceffary in Expence of per Acre much affeQed by Situation good Capital neceffary wherein Farms require leajl Capital Marjh and Hop Lands demand large Capitals fhould make Twelve or Fifteen per Cent, on great Attention neceffary to Live Stock on need not regard Jine Breeds. JL HE methods that feem the moft advantageous in reftoring different forts of tillage lands to the ftate of grafs, as well as thofe which appear the moft proper for afterwards bringing them into the moft perfect ftate of fward and productive- THI: HJ-:/> CLOVER. Cultivation of Arable Land Artificial Grflfles.Red Clurcr, 353 ncfs, having been explained in the preceding feiElion, it may be ncceflary to defcribe the modes of culture that are bed fuited to the railing crops of the artificial grafs kind, and the means of confuming them with the greateft chance of profit and advantage to the farmer. Artificial Graffes The general introduction and interposition of crops of artificial or fown grafles between thofe of the corn kind is a practice of the greateft utility and importance, as the lands are thereby not only prevented from being fo much exhaufted as would otherwife be the cafe, and at the fame time rendered fit for the growth of particular kinds of grain without the neceftity of fallowing, but a much larger proportion of green and other food than could otherwife be obtained is provided for the fupport of live ftock. It has of courfe chiefly laid the founda tion of the late improvements in arable cultivation as well as live flock. As moft of the plants employed in this way are ofconliderable fizeand flrength, or luxuriance of growth, they muft of courfe, as well as the natural grafles, re quire the ground on which they are cultivated to poffefs a good ftate of fertility, and a considerable finenefs of mould, as where this is not the cafe they feldom fucceed in a perfect manner, or afford that abundance of produce which would otherwife be the cafe. Like the natural grafles, they fhould alfo be adapted to the peculiarity of the foil on which they are to be grown, as they are all found to anfwer better on fome kinds of land than others. Some of them fucceeding moft perfectly on the heavier forts of foil, as thofe of the more dry, loamy, clayey, and ftronger gravelly defcriptions j others on the more ftrong, poor and thin kinds of calcareous lands, as thofe of the chalky and limeftone forts, and others on the deep fertile grounds which abound in vegetable matter. Red Clover.* This is a plant which is well known, and that rifes to confidera* ble height, with a root that ftrikes deep into the foil, and rather ftrong ftem, afford ing a large produce of leaf and bloflbm, on which account the land is kept in a more perfect ftate of clofenefs and fhade, while the crop remains upon if, than is the cafe with moft other plants of the artificial grafs kind. On this prir-ci^le it has of courfe much more influence in ameliorating and improving the foils, and affords a better preparation for wheat crops, f Red Clover is capable of being cultivated with fuccefs and advantage on almoft all the more heavy and dry defcriptions of land which are in a tolerable ftate of fertility, and it i faid tp fucceed on the deeper kinds of gravelly, chalky, and fandy * Trifolium pratcnse. f Marfhall s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties, vol. J, I Synopfis of Hufbandry. VOI. il Z 7, 354 Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover Seed, and Time, $c. tffowing* In refped: to preparation it is lefs nice than many ether herbaceous plants, yet the finer the ftate of mould the land has been brought into, the more certainly and the better it fuccceds. And as wheat is the grain crop that moftly follows clover, it may in general be the mcft advantageous pra&ice to apply manure for the crop \vith which it is grown, as by that means the ground will be in the mod Ratable condition for that crop. It may be fown with any clean grain crop, but is found to fucceed thebefl with barley after turnips, *wherc the nature of the foil will admit, as land in that way is brought into the beft ftate of preparation for its reception. Seed. It is of much confequence in the raifing of crops of this fort to fow fuch feed as is perfectly good, frefh, and well ripened; as from its being kept in the fliops fora contiderable length of time much of it is frequently in a ftate unfit for vegetating. That which is good has a bright appearance. Hides eafily in the hand, fmells fweet, and has the purple coloured feeds greatly prevailing over thofe of a yellow caft. The proportion of feed that is neceflary. muft vary according to the quality of the land, the ftate of preparation to which it has been reduced, and that of its fertility; as in rich lands almoft every feed grows, while in thofe of the contrary defcription many of them fail in producing plants, efpecially in dry feafons, and a great number of the plants are apt to die away after they have come up. It feems not improbable but that both thefe inconveniences might in a great meafure be re moved by having recourfe to ftceping the feed in fv,me liquid for a fhort time in fuch feafons, before it is fown on fuch forts of land, as by this means it will be made to vegetate in a more quick, regular, and vigorous manner, without remaining in the foil in an inactive ftate till it becomes unfit for producing healthy plants. On the richer forts of foil that are clean from weeds, ten or twelve pounds may be a fufticient quantity for the acre, while fixteen or eighteen pounds will not be too much for thofe that are of a more ftiff quality, and poflcfs a lefs degree of fertility. Where the la>id is to be converted to the purpofe of pafturage for two or more years, it may alfo be advantageous to fow a larger proportion of feed than where it is to be broken up in the following feafon. And where it is to be cut for hay it is better to be fown rather thin, as the plants will be in lefs danger of being drawn up weak. f Time and Method off owing. It may be put into the ground in any of the more early fpring months with crops of fpringcorn, or fown over the young when: n-ops at the fame feafon. When it is fown with oats, the moft common time of putting * Kent s Hints. t Corre&ed Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkshire, Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover Time and Method of fowing. 355 it in is about the beginning of March ; but with barley it is performed at a later period, as in April. It may therefore, perhaps, be more properly fown with this crop than oars in the later diftricts, where it might be apt to fuller from the frofb in the preceding months. On the richer foils, as from the luxuriance of its growth too much of it is frequently cut with the barley, fo as to keep it in the field fo long as toexpofeit to danger, efpecially in bad feafons, or from the barley becoming rank and lodging;, great injury may be done to the clover, it may be more advifable tofow it with the cat, or over the wheat crops. But on the thinner foils there is feldom any danger to be apprehended in this way. In order to pi event its proving hurtful to the barley in its early growth, by the rapid pro- grefs which it makes in fome cafes, it has been recommended not to fow it till the barley has fprouted -to the height of two or three inches, as it may then be per formed to equal advantage as at an earlier period, the barley being rather benefited than injured by the flight harrowing which is necerTary.* In fowing it among wheat it is the bed method, efpecially in the foutherndiftricts, to have the bufmefs performed at as early a period in March as the land becomes fufficiently dry to admit of harrowing. f Clover crops may likewife beraifed without being mixed with thofe of the grain kind. In very rich foils this may indeed often be the moft advantageous practice, as the danger of either crop being injured by the other will be fully obviated. The fowing in this cafe mould be executed as early in the fpring as the date of the land and that of the feafon will with fafety permit. When clover is fown with grain crops on the more fertile and better prepared lands, with the intention of being kept in the ftate of pafture for fome time, the grain fliould always be fown much thinner, or in lefs proportion than is ufual under other circumftances, as in this way the danger of its lodging and injuring the clover plant may be avoided. J In fowing it with barley it may according to fome be put in by the drill-machine,after that crop has been fown, broadcaft, beino- immediately covered by light harrowing. The practice of drilling it in the fame drills with the barley, as employed by Ducket, is lefs common, and by no means fo good. In putting clover in with grain crops the mod common practice is to perform the bufmefs either immediately, or as foon as poffible, after the grain has been covered in, as all fmall feeds vegetate in much the mod perfect manner when put in foon after the foil has been turned up, as has been already explained. * Modern Agriculture, vol.11. f Report of Middlefex. Synopfis of Hulbandry. Z 2 2 3,56 Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover Time and Method off owing* In cafes where drilling is in ufc, it is often fown broadcaft over the land when the grain is drilled, being covered in after it by a pair of light harrows. It is alfo fometimes fown before the roller, when the barley has attained a few inches in height. And in the hand or horfe-hoeing fyflcm, it is frequently fbvvn when fuch operations are performed. Mr. Young has likewife known it put in alone upon a fcarifying of the barley ftubblcs in harveft time, on light foils. With whatever fort ofcrop the clover feed is fown, it mould be difperfed in as re gular and even a manner as poffible over the furface or the ground when in the broad caft method, after it has been rendered perfectly fine by the harrowing in of the grain crops. And in order that this may be effected in the moft complete manner, it fhould be performed, if pofTible, when the mould is in fuch a ftate of drynefs as to work well under the harrow. But it fhould on no account be executed when the foil is in fuch a ftate of moifture as to clog or ftick much together,* as under fuch circumftances the feed will neither vegetate well or be covered in in a regular manner, being liable to be drawn into heaps by harrowing. In covering it in a light fhort-tined harrow is the moft adapted to the purpofe, which in the freer and more mellow forts of land fhould only be pafTed over once in a place, but in thofe of the flitter and more heavy kinds twice may be neceffary. The feed fhould never be buried to much depth, as its vegetation would by that means be much retarded. The ufe of the tined harrow is much preferable for this purpofe to that of the bufhkind, as by the latter the feed is not only lefs perfectly covered in, but liable to be drawn fo together as to rife in tufts. And mealy rolling over the land, though fometimes employed, is a practice never to be depended upon. Where the clover is fown among the green wheat, harrowing it in with fuch light harrows once in a place is the beft practice in all cafes, except where the wheat is very thin, and the foil too loofe about its roots to permit it with fafety. In all the more light defcriptions of land, the ufc of the roller after the feed has been covered by the harrow muft be of great utility, as well in clofing the particles of the foil round the feeds as in levelling the furlace, and rendering it lefs penetrable by drought. And even on ftrong foils, where the clover is fown among the wheat, it is recommended by fome as of great ufe after harrowing. f There is a practice which prevails in fome diftricts of Towing a larger fpace of land than can be covered inat the fame time, but it is an injudicious method, and mould never be attempted, as clover feeds always vegetates the moft perfectly when it is covered in immediately after it has been fown, and it is apt to be much injured by * Synopfis of Ilulbandry. t Correfted Reports of Middlefex and Northumberland* Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clever After-management of. 337 lying expofcd for fome time upon the furface of the land before being harrowed in, efpecially if much wet fhould fall. With fome it is a practice when the land is intended for the purpofe of early pafhirage, and in fome cafes where the object is hay, 10 fow rye, rib, and other fimilar graffes with the clover. In the firft intention the practice may be benefi cial, as the rye grafs rifes early, and may contribute to afford a more full and better herbage for the (lock at fuch periods, efpecially on the iater forts of foil j* but with the latter view it mould perhaps feldom be made ufe of, as the clover will in general produce a fufficiently abundant crop of itfelf : and from other forts of plants being mixed with it, on account of their drying in an unequal man ner, it may fuftain injury as hay. It is probably for fome reafon of this fort that fuch clover hay as is mixed with other graffes is lefs faleable, and of confiderably Jefs value in the London markets, than that which confifts folely of clover. f Some cultivators, however, fuppofe, that by blending rye grafs with clover, in a fmall pro portion, a ftrength and body is given to the crop.* It has been fuggefted as an improvement where rye grafs is mixed with clover, to fow the latter a week or two before the other, as from the clover plants having a tender, weak ftem in their early growth, they may in that way be prevented from being injured by thofe of the rye grafs clafping round and (hading them.|| If the crop be deligned for cutting green for the purpofe of foiling animals, it would feem to be the beft method not to fow any other fort of grafs with the clover, as no advantage can be gained in that vvay. After-management. Where the feed has been put in on a proper foil in a fuitable ftate of preparation, little attention will be neceffary to the crop afterwards. But as the young plants while in the ftate of feedling-Ieaf are liable to be attacked by flugs or other infects, in the manner of turnips, by which the plants are often greatly thinned and deftroyed, the crops ought to be carefully attended to in their early growth. Many acres have fometimes been completely ruined in the courfe of a few nights .^ Such effects are to be prevented by putting in the crops as foon as poffible, that they may become fufficiently ftrong and vigorous before the dry weather fets in, and by the ufe of fuch means as have been advifed for turnips. With fome it is the cuftom to apply manure over the clover crop immediately after the grain has been taken from the land, which in foils that are not in a good * Marshall s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties. tCorreded Report of Middlefex, Corrected Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire. || Correftcd Report of Perthfliire. Ibid. 5T Corrected Report of Middlefex. 358 Cultivation of Arable Land -Red Clover After-management of. ftate of fertility may be advantageous in preferving and invigorating the plants ; but under other circumftances it is not ncceffary. There is, however, another cafe in which the ufe of what is termed long ftable dung, when not in the ftate of fermentation, may be found ufeful, by preventing the young plants from being too clofely nibbled and eaten up by fhcep, which is that where the land is in the Itate of commonage.* But when the clovers are to be continued for two or more years, the application of a thin coat of manure, in the autumn or fpring feafon, is a practice from which great benefit may be derived, efpecially on lands that are in the lefs perfect ftate of heart. Jn the dryer forts of foil this bulinefs may probably be done with the grcateft advantage about the latter end of February ; but where the lands are foft, retentive of moi (lure, and poachy, the early part of the autumn, while the ground is fufficiently hard, may be the molt fuitable feafon for the purpofe. Well- rotted dung is perhaps the molt proper in thefe cafes. By performing the work at this period there is lefs danger of the clover plants dying away in the winter than is the cafe under other circumftances. -) At whatever feafon the manure may be applied, it fh uld be fpread out over the furface in as even a manner as poflible, and beaten perfectly fine. It is the practice in fome places to fow coal-ames over the young clovers, in the latter end of January or the beginning of the following month, w hen they are intended to be mown in the following fummer, in the pro portion of about thirty bulhcls to the acre, by which means the crops are rendered more abundant and the plants better preferved.J The methods of difpofing of crops of this fort are either by mowing them for hay, cutting them occasionally as green food for different forts of live flock, or feeding them down with cattle, Iheep, and other animals. Inthefirft mode a large quantity of hay for the purpofe of feeding working horfes may be procured with but little expence or trouble. In thefe cafes the crops fhculd be mown as foon as moft of the heads are in full blow, before they begin to turn of a brown colour and die away. The moft proper time may be known by attending to the foliage on the bottom parts of the plants, as when the leaves on thefe begin to drop off and decay the crop mould be cut as foon as poflible, as by ftanding afterwards it will lofe more in the bottom than it can gain in the top. The crops ufually attain this ftate fome time about the middle of June, according to the nature of the foil. Though it is fuppofedr by fome that clover takes lefs harm by ftanding, after it is in a condition for being mown, than many other forts * Corrected Report of MiJdlefcx. t Ibui. J Hertfordflure Report, and Annals of Agriculture. Corretted Report of Middlelex. Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover After-management of. 3.59 of plants, it is always the befl practice to cut it rather early, as by remaining on the ground it not only lofrs its heads and lower leaves and becomes reduced in quantity, hut the plants are rendered hard and Micky and fo cxhaufted as to re main a great length of time after mowing before they fend up new (hoots ^nd afford good herbage.* After it has been cut, Mr. Middleton advifes that the fwaths fhould not be fpread out, as is the coirmon practice with meadow grafs, but fuffered to lie in the ftate the fcythe leaves them until they are dried about tv> o thirds through, which, if the feafon proves favourable, will be in about three days, and if the weather mould then appear promifmg, they may be turned with rakes immediately after the dew is off. if there be no rain, the clover thus fpread out will be ready to cock up the next morning, or on the fourth day, as foon as the dew is fully gone, and may be carried in as foon afterwards as is convenient. And if this be done as foon as the dew is well off, the leaves will be jufl fufficiently tough to preferve them ; whereas when this operation is omitted in the morning, and per formed in the heat of the day, they will be too dry, being reduced to powder, and loft in the bufinefs of heaping and loading. When, however, it is heaped fufficiently early in the morning, the loading and flacking may continue through the day. Where a part of the produce is become rather over dry, there is a method adopted by expert haymakers of putting the rows into heaps without rubbing the leaves off. It is only familiar to a few, and is performed by rolling the fwaths over with rather larger forks than ufual in a very gentle manner, keep ing them from being fcparated or broken, and then laying them lightly into the cock, being careful to avoid breaking, and tofling the hay about, putting it along the ground, or beating it down flat. In this mode of converting clover into hay there will not only be much lefs lofs, but the hay be of a much better colour and finer flavour ; which are circumftances of great importance both in its fale and ufe as fodder. Where a fecond crop is to be taken for the fame purpofe, all cattle fhould be kept cut of the field, in order that it may be in full blofTom and ready for the fcythe about the laft week in Auguft. It muft be made into hay in the fame manner as the firft, and mould not be delayed later, on account of its lofing in weight, and the danger of not getting it into the ftack before the heavy dews and rains fet in. Befides, by getting the hay off as early as poflible, there will be more fheep-feed previous to ploughing the land up in the autumn for wheat. The quantity of produce in the fecond crop is in general confiderably lefs than in thefirfl, and not by * Corrected Report of Perthfhire, Cultivation of Arable Land* Red Clover After-management of. any means fo good in quality : confequently, if hay be not much wanted, it is a better practice to feed it, efpecially where the foil is fufficiently dry, than make it into hay. The quantity of produce in the firfl crop varies confiderably ; fhowery fummers producing great crops, while in dry ones they are often ftunteid to one half. Be- iides, the natural quality of the foil has a confiderable effect, as well as its being in a high or poor ilate of cultivation. On the general average of years and foils in Middlefex, the two cuttings are faid to produce about three loads of marketable hay ; which, for the hft fifteen or twenty years, are fuppofed to have yielded twelve guineas per acre. In many cafes a much larger profit is afforded. By fome, two tons are fuppofed to be a medium crop for the firfl: cut.* It is moftly employed for the fupport of draught- horfes, as it is the general opi nion that it is more nouriming than any other hay, except that of faintfoin. It, ofcourfe, fells at about fifteen millings a ton higher than hay of the meadow kind. It is alfo found highly ufeful in fattening oxen and in feeding milch cows j but is lefs efteemed for faddle horfes, probably from its not having been fo much in ufe a as it would feem well calculated for the purpofe. It is fometimes a profitable practice to let the crop fland for feed. In this cafe the method is either to eat it well down in the early part of the fpring, till about the latter end of May, by ewes and lambs, or other forts of ftock, or to let it fland for a fir ft crop of hay, and depend upon the fecond crop for feed. The firft appears, however, by much the beft practice, as the land is lefs exhaufted, confequently in a better ftate for the fucceeding crop; and, at the fame time, the farmer has the great advantage of an early green-feed for his frock in the fpring months. And it feems not improbable but that feed of a better quality may thus be obtained in a greater abundance, as the plants by being mown muft be rendered more weak and lefs proper for affording good feed ; while, by feeding down, they will not only fuifer lefs in this refpeCL but throw out more tio wer- ing-ftems and, of courfe, afford a larger proportion of feed. Where the latter method is followed, the firft cut mould be made as early aspoflible. It is always neceffary to take off the firft growth in one of thefe ways, as the clover plant does not perfect its feed early in the fummer. The crop thus referved for feed muft be fuffered to remain till the hufks, or j become perfectly brown, and the feeds have acquired a confiderable de* * Kent s Hints, Culli-catlon of Arable Land. Red Clover After-mandgtmcnt of. 361 gree of firmnefs. It mould then be cut, and harvefted in the fame method as the common crop, but let remain in the field till it is more perfectly dry andcrifp, in order that the feeds may become more fully hardened. It may then be laid up dry, in order to the feed being threfned out in the winter feafon at the farmer s convenience. As the great difficulty in the fecuring of the clover for this purpofe is that of getting the herbage fufficiently dry in the dewy and damp feafon at which the feed becomes ripe ; it has been fuggefted that light bags, formed of thin cloth or fine wire, might be ufeful for collecting, catching, and retaining the heads which moftly rife above the herbage, by being fixed upon the handles of the fcythcs, as they are fvvept off by them, being emptied as there may be neceffity : as in this way the herbage, by being left upon the ground, would be of three times the value of the mufty ftraw afforded by feed clover, either for the purpofe of being eaten off or turned down as manure. Befides, the heads by being well dried in wet weather in the houfe, and in dry feafons in the open air, the feed would not only be preferved with more certainty, but in a much better {late in refpect to the fample, and, of courfe, in moft feafons be of much greater value.* It appears fcarcely polfible, however defirable it might be, to collect the heads in this way without buffering confiderable lofs from their dropping down and being loft in the herbage. Much labour and expence is neceflary in feparating the feed from thecapfule, flough, or feed-coat, efpecially when it is effected by threming, as the work is feldom, from its difficult execution, performed at lefs than from five to fix or feven (hillings the bumel.f By the ufe of mills or other contrivances it may, however, be rubbed out with more facility, and at a much cheaper rate. The produce in feed like that of hay, is liable to vary much, under different cir- cumftances : in general it may be from about three to four or five bufhels when perfectly cleaned, weighing from two to three hundred weight. The principal objections to the feeding of clover crops are thofe of their uncertainty, on account of the ftate of the feafon at which they become ripe, the trouble and expence of threming out the feed, and the injury which they produce in leffening the fertility of the foil. The high value of the feed in mod feafons is, however, a great in- ducement to the letting of clover crops ftand for the purpofe. But though much advantage may be derived from the converting of clover crops into hay, and letting them remain for feed, it is probable that a flill greater * Marshall s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties. t Modern Agriculture, vol. II. VOL. ii. 3 A 362 Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover After-management of. benefit may be produced by the practice of cutting the crops green occafionally, as they attain a fufficient growth, and conveying them when wanted to the horfcs or other cattle in the ftubles and fold-yards, in order to their being confumed in the Halls. It is contended, by an experienced agricultor, that in this manner it will certainly fupport more than twice the flock it would do if fed off upon the ground where it grew; and the additional quantity of manure that will by this method be made in the ftables and yards, if they are kept well littered with any fort of draw, or even rufhes or fern, will fully compenfate the farmer for his expence in cutting and bringing the clover into the yards.* It is a method which experience in many parts of the kingdom has proved to be of the greateft advantage, efpecially where the bufinefs is not upon too extenfivea fcale ; but in large concerns it is, perhaps, impoflible to attend to it fo fully as may be necefTary for deriving the greatefl benefit from it. The refult of an experiment ftated by a writer of confiderable accuracy, however, Ihows, that even on an extenfive fcale it is a practice which is attended with vaft advantage.-}- In this trial feven acres of clover cut green were found to be fuf ficient for twenty horfes, feven cows, five calves, and five pigs, for the period of feventeen weeks from the middle of May. They were fed in the ftable and rick- yard, being taken twice in the day to water, and the horfes had neither hay or corn.J The great fuperiority and utility of this practice is exhibited in a more * Kent s Hints. t Young s Eaftern Tour, Vol. II. p. 147. J In calculating the value of the crop, it is remarked that the horfes could not have been kept equally well for lefs than eight-pence a day ; but as the ufual price at which the} are taken in at in that diftrict is two {hillings andfixpence the week, it may be better to take that as the principle of calcula tion. . s. d. 20 Horses 17 weeks, at 2s. 6d. per week 42 10 7 Cows ditto, at 2s. 6d. per week - 14 17 6 5 Calves ditto, at Is. 6d. per week - 676 5 Pigs ditto, at - 000 63 15 Or per acre 921 The quantity of dung raifed by the above ftock is fuppofed to be from four to five hundred loads, which is eftiraated at 2s. 6d. per load. The expenfe in labour for cutting and conveying the food to the flack is not charged ; which ren ders the experiment in feme meafure incomplete. The benefit of the practice is, however, fully ciia- Uifhed, Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover After-management of. 363 ftri king point of view, by contrafting this with the confiimption of the fame fort of crop in the field, by an equal number of the fame kinds of ftock : as in the time five acres had been ufed in the former method, thirty had been confumed in the latter, and the horfe part of the ftock left in much worfe condition. But befides the fuperiority of the practice of foiling this fort of crop in the economy of food, it has the important advantage, as has been feen, of affording much larger fupplies of manure, efpecially where the ftalls and fold-yards are kept occafionally well bedded and cleaned up, as the converfion of the materials proceeds, which muft be greatly expedited from the vaft increafe in the urinary, as well as other difchargcs that mufl of neceffity take place in this mode of feeding. The great difference between feeding clovers off on the land and confuming them in their green ftate in the manner juft mentioned is fuppofed by an able \vriter,* to be this : " the quick growth of this grafs, after mowing, (hades the ground, and prevents the fun from exhaling the moifture of the land fo much as it would if fed bare: confequently it continues to fpring with more vigour; and the moment one crop is off, another begins to moot up. Whereas when cattle feed it, they frequently deftroy almoft as much as they eat; and befides, bruife the necks of the roots with their feet, which prevents the clover from fpringing fo freely as it does after a clean cut by the fcythe. In hot weather, which is the common feafon for feeding clover, the flies too are generally fo troublefome to the cattle, that they are continually running from hedge to hedge to brufh them off; by which it is inconceivable what injury they do to the crop. But when they are fed in ftables and yards they are more in the (hade ; they thrive better ; and, at the fame time, confume the whole of what is given them without wafte." Much of the fuccefs attending this practice without doubt depends on thefe cir- cumftances ; but befides, the upper parts of the roots are lefs penetrated by moifture, and fewer of the plants of courfe deftroyed. By proper attention to this crop a very ufeful and abundant green food for different forts of live ftock may be provided at an early period in the fpring, efpecially when the winters are not very fevere. It is advifed by fome, on the poorer fort of foils, to have both the firft and fecond crops of this plant to be eaten green upon the land by (heep and bullocks, being mown and given them to feed upon.f In this way the cattle thrive better from their filling themfelves fooner, and hav ing more reft; and there is no wafte. But in order to derive tne greateft poflible * -Mr. Kent. Middlefex Report, 3 A 2 364- Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover After-management of. advantage from the foiling with this or other crops, convenient covers, fheds or other fuitable houfes are abfoluteiy neceflary. The practice of feeding down or pafturing clover crops with live (lock, though it may be advantageous in many cafes, efpecially where iheep-hufbandry forms a principal object, always requires to be conducted with care and attention, both. in refpect to the plants and the animals that are to be fed upon them. From the tender nature of the clover plant it mould feidorn be eaten on the land bythe heavier forts of cattle, as, from the greedy manner in which they feed, many of the plants are pulled up, and others, as has been feen, greatly injured or dedroyed by being bruifed in their treading, efpecially as they protrude their young (hoots., Horfes are particularly objected to on this account by many.* The mod appro priate fort of (lock is obvioufly that of fheep ; but where the foils are of the drier kind, the lighter forts of (lock of other defcriptions may be occafionally admitted, fuch as calves, foals, and young beads. And as pigs are fond of the clover plant, and thrive well upon it, they may fometimes be admitted with advantage. In the practice of lamb-fuckling it is an ufeful application of the young clovers to turn the ewes upon them, as they afford a fort of pafturage which has much effect in increaf- ing the flow of milk. They may likewife be applied to the fattening of (heep in April and May; and be fed by the (heep intended for turnips, in the autumn, till they are ready, with much profit, f No fort of (lock Ihould however be kept upon crops of clover when the land is foft, wet, or poachy. In fomeofthe fouthern didricts, where it is the cuflom to eat down the young clovers by (heep, it is indeed ufual to choofe a dry feafon for the purpofe, the flock being removed in cafe the land becomes foft and wet.f Where this fort of (lock is employed, it may be the mod fafe practice not to permit the animals to continue too long upon the land- as by eating the plants too clofely they may fudain much mifchief. It is conceived by fome that treading the foil lightly while the lands are dry may be of great utility to the dover plants by forcing the earth to their roots, and in that way protecting and rendering them more capable of refilling the effects of frod in the winter feafon. It has likewife been fuggeded that the eating of the weak, lateral (hoots, that were thrown out while under the fhade of the grain crops, may be ierviceable by incrcafing the drength of the plants, and enabling therp to withdand the frods, as well as to (hoot more drongly ia the fpring.f * Experienced Farmer, vol. I. + Middlefex Report. J Marshall s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties. ^ Ibid. Cultivation of Arabic Land. Red Clover After ^management of. S65 It would therefore, on the whole, appear the mod beneficial method, where the pasturing of this crop either in the fpring or autumn is had recourfe to, not to fuffe - the lands to he fed upon when in a moid Hate, or to be too hard flocked, or with the heavier fort of animals at any time. But in the feeding down of clovers, there is not only danger of injuring the plants, but the animals that confume them. Without proper management, cattle and other animals on being turned upon them often differ great inconvenience, and are in danger of being deftroyed by the vaft diftenfion of their ftornachs which rakes place. Jr. this fituation the animals are in the language of the farmer faid to be blown or haven. The nature of the difeafe does not flern to be much invefligated : . but it probably arifes in confequence of the large quantity of green fucculent her bage being greedily devoured without due maftication, by which ii undergoes an uncommon degree of fermentation in the ftomach ; and from this fudden decom- pofition, an unufual quantity of gafeous fluid is at once fet at liberty, which ultimately overcomes the contractile power of the digeftive organ, and the animal is ; deftroyed; The fuppofition is rendered more probable from the circumftance of the affection being lefsapt to take place when the clovers or any other fimilar her bage are fed upon in a dry ftate, as the flock in thefe cafes are not able to confume. them in fo expeditious a manner or in fo large a proportion. OH thefe principles, therefore, the practice of not fuffering the cattle or other forts of flock to feed upon them when they are wet, and there is a full bite, would feem to be perfectly correct. The advice of not turning the animals upon the crops before the fun hasdiflipated the dew and moifture depolited in the night is likewife judicious, and ought to be attended to, as well as that of keeping them in motion as much as poffible when fir ft turned in With (beep the fame precau tions may be neceffary, if they be put upon them with the other -flock in their full growth : but when they are turned in after they have in fome degree been fed down, , there will be little danger of their being injured. Where the clovers are eaten off as after-grafs in their foft, foggy, and young (late of .growth, there is however great- danger of the flock being hurt in this way, unlefs thefe circumflances be attended to. Various means of removing the difeafe, when the animals happen to be affected have beenpropofed, fuch as common flrong fait and water; and new milk and tar in the proportion of about half an egg-fhell full. This lafl is afferted to afford imme diate relief on its reaching the ftomach.* The ftabbing the animal in the flank clofe to the hip-bone, with a fnarp penknife, foas to avoid wounding the inteftines, . * Modern Agriculture, vol. II.: 366 Cultivation of Arable Land. Red Clover After-management of. placing a quill in the orifice to difchargc the confined air, has likewife been prac- tifed with fuccefs ; but it never fhould be attempted by unfkilful perfons. The ufe of long flexible tubes has alfo afforded great relief, by being introduced down the gullet into the ftomach, and in that way drawing off the diftending gas. This method is probably the moft fafe and effectual, though troublefome in the applica tion.* There is another remedy which we have found ufeful in removing this malady in its more early ftage, which is that of a very ftrong folution of prepared ammonia in water. By this means the confined air is in fome meafure difcharged from the ftomach, and almoft immediate relief afforded. Whatever remedy is employed, it mould be applied on the firft attack of the dif- order, or as foon as the animal is perceived to beuneafy, as there is never any time to be loft, the diftenlion proceeds with fuch rapidity. It is evident, from what has been faid on this plant, that it muft be of vaft ad vantage to have a fufficient extent of it where much flock is to be kept, as it has been found, as pafture, to far exceed moft forts of natural grafs in the fupport of animals, f The chief difad vantage of this almoft invaluable plant is that of the fhortnefs of its continuing in the lands, efpecially thofe of the lighter and more free kinds. It is afferted by fome not to Jaft longer than two years, except on grounds that are perfectly frej/j ; and in fome cafes where it has been often repeated not more than one. In fome of the fouthern diftricts, it is, however, found more durable on the calcareous foils, efpecially when not frequently repeated on the fame land, from its being better able to contend with weeds in its natural ftate of growth. [ Thefe facts fhow the neceflity of keeping it as far diftant as poffible in the courfes of cropping, efpecially on all the more light friable forts of foil, and the fuperior ad vantages of cultivating it on thofe of the calcareous kind. It is probable that its duration may be confiderably prolonged by preventing the plants from mooting up to feed-ftems as much as pofTible, either by keeping them cut by the fcythe, or by feeding them down by ftock in a moderate degree ; as in thefe ways they will be prevented from being fo foon exhaufted in their roots, as happens in many other forts of plants, as foon as they have perfected their feeds. The frofty nights and hot dry days in the more early fpring months, as well as the * Tubes for this purpofe are fold in London. + Modern Agriculture, vol.11. + Kent s Hints. f Rural Economy of Southern Counties. Corrt:fted Report of Perthshire ; and Rural Economy of Southern Counties, vol. 1. Cultivation of Arable Land. Trefoil 367 clofe funny weather in the fummcr fcafon, aic highly prcjudicJul in deftroying the clover plant.* When the clovers are kept in the ftate of herbage more than one year, they arc not by any means fo proper for fowing wheat after as in other cafes : it is the full fmothering crops that afford the mofl fuitable preparation for this fort of grain. Befides the common red or broad clover, there are other kinds ufed in cultiva tion ; as the White or Dutch clover, and Cow Grafs. Thefe, from their bein/ more frequently employed in the laying down of lands for the purpofe of perma nent grafs, have been defcribed above. The firfl affords a fine delicate herbage, which is very agreeable to moft forts of flock. In the fecond it is morecoarfe and abundant but ftill lefs fo than the common clover ; and the plant has the advan tage of growing better, and of being more lafting in the poorer forts of clayey foils. Trefoil.^ This, as being an ufeful plant in permanent grafs lands, has been already noticed ; but its properties as an artificial grafs may be defcribed in this place. It is of much lefs growth than common clover, and much flenderer in the ftem ; but notwithstanding it is fometimes fown with grain crops in the manner of that crop, the proportion of feed made ufe of is about three pottles when cleaned from the hulks, but in the contrary (rate two bufhels are moftly employed. Thefe may however be varied according to the circumftances of the land. Some fuppofe it an advantageous practice, efpecially where large flocks of cattle are kept, to fow it with oats, or among the wheat crops in the fpring when they are to be fucceeded by grain in the following feafon, as by this means good feed is produced in the ftubbles for flock in the latter part of the fummerand in autumn ; and at the fame time they are left free for tillage in the fpring. The feed is capa ble of being procured at a cheap rate.* It is faid alfo to afford excellent paflurage for cattle, but to be more particularly calculated for fheep, either when in mixture with clover or alone, as it is not fo liable to hurt them by blowing or having as that grafs. In the latter cafe it is of vaft importance in the fupport of fheep, from its being more early than clover, and coming well in after the confumption of the turnip and rye crops before the clovers * Syno^fis of Hufbandry. t Medicago lupulina* % Synopfis of Hufbandry. Ibid. 56*8 Cultivation of Arable Land. Saintfoin Seed and Time of fowing of. When it is let remain for hay it does not afford a large produce, but a fort which is highly ufcful as a (beep-fodder in the winter feafon j and Itfs wafteful than mofr. other kinds, and which, at the fame time, is fuppofed by fome Icfs troublefome in the proccfs of hay-making, though others alfert that it readily mats together and becomes mouldy by wet.* The feed is to be collected from the fecond {hoot in the manner di reeled for clover, and the produce is in general confiderable, often affording feven or eight luifhcls of clean feed from the acre. But on the whole it is much lefs valuable than common clover as an artificial grafs. Saintfoin^ This is a plant which, though Icfs generally introduced into cultiva tion than clover, is not lefs important or ufeful to the farmer. It is on the lighter und thinner forts of calcareous foils, what that plant is on all thofe of the ftrong, <eayy, and moredeep kind; and it has the fuperiority of being more durable. It as equally advantageous for the purpofes of hay as thofe of pafturage, and in the latter method has not, it is faid, the dangerous property of having or fwelling the cattle that feed upon it, as is the cafe with clover. Its lafting properties on poor barren foils in hilly fituations, where other forts of graffy herbage are deficient or fcarccly to be procured at all, likewife render it particularly beneficial in fupplying a valuable green food for different forts offtock.J The foils moft proper for this fort of grafs are thofe of chalky loams, light fandy or gravelly kind, or almoft any of a mixed quality, provided they be not wet, and have a rocky or hard calcareous bottom, to check the roots at the depth of a foot -or fifteen inches below the furface ; otherwife they are apt to exhauft themfelves in running down. On this account it is improper for being fown where there is great depth of mould. It isafferted to afford a large produce even on thofe of the .pooreft quality ; and on fuch as are of a more rich and friable nature it is often very abundant. It is only, however, in the calcareous foils, or fuch as have been well impregnated with that fort of matter, that this plant fucceeds in a perfect manner, ,or becomes durable.^ In regard to the preparation of the ground, it cannot be made too clean or tod fine before the feed is fown ; of courfe it generally fucceeds beft after turnips or other fimilar crops which require a fine clean culture while they are growing. It often, however, anfwers well on lands that have not undergone fo high a degree of preparation. * Kent s Hints. t Hedysarum onobrychi*. J Kent s Hints. ^ Marshall s Rural Economy of Southern Counties, vol. I. ST FOIV. yjfti / -n n / Otio bnr/i rs.J Cultivation of Arable Land. Sainlfolii -. Tit/ic and Method of fowing* 33^ Seed. This fhould be felcctcd from the bed plants, and thofc which arc mod fuited to the foil of the cultivator by their durable properties.* It fhould always be fovvn frefh, as that which is old never vegetates well. The proportion of feed which is neceffary mud be different according to the circumdances of the land ; but in the broadcaft method about four bufhels are probably in general the moft proper quantity, as on thefe forts of foil it is better .to have the plants thick ; fome, how ever, think lefs than half the above proportion fufficient. In the drill mode three bufhels are moftly employed. Seed of this fort is ufually procured at from about three to five or fix fhillings a bufhel. Time and Metbod of Sowing, The earlier the feeds of this grafs can be put into the ground in the fpring the better, as there will be the more chance of their vegetating in a perfect manner from the greater proportion of moidure in the foil, as when the bufinefs is performed at a late period, if a dry feafon follow, much the feed would be prevented from growing, and the young plants that come up be more expofed to the attacks of the fly. ) The latter end of February or the begin ning of the following month may anfvver very well in mod cafes. It is, however, by fome cultivators fown in the autumn with the wheat crop ; but the practice is not to be recommended, as there may be danger of its not growing well, or of being injured in the winter feafon. + It may be put in either alone or with any of the fpring corn crops, but with barley after turnips is confidered the bed method. Some advife its being fown with about half the quantity of barley which is ufually fown fora full crop, as it may made and keep it moid during the fird fummer; and at the fame time not injure it from the crop being lighter, which is fometimes the cafe. Where the barley is drilled, the faintfoin may afterwards be put in, in the fame manner, butina contrary direction, as is fome;imes the cafe in Norfolk. If fown over the wheats, it mould be harrowed in, and afterwards rolled. In whatever method it is fown, as the feeds are larger than thofe of many other grades, they mould be covered in with more care and to a fomewhat greater depth. Some advife the ploughing the feed in with a very thin or (hallow furrow. In mod cafes, efpecially in all the more light forts of land on which this crop is fown, the ufe of the roller may likewife be neceflary. It is fom.i-imes a practice to fow a fmall portion of clover feed with this crop, with the idea of increafing the fird year s produce j but as plants of different kinds * Marfhall s Rural Economy of Southern Counties, vol.11. t Synopfis of Ilufbandry. J Ibiil. Kent s Hints, VOL. ii. B 570 Cultivation of A mile Land. Sain if out After-management of. feldorri fucceed well together, from there being a continual conteft in their growth for an afcendency, it is probably a better practice to increafe the proportion of the feed without mixing it with that of other forts. Mr. Marfhall, however, feems to think the method beneficial in ultimately procuring a fine clean crop of faint- foin. After-management. On this being properly attended to, a great deal of the fuc- cefs-in the culture of this plant depends. The moft experienced cultivators of the grafs advife its being cut for hay inftead of being paftured. But others think it more advantageous neither to cut nor pafture it in the autumn of the firfl year. It is probable that both practices may be proper under different circumftances ; as in the richer forts of foil, where this plant moftly affords a tolerable crop when fown alone the firil year, it may be mown with propriety and without much injury being done to the plants; but in thofe of the thinner and more poor kinds, where the crops are in general the firft feafon but thin on the ground and light, it may be advantageous to let them remain without being cut or fed down by flock, as in this way they may fprcad more, and form a better and more clofe fward in the following year. By the plants in this cafe being fuffered to feed, betides the advan tage juft mentioned, they will have acquired a great vigour of growth, and thefuc- ceeding crops be greatly increafed from the fhedding of the feeds. Jn all cafes, in the fucceed ing fummers, a crop of hay maybe taken, and the after- grafs be fed down with any forts of flock but fheep till towards December, care being taken that they do not eat it in too clofe a manner, as where that is the cafe, from the largenefs of the roots, they may be in danger of injuring the crowns of the plants. In the following autumns there will, however, be lefs rifk in this refpect, and fheep, as well as cattle flock, may be turned in and kept upon the paf- turcs till they are all well eaten down, being always careful to fhutthem up as early as poffible in the beginning of the year.* The quantity of produce muft of courfe be liable to vary much according to the nature of the foil, and the care that has been beflowcd in the preparation : on a medium of foil and culture it may probably be eflimated at about two tons. The poorer and thinner flapled forts of land, worth little more than five (hillings an acre, will feldom afford lefs than from a ton to a ton and a half. On the thinner forts of foil it can feldom be cut more than once, but on thofe of the deeper kinds t\ro crops are fometimes taken in the fame way as with clover. * Kent s Hints. Cultivation of Arable Land,- In its green ftateitis highly ufeful for all forts of flock ; though fonie fuppofe that when given to milch cows the milk is not fo well flavoured. When made into hay it is an extremely nutritious fodder for working-horfes, as. well as other forts of cattle. And the after-grafs is highly valuable for weaning and fupporting lambs. As this fort of herbage is fuppofed to be improved by being nipped by the froft, it may be a proper practice not to turn upon thefe lays too early in the an- tumn. The application of manure upon faintfoin lays is of great utility, when put en in the latter end of the fecond autumn after they have been laid down. For this purpofe peat ames are the beft material where they can be procured. Other forts of afhes are likewife found beneficial where thefe cannot be had. They mould be applied fo as to form a thin even dreiling. Soot has alfo been found of great utility when fpread evenly over thefe lays about the beginning of January, in the propor tion of about twenty-five bufhels to the acre. And malt duft has been employed in the fame way with great fuccefs.* Where top-dreflings of this fort can be applied every third or fourth year, the faintfoin crops, when well eftablifhed in the foils, may be preferved inaftate of vigorous growth for ten or fifteen years, and the land be confiderably improved by the roots.-}- It ufually attains its perfect growth about the third year ; and begins to decline towards the eighth or tenth, if not wellaflifted by manure in the manner mentioned above. It is, in fome cafes, a profitable application of this fort of crop to cut it before it comes into flower, for the purpofe of foiling horned and other forts of cattle, in the manner that has been defcribed for clover. The moft ufual application of it is, however, in hay, which it affords of the bed and moft nutritious quality, both for horfes and other forts of cattle. The method of bringing it into this condition differs but little from that employed for clover. It is cut immediately on its coming into full bloflbm ; and as it remains but a fhort time in this ftate, as much expedition as poflible is employed both in mowing and making the produce into hay. This, of all other graffes, requires the leaft pains in making. When the feafon is fine the hay-makers may follow the fcythe, and having turned over the fwaths, throw them into wind-rows the fucceeding day after the grafs is mown, when it may be immediately formed into cocks, and the whole crop be fit for carting in a few days after it is mown : and though it may * Synopfis of Hufbandry. i Kent s Hints. 3B2 372 Cidtiiat wn of Arabic Land, Sttlnlfoin After-managem nt of. appear very green, and the ftack when made take on a confider able degree of heat there is no danger to be apprehended, provided the weather has been fair during the hay-making; as it is fo far from taking harm by heating in the flack, that the contrary (late is mofi to be feared ; and for this rcafon care is neceflhry not to fuffer r he fodder to continue long cither in the fvvath or in grafs cocks, left the fun and wind fhould dry it up too fa ft, and, by exhaling its juices, prevent its heating in the flack, and thereby render it of little value. In order to preferve its fucculence infome places they put a number of the grafs cocks together, fo as to form large cocks of a fize to contain a load in each, and finifli the fuicks out of the cocks. It is likevvife the practice with many farmers, when the crop is flight, to turn the fwaths, and then run them into cocks with a three-pronged barley fork, follow- in 01 with a wooden dew rake, the head of which is of fufficient width to cover th e oround occupied by three or four fwaths ; in this manner proceeding with the ut- moft difpatch,faving a deal of labour and expenfe.* In letting this crop fland for feed, it fhculd remain on the land till the hufks become of a fomewhat brown colour, and the feeds are perfectly plump and firm, as by thcfc means they will not only be better, but in lefs danger of being injured in the field from the little time that it will be neceffary for them to remain, and alfo lefs in danger of being hurt by heating when laid up. After this degree of maturity is attained, the crop fhould be mown as foon as poffible,and remain expofed in the fvvath till the upper furface is fully dried : it mufl then be turned over in a very careful manner, fo as to prevent the feed from fhedding, as much as the na_ ture of the bufmefs will admit. This fide being rendered perfectly dry and crifp in the fame way, the crop is either threfhed out upon cloths in the field, or laid up in flacks to be afterwards performed. The bufinefs of threfhing out the feed in this crop, however, is much lefs troublefome than in that of clover. Where threfhing-machines are inufe, it may be threfhed out with great facility in that method. When thefeafon is favourable the practice of threfhing it out in the firfl way is probably the moft beneficial, as the ftems,. or haulm, may be laid up for the purpofe of fodder in the flack. The produce in feed is ufually from about four to five coombs in fome diftricts ; but in others it will probably be much lefs, efpecially on the fhallovver forts of faintfoin foils. It is evident, from the facts that have been flated, that this is a plant of vaft utility to the farmer, not only in providing a full fupply of fodder for the fupport * Synopfis of Husbandry. D1 UBff. , OF THE ^ iVERSITY ^ THE LUCERNE. (Mtdicttqo Cultivation of Arable Land. Lucern Soils proper for, 573 of (lock, but of good green feed for the latter part of autumn, in foils that arc adapted to its culture, as it is capable of affording a large produce, even on thofe thin poor defcriptions of land that under other circumftances yield only a very fcanty product cither in herbage or hay. And in fuch as are of the better and more fertile kinds the quantity of crop is incomparably abundant. Its culture ought, therefore, to be extended to all thofe extenfive tracts of land in different parts of the kingdom that afford little or nothing under other fyflcms of hufbandry or modes of cropping, and which are not adapted to the growth of clovers. This is particularly deferable, as it is an artificial grafs that fucceeds well in the ordinary methods of fowing, without the trouble or expenfe of either the drill or the hoc. It fcems extremely probable, from different trials that have been made with this plant, that it is not by any means fo confined in refpect to foil as has been generally fuppofed,* though there can be little doubt but that it anfwers belt on thofe of the calcareous dry loamy kinds. On fuch as have had occafionally ap plications of lime it has been known to fucceed in a perfect manner. t The fituations that are the mofl unfriendly to the growth of this grafs are thofe where there is much ftagnant moifture in the foils, or where they are wet and fpungy ; a confiderable degree of drynefs being effentiai to the healthy vegetation of the faintfoin plant.J The principal inconvenience which crops of this fort fuftain is from the rifing of coarfe graffes, and weeds of different kinds, as it is thefe that, in a great meafure, limit the duration of the plants, and not that of their age : the advantage of a pro per and clean preparation of the land previous to its being fown is therefore fuf- iiciently evident. Where, notwithstanding every precaution, fuch graffes come up fo as to injure the faintfoin, harrowing has been had recourfe to with fuccefs, xvhen performed to fuch a degree as to leave the furface of the land in nearly the flate of fallow. Lucern.^ This is another plant of the artificial grafs kind, that may in fome cafes be cultivated with much profit and advantage, as affording a large produce of fucculent green food, for the fupport of different forts of flock, and likewife of hay for the winter fodder of horfcs or other cattle. The foils mofl fuitable to the culture of this plant are all thofe of the more deep, rich, and drier kinds, as thofe of the found, mellow, loamy, gravelly and fandy def- * Young s Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. t Marshall s Rural Economy of the Southern Counties* ^"O t Young s Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. > Ibid. fl Medicago satha. 374 Cultivation of Arable Land*--Lucern~Prepctr(tti o nfur Seed. fcriptipns; but on fuch as are retentive of moiihirc ic fhould not be attempted, as the roots are liable to be greatly injured, if not wholly deflroycd, by the ftagnation of \vater about them. Weeping gravelly lands, and all fuch as are not well drained, are of courfe improper for this fort of culture. It is fuppofed by fome, that for the fua efsful cultivation of this crop, it is neceffary that there fhould be a fub- irratum of fuch a fort as is capable of flopping thedefcent of r.he roots at a certain depth, in order to prevent their exhaufting themfelves ; but the depth of the mould in this cafe, fhould be confiderably greater than for that of the preceding grafs, a foot and a half or two feet being moftly requifite.* In the preparation of the land the foil (hould always be brought into as fine a condkion of mould as poffible. This may be effected by repeated ploughing and harrowing, and the previous growth of fuch crops of the green kind as have a ten dency to clean and render the land more fine and mellow. In this intention, fome advife the taking of two crops of turnips, carrots, or cabbages, either in fucceflion or alternating with each other; the turnips, in the heavier loams, being eaten off upon the land in the fecond autumn, before it is ploughed up. In either of thefe cafes, from the hoeing and conftant culture which is neceffary, while the crops are upon the land, it will be left in a fuitable ftate of cleannefs and friability. f Others recommend fallowing as a better practice, the root weeds of every kjnd being carefully pricked out in the different ploughings and harro wings. From the great length of time that the ground muft remain unemployed in this mode of prepara tion, it is probably, however, only capable of being practifed with advantage where the lands are heavy and very full of weeds. Before the feed is put in, the foil muft be rendered perfectly fine by ploughing it over as frequently as may be neceffary, and breaking it well down by occafionally harrowing. It will feldom be neceffary to make ufe of manure ; but where the land is found to ftand in need of it, appli- cation is befl made with the firft of the green crops. The object to be conftantly kept in view in this bulinefs is chiefly that of rendering the land perfectly clean from weeds, and at the fame time highly mellow and friable. S/ed. The feed of lucern is larger and of a more pale colour than that of clover; and as much of it is brought annually from Holland, it is commonly purchafed in the feed (hops, the price varying from one to two millings the pound. As feeds- men are apt to keep their feeds from year to year, it may be neceffary to obferve,. that that v/hich is perfedly frefh is the mod proper for being fown, as fmall feeds * Kent s Hinis, t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. Cultivation of Arable Land. Luccrn Time and Method of f owing, sr, in general vegetate in the mod perfect manner when new. The proport: ~ feed that is necefTary is variable, according to the nature of the land a manner in which the crop is cultivated. In the broadcad method, which h found very fuccefsful, from eighteen to twenty pounds may be proper, vv.u.c ^u that of the drill it will be confiderably lefs, according to the didances at -which the operation is performed. In two-feet equididant rows the ufual allowance is about fix pounds ; in thofe of eighteen inches, about eight pounds j in thcfe of twelve inches, ten or twelve pounds ; and in nine-inch rows, which are by much the belt, trom twelve to fixteen pounds may be neceflary. Time and Method of Sowing. The mod proper feafon for putting this fort of crop into the ground is as early as can be done in the fpring months, as in this way plants may be fully edablifhed before the feafon becomes too hot. The latter end of March for the more fouthcrn diftricts may be the mod proper period, and the beginning of the following month for thofe of the north. When fown late there is more danger of the plants being dcdroyed by the fly, as has been obferved by Mr. Tull. If the plants be intended to be tranfplanted out in the garden method, it will alfo be the bed practice to fow the feed-bed as early in the fpring as the frods will admit, in order that they may be drong and fit to fet out about Augud. With regard to the mode of putting in the crop, it mould vary with the circum- dances of the foil, and the mode of after-management that can be adopted with the mod convenience. Where much attention cannot be bedowed in the bulinefs of hoeing and keeping the crop clean, the bed method is that of fowing the land broadcad; though in this method the crop may not lad fo long in the ground. But in cafes where the crops are capable of being kept in a fufficiently clean con dition by repeated hoe culture, the drill may be more advifable, efpecially at narrow didances. Some, however, think it the bed method in all cafes.* The practice of tranfplanting can, perhaps, only be done in particular cafes, on fmall pieces of deep land that are in great heart, and require the plants in confe- quence to dand thin and regular upon the ground, as in this mode they become large and of vigorous growth. In foils that are inclined to moidure at fome depth below the furface, it may be an ufeful method of keeping the roots of the plants from being injured by their penetrating too deeply, as is more the cafe when the plants rife from feed.f The feed may be fown either alone or with grain crops, in the fame manner as * Kent s Hints. t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. 376 Cultivation of Arabic Land Luc cm Tune and Mctitod y" clover : each method has its advocates, and it is probable that they may both be ufe- ful under different circumftances, as in the deeper and more fertile forts cf lands the firft may be the mofl beneficial method, and in thofe of the lighter and lefs deep .kinds the latter ; as in the deep, rich forts of land there may be lefs lofs of time in procuring the green produce for the ufe of horfes or other forts of flock, as well as the greater certainly of the crop fucceeding. But in the lighter and more porous foils, by being fown with corn, the plants may be better protected in their early growth, as well by the made as the moifture that will in that way be preferved. Some indeed fpeak of its -fuperior utility, on the ground of long experience, injts being better preferved from the fly.* Wherever this mode is made ufe of, the grain mould how ever be fown thinner than is ufually the cafe in proportion as the foils are more rich. Oats are preferable to barley for the purpofe, as being lefs liable to lodge, efpecially when fown thin. From five or fix pecks to three bufhels, fown as evenly as poffible, may be the beft proportions, the fmallefl quantity being nee effary on the richeft foils. After the grain has been fown and harrowed properly in, the lucern feed mould be immediately fown by a regular even caft over the fine furface, covering it in with a light feed harrow; but itfhould not be too deeply covered in, two inches is fully fuffi- cient. In the drill method the fame fyftem mould be followed, the lucern feed being drilled in, either lengthways or acrofs, at fuitable diftances, immediately after the corn has been put in.f It is hardly neceflary to obferve, that the plats of ground fown for the purpofe of raifing plants to be fet out in the garden method of culture, mould always be without grain or other forts of crops, in order that they may admit of having the plants properly thinned out and kept clean, and in a vigorous ftate of growth for being afterwards put out with the moft advantage. In regard to the proper diftance of the rows where the drill mode of culture is pradlifed, it mould probably depend upon the ftate and circumftances of the foils : fame advife two feet as the bed diftance in all cafes,} while others think equal di- tances of a foot in rich foils, fuch as are worth from thirty to forty (hillings the acre, and Jiine inches thofe that are of inferior fertility, as from fifteen to twenty Shillings the acre, the beft general diftances. On foils of lefs value, it is probable that this culture can feldom be had recourfe to with much benefit to the farmer. The laft diftance approaches much to the broadcaft method,which is contended by * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. f Ibid. Armals of Agriculture, vol. XXV, Cultivation of Arable Land. Lucern Sifter-management of. 377 fome as the moft appropriate in all cafes :* of courfe it may be preferable, as it ad mits of being ploughed between by a fuitablc plough in the room of the harrow. The feed, in whatever method it may have been fown, is, when good, rather rapid in its vegetation, beginning to fprout in the courfe of a week, and foon fpread- ing itfclf over the furface of the land. And the fooner it attains its rough leaf the better, as it is then, like turnips, out of danger of being deftroyed by the fly. Before thefe plants arrive at this ftate of growth, they are liable, efpecially in dry feafons, to be much injured, if not wholly confumed, .by the ravages of the fame fort of infect as that which is fo detrimental to the turnip plant. Where the greateft part of the plants are injured in this way, it is probably the beft method, when the crop has been put in alone, to plough up the land, and fow it down again withfrefti feed as foon as poflible. This is an advantage which the practice of fowing the crop alone has over that of putting it in with thofe of other kinds. After-management. As the economy of this plant is fuch as to render it incapable of being grown with much advantage where other forts of plants, whether of the grafs or weed kind, are apt to annoy it, much care and attention fhould of courfe be employed in keeping it clean and free from the intrufion of all fuch vegetable productions. This may be effected in different ways according to the methods iii which the crop has been raifed. Where the broadcaft plan has been purfued, little is neceffary where the land has been properly prepared, after the grain crop has been removed, except keeping all forts of heavy ftock from coming upon it. In a dry feafon, if there be occafion, the field may, however, be fed a little by calves and other very light ftock, but they fhould never be kept long upon the plants at one time. When the fecond cutting has been made in the following year, if any grafs mows itfelf, the land ihould be harrowed over in a moderate manner by a harrow which is not too heavy or too long in the tines, twice or more times, as may be neceffary, in different directions, the graffy matter being collected by a fmall light implement of the fame kind, and removed from the land. This buli- nefs mould be executed as foon in the early part of the fpring as the nature and ftate of the ground will admit, as dry a period as poflible being taken for perform ing the work. In the fucceeding years two fuch harrowings may frequently be re quired, one in the early part of the fpring feafon and the other in the clofe of the fum mer. But in thefe cafes, efpecially where there is much grafs appearing, a much heavier fort of harrow fhould be made ufe of. Some advife one of fuch weight as is fufRcient for four horfes, and which does not fpread more than four or * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. VOL. ii. 3 C 378 Cultivation of Arable Land. Luccrn After "management of. five feet;* but in moft cafes, efpecially when the bufmefs is fo frequently done, one that requires lefs draught may be adequate to the purpofe, as where fuch large heavy harrows are employed, there is much danger of injuring the crowns of the plants, and thereby caufing their destruction : whereas by the ufe of lighter ones they are moflly much benefited from the mould being ftirred about their roots. After thefe harro wings, as in the above cafe, the weeds mould be brought together and removed from the ground. Where the crops are thin and patchy, feed in pro portion to the deficiencies mould be fovvn over fuch places before the harrowings commence each time. In every cafe the rollers fhould be applied immediately after the operation has been performed, not only for the purpofe of preffing the mould about the roots of the plant, but to render the furface perfectly level and fit for the fcythe. In the broadcaft method of culture, where the produce is not to a confiderable extent, it is probably better to feed the crop by light cattle flock in the autumn than mow it. In the drill-fown luccrn fome recommend, where the rows are fufficiently evident in the autumn feafon, after the grain has been fecured, the pafling of a fmall mim between them, in order to extirpate all the weeds and grafiy materials, as well as to loofen the mould about the roots of the plants, and, that they may be rendered more perfectly clean, the hand-hoeing of the plants in the rows.f In the fucceed- ing year flill more particular attention to the ufe of the fhim and hoe will bere- quifite. The bufmefs fhould be begun as early as the ftateof the foils will fafely admit of its being executed; being continued occafionally in fuch manner, dur ing the whole fiimmer, as is fufficient for preferving the crops perfectly clean and free from all forts of weeds. But in order to accomplifh this in the mofl complete way, great circumfpection is necefTary, immediately after the lucern has been cut, to the extirpation of the natural grafs plants and the weeds of other kinds, as at this period they can be difcovered and removed with the greateft facility and difpatch. The crops raifed in the tranfplanted method, as they are put in fo late in the fummer feafon, will demand but little regard in the autumn : one or at mofl two flight hoeings may be fufficient for the purpofe. But in the following year s cul ture the fame management will be proper as in the preceding cafe. Some advife it as a good rule in thefe cafes to give full hoeings, either of the horfe or hand kinds, as foon as weeds appear, every time after the crops are taken off. Jf the plants are perfectly ftraight in the rows^ which fhould always be the * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. f Ibid, Cultivation of Arabic Land. Lucern After-imnagtment of. 379 cafe, " a (him may be had recourfe to with the greateft benefit, as it may be drawn fo clofcly to the plants as in a great meafure to fave the expenfe of hand-hoeing, as in fuch cafes it will only be neceflary to extirpate the weeds or natural grafs plants that may have efbiblifhed themfeives among the lucern plants in the rows, which is capable of being effe<5led in a very complete manner by the ufe of a- pronged hand-hoe."* It is further recommended by the fame cultivator, never by any means to fufFer fields of this fort to become weedy, under the fuppofition that the produce may not cut well, or be free from dull ; as, where it is of fufHciently vigorous growth, and of a fuirable diftance in the rows according to the nature of the land, there can be no reafon for fuch an injurious practice ; as it is only where the planting is executed at larger diftances than the condition of the foils will permit that any inconvenience can be experienced in this way. Where hand-hoeing is the method chiefly depended upon for keeping crops of lucern in a proper (late of culture, much of the bufinefs may be performed by women, or even children, and the expenfe be thus considerably leffened. When the foils on which this plant is grown are not of considerable fertility, the occafional application of manure may be of great advantage in thickening and increafing the quantity of crop. For this ufe clean well rotted dung is probably by much the bed manure, as where earthy comports, allies, or foot are employed, they are apt to promote the growth of; or bring up common grafles too much. The latter are, however, fometimes fown over the crops in the winter feafon. The dung is advifed by fome to be applied in the quantity of about Jwenty tons to the acre every five or fix years.f Others, however, think it a better ^raclice to put a light coat on annually in the early fpring feafon. J The culture of this fort of crop is obvioufly attended with confiderable ~xperfe, both in its firft eftablifhment and the after-management which is neceffary to enfure its fuccefs. The inexperienced cultivator mould not therefore commence this kind of hufbandry too haftily, without confidering how far it may fuit his circumftances. The additional expenfes in putting in this fort of crop, with thofe of the grain kind, in the drill method, the neceflary annual charges afterwards, and the produce in rhe fupporting of horfes, are (hown in one view below.^ * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. i Ibid. J Kent s Hints. Extra Expense. . s. d. Two fpring ploughing extra, are - - - 18 Jlarrowings ... - . 2 5 Carried over . 1 <) 3C 2 380 Cultivation of Arable Land. Lucern After-management of. As this is one of the moft forward of the artificial graffes, it frequently attains a fufficient growth for the fcythe towards the end of May or beginning of the fol lowing month, and in foils that are favourable for its culture will be in a ftate of readinefs for a fecond cutting in the courfe of a month or fix weeks longer ; being capable of undergoing the fame operation at nearly fimilar diftances of time during the whole of the fummer feafon. In this lafl fort of foil, with proper management in the drill method, it has been found to rife to the height of a foot and a half in about thirty or forty days, affording five full cuttings in the fummer.* But in the broadcaft crops, in the opinion of fome, there are feldom fo many cut- tings afforded in this feafon, three or four being more common, as the growth is fuppofed to be lefs rapid than by either of the other modes. This is, however, contradicted by the experience of other cultivators who have paid much attention to the fubjecT:, as will be feen below. In order to have new fucceflions of this grafs conftantly becoming ready to be cut, it has been recommended, for thepurpofe of foiling, to have the broadcaft plantations formed into fo many divifions as* that one of them may be cut daily; as about fixty, and thofe of the drilled and tranfplanted Brought forward Eight pounds of feed Drilling - liorfe-hoeing in autumn Hand-hoeing ditto Annual Expenses. To rent, tythes and rates Four horfe-hoeings Three hand-hoeings Five mowings Raking together Loading and carting home Manuring to amount per annum Firft year . 1 18 Pro/it by soiling Horses. By keeping five horfes from"! beginning of May to mid- I . s. d* die of Odober, at 2s. 6d. [14 7 6 per horfe per week J, 490 Clear profit 9 18 6 . 14 7 6 * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV, 7 fi Cultivation of Arable Land. Lucern After-management of. 381 kinds into from thirty to forty, according to the nature of the land, confuming them in the fame manner.* Thefe cuttings muft however be varied in proportion to the difference in the growth of the crops and the confumption. The moft economical mode of cutting the produce is without doubt by means of the fcythe, though the reaping-hook has been made ufe of by fome. After being cut, the food mould be conveyed as foon as poffible to the animals. This may be done by a light cart, or large barrow, made for the purpofe, according to the fcaleon which the bufinefs is con- dueled. One cutting only in a day is advifed by fome; but as there is a lofs as well as injury done to all forts of green cut food by keeping even for a few hours in hot feafons, it may be a better practice to have two cuttings in the day, efpecially when the weather is warm, and the lucern at no great diftance. Befides, the food is eaten better when given quite frefh. The produce of this fort of crop in converting it to the purpofes of foiling cattle muft neceflarily be different under different circumftances ; but an acre can feldom when under proper culture and management, fupport lefs than from three to five or fix horfes or other cattle during the fix fummer months j the profit of which cannot be lefs than from feven to ten or twelve pounds. And in letting it remain for hay, which is lefs advantageous, in the three mow ings an acre where the crop is good will feldom afford lefs than from three to five tons of dry hay. In Mr. Arbuthnot s trials, the produce was four loads, but in thofe of others on rich grounds it was five. In making this fort of plant into hay the fame directions mould be attended to as for clover ; the lefs the produce is lhaken about, the better, provided it be fufficiently quickly dried; as the leaves will be more fully preferved on the ftems, and the hay of courfe more valuable. From its greater fucculence it will in common require rather more time than clover or faintfoin in making. As this fort of hay is held in lefs eftimation than that of either of the above graffes, it mould be confurned at home by the farm horfes or other ftock, and that of other forts fent for fale. In the application of the crop the principal and obvioufly the moft advantage ous practice is that of foiling horfes, neat cattle, and hogs. But as a dry fodder it is alfo capable of affording much afliftance in many cafes. And as an early food for ewes and lambs, it may be of great value in particular cafes. As this plant bears repeated cutting better than moft of thofe of the artificial grafs kind, fprings in a more quick and expeditious manner, and affords a healthy nutritious food, in foiling it muft be of vaft utility to the farmer where horfes and cattle form a large * Annals of Agriculture, vol.. XX V. 3S2 Cultivation of Arable Land. Lucern After-management of. ./ t/ w* \J part of his (lock. With horfes, in this way, it has been found by fomc to anfwer better than any other fort of green food that has been tried the number of cuttings that it admitted of being, on different foils and under different modes of culture, from about three to five, affording a produce of green herbage adequate to the fup- port of from three to four or five horfes for a period of nearly fix months in the fummer feafon. And though much of this vaft advantage, in the fuppcrt of thcfc animals, may with propriety be afcribcd to the economy of the confumptionof the food that unavoidably takes place in this excellent practice,* the real produce in green food is without doubt larger than in moft other grafs crops. The broadcast crops in the trials of fome cultivators appear to have been more profitable in this mode of confuming the produce than thofe of either the drilled or tranfplanted methods o/ culture. In the practice of M r. Hall, the former fupported from four to five horfes for twenty-fix weeks, while the crops tranfplanted in rows two feet afunder only afforded produce fufficient for the keeping of three. And in thofe of Mr. Clayton, in the broadcaft without grain, five horfes were kept from the middle of May t.ll Michaelmas, while that drilled in equidiftant rows, at thediflance of eigh teen inches, only fupported four.f There are many other facts that lead to the fame conclufion. On very rich foils the drilled lucern will, without doubt, when the plants are kept perfectly clean, and the mould well ftirred between the rows and laid to their roots, afford an abundant produce, perhaps more fo than in the broadcafl ; but to do this great attention in the culture muft be beftowed. In its application in the foiling of cows and other forts of cattle in the fold-yards, and in the feeding and fattening of oxen, its importance is equally great. It is found that in foiling cows, the proportion of this fort of food confumed, in twenty-four hours, is from about fixty or feventy to upwards of a hundred pounds, in thofe which are of the middling-fizcd kinds ; an acre maintaining in the proportion of about four for twenty weeks. In other trials larger proportions of frock have been kept by this practice. In feeding cattle with this fort of food in its green (rare care is neceffary, however, not to give the animals too largely at a time, efpecially when it is moift, as they maybe boven or blown with it in the fame way as with clover. The trials in fattening bullocks, or other cattle, with this green fodder are not numerous ; but they are fufficiently fo to prove its utility in fuch applications * Young s Kaftcrn Tour. vol. IV. f- Ibid, Cultivation of Arable Laml.Lucern After-management of. 383 In Mr. Young s trials, cattle were found to increafe fafi in flefli by it, paying at the rate of four [hillings and lixpence a head per week, which is confidered as a great proof of the value of the plant : in this view its fuperiority to tares he thinks prodigious.* It has alfo been confidered of great value in this view in Ireland, by Mr. Herbert, after much experience. The great power which it poficfles in fattening is, indeed, rendered fufficiently evident, by the fudden effects which it produces in foiling horfes. In moll inftances they get into high condition in a fhorr time, becoming " fat without oats or hay" in fome cafes. -j- Sheep have likewifebeen fattened on this green food with great fuccefs in Mr. Baldwin s trials. + T In foiling hogs in the fold-yards it has alfo been attended with confiderable fuccefs. And it has been fuggefted,that as thefe animals do not bite fo clofely as fheep, they may be admitted upon the crops with greater fafety. A plot of it contiguous to the yards might in this view be highly beneficial. It is fufficiently clear,from thefe ftatements, that this is a highly beneficial method ofdifpofing of lucern crops. Its vafl fuperiority over that of making them into hay, as well as the expenfe, product, and neat profit in cultivating them on differ ent foils, may be feen atone view in the following table.H The utility and application of the hay produced from this grafs has been already mentioned. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIV. t Ibid. vol. XXV. Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. t Ibid. U Soils. Application. Expenfes. Produft. Profit. (Averages of 5 Crops. A Light fandy loam Rich black loam Good loam Good loam Rich deep fandy loam Averages Soiling Hay Soiling Soiling Soiling . .. d. 1 14 6 508 3 15 336 3 11 1 . *. d. 13 1150 14 7 6 900 7 114. . S. d. 11 5 6 644 10 12 6 5 16 6 3 13 111 3 8 11 10 18 8 7 10 5 384 Cultivation of Arable Land. Lucern After-management, of* The refult of the comparative experiment, made by Mr. Anderdon, with this Crop, and thofeof burnet and faintfoin, fhows its great fuperiority over them.* Though crops of this fort fliould not, by any means, be fed clofe with flieep ftock, it is probable that, in particular cafes, they may be applied as an early green feed for ewes and lambs with great utility and convenience, as they may be re lied on for this fort of feed much fooner than any other kinds of artificial grafs crops, efpecially in foils of the rich, dry, and warm- defcriptions : being often ready for the purpofe foon after the middle of March, affording a good bite through the whole of the following month, the moft difficult period for the pro viding of fuitable fupport for this kind of ftock. The benefit produced in the heal thy growth and improvement of the lambs in this mode, wijl much more than counterbalance any lofs fuftained in the firft cuts for foiling of horfes. The flieep ihould not, however, remain on longer than while the firft flioots are eaten down. On the whole, though this plant is capable of being thus ufefully applied, con- fidering the very great expenfes which are neceflary in raifing and keeping lu- cern crops in a ftate of production, and their affording but little produce, efpecially when fown without corn, for the firft years, notwithftandingthey appear to yield a great advantage in the practice of foiling animals, it is probable that much of the profit depends upon the method of confuming them, and not on that of the particularly advantageous nature of the plants. Its fuperiority to clover, when die differences in the expenfes of their cultureand other circumftances are fairly brought into view, will not, perhaps, appear fo great as many on a fuperficial obfervation may have fuppofed. The point in which it moft materially excels that invalua ble plant is the duration, or time which it lafts in the ground, after being once introduced, continuing from ten to fifteen and even twenty years, according to the Ibs. * Lucern at four cuttings green, produced .... _ 159 Burnet _ _ 84 Saintfoin 112 The difadvantagos of making them into ha} Hand thus: Ibs. Ibs. Lucern in grafs ..... 57y . -. in hay 22 Burnet in ditto 25^ in hay 7 Saintfoin in ditto 29{ in hay 9 One cutting of each. Thefe fads fully mow the great lofs and difadvantage of employing in the way of hay the more fucculent forts of vegetable productions that are capable of being cut and foiled in their green ftate. Cultivation of Arable Land* Lucern. Tares. 385 date and nature of the foil, and the attention that is bedowed in the after-manage ment. This is, undoubtedly, a circumftance of the firft importance, in cafes where the cultivator wifhes to avoid the trouble and expenfe of grain crops, as he can keep a fuitable extent of land under this crop for the purpofe of foiling his (lock without them, while with clover it is utterly impofllble.* Where the proportion of land is fmall, and the quantity of cattle and horfe (lock difproportionately large, it is a plant admirably calculated for the cultivator s purpofe, when grown conve niently to the farm yards and kept in due order by proper cultivation. It has alfo been recommended on dairy farms as of great utility in fupporting the cows and increafing the quantity of milk.f Where the foils are fuitable a few acres under this grafs round the houfe mud in almoft all cafes be valuable for the purpofe of early green food. On attempting to break up lands that have been long under this fort of crop, it has been fometimes found from the great drength of the roots of the lucern plants, and the confequent difficulty of deftroying them, that the crops have been redored in fuch a manner as to induce the cultivators to leave it again for the production of this grafs. ^ In (ituations where fuch grounds could be conveniently flooded, or covered with water occafionally, they might, therefore, be very advantageoufly con verted into good meadow or grafs lands ; a fort of application that has long fincc been recommended by a French writer. When fuch lands are perfectly broken up, they afford, in mod cafes, admirable crops of the grain kind. Oats, as being the lead injured by a luxuriant growth, may in general be the mod advifable as the fird crop. The nature, cultivation, and modes of applying different forts of artificial grafles in the feeding of live dock being explained, we fhall conlider a few other plants of the herbaceous kind, which feem properly to belong to this place, from their great importance and ufe in affording plentiful fupplies of green food for the fup- port of cattle or other forts of live dock. Tares.\\ This is a plant which, from its tall, clofe, hardy growth and fucculent nature, is capable of being introduced with vad advantage in the manner of thofe of the artificial grafs kind, between different forts of grain crops, with the view of pre venting the fertility of the land from being too much expended, and at the fame time * Young s Eaftern Tour, vol. IV. f Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXV. J Young s Annals, vol. XXV. De Serres en Theatre d Agriculture, p. 442. || Vicia sativa. VOL. ii. 3 D C/.S6 Cultivation of Arabic Land. Tares Varieties of Winter and Spring. procuring anufeful fupply of green or other fodder for the confumption of horfes or other defcriptions of flock. It has indeed been contended by an intelligent cultivator,* that it " may be made the means of enabling the arable farmer to fup- port as much live flock as the grazier/ as while crops of this fort remain upon the ground they afford larger fupplies of the beft kind of green food on the acre, than the moft rich and fertile grafs lands ; and they may be taken from the ground at fo early a period in the fummer feafon as, on the friable loamy foils, to admit of a clean crop of turnips being obtained from the fame land in the fame year, and of thofe of the more heavy kinds being fovvn with wheat. And while they are capable of being raifcd withfuccefs on moft kinds of foils and fituations, they fup- port and fatten cattle and fheep of different fizes and breeds in an expeditious manner. Befides, they afford a good preparation for other forts of green crops, and in that way keep up the fucceffions of fuch kinds of food for the fattening of additional quantities of animals ; and in that way produce abundance of manure in fituations where it could not otherwife be procured. In fhort, he fuppofes that by a judicious combination of this plant with thofe of turnips, clover and faintfoin, the poor downs, fheep-walks, and other wafte lands, may be rendered from ten, to thirty times more valuable than they are at prefcnt. But, however fanguine thefe obfervations may be, there cannot be any doubt but that the tare may be an ufeful object of cultivation in the view of improving the land, as well as the fupporting of a larger flock, and a plant that ought to be more generally grown in moft fituations, in proportion to the extent of the flock that is kept. The common tare is diflinguifhed by writers on hufbandry into two forts, the winter and fpring tare : the latter is probably a variety of the above fpecies. It is, however, much lefs hardy in its habits than that of the former or fpring kind ; the plants when wholly of this fort being capable of refifling the effects of the fe- verefl winter feafons in this climate. In cultivating thefe plants, with a view to afcertain their difference in refpecl: to hardnefs, the Rev. Mr. Laurents, of Bury in Suffolk, is flated by Mr. Young to have made the following experiments: On the 3oth of September 1783 he fowed feeds of the winter tare and of the fpring tare near to one another, in the fame foil and expofure, and covered both with a coat of crumpled mould one inch deep. The weather proving mild, the fpring tare foon made its appearance; and two * Mr. Middleton, Cultivation of Arable Land. Tares Varieties of Winter aad Spring. days afterwards the winter tare came up. This afcendancy the former did not fail to maintain over the latter until the middle of December ; at which time that was about fix inches high, and this not above four. They were both in a vigorous and thriving condition when a froft came on and continued for fome weeks. On a; thaw taking place, he found the fpring tare lying on the ground, flimy, and pu- trified to the very root. The winter tare had received no damage. It grew up afterwards, and was ripe before the middle of Auguft. This difference in the effects the froft had on them, led him to view the ftatc of tares in more open fituations ; where he found that in fome grounds fcarce any plants had been deftroyed, in others patches of fomething in a ftate of putrefac tion, refembling the dead tares in his garden, were obferved. And on the 6th of March 1 7 84, both forts were again fown in the manner defcrib- ed above ; and in their fpringing up and growth, a progrefs fimilar to that which he had remarked in autumn was obferved. Near a week later than the winter tare of the autumnal fowing, the fpring tare of the vernal fowing arrived to per fect maturity. But the winter tare of the vernal fowing was mildewed, not a lingle pod of it ripening. From thefe two circumftances there appears a material difference in the con- ftitution, if he may fo call it, of the two forts of tares in queftion. He adduces nothing as to the trifling difference in the colour and fize of their feeds, but paflfcs on to the only vifible marks of diftinction he was able to trace in watching the procefs of the two experiments. And this is a difparity in the firft leaves of the upper part of the ftalks of the plants when gathered about the end of November, while the leaves on the branches, which afterwards iffue in the lower part, and in time form the bulk of the plants, referable one another in the two vetches. This is all he has been able to offer towards the decifion of this point. Thefe differ ences may be feenby confulting a plate in the fecond volume of the Annals of Agriculture. It has been obferved by the author of the Synoplis of Hufbandry, that " the feeds of the winter and fpring tare are not eafily difcriminated, being nearly alike in fize and every other characteriftic : but on the appearance of the blade the difference is at once to be perceived. The winter tare vegetates with a feed leaf of a frefh green colour, whereas the fpring tare comes up with a graffy fpear of a brown dufky hue." There is likewife a fecond variety which is denominated the white tare, but it is tenderer than even the fpring tare, of courfe feldom employed in field culture. 3 D 2 388 Cultivation of Arable Land. Tares Seed Time, 8$c. of f owing. The tare is a plant which in refpect to foil admits of confiderable latitude, grow ing without difficulty on all the varieties, from the thin gravelly to thofe of the deep and ftifF clayey kinds, but flourifhes in the mod vigorous manner on thofe gravelly loams* that are not too moid. In the preparation of the land for this crop lefs care is necefTary than for many other forts of grafs crops, as it will fucceed well where the foil has not been much broken down or reduced into fine mould ; but it always grows in the moft perfect and vigorous manner where a degree of finenefs has been produced in the land. Two ploughings, with occafional harrowings in the intermediate times, may in general be fufficient for the purpofe at whatever feafon the crop is put in. They are fometimes fown on one ploughing, efpecially the winter crops ; but the prac tice is not to be recommended, efpecially on the ftronger forts of foils. In fuch foils as are not rich it is a good practice to manure for this crop.f Seed. As the feed of the fpring tare does not fucceed well when fown for the winter crop, nor that of the winter kind when put in for the fummer produce, care fliould be taken to keep the feed of the two forts as perfectly diftinct as poflible. And as they are, from their being both of nearly the fame colour and fize as well as their agreeing in other particulars, liable to be mixed in the feed-mops, it may be the beft practice for the cultivator to preferve his own feed, as by that means he may not only be certain of having the feed good in its quality, but of the right fort, and of courfe may depend more fully on his crops. It has been fuggefted that Sleeping the feed in dry feafons may be of utility in promoting the quick vegetation of the crop.J The quantity of feed mould vary according to the nature of the foil and the method of fo wing. From two bumels to two and a half are the proportions re commended by fome in the broadcaft method. Others advife three bumels ; but on medium foils in the middle of the feafon the former may be fully fufficient. Where the land is more rich and the feed put in early, lefs may anfwer the pur pofe ; but on poor forts of land, where the feed is fown late and the climate is backward, the latter quantity may not be too much. In the drill mode, at fix inches, two bumels are enough. When the crops are either to be cut for foiling or to be fed down, the proportion of feed mould be increafed, as not only a greater produce is thereby provided, but the growth of the crops rendered more quick. Time and Method of Sowing.-- The periods of fowing tare crops vary with theinten- * Modern Agriculture. t Suffolk Report. J Corre&ed Report of Middlesex*: Cultivation of Arable Land. Tares After-management of. 339 tions of the cultivator, but the winter fowings fhould be performed fome time between Auguft and October : in late expofed lituations and poor foils more early than in thofe of the contrary. In the former the beginning of Auguft may not be too early.* In other cafes the latter end of that month or the beginning of the follow ing may be better. It mould, however, for the general crop always be done in fuch time as that the plants may be perfectly eftablifhed in the foil before the cold feafon begins, as by this means the crops fucceed better. For the fpring fowings, from the latter end of February to the end of March or beginning of April may an- fwer very well j but the fooner the better, as the plants will have got the more firm hold of the ground before the hot feafon fets in. Mr. Young alfo coniiders it good hufbandry to fow fpring tares in June with a quart of cole feed per acre over the fame land, in order that a good nutritious feed may be provided for weaned lambs in the autumn. This is practifed in SufTex on the down lands with fuccefs. It is of great advantage in providing a due fucceflion of green food for the fpring con- fumption to fow at different periods in the autumn. The method of fowing is moftly that of the broadcaft,which fhould be performed as evenly as poflible over the furface, the feed being afterwards well covered by har rowing, in order to prevent their being picked up by birds, and enfure their perfect vegetation. In rich dean foils it is probable, however, that the row method would fucceed well at fix or eight inches with this fort of crop, as is the cafe in fome of the fouthern diftricts.-)- With fome intelligent cultivators it is the cuftom to fow a littl e rye with their winter tare crops, and a fmall quantity of barley with thofe of the fpring. But as plants of different forts never fucceed well together, it is proba ble that little advantage can be derived from the practice, efpecially as the tare is not a plant that {lands much in need of protection in the early ftages of its growth > and may be injured by too much made. Crops of this fort are moftly cultivated after wheat or barley ; but they may be grown after almoft any kind where the land is in good heart* After-management. As this fort of crop covers the land in a very .complete manner where it is fufficiently full, it does not require fo much attention during its growth as many others. Some nice cultivators, however, make a point of hoeing up and drawing out all the more coarfe and rank kinds of weeds that are in danger of doing injury to the tare plants, and which they cannot fmother and overpower. This bufmefs mould be performed as early in the fpring as poflible, * Corre&ed Report of Middlefex. f Synopfis of Hufbandry. 390 Cultivation of Arable Land. Tares After-management of. And in order that the land may be in better order for the fcythe, a light roller may be palled over the crops, when the feafon is tolerably dry, in the very early fpring months.* When the parts of crops of this fort that have run to feed, or any others, are left for the purpofe of a fupply, it is the ufuai practice to cut and ivad them in the fame manner as for peas, in order to their being afterwards houfed or Hacked, and threfhed out in the winter feafon. In making tares into hay, more attention is neceffary than in thofe of moft of the artificial grafles, as wet is more injurious to them, and they require more fun and air : but in other refpecls they demand the fame cautious management in or der to prefervethe foliage from being loft. The time for cutting for this purpofe is when the bloffoms have declined, and they begin to fall flat.f When well made the hay is of the molt nutritious quality. The produce in tare crops, as in thofe of other forts, muft be different according to circumftances; but when they are good, in the winter kinds it is commonly considerable. The writer of the Report of the State of Agriculture in Middlefex ftates it as the refult of experience, having frequently weighed green tares, to be twelve tons per acre; and when made into hay, at about three tons; the value of the produce, eftimating it as if the whole were made into hay, being in that diftrict from twelve to fifteen guineas the acre, and in places where other forts of hay fell at fifty Ihillings or three pounds, at from feven pounds ten millings to nine pounds. The fpring tare crops are in general lighter, and more liable to be injured by a dry feafon than the winter. The produce in feed is likewife confiderable : by forne it is dated at from three to fix facks ;J in other inftances forty bufhels or more have been obtained from the acre. This fort of feed is greatly preferred by pigeons, and it may probably be ufed for poultry with advantage. In the above ftatements the produce in green food is undoubtedly large ; but from the fucculent nature and luxuriant growth of the crops it cannot probably be much too high. In the application of tare crops, there can be little hefitation in pronouncing that of foiling them withhorfes or other flock on the farm, as the moft advantageous and beneficial method. The vaft advantage of this mode is rendered particularly evident by the great lofs which we have juft noticed in converting them into hay. In the practice of foiling much lofs may be fuftained by cutting the tares at too early a period. * Report of Middlefex. f Synopfis of Husbandry. % Suffolk Report. Ibid, Cultivation of Arable Land. Tdres-^After-management of. 3D I An intelligent agricultor is of opinion that the farmer s flock fhould be \vhol !y fupported on them from the time they begin to blow till the blolibms begin to fall off, and the formation of pods takes place. On account of the riik from wet, he recommends that all the flock of a farm mould be foiled on them green, as it will have the good effect of taking it off the grafs land long enough to allow of its being mown for hay, and by this means the meadow hay be much increafed in quantity, and there will not be fo much occafion for paflure, the tares abundantly fupplying its place. Befides, at the time the cattle return from green tares, the grafs land, in the mean time having been mown, may be ready to receive them.* It is further obferved that, as it would be wafteful in the extreme to turn live ftock into a field of tares, as their treading and lying down would do great mifchief to the crop, even by feeding it in fmall patches hurdled off, the moft advifable method would be to mow the tares of the firfl half acre, and to carry the produce into the fla uies, cow- houfes, and fold-yards, or on to poor land to be confumed by flock, then to hurdle the growingtares from fuch cleared ground, into which put the ftock and feed them all with the tares given to them in racks, removing the hur dles and the racks forward daily to the edge of the growing tares > which will manure the hnd uniformly, and depofit all the urine in the foil.t In the Gioucefter Report another good method is recommended, rt which is to feed them through rack hurdles,which are made the fame as the common five-railed ones, only leaving the middle rail out, and nailing upright pieces acrofs,at proper diftances, to admit the fheep to put their heads through. A fwath of vetches being mown in the direction you wifh to plough the land, a fufficient number of thefe hurdles, allowing one to five fheep, are fet clofeto it : at noon the fhepherd mows another fwath and throws it to the hurdles, and the fame at night ; next morning, a fwath being firft mown, the hurdles are again fet : thus moving them once in the twenty-four hours, by this trifling additional trouble the vetches are eaten clean off, and the land equally benefited." In Glouceflerfh .re and Worceflerfhire they fow tares as paflurage for horfes, and eat them off early enough to allow of turnips being fown the fame feafon.J In wet feafons, where the tare crops are large, the flems are, however, apt to become rot ten upon the ground ; in this condition luch food often proves prejudicial t horfes ; in fuch cafes it will therefore be imprudent to cut them any longer for the purpofe of foiling. * Middlefex Report. t Ibid. Witbering s Botanical Arrangement, vol. Ill, p. 622. $ Synop (is of Husbandry,, 392 v Cultivation of Arable Land. Tares After-management of. In SufTex tares are of fuch infinite importance that not one-tenth of the flock could be maintained without them : horfes, cows, fheep, hogs, all feed upon then. The lafl fort of animals are foiled upon them without any other food. This plant maintains more flock than any other plant whatfoever. Upon one acre Mr. Davies can maintain four hprfes in much better condition than upon five acres of grafs. Upon eigh/ icres he has kept^twelve horfes and five cows for three months without any other food : no artificial food whatever is equal to this excellent plant. They find this crop to be a hearty and moft nou riming food for all forts of cattle. Cows give more butter when fed .with this plant than with any other food whatfoever. By one crop of vetches fucceeding another, Mr. Halftead, in the fame diflri<5l, infures a crop the whole fummer of the befl food that can be given to cattle ; after this he fows turnips, then wheat.* Where large (locks of fheep are kept, tares are exceedingly ufeful ; for they come in at a time when rye and turnip crops are eaten off, and before the clovers and other graffes are in fufficientforwardnefs for being turned upon, and afford a feafonable fupply of food for ew:s and lambs. It is recommended to wait till the tares have gained a fufficicnt increafe of flem before the fheep are turned in, and then to divide the ground by hurdles, in the fame manner as is practifed above. By this means there will be little wafte, and the ground be enriched in a much higher degree than if the flock had been fuffered to ramble over the whole crop.-j- As from the great clofenefs and (hade which is produced in thefe crops the land becomes much improved and rendered more clean and mellow, fuch plants mould conflantly be cultivated wherever the foils and fituations will admit, efpecially if the keeping of much live flock be the object. In cold expofed fituations, where vegetation is late in the fpring months, they are notfo proper : it may foretimes un der fuch circumftances be more advifable to raife clover crops, as it will not be fo much later as to render it much lefs valuable, and at the fame time the more cer tain.:}: Tare crops form an excellent preparation for wheat in all the more flrong and heavy forts of foil, and for both grain and turnips in thofe of the light kinds : but as they have much effec~l in rendering the lands on which they grow more light, open, and porous, they may fometimes, in the latter cafe, bring it into too loofe a * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXII. t Synopfis of Hufbandry. J Modern Agriculture, vol. II. Cultivation of Arable Land. EuJJi Vetch Utility of. Tufted Vetch. 393 ftate for the fuccefsful culture of that crop, as it requires a r.ither clofe texture of the land. There are oth~r fperies of this genus of plants that may, probably, be intro duced into cultivation with benefit to the farmer, either in the view of affording good pafturage, or as fupolying large quantities of green food, though they have not yet been fufficiently fubjected to the teft of experiment either in foiling, feeding or pafhmng of animals, to fully decide on their merits or utiliry. The Buffi Vetch (Viciajepitun) is a fpecies of tare that promifcs much advantage as a pafture plant. Its routs are faid to fpread much laterally juft below the furface, and to fend forth numerous ftems in thr fpringof the year clofe to each other,- which, as they have a broad-tufted top covered with many leaves, a clofe pile is formed without any other plant. It does not rife to any great height ; but from its fpring- ing up very quickly after being cut or cropped, it feemsto be properly adapted for pafturage. On fertile foils, however, it grows to a fufficient height for the purpofe of hay. As the ftalks grow fo clofely together, there is, however, danger of its rotting at the root in moift feafons. Though it produces abundance of feeds, they are very apt to be deftroyed in the pod by infects in their vermicular ftate. It appears to fucceed belt in clayey foils, and abounds pretty much in foliage, afford ing feeds fimilar to thofe of the common tare.* It has been obferved to moot earlier in the fpring than any other plant eaten by cattle, and to vegetate late in the autumn, continuing green all winter. A fmall fpace in a garden was fown with it in drills, and in the fecond year cut five times, producing at the rate of twenty-four tons per acre of green food, which would be nearly four and a half tons when dry. f The chief difficulty in the introduction of this plant arifes from the caufes Hated below. Mr. Swayne has remarked that, though very palatable to cattle, great difficulty arifes in the cultivation of it on a larger fcale, from the larvx of a fpecies of atte- labus frequently devouring the feeds.J And the Tufted Vetch, (Vicia cracca) from its rifing to a confiderable height in the ftem and affording much foliage, might likewife be ufed for the purpofe of eating as a green fodder, as the produce would be confiderable, and the plant is eafily cultivated. It would alfo yield a great deal of hay. It has been obferved to improve the condition of poor lean cattle beyond any other plant. * Anderfon s Effays, vol. II. f Bath Papers, vol. III. \ Withering s Botanical Arrangement, vol. III. Plott s Natural Hiftory of Statfordfliire, p. 204.. VOL. Ji. 3E Cultivation of Arabic Land. Everlafling Pea Chicory. The Everlafting Pea (Lathyrus latifoUus] is alfo a plant which, from its large growth and foliage, might afford large fupplies of green food, or of hay. A gen tleman of much experience lately allured me that cattle eat it with great avidity, and that it is highly nutritious ; and it has been long ago fuggefted as capable of being cultivated with advantage for thefe ufes by Dr. Anderfon. We with to draw the attention of the farmer more particularly to plants of this kind, as they are not only in general extremely productive in refpect to quantity of food, but, in all the trials which we have been enabled to make upon them, very nutritious and fattening. And, in addition, they have moftly the very definable property of being eagerly fed upon by moft forts of live ftock. It is not to be haftily fuppofed, from their appearing of a coarfe nature, that they may not be of advantage even in paftures,as it is now well known that clofe and judicious feeding <:an effect much in rendering the coarfeft kinds of herbage more fine and grafly. Chicory.* This is a herbaceous plant of the fucculcnt perennial kind, that has been lately introduced into cultivation for the purpofe of affording green food for the fummer fupport of different forts of live ftock. It fecms to have been firft fully brought to the notice of agricultors by the experiments and obfervations of Mr. "Young., -detailed in his very ufeful work, the Annals of Agriculture. The plant is, however, fuppofed by Profeffor T. Martyn, in his edition of Miller * Dictionary, to be a highly improved variety of common fuccory j as in its wild itatethat plant is dry, hard, and without much fucculence. It is capable of be ing grown on moft of the loamy defcriptions of foils, and even in fome of the more light braihy forts of lands, and other poorer kinds, but fucceeds the moft perfectly in fuch as are not too much retentive of moifture. The former of the above writers fays, that it affords a large fupply of fheep food on poor blowing fands ; and that with a portion of cock s-foot grafs and burner, it will form a layer for five or fix years, better than that from trefoil, white clover, and ray-grafs. It alfo thrives to much profit on fenny, boggy, and peaty lands. And where clover is worn out, it likewife anfwers well. In refpect to the preparation of the foil, it is probably lefs particular than many other fimilar plants, but anfwers in the beft manner where the land is in a tolera ble ftate of fertility, and has been rendered in fome degree fine and mellow. When it is put in with other forts of crops the fame kind of preparation muft be employ ed, but when fown alone the ground mould be rendered fine by two or more * Cichorium Intybus. It is likewife known by the title of Wild Succory. Cultivation of Arable Land.~ Chicory Time and Method of /owing. 395 ploughing* at fuitable feafons, according to the nature of the foil, and repeated harrowings. Seed. This is beft when collected from the plants by the cultivator, as, like moft other forts, it is liable to be mixed in the mops. It vegetates in the moft perfect manner when new. The quantity of feed which is neceflary for the acre muft, as in other forts of crops, of courfc vary according to the nature of the land and the intentions of the farrrur ; but the ufual proportion, whether fown alone or with grain in the fpring, is from ten to twelve pounds. In the row method of fowing, at the diftance of a foot, from feven or eight to ten pounds may, however, be fully fufficient. As the plant is not of the tillering or fpreading fort, a full proportion of feed Should, however, conftantly be put in, that the ground may be well covered with herbage. Time and Method of Sowing. The period of putting in chicory crops muft be regulated by the method in which the bufinefs is performed, and the views of the cultivator. When it is fown without other forts of crops, the work may be exe cuted, at any time from about the middle of March till the latter end of the fum- mer ; but with corn it muft depend on the feafon they are put in. It is fown with both oats and barley, but the firft will obvioufly admit of the more early fowing. From the plant being hardy, it mould, probably, be put into the foil as early in the fpring as poflible. Mr. Young found it lefs liable to be injured by grain crop* than other forts of grafTes, and to fucceed well with moft of them. It is moftly fown in the broadcaft method, after the furface has been rendered fine and covered in by a light harrowing. But from its growing with the greateft luxuriance where it is the moft open and has the greateft benefit of free air, it is fuggefted as well adapted to the row method of cultivation.* In which cafe it may be drilled in at nine inches on fuch lands as are of the poorer kind, and twelve in thofe that are more fertile, being harrowed in by one bout of the harrow. After-management* Where the crop has been put into the ground in the manner directed above, little attention is neceflary afterwards, efpecially when cultivated in the common broadcaft method j. but where drilled in rows, the ufe of the hoe will be required to keep the intervals as well as the plants in the rows clean, and the ground well ftirred.. Crops of this plant, from the great quicknefs and luxuriance of their, growth^ * Annals of Agriculture. 3 E * 3.96 Cultivation of Arable Land. Chicory After -management of. are capable of being repeatedly cut in the fummer months, for the purpofe of foil ing horfes and other forts of flock. It fhould not, however, be cut more than once or twice the firft feafon, but in the following fummers the operation may be per formed three or four times, according to circumftances. Mr. Young advifes four cuttings, in order to prevent the ftems from running up too much and becoming dry, fticky, and lefs nutritive.* The proper times are to begin about April or May, and to continue it every other month till October. Its produce when cut green is larger than that of either of the two preceding plants, affording, in Mr. Young s trials, upon the average of four years, thirty tons to the acre : this is probably, however, a larger produce than the plant is capable in general of affording. It is only in favourable feafons that this coarfe juicy plant can be made into hay with fuccefs : nor is it well fuited for the purpofe,being of much greater advantage whe*i confumed in its green flate. Its produce in this way is dated at from three to four tons the acre.f This fort of hay is, however, aflerted to be nutritious. When left to run up to ftem and feed the produce is conliderable, amounting in the third year to more than four hundred weight on the acre. The mofl ufeful application of this fort of crop is probably feeding of cows and other forts of cattle, and the foiling of thefe as well as horfes, as it fprings more rapidly than either faintfoin or burnet ; but it is likewife found to anfwer admi rably for paflurage for iheep ; as it is lefs injured by clofe feeding than many other plants.;}: <f In a comparative experiment made on a fmall piece of land of a wet, fandy, friable, loamy foil, with marly bottom, drained, on a cabbage preparation, fowed oats with chicory and various other feeds the oats were mown at harveft, but had only been ufed as the means of laying down : in May, when the grades were mown and weighed green, thofe with chicory were mod productive. No rain fell till the nth and i2th of July, when it was very heavy. On the i4th of this month, cut the chicory crop : the others had not any thing worth mowing. In Auguft, cut all again, when the chicory crop had much the advantage in quantity. In the after-grades alfo the chicory was the only one productive." From the whole of the experiment it appears that the fuperiority of chicory in general, over other plants in general, is very confiderable, which is a circumdance principally to be at tended to. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XX. f Ibid. vol. XVII. J Ibid. Ibid. Cultivation of Arable Land. Chicory After-management of. 397 As a very large proportion of green food is afforded by this plant at a period when it is not otherwife ealily obtained, its ufes in foiling cattle or other animals are evident. In a comparative experiment of flail- feed ing eight beafts with tares and chicory, it appears that, on putting to tares only from May 25 to June 21, they gained 49|ftonos; weighed again 6th July, gained 17 (tones : on this weighing they were put to chicory, the tares and that both being given to them ; weighed again i jth July, only one week afterwards, and had gained 27^ flones, or an ad vantage of about 8s. 7d. per head per week.* Its utility for the purpofe of pafturage is fully mown by other ftatements. On an experiment being made with ten pounds of this feed over five acres, in a good ftrong wet loamy foil, fown with barley among clover, trefoil, rib-grafs, bur- net, &c. in order to remark in the pafturing whether (beep and cattle would eat it as well as thofe other grafTes ; it was viewed during part of three years, particu larly in the firfl autumn, after the barley was cut,when a fine fleece of herbage was produced: the two following years it was mown by the farmer, and fed through the latter. It proved by the refult that the chicory was always eaten by fheep, cows, and fatting bullocks, as clofe to the ground as any of the other plants. Though horfes were in the field, no remark was made whether it was eaten by them ; but in the ftable foiling they ate it with avidity.^ Mr* Martin found it an excellent fummer pafturage for ftore fheep, whether mixed with clover or alone, efpecially on dry foils and in dry fummers, as from its tap root it receives nourimment from a great depth, affords a large quantity of food, and bears eating clofe without any danger of drought affecting it : it mould always be eaten clofe. It may not be proper in feeding paftures, as fat cattle muft have abundance of food : for in fuch cafes it would fend up the feed-fhilks too much, and they would not eat it, and by its luxuriant growth it might damage the finer gralFes.J On a bra/by foil, the Duke of Bedford found that the produce of an acre fown with this food, thefirft year fupported feven new Leicefter fheep, of about 22lbs. a quarter, for fix months ; and is of opinion that, on the fame land, no other artificial grafs would have equalled it. There are fome other plants occafionally cut and ufed as a green food for cattle, fuch as Buck-wheat ( Polygonum Fagopyrum) and Winter Barley, &c. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XX. + Ibid. vol. XV. + Ibid. vol. XXVIII, $ Ibid. vol. XXVII I. ^^Cultivation of ArabkLand.Farms Proportion between Arable and Grafs* And it feems probable from fome trials which have been lately made, that th latter, as being extremely hardy and affording an abundant produce, may be grown with much more advantage as a green food for the purpofe of foiling and the fup- port of flock, than the former. Proportion between Arable and Grafs Lands. As we have already pointed out the forts of land that feem moft adapted to the purpofesof tillage, it may here be necef- fary to fay a few words on the proportion that ought to exift between the arable and grafs land on the fame farm. It is evident that this muft be much influenced by local circumflances and other caufes, which have merely a relation to particular cafes ; and they muft vary in a great degree, according to the nature of the foil, the methods of management that may be adopted, and the quantity of flock that is to be kept. On clayey foils a much larger proportion mould be kept in grafs than on moft others, efpecially when tenacious and not eafily drained, as green winter food is fcarcely to be obtained at all, or not without much trouble, difficulty, and expenfe ; of courfe the working ftock, and fucli a number as are kept for confuming ftraw and making dung, muft depend in a greater degree on meadow hay than upon foils which admit of the turnip and cabbage culture. Clover, indeed, fucceeds on clays, but is uncertain and liable to failure : confequently, without a certain refource in the hay of na tural grafs, much inconvenience muft frequently be fuftained. In the experience of the Rev. Mr. Young they have been found, when in the proportion of one half, to be conducted in> more profitable manner than in a fmaller proportion, and not to allow of being managed with advantage in lefs than one third under the ftate of fward.* In loamy foils, it is probable that a third or a fourth in grafs is the proportion that may be moft fuitable, and the more they tend to wetnefs the larger the pro portion. Grafs is not, however, fo necefTary on thefe foils, as clover and other artificial grafTes of the fame kind are lefs liable to mifcarry, and they admit the alternate hufbandry of grafs and grain in a more eafy and profitable manner. In the fandy forts of land, they fhould probably be as little as poffible in the ftate of grafs : they are, perhaps, beft managed when nearly the whole is under the plough, as by means of proper cultivated gralTes, &c. the whole ftock of the farm may be profitably fupported, and the land refted fufficiently for enfuringa continued production of grain. But in oppolition to this rule, and moft unprofita- * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IIL Cultivation of ArabkLand. Farms Proportion between Arable andGrafs399 bly, large tracts, in many diftricts, are commonly withheld from the plough, under the name of barren heath land, &c. which by alternate tillage and reft would pro duce more grain and keep more fheep than in the prefent ftate.* The different defcriptions of calcareous foils may alfo be the moft productive in a tfate of arable cultivation, or with but a fmall proportion of grafs. In fome of the fouth-weftern diftricts, from the farmers not being allowed r^y the land-owners to plough up down lands, too large a proportion remains in grafs for admitting the moft advantageous cultivation. However, the degree of fertility which they have in many cafes attained, may in fome mesTure juftify the practice, on account of thefupport afforded to fheep ftock in the winter.-]- In peaty foils, from a great proportion of them feldom being in a ftate, for want of proper draining, fit for tillage, the arable fhould form a fmaller proportion to the grafs than in other cafes ; it can, however, only be fully regulated by local ciiv cumftances. But, befides thefe, the modes of application in which the lands are managed muft have conliderable influence in regulating the proportions which the grafs Ihould bear to the arable, as where grazing, dairying, or the rmking of hay are the principal objects of the farmer, the whole of the farms are moflly in grafs. In the two firft of thefe cafes it is probable that the farms might be more profita bly conducted by having a fmall proportion in tillage, as from a fourth or filth to a tenth, according to the nature of the lands, and the extent of cattle and horfes that may be kept, as by this means not only ftraw forjitter may be more conveniently obtained, but likewife green vegetables for the partial fupport of the ftock,which muft otherwife be often procured at great inconvenience and expenfe. In the cafe of hay farms, as they are moftly in the vicinity of large towns, it may, perhaps, in moft cafes, be better to purchafe the ftraw than provide it by tillage, as little will be neceflary, from fmall teams only being required. The bufinefs of hiring and flocking farms deferves more attention than is com monly beftowed upon it. For the prefent purpofe, it is however only neceflary to place before the farmer the principal circumftances which ought to regulate his conduct, as the fubject has been very fully handled by an agricultor of much practical experience.^ The changes in regard to farming property are in general, in the more fouthern parts of the kingdom, made about Michaelmas. In thefe the farmer fhould delibe- * Communications to the Board, &c, vol. III. * Ibid. J Mr, A. Young. 400 Cultivation of Arable Land. Farms Hiring and flocking of. rately confider the nature of the foil, the climate, the relative fituation in refpedr. to the convenience of improvements and markets, the fize in regard to his capital, the manner in which the inclofures are difpofed with refpect to each other, the manage ment of the former tenant, the covenants by which he is to i>e fettered, and Trial ly, the amount and arrangements in regard to rent. Having made thefeconficit rations \vith proper minutenefs and attention, weighing their advantages and di fad vantages m his mind, without fuffermg himfelf to be influenced bv probable caufes, he may be enabled to bring their benefits into competition with their difadvantage?, and to compare the former with the amount of rent which he is required to pay, in fuch a manner as to decide on the propriety or impropriety of his engaging them, In this matter great care mould however be taken, that real inconveniences or diffi culties be neither too much magnified nor too greatly defpifed, fo as to> produce * too hafty or too protracted dec ifion; from both of which, evils may proceed. By the latter, the fccuring of an advantageous farm may often be lod,while the former may lead to the engaging of one that is not by any means adapted tohiscircumftances. In thefe cafes the farmer fhould never fuffer himfelf to be too much influenced in his determinations by the circumdances of the preceding occupiers, as fo much depends upon management, that with one fort there may be confiderable lofs, while under another a very adequate profit may be derived. The circumftances in refpect to the nature of the foil, which have been chiefly directed to be attended to by Mr. Young, in fixing upon a farm, are thefe:" ftiff- nefs, moidure, expofure, levelnefs, flope, ftoninefs : what draining,manu ring, fenc ing, &c. will be wanted : the roads, diftances of market, prices of commodities* labour, &c. the date of tithes or gathering ; the poor rates ; the compactnefs of the fields,and covenants relative to cropping ;" as " many fuch are extremely detrimen tal to a good conduct of the land," And "one general rule in hiring a farm mould not, he fays, be forgotten to fix on good land, and he can fcarcely pay too much for it; but, for poor foils, the lead rent is fometimes too high to be confident with profit. By poor foils, however, are not to be underftood fuch as have a command of lading manures, that work great improvements; nor wafte lands, which, under that fulfe denomination, often are of all found the mod profitable.** It is obferved " that the found, mellow, rich, putrid, crumbling, fandy loams are of all foils the mod profitable ,- fuch as will admit tillage foon after rain, and do not bake on hot gleams of fun coming after heavy rains, when finely harrowed : fuch landj better worth forty millings an acre than many foils defcrve five. The next foil is that of the diff loam, which is neareft allied" to brick earth j this, till Cultivation of Arable Land.~~Farms Hiring and Stocking of, 401 drained, is in general an unkindly foil, without plenty of manure. It is known in winter by being very adhefive upon walking over it: is long in drying, even when little or no water is feen upon it; for which reafon it is generally late in the fpring before it can be ploughed. When quite dry it breaks up neither fo hard and cloddy as mere clay, nor near fo crumbly and mellow as the good loam. If it is in ftubble, it is apt to be covered with a minute green mofs. There are many varieties of the foil, but all agree in moft of thefe circumftanccs ; and in being what the farmers call poor, cold, hungry land. When hollow-ditched, and greatly ma nured, it yields any thing ; but thofe who hire it mould forget neither of thefe expenfes." It is added, that " the gravelly foils are numerous in their kind, and very different in their natures. Warm, dry, found gravelly loams are eafily diflinguifhed in winter. They admit ploughing all winter through, except in very wet times ; always breakup in a crumbly flate of running mould; and, if a ftubble, will dig on trial by the fpade, in the fame manner. If under turnips, you may perceive, by walking through them, that it will bear their being fed off. The wet, cold, fpring) gravel is a very bad foil ; it is known in winter by^the wetncfs of it j and in fpring, by its binding with hafty mowers. It rarely breaks up in a crumbly (late, or mows a mellownefs under the fpade. Very expcnfive drains greatly correct its ill qua lities, but it requires a prodigious quantity of manure to fertilife it. Some gravels are fo fharp and burning, that they produce nothing except in wet fummers; but fuch are known at any feafon of the year. Sands are as various as gravels, and are all eafily difcoverable in their natures. The rich red fand is, he believes, as profit* able a foil as any in the world. It has at all feafons a dry foundnefs, and at the fame time a moifture without wetnefs, which fecures crops even in dry fummers. Thc> fpade is fufficient to try it at any feafon of the year. The light fandy loam, is like-* wife an admirable foil: it will bear ploughing, like the preceding, all winter long, and appears quite found and mellow when tried with the fpade. If it lies under a winter fallow, the beft way to judge of its richnefs is to remark the flate of the furrows, and the degree of adhefion in the foil. Stiff land being dry and crumbly is a great perfection, and fand being adhefive is an equally good fign. When, therefore, the farmer views a light fandy loam, whofe found drynefs is acknow ledged, he may prefume the foil is rich, in proportion to its adhefion. If it falls flat in powder, and has no adhefion, it is a mere fand. The white chalky marm is often cold and wet, will not bear ploughing in winter unlefs the weather is very dry or frofty, runs excefiively to mortar with a heavy fliower when in a pulverifed VOL, ii. 3 F 402 Cultivation of Arable Land. Farms-~Hiring and Stocking of. ftate. It is a cold foil of little profit, except with peculiar management; but an- fwers beft when dry laid down to faintfoin." It is concluded, that " it mould be laid down in general as a maxim, that ftrong harm tenacious clay, though it will yield great crops of wheat, is yet managed at fo heavy an expenfe, that it is ufually let for more than it is worth. Much money is not often made on fuch land. The very contrary foil, a light, poor, dry fand, is very often in the occupation of men who have made fortunes. Some permanent manure is ufually below the furface, which anfwers well to carry on : and fheep, the com mon flock of fuch foils, is the moft profitable fort he can depend on. All ftiff foils are viewed to moft advantage in winter: the general fault of them is wetnefs, which is in the greateft excefs at that feafon of the year. If the fields are level, and the water ftands in the land, notwithftanding the furrows are well ploughed and open, it is a fign that the clay is very ftiff, and of foadhelive a nature as to contain the water like a difh. It is likewife probable, that draining may prove inefficient to cure the natural evil of fuch land. This kind of foil likewife fhows itfelf in the breaking up of ftubbles for a fallow; a very ftrong draught of cattle is then neceflary to work it. It breaks up in vaft pieces almoft as hard as iron. When it is worked fine it will run like mortar, with a heavy fpring or fummer fhower. Thefe foils will yield very great crops of beans and wheat, &c. They muft, like others, be cultivated by fomebody ; but he would advife every friend of his to have no thing to do with them ; never to be captivated with feeing large crops upon the land ; for he does not fee at the fame time the expenfes at which they are raifed. * It is ftated that " peat, bog, moor and fen in many variations are very profita ble ; but the expenfes of improvement demand a calculating head. The vicinity of lime or marl is then of great importance." He fays that, in refpect to grafs lands, the marks for judgment are different. Thefe are beft examined by attending, firft, to the circumftances in which they are moft deficient ; and then to fuch as are in their favour. The more feafons grafs fields are viewed in the better ; though any one is fufficient for a tolerable judg ment. One evil attending thefe lands is, that of being too wet ; the figns of which can never be miftaken or overlooked in any feafon of the year. In winter, it is at once perceived by walking on it; at all times of the year by the herbage which generally abounds on it ; fuch as rufhes, flags, and a great quantity of mofs : and alfo by the colour of the grafs, which is moftly blue at the points, fometimes of a dirty yellow hue, and always coarfe. If the foil is the firft defcribed, ftiff clay, and the furface level, the evil will be very difficult of cure; if of the other fort of clay, or ftiff loams, draining will have great effects. Grafs fields on gravelly foils Cultivation of Arable Land. Farms Hiring and Stocking of. 403 are, if the gravel isfharp, very apt to burn in dry fummers ; but they give great and fweet crops in wet ones, provided the land is a gravelly loam. An abfolute gravel fhould never be under grafs. A farmer fhould not, however, regret having a pafture or two of this fort in his farm, being of excellent ufe in winter for feed ing fheep and lambs on with turnips, &c. The low meadows, whatever the foil, on the banks of the rivers and brooks, are in general good, but often fubject to the mif- fortune of being overflown in fummer ; which not only ruins crops of hay before they are cut, but carries them away perhaps when juft made. Many grafs fields on all foils, confift of fo bad an herbage as to be of little value ; made up of weeds and t^wrnvorft and coarfeft ofgraffes : if a landlord will not allow fuch to be ploughed, the farmer mould minute the rent accordingly. This fault is vifible at all feafons. A river that does not overflow, running through a farm, is a very favourable circumftance, as it indicates a probability of all the grafs fields being well watered, that is, for cattle. And in many cafes it may be converted to the pur- pofe of irrigating the land. Jf the climate be mild, and the lands well flickered from the effects of the north and eafterly winds by tracts of high grounds or woods of fome extent, they are in many cafes circumftances of a favourable kind, efpecially where much of the farm is to be conducted under the grazing fyftem. The fituation of the land near towns, where the markets for the difpofing of their different products are good; and in many cafes near large cities, where the produce of feveral different forts can not only be difpofed of to much advantage, but manure in abundance be procured and brought back in return, is alfo a point that mould not be unattended to in the taking of a farm. And if lime, marl, or other fubftances capable of being made ufe of as manures, be near at hand, they are of great importance in the management of land, and mould have their due influ ence with the farmer in his fixing himfelfina farm. Beiides thefe, there are various other local circumftances and advantages, that may operate in different cafes with propriety in directing his conduct in the bufinefs of taking a farm. It is a matter which Mr. Young juftly confiders of the greateft confequence in the engaging of a farm, that no larger a one be taken " than the fum of money a man can command will ftock properly. A common fault among farmers is, he fays, the hiring too much land for their money : they are extremely eager to farm as much as pofliblc j the certain confequence of which is the conducting the foil in an imperfect manner. In the neighbourhood of great cities and towns, variety of manures are to be had, in fome places cheap $ but if the farmers have not money. 404 Cultivation of Arable Land. Farms Hiring and Stocking of. how are they to make ufe of fuch advantages ? For thefe and other reafons, 3 farmer mould not think of venturing on a trad: of land which he cannot command, that is, farm as feems beft to him." It is obvious that a variety of advantages in the management of a farm muft re- fu It from the different fields being connected, and not fituated at a diftance from each other i much time and trouble muft conftantly be faved, beiides many other conveniences being attained. It has been remarked by the above writer, that " many farmers too often overlook this circumftance. If they attended to it, as much as their profit required, we mould fee landlords reforming their eftates in this parti cular more than many do at prefent. There is not a more expenfive, perplexing circumftance in a farm, than the fields being in a draggling, disjointed fitua- tion." Where the exertions of the farmer are to be clogged with fuch reftrictive claufes in theleafe of a farm as muft prevent him from cultivating it under the moft ad vantageous method of hufbandry, there is every reafon for his confidering the matter well before he agrees for the farm, or he may find himfelf injured in a much greater degree than is eafily conceived. The author of the Fanner s Calendar has obferved, that "the merit or reafonablenefs of covenants muft be confidered always on comparifon with the nature of the farm. It is for want of this confi- deration that unreafonable covenants are ever propofed. Thefe prohibitions are foolifh, but fometimes admiflible : they muft depend on local circumftances, to be well weighed by the farmer who hires." " The principal point here neceiTary to touch on, is the combination of rent, tithes and rates, inonefum. Knowing the capital intended to be inverted, eftimate the intereft of it at not lefs than 10 per cent, and then calculate theexpenfes and produce ; the former deducted from the latter leaves that furn which the farmer can afford to pay in thefe three fpecies of rent. Deduct further the tithes and rates, and the remainder is what he can afford to pay to the landlord. If rent be valued in any other way, it muft, he fays, be erroneoufly and deceitfully done, and no dependence can be placed on it." The mode of paying the rent may likewife in fome inftances demand the notice of the farmer in engaging a farm. In the flocking of farms there will be considerable difference according to their nature, fituation, and manner in which they are conducted; but an adequate capita! mould always be employed, or there will be great lofs fuftained. It has been obferved by Mr. Young, that ct thirty years ago, the fum that was ufually appro priated to ftocking a farm varied from 3!. to 5!. an acre; and it was a general idea, that the latter fum was fufficient for any farm, part arable and part grafs^ of Cultivation of Arable Land. Farms Hiring and Stocking of. 40,5 no uncommon fertility. Rich marfhes were, ofcourfe, excluded in the calcu lation ; and light flock farms were often flocked for 3!. per acre. But thefe matters are now greatly changed ; rents are much increafed ; tithes are com- pounded at a higher payment ; poor rates are cnormoufly rifen ; all forts of implements, comprehended in the article wear and tear, are thirty or forty per cent, dearer; labour in many diflricls doubled ; the prices of cattle and fheep are greatly advanced ; fo that at prefent the fame farm which at that period would have been very well Mocked, and the firfl year s expenfe provided for at the rate of 5!. per acre, now demands from 7!. to 81. per acre. In all fuch eflimates it is, he fays, necefTary to fuppofe that every implement brought in is new, that the live flock be good of the fort, and the firft year s expenfes be provided for, though a portion of the crop may come in before the whole payment is made. A man cannot be at his eafe if he does not thus provide; nor will he be able to make that profit by his bufinefs with a fmall capital, which will attend the employment of a larger. By profit he would be underflood to mean a per centage on his capital, which is the only fatisfactory way of eflimating it. If by flocking a farm witr^l. per acre, he makes 7 or 8 per cent, profit; and by flocking, in proportion of 81. pcracre, he makes ten per cent, (and this difference will, her believes, often be found), it mufl be fufficiently apparent that the lofs by the fmaller flock is a ferious evil. It will depend much on fituation and local circumilanccs ; the benefit of procuring manures, or litter to make dung, may in fome places be very great, in others much lefs : but not to be able to profit by every favourable opportunity that may attend the fpot on which a farmer is fixed, muft be highly dif- adrantageous. To irrigate land is an expenfive operation ; but to omit or poflpone it, for want of money for the undertaking, is to lofe perhaps the capital advantage of a farm. Cafes of this fort might be greatly multiplied ; and there is not one that does not call on the farmer for an ample capital." The fame able author juflly remarks, that" of all firms, a warren is hired with the fmalleft capital ; but that there are marfhes in Lincolnfhire flocked at the rate of above 30!. per acre. And the annual expenfe of many hop grounds amounts to 30!. and the capital above 6ol." He fuppofes that " if a farmer does not make ten per cent, on his capital, he muft either have a r.d farm or bad management, or the times muft be unfavourable. He ought, he thinks, to make from twelve to fifteen per cent. Some farmers make more, when corn is at a fair price. * Befides proper attention being bcflowcd in thefe different refpe&s, the farmer 406 Cultivation of Arable Zand ^Fartns^Hiring and Stocking of, ihould conftantly take care that the live ftock be of fuch kinds as are beft adapted to the nature and fituation of the land, as, without due regard in this particular, great lofs may be conftantly fuftained. It is never advifable for him to have recourfe to the more fine or fafhionable breeds, except where the nature of the foil is well fuited to them, and other conveniences fully juftify their introduction. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. PART THE FOURTH. SECTION VII. Cultivation of Grass Land. Meadows. GRASSLANDS. Kinds of -proper Application of Meadows and other Hay L different Situations of- Difference of Management in Time for Surface draining of clearing from Stock Times proper for in different Cafes Jhould not be eaten much in Spring when for Hay removing Obftru&ions to the Scythe removing coarfe Weeds and Plants Methods of perform ing of Mofs Utility of Sward Dreffer in Method of employing of-~ fcarifying Advantage of in Sticks Stones Cattle Dung-hills Ant hills different Methods of in each Mole-hills catching and deftroying Moles. MANURING proper Times for Kinds of Manure for States in which applied with moft Benefit Proportion ofneceffary Repetition of fome Sorts ufed as Top-dreffings cannot be often repeated Chalk Marie chopped Woollen Rags, fyc. capable of being more frequent ly ufed in Com- pojisLime with vegetable Subflances often employed as Top-dreffings Peat-aJJies Coal-aJhesSootbeft applied after Rain in March fetting out Manures Attention neceffary in Mr. M Donald s Contrivance for fpreadingofBuJh-harrowing rolling Modes of performing thefe Ope rations -proper Times for Methods of rejloring 408 Cultivation of Graft Land. Meadows. MEADOWS Nature of- Situations and Soils proper for Methods of form ing Spirit Lev el ufe ful in Irrigation or watering Modes of conducting the Procefs Catch-work watering where capable of Application Circum- Jlances to be at tended to in Utility often derive din watering from Jtirring Mud in Bottoms of Mains, and the Ufe of Lime or other Sub/lances Caufes of the beneficial Effects of watering vaft Utility of proper Seafons for Proportions of Water neceffary in different Cafes of Lengths of Time for continuing it Mr. Wright s Opinion of Mr. Bo/well s Circum- ftanccs to be regarded in eating down watered Lands ufeful in producing early Grafs Mr. Tempter s Improvements by watering Improvements by in YorkJJiire in CheJJiire by Mr, Fenna. WARPING a Practice in Lin coln {hire only /Tightly ufeful on Grafs Lands. MOWING proper Periods for Methods of performing. HAYMAKING beji Methods of. STACKING and THATCHING HAY beft Methods of performing Modes of preventing Stacks heating Air. Ducket s Method of by making Holes in the Sides of -flacking Stages Flay Sweeps. AFTER GRASS Modes of Management of Blowing bejl Application of Produce ofpafturing of Utility of in this View Advantages of in different Refpects. l^ANDS in the ftate of grafs muft obvioufly be applied to different purpofes according to their nature, fituation, and other circumftances. Thofe which are of the more moift and wet kinds, whether from the nature of the foil or the pecu liarity of fituation, and which have been a long time in the ftate of fward, are for the moft part kept under the fcythe; while thofe of the contrary defcription, that are fituated at a greater height, and of courfe, in moft cafes, pofTefs a greater degree of firmnefs, arc in general appropriated to the purpofe of paitu rage- -though, in par ticular fituations where grafs land is fcarce, and confequently of great value, they are likewife occasionally converted to the purpofe of hay. As grafs plants grow to the greateft height in fituations where a confiderable degree of moiftu re is con- ftantly preferved, and of courfe afford the Urged produce, it would feem that the practice of keeping moift lands under the fcythe is right on this account, as well as that of their being lefs firm and folid in their texture, and their moftly produc ing a coarfer herbage. The more elevated grounds, as they bear the ftock generally with lefs injury, and often afford both a more fine and fweet feed, are with pro priety converted to the ufe of being fed down by cattle and other animals. But Cultivation of Grafs Land. Meadows Draining of. 409 by a fuitable management in the feeding down, nnd ufe of manure, thefe forts f land may even be brought to afford aconfiderable produce in hay. Meadow Lands. The common meadow lands, from their being fituated in the hollows and Hoping fides of the valleys, where the ftaple and depth of foil of the lands have for a long time been continually increafmg by the depofitioiwif various- forts of vegetable and other matters brought down from the higher grounds, are however, in general, in a considerably greater ftateof fertility, and evidently better fitted for the permanent production of grafs than thofe from which they have de rived their richnefs. It has been well obferved, that this fort of land of aii others is the molt productive of grafs and hay, yielding fuftenance* for cattle through the fummer and winter, and producing an everlafting fourcc of manure for the im provement of the adjoining uplands ; and that in all cafes of extenflve inclofures, the improvement of the vale land, or that formed by nature for meadow and paf~- ture, mould be firft attended to.* But as, from their greater retention of rnoifture, in confequence of their fitua- tion, and the depth of vegetable matter, they are liable to throw up coarfe her bage in many cafes, more drainage, as well as other management, is neceffary to bring them into the proper condition for the growth of good herbage, than is re- quifite in the hay grounds in the more elevated places. And by a more particular attention in thefe rcfpects they would, in many inftances, be rendered a vaft deal more productive than they are at prefent, and at the fame time afford a much better and lefs coarfe herbage. They would alfo admit flock upon them a much greater length of time, both in the autumn and fpring feafons. The mod proper feafon for furface.draining grafs lands is in the autumn, when > they are fomewhat firm and dry, as in the early fpring months fuch lands are too full of moifture. The grips, or fmall open drains, mould be cut obliquely, in the moft fuitable directions for conveying off the fuperficial ftagnant water, the mate rials taken out being wholly removed. Much of this fort of draining may be per formed at a fmall expence, and the beneficial effects be very considerable. t Befides, fuch meadow lands demand much more attention in their management in other refpects, as thofe of their being fed by cattle, and the performing of the different operations that are proper for rendering them productive of good herbage. In thefe cafes flock mould be turned upon the lands, and manures applied with much care, and only when the land is in fuch a (late of drynefs as not to be injured by the poaching in or breaking of the fward. The higher and more dry forts of * Staffordshire Report. t Sedion on Draining of Laud. YOL. II. 3 G 410 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Meadows Clearing of Stock. grafs land, in mofl inftances, admit of confiderably more latitude in performing thefe different operations, as they are capable of admitting the ftock, as well as the dung-cart, more early in the fpring months, and of fullering them to remain to, or be applied at, later periods in the autumn, without inconvenience. The advan tage of this attention is rendered fufficiently plain by the effects which the contrary practice produces in fuch meadow and other hay lands as are in a ftate of common- "nge, where the ftock is admitted at all feafcm and under all circumstances. As it mud be evident to the moft fuperficial obfervarion, that the breaking of the furface, texture, or fward of grafs lands muft in all cafes be prejudicial, not only by the destruction of plants, which is thereby immediately produced, but alfo by the retention and ftagnation of water upon them in the holes and de- prefllons from fmall portions of the turf being forced in; the neceffity and utility of clearing and removing all forts of live ftock, and efpecially thofe of the heavy kinds, in both thefe defcriptions of meadow lands, when intended for hay, becomes ftrikingly obvious. In a piece of clayey meadow land expofed to the treading of cattle during the wet feafon of winter, with the view of fully afcertaining the ef fects of the practice of fuffering cattle to remain too long upon grafs hay lands, it was found that after three years, notwithstanding every pofllble care and attention being employed in rolling, manuring and fowing grafs feeds, it was not reftored to its former Itate of fward. And it has been remarked that on the deep, tough, yellow, cUyey grafs lands, in Middlefex, every care is taken to prevent the leaft degree of poaching by cattle, as "it is well known that wherever a bullock makes a hole with his foot in this kind of foil, it holds water and totally deftroys every veftige of herbage, which is not quite replaced till feveral years after the hole is grown up."* The exact period of performing this bufinefs cannot be eafily regulated by any fixed rules, as it muft always depend much on feafon; but it fiiould never, on any account, be delayed after the grounds have become fo much impregnated with moif- ture as to eafily give way to the tread of the animals. In the autumn feafon the heavy cattle mould perhaps feldom be fuffered to remain on thefofter forts of lands longer than the beginning of November ; but in thofe of the more dry kinds they may be let remain to the end of that month with fafety. Sheep ftock may however in the drier kinds be continued till February, or later. And in the fpring feafon, if paftured at all, they fhould not be admitted upon fuch lands till they begin to pof- f Middlefex Agricultural Report. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Meadows Shutting up for Hay, 411 <fefs a proper degree of firmnefs; which will depend on the various circumftances of the preceding feafon. On the more low and moift forts of meadow land it can, probably, feldom be ventured earlier than the middle or latter end of March. But it is obvioufly a much better practice, cfpecially where hay is the main ob ject, not to eat them down at all, or very little, with cattle in the fpring, and not fo much, as is the ufual cuftom, with fhecp ; as it is plain that by this means the cultivator will not only enfurea more abundant produce, but a much earlier one; and, of courfe, have more advantage in the making it into hay and fecuring the crop. And where the lands are fertile and the grafs fprings quickly, as is often the cafe near large towns, where manure is plentiful, it may be advantageous in the view of having a fecond crop ; as by that means t t- after-grafs may be cut more early, and be lefs in danger of being well fecured. Befides, in all events, the after math will be in a more forward ftate, and, of courfe, ready at a more early period for the ad mi (lion of Itock of different kinds; which, in many cafes, is a circum- ftance of great importance to the farmer. The moft proper periods of {hutting up fuch grafs lands as are defigned for hay muft, like thofeof eating them down in the autumn by flock, depend on various circumftances that can only fuit the particular cafes. In general, however, it is the beft practice not to delay it too long. When the lands are not eaten at all in the fpring by cattle, after the fheep have been removed, about the middle of Fe bruary, nothing further is allowed to enter the meadows ; by which means a quick vegetation is fecured, as well as a more plentiful crop and a more early hay harvcft.* And in other cafes it mould probably feldom much exceed the beginning of April, as when eaten much later, efpecially in the fouthern diftricts, there is not time for the grafs to produce a full crop before the commencement of the hay feafon : of courfe the farmer fuftains more lofs than can be repaid by any advantage in the addi tional feeding he may obtain. This is therefore the beft practice where the view of the farmer is hay; and it mould be particularly adopted and attended to in cow farms, where it is of much importance to cut early, and at different times, in order to fecurehay of a fine, foft, graffy quality, for the purpofe of producing large fup- plies of milk. In thefe cafes it is cut two, three, or more weeks before the ufual period, as it is found better not to let the feed- items rife. After the meadows or other grafs lands have had the cattle and other forts of live * Middlefex Agricultural Report, 412 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Extirpating c&arfc Plants. ftock removed from them in the early fpring months, and been fhut up for hay, they mould be prepared forthe fcythe by having all forts of obftruclions picked up and removed. This work fhould always be executed as foon as poilible, before the grafs begins to fpring up too much and conceal them, as it is difficult to perform the bufinefs effectually afterwards. Extirpating coarfe Plants. It is an excellent practice, but one that is too much ;neglecled by grafs farmers in general, to have all forts of coarfe plants of the aquatic and other kinds, fuch as rufhes, fern, docks, thirties, and various others, effectually drawn up and eradicated both from the hedge rows and other parts of the field, in order to prevent their running up to feed and diffeminati.ng themfelves over the lands, and thus not only filling them progreflively with all forts of trumpery, but greatly injuring the herbage. In a field on an extenfive hay farm in this neigh bourhood, on perceiving th^whole furface thickly ftudded with thirties, it was .found that this fort of plants had been fuffered to flower and perfect their feed annually, till the lands on every fide had become fully ftocked, to the vaft injury of the crops. The fame thing takes place with the dock and feveral other noxious plants ; which ftrongly enforces the utility of the practice juft recommended. The annual expenfe of performing the bufinefs is but a mere trifle, while the advan tage muft be real and permanent. The faving to the farmer would be confiderablc by having the work regularly done as foon as the weeds fully (how themfelves, and, at the fame time, his young hedge plants be prevented from being deftroyed, by being imaded and choked up by fo many weeds. In order to take them up in a perfect manner, a narrow implement of the fpade kind, fuch as is made ufe of in forming narrow drains, may be employed with advantage, as cutting or breaking them off is by no means effectual. After fuch plants have been removed and the ground well cleaned, fowing the banks and hedge rows with the bed grafs feeds, white clover and other plants, might be an excellent practice, as in this way, the lands may be improved rather than injured. Moft of the varieties of thiftle are either annual or biennial plants except the Com- mon Sow Thiftle and the Common or Field Thi/lle, which are both perennial. The former however, though a troublefome weed in arable lands, is rarely met with in thofe of the grafs kinds. It is obvious therefore from their nature that all the other forts may be readily deftroyed by proper attention in cutting them fo as prevent their feeding : and the common thiftle by frequent cutting in the bleeding feafon. An effective implement for this purpofe has been contrived by Mr. Amos, by which they are not only cut more cheaply, but much nearer the ground, tharMwhere Cultivation of Grafs Land. Extirpating courfe Plants. 41 3 the fcythe is employed. With one man and ahorfe twenty acres may be cut in a day. It is advifed where the lands are in pafture that as foon as the thirties are in full flower the tool fhould be fet to work in the lengthways of the ridges where they exift, the cutting parts being kept very (harp. When they have been cut a day or two, and are withered by their expofure to the fun and air, the ground fliould be cleared, and well rolled in a crofs dire6iion,with a very heavy roller ; which, it is faid, focrurties the hollow (lumps and renders them pervious to water, that the roots quickly decay and become rotten. It is alfo capable of being ufed for other ftrong weeds, and its operation is rendered more effectual by having the lands pre- vioufly cleared from rubbiih and fubjecled to the adlion of the S-ward-dreJJer and roller in contrary directions. Both thefe implements are reprefented in his Mi*. nutes of Agriculture and Planting. Plants of the rufh kind may be eafily removed by preventing the flagnation of moiflu re near the furface, by judicious under or furface drain ing, and the appli cation of fubftances of the faline or calcareous kinds, fuch as afhes, lime, drift from the roads, and other fimilar materials. Thefe are bed made ufe of in a dry feafon, in either the autumn or fpring ; but the latter is probably the beft, as thefe abforbent materials will thereby be made ufe of at the time fuch plants begin to fhoot and eftablifh themfelves, and when there will be the leaft danger of theit operation being leflened or prevented by too great a degree of moifture. It has been ofeferved, that in naturally coarfe meadows, or fuch as become fo in confe- quence of rufhes growing upon them before they have been rendered fufficiently dry by draining, it forms a great improvement to apply a thin coat of fand evenly over the furface of them, in the proportion of from twenty to thirty common loads.* By this means the fward is rendered much finer, and a much better fort of herbage brought up ; white clover being predominant in moil cafes. There is another method that, in particular fituations, may be moreeafy and con* venient, and which has been found to quickly deftroy plants of this coarfe kind by bringing up thofe of a finer defcription. This may appear extraordinary at firft to thofe who have not feen its fudden and aftonifhing effects in this way. It is that of conducting water over the furface of fuch grounds ; but in this intention it fhould not be fuffered to have the leaft degree of flagnation, but be conveyed off with as much expedition as poflible by fuitable drainage. . In particular cafes there is another fort of plant that is apt to fix and efbu * Kent s Hints. 4 14 Cidtivfftien of Grafs Land. Removing Mofi -Means of. blifli itfelf upon the furface, as in old grafs lands, both of the meadow and paf- ture kinds, that are of a clayey nature and fiuated in cold expofed diftricls, to the great injury and deftruclion of the natural grafies. This is that of mofs, which is a vegetable that fpreadsand extends itfelf upon the furface, not only choaking up, but depriving the grafs plants of the nourifhment that is neceffary for their fup- port and healthy growth. Various means have been propofed by writers on huf- bandry for the removal of this mcft dcftruclive vegetable. But as it requires a confiderable proportion of fuperficial moifture to promote its growth a:<d extenfion on the foils which, it infefts, it is probable that the application offuch fubfhmces as have a tendency to abforb and take up the fuperabundant degree of wetnefs by which it is fuppcrted, muft be of the greateft utility and advantage. In this view lime has alone been applied evenly over the furface, in fuch cafes, with much benefit. We have, however, experienced fuperior advantage by covering mofiy grafs lands with a thin even coat of attenuated calcareous matter, in union with a fandy material, fuch as is fcraped up from roads, when formed into a compoft with about one-fourth part of well-rotted farm-yard dung; as by this application the growth of the old grafs plants is not only rendered more ftrong and healthy, but a new and more vigorous defcription of grafles brought up which foon over power the mofs plants, and thus wholly deftroy them. For the fame purpofe, and at the fame time promoting the improvement of the lands, as well as bringing the herbage into a finer ftate, the penning or folding of fheep has been advifed.