IIIIH OI7 BHhi i. .¥. 1 ^,1 1 r^' I J '^'F * g i iiu Bii iiiilM^^^^^^^^^^B LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class School Architecture A General Treatise for the use of Architects and Others Edmund March Wheelwright Fellow Boston Society of Architects Fellow American Institute of Architects Mttb H)e6criptivc 1IUu6tration0 BOSTON ROGERS & MANSON 1901 ''yysNs Copyright, 1901 By Edmund March Wheelwright The Barta Press Boston Ubis booii ie ^e^icate^ to mis ftien^ "CDlUUam Bugcnc Cbambcrlfn lanbose worh wi^eIl^ influences Bmerican Scbool Brcbitecture it^:ai4; Preface. In this book a general view is given of typical .examples of the schools in most of the countries in which public education is well developed. The writer has sought to keep within the province of the architect, and not to trespass upon that of the educator, or of the engineering, sanitary, or hygienic expert. His object has been to compile a compact handbook, useful for architects and others who are interested in the subject ; hence, in most cases he has avoided detailed descriptions of buildings, as the plans and other illustrations would appear to furnish all further necessary data. In accord- ance with this idea references in the index are made to some features of the plans which are not mentioned in the text. Much of the material is drawn from published sources ; especially from " Handbuch der Architektur," Vol. IV., and Appendix No. VIII. of the same publication. Vol. IV. was jointly written by Prof. Dr. Josef Durm, Karlsruhe ; Prof. Hermann Ende, Berlin ; Prof. Dr. Eduard Schmitt, and Prof. Heinrich Wagner, both of Darmstadt ; and the Appendix, which treats of Scandinavian schools, by Carl Hintrager, architect, Vienna. Chapter III. of this book is a free and condensed translation of Herr Hintrager's work. Interesting examples have been found in Klasen's " Grundriss-Vorbilder von Schulgebauden " ; in Narjou's " L'Ecole Public " ; in " Schulhausen Basel's " ; and in " Le Figaro Illustre." " School Architecture," by E. R. Robson, F. R. I. B. A., published in London in 1874, has also furnished material. At time of its publication this book covered the subject more completely than had been done in any previous work. Its title was an inheritance from a book by H. Barnard, Esq., Super- intendent of Connecticut Schools, which was published in 1854. Among those whose writings have furnished assistance the writer would thank for this aid, and for that which they have rendered him personally: Dr. Wm. Garnett, Secretary of the Technical Education Board of the London County Council ; Michael E. Sadler, Esq., Librarian of the Education Depart- ment of England and Wales; C. H. Wyatt, Esq., Clerk of the School Board, Manchester, England. iv SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Among those in this country by whose writings he has been helped are Frederick Tudor, Esq., of Boston, Mass., Profs. F. W. Chandler and J. Homer Woodbridge, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Frank A. Hill, Esq., Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education. The greater part of Chapter IX. is taken from the last report of Dr. Charles W. Parmenter, master of the Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, and F. W. Howard, Esq., heating and ventilating engineer of the same city, has given very great assistance in the preparation of Chapter XL Others to whom the writer is indebted for valuable aid are : Prof. Dr. Walther Hempel, Dresden ; Herr A. Lindemann, Kgl. Baurath, Stadt Bauinspektor, Berlin ; W. H. Ostler, Esq., Clerk of the School Board, Halifax, England ; Franklin Hubbard, Esq., Business Manager of Toledo School Board, Toledo, Ohio; C. B. J. Snyder, Esq., Superintendent of School Buildings, New York City ; John P. Fox, Esq. and Dr. E. M. Hartwell, of Boston, Mass., and many architects and school officials who have furnished data and drawings. Boston, August, 1901. E. M. W. Contents. CHAPTER I. General Requirements and Features of Schools. Selection of sites — Orientation — Ornamentation of school yards — School gardens — Yard enclosures — Planting of trees — Entrances — Staircases — Co-education affecting school planning — Doors — Upper flooring — Basement flooring — Dadoes — Wood finish to be avoided as much as possible — Certain feature s of hospita l construction desirable in schools — Blackboards — Wall painting — Picture molding — Clothing dis- posal — Janitor's and master's quarters — Master's office and teachers' rooms — Location of toilet rooms — Location of gymnasiums and boiler rooms — Mill construction — Fire-proof floors — Lining brick — Interior partitions — Fire-stopping — Wire-lathed ceilings — Danger of fire from basement — Use of incombustible materials in construction — Height of schools — Probable future use of elevators — Expense entailed by small city schools — A dangerously constructed and unhygienic school — Very low cost entails sacrifice of desirable features — Relative cost of architect- ural vs. utilitarian construction — Architectural design in schools should be strictly limited by the practical conditions — Such limitation does not pre- clude good designing Pages 1-17 CHAPTER II. Elementary Schools of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France. Development of popular education in Germany and adjacent countries — Likeness of the school plans of all Teutonic countries — Classification of elementary schools — Janitor's quarters — Clothing disposal — Co-educa- tion — Grades in Swiss elementary schools — Masters' quarters — Village school of the Oberland, Switzerland — Gemeindeschule in the Wilms- Strasse, Berlin — Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin — Untere Realschule, Basel — Spalenschule, Basel — A Munich school — Bezirksschule on Scharn- horst-Strasse, Leipsic — Another Berlin Gemeindeschule — School on Wit- telsbacher-Strasse, Munich — St. John's School, Basel — School at St. Paul, near Hamburg — Mixed school at Mannheim and one of same plan type at Dresden — Willemer and Frankensteiner School, Frankfort — Bezirksschule on the Gartenfront, Mayence — School at Winterthur, Switzerland — A Buda-Pesth school — A Munich School — School at Vevey, Switzerland — Left-hand Hghting only not always provided in Switzerland; examples: schools at Winterthur, Aarau, and Basel — Madchen-Mittelschule, Darm- stadt — School at Stuttgart compared with Bezirksschule on Pestalozzi- Strasse, Dresden — Rules of French Ministry of Public Instruction regarding class rooms — Landscape gardening of school yards in France — Peculiar arrangement of class rooms in some French mixed schools — Salles d'Asile — Covered playgrounds — A French school for girls — A French mixed school Pages 18-44 Vi SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER III. Elementary Schools of Scandinavian Countries. Development of popular education — Classification of schools — Co-edu- cation—Absence of official regulations governing the construction of schools — Gymnasium exercises — Domestic training schools — Sloyd train- ing— Sloyd rooms — A one-story Danish school — Construction of a wooden Finnish school — School at Lindholmen, Sweden — School at Norr- koeping, Sweden — School at Gceteberg, Sweden — School at Gesle, Sweden— Johannes School, Stockholm — School at Trondhjem, Norway — Vaalerengens School, Christiania — Grunerlokhen School, a typical example for Christiania — School at Odense, Copenhagen — School at Frederiks- berg, Denmark — The Copenhagen school type ; examples: St. Hansgade, Larslejstraede. and Jagtvejen schools; Oehlenschlaegergade school excep- tional — School at Wiborg, Finland — General character of Scandinavian schools Pages 45-65 CHAPTER IV. English Elementary Schools. Development of popular education in England — The hall — The ancient "grammar school " — " Banks " — Retention of features of the ancient pro- totype of the '-grammar school" — Clothing disposal— Dadoes — Rules of education department regulating the lighting of class rooms — Windows — Cubic feet of air per pupil — Stepping of class room floors — Fire-proof construction — Blackboards for pupils not provided — Upper flooring — Location of schools and their yards — Janitor's and master's quarters — Classification of elementary schools — Mixed schools — The Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool — The Cobbold Road School, Chelsea, London — Use of sliding partitions between class rooms — Plans tend to a development like that of American schools Pages 66-77 CHAPTER V. Elementary Schools of the United States. Development of popular education in the United States — Effect of Eng- lish tradition — Classification of schools — Economic disadvantage of primary schools — Dimensions for class rooms — Co-education — Assembly halls — Certain Boston primary schools : Williams, Eustis, and Andrews — Sewall School, Brookline, Mass. — Features of grammar grade schools — Manual training in this grade — Assembly halls constant in large grammar grade schools — School at Hopedale, Mass. — Roger Ludlow School, Wind- sor, Conn. — Winthrop School, New London, Conn. — Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. — Peirce and Bigelow Schools, Newton, Mass. — Brooks School, Medford, Mass. — Eugene Field, Sherman, and Eliot Schools, St. Louis, Mo. — Auburndale, Lagrange, and Waite .Schools, Toledo, Ohio — George Dewey School, Chicago — New Brown School, Hartford, Conn. — Robert Gould Shaw, Christopher Gibson, Gilbert Stuart, and Bowdoin Schools, Boston — Mayhew School, Boston — Paul Revere School; Bos- ton — Conditions affecting schools in New York City — Construction of New York City schools — New York City Public School No. 165 — Letter CONTENTS. Vll H plan — Basements of New York City schools utilized only for toilet room, etc. — First, or ground floor, of New York City schools used almost exclu- sively for indoor playrooms — SUding partitions between class rooms — Attics of New York City schools used for gymnasiums, manual training rooms, etc. — New York City PubHc School No. 153 — Wardrobes not provided in New York City schools — Roof playgrounds . . Pages 78-122 CHAPTER VI. Comparison of Features of Elementary Schools. The separate graded class system derived from Teutonic countries — The English system — The aula vs. assembly hall — Warming and ventilating not highly developed in Swiss and American schools — Methods of clothing disposal — Dimensions of class rooms — Single desks vs. double desks and forms — Dimensions of class rooms in Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin, and m Boston grammar grade schools — Dr. Risley's advice as to cubical area per pupil and dimensions of class rooms — Lighting of class rooms — Light- ing of corner class rooms — Desks for primary and grammar grades — Widths of class rooms required for placing desks for classes of various sizes — Class-room height in New York City schools — Defective lighting of class rooms 28 ft. wide — A sufficiently satisfactory width and height for class rooms — Probable use of elevators in city schools — Roof playgrounds — The De Lancey School, Philadelphia — Right-hand windows in France not used for lighting — Rule for lighting class rooms of Board of Education of England and Wales — Lighting of corner rooms in Switzerland often from two sides — Seldom in Germany and Austria and in later Scandina- vian schools — When class rooms are 28 ft. wide windows required in corner rooms for sufficient hghting — Light in wall opposite desk disadvantageous to teachers' eyesight — Difficulty of satisfactory arrangement of seatings in certain corner rooms — The " cart-wheel " plan — Longfellow School, Bos- ton, Mass. — Features of American schools compared with those of other countries — 28 ft. width of class rooms an inferiority — Narrower class rooms more economical in construction — Sizes of classes should be reduced if essential improvement is to be made in plans of American schools — DesirabiHty of retaining other features where American schools are gener- ally superior to those of other countries — The experiment of smaller classes should be tried Pages 123-141 CHAPTER VII. Secondary Schools of Northern Europe and England. Development of the German secondary school system — Essential simi- larity of the plans of secondary schools in Teutonic countries — Ampler provisions for teaching the sciences, drawing, etc., in the Realschule than the Gymnasium — The "Turnhalle" an invariable feature in Teutonic sec- ondary schools — Gymnasium at Gottingen — The Vorschule — The "car- eer" — Cantonal School, Berne — Gymnasium, Salzwedel, Prussia — Kaiser Wilhelm Gymnasium, Aix-la-Chapelle — Realschule, Karlsruhe — Konig Wilhelm Gymnasium, Stettin — Gymnasium, Bromberg — Oberreal- schule, Leitomischl — Realschule, Magdeburg — Gymnasium, Hilde- sheim — Realgymnasium, Karlsruhe — Leibnitz Realschule, Hanover — Vlll SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Realschule, Leipsic-Reudnitz — Tochterschule, Basel — Annen Realschule, Dresden — Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, Bernburg — French second- ary school plans similar to those of elementary schools of that country — Secondary schools of England not thoroughly or comprehensively organ- ized — The English secondary school system — Central School, Man- chester — Cassland Road Higher Grade School, London— Dudley New Grammar School — Technical and Secondary School, Chippenham — Education of pupil-teachers — Finsbury Pupil-Teachers' Center, Offord Road, London — Slight influence of Teutonic secondary schools on those of England Pages 142-177 CHAPTER VIH. Secondary Schools of the United States. Origin and development of secondary schools in the United States — English influence — Latin and English High School, Boston — Important in history of development of school architecture in America — Its main features suggested by the Akademische Gymnasium, Vienna — Description of the Boston school — American high schools often but an elaborated development of the graded grammar schools — High school, Cambridge, Mass. : Hospital or emergency rooms ; Lunch rooms — Latin school, Cambridge, Mass. — High school, Brookline, Mass. : Bicycle rooms — High school, Pawtucket, R. I. — High school, Springfield, Mass. — High school, Newark. N. J. — High school, New Britain, Conn. — Groton School — Present tendency to differentiate the high from grammar school plan, shown in Mechanic Arts High, Brighton High, South Boston High Schools, Boston; Girls' High School, New York City, Central High School, Toledo, Ohio — Large general schoolrooms instead of single-graded class rooms — General cloak rooms instead of separate wardrobes adjoin- ing each class room — Clothing lockers — Some further considerations for high school planning — Desks — The probable future development in plan- ning of American schools to be from that of the high school . Pages 178-214 CHAPTER IX. Manual Training and Mechanic Arts High Schools. Scope of these schools — Clumsy distinguishing names used — General features and equipment — The latest and most complex development of American secondary schools — Similar schools in other countries designed to teach trades — Tendency now in England to make them more educa- tional — St. Louis Manual Training School — Dr. Woodward's criticism of same — Toledo Manual Training School — Cambridge (Mass.) Manual Training School — Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, Mass. — Dr. Par- menter's report : — In basement: forge shop, locker rooms, lunch counter, etc. — On first floor : master's office, chemical laboratory, two schoolrooms, three recitation rooms, machine shop, etc. — On second floor: physical laboratory, two schoolrooms, two wood-working rooms, etc.— On third floor : three schoolrooms, two drawing rooms, wood-turning and pattern-making room, modeling room, etc. — Drawing tables — Instruments supplied pupils — Movable blackboards — Equipment of wood-working room : double benches, tool boards, tools, etc. — Grindstone troughs — Tool room — CONTENTS. IX Check system used in disbursing tools — Tools in tool room — Room for preparation of models — Wood-turning and pattern-making rooms : benches, individual tools, tools used in common — Grindstones and pattern-maker's . lathe — Small tool room — Loft for storage of lumber — Amphitheater — Sinks and mirrors — Drawing tables — Master-keyed locks for drawers — Forge shop — Down draft forges — Equipment of pupils' forges — Anvils — Tools on tool benches — Tool benches and their equipment — Demonstra- tion platform — Instructor's forge and its equipment — Machine shop: benches, tool tray and tools therein, tools in upper drawer of bench — Machine tools in forge shop — Tool room — Principal small tools — Stock room — Industrial schools of Europe — Sunday and Holiday manual train- ing schools for apprentices and journeymen in Germany — German Special Industrial Schools — Special schools for mechanics — Other Ger- man special schools — Few points of similarity in European elementary industrial schools — Use of rooms in other schools for industrial instruc- tion — Industrial school at Worms — State Industrial School at Inns- bruck — School for Apprentices at Rouen — Weaving School at Miilheim — Watch and Clock Making School, Paris — Industrial schools for women — Higher industrial schools are outside the scope of this book — Royal Weaving School, Crefeld, Germany — Mr. Edwin P. Seaver on industrial education in America . . Pages 215-250 CHAPTER X. Training Schools for Teachers. Somewhat outside the scope of this book, having a certain collegiate char- acter — Called " Normal " schools in the United States — Features of Normal school plan — Model departments — Assembly or study rooms — Rooms for special instruction — State Normal School, Salem, Mass. — State Normal School, North Adams, Mass. — State Normal School, Lowell, Mass. — State Normal School, New Haven, Conn. — Women Teachers' Seminary, Berlin — Women Teachers' Seminary, Auxerre, France. Pages 251-262 CHAPTER XI. Heating, Ventilation, and Sanitation. Expert service for heating and ventilation not to be expected from archi- tects — Experts should be employed upon such work, and at owner's expense — Proper temperature for class rooms — Low temperature per- mitted in English class rooms — Gravity and mechanical systems of ventila- tion — Vent flue heating with gravity system — Two systems of mechanical ventilation : exhaust fan and plenum fan — Movement of air may be upward or downward — The latter a convenient expedient in certain cases — Two systems of heating: "distributed" and "central" — Heating by stoves and fireplaces disadvantageous — Two systems of central heating : " direct " and " indirect " — The first by coils and radiators — Four methods of indirect heating : hot air furnaces, " direct-indirect," " indirect," " plenum fan " — Three fan systems : central heating coil, tempering coil with radia- tors at base of ducts, double air ducts with mixing dampers at ducts — Direct heating unsuitable unless united with a fan system — Direct-indirect unsuitable — Furnace heating preferable to direct heating — Furnaces suit- X SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. able only for small schools — Disadvantages of furnaces — Furnaces should have auxiliary hot-water coils — Fresh air ducts should be above ground — Plaster block preferable to galvanized iron ducts— Indirect heating, with- out fan, united with gravity ventilation — Indirect system as above more , uncertain and less economical than when fan is used — Difficulty of results in moderate weather with indirect system without fan — Such a system only advisable where skilled engineer cannot be employed — Fan system without direct radiation or temperature control only suitable for factories— Direct heating in conjunction with fan systems — Heating dur- ing early morning hours — Air supply from outside only during school hours — Mixing dampers — Dr. J. S. Billings' suggestion for alarm thermometers — Thermometers in Berlin schools — Area of air inlets and outlets — Location of inlets and outlets — Foot warmers — Summer ventila- tion — Diffusers — Filtering and washing of air in English schools — Move- ment of air from corridors to class rooms — Ventilation of toilet rooms through fixtures — Ventilation shafts — Steam heating — Gravity system of steam heating — Steam traps and pumps — Hot water vs. steam heating — Hot-water heating with fan power by gas engines in English schools — Table of boiler and boiler flue dimensions — Table of capacities for chim- neys — Heating surfaces for direct radiation — No general rules for radia- tion with fan systems — School furnaces — Grate dimensions for furnaces — Heating and ventilation of Swiss schools — Of European and English schools — Comparison of areas of vent outlets — Minimum air inlets in England — Location of toilet rooms — Location in basement no menace to health if properly constructed, ventilated, and shut off — Necessity of heating sanitaries, and of their constant, strong ventilation — Aspirating shafts — Proper construction of soil piping — Proper types of plumbing fixtures — Urinals — Sinks preferable to set bowls — Brick latrines — Their use not advisable — Iron water-closet ranges — Their disadvantages — Separate water-closets preferable — Water-closets — Number of water- closets and urinals per pupil — Earth closets best for schools without sewer connection — Advantages of same over " dry " systems — Barrel system objectionable — Privy vaults not to be considered — Cesspools — School baths — Plunges — German bathing rooms — American schools equipped with bath rooms — Description of those in Paul Revere School, Boston, Mass. — German method the probable model for American schools — Advantages of school bathing — Voluntary and compulsory use of baths — Janitor service — Recommendations of Mr. Philbrick not followed in Boston — Rules for janitors in Toledo, Ohio — In Saxony . . . Pages 263-284 CHAPTER XII. Specifications for an American School. General requirements — Excavation — Pile driving — Foundations : stone, concrete — Cement — Lime — Sand — Mortar — Brickwork — Con- creting — Sidewalks and yard paving— Cut granite — Other exterior stone work — North River stone — Stone setting — Carving — Asphalt — Steel and iron work and fire-proof construction — Interior slate and marble work — Roofing and metal work — Metal vents, heat ducts, and registers — Lathing and plastering — Carpentry — Staircase work — Upper floors — Hardware — Gas piping — Painting and glazing .... Page 285 List of Illustrations. Page. Lycde Moli^re, Paris; Principal Courtyard 2 Lyc^e Moli^re, Paris; Covered Playground 3 Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin ; Block Plan 3 School at Augsburg ; Block Plan 4 Lycde Racine, Paris; Staircase 5 Brighton High School, Boston, Mass 15 Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin 19 One-class German Village School ; Plans 21 Village School in the Oberland, Switzerland 21 Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin; Plans 22 Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin ; Plans 23 Village School in the Oberland, Switzerland ; Plan 24 Spalenschule, Basel, Switzerland; Plans 24 Gemeindeschule in the Wilms-Strasse, Berlin; Plans 25 School in the Mariahilsplatz, Munich ; Plan 26 Spalenschule, Basel, Switzerland 26 Untere Realschule, Basel, Switzerland 27 Bezirksschule, Scharnhorst-Strasse, Leipsic ; Plan 28 Bezirksschule, Scharnhorst-Strasse, Leipsic 28 Gemeindeschule, Berlin; Plans 29 School on Wittelsbacher-Strasse, Munich ; Plan 30 St. John's School, Basel, Switzerland; Plan . 30 School on Seiler-Strasse, St. Paul, near Hamburg; Plan 31 Mixed School at Mannheim ; Plan 31 School on Seiler-Strasse, St. Paul, near Hamburg 32 Biirgerschule, Dresden ; Plan 33 Burgerschule, Dresden 33 Willemer and Frankensteiner School, Frankfort ; Plan 34 Bezirksschule on the Gartenfront, Mayence ; Plan 34 School at Winterthur, Switzerland ; Plan 35 School at Buda-Pesth, Hungary ; Plan 35 School at Munich ; Plan 36 School at Munich -37 School at Vevey, Switzerland ; Plan 37 School at Winterthur, Switzerland ; Plan 38 School at Aarau, Switzerland ; Plan 38 Madchen-Mittelschule, Darmstadt ; Plan 39 School at Stuttgart ; Plan 39 Bezirksschule on the Pestalozzi-Strasse, Dresden ; Plan 40 Mixed Single Class French School ; Plan 41 Salle d'Asile, Etienne, Limoges, France ; Plan 42 French Girls' School; Plan 42 Mixed School, Paris; Plans 43 Street facade of a Parisian Secondary School 44 Gymnasium of the Maria Kirchspiels School, Stockholm, Sweden ; Plan . . 47 School Kitchen in the Moellergadens School, Christiania, Norway ; Plan . . 48 Cooking Class, Christiania, Norway 49 xii SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Page. Sloyd Bench used in the Mikkelsen System 51 School at Nyborg, Denmark ; Plan 51 School at Nyborg, Denmark ; Elevation . . 52 Section showing Construction of Floors and Wall of a Log School in Finland . 53 School at Lindholmen, Sweden ; Plan S3 School at Norrkoeping, Sweden; Plan 54 School at Norrkoeping, Sweden; Elevation 54 School at Gceteborg, Sweden ; Plan 55 Scliool at Gceteborg, Sweden ; Plan 55 School at Gesle, Sweden ; Plan 56 Johannes School, Stockholm, Sweden ; Plan 56 Johannes School, Stockholm, Sweden ; Elevation 57 School at Trondhjem, Norway ; Plan 57 Vaalerengens School, Christiania, Norway ; Plan 58 School at Christiania, Norway; Plan 59 School at Odense, Copenhagen, Denmark ; Plan 59 School at Odense, Copenhagen, Denmark ; Elevation 60 School at Frederiksberg, Denmark ; Plan 60 School at Frederiksberg, Denmark ; Elevation 61 School in the St. Hansgade, Copenhagen ; Plan 61 Girls' School in the Larslejstraede, Copenhagen ; Plan 62 Girls' School in the Larslejstraede, Copenhagen ; Elevation .... 62 School in the Jagtvejen, Copenhagen ; Plan 63 School in the Oehlenschlaegergade, Copenhagen 63 School at Wiborg, Finland ; Plan 64 School at Wiborg, Finland 65 Board School on Johnson Street, Stepney, London ; Plan 67 School at Paisley, England 67 Section of a Typical " Bank " in an Infants' School 68 School at Paisley, England ; Plan 69 Board School, New North Street, London ; Plan 69 A Typical English School on a Large Lot 72 Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool: Plan 73 Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool ; Plan 73 Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool; Plan 74 Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool ; Plan 75 Cobbold Road School, Chelsea, London ; Plan 75 Cobbold Road School, Chelsea, London ; Elevation 76 Williams School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans 78 Williams School, Boston, Mass 79 Eustis Primary School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans 80 Eustis Primary School, Boston, Mass 81 Andrews Primary School, Boston, Mass 82 Sewall Primary School, Brookline, Mass. ; Plans 8^ Grammar School, Hopedale, Mass. ; Plans 84 Grammar School, Hopedale, Mass. 85 Roger Ludlow Grammar School, Windsor, Conn. ; Plans 86 Roger Ludlow Grammar School, Windsor, Conn. S6 Winthrop Grammar School, New London, Conn. ; Plans . . . . . 87 Winthrop Grammar School, New London, Conn. 88 Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. ; Plans 89 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xlll Peirce School, Newton, Mass. ; Plans . Peirce School, Newton, Mass.; Main Entrance Peirce School, Newton, Mass. ; View of a Corridor Bigelow School, Newton, Mass. ; Plans . Bigelow School, Newton, Mass. Brooks School, Medford, Mass.; Plan . Brooks School, Medford, Mass. Eugene Field School, St. Louis, Mo. ; Plans Sherman School, St. Louis, Mo. ; Plans . Eliot School, St. Louis, Mo. ; Plans Eliot School, St. Louis, Mo. . Auburndale School, Toledo, Ohio; Plan Auburndale School, Toledo, Ohio . Lagrange School, Toledo, Ohio ; Plan . Lagrange School, Toledo, Ohio Waite School, Toledo, Ohio ... A Cooking Class in a Toledo, Ohio, School George Dewey School, Chicago, 111. ; Plans New Brown School, Hartford, Conn. ; Plans Robert Gould Shaw School, Boston, Mass.; Plans Robert Gould Shaw School, Boston, Mass. Christopher Gibson School, Boston, Mass.; Plans Gilbert Stuart School, Boston, Mass.; Plans Bowdoin .School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans Bowdoin School. Boston, Mass. Mayhew School, Boston, Mass. ; Plan . Mayhew School, Boston, Mass. Paul Revere School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans Paul Revere School, Boston, Mass. Public School No. 167, New York City Public School No. 154, New York City; Plan Public School No. 154, New York City . Public School No. 165, New York City . Public School No. 165, New York City; Plan Public School No. 154, New York City; Play Public School No. 165, New York City; Plan Public School No. 153, New York City . Pubhc School No. 147, New York City; Roof Play Gemeindeschule No. 204, Berlin ; Aula . Class Room for Fifty-six Pupils, Primary Grade ; Plan Class Room for Fifty-six Pupils, Grammar Grade Typical American Class Room Typical German Class Room . . . . • Class Room for Forty-eight Pupils, Grammar Grade ; Class Room for Forty Pupils, Grammar Grade; Plan De Lancey School, Philadelphia De Lancey School. Philadelphia; Plans De Lancey School, Philadelphia; Plans Longfellow School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans Longfellow School, Boston, Mass. . Imperial Gymnasium, Vienna; Aula room ground Plan Plan Page. 90 91 92 93 94 95 95 96 97 98 99 99 100 lOI 102 103 104 '05 106 ro7 108 [09 II 12 13 14 14 15 16 ti7 [18 18 19 19 :o [20 [25 [26 [27 [28 132 ^33 134 '35 '38 '39 144 xiv SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Page. Gymnasium, Gottingen, Prussia; Plans 145 Cantonal School, Berne, Switzerland ; Plans 146 Gymnasium, Salzwedel, Prussia ; Plan 147 Kaiser Wilhelm Gymnasium, Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia ; Plan .... 148 Realschule, Karlsruhe, Baden; Plans 148 Konig Wilhelm Gymnasium, Stettin, Prussia 149 Konig Wilhelm Gymnasium, Stettin, Prussia ; Plans .150 Gymnasium, Bromberg, Prussia; Plan 151 Oberrealschule, Leitomischl, Bohemia, Austria ; Plans 152 Realschule, Magdeburg, Saxon Prussia ; Plan 153 Realschule, Magdeburg, Saxon Prussia ; Plan 154 Gymnasium, Hildesheim, Prussia; Plan 155 Realgymnasium, Karlsruhe, Baden ; Plans 156 Leibnitz Realschule, Hanover, Prussia ; Plan 157 State Gymnasium, Stettin, Prussia 158 Realschule, Leipsic-Reudnitz, Saxony ; Plan 159 Tochterschule, Basel, Switzerland 160 Tochterschule, Basel, Switzerland ; Plan 161 Tochterschule, Basel, Switzerland ; Plans 162 Annen Realschule, Dresden, Saxony; Plans 163 Annen Realschule, Dresden, Saxony 163 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, Bernburg, Anhalt, Germany ; Plans . . 165 Lyc6e Victor Hugo, Paris ; Fa(;ade on Courtyard 166 Central School, Manchester, England ; Plans 167 Central School, Manchester, England ; Plans 168 Central School, Manchester, England; Plan 169 Cassland Road Higher Grade School,. London 170 Cassland Road Higher Grade School, London; Plans 171 A Typical One-story English School with Master's House 1/2 Proposed Technical and Secondary School, Chippenham, England; Plan . 173 Proposed Technical and Secondary School, Chippenham, England . . .174 Finsbury Pupil-Teachers' Center, Offord Road, London ; Plan .... 174 Finsbury Pupil-Teachers' Center, Offord Road, London ; Plan .... 175 Finsbury Pupil-Teachers' Center, Offord Road, London 176 English High and Latin School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans 179 English High and Latin School, Boston, Mass 180 Akademische Gymnasium, Vienna; Plans 181 English High School, Cambridge, Mass. 186 English High School, Cambridge, Mass. ; Plans 188 English High School, Cambridge, Mass. ; Principal Entrance .... 189 Latin School, Cambridge, Mass. ; Plans 191 Latin School, Cambridge, Mass . . . 192 High School, Brookline, Mass. ; Plans . 193 High School, Brookline, Mass 195 High School, Pawtucket, R. I. ; Proposed Plans 196 High School, Springfield, Mass. ; Plans 197 High School, Springfield, Mass. ; Plans 198 High School, Springfield, Mass 199 High School, Newark, N. J. ; Plans 200 High School, Newark, N. J 201 High School, New Britain, Conn. ; Plans 203 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV Page. Groton School; Plans 204 Groton School ; Plan 205 Groton School 206 Brighton High School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans 207 South Boston High School, Boston, Mass. ; Plans 208 Girls' High School, New York City ; Plan 209 Girls' High School, New York City ; Plan 210 Girls' High School, New York City 211 Central High School, Toledo, Ohio ; Plan 212 Central High School, Toledo, Ohio 213 Class Room for Sixty-three High School Pupils ; Plan 214 St. Louis Manual Training School ; Plans 217 Cambridge Manual Training School : Plans 219 Cambridge Manual Training School ; Plans 220 Cambridge Manual Training School 221 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston 222 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Mechanic Arts High School, Boston Plans 223 Plans 224 Machine Shop, North Side . . . 226 Machine Shop, South Side . . . 226 Drawing Table 227 Wood-working Shop .... 229 Wood-turning Shop 229 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston ; Turning and Pattern-making, Demon- stration Lesson 232 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston ; Forge Shop 233 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston ; Tool Bench in Forge Shop . . . 235 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston; Forge Shop, Demonstration Lesson . 237 Drawing Room in a French Industrial School 241 Industrial School at Worms ; Plans 242 Industrial School at Innsbruck, Austria ; Plans 243 School for Apprentices at Rouen, France ; Plans 244 Weaving School at Miilheim, Germany ; Plans 245 Watch and Clock Making School, Paris 246 Royal Weaving School at Crefeld, Germany : Plan 248 Royal Weaving School at Crefeld, Germany ; Plan 249 State Normal School, Salem, Mass. ; Plans 252 State Nonnal School, North Adams, Mass. ; Plans 254 State Normal School, Lowell, Mass 255 State Normal School, Lowell, Mass. ; Plans 256 State Normal School, New Haven, Conn. ; Plans 257 State Normal School, New Haven, Conn 258 Women Teachers' Seminary, Berlin, Germany ; Plan 259 Women Teachers' Seminary, Berlin, Germany : Plans 260 Women Teachers' Seminary, Auxerre, France ; Plan 261 Cross Section of Slate Urinal 276 Flushing Tank for Urinals 277 Section of Perforated Supply Pipe and Slate Trough 278 Gymnasium and Plunge Bath, Basement of Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool, England ; Plan 280 Bathing Rooms in a Berlin Elementary School ; Plan 281 chool Architecture. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND FEATURES OF SCHOOLS. In selecting a school site a dry location, one that is reason- ably level and on unfrequented streets, well removed from stables, from factories and workshops, should be sought. The healthfulness of the location should be most carefully con- sidered. In Germany no school can be built unless its site has had the approval of the district physician of the Sanitary Police, a department with similar duties to those of boards of health in the United States. Like precautions are taken in the Scandinavian countries. The area of the site should be at least sufficient to prevent shadowing from adjoining buildings. The space for the recreation of the pupils should be generous, and should have pavement of brick or tar con- crete, with the surface pitched to traps connected with the sewer. On the continent of Europe and in England ampler areas for school sites are assigned than is generally the case in the United States. A minimum unbuilt-on area of 30 sq. ft. per pupil is required for school premises by the Board of Education of England and Wales, Often regard for other conditions interferes with the choice of a school site which affords the most desirable orientation for the building. In Prussia a northern exposure for class rooms is that now most favored, if the conditions permit, and other authorities have like preference for this aspect, but an easterly or south- easterly exposure is generally considered that most desirable for these rooms. By the former the room is sunned earl the morning, and the pupils are not disturbed by glare of 1 during the exercises. The northern exposure should not be adopted unless the windows are fitted with double sash and the rooms are thoroughly warmed and scientifically ventilated; able m 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. when so equipped, a direct southern or western is less desirable for class rooms than is a northerly exposure. Where it is necessary to place a school upon a much fre- quented or narrow street, it should be set well to the rear of the lot, with the yard on the street. In England the tendency is to place the school yards on the most used street, with the school at the rear of the lot. In France school yards are often ornamented by landscape gardening, but in such a manner that the space for recreation is not inconveniently lessened (Fig. i). Trees or climbing FIG. I. PRINCIPAL COURTYARD OF THE LYCliE MOLlfeRE, PARIS. vines are trained to grow upon th6 enclosing brick walls, and even in winter the effect of this growth is pleasing, for the branches are arranged with design and not allowed to grow haphazard. A special characteristic of Scandinavian schools is the school garden, the pupils being taught therein the prin- ciples of agriculture and horticulture. In England, in the Scandinavia countries, and in France covered playgrounds are provided. These sometimes occupy a part of the first floor of the buildings (Fig. 2), but sometimes, and preferably, they are GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. FIG. COVERED PLAYGROUND, LYCEE MOLlfcRE, PARIS. separate structures. It is usual in France, and until lately it has been customary in England, to wholly enclose the school premises with high brick walls. In later English schools a brick wall, 4 ft. high, with an unclimbable iron fence above is used to enclose the premises. In Germany the play- ground is generally cut off from view (Fig. 3). Such enclosure of the yard is rarely found in Switzerland or in the United States. The open fences used in these countries permit the air to circulate freely and offer no obstruction to the sunlight, and they are certainly to be preferred on the south and west sides of the prem- ises unless there chance to be un- sightly or other- wise objectionable surroundings, when brick walls should b e built. On the north and east such walls, 7 ft. high, are de- sirable, as they furnish protection from cold winds. It would be well if these walls were FIG. 3. BLOCK PLAN OF GEMEINDESCHULE NO. 204, BERLIN. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. fj i i 1^ i m\ FIG. I \m " Building" used for Gymnasium, Baths, Residence, eta 4, BLOCK PLAN OF SCHOOL AT AUGSBURG. given the landscape treatment which is found in France. In Germany the borders of school yards are often planted with shade trees where pos- sible (Fig. 4) ; such a requirement pre- supposes ample grounds about the building, for the minimum allowable distance for a tree from a school is 20 ft. In addition to the main entrance, there should be outside separate entrances to the basement for each sex, and there should not be less than two exits from the first floor, and not less than two staircases from the top to the first floor of every school. A porch, or better, a vestibule of ample dimensions, in which early comers may find shelter, without being given admission to the building proper, is a most desirable feature. In Switzerland such vestibules are required in all schools. In the United States basement entrances are generally arranged so that the pupils may have access to the play rooms and toilet rooms before the hour at which the exercises beg-in. All entrance doors should open outwards, to guard against disaster in case of fire or panic. Outer vestibule doors should be hung with double-action swing butts. Ten ft. is the minimum width for a school corridor and 12 ft. is preferable. Corridors should be given all the light which the conditions of the plan and of the economical construction of the enclosing walls permit. The basement should be shut off by tinned doors, fitted with spring butts or door checks; the staircases also GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. 