NRLF 
 
 Pictorial Landscape-Photography 
 
 PAUL LEWIS ANDERSON 
 
 fl 1 HHafffH 
 
PICTORIAL LANDSCAPE-PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
i I 
 
 PLATE I. THE PATH, SUNLIT SNOW 
 
Pictorial 
 Landscape - Photography 
 
 BY 
 
 PAUL LEWIS ANDERSON 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 PHOTO-ERA, THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 WILFRED A. FRENCH, PUBLISHER 
 
 1914 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1914 
 BY WILFRED A. FRENCH 
 
 All rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Part I THE SUBJECTIVE SIDE 7 
 
 Part II SUBJECTIVE TECHNIQUE 20 
 
 Part III TECHNICAL METHODS 37 
 
 3O5220 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 I THE PATH, SUNLIT SNOW Frontispiece 
 
 II THE LAKE, EVENING Facing Page 8 
 
 III THE LAKE OF TWINKLING LIGHTS 12 
 
 IV A CONNECTICUT-ROAD 14 
 
 V THE LAKE IN THE PARK 17 
 
 VI THE ORCHARD 20 
 
 VII THE PATH 23 
 
 VIII THE PATH, SNOW 26 
 
 IX THE BROOK, EVENING SUNLIGHT 29 
 
 X A COUNTRY-ROAD, TWILIGHT 32 
 
 XI THE HILLSIDE 37 
 
 XII SNOW 38 
 
 XIII THE LONELY TREE 43 
 
 XIV THE POOL, SNOW 44 
 
Part I The Subjective Side 
 
 SO many technical articles of the highest quality have ap- 
 peared in photographic magazines, and there are so many 
 textbooks giving formulae, that it would seem superfluous 
 to treat of such matters extensively in the present volume, 
 even apart from the fact that the writer believes the subjective 
 qualities to be a much rarer possession than technical skill. There- 
 fore, this essay has been written more with a view to point out a 
 method of approaching the cultivation of artistic vision than with 
 the idea of furnishing a technical reference-book, particularly as 
 technique cannot be taught any more than can any other subject. 
 In the last analysis, all acquired knowledge must come from effort 
 on the part of the student, the most that the teacher can do being 
 to indicate the direction which the studies should take. There- 
 fore, in the following pages technique will be treated more sug- 
 gestively than didactically, the more so as the writer believes the 
 best technique to be the simplest that will permit the worker to 
 express himself, any addition being a hindrance rather than a 
 help. This is not to say that any one should confine himself to 
 ordinary or even to orthochromatic plates, or that he should 
 make all his prints in platinum this is not to simplify technique, 
 but to throw away the advantages offered by panchromatic plates 
 and by such superior printing-mediums as carbon and gum but 
 the fact remains that if such methods will invariably do all that 
 the artist wishes them to do it is foolish to carry technical studies 
 any further, the technique of photography being so extensive and 
 so complicated far more so than that of painting that no 
 one can hope to know all of it. Furthermore, a man may be a 
 great artist without being a great technician, provided he has 
 something to express; but the finest technique will leave us cold 
 if it expresses no spiritual quality. In short, technique may be 
 
regarded as a tool, and it is as foolish for a man to refine it beyond 
 his needs as it would be for a machinist to insist on using the tools 
 of a watchmaker, whereas the watchmaker could not work suc- 
 cessfully with the coarser appliances. 
 
 It is astonishing how readily one who is endeavoring to express 
 himself becomes a good technician, often without conscious effort 
 in that direction. He works day after day, striving to say what 
 he wishes, with repeated failures and discouragements, and finally 
 discovers that his efforts have resulted in the development of a 
 degree of technical skill which, a few years before, seemed to him 
 unattainable, and this consideration, perhaps, may serve to en- 
 courage some who find their knowledge insufficient for the ideals 
 which they entertain. 
 
 No specific discussion of the accompanying illustrations will 
 be undertaken, for three reasons. First, the necessary limitations 
 are such that a moderately complete examination of the individual 
 pictures would occupy an unduly large proportion of the space 
 available. Second, it is very difficult almost impossible for 
 one to analyze his own pictures. Third, more benefit will result if 
 the principles of construction are stated and the student is left to 
 make his own application of them, than if their relation to finished 
 works is pointed out for him to see without effort. 
 
 It should be borne in mind, however, that a photograph loses 
 at both ends of the scale when reproduced in halftone, particularly 
 if either pure white or deep black be included, and this loss is 
 inherent in the process, and is not to be avoided, no matter what 
 care be taken with the reproduction, so that the accompanying 
 reproductions are not necessarily correct in their rendering of the 
 tonal relationships of the originals. 
 
 It will be assumed throughout that the reader is not interested 
 in producing simple records of fact, but wishes to do work that 
 will be entitled to be called art, and it may be well first to con- 
 sider wherein lies the difference. A record-photograph, as the 
 name implies, is a transcript of some scene, without the photog- 
 rapher's having exercised any control over the result; but the 
 
 [8] 
 
moment an effort is made to express any feeling or emotion 
 the product becomes in greater or less degree a work of art. The 
 first and simplest form is that in which the worker has felt the 
 beauty of the scene and has attempted to preserve it in order that 
 it may give pleasure to himself or to others, and the next stage in 
 the development of the artist comes when he feels that this pleasure 
 might be increased if he modified the result, whether by a change 
 in the viewpoint, by choosing a different time of day or different 
 atmospheric conditions, or by working on either negative or print. 
 The prints made during the first stage are seldom to be differen- 
 tiated from the mere record, and in most cases the dividing-line 
 between the two states of mind is not perceived even by the worker 
 himself. Then comes the stage in which the photographer is 
 inspired by the wish to express some abstract emotion, so that 
 others may feel what he felt when looking at the scene, and in the 
 final stage he endeavors to express an emotion, though he may 
 not have observed any particular landscape which aroused it in 
 him. So it will be seen that almost anything more than the merest 
 record can fairly be called art, its value depending on the skill 
 with which the artist has caused others to feel the emotions which 
 he wanted to express. 
 
 A few words as to the manner in which a landscape, or a pic- 
 ture of one, can arouse an abstract emotion may not be out of 
 place, though a complete discussion of this fact would occupy 
 too much space. In the first place, all our emotions are the result 
 of memories, whether of occurrences that have taken place in the 
 life of the individual and may perhaps have been forgotten by 
 the conscious memory or of occurrences that have influenced 
 the development of the race. As instances of the latter type we 
 may give the fear of the dark, fear of reptiles, and the curious fear 
 that some persons entertain of cats. Often these fears are the 
 direct result of the education of the individual, but frequently 
 they cannot be traced to any such source, and we are forced to 
 conclude that they are the result of atavistic memories, persisting 
 in the race through hundreds of thousands of years, from the 
 
 [9] 
 
time when all these objects of fear were perils to the race. Our 
 pleasurable emotions may be referred to a similar source, and, 
 since the mind operates largely through association, it will be 
 seen that a picture which brings to mind whether to the con- 
 scious mind or not a memory of any sort, will arouse some 
 emotion corresponding to the image called up. It may be added 
 that the racial memories and those which are not of the conscious 
 type are more powerful than those which are associated with some 
 definitely remembered scene or occurrence. 
 
 The sentiments which may be aroused by a landscape-photo- 
 graph are numerous, joy, horror, sadness, calm, peace, and others 
 being expressible by pure landscape, whereas the introduction of 
 figures or of some suggestion of life affords the possibility to ex- 
 press still more, such as sympathy or love, though here we begin 
 to approach the realm of genre. It seems to be generally the 
 case that the deeper emotions are the quieter ones, and the worker 
 who wishes to produce the greatest possible effect will usually 
 make a greater effort to arouse these than to appeal to the lighter 
 ones, such as joy or amusement. However, strict adherence to 
 this plan will produce monotony of results and, unless the photog- 
 rapher makes only a few prints in the course of a year, will quickly 
 cause him to repeat himself. The writer feels it to be a mistake 
 for an artist to specialize, as an occasional excursion into por- 
 traiture by a landscape-worker, or into genre by a portraitist, 
 will result in a fresher viewpoint when the artist returns to his 
 own field. It may be mentioned that the greatest artists have 
 never confined themselves to their specialties, some of Rembrandt's 
 finest work having been in landscape or still-life, while Velasquez 
 did genre as well as portraiture, and the same is true of others. 
 It may also be well to note that under-production is to be pre- 
 ferred to over-production, for, while the former means only less 
 technical facility than would otherwise be possessed, the latter 
 means that the worker is putting out pictures that have not been 
 carefully considered, and this results, not only in immediate 
 inferiority, but in a lowering of the worker's standard. 
 