* In this practice advantage is obtained in different ways, as by the effecl: which the treading has in opening and removing the clofe netted texture of the mofs, and that of the urine and dung in promoting the more ftrong growth of the grafs plants. This method may probably be had recourfe to with the mod fuccefs either in the clofe of the fummer feafon or early in thefpring months : the latter is, however* to be preferred ; as, from the grafs immediately covering the furface, more effecl: may be produced in fmothering and deftroying the moffy vegetation. Harrowing with fhort iharp-tined light harrows is likewife a practice that may be found ufeful in fome cafes, efpecially previous to the application of fuch fub- ilances or comports as have been juft mentioned ; as, by fuch means, the matted nature of the mofs is broken down, and rendered more open and fit for admitting the manure to the roots of the grafs plants, and exerting its full influence in pro. moting their vigorous growth, and, at the fame time, the fpreading of the mofs in * Kent s Hints. Cultivation of Graft LamL Removing Mo ft Utility of Sward-dre/fer. 415 fome meafure prevented. After fuch harrowings have been performed, fome have recommended it as an advantageous practice Co fow grafs feeds, and especially white clover, over the furface.* This bu find s may be accomplifhed in a more eafy and effectual manner on meadow land, whether mown or pailurcd, by being fcarifted and drefied \virh the fward-dreffer, from about the middle of February to the middle of the following month. In common, d re fling the land in one direction may be fufficient ; but where the fward is much infcfted with the mofiy material, or of an adhetive qua lity, it is better to have it done in different directions, being afterwards cleaned and rolled. And in order to thicken the fward where it is thin, it is recommended to lay eight or ten tons of rotten dung on per acre, fpreading it very evenly, and then fowing over it, as in the former cafe, a mixture of feven pounds of white clover, four pounds of wild or cow clover, with four pounds each of trefoil and rib grafs, and one peck of the bed rye grafs, before it is bum harrowed. | It has likewife been remarked that by the practice of fcarifying, the burthen of hay is greatly increafed by having the furface loofened fo as to give the roots the power of a new vegetation, as the fault of mod paftures or grafs lands is their being quite bound and hard, which is of courfe increafed by rolling. Much improvement is fuppofedin many cafes to be thus effected, and that vaft utility is produced, where it precedes the application of manure, as without it difficulty i$ experienced in getting it below the furface for the fupport of the roots of the grafs plants : but after fuch fcarifyings it comes at once in contact with the roots, confequently a much lefs quantity may be fufHcient, than where employed in the ufual method ..j; Sticks. As fmall portions of rotten or other forts of flicks are frequently difperf- cd over the furface of grafs lands, from the hedges and trees, by the winds, or left by the hedgers during the winter feafon, they mould conftantly be raked together or picked up, and conveyed from the land at the time the ground is fliut up for hay : as, where this is neglected, they afford much obftruction to the fey the, and render the Work incapable of being performed in a complete manner. Stones. The removal of thefe is equally neceffary with thofe of flicks,, as they are not lefs injurious in impeding the progrefs of the mower: the practice of fuffering fuch forts of materials to remain blended with the manure, and fet upon the lands with * Kent s Hints, t Amos s Minutes on Agriculture and Planting. J Young s Calendar of Husbandry, Cultivation of Graft Land.- Removing Objlnictions to the Scythe. it, as is commonly the cafe in this as well as many other grafs diftricts, is not lefs- flovenly than reprehenlible. It would be much more eafy, and far lefs expenfive, to feparate them during the time the manure is turning over and preparing for its application: and thus the trouble, expenfe, and occafional neglect of having them afterwards picked off^ would be avoided. When gathered up in the Melds, they ihould not, as is too commonly the cuflom, be thrown together into heaps on the grounds, but be wholly removed, either into the gate-ways or other fuitable places; as, when left in the heaps, they are not only liable to be again difperfed on the lands, but injure them by their remaining and bringing up coarfe grafles. Cattle Dunghills. Thefe are always necefiary to be fpread out as foon as the work can be conveniently performed after the (lock has been removed ; as the longer they arc fuffered to remain, the greater the injury the fward fuftains by being made tender in the places they cover, and their preventing the natural graf- fes from riling, as well as bringing up coarfe plants, in fome cafes, afterwards. In fpreading the heaps, care mould be taken to break them well, and difperfe them as evenly on the furface as poflible : as, where this is not done, from becoming hard they are apt to impede the fcythe. Ant-hills. Where grafs-hufbandry is perfectly underftood, and the lands kept under a proper ftate of management, hills of this fort are feldorn or ever met with ; it is only where the lands have been neglected, or conducted under an improper fyflem of cultivation, that they prevail either in meadow or pafture lands. From the greater degree of drynefs in the latter fort of land, they are more frequently found in them, efpecially where the fward is old and mofTy. Under circumftances of the latter kind it may, in fome cafes, be a more advifable practice to break up the land altogether, than endeavour to remove the hills and deftroy the infects, But in many infiances they may be removed without this trouble, and the land be reftored to the ftate of good fward. Two methods have been chiefly depended upon in bringing thefe forts of land into proper order ; which are thofe of cutting the hills over in crofs directions, and hollowing out the internal mouldy part, and then laying the turfs down again, in an even manner, over the places where the hills flood, the earthy materials being afterwards chopped fmall and fpread evenly over the la*id ; and of paring them wholly off even with the furface of the ground, and depofiting them in heap*, in proper places, that they may rot and decay, foasto become in a ftate of fine mould, and be mixed up with lime in the proportion of a third or fourth, according to the circumftances of the, land, and then fpread out thinly over the fame ground. Both thefe modes may, probably, Cultivation of Graft Land. Removing Ant-hilts Frequent rolling* $c. 417 be practifed with advantage under different circumftances ; as, where the fields arc in fight from houfes, or otherwife much cxpofed to view, the former may be the more ad vifable as rendering the ground lefs difagreeable to the eye; but under other circumftances the latter will be the moft proper, not only as more effectually exrirpating the ants, but as affording a more lafting improvement to the land. In either method, heavy and frequent rolling fhould conftantly be had recourfe to afterwards, as it is in a great meafure from the want of this that the hills are at firft produced. It is indeed rendered extremely probable by the fact ftated below, that this practice may alone, in many cafes, effectually remove this fort of hill. In the rolling down of ant-hills inftead of cutting them up, in an experiment made by the duke of Grafton, it was found to be attended with complete fuc- cefs. A large pafture which had been very much infefted with ants, and which they had almoft covered with hills, was perfectly reftored by repeated heavy rol lings, f In thefe cafes, the rollings mould be performed both in the autumn and fpring feafons, when the lands are in fuch ftates of moifture, asjuft to admit the impref- fion of the roller, without receiving injury from the feet of the animals. If fuch operations be executed when the grounds are in a ftate of considerable drynefs, the benefits will be comparatively but fmall. The good effects that are produced in this procefs depend upon the degrees of confolidation effected ; as it is only by this means that the infects can be prevented from carrying on their various opera tions ; a certain ftate of lightnefs as well as finenefs in the mould being effential to the complete execution of their labours. , Ocher modes of deftroying thefe infects, and preventing the formation of their hills, have been made life of. As the economy of the ant requires the fituation and foil to be dry and friable, in order to carry on their works, it is probable that, in lands that will admit of the practice, it may be an eafy and convenient method of deftroying them, and preventing the bad confequences which their labours pro duce on the furface fvvard, to conduct water over them ; and thus, at the fame time, exterminate the colonies of ants and irrigate the ground; by which two improvements may be effected at once, the land being cleared from ant-hills, while its fertility is confiderably increafed. The ufe of night foil, in compofition with various forts of earthy materials, has been recommended with the intention of deftroying fuch infects, but we fufpect * Kent s Hints, {- Annals of Agriculture, vol. XVI. VOL. II. H 4! 8 Cultivation of Graft Land Mok-lullsDcflroying Moles Methods of that it can only be effectual- in cafes where they have not attained any great height. Mole-Hills. In the more rich and fertile foils, hills of this fort are frequently thrown up in great. numbers, from their abounding more with the food of the fubterraneous animals that produce them. Meadows are often extenfively and ferioufly injured in this way. On account of their depth of foft humid foil, moles ufually refide, deftroy, and render ufelefs the grafs, not only of the very fpots where the hills are raifed, but likewife to fome extent immediately round them, as well as by impeding the free courfe of the fey the : for thefe reafons the extermina tion of moles becomes an object of great confequence to grafs-huibandry. In the early fpring. months, when fuch hills are in a tolerably dry and powdery ftate, no time fliould be loft in fpreading them out, and difperfing them in as even and regular a manner as pofiible over the furfaceof the fward that adjoins them ; as, when they remain long without being fcaled, they do confiderable in jury to thegrafs plants underneath them, by blanching and rendering them tender. This bufmefs may be very conveniently performed by a common iron-toothed garden rake. But it is invariably the bed method never to fuffer the animals to remain in the land, but to procure an expert mole catcher to deftroy them, and thus wholly pre vent the hills from being thrown up. The mole is a fubterraneous inhabitant, whofe health will not bear the freeaccefs of the air for any great length of time, fcldom coming upon the furface except for the purpofe of changing its habitation: its food is worms, fubterraneous infects, or , the roots of plants, and it is fuppofed never to drink : it is, as has been juft noticed, mod prevalent in fertile foft foils, avoiding clayey or gravelly grounds ; and on the introduction of water into its receffes, it immediately makes its efcape to the furface ; yet it has been obferved to fwim acrofs water.* During wet feafons it betakes it- felf to the upper and Ief& humid lands, returning in the fpring to the foft mould of the meadows, where it can eafily perforate and find plenty of food. The breed ing feafon of this animal are the months of February, March, April, and May, producing generally four or five at a birth. The conftant employment of the mole is to make fubterraneous tunnels, which are ufually parallel to the furface, at the depth of from four to fix inches ; but when intimidated, it will penetrate a foot deep for fecurity. In the formation of thefe paffages the mole-hills are raifed ; a* * Darwin s Fbytologia. Cultivation of Grafs Land. DejlToying Moles Methods of. 41.9 mole on changing its abode generally throwing up from four to nine of thefe hills, the paffages communicating with each of them. Thefe few circumftances, con cerning the natural hiftory of the mole, may in feme degree fcrve to direct the operator in the beft and moil ready means of catching, or otherwise deftrcying, fuch animals* In order to deftroy thefe animals, it has been recommended to inject the fmokc of burning fulphur and tobacco into their fubterraneous retreats. However, as the earth frequently falls in behind them as they pafs, or becomes accumulated as they perforate the ground, this method of deftroying them can feldom be ef fectual, unlefs theneft of the animal be near the aperture through which it has been fumigated. Water has alfo been advifed to be poured into their holes, which is feldom more efficacious, though it may have had effect in particular cafes. Baited traps have likewife been tried, but with little better fuccefs. On the authority of an experienced mole-catcher in Nottinghammire, the follow- ingmethod of deftroying thefe animals is defcribed by Dr. Darwin : cc Moles have cities under ground, which confift of houfes or nefts, where they breed and nurfe their young : communicating with thefe are wider and more frequented ftreetj, made by the perpetual journies of the male and female parents, as well as many other lefs frequented alleys, or by-roads, with many diverging branches, which they daily extend to collect food for themfelvesor their progeny." They are more active in the vernal months during the pairing feafon ; more numerous burrows are therefore at this time made in the earth for the purpofe of meeting with each other ; and though they are moftly confidered as blind, they appear to have fome per* ception of light even in their fubterraneous habitations, as they begin their work as fcon as it is light, and of courfe before the warmth of the fun can be fuppofed to affect them On thefe principles, this mole-catcher s method confided firft in attending their fituations early, before fun-rife, as at that time he could frequently fee the earth move over them, or the grafs upon it ; and with a fmall fpade cut off their retreat by linking it into the ground behind them, and then digging them out. By laying the ear to newly raifed mole-hills , thenoife of the fcratching was fometimes heard at a diftance, fo as to direct where to find them ; from the folid earth conveying <l ght vibrations of found better and to a greater diftance than the light air. A ter, er dog, after being accuftomed to this bufinefs, was alfo often found of fervice, in "ecting, by his nofc, the abode of the mole beneath the foil, mowing it by be- ping to fcratch the earth above it. it has been obferved that a mole moftly Cf fuckles four^five, and fometimes 3 Hz 420 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Application of Manure on Hay Lands. lix young ones, placed confiderably deeper in the ground than their common runs, and as thefe netts are funk much deeper into the ground than their ftreets or by-roads, and the mole-hills confcquently larger ; the earth on the fummit of thofe hills is generally of a different colour, and is raifed higher than that of the others. Thefe nefts are to be dug up, having firft intercepted the paflage between them and the mole~hills in their vicinity to cut off the retreat of the inhabitants. The next important circumftance is to difcover which are the frequented ftreets and which the by-roads, for the purpofe of fetting fubterraneous traps ; this is effected by making a mark on every new mole-hill by a light preflure of .the foot, and on the morning by obferving whether a mole has again parted that way and obliterated the foot-mark ; and this is to be done two or three fucceflive mornings. Thefe foot-marks mould not be deeply impretted, left it mould alarm the animal on his return, and he mould form a new branch of road, rather than open the obftructeci one : the traps are then to be fet in the frequented ftreets, fo as nicely to fit the divided Ccinal. They conftft of a hollow femicylinder of wood with grooved rings at each end of it, in which are placed two noofes of horfe-hair, one at each end, fattened loofely by a peg in the centre, and ftretched above ground by a bent ftick : when the mole has patted halfway through one of the noofes and removed the central peg in his progreflion, the bent ftick rifes by its elafticity and ftrangulates the animal. As it was found that where the foil wastoojnoift or tenacious, the moles in paffing the old runs fometimes puttied a little of it before them, and thus loofe- ened the central peg before they were in the noofe, the peg in fuch cafes was fix ed a little fatter in the middle of the trap." This method was purfucd with greae fuccefs. It has beenobferved that by the ufe of thefward dretting machine mentionedabove mofs is not only torn up, but ant and mole-hills levelled and deftroyed, and the roots of grafs plants cut and horfe-hoed, which caufes them to throw out frefh la teral ttioots or ftems ; by which the fward is thickened, and furface rendered fo clean as to have the appearance of a perpetual fpring, when kept clofe fed down.* Manuring Hay Lands. In order topreferve meadow and hay lands in the moft fuit- able condition for the production of plentiful crops of grafs, as well as to alter and improve the nature of the herbage, the occafional application of manure becomes neceflary ; as by this means the ftaple and depth of vegetable mould are not only much increafed, but the land brought into fuch a ftate of fertility as that it may * Amos s Minutes in Agriculture. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Application of Manure on Hay Lands. 42 1 afterwards be kept up with much lefs expenfe and trouble. It is a circumftance well known to grafs farmers in the beft cultivated diftricls, that when lands of this fort are fuffered to get much out of condition, it is a much more difficult bufi- nefs to reftore them to the proper ftate of productivenefs, than to preferve then* in it. From the conftant decompofition and decay of various vegetable materials on the furface of grafs lands, new portions of vegetable mould are conftantly ad ded, that improve the quality of the lands, and at the fame time afford a more fuitable and fertile bed for the eftablifhment of the different kinds of grafs plants. It is chiefly, perhaps, on thefe accounts that old grafs lands are fuperior to new ones, and it explains the reafon of the greater utility of earthy comports with dung in the latter than the former cafe. There .has been much difference of opinion in refpect to the mofl proper periods of making fuch applications; but it is obvious that it mould be regulated by cir- cumflances of different kinds ; fuch as the ftate of the land in regard to drynefs, the peculiarity of its fituation, the heat of the feafon, and the nature and condition of it in refpect to foil and fertility. Where the nature of the lands is fuch as not to admit the dung-cart in the early fpring months without the danger of injuring the furface by poaching or breaking the texture of the fward, the rnoft proper feafon would feem to be in the beginning of the autumn, before the heavy rains fall, as at this period the manure may be laid on with the greateft convenience and fafety ; and from the after-grafs being chiefly fed down with the leaft lofs in that refpecl:. Some, however, recommend this operation to be performed immediately after the land has been mown and cleared from the hay ; and in this method there may be an advantage in fome cafes, as the growth of the after-grafs may thereby be rendered more full and abundant. But on other accounts it muft often be not only inconvenient, but uneconomical, as, from its happening at a feafon when much other bufinefs is to be performed, it can feldom be attended to in fuch a, manner as is neceffary ; and when the feafon at this period is hot, and there is much fun, as in general is the cafe, there muft be considerable lofs fuftained in the extrication and diflipation of the finer and more enriching particles, fuch as become more immediately the food of plants from their being in a condition nearly fuitable for being abforbed and taken up by the roots of the graffes. The extent of the lofs incurred in this way is much more considerable than is commonly fuppofed, as muft appear evident from the great exhalation and conftant evaporation that is often kept up for many days, or even weeks, as the very offensive fmell that iffues fully proves. In this^iftrict, where we have occafionally witnefled the practice, with fome 4*22 "Cultivation of Grafs Land. Application of Manure on Hay Lands. of the lefs intelligent farmers, the moifture of the manure has been fo much forced off and didiparrd, efpecially when there is much wind, as to leave the materials in nearly a perfectly dry (rate. The fudden drying up of large ponds at fuch feafons fhows in a more ftriking manner the ex tent of the injury that the farmer fufbinsin choofing this feafon for the application of his manure. Befides, there is another way in which a vaft lofs of manure may take place when applied at either of the periods that have been juft noticed, efpecially where the lands lie in Hoping directions, as is frequently the cafe, which is by the heavy rains in the autumnal feafon carrying down the more, fine and rich parts of the manure in a Mate of folution, into the ditches and runlets, on the fides or other parts of the fields. Of the great wafte of manure occafioned in this way any one may convince himfelf, by attending to the (late of the water as it drains off from the higher grounds into thefe places, after the land has been previoufly dreffed, as it will be found highly coloured, and loaded with the enriching carbonaceous particles of the- ^manure. After frofts when fudden thaws occur, the fame thing happens.* In fituations that will, from the natural drynefs and compofition of the foils, .admit of the practice of applying the manure in the early fpring months, there will be lefs rifk of wafte in thefe ways, and at the fame time more advantage obtained in the growth of the produce ; as from the moderate heat and quieknefs of the vege tation at this feafon the grafs will foon cover over and conceal the dung, when ap plied in a proper ftate of reduction,without fuffering much exhalation to take place j and the enriching material be conveyed to the "roots of the grafs plants at the feafon in which it can be the mod ufeful in prcmoting their growth. Where quantity of produce is the principal object, and the nature of the foil will admit of the ma nure s being applied without injury, this is therefore unqueftionably the moft proper as well as mod beneficial time of putting the dung upon grafs lands. The earlier, however, it can be performed in the feafon the better, as has been already more fully exphined.f An agricultor of much experience and obfervation has, however, found manure to produce the ftrongeft effects upon the land when applied early in the autumn, or in meadows as foon as poflible after they have had the hay taken off from them.* Others, likewife, fuppofe this lafl as the moft proper feafon for the bufinefs.| There is fcarcely any fort of manure that will not be ufeful when laid upon the * Se&ion on Manure, -f Ibid. + Dr. ^Yilkinfon in Communications to the Board, &c. vol. III. $ Rer. Mr. Young in Cultivation of Grafs Land. Application of Manure, on Hay L r>nls. 4:5 furface of grafs lands, but in general thofe of the more rich clung kinds will he the rnoft fuitable for the older forts of fward land ; and dung in compofition with fr:fli vegetable earthy fubfrances the more ufeful in the new lays or grafs Kinds, as by this means a fine vegetable foil will be prepared for the roots of the grafs plants ro (hoot and fpread themfelves into, and confequently a better fward formed. But the mofl fuitable forts of applications in thefe cafes have been defcribed in confidering the mofl proper management of fuch lands as have been newly laid down to grafs. In this diftrict, where grafs hufbandry begins to be tolerably well underftood, it is the practice of the beft farmers to prefer the richefl dung they can procure, and fcldomto mix it with any fort of earthy material, as they find it to anfwer the bed in refpect to the quantity of produce, which is the principal object in view ; the cultivators depending chiefly on the fale of their hay in the London markets. The lands on which this practice is purfued are moftly fuch as have been under the ftate of fward a confiderable length of time, and the foils chiefly of the more tenacious, loamy or clayey kinds. There cannot, however, be any doubt, but that earthy comports in the proportion of a third or fourth may in many cafes, accor ding to the nature and circumftances of the land, be applied with great and very beneficial effects, both in rendering the land more fertile and productive, and in bringing the herbage into a better (late, as well as for improving the furface for ther fcythe. The forts of fubftances that may be the moft beneficially employed in this way have been fully defcribed in fpeaking of manures. But, whatever the material may be that is employed in compoft with dung, or the nature of the manure, they mould invariably be brought into a confiderable degree of reduction. It is the practice in 1 this diftrict to turn over the dung that is brought from London in a tolerable flate of rottennefs, once chopping it well down in the operation fo as to be in a middling ftate of finenefs when put upon the land. It is neceflary, however, that it fhould be in a more rotten and reduced ftate when applied in the fpring than when the autumn is cholen for the purpofe.* The proportion of manure that is neccffary muft in a great meafure depend up on thie circumftances of the land, and the facility of procuring it. It mould in general be fuch as to afford a good covering to the whole furface of the ground. In this diftrict, where the manure is of a very good and enriching quality from its being produced in (tables and other places, where animals are highly fed, the quan tity is ufually from four or five to fix or fevcn loads on the acre, fuch as are drawn* * Se&ion on Manure,- 424 Cultivation of Grafs Laud* Application of Manure on Hay Lands. by three or four horfes in their return from town on taking up the hay. But where the manure is of inferior quality, there may be a neceflity for a much larger pro portion.* In regard to the frequency of drefling grafs lands, it muft obvioufly depend upon a variety of other circumftances, as well as that of the convenience of the farmer, and the means he has of providing it. But fo far as it refpects the foil, it mould, on the principles laid down above, conftantly be performed at fuch diftances of time, as that the fertility and condition of the land may not be fuffered to decline, but be kept up and preferred in an equal or increafed (late of heart. In this Intention the manner and frequency of cutting, or otherwife confuming the pro duce, muft be attended to ; as, where crops are more frequently taken off, the land muft be prevented from being injured, by the great lofs of fertility that mufl arife in this way, by the drefiings being applied at fhorter intervals, or in larger proportions at a time. On meadow or grafs lands that are in a proper (late of cultivation, its being ap plied every third year may be fufficient ; but on fuch as are of inferior value, every fecond year may be a better practice, as the lands by this frequent application of manure may attain a gradual improvement : whereas, in the other cafe, they would be on the decline, and in time become poor and exhaufled. It is a too common practice, in diftricts where grafs hufbandry is imperfectly underfrood, to almofl wholly neglect the manuring of their fward lands, in order to employ it on thofe that are under the plough : but this is evidently a bad and difad- vantageous method for the cultivator ; as it is only by the railing of abundant crops of grafs for the purpofe of being converted into hay, and of fuitable kinds of green crops for green food, that an abundant (lock of cattle can be kept, and the largeft proportions of manure fupplied. There are fome fubftances employed in the way of manure, as top-dreffings to grafs lands, that cannot be frequently repeated with either fafety or advantage. Chalk, marl, chopped woollen rags, and fome other (imilar materials, are of this kind. The firft of thefe kinds, efpecially when of a foft unctuous nature, fo as to readily fall down in the (late of folution to the roots of the grafs plants, is found to produce the mod beneficial effects, in rendering the lands more fertile and pro ductive, and improving the quality of the herbage. It cannot, however, be often repeated in its fimple flate with advantage, as it is fome time in producing its full * Se&ion on Manure. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Application of Manure on Hay Lands. 4C5 effects ; but in that of compoft, it may be applied with fuccefs at (hotter intervals, Marl is likewife afubftance, efpecially when it is of the rich foapy kind, that may be made ufe of with much advantage as a top-drefling on grafs lands ; but as its ope ration is flow, it cannot be repeated at {hort intervals, except when employed in the ftate of a compoft with dung. Woollen rags, when rendered fmali by being chopped into pieces, may be laid on land in the ftate of fward ; but as they require a confiderable length of time to fink down and become mixed with the foil, fo as to be well covered by the grafs, they cannot be repeated at ftiort intervals. After they have been fully incorporated with the land, their beneficial effects are conlU derable, as have been fhewn by the trials of different cultivators. There are feveral other materials that are occafionally ufed as top-dreflings on grafs lands ; fuch as lime in combination with rich vegetable earth and with peat, the afhes derived from the combuftion of peaty fubftances, coal afhes, and foot. All thefe have been made ufe of with good effects when thinly fprcad out over the furface fvvards of lands in the ftate of grafs, as has been already fufficiently fhown.* The three laft have been found to produce the beft effecls in being difperfed over the new lays of the artificial grafs kinds. All applications of this fort fliould be applied about the beginning of March, being fpread over the furface as evenly as poflible. If it can be done before a mower of rain it will be the better, as it is of advantage to have them earned down to the roots of the graffes as foon as poflible after they are laid upon the land. In the putting of manure upon lands of this fort, fome attention is neceflary not to fuffer too much to be placed out in any of the heaps, but to have them fet out as much as poflible in not too large equal proportions, and at regular diftances from heap to heap : as, where the contrary is the cafe, it not only takes up more time, and caufes much more trouble to the labourer in fpreading them, but does not admit of the work being performed in fo regular or fo exact a manner. Be- fides, when the heaps are fet out too large, more injury is done to the grafs plants on the furface where they ftood, if not foon fpread out ; which fhould alv/ays be the cafe. The carts employed in many diftricts for fetting out dung in heaps are by no means convenient for the purpofe. In this neighbourhood this fort of bufi- nefs is far from being well executed, except where fmall carts are in ufe. From the large ones commonly made ufe of, the heaps are apt to he fet out not only very unequal in fize, but much too large, and there is confiderable trouble in conducting * Section on Manures, and After-management of new Lays, VOL. II, 3 I 426 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Spreading Manure, the work. In many other diftricts, carts for the purpofe arc in general ufe, and conftructed fo as to render the labour more eafy and convenient, A very ingenious contrivance to facilitate the unloading of carts filled with dung or other forts of manure, is mentioned by the author of the Perthfhire Agricultural Report, as in ufe by Mr. M Donald. This improvement confifts in the box of the cart being fufpended at different heights ; but can only be employed with advantage in carts conftructed on a moveable frame, or what are ufually called coup-carts, and where the load is to bedifcharged in feveral portions or heaps. A thin piece of iron of about two inches in breadth being fixed on the fore part of the box of the cart, exactly in the middle, extending in length to the top of the box, in which are inferted three or four oblong holes, in fize correfponding to a rod, which is fixed \vith a ftaple in the middle of the firft bar that keeps the fhafts together ; the length of this rod is about eighteen inches, or longer if neceflary, as the height or length of that part of the box refting on the frame may require. The top of the rod is formed into the fhape of a crefcentan inch wide, with the points upwards, which correfponds with the holes in the plate. When the rod is not in ufe, it is made to reft on a hook in the front of the box, to prevent its dangling. When the driver wimcs to unload his cart, he raifes the box, putting the rod into the firft nick, and makes the firft heap, and moves on to the place where he intends to put down the fe- cond, again railing the box to the fecondnick, and fo on till the whole is difcharged. In the fpreading out of all forts of materials on the furface of grafs lands, it is neceflary to fee that the bufinefs be performed in an exact and even manner, and that all the clods and lumps be well broken down and perfectly reduced by beating with the fork or Ihovel. If poflible, a dry feafon ihould be chofen for this fort of work, as, under fuch circumftances, it can be executed in the moft regular and exact method. When the weather is wet it is an operation that can never be well performed, as the materials clog round the feet and tools of the workman, and can never be effectually feparated or divided fo as to fpread out with the neceflary de gree of evennefs. After the heaps have been fet out, they mould not be fuffered to remain fo long, as is often the cafe, before they are fpread out, as the plants under neath them become blanched and tender, and great injury is done to the fward in fuch cafes, all of which may be eafily avoided by fpreading as foon as poflible after the manure is taken out. Inconveniences of this fort may Jikewife be avoided by fpreading the manure from the carts, as is the practice in the midland and fome other diftricts ; but in this method we fufpect the work can neither be executed in Jo exact a manner, or with fo much economy of time to the labourer* In this Cultivation of Graft Land^J&ujh-Hftrxowing* Rolling of, 427 way hill-fteads will not however be formed, and, of courfe, the difad vantage of their getting too large a proportion of the manure prevented.* Bujb- barrow ing. When the whole has been fpread out, and remained in that (late for a fortnight or three weeks, or longer, according to circumftances, and the whole is become in fome degree dry and pulverizable, a bum-harrow mould be palled over the furface once or twice in a place, as may be neceflary, in order to reduce the manure into a finer Hate, and apply it more fully to the roots of the graffes. This operation, like that of fpreading, mould never be attempted when the feafon is wet and the manure in a cloggy adhefive ftate. When this work has been finifhed, all the rubbifh of every kind fhould be carefully picked off, in order that the ground may receive the impreffion of the roller. Rolling Grafs- Land. This is a procefs that is of confiderable utility in the ma nagement of grafs lands, efpecially fuch as are under the fey the, as without it they are often liable to become hilly and uneven, as well as the grafs in fome cafes to become tuffocky, or rife in large tufts. The impreffion of the roller not only ren ders the furface more fine and level, but at the fame time induces the grafs plants to fpread more laterally, and in that way to form a better and more clofe fward. Its importance on new laid down grafs lands is therefore extremely obvious: as it muft be highly ferviceable in thefe different intentions. The worm-cafts are by this means reduced and brought into order, by which means the mowing can be performed with greater facility and in a clofer manner. Befides, it may be ufeful in other views, as by prefling the mould, as well as the manure, more clofely round the roots of the grafs plants ; and in confequence of fuch means they may not only be better eftablifhed in the foil, and their vigorous growth more effectually pro moted, but, from the moifture being more fully preferved in the ground, be in lefs danger of injury from the effects of heat in the fummer months, and of courfe better crops be afforded. On grafs land the work of rolling may be advantageoufiy performed at different feafons, as in the beginning of the autumn and in the commencement of the year, or the very early fpring months ; but the latter is the moft common period. But in order to its being executed with the greatcft poflible benefit, a time fhould always be chofen, if poflible, when the ground is in a fuitable ftate for receiving the im preffion of the implement. In the drier defcriptions of land it may frequently be performed in the moft beneficial manner after the land has been rendered a little * Marshall s Midland Counties, vol. II, 3 I 2 Cultivation of Grafs Land Rolling of. foft by a moderate fall of rain ; but in thofe of the contrary fort it may be neceHary to wait till the fupcrabundant moiflure be fo much dried up as to admit the animals employed in drawing the machine without poaching, or oiherwife injuring the iurface of the ground. A roller of confiderable weight is neceffary in performing this bufinefs in the moll complete and effectual manner, fuch as has been already defcribed.* And in order to prevent as much as poffible the ground from being injured by the feet of the animals that draw it, as may frequently be the cafe where they follow each other in the fame track : it may be the beft practice to have them yoked double^, as by that means there will be lefs treacling on the fame portion of furface. Where two horfes are fufficient to execute the work, more mould never be made ufe of; but if a third (hould be found neceffary, it may be attached as a leader in the middle before the other two: a greater number of horfes can feldom or ever be of any material advantage in this fort of work. It is neceffary to be very careful in executing this operation, to fee that every part receives the due impreffion of the implement. On lands where this fort of work is regularly performed, it will feldom be requifite to pafs more than once in a place, but in other cafes it may often be done more frequently with benefit. The rolling of watered meadows mould be executed towards the latter end of February or beginning of the following month, after the land has been left in a dry ftate for a week or ten days. The work mould be performed lengthways of the panes, going up one fide of the trenches and down the other.f And in rolling the common hay lands, it is a good method to proceed up one fide the field and down the other fomewhat in the fame manner. As grafs lands, efpecially thofe that have not been long refiored to the ftate of fward, are fometimes liable to become thin and patchy, it may be necefTary to reftorc or bring them to a perfect condition of furface, by lowing frefh grafs feeds over the patches or uncovered parts. This is bcft performed as early as pofBble in the fpring feafon, during moift weather, the feeds being either left to themfelves, &r trodden in by folding (heep thinly upon them. Therollermay likewife be ufeful ,in this view by being run over the patches, though not fo effectual as that of Iheep. In this, as well as other cafes, fuch forts of grafs feeds fhould be chofen as are the moft adapted to the nature of the lands. The methods of managing this fort of bufinefs in the beft manner have been fhewn above. The utility of fcarifying, or * Se&ion on Implements.. f Bofwel) ou Water Meadows* Cultivation of GrafsLand. Watered Meadows Implements ufcd in. 409? cutting the furfacc of g;rafs lands by harrows or other implements fet with coulter?, has alfo been confidered, but too few experiments have yet been made to form any decided opinion upon the fubjecT:. Watered Meadows. The. e are frequently exten five traces of grafs land, that from the nature of their fuuations are capable of being covered occafionally with water from the rivers, brnoks or fmall firearm, that flow through or near to them, and in this way admit o being improved and kept in a conftant ftatt of fertility and pro duct! venefs, without the trouble or expcnfe of other forts 01 manure. The greateft improvements in this way are effected, and the expenfeso r perform ing them the leatf, in thofe places where the current or defcent of ihe ft reams is the moft rapid.* * The Implements made ufe of in conducing this fort of bufinefi are, according to Mr. Bofwell, th following : Wat erLf vela. Many of which are in ufe and are well known. The Spirit Ltvel is probably the bed for this purpofe. But in this work the labourers often difpenfe with the ufe of fuchinftruinents, bringing the water after them to work by. In forming a main, he fays, they begin at the head, and work deep enough for the water to follow them ; and in drawing a tail drain, tht y begin at the lower end of it, and work upwards, to let the tail water come to them, as this method gives the moft exaft level. Line, Rules, and Breast Plough. Thefe are well known implements ; the laft being moftly ufed in Cutting turf for the fides of the cuts. Spades. In thofe ufed in this work the ftems are confiderably more crooked than in any other fpadcsj fo that the workman in the bottom of the ditch is able to make his drain or trench fmooth or even, when Handing in a working pofition. The bits are made of iron, about a foot wide in the middle, ter minating in a point, having a thick ridge down the middle, and thin and lharp on the edges : when become thin and narrow by wearing, they are ufed for the fmaller trenches. Crescent. This is an implement fimilar to a gardener s edging knife, but larger, very thin, and well fteeled, having a Item about three feet long, with a crofs handle to bear upon. Its ufe is to trace out the fid.es of the mains, trenches, drains, &c. Wheel-Barrows. For this ufe thefe are made open, without fides or hind part ; they ferve for convey ing fods, &c.; for embanking, damming, &c. Hand-Barrows. Thefe are likewii e in ufe for the fame purpofe where the ground is foftand flooded, Three viketled Carts. Thefe are made ufe of for different purpofes.and have broad rimmed wheels. As the wheels do not follow each other in the fame track, and as the weight is borne more equally, they are lefsfubj< <ft to cut and fink into the foil. Scythes. Short and narrow ones are in ufe during the running of the water, to cut away the weeds and fuperftuousgrafii. Forks and Crooks. Thefe are wanted when it is necefiary to clear the drains of weeds and Foots. The crooks are formed with long tines for this purpofe, fimilar to dung-drags, and mould be made light, ami long ftems, fo that the workmen may reach into deep water with them to cleap obftpuclions. 430 Cultivation of Graft Land. Watered Meadows Situations^ Soils, <$<% The moft fuitable foils for being watered are thofe that are of a fandy or gravelly friable nature, as the improvement is not only immediate, but the effects more Stout Boots. Thcfe fliould have tops to draw halfway up the thighs or more. They fliouhl be formed of flout leather, well greafed with tallow, fo as to rcfift running water for ten or twelve hours ; and fhould be large enough to admit of ftutling them down with hay all round the legs. The Terms employed in the art are thus explained by irrigators : Sluice. This differs from a wear limply in rofpel to its having but one thorough ; for if there be more thoroughs it then becomes a Tt ear. It applies in a fin all ft ream in the faroe way as a wear does in a large one. Trunk. This is a covered fluice, and is fo conftrucced in all cafes where two dreams of water are to crofs each other at the point of difcharge, or if it is to ferve as a bridge. Carriage. A fmall fpecies of wooden or brick aquedu&, built open, for the purpofe of carrying one ftream over another : this is the moft expenfive conveyance belonging to watering. Drain Sluice, or Drain Trunk. Such as are placed in the loweft part of the main, as near to the head as a drain can be formed, and fituated low enough to drain the main, &c. It is placed with the mouth at the bottom of the main, being let down into the bank, and from its other end a drain is cut to com municate with fome trench drain that is neareft. It is a contrivance ufed to carry off the leakage through the hatches when they are fhut down, to convey the water to other grounds, or to repair the main, &c. Hatches are floodgates, and applied to the fame purpofes : they are, of courfe, varioufly conftrudled. A particular kind, which have about a foot, to take off, fo as to permit the water to flow over that much of the hatch where it appears to be ufeful in irrigation, is a very good fort. Head Main.~- This is that part of the principal ditch which takes the water firft out of a river or .ftream., for the purpofe of diftribution through its fmaller ramifications. Small Mains. Thefeare the next gradations of ditches applied to diftribution, by means of their com* munication between the head main and trenches. Trench. The laft diftribution ditch in watering, continuing todecreafe its di mentions as it fpreads the water over a greater extent of ground. Trench Drain. A deep ditch, or drain, which meets the trenches for the purpofe of taking the wa ter away fpeedily after the irrigation is performed. It fliould be cut parallel to the trench, and as deep as the tail drain water will permit, if poffible fo as to reach the ftratum of fand gravel or clay. Its gradations are exactly the reverfe of the trenches, which it meets in the manner of two forks pla ced with their points into each other at regular dillances. Its parts, of courfe, increafe as it receives fucceffive ftreams to be drained off. Tail Drain. The principal ditch which conveys the water out of the meadow. It receives that which all other drains difcharge, and fliould confequently lead to the loweft poffible point of difcharge, and the neareft direction which the ground under every circumftance will permit. When ufed as a fence-ditch it anfsvers a double purpofe. Pt:/tc. Signifies the part of ground containing the grafs to be mown between the trench and trencli- orain. Cultivation of Graft Litnd.-~iyatercd Meadows Situ atiotis, Soils, $c. 431 powerful than on other forts of lands, Someftrong adhefive four wet lands, fuch as arc common in the vicinity of large rivers, are alfo capable of being improved by watering; but the beneficial effects are not in thefe cafes fo foon produced as on thofe of the above kind, nor is the procefs fo advantageous to the farmer, on ac. count of the very heavy expenfe to which he mud, in many cafes, be put by pre vious draining. Such lands as contain coarfe vegetable productions, fuch as heath, ling, or rumes, may alfo be greatly improved in this way. There is another circum-* fiance in regard to the different foils that may be benefited by irrigation,^ hich is, that the more tenacious the foil is, the greater the command of water ought to be. A flream capable of watering fifteen or twenty acres of light dry land, would be found to be beneficial in but a fmall degree if applied to watering half the fame extent of cold clay foils, fuch as in their natural ftate abound with rufhes. All foils of the laft fort require a confiderable body of water for the purpofe of float ing them, in order to produce much effect. If this cannot therefore be procured, fuch means of improvement will feldom anfwer the farmer s expectation, or turn out to much account. Thofe grounds which admit of being benefited in this way with the mofl fuccefs Way -pane. The ftrip of land left for cartage along the fide of the main, being watered from the banks of the main, and drained by a parallel ditch. Bend. A ftoppage made in various parts of thofe trenches which have a too quick defcent,inorJer to check the water and force it out of the trench. This is done by having fmall dams of the natural fward at proper places, arid cutting a fod out of them wedge-ways, fo as to ftop the current and give a. more equal diftribution to the water Gutter. A fmall groove cut from the tails of the trenches occafionally, to diftribute the water to the utmoft extent of the panes more equally than by the regular works. Catch-Drain. An occafional ditch which is fometimes cut to carry the fame water into a fecomi main, for the purpofe of irrigating a lower meadow, or pane, with the fame water which has been ufed. Pond. Is applied to any fpot of ftagnant water which is left on the ground in the procefs of irriga tion. Turn of Water. As much as can be diftributed at a fingle operation by the management of th hatches within the reach of the labourers employed, and as the ftream will fupport. Head of the Meadow. That part into which the main firft enters. Tail. That part where the water laft pafies cffby the tail-drain into the natural river,, or fewer ; OP where that fewer itfelf leaves the meadow. Upper Side of a Main. That which, when made at nearly right angles to the river, fronts the point it which the river enters. Lower Side. The reverfe of the above. Upper Pane. That which lies above the main, if fuch be left* 432 Cultivation of Grafs Land Watered Meadows Ufc of Spirit Level in. are fuch as He in low iituations, on the borders of ft reams or rivers^orin doping directions on the fides of hills, to which water can be conducted in the manner directed below. It is neceifary, before entering upon works of this kind, to confider, whe ther the ft ream of water to be employed will admit of a temporary wear or dam to be made ncrofs it, fo as to keep the water up to a proper level for co vering the land without flooding or injuring other adjoining grounds; or if the water be in its natural Mate fufficiently high without a wear or dam, or to be made fo by taking it from the ft ream higher up more towards its fource, and by the conductor keeping up nearly to its level till it comes upon the meadow or other ground. Further, if the water can be drawn oiT the meadow or other ground as rapidly as it is brought on.* Beiides thefe, having attended with care to all fuch other difficulties and obftructions as may prefent themfelves, from the lands being in Jeafe through which it maybe neceflary to cut or form the mains or grand carriers^ from the .water being neceflary for turning mills, from the rivers or brooks not being wholly at the command of the irrigator, and from fmall necks of land intervening, fo as to prevent the work from being performed to the greateft advantage, the operator may be in a fituation to commence the bufinefs. of irrigation. This is to be done by the ufc of ijpirit level t beginning from the higheft part of the land that the Itream can be commanded from, where the grounds on the dif ferent fides are the property of the fame perfon, and wears or other works, as has been juft obferved, can be carried acrofs the ftreams for the purpofe of forcing the water, either wholly or in a partial manner, into a different courfe. After it has been raifed as high as poffible in this way, the level is to be formed from the fur- face of the water, carrying it on what is termed the dead level, and marking it out, at certain diftances, by two rows of flicks or flakes well driven down, one on the line of the dead level and the other oppofite to it, at fuch diftances below as may be fufficient to allow for the proper flowing of the water: a few inches in the mile \vill be fufficient to draw it, but from a foot to a foot and a half or two feet in that length may be requifite to afford a proper fall ; and where interruptions prefent themfclves from buildings or other caufes, a ftill greater fall will be neceflary, in or der that the paffing of them may be provided for in a gradual, not a fudden, man ner. Jt is proper to proceed in this way to the extent of the land that is capable * Wricht on Floating Lund. ^Cultivation of Graft Land,* Watered ] Mectdow$-~*Vfe of Spirit twclin. 4-33 of being watered. And when neceflary, the level on the land upon the, other fide of the ftream may be fet out in a iimilar manner. After this has been done, the land on the different fides of the dream, below the lines fet out by the level, (hould be minutely examined and infpedled, as the whole may be irrigated if the command of water be fufficient. The extent that can be properly performed muft, however, \ depend much on the degree of fall or defcent from the entrance of the water and its out-fall, as well as on the declination of the more elevated parts of the ground. It, however, generally happens that a much greater fpace of land can be covered with water than was at firft fuppofed. The next circumftance of importance is that of deciding where to commence the bufinefs. This muft depend on various points, which can only be fettled by the judgment of the operator. If there be a full fupply of water, the whole mould be covered; butia thecontrary cafe, the expenfe of cutting the mains or carriers on fuch levels in a fufficient manner fliould be confidercd ; and where one fide of the ftream is better adapted to the purpofe than the other, that on fuch fide mould be the firft executed. And if the land moft adapted to the purpofe of watering be at much diftance from the place whence the water is firft taken, and there is not a Aipply for the whole of the land below the line of level on one of the fides, the expeafe of forming the carrier fliould be put in comparifon with the greater ad vantage of irrigating the moft fuitable grounds, in preference to others that arc near er, without pofTeffing equal advantages. It moftly happens that the beneficial con- fequences of irrigating at command are fuch as to overbalance that of forming the mains or carriers. Befides, though the fupply of water may be infufHcient in fuch feafons as are very dry, as it may be abundant in the winter time, the limply cover-, ing the land at that period may be more than adequate to the expenfe of the bufu ncfs j which is a eircurnftance that may render it more beneficial to lengthen the carriers, tlun- by having them fhorter to be confined to the watering of fuch lands as are lefs proper for the purpofe. It is probable alfo, that in particular cafes the winter irrigation may extend through the whole of the level that has been fet out. Where it may happen that there area great variety of different forts of land be low the line of level, fuch as low, flat, wet meadows, extended on Hie borders of the river, having paftures with dry, gravelly, or fandy tillage lands higher up, and moory or heathy grounds, fo that the operator has it in his power to perform the bufinefs, at his option, on different forts of land, it is too frequently the cafe to be gin with the tow grounds that admit of improvement iu other ways, as by drain* VOL, ii. 3 K 434 Cultivation of Gruf* Land. Watered Meadows tiherc proper to begin,$c* ing ami proper manures of thetbflil kind, and that are not only the mod difficult and expenfive in the execution, but often the leaft advantageous in the produce afterwards, except when the butinefs is performed with uncommon correctnefs. Therefore, in examining fuch grounds as are iituated below the mains or carriers, the irrigator ihould fix upon fuch lands as are, from the nature and condition of the foils and the fmallnefs of their value, capable of affording the greateft and mod fpeedy improvement and advantage. In moft cafes thefe will be found to be the more dry declining parts in the (late of tillage, and the old worn out dry paftures. And infome inftances the heathy and moory lands may be felccted for this purpofe with great chance of benefit. Where it can be done, it is bed to begin with fuch parts as are contiguous to, or approach the neareff, the mains or carriers ; and, after having paffcd the water over them, to mark the loweft places, where it can be carried off to the bed advantage ; and from fuch parts it (hould then be feen to which other lands the water can be conducted with the greateft facility and benefit. Where the natural (helving of the ground is considerable, lefs care is neceffary ; but where this is not much, it may often be requifite to convey the water in a flanting direction for a confiderable way, before lands fufficiently low for being covered by it are met with ; as in this fort of bufinefs it is invariably neceffary, in order to prevent the wafte of water, to proceed with that which is firft made ufe of to its final outlet into the river before the works on other divifions are commenced. On extenfive floping tracts of land managed in this way, it of courfe moftly be* comes neceffary to convey the water in a flanting direction acrofs them. And an opportunity is thereby afforded of throwing it over the lands in the intermediate fpace, between the bed of the river and the mafler drains or carriers, and in this way one fpace or divifion of ground may be fupplied after another, and the water con ducted at pleafure to any given point, thereby enabling the operator to fupply or omit any fpace of field that he may think proper, but fUll by this means preferving the regularity of the plan, which at any future period may be perfected. In this view the moit material circumfrances to be attended to are the abundant fupply of water and the quicknefs of its being conveyed off, as by its fluggifhnefs or itagnation much mifchief may enfue. It is an advantage in this oblique or flanting method of watering, that it may be performed to advantage with a fmaller fupply of water than in others; as where that is the cafe it may be directed to fuch fpaces only as it will be equal to, but *hen more abundant, it may be fuifered to overflow the whole at the fame moment. Cultivation of Graft Land. -Watered Meadows Floating Gutters, <v. 43^ And it is too frequently the cafe that the trenches and drains are fo injudicioufiy made as to take off the water without the poflibility of uiing it a fecond time ; and there are other inftances of its being conveyed into Hopes without any care of its future courfe, thereby producing great inequalities in its confequent effects. Thefc points fhould, therefore, be constantly attended to, and avoided as much as poffible. When the piece of ground to be Moated is fo much upon the level that the de- fcent cannot eafily be determined by the eye, it will be neceflary to take an ac curate level, and compare the higheft part with the ftreani intended to be ufed, by which the degree of fall from the furface of the water to the higheft point of the land will be afcertained : and in order to convey the water to this point, mould it be diftant from the dream, the fides of the ditch or canal fliould be fufficiently raifed for the purpofe not to keep the water in a dead level, but with fuch degree of de- fcent as the two points will admit of. In the operation of cutting this canal or main feeder, it will be eafy to preferve the proper degree of fall, having previoufly afcertained the length; for inftance, in cutting fifty yards with a fall of five inches, it will be obvious that in every ten yards a defcent of one inch mould take place : this is necefTary to keep the water in a conflant lively motion. In fome cafes it may be neceffary to have two main feeders, in order to effect a more equal diftribu- tion of the water; the depth and width of which feeders muft be regulated by the fupply requifite for the fmaller gutters. Near to the mouth of the canal or feeder it will be proper to have a flood-hatch or flow, by which the water may be admitted or excluded at pleafure. In forming the floating gutters, it is perhaps the beft method to cut them at right angles to the feeders ; however, where the furface is uneven, in order to pre ferve a regular defcent, a different direction muft be given to them, the diftancc from each other being about ten yards, and the gutters becoming, as has been ob- ferved, gradually narrower as they recede from the main canal or feeder. The ob ject in view being to throw the water as evenly over the furface as podible, thefc gutters mould be fo conftructed that the water which has been introduced may overflow their little banks rather than run rapidly along the bed. Ohftructions may fometimes occur, fuch as low parts, or deep ditches, over which a pipe or fpoun may eafily be made to continue the progrefs of the water; and fuch as proceed from ridges, roads, or fmall eminences, by trunks, or other contrivances made to convey the water underneath them. The neceffary preparation for the introduction and fpreading of the water being made, it will be proper to form drains to receive and carry off the water in nearly 436 Cultivation of Graft Land. JFatercd Meadows Floating Gutters, $c the fame proportion that it has been introduced ; which is to be done by drains, running parallel to the gutters at even diftances from each, or, a* the irregularity of the meadow requires, being made narrowed at the higheft part, increafing in width as they approach the lowed (which is the reverfe of the preceding works], until they arrive at the main channel that takes off the water that has been col lected. On the completion of thefe works, when the water is firft introduced, it may, perhaps, be found that it will not fpread itfelf evenly : this may be regulated by flops acrofs the feeders or floating gutters, at fuch places or diftances as the opera tor may find neceflary : thefe (lops may be made by putting down a ftake at each fide of the water and placing a board before them, thereby railing the water to fuch heights as may be required.* In Plate XXI. at Jig. i is explained the method of watering in an oblique direc tion over the fpace between the grand carrier and bed of the river, as defcribed by Mr. Young. In which ff i is the river ; 2 the grand carrier ; 3 the field firfl watered ; 4 the field watered after the firft ; 5 and 6 ditto, in fuccefHon ; 7, 9, the priff d*eatii 8 a fluice to throw the water into the field where firft ufed : 10 final exit of the water. But in this refpecT: the variations may be as many as the form* which a tract of country prefents. 6 may be a good meadow already : in that cafe ? -he water may run to wafte in the ditch n, and fo find its way to the river. * Thus," the divifions 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, form a diagonal fyftem. The others, 18, 19, and 2O> another. 21 and 22, another. 23 and 24, another. 35, 26, and 27, another. 2 8 and 2^9, 3,0 and 31, others. 32 and 33, by themfelves, the one from the carrier, the other from the ditch between it and 28." Fig. 2. Reprefents a watered meadow as defcribed by Mr. Young, where the (lope from A to B is regular, but which is not material to the bufinefs. In this cafe, if "the water from the main carrier, river, or ditch, 31, be let into the delivering trench 32, and the flop 33 be let down, the water will flow over the pane or divifion of the meadow i. The delivering trench 34 then ads as a drain, and conduces the water into the trench 35, the flop 36 being let down; shence, of courfe, it overflows the pane, No. 2 and in like manner, fuccef!ively,N0. * DoAvcll on \Vater Meadows, Cultivation of Graft Lwd.-~jyatered Meadows--Ridge Drain* forming of. 437 3, 4, and 5. If the ftop 33 be drawn up, and the flop 37 let down, the panes 6, 7, 8 and 9 are watered in the fame way ; and fo on by the (tops 38 and 39, which will water the panes 10, n, and 12 ; alfo 13 and 14: and the ftop 40 being let down, and 41 drawn up, the pane 30 will be watered. Then returning to the ditch at the other end of the field, and letting down the ftops 42 and 43, the water will flow into the trench 34, and the ftop 44 being down, the panei 5 is watered, and the trench 45 becomes a drain, which, fucceflively, conducts the water, as above ex plained, over the panes 16, 17, 1 8, and 19. And when the trench 46 becomes fupplied with water, and the trenches 34 and 45 are empty, the panes i and 15 are in a perfect ftate of drainage; which fufficiently explains the fyftem, and mows how every trench operates, either for delivering or draining off the water, at the pleafure of the irrigator." Some advife, that when the lands are quite level, or nearly fo, ridges of abou 1 * eleven yards wide mould be formed by the plough, and raifed about three feet on the crowns; it will be ofcourfe necefTary to ufe thefpirit level in their formation s well as in that of the top trenches for receiving the water from the main carriers-, and that the drains on the fides may be properly conftructed to convey it to the ditches. The trenches mould be cut in a direction verging nearly to a point, in order to give an equal overflow of water the whole length : but where the land is Hoping, trenches alone will be fufficient, caufing an overflow in each direction. It is further neceffary, in attempting to improve meadows or other lands by the application of water, to afcertain that both the foil and fubfoil are naturally dry, or have been made fo by open or under drains, otherwife they cannot be benefited by watering, as has been found from much experience. Ofcourfe the previous operation of draining is indifpenfably necefTary, before lands in which there is much moifture can be flooded with any probability of fuccefs. The perfection of watered meadows confifting in the operator s having it in his power to let on or take off the water at pkafure, it follows, of courfe, that a complete power of drain age is as requifite as the command of water. The length of time which meadows mould remain floated, and the neceflary re petitions of the floating, muft obvioufly depend on various circumfhnces ; but as after every watering the floater (hould be extremely careful to drain off the wa ter from every part of the land, and as the moft prejudicial confequences are known) to rcfult from any degree of neglect of this kind, it would be an ufelefs expenfc to prepare a field for being floated, unlefs previously afcertained that ic poiiefTes A* 4:38 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Watered Meadows Catch-work* iicient declivity for carrying off the water tvhen its continuance may be attended Avith injurious effects. In forming meadows of this kind, the drains that are to carry off the water when no longer neceffary, mould therefore be as carefully at tended to as thofe by which the water is to be brought on. In fhort, it may be obferved, that this operation, as has been already mown, may be applied with utility to all thofe low-lying lands, that are capable of being overflowed directly from the rivers or ftreams that adjoin them, or on which confide- rable proportions of water may be brought by a cut from a river at a higher level than the furface of the meadows, or the tops of the ridges ; if fuch preparation for wa tering has been made, the water being fo conducted to the nearefl part of the mea dow, it is there branched out, by a number of fmaller cuts, made for the pur- pofc. Thefe cuts being filled with water, forced into them with as much rapidity as poffible from the main cut, overflow their banks, and a general flooding enfucs over the whole meadow if fufBcient water be procured. Where watered meadows are ridged up, drains are made in each furrow to receive the water which overflows the little cuts that are made on the tops of the ridges, and, falling into the drains in the furrows, runs off into the tail drain, and which may be ufed to water forne adjoining field, or reconducted to the river; ib that when the drains are properly formed, by flopping the inlet the field may be immediately laid dry. This is molt expeditioufly done where crofs drains are made from thofe on the tops of ridges, fo that the water is conducted into the drains in the furrows, as foon as the main drain is fhut. On meadows whofe fur- faces are irregular, and where an abundance of water cannot be procured, the cuts neceffary to flood it can only be determined by the fkill of the operator. .There is another defcription of watering, ufually denominated Catcb-work, which is applicable to fuch meadows, grafs and pafture lands as are fituated on the fides of hills, and capable of being watered by conducting the water of fome ftrearn round the edges of the hills. The method of watering fuch lands differs from the former, as fewer cuts are neceffary, and thefe as nearly in parallel lines below each other as the bank will permit: the water by the main-cut having arrived at the top of the piece of ground, it begins to run over, overfpreading all the furface in itscourfe, and falling into the cut immediately below it, which, becoming full, difcharges itfelf in the fame manner into the next, and fo on, rill at laft the water arrives at the bottom of the field, and falls into a drain made for the purpofe of carrying it away, or conducting it to other grounds on lower levels. of Graft Land.*? Entered Meadow Defcriptionyof. 439 At Fig. i, in Plate XXII. A,A, reprefents the river running through lands. B,B, two mains drawn at right angles with the river, one running north, the other fouth, acrofs the meadow to within about fix yards of the fences. C, C, fence ditches at the head of the meadow, ufed for tail-drains to convey the water that runs over the way-panes, I, I, watered from the upper fide of the mains, B, B ; by thefe fence-d itches the water is conveyed into the fide fence ditches, H, H, to the tail-drains, or lower-fence ditches, G, G, and difcharged by them into the river A again at K. D, a wear creeled acrofs the river to force the water into either of the mains, B, B, which is done by fhutting the wear D clofe. L, L, two wears erected at the mouth of each of the mains, B, B; their ufcs arc, when the wear D is (hut clofe, and there is not water enough, or it is not con venient to water both parts of the meadow at once, by (hutting clofe one of thefe the. current is forced into that main whofe wear is open, thence to be conveyed through the trenches over the panes, to water that fide of the meadow ; then by fhutting that, and opening the other, the oppofite main, B, is filled, and by means of the trenches that fide of the meadow is watered in the fame manner; and laftly, by (hutting them both, and opening the wear D, the water flows in its ufu- al courfe, and the land on both fides is laid dry. E, E, E, E, trenches taken out of the mains B, B, to convey the water over. MMMMMMNM, which are the panes or parts of the meadow that produce the grafs. F, F, are trench-drains to draw off the water from the panes and convey it into the tail-drains. G, G, the weft fences of the meadow, here ufed for tail-drains to convey the water into the river. K, the place where they difcharge themfelves into the river. N, N, two drain fluices, one at the lower end of each main, ufed when the wears, L, L, are either or both of them mut clofe ; thefe drain fluices are opened to convey the leaking our of the mains into the fence drains, H, H, to keep the land dry and healthy. I, I, are the way- (or road-) panes, watered from the banks of the mains B, B, the whole length of the mains. Fig. 2. A, the river. B, a wear erected acrofs the river. C, the head main ta ken out of the river above the wear B. S, a wear erefted acrofs the main C, to be kept clofe when the meadow is not watered. D, a fmaller main, taken out of the head main C. E, E, E, E, bends made in thefmall mains, and trenches juft below the places where the branch- trenches are taken out of them, to check the water at thofe places, and force a proper quantity into branch trenches. G, G G, G, G, G, bends made in thofe branch-trenches which have fo much defcent that, were it not for thefe bends, the water would run down almoft to the end of 440 Cultivation of Graf a Land. IPaterwl Meadows ficfcriptionsof. the trenches before it would flow over the panes. H, H, H, H, H, H, H, II, H, trench-drains to convey the water off from the panes. There mould be one on each fide of every trench, unlefs a fence-ditch, or the river, can be ufed in- fte.id. P, P, (luice drains, to convey the leaking of the water out of the mains D, and F, L, I.., L, L, trenches taken out of the fmall mains, to convey the water into the various parts of the rrveadow, which at the lower part increafes in width, T, T, T, T, T, branch-trenches, taken out of the other trenches. N, N, N,N, N, N, N, N, N, various gutters taken out of the ends of fome of the trenches, to carry the water to the longeft corner of the panes, and fometimes taken out of different parts of the trenches, to water fome little irregularities in the panes, which without fuch afliflance would not have any water upon them, I, a matter or con- fiderable drain, into which feveral others empty themfelves, and thence run into the tail-drain. K, a fluice, erected at the end of the fmall main D, to force the water in to the branch trench T, that being the higheft ground. M, the tail- drain, which receives all the water from the other drains, and conveys it into the river at O, the point where the water from the tail-drain runs into the river. R, a fence ditch, being the bounds of the meadow on that fide, and ufedalfo as a drain to convey the water into the tail-drain. Fig. 3. A, the head main, taken out of the river, forming an angle of about fixty degrees. The defcent of the land permits the main to overflow it at B, the point where the meadow can be watered, confcquently the place for the main B B to be drawn, at right angles with the ftream, the whole breadth of the meadow intended to be watered, excepting about five yardsat each end. C, D, two wears creeled to turn the water either way ; or, when both are {hut, to keep it in its pro per current. E, another wear for the purpofe of dividing the meadow into turns. F, G, H, 1, K, L, A D, flukes to convey the water into, or flop it out of the trenches, as found neceflary. M, N, two drain fluices. O, P,Q^ R, S, T, V, W, bends to flop the water in thofe trenches which have the quickeft defcent. X,Y,Z, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, gutters to carry the water to the ends of the panes, and little irregular parts in the meadow. C C, the lowcfl part of the meadow, where water is conveyed away. From the main B B, to the principal drain A B, the meadow is watered regularly ; but betwixt that drain A B and the fmall main A C, there is a great flat. To fill it up would be the regular method, fo that the trenches taken out of the main B B fhould go down to the end of the meadow ; to avoid that expenfe, the end of the main B B is continued down to the eaft fide of Cultivation efCfrafs Land. lVcttcred"Mvadu?F$ De/l -.riptions of. 4^ the meadow, till it has pa/Ted the flat grounds to F. Materials being had from the drains, &c. to raife the ground high enough to convey the water in the main on to F. which being the high ground, it is then carried cad and weft, the fame as the main B B. Trenches are taken out of it, to water thr lower pare of the meadow. Trenches are alfo drawn out of the main that, runs north and fouth, to water the flat part the oppofite way; with drain:- between them to carry off the water into the weft fence ditch. At E a wear L built to Hop the water, and turn it into the trenches above it; at Fa fluicc is placed to turn the water into the main A C. For the fame reafon, the flukes A D and K are fet at the mouths of thefe trenches to force the water down to the lower divifions of the meadow. The trench-drains A E and A F con vey the water from the upper pane of the main A C, and alfo from one of the crofs trenches A H. And A F and A B do the fame from the other, crofs trench A G. To water this meadow it will be neceflary to divide it into two,, or perhaps three turns, if water mould be.fcarce. One turn will.be made by open ing the wear C, and (hutting that, at D ; the fluices G and H being alfo opened, the water will flow over tile lower (Id6 of the main B B from Dto M, down all thofe trenches that are taken out of it;, and will be carried off from the trench- drains by the principal drain A B to C C. Thus will that part of the meadow be watered. Another, turn is made by (hutting the wear C, opening D, and ihuttingE.. The fluice H. being flopped, and the fluices I, A D and K opened, that divifion of meadow from the wear D to E will be watered, and the panes on each fide of the main B B alfo, by the water flowing, over, its- banks as it pafles along; which is carried off on the one fide by the river, on the other by theprio~ clpal drain A B.; and alfo from the panes on each fide of .the trenches A. G and AH by the fame drains A B, and the trench. drains A,F and A E into the weft. fence drain to C C. The other turn is made by fhutting. the fluices I, A D arid K, open ing the wear E, and fo much of the fluices F and L, as -will let water enough through to fupply the trenches below them ;. keeping that at. F partly in, to turn the w r ater into AC, and that at L the^fame alfo, partly to check, the water, and force it over the fides -of the. fmall main A C, and into the trenches, i, 2, 3, 4. The reafon for putting the fluice acrofssthe fmall main A Cat L. is, that part is fuppofed to be flat ground from L quite to C C ; confeqyently, the water would, . if not prevented, run fofafttiown to the ends of the trenches, 5,, 6, as to draw all . off from the high grounds, from L upwards. The fmall main A C is too wide to be checked by a .bend at that place ; bcfides, it would not anfvver fo well, to j VOL, ii. 3 L 442 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Watered Meadows E.vpences of forming of. regulate the quantity of water necefiary to water the panes from L to C C ; and it is on the account of thofe trenches 5, 6, that afluice is built. The water which runs out of this; meadow at C C is, if the defcent is quick, immediately made ufe of to water the next meadow below, or if there mould be but little defccnt, it is oftentimes confidered as a head main ; and wherever below it will rife over the land, it is again made ufe of, in the "fame manner as it was at fir ft in this plan of watering. In all cafes where the watering fyftem is undertaken, except in the time of floods, it may be highly ufeful to difiurb the mud and dirt in the bottom of the main carriers or drains before watering, a practice frequently adopted on the con tinent. Lime has alfo been thrown into thefe cuts by fome irrigating farmers, and raked with a heavy harrow or other implement at the bottom, which is a procefs that will be found to add confiderably to the manuring quality of the water. Itis probable that many other fubftances might be employed in the fame way, and be thus fpread over the furface of grafs lands in a minute ftate of divifion, with vaft advantage in promoting vegetation. There is another method which feems capable of affording advantage in this bufmefs, efpecially when the lands are not well fet with grafs plants, which is that of fowing them with fuitable grafs feeds before the procefs of watering is com- .menced ; but in thefe cafes the water mould not be continued flowing too long at a time, as by that means the vegetative power of the feeds might be deftroyed. A good fward might probably foon be formed in this way. To form meadows in a proper manner for watering is attended in many cafes \\-ithconfiderableexpenfe, but varies, according to circumftances and the nature of the irrigation, from fix to twenty pounds the acre. Catch-work meadows from three to feven, befides the annual expenfe of implements and labour. In order to overbalance fo great an expenditure, great and permanent advantages mould be the confequence. However, in fome inltances this does not prove to be the cafe, cf- pccially when the foil and the water are not both well adapted to the purpofe. But, as fuch cafes feldom occur, it may be generally faid, that it is an important means of improvement, whether the object be hay or pztfturage. The great degree of verdure and luxuriance which almoft immediately fucceeds the occafional covering of grafs lands with water, fufficiently demonftrates the power which it poffelfes in promoting vegetation. It is a means of fertility that has been employed for ages in more warm climates, with the mod beneficial con- fequences in increafing the quantity pf vegetable produce. But though it has been "Hi Cultivation of Grafs Land. Watered Meadows- How improved. 443 long in ufe in other countries, and of late more particularly attended to in this, the principle on which it produces its effects does not feem to be fully undcrflood.. In fpcaking of manure as the food of plants, we have already noticed fome of the properties of this fluid that may be ufeful in the vegetable economy when taken up by the fibrous roots of plants, and there are (till other ways in which it would feem to be advantageous in forwarding the growth of grafs crops. In climates where the heat is considerable it may be of much utility, not only by- keeping the fine fibrous roots of the grafs or other plants in a moid patulous (late,, the moft proper for the purpofes of abforption, but in fuch a temperature or (late of hear, from the cooling effect produced by theconftant evaporation that is taking place near the furface of the ground, as is the mod fuitable for their healthy and vigorous growth. It is probably in this way that garden plants are principally benefited by the application of water in the hotfummerfeafons in our own climate, as when the waterings are not conftantly kept up, injury rather than good is moft- ly experienced. But another and more beneficial way in which grafs produce may be immediate ly increafed,and the fertility of the lands more permanently improved in this coun* try by the floating or covering them with water, is from the waters of the rivers or brooks that are turned upon them containing, either in theftate of folutionor dif- fufion, a variety of different forts of enriching materials which they gradually and evenly depofit upon the furface while they reft upon or flowly flow over it. This tnuft be the cafe in all thofe inftances where the rivers or ftreamlets either arife in, or in their courfe flow through or over beds of chalk, marl, or other calca reous ftrata, as in their paflage they become highly impregnated with the fine particles of thefe different fubftances. And where they are fed by the fmali runlets which receive the waters that proceed from the higher and more elevated lands, they muft often, efpecially after heavy rain, be loaded with a large propor tion of fine rich materials of the animal, vegetable or other kinds, which they depofit in a regular manner in their tardy trickling courfe over the furfaces of the fields. $ut it would appear that waters thus impregnated produce the moft beneficial effects, particularly when not in flood, upon the lands that are the nearcft to the fources whence jthey become principally impregnated with their fertilizing princi ples ; as when they have flowed to forne diftance they have, in a great meafure, depofited and let fall fuch enriching fubftances, and are become too pure for 3 L 2 414 Cil ttictiilon itffc?7v7/i Land- 77 dtcrcd *ft8th &t //< -TAJ- v I :;Tilbrding advantage in the way of depofition. It is only in the time of floods that they can produce much utility in this way at any great diftance. It was found by an able philosophical writer, that the water of the Darwent, though it flows for fbvcral miles, near Matlock, through calcareous ftrata, contained no impregnation df this fort on its reaching Derby, although the fprings in that neighbourhood had a large proportion of it in their compofition.* The fame author has ingenioufly fuggcftcd another mode in which water may prove fcrviccablc in floating grounds in this climate, which is that of protecting the grafs or other plants from the too fevere effects of cold during the winter or early fpring feafon. In this view it is obferved, that the water of flrong fprings, M Kirch in this "Country have constantly the temperature of forty-eight degrees of Fahrenheit s thermometer, is to be preferred to that of rivers,where it can be pro cured in afufficient proportion, as the degree of cold in thefe is in the fame ratio with that of the atmofphere till it declines to the freezing point,or that of thirty - two. Though both when fpread out, forming a thin meet of ice on the furfaceof the land, are beneficial in defending the roots of the grafs plants from too intcnfe degrees of cold, and of thus preferving them in a inore healthy condition ; and it is added, that thofc of fome forts of grafies arefuppofed to even vegetate beneath the ice, as the rein-deer mofs in Siberia vegetates beneath the fnow, in a degree of heat of about forty, which is the medium between that of the inferior furface of thedifToIving fnow, or that of thirty-two, and that of the common heat of the in ternal parts of the earth, which is forty-eight ; and in this manner the grafs pro. duce in this cold country be confiderably increafed, fo as under proper manage ment, to nearly double the ufual annual quantity under other circumftances.f In illuftration of thefe principles it may be obferved, that the water ifiuing from fprings where they abound with the particles of gravel, or a flaty mouldering kind of rock containing a large proportion of calcareous earth, are known from ex perience to be better adapted to the purpofe than that which arifes from others that do not contain fuch materials. Thedifferencc in the effecls, often fo vifibly produced, has been accounted for, from watering one field from a fpring ifTuing out of a chalky foil over thofe which take their rife in another, fimilar in every refpect and management, except that the water applied arifes in, or flows through, a fwamp or morafs,compofed chiefly of peat earth, or proceeds from filiations known to contain none of. thefe fubftances. * Darwin s Phytologia, 4 Ibid. rjfOr>t/l Lund. J7 "(tterfd 3/<i(idwfr$^Si : The fact is unqucflionably eftablifhcd, that the .vatcr of rivers which run through comparatively level and fertile countries is not only better than that of fuch as have their courfcs through mountainocs unproductive trac"ls, but fupcrior to all others, as every different ftreamlet ackis a new acceHion of fertilising nrvrriab, which., difpei fed over the far face of the meadows in thcrr fine and attenuated frutr, cann-jt avoid adding a confiderablc degree of improvement to rhc lands. Winter and fpring are the two feafom: \vhen meadows are ufually \vatcred, as from the month of November till the beginning of March ; the experience of theoperator can alone regulate this proceeding as to the length of time they ftiouM remain under water. In fome di ft rifts the water is allowed to (low over the fields for feveral weeks together, with only the interval of a day or two occalionally ; in others, the practice is to flood than the alternate weeks. When frofts fct ii. floating is ufually fufpendcd : but it has been remarked that in Rich cafes the fuc- ceeding crop of grafs has been abundant. As the fpring advances, much left iioating is found to be neceflary. However, in all cafes, when floating is per formed to advantage, the meadows fhould be laid dry between every water ing. On the fandy, gravelly, and drier kinds of land, the water is directed not to re main fo long at a time upon the land as in thofe of the heavier kinds. In the latter forts Mr. Wright thinks three weeks long enough, but Mr. Bofwell advifcs a month, or even fix weeks, in the firft waterings, about November : but a fome-r thing (hortcr time for thofe of the former fort. In December and February Mr. Wright recommends the land to be let dry for the purpofe of air fora few days, and in February particular attention is advifed not to permit the water to flow over the ground many days together without being taken off, as there may be danger from white fcum being formed ; and if the land be left expofed to froft in its wet ftateitmaybe injured in that way. Thefe different inconveniences, it is faid^ may be avoided by taking the water off in the day time, and turning it upon the lands during the night.* Mr. Bofwell does not, however, fcem to apprehend any danger in this way. About March there will moftly be a fufficient bite of grafs to admit the lands being fed by ftock : the water mould, therefore, be turned off for a fortnight, to give it fufficient ftrmnefs before they are turned in. -During the following * Wright on Floating Meadow?. 446 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Watered Meadows EJftds of. month the grafs may be eaten clofc, but not later ; as continuing it even fora few days in May would greatly injure the hay produce which is to be obtained both in quantity and quality. In the month of May, after the grafs has been fed down, the water mould be again turned over the lands for a few days,* by which the Jand is fo moiftened as to produce a full crop of hay. It is probable that with Icfs clofe feeding two crops of hay might frequently be taken with advantage. The firfl! crop of hay from watered meadows, when cut fufficiently early, is equally good with moft other forts, but when let ftand too long becomes coarfe and unfit for fod- der.f It has been obferved on this fubject by a philofophical obferver, that where the* flooding of lands is continued fome time, the water mould only be fuftered to trickle or flow over it gently from the higher parts, and not ftagnate upon it ; as in the latter cafe the grafs roots arefoon deft rayed in the fpring, and, that when fuch ma terials begin to decay underneath the water, a white fcum arifes in confequence of the air fet at liberty by the beginning putrefaction, which has been fufpected as prejudicial to the grafs, but is rather the effect than the caufe of the mifchief, and demonft rates that the water has remained too long in a ftagnant ftatc upon the ground, and requires to be removed or to have a frefh fupply from the ftream ;. but the former is probably the better.* The neceflity of continuing the watering after it has been begun, in hot climates and feafons, has been already mentioned ; and there may be injury done to the grafs plants by the fudden application of much water under fuch circumftances of great heat.|| The beneficial effects of watering meadows is obvious in producing an early and luxuriant vegetation, with proper foil and water, as appears by a comparifon made by thofe who had an opportunity of feeing Mr. BakewelPs judicious application of this means of improvement on a piece of ground fet apart for experiments in this branch of hufbandry. If they had purfued their furvey a little further, they might have difcovered, that while the Difhley fields were covered with an almoft perpe tual verdure of the moft nourifhing grafles, thofe of the neighbouring farmer were famous only for the nifties and other weeds which they produced. As the grafs of watered meadows is very forward in March and April, they are generally paftured in the fpring with fhcep ; and to thofe farmers who keep them for breeding or fattening, it becomes almoft invaluable from the fcarcity of green * Wright on Floating Meadows, t Ibid, t Darwin s Phytologia. || Ibid. Cultivation of Graft Land.- Watered Meadows Advantages of. 447 food at fuch times : after being flooded again in the latter end of April, they arc (hut during the fummer for the hay crop. The after-grafs is eaten offin autumn with cattle, it being confidered as very pernicious for fhcep to pafture on watered mea dows. The SufTex Report records a remarkable inftance of its fatal effects ; " Eighty ewes, from Weyhill fair, were turned into fome fields adjoining a watered meadow : a fcore of them broke into the meadow for a night, and were taken out in the morning and kept till lambing ; they produced twenty-two lambs, all which lived, but every one of the ewes died rotten before May-day. The remaining fixty made themfelves fat, nor could a rotten fheep be difcovered aniongft them." That the grafs of watered meadows mould be f nourifhing to fhecp in the fpring, and mould prove fo deftructive to them in the autumn, is not cafily ac counted for; but the fact appears to be eftabliftied beyond doubt. Mr. Bofwell advifes, that no fheep, except thofe that are juft fat, mould ever be fuffered, even for an hour, in watered meadows, as they will infallibly rot them at any other feafon than the fpring, efpecially if made from low, boggy, or fwampy ground : " not fo when made from dry healthy land." On farms where it is convenient to have three or four meadows that can be watered, it will be found very advantageous ; as while cattle are eating the firft, the fccond will be growing, the third draining, and the fourth under water.* In Wiltmire watered meadows are of confiderable ad vantage to the farmers, as they afford an early fupply of grafs for the forward or early breed of lambs, on which they begin to feed them about the middle of March, having previously with drawn the v/ater from the meadows and laid them as dry as poiHble. On a good crop of grafs of this kind five hundred couples may be fed for -one day on an acre. The practice is to hurdle out, daily ; fuch a portion of the ground as is neceffary, leav ing a few open fpaccs in the hurdles through which the lambs may feed forward on the frefh grafs. The hours they arc fuffered to feed on this grafs are from about ten o clock in the morning till five in the afternoon, when they are generally fold ed on the contiguous barley fallows. This practice is fuppofed to have its advantages from its manuring a part of the farm without having -recourfc to the dunghill, as well as in affording a very early fupply of food for the fliecp at a feafon when green food is fcarce, and in being ul timately ufeful to the other .{lock, affording much manure, and thereby enriching * Bofwc-H on Watered Meadows, 44-S Cultrcatftii of Graft Land.Jl utered Meadows Advantages of. other lands. It is fuppofed to be an improvement that every farmer ought to adopt and encourage, where foil, water, and lituation are favourable. A remarkable infkmce of the beneficial and fertilizing effects of watering was obferved in the beginning of the autumn of 1796, when grafs that had not had the advantages of water was nearly burnt up. A clofe of about twenty acres, which had been irrigated, had a moft luxuriant after-grafs of from fix inches to a foot deep. And a neighbouring inclofure of near forty acres afforded flip- pert for three months to forty-fcven horfes and bullocks, all which throve very well.* Another proof is mentioned of jfre great utility ofthefe meadows, in affording a moft feafonable fupply of grafs to farmers at a time when they are moft diftreffed for food for their flock. Forty acres employed in this way was found equal to the ftipport of 500 Wiltfhire ewes and lambs from the middle of March to the iftof May, or about fix weeks, and the improvement of the (lock in that time one fhil- iJng a week, or three pound fifteen fhillings per acre. In fome parts of Middlefex /ive pounds worth of hay might alfo be taken off the firft week in May.f On the whole, there can be little doubt of the great advantage of this method of improving grafs lands in fituations where it can be conveniently made ufe of, and that it is capable of being applied in a much more extenlive manner than has been hitherto the cafe: by the operators properly availing themfelves of rhe occafional falls of rivers and f mall ftreams, as well as of canals, in fome feafons,+ is not to be difputcd, as by fuch- means water may often be diftributed over vaft tracts of land that have never yet been thought capable of admitting of fuch a mode of fertili sation ; and-, m others, by having recourfe to damming them up, and the occafional; ufe of wooden pipes- in the conveying it, when neceffary, may be eafily raifed to heights fufficient for conducting it over many more elevated lands, and thus pro mote their vegetation and produce in an incalculable degreee. * Middle ton s Ilqiori of Middldex. -r* Ibid. . J Mr, Tt?ipl erj of S-tovcr in Devonshire, according to the Agricultural Survey of that diftricl, ex- p^rience<l very coniuierable beneficial effects on a tr.icV ofmarfivy land on the borders of his canal Uhad produced from five to ten flnllings an acre. After having it drained and levelled, by forming ronduetors lor the overplus water of the canal during the winter floods, and distributing it by \vcli- irrangea fluiccs, thrbwing the enriching particles upon th-e furface, he converted thefc mar/hej.into .aluab o vpniant tii<-:i Uiv, s- Cultivation of Grafs Land JFatercd Meadow$~~ Advantages of. 44.3 - On heathy moors and mountainous tra&s thisfyftem might often be applied with a profpec} of moft ample advantage. Innumerable inflances are daily occurring to thcattentiveobferver, in traverfing thefe hills, of lirtle rivulets or rills, tnfufficieat to form a regular courfe, fpreading their waters, and providing a mod beautiful verdure ; thereby affording the fulk ft proof of what improvement might be eliccl- ed by the judicious application of this fluid. It is not, indeed* improbable but Th? method ofconftrufling thofe diftributing fluices is, by a number oftrunks placed at various dif- tancc-s, to each- of which :i plu is lined ; and when the floods fweil the canal above the level requifUe for navigation, thefe plugs are taken out, and the water -immediately overflows the furfaceoftne meadows, being at any time eafil) rcltrained by rep acing the plugs : fimilar fuccef> attended a Uk.2 proccfs ou lands in the upper line otlhe canal. And, in the Agricultural Report of the North Ruling of Yorkfh re, it is obferved, " that on th northern margin c.f Ryedaleand the Marimes, a ranoe of limcft-jiie heights extends in an eaftern and iveftern direction for many miles, but whiclr in width, is no where more than about four miles, This trail is entirely deftitute of water, except what flows along the bottoms of th deep valleys by which it is interfiled, and wluch are feveral miles afunder ; little relief can confequently be afforded by ftreams thus diftantly and inconveniently fituated to the inhabitants or cattle of the up-lands. A per- fon of the neighbourhood, about thirty years fince, devifc d the means of watering this tract by rills brought from the fp rings that bn-ak out at the foot of the far more lofty moorland hills that run pa rallel to and at the north of this tradl, in fome inftances at about the diftanre of ten miles. "Thefe fpringt he collefted into one chanml, which he wound about the intervening traft, accord ing to the level of-it, and along.the fides of the valleys, until he gained the fiirnmit of the arid coun try which he wifhed to water : having accompli (bed this, the water was eafily conve}ed to the places defired, and alfo to ponds in all the fields over a confiderable tracl of ground, in general falling with air enfy and uniform defcent to the fouth. In no inftance it is apprehended that more than two rills have been required to fupply the trail between each of thefe interfering valleys ; and frequently one chart- Bel has been found fufficient to convey the tlream for feveral miles from its fource ; after which it- forks off into two branches, to each of which more or Jefi water is given, according as the country through which Jt has to pafs may require a greater or lefs fupply. " The fiirt of thefe rills is Lid to have been brought to Kirby-moor-fide about thTrty years ago ; fiuce which time many others have been made. The original expenfe of each rill, which rarely exceeded 1001. was defrayed by a fubfcription, proportioned to the benefit each perfon was to receive ; and they ftill continue to be fupported by -the fame means, though in one inftance, in a late act of parlia ment lor the inclofure of a lordfhip through which one of thefe rills is conducted, a rate is laid on the land benefited by it, and means prelcribed for compelling, if neceflary, the future payment of it. " It is uell obferved, that the " plan for thus watering a dry up-land country has much merit : it affords a wonderful accommodation to the occupier; increafes greatly the value of the property j and though not applicable generally, might certainly btf adopted with great advantage in various other fuuations." VOL. II. 450 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Warping* Mowing of Hay Lands* that, by the aid of machinery, water may be forced up fo as to bedifperfed at fuch levels as cannot at prcfent be eafily conceived. The fameprinciples may be applied, in many fruations, in conveying the rich .liquors collected in ponds and refervoirs about the farm-yards and buildings, that rare too frequently wafted by evaporation or other means, over the adjoining fields, as has been practifed by Mr. Fenna, in Chelhire, and defcribed in thefecond vo lume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture. A variety of ufeful hints and obfervations on the means of effecting the bufinefs of watering on grafs lands in different fituations and circumftances.with references to figures for managing the works in the different cafes, have been given by Mr. Marfhall in his work on the Landed Property of England. The advantages that may.be derived from the fame practice on arable lands are likewife noticed. The chief objection to this method of improving meadow lands is the firft ex- penfe of the bufinefs ; but if it be conducted in a judic ous manner, this will feU dom form any real impediment, as the almoft immediate increafe of produce will amply repay the improver. And the object of thecutting of the land is of little or no con-fequcnce, if it be thereby made to afford additional fupplies of food for thefupport of flock, and at the fame time contribute to the gradual improvement of the foil. As the water in thefe cafes is in a conftant ftate of motion, it is not probable that any prejudicial effects fhould be produced on the health of the inhabitants, though the practice fhould be conducted on the largcft fcale. Warping. There is a mode of improving land by warping^ or the admitting of the tide waters of large rivers near thcfea upon the lands for the purpofe of depo- iiting their rich materials, which are denominated warp, ar d in that way forming as it were a new foil. It is much practifed in fome parts of Lincolnfhire as well as Yorklhire, and has been fully defcribed by Mr. Young in his valuable Report of the firfl of thefe diftricts. But as it can only be employed with advantage in a very flight degree upon grafs lands as a manure, and as its application has been already confidered in the management of tillage ground, it does not appear necef" fary to defcribe the practice more fully in this place. Mow ing of Hay Lands. In the cutting of grafs crops for the purpofe of being converted into hay, it is neceflary that they be in the mofl fuitable dates of growth and maturity for affording the befl and mofr nutritious fodder. With this view, it would feem that they (hould neither be cut at too early a period, or fuffered to Cultivation of Grafs Land. MowingCircuniftances to be regarded in. 4.51 ftand too long ; as in the former cafes there will be confiderable lofs in the drying from the produce being in fo foft and green a condition, and in the latter from a large proportion of the nourifhing properties being expended. It is probable, therefore, that grafs, when mown before it becomes. in full flower, while the rich faccharine juice is in part retained at the joints of the flower-ftems, is in the moft proper condition for being cut down, as at that period it mult contain the largefl proportion of nutritious material, but which then begins to be ablbrbed and taken up in proportion as the flowers expand and the feeds ripen, fo as to conftitutc the meal or ftarch of the feed-k>>es, and is cither difperfed upon the land or fed upon by birds, the grafs -ftcms with their leaves being left in a fimilar fituation to that of the ftraw of ripened grain. But there are other circumftances befides thofe of ripenefs to be attended to in determining the period of cutting crops of grafs ; as in fome cafes, where they are thick upon the ground, the bottom parts become of a yellow colour before the flowering fully takes place : under fuch circumftances it will always be the mofl advifable practice to mow as foon as the weather will poflibly admit ; for if this be neglected there will be great danger of its rotting, or at any rate of its acquir ing a difagreeable flavour, and of becoming of but little value. Where grafs is very tall, as is often the cafe in moift meadows, it is liable to fall down and lodge, by which the fame effects are produced. In this cafe alfo the mowing mould be performed as foon as poflible. But where there is nothing of this fort, it appears evident that the moft proper time for performing the bufinefs is when the grafs has begun to flower, before the feed-ftems become hard and wiry; as at this period it would feem to contain the largefl proportion of ufeful matter. Befides, when let ftand too long, the after- grafs is not only lefs abundant, but there is great lofs by the crumbling down of the ftems in the different operations of hay-making.* The ufual time of cutting for hay in the firft crop is from about the middle of June to the beginning of the following month, according to the nature of the land, and as the diftrict is more early or late. In the operation of mowing, the chief art confifts in cutting the crop as clofe to the furface of the ground as poflible and perfectly level, pointing the fwaths well out, fo as to leave fcarcely any ridges under them. In cutting rowen, orfecond crops of grafs, more attention in thcfe different re- * Corrected Report of Perthfhire. 45.2 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Hay-making What necejfiiry in. fpecls "will be rcquifite than in the firft, as the crops are moftly much lighter and more difficult to cut, the fcythe being apt to rife and flip through the grafs without cutting fairly, except when in the hands of an expert workman. Crops of this fort mould always be cut as much as poflible when the dew is upon them, and as foon as ever there is a tolerable growth, as by waiting, the feafon is conftantly get ting more unfavourable for making them into hay ; and when not well made this fort of hay is of little or no value. The quantity of ground that can be mown in any given fpace of time mud depend, in a great meafure, upon the weight of the crop and tl * capability of the workman, but in general an acre is confidered as a full day s work for a good mower. When the grafs has been decided to be in the proper condition for being cut down, a fet of mowers, proportioned to the extent of the crop, fhould be immedi ately provided. In fome diftricts it is the cuftom to pay thefe labourers by the day, but a better and more general practice is to let the work at a certain price by the acre. A fuitable number of hay-makers are likewife to be obtained ; in fome cafes two or three are deemed fufficient for each mower, but in this diftricT: the ufual number, including pitchers and ftacker, is about five, who proceed with their work after the mowers, and are paid by the day. In hot or windy feafons a larger proportion will be necefiary than when the weather is cloudy and cool. About one half may be women. If a due proportion is not preferved, much in convenience and difadvantage will arife in having too much cut grafs on hand to be perfectly managed. Hay-making. The great art of converting grafs into hay conlifts in rendering it fufficiently dry to prevent its taking on too great a degree of heat in the ftack or mow, and at the fame time preferving a large proportion of the natural juice of the plants. Where the medium can be attained with the moft exactness, the befl and moft nutritious hay will be produced. It is, however, a difficult point, that requires much care and attention. In fine feafons the great danger is of not making it fufficiently,while in thofe of the contrary defcription it is apt to be made too much. This is fully evinced by the great inconveniences that are frequently fuftained from ffae heating of the ftacks in the former cafes, while in the latter it is but feldom heard of. It has been fuggefted by an accurate obferver, that in the making of hay "fome attention mould be paid to the quality of the foil and the kind of herbage growing ( uponit. The hard benty hay of a poor foil is in little or no danger of heating Cultivation of Grafs Land. Hay-making What neccffury in. 453 00 much in the flack ; it mould, therefore, be put very early together, in order to promote a confiderable fweating, as the only means of imparting a flavour to it, \vhich will make it agreeable tQjfcorfes and lean cattle, as if will be nearly unfit for every other fort of (lock. It is the fucculent herbage of rich land, or land highly manured, that is moft likely to generate too great a degree of he^t ; ofcourfe grafs from fuch land mould have more time allowed in making it into hay. In mo derately hot fcafons the proper point of dry ing may beeafily judged of; but when they are very hot and fcorching it is eafy to be miflaken ; as in fuch weather the grafs becomes crifp, ruflles, and handles like hay, before the moifture or fap is fufficiently difllpatcd for it to be in a flate fit to be laid up in large (lacks. If that, however, be done when it is thus infufficiently made, it rnoftly heats too much, be coming mow-burnt in fome cafes.-*" There is another circumflance, which though difficult in many cafes to be perfor med, is of much confequence ; this is that of " carrying the whole of the hay juft ai the moment it is fufficiently made ; which is neceffary in order to its yielding the greatefl poflible weight, and preferving its beft quality ; as every minute after that precife time it continues to lofe, both in weight and in its nutritious properties, by cvaporation, " as is evinced by the fmell. <( Even the difference of an hour, in a very hot drying day, Is fuppofed to occafion a lofsof 15 or 20 per cent, on the hay, by its being carried beyond the point of perfection, and frequently even a greater lofs is fuflained."f The art of hay-making has been obferved to have been brought to a degree of perfection in this diftrict altogether unequalled by any other part of the kingdom. The neat hulbandry and fuperior Ikill and management, fo much and juflly ad mired in the arable farmers of the bed cultivated diflricts, may, with equal juftice and propriety, be faid to belong in a very eminent degree to the hay-farmers of this part of the ifland, as they may very fairly claim the merit of having reduced the art of making good hay to a regular fyftem; which, after having flood the tefl of long practice and experience, is found to be attended with the mofl perfect fuc- cefs. Even in the mofl unfavourable feafons, the hay made according to this me thod is fuperior to that made by any other under fimilar circumflances. It is, therefore, to be regretted that this very excellent practice has not yet, except in .1 very few inftances, travelled beyond the limits of the county. But as it highly defervcs the attention and imitation of farmers in other diflricts, we fhalJ defcrihr * Middlefex Report. ^ Ibid. 454 Cultivation of Grafs Land. fifty-halting Procefs of. the whole procefs, from the moment at which the mower applies his fey the, to that in which the hay is fecured in the barn or ftack.* The chief part of this fort of labour is performed by means of fmall forks made for the purpofe. In the firft day s procefs all the grafs mown before nine o clock in the morning is tedded or fpread out, great care being taken to fhake it fo as to leave it free from lumps, and to ftrew it evenly over the whole furface of the ground. It is foon afterwards turned, with an equal degree of care and attention ; and if the number of hands be fufficient they turn the whole again, or at leaft as much of it as they can before twelve or one o clock. It is then raked into what are termed fingle windrows, or fo as that each perfon may form a row at about three feet diftance ; and the laft operation of the day is to put it up into grafs-cocks. The bufinefs of the fucceeding day commences with the procefs of tedding all the grafs that was mown the firft day after nine o clock and all that was mown this day before the fame hour. The grafs-cocks arc then well fhaken out into what are called ftaddles, which are feparate plats of five or fix yards in breadth. Where the crop is fo thin and light as to leave the fpaces between the ftaddles rather large, they are imme diately raked clean, and the rakings mixed with the other hay, in order to its all drying fo as to be of an uniform colour. The ftaddles are next turned, and after that the grafs that was tedded in the firft part of the raorning once or twice, in the fame manner as defcribed in the firft day. This bufinefs mould all be per formed before twelve or one o clock, that the whole may lie to dry while the peo ple are at dinner. After this the firft thing is to rake the ftaddles into double wind rows, which is done by every two perfons raking the hay in oppofite directions or towards each other, forming a row between them of double the fize of the fingle windrows, each being about fix or eight feet diftant from the other.They afterwards rake the grafs into fingle windrows; then put the double windrows into baftard cocks ? and conclude by putting the fingle windrows into grafs-cocks. The labour of the third day is begun by firft tedding and fpreading out the grafs mown and not fpread the preceding day, as well as that mown in the early part of this day, and then the grafs-cocks are thrown out into ftaddles as before,and the baftard cocks into ftad dles of lefs extent. Thefe narrow ftaddles, though laft fpread out are firft turn ed, then thofe which were in grafs-cocks, and laftly the grafs is turned once or twice before twelve or one o clock. When the weather has been funny and fine, the * Middle ton s Report of Middlefex. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Hay-making Procefs of. 435 hay which was laft night in baftard cocks will this afternoon be in a proper ftate to be carried, as in fine feafons it may moftly be performed on the third day; but when the weather has been cool and cloudy, no part of it probably will be fit to carry. In that cafe, the firft bufinefs after dinner is to rake that which was in grafs cocks laft night into double windrows; then the grafs which was this morning fpread from the fwaths into fingle windrows. After this the hay which was laft night in baftard cocks is made up into full fized cocks, and care taken to rake the hay up clean, and alfo to put the rakings upon the top of each cock. And laftly, the double windrows are put up into baftard cocks and the fingle ones into grafs-cocks,- as in the preceding days. On the fourth day the great cocks juft defcribed are moftly carried before dinner. The other operations are fimilar to thofe of the former days, and proceed in the fame order, continuing them daily until the whole is finifhed. During the whole courfeof hay-making the grafs mould, as much as poffiblc, be protected both in the day and night againft rain and dew by cocking.* In diftric ts where the hay feafon is later and the weather more changeable, it would often be dangerous to expofe the hay fo much abroad as in the above pro- cefs : a more cautious method ftiould probably be adopted. In fuch cafes, inftead of keeping the hay almoft conftantly fpread out and expofed to the atmofphere as in the preceding method, it may be better to put it into fcnall cocks foon after it has been cut down and become a little made ; thefe mould then be frequently turned over but not fpread out, except when the weather is in fuch a fine ftate as toinfure their being put up again in the fame ftate, without injury from the falling of rain.f This method is much more flow, though the hay is lefs expofed to danger in wet weather, than in that which has been defcribed above j and when there is much heat it may be made with little trouble or expenfe, and without much expen diture of its nutritious juices. Another practice that has been found ufeful in fuch fituations is,to break out the grafs that is mown,turn and windrow it the firft fine day,and alfo to put it into fmail cocks when the ground is dry : on the next fine day a few of the cocks are broken out at a time, and kept conftantly turned till fully dry. Three or four of them are then put into one cock, the work proceeding in the fame manner till the whole is done. And when the weather is bad thefe cocks are never re-broken out, being lightened up to let the air pafs through them more freely. The ad vantages in the firft mode are fuppofed by fome to be, that from there- * Corrcded Report of Middlefex^ i Modern Agriculture, vol. II. 456 Cultivation of Graft Land. Stacking of Hay. gular tedding that is given the hay becomes of a more valuable quality, heats m the flack or mow in a more uniform and equal manner, and cuts out better in the trufs. It is like\vife well obferved, that no more of the produce mould be thrown abroad than can be put up into cock the fame day, or before it is injured by the fall of rain. When the weather is unfettled, it may often be permitted to remaia in the Avath for feveral days, only taking care that the underfides do not become difcoloured by turning them over by the head of the rake. In this way it will fre quently be fo much made, in a few days, as to require little tedding afterwards to form good hay.* The prcferving hay of a proper green colour is a circumflance of fome import ance. In order to effect it the baflard cocks, previous to their being carried, fhould be put up in the heat of the day and remain in that condition till the following morning, when they muft be turned and opened fo as to difpel any damp that might induce it to heat in the flack, and in that way fpoil thecolour.f Theacqui- fition ofalightifh brown colour in the flack is not found injurious to hay, but where it becomes of a dark brown from too much heat, it is faid to weaken and relax horfes :hat are fed upon it by its powerful diuretic quality. It is of courfe of inferior value. The rawr/z, or fecond crops of hay, from their being flender, having fewer fuc- culent flems, in mofl cafes require lefs time in being made into hay than the firft. In fecurtng this fort of hay it is, however, advantageous to have it well made, as without this it will be very liable to grow mouldy in the flack and become of a bad colour from taking on too great a degree of heat, as the lefs it heats in the flack the more green the colour will be. Stacking and Thatching Hay. In performing this bufinefs it is always advifable to hfivefladdles made for the purpofe, fomewhat in the fame manner as thofe that have been recommended for grain, though it is too common a practice to build hay-ftacks without ever attending to this circumflance. They need not, how ever, for this ufc be raifed To high or have any fhelving outwards, but be quite plumb and without copings. In the common method of placing them upon the ground, on a little drift, or a few pieces of wood laid acrofs each other, there muft conflantly be great lofs in the bottom parts of the flacks from the moiflure being abforbed by the hay ; .but by the ufe of fladdles this may be wholly avoided, and the expenfewill be but a trifle, as any old rough pieces of wood will anfwer the purpofe, * Middled* Report, t Ibid, Cultivation of Graft Land. Stacking of Hay When performed, 4 c. 467 In refpect to the form of the (lack it is not a matter of much confequcnce, the long fquare, or oblong fhapes are the moft fafe and convenient, efpecially when not too broad, as they admit the air the moft fully. Befides, they are the moft convenient to cut from intruding hay for fale. But the circular form for farm ufe, where ftraw is fcarce, may be the moft advantageous in the economy of ftraw in thatching. The tizeof the ftaddle or ftack bottom mould be proportioned to the quantity of hay, but it is better not to have the ftacks too large ; twenty-four feet by fourteen or fifteen is for moft occafions a good fize. The bufmefs of ftacking hay is beft performed, if poflible, while there is a full fun, efpecially when the feafon is indifferent, as by that means it is much im proved. It is neceffary to have a perfon that underftands the art of fetting up ftacks, and a fufficient number of helpers to affift in fpreading the hay and treading it well down. In building, the middle of the ftack mould always be well kept up, fomething higher than the fides. In this diftrict, where work of this fort is: well executed ; at leifure times, during the whole period the ftack is building, the men are employed in pulling -the fides and ends into proper form. And it is common to have a large fail cloth raifed on poles, which covers the whole and prevents its being injured by rains until it is finifhed. In order to prevent the hay-ftacks from heating too much, holes, pipes, chim neys, and other contrivances are fometimes formed in the middle of large ftacks to draw and conduct off" any fuperabundant heat. It is better, however, to avoid thefe as much as poflible, as the hay round them is always much injured by attract ing the moifture of the ftack. Mr. Young mentions an ufeful practice of Mr. Ducket s not only forafcertaining the heat and preventing its proceeding too far, but for fhowing the colour of the hay. It is by thrufting in a ftout iron bolt into the ftacks, to form a paftage for a gun rod with a ftrong worm at the end, by which a fampleis fere wed out and the ftate of the ftack difcovered. Where air is neceflary holes are made in different places, to let the heat pafs off and prevent the hay from being injured. In building the upper parts of ftacks of hay, corn, or other materials of a fimilar nature, fome contrivance of \hz flacking jlage kind is neceflary, in order to enable workmen to pitch the fubftances with convenience to the perfon who ftacks them.. The common method of performing this is by means of a framed ftage, fet upright,, fufficicntly near the ftack to fuit the workman who pitches the hay or gram tain.. VOL. ii. 3 N 4,; 8 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Advantages of Barns for But a ftage of this fort which appears to be better contrived, and which is more iimplc and cheap, is defcribed by Mr. Young in his excellent Report of the Agri culture of the County of Suffolk. It is fuggeftcd that this ftage may alfo be em ployed for nailing up weather-boarding, painting the outfides of buildings, plaf- tering of walls, and fevcral other purpofes of the fame kind. This ftage may be fecn in plate in the firft volume. After the work of (tacking has been completed, and the Hack is pulled and top ped up, it is left till ithas fvveated, and is perfectly fettled, which is moftly the cafe in a week or ten days ; the roof mould then be covered by a good coat of thatch, or fccured by means of a ft raw rope, extended along the caves acrofs the ends and on cither fide juft below the ridge. This rope is ufually fecured by means of pegs. The roof mould be dry when the thatch is put on, to prevent the hay from becoming mouldy. It is of great confequence that this fort of work be well performed, the farmer mould of courfc always have attention to it, as labourers are often apt to Jlight it. Jt is a point not perfectly decided among agricultors, whether hay keeps better in ftacks in the open air or in barns for the purpofe. It is the opinion of moft farmers in the fouthern diftricts of the kingdom, that the firft mode has the ad vantage in fo far as refpects the quality of the hay." In many of the more northern parts of the ifiand the hay is, however, fecured in the barn, and has appeared in all the examinations we have made, equally good and fweet with fuch as has been preferved in ftacks in the open air. And the trials of Mr. Middleton, as ftated in the Middlefex Report, feem to fupport the fame fuppofition, as in fecuring hay in his barn, without clearing it from the quartering on the fides, he found on cutting and binding it up, that it was equally good in quality with that from the ftack-yard, and as perfectly free from duft. The hay was made without rain, and that which was the leaft made put in the barn. Barns areobfervcd to have other advantages, being " extremely ufeful and con venient during a catching and unfettled hay-harveft, and alfo at other feafons of the year. In wet and windy weather they afford an opportunity of cutting, weigh ing and binding hay, none of which operations could at fuch a time be performed out of doors. All the farmers who were confulted on the fubjcct <f agreed, that hay might be put together earlier, even by a day, in a barn than it would be fafe ro do it in a ftack." Cultivation of Grafs Land. Advantages of Barns for Hay. In artfwer to objections made on the grounds of the praftice not repaying the cxpenfe of large barns, it is remarked by the fame writer, that it is " in direct oppofition to the opinions of the beft hay farmers in the country, and contrary to his own experience, for in the dryeft feafons barns are a faving of four or five Shillings an acre ; and in wet feafons, the ready afiiftance which they afford in fpeedily fecuring the hay, has been known to make a difference in price of twenty millings per load on a fmall number of loads." There are other advantages in the ufe of barns for this purpofe, as there is not only lefs litter and wafte, but in merely hay diftricts, a great faving in draw, which is now an expenfive article in many places, efpecially near large towns. But without having recourfe to the erection of expenfive barns, many of the conveniences and advantages of them, efpecially thofe of faving the labour and expenfes of thatching, may be obtained by the ufe of covered meds, raifed on pillars or pofts, and open on all the fides. Thefe may be constructed in a cheap manner by having the roofs made with thin feather-edge boards, well payed over on the outfide with tar or paint. Thefe are light, cheap, and will laft a great length of time by care in keeping them well painted.* On fome hay farms the dependence is chiefly upon the file of the article, which is conveyed to the market after being cut by a knife, and bound up into truffes weighing fifty-fix pounds each, thirty-fix of which form a load, or about eighteen hundred weight : but when fold frefh from the field, twenty hundred weight conftitutes the load. f When the hay has been prcfcrved in a perfectly * The expenfes of mowing and making the hay in the firlt method, currying, ftacking, thatching, and other neceflary operations, are thus ftated by the author of the Report of Middlefex : Erpenses per acre. . s. d. Mowing 3s. beer6d. - 03 6 Making and ftacking - y Pulling the flack, and laying the hay pulled out upon the ftack t> Horfes, harnefs, and carts 020 Straw for thatch, 3s. thatcher and labourer 6d. " "* " 3 6 Total expcnfe per acre in the flack-yard is 1,9 o,r "20s* Since the period this ftatement was made,1798, the expenfes haveincreafed very confiderably. It is added that tf If the hay be put into barns, the laO. charge of 3s. Gd. will not of conrfe be incurred ; moft of the third, and part of the fecond, will alfo be fuved ; fo that the whole expcnfe in this cafe will not exceed 15s. per acre." t Synopfis of Husbandry. 4(70 Cultivation of Grafs Land* Ilay-fzveep and Sledge* good condition, there fhould not be the fmalleft wafle in the binding ; the loofe parts being put in the middle of the truffes and the bands twitted from the long coarfe parts. The quantity of produce obtained from an acre of grafs land muft be different according to the fertility, management, feafon, and other circumftances ; but from one to two loads is the ufual proportion. For the purpofc of facilitating the bufinefs of getting the hay together in bad fhowery feafons, bay-fweeps znAJlcdgts have been conflructed. A contrivance of the firft fort has been invented by Mr. Middleton, which feems to be poffeffed of merit. It is fo conflructed as to be drawn by four horfes in pairs, but frnallerones might bemadeto be drawn by two, and is managed by two boys, one of whom drives each pair of horfes, being mounted on one of them. Where the ground is level, little more will be neceflary in order to affift the machine than merely to break and turn up the rows of hay in different places ; but where the ridges are high, and there are confiderable inequalities of furface, it will be requifite toaflifl the implement by occasionally flicking the prongs of a fork into the flill hay juft before the machine, that it may more effectually catch it. In Yorkiliire another fort of contrivance, termed a fay-fledge, is employed for the fame purpofe, and in fome fituations is probably to be preferred : as where the land is dry, the ridges high, and the ground irregular in the furface. With this ma chine and two horfes the hay may be collected together, loaded and carried to the flacking place, in much lefs time than by means of a cart. In loading it, the hay is firft to be raked into rows, when the fledge is brought to the end of one of them, and one of the horfes made topafs on each fide, until it has collected afuffici- ent quantity for a load, one of them then crofling the row of hay, the load is con veyed to the flack ; when by the horfes being turned about, the fledge is drawn back, leaving its load behind it. The mofl economical and advantageous methods of confuming this fort of fodder will be confidered when we come to fpeak of the different modes of managing live ilock. After-Grafs, or Rouen. In fome diflridls much of the after-grafs is frequently cut and made into a green foft fort of hay, in the manner that has been already mentioned j but "in others it is fed off by live flock in the autumn. Both mode may be ufeful under different circumftances. In fituations where plenty of ma- Cultivation of Grafs Land. After-grafs or Ronen. 46 1 nure can be procured, as near large towns ; and where the chief dependence is upon the fale of hay, or where lamb fuckling prevails, it may frequently be a beneficial practice to take a fecond crop of hay, as the firft may by that means be more fully fpared for fale, the after-crop fupplying the cows or other cattle that may be kept on the farm. But in cafes where manure cannot be eafily obtained, and there is no local practice carried on, that particularly requires fuch fort of hay, it is better to let it be fed off by ftock than run therifk of exhaufting and injuring the ground by the taking off repeated crops. There is alfo another circumftance to be confi- dered in this bufinefs, which is that of the (late of the land in refpect to drynefs ; as where it is low, wet, and very retentive of moifture, it may be often more hurt by the poaching of the cattle in feeding off the herbage than by taking a fecond crop of hay. Independently of thefe confiderations, it may, however, in general, be a more fafe and ufeful practice to eat off the after-grafs by ftock, and only take one crop of hay, as by fuch means a more abundant annual produce may be afforded, and the land fuftain lefs injury.* Where a crop of rouen is made into hay, the moft profitable application of it is probably in the foddering of fuch cows as are in milk, as it is well fuited, by its graffy quality, and its not heating fo much when well made as other forts of hay in the (lack, to afford a large flow of milk. It is this reafon that induces the cow- farmers to cut their grafs fo many times in the fummer. Another beneficial ap plication of thishay is in the feeding of fuch ewes as are employed in the fuckling of houfe-lambs during the winter feafon ; the intention in this cafe is the fame as in that of the preceding inftance. There is another advantageous ufe to which this fort of produce may be applied, which is that of fupporting young calves and all forts of young cattle that are kept as ftore ftock. Where fheep require the fupport of hay in the winter feafon, it is aifo well adapted to that ufc. Where after-grafs is fed off by ftock, there is much difference of opinion in re gard to the moft proper periods of turning in the animals. Some have contended that it is the bcft practice to let them into the field before the young grafs has at tained any very great head ; while others maintain the oppofite doctrine, and think it the bed method to allow the grafs to get up to a full bite before the ftock is * Correfted Agricultural Report of MSddlefcx. 4G2 Cultivation of Graft Land. Management of After-grafs Feeding of. turned upon the land. Both endeavour to fupport their opinions by experience. But as they cannot be both of them true, it is probable that theextremes of each arc to be avoided ; and that, as in many other matters, the truth may lie in the mid dle. This is indeed equally fupported by fact, and the obfervation of the mod in telligent managers ; as when the cattle are turned in too early there is not a fuffi- eient bite to keep up the condition of the animals ; while in the contrary extreme, the ftock fo foon fill themfelves. that much of it is trodden down and wafted after wards in their roaming about the fields to pick the fweeteft morfels. In confirma tion of this opinion, Mr. Marfhall found in the midland diftricts, that milch cows fell offin milk, and bullocks in flefh, on being put in too early, before there was a fufncient bite. This he, however, feems to confider as arifing from the want of nutritious quality in the grafs in thisftate. And the incautious obfervation of common farmers has afcribcd it to the inconvenience the animals fuftain in feeding from the ftubs. It is not, however, probable that either is the cafe ; for as foon as the fcythe has feparated the old grafs from the roots, new (hoots are made that are highly fweet and nourifhing. This may be eafily perceived to be the cafe on examining a piece of ground foon after its being mown, and tailing the young ilioots. The fuppofuion refpeding the ftubs is fhown to be founded in error, from the circumftance of the ftock devouring the herbage with avidity, as Mr. Marfhall has well remarked. Befides, the animals lick in their food by the tongue, which is armed for the purpofe before it is bitten, and do not pufh their nofes fo us to be inconvenienced by the ftifTnefs of the cut grafs-ftems. It is poffible, how ever, that fome eftecl in lowering the condition of the ftock may arife from the laxative effect that may atfirft be produced on the animals by fuch young fuccu- lent grafs. Where much ftock is turned upon after- grafs in a full ftate of growth, there cannot be any doubt but that much lofs muft, as has been juft obferved, be fuftained by the treading down and rendering the grafs unfit for being eaten off. This is fufficiently evident on viewing fields fed in this ftate. It is therefore perhaps only by beginning the paftu rage of after-grafs when in the middle ftate of growth that it can be confumed to the beft advantage, and with out lofs in either of the ways that have been juft noticed. This pradice feems to be countenanced by the obfervation of an agricultor who has had much opportunity of information on the fubjecl.* * \Vilkinfon in Commercial and Agiicultural Magaz : ne, vol. IV. Cultivation of Graft Land. Management of After-Graft Stocking of. 4G3 The manner of feeding down after-grafs varies much in different diftricts : it has been obferved by a farmer in Middlefcx, that the condition on which he rents his farm, is that of taking out the heavy cattle at Michaelmas, but that fhecp re main till February : in this county the practice is to turn on the cattle immedi ately after mowing. But in the northern diftrids this grafs, to which they have given the name of eddifh, is kept till November or even a later period for the purpofe of finiming fat dock, or for the paftu rage of milch cows, from which a fuperior quality of cheefe is made, and by which time it has attained aconfiderable head: however, this latter practice would feem to be attended with fome lofs, from its being trodden and trampled under foot, as may be readily perceived by examin ing the field. In the docking of after-grafs, fome attention is necelfary not to have too great a number of animals on a given proportion of land. To overdock produces injury in various ways, efpecially on fird turning in, but particularly by too much treading and beating down the grafs. Mr. Marfhall found the midland graziersof opinion, that one cow to the acre on well grown after-grafs was an ample (lock. Good grafs-land may, however, admit fomething more. In the padurage of rouen, or after-grafs, by heavy cattle in the autumn, great injury has been complained of from their poaching the ground, particularly at a late period in that or the winter feafon. On this account it has been recommen ded to confine the confumption of this grafs principally to the fupport of fiicep, un- lefs in very favourable feafons, or where the foil is uncommonly dry, in which cafes milch cows or other heavy cattle may be admitted without inconvenience.! It is the practice in cafes where there is a great fcarcity of fpring feed to referve after-grafs in the autumn for fpring ufe. Some on the balls of experience contend that it is the moil certain, and, on the whole, the beft fpring feed yet known. This would feem however to be a wafteful practice, at lead in refpect to the more forward after-grades. The forwarded ought certainly to be eaten without wade, before winter fets in ; and thclated, that is to fay the morted, may be mut up for fpring feed. If after-grafs be too long and grofs, it is apt to lodge and rot upon the ground in winter; therefore on rich lands, it mould always be more or lefs fed off before Mi chaelmas, in order to prevent its being waded or lod in the winter. An expe rienced agricultor found, from repeated expeiiments, that old after-grafs feeds fheepthat give milk better than turnips, which are more adapted to the fattening i Marshall s Rural Economy of the Midland Counties. 464 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Management of Aftet^-Grafs Stocking of. of flock ; and that this grafs- holds to a period, if wanted, when moft other refources. fail, the laft halfof April, and the firft half of May periods always of want and dif ficulty, where rye grafs is not fown.* Mr. Marfhall alfo allures us, that as a certain and vvholeforrre fupply of food for ewes and lambs in the early fpring, the preferved pafture is to be depended upon as" the fheet-anchor," in preference to turnips, cabbages, or any other fpecies whatever of what is termed fpring feed. The fame thing has been experienced by Dr. Wilkinfon, who has obferved that this food with him afforded a more nutritive and healthful quality of milk from the ewes to their tender lambs than turnips, even in their beft ftate. But however ufeful after-grafs paftures may be under this management, there is evidently a great lofs of food incurred by it, efpecially in fevere winters : it would therefore feem to be frequently the beft practice to eat after-grafs well down, as late as poflible in the autumn, by different forts of live flock, and depend in a great meafure upon the new grafs for fpring feed. It has been fuggefted that mowing the preferved after-grafs in the winter, and giving it to the flock in the farm-yard, might be advantageous in preventing the land from being poached, and the ufeful long grafs from being trampled down and deflroyed.f The trouble and expenfe of the procefs would perhaps in general be too crreat, though in particular circumflances, as where other forts of fodder do not bear a proportion to the quantity of flock to be kept, and where ftreep are coi*- ceived improper, it may afford fome convenience and benefit, efpecially where it can be performed without injury to the ground by poaching, in the conveying away the materials, which can feldom be the cafe except where the land is very dry ; in* which fituations there is rarely much after-grafs for this purpofe. Where the nature of the foils is fuch as not to admit heavy cattle early and late, lamb-fuckling may often be carried on with advantage, as well as the feeding and fattening of other forts of fheep, which is frequently the cafe in this diftricl. * Young in Annals of Agriculture. t Lawrence in Commercial and Agricultural Mag. in vol. IV SECT. VIIL Cultivation of Grass-Land Pastures. PASTURE LAND.? thofe mofl proper for coarfe graft Lands may be made ufeful for particular Properties in GraJJes neceffary in Si t nations of and Modes oflnclofing of influence Ufes of Subject to be injured by various Caufes by Mofs by Ant and Mole Hills Jhould be removed Modes of effecting of-Jhrubby and other Plants mufl be eradicated draining of fometimes neceffliry manuring fometimes requifite Effe&s of proper Modes of feed ing down proper Sorts of Manures for Improvements by feeding Sheep upon proper Periods of turning Stock upon Difference of Opinion on Caufes of flated middle Degree of Growth in Grafs befl for Proportion of eating down mofl ufeful Diver fity of Opinion on Jhould probably never be overflocked Difadvantages of over and under flocking Mixtures of Stock fometimes advi fed for much Advantage in being kept regularly fed down Utility of frequent Jhif ting by a Head Stock, and Followers in more ufeful than having different Sorts of Stock on at the fame Time Difadvantages of mixed Stock on Neat Cattle and Sheep, befl Sorts of Advantage of keeping Pajlures regularly and evenly fed down Injury fuftaimd by Grafs running up to Seed Stems a good Bite ofneceffaryfrom May to Augiift Propriety of flocking the Whole or only in Divisions in eating down Difference of Opinion upon Difficulty of afcertaining the Point the latter Method probably mofl beneficial Quantity of Stock for various Nature and Size of Animal to be confidered in State of Sward VOL. II, O 466 Cultivation of Graft Land, Paftures. mufl a l/b be attended tu only dry Paftures can be turned upon in Winter Advantage of eating off with Ewes and Lambs in early Spring drinking Ponds Advantage of Lands being fupplied with what necefjary in making of proper Situations for proper Scafon for forming of proper Forms of Jetting out of E.rpcnces of forming of- Dimcn/ions of-*- conjtructed zcit/i Mafon T s Work in fame Situations E.rpences of in this Way. COW-KEEP ING beneficial in particular Situations proper Sorts of Cozes for large ftreeds principally employed in Middlefex Circumjlances to be attended to in Management ofBullsJhouldbe kept with Modes of after faming their being in Calf- Signs of Calving difpofing of Calves attending to binding Kj), and having proper Bottoms to Yards neceffary proper feeding of with fuceulent Food mojl proper what necejjary to be attended to in Modes of feeding of near London Modes of in the Country DiftriBs Obfervations of Baron d* Alton upon Milking of what neceffary in Experiments of dif ferent Perfbns on Times moft proper for ufual Number of perfons nccef- fary for Profits of this Sijftem of Management Statements on few Servants requifite in. SUCKLING OF CALVES Advantages of Cows proper for proper feeding of Nature ofSuekUng-hoiifeproperfor different Me thods of- Length of Time proper forwhat necef/iiry inSucklersfupplicdfrom large Towns-Difeafes to which fubjcftScouring Remedies of Methods of Practice in Neceffity of buying in young Calvez constantly in this Syjtem- Pricesof Profits of thisPraciicc what fort s of Calves fatten f aft cJl~Di fad- vantage of keeping them till old Profit of a Cow in this Practice ft at ed REARING OF CALVES ncceffiiry where goodCow Stock is wanteddifferent Me thods of Pra&ice in in Yorkjitire in CheJIiire in Gloitceftcrjhire in Svffblkln Norfolk-^in Scotlandother Modes of deferibed--Difea,fes ofSkit Remedies of necejfary Attention to intkefe Cafes O/--WEANING OF CALVES beft, Seafonfor bejt Modes of Sub/lit utes u fed for Milk Hay Tea and Linfeed proper for iifed in LincolnJJiire Duke of Northumberland s Me thod Mr. Crook s Method Time of cajlrating Calves whai neceffary to after weaning Buds or yearling Calves young Heifers young Cattle Stock fhould be well fed. DARYING Lands proper for Lands proper for different Kinds of Profit of depends much on the Management of mi nute Attention neceffary to mujl not trvjl to common Servants in a pro- Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Paflurcs. 467 per Dairy-houfc neceflary high Degree of Cleanlinefs ufeful in pro per Apparatus fur Cows proper for what ncceffary in* muft be plenti fully fed Modes of Jointer feeding in Times of milking Summer and /Pinter Food moft proper for Labour neceffary in Number of Perfons proper for Cows jhould be examined after Milkers proper Management of Milk in Modes difpojing for creaming Heal necejjary for Circling fiances to be attended to in churning ichat neceffary inmaking of Butter Proce/Jes necejjary in Circuniftances to be attended to in making of Cheefe Proce/Jes proper for Seafons b eft for ichat necejjary in Blue Milk Cheefe preparing the Rennet colouring offetting Curd break ing and gathering Curd Management of in Prefi falting Management in dieefelloom Profits of different Sorts of Dairies. 4.1 AVING, in the preceding lection, explained the different methods of manage ment that feem neceffary in the cultivation of thofe forts of grafs lands that are chiefly applied to the purpofe of producing hay, \ve ihall now defcribe the modes of practice which appear requifke in fuch as are almoft wholly appropriated to the fupport of live (lock. Failure Lands. The grounds that are the moft perfectly adapted to this ufe are, all thofe which have a confiderable depth of good mould, and at the fame time that they afford a good herbage, are fo dry in their nature as to admit the animals to feed upon them at almoft all feafons without injury by poaching. Coarfe rufhy lands may, however, in many cafes, be converted into good paftures,by proper at tention in draining, and cutting over the rulhes in the early part of the fpring, as by this means the water enters their ftems and the plants decay, the young (hoots being afterwards eaten by young (lock, arid the good grafs plants allowed to flou- rilh. There is alfo another fort of land that may be employed in this way^vhich is that of the moory kind, confiding of much imperfectly reduced vegetable matter proceeding from the leaves and roots of various decayed vegetable productions, that require to be brought into a fuitable condition for the fupport of grafs plants by proper drainage and the application of fubftances of the foffil kind. Pafture lands mould likev/ife, as much as ppffible, pofiefs properties in the na ture of their graffes that are the moft advantageous for the particular method of management under which they are to be conducted. In this view, fome may be 3 2 46*8 Cultivation, of Grafs Land.. Improving Pajturcs-. t adapted to the producing of milk or butter, others of cheefe, and others again of feeding or fattening animals. Jt is in fome meafure on this account, as well as that of local convenience, that different modes of management are employed on gca Is lands. The difference of fituation in pafture lands has likewife much influence in direct- ing the ufcs to which they may be applied with the greatefl benefit ; the higher or more elevated grounds being in general more proper for fheep, while thofe of the lower and more inclofed kinds are moftly better fuited for the purpofe of neat cattle or other animals under the fattening fyftem. And beftdes, the age of the Pay makes a difference in fome cafes : new laid down pafture lands being com monly found more proper for the fupport of the young ftore animals, while thofe that have been long in the ftate of fward are in general better adapted to the feeding or fattening flock. The mode of inclofing has alfo fome effect in the fame way ; as when the incio- fures are of a moderate fize they are found more fuitable for the purpofes of feed ing than where the contrary is the cafe.* This fort of grafs land, as well as that of the hay kind, is fubjec*t to be overrun and much injured in its produce both by mofs, coarfe plants, and ant as well as mole- lulls. This is often the cafe here to a much greater extent than in the hay land. Thefe iliould therefore be conftantly removed, or fpread about as foon as poffible, and prevented from obftructingthe complete pafturage of the lands in the manner that has been recommended above* On the marfti grazing lands in Kent, where ant-hills frequently occur, they have a mode of extirpating them in an eafy and expeditious way, and of bringing the furface level, which isL by the ufe of an implement,, eight or nine feet in breadth, which is armed with a fort of ftrong cutting blade. When in life, it is drawn by a borfe directed by a boy, and guided behind by a. man, and is often capable of cutting offfeveral of the hills at one ftroke, and of courfe clearing a number of acres in a, very fliort fpace of time. There are various ether ploughs in ufe for this fort of work. But, befides thefe, paftures, when not well attended to, are frequently prevented iiom being properly fed, by various kinds of low fhrubby plants, fuch as thofe- * Corrctfed Report of Perthfliire, Cultivation of Graft Land. Improving P qJTurcf* 4<7<> cr the alder, brier, broom, furze, and other forts that fhoot out upon the furface, and which fhould always be extirpated, as foon as the bufinefs can be conveniently done; as by their remaining upon and fhading the ground they render the her bage four, and improper for the foodof cattle. This fort of work maybe per formed by cutting them clofely do.wn as they rife in the early fpring months ; bur a better practice is to dig them or plough them completely out in the manner that has been defcribed infpeakingof the methods of bringing lands into the Mate of cultivation.* The fhrubby, black, and other thorns and briers that fpring up from fuckers on the fides of the hedge-rows of pafture grounds, fhould like- wife be exterminated, efpecially where fheep are paftured, as they do great mif- chief by pulling and entangling their coats. Befides, much ground is often loft in this way, and the appearances of the hedges is difgufting. In many cafes- after the plants are flocked up, the earth about them might be thrown up into a compofl with a fmall proportion of well rotted dung, and fpread upon the land with much benefit ; and at the fame time the land thus cleaned be brought into a proper condition for being fown down with grafs feeds. Where paftures are productive in grafles of the more fharp coarfe bladed kinds - which rife into tufts or tuilbcks, and which are known to agricultors under diffe rent titles as four coarfe gralTes, and there are other forts of aquatic plants prcfcnt- ing themfelves, it is a certain indication that the foil is too retentive of moifture, and not only ftands in need of draining, but alfo of being kept in a clofe ftate.of feeding by different forts of flock. The manuring of paliure lands is a bufinefs much lefs in practice than ougbt, perhaps, to be the cafe, as where the foil is not good, and they are kept in a con- itant ftate of feeding or paflurage, it would feem probable that their fertility muit- infome in eafu re decline, if proper means- be not taken to preferve and keep it up, even though they fhould be fed down with fheep, which is unquefrionably in this view the moft favourable fort of frock. It is indeed hardly to be fuppofcd that the fmall proportion of excrementitious matter that is dropped at random during the feeding of the animals, efpecially the larger kinds, under an expofure to the diiTipatirrg and warning effects of the atmofphcre, at diifcrent feafons, .where, no other forts of food than that of the natural Agraffes of the pafturcs is confumed, canjn fuch forts of land be adequate to the reftoration of the great. degree of fertility thaus -, conftamly conveyed away in the time of pafturing. In the better kinds of paftuxe, *Si;dron on the-Cultivation of Arabic Land. 470 Cultivation of Graft Laud.~-ImprGvitig Paflures Means of, lands, where the produce of grafs is confiderable, improvement may, and undoubt edly does, take place by feeding them, efpecially by fheep, as the difcharges of the animals are not only more abundant, but a proportion of old grafs is left to decay during the winter fcafon, and in that way make an annual addition to their fertility., It appears probable to us, however it may differ from opinions that have been held on this fubject by fome cultivators, from much clofe attention to the management of grafs lands of the lefs rich kinds in the ftate of pafture, that in fuch cafes, unlefs attention be paid to improve their condition by fome other means than merely that of the manure difperfed over the land by the animals in fimply confuming the her bage, that they muft in time become gradually deteriorated, and the quantity of paf- turage be lefTened fo as to fupport fmaller proportions of flock than was formerly the cafe. This fuppofition feems indeed, in fome degree, fupported by the con dition of downs, and other uninclofed lands that have been in a ftate of pafturage fora great length of time ; as in thefe cafes, if feeding had rendered them more fertile, they muft long fince have been enabled to carry a vaftly increafed propor tion of flock ; which is certainly not the cafe.* That feeding down pafture lands,of thefe as well as other kinds, in a judicious manner has the effect of rendering the herbage more fine, and better for the fup port of ftock in general, there cannot be the fmalleft doubt ; but it does not cer tainly follow that the fertility of the land, in fuch cafes as have beenjuft mentioned, is thereby really improved, as has been fuppofed by fome employed in the bufinefs of grazing in particular lituations and circumftances. Where the paftures, as Hias been juft obferved, are in fuch heart as to afford a large quantity of herbage for being converted into manure, and fufficient to permit a portion annually to revert to the ftate of vegetable mould by its undergoing the procefs of putrefaction, a confiderable progreffive improvement maft, without doubt, be the cafe under the pafturing fyftem, efpecially where fneep conftitute the principal ftock. And in moft cafes the fining of the herbage by this practice muft be advantageous. It feems, therefore, not improbable but that the better ing of the condition of the herbage by feeding the lands with fheep may have oc- cafionally led to the fuppofition that. the fertility of the grounds was thereby, in all cafes, really improved. That an increafe of fertility is produced, in moft inf lan ces, by the pafturing of lands with fheep, is not difputed ; it is only in particular circumftances that the contrary is contended to take place. And in all cafes the * AuderCou s Eflays, vol. III. Cultivation of Graft Land. Stocking Pafturcs Scafons for. 471 injury that may be fuftained in this way muft evidently be very fmall, when com pared with that which takes pi ace from repeated mowing without the application of fuitable drefTings to the lands. The immediate improvement of the fertility of pafture grounds may be effected in different ways, as either by the direct application of manure in its natural Mate, fuch as that of rotten dungjime, marl, or in that of earthy comport, occasionally over their furfaces in a thin evenjjpanner ; or indirectly by the folding or confining of fheep upon the land during the time they con-fume other forts of green food, fuch as tur nips, &c. The latter mode is unquestionably the moft advantageous and conve nient, as it is in but very few fituations that the former can be praclifed without injury to the arable o-r hay lands. By proper attention in this way the more poor pafture grounds might foon, and at little expenfe, be brought into a- good ftate of pafturage j which could feldom or ever be the cafe without it* The rnoft proper period for turning the flock into the paftures in the fpring feafon has been a matter of difpute among thofe employed in the management of grafs lands ; feme contending that it fhould be done; early, before the natural grafs has rifen to too great a bite, while others maintain the contrary opinion. There are probably inconveniences attending each of thefe extremes, as in the firft the flock, efpeciall-y when of the fattening kind, may fuftain injury from the want of afufficient bite to permit the animals to fill themfelves in an expeditious manner; and in the latter there may not only be much wade by theftock not being capable of keeping it under, but great lofs and inconvenience from its running up in tufts to feed, and by that means rendering the paftures patchy and unevenly fed down,, by which the extent of real pafturage is leffencd. It has been alfo obferved, that by turning theftock upon the paftures when there is a full bite the better forts of grafies are only confumed, the more coarfe herbage being rejected and let run up- to feed, by which the lands are greatly injured at the time as well as in future; while, on the contrary, if the flock be allowed to enter during the time fuch coarfe plants are in their more tender early growth, and before the pafture is covered with better herbage, the whole of the other plants will be fed down in a regular manner with the grafs.* It is likewife remarked by the fame writer, that the want of a. full bite on the firft turning out of ftore ftock is of advantage to the animals, as they become more gradually accuftomed to the change from dry food to fucculent * Marfliall s Rural Economy of Yorkfliire. 472 Cultivation ofGrafiLand. Stocking Paflnrc& What mecflltry ix herbage. And it is fuppofedthal fattening ftock only require a full bite on being firft put upon the pafture.* In anfwerto the objection that has been made, that early turning upon paftures expofes them more to the effects of drought in the fpring months, it is faid that it is in a great meafure ill founded, fince cattle rr ilk and thrive well in fuch cafes. " It is not," Mr. Marfhall remarks, " the length of grafs, but the quantity of nourifhment which it contains, that makes cattle pay for their pafturage." And it is not fuppofed improbable but that the richnefs of the herbage may in fome degree depend on the fun or heat of the lea Ton. f As the ftate of grafs which is the moft favourable to the feeding of the flock , and their expeditious filling themfelves and taking their reft, as well as that of their wafting the leaft pofiible proportion of the food, would feem to be that of a middle degree of growth, it is not improbable but that, that may be the mod proper and advantageous period for breaking the paftures ; the exact time of which muft ob- vioufly be regulated by the nature of the foil, the fituation of the land, and the ftate -of the feafon. From the end of March to the latter end of April, or begin ning of the following month, according to the forwardnefs of the feafon, may be the moft advantageous in the fouthern diftricts, but in thofe of the north it may bede- ferred a week longer or more with benefit. In regard to the general eating down of pafture lands there is likewife much dif ference of opinion, fome advifing that it mould be done in as clofea manner as pofiibte, others that this mould never be the cafe. It would feem, however, that the clofenefs or degree of feeding that is the moft proper Ihould be directed by the nature of the grafs and the time at which it is performed, as where the herbage is of the coarfer kind and confumed in the autumnal feafon, it may be done much more clofely than in the contrary circumftances, as fuch forts of grafs muft always be improved by fuch clofe feeding, and no injury can be fuftained at fuch feafons from the roots of the grafTes being left fo much expofed, which would be the cafe j-n the later fpring or early fummcr months, from the conftantly increafing heat at fuch periods. The advice that has been given by an intelligent obferver on this fubject may in general be adopted with propriety, which is, to be cautious not to overftock, as by that means great lofs may be fuftained, as cc land when fed too bare is apt to burn in fummer and to be chilled in winter. Befides, the necks of the roots are fo injured Marshall s Rural Economy of Yorkfhire, f Ibid. of Graft Hand* Stocking Paftitrt*. 475 -by very clofe biting that they da not afford fo quick or free a fpring to the fucceflion .of blade as there would otherwife be." But, on the other hand, it is not re commended to leave a long bite of grafs on the land : a middle degree will ftut all lands the bell, and afford the moft benefit to the perfons who occupy them.* By the too thin flocking of pafturcs, though lofs may be fuftained in their not fupporting the proper number of animals, as well as from the injury which isdonc by the grafs plants running fo much up to Hems, the broken grafs in fuch cafes can be mown when in fuffic lent proportion for hay: but the difad vantages of overftocking are fcarcely capable of being repaired, as, befides the lands being of ten expofed to much injuryby the crowns of the plants being fo clofely pared down, efpecially in the finer kinds ofgrafs,the cattle from fui bring a check in their feeding, are long in regaining their former thriving difpofition.-j- It has been well remarked that almoft the whole of the produce of pafture lands may in this way be often thrown away, and that it is an error that young farmers are extremely liable to fall into 4 The medium degree of flocking, which has been advifed above, is in general to be carefully adopted from the experience obtained upon the land. In the procuring of which it is befl to begin by an under proportion of ftock. It is the opinion of a writer of great experience, that the more various the kinds of cattle are that are fed upon the paftures at different times the better: || but it has not been mown on what principle this advantage depends. If the different modes of feeding in the different, animals, be attended to and minutely examined, it will be found that though fome forts will confume grafs when in a more luxuri ant Hate of growth than others, they are all fondeft of pafluring on that which is the moft fweet and tender. This is rendered extremely obvious by the obferva- tionsof an attentive inquirer, who has found, that although horfes <f appear partial to particular patches of fward, he has never been able to difcover any peculiarity in the foil or the herbage of fuch barely eaten fpots." It is fuppofed that they have been fed down by fucb animals at firft in fo clofe a manner merely by accident ; but that afterwards they are kept in fuch a clofe flate of feeding from their pe culiar fweetnefs," depending on the "peculiar fhortnefs of the herbage."ff It would, *- Kent s Hints. t Marshall s Rural Economy of Yorkfliire. J Ibid. $ Ibid* 1| Kent s Hints. f Ibid. VOL. II 3 P 474 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Stocking Pa/lures. however, feem more probable, from the circumftance of the animals being almoft wholly directed by the tafte in the choice of their food, that the fweet or tender nature of the herbage in thefe parts firft induces them to feed upon and confume them in fo clofe a manner, as well as the continuing the clofe eating them down af terwards. The fame thing is obferved to happen in the vicinity ofpreferved co vers, with hares and rabbits, from their keeping fpots of barley or other grain crops clofely fed down.* And fheep are well known to ramble over the whole of the paftures in order to nibble and pick out the moft fweet and delicate inorfels. The feeding of neat cattle is, perhaps, lefs particular and delicate in this refpect; but where not forced by hunger they moftly appear to fix upon fuch parts of the land as poftefs the mofl fweet and palatable herbage, rejecting the coarfer fpots where it is lefs tender and agreeable. If the conclufion be therefore well founded, that flock of all forts prefer the beft, fweeteft, and moft tender herbage, it is evident that no mixture of animals can in- fure the even and regular feeding down of paftures, as they will in fome degree be all attracted by the fweeteft and moft tender parts, and thofe of the more coarfe four kinds be in confequence almoft wholly rejected. Anagricultor of great experience and nice obfervation has remarked, that in paftures ftock naturally pick the moft palatable graffes firft, leaving the others to run up to bents ; and though it is ad mitted that one fort may have a preference for one fpecies of grafs and another for another, there is no mixing the animals in fuch a manner as to prevent this circum ftance from taking place. It is wholly impracticable to proportion each kind of ttock in fuch a way to the fpecies of grafs that may be moft agreeable to it, as to prevent the fcarcity of one fort and the abundance of the other, t Thefe are therefore not only difficulties in the regular feeding down of paftures from the cattle being more fond of fome forts of herbage than others, but alfo from the inability of the grazier to proportion them in a way that may fully anfwer the purpofe. Thefe obfervations, at the fame time that they fhow the difficulty of thebufinefs, convince us of the advantage and importance of keeping pa ftu re lands regularly and evenly fed down, which is perhaps only to be fully effected by one fort of ftock * Marshall s Rural Economy of Yorkshire. t Clofe io-Cominunications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. III.. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Stocking Pajluren* 475 properly fucceeding another, till the want of the finer forts of herbage obliges them to feed upon thofe than are of a more coarfe nature. In this, as well as other views, the fattening (lock mould be fir 11 turned into the lands and kept upon them fo long as they continue to improve in a proper manner ; thefe may then be fuc- ceeded by the older forts of cattle that require to be brought into condition, and the more young (lore ftock may confume the remainder of the grafs, accord ing to the intentions of the farmer. That great utility and advantage may be derived from often fhifting the cattle by having recourfe to a bead ftock and proper followers, there can be little doubt. The few writers that have touched upon the fubject of grafs hufbandry have in general, indeed, recommended the practice as highly beneficial both in refpcct to the pafture and the ftock. And Mr. Marfhall, in his Rural Economy of Yorkshire, fpeaksof this being a defect in the grafs land management of that diftrict. The correct grafs farmer mould, therefore, be more attentive to this part of his management than is commonly the cafe, taking care that the changes of his flock are made in a feafonable and judicious manner. This is probably a practice from which greater utility may be derived than that of permitting many different forts of flock upon the ground at the fame time, as befides their not anfwering the intention of feeding the paflures down with more regularity and cvcnnefs, they are inconvenient and disadvantageous in other refpects. For where the paftures are fed down with a mixed flock, the animals feldom thrive or fatten fo well as where the contrary is the cafe. They are too much driven about and difturbed by the different kinds teafing each other, ef- pecially where horfes and neat cattle are put together. A mixed flock is alfo im proper in another point of view ; many forts of animals feed clofer and more ex- peditioufly than others ; of courfe, when there happens to be any Icarcity 9* feed, fome of the kinds may be greatly injured from the want of proper fupport. The horfe, like the fheep, feeds clofc and quick, while the contrary is the cafe with the cow ; it would of courfe feem improper to mix horfes with neat cattle in the pafluringof grafs lands, though the practice has been prevalent in many places. It has indeed been obferved, thatfheep and horfes may feed and thrive bed together, both from the fimilarity of their manner of eating, and that of the former con- fuming the rich luxuriant herbage which fprings in confequence of the manure dropped in the feafon, while the latter prefer thelefs vigorous but the more clean grafs.* It is a practice, however, that has fometimes been found ufeful, to mix * Corrected Report of 1 erthflure. P 2 47(> Cult real ion of Grafs Land. Sfoc&iag P&fturcs* fheep with neat cattle. The notion of deriving advantage from the mixing o flock, from the circumftances of fome forts having a greater did ike to feed near their own dung and lefs towards that of others, is probably not founded on juft obfer- vation, as all animals have a fixed averfion. to both their o-wn and that ofother ani- reals, and none of them will feed near either till compelled by the fcarcity of food. This aversion does not, perhaps, depend wholly on the dung,. but is in fomc ineafurc avoided in confequence of the grafs becoming ra.nk and coarfe about, fucb places. As it is. a matter of importance to keep pafhrrea and grazing-grounds as even as. pofllble, a proportion of ftock fitted to produce thi* purpofe fhould always be put upon the lands* On the rich and more fertile kind*, where the grafs fprings quick and in greater abundance, more flock will be necefFary to effect this purppfe than where the contrary is the cafe. It has been found on the marm land in Lincoln- fhire, that where the moft grafs is kft in the autumn the herbage is the coarfeft and the worft in the fucceecHng. year. In the extenfive feeding tract of Romney Marfh, the clofe feeding fyflem is alfo found to anfwer in the moft perfect man ner.* Thefe fads fliow the neceffity of hard flocking on the richer defcriptions of land. In other parts of the firft of the above diftri&s, on. turning upona full bite- in the fpring they flock in fuch a manner fts to prevent the grafs from becoming coarfe by running upto-frcrn. The neceflity of fvveeping over the rough tufty parts by the fcythe is thus avoided,, except in very wet feafbns^-f It is a practical remark of a cautious obferver, on defcribing a field not tbfficiently ftocked, that, on the marfh juft mentioned, the grazing farmers would be ruined if they fufTered fo much grafs on their lands. t And it feems to be a bad practice to allow the grafs in paftures to advance to fuch a ftate as to re quire being fwept over by the fcythe, though it may be right to do it under fuch drcumflanccs, in order to prevent the greater injury that might otherwife be produced. It appears extremely probable, indeed, that by permitting the grafs plants to run up to feed-ftems> the paftures may fuftain vaft injury, not only by the exhau- tion of the foil that takes place during the efforts of die plants to form and fill the feeds, but in confequence of their whole vegetative powers being di*. rected to that purpofe, from their fending forth few or no leaves. This is extremely * Mr. Young in Lincolnshire Report. fBoys, in Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIX. J Ibid* Cultivation of Graft Land. Stocking Pajl tires, Points fa Be regarded. 477 evident in all the coarfer forts of grafs plants, and fully explains the utility of keep ing them clofely fed down, as by fuch means a more abundant graffy herbage is* provided for the fupport of flock.. There are various obfervations thatfeem to fupport this opinion. Thus, it has been recommended to flock pafture lands in fuch a manner as will keep the grafs in a young fucculent flate; as in this way there is a benefit, by the whole of the produce being confumed, and at the fame time the items of the grafs plants are prevented from feeding, which exhaufls the roots and the larids ;. the foil is of courfe prefervcd in a better flate of fertility,. more moots are thrown out, the fward is rendered more elofe, and a more conftant verdure kept up. " The true principle of grazing," in the opinion of the fame writer, " is to eattf//, and particularly at thofe feafons when vegetation is rapid, that it may not weaken the turf and foil, but, by keeping the grafs in a young flate,, have the moors more vigorous." As for the purpofe of feeding the larger- forts of neat cattle, it is neceflary for the grafs to have grown to a pretty full bite before they are turned in, and of courfe numerous feed-flems to be formed ; it feems not improbable, but that the fuperior- benefit of feeding with fheep may depend upon the circumftance of their eating. more clofely, and thereby preventing fuch effects from taking place. In the flocking of pafture grounds the growth of the grafs mould be particularly attended to, and the proportion of flock adapted to it ; care being always taken to 1 Iiave a full proportion during the fummer month s^ from May to Augufl ; a proper refer ve being then made for the winter feafon.t In this bufinefs the farmer mould be as careful as pofiible to neither over or under llock, as by either means he mufl fuilain lofs and inconvenience. There is another, point, in refped to the eating down of pafture lands, upon- which farmers differ very greatly in their opinions, each contending for: the p r o~- priety of their pradlice on the ground of experience : this is thatof giving the cat tle, of whatever fort they may be, the whole range of the lands, however ex ten five,, at once, or. by having them divided fo as ta let them have the* grafs at different, times in a frefli unbroken flate. The queflion does not appear to have been exa mined in that view, or with that, degree of attention which is fufficient to fully decide the matter ; and there are obviouily various circumflances, fuch as thofe of; the inequality of grounds and flocks, which mufl continually operate again flit* * Price, jn Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXL i Ibid, 478 Cultivation of Grafs Land Stocking PajlurcsPohi ts to le being determined by the ted of experiment. It fhould probably be diverted of thofc advantages, that may arife from the circumftance of inclofure, as drainage, fhelter, water, &c. in order to be fairly afcertained, and be merely confidered as to whe ther there may not be more economy or lefs wade in the confumption of the grafs in one way than in the other? and whether it may not go further in feeding or fatten ing the flock in one method than in the other ? As the animals will not, of courfc, remain upon the fame fpot, the difference in refpect to the difad vantage that rr, ay arife from the trampling down and fpoiling the grafs in that way, mult be pretty equal in both methods of proceeding. In the firft mode there will, however, be more difficulty in proportioning the flock to the confumption of the herbage, as well as more trouble and inconvenience in tending it ; which are circumftahccs ef importance. In what regards the grafs being eaten with greater fredinefs in one cafe than the other, it is obvious that the confuming the herbage in a divided flate mud have what little fuperiority there may be, as each time the cattle are let into a new piece of grafs it will be perfectly frcfh -j which in the contrary cafe can only be fo at the firft putting the animals in, as they moftly trample over the whole before they fettle to v feed quietly on any particular part. But there are other points of moreconfequence that feem to favour the feeding padure lands in a divided flare ; fuch as thofe of the cattle not grazing fo quietly in large herds as in fuch as are fmaller ; and where any didurbance happens, either from accident or ne-. ccffity, the whole being diflurbed inftead of only a part. Bcfides, it is found, as has been fhown above, that all forts of dock, when duly proportioned to their paf- tures, thrive better in fmall than large numbers together, being lefs liable to teafe and didurb each other. The experience of a writer, who has examined grafs hufbandry with much mi- nutenefs and attention in different didrids, would feem alfo, in fome meafure, to favour the fame conclufion, while it fhowsthe benefit of one fort of dock follow ing another, as he advifes that " in all cafes where fattening cattle or dairy cows conditute a part of the dock ; and where foil, lituation, and water will admit, every range of grazing lands mould have three divifions : one for the head dock, as the cows and fattening animals ; another for followers, fuch as the rearing or other lean dock ; and a third for being preferved in order to freflien for the recep tion of the principal dock ."* And he is decidedly of opinion, " that whether the * Marlhall s Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vjl, II Cult ivation of Grafs Land.*- Stocki?ig Paftures Proportions of for. 479 ground may confifl of one,two, or a greater number of divifions,not a weed mould be fuffercd to feed, or a tuft of dale grafs to Hand on it ; but once, at lead, in the fummer fcafon be levelled down by the fey the, as by fuch means weeds may be converted into nourifhment, " and wafle ground into after-grafs." The practice of clofe feeding, as recommended above, may, in many cafes, render this unneceffary, and at the fame time afford a fuperior advantage to the farmer. The proportions of (lock of different forts that can be properly fupported on any given fpace of paftu re ground muft vary confiderably,according to the natural good- nefs of the foil, the properties of the grafs, and the differences in the fi-zes of the animals. There is likewife another circumflance which thould be attended to which is the length of time the land has been in a flate of fward, as new lays- arc feldom capable of carrying fo much flock on the acre as thofe of the older kinds. It is alfo a point that ought to be attended to, that thefe lays fhould be flocked as much as poflible with fheep. To give any fhtement of the number of animals that may be grazed on the acre would not only be ufelefs, but be liable to lead tha young farmer into error, as it mufl differ fo greatly in the manner that has been juft noticed. Befides, the proportion of different forts of flock that is put upon the grazing lands, in different diflricts, will be feen when we come to fpeak of the manner of feeding or fattening animals at grafs. Lands employed for the purpofe of paflure are frequently occupied by flock during the autumn and winter, as well as the fpring and fummer months : it is however, only thofe of the very dry kinds that can be turned upon in the winter feafon, efpecially by heavy cattle ; and it is probably, in all cafes, a much better practice to confine that fort of flock wholly to the fold-yards at fuch feafons, as by fuffering them to be turned upon the paflures there muft be a great lofs in the wafle of manure. It has been found an advantageous practice by fome to fhut up their paflures late in the autumn, according to the flate of the grafs and other circum fiances 3 eating them down as clofe and evenly as poffible previous to the flock being removed, and. keeping them perfectly free till they are wanted for ewes and lambs in the early part of the year, or for cattle at a later period, as when the firfl {hoots appear in thefpring, which from being intermixed with thofe of the autumn^ are fuppofed to> . 480 Pultrcution of Graft Land. Drinking PMids-^Situatlens proper, &Tord more nourifhment for the fupport of the ftock than when either of them art eaten fepanttely.* In fields that are paftured by cattle, care ihould be taken that all fuch plants as tire hurtful to ftock be completely eradicated, as much injury is often done by them to the cattle as well as the produces \vhich they afford. The plants mod prejudi cial in -this way are thofe of the hemlock, henbane, nightfhade and yew kinds. Jt has beenobferved, that while the grafs is plentiful there is not much danger of their feeding upon fuch plants ; but when it becomes fcarce, and they are confined, it is li-kely to take place, efpecially in the fpring feafon, j- Drin king-Ponds. There is another ctrcumftance in refpecl: to pafture lands, that it is indifpenfably necefTary to attend to, which is that of their being well fupplied with water, as without having this in fome degree at command,, it h rnpoflible that the ftock can thrive well, or anfvvcr in the moft perfect mannei in other views. Where. they are not therefore fupplied by brooks or ftreams running through them, it will be neceffary to have r-ecourfc to the forming of ponds, or pools, for the pur- pofe in the fields. In filiations where the natural ftratumof clay is of confidcr- ablethickncfs, there is little difficulty in the conftrucling of watering ponds fo as to be perfectly retentive ; but in loofe porous foils the bufinefs is not executed without confiderable art and attention. Even in clayey lands, except the ponds foe kept conftantly filled with water they are liable to become leaky. This has been fuppofed to depend upon the cracking of the clay by drought, and the perfora tions of warms, the bafons being converted by fuch means into a fort of filters . Thefe inconveniences are ofcourfe to be guarded againft in their conftrudhon ; which are partly effected by the proper application and puddling of the clay as the work proceeds, and the ufe of a coat of lime below it. It is of great advantage alfo, in preventing the clayey ftratum from being injured by drought and the poach ing of cattle, to have coverings of earth, coarfe gravel, or fmall Hones laid over the clay. The fides or parts of the ponds which are to admit the cattle to drink ihould be well floped down, fo as that they may enter with eafe and the leaft pof- jfible injury to the ;:-ottoms of the ponds. In refpecl: to their iituation, it is the moft ufual to make them at the bottoms of !flopcs or riling grounds ; where after heavy rains a flight run of water may be * Marshall s Rural Economy of Midland Counties, vol. I. t Perth Corre&ed Report, J Marfhall s Rural Economy of Yorkfhire, Cultivation of Grafs Land. Drinking Pond* Forma proper for. -conveyed into them, from forne road, or other firm furface; many are, however, placed without any fuch afildance for filling, or with very little, it being found that the rain that falls upon their furfaces is in general furncient for a fupply, after they have been once filled :* but in many cafes, as the expenfc is con- iiderablc, it would feem more advantageous to have them formed in the angles of corners, where two or three fields meet, as by this means one pond may fcrve the whole, and at the fame time but little fpace of ground be taken up or waded. It has been fuggefted as highly ufeful in the forming of thefe drinking-ponds, to have a wade-water place on the upper iideof the main rdTervoirs, to prevent their being ufelefsly fitted up when full by the muddy water continuing to run into them ; as by its changing from a running to a dagnant date a confiderablc depofit takes place, which might thus be avoided. f Much mud would alfo be collected in this way, in many cafes, and be removed with little trouble ; which renders them of great utility in procuring manure. It has been obferved that " the bed feafon for making thefe ponds is thought to be in autumn, as they are then likely to be filled the fooned, and the lead liable to crack before they are filled. Should the weather prove dry at the time they are finifhed, it is well to cover their furfaces with draw, or litter, to hinder them from ** cracking." And " as it is deferable to get them filled as foon as pofilble after they are finifhed, fnow is frequently collected and heaped upon them, if pofiible, in large quantities, the fird winter after they are finifhed, for that purpofe.J" The form of ponds for this ufe is in general that of a mallow bafon, the fides {helving in a gradual manner from the brim to the centre. But other forms may be adopted according to circumdances. In the fird mode, where the excava tion is fixty feet in diameter, the greated depth is about feven ; but when only- forty feet in diameter, the depth is modly about five, before any of the coats arc applied.^ There would feem, however, to be an advantage in having fuch ponds of greater depths and lefs diameters, as it is well afcertained that the quickncfs of evaporation is in a great meafure in proportion to the extent of furface that is expofed to the influence of the atmofphere: of courfe fuch ponds as have great diameters with little depths, mud become dry in hot feafons much more quickly than where the contrary is the cafe. In fetting out ponds of this fort, the ufe of the level will be necefCuy ; dakes * Corrected Report of the North Riding of Yorkshire. f Ibid. J Ibid. Ibid. VOL.11, 3 Q 48C Cultivation of Graft Land. Drinking Ponds Efpetifei of forming. being driven down as a guide to work by in forming the banks, and in making the conducting channels and watte- water pools. The materials raifcd from tn< ex cavations muft be taken away or applied according to the circumftancts and fituations of the land ; but wherever the forts of loofe materials are employer), great care fhould be taken to have them well wrought together, in older to give them due folidity. The expenfe of forming ponds of this kind muft vary greatly according to the fitiuitions, the nature of the foil, and various other caufes. They are " u (bally made by men who go about for the purpofe, and are chiefly, or entirely, engaged in it, and vvhoufually contract for the job. One of the diameter of im/ feet and depth of fix feet, may in moft fituations be executed for about 15!, ;" and "one of forty- five feet by five feet, for 10 or 12!. ,- but forne allowance muft be made for the dif ferent prices of lime, and the diftances it may be necefEiry to convey it, as well as the clay, or the other materials for the work. A pond cffixty feet diameter by fix feet deep, will contain upwards of 700 hogmeads of water; one of forty-five feet by five feet, near 400 hogfheads a vaft fuppiy, when obtained at fo fmall an expenfe. * Mr. Marfhall in his Rural Economy of Yorkfhire, where the fubject is fully confidered, has calculated the expenfe of each fquare yard of coated furfacc to coft from lixpence to fevenpence halfpenny ; which at prefent would probably cofl ninepence ortenpence.* * It is remarked in the Agricultural Survey of the North Hiding of Yorkfhire, that the improved practice of conftruc"ting ponds of this fort is capable of fueceedingiti almoft, any fituation in any diftricL The following, which is chiefly drawn from Mr, Marfliall s Roral Economy of York flu re, is the method recommended for executing the bufmefs. M Let a circle be marked on the ground fixty feet in diameter, more or left as the perfon choofes, or ihe fiae of the pu&ure may require a fuppiy of wate* j and if of that diameter, let it be hollowed out in the mape of a bafon,or bowl, to the depth of feven feet in the centre. When the furface of this hollow Iras been raked fmooth, let it be well beaten over fo as to reduce it into as even, uniform, and firm a furface as the nature of the ground will admit of; on this, well fallen, fkreened lime muft be uniformly fpread with a riddle, to the thickneis of two or three inches ; the more porous or open the ground, the greater will be the quantity of lime required : this lime muft then be llightly watered, to make it adhere finnly to its place, and great care muft be taken to fpread it equally, fo that noplace remains uncovered, as on the lime depends, more than any thing elfe, the fuccefs of the work. On this lime muft be laid a bed of clay, to the thickncfs of about fix inches, which, being moiftened fufficiently to render it duclile, is to be beaten "-ith mallets or beetles, into a-folid compaft body, capable of. being trod upon without Cultivation of Grafs Land. Drinking Punch Methods of fornriii*. 4^3 In fpeaking of farms on the Mendip hills, Mr. Billingfley, in the Agricultural Report of Somerfetfnire, mentions a method of conftru<5Hng drinking pools for cattle by means of mafon s work, as on fuch elevated regions fprings are fddom impreffion or injury. Great care is to be taken in laying on uniformly this mufs of clay, ami boating it into a compact body ; for which purpofe not more mull be fpread at a time upon the lime than can undergo the beating while it retains a proper temper or confidence for the purpofe : after the whole is thus finilhed, it is gone over feveral times by the beaters, and fp rink led each time with waler^ and care is taken to prevent any cracks being formed, which might entirely deftroy the power of retention. "Pure brick-clay is not required ; but any tenacious earth, that by beating will become of a folid rompaft body, will anfwer the purpofe. As foon as this operation has been duly performed, the whole Airface of the clay is covered, to about the thicknefs of a foot, with broken chalk, fine gravel or the chippings of mouldering ftone,orlime(lone, to prevent any injury being done by the treading of the cattle. It is neceffary to obferve, that coarfe ftones, or any ftones of a texture that will not unite into a folid body, mult not be made ufeof,as fuch are liable to be difplaced by the trcadingoflhecattle, to Le profit-it into or through the bed of clay, or to be rolled down to the bottom of the pond ; under all which cir- cumftances the beds of clay and lime are liable to be broken, and the water confequently let out of the pond. Sometimes the clay is covered with fods, the grafsfide being laid downwards, as a fupport to the gravel, by which fome faving of covering may be made; or feveral inches thick of common earth is laid upon them, or upon the clay without the fods, byway of bed for the -covering, where gravel or fiich. like materials may be fcarce j by which fomething may be alfo faved. " After the clay has been well beaten, fome workmen water the furface of it, and fold flieep or pigs for a confiderable time upon it; the treading of which is found to be ferviceable in rendering it more compact. " Some people, inftead of ufmg flaked lime, have good mortar made of lime and land well worked together, and cover the furface of the ground with it to the thicknefs of about an inch : this, if, carefully done, is thought by many to be the mod effectual mode of rendering the bottom retentive; but the mortar is liable to crack before tke clay gets bedded over it : which mult be carefully guarded againft* Ponds have been made wherea coat of mortar has alfo been fpread over the furface of the clay as well as under it an approach, perhaps, as near as poffible to perfection but where lime bears a high price, the expenfe is thus considerably augmented. " Experience, now of many years, and the univerfal ufe of thefe ponds in this country, wherever Wanted, have proved them when carefully made, fo effectually to retain water ; to prefervc it of fo good a quality, when not fouled by the treading of cattle ; and to be applicable to fo many fituations, that they cannot be too ftrongly recommended in all high fituations, where water may be much wanted, or in all other fituations where the water may be of a bad quality : they are equally applica ble to our dry wolds, downs, and heaths, which, are without water, as to every fenny truft which has too much of it, but of a brackifh or unwholefome quality." 4 84 Cit It ivation of G raft Land. Cow-keeping* to be met with.. Such (kill is difplayed in the forming of them that they fcarccly, ever let the water through or. prove leaky.* In cattle drinking-ponds it is a circumftance of great importance to the health of the animals to have the water as pure and free from impregnations as poflible ;. but it is extremely difficult to provide it in fu-ch a flate except, where the water is in conftant motion : fomething might probably, however, be done, efpecialiy, where wafte water pools are provided, in rendering the water more pure, by hav ing it, in its paffage to the large refervoirs, percolating through a fufficient bod/ of coarfe fiindy or gravelly materials fo confined as to prevent their being carried away. Cow-keeping^ This is a practice from which much profit and advantage may be derived in particular fituations and circumftances, as where the land lies near large towns, and is highly fertile and productive in good herbage ;. and where in addition to this the farmer has the means of conveniently providing various other forts of food either ofthefucculent, green, or other kinds. But to undertake this fort of management under the contrary circumftances could only terminate in lofs and difappointment. But, befides thcfe, there are other circumftances to be regarded in the conduct ing the bufinefs of a milk-dealer, fuch as thofe of providing cows that afford the largeft poffible quantity of milk in proportion to the food they confume. This * It is ftated thai fuppofing the dimenfions to be forty feet in length, fixtecn in width, and fix feet in depth in the middle, the expenfe may ftand thus : . s. d. "Digging out thfr foundation^ - - ...... 220 Mafon s labour - - , - y .-w. - - 10 10 Three hundred bufliels of lime - - - 300 Ten loads of clay and carriage - - . - 100 Eight loads, of coal allies and carriage - 180- 18 "Some perfons,who are cautious,go to a confiderable diftance for lime made from the white lyas ilone, which is certainly a ftronger cement under water than the lime burnt on thefe hills. In this cafe an additional expenie is incurred. " A pool of thefe dimenfions, if properly fituated, will fupply eighty or one hundred acres with a fufficiency of water for the ftock throughout the year, and if well made may be kept in repair for fixpence a year." + In most case* rtus will famish sufficient quantity of Jtone for tbc building. Cultivation qfG-rqfs LanJ, Oow-kecpiiig Covet proper for, 485 is a point that does not fecm to have been much fubjedled to experiment, though the profits of the farmer mud in a great meafure depend upon it, as where fuch cows are employed as do not anfwer in this view, a daily lofs mud be fudaincd. As this fort of farming is. in mod cafes, as has been obfcrved, only capable of be- ingcarried on with advantage infituanons where the food is of the mod rich and fuitable kind, and capable of being provided in fufncient proportion to feed the animals in a plentiful manner, .it would appear not improbable but that the large breeds may in general be the mod proper fur the purpofe. But when attempted in other circumdances, where the food is neither fo good in quality nor able to beprovided in fuch abundance, breeds of a fmaller defcription may be preferable, as it never can anfwer the farmer s purpofe in this, or probably any other view, to have the cattle difproportioned to the nature and quantity of this keep. The in clination or tendency to feed in animals for this ufe is likewifc a circumdance to be attended, to by the cow-farmer, as where it is difcovered to prevail they fliould: be rejected as improper ; it being found from experience that fuch cows aspoffefs this property feldom or ever afford much milk. The difpofition of cows has alfo fome influence in refpecr. to the quantity of milk which they may afford, as fuch as are mild and gentle in general milk much better than where the contrary is the cafe. The fort of cow mod adapted to the intentions of the milk- farmer mull of courfe vary, according to the nature of his fituation and the means which he poffeffes of providing food. Under the firft circumdances, the large fliort.horned,orHoldernefTe breed, may commonly be the mod advantageous j but in the latter, the long-horn ed, the Suffolk, Polled, and the Alderney breeds may be more profitable. There are likewife other breeds of the fmaller kinds that may be found beneficial in thcfc cafes.* It has, however,, been fuggeded as not improbable, but that though the large breed jud mentioned may at fird, while there is a full fupply of green or other juicy food, afford a. very large quantity of milk, the fmaller forts continue to give a more regular quantity fora greater length -of time. *j- Whatever the breed of cows may be that is employed by the milk-farmer, he fliould conirantly choofe fuch as are wide in the horn, thin in the head and neck, dewlap not too pendulous, the carcafedeep andflattifh, wide (rather pointed) hips^ buttocks round and flediy, legs thin, with (hort joints; the udder capacious, not ficftiy, but extending well backwards, the milk- veins large and prominent, and * S$e Dairying. t Anderfon s Recreations in Agriculture. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Cow -keeping Cows proper for. teats long and large. A tame and gentle difpofition isalfo, as has been mown, a. circumftance of importance. The beauty of form is therefore never to be attended to in providing covvs for the fupply of the milk-dealer. It is chiefly the quantity of milk that is to be regarded ; of courfe, all fuch cows as do not afford a. full fup ply fhould be difpofcd of as foon as poflible, as being very unprofitable in this fort of management. Cows moftly come into milk about the third year of their age, and are in full milk at the fifth, and they may be continued to the eighth or tenth, according to circumftances. But in the practice of cow-keeping, from the high manner in which the animals are kept, it is neceflary to change them much more frequently. With refpect to the exad: length of time that they may be continued as milkers with the mod advantage, it does not feern to be well afcertained by experiment; but it is probable that it cannot be more than two, three, or four years at the mofl, though much muft undoubtedly depend upon the conftitution of the animal. It is the bed, however, not to keep them too long, as the vigour of fecretion is much lefs in old than young animals j and befides, they become more liable to fwellings and indu rations in the udders, as well as other difeafes.* The age of cows is readily known by their medding the tips of their horns at three years old, and the firft rings commencing at the bottoms of them at four.t The cow- keepers in the county of Middlefex almoft wholly employ the large HoldernefTe breed, which are brought from a diftricl: thus denominated in York- (hire, as well as others in the fame neighbourhood, where the moft perfect of this kind of cows are met with.J It is obferved that the dealers in this fort of cattle buy them of the breeders when they are three or four years old, and in calf, expofing them to fale afterwards at the fairs and markets in the country, particularly near the metropolis, where there is a frefh fupply from the country weekly, by means of which the cow-keepers are enabled to keep up their feveral flocks. Great num bers of cows are likewife bought in the above places in lots often or twenty, by private commiiHon, and forwarded to the refpective cow-keepers in the above neighbourhood. The prices were formerly from ten to fifteen guineas, but for the laft two or three years have increafed to fixteenor eighteen, and are now advanced * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XVI. f Ibid. vol. XXXII. J Corre^ed Report of Middlefex, rafs Land. Cow-keeping Bulls Jliould be kept with to twenty or more. The cow-keepers breed ve?y few cattle, and thofe only from cows that give much milk, and with very little attention to the choice of the bull. When keep is plentiful, thebeftfeafon far purchafing thefe animals, in refpedtto price, is the autumn, or the beginning of winter.* The length of time which cows go with calf is nine months. It is the practice with fome to keep an arcotrit of the periods of their taking the bull ; and where the flock is extenfive this is of much advantage, a:- it not only enables the farmer to calculate with more certainty on his fupply of milk, but to have proper attention paid to them before as well as at the time of their Calving ; which is of much bene fit to the animals. There is a difference of opinion in regard to the diftance of time they mould be come dry before their calving, fome contending, that they may be milked almort to the time of their dropping the calf without injury; while others maintain, that it is abfolutely neceflary that cows mould be laid dry, from one or two months, both for the advantage of themfelves and their calves. It is probable that much in this bufinefs muft depend on the manner in which they are kept ; as where they are well fed they may be continued in milk till within a week or two of their calv ing, without fuffering any injury whatever from it: but in the contrary circum- ftancesitmay be better to let them run dry for a- month, fix weeksj or more, ac cording to their condition, in order to their more fully recruiting their ftrength.- It appears, however, not improbable, but that the longer the milking is continued the more free the cows will be from indurations and other aflfeftions of the udder ;, which is a circumftance deferving of attention. Where only one or two cows are kept for the fupply of a family, it is likewife ufeful to know, that by gpod feeding they may be continued in milk without any bad confequences till nearly the time of calving. We have tried this method feveral times, without per ceiving the leaft poflible injury to arifefrom it. And in the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkmire it is ftated, that no advantage was found on trial to refult from allowing the cows " to go dry two months before calving/ They have there been kept in milk till- within ten days of the time of dropping the calf. Where cows are kept in any great number, jt is always an advantageous practice to keep bulls along with them^ as by fuch means they not only take them more- *- Corrected Report of Middlefex. 488 Cultivation of Grafs Land Cow-keeping When with Calf. readily, but are prevented from its being omitted through inattention ; which is othervvife often the cafe. Betides, the great trouble, inconvenience, and lofs of time in driving them to a diftance, is avoided. From twenty to five-and- twenty or thirty cows are fufficient for one bull. They fhow their -inclination for taking the male by riding upon the other cows. After three or four months, cows may be afcertained to be in calf by prefling upon the off flank with the hand, as where that is the cafe the calf is found to ftrike againft it. They are mown to be near calving by their fpringing at the udder and the bear ing; the former becoming more fully diftended with fluid, while the latter is larger and more fvvelled out. Heifers, or young cows, are faid to fpring the fooneft at rhe bearing, and thofe of the older kinds at the udder. From accidents and other caufes, it fometimes happens that cows flip or Jlink their calves before they are fufficiently grown. Where this occurs, it is efTen- tially necefTary to remove fuch cows immediately from the cow-yards, or from mix ing with the other cattle, for a few days. But where cows are much fubject to fuch accidents it is the beft method to get quit, of them as foon as poffible, as they will feldom turn out profitable, In two, three, or four days, according to circumftances, after the cows have calved, it is the practice of the London cow-keepers to fend the new-dropped calves to be fold, as they would not be faleable before. The cows are thus left in full milk from within a few days of the time of their calving. But in other fitua. tions that cannot always be the cafe, as the demand for fuckling-calves is lefs ; they muft therefore be often fuckled by the cow-keepers. Where it is not the practice to bind up the cows in houfes for the purpofe, ef- pecially during the winter feafon, which feems by much the beft method, warm well fheltered yards, with open fheds, mould be provided, in order to protect the animals, and prevent their being expofed to the weather, as -by fuch means they will afford much larger fupplies of milk than where they are left in a ftate of expofure to wet and cold in open dirty yards, as is often the cafe. The bottoms of yards for this ufe mould be well laid with fome fort of hard materials, and the dung be fre quently fcraped off them, fo as to keep them as dry and clean as poflible. They fhould alfo have plenty of good clean water todrink of at pleafure. If due attention be not beftowed in thefe refpects, which is feldom done, it is impoffible that the advantages that might othenvife be the cafe can be derived from them. Cultivation of Grafs Land- Cow-keeping. .Feeding of, fyc. In the feeding of the animals it has been obferved, that care fliould be taken to keep them conftantly in good condition, as where they are ever fuffered to be come very lean, and that in the winter feafon, h is impoflible to fuppofe that they can be brought to afford a large quantity of milk, by getting them into perfect condition in the fummer months ; as where cows are lean at the period of calving, no management afterwards is ever capable of bringing them to afford for that fea fon any thing near the proportion of milk that they would have done if they had been fupported in proper condition during -the winter.* Food of the moft nou- rifhing and fucculent kinds fhould therefore be regularly given in fuitable propor tions in the cold inclement months, and the animals be kept warm, and well fupplied with pure water, in the way juft mentioned. -f Some advife their being cleaned by combing and other means; but this is a practice, which though ufeful in making them yield their milk more freely,;]; can perhaps feldom be employed on an extenfive fcale. In this fort of bufinefs the cow-keepers find great advantage in keeping the animals conftantly fed \vith different kinds of fucculent food, fuch as brewer s grains in a frefh unfermented flate, turnips, cabbages, green tares, frefh cut grafs, and foft green rouen, or hay that has undergone little or no fermentation in the flack : By this means much juicy matter is thrown into the fyflem, and a continual varied flimulus kept up, by which a large increafe of milk is produced. As the different articles thus employed mufl have lefs effed in exciting the fecrctory organs of the animals in proportion to the frequency of their ufe, the utility of varying their food as much as poffible is rendered fufficiently obvious. On the fame principle there are probably various other fubftances, as well as thefc, that might be made ufe of with great benefit ; but too few experiments have yet been made with them, in this view, to lead to any ufeful conclufions. There is another circumftance, however, that deferves the attention of the milk-farmer, in the feed ing of his cattle, which is that of the dry food being properly proportioned to that of the green or rich fucculent kind, as, where this is not well attended to, the cow?, by being kept in too lax a ftate of their bowels, from the great tendency which fuch materials have to runoff in that way, may afford a much kfs quantity of milk than would otherwife be the cafe. We know from repeated experiment that con* * Anderfon s Recreations in Agriculture, vol. III. t Ibid* J Corrected Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkfliire. VOL, ir. 3 R 490 Cultivation of Graft Land. Cow-keeping. Feeding of, $c. fiderable lofs fometimes takes place in this manner. In the foddering of the cows- regard fhould alfo be had to fupply them with the food in fuch a way as to excite the fccretions in as regular a manner as poflible. In this view too much food fhould never be given at one time, but fupplied more frequently, as three or four times oroftener in the courfe of the day. This praclice will likewife have an advantageous effect in having the fodder more cleanly eaten up. The method of giving cows their food by the milk-farmers in the vicinity of the metropolis, where this bufinefs is carried on upon the moft extenfive fcale, i& thus dated in the valuable Agricultural Survey of that diftrict : tf During the night the cows are confined in flails ; about three o clock in the morning each has a half- bufhel bafket of grains ; when the milking is finimed, a bufhel bafket of turnips is given to each cow ; and very foon afterwards they have an allotment, in the proportion of one trufs to ten cows, of the moft grafTy and foft meadow hay, which had been the moft early mown, and cured of the greeneft colour. Thefe feveral feedings are generally made before eight o clock in the morning, at which time the cows are turned into the cow-yard. About twelve o clock they are again confined to their ftalls, and ferved with the fame quantity as they had in the morn ing. When the afternoon milking, which continues till near three, is finiflied, the cows are again ferved with the fame quantity of turnips, and about an hour afterwards with the fame diftribution of hay as before defcribed. This mode of feeding generally continues during the turnip feafon, which is from the month of September to the month of May. During the other months of the year they are fed with grains, cabbages, tares, and the foregoing proportion of rouen, or fecond cut meadow hay, and are continued to be fed with the fame regularity until they are turned out to grafs, when they continue in the field all night j and even during this feafon they are frequently fed with grains ;" which are kept fweet and eatable for a considerable length of time, in the following manner : This is by depoliting them in vats, or pits, below the furface of the ground, treading them tightly down into them, and then covering them over with a layer of earth, fo as to pre vent the air from coming in contact with them, and thereby producing fermenta tion. In this way they may be continued in a perfectly found ftate from the month of March till the fummer, when the brewing is difcontinued. They are alfo capable of being preferved when well trodden down into cafks or tubs, which have perforations in the bottoms for the purpofe of draining off the fuperabundant moiiture : thefe Ihould be railed to fome height from the ground by pieces of Cultivation qf Grafs Laud. Coir -keeping*-- Feeding of, $c, 491 timber. In country fituations it will fcldoni be ncceflary to preferve them in this way, as they will chiefly be wanted in the winter fcafon. Near Leeds in Yorklhi re, the milk-dealers in fome inftances feed their cows with cut grafs in the fummer feafon, and brewer s grains and oat ft raw in the winter. And in the vicinity of Sheffield the " moft experienced cow-keepers give five hundred weight of linfeed dufl mixed with three hundred weight of bran per week to fix cows ; others give a quarter of a peck of beans, with a peck of grains for one feed for one cow, three times a day."* Thefe are probably too expenfivc methods to be generally adopted ; but as they are found to anfvver well, they may be employed with advantage in particular fituations. Jt is remarked in the Agri cultural Survey of Middlefex, that " fome cow-keepers have tried fait mixed with the grains, more with a "view to preferve the grains longer in a found ftate, than from any confideration as to the health of their flock, or the improvement of the quality of the milk. It is acknowledged that the cows eat the grains fo mixed with great avidity ; but the proprietors not getting an adequate return for their trouble and expenfe, it is not found that it is now much practifed." It has how ever been contended, that the mixing of common fait with the food of cows not only improves the quality but increafes the quantity of the milk, and at the fame time is ferviceable to the health of the animals ; but accurate experiments are wanting to fairly determine the queftion. The obfervations of Baron D Alton on the management of thefe animals, go to prove by various accurate calculations, that a greater profit is capable of being derived from the keeping of them in the houfe than in the ufual method of allowing them to feed in the paftures. And the author of the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire has remarked, that by keeping cows upon red clover and rye grafs, tied up in the houfe in the day-time during the fummer feafon, and putting them out after milking in the evening for the purpofe of air and water, one acre of clover has been found to go a? far as two when paftured ; befides a larger quantity of milk afforded. The large portion of rich manure that is made in this way is fuppofed to compenfate any additional trouble or expenfe that may be incurred in cutting and conveying the food to the yards. In this method of keep ing cows, as well as thofe with grains and other forts of fucculent food, it is con- ftantly neceflary, for the reafon that has been mentioned, to combine fome fort of * Correfled Agricultural Report of the Weft Riding of Yorkfliire. 3 R 2 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Cow-keeping. Milking of Com* dry meat, fuch as hay, ftraw, or other fimilar materials, with the grafFes. In foils where lucern can be grown to advantage, it may be made ufe of with more benefit than the above; and by combining other forts of green juicy food with either of them, it feems not improbable but that a ftill greater profit may be produced. Of the fuperior advantage of keeping milch cows in this method there can be little doubt, when confidered in different points of view. In the milking of cows, more attention is probably neceflary than has hitherto been beftowed upon the fubject, in order to obtain the greateft poflible quantity of milk. On the physiological principle of the fecretions of animals being in- creafed in proportion as the fecreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, it has been recommended to have recourfe to more frequent milkings in order to augment the quantity of that fluid in cows. And there can be little doubt but that by accuftoming the fecretory organs to a more frequent fecretion, fuch a habit may be eftablifhed in them as will afford a larger proportion of milk in a given time. But in order to effect this in the moft perfect manner, it will be neceflary to have the cows highly fed, and to obferve the greateft regularity and exactnefs in the periods of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time as without due regard in thefe refpecls the delired effect will not be pro duced. This is fully mown to be the cafe by the few experiments that have been inftituted with the view of deciding the matter; as while the cows were con. fuming the more juicy fpring food, there appears to have been an increafc in the quantity of milk both by three and four milkings in the day ; but in the autumn* feafon there feems to have been rather a decreafe under the fame circumftances.* * In order to afcertain the advantages to be obtained in this way, the following experiments tvere ir.adc by Mr. Macro, and are ftated in the twelfth volume of the Annals of Agriculture: 17 SO. Pints. 1789. Pints.. May 21, Firft meal - - - - 9{ May 23, Firfl meal - - - - 12 Second do. - - - 13 Second do. - ... 7 Third do. - - - - 6 OOJL ^ *. fourth do. - - - - 1 2.2, Firft meal - : *.s *v* 13 26 Second do. - - - 8 TJiirddo. - - - 5 Goober 22, Firft meal -11 Second do. - - - 6 26 17 Cultivation of Grafs Land.CoW kecping* Milking of by Cow-Fanners* 493 Such trials, to afford any fatisfactory conclufions, mould have been continued for a much greater length of time, being varied confiderably in the times of milk ing, and nicely compared with the nature and quantity of the food employed ; as it is only by afcertaining how much depends upon the fimple operation of taking away the milk, and how much upon the quality and proportion of food that is taken in, that the queftion can be fairly decided. It is not to be fuppofed that merely increasing the number of milkings for a few days can have much influence in altering the ftate of fecretion in the animals. Some in the intention of increafing the quantity of milk have recommended milking, when the cows are fully fed in the fummer feafon, three times in the courfe of the day at equal diftanceSi as the convenience of the bufinefs will admit, as the mofr proper : Early in t-he morning, about the middle of the day, and in the evening before it is too late. The exact proportion of increafe in the milk that may be produced in this way over that of milking in the morning and evening only, which is the ufual mode, has not, that we know of, been afcertained with any degree of accuracy ; but fome fuppofe that it may approach to nearly one-half of the whole, while others contend that it cannot be any thing near fb much.* If a third were gained, by fuch means/it would amply repay the cow-keeper for his additional trouble and expenfe. The method of milking adopted by the cow- farmers in moft cafes, is only to have their milking performed twice in the courfe of twenty-four hours. In fuch cafes the moft: proper times would feem to be about feven o clock in the morning and five in the afternoon ; but in the neighbourhood of London and other large towns it is the practice to have this work performed from four to half pad fix in the morning, and from half paft one to three in the afternoon. -\ It is, therefore, probable that more frequent milking in the bufinefs of cow-farming, efpecially when conducted upon any extenfive fcale, would not only be inconvenient but J7S9. Pints. 1789. . Pints. Oftober 23, Firft meal - - - - 11 October 24, Firfl meal - - - - 10 Second do. - - - - 3 Second do... ... 1|. Third do 3 Third do. - ... l Fourth do. - - - - 3 17 16 * Anderfon s Recreation?, &c. vol. III. f Corrected .Agricultural Report 49* Cultivation of Grafs Land. Cow-keeping i Profit of. impracticable. In fuch cafes all that can be done is, perhaps, that of having the operation executed with as much care as poflible, in refpect to the whole of the milk being taken away each time, and by perfons who are careful and perfectly accuftomed to the work. Where this is neglected, much lofs may be fuftained not only in the immediate produce of the milk, but in the cows becoming much more quickly dry, as well as their being more fubjecT: to affections of the udder. The beil advice is to have the bufinefs performed in an expeditious manner, in regard to the whole of the animals, and with the utmoft attention in refpect to .cleannefs. A fufficient number of perfons mould of courfe be employed in pro portion to that of the cows. An expert milker is capable of performing the operation on from fix to feven or eight cows in the courfe of an hour.* The profit or advantage of this method of farming mud vary confiderably, in proportion to the fituation, in refped to the convenience of fale of the milk, and the facility of providing the animals with fuitable kinds of food.f It is a method * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXII. t It is obferved in the Agricultural Survey of Middlefex, that the quantity given by each cow, on an average, is nine quarts a day, equal to, per annum, 3085 quarts. The calf takes part of the milk for the firft two or three days, during which time it would not be faleable ; and there is a falling oft" for a few days before the cow calves : thefe occafion a deduction of about eighty-five quarts, leaving the annual faleable produce of each cow about 3200 quarts, which at the medium price of feventeen- pence for eight quarts ftand thus : Cr. Produce of one Cow. By milk on an aver, Q qts.per day, or 3285 quarts per year Deducting . - "_ 85 quarts for lofs before and after Dr. Expenses of one Cow. To turnips, 14 bufliels per week, s. d. at 2|d. per bufliel - - 2 Grains, 7 ditto, at 2|d, per ditto 1 Hay, 1 trufs and 4-tenths, at Is 9d. per trufs - - - 2 Et ceteras -. 11 calving* 7 7s. per week, or per year .18 Balance - - 11 At 17d. for 8 quarts .28 By a calf at two or three days old, average 1 6 8 3 4 29 10 o 29 10 o leaving a balance of eleven pounds fix (hillings for intereft of ftock, loflcs in cattle, the hire or fupport of horfes and waggons, rent of buildings, attendance and profit. Cultivation of Grafs Land Cow-keeping. Profit of. 495 Chat requires fewer fervants or attendants than mod others in proportion to the extent of bufinefs ; feldom more than four or five men being employed in the at tendance of three hundred cowst The expenfe of milking is thrown upon the milk-dealer, who contrails for the produce of a certain number of cows. If this was not the cafe, the expenfe to the cow-keeper would be very high, as one woman cannot milk more than eight or nine cows twice in the day. In country fmiations this may, however, not always be the cafe. The cow-houfes in Middlefex are moftly provided with milk-roorns, where the milk is meafured and ferved out by the cow-farmer.* It has been obferved, c< that of the feveral different ways of railing a profit from milch cows, that of felling the milk, where circumftances will allow of its being carried on to a due extent, is by far the moft eligible. In the economy of making butter and cheefe, the trouble and expenfe are daily and It is remarked that " the confumers pay three-pence halfpenny per quart to the retailers. If the latter were to fell the milk pure and unadulterated at this price, it would yield thein a profit of 641. 14s. per cent. But in order to difcover the aftual profit of the retailers, we muft add fixpence for fhort meafure and the extraneous articles mixed with it, which increafes 2s. 4d., the ufual price of eight quarts, to 2s. 10d.; and, as it cofts them only Is. 5d., there remains for labour and profit 100 per cent. : thus the retailer clears 281. 6s. Sd. by every cow." Near Liverpool, Mr. Harper found the average produce of cows, under an induftrious manager, to be nine quarts of milk per day the year through; which is fold at 2d. per quart with the advantage of felling cream, but which, from other milk being brought from the country, is reduced in milk and cream to 2d. per quart. The keep and produce therefore ftand thus : Dr. Expenses of one Cow for a Year. Cr. Produce of one Cow for a Year. . s. d. . s . d. To average keep of a cow in grains, &c. By milk on an average of 9 quarts for one year, at 4Si 6d. per week 11 14- per day 3285 quarts, at 2d. per To l60ftone of hay, at Sd.per ftone 568 quart , - : - - 27 7 6 To grafs 16 weeks, at 3s. 6d. per week 2 16 Balance * - - . 7 10 JO 27 76 27 7 6 In the neighbourhood of Leeds, in Yorkmire, indfperrdant of ftraw or other dry food, they find to maintain a cow for the winter months requires about four pounds worth of brewer s grains, and two pounds worth of grafs for the fummer months : fo that the annual expenfe in thefe kinds of food is fix pounds, and the produce of their cows about fix to eight quarts of milk per day. In other parts the expenfe of keeping is feven pounds per annum, and the produce yields about ten pounds. * JMiddlefex Report, 495 Cultivation of Graft Land. Suckling of Cakes* perpetual. Several extraordinary dorneftics muft be employed where the dairy is large ; and no fmall allowance of fuel is necefiary, that boiling water may be ftill at hand, to fcald the pails and other uteri fi Is employed on the occafion. In fuckling, alfo, the charges are much heavier than when the milk is fold out of the pail ; for fucklers are continually wanted, which are often bought in at very ad vanced prices, and fometimes thefe are not to be procured at any rate juft when they may be required; fo that either the calves which are ready for the butcher, muft be kept a week or two longer than would otherwife have been neceffary, (in which the farmer will rarely find his account), or, if thefe calves are fold off, there will be an overplus of milk, of which it will be found difficult to make any profit, fince it will not produce a quantity of cream fufficient to make any advan tage by the butter. Now the milkman has none of thefe inconveniences to ftrug- gle with; and, whilft the cows continue to yield an ample produce, and this goes oif at a quick fale, the whole of the buiinefs is performed with little trouble ; and, \vhat is an additional advantage, each cow yields a profit before her milk is fent to market by the fale of the young calf; whereas the fuckling-farmer, as was mentioned before, is often under the necelTity of purchafing fome young calves to keep up his flock, a balance greatly in favour of thofe perfons who make fale of their milk."* Suckling of Calves. This is another method in which the produce of the cow may in particular lituations be turned to great advantage. It is only, however, in the neighbourhood, or, within a certain diftance, as twenty or thirty miles, of large towns, where the demand for veal is conftantly great, that the practice can be attempted with fuccefs. In other circumftances it is by no means applicable, or to be depended upon by the farmer. Where the paftures are rich, and fituated near the fuckling-houfes, it may be more advantageous than in other cafes. f In this buflnefs, as well as that of cow-keeping, the animals fhould be well fuited to the nature and fupply of food that can be conftantly commanded. And as in the fattening of calves much depends both on the quality and quantity of the milk, thofe cows fhould be chofen foi the purpofe which, while they afford fuch milk as pofTeffes rich and highly nutritious properties, may fupply it in a tolerably large proportion. On thefe accounts the large HoldernelTe breed of cows may often be lefs proper for the calf- fuckling farmer than thofe of other breeds that do not * Synopfis of Husbandry. i Ibid. Cultivation of Graft Land. Suckling of Calves* Cows proper for. 4.97 afford milk in quite fo large a proportion, but of fuperior quality. Where the pafturage, however, is good, and the command of other forts of food eafy at a! I feafons of the year, the larger breeds may be employed in this way with great profit. It has been advifed by fome, as the beft method of obtaining a fuitable breed of cows for the fuckling bufinefs, to wean every year a proper number of calves from the beft cows, which from their being raifed where they are to be afterwards kept, and at a cheap rate, mufl be more advantageous than purchaling them from diftant diftrids.* But whatever the breed of cows may be that are kept for this ufe, they mould be conftantly well fed either by grazing in the paftures or by being foddered in the flails. It is moftly the practice to feed them in the autumn, the winter, and fpring months, while tied up, with brewer s grains, turnips, cabbages, carrots, and various forts of green food that are made ufe of for foiling cattle ; to which a fuitable proportion of well made green rowen or meadow hay is added ; and a full fupply of pure water twice a day at leaft. . It is effential in this practice, that the fuckling-houfe be fpacious and airy, having a range of ties or faftenings on one fide for the purpofe of confining the cows, and on the other a fet of cribs or pens for containing the calves. Thefe Ihould be fo contrived, as, while they keep the calves as dry and clean as poffible, they exclude them from the influence of the light. Some advife, in the firft view, raifed moveable floors formed of narrow laths or fpars, nailed upon joifts, at the diftance of about an inch from each other, as by this means the nioifture and naftinefs are not only immediately drained off, but a considerable degree of venti lation effected. t This method is probably, however, more neceffary for calves in the ftate of rearing than thofe that are fattening for the butcher. In thefe cafes it is moftly the cuftom to have only common floors. The pens or divifions mould never be too large ; as in this bufinefs the more quiet, and the lefs the calves move about, the better they fatten. And it is of the utmoft confequence to have them kept perfectly clean, and free from every fort of difagreeable fmell, as without attention in this refpect the bufinefs never goes on well. This is beft effected by frequent f weeping and cleaning them out, and having recourfe to frem clean wheat ftraw for littering them with every day. It is alfo a good practice to have collars made of leather to pafs round the necks of the calves and buckle, as by this means Synopfisof Husbandry. i Sc&ion on Farm Buildings. VOL. ii. 3 S 500 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Suckling of Calves Buying in Sticklers. befides thefe, it is a common practice with fome to give their calves balls compofect of flour, pounded chalky and milk, with the addition of a fmall quantity of common gin, and fometimes a little tincture of opium. Of thefe balls they give two, about the fize of a walnut, once a day, or oftcncr, Co each calf. Such balls, being very nutritious, in fome degree fupply the place of milk, and at the fame time, from- the great fiimulus which they afford to the young animals, difpofe them to fleep s and thereby increafe their difpofition to fatten : but where milk can be had in fuf- ficient abundance, it is never worth while to have reeourfe to thefe aids. When the demands of the calves, however, are beyond the powers of the cows^ thefe balls come feafonably to their relief. Occafional bleedings have alfo been advifed, to prevent loathing the food and difeafes from plethora.* In order that the calves may be provided with fufficient ftore of milk, the paftures fhould be changed whenever the cows are found to be deficient in this particular; and. in the winter time they fliould be well fed in the manner directed above. In this fyftem of management it is conftantly necefTary to be buying in calves at a week or ten days old, 6r as they can be procured. The prices vary, accord ing to the goodnefs and the time of year at which they are bought. In general fucklers fetch the largcft price in fummer, when veal fells the cheapeft j. and the reafon is, the fmaller number to be met with at that time than in the fpring. A good fuckler can feldom be bought for 1 efs than 2OS-. and is often fold for 255. or 308. They are kept till they fetch from four or five to feven or eight pounds.f The bufinefs of fuckling was formerly reckoned to turn out to good advantage, when each calf throughout its fattening brought a profit to. the farmer of three Shillings a week ; but at prefent the profit on fuckling is much greater. The calves that are fuckled by their own mothers are in general found " to fatten in a ftiorter time than thofe which are afterwards bought in to fupply their places : the reafon of which is, probably, their not having been removed from the place where they were firft dropped, and having always continued to fuck the rnilk moft natural to them ; which muft befuppofed more nutritious, and to agree better with them, than that of any other cow. Befides, from the cows having lately calved, the milk nourifhes and fattens in a higher degree thart when they become ftale milched. Cow calves are obferved to fatten more kindly than the male or. bull halves ; and thefe laft are much more coarfe grained, and their flefh lefs delicate * Farmer s Magazine, vol. IJL t Synopfis of Husbandry. Cultivation of Graft Land. Suckling of Calves Duration of. 501 in tafte, than the former."* In fome diftricfh, barley-meal, and linfced boiled into a kind of jelly, and fuch-like materials, are fometimes given to calves in the courfe of fattening ; but the above methods are greatly fuperior, though they may be more expenfive. It is found by experience that the veal of calves when killed at fix weeks or two months old is feldom of fo good a colour, or does the flem of fuch young calves tafte fo well, as where the animal is fuffered to live a few weeks longer. " To attain both thefe ends of colour and flavour, it is fuppofed neceflary that the calves ihould be maintained with plenty of milk, and regulated under fuch management as before directed, till they arrive to the age of eight or ten weeks, according to the feafon of the year, the more or lefs kindly Hate of the calf, the particular demand of the markets, or other circumftances. In the fummer feafon it may be proper to difpofe of them atan earlier period than in the winter ; not only on account of their growing away with greater celerity in warm weather, but likewife becaufe of the increafed demand for fmall veal, which is then mod faleable. During the lad three or four weeks, blood mould frequently be drawn from the calf, which, it is fuppofed, will be a likely means towards rendering the veal of a colour delicately white ; a circumftance fo much attended to by the butcher, that he will commonly depreciate fuch calves as from the appearance of their eyes are likely to die black f > as they term it, though in other refpects not to be defpifed."f It is probable, however, that the colour of the veal depends upon the breed, and is incapable of being altered in this way. Mr. Marmall is decidedly of opinion " that to tackle calves in general after they arc ten weeks old is bad management j" as from the whole of his accounts, <f thofc of nine or ten have paid as much a week as thofe of twelve or thirteen ; and al though a calf of fix weeks old may fuck nearly as much milk as a calf of twelve weeks old, yet the firfl month or five weeks the quantity is considerably lefs, and this advantage of their infancy is doubly as valuable to nine as it is to twelve weeks. * The advantage of this practice is very confiderable when conducted upon a large fcale. Near the metropolis the grofs product of a cow in this way was, before the late advances in the price of butcher s meat, eftimated to rife on: the average to feven or eight pounds in thofe of the moderate kind, and in very- good, ones to nine pounds. The profit at prefent Hands much higher. * i . * . " *; Stynopjis of Husbandry: t Ibid. 500 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Suckling of Calves Buying in Sticklers. befides thefe, it is a common practice with fome to give their calves balls compofect of flour, pounded chalky and milk, with the addition of a fmall quantity of common gin, and fometimes a little tincture of opium. Of thefe balls they give two, about the (ize of a walnut, once a day, or oftener, to each calf. Such balls, being very nutritious, in fome degree fupply the place of milk, and at the fame time, from the great fiimulus which they afford to the young animab, difpofe them to- fleep^ and thereby increafe their difpofition to fatten : but where milk can be had in fuf- ficient abundance, it is never worth while to have recourfe to thefe aids. When the demands of the calves, however, are beyond the powers of the cowsi thefe balls come feafonably to their relief. Occafional bleedings have alfo been advifed, to prevent loathing the food and difeafes from plethora.* In order that the calves may be provided with fuffrcient flore of milk, the paftures fhould be changed whenever the cows are found to be deficient in this particular; and. in the winter time they mould be well fed in the manner directed above. In this fyftem of management it is conftantly neceffary to be buying in calves at a week or ten days old, 6r as they can be procured. The prices vary, accord ing to the goodnefs and the time of year at which they are bought. In general fucklers fetch the largeft price in fummer, when veal fells the cheapeft;. and the reafon is, the fmaller number to be met with at that time than in thefpring. A good fuckler can feldom be bought for lefs than 2OS-. and is often fold for 255. or 3os. They are kept till they fetch from four or five to feven or eight pounds.f The bufinefs of fuckling was formerly reckoned to turn out to good advantage, -when each calf throughout its fattening brought a profit to. the farmer of three fhillings a week ; but at prefent the profit on fuckling is much greater. The calves that are fuckled by their own mothers are in general found "to fatten in a Ihorter time than thofe which are afterwards bought in to fupply their places : the reafon of which is, probably, their not having been removed from the place where they were firft dropped, and having always continued to fuck the rnilk moft natural to them; which muft befuppofed more nutritious, and to agree better with them, than that of any other cow. Befides, from the cows having lately calved, the milk nourifhes and fattens in a higher degree than when they become ftale milched. Cow calves are obferved to fatten more kindly than the male or. bull halves ; and thefe laft are much more coarfe grained, and their flefh lefs delicate * Farmer s Magazine, vol. IJL I Synopfis of Husbandry, Cultivation of Grafs Land. Suckling of Calves Duration of.* 501 in tafte, than the former."* In forne diftricfts, barlcy-meal, and linfced boiled into a kind of jelly, and fuch-like materials, are fometimes given to calves in the courfe of fattening ; but the above methods arc greatly fuperior, though they may be more expeniive. It is found by experience that the veal of calves when killed at fix weeks or two months old is feldom of fo good a colour, or does the flefh of fuch young calves tafte fo well, as where the animal is fuffered to live a few weeks longer. <c To attain both thefe ends of colour and flavour, it is fuppofed necefiary that the calves fhould be maintained with plenty of milk, and regulated under fuch management as before directed, till they arrive to the age of eight or ten weeks, according to the feafon of the year, the more or lefs kindly ftate of the calf, the particular demand of the markets, or other circumftances. In the fummer feafon.it may be proper to difpofe of them at-an earlier period than in the winter j not only on account of their growing away with greater celerity in warm weather, but likewife becaufe of the increafed demand for fmall veal, which is then moft faleable. During the lad three or four weeks, blood mould frequently be drawn from the calf, which, it is fuppofed, will be a likely means towards rendering the veal of a colour delicately \vhite ; a eircumftance fo much attended to by the butcher, that he will commonly depreciate fuch calves as from the appearance of their eyes are likely to die black ft as they term it, though in other refpects not to be defpifed."f It is probable, however, that the colour of the veal depends upon the breed, and is incapable of being altered in this way. Mr. Marmall is decidedly of opinion " that to fuckle calves in general after they arc ten weeks old is bad management; 1 as from the whole of his accounts, < f thofc of nine or ten have paid as much a week as thofe of twelve or thirteen ; and al though a calf of fix weeks old may fuck nearly as much milk as a calf of twelve weeks old, yet the firfl month or five weeks the quantity is con fiderably lefs, and this advantage of their infancy is doubly as valuable to nine as it is to twelve weeks." The advantage of this practice is very confiderable when conducted upon a large fcale. Near the metropolis the grofs product of a cow in this way was, before the late advances in the price of butcher s meat, eflimated to rife on the average to feven or eight pounds in thofe of the moderate kind, and in very good, ones to nine pounds. The profit at prefent Hands much higher* *; Svynopjls of. Huibandry; t Ibid, 502 Cultivation of Grafs Land,-~~Rearing ofCahcs* Rearing of Cahes. This is a pra&ice that every farmer who is defirous of having a good cow (lock (houki be careful in attending to, by feledling the bed cow calves from fuch cows as are the mod quiet, give the riched milk, are the mod hardy, and mod adapted to the comparative goodnefs of the farm, and rearing them with every poflible attention. There are different modes of con- dueling this bufmefs : but themoft natural and convenient, as well as that which is mod advantageous to the animals, is permitting them to fuck for a fufficient length of time to get into perfect order before they are put to other food, as in this way they become much dronger, and moredifpofed to thrive, than where brought up from the fird by the hand ; and, bcfides, the trouble is infinitely lefs. The proper method would therefore feem to be, that of letting the calves be fuckled twice or joftener a day for fome length of time before they are weaned. But this is a practice that is not by any means general, different didricts having particular methods, which they confider as the bed. In Yorkfhire the ufual method is, for the fird two or three weeks, for them to get milk warm from the cow; but for the next two or three weeks half the new milk is withdrawn, and fkimmed milk fubdituted in its dead ; and at the end of that period the new milk is wholly withdrawn ; they are then fed on Ikimmed milk alone, or fometimes mixed with water, till they are able to iupport themfelves by eating grafs or other food of that fort. They are very feldom allowed to fuck. But in Cheftiire the practice is to allow the calves to fuck for the fird three weeks. They are then fed on warm green whey, or fcalded whey and butter-milk mixed : with the green whey water is frequently mixed, and either oatmeal or wheat and bean flour added. A quart of meal or flour is thought fufficient to mix with forty or fifty quarts of liquid. Oatmeal gruel and butter-milk, with an addition of ikimmed milk, are alfo ufed for the fame purpofe. Some one of thefe prepared kinds of food is given night and morning for a few weeks after the calves are put on that diet, but afterwards only once a day, till they are three months old or more. Calves in Gloucederfhire are not allowed to fuck above two or three days ; they are then fed on Ikimmed milk, which is previoufly heated over the fire. When they arrive at fuch an age as to be able to eat a little, they are allowed fplit beans or oats and cut hay, and water is mixed with the milk. And the Suflex method :s dill materially different from any of thefe. It is common there to allow the calves either to fuck for ten or twelve weeks, or to wean them at the end of three r four, and to give them a liberal allowance of fkimmed milk for fix or eight of Grafs Land. Rearing of Cotlves-~ Methods of. 503 weeks longer. It is the cuflom in Suffolk to let the calves fuck fix or fevcn weeks, and then to give them coarfe pollard and oats with fkimmed milk and water, Jetting them have fome nice green hay conftantly till they are turned to grafs. Carrots might likewife be ufed with advantage as a fubftitute for the oats. In Norfolk, with early calves, the method is for them to fuck twice a day fora fort night, then to have the pail twice a day for an equal length of time, afterwards once a day for a month or (ix weeks longer; cut hay, turnips, and fometimes other materials being put in the racks and mangers. The latter is an excellent food where, they take well to it, as they require but little water with them. With this combi nation of milk and turnips the calves are generally found to thrive extremely well. In Scotland they have two methods for rearing calves ; the firft is by giving. them a pailful, containing about a gallon, of milk warm from the teat of the co\v r morning and evening, for eight or ten weeks ; and the fecond is to allow the calf to fuck its dam. Where calves are reared with ikim-milk, it mould be boiled, and fuffered to> {land until it cools to the temperature of that given by the cow, or a trifling degree more warm, and in that flate to be given to the calf. Milk is frequently given to calves when made warm only j but that method will not fucceed fo well as boiling it. If the milk be given over cold, it is apt to caufe the calf to Jkit GJ? purge. When this is the cafe a little rennet may be put in the milk. If, on the contrary, the calf is bound, bacon or mutton broth is a very good and fafe thing to put into the milk. From a gallon to a gallon and a half of rnilk per day will keep a calf well till it be thirteen weeks old. It may then be fupported with* out milk, by giving it hay and a little wheat-bran once a day, with about a pint of oats. The oats will be found of great fervice as foon as the calf is capable of eating them. The bran and oats mould be given about mid-day : the milk ir* equal portions, at eight o clock in the morning and four in the afternoon. But whatever hours are chofen to be fet apart for feeding the calf, it is bed to adhere to the particular times, as regularity is of more confequence than is commonly fup- pofed. If calves go but an hour or two beyond their ufual time of feeding, they find themfelves uneafy, and pine for food. It is always to be underftood, that calves reared in this manner are to be enticed to eat hay as early as poflible ; and the bed way of doing this is to give them the fweeteft hay that can be procured, and but a little at a time. Turnips or potatoes are very good food as foon as they can eat them ; and they are beft cut fmall and mixed with, the hay, oats,, bran, and other fimilar fbbftances,. 504 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Weaning of Cakes -Time for. There is another mode that may fometimes be adopted, which is that of facri- ficing the milk for the benefit of the calves, by letting one or more run with the cows in full milk till they are capable of providing for themfelves ; but this is a method that has been objected to, as not letting the cows take the bull ; which is .probably a miftake. The more rapid growth of the calves, and the great con venience of the method, are however greatly in its favour. When the cslf is fuffered to fuck the mother, it mould have the firft of the milk, the reft being afterwards milked. It will thus have the thinned part, which is the leaft liable to injure it by producing a fcouring. As calves are frequently fubject to be affected with loofenefs from a fort of indigeftion being produced in their flomachs, which, when it proceeds to any great length, is termed the Jkif.t great care mould be taken, efpecially where they fuck ftale milched cows, or when taken from fucking and put upon other food, to guard againft this effect ; which may in moft cafes be accomplifhed by not letting them have too much at once, and gradually accuftoming them to the change. When this effect rifes to the jftate of difeafe, the beft remedy is probably that of boiling pounded chalk, in the proportion of half a pound or more to four quarts of water, adding a couple of ounces of -.the -{havings of hartmorn, with a quarter of an ounce of bruifed caflia, for a few minutes, and then ftraining off the liquid, which may be given with the milk or other food fuitably warm, to the quantity of from half a pint to a pint, once or twice a day, according to circumftances. In thefe cafes the calves mould always be kept dry and warm under fhelter from wet. If other materials be necef- fary to be mixed with the milk, wheaten flour will probably be found the beft. Weaning of Calves. It is better in general to wean early than late, as calves that are weaned late in the feafon feldom rife to any great fize. In January or February, and till the beginning of March, may anfwer very well, but, except where the large- nefs of growth is of no confequcnce, it mould not be attempted later; however, under fuch circumftances it may be continued till the early part of May. The beft .mode of doing this is to let the calves have new milk at the beginning, afterwards a mixture of new and fkimmed milk, then fimply fkimmed milk, and ultimately a mixture of water and fkimmed milk with a little barley or oat meal, or flour ftirred into it. A fmall lock of fweet hay is alfo to be kept tied up within their reach, to induce them to eat that fort of food as foon as poffible. The calves are fooneft learned to drink their milk or other liquid food by the dairy-maid putting her finger in the pail .that contains thefe fubftances while they are feeding. When they are once taught in this way to drink, no further trouble will be neceflary. Cultivation bf Grafs- Land. ircanittgqf Calces. Methods qf/ofave J////.-.503 It is not abfolutcly neceflary to continue the giving of milk after the calves are a month or fix weeks old ; but they are certainly the better for it when it can be done. From the inc rearing fcarcity of milk, great attention has lately been beftowed in difcoverin g fubftitutes that may anfwer thepurpofe without that valuable food, as by filth means a greater number of calves might be reared ; which would be of vafl importance to the farmer, as well as in other points ot view. Various experiments have been inftituted in this intention, but without any very complete fuccefs. It has been ad vi fed by Mr. Varlo to have recourfe to a llrong infufionof hay, made by pouring boiling water on good frefh hay, covering the veirel up clofely during the operation, and letting it remain till the virtues are fully extracted ; with the proportion of one pint of oatmeal, the fame quantity of flax feed, and a quart of fkimmed milk ; the flax feed being bruifed and put in with the hay, and the meal and milk added afterwards to the clear infuficn.* In this way, it is contended that abufhel of flax-fcedj worth about three millings, will be fufficient for rearing two calves. A iimilar method has been attended with fuccefs for young calvesthat have been kept with milk in Lincolnfhire ; but in this cafe the bruifed flax-feed is boiled to a kind of jelly of light confidence, which, after being fufficiently diluted with warm water, is then rendered of the thicknefs of cream by barley meal being ftir- red in. When a great number of calves are to be reared, and the fupply of milk is inadequate, by being ufed in combination with this composition it may be made to fupport nearly twice the number of calves.f The advantage that may be de rived in this way has not however been fully ascertained by accurate experi ments. A method recommended by the Duke of Northumberland was found to fucceed well in his trials, and thofe of others fince. It is by preparing fkimmed milk with other ingredients, fo as to anfwer thepurpofe where new milk is given, at about one-third the expenfe. The fubftances that are made ufe of are treacle and linfeed-oil cake, reduced by the operation of grinding to the ftateof almoft an impalpable powder : being employed in fuch flight proportions as, exclufive of the milk, to come to no more than about lixpence for thirty-two gallons. The manner of preparing it is this : " Take one gallon of Hummed milk, and to about a pint of it add half an ounce of cpmmon treacle, ftirring it until it is well mix- * New Sjftem of Husbandry, vol III. / - i Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXIII, VOL. II. -3 T ** . 506 Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Weaning of Calves IVhat ncaeffary i:t. ed then rake one ounce of linfeed-oil cake, finely pulverized, and with the hand let it fall gradually, in very fmall quantities, into the milk,ftirring if, in the mean time, with a fpoon or ladle, until it be thoroughly incorporated ; then let the mixture be put into the other part of the milk, and the whole be made nearly an warm as new milk when it is firft taken from the cow." In this ftate it is fit for ufe. " After a time the quantity of oil-cake powder may be increafed." This mould be done as occafion may require, and as the calves become inured to the flavour of fuch food. Mr. Crook has been in the habit of weaning calves with fuccefs without any milk, by making a jelly of one quart of linfeed boiled ten minutes in fix quarts of water, which jelly is afterwards mixed with a fmall quantity of the bell hay- tea. It feems not improbable, from the trials which we have made, that potatoe-meal may be ufed this way with benefit, as it mixes well with either milk, water, or weak broth, and is highly nutritious. By this means the great expenfe of oats,, meal, and other fimilar fubftances may be avoided. There are many other fub- ilances that might prove ufeful in this intention, if proper trials were made with, them. In regard to the period of caftrating or gelding the calves, it is probably the beft to perform the operation pretty foon after the calves have been dropped, as there will be lefs danger from bleeding, and of their taking on too much inflam mation, at that period than afterwards, when they have attained a greater degree of health and vigour. Some advife three weeks or a month, but a week or a fort night at moft is perhaps much better. In the male calves, the cutter, when ex pert, after dividing the fcrotum, or bag, and feparating the tefticles, draws out the fpenr.atic veffels, by introducing his fore- finger and thumb. It is probable however, that fimple excifionmay be equally effectual, and muft always be lefs hazardous. Thtfpayiagof the female calves, which is frequently performed, is an operation of great nicety, and requires more dexterity in its management. Such calves as have been fpayed are found from experience to be more quiet in the paftures, and afterwards to fatten more expeditioufly. Much care and attention is neceffary, efpecially in the more early weaned calves^ to keep them perfectly dry and warm, as their thriving will in a great meafure depend upon this being effectually done. The fubftances, of whatever kind they Cultivation of Grafs Land Weaning y Cakes .* What ncccjjiiry in. 507 may be, fliould be left off in as gradual a inarncr as potfibl.Cj as the calves become incapable of fupporting themfclves on hay or graft. The following advice of a practical writer* is judicious : After the calves have been weaned, cfpecially the later ones, they fhould be turned abroad, in the day-time, into a (hull clofe or or* chard near the farm yard, where there is a good bite of grafs > an J, as there is ge nerally more than one calf weaned in a feafbn, they will each be company for the other, and become in a fhort time reconciled to their fituation. This pafture Ihould be atfomediftance from that whereon the dams are turned, and have nei ther ponds nor ditches; or any annoyance which may endanger the lives of thefe youthful animals ; and in order to habituate them (till more to their pafture, the food mould be carried clean to them at each of their feeding-hours. For the firft month or fix weeks, they ought every night to be brought out of the meadow, and lodged in the pens ; but, after this time they may be left in the pafture as well in the night feafon as in the day : and their food may now be lowered by degree.?, till it beat length reduced to fimple water only for, when the calves get to the age of twelve or fourteen weeks, they will no longer require the aid of this fufte- nance, but be able to fatisfy their appetites by grafs. Care, however, muft be taken throughout the fummer that they be frequently fhifted from one pafture to another, in order that they may be kept up in good flefh, and enabled to gro v .v away with the utmoft celerity. At Michaelmas, orfoon after, they mould be taken into the yard ; and if they were allowed the indulgence of a (null clofe to them- felves it would be (till better. And here their tafte mud be gratified with the bed and fweeteft hay that can be procured, with an outlet on a dry pafture, where in fine open weather they may befuffered to enjoy themfelves : it would redound greatly to their advantage, if, on the approach of winter, a (bed was to be erected for them to repofe in during the night, and for flielter in tempeftuous days. S,> eflential are warmth and good living to young animals of every denomination, that the care which has been taken of them in their early life will be manifeft in every ftageof their future growth. Nor is there any dock which will pay better for this cautious management in their youth than thofe of the cow kind ; for if thefc are (tinted in their feed, or carelefsly attended whilft in their growing (rate, they will never arrive to that (ize which they would otherwife have done, and confe- quently the lofs will be perpetually felt by the farmer who attempts to raife milcli cows of his own breed without giving them a due attendance in the firft ycar.f Mr, Baunifter. + Synopds of Hufl>adry. .1 T 2 503 Cultivation oj Grafs Land. Weaning of Calves. Buds. Dairying. It is added by the fame author, that " when calves have attained their firfl year they are called buds or yearlings and though at this time they be able to mix v\ith the herd, yet it would be moft prudent, if not attended with too great an in convenience, to fufFer them to remain in a pafture by themfelves. But if this can not be done, let them be turned out with the dry frock, and not permitted to run. \vith the cows, as this might probably be the caufe of their taking the bull a mca- fure which fhould at this age be cautioufly guarded againft, as fuch buds as pro pagate at this early age moftiy receive a check in their growth on this account : and if, during the fuccceding winter, they were to be managed as before directed, their future growth would be found to pay ample intereft for the fodder that is now given them; only this is to be obferved, that as their ftrength is now confiderably augmented, a lefs valuable fodder may fuffice, and good pea draw may fupply the place of hay. Such farmers as have low rumy meadows, where there is frequently a length of oldgrafsin the winter, may, in this fecond year, turn the calves into them, as they will meet with plenty of nourifhing food, whilft the weather is fair and open." At two years old fome fufFer heifers to take the bull, and think it the beft me thod ; but others fuppofe it a better practice for the cows, and more to the intereft of the farmer, to wait a year longer before they are put to the males, as they will make much better cows by fuch a delay. It is in all cafes by much the beft practice to feed the young cattle ftock botlt the firft and fecond year, efpecially in the winter feafon, as well as pofFible as,, when the contrary method is adopted, their growth is fo reftricted that they can afterwards fcarcely be brought into a proper ftate of thriving by the belt food : fuch as turnips ; hay, with root food, carrots and potatoes, may be the mod bene ficial in the fecond winter, great care being taken to keep them clean by proper littering. When draw is the common food, fuch roots mould be employed in a lar ger proportion. The two-year old cattle, whether of the male or female kind, fhould be fed with hay or good ft raw, according as they can be more conveniently afforded, interpoling feeds of turnips, cabbages, or other fimilar forts of food. Jn general it may be a good rule to keep cattle of the fame age and kind as much to gether as circumftances will permit ; as by fuch means they feed better, are lefs liable to accidents, and are capable of being fed more properly, as they moftiy re quire the leaft feeding while young. Dairying* There are fome forts of grafs lands thatanfwer better in this manage- Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying Lands proper for. 509 ment than others. It is not well decided, though general experience feems to favour the opinion, that thevery fertile pafture lands may be more profitably applied to the purpofe of grazing or fattening animals than that of dairying; but fuch as are not capable of bringing the larger forts of cattle to a complete date of fatnefs, and \vhich ufually let from twenty to five and twenty millings the acre, may be more profitably employed in this way. And moft of the low and more moid kinds of meadow lands, which though the value may be high, as,, they do not fuccecd fo well for the purpofe of fattening, may be found highly ufeful for the dairy. The high, open, and expofed uplands are always lefs proper for this fort of practice than thofe which are fituated lower, are more inclofed and warm. In the management of the bufinefs, the nature of thepaftures and other forts of food which the farmer has at command, muft direct him intheextent and kind of dairying which he is to purfue. Where the grafs lands are of the older kinds, and tolerably rich and fertile, but ter fhould probably, in general, be the principal object, but where they have been more recently converted to the Irate of fward, and are of a more cool as well aslefs rich quality, cheefe may be the moft depended upon. It is perhaps only under particular circumftances and lituations that the different methods can be combined with profit and convenience. There are, however, cafes in which this may be attempted with great advantage. It has been an obfervation in dairying, founded upon long experience, that fuch lands as have been fora great length of time in the ftate of pafture afford milk that abounds more in the oily material or cream ; while thofe which have been a lefs time in that ftate, and are of a more cold nature, are more productive in fuch milk as has the cafeous matter in a large proportion to that of the cream.* In York (hi re the dairy -farmers are in many cafes In the habit ofpreferving their old paftures in their original ftate, as they find the milk produced on them churns with more facility, and the butter is capable of being kept better than if fuch na turally rich grounds were highly improved. In fome cafes it has been found that there was great difficulty in making as well as preferving the butter, efpecially in the more warm months, where the land had been wholly ploughed up and im proved by manure, particularly of the calcareous kind, where there was previ- oufly no difficulty of that fort, and the butter was of the beft fortf * Marftiall s Midland Counties. I Corre&cd Report of the Well Riding of York/hire. -,510 CiiUh aliGii of Grafs Land. Dairying Sorts of to tc ptirfittd. Old pafturcs have therefore, befides the property of fupplying the butyraceo u* material in greater abundance, that of rendering the butter more firm and waxy., It has likewife been cbferved that the richnefs of the butter in the Highlands of Scotland has been universally attributed to the cows feeding upon the old grafs irt their remote glens, though k is fuggefted that this may partly depend on the ma* nagement that is adopted in making it.* In Chemire they find that the inferior forts of pafture lands are the beft fuited for cheefe,, f But though this may in fome degree be the cafe, there cannot be any doubt but that good butter may be made in many inftances where the cows are kept in new paflures, and that excellent cheefe may alfo be prepared where the lands that are employed as paftures have been long in the (late of herbage. Butter equally rich and good with that made while the cows were grazed on the rich old paftures, has; indeed been known to be fometimes prepared when they were fed with cut clover and dry grafs in the ftall.+ In commencing this fort of bufinefs, the farmer is therefore, as has been juft ob- fervcd> to determine, from the nature of his land, the fituation and other circum-*. ftances, which fort of dairy management it may be the moft properand advantageous for him to adopt, whether that of the cheefe or butter kind. It has not been fhown by any fet of experiments that can be fully depended upon, whether the butter or cheefe dairy affords the largeft profit to the farmer, when conducted under equally good management. The mod valuable part of the milk is in each cafe converted into a fubftance of great utility ; and though the former fells for a confiderably higher price than the latter, from the differences in the quantity of the products, in the expenfe and trouble of management, and various other circumftances, it feems that the real advantages are nearly equal. It has been ftated, before the late rife in the prices of thefe different articles, to amount, whether of butter and butter-milk, or of cheefe and whey, to nearly fourpence- halfpenny for each gallon of milk ; at prefent, perhaps, little lefs than from fix- pence to fixpence-halfpenny. In the vicinity of large towns, and wherever butter is conftantly in great demand, it may however be more profitable to have a butter dairy inftead of that of the -cheefe kind. -* Anderfon in Bath Papers, vol. V. t Young s Six Months Tour, vol. III. . Corrected Agricultural Report of Mid-Lothian. Cultivation 6f Grafs Land. Dairying Tlbuft and Apparatus^ <$c. ,5 1 li It is obvious that much of the profit in this fort of management muft conftantly depend upon the care andafliduity that is bellowed in conducting the different pro- cefies of the bufinefs. And it has been obferved that this kind of management mould only be undertaken by thofe who are capable of paying the in oft minute attention to every department of it ; as, unlefs this becomes a fixed-and eftablifhed principle in the farmer s mind, the chance of fuccefs is precarious and uncertain.. To truft wholly to common fervants, in this fort of bufinefs, is always hazardous, and never to be practifed where it is carried on to any extent. The firft thing that is neceflary is that of being provided with a fufficiently large and convenient dairy houfe, whether the objedl be cheefe or butter. It fhould be fo proportioned to the number of cows, as that there may befufficient convenience for performing all the neceflary operations without embarraflmem ; and much at tention muft be paid to cleanlinefs in every thing that relates to it, fuch as the fhelvcs, floors, and different implements which are made ufe of, by daily fcalding, fcrubbing, rinfing,and drying, in order to prevent any fort of acidity taking place ; as, without due regard in thefe refpedh, it is impoflible that the produce can be of fuperior quality, or fuch as will keep fweet and good for any length of time, &c. Cleanlinefs may indeed be faid not only to be neceflary in dairy-hulbandry, but to- be the foundation of it, and the moft eflential and moft indifpenfable part of good management. It is obferved that (t a farmer may be in pofleflion of the moft va luable breed of cows,and thefe may be fed on the richeft pafturesjbut unlefs cleanli nefs prevail in the dairy, his butter or his cheefe will never ftand high in general eftimation." Next to the fize and fituation of the dairy-houfe, and to keeping it and the utenfils clean, is that of (kill and attention in the general management, la: fhort, without a knowledge of the beft modes proper to be adopted under different circumftances, and a regularity, method, and prompt attention tx> their execution, it is obvious that the bufinefs muft foon run into confulion, and become unpro fitable. The neceflary apparatus, fuch as churns, milk-pails, cheefe-cloths, trays or pans, brafs milk-kettle and boiling copper, &c. exclufive of the chcefe-prefs, for a dairy of twenty cows, will coft about fifty pounds. For fuel either coal or wood will anfwer, but faggots prefer ved in the ftack one year are the beft.* The next circumftance is that of providing cows of the moft proper kinds, ac cording to the method of dairying that may be practifed. It has been found by - * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXII. Cultivation of Grafs Laud D<iirf/if1g. Breeds of Coica vioft profitable. long experience, that ionic kinds -of cows give milk of a much thicker continence and richer quality than others; and that this richnefs-of quality is not HccefTanl^ connected \vith the fmallne-fs of the quantity yielded by thofe of nearly an equal lize; it is therefore of confequence to the owner of a dairy to be peculiarly atten tive to this circunvftancc. In choofing cows for the purpofe of butter, ir ought rather to be the quantity and the quality of the cream produced from the milk in a given time, than the quantity of the milk itfelf, that ought to be regarded : this i^ a circumstance of more importance than is generally fuppofed ; but where chcefc is the object of the dairy, quantity of milk as well as goodnefs mould probably be attended to. As there are cows in every diftricl to be found, by a careful feledtion, that afford much thicker milk than others, thefe ought to be fearched for with care and their breed reared with attention, as being peculiarly valuable. In comparing the milk of two cows in order to judge of their refpetflive quali ties, particular attention mould be paid to the time that has elapfed lince their calv ing ; as the milk of the fame cow is always thinner foon after calving than it is af terwards, as it gradually bccames thicker, though generally lefs in quantity, in pro portion to the time the cow has calved. The colour of the milk, however, foon after calving is richer than it afterwards becomes ; but this, efpecially for the firil two weeks, is a fault in colour that ought not to be regarded.* On the richer and more fertile paftures it is probable that the large and middle breeds of cows may be the moft beneficial, efpecially where both cheefe and butter are made; but in fuch as do not poffefs fuch a high degree of fertility, the middle and fmaller breeds may prove more profitable to the dairy farmer. Some fuppofe the long-horned breed not well fuited for the dairy ; but experiments that have been carefully made fhow, that more cheefe may be produced from the fame quantity of milk in that breed than in thofe of the mort-horned, as well as more butter from the fame quantity of cream. f And in Ireland the Craven breed afforded more butter than the Holderneffe.J Of the fmaller breeds, the Alderney, the Suffolk polled, and the Kiloe or Scotch breeds, may be found the mod profitable. In the dairies of the Ifle of Wight, as well as thofe of fome parts of Hampfhire, the Al- derneys prevail much, and are highly efteemed for butter. Two-thirds of the Suf folk polled breed, and one third Alderney have been recommended as conftituting an excellent dairy, the milk being mixed. || * Amlerfon in Bath Papers. i Young s Six Months Tour, vol. II. + Irifli Tour, vol. I. j| Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXII. Cultivation of Grafs Land.~*Dairy!ng.~MetMa of Keeping the Cows. 5 1 3 But beiides the milk there is another object to be attended to in forming a cow ftock.which is, that they be fufficiently hardy for the fituation. In this refpecl the long-horned breed is much fuperior to the ihort-horned cattle, from the difference in the thicknefs of their hides; and the Scotch is probably better than either. This breed and the long-horned are therefore the moft proper for bleak, expofed fitua- tions. As many of the mixed breeds afford excellent milkers, and in mod of the ge nuine breeds there are great differences in the individuals, it may be the beft mode, in order to eftablifh a good dairy, whether for cheefe or butter, for the farmer to breed from fuch cows, of whatever kind they may be, as he has found from expe rience the bed for the purpofe, without being at the trouble of purchafing the more expenfive breeds. In this cafe good bulls mould always be procured, as much is fuppofed to depend on the male. In order to produce abundance of milk, and of a good quality, cows muft at all times have plenty of food. Grafs is the beft food for this purpofe, and that kind of grafs which fprings fpontaneoufly on rich dry foils is the beft of all*. In the winter keeping of the cows, there are different methods in ufe : but in the fouthern parts of the ifland they do extremely well in warm fheltered yards, with open fheds, efpecially when plenty of litter, fuch as ftraw, ftubble, fern, or other fimilar materials can be afforded for keeping the whole well bedded. In the northern diftricts, however, and wherever a proper fupply of litter ca nnot be ob tained, it is better to have them tied up in ftalls, with raifed Handings, and funk paved floors immediately behind them for receiving the dung and urine, as by thefc contrivances they may be kept perfectly clean without litter, and at the fame time be more warm, as two cows may be confined in the fame ftall. The ftalls mould be kept conftantly cleaned and well fweeped out. In the management of the cows it has been obferved that, <f if the temperature of the climate be fuch as to permit the cows to graze at eafe throughout the day they mould be fuffered to range on fuch paftures at freedom, but if the cows are fo much incommoded by the heat as to be prevented from eating through the day, they ought in that cafe to be taken into cool (beds for protection ; where after allowing them a proper time to ruminate they mould be fupplied with abundance of green food frefh cut for the purpofe, ad given to them frequently, in fmall quantities, frefh and frelh, fo as to induce them to eat it witn pleafure. When the * Anderfon in Bath Papers, vol. ii. 3 U 5H Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying. Cows and Sea fon for calving. heat of the day is over, and they can remain abroad with eafe, they may be again turned into the pailure, where they fhould be allowed to range with freedom all nitj;ht during the mild weather of fummer." Cows arc in general only milked twice a day ; but, when " abundantly fed, they ihould probably be milked three times a day during the whole of the fummer fcafon : in the morning early, at noon, and in the evening juft before night-fall. For, if they be milked only twice in twenty-four hours, while they have abundance of fucculent food, they will, as has been obferved, yield a much fmaller quantity of milk in the fame time, than if they were milked three limes. " In the choice of perfons for milking the cows, great caution fhould likewife be employed : for, if that operation be not carefully and properly performed, the quantity of the produce of the dairy will be greatly diminifhed. It mould be a rule never to allow this important department to be intruded without control to the management of any but very trufty fervants ; as the cows fhould always be treated with great gentlenefs.," It has been obferved to be of great confequence to the produce of & dairy, that the cows fhould not drop their calves too early in the feafon. When that happens, they fall off in the quantity of milk in the autumn, when, owing to its fuperior rich- nefs, it is more valuable than at any other period. From the end of March to the end of April is the bed time in the more northern diftricts that a cow can drop her calf, as (he foon gets into good condition on the early grafs, and yields a greater quantity of milk in thecourfeof the feafon than thofethat calve either confiderably earlier or later. But in the fouthern parts of theifland it is an advantage for them to calve much earlier. In the management of cows in fummer there is a famenefs inalmoft every dif- flricl. They are ufually kept on the oldeft paftures on the farm : when thefe are at a d 5 fiance from the farm-houfe, they are milked on the paftures; but otherwife they are brought home morning and evening for that purpofe. In winter the dry cows, that is, fuch as do not give milk, are fed on ftraw in the draw-yard ; while thofe that are in milk, or are near calving, are kept in forae inclofed pafture, or in fheds eredled for the purpofe, and maintained chiefly on hay. Where artificial grafTes, turnips, cabbages, or potatoes, are cultivated on a large fcale, the milch cows have a daily and regular allowance of one or other of t-hefe forts of food during the winter and fpring months. Potatoes in particular are admirable food for cows ; as, while they tend to keep them in good condition Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying, Summer andJFinier Food for. 515 the quantity of milk is generally abundant and of good quality, both in refpedl to richnefs and flavour. In fhort, the dairy farmer, in every part of the ifland, will find it for his intereft to be attentive in feeding his cows.* Thefe different forts of food may bediftributed for fummer and winter in this manner : In fummer red clover, fainlfsin, lucern, litrnet, and tares may be made ufe of with great advantage. But in employing the fir ft, great care mould betaken to guard again ft injury either to the animals, or the quality of the butter or cheefe being- rendered of a bad kind or flavour by it. On poor chalky hills the fccond will be of the greatefl importance to the dairy farmer. Lucern and tares mould al ways be employed in the way of foiling ; in which method, where the cows have proper made and fufficient water, they will be found of the utmoft ufe, as they afford a very certain fupply of food and go a great way. Betides, the cows are found to milk, well in this management where proper attention is bellowed in the foddering of them. Some fuppofe it a methodthat can hardly be too ftrongly advifed.f In Mr. Baker s experiments, a middle fized cow was found to confurne in the proportion of from 90 to 100 pounds of green lucerh in the courfe of twenty-four hours, For winter, hay, ftraw, cabbages, turnips, carrots, potatoes, cole, malt-grains, &c. may be made ufe of. The keeping cows with hay isin general too expend ve to afford the dairyman an adequate profit : therefore, in order to leflen the cxpenfe of this fort of keep, other articles of the green and root kind mud be had recourfe to : till near the period of calving they may be fupported on frefh-thremed ftraw in cribs in the fold-yard, beginning with the worft and gradually proceeding to that which is of a better quality. Thofe in good condition mould have the worft ftraw ; but when it is not of the beft kind, and the cows are of a valuable fort, they may be fed once a day with cabbages, turnips, or other fimilar forts of food, in bins for the purpofe. When within about a month or fix weeks of calving, a little hay Ihould be given at night, or the allowance of green food increafed, and on the day of calving they fhould be confined, and have warm water ; and for a fortnight after calving be very well fed with both hay and green food, in fuitable divisions for the purpofe. In this view the cabbages are extremely valuable, as the produce on the acre is large, and they afford much milk j but care muft be taken to pick off all the dead and decayed leaves, which may be given to the young ftock. A * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. t Annals of Agriculture, vol; XXXII. 51(7 Cultivation of Graft Land Dairying* Varying of Food w/tfut* rniddlc-fized cow will confcmefrom one to two hundred pounds in a day, but fcventy is fuppofed as much with ftraw as can be paid for by the produce*. la Mr. Dodfworth s trials, a cow of fifty ftone was found to eat twelve ftone of this, fort of food in the fame time. An extent of this kind of crop proportioned to the dairy fhould always be provided*. The only objection to turnips as food for milch cows is their impairing the flavour of the butter : but they are a fort of food that affords much milk; and without this, or the preceding green food, a large dairy cannot perhaps befupported to much profit. A larger weight of this food than the former is confumed in the fame timet. Carrots and potatoes are very advantageous forts of food for cows where they are raifed in great abundance; but even in fuch cafes they can only be made ufe of with profit as a feed once or twice in a day with other forts of food. It is out of the queftion that a cow could pay for being kept wholly on them. Cole, as being fed offin the field, can only be had recourfe to on the firm dry foils ;. but in fuch fituations it is a very profitable crop applied in this way> efpecially when ufed in fucceffion to turnips in the fpring months^. Malt-grains > where they car* be had in plenty, are ufeful with other forts of food, as producing a large propor tion of thin milk. They are confequentiy better for the purpofes of the milkman than the dairy-farmer. Whatever kinds of green or fucculent food may be ufed in the way of feeding dairy cows, experience has mown that great advantage may be derived from vary ing it as much as pofllbleji, probably on the phyiiological principle that the novelty of ftimulus is the moil powerful in exciting the action and promoting the fecre- tions of the fyftenru The ufe of day and night paftures, which is a method em ployed in fome diftricts, may alfo partly depend on this principle, and partly on that of better made and water^f. In the ftocking of pafttires with cows it fhould always be done according to their goodnefs t fuch grafs lands as afford in rent, tithe, and taxes, twenty-feven r eight {hillings, may fupport during the fummer feafon in the proportion of a cow of fifty ftones to an acre and a half with a few flieep. But in fuch as are not worth more than twenty (hillings* one cow to tw acres may be often fully Sufficient. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXIL. + Young s Six- Months Tour, vol.. If. J Ibid, ^ Ibid, jj Wedge s Agricultural Report of Cheihixe, 4to. p. 59- M Ibid, Cultivation of Grafs Land* Dairying. Milking of Cows. 5 1 7 In this management the rule (hould be for the paftures never to be too clofely flocked. In regard to the labour necefiary in the management of dairy bufinefs, it vviH of courfe be different according to the difference of convenience and other cir- cumftances ; but a common dairy-maid can feldom manage more than twelve or fourteen cows in a perfect manner, efpecially where both butter and cheefearc made. If (he undertake more, me will require afliftance in the dairy. As the cows mould not be more than an hour in milking, the maid cannot milk more than five or fix ; in a dairy of about eighteen cows two affiftants will con- fequently be required at fuch times ; which infummer, when two milkings only are practifed, mould be at five o clock in the morning, and fix at night. The work of the dairy muft therefore be regulated in this proportion. It is a good practice for the dairy-maid to conftantly examine the cows fepa- rately after the milkers, efpecially when they cannot be fully depended upon ; to fee that the bufinefs has been perfectly performed ; as, where the contrary is the cafe, lofs may not only be fuftained in the richeft part of the milk*, but the cows be more fubjected to difeafe. * The following fads ftated by Dr. Anderfon,as the refult of accurate experiments, in refpeft to th* nature of milk and the proportion and feparation of cream from it, are defervingof the particular attention of the dairy-farmer. It was found firft, that of the milk that is drawn from any cow at one time, that xvhich comes off at the firft is always thinner, and of a much worfe quality, than that which comes afterwards ; and that the richnefs goes on, continually increafing, to the very laft drop that can be r rawn at that time. Few perfons are ignorant that the milk which is taken from the cow laft of all at milkin<* is richer than the other parts of it ; but very few are aware of the great ne> of the difproportiou between the quality of the nrft and the laft drawn milk from the fame cow at one milking. The follow ing fa&s in refpecl to this circumftance were afcertained many years ago, and have beea confirmed by fubfequent experiments and obfervations. Having taken feveral large tea-cups, exactly fimilar in fixe and fbape, and Ailed them at regular intervals, the laft being filled with the dregs of the milk j thefe were each weighed, fo as to afcertain that the quantity of milk in each was precifely the fame. From a great number of experiments, frequently repeated with many different cows, the refult was in all cafes thus: The quantity of milk obtained from the firft drawn, cup, in every cafe, was much fmaller than from that which was laft drawn; and thofe between afforded lefs or more as they were nearer ttre beginning or the end. It is unnecefikry to fpecify intermediate proportions ; but the quantity of cream obtained from the laft drawn cup from fome eows r exceeded that from the firft in the propor tion of l6 to 1. In other cows, however, and in particular circumftances, the difproportion was not quite fo great; butiano cafe did it fall fliort of the rate of 8 to 1. Probably, upon an average of a great many cows, it might be found to run- as 10 or 12 to 1. In the next place, the difference in the quality of the cream obtained from the two cups was much greater than the difference in the quantity. In the firft cup the cream was a thin tough, film. 520 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying* Management of pofc of railing the cream in the largeft proportion, and the fhorteft fpaceof time s however, as the oily or butyraceous part of milk would feem tobediifufed through the whole fubftanceof the milk, and entangled among its particles, betwixt thofe of the ferous and cafeous kind, fo as to be thrown up only in confequence of its pof- f effing Icfs fpecific gravity than the portion which is ufually termed milk, from its becoming in a Hate of reft ; it would feem that the moft fuitable method of placing it for the purpofe of creaming well, and in the moft expeditious manner, is that of very {hallow pans, leads or trays, fo as that it may not ftand deeper than three or four inches at the moft j as in this way there will not only be the leaft refiftance afforded, but the greateft poffible extent of furface for it to collect upon : by which means a larger proportion of cream is not only produced, but it is found from ex perience in the beft dairy diftricfh, that in confequence of the more expeditious cool ing of the milk, the tendency to acidity in warm feafons is confiderably checked and " retarded. No trials have been inftituted fo as to decide what fort of material is the molt appropriate and conducive to this end : it is probable, however, that wood or ftone is much better than lead, as being not only more eafily kept clean and would be fo fmall as to be fcarcely worth the while for manufacturing feparately. Gthly, That from thefe premifes we are alfo led to d raw another conclusion, extremely different from the opinion that is commonly entertained on this fubjeft, vis;. That it feems probable that the very beft butter could only be with (economy made in thofe dairies where the manufacture of cheefe is the principal object. The reafons are obvious : If only a fmall portion of the milk fliould be fet apart for butter, all the reft may be made into cheefe while it is yet warm from the cow and perfectly fweet ; and if only that portion of cream which rifes during the firft three or four hours after milking it is to be referved for butter, the rich milk which is left after that cream is feparated, being ftill perfectly fweet, may be converted into cheefe with as great advantage nearly as the newly-milked milk itfelf. But as it is not probable that many perfons could be found, who would be willing to purchafe the very fineil butter made in the manner above pointed out, at the price that would be fufficient to indemnify the farmer for his trouble in making it, thefe hints are thrown out merely to fatisfy,the curious in what way butter poflefiing this faperior degree of excellence may be obtained, if they choofe to be at theexpenfe ; but, for an ordi nary market, the writer is fatisfied, from experience and attentive obfervation, that if in general about the firft drawn half of the milk be feparated at each milking, and the remainder only be fet up for producing cream, and if that milk be allowed to ftand to throw up the whole of its cream, even till it begins fenfibly to tafte fourifii, and if that cream be afterwards carefully managed, the butter thus ob tained will be of a quality greatly fuperior to what can ufually be obtained at market, and its quan tity not confiderably lefs than if the whole of the milk had been treated alike. This, therefore, is the pra&ice that is thought moft likely to fuitthc frugal farmer, as his butter, though of a fuperior qua lity, could be afforded at a price that would always enfure it a rapid fale. Cultivation of Grafs Land Dairying. Management of Milk. 52\ fvvcet in coofequence of their being lefs difpofcd to fur, but from their being more fafc, on account of their not being acted upon by the acid of the milk. This is in fome meafure proved to be the moft advifable practice, from it being almoll generally adopted in the beft dairy management. There is likewifc another point on which further experiments are wanting, which is that ofafcertaining the degrees of heat in which the different changes may take place with the greateft certainty and fuccefs at different feafons. From the few trials that have been made on this fubject, it is believed that when the heat is from 50 to 55 degrees on Fahrenheit s thermometer, the feparation of the cream from milk, which is the mod important operation of the dairy, proceeds with the greateft regularity and in the mofl favourable manner. It is therefore thought that this will be found tobe the temperature that ought to be aimed at: but it is not pretended to decide with precifion ; aconfiderable degree of latitude in this refpect may perhaps be allowable : from the bed obfervation it feems to be high ly probable that when the heat exceeds 60 degrees, the operation becomes difficult and dangerous ; and when it falls below the 4Oth degree it can fcarcely be carried forward with any degree of economy or propriety. Till further experiments therefore afcertain the exact point, it may be taken as a fafe rule, that the heat fhould be kept up, if poflible, between the 5oth and 55th degree ; and in order to afcertain this, a thermometer, graduated by Fahrenheit s fcale, fhould be hung up perpetually in the milk-houfe, to give notice to the owner of any alterations in the temperature of the air, that may affect his intereft.* It has not been yet fhown, by any trials that can be fully depended upon, what is the length of time that the milk mould remain in the pans or trays in order to afford the cream in the largeft quantity before it is feparated. Some fuppofe that this fhould depend upon the particular views of the dairy-man, and the degree of heat that is prefent at the period. In a moderately warm temperature of the air, if very fine butter be intended, it fhould not be allowed to ftand more than fix or eight hours. For ordinary good butter it may fafcly be let fland twelve hours, or more ; but where, the dairy is fo large as to afford a fufficient quantity of cream, and where the very befl butter i$ intended, (the milk being to be converted to fome other ufe while yet fweet,) it may be feparated after flanding only two, three, or four hours. t " In the general * Anderfon in Bath Papers. t Ibid, veil. 12. 3 X 620 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying* Management of Milk* pofc of railing the cream in the largeft proportion, and the fhorteft fpaceof time s however, as the oily or butyraceouspnrt of milk would feem tobediifufed through the whole fubftanceof the milk, and entangled among its particles, betwixt thofe of the ierous and cafeous kind, fo as to be thrown up only in confequence of its pof- fefling lefs fpecific gravity than the portion which is ufually termed milk, from its becoming in a (late of reft ; it would feem that the mod fuitable method of placing it for the purpofe of creaming well, and in the moll: expeditious manner, is that of very {hallow pans, leads or trays, fo as that it may not Hand deeper than three or four inches at the moft } as in this way there will not only be the leaft refinance afforded, but the greateft poffible extent of furface for it to collect upon : by which means a larger proportion of cream is not only produced, but it is found from ex perience in the beft dairy diftricls, that in confequence of the more expeditious cool ing of the milk, the tendency to acidity in warm feafons is confiderably checked and " retarded. No trials have been inftituted fo as to decide what fort of material is the molt appropriate and conducive to this end : it is probable, however, that wood or ftone is much better than lead, as being not only more eafily kept clean and would be fo fmall as to be fcarcely worth the while for manufacturing feparately. Gthly, That from thefe premifes we are alfo led to draw another conclusion, extremely different from the opinion that is commonly entertained on this fubjeft, viz. That it feems probable that the very beft butter could only be with ceconomy made in thofe dairies where the manufacture of cheefe is the principal object. The reafons are obvious : If only a fmall portion of the milk fliould be fet apart for butter, all the reft may be made into cheefe while it is yet warm from the cow and perfectly fweet ; and if only that portion of cream which rifes during the firft three or four hours after milking it is to be referved for butter, the rich milk which is left after that cream is feparated, being ftill perfu&ly fweet, may be converted into cheefe with as great advantage nearly as the newly-milked milk itfelf. But as it is not probable that many perfons could be found, who would be willing to purchafe the very fineii butter made in the manner above pointed out, at the price that would be fufficient to indemnify the farmer for his trouble in making it, thefe hints are thrown out merely to fatisfy,the curious in what way butter pofieffing this faperior degree of excellence may be obtained, if they choofe to be at the expenfe ; but, for an ordi nary market, the writer is fatisfied, from experience and attentive obfervation, that if in general about the firft drawn half of the milk be feparated at each milking, and the remainder only fee fet up for producing cream, and if that milk be allowed to ftand to throw up the whole of its cream, even till it begins fenfibly to tafte fourifli, and if that cream be afterwards carefully managed, the butter thus ob tained will be of a quality greatly fuperior to what can ufually be obtained at market, and its quan tity not confiderably lefs than if the whole of the milk had been treated alike. This, therefore, is the practice that is thought moft likely to fuit the frugal farmer, as his butter, though of a fuperior qua lity, could be afforded at a price that would always enfure it a rapid fale. Cultivation of Grafs Land. DairyingsManagement of Milk. 5Z\ fvvcet in confequence of their being lefs dtfpofed to fur, but from their being more fafc, on account of their not being acted upon by the acid of the milk. This is in fome meafure proved to be the moft advifable pradice, from it being almolt generally adopted in the beft dairy management. There is likewife another point on which further experiments are wanting, which is that ofafcertaining the degrees of heat in which the different changes may take place with the greateft certainty and fuccefs at different feafons. From the few trials that have been made on this fubject, it is believed that when the heat is from 50 to 5 5 degrees on Fahrenheit s thermometer, the feparation of the cream from milk, which is the molt important operation of the dairy, proceeds with the greateft regularity and in the moft favourable manner. It is therefore thought that this will be found tobe the temperature that ought to be aimed at: but it is not pretended to decide with precifion ; a confiderable degree of latitude in this refpecl may perhaps be allowable : from the beft obfervation it feems to be high ly probable that when the heat exceeds 60 degrees, the operation becomes difficult and dangerous ; and when it falls below the 4Oth degree it can fcarcely be carried forward with any degree of economy or propriety. Till further experiments therefore afcertain the exact point, it may be taken as a fafe rule, that the heat Ihould be kept up, if poflible, between the 5oth and 5 5th degree ; and in order to afcertain this, a thermometer, graduated by Fahrenheit s fcale, ftiould be hung up perpetually in the milk-houfe, to give notice to the owner of any alterations in the temperature of the air, that may affect his intereft.* It has not been yet (hown, by any trials that can be fully depended upon, what is the length of time that the milk mould remain in the pans or trays in order to afford the cream in the largeft quantity before it is feparated. Some fuppofe that this ftiould depend upon the particular views of the dairy-man, and the degree of heat that is prefent at the period. In a moderately warm temperature of the air, if very fine butter be intended, it fhould not be allowed to ftand more than fix or eight hours. For ordinary good butter it may fafcly be let ftand twelve hours, or more ; but where, the dairy is fo large as to afford a fufficient quantity of cream, and where the very beft butter i$ intended, (the milk being to be converted to fome other ufe while yet fweet,) it may be feparated after (landing only two, three, or four hours. t " In the general * Anderfon in Bath Papers. t Ibid, VQL. I], 3 X 522 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying. Management df Millt. management of dairies milk is never (kimmed more than once; but in the courr- tyof Effex, as well as fome others, it is the common practice to fkim it three or four times, or till no more cream arifc. In the bufmefs of feparating the cream from- the milk there arc t\vo methods purfued, that moft generally practifed is to fkim it off \vith a fkimming-difh, made either of tin or of wood. The other is adopted only where leads or citterns are common, and where the milk is u fed for making fkim-milk or two rneal cheefes ; and, of courfe before it coagulate, or acquire any degree ofr acidity. Toward the centre of the cittern there is a hole or pipe, which before the milk be put in is (hut with a wooden (topper that rifes feveral inches above the furface of the milk. When the milk is wanted for any of the purpofes above mentioned, a veffel is placed under the pipe, and the (topper drawn up fo far as to allow the milk to run off, but fo gently as that the furface of the cream may not be broken. The milk being thus gradually drained off, the cream (inks down till it at laft retts on the ciftcrn,when the veffel containing the milk being removed, and another placed for the purpofe of receiving the cream, the (topper is entirely drawn out, and the creams drop into the veffels"*. The firft of thefe methods " requires a dexterity of manipulation that can be acquired by practice alone ; but it is of great importance to the fuccefs of the dairy that it be well done ; for if any part of the cream be left the quantity of butter will be diminidied; and if any part of the milk be taken its quality will be debafed." + When the cream has been " thus feparated from the milk it ought to be im mediately put into a veffel by itfelf, to be kept till a proper quantity be col lected for being made into butter, and no veffel can be better adapted for that purpofe than a firm neat-made wooden barrel, in fize proportioned to the extent of the dairy, open at one end, \vitha lid exactly fitted to clofe it.. In the under part of this veffel, clofe to the bottom, mould be placed a cock for drawing off from time to time any thin ferous part of the milk that may chance to be generated ; for mould this be allowed to remain it acts upon the cream- in a powerful manner, and greatly diminimes the richnefs of the quality of the butter. The infide of the opening of the barrel mould be covered with a bit of clofe fine wire .or filver gauze netting, to keep back the cream, while the ferum is allowed to pafs ; and the barrel on its (tand mould be inclined a little forward in the top, to allow the whole to run off.| " It is difficult to (tate any particular period for its being kept in thefe refervoirs * Anderfon in Bath Papers. f Modern Agriculture, vol. III. + Jfcid*, v * .-" of Graft Land Dairyuig.-~Managcment of Milk. 5 23. before churning, fo different is the management in this particular in different places. About Epping in EfTex, which has been long in high repute for thefupe- rior quality of its butter, the cream is feldom kept above three, or at fartheft four days"*, but always till there is a certain degree of acidity in the cream, either natural or artificial, as without that they cannot enfure a good churning of butter: fome keep a little old cream for this ufe, others ufe a little rennet, apd fome * little lemon juke. f And it was the practice in a large dairy in Suffolk, which had a high character for making butter of a fuperior quality, when the butter was to be fent directly to market, to churn the cream the fecond or third day ; but when it was to be falted, to keep it a day or two longer, or till it had acquired a certain degree of acidity. The dairy- woman, who had had a long and extend ve ex perience, accounted for her conduct in this refpect by obferving, that butter made from frefh cream was much better and pleafanter to the tafte, but that it would not take in the fait fo well> or keep fo long r as that made from cream that had been longer skept..j: It has been obferved, that thofe f who have had little experience in the dairy believe that no butter can be of the fmeft quality, except that which has been made f rorn cream that has not been kept above one day i but this is a very great miftake. So far indeed is this opinion from being well founded, that it is in very few cafes that even tolerably good butter can be obtained from cream that is not more than one day old. The feparation cf butter from cream only takes place after the cream has attained a certain degree of acidity. If it be agitated before that acidity has begun to take place, no butter can be obtained, and the agitation muft be con tinued till the time that fournefs is produced ; after which the butter begins to form. In fumme^ while the climature is warm, the beating may be, without very much difficulty, continued until the acidity be produced, fo that butter may be got ; but in this cafe the procefs is long and tedious, and the butter is, for the moft part, of a foft confidence, and tough and gluey to the touch. If this procefs be attempted during the cold r/eather in winter, bu tter can fcarcely be in any way ob tained, unlefs by the application of fome great degree of heat, which fometimes aflifts in producing a very inferior kind of butter, that is white, hard, and brittle, with very little tafte, and almoft unfit for any culinary purpofe whatever."^ The judicious farmer mould not attempt to imitate this practice, but allow hiscream * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. f Abdy in Annals of Agriculture, vol. XL J Modern Agriculture, vol. III. | Anderfon in Bath Papers, 3X 2 524 Cultivation of Grafs Land.Dairying.Management of Milk. to remain in xhe veflel appropriated foi keeping it, until it has acquired that pro-- per degree of acidity that fits It for being made into butter with great eafc, and by a very moderate degree of agitation ; by which procefs only very fine butter cans be prepared. The length of time cream may be kept before it attains the precife degree of acidity that is necefTary to form the very bed butter, and after that period before its, quality befenfibly diminifhed, has not yet been well afcertained by experiment. It is remarked by Doctor Anderfon that " fo little nicety has been obfervedirc this refpect by practical farmers, even thofe who have a high reputation for making good butter, that few of them ever think of obferving any precife rule in this re fpect, with regard to the different portions of their cream, feeing they in general make into butter all the cream they have collected fince the former churning, fo that the new and the old is all beaten up together; and he can find nothing like an uniform rule eftablifhed among them as to the time that mould intervene be tween one churning and another, that being ufually determined by local or accident al circumftances. He is himfelf inclined to believe, that if the cream be carefully kept, and no ferous matter allowed to lodge about it, a very great latitude may fafe- \j be admitted in this refpect ;" and though the exact length of time has not been determined," it is certain that cream which has been kept three or four days in fummer is in excellent condition for being made into butter.; and he is inclined to believe, that from three days to feven may be found in general the belt time for keeping cream before churning; though, if circumflances make it necefTary, a con- fiderable latitude in this refpect may be allowed., If the farmer has fuch a quantity of cream as may be worth his while to churn once every day, there is nothing to prevent him from doing it. He has only to provide a feparate vefiel for holding the cream for each day he means it mould Hand before churning ; if three days three veflels j if four days, four vefTels ; and fo on. Thus he may churn every da/ cream of three days old, or of four, or any other number of days old that he may incline. In the fame manner, if it were found that the cream of two, of three, or of a greater numberof days gathering, was required to make a proper churning, it might be ealy to contrive it as to churn every day, as will be obvious to any one \vho thinks upon the fubject. In this way the operations of a dairy may be kept perfectly regular and eafy.* * It is frequently a practice in Chefhire to churn the whole of the milk without * Anforfon in Bath Papers, Cultivation of Grafs Land.-*- Dairying. Management of Milk y -$c. <T. 525 fcparating any part of the cream from it. After milking, it is cooled, according to the heat of the weather in fummer, in feparate veffels for the purpofe, and a cer tain degree of acidity brought on and warmed in the winter by being fet by the fire. In this way they obtain a greater quantity of butter, though of an inferior quality. By careful management, however, efpecially if a portion of the firft-drawn milk be feparated, very good butter may, it is fuppofed, be obtained; but the practice, on many accounts, is not to be recommended.* In fummer, o-r while the cows are fed on grafs, no art is requifite to give butter that colour which is agreeable to the purchaferor the confumer ; but in the winter and fpring months the dairy people find it neceflary, in order to pleafe their cuf- tomers, to alter that tallowy appearance which is natural to butter in thefe feafons. This is effected by means of a little arnetla, which, after being reduced by tritura- tion to as fine a powder as poffible, is mixed with the cream before it is put into the churn, and in fuch quantities as, from experience, has been found neceflary for giving the requifite appearance. Churning. As while the oily or butyraceous part of the milk Is in the ftate of cream, the particles are not in a fufficiently concentrated ftate for producing an uniform fubftance, on account of the large portion of interpofing ferous fluid, in order to produce butter, it is therefore neceflary to force out this by means of continued agitation in the procefs of churning. The cream or milk, after being feparated and prepared as above, is to be put into the churn of the kind which is preferred, as there are feveral different forts employed in different places, and agi tated for fome time, in order to effect the feparation of the butter. (f From the practice generally adopted in the beft managed dairies of cooling, the churn, by fil ling it for fome time with cold water before churning in fummer,and of warming it with fcalding water when the weather is very cold in winter, and of putting in alfocold or hot water among the cream in the churn occasionally, according to the Jfeafon of the year," it is concluded " that cream pofleffing a proper temperature, whatever that temperature may be, is, among the mofl exact dairy farmers, confi- dered efientially neceflary in the making of good butter; which being admitted, it mufl follow that fome churns may be better fuited to the purpofe than others as fuch as admit a free fupply of atmofpheric air, and permit that which,from the vio lent agitation, has become overheated to efcape,from their preferving that medium temperature which, it would appear, cream, in the courfe of making into butter^ * Aftderfon, in Bath Papers* 52<J Cultivation of Grafs. Land. Dairying. Making of Butter* ought to pottefs, than fuch as are kept conftantly (hut up, or in which the air is- only allowed to enter, or efcape occafionally by means of a fmall aperture."* It is probably on this account that the upright churn is ftill preferred in fomer dairies. In this procefs much greater nicety is required than moft perfons feem to be aware of. It has been obferved, " that a few hafty irregular ftrokes may render the whole of the butter of fcarcely any value, that which but for this circumftance would have been of the fineft quality. The owner of an extenfive dairy lhould > therefore, be extremely attentive to this circumftance, and be at great pains to pro. cure a proper perfon for managing this branch of the bufinefs. ^ Making of Butter. When, by the procefs of churning, or keeping the cream conftantly in a ftatc of motion, the butyraceous particles are feparated from the milk, and united to each other, the mafs is taken out of the churn and put into a large wooden bowl, or other convenient vefTel, with fome cold fpring water which is perfectly pure, after which the dairy-maid kneads it well with her hands, or what is better, a wooden fpoon with a fhort handle, afterwards breaking it into as minute divifions as poffible, and by rolling and prcfling it againft the bottom and (ides of the vefiel, expreffes and forces out any milk that it may contain. Upon, this being well performed the goodnefs of the butter in a great meafure depends. When it has been thus worked the milky water is poured off, and an additional quantity of pure clean water put in, and the operations of kneading, breaking, and prelling, are again renewed, and continued till the water at laft appears fcarce- ly tinged with the milk, which is the only proper criterion by which to determine when the butter has fufficiently worked. It has been obferved by the above writer " that a confiderable degree of ftrength as well as of dexterity is required in this manipulation. The thing wanted is to force out the milk entirely,with as little tawing of the butter as poffible, for if the milk be not entirely taken away the butter will infallibly fpoii in a fhort time, and if it be much worked the butter will become tough and gluey, which greatly debafes its quality 4" * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. f Anderfon, in Bath Papers. i In Holland the method of making butter, according to the account of Mr. Carew, as ftated in the Agricultural Report of Middlefex, is this : After milking the cows, the milk is not put into pans till it is quite cold. It is thn ftirred two or three times a day with a wooden fpoon, to prevent the cream from feparating from the milk; and if it can be ftirred till the fpoon will almoft (land in it, it Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying. Making of Butter. 5 7 Ihmofl. cafes a fmall quantity of fait is mixed with butter which is intended for immediate ufe, and when butter is faked, whether it be with a view/to keep ing or for immediate fale, the fait is applied as foon as the milk has been ex fractal or removed in the manner juft defcribed. Part of the butter is fpread on the bot tom of another bafon orjkeel, which has been previoufly wafhed and prepared for the purpofe ; and a quantity of fait being ftrewed over it, an additional layer of butter is then laid on; over this another fprinkling of fait, and fo on alternately till the whole be faked to the proper degree, according to the ufe for which the butter is intended. When the whole is thus faked the dairy-maid again kneads, breaks, and works it in fuch a manner as to make the fait mix intimately with it ; and when me thinks me has fully effected this purpofe, {he pours fome fpring or other cold water over the whole ; and, by again working the butter, wafhes it free from the brine, and from any milky fubftance, which by the faking, and the re petition of kneading, prefling, &c. may have been-expreffed. The different operations of butter-making being thus performed, all that remains is to weigh and make it up into the form in which it is moft faleable. The ufual form in which it is expofed to fale is in rolls; but it is fometimes made into cir cular cakes of about three or four inches diameter, and about an inch thick, and on the top of which figures are impreffed by means of a wooden ,print carved for the purpofe. After the butter, in well-managed dairies, is weighed and made up for market, it is ufually placed in cold water till the period for fending it to market: arrives. The quantity of butter produced from a given quantity of milk depends on a variety of particulars ; as the quality of the milk, the age and quality of the paftures on which the cows are maintained, and whether the milk be allowed to ftand a fufficient time to throw up the whole cream which it contains.. But on a medium four gallons of milk will produce fixteen ounces of butter ; and the quantity which is deemed fo much the better. When it is found to be fufficiently thick, it is put into the churn, and beaten for an hour. When the butter begins to form, a pint or more of cold water, according to the quantity of the milk,.is poured in, to feparate the butter from the milk. When the butter is taken out of the churn, it is wafhed and kneaded till the laft water is perffft y clear and free from milk. Bj this method it is fuppofed that a greater quantity of butter is made from an equal quantity of milk, And the butter is faid to be firmer and fweeter, and to keep longer, than that which is made in tli ordinary mode which is in ufe in England. The buttermilk is alfo thought preferable. A churn is there thought better adapted to the purpofe than a barrel, Cultivation of Graft Land, Dairying, Mating ofCheefe. a dairy of cows of any magnitude, in regard to numbers, may be fuppofed to yield, may be rated at fix pounds each per week in fummer, and from four to five in win ter, according to the manner of feeding them. In Suffolk they find that four gallons and a half of milk affords a quart of cream, which, when made into butter, weighs one pound and three quarters. Mr. Abdy found the average quantity of butter made by a cow per week to be four pounds, of fixteen ounces, and the whole in nine months, one hundred and fifty-fix pounds,* befides the advantages of fix (hil lings a-piece for three pigs. An inferior fort of butter is often made from whey, where checfe is the principal object of the dairy, Ibs. d. . s. d. . (1. . f. d. * 156 at lOpcrlb. 6 10 But at the prcfent price, I 3 - 9 15 Calf 30 18 ditto - - - 150 3 pigs - 18 ditto - 1 10 860 12 10 O The methods of conducing the procefs in this cafe are thus ftated by Mr. Donaldfon : ** In forae dairies the whole whey when taken from the cheefe-tub is put intofkeels or other veflels, where it remains about twenty-four hours, when it is creamed, and the whey applied to the ufe of the calves andpiga, the latter of which are faid to thrive as well on it after the latter has been taken from it as before. And the cream, when flcimmed oft the whey, is put into a brafs pan and boiled, and af terwards fet in pans or jars, where it remains till a fufficient quantity for a churning be procured, which in large, dairies happens generally once, but fometimes twice in the week." In others " the green \.hey is put almofl immediately from the eheefe-tub into the furnace-pan where it is fcalded. When it ac quires the proper degree of fcalding heat, cold water, or fome white whey isoccafionally put in: this caufes the whey to break, and throw up a thick white fort of fcum, foraewhat refembling cream, which the dairy-maid keeps conftantly fkimming off as it rifes, and which fhe puts into cream jugs or jar.?, where it remains till the ufual time of churning. In the dairies, where the green whey is fcalded, the runnings, except a .little that is kept for the purpofe of forcing thegreenwhey when fcalding, to throw up the cream, are ufually fet in fkeels or jars, in the fame manner as the milk from the cows ; and .the cream, when taken off, being added to that procured by fcalding, is churned in the ordinary way. * In two experiment?, made for the purpofe of afcertaining the nature of making butter, from whey, Mr. Robertfon found the refult the fame, though the procefs was differently conduced. In one, the whey had flood twenty-four hours after being taken from the curd before it was put to the fire ; but Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying* Making oj Cfttefi* of Cheefe. In the procefs of cheefe-making, as in moft of the other operations of the dairy, there is a want of preciilon, from few experiments having becn-rnadej and thofe with but little chemical exactnefs. As the bulinefs (lands at prcfent, the whole is conduced at random by mere cuftom.- The circumftances that would feem to particular!/ demand attention in this art are, the-feqfiu s the method of milking : the nature of the milk; the preparation of the rennet : the mode of colouring ; the breaking and gathering the curd ; the management of the cbcefc in the cbeefe^prefs ; the method of Jalting ; and the management in the cbeefc- room. Sea/bn.~lt isfuppofedthat the beftfeafon for making cheefe is during thofe months when the cows can be fed on the paftures ; that is r from the beginning of May till towards the end of September, or, in favourable feafons,the- middle of Oftober. On many of the larger -dairy farms in feveral diftrrcts, crkefe is- frequently made throughoutthe year j but that made during the winter months is faid to becon- iiderably inferior in quality, and much longer in becoming fit for fale, or for ufe, than that which is -made within the above period*. In Glouceflerfhire the fcafon of making thin cheefe is from "April to November ; but the principal one for ma king thick is during the months of May, June, and the beginning of July. If made later in the fummer, they are found not to acquire a fufficicnt degree of firmnefs to be marketable the enfuing fpringf . But where the cows are well fed in the win ter feafon, in the manner advifed above, good cheefe may undoubtedly.be made ac that" time*- * Modern Agriculture. f Ibid, in the other it was put on quite warm and frelh immediately from the curd ; the quality as well as quantity were alikd in both thefe methods." "The quantity of butter procured from whey is considerable : in two inftances, where particular attention was bellowed to ascertain the faft, not lefs than about an ounce and a half from the gallon^ In regard to the .quality,, it is unqueftionably inferior to that of butter made fiora the cream of railk_, er from the milk, and cream churned together, but not fo much fo as ftated by Mr. Mar/hall in his Rural Economy of Gloucellermire, which is one-third. In the Report of the County ofl^eicefter it is indeed obferved, "that whey butter fells for nine-pence per pound, when other butter fells from ten-pence to eleven-pence; and alfo that eighteen cows will make about feventeen pounds" (fixtce* ounceseach) of whey-butter per week ; which is a circumftance, Mr. Donaldfon thinks, " that cer. tainly roerits the attention of thofe who are in the praftic* of making either one-meal -or fw-mci cheefes. " VOI.HV Y oSO Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Dairying. Maklflg of Chcefc. ]\fi/khtg. The times of milking are different in different cheefc-diilricts : in Chc(hirethey are in the fummcr feafon at fix o clock both morning and evening, and in winter at day light in the morning and immediately before dark in the evening. But in Wilts, Suffolk, and fome other counties, the people are frequently employed in milking by four o clock in the morning in fummer -, and the bufinefs in a dairy of forty or fifty cows is nearly completed before the period at which it commences in Chefhire.* The latter would feem the mod preferable practice : as when the cows are brought home to the farm-yard, which is the bed: method where the paftures are within a fhortdiftance, they are milked unfettered, and the. bufmefs is over before the heat increafes fo much as to make the cows rcft lcfs and unruly. The farmer himfelf, or fome careful perfon, mould always attend the milking of the cows, for the double purpofe of feeing the work properly done, and carrying the milk in large buckets, into which it has been occafionally emp tied from the pails, to the dairy, to be poured through a drainer into coolers for the purpofe, or the cheefe-tub, preparatory to applying the rennet. In ali well- managed dairies particular attention fhould be paid to the thorough milking of the cows ; as where this is omitted the cows are not only apt to go dry, but be come more liable to bedifeafed. Befides, it has been (ho wn that the laft part of the milk is very greatly fuperior in quality to that which is firft drawn from the bag. The expeditious cooling of the milk, by putting it into leaden or other pans, is found of much utility in retarding the procefs of fermentation in the fummer feafon, and thereby preventing the milk from turning into a date of acidity. But in winter it isobvioufly unneceflary. It has been fuggefted, than when the feafon is hot the quality of the cheefe might be improved, and the difficulty of its being made lefTened, by cooling down the milk as foon as poflible by repeatedly drawing off and returning it to the cooler. Quality of the Milk. It is obvious that on the quality of the milk the goodnefs of the cheefe, with common management, mud in a great meafure depend. The quantity of cream that is ufed is generally in practice different, according as they are one-meal or two-meal cheefes. In Chediire " the general cuftom, however, in the bed dairies, is to take about a pint of cream, when two-meal cheefes are made, from the night s milk of twenty * Marshall s Rural Economy of Gloucefterfhire. Cultivation of Graft Land* Dairying* Making of Clieefc. 6 { J I cows. Jnerder o make<heefc of the bed quality, and in the greated abund ance, it is admitted that the cream fiiould remain in the milk; but whether the cream that is once feparated from it can by any means be again fo intimately, united with it as not to undergo a deccmpofition in the after-procefs, admits of fome doubt. There is, at lead, no abfurdity in attempting to prevent the reparation of two bodies which it is the profeffed intention to unite again. If a checfe made entirely of the night s milk on which the cream has rifen be as rich as one made of new milk, all other circumftances being alike, it is a proof that milk and cream after being feparated may, by heating alone, become as it where new milk again. Experiment alone can decide this point : but the practice here is to unite the milk and cream, as will be mown hereafter ; and the dairymen fay, that when fo united it differs not from new milk as to the purpofes of cheefe-making."* If the whole milking be directly made ufe of in its fimple date for the checfe, it is denominated a one-meal cheefe ; but where two milkings are blended, or two-meal cheefe made, the quality of the milk ufed differs confiderably ; in fome cafes the whole of the cream of the firft meal is abdracted, and in all cafes a certain portion. In fome dairies the milk of the fird meal is fet in the leads or other veffels as ufual ; and as it is the evening s milk that is in common added to the fucceeding morning s, the operation of cheefe-making begins immediately after that of the morning milking is completed, as about five or fix o clock. The cream of the evening milk being fkimmed off, the milk is carried and put into the cheefe-tub, refer ving fometimes a half, fometimes a third, but more frequently only three or four gallons, to be applied as below. The .milk referved, in any of thefe propor tions, after being put into a brafs pan and made fcalding hot, by placing the pan on a furnace or in a veffel of hot water, is one half of it poured into the cheefe-tub among the cold milk, and the other into the pan in which the cream had been put. The cream and the hot milk being intimately incorporated, the whole is poured into the cheefe-tub, which by this time has received a great addition, if not the whole of the morning s milk, warm from the cows. Thus the different meals milk forms, as it were, a fluid of the fame nature, equal in quality and tempera ture, and to which the rennet is applied in the ufual manner. This re-union, or, in the dairy phrafe, melting the cream, is probably the bed method practifed ; but it is, we believe, not fo effectual in forming cheefe of the bed quality as that where the milk is entirely new. * Agricultural Report, 4to. 3 Y 2 , 532 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying. Making of Checfe, In rf\.\k\r\gjkim-milk-cheefes the milk is fet in the Irads or pans as ufual, in which ftate it remains longer or fhorter, according to the weather, care being taken to fkim off the cream, or to drain off the milk, in proper time, before it begins to acquire a fourifh tafte. If that mould at any time happen, either from the excef- five heat of the weather, or owing to fome inattention in the general management ; in place of putting the fkim-milk upon the furnace to give it that degree of heat Tuppofed to be neceffary for facilitating the coagulation after the rennet is applied, and which is the ufual practice, the method is, to put it directly into the cheefe- tub, and to pour in fuch a quantity of hot water as will give the wiflied-for tem perature. By this means, the rifk of the milk breaking while heating on the fur- : nace, which when not quite fweet and frelh it is apt to do, is avoided without in convenience mother refpects. In this fort of milk it is nccefiary to add fomewh-at more rennet than is ufually applied to a fimilar quantity of milk, which contains either the whole or a great portion of the cream. Prtparin^tbe Rennet. Milk may be coagulated, or turned into a curdled Mate, ;by the application of any fort of acid ; but that fubftance which is moft commonly ufed in the making of cheefe is^the maw or ftomach of a young calf prepared for the purpofe, and which is generally denominated rennet. The maws, which ufually contain a curdled kind of fubftance, on being purchafed from the butcher, arc opened, and the curd or thick fubflance taken out : this, having been repeatedly -wailicd in cold water, as well as the bag which contained it, is again replaced with a considerable addition of fait, and then packed in ajar, into which is poured a very ftrong brine of fait and water. In many inftances the maws are allowed to remain in this ftate for about twelve months before ufmg ; in others, after having remained for fome time covered with the brine, they are taken out ; and an additional quan tity of fait being applied, they are hung up in the dairy, or fome other convenient place, .to dry, and remain in that ftate till wanted for ufe. But, from the preparation in this mode being made at different times, there muft be a great difference in their ftrength, and of courfe in their effects, either when made ufe of after being fteeped in fome fort of liquid, or in the piece. Whether -the proportion of rennet necefTary for a feafon be kept in brine or pickled, and afterwards dried, the beft method, as attended with thegreateft degree of certainty in regard to its being of equal ftrength and quality, is to extract the fubftance from the whole at once. This is frequently the cafe inCjiem-irr, fcfut in few other diftricts. Cultivation of Grafs lMnd.-~Dalrying* Making of Cheefe. 633 In preparing thefe fubftances it is therefore, probably, a better practice to put the whole of the maws into an open vcflel, and to pour in two or three pints of fpring water for each, according to the number. In this Hate they fliould be allowed to Hand about twenty-four hours. They then may be taken out and put into other veflels, with about half the quantity of water, and allowed to remain for a like period, then wholly removed and thrown afide as no longer of ufc, and the firft and fecond infufions mixed together, and drained through a fieve into ajar or other veflcl, a considerable quantity of fait being added. This liquor is then fit for ufe, and requires no after-management beyond that of taking off the fcum that ufually rifes to the top, and of adding a little fait when that already in the jar i* nearly diflblved. About half a pint of this preparation, wine meafure, is moftly fufficient for coagulating fuch a quantity of milk as will make fixty .pounds cxf cheefe. When a portion is taken out, the liquor ftiould be well ftirred up. Other modes of preparing this fubftance are in ufe, but perhaps without affording any fuperiority. Colouring. From the practice of colouring cheeTe having been fo long common in the cheefe-diftricts, it is probable that thofe of the beft quality would be in a great meafure unfaleable if they did not polTefs the requifite colour. The degree of colour is regulated chiefly by the name under which it is intended the cheefe fhould be fold. The introduction of this practice originated in the intention of convey ing an idea of richnefs ; but the leaneft cheefe always requires the greater!: quantity of colour to bring it to the proper appearance*. The material which is ufually employed for this purpofe is Spanim arnetta. The weight of a guinea and a half of it is confidered in Chcfliire fufficient for a cheefe of 6olbs. ; and in Gloucefter- fliire an ounce is the common allowance to the hundred weight. There arc diffe rent ways of preparing as well as of applying it. The method ufed in Chcfhire is, when the dye is wanted in the morning, to tie up the neccfTary quantity of pounded arnetta in a linen rag, and to put it into about half a pint of warm water in the preceding evening. In the morning, immediately before applying the ren net, the infufion of arnetta is poured into the milk, and the mixture is then weU ftirred about, fo as to make the milk and the dye incorporate intimately together. In other diftricts it is common to rub a piece of unpounded arnetta, aftex having been previoufly dipped in milk, on a fmooth ftone, in the fame manner that paint * Chcftura *to Report, 531 Cultivation of Gntfs Land. Dairying, Ahtking of Ckecfe. is ground. The colouring thus obtained is mixed with the milk in the cheefe-Cuh, in the manner and at the period before mentioned, care being taken to prevent any of the unreduced particles of arnetta from falling into it. Setting the Curd. .The degree of temperature which milk ought to poffefs, fo as to be in the beft poffible condition for applying the rennet, is a point by no- means fully decided. It is, however, admitted that the quantity and quality, or texture of the curd, depend much on the length of time the curd is in forming* and that on the quantity and ftrength of the coagulurn employed, the (late of the atmofphere, and the heat of the milk, at the period of its being mixed*. In this * Mr. Marflwll obferves that " it is known from daily experience, that the warmer the milk is when the rennet is put to it, the fooner it will coagulate with a given quantity of rennet of a given ftrcngth. It is equally well known, that the cooler the milk, and the longer it is in coagulating, the more tender and delicate the curd becomes : on the contrary, if the milk be too hot, and the coagulation takes place too rapidly, the curd proves tough and harfli. But it feems to be a fa ft equally well eftablifhed, that a cheefe made from milk which has been coolly andflowly coagulated, is longer before it becomes marketable than one made from milk which has undergone a lefs deliberate coagulation ; and which oeing drier, and of a harfher texture, fooner becomes cheefey and fit for the tafter. Therefore, the great art in this ftage of the procefs lies in the degree of warmth of the milk when set ; that is, when the rennet is put to it; or in the degree of heat retained by the curd when it comes, that is, when the coagulation has fufficicntly taken place ; or in the length of time between the fetting and coming. .Which length of time may be regulated either by the degree of the warmth of the milk when let ; or by the ftate of warmth in which it is kept during the time of coagulation ; or by the quantity and ftrength, taken jointly, of the rennet." With a view to obtain fomc information on this fubjeft, he made the following experiments ; " In 1781, June 5, twenty-three gallons of milk, heated to ninety-fix degrees of Fahrenheit s fcale, with two tea-cupfuls of weakifh rennet, came in one hour; the curd delicate and good. 6th, The fame quantity of milk, of the fame heat, with one tea-cupful of rennet, came in nearly the fame timej the curd fomewhat tough ; owing, probably to the milk having been burnt to the kettle in which it was heated. 7th. Twenty-feven gallons of milk, heated to ninety-four degrees, with the fame quantity of jennet, came in about two hours ; the curd very good. 8th. Twenty-fix gallons of milk, heated to one hundred and two degrees, with one tea-cupful of rennet, came in two hours and a half; curd very good. 9th. Twenty -.five gallons of milk, heated to one hundred degrees, with a tea-cupful and a half of rennet, came in about an hour and a half; the curd good, but fomewhat tough ; owing, pjefhap*, to the milk being kept too warm in the cheefe-tub, by being covered up clofe with a thick cloth. It ii noted, that on the feventh and eighth the whey retained a heat of about eighty-eight degrees, whereas the whey this morning was ninety-two degrees : fo that, perhaps, it is not the heat when it is let, but fne heat when it comes, which gives the quality of the curd. 10th. Twenty-five gallons: ninety-fix }etTVt;es ; two cups, uncovered, came in two hours and a quarter: whey eighty- feven degrees : curd very lender, llth. Twenty-three gallons : one hundred d9grees : more than a tea-cup : uncovered; tiid not come iu two hours ; owing to the rennet being lower in ftrength than before : therefore, added Cultivation f)f Graf* Lund. Dairying* Making of Checfc. matter the practice of almoft every particular dairy differs from that of another. That which is adopted in Cheihire is, that the loweft degree of heat which milk ought to poflefs, when the rennet is applied, is one half of that of the milk from a little more rennet: which brought it in about three hours from thefirft fctting: the whey eighty- fever: degrees: the curd uncommonly tender. ltli. Twi nty-four gallons of milk: one hundred degrees ; two cups ot rennet : uncovered; came in two hours: whey eighty-nine degrees; curd uncommonly tender. 