5 may well be shut off on each floor by like protection from fire. Staircases are best constructed either of masonry, or of metal construction throughout; but if of wood, they should be thoroughly fire-stopped with brick, or with terra-cotta blocks, and the under side should be wire lathed and plastered. In the best Eng^lish schools the staircases are of stone. Treads of iron stairs should be covered with rubber mats, or better, with combined steel and lead treads not less than 5^ ins. wide. The rubber mats and metal treads are set into a rebate cast in the iron tread. In primary schools the height of risers should be 6 ins. with 12-in. treads, and in other schools the risers should not be more than 7^ ins., with lo-in. treads. The Board of Education of England and Wales requires risers not exceeding 6 ins. and 13-in. treads for all school staircases. Posts and balusters should be of the plainest and most readily cleaned form. Hand-rails of lyi STAIRCASE IN LYCEE RACINE, PARIS, 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. in. iron piping have proved serviceable and of sufficiently good appearance. Hand-rails on the walls, except at plat- forms, are requisite. Some authorities hold that school stair- cases should not be wider than 3^^ ft., so that only two files of pupils, each provided with a hand-rail, can pass, and so that the possible crowding between the files, in case of panic, should be prevented. The excellent discipline of American school children, which has been proved by alarms of fire, justifies the retention of the more comfortable width of 5 ft., which has generally been adopted in the schools of the United States. There appears to be no practical advantage in a greater width than 5 ft., but in many German schools the stair- cases are 10 ft. wide. Circular staircases are unfit for general use of the pupils. Winders should never be used. There should not be more than fifteen, and not less than three, risers between landings, and landings should not be less than 4 ft. between steps. As far as co-education of the sexes affects the planning of schools, we find in Switzerland practically the same conditions that exist in the United States; but in Germany, and generally on the continent of Europe, except in Holland, co-education is not permitted except in rural schools, and, consequently, the plans show an absolute and, as some of the educators of these countries maintain, an undesirable division of the sexes; while in the United States, in primary and grammar grades, such division is mainly confined to the basement, an imaginary line being the only barrier in the playground. In the United States class-room windows are made 4 ft. wide between jambs; the window stools are usually set 3 ft. above the floor, although they are ofi:en, as is generally the case in Germany, set i ft. higher to prevent the pupils from looking out. For this purpose the lower sash of some of the latest German schools are glazed with ribbed glass. In some of the Swiss cantons, any condition that prevents the children from looking out of the windows is held to be objectionable; and the window stools are set 2^ ft. high, and GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. 7 the most recent rules for the Berlin schools permit about the same minimum height of sill. The top of the windows should come as near the ceiling as their finish will permit, and the finish, if any, should not exceed 6 ins. in width. In France it is required that the head of the window should be practically flush with the ceiling. Transoms in windows are objectionable as the bars cut oft' valuable light, and, with them, teachers are more easily tempted to lower the temperature by opening the windows. By the dropping of the transom the air is admitted with less direct draft than by lowering a hung sash, but the occasion for any such admission of outer air should seldom exist in a school equipped with proper warming and ventilating appa- ratus. The. primary function of a class-room window is the admission of light, and such windows should be devised to meet this end inost advantageously. Windows evenly distributed in the wall give a better dif- fusion of light than that given from a mullion group of equal glass area placed in the center of the room, for with the latter arranjjement the corners of the room are in shadow. There is, of course, no objection to the use of mullioned windows if the light is so ample that none of the desks are shadowed, and providing that the building is so constructed that a proper temperature may be maintained with so large a glass area as is required in such case. As has been done in later New York City schools, the mullioned window can be used with no in- crease of cost of construction in skeleton steel frame buildings. In English schools, and in those of the continent of Europe, casement sash, instead of the hung sash commonl}' used in the United States, is usually found. Casement sash, while in a measure shielding, when opened, the pupils from direct draft, are especially awkward to manage when double, and entail much more woodwork than do hung sash, and, hence, are more obstructive of light. Where arched windows are used, their height and, conse- quently, that of the rooms should be increased so that the glass 8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. area may equal that of windows with square heads of the size proper for a class room of normal height. Thirty-three per cent, of the heat which is lost through single glazed sash may be saved by double glazing. In double glazing the two panes must be thoroughly cleaned and puttied in, the panes being set i in. apart. Double runs of sash still further prevent the waste of heat through the windows and are more effective in checking the drafts and in shutting out dust and noise. Leaving out of consideration any additional thickness of brick walls which the use of double runs of sash may necessitate, the cost of a school is increased about I ^^ per cent, where this feature is used in class rooms. An increase of 4 ins. in the thickness of the brick walls through- out a school increases its cost by about 4 per cent. The width and height of class rooms as affecting their lighting will be specially considered in Chapter VI. Under normal conditions of site, basement windows should have a minimum height between sill and lintel of 4 ft.; and advantage should always be taken of a sloping grade to in- crease the height of such windows. The basement of a school should never be less than 10 ft. A less height prevents suffi- cient lighting of the rooms and the proper installation of the heating plant. The inner vestibule doors should be hung with spring butts. Doors should open towards the corridors and should have a glass panel, set with bottom 4 ft. above the floor, and transom lights over. Rift Georgia or Florida pine or maple are held in the United States to be the best upper flooring for school purposes. These floors are usually, in that country, left without painters' linish, although it would be better if they were thoroughly oiled and carefully maintained in use as are those of the Ger- man and Scandinavian schools. American school boards are usually very economical in expenditure for scrubbing floors, and are content with sweeping only, — a method of saving public funds not conducive to the health of the community. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. 9 Except for boiler and coal rooms, where brick pavement laid on edge should be used, and for rooms used for gymnasiums or for school purposes, where wooden floors should be used, there is no better upper flooring for basements of schools than the best brands of asphalt, ^ in. thick, laid on a concrete bed. Wooden floors in the basement should be without air space, laid on screeds bedded in concrete. A coat of hot asphalt, or, at least, of tar concrete, may well be laid on the concrete before laying the screeds, and cinder concrete should be used to fill in to the top of the screeds. Waterproof paper should be laid between the upper and the lower floors. Sheathed dadoes are often found giving lodgment for ver- min; those of "gauged mortar" (a mixture of lime and hair mortar with plaster of Paris), with wooden chair rail and plain ogee hospital baseboards, run out of 3-in. plank, have been found cleanly and serviceable. In England dadoes of enam- eled brick with a beveled wood base, as well as of hard red brick and cement, are used. Concaved angles of plastered walls and of ceilings and walls facilitate the cleaning of the building. Inaccessible dust ledges should be avoided. The plastering of the walls should be smooth to prevent dust lodg- ment. There should be as little wood finish as possible, and to that end Keene's cement for door and window trims is advisable. In short, it is wellnigh as important to take pre- cautions against dust lodgment and the use of absorbent sur- faces in a school as it is in a hospital. Black slate is the best material for blackboards. In the United States the blackboards are 45^ ft. high, and are usually set upon all available wall surface of class and recitation rooms. The blackboard surface between the windows is, of course, useless for any of the regular school work, but serves to carry the color line around the room, to give space for exhibition drawings, and in such position does not essentially aflect the diffusion of light. In the United States blackboards are set 2 ft., 4 ins. in primary schools, and in other schools, 3 ft. above the floor, and have a chalk-receiver 2^ ins. wide. lO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The wall painting required by the Berlin authorities — light shades of blue-gray or green-gray — are better for the eyes than the more cheerful soft shades of green, which are usually adopted in those American schools where the subject has been given any consideration. Plastered walls should be painted in oil at least to the top of the blackboard; above this height the walls are usually, in the United States, tinted in water color. It is advisable that oil color should be used throughout on the walls to permit thorough cleaning. Corridors with plastered dadoes should be painted 5>^ ft. high in oil of a color darker than the walls. Ceilings should have a very light buff or white water-color tint. All rooms should have picture moldings, or, better, to avoid dust lodgment, a metal rod to serve the same purpose. In the United States a movable teacher's platform, 5 or 6 by 10 ft. is generally provided, although some teachers prefer to dispense with an elevated seat. For the use of the teacher a wardrobe, 16 ins. in depth, and a bookcase, 10 to 12 ins. in depth, are built, flush with the wall if possible, and set con- veniently adjacent to the teacher's platform. Outdoor clothing should be hung in separate enclosures. In the United States such enclosures are called " wardrobes," and in the best schools one is provided for each class room, with a door to the corridor as well as to the class room to permit the orderly filing of the pupils. They have outside light and are warmed and ventilated. The width of these enclosures is not less than 4 ft. Separate wardrobes thus arranged increase the cost of a school from 4 to 4^ per cent, above that of a building of the same number of rooms in which the clothing is hung in widened corridors. The hat and coat hooks are set only on the side walls of the wardrobes; the top row of hooks is placed in primary schools 4 ft., in grammar schools 5 ft., above the floor. The minimum hanging space is. 30 running ft. for a class of 56 pupils. Above the row of hooks, or immediately above the baseboard, is set a shelf for overshoes, etc., and umbrella stands are provided. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. II In large European and English schools living apartments are furnished for the janitor, either in the school building, or in a separate building on the school premises, and in many cases like provision is made for the master in the city schools and almost always in the rural schools. There is no apparent advantage in the assignment of space in a school building for the masters housekeeping, for he should be able to rent his quarters elsewhere for much less than the interest on the cost of the portion of the school which would be required for his use. There is more to be said in favor of the provision of janitor's quarters in the school, although, under the conditions of such service now usually obtaining in the United States, it would be generally unwise to make such use of school buildings; at a later time when janitor service is better organ- ized and regulated, such an arrangement may well be adopted. One incidental advantage of such an arrangement would be the improvement which could then be readily made in the character of the lunches served in the schools. A master's office is a requisite for large schools. Private rooms, with adjoining toilet rooms both for men and women teachers, should be provided in all schools. It is held by some authorities that no toilet rooms should be placed in the basement of schools, but that all such plumbing, except that for the use of the teachers, should be in a separate, well-warmed, and ventilated building. If there is strong and certain ventilation, either from the toilet room, or through the plumbing fixtures themselves to an ample aspirating shaft, heated winter and summer, there appears no need of thus in- creasing the cost of school construction. Where the basement area is required for manual training rooms, etc., such an arrange- ment would be justifiable on the scorie of expense, but the con- venience of the school would not be increased. Basement toilet rooms should immediately adjoin the play rooms for each sex, and should be readily accessible from the school yard. They should be shut oft' from the play rooms by fl}^ doors hung with spring butts. 12 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Where space permits the basement may well be further utilized for gymnasiums, for bathing rooms, and for rooms for manual training and cooking schools. On the continent of Europe the gymnasiums are usually in separate buildings. In a very large school, if the size of the lot permits, the boiler and coal room may well be assigned to a separate building adjoining the schoolhouse; but in schools of moderate size such an arrangement has not sufficient advantage to warrant the increased cost of construction. The narrowest appropriation does not justify the construc- tion of a school where light joists are used for the first floor, unless the basement ceiling is wire lathed. A better construc- tion is a first floor of heavy timbers and planking, the so-called " mill " construction. This construction has the disadvantage that there may be considerable annoyance from shrinkage, as the market seldom affords seasoned stock of large dimensions. It therefore does not appear extravagant to advise that the first floor should be of steel beams and arch construction, or of some of the many forms of concrete arch now so com- monly used. The inner lining of outer brick walls should be of hard- burned hollow brick, with soft brick set to receive nailings for the interior finish. The interior partitions, where not of brick, are best of terra-cotta lumber, or thin partitions of metal lath- ing set on angle irons and plastered. The advantage of such solidity of construction is not only the protection from fire, but from the lodgment of vermin. Where such solid partitions are found to be too expensive and stud partitions are used, they should be thoroughly fire- stopped up to the top of the base-boards. Wire-lathed ceilings are advisable not merely as a fire protection, but their greater permanency renders such con- struction essentially more economical than wood lathing. The principal danger from fire in a school is from the base- ment; with the first floor constructed of incombustible or slow- burnipg materials, with all interior partitions of solid construe- GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. . I3 tion, with the plastering laid directly upon the brick walls, and with wire-lathed ceilings, if the basement is shut off from the first floor b}^ self-closing, metal-covered doors, and if all fires are confined to the basement, even if the floors above the first story and the roof are constructed of the ordinary narrow joists with ^-in. floor boarding, there is little risk to the lives of the inmates if the fire-drill is not neglected. If the roof is flat and it is protected by a battlement wall of not less than i8 ins. in height, a fire outside of a school, not immediatel}' adjacent to other buildings, cannot be, in itself, a danger to the lives of the occupants, for the pupils could, under the excellent discipline which prevails in the schools of the United States, reach the street before the build- ing could be in a dangerous condition. To minimize the danger from panic by giving greater sense of securit}^ to the inmates, it is advisable that the floors of primary schools, which are in excess of two stories in height, should be built wholly of incombustible materials, and that other schools, which are in excess of three stories in height, should have their roofs, as well as their floors, of the same construction. Although generous appropriations for school buildings are made in the large cities of the United States, there is generally complaint of insufficient accommodation for the school chil- dren. If building laws are not made needlessly severe, and if large buildings of three or more stories in height are more generally constructed, this condition need not exist. The dis- advantage of long flights of stairs for children to climb is largely one of imagination. This inconvenience in buildings of more than four stories in height can, in great measure, be obviated by the introduction of elevators, and by the utiliza- tion of the roofs for the pla3'ground, as is done in the New York City schools. The roof playgrounds may well be for the exclusive use of the pupils assigned to the class rooms of the upper stories. The rapid increase of population is often found to render lA SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. small schools inadequate for the accommodation of the chil- dren of the neighborhood they were originally designed to serve after they have been occupied for a comparatively brief period. It should be borne in mind that with these small schools not only is the cost per class room fully 20 per cent, greater than in the large three-story schools with accommoda- tion equivalent to sixteen class rooms, but the cost of grading, paving, and fencing, and the cost of janitor service and fuel, are relatively greater per pupil. Too often saving in cost is made at the expense of (Economi- cal and safe construction. In one large Ohio city, where the authorities pride themselves upon the low cost of the schools, there is a building four stories in height, with stud interior partitions, furred walls, and no fire-stops. No metal or brick ducts are provided for ventilation; the foul air is supposed to find its way through the hollow spaces in floors and walls to the space between the roof and the ceilings of the upper rooms, and from thence through ventilators to the outer air. A more imperfect system of ventilation and a more ingenious fire-trap could not well be devised. The rough surface of sawed lumber and the backs of plastered surfaces gave read}' lodg- ment for dust, and the uncertainty of the direction of the air, under such conditions, gave no warrant that this dust was not breathed in by the occupants of the building. Members of school committees, and others interested in school construction, should recognize that in such work great saving in cost can seldom be made except by sacrifice of desirable features, and that the permanent value of a building depends upon the knowledge, skill, and forethought used by the architect in the disposition of its parts, in the durability and fire-protected character of its construction, in the quality of its appointments and fittings; and, finally, that beauty of the design, though no small consideration, may fittingly be restrained within the limitations of brick construction. Such construction may be more or less elaborate, as the neighbor- hood, the site, and the size of the building may require. 5 z a. < S re C i" 5 tJq' X r. 1 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The percentage of excess of cost between a school designed with regard for architectural etfect and one of a purely utilita- rian construction is not great. Under ordinary conditions, satisfactory architectural results may be obtained at an increase of cost of not more than 5 per cent, above that of the most "practical" construction. A careful reckoning of the cost of the Brighton High School, the most elaborate school designed by the writer, shows that but 8 per cent, of its cost, above that of a purely utilitarian structure, covered the expense of its architectural features. It will be generally admitted that a large building demands a greater relative cost for architectural effect than does a smaller one. Few people now maintain that a pleasing architectural effect is an unimportant consideration, and that a beautiful school is not a factor in the education of the young. Common sense dictates that if the roof of a school is not to be utilized for some purpose, that it should be either fiat or with a low pitch. A high, well-lighted basement is requisite, whether or not the space is to be used for occupancy by the pupils. The important rooms in the basement need windows of ample size, and a basement ceiling height of 10 ft. is none too high, if only for the proper installation of the heating apparatus. Aside from economy in planning, which certainly leads to a balanced arrangement of rooms and which, except in rare cases, precludes a picturesque and irregular disposition of these rooms, the key to the external expression of a school is the size and distribution and form of windows, which experi- ence has shown to be best adapted for the needs of the class rooms. The windows should be wide and high, preferably square-headed and without transom bars. This desirable window treatment, in itself, renders picturesque design for such buildings difficult of attainment. Forms suggested by the brick architecture of the Renais- sance, least affected by romantic traditions, may be readily employed without sacrifice of the practical requirements of the GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOLS. I7 buildings. Ample scope is given to the designer in the treat- ment of roof, and in the mass and the proportion he may model from the structure without impairing its utility, in the variation of texture and color of brickwork, in the use of dif- ferent-colored mortars, in the variety of detail, in the division, and in the accentuation of surface. With careful study, oppor- tunities for individual expression are thus offered without the sacrifice of any practical requirements. The object should be to develop and express a type, not to simulate the external forms which fitted past conditions and are not nicely adapted to the needs of our own time. While in the architectural ex- pression of the plan, the American architects do not make so unfavorable a showing in comparison with those of Europe, the architects of the Teutonic countries of Europe, with those of France, aided by the enlightened direction of the authorities, have developed school planning to a higher degree than has been the case in America, as will be recognized by the reader of the following chapters. The plans of the schools of the Teutonic countries will be found especially suggestive to American architects. CHAPTER II. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, SWITZERLAND, AND FRANCE. In 1763, Frederick the Great established in Prussia a system of compulsory elementary education. At later periods this example was followed by the neighboring countries, so that throughout the German Empire, in Austria, and in Switzer- land the system of education and, hence, the plans of the schools are essentially the same. In every kind of school the separate graded class system obtains. Variations in plan occur, but they are not especially dis- tinctive of the different countries and sections. The plans of schools in Teutonic countries differ no more than they do in the several sections of the United States. The schools of the countries most influenced by the German educational system may, therefore, be considered together. The elementary schools of the German Empire and those of Austria are of two classes, — those which are not, and those which are, preparatory to the secondary schools. The non-preparatory elementary school is commonly known as the " Volksschule," but it is called in Prussia, "Gemeinde- schule," and in Saxon}^, " Bezirksschule." These schools are free in Prussia, and elsewhere a very small tuition fee is charged. In the Biirgerschule, pupils may be prepared for the secondary schools, and those who do not enter secondary schools may receive a more advanced education than in the Volksschule. A higher tuition fee is charged in the Biirger- schule than in the Volksschule. In the country and in the smaller towns there is but one class, known either as the " Volksschule " or simply as the " Schule." In many such schools there is a department called the " Vorschule," where pupils are prepared for the secondary schools. The Biirgerschule is generally for both sexes; but there is a 18 20 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. class of gfirls' schools where the curriculum is more advanced than in the Biirgerschule, which is called the " Madchen- Mittelschule." The two classes of German and Austrian elementary schools have no essential difference in plan re- quirements. The Swiss elementary schools, while not given the classification of Volksschule and Biirgerschule, follow the general Teutonic plan model. The class rooms in the Teutonic elementary schools are 20 to 22 ft. in width, 30 to 32 ft. in length, and not less than 13 ft. in height. The lighting is generally only from the left side of the pupil, but, in corner rooms, the light is sometimes admitted from the wall opposite the teacher's desk; although the lighting from more than one side of a class room is not now permitted in Germany and in Berlin, at least, the northern light is that demanded for class rooms, except under special conditions of site. In the larger schools the aula, or examina- tion hall, and gymnasiums are almost constantly provided. The aula, in Swiss schools, is used not only for examinations and exhibitions, as is its exclusive use in Germany and Austria, but for collective exercises and social festivities. Almost all the schools have janitor's quarters, and in a majority there are also apartments for one or more teachers. In Germany and Austria the outer clothing of the pupils, when not hung in the class rooms, is usually placed in the corridors, or in alcoves off the corridors; more rarely, separate enclosures with outer light are provided for the clothing. In some cases, but not in many, these enclosures give both from the corridor and class room, but they are usually accessible from the class room only. In Switzerland, as in the United States, both sexes are often taught in the same classes. In Germany and Austria, except in some of the village schools, there is no co-education, but the schools are generally arranged for separate classes of both sexes. The Swiss elementary schools have always two divisions; the one for the youngest children has usually the largest class ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 21 rooms. There is sometimes a third division in which more advanced instruction is given, and where the class rooms are FIRST FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 5. PLANS OF A ONE-CLASS GERMAN VILLAGE SCHOOL WITH master's APARTMENTS. smaller than in the second division. The three divisions are usually arranged upon separate stories. Nearly all the village schools of Germany have quarters for the teacher under the same roof with the school. Fig. 5 shows the first and second tioor plans of a single class German village school provided with such apartments. The village schools of the Oberland, Switzerland, show the peculiar architectural characteristics of that district. A school of this type is illustrated by Figs. 6 and 9. In the rural dis- FIG. 6. VILLAGE SCHOOL IN THE OBERLAND, SWITZERLAND. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. U.V oh 1 ^ 6 n '-^ *? ii u 1 ^ 71 c^ ,>< yi .r, ~^ n L_ 1 tf-; !S§;s? li-S, ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 23 2'^ H SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIG. 9. PLAN OF VILLAGE SCHOOL IN THE OBERLAND, SWITZERLAND. and ten for girls, one of which is about 21 by 34 ft.; the rest of the class rooms are about 21 by 26 ft. There is a Physics class room for each sex; opposite these Physics rooms is an apparatus room and a room for private study. The aula, which is about 32 by 69 ft., is on the third floor. On the first floor there is, besides the class rooms, a conference room for men and one for women teachers. On this floor there is a room for the master, and two resting or ham- tricts of Switzerland the teacher has quarters in the school build- ing, as in this example. Fig. II gives the plans of a Gemeindeschule now under con- struction in Berlin on the Wilms Strasse. This building is three stories in height. It has twenty- two classrooms, twelve for boys FIG. 10. FIRST FLOOR. SPALENSCHULE, BASEL, SWITZERLAND. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. GEMEINDESCHULE IN THE WILMS STRASSE, BERLIN. mock rooms for young children. On each floor there are two teachers' rooms, one for each sex. There are shower-bath rooms in the basement. This building is one of a type which is often adopted in Berlin, — that in which the class rooms are ranged upon one side of a corridor. 26 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 12. SCHOOL IN THE MARIAHILSPLATZ, MUNICH. Another recently constructed Berlin school of this type is Gemeindeschule No. 204, on Christerburger Strasse. The plans of this building are shown by Figs. 7, 8, and by Fig. 171 in Chapter XI. In the photograph of this building the structure on the right- hand side is the gymnasium, indicated upon the block plan shown in Chapter I., Fig. 3. The Untere Realschule, Basel, illustrated here by a print on page 27, has a plan of the same type as these Berlin schools, but presenting no especially noteworthy features. An example of the same plan t3'pe, in a smaller building, SPALENSCHULE, BASEL, SWLrZEKLANU. UNTHRK REALSCHULE, BASEL, SWITZERLAND. 27 28 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. is the Spalenschule, Basel (Fig. lo). This is a primary school for boys, and presents an interesting corner-lot treat- ment. There are toilet rooms on each story, but no wardrobes. cSlRLS FIG. 13. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. BEZIRKSSCHULE, SCHARNHORST-STRASSE, LEIPSIC. In the Munich school, Fig. 12, we have a type of a long, narrow, compact plan, with class rooms on either side of a middle corridor and staircases at either end. In this example a gymnasium, with floor on the basement level, is placed at one end in the section immediately adjoining the staircase, thus r rrrr rrrr rrr r rrrr rnr rrr Tr rrrr n . r cc c «. rrrr fTrn r rrfr'frFr f .irr ..rnrr FIG. 14. BEZIRKSSCHULE, SCHARXHORST-STRASSE, LEIPSIC. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 29 effectively separating the sexes, and giving the gymnasium a conveniently accessible location from each section of the building. The school has in its four stories twenty-nine class rooms, and a kindergarten in the basement. Toilet rooms are provided in the main body and upon every floor of the building. FOURTH FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN'. FIG. 15. PLANS OF A GEMEINDESCHULE, BERLIN. An example of a large school with the rooms arranged upon either side of a lons^itudinal corridor is the Bezirksschule on Scharnhorst-Strasse, Leipsic (Figs. 13, 14). A simple example of a Gemeindeschule is that in Berlin, shown by Fig. 15. Here class rooms are placed on both sides of a longitudinal corridor. This building is four stories in height and has an aula. • 30 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. BOYS • PLAY- GROUND FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 1 6. SCHOOL ON WITTELSBACHER STRASSE, MUNICH. The school on Wittelsbacher Strasse, Munich (Fig. i6), has the gymnasium in an |_, the staircase to which gives from the center of a longitudinal corridor. This school has twenty- eight class rooms. A more compact arrangement of the gymnasium is shown FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 17. ST. John's school, basel, Switzerland. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 31 SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 18. SCHOOL ON THE SEILERSTRASSE, ST. PAUL, NEAR HAMBURG. in St. John's School, Basel, Switzerland (Fig. 17). This is a mixed school, with twenty-four class rooms, and with four manual training rooms in the basement. The school at St. Paul, near Hamburg (Fig. 18), closely resembles in plan this Basel school. The rooms give from either side of a longitudinal corridor with the gymnasium at the rear on the axis of the main fa9ade. In the Hamburg school there are two entrances from the principal street; in the Basel FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 19. MIXED SCHOOL AT MANNHEIM. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 33 school there is but one main entrance, but there are two other entrances at the rear. In the Hamburg school the two stair- cases are nearly op- posite the two main entrances ; in the Basel school the staircases are at either end of the longitudinal cor- ridor. The archi- tectural treatment of this Hamburg school, as in Ge- meindeschule No. 204, Berlin, is that which is very con- stant in German elementary schools, so constant, in fact, that it may be con- sidered almost typical. The Mannheim school (Fig. 19) is an example of a double |_-plan, with the gymnasium c o m- pleting the court- 3'ard on the first floor. It has forty- two class rooms. The toilet rooms are isolated from the building in " towers," as is com- monly done in hos- burgerschule, Dresden. FIG. 20. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. BURGERSCHULE, DRESDEN. 34 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. GIRLS- P.- «. BoVd PLAY- GROUHD HALF PLAN FOR FIRST FLOOR. FIG. 21. WILLEMER AND FRANKENSTEINER SCHOOL, FRANKFORT. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 2 2. BEZIRKSSCHULE ON THE GARTENFRONT, MAYENCE. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 35 pitals. Access is had to these toilet rooms from each floor. A plan of a smaller school, of like type, is shown by a BUr- gerschule at Dresden (Fig. 20). All of the foregoing buildings follow strictly the system of FIRST FLOOR PLAN, FIG. 23. SCHOOL AT WINTERTHUR, SWITZERLAND. left-side lighting in class rooms, and in none is there any special arrangement made for the disposal of pupils' clothing. The Willemer and Frankensteiner school, Frankfort (Fig. 21), has alcoves for pupils' clothing off the corridor. This build- FIG. 24. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. SCHOOL AT BUDA-PESTH, HUNGARY. ing is four stories in height. The separate gymnasiums for boys and girls are unusual features. The Bezirksschule, on the Gartenfront, Mayence (Fig. 22), shows a building which follows the requirements of left-side 36 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. lighting, and which has separate enclosures for clothing. A portion of the gymnasium serves also for the aula. This is a four-story building. The school at Winterthur, Switzerland (Fig. 23), has ward- robes adjoining each class room, and has left-hand lighting. The Buda-Pesth school (Fig. 24) shows rooms for school records occu- pying space available for wardrobes. The Munich school, illustrated b}' Fig. 25, also follows the Teutonic principle of class-room lighting, and has a separate wardrobe immediately adjacent to each class room, and only differing from this feature as found in the best-arranged American schools, in that access thereto can be had from the class rooms only, and not from the corridor as well as the class rooms. In the Vevey school, Switzerland (Fig. 26), the pupils' clothing is in part hung in separate enclosures, and in part in the corridors. The single windows, in the wall of corner rooms opposite the pupils, are simply re- tained for architectural effect, and all light from them is cut off by heavy shades. The building has two dis- tinct divisions, — one for the primar}' and one for the upper division. The as- sembly hall is used in common. The , ^ ^^ ^ primary department has eight class ^'™ FLOOR PLAN. rooms, each accommodating sixty FIG. 25. SCHOOL AT pupils, and four class rooms, each MUNICH. accommodating forty-eight pupils. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 37 SCHOOL AT MUNICH. In the upper division there are to thirty-six pupils. In the basement, whicli is well above ground, is the gymnasium. Apartments are provided for the janitor and for the teachers. Examples of Swiss schools, in which the most approved method of class-room lighting is disregarded, are those at Winterthur, at Aarau, and at Basel. In the Winterthur school (Fig. 27) there are windows in the walls opposite the teacher and opposite the pupils in six of the twenty-three class rooms. The Aarau school (Fig. 28) is not a mixed school. It has three divisions: the primary class rooms are for seventy-two, the intermediate for thirty-four, and those for the upper division for twenty-eight pupils. On the first floor, at the end of each of the wings, are six class rooms for thirty FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 26. SCHOOL AT VEVEY, SWITZERLAND. 38 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIG. 27. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. SCHOOL AT WINTERTHUR, SWITZERLAND. placed gymnasiums, one for each sex. The assembly hall is on the third floor in the central position. Adjoining this hall is a room for examinations on the right, and a music room ONE HALF THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 28. SCHOOL AT AARAU, SWITZERLAND. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 39 on the left. Drawing rooms and school museums oc- cupy the space in the stories above the gymnasiums. Settles are provided in the corridors for the children awaiting the opening of the school. Windows in both walls of corner rooms are very generally found in Swiss schools. As in the case above noted, the windows opposite the teacher's desk are not designed to increase the lighting of the class rooms, but to enhance the architec- tural effect of the buildings. The Swiss give great importance to their schools and strive to make them satisfactory archi- tectural monuments. They are the most carefully designed FIG. 29. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. mAdchen-mittelschule, darmstadt. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG, 30. SCHOOL AT STUTTGART. 40 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. and constructed public buildings to be found in any of their communities. The Madchen-Mittelschule, at Darmstadt (Fig. 29), pre- sents another example of the use of single windows in the short side of corner class rooms, presumably for the purpose of improving the architectural effect. This building has sixteen class rooms, a singing class room, a drawing room, a gym- nasium which serves also as an aula, and the customary rooms for the administration. ' The school at Stuttgart (Fig. 30), here shown, has the least scientific lighting arrangement of any German school that the FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 31. BEZIRKSSCHULE ON THE PESTALOZZI-STRASSE, DRESDEN. writer has found. Indeed, one would have to look to the plans of American schools built twenty-five years ago to find a treat- ment equally unsatisfactory in this respect. If this plan is compared with that of the Bezirksschule on Pestalozzi-Strasse, Dresden (Fig. 31), which is similar in arrangement, the dif- ference will be evident between a building with scientifically lighted class rooms and one in which this consideration is ignored. The rules of the French Ministry of Public Instruction re- quire that, except in one-room schools where fifty are per- mitted, there shall not be more than forty pupils in a class room, and every class room must have from 4 to 5 sq. ft. of floor surface and an air area of 180 cu. ft. for each pupil. These rules require that the lighting shall be only from the ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 41 left hand of the pupils, except under circumstances where sufficient light cannot otherwise be gained. In no case is it permissible to gain light from the wall opposite the teacher or the pupils. If light is admitted from two sides, it must be from the two sides on either hand of the pupils. Windows on the right side of the pupils, if to be used only for aeration of the room and for the admission of sunlight during the absence of the pupils, are accepted. It is required that all class-room windows should be square-headed. Where light is from one side, it is required that the window lintel shall be at a height above the floor of at least two thirds the width of the room. In all cases the bottom of the lintel must be level with the ceiling. The window-sills must be beveled and set 4 ft. above the floor. Casement sash are required and also transom bars, but these latter features must be as small as requisite strength will permit. The minimum ceiling height is about 13 ft., 2^ ins. Where lighting is from one side only, the ceiling must have a height of at least two thirds the width of the room plus the depth of the window jamb. Where lighting is from two sides, the area of glass must equal the area of the desks. The ceil- ings must be flat and plastered; no cornices are permitted in class rooms, and the corners and the angles of walls and ceil- ing are required to be rounded upon a 3i\-in. radius. As has been previously noted in French schools, agreeable sur- roundings for the pupils are given especial consideration. The playgrounds are regarded from the point of view of the F landscape gardener, and the covered playgrounds are especial I}- happy in their adaptation to their purpose fig. 32. plan of mixed single and in the consideration given class french school. 42 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIG. 33. PLAN OF SALLE d'aSILE, ETIENNE, LI- MOGES, FRANCE. to their design. A peculiar feature of the mixed schools is. that the bo3's and girls, in the same class room, are sometimes grouped upon either side of a screen, which runs through the center of the room. The plan of a class room so arranged is given in Fig. 32. The French infant schools, called " Salles d'Asile," are noteworthy. These schools have covered and open playgrounds, a school room, a dining room, a small kitchen, and a bath room. Apartments for the mis- tress, not accessible from the school, are always provided. The boys and girls are seated on opposite sides of the room, and when in the gallery they are separated by a wide gang- FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 34. FRENCH GIRLS' SCHOOL. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 43 way painted black. The covered playgrounds are provided with seats, and are heated in cold weather by stoves. Food is prepared tor the children in the kitchen, and hammocks or beds are always provided to receive those who show signs of fatigue. These schools are usually conducted by sisters of FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 35. PLANS OF A MIXED SCHOOL, PARIS. 44 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the religious orders. The plan of such a school is shown by Fig. Z?>- Fig. 34 shows the plan of a French school for girls, three stories in height, having six class rooms on each story. Access is had to these class rooms from an open gallery, whicn is presumably iitted with sash in the winter. The STREET FAgADE OF A PARISIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL, building has a large covered playground, which is a constant feature of French schools. The plans of a French school for boys and girls in Paris are shown b}' Fig. 35. On the first floor are the covered play- grounds, the gymnasium, the infants' school, and one class room. There are five class rooms and a drawing room in each of the three upper stories. CHAPTER III. ELEMEXTARY SCHOOLS OF SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. Immediately after the Reformation the kings of Sweden sought to extend and improve popuhir education, and it is asserted that in 1637 few children in the rural districts were unable to read and write. In 1640, Qiieen Christina built a school in every Swedish town, and, in 1686, Charles XI. for- bade the marriage of illiterates. As a consequence, through- out the rural districts a system of itinerant schools was estab- lished and supported by the several communities. In 17S6, efforts were made to establish permanent in place of itinerant schools; but at the end of the eighteenth century there were but 165 schools of the former class. In 1842, the school system was reorganized and there were 786 permanent schools. In 1858, the elementary schools were divided into the primary and the elementary grades proper, and in 1871 there were, ex- clusive of Stockholm, 6,108 elementary schools, subdivided as follows: 2,268 permanent, 1,164 itinerant clementar}^, and 2,676 primar}' schools. Norway was more backward than Sweden in establishing popular education, and it was not until 1814, when the latter country passed from the sov^ereignty of Denmark and was united with Sweden, that serious efforts were made to improve the elementary schools; although by a decree of 1736 it had been provided that no child could be confirmed who had not attended school, and in 1736 and 1741 laws were passed requiring that all children, from the age of seven until confir- mation (usually in the fifteenth 3'ear), should have instruction in reading for at least twelve weeks annually. School attend- ance is now compulsory from the seventh to the fourteenth year, and each child, from six and one half to fifteen years, is entitled to gratuitous instruction. The city schools are divided into three grades: the first for 46 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. children from seven to ten, the second for those from ten to twelve, and the third for those from twelve to fourteen years of age. The country schools have the primary and the higher ele- mentary grades. The rural population is widely scattered, and as there are no villages there are many itinerant schools, few of which have school buildings; but each householder, who has a room of sufficient size, provides quarters in his turn and receives rent therefor. The school system of Denmark is almost identical with that of Norway. The Grand Duchy of Finland, while a part of the Russian Empire, is, or at least has been, independent in her adminis- trative and legislative powers, and from the Russian school sys- tem, and has therein such similarity with Norwa}', Sweden, and Denmark that her schools may properly be considered with those of the Scandinavian countries. As in German}', co-education prevails in the rural districts of these countries; but in cities separate or rigidly divided schools are provided for the two sexes. While in the cities large buildings, some accommodating nearly two thousand pupils, have been built, in the country only small schools, accommodating from twenty to one hundred children, are found; these serve widely extended districts. No definite regulations for the building of elementary schools are prescribed by law, but individual cities and com- munities none the less construct substantial and convenient buildings which are planned with due regard for hygienic con- ditions. In country districts one and two class schools have usually, under the same roof, a teacher's dwelling. In the cities we find structures accommodating many classes, usually with a separate house for the master. In the country a g3'mnasmm is seldom found, but there are always playgrounds fitted with simple gymnastic appliances, of which the spring-board is held to be most essential. The school yards are generally provided with covered playgrounds. Er.EMENTARY SCHOOLS. 47 as in the English and French schools. Simple and natural movements are the characteristic features -of Swedish gymnas- tics, which have been long a part of the curriculum in the ele- mentary schools of Scandinavian countries. Simple apparatus only is used: horizontal bars, ladders, the horse, and a few other pieces of apparatus. But the use which is made of them differs from that in vogue under the German system; there are no athletic exercises, but rather a series of movements and positions based upon hygienic and physiological principles in J I FIG, 36. GYMNASIUM OF THE MARIA KIRCHSPIELS SCHOOL, STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN. which sudden and violent contraction of the muscles are avoided. Fig. 36 shows the plan of a gymnasium hall with its adjoin- ing toilet rooms, — that of an elementary school at Stock- holm. This hall is over 41 ft. wide and 77^ ft. long. On each side of the entrance hall is a dressing room. Adjoining one of these are toilet rooms for teachers. On this side, be- tween the end of one wing of the school and the gymnasium hall, are the pupils' toilet rooms. Domestic training schools have been established where girls from the age often are instructed in various domestic branches, 48 SCHOOl. ARCHITECTURE. cooking, washing, and ironing, etc., opened through the efforts of private societies. In many cities there are cooking schools for girls, pupils of the elementary and intermediate schools, who are from twelve to fifteen 3'ears of age. Generally a class of twelve or fourteen girls takes a course covering a period of a month, during which time they are excused from all other classes. In many cases the pupils are charged three or four cents daily for the material which they use. Stockholm is especially well provided with elementary school dining halls designed for serving midday meals to the pupils, in some cases dail}', and in others three times a week during a greater part of the year. The expense is shared by the parish and certain charitable societies. The meal consists of two dishes; the poorest children are served without charge, and those who can, pay one and one half to three cents for the luncheon. The cooking schools are established after the German models and have cooking stoves, kitchen tables, and dresser boards, and a demonstration table for the teacher. In another room the girls are also often instructed in washing, mangling, and ironing. Most of the cooking schools are in the basement or on the FIG, 37. PLAN OF SCHOOL KITCHEN IN THE MCELLERGADENS SCHOOLo CHRISTIANIA, NORWAY. '■ Sink. 5. Demonstration Table. 9. Linen Closet. 2. Cooking Range. 3. Gas Stove. 4. Work Table. 6. Wall Table. 7. Raised Platform. 8. Pantry. 10. Boiler. 11. Boiling Kettle. 12. Cupboard. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 49 ground floor, but to prevent the overheating of the class rooms above, and to keep smells from the building, these rooms have recently been assigned to the top stories. The school kitchen of the Moellergadens school in Chris- tiania is shown by Fig. 37. It is in the attic, lighted by a sky- light. The design of the room is somewhat over 27 by ^^ ft., with an anteroom 9 ft. wide and 31 ft. in length. There are four kitchen stoves, two small work-tables and one large one, a demonstration table, two wall tables, two sinks without and two with running water, one gas stove, a stepped plat- COOKING CLASS, CHRISTIANIA, NORWAY. form, and opposite to it a large blackboard. In the anteroom there are a large washing stand, a boiling kettle, boiler, two cupboards, and hooks along the wall for coats, etc. Adjoin- ing the kitchen there are on one side a pantr}^ and a linen closet, and on the other an attic room. " Slo3d " training in elementary schools originated in Sweden, and is almost universal in Scandinavian schools. Boys are taught to use ordinary implements, especially cutting tools, and sometimes the turning-lathe, wood-cutting, and less 50 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. frequently metal-working tools. The training for girls is in dressmaking and plain sewing, to which is sometimes added embroidery, spinning, weaving, and braiding. In Sweden there are two systems, — the " Naasche " and the " Gothenburg." In Norway the former system only obtains. In this system a single line of work is followed, and the reg- ular school teachers are employed as instructors; while the Gothenburg system includes several lines of work, and master mechanics are emplo3'ed as teachers. At first an ordinary class room was used for Sloyd work, but in later buildings rooms are expressly fitted for the purpose; these are either in the school building or in its immediate neighborhood, and they are now, in Norway, always on the ground floor, the basement being considered unhealthful for school purposes and unfavorable for the storage of tools. A Sloyd room, if furnished with joiner's benches only, requires an area of 9 sq. ft. for each child. Salomen, the originator of the Naasche system, advises that the glazed surfaces of a Sloyd room should amount to 25 or 30 per cent, of the floor area, and the height of the window- sills should be 3^ ft.; the window-ledges should slant so that nothing can be placed upon them. The walls should be wainscoted with wood to a height of at least 6^ ft. In woodworking, Salomen uses the following tools: knife, draw-knife, jack-knife, tr3nng-plane, smoothing-plane, toothing- plane, compass-plane, spoke-shave, bow-saw, dovetail-saw, turn-saw, hand-saw, tenon-saw, compass-saw, groove-saw, saw-set and clamps, flat and round-jawed pliers, pincers, flat, half-round, round, and triangular files, scraper, firmer-chisel, mortise-chisel, gauges, marking-gauge, marking-point, cutting- gauge, brad-awl, brace with set of bits, axe, hammer, mallet, compasses, square, bevel, screwdriver, meter-rule, wire cutter, punch, spoon-iron, hand-screws, and shooting board. The joiners' bench for a pupil is 2 ft., 4 ins. to 3 ft. long, and about 2^ ft. high. The slab is of hard wood. These benches are fastened to the floor and are placed so that the ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 51 teacher can easily inspect tlie class. A single is preferred to a double row. The joiner's bench for pupils used in the Mikkelsen system (Fig. 38) takes up less room than that used in the Naasche system, and permits good oversight over the work. The ^^«%^ FIG. 38. SLOYD BENCH USED IN THE MIKKELSEN SYSTEM. single joiner's benches are fastened to a common middle piece 10 to 12 ins. wide. At the end there must be a passage space of I ft.,- 10 ins. to 2 ft., 8 ins. If the row is long, it is advisable to have a little passage between the benches. On each side, along the row, there must be a passage of 3 ft., 4 ins. If there are two rows, the passage between them must be of about 6]/i ft., so that all pupils can use the saw at the same time. If the room to be equipped is not expressly designed for the pur- pose, is too broad for. a single row of double-sided benches, and too narrow for two rows, one row of double-sided and one row of one-sided benches are best used. Mikkelsen's bench permits the use of both hands. A material room, next to the Sloyd room, is provided, which is fitted with cases from floor to ceiling. The models are kept in cases or on shelves. Fig. 39 shows the plijn of a one-room school in Nyborg, a Danish fishing village. It is a wooden building, shingled. The FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 39. SCHOOL AT NYBORG, DENMARK. 52 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. corridor serves as a wardrobe. A wooden staircase leads to the teacher's dwelling in the upper story. The class room measures 20^ ft. in width and about 27^ ft. in length. Ad- joining the class room there is a small room for the teacher. The teacher's dwelling consists of one room and the kitchen in the upper story and two more rooms in the attic. The wooden buildings of Finland are built on stone founda- tions with log walls; the space between the logs is filled with moss, wood-wool, or hemp-wool. After the building is thor- oughl}- dr}', the space between the logs is refilled from within ELEVATION OF SCHOOL, NVBORG, DENMARK. and without. The outside walls are covered with birch-bark or pasteboard, over which is put a casing of boards tongued and grooved and painted with oil. The inside walls are cov- ered with pasteboard, which is papered and painted. Fig. 40 shows the details of this construction. If there is no basement, the floors of the rooms on the ground floor have always an air space underneath, and logs spaced two feet on centers are used for floor joists, upon which is laid boarding with a filling ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 53 of moss, and upon this is laid a la3'er of dry, clean sand, above which comes the flooring set on screeds. The ceiling logs have a casing of fir or pine boards. The walls of the class Window FIG. 40. SECTION SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS AND WALL OF LOG SCHOOL IN FINLAND. rooms are frequently wainscoted to the ceiling. Floors and ceilings are varnished or painted. Fig. 41 gives the plan of a two-room school in Lindholmen,, Sweden. There is a Slo3'd room in conjunction with each class room; the hallway is used for hanging the out-door CLASS HM V CX-ASS I?At 3o'x2,a' zBxJia' SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 41. SCHOOL AT LINDHOLMEN, SWEDEN. 54 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. clothing. The class rooms are about 29 by 30 ft., accom- modating fifty-six pupils, and have windows at the back as well as the left-hand side of the pupils. There is an apart- ment for the teacher. A sixteen-room school in Norrkoeping, Sweden, illustrated SECOND FLdOR PLAN. FIG. 42. SCHOOL AT NORRKCEPING, SWEDEN. by Fig. 42, has eight small class rooms, about 20 by 25 ft., with three windows on the long and one window on the short side, each with its own corridor wardrobe. There are eight large class rooms, 21 by 35 ft., with a corridor wardrobe serving each two rooms. SCHOOL AT NORRKCEPING, SWEDEN. At Gceteborg there is an interesting type ol Swedish school (Figs. 43 and 44). It has eleven large and three small ele- mentar}', and eleven primary class rooms, a gymnasium, and five Sloyd rooms. The class rooms are 21 ft. wide and lighted ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 55 from left-hand side only. Outside clothing is hung in the cor- ridors. Fig. 45 shows the second-floor plan of a school for six hun- dred and eighty-four pupils in Gesle, Sweden. The primary school is on the ground floor and has six class rooms about FIG. 43. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. SCHOOL AT GCETEBORG, SWEDEN. 2oJ^ ft. wide and 23 ft. long. In the upper stories is the ele- mentary school, with four class rooms on each floor about 20^ ft. wide and 34^^ ft. long. The ground-floor class rooms have each three windows, and those in the upper stories four. The height of ceilings is a trifle over 13 ft. The Sloyd rooms are in the basement, lighted through an ample area. There are apartments for the janitor. FIG. 44. BASEMENT FLOOR. SCHOOL AT GCETEBORG, SWEDEN. S6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The Johannes school, Stockholm (Fig 46), was built in 1 89 1, and accommodates twelve hundred and fifty pupils. On the ground floor there are five class rooms for forty-two FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 45. SCHOOL AT GESLE, SWEDEN. and three for forty-nine pupils, and a dining hall between them; on the next two floors six classes for forty-two and four for forty-nine pupils, and a large room used for drawing and sing- ing. In the attic there are three Slo3'd rooms. Class rooms arc 215^ ft. wide and lighted from left-hand side only. There are apartments for the master and janitor. Fig. 47 shows the second-floor plan of the school in SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 46. JOHANNES SCHOOL, STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN. Trondhjem, Norway. The entrance to the two divisions is from the playgrounds on either side of the building. On the principal fronts of the building are gardens: one the garden of ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 57 the teacher, with his dwelling-house adjoining; the other, a small school garden. In the three floors there are eighteen class rooms, one conference room for the men teachers, and JOHANNES SCHOOL, STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN. one for the women teachers. The gymnasium is in the cen- tral section of the ground floor. On the ground floor of a side building there is the Sloyd room, a room for Slo3d material, and the wash kitchen for the principal and his servants. The Sloyd room gives directly from the corridor and has twenty- eight joiner's benches for pupils, one joiner's bench for the teacher, a turning-lathe, a grinding stone, and cupboards for the models, tools, and unfinished work. The adjoining room SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 47. SCHOOL AT TRONDHJEM, NORWAY. is used for special instruction. Above the Sloyd room is a school kitchen with an anteroom, a wash room, and an office for the master. 58 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 48 represents the plan of an elementary school of Christiania in its latest typical development. It will be noted that left-hand lighting and separate wardrobes are provided for all class rooms; also, as in man}' of the smaller schools in Scandinavian countries, there is no general corridor, but pas- sage from one part of the building to the other is through the class rooms, — an undesirable arrangement. The building has three divisions, — for infants, boys, and girls, — each with a special entrance and staircase. In the left wing are ten class rooms for boys, one Sloyd room with a material room, and a master's room; the girls' division has the same arrangement, while the central division has six class rooms for the primary grade, an office with an anteroom for the master, a room for FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 48. VAALERENGENS SCHOOL, CHRISTIANIA, NORWAY. teaching apparatus, and four class rooms for special purposes, such as needlework, drawing, and natural history. The class rooms are 31/^ ft. long, 22 ft., 4 ins. wide, and 13 ft., 9 ins. high. Altogether different from this general type is the Gruner- lokken School, Christiania, one of the latest examples in that city (Fig. 49). In one corner of the lot is the master's house, and on the two opposite corners are the privies for the bo3'S and for the girls. In the basement, on the south side, is a kitchen, with a dining room for the pupils, and the shower- baths with dressing room. On the ground floor there are ten class rooms, rooms for the teachers, and two rooms for col- lections and apparatus. There are nine class rooms on the ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 59 second floor, an office, and ante-chamber for the master; the gymnasium, with a wardrobe adjoining, is on this floor and occupies the height of two stories, with a gallery over the SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 49. SCHOOL AT CHRISTIANIA, NORWAY. wardrobe. On the third floor there are ten class rooms; and on the attic floor Sloyd rooms, rooms for singing and drawing, and storage spaces. Over the gymnasium there is a large school kitchen, equipped with four kitchen stoves, a gas stove, and the other necessar}- appointments, and lighted by a sk}'- light. Fig. 50 represents a school in Odense, Denmark. It is a two- 1 1 1 CLA55 1 CLTVSS w K b 1 -J ha 1 CI-7^.53 1 ^»">«.;z«,' cl:a55 y ^ CLASS 1 FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 50. SCHOOL AT ODENSE, COPENHAGEN, DENMARK. 6o SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. story building with six class rooms on each floor. In the base- ment there is the dwelling ol' the janitor, the shower-bath, with ten shower-baths and dressing room adjoining, two rooms SCHOOL AT ODENSE, COPENHAGEN. for Sloyd work, and coal rooms. The gymnasium and the privies are in separate buildings. A school at Frederiksberg, Denmark (Fig. 51), has twenty- one class rooms, each for thirty children. For each two rooms an ante-corridor serves as a wardrobe. In the base- ment there is a bath-room, with ten shower-baths and a dress- ing room, a large dining room, a wash kitchen, and furnace and coal rooms. On the ground floor are five class rooms with a small cloak room, one room for the master, and one for the schoolmistress, an oflice for the supervisor, a room for col- FIG. 51. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. SCHOOL AT FREDERIKSBERG, DENMARK. lections, and a dwelling for the janitor. On each of the two next floors are eight class rooms with corridor wardrobes ad- joining each room. On the fourth floor is a large drawing ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 6l room and the master's dwelling, consisting of five rooms: kitchen, servant's room, two pantries, etc. A well-defined type of elementary school building has been developed in Copenhagen, and nearly all are built in accord- ance with the following general scheme: The school is di- SCHOOL AT FREDERIKSBERG, DENMARK, vided by a partition wall into two sNmmetrical halves, one for boys and one for girls; it has two staircases, which are either in the middle of the fa9ades of the oblong plan, or on one of the long sides of the building. In each story are six or eight class rooms with wardrobes adjoining. Each class room is designed for an average of thirt^'-five children, seated at double desks. The rooms are heated by steam or furnaces, and are ventilated in summer by fans run by gas motors. In the basement are large rooms for Sloyd work, a dining room for the pupils, and the school kitchen. On the ground floor are shower-baths with dressing rooms adjoining. The gym- 1 — n ! ^ =9 CLX5S ^ !— CJ-A.S5 = = CJLA3S 1 B« L CI-AS5 CLTKSb ZS'Y.2t' . -J *4 T ■ A 1 C1.A53 1 ZZ'>.Zt' ft SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 52. SCHOOL IN THE ST. HANSGADE, COPENHAGEN. 62 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 53. girls' school IN THE LARSLEJS- TRAEDE, COPENHAGEN. nasium is in a separate building. The privies are in separate buildings. Fig. 52 gives the second-story plan of a school in the St. Hansgade. This building is without wardrobes, which mark a stage in the development of the type which now most generally obtains in this city. There are seventeen class rooms, and in addition two class rooms in the attic lighted by a skylight. In the basement there is a dining room and the kitchens of the assistant master and janitor, which are connected by staircases with the respective dwellings. The dwelling of the master occupies the whole middle part of the ground floor between the two staircases and the entrances. On the same floor is a class room for each division. On the next floor, on the boys' side, are four class rooms and a teacher's room ; on the girls' side, three class rooms, a teacher's room, and office; the latter is connected with the boys' division by a small corridor running along the middle wall. On the third floor there are, in each division, four class rooms and one room for collections. The attic has, for each division, one large class room with skylight, two cabi- nets, and attic rooms. Another school also without ward- robes adjoining is that for girls in Larslejstraede, represented in* Fig. 53. It has four stories with twelve class rooms, two of which are on the ground floor, two in the next story, and four in each of the other two stories. In the basement are a dining room, a scullery for the janitor; on the ground floor are the dwelling of girls' school in the the janitor, one room for the women larslejstraede, co- teachers; on the floor above, on the penhagen. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 63 one side, are the janitor's quarters, and on the other, two class rooms. The plan of the public school in the Jagtvejen, Copenhagen, (Fig. 54), except for the wardrobes adjoining the class rooms, is the same as that of the school in St. Hansgade above de- SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 54. SCHOOL IN THE JAGTVEJEN, COPENHAGEN. scribed. The building has nineteen class rooms, one on the ground floor and six in each of the other stories. The school in the Oehlenschlaegergade, in the same city (Fig. 55), is exceptional to the general Copenhagen plan, the staircases being built in an inner court covered with glass. This was the first Copenhagen school to have wardrobes adjoining each class room. The building has four full stories and an attic, and contains nineteen class rooms. In the base- ment, besides the furnace and coal room, there are the dining room, the wash kitchen, a cellar for the master, a servant's room, a kitchen for the assistant schoolmistress and the janitor SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 55. SCHOOL IN THE OEHLENSCHI.AEGERGADK, COPENHAGEN. 64 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. whose dwellings are on the ground floor. On the ground floor there are, besides two class rooms, the master's ofiice, a cabi- net, a room for the men teachers and one for the women teachers, and an ante-chamber and water-closets. The second and third floors have six class rooms with wardrobes. On the fourth floor are three class rooms and the dwelling of the master; in the attic are two more class rooms. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 56. SCHOOL AT WIBORG, FINLAND. The school in Wiborg, Finland (Fig. 56), has fourteen class rooms, twelve of which are about 26^ ft. wide and 30 ft. long, and two are about 28 ft. wide and 32 ft. long. On the ground floor there are two large Sloyd rooms, — one for the teaching of woodworking, the other for girls' needle- work, — and a wash kitchen with an ironing room. Above ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 65 the manual training section is the gymnasium, which is also used for social entertainments; the apparatus is arranged so that it can readily be removed at such times. The wood- working room holds twenty pupils; it has joiner's benches and two turning-lathes. The room for needlework has six long and one short working tables, with common chairs, six sewing SCHOOL AT WIBORG, FINLAND, machines, eight looms, and spinning wheels; and in another building are kept the utensils for washing, mangling, and ironing. It will be noted that the Scandinavian schools, while show- ing many interesting features, do not present, except in ex- ceptional cases, as highly developed or as architectural plans as those of the Teutonic countries or those of Switzerland; but the reader will recognize that they are, on the whole, not inferior in these respects to the schools of England and of the United States. CHAPTER IV. ENGLISH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The first move towards public elementary education in England was that of Joseph Lancaster, who, in 1801, as- sembled children from the poor districts of London and taught them reading, writing, and ciphering. The work of Lancaster was carried on by the Royal Lancastrian Society, and the church also took up the matter of the education of the people, but it was not until 1833 that the first Parliamentary grant for the maintenance of elementary education was made. In 1861, a system of payment to the schools based on results of the ex- aminations of the individual pupils was established by Parlia- ment, and has but lately been abolished in connection with elementary education. This system is still followed in the award of government grants to the secondary schools. The local school board system was established in 1870. These boards have charge of elementary education which is conducted in the " Board Schools." The prototype of the English school is that of the ancient grammar school, which consisted ordinarily of a large hall in which were seated pupils of all ages, and where instruction was given under a master who was aided, where the number was considerable, by junior teachers and by pupil teachers, and where the various classes were reciting at the same time upon different subjects. These halls were known as " school- rooms." As the schools were further developed, small class rooms for occasional use were added. The next development of the English school was in group- ing several rooms, each accommodating two or more classes, about the large schoolrooms. The number of class and reci- tation rooms was also gradually increased. Until recently, the assembly hall was also utilized for teaching classes, and was in many cases fitted with "double banks "of seats. The prin- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 67 cipal function of the assembly hall, which is called in Eng- land the " Central Hall" or the " Hall," is a place of gathering of the pupils, from whence, after prayers, they file to the coat room, and thence to their respective schoolrooms. FIG. 57. BOARD SCHOOL ON JOHNSON STREET, STEPNEY, LONDON. The hall is also used for singing, for drill, and for calis- thenic exercises; sometimes the hall is equipped with movable apparatus and used as a gymnasium, and here examinations and prize distributions, etc., take place. The Board of Edu- cation permits the seating of one class (Fig. 57), and, under special circumstances, two classes, in the hall, but this rarely SCHOOL AT PAISLEY, ENGLAND. 68 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. now occurs except in case of emergency, as the classes are disturbed by the constant movement through it to the other rooms, and as the large area (being not less than 1,200 sq. ft. and 25 to 30 ft. in height) renders it draughty and imposes a strain upon the voices of teachers and pupils. In some halls of mixed schools seatings are provided for the girls, while the boys stand during assembly. In the infants' schools the hall is a practically large school- room with a liberal floor space for assembling, drill, etc. The children are seated on a " bank," stepped as shown in the ac- companying section (Fig. 58), arranged on one side of the FIG. 58. SECTION OF A TYPICAL "BANK" IN AN INFANTS* SCHOOL. room. The " double bank," by which the seatings were on both sides of the schoolroom and the teachers in the aisles, has become well-nigh obsolete. The English have been very tenacious of the type of the ancient single-room building, and even in those now built, where the tendency is towards the separate class system, movable partitions, or other similar expedients, are often used in order that the class rooms may be thrown together as an ex- tension of the hall (Figs. 59 and 60). In many cases the partitions are glazed above the top of dado so that the floor is practically one large room divided by screens which are by no means impervious to sound. The clothing of pupils is usually stored in large cloakrooms which are sometimes in the basement, but more often adjoin- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 69 ing the hall. Very rarely are special clothing enclosures pro- vided for each class, adjoining the class rooms. One of the few cases of such an arrangement is in the Higher Board FIG. 59. SCHOOL AT PAISLEY, ENGLAND. School, Halifax; these are practically alcoves off the corridor, the doors having panels of wire grillage. The large general cloakrooms are ill adapted for the orderly storage of the pupils' clothing, and there is much loss of time entailed by the filing FIG. 60. BOARD SCHOOL, NEW NORTH STREET, LONDON. of so many classes through the common cloakroom. In large schools, to avoid inevitable confusion, it has been found neces- sary to heap the clothing of each class on the floor of the cloak- 70 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. room. The monitors take the clothing to each class room, where it is distributed when the pupils are about to leave the building. In the London Board Schools the interior walls have enameled brick dadoes, with the walls above of common brick painted; sometimes the painted common brick is car- ried the whole height. In the schools of the north of Eng- land, as in Manchester and Halifax, for instance, hard cement or glazed brick is used for the dadoes, and the wall above is smoothly plastered to avoid dust lodgment. The evenness of plastering is everywhere an important consideration, and in ihe large cities of England, with their sooty atmosphere, it is especially to be regarded. A beveled wooden base-board is used with the glazed brick dadoes. For reasons of cleanli- ness, dadoes of wood have been discarded in the later schools. With the tendency towards the adoption of the separate class system has come a much wider use of exclusively left- hand lighting for the class rooms. The rules of the Board of Education say: "Every part and corner of a school should be fully lighted. The light should, as far as possible, and es- pecially in class rooms, be admitted from the left side of the scholars. All other windows in class rooms should be re- garded as supplementary, or for summer ventilation. Where left light is impossible, right light is next best. Windows full in the eye of teachers or scholars are not approved. In rooms 14 ft. high any space beyond 24 ft. from the window wall is insufficiently lighted." Mr. Bailey, the architect of the London School Board, pre- fers an eastern exposure for class rooms. He says: "I never build them to the cheerless north if I can avoid it, and the need of lowering the blinds on the sunny side seriously inter- feres with the lighting. The class rooms should be 14 or 15 ft. clear height. They should be arranged so that the desks receive their daylight from the left, and the furthest desks should not be more than 20 ft. from the windows. Beyond that there should be side lighting, preferably at the back." ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 7 1 It is advised by the Board of Education that window-sills should be 4 ft. above the floor, but in London Board Schools the height of 3^ ft. is adopted. Through the very general use of casement sash in English schools a more considerable portion of the window openings is obstructed by the woodwork than would be the case if hung sash without transoms were used. The London School Board allow in a class room 140 cu. ft. of air for each child. In the United States, in class rooms of the primary grade, of the customary height of 12 ft., 164 cu. ft. for each child is allowed, and the allowance in the average grammar schools in the latter country is over 200 cu. ft. to each pupil. The school and class room floors are usually stepped with the three back rows of desks. To avoid the danger of trip- ping and the difficulty of keeping clean so many angles, the floors in some of the schools recently constructed are built upon a gradent. The level floor with raised platform for teacher, customary elsewhere than in Great Britain, is evi- dently the better arrangement. In English schools the floors are of fire-proof construction, and the staircases are usually built of stone or "artificial stone." Blackboards are generally provided only for the teachers' and seldom for the pupils' use, but recently a few class rooms in Halifax have been so equipped after the manner customary in the United States. The upper flooring of coarse wooden marquetry laid herring- bone, frequently used in English schools, is as undesirable a type of floor as can be found. In England, as in America, square-edged flooring about 3 ins, wide gives the best service, and red Norway pine is the material customarily used for this purpose. The school is, where possible, set back from the street, and with the school yard on the street side. The 3'ard is given as sunny exposure as possible, and is surrounded by a low brick 72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. wall and capped with an " unclimbable " iron fence. The Board of Education advise that in school premises " the minimum unbuilt-on or open space of 30 sq. ft. should be pre- served." The playgrounds of boys and girls are separate. It is required that a portion of the playground should be covered, and this space is often gained by utilizing for the purpose nearly all the ground floor of the building. This method of gaining covered playground makes the warming of the build- ing difficult. Thef interior warmed playrooms which are found in Ameri- can schools .and the warmed covered court of the French schools are unknown in England. A TYPICAL ENGLISH SCHOOL ON A LARGE LOT. The quarters for the janitor are generally in a separate house on the premises. In the country, and sometimes in the larger towns, a house or apartments within the school pre- cincts, or within the building, are provided for the master, and in some cases there are such accommodations tor other teachers. Public elementary schools are divided into the following departments: "Boys' schools, girls' schools, senior mixed schools, junior mixed schools, infants' schools." Where sites ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 73 FIRST FLOOR PLAN FIG. 6l. BIRCHFIELD ROAD BOARD SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL. are sufficiently large and level, schools are built, either of one story only, or with but few class rooms above the first floor. As a rule, the class rooms for the older pupils are SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 62. BIRCHFIELD ROAD BOARD SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL. 74 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. grouped round a hall, with an infants' department as a separate building. In a two-stor}'^ building the boys and girls are assigned each to a floor with a separate infants' school or the class and school rooms entirely enclose the hall, as in the Birchfield Road Board School, Liverpool (Figs. 61,62, 6^, and 64). This build- ing accommodates seventeen hundred: i.e., five hundred and sixty infants and eleven hundred and forty boys and girls. The THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 63. BIRCHFIELD ROAD BOARD SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL. infants' rooms and the cloakrooms are placed upon the first floor; the boys' and girls' rooms and the laboratories, etc., are on the second floor. The hall is lighted by a skylight, glazed with wire glass. This type is used only where the site is incon- venient for a one-story construction. Sometimes the hall is placed on the third floor, class rooms on the second, and the covered playgrounds and the various ofBces on the ground ELEMENTARY SCH 75 J i3«T — MEZZANINE FLOOR PLAN. FIG 64. BIRCHFIELD ROAD BOARD SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL. floor. In London, where the sites are limited by the high cost of land, three-story buildings are generally built. The infants are on the ground floor, on a level with their playgrounds, the girls on the second floor, the boys above, each department having its own hall. Cobbold Road School, Chelsea, London (Fig. 65), illustrates a building of this type. The maximum FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 65. COBBOLD ROAD SCHOOL, CHELSEA, LONDON. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 77 number of pupils in a London Board school, in a group such as is here described, is fifteen hundred and fort3^-eight, there being five hundred and sixteen in each of the three depart- ments. If further accommodations are required in the neigh- borhood, it is met by building separate buildings for senior mixed or junior inixed departments, as may best suit the needs of the case. The hall of a school of this type is 54 by 30 ft. There are ten class rooms, one for forty, two for forty-eight or fifty, and the remainder for fifty-six or sixty pupils. The Lon- don School Board has given up sliding partitions between the class rooms; this appears to be the tendency elsewhere, as is also the adoption of the separate graded class system in elementar}' schools; consequently, the plans of English schools, except in the location of the hall on the first floor and in the arrangement of wardrobes, are tending to be similar to the types which have been developed in the United States. CHAPTER V. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OP THE UNITED STATES. The public school system of the United States originated in Massachusetts in 1647, when, by act of the General Court, common and "grammar" schools were established. The latter schools were primarily preparatory for Harvard College. It was at this early date that in Massachusetts the principle was recognized that the welfare of the State required that chil- dren should be educated, and that the expense of this edu- cation should be borne by taxation. The system of district schools established in Massachusetts in 1789, by which each FIRST FLOOR PLAN. BASEMENT PLAN. FIG. 66. WILLIAMS SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. 78 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 79 town was divided into several districts, was gradually sup- planted by the town school system, the district system being abolished by law in 1882. With the adoption of the town system came gradually the introduction of the large elementary schools, organized upon the separate graded class system, which had its origin in Ger- many. The district schools were conducted substantially on the English system, and the tenacity which this tradition had WILLIAMS SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Edmund M. Wheelwright, City Architect. is shown by the frequent planning twenty years ago of build- ings with large schoolrooms, divided by sliding or otherwise movable partitions into class rooms, an arrangement even now used in the lately constructed elementary schools in New York City. We have seen that this arrangement is quite common in English schools, where the change from what may be called the " schoolroom " system to the sepa- 8o SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 8l rate class system has been introduced more, slowly than in the United States. In most of the United States, as in the Scandinavian coun- tries, the elementary schools are in two grades: first, the primary, with sometimes a kindergarten department; and second, the grammar schools, which have a similar scope to the English Board Schools and to the German Gemeinde- schule. In Massachusetts separate schools are often provided for the primary and grammar grades; the writer finds no in- EUSTIS PRIMARY SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Edmund M. Wheelwright, City Architect. Stance in other States where such provision is made for the two grades. The primary grade ' with the kindergarten is similar to the "infant class" of the English system, but except in the largest American cities, and then only in the schools of latest construction, is special provision in plan made for the kindergarten department. The advantage of separate schools for the two divisions of SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the elementary grade is that numerous small schools are placed within easy walking distance for the younger pupils, while the older pupils of" the grammar grade are drawn from a wider area. The expense of providing separate schools under this system is obviously greater than in the case where large ele- mentary schools, in which provision is made for both primary and grammar grades, are built to serve large areas. ANDREWS PRIMARY SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Edmund M. Wheelwright, City Architect. The usual size of a primary class room is 24 by 32 ft., and of a grammar class room is 28 by 32 ft., each designed to accom- modate fifty-six pupils. The corner rooms are usually lighted from two sides, four windows on the long, and three on the short side. The pupils' clothing is never hung in the class ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 83 rooms, and in the best schools separate wardrobes with out- side light, as described in Chapter I., are provided. The primary/ schools are always, and the grammar schools are often " mixed." Assembly halls are seldom found in primary schools, but generally in schools of this grade there are class rooms only SECOND FLOOR PLAN. "r_K_rvr_J FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 68. SEWALL PRIMARY SCHOOL, BROOKLINE, MASS. Cabot, Everett & Mead, Architects. and a teacher's room. There is no master's office in primary schools, as the head of a primary school is the master of the grammar school of the school district. In illustration of the primary schools of Boston, Mass., there are here presented the basement and first-floor plans of the Williams (Fig. 66), a four-room school; the Eustis (Fig. 67), a six-room school. The Andrews, a school of same plan as the Eustis, is three stories in height and has nine class rooms. All 84 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 8s these schools have separate wardrobes, and the corner rooms have the windows arranged according to the usual American method. The Andrews School has floors of steel beam and terra-cotta lumber construction. Larger primary schools are sometimes built in Boston, but they offer little essential difference in features or plan types from those shown above. In the Sewall School, Brookline, Mass. (Fig. 68), is shown a nine-room building without separate enclosures for clothing, GRAMMAR SCHOOL, HOPEDALE, MASS. Walker & Kimball, Architects. and with toilet rooms on each story, placed in a " tower," a disposition of plan often found in hospitals. It will be noted also that in the corner rooms there is no window in the middle of the wall opposite the teacher's desk. The class rooms are 34 ft. 6 ins. in length, being 2 ft. 6 ins. in excess in this dimension of that approved by the best authorities of Europe and the United States. The features of the higher elementary or, as they are called, grammar schools of the United States are not as constant as 86 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 70. ROGER LUDLOW GRAMMAR SCHOOL, WINDSOR, CONN. in schools of like grade in Teutonic countries. Some are pro- vided with libraries and some with laboratories, and in some there are neither. The school garden, a frequent adjunct of European schools, has not yet been adopted in America. Many schools of recent construction have manual training schools, in this respect following the suggestion given by the Scandinavian elementary schools, but such instruction is gen- erally given outside the school buildings at " centers." Some few recently constructed schools have cooking schoolrooms, and some have rooms assigned especially for instruction in sew- ROGER LUDLOW GRAMMAR SCHOOL, WINUSOK, CONN. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 87 SECOND FLOOR P|l,AN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 71. WINTHROP GRAMMAR SCHOOL, NEW LONDON, CONN. 88 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ing. It is noteworthy that Superintendent Seaver of the Boston, Mass., schools, in his report for 1898, recommends that "all grammar schools should have a room for woodworking, one for cooking, and one for sewing, so that pupils may not be required to go, as at present, to centers where the classes in these subjects are instructed." Most of the plans here shown have assembly halls, and it is unusual that a large school of the grammar grade is unpro- vided with such a room; or, if not so provided, such buildings are arranged so that two or more class rooms may be thrown together by such folding or sliding doors or rolling partitions. WINTHROP GRAMMAR SCHOOL, NEW LONDON, CONN. The grammar school, at Hopedale, Mass. (Fig. 69), has on the first floor three class rooms and the teacher's room, on the second floor the same arrangement, except that the master's room has the analogous position given the teachers' room on the first story. There is no manual training room, and there is no provision except the corridor for the hanging of the pupils' clothing. An example of very simple plan t3'pe is the Roger Ludlow Grammar School, at Windsor, Conn. (Fig. 70). The Win- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 89 throp School, at New London (Fig. 71), in the same State, shows an ingenious arrangement of screens guarding the clothing, which is hung in the corridors. In the Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. (Fig. 72), the mas- ter's and teachers' rooms and six class rooms are on the first THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR' PLAN. FIG. 72. PIERCE SCHOOL, BROOKLINE, MASS. floor. The second floor duplicates the first, except there is a sewing room in place of the master's and teachers' rooms. On the third floor is the assembly hall, a cooking school, and a SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 91 laboratory; in the basement there is a manual training room. The clothing is not hung in separate enclosures. Peirce School, Newton, Mass. (Fig. 73), has, on the first floor, six class rooms, a recitation room, a reception room, and a women teachers' room; on the second floor there are also six class rooms, the master's room which adjoins the library and MAIN ENTRANCE, PEIRCE SCHOOL, NEWTON, MASS. Stickney & Austin, Architects. a recitation room. The boys' and girls' clothing is hung sep- arately; in four instances wardrobes with outer light are pro- vided; the rest are hung in the corridors. The third story contains only the assembly hall with its anterooms. In the ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 93 94 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. basement is a manual training room, the boiler room, etc. The corner class rooms have but three windows in the long side. Another Newton school of similar arrangement to that of the Peirce, but varying in the disposition of the entrances and staircases, is the Bigelow School (Fig. 74). The Brooks School, at Medford, Mass. (Fig. 75), shows a method of clothing disposal like that ot the English schools. The clothing is shut off from the corridors, but the assistance to discipline afforded by the arrangement of a wardrobe ad- BIGELOW SCHOOL, NEWTON, MASS. Hartwell, Richardson & Driver, Architects. joining each class room is lacking. This is a twelve-room building, with assembly hall in roof On the first floor of the Eugene Field School, St. Louis, Mo. (Fig. 76), there are six class rooms, a large kindergarten room (30 by 51 ft.), a master's room, a room for janitor, with a storeroom adjoining; on the second and third floors are seven class rooms, a teachers' room, and janitor and store- room, as on the first floor. The wardrobes give from the class rooms only and not from the corridor and class room, as is preferable, and some of the wardrobes have no outer light. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 95 FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 75. BROOKS SCHOOL, MEDFORD, MASS. The school buildings of St. Louis are further illustrated by the Sherman (Fig. 77) and the Eliot schools (Fig. 78). The schools of this city are now built wholly of incombustible materials. BROOKS SCHOOL, MEDFORD, MASS. Wales & Holt, Architects. 96 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 97 The Auburndale School, Toledo, Ohio (Fig. 79), is a typical example of the later buildings of the grammar grade in that city. In this city the length of the class rooms, from 34 to 37 ft., is greater than that generally considered desirable for ready control by eye and voice; the customary length of class rooms being, in the United States, 32 ft., and on the L iliti ROOM Baa Ah — SECOND AND THIRD FLOOR PLANS. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 77. SHERMAN SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO. W. B. Ittner, Commissioner of Public Buildings. continent of Europe, from 30 to 32 ft. In the Toledo schools, the class rooms are 25 to 26 ft. wide and 13 ft. high; they have separate wardrobes, generally with outer light, adjoining each class room. These wardrobes are not accessible from 98 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the corridor as well as from the room, but have two doors, which permit the filing of the pupils through the room and the wardrobe. Another example from this city is the Lagrange School (Fig. 80). In this building the class rooms SECOND KLOOU PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. KK;. 78. ELIOT SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO. have on the long side but three windows. The exterior onl}' can be given of the Waite School, Toledo. This building has no windows in the wall opposite the teacher's desk. The ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 99 ELIOT SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO. W. B. Ittner, Commissioner of Public Buildings. r ] 1 m y v: T-.- 1 j FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 79. AUBURNDALE SCHOOL, TOLEDO, OHIO. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. lOI illustration of a cooking class in a Toledo school (Fig. 8i) may be with interest compared with a like class in a Nor- wegian school, illustrated on page 49. The George Dewey School, Chicago, 111. (Fig. 82), has the same arrangement of SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 80. LAGRANGE SCHOOL, TOLEDO, OHIO. wardrobes and windows in corner class rooms as the Lagrange School. The New Brown School, Hartford, Conn. (Fig. 83), has, in the basement, a manual training room and a laboratory; on ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 103 the first floor five class rooms, the master's room, and a library; six class rooms on the second floor; and on the third floor the assembly hall, a class room, and a cooking school. None of the corner rooms have four windows in the long side. All the wardrobes have outer light. In the Robert Gould Shaw School, Boston, Mass. (Fig. 84), there are, on the first story, five class rooms. On the second story are three class rooms, an assembly hall, the master's and WAITE SCHOOL, TOLKDO, OHIO. Wachter, Hudson & Co., Architects. the teachers' rooms. In the basement are manual training rooms, playrooms, boiler room, etc. As in most of the Boston schools, built in the past twenty-five years, each class room has a separate wardrobe provided with outer light and accessible from the corridor as well as from the class rooms. Christopher Gibson School, Boston (Fig. 85), has, on the first story, fiv^e class rooms, a library, reception room, and a master's room. On the second story there are five class I04 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. rooms, the assembly hall, and the teachers' room. The school is built upon a hillside, and the basement at the rear is clear of the ground and is there utilized for manual training rooms. In the Gilbert Stuart School, Boston (Fig. 86), there are, on the first floor, five class rooms and the master's and teachers' rooms; on the second floor again five class rooms and a large recitation room; on the third floor an assembly hall and four class rooms. There is no especially assigned manual training A COOKING CLASS IN A TOLEDO, OHIO, SCHOOL. room. The thin partitions indicated upon the plans are 2 ins. thick, and are constructed of metal lathing set on light angle irons, which are plastered with cement. The Bowdoin School, Boston (Fig. 87), is built on a sharply sloping side of Beacon Hill, and two class rooms are therefore placed in the basement entirely above grade. In the sub-base- ment are the boiler room, etc. Six class rooms are on the first floor; on the second floor are four class rooms, a library, and the master's and teachers' rooms; on the third floor are ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 105 io6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. BASEMENT PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 83. NEW BROWN SCHOOL, HARTFORD, CONN. William C. Brocklesby, Architect. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 107 io8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. four class rooms and the assembly hall. The minor parti- tions are of metal lathing and cement, as in the Gilbert Stuart School. The Mayhew School, Boston, Mass. (Fig. 88), on account of the restricted area of its site, which is on a narrow street in the old part of the city, has not the feature of separate ward- robes which is usually found in Boston schools. The class rooms are lighted from the courtyard. ROBERT GOULD SHAW SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Edmund M. Wheelwright, City Architect. Paul Revere School, Boston (Fig. 89), is also built upon a restricted lot upon a narrow street in the North End. It has, on the first floor, six class rooms; on the second floor there are also six class rooms and the master's and teachers' rooms; on the third floor there are the same number of class rooms, and also the convenient and usual feature of toilet rooms for boys and for girls. This building' has especial distinction in being ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BASEMENT PLAN. FIG. 85. CHRISTOPHER GIBSON SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Edmund M. Wheelwright, City Architect. no SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the first elementary school in New England which was built wholly of incombustible materials, and also in being the first, in that part of the United States at least, in which bathing facilities for the pupils have been provided. The conditions which must be met in New York are similar to those elsewhere in large American cities, but are more strongly typical. Land in school neighborhoods is often of great value; the density and the great and constant increase of the population require the construction of large buildings upon limited sites, usually of a uniform depth of loo ft., while the building must of necessity occupy a depth of 62 to 65 ft. A building built under these conditions is illustrated by Public School, No. 154 (Fig. 90). All New York schools are now of fire-proof construction. The building law requires a thickness of bearing walls pro- portionate to window surface, so that it proves to be more economical to use steel skeleton frame than masonry construc- tion in schools when of four stories or more in height. Walls 16 ins. thick are permissible when the steel construction is used, but ^6 ins. of thickness is required when the construc- tion is of masonry only. The thinner wall is not only less expensive, but is an element to be considered in the securing of floor surface and in the lighting of the class rooms. Public School, No. 165, shows the typical arrangement and design of all buildings of the H type, a form designed to meet the needs where property is expensive and the neighborhood disagreeable or noisy. The plan provides for a blank wall on the party line, except- ing a slight recess at the center of the block, which is seldom built across by the adjoining owners. All noise and other nuisances are thus cut off from the sides, and the front is set back as far from the street as the requirements of the plan will permit. The basements are used only for the heating and ventilating apparatus; and as the sentiment in New York is opposed to basement playrooms, the first or ground floors are used al- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Ill **3 p; 00 r 112 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 88. MAYHEW SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. MAY HEW SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. John Lyman Faxon, Architect. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ii8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FOURTH FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 90. PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 1 54, NEW YORK CITY. most wholly for indoor playrooms (Fig. 91). These rooms are paved with asphalt, and wainscoted with glazed brick 5 ft. 6 ins. high; the}^ are also used for evening lectures, for which port- able seats are provided. Occasionall}-, a portion of the ground floor is assigned for a kindergarten. The upper stories are divided into class rooms, six or eight of which are arranged by means of sliding doors for use as an assembly room (Fig. 92). The attic is utilized for manual and ph3sical training, cook- ing room, and gymnasium, and here, also, are modeling and sewing rooms and the librar}-. PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 154, NEW YORK CITY. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 119 PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 91. PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY. I20 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. II t1 n <^Mlll PLAYROOM, FIRST M.ooiv, I'UISLIC SCHOOL NO. 154, NEW YORK CITY. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 92. PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 121 PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. I53, NEW YORK CITY. C. B. J, Snyder, Architect. The height of class rooms is 14 ft. 3^^ ins. An incidental advantage of this height is that, while the principal plumbing fixtures are on the first and top floors, two tiers of toilet rooms are arranged in this height, the upper tier being served from the staircase landing; and thus a convenient distribution of water-closets, etc., is gained throughout the building without an extravao^ant use of floor area. This arrangement of toilet ^^^"^ ssssssS ■^^ ^ ssssszss H^h£ ^b^E I a^^^i^^^^i^ 1 1 1^^^^^^^^^^^ i ' v'^K^S Q ^^^B^^^^^^^^^ I^^^^^^^^SJ \ fli 1^^ * ■fli FIG. 93. ROOK PLAYGROUND, PUBLIC bUHOUL NU. I47, NEW YORK CITY. 122 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. rooms is found in Cassland Road Higher Grade School (Fig. 122), and in the Finsbury Pupil Teachers' Centre, London, Eng. (Figs. 124, 125), and also in the English High and Latin School, Boston (Fig. 126), and in the Brookline High School (Fig. 130). Public School, No. 153 is the smallest school built in New York City during recent years. This building is in the sub- urban district of Bronx, and is fire-proof throughout. To save expense separate enclosures for outside clothing are not provided in New York schools. The recent introduction of the roof playground in this city (Fig. 93) is an interesting innovation, and one of practical economy where schoolhouses are built upon costly sites. CHAPTER VI. COMPARISON OF FEATURES OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The separate graded class system, generally adopted in elementary schools throughout the United States, has been developed from that of the Teutonic countries of Europe; but certain schools of the former country still retain a trace of their English origin in the "collective exercises" which are held in the assembly halls. In England these collective exercises are held in a large hall, which is usually little more than an exaggerated corridor. In Germany and Austria each class remains in its class room and only passes thence to the rooms assigned for instruction in special studies, to the gymnastic exercises, or to the shower-baths; there are no collective exer- cises. In these countries the hall, the " aula," is only used for the annual examinations, and for other formal exercises, so that it is often given a monumental and always an enriched treatment, as if to express the dignity of the State. Assem- bly halls are provided in nearly all large Swiss schools; they are used not only for public purposes, but for collective exer- cises, and are also intended as places of entertainment and social recreation, and, as such, they are handsomely finished. In the United States large elementary schools are provided with assembly halls, which have had, as a rule, little, if anv, more architectural character than the class rooms ; indeed, the principal use of these halls is that of a large schoolroom for collective exercises and for exhibitions, although they are sometimes made to serve for social en- tertainments. The aula is seldom found in Scandinavian schools, but the well-nigh constant gymnasium is utilized for public exercises. In Switzerland and in America the system of warming and ventilating schools has been more highly developed than else- where, except in some of the later English schools, where 124 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. excellent systems of artificial warming and ventilation have been adopted. For the past twenty years in Switzerland, and the past fifteen in the United States, the best schools have been planned, so that the pupils' out-of-door clothing is not only excluded from the class rooms, but from the corridors, and special en- closures, provided with outside light, and thoroughly warmed and specially ventilated, are built immediately adjoining each class room. The code of rules for the Board of Education of Great Britain requires that " cloak rooms should not be passages, and should be external to the schoolrooms and class rooms, with gangways at least 4 ft. wide between the hanging nails and amply lighted from the end. Thorough ventilation is essential, so that smells are not carried into the school." In England, however, separate cloak rooms adjoining each class room and capable of being completely shut off from the corridors are seldom provided. We have seen that in the schools of Teutonic countries separate enclosures for cloth- ing are sometimes provided, but, as a general rule, wraps are hung on pegs about the class rooms, and it is within but a few years that the Prussian schools have been so planned as to give even alcoves off" the corridors in which the out-of-door clothing could be hung. The hanging of clothes in the cor- ridors is an alleviation, not a correction of a poor condition; for as the movement of air is naturally from the colder cor- ridors to the warmer class rooms, — especially where warmed fresh air is artificially supplied to these rooms, — the foul odors from the clothing must find their way thereto. It may be noted in this connection that three times a week every pupil in the Berlin elementary schools is required to take a shower- bath under the supervision of a teacher, and there is a like S3^stem in other German schools and in many of the Scandi- navian schools also. In the United States class rooms of the primary and gram- mar grades are usually 32 ft. in length. A greater length makes it difficult for the teacher's voice to reach the pupils in 126 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the last row of seats; at a greater distance the pupils' work on the blackboards at the end of the room cannot be readily seen from the teacher's seat. On the continent of Europe class rooms are about 30 ft. in length and they are seldom more than 22 ft., and are often but 20 ft. wide, and it is gener- ally required that the lighting of these rooms shall be from one side only. In the United States the class rooms, in FIG. 94. CLASS ROOM FOR FIFTY-SIX PUPILS, PRIMARY GRADE. primary schools, are usually 32 ft. long, 24 ft. wide, and 12 ft. in height (Fig. 94) ; class rooms in the grammar schools are 32 ft. long, 28 ft. wide, and 13 ft, in height (Fig. 95). These are the dimensions for the rooms lighted from one side onl}^, as well as for the corner rooms. In most American schools the pupils of all grades, and in the Swiss and the later Scandinavian schools the older pupils, are seated at single ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 127 desks. In other countries forms seating four pupils, or doubly desks, are generally provided. In the German schools analo- gous to those of the grammar grade in the United States, the class rooms are often 32 ft. long, 22 ft. wide, and 13 ft. high, and accommodate, upon forms seating four each, fift3'-six pupils, giving a floor area of 12^/^ sq. ft., and an air enclosure of 163 cu. ft. for each pupil. The Gemeindeschule, No. FIG. 95. CLASS ROOM FOR FIFTY-SIX PUPILS. GRAMMAR GRADE. 204, of Berlin (Chap. II., Figs. 7, 8), is one of the latest and largest built in that city, and is typical of the best Prussian schools of this grade. In this building most of the class rooms are approximately 28 ft. long, 20 ft., 9 ins. wide, 13 ft. high, and accommodate, on forms, fort3'-six pupils, giving a floor area of 123^ sq. ft., and an air enclosure of 161^2 cu. ft. for each pupil. 130 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The class rooms in the best grammar schoolhouses built within recent years in Boston, and in many other cities of the United States, are 32 ft. long, 28 ft. wide, 135^ ft. high, accom- modating,^ft}^-^ix pupils seated at single desks, giving a floor area of '16 sq. ft., and an air enclosure of 216 cu. ft. for each pupil. I ; ,- ■'=^ 'Theses areas for class rooms are, as we have seen, much in excessroif those found in the latest Prussian schools, but they fall far short of those advised by Dr. Samuel D. Risley, of Philadelphia, in his treatise on the lighting of schools. Dr. Risley recommends that a class room should be 32 ft. long, 24 ft. wide, 15 ft. high, to accommodate, seated at single desks, forty-five grammar school pupils, giving a floor area for each of 19 sq. ft., and an air enclosure of 250 cu. ft. for each pupil. The rules of the Board of Education of England and Wales state that " in rooms 14 ft. high any space beyond 24 ft. from the window wall is insufficiently lighted." It is required in Germany that the row of desks furthest from the windows should not be at a greater distance than once and one half the height of the room. The code of rules established by the French government for the construction of schools fixes the minimum allowed height of a class room at about 13 ft., 2^ ins., and where the light comes from one side only, requires that the minimum height of the room shall be two thirds of its width, measured from the inner wall to the face of the outer wall of the building. In a brick school fitted with double sash, a class room lighted from one side only, 28 ft. wide, would require a height of 19 ft;' a room 24^ ft. wide would require a height of 17 ft.; one 21 ft. wide would require a height of 14 ft. It will be seen that this French rule requires a greater height of ceiling than that recommended by Dr. Risle}'; i. e., 15 ft. in height for a room 24 ft. wide. Although in the clear atmosphere of the United States a room has on the average, throughout the year, much better lighting than would a room of like dimensions in any part of the north of the continent of Europe, or in England, and while the class- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 131 room windows in the United States are less often obstructed by transom bars and by the cumbersome joinery of casement sash, the American class rooms, 28 ft. wide and 13 ft. or even 133^ ft. in height, cannot be considered, when the windows are on but one side, as sufficiently lighted, even in bright weather. They are ill lighted on dark days. A corner room with these dimensions with windows on two sides is sufficiently lighted. The disadvantages of this method of placing windows will be considered later in this chapter. 9^ 3.. P ff 9 3 9'"^ '5 9 1? 9W WW WW WW www w WW □ □ n n D WW WW WW FIG. 96. CLASS ROOM FOR FORTY-EIGHT PUPILS, GRAMMAR GRADE. The desks for the primary grade are 13 by 21 ins.; 31 ins. is allowed from the front of the desk to the back of the seat; the smallest size desk for primary classes is 12 by 18 ins.; the space from the front of the desk to the back of the seat is 29 ins. In the grammar grade desks are 16 by 24 ins.; the space from front of the desk to the back of the seat is 34 ins. In 132 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. class rooms of the primary grade the aisles between the desks are 17 ins. wide, and in those of the grammar grade they are 18 ins. wide. A class room 24 by 32 ft. gives seatings for fifty-six pupils of the primary grade, and with the width of 24^ ft. (Fig. 96), accommodates forty-eight pupils of the grammar grade. Class rooms 32 ft. long and 21 ft. wid.e (Fig. 97), and giving seatings 99 9 9 9 9 rz 9 99 9 9.,9 9 9 1 QQ- □ Q 000 9 9 ^ rn D D 9 9 999 9 9 999 MM^DKOBC FIG. 97. CLASS ROOM FOR FORTY PUPILS, GRAMMAR GRADE. for forty pupils of the grammar grade, if 13/^ ft. high would be as well lighted as need be, and would accommodate as small a number of pupils as is likely ever to be authorized. While not fully meeting the theoretical requirements of a width of one and a half times the height of the room, a class ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 133 room with these dimensions witli windows on one side only would be as well lighted as can reasonably be expected. In the schools recently built for the city of New York, a height for class rooms of 14 ft. 3 ins. has been adopted. Class rooms 28 ft. wide, even with this ceiling height, cannot be well lighted from one side onl}-, but if the width be reduced UE LANCEY SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. George C. Mason, Architect. to 24]^ ft., they would be as well lighted as it is necessary to attempt, for it is not advisable to add to the height of stories be3'ond this point, not only on account of the increase in cost of construction thereby entailed, but because of the increase in the number or height of staircase risers. This latter considera- tion may not be so important in the future as it is now, for 134 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 135 136 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. schools to be built in crowded city districts will probably be several stories in height, and they will have liberal elevator service. An example of the tendency in this direction is the De Lance}'' School (Figs. 98, 99), a private secondary- school recently built in Philadelphia. This has a feature which we have found in later New York City schools;. the roof playground, which will probably find general adoption in localities where the land is expensive and where the law requires the construction of schools wholly of incombustible materials. In France windows are sometimes set on the right as well as on the left hand of the pupils, but those on the right-hand side are not primarily for the admission of light, but to flush the room with air and to admit sunlight during the absence of the pupils. The rule of the Education Department of England and Wales is: " The light should as far as possible, and especially in class rooms, be admitted from the left side of the scholars. All other windows in class rooms should be regarded as sup- plementary, or for summer ventilation. Windows full in the eyes of the teachers or scholars are not approved." In Switzerland windows are often placed in both outer walls of class rooms, and a like s^^stem of lighting is found in some Austrian and German schools, but usually the north wall, when at the back of the pupils, is that only used for such lighting. In a good number of the Scandinavian schools, — although not in the best, and seldom in those of most recent construction, — cross lighting is found. With class rooms 28 ft. wide, windows on both walls of corner rooms must be accepted as a necessity for sufficient lighting; the diffusion of light gained by this method out- weighs the disadvantage of cross lighting, which is mainly objectionable in writing exercises, when it is best to have all the light from the left-hand side only, but otherwise the qualit}' of light, and not its direction, is the most important considera- tion as far as the pupils are concerned. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. I37 A constant glare in the teacher's e3'es is certainly objection- able. Exposure to such a condition, day after day, cannot fail to have an injurious effect on even the strongest eyes, and the exclusion of light by shades is but an alleviation of the defect. In a well-designed court room such a condition would not be permitted, and it certainly should not obtain in class rooms. Where the class room 28 ft. wide is required, this disadvan- tage may be partially obviated by leaving a blank space in the wall directly opposite the teacher's desk and placing windows on either side of this space as near the corners of the room as the construction may permit. This method of placing the windows in the wall opposite the teacher's desk has been adopted in some of the later American schools. The use of corner class rooms of the excessive width of 28 ft. has the further disadvantage, that in a symmetrically dis- posed plan two of the corner rooms must have, if the light is taken from the two outer walls, the seatings parallel to the wall through which comes the principal light. In permitting light from one side only, and in not giving excessive width to corner as well as inside rooms, this difficulty is eliminated from the problem of school planning. The so-called " cart-wheel " plan, illustrated by the Long- fellow School, Boston, Mass. (Fig. 100), first tried in Toledo, Ohio, has sometimes been used in the United States to make possible the lighting of corner rooms on two sides while re- taining the principal light from the left-hand side of the pupils. With such an arrangement, the principal light comes from the left-hand side of the pupils; the teacher does not face the glare that comes from the long side of the room; the desks need not be placed parallel to the long side of the room, so that the class is more easily supervised by the teacher. But the " cart- wheel " plan involves, in most cases, either an undesirable irregularity of the exterior design, or wasted space in the plan- ning of the building, and hence is seldom adopted. In equipment for gymnastic exercise, bathing facilities, cooking schools, and manual training, the American element- 138 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. BASEMENT PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. lOO. LONGFELLOW SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 139 ary schools are not generally as well provided as those of the countries of northern Europe, and even as those of England. The feature of the school garden, now widely introduced in northern European countries, is almost unknown in the United States. Relatively to other countries, in liberal areas and in the decorative treatment of playgrounds the American schools are deficient. In the United States, on the other hand, greater floor and cubical area for each pupil is given in the elementary class rooms than is found in those of any other country. LONGFELLOW SCHOOL, BOSTON. Walker & Kimball, Architects. Excepting, possibly, in the Swiss and in some of the later schools of Great Britain, an ampler supply of warmed fresh air and larger ducts for ventilation are provided in American schools than elsewhere. In the best of the American schools there is better provision 140 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. for the disposal of out-door clothing than is generally found, except in some Swiss examples and in the later schools of the principal cities in Scandinavian countries. There are better plumbing appliances in the American schools than are prob- ably to be found in any country. The American schools have the further advantage of the most generous provision of individual desks for the pupils; they have blackboard surface for the use of the pupils, — a very uncommon feature else- where. In one respect the schools of the United States suffer most noticeably in comparison with those of European coun- tries where popular education has been developed: sufficient light is not provided for the class rooms, except in those on the corners of the building; and in these the light is not usuall}^ disposed in the best manner. This defect arises from the adoption in the grammar grades of the class of fifty-six pupils seated at single desks. It originates in what the writer believes to be mistaken economy in school administration. In Switzerland public education is not absolutely free, but the tuition charge is small; but in what may be called the gram- mar grades a class seldom has more than forty pupils, and the width of class rooms is rarely in excess of 24 ft.; while in the United States classes of fifty-six pupils and rooms 28 ft. in width are usually required by school committees. It is necessary that the funds provided for public education should be spent with economy, but it should riot be forgotten that the physical fitness of the children who are trained in the schools is one of the economical considerations of the problem. If through defective lighting of the class rooms, a certain pro- portion of the pupils have their eyesight impaired, then the community is by so much less recompensed for its expenditure in the instruction of its children. It should be considered, also, that if the grammar class rooms are built 24^ ft. instead of 28 ft. in width, there will be, on account of the narrower spans of the floor beams, an appreciable economy in the cost of school construction, espe- cially in those built with steel beam and masonry or concrete ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. I4I arch floor construction. This saving should be placed to the credit of the system of grammar grade classes of forty-eight instead of fifty-six pupils. It seems probable that pupils in smaller classes would pass through the grades with greater rapidity than in the present large classes, and thus free the way more quickly for the pupils of the lower grades. If so, this would be another factor to be credited to the system of smaller classes. It is for the school authorities, with the advice of educators, to decide whether the lesser number of pupils under each teacher means greater average progress for the pupils as a whole. Architects who have^ considered the sub- ject would agree that unless the number of pupils assigned to a grammar class room in the United States is decreased from fifty-six, no radical improvement can be made in the planning of the schools of that country. Individual desks for each pupil should be retained, and ample floor area, cubical area, and warmed air supply should be provided; but the school authorities of the United States should not persist in a policy which is not approved, from the pedagogical point of view, by the most enlightened educa- tors, and which necessitates defective lighting of the class * rooms. Whether such change in system will prove to be reasonably economical can only be determined by building in some cit}'' one or more large grammar schools designed for classes of forty-eight, or better, for forty pupils. CHAPTER VII. SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF NORTHERN EUROPE AND ENGLAND. One hundred years ago the only secondary schools in Ger- many were the Latin schools, which were often old founda- tions, and of which many were boarding schools. In 1808 Wilhelm von Humboldt began to remodel Prussian secondary education. He made the local Latin schools highly classical, and discouraged the continuance of secondary schools with a curriculum designed to fit boys for commercial life. Spillepe began in 1822 agitation for the establishment of the Realschule, or non-classical high school. By 1832 the Real- schule system had not only been established, but there were two varieties of such schools : the Realschule, wholly " modern " in its curriculum, and the Realgymnasium, where Latin but not Greek was taught in addition to " modern" studies. In 1882 the Education Department of Prussia re-classified the several types of secondary schools. The first group for schools with course of nine years consisted of the Gymnasium, the fully classical school; the Realgymnasium, with Latin but no Greek courses; the Oberrealschule, with no Latin or Greek courses. The second group with six years' course consisted of the Progymnasium, fully classical; the Realgymnasium, where Latin but no Greek is taught; the Hohere Burgerschule, where no Latin or Greek are taught. The third type was the Realschule, non-classical with a seven years' course. Since 1 89 1 the Prussian secondary schools have been re- classified and now are the Gymnasium, the Realgymnasium, and the Oberrealschule. From the Gymnasium only may pupils pass to all the courses of the university, and to higher military and naval service. The Realgymnasium gives admis- sion to the Polytechnic schools, to the military and naval ser- vice equally with the Gymnasium, but only to the courses in SECONDARY SCHOOLS. I43 modern languages at the universities. The Oberrealschule graduate is admitted to the Polytechnics only. The course in all three grades is nine years. To permit boys to enter practi- cal life earlier if they desire to do so, a distinct stage in the education in all three grades is arranged at the end of a six years' course. The Gymnasium has been made less distinc- tively classical, and greater attention is now given in this class of school to the sciences, modern languages, and drawing. The plans of all these secondary schools built in more recent years are therefore essentially the same; and while the secondary schools of other parts of Germany, of Austria, and of Switzerland are not classified according to the present Prussian system, the features of the plans of buildings built at the same period offer no essential variation. The Tochter- schule, the higher school for girls, also has the general char- acteristics of the other German secondary schools. All secondary schools of Teutonic countries may therefore be considered together as being practically of one class varying in type. The maximum number of pupils in the lower classes of any secondary Prussian school is forty; in the highest classes the average maximum ranges from twenty-four to seven. One result of the Berlin Conference of Education instituted in 1890 by the emperor was to advise that the maximum number of pupils in a secondary school should be four hundred. In the plans of the several grades of the Realschule we find generally more ample provision than in the classical schools for the teaching of the sciences, and for drawing, modeling, etc. These ditferences are but in degree. In all secondary schools janitors' quarters are provided, and in most there are apartments for the master and sometimes for other teachers. In but three of the buildings whose plans appear in this chapter — the Oberrealschule at Leitomischl, the Cantonal School at Berne, and the Realschule at Karlsruhe — is there departure from the scientific principle of exclusively left-hand 144 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. lighting for class rooms. These are the only Teutonic second- ary schools whose plans the writer has seen which are excep- tional in this respect. The turnhalle, or gymnasium, appears to be invariably a feature in secondary schools, but is not always an integral part of, or in close conjunction with, the school building. The Gymnasium at Gottingen (Fig. loi) is a typical example. It has nineteen class rooms, accommodating seven hundred IMPERIAL GYMNASIUM, VIENNA. THE AULA, OR EXAMINATION HALL. and thirty pupils, including those of the Vorschule, or pre- paratory department, two reserve class rooms, the room for instruction in physics, chemistry, and natural sciences, with chemical laboratory, and storage rooms for natural history col- lections and ph3'sical apparatus, drawing room, teachers' room, teachers' and pupils' library, aula, apartments for head master and janitor ; the "career," in which refractory pupils are con- fined, is probably in the basement. Adjoining the main build- SECONDARY SCHOOLS. H5 SECOND FLOOR PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. lOI. GYMNASIUM, gOTTINGEN, PRUSSIA. 146 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 102. CANTONAL SCHOOL, BERNE, SWITZERLAND. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 147 ing is the turnhalle, and the toilet rooms are in a separate building. The class rooms are about 20 ft. wide and 13^ ft. high. The plan of this building is more compact than is usually the case in Teutonic buildings of this grade. We find here a longitudinal corridor with rooms on either hand, the only direct light to the corridor being from the staircase in the center and at either end. The aula is on the third floor in the central position. The Cantonal School at Berne (Fig. 102) is designed upon essentially the same principle as that of the preced- FIKST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 103. GYMNASIUM, SALZWEDEL, PRUSSIA. ing example, although the light at the rear of the central portion does not come down the staircase, but from win- dows at the end of another corridor parallel to the main one, and behind the main staircase. In the Berne school the aula is on the second floor and in an |_ at the rear. On this floor are twelve class rooms, a room for conference, one for private instruction, the chemical laboratory, a drawing room, a natural history cabinet, a school museum, and the library, which is 148 SCHOOl. ARCHITECTURE. SECOND AND THIRD FLOOR PLANS. FIG. 104. KAISER WILHELM GYMNASIUM, AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PRUSSIA. SECOND AND THIRD FLOOR PLANS. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 105. REALSCHULE, KARLSRUHE, BADEN. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 149 centrally placed above the main entrance. On the first floor there are ten class rooms, chemical lecture room, and chemical laboratories, manual training rooms, and a modeling room. Toilet rooms on each story are placed on either side of the main staircase and in each of the wings. The Gymnasium at Salzwedel (Fig. 103) is a smaller ex- ample of essentially the same plan type as the Berne school, although the |_ is much exaggerated and is used for class rooms as well as for the turnhalle. KONIG WILHELM gymnasium, STETTIN, PRUSSIA. The Kaiser Wilhelm Gymnasium at Aix-la-Chapelle (Fig. 104), also, has a longitudinal corridor plan, but with no central staircase, and direct light is given the corridor from the rear wall. The aula is in the second story above the turnhalle. The Realschule at Karlsruhe (Fig. 105) is also designed with a longitudinal corridor entirely open to the light. There is but one staircase, and that in the |_ opposite the entrance. The aula is on the third floor in the main pavilion. There are ISO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. fifteen class rooms, and a complete equipment for instruction in chemistry and physics, and a drawing room of the size of two class rooms. The Konig Wilhelm Gymnasium at Stettin (Fig. io6) gives another example of the longitudinal corridor type. Here the arrangement is reversed, and the corridor with the stair- cases are placed at the front of the building, with the aula at the rear. It will be noted that this school has no special pro- SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG Io6. KONIG WILHELM GYMNASIUM, STETTIN, PRUSSIA. vision for instruction in either chemistry or in drawing. The building is two stories in height. The first story is nearly 15 ft., and the second story nearly i^'jA ft. in the clear. The aula has a height of 24 ft. The Gymnasium at Bromberg (Fig. 107) is an example of the [_ type of school building, in which the class rooms give only from one side of the corridors. This building has three SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 151 Stories with seventeen class rooms and physical, chemical, and drawing rooms. The height of each story is ubout 14^ ft. The plan of the Oberrealschule at Leitomischl (Fig. 108) illustrates the ^ plan type, and is essentially the same as that of the Realschule at Karlsruhe, except it is a larger and more FIKST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 107. GYMNASIUM, BROMBERG, PRUSSIA. complete building and without an aula. It has a turnhalle which is probably used also for examinations, but this room is placed in one of the wings and not in the front of the cen- tral pavilion as is done in the Karlsruhe school. 152 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 108. OBERREALSCHULE, LEITOMISCHL, BOHEMIA, AUSTRIA. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 153 The Leitomischl school has toilet rooms in the main body of the building, an arrangement very rarely found in German schools. The building is three stories in height. On the first floor are the rooms for instruction in chemistry and physics, FIG. 109. REALSCHULE, MAGDEBURG, SAXON PRUSSIA, together with one large class room. The janitor's quarters adjoin the main entrance. On the second floor, besides the class rooms, there are the library, a conference room, and the 154 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. apartments of the master. On the third floor are the assembly hall, rooms for modeling, a drawing room, and class rooms. The height of the assembly hall is about i8 ft., and that of the other rooms about 13 ft. 9 ins. The ^ type is again shown by the plans of the Realschule in Magdeburg (Fig. 109). The teachers' and janitors' houses partly complete the whole as a courtyard plan, but above the first floor the plan (Fig. no) is essentially that of the Leitomischl THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIG. no. REALSCHULE, MAGDEBURG, SAXON PRUSSIA. school; the corridor in the Magdeburg school runs on the outer wall with the rooms on the court; in Leitomischl school this relation is reversed. This plan is unusual in hav- ing duplicate features, except the aula and the drawing room, on either side of the main axis of the building. The Gymnasium at Hildesheim (Fig. m) is another ex- ample of the ^ type. Instead of a staircase at the rear on the main axis, there are two staircases on either side of the main SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 155 entrance hall, and the aula runs through from front to rear of the central pavilion on the third floor. The class rooms in the two wings are arranged to have the same orientation. The Realgymnasium at Karlsruhe (Fig. 112) is on an irregular lot, and presents a partially enclosed court. The class rooms in their relation to the corridors are like the preceding example. Another plan on an irregular lot, showing the similar rela- tion of corridor to class rooms found in the two preceding ex- FIG. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. GYMNASIUM, HILDESHEIM, PRUSSIA. amples, is the Leibnitz Realschule at Hanover (Fig. 113), a city which is famous for the architectural treatment of irregu- lar corner lots. The skilful treatment of another school upon a similar eccentric corner is shown by the plans of the Realschule at Leipsic-Reudnitz (Fig. 114). 156 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 112. REALGYMNASIUM, KARLSRUHE, BADEN. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 157 The Tochterschule at Basel, Switzerland (Figs. 115, 116), presents a plan of the ^ type, and another variation of stair- case arrangement, there being two staircases at the rear with a class room between same, while in Magdeburg there is a sino^le monumental staircase. In the Hildesheim school there are two staircases, but at the front on either side of the en- FIG. 113. LEIBNITZ REALSCHULE, HANOVER, PRUSSIA. trance hall. The Basel school is in two divisions: the class rooms for the younger pupils, boys and girls, are on the first floor; the upper floors are assigned to girls of the more ad- vanced classes. This arrangement accounts for the provision of turnhalles for both sexes. 158 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The Annen Realschule in Dresden is illustrated by Fig. 117. In the basement there are three laboratories, together with the boiler room, etc., and the quarters for the janitor and his assis- tants. On the ground floor there are eight class rooms, one of which is for instruction in chemistry, ph^-sics, and natural history. There are also storage rooms for chemistry and physical apparatus and natural history collections. On the second floor are the library, the record room, and the conference room; there is also a room for the librarian, and a conference STATE GYMNASIUM, STETTIN, PRUSSIA. room adjoins the directors office. There are eight class rooms on this floor, of which one is for freehand drawing and one for the singing class room \ besides, there is a room for mathematical instruments, a small room for surveying implements, and a room for music books. On the third floor are the aula, a teachers' room, an exhibition hall, a room of mechanical draw- ing, a " career," four class rooms, and m the western wing the SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 159 apartments for the head masters. The height of ground floor is 13% ft., and of the two other stories about 12^/^ ft. As a type of a secondary school which is designed wholly upon the principle of a single courtyard, the plan of the Gym- nasium and Realgymnasium at Bernburg (Fig. 118) is given. This building is interesting m being a combined classical and partly classical school. The southern part of the building is assigned to the Gym- nasium; the northwestern part to the Realgymnasium and the Vorschule (preparatory school). The Gymnasium has FIG. 114. REALSCHULE, LEIPSIC-REUDNITZ, SAXONY. nine class rooms; the Realgymnasium has the- same number; the Vorschule has four class rooms. Most of the rooms used by either schools are in the middle section of the building. The two main entrances, one for the Gymnasium, the other for the Realgymnasium, are in the .middle of the short sides of the building, opposite the main staircase. The division of the ground and second floors is evident from the accompanying cuts. The third floor has four class rooms for each of the two schools, the large drawing hall of the Gymnasium, the natural history collection, and a spare class room for the Realgym- i6o SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. nasium. In the rear of the short side and in the middle wing of the long sides is the common hall for singing, which extends from the back to the wall of the courtyard. In the basement there are quarters for the two janitors, a wash kitchen, the necessary cellar rooms, and the furnace room. The distinctly dual character of the curriculums of the two schools is evident in that separate offices are provided for the master of the Gymnasium and for the master of the Realg3'mnasium. TOCHTERSCHULE, BASEL, SWITZERLAND. The three stories are each 14^ ft. high. The aula is 2g% ft. high. Each school has its own playground. The water-closets and the Gymnasium are common. In France most of the public secondary schools are board- ing schools to which day scholars are also admitted. The general arrangements of the plans of schools of this grade are like that of the elementary schools described in Chapter II. Public secondary education in England has not yet been thoroughly or comprehensively organized, and a very large SECONDARY SCHOOLS. l6l part of the secondary education of England is conducted by private schools, which do not come within the scope of this work. The report of the Schools Inquir}^ Commission of 1867 recommended that the ordinary secondary schools should be divided into three groups: those of the first grade, which pre- FIG. 115. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. t5cHTERSCHULE, BASEL, SWITZERLAND. pare for the universities, the leaving age of the pupils being about eighteen; such grades are usually endowed or private schools; the second grade designed to equip a boy for com- mercial life or scientific work, the leaving age being about sixteen; and the third-grade schools designed to give training for industrial occupations and subordinate positions in com- l62 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. I 1 6. tOcHTERSCHULE, BASEL, SWITZERLAND. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 163 |)f>— Oa FIRST FLOOR PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 117. ANNEN REALSCHULE, DRESDEN, SAXONY. ANNEN REALSCHULE, DRESDEN, SAXONY. 164 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. merce, the leaving age being about fourteen. The higher grade Board Schools, to a great extent, constitute the third grade, and the term "secondary" is applied generall}^ to the schools of the first and second grade only, although some of the higher grade Board Schools have a scope approaching that of the high schools of the United States and the German Real- schule, but they are more analogous to the higher Burgerschule of Germany. The Department of Science and Art has conducted, since 1890, evening classes in science and art, and evening and day schools of art; out of the evening science schools, " organized science " day schools have developed. The number of sub- jects that might be studied in these schools has gradually been limited, and the courses have been made less technical and more educational. The requirements of the department have come within the scope of manj* secondary schools of the second grade; and many of these, mostly of the endowed class, together with the higher grade board schools, in order to profit by the government grants, have placed themselves under the authority of the department. The Technical Instruction Acts, the first of which are found in 1889, empowered local authorities to establish their own schools and to aid existing schools by grants. Accordingly large sums have been expended by municipalities in providing for teaching in science, art, commercial subjects, and domestic economy in secondary schools, so that few of them are now without drawing rooms, equipment for domestic economy, and manual training or laboratories, chemical and physical. The same acts empowered the municipalities to establish technical schools. These technical schools are not under the authority of the school boards, but under that of the mayor and aldermen. By recent act of parliament the education and the science and art departments are to be consolidated, and the Board of Education is to be presided over by a minister of education. Under this act the Qiieen in Council may transfer to this board SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 165 SECOND KLOOK I'LAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 118. GYMNASIUM AND REALGYMNASIUM, BERNBURG, ANHALT, GERMANY. i66 FACADE ON COURTYARD OF LYCEE VICTOR HUGO, PARIS, SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 167 SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 119. CENTRAL SCHOOL, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. i68 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FOURTH FLOOK PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 1 20. CENTRAL SCHOOL, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 169 the educational powers of the charity commissioners and of the Board of Agriculture; when this is done the Board of Education will have under its direction elementary and sec- ondar}^ education and all grades of science and art, and of technical and commercial education, and will also have power to inspect and examine all secondary schools on the invitation of their governing bodies. Through this control it is hoped to develop a national system of secondary education without interfering with the freedom of the individual schools. While elementary education in England and Wales is now free and compulsory for children from the age of seven to BASEMENT PLAN. FIG. 121. CENTRAL SCHOOL, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. thirteen, fees are charged for tuition in the secondary schools. The policy of encouraging pupils to seek an education higher than that which is compulsory, by means of scholarships, gen- erally obtains in England. The Technical Education Board of London gives grants to nearly fourteen hundred pupils in the elementary and secondary schools, by which tuition and all other fees are paid by the board and an average mainte- nance grant of £10 a year is given. The English schools of the secondary type, which are dis- 170 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. tinctively a part of the public school system, are the higher grade board schools; to these may be added the pupil-teach- ers' centers, which are lower grade normal schools. Of the former class an important example is the Central School, Manchester (Figs. 119, 120, 121). This building will accommodate fourteen hundred and fifty pupils; of this number reserve classes for two hundred and fifty are provided, seven hundred pupils in the elementary grades and five hundred in the " school of science " ; i. e.^ the advanced classes. In the basement are the dining rooms where hot meals are to be served at a low price, a feature especially desirable in a school where many of the pupils come from long distances. CASSLAND ROAD HIGHER GRADE SCHOOL, LONDON. many traveling to town by train. In the higher grade schools, also, are given evening courses of instruction, and for such pupils the dining room is a convenience. The basement also contains the cooking and laundry schools, the manual training room, and a large (50 by 63 ft.), well- equipped gymnasium. The manual training room is fitted with forty carpenter's benches. On the ground floor are the hall, the class room, and cloak room for the girls. There are, also, three reserve class rooms, which may, in the future, be utilized as a pupil-teachers' center, or for junior classes. On this fioor is a library, 44 by 31 ft. On the second floor is the SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 171 THIKU FLOOR FLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 122. CASSLAND ROAD HIGHER GRADE SCHOOL, LONDON. 172 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. fg;.*:- SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 173 department for boys, consisting of a hall, 80 by 40 ft., running the height of the floor and with open timbered roof. The class rooms are of varying sizes, and the majority have movable partitions. Adjoining the boys' hall is a room of the same size as the librar}', which is used for administrative pur- poses, a portion being for the registrar of the evening school. On the second floor are class rooms for the school of science, cloak rooms, and the art room, 64 b}'^ 34 ft., arranged with desks for freehand and model drawing. On this floor is the caretaker's apartments. On the third floor is a chemical laboratory, with balance room and store room adjoining. There are benches for forty pupils. The main ph^^sical labora- FIG. 123. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. TECHNICAL AND SECONDARY SCHOOL, CHIPPENHAM, ENGLAND. tory, also, with accommodation for forty pu}»ils, adjoins the science master's room In the [_ are the chemical and physi- cal laboratories for the advanced classes. The chemical and physical lecture rooms are in the main body of the building. One of the forty-four higher grade schools operated by the London School Boaid is illustrated by the Cassland Road Higher Grade School (Fig. 122). This building is equipped with gymnasium, laboratories, lecture rooms, drawing room, rooms for manual training, cooking, etc., as in the Manchester school described above, and has, besides modeling room, 174 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PROPOSED TECHNICAL AND SECONDARY SCHOOL, CHIPPENHAM, ENGLAND. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 124, FINSBURV PUPIL-TEACHERs' CENTER, OKFORD ROAU, LONDON. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 175 a needlework room and two natural science laboratories. The class rooms are arranged for from forty to fifty pupils. Mezzanine toilet rooms, accessible from staircase landings, are provided on each floor. The Dudley New Grammar School, although not a second- ary public school in the American sense, furnishes a typical example of the architectural treatment of a one-stor}' English SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 125. FINSBURY PUPIL-TEACHERS' CENTER, OFPORD ROAD, LONDON. school. The half-timbered house adjoining the school is the " schoolhouse " or master's residence. The Technical and Secondary School, Chippenham (Fig. 123), is t3'pically illustrative of the features of the smaller English secondary schools in their recent development. 176 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The influence of the English government has been lately exerted to improve and systematize the education of pupil- teachers. With the ceasing, in 1861, of the payment by the government of the salaries of individual teachers, the number of pupil-teachers on the staffs began to be reduced, and by successive reduction of the proportion of such assistants, per- mitted by the Board of Education, at present but two pupil- teachers are permitted for the principal teacher, and one for each certified teacher, unless the pupil-teachers are taught in FINSBURY PUPIL-TEACHERS CENTER, OFFORD ROAD, LONDON. an approved " center," when two are allowed for each certified assistant. The education given in these centers is analogous to that of high schools in America, although but one half of the pupil's time is given to his own education and one half to the teaching of younger children. The Finsbury Pupil-Teachers'. Center, Offord Road (Figs. 124, 125), illustrates the latest and most complete London ex- ample of its class. On the first floor are four class rooms for SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 1 77 forty-two and thirty-six, two of each, seated with single desks, a central hall, 50 ft. 6 ins. by ^;^ ft. 6 ins. Mezzanine toilet rooms, as in the Cassland Road School, are provided in this building. On the second floor are four class rooms and a gymnasium; on the upper floor is an art room over the gymnasium; the remainder of this floor is devoted to chemical and physical laboratories, lecture room, balance and dark rooms. In the basement is the engineering apparatus, and also a kitchen where the luncheon is prepared. The site is large enough to give space for lawn tennis on the girls' side and for football on the boys'. The Teutonic secondary schools have affected but slightly the planning of English schools of this grade; but their in- fluence has been marked upon the plans of the high schools of the United States, as will be seen in the next chapter. CHAPTER VIII. SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES. The first free school in America supported by public funds was the Latin School of Boston. The vote establishing it was passed at town meeting on the 2d of February, 1635, five years after the first settlement. The Dutch municipalities had already established schools, but they were not free. The Bos- ton Latin School may, therefore, be considered as the germ of the modern free public school systems. In 1645 the Grammar School of Roxbury, a town adjoining Boston and now a part of it, was established by the citizens, who formally pledged their real property for its support. Like the Boston Latin, this school was designed to prepare pupils for Harvard Col- lege. It was later known as " the Free School in Roxburie," and is now called the Roxbury Latin School, but its corporate name is " the Grammar School in the easterly part of Rox- bury." Other towns followed the example of Boston and of Roxbury, and in 1647 the General Court of Massachusetts passed a law requiring all communities of one hundred fami- lies to maintain grammar schools to fit boys for college. This law was not fully successful, for the towns did not accept the obligation in a satisfactory manner, and there was a consider- able period when most of these grammar schools were well- nigh extinct. To supply the lack of public grammar schools, privately en- dowed academies began to be established. Dummer Acad- emy, founded in 1763 by Lieutenant-Governor Dummer, was the first of these. Phillips Academy, Andover, followed in 1768, and soon there was an academy in nearly every con- siderable town. The academies, like the earlier grammar schools, had the primary object of preparation for college. With the creation, in 1837, of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, the scope of public education was broadened by .78 SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 179 i8o SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the establishment of schools for those who did not intend to go to college. These were the modern high schools, in which classical studies are not required and usually are not taught. The first secretary of the Board of Education was Horace Mann, and to him is to be credited much of the extension and improvement of secondary education in the United States. The early grammar schools and the later academies had been conducted on the English system, — that is, the pupils of several classes were congregated in large schoolrooms, in which some of the classes recited while other pupils were ENGLISH HIGH AND LATIN SCHOOL, BOSTON. George A. Clough, Architect. busy with their studies, and from these rooms some passed to other rooms for recitation in special subjects. When the high schools were established they followed the system of the academies, which they superseded in many cases. The English High and Latin School, of Boston, Mass. (Fig. 126), begun in 1877, is important in the development of school architecture in the United States. It was the first example in that country of a scientifically planned and architecturally ex- pressed school. The report on this building by Mr. John D. Philbrick, at that time Superintendent of Schools in Boston, SECONDARY SCHOOLS. i8i 152 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. shows that the features of this building were in the main sug- gested by the Akademische Gymnasium in Vienna (Fig. 127). Mr. Philbrick's report goes on to say that " the cit}^ of Vienna has individual school buildings vastly better than the best in Boston; but if you take all the school buildings in Vienna, the good and bad together, the average accommodations afforded to all the children of the cit}^ are perhaps not equal to the average of the accommodations provided for the children in Boston. Vienna knows how to build, and has built school edifices which are more endurable, more safe, more conve- nient, more costly, and more beautiful than any Boston has yet built, or is likely to build in the near future. The reason of this is, that in Vienna when a schoolhouse is planned it is done by the combined science and wisdom of the most ac- complished architects and the most accomplished pedagogists. No mere whim of a schoolmaster and no mere whim of an inexperienced and uneducated architect is allowed to control the design. " In its general arrangements the block plan of the English High and Latin School consists of a parallelogram 423 ft. long by 220 ft. wide, the longest sides, or main buildings, fronting on Warren Avenue and Montgomery Street, the Latin School occupying the former, and the English High School the latter. " There are two courts within this block, of equal size, the division between the two being made by the location of a cen- tral building, which is connected with the two main street fronts by a transverse corridor. " Across the easterly end of the block and connecting its two sides are located the drill hall and gymnasium; and across the westerly end, fronting on Dartmouth Street, a building, as shown on the plan, is proposed to be erected hereafter for the accommodation of the school board and its officers. " Each of the street fronts of the main buildings is divided into three pavilions. The main buildings have three stories and a basement, the latter being a clearstory facing the courts. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 1 83 There is in the central portion an entrance from either street, and two in each main building at the terminations of the longi- tudinal corridor, one being in each end pavilion. " There are eight staircases, one in each end pavilion, con- necting with the entrances at the terminations of the longitu- dinal corridors, and two in each of the central pavilions, right and left of the grand entrances, respectively. '"The drill hall is on the street level. It is 130 ft. long on the floor, 62 ft. wide, and 30 ft. high; above the galleries, which are at the ends, it is 160 ft. long. The seating capacity of floor and galleries is sufficient for twenty-five hundred persons. In connection with the drill hall there are two rooms for the military officers, and an armorer's room. " There are forty-eight schoolrooms, twenty being on the first and second floors, respectively, and eight on the third floor; twelve receive their light from the courts, the remain- ing thirty-six occupy the street fronts. The typical school- room of this building is intended for thirty-five pupils, but will accommodate forty or more, according to the mode of seating and the size of the pupils. It is 32 ft. long, 24 ft. wide, and 14 ft. high. It is lighted by four windows, 9 ft., 6 ins. by 4 ft., 6 ins., placed on the longer side 6 ins. from the ceiling and 4 ft. from the floor, and equally spaced, with transom sashes hung above the sliding sashes. It has, on the side opposite the windows, two doors opening from the corridor; over the doors are top lights for ventilation, and between them two high lights hung on hinges. The pupils face the platform at one end of the room, and receive the light on their left. Under the windows are cabinets for coats and caps, there being no separate rooms for this purpose. There is a closet sunk into the end wall for a teacher's wardrobe. " The assembly halls are on the third floor in the central pavilions, are 82 ft. long, 62 ft. wide, and 25 ft. high, each having a seating capacity for eight hundred and fifty pupils, with the amphitheater arrangement. " The library rooms are on the first floor, on the right and 184 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. left from the transverse corridor in the central building, each being 54 ft. long and 32 ft. wide. " Over the libraries, and of the same size and shape, on the second floor are the lecture halls for the natural sciences. Each of these has two connected rooms, — one for physical apparatus, and the other for specimens of natural history. " Near the principal entrances, on the first floor in the cen- tral building, there are, for each school, a teacher's conference room, with an adjoining reception room, a head master's office, and a janitor's room; on the second floor, adjacent to the transverse corridor, are two suites of apartments, each having four rooms for janitors' dwellings, each suite being connected with the basement by a separate staircase. " There are two drawing rooms for each school on the third floor, both having sidelights and skylights; at either end is a room for the models and copies. " In the central pavilions, on each floor, are dressing rooms for the teachers. The water-closets and urinals for the pupils are located in four sections winged out from the principal staircases in the central pavilions, and are arranged in tiers, there being two stories of closets to each story of the build- ing, one of which is entered at the corridor level, and the other from the half landing of the staircase above. There are six of these tiers in each section, which are connected by a spiral staircase in a round tower at the exterior angle,* running from the basement to the roof of the building, the top of which is surmounted by a large ventilator. By other means, in addi- tion to this, the closets are completely ventilated. " The basement, besides the space necessary for the steam boilers and the storage of fuel, affords a covered playground for the pupils. " A part of the English High School basement has been fitted for the occupancy of one of the branches of the Public Library. It is to be hoped that one or two of the basement rooms may be utilized as a refectory, where the pupils may obtain a wholesome lunch at a moderate price. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 1 85 " No chemical laboratory was supposed to be needed by the Latin School, and hence none has been provided; but the pro- visions for the instruction in chemistry on the English High School side are believed to be as near perfection as has yet been reached, having regard to the objects and grade of the institution. The portion of the block appropriated to this purpose is architecturally a detached building located at the east end of the high school building and facing Montgomery Street, and between it and the southerly end of the drill hall, being separated from the rest of the edifice by fire-proof walls, as far as convenience of access would allow. "The lower floor is occupied by a lecture room 35 by 40 ft., and capable of seating about one hundred pupils. The room is constructed with rapidly rising tiers of benches, and is fitted with a lecture desk and the ordinary appliances of a chemical lecture room. " On the second floor are the laboratory and accessory rooms. The former is of a general rectangular shape 35 by 30 ft., with an alcove 27 by 7 ft. " Connecting with the laboratory are two small rooms: one is for storage of apparatus, and can be darkened for spectro- scopic experiments; the other is a preparing room, but is fitted with working desks and drawers, and is used also as a storeroom for chemicals. " Practically the buildings are fire-proof throughout. The corridors are all constructed with iron beams and brick arches, and laid with a finished floor of black and white square Italian marble tiles. The under sides of the arches over the corridors are plastered upon the bricks, and the beams covered with a heavy coating of Keene's cement. upon wire network, these corridors in themselves dividing the whole block into four fire-proof sections. The several apartments are separated by brick walls, and all the floors and the spaces between the fur- ring upon the walls are filled with fire-proofing. The stair- cases are wrought ironwork." SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 187 The objections to the method of clothing disposal provided in this building are obvious. The heating and ventilating system of the Boston English High and Latin School is much less satisfactory than in later schools. In fact, the system of ventilating is absolutel}^ the reverse of that in use at the present day. The air is now made to pass from the corridor to the rooms. In the English High and Latin School the passage of air is from the rooms to the corridor. The heating is by the indirect " natural " system with gravit}^ ventilation. The objection to this method of heating large schools is now usually accepted. In this build- ing a supply of but 8 cu. ft. per minute for each pupil was contemplated. To-day the laws of Massachusetts require at least 30 cu. ft. per minute for each pupil. This requirement of air delivery marks the notable progress made in the heating and ventilation of American schools in a generation, for it should be remembered that this building was generally con- sidered, at the time when it was built, to be the most perfect in all respects of any school in the United States. The adoption of the gymnasium type with its separate graded class rooms for this Boston school, and the acceptance (jf characteristics of its plan in other high school buildings, appears to have had influence in so changing the system of secondary instruction that the American high school, in its plan and arrangement, became generally little more than an elaborate development of the graded grammar school. It is now usual in high schools, constructed during the past twenty years or more, to find " wardrobes " adjoining each school- room, — a feature derived from the necessities of the primary and grammar school discipline, and not in harmony with the freer spirit which should characterize the secondar}^ schools. Separate rooms for each class, and no large study or school- room for two or more classes, are provided. A marked example of the effect of this Boston school building upon the American high school type is the Cam- bridge High School (Fig. 128), built in 1887. The plan of i88 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 128. ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 189 this school differs in nothing from that of a highly developed modern American grammar school, except that its class rooms are 28 by 40 ft., and are not, as in grammar schools, 28 by 32 ft. Neither the Brookline High School, begun in 1894, nor the Cambridge Latin School, begun about 1897, is in these PRINCIPAL ENTRANCE OF ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS, main features especially characteristic of a secondary school, except for the greater dimensions of the class rooms. Any one of them could as well be used for a graded grammar school as for the purpose for which it was designed. A notable feature of the plan of the Cambridge High School 190 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. is the " emergency " or " hospital " room for use in case of sudden illness. These rooms, which are provided inore es- pecially for the girl pupils, have been generally provided in the best-equipped high schools built since the construction of this Cambridge school. In this school a lunch room is also pro- vided. The office of the head master, the library, and the office of the secretary of the board are placed in conjunction, and all these rooms are arranged for library purposes. The books are all placed on open shelves, and the free use of the library by the pupils is encouraged. The library not only is used as a place for study, but is sufficiently large to serve at the same time for a recitation room for advanced classes. In his report the head master of the school gives the follow- ing description of the laboratory accommodations: — " I. A physical laboratory, with a demonstration table for the teacher, chairs with writing-arm attachments for a class when seated, tables with supports for apparatus and lockers for storage, side tables with gas and water. " 2. A smaller connecting room, with shelves and cases for such physical apparatus as the pupils personally use, and a working table for the teacher and for advanced pupils or special students. ' " 3. A chemical laboratory with one hundred and twenty- eight lockers, so that each pupil may have his own equipment and be held responsible for its care. The room contains a chemical hood where, a dozen pupils may work at once with noxious gases; also shelves for the storage of such supplies as are in daily or frequent use. " 4. A smaller connecting room, with shelves and cases for supplies, books, balances, and the various materials used in chemical study. This room contains a table supplied with gas and water, and is intended for the use of the teacher or of special students under the teacher's immediate guidance. " 5. A small, dark room, with sink, shelves, gas, and elec- tric lamps for photographic purposes. " 6. A large lecture room with a raised floor, and chairs for SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 191 I PmTSiPA*. l,.A&OI\ATpRie> I APPA«AT«5 UTATIoSl ^ W-L. -Ll JX. ■n ■ MI M I I 11 !■ I I- 11 ■ ■ ^ Jfc^ji— ■ CMenitALLABORATORlEJ | — »\»» in -ar, a:^3 rn 1 Jl 1 1 rf±: TREcr As 2a' zsxta' 1 . 1 II 4«'«i8' SECOND KI.OOK PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. BASEMENT PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 129. LATIN SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 192 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. from one hundred to one hundred and fifty pupils, each chair having a shelf to facilitate the taking of notes. Here the teacher of physics or chemistry, or, in fact, of any subject, may assemble pupils in larger numbers than usual for talks, lectures, and such experiments as are better performed for the pupils than by them. This room contains closets for storage, cases for lecture table apparatus, a well-appointed demonstration table, a stereopticon screen, and a porte-lumiere. Its windows may be darkened at short notice. This room, as well as the five rooms just described, is provided with hot and cold water. " In addition to the six rooms already described, there is a botanical room, with drawers for the school herbarium, cases LATIN SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Hartwell, Richardson & Driver, Architects. for botanical specimens, window shelves for plants and water; also a mineralogical room and a spacious drawing room, the latter to receive the tables, models, screens, and other equip- ment of the evenino^ drawingr school." The Latin School at Cambridge, Mass. (Fig. 129), demon- strates that a plan in the form of a letter |-j gives a better opportunity for thoroughly lighting the wide American school- rooms than is afforded by the courtyard type. For the proper lighting of a schoolroom 28 ft. wide with the customary height of ceiling, it is essential to have windows on both sides. The SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 194 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. letter |-| plan gives eight of these instead of four, as in the courtyard plan; and, further, it makes the assembly hall a much more cheerful and dignified room than is permitted by the courtyard plan, when this hall is placed in the center of the courtyard. This building shows coat rooms adjacent to the class rooms, but less absolutely conforming to the " ward- robe " arrangement of graded schools than in the case of the high school described above. The width of 30 ft. is given to some of the class rooms lighted from one side only, while rooms on the corner, lighted from two sides, are given a width of 28 ft. The High School at Brookline, Mass. (Fig. 130), follows the method generally employed in German schools in having no windows in the walls facing the teacher's desk. In this school toilet rooms are arranged in two tiers for each story, as in the English High and Latin of Boston. The plan of this building provides for two conveniences which, though novel at the time, have since become almost universal in large high schools, — a bicycle run to the basement, and a storage room for bicycles. Here, too, the lunch room is no longer the makeshift that it was in earlier schools, but, as is now customary in high schools, a carefully considered requirement of the building. This school, like the Cambridge High and the Cambridge Latin, has the pupils' outside clothing hung adjacent to the class room, after the fashion of the grammar schools; but in this case the clothing is not in a separate enclosure, but is simply alcoved off the corridor. Fig. 131 gives plans of a high school designed for Pawtucket, R. I., in which in the portion of the wall directly opposite the teacher's desk the window is omitted. The High School at Springfield, Mass. (Figs. 132, 133), has several large schoolrooms like those in the American normal schools and in the earlier academies. As originally designed, the building was larger, and at the same time more simple in plan, than the present structure. It was to have accommodated one thousand pupils. The assembly hall was 196 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 197 198 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 199 in the center upon the first floor, as in the present build- ing, but the class rooms were grouped around this hall, form- ing four sides of a rectangle instead of three, as at present. The commission in charge of the construction decided to reduce the number to be accommodated to eight hundred, to arrange the building so that the hall could be conve- niently used for other than school purposes, and to give the whole a somewhat more monumental and costly exterior than was first intended. The result was the building as now shown. Its faults as a monumental plan are clearly recog- HIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Hartwell, Richardson & Driver, Architects. nized by its designers; its merits as a practical school plan, with the special conditions imposed borne in mind, are evi- dent to all conversant with such work. The basement contains a large lunch room, an aquarium, bicycle rooms, toilet rooms, battery and storage rooms, and a room for the girls' gymnasium. The boilers for heating are located outside the buildinof. 200 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 202 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Upon the principal floor is the assembly hall, occupying the center of the plan. This is approached from the principal en- trance, and through the corridor opposite; also by a broad iron staircase, by means of which an audience may pass out upon the west side and down to the level of the grade surface between this and the old high school building, which still re- mains standing a short distance away. To the right and left of the main entrance are the office and the private reception room of the principal, the office of the secretary, and a room for the delivery of stationery and a limited number of books. Eight class rooins and four recitation rooms are also upon this floor. A broad, covered passageway crossing by the west side of the hall, from which exit is made to the staircase previously mentioned, provides a thoroughfare between the front and rear portions of the building, which would otherwise have re- mained disconnected by the removal of this section of the orio^inal rectanjjle. Similar connection is made in the second story, but in this case the passage becomes a loggia, from which in passing one looks down into the hall below. The plan of the second story is much like the first, except that immediately over the main entrance is the library. Drawing rooms, laboratories, and physical lecture room, with large storage rooms for apparatus, occupy the third story, while a 12-ft. copper dome, projecting into an inner light well, is used as an astronomical observatory. This dome is so placed as to be invisible from the ground level, except at a very remote distance, and does not essentially affect the archi- tectural expression of the building. The High School at Newark, N.J. (Fig. 134), is similar to the Springfield High School in having the interior lighted by courts, and the assembly hall placed within, gaining its main light from the ceiling. It is interesting to note that the New- ark school is patterned after the continental schools, not only in its general plan, but also in its method of lighting the class rooms entirety from one side. In the Springfield school the SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 203 /Vs>s--~tv H>.L\. «• ©•«•» Coi/rr SECOND FLOOR PLAN. THIRD FLOOR PLAN. BASEMENT PLAN. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 135. HIGH SCHOOL, NEW BRITAIN, CONN. W. C. Brocklesby, Architect. 204 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. BASEMENT PLAN. FIG. 136. GROTON SCHOOL. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 205 clothing is hung in alcoves off the corridors; in the Newark school some cloak rooms are in the basement, following in this the method found in the latest American high schools. In addition to these basement cloak rooms there is adjoining each class room a wardrobe, provided with two doors from the class room, but with no door from the corridor. Each of these wardrobes has outside light. The High School at New Britain, Conn. (Fig. 135), is a compactly planned building arranged about a central light rrt rtnn UPPER i'PARf OF ■! ROOF [ I ■ ■ a « 4> CORRiDOC? dbt-. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIC;. 137. GROTON SCHOOL. area. The cloak rooms are placed upon each story, but the}- do not follow the grammar grade method of separate ward- robes adjoining each class room. The gj-mnasium has a run- ning track in the gallery served by two staircases. Lockers for both sexes, receiving light from the central area, adjoin the gymnasium. r' SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 208 SCHOOT. ARCHITECTURE. O ^ en ,s C J! SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 209 The Groton School (Figs. 136, 137), whicn has been re- cently built, illustrates a marked return to the academic type of the large schoolroom with subsidiary recitation rooms. This result has come from the union of English and American secondar}' school arrangements of the present day, and it was not intended as a revival of the New England academy type. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 140. girls' high school, NEW YORK CITY. The Groton School is a private institution, and hence not t3'pical of the class of buildings here considered; but it serves to illustrate a tendency which appears in later secondary schools of the United States to revert to the academy type. In the Mechanic Arts High School of Boston, begun in 1893, the first tendency was shown in the eastern part of the United 2IO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. States to differentiate the high from the grammar school type. This appears not in the introduction of manual training as complementary to the usual mental training, but in the pro- vision of schoolrooms seating seventy or more pupils, instead of rooms for graded classes, and of large locker rooms for general use, instead of wardrobes adjoining each class room. LECTURE Roon H iiiii li p CLA55 THIRD FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 141. girls' high school, NEW YORK CITY. Lockers for clothing were later used in the Brighton High School, Boston (Fig. 138), and are adopted in the designs of several new high school buildings which are being built in Boston, among them the South Boston High School (Fig. 139). This school is also provided with large schoolrooms for two classes. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 211 The Girls' High School, New York City (Figs. 140, 141), and the Central High School at Toledo, Ohio (Fig. 142), show similar developments of the plan in respect to the use of large general study or schoolrooms; the former, also, has the general cloak room for the pupils' clothing. This provision for clothing permits more economical plan- ning than the arrangement of separate wardrobes for each room. When individual lockers are provided, as was first done in Cleveland, Ohio, this arrangement is found to be en- GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect. tirely unobjectionable, and it appears to be that most desirable for high school pupils. The lockers are made of wood; the upper and lower panels of the doors, the bottoms of the lockers, and sometimes the tops are of strong wire netting. If it is necessary to econo- mize space, the floor area of each locker need not exceed 16 by 16 ins.; and it would seem feasible, if closer arrangement were found to be necessary, to arrange the lockers in two tiers, with access given to the upper tier by a ladder running 212 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. on a track, — an expedient sometimes used to reach the upper shelves of a high bookcase. The lockers may be furnished with inexpensive combination locks, in which case the janitor keeps the record of the combination; or each pupil maybe provided with a key, the janitor having a master key. The room in which the lockers are placed should be sunn}-, if possible, and it should be strongly ventilated. It is better to have the room ventilated through the lockers than to have the lockers ventilated through the rooms. h ■ » ■ ii| m f m JfS i m ASSEMBLY HAUL FIG. 142. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, TOLEDO, OHIO. The following considerations, which are of especial applica- tion to high schools, should be recognized in planning such buildings. The library may be given a northerly exposure. Drawing rooms should have a northern light. Ph3^sical laboratories require one wall with exposure to the sunlight. The room for storage of ph3'sical apparatus should be made as secure from the admission of dust as is possible. High school desks are 20 by 26 ins., the space from the front of the desks to back of the seats is 36 ins.* the aisles between desks are 20 ins. wide. 214 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The plans of schools of this grade have not been affected to the same extent by rigid system as have those of the ele- mentary schools of the United States; and from the experi- ments on the former type of building we may expect to derive the greatest advance in school planning, especially in the manner of lighting. It is mainly in high schools that the CLASS ROOM FOR SIXTY-THREE HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS. continental method of excluding windows immediately in the face of the teacher is seen. The advantages of this arrange- ment may prove so evident in these schools as to lead to its general adoption in our elementary schools; and when this is accomplished, there will come, of necessity, narrower class rooms with a smaller number of pupils under each teacher. CHAPTER IX. MANUAL TRAINING AND MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOLS. The schools in which courses in mechanical training are given in conjunction with the principal high school studies are known either as " manual training," or as " mechanic arts" high schools. The courses in these schools are designed to develop manual skill, but not to teach trades. Intellectual activity is encouraged both by the study of books, and of tools, materials, and mechanical processes. Manual training is but one factor of the instruction given, and such training is used as a means to an end, 'not as an end in itself. " Mechanic arts high" is a clumsy term, but it closely designates the pur- pose of such schools; while the name " manual training" sug- gests too narrow limitations, and confuses the purpose with that of the technical or trade schools whose object is purely utilitarian. It is probable that courses in the mechanic arts will soon be so common in non-classical secondar}' schools that no further distinguishing term than " high school " will be necessary. Schools of this grade are provided with the class rooms, recitation rooms, laboratories, and drawing rooms of high schools, but they are further provided with rooms equipped with the necessary benches, tools, and machinery for teaching the elements of carpentry, wood-carving, turning, forging, and machine-shop practise. Drawing rooms are more important features than in other high schools, and in some cases molding and clay modeling rooms are furnished. The buildings are the latest and most complex development of the American secondary schools, and, consequently, they have not yet been perfected in all their features. But few schools of the class wholly designed for the purpose have, as yet, been built; and foreign countries, although industrial training has been longer established and is more general in 2l6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. northern Europe and in England than in the United States, offer suggestions of future rather than immediate models. The secondary schools of this nature in England and Europe are generally designed to teach trades, although in England the tendency is towards making the courses more educational than formerly and hence these English and American schools have certain features in common. At St. Louis, Chicago, Cambridge, Boston, and Toledo especially designed schools of this class have been built. In many cases existing build- ings, as in the first school of this class at Toledo, have been adapted by alterations or additions to meet the needs of this kind of instruction. The St. Louis Manual Training School (Fig. 143) vv^as built partly in 1879 and partly in 1882, at a time when there was no American precedent to guide its projectors. On the third floor of this building are the first-year schoolroom, fitted with ninety-six desks, two recitation rooms, each fitted with twenty-four shelf chairs, a drawing room, a physical labora- tory, and one wood-working room, with benches for twenty pupils. On the second floor is the second-year schoolroom, with eighty-eight desks, this class being composed of four divisions of twenty-two pupils each. Here, also, are a wood-working room, with twenty-four benches and twenty-four turning lathes, a molding and soldering room with twenty-four benches, and a drawing room. In the first story are the office of the principal, the third- year schoolroom, with sixty-three desks, and the forging shop, with twenty-two forges and anvils, of which but twenty are shown on the plan here given. There is no basement under the forge shop. The machine shop is also on this floor. This room is equipped with lathes, drills, and other machine tools, and has fourteen benches, marked g on the plan, and dressing lockers, marked C- A small chemical laboratory adjoins the third-year schoolroom. The second and third floors are provided with the requisite MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 217 2l8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. wash-rooms; those for the first-floor shops are placed in the basement. Here, also, are dressing rooms and toilet rooms, the engine room, the repair shop, a lunch room, and a warm- air chamber, the boiler being in a separate chamber. Under the steps is the fire-proof oil room. Dr. C M. Woodward, the director of this school and author of a treatise on " The Manual Training School," says, in criti- cism of the plan of the St. Louis school: — " I. The forging shop, which is the noisiest shop in all, is rather too near the schoolrooms. In warm weather, when the windows are open, the noise is somewhat troublesome. I should prefer a plan which turned the shop wing ninety de- grees to the left, so as to place the forging shop directly be- yond the machine shop. In other words, I would put the school and drawing rooms at the head of a "f, and the shops in the long central part, with the forging shops at the extreme end. " 2. There is no well or shaft for the transmission of power to the several floors from the basement. The transmission should be from floor to floor by belts with suitable tighteners. Each shop should be furnished with a clutch, by means of which the teacher in charge may turn on his shop or turn it off* at pleasure, without interfering with the other shops. At times the teacher needs a quiet room, where his voice may be easily heard as he gives the theory of a machine, explains the details of a process, or criticizes work before a class. In the transfer of power, gearing is too noisy for a school. The main shafting and pulleys of the machine shop of the St. Louis school cannot be stopped without stopping the engine. While this defect is hard to remedy, it may easily be avoided in a new plan. " 3. On the third floor I would interchange the wood-work- ing shop with the drawing and physics rooms. This would accomplish two things: first, it would place the drawing room and physical laboratory over a comparatively quiet room, as there is no noise in the molding room; and, secondly, no MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 219 divisions would pass through a shop where the boys are at work." Dr. Woodward further suggests: "As a rule, the study and recitation rooms should be separated from the shops by two walls enclosing halls, stairways, or yard; at the same time I should prefer to have all the rooms for a class on the same floor, or as nearly so as possible, and but a few steps away. It may not work badly to have a division cross the yard, but I advise strongly against sending a division out of the yard, or SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 144. FIRST FLOOR PLAN. CAMBRIDGE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. across the street. I do not favor the transfer of a division of students from one principal to another and back again. No principal would like that arrangement in the case of such a study as arithmetic or spelling, and shop work and drawing should be treated with precisely the same consideration. The same precautions should, in all cases, be taken to prevent irregularities and loss of time. In short, manual work should be treated as school work, and watched and guarded and sustained as such." The use of a dynamo in each shop to 220 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. S w W oa <: MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 221 drive the machinery removes all of the difficulties connected with the transmission of power, suggested by Dr. Woodward. The first Toledo Manual Training School was built in 1885 as an addition to a large high school. This building was burned two or three years ago, and the writer has been unable to obtain the plans of the new manual training school which has been built upon the site of the former building. The plans of the new manual training school in Chicago are also lacking. The Cambridge Manual Training School (Fig. 144) was founded by Mr. Frederick H. Rindge, and presented by him MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Rotch & Tilden, Architects. to the city. The shops and drawing rooms are in a building by themselves, connected by a covered way with the build- ing assigned to the academic course (Fig. 145). In this latter building are schoolrooms, physical laboratory, assembly hall, fire drill hall, and gymnasium. In the wood-working room of the mechanical building there are two departments: one for general carpentry, and the other for turning and pattern-making. Sixteen pupils can be accom- modated at one time in each of these departments. The iron- working room is also fitted for two distinct kinds of work. The appliances upon the west side are adapted to chipping. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 223 filing, drilling, scraping, etc., while those upon the east side are for machine tool work. Classes of twelve pupils are accommodated in each department. The forge shop is fur- nished with portable forges, connected with a blower and an exhaust fan, together with anvils, tool benches, and tools for classes of fifteen pupils. The drawing rooms upon the second FIG. 146. BASEMENT PLAN. MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON. floor are furnished with convenient appointments for classes of thirty pupils. Adjoining the drawing-rooms are a reading room and a supply room. Three classes are accommodated daily in each department. With the exception of the space required for the janitor's room, the central portion of the basement and the entire 224 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. southern wing are devoted to toilet rooms, wash-rooms, and two hundred and seventy-tive lockers for the accommodation of the pupils' clothing. These lockers are grouped about large sinks supplied with hot and cold water. Leading from one of the wash-rooms is a well-appointed shower-bath. Ad- joining the kitchen is a small dining room in which dinners THIRD FLOOR PLAN. Q e [Dram ^m mm ^..SL- fn - — h mmmmm ri L i SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 147. MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON. are served, at cost, to the instructors and such pupils as desire them. The remaining space in this wing is devoted to a supply room, and to a large dining room in which pupils eat the lunches which they bring to school. The Mechanic Arts High School, at Boston, was opened in 1893, but the north wing, containing the laboratories and MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 225 library, was not completed until 1900. The plans of the com- pleted structure (Figs. 146, 147) have been developed by experience, and the building now lacks but two important features, — a gymnasium and an especially assigned assembly hall. The following description of the plan and appointments of the school is based upon that given in the last report of the head master. Dr. Charles W. Parmenter, and it has been amended by him in conformity with the equipment of the completed building. In the basement are the forge shop, in a one story structure, the boiler room, coal room, engine room, engineer's storeroom, the janitor's room, and the bicycle room. Here, also, are the principal toilet rooms, and dressing rooms containing two hun- dred and fifty-eight clothes lockers, each fitted with a com- bination lock, and adapted to accommodate two boys. Each of these lockers is 23 by 18 ins. in plan, and 5 ft. high. The floors and the upper panel of each door are of stout wire- netting. In one of the dressing rooms is the lunch counter. On the first floor are the office of the head master, with a lobby for visitors and a library adjoining, the chemical labora- tory and the room for chemical stores, two schoolrooms, one of which accommodates eighty pupils, and the other, ninety- six, three recitation rooms, the machine shop, the tool room for metal-working tools, a storage room for metal stock, an office for the instructors in metal work, and a private room for men teachers. On the second floor are the physical laboratory, a teacher's laboratory, and storage room for apparatus with a dark room adjoining, a private room for women teachers, two schoolrooms identical with those on the first floor, two wood- working rooms for first-year pupils, the carpentry tool room, the room for the preparation of wood-working stock, and the finishing room. On the third floor are two schoolrooms identical with those on the first floor, a small schoolroom which accommodates thirty pupils, two drawing rooms, a storage room for drawing 226 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. MACHINE SHOP, NORTH SIDE. MACHINE SHOP, SOUTH SIDE. MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 227 materials, a wood-turning and pattern-making room, a model- ing room, and a toilet room. The two large schoolrooms are separated by flexible doors, so that they may be thrown to- gether to furnish an assembly hall for occasional use. Each of the drawing rooms has accommodations for six classes, daily, of thirty-six pupils. Each drawing table (Fig. 148) is fitted with a locker, which holds six half imperial drawing boards. The six drawers, on the right of this locker, contain the personal property of each pupil. The following instruments are supplied to each table, and are used in com- mon by members of different classes. With the exception FIG. 148. DRAWING TABLE. of the T square, the}' are stored in the drawer over the locker: — A celluloid triangle, 7-in. 45° ; a celluloid triangle, g-in. 30° and 60° ; a cellu- loid curve, No. 26; a hard rubber curve, No. 4; an architect's triangular scale, i2-in. ; a foot rule; a thumb tack lifter; a knife; an emery lead sharpener; a dusting cloth ; and a 24-in. T square. 228 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Over the teacher's platform in each drawing room, in addi- tion to the slate blackboard on the wall, is a set of three movable blackboards placed one directly in front of another, and each hung by counterbalanced weights. In the rear of the larger room are the sink and racks for washing and drying blue prints. Two adjoining rooms on the second floor are assigned to the department for wood-working with hand tools. These rooms are equipped for six classes, daily, of thirty-six pupils. Each room is furnished with eighteen double benches, 57 ins. long, 45 ins. wide on the top, and varying in height from 29 ins. to 33 ins. On each side of these benches is a tier of three drawers, one of which is assigned to each pupil for the set of cutting tools with which he is supplied. Here, also, are kept his apron and unfinished work. Upon a vertical tool board, 9^ ins. high, which divides the top of the bench in the center, and upon hooks and shelves at the ends of the bench are kept the following measuring and miscellaneous tools used in common by members of different classes: — Stanley Rule and Level Company's tools ; one each, T bevel, 10 ins., No. 18 ; rule, 2 ft., No. 18; try-square, 6 ins.. No. lo. A Buck Brothers screw-driver, 5 ins.. No. 69; Bemis & Call wing dividers, 7 ins.; a Spofford bit brace. No. 108; a Disston rip-saw, 22 ins., D 8, with 8 teeth to the inch ; a Disston cross-cut saw, 22 ins., D 8, with 10 teeth to the inch ; a Disston back-saw, 12 ins., No. 4 ; a Bliss mallet. No. 3 ; a Maydole adze-eye bell-faced hammer. No. 13; a Washita oil stone, 8 by 2 by i|- ins., in box ; a brass paragon oil can. No. o ; a bench hook, 1 2 by 8 by ^ ins. ; two winding sticks, 18 by 2 by ^ ins. ; a dust brush. The individual sets kept in the drawers are: — Bailey's patent adjustable iron tools: one each, jack-plane, 14 ins., No. 5 ; jointer- plane, 22 ins.. No. 7; smoothing-plane, 8 ins.. No. 3; spoke-shave, No. 51 ; Buck Brothers shank firmer chisels. No. 2, one each, ^, |, 1, i^ ins.; a gothic point knife; genuine Russell Jennings bits, one each, J, |, ^, |. | in. ; a whisk broom; a Stanley marking gage, No. 65. Each pupil is also supplied with a tray, 26^/^ ins. long, 13% ins. wide, and i^ ins. deep, divided into compartments adapted to receive the following set of Buck Brothers' London style carving tools : — MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 229 woon-woRKixr; shop. WOOD-TURNING SHOP. MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON. 230 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Chisels, one each, i in., No. i ; ^ in., No. i ; | in.. No. 2 ; gouges, one each, | in., No. 3 ; j\ in., No. 4 ; ^\ in., No. 5 ; ^% in., No. 5 ; /^ in.. No. 5 ; f in.. No, 5 ; ^ in.. No. 6 ; ^% in., No. 7 ; y\ in., No. 7 ; ^^ i"-' No. 1 1 ; 1 in., No. 11; ^% in., No. 1 1 ; parting tool, I in.. No. 39. These trays are stored in cases at one end of each room. Two Brown & Sharpe grindstone troughs, fitted with stones and truing devices, are installed in one of these rooms. The tool room, which contains a variety of minor supplies, together with a large collection of miscellaneous tools for occasional use, is located between the two wood-working rooms, and is entered from each of them. Many of the shelves in this room are divided by narrow strips of wood in such a way that each tool has its appropriate compartment. Each pupil is supplied with three brass checks bearing his shop number, one of which will be received by the person in charge of the tool room in exchange for any desired tool. The check is placed in the compartment from which the tool is taken, where it remains until it is redeemed by the return of the tool. The following are the principal tools in this tool room: — Bailey's patent adjustable iron planes : four beading, No. 50 ; two dado, fillester, plow, etc.. No. 46 ; one tonguing and grooving. No. 48 ; one tonguing and grooving. No. 49 ; twenty-four rabbet, i in., No. 192; one beading, rabbet, and slitting, No. 45; one bull-nose rabbet, No. 75; two circular, No. 13. Buck Brothers' tools: shank firmer chisels, No. 2, six each, I, ^^, ^\, ^, |, f, J, ly, ij ins.; twelve each, rose countersinks, No. 83, snail counter sinks, No. 84 ; six cabinet maker's burnish- ers, 5 ins., No. 91 ; eighteen square-point nail sets, assorted; eighteen round-point nail sets, assorted. One new Langdon miter box, No. 2 ; one Stanley adjustable spirit level, 30 ins. ; two adjustable ball and socket saw clamps ; one rachet bit brace ; six Stanley rule trammel points, No. 99 ; two Morrill saw sets, No. i ; two Stubs flat nose pliers ; steel figures and letters for wood, one set, \ in. ; for metal, one set, I in., and one set, ^ in. ; seventy-two chalk lines, reels, and awls ; twenty-four brad awls, assorted sizes; two Clark patent expansive bits; three Sargent steel squares, 24 ins.. No. 300. Files: thirty-six flat bastard, 10 ins.; thirty half round bastard, 10 ins. ; twelve half round smooth, 10 ins.; six pillar, 7 by ^ ins., No. 6 ; twelve three square, 7 ins., assorted ; six Nicholson file brushes. Stanley Rule and Level Company's tools : two try-squares, 12 ins.. No. 10 ; two miter squares, 12 ins.. No. 16; twelve Bemis & Call wing calipers, 6 ins. ; twelve best French cabinet scrapers, square, 5 by 3 ins.; twelve best French cabinet scrapers, curved, 5^ by 2^ ins.; one Coes monkey wrench, 12 ins.; sixty Miller's Falls turning saws and frames, 18 ins. ; genuine Russell Jennings bits, twelve I in. ; one each, ^'?^, ^^, ^^, |^, ||, j| in. ; German nail bits, twelve each, |, ^^, ^^^ in. ; six Stearns patent dowel pointers ; two MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 23! Disston rip-saws, 26 ins., D 8, 6 teeth to the inch ; two Disston cross-cut saws, 26 ins., D 8, 7 teeth to the inch. R. Bliss & Co.'s tools: eighteen cabinet maker's clamps. No. 74 ; sixty hand screws. No. 1 1 ; sixty hand screws. No. 4. Buck Brothers' London style carving tools, four of each; front bent chisels, No. 21, ^\j, j\, \ in.; No. 22, |, /g, \ in. ; No. 23, |, j\, \ in.; front bent gouges, No. 27, I in. ; No. 32, \ in. ; back bent gouges. No. 35, \ in. ; No. 38, \ in. ; parting tools, No. 43, \ in.; gouges, No. 3, i in.; No. 5, i in.; No. 11, f in. Opening out of one of the wood-working rooms is a small room for the preparation of stock for models and for special saw work. Here are installed a double-arbor bench saw, a band-saw, for the use of the instructors and especially skilful pupils onl}-, and a jig-saw, which all the pupils are permitted to use. The location of these saws in a separate room per- mits their use without disturbance to class exercises. In the wood-turning and pattern-making room there are thirty-six benches. On one side of the bench is an ii-in. speed lathe, the other side is used for hand tool work. As in the other wood-working rooms, these benches are fitted with 9-in, quick-action vises. Beneath the lathe is a tier of three drawers, in each of which is kept a set of turning tools. On the opposite side, under the work bench, is a tier of four drawers. The top drawer in this tier is devoted to the measuring and miscellaneous tools used in common by mem- bers of different classes, while each of the three others con- tains an individual set of cutting tools. Individual turning tools: — Buck Brothers' tools : gouges. No. 20, one each, \, \, %, ^\ ins. ; chisels. No. 19, one each, |, \, |, i^ ins. ; No. 103, | in.; No. 104, \ in. ; parting tool, No. 18, f in.; a Washita gouge slip. Individual joinery tools: — Bailey's patent adjustable iron tools : one each, fore-plane, 18 ins. No. 6 ; smooth- ing plane, 8 ins., No. 3 ; spoke-shave, No. 51. Buck Brothers' shank firmer chisels, No. 2, one each, J, |, r, i ^ ins. ; a gothic point knife ; a Stanley marking gage. No. 65 ; a whisk broom. Tools used in common: — Bemis & Call Company's tools : wing dividers, 7 ins. ; wing calipers, 6 ins. ; patent inside calipers, 6 ins. Genuine Russell Jennings bits, one each, \, |, \, |, | in. Stanley Rule and Level Company's tools: try-square, 6 ins., No. 10 ; rule, 2 ft., No. 232 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. l8; T bevel, lo ins., No, i8. A Maydole adze-eye bell-faced hammer, No 13; a Bliss mallet. No. 3 ; a Buck Brothers screw-driver, 5 ins.. No. 69; a Spofford bit brace, No. 108 ; a Disston rip-saw, 22 ins., D 8, with 8 teeth to the inch ; a Disston cross-cut saw, 22 ins., D 8, with 10 teeth to the inch ; a Disston back-saw, 12 ins., No. 4; a bench hook, 12 by 8 by i ins. ; two winding sticks, 18 by 2 by h ins.; a Washita oil stone, 8 by 2 by 1 i ins., in box. ; a brass paragon oil can, No. o ; a Chase patent brass oiler. No. 2 ; a dust brush. Conveniently located in the center of the room are two grindstones and a pattern-maker's lathe having an 8-tt. bed, TURNING AND PATTERN-MAKING. DEMONSTRATION LESSON. and capable, with open slide, of doing work 36 ins. in diameter. This lathe is fitted with the most approved devices for doing all kinds of work, and is designed to be used only by the in- structor and by pupils who develop special skill and demon- strate their ability to do a high order of work. Near at hand is a small tool room, which contains a large variety of minor supplies, and all miscellaneous tools likely to be needed. The 234 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. loft above this room furnishes adequate storage for a year's supply of lumber. In one corner of each of the three wood-working rooms is an amphitheater, in which . the entire class may be seated so that each member can see plainly the work done by the in- structor at the demonstration bench. The space behind the amphitheater has been utilized to provide a convenient place for sinks and mirrors. Each room is also furnished with large cases, which provide convenient storage for prepared stock and finished work. The frames of drawing tables and work- benches, and all exposed parts of tables, benches, and cases are ash; the sides of drawers, interior of cases, and tops of drawing tables are white pine; the tops of work-benches are of narrow strips of maple glued together to prevent warping. All drawers and compartments of cases are fitted with locks, no two of which have the same combination, but all are operated by a master key. The tables and benches have been constructed in the most thorough and substantial manner, and no pains have been spared to make every part of the equip- ment illustrate excellence of design and workmanship. The forge shop is a one-story brick structure, 93 ft. long and 41 ft. wide, which occupies the entire space between the two wings in the rear of the main building. It is lighted both by windows in the wall and by a large monitor with skylight. Its relation to the main building is such that the noise incident to the work causes no disturbance in the class rooms. It is equipped with B. F. Sturtevant Company's new down draft forges, and all necessary appliances for the instruction of three classes, daily, each containing thirty-six pupils. The equip- ment of each forge is as follows : — A set of blacksmith's tongs (groove in jaw) for holding iron, |^, ^, |, ^, | in. ; tool tongs for |-in. square iron ; square groove tongs for iron, ^ by J in. ; bolt tongs, I in. ; a poker for forge, 2 f t. ; a dipper, 3^ ins. diameter, 3 J ins. deep, handle, 15 ins. ; a rake for forge, 2 f t. ; a coal hod ; a forge shovel. Upon a post convenientl}' located with reference to each of MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 235 these forges is an eagle anvil weighing 130 lbs., near which is placed a tool bench supplied with the following tools: — A cross peen hand hammer, 2\ lbs. ; a top and bottom swage, I in.; a hot chisel from I i-in. steel ; a flatter, 2-in. face ; a set hammer, i |-in. face ; a hardy, |-in. shank ; a heading tool, /^v in. ; a center punch, | by 5 ins. ; top and bottom fullers, I in. ; a steel square, 12 ins., graduated to ^^ in. outside, ^r^ in. inside ; Bemis & Call outside wing calipers, 6 ins. ; punches, one each, i, | in. ; copper plate, 2^ by 2| by I ins. ; a dust brush. Each of the thirty-six tool benches (Fig. 149), 14 by 21 ins. in plan, and 27 ins. high, contains three drawers, one of which is assigned to each boy for the storage of the models FIG. 149. TOOL BENCH IN FORGE SHOP. which he has completed, or on which he is engaged. Each of these individual drawers is furnished with a i^-lb. ball peen hand hammer. Fourteen blacksmith's vises and one combina- tion pipe vise are attached to benches firmly secured to the brick floor in convenient locations. Fans of ample size pro- duce blast for the forges, and carry away the foul air and products of combustion. In one corner of the room is a raised platforrh, on which 236 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. thirty-six arm chairs are placed for the use of pupils during the demonstration lessons. The instructor's forge, located in front of this platform, is supplied with a hand blower for use when the engine is not running. A 75-lb. power hammer, a New Doty Manufacturing Company's No. 7 A power shear, a drill press, an automatic drop press (Mossberg & Granville Company's pattern) built by pupils in 1899-1900, an emery grinder, a bolt heading machine, and numerous miscellaneous tools complete the equipment. The machine shop is equipped for classes of twenty-four pupils. The benches, 20 ins. wide and from ;^2 to ^6 ins. high, which extend along three sides of this room are divided into twenty-four sections, each provided with a vise and a tier of four drawers, one of which is assigned to each pupil. In this drawer the boy stores the work upon which he is engaged, together with about a dozen files and a set of chisels and lathe tools. Four additional pupils can be accommodated, in emer- gencies, at a less convenient bench located on the west side of the room. At the beginning of a lesson each pupil obtains from the tool room a tray, adapted to fit a compartment either in the upper drawer at his bench or on the tool-board of his lathe. This tray contains the following tools: — A Brown & Sharpe hardened steel try-square, 3 ins. ; a Brown & Sharpe tem- pered steel rule, 6 ins., No. 7 graduation ; a Brown & Sharpe tempered center gage ; Starrett outside lock-joint calipers, 6 ins. ; Starrett inside lock-joint calipers, 4 ins. ; Fay outside spring calipers, 3 ins. ; Fay spring dividers, 3 ins. ; a file card ; an Arkansas oil stone, 2 by i by f\ ins. ; a center punch ; a prick punch ; a scratch awl ; a center chisel ; a tin box for chalk ; a key to the upper drawer at the bench. Upon the bench or in the upper drawer are kept: — A Spiers ball peen hammer, i^ lbs. ; a pair of brass vise jaws ; hardwood blocks for use in chipping; a bench plate, 8 by 6 by i ins.; a parallel, 4 by 2 by i ins.; a parallel, 4 by 1 1 by | ins. ; a Draper steel oiler, No. 13 ; and a bench brush. The vises are of several varieties, as follows : thirteen Lewis, 4 ins.. No. 39 ; one Lewis, 4 ins., No, 10, with swivel jaw and base; seven Standard, 4 ins.. No. 91 ; two Mechanics, 4 ins. ; i Miller's Falls, 4 ins. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 237 This shop is equipped with the following machine tools: — Three 14-in. engine lathes, 5-ft. beds, each having a com- pound rest, and one a taper attachment, built by the Fitchburg Machine Works; one 14-in. engine lathe, 5-ft. bed, with com- pound rest, taper attachment, and wire chucks, built by the Hendey Machine Company; one 14-in. engine lathe, 6-ft. bed, with compound rest, built by Prentice Brothers; sixteen 12-in. FORGE SHOP. DEMONSTRATION LESSON. engine lathes, 5-ft. beds, with elevating rests, built by the F. E. Reed Company; three 12-in. engine lathes, 5-ft. beds, with plain rests and taper attachments, built by F. E. Reed Company; one 20-in. planer, built by Fitchburg Machine Works, supplied with a lo-in. Skinner vise with square base; one 17-in. planer built by Whitcomb Manufacturing Company, supplied with 8-in. Skinner vise with square base; one 14-in. pillar shaper, built by the Pratt & Whitney Company; one 238 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. 2 universal milling machine, built by the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company; one universal hand lathe, built by the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company sup- plied with shell chucks, J, yg, |, ^%, and | in,; a Whiton geared scroll chuck, 2^ ins., and an Almond drill chuck, No. 2; four lo-in. hand lathes, three with 35^-ft. beds, one with 4-ft. bed, built by the Putnam Machine Company; four 9-in. hand lathes, 3 5^ -ft. beds, one of which has a foot power attachment (F. E. Reed Company's pattern), built by pupils in 1897-98; one Walker universal tool and cutter grinder, complete with attachments, built by the Norton Emery Wheel Company; one 20-in. standard upright drill, built by Prentice Brothers, fitted with Pratt drill chuck, No. 2; one upright drill, built by Sigourney Tool Company, fitted with Almond drill chuck, No. 2; one lo-inch sen- sitive drill, with centering attachment (Dwight Slate Ma- chine Company's pattern), built by pupils in 1899-1900, fitted with Almond drill chuck. No. 2; two grindstone troughs, built by Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, each fitted with a 39-in. stone and truing device; one Challenge wet and dry grinder. No. C, built by Appleton Manufacturing Com- pany; one Greenerd arbor press, No. 3; one power hack saw. Th'e following chucks are fitted to the Engine lathes: one Westcott scroll combination, lo-in., three jaws; two Standard independent, lo-in., four jaws; three Union combination, 6-in., three reversible jaws; five National independent, 6-in., four reversible jaws; 10 Skinner independent, 6-in., four jaws; one Whiton geared scroll, 4-in.; one Pratt, No. i. The fol- lowing chucks are fitted to the Putnam hand lathes; four Whiton geared scroll, 3-in.; one Whiton geared drill; one Little Giant drill, No. o. Each engine lathe is furnished with a tool board of special design, adapted to receive the tool tray, and to provide a convenient place for cutting and miscella- neous tools. Upon pegs, in a vertical board fastened under the bed of each lathe, are kept the face plates, change gears, back rest, chuck drill rest, and a set of dogs, ^, ^, i, ij4i MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 239 and 2 ins. There is no available space for an amphitheater similar to those in the wood-working department. During the demonstration lessons pupils occupy tablet arm chairs grouped about the instructor's bench, which is placed in front ot a large blackboard in the rear of the room. Near at hand is the tool room, furnished with shelves and cases for the numerous tools required for the various kinds of work. One of these cases, which stands near the door, contains the small tools likely to be needed frequently, and the tool trays previousl}' mentioned. An attendant delivers these trays to the pupils at the beginning of the lesson, and is always ready to furnish any desired tool in exchange for a pupil's check. The universal tool and cutter grinder and the power hack- saw are located in this room. The principal small tools are enumerated in the following list: — Morse twist drills: one set, Nos. i to 60 ; one set, ^L to .| in. ; one set, A to Z; one earh 3 3 17 35 9 10 39 5 21 43 11 23 47 3 25 51 53 5 9 in- twn parh tV. A' It. II' kI' hh II in-' Nos. 1,17, 20, 36, 46 ; six each, ^\, 1, i| in., Nos. 6, 16, 24, 25, 29, 3t, 33, 43 ; twelve each, |, ^\, | in. ; twenty-four ^^^ in. Morse straight-way drills, y\r to J in. ; Slocomb combination center drills : twelve each, ^jr, ^2' i ^^- Pratt & Whitney center reamers : two \ in., six | in. Drill gages : one each, Nos. i to 60, J^ to ^ in., A to Z. Brown & Sharpe pocket screw and wire gage. Wells Brothers center drill chucks : one ^^^ in., eight 3^^ in., two 1 in. Carpenter hand taps, one set, \ to | in. Machine screw taps: one 14 by 36; three each, 3 by 48, 10 by 32, 12 by 24; twelve each, 4 by 36, 6 by 32, 8 by 32, 10 by 24, 14 by 20. Machine screw dies : one each, 3 by 48 ; 10 by 32, 12 by 24, 14 by 36 ; eight each, 4 by 36 ; 6 by 32, 8 by 32 ; 10 by 24, 14 by 20. Carpenter round die set, No. 9 B ; Carpenter adjustable round dies. No. 2, ^ to ^ in. Two Morse screw plates, A, with dies, ^ to ^ in. Tap wrenches: Nichols, Nos. 00, o, i, 2; Morse, B; six Pratt & Whitney, J6; two Wells Brothers, No. i. One Wells Brothers lathe die holder, DD. Carpenter pipe taps and dies, |^ to | in. Barnes pipe cutter, No. i. Reamers: Pratt & Whitney hand, i to i j^^y ins.; Betts adjustable hand, \ to I in. ; Morse taper, Nos. 1,2; Morse taper roughing, two each, Nos. 1,2; Pratt & Whitney taper pin, Nos. o to 6. Mandrels : Pratt & Whitney, \ to i in. ; Morse, three each, \l, f, \^ ins. Starr^tt's tools : three scratch gages, 5 ins. ; hermaphrodite calipers, three 4 ins., one 6 ins. ; inside lock-joint calipers, 6 ins. ; outside lock-joint calipers, 8 ins. ; six universal bevels ; depth gage, 4 ins. ; combination set, 9 ins. ; patent double square with bevel blade, 4 ins.; level, 12 ins. ; four hack-saw frames, No. 2, 8 ins.; 240 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. surface gages, two No. i, one No. 2; high speed indicator, No. 104; lathe test indicator, No. 65. Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company's tools : micrometer calipers with friction attachment, nine No. 19, one No. 20, two No. 30 ; vernier caliper, 6 ins., Eng. and met.; two beveled steel straight edges, 12 ins.; standard steel rules, 12 ins., one No. i graduation, one No. 4 graduation ; hardened steel try-square, 6 ins. ; key seat rule, 4 ins. ; test indicator ; mercury plumb bob, 3^ oz. ; surface plates, eight 4| by 6 ins., one 6 by 12 ins.; standard external and internal cylindrical gages, I in. ; two gas heaters ; standard screw thread gage. No. 285. Pratt & Whitney caliper gages, | to | in.; Speirs ball peen hammers, two 12 oz, ; four 6 oz. ; two small riveting hammers ; steel figures, ^j., 3^, ^ in. ; steel alphabet, j^ in. ; steel stamps, M. A. H. S., one each, ^^, -^^, | in. ; soldering set; 40-ft. tape ; six knurl handles with assorted knurls ; Pratt & Whitney knurling tool; Goodell breast drill, No. 6 ; Miller's Falls hand drill. No. 5; pipe wrench, 18 ins. ; Goes wrenches, one each, 6, 8, 12 ins. ; four rawhide mallets. No 2 ; Babbet ham- mer, No. 2 ; two steel screw clamps, 6 ins. ; two Billings & Spencer steel C clamps. No. 3 ; two Lecount heavy steel clamps. No. 2 ; two Besley parallel clamps, 4 ins.; Almond turret head, No. i ; Pratt & Whitney hollow mills, one each, ^, y^^, | in. ; Vanderbeek handy vises, two 2| ins., one 3| ins., one 6 ins. ; Billings & Spencer clamp dogs, eighteen No. i, four No. 2, two No. 3 ; Smith friction drill C, with socket wrenches ; Walworth brass pipe wrench, |^ to i in, , The stock-room is furnished with shelves, compartments, and racks adapted to provide convenient storage for the many varieties of supplies, castings, and prepared metal stock that are needed by the classes. Industrial schools of the continent of Europe differ in their object from the mechanic arts high schools of the United States, but they have sufficient similarity of purpose to render their plans suggestive. The manual training and the Sunday and holiday schools of Germany are for those pupils who are already employed as apprentices or journeymen; in such schools they receive ele- mentary instruction in arithmetic, geometry, the German language, drawing, etc., as well as instruction in their chosen trades. The German special industrial schools devote themselves to some one particular trade, and especially to the building trades; in these, apprentices and journe3'men can acquire special knowledge and familiarity with detail which it is im- possible to obtain when actually engaged in the practise of MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 241 the trade; while the building-trades schools, which really be- long to the class of technical high schools, are those from which overseers and managers are graduated. The special schools for masons, carpenters, and stone-cutters have been considered to belong to the relatively lower grade, up to the present time, but there is now a tendency to give a higher range to the studies of these schools. FIG 150. DRAWING ROOM IN A FRENCH INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. The regulation of such schools is the most important work of the building guilds, and is made incumbent upon them by order of the emperor. There are special schools for forestry and agriculture, min- ing, trade, navigation, weaving, dyeing, lace-making, straw- plaiting, pottery, and watch-making, as well as some others which provide for other industries, such as metal-work, tin- smithing, iron and steel working, turning and carving, dress- 242 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. making, as well as the industrial and trade schools for women. There are also industrial drawing schools. In the special industrial schools the training is in one par- ticular line, entirely distinct from all others; the instruction is by classes, in a rigidly prescribed course for all participants alike. Other German industrial schools are provided with workshops only; this is true, also, of some of the French schools of this class. The organization of the European elementary industrial schools is so varied that the plans do not show much similar- FIRST FLOOR PLAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. FIG. 151. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL A J WORMS. ity; those in Germany resemble either the primary schools or the elementary burgher schools, or even the higher burgher schools; the latter is the case where instruction in drawing forms the most important part of the work, as, for instance, in the elementary schools for builders. The arrangement and equipment of class rooms are not unlike those of other elementary schools; the same is true of the rooms for instruction in drawing; such a room, belonging to a French school, is illustrated by Fig. 150, Many of these schools possess no buildings of their own, MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. 243 nilKI) KI.DOR I'LAN. SECOND FLOOR PLAN. ■?f?T rT'-0DDDDDD&cQaJXBDi tr ij Wood Jvo«'^) The contractor shall leave an unobstructed way along public and private ways for travelers, street cars, and teams, and for access to hydrants; from the beginning of the twilight through the whole of every night maintain, near all places in the public ways obstructed or made unsafe by him, sufficient lights to protect travelers in such ways from injury; provide proper walks for travelers over and around such places; pro- vide and use all other lights, fences, guards, and watchmen on and about the work; provide all necessary bridges and ways for access to property where the existing access is cut off by him, and see that the neighboring residents are not unneces- sarily inconvenienced; take all proper precautions to protect persons and property from injury by the carrying on of the work. (/) The contractor shall replace or put in good condition any tree, or public or private way, or sewer or drain, or water, gas, or other pipe, or catch-basin, wire, building, fence, or other structure interfered with b}' him, and not required to be removed under this contract. (y) The contractor shall maintain the flow in all water- courses, sewers, drains, and pipes interfered with by him, or convey the flow in covered channels to a suitable point of discharge, in such a manner as not to flow upon or hinder the work, or cause any nuisance. (>^) When for any reason the work is suspended, the con- tractor shall protect all the work, and the roadways and side- walks shall be left by him unobstructed, and in a safe and satisfactory condition. (/) The contractor shall furnish and lay all water pipes, gas pipes, and drains from inside the walls of the building to, and connect the same with, the street mains; shall make all appli- cations for and pay all charges for such connections, and shall pay for the use of water required for anything in connection with any work on the building until the completion thereof. SPECIFICATIONS FOR AN AMERICAN SCHOOL. 289 (/«) The contractor is not to furnish or install the plumbing, heating, or ventilating apparatus, or the wiring for the electric work, or the movable furniture; but the contractor is to do all jobbing and cutting, not only that which is necessary to fulfil all requirements of this contract, but that required in connec- tion with the work of installing the plumbing, heating and ventilating apparatus (and the electric work). No cutting shall be done without permission of the architect. (^n) The contractor shall furnish and maintain temporary doors and cotton screens for all openings on building, and protect the work from injury from the weather and from water, frost, accident, or other cause, and repair any such injury; shall make good any defect, omission, or mistake in the work within such time as shall be required in any notice so to do, signed by the architect and given to the contractor, or mailed to him at the business address stated by him in his proposal, whether so given or mailed during the progress of the work or after its completion, and whether any inspection or approval of, or payment for the work, or any part thereof, may have been made, or certificate for such payment given. (o) The contractor shall take charge of and be liable for any loss of or injury to any materials delivered on, or in the vicinity of the work, to be used thereon, whether furnished by the owner or otherwise; notify the architect as soon as any such materials are so delivered, and furnish men to handle them for examination by the architect or his assistants; and keep trimmed up in piles, so placed as not to endanger the work, all such materials and all refuse, rubbish, and other materials not removed. (^) The contractor shall promptly remove from the work and its vicinity all materials rejected, when so directed by the architect, and he shall remove promptly all rubbish (including ashes from heating apparatus), when so ordered by the architect. All rubbish to be removed from the interior of the building every Saturday night. (^) The contractor shall allow free use of his staging by 290 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. other persons working upon the building, and he shall shift the staging, and supply and set when necessary new ledgers and planking requisite for the carrying out of such work. (r) The contractor shall furnish and inaintain a proper temporary water-closet or privy, and allow the same to be used by every person doing anything relating to the erection and completion of the building, whether done under this contract or by other mechanics, and carry out all directions relating to such water-closets or privies; and he shall remove same when directed by the architect. (i-) (The contractor shall supply fuel and attendance for drying out and protecting the building during construction. When the heating apparatus is in readiness, the contractor may have the use of same, but it must be left in perfect repair, and must be furnished with new grates at the completion of the work.) (If temporary radiators are required, he shall bear the expense of installing the same) ; the contractor shall supply stoves, salamanders, etc., as directed by the architect. (The owner will supply fuel, but the contractor shall furnish attendance and stoves, salamanders, etc., as directed by the architect.) Section 2. Excavation. — (See Sec. i.) (a) Do all excavating necessary for the work covered by this contract. Such excavated material as is suitable for refilling may be used for this purpose; the contractor shall supply additional material for same which may be required, and he shall remove from the site all unsuitable or unneeded material when directed by the architect. {h) Refill, in all cases, with gravel or sand; puddle and ram same thoroughly. Layers of filling are not to be more than 6 ins. thick. {c) [Fill with 2 ft. of loam and cover with sod the portions of yard noted in drawings to be finished in this manner.] (fl?) [The owner will do all blasting.] Section 3. \^PiJe Driving. — (See Sec. i.) {a) The contractor shall do all necessary boring and sounding; he SPECIFICATIONS FOR AN AMERICAN SCHOOL. 29 1 shall keep a record of the movement of piles at each blow of the hammer, for the inspection of the architect. Furnish and drive the piles as shown by plan; all to be driven to hard pan, to be of spruce, not less than lo-in. diam- eter where cut off for capping-stone, or 6 ins. at the bottom. If any pile is split or driven out of position, the contractor is to drive a new one to take its place. (<^) Cut the piles off at grade 5 (except where otherwise shown), or as directed by the City Inspector. (c) Provide and maintain sheet piling wherever necessary, and pumps of sufficient size to keep trenches free from water until concrete footings are set.] Section 4. Foundations, (^d) [Start the foundations on proper -(granite) levelers; the whole foundation to be of (even- split block granite the full thickness of the walls, the length of the blocks to be about one third more than the width), (rubble work) laid in pure, fresh hydraulic cement, having good beds, builds, and faces, all thoroughly bonded, and laid solid, a true and even face showing on the inside, and also on the outside where exposed; all thoroughly pointed. Plaster outside of wall below grade of adjoining land with Portland cement.] {h) [Fill the bottom of all trenches, for their entire length and one foot wider than concrete footings, with a 12-in. bed of broken stone, which is to be thoroughly rammed. On this build concrete foundations. All concrete to be laid inside of plank, forming properly, and firmly secured in position, and in layers not more than 8 ins. thick, each layer to be thoroughly tamped, and the top surface cleaned off and wet, if necessary, before the succeeding layer is started. Should voids be dis- covered after the forms are taken down, the defective work is to be removed and the space refilled with suitable material. Concrete for the foundations shall be composed of American Portland cement (Lehigh), (Alpha), (Saylor), or (Atlas), clean, sharp sand, and clean, broken stone, mixed in the proportions of one part of cement to three parts of sand and (four) (five) parts of broken stone. In preparing mortar 292 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. and concrete, the cement, sand, and stone shall be mixed in the proportions by volume hereinafter specified. The cement shall be measured when compacted so that 380 lbs. of dry Portland cement have a volume of 3.6 cu. ft. The sand and stone shall be measured when not packed more closely than by throwing it in the usual way into a barrel or box. The broken stone shall average not over 2 ins. and shall not be greater in any measurement than 2 5^ ins. After the materials are wet, the work must proceed rapidly until the concrete is in place and is so rammed that water flushes to its surface and all the interstices between the stone are filled with mortar.] (c) Leave holes in walls for drain, gas, and water pipes, and for ducts. (^(f) Finish level and true on top, ready to receive the superstructure. Section 5. Provide Akron pipe and lay drains outside of building where shown on drawings, to be evenly pitched and the joints filled solidly with neat Portland cement; smoothly wipe off the inside of pipe. Section 6. Cement, {a) Portland cement shall be used for concrete foundations, for pointing joints and plastering of face masonry, for jointing of drain pipe, for setting terra-cotta lumber, for granolithic work, and for all brickwork of base- ment. In other parts of the work, unless otherwise specified, where cement is required, American natural hydraulic cement shall be used, except that in freezing weather Portland cement shall be used for all masonry and brickwork. The American cement shall be equal in quality to the best Rosendale cement, and the Portland cement equal in quality to the best imported Portland cement; both kinds shall be made by manufacturers of established reputation, and shall be fresh and very fine ground, and put up in well-made casks, unless the architect permits in writing the delivery of same in bags. (3) All the cement will be subject to inspection and rigorous test, and if found of improper qualit}^ will be branded, and must be immediately removed from the works. SPECIFICATIONS FOR AN AMERICAN SCHOOL^ 293 (c) The contractor shall at all times keep in store, at the site of the work, a sufficient quantity of the cements to allow ample time for the tests to be made without delay to the work of construction. The architect shall be notified at once of each delivery of cement. All cement shall be stored in a tight building, and each cask must be raised above the ground by blocking or otherwise. Section 7. JLi'me. All lime to be No. i Rockland lime, or its equivailent. Section 8. Sand. The sand used to make mortar shall be clean and sharp, sufficiently coarse, free from loam and pebbles. Section 9. Moriar. (a) Cement mortar for laying brick and stone masonry shall be prepared from sand and cement of the qualities before specified. The ingredients are to be evenly spread and thoroughly mixed dry, in the proportion of one part, by measure, of cement to two parts of sand, and a moderate quantity of water is to be afterwards added to produce a paste of the proper consistency; the whole to be quickly and thoroughly worked. (See Sec. 4 (<^) concerning proportions to be used in mixing mortar.) (3) Mortar shall be mixed in such quantities as will allow it to be used very soon after being mixed, and any mortar not used within three-quarters of an hour after being first wet shall be rejected. (c) Exterior brickwork is to be laid (in lime mortar) (colored with Venetian Red) (with yellow ochre) (in mortar, c.omposed of one barrel of Lafarge cement to two of lime). {d) [One course of brick backing for limestone to be laid in lime mortar.] Section 10. Brickwork. — (See Sec. i.) {a) No mason work is to be laid in freezing weather, except by written per- mission of the architect, and then only in accordance with such precautions as he may require. (See Sec. 6, a.^ {h) Construct all the brickwork indicated by the drawings, to be, except where otherwise specified, of hard-burned bricks. 294 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. unifoi^m in shape and size, and well wet, except in freezing weather, before laying. (c) The exterior brickwork is to be of selected (Eastern water-struck brick) (brick like sample in office) laid (full) "Flemish" bond (with full headers every five courses) or as shown on contract drawings. The yard wall, the vent stack and chimneys, where exposed, are to be constructed as above specified. (ci) Line the walls in basement with selected Eastern face brick, joints ruled for painting. (^) Line the exterior walls, which are to be plastered on inside, with- hard-burned, hollow clay brick 4 ins. thick, but all bonding brick and brick about door and window openings are to be solid hard-burned bricks. (y) Bed each and ever}^ brick in mortar under its bottom, sides, and ends, and bond the walls, unless otherwise specified, with course of full headers every seventh course, and lay in mortar, as specified in Sec. 9. (^) Lay the whole with perfectly level, plumb, and true bond; rule neatly the joints of all exposed work. (^) No putlog holes will be permitted in exposed brick- work except b}' written permission of the architect. (/) [Furnish and set molded brick where shown, to be in accordance with detail drawings.] Lay all door and window heads, jambs, arches, and stools in basement with round- cornered brick. (y) Build trenches and conduitsof8-in. brick walls for waste pipes from the basement plumbing fixtures shown on draw- ings; the outside of walls of these trenches to be plastered with Portland cement. Line with hard paving brick the sides and bottoms of trenches and conduits for pipes. (>^) Clean down and point the entire work at completion, inside and out, where brickwork is exposed, using no acid stronger than vinegar. If efflorescence appears on brick after the first cleaning, the whole must be cleaned again immediately before completion of all other work covered by the contract. SPECIFICATIONS FOR AN AMERICAN SCHOOL. 295 (Atter the bricks have thoroughly dried from final cleaning down, oil all exterior brickwork with one coat of linseed oil.) (/) Provide and set lintels for all flat window and door openings, and for vent and heat openings, braces, rods, railroad irons, etc., not especially noted on drawings or in specifications, but which are required for the stability and proper finish of the structure as contemplated by the contract drawings, and the specifications. (//?) Set all iron work required for the construction of the building. Firmly bed and fill in around all plates, beams, girders, etc. (n) Point around all window and door frames with cotton and elastic cement; staff beads to be removed to do this work. {o) Lay course of brick in lime mortar at back of all lime- stone. (p) All gas and electric pipes on plastered walls must be cut in to be flush. Section ii. Concreting, (a) Provide filling of cinders for granolithic work and clean gravel for other portions of building, 12 ins. thick; fill in and level off; settle and ram same solidly to the required grade. (d) Granolithic bed to be composed of clean crushed stone not larger than one inch, three to one of Portland cement, the same to be 5 ins. thick. Skim on this bed one inch thick to be powdered granite free from dust, one to one and one- half Portland cement, laid in alternate blocks in best manner. (c) Concrete for floors elsewhere (except that provided for filling to top of grounds in fire-proof floors in Sect. 19 (a), which is to be a concrete composed of Rosendale cement and clean washed cinders mixed in proportions approved by the ar- chitects), to be composed of three parts clean coarse gravel and one part of Rosendale cement, and where top of concrete is below Grade 12 the cement to be Portland concrete 4 ins. thick. (/^-\n. plate) (Blank Wire) glass. {d) Ventilators to be of i8-oz. copper on wrought-iron frames. {e) [Cowls for vent ducts to be of i8-oz. copper on wrought- iron frames, with movable louvers for all metal ducts.] (y) Make the whole roofing tight and keep it so for one year from date of acceptance of the building by the architect. i^g) [Cornices to be of galvanized iron with copper corona. Furnish all structural iron and steel framework for the above work.] {Ji) Paint with red lead back and face of all galvanized iron work when delivered. (/) Provide (i6-oz. copper) (crimped galvanized iron) con- ductors where shown ; the connection of same with sewer to be provided by the contractor for plumbing. [Conductors to be of cast iron inside the building and furnished by the 300 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. owner.] Provide sleeves and wire muzzles, all of 20-oz. copper, and connect with all conductors with lead goosenecks. Section 22. Metal Vents^ Heat Ducts, and Registers. — Metal vents, heat ducts, and registers will be provided and set by the owner. (For ventilator on roof, see Sec. 21, ed in this respect as Euro- pean 137, 139 See also Turnhalle. Gymnastics, Swedish system of . . -47 German system of 47 H type of construction . . . . .110 Gives better opportunity for lighting 192, 194 Plans of . . 99, 115, 119, 191, 209, 210 Halifax, England, arrangement for outdoor clothing in Higher Board School at . 69 Equipment of schoolrooms with black- boards at . . . . . .71 Apparatus for screening air supply in Higher Board School at . . .271 " Hall," in English Board Schools . . 67 In Infants schools . .... 68 Hammock room. See Emergency room. Hand control, for mixing dampers . . 269 Hand-rails, requirements for . . . . 5, 6 Hanover, architectural treatment of irregu- lar corner lots in . . . . . 155 Plan of Leibnitz Realschule in . . 157 Hardware, specifications for .... 305 Hartford, Conn., treatment of New Brown School at . .... loi, 103 Plan of same . ..... 106 Harvard College, "grammar" schools pri- marily preparatory for, in 1647 . . 78 Early preparatory schools for . . . 1 78 Heat, loss of, through single glazed sash . 8 Heating, highly developed system of, in Switzerland and America . . . 123 Indirect " natural " system of, unsatis- factorily used in English High and Latin School, Boston . . . 187 In Swiss schools superior to that of other continental schools .... 275 Employment of expert service in plans for 263 Two groups of systems of . . . 265 Height of class rooms ..... 130 In recent New York City schools . . 133 3i6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Pages. Height of schools 13 In England 73i 75 High schools, establishment of the modern . 180 Often little more than elaborate develop- ment of graded grammar schools . 187 Plans of, less affected by rigid system than those of elementary schools . 214 Plan of class room for . . . .214 Hildesheim, treatment of Gymnasium at . . . . 154, 155, 157 Plan of same 155 Hdhere Biirgerschule, non-classical schools, with six years' course (abolished since 1891) 142 Holiday schools of Germany provide in- struction for apprentices and journey- men ....... 240 Holland, co-education in .... 6 Hopedale, Mass., plan of grammar school in 84 Perspective sketch of same . . • 85 Treatment of same . . . . .88 Horticulture, principles of, taught in Scandi- navian school gardens .... 2 Hot air furnaces, heating by, generally pref- erable to direct heating . . . 266 Leakages from 267 Recently used in European schools . 275 Hot-water heating, likely to be more used in American schools . . . .272 Combination of with steam heating in some recent New York schools . .272 Use of, in English schools . . .273 Recently used in European schools . 275 Hospital, features of construction of, desir- able in schools .... 9 Hospital room. See Emergency room. House trap, best placed in brick manhole, outside building ..... 276 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, remodeling of 9 Prussian secondary education by .142 Incombustible materials, schoolhouses of St. Louis now built wholly of . . -93 Paul Revere School, Boston, first ele- mentary school in New England to be built of . . . . . .110 See also Fire-proof construction. Indirect central heating, by hot air fur- naces 265, 266 Indirect heating, with gravity ventilation, more advantageous than furnace heat- ing 266 Increased cost of 267 Except in fan systems, united with gravity ventilation .... 267 Uncertainties of 267 Reasons for added cost of, over direct heating 267, 268 With gravity ventilation, unsuitable for school of more than ten rooms . . 268 Industrial drawing schools, in Germany . 242 Free evening 250 Industrial training. See Manual training. "Infant class," English, similar in scope to American primary grade and kinder- garten 81 Infant schools, general treatment of, in France 42-44 Plan of one at Etienne . . . .42 Inlets, air, positions and size of . . . 270 Innsbruck, Austria, plan of industrial school at 243 Treatment of same ..... 245 / Pages. Instruments, drawing, supplied to pupils of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . 227 Iron work, specifications for . . . 297, 298 Iron- working, special schools for . . .241 Irregular corner lots, architectural treatment of. See Hanover, Karlsruhe, Leipsic- Reudnitz. Italian marble, too absorbent to be used in connection with plumbing fixtures 277, 278 Itinerant schools, in Scandinavian countries 45, 46 Janitors, living apartments for . . .11 In German elementary school buildings . 20 In English schools . . . . -72 In German secondary schools . . 143 In English High and Latin School, Boston 184 Should be held responsible for tempera- ture 269 Importance of faithful service from . 283 Recommendation of Mr. Philbrick re- garding janitor service . . . 283 Rules of School Board of Toledo regard- ing 283, 284, 285 Rules in Saxony regarding . . . 285 Johannes School, Stockholm, treatment and plan of 56 Elevation of . . . . . . 57 Joinery tools, supplied to pupils of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . . . 231 Joints of plumbing fixtures .... 276 Journeymen, manual training schools of Ger- many provide instruction for . 240 Kaiser Wilhelm Gymnasium, Aix-la-Chapelle, plan of 148 Treatment of 149 Karlsruhe, left-hand lighting ignored in Real- schule in 143 Plans of same 148 Treatment of same . . . 149, 150, 151 Treatment of Realgymnasium in . . 155 Plans of same 156 Keene's cement, for door and window trims 9, 301 Kindergarten, special provision for, seldom made in plans of American school- houses ....... 81 Provision for, in many New York City schools 118 Class rooms for, in Normal schools . 251 Knoxville marble best for use in connection with plumbing fixtures . . . 278 Konig Wilhelm Gymnasium, Stettin, view of 149 Plans and treatment of . . . .150 L type of school building. See Berne, Brom- berg, Karlsruhe, Salzwedel. Laboratories, provided in some American elementary schools . . . .86 Provision for, in English secondary schools . 164 In Cambridge High School . . 190 One wall with exjwsure to sunlight, essential in physical . . . .212 Quiet position for physical . . . 218 Lace-making, special schools for . . . 241 Lagrange School, Toledo . . . .98 Plan of loi Elevation of 102 Lancaster, Joseph, efforts of, for public edu- cation 66 Landings, staircase 6 Landscape gardening, in playgrounds of French elementary schools . . -41 INDEX. 317 Pages. Lathe, pattern-maker's, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston .... 232 Lathing and plastering, specifications for . . 300 Latin School, Boston, first free school sup- ported by public funds . . .178 See also English High and Latin School, Boston. Latin School, Cambridge .... 189 Plans of . 191 View of 192 Treatment of 192, 193 Latin schools, only form of early German secondary schools . . . .142 Made highly classical by Wilhelm von Humboldt 142 Latrines, brick, inadvisable, unless in separate building . .... 278 Construction of ... 278, 279 Leakages of gas and smoke, possibility of, from hot air furnaces .... 267 Leibnitz Realschule, Hanover . . -155 Plan of 157 Leipsic, elevation of Bezirksschule on Scharn- horst-Strasse in . . . .28 Treatment of same . ... 29 Leipsic- Reudnitz, Realschule in . . -155 Plan of same . ..... 159 Leitomischl, left-hand lighting ignored in Oberrealschule in .... 143 Treatment of the Oberrealschule 151, 153, 154 Plans of same . . . . . .152 Length of class rooms, in United States and Continental Europe . . . -97 Library, provided in some American elemen- tary schools 86 Provisions for, in New York City schools . 118 In Boston English High and Latin School 183, 184 In Cambridge High School . . .190 May have northerly exposure . . . 212 Light, northern, demanded in German class rooms . . . ... 20 Requirements of French Ministry of Public Instruction regarding . 40, 41 Usual arrangement of, in American elementary schools . ■ . .82 Insufficient, in American class rooms of certain dimensions . • . -131 In recent New York City schools . -133 Amount and disposition of, defective in most American schools . . 140, 141 Lighting, left-hand only, observance of, in Teutonic schools . ... 20, 35 Disregarded in some elementary school plans ... 21, 38, 39 In French schools . . 1 . 41 Exceptional Scandinavian plans . 54, 57 Generally required by Education De- partment ,of England and Wales . . 70 Seldom found in American schools . 82 In VVaite School, Toledo, Ohio - 98 Insufficient in rooms 28 ft. wide . -133 Important for pupils during writing exercises . . . . 136 Important for teachers' eyesight . . 137 Lack of, principal defect of American schools. ... ... 140 Exceptional Teutonic secondary schools 143. 162 In High school, Brookline, Mass. . 193, 194 In High school, Newark, N. J. . 200, 202 Pages. Lighting, hope for further development of, in high schools . . . . . .214 Lime, specifications for ..... 293 Lindholmen, plan of two-room school at . 53 Treatment of same . . . • 53, 54 Liverpool, plans of Birchfield Road Board. School in ... . y^i 74> 75 Treatment of same 74 Plan of gymnasium and plunge bath of Birchfield Road School in . . . 280 Lockers, use of, in recent high schools . .210 Construction of 211 Ventilation of .212 Individual . . . . . -253 Log schoolhouses of Finland ... 52, 53 London, plan of Board School on New North Street in ...... 69 Elevation of Cassland Road Higher Grade School in . . . . .170 Plans of same 171 Treatment of same . . . .173,175 Plans of Finsbury Pupil-Teachers' Cen- ter, Offord Road . . . .174,175 Elevation of same 176 Treatment of same . . . .176,177 Longfellow School, Boston, " cart-wheel " plan tried in 137 Plans of 138 View of .139 Longitudinal corridor type of school, with rooms on one side . . 22,23,25,34, 35.42,43, 56, 78,83, 14S, 150, 157,259,260 With rooms on both sides . . 26, 28 29, 30, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 56, 89, 90, 93, 95, 97, 98, 105, 106, 109, III, 112, 114, 118, 134, 135, 145, 148, 171, 188, 212,254,256 Louvers ........ 271 Lowell, Mass., elevation and treatment of State Normal School in . . . 255 Plans of same ...... 256 Lunch rooms ...... 48 170, 184, 190, 194, 199, 218, 224, 258 Plans showing . . 169, 173, 191, 193 196, 197, 200, 203, 208, 244, 252, 257, 261 Lunches, possibility of improvement in character of 11 Served to elementary school children in Stockholm ...... 48 Lycee Victor Hugo, Paris, facade of . . 166 Lycee Racine, view of staircase in . . 5 Machine-shop, provision in manual training schools, for practise in . . .215 Equipment of, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . . . 236-240 Madchen-Mittelschule 20 Plan of one in Darmstadt . . -39 Treatment of same . .... 40 Magdeburg, plan of Realschule in . 153, 154 Treatment of same . • . . 154, 157 Managers, graduated from building trades schools . .... 241 Manchester, England, plans of Central School in . . . . . . 167, 168, 169 Treatment of same . . . 170, 173 Mann, Horace, extension and improvement of secondary education largely due to . 180 Mannheim, plan of mixed school in . .31 Treatment of same . . . • 33, 35 Manual training schools, use of basements for 12 Introduced into many American schools of recent construction . . . • . 86 3i8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Pages. Manual craining schools, provision for, in many New York City schools . .118 American elementary schools not so well equipped with facilities for, as Euro- pean 137, 139 Equipment for, in English secondary schools 164 Purpose of 215 Fittings of . . . . . .215 Provide instruction for apprentices and journeymen, in Germany . . . 240 Many European, possess no buildings of their own 242 Varied organization of elementary, in Europe 242 Great advances in, in Europe . . . 250 Imperfect provision for, in the United States 250 Maple, for upper flooring .... 8 Marble, Italian, too absorbent to be used in connection with plumbing fixtures 277, 278 Knoxville slate better for this purpose . 278 Marble work, interior, specifications for 298, 299 Maria Kirchspiels School, Stockholm, plan of gymnasium of 47 Marquetry, wooden, undesirable for flooring . 71 Marriage of illiterates forbidden by Charles XI., of Sweden 45 Masonry construction, less desirable than steel skeleton frame for four-story or more schools no Masons, special schools for . . . .241 Massachusetts, public school system of the United States originated in . . 78 District school system established in 78, 79 Abolished 79 Separate schools often provided for prim- ary and grammar grades in . . .81 Law passed by General Court of, requir- ing maintenance of grammar schools . 1 78 Creation of State Board of Education in. 178 Horace Mann first secretary of this Board 180 Master mechanics employed as teachers in Gothenburg system of Sloyd . . 50 Masters, living apartments provided for, in many European schools . .11 Office for . . . ..II Quarters for, in English schools . . 72 No office for, in American primary schools 83 Quarters usually provided for, in German secondary schools . . . . 143 Quarters for, in Dudley New Grammar School 172, 175 Mayence, plan of Bezirksschule on the Gar- tenfront in 34 Treatment of same . . . . -35 May hew School, Boston . . . .108 Plan and view of . . . . .114 No wardrobes in 108 Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, tendency shown in, to differentiate high from grammar school type . . . .210 View of 222 Plans of 223, 224 Treatment and equipment of . . 224-240 Views of machine-shop of . . . 226 Views of wood-working and wood-turn- ing shop of . ..... 229 View of forge-shop of . . . 233, 237 Mechanic Arts High Schools, purpose of .215 Mechanical ventilation, two systems of . . 264 194 Medford, Mass., plan of Brooks School at Plan and view of same Metal-work, special schools for Spiecifications for .... Mezzanine toilet rooms 121, 122, 175, i Mikkelsen system .... Military service, German, preparation for given in the Gymnasium and Real gymnasium Mill construction Mining, special schools for Mixed school, plan of single class French Plan of one, in Paris Treatment of same .... Treatment of one, at Basel " Model departments," of Normal school, pupils of ... . Modeling rooms, provisions for, in New York City schools .... Moellergadens School, Christiania, plan of school kitchen of . Molding, provisions for teaching, in some manual training schools Mortar, use of colored . Specifications for MUlheim, Germany, plans for Weaving School at Treatment of same . . MuUioned windows, use of . . . Munich, plan of Mariahilsplatz school in Treatment of same . . . . : Plan of Wittelsbacher-Strasse School in Plan and treatment of school in Elevation of same . ... Municipalities, English, and the Technical Instruction Acts . " Naasche" system of Sloyd training National system of secondary education, plan for, in England Naval service, German, preparation for, given in the Gymnasium and Realgym nasium ...... Navigation, special schools for New Britain, Conn., High School, plans of Cloakrooms and gymnasium of New Brown School, Hartford, Conn., treat ment of .... Plan of . . New Haven, Conn., treatment of State Normal School in . . 255, 258 Plans of same .... Perspective sketch of same New London, Conn., plan of Winthrop Gram mar School in • . . . View of same . . . Ingenious arrangement of screens in New York City, movable partitions used in some recent schoolhouses in Public School No. 154 in Plan and view of same View of playroom of same Public School No. 165 in, shows typical arrangement Perspective sketch and plan of same 119, View of Public School No. 167 in View of Public School No. 153 in View of roof playground of Public School No. 147 in Public School No. 153 in, of fire-proof construction Height of class rooms in recent schools of Pages. 94 95 241 299 275 51 142 12 241 41 43 44 157 .251 118 48 265 17 293 245 247 7 26 8,29 30 36 37 164 50 169 142 241 203 205 -103 106 -2u2 257 87 79 no 118 12!) no 120 117 121 121 ^33 INDEX. 319 Pages. New York City, plans of Girls' High School . 209, 210 211 272 200 201 202 90 91 ,94 92 93 142 54 255 254 296 I, 2 212 50 45 Perspective sketch of same Combination of steam and hot water heating used in some recent schools in Newark, N. J., High School, plans of . View of ..... . Patterned after continental schools Newton, Mass., plan of Peirce School in View of main entrance of same Treatment of same . ... View of corridor of same Plan of Bigelow School in Non-classical high school, agitation for estab- lishment of, by Spillepe Normal schools, sometimes under control of local school boards Essential features of . . 251, Norrkoeping, Sweden, plan and elevation of sixteen-room school at North Adams, Mass., treatment of State Normal School in ... 253, Plans of same . ... North River Stone, specifications for Northerly exposure, for class rooms For school libraries and drawing rooms Norway, only one system of Sloyd training in Efforts to extend popular education in See also Scandinavia. Nyborg, Denmark, plan of one-room school in Treatment of same . Elevation of same . Oberland, Switzerland, architectural charac- teristics of . .... Oberrealschule, neither Latin nor Greek in eluded in curriculum of Present status of . ... Odense, Copenhagen, Denmark, plan of school in . ... Treatment and elevation of same Ohio, description of poorly constructed schoolhouse in a city of Oil colors, preferable for schoolroom walls One-room school, in Nyborg, Denmark, plan of Treatment of . . . Elevation of . .... English very tenacious of . . Open fireplaces, objections to use of, for ven tilation in large rooms Orientation of schools . ... Ornamentation of schools ... Of school yards in France Outdoor clothing, provisions for In German and Austrian elementary schools 20 Usual disposal of, in English elementary schools 68-70 Provisions for, in American elementary schools Separate enclosures not provided for, in New York City schools Provisions for, in recent Swiss and Ameri- can schools . . .... In English schools . .... In German schools . .... Better provision for, in American than in most other schools .... Disposal of, in English High and Latin School, Boston ..... This method objectionable In Cambridge Latin School . 142 143 14 68 265 82 124 124 124 140 183 187 194 Pages. Outdoor clothing, in Brookline High School . 194 In Springfield High School . . . 205 In Newark High School .... 205 In New Britain High School . . , 205 Lockers for, in recent high schools . 210, 21 1, 212 Objection to hanging of, in corridors . 271 See also coat rooms. Outlets, air, position, and size of . . . 270 Overheated rooms, common in American schools ....... 264 Dangers of, from hot air furnaces . . 267 Overseers, graduated from building-trades schools 241 Painting, of schoolroom walls . . .10 Specifications for .... 306, 307 Paisley, England, perspective sketch of school in ...... 67 Plan of same ...... 69 Paris, elevation of Watch and Clock Making School in ..... . 246 Parliamentary grants for elementary educa- tion, in England 66 Parmenter, C. VV., report of, on Mechanic Arts High School, Boston .... 225 Partitions 12 Movable, used in some English elemen- tary schools 68 Between class rooms, abandoned by Lon- don School Board . . . .77 Use of, in American schools . . -79 And assembly halls 88 Used in many New York City school- houses 118 In Mechanic Arts High School, Boston 227 In State Normal School, New Haven 260, 261 Pasteboard, use of, in Fmnish log school- houses ....... 52 Pattern-making, equipment for, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . 231, 232, 234 Paul Revere School, Boston, treatment of 108, 109 Plan of -IIS View of .116 Bathing facilities introduced into 281,282,283 Paving sidewalks and yard, specifications for 296 Pawtucket, R. I., High School . . . 194 Proposed plans for ..... 196 Peirce School, Newton, plan of . . .90 View of main entrance of ... 91 Treatment of 91, 94 View of corridor of 92 Philadelphia, perspective sketch of De Lancey School in 133 Plans of same ..... 134, 135 Roof playground of same . . . 136 Philbrick, John D., report of, on Boston English High and Latin School . 180-185 Recommendation of, regarding janitor service 283 Phillips Academy, Andover, establishment of 178 Physical training, provisions for, in many New York City schools . , .118 Picture-moldings, metal rods for . . .10 Picturesqueness difficult of attainment in school designing 16 Pierce School, Brookline, plan of . . .89 Treatment of 89, 91 Pile driving, specifications for . . 290, 291 Pine, rift Georgia or Florida, for uppier floor- ing 8 Plastermg, specifications for . . . 300, 301 Platform, teacher's 10 320 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Pages. Playground, covered 2 View of, Lycee Molifere .... 2 Utilization of roofs for . . . -13 Attention paid to, in French elementary schools < . -41 Covered, constant feature of French schools 44 Covered, prevalent in Scandinavian country schools 46 Treatment of, in English schools . 71, 72 On roof of Public School No. 147, New York City 121 Deficient in area and in decorative treat- ment in American schools . . . 139 Playrooms, basement to be shut off from toilet rooms 11 Interior warmed, unknown in England . 72 Sentiment in New York opposed to use of basements for no Indoor, treatment of, in many New York City schools 118 Plenum fans, fresh air supplied by . 264, 266 Plenum fan system, consumes less fuel than other systems of indirect heating . 267 Without direct radiation, unsuitable for schools ...... 268 Indirect, advantages of, over direct . 268 Nowhere so much used as in the United States 275 Advantages of, being recognized in European schools .... 275 Plumbing, in American schools . . .140 Joints of, fixtures 276 Fixtures should be of form that can be easily cleaned 277 Polytechnic schools, German, preparation for, given in the Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule 142 Porch, desirability of, in schoolhouses . . 4 Portland cement should be used in construc- tion of latrines . . . . . 27S Posts of staircases, form of . . . .5 Pottery, special schools for . . . .241 Power, transmission of, in manual training schools 218 Primary grades, with kindergarten, similar in scope to English " infant classes " . Si Class rooms for, in normal schools . 25 i Primary schools, staircases in ... 5 General treatment in the United States, 82, 83 Private schools, secondary education in England largely carried on by . .161 Privy vaults should be absolutely discarded . 279 Progymnasium, classical school, with six years' course (abolished since 1891) . 142 Prussia, northern exposure for class rooms favored in . . . . . . i Classification of secondary schools of, in 1882 and in 1891 .... 142 Pupils, number of, in average grammar grade class rooms 140 Maximum number of, in Prussian secondary schools . . . -143 Pupil-teachers, efforts to improve education of 176 Regulations concerning proportion of . 1 76 Pupil-teachers' centers, part of public school system of England . . . . 1 70 Radiating surface, amount of, necessary for various systems 2 74 Radiators, aesthetic objections to . . . 268 Pages. Realgymnasium, Latin but not Greek in- cluded in curriculum of . . . 142 Present status of ... . 142, 143 Ample provision in, for teaching the sciences 143 Plans of 156, 165 Realschule, non-classical schools, with seven years' course (abolished since 1891) . 142 Plans of . . . 148,153,1^4,159,163 Red Norway pine, usual material for flooring in Great Britain . . . . .71 Registers, position of 270 Regulations for school buildings, not pre- scribed by law in Scandinavia . . 46 Renaissance forms, employment of . .16 Resting rooms. See emergency rooms. Rindge, Frederick H., foundsr of Cambridge Manual Training School . . .221 Risers, height of ...... c Risley, Dr. Samuel D., recommendations of, concerning area of class rooms . . 130 Robert Gould Shaw School, Boston, treat- ment of ..... 103, 104 Plan of 107 View of 108 Roger Ludlow Grammar School, Windsor, Conn., plan and view of . . .86 Rolling partitions. See Partitions, movable. Roofing, specifications for .... 299 Roofs, protection of 13 Utilization of, for playgrounds . . 13 Treatment of . . . . . 16, 17 Advantage of, for playgrounds . .122 Rouen, France, plan of school for apprentices in 244 Treatment of same .... 245, 247 Roxbury Latin School, establishment of . 178 Royal Lancastrian Society . . . .66 Royal Weaving School, Crefeld, Germany, plans of 248, 249 Rural schools, co-education permitted in, in Continental Europe .... 6 Russian school system, Finland independent of 46 St. John's School, Basel, plan of . . -3° Treatment of 3i> 33 St. Louis, Mo., schoolhouses of, now built wholly of incombustible materials . 95 Treatment of Eugene Field School in . 94 Plan of same 96 Plan of Sherman School in . . -97 Plan of Eliot School in . . . .98 View of same 99 Treatment of manual training school in 216, 218 Plans of same 217 Dr. Woodward's criticism on plan of same 218, 219 St. Paul, near Hamburg, plan of Seiler- strasse School in . . . . -31 Treatment of same . . . -3^)33 Elevation of same 32 Salaries, English government ceased to pay, to individual teachers . . . .176 Salem, Mass., plan of State Normal School in, 252 Treatment of same 253 Salles d'Asile. See Infants' schools. Salomen, originator of Naasche system of Sloyd . 50 Salzwedel, Prussia, plan of Gymnasium in .147 Treatment of same 149 Sand, specifications for 293 INDEX. 321 Pages. Sanitary police, German . . . . i Sanitation, employment of expert service in plans for 263 Sash, comparative advantages of hung and casement 7 Saw work, provisions for, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . . . -231 Scandinavia, precautions regarding school sites in i Use of school gardens in . . . .2 Covered playgrounds in . . . .2 Absence of official regulations governing construction of schools in . . .46 School buildings in, less highly developed than Teutonic and Swiss . . -65 Elementary schools of . . . 45-65 Assembly halls seldom found in schools of 123 Requirements as to shower-baths in many schools of . . . . .124 Position of windows in elementary schools of ..... . 136 Scholarships, for encouragement of secondary education in England . . . .169 School administration, mistaken economy in 140 School for apprentices, Rouen, plans of . 244 Treatment of 245, 247 School gardens, Scandinavian ... 2 Almost unknown in the United States, 86, 139 " Schoolroom system " as distinguished from separate class systems ... 79, 80 Schoolrooms seating seventy or more pupils, tendency toward, in recent high schools 210, 211 School yard, enclosure of .... 3 Schools Inquiry Commission, recommenda- tions of 161 Scranton, Pa., provisions for bathing in High School at . . . . . .281 Screens, use of, to separate sexes in some French elementary schools . . .42 Ingenious arrangement of, in Winthrop School, New London . . . .89 Seats, bank arrangement of, in some English Infant Schools . . . . .68 Seaver, Edwin P., superintendent of Boston schools, recommendations of, regard- ing manual training in grammar schools 88 Opinion of, regarding industrial educa- tion in the United States . . . 250 Secondary schools, early German . . . 142 Not yet thoroughly organized in Eng- land 160, 161 Recommendation for three grades of, in England 161 Many English, under authority of De- partment of Science and Art . . 164 Effect of Technical Instruction Acts on English . ■ . . . . . 164 Tuition fees charged in, in England and Wales ....... 169 Plan for national system of, in England . 169 Separate graded class system. See Graded class system. Separate schools, for two elementary grades, advantages and disadvantages of . 81, 82 Separation of the sexes, method of, in some French elementary schools . . .42 Rigid in Scandinavia . . . .46 Sewall primary school, Brookline, plan of . 83 General treatment of . . . .85 Sewall primary school, Brookline, toilet room "towers" in ..... 85 Sewing, provision for instruction in, in some American schools . . . . 86, 87 Room for, in grammar schools, recom- mended by Superintendent Seaver . 88 Rooms for, in New York City schools . 118 Sherman School, St. Louis, plan of . -97 Shops, should be separated from class rooms in manual training scliools . . .219 Shower-baths, pupils of many German and Scandinavian schools required to take 124 Sick rooms. See emergency rooms. Single-room schools. See one-room schools. Sinks, preferable to set bowls, in schools . 278 Site for schools i Sisters of the religious orders, Salles d'Asile usually conducted by . . . -43 Slate, advantages of, for construction of urinals 277, 278 Slate, black, best material for blackboards . 9 Slate work, interior, specifications for . 298, 299 Sloyd, in Scandinavian elementary schools 49, 50 Requirements of room fitted for . 50,51 Small schools, relatively expensive . -14 Smoke, leakage of, from hot air furnaces . 267 Soil disposal, constant ventilation should be maintained with all systems of . .276 Soil pipe, should be subjected to water test . 276 South Boston High School, plans of . . 208 Lockers for outside clothing in . .210 Double class rooms in . . . .210 Spalenschule, Basel, plan of . . . .24 Print of 26 Treatment of 28 Spillepe, agitation by, for establishment of non-classical high schools . . . 142 Springfield High School, treatment of 194, 199, 202 Plans of 197, 198 Change in plan of construction of . -199 View of 199 Staircases, protection of .... 5 Construction of 5 Width of 6 Usually of stone, in English schools . 71 Specifications for .... 298, 304 State Industrial School, Innsbruck, plan of . 243 Treatment of 245 State Normal School, Lowell, Mass., view and treatment of . . . . -255 Plans of 256 State Normal School, New Haven, Conn., treatment of . . . 255, 258-262 Plans of -257 Perspective sketch of ... . 258 State Normal School, North Adams, Mass., treatment of .... 253, 255 Plans of 254 State Normal School, Salem, Mass., plans of 252 Treatment of 253 Steam heating, most popular in American schools 271 Description of gravity system of . 271, 272 Combination of, and hot water heating used in some recent New York schools. 272 Usually used in European schools . .275 Steel skeleton frames more desirable than masonry construction for four stories or more . . . . . .110 Steel work, specifications for . . . 297, 29S Steel-working, special schools for . . . 241 322 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Pages. Stepney, London, plan of Board School in . 67 Stettin, view of Konig Wilhelm Gymnasium in 149 Plans and treatment of same . . -150 View of State Gymnasium in . . .158 Stock room of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston ....... 240 Stockholm, well supplied with elementary school dining halls . . . .48 Treatment and plan of Johannes School in 56 Elevation of same . .... 57 Municipal baths of 281 Stone, North River, specifications for . . 296 Stone-cutters, special schools for . . .241 Stonework, specifications for .... 296 Stoves, objections to use of . . . . 265 Used in most European schools . . 275 Straw-plaiting, special schools for . . .241 Stud partitions 12, 14 Stuttgart, plan of school in . . . -139 Unscientific lighting of same . . .40 Sunday schools, in Germany, provide instruc- tion for apprentices and journeymen . 240 Sweden, efforts to extend popular education in 45 Two systems of Sloyd training in . -50 See also Scandinavia. Swimming, instruction in, obligatory in cer- tain Swedish schools .... 280 Switzerland, school yards rarely enclosed in 3 Vestibules required in schoolhouses of . 4 Co-education in, and the planning of schools 6 Elementary schools of, follow general Teutonic plan 20 Co-education common in elementary schools of 20 Two or three divisions in elementary schools of .... . 20, 2 1 Much attention paid to architectural effect in schools of . . . -39 Assembly hall provided in nearly all large schools of . . . . -123 Systems of ventilation and warming in 123,274 Position of windows in elementary schools of ..... 136 Fewer pupils allowed to class room in . 140 Secondary schools of, not classified according to present Prussian system . 143 Taxation, for support of education in Massa- chusetts j»8 Teachers, private rooms for . . . .11 Living apartments for, in Scandinavian elementary schools . . . .46 In German secondary schools . . -143 Training schools for . . . •251 Technical Education Board of London, scholarships given by . . . . i6g Technical Instruction Acts, grants established by, England 164 Technical schools, established by Technical Instruction Acts, England . . .164 Not to be confounded with manual train- ing schools . . . . . • 215 Temperature, control of, less satisfactory with furnace ...... 267 Maximum 263 Usual, in American schools . . . 264 In English schools 264 Pages. Temperature, control of readier, by hot water system of heating . . . .272 Tempering coil 266 Terra-cotta lumber, for interior partitions . 12 Teutonic countries, development of school planning in 17 Influence of, on planning of English and American schools . . . -177 Thermometer, modification of alarm, sug- gested for schools .... 269 Set in corridor walls .... 269 Tin-smithing, special schools for . . .241 Tochterschule, characteristics of, like those of other German secondary schools 143 See also Basel. Toilet rooms . 11 Arrangement of, in some New York City schools 121 Unusual arrangement of, in school at Leitomischl 153 Arrangement of, in English High and Latin School, Boston . . . .184 Downward ventilation especially adapted to 265 Ventilation of . . . . . . 271 Usually in separate, unventilated build- ing in European schools . . . 275 Regulation of Board of Education of England and Wales regarding . . 275 Usually in basement in American schools ....... 275 Should be heated and ventilated . .276 See also Mezzanine toilet rooms ; " Towers." Toledo. Ohio, treatment of Auburndale School in 97 Plan of same 99 View of same ...... 100 Waite School in 98 View of same . . . • ,. . . 103 Lagrange School in .... 98 Plan of same loi View of same 102 "Cart-wheel" plan tried in . .' . 137 Central High School in . . . .211 Plan of same . . ■ . . . . 212 View of same 213 Specially designed school for manual training in 216 No plans of same 221 Rules of School Board of, regarding janitor service .... 283, 284 Tool room, equipment of, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . . . 230, 231 Tools, supplied to pupils of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston: wood-working . 238 Cutting 228 Carving 228-230 Turning -231 Forging . . . . . . 234,235 Machine 236-240 " Towers," toilet rooms in . . . 33, 83 Town school system supersedes district school system, in Massachusetts . 79 Trade schools not to be confounded with manual training schools . . .215 Trades, teaching of, not the design in Mechanic Arts High Schools . -215 Instruction in particular, given by Ger- man special industrial schools . 240, 242 Transoms, objections to 7 Treads, covering for 5 INDEX. 323 Pages. Trees in school yards 4 Trondhjem, Norway, treatment of school in 56, 57 Plan of same 57 Tuition fees, in German elementary schools . 18 In secondary schools of England and Wales 169 Turnhalle, invariable feature of Teutonic secondary schools . . . -144 See also Gymnasium. Turning, provisions for teaching, in manual training schools 215 Tools for, supplied to pupils of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . . .231 Special schools for 241 Two-room school at Lindholmen, Sweden . 53 Treatment of 53) 54 United States, area of school sites in . .1 School yards rarely enclosed by brick walls in . . ' . . . -3 Basement entrances in schoolhouses of . 4 Width of staircases in schools of . .6 Co-education in, and the planning of schools ...... 6 Public school system established in . 78 Systems of ventilation and warming highly developed in . . . -123 Universities, German, students of, prepared only in the Gymnasium . . 142 Untere Kealschule, Basel, illustration of .27 Urinals, illustration of cross section of slate 276 Sloping slab preferable to bowls for . 277 Construction of . . . •'^■17 Illustration of flushing-tank for . . 277 Illustration of section of perforated supply pipe and slate trough for . .278 Utility and beauty, possibility of combining 16, 17 Vaalerengens School, Christiania, treatment and plan of . . . . . -5^ Value, permanent, of a building . . .14 Vent ducts, with direct heating, give unsatis- factory ventilation .... 266 Vent flues 264, 265 Ventilation, in an Ohio schoolhouse . -14 Highly developed system of, in Switzer- land and America . . . -123 General superiority of, in American schools . . .... 139 Arrangement for, in English High and Latin School, Boston . . . 183, 184 Unsatisfactoriness of same . . . 187 Employment of expert service on plans for 263 Two systems of 264 Provisions for, in summer . . .270 Of Swiss schools superior to other Con- tinental schools . . . . -275 Vermin, protection against . . . 9, 12 Vestibule, desirability of, in schoolhouses . 4 Vevey, Switzerland, treatment of school in 36, 37 Plan of same 2>7 Vienna, illustration of aula of Imperial Gym- nasium at 144 Plans of Akademische Gymnasium in . 181 General characteristics of school build- ings in . . . . . . . 182 Village schools. See Elementary schools. Volksschule, non-preparatory elementary school 18 Vorschule, preparatory to secondary schools 18 Waite school, Toledo, exceptional in method of lighting class roems > . .98 View of 103 Wales, area required for school premises in Requirements regarding staircases in . 5 Elementary education free and com- pulsory in 169 Fees charged for secondary education in 169 Walls, plastering of, should be smooth . . 9 Painting of . . , , . .10 Construction of, in Finnish log school- houses 52, 53 Treatment of, in London Board Schools 70 Wardrobes, teacher's . . . . .10 Cost of pupils' . . . . .10 In best American schools have outside light 83 See also coat rooms. Warmed, fresh air, ampler supply of, in American schools than elsewhere . 139 Warming. See heating. Washing of air supply, apparatus for . . 271 Watch and Clock Making School, Paris, per- spective sketch of .... 246 Watch-making, special schools for . . . 241 Water-closet ranges, iron, objections to . . 279 Water-closets, separate 278 Water-color tints, use of, on schoolroom walls . 10 Weaving, special schools for .... 241 School at Miilheim, plans for . . . 245 School at Miilheim, treatment of . . 247 Royal, School at Crefeld, Germany . 248, 249 Wiborg, Finland, plan of school in . . 64 Treatment of same . . . . 64, 65 View of same 65 Width of class rooms, in Continental Europe 126 In United States 126 In Germany ' . 127 In best grammar schools in the United States 130 Recommendations of Dr. Risley concern- ing 130 Difficulty of lighting rooms 28 ft. wide 133) 136, 137, 141 Excess in cost of rooms of this width . 140 Willemer and Frankensteiner School, Frank- fort, plan of . . . . . -34 Treatment of 35 Williams School, Boston, plan of . . • T^ View of . . . . . . -79 Winders, improper for school staircases . 6 Window sills, height of, in London Board Schools 71 Windows, of class rooms . . . • 6, 7 Treatment of . . . . . .16 In corner rooms of Swiss elementary schools 39 Best position of .... . 136 Wrong arrangement of . . . . 137 Arrangement of, in English High and Latin School, Boston . . . .183 See also light ; lighting. Windsor, Conn., plan and view of Roger Ludlow Grammar School in . .86 Wire-lathing, superiority of, to wood-lathing, for ceilings 12 Winterthur, Switzerland, plan of school in . 35 Treatment of same 3^ Arrangement of windows in school at . 37 .Plan of same 3^ Winthrop Grammar School, New London, Conn., plan of . . . . • ^7 View of 88 Ingenious arrangement of screens in . 89 324 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Pages. Women, trade and industrial schools for, in Germany 242 Instruction given in industrial schools for 247 Women Teachers' Seminary, Auxerre, France, plan of 261 Treatment of 262 Women Teachers' Seminary, Berlin, plans of . 259, 260 Follows plan of Realgymnasium . . 262 Wood carving, provisions for teaching, in manual training schools . . •215 Wood-lathing, inferiority of, to wire-lathing, for ceilings 12 Wood-turning, equipment for, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston . 231,232,234 Wood-working, tools used for . . -So Pages. Wood-working, room for, in grammar schools, recommended by Superinten- dent Seaver 88 Equipment for, at Mechanic Arts High School, Boston .... 228, 234 Woodward, C. M., criticism of, on plan of St. Louis Manual Training school 218, 219 Workshops, some French and German indus- trial schools provided only with . . 242 Many French industrial schools consist only of 247 Provision for, in State Industrial School at InnsbiUck 245 In School for Apprentices, at Rouen . 245 Worms, plan of industrial school in . . 242 Treatment of same .... 244, 245 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OP 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. ^^- ^ tmjNL fi/AMl4 1 ^•'*n%t^^ , ^*^^ ^ L^^ ^'Eu t n 10(10 ""-'^ I (J t^oc LD 21-100m-7,*40 (69368) ,.,.>• <;w IZZ\A.?