 [10] 
 
Since we have found that the fundamental purpose of the 
 landscape-photographer is to arouse in the spectator some emo- 
 tion, we may now take up the consideration of how this is to be 
 accomplished, and, as indicated above, there are two ways to 
 approach the problem, with perhaps a third. In the first method 
 the photographer takes his camera and walks about the country 
 until he finds some scene which, by association with past experi- 
 ences, either individual or racial, arouses in him an emotion, when 
 he photographs it, and, either by the medium of a straight print, 
 or after manipulating either negative or print, or both, succeeds 
 in conveying to others the sentiment which he felt. In the second 
 method the photographer decides to attempt the expression of 
 some emotion, and goes to some spot which he remembers from 
 previous walks, or else takes his camera and walks about the 
 country until he finds something which seems a suitable arrange- 
 ment, the subsequent procedure being the same as in the former 
 case. It is not meant that the worker have a definite idea that he 
 is going to try to arouse some emotion; the mental attitude is 
 almost always unconscious, and when this is not so the result is 
 likely to be unsuccessful; but the photographer has an undefined 
 feeling of some sort which impels him to try for a certain kind of 
 picture, this feeling being, as a rule, the effect of either the weather 
 or the state of his digestion. The third method is hardly to be 
 considered a definite means of approaching the problem, as it con- 
 sists in photographing anything which conforms to certain rather 
 elastic rules of composition, and working on the negative and 
 print until something resembling a picture is obtained. The 
 second method is the best, and is most likely to result in work of 
 a high type, though the first is the one most usually employed. 
 The third is chiefly adopted by those photographers who pride 
 themselves on the possession of "temperament," and it is char- 
 acteristic of this class that they are the largest producers of "deco- 
 rative studies." Incidentally, it may be remarked that all art is 
 "decorative," even in its applied forms, and that, while it is not 
 only perfectly proper but also necessary to make studies, these 
 
should not be exhibited, the person who entitles an exhibition- 
 picture "Study" simply advertising either his own affectation or 
 his paucity of imagination. Many prints and many paintings 
 are shown which have no reason to exist except that they are 
 pleasing arrangements of line and tone, and, though some of them 
 are undeniably beautiful and for that reason are valuable additions 
 to our store of desirable pictures, possessing the merit which 
 attaches to everything that makes life happier, the writer feels 
 that they do not represent the highest development of which 
 photography is capable. The Venus de Medici is beautiful, but 
 is far inferior to the Venus de Milo, which, by the way, is not a 
 Venus but a Victory. In other words, the highest form of art is 
 that which is not merely pleasing but is also stimulating. 
 
 There are certain elements which are requisite in the construc- 
 tion of a picture, and the greatest of these is vigor. With this 
 present much may be forgiven in the way of technical deficiencies, 
 but without it nothing of enduring value can be attained, though 
 this is by no means to deny the worth of delicate prints in either 
 a high or a low key. Such pictures easily may have more strength 
 than the bolder, full-scale work of less thoughtful workers, for 
 the finest strength is that which is controlled. 
 
 Next to vigor in order of importance is unity. Birge Harrison 
 has said that there is only one rule in art: "Thou shalt not paint 
 two pictures on one canvas," and this is simply another way of 
 saying that unity must always obtain. The purpose of the pic- 
 ture, the subject, and the method of treatment having been de- 
 termined, care must be taken to see that nothing is allowed to 
 enter that might detract from the effect. This does not mean 
 that there must be no contrasts contrast is one of the most 
 valuable instruments that the artist has to work with, but merely 
 that the contrasts must not be excessive and that no incongruities 
 should be included. The amount of incongruity which may 
 be included without injuring the effect depends on the observer, 
 and an illustration will serve to make this clear. The writer 
 has seen in the show-case of a professional photographer a 
 
 [12] 
 
PLATE III. THE LAKE OF TWINKLING LIGHTS 
 
portrait of a girl posed in front of a window. A brief glance was 
 sufficient to show that the window was not a real one, but one of 
 the painted backgrounds sold in the stockhouses, and there was 
 no suggestion of light behind the figure, which was illuminated 
 at the conventional angle of 45 degrees. Here, then, was a viola- 
 tion of unity which was apparent instantly to the writer, but was 
 not apparent to the photographer, and similar instances might be 
 cited. (Of course, it may be that the photographer was merely 
 indifferent to the fault mentioned, but this does not seem prob- 
 able.) Therefore, the photographer should cultivate his sensitive- 
 ness and his powers of observation, or he may be betrayed into 
 incongruities which will offend the more highly trained observer. 
 
 The quality next in importance which a picture must have is 
 reserve. The picture which tells the whole story, leaving nothing 
 to the imagination of the spectator, soon becomes tiresome, and, 
 while no essential should be omitted, nothing which does not aid 
 the effect should be included, and, so far as possible, the imagina- 
 tion of the observer should be stimulated. More pleasure is found 
 in a picture as well as in a story, if the spectator or reader does 
 part of the work, and the more he does the better pleased he will 
 be. Some aid must be given him, of course, or a blank sheet of 
 paper would be the finest picture possible; but, other things being 
 equal, the picture which leaves most unsaid is the best. 
 
 Here, then, we have two qualities closely related mystery and 
 suggestion. An example will illustrate the two, so we will suppose 
 that we are standing in an open field in the early morning, before 
 the sky has begun to lighten, and that between us and the eastern 
 horizon is a row of heavy trees a hundred yards or so away. We 
 can see no details anywhere the trees are visible only in outline 
 against a deep blue sky, and the field between us and them can be 
 distinguished only as a space a trifle lighter in value than the 
 intense black of the foliage. Here, then, we have mystery, for 
 the dark shadows might conceal anything, a gipsy caravan, a herd 
 of cattle, the outposts of an army, or an automobile-camp, and it 
 depends on our imagination to people those shadows with any- 
 
 [13] 
 
thing we may wish. Gradually the sky begins to lighten and we 
 can see faint patches of a lighter value in the dark mass of the 
 trees. Here suggestion comes into play, for one patch may have 
 what seems to us the shape of a cow lying down, and we look until 
 we fancy that we can see the whole animal, as the figures are seen 
 in those clever drawings on magazine-covers, where a portion of 
 the outline is shown and the rest left for the observer to fill in for 
 himself. Another patch has a different shape, and we think it a 
 horse, and so on. The sky lightens still more, and we see other 
 shapes, and now we can perceive that what we took for a cow is 
 in reality a wheelbarrow, while the horse is a pile of hay. Sug- 
 gestion, however, may still be at work in other portions of the 
 scene, though our illusions concerning parts of it have been dis- 
 pelled ; but as the light increases, one thing after another is shown, 
 until with broad day there is no more reserve, and everything 
 stands out in distinct outlines. 
 
 So we find that reserve includes mystery and suggestion, and 
 that we can have the former without the latter; but it may be 
 added that the imagination of the average person is not active 
 enough to let him see anything in a pure, ungraded shadow, so 
 that it is usually necessary to introduce some light as a stimulant 
 to his imaginative powers. Suggestion is by no means confined 
 to the inclusion of undefined spots of light or dark, but may take 
 many other forms, as, for example, in the case of a body shown in 
 motion with no visible cause of its motion, when the imagination 
 of the spectator immediately suggests an explanation. If a 
 golfer be shown at the end of the swing, the eye follows along the 
 probable line of flight of the ball which is supposed to have left 
 the club, or if an object be shown suspended in the air the specta- 
 tor looks to see who has thrown it. Another illustration is in the 
 case of a road leading over a hill, where we have a definite line 
 leading to an invisible point, and the spectator follows the line 
 visually until it disappears, then continues to do so mentally. 
 The arrangement of lines in a picture also has a powerful sugges- 
 tive quality, horizontal lines suggesting calm and quiet, vertical 
 
lines strength and dignity, diagonal ones motion, and sinuous 
 ones motion combined with grace. The effect of various kinds of 
 line will, however, be more fully discussed when we consider 
 composition. 
 
 The emotions which can be aroused by a landscape may be 
 divided into two broad classes, the lively and the quiet. Of the 
 former the chief is that of joy, whether rejoicing at some definite 
 thing, such as light or warmth, or the simple joy of living. In 
 the latter class we find calm, sadness, wonder, and reverence as 
 the principal ones, the last-named being too big for the photogra- 
 pher, and being usually beyond even the painter, as may be seen 
 from the failure of most of the attempts to present satisfactorily 
 the Grand Canon on canvas. It is impossible to give any rules 
 for the expression of these emotions through the medium of a 
 picture, for art which is made by rule invariably fails of its purpose, 
 but we can state a few principles which are of assistance to the 
 artist, whether photographer or painter. 
 
 In the first place, joy is usually associated in our minds with 
 two factors light and expansiveness. We see the latter quality 
 in the motions of a person who is happy, the chest being thrown 
 forward, the head raised and the arms spread abroad, and a general 
 air of buoyancy prevailing, in contradistinction to the contracted 
 motions of one who is suffering, either mentally or physically, 
 the latter state resulting in depression of the body, tenseness of 
 the muscles and lowering of the head, in sharp contrast to the 
 manifestations of happiness. These facts suggest at once that 
 joy is to be expressed in rounded forms, the swelling of hills, trees 
 in full foliage and cumulous clouds, whereas sadness is best 
 indicated by lines of drooping, angular character, preferably con- 
 verging towards the center of the picture. The mention of full- 
 foliaged trees and cumulous clouds suggests that pictures expressive 
 of joy usually are to be made in the spring or summer, whereas 
 those which convey an emotion of sadness most often are to be 
 found in the autumn or winter, and this is in fact the case, another 
 factor entering strongly into the question in the shape of a feeling 
 
 [15] 
 
resulting from thousands of years of false training to the 
 effect that decay and death are not merely natural phenomena, 
 but are definite visitations from a higher power, and are to be 
 deplored. This feeling is so strong that only the greatest minds 
 are free from it, even though reason tells us that it is an erroneous 
 one, and, since emotions are stimulated by the sight of phenomena 
 associated with past experiences, and since autumn and winter 
 are the seasons of decay and death even though only temporary 
 
 this association aids in the expression of the emotions founded 
 on the absence of buoyant, expanded forms. 
 