13th. Twenty-eight gallons of milk : ninety-two degrees ; three cups (fay ftrongly renneted) covered up with a coarl e linen clot!) : came in one hour and a half: whey eighty-fix degrees: curd very good, and of a very fine colour: though perhaps would have handled tenderer if it had not ftood fome time after it came before it was broken up. Perhaps, fays he, much depends on its being broken up in the critical minute. 14th. Twenty-eight gallons: one hundred degrees: two-cupfuls : un covered : came in one hour and a quarter : whey ninety-four degrees : curd fomewliat harm., but of a good colour. The change of colour, therefore, he thinks, owing to the change of paiture. " He here notes, that the milk fhould be covered to make it come together: this came and grew hard at the bottom half an hour before it was fel at the top. 15th. Twenty-eight gallons : milk heated to ninety-five degrees : with two cups of rennet; and covered after it had ftood three quarters of an hour : came in one hour and a half: whey eighty-nine degrees (the morning warm) : curd very good and tender. 16 th. Thirty gallons of milk heated to one hundred and three degrees, but lowered by two pails full of cold water to ninety-fix degrees ; with two cups and a half of rennet; and kept clofe covered : came in one hour : whey .ninety-four degrees : curd pretty good, but not fufficiently tender. 17th. Twenty-eight gallons: ninety-feven degrees : two cups and a half : covered ; but not clofe; came in one hour and a half: whey not tried : curd fomewhat tough. It is noted, that the toughnefs was owing, perhaps, to fome milk of a new-calved cow being among it. And, alfo, to try the exaft heat of milk immediately from the cow, immcrged a difh in the pail while milking. After it had lain long enough to receive a degree of heat equal to that of the milk in the pail, emptied it, and immediately milked into it from tbc teat (the cow being at this time about half milked); the heat ninety- five degrees; and likewife, that the cheefesof ycitcrday (the l(Jth of June) prefs remarkably claftic, and fpongy, like a fungus : perhaps owing to the milk s coming too hot ; or perhaps to two or three of the cows being then a-bulling ; or perhaps being made thicker than ufual, the prefs was not heavy enough for them : or perhaps this ill quality is owing to the cold Water being put into the milk. He afterwards found that milk of a cow, on the day of amour, retained, after having ftood for fome time in the pail after milking, ninety-eight degrees of heat. This (hows that the ftate, if not the quality, of the milk is altered by the heat of the cow ; and a cautious dairy-woman always endeavours to keep fuch milk out of her cheefe-tub. * June 13th. Thirty gallons : ninety-five degrees: covered: came in one hour and a half : whey ninety-two degrees : curd pretty good. 19th. Thirty gallons : ninety-two degrees : two cups covered : curd very good. 21ft. Thirty gallons : ninety-eight degrees : lowered by half a pail of cold water to ninety-five degrees : the curd good ; but the cheefes, like thofe of the 16th prefs, hollow and fpongy. Therefore it is probable, from thefe two incidents, that lowering the heat of the milk with cold water has an evil effect. 23d. (Evening) fifteen gallons of new milk" warm from the cow, retaining a heat V36 1 Cultivation of Graft Lund. Dairy fag "-Ma king of Cheefe. rhecow ; thehigheft about twice the natural warmth. From this it is inferred., " that by the time a large dairy of cows can be milked, and the milk be put to gether for the purpofe of artificial coagulation, the dairy-maid will not err mate rially by applying the rennet immediately afterwards.-"* This rule is however very uncertain, and liable to exception, .on account of the variation in the feafons, and the frequent and great changes that take place in- the ftate of the weather in the fame fcafon. Accordingly, " in al! dairies remarkable for cheefe of a fuperior quality, .the hear.of the milk, before the rennet is applied, is raifed or lowered by the addition of warm milk*, or of Scold water; .to that- degree which, in the practice of the particular dairy, is found from experience the meft eligibleo- - -f The milk produced on poor-clayey lands is found to- require more warming.than that afforded \ by fuch as are rich; for where this is much -heated the procefs is rendered mere difficult.. The frothy matter, arifing in -confcqaence of the air that is entangled : with the new milk in pouring it into the cheefe-tub, is in all cafes carefully fldm- rned off, and put into the cream- vefTels. It is thought " furprifing. that in large dairies the ufe of the thermometer is not as well known as that of t\\e. Jkimming-di/b as to afcertain with precifion, by a , courfe of well-conduded- experiments,- the temperature the moft proper for milk . of ninety-two degrees, with two cups and a half of new weak rennet, and clofely covered, came in three quarters of an hour: whey eighty -eight degrees: curd very delicate and good. 25tlu Forty gallons of half- fkimmed milk, heated to eighty feven degrees, with thfee cups- of rennet, flightly . covered, came in three quarters of an hour: whey feventy-nine degrees: curd remarkably good of . tliis fort.. On September 8, in obferving the effed of fome remarkable ftrong rennet, he found that an ordinary tea-cupful coagulated fuffk-iently upward* of-forty gallons of milk, heated to only eighty- eight dfgrees, in thirty-live minutes. " From the whole, of the. fe experiments it appears, he thinks, that curd of a good quality may be obtained from milk heated from 87 to 103 degrees of Fahrenheit s thermometer; provided the rennet be fo proportioned that the time of coagulation be from- three quarters of an hour to two hours and a half; and provided the. milk be kept properly covered during .the procefs of coagulation. And from thefe as well as a variety of other trials, which he made in the courfe of the fummer, it appears to him at prefent, that SO 10 90 are the proper degrees of heat; that from .one to two hours is the proper time of coagulation ; and that the milk ought to be covered fo as to lofe in the procefs about five degrees of its original heat.; But, fays he, cliihature, feafohs, the weather and the pafture, may require that thefe bounds fhould fometimes be broken. A few observations, made in one feafon and in one place, how accurately focver they may have been taken, are by no means adequate to the entire ;lluftration of this very abftrufe fubjccl." * Modern Agriculture, vol. Ill, t Ibid. ofG ntfs Land Dtiiryi H ** Ma fang of Checfe* 537 to poffefs at the time the rennet rs applied, could not fail to be greatly in favour of the quality of the cheefe, and would, in all probability, tend to prevent the crack ing, bliftering, and hoving, which fo frequently take place in cheefe in confequencc of fome mifmanagement in the making.* An inftrument has been lately invented ,f which, if found on experience to anfwer, muft have the effect of throwing a great deal of light on the whole fyftem ofdairy-hufbandry, and muft be the means, in time, of ^ reducing the buftnefs of butter and cheefe-making, which is at prefent carried on without any eftabliftied rules by which the operator can be certainly guided, to fomething like fixed in variable principles. It is termed a lactometer. By the ufe of this inftrument, together with the thermometer, and by difcovering a mean whereby to afcertain the ftrength and quality of the rennet, and the proportion which is necefTary to be ufed for coagulating a given quantity of milk, Mr. Donaldfon fuppofes the ma nagement of a dairy where cheefe is made would be greatly improved. Practice is the only mean by which the operator can acquire a proper knowledge of this branch of the bufinefs ; but the confequences of proper or improper conduct are well known in every cheefe- dairy ; as, when the coagulation is accelerated or retarded beyond the proper time, which in making a 6olb. -cheefe is reckoned an hour and a half, either by giving too much or too little rennet, or by applying it when the milk is too hot or too cold, not only the quantity of the curd is dimi- niftied, but the quality in either cafe materially affected. In the former cafe it becomes of a tough gluey texture ; in the latter it is too tender. After the rennet has been applied the milk-tub is covered up by a board, over which is laid a linen cloth ; and having flood the ufual time, the operator, on finding that the coagu lation is completed, proceeds with the work of feparating the curd from the whey. Breaking and gathering the Curd. Though this bufinefs may appear fimple and uniform, there are few particulars in the art of cheefe. making wherein fo great a difference is obfervable in practice. In fome dairies the curd is at firft broken or cut in various directions with a cheefe-knife, an inftrument made for the purpofe, and ufed with a view of making the whey feparate eafily, and without carrying off with it any richnei^ from the curd. After thefe firft incifions fome time is allowed for the broken curd to fubfide. The knife is then again ufed, and more freely * Donaldfon s Prefent State of Hufbandry, vol. III. t By Mr. Dicas of Liverpool, VOL. ii, 3 Z 538 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying. Making ofC/ieefc. than before ; and while the operator ftirs up the unbroken curd from the bottom with the fktmming-difli in one hand, the larger pieces of curd are cut with the knife held in the other. Having thoroughly broken the curd, and allowed fonic time for its fubfiding, the operator begins to take offthe whey with the flamming-. difli. In other dairies, not lefs celebrated for good cheefe, the fkimming-difh only is ufed in breaking the curd ; and to facilitate the operation of feparating the whey from the curd, fome of the whey that firft rifefc to the top is ikimmed off, and being either heated or cooled, according to the ftate of the weather, and the required confidence of the curd, is again returned into the cheefe-tub, and after remaining a little time the whole is laded off in the ufual manner. All the whey that can- be ex traded without prefTure having been removed, and the cheefe-tulv being raifed at one fide, the curd is collected into a mafs, and at firft prefled with the back of the fkimming difh. When no more whey can be difcharged by this means, others more violent are adopted : the curd is in many cafes cut with the cheefe-knife, as before, to give vent to the whey, and is then prefTed as hard as poflible with the hands ; in, others, a confiderable weight is frequently applied. The curd having been in a great meafure feparated from the whey, it is put into two or three pans, or other vefTels, and the cheefe-makers break it with their hands as fine as poflible; in the courfe of doing which, a proper quantity of fait is fcattered over the curd, and intimately mixed therewith.* In Glouceftermire, when the curd is broken to the requifite finenefs, it is again returned into the cheefe.tub, where it is fcalded, by pouring over the minutely broken curd a pailful of hot water, or of whey, or of whey and water mixed. After the fcalding water or whey is applied ; the whole is brifkly flirred ; and being allowed to fland for fome time, for the curd to fettle at the bottom of the tub, the fcalding materials are (kimmed or poured off; and the curd being prefled as before, fo that no more whey can be extracted, it is put into the vat, and prefled in the common way. When it is properly broken, rubbed, and falted, a cloth is fpread over the cheefe-vat ; and the broken curd being packed into.it, and covered up with the cloth, a board is laid over the vat, and a weight, heavy in proportion to the quantity of curd, placed upon it ; by which means the remaining whey is prefled out.f Mr. Marfhall obferves, that <f it feems to be underftood, that different grounds.. * Donaldfon s Prefent State of Hufbandry, vol. III. f Ibid. Cultivation of Graft Land. Dairying* Making of Cheefe* 539 require different kinds of fcalding liquor. The quantity is in proportion to the quantity of curd, enough to float the curd, and make the mixture eafy to be ftirrcd about with the difh. Part of it is heated to near boiling heat, and this lowered with cold liquid to a heat proportioned to the Mate of the curd : foft curd is fcalded hot, hard curd with cooler liquid. In fcalding, therefore, the dairy- woman has a remedy for any misjudgment her fenfe of feeling may have led her into in the ftage of coagulation : let the curd come too foft or too hard, fhe can bring it to the defired texture by the heat of the fcalding liquid. And here feems to hinge, principally, the fuperior fkill of the Glouceftermire dairy-woman : by running the milk cool, fhe can, in fcalding, correct any error which has been committed in the former operation." Extenfive dairies fhould always be plentifully furnifhed with vats of different fizes, as, when three or four cheefes are made at each meal, a number of vats be come actually in ufe ; and if there are not ftill a number empty, the operator becomes confined in choice, and cannot proportion exactly the vats to the quantity of curd in the cheeieNtub ; and by keeping a little overplus curd from meal to meal a whole cheefe is often fpoiled.* * Mr. Price en the authority of Signer Vitabni gives the following as the method of making Parmefan cheefe : It is " to put, at ten o clock in the morning, five brents and a half of milk, each brent about forty-tight quarts, into a large copper, which turns on a crane, over a flow wood-fire, made about two feet below tlie furface of the ground; the milk is ftirred from time to time; and about eleven o clock, when juft lukewarm, or confiderably under blood-heat, a ball of rennet as big as a large walnut is fqueezed through a cloth into the milk, which is kept ftir ring. By the help of the crane the copper is turned from over the fire, and let ft and till a few minutes pad twelve ; at which time the rennet has fufficiently operated. It is now ftirred up and left to ftand a fliort time. Part of the whey is then taken out, and the copper again turned over a fire fufficiently brifk to give a ftrongifh heat, but below that of boiling. A quarter of an ounce of faffron is now put in to give it a little colour; and it is well ftirred from time to time. The dairy-man frequently feels the curd. When the fm;U, and, as it were, the granulated parts feel rather firm, which is in about an hour and a half, the copper is taken from the fire, and the curd left to fall to the bottom. Part of the whey is now taken out, and the curd brought up in a coarfe cloth hanging together in a tough ftate. It is then put into a hoop, and about half a hundred weight laid upon it for about an hour; after which the cloth is taken on", and the cheefe placed on a fhclfin the fame hoop. At the end of two, or from that to three days, it is fprinkled all over with fait ; the fame is repeated every fecond day for about forty or forty-five days, after which no further attention is required. While falting, they generally place two cheefes one upon another; in which ftate they are faid to take the fait better than u ngly." In making Stilton cheefe, the procefs, according -to the Agricultural Report of Lcicefterfliire, is this ; The night s cream is put into -the morning s new milk with the rennet, and when the curd is 3 Z 2 6 40 Cttfthation of Grafs- Land. Dctiniins,. Maldn* of Ckeefe. * / *- c* o y ./ Having mide choice of a vat or vats, proportioned to the quantity of curd, fo. that the chcefe when fully prefTed, fhall neither over nor under-fill, the operator fpreads a cheefe -cloth loofely over the vat, into which he re-breaks the curd, carefully fqueezing every part of it in the hand ,- and having filled the vat heaped up, and rounded above its top, folds over the cloth, and places it in the prefs. Where the cheefes ufually made are of a large fize, as in Chemire, the operator thrufts a number of iron Ikevvers, through holes made in the fides of the vat for the purpofe, into the curd in various directions. Thefe being withdrawn, the openings made by them ferve as fo many drains for permitting the whey to run off. When the whey, inflead of running freely, only falls in drops, the weight is removed, and the curd rebroken, and, being again put into the vat, is managed in the fame manner as before, and repeated while a drop of whey can be extracted. The curd being now almoll entirely freed from the whey, it is again placed in the vat, a clean cloth having been previoufly fpread for Che purpofe of receiving and inclofing it.* Management in the Prefs. After the vat has been properly placed in the prefs, a fuitable degree of prefTure is applied, which is more or lefs according to the fizes of the cheefes. In all large dairies there are two or three preiTes, all varying in refpect to power, weight, or prelfure. As foon as the vat is placed in the prefs, and the weight applied, Ikewers are again thrufl in through the holes in the fides of the vat : this is done repeatedly during the firft day the vat is in the prefs, come it is not broken as is done with other cheefes., but taken out with a foil-difh altogether, and placed in a fieve to drain gradually ; and as it drains kept gradually preffed, till it becomes firm and dry ; then plated in a wooden hoop, and afterwards kept dry on boards, turned frequently with cloth binders round it, which are tightened as occaiion requires." The method of making green cheefe is this: " For a cheefe of ten or twelve pounds weight, about two handfuls of fage and one of marigold leaves >< and a little parfley, are bruifed and fteeped one night in milk. Next morning the greened milk is ftrained ofl^ and mixed with about one third of the whole quantity to be run. The green and the white milks are then run feparatcly, keeping the two curds apart until they be ready for vatting. The method of mixing them depends on the fancy of the maker. Some crumble the two together, mixing them evenly and intimately ; others break the green curd into irregular fragments, or cut it out in regular figures with tins for this purpofe. In vatting it the frag, ments or figures are placed on the outlides. The bottom of the vat is first fet with them, crumbling the white or yellow curd among them.. As the vat fills, others are placed at the edges, and the re-* iaainder buried fluih with the top." The after-treatment is the fame as that of plain chccfes. * Chf, h.iie 4to Report. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying* Slaking of C/ieefe. 54 1 From the time the vat is firft placed in the prefs, till it is again taken out, does not in common exceed two or three hours. When taken out, the cheefe is put into a veffel with warm or hot whey, in order to hardening its coat or fkin> where it flands for an hour or two ; it is then taken out, wiped dry, and after having remained fome time to cool, is covered with a clean dry cloth ; and the vat being wiped dry, and the cheefe replaced, it is again put into the prefs. In the evening, fuppofing the cheefe to have been made in the morning, which is the common time, it is again taken out of the vat, and another dry cloth being applied, is returned and replaced, what was formerly the upper becoming now the under fide. In this manner it is taken out, wrapped in clean cloths, and turned in the vat twice a-day for two days, when it is finally removed.* Cloths of finer qualities are made ufe of at the different turnings, in order that as little of their impreflion as pofiible may be left on the cheefe. Salting. After the cheefe has been at laft removed from the prefs, it is carried to the faking-houfe, and placed in the vat in a tub filled to a confiderable depth with brine, in which it flands for feveral days, being regularly turned once at 1 eaft every day. The vat is then removed from the brine-tub ; and the cheefe being taken out is placed on the falting-bench, where it flands for eight or ten days, fait being carefully rubbed over the whole every day during that period. When the cheefe is of a large fize, it is commonly furrounded with a wooden hoop, or fillet of cloth, to prevent renting. After it is fuppofed to be fufficiently faked, it is \vafhed in warm water or whey, and, when well dried with a cloth, is placed on what is called the drying-bench, where it remains an equal length of time before it is removed to the keeping-houfe or cheefe-chamber. In fornc dairies, the new cheefes are not put in brine, but kept in the vats on the falting-benches ; and after being rubbed with fait, and turned in the vats daily for a week or ten days, the vats are removed, and the cheefes managed as above. In other dairies the cheefes are faked while the operation of prefling is performing. At every time they are taken out of the prefs for the purpofe of being turned in the vats, they are well rubbed with fait, which for fmall thin cheefes, fuch as are commonly made in Wiltmire and Gloucefterfhire, is found to be fufficient; and therefore, when taken for the laft time from the prefs, in place of any more fait .being applied, they are fet at once upon the drying-benches. In fact, the practice of immerging new-made cheefes in brine is only adopted where they are of.fo large a fize that rubbing fait on the outfide would not be fufficient for anfvvering the intended purpofe.t * Donaldfon s Prefect State of Husbandry, vol. III. + Ibid, 542 Cultivation of Graft Land. Dairying. Making oJ Checje. Management in the Cbeefe-rown. After the checks have been properly faked, and have acquired a competent degree of dry.ncfs, they are carried from the faking, houfe to the cheefe-room, where, after being (bleared with freili butter, they are laid on the floor, or on fhelvcs for the purpofe. For the firft ten days or a fort night they are pretty fmartly rubbed every day, and the fraearing with butter repeated ; but after that period it is onJy necefiary to rub them two or three times a week; yet they fhould be turned every day while in the dairy-man s pofleffion which is longer or fhorter according to the feafon of the year, and the demand. In order to haften the maturation and coating of the cheefe, the temperature of the room fhould be uniform and rather warm. In fome cafes the floors are prepared by being rubbed over with different green vegetable fubltances, fuch as bean-tops &c. and in others covered with dry fubftanccs ; but thefeare probably unneceffary. The produce of a dairy of cows, where the milk is converted into cheefe, is variously ftated by different farmers. In fome diftricts two hundred weight and a half from each cow, whether a good or bad milker, if at all in milk, is con- fidered a good annual return. In others, the average runs as high as three; and in the county of Wiltfhire in particular from three and a half to four is the ufual quantity. From accurate calculations made by Mr. Marfhall, and thefe feveral times repeated, he found that in Gloucefterfhire about fifteen gallons of milk were requifite for making little more than eleven pounds of two-meal cheefe, and that one gallon of new milk produced a pound of curd. It is the general opinion of dairy-farmers, that the produce of from two and a half to three and a half acres of land is neceffary to maintain a cow all the year round. " Taking, therefore, the medium of the three averages of cheefe above mentioned (amounting to 355^5. from each cow), the quantity of cheefe by the acre is nslbs."* Every calculation of this kind mud, however, be extremely vague and uncertain. -j* The correctnefs of this is, however, to a confiderable degree confirmed by Sir William Petty s Statement, in his political Economy of Ireland, in regard to the quantity of milk which he fuppofed the cows in that country to yield in the year, viz. " for ninety * Donaldfon s Prefent State of Husbandry, vol. III. i It has been ftated by the author of the Agricultural Report of Somerietfhire, that the grofs pro duce of a chcefe-dairy frequently averages twelve pounds the cow, and in particular cafes fourteen pounds; " but this can only be done," fays he, " when cheefe is at the prefent enormous price of near fixpence per pound twelve months old ; and fat hogs at fixpence per pound." The advance on both thefe articles has been considerable iince the above was written, fo that the profit muft now ftantl much higher. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Dairying. Making of Checfe. 543 days three gallons, for other ninety days one gallon ; for the next ninety days a quarter of a gallon, and for the remainder of the year none, making in all three hundred and eighty-four gallons ; which, confidering that in every dairy a certain quantity of cream is abflradlcd before the milk is put into the cheefe-tub, it may be fuppofed, when converted into one-meal or two-meal cheefes, to make little more or lefs than 355 Ibs. as has been juft ftated." It is obvious that, in both the butter and cheefe-dairy, a great part of the profit muft ncceffarily arife from the keeping and fattening of hogs. In this in tention the fkim-milk, butter-rnilk, and cheefe-whey, mould be converted to the purpofe for which they are the moft adapted, which would feem to be that of fupporting fows that have pigs, and rearing young pigs. It has been obferved The following eftimate, made at that time, of the expenfes and produce of a dairy, where both the land and cows were oitlicjirst quality, may in Come degree fliow the advantage of this management : Dairy Twenty Cows. Dr. I. s. d. Cr. I. s. d.- To two milkers, forty weeks, at 3s per wk. 6 By ninety hundred of cheefe, at To a man s labour, winter ferving cattle, 45s.*" V - 202 10 O changingtheirpafture,fellingcheefe,.c. 400 By calves - - - 15 O To dairy women, 4s. 6d. per week - 11 14 By butter - - - 10 To dairy utenfils, candles, fait, brufties, By hogs - - - 25 O mops, and all other articles - 4-60 " To arnetta - 1 O 252 10 & To rent, thirty acres of fummer pafture, 40s. - - - . - 60 00* To flamming- the fame, and making fi-x tons of bay - - - - 3 O 1 To rent of fifteen acres mown ground, 40s. 30 ft To making the hay, fay thirty tons, at 12s. per acre - - - - $ To tithe, taxes, &c. fay - 10 139 To profit, intereft of money, and the decreafing value of cows included 113 10 0" N. B. A large dairy might be kept for 25s. per cow. * At tbis time (January 1797) cheese of last year s making is worth three pounds per hundred 54 i Cultivation of Graft Land.~~-l)alrying.-][I&king (if Chcefe* that " in thefe applications they are better than any other article of food within the farmer s command, that is to be had equally cheap ; and by means of keeping a number of breeding fows, proportioned to this ufe of the milk and whey of the dairy, and making a proper provifion for the other fort of hogs, fo that they need not rob this application, the moft profit poffible will be made of thefe important objects to the farmer, by his cows and fvvine."* In this fyftem of management it is of vaft advantage to have the hog-fties convenient to the dairy, with fuitablc funk citterns, properly formed for the reception and retention of the milk, whey, &c., which mould be conveyed to them by pipes from the lip of the cheefe-prefs, and a receiver on the outfide of the dairy or fcalding-room, To that everything may be taken away without the labour of being carried,-]- and nothing be wafted. Mr. Abdy, in fpeaking of the butter-dairies of Epping, remarks, that the farmers there buy pigs at four or five months old, (which in the year 1788 coft about i8s. a piece,) and keep them on fkimmed milk for the fpace of a month, and then fell them at the profit of about 6s. The proportion in which they are kept is about that of one to every three cows in milk j which, as their long-horned Derbyfhire breed of cows moftly continue to milk for nine months, will be in the ratio of three pigs to each cow, or eighteen fhillings, but at the prefent prices more than thirty Shillings. The encouragement of the dairy is on the whole ftrongly recommended, but only on condition that a different fort of management be adopted from that now praftifed, in refpeft to the feeding of the cows, which are almoft universally depaftured in the fields both fummer and winter; in confequence of which, the dung produced even by a large dairy is trifling indeed ; whence arifes a manifeil declen- fion in the fertility of the land, and a grazing farm may be diftinguimed at a great diftance from a fdairy one. " In this exhaufted ftate (fays the author) the dairy land muft remain, unlcfs a different yftem of management be fuccefsfully inculcated." It is therefore fuggefted that all dairy farms mould be accompauied with a due proportion of arable, as perhaps a. fourth part, for the purpofe of raiting various kinds of crops as winter food, fuch as have been noticed; and that proper ftalls and bartons be creeled as a refidence for the cows during the winter months, in which they may be foiled witk he.fe productions. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXII, t Ibid, SECT. IX. Cultivation of Grafs-Land, Methods of fattening Animals. FATTENING ANIMALS different in different Cafes GRAZING Kinds of Land when mofl profitable Situations of Circumjlances which jliould be regarded in on what it depends proper Modes of flocking Lands in what neceffary to be confidered in Jliould be adapted to the Nature of Land pur- chafing Animals in what neceffary in Principles to be regarded in dif ferent Situations require a difference in Animals of both Cattle and Sheep Kinds for Advantages of different Kinds of- what to be regarded in Age of Sheep Stock Sorts mofl beneficial in different Sorts of grazing Lands different Syflems of grazing Management Advantages of- with Cattle with Sheep Importance of having early Grafs Lambs Circumjlances to be attended to in Proportions of different Sorts of Cattle and Sheep Stock in different Cafes of Jliould never be overflocked in Difpofal of fatted Stock Farmers mufl be direcled by Circumjlances in Advantage of Grazing in fluenced by a variety of Caufes Statements of Profit of in different Cafes of- Horfes may fometimes be admitted on grazing Grounds improved Syflem of turning Swine upon Clover when properly forted Benefits of this Pra&ice SOILING and STALL-FEEDING highly advantageous Syflems the former in Summer the latter in the Winter Months Soiling too little attended to has been objected to on different Accounts not well founded great Superiority of Jhown ufeful in producing abundant Manure what neceffary in proper Yards and Sheds neceffary to Culture of proper Crops for much depends on proper foddering in Litter a great Objecl in . clofc Attention to nec,effaryin STALL-FEEDING different Methods of in dif- VOL, ii. 4 A 5 i 6* Cu 1 1 i i fl f ion of G raft Land. G raz ing. Na tit re of. J erent Dift rifts Subftances that may be nfed for proper Management in Cattle mufi be kept perfectly dean great Attention neceffary to Litter proper for Rea/on for commencing of- varying of Food neceffary in proper Sorts of Food fur Proportions of neceffary for green Kind iifeful in dry Kinds proper for Carrots Potatoes Cabbages Grains Turnips Oil- Cake Oats Bran DifiiUers-WaJh Points neceffary to be regarded in Statements of Refutes of Experiments in HOUSE-LAMB fuckling proper Lamb-houfe or Suckle neceffary in proper Kinds of Ewes for careful feed ing of Ewes neceffary Management of in Lamb-houfe good Supplies of Food neceffary to prevent Exliauftion of Ewes Time Lambs are kept Profit they afford. HIS is a fort of management which is conftantly more or lefs connected with grafs land, but which differs very confiderably in the different practices which are purfued in bringing the animals to the proper ftates of fatnefs for which they are defigned. Grazing There are particular fituations and kinds of grafs land on which this fyftem of management may be had recourfe to with much more profit and fuccefs than that of dairying. This is moftly the cafe in all thofe diftricts where the extent of arable land is inconfiderable when compared with that which is in the ftate of pa ft ure, and of courfe the value of grafs-produce but fmall in comparifon to that of fattened animals. In all the tracts of grafs land that arc fufficiently fine and rich enough in quality to fatten oxen or other large cattle, this practice may be adopted and carried on with profit and advantage, and is probably the beft application of fuch lands that can be attempted. This indeed is fully fhown by moft of the rich, fine, marfhy,. or other tracts of grafs land in different parts of the kingdom being u! moft invariably conducted under fome branch of the grazing fyftem. The fuccefs of this practice, like thofe of moft others employed in the art of Jhufbandry, will depend on different circumftances ; as the fituation and quality of the land, the accuracy of the management in regard to the method of flocking and feeding it ; the nicety of the farmer s judgment in adapting the animals in nature, fize and quality, to its particular condition ; and, above all, to his difcernment in ielecting fuch ftock, of whatever kind it may be, as is perfectly healthy and difpofed CQ fatten, as well as in obtaining it at fuch price as that it. may pay well for the Cultivation of Grajs Land Grazing. Nature of \ 8$c. c. 547 keep befiowed upoft it ; and in ultimately difpofing of it, when brought into proper condition, to the beft advantage. The flocking of grazing lands with a proper kind of animals is probably one of the moft nice and difficult points in the whole range of farming. In the natural ftate, fuch animals are in general produced on the lands as are fuitcd to the Rare and nature of their herbage ; thus, in the mountainous diftricls, where the grafs is fhort and light, the fmall breeds of both cattle and fheep prevail ; while in the low, rich, marfhy, or other paftures, where the grafs is more full and luxuriant, we have the larger breeds of thcfe different animals. It will therefore be neceffary, in this bufinefs, for the farmer to confider two things : -fir ft, what fort of (lock may be the moft proper for the particular kind of land on which they are to be grazed ; and, in the fecond place, what forts may afford the greateft profit in the confump- tion of the herbage. It will probably in moft cafes be found, that upon the ftrong and more dry rich paftures the larger forts of cattle and fheep will be the moft proper, and turn out to the greateft advantage; but that on fuch as are lefs dry and luxuriant the different fmaller breeds of cattle, as well as fheep, may be found to pay the beft. This is in fome degree proved by the practice of the graziers in differentdiftricl:s. On the rich lands in Suffex * and Lincolnshire, as well as other grazing counties, they prefer the large breeds of cattle as well as {heep for the purpofe ; while in many others that are lefs fertile the fmaller forts are found more to the advantage of the grazing farmer. In paftures where the graft is fhort, fheep are moftly the proper fort of ftock. But befides this circumftance of adapting the ftock to the nature and fituation of the land, the properties of the breeds muft be attended to. Thofe forts, whe ther cattle or fheep, which have the property of keeping themfelves Jat, or in tolerable condition, with the leaft expenditure of food, ihould be conftantly pre ferred, whatever the fize or breed may be. It is a quality that has been obfervcd. to be of much greater importance to the grazier than that of fize, abftra&cdly con fide red. -j- It has been well obferved, that where the grazier has fine and rich pafttires, he may " choofe his beafts as large as he can find them, provided they are of the right breed and fhape ; but let him always prefer fhape to fize ; for it will affuredly pay him better." And it is added that (< thofe who are upon indifferent graf% * Synopfis of Husbandry. * Annals of Agriculture, vt 1. XXXII, 4 A 2 ,548 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Grazing. Animals proper for. Cattle. muft take care to proportion the fize of their beafts to the goodnefs of their paf~ tures ; their cattle had much better be too fmall than too large; there are vaft tracts of 4and that will anfvver well in grazing, which are not good enough to fup~ port large breeds."* The fame thing, probably, holds good in a great meafure with refpect to flieep. Where the flock is bred upon the land, there will be little difficulty in fixing upon fuch animals as are the mod fuitable in thefe different intentions ; but as it will frequently be necefTary for the farmer to purchafe his flock at fairs and other places, much care and attention, as well as knowledge, will be requifite for him to do it in the moft advantageous manner. It is of great importance in this bulinefs to provide fuch as have been kept in a proper manner, and are in a healthy, thriving condition, as, where the contrary is the cafe, they are difficult, and require a much greater length of time, to be brought into the flate proper for fale than would otherwife have been necefTary. It is perhaps experience alone that can qualify the grazier to form a correct judgment in thefe refpects : in general, however, he is led to the choice of flock by no fixed or fcientific principles, but by the impreflion the appearance of the animals have upon him. It has been obferved that the experienced grazier, who has been accuftomed to attend fairs and markets, knows at fight, or by the afliflance of the flightefl touch, whether the animals he is about to purchafe will fuit him. Their general form and looks pleafe him. They are every where clean ,- have little offal about them ; their eyes are full and vivid j their countenances brifk ; their fkins alive, and their flefh mellow. On the whole, they have the refemblance of thofe which have been grazed before with fuccefs. Others are rejected, from the grazier not having found any fuch as they referable to have done wellr-but many to have turned out in an unprofitable manner.f There are, however, principles in this branch of the farmer s bufinefs which may be attended to with great advantage, as the animals have certain points or parts, the proper or improper forms of which denote them to be valuable or the contrary for this purpofe. Thefe are, that the legs fhould be fhort in proportion to the fize of the animal ; the back very flraight, broad and flat ; the loins wide $ the carcafe deep, round, or rather barrel-fliapcd below ; the fore-quarters round, full, and fp reading ; the bones fmall ,- the flefh affording an elaflic feel ; the Ikin * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXX II* r Marshall s llural Economy of Midland Counties, vol. I a Cultivation of Graft Land. Grazing. Animals proper for. Cuttle. 5 #) thin, and a difpefition to fatten well, and on the beft parrs. Where thefe marks arc predominant the Mock is moftly fuitable for the purpofes of the grazier. It has likewife been remarked, that where the hair of the hide, in fattening Cattle, is inclined to curl inftead of being ftraight, they arc m oft difpofed to thrive, This has been found to be the cafe in practice in different parts of the kingdom.* In lean beads alfo, when the hair of the hides is curled, they commonly keep them- felves in better condition than where the contrary is the cafe. In all cafes a dif- pofition in the animals, of whatever fort they may be, to wildnefs, and not remain ing quietly in the paftures, forms an infurmountable objection in this fyftem of management; as no animal ever fattens well that has a tendency to ramble: it is quietnefs, feeding quickly, and lying much, that has the greateft tendency to make them become fat in a fhort time. From the refult of actual experiment with four different beafts, in which the lead poflible difference could not be difcovered on the moft minute examination, it has been mown that too much attention cannot be beftowed in the choice of the breeds of fattening flock, as, though they were in every refpect the fame in appearance, two, from their fuperiordifpofuion to fatten, were found to afford a profit in the proportion of fifteen {hillings the week, while the other two did not yield more than about five millings and ten-pence.-)- In different fituations different forts of both cattle and fhecp muft often be pre ferred from the eafc and convenience of procuring them ; but the graziers in the midland diftricts for the moft part find that variety of the long-horned, termed the Craven breed, to anfwer the beft, as having the moft advantageous form, and the greateft difpofition to fatten readily, efpecially as improved by Mr. Bakewell. la Lincolnmire fame prefer the large fhort-horned breed, others long-horned, with a mixture of other kinds ; as the different forts of Scotch, and fuch as are bred in the neighbourhood. In Somerfetmire the dark-red Devonfhire breed is the moft prevailing fort, which have alfo of late been more in demand by the beft graziers in Leicefterfhire, Oxfordfhire, and Warwickfhire. In the London markets thcfe arc faid to come next to the Galloway Scots that are fattened by the Norfolk and Suffolk graziers, in the finenefs of the grain of their flefli and their internal fatnefs.J The Cumberland and other North-Country graziers moftly employ the home breeds, which are in general of the long-horned kind, with both the Scotch breeds,, * Annals of Agriculture, and Weight s Hufbandry in Scotland. { Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIV. J Billingfley in Somerfetfhire Report. Cultivation of Grafs Land Grating* Animals proper for. Cllle. the Kiloe and Galloway. They find the Kiloes the quickeft feeders, the Galloways the next, and rheir own the flowed.- The He re for dili ire, Glamorganfhire, and SulTo k Polled breeds are all found valuable as grazing dock in different fituations. The breeds of the particular neighbourhood, as well as cattle of the fmall Wclfh or Scotch kind, may often be the mod profitable where the grafs lands are not of a rich or fertile nature, as the fize of thefe may be more eafily proportioned to the quality or goodnefs of the lands ; and there are fcarcely any fo indifferent as not to be capable of bringing the fmalleft to a fufKcient date of fatnefs for the market. In regard to the defcriptions of this fort of dock that may be employed with the gread profit by the grazing farmer, they are unquedionably oxen and fpayed heifers, the latter in general fattening not only much better, but more expedi- tiou{ly,t but are not capable of being procured with fuch facility ; and of the former kind, fuch as have been accu domed to work arc preferred in almod every grazing didricr, as both fattening more kindly, and making better beef than others that have not been employed in that way.J; When killed at a grearage, after being- kept to work, the beef has been found extremely good,$ In fome cafes cows that have become dry, as well as fuch old cows as are found unfit for other ufes, are purchafed by the grazier for the purpofeof fattening ; but the danger of fuccefs in .thefe indances is always confiderably greater: of courfe, though they occadonally turn out to much advantage, fuch as have been mentioned above are condantly to be preferred. Cows, efpecially thofe that are of much age, fcarcely ever fatten well, and never in a quick manner : they can therefore hardly ever be equally pro* fi table for the ufes of the grazier as thofe of other fort of young ftock. Whenever cows are employed for the purpofeof grazing, they mould condantly be let take the bull either before they are turned into the padures, or as foon after as poflible, and be always in a date fit for the market at lead three months before the period of their calving. In this bufinefs, rather young or middle-aged cattle dock are perhaps always to be as much preferred as poflible, from their having in general a greater propenfity to thrive and become fat. And it is of material confequence, as has been juft mentioned, that they are in a good thriving condition when bought in ; as when this is the cafe they become fat with lefs food, and in a much fliorter fpace of time. * Corrected Report of Cumberland and Northumberland. tlbid. \ Lifle s Hufbandry, vol. II. Ibid. fj Annals of Agriculture, Cultivation of Graft Land Grazing. Animals proper for Sheep. bSi In regard to fiieep flock, it is probable that in general the large improved long- wool led breeds may be the mod profitable on the more rich and productive paf- tures but on thofe where there is a lefs degree of fertility, and the grafs is fhorter the more fmall fhort- wool led improved breeds are preferable for the ufes of the grazier. In the firft of thefe cafes, that fort which is termed the New JLcicefter has of i:ite years had numerous advocates, and is, perhaps, when all its properties are considered, to be in general preferred to any of the other long-woolled breeds : thoupfn, iii particular inftanccs of very rich grazing lands, in the view of wool, there are other forts that may probably be more advantageous. Where wethers are capable of being procured of the New Leicefler kind, they moflly turn out an excellent flock for the grazing farmer. In the latter inftance the South Downs are in common the moll advantageous fort, as not being exceeded, perhaps, by any of the fhort or middling-woolled breeds. There are many other breeds of both the long and the fhort- woolled kinds that may be employed with equal if not greater advantage in particular fituations, and under particular c ire urn fiances* In Somerfetmire the Polled fheep of the lower part of that diflricr have lately gained ground aver thofe of the Dorfetfliire fheep, formerly the prevailing fort by the bed grazing farmers. They afford a large fhear of wool, fatten quickly, and particularly on the internal parts. They are fuppofed capable of improvement by crofting with the new Leicefler breed.* The Romney Marfh graziers principally employ the white-faced Polled and the South Down breeds, both of which they find 1 profitable on their lands. The Cumberland graziers chiefly flock with the true black-faced Heath and Cheviot breeds of fheep, the former of which they find the more quick feeders, as well as more hardy. -f It has been obferved to be an advantage in the grazing of fheep, to procure them from fituations where the lands are lefs rich than thofe on which they arc to be fattened, as under fuch circumftances they are found to thrive in a more rapid manner, and, from their bearing the pen or fold with lefs injury, become fat in a ihorter fpace oftime.J In the fyftem of grazing management, many different methods of practice are employed, both in refpect to neat cattle and fheep. With fome graziers it is a method to purchafe their cattle in the fairs in the autumn feafyn, about October, or in the following month, fupporting them, during the winter, principally with * Soraerfet Report, t Cumberland Report* J.Kent s Hints, 553 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Grazing. Different Syftems of. ftraw, or fometimes, which is a much better practice, with a little hay mixed with it, till towards the beginning of March, continuing their fattening through that and the fucceeding month with fome fort of fucculent food, fuch as turnips, pota toes, or other fimilar kinds, until the grafs be in a ftate fit to be turned upon in May, on which they may be carried forward and completed according to circum- fiances about Auguft, or in the following month. Another method of management is to purchafe the beafts lean, as foon as the grafs lands are in a ftate fit to be turned upon in May, wholly completing their fattening on the grafs about the latter end of October, or later in the autumn, ac cording to their quicknefs in feeding. In this fyftem of practice the fmaller forts of cattle ftock may be found in general the moft advantageous, efpecially where the lands are not of the moft fertile or luxuriant kind. The grazier has alfo fometimes recourfe to another mode of proceeding in his fyftem of fattening neat cattle ; but which is, we believe, in general lefs profitable than either of the preceding methods : this is that of buying in his ftock at fuch periods, according to the difference in their fizes, as that they may be ready to be difpofcd of about April, or in the fucceeding month, a period at which they ufually fetch a high price. In this fyftem, with large oxen or other forts of beafts, it is fometimes the practice to keep them through two winters, giving them only one fummer s grafs ; being in the firft winter not fully fed, but kept in good grafs in the fummer feafon, and forced on with the beft feeding in the fecond ; but with the fmaller forts of ftock, one fummer s grafs and a winter s ftalling is the ufual mode ; the cattle being bought in as foon in the fpring as the grafs is rifen to a good bite. In fome diftricts heifers are preferred to oxen, in which cafe they buy them in about March or April, and, after keeping them through the fummer, fell in Octo ber and November. This method is thought by fome a profitable fyftem of ma nagement. All thofe methods may probably be pradlifed with advantage under different circumftances; but it is obvious that the firft can only be had recourfe to vvirh propriety where green winter food is raifed in fufficient abundance, and the grazier has a ftore of litter for being converted into manure. Under other cir cumftances the fecond mode of management will be much more profitable. The two laft methods are the leaft convenient, and, probably, on the whole, except in very iavourable circumftances, the leaft profitable, efpecially the former of them, as, from the great length of time which they arc kept, much management and Culti catkn of Graft-Land. Grazing Different Syftems of. 553 attention to food becomes neceflary to render them advantageous; which, with common fervants, is feldom fufficiently regarded. Befides thefe, there is another practice that deferves attention in particular cafes, fuch as that of buying in fmall cattle in tolerable condition in the autumn, as foon as the after-grafs is ready, in order to their being fattened 1 out on the rouens, and difpofcd of towards the latter end of October, or beginning of the following month. This is a practice fometimes beneficially purfued on the rich hay-farms in the eountyof Middlefex. With fheep flock different fyftems of grazing are likewife in ufe. In fome cafes, where the lands are in a ftate of inclofure, it is a profitable practice to buy ewes in lamb in the latter end of fummer or beginning of autumn, keeping them on the inferior forts of grafs-lands-, flubbles, or fallows, till the beginning of January, and then by giving them turnips or cabbages to keep them in good condition through the period of their lambing, and afterwards- in the beft manner that can be con trived, in order that the lambs may become fit for the butcher fufficiently early to admit of the ewes being afterwards fattened, and difpofed of in the beginning of the autumn. Another method of grazing fheep is to purchafe wether flock about the begin ning of May, at the age of two or three years, keeping them fcantily till fome weeks after the grounds have been cleared from hay, then bringing them to good keep in the rouen, afterwards fattening them by means of turnips or cabbages, fo as not to have them ready fooner than the beginning of March, which is ufually the fcafon in \vhich they fetch the beft price. This is a fpecies of grazing-management that moftly affords a good profit to fuch farmers as are fufficiently attentive to it. In addition to thefe methods there is another,, practifed in fome cafes with great profit and advantage, which is that of buying in lambs of the wether or other kinds about the beginning of September. Thefe are kept in different methods by different managers : by fome they are brought forward with the greateft poflible expedition by the beft keep, fo as to be ready to be difpofed of as foon as poffible. Others, however, adopt the contrary method, keeping them only in a middling way during the winter, till about the beginning of April, and then forcing them by good keep, fo as to have them ready for the butcher in Auguft, or continuing them in the following month, and then clearing the whole of the ftock from the land. This is a practice from which great profit is often derived.* * Correded Report of Middlefex, ;/4 Cnlih itiion of Graft-Land. Grazing. Grafs-Lamb. The providing of grafs-Iamb for the markets as early as poffiblein thefprir.g -months is an object of great importance, and which pays the grazier well in many fituations, efpecially near large towns. In this view it is the pradice to procure the more forward ewes, fuch as thofe of the Dorfct kind, which may drop their lambs in the beginning of January, if not before. In Middlefex", where this ma nagement is much attended to inconfequence of the great demand, it is the cuftom to purchafe this fort of ewes at Kingfton, Weyhill, and other fairs in the neigh bourhood. The ewes, in order that they may have a plentiful fupply of milk, arc extremely well kept on turnips, and fine green fweet rouen hay, and the lambs thereby forced forward in fuch a rapid manner as to be ready for the markets in -the beginning of March or. April. The ewes, from their becoming dry fo early, are capable of being fattened anddifpofed of towards Michaelmas, ufually fetching the prices at which they were purchafed in at : as the whole of the flock is in this fyftem. cleared within the year, the farmer has the opportunity of fully aicertain- ing its advantage or difad vantage.* In this management very much depends upon keeping theewcs perfectly well fed, and in dry, warm, inclofed paftures, as without fuch attention the ewes are apt to become thin and lean in confequence of the greatncfs of the evacuation, and afterwards to require a much longer time in being made fat. In the fattening of grafs-latnbs Mr. Marfhall, in his Midland Counties, has mentioned a practice which in particular cafes may be advifable ; this is that of removing the lambs from the ewes when they decline much in milk, before they are perfectly fattened, in order to complete them on young clover, or other forts of fc prime keep." The principle in this cafe is that of the ewes becoming fooner * The account is thus flated by Mr. IMiddleton, in his Survey of the Agriculture of the County of .Middlefex : Lamb, fold at Ewe, do. do. Wool, 2s. 6 d. or - s. d. .. i 10 - i 10 . 2 Together 3 2 Deduft prime coft 1 12 Remains the incre- .fe of au ewe in one year 1 10 Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Gra%ing.<Graf$-Lam$, ready for the butcher : befides, it is fuppofed by fome,, that after the firft flufh of milk is gone and it begins to be fcanty, the lambs thrive better " on grafs alone, away from the ewes," than when kept along with them, as the hankering after the little milk that is afforded prevents their feeding freely on the grafs. Where this, method is followed, which can probably be with advantage only where the milk of the ewes is greatly deficient in fupporting and bringing the lambs forward, much retention muft be paid to having the keep early and in abundance. In this view rye-grafs and white clover for early ufe, and broad clover at a later period, may be the moft proper and ufeful crops. In this management the ewes mould be carefully examined occafionally ; and where much deficiency in the milk is found, the lambs be immediately removed to the paftures. The proportion in which different forts of cattle and fheep flock mould be in troduced upon the grafs lands with the view of being fattened, muft depend chiefly upon the goodnefs of the land, the fize of the flock, and various other circumflances that have been already noticed.* In Somerfetfhire, when at grafs * In the able Agricultural Survey of Lincolufliire, Mr. Young in order to afford a more clear idea of the various proportions, has drawn them into the following tabular form for the richer nuf- tures in that diftrift : Places. Sheep in summer, per acre. Acres per bul- lockiu summer, wk!i the sheep. - Sheep in winter per acre. I Kent. T 11 4 5 5 5 n o i * 2 3 3 3 1 3 2 2 2 5 6 5 2 2 5 3 3 2* S| Xo bullocks. jl 4 2 1 24- 3 3 2 1* 2 1 2 2 i* 2 2 1 1 2 o If 3 2 2 2 o 2^ 1 2 2 o 2 OJL -* 2 2 * 40 30 4U 40 S5 45 Deeping Few, Mr. Graves Alderchurch, Mr. Berridge - Grainthorp, &c. ,-_.. Stallenborougli - - - - Skidbrook ----. Hundred of Skii beck - - Marfh Chapel Average 3^ 11 2 ; B 2 $56 Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Proportions of Stock for. on the rich and middling forts of land, they allow from one acre to an acre and a half to an ox, and fbmeadd one fheep to each ox. The great principle is never to flock in fuch a way as to reftricl the animals in the leaft degree ; as it is by filling themfelves quickly, and lying down much, that the greateft progrefs in fattening is made, whether in cattle, fheep, or any other fort of animals -when at grafs. On the weaker grafs lands a much fmaller pro portion of ftoc k than on thofe of the rich and fertile kind can only beadmittedv Often not more than an ox and a fheep or two, to two acres or two acres and a half. There is alfo another circfrmftance that is neceflary to be attended to in bringing the flock properly forward in the pafturcs, which is that of changing them more fre quently than has generally been the cafe with graziers. On this principle, as well as thofe oftheiraffording greater degrees of warmth and (belter, and thereby promoting the growth of the herbage more abundantly, fmall inclofures may be more advan tageous in the grazing of live flock than large ones ; but to have them varying thefize from ten or fifteen to twenty- five acres or more, according to the na ture of the pastures, may be the perfection of the fyftem : the matter is not, how ever, eafily decided by experiment, as no two pieces of grafs land can fcarcely be ihet with that are precifely equal in all their different circumftances. In the difpofai of the ftock after it has been made fit for the butcher, confidera- ble care is neceffary to perform it in the moft advantageous manner. It has been obferved, that though this is a lefs difficult part of the bufinefs of the grazier than that of buying in, it demands much judgment and experience to manage it in the bell way** Some utility in directing this matter may be derived from a careful attention to the manner of fattening the animals during the time they are at full grafs, and from the confideration of the length of time they have been ; but the moft correct judgment may probably be formed by the occafional ufeof the weighing-machine, by making accurate comparifons of the living with the dead, or profitable weights of different forts of animals that are fold on the farm, as by this means, after a few trials, a facility in correctly deciding on the dead weights of fuch parts of the ftock as the living weights have been fully afcertained in may be attained. It is in this way that the butcher has a fuperiority over the grazier. All the fmaller forts of animals, fuch as calves, fheep, and hogs, may have their living weights afcertained with great eafe and convenience by the fimple mean of * Marshall s Midland Counties, rol. L Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Difpofing of f tit -Stock. *>$% e. pair of large fteelyards being fixed up in any convenient place, and a fort of con- trivance for containing them, with doors at the different ends, ufually termed a cage. The frequent weighing of all forts of fattening animals may alfo be beneficial in other ways ; it will fhow with exactneTs the progrefs that is made in the feeding of any fort of animals, and the proper periods of difpofing of them, as well as any changes that may be necelfary in their pafture or other food, and at the fame time afcertain the pay of each.* In this bufinefs it is moftly, however, the cafe for the grazier to decide by the eye, and the feel of the animal, but this mode is ex tremely fallacious, even with thofe who have had a large experience. In the mode of difpofing of his fat (lock the grazing farmer muft be directed by the nature of his farm and the circumftances of his fituation. In tfie fouthern parts of the ifland, Smith field is the principal market; but in the northern parts of the kingdom thefeveral large towns. In the firft cafe, on the fmaller forts of farms* the fattened ftock is moftly fent up by^rr.en who are folely employed in the bufinefs^ and who are termed diftrict: drovers, being regularly employed by different gra ziers in the fame neighbourhood, and in whom they have the moft perfect: confi dence. But where the farms are very extenfive, fo as to enable the graziers them- felves to regularly fend droves of cattle or other ftock to this market, the common practice is to depend upon falefrnen for the difpofal of them. On very fmall farms, where the lots are not fufficiently large to make it an object to have them brought up in thefe vrxys, it may be more profitable to difpofe of them to the butchers at home. The ad vantage of thefe different markets mu ft depend much upon the particular circumftances of the cafe. Jt has, however* been fuggefted, that amongft the Somerfetfhire graziers it is a prevailing opinion that the London market, from the great fluctuation in the prices on account of the differences in the fupply, is only calculated for thofe who pay a regular weekly attendance, f The difference in the expences, including the falemens commif- fions, are very confiderable, as amounting in London to twelve millings per head, while in the country markets they are not more than from three to five millings.* It is evident, from what has been advanced, that the advantage of grazing mufl be influenced by a variety of curcumftances, and be very different in different inftances and iituations j but that in all cafes it muft very materially depend on * Correfted Report of Somerfetfliire. t Ibid, | Ibid 553 Cultivation of Graf$-Land.~~ Grazing* Pnfits of. the goodnefs of the fyftem, and the excellence or fuperiority of management thafc is pradtifed. It has been obferved, in fpeaking of Romney Marlh grazing, thae no regular method can be adopted in that fort of managment, and that the profits of no two graziers are perfectly " alike on the fame given quantity of land, " nor could they be " upon the fame land," as years, prices, and abilities differ with each individual.* It is confequently impofllble to give any flatements that can be generally applicable.^ * Price in Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXI. f In Somerfetfhire the profit of grazing is thus Hated by Mr. Billingfley; after obferving that a grazier occupying two hundred acres of land may fat yearly one hundred head of oxen, to which add two hundred and feventy flieep and ten colts, constituting altogether a profit comfortable, but by no means exorbitant* s. Dr. L. To rent of 200 acres, average value 40s. an acre 400 To tithe and taxes, fay .... 50 Feb. To fifty oxen, at 111. . . . 550 July. To fifty oxen, at 71. 350 To mowing and making fifty acres of hay, at 10s 25 To fkimming and making fifty acres of fummer-leaze, at 3s 7 10 To wages throughout the year, befidcs GRAZING. d. Cr. L. Oct. By fifty oxen, at 181. . . 500 May. By fifty oxen, at 131. . . 650 By profit on feventy fheep, fummer kept ; 40 By profit on ten colts .... 40 By profit on two hundred flieep winter fatted, and fold in April unfliorn , 100 d. & 0. .1730 Q. the farmer s labour To accidents . . , 50 20 1452 10 To profit (intereft of capital and acci dents included) 277 10 .1730 Cultivation of Grafs Land, Grazing Profit* of. In other diftridls the profits of this practice appear to much greater advantage.* In the Romney Marfh fyftem of grazing, which is chiefly by fheep, the ad van - * In Lincolnfhire, on the authority of T. Fydell, Efq. the following account is giren by Mr. Yonu* of the profits of grazing the rich lands : GRAZING AccouNT/or 20 Acres, 1786. Dr. . s. d. Cr, . s; rf. To 18 beafts, at 121. each . . 2l6 By 18 beafts, at IQl. 5s> . . 346 10 To 80 fheep, at 46s. . . 184 By 80 (heep, at 55s. . . 220 By 5 2 tod of wool, at 17s. . 44 4 To expenses viz. 400 10 . s. d. Tithe . . 1 10 Dyke- reeve . . 300 Rates . 10 Shepherding . , 300 Expenfes * , 500 22 O O Lots, fuppofed one fheep . 2 6 O 424 16 O Intereft one year , . . 21 4 One year s rent . .6000 506 Hire of a clofe for the winter for 35 (beep 17 10 523 10 Profit . . 87 4 610 14 It is added that the difference between the buying and felling price, lofs deducted, 2081. 8s., is the produce of the land, or 101. 8s. per acre, which is very great indeed, and fhows that this land would let at 51. 4s. an acre, supposing this year to be an average one. This difference of rent would deducfc 441. from the profit of 871. and leave 431.J which, with 211. charged, makes 64l. intereft on theyear s advance of 5461. or 11 j per cent. Cultivation of Grafs-Land, Grazing. Hvrfcs-, tages are Hated in the following way by Mr. Price* but in confidering them prow per Additions are to be made fortheadvances^that have taken place fince they were- drawn up. They in fome meafure fliow the fyftem that is purfued in thefc rich marfhes. In fome cafes the young horfes may be grazed upon the coarfer forts of paflures with advantage; but in general, except under the breeding fyftem, it will be more profitable to keep them on green food, cut frefh as it is wanted, during the fummer feafon : the benefit in the way of manure is very great in this method.. Some advife the grazing of young horfes in the fame paftures with the fattening Hock, in order that the grafs may be more evenly fed down; but this is probably a miftake; and as they are very apt to difturb and drive the cattle about, it may be a better practice to let them follow the feeding ftock, or be put into a feparate pafture. The fuperiority of eating down grafs-lands by fheep in comparifon to; horfes was found very remarkable by Mr. Young, in Lincolnshire. In Somerfet- Ihire, where any horfes are admitted on the grazing grounds, it is very fparingly, not more than in the proportion of one to twenty acres. f, An Account of Slock bought in for Fifty Acres of Pasture Land, for the Year 1772. . 310 Barren ewes, at ll. Is. each .90 South-Down wethers, at do. 10 Steer runts 10 Suffix oxen 8 Steer runts Rent, at 30s. per acre Expenfes, at 5s. per acre . ft. 3-25 10 94 10 98 15 115 49 10 75 12 10 . 770 15 Stick, sold o$ Fifty Awes of Pasture Laml, in: the Year 1788-89. . s. d. 310 Barren ewes, at 31s. each . 480 10 O 90 South-Down wethers, at do. . 139 10 O 13 Steer runts, at 131. each . 130 10 Suflexoxen,at 151. each . 150 10 ditto, to keep 18 weeks, at 2s. per week each 4 . . 18 O 8-Steer runts, fold at 9]. each . 72 2. ditto, to keep 12 weeks,at Is. 6d. per week each . . . 1 16 0> 8 packs 3 draughts of long woo], at 81. 10s. . . . . 74 7 5 1 1 ditto of fine wool, at 121. . . 18 Total Deduft 1084 3 6 770 15 313 Eillingfley s Agricultural Survey. Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Grazing Hogs. scr It has long been a practice to turn hogs upon pieces of grafs land adjoining the farm yards during the fummer feafon, but this has moftly been done without any diftindion of their kinds or ages. But the improved practice is to feparate thofe that are advanced in their growth to one half or more from the fows and young pigs, turning and confining them about the latter end of May on the clover, Profits on Fatting Land, allowing 10s. Profit for each Sheep. ONE ACKK. . S. d. Winter, 2 barren ewes, off in May 100 Summer, 5 wethers, off at Michaelmas 2 10 Wool of 7 meep,at 121. per pack 22 One bullock to fat ... 3 Rent - Expenfes Affeffes and taxes Clear profit . s. i 10 5 5 d. 8 12 200 6 12 ONE ACRE. Three wethers, on at Michaelmas Two ditto, in May Wool One bullock to fat 10 10 3 700 Brought from bottom Rent, &c. as before Clear Profit =. *. d. 700 200 500 Profits on Breeding Land* OXE ACRE. Winter, 2-|-ewes and 3 lambs at 14s. Wool of 2-|- ewes : Wool of 3 lambs Wool of one teg The fummer improvement of do. Joift bullock keep- - One in twentylofs bydeaths Clear profit 2 2 13 4 4 5 10 3 18 6 1 12 26t> On the firft of tliefe rtatements it is remarked that the year was favourable for vegetation ; and that fuch profits could not probably be made feven years together, which is the moft accurate method of calculating profits on land. There being no affefies on the land alfo makes it more profitable. In regard to the profits on fattening land two methods are given ; the firft means ufed by the beft graziers ; the other, the moll common : fome take bullocks into keep, others buy runts ; the profits of which muft depend on their judgment ; but, 31. is the medium profit between the whole: 10s. ach (heepis generally allowed as the gained profit by fattening. The writer obferves that" it can * Inferior breeding land maintais! ?J she*p on an acre during winter, but goed breeding land,alwy thr-~ VOL. II. 4. C 562 Cultivation of Grafs- Laud Soiling and Si all -feeding* chicory, orother fimilar crops, without fuffering them to return to the yardstobe fed with other forts of food, water being provided for them in the fields. They are let remain on thefe paflures till the beg <,.iing of the autumn, when they are found to return in excellent condition for bei:ig put to fatten. Herbage of thefe kinds is found not only to agree perfectly with them, but to promote their growth in a remarkable manner. But, much as this fvflem of management has by fome been extolled, there feems to beone principal defect in it, which is that of the lofs of the manure, a circumflance of great importance to the iarmcr. The prac tice would, therefore, probably be improved by having the yards connected with the pallures, and well littered down, or, where on an extenfive fcale, cheap tempo rary yards made for the purpofe and kept in litter for them to retire to and evacuate themfelves in during the night by being fhut up in them. In this way vail Mores of manure would be produced, which mud otherwife be in a great meafure loft, and at the fame time the thriving of the hogs be promoted by their being kept more warm and flickered in the night. By this management the farmer has great advantage, in being left at full liberty to convert the whole of his other forts of food to the fupport of the young and breeding flocks. But, profitable as this practice may be, it would feem to be lefs fo than that of foiling them in properly prepared yards, efpecially where they are left in the fields without being confined during the night. Soiling and Stall-feeding. Befides the above,thereare other fy Hems of feed ing and fattening animals that feem properly to come under confederation in this place, fuch as thofe of foiling during the fummer feafon with various kinds of luxuriant green vegetable crops, m& flail-feeding in the winter months with roots, cabbages, turnips, and other forts of food of a fucculent nature, in combination with various kinds of dry meat. The former of thefe modes appears to have had much lefs at tention beflowed upon it than its utility and importance would feem to demand. not be fuppofed that this profit will always amount to fo much, as the years differ ; therefore dry feafons will abate it, and a large tract of land cannot have the fupply of ftock to make it fo great. There are lofies to be taken out, but upon the whole, it is very profitable, as the expenfes are fo ^derate, as one fervant man can manage a thoufund acres of pafture land. The value or rent of .- fflv ]*sput too low, except for long leafes unexpi red, or where a large quantity of land is taken. i*JA -j^e price of rent is from 40s. to 31. for fattening land, unlefs four or five hundred acres of The &*. > ^ fattening, perhaps about 30s. ; and fome old leafes 1 1. breeding land." breeding! tfjer modes of grazing in which the fame author has formed uftimates; but they There are o drcumftances as to be of little ufe. mucaby Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Soiling Oppojit ion to notjoundcd. 553 Without attending fufficiently to the economy and advantage of the practice, it has been the common hufbandry in almoft every part of the ifland to allow all forts of neat cattle to be grazed in the paftures. In fome cafes of improved farming it has indeed been lately purfued in fome degree in the liable, but without being ap plied to the cattle flock. The principal circumftances that recommend this iyftem of practice, are thofe of the food being confumed with much lefs waftc, and of courfe going vaftly further than when fed upon the land : the great increafe of good manure that is produced, and probably that of the flock feeding with lefs interruption and inconvenience, in confequence of their being more effectually fhaded from the heat of the fun and better protected from the haraffing attack of flies. In all thefe points, this method would indeed feem to have a vaft fuperiority over that of letting the animals range over the paftures. It has, however, been objected againftthis fcheme of feeding, that the expenfc of conducting the bufinefs is too coniiderable. The experiments of Mr. Mure, which were conducted upon a very extenfive fcale, as well as thofe of Mr. Young, (how that this with the care of the cattle may be performed at an expenfe in proportion to each, that can never afford any folid argument againft the practice.* It has likewife been fometimes contended, in oppofition to this management, that fuch part of the ftock as are in milk do not afford it fo abundantly as when fed in the paftures. This is, however, probably a mere fuppofition, unfupported by facts, at leaft we have not met with any well-conducted experiment that has proved its truth, and it is obvioufly at variance with the experience we have of the effects of fuch forts of green food, in othercafes ; for it has been, we believe, almoft invariably found, that moft of the green crops that are cut and employed in this way have greater effect in exciting the fecretory organs and promoting their fecretions than the com mon pafture grafs. And it is generally allowed that the urinary fecretion is greatly augmented in all cafes of this fort of feeding, fo as to ccnftitute one of its advan tages. But as particular forts of vegetables, as well as other circumftances, act more powerfully on fome of the glandular organs than others, it is evident than Ibme kinds of plants may have a greater tendency to promote one kind of fecretion than another, and on this account cows fed on one fort of food, in the practice of foiling, may afford lefs milk than on another. -f * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIV. f A fet of well-condu&ed experiments made in thefe different views .would probably lead io much ufeful difcovery in refpeft to the feeding, fattening, and milking of animals. 4 C 2 - Cultivation of Graft- Land. Soiling Superiority of. The practice of foiling has alfo been oppofed, on the ground that the animals de -not thrive fo \veli as when grazed in thepaftures. But when it is confidered that the more quiet and free from diflurbance cattle are kept, the better they in general thrive and improve in their flefh, it is not probable that green food, when properly confirmed in the fheds of a farm-yard, will be lefs advantageous in pro moting the growth and fattening of flock than when eaten in the field, where ex- pofed to i he great heat and the conftant attacks of flies, and of courfe kept in a continual fhite of reftleffnefs and inquietude. Befides, in the experiments noticed above,the cattle were found to go on better than flock of the fame kind fed in the part u res in the moft favourable feafons for the purpofe of grazing. And in many trials, carefully made by Mr. Young, and detailed in the Annals of Agriculture,the refults were the fame. The fuppofitioa of the cattle not thriving fo well under this fyftem does not therefore appear to be well fupported by facts, or to have had any foundation in the experience of farmers. The fuperiority of the foiling method in refpect to the economical confumption of the food cannot be difputed. In various experiments that have been made in proof of the great faving in this way, it has been found to go from twice to four or five times as far as when fed on the land; and in fome trials it has been a great deal more. With grafs, clover, lucern, and tares, in the trials of an able cultiva- tor, three times as many cattle were found capable of being fupported in better condition than in the pafture mode of feeding,* But in thofe of other experimen ters it has been fhown to be equal to five, fix, or even more times, as we have al ready feen in fpeaking of clover. In the field, it is obvious that great wafte mufl be committed by the grafs being trampled down, dunged upon, and in many other \vays,efpecially where a great number of cattle are paftured together, mod of which are avoided in the flail method : but it has been remarked that it is " an error to fuppofe that all the wafleis in feeding in the field and none in the flails r there is on the contrary a wafte in foiling," as in cafes where the tares become podded, from the butt ends of the plants being coarfe and in a ftate of decay, by lying on the ground, and of courfe rejected by the animals : the fame thing alfo occurs with lucern when in bloflbm. In the heating, of the food by its remaining heaped to gether, lofs may likewife be fuftained.f Proper management inrefpcct to the crops and the manner of employing them, as \ve lhall fee below, will, however, in a great meafure, prevent wafte in this method. * Ck>fe iiv Communications to the Board, -vol. III. f Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIV. stitrt ti tion ofGntfs-L(tnd.SoiUng--PropcrYarch andSheds But whatever the wafte in thefe different ways maybe, the various trials record ed in the Annals of Agriculture clearly demon ft rate that a vaftly increafed flc ck may be kept upon the fame extent of land, in the method of foiling, over that of the common mode of grazing the cattle in the fields. The great point however, in which this practice excels that of pafture feeding, is, probably, in the immenfe quantity of excellent manure that is raifed and pro vided for the production of increafed crops of various kinds, and the additional improvement of the lands; while in the ordinary one fcarcely any thing is contri buted in this way, from t-he dung being fcattered about the fields and diflipated by the heat of the feafons, flies, and other caufes. In fliort, it would feem injurious rather than ufefirl, from its blanching and tendering the grafs plants in the fpots where it remains, which are long in recovering and producing good grafs again. Soiling with green food in fumrner is a method admirably calculated for pro ducing an abundance of manure; as from the great increafe in the urinary difchargc in the confumptioa of green food in this way, and the heat of the feafon, the lit tering material, whatever it may be, is fpeedily converted into manure; by which means, with proper attention, vaft (lores of dung may confequcntly be raifed, where there would otherwife be none ; which is a circumftance of the greateft im portance-, and which abundantly fhows the great utility and fuperiority of the prac tice. By thefe means the fummer produce in manure may, probably, be made to exceed that of the winter, and at the fame time be fuperior in quality, as there is reafon to fuppofe, that the manure produced by any kind of cattle fed in the fame way, when not in a {late of fattening, is much better in the fummer than in the winter feafon. The proportion of valuable manure that the careful farmer may be capable of providing by this fyflem of management is fcarcely to be conceived except by thofe who have been in the practice. In this view it is of much impor tance to have refervoirs for the reception of the urine.in order that it may be occa- lionally thrown up over the litter, and thereby promote its morejfpecdy converfiort into manure. The manure afforded by fattening animals, fuch as hogs and neat cattle, is in all feafons of a rich and valuable quality. In order to enfure the fulled benefit and advantage from this fyflem of manage ment, the mod Uriel attention isneceffary to different circumftances; fuch as thofe of having convenient ftieds and yards for the purpofe ; the providing fuitable crops in proper fucceffion to the proportion of dock to be kept ; the feeding and ma naging the animals in a proper manner ; and the making a full proviiion of ma terials for thepurnpfe of litter. 566 Cultivation of Grafs- Land* Soiling Crops and Modes of foddering in* As much depends on the convenience of the yards and (hods, both in rcfpedl to the economy of labour in the feeding the flock and the making of manure, care iliould be taken to have them upon fuch plants as may afford the greatefl advan tage in thefe ways. It has been a practice fuggefted by fome, in order to fave the labour and expenfe of cleaning and feeding, to have the cattle in this manage ment left loofe in the yards fo as to confume the food from racks or cribs, the bottoms of the yards being prepared by marl or other fimilar materials, and a coat of litter ap plied fo as that the urine may be retained, and contribute to theconverfion of them into manure : but a better method is probably that of having them tied up in flails in fheds forthepurpofe;for though fomething may be gained in the former mode in the labour of cleaning, the latter has confiderable fuperiority in the goodnefs of the manure, and in the animals being kept more quiet and lefs expofed to diflurbance from flies.* In the firfl method the flock mould always be forced, and thofe of the fame age or fize be fed together. A cultivator of much experience foils his horfes in cheap thatched fheds in which they have room to walk and roll ; and his bullocks and cows in flails feven feet wide, each flail holding two head of cattle, which arc faflened by the necks to the fides of the flail, by which they are prevented from inconveniencing each other.t That the farmer may enter upon this management with the greateft advantage, it will be requifite for him to attend to the culture of fuch various crops as can be befl applied in this way on a fcale amply fufficient for the purpofe. In the view of early application, a full proportion of lucern mould be raifed on the moll deep and fertile foils ; and on the better forts of the lands that may be in the condition of fallow, clover and tare crops maybe grown. Thefe mufl be fown fo as to come into ufe at different times j the firfl crop of winter tares fucceeding to the early cut lucern ; the later put in winter tares following, after which the clover will moil probably be ready, to which the third crop of tares and the fecond cut of lucern may fucceed. At a flill later period the fpring tare may be employed; and in fuccefiion to this the third cutting of lucern will in general be ready. There are many other plants that may perhaps be made ufe of in this way. Jt will be feen from what we have obferved on chicory, that it may be had recourfe to with advantage in this management : as in foils that are tolerably fertile it admits of re peated cutting. With thefe different crops, there will probably be feidom any * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIV. t Clofe in Communication to the Board, &c. vol. III.. Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Soiling Litter effential In. neceffity for the ufe of common cut grafs, though this may be employed if there fhould be occafion. On the rrode of conducting thebufinefs of foddering the animals in this prac tice a great deal depends. One great object is never to fufTer them to have toomuch at once, as when this is the cafe, from the heat of the feafon, it quickly takes on a degree of fermentation, and is rejected, or only picked among by the cattle ; in con- fequence of which much wade maybe committed, which would otherwife bt avoided.* But, befides this, it is not improbable but that the (lock may thrive better by having their food more frequently, and of courfe in a more frefh Hate. And it mould never on any account be left packed in the carts for any length of time. The befl mode would feem to be that of adapting the fize of the cart to the exact confurnption of the flock, as in this way the whole may be conveniently diflributed in the cribs or racks at once, the moment it is wanted, before k be comes unpalatable by fermentation, and the leaft poffible lofs be incurred. It is conftantly neceiTary to watch the conduct of labourers in this particular, as they are in general much difpofed to overfeed. There is another matter in this fort of feed ing that mould not be difregarded, which is that of not fuffering the crops that are ufed in foiling to advance to too great a head, as by attention in this refpect the food may be more cleanly eaten up. In this fyflem litter becomes an object of the greateft importance j as the large quantity of urine that is made by cattle when foiled on thefe luxuriant forts of green food is capable, by its moiflening property, of aiding, in the hot feafon, the more quick fermentation of fuch materials, and of reducing a very large proportion into the Mate of manure. In this view, the attentive farmer mould therefore make an abundant provifionin the winter time of other forts of materials, where a proper fupply of ftraw cannot be referved for the purpofe. There are various matters that may be made ufe of in this intention, fuch as flubble, fern, ruihes, and other aquatic plants, which may be cut and raked together in the places in which they are moll abundantly produced, in order to be flacked up for future ufe. Leaves might alfo in woody fituations be ufeful for the fame purpofe. And in addition to thefe vegetable matters there are other fubftances that are capable of being employed with utility, fuch as peat or bog earth, freili vegetable mould, land, and the fcrapings of roads ; as during the decompofition of the various vc- * Annali of Agriculture, vol. XIV. #6*8 Cultivation of Grafs-Lend, Stall-feeding. getable materials made ufe of in this practice, not only much hydrogen and car bonic gas is fet at liberty, but ammonia is formed in large quantities in the man ner that has been already explained, which, from its action upon fuch earthy ma terials, is highly ufeful in bringing them into the ftate of manure. There can fcarcely beany doubt of the advantage of this mode of management, where that clofe fort of attention which is requifite in moft of the operations of farming is beftowed ; but in order to the complete fuccefs of the practice, it is abfolutely neccfTary that the cattle be kept perfectly clean and free from all forts of dirt, in the cribs, racks, or other places ; that there be plenty of pure water for them to drink whenever they are difpofed ; that the green food, of whatever fort it may be, is given to them frequently in due portions, without its becoming injured by keeping ; and that they be turned out into the open air for a few hours in the cool ef the evening during the fummer feafon, and in the middle of the day when the weather becomes more cold. It might alfo be of additional advantage, where different kinds of green food can be eafily provided, to vary them occafionally. By thefe means the thriving of the animals may be the moft effectually fecured. This kind of management is equally applicable to cattle, hogs and horfes; with the laft it has however been the moft common. It is obvious, that by a judicious attention to this fyflem many advantages may be derived to the farmer. It admits of greater extents of land being kept under both the plough and the fey the. And in the keeping of both cows and horfes the faving in this method forms an object of vaft importance. In the winter fattening of animals, different methods are purfued in different dif- tricts: in fome it is the prevailing practice to confume the food upon a dry found piece of land, to which it is conveyed for thepurpofe. It is evident, however, that this mode can only be had recourfe to, efpecially with heavy flock, where the nature of the ground is fuffkicntly dry to prevent injury being done by poaching, which is the cafe only on very few foils in the winter feafon. In fome cafes, efpecially with turnips, the crop is eaten on the land where it grows, the cattle being turned upon it. This is a practice that occafionally takes place in Norfolk with the lefs perfect managers. It is a great objection to this mode, that the quantity of valu able manure that might otherwife be produced is in a great meafure loft by being fpread about in the field. And it is probable that the flock does not thrive fo well from being more cxpofed to the weather and kept lefs warm and quiet than ia. other methods. With fheep this hufbandry may be lefs exceptionable, ef* Cultivation of Grafs-Land.-*- Stall-feeding what neceflary in. pecially \vhere the crops are drawn and put upon a cfofe fed dry pafture, as great improvement of the land may be effected without the danger of injury by poaching. There is another practice often adopted in fattening cattle in the winter, which is that of confining them to the yard, and letting them have their food in troughs or boxes for the purpofe in open fheds. This, though a better method than that juft noticed, is probably, from the (lock being left too much at liberty, lefs advan tageous in the point of fattening than that of wholly confining them to the Malls, or what is ufually KtmtdJldJI-feeding, as by this means they are kept more quiet, and free from interruption, and of courfe feed more quickly, and with greater regula rity ; which feem to be points of great importance in this fyftem of management. The fubftances that may be employed in the way of winter fattening animals are very numerous : but the principal of the more fucculent kinds are carrots, parfnips, potatoes, cabbages, turnips, grains, &c.;and of the more dry forts, oil cake, oats, barley-meal, rye-flower, bean-meal, and other limilar materials, with various forts of ftraw cut into chaff by means of machinery. In the application and management of thefe articles, confiderable care is neceflary to enfure their fulled effect. For as the art of fattening, whatever the nature of the animal may be, would feem to depend in a great degree on regularly keeping up the excitement of the fyftem, by theufeoffuitable rich food, to that high pitch that tends towards in direct debility, which is probably the point moft fuitable for inducing reft and a difpofition to fleep, which experience has fhown to be the conditions the moft favourable to the depolition of the fatty material in the cells of the adipofc mem brane ; it is obvious that the fattening procefs may be greatly accelerated or retarded by the method of diftribution that is adopted in refpect to the food. If much nice attention be notbeftowed in this way, great lofs may be quickly fuftained, efpecially where the more expenfive forts of dry food are made ufe of. On the fame principle of promoting the full and equal excitement of the fyftem, it will be of the greateft utility and importance not only to keep the animals warm, perfectly clean in themfelves, and free from all kinds of filth; but alfo their fheds, ftalls, mangers, troughs, or other places from which they take their food : as by fuch means that conftriction of the hide which is the fure indication of their not thriving in a proper manner, may be avoided, and at the fame time that difguft, which probably arifes in confequence of the parts of the food left upon the places where the cattle feed taking on or running into a ftate of fermentation, be prevented ; and of courfe, VOL. JI. 4 D 570 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Stall-feeding what ncceffary in. the feeding of the animals proceed in the mod expeditious and uninterrupted manner. And where both moid and dry food are given at the fame time, it may be neccffary, in the view of promoting the more quick fattening of the cattle, to combine them infuch proportions, according to the cbndit-utions. of the animals, as that the too laxative effects of the former may be kept in order by the conftipating powers of the latter ; and thus a due balance be preferved, which is the Hate mod adapted to the purpofe of fattening. But belides this effect, the combining of dry food with thofe rich and juicy fubftances, which have their nourimrnent in a clofe or concentrated date, may be advantageous in another point of view, which is that of affording a due degree of didention to the ftomach, a condition mat is alfo probably neceflary to the expeditious fattening of animals. Without. this, that fort of fulnefs or fatiety which induces the animals to take their reft cannot, perhaps, be fo completely produced. It is on this principle, that in man a full meal cannot be made on flefh meat alone without the afiidance of bread, or fornc other fimilar fubftance. On this ground, hay or cut dry meat muft therefore be conftantly ufeful in Mail-feeding, with fuch rich roots and plants as are not capable of being employed fo as to produce the necefTary degree of ftillnefs. In order to accomplifli thcfe different objects in the mod perfect and effectual- manner, it is effential that the clofed attention be beftowed by the farmer to fee that the flock, whether foddered in open fheds or tied up in dalls, be regularly fed, adapting the proportion of food employed each time to the date of the digedive organs of the animal ; cautioufly avoiding, as much as the nature of the bufmefs will admit, either giving too much or too little, as from both extremes injury may be produced : but it is better, as fattening animals are very nice, to let them have rather too little than too much ; for, where any difguft is occafioned, they never, feed fo well afterwards, It is ufeful alfo, on the principle formerly explained,, to vary the kinds of food frequently, fo that there may be lefs danger of their lofing their beneficial effects. This circumdance is much attended to in other countries : fattening dock that is neglected in thefe refpects never fucceed well, or afford the. farmer a jud profit. It is confequently of vad importance to have this buiinefs conducted by aperfon accudomed to the practice. The cattle mould Jikewife be kept condantly free from (landing in any fort of dirt, by having the dung daily removed, and their dandings fwept out quite clean, and well littered down with, dry clean litter of fome of the kinds that have been already recommended, fo as to prevent any fort of nadinefs from adhering to their fkins. of Graft Land. Stall-feeding-*?- Proper Sorts of Fcodjur. />; j To do this completely, as much fliould be made ufe of as can be converted into manure, probably the proportion of from one to two or three tons to a bead may .not be too much, as the dung will amply repay its exnenfe in the improvement which it affords to the lands. And by this, with the above means, all forts of difgufling fmells may be wholly removed. It is alfo ufeful in the intention of fattening to have the animals fheltercd and kept in a due degree of warmth, with out being too hot; as, where the heat is confiderable, there may be difadvantagc by too much perfpiration being excited. Where it is necefTary to make ufe of cut dry mear, the beft practice is probably that of keeping fome offuch food always in the cribs or mangers, fo that the animals may be induced to take it at pleafure. The bufmefs of fattening in the ftall, or the farm.yard, ufually commences on the decline of the pafture and after-graffes, towards the latter end of October, continuing through the whole of the winter, until about the beginning of May. When fucculent food is made ufe of with cut dry meat, which is in general a more profitable method to the farmer than that of having recourfe to corn and oil cake, carrots, parfnips, and potatoes would feem to iland the higheft as articles for this purpofe; cabbages and turnips having been found inferior in their fatten ing qualities ; the two firft are equal to almoft any fort of food in this view, being capable of fattening large cattle. The moft general practice is to ufe thefe roots and plants without any preparation, except that of being fometimes cut, diced, or chopped, giving only a fmall proportion at once, three or four times in thecourfc of the day, in cribs or mangers properly contrived for the purpofe ; proper fupplies of cut draw i,n mixture with hay being in moft cafes provided and given in the intervals offuch feeds. In this method lefs water will be required than when dry meat is wholly made ufe of. This mode of feeding muft be purfued with as much fteadinefs and regularity as pofllble, varying the kinds of moift food occafionally where it can be conveniently done. A great deal of the fuccefs of the practice refts upon proper attention to thefe circumftances. Some have fuppofed that great advantage may be derived from the application of fire in the preparation of fome of thefe roots for the feeding of the animals. In the trials of an intelligent culti vator,* turnips were found to anfwer well in the feeding of cows in combination with cut chaff when prepared by means of fleam ; and in various experiments, detailed in the Annals of Agriculture, potatoes have been found to be better fuited * Rev. Mr. H. Clofe, 4 D 2 572 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Stall-feeding Proper Sorts of Food for. to the feeding of horfes and fome other animals by undergoing the fame procefs.* This mode of preparation is probably much more neceffary in the potatoe than the turnip, as we believe, from trials that we have made, that they not only agree better with the animals, but are more fattening when given in this ftate. Befidcs, there is much lefs lofs fuftained in the operation of (teaming in the potatoe than the turnip. However, as there muft conftantly under this mode of preparation be a confiderable expenfe in labour and fuel, it is better to avoid it wherever the nature of the vegetables will admit of being made ufe of in their raw ftate, which is cer tainly the cafe with the turnip and feveral other vegetables noticed above. The proportions of thefe different forts of food that an animal will confume in any given time cannot be eafily afcertained, as much muft depend on circum- ftances the modes of feeding, the lize of the animal, the nature of the feafon, and various other caufes. In fome trials carrots have been found to be confumed in the proportion of about ten ftone per day for an ox of fixty ftone, cut chaff or hay being given in addition.^ As the parfnip contains an equal if not larger proportion of the nutritious prin ciple, nearly a fimilar quantity of that excellent root may be neceflary j but we believe experiment has not yet mown the exact difference in the fattening properties of thefe two roots. The latter can however only be cultivated to advantage on a deep rich foil ; but in fuch cafes it fhould never be neglected. An acre of either of thefe roots would complete the fattening of two fuch beaftg as the above, if taken from the paftures in a half-fattened condition. Thefe two roots and the potatoe, probably, approach the neareft that of oil-cake in their fattening properties, but are certainly inferior to that fubftance. The experiments made on potatoes in the intention of fattening animals have been fufficiently numerous to mow that they are capable of that application with great advantage. In the trials of Mr. Abdey, with fmall Welfh and Scotch runts, the confumption per day was about a bufhel each, given in their unprepared ftate, with a quarter of a trufs of hay. Their powers of fattening in thefe trials appear to much advantage. When given in their raw ftate, hay or fome other fort of dry * An excellent apparatus for this purpofe, contrived by Mr. Stares, is defcribed and reprefented by a plate in the eighteenth volume of the Annals of Agriculture. And an improved one upon a large fcale has been contrived by J. C. Curwcn, Efq. M. P. with a convenient machine for warning them i a reprefentation of which is given in the fourth volume of Communications to the Board, t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXII< Cultivation of Grafs Land. Stall-feeding Proper Sorts of Food for. 5/3 food is, however, conftantly neceflary to correct their laxative quality. And when given after being prepared by fire, it is the practice of many to mix them with cut chaff. Where the cabbage is made ufe of, the confumption is in general found to be fomething lefs than one fifth the weight of the animal in the courfe of the day : therefore an animal weighing fixty ftone confumes in the ratio of twelve Hone each day. In the trials of Mr. Turner, an ox of eighty ftone was found to eat fifteen ftone of cabbages with half a ftone of hay. And in refpect to their power of fattening, it was found that oxen put to them in low condition about November became in a ftate of fatnefs fit for fale in the following March, weighing eighty ftone ; ufually improving in the courfe of four months in value about five pounds ten {hillings.* In this proportion, an acre of thirty tons of this crop would be adequate to the fattening of three beafts of the above fize. Grains can only be made ufe of in this way in particular fituations, as near large towns, where they can be obtained at a reafonable rate. Thofe procured from diftilleries are found the moft beneficial in this ufe. The quantity made ufe of for moderate-fized beafts is ufually from a bufhel to a bufhel and a half, three times; in the courfe of the day, hay or cut dry food being given between the periods of feeding with thefe fubftances. Grains feem to be much lefs powerful in their fat- tening properties than any of thofe articles that precede them. But turnips, though very frequently employed in this manner, are greatly inferior to cabbages, as, befides their being more liable to injury, they probably poffefs the fattening property in a lefs degree than any of the fubftances that have been mentioned. The proportion in which they are confumed by the fattening animals has by fome been found to be fomething more than a third of their weight, but by others about a third in the day.j- In other experiments, an ox of from feventy to eighty ftone has been afcertained to eat fomething lefs than three hundred weight in the courfe of the day, befides chaff and hay ; and fmall cows of about thirty ftone, one hundred weight and three quarters in the fame fpace of time. An ex perienced agricultor has found, that when confumed in ftalls or fheds, an acre of good turnips will " completely winter-fat an ox of fifty fcore," befides affording manure for an acre and a half of land ; but if fed upon the land, two acres will. * Turner in Young s Six Months Tour, vol. II. i Baker s Experiments, and Kames s Gentleman Farmer. 574- Cultivation of Graft Land. Stall-feeding "Proper Sortsvf Food for. not fatten one fo \vell, and the drefllng will be partial and of little value.* Mnch dry food is conftantly necdfary during the life of -this fort of food in order to the expeditious fattening of the animals. The turnip is often employed in the fattening of fnecp ; and in this application it is frequently -advantageous, where the management is conducted with judgment r but to derive the grcateft profit from this practice, it h probably the bed method to only make ufc of them for fuch fheep as are in a confiderable ftate of.forward- ncfs ; as fuch as are poor when turned to this fort of food are fcldorn found to pay \vcllforit. Every farmer who has applied turnip crops in this way muft have found this to be th-e cafe. Where the foils are fufnciently dry, the beft method of confuming them may be on the lands, by means of hurdling; but, under the con trary circumftances, they may be drawn and eaten upon a dry piece of fward. It is the practice with good farmers, in many cafes, to have recourfe to oil-cake, oats, barley-meal, pollard, bran, malt-duff, and other matters of the fame fort for the fattening fliccp when at turnips ; as by thefe means the watery quality of that ford is corrected, and the fattening of the animals, of courfe, much promoted. It is perhaps only the beft fort of Iheep that can repay the expenfe of this fyftcm of fattening. Thefe articles are not however abfolutely requifite in the fattening of fheep on this root, as van 1 numbers are made fat without them ; but they greatly promote the procefs. And it is often ufeful to have recourfe to other forts of dry food with them, fuch as hay, cut chaff, or other fimilar fubftances, which mould be placed in racks, cribs, or troughs made for the purpofe, the latter of which fhould be fo guarded by boarding as to prevent the wind from blowing fuch light fubftances out of them. There is another point that deferves attention in the fat tening of fneep on turnips, in order to prevent the wafte which muft otherwife be incurred, which is that of letting the portions of turnips that are left by the fatten ing ftock be cleanly eaten up by 1 lean followers. Of the dry kinds of food employed in the fattening of cattle, there is, perhaps, none equal to oil-cake in the property of fattening. It is, however, linfeed cake that muft be employed in this way. The late advances in the price of this article have probably rendered it incapable of being made ufeof with much profit except in particular cafes, and where manure is a principal object. With this fort of food, as well as thofe that have been noticed above, it is alfo the common practice * Clofe in Communications to the Boanl, vol. Ill, Cultivation of Graft Laud. Stall-feeding Proper Sorts of Food for. 5 7.5 to give fome other fort of meat, fuch as hay, cut chaff, and other fubftances of the fame nature. In this mode of fattening, fome begin by giving, to a beaft of a hundred (lone, two cakes per day, of about fix pounds each, for fix or eight weeks, and then increafe them to three, till the animals become fat.* In addition to the cake, from half a ftone to a ftone of hay is given each day : the whole confumption in cake being about 21 cwt., and in hay 26 cwt. ; which, at the prices previous to the late advance on thcfe articles, rendered the expenfe of winter-fattening an animal of the above fize fomething more than feven guineas. Lean cattle of the fmaller kinds have been made perfectly fat in the courfe of eight or ten weeks by this fubftance, in the trials of Mr* Moody.-)- The cake, in this application, is broken down into fmall parts, and frequently blended with the chaff or other fub ftances that are made ufe of with it. On the continent, according to Mr. Young,, linfeed cake is fometimes exhibited in a liquid (late, being diffufed in hot water and drunk by the cattle, hay and other fubftances being given at the fame time. In the Lincolnshire Report a method is fuggefted, of giving cake to cattle while im the paftures, in a fmall proportion, with great fuccefs ; a practice which may be applicable where the cake- fed beafts are not fully fattened for fale in the early fpring months. It is an advantage in fattening with this and other fimilar fub ftances, that the animals may be completed with them at much more advanced ages than in other modes. The ufe of linfeed oil and bran has been attempted on the fame principles as that of cake, but probably with lefs fuccefs. The confumption in this method for beafts of the fmaller fize is fomething more than half a peck of bran three times in the day, with a third of a pint of linfeed oil well ftirred into it ; with this good hay or cut chaff is ufually given. This method is attended with more trouble than that of cake-feeding, without any fuperiority in the effect. It can only be employed when the oil is cheap. When fheep are fattened with cake, they require it to be reduced into a much finer ftate than for beafts, and it may then be mixed with bran or other fimilar fub ftances, and put in the troughs or cribs. Oats are excellent for ftall- fattening cattle, but the price has lately been too high, for their being made ufe of to any extent in this way. They are moftly given in the ftraw when applied in the fattening of cattle* * Annals of Agriculture,, vol. XXXIL f Young s Eaftern Tour, vol. I. 5~6 Cultivation of Grafs Laud Stall feeding Proper Sorts of Food for. Bran, in mixture with pea or other forts of meal, had likewife been found ufeful in ftall-fattcning, as well as barley and other meals, in combination with various fubftances of other kinds ; but their ufe muft conftantly be regulated by the prices which they bear at the market. When materials of this fort are employed, it will be found particularly necefTary, on the principles that have been already explained,, to let the animals have a plentiful fupply of hay or cut chaff. It has long been contended by fome, that food in the ftate of acidity is the rnoft advantageous in the feeding and fattening of fwinc, while others have as ftrenuoufly maintained the contrary petition. The point has not, however, fo far as we know, been fully decided by any fair experiments. That there may be fomething in it, feems probable from the circumftance being fo frequently noticed, and from Mr. Young having found the fame principle applied in the fattening of cattle in France, where they finifh the procefs by the ufe of four rye pafte, brought into a liquid ftate by the addition of water, and afterwards rendered fufficiently thick by fome kind of cut meat. The principle on which this depends feems involved in fome difficulty ; as it has been long a popular notion, that acids have a directly contrary tendency. It would appear, however, not improbable, but that acid fubftances may have fome power in ftrengthening the digeftive organs, and thereby promoting the confumption of a larger proportion of food in a given time, in confequence of which the animals become fat more quicJdy. Befides thefe fubftances, various others have been employed in particular fifua- tions for the purpofe of fattening animals. The wafli of malt-diftillerks, which has long been principally employed in the fattening of hogs, has now been found applicable in the ftall-feeding of cattle. The method of ufing it is in conjunction with fome farinaceous fubftances, fuch as thofe that have been already mentioned. It is then given in fmall proportions, three or more times in the day : a little hay or ftraw being given them to enable them to chew the cud.* On the principles ex plained above it is probable, however, that fuch dry kinds of food might be made ufe of more fully with advantage. In the Weft Indies, Mr. Millington found molafles to poflefs an expeditious fattening quality, when joined with other articles of the common food of cattle. It was made ufe of in his trials in the proportion of from half a pint to a pint, twice a day, in mixture with different farinaceous or mealy fubftances ; and, where thefe were not in ufe, with various kinds of dry fpod, Corrected Report. Cultivation of Graft Land Stall-feeding. Houfe-Lamb Suckling* 577 fuch as cane-tops > and guinea grafs well dried by expofureto the fun, and with oil cake. Thefc are nioiftened with the fame quantity of moIafTes, to which water with a little fait is added.* With thcfe articles a little hay | or not too fucculent green fodder, was employed . Their effects in fattening poor worn-down oxen v/ere found very coufiderable. They are not, however, from their great expenfe, capable of any general application in this way. Whatever the nature of the food may be that is employed for the purpofe of fattening animals in the yard or the flail, the greateft care is necefTary to fee that it is regularly given to them, that they have it in due proportitn and fufficiently varied ; that pure water be amply provided, and that they have litter fo as to keep them perfectly dry and clean. Where this fort of bufinefs is conducted on an ex- ten five fcale, it is alfo of the greateft utility to have a machine for the occafionai weighing of the cattle as they advance in their fattening, as without fuch afliftance it is but few perfons who are capable of judging whether they go on in a profitable manner or not. But, by weighing them from time to time, at the diftance of every eight or ten days, in the morning before they are fed, this may be correctly afcer- tained ; and where they fall off, or do not advance in a fufficient degree to the preceding weighings, fuch changes may be made in their food, water, and manage ment, as are the moft likely to promote their fattening in the mod perfect manner.f * Middlefex Correded Report. f The following table exhibits the refults of various experiments made by Mr. Mure in fattening cattle with different forts of food, in the flail and field, as Hated in the jcjth volume of the Annals of Agriculture. Ko. & Son of Bullocks. When weighed Weight Sort of Food. Time fed. In crease Increase per H- icJ. Stones. Wks. Days Stns. St. IDS. 19 Irifh ; June 2^ 1650 July 12 1729 Tares . . . 2 4 79 4 2 29 1748 Mowed grafs . . . o 3 19 1 Auguft 29 1781 Ditto .... 4 3 33 1 10 1 ditto . Augufl 30 96} lOdiito January 5 1024 I Cabbages and hay . 17 113 6 6 8 ditto 9 774 j 1894 12 Irifh Auguft 22 829 1 bull 90 12 Irifh January 30 983 jrafs and cabbages s 24 54 12 11 1 bull 98 Ditto . . . . 24 o 8 VOL. II.. 5/8 Cultivation of Graft Land. Stall -feeding. Houfc-Lamb Suckling. There is another fchcme of feeding that may be neceflary to be confidered in this place, which is that of fattening lambs in the houfe for the purpofe of early KO.&. Sort of Bullocks. When weighed. Weight. Sort of Food. Time fed. In- crease Increase per Head. Stones. Wks. Days. Sins. St. l\j. SO Irifh July 3 2146 31 2243 Tares .... 4 97 3 3 September 27 2329 Grafs and cabbages 7 6 86 2 1? November 22 2466 Hay and cabbages 8 137 4 7 February 2721 Potatoes, malted beans, and hay 11 255 8 7 7 Highland Scob July 5 4/0 27 468 Tztres ..... 12 3 home breds July 5 174 September 27 175 Ditto 12 1 40 Scotch runts 23 3320 November 7 3537 Loofe at grafs 6 217 4 7 February 20 3801 Potatoes, beans, chaff, and hay 16 264 6 8 ^0 home breds July 11 333 September 2cSJ 401 Locfe in clover 11 68 6 11* 24 fhort- horn beafts 19 2522 October 24 2695 Loofe at grafs 5 168 7 March 16 3057 Potatoes, beans, and -chaff 20 362 15 2 1 bull September 4 140 Ditto . 24 48 8 2 bulls 12 165 Ditto . 21 60 30 2 bulls 19 153 Ditto ..... 20 28 14 4, bulls 22 312 Ditto 20 ___ 60 1/5 In thefe trials various other kinds of food were employed, the refults of which fliow the quantity confuined, their different advantages, and the difference in the increafe of flefh in the animal* in pro portion to their value. No. of Bullocks Weight. Qnantity of Food consumed (Length of Time 6" Days.) Value of Food. Increase. Stones. 1. s. d. Stoncf. 1, 59 4-J- coombs fteeped bean meal, 2 4 41. 8 2, 59 3 coombs 3 bufhels malted beans . 1 17 6 11 3, 59 5 coombs 1 bufliel malted barley . 2110 J4 4, 61 5 coombs 1^- bufhel malted beans and barley 2 2 10 134- 5, 62 4 coombs 3-j bufhels -fteeped barley meal 289 13 6, 65 4 coombs 3 bufhels dry barley meal 2 7 6 12 7, 66 4 coombs dry bean meal 2 1 3 14 8, 72 As many turnips as were valued at . . 110 1 ! T 9, 76 As. many potatoes as were valued at 1 11 6 H- 10, 88 4 coombs i bufliel malted beans and chaff 2 6 6 15 11, 88 4-J- coombs malted barley and chaff 2 12 1 13* 12, 89 4 coombs malted beans and chaff . 1 19 4 14 13, 92 malted beans and potatoes . . 1 3 12 J4-, 12i| malted beans and potatoes 1 11 I 191 Average increafe 13 ftones each bullock in 63 days. . The beans and barley valued at 2s. 6d. per bufliel, and the potatoes a: 6d. Cultivation of Grafs Land. IlouCc-Laml Suckling. *-/ / / O 57<> fale. This is a practice which can only be undertaken with advantage in fituations at no great diftance from large towns, where there is great demand for early lamb. In order to conduct this fort of fattening with profit and fuccefs, a lamb-houj e or Juckle of proper dimenfions muft be provided. It is found from practice that a range of building from fixty to feventy feet in length, and fifteen or eighteen in In the following table the quantity of different forts of green crops per acre is fliown, and the pro- portion of flock they will fupport: tons. cwt. qrs. His Weight of fcarcity root from 1 acre 1.9 8 3 20 4- 3 18 328 328 Weight of 1 bu/hcl 10 potatoes - 10 cabbages - 14 Quantity of beans from an .acre 8 coomb? qrs. 2 1 2 1- ibs. i Expcnfe of 1 acre of cabbages 1 potatoes 1 turnips beans d. 6 6 6 fcarcity root about the fame price, . 8 6 I acre* of fcarcity root will keep a middling fized bulleek 254 days, at 3 bufh. per day, turnips - 172 4- ditto, potatoes - 1C}0 2 ditto, cabbages ... ISO 4 ditto. beans 105 24- ditto. N. B. It appears that an acre of beans, cut green and given flalk and all, exceeds the dry beans 28 days. One acre of grafs cut green will keep a middling-iized bullock 112 days, fuppofing I ton 6 cwt. per acre. Three bullocks ate 35 rods of green beans in 12 days. The remainder of the crop was 12 coombs 2 bufhels per acre ; therefore an acre of green beans will keep one bullock l6 4) days. With fcarcity root againft potatoes the refults were as below : Fowl Scarcity Root, i Food Potatoes. Time. Jan. 17. Feb. 28. Number, Kind, and Weight of Beaifs. Stonos. Ibs. 8 fhort-horns weighed 963 - average 120 5 weighed again 1014 average 126 10 Gain in 6 veeks 6 5 Quantity of food confuted per v < ; ck by each beaft: One peck three-quurters of beans, and four bufhels of cut chaff Is. Sd., and fourteen bufhels of fcarcity root. Time. Jan. 17. Feb. 28. Dumber, Kind, ancj Weight of Beasts. Stones. Ibs, 8 fhort-horns weighed <.)55 average 119 5 weighed again 1010 average 120" 3 Gain in 6 weeks 6 12 Quantity of food confumed per week by each beaft: One peck three-quarters of beans, and four bufliels of cut chaff Is. 8d., and eight bufhek of potatoes. The proportions between the living and dead weights in animals are interefting to the grazier. - 580 Cultivation of Grafs Land.~~Houfi Lamb Suckling-* Ewes proper fcr. breadth, with three or more coops or divifion of different fixes at each of the ends, for feparating the lambs according to their ages, is fufficient for containing and conducting the bufinefs of from one hundred and fixty to one hundred and eighty lambs. That the lambs may be enabled to find their mothers with facility, the cues, when they are feparated from them, fhould be kept apart by deal hurdles in the middle of the houfe, fo that they may be convenient for the lambs in the coops at the ends.* After thefe arangements have been made, a fuitable breed of ewes for the pur- pofe fhould be provided. The molt early ewes of the Dorfetmire breed are the mo ft proper for this management. And there is another circumftance, that de mands fome attention in this fyftem of fattening, which is that of having ftich ewes as produce lambs that die of a fine white colour in the flefh, or what the butchers term fair. The ewes, after being provided with due attention to thefe circumftances, are to be carefully kept during the day-time in a warm pafture, and houfed in the night. They mould be fed with brewers grains and good green rouen hay, where Irifh bullock killed March 21, 1789. Highland Scot, killed Nov. 23, 1790. Home bred heifer, killed March 26, 1791. An ox killed April 1790. Norfolk fheep killed April 17PO. SouthDown flieep killed. Ditto killed Jan. 5, 1791. Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive Weight alive CATTLE. Stones. Ibs. 92 o 81 67 103 Dead weight Hide Tallow Dead weight Tallow Hide Dead weight Hide Tallow Dead weight Hide Tallow < SHEEP. 10 4 Dead weight 14 5 14 2 Dead weight Tallow Dead weight Tallow Stones. Ibs. 48 1 6 10 3 7 44 4 8 5 4 35 13 4 4 3 7 64- 10 6 10 6 13 5 8 7 31 i t 7 a 7 * Middlefex Corre&ed Agricultural Report. Cultivation of Grafs Land"~~Houfe~Lamh Suclding-^Sfanagement cfj oSl there is not plenty of grafs, as it is of much cGnfequence to keep them well be fore the time of lambing as well as afterwards. They ufually begin to lamb a little before Michaelmas, and when twenty or thirty lambs are dropped they may be put into and confined in the houfc. And in order to their feeding in the rnoft pcrfec t and expeditious manner,, is is necefTary that the houfe be kept conftantly well littered with clean wheat-draw. All the dirt and naftincfs that may arifeor adhere to the coops, hurdles, or other parts, fhould be often carefully removed and wa flicd away,as without care in this rcfped: the lambs never thrive well. It is 1 ike- wife nccelTury to provide a proper fupplyof calcined chalk, both in the lamp and in powder, in order that by licking it they may correct the fuperabundant acidity of the ftomach, and thereby prevent the tendency to loofenefs,and preferve thcmfelves in health. Proper fupplies of frefh wheat fhould likewife be placed in a mallow trough every day for their feeding upon. And as they are apt to fuck any thing that comes in their way, a little clean wheat.ftraw mould be put, with the ear ends downwards, in a rack within their reach, for them to nibble and eat of. If there be pitch-marks on the ewes, they fhould alfo be clipped out. The foot-rot and fcab are likewifc to be well guarded againft. The method of management that is ufually adopted in thefttckfftig-btvfe is this : <f The mothers of the lambs are turned every night at eight o clock into the lamb-houfe to their offspring. At fix o clock in the morning thefe mothers are feparated from their lambs and turned into the pafhires ; and at eight o clock fuch ewes as have loft their own lambs, and thofe ewes whofe lambs are fold, are brought in and held by the head till the lambs by turns fuck them clean : they are then turned into the paflure ; and at twelve o clock the mothers of the lambs are driven from the paflures into the lamb-houfe for an hour, in the courfe of which time each lamb is fuckled by its mother. At four o clock all the ewes that have not lambs of their own are again brought to the lamb-houfe, and held for the lambs to fuck; and at eight the mothers of the lambs are brought to them for the night. " If an ewe gives more milk than its lamb will fuck, the fuperabundance is given to the twins, or to any other lamb whofe mother may not be able to furnifh it with lufficient food. The fhepherd muft in this cafe hold the ewe, or me would not fuffer the ftrange Iamb to fuck. From their timid nature, it is extremely eflential that they (hould be kept free from every fpecies of unnecefTary difturb- ance.* " * Middlefex Correded Agricultural Report. *2 Cultivation ofGrafs LcmtL~?-lIouJc-Laml Suckling Management oj\ In order to enable the ewes to fupport the great exhauftion of this fyftem of management, they are kept plentifully fupplied with different forts of green food, fiich as turnips, cole, rye, tares, clover, and other fimilar vegetables, and when ihefe are not capable of being provided in plenty, brewers grains are given in their place in troughs, and a proper fupply of frefh green rouen hay, in racks. This is rcquifite not only for the fupport of the ewes, but that a full fupply of milk m?y be provided for the lambs, and the danger of their being checked in their thriving avoided, as where the contrary is the cafe no fort of feeding can afterwards bring diem into a fattening (late.* The lambs are retained in the houfes, under this method of feeding, till they are in a proper condition for the butcher ; at which time fuch as are about eight weeks old and fully fattened are drawn out for the market, which in general fetch from two to four or five guineas a-piece, according as they are more early. Decem ber and the two fucceeding months are the deareft, as at other feafons they fel- dom fetch more than one half the price. It has been obferved that the falefmen and butchers in London find that fuch lambs as have fharp barbs on the infidc of their lips die of a deep colour, and thofc whofe barbs are naturally blunt cer tainly turn out fair meat.f The chief objedls in this fort of fattening are thofe of attending to the regular feeding of the ewes, the varying of their food with propriety, and keeping the houfc.- perfectly clean and fweet. * Mjddlefex Carrefted Agricultural Report. f Ibid. SECT. X. Cultivation of Grass-Land. Planting Fruit and Timber Trees. PLANTING lately much at tended to Profit of with different Sorts of Trees better underjlood Soils proper for Fruit Trees for other Sorts of Trees- Lands and Situations moft proper for this Sort of Improvement vajt Ad vantage of this Improvement Statements of. FRUIT TREES this Sort of planting of much Importance in many Diftric~ls Apple Trees Sorts of Soil proper for dry Sorts mojt proper different ones been ufed Kinds of Apple Trees ufed for Cyder in different Diftri&s Pear Trees lefs difficult in Soil AfpeBs and Situations mojl proper for for early and late Sorts Jhould be adapted to the Situation different Methods of planting ufed Circumjtanccs to be attended to in proper Dijlances between Rows and Trees in different Cafes of where raifed at leaft Expenfe Modes of ma naging the Stocks proper Seafonsfor making Plantations of Mr. Bil- ling /ley s Directions on Modes of pruning of- Caufes of not producing Fruit in Remedies of Methods of gathering Fruit of Modes of keeping of Procefs of being converted into Cyder Modes of planting and manag ing Pear Trees nearly the, fame -Jhould have more Room Forms and Va rieties to be attended to one Sort only in a Row Produce of Land mere than with Apple Trees Lofs of Land by this Sort of planting not great \-djl Advantage that may in fame Cafes be attained in this Way TIMBER TREES what neceffafy in Soils mojl proper for different Sorts of- NeceJjUty of draining and fencing in the Land for Tubular View of Soils for what to be regarded in planting in different Situations in high Situations in low Lands on the Banks of Rivers on the Sea Coajl Trees moj^ proper for in thefe Situations Modes of providing Plants Lands proper for Nurfcries of Methods of Preparation of Moddes ofrai/ing the Plants infometimcs provided by pur chafing from neighbouring Nurf tries proper Prcpara* 38* Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting Situations proper for. tion of Lands for the Reception of the Trees by the Plough by the Spade rifting Modes ofSize (f Plants proper for what neceffary to be attended to in Roots (f Dift an ces and Methods of planting in expo fed Sites //* Kelts, Stripes, and Clumps in Jheltered Site* Number of on an Acre in Duke of Portland s Plantations Modes of fett uig the Trees proper Mir- ture of -Shelter ofbeji -Seafon for planting out of- Methods of perform ing of neceffary Management of afterwards miift be kept clean coarfe Plants muff be removed Broom Furze Briers butting of or filling up Vacancies what neceffary in Planting Hedge Rows propriety of not a/~ ccrtained where pra&ifed larger Trees neceffary planting of what ne ceffary in proper thinning of Plantations neceffary what to be regarded in proper Times for performing of- in JVcods in Underwoods Willow or Ozier Plantations Kinds of- Modes of performing of Evpences of-> Ad vantages of on proper Lands for Management of Woods Cattle Jhould be kept out of preventing Decay of New Stocks occafionally raifed Jhould no t be too old before, cut improving coppice or underwood Kind Proper Times of filing up of Queftion refpefting Growth of Poles of Times of cutting over of Practice of in different Diftrils in Beach wood of Buck- inghamjhire inWo re ejter/hire inStaffordjhire Seafons or Times forCitt^, ting of for Barking for Underwood Work of mojily performed by Mea- (iire is differently managed in different Places fometimes regulated ac cording to Ufes. 1 HIS is a practice which has lately been much more attended to than probably at any former period : the profit and advantage of covering different forts of land with trees of the fruit, timber, or other kinds, according to circumftances, hav ing begun to be better underftood, and of courfe to gain a greater interefl with thofe extenfive proprietors who have the beft means of carrying fuch plans into execution. It is obvious that on the drier forts of deep, friable, flrong, loamy, and many other forts of foil, in particular fituations, fruit-trees of different defcriptions, but particularly the apple and pear, may frequently be planted, when either in the ftate of tillage or pafture, with great profit and fuccefs. And that in the lefs deep lands, of the fame kind, with dry rock fubfoils, other forts of fruits-trees may often be raifed with advantage : while on the fleep unproductive wafle lands, that can neither be cultivated with much benefit under the fyftem of corn or grafs, trees Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting Situations proper for. .; 3,-j of the timber or other forts admit of being planted with very considerable profit ; often from two or three, to eight or ten times the amount which they would afford under any other method of management.* It has been well obfcrved, that wafte and barren lands, in mod fituations, may very conveniently be improved by planting trees on them. There are few fpots which would not admit of being brought into culture in this way, under particular circumftances ; ?nu rhere are innumerable traces, of vaft exent, on which it would be much more profitable to the owner to plant with trees, than to attempt any other mode of improvement. " Wherever the foil is dry and infertile, or where its chief or only produce is heath, or where it is full of rocks and (tones rifmg to the furface, or if it be a ftiff obdurate clay, having little furface-produce ; and in * Vaft improvements of this fort have been eftofted in different diftricls, and the following is fluted by Mr. Young in his Eaftern Tour, vol. I. as what would be the advantage of planting in JS T ot- tinghamfliire on lands of fmall value. On a wafte of Mr. MelliftYs, incloftxl with a ring-fence 700 acres, which could be let at 31. an acre, tithe free, the following, it is fuppofed would be the cafes if a perfon hired it under a leafe of thirty years : The raffing, planting, &c. would come to Rent of 700 acres for thirty years Reparation of fences, fuppofe - Intereft of .2, 1 00 for thirty years at 4 per cent. Total expenfe - 7,820 Produce. Thinning in 10 years at 51. an acre * - 3,500 Ditto in 20 years, 1,000 per acre at 6d. 251. . - 17,500 Cut down 30 years, 2,000 per acre, at Is. or 1001. per>acre 70,000 Total produce - 91,000 Total expenfes - - 7,800 Clear profit - 83,180 This account is ftated in the ftyle of a common farm ; the firft expenditure, called (lock, and com pound intercft, not calculated, it is very evident that no man jjoflefied of fuch foils, who can hire them for twenty or thirty years under a planting leafe, need ever to be diftrefled at the idea of younger childrens fortunes, or raifing larger fums of money ir future. A moderate expenditure will, he fays, by planting, fecure the certain pofleflion of any fum thht may in future be wanted." According to this calculation 700 acres would produce in 30 year* the fum of 83,1301. VOL. ii. 4 F 5t6 Cultivation ofGraJs-Lvnd. Plan ting Situations proper icr: general, in moft cafes where the foil is poor, if not in the very near vicinity of a town, it may be converted into plantations, if it can be freed from hurtful water with greater profit than any other improvement it could admit of, unlefs in very- particular circumflances, even where it may admit of being brought, in time t into cultivated ground. Where the fur face- produce is naturally fmall, perhaps no thing could be fo economical as, in the mean it- bile, to fill it with trees ; becaufe thefe, if judicioufly chdfen, not only yield a greater profit than could be drawn from any other kind of produce, and afford conveniences for houfes, and other ac commodations for inhabitants and for manufactures,, but the ground itfelf, while the trees continue to grow upon it, undergoes for the moft part a gradual amelio ration, which it would not have done in its natural ftate, and admits of being more cafily improved when ,the proprietor can find leifure to undertake it, than it otherwife would have done.*" Others recommend that every inch of fuch barren wafte lands as are not capable of cultivation by the plough |, or of being ufefully applied in the ftate of fward, mould be converted to the purpofe of railing plantations, efpecially thofc bleak and expofed tracts on the fides of moun tains, and on the banks of the fea. It is however the advice of an attentive obferver, that large plantations, or coppices for profit, fhould not be made on good land, always of much more value for corn or paflurage, but either on moift land of fmall value, upon a clay or marl bottom,, where timber often grows well, or rather where fuch land abounds, upon precipices, and fides of hills impracticable to the plough ; and where it often happens the land unplanted is of little or no valueJ-" There are likewife fituations in the more warm and lefs expofed parts of almofl every diftrict which are proper for admitting this fort of improvement, on account of their incapability of being converted to other ufes ; fuch as the narrow corners of fields in the ftate of tillage, and the hedge-rows of thofe in the condition of grafs. In fhrt, there is fcarcely any portions of land fo poor, barren, rocky, or unpro ductive, as not to admit of this fort of improvement, provided trees adapted to the nature of their foils, and proper modes of planting bepractifed. The limits of a work of this nature are, however, too confined to admit of fully examining and entering into the fubject, which would fill a volume. It is only a, * Anderfon s Effays, vol. IIL + Nicol s Pradical Planter. j Pit inStaflbrdtiiire Repert, Cultivation of Grafi-Lcwd. Planting. F ruit Trees*-*-* *]$& few of the mo ft ufcful praiVical di regions that can be here brought to the notice of thofe proprietors who haveawidi to render their eftates more ornamental and valuable, by the practice of planting tho. c parts of them that dojnpt admit of other modes of culture.* In order to render this fort of management more clear and fa ris factory, we (hall confidcr it as applicable in the cultivation of fruit-trees, timber and coppice, or underwood. Fruit Trees The planting of trees for the purpofe of producing fruits of different kinds, in many diilricts, forms a considerable part of the profit of the former. This is the cafe in Hereford mire, Detfonfhire, and other counties where the bufinefs of making cider is carried on in an extenfive manner ; and in the county of Kent fruit-trees are often planted with the intention of deriving profit from the produce. In thofe diftricts where cider conftitutes a principal object of the farmer, the planting of apple trees becomes a bufinefs of great importance, and requires par- * Asa proof of the great improvement that may he accomplished in ihis way, it is obfervecl by Mr. Pontey, in his ufeful Trad on Planting, (hat an citato of a thoufand acres of mountainous land, ufually termed barren, from the bleaknefs of its fuuation, let for not more than twelve (hillings per acre, would colt at thirty years purchafc eighteen thoufand pounds. If the purchafer expend a thou- fand pounds more in planting and fencing a hundred acres, fo fituated as ultimately to fcreen the whole, allowing compound intereft for that with the accumulating rent of the land for fourteen years,the eftate would then have cod about twenty-one thoufand two hundred pounds ; and the account for it, with, fourteen years beyond that period may be ftated as under; . Paid for the eftate - 18,000 9CO acres improved by flieltcr,3s, per acre, at 30 years purchafe 4,050 Value of 200,000 trees (chiefly larch) at 6d. 5,000 Eftate worth at the end of fourteen years - 27,050 Coft, as before mentioned, about - 2 1 ,200 Improvement by planting ... 5,850 Do. by trees, in 14 years more, at Is. each - - 10,000 15,850 Deduct for rent of 100 acres, at 601. per annum, with compound intereft, about ..... 1,175 Eftate improved by planting, in 28 years - - 14,675 It is added, that in forming thefe calculations full allowance has been made for the expofure of fituation, as it is not uncommon to fee larch worth as much money in half the time, but probably if the whole were fuffe red to remain to the end of the term, the improvement might not be fo great ; yet 4 F 2 58 S Cultivation of Grafs~Land* Planting. Apple Trees Situations* $c. ticularcare, in order to keep up a conftant fucccflion and afford proper fupplics of fruit for the purpofc*. It is only in thofc forts- of foil that are of the more dry kind that trees of this defcription can be raifed \vith advantage. It has likewife been remarked, by an intelligent cultivator, on an extenfive fcalc, that the fruit-liquors of Here- if the thinning wore properly attended to, the value of (landing trees, with the produce of fuch as uerc Told, could not be-lefs than the Hated average, independent ofexpenfc, viz. is. 6d. per tree, or I2ol. per acre." * Mr. Marfhal mentions the ftyre apple, the Hagloe crab, the golden pippin, old red-ftreak, wood cock muft, Paris or royal wilding, dymmock red, coccagee, rufiet, and Bromley foxuholp, as itill in ui e, The forts of apples that have in praclice been found the mo ft proper and valuable for the making of good fruit-liquor in the different diftrifts, according toMr. Crocker, are the following : " In Hcrtfordfhire and Worcefterfhire : The Bennet apple ; ilreaked with red, of a pk-afant tafte, makes a good fecond-rate cider. Captain Nurfe s kernel ; yellow, ftreaked with re d, of a mild aciil flavour, makes light pleafttnt cider. Elton s yellow ; of this apple therearetwo forts, the one to bemetwitlv above Hereford, and the other below ; the former of the fliape and fize of an orange, yeilow on one fide, and red on the other, of a mild pleafantacid, and makes very good cider : the latter is fomewhat larger, and of a beautiful gold colour, fliarp to the tafte, and makes excellent cider. Normandy apple : under this name there are three forts, the yellow, the white, and the green; all of a bitter fweet tafte, which make rich cider, and of a high colour; the trees are faid to be moft abundant bearers. Mr. Crocker has been iaformed by a friend, whofe veracity may be depended on, that thirty trees of this fort, irv the fifth year after grafting, produced five hogfoeads of cider, of one hundred and ten gallons each. Yellow or foreft ftyre, fmall, red on one ide, and a fine yellow on the other ; of a mild, pleafant ncid, and, in the opinion of many, makes a mod excellent cider : the tree, however, fehJom thrives well, and is but a my bearer." In Somerfetfhire : " Thejerfey; (rnall,ofa light red ground, with a variety of lake-coloured ftreaks, moderately bitter ; makes high-coloured cider, which is fluggilh in its fermentation, and ought to be n;aiie by itfelf. White-Sour ; fmall, of a yellow ground, lightly tinged towards the nofe with a light brown, and fome ftrong touches of brown near the ftem, of an acid flavour, fomewhat acrid, very juicy, and makes fmart palatable cider. Margill ; middle-fized, yellow, lightly tinged with red, pleafant flavour, is a fine cider-fruit. Vallis apple; large and handibme, finely tinged wfth red ail over, fweet in its flavour, very juicy, makes tolerable cider. Barn s-Door; moderate fize, brown to wards the ftem, the reft red, forae red ftreaks within, late in ripening ; a pleafant acid ; makes very ^ood cider. Crab red-ftreak ; fmall, greenifh-yellow on one fide, light-red on the other, with flrong red ftreaks, of a pungent acid, and under proper management m akes fmart ftout cider, Du- ann ; fmall, yellow near the ftem, ftrongly tinged with red towards the nofe, fmart acid, makes good cider. Jack Every ; middle fize, light yellow, tinged with brown, and red fweet flavour, makes tolerable cider. Coccagee ; yellow, fpotted with red and brown, of a rough acrid flavour, makes very fwart cider under due maaageracnt j but its fermentation being particularly volatile, it require* Cultivation ofGraf*-Lan$* Planting. Apple Trees Soils proper for. .589 ford (hi re have " always been fuppofed to derive their excellence frcm feme peculiar quality in the foil which produces them; but that a preference has been given to foils of oppofitc kinds by the planters of different ages. Thole of the laft much attention form after making. Clark s Primo; middle fixe, of an orange colour on one fide, red, blotched \vitli brown, on the other, of a mild lufcious acid, makes rich cider, and is alfo an excellent npple fur the table. Buckland ; i mall yellow tinged with red, veined with red within, makes gooil cider. Pit-Crub ; final], dark red, rinely tinyed with a hike colour within, finart acid, makes good cider. Slatti.r s Pearmain ; middle fi/e, yellow, richly tinged with red and biown, delicious flavour, firm f!e(h, makes excellent cider, but hitherto has been more ufed at the table than at the prefs. Stutter s No. 1<) ; long in its form, ground a yellow and light red, finely blotched with ftrong red, mo derately acrid, is a fine cider fruit. flatter s No. 20 ; yellowifli ground, tinged with red, fmart acid flavour, makes very good cider. Slatter s No. 21 ; tinged on the fun- fide with red and brown, very pleafant flavour, and will undoubtedly be efteemed as one of our beft cider apples. The four laft- rmmed apples, the author fays, are new, the trees being lately raifed from kernels by Mr. Slatter of Uminfter, Somerfetjwhofe orchard and cider have long acquired much celebrity. Cattle-pippin ; greenilh-yellow, veined with brown, and flightly tinged with red, mild acid, and makes good fecond-rate pale cider. Saw-pit; red throughout, acid flavour, and by fome is efteeiued the beft cider apple iu the country. Pomme-apis; large, yellow, faintly tinged with red on the fun-fide, broad attheftem, very juicy, finart but pleafant acid, is undoubtedly a fine cider-fruit : it is, however, very little known in this country, having been brought from France but a few years fince, and the propagation of it confined to one or twonurferies only." In Devonfhire : Staverton red-ftreak ; whitifh-yellowat the ftem, brown, tinged with red towards he upper end, pungent acid, makes a fmart but pale-coloured cider ; the tree a remarkably plentiful bearer. Sweet broady ; large and handfome, colour brown and red, makes good cider, ufeful for mellowing that of the very acid fruits ; the tree large and fine, and bears plentifully. Lemon bitter- fweet ; yellow rind, hard and firm, a pleafant bitter, and is by fome efteemed a fine cider apple. Jofey; handfome yellow, fubjed to fpots of brown on the rind, of a mild acid tafte, very foon aftergather- ing perfeclsthe faccharine fermentation, makes mild pleafant cider, but not lafting: it is alfo a good table fruit. Orcheton pippin ; a very handfome apple, yellow on one fide and red on the other, of a highly pleafant flavour, excellent for cider, the table, and the kitchen ; in point of general utility perhaps few apples are fuperior, Wine-apple; green) (h -yellow ground,very thickly ftreaked with red all over,pulp a little red, mild acid, is a very good cider-fruit Marygold fpice-apple ; yellow r ground, light brown about theftem, highly and beautifully tinged with pink, mild acid, of a fpicey relifli, makes excellent cider of a delicious flavour ; it is a delicate fruit alfo for the table, and keeps long. Ludbrook red- ftreak ; yellow ground finely tinged with pink, finart acid, and makes excellent cider ; the tree fubjeft to canker. Green Cornifh ; yellow with green ground lightly tinged with red of a mild acid flavour, early ripe, and makes good, ckler. Butter-box ; yellowifli green, tinged^with light red, mild acid makes pleafant but not lafting cider. Red Cornifh; red nearly all over, of a mild acid, makes good cider. Broad-nofed pippin ; large, rich yellow, mild acid, makes pleafant but not ftrong cider. Cuefffazffar f i fGr(ifa*Lais-tf.-Pltmliiig* Jjiplc Trees Suifc //% ?/ trfoir* century trnifornily contended iii favour ofa light fa.idy loam, and o-n that their finelif eiders were made: at prefent, a foil of a diametrically oppolhe quality, a ftrong; red clay, is generally preferred. Much of the foil \\hich is there called clay is properly argillaceous marl ; and fome of it contains a large portion of calcareous earth, and efrl-rvcfces ftrongly with acids. He has found this foil to form thcfub- ftraturn of fome orchards much celebrated for producing ciders of the firft quality. It appears to have the effect: of mitigating the harfhnefs of rough auftere fruity and that, as the trees grov; with great luxuriance in ir, it is, perhaps, of all foils the belt calculated to anfvvcr the wifhes of the planner ; but that the ftrongeft and inoft highly-flavoured liquor which has hitherto been obtained from the apple is produced by a foil which differs from any of thofe that have been mentioned the fhallow loam, on a lime-done bafis,* There can be no doubt but that the apple- tree is capable of fuccceding in foils of f cry different qualities, provided they be perfectly free from ftagnant moiQure; but we have found from many trials that in ft iff retentive foils, where the bottom is wet, they begin to grow moffy, and decline in the courfe of a few years. It has been found that the early fruits obtain their greateft perfection in a fandy foil, and the late ones anfvver beft when they are planted in a ftrong loamy or clayey one: the more valuable fruits, as the ftyre, hagloe crab,and golden pippin, delight moft in the light fandy foils. And it is a fact fully determined, that cuttings from the fame tree grafted upon fimilar ftocks, but planted in different foils, produce different liquors. It is alfo admitted that liquors of the ftrongeft body, and which keep beft, are produced from trees grown in clayey foils. f CatVhead ; large, grcenifli yellow, pleafant acid, makes good cider. Brandy-apple; middling fize, .\vhite, fraart acid, makes pale-coloured frilky cider. Pine s red-ftrcak ; very handfome, red all over except at the ftem, flavour not fo fmart as the Ludbrook, but a cider equally good. Winter-red ; dark-red with fome tinges of brown at the ftem, crifp in its pulp, very juicy, of a fmart fpicey flavour ; will keep until April, and is excellent both for cider and the table. Sweet pornme-roi ; yel- lowim green on the fhade-fide, and brown tinged with red on the fun-fide, of a lufcious flavour ; is deemed a good cider-apple. Bickley red-ftreak ; a late fruit, greenifli and yellow ; finely tinged with red, pulp firm, flavour fomewhat acrid, is a moft excellent cider-apple/ The forts of pears that are in moft eftimation are the Squam, the Oldfield, Borland, Red pear and Sack. * Knight s Treatife on the Culture of the Apple and Pear, t Herefordfliire Report, 4to, Cultivation of Graft-Land. Planting. AppleTrees left Afpecis for. Pears are much lefs particular in refpect to the nature of the foil on which. they are planted than apples, as they are found to fucceed and afford fruit in almoft every fort of land.* The nature of the fituation and afpect that is mod favourable and proper forthe apple is likewife equally involved in difficulty : fomecontending for high, others low fuuations, as well as for different afpefls. The intelligent writer juft mentioned, however, obferves, that " the apple tree fucceeds befl in fituations which are neither high nor remarkably low. In the former its bloffoms are frequently injured by cold winds, and in the latter by fpring-frofts, particularly when the trees are planted in the loweft part of a confined valley. A fouth or fouth-eaft afpecl is ge nerally preferred, on account of the turbulence of the weft, and the coldnefs of north winds, but orchards fucceed well in all ; and, where the violence of the weft wind is broken by an intervening rife of ground, a fouth-weft afpecl will be found equal to any.f It has been fuggefted, that the more early forts of apples mould be planted in fouth- ern afpects, and thofe of the later kinds in northern ones ; as by thefe means the former maybe rendered fo forward,and the latter fo protracted as to be lefs in danger of injury. And where the land of a farm will permit, it is fuppofed that advantage may be derived from having this fort of trees planted in different fituations in ref pect to expofure; as in this way the chance of efcaping blights will be greater, as where one fails the other may fucceed.^ In regard to the choice of fruits for every difference of fituation, a writer of ex perience has remarked, that great attention C( mould be paid to felect fuch as are fufficiently early to ripen well in it. A cider-apple may be fafely pronounced to be too late for the fituation it occupies, when it does not become yellow before the end of October ; and he does not know any difadvantages attending an early maturity, provided the kinds of fruit be capable of being kept a few weeks. An opinion prevails, that the liquors obtained from all early fruits are without ftrength or body ; but the ftrongeft cider yet known is produced by one of thefe the ftyre. In cold and favourable fituations, thofe fruits will beft repay the planter which in their general character, appear nearly related to the native kind, or crab ; for. * Herefordshire Report 4to. + Knight on the Culture of the Apple and Pear. t Herefordshire 4to Report. f)2 Cultivation of Graft Laud. Planting. Apple Trees Dijlanccs, though the flavour of thefc be aultere and ungrateful to the palate, the ciders prr- duced from fome of them, when they have been thoroughly ripened, arc often found fmooth and generous. But he would recommend the grafts to be taken from an improved crab, and not from a degenerated apple; for the former will poflefs much of the hardinefs and vigour, whilft the latter will often inherit the debility and difeafes, of the parent tree.*" Different methods of planting are adopted in different diftricts, but, according to Mr. Knight, the Herefordfhire planters generally perform the bulincfs in the " quincunx form, or in ftraight lines eroding each other at right ang es. The former method is preferred in the hop-yard and pafture, and the latter in tillage, being lefs inconvenient to the ploughman. But it appears to him, that any given number of trees planted near each other in rows, with wide intervals, would be lefs in jurious, either to pafture or tillage, than in either of the preceding methods. The trees in each row mould, in this cafe, be of the fame variety of fruit, that no one, by pofiefling greater vigour and luxuriance, might overgrow and lhade another, and that the whole row might appear a continuation of the fame tree. The intervals between would afford confiderable fpace for the plough or paf ture; and every tree, having room to extend its branches on each fide, would be more protected than injured by its neighbours, and would attain nearly or quite as large a ftature as if entirely infulated. The cider-maker would alfo be enabled to colled: with convenience each kind by itfelf, and might afterwards mix them according to his judgment or caprice. Unlefs an orchard be very large, not more than five or lix kinds Ihould be planted in it; and if fome of thefe be fuch as bloilbm early, and others late, the planter will have as good a chance of an annual fupply of fruit as a larger number of kinds would afford him. * It is conceived, by the fame author, that " the diftance between each row, as well as the fpace between each tree, muft depend on the (ituation and foil. When the former is high and expofed, the trees mould be clofely planted, to afford each other protection ; and, when the latter is poor and (hallow, their growth will of courfe be diminifhed, and they will confequently r&quire Jefs room: but in low and (heltered fituations, and deep rich foils, where the trees are little expofed to winds, and attain a large fize, wider intervals muft be allowed them. In the former inftances, a diftance of twelve yards between each row, and half as muth * Knight s Treatifeon the Culture of the Apple ami Pear. 6 Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Planting Apple-Trees Diftancesproperfor. between each trce/will bcfufficient ; in the latter, twenty-four yards between eacli row, and eight between each tree, will not be found too much, particularly if the ground is intended for tillage after the trees have grown to a confiderable fize. An opinion rather generally prevails atprefentin favour of planting fingle trees, at twenty or twenty-five yards diftance from each other, on arable grounds ; and fpecious reafons may be offered in defence of this practice : the roots, as well as the branches, are at perfect liberty to extend themfelves in every direction ; but the latter are every way expofed to the ftorms of autumn and to the cold winds of the fpring ; and trees of more hardy kinds than the apple are well known to grow much better when planted near enough to afford each other protection than when totally infulated. It may be fuppofed, that trees growing in diftant rows will not regularly occupy the whole furface of the ground with their roots ; but thofe always extend far beyond the branches, and will meet acrofs very wide intervals. The growth of every infulated tree is more low and fpreading, and confequently more injurious to corn or herbage growing under it. Where the mode of culti vation will admit, the rows mould always extend from north to fouth, as in this direction each part of every tree will receive the moft equal portions of light and heat.* But the diftance of the trees when planted in the field is frequently made much greater than the above, as from twenty-two to twenty-four or five: and fome advifc the diftance of fixty feet every way as the moft proper and advantageous.! It is probable, however, that in planting at great diftances there may be inconvenience in refpect to the produce, from the trees being more expofed to the cutting winds and frofts. It is found that " apple trees are generally the moft productive of fruit when they are lituated near the fold-yard, and the ground in confequence much trodden and manured by the cattle in the winter. The ground in which old apple-trees have grown is efteemed very unfavourable to young ones. When from contiguity to the houfe an orchard is planted in this kind of ground, the pear and apple fhould be made to fucceed each other as has been judicioufly recommended by Mr. Mar- fhall.J" Experience has fufficiently fhown that trees of this fort are commonly " raifed * Knight on ihe Apple and Pear. t Herefordfhire and Somerfetfliire Reports. Knight on the Culture of the Apph and Pear. VOL. ir. 4 G Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Planting-* Apple-Trees Crab-Jtocks. \vith moft fuccefs, and at leaft expenfe, in an old hop-plantation ; the ground under this culture being always well tilled and manured, as well as fenced againft all kinds of cattle. Confiderable advantages may he obtained by planting twice the number which are to remain of trees in each row, ufing two kinds of fruit, and putting each alternately. The kinds which fucceeds beft may be left, and the other be removed to the tillage. Trees of a large fize may be tranfplanted with out the leaft danger in the autumn, particularly if the roots be fhortened in the pre ceding winter. The fubfoil of the ground which fuits the hop is not unfrequently too moift for the apple, a defect rarely removed by draining. But where a hop ground is wanting, trees may be raifed in tillage or pafture; but theexpenfe of defending them properly will be confiderable, particularly in the latter, in which though ever fo well defended, they ufually make but a flow progrefs. In tillage- land the leaft expenfive (and perhaps the beft) method of railing apple- trees will be to exclude every fpecies of cattle except fheep and pigs, and to defend the trees only with fmall branches bound round their ftems, as in the broom or befom of the farm-houfe. This fence muft begin clofe to the ground, and rife to a greater height than fheep or pigs, or the chains of the horfes in ploughing, can reach ; and to preferve the bottoms of the ftems from injury by the plough, a ftrong oak ftake mould be driven into the ground on each fide of every tree. The fmall branches which defend the ftems will require to be replaced every other year : but this will be done at a very trifling expenfe.* * In the pafture-method of planting formality of the row may be difpenfed with ; but the trees will fucceed much bet ter if three or five be planted near each other with wide intervals, than if each ftand entirely alone. | In regard to the method of removing and planting the crab-flocks or apple- trees, the latter of which is moftly ufed in the field at the time when they firft * Knight on the Culture of the Apple and Pear. i Mr. Knight obferves, that, in making a plantation in pafture ground, timber-frames will be ne- cofiary. The kind now moft in ufe are made with two flat pofts, placed with their wide furfaces pa rallel to each other, at two feet apart, having boards nailed to their edges on each fide with fmall dif- tances between them. The trees in this way are perfectly protected from cattle ; but when their branches extend themfelves, and become agitated with the wind, the ftems can fcarcely efcape being rubbed againft the frames. A much better kind cf frame is made with three pofts, placed triangu larly round the tree, approaching each other at the roots and diverging confulerably upwards. This appears more expenfive than the ether ; but timber of much inferior value may be ufed," Cu Ith aticn of Grafs- LandPlanting Apple-Trees Crab-Jlocks. 5[)5 begin to bear fruit, in the former cafethe flocks are grafted.* It is frequently the cafe that too little attention is beftowed " to leave the roots as long, and as little in jured as poflible, and not to plant them deeper than they formerly grew. The foil round each tree mould be dug eighteen inches deep, and four orfive feet wide, placing the fod, if the ground be pafturc, in the bottom of the holes, as recom mended by Mr. Marfhall. If The holes in this cafe be made fix months before the time of planting, and if a fmall quantity of rich mould be mixed with that of the field, immediately round the roots, it will much accelerate the future growth of the trees ; but it will rarely beadvifable to make ufe of any very delicate or high ly cultivated fruits when this method of planting is adopted. The branches of the trees, whether grafted or not, and wherever planted, mould be much retrenched; and the mould may be raifed a few inches round the ftems, to prevent their being fhaken by the wind. A ftake to each will alfo be of much fervice ; but great care muft be taken to prevent the bark of the tree receiving injury by being rubbed. f" There is another circumftance, efpecially where the land is fomewhat inclining to moifture, that demands attention, which is that of not placing too deep. If fo planted as to be capable of refitting the wind, they cannot be planted too near the furface4 Much mifchief is frequently done by deep planting, as the apple-tree is particularly liable to be deftroyed by the ftagnation of water about its roots. * Mr. Billingfley give* the following directions for planting and grafting this fort of fruit: " As fooii as the ground for the orchard is ready, plant your trees (ftocks) and be particularly careful not to plant them deep in the ground. After about four years, lop their heads, and graft them with the fruit you mod efteem, taking care to adapt your grafts to the flock. In other words, let your grafts, and the tree* on whofe heads you graft, be as fimilar in refpedt to luxuriancy as you can ; on this a great deal de pends. It is found, that a luxuriant grofs-growing graft will never fucceed on a flow growing ftock, ati i vice versa. It may alfo may be obferved, that fome excellent forts of fruit are naturally fo flow of growth that a man, inftead of planting for himfelf, plants for his grandchildren ; and if you endeavour to force them (which is often injudicioufly done) with luxuriant ftocks, you occafion difeafe. The tree never be comes large or lading, and the fruit will be taftelefs and infipid." The ftocks whether apple or crab, are raifed by fowing the feed in drills in a good piece of ground and keeping the plants clean. Some prefer the apple, others the crab flock ; the former comes into bearing fooner, but is more liable to the difeafes of the mofs and canker, and much Icfs durable. The grafts may be bell taken from neither too old or too young trees, but fuch as are healthy. i Knight on the Apple and Pear. J Herefordshire 4to Report. 4G 2 ^Cultivation of Grafs Land.PlantingAppU-TreesSefffons proper for In making a plantation, the autumn is the mod eligible feafon ; but if from any caufe, the planting be delayed till fpring, the trees will fucc ced perfectly well, if the foil or fucceeding feafon be ; ot remarkably dry. When the trees have once takert root in the hop plantation or tillage, they will not require any thing more than pro tection from the planter; but in the pa It u re, the ground fhould be annually dug three or four feet wide round each, during the fir ft four or five years after they ate put in. Apple-trees being naturally very full of branches, frequently require the opera-- tion of pruning ; and, when properly Executed, great advantages will be found ta arife from it : but, as generally performed, the injury the trees fuftain is much greater than the benefit they receive. It has been obfervcd that, "the ignorant pru- nergets into the middle of the tree,and lays about him to right and left, till he leaves only fmall tufts of branches at the extremities of the large boughs. Thefe branch es, now receiving the whole nou rife men t of the tree of cotirfe increafe rapidly, and foon become, when loaded with fruit or fnow, too heavy for the long naked boughs^ which are of neceflity full of dead knots from the former labours of the pruner, to fupport. Many hundred trees annually perifli from this caufe. It is believed,,, the prefent fyftern of pruning ought to be precifely reverfed, and that the pruner Ihould confine himfelf almoft entirely to the extremities of the bearing brancheSj \vhich are always too full of wood, and leave the internal part of the tree nearly as he finds it. Large branches fhould rarely, or never, be amputated.*" The principal reafons of trees of this fort not producing fruit as regularly as crops in any other cafes, are the effects of froft in the fpring months, as in April, and thofe of blights in the following. The former is found to be moft dangerous when it comes on fuddenly, while the blow is moifl. It has been remarked by the author of the Philofophy of Agriculture and Gardening, "that the early bloflbms of apple and many other trees are frequently deftroyed by an excefs of cold ; and Mr. Knight aflerts, that the hazinefs of the air which ufually accompanies warm days and frofty nights, with a north-eaft wind, in the fpring, is injurious to the bloflbms of every tree, and particularly fo to that of the apple; for the warmth of the day hatches the eggs of the infect which breeds in it, whilft the coldnefs of the night, by checking the progrefs of the fap, retains the bloflbm in its half expand ed ftate to form a nidus for it. This infect, which aflumes the winged ftate in * Knight on the Apple and Pear. Cuttivalfan of Grafs-Land.^Planting Apple- trees. Gathering of. 597 July, is a fmall brown beetle.and that irthen probably lays thofc eggs on the trees, which, if the fueeced ng feufon be unfavourable, prove dcftrueHve of the future crop; of fruit.* " And it is further obferved tlvar, "ihe leaves and b!o(T.>ms of the ap ple-tree are forr.eumes entirely deft roved by a numerous tribe of caterpillars, fame kinds of which become moths in the dimmer and autumn,, and otheis in the fuc- eeeding fpring, as weli as by a- minute infccft of the cochioeal trib*,. * The fame writer adds that "the bloffoms of the apple appear to fail not unfrequently from \vant of impregnation, when the \\eatheris unufually hot and dry, or when cold wir.ds prevail ; as he has- often obferved t\\t farina to wither and die on the an her<e in fuch flafons. In each ofthefe cafes he has always feen thofe trees moil produc tive, which, having had the good fortune to efcapethe defolating hand of me pru- ner^wcre moderately full of wood, and capable of affording their bloiToms fomer protection from froft and cold winds, or exceflive heat." After the apples have remained upon the trees till they are become in a proper ftate of ripenefs, they are then to be carefully gathered, and properly fcparated, as the goodnefs of the liquor in fome meafure depends upon this being properly pei- forrned. It has been advifed that " thofe whofe rind and pulp are tinged with- green or red without any mixture of yellow," as that colour difappears in the firft ftages of fermentation, fhould be kept perfectly feparate from fuch as are yellow or yellow blended with red. The latter fort after being left on the tree till fuf- ficiently ripe to fall without much fhaking, <f are alone capable of making fine ci- der.f When thus fcparated, they (hould be kept till quite mellow, which is beft done by expofing them in a thin layer to the influence of the fun and air in fome convenient covered fituation, as by that means the liquor will be ftronger and the danger of an unpleafant flavour be avoided. No precife rules have been laid down for afcertaining the mod advantageous degree of maturity to which they fhould be brought for this purpofe, but it is fuggefted that as long as they become more yellow without rotting, they may improve. In this (late they are fit for be^- ingcoverted into cider by the proper procefs.J * Knight on the Apple and Pean t Ibid. J This is a procefs that is much two extenfive, and which does not properly belong to a work of tkiji kiodj but the following practical dire&ions, given by the author of the SomerfeUhire Corrected Agri cultural Report, may probably be ufeful : " The fruit being properly matured, every neceflary utenfil ought to be fet in order for cidej making; the mill, prefs, tubs, calks, aad pails, clean waihed, and fuffered to dry befurt.they are ufed. 598 Cultivation of Graft Land Planting Apple-Trees Cider. There is little difference neceflary in the method of planting pears from that which has been laid down for apples ; except in their being beft raifed on their own fort of flocks, their requiring wider intervals from their taller growth, and being planted "Several methods are praftifcd for converting apples into pommage; but the two moftchiefly in ufe are the bruifmg-ltone vitha circular trough, and the apple mill. The beft internal conftrucfcion of a mill feenis to be that which has two pair of rollers, the upper pair being ftucl; with coggs and dags, and the under pair, being of very hard wood, turned fmooth, and worked with coggs only. The upper rol lers grinding the apples to a coarfe pommage, and the under ones fqueezing it to a very fine pulp. " 1 he apples being, by either of the foregoing methods, properly bruifed, the pommage is carried to the prefs, mid a 1 quurc cheefe made thereof, by placing very clean ft raw or reed between the various layers of pommage, or elfe by putting the fame into hair cloths and placing them one on another. It is of importance that the ft raw or reed be fweet and perfectly free from any fuftinefs, left the cider be impregnated therewith. Particular care ought alfo to be taken to keep the hair cloth fweet by frequent \\afhingand dry ing, elfe the ill effecls of their acidity will be communicated to the cider. To this cheefe, after Handing a while, a light prefl ure is at firft given, which is gradually increafed until all the juice or muft be cxprefled ; after which this muft is ft rained through a fieve and put into vefi els. Here the great art of making good cider commences. It is well known that are there various ftages of fermentation in this juice, each of which changes the very quality and nature of the fluid ; but the prin cipal which are to be particularly attended to here are three, namely, the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefactive. The firft converts the must from its turbid fulfome ftate, to a tranfparent fpirituous liquor. It the juice be expreffed from four apples, this fermentation is perfected in two or three days; but if from fweet apples, not under a week or ten days. " The next ftage of fermentation gives an acidity to the vinous liquor before fpoken of. converting it to vinegar. This fermentatioto begins foon (frequently in a few hours) after the vinous is ended ; and if the fermentation be improperly haltened by heat, before the vinous is perfected. The third (and all fucceeding fermentations) difengages an alkali from the liquor, and gives it a tendency to putrefaction. * To regulate the firft, and to check the others, is then the great bufinefs of the cider-maker. It is well known that fermentation mould not by too much heat be carried on rapidly, nor by extreme cold too llowly ; as in each cafe the fermenting body will be injured. Hence it appears that a certain degree of warmth, or rather imperceptible heat, conduces beft to regulate this operation. This degree of warmth may be underftood to reft between thirty-eight and forty-fix degrees of Fahrenheit s thermo meter. If then the warmth of the cellar in which new made cider is placed be between thefe points we may expecl (no adventitious caufe interrupting) that the vinous fermentation will commence and go on with due regularity. Fermentation is an inteftine motion of the parts of a fermentable body ; this motion, in the prefent cafe, is always accompanied with a fmall hiffing noife and evident ebullition, the bubbles rifing to the furface, and there forming a fcum or foft fpungy cruft over the whole liquor. This c-ruft is frequently raifed and broken by the air as it difengages itfelf from the liquor and forces its way through it. Thefe effe.db continue while the fermentation is bliflf, and at laft gradually ceafe. The liquor now appears Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting Apple-Trees Pruning of. 599 whether in the orchard or in the tillage-land, at much greater diftances ; in the former at not lefs than eighteen yards diftance inthe rows, and eight or nine from tree to tree, andin the latter not lefs than twenty-five orthirty between the rows. The form and flature of the different varieties rnuft alfo be regarded, and only one fort be planted clear to the eye, and lias a pungent vinous fliarpnefs upon the tongue. This is the critical moment which the cider-maker ought not to lofe fight of ; for if lie would have a ftrong and generous liquor, all further fonfible fermentation muft be ftopt. This is beft done by racking off the pure part into open veflels and placing them in a more cool fituation fora day or two: after which it may again be barrelled and placed in fome cool place for the winter. It is poffible however, that a variety of avocations at the feafon of cider-making may take off the farmer s attention, and give opportunity to the acetous, fermentation to come on ere he is aware of it. " The mo ft popular remedies in this cafe are the following: a bottle of French bran dy, half a gal lon of fpirit extracted from the lees of cider, or a pailful of old cider poured into the cafk, foon af ter the acetous fermentation is begun: but is it not to be wondered at if all thefe fhould fail if the cider be fti l continued in a clofe warm cellar. To give effect to either, it is ueceflury that the liquor be as much expofed to a colder atmofphere as conveniently may be, and that for a confiderable length of time. By fuch means it is poffible to reprefs the fecond fermentation in a great ineafure; and if. a cafk of good cider cannot from thence be obtained, a tolerable one may. The Stumming of cider is a provincial plirafe, fignifying the fuming a cafk with burning fulphur; and is thus performed : Take aftrip of canvas about twelve inches long and two broad; let it be dipped in melted brimftone. When this match is dry, let it be lighted and fufpended from the bung of a cafk (in which there are a few gallons of cider) until it is burnt out : the cafk muft remain flopped for an hour or more, and then be rolled to and fro, to incorporate the fumes of the match with the cider,after which it may be filled. If the ftummingbe defigned only to fupprefs fome flight improper fermentation, the brimftone match is fufficient : but if it be required to give any additional flavour to-the cider, fome powdered ginger, cloves, or cinnamon, &c. may be ft re wed on the match whenit is made: the- burning thefe ingredients -.vith the fulphur will convey fomewha t of their fragrance to the whole cafk. of cider; but to do it to the beft ad vantage, it muft be performed before the vinous fermentation be fully perfected. To perfedt a veffel of cider, after the foregoing fteps have been taken, it will be found neceffary now and then to fupply the wafte occafioned by evaporation and infenfible fermentation with frefh cider ;, and about the beginning of April following to give it a final racking. At this time a commixture of cider made from jerfey or any other lufcious and fweet apple, with that of the iour apples, may be recommended, to give it a general regular colouring, Should however, a higher colouring be required; than whatrefults from fuch commixture, a fmall quantity of burnt or melted fugar, prepared in the fol lowing manner, will produce the defired effect :~Take a pound of fugar, and put it into a ftew-pan with- a little water, and place it over a clear fire, ftirring it frequently till it turns black ; take it off the fire an<J as it cools apply fome cider thereto: by little and little,and continue ftirring it till it be thoroughly mixed. This colouring tinges to perfection ; it is very cheap, gives no lufcious fweetnefs, but rather an agreee* 600 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting. Pear-Trees. Produce of* in a row. And as in fome forts the fruit is only produced on the outfidcs of the branches expofed to the fun and air, while in others it is in every part of the tree, it is recommended that the former fort mould be planted at greater diftances than the latter kind. From the irregularity of the ripening of the fruit, a great number of trees of the fame fort is neceffary to afford a fufRciency for being ground at a time-* It has been found by the fame writer that the produce of an acre of land planted with apple-trees is nearly a third lefs than the fame extent planted with pear trees ; but then the apple-tree begins to bear much earlier, and cyder is juftly a prefer able liquor to that of perry. In refpecl to the lofs in the pafture where the land is clofely planted with ap ple-trees, though it may be considerable, it will feldom be more than one-tenth bf the value of the fruit. Befides, the grafs produced in thefe fituations is highly valuable from its coming early in the fpring when much wanted ; and if kept elofely fed down, and prevented from becoming coarfe, will fupport much flock. f In Ihort, it is remarked by Mr. Knight, " that fuch lands as produce but a fcanty herbage may frequently be converted into excellent orchard ground. A$ an inftance of the advantage in this way, an orchard of this fort, which for the laft thirty years has afforded a produce not much lefs than four hundred gallons the acre, would not, it is fuppofed, if the trees were wholly removed, fupported two fmali fheep during the year with facility. The foil is of the indurated, deep, ftiff, clayey kind, which, it is conceived, would be lefs worth twelve millings an acre as a pafture, than it is worth three pounds an acre as an orchard." It is added, cc that there are in this ifland many hundred thoufand acres equally capable of being improved to the fame extent by planting with apple and pear-trees, which might be effected at a very fmall expenfe, from the trifling value of the plants. J " able bitternefs, and thus recommends itfelf to the nicer palates. Soon after this, in the fame month the cider may be bottled ; and by the month of June the owner may expect to find himfelf poffeficd of a rich, pleafant, and wholefome liquor. More full directions for the conducting of this prccefs are given in Mr. Knight s valuable Treatife on the Culture of the Apple and Pear ; and theprinciples on which it proceeds chemically explained > And alfo in Mr. Crocker s Effay on the fame fubjecl. The fame rules in a great nieafure hold good in the procefs of making the perry, except in its requir ing more art in the fining of the liquor and a more equal fituation in refpeft to temperature. * Knight on the Culture of the Apple and Pear. t Ibid. % IBid. Cultivation of Grafs Land* Planting. Timber-Trees, The fame writer has likewife fuggefted, that by diftributing a few trees of the apple and pear kind thinly over the meadow and pafture lands in all thole diftricts \vherethey could be planted with fuccefs, but little injury would be done to the herbage ; while a found palatable liquor would be provided for the whole of the population employed in the bufinefs of hufbandry, and in produdive feafons a fup- ply afforded for other purpofes ; befide advantages derived in the faving of barley, as well as the prevention of fo many acres being cultivated under the hop fyftem.* Timber-Trees. In the railing of timber or other foreft-trees, almoft every thing depends upon properly adapting them to the particular nature of the land, its be ing in a fuitable (late of preparation for their reception, and the planting being performed at a proper feafon, in a perfect manner, and at proper diftances, accord ing to the nature of the trees and fituation. There are likewife a few other circum- ftances that demand attention in conducting this bufinefs in the moft effectual manner, which are thofe of keeping the trees perfectly clean and free from all forts of rubbifh, and the made or annoyance of qther forts of planes, efpecially during their early growth, and at the fame time having them well fheltered and fecured from the intrufion of all forts of live flock. It is only by attention in thefe dif ferent refpects that plantations of any kind of trees can be raifed with any degree of certainty or fuccefs. The particular kinds of foil beft adapted to the cultivation of the different forts of timber-trees, and in which fome or other of them will be found to grow in the moft perfect manner, are gravelly or light fandy foils, with free porous fub-foils ; gravelly or fandy loams on porous fub-foils ; loamy, fandy, or gravelly foils on re tentive fub-foils ; gravelly chalk or chalky loams on porous fub-foils ; loamy clays or clayey loams on porous fub-foils ; and ftrong clayey or loamy foils on retentive fub-foils. Likewife thin moorifh heathy foils on gravelly or porous fub-foils, alfo on clay or retentive fub-foils. Such foils as are of a ferruginous kind, and of little depth, are found the moft unfavourable to the growth of timber, efpeciaUy where the iub-foil is retentive, as the deftructive moifture in fuch cafes Magnates near the furface, and deprives the roots of thofe healthy materials which they mould take up for the purpofe of nourimment and fupport. In forming plantations, befide the neceflity of having them properly fecured by good fences, if the foils be not fufficicntly dry, recourfe muft likewifebe had to * Knight on the Apple and Pear. VOL. IT. 4 H 602 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting. Timler~Trets Soils proper for, draining; to take off the fuperfluous water : the fituation and foil being thus atten tively confidered and prepared, a proper felection of plants mould be made. Such as mod particularly deferve attention for wafte lands, are oak, afh, elm,beech, birch, fycamore,larch,and the various kinds of fir. The oak has been found to thrive on foils of very oppofite qualities, but thofe of a dry, deep, firm nature, are beft adapted to it, with a proper degree of fhelter. The afh profpers in almoft every dry foil, even in expofed fituations ; in rather damp and free mellow foils the elm is to be preferred, efpecially for wafte lands; if in very elevated places a chalky, gra velly, or light loamy foil abound, the beech may be planted with fuccefs. In all foils and fituations the larch is found to thrive where the Scotch fir cannot be raifed, and the latter is proverbially known to fucceed in the poorefl and moft elevated places.* * Nicol on Planting. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting. Timber-Trees Soils proper for. 605 In the table below a view is given of the nature of the foil in which different forfs of timber-trees are found to fucceed in the mod certain manner, with the ufes to which they may be converted.* * Surface So!/. Sub-foil. Common Growth. Planted Groii tb, U/tt Of. Heavy and gravelly Heavy Loam with Birch, Hornbeam, Oak, Ojk, Afh, Chefnut.Wil. Timber, Hop Poles, Loams. Chalk. Afh.Hazd, Beech, &c. low, Lime, Walnut. Cord Wood, Hurdiei, Bavins lorBakeii, and Lime. Sandy Loams. Heavy Loam. Ditto. Elm, Beech, Weymouth j D.tto. Fine, common Spruce. Flinty ftrong Loam. Heavy Loam. Ditto, Willow and Chefnut. Timber, Fencing Poles, and as above. Gravelly and fandy Gravelly Loam. A(h, Beech, Oak, Ha Chefnur, Afh. Hop Poles, Fencing Loams. zel, &c. Poles,and all as above. Gravelly, fandy, and Heavy gravelly flinty Afh, Beech, Hornbeam, A.(h, Beech, Larch, &c. Timber, Fencing, Hop flinty Loams. Loam. and Oak. Poles, Cord Wood for Charcoal, Bavins, &c. Flinty, dry, poor gra Chalk at 2 feet depth Beech, Oak, &c, Beech, Larch, &c. Cord Wood, Bavins, and velly Loams. with gravelly Loam. Hop Poles. Flinty and gravelly Chalk 4 feet with deep Afh, Oak, Hazel, &c. Alh, Larch, &c. Cord Wood, Hop Pole*, Loams. gravelly Loam. Bavins, Stakes, Ethers, ice. Ditto. With a few Flints, but Oak, Hazel, Beech and Chefnut, Afh, and Wil Hop Poles, Fencing, nearly as above. Afh. low. Poles, Stakes, Cord Wood, & c . Lightifh black Loam. Dry fandy Gravel. Birch, Elm, Afh. Afh, Elm, &c. Various Uses in Husbandry. Flinty gravelly Loams Strong Loam with Oak, Am, Beech, tec. Afh, &c. Poles, Bavins, Cord Flints. Wood, &c. Chalky,flinty,gravelly Chalk, with fome gra Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Loam. velly Loam. Gravelly Loam. Heavy flinty and poor Oak, Am, Hazel, and Afh, Oak, &c. Common Produce a fe^ Loam. Beech. Poles, Cord Wood, Bavins, &c, Planta tion many Poles, and the above. Gravelly and [chalky Gravelly Loam with Oak, A(h, &c. Afh and Chefnut. Poles, Cord Wood, &c. Loams. Chalk. Gravelly Loam. Ditto. Aih, Oak, and Beech. Oak, Larch. Ditto. Ditto. Gravelly Loam and Ditto. Scotch Pine. The fame. heavy Loam. Sandy Gravel. Gravelly and Sandy Ditto, Scotch Pine. Larch, Chefnut, &c. Poles, Stakes, Ethers, Loam. &c. Jcc. Stone,Shatter,and gra Strong Loam with Oak, Hazel, Birch, &c. Birch, Oak, &c. Oaken Tillers, fmall velly Loam. Ragfton*. Timber Poles, &c. Stone Shatter and gra Gravelly Loam with Oak, Birch, Afpen, Ha Afh, Chefnut, and Wil Fencing Poles, Hop velly Loam. fome Stone. zel, and Aih. low. Poles, Cord Wood Sec. Gravelly Loam. Gravelly Loam with Oak. Chcfnuts. Hop Poles, Fence Poles, fome Stones. &c. Sandy Loam. Gravelly Loam. Birch, Oak, Hornbeam, Chefnut, &c. Fence Poles, Hop Poles, &c. &c. Sandy Loam and Stone Gravelly Loam with Oak, Beech, Birch, Ha. Ditto. Ditto. Shatter. Ragftone. zel, A(h. Gravelly Loam and Deep Loam, heavy Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Stone Shatter. Clay and Gravel. Ditto. Gravelly Loam. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. it- Gravelly and fandy With ftrong Clay and Oak, and ditto. Alh, Larch, &c. Poles, Fire Wood, &c> Loam. Loam. as above. Gravelly Loam flinty. Gravel with Clay and Scrubby Oak, Hazel, Oak, Afh. Timber and ditto. fome Flint. &c. Wet fpongy Land. Moid and boggy Alder, Willow. Alder, Osier, Willow, Hurdles, Hop Polci, Earth. &c. ice. Drier ditto. Ditto more dry. Poplar. White Poplar, Willow. Hop Poles, &c. Light fandy Loam, Dry gravelly Earth. Maintain Am, Afh. Scotch Pine, Silver Fir. Hop Poles. Light giavelly Loam. With dry Gravel. Am. Sycamore. Timbsr-Turnery, &c, 4H2 Cu/tivation o In planting, where it is performed on the more elevated or mountainous tradls, warmth and flicker are to be confidered, as without thefe the trees feldom thrive in a perfecl manner. In fuch fuuations there is, in general, the moft difficulty and the leaft progrefs made in the railing of timber-.trees ; the fuccefs of the planter depending greatly upon fixing on fuch forts of timber-trees as may in future become the moft highly valuable, on planting thickly with plants of not too large a fize, and on a confiderable plat or extent of ground both in length and width being planted.* In thefe unfriendly fituations to the growth of trees, fmall plants mud confe- quently be chofen and planted thick on the ground ; as the winds are very prejudi cial to trees of a large rtatu re, by loofeningthe roots and frequently breaking the fibres: but though this is the moft difadvantageous lituation for planting, it is pof- fible, with proper care in the above refpects, to rear young timber in ir. Where it is intended to cover a mountain from its bafe, it will be moft conveniently done by planting round the bafe in the firft inftance, rifing gradually ; by which means an artificial melter will be forming, from the progrefs that will be made by the trees that were firft planted, efpecially if the extent is fuch as to require feveral Tea. fons to complete the planting. The portion firft planted mould be pretty exten- five, in all fuch cafes efpecially where melter is principally intended. The kinds of trees to be chofen for fuch fuuations muft be regulated, in a great meafure, by the foil. The pine would perhaps be found to flourifli moft, but the larch is preferable as a nurfe. The mountain-afti, the beech, the afh, the fycamore, the birch, the fir, &c. may all be planted with reafonable hope of fuccefs ; and where the foil is deepeft and richeft, the oak.f In low fheltered fituations, where the inconvenience of expcfure to the winds is obviated, timber-trees may be planted with greater certainty of fuccefs ; the chief care neceflary in this cafe being to fix on trees of a proper kind, and placing them at proper diftances, according to their forts and fizes. As thefe fituations admit of moft kinds, on the more fheltered parts, the oak, larch, elm, beech, horfe-chefnut, walnut, lime, fpruce and filver fir, may be fuitable ; and on the lefs (heltcred portions, the afh, birch, fycamore, hornbeam, mountain-afh, and, jir, with a mixture of larch. The banks of rivers and canals are moftly favourable for the planter s pur- * Nicol on Planting, f Ibid. Cultivation of Grafs Land.-^Plitntiag. TimlerTi\ ca t .$c. Go pofe, and moft forts of timber and other woods may be ralfcd in fuch firuntions the oak, elm, poplar, willow, and ofier, according as they are more or lefs dry ; but the preference mud depend on the local circumtlances of the different cafes. Situations near the fea-coaft, or what are called maritime filiations, are in ge neral inimical to the growth of timber; but where fuch are attempted to be planted, the beech and fycamore will be found to bear the fea breeze better then moft others, and confequently become defirable as nurfes for the other trees. Jn thefe fi- tuations, where the bank rifes high, the beft mode may be to plant in the face of it,, confiderably within the level of the top, in order to afford a fcreen for the trees within till they rife to a fufficient height : and where it is flat, to adopt the method of planting in belts, beginning as clofe as pofiible to the edge of the water, and: planting the firft rows very clofe, as about thirty inches diftance, employing (tout well-rooted plants of not more than twelve or eighteen inches growth.* There are two different methods principally purfued by planters in providing the trees : one is by railing the plants in a detached piece of ground, as a nurfcry,. from the feed ; the other by purchafing the trees from the nurferies in the neigh bourhood in the ftates proper for being planted out. The former is probably the beft and moft economical plan, where the bufmefs of planting is to be conducted upon an extenfive fcale, as it is moftly troublefome, and often impofiible, to pro cure the quantity or forts of plants that are wanted at the proper fcafon. Befides,. the plants in general fucceed better when they are put in as faft as they are re moved. But for fmall concerns it is in moft cafes more advantageous and con venient to obtain them from a nurfery,as they can never be raifed upon a fmall fcale fo cheaply as they may be provided in this way. Wherever nurferies are attempt- ed,the nature of the land fhould be tolerably good,as it is almoft impoflible to raifc good plants on very poor foils. Different forts of land have been recommended: for this purpofe ; but it is evident that no one kind can be fitted to the growth of every fort of tree; yet fuch as are dry and friable, without being too light,, are capable of railing healthy trees of moft kinds. A late writerf has recommended for this purpofe " a loam of middling texture, rather inclining to fand, neither rich: nor poor, from eighteen to twenty-four inches in depth ; lying on a free, porous fubftratum. This will be found more generally congenial to the nature of the dif ferent foreft-trees than any other foil. But there is no general rule without excep tion. If there be a diverlity of foils, and if they do not too nearly approach the * Nicoi on Planting, t Ibid* 606 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting. Timber- Trcef, $c. extremes of meagre fterility and exceflive fertility, fo much the better, fince all the kinds do not exactly thrive alike in the fame foil ; and an opportunity would there by be afforded of placing each in that more congenial to its nature. The fite fhould neither be high nor low, flickered norexpofed, in any extreme, for the fame reafon, viz. that it may the more generally anfwer all purpofes. For a nurfery of this dcfcription,nothing can be more eligible than the fpot which may occafional- ly be occupied as a kitchen-garden. The pulverization and mellownefs afforded by the previous growth of various culinary crops, bring the land into the moft fuitable ftate for the railing of young trees, and at the fame time clear it the mod effectually from vermin, as the grub, and other infects.*" The ground mould conftantly be well dug or trenched over to its full depth ; and when, necefTary, well drefled with cornpofts of lime, marl, dung, and other * For the extenh ye plantations of the Duke of Portland, in Nottinghamfhire, where the foil is of light fandy kind, " fome well fituated valley is chofen, as near the centre of the intended plantations as poffible, for the purpofe of a nurfery. If this valley is furrounded with hills on all fides but the fouth Ib much the better. A piece of ground, confiding of as many acres as is convenient for the purpofe, is fenced about infuch a manner as to keep out all noxious animals. At each end of the nurfery, large boarded gates are fixed, and alfo a road made down the middle wide enough to admit carriages to go through, which is found exceedingly convenient in removing the young trees from thence to the plantations. After the fence is completed, the ground on each fide the road is trenched about twenty inches deep, which may be done for about 31. 10s. or 4-1. per acre, according as the land is more or lefs gravelly. It is beft done in the fpring, when the planting feafon is over. If after the trenching two or three chaldron of lime be laid on an acre, the land will produce an excellent crop either of cabbages or turnips, which being eaten off byfheep in the autumn, will make the land in fine order foe all forts of tree- feeds ; but as the oak is the fort of tree cultivated in general ; this is the method pur- fued in raifing and managing that moft valuable fpecies : " In the autumn, after the cabbage or tur nips are eaten off, the ground requires nothing more than common digging. As foon as the acorns fall, after being provided with a good quantity, fow them in the following manner : Draw drills with a hoe in the fame manner as is pra&ifed forpeafe,and fow the acorns therein fo thick as nearly to touch each other, and leave the fpace of one foot between row and row, and between every fifth row the fpacc of two feet for the alleys. While the acorns are in the ground, great care muft be taken to keep them from vermin, which would very often make great havoc amongft the beds if not timely prevented. Let this caution ferve for moft other forts of tree-feeds." After the acorns are come up the beds require only to be kept clean from weeds till they want thin ning ; and as the plants frequently grow more in one wet feafon where the foil is tolerably good, than in two dry ones where the foil is indifferent, the time for doing this is beft ascertained by obferving when the tops of the rows meet ; which is done, when that is the cafe, by taking away one row on each fide the middlemoft, which leaves the remaining three rows the fame diftance apart as the breadth. Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Planting. Timber Trees Preparation, $c. (>*07 fimilar fubftances ; but other forts of manure (hould always be applied with the previous crops, and not thofeof the tree kind.* The method of cropping muft depend on the nature of the land, and circumftances. After the plants have been kept in the feminary for about two years, in moft of the forts,they mould be removed to this nurfery, and planted in rows or lines about twelve or more inches apart, according to their fort, and from three to five in the rows, where they may remain for two years longer, and then be finally planted out. The next thing to be attended to, where the ground has been properly drained, is that of preparing the land for the reception of the plants. In this bufinefs great care is neceflary, as much depends upon its being in a good condition for the reception of the plants. It is- performed by the plough or thefpade, according to the different circumftances of the land. When coarfe plants prevail, fuch as heath, furze, broom, &c they muft be fully deftroyed by flubbing, burning, or otherwife clearing away. When burning is praclifed the afhes mould be blended with the foil, as they are found of great fervice in promoting the growth of the plants. The mode of preparation by the plough on tillable fites, and where the soil is thin, is the cheapen: and moft effectual of any. Where the land has been in til, lage it wants nothing more than two furrows, and an equal number of harrowings, to render it fit for the reception of the trees. But where it is in lay, a crop of oats, &c. fhould be taken the feafon before planting ; or, if it is ftubborn^ a fecond crop, perhaps of beans, turnips, or potatoes,will be neceffary ; previoufly plough ing and harrowing well, and laying the land up in a perfect method. A trench- plough is frequently ufed for this purpofe, which ftirs the ground to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches. In this method it is elTential to plough to the full depth each time. of the alleys. In taking up thefe rows, the workman ought to be careful neither to injure the plant s- removed, nor thofe left on each fide. The reft of the young oaks being now left in rows at two feet apart, let them again ftand till the tops meet ; then take up every other row, and leave the reft in rows four feet afunder, till they arrive to the height of about five feet ; which is full as large a fize as is ever wimed t* be planted. In taking up the two lafl fizes, the method is to dig a trench at the end of each row, full two feet deep, then undermine the plants, and let them fall into the trench with their roots entire : the fame mode is neceffary with other forts of trees, very much of their futyre fuccefs de pending on Ibis point, their being well taken up. t Nicol on Planting. 03 Cultrcaiioiiof Grafs Land* Planting. TimberTrec* f Size of Plants ft r. When the fpade is employed, which mud be the cafe in deep fituations where the plough cannot come, and where there are rocks, ftones, or other obftructions ; in this method the bell planters advife, that the holes or pits fliould be made to the full depth of the foil, and fufnciently large according to the fize of the trees. For thofe of eighteen or twenty inches in height, whofe roots occupy about nine inches when fpread out, holes of fifteen inches in diameter may be fufficient. This muft, however, be regulated by the judgment of the planter. As it is of great advan tage to the trees that the turfy matter mould be well broken down and reduced be fore the time of planting, it may be ufeful to have holes made a proper length of time before the trees are put in, to admit of this being fully effected, efpecially on the drier and more light foils. From the defire of early appearance, it has been too much the cafe to plant fo- reft-trees of too great growth. It is obvious, however, that there will be not only much faving of expenfe, but a much greater certainty of fuccefs, in planting fmall young trees than fuch as are large and of greater age. Such as have been in the nurfery two, three, or four years, according to their kind, may in common be the moft advantageous as timber-trees. Mr. Nicol obferves that " deciduous trees of all kinds, except the larch, of from threa to five feet in height, being carefully raifed with good roots, will generally fucceed." He has, however,(hown, that a one year s feedling larch, nurfed one or at moft two years, will outdo all others of its kind in any foil or fituation, and therefore advifes planting trees of this age only. Firs of any kind will fucceed better if under than above thirty inches, even in the moft favourable foil and (ituation. Mod generally thofe of fifteen or eighteen in ches in height are to be preferred. From this view of the fubjed:, it may occur to fome, that to plant feedlings only would be the moft advifable and leaft expen- live method. That it would be the leaft expenfive method is obvious ; but that it is moft advifable, except for the Scotch and fpruce-firs, may, he thinks, be difputed. " As the chief property of any young tree, intended for tranfplantation, con- fiftsin a multiplicity of healthy fibres, hence the neceffity of nurfing, in kindly oil, fora year or two, all tap-rooted plants, for the attainment of this object, and that we may commit them to the lefs genial foil and more untoward fituation with greater probability of fuccefs. For, whether fhall we fuppofe the plant which has both root and branch to make, or that which has the latter only, in the firft feafon after fo important a change of habit, is more likely to fucceed ? The lat- Cultivation of Graft Land. Planting. Timber*Trees., 4-0. ter, certainly. From which alone may be demonftrated the caufe why plants of this dcfcription furpafs thofe of greater fize, as above ftated. Thefe are raifcd with unbroken, tufty, and fibrous roots ; thofe with maimed, lank, fibrelefs ones ; nor do they, with the utmoft (kill and attention, bearfuch proportion to the top. Confequently, the fibrils cannot afterwards, by the utmoft efforts of human art, be induced fo immediately to fcek pafturage for the fuftenance of the trunk." For though lopping may in a great meafu re obviate this, injury is thereby done to the tree. In all foils and lituations it is thefufeft and leaft expenfive method to plant young healthy well-rooted plants. The circumftances to be next confidered in this bufinefs are thofe of the diftance and manner of planting : on thefe points Mr. Nicol s direction are, that " for the moll expofcd, bleak fites, and barren foil, from thirty to forty inches may be con fidered as a good medium ; varying the diftance according to circumftances. For in an extenfive tract it will hardly happen that there is not a variety of foils. Some parts may be deeper and more loamy ; others more gravelly or rocky. In the former, the greater diftance may be advifable ; in the latter, the leiTcr. " For lefsexpofed fites,and where foil is found above 1 fix inches in depth, from four to five feet will be a good medium ; varying the diftance according to cir cumftances, as above. " For belts, ftripes, or clumps, whofe breadth or diameter does not exceed an hundred feet, lying in a bleak fituation, and of thin foil, the margin, on all fides, mould be planted at not more than two feet apart; the interior parts at three. Thofe lying on a more fheltered fituation, and of deeper foil, may be allowed dif tance according to circumftances. But narrow ftripes, or fmali clumpsj even if the foil may be termed good, (hould generally be planted thicker than a more ex tended mafs, that the plants may afford each other fhelter. " For the mod fheltered fites, where the foil is deep, good, and where appa rently every plant will grow, fix feet will be a good medium diftance. Wider than this, he cannot approve in any cafe whatever j becaufe, at this diftance, the plants have room to grow till their thinnings become ufcful. But, even were this not an object, there is a greater ; namely, that the plants may not grow too fquat in their infancy, and that the "pruning hook" be not much wanted in the formation of ftately timber." It is conceived that "he who plants too thin, with the idea of faving trouble, in. VOL. II. A. I 10 Ciiltit aiicn ff Grafs La nil. - Planting. Timber-Trees ,<$c. thinning, deviates as widely from the right path, as he who thins none at all." It js therefore contended "that thick rather than thin planting is the fufer (iJe to err on. By which mode, alfo, there is a more equal crop on the ground, beeting or filling up vacancies being much lefs neceffary.*" Contrary to the common practice, it is fuppofed that thick planting is molt ne- ccffbry where the plants are large ft, as the greateft number die in thefe cafes. In the Duke of Portland s plantations, where trees of various fizes are planted in an irregular manner, the number upon an acre is ufually about two thoufand. In refpect to the manner of fetting the trees in the plantations, it is probably the bert method, except where vegetable crops are to be cultivated between, to plant without any regular order, though the line or row manner is frequently prac- tifed, as being the leaft troublefome and expenfive. There is another point to be regarded in the planting of timber-trees, which is, that of the moft advantageous manner of intermixing the trees. Some have ad- vifed the planting in groups, to prevent the fuppofed injury of trees of different forts growing together : others, however, prefer the mixed method, not only as af fording a better means of afcertaming what forts of timber-trees fucceed bcft, but as enabling the planter to protect them more effectually. It has been fuggefted that c it matters little whether we plant in diftinct groups, or in indifcriminate mixture ; provided, in the latter cafe, we ultimately retain the moft profitable and flourim- ing kinds only. For, with the provifo that moft of the kinds evidently adapted to the foil and iituation be planted according to the mode of thick planting, a fuffi- ciency of them will remain, after all others are thinned away, for a full and final crop. For inftance: if it mould be fuppofed that the foil is beft adapted to the oak ; that it is defirable to raife the moft valuable kinds rather than the decorative j and that, exclufiveof the larch for nurfes, and a few firs to enliven the borders, fix kinds are to compofe the mixture ; plant two oaks for one elm, two elms for one beech, two beeches for one afh, two afhes for one birch, and two birches for one fycamore. And thus will the plantation at once be formed, in uniform gradation, of kinds moft likely to fucceed each other, in the cafe of either difagreeing with the foil or climate ; and which alfo fucceed each other in refpect of value as timber ; doing juftice, at leaft, to the patriotic intention of the planter, mould the firft and more valuable kinds fail.f 7 * Nicol on Planting. t Ibid. Citlih-atku of G rafa T.and*~-Pl(intlfi$* Tlmlcr-Trccs for. f>s t It is of the utmofl importance, as has been already fecn, in railing plantations ot the timber kind, efpeciaily in bleak expofed fituations, that warmth and protec tion be afforded by the judicious ufe of trees of quick creel: growth and numerous branches. It has been obfervcd, that in all lunatic ns, and on all foils, except thofe termed humid, and which arc ada; ted to the aquatic kinrs only, the larch is with out doubt the moft proper nurfe, and therefore fnould take preference of all others for this purpofe. But that on fub-hurnid, or loamy foils, the Lombard} 7 poplar and Huntingdon willow are good fubftitutes ; and, when variety is the obje<^, ought to be mixed with the larch, for the purpofe of nurting the other more valuable kinds. And that on elevated, poor fites, the mountain-alb, for the firft ten or fifteen years, is outdone by the larch only, in the office of nurfing, and is juftly admitted for the fake of variety. In all fituations this plant grows quickly in youth. In maritime fituations, the fycamore is likewife eminently ufeful for this purpofe. " Few trees, except the above, grow fafter in youth, and none are more patient of the fea-breezc. Confequently, when the lite is much expofed thereto, this tree fhould be freely planted in mixture with the larch for nurfing the oak, beech, elm, &c. if the intention be the culture of (hip-timber.*" The common pine may fometimes be ufeful in this view, and afford greater variety. The pro-* portion in which trees of this fort mould be employed muft obvioully depend on the peculiarity of the fituation, and other circumftances. Some recommend in thin foils, and bleak fituations, tree for tree; and in lefs expofed fituations, and better foils, one nurfe for two principal trees ; and in molt dickered fituations, with good foil, one nurfe for three, four, or five principal trees may be a fufficiens allowance. On the moft expofed and bleak fituations, where the foil is evidently fterile, the fafeft way is to plant too many rather than too few.f We come now to the bufinefs of planting out the trees. The feafon for per forming this to the moft advantage, and with the greateft chance of fuccefs, muft differ according to the nature of the foils and the plants, as well as the ftate of the. weather. In the more porous dry foils, with the hardier forts of trees, the autumn, as from the middle of October to the latter end of November, may be the moft fuitable j as they will be better eftablimed againft the fummer heats, which are of, ten deftructive to new-planted trees. But in the more heavy and moift foils, ef * Nicol on Planting. f Ibid, 6 112 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting. Timber-Trees, Setting, c. pccially thofe of the clayey and loamy kinds, and with the lefs hardy forts of trees, the early fpring fcufon, as from the middle or latter end of February to the begin ning of April, may be the moft proper. The condition of the land fhould be particularly attended to in this bufmefs, as it is equally improper to plant when either in too dry or too moift a (ituation. It has been well remarked, that "at a time when the foil is neither wet nor dry, the operation of planting is mod ca ll ly, and alfo moft fuccefs fully, performed. The mould adheres not to the fpade, nor does it run in ; it divides well, and with little trouble intermingles with the fi bres; nor, in the operation of treading and fetting the plant upright, is it wrought into a mortar, to the evident prejudice of the plant, whatever weather may enfue. Confequently, on a retentive foil, it cannot be proper to plant in time of rain, nor in many cafes for a day or two afterwards ; nor after a fall of fnow, until for feve- ral days it has entirely difappeared. Whereas, on a dry abforbent foil, it may be very proper to plant in time of gentle rains, immediately after heavy ones,*" or -on the fnow difappearing. The differences in the forwardnefs of the vegetation of different forts of trees fhould alfo regulate in fomemeafure the time of planting, where thofe of the fame forts are only made ufe of. In this view, it is advifed that the larcl^elm/ycamore, lime, horfe-chefnut, mountain-afh, birch, alder, poplar, willow, &c. fhould be put in by the beginning of March : and that the oak, birch, afh, chefnut, horn beam, &c. be finiflied planting by the beginning of April at the lateft. The beft feafon for the planting of many trees of the evergreen kind, fuch as the Wey mouth pine, fpruce, Scotch, lilver, and other firs, is fuppofed by fome to be in the latter end of July, or in the following month, when the weather is moift or cloudy. After the trees have been taken up with care, fo as to injure the fibres of the roots as little as poffible, and a few of the bruifed extremities cut off, they fhould, when intended to be planted in mixture, be put together in proper proportions, and con veyed in this way to the place where they are to be planted. They muft then be diftributed on the ground, at the pits or other place, in order to be ready for the planters, as by this means much time is faved, which would othervvife be loft in forting. But to prevent the roots from getting too dry, it is neceflary not to take up, or bring on to the land more than can be planted in a fhort fpace of time. * Nicol oa Planting. Cultivation of Grafs Land. Planting. Timber-Tree** Se/fhig, c. tfi;i This fhould invariably be thepraclice. Where only one or two forts of trees are howevpr to be planted, the ufual practice of carrying the plants along as the plant ing proceeds may be the mod convenient method. The operation of planting is the beft and mo ft expeditioufly performed by two perfons; a man to do the work, and a boy to hold the plants. In performing the bufinefs, the labourer fir ft ftirs the mould well in the holes or pits that have been previoufiy prepared, rendering it level, and fit for the reception of the plant ; form new holes according to the mode of planting. The boy then places the plant in the hole with all the fibres of its roots regularly fpread out and unconfined, to the depth of about an inch more than it had ftood in the nurfery, holding it perfectly upright ; while the man gently fills in the loofe mould, moving the tree a little up and down to let it mix with the roots : the remainder of the earth is afterwards put in j and then the labourer proceeds to the preparation of the next hole, leaving the boy to fet the plant erect and clofe the mould about it, which in foils of the ftiffer fort fhould be only performed in a light manner, but in thofc of the drier kinds, as the fandy and gravelly, as clofe as poflible. In this way the work is to proceed till the whole is finimed. There are other methods of planting, as by forming flits, nicks, or openings of other kinds, fo as juft to fqueeze in the roots of the plants : but thefe never fucceed well. Much of the fuccefs of the planter depends upon having this part of the work well executed ; but great care fhould be taken, particularly where the land is in clined to moifture, or of a retentive quality, not to plant at too great a depth. In planting on ftecps, it is directed that the trees mould be placed towards the declivity, being planted at the loweft part of the opening ; which mould, in complet ing the bufinefs, be left the higheft, by which the moifture may be better pre fer ved. It feems not improbable but that in many cafes and fituations the planting of fmall trees of the timber kind might be performed with great convenience and ex pedition by the afiiftance of a plough fujtable for thepurpofe, as has been fome- times pradifed infetting hedge-plants. In the planting of trees of confiderable growth great attention is neceflary to have them well fecured againft the wind, as, when they become loofe, the fibres are fo broken and deftroyed that they foon die. This has been commonly effected by means of ftaking : but as in this way the^ trees are often in danger of being f> 1 4 Culticaiion of Grafe Land* P lanting. Timber* Trees, <$T. i -, ju red by rubbing, a practice of ramming the earth clofely about the roots has been attempted, which in fome foils, and upon fmall fcales of planting, has, iris faid, been found to fuccecd ; but in extenfive concerns it is wholly inadmifliblCj, from the trouble that mud attend it. When the plants have been all put in it is a practice with fome to fow or fa the plantations with acorns, as it is found that fown oaks as w r ell as other trees exceed in growth thole that are planted. This work is done either by paring off the furfuce with a mattock, and fetting the acorns with a dibble, or by putting them in ihort drills by the hoe at the diltance of about fix inches. The beftfeafon for performing this bulinefs is in April, and it may be effected the firft, fecond, or third year after planting ; * but the firft or fecond is probably to be preferred. Great care ihould be taken to preferve the acorns well, by expofure to the air and frequent turning for this purpofe, as they are very apt to fprout foon after being gathered. -j- After the trees have been planted, it is ncceffary not to lofe fight of the plantation. The young plants muft be kept clean,and free from the annoyance and choking of coarfe weeds of all kinds, for at leaft three or four years. This may be effected by the hoe in many cafes ; but fome have recourfe to the culture of different forts of crops in this view. Jn this methed, however, much care is requifite not only to avoid injuring the plants, but to guard againft the foil being too much impoverilhed and their growth thereby much restricted. Where coarfe plants abound, fuch as broom, furze, briers, and other fimilar productions, in all the lefs expofed fituations, they fhould be wholly cut up and deilroyed ; but in bleak cxpofures it may be a better practice to only clear them to a diftance round the trees, fo as that they cannot do any injury by rubbing or ftriking againft them; the other parts being left for the purpofe of flieltering and protecting the young trees. * Nicol on Planting, andNottingham Repdrt. t Quantities per Acre ; Acorns, four to fix flrikes. Afh keys, four llrikes. Spanifh chefnuts, one ditto. Hawthorn berries, one ditto. It is neceflary to bury the alh keys and hawthorn berries one year in beds or pots of fand before ihey are fown in plantations t.f Grafs Land Planting. Hedge-row Timber. 6 1 5 There is anoiher point not lefs requisite to be attended to in young plantations, \vhich is that of filling up the vacancies that are can fed by the dead plants. Where the ground is kept perfectly clean, this may be done at any proper feafon ; but in other cafes, when the dead plants cannot be fo eafily detec ted, it fnay be better to delay the bulinefs to the third or fourth year, when the deficiencies can be more perfectly afcertaincd. If this fort of bufmefs be done too early, many plants arc frequently removed that would have thrown out from the bottom, en account of their not being dead in that part, though wholly gone in the top. The plants employed in filling up the plantations (hould never be too large, as, \vhcre that is the cafe, they are more liable to die. There is another kind of planting which is frequently practifed, but the propriety of which dill remains a defideratum. This is that of letting the hedge-rows with trees of the timber kinds. Some contend for the utility of the praclice, on the grounds of the degree of fhelter and ornament that is afforded, as well as its being a means of railing much ufefu 1 timber at little or no expenfe; while others condemn it as highly improper and difadvantageous, on the principle that much injury is not only done to the crops, efpecially \vhenofthe grain kind, both by the dropping and the fpreading of the roots, but alfo to the hedge, in the places where they (land, by their producing gaps and openings. But though fome inconvenience and in jury may be fuftained where this fort of planting is much in ufe in arable diftri&s, yet fromthefe being in a great meafure capable of being obviated by proper train ing and pruning, and from the naked appearance which is exhibited without them in a country, but more particularly from thevaft benefit that may be derived in the way of timber j* it would feem that fome extent of planting in this method (hould * It has been obferved by Mr. Midtlleton, " that it would not be an eafy matter to make an accu. rate eftimate of the advantages to be derived from fuch a meafure ; but in order to gain a flight idea as to the quantity of hedge-row timber, let it be confidered that, in \rell-inclofed, hedged, and cultivat ed diftri&s, the hedge-rows occupy from a twentieth to a tenth of the whole furface. Even includ ing the common fields, and cultivated Hopes and borders of fheep-downs, the average quantity of land occupied by hedge-rows at this time amounts to a twentieth, or two millions of acres : all of which might probably, be made to produce timber : more than half of it, however, would no doubt do fo by only trimming the lowed fide-branches off to the height of ten, twelve, or fifteen feet from the ground, This would permit the air to circulate freely ; give every advantage to the occupier s crops, and would leave fufficient tops upon the trees for all the purpofes of growth and rural ornament. Under ma nagement like this, the hedges would every where prefent healthy, vigoroufly-growing, and handfome timber ; would add very much to the prolit of the land-owner 5 to the fecurity of the country ; and to the pleafures of the traveller, 61 6 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Pruning and thinning of Timber-Trees. be attempted in mofl fituations. But in performing the bufinefs, the nature of the land, the fort of hufbandry that it is principally conducted under, and the kind of cxpofure in which it is placed, fhould be well confidered, and the fort of trees properly adapted to it. In dry foils, mod forts of timber trees, as has been feen, may be planted ; but in thofl*more ftiff and heavy kinds, the oak and the elm may be the moft proper. The am fhould, perhaps, never be had recourfe to where the land is almoft wholly under the plough ; but on lands under the grazing or grafs fyftem, it may be planted with advantage. In bleak and expofed fituations, the beech is probably the belt for this ufe; and near the fea the fycamore. The trees where the ground is moftly in an arable ftate ihould be planted at much greater diftances than under the contrary circumftances, and fuch trees as run moft to tail clear Hems be preferred. The young trees for this fort of planting fhould be larger than in other cafes, be ing kept in the nurfery two years longer than has been advifed above, and fhifted fo as to produce more fibrous roots. When about five or fix feet in height they are probably in the moft fuitable condition for being removed into thefe fituations. The moft proper time of planting in hedge-rows is when the fields are firft broken up from the ftate of lay, as at that time, from their being continued in the ftate of tillage for fome years, there will be lefs trouble and expenfe in protecting them from cattle by palings, &.c. as well as lefs danger of their being injured by the browfing of live ftock, as they will be advanced beyond their reach by the time the land is reftored to grafs. Where the planting is performed in the hedge rows of grafs lands, the trees muft always be perfectly fecured from the croppings of cattle, as well as the rubbing of fheep, or other animals, as, where this is not the cafe, they arefoon deftroyed. The planting in thefe cafes fhould always be carefully performed in the manner that has been already defcribed; and where the trees do not fland perfectly firm againft the wind, they fhould be well fecured by ftakes, or other proper means, as they never thrive well when not perfectly faft. The barbarous practice, too frequently made ufe of in different diftricts, of con verting the hedge-row timber-trees into pollards by lopping off their top branch es, fhould in all cafes be guarded againft as much as poflible, as it is the deftruc- tion of timber. Where pollards abound, they are moftly cropped once in from about nine to fifteen years, the profit of which moftly belongs to the tenant. This work fhould be conftantly ftnifhed by the end of February. Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Thinning Plantations Underwoods. 6 1 7 In plantations of timber and other forts of wood, il is neccfTary to attend to the proper pruning and thinning of the trees occafionally as they advance in their growth, in order to prevent their growing in an improper manner, and their injur ing each other by rubbing, or being drawn up weak. In the firft view they are therefore to be occafionally looked over after the third feafon from planting, and fuch headed down, or othervvife cut, as may appear neceffary for their more perfect growth. When this has been done, the only thing further will be to encourage a leader, by fhortening all the other branches that appear to contend with it to near ly one third of their length, in order to itrengthen the main ftem. The whole that is afterwards neceffary is that of properly thinning the ftrong top branches, and thofe on the fides, which may be done by a light bill. This is applicable to trees of the for eft kind ; but thofe of the fir and evergreen fort require nothing more than the regulation of their leaders, as that of keeping them tingle where they throw out double. The lefs the fide branches are touched the better. The proper thinning of plantations or woods is a matter of the greateft confe- quenceto the growth of the trees, as where they are too much crowded they are apt to be drawn up weak. In mixed plantations the nurfe trees fhould be firft gra dually thinned out, beginning with thofe of the moft inferior kinds, few of which ihould befuffered to remain after tenor fifteen years. In performing this bufinefs much muft be left to the judgment of the operator and the circumftances of the plantations : but the chief rule is to keep the extremities of all the fide branches fo as nearly to touch each other, and to have a due regard to the diflance of the tops, not the roots of the trees, as fome require much more room than others.* In the plantations in Nottinghammire, about the fourth or fifth year after plant ing, the fmall fized birch and feedling oaks are grown to a proper fize for tranf- planting. In the thinning of thefe, care is had not to take too many away in one feafon ; as by being properly managed a fupply of plants for at leaft half a dozen years is provided. About the fame time that the fmaller-lized birch wants thin ning, the large ones require to have their lower branches taken off, fo as to keep them from injuring the oaks : and this is the firft profit of the plantations, the birch-wood being readily brought up by the broom-makers. This pruning is continued as often as required, till the birches are grown to a fufficient fizc * Nicol s Trcatife on Planting, vol. H. 4K 618 Cultivation ef Grafs-Land. Planting Ofier$.~~ Methods of. to make rails for fencing; they are then cut down, to make room for better trees. By this time the oaks are grown to the height of twelve or fourteen Jeet, when they draw thcmfelves up exceedingly faft. After the birches are cut down, there is nothing more to do but thinning the oaks from time to time* as requifite, and cutting off their dead branches as frequently as may be neceflary. In performing the Brit much caution is required : for, if length of timber can but once be obtained, time will bring it into thicknefs : they are therefore let grow very clofe together for the firft fifty years. In refpecT: to the progrefs of the oak in two plantations, one of twenty-eight, the other of fifty years growth : in the former the trees were in general about twenty- five or twenty-fix feet in height, and in girth about eighteen inches ; but in the latter fomething more than iixty feet in height, and in girth a little above three feet, being in general about fifty feet in the bole. Plantations of the fir kind require lefs thinning than thofe of other trees. The thinning of underwoods muft be regulated, in a great meafure, by the luxuriance of their growth, and the purpofes to which the cuttings are to be ap plied : when for the larger ufes more thinning will be neceffary than in the con trary cafe. There is another fort of planting which in many Situations, fuch as thofe of the moift boggy fort on the borders of rivers, is extremely advantageous ; this is that of the willow or ofier, for the purpofe of the bafket makers. The method of planting in thefe cafes, on the banks of the Thames, is thus defcribed in the Tranfaclions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. " The ground is dug during the winter a full fpade s depth, and left rough, to prevent the tides from running it together again before it can be planted. c The work begins in the month of March. The planter having procured the fets or plants, which are fifteen or fixteen inches long, cut diagonally off the ftrong- cft fhoots of the laft year s growth, care being taken that they are not cut near to the top of the rods, that part being too porous to make a found plant, the ground is then marked out into rows two feet afunder ; and the fets are fluck in the rows eighteen inches from each other, leaving about feven inches of the fets above the ground. This work is very eafily done, without ufing even a dibble or a fetting- ftick ; but, when planted, care muft be taken, by hoeing, to keep them as free from weeds as poffible ; or, if the ground be too wet for the hoe, a weeding-hook Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Management of Woods. Underwoods. 6 1 9 may be ufed to keep them down : this is abfolutely necciTury to enfure a good plantation. It is alfo equally necefTary to keep the ground \vell drained, to prevent the tides remaining upon it any confiderable time, for on that alfo depends the firmncfs and good quality of the rods. " The willows are cut over the fir ft year with a bill-hook : the (hoots are cut offclofc to the flock, and bound up in bundles, or boults, as they are called, which meafure forty-two inches round, at fixtcen inches above the butt ends. The fame procefs of weeding muft be purfued every fummer, while 4 they are (hooting up from the ftem. 7"he next cutting feafon a portion of them is left to (land another year, where large fluff is wanted for the ribs of large balkets, &c. " The planting of willows is expenfive the firft year j but if well managed they produce a great profit, as they improve in quantity every year.*" As the demands for this fort of produce are very great, wherever the farmer has lands that are fuitable for this kind of culture they mould not be neglected. On fuch moift boggy foils the cultivation of the Huntingdonfhire willow has alfo been found extremely profitable when grown for the purpofeof hop poles.^ Management of Woods. It is always a convenience, and in many cafes and fitua. * The names and ufesof the fpecies employed in the vicinity of Brentford are thus defcribed : " Ift. The sulix titallina, or yellow willow, which is cultivated chiefly by the nurfery-men, and being of a tough yielding nature, is ufed for binding packages of trees and flirubs in the drawing feafon ^ml for tying np the branches of wall and efpalier trees. " 2d. The salix awygdalina, or almond leaved willow, is a fpecies of which there are feveral varieth s one of which is called by the planters " the fmall red willow, " or " binding rod;"it being chiefly ufed for binding the produce of garden-grounds. Another kind of this willow is at prefent known by the loofe appellation of the " new kind ;" it is of large growth, and produces a great crop, is ufed both by the bafket-makers and the corn-fiere-inakers, and is fit for any work which requires a firm as well as a tough rod. " 3d. The salix viminatit, or ofier willow. Of this fpecies there are alfo feveral varieties, which are called among the planters by the name of " the jellow and brown ofiers," or, " Comb s ofiers." They are chiefly ufed by the bafket-raakers, being very pleafant working rods, and as they produce a great crop are much cultivated. " Thefe three defcriptions comprehend the moft ufeful varieties, and are the moil profitable in point of crop, of any that are cultivated in this diftricl. There is, however, a coarfe fort of willow known by the name of " the Spaniard :" but whether it is a diftinft fpecies or not is not decided ; it Blight be rendered extremely ufeful in counties where much brulh or underwood is bound." t Corrected Report of Nottingham (hire. K 2 620 Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Management oj JVoods. Underwocds. tions a very profitable thing, to have woods for the purpofe of cutting for the ufc of thefarm, or with the view of fale ; but in either intention it is abfolutely necefTary that they be kept in a good flate of prefervation from the deftructive browfing or croppings of cattle, by proper fences, and well flocked with the moft ufeful forts of wood that are capable of being grown to advantage on the peculiar foil and fituation, as, without due attention in thefe refpects, from moft of the flocks that afford the wood " being in fact only pollard trees growing underground, it is obvious that the produce of fuch flocks mufl, like the (hoots of pollard trees, be themofl abundant when the parent flocks are in the greateft perfection ; that until they attain that perfection it mufl be finall j and that, when paft that perfection, they gradually decline ; the moots from them become weaker and fewer every fuccefiive cutting, and the flocks finally decay and die^ To prevent the decay of woods it is neceffary of courfe from time to time, to renew them by raifing new flocks to fupply the place of thofe which gradually wear out or are deflroyed. But bcfides the regu lar decay of age, to which all woods are liable, there are other injuries to which they are expofed, and which fpeedily and prematurely bring on their decay, unlefs prevented by proper means. One is the pernicious cuflom of fuffering cattle to feed in woods, under an idea that, after they are of a certain age, as feven years, the (hoots are grown out of the way, and cannot be hurt. In flrong thriving woods, it is poffible that cattle may do but little harm to the underwood, after it is feven or eight years old; but all the young plants, which either fpring up fpontaneoufly or are planted in them, mufl be liable to be cropped and kept down, and few of them can come to perfection. And in weak decaying woods, there is always a great deal of the underwood fo low as never to get out of the reach of cattle, but conflantly liable to be cropt and kept down by them, and the decay of the flocks confequently much haflened. Another caufe of the early decay of woods, is the want of draining fuch parts of them as are fubject to be moift and damp ; nothing being fo prejudicial to wood as too much wet. This begins to be well underflood in mofl draining diflricts, and has been practifed with fuccefs. A third caufe of decay, is the cuflom of fuffering woods to grow too old before cutting, whereby the flrong fhoots fmother the weak ones, and, by their dropping, kill the flocks on which they grow. And to this may be added the practice of permitting the buyer to cut the wood > thereby making it his interefl to deflroy every fapling, and to Cultivation of Grafs- Land. Managc iticui o/ n wds Mocks offiUins ut). 621 \j ./ o / y_/ o / cut the underwood as clofe to the (lock as pofTiblc which in old woods is highly prejudicial to the fucceeding fhoots as well as the cuftom of not obliging the buyers to clear the woods early in the fummer, fo as to prevent the new (hoots from being injured by their cattle, carnages, and other circumftances.* In forming or improving woods of the coppice or underwood kinds, it is parti cularly neceflary to pay attention to the nature of the foil as well as that of the afpect; and to adapt the trees and plants to the nature ofthefe as much as poilible, at the fame time taking into the confederation the kinds that are moft ufeful and moft in requeft in the diftrid: or immediate vicinity, as from its bulky nature it is in general the moft profitable when difpofed of without the trouble of much carriage. Various forts of plants and trees, as has been feen above, may be employed in this way, according to the ftate of the foilj but it has beenobferved that "taking the general demand of countries, and the peculiarities of different foils, into confi- deration, there is no kind of vvoodfo generally proper forplanting in this way as afh. This value of am-poles being at leaft one-third more, and frequently as much again per hundred weight, as that of other poles (being applicable at all fizes to fome ufeful purpofe or otherj ; the timber being always in requeft, and faleable at any age or fize, at almoft the price of oak ; and the wood itfelf being as quick a grower as any, and quicker than moft; and above all, there being but few foils from the blackeft and wetteft bogs to the higheft and moft expofed mountains, where it will not grow , are reafons why afh is one of the moft profitable woods to plant in fuch coppices as are favourable to its growth. But in foils and fituations where afh does iwt grow kindly, let fuch other forts of woods be planted as appear ta thrive beft in fimilar foils and lituations in the fame country. Spanifh chcfnut, though not fo general a grower as afh, is a moft excellent wood, either for timber or underwood, and wants only to be more known to be higher in eftimation. It partakes much of the properties of oak, but excels it in two points, viz. that it grows fafter, and that thefap part of the timber is firmer and lefs corruptible.!" If it be profitable to plant new woods, it is certainly much more fo to protect thofe that are already planted, to fill them up where thin, and to reftore them when in a ftate of decline. The expenfe in this way is not only leflened by the faving * Davis in Bath Papers* i Ibid. 622 Cultivation of Grafs-Land. Management of Woods Cutting of. of new fences, but the profit is greatly increafed by the rapid growth of the wood, when planted in fituations that are fheltered by other treecs and plants already planted. In woods where faplings rife in great numbers fpontaneou fly, their growth fhould be encouraged. As, at the time of cutting the underwood, fuch faplings may, perhaps, be 14 or 15 years old ; it might appear proper, after leav ing for timber-trees fuch as are ftraight and handfome, to cut off the reft for un derwood ; but a great part of the faplings at that age fo cut off will not be large enough to produce fhoots fufficiently ftrong to get up as faft as the other under wood. Thefe fhoots will therefore fuffer, and the (locks never come to perfection. It is confequently, in general, mo re ad vi fable not to cut off fuch faplings as are in tended for underwood, until the fecond cutting of the wood, when they may be probably near 30 years old, and will then throw out (hoots (Irong enough to fight their way, and keep pace with the furrounding underwood. But where faplings do not fpring up in abundance in this way, young trees mud be planted ; part of which may be preferved for timber, and the reft left to be ftubbed off for under wood at a proper time.* For the purpofe of filling up fuch woods as are " grown thin by age or neglect, the proper time is one year, or at the utmoft two years, after the underwood is cut. The young plants (hould be eight or ten feet high, and an inch and a half in diameter at the ground, and mould be planted without cutting off. If the foil be dry, no other preparation is neceffary than barely digging the holes for the plants. If wet, deep drains fhould be made to take of the fuperabundant water. The earth dug from thefe drains being thrown out on the lower fide of them, upon this new earth the plants mould be planted. If land of this latter defcription be black and peaty, afh is peculiarly proper for it ;and will if planted on the earth thrown from the drains, make a mod furprifing progrefs. If it be a ftiff yellow clay, it it generally more favourable to the growth of oak than of afh. In fuch foils, oak for timber, with a mixture of willow, birch, alder, and Spanish chefnut for un derwood, will perhaps be the moft proper. All thefe kinds mould ftand one round of the underwood, and ifftill weak fhould ftand two,before thofe are cut off which are intended for underwood. Birch plants however are an exception to this rule: they mould always be cut off the firft round of the underwood ; for if they are large when cut off the ftocks frequently decay a^d die. In all mixtures of kinds of wood for coppices thofe forts fhould be ufed which are not unfriendly to each * Davis in Bath Papers. Cultivation of Grafs Lund. Management of Woods Cutting of. 6*23 ether, and which will come round fit to be cut together at the fame periods j and fuch kinds mould be allowed to ftand for timber, and that at fuch diflances as to injure the underwood as little as poflible. The plants for filling up old decayed woods fhould be the flrongeft and beft of their kinds ; and thofe which are weak at firft will be drawn up by the furrounding underwood, and become from their increafed height flill weaker. At the next cutting of the underwood they will be blown down; or, if cut off, the (hoots will be too weak to grow up with theother underwood. Oak, afli, and Spanifh chefnut mould be kept in a nurfery for this purpofe : alder and birch plants grow plentifully fpontaneoufly in fome countries, and may be taken up for ufe. Alder is fometimes propagated by taking up old roots and dividing them into feveral parts ; and hazel may beraifed in the fame way. Willow is generally planted in cuttings; but a much better way where there are any old willow flocks, is to plafh down the moots to fill up the vacant places round fuch old flocks.*" It is a queflion which has not yet been fully decided, and which can only be well afcertained by trials made upon a number of poles or Items of different forts of wood at different growths, as feven, fourteen, and twenty-four years, to fee whether the increafe is in proportion to the length of growth. In this way, pro per attention being paid to the nature of the foil by nice obfervation, in time a correct and ufeful eflimate might be obtained of the moft advantageous periods of cutting woods. The practice of cutting differs in different diftricts, from feven or eight to twenty-five or thirty years ; but the moft common is probably from twelve to fourteen or eighteen. There is alfo a practice in fome wood countries of leaving one or two ftems upon each ftool for a double growth, by which a por tion of large wood may be procured in each fall. In this way it is probable that there may not be a much lefs increafe in the growth of the other parts of the wood, while the largenefs of thefe flems mayafford more profi t,andadmit of being applied more generally and to more important ufes. If there are caufes that cannot be obviated, foas to prevent cattle from injuring the early growth of woods, it mufl obvioufly be the moft profitable method to defer the cutting to as late a period as poflible, from the mifchief being chiefly in the firft few years. For many ufes ic is impoflible to cut at the more early periods, except on very good foils indeed. This is the cafe with afh and oak, for hop-poles, and fome other forts. On the * Davis in Bath Papers. 624 Cultivation of Graff Land. Management of Woods Utility. whole, it feems therefore probable, that the moft profitable method may in gene ral be to defer cutting till the later periods. In the extenfive woodsof Buckinghamshire, where the produce ischiefly beech, it is the practice not to cut till from twenty- five to thirty, or even thirty-five years, by which means they confift almoft wholly of fucceflions of young trees. In the cutting, the trees of a proper age are annually fingled out and cut, without having recourfe to regular falls, as in other cafes. The extent of the cuttings is made fo as to pay the proprietors from about fifteen to twenty millings the acre, in propor tion to thegoodnefs of the growth. The beft afford a clear profit of twenty (hil lings under this management.* In Worccftci (hire, where the woods are chief ly cut for the fake of the bark, they are felled at about forty years growth, a pro per quantity of (tore woods of fourteen and twenty-eight years growth being left for the next fall. And in the neighbouring diftrict of Hereford it is fometimes CJ CJ? the cafe to fell at from eighteen to twenty years growth, and in others at from twelve to fourteen or fifteen. In the former it is chiefly oak ; but in the latter cafe am, fallies, and alder. The whole is cut, and fuch parts as are proper applied as hop-poles,with much profit. The twenty years falls are ftored and applied in theufual manner. In cutting wood one madtn ftandard is left to each lugg or for ty-nine fquare yards. Coppice-wood will produce at from 25. 6d. to 45. 6d. a luggi from twelve to twenty-two pounds the acre, at from twelve to fourteen years growth, which is a greater return than could be obtained in almoft any other way in fuch foils and (ituations.j- TheDillorn woods in Stafford (hi re "form a chain of three or four miles in length, and confift of tall,ftraight, oaks and a(h, which are in general fo well filled up with underwood as to be cut in gradual falls at feven years growth, and produce when well fenced fix pounds per acre, for rods and ftaves, ufed for crates in the neigh bouring pottery. Eighty-four acres of wood will admit of twelve acres being cut annually, and will produce feventy-two pounds; which is about feventeen millings per acre per annum for the underwood, exclufive of the timber ; while the bleak neighbouring hills which remain implanted are not fuppofed worth more than three millings per acre." It has been fuggefted by Mr. Davis, that "the periods of cutting underwood mould be regulated by the luxuriance of its growth, the demand of the country, * Buckinghamfhire 4-to Report, + Ilcrefordflure -tto Report. I SomeiTetfliire Coi-refted Report, Cultivation of Grafs Land. Munagtmcut of J Foods Cutting of. 6\5 and the ufes to which the \vood is to be applied when cut. In the article of un derwood, not only the intereft of money, but the lofs of the fucceeding growth, tell againft the value of (landing wood after it is fit to cut, and make it doubly the advantage of the owner to cut his underwood as early as it is fuleablc. As Toon, therefore, as any kind of wood is fit for the ufes of the country, it fhould then be cur, unlefs it can be made appear that it will pay compound int. .-re ft for (landing longer, or, in other words, will pay not only the fimple intercftof the firft value, butalfo the lofs of fo many years growth of the wood, as fo far advanced towards another crop. Wood merely for fuel can fcarcely be cut too young. Hazel is ufually fit for hurdles and dead hedges, from nine to twelve years old ; afli for flicep cribs, at the fame age ; and afli and other woods for hop-poles, from eleven to fourteen years old ; while afli for carpenters and other large ufes,. alder, birch, and willows for rafters, turners ufes, pattens, clogs, and coal-pit ufes, fhould fland from fix teen to twenty years before the poles are large enough for their refpeclive purpofes." The bufincfs of cutting wood ufually commences in November, and may be carried on through the winter months till February or March ; but fhould be completed before the beginning of April, except where the wood is to be barked ; in which cafe the beginning of May may be the moft proper, as it will then general ly run the beft. Opinions have differed much, Mr. Davis obferves, "refpecting the moft proper time of the year for cutting underwood ; but there is one rule which, on the feller s part, is without exception, viz. that the older the wood is the later in the fpring it ihould be cut. When old wood is cut early in the winter, and a hard winter fol lows, the damage done to the flocks is very great ; young flourishing wood wilj; bear cutting at any proper feafon. But on the part of the buyer it is allowed that all woods are more durable when cut in the moft ftagnant ftateof thefap ; and in all ufes where bending is required, fuch as hurdles, hoops, and. even dead hedges, the wood cannot be cut too early in the winter, being, if cut when the fap is rifing, brittle, and unfit for thofe purpofes. * Oak underwood, as bark fells at prefent, may pay well for {landing till the fap is up for barking, and the flocks \vill feldom be much hurt by the practice. The work of cutting wood is moftly performed by meafare, or what is fome- times termed tale. The wood is differently managed in different diftricls ; in. VOL. ii. 4 L 626 Cultivation of Grafs Land. Management of Woods Cutting of. fome it is merely cut and laid in rows or drifts, being difpofed of in that ftate by the rood or other meafure. In other cafes it is regulated according to its ufes, be ing forted by the farmer into hop-poles, hoop-fluff, hurdles, fagots, flakes, and cdders, &c. which is probably the moft advantageous practice ; but the farmer fhould be cautious in liftening to the advice of workmen on thefe occafions, as they moftly fuggefl that method which will be the moft beneficial to thcm- felvcs. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE, PART THE FIFTH. METHODS OF BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGING DOMESTIC ANIMALS, SECT. XI. Live-Stock. Neat Cattle. Sheep. Horses. LIVE-STOCK. Importance of -Great Attention to Furthet Improvement of neceffciry Additional FaBs and Experiments wanting foi Circumftanccs to be attended to in Shelter and warmth, with a high degree of Fertility of P aft lire ufeful Syftems of PraBice purfued in, different CroJJing the Breeds Suppofed Advantages and DiJ "advantages of Though ufeful Jkould be pra&ifedwith Caution Injury cafily done by it when injudiciou/ly per formed Various Proofs of- Breeding in-and-in Advantages of this Me thod What neceffary to be regarded in Principal ObjeB of the Farmer in, Profit Form of Animal moft. proper for Properties to be regarded in Shape What neceffary in Moft perfect Kind of- Which moft advantage ous in the View of the Grazier The moft perfect probably beft Size - Queftion concerning not fully fettled Opinions differ from the Quantity of Food confumed not being well afcertained in A Number of f mall Animals con fume lefs than of large ones Mr. Knight s Opinion favourable to large Size for fattening Confumption of Food not in proportion to Size Ad- 4L 2. 628 Lirc-StocL vantages of fmall-Jized Animals Smaller Sizes left for Milk llcafons of ftatcd Sizes of muft be much regulated by Pajlurc or Herbage On rick Pafturt& large Breeds mojl profitable On inferior ones, the fmaller Sorts Tamenefs of Difpofition Great Utility of in Domejtic Animals IJardinefs a defirable Property in Marks of Early Maturity Advantages of to the Farmer Circumjlances moft favourable to Good Feeding andlVarmth while young Quality of Flejh Probably depends on Breed, and not on Size of Animal Gvodncfs of Flavour in fame meafure on Food Badneft of Colour, perhaps morbid Appearances of good Meat Effects of Dif ference of Age on Difpojition to fatten higJily neceffary tobe attended to Principle of not fully invejtigatcd Much influenced by Form and Breed in Mr. BakewelCs Practice Advantages and I) i fad-vantages of too much fattening Fattening the only Mean of producing good lean Meat Much Attention to tJiis Property neceffary in rat/ing Live-Stock Hide Neceffary Feel of Utility of in evpofed Situations Property of fupplying Milk largely Nature of Animals for Should probably be an exclufive Breed for Sir John Sinclair s Opinion of a Breed fuited for this Pitrpofe and that of the Graziers Aptitude for Labour a Property neceffary in certain Circumjlances IVhat proper to be con/idered in Blood or inherent Quality of a Breed Utility and Advantages of in breeding Ani mals. Much Regard neceffary to all thefe Properties in Breeding Modes of conducting the Bufinefs Succefs of, on what dependsChoice of Live StockVariousCircuniftances tobe conjidered in V aft Advantage, of improv- ingLive Stock Jliozvn NEAT CATTLE Breedsofverynumerous No perfecl Arrangement of Methods that have been attempted in By the Horns By Names of theCounties orDiftri&s where they prevail moft Different Breed* of Described Long-horned Middle-horned- Short horned JVelch Breed Suffolk Dun Breed Polled or Galloway Breed Kiloe Breed Fijejhire Breed Alderney Breed Wild Breed Nature and Properties of eacfi ex plained Different Breeds proper for different Purpofcs for the Farmer Circumjlances to be regarded in this Intention Cow-Stock Means (f pro viding good Sorts of Breeding and rearing young Stock It 7 hat ncctffury in Farms proper J or Bcjl J\lethods oj in different Circumjlances Kinds of Food moft advantageous for Jointer Management of Manner , Livc-Stock. tiering qfQueftion of being tied up or loqfe covjidercd Summer for Proper Age of put ling Heifers to the Bull Time of Reft Seafonfor Calving In Calf-Stock Jhoidd be veil fed Bulls Duration of Vigour of Should be well f applied with Food in rearing of- Baheiceirs Practice in Oxen for Labour Proper Management of, in Ilerefordjhire and Devon- Jhire Kinds Time of bringing into Work Eeft Modes of Jhoeing ofA^e, of Cattle how appertained Difeafes of-Scourings Yellows Bloody- Urinc Foul /rounds Remedies proper for SHEEP Importance of in different Views Nature of indifferent Kinds Diflinguijhed into different Claffes or Breeds in different Ways According to the Nature of their Wool The Situations in which they are chiefly found Their particular Properties Standard Form of in the Ram Attention neceffary to this and other Properties in Improvement of Different Breeds of defer ibed New Leicejter or Dijhly Breed Lincolnjhire Breed Tees-water Breed Romnfy Marjh Breed Dartmoor Breed Exnwor Breed Dorfetjhire Breed Herefordjhire Breed South Down Breed Norfolk Breed Heath Breed Herdwick Breed Cheviot Breed Dunfaced Breed Shetland Breed Me rino or Spanijh Breed Nature and Qualities of each explained What Breeds mojt fait able under different Circumjlances oj Soil, Climate, and Situation With the Intention of Profit from the Carcafe From the Jfool Mr. Mar- Jhall s Opinion of different Breeds in re/ peel to different Manufactures Circumjlances to be regarded in Introduction of Fine 1l r ool may be ob tained without Injury to ths Mutton Putting Ham to Ezces Proper Time for Proper Selection of Ewes for Late Duke of Bedford s Practice in Reft Age for Neceffary Syjlcm of Management of Sheep in different Circumflances In Winter Proper Keep while in Lamb Great Attention to neceffary at Lambing time Neceffary provijion of Food for Utility of Turnips in this Way Modes of eating of with moft Advantage Lands much improved by In good Breeds Bran and OH Cake ufeful Baiting with Hay neceffary Cotting Great Utility of Brought though Winter w. tV/ in this Way Preferred Grafs Vaft Benefit of for this Ufe in early Spring Watered Meadows may be depended on where fiifficiently ext en- Jive Otlicr Means of Support of- Turnip Shoots Ryc-grafs and Clover, Mr. Young s Opinion of thefc Cabbages better in slpril Turnip, Cab*- 630 Live- Stock. ba<re, Rutabaga Boorcole Importance of- Burnet, great Use of at this Season In Summer Turning upon the Pastures What necessary in Best Methods of Attention to the Fly necessary Weaning the Lambs Best Modes of Proper Feed should be provided for Ewes to be kept at a Distance Advantages of dividing Flocks into different Parcels Practice of by Mr. Boys Management in Down and Mountain Sheep Salving or Smearing Inutility of the Practice Profit of Sheep in various Cases In Mr. Macro s Estimates In Mr. Ellman s In the Duke of Graf ton s Folding Mr* Youn g sObjections to in certain Cases Cause of Practice of- Advantage of, in Sheep yards On Tillage Lands Summer Manage ment of Stock Sheep Best Method of washing Proper Time and Method for Shearing Sheep Circular Method of an Improvement Origin of Introduction of. by the Earl of Egremont Late Duke of Bedford Mr. Coke Management in Evpcnfes of- Winding the Wool Frequent Clipping Effects of Clothing Sheep Effects of not fully shown Time of clipping Lambs Of castrating them Directions respecting set tin* Lamb Stock What necessary in the annual Purchase of Sheep where Stock Sheep are not kept Produce in Wool different in different Breeds Quali ties of adjusted by Woolstaplers Qualities necessary for Shepherds Modes of determining Age of DISEASES OP Fly Foot-rot Scab Rubbers Blindness Rot Turn or Giddy Resp or Red-water Braxy Black- water Skit Causes and Nature of these Disorders Methods of Cure Common Salt Its uses in preventing Diseases in Sheep HORSES Utility and Advantages of in different Views Breeds of, employed in the Business of Husbandry Different Breeds of described Blood Horse too Jine Cleveland Bays Suffolk Punches Clydesdale Horses Heavy Blacks Welch and Scotch Horses Properties and Advantages of each explained Farm-horses should be selected from the three first Kinds Heavy Kinds less used from the Introduction of the Blood Sort Breeding of can only be attempted under certain Circumstances Method of Management in Time of putting Mares to the Horse Importance of having Foals early Time of going with Foal Should be well kept during Care to be taken in working of. Modes of rearing the Foals System pursued where Breeding is not practised Time and Method of castrating Practice in Yorkshire -Mode - Live Stock. frji of breaking of flaking up young Horses for Side -Question of /he compa rative Utility of Horses and O.veti as Teams Cases fntohich each kind may be useful Best Methods of Feeding Teams Means of lessening Efpenxt of keeping of Various Estimates of- Utility of bruising Oats in Barley may be employed with Advantage in Feeding 0:v Teams Working of Teams What useful in Different Utility of the Stable and Shed System Ex penses of keeping Teams differ much NeceJJ ary Proportion of Teams to the Extent of Land in different Sorts of Farms Ass and Mule Teams Where useful Diseases of Horses Wounds Bruises Strains Warble Tumors Colds Colics Staggers- Strangles Worms Bots Farcy Grease Mange Descriptions and Nature of each Methods of Cure in. W HATEVER fuperiority of attention may formerly have been beftowed upon other branches of hufbandry, there is fcarcely any that is of more importance to the farmer, or which of late has undergone more improvement, than thai of Live Stock. It was indeed to be expected, that in proportion as the means of its fupport be came better underftood and more abundantly cultivated, ufeful changes and im provements would take place in the nature, quality, and breeds of the different animals that were to be kept, and ofcourfe a double advantage be obtained by the farmer in the improvement of his land as well as flock. There is another circum- flance that has alfo had considerable influence in promoting the increafe and im provement of live flock, which is that of the vaflly increafed demand for the ani mals, either in confequence of their great ufefulnefs in performing different forts of labour, or for the purpofe of human food. But though much has been effected in different fituations in bringing different kinds of live flock to a higher flate of perfection, much flill remains to be accom- plifhed. It is probably, in general, far from having attained that flate to which it is capable of being carried, by thofe farmers who have the knowledge of com bining the befl and mofl appropriate breeds of cattle and other animals, with their improvements in the cultivation of herbage, or the raifing of other forts of green food for their fupporr. But to enter fully into the nature and explanation of the befl and mofl certain modes of effecting fuch improvements in all forts of live flock, a much larger collection of facts would feem to be neceffary than ha? 632 Live Stock Method* of improving ofStru&ures of, ) l.ccnmade, as well as a vaft number of additional experiments. In the pre- fcnt ftate of our knowledge on the fubjc-ct, it is perhaps only poflible to afford a few hints and directions that may be ufcful in guiding the attention of the farmer, It has been well remarked, that whenever it is meant to attempt any confide- rable improvement in the nature cf the live Hock of a farm, care fhould be pre- vioufly taken that there is a fuffkicnt degree of flielter, made and warmth, as well as a high degree of fertility of the land, and a fuitable ftate of drainage, as it is only by the richnefs and abundance of food that fuch changes can be effected in the mod advantageous way, or the flock be brought to any high degree of per fection.* In the bufmefs of improving different kinds of live flock two different fyflcms have been chiefly purfued. The firft, or that which has prevailed for the greateft length of time, is by means of crofting the various breeds, fo as to fupply the faults or defects of the one by the merits or perfections of the other, the latter, or that which has been more recently introduced and brought to the attention of the far- mer, is by uniting the perfections of the fame kind, by continuing to breed from the beft and moft perfect animals in the lame line, family, or blood. On this involved but interefting fubject various ufeful obfervations, drawn from the ftructure and phyfiology of the animals, have been lately offered to the breeder and grazier by Mr. Cline.-t * Middleton s Report of Middlefe.x. V It lias, he fays, been generally fuppoffd that the breed of animals is improved by the largeft males, This opinion has done confiderable mi (chief and would have done more injury, if it had not been counteracted by the defire of felefting animals of the heft forms and proportions, which are rarely to be met with in thofe of the largeft fize. Experience has proved that eroding has only fucceeded in- an eminent degree in thofe iiiftances in which the females were larger than in the ufual propor tions of females to males, and that it has generally failed when the males were difproportionaliy large. The external form of domeftic animals has been much ftudied, and the proportions are well afcertained. But the external form is an indication only of internal ftrudure. The principles of improving it muft therefore be founded on a knowledge of the ftiufture and ufe of the internal parts. The lungs are of the firft importance. It is on their fize and foundnefs that the flrength and health of an animal principally depends. The power of converting food into nourifhment is in proportion to their fize. An animal with large lungs is capable of converting a given quantity of food into more jiourifhment than one with fmaller lungs ; and therefore has a greater aptitude to fatten. The Chest. The external indications of the Cze of the lungs are the form and fize of the cheft ; Live Stock Methods of improving of Structure of. 635 It was fuppofed for a great length of time, and is ft ill by fome, that the former of thefe methods, belides its fuperiority in other refpedfo, poflefled confiderable the form of which fhould approach to the figure of a cone, having its apex fituated between the (boul ders, and its bafe towards the. loins. The capacity of thechell depends on its form more than on the extent of its circumfert-nce ; for where the girth is equal in two animals, one may have much larger lungs than the other. A circle contains more than an ellipfis of equal circumference ; and in propor tion, as the ellipfis deviates from the circle, it contains lefs. A deep cheft, therefore, is not capa cious, unlefs it is proportionally broad. The Pelvis. The pelvis is the cavity formed by the junction of the haunch bones with the bone of the rump. It is eflential that this cavity mould be large in the female, that fhe may be enabled to bring forth her young with lefs difficulty. \\ 7 hen this cavity is frnall, the life of the mother and her offspring is endangered. The fize of the pel vis is chiefly indicated by the width of the hips, and the breadth of the twift, \vhich is the fpace between the thighs. The breadth of the loins is always in proportion to that of the cheft and pelvis. The Head. The head fhould be fmall, by which the birth is facilitated. It fmallnefs affords other advantages, and generally indicates that the animal is of a good breed. Horns are ufelefs to domeftic animals, and they are often the caufe of accidents. It is not difficult to breed animals without them. The breeders of horned cattle and horned (heep, fuftain a lofs more extenfive than they may con ceive ; for it is not the horn alone, but alfo much more bone in the fkulls of fuch animals to fupport their horns, for which the butcher pays nothing ; and befides this there is an additional quantity of ligament and mufcle in the neck, which is of fmall value. The fkull of a ram with its horns, weighed five times more than another fkull which was hornlefs. Both thefe fkulls were taken from fheep of the fame age, each being four years old. The great difference in weight, depended chiefly on the horns ; for tire lower jaws were nearly qual, one weighing feven ounces, and the other fix ounces and three quarters ; which proves that the natural fize of the head was nearly the fame in both, independent of the horns,and the thicknefs of bone which fupports them. In a horned animal the fkull is extremely thick. In a hornlefs animal it is much thinner, efpeci- ally in that part where the horns ufually grow. To thofe who have not reflected on the fubjecl, it may appear of little confequence whether fheep and cattle have horns; but on a very moderate calcu lation, it would be found that the lofs in farming flock, and alfo in the diminution of animal food B very confiderable, from the production of horns and appendages. A mode of breeding which would prevent the production of thefe would afford a confiderable profit in anincreafe of meat and wool, and other valuable parts. The length of the neck fliould be proportioned to the height of the animal, that it may collect its food with eafe. The Muscles. The mufcles, and tendons which are their appendages, ftiould be large, by which tR animal is enabled to travel with greater facility. VOL. IT, 4 M 634 Live Stock Hfcthods of I mprovin g /*// hat ncce/fitry hi* advantages in preventing the animals frcm becoming fmall, tender, and liable to difeafe, in confequence of their being too near akin. This notion has however been fhovvn to have little or no foundation in truth, by the great fuccefs which has at- tended the contrary method, in the practice of one of the moil intelligent and ex pert breeders that this or perhaps any other country has produced ;* as his bcfl flock has been raifed by the ncarefl affinities, not only without either diiminifhing in fize, becoming lefs hardy, or being more fubjecr. to difeafe; but on the con trary with a continued amelioration and improvement.-]- And a ftill more conclufive proof is, perhaps, afforded in fuch breeds of cattle as have remained for many centuries in the Hate of nature, in particular fituations, \vithout any mix ture of others ; as in fuch cafes, though from their unreftrained condition, they muft, without doubt, have bred in all the different poiTible degrees of affinity, they have been found to continue without any diminution either in their fize, hardinefs or health, and without undergoing any injurious alteration in their form, or change in their colour, or other peculiarities. + But in oppofition to thcfe ftrong proofs, it is ftill contended by others, though confeffedly without any very great experience, that in this method "young ftock dccreafe rapidly in lize on the fame pafture," without any " other ill or good effect: taking place in confequence of ir. It is likewife further obfcrvcd, in contradiction of the fame opinion, that in proportion as an animal decreafes in fize, it may be reafonably fuppofed to decreafe in vigour and activity, but that, how far this may render it capable of feeding or living on lefs food is not afcer- tained. There is no doubt, however, it is faid, but that very beautiful animals may be produced by breeding in and in, as " the young animal comes into the world onafmall fcale; but by keeping it fat from the firft moment of its exigence it is made to attain a greater fize than nature intended, and its weight will in con- The Bones. The ftrength of an animal does not depend on the fize of the bones, but on that of the mufcles. Many animals with large bones are weak, their mufcles being fmall. .Animals that were imperfectly nourifhed during growth, have their bones difproportionably large. If fuch defici- ncy of nourishment originated from a conltitutional defied, which is the moll frequent caufe, they remain weak during life ; large bones therefore generally indicate an imperfection in the organs of nutrition, * Mr, Bakewell. f Culley on Live Stock. % Ibid, S Knight in Commuaicatjons to the Board, vol. II, Live Stock Metliods of improving of ivkat neecflary in. 635 fequence be very great in proportion to the fize of its bones. But this is far, ir is fuppofed, from proving that the practice is eligible.*" And it is Hill further contended in regard to cattle, that as in this fyftem of breeding no expenfe is fpared in feeding the young ftock, the breed Ihould of courfe have attained a larger fize : yet they are not only lefs but, it is afferted, " carry lefs fat on their bed points than the Herefordfhirc cattle," which from the firft year are kept in a much inferior manner, -J* The effects of the fame method in the dog have been fpund in fome degree firm- Jar ; " the breed has become lefs in fize, but not lefs keen or active, and by crofli.ig again with a breed of no larger fize, it has attained its former weight. It is likewife added, that fome experiments of eroding the breeds of plants, have thoroughly convinced the writer, c that in the vegetable as well as the animal world the offspring of a male and female not related, will poflefs more ftrength and vigour than when they were both of one family. " It is not however fuppofcd <c that eroding fimilar breeds of cattle has ever a goad effect: as the breeds mix with- >ar aflimilating. When the long-horned breed of cattle has been crolTed \vith the Hercfordfhire, fome of the offspring have followed one breed and fome the other, and fome prefented an awkward mixture of both.JJ In this ftateor the facts, no certain conclufions can therefore be drawn. The fafeft plan is, probably, to have recourfe to both methods, according to the nature of the improvement that may be required; and as there is no poffible means yet difcovered of rendering accidental varieties in either the animal or vegetable kingdom, permanent, the beft way is conflantly to breed from the beft and moft perfect animals of their kind. It is indeed obvious, that in the croffing method of breeding, though it muft be allowed to be extremely ufeful in many refpects, the greateft care and circumfpec- tion mould be employed to adapt the animals in the moft perfect manner to the nature of the improvement which is required ; otherwife the breed may be in dan ger of fuftaining injury inflead of advantage. From the vague and random man ner, indeed, in which attempts to improve the breeds of live ftock, on this princi ple, have in general been conducted, it would fcem not improbable but that * Knight in Communications to the Board, vol. II. f Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. || Ibid- 4 M 2 636 Lvo e Stock Methods of improving ofwhat ncceflitry in, difadvantage may often have been produced ; by bringing together fuch breeds, as from the great differences in their forms, qualities, and other properties, could have little or no chance of effecting the purpofe of improvement in any ufeful manner. The agricultural furveys of moft of thofe diftricts where breeding or grazing has been carried to any extent, almoft uniformly complain, that ufeful breeds of live ftock have been injured and debafed by the practice of crofting inju- dicioufly conducted. And a late writer, infpeaking of Iheep, has well obferved, ( that to the mountebank doctrines of eroding diflimilar breeds, which na ture in its infinite wifdom had fet afunder, we are indebted for much confufion and mifmanagement.*" But it muft notwithstanding be allowed, that by eroding, when conducted with fufficient judgment, improvement may in a great meafurebe effected, efpecially in what relates to bone or fize, the hide or coat, the bettering of particular points or parts, and perhaps in what regards the movement or fpeed of the animal : but in other views it would feem incapable of producing thofe be neficial effects which mould conftantly direct the fteps of the breeder. As it is in fome meafure a principle founded in phyfiological fcience, and coun tenanced by the obfervation and experience of ages, that animals are fomewhat endowed with the faculty of not only propagating an offspring that has in a confi- derable degree the properties, difpofitions, and refemblance of themfelves, but that is in fome meafure fubject to a fimilarity of difeafe ; it would appear that although there may be occafional deviations, the moft certain method, and that which has the beft foundation in the nature and economy of the animals, (in fo far as the particular qualities and other properties, befides thofe that have been juft mentioned, are concerned,) is to breed in the fame line, perhaps in the fame family; t as, by a careful procedure in this way, the expert breeder may not only have the greateft fecurity for attaining that improvement which he is anxious to produce, but run the lead rilk of deterioration. The fuccefs of the practice has indeed not merely been fhown in the breeding of the farmer s ftock, but in that of the fportfman. It has been found that poin ters and game cocks have been bred with the greateft perfection and fuperiority in this mode.:}: And it is by the fame means that the valuable properties of the race * Lord Somerville s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture. f In the technical language of the breeder this has been termed breeding in-and-ii3 I Culley oa Live Stock, Live Stock Methods of improving of what necejfiiry in. 637 Jiorfe are perpetuated and preferved. The fame thing likewife takes place in the vegetable economy, the fineft and moft perfect productions of the fort b-ring pro pagated by fowing feed felected from the beft and moft perfect plants of the fame kind, and taking the buds or offsets from the beft and moft perfect trees of the fame fpecies. There is alfo another circumftance that feems to mow the propriety and fuperior advantage of this method of proceeding in the breeding of domeftic animals ; which is, that however much the breeds of live frock may be altered by climate, pafture, and other caufes, in what refpects their colour, and other trifling particulars, their fpecific characters remain invariably the fame. No caufes of thefe kinds have ever- been capable of changing any one of the diftinct breeds, whether of neat cattle, fheep, horfes, or hogs, in fuch a manner as to have the characteristic distinctions of thofe of any of the others. It would therefore appear that by having recourfe to occafional crofling in the above intentions, and the careful felection of the mod perfect animals of the fame breed or kind, with due attention to conftant good feeding, the improvement of live ftock may be carried ro the greateft per fection.* * Mr. Clinehas given the following examples of the good and bad effects of the crofling fyftem of Breeding: with refpect to the lirft he fays. " The great improvement of the breed of horfes in England arofe from croffing the breed with thofe diminutive ftallions, Barbs and Arabians; and the introduction of Flanders mares into this country was the fource of improvement in the breed of cart horfcs.The form of fwine has alfo beeu greatly improved, by crofling with the mallChinefe boar. And in regard to the for mer, he obferves,when it became the falhion inLondon,to drive large bay horfes, the farmers inYorkfhi re put their mares to much larger ftallioos than ufual, and thus did infinite mifchief to their breed, by producing a race of fmall chefted, long legged,, large boned,, worthlefs animals. A fimilar project was adopted in Normandy, to enlarge the breed of horfes there, by the ufe of ftallions from Holftein, and. in confequence, the beft breed of horfes in France would have been fpoiled, had not the farmers discovered their miftake in time, by obfervingthe offspring much inferior in form to that of the native ftallions. "Some graziers in thelfle of Sheppy,conceired that, they could improve their fheep, by largeLincolnfhire rams, the produce of which, however, was much inferior in the fbape of the carcafes and the quality of the wool ; and their flocks were greatly injured by this attempt to improve them. Attempts to inv prove the native animals of a country by any plan of crofling, mould be made with the greateft cau? tion ; for by a miftaken practice extensively purfued, irreparable mifchief may be done. In any country where a particular race of animals has continued for centuries, it may be p re fumed: that their conftitution is adapted to the food and climate.. The pliancy of ihe animal economy,, is fuch, s that an animal will gradually accommodate itfelf to great viciffitudes in. climate, and alterations in. 638 Live Stock Breeding ofProper lies to le regarded in Shape. As the principal object of the breeding farmer muft conftantly be that of obtain ing fuch animals as will afford him the largcll profit ; it may be ncceffary to afcertain the nature and form of animal that may be molt advantageous in thia view, or which pays the beft for the confumption of its food ; as by this means it will befcen what points are the moft deferable or ufeful in a breed or variety, and what circum fiances ought to be attended to, fo as to juftify its introduction in pre ference to another. The properties that would feem more particularly to deferve the attention ot the farmer, in his different views and fchemes of improving the breeds of live ftock may be confidered under the different heads tf/bape,fize, difpofition, hardinefs, quick food ; and by degrees, undergo great changes in confutation ; but thefe changes can be effected only by degrees, and may often require a great number of fucceffive generations for their accomplifhment. It may be proper to improve the form of a native race, but at the fame time it may be very injudi cious touttempt to enlarge their fize. The fize of animals is commonly adapted to the foil which they inhabit. Where pioduce is nutritive and abundant, the animals are large, having grown proportion ally to the quantity of food which, for generations, they have been accuftomed to obtain. Where the produce is fcanty, the animals are very final), being proportioned to the quantity of food they were able to procure. Of thefe contrails, the flieep of Lincolnfliire and of Wales are examples. The iheep of Lincolnfliire would starve on the mountains of Wales. " Crofiing the breed ofanimsls, may be attended with bad effects in various ways: and that even, when adopted in the beginning on a good principle; for inftance, fuppofe fome larger ewes than thofe of the native breed, were taken to the mountains of Wales, and put to the rams of that coun try ; if thefe foreign ewes were fed in proportion to their fize, their lambs would be of an improved form, and larger in fize than the native animals ; but the males produced by this crofs, though of a good form, would be difproportionate in fize to the native ewes ; and therefore, if permitted to mix with them, would be productive of a ftarveling, ill formed progeny. Thus a crofs which, at firft, was an improvement, would by giving occafion to a contrary crofs, ultimately prejudice the breed. The general miftake in croffiog has arifen from an attempt to incrca fe the fize of a native race of ani mals; being a fruitlefs attempt to counteraft the law of nature. The Arabian horfes are in general, the moft perfeft in the world, which probably has arifen from great care in felcftion; and alfo from beingunmixed with any variety of the fame fpecics ; the males therefore Inve never been difpropor- tioned in fize to the females. The native horfes of India are fmall but well proportioned, and good of their kind. With the intention of increafing their fize, the India Company have adopted a plan of fending large ftalliohs to India. If thefe ftallions fhould be extenfively ufed, a difproportioned race muft be the refult, and a valuable breed of horfes may be irretrievably ipoiled. From theory, from practice and from extenfive obfervation, which is more to be depended on- than either, it is reafonable to form this condlufion ; that it is wrong to enlarge a native breed of animals, for in proportion, to .their increafe of fi/e,they become vvorfe in form, lefs hardy, and more liable to diil-afe." Live Stock Properties to be regarded in Shtrpe. 609 JB.7/W ;-//> , nature of fit fit > fattening property t milk>bi*tf t aptitude for laboured what may be termed the quality of the breed, or, in the language of the art, blood, In refpcct to the firft, the ideas or opinions of breeders have differed very mate rially ; but it is obvious, that there can only be one true or perfect form, which muft be that which approaches theneareft toexactnefs in the fhape and proportion of the different parts. Whenever this is met with, t indicates the true form, and is that which ought to be aimed at by the breeder, whatever the nature or breed o the animal may be. In this view, a perfectly formed animal fhould have an exact proportion and confiftency in all the different parts ; the head neat and compactly formed, but: neither too large, or of too great a length; the eyes bright and prominent; the neck not of too great length, but fomevvhat thin, gradually narrowing from the breaft towards the head, to which it mould be neatly attached; thecheft round, wide, full, and of deep girth ; the length of the legs well proportioned to the fize; thc^ fore ones ftraightand clean, the hind ones forming an angle at the hock, fo as to ftand well under the loins ; the diftance between the feet in the different extremities equal j the feet round and even; the hoofs ftraight j the back and loins ftraight and broad ; the belly firm and capacious ; the quarters deep, full, and well flemed downwards. It is, however, difficult to convey any very correct: idea of fliape by words ; but that which comes up in fome meafure to this ftandard would ft ? em to con- ftitutethat "utility of form" which has been the great object of modern breeders. And it is probable that fuch a form is beft calculated for the chief object of the farmer, which is that of receiving and fupporting flefh in the practice of fattening ; as, where animals much exceed or fall fhort of fuch correct proportions of parts, there muft be inconvenience or difad vantage, either in their being weak and lefs difpofed to fatten, of courfe requiring more food and a greater length of time for accomplilhing thebufinefs, or in their being deficient in the general weight and value of the meat, from their not fattening fufficiently on the beft parts. In has been obferved to have been the conftant principle of a moft intelligent breeder,* to procure fuch animals, whether of the cattle or fheep kind, as were capable of weighing *< the mod in the moft valuable: joints, * as there is a great difference * Mr, Bakewell. 640 Live Stock Properties to be regarded in Size* between an ox of fifty ftone, carrying thirty in roafting pieces, and twenty in coarfe boiling ones, and another carrying thirty in the latter, and twenty in the former.* Jc muft undoubtedly be an object of great importance, to have thofe parts which are of I ut little value, as fmall and of as little weight as poffible. It may alfo be advantageous in particular cafes, to attend to the nature of the confumption in the ihapc of the animals, in the manner that has been juft feen, as, where fome parrs are mo;e in demand than others, and confequently fell at much higher prices, that fhape which is moft favourable for this purpofc mould be more attended to. lr is probable, however, that it is on the juft proportion and fymmetry of parts in the animals that arc employed for the purpofe of the breeder, that improvement in this as well as other important points muft depend. And of courfe it feems not improbable, but that the excellence of the moft valuable points in all the dif ferent forts of fiockmay in fome degree bear a proportion to the good nefs of the form in the animals. That fine fullnefs of fnape which has been diftinguifhed by breeders under the term * beautv of form," has been confidered as difti.nct from that of " utility of form," and toconfift in a more perfect rounding of the parts, and a lefs appear ance of bony protuberance. But though it mud conftantly be a very defirable object to bring the fhape of the animals as near perfection as the difficult nature of the bufinefs will admit, yet utility, or what may in other words be termed profit, mud be principally conlidered, as being the immediate object of the flock- farmer. In the fize of animals there is a variety which admirably adapts them to the variations of foil, climate, fituation, and food, as well as the different views and purpofes of the farmer. The long agitated queftion, whether large or fmall-fized animals are the moft profitable, or pay the grazing farmer the moft money for the food they confume, is not yet fully decided ; nor is it probably capable of being eafily afcertained, on account of the great difficulty of making experiments under an exact (imilarityof circumftances, in regard to breed, pafture, food, expofure, and other points ; and wha: is the difference in the growth, orincreafe of weight, or of labour, between large and fmall animals, in proportion to the quantity of food which they take for * Young s Eafte rn Tour, TO!. I. Live Stock Properties to be regarded in Size* 641 fneirfupport. And laftly, what is the difference in the increafe and cjuicknefs of feeding, in flock of different fizes, in relation to the quantity of food which they confume. A varied fet of experiments, correctly made with a view to thefe dif ferent points, would no doubt lead to many ufeful conclufions, though they would not, probably, finally fettle the difpute, on account of the great difficulties that mud always attend fuch comparative inveftigations, from the variation ofcircum- fiances and other caufes. It would feem therefore, that, in the prefent ftate of our knowledge, no certain directions can be given, in refpect to the fize of cattle, that will be generally applicable in governing the conduct of the grazier. The largnefs of fize, though it is a property that may be defirable, in fo far as it affords the means of feeding to a great weight ; yet, as this is probably acquired by a much larger and longer continued confumption of food, it is probable that, except in fituations where food is abundant, the fmaller-fized animals may be the morepro- fitable. In deciding the point, it is not merely, as has been feen, the difference in the quantity of flefh that they are feparately capable of affording, but the dif ference of fuch quantity in relation to the confumption of food, that is to be con- iidered. It was found by Mr. Bakewell, that the <f fmaller the bone, the truer the make of the beaft," and the quicker in fattening* j which throws the advan tage on the fide of fmall fize : and the experience of graziers in general feems to favour the fame conclufion, as they commonly find that the middling and fmall breed are the moft profitable, from their fattening with the greateft expedi tion. And it has been well remarked that the Lincolnfhire and Holderneffc breeds of cattle " are very large, but their fize lies in their bones : they may be fattened to great lofs to the grazier," but can never " return fo much for a given quantity of grafs as the fmall-boned, long-horned kind.f" It may perhaps be objected by fome, that the difference in the confumption of food between the large and fmall-fized animals is not fo confiderable as is com monly fuppofed. But though it muft be allowed that confiderable latitude may- take p lacc in this refpect, according to the ftate of the digeftive organs and other caufes, long experience among graziers has mown in the moft decifive manner, that a number of fmall-fized ftock conftime much lefs food in a given time than large, as in fome cafes they can ftock nearly in the proportion of two to one. Mr. Knight, however,inclines to the fide of large cattle being the moft profitable, from * Young s Eaftern Tour, vol. I. t Ibid. VO-L, JT. 4 N (J13 Zwe Stock Properties to IQ regarded inSize* their not confuming food in the proportion of their weight ; as, on putting the queftion of the difference in the weight of food confumed by the largeft: and fmal- Icft in a given time, to different breeders in different parts of the diftrid where he refides, he found that they agreed, "that the fame quantity of food was given to the fmalleft and the largeft bcaft of the fame age ; that the largeft, even when not maf- ter of the fame fold, often kept itfelf in the beft condition ; and that every thing depended on the difpofition to, fatten, and very little on the fize of the animal." In his own ftock he alfo alTerts the fame thing to be precifely the cafe.* Jt is however admitted, as juft ftated, that a certain quantity of large cattle will moft-. Jy confume more than the fame quantity of fmali ones ; but not by any means in proportion to their weight. With regard to any difference that may take place in the quality of the meat from the difference of fize, it would feem to be in favour of the fmailer breeds ; as the finenefs of the mufcular fibre, or what has been commonly termed the grain of flefh, has been found to be the moft delicate in the fmailer breeds of animals. It is on this account, as well as that of convenience, that the mutton, beef, and other forts of meat of fmall animals are fo conftantly preferred by the nice palates of thofe who indulge in the pleafurcs of the table. In oppofition to the idea that fmall animals, when fatted, are in common worth more for any given weight of meat than large ones j it is contended, that if the ani mal be taken as it ftands in the pafture or ftall, the contrary is the truth ; but that \vhen the butcher merely buys what are termed the valuable parts, and receives the offal into the bargain, he will unqueftionably, for obvious reafons, "give more for two cows of twelve ftonc each a quarter, than for one of twenty-four." The offal Is of much greater value, befides a confiderable advantage in the hides.-)* In ftiort, it is concluded that " the difference between the weight of the animals when liv.. ing, and of the four quarters whn dead, is always ia an inverfe proportion to their fize when their forms and merits are equal ; but the bones will then be in propor tion to the living-weight, and therefore fmall animals muft be in this cafe moft difad* vantagcous to the confumer." From the greater fize of the mufcular parts in large animals, the flelh would, however, feem to be more coarfe in the very large breeds, and of courfe be lefs va luable, than in thofe of the fmall. * Communications to the Board ofAgrityilturej vol. If, f Knight in ibid, Live Slock Properties to be regarded iw -5rse. (i3 It is alfo fuppofed an advantage in the large animals, that the meat when prefer- ved for future ufe is not only better, from the juices being more fully retained, but from there being lefs wafte, on account of the external furface being proportion ately lefs. And it is obferved, in regard to the opinion that animals of the fmaller kinds are in general more hardy than thofe of the large breeds, that if it be meant merely that they arc capable of fubfifting on Ihorter herbage, it is right ; as a large animal, though it may have exactly the fame form as the fmall one, necefiarily requires more time for reft. It feeds and removes itfelf with greater labour ; and notwith- flanding it may be as ftrong again, as having double the weight, it will ftill in relation to itfelf be a weaker animal. Its head and neck will be as heavy again, and from their greater length, the weight will recede further from the centre of motion in the moulder ; confequently increafe in power in proportion to the diftance ; and the fame thing holds good in refpect to the whole of the limbs. In the flail, or the fold, where large oxen are moftly fed, thefe difadvantages are of no confequence, as the food is received without the trouble of looking for it ; and if the neceffity of a better pafture does not proceed from the larger animal ccmfuming much more, but from lefs power in collecting food, the confequence will be, that it muft ef af ford the largeft weight of flefli with the fmalleft confumption of grafs.*" Small-lized animals have been affertcd to be lefs prejudicial in poaching the ground than large ones, on account of their feet being wider in proportion to the \veight. It is however obferved by Mr. Knight, that" the queftion is, whether the feet and mouths of two fmall animals will not injure the herbage more than that of one large one." It is remarked that fmali fheep do not poach the ground at all : yet it is fuppofed that "a fcore of thefe weighing a ton in the aggregate will do more injury to a rich pafture in forty-eight hours than an ox of the fame weight in a week,." Cows and oxen fhould, it is faid, be kept in the ftall and the fold when the ground is wet during the winter, and capable of being injured by poach ing ; and in the fummer it is not injured by the heavieft ftock. In cafes where the weight of meat is of no material confequence,as in dairy cattle, the advantage may be on the fide of fmall animals,as fuch cows will giyc nearly the fame quantity of milk feparately as thofe of the large kind j and are capable of * Knight in Commuaications to the Board of Agriculture,^!, II. Live StockProperties to be regarded m-^Tamenefs Hardtnef*. fubfifting on fhorter herbage, and \vithout injuring the ground in the fame degree : but vvher* the weight and value of the meat form the principal confederations, the Jargeft animals the paftures are calculated to fupport, are fuppofed to be the moil beneficial to the breeder and the public.* In the final ler-fi zed animals.there are } hovvevcr,advantages in their being capable f being fattened wholly with grafs, without having recourfe to the more expenfiva kinds of food, which muft be the cafe with thofe of a large kind, and on paflurea of inferior qualities ; in their being procured with lefs difficulty, and more adapt ed to particular filiations and circumftances of farmers ;.and from there being lefe lofsin cafe of accidents taking place.-f On thefegrounds,as there appear fome things favourable to each fide, the atten tion of the breeder {hould be principally directed by the nature and circumftances, of his paftures,. as well as the command of other forts of food which he pofTerTes ; the middle and fmaller breeds of live ftock being preferred on the lefs rich and in ferior kinds, and the large forts in fuch- fituations as are more rich and fertile, and wherever there is a fufficient command of food. It is, without doubt, a matter of much, utility and importance to have fuch breeds, of domeftic animals as are pofTefTed of tame and gentle difpofitions, without being; too dull or fluggifh in their habits, as fuch animals are not only lefs difpofed ra ramble and break the paftures, but are capable of being reared, fed, and rendered fat, with confiderably lefs food. In the production of this fort of difpofition much, depends upon the modes of rearing the animals. Mr. Bakewell had all his ani mals, even his bulls, fo tame and gentle, from early care in this refpecl:, that they. Could be managed with the greateft eafe and facility. Hardinefs of conftitution is another property in live ftock that deferves the at- . tention of the breeder. In expofed fituations it is an efTential and indifpenfable . property; and under all circumftances, it muft be advantageous, for the far-, mer that a breed is not liable to difeafe. Befides, hardy animals always thrive, much better than fuch as are more tender and delicate in their nature. The cir- cumftances which have been commonly fuppofed to denote this difpofition are thofe of darknefs of colour and roughnefs of hair. Animals of other colours are how-, ever frequently not deficient in this property : and it does not feem to depend * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. t Sir John Sinclair in the Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. L lve- Stock Properties to be regarded in Early Maturity Ftyl: 643 much upon the colour, but perhaps on the breed, and the manner in which the ani mal has been reared. There is another property which is of great confequence to the breeder, as much of his profits muft always depend, in a great degree, upon it. This is that of quick- nefs in arriving at the Mate of maturity. With this the abundance of fupply is likewife, in a great meafure, connected: of courfe it is a property that greatly in- terefts the public as well as the farmer, and on both accounts deferves the particu lar attention of the breeder. It is probable that fome forts of ftock, from their labour, or the produce which they afford, may be kept longer with profit by the farmer than others. This has been fuppofedto be the cafe with neat cattle, though not with fheep; but the difti notion is perhaps not well founded, as the latter ob- vioufly afford a return in various ways.* 1 It is evident that themanner in which animals are fed muff have much influence in this refpect ; as when, from the conftant full fupplies of food, they are always kept in a thriving condition, they will of courfe arrive much earlier at the ftate of maturity than under the contrary circumftances. This will be the cafe, what ever the nature of the flock may be. It has been afTerted that, under this mode, a greater progrefs is made in three years than in the ordinary pinching method of rearing is effected in five.f The necefllty of not fuffering animals to be checked or ftunted in their early growth, by the want of proper care, food, and warmth, is thus fully evinced. This is therefore a point that mould never be loft fight of by the careful breeder in the raifingof his live flock. It is fcarcely necefiary, after the obfervations that have been made above, to fay any thing in addition reflecting the nature or quality of the flefh of animals, as it would feem to be a property inherent in the mufcular fubftance, and probably depending in a. great meafure, if not wholly, on the breed. It is indeed obferved by Mr. Marfhall, in fpeaking of the breeding of animals in the Midland diflricts, where thc/c/ft is " fpoken of with the fame familiarity as the hide or the fleece," that the grain is clearly underftood to depend wholly on the lreed t and not, as has been heretofore confidered, on they/2<f of the animal." The difference in the flavour of the flefh of different breeds or varieties of animals would feem to depend in a great degree on the nature of the food ; while that of colour is probably in a great meafure fixed and inherent, and the effect of breed ? * Sir John Sinclair ia Farmer s Magazine, vol. Ill, t Ikid. 6 tS Live Stock-~Properties to be regarded in-^Difyo/ltion to fa fieri. experiments are however -wanting on thefe points, in order to place them in a more clear light. The fuppofition of its having a relation to that of the colour of the fkin, is probably without anyjuft foundation. Wherever any very material deviation from the natural colour of flefh is met with in .meat, as has fometimes been the cafe, it is probably the effect of a morbid condition of the animal. In the living flate, the proofs of good flemare a mellow, elaftic, rather firm, feel, without any degree of harfhnefs ; and in the dead con dition a fimilarity of feel, with a fine grain and marbly appearance. The difference of age and fex may likewife afford fome variety in refpect to the quality of the fle(h,as in old animals it muft be more firm, and lefs tender and juicy, than in thofe that are young, as is found by experience. And the finenefs of the grain is moftly found much greater in animals of the female than the male kind. Some of the more northern breeds of Scotch cattje are faid to excel much in the quality of their flefh, when killed at a proper age and well fattened. There is another property, in fome degree connected with that juft men tioned, which is that of the difpofition to fatten while young, and in an expe ditious manner, when fully fed. This is a property on which the profit of the grazier muft in a high degree depend, as where it does not prevail, much of his food muft be ufelefsly expended. It can not therefore, in this view, be too much regarded in the felecting of his ftock. The circumftances on which it depends have not, perhaps, yet been fully inveftigated -, but it is well known that fome animals become fat with a very fmall confumption of food, while others that eat much larger proportions always remain in a lean ftate. So far as obfervation has yet gone, this is a property that would feem to be in fome meafure connected with fmallnefs of bone. Some think it " probable, however, that a tendency to fatten arifes from fome particular circumftance in the internal ftructure of the body, of which fmall bones are in general an indication j and that it is only in this point of view that they ought to be confidered effential : for they often weigh as heavy, and confequently require as much nourifhment, as large onesj fmall bones, like thofe of the blood-horfe, being compact and heavy ; large bones like thofe of the common dray, or cart-houfe, being extremely porous, and confequently light for their apparent bulk. Indeed, cattle ought not only to be eafily maintained in point of quantity, but, in remote and uncultivated diftricts, in regard to the quajity ajfo pf the food they continue ; and it is certain that fome particular animals iw Stock~~P* Opcrties to be regarded inty/po/ttiun to fatten. will fatten as well on coarfe fare, as others will do on the mod luxuriant.*" The practice of Mr. Bakewell, as well as that of other breeders, would feem to demon- {Irate that it depends greatly on the form and breed of the animals. Some have affected to think lefs favourably of the utility of this property or difpofition, on account of the Jargenefs of the proportion of fat that is fometimes produced, which is conceived by no means fo ufeful or economical, in the con- fumption as food, as that of the lean part. But where a fuperabundance or excefs of fat takes place, it would feem to be in a great meafure the fault of the grazier, and not of the nature or difpofition of the breed. It has been fuggefted, that the difputes in rcfpecl: to the utility or inutility of fat^ tening animals to the great degree that has been lately the cuftom, muft of neceffity proceed from the want of fufficient difcrimination ; as fat meat, though not fo fit for common ufe, is in general confidered as affording more nourimmen-t than lean, when the (late and vigour of the ftomach are fuitable for digefling it ; and that although there may, in the common methods of cooking it, be fome lofs, by proper care and attention there are ways in which this may be almoft wholly avoided. Thus it is re- marked that " the keelmen of Newcaftle purchafe great quantities of fat meat, as they follow the cuftom fo ufual in Scotland^of boiling their meat; the broth of which feeds the family, whilftthey themfelves eat the meat, generally in a cold ftate, and in great quantities ; and are thus enabled to go through the heavy labour they ufually undergo. In many diftrid"r.s,manufacT:urers and others bake their meat with potatoes under it; and the fat, melted by the fire, falls upon the potatoes, and improves much their tafte, and the nourifliment to be derived from them. In either of thefe ways little if any of the fubftance of the meat is loft.f " But fuch fuppofi tions as the above are probably futileon other principles, as there does not appear to have yet been any other difcovery made for increafing the quantity of mufcular fubftance, or leanflem, than that of cultivating the fattening property of animals. It has long been an obfervation among breeders and graziers, that good fat makes good lean." The importance of this propenfity is therefore con- iiderable,and requires the particular notice of the modern breeder in the railing of his live Hock. There remains another property that ought to be regarded inthe breed of animals, as it in fome meafure furnifhes the means of determining the difpofition to fatten,, * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer s Magazine, vol. IlL t Ibid, : 648 Live Stock Properties to te regarded in Aptitude for Labour. by the feel which it affords. This is the ftate of the hide or fkin. It is remarked that " when it feels foft and filky, it firongly indicates a tendency in the animal to take on meat ; and it is evident that a fine and foft (kin muft be more pliable, and more eafily ftretched out to receive any extraordinary quantity of flefh, than a thick or tough one. At the fame time, thick hides are of great importance in va rious manufactures. They are indeed neceflary in cold countries, where cattle are much expofed to the inclemency of the feafons ; and in the beft breeds of High land cattle, the fkin is thick in proportion to their fize, without being fo tough as to be prejudicial to their capacity of fattening,* The property of fupplying in large proportions a ufeful product, fuch as that of milk, is an object that (hould not be loft light of by the breeding farmer. The queftion of the propriety of having a diftinct breed exclufively for this purpofe, or that of having it only partly calculated for this ufe, and partly for that of the butcher, has not yet been fully decided : but as it has been found, by long expe rience, that fuch cows as have much propenfity to fatten, feldom anfwer the pur pofe of the.dairy, it would feem that there ought to be a breed particularly for the pail. It has however been fuggefted as probable that, " by great attention a breed might be reared, .the males of which might, in every rcfpect, be well calcu lated for the lhambles, and the females, when young, produce abundant quantities of good milk, yet, when they reached eight or nine years of age, be eafily fattened." Such a breed would, it is fuppofed, be of the greateft value of any that could be produced. Some .of .the beft Englifh and Scotch breeds are believed to havp ; nearly attained this point of perfection.! The fitncfs of animals for the purpofe of labour is a quality that, in certain eircumftances, may be neceffary to beconfidered in the breeding of cattle ftock. The queftion of the advantage that may be gained in this practice, in regard to the increafein the quantity of meat, is far from having been decided j nor has it been .well explained whether injury may not be done in reftricting the growth of the animals by this means, more than can be compenfated by their labour. It is ob vious, however, that where cattle are worked, they muft be longer in being brought to the marker. But as, from the greater cheapnefs of rearing and keeping neat cattle than horfcs, and various other caufes, it may be neceffary to make ufe of * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. * Ibid. Live Stock Blood Methods of breeding, 649? cattle for the purpofe of labour, a breed well calculated in this- refpcct muft be fe(irabie. There ft-ill remains another property which it is requiftte for the breeder to con* fider in the improvement of live ftock, which is that of blwd> adopted in analogy to the fyftem of breeding in the race-horfe. It is employed to fignify the natural, fixed, and inherent properties of a breed or kind, as exemplified in their external appearances. Irs utility for the purpofes of the breeder is therefore to enable him to difc rim mate, with greater nicety and correctnefs, in the felection of fuch animals- as are the mod adapted to the improvements he has in view. Thefe are the main objects to which the breeder fhould attend, and the means 1 by which he is principally to effect his improvements. Thefuccefs of his endea vours, to whatever fpecies of excellence his attention may be directed muft obvii- oufly in a great meafu re depend upon the accuracy and correctnefs of his judgment in choofing thofe breeds, of whatever fort of live ftock they may be, that are mod adapted to his circumftances ; and in felecting fuch individuals, both male and female of fuch breeds, as are the moft perfect and exact in their different parts and propers ties : cautioufly continuing to breed from them, without ever fuifering the ieaft in termixture by theadmiffionofthofe of inferior qualities; advancing in this way with the niceft attention to fuch faults or defects, however trifling, as may arife, fo as to alter and correct them by appropriate pairing in the fucceeding generations. And as an indifpenfable afliftant in this arduous undertaking, he muft conftantly have recourfe to the aid of good and abundant keep at all feafons, with fuitable degrees of fhelter and warmth for both the old and young ftock ; fo that they may never decline in flelh or be checked in their growth; This would feem to conftitute the great fecret of the important art of breeding live ftock, which the fuperior difcern* nient and unwearied perfeverance of a fingle individual raifed to a degree of notice and perfection that has had the happieft effects in bringing the improvement of our dorneftic animals to a ftate of excellence perhaps unequalled in any other country. In every fyftem of breeding or improving of live ftock, the greateft attention is confequently necefTary to keep. It has been well obferved that " all good ftock muft be both bred with attention and well fed : and that it is neceflary that thefe two efTentials in this fpecies of improvement fhould always accompany each other * for, without good. refources for keeping, it would be in vain to attempt fupporting VOL. II. 4O 650 Live Stock Introduction of new Breeds. a capital flock, and with fuch refources it would be. abfurd not to aim at a breed fomewhat decent in quality."* But improvements of this nature can, in genertl, only be effected by degrees, as the pecuniary circumftances of but few farmers admit of a total change. How much foever they may difapprove of what they have in pofleffion, they can only object to a few of the inferior: this, however, is in their power ; and, by always felccting the bcft for breeding and rearing, im provement will in time be effected. Great improvements in cow-ftock may doubtlefs be made by a proper felection of the belt heifers in carcafe and milk-bag for breeding flock, but more particularly by a judicious choice of the bull. But as prime or firft-ratc ftock is in but few hands, and the owners generally afk higher prices than farmers in general can afford to give, it would be highly advantageous in this intention to have proper male flock provided by the proprietors of lands. )- In this way, the letting of male ftock in the midland diftricts has had much in fluence; and it is probably only by fome encouragement of this nature that the higheft improvement in this moft important department of hufbandry can be at tained. It has been alfo remarked, Cf that there is one circumftance relative to the choice or introduction of all new breeds, which muft not be paffed over in filence, becaufe no farmer can neglect it without certain lofs. Every kind of pafture is fitted to raife animals to a particular fize. When beafts of a larger fize are brought in, than the quality of the food is calculated to fupport, thefe animals whether cows, horfes or fheep, or any other kind, will degenerate apace, and never prove ufeful until they comedown to that ftandard or fize adapted to their fituation and fuited to their food. On the other hand, when a fmaller breed than ordinary is brought in, they continue to increafe in bulk, until they come up to the pitch which is fuited to their nourifhment. But there is this remarkable difference betwixt thefe two pro- greflions in refpect of profit, that in the retrograde progrefs, when animals are brought from rich pafture, and a comfortable fuuation, to the reverfe, they are in very inftance worfe than the indigenous breed ; whereas the animals which are brought from worfe to better, continue to improve till they arrive at that perfection which thechange in their fituation is calculated to produce. Thefe caufes may not immediately have their full effect, but in a few years they certainly and evidently will He makes for this reafon, a much fafcr experiment who brings cattle from * Correck d Agricultural Report of Stafford(hire. f Ibid. Live Stock Advantages of Improvement of. " &5 1 vorfe to better, than he who brings them from better to worfe. This reafoning applies to all plants as well as animals. Highland cattle rife to a great fize, not only by the keeping in South Britain, but in rich paftures at home. In vain will you attempt to improve a breed of animals beyond the circumftances of the country as to climate and pallure; while at the fame time, it is no eafy matter to difcern without proper trials, how far thefe circumftances can fupport a better ftock.*" In confirmation of thefe obfervations^ and others that have been dated above it has been obferved that the " richeft grazing land, and the moft nourifli- ing artificial food, will certainly pay more in feeding large bullocks, fheep and fwine, than it would do in feeding the fmaller fizes of the fame fpecies ; and it is equally obvious that the fmaller breeds will anfwer better on the poor p;ifture than the large. f" Befides thefe circumftances, in the introduction of new breeds of Jive flock, there are others that demand attention, fuch as the particular qualities or properties which the farme-r has in view. Thefe muft be fully confidered ; and fuch a breed as may belt anfwer in thefe particular intentions be conftantly preferred. In fpeaking of the vaft advantages that may be derived from the improvement of live flock, it has been obferved by a late practical writer, that confidering the various breeds of domeftic animals, as the machines or vehicles by which farmers are enabled to fend their herbage and other forts of food to the markets, they ought, by the ftudy of every fuitable means, to promote their improvement, both in refpect to form and the difpofition to fatten, in order that the produce of their farms may be difpofed of in the moft profitable manner, and that independent of the benefits the farmers would individually derive by fuch means, from the breeds being rendered lefs tedious in fattening and lefs productive in offal, the public would obtain vaft advantage in the great increafe of animal food.. Indeed, on the fuppolition that every individual in England and Scotland confumes in the proportion of one fheep in the courfe of the year, and that there are ten millions in the country, it is cal culated that, by improving the breeds of that animal only to the extent of one fhilling, which cannot be deemed impracticable, an additional annual advantage would be gained in that fort of live ftock alone, of five hundred thoufand pounds.;]: This, on the whole of every kind, would therefore be immenfe. * Corre&ed Agricultural Report of Perthlhire. f Correfted Report of Middlefex* J Modern Agriculture, vol. IV. Ibid. 4O2 52 Lire Stock~-Neat Ca1 tie Long-horned Breed Defcripf ion of. After this concife view of the principles, properties, and other circumftances \vhich feem mod particularly to dcferve regard in the improvement of different forts of live flock, we may examine the nature and qualities of the feveral kinds, and the methods of management which are mod proper and advantageous in each. Neat Cattle. The breeds and varieties of cattle that are difperfedover the country are fo extremely numerous, that no Correct enumeration of them has yet been pre- fented to the public, but a few of the more diftinguifhcd and valuable forts have been well defcribed by different writers.* Almoft every diftrict or county has its particular breed or variety of this fort of ftock, which in many cafes is unquef- tionably the moft proper and fuitable ; but in others there is no doubt but that the farmer might be greatly benefited by a judicious change for fome other fort more perfectly adapted to his Situation and circurnftances. The long-horned breed of cattle is distinguished, as the name implies, by the great length of the horns, the thicknefs and firmncfs of the texture of their hides, the length and clofenefs of their hair, the large lize of their hoofs, and the coarfe, leathery thicknefs of their necks. They are atfo in common deeper made in their fore-quarters, and lighter in their hind-quarters, than other breeds. -j- In fize they ate faid to be fuperior to the Suffolk duns, but inferior to the fhort and middle-horned breeds. J They are likewife narrower in their * It has been ufual to arrange the breeds of cattle from the nature of their horns, and other c5r- jCumftances fomewhat ih the following manner : The Long-horned Breed. Middle-horned Ditto* Short-horned Ditto. ^ Welch Breed. * Suffolk Dun Breed. K Galloway Polled Brceit. Highland or Kyloe Breed. ],owland or Fifeshife Breed. And to thefe may be added the Alderney Breed. And the Wild Breed. The breeds of cattle are alfo frequently diftinguiflied by the names of the particular diftrich, coim- tics, or places where they are the moft prevalent or the inoft pcrfeft of their kind. The above method of .arrangement has been in fome meai u re adopted by the writer of a late prafti- cal work entitk-d " Modern Agriculture." t Culley on Live SttcJc. Jlbid. iiVe Sfock* LcHg-Jiorned Breed. ihape and lefs in point of weight, than the fhort-horns, though better weighers in proportion to their fize; and the cows of this breed give confiderably lefs milk,but fuch as affords more cream in proportion to the quantity. In colour they are more varied than any of the other breeds ; but whatever the colour is, they have gene rally a white ftreak along their backs, which the breeders term fncbed and moftly a white fpot on the infide of the hough. It is contended by fome that they were the native or original breed of this ifland ; but it is not eafy to afcertainthe matter ; it is however conjectured as probable, that " thefe have been the inhabitants of the open plain country ; whilft the wild breed, or perhaps the Welch and Scotch breeds, pofTefTed the woody, wild and mountainous parts of the ifland.*" Others, however think it more probable that <( the long-horned breed origin ated in importations of cattle from the neighbouring country of Ireland : and that bulls and cows brought from that ifland, having been coupled with the ancient, breed of the diflrict, produced the fort of cattle known by the name of the Lanca- fhire or long-horned," and which now occupy a large portion of the pafture lands of this kingdom. )* Lancafhire is without doubt the mother diftrict of this fort of cattle, but the long-horned breed are alfo the prevailing fort of flock in the counties of War wick, Leicefter,Gloucefter,Chefler, and fcveral others of the midland counties; and it is furprifing, and mows great attention in one inftance, and equal neglect in the other, that this fort of cattle are at prefent found in greater perfection in the county of Leicefter than in the diftrict whence they take their name.* This is fuppofed tohavearifen "from the graziers of thefe counties buying their beft bulls and heifers, for many years pall, before the people of Lancafhire were well aware of it. The former paid more attention to that kind which were of a true mould or form, and quicker feeders ; while the latter contented themfelves with the old- famioned, large, big-boned kind, which are not only flower feeders, but, when fed, are not fuch good beef. In fhort, the little farmers in Lancafhire, tempted by the high prices given them for their beft flock, had loft their valuable breed be fore they were fenfible of it." This breed is commonly underftood by graziers to be in general rather flow feeders, except that particular kind felected, improved and recommended by the * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. 4- Ibid, J Ibid, CulJey on Live Stock. 654 Live Slock. Middle horned Breed. Dewnjhire S-uffex Varieties of. late Mr. Bakewell, which are faid not only to eat lefs food than the others in pro portion to their weight ; but to become remarkably fat in a fhort fpace of time and to lay their fat upon the moil valuable parts, yet to have little tallow in them when killed ; and, when ufed in the dairy, to give but little milk. This improved " variety alfo differs from the reft of the long-horned cattle, in having very fine, clean, fmail bones in their legs, and thin hides. They are a middle fized, clean, fmall-boned, round- carcafed, kindly- looking cattle.*" They are fuppofed to have been raifcd by means of Mr. Webfter s, or what is frequently termed the Canley ftock. Craven in Yorkfhire is alfo famed fora fuperior variety of this breed of cattle. t The Irifh cattle are fuppofed a mixed breed between the long-horns and the Welch or Scotch, but more inclined to the long-horns, though of lefs weight than thofe of this country, t In the middle-horned breed of cattle there is probably more variety than in that of the preceding fort. The Devonfhire variety, when in a ftate of the greateft purity, is diftinguimed by a high red colour, without any white fpots, as the breed is reckoned impure when thefeexift, particularly where they run into one another ; by having a light dun ring round the eye ; by the muzzle being of the fame colour ; by being fine in the bone and clean in the neck ; by the horns being of a medium length and bent upwards ; by being thin faced ; fine in the chaps, and wide in the hips ; with a tolerable barrel, but rather flat on the fides : by the tail being fmall, and fet on very high ; by being thin-fkinned, and lilky in handling ; and by the property of feeding at an early age, or arm-ing at maturity fooner than moft other breeds ; they area fort of cattle well fitted for draught both as to hardinefs and quick movement, and their fhoulder-points are beautifully fitted for the col lar.^ In the SufTex and Herefordfhire varieties, the colour is alfo deep red, with fine hair : very thin fkins ; necks and heads clean ; horns neither long nor fhort, rather turning up at the points j well made in the hind quarters : wide acrofs the hips, rumps, and furloins ; narrow in the chines ; tolerably ftraight in the backs, but the ribs or (ides lying too flat ; thin in the thighs ; bones not large. || It is obferv- ed, that " when all the properties which mould attach to an ufeful breed of cattle * Culley on Live Stock, t Marshall s Midland Diftrid. J Culley on Live Stock. Ibid. |[ Ibid. OF THE UNIVERSITY } ft P Lire Slock. Middle-horned, Breed Proper tics of. c>55 are confidered, the middle-horned may be faid in general to come nearer to per fection than any other in the kingdom. They are of a large fize, well formed, and in difpofition to fatten, probably much on a par with the fhort-horned, and greatly fuperior to the Suffolk. As dairy cattle, they are alfo as valuable as any that fall under the defcription of quick feeders ; for although they give a lefs quantity of milk than the Suffolk or the long-horned, it is faid to be of a richer quality.* The Herefordfhire as well as North Devon varieties of this breed are indeed a very fuperior fort of ftock both for thepurpofe of labour and that of grazing, as being not only clean, ftrong, and well made, but affording quick proof under the feeding fyftem. Mr. Marfhall likewife remarks that the former, with that of the Gloucefter variety, is highly eligible as dairy-ftock. The females in the Here- fordmirb fort have been found to fatten better than any other kind at three years old ; except the fpayed heifers of Norfolk. f The North Devon variety, from the finenefs of the grain in the meat, is held in high eftimationin Smithfield. And they are faid to have great fuperiority over many other breeds, from their poffeffing more activity, being better calculated for labour, and having more blood ; and which is believed to arife from the circum- ftance of their being bred from one and two years old bulls and heifers. Great proof in this fort of cattle is mown by the fize of the rib, the rotundity of the barrel, and the mellownefs of the fkin. The colours that are moft in efteem, and which de note a fuperiority in the animals, are thofe fhades of the mahogany kind, efpeci- ally where there is a filky or glofly appearance in the hide, with a flight degree of waving or curling in the hair.+ The ox in this variety is moflly confidercdin perfection about the fifth year of his age. This valuable breed of cattle is the moft prevalent in the morefouthern and fotith- weftern parts of this country, as in SulTex, Dorfetfhire, Hampfhire, Devonmire, Somerfetftiire, and even fo far northward as Herefordfhire, where the largeft, and perhaps the fineft variety of this breed of neat cattle is met with. The SufTex variety though not fo large astheHerefordfhire,exceeds thofe of moft of the other diffracts. The oxen in the Herefordfhire fort, when fix years old and fattened, will in general * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. f Rural Economy of Glouceflerfiure. J Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXX. 6\> 6 Live Stock. Short- horned Breed Definition of. weigh from fixty to one hundred flones of fourteen pounds, the fore quarters be- ing moftly the heavieft.* From their being fteadyand active, as well as ca pable of great exertion in harnefs, they are peculiarly adapted to the purpofes of the team. They may be wrought from three to five or iix years old before they are fattened. The fliort-horned breed, as the term flgnifies, is diftinguifhed from the others by the fhortnefs of the horns ; by being wider and thicker in the form or mould, and, of courfe, feeding to the greateft weight by affording much the large ft quantity of tallow when fattened, in having very thin hides, and much lefs hair upon them than any other breed except the Alderney ; and more particularly by the quantity of milk they give beyond any other breed. The great quantity of milk, thinnefs of their hides, and little hair, are probably the reafons why they are tenderer than any oftheother kinds, except the Alderney. It is perhaps juftly faid of this kind, that they eat more food than any of the other breeds, a circumftance which cannot be wondered at, when it is considered that they excel in thofe three valuable par- t iculars, viz. in affording the greateft quantity of beef, tallow, and milk. Their colours are much varied, but the generality of them are red and white mixed, which, ivhen properly blended, is very pleafing and agreeable. -\ This is a breed chiefly found in Lincolnlhire and the eaftern parts of Yorkfhire, Durham, Northumberland, and Berwickfhire. In confequence of its having been originally imported from Holland,it is frequently called the Dutch, and fometimes the Holdernefs breed, from a place of that name in Yorkmire, where it is probable it was nrft eftablilhed. As being deftitute of the exertion and agility of the mid dle-horned-fort, they are not fo well adapted for the cart or the plough. And con- fidering their fize, and the quantity of food they devour, it is probable that they are inferior to any of the above-mentioned breeds : and, when compared with the* Suffolk duns, very greatly fo. This breed has been lately much improved in Yorkfhire, where the beft of the kind are to be met with. It is remarked that <c the long-horns and thefe have met upon the mountains which feparate Yorkfhire from Lancafhire, &c. and, by cro fling, have produced a mixed breed, called half long-horns ; a, very heavy, ftrong, and not unufeful kind f cattle,:): * Culley on Live Stock, t Ibrd. % Ibid; Live Stock Suffolk Dun Breed Polled or Galloway Breed 657 The Welch breed of neat cattle, efpecially that which is found in Cardigan (hire, is moftly black, \vith thick horns turned upwards ; fmall in ftze; clean boned ; well-fhaped, efpeciaHy where the native breed has not been injured by injudicious crofting with other forts. This breed is hardy and active, and in great requeft in the fouthern counties of the kingdom, on account of the cattle being quick feeders. The quantity of milk which the cows afford is not large; but they are a breed well adapted to the country in which they are found; though capable of -great- im provement by felecting the bed individuals of the native breed.* The Suffolk Diinbrecd is a fort of neat cattle found to prevail in that diftrict ; and ; \v-hich are eafily diftinguifhed by their being polled, of fmall fize, and a dun colour. They are moftly plain in their form. The cows are lean, and large in their bellies. They are valuable for the purpofe of the dairy, as the cows give large quantities of rnilk.f The weight of this breed of cattle is moftly on the average from fifty to : fixty ftone. The author of the Treatife on Live Stock feems to think this only a- variety of the following breed, produced in confequence of the great connection be- tween the Scotch drovers and the Suffolk and Norfolk feeders, as both forts arc in general polled ; and though the Suffolk are moftly light duns, while the others vary greatly in colour, this might take place from fome partiality to that colour. - The polled or Galloway breed of cattle is alfo very valuable. In weight and fizx?, . it is as much lefs than the long-horns as thefeare than the ihort-horns. The cat-- tk generally weigh from forty to fixty ftone, fome particular ones reach feventy and upwards : but their moft effential difference from every other breed of cattle is. - their having no horns at all : fome few, indeed, in every other refpect polls, have two little knobs, from two to four inches long, hanging down loofe from the parts where other cattle s horns grow, joined to> the head by a little loofe fkin and flelh. In moft other refpects thefe cattle referable the long-horns < both in colour and fliape s .. only they are ihorier and more compact in their form ; which probably makes them weigh lefs. Their hides feem to be in a medium ftate, not fo thick as the long-horns or fo thin as the fhort-horns ; but, like the beft feeding kind of long 1 - - horns, they lay their fat upon the- moft valuable parts, and their be.ef is well mar bled or mixed with fat.J The origin of tMs breed was probably in Galloway, a large diftrict in the fouth- * Modern AgricuUitfe. t Suffolk Corre&ed Report. J Culley onLiveStoclr VOL. II, 4 P 658 . Live-Stock Highland or Kyloc Breed Defcriplioti of. \veflofScotland, where they aremoftly bred upon the moors or hilly country, and grazed upon the lands nearer the fea until rifing four or live years old, when the graziers and drovers take them up in great numbers to the fairs in Norfolk and Suffolk, previous to the turnip-feeding feafon j whence the greateft part are again removed in the winter and fp ring, when fat, to fupply the confumption of the capital, where they are readily fold at high prices, few or no cattle felling fo high in Smithfield market, from their cutting up fo nicely, owing to their laying their fat upon the mod valuable parts ; a great excellence in all feeding cattle.* They alfo prevail in Durnfriefhire and Ayrfhire. The polled cows of this breed arefaidtobe good milkers in proportion to their lize, the milk being of a rich quality, and yielding much more butter from a given quantity than in the fhort-horns. The oxen and fpayed heifers have alfo been afTerted toanfwer well for draught. They are probably, however, in gene ral, too fmall for this purpofe. But though the cattle of the above diftricl: are moftly polled, they have feveral \vith horns, which they contend are a baftard or mongrel breed, produced by crofling with long-horned bulls from other diftricts. The polled ones, and of thefe the black or dark brindled ones, are preferred to any other, as they allow them to be the original breed of the country. The breeders in Galloway, how ever, complain of their old breed being loft, or at leaft much worn out. The Highland or Kylot breed of cattle is lefs in proportion to the polled cattle than they are to the long-horns. This breed is alfo covered with a long clofe coat of hair, like the polls and long-horns ; and, like thefe, the beef is fine-grained, well- flavoured, and mixed or marbled, but not fo handfome on the outride, when cxpofed in the market, not being of fo bright a colour, and often fpotted with black, even upon the beft parts, except when made very fat. When grazed, they feed very readily, their weight in general being from twenty to thirty-five flone ; fome particular ones reach to more than forty ftone. The moft prevalent colour is black ; fome are brindled or dun ; but the breeders there, like thofe in Galloway, prefer the black ones.f This hardy breed is in poffefllon of all the extenfive mountainous country, the Highlands of Scotland, together with the Wefternlfles.J The Ifle of Skye * Culley on Live Stock. f Ibid. i IbiJ. Live-Stock Lowland or Fife/hire Breed Alderney JBrwd. 65$ cattle arc the fmalleft in fize, but the moft perfect in other refpedts of perhaps any of the Kvlce or other forts ; acircumftance which is fuppofed to depend on its being a pure unmixed breed. The removal of the imperfection of fize cfe- ferves the attention of the breeder.* This breed is probably calculated in every refpec"l to thrive in a cold, expofed, mountainous country, and probably better adapted to the cold regions where they are bred than any other kind. They are driven to the fouthward in great numbers every autumn ; many into the weftern diftricts of Yorkfhire, but the greateft part into Norfolk, Suffolk, Eflex, and other parts of the fouth, where they are fattened. This fort of cattle is frequently termed kyloes in thefe parts of the country ; probably from a diftric"l in Ayrfhire called Kyle, where they prevail much. The Lowland or Fife/hire breed of cattle is rarely met with in an unmixed ftate. " Towards Cumberland the cattle are half long-horns, half polls j on the bor ders of Northumberland they are mixed with mort-horns until you reach Tiviot- dale, where-they become altogether a fmall coarfc kind of mort-horns, or what the York (hire jobbers call runts \ except a few pretty good fhort-horned cattle, bred in that pleafant and fine country, the Tweedfide.f" This fame kind of runtilh coarfe breed continues all the way to the Frith of Forth. C rolling this narrow fea into Fifelhire, it might at firft be imagined that the Fife cattle were a diftind breed, from their upright white-horns, their being exceedingly light lyred, and thin thighed : but Mr. Culley is pretty clear that it is only from their being more nearly allied to the kyloe breed, and confequently having lefs of the coarfe kind of mort-horns in them. The cattle all along this coaft continue to change more and more, growing ftill lefs, until, upon the hedges of the mountains, they become quite of the kyloe kind ; but ftill much inferior to that pure, unmixed, valuable breed of kyloes which occupy the more northern and weftern Highlands, and the different ifles ; but particularly thelfle of Skye, and that trad of coun try called Kintale.J TheAlderney breed of cattle is very delicate and tender, fo as to be little atten ded to by farmers. They are not able to bear well the cold of this ifland, par ticularly the more northern parts of it. They are in general fine boned, light * Modern Agriculture, vol. III. + Culley on Live Stock, $ Ibid. ive* $Joc7i* Differences in Breeds of Vahiabic Qualities of, ; red or yellow in colour, and their beef generally .yellow or very high coloured, ithough very ..fine in the grain, and welUflavoured. They maire .themfelves very . fat j and are not in theleaft fubje<ft to Iyer, *or have black flc(h. Very ufeful cattle have been bred from a crofs between an Alderney cow and a fhort-horned bull. This is a breed that is moftly to be met with about the feats of the nobility .and gentry, upon account of the cows giving exceedingly rich milk.* . Befides thefe different forts, there is a wild breed of cattle, which, as they appear ; in the breed at .Chillingbarn-GafUe in Northumberland, the feat of the , earl of Tankerville, *< are invariably x)f a cream colour, with black muzzles ; the whole .of the infideef the ears, and about. one-third of the outfide, from the tips downward, red.; the hems white, with black tips, very .fine, and bent upwards : forne of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a half or. two inches long. The weight of the oxen of this.breed is.from 35 to 45 ftone, and the cows from 25 to 35 ftone the four quarters, i.4lb. to the ftone. The beef is finely marblecj, and of excellent flavour. From the nature of their paftur.e, and the frequent agitation ..they are put into by the curiofity of ftrangers, it is fcarcely.to be expedled that they mould get very fat,; yet the fix-years old oxen are generally very good beef: whence it may be fairly fuppofed that in proper fituations, they would feed well.t * They cannot, perhaps from their untameable nature, be of any utility to the farmer, as they are only .capable of being retained within walls or very good fences. It is obvious, from this detail of the various breeds of cattle, that they are not rail equally profitable to the breeder, the rearer, the dairyman, the grazier, the butcher, or the confumer. " Some have a greater-difpofition to fatten than others. Some, being cleaner boned and better formed, have kfs offal. Some give a greater quantity of milk than others. In a word : fomeofthe particular properties for which cattle arc eftimable are more difcernible in one breed than in another. Whether thefe can be all united in the fame animal, or whether a breed of cattle pofTeffing all the requifite qualifications would be equally fuitable to all fituations, arc queftions not caly .to be determined. In regard to the firft, it feems univer- fally agreed, that there are two properties for which cattle are efteemed valuable,, .that cannot be united ; that is, a difpofition to fatten, and a tendency ta yield & * Culley on Live Stock, and Northumberland Corrcded Report. ,t Ibid. Lhe Stock Different Breeds fuit different Situations. GQl quantity of milk. The form of the animal mod remarkable for the firft is very different from that of the other ; in place of being flat in the fides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers arc, it is Jiigh-fidcd and light-bellied : in a word, its body is barrel-formed, while that of the other is more fitted to embrace a horfe- .collar with the wide fide downwards. It is not probable, therefore, that the pro perties of two breeds of cattle, fo oppofite in form and general appearance, can ever be united in the fame animal. If a large quantity of milk, whatever be its quality, is the object, the dairyman muft Content hirafelf with fuch plain ill-look ing animals as have been defcribed. And as the milk of all cows is well known not to be of the fame quality, it appears highly probable, that in proportion as the cows of the milking tribe exceed thofe that are more difpofed to fatten in quantity, in nearly the fame proportion will their milk be inferior in quality. Ifthis mould prove to he the cafe, the fuperiority of the quick feeders one would fuppofe to be completely eihbliihed j as, while cattle of this defcription are confefledly better .for the purpofesjof the graziers, the butchers, and the confumers, they would, if this point were determined in their favour, be a lfo more valuable for the dairy, .No perfon will thjnk of afierting, that a gallon or two of whey or of butter milk extra (for the quertion comes to that J is a fufficient reafon for preferring a "breed of plain-looking, ill-formed cattle, to one that, except in this particular, is more valuable in every refpect. In a word, no perfon, who pretends to a know ledge of the different breeds of cattle, will think of fupporting an opinion fo erro neous, as that cattle which are difpofed to fatten quickly, and at an early age, thar, from the fuperior excellence of their form, have a fmall proportion of offal, or %vhat the breeders call non-eflentials, and that, although they yield not a large quantity of milk, yet makeup for that deficiency in the richnefs of its quality, arc not more valuable than thofc which have nothing to recommend them but the fmgle property of being great milkers.* M Mr. Culley, in comparing the breeds -of long- and mort-horned cattle, contends that the-former excel in the hide, hair, and quality of the beef ; the latter in the quantity of bef, tallow and milk ; and that though each breed has long had, and probably may have, its particular advocates, it is not improbable but that each sna.y have its particular advantages in different fituations. Thus the thick, firm * DonaldfonYPwfcnt State of Hufoandry, vol. III. 6&> tivc Stock Different Breeds fait different Situations hide and long clofe-fet hair of one kind may bea fecurity againft thofe impetuous winds and heavy rains to which the weft coaft of the ifland is fubjccT: ; while the more regular feafons and mild climate upon the eaft coafl may be more fait- able to the conftitution of the other. In regard to the former breed exceeding the latter in the quality of the beef, it is only to the particular variety felected and improved by Mr.Bakcwell that prefer ence is to be given in this view ; for, as to the long-horned breed in common, it is fuppofed that their beef is rather inferior than fuperior to that of the generality of the fhort-horned kind ; and there is little doubt, it is imagined, " but a breed of fhort- horned cattle might be felecled, equal if not fuperior to even that very kindly-flemed fort of Mr. Bakewell, provided any able breeder, or body of breeders, would pay as much attention to thefe as he and his neighbours have done to the long-horns. But it has hitherto been the misfortune of the fhort-horned breeders to purfue the largeft and bigg<.-ft boned ones for the beft, without conii- dering that thofe are the beft that pay the moft money for a given quantity of food."* Such improvements have lately been made in the breeding of fhort-horn- cd cattle, that they have now been brought to a confiderable degree of perfection. But, aotwithftanding thefe two breeds have hitherto been in pofTeflion of the befl part of the ifland ; it is fuggefted that the Galloway cattle, and even the Scotch or Kyloes, might be bred with advantage in many fituatipns, fo as to be more profit able than either the mort-horns or the long-horns, as being " true quick feeders and kindly flemed."t . it is likewife conceived that the latter of thefe forts is better adapted to cold moory expofed fituations than any other breed, and that particular breeds are pro bably beft adapted to particular fituations ; on which grounds it is recommended to breeders of cattle to find out which breed is the moft profitable and beft fuited ro their fituations, and to endeavour to improve that breed to the utmoft, rather than try to unite the particular qualities of two or morediftinct breeds by eroding; tyhich is a precarious practice, as it is generally found that " the produce inherit the coarfenefs of both breeds, and rarely attain the good properties which the pure ch ftincl: breeds individually poflefs.J" In the providing of cow-ftock, great attention is necefTary in having them bred * Culley on Live Stock, f Ibid. j Ibid. Live Stock Situations adapted to breeding Cattle. 669 from fuch cows as are known to have produced not only good milk in a large pro portion to their fize, but to have continued it for a great length of time. Well- fed and vigorous bulls mould likewife be conftantly employed, as by this means the beft and mo ft healthy flock may be raifed. The method of rearing the calves while young has been already defcribed.* The breeding and rearing of cattle-dock is a bufinefsthat maybe accompliflied upon moft farms of any extent, but to the greateft advantage on thofe where the quantity of coarfe pa ft u re is the moft confiderable, and where at the fame time there is the means of railing large crops of the green vegetable kind for winter ufe, as in fuch cafes the animals while young are capable of being kept in the beft man ner and at the leaft expenfe. On very fmall farms the rearing of young cattle can feldom anfvver, as the produce in moft inftances may be turned to much more profit in other methods of management. But in whatever fituations the breeding and rearing of cattle ftock is attempted, the young animals mould conftantly be kept in the beft manner the nature of the farm will admit of. This is of much greater confequence than is generally allowed in the railing of good ftock. But where young animals are pinched for food at an early period of their growth, or fed with fuch as is not of a fufficiently good quality, they never thrive fo well after wards, or make fuch good ftock. This is a fact that has been frequently noticed inrefpectto fwinej and it does not feem to be lefs eftablifhed in regard toother forts ef ftock. But, befides good feeding, cleanlinefs is efTential in railing youg ftock to the greateft advantage. It has been well obferved in a late ufeful practical work, that in the winter the yearlings fhould " be fed with hay and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes ; and they mould be thoroughly well fed, and kept perfectly clean by means of litter. At this age it is a matter of great confequence to keep fuch young cattle as well as poflible : for the contrary practice will inevi tably flop their growth* which cannot be recovered by the beft fummer food. If hay is not to be had, good ftraw muft be fubftituted ; but then the roots mould be given in greater plenty, and with more attention. To (leers and heifers two years old, the proper food is hay, if cheap; or ftraw, with baits of turnips, cab bages, &^f" Mr. Donaldfon thinks the advantage of green winter food for live ftock fo great,. * See Suckling of young Calves, in Seftion on Cultivation of Grafs Land, f young 1 ? Fanner s Calendar. Lwe Stock. Rearing young Cattle. that there is no way in which it can be applied with greater benefit than " by giv*- ing the young cattle a daily allowance during the iirfl two or three winters/ Whenever ftraw is employed as fodder for young ftock without the above forts f food, if it be not very good, or {lightly mixed with fome graffy material , .a lit tle hay fliould always be blended with it, in order that it may be prefervcd in prc^ per condition.. It is alfo of confequence that the animals be ferved with this fort of fodder. in a regular manner, as, where too much is given at a- time, Mr. Mar jfliaH has remarked that they do not thrive fo well. There is another circumftance which is of material importance in the wintering- f young ftockj which is that of keeping them more warm and dickered from wer- than is ufuall.y the cafe, as by this means they thrive fafter, with a-lefs ; confump~- tion of foodj than in the contrary circurnftances. This may be effected either by. tying them up in ftalls, in houfes for the purpofe, or-by keeping them -in good iheds in weli-inclofed yards. There are feveral reafons for keeping young cattle-flock of different ages dif- tincl: from each other, both in their winter and fummer keeping. It is obvious > that in this mode they feed with lefs interruption and inconvenience to each others And it is remarked by Mr. Young, " that it is not right to keep yearling calves - and two-year olds together, becaufe^ in general, the younger the cattle are, the 1 better they mould be fed/ Thequeftion of feeding the cattle tied up, or ioofe in the yards , in winter, has- not been yet decided. Each method has probably advantages. In the firft the cattle thrive better when left nt liberty to run about the yards. Mr. Marfhalf found that in Yorkfhire, cattle kept tied up and regularly fed with ftraw in a mo- derate proportion did better than in the fouthern parts of the ifland, where left" Ioofe in the midft of greater plenty. Whether this effect is to be afcribed to the greater warmth, the refting better, the breed, or the being fed more regularly and fating with an appetite, he cannot determine. Some experiments of Mr. Young s alfo lead to the conclufion, that cattle-ftock thrive better when tied up. They like wife fhow that the practice of tying up is the only one that can be had recourfe to where ftraw is not in great plenty, and the quantity of the ftock very inadequate to its confumption.* * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XVIVI. Live Stock Age of put ting Heifers to the JBull. 665 In the latter method there is the advantage of a larger fupply of manure, efpe- cially where the farmer has the convenience of plenty of litter. Where,however, the farmer has convenience, the former method is probably in general the moft bene ficial. In either mode of management much attention is necefiary to keeping the ftock conftamly fupplied in an evenly proportioned manner, as in this way there will be great advantage both in the favingof food and the condition of the animals. The moft proper age at which cattle fhould be made to become productive is a point of much importance, but which probably requires more experiments than have yet been inftituted to fully afcertain it. Much may perhaps depend upon climate, lituation, and the manner in which they have been reared and kept ; as where the fituation is favourable and the keep rich and good, they may be em ployed in this way earlier than where it is more expofed, and the keep indif ferent. This is fupported by the obfervation of Mr. Marmall, that in Yorkfhire while the lands were in the ftate of commonage the heifers Cf were frequently kept from the bull until they were three years old ; now, in the ftate of inclofure and improve ment, and at the prefent high rents, they are frequently fuffered to take the bull when yearlings,bringing calves at two years old. The arguments for bringing heifers in at two years old are, that they come fooner to profit ; and that farmers cannot afford at the prefent rate of rents, to let them run unprofitably, until they be. three years old. On the other hand the argument in favour of bringing them in at three years qld is, that not being (tinted in their growth, they make larger and finer cows than thofe which are fuffered to bear calves at a more early age." The fuperiority in the profit of thefe different practices has not been yet ex perimentally determined, but as it can fcarcely be doubted but that an unfavour able check muft be given to the growth of the cows as well as their offspring, by their being made to produce at an early age before they have attained their full maturity, from their not being able to take in and digeft a fufficiency of food for their own increafing growth, and the perfect fupport of the young animal, it may be the beft method to purfue a middle courfe, fo as to bring them in on the rich lands, where the effect juft noticed may be the moft fully counteracted, tu two years old, and in other cafes where the keep is inferioi at three. By this practice the intereft of the farmer may be beft promoted in all cafes, and the lealt vot. ir. 4 666 Live Stock Cows in Calf Jhould be wellfed Bulls Vigour oj. injury fuftained in his flock. But in order to induce heifers to take the bull at fo early a period, they -muft be conftantly well kept. When this bufinefs is too long protracted they are more liable to mifs having calves. Therefore, in general, letting the heifers take the bull at two years old may be the moft proper time. The cow takes nine months and a few days in moft cafes to complete the bufinefs of geftation, and feldom produces more than one calf at a time. A cow may pro duce her young at any feafon of the year, but it is of great confequence to the far mer to have thecows to calve as early as poffible in the beginning of the year, while veal and all the products which they afford are dear, and that the calves when reared may be got forward in the bed manner. In fome diftricts, farmers think it the moft advantageous for them to calve when there is a full bite of grafs, efpecially in the firft calf, as they are fuppofed to be rendered better milkers thereby afterwards, in confequence of the fecretion of the milk being more com pletely eftablifhed.* In all cafes the cow (lock, efpecially that part of it which is in calf, mould be as well kept and flickered from cold and wet in the winter months as the nature of the farm will admit. By keeping the cows in good condition in this way, they not only calve wit\greater fafcty, but take the bull again much fooner, and are more advantageous in their milking. The practice of foddering with flraw fhould be as much avoided as poffible, and the method of management that has been already recommended adhered to as much as can be.f The farmer may in deed take it as a certain rule, that no benefit can be derived from bad keeping in any fort of breeding animals. The vigour of the bull will lafl feveral years, if not made too free with while he is young, but he is ufually in his moft perfect Hate from two or three years old to five or fix. Thefe animals mould be kept in well inclofed places, and have the cows brought to them. The practice of working them -is not in general to be advifed, as they are apt to become by that means too dull and heavy for leaping. They mould always be kept well in this intention. In rearing young bulls they ihould be conftantly fupplied with food in a plentiful manner from the period of their being calved till they are full grown. Mr. Bakewell was fo convinced of * Sir John Sinclair in Farmer s Magazine, vol. III. f See Cow keeping in fe&ion the feventb, in the Cultivation of Graft Land. Live Stock Occen Proper Management of for Laksiif. 667 the advantage of plentiful fupport in thefe cafes, that he is faid to have employed two cows in rearing fomeof his belt flock of this kind. In raifingoxen, whether for the purpofe of fale or work, they fhould be kept conftantly in tolerable condition, without ever being fuffered to become Hunted in their growth, by either their winter or furnmer keep. When defigned for the market, they are difpofed of at two, three or four years old when not worked, ac-, cording tocircumftances. Where the intention is to work them, they mould be trained as early aspoffible, and be brought into work at the age of two, or three years at the furthcft. In Herefordlhire the fleers are brought into work at three years old, and are worked two years, rnoftly in yokes, though harnefs has lately been getting more common. In teams of fix or eight they plough fomething lefs than an acre a day.* But in the northern parts of Devonthire, where the breed is admirably calculated for the purpofe of labour, the oxen are yoked in at from two to three years old, being worked lightly : and at four years old they are brought into hard work, and from that age to fix they are capable of performing a full day s labour. They there find, that if an ox is to be raifed to the largeft fize, he, muft be worked : as, when kept till five or fix years old without working, he will not reach the fize he would have done if he had been inured to labour. This is the fixed opinion of the beft informed farmers in that diflrict. f While under this fyftem they fhould be well fuppor ted with dry food ; fuch as oats in the ftraw, bean-meal, good hay, or cut-chaff; and by the ufc of thefe in fmall proportions,, with a few cabbages, turnips, carrots, or potatoes, they may be kept up in perfect condition. It is a practice that can never anfwer to the farmer, to let his work ing cattle-flock get low in condition, as the faving is a mere trifle in comparifon, to the difadvantage of bringing them into flefh afterwards. The ox moftly reaches his full growth at fix, but the largefl-fized grow the. km-, gefl. It is unprofitable to keep them longer than feven or eight years old, In thisdiftrict fourare theufual number in a team, andoccafionallytwo in crofs ploughing ; and with a double furrow plough fur . Four plough an acre a da^ and fix fully two acres every day for fix weeks. On arable farms of two hundred acres from eight to twelve oxen are furHcient ; and three horfes and ten oxen, or, four horfes and eight oxen, are equal to the labour of one of one hundred and fifty * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. IL t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXX. 4QJ2 663 the Stock Age, of Cattle how 0/t pounds a year, when nearly two thirds of the land are managed in a convertible method of hufbandry, proper allowances being made for different circumftances.* The method of managing them there is by means of the yoke and bows, in prefer ence to the collar, as in fuch mountainous diftricts the powers of the animals are in this way, or that by the head, more effectually brought into action. Lord Somer- ville has found this to be the cafe from actual trial, being convinced that the pole and the yoke form the true lever for the ox.f Yoked in this manner, the labour is performed with great expedition and difpatch by thefe animals. Some advife the oxen not to be worked too hard, and in this view think fix mould be employed in a team, four working at a time, and two remaining alternately at reft. Whatever practice may be purfued in this refpect, it is extremely neceffary that the oxen be well mod before they are put to the work, as, where this is neglected, they foongec lame and ufelefs* As there is confiderable trouble and often danger in cafting them in order to perform this operation, it is better to have a machine contrived fo as to fhoe them ftanding. Ufeful contrivances of this nature have been defcri- bed.f The continued rife in the expenfe of horfe-keep ftrongly mows, and at the fame time enforces, the necefllty and great benefit of making ufe of oxen in all cafes where they can be employed to advantage. In the fattening of oxen or other forts of neat cattle, various fyfterrss of manage ment are praetifed in different cafes, according to the particular circumftances and objects the farmer has in view, which have been already explained . The age of neat cattle is fhown by their mouths and horns. Wherr turned two years old, the places of the calf- teeth are fupplied by two new ones, and in every fiicceeding year two more are added until five, when the mouth is faid to be full this is not probably the cafe until fix years old, as the two corner teeth are not fully protruded till that period; In the horn, the firft ring or circle does not take place till three years old, after which a frefh one is added every fucceeding year, as long as the horn continues 5 but thefe rings are often effaced by the artifices of the jobbers and dealers in for the purpofe of "deceiving the purchafers. Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXX. I Ibid. J Ibid, vol. XXXVI. See Grazing and Stall-feeding, in fcftion on Cultivation of Grafs Land. Zi re SidcTc : +-Di/i>qfc9 / Cal(k~*-litem<d*e* for. Sh ecjh*- Va hit. of. Cattle are fubject to a variety of difeafes, which it is impofTible to confider in any full or latisfactory manner in a work of this nature j but a few remedies that have been found beneficial in particular cafes may be here mentioned in addition to thofe already noticed. In cafes of obftinate fcourings, much advantage may be derived from a ftrong- decoction of common chalk, hartmorn-fhavings and caflla, in the proportion of halfa pound of the fir ft to four ounces of the fhavings, and one ounce of the caflia ; boiling them in two quarts of water to three pints; the lafT articles being; put in towards the clofe of the operation : to this may be added, when cold, a pint of lime water and two drams of the tincture of opium. The whole being well mixed in a bottle, two or three good horn-fulls may be given twice or three times in the courfe of the day. In the Yellows, which is a difeafe to which eows are very fubject, advantage has been found from the ufe offoap in the quantity of about one ounce, given once or twice a day, diffblved in a quart of the ufual cordial drench, a little warm, keeping the animal confined, and ufing warm mafhes and warm water occasionally. Where there is a difcharge of bloody urine y great relief has been derived from a ftrong decoction of oak or Peruvian bark, in which a fmall proportion of alum has been diflblved; two or more horn-fulls being adminiftered twice or three times irt the day. The Foul is a difeafe in the feet of cattle, often proceeding from hard driving from a diftance. After cleaning the parts, and wholly difcharging the matter ifermedin the claws, they mould be drefled with fome mild digeftive application, , and be kept perfectly free from dirt, gravel, or other extraneous fubftances. The Garget is a difeafe frequently affecting the glands of the udder with hard fwellings. It often arifes from the cows not being clean milked, and may bfe removed by anointing the part twice a day with a little ointment compofed of camphor and blue ointment ? half a dram or more of calomel being given in warm beer from a horn for three or more mornings if the difeafe be violent. In frefh wounds, nothing further is neceflary than keeping the parts clean and well covered from the air, previoufly drawing the fkin over as much as poflible. Sbeep. The great value and importance of this animal in its flefh, fleece and other products which it affords, is well known. As there are but few farms on which flieep cannot be kept with advantage in fome intention or other, fuch as for Li ve Stock Sheep Methods of diflinguijhing the Breeds of. the purpofes of breeding, grazing, or the fattening of their lambs, it is obvious that they muft conftitute an objedl of the firft confequence to the farmer. In many fituations, by much the greateft part, and in others the whole of his profits depend upon them. In difpofition, the fheep is naturally tame, quiet, and inoffenlive. It is pof- fefTed o fiefs means of defence than mod other animals, and at the fame time more timid ; which induces it to feek the fociety of the flock. The vak or paf- ture fheep are in general much more mild and gentle than thofe of the mountain or heath kinds. The meep continues to increafe in growth till three years old, when it is in common in the greateft perfection for the purpofe of being fattened, but will be fuitable for this ufe, as well as that of breeding, till five or fix ; but as a quick return is the great object of the grazier, they are moftly fattened at as early an age as podible. The breeds and varieties of fheep that are fcattered over the ifland are extreme ly numerous; but have been arranged and diftinguifhed under different clafTes or breeds, by different farmers, in a variety of methods, as from their having horns or being without them, from the nature of their wool and various other circumftan- ces :* but whatever may be the principle of diftinction that is adoped, it is evi dent that they poJTefs characte.riftic differences that may ferve to difcriminate them into diftindt original breeds. * It has been remarked by Lord Somerville in his " Syftern of the Board of Agriculture, * that " all the breeds of flieep in this kingdom may be arranged into two claffes ; thofe which fhear the fliort, or clothing, a nd thofe which /hear the long, or combing wool." The practical author of the Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain has arranged them under the thiec following general divisions.; * ** f * * *** * ,-i 1 1 A w J j jLt. V 4 W 2 _w t. - 1ft. The Mountain Breed. ;v bt /loqfnOD :;l!> ! );-Ii" "!;.;3li >; ,, -,y ; j--;;-7 Drff 2d. The fliprt-woolled breed : and fi naw.i O j rru T n j^L; 1 j- ! - ; 3d. The Long-woolled breed. The firft comprehending the federal varieties that occupy the different mountainous and elevated fituations in Wales, Weftmoreland, Cumberland, Yorkfhire, the South, Weft, and North of-Scot- land, and in the Shetland Iflands; the Cheviot-hills in the South of Scotland and North of England, and the foreft a nd common fheep of thelaft country. In the fecond are included thofe of Hereford, Dorfet, S ufiex, Norfolk, and fome parts of Cumberland. The laft divifion embraces all thofe varieties that are difperfed over the more rich and fertile parts of England, and which are diftinguifhed under the titles of the Durham or Teeswaters, the fliires, the old and new Leicefterftiires, &c, 3 Lvct Stock Sheep Methods of diftinguijhing the Breeds of. 6*71 As in cattle- flock we have already feen that there is a certain form and con nexion of parts that befpeak the excellence or perfe&ion of the breed, fo in the fheep the fame is the cafe, and the nearer any breed approaches to it, the more perfect or excellent it may be confidered. In the ram Mr. Culley has thus defcribcd it : " Head fine and fmall, noftrils wide and expanded, eyes prominent, rather bold or daring, ears thin, collar full from breaft and moulders, tapering gradually to where the neck and head join, which mould be fine and graceful, being free from any coarfe leather hanging down, moulders broad and full, joining fo eafy to the collar forward and chine backward, as to leave no hollow in either place, mutton upon arm or fore thigh quite to knee, legs upright with clean fine bone equally clear from fuperfluous ikin and coarfe airy wool, from the knee and hough downwards, breaft broad and well forward, to keep fore legs at a proper widenefs ; girth or chefl full and deep, and inftead of a hollow behind the moulders, that part by fome called fore flank quite full ; back and loins broad, flat and ftraight, from which the ribs muft rife with a fine circular arch ; belly ftraight ; quarters long and full ; mutton quite down to hough, which mould neither ftand in nor out ; twift or junction of infide pf thighs deep, wide and full, which with, the broad breaft, keep the fore-legs open and upright j thin pelt covered with fine bright, foft wool. * This is the model which, in fo far as form is concerned, the But Mr. Culley, in his " Obfervations on Live Stock," difcriminates them with greater minutenefs into feveral different breeds, in the following manner: Weigjit of Fleece. Prices per Ib. JIM. Wethers pcrqr. Year old when killed 1 Difhley, No horns,!White face and legs, Combing wool, 8lbs..0 JO 25 Ibs. 2 2 Lincoln, Do. Do. Do. 11 10 25 3 3 Teefwater, Do. Do. Do. 9 ]0 30 2 4 Dartmoor, Do. Do. Do> 9 008 30 2| 5 Exmoor, Horned, Do. Do. 6 008 16 2f Dorfet, Do. Do. Carding wool, 8 012 18 3f 7 Hereford, No horns, Do. Fine do. 2 029 14 4 $ South Down, Do. Gray faces and legs, Do. 2| 020 18 2 9 Norfolk, Horns, Black faces and legs, Do. 2 015 18 3f 10 Heath, Do. Do. Coarfe combing, H 006 15 4 f 11 Herdwick, No horns, Speckled do. Carding, 2 006 10 } 12 Cheviot, Do. White faces and legs, Do. 3 11 16 ;4 13 Dunfaced, Do. Dun faces and legs, Do. If 030 7 4f 14 Shetland, Do. Colours various, Fine cottony, If 030 8 4 ISRomneyMarfli, No horns, White faces and legs, Combing, 8 10 25 2f 16 Spanilh, Horns, Do. Carding, ft 040 Live Stock Sheep New LelceJIer or DiJJiley Breed Defcription of. -rco bf:r.i .-") r.lwjj ; M U,!.i ^\\L :breeder of this fort of flock is to aim at in the improvement of his fheep, hav-. ing proper regard to the feveral other properties that have been already- men tioned. The New Leicejler or "Dijlily heed is diftinguifhed from the other long-woolled creeds by having fine lirely eyes, clean heads without horns, ftraight broad flat backs, round or barrel-fhaped bodies ; finefmall bones; thin pelts, and a difpofition to make fat at an early age ; to which may be added a fuperiority in thefinenefs of the grain and flavour of the mutton to that of other fheep of the large long-woolled .kind. The weight per quarter in ewes three or four years old from iSlbs. to 26lbs. ; in two year old wethers, from 2olbs. to 3olbs. ; the length of wool from .fix to fourteen inches.* The advantage of this breed isfuppofed to confift in its producing a better profit to the farmer, in proportion to the quantity of food confumed, than mofl others ; in being more perfectly formed, and confequently more difpofedto fatten quickly ; in containing a much larger proportion of meat on an equal weight of bone ; in thriving well on fuch paftures as would not fupport other forts of the fame fize; in being capable of being kept or fattened in larger proportions to the acre than other breeds of the fame fize of carcafe ; Ln the wool being more valuable, though lefs in quantity; in their being ready for the butcher in the early part of the fpring inftead of the autumn, by which there is a confiderable faving in the fummer s grafs ; and in the mutton, from the clofenefs of its texture, keeping longer than that of other *qual fized breeds. The principal objections to this improved breed have been made on the grounds of their fattening too much, and the mutton in confequence becoming lefs delicate in its flavour than in that of other breeds that require a greater length of time in the procefs; on the deficiency in the quantity of wool which they produce; and on their not being calculated for the fold. It is, however, unqueftionably a valuable breed on particular forts of pafture that are adapted to it, as is evident from its rapidly making its way into different districts.-)- It has been further objected to this breed by fome, that the fheep are too fmall, and that, from thethinnefs of their fkins or pelts, they may not be fo capable of bearing cold ; but experience does not feem to fupport fuch conclufions. & Cullfy on Live Stock. i Annals of Agriculture, var. loc. and Lincolnfhire Agricultural Report. 5fe \Vt-<?^ X f Lhe Stock* Sheep LincQh{fliire and Tees-JFater Breeds Descriptions of 6?3 The ewes in this breed are ufually put to the ram, fo as to have lambs at two years old, when they moflly produce two lambs each in the proportion of about one- third of the whole, where they have been kept well ; which ihouid always be the cafe. When their forms are good they may be kept for the purpofe of breeding till three or four years old.* The wethers may be killed fo early as at two years old, with the greateft profit, as when kept longer they are apt to get unneceffari .y fat. The Lincoinjhire breed is known by having no horns ; white faces; long thin weak earcafes ; thick rough white legs ; bones large; pelts thick; flow feeding ; mutton coarfe grained, the weight per quarter in ewes from i^bs. to 2olbs. in three year old wethers from 2olbs. to jolbs. ; the wool from 10 to 18 inches in length. f This breed, as the name implies, is chiefly prevalent in Lincolnlhire and other rich marfhor grazing lands. It is however, probably, capable of being kept with advantage, and made far^ only on the richeft forts of grazing paftures. But in thefe cafes it may be kept with more profit than the above breed to three years old. The weight of mutton which the fheep afford is great : but the flefh coarfe, with a large proportion of bone. The chief excellence is in the large quantity of wool which they afford, which pays for their being kept longer than other breeds before they are made fat. In its improved ftate it is, however, a breed much lefs profitable to the farmer than thofe rtiat feed quicker, except in the cafe of fuch rich paftures as have been mentioned. In the Tees-zvaftr breed the legs are longer, finer boned, and fupport a thicker and more firm and heavy carcafe than the Lincolnshire ; the fheep are much wider on the backs and fides ; and afford a fatter and finer grained mutton. The weight per quarter in two-years old wethers is from 25lbs. to 35lbs., and in particular in- fiances to 55lbs, or more. The wool is fhorter and lefs heavy than in the prece ding breed. J This is the largeft breed of fheep in the ifland ; and is the moft prevalent in the fine fertile inciofed lands on the borders of the Tees in Yorklhire. In this breed, which is probably from the fame flock as the above, more atten tion has been paid tofize than wool. It is only calculated for warm inclofed rich paftures, where they are kept in fmall lots, and well fupported with food in fevere winters. They produce a large weight of mutton ; but then from their * Culley on Live Stock. t Ibid. J Ibid; VOL. II. 4 R Live St och.-~-Shecp-^Romn ty~. Marjh Breed Defcripf ion of. requiring fo much longer time and richer keep, and being admitted in fo much fmaller proportion on the acre, they are probably not upon the whole fo profita ble, even in fituations \vhere they can be kept with the mofl chance of fuccefs, as the fmaller more quick feeding breeds. The ewes of this breed are however, in general, very prolific, moftly bringing two and frequently three lambs each. And in fome cafes a greater number have been produced.* Improvements have been made in this breed by eroding with the new Leiceffers. Jr is a breed that is however very feldom found pure. This is a fort of flieep that has been greatly neglected, but which, if judicioufly improved by eroding, it is fuppofed would anfwerand pay well in diftricts proper for its fupport. It is fuggefted by Mr. Parkinfon, in the Corrected Report of the State of Agriculture in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, that an ufeful kind is capable of being raifed by eroding the ewes of this breed with Difhley rams, in the management of an expert breeder- Indeed, by the ufe of thefe, and thofe of the Northumberland kind, the quality of the wool and the mutton has not only been greatly improved, but the quantity of bone and offal much lefTened; and,, at the fame time, the fattening property confiderably increafed ; they becom ing fatter at two- years old than the others are at three. The wethers of this improved fort generally fell unfhorn at two years old, from 45 to 55.8. apiece, and weigh from twenty-four to thirty pounds the quarter. )- The Rwwey-MarJh breed of fheep is without horns ; white faces and legs ; rather long in the legs; good fiz,e ;.body rather long, but well barrel- maped ; bones rather large. Weight per quarter in fat wethers at two years old^from 22lbs-. to 28lbs. Wool finei long, and of a^delicate white colour. This breed has the quality of arriving at the date of fatnefs at an early age, as well as that of producing a large fleece of fine long combing wool, which ren, dersit highly valuable. But from the fize, and the circumftance of the heavinefs, of the coat, itis only, capable of being kept and fattened on the rich kinds of. paf- ture : in fuch fituations it is,, however, an excellent breed,.. On the rich marm lands from Haftings .to Rye, the graziers find this breed much more advantageous than the South Down ; the marm wethers fattening mor? quickly.^ The wool afforded by. this breed of. flieep is moftly large in quan-, * Culley on Live Stock. + Corre^led Report of North Riding of Yorkfhire, J Young s Eaftern Tour, iok III, . Suflex Jleportj -ito. -is o Live Siock-~~SheepDevoHj}rireand Dorfctjliire Breeds Defcripth. tity ; in ma r(h fat wethers averaging fix pounds, and in breeding ewes five pounds, but not equal in quality to the wool clipped from- (headings.* A proof of the great value of this breed of flicep, as well as of the land on which they are fed, is feen in the manner of flocking, which in tags is from four to feven per acre, in fattening wethers from fix to eight, in barrens from two to three, and in couples three. -j- The Dartmore or Devon/litre TSlalt breed is chiefly diftinguifhed by having no horns ; white faces and legs, thick necks, backs narrow, and back bones high; fides good ; legs (hort, and bones large. Weight of ewes on the average about 2olbs. per quarter; in wethers at two years and a half old 3olbs. Length of wool much the fame as in the preceding breed. It is a breed which is predomi nant in fome parts of Devonfhire, as the name fuflkicntly indicates. f This breed is faid to have received confiderable improvement by being- crofled with the new Leiceftcrs. The Exmoor breed of (hecp is characterized by having horns, and white faces and legs ; by being very delicate in the bone, neck and head ; by the form of the carcafe being indifferent; narrow and flat-fided. W T eight per quarter in wethers at two years and a half old from i5lbs. to iSlbs. ; and the weight of wool much lefs than in the preceding breed. This fmall breed of long-woolled (heep is principally produced on, or in the neighbourhood of the moor from which it takes its name, which is in the northern extremity of the above county. $ This fort of (hecp are frequently kept two or three years merely for the annual profit of their fleeces, which often do not exceed more than four pounds in weight. But from their being kept upon very bare and indifferent paflures while youno- they are fuppofed by many (heep farmers to be a very profitable fort of flock. 1 ! The Dorfetjhire Ireed is known by its moftly having horns, white faces ; long fmall white legs ; by the carcafe being rather long and thin ; and by the mutton being fine-grained and of good flavour. Weight per quarter in wethers at three years and a half old from i61bs. to 2olbs. Wool fine and.fhort.^j" This breed has the peculiar property of producing lambs at any period in the fea- ^.on, even fo early as September andOdlober, fo as to fuit the purpofes of the lamb- fuckler. The Wiltfhire fheep arc confidered by Mr. Culley as a variety of this breed, * Suflex Report, 4to. f Synopfis of Hufbanclry. J Culley on Live Stock. Hid. || Billingftey s Survey of Somerfetfliire. 5[ Ibid. 4R 2 Live Stock. Sheep Hereford/hire Breed Defer ipt ion of. which have acquired an increafe in weight. And other varieties of it are met with in feveral other diftrich. It is a breed that has been found to anfwer well in fome of the midland diftricls, and, from its clofe make, to be equally advantageous with almoft any other. It is, however, fuppofed capable of improvement by being eroded with rams of a larger dze.* The HerefordJIiire breed of fheep is known by the want of horns, and having white Jegs and faces ; by being fmall in fize ; and the wool growing clofe to the eyes ; by the carcafe being pretty well formed ; and by the excellence of the mut ton. Weight per quarter from iolbs. to i&lbs. Wool fine and fhort :-\ the lean poor-fed fheep producing the fineft. The true breed of this fort of fheep is fre quently denominated Ryelands. This breed is found to be remarkably patient of hunger but in its manage ment requires cot ting in the winter feafon, and being fed with hay or peas-halm. In fome cafes they are indeed houfed all the year round in the night-time. The cots are low covered buildings, proportioned to the extent of the flocks. They arc faid to fatten the bell at four years old. The Arcbenfeld or true Herefordfhire breed produces the fined wool. And Mr. Knight remarks that the difpofition of iheep to fatten in the north-weft part of that diftrict is in proportion to the fincnefs of the wool ; but he is not certain of its being fo in this breed. But it feems to him that where the wool is clofe and fine, there are many advantages ; lefs nourifh- ment is drawn from the body in its fuppport than in the contrary cafe. The long coarfe- wool led fleece admits the rain more freely, and by dividing on the back lets it down to the fkin. It alfo takes in a larger weight of water,which mud more incon venience the animal already heavily loaded. The fine clofe fleece of this breed admits the water with difficulty, even when immerfed in it, in wadiing, and is ne ver wet through by rain. On account of the clofenefs of the texture, it only lodges on the outfide, and is eafily removed by the animal making itfelf. Befides, a fleece of this kind is much more warm and light. On thefe grounds it is fuppof ed, that no breed oflheep in theifland is capable of fubfifiing on fo fmall a pro portion of food. By eroding this breed with the Difhley an ufeful kind of fheep has been produc- * Pitt s Survey of Stafford /hi re. I Culley on Live Stock. ^ Knight in Communications to the Board, vol. II. ^ Culley on UVQ Stock. M} ^ : ** *3 "I *! | t Live Stock* Sheep South-Down Breed Def crip t Ion of. 677 cd, both the wool and carcafe being increafed in weight, but much injured in re- fpect to finenefs. The South-Down breed is diflinguifhed by having no horns ; gray faces and legs ; fine bones ; long fmall necks ; and by being rather low before, high on the moulder, and light in the fore-quarter; fides good ; loin tolerably broad ; back bone rather high; thigh full ; twift good ; mutton fine in grain and well flavoured. Wool fhort, very clofe and fine ; in length of ftaple from two to three inches. Weight per quarter in wethers at two years old iSlbs.* This breed is predomi nant on the dry chalky downs in SufTex. It has been lately much improved both in carcafe and wool ; and for the fliort lefs fertile paftures is an excellent fort. The (heep are hardy, and difpofed to fat ten quickly. Mr. Ellman of Glynd, is in poflefTion of a very fuperior flock of this valuable breed. Where the ewes are full kept, they frequently produce twin lambs, nearly in the proportion of one-third of the whole, which are, when drop ped, well woolled. The wethers are capable of being difpofed of at an early age, being feldom kept longer than two years old, and often fed at eighteen months. The ewes areufually kept till between four and five, and found to anfvvcr well to the graziers in the neighbourhood, as well as the farmers in Norfolk and the adjoining counties, in the place of home-bred fheep, as being more expeditious feeders, and equally adapted for the purpofeof the fold.f It is a breed of fheep, which from the compactnefs of their form, and their legs being fhorter, confiderably outweigh both the Dorfet and Norfolk breeds in pro portion to the fize of the carcafe, being heavy in a fmali compafs. Their hardinefs is eftimated according to the darknefs of the colour in the face and legs ; but as there is inconvenience in the produce on this account, from the wool, efpecially about the head and neck, becoming fpotted with black, and thereby thrown afide by the ftapler, as only of half the full value, a middle degree of colour may be the bed. As an open country breed, they are fufficiently gentle and tractable. They are capable of travelling well, and of refilling the effects of expofure to cold. The wool is fcarcely, if at all, inferior in finenefs to that of the Hereford (hire kind ; as the practice of forting,which is common in that diftrict,is not in ufe on the Downs. The merit of this breed is fuch as to have induced the meep-farmers in variou* diftricts to introduce them in preference to the above breeds, and on comparative trials, they have been found to pofTefs a fuperiority.J * Culley on Live Stock. t Agricultural Survey of Suffex, 4to edition. % Culky on Live Stock. Live Stock. Sheep Norfolk and Hcatli Breedn Defcrtyfions of, They have been found to confume lef> food in proportion to weight than the Norfolks, yet keeping in better order. Young fheep produce the beft lambs, the .cranes are ofcourfe confbntly fold at (our or live years old, and if it were done earlier it is fuppofed it would be more profitable. Thefc (hcep have been brought t6 a "high ftate of improvement in various refpects by the attentive exertions of Mr. Ellman, and other intelligent fheep- farmers.* On Cannock Heath, in S [afford (hi re, there is a fort of fheep that has much refemblance to this, and is believed to have originated from the fame breed. It has lately been much improved in the form, thicknefs, and weight of the carcafe, as well as the finenefs of the wool, by cro fling with rams of the Hereford (hi re breed.f In the Norfolk breed of fhecp the face is black ; horns large and fpiral ; carcafe long, fmall, weak and thin ; narrow chine ; large bones ; very long black or gray legs ; mutton fine-grained and high flavoured, but does not keep well in hot feafons. Weight per quarter from i"61hs. to 2olbs. Wool ftiort and fine.;*; This breed is chiefly prevalent in Norfolk and Suffolk, where folding is much the practice, as they have the property of travelling well. In difpofition they are given to be reftlefs. This fort of fheep, as poflTeffing few valuable properties in addition to that of their {landing the fold well, and as requiring much expenfe in their winter keep, an acre of turnips being the ufual allowance for half a dozen befides hay, have lately given way to the preceding breed, which is fuppofed by fome to be hardier, lefs nice in their food,fooner ready for the fold, and more quiet. The circumftances moft favourable in this breed of fheep are thofe of their being the native flock of the diftricl: ; their bearing the fold better than others in that cold climate ; their travelling well to diitant markets; their mutton being good and in high eftimation in Smithfidd; and the produce in wool, though fmall, of a good quality. |j The South Down breed has, however, been found tr> anfwer fo well in the diftricts where this fort of fheep is predominant, that fome experienced flieep farmers have introduced them with confiderable benefit. The Heath breed of fheep is known by having large fpiral horns ; black faces and legs ; a fierce wild-looking eye ; fhort firm carcafe, mutton excellent in grain ; * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XI. f Corrected Report of Stafford fliire. Culley on Live Stock. ^ Annals of Agriculture, vol. XIX. II Kent s Survey of Norfolk, and Marshall s Rural Economy. Live SfocK. Sh-eep Herdwick and Cheviot Breeds Defcrip/ions of. 67<) and flavour. Weight per quarter from islbs. to i61bs. Wool open, coarfe, and fhagged. This is an extremely active and hardy breed, which is firft met with in the more north-weftern parts of Yorkmire, whence it has extended itfclf over the extenfive mountainous tract of country on the borders of the Irifh Sea, which ftretches from Lancafhire to Fort- William in the weftern Highlands of Scotland. The great objection to it is the coarfenefs of the fleece.* Thefe (heep are very active and hardy, which has rendered their introduction into the high mountain ous expofed diftricts advantageous. They are moftly fattened about the third or fourth year, at which age they are found to anfwer the beft. They afford a very fuperior fort of mutton. It is probable, that they might be much improved in their coats by being cro- fed with fome of the larger fine-woolled breeds. The Herdwick breed \s diftinguifhed by having no horns ; by the face and legs being fpeckled, the larger the portion of white with fewer black fpots, the purer the breed ; legs fine, fmall and clean. Weight per quarter in the ewes from 61bs. to 8lbs.j in the wethers at four years- and a half old from cjlbs. to iilbs*. Wool fhort, thick and matted in the fleece.f This breed is peculiar to the elevated mountainous trad: of country at the head of the rivers Efk and Duddon in Cumberland, where they are let to herds, whence the name. They are faid to poflefs the property, of being extremely hardy in con- ftitution. This fmall breed is fo extremely hardy, as- to fupport itfelf on the rocky bare mountains with the trifling fupport of a little hay in the winter feafon ;, fcratching down to the heatrr during the fnows. The ewes, from the nature of the climate, produce their lambs late ; but which, when dropped, are well woolled. They are generally kept as long as they produce lambs. The wether flock is moftly difpofed of from the mountains, without being put in the paftures, at from four to five years old. The fleece in this breed is finer than in that of the preceding ; but coarfer than any of the mort-woolled breeds. They ftand-in need of a crofs , with fome of the fjner-woolled breeds. The Cheviot breed of (beep is known by the want of: horns ; by the face and: legs being moftly white, and the eyes lively and prominent j the body long ; little * Gulley on Live Stock, t Ibid, . depth in the breaft ; narrow there and on the chine ; clean, fine, ("mall-boned legs and thin pelts. The weight per quarter, when fat, from nibs, to iglbs. ; wool partly fine and partly coarfe.* It is faid to be a valuable breed of mountain fheep, where the herbage is chiefly of the natural grafs kind ;| which is the cafe in the fituations \\here they are found the moft : prevalent, and from which they have obtained their name. It has under gone much improvement within thefe few years in refped to its form and other qualities. This breed has been lately introduced into the moft northern diftricts; and from its hardinefs, its affording a portion of fine wool, and being quick in fattening, it may anfwer well in fuch fituations. The practice of milking the ewes of this breed for the purpofe of making cheefe is found to be prejudicial to the animals, and has of courfe been much left off by the beft fheep- farmers. The Dun-faced rm/has no horns j the face, as the name implies, is in common of a dun tawny colour ; the fize fmall ; tail fliort ; mutton fine. Weight often on ly 61bs. or ylbs. the quarter. Wool varioufly ftreaked and blended with differ ent colours, fome of which is very fine.J Mr. Culley fuppofes this to partake of the Spanifh breed. It is not fo hardy as the preceding. The Shetland breed is fmall, and moftly without horns; but what more particularly diftinguifhes it from other breeds is, the uncommon fmallnefs and fhortnefs of the tail. Weight per quarter from ylbs. to lolbs. Wool very fine, and of various colours. This is a very hardy breed, but too wild in its difpofition to be confined in in- clofed paftures. In the Merino or Spanijb breed of fheep the males have horns, but the females are fometimes without ; white faces and legs ; the body not very perfect in fhape rather long in the legs ; fine in the bone ; a degree of throatinefs or production of loofe pendulous fkin under the neck ; and the pelt fine and clear. Weight when tolerably fat per quarter in the rams about i7lbs. ; in the ewes nibs. Wool ve ry fine.^ This breed is afferted to be tolerably hardy, and to poffefsa difpofition to fatten readily. || Mr. Knight obferves that the produce of the crofs with this breed and the Ar- * Culley on Stock. t Ibid. J Ibid. Lord Somerville s Syftein of the Board of Agriculture* [| Ibid. Live Stick. Sheep Spanijh Breed Defiription of-* Utility (f, $c. 681 chen field or Hereford fh ire fort arc very ugly, and, he is informed, fubject to the foot rot. In thcfe breeds of fhecp, we have feen that there are evidently differences in their fizes, forms, fledi, wool, and other properties, that admirably adapt them for different forts of palhires, fituations, and ufes. The large long-woolled breeds, from their being more flow, heavy and tame in their difpofitions than mod other kinds, are in general the mod proper for the rich inclofed padure didricts : the breed which polfefs greater length in the legs, more activity in walking, and a lefs burthen of wool, are fuited to the more elevated lands, fuch as the downs, moors, and heaths, in different parts of the ifland, \vhereihepadurageis lefs fertile and luxuriant: and the frnall, light-carcafed, hardy breeds, are moft adapted to the ex- pofed mountainous fituations, where the food is more fparing, and obtained vuth greater difficulty. Mr. Marfhall, in the RuralEconomy of the Midland Counties, has indeed obfer- ved, that a very long- wool led breed of fheep, fuch as the old Lincolnshire or Tees- water, is necefTary for the richeft found grafs lands, and the fined worded manu factures ; and another, as the new Leiceder, for the lefs fertile grafs lands as well as the rich inclofed arable lands, where the practice of folding is not in ufe ; for the purpofe of the coarfer forts of wordeds, dockings, baize, coarfe cloths, blankets, carpets, and other fimilar articles; a middle-woolled breed, fuch as theWiltfhire, the Norfolk, or the South Down, for the well-foiled arable lands, where the fold is employed, for the making of cloths of the narrow medium kinds , a very fine- \voolled breed, fuch as the Herefordfhire, Ryeland, for the purpofe of the fined cloths ; and the Shropfhire, or fome of the more hardy breeds, for the heathy moun tainous fituations. It is therefore necefTary, in introducing new breeds of fheep, for the farmer to attentively confider the nature and fituation of his padure, and cautiou fly avoid employing larger or finer breeds than can be properly fupported. Upon the proper regulation of this point much of his fuccefs in the improvement of his ftieep-ftock will depend. And where the bettering the form or improving the quality of the wool are in contemplation, this is to be particularly regarded, while fuch improvements are attempted by judicious eroding with proper breeds for the purpofe, on the principles that have been already explained. It feeim evident from a variety of fads that have been lately preferred to the VOL. II. 4 S 6 82 Live St6CK**-+$fap Management of, notice of the firmer,* that wool of the fined quality may be produced in this country by means of Spaiiijh Jheep, and their being judicioufly crofled without vvn rme-wcolicd breeds ; a circtimftance of the greateft national importance, ns afford ing a probable means of rendering us independent of the foreign fupply of this expeniivc but indifpenfible article. Too much attention cannot therefore be bellowed by the breeding fheep-farmer, in promoting this fort of improvement, wherever the nature of his land will admit of it; which may be the cafe, in moft jituations. where the fhort-woolled breeds of fheep can be properly kept, or pro bably on more than one half of the pafture-lands of the kingdom. + There is one inducement to this, which is that of its not interfering with the production of the rnoft valuable fort of mutton, a point to which the fheep-breeders of this country have till lately been particularly attentive, almoft without regarding the quality of the wools ; as it has been found that the quality of the flefh in the different divi- iions offheep inclines to the nature of the wool, the fhort-woolled fheep being clofe in the grain of their flelh, of courfe heavy in the fcale, and in the tafte high flavoured ; while the polled long-woolled fort are more open and loofe in this re- fpect, larger in fize, and the mutton more coarfe, and in general Jefs faleable. % Management ofjheep. In the management of fheep different fyftems are pur- fued, according to the nature of the farms on which they are kept, and the me thods of hufbandry that are pradifed ; but whatever thefe may be, it is a principal object with the belt fheep- managers to preferve them in as good condition as pof-, fiblc at all feafons of the year. This is particularly the cafe with the pafture kinda of fheep. In order to accomplifh it in the beft manner, it is ufeful to divide them into different parcels in refpect to their ages and forts, as by fuch means they may be kept with more convenience and advantage than in large flocks together tinder a mixture of various kinds. In this mode there will be lefs wafte of food, and the animals at thefame time thrive better, and thepaftures be fed with more cafe and facility. The benefit of this management has been fully experienced in many of the northern diftricts,where they fcparate the fheep- ftock into lambs, yearlings, wethers, and breeding ewes. It is probable, too, that in this practice a much larger proportion of ftock may not only be kept, but the fheep be preferred in a more thriving and healthy ftate. *Lord Somerville s Syftem of the Board of Agriculture. -V Lord Somerville in Communications to tb Board, Vol, II, Live Stock. Sheep Timd of putting, Rams to Ezres* 663 It has been the common practice, except in particular inftances, to leave the ewes forthepurpofe ofbreeding,withoutany felection ; but it is obvious, that where p-ood fheep-ftockare delired, much care and attention (hould be beftowed in choof- ing fuch as are the moft perfect, and pofTefs in the higheft degree thofe propvrtics which are wanted, let the breed or variety be what it may ; as it is only by ad hering to this principle that fuccefs can be enfured. This bufmefs mould therefore be carefully performed at the time they are turned to the ram, if it has not been done before. And it is equally neceflary that a iimilar degree of attentionfhould be paid to the felecting of the rams, and the adapting of them to the ewes. It is remarked by Mr. Young, in his Farmer s Calendar, that the late Duke of Bedford, in attending to this point, had every ram with the lambs got by him the preceding year put in diftinct pens, that he might not only examine them, but their progeny, previous to his deciding "what ewes to draw off for him." This method is highly judicious, and deferving of imitation by the lefs intelligent (beep farmer. " Such attention," it is added, "united with a careful fe lection of bull lambs, muft keep a flock in a ftate of progrefiive improvement, pro portioned to the accuracy of judgment, eye, and hand, of the farmer who practifes it." The moft advantageous and proper age for ewes taking th e ram in the different breeds has not been fully Ihewn ; but from a year to a year and a half old may be fufficient, according to the forwardnefs of the breed and the goodnefs of the keep. The ufual time of having the rams admitted is about the beginning of October ; except in the Dorfetfhire ewes, where the intention is fuckling for houfe-lamb, in which cafe it mould be much earlier, in order that the lambs may be fufficiently forward. But, by being kept very well, any of the breeds will take the ram at a much earlier period. Where the rams are young, the number of ewes fliould fcldom exceed fixty for each ram ; but in older rams a greater number may be admitted without inconvenience; but letting them have too many fliould be cautioufly a voided, as by fuch means the farmer may fuftain great lofs in the number of the larpbs. The ewe goes with lamb about the fpaceof five months, of courfe the common lambing- feafon is March, or the early part of the fucceeding month ; but in many of the more fouthern diftricts, where fheep-hufbandry is carried on to a confider- able extent, fome parts of the ewe-ftock are put to the rams at much earlier pe riods, fo as to lamb a month or fix weeks fooner; a practice which is attended 482 ;6"rJ! Lite Stock. S/ne/) *~La mbln g Ewes Uft of Turnips j or, with much profit and advantage in many fituations where early grafs-lamb is in great demand. It is ufual for the rams to remain with the ewes fora month or Jix weeks, and in fomc cafes longer, in order to complete the bufmcfs of impreg nation, which in fomc di ft nets is afcertained by fmcaring \hc fore-bows of the rams with reddle, ochre, or ibrnc fimilar fubftance that has the property of mark ing.* During the time the ewes are in lamb, they fhould be kept in the paftures, and as free from dilturbance as poiTible, and be carefully attended to, in order to pre vent accidents which are liable to take place at this time, fuch as thofe of their being caft in the furrows without the means of getting up again. In cafe any of the ewes fhould flip their lambs, they fhould be immediately removed from theflock.f They require, as is the cafe with all other forts of live flock in fimilar circum- ftanccs, to be kept as well as the nature of the farm will admit, in order that there may be lefs lofs at lambing-time from the ewes being ftronger, and the lambs more healthy, and better capable of contending with the ftate of the feafon at which they may be dropped. Where paftures or other forts of good grafs-lands cannot be referved for their fupport, turnips or other kinds of green food mould be provided for the purpofe, and given them in a fuitable manner ; but where it can be done, it is always better to leave this fort of food untouched till about the period of lambing, when it mould be regularly fupplied in proportion to the ne- cefiity there may be. The ewes at this time alfo demand confiderable care being taken to fee that they are put upon a dry fheltered pafture free from difturb- ance, and that neither they or their lambs fuftain injury from the feverity of the feafon. Whenever this is the cafe, they fhouJd be carefully removed into a proper degree of warmth and fhelter until refTored. It is likewife a neceflary as well as ufeful practice, as they lamb down, to take them and their lambs away from the common ftock, putting them into a piece of turnips or frefh dry pafture where there is fhelter when neceflary, as by this means much fewer lambs will be loft. By the proper fupply of turnips at this period, the milk of the ewes is much increafed, and the growth of the lambs greatly promoted j which is of much con- fequence, as when they areftinted at this early period they never turn out 4 fo well afterwards. In the ufe of this fort of food, where the foil is not fufficiently dry to admit the fheep, it is the beft practice to draw the turnips and convey them to a found, firrr> * Synopfis of Hufbandry, + Ibid, Livestock. Sheep Methods erf Baiting Ewe* and Lam fa* 6S,> pad lire, in order to have the ewes baited upon them once or twice in the day, ac cording as there may be occafion j particular care being taken that they are wholly confumed, and no wade made. The circumftance of their being eaten quite cleanup, may ferve as a rule to the farmer for regulating the daily fuppiy that may be rcquifite. There can be little doubt but chat in this way this fort of food may be confumed to the greateft advantage in refpect to economy. But there is a bet ter method where the land is perfectly dry, efpecially where the intention is the manuring itforagrain crop, fuch as barley; which is that of eating the turnips on the land, by means of portions being hurdled off as wanted, after they have been eaten up pretty clean. In this way the farmer has Icfs trouble, and the great benefit of having the land well manured ; but it is only capable of being p radii fed on quite dry foils, as in other c ire um (lances the fhcep do much injury by poach ing. Befides, the food from its being dunged, trampled, and ftaled upon after be ing partially confumed, is in fome meafure walled, and does not go fo far as in being eaten under the former circumflances. The chief difference is, however, in the manure in one cafe being left upon the pafture, and in the other upon the arable land, in the latter of which the farmer is faved the trouble and expenfe of putting it on previous to the grain being fown. In either cafe, whatever the land may be, great improvement is effected under fuch management.* It has been obferved by the fame writer, that " in fome parts of the kingdom, thebeft farmers give their ewes and lambs bran and oats, or oil. cake, in troughs, -while they are feeding on turnips ;" but it is remarked that " it mud be a good breed for fuch a practice to repay." When the weather is extremely wet or ftormy, or there is much fnow upon the ground, the ewes and lambs mould have hay given them in baits as may be neceffary. This is bed done in covered move- able racks, a portion being given frefh every day. f If fhelter can be provided with convenience, it will always be of much benefit to the fheep. /The practice of letting them to the hay-flacks, which is common with fome farmers, is flovenly and wafleful, and which, though it may afford a degree of fhelter, mould never be attempted where the other methods can be had recourfe to. It has been fuggefled as an excellent method, though not effentially neceffary, to allow the Iheep, whether the weather be bad or not, a fmall proportion of hay daily while at turnips.J By this careful management, and the ufe of ftubble turnips, when ne- ceflary, the ewe and lamb flock may be well fupported through the feverity of the \vinter,and be brought on in the bed poflible condition until the turnips are finifhed * Young s Farmer s Calendar, t Ilwl, \ Ibid. 86 L ne ftoc1cSheep Diffe * ent .Modes of Keeping in Winter ami Spring. fd in March, \vhich fhould always be the cafe, when the preserved grafs or rouen may be ready to receive them, \vhich is confidercd by fome as the nv ft to be depended upon through this and the following month, which, with the firft week in May, is the mod difficult period of the year to the (lock-farmer. On dry mea dows and paftures it is invaluable in this view, though at firft fight it may have an unnromifing appearance from the covering of decayed autumnal grafs that is upon it ; but which, when removed, prefents a new growth of irefh green grafs, five or tix inches in height, brought up by the (belter and warmth afforded by the covering of old grafs. This is found to agree remarkably well with the fheep, as they confume both together, having, as it were, both hay and grafs in the fame bite.* It is fup- pofed by the fame correct agricultor, to be impoffible " to keep a full ftock of fheep fo cheaply in April by any other method as by this. Tolerable rouen will carry ten ewes an acre with their lambs through the whole month. Such rouen may be worth in autumn ten or twelve millings an acre ; in April it is worth thirty or forty (hillings ; and if it be a backward feafon, a farmer that has it would not be tempted to fell it for much more.f " But in the fupport of his (heep and lamb ftock, if the farmer be provided with a fufficient extent of watered meadow, he may fully depend upon, that, without any other provifion for this period. But in cafes where thefe cannot be depended on for the fupport of the fheep. flock at this difficult feafon, the improved practice is, inftead of depending on turnips and hay with rye fown for the purpofe, the young wheats, and the run of the paf tures, to let the turnips continue fo as that their (hoots may become an object of fheep-food, and to have annually a portion of tolerable good land fufficient to the extent of the flock, under rye grafs and clover, fo as to be ready in the fpring to take the fheep from turnips, and fupport them till the period of turning upon the paftures. It is remarked that " this conduct is an improvement on the other, as it gets rid of thefe great evils : depending on rye, which is footi eaten ; feeding on wheat, which is pernicious to the crop ; and turning too foon into the general paftures. But at there fame time that it effects this advantage, it is open to fome objections which make further improvement neceflary. Keeping the turnips long in the fpring is very bad hufbandry ; it damages greatly the barley crop, both in robbing the land, and preventing it from being fown in proper time : nor is the food of great confequence ; for many acres of turnip-tops are requifite, the number of which muft be in proportion to the ftock of fheep ; and as to the roots, they $row fo fticky and hard after the tops are at all advanced, that their value is trifling, * Yoyng s Farmer s Calendar. -f Ibid. Live Sjwle,-~$heep~~&ijftrent Modes of Keeping in Winter and Spring. 6t7 With refpecl to ray grafs, the clover mixed with it is fddorn above three inches high at this feafon ; and a great breadth of ground to a given ftock muft be aflign- ed to keep the fheep through April. The number of acres of that young growth neceflary to keep a hundred fheep and lambs is furprifing; fo that thife farmers, although they manage to fpring- f eed more fhcep than the word of their brethren,. yet effecT: it at a great expence, and at laft not in any degree c mparable to what might be done. A turnip fhould never be feen on the ground after March. F<pr in l he month of April the farmer fhould have a field of cabbages ready, which, yield ing a great produce on a fmall breadth of ground, reduces the evil of a late fpring f owing ; and, if he manages as he ought, totally excludes it. The turnip-cabbage, and ruta baga will laft as long as wanted j and, though it runs to feed, yet the bulb will not be fticky. The green boorcole may be fed off feveral times. It is impenetrable to froft, and will make (hoots in. the winter." " Another crop for feeding fheep in the fpring, which is of particular merit, is; burnet. An acre of it managed properly, will at this feafon yield much more foodi than an acre of clover and ray grafs. It mould be four or five inches high in No vember, and left fo through the winter. Burnet has the fingular quality of main taining its green leaves through the winter; fo that, under deep fnows, you find fome luxuriance of vegetation. From November to February the crop will gain two or three inches in growth in the young leaves, and then be ready for fheep. It \vill be better in March ; and, if kept, ready in April, not only for fheep, but horfes, cows, or any other flock.* * By thefe means, the fheep and lambs may be continued in good and healthy con dition, which is of great confequence to the flock, till the time of turning upon the paftures, when they fhould be feparated, where the farms are inclofed into fuitable divifions, in proportion to the quantity that each pafture which they are to occupy can fupport, care being taken not to over-flock the fields, though hard flocking in fome cafes may be ufeful.-j- By fome managers they are put upon the befl paftures of the farm, while others let them have thofe of the inferior kinds. Each method may have its advantage under different circumftances ; but the main objecl:, that of having the ftock preferved in good condition, is never to be loft fight of. In keeping fheep on inclofed paftures, particularly where the lands are much occupied with wood, conftant care is neceflary in order to guard againft the mifchief of the fly, as its effecls are often irremediable in the courfe, of a very fhort sime in fuch fituations, if not attended to, in hot feafons. * Young s Farmer s Calendar. t See Stocking of Paftures, Live Stock. Sheep* Weanhig Lambs Selling of Lamb- Stock. The weaning of the lambs is a bufmefs that mould be attended to fr>me time in the courfe of July, but it is accomplifhed more early in fome diftricts than others. In order to effect this in the be ft and moft advantageous manner, a proper rcferve of fome frcfh pafture grafs, where there may be a good bite for the lambs to feed upon, fhould be made. It is of much confequence that an ample provifion of this nature be hud, in order that the growth of this young flock mav not iurTer any check on being taken from the mother. Same advife clover in blotTbm as the T.oft forcing fort of food in this intention. And faintfoin rouen is highly valuable for the fame purpofe. The ewes mould be removed to fuch diftant paftures or other places as that they cannot be heard by the lambs, and thereby caufethem to bedif- turbed in their feeding. And where the ewes fuftain any inconvenience from their milk, it mould be drawn once or twice, as by this means difeafe may be pre vented*. After the lambs have been removed, the ewes are returned to the fitua- tions deftined for their fummer fupport. As it is necefTury in the common management of fheep-ftocks to remove a cer tain number of the crones or old ewes annually, and replace them by the beft lambs, in order to keep them up in the greateft perfection, it is of confiderable importance to have the bufinefs performed in a proper manner. In moft of the fheep-diftricts in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, this fclection or fetting of lamb-ftock is ufu- ally made about the month of Auguft, when the fairs for the fale of lambs moftly take place. And as the whole are then collected for drawing into different lots it may be a very fuitable period for felecting thofe that are to fupply fuch defici encies in the breeding ftocks. It is obferved by Mr. Young in his excellent Ca lendar of Hufbandry, that cf in making this felection the farmer or his fhepherd ufually (whatever the breed may be) rejects all that manifeft any departure from certain figns of the true breed j thus, in a Norfolk flock, a white leg, and a face not of a hue fufficiently dark, would be excluded, however well formed j in the fame manner a white face, on the South Downs ; in Wiltfhire, a black face, would bean exclufion, or a horn that does not fall back ; in Dorfetihire, a horn that does not * It is obferved in the Northumberland Report, that {< when this pra<Sbice,as was ufual, is continued to eight or ten weeks, it becomes very detrimental, keeps the ewes lean, and ill prepared for meeting the feverities of winter. " This cuftom has been long difufed by the intelligent farmers in the lower diftri&s ; and much laid aiide by the moft confiderable hill farmers. Tbe profit of milking ewes for fix or eighe week* is elHmated at 8d. per ewe; and it is generally agreed they are ilecreafed in ralu at lead Is. 6<1. per head ; of courfe there is a lofs about Is. par head by milking. la one inftance of milking loug-woolled * vc, there was a lofs of at lealt 3s. per head." Live Sit+ek>~-Skevp Setting Lamb-Stock~-~What uccejfitry in* project, &c. &c. And where the produce is annually fold lean, there is reafon in all this ; for cuftomers who have been ufed to, and prefer certain breeds, as having paid them well, are apt to be faftidious when they purchafe. Some farmers in this fclection look chiefly at fize, always keeping the largeft frames ; but this is proba bly erroneous, unlefs they keep very high. It connects with a queftion by no means afcertained, whether fheep, do or do not eat a quantity of food proportioned tn their weight? In general, it is a fafer rule to choofe a well-formed lamb, or that indicates the probability of making a well- formed ewe, rather than to feledl for fize. The attention that is to be paid to wool, in the breeds that produce the card ing fort, will depend on the price to be received : if the farmer lives in a diftricl: where the price of the year is given equally to all flocks, there is little encourage ment to leflen quantity for the fake of quality ; retaining however in idea the fact, that both are attainable, that it is very common to fee coarfe breeched fheep with light fleeces, and thofe of a fine quality heavy in weight. The Spanifli fleeces, which are finer than any other, are heavier than thofe of our fineft-woolled fheep. With combing wool the importance of the fleece depends ftill more on, price ; we have feen it at 8s. a tod ; and it has lately been 365. Quality is of very- little confequence indeed, compared with quantity ; and when wool fells high, no prudent breeder will fet his flock without being governed confiderably by this ob ject. " The high prices at which new Leicefler and new South Down rams let and fell has opened a field of fpeculation in Iheep-breeding. It is fufficient to remark, that this fpirit of breeding, whether it mail prove durable or not, whether much money mail or (hail not be made in it in future, is not what any prudent man be ginning bufinefs will adventure in but with great caution : men of fuch immenfe fortune are now taking a lead in it, and are in many refpects doing it on fuch liberal principles, that the wifeft conduct of fuch farmers as he may be fuppofed to addrefs, is to take proper opportunities of converting their experiments to their own (the farmers ) profit. Leave the expenfe to them ; but, when you can,convert the pro fit to your own advantage. In fettinga flock of lambs, therefore, you may mark a fcorc of thebefl, for a future ram to be picked up when opportunity offers ; or better flill to fend to the tup of fome ram-letter that takes them in at a reafonable price per head. By every year felecting five or fix per cent, and by every year covering that number by a ram better than any of your own, the flock mufl be on the improving hand ; and this may be done at a very fmall expence." VOL. ii. 4 T 6<)0 Livestock. Sheep Regulating Stock ofDown Kind. Arid as this is not only the proper period of filling up the deficiencies in the ewe- flock, but alfo for increafingordiminifhing the quantity of flock, by referving a larger or fmaller number than that of the old ftieep which are difpofed of, it is a matter that demands particular attention. The following ufeful directions arc given in the fame intelligent work: " On a farm with a given flationaryfheep-walk, it is probably regulated by circum dances that rarely change,; but, on inclofed farms, where the fheep are fupported by .fields alternately in grafs and tillage, -.variations may eafily befuppofed, and the queftion of hard -or light (locking, that is, of clofe feeding or a head of grafs, then comes in to decide the number kept. If the produce or profit per head is looked to, the conduct to be purfued is evidently to flock lightly ; but if the return is looked for in corn from fields laid down for refrefhment by refl, then clofe feeding is a very material point, and the number kept will depend on it. With all the grafles, &c. that do not decline from age, the more fheep you keep the more you may keep, and the more corn you will reap when fuch are ploughed ; a circumftance too important to be forgotten. But the young farmer will remember, that upon this fyflem .he mufl not have a jhow flock, or let the vanity of a farm have the leaft influence with him : if in this way !he will have fomething to talk of, a fcore or two of pampered favourites, the. fewer , the better, for they may coft him more than they are worth. * After this bufmefs has been properly executed, the ewe and wether-lambs which remain are ufually fent to the neighbouring lamb-fairs to be difpofed of. But where the fairs for this purpofe. happen later than this period, as in the begin ning or latter end of September, as is the cafe in fome places, Mr. Young advifes that " great care be taken to keep them in forcing food, as in fpring-tares early-fown rape, good grafs of the right degree of bite, &c. &c. in order to promote their growth .and increafe their value ; but to fell in Aiigufl is more beneficial." Jn the down and mountain fheep there is fome difference in the management from that of thofe on the. inclofed lands, though the fame attention in the felecting and chooijngof the breeding and ram flock is now moflly practifed with the better jind more enlightened fheep-farmers in fuch diflricts. In the former fituations they are perfectly aware that, befides the improvement of their tillage lands, their fheep can be rendered of confiderably more value ; a .circumftance .which has had the happiefl effects in promoting improvements in this department of hulbandry. The chief difference in the method of keeping them, .is in their being turned upon the downs, heaths, or commons, as early as poflible iu Live Stock Sheep Down Kind Management of. 6<)i the fpring feafon, as about the middle of April, and kept there till the of autumn, .as in. October ; .the (hort tweet- nutritious herbage in thefc lituations affording them a fupply of food Efficient to keep them in tolerable order; but -vvhen this keep begins to decline, the farmers have reeourfe to other forts of food, the fheep being ufually -folded on turnips or cole, on which they are continued dur~ ing>. the winter until they are .expended, .when they are chiefly fed with hay, flack ed for the purpofe on thedowns or other places, till there is again afufficient biteof grafs. In thefe cafes the-pra&ice of folding is moftly in ufe throughout the year ; which during thefummer and autumn is mofUy onthelands under preparation for wheaucrops> but in the winter occaiionally on the (tubbles, though more generally on the downs and pafture ; ,and in the fpring on the grounds that are deftined for the barley crops.*. In fame of the more elevated and hilly diftricts in the northern parts of England, where fheep-hufbandry is conducted on an extenfive fcale, the fheep on being divided^ under the care of different fhepherds, into old fheep, fuch as wethers and two-year olds, and breeding and young fheep, the former are put upon the more elevated and expofed paftures,and the latter on thofe that -are more fertile and Ihel- tered, being well fupported in the winter with turnips and hay.-f There is another inferior fort of management in thofe fituations, which is that of permitting the flocks to range over the hills and commons during the fummer feafon, moftly without being under the command of any fhepherd. About the clofe of this feafonj or on the approach of winter, they are collected together, and brought home inorderto undergo the operation offmearingor/alving t $ which is common in * Donaldfon s Prefent State of Hufbandry in Great Britain. t Ibid; + This is an operation that was formerly confidered as indtfpenfible to the health and fafety of flieep. But in thefouthern parts of the kingdom, according to the Survey of Northumberland, it is not in, ufe, and in fome of the lefs expofed northern diftri<b it is wholly in difufe ; even with fome of the hill-fheep farmers it is now laid afide without any inconvenience being fuftained. The fubftance employed in this diftrift is a mixture of 12lbs. of butter with four quarts of tar, well incorporated by being put together while warm. This quantity is fufficient for twenty-four iheep. lr Perthfhtrein the north of Scotland, "the compofition now in ufe is likewife tar and butter. Some take ten Scotch pints of tar to a ftone of butter; others only five pints of tar to that weight ; and others in the various proportions between thefe extremes. This quantity fufficeth for laying fifty-five or fixty flieep, at the rate of three or four pence each.according as there is more or lefs tar in the mix ture. Formerly fhepherds ufed tobacco-juice and foap, and in fome cafes chamberley ; but thefu are laid afide as lefs efficacious/ 4X2 Uve Stock. Sheep Mountain Kinds Management of. thefe districts, though it does not prevail,we believe, in the meep-hu (band ry of any of the more fouthern parts of the ifland . After this work has been performed, the old ftock-fheep are returned to their former fituation, and, in fome cafes, the hogs and other young Iheep with them. But in other cafes a better management is pur- fued ; infome inftances, where the nature of the farms will admit of it, thefe laft i" jj ts being wintered in the inclofed pafture grounds that are near to the houfes ; and in other places, what are termed the home-grounds, whether open or inclofed* are purpofely prefervedor faved during the fummer feafon, in order to admit the whole ftock to be fupported on them in the winter. When thefe are not fufficient for this ufe, others at a diftance are frequently provided. In fevere feafons, fomc hay or ftraw is likewife given daily.* In the fheep-diftric ts in the moft northern parts of the kingdom, a ftill lefs eligi ble management is in ufe : the flocks are in common left to provide for themfelves even in the moft fevere and inclement feafons, when thebledk tracts on which they live are covered deeply -with fnow. In thefe cafes the fheep have their chief de pendence for fubiiftence on their own habits, which lead them to remove the fnow by their feet with great facility till they reach the heath or withered herbage. "When the fnow is falling or blown by a ftorm, the fhepherds, however, drive the ,flocks without intermiffiorij round the top of a hill, in a circle, in order to keep them from lowering and being drifted up or fmothered. It is likewife the practice in fome * The bufmefsisin fome places done in November. In Perthfhire the ftore-mafters fmear their lambs about the beginning of Odober ; and if the weather be favourable, they continue the work, without intermiflion, till all the Iheep, they intend, be fmeared. In fome places they fmear only the weaker ;fheep ; in others places the whole. One man fmears twenty or twenty-four in a day, leaving about an inch betwixt every fhed of the wool. The benefit expected from this practice is, that it makes the Iheep hardier and warmer, that it cleans them from vermin and cutaneous difUmpers, and that it prevents their lofing the wool. They contend further, lhat the wool pays very nearly the whole expence, the fame number of fleeces of fmeared and white wool bringing an equal fum in the market, becaufe what the fmeared wool wants it quality it has in weight : and laftly it is urged, that w the more butter there is in the composition, the grain of the wool is fofter and more h lky ; that by the practice of fmearing, the young Iheep are raifed in the bone, are preferred in the market, and fetch a better price. But, " notwithstanding all thofe arguments in favour of fmearing, others condemn the practice tctal- Jy. There is little doubt that it forms a cruft about the animal s body, and contributes to defend it from the cold, and thus it may be proper in a ftormy fituation, while it is unneceffary where there is plenty of flielter." * Donaldfon i Porefent State of Iluibandry in Great Britain, Live Stock. ~Skeep Profit of Keeping. 693 -countries to erect circular folds on the tops oflow hills for the fame purpofe : and when the heath is all covered, they fometimes harrow the mow in order to bring up the heath ; for which ufe the harrows mould only have few but long teeth. Some have recourfe to feeding with hay or unthremed oats in handfuls upon the fnow.* But as thefe only afford a precarious fupport, a proper winter food, well fuited for their ufe and adapted to fuch fituations, would be of the greateft value and utility. It has been fuggefted by Mr. Marlhall, " that cultivating plots of furze, broom, jumper, &c. by fod-burning, and rippling the furface, or by other more eligible means, could not fail of proving beneficial upon the wintering grounds of a meep- farm. By means of thefe, as a refource in the deepeft fnow, when the herbage of the braes was buried too deep, and too evenly to be uncovered by the fcraping of the fheep, by keeping the moft expofed parts of the braes in full herbage for lefs .general coverings of fnow, and by refer ve of rape for the feafon of lambing, even ewe flocks might be fupported through the winter with fome degree of certainty* without dry fodder, and without being left to the uncertainty of the feafons, and the mercy of the winds and weather, as they are at prefent." The produce or profit of keeping ftieep muft obvioufly differ very confiderably according to the circumftances under which they are conducted, the nature of the breed that is employed, and the goodnefs of the management purfued in keeping them. There are fo many caufes that affect the profits in this fort of hulbandry, that it is probable no two fheep-farmers have exactly the fame returns. In the Annals of Agriculture,-)- feveral detafled ftatements of the advantage of" fheep-hufbandry, when conducted on an extenfive fcale, are given with much clearnefs and accuracy. In Suffolk, according to Mr. Macro s account (which was not made directly with the view of mewing the profit that may be derived from fheep, but the difad vantage of a flout flock), the profit on 494 ewes is i6 t or 8d. per head. But in SufTex, in Mr. Ellman s ilatement, on 560 ewes it (lands at~i47, * (;s. 3d. per head. And in the Duke of Grafton s eftimate on 40 fcore it is ^134, or 35. 4d. per head 4 From the late improvements in Iheep-hufbandry, it is probable that the prefent eftimates (land much higher. The profits in the different fyflems of fatting fheep have been already ftated. * Perth Correfted Report. f See Volumes II. VII and XI. ; See Grazing. ,1 Ibid. Live Stwk-4SJiep Folding improper in certain Where the fyflem of folding is praclifed, the fneep moft adapted to the bu fine is- are thofe of the more light and active (liort- wool led breeds, as- the Norfolk, Wiltshire, South-Down, and- fome other kinds. This management has been: hitherto confidered: as almoft abfblutely indifpenfible in- many: fituations to the. iticccfs of the farmer. It is, however, dated by Mr. Young, in his- Calendar, that a very great change has taken- place on inclofed farms in the practice of the belt farmers, efpecially in Norfolk. They are now. fully convinced, that it is an unprofitable practice, except where the opennefs of: downs and common fields - renders it neceifary for the purpofe of confinement. The number of (heep that may be kept on a farm without folding is much greater than can be fupportcd with it-. This is a very eilential point. There is-a deduction from the farmer s profit, . in the injury done by folding to both ewe and Iamb, which has been eftimatcd by. experienced judges at from as. 6d. to 4$. per ewe ; fothat afarmerfliouldconfider well, before he determines to follow a- practice which, from a multitude. of obfer- vations, is pronounced unprofitable. Mr.Bakewell ufed to call it robbing Peter to pay Paul. The arguments now ufed in its defence are not fatisfadiory: it is con* tended, that if {heep be not folded they will draw under hedges, &c; for fhelter in bad weather; if fo they ought to be allowed to do it, for more would be loft in fuch cafes by forcing thefheep from fhelter than the. value of their fold. Where this practice takes place, good (hepherds will, in cafe of rain, .get up inrthe. night and let their flocks out of fold, knowing the confequence^of confinement on an 1 ,-* ble land in wet weather. The inftindtof thefe animals will 1 conduct them much -, better than our reafon, not only where to -fly .forihelter, but alfo for choofing their own time to go to reft, and to feed in the morning. Thefe they .vary according ta feafons and weather ; but folding prevents it, and forces them to a regularity never called for by the weather." It is remarked, that " when he began firfl to entertain doubts of the propriety- *xf folding (heep on any farms in which they can be kept to certain fields in the night, without that practice, he defired earneftly to try fome experiments -that might throw more light on the queftion than it was pofiible for reafon to do; but to effedl this comparatively was very difficult^ as the trial he wifhed for was; fuch as mould carry fome, pofitive conviction with it. He has not been able to. effect it fully ; but the trials he has made may not be found deflitute of power to- throw fome light on this intereftingqueftion. He is perfectly perfuaded, that it would have been impoflible for him to have kept on the fame land nearly fuch a Live Stock. Sheep Folding of Why fo much praRifed. 6*95 &ock in one parcel with folding. He does not conceive that the fields would have carried three-fourths fo managed. Four drivings in a day make them trample much food, difquiet the (heep, and transfer the choice of their hours of feeding and reft from themfelves to the fhepherd and his boy. While Iambs are young they are injured by this, and the ewes are liable to be hurried and heated: all which are objects that fhould weigh in the queftion. When fheep are kept i?i numerous parcels, it is only driving to and from the fold that affects them, but they are, in fact, driving about in a fort of march all day long, when theftrongeft have too great an advantage, and the flock divides into the head and the tail of it, by which means one part of them mud trample the food to be eaten by another. All this points the very reverfe of their remaining perfectly quiet in fmall parcels. But the queftion turns on the benefit to be reaped by the fold ; for, if that be great enough to compenfate for the lofs by fuch circumftances, the practice may not be condemned." Mr. Young fufpects that the reafon why farmers are fuch warm advocates for folding, arifes from the power it gives them of facrificing thegrafs lands of a farm to the arable part of it. Their object is corn, by which they can carry off a farm whatever improvement they bring to it. Grafs improved is profit to the landlord in future, and tenants are too apt to think that this is done at their expence. They do not at all regard impoverilhing a grafs field in order to improve a ploughed one ; and he need not obferve, that every fort of fheep-walk is thus impoverifhed ; fothat antient walks, which have been fheep-paftured perhaps for five centuries, are no better at prefent than they ever were be fore ; whereas mod fields fheep fed, without folding from them, are in a conftant ftate of amelioration: this leads him to remark the effect he obferved on feveral of his own fields. He attended through the courfe of a fummer many gentlemen over his fields, with a view to examine whether the {heep had feemed to have refted only on fpots, to the too great ma nuring of fuch ; or, on the contrary, to have diftributed themfelves more equally ; and it was a pleafure to find, that they feemed generally to have fpread in every part, if not quite equally, at leaft nearly fo. The improved countenance of feveral old lays fed in the fame manner, when examined in autumn, convinced him as well as his batliff, that the ground had been unqueftionably improved considerably. Thofe fields had carried a very bad appearance for fome years ; but they were, after {heep-feeding, ol a rich verdure, and as full ofworm-cafts as if they had been dunged. He rolled them heavily in November, but they foon became rough. 66 Live Stock. Sheep Folding Benefit o/obtained in other Ways. again by worms, and demanded much rolling in fpring. They had afterwards a greener and more fertile appearance by far than ever they wore before. ^ It is concluded r that the whole of this circumftanee, the value of which he will be able to appreciate in the trials of future years* belongs to this method of dividing flocks, to the exclufion of folding. The fold is valuable, but fo is the improvement of the grafs land, and may, for what he knows, nearly equal it :. when,, in addition, we include the greater number of flieep that can be kept, and the favour done to them by letting them alone, there remains in his mind no further doubt of the fact. It is common to hear flock-farmers, in open: countries fay, they have- not the power to manage fo. This may be very true, upon the major part of the farms ; but fuch have often many inclofures, in which this management might br applied without difficulty. But if we fuppofe folding to be the fyftern purfued, he may remark, that the farmers in thofe parts of the kingdom which underftand it belt, do not extend it fo far as they might ; they give over folding in November or December, whereas it may certainly be carried on through the whole winter with profit ; even fuppofingthat the practice is neceffary : orr thofe farms which have a; perfectly dry gravelly pafture or two, it is advifable to fold all winter on fuch dry grafs land. It muft not be attempted on moift arable land, nor on moift grafs land, but on dry paftures. The fafety to the fheep is greater, and the benefit to- rhe grafs an object. * Thefe are the arguments and experiments by which the utility of this long-efta- blilhed practice is afiailed and rendered problematical , at leaft on farms in inclofed diftricts, where the fheep are capable of being confined in the paftures or other fields in feparate lots, without this management. How far, in other cafes, the in^ jury fuftained by the fheep in their thriving, and being more expofed to difeafe, with the trouble and inconvenience of the practice, weigh againft the advantage of the fyftem in providing manure as well as otherwife improving the tillage lands, vnd keeping them in a more reftrained Hate by other means, remains to be fhevvn. The decifion of the queftion involves various confiderations of great moment to the Jtock as well as tillage farmer. It has been fuggefted, that cc there is another method of gaining all the benefit of folding quite through the winter, and on all foils ; this is to confine them at night in a fheep-yard, well and regularly littered with ftraw, flubble, or fern ; by which means you keep your flock warm and healthy in bad feafons, and at the fame time raife a furpriling quantity of dufcg ; fo great a quantity, if you hav Live Stock. Sheep Folding of in well-littered Yard& 697 plenty of litter, that the profit will be better than folding on the land. A great improvement in this method would be giving the fheep all their food (except their pafturej in fuch yard ; viz. hay and turnips, for which purpofe they may be brought: up not only at night, but alfo at noon, to be baited ; but if their pafture beat a diftance they fhould then, inftead of baiting at noon, come to the yard earlier in the evening and go out later in the morning. This a practice which cannot, be too much recommended : for fo warm a lodging is a great matter to young lambs, and will tend much to forward their growth ; the fheep will alfo be kept in good health ; and what is a point of confequence to all farms, the quantity of dung raifed will be very great. If this method is purfued through the months of December, January, February, March, and April, with plenty of litter, one hun dred flieep will make a dunghill of at leaft fixty loads of excellent fluff, which will amply manure two acres of land, whereas one hundred fheep folded (fuppofin^ thegrafs dry enough) will not in that time equally manure one acre." This bufinefsmay beftill further promoted by means of proper yards fuited to the extent of fheep that are folded, with fheds on the fides for them to feed under $-, as in this way, by having the bottoms and under the fheds well covered With tur bog-earth, marl, orthefcrapings of roads, in the autumn and winter feafon, the fheep 1 being kept on them in the day-time in bad ftormy weather, and always during the night, with- plentiful fuppliesof ftraw, ftubble, fern, or any fimilar fubftances as litter, fo as that they may be preferved quite dry and free from moifture, a vaft flock of good manure will be raifed. Such yards or Handing folds, on this account^ as well as that of improving the wool and affording fhelter to the animals, deferve to be much more general than they are at prefent. Thefe yards ; both with and without fheds, are in ufe in Suflex ;* with fheds they are probably better than when wholly covered, as in the Herefordfhire method ; for in this laft mode it is pro bably the fheep may be kept too warm, an equality of temperature being found of the mofl benefit in the economy of thefe animals. Mbre experiments than have yet been made are wanting to mow the advantages that may be derived from different methods of houfing fheep during the winter feafon. There feemS little doubt but that the quality of the fleece may be improved by it; though in the French manner it is faid to have done harm.j Wherever the fyftem of folding is adopted as neceffary, it fliould be purfued witn ;is much fteadinefs as poflibie, and have the bufinefs done in a perfect manner, for which purpofe it may be fufficient to allow two fquare yards, or, in many cafes, & *Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XI. + Annals of Agriculture, vol. XL and XVL VOL, TI. 4 U 698 Lli e Sfock.~Sheep^Folding~~Time of ClippingManner ofWaJJiing. lefs fpace, to each fheep, leaving them to remain two nights or more on the fame fpot ; though the ufual practice is to let them have more room, and remain a left time on the land. On tillage lands the furface mould be very thickly covered over j but when in the ftate of fward a flighter coat may be fufficient. The lands under fallow for turnips or cabbages are in general bell to begin upon, as the crops will be ready to be put in almoft immediately afterwards. From thefe the far mer may proceed to the grounds in preparation for other crops, as the wheat fal lows, being conftantly attentive to put his fheep upon fuch lands firft as are to be fir ft fown, whether with grain or grafs feeds. When on the approach of the winter feafon the weather becomes too wet for purfuingthis fyftem on the arable lands, it mould be transferred to the paftures or other grafs-Iands ; as on dry lands of this kind this management may be continued without much harm to the fheep, and much improvement in the land be effected. Where there is much mofs on the lands this practice has much effect in removing it.* The time of clipping or (hearing the fheep fhould be regulated by the ftate of the weather, and the climate in the particular diftrict, as the fummer feafon com mences much fooner in the fouthern parts of the ifland than thofe of the north. In this way the danger of injury by cold, from depriving the fheep of their coats too foon, and from heat, by permitting them to continue on them too long, may be equally avoided. There is alfo another circumftance that fhould be attended to in this bufmefs, which is, that of the wool being at the ftate of maturity ; for if the clipping precede that period it is weak, and can fcarcely be fpun, and if protracted later, it is yellow, felted, and imperfect. f For the more warm fhel- tered fituations in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, the beginning or middle of June, when the weather is fine, may be in general the moft proper; but in the more expofed diftricts in the northern parts of the ifland, the middle or latter end oi the fame month may be more fuitable, provided the feafon be favourable. But with the fattening fheep in the inclofures it will moftly be necefTary to perform the work at an earlier period in every fituation, as the great increafe of heat from the fetting in of the fummer weather, added to the warmth of the fleece, becomes very opprelTive and injurious to them in their feeding. As the fleeces of fheep at this feafon become much loaded, and filled with duft and dirt of various kinds, before the bufinefs of fhearing is begun, it is neceffary to have the operation of wafhing performed. In the old method of executing this work, by the wafhers ftanding up to thebreaft in the water, there is not only " See Folding, in Section on the Cultivation of Arable Land, t Annab of Agriculture, vol. &VI. Live Stock. -Shetf) Longitudinal Method of Clipping, 6 j(J much inconvenience and danger, in the men requiring a large fupply of fpirituous liquors, being attacked with colds, rheumatifms, and other difeaies, but, from the uncomfortablenefs of their fituation, often difpatching the bufinefs with too much expedition, fo as to leave the wool infufficiently cleaned. It has been pro-. pofed in the way of remedying thefe inconveniences, that a It ream or pond by a little contrivance will afford the means not only of doing the work well, but with comfort to the men. The method is to " rail off a portion of the water for the fheep to walk into by a floop mouth at one end, and to walk cut by another at the other end, with a depth fufficient at one part for them to fvvim; and to pave the whole: the breadth need not be more than fix or feven feet : at one fpot let in, on each fide of this paffage, where the depth is juft fufficient for the water to flow over the {beep s back, a cafk, either fixed or leaded, for a man to (land in dry ; the fjieep being in the water between them, they wafli in perfection, and pufliing them on they fvvim through the deep part, and walk out at the other mouth, where there is a clean pen, or a very clean dry pafture to receive them. Of courfc there is a bridge rail-way to the tubs ; and a pen at the firft mouth of the water, \yhence the meep are turned into it, where they may be foaking a few minutes before being driven to the wafhers.*" Before this work commences the lambs mould be feparated from the ewes and other fheep, and each placed in feparate pens. When the former arc. wafhed, it is feldom neceffary to do much more than allow them to be juft fwilled through the water. After this operation has been accomplifhed, the fheep mould be provided w ith a dry clean pafture for a few days until they become perfectly dry, and are in a proper ftate to be morn or clipped. In the former method of performing this fort of operation, it was then ftom of the {hearers to perform the work lengthwise of the fheep ; and in many cafes it was very indifferently executed, fo much fo, that it has been fuppofed that one or two ounces of wool were left, upon the average, upon each fheep, and by that mean much injury done to the following growth, as it is conceived that wool in this particular has much refemblance to grafs, and " will not thrive well if it be not cut clofe." This imperfection in the clipping of fheep is believed to arife in a great meafure from the longitudinal method of performing the operation The improv ed practice is therefore to clip circularly round the body of the Iheep, by which * Young s Farmer s Calendar* 4 U 2 Live Stock. Circular or improved Mock of Clipping* mean the work is believed to be more evenly as well as more clofely executed. It is fuggcfted, as probable, that the firft inducement to this method of executing -the bufinefs was that of improving the beauty of the animals.* It is not unlikely .but that convenience might alfo have fomcm.irc in the introduction of this improve ment, as it is extremely aukward and unpleafant for the operator to clip large fheep in the longitudinal method. The origin of this mode of (hearing fhcep is given -by Mr. Young, to Lincolnfliirc, whence it is fuppofed to have pafled into Leicef- terfhire. And it has fince that period been introduced among the Suffex fheep- iarmers with much attention by the Earl of Egrcmont : while the late Duke of Bedford and Mr. Goke have not been lefs afliduous in making it known in Bed- fordfhire and Norfolk. -j- It is therefore probable that it will not long be neglect- ,ed by the (heap-farmers in thofe diftrifts where it may be yet unknown. In managing this fort of bufinefs, befides the clippers, who are moftly perfons that undertake the work, it is neceflary to have a man to every three or four clip, pers, to draw and turn up the fheep ready for the operation. The bufinefs is moft- ]y performed in a barn or other fhady fituation. Expert clippers feldom or ever ut or in any way hurt the fheep ; but where they are not well accuftomed to the work this may ealily be the cafe, and much injury be done : it is of courfe neccflary to be cautious in engaging perfons for this fort of work. The number of fheep jthat can be clipped in the courfe of the day by an expert operator mufl vary ac cording to circumftanccs, but in general it is fuppofed to be about forty. With the grazier, where this fort of work is on a very extenfive fcale, it is moftJy the cultom to have the work performed by the number. The ufual price is from 23. 6d. to 33. thefcore, the clippers drawing their fheep. + But with lefs extenfive (heep- farmers the work is often performed by the day, in which cafe 2s. 6d. with meat, ftrong beer, liquors, &c. is the common price for each perfon. Mr. Young .dates the price in common clipping at " from 2S. 6d. to 35. per fcore, for wafh- ing, clipping, and winding, labour being at is. 6d. a day." At prefent we believe ;the expenfes run higher than thefe ftatements. It is neceflary to have a proper perfon to wind the wool after the {hearers, who mould perfectly underftand the bufinefs, as much in the fale depends upon this being well done, and that no improper fubftances be enclofed in the fleeces, as %vhere it happens the farmer may find difficulty in difpofmgof his wool in future, f Young * Cajendar. t Ibid. J Synopfis of Husbandry, ; , Ibi.j, LiveStock. Sheep Frequent Clipping of-^Clothing of. 70 1 Mr. Ellman, an extenfive South Down fheep-farmer, clips of} the coarfcu of the \vool on the thighs, and docks a month before the time of wafliing and {hearing, which he fells, as locks, at 3^-d. per Ib. ; the quantity being about four ounces per fheep. He finds this method to anfwer very well, keeping the fheep clean and cool in hot feafons. It is a practice in many other diftricls with other breeds of fheep, and is found to have many advantages, not only keeping the animals clean, but in ewes preventing their becoming fore in the udder.* Some have fuggefted the cutting or clipping of long-horned fheep twice of oftener in the coinfe of the year, about January and June, as by this means they fuppofe that there would be an advantage in having the fecond cutting much finer, and if well kept the fheep would probably fuflain no injury. f In an experiment made by John Afkcw, efq. of Billingfburn in Northumberland, the firft clipping was performed on the f)th of February, and the fecond on the s.^th of June, the ewes being flickered and fed with a little oats for fome time afterwards ; the refult was, that both the ewe and the lamb continued in the beft condition of any in the flock, and the quantity of wool was increafed ; the firft clipping affording feven pounds and a half, and the fecond three pounds and a half, making toge ther eleven pounds ; while in a year s growth clipped at once the weight was only nine pounds. The quality was likewife fo much improved that the fecond clipping was worth eight millings a ftone more than the firft. And it is fuggefted, that as the 11 four months growth was exactly of the proper length for carding, the long- woolled fheep, inftead of twice, may be clipped three times in the year.J The clothing of fheep has likewife been attempted with a view to the bettering of the wool. In Mr. Brodie s experiment in this way the improvement in the wool is faid to have been very great. The expcnfe about feven-pe.nce per fneep for two or three years. By combining this practice with the above, it is fuppof- ed that the combing-wool may be converted into that of the clothing kind, and that while the quantity and quality of the? fleece is improved the carcafe of the ihcep may be much benefited. The experiments on thefe interefting points are fo few, and the expenfc of fuch management fo little detailed, that no fatisfactory conclufion can probably yet be drawn. It mould not, however, be forgotten, that it has been in general conceived, that a certain maturity in the wool was necefTary to its perfection, and that in the * Com fted Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire. + Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XV, Ibid. VIbid. Vol. XVI. 702 Live 5V0c/u -Sheep-~-Timc of Cajlrating Male Lambs Wool. economy of fnccp an over degree of warmth may be equally detrimental with too great a deficiency of ic. The lambs areufually clipped or (horn a month or fix weeks after the operation has been performed on the old or ftore-fheep. When this bufincfs has been done both the old (hcepand lambs (hould be marked with ochre or fome other fubftance ; and with fome it is a practice to mark them in the ear or other part. It has been objected, that by marking with tar injury is done to the wool, but Mr. Macro has fhown, in the Annals of Agriculture, that the quantity employed does not amount to an ounce per fheep, fo that no great inconvenience can be fuflaincd by it. It is a practice in fome diftricls to dock the tails of fheep, which has probably originated in the idea of keeping the animals more clean, and free from the attacks of the fly. Some, however, conceive it improper, as preventing the fheep from being able to beat off the flies in hot feafons.* The caflratiifg or gelding of the male lambs is performed at different ages in dif ferent diftricts : but it feems the moft proper to be done in the firfl fortnight in the ftronger fort of lambs ; and in thofc of the weaker kind from a fortnight to three weeks, or a month old, according to circumftances. Some, however, advife its being done at a much later period. While done early, there is, however, the lead danger of too much inflammation coming on if the lambs be in a healthy con dition. When performed while very young on tender delicate lambs, mortification may, however, fometimes be apt to come on and deftroy them. The produce in wool differs greatly indifferent breeds of Iheep ; but in the paf- ture or long-woolled kinds the quantity is very confiderable, though very inferior, in quality, to that of many of the fhort- wool led forts. The fineft wool is produced from the Shetland, the Hereford (hire, and the South Down, of any of the native Iheep, and the greateft quantity from the Lincolnlhire. The quality and quantity- afforded by each fort of Iheep has been already noticed in fpeaking of the particular breeds of fheep. It is obferved by Mr. Donaldfon that, " the wethers have confiderably more wool than the ewes. In the fleeces of either there are feveral qualities; fome reckon eight or nine different forts. Thefe are all fcparated from each other in England by a fet of men called woolftaplers, who are appointed for the purpofe, * Annals of Agriculture, vol. IX. Live Stock.->~&hecp-~slfcertaining Age oj Dijcafts ofFly. 703 and who are fvvorn to do juftice between the grower and the merchant or manu facturer. The bufinefs of the mepherd is confidered by the fame writer as " very import ant ; as on his due care and unwearied attention depend, in a very great degree, the welfare and value of the flock, and confequently the profit of the owner. The bufinefs of the fhepherd is to fuperintend the fleck at all times, and more particu larly at the lambing reafori, to take care that no improper tup intrude at the feafon of copulating; to determine the proper time for fhearing or clipping the fleece ; to draw out fuch fheep as arc in condition for the grazier or the butcher ; and fuch alfo as from age or deformity are improper to be kept longer in the flock. He ought alfo to have a competent knowledge of the difeafes of meep; of the proper remedies to be applied, and of the modes of application. In fhort, he ought to be diligent and attentive j a competent judge of thegood properties which the particularbrecd of fheepof which he is to have charge ought to be pofTefTed; and he mould alfo, efpecially where the breeder is the grazier, be able to determine with precifion what part of the flock is, and what is not, in condition for the butcher." The ufual method of ascertaining the age of fheep is, as in cattle, by their teeth ; they are alfo denominated one fhear, two fliear, &c. according to the number oi fleeces that have been fhorn from them. A fheep of one fliear, or of one year old, has two broad teeth before ; a two-ftiear fheep has four; a three-fhear, fix ; and a. four-fhear, eight, when it is faid to be full-mouthed. After four, the teeth begin to break, fhorten, and fall out. Sheep of different kinds and ages are alfo known by many other names in different diftricts. Sheep are liable to a great variety of difeafes, both external and internal, and their nature highly deferving of inquiry, but the fubject is much too extenfive to be fully confidered in this work. The Fly is a difeafe to which fheep are conrtantly expofed in hotfeafons, efpe- cially in inclofed woody diftricts. Various remedies are in ufefor the prevention of the effects of this dangerous infect. On the principle of its avoiding certain fubftances various applications have been made ; but that which is found the moft effectual, with the leaft injury to the wool, is the flowers f fulphur in combi nation with fome fort of greafy fubftance, fuch as lard, or butter, which can be drawn thinly over the wool by the hand. Where maggots are formed it has been advifed, inftead of cutting the wool off the part affected, and fcraping them eff with the points of the fliears, that the wool ihouid be parted, and the maggots 70i Live Stock Sheep Foot-rot Scab Rubber s Blindnef*. picked out with a knife, or otherwife diflodged, without breaking the coat : and a quantity of white lead fcraped from a lump among the wool; which being agitated the powder is carried evenly down to the wound. Too much difcolours the wool ; a little prevents any further harm from the maggots that may be left among the wool, driving them away from the wound ; and, at the fame time, is found topro- mote its healing. In well fhepherded flocks, which are feen regularly twice a day, there is no fuch thing as a broken coat ."* The Foot-rot is another difeafe that frequently attacks meep, and which (hows itfelf by their lamenefs, and the oozing of moifture between the claws, with a highly di {agreeable fmell : as the difeafe advances it gets under the hoof,throwing out proud flefli. Jt is fuppofed infectious from its fp reading rapidly when not immediately eradicated. The part mould be pared and cleaned without touching the quick, and thegravel diflodged, if there fliould be any, as foon as the diforder is difcovered ; the iheep being removed from the reft of the flock. A fo lution of the following in gredients fliould then be dropped on the part, and the foot be kept dry and free from dirt: two ounces of blue vitriol, the fame quantity of roch-alum, one ounce ofverdigris, and a quarter of an ounce of muriated quickfilver diiTolvcd in a quart of good diflilled vinegar.f The Scab is a cutaneous difeafe, fomething like the itch. When mild, and, the cure attempted in time, warning with tobacco- water will often remove it without rifk. And fulphur ointment (till more effectually. But when the difeafe is more virulent, the cure isoften attempted by the applica tion of the common blue ointment of the (hops, compofed of quick (ilver and hogs jard, in the proportion of two ounces of quickfilver to fixteen ounces of lard: a pound of the ointment being fufikient for four fheep. The greateft caution fliould however be ufed in applying this ointment, efpecially with ewes that have lambs, as the latter are liable to be deftroyed by being falivated. It fliould be laid on very fparingly in flieds at four or five inches apart. The Rubbers -art a fort of itch, in which the animal rubs itfelf to death, being gradually exhaufted in confequence of not beingable to feed. No effectual remedy has yet been difcovered.:}: The above may be tried. Sheep are very liable tobe affected with blindnefs from cold, and ofcourfe expofccl to much danger from ponds, precipices, &c. The cure is fometimes attempted * Rural Economy Midland of Counties. + CorrctSted Report of the North Riding of Yorkfliire* J- Iiincolnfbire Report. Live Stock. Sheep. Rot. Turn or Giddy. * by opening the vein below the canthus or inner angle of the eye, called the angular vein, then, by holding the creature s head in an inverted pofition, to make fomedrops of the blood fall into the eye,which operate two ways in effecting a cure of the ophthalmia; firft by moderating theincreafed action of the veflels of that part, which is the proximate caufe of the inflammation; and, fecondly,the blood being admitted into the eye of the animal will act, by reafon of its mildnefs and its warmth, as an emollient, which alfo contributes towards a cure. After this operation the white fpeeks on the eye are removed, and the fight completely restored. For this purpofe fome pound a little glafs, that is blown into the eye with a quill open at both ends, which by its friction wears off thefe fpeeks or fcales.*" A weak Solution of verdigris in diftilled vinegar has alfo been found ufeful occasionally applied by a foft feather. And it is probable that white vitriol might be ufed in the, fame way with advantage. The Rot is a difeafe with which fhecp are frequently affected on moift wet lands, ft is an affection of the liver and lungs, attended wkh a dropfy, and hitherto incur able. The chief thing to be depended upon in thefe cafes is that of changing the iheep to a dry Situation, or keeping them warm and flickered, and giving them dry. food in the yard+. On this Subject a curious fact or two are Stated in the Survey of Lincolnshire. It is obferved that in rotting years " the flieep that feed on the fait Hiarmes, over which the fpring tides come, fell very high in confidence that they are fafe." And it is added, " that a Shepherd,, who, when young, was Shepherd s boy to an old man who lived at Netlam, near Lincoln, a place famous for the rot, told Mr. Neve, that he was perfuaded Sheep took the rot only of a morning before the dew was well off: at that time they folded, being open field. His matter s Shepherd kept his flock in fold always till the dew was gone; and with no other attention his iheep were kept found, when all the neighbours loft their flocks J." The Turn or Giddy is a diforder with which thefe animals are often feized. This- is probably a fpecies of hydrocephalus,or an encyfted collection of water in the head betwixt the dura and the pia mater, which in thefe creatures is always accompanied with a vertigo^ or continual turning about. In LincolnShire,where it is termed "fturdy or bladder on the brain, there is an old fellow, near North Somercots, who trepans- * Perthfhirc Corredled Report. f Report of Yorkshire. J Much light has been lately thrown on the nature of this difeafe by Dr. Harrifon in his * Inquiry. into the Rpt. in Sheep and other Animals*" VOL. ii, 4,X Livt Stock. Sheep Red-water~^Brary, fyc. for it, and HUTS as many as he lofes. He raifes the fkin with a (harp ftrong hooked knife over the fpot affected, about the fize of a crown piece ; he then raifes nearly the fame fize of the fkull-bone, letting the piece hang as by a hinge on one fide; then with a quill cut flanting to a point, like a fpear, and barbed on each fide, he fifties in for the bladder, and brings it out whole, putting down the bone again, and covering with a plafter. It is fiated by the author of the Experienced Farmer/that pulling iheep violently by the ears, and then cutting them off, in thefe cafes has with him effected a cure. Sheep in this fituation among the South Down fheep-farmers arefaid to be pateri/b.* The Refp or Red-water is another diforder to which fheep are expofed. It is fuppofed to be induced by taking too much watery or fucculent food, as turnips, rape, clover, eddifh, and fuch like rich vegetable produce. It is not peculiar to iheep feeding on turnips or rape, as has been fuppofed. The ufe of common fait, and frequent driving about, has been fuppofed beneficial; and it is faid that the dif order may be prevented by having recourfc to dry food in the night, when the iheep are feeding on thefe fucculent plants. The Braxy t as it is termed in Scotland, and which feems to be of the nature of the gajlritis is probably the fame difeafe as the above : it is faid, to be not only the moft fatal of all the difeafes of fheep but to have hitherto bafHed all the fldll and art of man. Some farms are more liable to this difeafe than others, and it was altogether unknown in the Highlands until they began to introduce a new breed, and to leave their fiieep at all feafons in the fields. A change of grafs, efpecially to clean grafs or clover forage, in the latter end of autumn, has often been tried fuccefsfully. The only remedy, indeed, feems to be to try to prevent a difeafe which, after infection, " has in all inftances been found hitherto incurable." It is found moft fatal within the region of the hoar froft, as it makes lefs havoc, and is fcarcely felt in fituations which are more elevated and more remote from the tracts of rivers, marines, or large bodies of frefh water. " As an antidote again (I this diftemper the fiieep are fornetimes "chafed with dogs, and not allowed to remain long at once without being difturbed at the .fcalbn in which danger is apprehended; for whenever a (heep flops after having ibeing annoyed, he pafies water : and as the bladder is generally burfl of fuch fiieep -* Suffolk Report, 4 to Edition. Live Stock* Sheep Horfts Breeds and Properties of. 707 as die of the brxay, a part at lea ft of the complaint may be a ftoppage in the urinary pafTage."* The Black-water is adifeafe to which the bft lambs are often fubject in ths autumn. They moftly die very fuddenly. The. be ft preventative in this cafe is fuppofed to be that of keeping. them in dry ftubbles, or where the grafs is very dry. The Skit sin lambs, both white and green are probably beft removed by the ufe of a decoction of chalk and hartihorn-fhavings, with a fmall proportion of tincture of opium. Sheep are liable to various other complaints, but they have been dc- fcribcd in fo vague a manner, and the remedies propofed are of fo doubtful a na ture, that it could be of little utility to mention them It is probable that by the ufe of falt,efpecially in wet feafons, and on the wetter forts of landi where flieep.hufbandry is practifed, much advantage might be gained, in the health of the iheep being better preferved, efpecially if fome fort of dry- food was had recourfeto at the fame time. It is a fubftance commonly employ _ ed in the meep-management of moft other countries, and of which the animals are particularly fond, though the quantity confumed ib not great. The practice is to allow the fheep to lick it up from (hallow troughs. The heavinefs of the duty upon it is, however, a great bar to its being made ufe of in this way. Horfes. Thefe animals are indifpenfably neceflary, whether they be confi- dered in regard to the faddle, or performing the bufinefs of the road or the farm. The circumftances which denote a good horfe, whatever the nature of the breed or variety may be, are that the head be fuitably fmall in proportion to the animal, the noftrils expanded, the muzzle fine; the eyes bright and prominent, the ears clofe, fmall and erect ; the neck proceeding with a gentle curve from between the fhoulders, fo as to join gracefully to the head, the moulders well thrown back, imperceptibly finking into the neck at the points, the arm or fore thigh mufcular, tapering fo as to meet a fine, finewy, ftraight, boney leg, the hoof circular and wide at the heel ; the cheft deep and full at the girth, the loin or fillets broad and ftraight ; the body round, the hips or hooks not wide, the quarters long, the tail fet on fo as to be nearly in the fame right line as the back ; the thighs ftrong and mufcular, the legs clean and fine-boned ; the leg-bones rather flat than round. f For the ufes of hulbandry the chief properties to be confidered are, however, thofc of ftrength, activity, hardinefs, and true draught. * Dr. Robertfon i Survey of Pefthfhire. f Culley on Live Stock. 4X2 708 mj Stock. Horfes. Cleveland-b ays Buffo tk-pvnches Clydesdale. The breeds of horfes have in general been confidered as only two; the blood r race-breed, and the black cart-breed. But whether this divifion be well found ed or not, the varieties are drftinguifhable from each other with equal cafe by the appearances which they prefent. The true bred blood-horfe is much too fine for the purpofes of hufbandry ; but when judicioufly crofted with the ftrong fort of cart-horfes, improved horfes for this ufe, as well as that of the faddle and light carriages, may be produced. By fuch means the acflion, fptrit, and pleafantnefs of horfes may be greatly improved. The Cleveland-bays are a breed or variety of horfes that have derived much ad vantage in this way. They are principally diftinguifhed by their colour, which is moftly bay, their form good, their fize large, and their activity, ftrength, and har- <lincfs fuperior to moft other forts.* With full-blood ftallions this variety is faid to afford excellent hunters and faddle-horfes ; and with half-bred ftallions, excel lent carriage-horfes and for the plough. They move quick, and are capable of great exertion. This valuable fort of horfes is produced in different parts of Yorkfhire, Durham, and Northumberland. The Suffolk-punches are another ufeful fort of horfes for the purpofe of the farmer. They are diftinguifhed by the colour, which is moftly yellowifh or forrel ; by having a white ratch or blaze in the face ; by the head being large ; ears wide ; muzzle coarfe; fore end low; back long, butftraight; fides flat; moulders too far forward ; hind quarters middling, but rather high about the hips ; legs round, and fhort in the pafterns ; deep bellied ; full in the flank; not large in fize.-j- This on the whole, though, but an ordinary fort of horfe in regard to form, is found highly ufeful in draught, efpecially for the plough and cart. Thefe horfes are very hardy, and capable of performing more labour than moft other forts. They are moft prevalent in the diftric~t of High Suffolk. The Clydesdale borfes are likewife a kind of horfes that anfwer well for the bu- fmefs of agriculture, efpecially in hilly diftricts. They are diftinguifhcd by the colour, whkh is moflly grey or brown, neck longer than in the Suffolk kind, head better formed, eyes more fprightly and animated, body lighter and better formed, legs clean and finewy, ftep firm but nimble;;]; lize larger, from fifteen to fixtcen and half hands. This is a ftrong, hardy, and adive fort of horfes, which is faid to have been * CuHey on Livc Siock. | Ibid. J Anderfon s Recreations in Agriculture, &c. r I ** - I r,. xxx Vet. 2 , f > . <M ^^- Lvot Stock. Horfes Heavy Blacks Welch and Scotch Breeding of. 70$ produced by eroding Scotch mares with Flanders ftallions. They are remarkably true in the draught. This fort of horfes is predominant in the diftricl which bears their name in Scotland. The Heavy Black horfes are a fort that may be employed with ad vantage for fomc purpofes of draught, but are not in general well adapted to the ufes of the farmer. This kind is diftinguifhed by the colour, being conftantly dark black ; by being clumfy in their form, and feldom well proportioned : flow in their motion : with rough flemy legs ; the lize large. This breed of horfes is found to prevail in the Midland diftricts, as in Leicefter- {hire, Derbyfhire, Lincolnfhirc, &c. where the mares are chiefly employed in farm- labour, the horfes being difpofed of according to their fizes, the largeft for dray- horfes, the next for draught in waggons or other teams, and the fmalleft for the purpofes of war. The Wtlcb and Scotch borfc* are in general too fmall for the purpofes of agri culture. It is evident from the nature of thefe different forts, that for the purpofes of farm labour horfes muft be chiefly felected from the Clevelands, the Suftblks, and the Clydefdale kinds, the firft affording fuch as are adapted to great exertion and difpatch, the improved fort of the -Su ffolk kind being well fuited to field-work, where much perfeverance is required, as they can be conftantly employed in this fort of labour without inconvenience. And the lafl fort, from the great mufcular exertion that can be occafionally employed, as well as from their being true in the draught, are particularly fuited, to hilly fituations. Inrefpect to economy in keep, and the expenfe in procuring, the two laft forts are probably to be preferred, as they are both very hardy in their difpolitions, and can in general be obtained at eafy prices. From the great advantage that has lately been found by employing, even for the purpofe of draught, in the more heavy forts of carriages, fuch horfes as have a little of the race or blood kind in them, the ufe of the heavy breeds is becoming daily lefs frequent and neceffary. The practice of breeding horfes, as it requires a great extent of pafture-ground and capital, from the great number of mares that mult be conftantly kept, and a deal of nice and attentive management in the fervants that are employed, it is only in particular fituations and circumftances that it can be attempted with fuccefs, as where the proportion of xroarfe paftu re-land, that cannot be converted to the purpofe of grazing or fattening animals on the farm is confidevable. Thi* 7 if) Live Stock, Horfis Breeding and Rearing of. is the cafe in the fens and marfhcs of Lincolnfhirc, and fame parts of the North Ridin" 1 of York (hi re,* as well as other diftriclis : In fuch fituations, however, with proper knowledge, and due care in the management, great advantage may often be derived. Wherever this fyftem is undertaken, the fame care and judgment muft be exercifed in (electing fuch mares and ftallions as are the moft fuitable for the particular purpofe which the farmer has in view in breeding them, as have been recommended in the propagation of other forfs of live ftock, as without this fort of attention it is impoflible that the greateft: benefit can be obtained. The too common cuftrom of breeding from any mare that may chance to be in the pofTeffion of the farmer mould never be adopted. It is only by covering well-made and tried mares by ftallions that are equally well-formed and known fortheir good qualities, whatever the breed may be, that valuable horfes can be produced. Thefeafon of putting the mare to the horfe is th? fpring, as April or May, as in breeding colts it is of material confequence to have the foals dropped early, often fo foon as in February or the preceding month.* In Yorkfhire the moft ufual period of foaling is about May-day, and that of weaning towards the latter end of Sep tember. In the length of time that a mare goes with foal there is frequently conft- derable variation, but it is moftly about eleven months. This is a circumftance that Ihould be kept in mind by the breeder. While with foal, it is of importance that the mare be kept pretty well, as in the contrary cafe the foal is feldom fo fine or healthy. It is a practice with fome farm ers to perform the work of their farms with breeding mares ; but this method requires much caution, and is always attended with a degree of danger. Befides it can jfcarcely ever be worth the farmer s while to breed where the foals will not defray the expenfe of keeping the mares without their performing much work, cither before or after they have foaled. In fome cafes, efpecially with farm-mares, it may, however, be beneficial to work them a little carefully, by way of exercifing them, but they (hould not on any account be hard wrought when with foal or while fuckling. The fcals mould continue to fuck till towards the beginning of October or No vember, the mares being kept as well as poflible, in order that their growth may not * Corrected Reports of Lincolnfhire and the North Riding of York/hire, i Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXIV. Livestock* Horfes Rearing of. 731 be checked from the want of milk while young. When taken from the mares at firft,it is a very good method to let them have an open roomy houfe with a rack and box for their food; and if it communicate with a fmall field or paddock, into which they can run, it is of great advantage in the rearing of the foals, both in the way of food and exercife, as they mould never be too much confined. By being more at liberty they become not only more ilrong and healthy, but acquire more and a bet ter a6lion, which is effential in the horfe. The dry food mould at firft confift of the niceft and moft fweet hay of what- ever fort it may be. Sweet green rouen, where it can be provided, might be very ufeful in this intention. Carrots are likewife found an extremely beneficial fort of food in the rearing of foals. It has indeed been thought fcarcely pofTible to breed horfes to any profit without a confiderable dependence upon them.* Their laxative property isalfo fuppofed by fome highly beneficial in the raifing of foals, j 1 With thefe forts of food it is neccfiary always to make ufeof oats and bran, or pol lard, in fuitable proportions, as it is only by thefe means that thefe young animals can be brought forward in the bed manner. When there is fufticient grafs in the fpring, it is a proper practice to turn the foals out into a convenient dry paf- ture, where there is rather a Ihort fweet bite, and a good fupply of pure water for them to drink at as often as they like. In the fecond winter lefs care will be requir ed than in the firft ; but the fame indulgence, in refpecl to the liberty of their go ing in and out of the fhed at pleafure from the field, mould be allowed. In this mode of rearing foals they will become ufeful at two years old when intended for the work of the farm, and if for fale be in acondiiion to fetch a good price ; which would not be the cafe if they were kept in an inferior way. But there is another circumftance to be taken into the account, which is, that it is this variation in the keep that conftitutes the difference between a good and bad horfe ; which, as it chiefly confifts in the addition of the oatSj is no very great affair, at leaft upon good horfes, whether for faddle or work. Upon horfes of low value it will not probably repay the breeder to befrow this fort of keep upon them. It can fcldorn be advifable for farmers to purfuc it in horfes that are worth lefs than from twen. ty-five to thirty pounds at four years old ; where oats are made ufe of as a part of the food of young horfes, care mould be taken that they arc really given to them. % * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXIV. -f FA-pcrienccd Fanhrr, vol. -If; 7 1 Live Stock. Horfes Method of Caftrating. In fomc parts of Yorkfhire the farmers, inftead of breeding foals, purfue the fyttem of buying colts in yearly, when two or three years old, which they keep- till four or five, ufing them for the purpofes of the farm : they are then fold to the London or other dealers. By this management their ftock is kept up,and they make a confiderable annual profit,befides having the internal work of the farm perform- cd. They are principally employed in the plough, and in many cafes not fhod till the period of being fold. When intended for the carriage, this eafy fort of work is found of advantage in rendering them- more quiet and tractable.* Ir* ether diftricts it is the practice to buy in at three years old,in the autumn, keep them, during the winter on ftraw, work them a little in the fpring, and fell them in the latter end of fummer at the fairs in the vicinity,, by which method good judges make money. + The Yorkfhire farmers, who maftly raife their foals from their working mares>>, are often careful not to allow the foals to fuck till the udders of the mares coming- from work have been well bathed with cold water, and a great part of the milk, drawn away. The propriety of caftraring horfes has been difputed by fome, as being difadvan-* tageous in the lofs of vigour that it caufes. The practice certainly proceeds on th e principle of facrificing a portion of the ftrength of the animals to the convenience of managing them. This, in many inftances, is without doubt neceflary as wellas^ convenient ; but there can be no difficulty, by proper management, in making ftallions perform the bufinefs of a farm, which, from their fuperior ftrength, is fuppofed by forne, on experience,, to be executed with great advantage over that of ufing geldings, t Where the operation of gelding is to be performed the beft time is probably when the foal is about three months old, though fome prefer a much more advan ced age, as fix or twelve months, and even more in fome cafes. In all animals- there is, however, the leaft danger of inflammation while they are young in perfor ming fuch operations.. Be fides, it is better to cut colts before they have any pro- penfity to hanker after the mares and get bad habits . When the foals are early s and the weather is not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June may be a good and proper feafon. * Corre&ed Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yorkfhire. f Corrected Agricultural Report of Lincolnfhirei. I Anls of Agricultuic, vol. XXXVI. | Experiencea Farmer, Vol. II. Livestock* Horfes Method of Cujl rating Management of. 713 Some of the Yorkfhire breeders, however, think that they find advantage in de ferring the operation till the horfes are two years old, as they fuppofe (f they become ftronger and handfomer for it." And where the operation is done at one year old they find that the foals have not recovered the check they fuftained by weaning before they experience another in this operation. They experience no more difference in their recovery at two years old than one. The foals fliould be kept up fome time before the gelding is to be performed. In performing the operation the bed method is that of cutting open the fcrotum or cod, with a fharp knife for the purpofe, dividing the fpermatic cords and veffels, taking out the tefticles, and then fecuring them by means of ligatures, clofing the wound immediately, the ends of the ligatures being left out at fome part, fo that they may be drawn away as fuppuration advances. This is much better than the old practice of fearing with a hot iron, or the more recent one of caufing the fepa- ration of the fcrotum and tefticles by Iwitcbing or tying them tight with a fmall firing. In the breaking of horfes there is feldom much trouble if the bufinefs be well managed, and undertaken fufficiently early. In farm-horfes the beft method in. probably that of haltering the foal as foon as it is taken from the mare, leading it from place to place till it becomes perfectly quiet and manageable ; then to have it tied in the ftall, and cleaned in the manner of the other horfes, accuftomingitto have its feet taken up and cleaned when necefiary. Thefe methods fhould be continued tillit becomes perfectly tractable ; it may then be put into the middle of the team in proper harnefs, fo as that it may be forced about by the other horfes, without having any thing to draw. When it is quite gentle in this fituation it may be backed, if that has not been done before. In order to give it a mouth, a fmall bit mould be let hang loofe in its mouth till it becomes accuftomed to it, and then it may be managed in any way at pleafure, being taught not only to walk, but trot, and even gallop well. In this treatment it foon becomes perfectly tractable and fit for any ufe on the farm. In making young horfes, as two-year old colts, up for fale in the autumn, the Yorklhire breeders turn them into good grafs, taking them up about a week before the period of felling to reduce the carcafe, improve the coat, and teach them to lead. They aremoftly difpofed of to fale with their full tails. Mames of bran, ground oats, and boiled corn, are then given them by thefe perfons for two or three VOL. ii. 4 Y 714 Live Slock. Horfes. Different forts of Teams compared. months, and various ether operations praelifcd upon them in order to render them more faleable.* it is aqueftion that has been much agitated,\vhether horfes or oxen are the moil economical and advantageous for the purpofes of the farmer in performing his work, and which is not yet fully decided. The circumftances in which the latter have been chiefly fuppofed to be more advantageous than the former, are in their being kept at lefs expenfe,and their not declining in value. But thefe when examin ed, are probably not fo decifive of their fuperiority as they may at firft fight appear ; for where the work of the farm is done by the younger fort of horfes, which is per haps the belt method, the decline in value cannot be of any material confequence, while the fuperiority in point of the difpatch of work is very great. And in re gard to the keep, as oxen cannot perform their labour well in continuance without oats or fome other fuftenance of a fimilar kind, it would feem not improbable but that young horfes may pay nearly as well as oxen, and be kept with little dif ference in the expenfe. The principal difference appears to be in the oxen being fupported at lefs expenfe when not employed. But horfe-teams under proper- management fliould never be unemployed. The common opinion, that oxen are fuperior to horfes in the tillage of heavy lands does not appear to be well founded, efpecially where drawn in yokes, as the poaching muft be greater than by horfes working at length. But when in harnefs they may, from their greater fieadinefs, be preferable. Under different manage ment they are confequently capable of being employed in both ways. Horfes are however greatly fuperior to oxen, where quick motion is of more importance than the Heady drawing of heavy weights ; and alfo in carting, where great fpecd is required in the unloaded ihte j and wherever the roads or lands are rough, fharp, and ftoney, as they cannot be mod fo well as horfes to ftand fuch roads. In harrowing with light harrows, where a jumping irregular motion is neceflary, horfes are likewife faid to be the moil proper, -j- Mr. Young, in his valuable Calendar of Hufbandry, has however well remarked, that " there are two cafes in which oxen are certainly more beneficial than horfes : Firft, when a farmer lives in a diftricl: where there is a breed of cattle well adapted * ComAed Agricultural Report of the North Riding of Yoikffeire, f Annals of Agriculture, ?ol. XXXVI, Live Stock. Teams Methods of. feeding. 715 to work ; and, fecondly, when his farm is fo large that he can buy in a confidera- ble lot of cattle annually, at a fmall expenfe per head, and feel no inconvenience in turning out fuch beads from the teams to fattening as do not work well. In both thefe cafes he has little doubt of the fuperiority of oxen to horfes. But in countries that do not pofTefs a breed of cattle well adapted for work in the date of oxen, and on fmall farms, whence fairs mud be attended at the didance of a hundred miles to purchafe a few, and confequently at a great expenfe per head, and podibly without land for fattening any, the benefit will be very quedionable. In fuch a cafe he mould prefer the bulls of the country, which are everywhere to be procured probably much cheaper than oxen ; are broken in with but little difficulty ; which work well, and which will recover from fatigue fooner than any ox. This he be lieves from what he has experienced, and from all the information he has procured, is dating the quedion of the comparifon of horfes and oxen as nearly to the truth as it can be done in few words. There are, however, forrie works in the bufinefs of a farm in which horfes are better than either oxen or bulls, and therefore it may be advantageous to keep a few horfes.*" * In comparing the expenfes in the different forts of teams, it is remarked, in the Survey of the North Riding of Yorkfhire, that where young horfes are employed in the cultivation of farms during their growth, and then fold, the horfe-tcam will be the mofl profitable. But as this mode can only be limited where blemiihed, aged, or other horfes worn out are made ufe of, the ox-team will be moft advantageous both to the farmer and the public. The following llatements fliow the advantages of the different methods: Expense of Horse-Team, per Annum. DEBTOR. CREDITOR. / s - d . S. d. One three-year old horfe 1400 By labour 200 days in the year, One four-year old horfe -* IS fuppofitig them to plough one Hay, or grafs, for two horfes at 4s. acre one rood per day, which, per week each, for fifty-two weeks 20 16 at 5s. per acre, is 6s. 3d. per Corn for ditto, 200 days, at one peck day, but deducing 2s. per day and a half each day nine quarters for the man s wages their la- three bufhels, at 18s. per quarter - 8 8 9 bour will be 4s. 3d. per day 42 10 @ One years intereft of the firft coll of The improved value of the four- the horfes - 1 12 year old horfe 18 00 Shoeing - . 150 A five-year old horfe, fold for - 2 2 Q Profit - 18 8 3 . S2 10 O . 82 10 * 4.Y2 716 LmStoclt. Teams Methods of feeding of, The feeding of teams, whether of horfes or oxen/ is a point that demands much care and attention, as a want of economy in this refpecT: may leffen the profits of the farmer in a very material degree, as is evident from the greatnefs of theconfumptiors of expenfive food. It has been found, that working horfes, without being fed too highly, or fo as to improve in flefh, have confumed in the proportion of twenty pounds of gopd hay each in the courfe of the day, with a weekly allowance of two Expense of Ox-Team, per Annum. DEBTOR. . s. cl A pah of four-year old oxen - 22 Hay, or grufs, for ditto, fifty two weeks, at 3s. each 35 12 Jntereft of the firft coft of the oxen - 1 2 Profit - - 16 6 .55 CREDITOR. By labour 200 days, fuppofing them to plough one acre per day, which, at 5s. per acre, is 5s. per day, but deducting 2s. per day for the man s wages their labour will be 3s. per day - Suppofe the oxen are worked two years, the value of them at fix years old would be about 281., which makes the improved va lue in one year . 9. d. 30 25 .55 Expense of Horse-Team, per Annum. DEBTOR, . . d. By wpar and tear of two horfes value 301, fuppofing them to laft ten years 3 To intereft of prime coft 1 Hay and grafs Corn - Shoeing and farriering Profit o 1 10 20 16 8 8 1 5 7 12 CREDITOR. By value of their labour By value of their fkins, 22f 12 .42 12 Live Stock. -^-Teams-^Mcthods of feeding of. 717 bufhels of oats each and chaff. With a fmaller allowance, which is often made by farmers, they cannot be kept conftantly at work without failing off in condition, by which there muft ultimately be a lofs to the farmer. The above allowance is neceflary for about twenty weeks during the winter.* Expenfe of Ox-Team per Annum. JDEBTOR. Intereft of prime cod of a pair of four- year old oxen, value 221. -.12 Hay, or grafs for ditto - 15 12 Rifle and accidents - - 010 Profit * - 13 16 d. CREDITOR. By value of their labour r SupjHjfing them worked fix years, the value of them would be then 281. bearing an annual profit of - 30 s. d. Q 100 .31 .31 The profit of two oxen work ing one year, is . Ditto, of two horfes But as you muft keep one fourth more oxen to do the work of two horfes, the profit of working your farm with oxen would be one fourth more 13 16 7 12 639 3 Q If therefore, the labour which required two horfes to per form it, were performed with oxen, the profit of the oxen would be greater than the profit of the horfes, by . 9 12 9 " Thus, four horfes working upon a farm, do not appear to leave as much profit, by this laft mode of cultivating it, as five oxen would, by the i um of 19!. 5s. 6d. ; while the former mode of cultivating it by horfes would leave a profit of four guineas in favour of the horfes, the balance, therefore, on the whole, is in favour of thp oxen, by the fum of 151. Is. 6d." * The keep in a team of four horfes, may be eftimated in this way, according to the preterit prices of the different articles of food, 718 Live Stock* Teams Modes of.lcffcning Expenfes of. To lefTen the heavy expenfe of keeping farm-horfes it has been fuggefted that there are only two methods, one of which is not to turn them out in the fummer, but to have them foiled conftantly in the ftahles or yards with lucern, tares, and clover, as in this way, where littering is properly attended to, the manure that is produced will nearly balance the expenfe of the keep, befides avoiding various incon veniences attending the pafturing of horfes in the fields. The other mode is that of fubftituting carrots in the place of oats as a winter food, a practice com mon in the county of Suffolk, and attended with much fuccefs.* Estimating the prime cod of carrots to the farmer at three pence the bumel, and that of the oats at ten millings the quarter,! anc ^ allowing the cuflomary quantity of one bufhel of carrots a day againft the two bufhels of oats in the week, the horfe at carrots con- fumes in the proportion of is. gd. a week ; while that at oats is 2s. 6d. Befides,, the fuperiority of this proportion of carrots to that of the oats, in the fupport of the horfe, is very confiderable ; probably five bufhels of carrots per week would be equal to it, as in thisdiftricl: they confider a bumel a day feeding highly . But, befides this excellent root there are others that may be made ufe of in feeding horfes in order to fave oats j boiled potatoes, with a little chaff, and a few carrots, have been attended with perfect fuccefs in the trials of Mr. Guthrie in Scotland, keeping the horfes in fine order without any oats.H And in England they have been applied in the fame way with fimilar fuccefs. There is another point to be regarded in the feeding of horfes, in order to its being done in the moft economical manner, which is that of having as much of their dry fodder as poflible, fuch as hay and ftraw of different kinds, cut into chaff, be fore it is given to them with their other food. And it is probable that by having the oats broken or bruifed, not ground, as has been often recommended, fome fav- Winter-food -To 7 tons of hay at 41. per ton To2 6 quarters of oats at Q8s. per quarter Summer-food To grafs 26 weeks at 20s. per week To 13 quarters of oats - J. 108 12 Or per horfe without chaff, 271. 2s. * Annuls of Agriculture, vol. XXXVI. Thefe prices are much too low for the prefent, but they ferve to fhow the^difference in the expenfe. i Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXVI. H Ibid. Lice. Stock. Teams Jfodts qflefftning E^peiifcs of. 719 ing in that expenflve article may be made,* though it has been contended by Tome that horfes do not thrive fo xvell when the oats are prepared by grinding-. It is probable that, when reduced into too fine a ftate, they may not be fo well digested, from their being fvvallowed more greedily, and without thefaliva of the animal 1 be ing f> intimately blended and combined with the fubftance of them, as when left fo as that fome degree of chewing becomes neceffary. But even when given in the whole ftate, fome horfes f wallow much of them without due maftication, as is ob vious from their being voided in a perfect ftate, and fo little changed as to be ca pable of fupporting poultry and other granivorous birds. Confequently fome- thing in this matter depends upon the habits of eating in the horfes. By the ufe of barley inficad of pats, perhaps fome degree of faving might be made, as that fort of grain would go farther than oatsin the fame proportion. It has been objected to in this intention by fome, from its fuppofed heating quality : but from its having a more laxative or opening property than oats, it would feem to i have the contrary effect ; and as a proof of which, it is found to be the ordinary food for horfes in moft hot countries, f It may probably be more unfavourable from its aperient property in many cafes, in the feeding of horfes, than that of its fuppofed heating tendency. Experience has however fhown that it is a hearty and nutritious food when applied in this way. J. In fituations where thefurze or whin plant-can be grown with facility, a degree of faving in the hay as well as corn may be effected by the ufe of it, cut green while young, and bruifed in mills for the purpofe. It has been found from fome expe riments that an acre will afford fifteen tons of this fort of food, and by others as much as will feed fix horfes for fix months. [| In the feeding of ox-teams equal care and attention is neceffary to fee that while they are perfectly well fupported no wafte of food is made, which is often the cafe with incautious feeders. When at hard work in the autumn and beginning of the fpring feafons, they mould have a good fupply of hay, ftraw, and cut- chaff, with a daily allowance of fome fort of roots, fuch as turnips or carrots, or a fuffici- ent proportion of cabbages, as from forty to fifty pounds weight where the oxen are large. But during the fummer they may be foiled in the flails or yards in the man ner of horfes, a full fupply of litter being provided, and water for them to drink * Lord Dundonald on the Connexion of Chemiftry with Agriculture. t Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXVB. J Lord Dundonald. Ulex Europans. \\ Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXVI. 720 Live Stock* Teams diodes of working of. \vhen wanted. When at plough in the beginning of the autumn, it will be neceflary to give them oats and cut chaff in fuch proportions as may be requifite, as the grafs at that period begins to be lefs nutritious. In the working of teams, whether of the horfe or ox kind, one circumftance is to be conftantly kept in view ; which is, that, as their keep is fo very expenfive, they be always employed ; as it is obvious that if they ftand idle half or a third of their time, the labour that is performed muft coft the farmer double, or a third more than in cafes where they are conftantly at work, and of courfc much lofs be fuf- tained. On arable farms this is particularly neceflary to be attended to; and of courfe in the autumn and winter, when the bufinefs of the plough is at a ftand, other forts of team-work, fuch as carting, in the former, on light dry foils, chalk, marie, and clay, and on the wetter grafs lands, manure, in fmall carts ; and in the latter, in frofts, manures of the compoft or other kinds, removing various forts of earthy materials from borders and other places, for mixing with or forming the bot toms of dungfteads ; and when the weather is open, in taking the corn, and bring ing manure, or any other bufinefs that is to be done; as it muft always pay the farmer to have it accomplifhed in fuch circumftances as that the team muft otherwife re main unemployed. The keeping of teams upon poor food, fuch as ftraw, during the winter, in order that they may not be in work, is always bad management, as their labour in the reft of the year muft ftand the farmer very high. In the feed-time the farmer {hould be careful that they perform a proper day s work. It has been obferved by Mr. Young, that in this feafon the farmer " fhould not let them work lefs than nine or ten hours ; but this he will not be able to effect if the ploughmen have to take care of their horfes. It is the beft to have horfe- keepers, for the mere attendance of the teams, fo that the men who hold the ploughs may have nothing to do but the mere ploughing. Let the horfe- keeper have the horfes fed and harneffed ready for the ploughman, to be in the field by fix o clock. At eleven they iliould- come home for an hour and a half to dine and bait, during which time the horfe-keeper is in attendance again. At half an hour after twelve, they fhould go out again, and work till half an hour after five, when the horfe-keeper mould again take the teams. By this method a pair of horfes in a well-made plough will, without any driver, plough an acre and a quarter, or half, very eafily ; and no object is more important, than the plough s doing a good day s work in the fpring of the year. The confcquence, efpecially of making the moft of dry weather in March, is extremely great. One acre ploughed and fowed then may be fairly worth two that are left till the beginning of May." Live Stock Teams Mocks of working of. 7 f j i When the fields are at a diftance, it may however be more advifable to have- the teams baited in them than to come home for the purpofe, efpecially in the autumn and winter feafons when the days are ihort. Where the above management is adopted, a great deal more work will be done -than when the carter or head man\\zs the care of cleaning and managing the horfes, as,in order to give himfelf more time,he takes .every means of fhortening the day s work. An odd man, who can be occafionally employed on other jobs, and fully de pended upon, may be proper to be made Life of as horfe-keeper ; the farmer being attentive to fee that the horfes be well cleaned in the mere concealed as well as other parts.* Mr. Bannifter remarks, that " the management of the plough team varies efien- tially in different counties, and even in different parts of the fame county,whether the labour to be performed as a day s work by the fame number of cattle, the qua lity and quantity of their food, or the ftated hours for baiting and attendance, be confidered. In the eaftcrn part of the county of Kent, the waggoner or head ploughman pays an early regard to his horfes, and baits them continually with chaff and corn from the time of his riling, at four o clock till fix or feven, when the day s work commences ; and in the afternoon, whilft the mate is baiting, the waggoner employs himfelf by cutting caving into chaff, or, where this is not in fufficient plenty, hayandftraw mixed, and fometimes oats in the fheaf. At eight in the evening he goes to bed, and leaves the attendance on the team to his mate, who fits with them till ten, fo that the horfes are left but a few hours to themfelves ; and this diligent attendance is unavoidably neceffary, fince in this part of the county the horfes are not permitted to have any rack-meat, but have generally a full allowance of corn ; whereas, on the other fide of the county, the ftable-door is rarely opened of a morning before five or fix o clock in the winter, and by nine in the evening the horfes are racked up and left to their repofe,-and as by this method of giving the horfes rack-meat the lefs chaff is required, fo there is generally a fufficient quantity of this produced by the thrafher ; if not, the labour of cutting does not often fall to the ploughman, but is paid for by the farmer to apcrfon who is expert at this bufinefs." By the former praclice there is, it is obferved, a referve of a confiderablequan tity of fodder, which, when given to the horfes without limitation, forms a. large item in the rural account at the end of the year, efpecially when the fitua. * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXV. VOL. II. 4 Z 722 Lire Slocks Teams Keeping of in Stalks and tion is within a fmall didance of London, or any place of confiderable note, where hay ufually fetches a large price; to which may be added the advantage which the horfes reap from the condant attendance that mud necelfarily be paid to them when baited in that manner: befides, the fervants are kept continually in their work, and prevented from loitering away the afternoons at the ale-houfe, or the fmith s (hop, as is too frequently the cafe with thofe who have more leifure on their hands ; a great expenfe is likewife faved, which mud otherwife be paid, for cutting chaff. On the contrary, where the more general cudom of allowing rack-meat to the horfes is pradb fed, the following advantages may be derived: the weekly allowance of corn may be more fparing, and the rack-meat need not be wholly confined to hay, but conlid partly of pea or bean-draw, at thofe times when the labour of the horfes is light ; and in feed-time, or whenever the team is talked with heavy work, though faintfoin, clover, &c, may be allowed them of a night, yet this need not be given in fuch large proportions, which would quickly confume a large quan tity, but be trufTed out in fuch proportion as may be thought expedient, obliging the fervants to tend the horfes with chaff in the afternoon. Under thefe redric- tions, the confumption of fodder may, perhaps, not exceed in value the Iheafcorn allowed to the teams in the former management. A nother circumdance in favour of this practice is its leaving the ploughman at leifure in the afternoon to be employed about occalional jobs, while in the contrary mode the fervants have a jud excufe for refuling to help in any other work than what appertains folcly to the management of their horfes. There is alfoa third confidcration, which may ultimately turn out ofmorecon- fequence than either of the former, and that is the opportunity enjoyed by the farmer who gives his horfes rack-meat, of feeing the dable-door locked up at night and opened again in the morning ; which cannot be fo conveniently done where the ploughman is to fit up late and to rife the next morning at three or four o clock; and thus an object of the mod ferious import is left to the care of perfons who are rarely deferving of any trud ; namely, the danger from fire, as well as the great wade of candles. Some advife the keeping of team-horfes in dables, with fliort dalls for each horfc, fo that he may eat his feed feparately, and be harnefled with more eafe ; the partitions not being carried to the ceiling, in order to admit of a more free circu lation of air ; while others contend for open flicds with racks and mangers fixed below, having a pump and cidern, and a finall yard for them to go into at plea- Live Stock. -~- Teams. Neceflary Proportion of different farms. 723 fure, as in this method they are found to do better without drefling, than in (tables with the ordinary management beftowed by farm-fervants.* In the praclice of the Earl of Darlington it was found to anfwer well. In Suffolk it is likevvife the prac tice with many to turn them into the farm-yard in the nights. The open fhed method with yards does well for feeding on hay and carrots in winter, and foil ing on green food in the fummer, but they fhouldbe conftantly well littered down. It is probable,however,as horfes feldom do very well when much expofed to cold, that the ftable fyftem may have its advantages in the more northern diftricls ; while the open fhed mode may *be preferable in thefouthern parts of the ifland, where the winter feafon is more mild and favourable. Corn-chefts and chaff-bins fhould likewife be provided, and it is of confequence to have them conveniently placed for thepurpofe of feeding the teams. The for mer mould be of fufficient dimensions for containing the weekly allowance of corn for the team, and be placed on blocks of wood on the ground, being furnifhed with a proper meafure and lieve to mix the feed in, with the cut chaff. Each carter Ihould have one, and be provided with a lock and key to it; the chaff-bin muft be placed in the centre of the liable when fmall, and in large ones two may be necef- fary ; they fhould be made from about five to feven feet fquare each.-j~ The expenfes attending teams are liable to vary fo very much, according to the horfes, the manner of feeding, and other circumftances, that it is difficult to ftate it with any degree of accuracy ; but that which is given below is probably pretty near the truth, as the amount of oats for well-fed horfes is moftly found to be about ten quarters, and that of hay a ton and three quarters. Shoeing about lixteen fhillings. The reft of the items being liable to much variation. $ * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXVI. | To 10 quarters of oats, at 28s. per quarter - To 35 cwt. of hay, at 41. per ton To fhoeing .-, To chaff ... ... To farriering .......... To decreafe in value - - - To 26 weeks fummer grafs at 5s. per week 21 6 4Z 2 724 Live Stock. Teams Neceffary Proportion of on different Farms. There is another point in refpecl to teams which it is extremely difficult to af- ccrtain, though it is of great importance to the farmer, which is the proportion of horfes or other animals that are requifite to the extent of land. It is plain that the nature and fituation of the farm, and the method of - h u {band ry. that is pram fed, muft have great influence in regulating the number of horfes or oxen that will be neceffary in its cultivation. It has been obfcrvcd that one team, on a gravelly, iandy,or oth?r light dcfcription of foil, will be capable of performing more labour, or of cultivating a greater proportion of land in a given time, than two on foils of the clayey kind, where the various operations are greatly retarded by their ftiffnefs and adhefion. And that where the fituation of the farm is hilly and uneven, a greater frrength and extent of team will be requifite than in the contrary circum- ftances, in order to anfwer the purpofes of tillage. Where, from the nature or locality of the farm, much road-work is to be performed to a diftance^ a more pow erful and fuller team will be wanted than in other cafes. The proportion of the grafs or feeding land to that of the tillage is likewife to be confidered, in determin ing the number of labouring cattle for the farm, as, where the extent of the for^. mcr is confiderable, there will be lefs work to be performed, and of courfe one team may be fufficient where two would otherwifc have been required.* On hay and dairy-farms the teams are generally fmall, as they require little more than the conveying their different produces to the markets, and the carting of manure, or fuch other materials as may be neceffary in the management of the farms : but as the culture of different forts of green crops is neceffary to the per- fedl and moft economical management of the latter, a fomewhat larger team will, in general, be required. In moft cafes, from three to four horfes will be fufficienc on fuch farms, for from one to two hundred acres, or even more. But on perfectly arable farms, efpecially where the old fallow method of huf- bandry is praclifed on one third or fourth part annually, or on fuch as are cultivat ed under the convertible fyftem, a much greater extent of team will be required. In the latter cafe, however, and in the former alfo, where the improved method of fubftituting green crops for fallows is purfued, confiderable reduction in the number of animals thatconftitute the teams may be made. In the eaftern diftricts, it has been common to employ four horfes on farms that contain only forty acres of til lage-land with a fuitable proportion of grafs. And with feventy or eighty acres * Synopfis of Husbandry. Live- Stock. Difeafis of Horfcs IFminds -SV ;\V//M. 725 uiufer the plough, and thirty or more in the ftate of grafs, fix horfes have often been employed. And in thcfe cafes feldom more than two horfcs made ufe of as a team. In diftricts where not lefs than three or four conftitute a team, the propor tion is ftill higher. But under good management, in the unproved methods of cul tivation, a much lefs extent of team may be fufficient. The bufmefs of for ty acres in tillage, with thirty or more in fvvard, and a few in wood, has been accomplished without difficulty by a pair of good horfcs. And two oxen with one horfb would in many cafes be adequate to the fame extent of land. With two horfcs and four oxen, the labour of an arable farm of from one to two hundred acres or more may be managed without inconvenience. Someadvife the ufe of afs and mule teams in fmall concerns, as highly economical -, the former being hardy and eailly kept, and the latter capable of being worked to a great age. The fmall mules are the moft hardy and ufeful.* The difeafes of horfes are fo numerous that they cannot be fully confidered in a work of this nature ; but it may be ufeful to the farmer to know a few of the moft appropriate remedies in thofe that are the moft common and moft frequently oc- curing in his teams. Thefe are wounds , bruijes, Jprains, warbles , colds, colics JJag- gen, Jlrangles, jaundice or yellows., worms, bolts, glanders, farcy, greafe, mange, &c. In common recent wounds the beft method of treatment is to bring the fides of the divided parts immediately into contact, where it can be done, keeping them in that fituation by flips of adhefive plafter, as by this means they may be the moft expeditioufly healed. Where there is much laceration of the parts, after fuch of them as can be brought into union have been warned and cleaned by a foft fponge, and placed in their proper fituations, and confined in the manner directed ; if on the fir ft removal of the dreffings, which mould not be for fome days, any part re main unhealed, it mould be dreflcd with lint moiftened by the tincture of myrrh, adhefive plafter being laid over it. When in the procefs of healing the granula tions of new flern rife above the furface, they muft be kept down by the ufe of blue vitriol, once or oftener in the day, and proper comprefleSj the other dreffings being wholly difcontinued. If the deftruction of parts be confiderable, in order to promote fuppuration, the application of warm faturnine fomentations or poultices may be ufeful. And in- * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXXVT ? ! J!fi Live Slock. Difeqfes of Hvrfcs. Colds. ~ Colics. flammation mould be guarded againft by bleeding, and the life of nitrous mafhc/, &c. Where circular bandages can be applied they will be found ufeful. Wounds from punctures, as of nails, thorny &c. may be drefled by lint dip ped in the tincture of myrrh, and fecured by adhefive plu fter; the hair being firft clipped away; and the furrounding parts ihould be well bathed with a campho rated embrocation. Greafy applications of all kinds mould be cautioufly avoided in thefe cafes. Irrbruifes, where the fkin remains unbroken, the ufe of difcutient faturninc camphorated wafhes is in general the mofl advifable. Strains take place in different parts in the Ae/diW,lhcy may often be removed by the application of camphorated preparations, as an embrocation compofed of a pint of camphorated liniment, half a pint of opodeldoc, and four ounces of Barbadocs tar, well mixed together, and made ufe of two or three times a day, after bleeding from the plate vein. When in the knee> back-fineiv, or fetlock , much advantage has been found from the application of a cold faturnine poultice to the part, and from a flannel roller pafTed round the leg, and kept constantly Wet with a wafh compofed of two ounces of crude fal ammoniac, diffolved in a pint of vinegar, with two quarts of pure water, and two ounces of vinegar of lead. Warble tumours, arifing upon the backs or fides of horfes, may be removed with facility by the ufe of fait and water, brandy, warm vinegar, or a wafh com- pofed of opodeldoc and fpirits of turpentine in equal parts. Where the fkin has been rubbed off, the compound tincture of myrrh may be ufeful. As tumors and bruifes of this fort often arife from the faddle s not fitting perfectly, by which extraneous fubftances are infinuated, great care fliould be taken in this refpect. Colds,and complaints of that fort, may be beft removed,when mild,byreft, and the ufe of mafhes of bran two or three times a day ; and, when more violent, by bleeding, and the giving of balls compofed of calomel and antimonial powder, each one drachm, powdered nitre one ounce, and treacle fufficient for making them into a ball, which ihould be waflied down with two or three pints of warm oatmeal gruel the bowels being emptied by means of clyflers. In giving thefe, it is ne- ceflary to have a large pipe, as much depends upon it. A powder formed of half a drachm of camphor, one fcruple of antimonial powder, with one ounce each of nitre and anifeed,has likewifc been found ufeful. In colics, when of the fpafinodic kind, advantage may often be derived from Live Stock, Difcafes of Horfcs Staggers Worms* 727 the ufe of balls compofed of one ounce and a half of Venice turpentine and one drachm of purified opium, with two drachms of powdered ginger, the bowels being occafionally cleared by the ufe of clyfters of gruel in the proportion of three or four quarts. Warm gruel, with bruifed carraway feeds boiled in it, may alfo be occafionally given with benefit. The ftaggers is a difeafe that is frequently much relieved by bleeding ; after which, benefit may be produced by the giving of a ball formed of two drachms of calomel, with an ouri;:e of aloes, and two drachms of powdered ginger, made up with honey. Strong clyflers may alfo be had recourfe to with benefit, and mafties of bran, oatmeal, or malt, be frequently made ufe of. In the ftrangles, after taking away blood in proportion to the (late of inflamma tion, advantage may be derived from the ufe of a powder conftituted of one ounce of powdered nitre, a drachm of camphor, with half an ounce of powdered anifecd, given twice a day in a quart of gruel. The horfe fhould be warmly clothed about the head, and mafhes of bran and oatmeal be frequently given. Saturnine fo mentations may be applied frequently warm, by means of flannels, to the tumefied glands ; or a bran poultice may be equally effectual; and much relief may be af. forded to the cough, and forenefs of the throat, by having the horfe to breathe through a nofe-bag of fcalded bran occafionally for a fhort time.* The yellows is a difordcr very common in young horfes, without being attended with fever: in thefe cafes much relief is often afforded by a bolus compofed of one ounce of powdered aloes, a drachm of calomel,and half an ounce of Venetian fbap, given every fccond or third night. And a ball formed of half an ounce of nitre, with an equal quantity of powdered refin and common foap, may be employed with advantage in the intervening mornings. Mafhes and warm water fhould be plen tifully given, and the horfe kept warm by clothing, as well as fully exercifed.f Where worms prevail in horfes, whatever the kind may be, great benefit may be produced by a powder compofed of a drachm of calomel with half an ounce of pow dered anifeed, given in the evening in a little treacle; and in the following morning a bolus formed of an ounce of aloes in powder, with two drachms of powdered ginger and a little treacle ; or a powder formed of half an ounce of aschiops mineral, with an equal quantity of crude antimony and anifeed in powder. With thefe re medies there is little danger of the horfe being injured by cold, or occafion for any alteration in his food. * Denny s Treatife on the Difeafes of Horfes. f Ibid, Live Slock. - Di/tajes of Horfes Glanders Farcy. G-reqfe. "In the botts,which areprobablyproduced from theovas of a flydepofited on the fkin of the animal during the hot feafon, and thence licked in by the tongue, and taken into the ftomach, where they are afterwards hatched, and-adhere to the inner coat,* the fame method of treatment will be found ufeful as in the preceding cafe. When horfes are difcovered to be affected with the glanders, they mould be feparatcd from the others and confined by themfelves, and care taken that they have no fort of communication with the others by any means whatever, as the leaf! thing poffible will communicate the infection: -the fame remedies -fhou Id then be made ufe of as in colds and ftrangles. In the farcy, when thelymphatic fwellings firft prefent them (elves about the legs, a bliftering liniment well rubbed on the parts, as far as the difeafe extends, may often be found effectual in removing the difeafe. Bleeding, to the extent of three or four pints, may likewife be fometimes had recourfe to in the early ftate of the dif- order with fuccefs. In the more inveterate ftate of the complaint, advantage has been found from the ufe of balls compofed of one fcruple of mu dated quicksilver, with half a drachm of camphor, and the fame quantity of purified opium, to which -may be added half an ounce of crude antimony in powder, and two drachms of ginger in powder, with honey in proportion, to make them up into a ball. And another form that is often beneficial, is that often grains of calcined mercury, with half a drachm of camphor and opium, and half an ounce of anifeed in powder, made up into a ball with treacle. Either of thefe balls may be given every other evening, .with mafties two- or three times in the day, to which occafionally a handful of malt may be added. The water in thefe cafes mould be given warm. Rowels may Jikewife be put in the chefl and thighs when neceffary. Cordials and a generous diet mould be had recourfe to, and warm clothing, with gentle exercife daily em ployed. When the diforder is removed, a ball compofed of half an ounce of crude antimony, and the fame quantity offulphur and cremor tartar, with half a drachm of oil of anifeedj may be found very beneficial in refloring the animal. The greafe is a diforder that occurs frequently, and which is beft removed by early -attention. In well-fed horfes bleeding may be ufeful to nvo or three quarts 9 .either from the neck, or the thigh, when local bleeding is preferred. The hair mould be clofely cut from the affected part, which muft be well warned with a -ftrong folution of foap and water, after which a faturnine poultice may be applied warm twice in the day; and when the inflammation difappears, half an ounce of * Denny s Trcatife on the Difeafes of Hcrfes. Live Slock* Difiafis of Ilurfes Greqfe Mange. 729 powdered alum may be added to each poultice, which (hould be continued for fix- or eight days. Warm mames, with an ounce of nitre diflblved in each, mould be given night and morning; and a ball, compofed of half an ounce of nitre in powder, with an equal quantity of yellow refin andfoap, common turpentine being employed to make them up, may be given once a week. Horfes in this fituation {hould have gen tle exercife, with a generous diet, and plenty of liable room and clean litter. When the tumefavflion fubfides, prefTure by woollen bandages may be found ufeful. In Lincolnfliire Mr. Cartwright found that common groundfel given to the horfes in the (table cured greafy heels.* In the mange, after having the parts well wafhed with foft foap diflblved in water, they may be anointed with an ointment compofed of four ounces of fulphur, and two ounces offtrong mercurial ointmentjWith three ounces of hogs-lard, every other day; and a ball, formed of half an ounceof aethiops mineral, and an equal quantity of crude antimony and cream of tartar, given every night for fome length of time, f Great attention is neceflary to diet, exercife, and good grooming. Mafhes, with nitre diflblved in them, arealfo extremely ufeful in this complaint. When the difeafe difappears the horfes mould be turned tografs if the feafon admits. * Lincolufliire Corre&ed Agricultural Report. < Denny on the Difeafcs of Ilorfeft VOL, u. [ 730 ] , SECT. XIL .*~ Swin e Rabbit s Poultry, SWINE Proper Form of Large Breeds of Berk/hire Hampjlilre Shrop- Jhire Gloucefterjhire Herefordjhire Differ en t Properties of Large Breeds Jhould be attended to Small Breeds of Chine fe White, Swing tailed Different Qualities of- What neceffary in the breeding of Utility of convenient Sties Circular Form of advifed by Jllr Young Advan tages of- Expenfe of building of- Age of putting to Boar Produce of Beji Seafons-for rearing Different Sorts Jhould be keptfeparate Proper . Sorts of Food to be provided in Abundance- 1 Crops proper for in this View Proper Proportions of Modes of feeding different Sorts of With Dairy- Wajh Other Sorts ofWaJh Pea-Soup- Boiled and other Roots, Cabbages* fyc. More Sows capable (f being kept in this Management than under the Dairy Syftem Advantages of rearing Pigs only twice in the Year in this Mode Soiling Hogs more beneficial Lettuces ufefulfor Sows with Pigs Mode of cultivating them for Expenfe of Store keeping of various Beft Periods of felling in this Management Advantages of breeding and rearing Pigs Fattening Seafons for Subflances employed in Befl Means of employing them- Advantage of different Sorts of Food in the Pro duction of Pork Pigs pay for Keep equally well as other Sorts of Stock- Modes of curing Bacon, Pork, and Hams Difeafes of Hogs Mange Cracks in Ears Swellings in Udders Proper Remedies for RABBITS Where kept with Advantage Proper Breeds of for Warrens Methods of managing of Statements of Profit of Modes of taking by Nets and Traps. POULTRY Where ufefully kept FOWLS Different Breeds of Proper Conveniences for Management ofinjitting y breeding, rearing, and fatten ing of Expenfes of Mrs. Boys sSyftem of Management of Difeafesof. GUINEA Fowl Ufes of TURKEY Breeds of Proper Management of Meafon of Finenefs of in Norfolk Living and dead Weights of Water SWINE. [ 7SI ] ~T<fl DUCKS Kinds ofBeJl Modes of Management of Utility of in destroying Worms, Slugs, c. on Grain Crops. GEESE Kinds of Proper Modes of hatching attd rearing of Manner of plucking of- Methods of fattening of PIGEONS JVherekept with Advantage -Proper Sorts of Be ft Management of- Dove Cotes Jlionld be kept clean and free from Vermin* BEES May be kept with Advantage in fome Cafes Mojl proper Situations for Methods of pur ch a/ing Stocks of- Beft Conjlruclion of Hives for Profits of FISH-PONDS Advantageous in fame Cafes Methods of con- Jlr u&ing of Expenfes of- Manner of flocking of in different Cafes With Carp, Tench, Perch, 8$c. Profits of under different Circumjlances. A HERE is another defcription of Live Stock, which, though not in general fo much attended to by the farmers, from its confiding, for the mo ft part, of fuch -animals as are of a much fmaller fize, may, under different c i re um (lances and in many fituations, be found to afford a confiderable profit and advantage. Swine. Thefe are a fort of live flock that bring confiderable profit to the farmer, when proper attention is beftowed in the breeding, rearing, and other ma nagement. The well-formed hog mould not be too long, but full in the head and cheek, thick, and rather fhort in the neck; fine in the bone ; thick, plump and full in the carcafs ; full in the quarters, fine and thin in the hide, and of a full fize in proportion to the kind, with a difpofition to fatten well at an early age. The breeds of thefe animals are very numerous, as almoft every diftridr. is in pofTeflion of a different fort. Of the larger kinds themofl valuable breeds are probably the following : The Berkfhire bretd t which is diftinguifhed by being in general of a tawny or reddilh colour; fpotted with black ; large ears hanging over the eyes ; thick, clofe, and well made in the body j legs mort ; fmall in the bone ; difpofition to fatten quickly. This ufeful breed has extended itfelf from the diftrict which furniflics its name, over moft parts of the ifland. It is the fort moftly fattened at the diftilleries ; it feeds to a great weight, and is good for either pork or bacon. The Hampjhire breed of hogs is very large, being longer in the body 2nd neck, but not of fo compact a form as the Berkfliire ; they are moftly of a white colour, and are well difpofed to fatten, coming up to a great weight when properly ma naged* A 2 752 Live Stock. SK tne Shropftire, Gloucejlcrjhire, $c* Breed*. The Shropfiirt heed is another large fort of hogs, which are found valuable where the keep is in fufficient abundance for their fupport. They are not fo well formed as thofe of theBerkfliire kind, or equal to them in their difpofition to fatten. The Gloticeftcr/jire Irecd is likcwife a large breed, but inferior to either of the above, being tall and long; in fhape, and by no means well formed. The colour is in general white. Mr. Marfhall fuppofes this to have been formerly the prevailing breed of the ifland. It is fuppofed to be thinner in the fkin than the Berkfhire breed. The Hereford/hire breed is alfo a large ufeful breed, but without pofTeffing any advantage over thofe that have been mentioned. It is remarked by the author of the Survey of Middlefex, that thelargeft breed in the ifland is fuppofed to be kept about Rudgcwick, on the borders of Suffex and Surrey. They feed to an extraordinary fize, and weigh at two years old nearly double or treble the ufual weight of other forts of hogs of that age. As large breeds pay the farmer the beft in many cafes, fuch a breed dcferves to be attended to. Among the fmaller breeds of thefe animals there is much variety. The Cbinefe breed is diftinguifhed by the neck being thick, the body very dofe, compact, and well formed ; the legs very mort, and the fize fmall ; the flefti deli cate ; the colour various, as white, brown, and tawny. This breed is particularly difpofed to fatten in an expeditious manner, and has, in confequence, fpread over a great part of the kingdom. It is the moft adapted for being ufed as pork, but is much too fmall for being cured as bacon. Another breed of the fmall kind of hogs is met with in many diftricts j it is of a white colour, thick, compact, and well made in, the body ; mort in the leg ; the bead and neck well formed, and the ears flouching a little downwards. It is well difpofed to fatten, and perfectly hardy. The Swing-tailed breed, is an ufeful fort of the fmaller kind of hogs, being har dy in its nature, and of confiderable weight in proportion to its fize. Some farmers prefer mixed breeds, as being more beneficial than either the largeor fmall perfect breeds. Where this is the cafe, theBerkfhire, with a crofsof theChinefe, has been found a very profitable fort, as being capable of feeding to a confiderable weight with a moderate proportion of food. In order to have hogs of the moft perfect kinds the fame attention fhould be paid in the breeding of. them as in other forts of animals, by felecting the moft Live Stock**~Swine Mived Breeds qfManagemerft oj\ $c. 733 perfect and bed-formed males and females of the feveral breeds, and carefully raifing the flock from them. Thqfe intended to be kept as fows and boars mould be conflantly well fed from the ruff, as where they are pinched for food they are never fo fine or healthy afterwards. The breeds of hogs, like thofe of other animals, fhould be provided according to the nature of the keep. Where it is abundant, or cultivated folely for the pur- pofe of the raifing of pigs, the large breeds will moftly be found the moft advan tageous, as the differencein the proportions between the living and the dead pro-- fitable weight is laid by fome to be always the lead in the largefl-fized animals.* It is of the utmoft importance, in the management of fvvine, both in the view of economy in the labour of their attendance, and the raifing of a large proportion of manure, as well as the advantage of the hogs, to haveconvenient flies or piggeries. - The methods of conflructing thefc, with the greateff advantage in thefe different refpe&s, have been defcribed. It is remarked by Mr. Young, that a piggery "mufb be in a circle, or it mufl fail in convenience. In the centre, the boiling or (learning- houfe,with a granary for corn,meal,bran,&c.; a range of ciflerns indivifions around it, for receiving immediately from the copper or fleam apparatus, and alfo by tubes from the granary ; around thefe a path, then the fence, wall or paling, in which the troughs, with hanging lids, for fupplying food -directly from the ciflerns oa one fide, and for the hogs feeding on the other; a range of yards next, and another, of low fheds beyond ; and lafl of all, the receptacle for the dung. The potatoe ftores (pyes as they are called) fhould be at one end or point near to the entrance, and water muft be raifed to the coppers and ciflerns at once by a pump ; a trough or other conveyance from the dairy to the ciflerns, for milk, whey. &c. Such an arrangement will be very convenient, and the expenfe need not be confiderable. To annex a certain fpace of grafs, or artificial grafTes, in divifions, into which the hogs may be let at pleafure, is an addition of admirable ufe if the fpot permit it. Thofe who do not poflefs a convenient pig-apparatus can have little idea of the great ufe of it in making manure. This alone becomes an object that would juflify any good farmer in going to a certain expenfe for attaining fo profitable a part of what Ought to be his farm-yard fyflem. In nine tenths of the farmeries in the king dom it is lamentable to fee fo many parts of a right piggery fcattered and uncon* * Knight in Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II* 734 -LiveStock. Swine Proper Management of. netted, in fuch a manner as to preclude convenience, increafe labour, and prevent the making of dung.*" .It is added that, " with fuch a convenience, all the peafe, beans, barley, buck- * -In a hoggery, built by the author in 1/65, nearly, but not exactly, on this idea, the expenfes were as below : L. s. d. The boiling-houfe 38 18 Copper 13 .0 Pond 400 Pump 1 10 O Citterns - 14 Shed 6 15 G Paling - - 770 .Paving - 10 Troughs - - - 300 Total, befules timber, . 78 JO ^y means of one of thefe yards he fattened eighty-eight hogs in fpring 17 G6, with^only one raan to attend them ; whereas three would not have been fufficient without fuch conveniences. They , *vere littered with nine loads of ft raw and haulm that coft tl. 18s.; and thi* made ninety loads of very rich duijg, valued by feveral farmers on the fpot at 5s. a load. . f. d. Value of dung at that rate 23 10 -Straw, &c. - 6 18 O Profit indung - . 16 12 * But it is obferved that they had not half the litter they ought, or they would have made 351. worth *f manure, beyond doubt, Ninety loads coding 61. 1 8s. is Is. 6d. per load. Thefe particulars, furely, (fays he,) mull prove the vail importance of fuch conveniences for fattening a great number of fwine, for the mere purpofe of raifmg manure. Suppofe theexpenfe, tim- ier included, to be 1 101. and the intereft called 51. what comparifon is there between the expenfe of 51. a year, and the prodigious utility of having it always in your power to fatten, with fcarcely any expenfe of labour, whatever number of hogs you pleafe ? " The total expenfe,at prefent, of fuch yards would not be lefs than 1501. and if made conformably to the more correct idea, -would be 2001. or 2501, But the governing idea of pofilion fhould be followed in fties of 201." Lht Stock, Swine Rearing of. f.lf wheat, potatoes, parfnips, carrots, &c. that are or can be raifed on a farm, rmy be applied to the rearing, feeding, or fattening hogs ; by which means the farmer has the opportunity of improving his land to the highefi degree, and at the cheapeft rate poflible." The fow is capable of propagating at feven or eight months old ; but it is better to defer her taking the boar till ten or twelve months, as fhe becomes more ftrong, and affords better litters of pigs. The period of being with young in the fow is about four months, and the ufual produce from about eight to ten or twelve in rhe- largc, and more in the fmaller breeds, which in general bring the grcateft num ber, and the moil early. The boar mould be a year old or more before he be pur to the fows, as by this- delay he attains a better growth, and is more vigorous. As there is great difficulty and expenfe attending the rearing of young pigs in cold feafons, the farmer fhbuld contrive as much as poflible to have his litters early in the fpring and autumn feafdns, as about the beginning of April, and the latter end of Auguft, or beginning of the following month, as at thefe periods much lefs lofs will be fuftained in* the deatlvo-f the pigs, and lefs expenfe incurred in food. The litters which are pigged in June, or the early part of the following month, fliould always be reared, as -being highly profitable. But it is feldom advifable to keep the late autumn littersi as the.cald -in the winter is almoft fure to deftroy many of them. When fwineare made an objedt to the farmer, great care fliould be taken to have a good boar conftantly along with the fows, in order that a proper fucceflion of young pigs may be produced. By this means the fows are likewife induced to take the boar fooner than would otherwife be the cafe. In the management of hogs it is of great confequence to keep the different forts feparate and diftincl: from each other, as the fows in pig, thofe with pigs, and the ftores, according to their ages. It is only in this way that they can be kept to the moft advantage. At the time of pigging it is neceflary alfo that each fow {hould be kept in a feparate ftie, in order that there may be no interruption or difturbance from the others coming about her. About this period, likewife, more 1 than or dinary attention mould be beftowed on the fows, and the ftics kept but thin ly littered, in order that accidents may be avoided. As the breeding of pigs is a bufinefs that affords the farmer a confiderable profit and advantage in various views, .it is ofeflential importance that he be provided with fuitable kinds of food in abundance fox the fupport of the numerous fows 7 j(5 Live Stock. Sirine Proper Modes oj feeding of. that it will be neceftary for him to keep, and the great number of pigs that muft be railed. Upon this being properly and effectually done his fuccefs and ad van- tao-e will in a oreat rpeafure depend. The crops capable of being cultivated with the OH) ft benefit in this intention are beans, peafe, barley, buck-wheat, potatoes, carrots, parfnips, Swcdifh turnips, cabbages, lettuces, clover, lucern, chicory, &c. The proportions in which thefe crops fliould be grown for this purpofe muft vary according to circumftances ; as the kind of hogs, their extent, and the manner of difpofing of them ; but whatever number may be kept, an equal proportion of root crops ; and thofe of the grafs kind, will be requifitc, with about half as much of thofe of the farinaceous cr grain kind as of thofe of the root fort ; and a quantity of the luxuriant vegetable kind, fully in proportion to the number of hogs that are to be fed on fuch forts of food. In the fupplying of the hogs with food a diftinction is likewife to be made ac cording to the different kinds, in order that the molt maybe made of the food The fows confiderably advanced in pig, and thofe with pigs, mould be fed in a bet ter manner than the ftore pigs The former mould be fupplied with good wafli twice or oftener in the day, and have a fufficient allowance of cabbages, potatos, carrots, or other fimilar vegetables, fo as to keep them in good condition ; which is mown by the glofs of their coats. The fows with pigs mould be kept with their litters in fepaiate Hies, and be ftill better fed than thofe in pig. Where dairying is pradifed, the wafh of that kind which has been preferved for the purpofe while the dairying was at the height, m brick cifterns, conftructed for receiving it from the dairy, muft be given them, with food of the root kind, fuch as carrots, parf- nips, potatoes, and cabbages, in as large proportions as they will confume them, in order that the pigs may be properly fupported and kept in condition. But where the bufinefs of dairying is not carried onfo as to provide wafh of that fort, meal of jfome kind or other muft be had recourfe to for the making of wafh, by mixing it with water, which in the fummer feafon will be fufficient for their fupport ; and in winter it muft be blended with the different forts of roots prepared by boiling, .or, when for the young pigs, with oats and pea-foup.* With this foup anddairy- wafti, where proper attention is bellowed, young pigs may be weaned and reared in the winter feafon even with profit and fuccefs. The pea-foup is an admirable ar ticle when given in this intention; it is prepared by boiling (ix pecks of peasinabout fixty gallons of water, till they are well broken down and diffufed in the fluid i * Young s Farmer s Calendar. Live Slock. Swine Crops proper jor. 73? it is then put into a tub or cittern for ufe. When dry food is given in combina tion with this, or of itfelf, Mr. Young advifes oats, as being much better than any other fort of grain for young pigs, barley not anfwering nearly fo well in this ap plication. We have employed oats coarfely ground for young hogs with the belt fuccefs, both in the form of wafli with water and when made of a thicker confift- cnce. Where the fows and pigs can be fupported with dairy- warn and roots in the manner jutt mentioned, there will be a confiderable faving made by avoiding the ufe of barley-meal, peafe, or bran and pollard. It is therefore highly difadvantageous to the farmer to have recourfe to fuch fubftances in thefe circumftances. There is another point to be particularly regarded in the management offow* and pigs, which is that of keeping them constantly well littered down with clean draw, or fome other fimilar article, as by this means they are kept perfectly clean and healthy, and at the fame time a large quantity of manure is afforded. In the practice of cultivating crops of various kinds purpofely for the food and fupport of fsvine, the fows and ttore-pigs, will of courfe be fupported during the winter feafon, as from the beginning of November to the middle or latter end of May, by the various roots that have been ftored in this view, fuch as potatoes, carrots, parfnips and Swedifh turnips ; alfo cabbages in their frefh (late, in combi nation with the preferved dairy-wafh, and other articles that have been noticed above. At the latter of the above periods the whole of the hogs in the yards fhould b^ looked over and forted ; fuch as have attained half or more of their growth being drawn and turned upon the clover, lucern or chicory crops, where they fhould be kept till towards the latter end of September, the fences being kept in perfectly good order, and ponds or other places provided for the hogs to drink at. Under this management they are found to grow rapidly, the food in general agreeing well with them, and they are then taken up in excellent condition forbeing fattened. In this practice the important difference from the former method is in feledHng the fufficicntly grown hogs from the fows that have pigs and the weaned pigs, and only leaving the latter to be fed with the dairy or other wafh, with fuitable green food, fuch as lettuces, cabbages, tares, &c. by which a much larger flock of breeding hogs may be kept.* The tares and cabbages may be ufed for the fows that have fpring litters, and the lettuces for thofe that have autumn litters. The method of cultivating this plant in this intention, has been already noticed. * Young s Farmer s Calendar, VOL. II. 5 B 73$ Live Sjock* Swine Soiling of advantageous, Thcfe plants arc ofcxccllent ufe for fovvs and pigs, promoting the increafe of milk in a great degree ; they afford great affiftance where the dairies are fmall, and in all cafes tend to prevent the confumption of grain, which is of great importance in hog- management. From the fweet and faccharine quality of the plant, the hogs are not only extremely fond of it, but it becomes highly nutritious. By thefe means the fwine will be well fupported and carried forward till the time the (tub-, bles are cleared, when they may be turned upon them, and thus the whole year be provided for in thefe different ways. But though this fyftem of management is advantageous, that of foiling the hogs in their yards with green food, cut frefh hi the way that has been already directed, is confidered by Mr. Young, not with (landing the increafed expenfe that attends it, and the wafte of a certain portion of the food, as highly preferable on account of the vafl (tore of manure that may be raifed. But it cannot be attempted with propriety unlefs the farmer be provided with abundance of fome fort or other of materials for the purpofe of litter, and fubftances of the peaty or earthy kinds for thepurpofe of covering the floors of the hog-yards, in order toabforb and prevent the wafte of any pertion of the liquid matters that may fall upon them. In this method of proceeding, clover, chicory, tares, and lucern, are the kinds of food-that are mod commonly employed; but there are others that may be brought into their afiiftance when neceffary, efpecially on the flronger forts of lands, fuch as beans eaten green, which afford a large quantity of food in proportion to the land they occupy, the whole ftems being confumed,* and cabbages may likewife be * It is obferved by Mr. Voung, that beans have been grown for ufing while podded and green for ftall-feeding bullocks, they have alfo been cultivated forthe ufe of hogs while green by Mr. Crofs. " He drilled garden beans at three feet, and afterwards turnips in the intervals. When the- beans began to lofe their flowers, and to mow a difpofition to pod they were drawn by hand and given to 38 pigs, 10 weeks old well littered with ftraw, thefe were bought the 18th of May, and were kept on clover till the beans were ready ; the beans being confumed, the pigs were fold the 18th of September for 40/. beyond the prime coft, and they made 40 loads of rich manure. They confumed four acres of beans. To perfons who make it a point of ufing hogs as the means of railing a large quantity of manure (and there is no more effective way of doing it,) thefe hints may, he thinks, be very valuable. Beans ufcd for -this purpofe may be off the land very early, probably much earlier than thefe were, and in time for putting in another crop immediately, either late turnips or cole feed, and the land cannot be in the leaft exhaufted. With this view there mould be a fucceffion of plantings in February, March, and April." ^ The large Windfor and Icng-pod beans are probably the mod adapted to this purpofe, as producin^ she largeft quantity of item in proportion to the land, Lrce, Slock* Swine Methods of fattening of, 739 had recourfe to for the fummer as well as winter food of thefe animals. It is re commended by Mr. Young, that the yards of the hog-flies fhould have gatcsfuf- ficiently large for bringing in carts loaded with the different articles of both food, floors, and litter, as well as for removing the manure that is made. In this management, inftead of a few fows only being kept, as was ufual in com->. bination with the dairy fyftem, great numbers may be maintained, and a great many young pigs be raifed. But in order to derive the great eft advantage from this fyftem of hog-management, Mr. Young thinks it fhould as much as pofliblc be fo contrived that the fows only pig twice in the year, as has been mentioned above; as by this means they will IC never be a long and expeniive feafon for rear ing the pigs before they are put to the ftaple food of clover or potatoes, &c. But thiscircumftance is much removed by the provifion of crops raifed exprefsly for fwinc." In this fcheme of keeping fwine, the fales for lean hogs mould, he obferves, an nually take place in October, the litters of April being then difpofed of as ftores, and thofe of Auguft kept till the fame period in the following year, in order to be fold as baconcrs, when none are fattened on the farm. The expenfe of keeping all forts of ftore-fwine muft obviouflyvary confiderably, accord l ng to the convenience of procuring their food, and the excellence of the management that is purfued. In fuckling-fows it as been cftimated upon the ave rage at from eighteen pence to three millings the week, and while in pig at from one milling to eighteen pence; weaned pigs at firft from one (hilling and fixpence to two millings and fix-pence per head, and afterwards till they are become fully grown at from one to two (hillings each per week. Such calculations muft, how* ever, be liable to differ greatly in different cafes. The breeding of pigs is a fyftem that defcrvcs the farmer s attention, not only as obtaining his pig-ftock at a much cheaper rate than by purt haling at the markets, but as being certain of having them more healthy and well fed, confequently fuch as will anfwer much better in their growth and fattening afterwards. The fattening of hogs is a bufinefs ufually performed at two different feafons of the year, as in October and in February or March: the former is, however, the moft principal period. In this management various fubftances have been recommended ; but thofe moft commonly employed are fome fort of farinaceous material, with fkimmed milk, and dairy or other kinds of wafii. For the fmaller forts of fattening hogs, coarfely ground oats, mixed, with thefe wafiies, are ex- c B 2 740 Live Stock. Swine Methods of fattening of. cellcnt. Barley meal and pollard are likewife frequently made ufe of for the pur- pofe with much fuccefs. The meals of peafe and beans, when given in fufticient proportions for the purpofe of fattening, are apt to heat them too much, and produce a difficulty of breathing ; but for the large or full-grown hogs, pea meal^ or peafe ungroundare probably the beft material that can be made ufe of. A por- rion of bean meal, or whole beans, may likewife be given occafionally with advan tage, as both thefe articles contain a much hrger proportion of nutritious matter in the fame bulk than any fort of grain, and are more lading in their effects on the- fyftem, from their undergoing the procefs of digeftion more flowly, perhaps on account of their containing a larger proportion of oil in their compofition.* Malted barley given whole has likewife been found highly beneficial in the fatten ing of hogs, the quantity of faccharine nutritious matter being thus greatly aug- mented.f Aeorns in the fame ftate have likewife been found to fatten hogs, but they cannot be depended on as a food for this ufe. Potatoes and carrots have alfo been occafionally tried in the fame application j but as they never anfvver well with out being boiled, and combined with the meal of fome fort of grain,, it is a much- better and more economical practice to convert them to thepurpofe of ftore- feed ing, and depend upon farinaceous fubftances for fattening. The various experi ments of Mr. Boys of Kent, detailed in the twenty-ninth volume of the Apnals of Agriculture, fufficiently (how the difadvantage of this method. E.ven when the potatoes were boiled, and blended with barley-meal, he fufiained confiderable lofs in this mode of fattening. There is, however, another method of fattening, which in particular fixations may be practifed with profit and fuccefs, which is- that of employing the waih of large diftilleries with grains and fome fort of meal. In the firft part of the fattening the grains and waQi are given, and in the latter the meal 4 The quantity or weight of pork produced by a given quantity of peafe, beans,,, meal, or other materials employed in the fattening of hogs, has not been well af- certained, and it is probable that a great deal will depend upon the fize, breed, and difpolidon to fatten ; but, judging from the value of the animals before and after they have been fattened, it is concluded by Mr. Knight, that a Winchefter bufhel of the firft of the above articles may add about nine or ten pounds to the weight of a good hog of twenty fcore, or perhaps fomething more upon a larger and con- * Darwin s Phytologia, i Synopfis of Ilufbandry. J Annals of Agriculture, vol. XXIII, Live Stcck. Swine Methods of fattening of. 741 jlderably Icfs on one of a fmall fize.* A ru;g put up to fatten in good condition* (and they fhould never be put up in the contrary ftate, ) which when fat will weigh twenty fee re,, will con fume in the proportion of fix or feven bu-fhels of peafe.-j- It has been already fuggefted, as highly important in the fattening of animals,to have them,occafionally weighed, in o/der to determine how the food anfwers with them as well as to afcertain, the progrefs they are making. For the large forts of ftock% machines of the nature of thofe ufed on roads are fixed up and employed, but for many fmal! forts of animals, fuch as fheep, hogs, and other fimilar kinds,, one on the principle oi the common fteei-yard has been contrived,which is found to be perfedly convenient. In it A A A A, is a ftrong wooden frame, with fteel centres, in which the pivots of the lever are hung. On the fliort iide of the lever is fufpended a coop, furrounded by ftrong net work, in which the animal intended to-be weighed : is placed ; the point of fufpen- fion is connected with the coop by means of two curved iron rods, which at the fame time form the head to the fame ; a common fcale is hung on the longer fide of the lever. By this contrivance any fmall animal may be very eafily and expe- ditioufly weighed, and at the fame time with a fufficient degree of accuracy. In regard to the method of giving the different materials that are employed in the fattening of fwine, there are different opinions entertained ; fome contending that they fhould be ufed as-much as poiTible in a folid form, wafli, as drink, being oc- eaiionally ufed ; while others prefer the contrary method as the mod beneficial : as in the latter mode there will be lefs time taken up by the hogs in feeding, and of courfe more left for them to fleep and reft in, as well as more economy in the food, and the labour of giving it, it is probably the moft advifable. It has indeed been obferved by Mr. Young, in his excellent Calendar of Huibandry, that the moft profitable method of converting corn of any kind into food for hogs is to grind it into meal, and mix this with water in citterns, in the proportion of five bufhels of meal to one hundred gallons of water, ftirring it well feveral times a day for three weeks in cold weather, or for a fortnight in a warmer feafon, by which it will have fermented well, and become acid; till which time it is not ready to give." This mixture fhou Id always " be ftirred immediately before feeding," and " two or three cifterns ihould be kept fermenting in fucceilion, that no neceftity may occur of giving it not duly prepared. The difference in profit between feeding in this manner, and giving the grain whole or only ground, is fo great, that whoever * Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. II. f Ibid. 742 Live Stock. Szeine Methods of fattening of* tries it once will not be apt to change it for the common methods." It is added that * f pea-foup is an excellent food for hogs, and may, though he has not fufficiently compared them, equal the above, efpecially if given in winter, milk warm. 1 But wherever food is prepared by heat, the expenfes of fuel and labour are a great draw back on the profits of the fyftem. It mould therefore be well confidered before it is undertaken. But in whatever way the food be given, great care mould be taken that the hogs have a full allowance at fufficiently fhort intervals to keep them con- fhntly in a (late of reit, as it is on this principle that they become fat in an expe ditious manner. It is a fact frequently obferved in fattening hogs, that they pay better for their keep in the latter part of their fattening than in the former ; which probably arifes in fome meafure .from their not being fed in a fufficiently full man ner, or with fufficient frequency in the beginning, fo as to keep them in a ftateof ie.fr. The length of lime that is necefTary in fattening thefe animals mutt vary much according to the ftate in which they are put up, their iizes, and the differences in their difpofitions to fatten, but in general from five or fix weeks to two or three months is fufficient, In the time of fattening it is likewife of great importance to keep the hogs clean and warm, by having them frequently well littered down, as by this means they not only fatten more quickly, but the molt manure poflible k raifed. The advantage of warm flies, with warm food in cold weather, has been found very confidera- bJe, It is the befr method to have the pigs caftrated while young. The male pigs are ufually gelded at about three weeks old without danger, and the female ones may be cut or fpayed when a month old ; though, in the latter cafe, the operation is frequently performed at a much later period. The fows, when not wanted for the purpofe of breeding, may alfo be fpayed : this bufmefs is moftly done by perfons who are in the conftant practice of it. It is abfolutely neceffary to keep all forts of fwine conilantly well ringed, in or der that they may lie quietly in the fties, and of courfe thrive better. A great miftake feems to have been committed by farmers in the management of hogs, from the fuppofition that they can only be kept with profit in fo far as they may confume the materials that would otherwife be wafted. There cannot, however, be any doubt but that fwine will pay for their keep as well as any other fort of live ftock, where a judicious fyftem of cultivating crops purpofely for them Live $focfc.-<-Szrine Methods of curing Baton, Pork and Hams. 143 is purfued. This is fully fhown by the various ftarements that have been made on the fubject. There are different ways of curing the flefh of hogs, according to the intention for which it is deflgn;d. When cured as bacon, it is the practice in Kent to finge oft the hairs, by making a ftravv fire round the hog, an operation which is termed Jivaling. <f When the flitches are cut out they fhould be rubbed effectually with a mixture 1 of common fait and faltpetre, and afterwards laid in a trough, where they are to> continue three weeks or a month, according to their fize, keeping them frequently turned ; and being then taken out of the trough are to be dried by a flack fire, which will take up an equal portion of time with the former; after which they are to be hanged up, or thrown upon a rack, there to remain till wanted. * Inthe making of bacon on the continent it is frequently the cuftom to have clo- fets contrived in the chimneys, for the purpofe of drying and fmoking them by means of wood fires.* Another method of curing this fort of meat is that of faking it down for pickled* pork, which is far more profitable than bacon. After the hog is cleanfed of the hair, and the head taken off, together with the legs and hands, and the necks, loins*, and all the lean bones cut out, which will amount to nearly two thirds of the whole hog, the remaining part, which is the fat or prime pork, is to be cut into pieces of a fize proportioned to the circumference of the falting-tub, and every piece rubbed on each fide and on every part with common fait, having fome beaten faltpetre fprinkled on each. The bottom of the tub mould alfo be covered with fait, and when the pork is fufncient powdered, the pieces laid in, with the rind upwards,and every one prefled down with all the ftrength that can be ufed, and wedged in fo clofe as to leave no apparent chafms. Over this layer is to be fpread a covering of fait, with a very flight fprinkling of faltpetre, as too much makes it hard. In* about a month or five weeks the brine will begin to rife, and, in -a fhort time after- - wards, cover the whole furface of the tub j but if, from a defect in the fait, it fhould fail to diflblve into brine within that period, it will be neceflary to make a quan tity of brine and pour over the pork ; for unlefs the whole be covered with brine it- will not keep well. In adding the brine care fhould be taken not to to diiturb the- pieces of pork. * Bradley on Husbandry and Gardening, "744 Live Stock.-r-Sznnc Dlfcafcs of. Rabbit*. In the curing of hams in Weftmcrcland, the method purfued is this : They <* art firft rubbed very hard.gcnerally with bay-falt; by fome they are covered clofe up, by others they are left on a ftone bench to allow the brine to run off. At the end of five days they are again rubbed as hard as they were at firft, with fill of the fame fort, mixed with rather more than an ounce of falrpetre to a ham. Having lain about a week, either on a ftone bench, or in hogfheads amongft the brine, they are hung -up by fome in the chimney amidft the fmoke, whether of peats or coals ; by others, in places where no fmoke ever reaches them. If not fold fooner they are fuffered tp remain there till the weather becomes warm. They are then packed in hogf heads with ftraw or oatmeal feeds, and fent to the places of fale. It has been :found by experiment that hams lofe twenty per cent, of their weight in the cur ing* Swine are fubjecT: to a variety of difeafes, but few of them have yet been fuffici- ently inveftigated to afcertain the proper means of cure. Much expofure to cold is liable to bring on affections of the lungs, by which the animals gradually decline, and wafte in Jflefh, having a frequent huiky dry fort of cough. Warmth, with good skeep of the lefs dry and heating kinds, would feem to be the rnoll advantageous jnethod of removing fuch complaints. When hogs become affected with the mange care muft be taken to feparate them from the reft; and after being well warned in foap and water, they Ihould be anointed with an ointment of the fame kind as that recommended for the fame .difeafe in fheep. A little common fulphur mould likewife be given in their food. In large lop-eared hogs the parts behind them are apt to crack and become fore in hot feafons; in thefe cafes they fhould be anointed with a little faturnine oint ment. When the udders of the fows take on hard lymphatic fwellings, which is fome- times the cafe, attempts may be made to remove them by the ufe of camphorated faturnine wafties or ointments, care being taken to have the parts clean wiped be fore the pigs are admitted to fuck. In fuch cafes half a drachm of calomel may likewife be exhibited eveiy fecond or third night for two or three nights. Rabbits* This is a kind of live ftock that can only be employed with profit by the farmer in particular fituations, and under certain circumftances. Wherever land is capable of producing tolerable crops of either grain or grafs, the fyftera * Corrc&cd Report of Weftmoisland. Live Stock.- Rabbits Breeds of employed in Warrens. 745 of rabbit-warrens can feldom, if ever, be eftablifhed with advantage. The hazard and uncertainty of rabbit-management is conftantly fo great, that it is fafer for the farmer to depend upon even moderate crops of either of the above kinds than this. It is only the light, barren, fandy forts of land, in fuch declivities and other Situations as cannot be brought under the plough, and which cannot be converted to the purpofe of paflure even for fheep, which is in general the proper applica tion of fuch lands, that rabbit -hufbandry is proper to be undertaken upon. The breeds of this animal are various ; but thofe chiefly employed in warrens are moftly either the common gray breed or the filver-gray breed ; the former is mod valuable in regard to hardinefs and flefh, but the latter in refpect to fkin. The fur of the firftfort, w.hich is the moft prevalent, is chiefly employed in the hat- manufactories , while the fkins in the latter cafes are in common drefied as furs for the China market, and are in general nearly double the value of thofe of the other fort. This fort of ftock, when turned into the land intended for the warren, foon provide themfelves, habitations, by preparing holes and burrowing in the more dry, light, fandy, and elevated parts, where they fafely lodge and propagate their young. In fome warrens in Lincolnfhire they (lock in the proportion of three couple to the acre, but in other cafes confiderably more. One buck is fufficient for a hundred does. It is necefTary to have the warrens well inclofed ; not only for the purpofe of preventing the flock from ftraying and being deflroyed, but to prevent their being annoyed by different forts of vermin. This is effected in different methods, ac cording to circumftances, as by walls or paling; but, from the great expenfe of thefe fences, more commonly by fod, earth, and turf mounds, or banks and fences coped, or kidded on the top by furze, thorns, or other forts of brum-wcod. This fencing, with that of nets and traps, conftitut.es the great expenfe of rabbit- hufbandry ; which, when added to thofe of charcoal for drying the fkins, war- reners, men for killing and carrying, horfe-hire, &c. is very confiderable. Befides this, though rabbit-flock demands, on the whole, but little regard, in fevere winter feafons it is neceflary to provide them with additional food, fuch as hay, turnips, clover, faintfoin, and other flmilar kinds, to be difperfed about in the warrens. Turnips are the befl fort of food in mows, as the rabbits can find them by the fcent. From two to three large cartsfull will be fufficient to fodder a thou- II. < C 746 Live Stock* Rabbils-~ Proper $fan$gement of- Modes oj taking them* (and couple or more a day. One load of hay may be fiifficient for a day in ftorms v In fome diftridls, billets of new cut wood, afh houghs, gorfe, &LC, are diftributed i the bark and other parts of which are confumed, and. the quantity of hay by that, mean greatly diminithcd. There are likewife other expenfes, in clearing away fnow from the fences, to prevent their efcaping, and in the deft roy ing vermin, as well as for night- watch ing. The rabbit begins to breed at eight, ten, and twelve months old, and goes about thirty days with young, which arc about twenty-two days more before they, ap pear from the burrows, being fuckled during that time twice a day by the mother ;, of courfe they may breed three or four times in the courfe of the year when very, well fed, as they are known to take the buck again very foon ;* but in incloied warrens they rarely breed more than twice in the year. The annual fale of pro duce is in general eftimated at from three to eight couple per acre, affording a, profit of eight or ten (hillings, or more, under good management.* The pro duce is the greatcft on new land ;t but much in refpedl to profit muft depend upon fituation, as when it is near to large towns, where there is a conftant de mand for the rabbits as food, it muft be greater thin in other cafes. They are in feafon from the beginning of November till the commencement of the enfuing year, during which period the prime fkins are afforded ; therefore the greateft part muft be killed in this fhort interval. There is annually a great lofs. in what are termed balfjkins, quarter Jkins t and racks , fixteen of which are only allowed for as one whole fkin. Rabbits are fold by the hundred, fix fcore couple making the hundred;];. They are taken either by means of nets or traps. In the former method the nets, are fet in the form of a fold, between the burrowing places and the feeding grounds, in the night or early in the morning; the rabbits being hunted into them in their return from feeding. The traps are conftrucled by forming large pits dug in the way of their moft frequented tracks, and covered by a- fort of folding door, towards the centre of which is a fort of fmall trap door, to which they are led by a narrow track or meufe. The rabbits, being thus taken, are forted according to circumftanccs. * Young s Agricultural Survey of .Lincolnshire. f Ibid. J The following eftimate of the warren on the eftate at Thorefway, is given by Mr. Young on the authority of Mr. Holdgate, the tenant, who ftates the expenfes of 1700 acres under the filver fort f rabbits, thus : Live Stock. Rabbits Expenfis of. 747 A very great objection to thefe animals is their destroying the corn, new fown grafTes, turnips, and even the quick hedges that are in the vicinity of them. In railing tame rabbits the principal points to be regarded are thofe of having fuch (lock as is perfectly free from difeafe, keeping them quite clean, dry, and free from all forts of filth, with a fufficient protection from cold in fevere weather. The feeding fliould be performed regularly, in fmall quantities at a time, and due pro portion kept up between the dry and moid green vegetable food : the mod proper . *. d. Labour, three regular warreners, with extra afliftance at killing 85 Fences - 42 10 Winter food 42 10 Nets, traps, &c. c. - - 1434 Delivery - - - . 21 5 Rent is faid to be 7s. an acre . 595 800 8 4, The capital employed is that fum, with the addition of ftock paid for ; fuppofc this, as ftated above, 3 couple an acre, at 2s. 4d. 595 1395 8 4 Intereft of that fum, one year, at 5 per cent. 9 5 1164 13 4 Annual Account, Expenfes as above - 800 8 4 Intereft - - - - - - . 69 5 869 13 4 Produce 10,000 couple, at 2s. 4d. - 116613 4 Expenfes - 869 13 4 Profit - - - - - 297 or 241. per cent, (the five per cent included) on capital employed. " This is, (Mr. Young obfervc*) very great, reckoned on the capital, but fmall reckoned by rent, as it amounts to only halfa rent. But fuppofe the grofs produce of 15001. which he takes to be nearer the fad ; then the account will (land thus : 748 Live Stock. Poultry. Common Fowls Breeds of. kinds of each fort of which are thofe of clover, parfley, endive, dandelion, cabbage- leaves, carrot-tops, &c. with good green rouen or clover-hay, pea-chaff, oats, pol lard, and bran. They ufually breed at the age of fix months, and moftly three or four times in the year, efpecially when kept fufficiently warm in the winter feafon ; at this time a little dry hay fhould be placed in the hutch : the young may be weaned at fix or eight weeks old, and the buck admitted. The young rabbits ought to be carefully feparated when they become of any fize, and never be fuffer- ed to be in any degree crowded together, as in fuch cafes they foon become difeafed. Poultry. This is a fpecies of flock which, from the trouble and uncertainty that attends it, is of doubtful advantage, except in particular fituations and circumflan- ces. The term poultry comprehends feveral different forts of birds that have been confidered as flock for the farm-yard. Common Fowls. Of thefe there are various breeds, as the game breed, the Englijh or white breed, the Poland or black breed, the Darking breed, the Shagbag breed t the Malay breed. The two fir ft of thefe breeds are much fmaller than the others* As this fort of flock, when under a proper fyflem of management, affords advantage both in the eggs and the chickens, it may be necefTary to obferve that the game and Poland breeds are in general the befl layers, but that in refpecl to the fize of the eggs the larger breeds are preferable. As fitting and breeding fowls, the Dark- ing and other large breeds are probably the befl; but in what regards the colour, quality, and flavour of the flefh, the game and the white breeds are fuppofed by thofe who indulge in this fort of food to be the mofl delicate* Jnthe management of poultry much depends upon proper conveniencies being provided for them. The method of conflru&ing houfes for this ufe has been - 1500 - 86"9 0- $31 cr 47 . per rent, on the capital. 4 Take it how you will r he thinks it explains the reafon for fo many of thefe nuifances remaining-, The inveflment of a fma.ll capital yields an intereft that nothing elfe will ; and thus the occupier will fee f-ure never to convert thm to better ufes. But what fays the public intereft? here are only 2001. xpenfes, to 6001, rent T what i$ the population, the induftry, the improvement ! The landlord gets tbue luweft of rents; the tenant makes a. good profit j they divide all, and the reft cf the world ar* little th better for them," Li cc Stock. Poultry* Fowls Proper Management of. 74.9 already defcribed. In order that there may be the lead pofiible interruption to the poultry, it is neceflary that feparate places be provided for the purpofes of their roofting, fitting, and being fattened in, as well as for containing their food ;. and, where the quantity kept is very conliderable, for plucking and preferring their feathers in ; as by this means the fyirem may be conducted to the greateft advan tage. And where an attendant is kept for the purpofe of feeding and taking care of this fort of flock, it maybe of confequence to have the place which is deligned for lodging in fo firuated, as that the fmoke which it affords may pafs through the roofting and fitting-rooms, as it has been long known that the fmoke, as well as warmth thus communicated, is particularly grateful to the poultry, and highly promotes their breeding and thriving. This is fufficiently fhown by the vaft quantities that are raifed in the warm fmoky cottages in Scotland and Ireland. In addition there Ihould alfo be the conveniences of a yard, in which they may- pick up fandy or gravelly particles,with a fmall grafs paddock for ranging in, in tvhich there muftbe a fupply of pure water. The whole of the internal parts mould be kept perfectly clean and free from vermin, by being frequently warned out and lime whitedv In fetting both the henr and the turkey,in order to prevent cheir inconveniencing each other, feparate nefts mould be provided in fituations where they can be con fined and kept from the reft, as without this precaution the fame neft will have two or three upon it ; by which much injury may be fuftained. Hens may be kept in the proportion of about fix or feven to a cock. Young ones are the bed where eggs are the principal object ; but where chickens are chiefly in demand the older kinds mould be preferred, as they fit with more afliduity and clofe- nefs. Young hens moftly begin to lay in January, or early in the following month; but this may be greatly promoted by the ufe of food of the more flimulaht kind ; given with the grain, as buck-wheat, barley, hemp-feed, fenugreek, &c. in which intention any kind of refufe animal matter chopped very frnall has been found highly beneficial, alfo any of the fmall forts of fim, fuch as fprats, &c. prepared in the fame manner. But whatever fort of food may be employed for the laying hens, it is eflential to their producing a great number of eggs that they be. not too much fed, though they Ihould not be kept too poorly, as from each extreme difad vantage may proceed; The periods of fetting hens mufl neceflarily vary according as chickens are wanted, but in general the latter end of February or the beginning of the following month is a good feafon for the purpofe ; as the weather will be getting warm 750 Line Stock. Poultry. Fetch Modes of fattening of. about the time they are hatched. The period of fitting is ufuaily about ^twenty- one days. Jn letting the hens the eggs fhould always be fuch as are new laid, and perfectly frefh, and the number fhould not exceed a dozen. While fitting, the hens fhould constantly have a fufficiency of food near them, in order that they need not be .taken from their nefts too great a length of time. In the time of hatching fome ad vife the removing the fir ft brought out chickens ; but -it is probably a better practice to let them remain, to be fupported by the natural warmth of the hen until the whole brood is out. At this time fome recommend their being put under a coop with the hen ; but where the poultry yards are well inclofed they may be -fuflered to follow the mother. Where there are more broods than one the coops :fhould not be placed too near each other, left the hens mould deftroy each other s .chickens. It is be ft to feed th echic kens firft with ficepcd rice, or fplit grits, with .boiled potatoes bruifed ; but afterwards the refufe wheat or barley may be given them with propriety,. after, having been boiled or fteeped forne time in water* The proportions in which thefe forts of food are confamed by young chickens vary according to their fize ; but in general it may be reckoned from, one to two .ounces per day, while they are in the early part of their growth, as from r..alf a pound to two and a half pounds weight or more. In about ten or twelve wc.ks .chickens moftly become pretty fully grown. It is neceifary to prevenr young chickens as much as poffible from picking up flugs, fnails, and other fimilar ani mals from the ground, and alfo to keep them as free as poflible from the wet, as by thefe means they are extremely liable to become difeafed. Various directions have been given for the fattening of poultry; but the beft prac tice is probably that of confining them for a few days in dry well-ventilated places, which are .covered fo as in fome meafure to prevent the entrance of too much light, the fowls being previoufly kept in good condition in the poultry -yards. In thefe fituations they fhould be regularly fed three or four times in the courfe of the day with well-fteamed potatoes, which are probably the cheapeft fort of food : as near Liverpool, in Mr. Wakefield s practice, which is upon an extenlive fcale, it has been attended with the moft complete fuccefs, the poultry thriving perfectly well. Buck- wheat is likewife an ufeful and cheap food for this purpofe, either given whole or ground into flour. Barley meal, ground malt, and alfo coarfe wheat-flour, -when mixed up with milk, or, what is better, water, as milk runs quickly into .a ftate of acidity,, have been much recommended in this intention. From fomc Pvultry.-~Fowk ~Sy/iem of Afu/tagawtnt of. 73 j: fjcperimcnts, we are likewife inclined to believe that pea-meal employed in the une way pofTdfes a ftill more fattening property, and is at the fame dm- in >re eco nomical, as going much further. A confinement of feven or -eight days in this way will in general be fuffident for effecting this bufinefs of fattening. When kept up long, fowls are extremely apt to be affected with difeaie. Whatever fort of food is made ufe of, free air and a perfecl ftate of cleannefs is effentia! in all the utenfils employed for the purnofe, in order to prevent the food becoming acid, and the fowls affected with difeafe-. It is ftated by Mr. Jackfon, in the fixth volume of the" Commercial, Agricultural, and Manufacturer s Magazine," that he has found that "three pounds of meal, flour, or grain of fuch a fort as does not coft more than one penny a pound, or to the farmer and cottager not even fo much, with water and what other fare the littfc creature can find for itfelf, will feed and fatten a chicken fufficiently from the time of its burfting the (hell till that of its being of a growth and in a condition fuitabie for its being carried to market. " And that the allowance of another penny is fufficient "for the attention and labour which its rearing requires. The prime coft of the egg may be one halfpenny." Thus, he conceives that even in the vicinity of any great town, " a chicken that fhall bring nine-pence, or rather one milling in themar- ketj.and is, in comparifon with other things worth as much for the ufe of your own table whether you be a rich or poor man, may be produced and reared at the expenfe of four-pence halfpenny." And it is further contended, that in pro portion as fowls are kept for the confumption of the portion of farinaceous food that is in daily wade about farm-houfes, the expenfe cannot be more than one pen ny ; confequently by attention to this economical mode we may have abundance of poultry at a reafonabte rate. It is alfo ftated that old fowls, " even though fed with food for which money proportionate to the juft market value muft be paid, will by their eggs pay annually at leaft three times the coft of their fubfiftence j" befides the advantage of the manure which they produce. An interefting fyftern of management for poultry is ftated by Mr. Young in his Calendar of Hufbandry, as pradtifed by Mrs. Boys of Kent. It is fimply thks : * The labourers wives and families who live on Mr. Boys s farm do the whole; he fupplies them with what offal corn is neceifary, and they return Mrs. Boys the grown fowls ready for market at three-pence each ; fix-pence for turkeys and geefe, and three-pence for ducks j and her account, well kept, ftates a profit of twenty pounds a year, after all expenfes are paid and the family well fupplied. " She ha 5 753 Live Stock. Poultry FowhDifeafes oj Galena Turkey. alfo " all the eggs without any payment.* It is remarked that this fyftem of practice is equally beneficial to the people who undertake it as the farmer. The climate and foil are there both highly favourable to the raifing of poultry. Fowls are liable to be affected with many different difeafes, but the moft common ones are the following : The Pip, which is diftinguiftied by a thin white fcale being feated upon the tip of the tongue ; and it is fuppofed to be produced by the fowls not being kept fuffi- ciently clean, or the food and water being taken in a foul condition. The beft remedy is the removal of the fcale, and the warning of the part with a weak folution of common fait in pure water. The Roup is mown by the rump becoming fwelled and enlarged, the feathers Handing aukwardly out, and the quills being full of blood. The cure is befteffected by removing the feathers, and then in flight cafes ufing a weak faturninewafh ; but where there is much fwelling the part fhould be opened and the contents dif- charged. The Flux is mown by the fowls becoming fuddenly thin, and lean, and their not eating as ufual. It is moftly caufed by the ufe of too large a portion of moid fer menting food ; or fuch as has run into the flate of acidity. It is beft removed by the giving of rice dry, and wheat unground ; the coop or other place in which they are confined being kept perfectly clean and well aired. Stoppages are often produced in fowls by their picking up different forts of in- diflbluble fubftances ; fuch as old mortar, &c. : when in the crop they may be taken out by making a fmall opening externally. Blindnefs in fowls is beft removed by changing their food, and letting them have more frefh air, Galena or Guinea Fozvl* This is a kind of fowl that lays a great number of eggs ; but probably retains too much of its wild nature to be kept with advantage by the farmer. The leaft disturbance makes it forfake its neft, which is moftly made in fome diftant unfrequented lituation. The flefh of this fort of fowl is fomewhat dry, but has more of the game flavour than that of the common fowl. Turkey. In grain diftricts, this is a bird that may perhaps be raifed with advan tage by the farmer ; it is however very delicate and tender, requiring much atten tion and management while young. There are two breeds or varieties of this bird, the black brecd> and the while orfpeckled breed; the former is in general the largeft and moft hardy. Live Stock. Poultry Turkeys Method of fattening. - 753 Thefe birds differ from others in not requiring the males to be conftantly with the females during the laying feafon, as in Norfolk it is a practice to fend the hen turkeys to fome neighbouring cock to be impregnated, one act being found fuf- ficient for a brood. By this means there is a confiderable laving, in not having cocks to keep the whole year round ; and ofcourfe moft little farmers raife this fort of poultry, which is fuppofed a principal caufe of their being fo plentiful in that diftrict.* The turkey moftly lays from eight to tenor twelve eggs, and hatches in about twenty-eight or thirty days. Thefe birds are fometimes hatched under hens, as being more tame and lefs difpofed to wander abroad with the young ones. The young brood are extremely tender, and require conftant care and attention fora month or fix weeks after they are hatched to rear them with fafety. They fhould during this time be kept in a warm airy inclofed fituation, perfectly free from wet, and be attentively fed with white bread fteeped in milk that is quite free from acidity ; or, what fome prefer, alum curd mixed with chopped onions, for which ufe a proper fupply of early young onions mould be provided, or old ones planted in this intention. After they have been managed in this way for about a month, they may be brought gradually to be fupported on oat-meal and fweet milk, or grain, of which buck-wheat is found the moft fuitable. As the expenfe in grain and trouble in the rearing of thefe birds is very confiderable, from their being very greedy feeders, without great fuccefs in raifing them, and a certainty of high, prices at the market, they can feldom repay the farmer. Young turkeys may be fattened with great expedition by means of boiled pota toes and good barley- meal mixed well together, if they be kept fed in a regular manner. The practice of cramming them is a piece of ftupid and unneceflary cruelty, as it is evident they can only fatten in proportion to the quantity of food that is digefted, whatever quantity may be forced upon them j befides, they will xronfume it faft enough without forcing, if kept regularly fed and properly fup- plied with a due quantity offomefandy or gravelly material. A fmall propor tion of chopped leeks mixed with their other food has alfo a good effect in pro moting the procefs of fattening. Mr. Kent afcribes the finenefs of the flavour in the Norfolk turkeys, to the great dry nefs of the foil in that diftrict, and the extenfivenefs of the range which they are fuffered to poflefs. * Marshall s Rural Economy, - VOL, II. 5 D 754 Live Stock. Poultry Water- Fowls Ducks Management t>f. The difference between the living and dead weight of a turkey is thus ftated by Mr. Young: Live weight 2ilb. ; dead weight i4!b. Water-Fowl. Various birds of this defcription may be kept with benefit bjr the farmer, where he is fo fituated in refpecl to water, commons, and other conveniences, that they can be managed without much attention or trouble ; but in other cafes they are not worth his notice, as they will feldom repay the trouble of looking after them. Ducks. There are different breeds of ducks, but the common while or Englijh Ireed and the dark brown orfpeckled wild breed are in moft eftimation. The flefh of the latter is higher flavoured than the former. Thefe birds may be kept with moft profit to the farmer in filiations where there are large ponds or flieets of water f0r them to reft upon near to the farm-yards, as in fuch cafes they will re quire little or no trouble ; but in other circumftances, except where they are reared by perfons who make a bufinefsof dealing in thefe and other forts of poul try, they will afford little advantage in the way of profit, unlefs it be a few juft for the purpofe of the table. Ducks moftly begin to lay early in the year, as the latter end of January or beginning of the following month, efpecially when well fed. They require attention at this period, as they lay a great number of eggs, and are very apt to drop them in the water, or at random in other places* One drake is fufficient for four or five ducks. When fet, from ten to a dozen or ihirteen eggs are a fufficient number. They fit about thirty days, and during the time mould be fed and have water near their nefts, to prevent the eggs from being injured by their leaving them too long. When hatched, they mould re main with the duck in fome inclofed fafe warm funny place, and be well fed with crumbs of bread, grits, or barley-meal and boiled potatoes well mixed and ufed frefh and frefh, fand and clean water being conftantly kept in mallow pans. The duck breeders have alfo in general a provifion of worms > fnails, and other firnilar animals in readinefs for them when a little more advanced in their growth,, as well as corn either in its ground or natural ftate. It is likewife a point of great import ance to keep them perfectly Clean, and to let them have plenty of dry clean ftraw as litter. The practice of raifing ducks under hens feldom anfwers well, as their habits are by no means fuited to the rearing of fuch birds ; nor has the cuftom of trimming off the tails of the young ducklings, any better foundation in reafon.* They mould never be admitted at full liberty till they are become quite ftrong, as at a month or fix weeks old. It is ufeful to keep them as diftinct as poflible from the others. Live Sftock. Poultry JVild-Ditcks Taking of Geefe. 755 Ducks are greedy feeders, but not nice in thekinds of food. In the fattening of them, grain either in its whole or reduced mixed Mate is probably the beft fort of food. The ufe of boiled potatoes well mixed with oatmeal is found to bean econo mical and expeditious method. Much, however, depends on their being fed in an cyact and regular manner, and on a proper fupply of water and fand being conftantly given ; while at the fame time they are kept in a perfectly quiet detached Situation, not too much expofed to the action of light, but well aired. When fattened on animal fubftances, which are very expeditious in accomplishing the bufinefs, they- arefaid to have more refemblance, both in the colour and flavour of their flefti, to the wild duck, than in the common method. In the acorn- feafon they are alfo capable of being readily fattened on that fort of food, and are allowed to be well- flavoured in their flefh from it. The establishing of decoys for taking of wild-ducks is an object of fome import ance in particular Situations, as where there are extenSive fheets of water in fequef- tered districts at no great diftance from the fea, as in the wilds of Lincolnfhire, Nor folk, and other counties. Much nicety and exactnefs are however requifite in the* construction and management ofthefe, in order to render them effectual, as maybe feenin Mr. Marfhall s excellent defcription of the means of forming them, in the firft volume of the Rural Economy of Norfolk. The author of the Middlefex Corrected Report obferves, that " it is clearly af- certained, that ducks might be kept in fuch numbers on corn-farms, as to prevent any fenfible lofs or destruction in their crops by worms, flugs, and caterpillars ; and vet we are always hearing of great lofles occasioned by thofe vermin. The fupport of a hundred or two of ducks on a farm is a trifling expenfe, and might be confi- dered in the light of enfuring the young crops againft being cut off. It is thought that many a farmer receives more damage to a crop in one feafon, than would fup port a fufficient number of ducks to give perfect fecurity for twenty years." Geefe. There are feveral distinct breeds of geefe kept in different places ; but the largeft and mod ufeful fort, whether for the purpofe of food or feathers, is the common breed. In the choice of Store-geefe, great care mould always be taken to procure them as large in Size as poflible, and from places where they have been well kept. GeeS^ like moft other birds, begin to lay in the fpring months ; and the earlier this hap- < pens the better, as the price of early green geefe is generally high, and in forne cafes it may be poflible to have a fecond brood. Both thefe purpofes may be promoted 5 D_2 73tf Lice Stock* Poultry Geefe Management of, by letting them be well fed with oats, grains, or fome fuch kinds of food at the pe riod. The goo fe generally lays from eight to twelve eggs. It may be known u hen geefe are about to lay, from draw being frequently picked up and carried about by them. The length of time of fitting is about thirty days. When geefe are in clined to ik, they generally (lie wit by remaining on their neft after laying a confiderabie time. In this cafe, a proper quantity of eggs, as from ten to twelve,(hould beplaced in the ncfts, and fomething put before them, fo as to prevent the geefe from being much fecn. 7 hey mould alfo haveplenty of food, fund and water near them, inorder that they may not have to remain long off the nefts,and in that way let the eggs be too much cooled. The ganders mould be left with them as guards. When the weather is warm they generally .hatch rather fooner thanwhen it is cold. After the goflings are hatched, the bcft method is to let them remain with the goofe, efpecially where they are ftrong, in fome warm funny place, that is well fecurcd againft the entrance of rats, and all other forts of vermin, and which is properly fupplied with water; being well fed with the crumbs of bread, grits, wheat, and fome chopped clivers. They mould remain in this confinement until they are grown ftrong and capable of fol lowing the goofe with eafe ; they may then be put into a fmall field, or paddock, -where the grafs is fhort, till they are fit to be turned out with the geefe. When they are weakly it is cuftomary to feed them in the houfe, with bread foaked in milk, or a little barley-meal, &c. Where this is done, they mould however always be put under the goofe again immediately after fuch feeding and handled as little as poflible, warmth in this flage being the moft effential article in rearing them. They fhould never be fuffered while very young to go into the water, as the cold Ibon deftroys them. Where the railing of thefe birds is an object, care mud always be taken to have good ganders, which are neither too young nor too old, and that the eggs when laid be turned occasionally, and carefully kept in a dry and rather warm place. The number of geefe to a gander mould not be too great ; three or four are quite fufficient. The practice in Lincolnshire, where vaft numbers of thefe birds are annually produced, is for their nefts to be made for them of llraw, and confined fo as that the eggs cannot roll out when the geefe turn them, which they do every day. When near hatching, the fhell is broken a little againft the beak or nib of the gofling, to give air, or to enable it to receive flrength to throw off the fhell at a proper time. The time of plucking them is about the beginning of April ; when the fine fea. Live Stock, Poultry Geefe Fattening of Pigeons. 7.57 thers of their breads and backs fliould be gently and carefully plucked : care muft betaken not to pull or interrupt their down or pen feathers. The quills mould be pulled five out of a wing. They will bear pulling in thir teen or fourteen weeks again, or twice in a year : the feathers three times a year, of the old geefe and ganders,, feven weeks from each pulling. Tne young gcefe may be pulled once at thirteen or fourteen weeks old, but not quilled, being hatched irr March. But when late in hatching.the brood gecfe mould not be plucked fo foon as April, but the month after. When well fed with barley and oats, they thrive and do better, and their feathers grow fafterand are better in quality than where it is omitted. They muftconftantly have plenty of grafs and water.* In many parts of this fenny diftrict van: advantage is made by the frequent plucking of the geefe. At Pinchbeck it is the practice to pluck them five times in the year, as at Lady- day, Midfummer, Lammas, Michaelmas, and Martinmas. The feathers of a dead goofe are worth 6d. three giving a pound. But plucking alive does not yield more than 3d. a head per annum. Some wing them only every quarter, taking ten feathers from each goofe, which fell at 55. a thoufand. Plucked geefe pay in feathers is. a head in Wild more Fen.-j- In the fatteni ng of green geefe, care mould be taken that a little green food be given them along with the oats or other grain that may be employed for the pur- pofe when they are put up, and that they be well fupplied with water and fand. A fortnight or three weeks is long enough for this purpofe, if they be well and regularly fed ; but, in the fattening of the older geefe, there will not be any neceflity for the green food. The place in which they are confined with this view fliould neither be too light, nor too public in its fituation, as they do not feed fo well where thefe points are not attended to. They fhould likewife be at a diftance, fo as to be out of the hearing of the old or ftore-geefe. Befides the benefits that may be derived from geefe in the feathers and the birds as food, it feerns not improbable but that they might be made to produce a confr- derable advantage in the way of manure, if managed under a fyitem of conftant littering with draw, fern, or fome other fubftance of the fame kind, as from the great quantity of grafs they confume the difcharge in the night is very confider- able. Pigeons* Though pigeon-houfes are common on many farms, it is in very few * Annals of Agriculture, vol. XV. t Young s Agricultural Report of Lincolnshire* 7o8 Live Slock.- i -Pigcons Inconveniences of Proper Management of. inftances, probably, that this kind of flock, when the various difadvantages of it are confidered, can be converted to much profit by the farmer. It is well remark ed by an intelligent cultivator, that " the increafe of pigeons beyond a certain degree muft doubtltfs be injurious to the cultivation of grain : within due bounds, they do little harm, but increafed beyond it, they prove pernicious vermin both to the new-fown crops and the early part of harveft. They are particularly voracious in early peas : therefore the advantage arifing from their increafe for confump- tion as food, is more than counterbalanced by the mifchief occafioned by their depredations.*" And in Norfolk, pigeons are much fewer than formerly, as many of the pigeon-houfes have been dropped, on account of the injury which the pi geons do to thatched buildings, f The fame is the cafe in Kent and other counties. They are particularly injurious to the grain crops juft at the time of harveft, by fettling in large flights upon the {landing corn, and in this way doing more mif chief by beating it down than by the quantity they confume. Where this fort of (lock is kept, warm flickered fituations, open to the fouth, are the mod advantageous, as the pigeon delights in warmth, .and being expofed to the influence of the fun. It is alfo of importance in the economy of thefe birds, that the floor of the dove cote be nearly upon a level with the holes where they enter, and that thefe holes be not too large or too numerous ; the holes where they form their nefts mould not be much inclofed, as pigeons delighton being at liberty. Salt and ftrongfcents, fuch as that of affafoetida, are faid to be agreeable to thefe birds, fo as frequently to attach them to their habitations. The pigeon feldom lays more than two eggs at one laying, fitting about twenty days, the male and female alternately. They are capable of breeding frequently, but in general produce only two or three broods or flights in the year. There arc feveral forts, but the common blue pigeon is probably the moft productive. The tumblers are fmall, but very domeflic. After recommending the harveft flight of pigeons as the moft proper for the purpofeof ftock, as being the ftrongeft to withftand the winter feafon, the author of the " Experienced Farmer" gives the following directions on the management of thefe birds : In regard to feeding them, it is advifed as only neceflary during the feafon between feed-time and harveft, when " it fhould be done by three or four o clock in the morning ; as they rife early. If you ferve them much later, * Pitt s Corre&ed Report ui" S taffy rdfiiir*. t Ibid of Norfolk. Livestock* Pigeons Proper Management of. 75fi they wilfkeep hovering about home, and be prevented taking their neceffary excr- cife." If fed " the year round, they will not breed near fo well as if forced to feek their own food ; for they pick up in the fields what is pleafant and heahhy to them, and from the beginning of the harveft to the end of feed-time they find plenty. * They may be fed with tares, grains, or feeds of any kind. " Be cautious of not letting the firft flight fly to increafe the flock, hut let every one of them be taken ; as thefe will come in what is called benting-time, that is, between feed-time and harveft. It is then that pigeons are the fcarceft ; and many of the young ones would pine to death through weaknefs during that feafon. " At the latter end of every flight care fhould be taken to deftroy all thofe eggs tvhich were not layed in a proper time. The proper time for the fprmg flight is in April and May. After the harveft flight, cold weather begins to come on, which injures the old pigeon much if (he fits late ; and the young will be good for nothing if hatched." " It is very neceflary to pay attention to cleanlinefs in the management of ^ dore- cote. Before breeding-time the holes ought to be carefully examined and cleaned ;. for if any of the young die in the holes in fummer, maggots are foon bred in them : they become putrid, and emit a difagreeable and unwholefome ftcnch, very injurious to the inhabitants of the dove-cote. Pigeons are tenacious of their nefts, as appears from the conduct of the wood-pigeon, which will breed for years in the fame tree, and the mother forfakes her neft with regret; but, unable to endure the filth and ilench of her dead offspring, fhe is obliged to quit the eggs flie has laid for a fecond brood, and the prime of the feafon is loft. Every fummer, immediately after the firft flight, the nefts mould be all cleaned out, and the dung totally taken away, as it breeds filth. But remember to do this bufinefs early in the mornng." The remaining eggs ought likewife to be deftroyed., and a perfectly clean habitation- made for the harveft- flight. It is advifed " never to go into a dove-cote later than mid-day, but as early in a morning as convenient. Whatever repairs are neceflary, either to the building or to the nefts, mould be done before noon : for if you difturb the pigeons in the afternoon, they will not reft contentedly the whole night; and the greateft part,, perhaps, will not enter the cote until the next day, but will fit moping on the ground ; and, if in breeding-time, either a number of eggs may be {polled,, or fevc- ral young ones ftarved to death." Pigeons are fuppofed to be more productive from the breeds being crofTcd, ia 760 Live Stock.EeesPropcr Situations of the Apiary. proof of which a few tame pigeons were put into a dove-cote; and the confequence was, that a more early and a more numerous hatch of young were produced than in any of the neighbouring cotes.* Thefe birds have a great antipathy to owls, which find their way fometimes into dove-cotes; and there is no getting rid of fuch troublefome guefts but bydeftroying them. " Rats are terrible enemies to pigeons, and will foon deftroy a whole dove cote. Cats,weafels,and fquirrels will do the fame. It will be neceflary, therefore, to examine the dove-cote once every week at leaft,very minutely," to fee that there ztre none of thefe intruders. Pigeons " make an extraordinary good manure, which, if worked up into a com- poft, inftead of being ufed in the prefent flovenly way, would beofftill more value." Bees. How far thefe induftrious infects may be kept as a part of the farming- flock with profit has not yet been fully (hewn; but as they require little trouble, and there is in moft country fituations a fufficiency of food ready provided for their fupport, there can be little rilk in the farmer making the trial, efpecially as the capi tal required will be but trifling. In undertaking this fort of flock, the bed fituation is in general where the hives will be leaftexpofed to wind, and enjoy as much of the influence of the fun as pof- fible; for wind always retards bees in their work, while the fun s influence invites them to it. Though it is well known bees thrive well in high and windy fituations, a low one is always to be preferred. Mr. Bonner advifes " an early fituation ; a hol low glen by the fide of a rivulet, furrounded with abundance of turnips in bfofibm in the fpring, muftard and clover in the fummer, and heath in the latter end of fummer and harveil with a varietyof othergarden and wild flowers in their feafons." It is an obfervation as old as Columella, that the bee-garden fhould conftantly face the fouth, and be placed in a warm valley near a ftream. It has been well remarked, that " a plentiful alfortment of bee-flowers is a confi- deration that requires attention, if we defign to favour an ample production of honey. The nearer the pafturage is to the apiary, the more journeys the bees can make in a day, and confequently the fooner they will be able to fill their hives. .The product from a large fupply, but at a fmall diftance, and in a temperate fituation, even with the common management, will be fuperior to that of the moft ikilful in 3. bad one. On the contrary,with bad management, and with fcanty pafturage and Expe ricnced Farmer. 4 Li-cc Stock. Bees Flowers and Plants mojl fait able for. 76! indifferent fituation, a very trifling profit can be expected. Britain in general is but thinly flocked with bees. Few farmers in companion efteem them worth their notice; it is from the attention of cottagers we derive the chief fupply of honey and wax. It will be readily admitted that a large number of flocks kept within a fmall circuit, and in a bad (ituation will be prejudicial to that circuit, as being more than can be fupported in plenty, and will neceflarily impoverifh each other. The ftate of any .particular fituation may be known by the general pro duel: for fe- veral years together, and not from one or two years only ; but more certainly from what a very good feafon will produce, which may be accounted as a flandard. But there are many fituations capable of feeding a much larger number of flocks than are to be found on them. However, if the generality of farmers and cottagers in dividually would keep a few flocks, nearly all the honey and wax this country could produce might be collected. This would not only benefit individuals, but might alfo be of real national utility.*" It is added, that "large heaths and commons, furroundcd with woods, are noted for being abundantly productive; the firft abounding with wild thyme.and various other flowers untouched by the fcythe, and the other with a-profufion of farina and honey-dews. Heath and broom are very ferviceable, as continuing long and late in bloom." It is remarked cc that thedomeftic bees are very nice in their felec- tions, and do not rove from one fort of flowers to thofe of another indifcriminately. They are limited to a few kinds ; thofe of the moft gaudy colours, and which afford the moft refplendent fhow and agreeable odours, aremoftly neglected by them, as hyacinths, jefTamines, rofes, honey-fuckles, &c. while very fmall flowers, or thofd of little note, are to them plentiful fources of nectareous fweets. Sallows furnifli a larger quantity of farina than moft other plants, and that as early as the bees, have occafion for it. Rofemary is the firft aromatic plant that blows ; it grows wild in fome parts of France, and is the caufe of that fuperiority for which the Narbonne honey is eft eemed. Mintonette yields good honey, and is valuable for its long -continuance in bloom, even till November. Beds of it near an apiary will be of advantage, as will edgings of creeping lemon-thyme along the borders of the garden. Single wall-flowers in plenty will be ferviceable. Lime-trees arc not to be neglected about apiaries, ferving in a double capacity by their flowers and their leaves, which are frequently covered with honey-dews. Neither beans nor orchard-trees afford any great quantity of honey, as may be obferved by the # Keys on the Management of Bees. VOL. ii. 5 E 7tf<3 Live Stock*-* Bees Pur chafing Stocks, flocks, in Herefordshire, which though abounding in orchards, is not more pro- duel ive in honey than other counties. In contraft to this, the borders of Cam- bridgcfh ir-c and Hertford (hire, and part of Hampfliire, abounding with large rwa i hs, commons and woods,are much more productive than any other pa.rtsof the kingdom. Farmers there have been known to keep from a hundred to a hun dred and fifty docks of bees.* But vipers buglofs, and borage, are the two plants to be mod depended upon for providing rich hives.-j In rcfpecl to (lands, the bed arrangement is probably that of feparate ones for each hive, made by driving four ftrong flakes into the ground, at equal diftances as thus, : : correfponding to the dimenfions of the hive floors to reft on: they fhould be fix teen inches above the earth, and the tops upon a level with each ether; the didance three or four feet from each other, and not too many together t In purchafing (lock-bees the" bed time isjuft before the ta^ing-up feafon, which is generally about the latter end of Auguft; for then bee-keepers referve as many of the bed (locks as they judge expedient for their next fummer s fupply, and therefore, after that period, are not difpofed to part with any unlefs at an ad vanced price; whereas, by purchafing forne time before, a choice may be made of the bed, and at the accudomed rate. They mould be felec"led by a fkilful per- fon, in a cool evening, or rather morning very early. By tapping about the hive a pretty near gtiefs may be formed whether or not it is full of bees, as alfo if full of combs. "But for greater certainty, turn thofe that feem heavy upon the edge of the hive, and obfcrve if the interdices between the combs are crowded with bees, and the combs worked down to the floor. If white, or if a light yellow, it denotes their being of the prefent year s produce, and fit for the purpofe ; but if they are of a very deep yellow or brown they are of the lad feafon, and not fa proper ; while thofe that are dingy or blackifli are old, and wholly unfit to furnifli a profperous apiary. But though a hive may have the hedges of the combs of a light yellow, they may be old docks, whofe combs the preceding year not having been completed, have in the prefent had new borders added to them of virgin wax, fo as to look like young docks. Look carefully between the combs, as far as the bees will admit ; and if the interior parts appear favourable form a judgment accordingly. The hive mould be poifcd in the hand ; and if it be about half bufliel fize, and weigh twenty-five pounds or upwards, it is another ted of its be ing a good dock."J X * Keys on the Management of Bees, t Ibid, J Ibid. Livestock* Bees-~ Proper Hives for Profit of. 76*3 The <f removing of (locks fhould take place in the evening, or very early in the morning. The hive fhould be raifedby three or four wedges, fomc hours before,, provided the floor is not moveable: or otherwife many bees will remain on the floor at the time, and be very troublefome. A cloth muft be laid on the ground behind the hive to be removed ; nimbly lift the hive thereon, and gathering the four comers tight tie them fad on the top: immediately draw a ftring clofe round the body of the hive to prevent any bees crawling between.*" They muft be conveyed in a gentle manner. In regard to hives ftraw is the beft material, * c as protecting the bees the mod perfectly in the extremes of cold and heat, and being alfo generally eafieft to be procured. Where it is not fo, ru flics, wicker -work plaftered over, or ledges, may be fubftituted in its ftead. For this ufe, unthralhed ftraw fhould always be employed, of all kinds, of which that of rye is to be preferred, as thralhing fhivers and makes it rough and fhaggy, which the bees with much labour are obliged to gnaw off. f- They are made of different forms or fhapes, but thofe in common uie anfwer very well; they fhould be neatly hooded over with an upper coating of ftraw. + The chief attention neceffary in the management of bees is at the period of their fwarming, when great care mould be taken to fecurethem. In eftimating the profit of this fort of ftock, it has been fuggefted that " one confideration mould not be overlooked, viz. that almoft the whole produce, arifing from the fale of both honey and wax is in a great meafure clear profit; as bees and bee-hives are equally free from rents and taxes ; and the culture of them does not in the leaft injure or impede any other improvement in any refpect. Nor do they re quire a conftant attendance, as mod other articles of improvement do; for a proper perfon might eafily overfee, with a little afliftance in fwarming-time, at leaft five hundred bee-hives. And as Nature has amply fupplied them with food, and with powers to provide it forthemfelves, they put their owners to little or no expenfe for that article ; which cannot be faid of any other of our fervants whatever ." It is a circumftance that deferves notice, that by attention in the bee-mafter in the felection of food, almoft any flavour or colour may be given to the honey, from the bright amber to a pale yellow. Mr. Paterfon, of Caftle-Huntley, in Scotland, found the flavour very delicate from minionette; it is the fame from rofemary. Bean- honey is pale, and heath-honey brown, with much difference in flavour. |j In Nor-, * Keys on Bees. t Ibid. J Pitt s Agricultural Report of Stafford (hi re, ^ Bonner on Bees. |] Perth Agricultural Report. 5 E 2 764 Live Slock.FijJi Pond s. folk they commonly fuppofe the honey debafed by the great quantity of buck- wheat- that is grown; but Mr. Marfhall fufpe<fts it to depend either wholly or in a grear part on the heath. Fife-ponds. In particular fituations, efpecially where the proprietor of the land keeps it under his own management, it may not only be convenient andagreeable, but likewife highly profitable, to haveporids for the breeding, rearing^ and preferving of different forts offilh. Where ponds for this ufe do not naturally prevail they may in- many cafes be readily formed, particularly where there are very gentle falls or valleys between, hills, or other depreflions taking place in the grounds; and through which waters pafs with a flow or very eafy current. The nature of the fituatiorv. will (how the extent of the ponds, and the number that can be readily formed., Where water and fituation admit, two, three, or more may be made on the fame line or courfe, the head of one conflicting the bottom of the other. And from* one to four or five acres of ground may be covered with water, according to the fupplies and other circumftances. In fuch fituations the only expenfe of forming convenient fim-ponds is that of conftrudling heads or banks acrofs the valleySj or depreflions, for the purpoie of damming up the waters to the requisite heights, with proper fluices ; which in rnoft cafes, efpecially where clay is at-hand^ may be done with but little expenditure of money. Thefe banks or heads (hould be formed on foundations of fufficient depths, as from two to three or more feet, and in breadth proportioned to the extent and preflureof the water. The wall in the middle part, which fhould not be lefs than three or four feet in width, being wholly made by puddling pure clay, which in many inftances may be chiefly procured by doping out the ground intended for the ponds, or digging out fmall ponds forftews,&c. If clay can beeafily got from other places, it is, however, better to let the ground for the ponds remain, as the fifhfeed - better for it. As the work of puddling advances, earth muft be well rammed to the different fides of the wall, and, when finifhed, the whole immediately well covered over with it, in order to guard againft cracking. Incafes where the ground on the fides rif s in a very gentle manner, banks or heads of from fix to eight or nine feet in height will often be capable of covering fome acres of land with water. But in the 1 contrary circumftances they will be required to be confiderably higher, as wellas of greater Breadth and flrength. This may be eafily regulated by proper level ling :. fuppofing ten feet to be a fufEcient height in the centre for raifing the water, the foot of the bank fhould not be lefs than thirty-five, being gradually narrowed or Hive iSYoc fci 1 ijh Pomk-~- Methods of forming. 705 $f>ped on the fides fo as to bring it to eight or ten on the top. It is better, how ever, to have the fide next to the water more doped than the other. Some fuch proportion as this fhould be preferved in all cafes, always giving them too much rather than too little breadth in their foundations. Pioper grates, flu ices,- and; diverting channels for taking off the water in the time of floods will like wife be eceffary ; the laft being formed and conducted along the fides of the ponds, wheie there are more than one, and the flu ices fixed in the loweil parts. Thefe iliould be made perfectly (trong, of good feafoned oak, and be well fixed in the banks, and the clay tightly rammed in about them.* The expenfe of conflrucTmg heads and banks of this nature, including every thing, may in moft fituations be eftimated at from one to two fhiilings the cubical yard. In railing carp it is often the practice to have three ponds : one for the purpofe of; fpawning the fifli in, and in which they fhould be left during the reft of the furnmer and the following winter, as they moftly fpawn from the beginning of May to thelat* ter end of July ; another for the convenience of nurfing up the young fry, into which they mould be put about the latter end of March or the beginning of April, choofing a calm but not funny day for the bufinefs. After which they mould be carefully prevented from coming to the fides and being deftroyed* In this pond they may remain two years, and become four, five, or fix inches in length, and good for ufe; ; the third or main pond is deftined for the reception of the grown fim, as thofe that meafure a foot or more, including the heads and tails. The proportions in which thefe different ponds are advifed to be flocked are thefe: for each acre of the firft fort, three or four male carps, and fix or eight female ones." The moft fuitable fort for this ufe being thofe of five, fix, or feven years old, in good health, with full fcale, and fine full eyes, and a long body, , without any blemifh or wound." The ponds fhould beprevioufly cleared of all forts of voracious fifhes and other animals, as perch, pike, eel, and trout; the water- beetle, and alfo the newts or lizards. f" Such ponds as are warm and have an open < expofure,with foft water, are the moft proper for this ufe, all kinds of water fowl be ing kept from them. For the nurfing ponds a thoufand or twelve hundred may not be more than fufficient for an acre, andfor the main ponds, one to every fquareof fifteen feet is the proportion advifed, as their growth depends greatly on the room and quan tity of food thatis allowed.* Thebeft feafons for performing the bufinefs in this cafe * North in Aurials of Agriculture, ?ol. ^tsviii. \ f Ibid. \_ Ibid, Lhe Stock.-* FiJh Ponds.- Methods of Stocking, are thofe of the fpring and autumn. Some advife in thefe cafes the flocking with carp or tench in the proportion of three to afquare perch.* Jn firfl (locking large ponds or waters,as where they are of the extent of three .or four acres, carp,in the proportion of three hundred to the acre are recommended; but where they do not extend to fuch fizes, not fo great a proportion. And in Hocking, after two or three years, four hundred to the acre.f Where the ponds are fuitable for tench, the firll flocking with them in fuch cafes may be rather more, and in the re-flockings confiderably more, as feven or eight hundred to the acre. As perch are great breeders, in firfl flocking with them fix hundred to the acre may be fufrtcient. In Berklhire, where there are many ponds for the preferving of fifh, they ufually flock with carp or tench in the proportion of one hundred to the acre, the filh remaining four years in them.* But in the management of Sir Harry Featherflone, in SufTex, in a pond of twenty acres reduced to fixteen by the depofi- tion of mud, the flock is generally in the proportion of twelve hundred carp and an equal number of tench; or at the rate of feventy-five brace to the acre. And in this proportion they are faid to fucceed well. Where pike does not form any part of the flock of ponds care mould however always be taken not to overftock, as where thefe forts of fifli have not an abundant fupply of food they never anfwer well. When taken from clofe- flocked ponds a larger proportion (hould likewife be employed than in other cafes. The waters of fcrne ponds are better adapted to raifing fome forts pf fifh than others. Thus, thofe where the water is rich and white are more adapted for carp ; while fuch as have a thicker appearance, and where there is a greater depo- fition of muddy matter, are better fuited to tench. Perch are capable of being raifed in almoflany fort of ponds. Eels fucceed befl where the ponds are not very large, but where fed by a fpring, and there is a large portion of rich fediment. Pike mould never be kept in ponds with carp or tench, but in feparate breeding-ponds, where the fupplies of fmall fry are confiderable and not wanted for ftores. Carp, tench, and perch are the forts principally cultivated with a view to profit, with a few eels occafionally. But perch and eels fhould not be admitted where *he ponds are but thinly flocked, as they are great devourers of the young fifh. Carp and tench anfwer befl; together where the extents of the ponds are pretty * Annals of Agriculture, TO!, xxxix. i Ibid. J Ibid. vol. xli. Ibid. vol. xxxiii. Uvoe Stock. FiJb-Pond$-~Proflti 707 large, as, in other cafes, the former, from being a much more powerful fifli, beats and deprives the latter of his food. Carp feldom afford much profit in ponds of led extent than half an acre; but tench thrive well in thofeof almoft any fize, being often found good in ponds of only a few perches fquare. Carp, perch, and eels fucceed well together; and alfo tench and eels.* Carp more frequently injure themfelves by breed ing than tench, though it fometimes happens with the latter. It is not improbable, but that in fmall ponds it may be the beft practice to keep the carp and te nch feparate. The produce or profit afforded by fifh -ponds has not yet, perhaps, been fufficiently attended to in different fituations to afford correct conclu lions; nor is it well afcer- tained what is the annual increafe in weight in fim of different kinds, in different periods of their growth, and under different circumftances of foil and water. Mr. Loveden ftates, that in Berkmire a pond of three acres and a half, drawn after being flocked three years with flores of one year old, produced Of carp, 195 lb. weight Of tench, 230 ditto 425 which fold for 20!. los. or nearly 2!. 6s. per acre pejr annum. * Annals of Agriculture. AN APPENDIX, A COMPENDIOUS VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL LAWS RELATING TO AGRICULTURE. CHAPTER I. Of the RELATIVE NIGHTS of LANDLORD and TEN ANT,, including a concise Statement of tlie Doctrine respecting Leases. THE relation, between landlord and" tenant, or technically fpcaking, the leflbrand leflee, arifes upon a contrail for the poffeffion and profits of lands or other hereditaments on the one fide, and a recompence by rent* or other confederation on the other. Sheppurd s Touch/lone, 267 ; 2 Black/lone * Commentaries, 317 ; i Term Reports, 598-9. * But there is-naoccafion for the rent to be, as it ufually is, a fum of money ; for fpurs, capons, horfes, corn, and other matters, may be rendered, and frequently are rendered, by way of rent. Cokt Littleton, 142; 2 Black/lone s Commentaries, 142. And it is to be obferved, that if in a renewed hofpital, or other leafe, the refervation be of Jo many quarters of corn, this (hall be underftood to mean legal quarters, reckoning the bufhel at eight gallons, although the old leafes before the flat, ti and 23 Car. a, c. i^ contained the fame refervation; and al though in. fact the tenants, or lefTees, never paid in kind, but by compofition, reckoning the bufhel at a cuftomary meafure of nine gallons or more, for the parties having made ufe of the term quarters, the court muft conftrue the leafe according to the law exifting, when the leafe was made, and by the pofitive r&- ftriftion in the above aft of parliament, whereby the bufhel (eight of which form the quarter) is notf to contain eight gallons, and no more, 6 Term Reports, 333. 4 70 be placed at the ? end the vvlume, 5 3 APPENDIX. And this contract may be entered into, ift, either by parol, that is, by verbal agreement ; or, sdly, by deed, or other inftrument in writing. It is, however, neceffary to obferve, that a diftinction has been eftabliihed between thefe two modes of contracting, by an act of parliament, moft generally known by the name of the ftatute of frauds and perjuries : by which (29 Car. 2, c. 3.) it is enacted, that " all leafes* Dilates of freehold, or terms for years, of any uncertain interests, of, in, to, or out of, any rnefluages, lands, tenements, &c. not put into writing, Jliall have the force and ejfeft of eftates at will only, and JJiall not, either at law, or in equity, betaken to have any greater ejfeft ; ex cept only leafes, not exceeding three years from the making, whereupon the rent referved, fhall be at lead two-thirds of the improved value. id. TENANT BY PAROL OR VERBAL AGREEMENT.] A perfon holding under a contract of this nature, is confidered as a tenant at will only, which tenant at will is defined to be, one to whom another lets lands without limiting any certain or determinate eftate. Littleton, fee. 68. And a parol or verbal agreement to leafe lands fora term exceeding three years, creates on ly a tenancy at will, for the flatute of frauds is exprefs that fuch an agreement (hall only have the effect of creating a tenancy at will. 4 Term Reports, 680. And all leafes for uncertain terms are prima facie leafes at will: but if there be a refervation of an annual rent, as is now always the cafe, that turns them into leafes from year to year. iW.Blacltftone, 117. Therefore, a parol demife for more than three years, at an annual rent, now operates as a tenancy from year to year, the meaning of the ftatute of frauds being, that fuch an agreement fhall not operate as a term: and what was confidered at the pafling of that act, as a tenancy at -will, has fince been properly conftrued to endure as a tenancy from year to year. 8 Term Reports, 3. So a general parol or verbal demife, at an annual rent, where the bulk of the farm is en- clofed, and a fmall part in the open common fields, is only a leafe from year to year, and not for fo long as the ufual round of husbandry extends : in this cafe it was contended, that as part of the farm was open field land, and the term uncertain, it ought, for the benefit of agriculture, to be confidered, according to the ufual round of the huibandry of the place, to be a holding from three years to three years. But the court faid, that although a fpecial agreement of this kind might be very prudent and reafonable, and would be good in law, yet all the cafes from king Henry VI11. (when enclofures were little known) to the prefent time, determine fuch takings, or holdings over, to be only leafes for one year: that where the courfe of husbandry is not finished under four years, as in Berks, and other rich counties, a general parol -taking, cannot be conftrued to be a leafe for four years confidently with the ftatute of frauds.* 2 W. Black ft one, 117. * The court faid, that it might be poflible, that circumftances may make it a leafe for a longer term, as where the crop (fuch as liquorice, madder, or the like) does not come to perfection in lefs than two years; but this cannot be regarded othenvife than as a mere extrajudicial obfervation j for if the foil, and not the coming crop is rented, the flatute muft operate. APPENDIX. 3 And a tenancy at will, now confidered as a tenancy from year to year, by the refervation of an annual rent, as above mentioned, may be created either by exprefs words, as where one lets land to another, as long as both parties fhall agree ; or if a man enters and enjoys land by confent of the owner, he fhall be tenant at will to him, though there be not any exprefs leafe at will, for he enters and has the land by confent. Littleton, fee. 70; i Rolle s Abridgment y /. 21 ; Raymond, 147 ; 8 Term Repot ts, 3. Alfo, in the cafe of a tenancy from year to year, as long as both parties pleafe, if the tenant die inteftate, his adminiftrator has the fame intereft in the land which his inteflate had, and may bring an ejectment agaiuft the landlord. 3 Term Reports, 13. And a tenancy from year to year cannot be put an end to, or determined, without reafonable- notice from the one party to the other. 3 Burrowes, 1609. Therefore, if the landlord brings an ejectment for lands fo let at will, he muft prove that half a year s previous notice or warning was given to the tenant, or to his executory in cafe of his death, or the plaintiff will be nonfuited at the trial. 3 JVilfon, 25. And the fix months notice or warning to quit, cannot be given on any quarter-day \ but on ly on that which is fix months previous to the day on which the tenant firfl entered, i Term Reports, 159. Neither can a tenant from year to year quit at any other quarter than that in which the year expires ; and he muft give fix months previous notice in like manner to the landlord, as in the laft-mentioned cafe. And the notice from the landlord muft be pofitive, and not leave an option in the tenant t quit, or to hold over on certain terms; fuch as, " I defire you to quit at Lady-day next, un- kfs you agree to pay double rent ;" but if the words be, " or I^/%a//infift on double rent," it is other-wife, and the notice is good, becaufe the latter words are added as a threat, which may be waived ; and the former leave an option to the tenant. Douglas, 167. But a notice to quit is not neceflary where the tenant has attorned, that is, has acknowledged himfelf to be tenant to a third perfon, in contravention of his landlord s title, or where he de nies to hold as mere tenant to the landlord. Butlers Ni/i Pritis, 96. If the landlord receives rent which becomes due after the expiration oi the notice to quit, it is not of itfelf a waiver of the notice ; and if an eje<5tment be brought to recover the lands for not quitting in purfuance of the notice, it will at the trial be left to the jury to confider with what intention the rent was received, as it may be a waiver only of the double rent*, to which the landlord may be entitled, or he may have taken it under the terms, that it fhould not be con fidered as a waiver of the notice. adly. TENANT UNDER A LEASE, DEED, OR OTHER INSTRUMENTS WRITING.] Leafes, ex ceeding the term of three years, muft be in writing, as before obferved ; but no precife form * By the ftat. n Geo. 2, c. 34,/r. 18, in cafe any tenant fhall give notice of his intention to quit the f remifes, and (hall not accordingly deliver up the pofleffion at the time in fuch notice contained, the faid tenant, his executors, or adminiftrators, ftall pay to the landlord double the rent which ke wouid other- wife have paid ; and it has been determined, that the notice by the tenant to quit under the above ftatute need not be in writing, but that a parol or verbal notice to quit is fufficient. 3 Burrows, 1603. Az 4 APPENDIX:. of words is effentral to conftitutc a good Icafe ; for whatever words are fufficient to explain the intent of the parties, that the one (hall divert himfelf of the poffeffion, and the other come in to it, tor fuch a determinate time, fuch words, whether they run in the form of a LICENCE- COVENANT or AGREEMENT, are of themfelves fufficient, and will, in conftruclio,n of law amount to a leafe for years, as tfFeflually as if the moft proper and pertinent words had been made ufe of for that purpofe. Bacon s Abrulgm. Tit. Leafes (K) j Ctoke, El tz. 484; Rolled Abridgtn. 847; Moor, 459; Koy, 57 ; 2 W. Blackfan?, 973. But the ufual words to make a leafe are, according to the mofl approved precedents, demife, leafe, fett, and to farm let. And as a leflec or tenant for years may affign or grant over his whole inteieft, fo he may grant it for any fewer or lefs number of years than he himfelf holds it ; and fuch derivative or under leffee is compcllable to pay rent, and perform the covenants according to the terms agreed on in fuch grant or agreement. Bacon s Abr. Tit. Lrafes, (I) 3. After thefe preliminary obfervations, it is ncceffary to fhew by whom leafes may be granted i I. A tenant infee-Jimple may make leafes without limitation or reftraint, having an abfolute and unlimited intereft; Comyns Dig. Tit. Eflates (Gj 2. II. So a tenant in fail may make a leafe for his own life, and by the flat. 32 Hen. 8, c. 28, be may make leafes for three lives, or twenty-one years, to commence from the making, or fume mort time after, provided the lands leafed have been ufually letten to farm for twenty-one years paft, and the accuftomed yearly rent paid within that period be referved, the intent of the ftatute being that the tenant in poffeffion fhall not diminifh the value of the eftate to the perfon entitled in reverfion. III. All hufbands feifed of lands in right of their wives are enabled by the fame flat. 32 Hen. S, c. 28, to make leafes for twenty-one years, or three lives in being, to commence from the time of making the leafe, obferving the directions therein contained, which are the fame as in refpecl: to tenants in tail ; which leafes bind the wives and their heirs, fo that they cannot now after the hufband s death, avoid fuch leafes, as they might have done before the above ftatute at the common law. Bacon s Abrldgm. Tit. Leafes (C). And if the directions in the ftatute are not obferved, then the common law takes place, and the wives and their heirs are at liberty to avoid fuch leafes, in the fame; manner as they might have done before. Ibid. Alfo in ail fuch leafes the wife ought to be made a party. IV. Although either a tenant in dower, or by the curtefy of England*, may make a leafe for years, refei ving rent ; yet if fuch tenant die before the expiration of the term granted, the leafe is abfolutely determined, and no acceptance of rent by the heir or thofe in reverfion can make it good. Crake Car. 398 ; Jones , 254; Vauglan y 81. * If a man takes a wife feifed in fee, or in tail, by whom he has iflue born alive, though fuch iflue may die immediately, he (hall hold, by the curtefy of England, the lands after the death of his wife for life, Littleton, fee. 35; Coke Littltton, 396; S Coke s Reports, 356. APPENDIX. 5 V. Alfo tenants for life may grant leafes of their lands for their own lives, or the Hfe of the perfon on \rhofe death the eftate will determine, but no longer, unlefs there be a power re- ferved in the deed or inftrument under which they are entitled, granting them liberty to de- mife for a longer term : and even in that cafe it is to be obferved, that if the leafe varies from the conditions, limited in the power of leafing in any refpec~l whatfuever, either as to the in- terefl demifed, the rent referved, or the mode of executing the power, fuch leafes upon the death of the tenant for life are void, and cannot be fupported againft the heir or thofe next in remainder. If the tenant for life has no power to grant leafes by the deed or other inftrument under which he is entitled, it is ufual to make the leafe for a definite and certain number of years, if be (the tenant for \ife)Jkallfo long htippen to live. VI. Alfo joint tenants and tenants in common may grant leafes for life or years, or at will, either of the whole eftate, or of their feveral fliares or moieties therein; and fuch leafes will, at the death of the one ; bind the other who may furvive, becaufe it is a prefent difpofition of an immediate intereft, and binds the land from the time of the leafe made. Coke Lit. 163; Rolle sAbridgm. 848 ; Coke Lit. 186. And the reafon that the leafe for years of one joint tenant of his moiety, is good and bind ing againft the furvivor is, that thefe joint tenants, having a reciprocal intcrefl in each other s life, when one of them makes a leafe for years of his moiety, this does not depend for its con tinuance on his life only, but on his life and the life of the other joint tenant, whether either of them (hall live longeft, according to the nature and continuance of the eftate whereout it was derived ; and then fo long as that continues, fo long the leafe holds good ; and by confcquence fuch leffee fliall hold out the furviving joint tenant, and the reverfioner, till the eftate, where- cut his leafe was derived, be fully determined. Bacon s Abridgm* Tit. Leafes (I) 5. But it is faid, that if a rent were referved on fuch leafe, this is determined and gone by th e death of the leflbr, for the furvivor cannot have it, becaufe he comes in by title paramount to the leafe ; and the heirs of the leflbr have no title to it, becaufe they have no reverfion and intereft in the land. Coke, 96 ; Coke Lit. 185 , a; Moor, 139. However, it rather feems at this day, that the executors or adminiftrators might maintain an acYion of debt or covenant, either upon the covenant in law, or exprefs covenant, for payment of the rent, arid fo become anfwerable over to the furviving joint tenant ; or perhaps a court of equity would, under fuch circumftances interfere. And to obviate any fuch difficulty, it is advifable that the leafe granted by a joint tenant, of bis part or moiety, Jhould be made to continue for a certain term of yean, " if the tftate and intereft of the faid joint tenant of or In the demifedpremifesjballfo long continue." Alfo if one joint tenant or tenant in common makes a leafe for years of his part to his com panion, this is good j for this only gives him a right of taking the whole profits, when before he had but a right to the moiety thereof ; and he may contract with his companion for that purpofe as well as he may with any ftranger. Coke Lit. 186, a ; Croke Jac. 83, 6n ; Moor, pi. 194 ; Rollers Abridgm. 851 ; I Rollers Abridgm. 877. VII. JLikewife ecclefiajlicalpcrfons and fleemofynary corporation* may, by the flat. 32 Hen. 8, 6 APPENDIX. f. 8, already noticed*, make leafes under a condition that this power is not to extend to leafes of lands in farm by virtue of any old leafe, unlcfs fuch old leafe be expired, furrendered, or ended, within one year after makingof a new leafe ; nor to a grant of any reverfion of lands ; nor to a leafe of lands not moft commonly letten by the fpace of twenty years before ; nor ta a leafe without impeachment of wafte ; nor to a leafe above twenty-one years, or three lives, from the day of making and that on fuch leafe there be referved the moft accuftomably paid rent for the fame within twenty years next before. VIII. Executors and admin i ft rat or s, as they may difpofe abfolutely of terms for years vefted in them in right of their teftators or inteftates, fo may they leafe the fame for any fewer num ber of years ; and the rent referved on fuch leafes (hall be aflets in their hands, and go in a courfe of adminiftration. 6 Coke 63, 67, 1; Bacon 3 Abridgm.Tlt. Leafes (II 7. IX. But MORTGAGORS cannot in ftri&nefs grant leafes of the lands which they have pre- vioufly mortgaged, unlcfs the mortgagee be made a party. Therefore a mortgagee may re cover in ejeftment, without giving notice to quit, againft a tenant who claims under a leafe from the mortgagor, granted after the mortgage, without the privity of the mortgagee. i Douglas, 21. Alfo a mortgagee after giving notice of the mortgage to the tenant in poffefllon under a leafe frior fo the mortgage, is entitled to the rent in arrear at the time of the notice, as well as what accrues afterwards ; and he may di drain for it after fuch notice. I Douglas, 278. X. Alfo a COPYHOLDER cannot, without licence from the lord, make a leafe for a longer period than one year, unlefs warranted bythecuftom. Moor, 184. Salk. 186. It is, however, faid by a refpeclable author, that the copyholder may, by a covenant, per mit the leflee to enjoy from year to year for a certain definite term, or infure the pofTeffion of the leflee for any given period. But the authority which he cites (2 Crake, 301) is direclly the reverfe ; for that cafe lays it down, that this would be in effect a leafe for the whole term in tended, an ] a forfeiture of the copyholder s tntereftf. * Amended by i Etiz- c. 19 ; 15 EHz. c. 10 ; 14 Eliz. c. n ; and jg and 40 Geo. 3, c. 41. f In the above obfervation it is not intended to queftion the judgment or learning .of the author, but he certainly is too indefinite in what he has laid down ; for the only mode in which the poffeffion of the tenant of copyhold premifes can be in any degree afTured to him beyond the term of one year, is, by making a leafe with the following form of words in the habendum: " To HAVE AND TO HOLD all and " fingular the faid demifed premifes, and every part and parcel thereof, with their and every of their appurtenances, unto the faid A B, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, from - unto the full * end and term of one wholeyear, and fo from year toyear until the expiration of the term of - years, " from the faid - day of . , if the lords, lady, or ladies cfthe manor or manors whereof the fame * demifed premifes are holden,Jhall confent thereunto, and if, according to the cuftom or cujloms of the faid manor or " manors, the fame may be fo demifed without prejudice or forfeiture \ but not other wife, YIELDING AND PAY- " ING," &c. as in other leafes, obferving to let the covenants run in the following words, viz. During the continuance of the faid term from year toy ear asaforefaid. APPENDIX. CHAPTER H. FORMS of LEASES* with Notes illuflrative of the Operation and Effect of the Covenants. I. The Leafe of a Farm for Twenty-one Years, with Covenants directing the Courfe of Hufbandry,. according to the Wejlern Praftice. THIS Indenture, made the day of , in the year of the reign of our fovereign Lord George the Third, by the grace of God of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, king, defender of the faith, and fo forth, and in the year of our Lord God, 1803, between Andrew Atkins, of , of the -nepart, and Bartholomew Bell, of , of the other part, witneffeth, that in confideration of the yearly rent, covenants, conditions, and agreements hereinafter contained, and on the part of the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and afllgns, to be paid, done, kept, and performed, the faid Andrew Atkins HATH demifed, leafed, fett, and to farm let, and by thefe prefents DOTH demife, leafe, fett, and to farm let, unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminifrrators, and afligns, all that meffuage, tenement, and farm, with the appurtenances, commonly called or known by the name of , fituate, lying, and being within the parim of -, in the faid county of , now in the tenure or occupation of the faid Bartholomew Bell, as tenant to the faid Andrew Atkins, together with all houfes, out-houfes, edifices, buildings, barns, ftables, courts, courtilages, gardens, orchards, lands, meadows, paftures, feedings, ways, paths, waters, water-courfes, eafements, profits, commodities, emoluments, and appurtenances whatfoever to the faid meffuages, tenement* and farm, or any part thereof, belonging or in any xvife appertaining (except* and always referred out of this prefent demife unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, all quarries and mines whatfoever, open or unopened, and all and all manner of timber trees and young trees and faplings likely to become timber, of what nature or kind foever, now (landing, growing, or being, or which hereafter (hall ftand, grow, or be, in or upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, with full and free liberty to and lor the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affignst, and his and their fervants, agents, and * The landlord cannot enter in order to work mines, fell timber, or the like, without an exprefs co. venant allowing him to do, fo ; for particular advantages belonging to fome leflbrs only, and not to all (fuch as the right to enter to. fee the date of repairs,) muft be provided for by particular agreement, Coke Lit. 54. f If the leflbr or landlord holds only intermediately under a fuperior leafe from another, any refer, ration or exception as to part of the premifes demifed, undall the covenants where his name is mentioned ft APPENDIX. voikmen, to enter into and upon, and pafsand repafs at all feafonable times in the day time upon, over, and through the faid demifed premifes for the felling, rooting up, and working and planting fuch trees and faplings, and opening, ripping, digging, and drawing the ftones and minerals in fuch mines and quarries, and taking and carrying away the fame with any manner of carriages whatfoever, at the free will and pleafure of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns (doing no wilful wafte or fpoil), to have and to hold the faid meffuage, tene ment, and farm, and all and fingular the premifes hereby demifed or mentioned and intended fo to be, with their and every of their appurtenances (except as before excepted), unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and afligns, from the day of row next enfuing, for and during and unto the full end, term, and time of twenty-one years from thence next enfuing, and fully to be complete and ended ; yielding and paying therefore yearly and every year during the faid term hereby demifed unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, the renter fum of pounds, of lawful money of Great Britain, by even and equal half-yearly payments in each and every year, at or upon the two mod ufual feafts or days of payment of rent hereinafter mentioned (that is to fay], the day of , and the day of , in each and every year; the firfl of the faid half- yearly payments to be made on the day of now next enfuing. PROVIDED ALWAYS, and it is hereby declared and agreed by and between the parties to thefe prefents, that if it (hall happen tha tthe faid yearly rent or fum of pounds, or any half-yearly pay ment of the fame, (hall be behind and unpaid in the whole or in part by the fpace of twenty- one days next after either of the faid feafts or days of payment whereon the fame ought to be paid as aforefaid, and the fame JJiall le demanded on the expiration of the faid twenty-one days, or at any time afterwards*, and not paid at the time of fuch demand, that then and from thence" forth it (hall and may be lawful to and for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, into and upon all and fingular the demifed premifes with the appurtenances, or into and upon any part thereof, in the name of the whole, to re-enter and the fame to have again, re-poffefs, oc cupy, and enjoy, as if thefe prcfents had not been made, thefe prefents or any thing in them contained to the contrary thereof in any wife notwithstanding. AND the faid Bartholomew Bell doth hereby for himfelf, his heirs, executors, adminiftrators, and afligns, covenant, pro- mife, and agree, to and with the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftra ors, or afligns, (hall and will, from time to wuift run in. the words kistv(cuters ) au.ni tijtrators, ant afigns, inftead of " his heirs and alfigns," which. )<uter words are only to be ufcd where the lefTbr or landlord is entitled to the fee-fimple and inheritance and riot to a fui.illereft.tte carved out of the inheritance, fuch as a leafehold or term for years is. * In confluence of thedecifion in Dccv. IVindhff, 7 Term Rep 117, in which it was determined, that \inder a power of re-entry in cafe of non-payment of rent, the landlord cannot recover in ejectment at rommoii 1-aw, unlefs he prove a dim nd on the very day on which the rent became due; nor under the ftatnte of 4 Gfo. 17. c. 28, un ef:. he prove that there was not a fufficient diftrefs on the premifes; it has been confulered by conveyancers as advifabl** to introduce in the claufe empowering the leffor or land, ford to re-enter, the above words dHtinguifhcd by /. a/ja APPENDIX. p time well and truly pay, or caufe to be paid, unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afllgns, the faid yearly rent or fum of pounds, at the days and times and in manner and form herein before limited and appointed for payment of the fame, according to the refervation hereby made thereof, and the true intent and meaning of thefe prefents. AND ALSO, that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and afllgns, fhall and will carry into and upon every acre of the faid hereby demifed premifes which he or they (hall till or break up for tillage, and in that proportion for every lefs quantity than an acre, except upon four clofes of land, parcel of the faid hereby demifed premifes, called or known by the names of A, B, C, and D, dozen bufhels of good and well-burnt ftone lime, and there lay, mix with the earth and foil, fpread, caft abroad, and manure or drefs every fuch acre, and fo in propor tion, according to good hufbandry ; and that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, admi niftrators, and afligns, fhall and will carry into and upon every acre of the faid four clofes of land called A, B, C, and D, that he or they fhall till or break up to or for tillage, and in that proportion for every lefs quantity of the fame clofes than an acre, bufhels of good and well-burnt flone lime, and there lay, mix with earth and foil, fpread, caft abroad, and ma nure or drefs every fuch acre, and fo in proportion, according to good hufbandry; and that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or afllgns, upon or after fuch manur ing or drefling, (hall and will have and take three crops and no more of any kind of corn or grain, and thofe fucceflively one year after another, without the intermifllon of any year ; and that only one of fuch crops, and that not the laft, fhall be of wheat, and the other of barley or oats, or one of the one fort, and the other of the other fort, and fhall not nor will break up or till any part of the faid premifes for more than two courfes of tillage (computing three crops of corn and grain to a courfe of tillage) during the faid term. AND ALSO, that he the faid Bartholo mew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or afllgns, fhall or will, with the feeds of corn or grain to be town in the Lent feafon of the laft year, before the end of the faid term hereby demifed. fow, or caufe to be fown, at leaft fix pounds of good new clover, and two pecks of the beft new grafs feeds, on each and every acre, and harrow, brufh in, and cover the fame clover and grafs feeds according to the courfe of accuftomed ufual and good hufbandry: and that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or afligns, fhall not, nor will permit or fuf- fer the grafs which fhall arife or grow from fuch clover and grafs feeds to be eaten or trodden down after Chriftmas-day in the laft year of the faid term, nor to be eaten too clofe or other- wife injured contrary to the accuftomed and ufual rules of good hufbandry, at any time after the feeds fhall be fown. And alfo fhall not, nor will have or take more than one crop of pota toes in one field in any feven years during the faid term hereby granted. And alfo, that it fhall and may be lawful to and for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afllgns, at any time after the firft day of Auguft next preceding the end or determination of the faid term, at his and their own election, to enter into and upon and thwart over, break up, and plough any one field not ex ceeding "acres of ground, part of the faid demifed premifes, and to make breaches and fallow for wheat, and to till the ground fo thwarted, eared, broken up, and ploughed, and to hold the fame from and after the thwarting, earing, breaking up, and ploughing thereof, from thenceforth, for and during all the reft and refidue of the faid term, without making any de- B 10 APPENDIX. , allowance, orrecompencej itvrefpeft thereof. And alfo, that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executory administrators, or affigns, (hall not nor will cut or mow, or fuffer to be cut or mown, any of the grafs arifing from the clover or other grafs feeds which (hall be fown j,n any part of the faid dcmifed prcmifes oftener or more than once, and only in the nextenfuing feafon of the year for that purpofe, after the ground fown with fuch clover or other grafs feeds fhall be left out of tillage. And alfo (hall not, nor will cut or mow, or fuffer to be cut or mown, the grafs of any part of the faid premifes, except the meadow ground, and fuch ground as is or (hall be fown with grafs feeds as aforefaid ; nor till or break up for tillage any part of the meadow ground during the faid term : nor cut or mow the grafs of the fame oftener than once in any year during the faid term. And that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, liis executors^ adminiftrators; and affigns, (hall not nor will cut any hedge or hedges of or belonging to the aid hereby demifed premifes but in the proper f.-afon of the year for that purpofe, and no t under feven years growth, na fuch hedges as adjoin to arable ground only when the ground adjoining thereto on one fide at leaft fhall be in tilbgc for the firft crop after a new breach and mail and will at the /Hn.c time leave fdEcient growth in the hedges to cut, and upon and immediately alter fuch cutting, mail ami will caft, load, flope down, and new-make the hedges fo cut on both fides, according to acuiftomed uiual and good husbandry. And alfo fliall and will from time to time and at all times during the faid term, well and fufficientlyrepair.amend, and in good tenantable condition put, maintain, and keep all the hedges and theglafs of the windows, and alfo the gates, bars, ftiles, and pofts of or belonging to the faid demifed premi fes, having timber requifite and neceffary for that purpofe by the afllgnment or delivery of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or aftlgns, and at the end, expiration, or other fooner determina tion of the faid term, the faid hedges, glafs of the windows, gates, ftiles, bars, and pofts in good and fufficient repair, (hall and will leave and yield up ( reafonableufeand wearing thereof in 4he mean time always allowed). And alfo fliall not nor will cut, top, or lop any tree or trees en the faid prcmifes hereby dtmifed, but fuch trees as have been topped, and thofe only in the proper feafon of the year fur that purpofe, and not in an improper manner, nor under feven years growth, nor do, or permit and fuffer to be done,, any wafle, fpoil, or deftruclion in or upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof during the faid term, nor demife, leafe, fet, let, or part with the pofleflion of the faid premifes for any longer term than one year, and that to pafture only, without the previous confent and authority of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, for that purpofe firft had and obtained in writing. And alfo, that he the faid BartholoirewBell, his executors, admimftrators or affigns, fhall not rror will carry off from the iaid premifes any muck, dung, foil, afties, compoft, or other manure, or any hay, ftraw, or corn in the ftrawi which mall arife, be made, grow, or be produced thereon during the faid term ; but on the contrary (hall and will yearly, and every year, during the faid term hereby demifed, at the moft feafonable times, and according to the due and accuftomed courfe of husbandry, lay and fpread on fome part or parts of the land hereby demifed and where moft neceflary, all fuch muck, dung, foil, aftie?, compoft, or other manure as (hall from time to time arife, bemadeorpro- hiced upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof ; and alfo (hall and will yearly and every year during -this demife, fodder out, fpend, and confume into dung with neat teafts and APPENDIX. 11 other cattle in an hufbandlike manner, on fome part or parts of the premifes hereby demifcd \vhere moft convenient or necdTary, all the hay, draw, chaff., fodder, and clover that (hall dur ing the faid term hereby demifed from time to time arife, grow, or be produced upon or from the faid demifed premifes or any part or parts therof. AND ALSO, that he the faid Bartholo mew Bell, his executors, adminiflrators, orafligns, mail and will, during the faid term here by demifed, well and truly pay, difchargc and fat i sty, or caufe to be paid, difcharged, and fatisfied, the great and fmall tythes, and the houfe, window, and all other taxes and afleflf- ments whatfoever, whether parliamentary or parochial, the land tax only excepted, and do and perform or caufe to be done and performed the ftatute labour on the highways, or pay the com- pofition money for the fame, which fhall become due or payable in refpcit thereof, to be done and performed. AND ALSO that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, hisexecutors, adminillrators, orafligns, fhall and will live and relide in thedwelling-houfepartof thefaiddemifeJ premifes during the faid term-hereby granted. AND he the faid Andrew Atkins doth hereby for himfelf, his heirs and afligns, Covenant, promife, and agree to and with the faid Bartholomew Bell, hisexecutors, admi- niftrators a id affigns, in manner following, (that is to fay) that he the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, (hall and will pay and difcharge, or otherwife deduct and allow out of the rent hereby icfcrved, the land tax, which fhall be paid by the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, admin : urators, or affigns, for or in refpect of the faid demifed premifes,during the faid term hereby demifed, and alfo (hall and will fufficiently repair, amend, and in good tenantable condi tion maintain and keep,the faid melTuage or tenement, out-houfes, and buildings in the main and principal walls,and the roofs and tiling of the fame and every of them, in all needful and neceflarv reparations whatfocver,when and as often as need or occafion fhall require during the faid term of twenty-one years ; and he and they mall be thereunto requefled by the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or affigns, by -months previous notice or warning in writing for that purpofe, under his or their hand or hands : and alfo fhall and will find and provide good and fufficient timber for repairing the gates, bars, ftiles, and ports, belonging to the faid demifed premifes: AND FURTHER, thatit fhall and may be lawful to and for the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiflrators, and affigns (well and truly paying the rent hereby referved, and ob- ferving, fulfilling, performing, and keeping all and every the covenants, conditions, and agree ments herein contained on his and their parts and behalfs to be obferved, fulfilled, perform ed, and kept), from time to time and at all times hereafter during the faid term hereby de mifed, peaceably and quietly to have, hold, ufe, occupy, polTefs, and enjoy all and fingular the faid demifed premifes with the appurtenances (except as before excepted), without the let, fuit, trouble, moleftation, denial, or eviction of him the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or af figns, or any perfon or perfons lawfully or equitably claiming or to claim the faid premifes or any part thereof, by, from, or under him, or them, or any of them, and without the let, iuit, trouble, moleftation, difturbance, denial, or eviction of any other perfon or perfons whom, fbcver.* In witnefs, &c. * By it Geo. II. c. 19, J~- i a, where an ejeftment is ferved on any lands, if the tenant do?s not gi\ r notice to the perfon of whom hehoMs of the fervice of fuch ejectment, he (hall forfeit thrc<* year* rent f he premifes, to be recovered by aftion of debt. B 2 l!2 APPENDIX. For m of a Lea fe of a Farm in the Midland DiftriEt, for Twenty-one Years, commencing as to federal Parts at different Periods, andfubject to Rents and Refervations. THIS Indenture made, c. between Andrew Atkins, of , efq. of the one part, and Bartholomew Bell, of , yeoman, of other part, witnefleth, that the faid Andrew Atkins, for and in confederation of the rents, duties, fervices, covenants, and agreements herein after referved and contained on the part of the faid Bartholomew Bell,to be paid, done, obferved and performed, HATH demifed, leafed, fet, and to farm let, and by thefe prefentsDOTH demife, leafe, fet, and to farm let, unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, all that mefTiiage, tenement, and farm, commonly called or known by the name of, fituate, lying, and being in the parifli of-- [or the leveral parifh.es of r-], in the county of , and within and parcel of the manor of , in the faid county of , and lately in the tenure of -, and now or late of the faid , together with all and lingular the rights, members, privileges, and appurtenances to the faid premifes or any part thereof belonging or appertaining (excepting and always referved out of this prefent demife unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, all woods, underwoods, timber, and other trees and faplings of what kind or nature foever, now growing or being, or which hereafter {hall grow or be in or upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof; and all mines, veins, and beds of coal . lead, copper, and other metals or minerals, and all quarries of lime, or other Hone, now being or which (hall hereafter be found or discovered in or upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, with full liberty and power to and for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, and his and their agents, fervants, workmen, chapmen, and dealers, and every other perfon that (hall be authorifed for that purpofe, at ay time or times hereafter, to enter into or upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, and there to fell, cut down, work up, cord, flack, burn, coal, or otherwife convert, the faid wood and underwood, trees and faplings, or any part thereof, and alfo to dig, delve, fearch for, get up, drefs and make merchantable and fit for fale, the faid coal, (tones, metals, and minerals, or any part thereof; and the faid excepted premifes, or any part thereof, to take and carry away with all or any fort or manner of carriages, and for the feveral and refpeclive purpofes afore- faid, to make and erect all or any kind of warehoufes, engines, machines, fawpits, coal- hearths, and other conveniences, on the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, at his and their free will and pleafure ; and alfo except and referved unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, full liberty and power to and for him and them, and his and their agents, fervants, and workmen, at any time or times hereafter to dig, raife, and carry away, marl, clay, gravel, and fand, in and from the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, for the manuring of other his or their lands, the making of roads, bricks, or tiles, or other purpofes (in cafe there (hall be more than (hall be wanted thereon); and plant any part or parts of the faid demifed premifes with all or any kind of fbreft-trees, and the fame from thenceforth to preferve ; and alfo to make any road or roads, piece or pieces of water APPENDIX. IS and water courfes, and the fame from time to time to alter and divert, and to take from the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, and convey in exchange for other lands or tenements, or fell any parlor parts of the faid premifes hereby demifed; and likewifeto plough and fallow at or after Chriftmas-day next before the determination of this demife, any part or parts of the faid demifed premifes, and totakeand have convenient (tabling and tyings in the out-buildings on the faid demifed premifes for the horfes and cattle which fhall be employed in and about the fame, making to the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns-, on the exercife of all or any of the liberties and privileges herein before excepted, fuch fatisfa&ion and recompence for the damage he or they fhail fuftain thereby, as two indifferent perfons (whereof the one to be chofen by the faid Andrew Atkins* his heirs, or affigns, and the other by the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, administrators, or affigns) fhall think reafonable ; and likewife except and referved unto the faid Andrew At kins, his heirs and affigns, full liberty and power to and for him and them, and his or their agents, fervants, and workmen, to fowwith clover and grafs feeds fuch part and parts of the faid demifed premifes as (hall be in tillage the fpring feed- time next before the determination of this demife, and upon or after the firft day of next following fuch feed-time, to take pofleffion of the fame lands, and fence and preferve the fame and the clover and grafs therein thenceforth, to and for his and their own ufe and benefit ; and alfo upon every fall which (hall be made on the wood or coppice lands of or on the faid demifed premifes, to fence andcopfe up the fame, to preferve the future fprigs therein from the bite of fheep and cattle and all other trefpafs and damage during the fpace of years, next aftereach fall refpec- tively ; and alfoexcept and referved unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs, and affigns all game, wild fowl, and fifh, which now are or hereafter fhall be in or upon the faid demifed pre mifes or any part thereof, with the fole liberty, privilege and power of hunting, courfing,> hawking, fetting, fowling, and fifhing for the fame by himfelf or themfelves, and his or their companions, and by his or their game- keepers, with fervants, horfes, and dogs, in and upon the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, and the game, fowl, and fifh there killed or taken, to haveand carry away to and for his and their own ufe and benefit, at his and their free will and pleafure ; to have and to hold the faid meffuage, tenement* farm, and other the pre- mifes (except as hereinbefore excepted), unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, ad- miniftrators and affigns, in manner following, (that is to fay) the part or parts thereof which. is or are meadow land, fromthe day of laftpaft, the dwelling-houfe and neceffary out-buildings, from the day of next coming, and the refidue ot the premifes from the day of the date hereof, for and during the full and whole end, term and time of . years thence refpe&ively next enfuing, and fully to be complete and ended ; and to hold fuch field, if not lefs than acres, part of the faid demifed premifes as (hall be hereafter appointed by the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, or his or their agent for the time being, as a : pafture unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors,, ad miniftrators, and affigns, from the end or fooner determination of the faid term therein until the day of then next following; yielding,* paying, rendering,, * Several annual rents may, by apt words, be referved in the Time demife. 5 .Coke\ 55. a. 44 APPENDIX. and performing therefore yearly, and in each and every year during die continuance of this demife, unto and for the ufe of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs andaffigns, the feveral rents, duties, and fervices hereinafter mentioned, viz.the rent or fum of pounds, of lawful money of Great Britain, free and clear of and from all taxes and deductions whatfoever (except land tax), by two equal half-yearly payments, at or upon every day of , and day of , in each and every year (the firfl payment to be made on the day of next), and two ftrikes or bufhels of oats, and one couple of fat fowls, on every day of T ; andalfotwo days work or labour with a waggon and four horfes, attended by or -with a waggoner, at fuch time or times in the year as mall from time to time be appointed ; and likewife the keep of a dog and a cock, if required ; and grinding all the corn and grain which (hall be eat or confumed in or upon the faid demifcd premifes or any part thereof, during the continuance of this demife, at the mill of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afllgns, called mill, in the parifh of- aforefaid, he and they being well ufed and in convenient time difpatched ; and doing and perform? ngfuit and ferviceat all and every the courts to be holden or kept for the manor or borough of aforefaid, and abiding by and obeying all and every the orders and by-laws which (hall be there made and ordained ; and alfo yielding and paying for every acre of meadow or ufual mowing ground of the faid demifed premifes, which he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or afligns, (hall plough or break up for tillage, and for every of the premifes hereby demifed exceeding - acres, which he or they fhall have in tillage in any one year of this demife, and alfb for every acre thereof exceeding acres, which he or they fhall mow in anyone of thelaft four years of this demife ; and likewife for every acre therof exceeding acres, which he or they (hall fow with flax or hemp feed, and for each and every of them, feverally and refpe&ively, the rent or fum of pounds, of like lawful money, over and above the faid rents, duties, and fervices herein before referved, and in that proportion for more or lefs than an acre at or upon every faid - day of , and day of , the firft payment thereof refpeftively to be made on fuch of the faid days as fhall firft happen after the committing or doing of the acts or deeds for which the fame is or are hereby refpec- tively referved as aforefaid, and to continue payable and be paid from thenceforth during the continuance of this demife. And likewife yielding unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, for every timber or other tree or fapling which he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or afligns, (hall cut down, top, or lop, without the licence of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, or his or their agent for the time being, the fum of pounds, of like lawful money : AND the faid Bartholomew Bell, for himfeif, his heirs, executors, adminiftrators, and afligns, doth hereby covenant, promife, and agree, to and with the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, in manner and form following, (that is to fav) that he the faid BartholomewBell, his executors, adminiftrators, and afligns, (hall and will well and truly pay,* render, and perform, or caufe to be paid, rendered, and performed, unto * Where the le (Tee covenants generally to pay rent, though he has had no enjoyment cf the premifes, as where they are burned down, and there is a covenant to repair in all cafes except that of fire, yet ftuli the tenant be liable for all .growing arrears of rent under this covenant, i Term P.eporU, 310. APPENDIX* I* and 1 for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afftgns, the aforefaid yearly rents of pounds, twoftrikes or bufhelsof oats, one couple of fowls,twodays labour with a waggon, a waggoner.and four horfes, and the keep of a dog and a cock, and alfo the faid feveral other yearly and other rents or fums of money herein before referved (if the fame fhall refpe&ively became payable),, on the days and in the proportions herein before limited and appointed far payment thereof respectively ; awd fhail and will pay, bear, and difcharge, all taxes, rents, afleflmenis, and im- pofitions vvhatfoever (except the land-tax*), which fhall be charged on, or become payable for or in refpeft of the faid demifed premifes, or any part or parcel thereof, from time to time, or at any time or times during the continuance of this demife : and alfo fhall and will, at his and their own proper cofts and charges, well and fufticiently repairf, fcour, cleanfe, amend, main~ tain, keep, and preferve the faid mefluage, tenement, and other the premifes hereby demifed,. and all the houfes, edifices, walls, buildings, hedges, ditches,, mounds, gates, bars, ftiles, pales,, rails, fences, foughs, drains, gutters, and water-courfes,which now is or are, or at any time dur ing the continuance of this demife, fhall be in or upon the faid demifed premifes, or any part- thereof, in, by, and with all needful and neceffary repairs, fcoufings, cleanfings, and amend ments whatfoever, where, when, and as often as need fhall be or occafion require ( accidents bjr tire only excepted); and at the end, or other fooner determination of this-demife, all and fingular the fame premifes and every part and parcel thereof fo refpeclively well and fufficiently repair ed, cleanfed, amended, kept,, and preferved, fhall and will leave and yield up,, unto the faid> Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his- executors, adminif- trators,and afligns, having fo and towards the doing fuch repairs, neceflary and convenient rough timber on the ftem on the faid demifed premifes,or within two miles thereof, by the ap pointment of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, or his or their agent for the time being, and not otherwife : AND FURTHER, that the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, and- his or their agent for the time being, with artificers and workmen, fhall and may,, in the day. * The leflfeehas a right in all cafes to flop the land-tax out of the rent to his landlord, unlefs there i$. an exprefs agreement that he fhall not. Saber s Reports, 78. But an exception as to the land-tax, only extends to that Aim which was payable at the time of the execution of the leafe ; and if the tenant by improvements, fuch as new buildings or the like, occafions an increafe in the future affdTments, the landlord is not liable to deduct out of his rent more than the amount of the original charge at the time the leafe was. granted. 3 Term Reports f 3?7- The leffee or tenant has atfo a right to deduct the amount of the property-tax chargeable on land- : lords, out of the rent payablte to them ; and that, although fuch leflee or tenant may have in exprefs terms covenanted to pay fuch tax : for by. the act 46 Geo. 3, cap. 65,.which impofes this duty,. all covenants^ to that effect are declared to be void and rendered ineffectual, whether they were entered into-before on aiter the paffing of the act. f Under this covenant tkt ordinary, and natural decay is- no breach thereof. Fitzhe rberfs Abr+ Tit*. Cov. /. 4. And if the leflee pulls down Aoujes orfujfcrs them^to deray^ no, action will lie againfl him till, the end.of the term ; for before that time he may repair them. Fitzherberi t .M B. 341. But if he cuts down timber or trees, covenant lies immediately j for fuch cannot. be replaced, in th-; .&me plight at the end of the term. Ibid, 16 APPENDIX. time, at any time or times during this demife, enter into and upon the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, and view, fearcb, examine into, and fee the (late and condition of the fame,* and leave notice in writing thereon of fuch defects or want of reparation, fcouring, cleanfing, or amendment, as (hall be then and there found : and in cafe the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or affigns, {hall not well and fufficiently repair and amend the fame \\ithinthreccalendarmonthsnextafterfuchnotice, that then he the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, or his or their agent for the time being, with artificers and workmen, fhall and may enter into and upon the faid demifed premifes, and do, rectify, and complete fuch reparations and defects, and charge the cofts and expences thereef unto and upon the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, as an additional rent for the faid demifed pre mifes for the year in which he or they (hall neglect to do fuch repairs ; and upon non-payment thereof, he the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, or his or their agent for the time .being, fhall and may levy and recover the fame by diftrefs and fale of the goods and chattels to be found on the faid demifed prernifes or any part thereof, in fuch ample manner and form, and as fully and effectually as he or they may levy the faid original or proper rent hereby referved, or either of them, in cafe the fame fhall be in arrear ; AND LIKEWISE, that he the faid Bartho lomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, from time to time, and at all times dur ing the continuance of this demife, fhall and will plant quick in the deader decayed part of the hedges of the faid demifed premifes, and ufehis and their beft endeavours to preferve and keep from bite of cattle, and other deftruftion, fpoil, and damage, as well the faid quick, as all and every the woods, underwood, timber, and other trees and faplings, which now are or hereafter fhall be planted or growing on the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof ; and fhall not nor will cut or break down, root up, top, lop, or injure any or either of them, except taking timber for repairs, by appointment as aforefaid, and alfo taking, by like appointment (and not otherwife), from fuch of the faid trees as are pollards, reasonable wood for fummer fuel in the dairy only, and for ploughbote, cartbote, and hedgebote, off and on the faid demifed premifes ; and fhall and will conftantly inhabit, or caufe to be inhabited by a fit and proper fa- mily, the dwelling-houfe, and occupy, manage, manure, and improve, in a good, proper, and hufbandlike manner, the lands and premifes hereby demifed, and not burn, bat, run out, or otherwife beggar or impoverifh, nor commit or fuffer any wafte, fpoil, or destruction on the fame, or any part thereof;! and alfo fhall and will threfh and clean on the faid demifed premifes, all the corn and grain which fhall be grown thereon, and eat and confume thereon all the hay, * A leffor may enter upon the premifes of his leflee to fee the Mate ot the repairs, though there be no covenant for that purpofe, fuch liberty being allowed by law for the general benefit of the lef- for s eftate. Coke Lit. 34. f Although a tenant does not hold under any leafe, the mere relation of landlord and tenant will raife an implied promife on the part of the tenant to cultivate the land in a good and hulbandlike manner. 5 Term Reports, 373. And under a general covenant to ufe the premifes during the term in a careful, proper and hujband- like manner, the tenant muft expend all the manure made upon the land, upon the demifed premifes ; but is not obliged to bring back manure produced by ftraw and the like, carried away at the end of his , term, Same Reports, 379. APPENDIX. 17 it raw, fodder and fuel, which {hall be produced on the fame or any part thereof, and Jikewife (hall and will yearly, and every year, during the continuance of this demife, at feafonahle times, and in an hufbandlike manner, fpend, ufe, fpread and bellow, in and upon fit and proper parts of the faid demifed premifes, four waggon-loads of good ftone lime, and all the muck, dung, comport, and manure which (hall be made, produced, or raifed on the faid de mifed premiles, or any part thereof ; and fhall not nor will breakup or fow with corn or grain, any more or other part or parts of the lands hereby demifed, than he or they lhall at any time well and futHciently manure, nor take more than three crops therefrom under any one tillage, for one of which crops he or they fhall and will make a fummer fallow, or have a fallow fown with turnips on the fame ground, or break up a clover-lay of the firft or fecond year s growth, and well manure the fame, and with the laft of fuch crops lay down the land fo tilled therewith, well fown with a proper quantity of good clover and rye-grafs feeds j and fhall and will at the end, or other fooner determination of this demife, leave on the faid demifed premifes, to and for the ufe and benefit of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns one half part of all corn and grain whereof the feed {hall have been tilled or fown thereon at the then laft feednefs,* in any brufh or ftubble, and one-third part of all corn and grain whereof the feed {hall have been fown thereon, at the then laft feednefs, in a fallow or a clover lay of the firft or fecond year s growth, well manured ; and alfo all the muck, dung, comport, and manure which fhall be made, produced, or raifed on the faid demifed premi fes, or any part thereof, during the then laft twelve months, without having or claiming any allowance or fatisfaclion for the fame. And alfo (hall and will permit and fuffer the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, to have, exercife, and enjoy all and every the liberties privileges, matters and things herein before excepted out of this demife, without any let or moleftation, and (hall not nor will affign, fet or let, or yield and deliver up the poffeflion of the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, to any pei fon or perfons whomfoever without the licence of the faid Andrew Atkins, or his heirs or affigns, firft had and obtained in writ ing, and that only for fuch time, to fuch perfon or perfons, and in fuch manner and form as (hall in fuch licence be expreffed ;t nor fhall nor will permit or fuffer any perfon or perfons to make or ufe any road or path, other than thofe which are or (hall be lawfully * As to way-going crops, fee the chapter which treats on " Wrongs in rrfpeft to the rights of tenants." f- A covenant not to ajjlgn, transfer, fet over, or othertoife do or put away the leafe or prcmifcs, does not extend to an underleafe granted for part of the term, a Blatkf. 766 ; 3 Witfon, 234. But if a leafe contain a provifo, that the leffee and his adminifirators, fhall noi Jet, let, or effg* ever, the adminiftratrix of the lefiee, cannot underlet without incurring a forfeiture. 3 Ter. Rip. 4:5. Yet if the lefTee by will devifcs the term without the leflbr s confent, this will not be a breach of the covenant. Style, 483. And it fecms that any aflignment by aft of law, is not a breach of this covenant ; as if the lefTce become a bankrupt, an alignment by the afligoees under his commiffion is not a breach of covenant, j Wilfen, 736. c 18 APPENMMX. efb.blifhed ; orto hunt, courfe, hawk, fet. fowl, or fifh, in upon or over the faid demited " mifes, or any part thereof, but fhall and will, when and as often as required by the-iaui Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, give notice in writing to all and every perfon and per- Tons to keep off the faid demifed premifes, and not thereafter come into or be found upon the fame or any part thereof. And againftfuch perfon and perfons or -any of them, who fhal>,. after fuch notice, offend therein, to or for the intent or purpofe of making or ufing a new road or path, or of hunting, courfing, hawking, fetting, fowling or fifhing, fhall and will at the requeft, cofts and charges of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, commence and profecute one or more fuit or fuitS at law for the fame, and not delay, releafe, compound, or difcontinue the fame, Or any of them without the confent of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns ; and the damages which (hall be recovered thereby, fhall and will pay and apply forand towards the cofts, charges, and expences of fuch fuit or fuits. And the faid Andrew Atkins, for blmfelr, his heirs and affigns, doth hereby covenant,promife, and agree to and with the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, axdminiftrators, and affigns, in manner and form following, viz. That he the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs- or affigns, (hall and will allow Unto the faid Bartholomew Bell> his executors, adminiftrators, or affigns, out of the yearly rent hereby referred, the price at the kiln for four waggorr-loads of lime. And alfo fhall and will with all convenient fpeed, put the dwelling-houfe and out-buildings of and on the faid demifed premifes in good and fubftantial order, condition and repair, arrd likewife fhall and will, from time to time, appoint unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiflra" tors, and affigns, neceffary and convenient timber on the ftemon the faid demifed premifes, or within two miles thereof, for and towards the repairing of the fame, and alfo reafonable wood from the pollard trees, or elfewhere on the faid demifed premifes, for fummer fuel, for the dairy, and for ploughbote, carbote, and hedgebote as aforefaid. And that he the faid Bartho lomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, paying, rendering, and performing the feveral rents, duties, and fervices hereby referred, and obferving and performing the Soif a leiTee who has covenanted not to let, fit, ajtgn, transfer, make over, barter, exchange, or othirwife part with the indenture, (3c with a provifo that the landlord may in fuch cafe re-enter, gives .a warrant cf attorney to confefs judgment under which the leafe is taken in execution and fold, it is no forfeiture of. the leafe. 8 Ter. Rep. 5.7. But if a warrant of attorney be given exprefsly for this purpofe, it is in fraud of the covenant, and a forfeiture of the leafe. 8 Term Reports, 300. Alfo covenants may be introduced in a leafe to prevent live term.paffing under a com mi (lion of bank, nipt, or being taken on an execution againft the tenant; and fuch covenants are now become, very iifual. 2 Term Reports, 133; 8 Term Reports, 57,3.. It is alfo to be obferved that if a forfeiture has been incurred. by. afllgnment, and if the leflbr accepts rent afterwards, this is a waiver of the forfeiture, but in fuch cafe it muft appear , that at the time he accepted the rent he knew of the forfeiture incurred. zTer. Rep. 430. Alfo after a licence to let oraffign has been once obtained, either in refpecY of the whole, or enly a part f the premifes, the aflignee is no longer bound by the covenant, but may afterwards let or affign tke whole or any part at pleafure. 4 Coke, 119, APPENDIX. ig covenant? and agreements herein contained, fhall and may peaceably and quietly have, hold, occupy, and enjoy the faid demifed premifes, and every part thereof, without the lawful let, fuit eviction, moleftation or denial of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, or of any perfon or perfons, lawfully or equitably claiming, or to claim by, under, or in truft for him, them., or any of them. PROVIDED ALWAYS, and it is hereby agreed, by and between the panics hereto ; and thefe prefents are, upon this exprefs condition, that if all, any, or either of the faid yearly or other rents, duties, or fervices hereby refeivej, fhall be behind or unpaid, or unperformed wholly or in part by the fpace of twenty days, next after either of the faid days or times, whereon the fame ought refpectively to be paid or performed ; and the fame fhall be demanded on the expiration of the faid twenty days, or at any time afterwards, and not then paid. Or if the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators or affigns, fhall not keep all and (angular the faid demifed premifes, in all things in fuch good and fuffi- cient order, condition, and repair as aforefaid, or fhall not pay on demand fuch fum and fums of money as the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, fhall lay out and expend in repairing or amending the fame as aforefaid, or (hall not plant quick from time to time in the dead or decayed partsof the hedges, and preferve and keep from deftru&ion, fpoil and damage, the fame and the wood, underwood, timber, and other trees and faplings, which now are, or here after fhall be planted or growing on the faid demifed premifes as aforefaid ; or if he or they {hall not inhabit, or caufe to be inhabited as aforefaid, the faid dwelling-houfe, and occupy, manage, manure, and improve the lands and premifes, hereby demifed, in the manner herein, before agreed upon,cxpre(Ted, and laid down, or dial 1 carry off the faid demifed premifes any unthrafhed corn or grain, or any hay, ftraw, fodder, fuel, muck, dung, compoft.or other manure which fhall be produced or raifed thereon, or let or moled the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, or his or their agents, fervants, workmen, chapmen, and dealers, or any of them, in the exercife or enjoyment of all or any of the liberties, privileges, matters or things herein before excepted ; or fhall aflign, fet, or let the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, with out fuch licence as aforefaid, or otherwife than as in fuch licence (hall be exprefled, or fhall Permit or fuffer any pei fon or perfons to make any road or path, (other than thofe which are or fhall be lawfully eftabliflied, or to hunt, courfe, hawk, fet, fowl, or fifh in, upon, or over the faid demifed premifes or any part thereof, or (hall refufe or neglect to give fuch notice or no tices, or to commence, profecute, and continue fuch action or actions at law as aforefaid, at the requeft, cofls, and charges of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, or to pay and apply the damages which (hall be recovered thereby for and towards fuch cofts and charges as aforefaid, THAT THEN and from thenceforth, for allorany of the faid caufes, it (hall and may be lawful to and for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, into all and fingular the faid demifed premifes, or into any part or parcel thereof, in the name of the whole to re-enter, and the fame to have again, re-poffefs, and enjoy, as in his and their firft and former eftate, any thing herein before contained to the contrary thereof in anywife notwithftandin. In wit- nefs, &c C 5 20 APPENDIX, Form of a Leafefor a long Term of Years from the Lord of a Manor, deter- minable on the Death of the Leflee. Tins Indenture made the day of , in the year of the reign of our fovereigri lord George the third, by the grace of God of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, king, defender of the faith and fo forth ; and in the year of our Lord , between Andrew Atkins of of the one part, and Bartholomew Bell of - of the other part, WITNKSSETH THAT the faid Andrew Atkins, as well for and in confederation of the Turn of . of lawful money of Great Britain, to him in hand well and truly paid by the faid Bartholomew Bell, at or before the fealing and delivery of thefe prefents, as and for a fine (the receipt whereof he the faid Andrew Atkms doth hereby acknowledge, and thereof and therefrom acquit, releafe, and difcharge the faid Bartholomew Bell, his execu tors and adminiftrators for ever by thefe prefents), as in confideration of the rents, heriots, refervations, covenants, and conditions heiein after referved, mentioned and contained, and on the part of the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, andaffigns to be paid, rendered, obferved, done, and performed, demifed, HATH granted, and to farm let and fer,and by fhefe prefents doth demife, grant, and to farm let and fet unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, ALL that mefluage and tenement called , with fixty acres of lad thereunto be longing, be the fame more or lefs, fituate, lying, and being in -,within the parifh and manor of - , now in the poflefiion of him the faid Bartholomew Bell, or his under tenants, and all ways, paths, paflages, waters, water-courfes, eafements, profits, com modities, advantages, and appurtenances whatfoever to the faid premifes hereby demifed, be- longing or in any wife appertaining, except out of this prefent demife and grant, and always icferved unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afllgns, all and all manner of timber, and other trees, of what -nature or kind foever, and young faplings likely to become timber, pollard, and other trees, now ftanding, growing, or being, or which at any time hereafter lhallor may ftand, grow, or be in or upon the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, with free liberty and full power for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afllgns, and all other perfons, to be by him or them authorifed and empowered, to fell, cut down, ftub root, -work up, and carry the fame away, with men and with horfes, carts, and carriages, and to fell anddifpofc of the fame at all times and feafons. AND ALSO, except out of this prefent grant and demife, and always referved unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afllgns, all coals, feams of coals, mines, minerals, and quarries of ftones, beds of fand, gravel, marl, or clay, of what nature or kind foever, which now are, or at any time, and from time to time hereafter, fhall or may be found in or upon the faid hereby de mifed premifes or any part thereof, with free liberty of iRgrefs, egrefs, and regrefs to and for the laid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afllgns, and his and their agents, fer- vants, and workmen, and all others, to be by him or them the faid Andrew Atkins his heirs or affigns authorifed to come into and upon the faid hereby demifed premifes APPENDIX. 21 and every or any part thereof, to work and dig for the faid coals, mines, minerals, and quarries of ftone, beds of fand, gravel, marl, orclay r and to fell and difpofe of whatever may be there found at hisand their refpedive wills and pleafures. AND ALSO to erecl fire-engines, and to make waggon-ways, and to ufeall other inventions of what nature or kind foever, for the winning, working, leading, carrying away, felling and difpofing of the fame. And alfo, except out of this prefent grant and demife, and always referved unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, all liberties of hawking, hunting, fiming, fowling, and (hooting, and alfo all fifh, wild-fowl, hares, partridges, pheafants, and other game, waifs, eftrays y goods and chattels of felons and fugitives, and felons of themfelves, deodands, treafure-trove, and all other royalties, cafual profits and fianchifes whatsoever, at anytime or times happening or being, or to be ufed or exercifed upon the fame premifes. To HAVE ANI> TO HOLD the faid 1 mefluage or tenement, and all and fingular other the premifes hereby demifed and granted, or intended fo to be, with the appurtenances, (except as before is exceptecl) unto the faid Bartho lomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators and afligns, immediately from the day of nowlaft paft, for and during the full end and term of ninety-nine years, if he the faid Bar- tholomew Bell (hall fo long live, yielding and paying therefore, yearly and every year, for and during the continuance of the faid term, unto the did Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, the rent or fum of of lawful money of Great Britain, at two half-yearly pay ments, (that is to fay,) on the feafts of the Annunciation of the Bleffed Virgin Mary, and Saint Michael the Archangel, by even and equal portions in every year, the firft payment thereof to be made on the tea ft day of the Annunciation of the Bleffed Virgin Mary, now next enfuing, and alfo YIELDING AND PAYING unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, immediately and after the death and every aflignment, furrender and forfeiture of the faid Bartholomew Bell, andfo likewife of all and every other perfons for the time being, who Ihall be tenant or tenants of the faid premifes, or any part thereof, by virtue of thefe prefents, the fum of jT. for and in the name of an heriot or farlieu ; and alfo YIE LOT-NO AND PAYING, yearly and every year, during the faid term, hereby granted unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, the fum of . , of like money for every acre of mea dow or pafture land, part of the premifes, that has not been tilled, ploughed or broken up, within the fpace of years before the day of the date of thefe prefents, which the faid Bar tholomew Bell, hisexecutors, adminiftrators- or afligns,, (hall plough, break up, or convert into tillage, or caufe orfuffer to be ploughed, broken up, or converted into tillage, and fo .in proportion for any greater or lefs quantity of land than an acre,* the faid laft-mentioned rent to be paid on the feaft of St. Michael the archangel, in every year, without making any de- * It was formerly, and is indeed, by fome, dill the practice to fecure againft the conversion of meadow and pafture into arable land, by the reservation of a fum in the nature of a penalty ; but there is a diftincTion to be obferved whether the penalty is in the nature of a punifliment for default, or whether it is a part of the agreement : thus if there be a covenant not to plough up meadow or palture land undep a penalty of , per acre per annum, or th? like, there the penalty is by way of puntlK.ment, and Si APPENDIX. dutlionor abatement thereout for taxes or on any other account whatsoever, the firft -payment thereof to be made on the feaft of St. Michael the archangel, which fhall firft happen -next after the ploughing or breaking up of the fame. AND the faid Bartholomew Bell, for him- felf, his heirs, executors, adminiftrators and affigns, doth hereby covenant, promife, and .agree to and with the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, fidminiftratorsand affigns, fhall and will well and truly pay, or caufe to he paid, unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, the faid yearly rents and heriots, at the days and times, ana in manner and form as the fame are above referved and made payable. AND ALSO that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators and afligns, (hall and will do his and their fuit, fervice and attendance, at all and every the courts of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, to be holden and kept in and for the manor of aforefaid, upon fuch reafonable notice and warning thereof as fhall be given to the other te nants of the faid manor, and pay and difcharge all fuch fines, pains, and amerciaments, a lhall be fet, taxed, and impofed upon him and them, as the fame fhall grow due and be re quired from time to time, during the continuance of the faid term ; and fhall and will, at their own proper cods and charges, when and as often as occalion may require, well and fufficiently repair, fuftain, uphold, maintain and amend the fame demi fed premifes, and every part thereof, as well in houfes, walls, coverings, timber, floorings, gates, pods, bars, fliles, hedges, ditches, and fences, as "m all other needful and neceflary reparations and amendments whatfoever, during the continuance of the faid term. AND at the end or other fooner determination of the fame term, the faid premifes in good and fuflicient tenantable repair, fhall and will peace ably and quietly leave and yield up unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, without doing or fuffering to be done thereon any vvafte, fpoil, or deftruclion. AND ALSO fhall and ,%vill yearly, on fome part of the faid demifed premifes moft convenient for the purpofe, to be appointed by the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns,, or his or their fteward or ftew- ards, for the time being, plant and preferve to grow unto timber, three trees at lead, of oak, -afh, or elm, or otherwife forfeit and pay unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, the fum of as a penalty for every tree not planted and preferved according to the true intent and meaning of this prefent covenant. AND ALSO (hall and will, from time to time, and at all times during the continuance of this prefent demife, permit and fuffer his and .their name or names to be made ufe of by the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, and Jiis and their fteward and ftewards for the time being, in difcharging or giving notice to any jnay be relieved againft in a court of equity, namely, in the Court of Chancery or Exchequer. But if the covenant (and the words yielding and paying operate as fuch) be to pay . per ann, for every acre .of meadow ploughed up; this is a part of the agreement between the le/br and lejfec, and mujl be paid. 4 Burrow s JReports, 2228. It is therefore the moft advifable mode of protecting the lefTor againft the devaftation of meadow and pafture land, to adopt the above form of arefervationof increafed rent for every acre broken up or .converted into arable ground j as the fum ftipulatedto be paid in fuch cafe may have the effeft of a prohibition. APPENDIX. 23 perfon or perfcns not to come upon the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, to feck for, liawk,hunt, courfe, chafe, difturb, fhoot, take, kill, or deftroy, any game, fifh, or wild fowl, or to commit any other trefpafs, damage, or injury there or thereupon j and in commencing and profecut ing, and- carrying on any action, fuit, or profecution againft any perfon or perfon s for any. fich tiefpafs, damage, or injury, and fhall not nor will difavow or become nonfuit ki any: fuch a6tion, fuit, .or profecution, or otherwife releafe and difcharge the fame ; he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators and aifigns, being indemnified by the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afiigns, from all cofts, charges, and expenfes that fhaii or iriay be occafioned thereby in anywife.. AND ALSO mall and will grind, or caufe to be ground, . all grift; corn, and grain, that (hall happen to be ufed and fpent upon the faid demifed premi fes, at the Lord s cufiomary mill, in as aforefaid, or in default thereof fhall and will render and pay unto the faid Andrew Atkins, hisheirs and affigns, for every buihel of fuch grift or corn that fhall not be ground at the faid mill.* PROVIDED ALWAYS, that if the faid yearly rents, or any or either of them, or any part or parts of them, any or either of them re- fpeclively, orthefaid heriot or farlieu hereby referred and made payable, or any or either of them, or any part of them, any or either of them, fhall be behind, unyielded or unpaid by the fpace of thirty days next after the fame fhall become due and payable, according to the re- fervations aforefaid, and no Efficient diftrefs or diitreffes fhall be found in or upon any part of the faid demifed premifes for levying, and fufficient to anfwer the fame, with the arrears thereof, if any, and all colts and charges to be occafioned by the non-payment, or by the not rendering of the fame j or if the faid Bartholomew Bell, Us executors, adminiftrators, or afllgns, fhall give, grant, or affign the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, to any perfon or perfons whomfoever, (other than and except to his or their lawful child or children, and that for the whole of the faid premifes hereby granted) for all or any part of the term hereby granted therein, or for any term or eftate by way of underleafe exceeding one year, without the licence of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or alligns, in writing, under his or their hand or hands, firft had and obtained ;t or if the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, ad miniftrators or afllgns, fhall give, grant, or affign only part of the faid premifes, or fhall give, grant, or aflign the whole of the faid premifes to his or their lawful child or children, and fuch child or children fhall give, grant, or affign the fame premifes, or anypart thereof, to any perfon or perfons whomsoever without the like licence ; or if the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adrniniftrators or afllgns, fhall do or commit, or (uffer to be -done or com- * If a man is entitled by prefcription to have all the corn of the tenants of a certain manor ground at his mill, an ationon the cafe lies againft any of the tenants who carry their corn to be ground elfe- where. zSaunders, 115. But if a man fet up a new mill inthe neighbourhood of an antient one, an action will not lie though a damage may from thence accrue to the old mill, for fuch rivalfhip i$ of public benefit and advantage, and the owner s remedy is as above fluted againfl the cufiomary tenants only who may grind there, i Rolle Abr. 107. w f See page 6 fupraas to the power of copyholders to grant leafcs. 24 APPENDIX. mitted in or upon the (aid demifed prernifes, or any part thereof, any manner of wafte* to the value of or above, and fhall fuffer the fame to become ruinous and in decay, to the like value, or above, or (hall not, in a fubftantial manner, repair the fame when and as often as occafion fhall require, then and from thenceforth, for all or any of the caufes afore- faid, it fhall and may be lawful to and for the faid Andrew Aikins, his heirs and affigns. into and upon the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof in the name of the whole, to re- enter, and the fame to have again, repoflefs and enjoy, as in his and their former eftate and right, this Indenture, or any thing herein contained to the contrary thereof in anywife not- withftanding. AND the faid Andrew Atkins, for himfelf, his heirs and affigns, doth covenant, promife, and agree to and with the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators and af- iigns, by thefe prefcnts, that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, administrators, and affigns, {duly paying the rents above referved, and yielding fuch heriot or farlieu as aforefaid, or p lying fuch fum of money in lieu thereof at the election of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, and obferving and performing the claufes, exceptions, conditions, provifos, cove nants and agreements herein before made and contained, and which, on the part and behalf of the leffee, his executors and ad mini lira tors, are or ought to be paid, obferved, performed, fulfilled and kept), fhall and lawfully may peaceably and quietly have, hold, occupy, poflefs and enjoy, the faid hereby demifed premifes, with the appurtenances, (except as before-mentkmed) from henceforth for and during the continuance of the faid term hereby granted and demifed, with out the let, fuir, trouble, eviction, difturbance, claim or demand of him the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, or any other perfon or perfons lawfully or equitably claiming or to rla.irn, from, by, through, orunder him, them, or any of them ; PROVlDEDNEVERTHtLESS.and it is hereby agreed, by and between the faid parties hereto, that whefl and as often as any queftion fhall arifein any court of juftice, whether the perfon or perfons on whofe death or deaths the term hereby granted is made determinable be living or dead, it fhall be incumbent on the perfon or peifons then interefted in, or holding or enjoying, or claiming to hold and enjoy the faid premifes, by virtue of, orunder this prefent demife, to prove fuch perfon or perfons to be living, to the fatisfa&ion of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afllgns ; and that in default of fuch proof, fuch perfon or perfons fhall be deemed and taken to be dead $ thefe prefents, s>r any law, ufage or cuftom to the contrary in anywife notwithftanding. In witnefs, &c. * As the queftion of wafte is of fome importance, thereader is referred for information on that head to the chapter which treats diftinftly upon " Wrongs in refptQ to the Rights of Landlords." APPENDIX. 27 Form of a Leafe of Lands in Devon/hire, for a Term of Twenty -one Years, determinable at the End of thcjlrjt Seven or Fourteen Years, on a Notice from either of the Parties. THIS Indenture made, &c. Between Andrew Atkins, of , of the one part, ana Bartholomew Bell, , of , of the other part, WITNESSETH, that the faid Andrew Atkins, in consideration of the yearly rent herein after referved, and of the covenants, considerations and agreements, hereinafter mentioned, exprefTed and contained, and which on the part and behalf of the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, administrators, and afiigns, are to be kept, done, and performed, HATH demifed, leafed, fet; and to farm let, and by thefe prefents DOTH demife, leafe, fet, and to farm let, unto the faid Bartholomew Bell, ALL that meiTuage and tenement, with the appurtenances, commonly called or known by the name of , liruate in aforefaid, now in the pofTeffion of the faid Bartholomew Bell, his under-tenant or under-tenants, con taining by estimation one hundred acres, (be the fame more or lefs) together with all ways, paths, paflages, waters, water-courfes, profits and advantages whatfoever to the faid premiles, or any part thereof, belonging or in anywife appertaining, (EXCEPTING and always referving out of this prefent demife unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afllgns, all manner of timber and other trees, and faplings likely to become trees, of what kind foever, nowftanding, growing, or being, or which at any time, and from time to time hereafter, (hall or may ftand, grow, or be planted in or upon the faid premifes, or any part thereof, with full and free liberty, licenfe and autnority to fell, cut down, root up, convert, draw, take, and carry away the fame,, with horfes, or any manner of carriages or other conveyances, at all feafonable and conve nient times during the term hereinafter mentioned, and to make faw-ptts for converting fuch timber-trees on the premifes. AND alfo the right, intereR, and privilege of planting trees of every or any fort, on any part of the faid hereby demifed premifes, in or within three feet of the troughs or ditches of the refpeclive hedges of the fame premifes. AND ALSO the liberty of ingrefs, egrefs, and regrefs, into, from, an*d upon the faid hereby demifed premifes, or any part thereof, for any or either of the purpofes aforefaid, and alfo to view and fee the de fects, repairs, and management of the faid hereby demifed premifes or any part thereof): To HAVE AND TO HOLD the faid mefl uage and tenement hereby demifed, or exprile and intended fo to be, wiih the appurtenances, (except as before excepted) unto the faid Bartho lomew Bell, his executors, administrators, and affigns, from the day of ,laft paft.for ^and during and unto the full end and term of twenty-one years from thence next enfuing, fully to be complete and ended, YIELDING AND PAYING therefore, yearly and every year, duiing th faid term, unto the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, the rent or fum of . r o lawful money of Great Britain, free and clear of and from all rates, taxes, tithes, charges impofitions and outgoings whatfoever, inclufiveof the land-tax,* (except as hereinafter is ex- * Although the leflee covenant to pay rent without deduction or abatement, yet he may deduct the land-tax out of his rent, unlefs it be exprefsly mentioned in thejeaft as one of the taxes whic he is to pay. Couiper 278. >& : APPENDIX. cepted) at or upon the four moft ufual feaftsor days of payment of rent In the year, (that is to fay) the day of , the day of , the day of , and the day of , by quarterly payments, by even and equal portions, the firft payment thereof to begin and be made on the day of- , now laft part. AND the faid Bartholomew Bell DOTH, by thefe prcfents, for himfelf, his heirs, executors, adminiftra- tors, and affigns, covenant, promifeand agree to and with the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, in manner following, (that is to fay) That the faid Bartholomew Bell,, his executors, adminiltrators or afligns, fhall and will well and truly pay or caufetobe paid, unto the ia;i Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns during the continuance of the faid term of twenty-one years hereby demi fed, the faid yearly rent or fum of . , at or upon the days or tunes herein before limited and appointed for the payment of the fame, in manner and form aforefaid^ according to the true intent and meaning of thefe prefenfs. AND ALSO that he the faid Bartho lomew Bell, his executors, adminiltrators or affigns, fhall and will, from time to time, and at all times hereafter during the continuance of the faid term, repair, and keep in good repair all the thatch, floors, doors, gates, ftiles, pods, hedges and fences r belonging to the faid demifed premifes, and all other repairs whatfoever (except as hereinafter excepted). And alfo from time to time, and at all times during the faid term, repair and keep in good repair the cider- mill, parcel of the faid hereby demifed premifes, and the fcrew-prefs, and all other utenfils whatfoever thereunto belonging, or therewith ufed, and alfo theglafs and lead of the windows, and be at the expenfe of felling and converting timber, for the purpofe of fuch repairs, after trees fit for that purpofe fhall. have been affigned to him or them by the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, on the faid demifed premifes, or any part thereof, or within miles of; the fame. AND alfo keep the feveral orchards,, part of the faid premifes, well planted during- the continuance of the faid term, with good young apple-trees, fuch as the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, (hall approve of, and drefs the fame with the ufual quantity of dun " or afhes, he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or affignsi having and taking to and for his and their own ufe and benefit the dead and blown down trees in lieu thereof. AND ALSO that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators or aflio-ns.., {hall and will, from time to time, and at alltimes during the continuance of the faid term, pay, bear, and difcharge all rates,, taxe, tithes and charges whatfoever, inclufive of the land tax which during the continuance of the faid term (hall become due and payable, for or in rein e &- of the faid hereby demifed premifes, and thereof and therefrom fave harmlefs and keep in demnified the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs, executors, adminiftrators and affigns, and every- of them. AND alfo that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or af figns, fhall not nor will till or ear or plough or break up to or for tillage, all or any part of the faid hereby demifed premifes, more than once in any feven years, during the continuance of" the term hereby granted therein; AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his execuro/s, adminiftrators or affigns, (hall and will bring into or lay upon every acre of the faid hereby de mifed premifes that fhall be ploughed up or put to tillage in each feven years of the faid term, and fo in proportion for every lefs quantity than an acre, of good well-burnt APPENDIX. >27 lime, or eight fcore feams or horfe-loads of good black dung, and there mix and fpread the fame, after the ufual and accuftomed courfe of hufbandry within the faid county of AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or afligns, fhall or will, in each courfe of tillage, bring or carry into and upon the faid hereby demifed premifes, and there fpend and fpread abroad, at leaft of fuch lime or feams or horfe-loads of fuch dung in part of the faid firft-mentioned quantities of lime or dung, before the firft crop of each courfe of tillage (hall be taken. AND that, he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, or uffigns, (hall not nor will take from offthe faid hereby de mifed premifes, or any part thereof, more than three crops of corn or grain, in any feven years during the continuance of the faid term ; AND that fuch crops fhall betaken feverally in fuc- ceflive years, and one after the other, and that one of fuch crops only, and that not the laft, fhall be of wheat, and the other two crops barley or oats, or one crop of the one part, and the other crop of the other part. AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, admini ftrators or afligns, (hall not nor will cut or mow for hay thegrafs that fhall arife from any grafs- feeds, which (hall be fown by him or them more than once after fuch feeds (hall have been fown, and that not for feed, and then only in the next proper feafon after fowing fuch grafs- feeds. AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, or adminiftrators, fhall not nor will cut any wood growing or to grow on the hedges around the arable ground of the faid hereby demifed premifes, at any other time or times but when the fields, fenced by fuch hedges (hall be in tillage for their firft crop of each courfe of tillage. AND that he the faid Bartho lomew Bell, his executors, or adminiftrator>, (hall and will, upon 01 within one calendar month after cutting the wood of any hedge, parcel of the faid hereby demifed premifes, lay, ftoop, and plafh the hedges from which fuch wood fhall be cut on both fides, according to the ufual and accuftomed rules of good hufbandry, adopted and praclifed within the faid county of . AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators or afligns fhall not not will, at any time or times during the continuance of the faid term, pare, top, or lop, any tree or trees on the faid hereby demifed premifes, but fuch as have been ufually pared, topped, or lopped. AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftra tors or affigns, fhall not nor will, at any time or times during the continuance of the faid term, or after the expiration thereof, remove or carry off, or caufe, permit, or fuffer to be removed or carried from off the faid hereby demifed premifes, any llraw, or corn in ftraw, muck, dung, afhes, foil, compoft or manure, that fhall nrife, grow, or be made on the fuid premifes, or any part thereof ; nor fhall nor will demife, let, fet, or affign the faid premifes, or any part thereof, to any otherperfon or perfons whomfoever, without the leave or licenfe of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afligns, in writing under his or their hand or hands firft had and obtained. AND that he the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, ad- miniftrntors and affigns, (hall not nor will do or commit, or fuffer to be done or committed, on the faid hereby demifed premifes, any waftc, devaluation, fpoil, 511 management, or bad huf bandry whatsoever ; but that he the faid Bartholomew Beil, his executors, adminiftrators and affigns, fhall aad will, from time to time, and all times during the continuance of the faid D 2 QS APPENDIX trrm, drefs, manure, improve and manage, the faicl hereby demifed prcmifes, and every par t thereof, according to their feveral qualities, agreeable to the rules of good husbandry, and ac- cording to the cuftom and ufage of the laid county of, and at the end or other fooner determi nation of the faid term, leave and yield up the faid hereby demifed premifes, and every partand parcel thereof, with their appurtenances, fo repaired and amended, manured, improved, and managed, into the hanas of the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or adigns, without any notice for that purpofe.* AND the faid Andrew Atkins, for himfelf, his heirs, executors, adminif- trators and afllgns, doih, by thefe prefents, covenant and agree with the faid Bartholomew Bel!, his executors, adminiftrators and afligns, that he the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, fliall and will, from time to time, and at all times during the faid term, repair and keep in repair the main and principal walls, roofs, and coverings, of all fuch parts of the dwelling-houfe, barn, cidcr-mlll-houfe, and oiler buildings of the faid demifed premifes as are covered with flate. AND that he the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or atfigns, when thereunto requeued by the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, ad- ininiftratorsorafllgns,and within one calendar month afterevery fuch requeft, fhall and willaffign orfetoutto the faid Bartholomew Bell, hisexecutors, adminiftrators or afligns, fuch tree ortrees growing on the faid hereby demifed premifes, as (hall or may, in the opinion and judgment of ihe faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or affigns, be fit and proper for the needful and neceflary repairs of the floors, doors, pofts, ftiles, or gates of the fame premifes, or the cider-mill, or any of the implements or utenfils therewith ufed- AND that it fhall and may be lawful to and for the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiflrators and afilgns, by and under the due payment of the faid rent, and the obfervance and performance of thefaid covenants and agree ments hereinbefore expreffed and contained, and to be obferved and kept on his and their parts and behalves, peaceably and quietly to have, hold, ufe, occupy, poffefs and enjoy the faid * If a tenant holds over after the expiration of his term he is a tenant by fufferance, and will con. tinue liable to rent : and upon the trial of an action for fuch fubfequent ufe and occupation of the premifes, the original rent, unlefs there is a new agreement with the landlord, will be the meafure of the damages to be given by the jury for fuch ufe and occupation. It is however to be obferved, that where a tennis to end on a precife day, whether the contract is by deed or writing, or by parol or words only (as in the cafe of a taking for one year certain, and there is no holding over), there is no occafion for a notice to quit, becaufe both parties are apprifed that, unlefs they come to a frefh agreement, there is an end of the fubfifting leafe or contradt between them ; Mnd if the landlord gives notice to his tenant to quit at the expiration of the leafe or term, and the tenant holds over, the landlord is entitled to double rent, i Term Reports, 53. For by the ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 28, f. i, it is enacted, that if any tenant fhall wilfully hold over after the determination of ths term, %nd after demand made in writing for the delivering the poffejjion thereof, fuch perfon holding over mail pay double the yearly value of the premifes fo detained, to be recovered by action of debt, whereunto the defendant fhall be obliged to give fpecial bail ; againit w)ucl| penalty there fhall be no relief in Equity, APPENDIX. 29 melTuage and tenement, and all and fmgular other the hereditaments and premifes hereby demifed or exprefled and intended fo to he, without any let, fuit, or interruption of, from or hy him the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs or afiigns, or any other perfonor perfonswhom- foever. AND if it (hall happen that the faid yearly rent of. , or any part thereof, (hall be behind and unpaid by the fpace of twenty days next after cither of the (aid days of payment on which the fame ought to be paid asaforefaid, and the fame fliall be law fully demanded on the expiration of the faid twenty days, or at any time afterwards, and not paid, and no fufficient difirefs in or upon the {aid premifes, or fome part thereof, by all that time can be found whereby the faid rent being fo being behind, with the arrears thereof (if any), can or may be levied, fatisfied and paid : or if the faid Bartholomew Bell, his execu tors, adminiftratorsor afilgns, fhili at any time or times during the faid term hereby granted. do or commit, or wittingly or willingly fuffer to be done or committed, any manner of waffe, fyoil.or deftruclion, in or upon the faid premifes, or any part thereof, to the value of or above, in any one year of the faid term, and fliall not fufficiently repair or amend or make fatisfaclion for the fame within three months next after notice or warning thereof in writing (hall have been given or delivered unto him or them ; THEN and from thence forth, for any or either of the caufes aforefaid, it (hall and may be lawful to and for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and afligns, into and upon all and fingular the faid demifed pre mifes, with their and every of their appurtenances, to re-enter, and the fame to have again, re-poffefs and enjoy, as in his and their fir ft and former eftate, thefe prefents, or any thing herein contained, to the contrary in any wife notwithftanding. PRO VIDEO ALWAYS,* and thefe prefents are upon this condition, neverthelefs that it (hall and may be lawful to and for either the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, or the faid Bartholomew Bell, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, to determine and make void this prefent demife, at the expiration of the firft feven or fourteen years of the faid term of twenty-one years hereby- granted and demifed, on caufing notice or warning in writing for that purpofe to be given or left for the other of them, his or their heirs, executors, adminiflrators or affigns, at his or their then ufual or laft place of abode, fix calendar months at leait before the day or time herein before limited for determining the faid term as aforefaid, any thing herein contained to the contrary thereof in any wife notwithftanding. AND it is hereby agreed, by and be tween the faid parties to thefe prefents, and the faid Bartholomew Bell doth hereby pro- mife, covenant and grant, that it fhall or may be lawful to and for the faid Andrew Atkins, his heirs and affigns, in the proper feafons, for the laft twelve months, either in the feventb, * This provifo creates what is now termed a running leafe for feven, fourteen, or twenty-one years, at the option of the parties. And it has been determined that fuch a leafe gives the leflee a prefent inter eft for the fir ft ofthtfe terms only, with a Springing or future intereft after the expiration of fuch firft terra, for the next fubfequent term, if agreeable to the parties ; which the law prefume* to be the cafe, unlefs half a year s notice be given previous to the expiration of the term in being, i Term Report t } 350, 4 30 APPENDIX. the Fourteenth, or twenty-firft year of the faid term of twenty- one years tiereby granted, as the cafe fhall require, to make breaches for wheat in or upon any of fuch acres of the arable ground, part of the faid hereby demifed premifes, as (hall be then fallow and out of tillage, and as fhall not have been fown with clover and rye or ether grafs- feeds in the pre ceding year, and break up and repair the arifhes, which fhall be in a courfe of tillage, and fow fuch arifh ground when broken up, and the ground fo broken up for wheat with feeds, and hold the part or parts of the faid hereby demifed premifes, which fhall be fo fown, from the refpecYive times at which the fame fhall be fown, during the then refidue of the faid term, In witnefs, &c. Form of a Contract ufed in DorfetJJrire and other Counties in the Weft of England, for letting a Dairy of Cows* ARTICLES of agreement made and entered into the loth day of December, in the forty, third year of the reign of our Sovereign Lord George the Third, by the Grace, &c. and in * Not only lands* and houfes may be let for years, but alfo goods and chattels. Bacon s Abridg. Tit. Leafes (A). But theintereft of the tenant in the latter differs from the intereft which he hath in lands or the like ; for if one let or leafe for years a flock of live cattle, fuch letting or leafe is good, and the tenant fhall have the ufe and profits of them during the term, but yet the owner, or technically fpeak- ing, the leffbr, hath not any reverfion in them, in like manner as inrefpecl of land, to grant the fame over to another, either during the term or after; till the tenant hath re-delivered them to him jf for the leffor or owner hath only a pofTibility of property in cafe they all outlive the term, for if any of them die during the term, the leflbr or owner cannot have reftitution, and during the term he hath nothing todo with them ; and confequently of fuch as die, the property vefls abfolutely in the te nant. Ibid. So whether they live or die, yet all theyoungones coming of them, as lambs, calves, or the like, belong abfolutely to the tenant, as profits arifing and fevered from the principal, fince otherwife the leffee would pay his rent for nothing. And therefore this differs from a leafe of other dead goods and chattels, for there if any thing be added for therepairing, mending, or improving thereof, the owner or leffor flmll. have the improvements and additions, together with the principal, after the term is ended, becaufe they cannot be fevered with out deflroying or fpoiling the principal. Ibid. But the tenant cannot, in fuch cafe, kill, deftroy., fell, or give away the individual cattle demifed during the term, without liable to an aclion. lb:d. * Laud is a general and moft comprehenfive term in itfelf, as it includes Tiot only the fur face of the earth, tut e> thing under or over it. f Therefore, in every fuch contrail there fhould be a coven->m to deliver, APPENDIX. 33 the year of our Lord, 1802, BETWEEN Abel Atkins of Chilthorne Domer, in the county of Somerfet, yeoman, of the one part, and Brian Bell, of thefaid place, dairyman, of the other part as follows : (that is to fay), Firft, the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby agree with the faid Brian Bell that he the faid Brian Bell* (hall and may from the 1 4th day of February next enfuing the day of the date hereof, to the I4th day of February, which will be in the year of our Lord 1804, poflefs and enjoy the cottage or dwelling.-houfe called the Dairy. houfe near the church, in the parifh of ChilthorneDomer aforefaid, and now in the pofTeffion of him the faid Brian Bell, together with the garden thereunto belonging, and the garden ground in the orchard hereinafter mentioned, called Cothays. ALSO that he the faid Abel Atkins (hall and will, from the faid I4th day of February next to the faid I4th day of February which will be in the year of our Lord 1804, find, provide, maintain, keep and fodder for and for the ufe and benefit of the faid Brian Bell forty good cows, fit and proper fora dairy, and permit and fuffer the faid Brian Bell, during the term lafl aforefaid, to have and take the milk, produce and increafe of the faid cows, to and for his own ufe and benefit. And that in cafe any of the faid cows (hall die, or by any accident lofe their milk, or become dry arid wholly unprofitable during the term laft aforefaid, then and in either of the faid cafes, the faid Abel Atkins, fhall, either provide other cows in full milk, in the place of thofe dying or lofing their milk, or make fuch abate ment and allowance out of the rent hereinafter agreed to be paid as (hall be reafonable, and is ufual in like cafes not exceeding \bere the allowance Jhould be fpecifically men tioned;] which faid cows are to have the fole^ and entire pafturage of all thofe two clofes called Norkhams, containing by eftimation, twenty. fix acres ; the clofe called Angels- ground, containing by eftimation nine acres and a half, the clofe called Higher Barns Clofe, containing by eftimation fix acres ; the clofe called Long- Yard, containing by efti mation, nineteen acres and a half; an orchard called Cothays, containing by eftimation fix acres. A clofe called Norris s Orchard, containing by eftimation, two acres ; and a clofe called Street Orchard, containing by eftimation three acres. All which lands are fitu- ate, lying and being in the parifli of Chilthorne Domer, aforefaid, and are to be hained up for fuch dairy on the 5th day of April next, and to be ftocked therewith on the 13(11 day of May next, or fooner if the faid Brian B ell (hall be minded. Alfo it is agreed that the faid cows mail have the after-grafs of the following clofes of land (that is to fay), all that clofe called Manmead, containing by eftimation twenty-two acres and a half; the clofe cal led King sGround, containing by eflimation thirteen acres and a half ; the clofe called Dock- Yard and Fiflier s Mead, containing by eftimation twelve acres ; and the clofe called Short- land, containing by eftimation four acres and a half; a clofe called Five Acres, containing, * A tranfmiflibleintereft maybe given to the dairy-man by adding the ufual wordi, executors^ adminif. tr stars } or afigns. 32 APPENDIX. by eftimation five acres, and a clofe called Ten Acres ; containing, by eftimafion, ten acres. Which faid laft-memioned lands arc alfo fituate in the fiiJ parifh ot Chjlthorne Homer. ALSO it is agreed that the faid cows lhall have a fortnight s pafturage in a certain field called Chilthorne Leafe, lying in the faid parim, fuch fortnight to commence at the time ot the fard laft-mentioned field being firfl Hocked. ALSO the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby agree that he the faid Abel Atkins (hall and will permit and fufFer the faid Brian Bell to keep and departure a horfe, mare, or gelding, on any part of the faid premifes, where the faid cows (hall be feeding, at any time during the faid term ending as aforefaid, on the I4th day of February 1804. AND if the faid Brian Bell (hall keep a mare on the faid premifes, and (he (hall have a colt, then the faid Abel Atkins (hall and will permit and fuffer the faid Brian Bell to keep and departure fuchcoit with fuch mare until the 23d day of November next, ALSO the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby agree, that he the faid Abel Atkins (hall and will permit and fuffer the faid BriauBellto keep pigs inthe barton of the farm now in the occupation of the faid Abel Atkins, or elfewhere on the faid farm, fuch pigs being properly ringed, and doing no damage to the land, hedges, or apples of the faid Abel A.kiriF. ALSO the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby agreeto allow to the faid Brian Bell, fuch fuel for the ufe of the faid dairy as he can conveniently fpare from the faid farm, and to carry at 1 i; the faid Abel Atkins s own expenfe, fuch coals as the faid Brian Bell may want for the ufe of the faid di.iry, from the Mendip Collieries, he the faid Brian Bell paying for fuch coals, and alfo paying the tolls of the turnpike gates through which fuch coals (hall be brought, ALSO the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby agree to allow the faid Brian Bell fufficicnt litter for his pigs, cows, and calves, and alfo hay for the fuckling calves, and alfo one hogfheadof cyder, for every twenty hogfheads that he the faid Abel Atkins (hall make, from the faid I4th day of February next, during the faid term on the faid farm. ALSO the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby agree to carry at his own expence the butter and cheefe of the faid Brian Bell, the produce of the faid dairy, either to B ridport in the county of Dorfet, or to Honiton in the county of Devon, or to any other place not more diftant from Chilthorne Domer aforefaid than Bridport or Honiton aforefaid, at any time or times at the requeft of the faid Brian Bell. AND the faid Abel Atkins doth hereby alfo agree, that in cafe all of the faid cows (hall not have calved by the fixthday of April next, he the faid Abel Atkins (hall and will allow, out of the rent hereinafter agreed to be paid at and after the rate of five (hillings per cow per week, for each cow that (hall not have fo calved, until the time that fuch cow (hall drop her calf. AND the (aid Brian Bell, in confideration of the premifes aforefaid, doth on his part and behalf agree with the faid Abel Atkins, that he the faid Brian Bell (hall and will well <md truly pay or caufe to be paid unto the faid Abel Atkins, his executors, administrators or affigns, the fum of four hundred pounds of lawful money of Great Britain, as and for the rent, ufe, and produce of the faid forty cows, at the four quarterly payments herein after mentioned, that is to fay, the firft quarterly payment to be made on the I4th day of February next, for ^which the faid Brian Bell is to be allowed the ulual intereft ;the fecand quarterly payment on the I3th day of May next, the third quarterly payment on the I3th day APPENDIX. 35 of Auguft next, and the fourth quarterly payment on the 12th day of November next. AND alfo that he the faid Abel Atkins (hall and may, at his will and pleafure, ftock with fheep the laid lands, (of which the faid Brian Bell is to have the after-grafs) from the 23d day of November next to the end of the faid term. ALSO that he the faid Brian Bell (hill not nor will keep the faid horfe, mare, or gdding, in the ftable. WITNESS the hands of the laid parties the day and year firft written. The foregoing is taken from a precedent ufed and approved of in Somerfetfhire ; but tf:e following covenant feems neceffary to be added from the do6lrine laid down in 2?tf>/* sAbridgment, title Leafes, (A.) refpe&ing contracts for letting of live ftock. Seethe note* p. 31, fupra. <f And further,that he the faidBrianBell,/;/s (xecutors,admini/lrat-irs, or affigns, [if the tenant s <( intereft is intended to be transmiflible] (hall and will, at the end, expiration, or other fooner " determination of the faid term, peaceably and quietly leave, furrender and yield up, unto the * faid Abel Atkins, his executors, adminiftrators, or affigns-, all that the faid cottage or dwell- "inghoufe herein before mentioned, with the garden and garden-ground, land and premifes " hereinbefore alfo defcribed ; and alfo all fuch cows or milch kine as (hall or maybe " then living and depafturing, or kept and fed in or upon the feveral clofrs or parcels of land * hereinbefore mentioned and defcribed, or any or either of them, for the then ufe and * benefit of the faid Brian Bell, by virtue of thefe prefents. In witncfs, &c." Form of a Leafe for a further Term of Year s t before the Expiration of the exiftlng Term, by an Indorfement on the original Demife or Leafc.* THIS INDENTURE, &c. BETWEEN the within-named Abel Atkins, of the one part, and the within named Brian Bell, of the other part, WITNESSETH, That, for and in confideration of the rent hereby referved, and of the covenants, conditions and agreements, refpeclively hereinafter contained, which on the part and behalf of him the faid Brian Bell, his executors, adminiftra tors and afligns, are to be paid, done and performed: He the faid Abel Atkins DOTH demife, leafe, and to farm, let unto the faid Brian Bell, his executors, adminiftrators and afligns, ALL that piece or parcel of ground,&c.&c. and all and fingular other the hereditaments and premifes refpeclively comprifed in the within-written Indenture of Leafe, and thereby demifed in man - ner therein mentioned (except as therein is excepted). To HAVE AND TO HOLD the faid piece or parcel of ground, &c. and all and fingular other theherec Tnents and premifes hereby leafed, fet, and to farm let, or mentioned or intended fo to be (excep,.asaforefaid), unto the faidBrian Bell, * Where a leafe is to be renewed, fome expenfe will be faved by the adoption of this precedent, not nly inrefpeft of the ftamp duties, but alfo inneceflary profeflional charges ; which may be of fome im portance where the premifqsare not very extenfivcj and consequently of fmall annual value. E 34 APPENDIX. his executors,adminiftrators and afllgns, from the feaft day of -, which will be in the year of eur Lord ; and when the term granted and demifed in and by the faid within- written Indenture of Leafe will expire, for and during, and unto the full end and term of 14 years longer from thenceforth next enfuing, and fully to be complete and ended, SUBJECT to and under the like rent, and payable in like manner as is within mentioned, for and in refpecl: of the rentreferved in and by the faid within written Indenture of Leafe, and fubjecl: to the like power of entry, as well on non-payment of rent as on the happening of any of the other incidents mentioned in the within written provifo or condition of re-entry. AND IT is HEREBY DECLARED AND AGREED, by and between the parties to thefe prefents, that they and their refpeclive heirs, executors, adminiftrators and afligns, fhall and will by thefe prefents, during the continuance of the additional term of 14 years, hereby granted, ftand and be bound forand in refpecl: of the faid hereby demifed hereditaments and premifes,with the appurtenances, in fuch and the like covenants, conditions and agreements rcfpedively, as they the faid parties and their refpeclive heirs, executors, adminiftrators, and afligns, do now fland bound in and by the faid within-written Indenture of Leafe, for and during the now refidue to come and unex- pired of the within-mentioned term of years hereby granted it being the intent and meaning hereof that this prefent indorfed Indenture of Leafe, and the addititional term hereby granted and demifed, (hall be upon fuch and the like footing, and all the covenants, claufes, conditions and agreements refpeclively therein contained, be equally available, take place, and have the like force and effecl, to all intents and purpofes, as if every article, claufe, matter and thing, contained in the faid within-written Indenture of Leafe, were word for word repeated and again inferted in thefe prefents. IN WITNESS, &c. The foregoing Indorfement was prepared by the great LORD CAMDEN while he was Attorney General-^ and he was of opinion, that it would be juft as effectual as a new Leafe if properly flumped* Form of an Affignment of a Leafe by Indorfement.* To all to whom thefe prefents fhall come, Sufannah Bowes, of , the widow of the tvithin-named Samuel Bowes, and fole executrix named in his laft will and teftament, fendeth greeting. WHEREAS the faid Samuel Bowes,, fince the execution of the within indenture of leafe departed this life, having firft duly made and publimed his laft will and teftament in writing, and thereof appointed the faid Sufannah Bowes fole executrix and univerfal legatee ; AND WHEREAS the within demifed. premifes and indenture of leafe were lately put up to fale by public auction ^and Richard Giles, of the parifh of St. Mary, Iflington, having attended at fuch fale, and offered the fum of eighty-one pounds for the purchafe thereof, he was declared. * From the great incrcafe of the ftamp duties an affignmentby indorfcinent, where practicable, js ta-be Eecoinmendtd. APPENDIX. 35 (o be the highefr bidder for the fame, and the faid premifes and indenture ofleafe were accord ingly fold to him at and for that fum : Now KNOW YE, that for and in consideration of the fum of eighty-one pounds of lawful money of Great Britain, to the faid Sufannah Bowes in hand paid by the faid Richard Giles, at and before the fealing and delivery of thefc prefents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged ; fhe the faid Sufannah Bowes hath bar gained, fold, affigned, transferred, and fet over, and by thefe prefents doth bargain, fell, alljgn, transfer, and fet over, unto the faid Richard Giles, his executors, adminiftrators, and affign , all that piece or parcel of ground, and all and fingular other the premifes in and by the within-written indenture of leafe demifed, or mentioned or intended fo to be, with their and every of their appurtenances ; and all the eftate, right, title, intereft, term of years to come and unexpired, property, claim, and demand whatfoever, either of the within- named Samuel Bowes, or of her the faid Sufannah Bowes, as executrix or otherwife, of, in, to, or out of the fame premifes, every or any part or parcel thereof, together with the faid indenture ofleafe To HAVE AND TO HOLD the faid piece or parcel of ground, and all and fingular other the premifes hereby, or mentioned to be hereby affigned, with their and every of their appurtenan ces, unto the faid Richard Giles, his executors, adminHtrators, and affigns, from the Feaft- Day of the Birth of our Lord Chrift, next enfuing the date thereof, for and during all the reft, refidue, and remainder, which (hall be then to come and unexpired, of the term of fixty-one years, in and by the within-written indenture ofleafe granted thereof ; SUBJECT nevei\helefs to the payment of the rent and performance of the covenants in the fame indenture of leafe reflectively referved and contained on the tenant leffee s part, from thenceforth to be paid, done, and performed. AND the faid Sufannah Bowes doth hereby, for herfelf, her heirs, exe cutors, andadminiftrators, covenant, promife, and agree, to and with the faid Richard Giles, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, in manner following, (that is to fay) that he the faid Richard Giles, his executors, adminillrators, and afligns, paying the rent, and obferving and performing the covenants and agreements referved and contained in and by the faid with in-written indenture of leafe, on the tenant or leffee s part to be paid and performed, from and after the faid Feaft of the Birth of our Lord Chrift next enfuing the date hereof, fhall and may from time to time, and at all times thereafter, for and during all the refidue and remainder which fhall be then to come and unexpired of the faid term of fixty-one years by the within written indenture of leafe granted, lawfully, peaceably, and quietly have, hold, occupy, poffefs, and enjoy the faid piece or parcel of ground and premifes hereby affigned, or intended fo to be, with their and every of their appurtenances, and receive and take the rents, iffues, and profits thereof, and of every part thereof, to and for his and their own ufe and benefit, without any lawful let, fuit, trouble, denial, eviction or interruption, of or by the faid Sufannah Bowes, her executors, adminiftrators, or affigns, or any otherperfon or perfons whomfoever, lawfully claiming or to claim, by, from, or under her, them, or any of them, or by or through her or their ad, means, negleft, default, or procurement ; AND that free and clear, and freely and clearly acquitted and difcharged, or otherwife, by the faid Sufannah Bowes, her executors, or adminiftrators, well and fufficiently faved, kept harmlefs, and indemnified of, from, and E * 3(j APPENDIX. againft all and all manner of former and other deeds, gifts, grants, bargains, fale.s, alignments, mortgages, furrenders, re-eniries, judgments, executions, extents, ftatutes, recognizances, and ;ill other incumbrances whatfoever ; AND of and from all arrears of rent, taxes and afleir- ments, ui;til the {aid Feaft-Day of the Birth of our Lord Chrift now next enfuing. AND FURTHER; that (lie the faid Sufannah Bowes, her executors,or adminiflrators, and all and every other perfon and perfons, having or lawfully claiming, or to claim, any eftate, right, title, or intereft, of, in, to, or out of the faid hereby afligned premifes, or any part thereof, from, by, under, or in truft, either for the within-named Samuel Bowes, or for her the faid Sufannah Bowes, her or any of her executors or adminiftrators, (hall and will, from time to time, and at all times during the continuance of the faid term hereby affigned, upon every reafonabJe re- quoit, and at the cofts and charges in the law of him the faid Richard Giles, his executors, ad miniftrators, orafligns, make, do, and execute, orcaufe and procure to be made, done, and exe cuted, all and every fuch further and other lawful and reafonable acts, conveyances, and a dur ances in the law \vhatfoever, for the further, better, and more perfect afllgning and affuring the faid premifes unto the faid Richard Giles, his executors, adminiftrators, and affigns, for the thenrefidue of the term within demifed, as by the faid Richard Giles, his executors, admi- uiftrators, orafligns, or his or their counfel learned in the law, fhall be reafonably devifed, or adviffd and required. IN WITNESS, &c. Form of an Agreement for a Houfc and Land ; and to grant aLeafe at the End of the Term, if required. BE IT REMEMBERED that it was this day of in the year of our Lord 1804, mu tually agreed, by and between Abel Atkins, of , of the one part, and Brian Bell, of , of the other part, ip manner and form following ; that is to fay, HE the faid Abel Atkins HATH agreed, and, by this prefent agreement in writing, DOTH agree to demife and let unto the faid Brian Bell, AND the faid Brian Bell HATH agreed, and by thefe prefents DOTH agree to take, hold, and enjoy ALL that meffuage or tenement, with the garden, orchard and appurtenances thereunto belonging, fituate, lying, and being in theparifhof 9 in the county of , now 01 late in the occupation of , together with all that field or clofe of meadow land, containing by eftimation lo acres, little more or lefs, fituate, lying, and being in aforefaid, called or known by the name of , now or late in the occupation of , together with all ways, paths, paflages, waters, water- ^ourfes, eafements, privileges, and advantages whatfoever thereunto belonging; from the day of , for and during the term of years from thence next enfuing; THE faid Brian Bell yielding and paying the fum of , of lawful money of Great Britain, clear of all deductions whatfoever, for or on account of any parliamentary, parochial, or other rates, taxes, or affeffments, yearly and every year during the faid term, by four equal quarterly payments, on I he refpe&ive days following; that is to fay, the Annunciation of the BlefTed Virgin Mary, the Nativity of St, John the Baptift, the Feaftof St, Michael the Archangel, and the Birth of ou? APPENDIX, 37 Lord Chrift, AND alfo yielding and paying, by the faid Brian Bell, the faid clear yearly fum or rent of , in like manner for and during the time that the fuid Brian Bell (hall hold and enjoy the faid meffuage or tenement and its appurtenances, and the faid field or clofe of meadow land, with its appurtenances, after the expiration of the faid term for which they are hereby let, by equal quarterly payments, on the refpe&ive days and times aforefaid. AND it is further agreed, that the faid Abel Atkins mall, on or before the day of next, put into good and tenantable repair and condition the laid meffuage or tenement, with its appurtenances , and on or before the day aforefaid put the hedges, fences, mounds, ditches, and water-courfes of and in or belonging to the faid field or clofe, in good repair, ftate, order and condition. IT is ALSO ACRE ED, that the faid Brian Bell mail for and during the time he mall hold or occupy and enjoy the fame, keep the faid meffuage or tenement, with its appurtenances, in good and tenantable repair, reafonable ufe and wear excepted, and maintain, preferve and keep the hedges, fences, mounds, ditches, and water-courfes of and in or belonging to the faid field or clofe in good repair, flate, order, and condition. AND it is further agreed, that if the faid Brian Bell (hall, or do, at any time or times hereafter, without the authority or licence of the faid Abel Atkins for that purpofe in writing firft had and obtained, underlet or aflfign over all or any part of the faid meffuage or tenement, and its appurtenances, or all or any part of the faid field or clofe and its appurtenances, to any perfon or perfons whomfoever ; IT (hall and may be lawful to and for the faid Abel Atkins, either by himfelf or his agent, immedi ately to re-enter and re-poffefs, re-occupy and enjoy the faid meffuage or tenement, with its appurtenances ; and alfo the faid field or clofe of meadow land, and all and fingular other the premifes hereby demifed and let, as if this agreement had never been made or entered into. A*ro the faid Abel Atkins hereby agrees, that if the faid Brian Bell (hall be minded or defirous to take a leafe of the faid meffuage or tenement, with its appurtenances, and the faid field or clofe of meadow land, with its appurtenances, after the expiration of the faid term of years, for the further term of years, at the clear yearly rent of , payable quarterly as aforefaid, the faid leafe to contain the ufual and cuftomary covenants, he the faid Abel Atkins (hall and will, in due forrn, grant and execute to the faid Brian Bell fuch leafe for fuch further term, at fuch rent, and payable as aforefaid ; the coils and charges of preparing and executing of the faid leafe to be equally borne, defrayed, and difcharged by and between the faid parties : Provided that the faid Brian Bell do and (hall give the faid Abel Atkins no tice in writing, of fuch his wi(h or defire, full three calendar months before or prior to the expiration of the faid term of years for which the faid premifes are by this prcfcnt agreement demifed and let. As WITNESS our hands the day and year firft above written. f O i> 38 APPENDIX. CHAP. III. Of tlie Duration of Leajes ; and herein of the Means by which they may be determined. THE continuation or duration of leafes for years ought to be afcertained and fixed by the particular limitation of the parties, at the time of the leafe made ; and a Icafe may be deter mined, either by the term expiring for which the premifes were leafed, or by the happening of a particular contingency ; fuch as by furrender to the landlord, or forfeiture for the breach of fome covenant, exprefs or implied. But the moft ufual way in which a leafe determines is by the efflu&ion of time, that is, by the period expiring for which thelands were demifed, or upon a contingency happening that was 10 create, as it were, fuch period ; fuch as the cafe of a notice to determine at the expiration of the firft feven years of the term, or the like, where a power has been referved for that pur- pofe. A leafe for years is alfo determined, and at an end, by what the law terms a merger of inte reft; that is, where the tenant purchafes a freehold, or the immediately fuperior intereft of his landlord ; then the leafe merges or finks, and is loft or drowned, in the greater eftate and in tereft which the tenant takes by his purchafe. Another mode by which a leafe may be made to determine is by furrender ; that is, by yielding up to the landlord the leafe, and eftate and intereft derived thereby ; by which means the fubordinate eftate of the tenant is alfo merged in the greater eftate of the landlord. But by the ftatute of frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. 2. c. 3, no leafes, eftates or interefts for term of years (hall befurrendered, unlefs it be by deed or note in writing, figned by the party who makes fuch furrender, or fome other lawfully authorized thereunto, or by aft and opera- ration of law. A fourth means whereby a leafe may be determined, is by cancelling the deed by which it is granted ; for, whatever doubts may have been formerly entertained as to the effect of erafing, or otherwife annulling, a leafe for years, yet at this day, fince the ftatute of frauds and perjuries, Slat. -29 Car. 2. c. 3, which makes all leafes for above three years (Vide this Appendix, p. 82,) to have only the force and effect of leafes at will, unlefs they be in writing, and figned by the party : the deed or writing, whereby fuch leafe is made, feems to be of the fame eflence as the leafe itfelf; and therefore the cancelling or deftruclion of that feems to deftroy and avoid the leafe itfelf, becaufe it deftroys att evldence allowed by law for tbefipport thereof; though, in fuch cafe, Chancery frequently fets up the leafe again, or decrees the party to execute a nevr one for the refidue of the term ; which is not againft the prohibition of the act ; becaufe there was once a good and effectual leafe made purfuant to the ftatute. But here it muft be under- ftootl r ;:,at the Court of Chancery will not interfere in a fair and bonajide tranfaclion, but only in ca cs where the cancel has been obtained by fraud. A icait iiiay allo be determined by force of any condition indorfed on the back of the deed, APPENDIX. 39 if it were fo indorfed and figned before the enfealing and delivery, as well as by force of a con dition contained in the body of the deed. The laft mode by which a leafe may be determined is by forfeiture ; and any acl: by which the tenant disaffirms or denies the title of his landlord is a forfeiture : As where he fues out a writ, or reforts to a remedy which daims the freehold or fuperior eftateof his landlord or where, in an aftion by his landlord upon the leafe or letting of the premifes, he defends under the grant of a greater intereft in the land, or acknowledges the title to be in a flranger,or attempts to alien or convey in fee. Alfo a forfeiture may be incurred by the breach of exprefs or implied covenants ; but, as the Courts always lean againit forfeitures, the landlord cannot take any advantage of any forfeiture if he has afterwards done any adl that amounts to a waver of it : however, the forfeiture muft in fad be known to the landlord at the time, in order to render his acceptance of rent or any other acl a waver. CHAP. IV. Of Rent and Taxes. The refervation of rent ought to be certain ; for, if a man demife lands, rendering after the vate of . 20 per annum while the leafe continues, it will be void : for it does not appear what rent he (hall pay in certain,, or at what time. And the rent muft be referved to the landlord himfelf, and not to a flranger. If the landlord die before the laft inftant of the rent day the rent will go along with the land to the heir at law, or to him who is next entitled, and not to the executor or adminiftrator ; becaufe the tenant has till the laft inftant to pay his rent; and confequently if the landlord die before it is completely due, his executors or adminiftrators can make no title to it. Where a time certain is appointed for the payment of rent neither the tenant nor the land lord is bound to attend to any other time; and if the thing be to be done on a day certain, but no hour of the day is fet down, wherein the fame (hall be done, in this cafe they muft attend fuch a diftance of time before fun-fet as maybe convenient to count the money. If the landlord enter into any part of the premifes demife:!, the rent is fufpended ; but if he enter by virtue of a power referved, or as a mere trefpafler, yet if the tenant be notevifcled, it will be no fufpenfion of the rent. The landlord s remedies for the recovery of rent in arrear, are, Firft, by diftrefs and fale of the goods of the tenant (landing on the dcmiied premifes ; Secondly, by action of debt, where the leafe is by deed ; Thirdly by action of covenant, where the leafe is by deed ; fourthly, by. aUonof debt oraffurjpfit, for the ufe and occupation of the prernifes where they are not held by deed. Refpecting the liability of the landlord or tenant to pay taxes, whether they are parlia mentary taxes or parochial rates, it is a general principle that the occupier of the premifes is, liable,. 40 APPENDIX. But the land-tax a&s from the 4th of W. & M. c. T. f. 13, to the 38th Geo, 3. c. 2. f. 17 & 35 (when the fame was made perpetual), direct th tr; ant to pay rhe land- tax in the firft inftance, and to deduct out of the rent fo much of the rate as in u-fpedl of the faid rent ihe landlord fhould and ought to pay and bear ; and the landlords, both mediate and immediate, according to their refpeclive interefts, are required to allow fuch deductions. And under aleafe in which rent was referred to be paid without any deduflion or abatement tvbaffoever, it was held that, as the land-tax acl: enables the tenant todedufcithat tax out of his rent he has in all cafes a right to flop it, unlefs there is an exprefs agreement to the contrary. The poor s rate, alfo, is a charge upon the occupier, in regard to his pofleffion, and not on the landlord, in regard to the rent received ; and if a man does not live within a parifh, he is to be affefled according to his land ; but if he live within the parim, he is to be rated as dwelling there. CHAP. V. Of Tithes ; and herein of the Manner of felting out and taking the fame, conformable to the Statutes and adjudged Cafes refpe&ing Tithes* TITHES are either pradial, perfonal, or mixt ; and thefe are divided into great orfmaU tithes. 1. Tiie PREDIAL TITHIS are fuch as arife from the land fpontaneoufly, or by manurance ; as tithe of corn, hay, wood, heibs, wine, flax, hops and fruits ; fuch as, apples, pears, and the like. 2. MIXT TITHES are fuch as arife from cattle and beafts receiving their nourishment upon th land ; and are therefore due in refpecl of calves, lambs^kids,pigs, wool, milk,cheefe, eggs and the like. 3. PERSONAL TITHES are the<tenth part of the clear gain which is raifedfrom the perfonal labour of a man, his charges and expenfes, according to his condition and degree,being deducted ^ but thefe are only payable in fuch places as hadaccuftomably for forty years before the flat. 2 and 3 Ed. 6. c. 13, paid perfonal tithes. And by that flat, neither day labourers are obliged to pay perfonal tithes, nor, according to j Roll s Abridgment, c. 646, fol. 25, hu(bandry fervants, in refpecl of their wages. 4. Other ecclefiaftical revenues ufually confidered with tithes as part of the inheritance of the Church, are oblations or obventions, penfions and mortuaries. And they are either voluntary, or due by cuftom at a certain time as upon marriage, bap- lifm, purification of women, funerals or the like. And by the flat. 2 and 3 Ed. 6. c. 13, all who by the laws and cuftoms of the realm ought to pay offerings, fhall yearly pay them at the four moft ufual days, or otherwife atEaftcr. APPENDIX- 41 5. GREAT TITHES are chiefly of wood, corn, or hay ; and SMALL TITHES are in general, un- lefs there has been an immemorial ufage to the contrary, all other praedial tithes, befides corn, hay, and wood ; and likewife thofe tithes which are mixed and perfonal. 6. OF THE PRODUCE of THE EARTH ; The tithes are to be fet out and taken in manner following : Wheat and rye : by the tenth (hock, and by the tenth fheaf. Barley and oats : by the tenth cock, or (hock, and aifo the tenth (heaf. Beans, peafe, tares, and all other pulfe, by the tenth cock, heap or bundle. Stubble: wheat ftubble, employed in purpofes of hufbandry and tillage of the lands of the farm on which it grew, yields notithe,but if fold, orotherwife difpofedof, then by the tenth of its value. Hay, clover, and other artificial grajjes ; by the tenth cock of the firft mowing, and, alfo of the fecond when made into hay. After-mowth ofgrafs; clover, or other artificial grafts ; if eaten by barren and unprofitable flock, by an agiftment tithe. llobbings ofgrafs in pajlurc : by the tenth cock. Seeds of clover, artificial grajfes, and alfo turnip, cole, and rape-feed; if grown for feed, by the tenth meafure of the feed when thremed out ; or if fold, by the tenth of what it fold for. Turnips ; if pulled, by every tenth turnip or heap. Turnips rape and cole ; if eaten, whether by profitable or unprofitable ftock, by an agiftment tithe ; if fold, by the tenth of their value, Barren lands ; tithe able when cultivated. Flax, hemp and madder. The tithes thereof are afcertained at five fliillings per acre, and/o in proportion for fmall quantities. Wcad or woald ; by the tenth heap or gathering. Saffron ; by a tenth when gathered, though only once in three years. Hops ; by a tenth part of the whole after picking ; that is after pulled from the bine. Potatoes and other roots growing injields ; by a tenth of their produce when taken up. Gardens ; by a tenth of their produce. Orchards ; by a tenth of their produce, whether windfalls or gathered. Nurfery grounds. Their produce whether fruits or plants, indigenous or exotic, if fold in the way of trade, by a tenth, or tenth of their value. Timber-wood, or charcoal; that is, oak, afti and elm, above twenty years growth, yield no tithe, except when cut down and fold as fire-wood, or converted into charcoal. Other wood. All other wood of any growth, by a tenth according to the quantity cut down, whether fold or not, except in counties where timber- wood is fcarce, and any other wood is fubftituted, as beech and the like. Ofiers and willows ; by the tenth bundle or pole, when cut. Underwood. Underwood, coppice- wood, loppings and toppings of old bowlings, loppings I 42 APPENDIX. and toppings of trces.reeds and germins, cut from ftumps of trees, though above twenty years growth by a tenth of their quantity when cut. H edge -rows and gorfe t^r furze; if fold, or not ufed upon the farm on which they grow, by every tenth kid or faggof. 7. OF SHEI P. The tithes are to be taken in manner following : Lambs ; by every tenth lamb, to be taken away when able to live upon the fame food the dam doth ; and the tenth of the value of the odd numbers : if fold upon the fall, the tenth of what they fold for : boughtinand put to ewes, by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the time of weaning, unless kept until clip day and clipped. Eives and Lambs t fold or removed out of the parifh before clip-day, by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the laft clip-day. . Feeding Jktep-jktarlings or bogs bred y tr bought in : by an agiflment tithe, if fold or removed before clip-day to be computed from the laft clip-day, but if bought in from that day, until fold or removed. Sheep ; bought in and kept until clip-day, by the tenth weight of their wool. Sheep dying. Dying after clip day of the rot, or otherwife, whether bought in or bred upon the farm, by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the laft clip-day, if bred on the farm ; but if bought in, from that time until they died. Ewes removed out of the puriJJi to lamb ; by the tenth lamb, according to the number of ewes t and by the tenth of the value for the odd numbers. Eices or otberjheep removed out of the parijh to be clipped ; by the tenth fleece, according to the number of fheep removed, and by the tenth of the weight of the odd fleeces. Wool ; by the tenth weight at the time of clipping. Belts and locks ; by the tenth weight when warned and dried. 8. OF BEASTS. The tithes are to be taken in manner following. Calves ; by the tenth if ten ; to be taken at the time of weaning, and by a tenth of the value of all above or under ten ; if one or more, and fold upon the fall, or fed for the butchers, by the tenth of the price fold for, and in the fame manner for all above ten. Calves reared for the plough or pail yield no tithe; but if fold or removed before they are worked or milked, by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the time they become yearlings, until fold or removed. Working beafts yield no tithe while working, unlefs they work for hire or profit, or are em ployed in another parifh than that in which the owner lives ; then by an agiftment tithe. Bea/is turned off tofeed ; by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the day turned off un til fold or removed. Cows fild before calving or dying by an agiflment tithe to be computed from the time they were let dry until they were fold or die. Bta/h bought in and fold again by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the day bought in, until fold, except when kept in the ftraw yard, and fed withflraw ; but no exception if fed vvith hay, though the hay had before paid tithe. APPENDIX. 43 Milk; by the whole of the milk milked on each natural day, as well in the morning as in the evening, to be computed from the time the firft cow after calving, is brought to the ail and milked ; and fo of every cow after calving^and no regard is paid to what they eat. The cow-keeper is to give notice to the tythe-owner when and where he goes to milk his cows, and the tithe is to be fetched by him from the place where the cows are milked, unlefs there be a cuftom in the parifh for the cow -keeper to deliver it to the tithe-owner elfewhere, or at the church porch ; and unlefs he milk his cows in another parifh than that in which they arc fed ; for the tithe of milk is payable to the tithe-owner of the parifh in which the cows are fed, and not in that in which they are milked ; in which cafe he is not obliged to fetch it, but the cow-keeper muft bring it to the tithe-owner. 9. OF HORSES. The tithes are taken in the following manner : Foals; by the tenth, if ten, to be taken at the time of weaning ; and by the tenth of the value of all above or under ten, if fold, before ufed for the plough, by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the time they become yearlings, until fold or removed, Horfes kept for working the farm yield no tithe while working ; but if ufed for hire or profit, or employed in another parifh th an that in which the owner lives, then by an agiftment tithe. Saddle and pleafurt horfes. Saddle horfes, and horfes ufed for pleafure only, yield no tithe; but if ufed for hire or profit, by an agiftment tithe. Htrfes turned up or bought tofeedforfale ; by an agiftment tithe, to be computed from the time turned up or bought in until fold or removed. Broodmares and horfes taken in to feed or agifl at fo much per week, by an agiflment tithe for the time kept. It is to be obferved, that the true object of agiftment is not the improvement of the animal, but the tenth of what the land is worth to let, for taking in the cattle of another perfon to agift; and land on which cattle are fed for (laughter fliould be rated at double the value of the land on which ftore cattle are fed. 10. OF PIGS, the tithes are to betaken by the tenth pig, if ten, to be taken at the time of weaning, and for all above or under ten, the tenth of the value thereof at weaning. Bought in and fold again, by the tenth of the clear profit thereof. n. OF RABBITS AND DEER. Rabbits, if fold, by the tenth of both fkin and carcafe at every kiling ; and in like manner deer alfowill yield a tithe, if fold for profit, although f era natura. 12. OF FISH no tithe is payable, except in certain places by immemorial ufagc. 13. OF PIGEONS the tithe is taken by the tenth of the value of all pigeons when fold. Pigeon manure, if not ufed on the farm, but fold, is alfo tithe able by the tenth of the va lue fold for, 14. Of WILD FOWL taken in decoys, and fold for profit, the tithe is taken by the tenth of the value when fold. 15. Of HONEY and WAX the tithe is taken by the tenth meafure of honey, and the tenth weight of wax, 44- APPENDIX. 16. Of EGGS the tithe is taken by the tenth egg of all turkeys, hens, geefe, ducks, or any- other domefticated fowl, and by the tenth weight of the feathers of geefe. 17. Of MILLS, the tithe of corn-mills (hall be paid of the clear yearly gains and profits, after deducing rent, fervants wages, repairs, and other real expenfes, except of ancient mills, erect ed before the gth year of Edward the Second. 18. Oiher PARISH DUES, payable to the minifter of the parifh, confill: of Kafter offerings,, mortuaries, and furplice fees. Eajler offerings are payable for every perfon in the parifh of fixteen years of age and up wards, by the mailer or miftrefs of a family, after the rate of two-pence per head. Mortuaries are for every perfon dying in the parifh, pofTcfTed of moveabfe goods to the value of forty pounds and upwards, his debts firft paid ics. If to the value of thirty pounds, and under forty pounds 6s. 8d, If to the value of fix pounds thirteen and four-pence, and under thirty pounds 33. 4d. Except for beneficed clergymen, for whom a mortuary is only due to the bifhop of the diocefc wherein he held his benefice^ and refided. Surplice fees are payable for every marriage, whether by licenfe or by banns, for every fune ral, and for every churching, according to the cuftom of the parifh. CHAP. VI. Of the Highway Duty. I. IFhaf perfons are compelled to perform ftatute duty.] The furveyor, together with the -inha bitants and occupiers of lands, tenements, woods, tithes, and hereditaments, within each parifh, (hall, at proper feafons in every year, ufe their endeavours for the repair of the highways, and (hall be chargeable thereunto, as followeth ; that is to fay , Every perfon "keeping a waggon t cart^ wain, plough, or tumbril, and three or more horfes or leafts of draught ufed to draw the fame, (hall be deemed to keep a team, draught, or plough, and be liable to perform ftatute- duty with the fame, in the parifh where he refides, and mal) ? fix days in every year, (if fo many mall be found necefiary) to be computed from Michaelmas to Michaelmas, fend on every day, and at every place, appointed by the furveyor for the amending the highways in fuch parifh, one wain, cart, or carriage, furnifhed after the cuftom of the coun try, with oxen, horfes, or other cattle, and all other neceflaries fit to carry things for that pur- pofe, and alfo two able men with fuch wain, cart, or carriage ; which duty fo performed (hall excufe fuch perfon from his duty in fuch parifh, in refpeft of all lands, &c. not exceeding the annual value 0^.50, which he fhall occupy therein, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4. And every perfon keeping fuch team, draught, or plough, and occupying in the fame parifh lands, &c. of the yearly value of . 50, beyond the faid yearly value of . 50 in refpecl where- f fuch team-duty (hall be performed ; and every fuch perfon occupying lands, &c. of tht APPENDIX. 4.5 T early value of .50 in any other parijli, befides that wherein he reticles : And every other perfon not keeping a team, draught, or plough, but occupying lands, &c. of the yearly value of ^.50 in any parifh, fhall, in like manner, and for the fame number of days, find and fend one wain, cart, or carriage, furnifhed with not lefs than three horfes, or four oxen and one horfe, or two oxen and two horfes, and two able men to each wain, cart, or carriage; and, in like manner, for every/". 50 per annum which every fuch perfon fhall further occupy in fuch parifh, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4. Such wains, carts, or carriages, to be employed by the furveyor in repairing the highways within theparifli where fuch lands, &c. lie, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4, And every perfon who Jhall not keep a team, draught, or plough, but fhall occupy lands, c. under the yearly value of ^ . 50 in the parifh where he refides or in any other parifh, and every perfon keeping a team, draught, or plough, and occupying lands, c. under the yearly value of . 50 in any other parifh than that wherein he refides, (hall contribute to the repair of the highways, and pay to the furveyor of fuch parifh, in lieu of fuch duty, the fums following, viz. " For every 2os. of the annual value of fuch lands, &c. id. for every day s ftatute-duty which fhall be required and called for by the furveyor of fuch parifh in every year, not exceed ing fix days duty in the whole; and every fuch perfon refpectively fhall, in like manner, pay id. for every 2os. of the annual value of the lands, &c. which he fhall occupy in fuch parifh, above the annual value of . 50 and lefs than . 100, and fo for every 2os. that each progreffive and intermediate annual value of 2os. of the lands, &c. which he fhall fo occupy, fhall fall fhort of the further increafe of .50 in every parifh, where fuch lands, &c, lie, for every day s ftatute- duty required as aforefaid," 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4. Which faid fums fhall be confideredas competitions, and mail be paid to the furveyor of the parifh in which they are charged, for the ufeof the highways therein, at the time fuch compofi- tions are to be paid under flat. 13 Geo. III. c. 78,* or within ten days after ; or in default of fuch payments, the furveyor fhall make application to a juftice of the diftricl, who fhall fum- nion the party fo" making default to appear at fomefpecial or petty feffions, to be holdenfor fuch tiiftricT:, and at which twojuftices at the leaft fhall be prefent, to fhow caufe why he has refufed or neglected to pay fuch compofitiou-money ; and in default of appearance, or if on appear ance he fhall not make it appear that he is poor and indigent, and as fuch is an object deferving of relief, fuch money fhall be levied by diftrefs and fale of the goods of the perfon refuting to pay the fame, as the forfeitures for the neglect in performing the ftatute-duty are to be levied. 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4. But when, on application as above mentioned, thejuftices fhall think proper to difchargeany poor or indigent perfon from payment, fuch perfon fhall, at the fame time be difcharged from any expenfes arifing from his fummons and appearance. 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4. Provided that no perfon keeping fuch team, &c. and performing duty with the fame, in the parifh where he refides, and not occupying* lands, &c. within the fame, of the yearly value of . 30; fliall be obliged to fend more than one labourer with fuch team, c. 34 Geo. III.. c,.74, f.4. * For this fee 13 Gco. III. c, 78. f. 41. in p. 48 infr*.- 46 APPENDIX. But by 42 Geo. III. c. 90, Noferjeant, corporator drummer of the militia, nor anv private man from the time of his inrolment until his difcharge, (lull be obliged to perform any highway duty commonly called ftatute work, f. 174. And if the faid teams, draughts, or ploughs, dial! not be thought needful by the furveyor, on any ofthe faid days, then fuch perfon who fhould have fent any fuch team, &c. according to the directions aforefaid, fhall, according to the notice to be given, as after directed, fend unto the faid work, for every one fo fpared, three able men, there to labour as aforefaid, or to pay to the faid furveyor 43. 6d.in lieu thereof, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 4. And it (hall be lawful for the furveyor, where the employment for teams is of fuch fort that two horfes will be fufficient for one cart, or where a ftand cart with one horfe fhall be necef- fary, to call upon any perfon liable to fend a team, draught or plough who keeps carts, and three horfes, to feud fuch carts, or horfes, to perform his ftatute-duty, as the-, furveyor fhall diieft ; and the furveyor fhallallow every ftand cart and one horfe as half a team, and every cart and two horfe* as two thirds of a team ; and if a waggon fhall be found ncceflary for any particular bufinefs, the furveyor may require the duty, or part thereof, to be performed with fuch waggon, by any perfon who keeps one ; which direction fhall be obferved, or the perfon liable to perform duty fhall forfeit fuchfum as the duty required of him fhall bear, in propor tion to the forfeiture inflicted for every neglect in performing duty with a team, draught Or plough, f. 36. 2. In what manner thefatute duty is to be performed^ The furveyor fhall give to, or caufe to be left at the abode of every perfon liable to perform fuch duty four day s notice at lead of the day, hour, and place, upon which each ofthe day s duty fhall be to be performed, 13 Geo. III. c. 7 8, f. 37. And all perfons fhall have and bring with them fuch ihovels, fpades, picks, mattocks, and other tools, as are ufeful, 34 Geo. II I.e. 74 f. 2. And all the faid perfons and carriages fhall diligently perform the work to which they fhall be appointed by fuch furveyor for eight hours in every day within fuch parifh, or in getting mate rials in and from any other parilh, to be employed in the repair of the highways of the parifh for which they fhall perform duty, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 2. And if any perfon fending a team fhould not fend a fufficient labourer belides the driverfexcept as before mentioned), or if any fuch labourer or driver, or any other labourer, or the driver of any cart, fhall refufe to work during the time above mentioned, according to the directions ofthe furveyor ; or if any driver fhall refufe to carry proper loads, it fhall be lawful for fuch Purveyor to difcharge fuch team, cart, or labourer, and to recover from the owner the forfeiture which fuch perfon would have incurred in cafe no fuch team, &e. had been fent, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 2. And every perfon making default in finding and fending each wain, cart or carriage, furnifhed as aforefaid, and fuch able men with the fame, as herein required, or in performing the faid fluty in manner by this act directed, fhall, for every default, forfeit IDS. For every default in fending a cart with one horfe and one man, 35. and for not fending a cart with two horfss APPENDIX. 47 and one man, 53. And every perfon making default in fending fuch labourer, and every perfon making default in performing fuch labour at the time and place and in manner, directed by this act, or in paying com pofition- money for the fame, (hall, for every fuch neg lect, forfeit is. 6d. ; all which forfeitures (hall be applied for the ufe of the highway s within the parith, 13 Geo. III.-c. 78. f. 37. And the fur vcyor (hall equally demand fuch duty from every perfon liable, without favour f- 37- And if in any parifh it fhall not be neceffary to call forth the whole duty in any year it (hall be abated in proportion amongft all perfons liable, f. 37. And the furveyor fhall, with all fpeed, after default made in performance of fuch duty, pro. ceed for the recovery of the penalties, as after directed, fo that the fame may be recovered before he makes up his accounts, f. 37. But to prevent as much as poffible any inconvenience to perfons liable to perform ftatute-duty, it fhall be lawful for the inhabitants of every parifh, at fome veftry, or public meeting, to appoint three months in every year, within which no ftatute duty fhall be performed, viz. one month in the fpring, called//;* Jeed month, one month in fummer for the hay harve/l ; and one other month in the fummer, for corn harvefi : provided notice in writing be given of the times appointed to the furveyor of fuch parifh, and alfo to the furveyor of every turnpike road within the fame, within three dayj after fuch meeting, and fourteen days before the beginning of fuch months, f. 43. ^.Compactions In lieu ofjiatuteduty.~] Any perfon liable to perform the faid duty, by fending^ teams, or draughts, or ploughs, with men, horfes, or oxen, may compound for the fame they think fit, by paying to the furveyor, as after mentioned, fuch money as the juftices for the limit wherein fuch parifh fhall be, at the fpecial feffions to be held in the firft week after Michaelmas quarter feffions in every year, fhall adjudge reafonable, not exceeding 123. nor lefs than three fhillings, for each team, draught, or plough for each day ; and in default of their adjudging the fame, 6s. in lieu of every day s duty for each team, &c. and for each cart with two horfes or beafts of draught not exceeding 8s. nor lefs than 35. and in default of the r adjudging the fame 45. for every cart with one horfe, or beaft of draught, not exceeding 6s. nor lefs than 2s. and in default of their adjudging the fame 35. 44. Geo. 3. c. 52. And whereas it may frequently happen that perfons wholly gaining their livelihood by the zvages <f daily labour, and occupying rateable tenements within apariju, by reafon ofage>fidnefs, a numerous family, or misfortune, may be in poor and indigent circumftances, and it may be expedient in certain cafes to dif charge fuch perfons from all rates, a/t/ments, or compojitions whatfoever ; it is therefore ENACTED that, on the application of any poor and indigent perfon to be difcharged from the rate or compofition made, to any two juftices, at any fpecial or petty feffions, held for the limits wherein fuch poor and indigent perfon (hall refide; the faid juftices (having firft given notice to the furveyor to appear on the part of the parifh) (hall inquire and examine into the fituatioii and circumftancesof the perfon making fuch application ; and if it (hall appear to the fatisfac- ,tion of fuch juftices that fuch perfon is really poor and indigent, and a deferring object of fuch 48 APPENDIX. relief, the faid juftices may exempt fuch poor and indigent perfon from the payment of all rates, alignments, or compofitions whatfoever, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 5. But if it appear to the juftices, at their fpecial feffions to be held in the week next after Michaelmas quarter feffions, or at any other fpecial or petty feffions, held within the limits of any pariih at which two or more juftices (hall be prefent, that, from the directions before given for performing and compounding the ftatute-duty, there will be difficulty in procuring thene- cefTary carriage, or a fufficient number of labourers for the repair of the highways in any par ticular parifli within their limits, without paying high prices for the fame, it (hall be lawful for fuch juftices to order the team duty hereby required, or fo much thereof as they think fit, to be performed in kind, within every pariih, &c. except in refpecl of fuch teams as belong to perfons who do not occupy lands, &c. of the annual value of . 30 within the fame ; and alfo to order all fuch perfons as (hall gain their living by the wages of daily labour, or fuch part of them as they (hall think fit, to perform fix days labour upon fuch highways in kind, either by themfelves or others, in cafe fo many days duty (hall be required, upon being paid for fuch labour the ufual wages given to labourers in fuch parifh, 34 Geo. III. c. 74. f. 6. But if part of fuch teams or labourers only are required, it (hall be directed by the faid order of the juftice, in fome given proportion, as one half, third, or fourth part thereof ; and the fur- veyor (hall, in that cafe, at a public veftryfor fuch pariih, put the names of all perfons liable to fend fuch teams into one hat or box, and the names of all perfons liable to perform fuch la bour into another hat or box, and fome inhabitant then prefent (hall draw out fuch number from each as fhall be equal to the proportion ordered by the juftices,, and the perfon drawn (hall perform fuch duty in kind for that year; and if fuch order fhall be made or continued in the iubfequent year the fame method (hall be obferved, but the names drawn in the preceding year (hall not be put into fuch hat or box ; and in every fucceeding year fuch method fhall be obferved by fuch furveyor, fo as to render the duty to be performed in kind equal amongft the perfons liable thereto ; which order of the juftices, fo far as the fame (hall be extended, (hall fuperfede the power or liberty of compounding, and fhall be binding, and fhall continue in force until difcharged or varied by the juftices at fome fubfequent fpecial feffions for the high ways within fuch limit, to be held in the week next after Michaelmas quarter feffions, f. 6. And if any perfon (hall keep a team, and fhall not occupy lands, &c. of .30 per annum in the parifh where he fhall refide, but fhall in part maintain his horfes and beafts of draught ufed in fuch team upon lands in adjacent parifhes, it fhall be lawful for the juftices, at fome fpeciaj feffions, to mitigate the duty or compofition, asthey think juft, 13 Geo. III. c. 78. f. 41. And the furveyor of every parifh fhall, on fome Sunday in November in every year, caufe ten days notice at leaft to be given in the church or chapel, and if no church or chapel, then at the moft public place there, and repeat the like notice in fuch church, &c. on the next fucceed ing Sunday, of the time and place when and where the perfons permitted and inclined to com pound may fignify to fuch furveyor their intention to compound ; and all perfons fignifying the fame, who fhall then, or within one month after pay to fuch furveyor the compofition, (hall be difcharged from the performance of fuch duty, which compofition fliall be employed by APPENDIX. 49- the furveyor for the ufe of the highways ; and no competition mall be permitted, unlefs paid at the day or within the time aforefaid, f. 41. But where the occupation of any lands,&c.fhall be changed,or any new inhabitant (hall come to refide in fuch parifli, &c. after the time appointed fur fuch compofiiion, than the perfons occupying fuch lands, &c. or fo refiding: in fuch parifh, mail be allowed 1 to compound af terward^ ; provided they pay the compofition money within fourteen days after they enter upon fuch lands, &c. or come to refide in fuch parifli ; and every tenant of lands, &c. who intends to quit the porTeflion thereof within fix months from the time fixed for making fuch competition, may compound for half the duty, and the fucceeding tenant may compound or perform duty in kind for the other half, 13 Geo III. c. 78. f. 41. And if the furveyor fhall receive from anyperfon a cempofttion for more duty than (hall be required from the other inhabitants within the fame parifli, for the fame year, he (hall repay fuch extiaordinary* compofition to fuch perfons, fo as tobring- theduty to an equality amongfV all fuch inhabitants, f. 41. And in every parifh where any perfon (hall keep a draught or plough, and no carriage, he (hall pay to the furveyor is. for every horfe, or pair of oxen orneat cattle, u fed in fuch draught, for every day s ftatute duty on the day fuch duty is to be performed, or pay according to the rate aforefaid for the lands, &c. which he {hall occupy in fuch parifh, at the option of the furveyor, f. 42. " And as by feveral afls concerning turnpike roads, part of the flatute-duty may be directed to be performed on fuch roads, and in Jome places perfuns liable thereto may have compounded for the fame;" it is therefore enacted, that in fueh cafes, the furveyor of the highways of the parifh, where Rich compofition (hall have been made, fhall pay to the treafurer or furveyor of fuch turnpike roads, a- certain part of the compofition- money received, to be proportioned according to the number of days duty which fuch perfons were liable to perform on fuch turnpike road; which money (hall be laid^out on fuch part of the turnpike road as lies with in the parifli fiom which it was received, and not elfewhere ; and if fuch furveyor of the highways fhall rcfufe or neglect to pay the fame, within t\*entyday after he fhall have received the fame, upon demand made bv fuch treafurer or furveyor, the fame, fhall be levied upon the goods of fuch furveyor, as pe nalties are by this act-to be levied, f. 44. 4. What perfon s may be offered to a rate for defraying the extraordinary charges of fuch rcpaiis. ] : 11 As infomeparifhes there may not be materials for the repair of the highways, by reafn whereof tht furveyor may deforced to buy materials, and to make recomfienfefor damage d >ne by getting there - ef; and as noprovifon is made for rai/ing a fund to reimburfe the expenfes thereof; and alfo fuch txpenfes as the f aid furveyor s may Incur, by ercding guide -pofts, and by making or repairing trunk;,, tunnels, plats, bridges, or arches, and by rendering fat isfaflion for damages done to lands for making sfnewditehes or drains ; nvr for the f alary to bepaidbyfuchp .irijlit<)fnchftirveyors; >it istherefore cnadlecl, that upon application made by fuch furveyor to the juftices; at their fpeciat fcflions* and oath made of the money which he. hath bond fide laid out,- or which will be required for the purpofes aforefaid,-, the fald juftices, .or two of-them, fhall, .by warrant under their hands and feals, caufe an affeflment to be made upon all occupiers of lands, &c. within fuch parifh, and G the fame fliall be collected by fuch perfons, and allowed in fuch manner as the juftices by their order at fellions (hall direct.; and the money raifed (hall be employed and accounted for ac cording to the direction of the juftices ; but no fuch alTeffment, in one year, (hall exceed fix- pence in the pound, of the yearly value of the lands, 13 Geo. III. c. 78. f. 30. Alfo if upon application of the furveyor of the highways for any parifli, to the juftices for the limit wherein fuch parifli lieth., at their general or quarter fcffions, or at fome fpecial fefllons for the highways, the faid juftices fhall be fatisfied, by oath, that the duty, and the money authorised to be collected has been performed, applied, and expended according to this act, or fliall be fatisfied that the-common highways, bridges, caufeways, ftreets, or pavements, be longing to fuch parifla, are fo far out of order that they cannot be fufficiently amended, paved, cleanfed, and fupported, by the means before prefcribed (notice being firft given of fuch in tended application, at the church r chapel on fome Sunday preceding fuch quarter or fpecial feffions ; or if the place be extraparochial, notice in writing being firft given of fuch intended application to fome of the principal inhabitants refiding in fuch extraparochial place, a week at leaft before fuch fefllons ;) an equal afTdlment upon all occupiers of lands, &c. within fuch parifh, (hall be made and collected by fuch perfons, and allowed in fuch manner, asthejuftices by their order #t fuch fefilons fliall direct ; and the money thereby raifed fliall be employed and accounted for, according to the orders of the faid juftices, towards amending, paving cleanfing, and fupporting fuch highways, caufeways, ftreets, pavements and bridges, f. 45. But the ailelfment laft authorized, and the afieffment before authorized, for buying materials, making fatisfaftion for damages, erecting guide-ports, and paying the furveyor s lalary, fhali not together, in one year, exceed nine-pence in the pound, f. 46. And if any perfon fliall refufe or neglect to pay the fums afleiled upon him, within ten days after demand, the fame may be levied, by the furveyor or perfons authorized, by warrant under the hand and feal of one juftice, by diftrefs and fale ; and in default of diftrefs, it fliall be law ful for fuch juftice to commit the perfon refuting, to the common goal, there to remain until he ihall have paid the fura arTefTed, and the cofts, f 67, CHAP. VI[. Of Wrongs in respect to the Rights of Landlords. WHATEVER does alafting damage to the freehold or inheritance iswafte ; and, in treating thereof, it is to be fliown that it may be committed ; FIRST, in refpect of houies ; SECONDLY, in refpect of gardens, orchards, and the like; THIRDLY, in refpect of land; FOURTHLY, in refpect of timber and other trees. FIRST, as to houfes; it is clear, from the ftat. Marib. 23, and ftat. Glo. 5, that wafte may be done in houfes : thus if the tenant pull down the houfes demifed, it will be waftc ; fo if he fuffers a houfe to be uncovered, whereby the timber decays, though the timber be not thereby thrown down : fo if the houfe was uncovered at the commencement of the Icafe, yet it will be APPENDIX. 51 wafte if he pulls it down without the confentof the landlord ; or if it was ruinous at the com mencement, and he fuffers it to be more ruinous ; fo if the tenant fuffers glafs windows to be broke or carried away, or the wainfcot, benches, doors, furnaces, or the like, which are fixed to the houfe, to be removed, although they were originally fixed, by the tenant, by nails, fcrews, or otherwife. It is alfo wafte if he permits the walls of a houfe to be decayed for want of plafteringjwhereby the timber is rotted or the chambers of a houfe, though the timber be not thereby rotted ; fo if he does not fcour a drain, whereby the ground timber is decayed fo it will be wafte if the walls are fuffered to go to decay, though the timber was in decay at the com mencement of the leafe ; and it will be wafte though there be no timber upon the land demifed for repairs;or though the houfe was uncovered by or damaged by tempeft,if it be fuffered after wards to remain in decay ; fo it will be wafte if the tenant pulls down the houfe and rebuilds it lefs than before, or if he rebuilds it larger to the prejudice of the landlord; for it is more charge to repair. So if the tenant alters the houfe to the landlord s prejudice : as, if he converts a parlour into a ftable, or changes a corn-mill to a cotton or fulling-mill, or the like. So it may be wafte to turn two rooms into one; for if it would be for the leffor s advantage, it may be fhown on the other fide. So it will be wafte if the tenant builds a new houfe, and afterwards fuffers that to be decayed. However, in all queftions refpecting wafte it is to be obferved that, in regard to the repairs of houfes the tenant is not liable thereto, unlefs he holds the premifes under a leafe for a term of years, but the burthen thereof lies on the landlord. Thus, in the cafe of a tenancy at will, or from year to year, the landlord is under an obligation to keep the premifes in tenantable re pair ; but where there is an actual leafe the charge of repairing, without any exprefs covenant for that purpofe, is upon the tenant, reafonable or ordinary wear and ufe being allowed. But, if the houfe was uncovered at the commencement of the leafe, it is no wafte if the tenant fuffers it to fall into further decay, without pulling it down ; or if the walls were un covered, or infufficiently fupported ;or if the houfe was ruinous and the tenant fuffers it to be as it was, without permitting it to become more ruinous. So alfo it is no wafte if the tenant removes furnaces, coppers, or other utenfilsof trade, though fixed to the freehold, if he removes them before the expiration of his term ; but if he permits them to remain after the expiration of the term, he cannot remove them, for they are then vefted in the reverfioner or landlord. In like manner green and hot-houfes are removable ; fo a barn creeled on the premifes upon blocks of timber ; and this notwithilanding there be a covenant to leave all buildings which- then were orfhould be erecled on the premifes in repair; for fuch covenant means that the tenant (hall leave all buildings annexed to and become part of the reverfionary eilate ; but if the tenant will actually build, he muft leave the buildings for the benefit of the landlord, thus, if the tenant erect a beaft-houfe, a carpenters (hop, cart-houfe, pump houfe or fold-yard wall, kiting fuch buildings into the ground r ,he cannot remove the fame ; for there is adiftinction between erections neceffary to the purpofcs of trade or manufactures, fuch as hot-houfes or the like, and thofe that are requifite in order to the enjoyment of the land demifed, fuch as beaft-houfes and the like ; and therefore thofe of the latter defcription are not removable by the outgoing tenant,,. but muft remain for the benefit of the inheritance. G z 2 APPENDIX. SECONDLY; m-io gardens, orchards, and the like : wafte may be committed therein, iffhe tenant cuts down pear-trees, apple-trees, or other fruit-trees : or if they are thrown down by tcmpeft, and the tenant afterward roots them up, or cuts down the germens growing, without .planting new. So if the tenant deftroys or fuffers the ftock of a dovecote, warren, park, fifh-pond, pool, or the like, to be diminifhed, or throws down the pales of a park or warren, or ftops up the holes ef a dovecote, or throws down the banks of a fifh-pond. But if the tenant kills or deftroys, yet :it is no wafte if he leaves a fufficient ftock. THIRDLY ; as toland: it will be wafte if the tenant fuffers the fea to furround arable land, -meadow, or pafture ; or if he fuffers a wall or bank againft the fen, a river, or the like, to be .ruinous ; by which the water funounds or overflows the land, and renders it ufelefs : fo if he digs up the furface of the land, and carries it away ^ or if the tenant converts arable to wood, or wood land to arable, it will be wafte, or meadow to arable or pafture; or meadow to orchard or hop-ground though it be done for the amelioration of the foil or a hop-ground to tillage. So if a tenant for life or years opens new -mines in land,, demiied without mention of mines, it will be wafte; fo if he^digs for gravel, lime, clay, brick-earth, ftone, or the like, in pits not open. But it is not wafte if land is forrounded or overflowed by the violence of a tempeft, or if pafture be converted to tillage for the Improvement of the foil, where it has been fometimes .pafture and fometimes arable ; or if it was flocked with rabbits, it not being a warren by charter or prefcription ; fo if it was a warren. So it is no wafte if the land lies fallow,though it is bad hufbandry ; or if trenches are dug in a meadow to draw off the water; or if woad or the like be fown againft the end of the term, though it is not ripe for feveral years. So it is not wafte to dig for ore, coal, or the like, in mines open at the time of the leafe ; or if mines were not demifed, if the land was demifed with all mines ; neither will it be wafte for the rector or vicar to dig for oropen mines in his glebe. FOURTHLY; as to timber and other trees-: it is wafte if a tenant cuts down timber: and oak, .afh, and elm, are timber cifter the age of twenty years, throughout the realm ; and in fome counties, where fuch timber is fear ce, beech, willow, hornbeam, and other trees, may be ac counted timber, if they have been fo deemed by cuftorn and immemorial ufage : And there fore if a tenant cuts down trees, which by law, or the immemorial ufage and cuftom of the country, are efteemed timber, it will be wafte; fo it will be wafte if the tenant does an act by which the timber decays, as if he lops and tops them j fo if he cuts down birch, willow, maple or other trees, which are not timber, if they were growing in defenceof the houfe ; or if he roots up or deftroys quickfets of white-thorn and the like; fo if he extirpates or deftroys the germens of underwood, which may be cut. It will alfo be wafte if the tenant cuts down trees for fuel, when there is dead and decayed wood fufficient ; or if he cuts down, for new pales, fences, a houfe, or the like, where none were before ; fo it is wafte if the tenant fells the trees, and with the money repairs or afterwards re-purchafes and ufes for repairs : fo if he cuts dowis for repairs which arc not ncceffary, or for repairs when there (hall be no occafion, or for repairs w-hich happened by his own default. APPENDIX. -Bill cutting down trees which are not timber, nor fland for the defence of the houfe, is not wafte, n->r trees that were timber, when they are dead. So cutting the underwood of oak, am, willow, or the like, is ncrwitfte^ fo the cutting down bufhes, white-thorn, and the like, is no wafte ; fo cutting down timber for neceffary Ivies, allowed by law to the tenant, is no wafte as for fuel, plough-bote, hedge-bote, cart-bote, and the like ; or for repairs, fuchas the repair of pales, gates, fences, and the like, though the tenant covenants to repair at his own charge, for this does not take away the liberty which the law allows ; fo though the landlord covenants to repair ; or if it be for the repair of things ufeful, though they are not abfolutely neceflary, fuch ^sfor water-troughs to be fixed in the ground for his cattle. The remedy of the landlord againft the tenant for wafte is either under the ftatute of GIou- cefter, 6 Ed. I. c. 5 ; whereby it is enacted, that if tenant for life or years do wafte, he fhall forfeit the place walled, and treble damages, or by a fpecial aftion on the cafe in nature of wafte. But here it is necefTary to obferve, that the tenant (hall not be fued under the ftatute for wafte, if the value does not amount 1035. 4d.; and therefore, if wafte is found only to the value of 35, or lefs, no judgment fhall be given, though the defendant confefs the wafte \ and if judg ment is given for the plaintiff, it will be error. Accordingly, in the cafe of Harrow Schoolv, Alderton, 1 Bof. and Pu!. 86.; where, in an aftion of wafte, on the ftatute of Gloucefter, the jury gave only three farthings damages ; the defendant had leave to enter up judgment for himfelf. CHAP. VIII. Wrongs in r effect of the Rights of Tenants. IF there is tenant for life or years of lands, the tenant has no property in the trees growing <>n the land ; and even if the claufe in the leafe is without impeachment of wafte, it gives no pro perty, but is merely an exemption from an action. Yet if a ftranger cuts any down, the tenant may maintain trefpafs ; but he fhall not recover damages for the value of the trees, becaufe the property of them is in the landlord. Alfo tenants for life, years, or at will, are liable to, or may have an action of trefpafs, ia refpect of the emblements or -crop growing on the lands^ on the determination of" their eftates. And the doctrine of emblements extends not only to corn fown, but to roots planted, or other annual artificial profits. Hops growing out of ancient roots have been held to be like emblements, which (hall go to the hufband or executor of the tenant for life, and not to the landlord, and are not to be com pared to apples or fruits, which grow of themfelves. But it is otherwife of fruit-trees, grafs, and the like, which arc not planted annually at the ^xpenfe and labour of the tenant, but are either a permanent or a natural profit of the earth. In fome cafes, he who fows the corn (hall have the emblements j in others not, Thus, if tenant in fee, or in tail, or in dower, die after fowing the corn, and before fever* iinoc, his executor or adminiftrator generally (hall have the emblements. For a tenant for life or his reprefentative fhall not be prejudiced by any fudden determination of his eftate ; becaufe fuch a determination is contingent and uncertain. But if a man fows land and lets it. for life, and the leflee for life die before the corn be fevered, his executor fhail not have the emblements, but he in reverfion j. though, it he himlelf had fowed the land anJ <lied it wereotherwife* The fame is alfo the rule, if a life eftate be determined by aft of law. Thus, every one who has an uncertain eftate or intereft,. if, before feverance of the corn, his-, eftate determine either by the aclrofGodor of the law, he fhall have the emblements, or they fhall go to his executor or adminiftrator ; and fo it is in all cafes regularly, where a man fows land whereof and wherein- he hath fuch an. eftate as may perhaps continue until the corn be ripe. But if the eftate be determined by the tenant s own ad>, as by forfeiture by tenant for life for wafte committed ; or if a tenant during widowhood marries : in thefe and fimilar cafes, the tenants having thus determined the eftates by their own a&s, (hall not be entitled to take the emblements. And the under-tenants or lefTees of tenants for life have the fame, and in fome inftances greater indulgencies than their lefTors, the original tenants for life. For the law ofefloversand emblements, when the tenant for life is entitled thereto, is alfo the fame with regard to his under-tenant, who reprefents him and ftandsin his-place : and in thofe cafes where the tenant for life fhall not have the emblements becaufe the eftate determines by his own ac"t, the ex- ception fhall not reach his tenant or leflee, who is a third perfon. But with regard to emblements or the profits of lands fowed by tenant for years, there is this difference between him and tenant for life : that where the term of a tenant for years depends upon a certainty, ( as if he holds from Midfummer for ten years,) and in the laft year he fows a crop of corn, and it is not ripe and cut before Midfummer, the end of his term, his landlord fhall have it ;, for the tenant knew the expiration of his term ; and therefore it was his own folly to fow that of which he never could reap the profits.* In fuch cafe the landlord, it is faid, muft enter on the lands, to take the emblements. But where the leafe for years depends * But though this rule is general, yet it admits of certain exceptions, arifing from the cuftom of the eountry; as, where the plaintiff brought an aftion of trefpafs for mowing and taking away a crop of corn, and relied on a cuftom that the tenant, for any term of years which expired on the ift of May, might, after the expiration of his term^ take and carry away as his way-going crop, all the corn then grow in" on the land at the time the term expired. This cuftom was adjudged to be good and reafonable ; though it was contended, that the tenant could not claim it againft his deed, by which the land had been demifed, for a certain number of years then expired. So a cuftom that the tenant might leave, for a certain time, hisway-going crop inthe barnsof the farm,, which he had left after the determination of his term, and after his quitting the premifes, is gocd - } and the corn fo left may be diftrained, even though fix months are expired from the end of the term. APPENDIX, 55 upon an uncertainty ; as upon the death of the leflbr or landlord, bcinghimfelf only tenant for life, or being a huiband feifed in right of his wife; or if the term of years be determinable upon a life or lives ; in all cafes of this kind the eftate for years not being certainly to expire at a time foreknown, but merely by the acl of God, the tenant, or his executors, (hall have the emblements in the fame manner that a tenant for life would be entitled thereto. Not fo, however, if it determine by the a6l of the party himfelf. If tenant at will fows his land, and the landlord before the corn is ripe, or before it is reaped, put him out, yet the tenant (hall have the emblements, and free ingrefs, egrefs, and rcgrels, to cut and carry away the profits ; and this for the fame reafon upon which all the cafes of emblements turn ; namely, the point of uncertainty ; fince the tenant cou d no pof- fibly know when his landlord would determine his will, and therefore could make no provi- lion againft it ; and having fown the land, which is for the good of the public, upon a reafon- able prefumption, the law will not fuffer him to be a lofer by it. But it is otherwife, and upon reafon equally good, where the tenant himfelf determines his will ; for in this cafe the land- lord fhall have the profits of the land. So in the cafe of entry of the lefibr before fowing, the leffee at will (hall not have the cofls of ploughing and manuring. If a hufband holds lands for life, in right of his wife, and fows the land, and afterwards (he dies before feverance, he (hall have the emblements. So where the wife has an eftate for years, life, or in fee, and the hufband fows the land and dies, his executors (hall have the corn. But if the hufband and wife are joint-tenants, though the hufband fowthe land with corn, and die before it be ripe, the wife, and not his executors, fhall have the corn, (he being the furviving joint-tenant. Where lands fold are delivered in execution upon an extent, the perfon to whom they are fo delivered (hall have the corn on the ground. The advantages alfo of emblements are particularly extended to the parochial clergy by the flat. 28 H. VIII. c. u, which confiders all perfons who are prefented to any ecclefiaftical benefice, or to any civil office, as tenants for their own lives, unlefs the contrary be exprefled in the form of the donation : for by this ftatute, if a parfon fows his glebe and die*, his exe cutors fhall have the com ; and fuch parfon may by will difpofe thereof. Where there is a right to emblements, ingrefs, egrefs, and regrefs, are allowed by law, in order to enter, cut and carry them away, when the eftate is determined. Emblements are diftinft from the real eftate in the land, and fubjecl: to many, though not all the incidents attending perfonal chattels: they were devifeable By teftament before the ftatute of Wills, and at the death of the owner fhall veft in his executor, and not his heir ; they are forfeitable by outlawry in a perfonal aclion ; and by the flat, n G.ll.c. 19. (though not by the common law) they may be diftr?.ined for rentarrear. But though emblements are aflets in the hands of the executor, are forfeitable upon outlawry, and diftrainable for rent, they are not in other refpefts confidcred as perfonal chattels, and in 5$ APPENDIX. particular they are not in common law the fubjeft of larceny before they are fevered from the ground. This confideration has occafioned the following flatutes to be pa-fled, for the protection of the. occupier of lands as well as the landlord: 1. Pulling down inclofuresJ] By.\-$ Ed., hft. i>. c. 46, where fometimes it- chance th that on* having a right to improve, doth then levy a dyke or an hedge, and Jonie by night or at another feaj "on ,. when thcvj uppofe not to be ef pied, .do. over throw the hedge or dyke, and it cannot be known by verdict ef the afiize or jury, who did overthrow the hedge or dyke r and men of the towns near, will not indi& fuch as be guilty of the f aft; the towns near adjoining Jhall be di/lrained to levy the hedge or dyke at. their own co/l, and to yield damages. And by 3 and 4 Ed. 1. c. ^ fuch perfon asJJiall bring an ujjize hereupon, and have judgment is recover, J1i all have his damages trebled by the judgment of the court. 2. Cutting growing corn, robbing of orchards or gardens, breaking hedges, pulling up fruit-tree s 9 ^ srfpoiltng ivood grow rng. J By 43 Eliz. c. 7,. if any pcrfon (hall cut, or unlawfully take away any corn growing, or rob any orchards or gardens, or break or cut any hedge, pales, rails, or= tence, or dig, pull up, ; or take up, any. fruit-trees, to the intent to take the fame away, or (hall cut or fpoil any woods or underwoods, poles or trees landing (the fame not being felony by the* laws of this realm j^ every fuch perfon,. his procurers and receivers knowing the fame,, being convidled by confcfilon, or one witnefs, before one juftice of peace,, mayor, or other head* officer, where the offence (hall be committed,. or the party apprehended, fliall give fuch recom- penfe for the damages as by fuch juftice (hall be appointed for the firft fault ; and if fuch offenders fliall be though ty. in the difcretion of the juftice,, not able, or do not make fatisfaftion for. the damages, the juftice fliall commit the offenders to fome conftable or other inferior* officer, where the offence (hall be committed, or the party apprehended, to be whipped ; and for every fuch offence for which the offenders (hall be eftfoons committed, to receive the faid punifhment of whipping, f. i. And if any conftable, or mferior.officer, do not, at the command of any fuchjuftice, .execute - by himfelf, or fome other 4 the punimment limited by this ftatute, it fliall be lawful for the jut"* tice to commit him to the common goal, .until. the, offenders be. by him, or by his procurement, whipped, f. 2. But no fuch juflice (hall execute this ftatute for any offences done unto himfeif, unlefs he ba. drifted with one or. more other juftices,, whom the offence doth not concern., f. 3.. 3. Hedge-breakers and jlealers of wood, gates, pales, ,dsV.] By 15 Gar. II. c.a, the conftable m.\ a ppuhend, or caufe to be apprehended, every perfon he (hall fufpec r, having or carrying any burden of any kind of wood, underwood, poles, . or young trees,, or bark, or baflofany trees ; o>r any gates, ftiles, ppfts and pales, rails or hedgewood, .broom or furze : And by war rant of onejuftice, directed to any officer, . fuch officer (hall have ppwer to enter iato and fearch the houfes, out-houfes, yards, gardens, or other places, belonging to the h.oufes ofevery< perfon they (hall fufpedt to have any wood, underwood, poles, or young trees, or bark, or baft ef any trees 5 or any gates, ftiles, pofts, pales, rails, or hedgewood, broom or furze ; and APPENDIX. 57 they fhall find any fuch, to apprehend the perfons fufpe&cd, for cutting and taking the fame : And as well thofe apprehended carrying, as thofe in whofe houfcs and places the fame fnall be found, to carry before onejuftice. And if fuch perfon do not then and there give a good account how he came by the fame, fuch as fhall fatisfy the faid ju^ice, or elfe fhall not in fome convenient time, to be fet by the faid juftice, produce the party of whom he bought the fame ; or fome credible witnefs, todepofe upon oath fuch fale thereof, he (hall be convicted of cuttin^ and fpoilingthe fame, and punifhed according, to the above ftatute of 43 Eliz. and further by this a&, f. 2. That is to fay, he fhall for the firft offence give the owner fuch recompenfe or fau ;-;fdlion for damages, and within fuch time, as the juftice (hall appoint : and over and above pay down pre- fently to the overfeers, for the ufeof the poor, fuch fum, not exceeding los. as the juitice fhall think meet; and if he do not make fuch recompenfe, and alib pay the faid fum to the poor, the faid juftice fhall commit him to thehoufe of corretion for not exceeding one month, or to be whipped by the conftable , and if he fhall again commit the faid offence, and be thereof convicted as before, he fhall be fent to the houfe of correction far one month, to be there kept to hard labour ; and if he fhall again commit the faid offence, and be thereof con- vidted as before, he fhall be deemed an incorrigible rogue, f. 2, 3. And whofoever fhall buy any burdens of wood, or any poles or fticksof wood, or any other the things aforefaid, which may bejuftly fufpeded to have been flolen, or unlawfully come by it (hall be lawful for one juftice, upon complaint, to examine the matter upon oath : and if he f.iall find that the fame was bought of a perfon who might juftly be fufpe&ed to have ftolen, or unlawfully come by the fame, and that the fame was ftolen, or unlawfully come by, he may award the party wl>o bought the fame, to pay treble value to him from whom it was unlawfully taken ; and in default of prefent payment ; may iflue his warrant to levy the fame by diftrefs and in default of diftrefs to commit the party to goal, at his own charge, there to remain one . month, without bail, f. 4. But no perfon fhall be punifhed for any offence upon this law that hath been punifhed for the fame by any former law ; nor unlefs he be queftioned within fix weeks after the offence. f. v. 4 Deftroylng Timber-Trees, Fruit-Trees , or other Trees or Plantations. ] BY 37 Hen. VIII. c. 6, if any perfon (hall malicioufly, willingly, and unlawfully bark any apple-trees, pear-trees or other fruit-trees, he mall forfeit to the party grieved double damages, by adtion of trefpaft, at the common law, and alfo lol. to the king. But it is enafted by i Geo. I. ftat. 2. c.48, to entourage the planting of timber-trees, fruit-trees, nd other trees In fields, hedge -rows, gardens, walks, andelfewhere, either for ornament, Jhelter, or profit, and to pr event themalitiuus defraying or f polling thereof; that, if any perfon (hall mali- cioufly break down, cut up, pluck up, throw down, bark, or otherwife deftroy, deface, or fpoil any -timber-tree or trees, fruit-tree or trees, or any other tree or trees, the perfon damaged mail receive fuch fatisfaaion and recompenfe from the inhabitants of the parifh, town, hamlet, vill, or place ; to be viewed, and damages and cofts to be recovered in the fame manner as hedges and ditches overthrown in the night may by the ftat. 13 Ed. I. c. 46, unlefs the party offending (hall by fuch parifh or place be conviaed of fuch offence within fix months, f. i. H 58 APPENDIX. And at doubts had ar if en on this lift afl, whether fuch fffences ivtre piiwjlialle if committed in the -day time, thzflat. 6 Geo. I. c. 10, was faffed t. tvplain and amend the fame, and alfv to extend the pr ,vifions thereof h the dfjlroyers of hedges and uther fences : by which faid a flit is enatted as fel lows : that is to f iy, If an v perfon vvhatfoever (hall either by day or by night, cut, take, deftroy, break, throw <iown, bark, pluck up, burn, deface, fpoil, or carry away any wood fprings t or fprings of wjod /fee?, poks, wjod, topf <>f ir t es, und:rwsods, or coppice wsods, thorns, or quickfets, without the con tent of the owner of fuch woods, wood grounds, parks, chafes, or coppices, plantations, timber- tiecs, fruit-*rees, or other trees, thorns orquickfcts, or of the perfon chiefly entrufted with the care and cuftody thereof; or (hall break open, throw down, level, or deftroy any hedges, gates, poflsy ftyles, railing, iijtills, fences, dykes, ditches, banks, or other inclofures thereof; the owner may have fuch fatisfaction and rccompenfe from the inhabitants of the parifhes, towns, hamlets t villages, or places joining on fuch grounds, and recover fuch damages againft fuch place or places and in the fame manner and form, as by the above ftatute of the 13 Ed. I. c. 46*., unlefs the offender, by fuch pari flies or places, be convifted within fix months, 6 Geo. I. c. 16. f. I. But (f the offender is known, then the following proceedings fhall take place ; That is to fay, if any offender (hall, in a riotous, open, tumultuous, or in a fecret or clan- defline manner, forcibly or wrongfully or malicioufly, and without the confent of the owner, or perfon chiefly entrufted with the care of the above-mentioned premifes, commit any of the offences retrained by the faid acts of i Geo. I. flat. 2. c. 48, or 6 Geo. I. c. 16, two juftices, or the jufticesin feffions, on complaint made by the inhabitants of fuch parifh or place, or by the owner of the wood or trees, or any other, may caufe the offender to be apprehended, and hear and determine the offence, and on conviction (hall commit the offender to the houfe of cor- rrdtion to hard labour for three months ; and where there is no houfe of correction, then to the prifon for four months ;and fhall alfo order the offender to be publicly whipped by the matter of fiich houfe of correction once a month during fuch three months, in the borough or corpo ration, if the offence be committed therein ; or in the market-town where the houfe of cor- reftion ftands, or in the next market-town next adjacent to fuch houfe of correction, on the snarket-day : and in the county where fuch offence (hall be eommitted, on the market-day between the hours of eleven and two : and where there is no houfe of correction the faidjuf- tices (hall order him to be whipped by the common hangman, Once a month during fuch four months, on the market-day of any borough or corporation, where fuch offender (hall be com mitted ; or on the market day of fome town, between the hours of eleven and two o clock, I Geo. 1. flat. a.c. 48. f. 2. 6 Geo. I.e. 16, f. 2. And before fuch offender lhall be difcharged he (hall find fufficient fureties for his good be haviour for two years, i Geo. 1. flat. 2. c. 48. f. 3. 6 Geo. I. c. i6.f. 2. 5. Deflroying Trees growing on WujlesJ] Alfo by 29 Geo. II. c. 36. if any perfon fhall unlawfully cut, take, deftroy, break, throw down, bark, pluck up, burn, deface, fpoil, or carry away, any tree, growing in any wafte, wood, or pafture, in which any perfon or body poli. tic hath right of common, every fuch offender fhall be in like manner convicted of fuch off$nce> incur the like penalty as is directed by 6 Geo. I, c, 16. f. 8, APPENDIX, 59 And the parties may take their remedy for damages, either againft the parifh or place where the offence (hall be committed, according to the above acts, i Geo. I. c. 48, and 6 Geo. I.e. 16, oronthe hundred, according to the flat. 9 Geo. I. c. 12. f. 7, as to them (hall feem moft meet, f. 9. 6. DeftroyingTimber Trees in Fore/Is or Chafes J] By 6 Geo. III. c. 48. every perfon who (hall wilfully cut or break down, bark, burn, pluck up, lop, top, crop, or other wife deface, damage, fpoil,ordeftroy, or carry away, any timber-tree, or any tree likely to bee me timber, or any part thereof, or the lops or tops thereof, without the confent of the owner thereof firft had or in any of his majefty s forefts or chafes, without the confent of the furveyor, or his deputy, or perfon ^entrufted with the care of the fame, and (hall be thereof convicted upon the oath of one witn^ s, before one juftice, fhall, for the firft offence, forfeit not exceeding^. 20, together with the\harges previous to and attending fuch conviction, to be afcertained by fuch juftice ; and upon noli- payment thereof fuch juftice fhall commit the offender to the common goal, for not exceeding, twelve, nor lefs than fix months, or until the penalty and charges be paid; and if any perfon fo convicted (hall be guilty of the like offence a fecond time, and (hall be thereof convicted in like manner, fuch perfon (hall forfeit not exceeding^. 30, together with the charges attending fuch conviction ; and upon non-payment thereof, fuch juftice fhall commit the offender to the common goal for not exceeding eighteen nor lefs than twelve months, or until the penalty and charges be paid. And if any perfon fo convicted (hall be guilty of the like offence a third time, and fhall be thereof convicted, fuch perfon fhall be guilty of felony, and the court before whom he (hall be tried (hjill tranfport fuch perfon for (even years, f. i. And all oak, beech, cbefnut, walnut, afp, elm, cedar, fir, a(h, lime fycamore, birch, (pop lar, alder, larch, maple, and hornbeam trees, 13 Geo. III. c. 33.) fhall be deemed timber-tree within the meaning of this act, f. 2. 7. DeflroyingUnderwoods, Hollies or the iike.^ Alfo every perfon who fhall go into the woods, under- woods, or wood-grounds, of any of his majefty s fubjects, not being the owner thereof, (or into any of his majefty s forefts, or chafes, 9 Geo. III. c. 41. f. 8, or any of the woods or wood grounds belonging to his majefty in Great Britain, as well in right of his duchy of Lan* cafter, as otherwife, and whether fuch woods or wood grounds (hall be within any of his ma- jeftys forefts or chafes or not, 45 Geo. 3, c. 6, and (hall there cut, lop, top, or fpoil, fplit down, or damage, or otherwife deftroy, any kind of wood or under- wood, poles, fticks of wood, green ftubs, or young trees, or carry or convey the fame away, (or Jhall by night or day cut down, dejlroy, take, carry, or convey away., any hollies, thorns, or quickfets, there growing or being, 9 Geo. III. c. 41. f. 8.) or (hall have in his cuftody any kind of wood, under- wood, poles, fticks of wood, green ftubs or young trees, (or any fuch hollies, thorns or quickfets, 9 Geo. III. c. 41. f. 8.) and (hall not give a fatisfactory account how he came r-y the fame, and fhall be thereof convicted before one juftice, on the oath of one witnefs, dial I for the firft offence forfeit not exceeding 408. together with the charges attending fuch convi&ion ; and if the fame be not forthwith paid on conviftion, the juftice fhall by warrant commit ,him to the houfe of corre&ion for one month, to hard labour, and to be once whip-. Hz 60 APPENDIX. ped there ; and ifanyperfon fliall commit any of the offences aforefaid a fecond time, he (hall forfeit not exceeding /. 5, together with the charges attending fuch conviction; and if the fame be not forthwith paid on conviction, the juflice fhall by warrant commit him to the houfe of correction for three months, and to be whipped there, once in every one of the faid three months; and if a third time, fuch perfon con victed thereof fhall be deemed an incorrigi ble rogue, and punifhed as fuch, f. 4. 6. And the juftices for the counties, cities, ridings, divilions, or places wherein any offences againft this act fhall be done, are to put this act in execution, f. 5. And one moiety of all forfeitures, not otherwife directed, (hall go to the informer, and the other to the perfon aggrieved, f. 8. And if any perfon fliall hinder, or attempt to prevent, the feizing or fecuring any perfon em- ployed in carrying away any fuch timber, or other trees, fuch perfon (hall fwrfeit^. ro to the perfon who fhall convict fuch offender ; and if not paid on conviction, the perfon convicted fhall be committed to the houfe of correction to hard labour, for not exceeding fix calendar months, f. 7. And f,,r the better preventing the deftruttion of timber- trees, and other trees, under-wood and covert inforejls and chafes, it is enacted by 4 Geo. III. c. 31, that it (hall be lawfulfor every furveyor of his majefty s woods, and his lawful deputy, and for the officers and keepers of any foreft or chafe (befides the penalties for deflroying the trees or under-woodj, to feize and take away for his own ufe, any faw, axe, hatchet, bill-hook, or other inftrument ufed by any perfon whom they (hall find unlawfully plucking up, fawing, cutting down, topping, lopping or deftroying any timber-tree or other tree, underwood, or covert, within fuch foreft or chafe. 8. Deflroying Plantations, Nurferies, or Gardens. ] Alfo by the faid flat. 6 Geo. III. c. 48, every perfon who (hall pluck up, or cut, fpoil, or deftroy, or take away, any root, fhrub, or plant, out of the fields, nurferies, gardens, or garden-grounds, or other cultivated lands, of any perfon whomfoever, without the confent of the owner firft had, and (hall be thereof con- victed upon the oath of one witnefs, before one juftice, fhall for the firft offence forfeit not exceeding 405. together with the charges previous to and attending fuch conviction, to be af- certained by fuch juftice ; and if the fame are not paid down upon conviction, forthwith, the faid juftice fhall by warrant commit him to the houfe of correction for one month to hard labour, and to be once whipped there ; and if any perfon fo convicted fliall again commit the like offence, and be convicted in manner aforefaid, fuch perfon (hall for fuch fecond offence forfeit not exceeding . 5, together with the charges attending the conviction; which if not paid down upon conviction, forthwith, the faid juftice fhall by warrant commit him to the houfe of correction for three months, and to be whipped there once in every of the faid three months. And if any perfon fo. before convicted (hall a third time commit the like offence, and (hall be thereof convicted, fuch perfon (hall for fuch third offence be deemed guilty of felony 5 and the court before whom he (hall be tried (hall tranfport fuch perfon for feven years, f. 3. 6. * 9. Stealing Turnips, Potatoes, Cabbages, Parfnips, Peafe, or Carrots growing. Alfo by 13 Geo. III. c. 32. and 42 Geo. III. c. 67, if any perfon fhall fteal and take away, gr malio4- APPENDIX. 61 oufly pull up, injury orcreftroy, any turnips, potatos, cabbages, parfnips, beans, peaft or carrots, growing or being in any garden, lands, or grounds, open or inclofed, and (hall be there of convicted, on a profecution begun within thirty days after the offence, before any juftice, either by the confeflion of the party offending, or by the oatlj of one witnefs, every perfon fo offending, and being convicted, (hall forfeit not exceeding 2os. over the value of the goods ftolen, as to fuch juftice (hall feem meet ; which {hall be diftributed between the owner of the goods, and theoverfeers, for the ufe of the poor, in fuch proportion as fuch juftice (hall think fit; or the whole fhall be given to the owner or to the overfeers, according to the difcre- tion of fuch juftice ; and in default of payment fuch juftice fhall commit fuch offender to the houfe of correction, to be kept to hard labour for not exceeding two months, unlefs fuch penalty be fooner paid, f. i. And in all informations, and other proceedings, the evidence of the owner and of the in habitants of the parifh fhall be taken, 13 Geo. III. c. 32, f. 2. But where the conviction fhall be upon the oath of the owner, the whole of the penalty fhall be paid to the overfeerfor the ufe of the poor, f. 3. lo. De/lroying Timber or other Trees, or any Roofs, Plants, or Shrubs in the Night,"] By 22 & 23 Car. II. c. 7, if any perfon (hall, in the night-time, malicioufly, unlawfully, and wit tingly deftroy any plantations of trees, or throw down any inclofures, he fhall forfeit to the party injured treble damages, to be recovered by action of trefpafs, or upon the cafe ; but upon requeft of the party injured, threejuflices of the peace may within fix months inquire thereof, as well by a jury as by examination of witneffes upon oath, orbv any lawful ways which to them fhall feem meet, f. 5, 6, 7. And it is enacted by 6 Geo. III. c. 36, that every perfon who fhall in the night-time lop, top, cut down, break, throw down, bark, burn, or otherwife fpoil or deftroy, or carry away any oak, beech, afh, elm, fir, chefnut or afp, timber-tree, or other tree {landing for timber, or likely to becometimber, without the confent of the owner thereof ; or fhall in the night-time pluck up, dig up, break, fpoil, or deftroy, or carry away any root, JJirub, or plant, roots, Jhrubs, or plants cftht value of $s. and which fhall be growing and being in thegarden-ground, nurfery-ground, or other inclofed ground of any perfon ; or fhall be aiding or affifting therein, or fhall buy or re ceive fuch root,jhrub, or plant, roots, Jhrubs or plants of thg value aforefaid, knowing the fame to be ftolen, fhall be guilty of felony and tranfported for feven years. [Damage Feafant.] Where an injury has been done by the cattle or goods of any one to the lands of another, he who receives the injury may either diflrain them while doing the damage, or bring his action of trefpafs, and recover for the damage fuftained ; but he fhould make his election of his remedy ; for if he diftrains, and the diftrefs efcapes, the action of trefpafs is gone, unlefs the efcape was not through his fault or neglect ; and it is to be obferved that this action may be brought againft him who has only the care, cuftody, or poffeffion of the cattle which do the damage. If the tenant s goods are diftrained for tolls or cuftoms pretended to be due, he may bring hit action for the taking, in which the right to the tolls will be tried. $2 APPENDIX. [Hunting. ] In refpecl to injuries from hunting or the purfuit of game, the following points are neceflhry to be noticed in this place : Any perlon may juftify g"ing upon the lands of another in purfuit of ravenous beafts, as foxes, badgers and the like : for the taking of them is of public benefit; but he cannot juftify to break the ground, or dig for them. So it will not jullify any exceffive or unreafonable damage to the land ; for the juftification is only as to the following, and fhould be done with as little damage as poffible ; and therefore if to trcfpafs for fuch caufe, the defendant juilifies for following a fox or fuch beaft, and in fact has committed unneceflary mifchier, the plaintiff muft, in his pleading, newly allege and prove excefilveand unneceflary injury. But in general it is trefpafs at common law for any man to hunt on another s ground ; and the owner or tenant of the foil may maintain his action of trefpafs for the fame. Yet if the party is qualified according to the ftatutes to kill game, and the damage found be under 40$. unlefs the title to the land was chiefly in queflion, the defendant fhall, in fuch cafe,. pay no more cofts than damages. But for preventing -wilful and malicious trefpaffes, the flat. 8 & 9 Will. III. c. n. f. 4,enals, that in all a6lions of trefpafs wherein, at the trial of the caufe, it fhall appear and be certified by the judge under his hand on the back of the record that the trefpafs upon which any defendant jhall he found guilty iv as wilful -and malicious, the plantifF (hall recover not only his damages, but his full coftsof fuit. Under this fbtute, therefore, if the owner or tenant of the land exprefsly forewarns another not to come thereon, he will in an action of trefpafs, fubfequent thereto, be entitled to full cofts, notwithiranding the damages recovered be under 4os. ; for every trefpafs is wilful where the defendant has notice, and is efpecially forewarned not to come on the land. And if a general notice be given, not to trefpafs on certain land^s, and another hun s over a clofe belonging to the party giving fuch notice, the judge on the trial of an aftion for fuch tref pafs is bound under the above ftat. 8 & 9 Will. III. c. I r. f. 4, to certify that it was wilful and malicious, in order to entitle the plaintiff to his full cofts ; notwithftanding it appear on the trial that the defendant was anxious to avoid trefpafiing on the ground, and that he made fre quent inquiries reflecting the plaintiff s boundaries. [Gleaning.] The idea which prevails among the lower daffes of the community, that they kave a right at common law TO GLEAN or LEASE in the harveft- fields, is ill founded ; for unlefs there be an immemorial cuftom or ufage in the parifli to the contrary, no fuch right can be claimed by any perfon whatfoever ; and if any one, under fuch pretended right, enters upon the land of another, the owner or tenant may bring an action of treipafs ; and even where by im memorial cuftom or ufage fuch privilege is vefted in the poor and indigent parifliioners, they P m only exercife the right by gleaning and gather ing the ears of corn after the crop is drawn oj\ END. Tinted fey W. Flint, Old INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. See also the copious Table of Contents prefixed to each Volume. A PAGE. II. I. ^^. Grass Arabic Lands, Cultivation of Barns Beans - Bees Bee Stands Boilers for Vegetables - Buck- wheat - - Buildings, Farm - Cabbages Calves, suckling of - rearing of - - weaning of - Calf Pens Carrots Carts - Chalky Soils Chaff-cutters * Cheese Dairies Chicory - Clayey Soils - Cottages - - - Clover Jf Coal and Wood-houses Cole or Rape - - } Conveniences for preparing Cattle* ood I. Corn Chests - Stands Cow-houses and Feeding-houses Cow-keeping " Crops, mcthc ~* Harvesting - method m tiidcking manner of Thrashing them out * I. 1. II. I. ... rotation of Cultivation of Arable Lands Dairies - Dairies for cheese Dairying Ditches Drags Draining boggy Lands . Hilly Lands Mixed Soils Retentive Soils Mines, Quarries, and Pits Drill- Machines Drinking-Ponds Ducks Earth, vegetable, &c. Embankments Fallowing Farm-houses " Farm-houses and Offices, Situation for Farm-building VOL. ii. II. I. I. 90 189 94 101 102 78 484 279 288 294 610 470 84 86 508 186 36 374 390 394 397 416 21 430 754 274 236 453 68 104 66 Farm Servant s Rooms Feeding. houses and Cow-houses Fences - Fish ponds Flax - Wl Folding Sheep r Food for cattle, conveniences for prepar ing . - Gates Geese - - i Granaries Grasses, Natural Artificial Grass Lands Gravelly Soils Grazing Green Crops, ploughing in Harrows Harrowing Hay-making Hemp Hoes Hoeing Hog-sties Hogs, diseases of Horses - Hops House-Lamb, suckling Houses, Farm Houses for Straw for Roots for Poultry for Coal and Wood for Tools for Pigeons PAGE.- I. 92 . 78 148 II. 764 222 I. 535 epar- 94- 187 II. 755 I. 72 II. 317 353 408 I. 270 II. 546 I. 534 37 514 II. 452 215 I. 28 603 89 II. 744 707 . 223 578 I. 68 88 ibid. ibid. . 90 91 _ 93 Implements employed in the Practice of Husbandry Inclosing Liquorice Live Hedges Live Stock Loamy Soils Lucerne Madder ... Mangel wurzel Manures From the Decomposition of mal substances . From the Decomposition of Ve getable Substances 294 From the Agency and Decompo sition of Fossil Substances II. I. ir. i. ii. i. Ani- 262 373 266 209 280 281 301 From the Agency and Decomposi tion of Saline Substances 323 INDEX. PAGE. PA OF. Manure from the Combination of different Sheep Folding I. 535 Substances I. 336 Shearing II. 698 . . means of augmenting and pre Soils I. 550 serving - 341 Vegetable 274- Soiling and Stall-feeding II. 562 Manuring Grass Lands II. 420 Sowing - I. 545 Tillage Lands I *18 Broadcast 564 Methods of draining Boggy Lands I. 374 with the Drill 566 of draining Hilly Lands - 390 Pirlrir - 11. 52 of draining Mixed Soils - 394 Oats . 61 of draining Retentive Soils - 397 Rye 42 of draining Mines, Quarries, and Wheat 6 & 16 Pits - 416 Stables I. 74 Mossy or peaty Soils - 271 Stacking Crops 11. 288 Mowing - II. 450 Stacks, Method of Thatching 292 Heat Cattle 652 Steam apparatus I. 94- Obstructions to Ploughing, removal of I. 470 Sties 89 Paling Fences - - 158 Stiles 197 Paring and Burning - 425 Straw-houses 88 Parsnips - - - II. 205 Suckling of Calves II. 496 V o C f HTCk I lOTl fll! Af\7 ftlTQ J. ilM.UIC J-JilllUS TzU/ Peas - 64 Swine 3 1 O 731 Peaty or Mossy Soils - I. 271 Diseases of 744- Pens, Calf - ^ 83 Swing Ploughs I. 6 Pigeon-houses - .93 Tares - - II. 385 Pigeons - - II. 757 Teasels 270 Pigs, diseases of - - 744 Thatching Stacks 292 Planting -v - 584 Thrashing Machines - L 45 Ploughs - - I. 5 Thrashing out Crops II. 294 Sivinc - 6 Timber Trees - 601 Wheel - 7 Tool-houses I. 91 Ploughing - - , 508 Trefoil . II. 367 in Green Crops - 534 Turnips ._ 124 ; Potatoes II. 86 Turnip Cabbage 182 Poultry - - 748 Turnip-rooted Cabbage 185 Poultry-houses - I. S8 Vegetable Earth or Soil - I. 274 Rabbits - - II. 744 Vetches - 11. 393 Rearing of Calves - 502 Walls, I. 151; Rakes - I. 52 Warping - I. 537, and II. 450 Rape or Cole - - II. 189 Water necessary to the Growth of Plants Removal of Obstructions to ploughing I. 470 I. 363 Ridges - 496 different Roads - 199 Cases 367 repairing 222 Fowl _ . II. 754 Root- houses - 88 Watered Meadows 429 Rollers - - I. 41 Weaning ofCalves 504 Rolling - - 516 Weld i6l Rotation of Crops - 619 Wheel Ploughs I. 7 Saintfoin - II. 368 Carriages- 45 Sandy Soils I. 268 Winnowing Machines 50 Scarifiers and Scufllers - 31 Woad II. 253 Servants Rooms - 92 Wood-houses I. 90 Sheds - 88 Woods 11. 619 Sheep - II. 669 Work-shops I. 91 s /ow? 5 J 1801 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY