UC-NRLF bDD EXCHANGE THE RE-ORGANISATION OF RURAL EDUCATION IN THE CAPE PROVINCE OF THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA BY JOHANNES Rossouw MALAN SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. Copyright. Published by TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY. 1922. PREFACE. The importance of maintaining an intelligent, cultured, healthy, and successful people on the farms can hardly be over-emphasised. The welfare of the state depends largely upon the welfare of the farmer. Moreover: " Ultimately the food supply will govern with an iron hand the extent of the world's population. .... The whole industrial and social order under modern conditions is rooted in an adequate food supply. The men who till the soil then are responsible for large human destinies. They bear the world on their shoulders." 1.. This is the day of the new farmer. The modern farmer has to be a practical scientist and a skilled manager, business man, mechanic and labourer, all in one. In addition -he must remain a perpetual student if he wants to keep up-to-date. From this it is evident that the successful farmer must be a well educated man. Economically and socially rural people are at a dis- advantage. The country has not shared largely in the advances made by towns and cities. Rural communities are lagging behind in the march of progress. To correct this backwardness is one task of the rural school system. Education is probably the best agency we have for social progress. Of course the rural school system alone cannot hope to solve the many economic and social problems of the country, but it may be called upon to contribute a considerable share in the solution of many of them. "Rural welfare is not only one of the most important of our social problems, from a national point of view, but it also presents some of the most difficult problems of edu- cation. This study has been undertaken with a hope of 1. Butterfield K.L. The Country Church and the Rural Problem. P. 2. 532130 (ii) offering possible solutions to some of these educational problems. The purpose has been to trace the development of rural education in the Cape Province, to show the present status of rural education, to reveal its needs and problems, and then after pointing out what is being done in other Countries, to make recommendations for improvement. Rural education is defined as the education of the rural population as carried on more especially in the open country outside of cities, towns, and incorporated villages. With so large a theme the scope of the study has ob- viously had to be limited. . Many topics have been touched but briefly. The intent has been to consider more fully those phases indicating definite lines along which rural education may be improved in the Cape Province. The education of the coloured people and of the natives living in the rural areas, as well as descrip- tions of the social and economic status of the rural population have been omitted altogether. For these the reader is referred respectively to " The Education of the South African Native " by C. T. Loram, and to "Education in South Africa" by M. Boehmke. The fact that this study has had to be addressed to both an American University Faculty and to educational readers and leaders in South Africa accounts for the insertion of many details arid explanations otherwise unnecessary. Probably no method of studying questions of organisa- tion and administration is so valuable as the comparative, and probably to no other country can the South African student of rural education turn with better profit than to the United States. The writer gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Hie Union Department of Education for being awarded a Union of South Africa Government Overseas Scholar- ship; to Dr. W. J. Viljoen, Superintendent-General of Education of the Cape Province, who first suggested and considerably aided this study; to Dr. G. G. Cillie, (iii) Principal of the Training College, Stellenbosch, for pro- fessional stimulation ; to Mr. D. D. Malan and Miss Louisa Malan for valuable assistance in connection with the questionnaires; and to every rural teacher and all others wh,o have so kindly contributed many of the much-needed details embodied herein. The writer owes much to the many members of the faculty of Teachers College, Columbia University; but his special thanks are due to Dr. Fannie W. Dunn, Dr.' E. S. Evenden and Dr. I. L. Kandel for constructive criticisms and helpful guidance. He is most of all under great obligation to Professor Mabel Carney, in whose department and under whose careful supervision this study was made. Her hearty enthusiasm for the cause of rural education has been a great inspiration. J. B. M. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. PAGE Rural Educational Needs . . . . . . . . . . 1 Administration . . * 5 Inspection and Supervision Compulsory Education . . . . . . . . . . 9 The Schools 11 The Teachers 12 'Courses of Study 16 Problems . . 20 II. THE PRESENT SCHOOL SYSTEM. A. Administrative Organisation . . . . . . . . 20 1. Central Educational Authority 22 2. Local Management by School Boards and Committees 23 B. Classification of Schools 25 1. Farm Schools 27 2. Primary Schools 27 3. Secondary Schools 28 4. High Schools 28 5. Training Schools and Training Colleges . . . . 29 6. Part-time Schools '29 7. Trade Schools, Industrial Schools and Industrial Departments . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 8. Special Schools 30 C. Support of the System 30 D. Inspection and iS.upervision . . . . . . . . . . 32 E. School Grounds, Buildings and Equipment . . . . 33 F. The Teaching Force . . 34 1. The Training of Teachers 34 2. Certification of Teachers . . 35 3. Appointment, Tenure, Classification, Salary, and Pension . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . 38 4. Training of Teachers in Service . . . . . . 45 G. School Attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 H. Medium of Instruction and Instruction in the Official Language 47 Summary . . . . 48 (vi) III. THE PRESENT STATUS, OF RURAL EDUCATION. PAGE A. Data in connection with the Rural School . . . . 49 1. The Children 52 2. The Teachers 56 3. Boarding Place 64 4. Course of Study 67 5. The School 71 6. Inspection 73 7. The Community 81 8. In Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Summary 87 B. The Work of Other Agencies 89 IV. COMPARATIVE STUDIES OR RURAL EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 1. Administration 92 2. Inspection and Supervision . . . . . . . . 93 3. Rural School Teachers 97 4. Rural-Teacher Preparation . . . . . . . . 99 5. Courses of Study . . . . 103 6. Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 112 7. The One-Teacher School 116 8. Consolidation and Transportation 118 !.). Continuation Schools, Part-time Education and Ex- tension Teaching ; 122 V. RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTED RECON- STRUCTION. 1. Administration . . . . 125 2. Inspection and Supervision . . . . . . . . 125 3. Rural School Teachers 129 4. Rural Teacher Preparation . . . . . . . . 130 5. Courses of Study 132 6. Methods of Teaching and Testing 143 7. Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 146 S^The One-Teacher School 148 9. Consolidation and Transportation . . . . . . 150 10. Rural High Schools 152 11. Continuation Schools, Part-time Education and Ex- tension Teaching . . . . . . . . . , . . 154 12. The Rural Community 155 Summary of Recommendations . . . . . . . . 1 59 BIBLIOGRAPHY 162 I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. Rural Educational Needs. While the progress of rural education was intimately bound up with that of education in general the unusual handicaps of the rural school situation demanded special attention. All the early investigators reported the neglect of education in the rural areas. In 1743 Van Imhoff, Governor-General of India, who called at the Cape and made a journey up- country, pointed out the unsatisfactory state of educa- tion he had found. A regimental chaplain was much struck with the condition of affairs, and addressed a long memoir to the Governor and Council in 1788 on the subject. Commissioner-General de Mist in 1803 soon noted the general neglect of education, and after he had travelled through all the districts he became convinced of the urgent need for the creation of a regular school system. The result was his famous school ordinance.* 1 In the course of his first circuit, in 1811, the Chief Justice reported on the sad state of education in the country districts. In 1839 Dr. Innes made a tour of insi>ection 1h rough the several districts and found a most deplorable state of affairs. In 1879 the Government in accordance with a resolu- tion of Parliament, appointed a Commission to inquire into the state of education in the Colony, a matter upon which a good deal of dissatisfaction was known to exist. The Commission < of which the Chief Justice, Sir J. H. de Villiers, was Chairman) was specially directed to investi- gate the educational condition of the rural or farming population. They reported in 1880 that great advance had been made in < dueation since 1865 but that education was still very backward especially in remote rural districts. a Promulgated by Governor Janssens in " De Kaapsche Courant " between Oth March and 18th May, 1805. Report of the Education Commission 1863. Appendix. Donald Koss, Inspector-General of Colleges and Schools, found in 1883 that the greatest educational deficiency was among the scattered farming population and the poorer while population in towns and country. Both classes he maintained had a strong claim upon the Government. The formers were showing an increased interest in education and " in endeavouring to meet this growing interest wisely, the peculiar difficulties of the problem should be kept well to the front; such as the enormous extent of the (pastoral districts, the great size of the upland farms, the thinly scattered popula- tion, the defective ideal of elementary education presented for generations to the rural districts, and the mixture of intense conservatism and pronounced republicanism which the farming population have inherited. The farmers are the backbone of this country; they are the owners of its soil, with them lies its development and its fertility, and the wealth and prosperity of the country will therefore depend upon the general intelligence of the farming community. Over and above that the country, with all its resources requires consummate skill in the develop- ment of its wealth. On that ground alone I would advocate for the farmers as thorough a course of training as can be had in the towns, and the system which treats the farmers to third class schools, which do not and cannot generally impart sound instruction, is in the highest .degree objectionable. Third class schools with their inferior teachers and low standards virtually shut out the most important section of the community from the blessings of real culture. It is most difficult to think out a scheme that would replace these without increased expenditure. For under any scheme the farmers, in virtue of their residence, are at a disadvantage, and there shall always be the danger that they may get an inferior article at a higher price than their fortunate brethren who live in towns. Any scheme that commends itself to the good sense of the country must therefore be efficient, cheap, simple, and practical ; and to decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of the instruction, the schools should be brought to the children rather than that the children should be brought to the school, in other words, home, though ever so homely, is preferable to a distant boarding school. The family and the school can never be too intimately associated ; school life, if healthy, only continues the healthy influences of family discipline, and the best factor in the social life of any country is the influence of the family organisation. However good and however necessary boarding departments may be, it never should be forgotten that they interfere with the highest of all responsibilities and the noblest of all duties." Mr. Ross therefore recommended: (1) a system of itinerant teaching, and (2), as an alternative in some districts, improved district boarding schools in well selected, well watered centres, with ample garden ground attached and ample facilities for rural training. These centra] schools should as the first condition give a sound primary education. (3) "A limited number of farmers would always prefer to en- gage their own tutors or governesses, or to send their children to town. But, notwithstanding that wherever 15 or more children could be got together a good school should be started and main- tained. Very few of the third class schools are at present able to give that education to which the farming community are entitled and I would respectfully suggest that these rural schools should be raised all round r which could be done without much additional expense. Instead, therefore, of taking the third-class schools as the unit of the system, I would aim at abolishing third-class schools under incompetent or uncertificated teachers altogether, and converting all into good primary schools, and looking upon these as the basis and the main strength of the whole system. In looking at the country as a whole, however, with equal claims and equal rights, I would propose no sudden change, no rash innovation, no interference with any good work or with any institution that can make its claim good to recognition and permanence." b In defending himself against the criticisms raised by Mr. Ross and the press Dr. Dale pointed out that grants of 50 per annum to six itinerant teachers among the scattered farm-steads had been discontinued, because few qualified persons could be induced to undertake the duties of this vagabond life, and no check could be kept over the movements of the itinerant in the remote parts of Namaqualand, Clanwilliam. and Calvinia. Such a man naturally spent his time not where he was most wanted, but where his quarters were most comfortable. b Ross D. Preliminary Report on the State of Education in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 1883. p. 22, 23. c Great Britain Education Department. Special Reports. Vol. 5. London 1901 p. 65. Dr. Dale further reported that : " The duties of the Superin- tendent-General of Education have never been narrowed to the supervision of government schools. Private teachers have freely used the service of myself and officers for advice and help in procuring assistants, in arranging their courses of study, and selecting text-books and suitable school furniture and appliances. Clergy, farmers and others continually resort to this office for tutors and governesses, and in this way I consider the department has indirectly done much to the advancement of education among the agricultural and pastoral population." d The Education Commission of 1891 reported that only a little more than one-third of the European children of school age in the Colony were in attendance at school. " The Commissioners found that much remained to be done before it could be said that the children of the agricultural population frequent the schools in sufficient numbers. They thought that the establishment of School Boards having a lien iipon local rates will have considerable influence in promoting school attendance in the rural districts. They urged that a capitation grant should be paid even for one child (instead of for a minimum of five) regularly taught by a qualified teacher on a lonely farm. They urged certain increases in salary in order to induce a better class of teachers to take up work in connection with district boarding schools among the agricultural population. They further recommended (1) augmentation of grants in aid of salaries of teachers of schools started by a School Board in rural areas, where the permanent needs of a poorer class of inhabitants have to be provided for; (2) the supply of movable structures for school purposes and for teachers' houses; (3) grants to village technical schools undertaken by School Boards, either as adjuncts to day schools or as separate institutions; and (4) free railway tickets for children of poorer families in rural areas attending day schools at a distance from their homes." e The Boer War, 1899-1902, greatly affected the rural schools. " In 1906 the ominous term ' Poor White ' seems to appear for the first time as the subject of definite enquiry by a Select Com- mittee of the House of Assembly, and ever since the question has commanded some considerable, if not always well informed or statesmanlike attention." f 11 Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 68. e lbid p. 84. f Macmilian W.M. The South African Agrarian Problem and its Historical Development, p. S. The characteristic " Poor White " trouble is largely of rural origin. As reasons for this have been assigned the Boer War, the droughts, the rinderpest, the increase in the number of the landless (bijwoners), the educa- tional neglect, and the economic struggle in competition with better educated immigrants, and the cheaper coloured labourers. 8 During the Parliamentary session of 1908 a grant of 4,500 was voted for the promotion of education in specially necessitous districts. It was estimated in 19.17 that there were in the rural areas- of the Cape Province about 10.000 children without schooling. 11 The Indigent Children Ordinance was passed in 1917 to make provision for the education of those for whom even the Private Farm School was not available. There were in 1921 about 140 indigent boarding houses accommodating about 5,500 boarders. 1 The census of the European or white races of the Union of South Africa in 1918 has shown the rural illiteracy to be greater than the urban. About 3 per cent, of the rural population above 7 years of age were reported to be neither able to read or write as against 2 per cent, of the urban population. The rural illiteracy in the Van Rhynsdorp district was more than 6 per cent. 3 Administration. In 1714 by the school ordinance of Governor de Chavonnes a Commission consisting of three scholarchs, namely, the secunde (next in authority to tiie Governor), the minister in Cape Town, and the military captain, was appointed under the authority of the Governor and Council. They had to visit the schools and to inspect them. The de Mist Ordinance of 1805 made provision for a Commission of seven Scholarchs to consist of (1) a g Malan D. F. De Achteruitgang van ons Yolk. Nationale Pers Kaapstad. 1917. h Malan D, F, Op. cit. p. 11. 1 Letter from the Department of Education, 4th August, 1921. J Census of the European or White Races of the Union of S.A. 1918. Part III. Education. 6 member of the Council of Policy, (2) the president of the Orphan Chamber, (3) two ministers of the Dutch Reformed Church and one of the Lutheran Church, (4) a member of the Town Council and, finally, a treasurer nominated by the Governor. There was further the important provision that the landdrosts (magistrates) and ministers of the country district should be honorary members of the Commission, in order that the wants of places outside Cape Town should not be forgotten. In 1812 the Governor, Sir John Cradock, slightly altered the School Commission from that of de Mist by the addition of the Lieutenant Governor and the English Colonial Chaplain. k In 1813 the School Commission was merged in the Bible and School Commission. The Governor was made patron, and the Colonial Secretary, the military chap- lain and the minister of Simonstown w r ere to be ordinary members. 1 The appointments on the Commission were soon after- wards made arbitrarily. The Commission seemed to have considered itself from 1812 not as called upon to carry out the law, but to administer certain funds and to have the supervision of education in the Colony. In 1837 Colonel Bell, the Secretary of the Government, in a memorandum on the state of education pointed out very plainly the impotence of the Bible and School Com- mission, " whose superintendence is next to nothing, for they cannot visit and examine the schools, and they are unable even to supply vacant schools with teachers." He suggested " the appointment of a sound, clear-headed man, either not belonging to the ministry, or so untinc- tured with prejudices in favour of this or that form of the Christian Protestant faith as to constitute him an impartial Director-General of Public Schools in this Colony." m This memorandum was submitted for comment in 1838 to the eminent astronomer, Sir John Herschel, then k Great Britain Education Department, Op. cit. p. 13. 1 Ibid p. 13. m Ibid p. 20. .residing at the Cape. He suggested that a well organised and well supervised system of schools should be instituted and maintained., and that a single supreme authority should be appointed, who was to receive monthly reports of the attendance, progress and conduct of each individual pupil. This head was to be in direct communication with the Government. These recommendations were transmitted to Lord Glenelg, the Secretary for the Colonies. On the receipt of the approval of the English Government Dr. James Rose Innes, was appointed the first Superintendent-General of Education of the Cape Colony in 1839. The Superintendent-General of Education was to visit every school at least once a year, to examine the ordinary routine of daily instruction, the arrangement of subjects, classification of pupils, etc., and to institute a strict inquiry into the state and progress of the schools gener- ally. He was to receive monthly returns from each school. From the quarterly returns of examinations, which were held in the presence of the local school com- missions, he was to issue certificates to the candidates who had in his estimation successfully completed their course of study. He was to be a guide and adviser to his teachers and furnish the Government with full reports of the state of each school and the efficiency of the system. 11 The Bible and School Commission was formally relieved of its superintendence of government schools in 1841. The duties of local school commissions were confined at this time to inspecting the schools at such times as they saw fit, and reporting to the Government any matter that might be necessary. The Act of 1865 made provision for the local manage- "ment of schools. Local school rules and regulations were to be framed and fees fixed by the managers and approved bv the Government. n Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 24. 8 41 It the people of a neighbourhood were sufficiently alive to the advantages of education for their children, and if a few' leaders were prepared to come forward and bear the initiatory trouble and expense of starting a school, government aid might fairly be reckoned on, but if these favourable conditions were wanting, the act provided no substitutes to take their place." The Education Commission of 1891 summarised the dis- abilities and consequent weakness of the existing Boards of Management, The Commissioners recommended the partial introduction of School Boards, their establish- ment being limited to areas where school attendance shpuld be made compulsory. The Act of 1905 instituted School Boards, either divisional or municipal, throughout the Colony. By the end of 1908 the control of all State-aided Public Schools had been duly transferred to the School Boards of their respective areas. In May 1910 the Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Natal, and Transvaal united to form the Union of South Africa. By the Act of Union elementary and secondary education were placed under the Provincial Governments. The outstanding event during the last years has been the way the Administrator, Sir Frederic de Waal, and the Provincial Council assumed control of education as evidenced by the large number of Ordinances on Education. The present administrative organisation is fully treated in the next chapter. Inspection and Supervision. In the earliest days the dominie or the local school commissions generally exam- ined the pupils and the school. Subsequently the Scholarchs and later the Bible and School Commission were entrusted with the supervision of the schools. The first Superintendent-General of Education was expected to inspect every school at least once a year. T>r. Innes was able to do that only for 3 or 4 years. Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 42, The Act of 1865 authorised the appointment of Deputies of the Superintendent-General whose duties would be confined entirely to inspection. In 1872 the two first Deputy-Inspectors were appointed. In 1882 there was also appointed an Inspector-General of Colleges and Schools. Dr. Muir drew up a scheme of Inspection Circuits for the Colony, and issued to the inspectors a circular letter of instructions which considerably increased their respon- sibilities and extended their duties. In 1906 a High School Inspector was appointed. From time to time the number of inspectors was added to totalling 40 in 1919. In 1920 Dr. Viljoen changed the method of inspection of schools. Individual inspection, except in small schools or where several classes are grouped under one teacher, has been replaced by class inspection. The effect of this change is that the classification of the pupils will be in the hands of the principal teacher, while, relieved of this duty, the inspector will have more time to look into methods of instruction, questions of staffing and organisa- tion, and other matters of detail affecting the welfare of the school. Compulsory Education. The School Board Act of 1905 had made provision for compulsory education up to the Fourth Standard for all European children between the ages of 7 and 14 ; except those who lived beyond the 3-mile radius from a school. If the parent of a child living beyond the 3-mile was not in a financial position to pay the cost of transportation or boarding the Depart- ment was willing to contribute thereto. In the 1912 Annual Report of the Superintendent- General the different inspectors reported on the efficiency of compulsory education and especially on the trans- portation of children living beyond the three mile radius of a school. Only 6 of the 31 inspectors could report any progress as regards the transportation of children, the others reported either that nothing or very little had been done. Transport by donkeys or donkey carts was the 30 most prevalent. Many difficulties were enumerated. Some inspectors were in favour of centralisation and transportation others considered the giving of boarding grants the solution to the problem. Inspector Satchel remarked : " At present all attempts to introduce transport by donkey-carts ; which is certainly the cheapest system, are frustrated by objec- tions about the inability of children to handle the animals truly a wonderful statement about South African children - lack of camps, the amount demanded per annum for such services, and so forth, while in more than one case the Govern- ment was requested to provide forage for the animals. Such illustrations make it clear that no real progress can be made till the Boards possess much wider powers in regard to compul- sory school attendance and transport; probably also regular tariffs are needed based on the distance, the number of pupils to be conveyed, and the nature and position of the area concerned. The present system of Indigent Boarder Grants merely touches the fringe of the whole question, and does not work satisfactorily, for if all children of school age living beyond the 3-mile limit, of the .same poor class as that from which the present boarders are selected, had the same grants, the system would be ruinous in its cost." p In the Education Ordinance of 1913 provision was made whereby the existing 3-inile radius of compulsion may be extended and the age and standard of exemption from school attendance may be raised. q In 1917 the leaving age of pupils was raised to 15 years, and the standard of compulsion to Standard V. In 1919 the compulsory attendance age period was extended to seven-to-sixteen, and the standard of exemption was raised to Standard VI. From 1905 there had been compulsion without free education. Only in 1920 was primary school education made free. The Consolidated Education Ordinance of 1921 finally saw the removal of the 3-mile radius of exemption. p Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ending 30th September, 1912. p. 20. q Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ending 30th September, 1913. p. 9. 11 The Schools. There have been two lines along which a solution to the problem of educating the rural child has been sought. Either the school has to be brought to the child or the child to the school. The itinerant school- master and his successors the tutor and governess brought the school to the farm home. In 1812 there wer$ estab- lished the so-called "koster scholen " (church clerk schools). The teachers of these schools were to be the resident church clerks, if competent, and they were to receive a salary from the Government, a grant of a piece of land, and half of the school fees/ In 1816 the Commission reported 'that the Church Clerk Schools were being but poorly attended and that little advantage had been derived from them, the inhabitants of the country districts seeming to prefer private teachers "whom every colonist procures as he can"; that it had been unable to carry out its project for establishing free schools in the country districts. 8 In 1822 established (English) schools were opened at 6 centres in the country. They were to give elementary instruction free to all. 1 Towards the end of 1843 state-aided schools came into existence because the established schools did not reach ^he children in the outlying districts. These aided schools were founded and maintained largely by local effort and assisted by small grants in aid from Government. The residents provided the school-room and the teacher's house, and a committee was elected by those who contri- buted to the school funds. The committee fixed the school fees and appointed the teacher, subject to the approval of the Superintendent-General. 11 By Act No. 13 of 1865 public schools of the Third Class were established among the rural population. The provisions made were found to be insufficient and the other line of attack was tried in 1873 by the institution r Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p 12. 8 Ibid p. 14. * Ibid p. 15 u Ibid p. 27. 32 of District Boarding Schools. Boarding departments were also started in connection with the ordinary public schools. The establishment of Private Farm Schools in 1884 was an official recognition of the work of the private tutor or governess. Grants in aid and capitation grants were not to be paid unless the farm or homestead where the children resided was situated not less than six miles from a public school, arid unless there were not less than five children under regular instruction/ The housing and boarding problem in connection with the rural school led to the supply by the Education Department of Transportable School Buildings in 1912, 1913 and 1914. " A constant difficulty is the provision of suitable buildings for single-teacher schools in the country. The small size and short life of the majority of these schools make it impossible to solve -the problem by the erection of permanent buildings by the Administration. A system of portable buildings has been tried; but the venture so far has not proved very satisfactory. In many places the only .solution is to hire buildings. As might be expected the buildings hired are of widely different character. Some of the little country school buildings are very creditable indeed ; the occupation of others can be justified only on the ground that if they were not used children would be forced to go without education." 3. Dr. Viljoen has regraded the schools as primary, secondary, and high schools. These are described in the next chapter. The Teachers. The earliest teacher at the Cape was the sieckentrooster (sick comforter). Besides visiting the sick the sieckentrooster was also voorlezer, i.e. he con- ducted divine service every Sunday and read a sermon. v Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 69. 3 Report of the S.-G. of Ed. for year ended 31st December, 1918, p. 13. 13 " The sick comforter or voorlezer remained for a century and a half the central, though by no means the only figure in the Cape public school rooms. During the whole period of the rule of the Dutch East India Company where a new voorlezer was appointed to a village in a newly founded district or where a vacancy was x filled, the duties of schoolmaster were invariably attached to the office. In some cases, however, an applicant was appointed as public schoolmaster without performing the duties of voorlezer. Although the practice of combining the office of public schoolmaster with that of voorlezer was more or less consistently followed, it was not before 1779 that the two offices were made inseparable. Occupying an important and dignified post in the church, the voorlezer was selected with as great care as the circumstances permitted, and being under the continual supervision of the ministry and the consistory, he usually carried out his duties conscientiously, and was well qualified to give the children instruction in the rudimentary subjects, reading, writing, and arithmetic, and in religion to fit them for church membership." w The School Ordinance of Governor de Chavonnes stated that the Governor and Council were to be satisfied of the character and doctrine of the teacher, who had to sub- scribe to the doctrines of the church as laid down in the Articles of the Senate of Dordrecht. The country schools could not obtain teachers and the law made no provision for obtaining them. In many cases the task of educating the young was entrusted for short periods to sailors and soldiers, who had been discharged from the service of the East India Company, and who were almost always men of very scant education. These itinerant schoolmasters travelled about from one farm to another, staying from about 6 to 1.2 months at each place. In this way they taught tbe children reading, writing and sometimes arithmetic and this was generally the only schooling such children ever received. w Eybers E. Educational Development at the Cape of Good Hope 1652-1839, p. 16. Compare similar development in the Dutch Schools of New Netherland. See Kilpatrick W. H. The Dutch Schools of New Netherland and Colonial New York. U.S. Bureau of Ed Bulletin 1912, No. 12. 14 In 1743 it was resolved that no one be allowed to teach unless he had been examined by the kerkeraad (church board). Notwithstanding the re-issue in 1769 of the prohibition regarding the employment of discharged servants of the Dutch East India Company, the practice continued to be followed. 2 " In 1791 the Scholarchs described the sad state of affairs as due to the insufficient number and poor quality of the schoolmasters, men who h,ad never been trained to that employment, whose handwriting was only tolerable, spelling bad, and arithmetic no further advanced than the rule of three. It was recommended that competent teachers should be obtained from Holland at fixed salaries. The School Commission of 1809 complained that the teachers were incompetent and made school-keeping a mere speculation until something better turned up. Dr. Innes imported a number of Scotch teachers from time to time and these men proved of inestimable value to the cause of education in South Africa, as did the Scotch ministers introduced in 1821 and thereafter to take charge of the parochial duties of the Dutch Reformed Church, The teachers imported from Holland and Scotland were not sufficient to meet the need. A pupil-teachers' system was introduced in 1859 and again abolished in 1864. An Elementary Teachers' Certificate was insti- tuted in 1872, and it was stipulated that no one there- after should be appointed to any post in a state-aided school unless he had this certificate or a higher one. This certificate qualified the holder only for the charge of either public schools of the Third Class or of Mission Schools/ In 1874 a new pupil teachers' system was introduced. Pupil teachers could be trained at any school, their salaries were raised, the principal of the school was to give them special instruction and was to receive an allowance for each of them who succeeded in obtaining * Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 5. y Ibid p. 45. 15 the Elementary Teachers 5 Certificate. The candidates taught in the school for a large part of the day and were prepared for their examination in their headmaster's spare time. In 1879 the Normal School was opened in Cape Town, and in 1893 the Training Institute at Cape Town and the Training College at Wellington began to prepare teachers. In 1893 Dr. Muir remodelled the pupil-teacher system when the following reforms were introduced: (a) A three-year course of study was arranged for the candidates whereby they should receive a suitable general education and proper professional training. (b) Provision was made that candidates were to have a certain limited amount of practice in teaching. The actual teaching done was not to exceed two hours a day. (c) Candidates' progress was to be tested yearly by an oral and written examination and by actual teaching work in the presence of an Inspector. 2 Candidates to the teachers' course were required to have passed Standard IV. in 1893. The entrance require- ment was raised to Standard V in 1899, to Standard VI in 1901, and to Standard VII in 1912. From 1893 to 1908 Vacation Courses for uncertificated teachers were held at Cape Town, Grahamstown and at other convenient centres. By this means an immense number of teachers received a short course of professional training and as many as 1,737 were considered deserving of certificates. Since 1909 the Vacation Courses have been restricted to assist teachers desiring to qualify in special subjects.* At first pupil teachers were trained at many different and; in some cases, not very suitable centres. The Superintendent-General explained that this was rendered necessary by the vast extent of the country and that experience had shown that teachers trained in the larger * Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ending 30th September, 1909. p. 20. 8 Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ending 30th September, 1909. p. 22. 16 centres are unwilling to accept positions in the more remote and lonely parts of the Province. In a consider- able number of the schools the training was done by the ordinary members of the school staff. When the number of pupils became sufficiently large the Department sanc- tioned the appointment of a teacher specially equipped and specially set apart for the work of training, the pupil- teacher being replaced by the student-teacher receiving more tuition and less un supervised practice. As oppor- tunity offered training schools were organised. In 1916 it was made compulsory for a pupil-teacher to spend at least one year (the final year of a 3-year course) at a Training School or Training College. The number of training schools and training colleges had increased to 14 by 1919. Dr. Viljoen reorganised the teacher training course so that "in future all entrants to the profession will without exception be required to spend at least two years at a recognised training institution, and the minimum required for admission to a training course will be the successful completion of the junior secondary school course ending with Standard VIII." 1 Courses of Study. At first the elementary instruction was almost entirely religious and the teaching was con- fined to the four K ? s. Up to 1821 the instruction in the country schools had been wholly in Dutch, but in that year the British government sanctioned the recommenda- tion of fhe Governor (Lord Charles Somerset) for having all schools in the colony conducted by English masters. Here was the beginning of the historical struggle con- cerning language. English was substituted for Dutch as th,e language of the Colony. All official documents were to be in English and English alone was allowed in the Law Courts. This change resulted in considerable friction. Theal says: b Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ended 31st December, 1919. p. 7. 17 " In some of the western villages much hostility was shown to the establishment of the schools, because the instruction in them was confined to the English and Latin languages. The irritation caused by the order to substitute English for Dutch as the official language of the colony was just then at its height Many parents regarded the schools merely as instruments for destroying their mother tongue, and refused to allow their children to attend, so that in one or two instances it was necessary to withdraw the teachers," c Dr. limes drew up a curriculum in 1839 to be followed in all government schools. Instruction in religion was to be given in three divisions and secular instruction in five divisions. d A new curriculum was introduced by Dr. Dale in 1873 for four standards a word used then for the first time to designate a grade or class. The school course extended over five standards in 1884, and six in 1887. The School Regulations in 1877 dealt with the subject of industrial education in District Boarding Schools. An annual grant of 50 was offered to aid in the expenses of an industrial department or trade class, provided there was a sufficient attendance of pupils of suitable age, but the industrial education given amounted to little more than a weekly lesson or two from the village carpenter. 6 In 1882 Parliament repealed the regulations which pro- vided that the instruction should be given through the medium of the English language only. f The Education Commission of 1891 referred to the language struggle, the attempt to get the burghers to learn English, and their reaction to it. They proposed that Dutch should be a subject in the School Elementary Examination and that the scholars in the public schools should be made proficient in the use of the two languages. 2 Theal G.M. History of South Africa. Vol. Ill (1891) p. 259. d Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 25. e lbid p. 53. f Ibid p. 59. "Ibid p. SO-S4. 18 Dr. Muir in his first report, dated March 1893. noted how the School Elementary examination dominated the field of education and remarked : " If it comes to be recognised that the be-all and end-all of an elementary school training is the passing of a certain written examination in grammar, arithmetic, history and geography, and if under pressure of this recognition such subjects as reading and recitation, drawing, science, singing, sewing, boys' handiwork, drill, and physical training go to the wall, there will he uncommonly little to hope for from the rising generation." h Dr. Muir introduced what he called his " Special Subjects of Instruction." The subjects which required and which have received special attention are seven, namely: Singing, needlework, woodwork, drawing, physi- cal culture, domestic science and nature study. The introduction of these subjects into the school curriculum was effected not all at once but successively. Singing and needlework were introduced in 1893, woodwork in 1894, drawing and domestic science in 1904, and nature study in 1908. 1 In 1895 a Select Committee of the House of Assembly reported on Technical Education in Agriculture. As a result of this report a Government School of Agricul- ture was opened at Elsenburg in 1898. The Eastern Districts had to wait until the year 1911 when the Groot- f ontein School of Agriculture was established. ..In 1899 the school course was changed, Standard VII was added, the Matriculation classes were transferred from the colleges to the schools and High Schools were instituted so that there were 9 standards in all. In 1912 a tenth standard was added. An Education Commission with Mr. H. E. S. Fremantle as chairman was appointed in 1910 and delivered it's reports in 1912. The criticisms of this Commission were most severe against the rigidity of the curriculum and the h Great Britain Education Department. Op. cit. p. 90. 1 Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ending 30th September, 1909. p. 16-18. 19 teaching- of literature from reading books. " Instead of learning to read and write the children are drilled to know the contents of a primer by rote and to spell every word it contains." It condemned the method of teaching language by means of grammar and opposed the foreign medium, emphasising the neglect of Dutch. It con- sidered bilingualism as educationally sound, but did not suggest compulsory bilingualism. The individual inspec- tion system, the certification of teachers, and the grading of th/e schools were all strongly criticised. The Commis- sion also recommended that religious and moral instruc- tion be systematically given in the public schools. 3 In 1912 the Language Ordinance was passed by the Provincial Council. The salient points of this Ordinance were: (a) The instruction of the pupils up to and including the fourth standard in the home language, whether English or Dutch; (b) the use above the fourth standard of one or other or both languages as media of instruction, at the option of the parent ; (c) the giving of adequate facilities for the instruction of pupils in the language not used as the medium of instruction; (d) the conditions in regard to the training of teachers, can- didates being entirely free to choose the medium of instruc- tion. 1 " A single state syllabus had served the whole country. There had been a total absence of any differentiation according to local needs. Eevised curricula were in- troduced in 1921 by Dr. Viljoen and for the first time provision has been made for differentiated secondary school courses. The teaching of agriculture in the High Schools has not been attempted. j Report of the Education Commission 1912. k Report of the Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for year ending 30th September, 1912, p. 2. 2*0 Problems. Rural education is especially rich in problems calling for solution and some of them have only lately received that attention and study which they deserved. The problems may be classified as those in connection with (1) the one-teacher schools; (2) consoli- dation and transportation; (3) the rural teachers, their preparation and board, (4) inspection and supervision, (5) courses of study, and (6) continuation schools, part-time education and extension teaching. It is the purpose of this study more particularly to aid in the solution of some of the problems under the above heads. II. THE PRESENT SCHOOL SYSTEM. A. Administrative Organisation. By the act of Union (South Africa Act, 1909, section 85, sub-section 3) elementary and secondary education were placed under the provincial administrations, while higher education was reserved to the Union Government. A Minister of Education is responsible for the activities of higher education within the Union. A Minister of Agriculture, through the Agricultural Department, is responsible for the agricultural education. There is no co-ordination between agricultural schools and other educational institutions. The former are chiefly or wholly vocational, the latter academic in character. The chief executive officer of the Cape Province is the Administrator, who is appointed by the Governor- General-in-Council for a term of five years. The administrative organisation of the educational system may be illustrated by the following diagram : 21 o d I O > o o 0) 3 22 1. Central Educational Authority. The general control, supervision and direction of public education, other than higher education, is vested in the Administrator. (3)* There is a Department of Public Education the chief officer of which is the Superintendent-General of Edu- cation, appointed by and subject to the direction and control of the Administrator. (4a) The function of the Department of Public Education is the performance of all work necessary or incidental to the control of education, including the establishment, maintenance and general control of schools ; the training, examination, and certification of teachers; the framing and application of syllabuses of instruction; the insti- tuting and conducting of school examinations; and the inspection of schools, teachers and pupils (including the practical application of the language provisions and medical inspection.). (4b) The Superintendent-General in each year prepares and submits to the Administrator an annual report for the last preceding calendar year giving such particulars in regard to the administration of the Department and to any other matters affecting education as he thinks fit. The Administrator lays such report of the Superintendent-General before the Provincial Council, (lla, b) The Finance Department of the Provincial Adminis- tration deals with the financial administration of edu- cation and is in charge of an officer known as the Controller of Educational Finance, who is appointed by and subject to the direction and instruction of the Administrator. The functions of the Finance Depart- ment include the administration of all funds voted in respect to (1) salaries, rents, grants, pensions and allowances; (2) maintenance and repairs of all proper- ties vested in the educational trustees; (3) requisites, *Numbers refer to sections in the Consolidated Education Ordinance 1921. 23 furniture and equipment, and supply thereof; (4). travelling and transport of officials, teachers, and pupils ; (5) boarding departments, indigent boarding grants and grants for superintendents and apprentices in trade and industrial schools; (6) loan issues and loan expenditure. It is also the function of the Finance Department to control (1) revenues accruing to the- Provincial Eevenue Fund from educational sources; (2) contributions to pension funds administered by the Provincial Adminis- tration; (3) investment of moneys accruing to the pension funds; (4) remission of tuition fees; and (5) collection of all school fees, including all boarding fees, music fees, and other fees of any description payable by parents or guardians to a school board. (8a, b, c) 2. Local Management ~by School Boards and Committees. Every constituted school district is under the jurisdic- tion of a school board, which consists of either six, nine, twelve, or eighteen members, as the Administrator may determine. Two-thirds of the members of the board are elected by the persons entitled to vote, and of the remaining number of members, one is nominated and appointed by the municipal council or divisional council according as the district is a municipal or divisional area, and the remaining number is appointed by the Administrator. (15, 16, 18) All members, together with any members who may have been appointed to fill casual vacancies, go out of office at the end of the third year when a fresh election is held. The remaining members of the school board > elect a successor to fill a vacancy. (29, 34). No alien, criminal, mental defective, or unrehabili- 'tated insolvent, may serve on a school board; but no person is disqualified by sex or by the fact that he is not a ratepayer. (30, 31). No teachers can serve on a school board, however. (195) Members of a board who reside at a distance from the place of meeting are entitled to an allowance. Otherwise no payment of any kind is granted for school board service. (41, 42) . Whenever any expenditure has been incurred by a board, which has not received the approval of, or is in excess of the amount approved by the Controller, the members of the board, voting the expenditure, are per- sonally liable pro rata. (47a, b) The books of the secretary and treasurer of every board are to be open at all reasonable hours to the inspection of any officer duly authorised in writing- there- to by the Controller. (51) Every board is a body corporate, but no board has power to sue or defend in any court of law in its corporate capacity without the Administrator's approval, (53) A board has the power 'of establishing and maintain- ing such schools in its district as may be approved by the Department, and of carrying out all duties incidental thereto; provided that every school so established or maintained must be strictly undenominational in character, and may be locally cared for by a school committee. Trade and industrial schools, technical schools, music schools, schools for defectives, and such institutions as would be regarded as providing higher education are not 'included. (55a, c) The board of any district has general financial man- agement of all schools under its control, including the power to receive, hold and administer funds or bequests for educational purposes, and to make all (necessary payments for the administration of education in its dis- trict subject to the approval of the Controller. Every board makes an estimate of its income and expenditure for the ensuing financial year and forwards a copy tcf the Controller for approval. (65, 66) Every board has to keep in such form as is prescribed by the Controller, true and regular accounts of money received and paid on account of the board. An auditor appointed by the Provincial Auditor examines and audits the half yearly accounts. (68) It is also the duty of the board to afford parents having one or more children on the roll of a school an opportunity of electing a committee for such school. The board 25 appoints a polling and returning officer ; who conducts the election. (75a, 76) The committee consists of three, five or seven mem- bers, as the board may decide, and is elected for a period of three years. The disqualifications for membership of a school committee are the same as those for a school board. Members receive no payment for their services. (75b, 79, 84) It is the duty of the committee of any school (1) to exercise a general supervision of the school, including the fabric and grounds; (2) to carry out such rules as may be framed by the board ; (3) to select and nominate teachers for appointment, and to suspend teachers; (4) to deal with the representations of parents; and (5) to advise the board in all matters affecting the welfare of the school. (85) B. Classification of Schools. The schoo]s have been classified as Farm Schools, Primary Schools, Secondary Schools, High Schools, Training Schools and Training Colleges, Part-time Schools, Trade Schools, Industrial Schools, and Special Schools. The articulation between the schools may be diagrammatically shown as follows: 'o CJ O CO 2(5 OQ o W O OQ O o I-H fe k o I 1 S a CO CQ 1 i 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 ! 1 ' ! 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! 1 1 | 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 .! 1 1 1 I 1 1 | 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 27 1. Farrn schools. Farm schools may be established or will be recognised when the Superintendent-General is satisfied that the locality needs such a school, that it can maintain the average minimum attendance of five pupils and 'that it will furnish suitable accommodation. The proprietor of the farm on which the school is situated, or some other appropriate person, must furnish free of charge, and to the satisfaction of the Superintendent-General both board and residence for the teacher and a suitable school-room for the pupils. Instruction is given in the lower standards only, the highest standard in 'the curri- culum of any such school being subject to the approval of the Superintendent-General. If for a period of two school quarters a farm school has failed to maintain a minimum average attendance of five pupils it is closed. The selection of the teacher? is left to the farmer or other appropriate person recognised as manager. The suspension and dismissal of teachers rest with the man- ager also, subject to a definite procedure. (92) 2. Primary Schools. Primary schools are schools organised, staffed and equipped for instruction in the lower standards. A regular attendance of at least ten pupils must be main- tained. A farm school may be recognised as a primary school from th,e first day of the calendar quarter during which a minimum average attendance of ten pupils has been attained. Primary schools are classified in six groups according to the average enrolment in all standards for the com- plete calendar year immediately previous : 500 pupils and over 300 150 50 20 Less than 20 pupils Special group. Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E. (91) 28 3. Secondary Schools. Secondary schools are schools organised, staffed and equipped for instruction up to the eighth standard. A secondary school may be established mainly or exclusive- ly for the purpose of affording education above the sixth standard. A primary school may be recognised as a secomdary school if a minimum average enrolment of twenty pupils in the fifth and sixth standards com- bined has been maintained for at least one complete calendar year. A secondary school may be degraded if for a period of three complete calendar years it has failed to maintain a minimum average enrolment of ten pupils in the seventh and eighth standards combined. Secondary schools are classified in two groups according to the average enrolment in the seventh and eighth standards combined for the complete calendar year im- mediately previous: 20 pupils and over : Group A Less than 20 pupils : Group B. (90) 4. Nigh Schools. High schools are schools organised, staffed and equipped for instruction up to the tenth standard. A high school may be established mainly or exclusively for the purpose of affording education above the sixth stan- dard. A secondary school may be recognised as a high school if a minimum average enrolment of forty pupils in the seventh a'nd eighth standards combined has been maintained for at least one complete calendar year. A high school may be degraded if for a period of three complete calendar years it has failed to maintain a minimum average enrolment of ten pupils in the ninth and tenth standards combined. High schools are classi- fied in three groups, according to the average enrolment in standards above the sixth standard for the complete calendar year immediately previous: 200 pupils and over : Group A 100 ,. : Group B Less than 100 pupils : Group C. (89) 29 5. Training Schools and Training Colleges. Training colleges are institutions providing full facili- ties for the training and certification of primary teachers. To meet qualifications they must have had for at least one complete calendar year a minimum average enrolment of twenty students, who have com- pleted the full high school course or a course of equivalent length. Training schools are institutions specially estab- lished for the training of teachers but which do not come up to the standard laid down for training colleges. 6. Part-time Schools. Part time schools are schools providing education of a general or special character, but having a shortened program and term. 7. Trade Schools, Industrial Schools and industrial Departments. Trade schools are schools for the education and the training of children in industrial pursuits. Industrial schools for indigent European children may be estab- lished with the consent of the Administrator who makes grants in aid of such schools. (120) In the selection of pupils for admission to an industrial school preference is given to children of the absolutely indigent class, who are ordinarily resident at a distance greater than three miles from any existing school. Pupils who are not en- tirely indigent may be admitted but in such cases the Administrator determines the amount to be paid by such pupils. (122) Any child entering an industrial school as a pupil is indentured as an inmate for a period of not less than three years or for such period as the Controller may authorise. In no case may the articles of indenture expire until the pupil shall have attained the age of eighteen years. (123) Where a boarding house for indigent children has been established a single- teacher industrial department for the education and 30 training In industrial pursuits of indigent European children (of either sex) may be established and main- tained in such boarding-house, provided that a minimum enrolment of ten pupils can be maintained. (126) A boarding department for indigent children may be estab- lished and maintained by any church authority or other body (not being a board or a committee of an unde- nominational public school) or any association of persons. (268) Every child maintained in an indigent boarding-house upon completion of his sixteenth year or upon passing the sixth standard, whichever shall first occur, is indentured as a pupil of an industrial depart- ment for a period of not less than two years, or at least until the pupil has attained the age of eighteen years. (130) 8. Special Schools. Technical schools, commercial schools, art schools and music schools may be established and maintained by the Administrator. No pupil who has not completed the primary school course or who is enrolled at a secondary or high school may be admitted to any such school except by the special consent of the Superintendent-General. Where a school for the blind, a school for deaf mutes or a .school for other defectives has been established grants in aid of the funds of such institution may be made by 1he Administrator. C. Support of the System. There is no longer a local educational rate. Practically all expenditure on the school system is borne by the central exchequer. (Education Gazette 25th Nov. 1920 p. 489). -Whenever the revenue of any board has been or will be insufficient to meet the expenditure in the duly audited accounts of such board for any financial year, the amount of the excess of expenditure over income is defrayed from funds to be voted for that purpose by the Provincial Council. (67b) 31 For the purpose of enabling any board to carry out any undertaking or public work, the Administrator may, out of funds voted by the Provincial Council for that purpose, grant loans for (1) the purchase of any im- movable property: (2) the building and erection of a new school or schools; (3) the enlargement or alteration of an existing school or schools; (4) the levelling, gravel- ling and fencing of school grounds, or the provision of a permanent water supply; and (5) any other purpose in respect of which the Administrator shall approve of the borrowing of money. The term of any loan shall not exceed forty years. (70a, e) Any municipal council, divisional council, or other public body empowered by law to levy rates, may by means of a resolution, taken at a meeting in favour of which two-thirds of the members present have voted, grant a sum of money, out of any revenue under their control in aid of the funds of any undenominational public school or institution receiving aid and situated within the area of their jurisdiction. (71) The Administrator may from time to time make grants in aid of education in districts where, owing to the poverty of the inhabitants, it is not practicable to make suitable ordinary provision for education. Such grants are made out of the funds voted for that purpose. (72) All instruction given in any school under the control of a board is free in all classes up to and including the sixth standard. This includes the free supply of books and other school requisites. Any free books or requisites lost or destroyed by a pupil have to be replaced at the cost of the parent or guardian of the pupil. It is lawful, however, for the Department, after consultation with the board concerned to determine that instruction shall not be free in any particular school or schools in the district. No pupil shall, except with the consent of the Adminis- trator, receive instruction in any standard in a fee- paying school, unless the fees prescribed by the Adminis- trator are paid by the parent or guardian of the pupil. Pupils attending a fee-paying school up to and including the sixth standard, are supplied with books and other school requisites at half cost. (247) 32 All approved charges in connection with an industrial department are borne by the Provincial Eevenue Fund, but the revenue derived from the sale of articles pro- duced at the department must be remitted quarterly to the Provincial Accountant and paid into the said fund. When tb,e revenue exceeds the cost of the raw material supplied, the Administrator may apply the surplus to the payment of a bonus to the teacher and pupils. (129) The entire cost of maintenance of any training college or training school is borne by the Provincial Revenue Fund. (150b) Where through local effort or through other means funds become available for the purchase of books for school libraries or for making other approved provision of a special nature for schools, it is competent for the Controller, on the recommendation of the Superintendent- General, to grant aid on the pound for pound principle toward expenditure incurred for anv such purpose, (375) D. Inspection and Supervision, The Administrator may from time to time appoint inspectors of schools, medical inspectors of schools, and other special officers to assist in the administration of the Department of Public Education. The Superintendent- General or inspector or person so authorised has the right of entering any school or institution at any time during school hours, of examining into the 'state of the buildings and school premises, or the organisation and methods of instruction ; of ascertaining the progress of the children under instruction ; and of inquiring generally into the efficiency of the school from local patrons; and of calling for such returns as he may require, in order to obtain satisfactory information on these subjects. (6, 5) Vacant inspectorships are advertised in the Education Gazette. The candidate selected becomes a member of the Public Service of the Union. The salary attached to the post is 650 per annuam plus the appropriate travelling 33 and subsistence allowance when absent from headquarters on duty. The question of the salary-scale for inspectors of schools is still under consideration, but the Public Service Commission states that " the salaries of inspec- tors will be raised and will be not less than those of principals of high schools." ! The school inspectors are permanent officials, holding office during life or good behaviour. The Administrator may also provide for the compul- sory medical inspection of pupils, student-teachers and teachers at any aided school, and for the exclusion on medical grounds of pupils, student-teachers or teachers from any such school. Such medical inspection shall mean the physical examination of teachers who are sus- pected of being a source of danger to pupils ; the inspec- tion of school buildings and premises; and the consider- ation of all matters affecting the health and physical condition of pupils. (7) E. School Grounds, Buildings and Equipment. The Administrator may make loans to any board for the purchase of immovable property, the building and erecting qf a new school, the enlargement or alteration of an existing school, the levelling, gravelling and fenc- ing of school grounds, or the provision of a permanent water supply. (310) The property on which a loan is advanced is vested in the educational trustees consisting ; of tb,e Provincial Secretary, the Superintendent-General of Education, the Chairman of the board for the district, and their respec- tive successors in office. (311) Where it is found necessary to hire premises for educa- tional purposes no lease may be entered into by any board or committee without the previous approval of the Controller. (314) 1 Education Gazette 3rd November, 1921. p. 337. 34 The buildings of any public school or educational institution may not be used for any purpose other than school purposes without the sanction of the Superintendent-General. (315) The board maintains in good order and repair all im- movable property vested in the educational trustees from moneys voted for the purpose and under the direc- tion of the Controller. (316) The Administrator may approve of the sale of any school property where, in his opinion, the interests of education will not thereby suffer. (317) Any property transferred to educational trustees is free from transfer duty, stamp duty, or fees of office. (318) No new public or private township may be established and no new municipality or village management board area may be proclaimed, until land not less than two acres in extent, situated within the proposed township or area, and approved by the board and the Department, has been set aside free of payment for school purposes and vested in the educational trustees. (320) The Administrator makes regulations for the supply of books and requisites to any state-aided school or educa- tional institution. (319) F. The Teaching Force. 1. The Training of Teachers. Provision is made within the Province for the training and certification of infant school, primary, and secondary teachers and for teachers of special subjects. The con- ditions of admission to any course of training, the re- quirements of any such course, the admission of candi- dates to any qualifying examination, and all matters incidental to the conduct of such examinations are controlled by the Superintendent-General. (145, 146) The Administrator establishes and maintains institu- tions for the education and training of teachers. The management is vested in the Superintendent-General, but a local advisory committee may assist in the manage- merit, or a training school may be transferred to the school board in whose district it is situated. The control and management of a training college are vested in the office of the Superintendent-General. All appointments and promotions of teachers in training schools and training colleges are made by the Superintendent-General. (148, 149) Grants in aid for the education, trainino- and mainten- ance of individual students at any training institution are made by the Controller, The student has to enter into an agreement and must on completion of the approved course of training undertake employment as a teacher in a state-aided school within the Province for a period of not less than two years. Tuition fees at the rate of six pounds per annum are charged to students in training schools and training colleges. Free tuition may be granted to students whose parents are not in a position to pay for such tuition. (153, 155) The school board or the committee or the managers concerned may make arrangements in any school for facilities in practice teaching for student-teachers. (156) There is a loan fund for the purpose of providing financial assistance to a student-teacher (more especially male students), who, with the aid ordinarily granted is unable to meet his necessary expenses. No interest is charged upon any loan granted, but no student may borrow from the loan fund more than a total amount of 60. The student undertakes to repay the loan and to serve as a teacher until the loan has been repaid. (157-160) 2. Certification of Teachers. The following diagram illustrates how the different certificates mentioned below are obtained : STUDY w o' C*H TH TIME SPENT O H QQ OQ H W O H O hH EH O EH K P3 d H ^ i O CQ H co o a P i i__ I o I "3 I O ^ I 'O2 a.' o Cfl o in g o 325 75 400 435 15 600 | (5V Secondary assistant teachers: Women Men Qualiticatior | Minimum 1 Annual Increment Maximum Minimum Annual Increment Maximum (a) above 135 75 j 360 150 15 540 (b) 165 75 360 195 15 540 - (c) ;, 105 75 360 240 15 540 (d) 225 75 360 285 15 540 255 j 75 360 330 15 540 (f) 285 75 360 375 15 540 (6) Primary assistant teachers: Women Men . Qualification Minimum Annual Maximum Minimum Annual | Maximum; Increment | Increment j (a) above 120 1 75 270 135 15 405 (b) 150 75 270 180 15 40^ ' (c) ,. ISO 75 1 270 225 15 405 ' ' (civ 180 75 2W 225 15 : 405,;.; (e) (f) .. 180 180 75 270 75 | 270 225 225 15 15 405 , 1 . 40^ 44 The rate of remuneration of departmental instructors and instructresses, teachers of special subjects, part-time teachers, teachers who are required to devote considerable time to actual teaching work outside of school hours, and un certificated teachers is determined by the Superintendent-General. Where a house is provided for a teacher there is deducted one-sixth of his pensionable salary, or. at the option of the teacher, 8 per cent, of the valuation of the property as fixed by the Provincial Valuation Roll. In portions of the Province where, by reason of long distance from railway communication or unattractive conditions of life, it is difficult to obtain teachers, local allowances may be paid to teachers, but such allowances may not exceed 10 per cent, on the cash salary of the particular teacher concerned. The Adminis- trator may frame regulations authorising the payment of travelling expenses for teachers on taking up appoint- ments. (224-226, 374) A Teachers' I 3 ension Fund administered by the Controller and supported by 4 per cent, deductions from the full salary of every teacher is also maintained. No teacher first taking up duty after the age of forty years, no teacher who has discontinued and subsequently resumed his service after the age of forty years, and no part-time teacher is compelled to contribute to the pension fund though they may all elect to do so. After at least 15 years' continuous service, the last five years of which must have been rendered under the Department, and on having reached the age of 50 years in the case of women, and 55 years in the case of men, a teacher ma.T voluntarily retire, or be required to retire. He is then granted a pension equal to 20 per cent, of his average annual salary during the 5 years immediately preceding his retirement, the pension being increased at the rate of 1 per cent, for each additional year of service (whether continuous or not) up to a maximum of 65 per cent. After at least 10 years' continuous service, the last 5 years of which must have been rendered under the Department if medical proof is produced to the satisfaction of the Superintendent-General that a teacher 45 is disabled by reason of ill-health from continuing his duties, he may be placed on temporary pension for a period not exceeding 5 years. If at the end of 5 years the disability is proved to be permanent he is granted a permanent pension. Should any contributor to the pension fund die before being granted a pension a gratuity equal to twice the total contributions made by him or one month's salary in full calculated from the day of his death, whichever shall be the greater, is paid to his nearest of kin. Should any pensioner die before the aggregate amount paid or payable to him as pension has become equal to the total amount contributed by him, a gratuity equal to twice the amount of excess payable to him as pension up to the date of his death is paid to his nearest of kin. (229-235) 4. Training of Teachers in Service. The Education Gazette, the official organ of the Edu- cation Department, has during the last few years had some really helpful information for teachers, informa- tion likely to be useful in the improvement of class instruction. The Department has not of late conducted any vacation courses for teachers. Vacation courses in botany and nature study have been held at Kirsten- bosch under the auspices of the Botanical Society of South Africa. The course extends over a period of three weeks and only eight students can be enrolled. The University of Cape Town holds a vacation course of three weeks for secondary teachers. Courses are offered in the teaching of (a) geography, (b) chemistry, (c) history, (d) Afrikaans, (e) zoology and botany, (f) psychology, (g) art, and (h) education. Inspectors of schools and principal teachers exert some influence through inspection and supervision. The South African Teachers' Association and the Zuid Afrikaanse Onder- wijzers Unie hold teachers' conferences, and local branches of these bodies arrange for teachers' meetings. 46 ; School Attendance. school must be open for not less than 5 hours tin every school day for the purpose of giving instruction to the pupils enrolled; but the Department may vary the period of daily attendance in special casesV It also fixes the vacation period for all schools. Regular school attendance is compulsory for all children of European parentage or extraction, who have completed their seventh but not their sixteenth year. Exemptions are allowed in the case of a child who is under regular and efficient instruction in any other manner; or is prevented by ill-health or any other unavoidable cause; or is engaged in a regular occupation and has alreadv passed the sixth standard. (237-238 a, b,) When a child lives more than 3 miles by the nearest road from a school and the parent or guardian is in a financial position to defray the whole or a portion of the cost of the child's attendance at a school, he is not exempt from sending his child to school; but if the parent is not in a financial position to defray the whole of the cost of transport or boarding, or any portion thereof , he is exempted until provision has been made for free transport to, or boarding at, a school. Where a child fails to attend school and the parent or guardian fails, after being warned, to send his child to school he is guilty of an offence and liable to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds. (238c, 240) Except in making up th,e necessary number of pupils required for the establishment of a primary school or a farm school no child is admitted to a school until hfe has completed his sixth year. (241) Any person employing during school hours a European child, who is still under compulsion to attend school, is guilty of an offence and liable to a penalty as above. (242) A board may appoint an attendance officer (at a salary sanctioned by the Controller) and a parent or guardian is required to give to him or to a board any necessary information. (243, 244) 47 H. Medium of Instruction and instruction in the Official Languages. The medium of instruction of every pupil in all standards of any public school, up to and including the 4th standard, is the home language of the pupil ; but the parent of any pupil has the right to claim that the other language shall be gradually introduced, and there- after in accordance with the intelligence of the pupil. (294) Where the medium of instruction of the majority of the pifpils must be exclusively one language and that of the minority the other language, arrangements are made for the efficient instruction of the minority (1) by means of parallel classes, if the existing organisation of the school permits; (2) by means of parallel classes in every case in which the pupils forming the minority are not less than 15; (3) by means of teachers qualified to instruct in both languages. (294b) In all the standards above the 4th provision is made for the instruction of the pupils through the medium of each language, and the parent of a pupil may choose for that pupil one of the languages as ,the sole medium of instruction, or both of the languages as media of instruc- tion. Whenever in a public school the one language is the medium of instruction in certain subjects and the other language the medium of instruction in certain other subjects, the decision as to the number of subjects to be taught through the medium of each language and the selection of those subjects is made by the school board, subject to the approval of the Department. (295) Adequate provision is made for the teaching of both languages to every pupil in every standard, and both languages are taught to every pupil, unless the parent of a pupil otherwise desires. Afrikaans may be used instead of Dutch (Nederlands) as a subject of instruc- tion or as a medium of instruction. In any case in which there is any doubt, owing to the pupil knowing both languages equally well, as to which of the two languages is to be considered the home language of the 48 pupil, the parent's decision is final. The inspection of public schools and the regulations relative to school examinations are such as to secure an equal standard of proficiency in both languages. (296-302) SUMMARY. t In conclusion the administration of the schools of the Cape Province may be briefly characterised in the follow ing manner. It is highly centralised, the final control being in the hands of the Administrator, in whom is vested " the general control, supervision and direction of public education," and who is responsible only to the Provincial Council. The Superintendent-General of Education, appointed by the Administrator, and subject to his direction and control, is the chief executive officer for the whole province. These two officials virtually control the building and construction of schools, the training and appointment of teachers, the selection and appointment of inspectors and Departmental instructors, the supply of school equipment, and the selection of text- books. The course of study also emanates from the office of the Department. This practically leaves to the local bodies only such relatively minor functions as adminis- tering allotted funds, supervising buildings and grounds, and selecting and nominating teachers for appointment by the Department. In short the local bodies are little more than the local agents for the Department. As a result rural education, which more than any other phase of education needs local adaptation, local initiative, local sense of responsibility has had added another to its many already existing handicaps. III. THE PRESENT STATUS OF RURAL EDUCATION. A. Data in connection with the Rural School. The Department of Education does not give statistics separately for the rural schools. To obtain the required data it was necessary to draw up a questionnaire. This was done in connection with a seminar in the Rural Department at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Six hundred copies of this questionnaire were sent to South Africa. A letter, with a franked and addressed envelope en- closed, was sent to the Secretaries of School Boards, other than municipal, explaining the purpose of this study and requesting that the addresses of rural teachers be grouped under farm schools, one-teacher primary, two-teacher primary, three (and more) teacher schools and forwarded to Mr. D. D. Malan, Vice-Principal, High School. Porterville. From among the addresses received he selected at random not more than seven from any one school board area, preserving the proportion of the number of each kind of school as far as possible. On the first page of the 4-page questionnaire the follow- ing letter appeared : 44 INVESTIGATION OF RURAL EDUCATION IN THE CAPE PROVINCE. Dear Colleague, Are you willing to devote 15 or 20 minutes of your time to advance the progress of the rural school? If so, here is an opportunity. Progress in education cannot be made without a knowledge of the exact facts. Of the facts required very few are available, hence the necessity for these 50 questions. We are sure you will be interested in the results of this study. With your assistance they will certainly contribute to the improvement of rural education. ; There are roughly 3,000 rural teachers in the Cape Province and it has been found necessary to limit the number of questionnaires to 600 and to distribute these as carefully as possible to get a result represen= tative of the whole Province. Furthermore, it was found impossible to send out questionnaires both in Dutch and English, however much we should have liked to. Answers in Dutch will be welcome. Amongst the addresses available yours has been especially chosen and we hope you will not disappoint us in this matter. You have not been asked to insert your name as it was thought this may cause some hesitancy on your part in giving certain facts requested. You are kindly requested to answer the questions as soon and as completely as possible. Many of the questions require simply "yes" or " no >? for an answer or a number. This questionnaire is ,not neces= sarily sent to the principal of a school. It may be necessary for you to obtain data from the principal. After completion fold the paper and post without delay, for which we shall ever remain, Yours gratefully, J. R. MALAN, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York, U.S.A. P.S. Please be sure to return this, however incom* pletely filled in." Pour hundred and sixty of these questionnaires were posted during the first quarter of 1921 and the remainder subsequently. The very satisfactory response far sur- passed the * best expectations. Some of the teachers enclosed a letter with the questionnaire containing sup- plementary information and expressing willingness to give any 'other information that might be required, Some questionnaires were returned blank, five of these were from schools that had been closed. Two correspondents wrote that they were afraid to answer the questions as they had their suspicions. Questionnaire on Rural Education in the Cape Province. Name of School Board. ........ Name and grade of School Number of Teachers in School. Of the 375 questionnaires returned to New York from South Africa, 350 were used for this study. The replies came from no less than 93 School Board areas, including three from the Transkei, namely, Matatiele, Mount Currie and Umtata. Only 8 School Boards were not repre- sented, namely, Albert Divisional, Venterstad, Barkly West, Carnarvon, Clanwilliain, De Aar, Sterkstroom and Wodehouse Divisional. / Th>e grade of the school and the number of teachers in the school of those who reported were: Farm School (1 teacher) 102 29.1% Primary (1 teacher) 160 45.7% Primary (2 teachers) 68 19,4% Primary (3 teachers) 14 4 % Primary (4 teachers) 3) 1 Rc/ Secondary Schools 3| From the Education Gazette Statistical Number for the first quarter of 1921 the number of rural schools were (to the best of our judgment) as follows: 52 Farm Schools (1 teacher) 511 22.1% Primary (1 teacher 1438 62.1% Primary (2 teachers) 279 12 % Primary (3 teachers) 53 2.2% Primary (4 teachers) 20 \ Primary (5 teachers) 4 I Primary (6 teachers) 2 Secondary Schools 4 2,311 There were 2,801 rural teachers and 84.2% of them were teaching in 1-teaeher schools. The percentages that the different schools from the questionnaires form of the total number of such schools were: Farm schools 19.9% ; Primary (1 teacher) 11.1%; Primary (2 teachers) 24.4% ; Primary (3 teachers) 26.4% and Primary and Secondary (4 and more teachers) 20%. This distri- bution may be looked upon as highly satisfactory giving an average of 20.3% per group. During this same period there were 171 primary, 95 secondary and 69 high schools with a total teaching staff of 3,264 in the villages, towns, and cities, so that the rural schools formed 87.3% and the rural teachers 46.1% of the grand total. The following are the sections, the questions, and the compilations of the data obtained from the replies: I. THE CHILDREN. 1. Give the number of pupils registered this year: boys girls. and number of Standards in the whole school The total number of boys exceeded the total number of girls by 316. Every school had at least one boy on the roll. There were 4 schools with only one boy, 3 schools with no girls, and 13 schools with a single girl in attendance. 53 Boys 3,863 from 338 schools. No report from 12 schools Girls 3,547 from 338 schools. No report from 12 schools 7,410 The number of Standards ranged from 2 to 11 with a median of 6^ Standards per school. The prominence of the Sub-Standards was remarkable. There were 218 schools with both Sub-Standards, 39 with Sub-Standard B only, 34 with Sub-Standard A only, and 4 had beginners in addition to the Sub-Standards. In the Sub-Standards infant school work is done. A child is admitted to school when he has completed his sixth year. 350 Standardsj 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 No Report Total ! 5 29 53 58 64 55 74 9 1 I 1 1 2. Number of pupils with home language: Dutch English The Dutch pupils formed 87.8% of the total, the English pupils 11.1% and the foreign 1%. There were 23 schools with no Dutch pupils and 128 schools with no English,, pupils, i.e., there were 151 schools with children all of one home language and 196 schools which required a dual medium. No report from 3 schools. Dutch 6,791 pupils from 347 schools 87.8% English 863 11.1% German 77 in 4 schools \ * Yiddish 2 ' 1 school } 7,733 % From 1 and 2 above the total number of pupils per school was found to distribute itself as follows: 5 i 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 j 80 to to to to to to to to j to Pupils li ! 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ! 90 | Schools wjtfej 40 35 23 5 7 5 1-' 3 I 54 90 100 110 120 i to .< to to to 170 259 Pupils 100 110 120 130 Schools 2 1 1 1 1 1 350 From which the median number of pupils per school is 15.8. As soon as the number of pupils per teacher is more than 30 the Department sanctions the appointment of an additional teacher. 3. Has there been a medical inspection of your school? How many found defective? How many treated? Although medical inspection of school children was begun in May, 1918 ? only 6 schools could report that they had been visited. The country children had to wait While the more fortunately situated pupils in the urban areas were receiving attention. 1 No Yes No report 342 schools 6 schools 2 schools 98.2% 1.7% In the 6 schools 81 pupils were found defective and of these onlv 8 had been treated. 4. How many of the pupils are conveyed to school? How and at whose expense? Average distance? The number of pupils reported as being conveyed to school was 1,006, which is 13% of the higher total number of pupils reported. The method of transportation was: By cart and horses By donkey cart By train By wagon On horseback On donkey By boat No report 377 114 85 43 38 6 4 339 i See Reports of the Medical Inspectors irf 1 Annual Reports of Sup.-Gen. of Ed. for 1918 and 1919. i-Fhe parents bore the expense of transportation of 625 pupils, while the Government made con- tributions in the case of 272 pupils, which is 27% of the total, number conveyed to school. The average distance was reported for 928 pupils and ranged from 1 mile to 15 miles with a median of 2.9 miles. Several of the teachers remarked .on the great distances some of the children were walking, even from beyond the 3- mile radius. In connection with 62 of the scholars there were 442 boarders during the first quarter of 1921 as reported in the Statistical Number of the Education Gazette. 5. What was the percentage attendance last quarter? What are the chief reasons for absences? To what extent does work on the farm interfere? From the percentage attendance of the 276 schools which were reported the average was found to be 87.5%, the median 90.2% and the mode was as high as 94%. The range extended from 60% to 100%. The school year consists of as nearly 200 schools days as possible. During 1921 the number of school days were 198 and for 1922 the number of school days will be 197. The Statistical Number of the Education Gazette for the 1st quarter of 1921 reports on page 1310 the follow- ing percentage attendance for all schools: Quarter ending : June 1920 Sept. Dec. Mar. 1921 85.8 Percentage Attendance. 87.3 85.8 88.1 69 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 to to to to to to to to to to PerCent 64 68 72 7 80 84 88 92 96 100 No Report Total 8 5 14 17 31 34 53 58 56 74 = 350' 56 The chief reasons for absences were reported as fol- lows : Sickness : ill health 160 Rain ; inclemency of weather 96 Helping parents at home 59 River in flood 25 Indifference of parents 16 Ploughing and harvesting seasons 10 Long distance for walking 10 Poverty 7 Transport difficulties 6 Families camping out. taking holidays or trekking 5 Going to town, church, or visiting with parents 4 Tending sheep 4 Laziness, unpunctuality 3 When grouped the personal element accounted for 163, the physical conditions for 137, the home conditions for 80, and the attitude of the parents for 25 of the reasons given. The work on the farm does not interfere to any great extent as is shown by the following: No report 115 No interference , 104 Very little interference 6& Considerable interference 25 Seasonal : Ploughing, harvesting, planting. . . . ; 18 Keeps children from their studies -11 Makes for unpunctuality 1 Not known ( New school or new teacher ) 13 II. THE TEACHER. 1. Were you born in South Africa? What is your home language? Three hundred and thirty-seven teachers, or 96% were native-born while only 13 teachers, or 4% w r ere foreign-born. The Dutch homes contributed 75.7% of the teachers, 22% were from English homes, while 1.7% came from bilingual homes. 57 Dutch (Afrikaans) English Dutch and English English and German German 265 77 6 1 1 75.7% 22 % 1.7% 2. Were you bred in town or country? The majority of the teachers were bred in the country, 57% as against 35.7% , who were bred in town; while 7.2% had been bred in both town and country, generally having spent their early youtli in the country. In all 04.2% had had the experience of living in the country which is considered an advantage for a rural teacher. Country Town Both town and country No report 198 57 % 124 35.7% 25 7.2% 3 3. What Standard did you attain to in school and where? The Standard for admission to a normal course up to 1021 has beon Standard VII, and 69.6% of the teachers attained to this minimum requirement, 8% failed to come up to this Standard, while only 22.3% attained to a higher Standard. Standard IV V VI VII VIII 32 IX X No Report Total 1 3 23 234 11 32 14 Per Cent 8 69.6 22.3 The South African teacher generally goes a consider- able distance from the home of his or her youth to teach. 'This means a proportionate amount of travel with its accompanying heavy expense. The replies to the above question were combined with those giving the name of the School Board under which the teacher was giving instruction. The result was remarkable. Only 29.3% of the teachers who reported were teaching in the same division (not School Board area) as that in which they 58 had liad their school education, 17.5% were teaching in an adjacent division and the rest 53.1% were scattered far and wide. Same division Adjacent division Different division No report 84 56 170 30 29.3% 17.5% 53.1% 4. What normal training have you had? The requirements far a third class teacher's certificate called for three years normal training after passing Standard VII. A second class teacher's certificate could be obtained by a student who had passed the Matricula- tion examination after one or two years normal train- ing, and also by private study. Some of the older teachers had no normal training, but had had experience as pupil Teachers in schools where they taught part of the time. A few teachers obtained their certificate at a vacation course. Some of the uncertificated teachers had one or two years of training, but did not take the three years or failed to obtain a certificate after three years of training. The data are given in the following table: Normal training None 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years Total 57 24 33 206 1 Per Cent 16.7 7 9.6 60.4 Normal training Vacation course Private Study Pupil Teacher No Report Total 3 10 7 9 Per Cent 5.8 59 5. If you have had work beyond Matriculation, at what institutions and how much? Only 13 of the teachers, or 3.7% were able to report, work beyond Matriculation. There were 23 who held the Matriculation Certificate. Of these one obtained his B.A. degree and five their Second Class Teacher Certificate '(T2). ; University College 1 year 5 2 years 2 3 years (B.A.) 1 Training College (T 2) 5 The institutions' mentioned were: Victoria College, Stellenbosch 5 Normal College, Cape Town 4 Training College, Wellington 2 Huguenot College, Wellington 1 Training College, Stellenbosch 1 University of Stellenbosch 1 Training College, Cape Town 1 6. What certificates do you hold? The professional certificates were as follows: Third Class Teachers' Certificate (T 3 Senior) 242 ] Primary Teachers' Lower Certificate 13 Second Class Teachers' Certificate (T 2) 9 Associate College of Preceptors 2 Privy Council's Parchment 1 > ^ Uncertificated 83 23.7% The uncertificated teachers formed 23.7% of the total. Of them 4 had one year of normal training (P.T.I) and 35 two years of normal training (P.T.2). The percentage of rural certificated teachers was 76.2. At the same time the percentage of certificated teachers in all schools (European and Non-European) was 79.5.* Besides the * Education Gazette Statistical Number 1st Quarter 1921. 1310. 60 professional and academic certificates there were men- tioned a large number of Departmental certificates in drawing (various kinds) , Dutch, chemistry, music, needlework, physics, tonic solfa, and woodwork. Lan- guage certificates formed a particularly large part of the total display. They included Lagere Taalbond, Hogere Taalbond, Hoogste Taalbond, Lower Bilingual, Higher Bilingual, and Hoger Afrikaans. 7. Number of years of experience in teaching? Seventy-three of the teachers, or 20.8% had less than a year's experience, and of these 63, or 18% of the total, were beginners. The teacher with the longest experience had been teaching for 30 years. The median number of years of experience was 3.2. Taking the men alone, 16 of them had had less than a year's experience and their median was 6.6 years. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to Years 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Total 139 60 39 18 12 25 8 13 9 5 6 5 4 3 4 8. In how many different schools have you taught? A teacher may change from one school to another at the end of any one quarter, so that she may teach in as many as 4 schools in a year. The following table show r s the distribution of the teachers relative to the number of schools in which they had taught: Schools Beginners 63 1 2 3 59 4 5 6 y 8 9 3 10 Total 55 74 25 25 16 11 i 5 3 Schools 11 12 13 15 19 32 Several No Report Total 1 2 i 1 1 1 2 3 The median number of schools per teacher was 2.7 and the range extended from 1 to as many as 32 schools. Taking the median number of years of experience 3.2 into consideration it means that the teacher has changed his or her location nearly every year. This change was not always of their own seeking for they had sometimes to leave, because the school was being closed on account of an insufficient number of pupils or because the school was being degraded from a primary to a farm school* The beginners were, with the exception of 3, all in 1- teacher schools. These 3 were in 2-teacher schools. The different classes of schools were separately analysed in regard to data given in 7 and 8 with the following result: Median yrs. experience. Median No. schools. Farm School teachers 1.6 2.2 Primary (1-teacher) teachers 2.5 2.6 Primary (2-teacher) teachers 9.7 3.4 Primary (3, 4) and Secondary teachers 7 4 9 3.6 The median teacher from the farm and primary one- teacher school had actually taught in more schools than she had years of experience. The two-teacher school group were the most stable. The farm school teacher wanted to improve her position by getting into a primary one-teacher school, and the teacher from the one-teacher school changed to a two-, or more, teacher school. 9. Have you been a teacher in a village, town or city? How long? As has been the experience elsewhere, this study also proves that urban teachers do not move to rural schools to any large extent. The stream is rather in the opposite direction. Only 46 teachers or 13%, had had teaching experience in villages, towns, or cities. Of these 25 came from villages. 19 from towns and only 2 from a city. The length of experience ranged from one quarter to 24 years. The following table shows the distribution: Years 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 11 16 24 Total 16 8 5 5 3 2 4 1 1* 1 62 -10. Are you a man or woman? Married or single? Age? r The number of men was 115, or 32.8%, which is con- siderably higher than the percentage for all European (white) schools. The Annual Eeport for 1919 of the Superintendent-General gives the percentage of men as 23.2; and the figures for the Third Quarter of 1921 as published in the Education Gazette of 1st December, 1921, page 410, bring the percentage of male teachers in all schools under School Boards to 25.7. The ex- planation for the larger percentage of men obtained in this study is that in the case of the 3-, and more, teacher schools it was mostly the principal, a man, who filled in the questionnaire. Men Women No report 115 234 1 32.8% 66.8 Of the 72 married teachers, 20.6% of total, 61 were nien and 11 were women. In addition there were 3 widowers. The married men formed 53% of all the men. This is a favourable situation as it makes for stability in the rural teaching force. The women generally leave the profession on getting married. Single Married No report 276 72 2 79.3% 20.6% The ages of the teachers ranged from 16 to 79 years. The median age was 22.3 years. The distribution is given by the following table: 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 87 40 43 46 49 to to to to to to to to to to to to Age 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 Total 54 112 49 25 27 17 15 14 8 8 4 5 Age 56 59 60 79 No Report Total 1 3 1 1 6 63 11. At what age did YOU begin to teach? ^ -!fp The youngest was 14 and the oldest 38 years of age with the median age of the beginner 19.1 years. Eighty per cent, of the teachers began teaching before they were 21 years of age. 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 to to to to to to to to to to to to No Report Age 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 Total 4 81 160 53 22 10 3 3 1 3 3 1 6 12. What is your total yearly salary? allowance do you receive? What local The range was from 40 to 525 with a median salary of 143.7. The high salaries were drawn by the men principals of the large schools, the lowest salary by an uncertificated, inexperienced teacher. The median teacher is a woman teaching in a primary one-teacher school. Her beginning salary would have been 120 and with, 3.2 years experience she would have received three annual increments of 7|- bringing her total salary up to 142-}. It will be noted how close this is to the median salary given above. 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 to to to to to to to to to Salary 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 Total 28 69 106 24 28 14 18 11 15 400 440 No Report to to 525 Salary 440 480 Total 6 2 1 28 Fifty-five of the teachers, or 15.7% reported the re- ceipt of a local allowance, though it is quite likely that some of them might have been receiving a war bonus. The allowance ranged from 4 to 40 with a median of 16. 64 13. In what ways are you able to improve yourself as a teacher? The replies were as follows: No report Ill Private study; extending knowledge of subjects being taught 94 By wide reading 55 None whatever 31 Reading educational books and periodicals 24 By experience 24 Being member of teachers' association: attending teachers' meetings and teachers' conference 20 Giving up teaching and taking up further studies 14 From other and more experienced teachers ; hints from other schools 13 Attending meetings, lectures, concerts, etc. ; being member of societies 6 Attending vacation courses 6 Going to higher graded school and having fewer classes 5 Through correspondence lessons 4 By travelling during the vacation, and visiting places of interest 4 By hints given in the Education Gazette 4 Suggestions from the inspectors 4 The large number of those who failed to report is significant. Another outstanding fact is that the teacher's improvement is almost completely by individual exertion and that external agencies and organisations play a very small role. Indeed the lack of in-service training for teachers is one of the prominent weaknesses of the school system of the Cape Province. III. BOARDING PLACE. 1. Where do you board? The majority of the teachers, 50.5%, were boarding on the school farm with the owner of the farm, or the manager of the school. Only 22 of the teachers, or 6.4% of those who reported, had a residence provided or were boarding in a school house, and 47, or 13.7%, lived in their own house or rented a house. 65 The data obtained were as follows : On the school farm with owner of farm or manager of school 173 In own house 35 On some other farm near or far from school 33 With a private family locally 30 Residence provided ; school house 15 At home with parents 13 Hired or rented house 12 Boarding house or hotel 10 7 6 5 3 8 School boarding house In a town, village or station near With one of the pupils' parents With the school secretary No report 2. What does board and room cost you per year? There were 98 teachers, or 31.8% of those who reported, who received free board and lodging. The median an- nual cost of those who paid was 36.4. The range was from 4 to 350. The distribution is given by the fol- lowing table: 4 20 40 60 80 100 200 220 I 240 to to to to to to to to to Cost Free 20 40 60 80 100 120 220 240 260 350 No Report Total 98 8 118 47 19 8 3 3 l! 2 1 42 The median expense in connection with board and room was nearly one-fourth of the median salary and left the teacher with 107.3 to use for travelling, clothing, professional upkeep, and other living expenses. 3. Do you room by yourself? There were 65 of the teachers, or 24.1% of those who reported (neglecting those who were married) who shared a room with someone else. Their companion was one of the children of the house or another assistant teacher. Three reported that they sometimes had to share a room as they were in the guest room and had to give it up for visitors. Yes 204 75.8%; No 65 24.1% Married 72 No report 9 66 4. How many children in the house? The median number of children in the house was 4, as was also the mode. The higher totals given in the table below were from boarding houses. Children None 1 2 3 4 5 o 7 8 21 9 10 11 12 13 Total 35 23 32 42 50 42 32 23 12 7 3 2 2 Children 16 20 21 27 33 INo Report Total 2 1 1 1 1 1 18 5. What bathroom facilities? Only 80 of the teachers, or 22.8% could report a bath- room in the house; 121, or 43% of those who reported, had no facilities and these even included some from school boarding houses; 62 reported no bathroom, but the use of a hand bath, portable bath, wash stand, or large basin in the bedroom. Open air bathing in a river, pond, or dam was mentioned by 18. The remainder, 69. failed to report or had nothing to report. It is evident that modern conveniences are sadly wanting. The poor water supply in many areas is responsible for this state of affairs. 6, What facilities have you for getting to the village or town? The replies were summed up as follows: By cart and horses 191 By train 66 By motor car; (own motor car 6) ; post motor car 46 Own cart and horses 22 Hire cart or cab ; post cart ; own expense 23 None 21 On horseback 14 3 3 2 1 1 Walk By wagon Bicycle Motor cycle and sidecar Cart and donkeys 67 Various distances were mentioned to show how more or less completely isolated some of the teachers were. Some of the longer distances were: 18 miles, 20 miles, 21 miles, 24 miles. 26 miles, 28 miles, distance 5 hours by cart, 30 miles, 36 miles, 7 hours by cart, 42 miles, 58 miles, 62 miles, 72 miles, culminating in 20 hours by cart from the nearest village. Equally varied and extreme were the opportunities of teachers for reaching towns and villages. Some of the statements on this point were: "Opportunity almost every day/' " Whenever asked for ; r> "once a week if desired," "farmer and neighbours always willing/' "every week-end and other occa- sions," " depend on charity," " an * occasional lift as a great favour/' "once a fortnight/' "twice a fortnight*" " twice a quarter at most," " once a quarter," "only at end of quarter," "twice per year," and "once a year." IV. COURSE OF STUDY. 1. Which Standards do you teach? The median number of Standards per teacher was* 5 2. Nearly 80% of the teachers had four or more Standards. The distribution is given by the following table: Standards 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 No Report Total 14 57 92 62 53 46 25 1 Per Cent 4 16.2 26.2 17.7 15.1 13.1 7.1 2. How many lessons do you teach on the average each day? As many as 77 teachers failed to report on this ques- tion. Some gave a range and others added behind the number the words "or more.^ The range ot the number 68 of lessons taught on the average each day was from 3 to 30 with a median of 9 lessons. The majority of the teachers evidently did not include lessons which they " heard." Some may have stated the number of lessons per Standard. The latest Primary School Course pub- lished in the Education Gazette of the 25th August, 1.921. makes provision for the teaching of: Religious instruc- tion; languages, English and Dutch; writing; arith- metic; geography and nature study; history; drawing; singing; manual training; physical exercises and hygiene. If half of these are taught per day that would mean 5 lessons per Standard and with 6 Standards the total would be 30. In a 5-hour day this will give the teacher on the average 10 minutes per lesson. All the above subjects are not attempted in a rural one-teacher school. But even if the teacher is able by judicious grouping and correlation to give four lessons each per day to five groups then the total number would be 20 lessons with an average time of 15 minutes each. Between these two situations the average teacher probably presents 25 lessons per day. I 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 | 33 to to to to to to to to to to No Report Lessons 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 Total | 66 70 66 22 19 15 3 5 5 2 77 3. How many reading books per pupil in a Standard: .Dutch? English? Have you supplementary readers? Of the 343 teachers who reported on the first part of this question 285, or 83%, had 1 Dutch and 1 English reader per pupil. The pupils formerly used to concen- trate on half of each in order to be able to spell and explain the meaning of every word in that portion at the time of the inspection. 111 We do not know to what extent th,e practice has changed. m The school syllabus for 1899 stated : " Pupils may take their standards either in English or in Dutch. If both English and Dutch be taken, only the half of the English and the half of the Dutch-Reading Book need be prepared/' Great Britain, Education Department. Op. cit. p. 113, 121. Books Dl El D2 E2 DOID2 Ell El Dl E2 D |( 1 EJ EO DO E2 D3 D2 Eli E3 Dl E3 DO EO No Report Total 285 16 11 ! 10 9 3 ! 3 2 1 1 1 1 7 = Dutch 14 = English The large number 178, or 54.9% , who reported no ' supplementary readers shows how the country school child is handicapped in obtaining the necessary w r ider reading for general information. Instead the child is bound down to a few texts. No 178 Yes 114 A few not enough 14 Only for some of the classes ... 6 Lament's Rural Readers .... 5 Only library book? 4 In English only 3 No report 26 54.9% A. Have you any form of handwork for pupils to do at their seats? Do you teach domestic science, manual training, or agriculture? That as many as 139, or 43.5%, of the schools which reported, had no handwork for the pupils to do at their seats must be ascribed to the great lack of materials and apparatus in the rural schools. The pupils certainly have enough time for such work where the teacher's time is so* fully occupied. Yes No No report 180 56.4% 139 43.5% 31 Only in 5, or 1.6%, of the schools which reported, was anything done with domestic science. Cookery is men- tioned, however, on page 118 of the Education Gazette of 25th August, 1921, as being included in the primary school course. In the secondary school syllabus as printed in the Education Gazette of February 10, 1921, there are courses in cookery and laundry work for Standard VII and in cookery, laundry work and house- wiferv for Standard VIII. 70 No 298 98.3% Yes 5 1.6% No report 52 The position as regards manual training, which is regarded as a definite primary school subject, is even worse: 185 schools, or 61.4%, reported no manual train- ing, while of the 116 schools which reported manual training cnly 16 were able to offer anything for the boys in woodwork or cardboard modelling. A number of the schools had asked for materials, etc., but the Depart- ment had replied : " Materials are too expensive and un- obtainable/' The girls were better provided for in all of the 110 schools through the existence of a course in needlework (sewing and knitting). There was no report from 49 of the schools. "Agriculture is not yet taught in any of the secondary or high schools, since the adequate teaching of the subject is held to be outside of the scope of the ordinary secondary institution aiming at giving general education. Agricultural science is, however, one of the subjects of the rural secondary school course. A scheme has been mooted for the establishment o a real agricultural high school ; but the matter has not yet emerged from the preliminary stage."" It was encouraging to find, however, that as many as 34 teachers, or 9.7%, reported that they were doing some- thing for the subject through their nature study in their pupils' readings, in connection with the school garden, or by the use of rural readers and the book, " Farming for South African Schools." One teacher stated that he gave some attention to the subject in his and the boys' spare time. 5. Are hot lunches served in the school at noon to the children? This question was answered affirmatively by as many as 57, or 16.5%. This is far better than was expected. A large number of these were from farm schools where the children evidently had their meals in the room in Letter from the Department 4th August 1921. 71 which they received their schooling. In the case of 7 schools the hot lunch was limited to some of the pupils. While certain replies stated that it was unnecessary, that the children got home in time, that there was a boarding department close to the school, etc., others emphasised, how very necessary it was for some of the poor underfed pupils, what meagre cold lunches were brought to school, and the long distances the children had to walk. There is evidently great need for improvement and for a different point of view on this question. The hot lunch should not mean only charity for the poor, but the possibility of procuring at least a bowl of soup or a cup of cocoa, especially in winter time, on the part of every child who stays at school during the noon period Such a meal may have great educative value in teaching the necessity of a balanced ration. No 288 83.4% Yes 57 16.5% No report o V. THE SCHOOL. 1. Have you a separate school building or is your classroom in a dwelling house, or in an outhouse? As many as 1G2 teachers, or 46.2%, had no separate school building. Two of the teachers were teaching in church buildings, two schools were described as " rondavels," and two as huts. One teacher was living and teaching in a crowded portable school building, where they were experiencing the extremes of temperature. No wonder that he should suggest: " Uproot every portable school building." Separate school building 188 53.7% Classroom in or attached to dwelling house 90 25.7% In or attached to outhouse 72 20.5% 72 2. Number of classrooms? The distribution was as follows:- Classrooms Total 1 263 2 3 18 4 2 1 6 7 1 64 1 As will be noted there is one one-room school more than the number of one-teacher schools. This is ex- plained by the fact that in one case two teachers were teaching in one room. 3. Who cleans the schoolrooms? Who pays for the cleaning? The replies to the first part were as follows : Pupils 129 Manager, owner or farm people 129 Servants (coloured) 43 European man or woman 33 Caretaker 7 Teacher 6 No report 3 The replies to the second part were: School board 144 No one 77 Manager, owner or farm people 64 Teacher Irrigation board No report 57 * We were especially interested in the part that the pupils and the teachers take in this matter. The out- standing facts are that 129 of the schools, or 37.1%, are cleaned by the pupils, that 6 teachers clean their own schools and that 7 teachers pay for the cleaning. The conditions under which the work was being done and the merits of each will have to be enquired into before any judgment can be passed. It is generally agreed by 73 most rural educators, however, that the teacher should not be required to clean the schoolroom, and much less to pay for the cleaning. 4. How often are the floors scrubbed? The frequency ranged from every day (evidently a room in the dwelling house) to once a year. Five even stated that the floors were never scrubbed. In one case this was qualified by the statement: "unless done by teacher and pupils/' in another case, because the floor was so badly patched. This question further brought out the fact that there were still 28 schools, 8.5% of those who reported, that had a clay or earthen floor. Comment is unnecessary. The floors of the better, or more hygienic schoolrooms were scrubbed once a week. This may well become the standard for all. The second largest practice, 24.3% of those reported, was to scrub the floors once a quarter. .Once a week 98 29.8% Once a quarter ... . 81 24.3% Every fortnight 31 13.6% Twice a quarter 29 12,7% Once a month 22 9.2% Twice a week 17 7.4% Twice a month 8 Never 5 Once every six months 2 Once a year 3 Every three weeks 2 Three times a week 1 Every day 1 Clay or earthen floor 28 - 8.5% No report 22 5. Do you have a school garden? It is always maintained that if at all possible every school should have a school garden to use as a laboratory. These gardens often have to be only temporary on ac- count of the climatic conditions. Moreover, during the long vacations when there is nobody to tend the plants they are likely to die. Other difficulties are the 74 insufficient water supply, unsuitable soil, the dry arid climate, unenclosed grounds, etc. The replies disclosed the facts that 283 schools or 84.2% of those who reported, had no school garden, and only 53 schools, or 15.7%, had a school garden. It has been found in the U.S. of America that where school gardens are failures, a garden may be success- fully maintained at home by the pupils. One of the teachers reported that the school had window plants. This example is worth, copying by those who are not in a position to do anything out of doors. While a school garden may be a more or less tem- porary affair another more permanent phase is worthy of attention, namely the planting of trees, hedges, and shrubs, and the general beautifying of the grounds. Even white- washed stones along a neatly kept path in the Karroo have their aesthetic value! No 283 24.2% Yes 53 15.7% No report 14 6. Have you a school playground? What playground equipment have you? Generally the country child is not hampered for space, for there is the whole farm or the open veld in addition to the schoolgrounds to play on. But when it comes to a definite assignment of a piece of land as a play- ground the matter is quite different. When further it touches the matter of equipment for organised play, with its accompanying benefits, the country school fails com- pletely. Every means should be used to get the indi- vidualistic country children to co-operate. See Benson O. H. and Warren, Gertrude. Organization and 'Results of Boys' and Girls' Club Work. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Circular 66, 1918. 75 The following tables speak for themselves: Playground: Yes 220 65.4% No 116 34.5% No report 14 *:quipment: Nothing 270 92.7% Yes 21 7.2% No report 59 The 21 schools, or 7.2%, which had equipment reported as follows: Basketball 8 Football 8 Tennis court 3 Cricket 2 Skipping ropes 2 One or more balls 2 Hockey 1 Horizontal bars 1 Swings 1 7. What water supply have you? As will be seen from the replies some reported more than one source of supply. Of the sources only 108, or 30.4%, may be said to have been near at hand and con- venient. In most cases water had to be carried to the school over a longer or shorter distance in buckets, cans, or even in bottles. As many as 70 of the schools, or 20%, had no water supply. The tanks were not always satisfactory. Some were too small, others were leaky* etc. The hygienic conditions can only be left to the imagination ! A tank or tanks 94 None 70 Borehole with windmill 43 No report 26 Spring or fountain 24 River 23 Well 22 Pond or dam 21 Open furrow or small stream 18 Water laid on in the building 14 76 8. Is your furniture and equipment satisfactory? What is wanting? The Education Department will no doubt be gratified to learn that as many as 188 of the teachers, or 54.8% reported that their furniture and equipment (as far as it went) was satisfactory. Yes 1S8 54 8% No 155 45.1% No report 7 By far the greatest dissatisfaction was expressed in connection with the pupils' desks, which were variously described as: "long, cumbrous desks/' "obsolete and awkward," "out of date and not suitable," "old-fashioned and shaky/' "very rickety/' "not suited to size of pupils/' " very old with wood splintering very badly." The modern adjustable desk is an unknown thing. Here the Department's decision that "in private farm and small country primary schools, where rooms were usually small, the most suitable desk would be one provided with a back rest, made of wood throughout, and accommodat- ing five or six pupils " p is open to severe criticism. What was lacking has been arranged in descending order of magnitude. The following list includes only those articles mentioned more than five times : Desks 94 Cupboard 56 Maps 55 Blackboards 53 Teacher's desk or table 39 Chairs 26 Globe 24 Pictures and charts 21 Library books 18 Hat, coat or map rack or pegs 17 Heater or oil stove 13 Some class books 12 {> Annual Report of Superintendent-General of Education for 1919, p. 4. 77 Blincls, or screens for windows . . , . 10 School clock 10 ISasel 9 Washing stand with basin and jug 9 Water tank Alterations on building for ventilation, shelter . . lighting and Another room .-... Drawing materials Tonic solfa modulator 9 8 8 8 7 Kindergarten material 7 Repairs School bell OC11UU1 Ufll \f 9. Do you have a school library? How many books? Two hundred and seventy-eight teachers, or 79.4% were able to reply that they had a school library, while 72, or 20.5% had'none. Of the 278 ten did not report on the number of books. For the rest the range was from ft to 900 books per library with a median of 50.7, The number of schools having less than 120 books was 80.2%. The libraries were not always appropriate. The books were sometimes " all too difficult/ 7 or there were "none in Dutch," or they were "very old and in poor condition.-' Most of the libraries have to be built up by the efforts of teachers and pupils. The distribution was as follows: No. of Books Below 30 30 to 60 60 to 90 90 to 120 120 to 150 150 to 180 180 to 210 210 to 240 240 to 270 Total 64 87 29 35 25 8 6 3 1 No. of Books 270 to 300 300 to 330 362 490 501 900 Total 4 2 1 1 1 1 10. Are sanitary closets provided? Separate ones for each sex? The state of affairs <^s revealed by the replies to these questions is scandalous, constituting a disgrace which calls for immediate reined v. 78 The replies to the first part were: Yes No No report 199 146 5 57.6% 42.3% T r he replies of the 199, who reported the provision of sanitary closets, were as follows for the second part: Yes One only, or one together No report 99 That is, out of 350 schools only 99 or 28,2% were able to say that they had the minimum provisions considered absolutely necessary for any decent school. VI. INSPECTION. 1. Average .number of hours given by inspector to your school in a year? The time given by the inspector to a school extended from one hour to 25 hours. The median number of hours was 4.9. Those who received more than one school day, 5 hours, from the inspector were 36.1% of the number reporting: up 2 4 6 8 10 Not to to to to to to 16 18 24 25 yet Report Hours 2 4 6 8 10 12 visited No Total 9 65 120 31 24 2 3 1 1 1 63 30 79 2. What particular things does the inspector do dur- ing such a visit? The replies were summed up as follows : General examination of the work of the pupils. < Sets examinations in, or inspects, arithmetic, spelling, reading, composition, recitation, , translation, grammar.; geography, history, \, 226 singing, physical exercises, writing, mental arithmetic, drawing, needlework and exercise books. Passes or fails the pupils. Inspects the school buildings, furniture, equipment, } the playground, sanitary closets and boarding j- 47 department. j Inspects the register^ and notes attendance 23 Gives advice, suggestions, hints to teacher 21 Looks at the time table and questions the teacher regarding it . . 9 Nothing particular , 8 Work carried out hurriedly 5 Listens to lesson given by teacher and notes methods of teaching 5 Examines the schemes and records of work . . . 5 Reports on the work 3 Finds fault and is unfriendly 3 Instructs the pupils . .? 2 Reads previous reports 1 3. What help do you obtain from the inspector in your work? The data obtained in reply to this question have been grouped in the following table. The large number not reporting is significant. Subtracting the 63 teachers who had not yet been visited still leaves 65 teachers who failed to report anything, a greater total than that for any of the other items below. Before passing judg- ment it should be known, however, that an inspector has on the average 144 schools, 266 teachers and 6,836 pupils under his charged Education Gazette. Statistical No. 1st Quarter 1921, p. 1,301. 80 No report 128 Advice as to the teaching of certain subjects . 56 Gave list of suitable books 43 None , ..--... 41 Useful hints, suggestions ; valuable advice 29 Any help asked for ; every possible help ; willingly gives advice 20 No help unless asked ; not much chance of getting help from him; shows bear-like temper during inspection; too many inspectors and too few instructors 18 Points out where teaching has been faulty and makes suggestions for remedying same; criticises work; difficult points discussed 15 Gives advice re grouping of standards for different subjects 14 Advice regarding the teaching according to the new Syllabus ; advice about records and schemes of work for year 14 Advice in regard to the classification of children 5 The way he examines the pupils is a great help ; sometimes, but very occasionally, he may give a model lesson; short demonstration lesson 5 Reports sometimes help to see weak points in instruction; matters reported to the Education Department are as a rule considered of sufficient importance to induce remedies 4 A teachers' meeting held 2 Inspector offered to assist us if we should write to him .... 1 4. Do any Departmental Instructors* visit your school? How often and how long? Only 34 teachers, or 10.4% of those who answered this question, could report the visit of an instructor. The instructors that were mentioned were: needlework 10, singing 4, drawing 3, woodwork 3, and kindergarten 1. No 292 89.5% Y.es 34 10.4% No report 24 *The Instructors have charge of the teaching of one of the special subjects. 81 The replies to the second part show how much can be expected from an instructor who comes so infrequently and for so short a time. Once every year Once every 2 or 3 years Once every 3 or 4 years Once every 5 years Once every 10 years 17 8 2 1 For 10 minutes 1 For \ hour 1 For hour 4 For * hour to 1 hour 7 About 1 hours 5 For 5 hours 1 VII. THE COMMUNITY. 1. Name helpful organisations in your community? The following table gives the organisations named in their numerical order. The church, and the many branches of its activity, was by far the most helpful organisation. Church Debating Society and Christelike Jongelieden Vereniging None No report Prayer meetings Farmers' Associations Sunday School and Catechisation Class Teachers' Associations Rifle Association v Club for destroying vermin v Christian Students or Endeavour Association Afrikaanse Christelike Vrouwen Vereniging Kinder Zending Krans Sports Committee Temperance Society Afiikaanse Dramatiese Vereniging 145 107 97 42 20 12 9 5 4 4 3 2 2 1. 1 1 82 2. Do you take an active part in any of these? Which? One hundred and seventy teachers, or 57.4% of those who reported, were able to take an active part in one or more of the above organisations. Adding together those who failed to report and those who answered " No," and subtracting the number of teachers who had no organisa- tions in their community, leaves 83 teachers, who might liave taken part in some organisation but who for one reason or another did not. Yes 170 57.4% No 126 No report 54 The activities of the church were very well supported by the teachers. Two of the teachers were holding church services regularly, and two were organists. The data obtained for the second inquiry are shown below: Debating Society and Christelike Jongelieden Vereniging 95 Church 88 Prayer Meetings .... 18 Sunday School and Catechisation Class 16 Teachers' Associations . . . 5 Rifle Association 3 Farmers' Associations 3 Christian Students or Endeavour Association 3 Tennis Club Kinder Zending Krans 2 Temperance Society Club for destroying vermin 1 Afrikaanse Dramatiese Vereniging 1 3. Is the school used for community meetings? Which? The rural school building is often the only available and suitable place for meetings and social gatherings. Much more can be done in the way of the use of the schools as community centres. Only 121, or 36.3% of those who reported, said that the school was used for community meetings. No 212 63.3% Yes 121 36.3% No report 17 S3 The schools were used in connection with the follow- ing: Church Services 55 Debating Society and Christelike Jongelieden Vereniging 47 Prayer Meetings 20 Sunday School and Catechism Class 19 Public Meetings 9 School Committee Meetings 7 Bazaar 4 Farmers' Associations 3 Christian Endeavour Association 2 Kinder Zending Krans 2 Teachers' Association 2 Afrikaanse Christelike Vrouwen Vereniging 1 Diggers Union 1 Sports Committee 1 Concerts 1 4. Do you have school entertainments? How many in a year? Of those who reported only 93, or 28% had had school entertainments. Thirteen teachers intended to have one later. School entertainments have been valu- able means of arousing the interests of the parents and of the community in the school, of socialising the com- munity, of raising funds, and, best of all, of educating the children. No 226 68% Yes 93 28% Not yet, intend to later 13 3.9% No report 18 The replies from the 93 schools showed that the large majority had one entertainment a year. The greatest frequency was four entertainments a year reported by 2 of the schools. One a year 59 Two a year 16 Occasionally, rarely, very seldom 7 One every two years 3 Three a year 2 One every three years 2 Four a year 2 Two in three years 1 No report 1 84 5. Is the community rich or poor? It was felt that the answering of this question would call for various and uncertain judgments. On the other hand teachers are certainly capable of passing a good rough general judgment and that was all that was de- sired. The majority of the schools, 54.5% were in poor communities. The less closely settled sections of a coun- try are generally the poorer sections. Those that were described as being rich, to different degrees, formed 22.7% and the remaining 22.7% were described as mixed, middling, medium and in-between. Seventy-seven of the teachers did not report. 5. From how many farms do the children come? The number of farms that the children came from ranged from 1 to 40 with a median of 3.4. The distribu- tion was as follows: Farms [ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n 10 11 12 13 14 15 17|19 2030 40 Total 141 52 53 50 28 25 14 Q 6 4 7 2 1 4 o l! 2 2 Railway cottages (railway station) : Labour colony (irrigation settlement) 7 No report 22 7. Is there a community spirit noticeable? Are there occasions on which the whole community meets? A large number of teachers, 129, or 36.8% did not answer the first question. There were 123, or 35.1%, who answered, " yes," but of these 8 qualified their statement by adding "very poor," or "not much." There was no community spirit noticeable in 98, or 28%, of the school situations. An equal number, 142 stated that there were, or were not, occasions on which the community met. while G6 failed to report. The meetings reported were in connection with church services, for holy communion, at bazaars, prayer meetings^ sports meetings, debating society meetings and christelike jougelieden vereniging, political meetings, concerts. Christmas celebrations, picnics, parties and socials. VIII. IN CONCLUSION. 1. What are the outstanding problems and difficulties that you experience in connection with the rural school? The replies were grouped as follows : A. The children. (a) Limited general knowledge; lack of social contacts and experience 48 (b) Absences, irregular attendance 48 (c) Lack of competition, ambition, interest, recreation and games 35 (d) Transportation of pupils; great distance children have to walk or ride 30 (e) 'Children ill-fed or underfed; no medical inspection or attention IS B. The teacher. (a) Isolation and poor environment 39 (b) Unsatisfactory boarding ...'... 37 (c) Teacher's transportation difficulties 17 (d) Insufficient salary; poor teachers; short life of school ; teacher changes 17 C. Course of Study. (a) Too many classes and too much work.... 127 ( b ) Making out a workable time-table ; teaching according to new syllabus 23 ( c ) Language difficulties 19 (d) Inspection system 10 D. The School. (a) Insufficient and unsatisfactory furniture and equipment 73 (b) Unsuitable school building 42 (c) Delay in forwarding and trouble in getting school requisites 28 E. The Community. (a) Indifference, ignorance and opposition of parents 61 (b) Poor home environment; poverty 48 (c) School committee not active enough in backing the teacher 19 (d) No community spirit or helpful organisa- tions 7 86 2. What suggestions would you offer for the better- ment of rural education and the lot of the rural teacher? The suggestions were grouped under the same head- ings as those above with the following results: A. The Children. (a) Better conveyance -and aid to pupils whose homes are distant 25 (b) Medical inspection; hot lunch; more boarding schools 20 (c) Trips and excursions for pupils, especially to town 15 (d) Better enforcement of compulsory regula- tions ; change of vacations 12 B. The Teacher. (a) Proper boarding accommodation 36 (b) Higher salary 31 (c) Teacher's improvement 28 (d) Improved travelling facilities 21 C. Course of Study. (a) More 'help and assistance should be provided 64 (b) Improved inspection system 21 (c) Drafting of a simpler curriculum for the one-teacher school 17 (d) Language and medium suggestions 7 D. The School. (a) Better school buildings, etc., as result of centralisation and amalgamation of rural schools 100 (b) More and better equipment to overcome local defects 73 (c) Better and more prompt execution of re- quisitions 7 E. The Community. (a) More sympathy with, and better support for, the rural teacher by the Education De- partment, School Board and School Com- mittee 29 (b) More interest and co-operation (less in- terference) of parents 21 (c) Better rural social organisation 87 SUMMARY. The writer wishes to acknowledge the many limita- tions of the questionnaire method in general and of his questionnaire in particular. However, by interpreting the study in terms of medians, averages and percentages the following picture may be sketched, fairly typical of rural school conditions in the Cape Province during the first quarter of the year 1921. The teacher was a young woman, 22 years of age, who had been born in South Africa and came from a Dutch home in the country. She had completed her school education by passing Standard VII, after which she had three years of normal training, the last of which* at least, was spent in a normal school. She held the Third Class Teachers' Certificate and in addition a num- ber of Departmental and language certificates. She began teaching when she was nineteen years old and had been teaching for three years. This was the third school in which she had taught. Her previous experience had been gained in a farm school or a one-teacher rural school. She was a considerable distance from her parental home, which is located in another district. Her yearly salary was 143.7 and sh,e received no local allowance. Her growth and development as a teacher was limited to what she was able to attain by individual effort and private study. She roomed by herself in the house of the owner of the school farm. Board and room cost her 36.4 There were four children in the house, which had no bathroom. She was able to get to the nearest town or village by cart and horses only at intervals. The school in which she taught was a primary one- teacher school with 15 or 16 pupils, 8 boys and 7 girls, or 8 boys and 8 girls. Only one or two of the pupils came from English-speaking homes. There had been no medi- . cal inspection. One or two of the pupils were conveyed to school and at their parents' own expense. The per- centage of attendance for the last quarter w r as 87.5. Sickness and the inclemency of the weather were the chief reasons for absences. The work on the farm did not interfere to any great extent. The 15 or 16 pupils were distributed through 5 or 6 Standards and this made it necessary for the teacher to teach and hear about 25 lessons per day. The pupils each had one Dutch and one English reading book. There were no supplementary readers. The girls were having drill in needlework, but the boys had no manual training. No hot lunch was served in the school at noon. The teacher taught in a school building standing by itself and having just one classroom. The school room was cleaned by the pupils or by the people on the farm. The floors were scrubbed about once a quarter. There was no school garden. There was a playground, but it had no equipment. The water supply was unsatisfactory. Water had to be carried to the school. The furniture and equipment as far as it went was satisfactory, but there was not enough of it. The school had a library containing fifty books. The hygienic and sanitary arrangements were defective. The inspector visited the school once a year and stayed for 4.9 hours. During that time he examined the pupils as a result of which they passed or failed their Standard. The inspector was not able to help the teacher much in her work, neither did any of the Departmental Instruc- tors visit the school. By far the most helpful organisation in the community was the church. The teacher was able to take an active part in one or another organisation, but the school was not being used as a community centre. Even the school entertainment for arousing the interest of the community was w r anting. The children came from three or four farms. The community on the whole was poor and still more poorly organised for combined effort. 89 B. THE WORK OF OTHER AGENCIES. In addition to the rural school the following agencies contribute to the education of the farmers : The Agricultural Department is under the Union Government. There is a Minister of Agriculture in the cabinet of the Prime Minister. The chief divisions of the Department are concerned with veterinary research, sheep and wool, entomology, botany and plant pathology, tobacco, cotton, dairying, horticulture, viticulture, guano islands, chemistry, and agricultural education. Two Agricultural Schools and Experimental Stations are maintained by the Government in the Cape Province, one at Elsenburg, near Mulder's Vlei, about 30 miles from Cape Town (accommodation for 40 students) and the other at Grootfontein, just outside the town of Middelburg (accommodation for 80 students). The Elsenburg farm contains approximately 1,700 acres. The special features of this institution are horti- culture, viticulture and winemaking, cereal, tobacco (Turkish), poultry and dairying. The school serves the coastal districts from Namaqualand to Knysna, and the districts of Ceres, Worcester, Paarl, Tulbagh and Montagu. The Grootfontein farm is very extensive (about 25,000 acres) and typical of a large area of the Karroo and midlands of the Cape Province. The special fea- tures here are agriculture (chiefly irrigation), ostriches, Merino sheep, Angora goats, poultry and dairying. The area of operation embraces the rest of the Cape Province excluding Griqualand East and the area served by Elsen- burg. The following courses are given : (1) A one year course in general Agriculture. (2) A two years course in Agriculture and Agricultural Science, qualifying for a diploma in Agriculture. 90 (3) A three year course for an honours diploma for ad- vanced study in certain subjects. (4) Special courses of varying duration are offered appropriate to the more specialized farming pursuits in each area. (5) Short vacation courses are also provided for farmers and their wives and daughters, rural school teachers, and others interested in agricultural pursuits. Extension work is carried on by means of external lectures and demonstrations, by co-operative experi- mental work with farmers, by advisory services through correspondence and visits to farms, orchards, poultry yards, etc., and by the publication of numerous articles and bulletins. Further important functions of the schools consist in the carrying out of experimental and investigational work and the breeding of pedigree live stock for sale to farmers. The following data were obtained from the Principal of the Grootfontein School of Agriculture: " Students are admitted to the Diploma Course only at the commencement of each school year, i.e. in January. The minimum age of entry is 16 years. Candidates must have passed the Junior Certificate examination or its equivalent, and must produce satisfactory references as to character and evidence of good health. Preference will be given to those with a higher standard of education. An inclusive fee of 50 per annum covers board, laundry, tuition and ordinary medical attendance at the institution. A few assistance bursaries (value 50 and 25 per annum) may be awarded each year to the sons of parents who are not in a position to pay the fees or are able to pay a portion of the fees only. The total enrolment owing to lack of further accommoda- tion was 82 in 1921. The percentage of matriculated students was approximately 80%, and about 80% of the men came from farms. The students remain for the full course, whatever the course may be. They are not taken for a portion of the course. After leaving they are engaged as farmers, managers, dairy factory managers, sheep experts, etc., according to their train- ing. Less than a quarter of 1% go on to work other than that having a bearing on farming. 91 Half the student's time in the Two Years Course is devoted to class work and the other half to practical work. This practical work covers field operations, work in the engineers' shops, practical work at dairying, stock judging, etc. The principal agricultural shows are visited to assist in stock judging, judging of agricultural produce, etc., and also for the purpose of staging educational agricultural exhibits from the institution. Lectures are delivered at agricultural shows and before farmers' association meetings, and on many other occasions. All results of work performed, whether experimental, in- vestigational or research, are published either through the press, or through the Agricultural Journal, and reprints are obtained/* Under normal conditions a certain number of scholar- ships are offered annually for competition throughout the Union for special study oversea in stock and agriculture, or in some branch of agricultural science. These scholarships are for 2 to 4 years and are granted to students who have completed a course at one of the schools of agriculture, or to others who are graduates in science of a University in South Africa, or otherwise worthy of a scholarship. The holder is required on his return to enter the government service for three years. Since 1918 a faculty of agriculture has been estab- lished at the University of Stellertbosch and the success ful completion of a four-year course here leads to the degree of B. Sc. in agriculture. In addition there is also a two-year course for intending farmers to which students are admitted who in the opinion of the Senate have attained the standard of the Matriculation or Senior Certificate examination. 92 IV. COMPARATIVE STUDIES OR RURAL EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. The phases of rural education treated under the various heads in the following pages include only those considered suggestive. There is no pretence, whatever, at an exhaustive or complete study of any topic discussed. 1 . AD MINI STR AT ION. For comparison the school system of the Cape Province is diagrammatically compared with that of a typically progressive state of the United States. In their duties the officials are only roughly equivalent. Cape Province. State of the United States. Governor-General in Council Governor of State I I Administrator State Board of Education 5 to 7 members I I Supt.-General of Education State Supt. of Education I I Department of Education State Dept. of Education I I Division County I I Divisional School Board County Board of Education I I Inspector of Schools County Supt. of Schools (State Official) (Local Official) I I Supervisors I I School Committee School Trustees or Directors I I Teachers Teachers I I Pupils Pupils 93 The outstanding difference between the two systems is that the Cape system is highly centralised while a large amount of local control is exercised in the States. The increased financial assistance given by the Provincial Council has been accompanied by increased government control and centralised authority in educa- tional matters. In the United States the state govern- ments contribute only 15% while 84% of the expense of educating the children of the state is borne b}^ the local communities, and the bulk of this local burden is carried by the small school districts/ There is a movement, however, to abandon the small district and employ the county and state as taxing units. Federal aid also is generally advocated by the leaders of educa- tion. Great freedom in local control of schools has in the past been allowed in the United States with disastrous results in many cases as exemplified by a short school year, underpaid teachers, a meagre course of study and other shortcomings. The best educational opinion is in favour of greater centralised control. It is interesting to note that while the movement is toward greater cen- tralisation in the United States, other highly centralised countries* e.g. France, are trying to get more local control. "The chief administrative change that is con- sidered desirable (in France) is one that will abolish the extreme form of centralization that characterizes the system. If the needs of the nation and the different localities are to be met, some flexibility must be intro- duced in educational administration." 8 Thus are the different countries trying to maintain the balance be- tween the central and local authorities in educational affairs. 2. INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION, The aim of school inspection is to judge the effective- ness of school work. It is used chiefly as a means of r Journal of Rural Education, Dec. 1921, p. 145. 8 Kandel, I. L. Education in France in 1916-1918, Bulletin 1919, No. 43 Bureau of Ed., p. 5. 94 standardising the school activities within a school system. Inspectors are generally state officials. The duties of inspectors are much the same in the different countries. In addition to visiting the schools in their circuits once, twice or oftener every year and examining the work, they have varying responsibilities of an administrative nature to perform. As a rule they are appointed from amongst the more experienced teachers. In France it is necessary for the teachers to pass a special qualifying examination in order to become eligible. " In Ontario, Canada, the regulations require candidates for positions as inspectors to be holders of or entitled to, the depart- mental certificate as inspector of public schools. To secure this the candidate at present has to hold an honour degree from a recognised university, must have had seven years' successful experience in teaching, five of which shall have been in public schools, and is required to have passed the examination in this special course for inspectors provided by the faculties of Education." t In Sweden "a committee of the Eiksdag reached the conclusion that the work of the inspectors was that of specialists and that they should be appointed and directed by regulations with this character of their duties in view." u In the United States the broader function of super- vision has been recognised as of greater importance than inspection. The main purposes of supervision are the development of the teachers and the improvement of in- struction. Where the inspector passes upon the worth and efficiency of a school the supervisor must do this and more ; he must raise the worth and increase the effi- ciency. The inspector inspects the school, criticises the teacher, and leaves the responsibility for improvement on the teacher. Supervision, on the other hand, is for * Foght, H. W. The School System of Ontario. Bulletin 1915. No. 32 U.S. Bureau of Education, p. 22. * Pearson, P. H. Schools of Scandinavia, Finland and Holland. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1919, No. 29, p. 25. 95 the improvement of the teacher with the responsibility resting on the supervisor. While the inspection is im- personal and non-constructive, supervision is personal and constructive/ Supervision is a vastly more difficult matter than in- spection as it involves (1) the diagnosis of instruction, (2) the planning for its improvement, and (3) the pre- sentation of these plans in a manner forcible enough to affect the teacher's conduct. Each of these call for a high order of ability and extensive training. The urgent need of a greater amount of expert super- vision for one-teacher rural schools is now clearly re- cognised. In this recognition the following factors and conditions are particularly prominent: (1) the problems of rural teachers are assuredly the most perplexing in the whole field of education; (2) rural teachers are less well prepared than the urban teachers; (3) they are less experienced; (4) their professional training has been least well adapted to the kind of teaching they are called upon to perform; (5) the isolation of the teacher makes helpful advice and association with other teachers impossible; and (6) the one or more annual visits from the county superintendent or inspector can never give them the professional encouragement they so greatly need American and South African inspectors are, in fact, unable to approach real supervision because of the vast territory involved; the large number of schools, teachers and pupils in their circuits; the variety and amount of inspection work they have to do; their un- preparedness for the task; and the many clerical duties they are compelled to perform. " In thirteen states to-day, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Oregon, Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Illinois, Maine, Ohio, Maryland, and Louisiana, professional assistants to the county superintendent, variously known as supervisors, assistant superintendents, supervising teachers, helping teachers, or deputy superintendents, are now a permitted T Elliott, E. C. City School Supervision, Yonkers, World Book Co., 1914, p, 12. 06 or required part of the state school system. Such assistants are also employed in occasional counties in several other states, among which are Montana, Alabama, Indiana, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee." w The specific aims of rural school supervision have been defined as follows by L. C. Brogden, State Supervisor of Eural Elementary Schools in North Carolina: 1. To increase the efficiency of the individual teacher in her classroom. 2. To weld the rural teachers into one teaching staff work- ing with oneness of purpose and unity of effort. 3. To link in a carefully planned and systematic way the subject-matter taught in the school with the home life of the pupils. 4. To reinforce the efforts of the teacher in providing in a more adequate way for the physical training and recreational needs of the children. 5. To reinforce the efforts of the teacher in making the school a real social and intellectual centre for all the people in the community .* In the report of a committee of American rural educa tors on "The Distinction between Administration and Supervision" at the National Education Association meeting in Atlantic City in 1921 the relation of the supervisor to the teachers supervised was defined as that of a college instructor to the members of his class. " The supervisor is essentially a teacher of teachers." More specifically stated the functions of the supervisor are here held to be: (1) assisting at teachers' conferences; (2) directing group teachers' meetings where demon- stration lessons are given and discussed; (3) visiting the teacher at work, discussing th,e work observed in a conference with the teacher, making constructive criti- cisms* and leaving a record of the problems discussed and the remedies suggested; (4) giving assistance, and guidance to teachers by correspondence; (5) using standard tests for measuring and improving the school work; (6) stimulating, guiding- and assisting the teacher ^Dunn, F. W. The Distinction between Administration and Supervision. Educational Administration and Super- vision, March, 1920, p. 160. * Brogden, L. C. Annual Report of State Supervisor of Rural Elementary Schools for 1920-21. Raleigh, North Carolina, p. 6-8. 97 in her community relationships; and (7) reporting to the superintendent on the supervisory activities. Teachers' meetings have been found especially helpful in the work of supervision in the United States. They serve as a means of getting teachers to work together with a common interest and for the good of all; they make possible social contacts and group inspiration; and through them the supervisor is able to organise his work economically. A teacher who is doing a piece of work well is often asked to demonstrate before a teachers' meeting. For this purpose the teachers assem- ble at a selected school where the demonstration lesson is presented and discussed so as to bring out the difficul ties encountered and the reasons for the success attained. Another method employed by American Supervisors for improving the teachers under their charge is that of professional visiting. Under this plan a teacher who needs help may visit another teacher who is succeeding in some procedure that the former is in need of. The demonstration teacher is informed as to the particular type of lesson or method which she is to illustrate and a conference between the two teachers follows the de- monstration. 3. RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS. In the European countries, Denmark, England, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, the typical rural teacher is a mature married man. These men are generally well prepared for their work, well paid and of permanent tenure. In England, France and Germany the rural schools are, , with few exceptions situated in villages. Conditions in the Cape Province can be com- pared only with those which pertain in countries having the open-country school, as for example the United States, Canada, and Australia. Three studies have been made of the rural school teacher in the United States, namely, those of Nebraska (1917), Pennsylvania (1920). and New York (192117 For comparison the results of y The Rural Teacher of Nebraska, U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1919, No. 20. King, L. A. The Rural Teacher in Pennsylvania, 1920. Bagley, W.C. The New York State Rural School Survey, 1922. 98 these studies and of the one made herein of the Cape Province are placed in the following table: Cape Province. New York. Pennsylvania. Nebraska. Median ago of teacher 22.3 24 22.8 21.01 Median years of experience 3.2 5 3.7 2 Median begin- ning age 19.1 19 19.2 19 Median teacher bred in country country country country Percentage of men teachers 32.8 6.9 24 10.3 Percentage married men 53 55 Percentage teaching first year 20.8 22 30 33 Median teacher's H.S. education 1 yr. 3 or 4 yrs. 2 or 3 yrs. 4 yrs. Percentage graduated from H.S. 6.6 56 22 42 ISTormal school education 3 yrs. 1 yr. None One summer Median salary per annum $698.38 $837 $411 $445.28 Median cost of board & lodging $176.90 $294 $121 $114.80 Teacher's * appointment Permanent Temporary Temporary Temporary Median No. of grades (Stds.) in school 5.2 7 Median No. of -pupils per teacher 16 26 No. of children in farm home where teacher is boarding 4 1 or 2 2 "Week-ends spent On farm away away away 99 In interpreting the above data there are several factors to be taken into account. Th,e Nebraska study was made five years ago in 1917. The Nebraska and Pennsylvania studies were limited to the one-teacher schools, while the studies of the Cape Province and of New York included all the rural teachers. The median teacher in each of the latter cases, however, is represen- tative of the teacher in the one- teacher school. The outstanding weakness of rural teachers in the Cape Province is their lack of high school education. This is especially serious when it is remembered that pupils in the United States graduate from a 12-year school course as against a 10-year course in the Cape Province. The tb/ree years of normal school education compensates somewhat for this, but not sufficiently. Since this study was made, however, the standard of admission to the normal school has been raised to two years of high school and this is to be followed by a two- year normal course. But this standard needs to be raised still further in the near future. Another great evil with which the Cape system has to cope is the continual migration of country teachers. Here rural teachers are able to leave their posts at the end of any one of the four quarters. In the United States they generally sign a contract to teach for a year. So long as rural teachers continue to be peripatetics the best results cannot be expected. Indiana, Wisconsin and Maryland offer a bonus to rural teachers who remain more than a year in the same school. 4. RURAL-TEACHER PREPARATION. German elementary school teacher is said to be the most completely trained teacher in the world. His training covers a period of six years, three of which are spent in a preparatory normal school and three in the normal school proper where academic courses are given together with special technical training required for his professional duties. During the last year he teaches in the model school from six to ten hours weekly. 100 For this purpose every German normal school must have attached to it a graded model school. A few have also an ungraded model school. 2 In the United States twenty-five states employed high schools for the preparation of. rural teachers in 1920- 1921. Seven states provided for this work in separate special departments; the others as part of the regular high school course. Wisconsin, in addition to the use of high schools for rural teacher preparation, operated thirty county trailing schools for this purpose. " In the high school training-classes of Minnesota one period each day, practically for the entire year, is spent by the training- class student in the elementary school. At the beginning of the year two weeks are given to class observation. Then each student takes a group of about five pupils for 15 minutes each day, the teaching being limited at the outset to very simple exercises preferably of the " drill " type. After two weeks of this work, the training-class spends a week in visiting and observing neighbouring rural schools, and the following week is devoted to a discussion of these visits. With this preparation the more intensive teaching of small groups in the local graded schools is begun and continued for three months. Following this, two months are spent in teaching larger groups, and then two weeks in actual rural school teaching. For the specific purpose of providing the students with experience in beginning first grade work, small classes are organized toward the end of the year comprising children in the community who would normally enter school the subsequent fall. Students take charge of these classes under close supervision and work with them for eight weeks. " a Rural school practice in the same system is organised as follows : (1) Each rural teacher submits to the training teacher an outline of the subject-matter to be taught while the student-teacher is visiting and also a list of the texts used in the school. This information is to aid the students in planning their work. * Kandel, I. L. Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany. Teachers' College, Columbia Univ., 1910, pp. 74, 75. a Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulle- tin 14, 1920, p. 176. (2) Each rural teacher receives a practice scheme in- dicating the amount of teaching the student is to do. This varies with strong and weak students but in general follows a plan providing for observation first then teaching in succession one-quarter day, one-half day and a full day. (3) The training teacher gives each rural teacher an outline for reporting the student-teacher under her charge. Emphasis is placed on the student's ability to manage and teach the whole school at one time, this being the particular purpose of this type of practice. No group teaching is allowed, the aim being to provide typical rural school experience. (4) Arrangements for transportation and board of the student-teacher are clearly made with every rural teacher. (5) All the students are placed in the country at the same time and the department is closed. This permits the training teacher to spend her time in supervising the students and visiting each at least once. (6) Upon the return of the students reports are made, class discussions of the rural teaching experience follow, and problems are brought up for solution. Of the 170 general public normal schools in the United States in 1921 there were 113 giving special courses for rural teachers. b These courses include such subjects as rural school management, rural sociology and economies' nature study and agriculture, rural health and sanita- tion, arithmetic and farm accounts, industrial arts, history and community civics, home economics, manual training, and physical education and games. In the province of Quebec, Canada, the co-operation between the Schools of Agriculture and Household Science, and the School for Teachers at Macdonald College is accomplishing a great deal in strengthening the rural school teachers. In Nova Scotia the location of the Normal School and Agricultural College in the same town (Truro), with their close co-operation in the b Carney, Mabel. Mimeographed material. 1Q2 matter of teacher-training gives a special opportunity for excellent work in adjusting teacher-training to meet rural needs. Here nature study, elementary science, and agriculture form part of the regular normal school course and the rural science courses given every summer are especially effective. The recent report of an experiment in practice teach- ing in rural schools for a large number of students during a period of three weeks was published in School- ing, May, 1921, Teachers College Press, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia. Seventy-three students from the' Teachers College went into camp at Glenbrook 42 miles from Sydney in 1920. Each day the party split up into groups for teaching practice in the eleven adjacent schools to which they were conveyed by train or motor bus. In this way the students were able to get three weeks of first-hand acquaintance with the actual con- ditions of rural schools. The experiment at Glenbrook proved so successful that it was decided to continue the work and in 1921 there were 89 students in camp at Camden. Both camps were self-contained and self- supporting. In Victoria, Australia, four courses have been pro- vided for the training of teachers; namely, a secondary, a primar}', an infant, and a short-course for teachers of small rural schools. Under a correspondence system rural teachers may receive further instruction by cor- responding with the Melbourne High School. d For the practice teaching of its students the Training College in New Zealand has " model schools", one of these being a rural public school under a sole teacher. Only teachers who have shown special skill in managing a country school may be placed in charge of a model school of this type, and those selected receive special remuneration. 6 c Miller, J. C. Rural Schools in Canada, pp. 72, 73. d Ed. in Parts of the British Empire. Bulletin 1919, No. 49, U.S. Bureau of Education, p. 41. * Report of the Minister of Education for the year ended 31st December, 1920, p. 20. 103 Present practice in the Cape Province distinguishes between the; preparation of primary, secondary, infant school, and special subject teachers, but no special pro- vision has been made for the preparation of rural teachers. This defect has been recognised by the Superintendent-General of Education in his report for the year ended 31st December, 1918, on page 5: " There is need for the special training of student-teachers, who are -likely to have charge of single- teacher schools. One experiment in this direction which will 'be followed with interest is the establishment of a small one-room practising school in con- nection with the Cape Town Training College." From this meagre showing it is evident that we have fallen far behind in this line of progress. As formerly noted, another weakness of our system is the lack of provisions for the improvement of teachers in service. In the United States due to the many sub- sidiary agencies for training teachers which have been so highly and largely developed the American teacher re- mains a student. These agencies can only be men- tioned here. They include: Supervision, inspection and standardization, state and county institutes, teachers^ meetings, summer schools at normal schools and at universities, correspondence work with and extension teaching from State Institutions, controlled courses in professional reading or teachers' reading circles, leaves of absence for study, and visiting days when one teacher visits the school of another/ 5. CouRvSES OP STUDY. (A) Elementary School. The subjects taught in the elementary schools of differ ent countries are much the same. It is not the purpose f See : Ruediger, W.C. Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in Service. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1911, No. 3. Russell, C. The Improvement of the City Elementary School Teacher in Service. Teachers' College, Columbia Uni- versity, N.Y., 1922. 104 here to consider these subjects in turn. This study proposes rather to show how rural education should differ from urban education and to discuss those subjects which are regarded as especially rural. A few extracts will show what educators in the different countries have been thinking and doing in this matter. Rural elementary education is strengthened and adapted to the needs of rural life by (a) bringing the curriculum into touch with the rural environment, and (b) introducing such subjects as provide a manual as well as an intellectual training. (England, Board of Education. Memorandum on the Principles and Methods of Rural Education, 1911, p. 1). Rural children snouici nave educational facilities equal to those enjoyed by town children. Nothing should be done that would lessen the opportunities of the children at school or check them in the free choice of their future career. Handwork should be utilised in an educational rather than a vocational manner. Handwork should be part and parcel of the very life of the school, not merely tacked on as a handicraft subject (C. H. Turnor. New Movements in Rural Education. London 1919. pp. 5, 8). The subject matter taught in the elementary rural schools of Denmark is organised in a manner to emphasise: (1) Thoroughness in the fundamental subjects, (2) an under- standing of the nature environment in which the children live; and (3) familiarity with subjects of immediate social-economic value. (Foght H. W. The Educational System of Rural Denmark. Bulletin 1913, No. 58, p. 20) . Educators are seeking instruction material outside of books and classrooms to an extent that was not practical before; and they find more of it in direct life and living than was ever before considered in connection with school purposes. In Sweden and Denmark emphasis is laid on making, handling, observing, and producing things ; school trips preceded by map- ping the route and followed by putting the notes of the trip into organised form; researcnes and studies in the home locality and its resources and industrial possibilities. (Schools of Scandi- navia, Finland and Holland. Bulletin 1919. No. 29. F.S. Bureau of Ed. p. 4). Nature study as related to the open country, agriculture adapted to the local needs and conditions, manual training of the type most related to the needs of the farm, home economics suited to the conditions of the farm-home, these are the basis 105 of the rural-school curriculum, the core around which the other subjects are to be grouped. (Betts and Hall. Better Rural Schools. 1914. p. 63). Vocations are differentiated and specialised instead of general in value, and have no place in the elementary school. There is, however, need of occupational material in the course of study (a) to give knowledge, insight, appreciations and right attitudes in the economic field, (b) to afford a basis of experience in which abstract virtues may develop, (c) to vitalise the tool studies by life associations. The subject-matter being taught must be linked intelligently and systematically with the every-day needs and vital interests of the pupils upon the farm and in the home. Since the nature of these needs and interests is determined in part by native capacities and in part by environment and experience, the activities engaged in may vary for different communities. There is no need to provide artificially in or through the school what is already afforded by the natural environment. The task of the school is (1) to see that the contribution of the environment to desired ends is realised, (2) to supplement the natural first-hand experience of the local environment with artificially devised first-hand experiences of other environments, or if this is not possible, with second-hand experience through reading, pictures, etc. (Dr. Fannie W. Dunn. Proceedings of the N.E.A. Atlantic City Meeting 1921. Vol. 59. p. 570.) The purpose of rural elementary? education is the same as for elementary education anywhere. Its major objectives are as constant as the purposes of society. Some of its problems, as those in reading, writing, language, and spelling are fairly stable, others are more variable. Within such subjects as hygiene, nature study, local geography, local history and com- munity civics, adaptation to local conditions as well as needs is imperative psychologically no less than sociologically for method as well as purpose; but such adaptation is no less needed in city than in country. (Dr. D. Snedden, Mimeographed material). The work of the country schools (of Western Australia) is receiving special attention. Teachers are being trained with a view to their special needs, and a special curriculum is being prepared for them. It is not so much that the actual subjects of instruction need to be different as that they shall be treated in a different manner, so that the atmosphere of the school shall be that of a rural institution, fitted for the needs of a rural community. Nature study and elementary agriculture form a centre round which much of the school work can be grouped. (Report of the Education Department for the year 1920. p. 10). 106 After summing up the many proposed purposes for rural elementary education in the United States and criticising and evaluating them in terms of underlying principles O. G. Brim concludes that the objectives; (1) to retain children on the farm, (2) to provide vocational preparation, (3) to prepare country children for a satis- fying rural life, and (4) to prepare children for general efficiency by means of rural resources are not valid. Rural children should be prepared for general efficiency by supplementing rural resources. " Rural elementary education is merely elementary educa- tion in a rural setting. The principles that control its activity and purposes are those of child growth in general and social welfare at large. There is nothing local in its purpose. Its differences will be due to the local approach and to the different needs to be supplied in order that the rural child may realise through his environment the growth that is justly his, and in order that society may realise from him the contribution it has a right to expect." g " The rural elementary school must socialise the rural-urban relations as the basis for rural progress. And to socialise means to integrate, not to differentiate." 14 The most instructive rural school course in the United States is that of the State of Montana. " The present tendency all over the country is to make a curriculum not merely a bare outline of subject matter but also motivated material and suggestive live issue problems. The Mon- tana course is fuller than the older courses in this and other states, as the outline of subject matter has been enriched by method helps, type lessons, references, and a few educational principles." 1 g Brim, O. G. A study of the Needs and Objectives of Rural Elementary Education. Doctor's dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1920. p. 213. h Ibid p. 154. i State Course of Study. Rural Schools of Montana. State Department of Public Instruction. Helena. Montana. 1919. p. 5. 107 (7?) Junior High School. In the United States the Junior High School occupies a position somewhat comparable to the Secondary School fas distinct from the High School) in the Cape Province. Tn the latter six differentiated courses are offered: (1) boys' general course, (2) girls' general course, (3) aca- demic course, '(4) commercial course, (5) rural course, and (6) domestic course. Each course includes six subjects or pairs of half -subjects; for example the rural course makes provision for: (1) First language* (2) second language, (3) science, (4) history and geography, (5) a. arithmetic, b. mathematics; (6) a. manual train- ing, b. book-keeping. Tb,e first four subjects are the same in each course. In arithmetic there is some differ- entiation into ordinary arithmetic, commercial arith- metic, and housecraft arithmetic. These subjects when once selected have to be studied for two years. Besides the prescribed courses in the Junior High School in the United States a number of short courses- are offered lasting only for a semester. These brief exploratory courses enable a pupil to discover the field for which he is specially adapted. Professor T. H- Briggs has said : " The junior high school should attempt (1) to continue, in so far as it may seem wise and possible, and in a gradually diminish- ing degree, common, integrating education; (2) to ascertain and reasonably to satisfy pupils' important immediate and assured future needs; (3) to explore by means of material in itself wortl* while the interests, aptitudes, and capacities of pupils, (4) to reveal to them, by material otherwise justifiable, the possibilities in the major fields of learning, (5) to start each pupil on the career which, as a result of the exploratory courses, he, his parents, and the school are convinced is most likely to be of profit to him and to the state." 3 (C) Senior High School. The syllabus for the last two years of high school in the Cape Province requires the taking of six subjects of which agricultural science and manual training belong more particularly to the rural course. The organisation 3 Briggs T. 11. The Junior High School, p. 26. 108 of the courses of study in the senior high school in the United States makes provision for individual differences in terms of capacities and special abilities by means of elective courses, promotion by subjects, and the possibility of carrying varying amounts of work. The factors of re- tardation and elimination are taken into consideration also, so that instead of the pupil being eliminated he is retained as long as possible by properly differentiated courses. There is, in addition, a recognition of the needs of those who are compelled to leave school early and different prevocational and vocational courses are given. If secondary schools are to offer courses which are determined by local demands and which serve community interests th,e rural high school, surrounded by agricul- tural homes and people whose vocational interests are largely agricultural should then give special attention to the preparation of its pupils for farm life. It will be well therefore to see what has been done in the schools of the different countries for the teaching of agriculture. (D) Agriculture. In France agriculture is taught in all rural primary schools. The work begins with object lessons, then changes to nature study of a practical kind and finally develops into agriculture and hygiene with practical exercises in cultivation and in grafting. A regular text in agriculture is used. In Belgium the theory and practices of agriculture, closely adapted to local needs, are taught in nearly all of the rural schools. Germany, Austria and Switzerland have developed special agricul- tural schools, rather than general work in agriculture in connection with the regular elementary schools. In Sweden the elements of agriculture and forestry are taught in all the rural schools. In Denmark nature study is taught informally throughout the first three years and is then continued as* biology and agriculture to the end of the course. Japan has introduced agricul- tural instruction with marked success.* k Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education Agricultural Education. 109 Canada and Australia have provided for the teaching of agriculture in certain grades, but in England little has been done. In Ontario, Canada, wherever instruc- tion in agriculture has been established as a regular subject of the public school curriculum it has maintained itself and steadily grown in public favour. Perhaps the most conspicuous proof of the part agricultural education is coming to play in the Province is seen in the school fair exhibits held in the rural districts, and serv- ing by means of the appeal to local productions, interests, and the awarding of prizes for excellence along agricul- tural lines, to arouse and maintain a social solidarity unknown until their introduction. 1 In the United States generalised nature study is taught in the lower grades leading to elementary agricul- ture of a n on -vocational type in the upper grades. The greatest achievement here has been realised through the Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Club Movement. These clubs aim to promote an intelligent interest in farm life and surroundings through friendly contests in crop growing, live-stock production, gardening and canning, and similar activities. Schools of secondary grade for theoretical and practical training in agriculture exist in France, Russia, Germany, Austra, Sweden, and Japan. Ontario, Canada has organised a two-year course in agriculture in her high schools while Alberta has agricultural high schools. Tn the United States the schools giving secondary work in agriculture include: (a) secondary schools of agricul- ture in connection with the colleges of agriculture; (b) special agricultural high schools, (c) normal schools, and (d) regular high schools offering instruction in agricul- ture as part of their course of instruction. The last type named is in the great majority and has been made possible through the Smith-Hughes act. The Smith- Hughes act extends Federal aid for the promotion of vocational education to pupils above 14 years of age. The 1 Ed. in Parts of the British Empire. Bulletin 1919, No. 49 Bureau of Education, p. 18. 110 purpose of the law is to encourage secondary schools, both rural and urban, to offer well-planned courses in agriculture, the trades, and industrial subjects, includ- ing home economics." 1 The number of schools offering vocational courses in agriculture and receiving the benefit of the Smith-Hughes fund was 1,375 in 1920 as against 609 for the year 1918. The total enrolment in agricul- tural courses in the Smith-Hughes schools increased from 15,453 in 1918 to 31,301 in 1920. n In most of the United States a four-year curriculum in agriculture is maintained in the high schools. In New York the following subjects are included in the state curriculum: Poultry, farmshop; soils, home gardening, farm crops; animal husbandry, dairying, fruit growing; farm management and farm engineering. Here the ''training in the practice of farming is accomplished by a home project which may be defined as a farming enterprise studied and planned at school un^er direction and carried into operation on the home farm or other farm where satisfactory arrangements are made under the supervision of the teacher of agriculture. It is not a series of problems relating to agriculture but is rather a definite piece of work in the conduct- ing of which ownership, correct business methods, managerial ability, economic profit and study are emphasised." In the organisation of a high school department of vocational agriculture consideration is given to at least three groups. These are: (1) Pupils regularly enrolled in the school who pursue the agricultural curriculum. (2) 'Boys and young men who have left the school with- out completing the elementary or high school courses and who may be interested in receiving definite instruction in the vocation of farming. (3) Adults living and working on farms desiring in- struction in specialised phases of their work. p * Foght, H. W. The Rural Teacher and his Work. p. 85 Agricultural Educatipn. U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1921, No. 40, p. 16. Bulletin No. 703, University of the State of New York. p. 16. p. 29. Ill The teachers of agriculture employed in the high schools receive their training at the college of agriculture. Not only has rapid progress been made in the improve- ment of curricula for the training of teachers of agricul- ture, but great achievements have been made toward providing appropriate facilities for practice in teaching on the part of prospective teachers. The committee on practice teaching of the American Association for the Advancement of Agricultural Teaching at its Springfield meeting, in 1920, suggested the following standards: (1) The teaching should be conducted with pupils who are studying vocational agriculture. (2) The amount of teaching should consist of not less than 60 actual hours. (3) The conditions under which the practice teaching * is conducted should be *as nearly as possible like those that the teacher will find when he accepts regular employment. (4) The teacher in training should have sufficient super- vision to insure professional growth. (5) The teacher in training should have an opportunity to supervise the * practical work of vocational students. (6) The community relations of the teacher of agriculture are so important that he should be expected to participate in community activities. . q In connection with a course taken under Professor Works at Cornell University the following principles were drawn up for the making of a high school curriculum in agriculture: (1) There should be such a degree of flexibility as will permit of adaptation to the varying farming conditions of the state. In any given community there should be recognition of the actual farming needs and the possibilities in that region. (2) The arrangement of subjects should be such as to give opportunity for the utilization of seasonal sequence to the largest possible degree. Agricultural Education. U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin 1921, No. 40, p. 13. 112 (3) There should be recognition early in the curriculum of the dominant farming enterprises of the com- munity. (4) Abstract, technical or unifying subjects should come late in the curriculum. (5) Subjects, the primary outcome of which is skill, should come early in the curriculum so as to give opportunity for adequate development of skill under farm conditions. ((>) In general, the organisation of subject matter in the courses should be such as to place any given topic as a part of the subject in which it is most likely to function under tarni conditions. (7) Tne subjects that appear early in the curriculum should lend themselves readily to project work. (8) The vocational elements of the curriculum should be represented by strictly vocational subjects and not by modified academic subjects. (9) Opportunity should be given for the largest possible amount of co-Qrdination between the vocational and non-vocational elements of the curriculum. The work of the several years should be formulated and distributed with reference to the ability and experience of the student body that is being served. (11) The non-vocational portion of the curriculum should maue provision for health education, development of desirable permanent interests, civic attitudes, and recreation. 6. BUILDINGS,, GROUNDS AND EQUIPMENT. In the United States standardisation is one of the means rather widely used for the improvement of the rural school. Many state departments of education and some counties have issued standardisation bulletins. The standards thus established require a school plant equipped to provide an education related to rural life and its needs by having ample grounds, room and equip- ment for experimental agriculture, and gardening and industrial arts. There must be correct lighting, heating and ventilation, an ample and sanitary water supply, and sanitary closets. Here the best one-teacher rural schools have small rooms or alcoves also, adjoining the classroom to house the library and provide for activities in domestic science, manual training and agriculture. 113 In Ontario, Canada, the one-teacher rural school has a rest room for the teacher and the newer buildings are being constructed more and more with a view to com- munity centre purposes. Sometimes one or more addi- tional small rooms for sewing and agricultural purposes aie provided. The grounds are nearly always fenced so a*s to keep out stray farm animals/ Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia have' prepared special publications deal- ing with the problem of school-houses for the one-teacher, t ivo-teacher, and three-teacher rural and village schools. In Germany, France, Scandinavia, Denmark, and Switzerland the teachers' homes are as much a part of the school plant as are the classrooms. They are either separate cottages or a suite of rooms in the school build- ing. In England it has been the custom for many years to erect teachers' villas in connection with rural schools, and these, whether on a combined plan or erected near the schoolhouses, have well paid the communities for their enterprise. The teacher's influence has been broadened and strengthened when he lives in a modej dwelling and works under the most wholesome condi- tions. 8 In Switzerland the country schoolhouses are also homes for the teachers. The German rural school build- ing is generally of two stories, the upper one being the master's home. In Denmark there is a legal require- ment that every school shall have ample housing facilities. The suites are built, as a rule, in connection with the main school building, using either the second floor or a wing on the first floor. All teachers are further entitled under the law to a garden. These gardens supplement the teachers' incomes and are used as experimental plots for the school. In Norway rural teachers, as a rule, are supplied with a house and sufficient ground for a garden and the pasturage of two or three cows.* The school garden is used to show by " intercultivation," i.e. raising r Poght, H. W. The School System of Ontario. Bui. 1915, No. 32, U.S. Bureau of Education, p. 28. "Ohallman, S.A. The Rural School Plant, p. 215. * Anderson D. A. The School System of Norway, p. 70. 114 several crops simultaneously on the same lot, how much a little plot of ground can produce. Seeds and plants are furnished the children free of charge and for their labour and care they get the crops they raise. The interest displayed by the children reacts favourably upon the parents. u Traditionally the teachers in the rural schools of Eli rope are men, which greatly simplifies the housing problem. We have to turn to America for conditions similar to those of South Africa. " If a greater number of the teachers (in Canada) were married many of the local school boards might be induced to provide a teacher's residence with four or five acres attached; but few care to risk it when their chances of securing the services of a married teacher are rather slight. A movement looking toward the provision of homes for the teachers is, however, one of the much needed develop- ments in connection with rural schools. " v In the United States, while recognising that teachers' homes would make for longer tenure and greater per- manency school officials have had to face difficulties simi- lar to those of Canada. The state of Washington started the movement for teachers' homes in 1905. By 1917 there were such homes in 25 of the states. The tendency is to construct separate cottages, because as Dresslar says: "a teacher's family needs privacy; the school children require freedom. The playground should not be encroached upon, neither should the sanitary appliances be used in common by the school and the home." w k: The Cape Education Department's present policy is opposed to the erection of residences for teachers, as such residences have been found to be a fruitful source of trouble. In the past what has happened is that a married man appointed as teacher of a small country school had agitated for a house to be built for tt Pearson, P. H. Schools of Scandinavia, Finland and Holland. Bulletin 1919, No. 29, p. 11. T Miller, J. C Rural Schools in Canada, p. 66. ^ Dresslar, F. B. Rural S.choolhouses and Grounds, p. 122. 115 him. This has been done, and he has been charged rent payable through a deduction from his salary. It has however often happened that after having the house built the teacher has obtained promotion or transfer, and has been succeeded by an unmarried man or even an unmarried woman. Such teachers have refused to take occupation of the residence, preferring to board with a private family; and the Department has been faced with the possibility of the building becoming derelict. Occasionally cases arise where a house must be built; but the number is kept as small as possible." x In the United States many instructive pamphlets have been written on the school grounds. Ontario, Canada, gives specific grants for the improvement of school grounds and has a suggestive booklet on the " Improve- ment of School Grounds/' which is supplied to school boards and teachers free of charge. The need of a definite playground has also been recognised in the States. One of the greatest defects of country life is the lack of social contacts and fellowship. All children love to play. It is no longer maintained that children can play without guidance. Education through play has become a vital part of the school curriculum. Play is used ' as part o'f the school work not only for its physical but also for its social and mental values. The teacher takes a part in the children's games and gives them the necessary supervision. The following pieces of playground equipment are in use: a sandbox for the little ones, a swing, a see-saw, a horizontal bar, a slide or chute, a giant's stride, parallel bars, the rings, climbing ropes, and in addition there is a running-track and a jumping- pit. y The modern school library occupies a very important place in the education of the pupils in the United States. The library is used to aid the schoolroom work at all points. It provides collateral reading on all subjects taught in the school and makes the lessons more interest- better from the Department, 4th August, 1921. y See : Curtis H. S. Play and Recreation for the Open Country. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1914. The Rural Playground. Univ. of North Carolina. Ext. Bui. Vol. I. No. 6. Nov. 16, 1921. 116 ing. It supplements the textbooks and laboratory work. It occupies a definite place in teaching by the project method or in preparing for the socialised recitation. It acquaints the pupil with a permanent means of self- education. The pupils', self-activity is cultivated and they are taught to dig out knowledge for themselves. A whole class may be taken into the library for making some first-hand study. 7. THE ONE-TEACHER SCHOOL. In France and Germany the rural schools are gener- ally located in small villages. The teacher of the one- room school is over-burdened by the large number of pupils. It is not uncommon for the German teacher to have more than 100 pupils. To accommodate so many the half-time school has been in vogue in many parts of rural Germany. The older children come in the morning and the younger ones in the afternoon. While the half- doy school is ordinarily practised because of lack of room it is sometimes adopted also, especially during the summer, so that the daily labour of the children may not be unduly interfered with. z The extraneous duties of rural teachers in France and Germany is another griev- ance. The French teacher for example also acts as secretary to the mayor of the hamlet. a In the United States there are roughly 210,000 one- teacher rural schools. Many of these schools can never be converted into large centralised schools for topo- graphical and other reasons. It takes an exceptional teacher to make the most of the one-teacher school. Among the best and most instructive pieces of work that have been done in the one-teacher rural school in the States is that of Mrs. Marie Turner Harvey at the Porter Rural School near Kirksville, Missouri. 1 * z Hughes, R. E. Schools at Home and Abroad, New York, Button, 1902, pp. 16, 17. a Brereton, C. Rural Schools of North- West France, p. 40. b See : Dewey, Evelyn. New Schools for Old. New York, Dutton, 1919. 117 In their attempts at improving the one-teacher rural schools educators in the United States have insisted that such schools should have: (1) A plant standardized as to light, heat, ventilation and sanitation. (2) Ample provisions for teaching the industrial arts subjects. This means a one-teacher building with several rooms and sufficient ground for laboratory experiments in agricultural subjects ; also a house for the teacher. (3) A teacher in charge who prefers the country to the city and is trained to meet the problems arising in a one-teacher school. (4) A course of study that serves the peculiar needs of the community. In those States in which the small school district is the local unit a one-teacher school may occasionally have one pupil. The New York Rural School Survey revealed the fact that there were 15 schools with an average daily attendance of 1 pupil and 885 schools with 5 or less pupils. There were 8,600 one-room schools in the State. d In Alberta, Canada, a school is established when there are 8 children of school age. The other provinces require 10, 12 and 20 children. Itinerant teachers are still used in the sparsely-settled districts of Australia. In Queensland 1,809 children were thus educated in 1920. e The problem of the small country schools in Western Australia is very pressing and every effort is being made to reach the children in the sparsely populated areas. Until recently a full-time government school was established in any locality where a regular attendance of not less than 10 children between the ages of 6 and 14 was assured. If the attendance fell below, the school was closed. The parents were then urged to c Manual of Educational Legislation. U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1919, No. 4, p. 29. d Works, G.A. Rural School Survey of New York State. Ithaca, N.Y., 1922, p. 218. e Report of the Sec. for Public Instruction for the year 1920, p. 7. 118 engage a private instructor, the Department of Education sharing the expenses. The new regulation, issued in 1916, increases the school facilities by providing that the average attendance for a period of six months must fall below 8 before the school can be closed. f The Cape Province has gone further than any other country in establishing a farm school for 5 pupils. The compulsory full-time legislation up to the age of 16 is also higher here than in other countries where it is generally fourteen. 8. CONSOLIDATION AND TRANSPORTATION. There are now about 12,000 consolidated schools in the United States. The greatest progress in consolidalion has been made in Ohio, Indiana. Iowa, Minnesota, Wash- ington, Louisiana, North Dakota, and Colorado. It is estimated by the U.S. Bureau of Education that 170,000 of the present 210,000 one-teacher schools can ultimately be consolidated leaving 40,000 schools in mountainous and sparsely-settled sections where the plan will be impracticable for many years. An account of consoli- dation in Iowa is given as a typical illustration. " During the past year, two types of schools have had special development in the State. They are the Consolidated School and the Standard One-room School. On July 1, 1919, we had in the State about 230 consolidated schools. Since new con- solidated schools have 'been voted at the rate of one for every school day, until now we have 407 districts which have voted consolidation and are in process of organization and preparing" to erect new buildings. These consolidations have closed 280 one-room rural schools and are transporting more than 50,000 children. More than 10,000 of these pupils are enrolled in and taking high school work. Formerly these 50,000 pupils were without the privilege of a high school course at home. At commencement this year these consolidated schools have graduated more than 1,800 four-year high school students. These students are all equipped tc enter college. f U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 1919, No. 49. Education in parts of the British Empire, p. 46. 119 The course of study in consolidated schools carries, in addition to the regular minimum essentials in all schools, special work in agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. These* courses are prepared especially for rural school life and home- making, and are emphasized. Most of these consolidated schools are located either in small towns or in purely rural dis- tricts. The law requires that each school have at least 5 acres of ground in order to receive State aid. This ground must be in one plot and the school -house must be located on this ground. Frequently there are homes for the teachers and a barn or garage for the conveyances. These school sites are laid! out for playground activities, including baseball, football, and tennis. A part of the ground is reserved for agricultural ex- perimental work. Superintendent of Public Instruction, P. E. McClenahan, is a strong believer in the maxim that the school is for the com- munity. Therefore, most of these consolidated schools are used as community centres. Old-fashioned spelling contests, debat- ing societies, and short courses for all the people are held in the schools as well as lecture courses. The Standard One-room School is new in the State of Iowa. The law provides for certain minimum standards, which shall be met before the school shall receive State aid. These require- ments are in regard to the building, the equipment, and qualifi- cations of the teacher. The school cannot be standardized unless it has at least 10 pupils, a teacher with first-grade certificate, and a proper build- ing with minimum equipment. Iowa still has approximately 11,000 one-room rural schools.. Of this number, 700 only have been standardized. " g The New England section of States centralises its rural schools more generally by closing unnecessary small schools and conveying the children at public expense to adjoining village schools. The Historical Statistical Survey of Education in Canada for 1921 reports considerable progress in consoli- dation. In British Columbia there were 168 graded departments as the result of centralisation. In Manitoba there were 101 consolidated schools in operation in 1919. In Alberta the number of consolidations was 63. Saskat- g Hon. W. L. Harding, Governor of Iowa. Remaking Country Schools in Iowa. The American Review of Reviews. August, .1920. 120 ehewan had 28 consolidated districts, Quebec 12 consoli- dated schools, New Brunswick 5, and Ontario l. h In the Cape Province, the present position is as follows : " The average life of a country school hi the Cape Province is very short; the last investigation on the subject, undertaken about 5 years ago, led to the conclusion that the average life of a country school was about 3 years. When the Department of Education initiated its centralization policy about 5 years ago, it pressed not so much for consolidation of existing schools as for the prevention of unnecessary new schools. No school is established in country districts unless it is at least 6 miles away from the nearest existing school, or unless natural features prevent the attendance of the pupils proposed to be provided for at the nearest existing school. The statistics for the quarter ended 31st March, 1921, show that the number of pupils under Boards had increased by nearly 20,000 but that the number of schools had decreased by 207 from what they were at the same time of the year 1917. These figures are significant of the movement that is going on in the country towards centralization of educational facilities." 1 The Rev. J. R. Albertyn of Willowinore addressing the Congress 1 of the Zuid Afrikaanse Onderwijzers Unie at Worcester, on 21st Dec. 1921, quoted the example of Willowmore where 10 years ago they had 40 schools for 750 children and to-day 30 schools for 1,100 children. This has been achieved by means of church boarding houses in connection with the larger schools. He put in a plea for the resurrection of the old district boarding schools. The great boarding houses in connection with the schools in the towns and cities do not offer the best solution to the problem as the parents' sense of responsi- bility is lost and the children are generally not even able to get home for the week-ends. The Educational Gazette Statistical Number for the first quarter of 1921. reveals the fact that the 30 rural schools mentioned above con- sisted of 1 five-teacher, 5 two-teacher, 18 one-teacher and h Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Education Statistics Branch. Historical Statistical Survey of Education in Canada, Ottawa, 1921. 1 Letter from the Department. 4th August, 1921. farm schools. This shows how far school boards are from being able to get rid of the farm and one-teacher schools. The plan of allowing parents or guardians a certain amount per day for providing conveyances for their own children is in operation in the Cape Province, and to a certain extent in many parts of the United States. 3 It is probably the only plan feasible in sparsely-settled districts, and where roads are very poor. The amount allowed parents in the Cape Province is sixpence per child per day. In South Dakota, Wisconsin, and a few other States it varies from 10 cents per child per day to 25 cents, the amount depending upon the distance from the home to the school. Allowance is made only for the actual number of days attended. The principal advan- tage of this plan is that children ride from their homes to the school by the most direct route and, as a rule, in less time than would be taken by a school wagon. One of the principal disadvantages of this plan is the greater expense, not to the school but to the school patrons. A large amount must be invested in horses and vehicles, and stabling and feed for the horses must be provided. If the children themselves do the driving the horse is not available for other work on school-days. Another dis- advantage is that private conveyance does not assure the regularity of attendance and the freedom from tardiness resulting from the use of transportation wagons or of railroads.'* In Minnesota state aid is withheld from schools that use individual transportation, About 6 miles is the usual limit of horse and wagon transportation in the United States. In California, where conditions of climate are most like those in South Africa, the school automobiles are carrying children 20 miles. Motor transportation is quicker, equally reliable, and usually more economical. The chief advantage lies in the quickness of the service. Children are on the road about half as long as when carried in wagons. It 3 Rapeer, L. W. The Consolidated Rural School p. 215. *Ibid p. 21G 122 is usual for each motor-driven car in Preble County : Ohio, to make two trips a long one first and then a short trip. In the evening the children living on the short route are returned home first, and those on the long route next. All conveyances are owned and operated by the school district. 1 9. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, PART-TIME EDUCATION AND EXTENSION TEACHING. Denmark has made the best contribution to the world of how to continue the in-school education of the agricul- tural population. This special contribution is the folk high school, which is essentially a school for young people from 18 to 25 years of age, with older people attending also. At about the age of 14 the rural pupil leaves the elementary school to become an employee on a farm. Then at the age of 18, or later, he or she may enter a folk high school. Almost without exception the folk high schools are located in the open country. The students generally board at the institution while taking the courses. Two courses of study are offered; a five months' course in winter for young men and a three months' course in summer for young women. The Danish folk high school is a school of general culture not a vocational school. "Its chief purpose is to open the eyes of its students to the possibilities for a richer, happier, more satisfactory life in the performance of the tasks with which they are already familiar." m These schools are founded by private or community endeavour, later they are accredited by the State and receive State aid. An inspector visits them and reports on the work. The Government does not interfere with the arrange- ment of subjects, courses, or hours, being satisfied if there are devoted teachers and authorities. Rapeer, L.W. The Consolidated Rural School, p. 230. Friend. L. L. The Folk High Schools of Denmark. U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1914, Xo. 5, p. 12. 123 The Danish folk high schools have been transplanted into Norway, Sweden, and Finland. The chief Swedish modification of the Danish system of folk high school lies in the addition of fully equipped agricultural depart- ments to most of the schools. The Swedes prefer to bring all the schools under one administration, instead of having separate folk high schools and agricultural schools. There are no examinations, either entrance or final. The folk high schools in Finland are founded, owned and maintained by local organizations, but receive no state grant for their support nor aid for students. The Odense Husmandsskole (special agricultural schools for small holders) in Denmark gives long and short courses for young farmers with special application to small hold ings. Of great interest are the number of short courses (2 weeks in length) for men and women, young and old, living on the farm. The people come to the school with their problems and stay during the days or weeks neces- sary to obtain the full aid of the school. The studies are made to fit the exact needs of those who seek help. Short courses for the whole community have been started in the rural high schools of Minnesota. These schools make it possible for young people who for good reasons cannot attend school regularly to cake valuable short courses in English, farm arithmetic arid accounts* civil government and farm sanitation, agriculture, cook- ing, sewing, carpentry, forge work, and letter writing. The instructor who lias charge of agriculture also acts as an adviser to the entire farming communify. Here it has been recognized that education is a life process, and that all the educative machinery of the State should be at the disposal of the public at all times to assist in the solving of real problems. There are volunteer continua tion schools in Cherokee County, Iowa, in which each pupil begins his work where he discontinued it iu the district school. In the South there are the so-called " Moonlight ?? or " Adult 7 ' schools for the elimination of adult illiteracy. These are night schools held on moon 124 light evenings in the public school-houses and conducted usually by the regular teachers. 11 In 1914 the Smith-Lever Act was passed by the Federal Government in the United States making funds available for extension teaching in agriculture and home economics. By this means county agents working with men, home demonstration agents working with women, and boys and girls Club agents working with children have been able to carry the necessary knowledge to the homes and farms. " A great public service organization has been created. The effect of this great movement can not be estimated. In the South, where it has been the longest in operation, the improve- ment in agriculture is most noticeable. Thousands of community organizations are drawing together for better rural life, hundred of thousands of demonstrations are conducted each year and the actual number of persons reached already mounts into the mil- lions. The wastes are being stopped, the bad practices remedied, the diseases eradicated, the fertility of the soil conserved and built up, the marketing systems improved, and country life is beginning to take on an air of interest and attractiveness which will hold its people and draw others to the great life of this foundation calling of the people." Some of the agricultural departments of secondary schools are offering part-time instruction in agriculture to boys between the ages of 16 and 21 in long or short courses. They also offer short unit courses to adult farmers with meetings once or twice a week. The courses are very short and the method of instruction is especially adapted to adults. The agricultural teacher is usually assisted by county agents, experts from the agricultural colleges and others. No provision has been made by the Education Depart- ment of the Cape of Good Hope for: (1) the elimination of rural adult illiteracy, (2) continuation schools for rural people beyond ordinary school age, (3) part-time schools for rural people who must work for a livelihood, or (4) educational extension courses for young and old. The work done by the Agricultural Department through its Agricultural Schools has already been mentioned. * Foght, H. W. The Rural Teacher and his Work. p. 200. Phelan, J. Readings in Rural Sociology, p. 38S. 125 V. RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTED RECONSTRUCTION. 1. ADMINISTRATION. We in the Cape Province believe that a strong central authority represents the sounder policy in educational administration. Yet we readily concede the dangers ac- companying a highly centralised state system of control. These include: (1) a deadenirig uniformity, (2) little opportunity for local initiative, (3) too much authority' in one person or one body, giving rise to an autocracy or bureaucracy, (4) the introduction of politics into education, (5) the neglect of local adjustments, leading to an educational system out of touch with the people and one in which they have no interest, because it does not supply their real needs, and finally, ((>) state examinations with their accompanying evils. Against all these evils our system has to be carefully guarded. As the population increases and our educational burden becomes heavier a greater decentralisation will no doubt follow. 2. INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION. If the inspecting staff is to secure the confidence and the professional support of the teachers its members must be men of experience and professionally well trained. It is not too much to demand that they hold at least the Bachelor's degree and the highest profes sional certificate granted by the province, and further- more that they shall have had successful experience in the schools of the province. The inspectors are expected to keep abreast of the latest educational thought. Definite provision should be made for them to keei) educationally alert and pro- fessionally up-to-date. For this purpose they should, have access to the best educational literature and should 126 be granted regular leaves of absence for professional study and investigation. If the best teachers are to be attracted to the inspectorship the salary must be made adequate arid large enough to compensate for the incon- venience endured in travelling. Certainly it is not wise to pay the inspectors less salary than the principals whose schools they inspect. The schools of the Cape Province are inspected, not supervised. Professional supervision as now understood in America has little place in the present school system. The conspicuous absence of expert supervision in the Cape Province calls for a somewhat more lengthy treat- ment of the subject. The first steps toward school super- vision have just been taken through the provision that individual inspection, except in small schools or where several classes are grouped under one teacher, is to be replaced by class inspection, if by means of a continuous record of good work and other trustworthy evidence of efficiency the inspector is satisfied that the school is well conducted. In the larger schools the principals are supposed to give some of their time to supervision. Real supervision will be new to many principals and they will have to be instructed therein. They not infrequently are reluctant to assume the responsibilities of classroom supervision, because they do not wish to offend, or seem to interfere with the freedom of their assistants, or because they lack the time or feel themselves incompetent. But skilful supervision can be made a great force for stimulating and encouraging initiative on the part of ihe teachers, and for creating a mutual spirit of co- operation through which the assistants and principal may work together for the improvement of instruction and school betterment. Expert supervision has gradually to replace inspec- tion. The vigorous imposition of a uniform course of study and written examinations for promotion stifle any other teaching purpose than that of preparing for the examinations which give the teacher reputable status in his community or deprives him of it. The inspector is necessarily a critic and a judge. He has in the past got into th habit of " laying down the law" in his requirements. Now a new spirit must permeate the function of the inspector. He must become a supervisor and it is a question how quickly and how completely he can suit himself to the new requirements. The primary requirement of a supervisor is to make himself thoroughly friendly. He must enter the class- room not as a faultfinder, critic or dictator, but as a co- labourer, a sympathetic friend and helper. The visit of the supervisor should not be feared (as that of the in- spector). He should win the respect and love of the pupils and the confidence of the teachers. The teacher must be led to desire to be a better teacher. The super- visor should refrain from assuming that the teacher is the only one to take the learning attitude. He should adopt the learning attitude himself and be a persistent student of improved methods of teaching. He should also have a ready command of the principles of teaching which constitute the standards of judgment in his field. The great need for supervision of the one-teacher rural schools has been referred to on page 95. Educa- tionists in the United States are generally agreed that rural school conditions can be considerably improved by means of professional supervision. In this connection two questions may be raised: (1) Is rural school super- vision worth its cost? and (2) Is supervision necessary where you have normal school graduates? Dr. M. S. Pittman's investigation with the zone plan of supervision in rural schools has given a satisfactory answer to the first question. 15 As for the second, the better trained a teacher is the more she can profit by supervision. Moreover even the normal school graduate is in need of supervision, for her teaching is far from perfect. She knows much theory, but has only limited technical skill. She finds conditions very different from those to which she has been accustomed. There are all sorts of new See Pittman, M. S. The Value of School Supervision. Balti- more. Warwick and York Inc., 1921. 12S situations to be met. If not helped she soon reverts and teaches as she herself was taught. " Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the importance of conserving and preserving the visions, ideals, enthusiasms, hopes and plans, which the young teacher brings to her work The difficulties of the daily routine threaten these on every side. It is quite common to find a normal school graduate in a country school teaching as formally, mechanically, and life- lessly as she herself was taught in the same kind of school. Her theories have proved difficult of application, apparently un- workable, her ideals have failed to square up with grim reality, and she has cast them aside entirely. The supervisor's task is to help her in the practical manipulation of the situation that will make her ideals possible." (Dr. Fannie W. Dunn, " Skill in Supervision," Mimeographed material.) For the supervisors (as well as the inspectors) and the training colleges to keep in constant touch is a dis- tinct advantage. In order to render the most efficient service there should be an active co-operation between the two. The training college staff, through direct con- tact with the field can modify and adapt courses so as to meet the needs of the public schools. The super- visor, by keeping in close touch with the training college, can have a definite idea as to how and where to begin follow-up work with its graduates. The super- visor should be able to go to the training college for expert advice, and the training college should call in the help of the supervisor in planning the rural school practice of its students. It is proposed that the rural school supervisor be also a member of the training col- lege staff. The supervisors will have to be specially trained for their work. Many more abilities are required of the supervisor than of the inspector. Where rural school supervision is introduced for the first time, as well as special rural teacher preparation, the most economical procedure, which may also yield the best results, will be to let the rural instructors of the training colleges also act as rural supervisors. The supervisor should handle little or nothing of an administrative character. He should be responsible for only such reports and records as will be of direct as- 120 sistance in the improvement of instruction. Two report forms are suggested, (1) as exemplified by the helping teacher's report blank from the New Jersey, Depart- ment of Public Instruction, which makes provision for entries under the following heads : 1. Strong points to be further .developed and encouraged in teacher and pupils. 2. Points in which teacher needs help. 3. Constructive criticism given and results of same upon teacher and pupils. 4. Work observed. r>. Principles and methods of teaching to be taken up at conference with teacher or at teachers' meetings. 6. Physical condition of school room, equipment and toilets. 7. Enrolment and attendance. 8. Additional observation and notes. and (2) a quarterly (or monthly) report form, being a simplification of the State of Wisconsin annual report required from supervising teachers and showing the nature of their services and expenses. 3. RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS. The rural child is entitled to as well trained a teacher as the urban child. Now, however, the positions in th t e country are filled by teachers with the least training. The towns are drawing the best trained and most success- ful teachers leaving to the country the poorly educated and inexperienced. The many attractions of town life, the greater ease of the work in a graded school, the better buildings, the better equipment and the better salaries have made it easy for the town to do this. The rural teacher should be as good a teacher as one doing the same work anywhere else. He must be an unusually good manager. He must be socially-minded and rurally-minded, in order to tie up the school and the community, and he must have had special courses with special emphasis on country requirements. "Rural school teaching actually demands a higher grade of teaching efficiency than any other branch of public school ser- vice: the problems of successful organization and instruction are more varied and more difficult; the range of subject-matter in 130 which the teacher should be * letter perfect ' is wider ; super- vision is less frequent and usually less competent: and the responsibilities of the teacher for community leadership are much heavier."* 1 This means offering a special compensation to teachers who undertake to remain in this more responsible work. 4. RURAL TEACHER PREPARATION. It is proposed that the rural teacher's requirements should gradually be raised so that two years of profes sional work beyond the high school is the minimum of preparation for the serious responsibilities of rural school teaching. The great need and the many problems in the rural field call for specialised preparation of rural school teachers. It is proposed that two instructors be employed on the staff of such normal schools as are in a position to give rural school practice, for the purpose of (1) prepar- ing teachers for the one-teacher rural schools, (2) pro- viding professional help for rural teachers in service, (3) developing leadership for rural education, and (4) encouraging productive scholarship in the field of rural education. The following principles involved in the preparation of rural teachers were stated by Professor Mabel Carney before the N.E.A. Chicago meeting, February 27, 1919 : 1. Rural education is but a phase or specialization of general education and rural teacher preparation but a specializa- tion of teacher preparation in general. From this it follows : (a) That in All matters of departmental organization, curriculum, practice teaching, and extension acti- vities, there should be some differentiation in the preparation of rural teachers, but only enough to emphasize the work and make it meet the charac- teristic needs of country schools and rural com- munity life. q Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bulle- tin No. 14, 1920, p. 129. 131 (b) That separate normal schools devoted exclusively to the preparation of rural teachers are undesirable and unwarranted. "2. All courses and activities designed for the preparation of rural teachers should be organized on a functional or pragmatic basis. That is, all the instruction given should focus directly on the actual task of country school teaching. o. Practice teaching should be regarded as the most im- portant activity of the training course. It should motivate most of the instruction in subject-matter and teaching technique. Extensive instead of intensive practice is advised as conforming more closely to the laws of habit formation. A careful gradation of practice teaching is desirable. Six stages are recommended: (1) observation, (2) participation, (3) group teaching, (4) room teaching of an individual grade, (5) rural school practice under superior conditions, (6) rural school prac- tice under general or typical conditions. This last is absolutely essential in the preparation of a country 1 teacher. 4. Close field contact and experience in country community life is essential during the period of preparation. 5. The follow-up and study of graduates by all teacher training agencies is necessary as a means of stimulation and growth for both graduates and teaching staff.'* ** It is a well established principle of vocational pedagogy that the best method of imparting both the skill and the technical knowledge needed in any occupation is through actual participa- tion by the candidate in the vocation being learned. If the normal school accepts this principle then it must make practice teaching the heart and core of its professional work." r Every normal school which fits teachers for rural work should maintain a demonstration country school within comparatively easy distance. The normal school should undertake enough extension activities to keep in close contact with the field needs, because " a person can scarcely hope to qualify as a guide for teachers of children in public schools without first- : Wilkinson, W. A. Functions Organization of Practice Teach- ing in State Normal Schools. Educational Administration and Supervision. June, 1918. hand and continuous experience with the conditions and problems which he is fitting his students to face." 8 The extension activities should be of two kinds: (1) Those designed to learn the conditions in the field by visiting rural schools and making rural school surveys. (2) Those planned to assist teachers in service through (a) correspondence, and the supply of educational material and professional books, (b) lectures for the rural communities' (c) summer school courses, and fd) rural school supervision. It is proposed that the two rural instructors thus employed be a man and a woman and that they also act alternately for six months as rural supervisors. This proposal is made especially with a view to economy. 5. COURSES OF STUDY. The present courses of study as published in the Education Gazettes of the 20th February, 1919, and the 18th March, 1920, may be criticised as follows: (1) They are only a mere listing of topics to be treated, and (2) they have evidently been drawn up with a view to examination. Few, if any, helpful suggestions were offered with them. The Department has since been publishing a series of memoranda on the teaching of elementary school subjects for the guidance of teachers. The next step will have to be to incorporate these in their proper place in the course of study. The teachers of the elementary schools have been given greater free- ilftm m planning their work. This serves to accentuate the urgent need lor help from expert supervisors. At present the outstanding aim in teaching the various subjects in their particular phases in the elementary and secondary schools is the passing of the examinations for which they have been drawn up. It is feared that there is prevalent a slavish following of syllabi and prescribed text-books with no local adaptations. A careful analysis Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bulle- ' tin No. 14. 1920, p. 1.05. 133 will have to be made of the purposes and objectives to be attained in teaching the various subjects or elements ol' subject matter, and the curricula then revised in the light of these. In the reconstruction of the curricula more attention will have to be paid to (1) life situations, ^(2) child activities, interests and needs, (3) local educational re- sources and needs, and (4) since the elementary school curriculum is overcrowded, to minimum essentials and economy of time in education as illustrated by the Fourteenth, Sixteenth and Eighteenth Yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education. 1 It is proposed that a special elementary school curri- culum be drawn up suited to rural school conditions and the needs of the children. In drawing up the rural elementary school course the rural teachers, inspectors, supervisors, and all concerned should co-operate. The results of research and experience should be incorporated from time to time. The absolute necessity that rural school supervisors help teachers in adapting the course of study, in improving it, and in carrying on investiga- tions cannot be over-emphasised. The purpose of elementary education is the same for all, but " because a rural child's experiences and environment are different from those of urban children, the rural curriculum must differ from the curriculum for city schools. To reach the common goal, rural and urban children travel dif- ferent roads." ?u Since the rural teachers get.very little outside aid the curriculum for the rural schools should be particularly rich in suggestions for their guidance. The teacher of the one-teacher rural school must not only be told wbat to teach and how to teach it, but the planning of the work will have to be shown. To be best suited to the one-teacher rural school conditions the t University of Chicago Press 1915, 1917 and Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois, 1919. u Works. G. A. Rural School Survey of New York State. Ithaca. N.Y. 1922. p. 75. 134 work will have to be outlined not by standards but for groups. The rural teacher must still make such adaptations in the rural course of study as are necessary to meet the local needs and interests. She should build on the past experience of the pupils, making the best use of the local environment and supplementing what it lacks in every way possible. In general the rural environment will affect rural elementary education in three ways. (1) Since the education of any child must be in terms of his experience, the approach to any desirable experience will be different for the rural child from that of the urban child. (2) TKe rural school must use the local educational re- sources to the fullest extent. (3) The rural school must supplement its environment with reference to the " lacks " or " needs " of rural life in general and to its own community in parti- cular/ The junior high school plan of organisation in the United Slates has many suggestive features to offer for re-organising the work in the secondary schools of the Cape Province, w We shall treat here only the two subjects, manual training and agriculture, which are considered as be- longing particularly to the rural course. There has been considerable dissatisfaction for some time with the manual training courses (needlework for girls, and woodwork for boys) of the elementary school syllabus in the Cape Province. These courses, especially v Briin, O. G. Op. cit, p. 200. w See : Hill, C. M. Vermont Junior High Schools. Vermont State Board of Education, Bulletin No. 1, 1918. Hillegas, M.B. Junior High Schools in Small Communities. Teachers College Record, Sept., 1918. Bennett, G. V. The Junior High School, Baltimore. Warwick & York Inc., 1919. Briggs, T. H. The Junior High School, Boston. Houghton Mifflin, 1920. Koos, L. V. The Junior High School, New York. Harcourt. Brace & Co., 1920. 135 tbe latter, consist of a graded outline of exercises in technique. They were introduced in South Africa primarily because of dissatisfaction with the purely bookish curriculum given in the earlier schools. The origin of the present " exercises " must be traced to the Sloyd system developed in Sweden. The Sloyd method analysed the craft into its fundamental processes and typical constructions and then presented these elements in a~n orderly and sequential scheme as separate exer- cises. It was not designed to turn out carpenters, but to develop the mental, moral and physical powers of children. The end in view was the development of the child's powers and faculties. The formative aims were: (1) To instil a taste for, and a love of, labour in general; (2) to inspire respect for rough, honest, bodily labour; (3) to develop independence and self-reliance; (4) to train in habits of order, exactness, cleanliness, and neat- ness; (5) to train the eye in the sense of form, to give a general dexterity of hand, and to develop touch; (6) to accustom to attention, industry, ^perseverance and patience; and (7) to promote the development of the physical powers. The utilitarian aims were: (1) to give dexterity directly in the use of tools and (2) to execute exact work."* Sloyd was introduced into the English system, where it was further formalised for school use, the exercises consisting in the making of joints without any reference to their use, etc. From Great Britain it was introduced into the Cape System by Dr. Muir in 1894, where it persists more or less in its original form to this day, although educational thought has changed considerably in the meantime. The outstanding weaknesses of the present course in manual training are (1) its lack of relationship to life, ( 2"i its lack of motivation and opportunity for originality, (3) its lack of thought content, and (4) its over-emphasis on the product and skill. Salomon, O. The Theory of Educational Sloyd. p. 0. What has contributed most to the elimination of the old manual training course, as still followed in South Africa, has been the overthrow of the faculty psychology and the conception of formal discipline. The Sloyd system was drawn up under an explicit belief in formal discipline. As stated above the course was especially justified educationally because of its mental and moral disciplinary value. But recent experiments and statis- tical inquiries into the transfer of training have proved that what has been claimed for the Sloyd system does not hold. Disciplinary values are specific, not general. The transfer of training is within much narrower limits than has been assumed. Only as there is identity of content or procedure is there any transfer. From this it follows that the content value of a subject must be the primary reason for pursuing it and the general disciplinary value the secondary reason. Furthermore mere motor training does not require much use of the frontal lobes of the brain, the lower centres of the brain and the spinal card are the only parts of the nervous system very much employed in these activities. Skills may be acquired and made automatic without affecting thinking over-much. Manual exercises should be used as a means of self -expression, as a method of teaching rather than as a subject of instruction or a way of ac- quiring technical skill. Technical skill is a distinct aim in vocational training which should have no place in the elementary school. It is proposed that the present manual training courses be eliminated from the elementary school course and re- placed by a course in practical and industrial arts as outlined by Dean Russell and Prof. Bonser of Teachers Oollege, Columbia University/ 11 It is only by means of such studies that we acquire the basis of judgment concerning the acts and inspirations of our 7 See : Russell, J. E.. and Bonser, F. G. Industrial Education. The Speyer School Curriculum. Bonser, F. G. The Elementary School Curriculum. 1.77 . fellow-men, either those who provide the capital for exploiting natural resources or those who do the work required in the several industrial pursuits. In our political life no knowledge is of more consequence than that which is concerned with the relations of capital and labour; for us as a peoplef there is nothing more to be desired than a sympathetic understanding of the conditions under which men earn their living. Is a liberal education possible in this age without a knowledge of these things which more than all others make men free or leave them slaves?" 2 Such a course affords a better preparation for the differentiated courses which follow in the secondary school and helps the pupil define the aim of his life in terms of his own natural endowment and possible at- tainrnent. a " The practical arts studies are of direct value in the measure in which they aid us : (a) To select and use material supplies economically, health- fully, and in good taste. (b) To co-operate efficiently as citizens in the promotion and control of production, distribution, and use of supplies, and in securing justice and fairness to producers and consumers. (c) To develop permanent interests in the processes and methods of production and usage for the intellectual satisfaction which they afford. (d) To develop normal growth in essential forms of dexterity and bodily control required of all for general efficiency." 6 This course will be the same for all pupils in the elementary school regardless of sex or future vocation. It can be made to take the place of woodwork, needle- work, cookery and drawing. The teaching of practical and industrial arts will considerably strengthen the curriculum, because its content has great value, and it will vitalise the teaching of language, arithmetic, history, geography, nature study, and hygiene. The last men- tioned subject which has been taught incidentally hereto- fore will be especially benefited. Out of the practical T Russell, J. E., and Bonser, F. G. Op. cit. p. 6 Ibid, p. 7. b Bonser, F. G. Op. cit. p. 207. 188 and industrial arts work emerge many questions of measurement, cost values, sources of materials, trans- portation, discoveries, inventions, and artistic forms of expression. The information imparted will be within the practical and industrial fields. The core of the in- dustrial arts course will be the facts concerning the pro- cesses by which raw materials are transformed into articles and materials of greater value for the satisfac- tion of human needs. The work is taken up under the following heads, (1) foods, (2) clothing, (3) shelter, (4) utensils, (5) tools and machines, (6) records. The school hoi lunch offers a splendid approach to the in- dustrial work in foods. Much successful work can be done even in the one-teacher school by means of home projects. The general industrial arts course in the elementary school will become domestic science for the girls and manual training for the boys in the secondary school (Junior High School). The manual training is best given in a diversified workshop with a view to vocational guidance. In the Senior High School those taking the rural course should get their manual training work as part of a course in agriculture. Some definite agricultural education is one of the needs of the time. It is felt that the educational course given to the future agriculturist has not been as favourable as that given to the pupil entering the learned professions. The modern agriculturist cannot be successful unless well trained. Some recognition has been given to this defect in our courses of study by the introduction of a course in agricultural science. This is conceded as a step in advance, but we have not gone far enough. This was plain to the Superintendent-General of Education when he wrote in the Annual Report for 1918, page 10: " A far more promising field for educational experiment would be th % e establishment of agricultural secondary schools in selected areas. It is hoped that circumstances will permit an experimental school of this type to be established in the near future at some suitable centre.'* 139 This proposal has induced the writer to treat the teach- ing of agriculture in the secondary school at some length. Two questions present themselves at once. Is the agriculture to be taught with, a vocational aim as a definite preparation for farming or as information about agriculture, and for general cultural purposes? Is it best to establish special and independent schools for the teaching of agriculture or should it be included in the regular work of the secondary schools? There are two distinct schools of thought on this ques- tion, each of which is very decided in its opinion. The first, representing the older and the European school of thought, maintains that a liberal and a vocational educa- tion should not be given in the same school and at the same time. In England "a secondary school exists to provide a liberal training and it is no part of its task to furnish specific or technical instruction in the rudi- ments of professional studies or commercial routine." 6 Dr. Snedden, as a representative of this point of view, holds that "the school of liberal, and the school of vocational, education should have no concurrent peda- gogical interdependence. It cannot ordinarily profit a boy or a man to try to get in his working time vocational and liberal education simultaneously."* 1 Again: "The vocational school of farming and the liberal high school should not be pedagogically interdependent concurrently for the same pupil, as said above. Of course these two schools can, and probably should, utilize the same build- ing, possibly at times the same means of transportation. But they should not have the same courses, the same books, the same library, the same laboratory, the sarnie school hours, and the same teachers, or the same prin- cipal." 6 He maintains that it is a mistake to vocational- ise liberal education, and emphasises the fact that c Kandel. I. L. Education in Great Britain and Ireland. U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bulletin, 1919, No. 9, p. 50. d Snedden, D. Schools for Farmers' Sons. Journal of Rural Education, Feb.. 1922, p. 245. e lbid. p. 246. 1-10 vocational agriculture can best be taught on the school farm in connection with an agricultural school. He proposes that a classroom and a small office be set apart in the local high school for the teaching of agri- culture, the teacher to be a young man, a graduate of an agricultural college, and the boys (say 20) not to take any studies in the high school. Most of the teaching will be out-of-doors/ The other point of view has been expressed at some length by the Commission on the Reorganisation of Secondary Education in the United States. The main objectives of secondary education are stated by this Commission to be : (1) Health; (2) command of fundamental processes; (3) worthy home-membership; (4) vocation; (5) citi- zenship; (0) worthy use of leisure, and (7) ethical character. u This Commission holds that education is essentially a unitary and continuous process and that each of the objectives defined above must be recognised throughout the entire extent of secondary education. This commission enters its protest against any and all plans, however well intended, which are in danger of divorcing vocation and social-civic education. It stands squarely for the infusion of vocation with the spirit of genuine contact with the world's work. s In the judgment of the commission the high schools should, as a rule, be of the comprehensive (or composite or cosmopolitan) type embracing all curriculums in one unified organisation, because: (1) This arrangement aids in a wise choice of curriculum, assists in readjust- ments when such are desirable, and provides for wider contacts essential to true success in every vocation; (2) life in such a school is a natural and valuable preparation for life in a democracy; (3) it can provide more effectively for other objectives besides vocation than f Snedden, D. New Type of School for Farming. School and Society, Sept. 6, 1919. e Cardinal Principles of Sec. Ed. U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bulletin, 1918, No. 35, p. 16. 141 a number of smaller special-type schools can do; (4) of accessibility; (5) of adaptation to local needs; and (6) an effective organisation of curriculums is possible. Instead of having a sudden and complete separation of liberal and vocational education there are two alterna- tives. Some insist on separate vocational schools, but would then like to see some liberalising elements included so that the future worker may not be too narrow. Others want the pupil to continue his liberal education as long as possible while giving him some vocational training as a bait. As regards the method of teaching agriculture in the secondary school educators are pretty well agreed. "The home project method is the least expensive, most practi- cal, most adaptable and most universally effective means of assisting boys of average or good abilities to become farmers capable of meeting the problems of the new farm- ing era." ] A home project should meet each of the following requirements : (1) There must be a plan of work covering a season or an extended period of time; (2) it must be part of the school's instruction in agriculture; (3) the problem chosen must be more or less new to the pupil; (4) the parents and pupil should agree with the teacher upon the plan; (5) some competent person must supervise the home work; (6) detailed records of time, method, cost and income must be correctly kept on suit- able forms; and (7) a written report based on the record must be submitted to the teacher. 1 This method makes the introduction of agriculture into the secondary school a comparatively easy matter. The agricultural projects tie the school to the farms of the community. Not only do they offer the best possible practice for the pupils, but the work assures the interest of the farmers on whose farms the demonstrations are being carried on. 11 Sjiedden, D. New Type of School for Farming. School and Society. Sept. 6, 1919, p. 284. 1 Agriculture in Secondary School. U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bulletin, 1920, No. 35, p. 23. 142 The agricultural secondary school in the Cape Province cannot be a purely vocational school. That would be doing work similar to that undertaken by the Elsenburg and the Grootfontein Agricultural Schools, which work falls under the administration of the Agricultural Depart- ment of the Union. Furthermore, up to the present, the teaching of a vocation has been held to be outside the scope of the secondary school. In view of what has been said above it is proposed (1) that a cultural course in agriculture be taught in Stan- ards IX and X, (2) that, instead of establishing special agricultural secondary schools, agriculture should be taught in such rural high schools, situated in the open country or in villages, as come up to a certain standard. It all depends upon the spirit of the instruction how much cultural influence the teaching of agriculture will have. Deweysays: " On the basis of a true, or social, conception of culture, information, use, and discipline are indispensable ingredients of culture, or else they have no legitimate place in any general educational scheme. 'Culture is the social insight and spirit to which useful skill, knowledge of fact and trained mental power must all be made to contribute. Where they are isolated from active participation in culture, utility becomes mechanical routine, or else skill in purely egoistic pursuits; information becomes an accumulation and memorizing of a mass of miscel- laneous facts that have no bearing upon conduct, and discipline becomes a formal gymnastic of specialized mental habits pi* * faculties.' " J The course in agriculture can be made more cultural than the present course in manual training and should be as practical as the courses in cookery, laundry work, and housewifery. A fault of the teaching of agriculture in the past has been that it was too theoretical, too much on paper or too much in the form of lectures. Mere textbook courses in agriculture have proved futile wherever tried. Mere ability to answer questions out of a lextbook is in itself worthless. L . r-r- , , : . : 1 Dewej, John, on "-culture " in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Educa- tion. 143 Agriculture is more than a vocation; it is also a mode of living. " Agricultural curriculums in secondary schools should be rich in social and civic content and at the same time contribute specifically to the vocational efficiency of many students. The future of agriculture is dependent not only upon increased knowledge of production but also upon the development of a more satisfying type of rural life." k Through the study of agricultural processes and prac- tices the pupil will be led to appreciate the worth of agriculture and will thus be more likely to choose an agricultural vocation. At present the rural school has no distinct rural appeal or emphasis. This defect has been ascribed as one of the causes for the migration from the country to the towns and cities. As standards for the rural high school, before the course in agriculture is introduced, it is suggested that (1) there be an enrolment of pupils from farm homes equal to at least i of the total high school enrolment, (2) there be a minimum of 12 to a maximum of 20 pupils who want to take the course in agriculture. These pupils to include boys over 16 who have left school but wish to take a course in agriculture as part-time pupils. A maximum is necessary as the teacher has to supervise the home pro- jects. The teacher should give no other subjects in the high school. For the city and other high schools the course in agri- cultural science will have to continue much as at present and under the best conditions and standards the school can offer. 0. METHODS OF TEACHING AND TESTING. The inspection of schools and the examination system of the Cape Province have done much to ensure thorough work and have sustained standards throughout the k Agriculture in the Secondary Schools. U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bulletin. 1920. No. 35, Preface. 144 country. On the other hand there have been marked ill- effects which through time have become deeply rooted in the school system. The methods of teaching have been especially affected and for the worse. The best-paying methods are those resulting in the largest number of passes at the examin- ations. As a result the teachers devote all their energies to drill methods. The text book is enthroned. ' The teacher who is able to give the best concise notes for memorisation is the most successful. The teaching in many cases consists of the mechanical hearing of lessons. What is not examined is neglected. The teacher's purpose is to get the pupils to know a certain number of facts in preparation for the examinations, the pupils' only motive often being obedience, good graces, or avoidance of penalty. The emphasis is placed on making the brain a storehouse rather than an instrument or tool. We are concerned with turning out an examination product in- stead of a well-developed individual. There is a neglect of associating school work with the child's life experience, of using his daily activities and his interests, of making practical applications, of using group work to develop social virtues, of using life situa tions and social problems. The following table by Dr. Bagley shows the move- ments that have gradually become explicit in educational evolution and points out most concisely the steps that have to be taken in South Africa. 1. Memoriter mastery rational mastery (under- standing) problem solving (thinking). 2. Compulsion by teacher co-operation between teacher and pupil and co-operation among pupils. 3. Verbatim recitation question and answer recitation topical recitation socialised recitation. 4. Subjects of study isolated and independent subjects correlated subjects unified. 5. Deferred values of knowledge immediate values. 145 6. Teacher's initiative pupils' initiative (or purpose). 7. Fear as a motive rivalry and competition as motives co-operation as motive. 8. Artificial setting of school and classroom laboratory setting (still somewhat artificial) natural setting of home, shop, field, or garden. 1 As pointed out above the real ends of education are being sacrificed to the examination goal. The parents seem to be primarily concerned with having their children pass at the inspection or examinations, while the schools advertise their examination successes. Examinations rightly handled constitute a valuable means of teaching as well as a testing device that no teacher can safely neglect. But a school system built up on state examinations interferes with local initiative, stifles the more spiritual kind of teaching, substitutes instead a mechanical cramming, and interferes with the individualisation of teaching, i.e. makes no provision for each pupil's peculiar needs. The examinations lay an undue stress on paper-work to the neglect of other methods of testing. Then our system of cumulative examination (while making for thoroughness) means that instead of taking up a subject unit and disposing of it in one year the subject must be dragged out through all the years of high school, e.g. arithmetic, which may be finished in a few months has to be taken to the end of the high school. From this follows a large number of very short lesson periods and a limited number of subjects. The many school examinations (language, Departmen- tal and University) should be reduced to the lowest possible minimum, by gradually accrediting such schools as come up to a required standard as is done in the United States. y, W. 0. Mimeographed material. 140 7. BUILDING, GROUNDS AND EQUIPMENT. Regulations regarding School Buildings. Pamphlet }s r o. 3. Department of Public Education, Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, 1907, needs to be revised and Drought up to date. The items which want special attention are playground equipment, water supply, libraries, window shades, school ball or auditorium and domestic science room. The one-teacher rural school might well have separate and special attention. It is suggested that the new one-teacher school build- Ings be provided with small rooms adjoining the class- rooms. One of these small rooms may be used as a library for silent reading and study, another for manual work and a third for domestic science, where the school hot lunch may also be prepared. Every school should have an ample sanitary water supply. There should be the necessary sanitary closets. Correct lighting and ventilation should be provided. Bet- ter hygienic and sanitary conditions are urgently needed, and they call for immediate action. The single or double desks should be movable and not screwed to the floor. The icteal is a single, adjustable and movable desk. In two-room buildings the rooms should be arranged to be thrown together, forming an assembly room for community gatherings. In the larger schools an assem- bly room is of especial importance for creating a school spirit and a neighbourhood enthusiasm for general pro- gress. For the use of the school as a community centre see page 157. " A teachers' home for a consolidated school o.C the open country is a self-evident necessity and a good investment for the district; but for a one-room school, which gives no assurance of being able to employ a married teacher with a family, it must ordinarily prove a failure."" 1 1 Arp., J. B. Rural Education and the Consolidated School, p. 153. 147 A teachers 7 home is indispensable to real consolidation and highly desirable in many rural communities for the following reasons: (1) The school home gives the teachers a more definite social status in the community. (2) The school will be able to attract better teachers. (3) It solves the boarding problem. (4) The cottage for the teacher can be made a model for the neighbourhood. " A beautiful, well-planned, and sanitary cottage on the school farm would help in a definite way to stimulate the farmers to build better homes (not more expensive ones) and to re- construct to a degree those already built." n (5) Tt can be used as a demonstration and domestic experiment station. (0) The school home helps to eliminate gossip and small talk about teachers. (7) It makes for permanency. (8) It helps to make the teachers happy in their work. (9) It may be made a social centre. As was shown in part III the percentage of schools liaving school gardens was only 15.7. This poor result may be due to the poor water supply, the pressure of the other schoolwork on the teacher, the lack of recogni- tion of gardening in the syllabus, the frequent changes of teachers, the limitations of the teacher in knowledge and experience, the need of a graded course in garden- ing, the lack of fences for school grounds, etc. It is hoped that a course in practical arts will tend to correct this. The present physical exercises are not enough. They are of the drill type and lack much of the spontaneity and most of the social value of play. There is needed a, play-ground in connection with every school where the teacher can take the pupils and instruct them in playing games. Some play-ground equipment will give a con- siderable amount of enjoyment to the pupils and at the same time add to their physical well-being. "Dresslar, F. B. Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds, p. 124. 148 The present unsatisfactory state of our school libraries calls for an aggressive campaign for their betterment. At least every high school should be provided with a separate library room. The school library should be more than a shelf of books for recreational "reading. It must be a source of information occupying a definite place in the school work. It should contain important reference aids, and should train boys and girls to be self-helpful in using these to answer their own questions. 8. THE ONE-TEACHER SCHOOL. The limitations and disadvantages of the one- teacher school are many. Some of them will be listed here with the remedies proposed in each case. Since we cannot hope to eliminate the small rural school for many years to come we must in the meantime increase its efficiency to the greatest possible extent. Chief among these are the follqwing: (1) The many classes and the great number of class periods, with a short time only for each. To be effective a lesson must have reasonable length . To correct this situation combine two or more Standards into a single class in all subjects where combination is possible. Subject outlines for each class may be alternated by years so that during even years the subject matter taught in each group is different from that taught in odd years. (Of. Courses in Illinois and Montana). (2) A young, inexperienced teacher lacking adequate preparation. It requires greater ability to handle several differ- ent classes at the same time than it does to manage one as in a graded school. This should be recog- nised and rural teachers must be especially prepared at the normal schools for the work they will have to do. (3) The short tenure of the teachers, often less than a year. 149 The more experienced teachers will continue to drift into the graded schools as long as they pay better salaries, and offer easier work and greater social attractiveness. As for the others there are so many factors entering into the various situations that a single general remedy is impossible. (4) Poor buildings and poor equipment. There is need of a special publication containing desirable standards for a one-teacher rural school and a minimum list of equipment The necessity for economy on the part of the Department is recog- nised, but the people might well know what is best so that they will want to bring about some improve- ment at their own expense. (5) Too few pupils to form a strong social group, Children lack all the incentive, competition, encour ageinent, and enthusiasm of large classes. The best remedy for this is the consolidated school. (6) The teacher has the additional and unnecessary handicap of having to use curricula made for the graded school organisation. The one-teacher schools should be provided with curricula organised by groups to fit their practical necessities. In the Transvaal a simpler curriculum has been drawn up for country primary schools and the work is organised for groups instead of for standards. (7) Text-book education. Too much drill and memory work. No rural adaptations. This is accounted for by the inspection system and the present organisation. The assistance of rural school supervisors and the grouping of classes ought to bring about a great improvement. (8) The so-called "special subjects 7 ' are not taught. Inferior teaching results and a dissipation of effort. The most satisfactory results can be attained only in a graded school. Where a one-teacher school Regulations and Courses of Instruction for Country Schools. Transvaal Education Department. Pretoria. 1918. 150 has special rooms the pupils can do much on their own responsibility during the long periods between their lessons. (0) No supervision of a principal. No help from other teachers. School inspection without supervision. These teachers having a special need require a special remedy in the form of rural supervisors. (10) Poor living accommodation for the teachers. The ideal is a home for the teacher, but at present tlii is not practicable. Altogether the most satisfactory solution to the many rural school problems is the consolidation of schools. But it is well to point out here that there are certain poten- tialities in the one-teacher rural school, which teachers might use if they but saw their opportunity. The en- vironment is simple, the pupils have first-hand contact with nature, the younger pupils may learn from the older, the stronger may help the weaker, the long free periods between lessons may be profitably used by the pupils and the teacher can come to know and understand the parents and pupils more intimately and take individual ability more generally into consideration. The greater flexibility of organisation should make it possible to provide better for individual differences. 9. CONSOLIDATION AND TRANSPORTATION. The advantages of consolidation are many. By this means there ought to be assured : (1) Better school buildings with better equipment. (2) A graded school in which each child will receive more and better attention. (3) Larger classes which stimulate rivalry, new interest and enthusiasm. (4) Better teachers who can be retained longer. (5) An increased enrolment of older boys and girls who will stay in school when secondary education is provided. ((>) A course of study enlarged and enriched by special subjects and adapted to the needs of the locality. 151 (7) Enough pupils for organised plays and games. (8) Supervision of the teacher's work by the principal and the inspector. (9) More regular attendance and greater punctuality. (10) A better social life for the rural child. (11) More nearly equal educational opportunities for the children on the farms with those in the towns. (12) Better sanitary conditions. (13) Less cost to the parents in that they can have their children at home and need not move to town or pay their board at a town school. (14) A centre for many community activities. A model consolidated school should have not less than 5 acres of land to be utilised for experimental plots and playgrounds, a home for the principal and other teachers and a one-story school building with a large assembly room, which may be used for community functions. Such a consolidated school may develop into a standard rural high school. It should be located either in a village or in the open country. The difficulties in connection with the establishment of a good consolidated school are: (1) the increased cost of the better school, and (2) the transportation of pupils to school. Without doubt the question of transportation is the most difficult one connected with the consolidation of schools. Experience in America seems to have demon- strated pretty clearly that the public system of transpor- tation is best. Individual transportation does not prove satisfactory. Too many emergencies and excuses inter- fere with bringing the children to school. It has proved to be far more satisfactory for the district to own and furnish comfortable vans, employ the driver s, prescribe schedules, and enforce systematic performance of the service. The individual system of transportation should be looked upon as a temporary makeshift to be used only in sparsely populated districts. The essentials to be provided if the transportation is to be satisfactorv are: 152 (l.\ A route not too long to be covered in a reasonable time. This means usually with good roads and horse vehicles not over G miles. If. auto-busses are used the distance may be twice as great or longer. (2) A definite time schedule for each wagon. (3) A comfortable and safe vehicle. (4) A satisfactory driver who will have to enter into a contract with the board. The Department's policy of gradually building " up strong rural community schools by means of centralisa- tion is sound, but in addition the organisation of some real consolidated schools should be undertaken as the result of a careful survey. There are great possibilities when auto-busses are used. 10. RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS. Another great problem is to provide the rural children with easily accessible rural high schools. In the Cape Province there has been no study made of the per cent, of rural children who complete the high school. In the United States it has been found that over 700 per cent, more of city pupils complete the high school than do farm pupils." p Conditions in South Africa will be found to be about the same. One thing is certain, the rural child is decidedly handicapped in obtaining secondary education. This has been recognised by the granting of Government secondary school scholarships in aid of de- serving and necessitous rural pupils. Several objections have been raised against the town high schools for rural children. They are: (1) The great expense to the parents in transporting their children and boarding them in town. (2) The children must be entrusted to the care of strangers for 2 or 4 years during the most critical period of their life or the family must forsake the farm and move to town with the children during U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bulletin, 1919, No. 4. A Manual of Educa- tional Legislation, p. 33. 153 this time. Either course destroys the ties that bind such children to the farm and country life. (3) The town high school tends to draw the farming class from agricultural activities into other callings. The social life tends away from the farm. Even in a young country like Queensland, Aus- tralia, there is a steady flow of the country people to the cities, and the Secretary for Public Instruction ascribes it to the fact that " the greater part of the higher education given in this country serves to train up young people who will prefer town life and a town career, who cannot live without city amuse- ments, and who regard country life as far beneath them." q (4) It is difficult or impossible for the rural pupils to carry out home project work in agriculture. Even the addition of an agricultural department to a cit$ high school cannot and will not convert it into a rural high school. If the rural high school is to offer its best for the rural people then the agricultural curriculum must be the strongest of its offerings. This does not mean thai the rural child is not to be given an equal chance with other children to enter the professional courses. Only that the rural school will specialise in an agri- cultural curriculum whereas the urban school will specialise in an. industrial and commercial curri- culum. Just as much as it is better for a rural child to go to a city school for his commercial anc* industrial training so it is better for* an urban child to come out to a rural school for his agricultural training. r Report of the Sec. for Public Instruction for the year 1920. p. 60. 154 11. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, PART-TIME EDUCATION AND EXTENSION TEACHING. The importance of seeing to the continued intellectual and social growth of those remaining in rural activities cannot be over emphasised.. While the city dweller is every day able to profit by his varied experiences and from the many educational agencies, the rural dweller is handicapped by his environment and lack of social contacts. Many rural residents are in danger of losing the little book knowledge they have and becoming near illiterates. Every possible agency should 'be used to improve the rural mind. The cities are clamouring for continuation schools and part-time education and are getting them while the country is falling further arid further behind in the march of educational progress. It is about time that something were done specially for the country. The De- partment of Education and the Department of Agricul- ture might well get together in connection with the " after-education " of the rural youth as well as for that of adults. The continued education of the rural youths and adults cannot be left to private initiative. If such work were made part of the regular school system no duplica- tion of buildings, teaching force and equipment would be necessary. Extension work is less likely to succeed out- side the public 'school system than within it. The one- teacher school is obviously unable to carry out a programme of extension teaching. We must look to the larger schools with special teachers to carry on this work. The consolidated school and the rural high school are the proper places for it. It is proposed that the different departments in these schools (especially agriculture and domestic science) be opened to the country youth over 16 as part-time pupils. 155 "The committee (American, oil the teaching of agriculture in the secondary schools) believes that it is proper for a public high school that is doing good work in agriculture to extend itself to the people, but that it should not begin the process until it has something to extend. Not every high-school in- structor in agriculture is qualified to do extension work. The instructor should first show in the teaching of his pupils that he is competent to extend his instruction to the patrons of the school. Extension efforts should be the result of work rather than the beginning of work. The extension work should grow gradually as the school work in agriculture grows and be the natural expression among the people of the work that arises in the school itself....Indirect extension would be the result of and grow out of home project work with pupils." 1 " It is proposed that one-week short courses be held for the country youth and for farmers and their wives at various rural centres where there is a demand for such a course and a sufficient enrolment is assured. The agricultural teacher and the home economics teacher should be assisted by experts from the agricultural schools and such other instructors as may be necessary. The agricultural schools are doing good work, but they are handicapped by a lack of staff and equipment. They are at present able to reach only a small per cent, of the farming people. When once their work comes to be correlated with that of agricultural departments in the high schools great progress may be expected. 12. THE RURAL COMMUNITY. The school occupies a very important place in the rural community, much more so in the country than in the towns where there are in addition many other educa- tional agencies. The schools are maintained primarily for the training of children. Their obligation to improve the conditions and enrich the lives of all the people in the community is a secondary function only. r U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1920, No. 35, p. 26. . 156 Much of the success of a school depends upon the interest and co-operation of the parents. In the United States parent-teacher associations have been organised for the purpose of studying local educational problems and of bringing the homes and schools into a more sym- pathetic understanding of their joint obligations in the education of children. In Germany parents were not allowed to visit the schools except- by special permission from the authorities and this was rarely granted. Since 1918 Parents' Asso- ciations (El tern Rate) are an important part of the school administration. In England and South Africa the parents seldom or never visit the schools, and often only when they have something to complain about. In the United States not only do parents regularly visit the schools, but it is customary to take visitors through the schools. Visiting the homes of the pupils is an important part of the teacher's duty, not only in enlisting the interest and co-operation of the parents, but also in learning all he can about the pupils' heredity, environment, and natural interests. It is also important for the parents to visit the school and see it in operation. This may be accomplished by having the parents visit the school at their own convenience or by having visiting days when they come in a body. It is best perhaps to have parents' days on which all the patrons visit the school to see some school exhibits or an entertainment, as such gatherings have great social values. The teacher's visits to the homes, and the parent's visits to the school, should be for the sole purpose of closer co-operation, and never for the purpose of criticising. A wider use of the school plant by the community is recommended. 8 At present "little if anything is done in the way of the use of schools as community centres, although considerable use is made of school buildings in the country for meetings."* ' * See : Perry, C. A. Wider Use of the School Plant. Russell Sage Foundation, 1910. * Letter from Department, 4th August, 1921. 15? " The schoolhouse is found to be the logical place for com- munity meetings in most rural communities for the following reasons; (1) In many rural communities no other meeting place is available; (2) the schoolhouse is public property, which is idle more than half the time, and its use for this purpose is, therefore, an extra dividend upon the people's investment; (3) the public schoolhouse is everywhere free from sectarian and political feelings of any sort; and (4) the average rural community cannot afford to provide a hall or lease a room for such purpose, even if this were necessary."" The school playground may be used for community recreation and the schoolhouse for lectures, club meet- ings, entertainments, and various other forms of educa- tional, business, and social gatherings. The adequate establishment of libraries in the country districts is an urgent need. A reading community is invariably a pro- pressive community. The schools are the natural places where the books may find accommodation. " We should preserve a continuity of interest among adults in any local educational venture by as many different methods of appeal as possible; whether by debate, ^ecture, drama, sport. There should always be something in any higher education centre that attracts the adult and makes him realise that Education is a thing of no finality, that there is always some- thing for him too to learn and to enjoy." v The necessity of properly organising all the forces in a community has become evident. " For the improvement of rural life, measures are needed beyond the necessary improvement of labour conditions. A communal organisation that will promote vigorous intellectual and social life in the country districts is essential. To this end the committee (on adult education) recommends the pro- vision of a hall under public control with a village institute providing for many-sided activities as the ideal to he aimed at" w u Hanifan, L. J. The Community Centre, New York. Silver, Burdett & Co., 1920, p. 50. v Ashbee C. R. The Hamptonshire Experiment in Education. p. 58. w Kandel I. L. Education in Great Britain and Ireland, U.S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 1919, No. 9. p. 69. 158 In the United States many rural communities are so organised, and some of them have a community house. A community programme of work is planned by the people to meet their particular needs and interests, with definite goals to mark achievement. First a community survey is undertaken to find out the actual facts and to serve as a basis for interpreting actual needs. This prevents guessing. Then projects are chosen and leaders selected on the basis of interest* knowledge, available time and ability to develop a cer- tain line of work. As many people as possible are given an opportunity to share in community service. Such a community organisation gives purpose to the energies of the community, secures the best available advice at all points, puts the progress of the community on a practical business-like basis, counteracts isolation, creates many forms of local co-operation, and is a strong educational force. Organisation has become a present-day test of social and vocational efficiency. Because of the many handi- caps under which^they find themselves, organisation, leading to effective co-operation in economic and social relations, must become the watchword of the South African farmers. 159 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS. A, Recommendations based on the Findings: 1. That professional supervisors be appointed to help the teachers of the one-teacher rural schools. (See pp. 79, 93-95, 126-129). 2. That the lack of high school education of the rural teachers be corrected by gradually raising the requirements to two years of professional work beyond graduation from a high school. (See pp. 57, 59, 9899, 130). 3. That the rural school teachers receive specialised preparation. That they be given at least special courses in rural school management and rural sociology, and adequate rural practice teaching. (See pp. 103, 130). 4. That rural school instructors be employed on the staff of such normal schools as are in a position to give rural school practice. (See pp. 103, 130). 5. That there be a demonstration country school in connection with every normal school which pre- pares teachers for rural work. ( See pp. 103. 131 ) . 6. That the lack of provision for the improvement of teachers in service be met along some of the lines mentioned on page 103. (See pp. 45, 64, 103). 7. That a special course of study be drawn up for rural elementary schools suited to their needs* and provided with a plan of work to fit the practical necessities of the one-teacher rural schools. (See pp. 85, 86, 132-134). 8. That in the revision of Pamphlet No. 3 of the Department of Public Education special atten- tion be given to the one-teacher rural school. (See pp. 71-78. 146). 0. That the unhygienic and unsanitary conditions in many rural schools call for immediate action ^(See pp. 72, 73, 77, 146). Id That the organisation of some real consolidated schools be undertaken as a result of a careful survey. (See pp. 86, 120, 150-152). 11. That the school plant be more widely used by the community. (See pp. 82, 156). 12. That a rural community organisation be formed so that the people may act together in projects of common interest. "(See pp. 84, 157). B, Recommendations made in general: 1. That the inspectors be men of experience and professionally well trained, that they be given regular leaves of absence for professional study and investigation, and that their salaries be that of principals of high schools. (See pp. 32, 94, 125). 2. That expert supervision gradually replace inspec- tion. (See p. 126). 3. That the rural school supervisors be also members of a training college staff. (See pp. 128, 132). 4. That the present manual training courses be eliminated from the elementary school course and replaced bv a course in practical and industrial arts. (See pp. 70, 134-138). 5. That a cultural course in agriculture be taught in Standards IX and X of such high schools as have an enrolment of pupils from farm homes equal to at least a quarter of the total high school enrolment, and a minimum of 12 to a maximum of 20 pupils who want to take the course. (See pp. 70, 108-112, 138-143). 6. That a definite co-operation between the Agricul- tural Department and the Education Department is necessary if agricultural education is to be most profitably developed. (See pp. 20, 89, 155). 7. That the future courses of study be not merely a bare outline of subject matter but contain method helps, type lessons, references, etc. (See p. 132), itii 8. That the many school examinations conducted by external examiners be reduced to the lowest pos- sible minimum. (See pp. 126, 145). 9. That a public system of transportation be insti- tuted for pupils in connection with consolidated schools. (See pp. 9, 54, 121, 151). 10. That the different departments in secondary and high schools be opened to the country youth over 16 years of age as part-time pupils. (See pp. 124,' 154). 11. That one-week short courses be lield for the country youth and for farmers and their wives at various rural centres where there is a demand for such courses and a sufficient enrolment is as- sured. 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Warren G. F. Farm Management. New York. Macmillan. 1913. Weld L. D. H. The Marketing of Farm Products. New York. Macmillan. 1916. Wilkinson W. A. Rural School Management. New York. Silver, Burdett & Co. 1917. Wilson E. T. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. Farmers Bulletin No. 270. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.' 1906. Wilson L. M. Training Departments in State Normal Schools in ihe United States. Normal School Bulletin No 66, 1919. Wilson W. H. The Evolution of the Country Community. Boston. The Pilgrim Press. 1912. Woofter T. J. Teaching in Rural Schools. Boston. Houghton Mifflin. 1917. Works. G. A. Rural School Survey of New York State. Ithaca. N.Y. 1922. 16S VITA. The author of this dissertation, Johannes Kossouw Malan, was born at Wellington, Cape Province, Union of South Africa, on May 18th, 1887. He received his elementary education in the Blauw Vallei public school and his secondary education in the Boys ? High School. Wellington. He was a student at Huguenot College, Wellington, and at the South African College, Cape Town, receiving the degree of Bachelor of Arts from the University of the Cape of Good Hope in 1909. He was a student at the Training College, Wellington, in 1910, where he qualified for the Second Class Teachers' Certificate. In 1916 he attended the Training College, Stellenbosch, as a result of which he obtained the Union First Class Teachers' Certificate. In 1919 he was awarded a Union of South Africa Overseas Scholarship for further study in Education. Since coming to the United States he has been a student at (1) Teachers College, Columbia University during the academic year 1919-1920, receiving the degree of Master of Arts at the end thereof; (2) the University of Chicago for the Summer Quarter, 1920; (3) Teachers College, Columbia University for the academic year 1920-1921 ; (4) Cornell University, Summer School, 1921; and (5) Teachers College, Columbia University during the vear 1921-1922. 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