 It has been noted that joy is associated not only with expan- 
 siveness, but with light, this" fact being doubtless a psychological 
 condition remaining from the days before artificial light was in- 
 vented, when night, the time of darkness, was made terrible by 
 nocturnal beasts of prey. Whatever the cause, the fact remains 
 that light is associated in our minds with happiness, darkness 
 being a concomitant of sadness, whence it follows that a high- 
 keyed picture, filled with the feeling of sunlight, will be more 
 likely to give an impression of joy than a low-keyed, gloomy one. 
 Incidentally, the next to the last word in the preceding sentence 
 illustrates the fact that has just been indicated, for to most per- 
 sons the word "gloom" connotes sadness, whereas the true meaning 
 is merely " darkness." The key of a print is a matter of technique ; 
 but one cannot introduce the feeling of direct sunlight into a 
 picture if it did not exist in the original subject, and direct sun- 
 light is more often to be found in summer than in winter, when 
 the days are short, and even in the middle of the day the light is 
 only about three-fourths as strong this applies to the latitude 
 of New York as in the warmer season. To be sure, many 
 bright, joyous pictures may be made in winter, if a sunny day is 
 chosen when there is snow on the ground ; but in general, it will 
 be found easier to do such work in spring or summer, reserving 
 the colder weather for the expression of the quieter emotions. 
 
 Turning now to an analysis of the emotions of calm and peace, 
 we find that, although they are among the quieter ones, there is 
 
 [16] 
 
no association of sadness, but rather of a restrained happiness, 
 and we would expect to find them expressed best by a combination 
 of the qualities required for the conveying of joy and sadness, 
 and this is, in fact, the case, for, although it is not possible to 
 give the desired impression by means of angular, contracted lines 
 in a high key, it is possible, and almost necessary, to employ 
 rounded lines in a low key for the purpose. Therefore, such 
 pictures are better made in spring or summer, choosing or 
 simulating a time of day when the light is dull. Care must 
 be taken, however, that if the dull light is imitated by technical 
 procedure, clouds and shadows which are characteristic of the 
 middle of the day are not introduced, this fault, which is by no 
 means uncommon, being a very unpleasant violation of unity. 
 
 Wonder is not a very deep emotion, so is not of great value to 
 the artist, but may be expressed by a scene which is outside of 
 our every-day experience, taking care not to make it too bizarre, 
 else the emotion aroused will be merely one of amusement; and 
 reverence, as pointed out, requires a larger picture than photo- 
 graphic technique permits, though it may be noted that when the 
 expression of an emotion is aimed at, the print should always be 
 as large as the technique chosen will allow, for, although a small 
 picture may be as esthetic, and as pleasing in line and tone as a 
 larger one, the larger is to be preferred when it is a question of 
 subject. This is due, probably, to the fact that the area compre- 
 hended by the eye is so large that it is impossible to concentrate 
 the vision on a small space, to the exclusion of other objects, whereas 
 at the same time, the size of objects in the smaller picture is so far 
 removed from that which we know to be true that it fails to con- 
 vince us. If enlarging from small negatives, however, there is a 
 danger that faults in composition, whether of line or of tone 
 which were not apparent in the small original will become 
 noticeable, and this fact has led some writers to suggest limits of 
 enlargement. As a matter of fact, if the original is well composed 
 it may be enlarged to almost any dimensions without loss of quality, 
 for the grain of the image, which becomes apparent on enlarging 
 
 [17] 
 
more than fifteen or twenty diameters, is compensated by the 
 fact that a large print is usually examined from a much greater 
 distance than a small one. 
 
 One more quality remains to be considered before we pass on 
 to the subject of composition, and that is indicated in a remark 
 once made to the writer by W. D. MacColl, to the effect that 
 all art, to be of any value, must contain an element of surprise. 
 At first sight this may appear to be a mistake, and at variance with 
 the principle of reserve, but on consideration it will be found that 
 such is not the case. The element of surprise may consist of any 
 unexpected incident, even so slight as the sudden change in direc- 
 tion of a line having its effect, though this is more of a structural 
 quality. The point, however, is that there must be something in 
 the picture which would not be expected from the rest of it, thus 
 affording the spectator a slight shock. If the shock is too great 
 the result will be unpleasant, but without any it will be merely 
 pretty, and such pictures have no lasting value. 
 
 The introduction of figures into landscape-work increases the 
 number of emotions that may be expressed, adding fear, despair, 
 love, and others, and at the same time facilitating the expression 
 of those that can be conveyed by pure landscape; for if a figure 
 expresses, by its attitude, any emotion, the influence on the specta- 
 tor may be considerable. Of course, this involves additional 
 care, and it is desirable that there be a marked degree of sympathy 
 between the photographer and his model, as the work of the 
 former is thereby made much easier. For this reason it is well to 
 select some friend who is interested in the work and persuade him 
 or her to pose, rather than to rely on the professional model, whose 
 interest is generally confined to the financial reward. If working 
 with a figure-model the difficulties are greatly increased, as it is 
 then almost always necessary to depend on the professional, and, 
 though failure in the use of draped figures may result in mere 
 inadequacy of expression, failure with a nude figure becomes 
 positively offensive. It is necessary to introduce mystery to a 
 great degree when using a figure-model, or the spectator will be 
 
 [18] 
 
inclined to inquire into the identity of the model, and will lose 
 sight of the qualities which the picture is intended to possess, the 
 result being that he will receive merely the impression of an un- 
 dressed person outdoors.. It is very difficult to avoid the presence 
 of some suggestiveness which is different from suggestion 
 in work of this class, and much study should be given to the work 
 of other photographers as well as of painters before making any 
 attempt whatever. 
 
 A great writer on art once said that no picture could be truly 
 great unless it included some suggestion of humanity, in the form 
 either of a figure or of some work of man. This statement, how- 
 ever, seems to be an exaggeration, and largely an expression of 
 personal feeling rather than of opinion, the fact being that for 
 some observers such a suggestion is necessary to the fullest arous- 
 ing of the emotions, whereas, for others, pure landscape may be 
 equally impressive. Therefore, the worker is advised to introduce 
 figures only if he himself feels the need of them, and to have 
 confidence that he may reach the highest possible expression, 
 even without such an addition. 
 
 [19] 
 
Part II Subjective Technique 
 
 Composition Values Definition Detail 
 
 TO the person who wishes to analyze pictures, whether 
 with a view to make them or merely to cultivate his 
 appreciation, no better advice can be given than that 
 he procure a copy of "Pictorial Composition," by 
 Henry R. Poore, and study it; for in this book the structure of 
 pictures is reduced to certain principles the author realizes 
 perfectly the impossibility of giving rules for producing works of 
 art and these fundamental principles are discussed in a manner 
 that is at once clear and complete. It is not advised that the 
 student read this book once or even twice, for such a course will 
 almost inevitably result in his going out and trying to construct 
 pictures on the same lines as the examples given, and the effect 
 will be stilted and without value; but if the book be read re- 
 peatedly, with attention to the more important passages, the 
 principles given will become second nature, and will be applied 
 without conscious thought, often without the worker realizing 
 what has taken place. There are many other books on composi- 
 tion, conspicuous among them being the work of Professor Arthur 
 W. Dow. Professor Dow's book, however, is written entirely 
 from the standpoint of the synthetic worker, whereas Mr. Poore's 
 approaches the subject analytically as well, so that, while the 
 former is of value to the painter or designer, whose function is to 
 construct patterns, starting from empty spaces, the latter is of 
 more use to the photographer and especially to the landscape- 
 photographer whose work depends on the seeing and abstrac- 
 tion of patterns from among the multitudes furnished by nature. 
 Incidentally, it might be remarked that synthetic work generally is 
 considered to require a higher type of mind or a more vivid imagi- 
 nation than analytic; but the writer does not feel this to be the 
 
 [20] 
 
PLATE VI. THE ORCHARD 
 
case. One type of mind cannot be considered higher than the 
 other, any more than the scientist can be considered superior to 
 the artist, or vice versa; they are simply different, both being 
 equally necessary. 
 
 When the worker has determined what idea or emotion he 
 wishes to express, and has found a scene which, either through 
 the medium of a direct photograph or by means of manipulation, 
 may be made to fulfil his desire, it becomes necessary to consider 
 the manner in which it is to be presented by photographic means, 
 and, leaving out of the question for the time being the more truly 
 subjective qualities, we will first take up the structure, for with- 
 out good composition the probability of successful expression is 
 much diminished. 
 
 The need of composition may be understood readily when we 
 realize that to convey an idea it is generally necessary to have 
 some principal object to which all else in the picture shall be 
 subordinate, this principal object being the one which is most 
 powerful in conveying the fundamental idea. Since, however, 
 one object, if isolated, is rarely able fully to express an abstract 
 idea as is shown by the literal quality of a vignetted portrait 
 
 it becomes necessary to introduce additional detail, which, 
 without competing for interest with the principal object, either 
 shall explain or emphasize it. Since this minor detail must be 
 so arranged within the picture-space as to leave no portion either 
 vacant or unduly obtrusive a vacant spot is always obtrusive 
 
 and since in order to do this it is necessary to lead the vision 
 in orderly progression over the entire picture, a knowledge of the 
 fundamental principles of composition is necessary. Some workers 
 may say that they compose by instinct, or rather by innate feeling; 
 but it will be found that in such cases the act of composition has 
 been preceded by study of pictures and unconscious absorption of 
 the principles involved. If these principles can be indicated in 
 an article, it may serve to direct the attention of the student 
 toward a method of study and thereby save him much time and 
 effort. 
 
 [21] 
 
Certain fundamental facts underlie the composition of a 
 picture, and we will simply state them briefly as follows, omitting 
 any discussion of the reasons why they obtain; but it must be 
 understood that they are psychological facts and not principles of 
 composition. 
 
 Every line and every spot in a picture has a power to attract 
 the vision, this power depending on the character of the line or 
 spot and on its relation to its surroundings. 
 
 The vision tends to follow along a line in the direction of the 
 impulse received from objects seen before reaching the beginning 
 of the line. 
 
 Other things being equal, the vision tends to follow vertical 
 or diagonal lines upward rather than downward, or, in the case 
 of a horizontal line, from left to right. 
 
 A straight line is followed more readily than a broken one, and 
 the same is true with reference to a curved line, which is the 
 equivalent of the broken one, though it in turn is followed more 
 easily than the broken line. 
 
 The attractive power of a spot depends on its area and in- 
 tensity, a light spot being more attractive than a dark one of 
 equal measure, and also on its surroundings. Thus, if we have 
 two spots of equal size, one white and the other black, and place 
 them on a ground of gray formed by the mixture of equal quan- 
 tities of black and white, the white spot will be more attractive; 
 but if they be placed on a ground of very light gray, the black 
 will be more so. Hence we see that, other things being equal, 
 the vision seeks light and recoils from shadow, and also that the 
 attractive power of a spot increases with the contrast between it 
 and its surroundings. 
 
 The attractive power of a spot is directly proportional to its 
 area. 
 
 We may take up now the principles of composition, and it 
 will be well merely to state them at first, discussing them after- 
 ward, for a full comprehension of each is of the utmost impor- 
 tance. They are as follows: 
 
 [22] 
 
Unity Rhythm 
 
 Harmony Subordination 
 
 Contrast Simplicity 
 
 Repetition Balance 
 
 These are, of course, fundamental art-principles as well as 
 principles of pictorial composition; but the present discussion 
 is concerned only with the latter application. 
 
 Unity is the most important, and may be defined as the com- 
 bination of parts to form a homogeneous whole. The principle 
 was discussed to some extent in the first part of the present essay; 
 but it should be borne in mind that unity is of two sorts, natural 
 and artificial the former that which would be perceived by the 
 layman, the latter that which is dependent on arbitrary laws. 
 This difference may be illustrated by a reference to the drama, 
 wherein an anachronism is a violation of natural unity, whereas 
 making the supposed action of the play occupy more time than 
 the representation is a violation of the Aristotelian unities. In 
 photography the printing in of clouds, such as are never seen at 
 the season or the time of day represented, is a violation of natural 
 unity; on the other hand, the printing in of any clouds whatever, 
 the manipulation of the negative, local work on the print, or the 
 introduction of several colors, is a violation of artificial unity. 
 If the worker possesses force of character and originality of thought, 
 combined with good taste, he may safely disregard all arbitrary 
 laws, which are of no permanent value and are often hampering; 
 but this is a matter for each one to decide for himself. 
 
 Closely allied to unity is harmony, which is the arrangement 
 of parts in such a manner that they will form a pleasing whole, 
 and this may be considered to be of two kinds negative and 
 positive. The former is that which results in an arrangement 
 which is not definitely unpleasant, whereas the latter goes farther 
 and produces a conjunction of lines and masses that as is the 
 case with certain arrangements of musical notes is pleasing simply 
 of itself, without relation to the remainder of the composition. 
 
 [23] 
 
Unity and harmony are not the same, however, as the former 
 may exist without the latter, though harmony presupposes the 
 existence of the more abstract quality. If harmony be carried 
 too far, the result will be mere prettiness without vigor, and it is 
 necessary to introduce contrast. 
 
 Contrast may be of line, of tone, or of thought, and may be 
 either gradual as in the case of a line diverging at a progress- 
 ively increasing angle from the main line or abrupt, as in the 
 case of a sudden transition from light to dark. Contrast is one 
 of the most valuable aids possessed by the artist, as it may serve 
 either to counteract the effect of repetition as will be explained 
 later or to give strength to an otherwise weak composition. 
 For instance, a twilight-scene, chiefly in low or middle-tones, may 
 easily prove monotonous, especially if composed, as is usually the 
 case, mainly in horizontal lines; but the introduction of a space 
 of strong light in the sky, particularly if so arranged as to afford 
 an attraction in a vertical direction, may serve to give vigor to 
 the whole. It should be noted that the addition of such a spot 
 would tend to make the adjacent masses seem darker than they 
 would appear without it, and at the same time would raise the 
 key of the whole picture, so that to counteract this tendency it 
 would be necessary either to add a space of deep shadow, which 
 would lower the key simultaneously and restore the middle-tones 
 to their proper value, or to print deeper, thereby lowering 
 the values sufficiently to compensate the addition of the light. 
 Contrast should be used sparingly, whether in line or in light, 
 as an excess will make the result either spotty or diffuse in 
 short, non-homogeneous. 
 
 The repetition of the lines or values of the principal object, 
 either directly or with slight variation, in the same key or in a 
 different one, serves to explain the principal object, but at the 
 same time detracts from its vigor, so that it becomes necessary 
 to introduce some line or some value to counteract this tendency, 
 unless, of course, repetition is employed to soften an excessively 
 strong accent. An illustration may be found in the case of a forest- 
 
 [24] 
 
scene, where one tree, the principal object, would be meaningless 
 if isolated. The introduction of other trees, smaller in size because 
 more distant, serves to explain the large one; but at the same 
 time the repetition of the vertical lines diminishes their force, 
 which may be restored by the introduction of a few horizontal 
 lines in the form of strips of alternate light and shadow. Repeti- 
 tion of a value operates in the same manner, and the necessary 
 emphasis is secured in this case by the use of one or more spots 
 differing widely in key, though, as already pointed out, either the 
 spot or the line may be employed to give contrast, apart from 
 repetition. 
 
 Rhythm is allied to repetition, but is not identical with it, 
 being broader in its application, and consisting of a recurring line 
 or value, or series of such, with perhaps a definite accent. Both 
 rhythm and repetition are more useful in formal art than in land- 
 scape, but have an application in the latter, rhythm often being 
 exemplified in the structure of clouds, especially those of the 
 cumulous variety. In general, though, landscape-work is more 
 concerned with variety than with rhythm. 
 
 Subordination is rather a quality than a principle, and means 
 simply that the detail which is introduced to explain or to give 
 emphasis to the principal thought or object must not compete 
 with this in interest. It will be apparent that, should this be the 
 case, the effect of the principal object will be diminished, and one 
 of the greatest difficulties that the photographer has to encounter 
 is the inclusion by the lens of excessive detail, special objectives 
 having been designed, and methods employed, to avoid this fault. 
 Careful choice of subject and careful focusing will go far toward 
 attaining subordination, and proper exposure and development 
 will help to secure it at either end of the scale, the final recourse 
 being the manipulation of negative or print. 
 
 Simplicity is related to subordination, as it means the elimina- 
 tion of all unnecessary detail and gradation, keeping only that 
 which is required to give clearness and vigor to the expression of 
 the fundamental emotion or thought. Simplicity is not necessary,, 
 
 [25] 
 
for a great quantity of detail may be introduced without harm 
 if it be subordinated properly; but the more detail that is used 
 the greater becomes the difficulty to keep it non-obtrusive, and 
 the less the chance of including mystery that most desirable 
 quality. In short, no more detail should be used than will suffice 
 to carry the idea, and in this case detail means not only recog- 
 nizable articles, but gradations of tone and outlines of objects; 
 that is, anything which serves to attract attention. There is a 
 kind of simplicity which consists in reproducing literally some 
 subject which contains little detail; but in such a case it is for- 
 gotten that the subject with little detail has usually little mean- 
 ing, and the highest development of the photographer's art 
 demands that he have the perception to realize and the skill to 
 reproduce only those portions of the subject which have value. 
 
 Balance is the last of the fundamental principles which we will 
 consider, and it is one of the most important. We have seen that 
 the picture must have a principal object, which usually should be 
 placed in the strongest space that is, the space which naturally 
 has the most attractive power within the frame. Since regu- 
 larity generally is found to be monotonous, the weakest point of 
 the picture-space is the center, and the next weakest are to be 
 found on the horizontal and vertical axes of the frame, so it follows 
 that our point of interest probably will be located away from the 
 center, and in neither a horizontal nor a vertical direction from 
 it; but no indication can be given of the distance it should be 
 from the edges of the picture, as this varies with each composi- 
 tion. Since composition as understood by Occidental workers 
 the Japanese do not seem to agree with this requires that the 
 vision be led in due progression over the entire picture, it is neces- 
 sary to provide some attraction on the other side of the central 
 line from the principal object, and this maybe done in anyone of 
 three ways, or in a combination of two of them, it being merely 
 noted in passing that landscape-compositions are almost always 
 arranged about a vertical axis. The first method of providing 
 balance is to place an attraction of equal size and value, and of 
 
 [26] 
 
I 
 
the same general form as the principal one, in the same relative 
 position to the central axis as the latter, but in the other half of 
 the picture-space. This method, useful as it is in decoration and 
 design, is not much employed in landscape- or portrait-work, 
 because of the tendency which it has to produce monotony, and 
 the second method is to be preferred, this consisting of the use 
 of an object smaller in size but of greater attractive power, and 
 placed at a greater distance from the central axis than the princi- 
 pal one, the construction being either on the vertical plane or in 
 perspective, the smaller object being, in the latter case, in either 
 the middle-distance or the distance. This method has the ad- 
 vantage of giving variety and vigor to the result, and is most 
 often used in pictorial art. The third method is to introduce 
 apparent motion of the principal object toward the space where 
 attraction is desired, for motion toward a space always causes 
 the vision to turn in the direction indicated. This and the second 
 method are sometimes used together with excellent results; for 
 the third method, if used alone, tends to produce a feeling of 
 unrest. 
 
 The type of line predominating in the composition has a marked 
 effect on the feeling conveyed by the picture, and care should be 
 taken to choose the type best suited to the emotion to be expressed, 
 not only as regards the structural forms included in the arrange- 
 ment, but as to the linear dimensions of the print. Like most of 
 the facts in connection with composition, the different kinds of 
 line derive their value from association, forms which we regard as 
 being strong and dignified, being, in nature, characterized by a 
 preponderance of vertical lines, whereas the more graceful and 
 gentle shapes are those in which curved lines are the most 
 apparent. Also, diagonal lines are associated with movement; 
 whereas horizontal lines are most expressive of calm and peace, and 
 zigzag ones indicate, as might be expected, swift, erratic motion. 
 Of course, all these effects are modified by the surrounding condi- 
 tions, and necessarily must be affected to a greater or less extent 
 by the introduction of contrasting lines intended to give emphasis; 
 
 [27] 
 
but the artist will select such lines as are most likely to aid his 
 expression, remembering always that an arrangement of spots, a 
 strong attraction, or a strong impulse in any given direction, 
 may be equivalent to a line. 
 
 The question of values is one of the most abstruse which the 
 artist has to encounter, and is of special importance to the pho- 
 tographer, whose work, lacking the element of color, depends for 
 its effect largely on relative values. Line of, course, is important, 
 as it must be to any worker in monochrome; but the technical 
 methods employed by the photographer inherently are capable 
 of rendering the values of nature more perfectly than any other 
 medium, and the photographer has the power to modify them 
 even without manual intervention to as great an extent as the 
 worker in any other process. The objective side of the subject is 
 learned easily, for, given a panchromatic plate as well as the 
 ordinary and orthochromatic types, a visual luminosity-filter and 
 a set of contrast-filters, together with an actinometer and some 
 knowledge of the effects of under- and overexposure and under- 
 and overdevelopment, the photographer is equipped to render 
 the relative values of the subject correctly, to compress or extend 
 the scale, or to emphasize any particular color at will. This, 
 however, is the least part of the matter, for the subjective effect 
 of values is of the greatest importance, and some photographers 
 with little technical knowledge have become noted for their treat- 
 ment of values, simply by reason of their appreciation of the 
 more abstract qualities, whereas the finest technician can never 
 produce anything of artistic value if he goes no farther than this 
 knowledge. It is, however, foolish to decry technique, for, other 
 things being equal, the greater a man's knowledge, the more 
 chance there is of his producing work that will have permanent 
 value. As an instance, we may refer to the Austrian workers 
 Kiihn, Henneberg, and Watzek, who produced landscapes as 
 fine in conception and feeling as any that have ever been done, 
 with the exception of some of Clarence H. White's, and were at the 
 same time as skilful technicians as any one could be. 
 
 [28] 
 
PLATE IX. THE BROOK, EVENING SUNLIGHT 
 
1,000,000 
 
 o.l 1.0 to 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 
 
 Ll$HT-lNTE.N5ITY IN GANP\-E - ME.TE RS . 
 
 CURVE SHOWING 5Etssmve.NE.55 OF THE. 
 TO VARYINQ LI^HT- lHTE.Nsme.5. 
 
 In considering the rendering of values and the subjective 
 effect of modifying the representation given by the plate, the 
 first thing is to determine the extent to which the eye appreciates 
 the relative luminosity of natural objects, and the curve given 
 above shows this clearly. Abscissae represent luminosity in terms 
 of a standard candle, and ordinates the sensitiveness of the vision. 
 It will be seen that with an illumination of less than one candle- 
 meter the eye sees very little, but the amount of detail that is 
 visible rises with disproportionate rapidity as this point is ap- 
 proached, the rise being virtually uniform between one and one 
 thousand candle-meters. One candle-meter corresponds approxi- 
 mately to the illumination of a white house in moonlight, and 
 ten thousand is that of white clouds near the sun. Hence it will 
 be seen that if we wish to give the impression of faint illumination, 
 such as moonlight or twilight, we can do so by arranging our 
 relative values in accordance with the lower part of the curve 
 that is, having little differentiation in the shadows, with relatively 
 
 [29] 
 
brilliant lights and if we wish to give a feeling of strong light 
 we should have flat highlights and relatively strong contrast in 
 the shadows. Readers familiar with the work of Messrs. Hurter 
 and Driffield will recognize at once the general form of this curve 
 as similar to the characteristic curve of the dryplate, and the 
 thought will suggest itself that faint illumination is to be sug- 
 gested by underexposure and strong light by overexposure, using 
 these terms to indicate the relation of the exposure to the normal ; 
 and this is in fact the case, for such a course will produce the 
 effect desired, no matter what the actual illumination of the scene 
 may be. It must be noted, however, that in a weak light the 
 strongest light is far below the maximum which the eye can see, 
 so white paper should never be used in any part of the print 
 unless the source of illumination is included the most bril- 
 liantly illuminated object being a medium gray, and that there 
 are in nature no black shadows under a full light, so that in a sun- 
 lit landscape the darkest space will be a medium gray. In other 
 words, when representing either a high or a low key we must use 
 a soft negative and adjust the result by modifying the exposure, 
 printing light or dark as the case may be. The principal thing 
 to guard against is underexposing a brightly lighted scene and 
 developing too far, for heavy shadows will prevent the suggestion 
 of sunlight. Of course, it may be desired to have empty shadows, 
 devoid of detail, together with a high key, in which case under- 
 exposure may be correct, but the negative should be kept soft. 
 
 There are, however, some conditions which require a strong 
 negative, as may be seen if we stand facing west at sunset, with 
 a row of heavy trees in the middle-distance. Examining the 
 trees, themselves, we may be able to see detail in them; but if the 
 gaze be concentrated on the sky we shall receive the impression 
 that the trees are simply a solid black mass, though on shading 
 the eyes from the sky much detail will become visible immediately 
 in the shadows. Here, then, we need a strong negative, such 
 as will give a full-scale print, but the exposure must be governed 
 by the location of the interest. If this is in the trees, the exposure 
 
 [30] 
 
must be sufficient to show faint detail in the shadows; and if it 
 is in the sky, the trees must remain empty 
 
 If for any reason empty shadows are used, it must be borne in 
 mind that no matter how black a shadow is in nature it never gives 
 a feeling of flatness, but always seems to have some depth, and 
 this is true even though it may be devoid of any gradation. This 
 characteristic may be suggested in the print by introducing either 
 a little gradation, which, however, should not suggest any natural 
 object, or else a lustre. Platinum paper or, in fact, any paper in 
 which the image is deposited in metallic form on the surface of 
 the support, is not so successful in rendering this effect, even 
 though varnished, as a medium in which the pigment is supported 
 in a film of appreciable thickness of some colloid, such as gelatin 
 or gum arabic. Bromide paper is not suitable for the purpose, 
 as it will not give blacks of sufficient richness; but carbon and 
 gum answer the purpose admirably. Photogravure also gives 
 very rich blacks, and if a little gradation is introduced the sugges- 
 tion may be perfect, better, indeed, than with either of the other 
 processes advised; for it must be admitted that the lustre is only 
 a makeshift, nature's deepest tones never being lustrous, but 
 having the peculiar "velvety" texture of a good photogravure. 
 Sunlight is easier to render, as almost any paper is capable of 
 giving good quality in a high key, the failures being in the lower 
 tones. 
 
 If the values of the scene are rendered correctly and the scene 
 is of a type with which the spectator is familiar, there will often 
 be a suggestion of color, the strength of this suggestion depend- 
 ing, of course, on the activity of the observer's imagination, which 
 impels him to remember what he has seen in nature, thus giving 
 added force to the impression which the picture makes on him. 
 This effect may be heightened by choosing a printing-color which 
 will help to stimulate the imagination, as the psychological power 
 of different pigments varies greatly. Thus, a snow-scene printed 
 in blue-black on white paper will be powerfully suggestive, though 
 any one who has ever observed snow closely knows that it may 
 
contain an infinite number of colors, so that mere blue can never 
 render the scene accurately, any more than gray can render a 
 summer-landscape. The prevailing impression of snow, however, 
 is that it is cold, and a cold color heightens the effect through 
 association. Similarly, the most obvious impression regarding 
 sunlight is that it is warm, and by printing a summer-landscape 
 in warm gray or brown, the effect is intensified. As the light 
 grows weaker colors lose their visibility, form being distinguish- 
 able long after color has disappeared. The cold colors blue, 
 blue-green, and green, also all secondaries and tertiaries having 
 a predominating admixture of blue, lose their visibility first, the 
 warmer colors yellow, orange, red, and mixed colors in which 
 these predominate, remaining visible as color after the cold colors 
 have become black. Furthermore, the light usually becomes 
 warmer toward sunset, and, though it again becomes cold after- 
 ward, this fact is not realized by the average observer, who asso- 
 ciates warmth with dusk. Hence, twilight-scenes should be 
 printed in a warm color, except in the case of winter-pictures, 
 which are to convey a sense of cold. If, though, the scene is 
 illuminated by the moon, the character of it will be cold, that being 
 the color of the light reflected by the moon except when it is near 
 the horizon, in which case it is so weak in illuminating-power as 
 not to be very useful for pictorial purposes. Hence, a cold color 
 should be selected for moonlight-pictures, though this should be 
 no more than a cold black, positive color tending to detract from 
 the effect. 
 
 While dealing with color, it may be well to say a few words 
 concerning the development in this direction which seems to be 
 taking place among photographers, some of whom, working in 
 gum or oil, attempt to give the colors of nature by working over 
 the print locally with different pigments. The writer cannot 
 approve this method of work, for color is the most abstruse subject 
 in all art, requiring long and earnest study in order to master it, 
 and the photographer is seldom willing to give this effort. Then, 
 the painter who attempts to give color works partly from a trained 
 
 [32] 
 
memory and partly from color-sketches, whereas the photographer 
 relies chiefly on an untrained recollection of the scene. Then, 
 too, it is easy for the painter to draw color, although it is difficult 
 almost impossible for him to draw form; but the camera can 
 draw form with the utmost ease and accuracy, color being difficult 
 for it. This being so, it would seem best for the photographer 
 to devote himself to the application of the possibilities of his 
 medium, instead of trying to do what is hard for it to accomplish. 
 Painters know better than to do this, and do not attempt what 
 is beyond the power of the medium in which they may be work- 
 ing. What has been said must not be construed as adverse to 
 three-color or autochrome-work both of these being perfectly 
 legitimate applications of the art but merely as a disapproval 
 of the arbitrary application of colors to different portions of the 
 print, whether this be done by means of transparent dyes on the 
 picture, or by one of the control-processes. As regards the use 
 of the screen-plate color-processes, however, it must be admitted 
 that one may lose more than he gains. There is a peculiar quality 
 that is attainable in photography, as well as in painting, that can 
 be indicated only by the word "texture." This has nothing to 
 do with the rendering of the textures of different materials, which 
 is largely a question of relative values, but refers to the super- 
 ficial appearance of the picture. Any painter can recognize this 
 quality, and will know what is meant by the word, but will be 
 unable to describe it, even though he himself is one of those who 
 attain it. It is, to be sure, a quality which has nothing to do 
 with the expression of the subject, but since it is very pleasing 
 to the spectator it is valuable, for anything which pleases is a help 
 to the picture. Of those photographers with whose work the 
 writer is familiar, Clarence H. White and Karl Struss have at- 
 tained this quality to the highest degree, and it adds greatly to 
 their work. In autochrome-work, however, this precious quality 
 is totally lost, and, in fact, it cannot be got in any transparency. 
 The writer recently saw a collection of autochromes and of prints 
 by the same worker, and though the former were fully equal to the 
 
 [33] 
 
latter in composition and arrangement, and had in addition the 
 great attraction of brilliant and harmonious color together with 
 great luminosity, they were far less pleasing than the prints, 
 simply because they lacked texture, whereas the prints had it to 
 an extraordinary extent. 
 
 The degree of definition is one of the most discussed questions 
 in photography, and there is no way to determine the precise de- 
 gree of definition to suit the individual case. We can, however, 
 determine the maximum degree of fineness of definition desirable, 
 for this bears a precise relationship to the size of the print. As 
 is well known, the angle of vision of the eye is comparatively 
 narrow, so that if a picture is to be viewed as a whole it is neces- 
 sary to retreat some distance from it. Also, the apparent sharp- 
 ness of a line increases with the distance from which it is examined. 
 Lines which are too much blurred are unpleasant ; so if the specta- 
 tor finds such in a picture he retreats from it until they appear 
 sharp, whereas if the lines are sharply defined, he tends to approach 
 within ordinary reading-distance. Hence, the definition should 
 be such as to force the observer to the proper viewing-distance 
 for the size of print, but in addition to this we must take into 
 account the esthetic effect of a blurred line. Even if the definition 
 is softened, the spectator will not retreat much beyond the proper 
 viewing-distance, and it may be that a softening of definition at 
 this distance is desirable, partly because a harsh line is unpleasant, 
 and partly for the undeniable heightening of the suggestion of 
 mystery which results from the use of some of the methods avail- 
 able for the softening of outlines. Of all these methods the writer 
 much prefers the use of a soft-focus lens, either in making the 
 original negative or on the enlarging-camera ; for such lenses, in 
 addition to giving soft outlines, also produce a vibrating effect of 
 light which carries through the whole print and is unattainable 
 by any other means known to the writer, being wonderfully sug- 
 gestive. In fact, the writer feels that harsh outlines are exceed- 
 ingly offensive, and would suggest that every owner of an 
 anastigmat or rectilinear should also possess a single lens for use 
 
 [34] 
 
in enlarging. The highly-corrected lenses, of course, have the 
 great advantages of speed and flatness of field; but it must be 
 borne in mind that they are primarily scientific instruments, and 
 as such are of little use to the artist, whose purpose is quite differ- 
 ent from that of the scientist. This is by no means to say that 
 art is of greater value than science, for both are equally necessary 
 to our happiness and welfare, but merely that the two are different, 
 and that in the choice of camera-objectives, as in other things, 
 their needs are separate. 
 
 The introduction of a certain amount of detail is necessary 
 for the purpose of explanation, and, in fact, every object presented 
 may be considered as detail, though the term is generally used to 
 indicate minor details, such as leaves, twigs, etc. It is always a 
 question how much of this minor detail may be included without 
 detracting from the effect of the whole, and since it is often beauti- 
 ful in itself, the tendency is to employ too much rather than too 
 little. A way the best, in fact to determine what should be 
 left out, is to omit everything which does not actually aid the 
 principal object to convey the sentiment that is to be expressed. 
 If this be done, there need be no fear of overloading the picture, 
 and it is extremely unlikely that anything of value will be omitted, 
 whereas the inclusion of more than this procedure calls for prob- 
 ably will injure the effect. It has been said that this minor 
 detail is often beautiful in itself, and it may be the case that what 
 would be minor detail in one picture may be the motive of an- 
 other. For instance, the writer has a photograph of a wood- 
 interior, the chief interest of which centers in the slanting rays 
 of light falling through the openings between the leaves. The 
 picture was taken in the autumn, and at the time the ground was 
 covered with a mass of fallen leaves, very beautiful in themselves, 
 but so prominent as to detract from the main interest, and it 
 became necessary to subdue them by manipulation of the negative, 
 though a photograph with the leaves as the motive would have 
 been pleasing. When an instance of this sort is encountered, the 
 best plan is to make three exposures, one in which the principal 
 
 [35] 
 
object is emphasized, one in which the emphasis is given to the 
 minor detail, and one giving equal prominence to both. The last 
 will usually be thrown away, but will serve to prevent any regrets 
 on account of a possible loss of opportunity, whereas each of the 
 others may prove to contain a picture. This advice, of course, 
 will not be followed by the advanced worker, who generally knows 
 what he wants, or can decide when on the ground ; but it may be 
 of use to the beginner, and at all events will enable him to study 
 at his leisure the effect of different forms of treatment. 
 
 [36] 
 
PLATE XL THE HILLSIDE 
 
Part III Technical Methods 
 
 NO elaborate discussion of technique will be given; 
 for many articles, in the photographic magazines, 
 as well as several textbooks on the subject, have 
 given fuller information than could possibly be 
 included in the space of such a volume as the present. Any good 
 magazine is a mine of information, and valuable formulae are to 
 be found in the photographic annuals, especially those published 
 in England and Germany. A few remarks may be given, however, 
 and will perhaps prove of value. 
 
 In the first place, there are two distinct ways to approach the 
 photography of landscape the direct and by enlargement. In 
 the first case the camera requires a plate practically the same 
 size as that of the finished print, and the print is made directly 
 from the original negative. In the second method a small camera 
 is employed and the final print is made either by enlarging on 
 bromide paper or by printing in some other medium from an 
 enlarged negative. The former plan has the great advantage that 
 it necessitates fewer operations and makes it easier for the worker 
 to attain the desired quality in his print, which is often lost in the 
 additional processes of making a transparency and an enlarged 
 negative. It has, however, the disadvantages of limiting the size 
 of the result and of being less flexible, the former resulting from 
 the fact that a camera larger than 8 x 10 is too heavy for the 
 average person to carry; the latter because 'the intermediate 
 operations, mentioned above, permit the modification of results 
 when the worker has become skilful enough to control his medium. 
 It is necessary, therefore, for the worker to decide which of these 
 methods he will follow, and it may be said that the writer prefers 
 the former when the result is not to be larger than 8 x 10, whereas 
 if prints n x 14 or larger are desired, the second is adopted. In 
 
 [37] 
 
choosing a small camera for the second method, as large a one as 
 can be carried should be selected, because it is easier to compose 
 the picture on the ground-glass if the latter be of a fair size, and 
 with too small a one faults of composition may pass unnoticed 
 which will, on enlargement, be very conspicuous. As to ratio of 
 enlargement, this has no effect, provided the arrangement of line 
 and tone be good, so it is not necessary to take it into account. 
 When making pictures for subsequent enlargement the writer 
 almost always uses a 6J x 8 J folding plate-camera, though some- 
 times a 4J x 6| kodak to which a focusing-back has been fitted, 
 the latter because the use of the ground-glass is strongly to be 
 recommended, and because plates are for many reasons preferable 
 to films. The latter have, to be sure, the advantage of portability; 
 but there their superiority ends, for in every other respect plates 
 are better. The camera chosen should have a long bellows, hori- 
 zontal and vertical swing-back or front, which amounts to the 
 same thing rising and falling front, and a large front-board, 
 together with a focusing-screw, though it is possible to use the 
 clamp which is the only means of focal adjustment on the folding 
 film-instruments. The view-type of camera combines these ad- 
 justments with a low price, though if greater compactness is 
 desired, and cost is not an important item, the folding plate- 
 cameras are better. The horizontal swing-back will seldom be 
 used in landscape-work and may be dispensed with, though it is 
 useful in portraiture and architectural photography. 
 
 If subjects which contain much red or orange are to be photo- 
 graphed, a panchromatic plate is necessary; but this is seldom 
 the case in landscape-work, and for all practical purposes an 
 ordinary orthochromatic plate will be found perfectly satisfactory, 
 provided it be used with a ray-filter, as should ordinarily be done, 
 and provided some means be employed to render it non-halation, 
 as otherwise it will be difficult to include clouds with the landscape 
 on the original negative, and branches of trees, where outlined 
 against the sky, will be too vague, or may even disappear alto- 
 gether. The American manufacturers furnish many good ortho- 
 
 [38] 
 
PLATE XII. SNOW 
 
chromatic plates in double-coated form, the additional coating 
 rendering them non-halation, whereas the English makers rely 
 more on backing, which is equally good so far as preventing hala- 
 tion is concerned, but does not provide the extra length of scale 
 and consequent latitude of exposure which inheres in the double- 
 coated plate. However, a single-coated plate, if properly backed, 
 will have latitude enough for anything that a landscape-worker is 
 likely to want to do. It cannot be denied that a panchromatic 
 plate will do all that any other will do, and a little or rather a 
 great deal more; so it is advised that such be employed, though 
 those workers who wish to examine their plates during develop- 
 ment a proceeding which is unnecessary and is likely to result 
 in fog will probably prefer to use the orthochromatic variety, 
 as this will stand much more light than the others. The writer 
 uses panchromatic plates entirely, developing by time and modify- 
 ing results by varying the length of development, a formula for 
 developer, together with the time of development at various 
 temperatures for a definite degree of contrast, being given with 
 each box of plates, as this factor varies with the different emul- 
 sions. It should be stated, however, that, although the writer has 
 said that he uses panchromatic plates entirely, the accompanying 
 illustrations were all made with orthochromatic plates of the non- 
 halation type. The explanation is simply that it is only within 
 the past year that he has used panchromatic plates, and all the 
 negatives from which these illustrations are taken were made 
 before that time. This will also serve as an indication that, 
 although the panchromatic type is valuable above all others for 
 portraiture, such is not the case with landscape-work. At present 
 the writer, whose work is largely professional portraiture, uses 
 panchromatic plates for that purpose, and also for what little 
 landscape-work he does, finding them better for the latter than 
 any other, though not a great deal more valuable. 
 
 The writer's preference is for one of the soft-focus lenses, 
 several good makes of which are on the market, although a single 
 achromatic, known as a "single landscape" lens, will give excellent 
 
 [39] 
 
drawing if opened to F/8 instead of F/i6, as it is usually fur- 
 nished. For the worker who desires slightly finer definition a 
 rapid rectilinear is recommended, and if a small camera is to be 
 employed an anastigmat may be a good investment, for these 
 possess, as noted above, the advantages of speed and flatness of 
 field, though the definition may be softened to any desired degree 
 in enlarging. The use of a soft-focus lens on the enlarging-camera 
 will result in a quality of definition very like that given by such 
 an objective in making the original negative, the only difference 
 being that in the former case the diffusion will be uniform through- 
 out all the planes, instead of being least in the plane which was 
 focused on, and increasing progressively in the distance. 
 
 A ray-filter should be part of the equipment, and preferably 
 it should be procured from the maker of the plate, as in this 
 case it is more likely to give satisfactory results, the manufacturers 
 of the plate employed by the writer giving the exposure-factors 
 for their various filters in conjunction with each batch of emul- 
 sion, as the relation varies. In any case, a filter giving full correc- 
 tion will be all that is necessary, and such a filter should not 
 increase the exposure more than five times. A set of selective 
 filters, that is, filters which will emphasize any desired color, may 
 perhaps be useful, though the writer cannot recommend the use 
 of such a set to the landscape-worker. The occasions when they 
 would be employed will be rare, and the desired effect can usually 
 be obtained with a little handwork on the negative, whereas the 
 inclusion of such a set would mean adding to an equipment that 
 is likely to be sufficiently complicated without it. 
 
 Some means should be used to determine the correct exposure, 
 there being two types of instrument for the purpose, the first 
 depending on the darkening of a piece of sensitive paper, the time 
 required for it to match a standard tint being observed; the 
 second being based on the fact that the correct exposure for dif- 
 ferent conditions of subject and light has been determined by 
 experiment, the results being given in the form of a table. Either 
 of these methods may be employed with satisfaction, though both 
 
 [40] 
 
possess the defect of failing in a weak light, such as that of even- 
 ing. Of the former type the best are the actinometers of Wynne 
 and Watkins, and of the second the most convenient is the Well- 
 come Exposure-Calculator. This does not mean, however, that 
 there are not others equally good, the tables given every month 
 in Photo-Era being quite satisfactory. In weak lights the only 
 thing to do is to determine as nearly as possible the exposure by 
 reference to a table, then increase it in accordance with the dictates 
 of previous experience. Some workers depend entirely on experi- 
 ence, but this ability comes only after years of practice, and even 
 then is apt to lead to error when the conditions are unusual. 
 
 It is absolutely immaterial what developer is employed, so 
 far as results are concerned, the only choice being in the matter 
 of convenience, for any agent will give exactly the same results 
 as any other, provided it be used correctly. There is, however, 
 a great choice in the matter of ease of use, for the less work that 
 is involved in making up solutions, the easier the work will be, and 
 it is difficult enough at best. The developer preferably should be 
 one of the type that tends to give soft results more readily than 
 hard, and should keep well before using. These qualifications are 
 possessed in a high degree by rodinal (or citol, which is the same 
 product under another trade-name), this being a concentrated 
 solution, to be diluted with water for use; also almost any of 
 the long-factor developers several of which are obtainable in the 
 form of compressed tablets, requiring only solution in water to be 
 ready for use. In developing, either the tray or the tank may be 
 used, the former being preferable if it is desired to develop several 
 plates to different degrees of contrast, whereas if the same quality 
 is wanted in all the negatives the latter should be employed. If 
 developing by time, the duration of development must be varied 
 according to the contrast wanted in the result, the contrast exist- 
 ing in the subject, the temperature and concentration of the 
 solution, and the printing-medium to be employed. It will be 
 apparent that if a certain degree of contrast is desired in the print, 
 development must be longer if the subject was lacking in con- 
 
trast, and shorter if the original was strong. Different printing- 
 processes give different contrasts, and this must also be taken 
 into account; but all these variations may be allowed for in 
 determining beforehand the time of development, and, this having 
 been decided on, the result can be attained with much more cer- 
 tainty and much less risk of damage to the negative than by the 
 method of inspecting the plate at intervals during the progress of 
 development. It may be objected that the timing-method offers 
 less opportunity for the exercise of judgment than does the method 
 of inspecting the plate, and at the same time renders the process 
 more mechanical, thus detracting from the freedom and spon- 
 taneity of the result. Consideration will show, though, that 
 this is not the case, the only effect of using the timing-method 
 being to transfer the employment of judgment to a sphere where 
 it may act with more certainty than is possible in the dim light of 
 the darkroom, whereas freedom and spontaneity are out of place 
 in the mechanical side of photography. They are, to be sure, of 
 immense value are, in fact, imperative in selection of sub- 
 ject, in focusing and in the choice of a printing-medium, their 
 presence in these parts of the work being what saves it from 
 becoming a purely mechanical process; but they have no place 
 in those details of the technique which can be determined scien- 
 tifically. To develop by judgment or, to put it accurately, 
 by guess is to place oneself on a par with a painter who, instead 
 of learning that blue and yellow, when mixed, give green, should 
 prefer to try the effect of mixing various pigments until he found 
 the right ones. 
 
 There is, at the present time, a strong movement in favor of 
 straight photography, so far as pictorial work is concerned; but 
 the writer does not feel this idea to be sound. It is admitted 
 that the admixture of photography and handwork, in such a 
 manner that the mixture is apparent, is a violation of unity and 
 as such is to be avoided; but it is perfectly true that often the 
 desired effect cannot be obtained without personal intervention, 
 and the writer holds it to be justifiable, in such cases, to work on 
 
 [42] 
 
either the negative or the print, to any extent that may be neces- 
 sary, taking care that the handwork does not show. Some 
 brief notes on the methods of attaining this result follow. 
 
 If it is desired to raise the value of certain small areas, a cloth 
 may be dampened with retouching-medium and rubbed over the 
 film which gives it a tooth, so that work can be done with a pencil, 
 HB or B being the most suitable quality. The best retouching- 
 medium that the writer knows, and which is much better than 
 the usual commercial article, is described in the Cramer dryplate 
 manual. The formula is: 
 
 Rosin 1 20 grains 
 
 Turpentine 4 ounces 
 
 It is not necessary to use a very high grade of either ingredient, 
 the ordinary commercial article being good enough. Should the 
 work not be satisfactory, it may be removed by means of a cloth 
 wet with the retouching-medium. If larger areas are to be worked 
 over, or if it is desired to apply a greater amount of lead than can 
 be deposited on the retouching-medium, the back of the plate 
 may be flowed with the following solution, when work can be 
 done on it readily with either pencil or stump. 
 
 Gum sandarac 2j ounces 
 
 Gum mastic \ ounce 
 
 Ether 24 ounces 
 
 Benzole 12 ounces 
 
 This formula also is taken from the manual named above, and is 
 an excellent one. Should any of the solution get on the film side 
 of the negative, or should it be desired to remove the pencil-work, 
 it can be done with a cloth moistened with alcohol. 
 
 If large areas are to be reduced in value, the best method is 
 to employ Farmer's reducer with a soft brush, first soaking the 
 negative in water for an hour or so, then applying the reducer 
 locally, in very dilute form, rinsing the negative frequently, and 
 bearing in mind that the action of the reducer will be slow at 
 
 [43] 
 
first, but will become rapid as it proceeds. When it is desired to 
 reduce small areas, the best plan is to make a transparency on a 
 dryplate, either by projection or by contact, or, preferably, by the 
 carbon process, using the transparency-tissue and transferring to 
 a fixed and hardened plate, and to do the work on this with a pencil 
 by one or the other of the methods outlined above, afterward 
 making a negative from this transparency. The use of an etching- 
 knife is not recommended, as it is difficult to work with such 
 delicacy that the means will not be visible. For reducing density 
 on a paper negative, a hard pencil-eraser is good, though the 
 results from its use on a glass negative are not likely to be very 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Any of the methods suggested above can be used equally well 
 on the original negative, the intermediate transparency, or the 
 enlarged negative, so that great control is possible even without 
 resorting to any work on the print. It is, however, advisable that 
 as little work as possible be done, the effect being obtained, so 
 far as possible, by purely photographic means, as there is great 
 danger of doing too much, while it is not always apparent to the 
 worker that he is going so far as to render the mixture of pho- 
 tography and handwork visible. 
 
 In addition to the above-named methods, it is also possible to 
 intensify either negative or transparency locally, using, preferably, 
 some single-solution intensifier; but the writer has never felt 
 much interest in this form of modification, as it is not so readily 
 controllable as the pencil-method. 
 
 In choosing a printing-medium, the first quality to be required 
 is permanence, for it is assumed that, if the worker has given time 
 and thought to the production of a work of art, he will not want 
 it to disappear in the course of a few years ; whereas if he sells 
 it, honesty demands that it be as stable as possible. There are 
 certain printing-papers which can be depended on for permanence, 
 and others which will give results that are permanent if care has 
 been taken in their production, but not otherwise, whereas some 
 are absolutely unstable in the best of circumstances. A black 
 
 [44] 
 
K 
 
 
 
 
 PLATE XIV. THE POOL, SNOW 
 
and white platinum print on linen paper or vellum may be relied 
 on for permanence, and the same is true of a carbon or gum print 
 in a stable color, but a gum print superposed on a black platinum 
 will be durable in the same circumstances. Unfortunately, we 
 have no means to know what pigments are used in making carbon 
 paper; but the various color-manufacturers will furnish informa- 
 tion about permanent pigments for use in the gum or gum-plati- 
 num process. If mercury is used to produce brown tones on 
 platinum paper the permanence of the print becomes doubtful, 
 though a permanent warm black may be obtained by using the 
 developer hot, this treatment also serving to reduce contrast. 
 In most cases the best effect will be attained by making the print 
 in a warm or cold black or a brown, other colors not being desir- 
 able, and these tones are readily obtained in permanent form on 
 platinum, carbon, or gum paper, but a stable warm brown may be 
 obtained on bromide paper. It should be noted, however, that 
 no black and white print on bromide or gaslight paper can be 
 considered absolutely permanent, despite the claims of the manu- 
 facturers, and this is true of any color except one that is obtained 
 by the redevelopment process, in which potassium ferricyanide, 
 potassium bromide and sodium sulphide, or an equivalent, are 
 used. Albumen paper gives very beautiful results, especially in 
 the lower portion of the scale; and if the prints are properly 
 toned, fixed and washed, they may be relied on to remain in good 
 condition, but a failure in any of these processes will result in 
 fugitiveness. 
 
 The next important characteristic to be considered in choosing 
 a printing-medium is quality, which is appreciated more easily 
 than described; but it is partly a question of rendering the grada- 
 tions of the negative throughout the scale, and partly a question 
 of surface-texture. The finest of all processes in this respect is 
 photogravure; but it is a difficult and laborious one to handle, 
 and few persons will be inclined to give the time necessary to be- 
 come familiar with it. Next to this in the matter of rendering 
 the gradations is carbon, though this fails somewhat in the lighter 
 
 [45] 
 
values, as it is difficult to get absolutely pure lights without aiding 
 development with a brush, and has a lustre which is not so pleasing 
 as the dull surface of the former process. Platinum has a dull 
 surface, and the commercial papers render the upper and middle- 
 tones to perfection, but cannot give the richness in the lower part 
 of the scale that is characteristic of carbon and photogravure. 
 The rendering of the lower tones may, however, be improved by 
 making one's own paper and coating and printing several times, 
 or, if using the commercial papers, by diluting the developer with 
 an equal volume of glycerin, which slows development so that it 
 is under control, printing somewhat deeper than otherwise, and 
 arresting development before it is complete, by means of a 
 strong acid-bath one part of hydrochloric acid to thirty parts 
 of water. 
 
 The gum-process is probably next best to photogravure in 
 quality, for it renders the values throughout the scale perfectly, 
 even to the most delicate gradations in either the higher or the 
 lower portions, and has less lustre than carbon. It is not an easy 
 process to work, by reason of its flexibility; but, once mastered, 
 it is of the greatest value to the artist. The variant of it known 
 as gum-platinum, wherein one or more printings of gum are super- 
 posed on a platinum print, is also of value, and is easier to work 
 than straight gum. 
 
 From what has been said in the earlier parts of this essay, it 
 follows that the landscape-photographer who endeavors to arouse 
 some sentiment in the observer will work mainly in a low key, 
 and, as pointed out above, the best mediums for rendering this 
 kind of effect are gum, carbon, gum-platinum and photogravure, 
 so the worker will probably choose one or another of these. It is 
 not recommended that any one process be adhered to exclusively, 
 for each has its good features ; but it will be found best to use one 
 more than any other, for only by extensive use is familiarity with 
 the characteristics of the medium attained. 
 
 It may be well to recapitulate briefly the conclusions we have 
 reached in the course of this essay. 
 
 [46] 
 
In the first place, it was found that the fundamental purpose 
 of that branch of landscape-photography which can be classed as 
 fine art is the arousing of some sentiment or emotion in the ob- 
 server, and that the deeper emotions are the quieter ones. It 
 was also found that these emotions are best aroused by prints 
 which represent quiet scenes, especially those of evening, for 
 brilliant sunlight and extreme darkness are less impressive than 
 the effect of late afternoon, when the light has begun to fail but 
 still retains strength enough to show a certain amount of detail 
 in the deep shadows. 
 
 Such effects are rendered best on an orthochromatic or a 
 panchromatic plate, and developed for only a moderate degree of 
 contrast. 
 
 Due attention must be paid to composition of line, and this 
 is more necessary to the photographer than to the painter, for 
 the latter has the element of color to aid his arrangement, so that 
 monochrome reproductions of the work of great painters are not 
 necessarily good guides for the photographer. 
 
 Good technique is of the greatest importance; but undue 
 attention to technique will result in loss of imaginative quality, and 
 [this is far more important than technical excellence, as a picture 
 may be great without the latter, but can never be so without the 
 former. 
 
 Finally, it may be added that no one can hope to attain pre- 
 eminence in landscape-photography without much hard work and 
 study; but no one should be discouraged by this fact from at- 
 tempting it, for, even if he fail to reach the highest possible point, 
 he will find that the pursuit affords him, and perhaps his friends, 
 great pleasure, together with a not inconsiderable amount of 
 physical benefit. 
 
 [47] 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 APR 2 9 879 
 
 tec. CIK. ttr 5 1932 
 
 JUN251982 
 
 HAK24197056 
 
 RECEIVED 
 
 BCD CIRC DEfT OCT 4 '74 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of California 
 
 Berkeley 
 
 LD 21A-60m-2,'67 
 (H241slO)476B 
 
V. 
 
 
 ro i 
 
 
 305^20 
 
 o 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY