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JANES'
FRENCH GRAMMAR
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2
Announcement.
The author of this book has in preparation a series of
Reading Selections, with an adequate Dictionary. It is
intended to be printed in one volume with the Grammar,
making a complete text-book for classes in French.
The Selections will be mostly taken from current, litera-
ture, and the Dictionary will give both Etymology and
Pronunciation.
FRENCH GRAMMAR
Colleges, Academies, Schools, Etc.
WITH A SERIES OF EXERCISES
BT
E. JANES, A.M
NEW YORK
HENEY HOLT AND COMPANY
F. W. CHKISTERN
BOSTON : SCHCENHOP & MCELLER
COFYTIIQHT. 1877,
By Henrt Holt,
Now York : J. J. Llttlo & Co., Pi-lnterfl,
10 to SO Aatoi- Place.
PEEFAOE.
This book is not a new "instruction-book," but an
attempt at a real grammar of the French language, accom-
panied by a copious series of exercises. The work is in-
tended for beginners in the study of French, but not for
small children, nor for those who desire merely to acquire
a few conversational phrases. It is also meant to be a
complete text-book, and book of reference, in this subject,
and is believed to be far more complete than any hereto-
fore published in English.
The plan of the present work does not include instruc-
tion in general grammar, but the learner is supposed to be
already acquainted with the use and meaning of ordinary
grammatical terms, such as tense, mode, subject, object,
noun, article, govern, modify, agree, and the like. All
these can perhaps be best learned from Professor Whit-
ney's "Essentials of English Grammar." They form
properly no part of the study of French. The Author has
endeavored to keep in mind that the office of a gramma-
rian is to describe the facts of a language, not to legislate
for it, and also that this description needs abundant illus-
trations. Numerous examples therefore accompany almost
every section, and where the French idiom seems to be
lY PEEFACE.
farthest removed from the English, or most difficult for
the English-speaking student to apprehend, the examples
sometimes occupy a good deal of space.
Repetition is not a part of the plan, even of the Exer-
cises. The judicious teacher is the best judge of how
often each class may require to review, and will find no
difficulty in constructing oral exercises adapted to the
capacity and the needs of his pupils.
Special attention is asked to the fact that the Exercises,
as also the examples in the body of the Grammar, are
largely drawn from the works of tlie best French writers,
whose names are frequently appended. This is thought
to be a feature of considerable importance.
The Latin has been used as far as seemed expedient,
under the impression that most of those who will use this
book will have some slight knowledge of Latin. This is
believed to be a new and very important feature of the
present work ; and yet the Author has endeavored not to
introduce the Latin in such a way as seriously to injure
the book for those not familiar with that language.
The materials of this book have been mostly taken from
Matzner's "Franzosiche Grammatik." Some assistance
has also been derived, especially in the examples and Exer-
cises, from Bescherelle's '^Grammaire Rationale." Very
little use has been made of the ordinary "instruction-
books," which have done so much to obscure the beautiful
and philosophical structure of the French language, and
to make its acquisition a mere memorizing of phrases and
tangled, unexplained idioms.
PEEFACE. V
The Author feels himself under great obligations to Pro-
fessor W. D. Whitney and Professor E. B. Coe, of Yale
College, who examined the manuscript at an early stage
of its progress, and whose kind encouragement has helped
to sustain him in his long labors, and whose numerous
suggestions and corrections have been gladly received and
carefully adopted.
One phrase of frequent occurrence in connection with
the subject of elision, seems to require notice. *^ Before
a vowel sound " has been used in place of the more usual
but hardly more correct, "before a word beginning with
a vowel or h mute." Of course the so-called h aspirate
forms an exception to all such rules, but an exception
which cannot be accurately described in a word ; and the
'* aspirated " h is really quite as *^ mute " as the unaspi-
rated.
E. Ja]^es.
June 1, 1877.
Digitized by tine Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/frenchgrammarforOOjanerich
_,RA
f OF THB
nNIVERSlTT
Of
PKELIMINAKY CHAPTER.
KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION.
1, Vowel Sounds.
a, — Generally like 'a' in 'abbey,' 'lamb/ but often like
*a,'in 'ah/ 'far.'
a, — Always like *a' in 'abbey.'
&, — Always like 'a' in 'far/ 'father.'
6, — Always like 'a' in 'fate/ 'name.'
6, — Varying from the sound of ' e ' in ' there ' to that of
'e'in 'ebb.'
e, — Same as d, but always long.
e, — Generally like ' u ' in ' but ; ' often the same as 6,
especially in monosyllables ; often same as 6, espe-
cially in terminations.
i, — Always like 'i' in 'machine/ either long or short,
i, — Same sound as i, but always long.
0, — Generally like 'o' in 'rob/ often like 'o' in 'rose.'
0, — Always long, like 'o' in 'rose.'
u, — French ' u,' a sound unknown in English.
u, — Same sound, but always long,
y, — Always same as i, but between two Yowels equal to
two i's.
ei, — Generally same as 6, often same as h.
ai, — At the end of words the same sound as 6, elsewhere
the same as 6.
ai, — Same sound as ai, but always long,
au, eau, — Always like 'o' in 'note.'
eu, oeu, — French 'eu,' a sound unknown in English, but
nearly like 'u' in 'fur.'
Note. — In the parts of avoir, 'to have,' eu has the sound
1
2 FREi^CH GEAMMAR.
OH, — Always like 'oo' in 'moon.'
oi, — Always like 'wa' in 'was/ 'what.'
ua, ue, ui, no, — Nearly always preceded by g or q, in which
case the u is generally silent, and the sound is like
ka, k6, ki, ko, ga, gh6, ghi, go. When the u is
sounded it is like English 'w,' as in 'was,' 'waste,'
'weep,! 'watch.'
im
in
ym
aim
ain
ein
(i)eii
am
an
em
en
2, Nasal Sounds.
All alike, the "first nasal sound;" like 'a' in
' fan,' nasalized. A sound not heard separately in
English, but joined with a following consonant,
in such words as 'anger.'
All alike, the "second nasal sound;" like 'a'
in 'watch,' 'what,' nasalized. Sometimes heard
in ' Concord.'
) Both alike, the " thii
) in 'war,' nasalized.
om ) Both alike, the "third nasal sound;" like 'a
on
um
nn
eun
All alike, the "fourth nasal sound;" like
French ' en,' nasalized.
3. Consonant Sounds.
Consonants are pronounced, for the most part, the
same in French as in English (except m and n nasal, as
above).
At the end of words, however, consonants are generally
silent.
The following need special notice here :
ch, — Always like 'sh' in 'shun.'
h, — Always silent, except in some names.
j, — Always like ' z ' in ' azure.'
g, — Before i or e, like French j.
KEY TO THE PEONUi^CIATIOl^. 3
(i)lle, — At the end of words, and often in the middle, 11
preceded by i has a ** liquid sound/* unknown in
English, but similar to * yu ' in * young.'
il, — 1 final has often the '^liquid sound," like 11, when
preceded bj i.
gn, — Always liquid, like ^ni' in ^ union.'
s, — Between two vowels almost always like z ; otherwise
generally like ^ s ' in ' sin.'
X, — Generally like 'gs,' but following nearly the same
rules as in English.
Foreign words and names are, for the most part, pro-
nounced as much as possible like French words.
Many words, however, especially from the Latin and
Greek, not having become well domiciled in French, are
pronounced more or less as in the languages from which
they are taken.
Special rules and exceptions will be found in the next
chapter, on ^* Pronunciation."
OP THK
"OTNIVERSITY
CHAPTEE L
ORTHOGRAPHY AND PRONUNCIATION.
4. Letters. — French is written with the same letters as
English, but W and K are found only in foreign words.
5. Capitals. — Capital letters are used as in English, with
the following exceptions :
They are not used —
1. In titles of persons, as —
L'amiral Nelson, Admiral Nelson.
Le general Enox, General Knox.
2. In adjectives derived from proper names, as —
frangais, French. Chretien, Christian.
3. In the names of the days, the seasons, and the points
of the compass, as —
Le printemps. Spring. Le sud, the South.
Le lundi, Monday. L'ete, Summer.
Note. — The names of the months are begun with capitals, as —
Mai, May. Juin, June.
4. In the personal pronoun je, ' I,' and the interjection
0, '0,'as—
II dit, o, je suis, etc., He said, O, I am, etc.
6. Accent. — There is no accent in French, in the Eng-
lish sense of the term. The last syllable of a word or
phrase generally receives, in the best usage, a slight stress
of voice. Otherwise eacli syllable is spoken as nearly as
possible with the same force.
OKTHOGRAPHY AN^D PHOKUKCIATIOJ^. 5
7. Accents. — There are tliree diacritical marks called
"accents," the acute ( ' ), the grave ( ^), and the circum-
flex ( ^ ).
Their use is as follows :
8. Acute Accent. — This is used only over the voavcI e,
and always gives it the "close sound/' like *a' in ^fate.'
It is used in the following cases :
1. At the end of a word it denotes that e is not silent.
In this case it remains unchanged when e mute, or s, or
both are added in inflection ; as —
aime, aimee, aimes, aimees, loved.
2. It sometimes serves to distinguish between two mean-
ings of the same word, as —
reformer, to form again ; reformer, to reform.
3. Sometimes its use is ai-bitrary, as —
reception (from recevoir) ; irreligion (from religion).
4. A few words may be written with either the acute or
the grave accent, as —
college or college j cortege or cortege.
9. Grave Accent. — This is used chiefly over e, to which
it gives the "open sound," varying from 'e' in * there' to
* e ' in * ebb.' It occurs also over a and u. It is used —
1. Chiefly over e standing before a so-called "feminine
syllable " (one containing e mute, either final or followed
by silent letters only), and often over e standing before
a final s, as —
pere, tres, premiere, menerai, succes.
2. To distinguish between words otherwise spelled alike,
as—
FREN^Cn GRAMMAR.
a, has,
la, the,
des, of the,
ou, or.
a, to.
la, there,
des, since,
ou, where.
Note. — In deja, from Latin ' jam,' it seems to mark the falling off
of the ' m.'
10. Circumflex Accent. — This is used over all the vowels,
and always denotes a long sound. It is used —
1. To distinguish between words otherwise spelled alike,
as —
du, of the, - - - dii, due, owed,
cru, raw, - . - .
mur, wall, - - -
sur, upon, - - -
matin, morning,
pecheur, sinner,
finit (Pres. Indicative),
reput ( 'P4-£T^ iii't£ ),
vendit (Preterite Indie),
miir, ripe,
sur, sure,
matin, mastiff,
pecheur, fisherman,
finit (Impf. Subjunc).
re^ut ( " " ).
vendit ( " " ).
2. It generally shows that contraction has taken place,
as —
Formerly spelled
From Latin
estre, to be.
isle, island,
paste, paste.
forest, forest
cantavimus.
cantavistis.
dormistis.
anima.
11. The Hyphen is used as in English. But in addition
it is also used —
1. In the interrogative and imperative forms of the
verb, when the subject or object immediately follows, as —
Suis-je ? Am I ?
Donnez-le-lui. Give it him.
Aime-je ? Do I love ?
SOUNDS OF VOWELS. 7
2. In most compound words and some phrases, as —
tete-a-tete (head to liead), private interview.
moi-m^me, myself.
tres-bien, very well (and the like).
la-haut, up there.
ci-apres, hereafter.
3. Between the parts of the numerals from 17 to 90.
See Sec. 99.
12. The Apostrophe is used to denote elision, as —
s'il = si il. jusqu'a = jus que a.
c'est = ce est. s'entr'aider = se entre aider.
entr'acte = entre acte. presqu'ile = presque ile.
Note. — In grand'mere, grand'chambre, etc., the apostrophe is
not a mark of elision, but a remnant of the Old French undeclined
adjective.
13. The Diseresis is used as in English, except in the
ending -gue, where it merely shows that the u has its full
sound, the e remaining silent.
14. The Cedilla (from the Greek zeta) is a mark placed
under c, to show that it has a sharp sound, like s, as —
gar9on, boy ; regus, received.
15. Other Marks of punctuation are used as in English ;
but in novels quotation marks are used much less than in
English ; the dash is also used very often at the beginning
of paragraphs.
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
16. A has two sounds —
1. Generally like English 'a' in 'abbey,' Hamb,' not
quite so *' flat "as *a ' in ' hat,' as —
la, glace, ami, patte, mal, arabique.
8 FREN^CH GRAMMAR.
2. Often like English 'a ' in * all,' ' father/ as-
male, vase, cas, pate, aimames.
Note. — A is silent in taon, Saone, aout, aoiiteron, and aoriste.
17. Three Sounds of E.— E has three sounds, the "close"
(e ferm6), the "open" (e ouvert), and the so-called "e
mute " (e muet).
18. "E fenn6." — The close sound of e is like English
' a ' in ' fate,' ' name.' It is heard in the following cases :
1. Always when e is marked with the acute accent, as —
ete, donne-je, fee, ne, aimes, the,
2. In the word et, and before final d, r, or z, silent, as —
et, assez, pied, tuer, clocher, chez.
19. " E ouvert." — Tlie open sound of e yaries from the
sound of English *e' in 'there,' to that of *e' in *ebb.'
It is heard in the following cases :
1. Full and long in e with the grave or circumflex
accent ; in the ending -ier when r is not silent ; and before
-rr when it is the final sound of a word, as —
acces, des, mere, fetre, ev^que, car6me, hier, tiers, verre,
terre, serrent (serr).
2. Shorter and less open in monosyllables ending in
silent s ;» before a final consonant sound (except in the
ending -ier, as above); and before any double consonant
followed by e mute (excepting -rre final, as above, but
including rr when not a final sound), as —
mes, tea, dea, ces, les, tu es, il est, cher, bref, ciel, sers,
perds, belle, quelque, cessent (cess), pelleterie, nettete, cesserai,
ferrer, terrible, derriere, perroquet.
SOUI^^DS OF VOWELS. 9
20. "E muet." — E mute, so-called, has generally an
obscure sound, like English 'e' in Miattev,' nearly like
*u'in*but.\
It is heard in the following cases :
1. In monosyllables ending in e, as —
me, te, se, le, que (ku), ce, de.
2. Often at the end of a syllable which is not final, as —
regret, demain, besoin, brebis, creerai, jouerez, nettoierai,
prierai.
3. E final, without any mark of accent, is silent (e mute
proper), except in reading poetry, as —
belle, encore, chasse, envie, statue.
Exception. — In reading poetry e final without mark has the sound
of e mute so-called, when the next word begins with a consonant ;
also it is often lightly sounded or whispered after some difficult
combinations of consonants, as —
table, sabre, merle, lorsque (lorsk u).
4. E is silent between g and a or o, merely serving to
show that g is soft, as —
mangeant (man' jan', nasal sound), orgeat, pigeon.
5. E final in monosyllables is elided before a vowel
sound, as —
I'ami (le ami), c'est (ce est), j'aime (je aime).
Note. — Zj has the sound of short a in the words femme, indem-
niser, indemnite, solennel, and always in the adverbial ending
-cmment.
21. I. — The two sounds of I differ only in length.
They are —
1. Long I is like English 'i ' in 'machine,' as —
vie, rire, finir, epitre, ile, si.
1*
10 FREKCH GRAMMAR.
2. Short I is the same in quality, as —
ici, imiter, eviter, ii.
Note. — I is silent in poignee, poignet, oignon, and encoignure.
22. has three sounds, viz. :
1. Generally like English ' o ' in ' rob/ as —
soc, orge, carotte, fol, revolte, poll.
2. Often like English 'o' in 'rose/ as —
dome, pose, trone, motion, dos, gros.
3. Before a final r sound, a still more sonorous sound,
like * ' in 'corpse,' as —
or, cor, encore, hors, honorent, dors.
Note. — O is silent in faon, Laon, and paon.
23. U. — The sound of French u is unknown in English.
If the lips be placed as in whistling, and an attempt then
be made to give the sound of English ' e,' French u will
generally be produced. But this sound must be learned
from the teacher. TJ may be either long or short —
1. TJ long has generally the circumflex accent, as —
briiler, fiimes, grue, figure, vue.
2. XI short is of the same quality, as —
ferule, minute, ruse, plume.
Exception 1. — In Latin words, before m, u is sounded as in
English in the same words, as —
album, forum, triumvir, dictum.
Exception 2. — In Mameluk, and a few other foreign words, u is
like ou (English * oo ' in * moon ').
Note. — U after g or q is generally silent. After g it merely
serves to show that the g is hard, as in ' gun,' as —
que (ku), question, qui (kee), quatre.
guide (gheed), guerre (gh^r), fatigue.
OF TH» ^
UNIVERSITY J
COMPOUKD VOWELS AND D^PHTHOISaSfc JLl
Exception. — U is not silent after g in arguer, aiguille, aigmser,
and derivatives, and when followed by e, as in aigu§, cigue (e
silent). See Sec. 13.
24. Y, when a vowel, sounds lij^e i ; but between two
vowels it has the sound of two i's as —
essayer (essai-ier), pays (pai-i), royal (roi-ial).
COMPOUND VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.
25. AI has all the different sounds of e, viz.:
1. Like 6, at the end of a word, and often in other
positions, as —
ai, finirai, aimer, gai, Mai, essai, gaite, arraignee, xiaitrai.
2. Like 6 long, when marked with the circumflex, for
the most part, and before a " feminine syllable," as —
aide, chaise, maire, plait, fraiche, maigre, aine, haine, plaie,
eclairs.
3. Like h short in the ending -aison, and usually in the
endings -ais and -ait, as —
maison, raison, liaison, mais, avals, etait.
4. Like e mute in the parts (not the terminations) of
the verb faire, 'to do,' and its derivatives, as —
faisons (fuzon'), faiseur, infaisable.
Note. — This pronunciation is colloquial. In orations and plays ai
is in these words sounded like e.
Remark. — Before 1 or 11, a and i do not coalesce ; a is short and
the sound of i is obscure, as —
muraille, serail, bataille, detail.
26. EI has generally the same sound as 6, but often is
like h, as —
(e), treizieme, neiger, seigneur
(e), reine, teigne, treize, neige.
12 FREIS'CII GRA3IMAR.
27. ATI and EATJ, both alike, liave the sound of English
* o Mn * note/ as —
haut (6), eaux (6), beau, jaune.
28. EU and CETJ, both alike, have a sound unknown in
English, but similar to ' u ' in ' fur,' as —
(long) jeiine, peur, coeur, fauteuil.
(short) jeune, feu, oeuf, orgeuil, lieu.
Exception. — In the parts of tlie verb avoir, 'to have/ and in
words from tbe Greek, eu is like French u, as —
eu, eus, eusse, eut, Eugenie, euphonie.
29. TIE and (E before il and ille have the same sound as
EU and (EU, as—
CBil, acceuil, oeillade.
Exception. — In orgueilleux, ue is like e.
30. OU is like English 'oo' in 'moon,' and may be
either long or short, as —
(long), goilt, degoiit, voiite, roue, pouls.
(short), pou, coup, fenouil, bouilli, oui.
31. 01 is like English 'wa' in 'was' (not in want),
as —
roi, moi, poire, noir, boire, foi.
32. UA, UE, UI, UO, nearly always occur (except ni)
after g or q, in which cases the u is silent, merely serving
after g to denote the hard sound of g, and after q to show
derivation from the Latin. Thus, in French words, gua,
gue, gui, qua, que, qui, quo, are pronounced ga, gh6, ghi,
ka, k6, ki, ko, as —
guere, guerre, guide, guise, gueule.
qui, quart, quatre, question, queue, quoi, quotient, disquisition.
Exceptions. — In foreign words and in Latin words not well as-
similated to the French, ua, ue, ui, uo are pronounced as diphthongs;
also ui in many truly French words ; as follows :
NASAL SOUNDS. 13
1. TJA like English * wa' in 'waft/ * wax/ as —
Alguazil, Guatemale, lingual, loquacite, quadrupede, and many
beginning with quadra-, quadri-, quatri-, quater-, and quinqua-.
2. TIE with the full sound of French u and the short
sound of e, combined, as —
questeur, loquele, equestre, querimonie.
3. UI with French n, somewhat shortened, and the short
sound of i ; nearly approaching the English * wee.' This
sound occurs also in many words truly French.
Examples. — Linguiste, equitation, aiguille, aiguiser, quiet, cuir,
fair, celui, ruine, nuire, fuite, puis que.
4. XJO, like English * wa ' in ' wan/ ' watch/ as —
aquosite.
NASAL SOUNDS.
33. M and N, at the end of syllables, lose their value as
consonants, and only add a nasal sound to the preceding
vowel, which, however, is greatly modified by this nasal-
ization. All the nasal sounds may be reduced to four,
which are exhibited in the table below.
For Exceptions see the next Sections.
34. Table of Nasal Sounds.
FERST NASAL SOUND,
in, as in — pin, crin, vin, vinmes, fin, soin, '
foin.
im, as in — impie, simple, importe.
aim, as in — ^faim, daim.
ain, as in — sain, crainte, ainsi, Americaiu.
eiii, as in — sein, plein, feint, peindre.
(i) en, as in — bien, chien, Chretien,
ym, as in — nymphe, Olympe, symphonie.
yn, as in — lynx, syntax.
Sound of French
short a nasalized.
Similar to English
* an ' in * anger/
but with no sound
of 'g.'
Sound of Englisli 'a'
in 'watcli/ nasalized.
Similar to *on' in
* Concord,' but with
no sound of ' g."
14 FREI^CH GEAMMAR.
SECOND NASAL BOUND,
an, as in — dans, manger, instance, brigand,
am, as in — camp, lampe, amnistie, Priam,
em, as in — empire, ensemble, emmener.
en, as in — ennui, gens, encre, Orient, client,
audience, science, argent.
THIRD NASAL SOUND,
on, as in — ^bonbon, long, conte, rencontre. ) Sound of English. * a *
om, as in— nom, compte, plomb, colomb. f in * war/ nasalized.
FODBTH NASAL SOUND,
un, as in — ^brun, lundi, chacim. \
um, as in — parfum, humble. v French en nasalized,
eun, as in — ^jeun, Meun. )
Note. — The diphthong oi, when nasalized, is like English * wa ' in
' wax,' nasalized, as —
loin, moins, foin, soin, poindre.
35* Exceptions.
1. M or n just before an m or n does not usually have
the nasal sound, as —
annal, annexe, innomine, tonnerre, mammifere, omnibus, gemme,
dilemme, imminent, innocent, ennemi.
Note. — Emm- at the beginning of a word always has the nasal
sound, as —
emmener, emm^ler, emmaigrir, including remmener, remman-
cher, etc.
Also, enn- has the nasal sound in ennui, ennoblir, and their de-
rivatives.
2. Apparent exceptions arise from the division of sylla-
bles (see Sec. 60), as —
inoui (i-nou-i), inhumain (i-nu-min').
eminent (e-mi-nan'), enerver (e-ner-ve).
imiter (i-mi-te), inactif (i-nac-tif ), inhabile (i-na-bil).
Note. — In enivrer and derivatives, and also in enorgueillir, the nasal
sound is heard, and also the ordinary sound of n, enivrer (en-ni-vre).
3. En, preceded by i, takes the first nasal sound instead
of the second in the parts of the verbs venir and tenir,
COifSONAKTS. 15
and their compounds ; in monosyllables ending in ien and
their compounds ; and in some proper names, as —
viens, tiendrai, parvient, retiendrez.
chien, chiendent, lien, rien, bien, bientot.
Galien, Athenien, Chretien, Adrien.
In Enghien, -ien has the sound of in (En-ghin).
Note. — En (not with i) has the first nasal sound in some foreign
words and names, as —
Benjamin, Mentor, Marengo, appendice, agenda, sempiternel.
4. M and n do not give the nasal sound in unassimilated
foreign words, as —
hymen, specimen, abdomen, amen.
item, Sem, Jerusalem, omnibus.
In somnambule, am is nasal, om not.
Note. — The nasal sound is heard, however, in Adam, dam, qui-
dam (ki-dan').
5. Ent final, in the third person plural of verbs, is not
nasal, but entirely silent, as —
content (con't), one syllable.
CONSONANTS.
36. General Rule. — Consonants not final are pronounced,
in general, as in English, but are all sounded, none being
silent, except at the end of a word. (See next Sec.) Ex-
amples :
psaume, flegme, calme, (p, g, 1, not silent).
37. Final Consonants are generally silent, except c, f, 1,
and r, as —
etait (ete), faits (fe), dards (dar).
38. General Exceptions. —In many foreign words and
names, final consonants are not silent ; also in some tech-
nical terms. Examples :
B, — rumb (rom'b), radoub, Job.
D, — David, Alfred, ephod.
G,— joug, zigzag, whig, bourg (bourk).
S, — Atlas, Adonis, forceps, biceps, blocus, atlas, omnibus, gratis.
T, — Albret, Lot, Huet, deficit, vivat, exeat, deficit, Christ,
Brest, Soult.
X, — Ajax, Aix.
16 FREKCn GKAMMAR.
Special rules and exceptions will be found below, under each let-
ter wliicli requires particular notice.
39. Two sounds of C. — C has two sounds, as in English,
viz :
1. C is soft, like s, before e, i, and y, and also when writ-
ten with the cedilla, as- —
douce, gar9on, ceci, Nancy, cite.
2. C is hard, like k, in all other cases, as —
clerc, coco, cuir, cri, lac, succes.
Note. — C has the sound of g hard in second (segon') and fecond,
and their derivatives, and in czar (gsar).
3. C final, generally sounded (Sec. 37), is silent in words
ending in -anc : —
banc, blanc, flanc, franc ; — also in verbal endings ; — vainc, con-
vainc, etc., including vaincs, convaincs, etc. ; also in broc, clerc,
croc, accroc, raccroc, escroc, estomac, marc, jonc, ajonc, tronc,
pore, caoutchouc, tabac.
Note. — C is also silent in echecs (not in echec), amict, instinct
(in-sUn').
40. CH has the sound of English 'sh ' in 'shall,' as —
chercher, chaise, Achille, archev^que.
Note. — In some Greek words and some proper nouns it is hard,
like k, as —
chaos, choeur, Chretien, Michel- Ange.
41. D Final. — D is silent before final s, as —
fonds (fon'), remords (remor), vends (ven').
Note. — D is not silent in sud and its compounds. See also Sec. 38.
42. F Final, pronounced by tlie general rule, is silent in
clef, chef-d'oeuvre, bceufs, oeufs, cerfs, and nerf, — but is not
silent in chef, not compounded, nor in boeuf, cerf, ceuf, in
the singular, nor in ner^ before a vowel sound.
Note. — In neuf, f takes the sound of v before a vowel sound, as —
neuf ans (neu-van'), neuf hommes (neu-vom).
43. Two Sounds of G. — G has two sounds, as in English :
1. G is soft, like *g' in * gibbet,' before e, i, and y, as —
genre, gibet, general, gymnastique.
COKSOiq'ANTS.
17
2. G is hard, like 'g' in 'game,' in all other cases (ex-
cept before n, see below), as —
gar9on, gomme, guide, gloire, gramme.
3. G is silent, generally at the end of a word (see Sec.
38), and also in doigt (dot), vignt (vin'), and its deriva-
tives, in the compounds of sang, MHI§lilii^3Ssaif^Bi|lBfc ^^^
legs, (U), and its compounds, in s^net (si-n6), Regnard
(R6-nar), Clugny, Compi^gne.
44. Gn has a "liquid sound," like English 'ni' in
'union,' the proper sound of g being entirely lost, as —
magnifique, signer (si-nye), agneau.
Note. — In some unassimilated words from the Latin and Greek
g and n are heard separately, as —
gnome, gnostique, agnat, diagnostique, geognosie, ignition, inex-
pugnable, magnificat, physiognomie, recognitif, stagnant, stagna-
tion.
45. H is silent in French, except in some proper names.
H Aspirate, so-called. — About 300 words, beginning with
h, do not allow the elision of a preceding vowel, or the
linking of a preceding consonant. This is called '* as-
pirate h."
The following list contains all those in common use.
Those not given are nautical and technical terms.
List of "Aspirated" Words.
habler.
halo.
hareng,
hache,
halte.
hargneux.
hagard,
hampe.
haricot.
haie.
hanche.
harnacher,
haUlon,
hanneton,
harnais.
haine.
hanter,
harnois.
hair, Ac,
happer.
harpie,
hile.
harangue,
hasard, Ac,
halener,
harasser,
hate, Ac,
h^er,
harceler,
hausser.
haleter,
hardes,
haut, Ac,
halle
hardi, Ac,
have,
hallucination,
harem,
Havre,
18
FREITCH GEAMMAK.
havre, hoche, &c., houille, &c.,
havre-sac, hogner, houppe, &c.,
hennir, &c., HoUande, houri,
Henri, Hongrie, housser, &c.,
heraut, honnir, houx,
herisser, honte, huaille,
hernie, hoquet, huit, «&c.,
heron, horde, Huguenot,
heros, hors, huppe, Ac,
(not derivatives), hotte, hurler, &c.
heurter, &c., houbloa, hussard,
hideux, houe, &c., hutte.
In the above list, ' &c.' means, ' and its derivatives or compounds.'
46. J has always tlie sound of ' s ' in ' pleasure,' as —
jambe, joujou, deja, rejeter.
47. L (except "liquid 1 ") has the same sound as in Eng-
lish, as —
il, illustre, lettre, calcul, intelligent-
Liquid L, so-called. — L and 11, preceded by i, not at the
beginning of a word, have usually a *' liquid sound," like
English Mli' in * brilliant,' or even with no sound of 1
whatever.
1. n liquid hardly differs from English * y ' consonant.
travail, ceil, deuil, avril, fenil, mil (= millet), peril, tril, gresil.
2. HI liquid is sounded more strongly than il. It oc-
curs for the most part, followed by e mute, at the end of
words, in which case a slight sound of the e mute is given,
as —
fille (almost like ' feeyu '), chenille, volaille (see Sec. 25, Rem.),
muraille.
3. n final is not liquid in the following words, mostly
Latin :
List of Words with ' il ' not Liquid.
beril,
civil,
il,
bissextil.
exil,
mil (-1000),
Bresil,
fil,
morfil,
COKSOXAKTS.
Nil,
poil,
sextil,
octU,
profil,
subtil,
penU,
pueril,
viril,
pistil,
quintil (Sec. 32),
volatil
19
4. m is not liquid in the following words, mostly di-
rectly from the Latin :
List of Words with * ill ' not Liquid,
Achille,
idyUe,
scintiller,
axilliare,
imbecUlite
siUe,
d all adjectives in
instiller,
sybille.
-Ulaire,
Lille,
tittiller.
calviUe,
mille.
tranquille.
cavillation,
osciller,
(and derivatives).
codicille,
papiUe,
vaciller.
distiller,
pupille,
vaudeville,
fibriUe,
pusillanime,
village.
Gille,
scille.
ville.
5. L final is silen
t in the following :
baril.
fournil,
nombril,
chartil,
fraisil,
outil,
chenil,
fusil,
penil.
courtil,
coutil,
menil.
sourcil.
Also in cul-de-sac, cul-de-jatte, though not in cul ; and in a few
proper names.
Note. — L is often silent before other final consonants, as —
fils, pouls, aulx, Arnauld.
48. M is silent in darnner, and its derivatives, damn6,
condamner, &c.
For m nasal, see Sec. 34.
Otherwise m is sounded as in English.
49. N is silent in monsieur. Otherwise n and nn are as
in English.
For n nasal, see Sec. 34.
50. P is silent in sept, septi^me (not in other derivatives
of sept, as septembre, septennal), exempt (but not in ex-
emption), prompt (but not impromptu) ; bapteme, compte.
20 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
dompter, and their derivatives ; romps, rompt, temps, and
corps.
Also final p is silent in drap, galop, trop, strop, coup,
beaucoup, cantaloup, camp, champ, clamp.
Otherwise p sounds as in English.
Note. — Ph is always like f.
51t Q, has the sound of k. Q final, silent by the general
rule, is heard in coq, but not in coqs nor in coq-d'Inde.
In cinq it is heard only before a vowel sound, as —
cinq hommes (sin' kom).
52. R is generally pronounced, in French, as a dental
consonant. The so-called grass6yement is a sound of r
produced with the base of the tongue, and is heard chiefly
in Paris.
E final is silent in the ending er, and in monsieur, mes-
sieurs, as —
parler, panier, narrer, Royer.
Exceptions. — R final is not silent in monosyllables (as fer, cher,
mer), nor in amer, enfer, hiver, nor in hier when standing alone.
In avant hier r is silent (avan'-tie).
53. Two sounds of S. — S has two sounds, as in English,
viz.:
1. S has a soft sound, like z, when it stands between
two vowels, as —
rose, vase, saisie, presomption, oiseau.
Exception. — In compound words s retains the same
sound as in the component parts, even though brought be-
tween two vowels, as —
havresac (sac, not zac), vraisemblable, antisocial, desuetude, pre-
supposer, monosyllable, entresol, asymetrie.
2. S has a sharp sound, like * s * in * sun,' in all other
cases, as —
sceur, sept, fils, substance, transir, isthme, asthme, scribe, sque-
lette, siecle, mais, issue, science, scene, heroisme, prisme.
Note. — Sch is like sh in schisme, schiste, and their derivatives,
and like sk in schene.
CONSOKAKTS. 21
3. S final, silent by the general rule, is heard in Greek
and Latin words (see Sec. 38), and m fils (at the end of
a sentence or before a vowel sound), jadis, lis (but not in
flceur-de-lis), mceurs, ours, relaps, and in tous when used
absolutely.
4. S is silent, when not final, in some names and words,
chiefly compounds : — Descartes, lesquels, mesdames, regis-
tre, jurisdiction, etc.
54. T has generally the same sound as in English, but —
1. T has the sharp sound of s in the endings -tial, -tiel,
-tien, -tier, -tiare, -tion, -tius, -tium, -atie, -6tie, -itie, -otie,
-utie, -eptie, and -ertie, — and also in the combinations -tia-,
-ti6-, -tic- when not final, as —
nation, partial, essentiel, initier, Titien, ambitieux, Actium, Aetius,
penitentiare, aristocratie, minutie, ineptie, inertie, satiete, Spar-
tiate, nicotiane, gentiane, Miltiade, petiole, ratiociner.
Exceptions. — T retains its own sound in the following, mostly
nnassimilated Latin words :
bastion, bestial, mixtion, Critias, centiare, moitie, metier.
2. T final, silent by the general rule, is heard in many
proper names and Latin words (see Sec. 38), and in the
following :
brut, chut, dot, huit (before a vowel sound), lut, net, rit, rut, pre-
terit.
3. When t final is preceded by another consonant, both
are usually silent, as — /
instinct, est (=is).
Exception. — Both are sounded in the following, mostly foreign .
abject.
inexact.
strict,
compact.
incorrect,
tact.
contact.
intact.
test,
est (=East),
lest, .
zist.
exact,
Quest,
zest.
hast,
rapt,
22 FEEI?^CH GRAMMAR.
Note. — In Christ both s and t are heard ; in Jesus Christ, neither
(Jezu-Cri) ; so also Antichrist (Antecri).
Sept (sett), is pronounced se before a consonant sound, if closely
joined to the following word.
4. Th. has always the simple sound of t.
55, X. — The double consonant x has in general the same
sound as in English, following the same rules.
1. X is like ks before another consonant ; at the begin-
ning of words (except proper names) ; wlien not silent at
the end of a word ; and usually between two vowels, as —
exclamation, sextuple, xiste, luxe, Ajax, prefix, sphinx.
Exceptions. — X final, usually silent, is sometimes like s and
sometimes like z. See 5, below.
2. X is like gs at the beginning of Greek names ; and in
the prefixes ex and hex before a vowel sound, as —
Xenophon, Xerces, exact, hexametre, exhorter.
Exception, — X is like ks in execrer (as being derived from the
Latin ' ex-secrari *).
3. X is like sliarp s in soixante and its compounds, and
in Auxerre, Auxonne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Bmxelles, coccyx,
and in dix and six at the end of a sentence.
4. X is like z in the derivatives of deux, six, and dix, and
when final x is carried (see 5), as —
deuxieme, sixieme, dixaine, dixeau.
5. X final is usually silent, as —
six, dix, paix, chaux, vieux, voix, epoux, Bayeux.
Note. — X final is like s in dix and six, at the end of a sentence ;
and like z when carried to the next word, before a vowel sound
(see Sec. 58), as —
Beatrix est (Beatri-ze), dix-huit (di-zui), deux hommes, (deu-zom).
56. Y is usually a vowel, equal to i or ii, and by some
is always so explained. If considered as a consonant, it
has the same sound as Englisli y, as —
bruyere, Lafayette, Bayard, Mayence.
LINKING OF WORDS. 23
57. Z final, silent by the general rule, is pronounced
like English z in gaz ; and like s in quartz, Metz, Luz, Al-
varez, Cortez, and other foreign proper names.
LINKING OF WORDS.
58. Frequently, when a word ends in a consonant, and
the next word begins with a vowel sound, the consonant
is carried over to the second word, and the two are spoken
as one. This linking does not take place if the words are
separated by a mark of punctuation or a rhetorical pause.
It is most frequent with s, x, and t, and generally modifies
the sound of the consonant.
Examples. — Vous avez (vou-zave), ils ont (il-zon'), aux armes
(o-zarm).
1. In such cases s and x take the sound of z, g that of
k, and d that of t, even though silent by other rules.
Examples. — Beatrix est (Beatri-ze), profond abime (profon'
tabim), grand homme (gran'-tom), neuf enfanta (neu ven'fan'), sang
humain (san'-kumain'), depuls un (depui-zun').
2. When the consonant to be linked is n nasal, it gen-
erally has a double sound, the first nasal, the second not
so, as —
bon epoux (bon'-nepou), bien heureux (bien'-neureu), plein air
(plen'-ner), un enfant bien eleve (un'-nen'fan' bien'-neleve).
3. E mute final is often disregarded, and the words
linked as above, as —
^tre attentif (^-tratten'tif), genre humain (gen'-rumin').
4. A few words are never linked —
et, clef, loup, plomb, riz.
59. Elision of e mute final is practised very commonly,
for brevity and euphony.
Examples. — Voila le chemin de fer, see the railroad (pronounced
Voilal chmin'd fer).
Je le sais, I know it (Jul se).
Je ne te le donne pas, I do not give it to you (pronounced Jun tul
don pa).
24 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
O'est le chemin de fer de la ville, it is the railroad from the cily
(pronounced eel chmin'd fer dlavil).
Note. — For the elision of e mute before est, a, enx, &c., see Sec.
12, on the use of the apostrophe.
60. Syllables. — In dividing words into syllables, each
syllable, so far as possible, is made to end with a vowel.
Examples. — Patrimoine, pa-tri-moi-ne, divided into five sylla-
bles, pronounced as four.
me-tho-de.
i-gno-rant.
in-co-gni-to.
ca-rac-te-ris-ti-que.
bie-nheu-reux.
ma-gni-fi-que.
as-si-gna-tion.
e-ty-mo-lo-gie.
ma-lheur.
a-veu-gle.
CHAPTEE II.— THE ARTICLE.
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
61. The Definite Article, in reality a weakened demon-
strative pronoun, from the Latin Mile,' has two genders,
masculine and feminine, and two numbers, singular and
plural. It agrees in gender and number with the noun
to which it belongs. Its form is, in the singular, mascu-
line le, feminine la ; in the plural les for both genders.
Examples :
Les livres, the books.
La mort, death.
Le pere, the father.
La mere, the mother.
Les enfants, the children.
Note. — Before a vowel soun.d both le and la suffer elision,
taking the form 1', as —
L'homme, the man. I L'histoire, the history.
L'arbre, the tree. | L'annee, the year.
Exception. — Le and la never lose their vowel before onze, eleven,
and onzieme, eleventh.
62. Du and an. — The definite article joins with the pre-
positions de or a, forming one word ; but la and V never
thus unite. The following table shows all the forms :
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
25
Alone.
Before a vowel
sound.
With de.
With i.
«. (Mas....
^"^S- JFem...
le
1»
du
au
la
1'
dela
£ila
Plural
les
les
des
aux
EXAMPLES.
Du roi, of tlie king.
Des freres, of the brothers.
Au voisin, to tlie neighbor.
Des feuilles, of the leaves.
Au gar90n, to the boy.
Au vin, to the wine.
Aux loups, to the wolves
De I'ennemi, of the enemy.
Aux fen^tres, to the windows.
De I'oiseau, the bird's.
De la vie, of the Ufe.
A I'argent, to the money.
A I'oncle, to t
tie uncle.
A la tante, to the aunt.
63. Use of the Definite Article. — The definite article has
in general a slightly demonstrative force, as in English.
But its use is far more extensive than in English, as follows :
1. The definite article is used with common nouns used
in the full extent of their meaning :
La nature, nature.
Ij'amour, love.
lie vice, vice.
L'hiver, Winter.
L'or, gold.
La fortune, fortune.
L'amitie, friendship.
La jeiinesse, youth.
Le fer, iron.
Les hommes, men.
2. The definite article is used to denote the parts of the
body, where the possessive pronoun is used in English :
Mai a la t^te, pain in one's head, headache.
L'epee a la main, his sword in his hand.
Mai aux dents, toothache.
3. The definite article is used with other parts of speech,
when used as nouns :
Le vert, green (a color). Le pourquoi, the why.
Le boire et le manger, drinking and eating.
4. The definite article is used with the names of coun-
tries, provinces, mountains, rivers, winds, and titles of
persons :
2
26 FEEI^CH GRAMMAR.
L'Europe, Europe.
Les Alpes, tlie Alps.
Iia Seine, the Seine.
De I'Amerique, of America,
Le Vesuve, Vesuvius.
La Lorraine, Lorraine.
Le general Knox, General Knox.
5. The definite article is used in distributive expressions,
where the indefinite article is used in English :
Une fois I'an, once a year.
Deux fois la semaine, twice a week.
Trois milles a I'heure, three miles an hour.
6. The definite article is repeated with each noun to
which it belongs :
L'esprit, le coeur et les moeurs, mind, heart, and manners.
7. The definite article is inseparable from some names
of places and authors :
La Havane, Havana.
Le Dante, Dante.
La Hague, the Hague.
La Mexique, Mexico.
Le Poussin, Poussin.
64. Exceptions to the above. — The definite article is
sometimes omitted, though required by the general rules :
1. The definite article is not used with a noun which
limits another noun, though used in its full extent : —
Le roi de France (not de la France), the king of France.
Un homme de courage, a man of courage.
L'armee de France, the French army.
2. The definite article is not used with the numerals
employed in names of sovereigns and in citations from
books :
Henri quatre, Henry (four) the Fourth.
George trois, George (three) the Third.
Livre premier, chapitre cinq, book I, chap. 5.
3. The definite article is not used with the names of
countries, when governed by the prepositions en or de :
Les oiseaux d'Afrique, the birds of Africa.
n est en Ecosse, He is in Scotland.
Je viens d'lorlande, I have come from Ireland.
IJS'DEFIKITE ARTICLE. 27
Note. — Tlie article is arbitrarily retained with, some names of
places ; see Sec. 63, 7.
INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
65. The Indefinite Article, in reality a weakened de-
monstrative, from the Latin *unus/ lias two genders,
masculine and feminine, and agrees in gender with the
noun to which it belongs. Its form is, masculine un,
feminine une. Examples :
Un canif, a penknife, I Une reine, a queen,
Un ami, a friend. | Une pomme, an apple.
66. Use of the Indefinite Article. — Its use is less exten-
sive than in English, but, in general, follows the same
usage. It is not used, where it might be expected, in the
following cases :
1. The indefinite article is not used with nouns in ap-
position :
L'avare, come die par Moliere, " The Miser," a comedy by Mo-
liere.
Vienne, villa d'Autriche, Vienna, a city of Austria.
2. The indefinite article is not used in phrases where
the verb and its object are so closely joined as to be con-
sidered as one word or *' phrase " :
Faire fortune, to make a fori;une.
Rendre visite, to pay a visit.
Ne dire mot, not to say a word.
3. The indefinite article is not used in distributive ex-
pressions ; the definite article or the preposition par being
used in such cases :
Six francs par jour, 6 francs a day.
Une fois la semaine, once a week. »
4. The indefinite article is not used in the titles of books:
Grammaire frangaise, a French grammar.
5. The indefinite article is not used after quel, * how,'
used as an exclamation, nor usually after jamais, * never ;'
28 FREI^CH GRAMMAR.
Quel bruit vouz faites, what a noise you make !
Jamais general plus distingue, never a general was more distin-
guished.
6. The indefinite article is not used with a predicate
noun or adjective :
Je suis franQais, I am a Frenchman.
II est medecin, he is a physician.
Note. — The indefinite article is used after c'est, ' he is,' • it is,' voila,
' there is,' voici, ' here is ; ' or when it belongs to a predicate noun
which is limited by an adjective, as —
C'est un Anglais, he is an Englishman.
Voici un officier, here is an officer.
II etait im medecin distingue, he was a distinguished physician.
DEFINITE ARTICLE USED PARTITIVELY.
67. So-called ^'Partitive Article." — The definite article,
combined with the preposition de (du, de la, des), is used
with a partitive meaning, before a common noun not used
in its widest sense, and denotes an indefinite limitation of
its meaning, like the English * some ' or ' any ' :
J'ai du pain, I have some bread.
Du vin et de I'argent, wine and money.
Mon pere a du bon et du mauvais, my father has some good and
some bad (qualities).
Note. — The article thus used is called by most French gramma-
rians the " Partitive Article."
68. Exceptions. — The article is omitted in partitive ex-
pressions, and de alone is used in the following cases :
1. The article is not used after a negative or partitive
adverb, or any word having a partitive or quantitative
force :
Je n'ai pas de cafe, I have no coffee.
Beaucoup de I'argent, much money.
Une foule de peuple, a crowd of people.
Moins de fer, point d'or, less iron, no gold.
Un panier d'oranges, a basket of oranges.
Une troupe d'enfans (see Sec. 76, N.), a troop of children.
DEFINITE ARTICLE USED PARTITIVELT. 29
Note. — Bien, tliough really a quantitative adverb in such expres-
sions, takes the article :
Bien des ennemis, plenty of enemies.
Bien de I'argent, a good deal of money.
But the expression, bien d'autres, * many others,' is sometimes
met with.
2. The article is not used in partitive expressions with
a noun limited by an adjectiye :
Nous avons de bons livres, We have good books.
De mauvais cafe, bad coffee.
Void de bon pain, Here is some good bread.
Exception. — The article is retained when the noun and
adjective are closely connected in a phrase or compound
word :
Des blancs-becs (white-beaks), green-homs.
U a du bon sens, he has good sense.
De la belle musique, some good music.
Des jeunes gens, some young folks.
OENEBAL EXAMPLES.
Sans argent, without any money.
Sans fa9on, without ceremony. (Here there is no partitive idea.
All is excluded.)
Avec de I'argent, with some money. (Not all money, but an in-
definite limited amount.)
Un grand nombre des personnes que j'ai vue, a large number of
the people whom I have seen. (Here there is no partitive idea, but
the article limits * persons.' '* Those people whom," &c.)
II n'y a d'utile que ce qui est juste (Mirabeau). There is nothing
expedient but that which is just.
Vous ferez du bien a vous mSme (Fenelon), You will do (some)
good to yourself.
30 FKENCH GRAMMAK.
CHAPTER III.— THE JS^OUJST.
GENDER OF NOUNS.
69. Two Genders. — All nouns are either masculine or
feminine. There is no neuter gender of nouns. Gender,
in French grammar, is an attribute of the word, not of
the thing which the word stands for. It is to a large ex-
tent grammatical, not logical or real.
70. Masculine Nouns. — The following classes of nouns
are masculine :
1. Names of male beings and offices
Le maitre, the master.
Le cheval, tlie horse.
CJn chien, a dog.
Le Fran9ais, the Frenchman.
2. Names of the seasons, months, days, points of the
compass, trees, classes of animals, metals, and chemical
elements, are masculine :
Le printemps, Spring.
Le ch^ne, the oak.
Le cuivre, copper.
Le lundi, Monday.
L'hydrogene, hydrogen.
Un mammifere, a mammal.
Le nord, le sud, I'est, I'ouest, the North, the South, the East, the
West (see Sec. 54, 3, Ex.).
Exceptions. — The names of some trees are feminine by termina-
tion (see next Sec.) :
L'yeuse, the yew. I L'ebene, the ebony.
La vigne, the vine. | L'aubepine, the hawthorn.
3. Adjectives, verbs, &c., used as nouns, are masculine :
Le rouge, le noir et le blanc.
the red, black, and white.
Le boire et le manger, eating and drinking.
Le romantique et le classique, the romantic and classical.
4. Most nouns derived from masculine or neuter Latin
nouns are masculine :
Ecuyer, squire (scutarius).
Ev^que, bishop (episcopus).
Pecheur, sinner (peccator).
GENDER OF KOUNS. 31
PScheur, fisherman (piscator).
Ami, friend (amicus).
Ciel, sky (ccelum).
Plomb, lead (plumbum).
Jour, day (diurnus).
Fenouil, fennel (foeniculum).
Peril, danger (periculum).
Venin, poison (venenum).
Note. — This, of course, includes many nouns which also come
under other rules, but is perhaps the most practically useful rule of
all.
Remeirks. — Most nouns not feminine by termination (see next
Sec.) are usually said to be masculine by termination. Such a rule
would cover the same ground as those given, and be subject to many
exceptions.
For compound nouns see Sec. 75.
The gender of many nouns is best learned by rote.
71. Feminine Nouns. — The following classes of nouns are
feminine :
1. Names of female beings and offices are feminine :
La reine, the queen. I La vache, the cow.
La jument, the mare. | La colombe, the dove.
2. Most names of fruits, flowers, and herbs are femi-
nine :
La pomme, the apple. I La rose, the rose.
La cerise, the cherry. La poire, the pear.
La sauge, sage. | L'asperge, asparagus.
3. Most nouns derived from Latin feminine nouns are
feminine :
L'enfance, infancy (infantia).
La raison, reason (rationem).
La chandelle, the candle (candela).
La liaison, the connection (ligationem).
La taverne, the tavern (taberna).
La peinture, the painting (pictura).
La qu^te (see Sec. 32), the search (quaesita).
4. Most nouns ending in e mute or in -ion, -gon, -son,
-eur, -t6, and -ti6 are feminine ''by termination" :
32 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Une ecriture, a writing (scriptura).
La victoire, victory (victoria).
La production, the production.
La maison, the house (mansionem).
La charite, charity (charitas).
L'amitie, friendship (amicitia).
La le9on, the lesson (lectionem).
La grandeur, grandeur.
Note. — Many of the nouns that come under this rule are also
covered by the preceding one. In general, all rules of gender by
termination must be subject to exceptions ; but the Latin derivation
will be a guide to most of these exceptions :
Le vice, vice (vitium).
Le courage, courage (cor).
Le soup9on, suspicion (suspicionem).
Le bonheur, happiness (hora).
Le malheiir, misfortune (hora).
Le navire, the ship (navirium).
Le volume, the volume (volumen).
Le deisme, deism.
Le labeur, labor (labor).
6. Six nouns ending in -i are feminine :
La foi, faith (fides).
La parol, the wall (paries).
La merci, mercy (mercedes).
La loi, law (lex).
La fourmi, the ant (formica).
L'apres-midi, the afternoon.
6. The rules for gender by termination may be summed
up as follows :
a. Masculine are nouns ending in —
(1.) A vowel or a double vowel.
Except a few in -te, -tie.
(3.) A nasal sound, with or without a silent consonant after it.
Except a class in -ion, -gon, and -son.
(3.) A consonant.
Except a class (about 1200) in -eur.
(4.) Some ending in -age, -ice, -iste, -aire.
b. Feminine are nouns ending in —
GENDER OF NOUNS. 33
(1.) E mute preceded by a vowel.
Witli a few exceptions.
(2.) -ane, -aine, -ine, -agne, -aigne, -ogne.
(3.) -elle, -ille, -aille, -eille, -ouille.
(4.) -iere, -ure.
(5.) -ette, -otte.
(6.) -asse, -esse, -isse, -ise, -ache, -eche, -iche, -oche, -uche.
(7.) -ance, -ence.
(8.) A large number (about 1200) of those in -eur, and manj in
-ion, -9on, -son.
(9.) Abstract nouns in -te and -tie.
72. Special Rules for gender of nouns.
1. Titles of men remain masculine even when applied
to women, as —
Un auteur, an author or authoress.
Un orateur, an orator, male or female.
Un ecrivain, a writer, " "
Le charlatan, the charlatan, male or female.
Le temoin, the witness, ** **
Note. — The feminine of the title of a man denotes the wife of the
personage, as —
Madame la generale, the General's wife.
La prefete, the Prefect's wife.
2. A few nouns may be of either gender without change
of form, viz. :
La foudre, the thunder (masculine when used figuratively, as,
Oe foudre de guerre, this thunderbolt of war).
La sentinelle, the sentinel (sometimes masculine in poetry ; ap-
parently originally a collective or abstract noun).
La dupe, the dupe.
Un hymne (hymnus), a hymn (often feminine).
73. Double Forms. — Some nouns have a feminine,
formed after the analogy of the feminine of adjectives.
These are often called *^ adjective nouns." The most
common are : —
2*
34 FREKCH GRAMMAR.
Berger, bergere, shepherd, shepherdess.
Orphelin, orpheline, orphan.
Ours (Sec. 53, 3), ourse, bear, she-bear.
Ami, amie, friend.
Chien, chienne, dog, slut.
Chretien, Chretienne (Sec. 54), Christian.
Lion, lionne, lion, lioness.
Jumeau, jumelle, twin.
Poete, poetesse, poet, poetess.
Ane, anesse, ass, jenny.
Prince, princesse, prince, princess.
Dieu, deesse, God, goddess.
Danseur, danseuse, dancer.
Menteur, menteuse, liar.
Enchanteur, enchanteresse, enchanter.
Pecheur, pecheresse, sinner.
P^cheur, p^cheuse, fisherman, fisherwoman.
Acteur, actrice, actor, actress.
Serviteur, servante, servant.
Heros, heroine (Sec. 45), hero, heroine.
Note. — As in English, some nouns have a feminine of
entirely distinct form and origin. These require no fur-
ther notice. Examples :
Homme, femme, man, woman.
Pere, mere, father, mother.
Oncle, tante, uncle, aunt.
Ooq, poule, cock, hen.
74. Double Gender. — Some nouns have different mean-
ings in the different genders, with no change of form. This
double meaning often arises from a difference of origin.
The following list contains all those in common use :
List of Nouns with Double Gender.
Un aide, a helper, une aide, a help.
Un aigle, an eagle, une aigle, a standard.
Un air (aer), an air, une aire (area), an area.
Un atme (alnus), an alder, une aune (ulna), an ell.
Le barbe (barbarie), the horse, la barbe (barba), the beard.
GEJsTDER OF KOUKS.
35
Le Bourgogne (a country),
Le coche (conclia), tlie coach,
Le decime, -|^ of a franc,
Un echo (see Sec. 40), an echo,
Un exemple, an instance,
Le garde, the defender,
Le guide, the guide,
Le livre (liber), the book,
Le manche, the handle,
Le memoire, the bill, memoir,
Merci, thanks,
Le mode, the mood,
Un office, a duty, service,
Le page (Ttaidior), the boy,
Le paillasse, the clown,
Le palme (palmus), palm of the
hand,
Le pendule, the pendulum,
Le plane, the plane-tree,
Le po^le (pensiles), the stove,
Le poste (positum), the station,
Le pourpre, purple color,
Le pretexte (praetextum), the
pretext,
Le somme (somnus), the nap,
sleep,
Le souris (subridere), the smile,
Le temple (templum), the temple,
building for worship,
Le tour (tornus), the turn, trick,
Le trompette, the trumpeter,
Le vapeur, the steamboat,
Le vase, the vase,
Le voile, the veil.
la bourgogne (a wine).
la coche, the sow.
la decime, the tithe.
(une) EchOj Echo, a nymph.
une exemple, a copy.
la garde, safe-keeping.
la guide, the rein.
la Uvre (libra), the pound.
la manche, the sleeve.
la memoire, memory.
la merci, mercy.
la mode, the fashion.
une office, a pantry, etc.
la page (pagina)^ the page.
la paillasse, straw-bed.
la palme (palma), palm-tree.
la pendule, the clock.
la plane, the plane, a tool.
la po^le (patella), frying-pan.
la poste (posita), post-office.
la pourpre, the royal purple.
la pretexte (prsetexta), a garment.
la somme (summa), the sum.
la souris (sorex), the mouse.
, la tempe (formerly temple, from
tempera), temple of the head,
la tour (turris), the tower.
la trompette, the trumpet.
la vapeur, steam, gas.
la vase, slime, mud.
la voile, the sail.
75. Compound Nouns. -
is as follows :
-The gender of compound nouns
1. Compound nouns formed of two nouns take tlie gen-
der of the first, as —
Le chou-fleur, the cauliflower.
La chevrefeuille, the honeysuckle.
36 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
2. Compound nouns containing but one noun as an ele-
ment, take the gender of that one :
Une porte-plume, a penholder.
Le contre-coupj the rebound.
3. Compound nouns formed from indeclinable words are
masculine (Sec. 70, 3) :
Le passe-volant, the intruder.
Le pourboire, the drink-money.
Le vol-au-vent, a kind of pie.
NUMBER OF NOUNS.
76. General Rule for Number. — The plural of nouns is
generally formed by adding s to the singular :
Le poisson, the fish, les poissons.
Lte dent, the tooth, les dents.
L'homme, the man, les hommes.
Note. — In polysyllables ending in -nt, many writers omit the
t in the plural :
L'enfant, the child, les enfans.
Le geant, the giant, les geans.
Le sentiment, sentiment, les sentimens.
77. Special Rules for Number.
1. Nouns ending in -au and -eu add x to form the plural :
Le feu, the fire, les feux.
Le lieu, the place, les lieux.
Le jeu, the game, les jeux.
2. Seven nouns ending in -ou form the plural in x, after
the analogy of nouns in -au and -eu. They are all mascu-
line.
Le bijou, the jewel, les bijoux, jewels.
Le caillou, the pebble, les cailloux, pebbles.
Le chou, the cabbage, les choux, cabbages.
Le genou, the knee, les genoux, knees.
Le hibou, the owl, les hiboux, the owls.
Le joujou, the plaything, les joujoux, playthings.
Le pou, the louse, les poux, lice.
Note. — Other nouns ending in -ou add s to form the plural :
KUMBER OF NOUNS. 37
Le trou, the hole, les trous, holes.
3. Nouns ending in -al form the plural by changing -al
into -aux:
Le cheval, the horse, les chevaux, horSies.
L'h6pital, the hospital, les hSpitaux, hospitals.
Le metal, the metal, les metaux, metals.
Le rival, the rival, les rivaux, rivals.
Exceptions. — The following nouns ending in -al form the plural
by adding s. They are all masculine :
L'aval, the surety, les avals, sureties.
Le bal, the ball, les bals, balls.
Le bocal, the jar, les bocals, jars.
Le cal, the callosity, les cals, callosities.
Le carnaval, the carnival, les carnavals, carnivals.
Le chacal, the jackal, les chacals, jackals.
Le local, the premises, les locals, places, premises.
Le narval, the narwhal, les narvals, narwhals.
Le pal, the pale (heraldry), les pals.
Le regal, the entertainment, les regals.
Le serval, the serval, les servals.
4. A few nouns ending in -ail form the plural in -aux
after the analogy of nouns in -al. They are :
Le bail, the lease, les baux, leases.
Le corail, the coral, les coraux, corals.
L'email, the enamel, les emaux, enamels.
Le plumail, the feather-brush, les plumaux, brushes.
Le soupirail, the air-hole, les soupiraux, air-holes.
Le vantail, the leaf of a double les vantaux, double doors,
door,
Le vitrail, the church window, les vitraux, windows.
One has both forms. Pail, garlic, ails or aux.
Note. — Other nouns ending in -ail form the plural in s, as —
Le portail, the portal, les portails, doorways.
Le gouvernail, the helm, les gouvernails, helms.
L'eventail, the fan. les eventails, fans.
5. Nouns ending in s, x, or z, undergo no change to form
the plural, as —
38 FKE]N"GH GRAMMAR.
Le fils, the son, les fils, sons.
Le nez, the nose, les nez, noses.
La voix, the voice, les voix, voices.
6. The following may be said to be irregular :
Le betail, the cattle, les bestiaux.
L'oeil, the eye, les yeux, the eyes.
(Through the Old French ids, ioauls, ieus.)
CEil has also the regular plural in oeils-de-bcBuf, bull's-eye win-
dows, or circles in soup.
Three have two forms in the plural, vrith different meanings :
Le ciel, heaven, sky, f^^^^^' ^1^^*^' «^«^ «f P^^^^^^^'
(cieux, heavens.
L'aleul, ancestor, J ^^^«' a^^^estors.
I aieux, grandfathers.
Le travaU, work, labor, i *^^^^^'^' ^^^^f^' .
( travaux, public business.
7. Proper names are usually indeclinable, but some
writers add the mark of the plural when proper names
are used with numerals, as —
Les deux Racine,
Les deux Rousseau,
Les deux Racines, '^^^ *^« ^^^^^^«-
,1'
Les deux Rousseaux, '^^^ *^« Eousseaus.
78. Double Meanings. — Some nouns have different mean-
ings in the two numbers. The following list contains
those in common use :
L'aboi (mas.), barking, les abois, death-struggle, (at) bay.
L'arret (mas.), judgment, de- les arrets, arrest.
cision,
L'assise (fern.), the layer, stratum, les assises, assizes.
Le ciseau, the chisel, les ciseaux, scissors.
L'eau (fem.), the water, les eaux, watering-places, water-
works.
L'eflfet (mas.), the effect, les effets, property, effects.
L'epingle (fem.), the pin, les epingles, pin money.
Le fer, the iron, sword, les fers, fetters, irons.
Le gage, the pledge, pawn, les gages, wages.
NUMBER OF KOUKS. 39
Le limbe, the limb, les limbes, limbo, limbus
La lunette, tbe telescope, les lunettes, eye-glasses.
L'ouie (fem.), bearing, les ouies, gills of a fisb.
La troupe, the troop, band, les troupes, soldiers, troops.
La trousse, bundle, truss, les trousses, breeches.
L'usage (mas.), use, habit, les usages, prayer-books.
La vacance, vacancy in oflace, les vacances, holidays. •
79. Collective Nouns. — A few nouns are used only in the
plural. The following list contains those in common
use :
Les alentours (mas.), neighborhood.
Les annales (fem.), annals, histories.
Les confins (mas.), borders, confines.
Les delices (fem.), delight, pleasures.
Les depens (mas.), expense.
Les entreiilles (fem.), entrails.
Les environs (mas.), neighborhood.
Les frais (mas.), expenses.
Les matines (fem.), morning prayers. Matins.
Les moeurs (fem.), manners, morals.
Les pleurs (mas.), tears. (V. Hugo has pleur.)
Les tenebres (fem.), darkness, shades.
Les thermes (mas.), hot baths.
Les v^pres (fem.), evening prayers, Vespers.
80. Number of Compounds. — Compound nouns take the
mark of the plural in each substantive which composes
them, viz. :
1. When a compound noun is composed of two nouns,
or a noun and an adjective, both take the mark of the
plural, as —
Le beau-frere, brother-in-law, beaux-freres.
Le chef-lieu, principal town, chefs-lieux.
Le loup-garou, bug-bear, were-wolf, loups-garous.
Le pot-pourri, medley, pots-pourris.
Le blano-bec (white-beak), green-horn, blancs-becs.
Exception. — When a preposition comes between the two nouns
which form a compound noun, the first only takes the mark of the
plural.
40 FRE]!^CH GRAMMAR.
Les arcs-en-ciel, tlie rainbows.
Les chefs-d'cBuvre, the master-pieces.
Les aides-de-camp, tlie aides-de-camp.
Les eaux-de-vie, tlie brandies.
2. When a compound noun is composed of a noun and
some indeclinable word, only the noun takes the mark of
the plural, as —
Les semi-tons, tlie semitones.
Les sans-culottes, the ragamuffins.
Les vice-rois, the viceroys.
3. When a compound word is entirely composed of in-
declinable words, it takes no change to form the plural,
as —
Les passe-partout, the master-keys.
Des pourboire, drink-money, fees.
Des tout-ou-rien, neck-or-nothings.
Note. — Usage varies a little with regard to the last two cases.
The Academy authorizes the above.
CASE OF NOUNS.
81. There are in French no case-endings and no de-
clensions of nouns. Pronouns, however, have separate
forms in most instances for three different cases, the case
of the Subject (Nominative), the case of the Direct Object
(Accusative), and the case of the Indirect Object (Dative).
These will be treated of in the chapter on pronouns.
The Nominative case of nouns is used as in English,
for the Subject of the verb, and as the case of direct
address (Vocative).
The Possessive case of nouns is supplied by the use of
the preposition de.
The Indirect Object (Dative case) of nouns is supplied
by the use of the preposition a.
The Direct Object (Accusative case) or Objective case
of nouns alone requires special notice. It is used very
nearly as in English :
1. The objective case is used for the direct object of
transitive verbs, and also after some intransitive verbs
(accusative of kindred meaning in Latin) :
CASE OF KOUKS. 41
Dieu a cree le ciel et la terre. God made tlie heaven and the
earth.
Jouer un jeu, to play a play (a game).
Note. — When the verb governs two objects, one is often a predi-
cate noun, as in English :
De simple soldat, on le fit sergent. From private soldier they
made him sergeant.
2. The objective case is used absolutely, to express time,
distance, place, price, &c., as in English :
Us travaillerent toute la nuit, they worked all night.
Le onze septembre, nous decouvrimes la terre. The 11th of
September we discovered land.
J'sd couru toute la ville. I ran through the whole city.
On ne le trouve nulle part. They don't find him anywhere.
Vendre mille louis d'or, to sell for 1000 gold louis.
Note. — Similar is the elliptical use of the objective case in the
expressions — ^bon jour ! good day ! ; bon soir ! good evening ! ; bon
voyage ! pleasant journey !, &c.
82. Phrases with Nouns. — A noun with a preposition
often forms an adjective phrase, which is usually best
translated by a compound noun :
Le pot au lait, the milk pitcher.
(But, le pot de lait, the pitcher of milk.)
La femme atix huitres, the oyster- woman.
La salle a manger, the dining-room.
5 Li pot a la creme, the cream-pot.
Le mal de t^te, the headache.
Un lit de plumes, a feather-bed.
Un bateau a vapeur, a steamboat.
Un maison a deux etages, a two-story house.
42 . fee?n'ch grammar.
CHAPTER lY.— ADJECTIVES.
GENDER OF ADJECTIVES.
83. General Rules. — Adjectives have in French two gen-
ders only, masculine and feminine. The feminine always
ends in e mute, and often differs from the masculine also
in other ways. See special rules in succeeding sections.
General rules are as follows :
1. Adjectives ending in e mute have the same form in
the feminine :
La jeune princesse et le jeune prince, the young princess and the
young prince.
2. Most adjectives not ending in e mute, add e mute
to form the feminine :
Petit, petite, small.
Joli, jolie, pretty.
Grand, grande, great.
Pur, pure, pure.
Clair, claire, clear.
Civil, civile, civil.
Note. — Adjectives ending in -gu take a diaeresis with the e mute,
which remains silent.
Aigu, aigue, acute. | Oontigu, contigu5, contiguus.
Ambig^ ambiguS, ambiguus.
84. Special Rule. — Many adjectives derived from the
Latin have in the masculine a shortened or weakened form,
and the feminine returns to the stronger form of tJie word
from which it is derived. Some others follow the analogy
of these. These changes are as follows :
85. Adjectives ending in -el, -eil, -ol, -ul, -en, -on, -et, -ot,
or-s, generally double the last letter, those in -f change f to
V, those in -x change x to s, and those in -er, -ef, change e to
b, before adding e mute (having the same effect on the
sound as the doubling of the consonant) :
Cruel, cruelle (crudelis), cruel.
Pareil, pareille (pariculus, from par), equal.
Mol, moUe (mollis), soft.
Nul, nulle (nullus), none.
GEXDER OF ADJECTIYES. 43
Ancien, ancienne (Late Lat. antiamis, from ante), ancient.
Bon, bonne (bonus), good.
Muet, muette (mutus), silent.
Net, nette (nitidus), neat.
Sot, sotte (Rabbin, scboteh ?), foolish.
Gros, grosse (grossus), big, coarse.
Expres, expresse (expressus), express.
Bref, breve (brevis), short.
Ourieux, curieuse (curiosus), curious.
Jaloux, jalouse (zelosus), jealous.
Leger, legere (Late Lat. leviarius), light.
Fier, fiere (ferns), proud.
Note. — One in -11 follows this analogy :
Gentil, gentille (gentilis), elegant.
Exception 1. — Some ending in -et follow the general
rule, adding e mute and taking tlie grave accent. These
are mostly from Latin adjectives in -etus. They are —
Complet, complete (completus), complete.
Ooncret, concrete (concretus), concrete.
Discret, discrete (discretus), discreet.
Inquiet, inquiete (inquietus), restless.
Replet, replete (repletus), lusty, full.
Secret, secrete (secretus), secret.
Excep. 2. — A few in -ot follow the general rule, simply
adding e mute, viz. :
Oagot, cagote (canis Gothus), hypocritical.
Devot, devote (devotus), devout.
Idiot, idiote (idiota), idiotic.
Manchot, manchote (Late Lat. mancus), one-armed.
Mat, mate, checkmate.
Pr^t, pr^te (prsestus), ready.
Ragot, ragote, short, undersized.
Excep. 3. — A few in s also follow tlie general tale :
Fran9ais, francaise, French.
Mauvais, mauvaise, bad, evil.
Obtus, obtuse (obtusus), obtuse.
;, rase (rasus), smooth, shorn, &c.
44 FREl^CH GRAMMAR.
Excep. 4. — One in x and one in 1 also follow the general
rule, only adding e mute, viz. : .
Prefix, prefixe (prsefixus), appointed, prefixed.
Espagnol, espagnole, Spanisli.
86. 1. Five Adjectives ending in 1, have two forms in the
masculine, the first used before a consonant, and the se-
cond before a vowel sound, viz. :
Bel, beau, fem. belle (bellus), beautiful.
Fol, fou, fem. folle (follis), foolish.
Mol, mou, fem. moUe (mollis), soft.
Nouvel, nouveau, fem. nouvelle (novellus), new.
Vieil, vieux, fem. vieille (vetulus), old.
Note. — Of these vieil has either form before a vowel sound : vieil
homme j vieux ivrogne. The others sometimes use the first form
before a vowel sound when used adverbially : mol et doux j bel et
bien, &c.
2. Adjectives ending in c generally have the feminine
in -que, and those in -ng have the feminine in -gne, in order
to preserve the hard sound of the c and g, as —
Caduc, caduque, infirm. I Long, longue, long.
Public, publique, public. Oblong, oblongue, oblong.
Turo, turque, Turkish. |
Note. — One retains the c and also adds -que :
Grec, grecque, Greek.
Exception. — A few ending in c have in the feminine the ending
-che, viz. :
Blanc, blanche, white.
Franc, franche, free.
Sec, seche, dry.
So also, by the same analogy —
Frziis, fraiche, fresh.
87. Irregular Adjectives. — Some adjectives are said to be
irregular m the feminine ; but these may usually be ex-
plained by the Latin derivation, or the analogy of some of
the above classes.
Absous, absoute (absolutus), absolved.
Benin, benigne (benignus), benign.
GENDER OF ADJECTIVES. 45
Ooi, coite (quietus), snug, quiet.
Doux, douce (dulcis), sweet.
Faux, fausse (falsus), false.
Favori, favorite, favorite, darling.
Frais, fraiche, fresli.
Jumeau, jumelle (gemellus), twin.
Malin, maligna (malignus), malign.
Roux, rousse (russus), red.
Tiers, tierce (tertius), tliird, tertian.
Vieux (vieil)j vieille, old.
88. Defective Adjectives. — Some adjectives are found
only in one gender.
1. The following are only masculine :
Ohatain, chestnut-colored.
Dispos, nimble, alert.
Fat, foppish.
Hebreu, Hebrew.
Negrier, slave ; vaisseau negrier, slave ship.
2. The following are only feminine :
Orasse, gross ; ignorance crasse, crass ignorance.
Cursive, running ; ecriture cursive, running hand.
Efiectrice (with cause), efficient cause.
Franque (with langue), Frankish language.
Oceane (with mer), world-ocean, great sea.
Pleniere, plenary (with indulgence, &c.).
Romane (with langue), Romance language.
Note. — The adjective grand is often used indeclinably in the
phrases grand mere, grand meres, grand rue, &c., usually writ-
ten with an apostrophe which originated in mistake : grand'mere,
grand'tante, &c. This form is a remnant of the Old French inde-
clinable adjective.
89. Plural of Adjectives. — Adjectives form their plural
in general by the same rules as nouns.
1. Five adjectives which have a double form in the
masculine singular, bel, nouvel, vieil, fol, and mol, form a
plural masculine only in the form ending in u :
beaux, nouveaux, vieux, fous, mous.
46 FEEIfCH GRAMMAR.
2. One in -eu has the plural in s :
bleu, bleus (not bleux), blue.
3. A few in -al have the plural in -als, not in -aux, yiz.:
fatal, final, matinal, natal, naval, pascal : — fatals, finals, &c.
4. A few in -al are often found with -als in the plural,
though usage favors the plural in -aux, viz.:
amical, boreal, conjugal, filial, frugal, labial, lingual, medial, na-
sal, nuptial, oval, pastoral, pectoral, special, total, virginal, vocaL
5. A few in -al have no masculine plural, viz.:
canonical, frugal, glacial, jovial, theatred.
One has no feminine plural, viz. : amical.
90. Plural of Compound Adjectives. — When the first part
of a compound adjective is considered as used adverbially,
qualifying the second part, it is invariable, and the second
part alone takes the mark of the plural. When the two
parts are considered as each separately qualifying the
noun, both take the mark of the plural. Examples :
Demi-sauvages, half -civilized.
Des enfans nouveau-nes, new-bom infants.
!De I'avoine clair-semee, oats thinly sown.
Des rois tout-puissants, all-powerful kings.
Des oranges aigres-douces, acid-sweet oranges.
Les cheveux chatains-brims, chestnut-brown hair.
Une femme toute-puissante, an all-powerful woman.
Note. — Exceptions occur, where the principle seems lost sight of,
and usage varies somewhat.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
91. General Eule. — An adjective agrees with the noun
which it qualifies in gender and number.
Special Rules.
1. An adjective qualifying two or more nouns is in the
plural :
J'ai trouve la porte et la fen^tre fermees. I found the door and
the window closed.
AGKEEMEKT OF ADJECTIVES. 47
Une resolution et une responsabilite si terribles, so terrible a
resolution and responsibility.
2. An adjective qualifying two nouns of different gen-
ders is masculine, as —
Mon frere et ma sceur sont tres-bons. My brother and my sister
are very kind.
3. An adjective qualifying two nouns connected by ou,
'or/ or with the conjunction omitted, agrees in gender
with the nearest :
Le fer, la flamme, etait tout pr^te. The sword, the fire were all
Un courage ou une prudence etonnante, an astonishing courage
or prudence.
4. Adjectives used adverbially are indeclinable :
Ces roses sentent (Sec. 35, 5), tres-bon. These roses smell good.
Les cerfs corurent tres-vite. Stags run very fast.
92. Exceptions and Anomalous Forms.
1. The adjectives demi, 'half,' nu, 'bare/ excepts, 'ex-
cept,' y compris, 'included,' suppos6, 'supposed,' ci-joint
and ci-inclus, 'enclosed,' 'annexed,' are invariable when
they precede the noun to which they belong, but agree
with the noun when they follow it :
Une demi-heure, half an hour.
Une heure et demie, an hour and a half.
Marcher nu-pieds, to walk bare-foot.
Avoir les pieds nues, to have the feet bare.
Excepte les deux premieres pages, ) the two first pages ex-
Les deux premieres pages exceptees, ) cepted.
Y compris la somme de cent francs, including the sum of 100 francs.
Copie de ma lettre est ci-jointe, a copy of my letter is annexed.
2. The adjective feu, ' deceased,' ' late,' is invariable
when it precedes other modifiers of the noun (article or
pronoun), but agrees with the noun when it stands next
to it :
Feu la reine, or, la feue reine, the late queen.
Feu mes freres, or, mes feues freres, my deceased brothers.
48 FEEKCH GRAMMAR.
3. Color is often expressed by a noun used apparently
as an indeclinable adjective, but really with an ellipsis of
couleur de :
Des souliers (couleur de) rose, rose-colored shoes.
Des gants (couleur de) soufre, yellow gloves (sulplmr-color).
Couleur is here used absolutely. See Sec. 81.
Remzirk. — For adjectives requiring certain prepositions after
them, see Sec. 168.
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES.
93. General Rule. — The adjective usually follows the
noun which it qualifies ; but its position is often changed
for euphony or emphasis, as follows :
1. Monosyllabic adjectives generally precede the nouns
which they qualify :
Un vieux soldat, an old soldier.
Le bleu manteau, the blue cloak.
Une longue entreprise, a long undertaking.
2. In general, the shorter word precedes :
Lois sanguinaires, bloody laws.
Un lion furieux, a furious lion.
Des regions lointaines, distant regions.
Note. — These rules are of course subject to exceptions, especially
in poetry ; indeed the position of words, where it does not affect the
meaning, belongs to rhetoric rather than grammar, and is somewhat
affected by taste and by perception of the so-called "genius of the
language."
94. Adjectives with Double Meanings. — Some adjectives
have a different meaning according as they follow or pre-
cede the nouns which they qualify :
Un homme brave, a courageous man.
Un brave homme, a kind, good man.
Une certaine histoire, a certain history, story.
Une histoire certaine, a reliable history
Un cher enfant, a dear child.
Une robe chere, a costly dress.
Une commtme voix, an unanimous voice.
' COMPAEISOI^ OF ADJECTIVES. 49
Une voix commune, an ordinary voice.
Une cruelle femme, a cruel woman.
Une femme cruelle, a disagreeable woman.
Une fausse clef, a false key.
La clef fausse, the wrong key.
Un grand homme, a great man.
Un homme grandie, a big man.
li'air grand, a noble face, appearance.
Le grand air, distinguisbed manners.
Un honn^te homme, an honest man.
Un homme honn^te, a nice, good man.
Un mauvais air, an awkward appearance.
L'air mauvais, a bad, wicked expression.
Un nouveau livre, a new book (just out).
Un livre nouveau, a new book (an additional one).
Un livre neuf, a new book (not worn).
Un nouvel habit, another coat.
Un habit nouveau, a fashionable coat.
Un pauvre historien, a bad historian.
Un historien pauvre, an indigent historian.
Une petite femme, a small woman.
Une femme petite, a mean woman.
Un plaisant conte, a funny, ridiculous story.
Un conte plsdsant, an agreeable story.
Un seul enfant, a single child.
Un enfant seul, a child alone.
Un simple soldat, a mere private soldier.
Un soldat simple, a foolish soldier.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
95. Three Degrees. — Adjectives have in French, as in
English, three degrees of comparison, the positive or ordi-
nary form, the comparative, and the superlative. The last
two are formed as is described in the following sections :
Comparative Degree.
1. The comparative degree is formed (with three excep-
tions), by prefixing the adverb plus, * more,' to the positive.
L'honneur est plus puissant, plus sacre que la loi. Honor is more
powerful, more sacred than law.
3
50 FEEi^^CH GRAMMAE.
Des manx encore plus longs et plus cruels que les siens (Fen-
elon), evils more continued and more cruel than their own.
2. A comparative of diminution is also formed with the
adverb moins, * less ' :
II est moins malheureux que son frere. He is less unfortunate
than his brother.
3. Three adjectives retain, in the comparatiye degree,
special forms, derived from the Latin, viz. :
Bon, good, — meilleur, better (Lat. melior).
Mauvais, bad, — pire, worse (Latin pejor).
Petit, small, — moindre, less (Lat. minus).
Note. — Petit4 and mauvais have also the forms plus petit, plus
mauvais.
96. Superlative Degree.— The superlative degree is formed
by placing the definite article or a possessive adjective be-
fore the comparative and in agreement with the noun : —
Ii'homme le plus fort, the strongest man.
Les villes les plus grand^-the greatest cities.
Le meilleur ami, the best friend.
Elle est moins jolie que sa soeur. She is less pretty than her
sister.
La distinction la moins expose a I'envie, the distinction least
exposed to envy.
L'homme du monde le plus robuste, the most robust man in the
world.
97. Comparisons. — In comparing different things together
the measure of difference is expressed by the preposition
de, with the noun of quantity or measure :
Je suis de deux ans plus age que vous. I am two years older
than you (older by two years).
Vous ^tes plus grand que moi de trois pouces. You are taller
than I am by three inches (thumbs).
Celui-ci est de beaucoup superieur. This one is much superior.
98. Reciprocal Comparison is expressed by the following
phrases, viz. :
1. Plus — plus, moins— moins, plus— moins, &c., without
the article :
NUMEBALS.
51
Plus il pleure, plus je ris. The more he weeps the more I
laugh.
Plus je fais, moins je gagne. The more I do the less I earn.
2. Autant — que expresses equality in quantity ; aussi —
que expresses equality in degree :
Le chien est aussi fort que le loup. The dog is as strong as the
wolf.
Autant d'eau que de vin, as much wine as water.
II est aussi sage que vaillant. He is as wise as he is brave.
Autant de tues que de blesse^s, as many dead as wounded.
3. Si — que, ^so — as,' is used after a negative :
n n'est pas si riche que vous. He is not so rich as you.
4. D' autant plus, d'autant moins, means 'so much the
more/ 'so much the less':
H est d'autant plus coupable. He is so much the more guilty.
NUMERALS.
99. Cardinal Numbers. — Table :
1. Un, fem. une.
2. Deux(deu).
3. Trois (troi).
4. Quatre (katr).
5. Cinq (sin'. Sec. 51).
6. Six (siss).
7. Sept (set).
8. Huit (ui).
9. Neuf(neuf).
10. Dix (diss)
11. Onze.
12. Douze.
13. Treize (trez).
14. Quatorze (katorz).
15. Qiunze (Mn'z).
16. Seize (sez).
17. Dix-sept (di-set).
18. Dix-huit (di-zui).
19. Dix-neuf (di-neuf).
20. Vingt (vin').
21. Vingt et un (vin'-te-un).
22. Vingt-deux (vin'-deu).
23. Vingt-trois (vin'-troi).
&c.
30. Treinte (trin't).
40. Quarante (karan't).
50. Cinquante (sin'kan't).
60. Soixante (soissan't).
70. Soixante-dix.
71. Soixante-onze,
72. Soixante-douze.
&c.
80. Quatre-vingts (vin').
81. Quatre- vingt-un.
&c.
90. Quatre-vingt-dix.
62 FEEi^CH GKAMMAK.
91. Quatre-vingt-onze (vin'-
ton'z).
&c.
100. Cent (san').
101. Cent un (san' -tun').
&c.
200. Deux cents.
201. Deux cent un.
1000. Mille (mil).
1001. Mille un.
2000. Deux mille.
1,000,000. Un million (mi-lion').
Un milliard is a thousand mil-
lions.
Notes. — 1. These numerals are indeclinable except un,
fern, une; cent, plural cents; vingt when joined with a pre-
ceding quatre ; and million. Cent and quatre-vingts before
another numeral, however, are indeclinable :
Trois cents personnes, 300 persons.
Sept cent vingt ecoliers, 720 pupils.
Quatre-vingts livres, 80 pounds.
Quatre-vingt-douze aunes, 92 yards.
2. Million is always preceded by un or a numeral and
followed by de :
Un million d'epingles, a million pins.
Trois millions de soldats, three million soldiers.
3. In dates 1000 is mil, not mille :
L*wn mil huit cent soixante-cinq, the year 1865.
4. Some of the compound numerals may be connected
by the conjunction et, ' and,' viz.:
vingt et xm, soixante et dix, cent et im, trente et un, quarante
et un, &c.
5. Collective numbers are sometimes used, viz.:
Une huitaine, a series or collection of eight.
Une dizaine, a ten. Tous deux, both (all two).
Une douzain, a dozen ; une quinzaine, 15, &c.
Une centaine, 100 ; un millier, 1,000,000.
100. Expressions of Size. — To express size the verb avoir,
* to have,' is used, and largeur,^ length,' hauteur, * height,'
profondeur, * depth,' &c., with de:
Les murs avaient deux cents pieds de hauteur. The walls were
two hundred feet high.
NUMERALS. 53
II a trenfe pieds de largeur, it is thirty feet wide.
Note. — Two other constructions are sometimes used to express
size :
1. Oette corde a trenft pieds de long. That rope is 30 feet long.
2. Le fleuve est large de 350 pieds. The river is 350 feet wide.
101. Expressions of Age. — Age is also expressed with
avoir, as —
Quelle age a-t-elle ? How old is she ?
Elle a trente deux ans. She is 32 years old.
102. Numbers of Sovereigns. — Tlie cardinal numbers are
used to denote the number of a sovereign, except the first;
for the second also either the cardinal or ordinal is used :
Napoleon premier, Napoleon first.
Charles second, or deux, Charles 2d.
Henri quatre, Pie neuf, Henry 4th, Pius 9th.
103. Days of the Month. — The cardinal numbers are used
to denote the days of the month, except the first :
Le premier Mai, the first of May.
Le deux Fevrier, February second.
Le trois d'Avril, April third.
104. Expressions of Time. — The hours are expressed as
follows :
Deux heures, two o'clock.
Trois heures et demif half past three.
Trois heures moins un quart, a quarter to three.
Midi, twelve o'clock noon ; minuit, twelve at night.
(Douze heura is never used.)
Other expressions of time :
Tous les jours, every day.
Tous les deux jours, every second day.
D'aujourd'hui en huit, a week from to-day.
II y a un an, a year ago.
105. Ordinal Numbers. — The ordinals, except first and
second, are formed from the cardinals by adding -ifeme,
eliding e mute when it ends the numeral, interposing u
after q, and changing f to v, yiz. :
54 FEEIS^CH GKAMMAE.
1st, premier, fern, premiere, sometimes unieme.
2d, second, ** seconde, " deuxieme.
5tli, cinquieme ; 6th, sixieme ; 21st, vingt unieme ; 22d, vingt
deuxieme ; lOOtli, centieme, &c.
Notes. — 1. Unieme is used only after vingt, trente, &c. :
Le vingt et unieme de sa classe, the 21st of liis class.
2. Deuxieme is used after vingt, trente, &c., and usually in
a series containing more than two. Otherwise either second or
deuxieme may be used.
106. Fractional Numbers. — Fractions are, with three ex-
ceptions, expressed by the ordinals —
\, demi, fern, demie, agreeing with the noun.
\, un tiers ; \, un quart ; \, un cinquieme ; ^, un sixieme, &c.
Un pied et demi, trois livres et demie, une demi-livre, deux
demi-pieds — a foot and a half, 3^ pounds, ^ pound, 2 half -feet.
Notes. — 1. Some words meaning \ are —
Une quarte, a quart ; un quarteau, a quarter (of a ton) ; un
quarteron, a quarter (of a pound) ; un quartier, a quarter (of beef, of
veal, of a city.)
2. Et may be omitted in fractions :
Une aune et un quart, or, une aune un quart — a yard and a
quarter.
CHAPTER Y.— PROISrOUNS.
There are five classes of pronouns, the Personal Pro-
noun, including the Possessive ; the Demonstrative Pro-
noun ; the Interrogative Pronoun ; the Kelative Pronoun ;
and the' Indefinite Pronouns.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.
107. Conjunctive and Disjunctive Forms. — The personal
ronoun has two classes of forms, called Conjunctive and
^)isjunctive; the former used in direct connection with a
verb, either as subject or object, and the latter standing
alone, or with prepositions. All the forms are derived
from the Latin ego, tu, ille, &c., and are as follows :
I
THE PERSOiTAL PRONOUK.
65
^
■^ S^
O
I
O
O
o
?a
.* a
: : :
*?
•■li
-==.2^
•-^.^
0^
:o5"
1
II
11
III
tin
o
!
o
g
1^
o
CO
I'll
a
a
"^ _
. c
p c o
EiSS
56
FKEKCH GRAMMAR.
c3
o
to
O
S 3
a
f-i
CD
.^ o
I ^
■^ B
bo oj
Jh <X)
CO g
©
o
o
o
CO
El
• 1
*o
■ 1 g
: S S
oa oi
•a
3
s
a> o> o
09 00 n>
^ ^ ^
-3 -3 "S
1
5 1 5
II J
1
s
3 H 3
s s s
(u a> «
1
.•3 2 3
a 1 s
1
1
ft
■| s s
09 m 01
Si PJ Ei
o o o
> ► ►
5
BBS
i i 1
> > >
1
1
ill
i i i
el fl PI
a
A a a
3 S g
§ § S
i
g 1
1
<
i ■ J
ii
)^ a <
1-
1
D
1
s
.a ••>
2 ^
'I .
^ I >
-§ i g
o S 5i
© o ©
a ^ j;
g ® ^
§•■§ i
:^ § s
2 ° ^
S ffl
O rj ©
§1!
I e i
o *=^ 2
8 "S
© ^
f -aNIVEHSIXY I
USE OF THE PERSOITAL\i^^^;^|^^^\^/ 57
108. Intensive Form. — The disjunctive personal pro-
noun Inis also an intensive form, made by the addition of
meme, ^self/ in the singular, and memes in the plural :
moi-meme, myself,
toi-meme, thyself,
soi-mdme, one's self.
nous-m^mes, ourselves,
vous-m^mes, yourselves.
eux-m^mes, ) ,
n A ?• tnemselves.
elles-m^mes, f ''"^"^°^^*^°'
There is also the form vous-meme, ' yourself/ used when the
plural is applied to an individual.
109. Elision. — Je, me, te, le, la, and se, lose their vowels
before a vowel sound, except when used as enclitics. This
elision is denoted by the apostrophe :
J'ai, I have. Je I'aime, I love him (or her).
M'aimez vous ? Do you love me ?
Ai-je un livre ? Have I a book ?
Menez-le a Paris. Take it (or him) to Paris.
Rend-le avec usure. Repay it with usury.
USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.
110. Conjunctive Forms. — The conjunctive is the ordi-
nary form of the pronoun, and is used when it stands in
its usual position, and in its regular relation with a verb,
either as subject, as direct object, or as indirect object :
1. The conjunctive form is used when the pronoun pre-
cedes its verb :
Je ne te puis blamer. I cannot blame thee.
Je te le dis. I tell it to thee.
lis ont quelques defauts, ma foi, je les leur passe (Rousseau).
They have some faults, but, on my faith, I forgive them them.
2. The conjunctive form of the pronoun is used after
the verb, in questions. The subject is regularly repeated
in questions, il or elle being placed after the verb as en-
clitics, with the hyphen :
Le livre, est-il bon ? Is the book good ?
Ma mere, ou est-elle ? Where is my mother ? Seo Sec. 115, 3.
3*
68 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
3. The pronoun il is used as tlie subject of impersonal,
intransitive, and reflexive verbs, and is then really of the
neuter gender :
II est midi, il pleut. It is noon, it rains.
II me semble, il est viai. It seems to me, it is true.
II sortait una fumee noire. There arose a black smoke.
II se forme des heresies. Heresies are forming.
II s'elevait des tourbillons. There arose whirlwinds.
II y a un an. A year ago (it there has a year).
4. The pronoun le is used in the predicate, referring to
a clause, a phrase, or some circumstance mentioned or
implied, where the English uses *so,' 'it,' or 'that.' In
this use le is really of the neuter gender :
Etes-vous maitresse ici ? Axe you mistress here ?
Otii, je le suis. Yes, I am (am so, am that).
Madame, ites-vous malade ? Oui, je le suis.
Madam, are you sick ? Yes, I am (so, it, that).
(Compare the two following, where the pronoun refers to a per-
son :)
Madame, ^tes-vous la maitresse ici ? Oui, je la suis.
Madam, are you the mistress here ? Yes, I am she.
Etes-vous la malade ? Oui, je la suis.
Are you the sick person ? Yes, I am she.
Je le ferai si je le puis, I will do it if I can.
Vous me traitez de veuve ; il est trop vrai que je le suis
(Voltaire). You treat me as a widow ; it is too true that I am so
(one).
5. A pronoun is regularly repeated with each verb to
which it stands in relation :
II pleure, il rit, il chante. He weeps, laughs, sings.
II m'insulte, m' outrage, at me calomnie. He insults, outrages,
and slanders me.
111. Disjunctive Forms. — The disjunctive is the stronger
form of a pronoun, and is used when the pronoun stands
alone, and when it stands in an unusual or emphatic
position :
USE OF THE PEKS0:N"AL PR02>rOUK. 59
1. The disjunctive form of the pronoun is used, when
it stands alone, used absolutely (without direct gram-
matical relation, or with ellipsis of its verb), either in the
subject or predicate nominative :
Moi, regner ! I, to reign ! (for me to reign !)
Je le sais, moi. I know it, I (for my part).
Qui dit ceia ? Moi, lui, eux, nous, vous.
Who says that ? I, he, they, we, you.
C'est moi, ce sont eux, c'est vous, c'est lui.
It is I, it is they, it is you, it is he.
Travaillez comme lui. Work as he does (like him).
II est plus jeune que moi. He is younger than I (am).
II faut toujoilrs ^tre soi. One ought always to be himself.
Lui et moi, nous allons. He and I, we will go.
2. The disjunctive form of the pronoun is used when
the direct object is placed after the verb :
Rends-moi chretienne et libre. Make me a Christian and free.
Elle n'a que lui. She has only him.
La fortune nous a persecute, lui et moi (Fenelon). Fortune has
persecuted us, both him and me.
Exception. — When the imperative verb is followed by two ob-
ject pronouns, the direct object comes first, and is conjunctive in
form. (Because this is its regular position) :
Montrez-le-moi, show him to me.
Donnez-le-lui, give it to him.
3. The disjunctive form of the pronoun is used after
prepositions :
Je parle de toi, de lui, d'eux, de vous.
I am speaking of thee, him, them, you.
Penser a soi, to think of one's self.
Sans moi, without me. L'amour de soi, self-love.
Je leur parle, or, je parle a eux, a elles. I speak to them.
4. The disjunctive form of the pronoun is sometimes
used for emphasis :
60 FEEKCH GEAMMAE.
JEJux m'ont releve. They picked me up.
Eux seuls seront exempts. They only shall be exempt.
Eux dechirent la France, et lui la deshonore (Ponsard). They
(it is who) destroyed France, and he (it is who) dishonors her.
SPECIAL FORMS AND USAGES.
112. Vous and Tn. — Vous is used, like the English ' you,'
in addressing a single person, and even in addresses to
the Deity. Tu is used in addressing inferiors or intimate
friends ; also in poetical and rhetorical addresses to per-
sonified objects and to the Deity :
Nature, tu ne peux pas mentir.
O nature, thou canst not lie.
113. Sol and Lui. — The reflexive soi is used when the
subject to which it refers is of a universal or unlimited
character ; especially when the subject is wanting, or is
an indefinite pronoun :
II est beau de triompher de soi (Corneille).
It is beautiful to conquer one's self.
On doit parler rarement de soi (Academy).
One ought to speak rarely of one's self.
La nature est aimable en soi (Academy).
Nature is amiable for herself.
Le chat ne parait sentir que pour soi (Academy).
The cat seems to think only of itself.
Note. — When the subject is limited, either singular or plural, lui,
elle, &c., are used :
Perrin tire I'argent a lui (La Fontaine).
Perrin draws the money to himself.
lis ont querelle entre eux (Academy).
They have a quarrel between themselves.
Exceptions occur on both sides :
Idomenee, revenant a soi (Fenelon). Idomeneus, coming to him-
self.
Les choses ne sont en H^lles-m^mes ni pures, ni impures (Mon-
tesquieu). Things are not in themselves either pure or impure.
SPECIAL FORMS AKD USAGES. 61
114. Se, Leur, &c. — General Eemarks :
1. Se lias often a reciprocal force :
lis s'aiment, ils se flattent.
They love each other, they flatter each other.
2. Lui, it will be seen in the table, Sec. 107, can only
be feminine in the conjunctive form ; hence, before the
verb, lui may be either masculine or feminine, but after
the verb (except an imperative), or with a preposition, it
must be masculine :
Vous lui parlez, vous parlez a elle.
You are speaking to her.
3. Leur, it will be seen from the table, Sec. 107, is never
a disjunctive form ; hence it cannot be used after the verb
(except the imperative), but a eux, or a elles, takes its
place :
Je leur parle, or, je parle a eux, or, a elles.
But, — Donnez-le-leur, give it to them.
Je vous parle, et aussi a eux (not leiu:).
I am speaking to you and also to them.
115. Position of Personal Pronouns.
1. The pronouns of the Subject and the Object gener-
ally both precede the verb, in the following order : 1st, the
Subject ; 2d, the Indirect Object ; 3d, the Direct Object,
except lui and leur, which always follow the direct object
pronoun :
Je te le donne, je le lui donne.
I give it to thee, I give it to him.
2. In simple interrogative sentences the Subject Pro-
noun follows the verb, becomes an enclitic, and is joined
to the verb by a hyphen. When this brings two vowel
sounds together, a t is inserted to obviate the hiatus :
Vient-elle ? Is she coming ?
Me blame-t-il ? Does he blame me ?
62 fkein'ch geammae.
Note. — This order is sometimes found in declaratory sentences,
especially in poetry :
A peine avait-il parle, scarcely had he spoken.
Volontiers, repondit-il. Willingly, he replied.
Dit-il, says he.
3. In affirmative commands the Object Pronouns follow
the verb, 1st, the direct, and 2d, the indirect, both as en-
clitics :
Donnez-le-moi. Give it me.
Parlez-leur. Speak to them.
4. In negative commands the Object Pronouns precede
the verb, 1st, the indirect, and then the direct, except liii
and leur, which always follow the direct object :
Ne me le donnez pas. Do not give it to me.
Ne les leur envoyez pas. Do not send them to them.
CASE OF PRONOUNS.
116. The Use of the Cases of Personal Pronouns has al-
ready for the most part been described in giving their
forms. See also Sec. 81, on the case of nouns. The case
of the Subject (Nominative case) is used as the subject
of the verb, and also in direct address ; the case of the
Direct Object, or Objective case (Accusative), is used as
the object of the verb and after prepositions, — in each in-
stance with a distinction between Conjunctive and Dis-
junctive forms, fully explained above.
The case of the Indirect Object (Dative case) is used as
the indirect object of the verb, and also in a few peculiar
usages which require special notice.
1. The pronoun of the indirect object is sometimes best
translated by a possessive :
II lui serra la main. He pressed his hand (to him the hand).
On ne lui connait que deux ennemis. They knew only two ene-
mies of his (only two enemies to him).
On lui frappait sur I'epaule. They struck him on his shoulder
(to him on the shoulder).
POSSESSIVE PRONOUiq-S.
63
2. The Indirect Object (Dative case) may express re-
lations which require various prepositions in English :
L'ambition seul, lui inspira des crimes.
Ambition alone inspired crimes in him,
Je lui ai achete une volume qu'il m'a fait payer cher.
I bought from him a volume for which he made me pay dear.
II lui a demande son nom. He asked of him his name.
Dites-lui, done, de ne jamais ecrire.
Say to him, then, never to write.
3. The Indirect Object (Dative case) has sometimes a
meaning like the Latin "ethical dative" :
Imite-moi les anciens. Imitate the ancients (for me).
Glisse-moi sur la superficie (Voltaire). Skim over the surface.
On lui lia les pieds, on vous le suspendit (La Fontaine). They
tied his feet, they hanged him (for you).
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
117. The Conjunctive Possessive Pronoun, or Possessive
Adjective, mon, fem. ma, from the Latin mens, is declined
and used as follows :
1.
Table of Possessive Adjective.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Common.
Meaning.
my
thy 'his, her
my
thy
his, her
our
your
their
Sing., all Cases,
Plu., aU Cases,
mon
mes
ton
tea
sou
ses
ma
mes
ta
tes
sa
ses
notre votre
nos vos
leur
leurs
2. The Possessive Adjective agrees in gender and num-
ber with the thing possessed, and in person with the
possessor :
La mere et son fils et sa fille,
The mother and her son and her daughter.
3. Before a vowel sound the forms mon, ton, and son
are used in place of ma, ta, and sa, to avoid the hiatus :
Son ecole (not sa ecole), his or her school.
Mon ame (not ma ame), my soul.
64
FEEN'CH GRAMMAR.
4. The possessive adjective is regularly repeated with
each noun :
Mes freres et mes soeurs, my brothers and sisters.
5. Some idioms occur, with regard to the use of the
Possessive Adjective :
a. It is not generally applied to the parts of the body
or mind :
J'ai mal a la t^te. I have a pain in my head.
II a perdu I'esprit. He has lost his senses.
b. It is not used after verbs of changing :
II a change de religion. He has changed his religion.
Nous avons change d'opinion. We have changed our opinion.
c. Some peculiar phrases :
Donnez-moi bientot de vos nouvelles. Let me hear from you
soon (give me soon of your news).
J'irai a votre rencontre. I shall go to meet you (to your meeting).
Ce sont de mes cousins. They are (some of) my cousins.
A mon egard, notre egard, &c., in regard to me, you, &c.
118. The Disjunctive (or Substantive) Possessive Pro-
noun, mien, is declined and used as follows :
1. Table of Possessive Pronouns.
Masculine.
Sing., all Cases
Plur., all Cases
mien, mine,
miens, mine.
tien, thine.
tiens, thine.
sien, his or hers,
siens, his or hers.
Feminine.
Sing., all Cases
Plur., all Cases
mienne, mine,
miennes, mine.
tienne, thine,
tiennes, thine.
sienna, hia or hers,
siennas, his or hers.
Common.
Sing., all Cases
Plur., all Oases
notre, ours,
notres, ours.
v6tre, yours,
votres, yours.
lenr, theirs,
leurs, theirs.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUKS.
65
Note that the disjunctive voire is distinguished from the con-
junctive votre, by the circumflex.
The following table is added as showing the English meaning
more clearly :
Another Table of Possessive Pronouns.
Masculine.
Feminine.
1st Per
Sing.
mien,
tien,
sien.
Plur.
miens,
tiens,
siens.
Sing.
mienne
tienne,
sienne.
Plur.
miennes, mine.
2d Per
tiennes, thine.
3d Per
siennes, his, hers, its.
1st, 2d, and 3d Per., notre, n6tres, onr8 ; votre, votres, yours ; Ieiir,lenrs, theirs.
2. The Substantive Possessive Pronoun agrees in gender
and number with a noun understood, expressing the ob-
ject possessed and not the possessor, and is almost always
preceded by the, definite article, le mien, les leurs, la votre,
&c. :
Avez-vous ma montre ou la v6tre ? J'ai la mienne.
Have you my watch or yours ? I have my own.
Note. — The definite article is sometimes omitted, or replaced by
the indefinite article :
Un mien frere ; une mienne cousine (Academy).
Un mien valet ; un sien portrait (Voltaire).
Ta Julie sera toujours tienne.
Thy Julia will always be thine (Rousseau).
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
119. The Conjunctive (or Adjective) Demonstrative Pro-
noun, ce (cet before a vowel sound), is from the Latin
ecce iste, through the Old French icist, cist, &c.
66
FREN^CH GRAMMAR.
It is declined and used as follows :
1.
The Demonstrative Ce.
Masculine.
Feminiiie.
Sing., all Cases
Plur., all Cases
ce (cet), this,
ces, these.
cette, this,
ces, these.
Note. — The form cet is used before a vowel sound, to avoid
hiatus :
Ce monde, ce heros, cet arbre, cet homme-la, this world, this
hero, this tree, that man.
2. The Adjective Demonstrative cemay be strengthened
by the adverb ci (a shorter form of ici, from the Latin
ecce hie), or by the adverb la (from the Latin iliac), joined
with a hyphen, as an enclitic, to the noun which ce
qualifies :
Get homme-ci, ce gar9on-la, this man (here), that boy (there).
3. The Adjective Demonstrative ce has a limiting
power, similar to the definite article, but»more emphatic,
and agrees with its noun in gender and number :
N'Stes vous plus cet Ulysse qui, &c. Are you no longer the
Ulysses who (the same who).
Je donne ces poires a cette fille-ci. I am giving these pears to
this girl.
Montrez-le-moi, ce mortel privilegie. Show him to me, this pri
vileged mortal.
120. The Disjunctive (or Substantive) Demonstrative
Pronoun, celui, is from the Latin ecce ille, through the
Old French icelui, &c. ; it is declined and used as follows :
1. The Demonstrative Celui.
Sing.,all cases..
Plur., all cases..
Masculine.
celui, that.
ceux, those.
Feminine.
celle, that,
celles, those.
Mas., &c.
celui-ci, &c., this one.
ceux-ci, Ac, these.
(Neuter.)
ce 1
ceci
cela
oa J
this,
that.
DEMOJ^-STRATIVE PRONOUN'S. 67
Note. — The Neuter ce is inserted here for convenience. See next
Section.
2. Celui is rendered more definite by the adverb ci, or
la, joined by a hyphen, as an enclitic, forming celui-ci, ' this
one (here)/ ceux-ci, ^ these (here)/ celui-la, Hhat one
(there)/ ceux-la, ' those (there)/ with the feminine forms,
celle-ci, &c. These forms are often used adversatively,
but may be used singly :
Oeux-ci n'ont que leur foi j ceux-la ont leur foi et leur genie.
The former have only their faith ; the latter their faith and their
genius.
O'est celui-ci qui est le plus fidele. It is this one who is most
faithful.
3. The Substantive Demonstrative, celui, celle, ^ this '
or 'that,' is almost always followed by a partitive clause
with de, or a relative clause with que or its equivalent ; when
it refers to persons it may usually be translated by the
English personal pronoun :
Oes livres sont ceux que je pref ere.
These books are the ones I prefer.
J'ai ton chapeau et celui de Guillaume.
I have your hat and that of William.
Je suis celui qui suis. I am the one who is (that I am).
J'ai joint a ma lettre celle ecrite par le prince.
I have added to my letter the one written by the prince.
Dans des circonstances comme celles actuelles (Thiers.)
In circumstances like the actual ones.
4. The Substantive Demonstrative celui may be used
absolutely, that is, not referring to any expressed noun,
of persons only : ,
Heureux celui qui craint le Seigneur (Acad.).
Happy he who fears the Lord.
Celle qui a fait cela, a bien agi.
She who has done that has done well.
La voix de celle que I'on aime, the voice of her whom one
loves.
68 FKEITCH GRAMMAR.
121. The Neuter Ce.— The neuter pronoun ce is of dif-
ferent origin from the masculine adjective pronoun ce,
though of the saine form, being derived from the Latin
ecce hoc. It elides its vowel before the vowel e, as in c'est,
c'6tait, and also rarely before a and o, as in c'a 6t6, c'ont
6t6 (Acad.). It is used as follows :
1. The neuter ce is Joined to the adverb ci and la, with-
out a hyphen, forming the pronouns ceci and cela, which
may be used either adversatively or separately. Cela is
often shortened in colloquial language into ca :
Ceci est sole, cela est laine. This Is silk, that is wool.
Oeci n'est pas nn jeu d'enfans. This is not child's play.
Qu'est-ce que 9a ? What's that ?
Cela me plait beaucoup. That pleases me much.
Note. — Ceci and cela are not used of persons except contemptu-
ously :
J*ai vu cela. I saw that fellow.
2. The neuter ce takes a plural verb when the logical
subject is plural :
Ce sent nos methodes, &c. , it is our methods, &c.
Ce furent les Pheniciens, it was the Phenicians.
3. The neuter ce is chiefly used as the grammatical sub-
ject of the verb ' to be,' the logical subject being expressed
elsewhere ; in questions, coming after its verb, it may be
followed by ci or la without the hyphen (not enclitic) :
C'est moi, c'etait lui. It is I, it was he.
La foi c'est I'heroisme. Faith Is heroism.
, Qu'est-ce la que je vois ? What Is that which I see ?
Quelles gens sont-ce la ? What people are those ?
Note. — The Academy, however, joins ci and la with a hyphen in
such cases : Qu'est-ce-ci ? Qu'est-ce-la ? &c.
4. The neuter ce may be followed by a relative clause ;
in this case ce qui is equivalent to the English 'that
which ' :
liq^TEEEOGATIYE PR0K0U2!fS. 69
Oe qui m'etonne, c'est de le voir ici.
That whicli surprises me is to see him here.
Je seds ce que vous dtes, et ce qu'ils sont (Acad.).
I know what you are, and what they are.
5. The neuter ce is sometimes used without any relative
clause, and in the objective case, especially in such phrases
as sur ce, ' upon that ; ' quant a ce, ' as to that ; ' pour ce,
'as for that ;' en vertu de ce, 'in virtue of,' &c.
6. When c'est is followed by a relative clause, the verb
' to be ' is sometimes omitted from the latter :
C'est une charmante chose, qu'une femme (est). It is a charm-
ing thing which a woman is (a woman is a charming thing).
O'est beaucoup que de savoir commander (est). It is a great
thing which to know how to command is (to know how to com-
mand).
Note. — From this arise elliptical expressions without the use of
ce :
Ij'aimable enfant que celui-la (est).
The amiable child that this one is (what an amiable).
This is frequent in questions :
Qu'est-ce que ceci (est) ? What is this ?
7. C'est is sometimes used with de, like the Latin sum
with the genitive ; and with k, similarly, to signify pos-
session :
O'est d'un orateur, it is the part of an orator,
O'est a vous a parler, it is your turn to speak.
O'est a moi, it is my property.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
122. The Conjunctive (or Adjective) Interrogative Pro-
noun quel, is derived from the Latin qualis, and is de-
clined and used as follows :
70 FREi^CH GRAMMAR.
1. The Interrogative Quel.
Sing., all Cases
Plural, all Cases. . .
Masculine.
quel, what, which ?
quels, what, which 1
Feminine.
quelle, what, which?
quelles, what, which?
2. The interrogative quel is generally used adjectively,
agreeing with its noun in gender and number:
Quel heure est-il ? quel temps fait-il ?
What time is it ? what is the weather ?
Also in exclamations :
Quel air ! quelle disgrace ! What an air 1 what a disgrace !
3. The interrogative quel is often separated from its
noun, and used as subject of the verb :
Quelle est votre intention ? What is your intention ?
Quel est son age ? What is his (or her) age ?
Note. — Quel is sometimes used for the disjunctive pronoun lequel,
for which use see Sec. 124, 3.
123, The Disjunctive (or Substantive) Interrogative Pro-
noun, qui, derived from the Latin quis, is declined and
used as follows :
1. The interrogative qui, ' who,' has the same form in
the feminine and in the plural, but has also two neuter
forms, que, quoi, 'what.'
2. The 'interrogative qui is used only of persons or per-
sonifications, and nearly always in the singular number :
A qui pensez-vouz parler ? To whom do you think of speaking ?
Qui sont ces gens en robe ? Who are those in robes ?
Qui demandez-vous ? Whom do you ask for ?
3. The interrogative qui is sometimes used indefinitely
for ' some — others,' &c. :
Nos gens s'en vont, qui de9a, qui dela.
Our people are going away, some here, some there.
li^TTEEEOGATIVE PKOKOUK-S. 71
4. The neuter interrogative, que, 'what/ is chiefly used
with the verb 'to be/ is never governed by a preposition,
and elides its final letter before a vowel (which qui never
does) :
Qu'est-ce que j'entends ? What do I hear ?
Qu'attendez-vous ? What are you waiting for 1
5. The neuter interrogative, quoi, ' what/ is used after
prepositions, in exclamations, or when, as object of the
verb, it is placed immediately after the verb :
De quoi parle-t-on ? Of what are they talking ?
Quoi, vous etes maries ! What ! you married !
Je ne sais quoi. I don't know what.
A quoi pensez-vous ? What are you thinking of ?
Note. — Que is used, however, in some exclamations to
express quantity or quality, like the English * how ; ' and
also to express cause or reason, in place of a quoi, de quoi :
Que Dieu est pmssant ! How powerful God is 1
Qu'il fait beau temps ! What fine weather !
Que sert la vigilance ? Of what use is vigilance ?
124. The Interrogative Lequel, 'which,' is formed by
prefixing the definite article to the interrogative quel,
both parts being declined, making the forms — lequel, la-
quelle, lesquels, lesquelles. It is further combined with the
prepositions de and a, giving the forms duquel, d«quels,
auquel, auxquels, auxquelles. Its use is as follows :
1. The interrogative lequel, ^ which one,' is used sub-
stantively, of persons as well as things, and referring to
some noun expressed, with which it agrees in number and'
gender :
Lequel de ces chapeaux voulez-vous ?
Which of these hats do you wish ?
Voici deux routes ; laquelle prendrez-vous ?
Here are two roads ; wMch one will you take ?
Auquel de ces messieurs desirez-vous parler ?
To which of these gentlemen do you wish to speak ?
72 FEElfCH GEAMMAK.
2. The interrogative lequel may refer to an infinitive or
a clause, in which case it is- really neuter :
Lequel vaut mieux, de cultiver un art funeste ou de le rendre
utile ? (Rousseau). WMcli is wortli the most, to-cultivate an injuri-
ous art, or to make it useful ?
3. The interrogative lequel is sometimes displaced by
quel:
Quel est celui de nos deux qui r^ve ? (V. Hugo.)
Which one of us two is it that is dreaming ?
125. Interrogative Phrases. — Some peculiar forms of
questions may need explanation : —
1. Questions often contain a relative clause in which
the verb est is omitted, as explained in Sec. 121, 6:
Qu'est-ce que c'est que 9a (est) ? What's that ?
(What is it that it is that that [is] ?)
Qu'est-ce que la vie ? What is life ?
2. Other pleonastic forms :
Qu'est-ce qui vous fait mal ? What hurts you ?
Qui est-ce qui vous fait mal ? Who hurts you ?
Qui est-ce que vous demandez ? Whom do you want ?
N'est-ce pas q*e nous irons ? Shall we not go ?
3. An answer to a question must be either oui, 'yes,'
non, 'no,' or an exclamation, or a complete sentence.
Such answers as ' I will,' 'I do,' &c., are inadmissible :
Est-ce Jean ? Oui, or, oul, c'est lui. Is that John? Yes, it is.
Sont-ce vos freres ? Oui, ce sont eux.
Are those your brothers ? Yes, it is.
Est-ce votre desir ? Oui, ce I'est. Is it your desire ? Yes.
Sont-ce vos habits ? Oe ne les sont pas.
Are they your clothes ? They are not.
Elle chante bien, n'est-ce pas ? She sings well, don't she ?
4. Antithetical questions are as follows :
Qui de vous ou de moi ? Which of us, you or I ?
Qui est le plus haut de toi ou d'Emile ?
Which is the taller, you or Emile ?
KELATIVE PROKOUKS. 73
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
126. Adjective and Substantive Relatives. — Relative pro-
nouns, like the other sorts of pronouns, may be divided
into two classes. The adjective, or ordinary, relatives
are qui and lequel. The only substantive relative is qui.
They are declined like the corresponding interrogative
pronouns, and are used as follows : —
127. The Ordinary Relative Qui, 'who/ 'which,' 'that/
refers to both persons and things, and takes the form que
when used as the direct object (accusative case) :
Le chapeau que j'ai achete, the hat which I bought.
1. After prepositions qui is used referring to persons,
and usually lequel, sometimes quoi, and sometimes qui, re-
ferring to things :
O'est vous, digne Fran9ais, a qui je viens parler.
It is you, worthy Frenchman, to whom I come to speak.
La gloire, a laquelle les heros sacrifient.
The glory to which heroes sacrifice.
Oe sent choses a quoi vous ne prenez pas garde (Academy).
These are things of which you do not take care.
La main par qui Dieu m'a frappe (Voltaire).
The hand with which God struck me down.
Deux pivots sur qui roule notre vie (La Fontaine).
Two pivots upon which our Ufe revolves.
2. Relative clauses with qui are often used where the
English has a participial adjective :
L'homme qui rit, the laughing man.
L'enfant qui pleure, the crying child.
3. The form que occurs as the subject (nominative case),
only when used predicatively ; it is then really neuter :
Je sais ce que vous ^tes et ce qu'ils sont (Academy).
I know what you are and what they are.
Voila ce que c'est, behold what it is.
4. The demonstratives celui and ce are never followed
by lequel, always by qui :
4
74 FREN'Cn GRAMMAR.
Oe que j'ai promis, that wliich I have promised.
Ce qui est beau, that which is beautiful.
128. The Relative Lequel, 'which/ Svho/ 'that/ is
used for emphasis (being the longer form), or for greater
definiteness, or to avoid ambiguity, and especially with
prepositions, and agrees with its antecedent in gender and
number :
Son anneau, lequel il tenait fort cher, his ring, which he held
very dear.
La sceur de mon pere, laquelle demeure a Paris, my father's
sister, who lives at Paris.
Un homme s'est leve au milieu de I'assemblee, lequel a parle
d'un maniere extravagant. A man arose in the midst of the assem-
bly, who (the man, not the assembly) spoke in an extravagant man-
ner.
Le chien auquel, le canne avec laquelle, the dog to which, the
cane with which.
129. The Substantive Relative is tlie Relative without
antecedent, or containing the antecedent within itself,
like the English ' whoever,' or ' what ; ' it refers both to
persons and things : —
1. The Substantive Relative Pronoun referring to per-
sons is qui in all cases :
Qui casse les verres, les pale. Whoever breaks the glasses pays
for them.
Sauve qui peut. Save whoever can.
Vous trouverez a qui parler. You will find some one to speak to.
2. The Substantive Relative referring to things is qui
in the nominative, and quoi in the direct object (accusa-
tive), or after prepositions :
Voila qui est beau, behold what is fine (how fine this is).
Nous avons de quoi vivre. We have something to live upon.
C'est ce a quoi je ne pensais pas. It is what (something which)
I was not expecting.
Je ne sais quoi dire. I don't know what to say.
ADVERBS USED AS PROI^OUKS. 75
ADVERBS USED AS PRONOUNS.
130. The Eelative Dont.— The Adverb dont, from the
Latin de unde, has lost all it5 adverbial power, and is nsed
> only in place of the relative pronoun with the preposition
ij^ de, duquel, -duquels, &c. (genitive case), like the English
' whereof/ * whence/ &c. :
Le Fran9ais dont le frere est mort, the Frenchman whose brother
is dead.
L'esprit retoume au ciel, dont il est desoendu (Racine). The
soul returns to heaven, whence it descended.
Voila ce dont 11 s'aglt. This is what is in question.
Note. — Dont must follow its antecedent immediately. If any lim-
itation of the antecedent prevents this, duquel, &c., is used :
L'ami a la probite duquel je me suis fie, the friend in whose hon-
esty I have confided.
131. The Relative Ou.— The adverb ou, 'where/ from
the Latin ubi, often takes the place of the relative pro-
noun with the preposition a, — auc^uel, auxquels (dative
case), like the English * wherennto/ * wherein/ &c.:
Le bonheur ou j'aspire, the happiness to which I aspire.
La misere ou ils sont, the misery in which they are.
C'est un mal ou mes amis ne peuvent porter de remede (Mon-
tesquieu). It is an evil to which my friends can bring no remedy.
Note. — D'ou and par ou are occasionally found, replacing de
quoi, par lequel, &c. :
Un proces d'ou depend ma fortune, a suit on which my fortune
depends.
Les points par ou (Rousseau). D'ouvient que vous faites cela ?
(Academy).
132. The Pronoun En. — The Adverb en, from the Latin
inde, is only used as a pronoun, and is usually considered
as such. It is used in the place of a demonstrative or per-
sonal pronoun accompanied by the preposition de (genitive
case), and may refer to persons as well as things :
1. The pronoun en often takes the place of an ordinary
possessive case :
Quand on est daus un pays, il faut en suivre I'usage.
When one is in a country, it is necessary to follow its customs.
70 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Note. — A ]oossessive pronoun may be used in this case :
La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux (Rousseau). Pa-
tience is bitter, but its friiit is sweet.
2. The pronoun en often takes tlie place of a partitive
expression, and has the force of * some' or 'any/ &c. :
A-t-il des proteoteurs ? II en a de tres puissants. Has lie any
protectors ? He has some very powerful ones.
Donnez-lui en. Give him some.
3. The pronoun (or adverb) en may take the place of
a possessive pronoun, in which case the article is sup-
plied :
Sentir sa fatigue, or en sentir la fatigue, to feel the fatigue of it.
II en sait, il en voit, la haine opiniatre.
He knows, he sees, his stubborn hate.
Remark. — En replaces a pronoun with de, without regard to what
preposition (or if none) is required in English :
Je vous en remercie. I thank you for it.
II faut en profiter. We must profit by it.
4. The pronoun en is sometimes used in pleonastic ex-
pressions, where it is really redundant :
De ces trois unites, il n'y en a q'une d'importante (De Stafil).
Of these three unities there is only one (of them) important.
En est-il un seul parmi vous qui consentit ? (Acad.).
Is there a single one (of you) among you who would consent ?
5. The pronoun en is used in some expressions in which
it retains an adverbial force, in part or entirely :
S'en aller, to go away (take one's self from it).
S'en venir, to come away (to bring one's self from it).
O'en est fait, it is all over (it is done of it), &c., &c.
133. The Pronoun Y. — The adverb y, from the Latin
ibi, is used and usually considered as a pronoun, but gen-
erally retains some reference to place. It is used in place
of a demonstrative or personal pronoun accompanied by
the preposition a (dative case), and means 'to it,' * at it,'
' into it,' * there,' &c.:
IKDEFIl^ITE PEOis'OUKS. 77
Si vous allez au theatre, je veux y aller.
If you go to the theatre, I wish to go there (to it).
O'est un homme equivoque, ne vous y fiez pas (Acad.).
He is a deceitful man, do not trust him (to him).
1. The pronoun y replaces a pronoun used with the
preposition a without regard to what preposition (or if
none) is used in English :
Pensez-vous a moi? Oui, j'y pense. Are you thinking about
me ? Yes, I am thinking of you.
Si je promets, comptez-y. If I promise, depend upon it.
2. When y and en come together, y precedes :
Je vous y en porterai. I will bring you some of it there.
3. Y is used in some expressions in which it retains the
force of an adverb :
II y a, there is (it has there, has in it). .
n y va de, it is at stake (it tends thither, goes there, of).
II y va de,ima gloire ; il faut que je me venge. It concerns my
glory (it is at stake) ; I must be revenged.
4. The adverb y is sometimes used where better usage
places la :
Oonduisez-y-moi, or, conduisez moi la, lead me thither.
Je vous y en porterai, or, Je vous en porterai la. I will take,
you some there.
Apporte-s-y quelque-chose, or, apporte quelque-chose la.
Bring something there.
Note. — S is rarely inserted in such cases, to avoid the hiatus.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
134. A small number of Pronouns are called Indefinite,
because used in an unlimited way, without referring to
any particular word, like the English ' none,' ' some,'
'ail,' 'each,' &c.
Their use is in general the same as in English. A few
require more special attention.
78 FREN"CH GRAMMAR.
135. The Pronoun On is derived from the Latin ^homo ;'
it means ^ one/ ^people,' Hhey/ &c.; it refers only to per-
sons ; it is always the subject of the verb, and is always
singular :
Ici on parle Frangais. Here they speak French.
A-t-on regu des lettres ? Have letters been received ?
Quand on est chretien, when one is a Christian.
1. On is preceded by 1' after a vowel, or at the beginning
of a sentence :
Si I'on arrache l6r jambe d'unf mouche, if one tears off the leg of
afly. "
L'on hait avec exces lorsque I'on hait un frere (Racine). One
hates with excess when one hates a brother.
Note. — This 1' was originally the definite article, but has lost all
force except as a euphonic letter.
Exception. — L' is not inserted when the next word begins with
1, to avoid the alliteration :
Si on le voit (not si l'on le volt), if it is seen.
2. The verb after on may take a predicate noun in the
plural :
Quand on est jolies, mesdames, comme vous, when people are
pretty, like you, ladies.
3. On is sometimes used for ' I ' or * we ' :
On vous I'a repute cent fois.
I have repeated it to you a hundred times.
136. The Pronoun Personne is from the Latin persona ;
it means ' anybody,' or, with ellipsis of the negative, * no-
body ; ' and is chiefly used in negative or interrogative
sentences. (Personnels also a noun, meaning * person.')
1. Personne with a negative maybe translated by Mio-
body':
Personne n'est plus jolie. Nobody is prettier.
Je ne connais personne d'aussi heureux que cette femme
(Acad.). I know nobody so happy as that woman.
IKDEFIN"ITE PRONOUi^S. 79
2. Personne without a negative means ' anybody':
Si jamais personne est assez hardi pour I'entre-prendre, il re-
iissira (Acad.). If ever anybody is bold enough to undertake it, he
will succeed.
Je doute que personne ait mieux peint la nature.
I doubt wbetber any one has painted nature better.
Personne a-t-il jamais ? has anybody ever 1
3. Personne, in the answer to a question, means 'no-
body,' the negative and the verb being understood :
Y a-t-il quelqu'un ici ? Personne.
Is tbere anybody here ? Nobody.
137. The Pronoun Rien is derived from the Latin rem ;
it means * anything/ and is chiefly used in negative sen-
tences.
1. Rien with a negative may be translated ' nothing ' :
Je ne dis rien. I say nothing.
II vaut mieux ne rien faire que de faire des riens. It is better to
do nothing tlian to do nothings (trifles.)
2. Rien without a negative means ' anything ' :
Qui VOU3 reproche rien ? Who reproaches you with anything ?
Y a-t-il rien de si beau ? Is there anything so fine ?
3. Rien is sometimes, with an ellipsis of the negative,
equivalent to ' nothing ' :
Dieu a cree le monde de rien.
God created the world out of nothing.
Qu'avez-vous ? Rien.
What's the matter with you ? Nothing.
138. The Pronoun Aucim is used both adjectively and
substantively ; it has a feminine form, aucune, and plural
forms, aucuns and aucunes ; it is derived from the Latin
aliqui unus ; it means 'any one,' 'some,' and, with the
negative, 'none,' ' no one ' :
1. Aucun used substantively :
Auoun n'est prophete chez soi. No one is a prophet at home.
On doit ne se rendre suspect a aucun. One ought riot to make
himself suspected by any one.
80 FEENCH GRAMMAR.
2. Aucun used adjectively:
On ne garda plus aucunes mesures. They no longer kept any bounds.
Quiconque cherche la verite, ne doit etre d'aucun pays (Vol-
taire). Whoever seeks for the truth, should he of no country.
139. The Pronoun Tout, from the Latin totus, is also de-
clined — fern, toute, plural tons, toutes ; it is used both sub-
stantively and adjectively, and means 'all/ 'every,' 'the
whole,' ' entirely,' &c.
1. Tout, in the sense of ' all,' denoting quantity, or * the
whole,' may be used either attributively or predicatively:
Attributively : A toute force, Tnth his whole force.
Tout^sa famille, his whole family.
Tout le peuple, the whole people.
Pendant tout ce temps, during that whole time.
Predicatively : Elles furent toutes surprises de le voir. They
were entirely surprised to see him.
Laissez-moi toute a mon desespoir. Leave me entirely to my
despair.
2. Tout, in the sense of 'all,' referring to number, may
be used either substantively or adjectively :
Substantively : La mort nous separe de tout (Bossuet). Death
separates us from all things.
Se devouer pour le salut de tous (Acad.). To devote one's self
for the salvation of all.
Tout ce qui nous fait sentir notre meprise, everything which
makes us feel our error.
Adjectively : Tous les regards et tous las coeurs, all looks (eyes)
and all hearts.
Tous les jours, every day. Tous deux, both (all two). Tous les
deux, both.
3. Tout, in the sense of ' every,' is usually singular, and
agrees in gender with its noun :
Tout homme est sujet a la mort. Every man is subject to death.
En toute occasion, on every occasion.
A toute heure, at all hours.
X tous moments (Moliere), every moment.
De tous cotes (Boileau), on every side.
IITDEFINITE PE0N0U2TS. 81
140. The Pronoun Tel, from the Latin talis, lias a femi-
nine, telle, and a plural, tels, telles ; it means 'such,' and is
used as follows :
1. Tel may agree with a noun, to denote either kind or
degree, in a demonstrative way :
li tifent a peu pres tel discours. He held very nearly such lan-
guage (as tlie following).
Une telle conduite vous fait honneur (Acad.). Such conduct
(as that described) does you honor.
II est tel que son pere. He is just like his father.
Note 1. — Tel — tel may be used as correlatives, like the Latin
talis — qualis :
Tel maitre, tel valet, as the master, so the servant.
Telle vie, telle fin, as tbe life is, so its end will be.
Note 2. — The phrase tel quel is in colloquial use, meaning * just
as it was,' &c. :
Je vous rends votre argent tell6 quelle.
I return your money intact (all right).
Note 3. — Tel sometimes means ' such and such,' or * so and so,'
or * such a one,' &c. :
Dans telle ville, in a certain city.
A telle epoque, at such a time.
Avoir telle ou telle qualite, to have such or such a quality.
2. Tel may be used, either adjectively or substantively,
referring to indefinite individuals :
Tel homme recherche ce que tel autre meprise (Acad.).
One man seeks what another scorns.
Tel qui rit vendredi, dimanche pleura (Racine).
Who laughs Friday will weep Sunday.
141. The Pronoun Meme is from the Latin semet ipsis-
simus (through met ipsimus and the Old French meisme
mesme), and has a plural, memes. It means *seltV 'same,'
&c., and is used as follows :
1. Meme is joined as an enclitic with the hyphen to the
disjunctive personal pronouns, forming moi-meme, toi-
4*
82 FREKCH GRAMMAR.
meme, &c. (See Sec. 108.) In a similar way it is added to
abstract nouns, making a kind of personification :
Get homme est la valeur m^me.
Tliat man is valor itself.
Note. — Meme may agree with a noun, and have the meaning of
* very ' or ' even,' &c. :
Les rochers m^mes, the very rocks.
Les dieux memes, the gods themselves.
In this sense it is sometimes used adverbially :
Les dieux mSme, even the gods.
2. Meme with the definite article means *tlie same ':
O'est le m^me homme.
It is the same man.
Cette femme est toujours la m^me.
That woman is always the same.
Note. — Sometimes it has the same force without the article :
Void les freres Martin : meme taille, m^me figure, m^me habi-
tudes de corps. See the Martin brothers : the same height, same
face, same motions.
142. The Pronoun Nul, from the Latin nullus, has a
feminine form, nuUe, and a plural nnls, nulles. It is used
both substantively and adjectively, and means ' none,' *no
one ':
1. Nul used substantively is almost always found in
the masculine singular, and is followed by the negative
ne:
Nul n'est exempt de mourir.
None is exempt from death.
A nul I'ambition n'est, je crois, etrangere.
To none is ambition, I suppose, a stranger.
This double negative, nul ne, it will be seen, is equivalent to a
simple negative.
Note. — The plural is sometimes used in this way :
Nulles des expressions (Rousseau), none of the expressions.
IN-DEFINITE PRONOUNS. 83
2. Nul may be used adjectively, agreeing with its noun:
Nulle paix pour I'impie (Racine).
No peace for tlie wicked.
Nuls malheurs doivent abattre I'homme (Mirabeau).
No misfortunes ought to overcome man.
143. The Pronoun Autre, from the Latin alter, is of
common gender, and has a plural, autres ; it means
'other,' * different':
1. Autre has very often the definite article, and then has
often I'un for a correlative :
li'un et I'autre consul, both consuls.
lis se dechirent les uns les autres (Fenelon). They tore one an-
other (more than one on each side).
Les uns par curiositfe, les autres par consideration, some through
curiosity, some through sympathy.
Note. — Autre may also have the indefinite article, in the sense of
* an other of two ' :
Un autre Alexandre, another Alexander.
Un autre moi-meme, or, une autre moi-m.6me, &c., an other self
(alter ego), &c.
2. Autre is often used, generally, without the definite
article, in the sense of 'a different one,' Latin alius :
Quelque autre vous lo dira mieux que moi. Some other will tell
it you better than I.
Son fils et deux autres personnes, his (or her) son and two other
persons.
Ii'autre jour, the other day, recently.
C'est une autre affaire. That is a different matter.
Autres temps, autres mceurs. Different times, other manners.
So, like the Latin aliud — aliud :
Autre est promettre, autre est donner, one thing to promise, an-
other to give.
84
FREis^CH GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER y.— YEEBS.
144. Conjugation. — Verbs are conjugated in French, as
in English, partly by terminations and partly by means
of auxiliary verbs. The verbs avoir, ^to have,' and etre,
Ho be,' are both used as auxiliaries, and they are there-
fore given first, in full.
145. The Verb Avoir (Latin habere).
INDICATIVE MODE.
Simple Tenses.
Compound Tenses.
Present.
Perfect.
Sing
1.
J'ai
I have.
J'ai eu
I have had.
2.
Tuas
thou hast.
Tu as eu
thou hast had.
3.
11 a
he has.
Ilaeu
he has had.
Plur.
1.
Nous avons
we have.
Nous avons eu
we have had.
3.
Vous avez
you have.
Vous avez eu
you have had.
3.
lis ont
they have.
Hs ont eu
they have had.
Imperfect
.
Pluperfect.
Sing.
1.
J'avais
I had.
J'avais eu
I had had.
2.
Tu avals
thou hadst.
Tu avals eu
thou hadst had.
3.
11 avait
he had.
11 avait eu
he had had.
Plur.
1.
Nous avions we liad.
Nous avions eu
we had had.
2.
Vous aviez
you had.
Vous avlez eu
you had had.
3.
lis av^lent
they had.
lis avaient eu
they had had.
Preterite.
Past Preterite.
Sing.
1.
J'eus
I had.
J'eus eu
I had had.
2.
Tu eus
thou hadst.
Tu eus eu
thou hadst had.
3.
Ileut
he had.
11 eut eu
he had had.
Plur.
1.
Nous eilmes
we had.
Nous eiimes eu
we had had.
2.
Vous eMes
you had.
Vous eiites eu
you had had.
3.
lis eurent
they had.
lis eurent eu
they had had.
Future.
Future
Perfect.
Sing.
1.
aursd
shall have.
aural eu
shall have had.
2.
auras
wilt have.
auras eu
wilt have had.
8.
aura
will have.
auraeu
will have had.
Plur.
1.
aurons
shall have.
aurons eu
shall have had.
2.
aurez
will have.
aurez eu
will have had.
3.
auront
will have.
auront eu
will have had.
YEEBS.
85
Conditional Present.
Conditional Past.
Sing.
1. aurais
should have.
aurais eu
should have had.
3. aurais
wouldst have.
aurais eu
would have had.
3. aurait
would have.
aurait eu
would have had.
Plur.
1. aurions
should have.
aurions eu
should have had.
2. auriez
would have.
auriez eu
would have had.
3. auraient
would have.
auraient eu
would have had.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.*
Present.
Perfect.
Sing.
1. aie
(may) have.
aieeu
(may) have had.
2. ales
(mayst) have.
aies eu
(mayst) have had.
3. aie
(may) have.
aie eu
(may) have had.
Plur.
1. ayons
(may) have.
ayons eu
(may) have had.
2. ayez
(may) have.
ayez eu
(may) have had.
3. aient
(may) have.
aient eu
(may) have had.
Preterite.
Pluperfect.
Sing.
1. eusse
(might) have.
eusse eu
(might) have had.
2. eusses
(mightst) have.
eiisses feu
(mightst) have had
3. eilt
(might) have.
eusses eu
(might) have had.
Plur
1. eussions
(might) have.
eussions eu
(might) have had.
2. eussiez
(might) have.
eussiez eu
(might) have had.
3. eussent
(might) have.
eussent eu
(might) have had.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Sing. 2. aie tu have thou. I PI. 2. ayez vous have ye.
3. qu'il aie let him have. | 3. qu'ils aient let them have.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present. i Perfect.
avoir to have. avoir eu to have had.
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
ayant having.
Perfect.
eu had.
Compound
Perfect.
ayant eu having had.
* Note.— The meaning of the Subjunctive depends on the connection in which
it stands in the sentence, and ' might ' and ' may ' are only inserted for conve-
nience. The Subjunctive is not usually translated by the s o-called "P otential."
OF THB
UNIVERSITY
86
FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Note. — The negative, interrogative, and negative-interrogative
forms of avoir are not given here. The mode of their formation
will be found described in Sees. 160 and 161.
146. The Verb Etre (late Latin essere) :
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present
Perfect.
Sing. 1. suis
am.
aiete
have been.
2. es
art.
as ete
hast been.
3. est
is.
a^te
has been.
Plur. 1. sommes
are.
avons ete
have been.
2. Mes
are.
avez ete
have been.
3. sent
are.
ont ete
have been.
Imperfect.
Pluperfect.
Sing. 1. etais
was.
avais ete
had been.
2. etais
wast.
avais ete
hadst been.
3. etait
was.
avait ete
had been.
Plur. 1. etions
were.
avions ete
had been.
2. etiez
were.
aviez ete
had been.
3. etaient
were.
avaient ete
had been.
Preterite.
Past Preterite.
Sing. 1. fus
was.
eus ete
had been.
2. fus
wast.
eus ete
hadst been.
3. fut
was.
eut ete
had been.
Plur. 1. fames
were.
eumes ete
had been.
2. fates
were.
elites ete
had been.
3. furent
were.
eurent ete
had been.
Future
.
Future Perfect.
Sing. 1. serais
shall be.
aurai ete
shall have been.
2. seras
wilt be.
auras ete
wilt have been.
3. sera
wiUbe.
aura ete
will have been.
Plur. 1. serons
shall be.
aureus ete
shall have been.
2. serez
will be.
aurez ete
will have been.
3. seront
will be.
auront ete
will have been.
Conditional Present.
Conditional Past.
Sing. 1. serais
should be.
aurais ete
should have been.
2. serais
wouldst be.
aurais ete
wouldst have been.
3. serait
would be.
aurait ete
would have been.
Plur. 1. serions
should be.
aurions ete
should have been.
2. seriez
would be.
auriez ete
would have been.
3. seraient
would be.
auraient ete would have been
VERBS.
87
StDBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present.
Sing. 1. sois
3. sois
3. soit
Plur. 1. soyons
2. soyez
3. soient
(may) be.
(mayst) be.
(may) be.
(may) be.
(may) be.
(may) be.
aie ete
aies ete
aie ete
ayons ete
ayez ete
aient ete
Perfect.
(may) have been,
(mayst) have been,
(may) have been,
(may) have been,
(may) have been,
(may) have been.
Preterite.
Sing. 1. fusse
2. fusses
3. fut
Plur. 1. fussions
2. fussiez
3. fussent
Sing. 2. sois tu
3. qu'il soit
(might) be.
(mightst) be.
(might) be.
(might) be.
(might) be.
(might) be.
Pluperfect.
eusse ete (might) have been,
eusses et6 (mightst) have been,
eiit ete (might) have been,
eussions ete (might) have been,
eussiez ete (might) have been,
eussent ete (might) have been.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
be thou. I Plur. 2. soyez vous be ye.
let hiTTi be. I 3. qu'ils soient let them be.
rNFINITIVE MODE.
Present.
^tre to be.
Perfect.
avoir ete to have been.
Compound.
ayant ete having been.
PARTICIPLES.
Present. I Perfect.
etant being. I ete been.
147. Use of the Auxiliary Verbs.
1. Avoir is used as auxiliary with active verbs, with im-
personal verbs, and with most intransitive verbs :
Je I'ai vu, I saw him.
II a fallu, it was necessary.
II a parle, he has spoken.
2. Etre is used as auxiliary with passive, reflexive, and
reciprocal forms, and with some intransitive verbs :
88 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Je suis aime, I am loved.
II s'est flatte, lie flattered himself.
Je suis venu, il est all6, I have come, he is gone. "^
3. In general, those intransitive verbs which express an
action of the subject take avoir as an auxiliary ; those
which express a state, resulting from the action, take
etre as an auxiliary :
J'ai couru, I ran, I have run.
Je suis venu, I am come (having come, I am here).
4. A few verbs may take either avoir or etre as auxilia-
ries, frequently with a distinction of meaning, the former
denoting action, the latter denoting resulting state :
J'ai reste im an. I stayed a year.
Qui lui soit reste, which remained to him.
La procession a passe. The procession has passed.
O'est passe en proverbe. It has passed into a proverb.
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS.
148. Three Conjugations. — There are in French three
regular conjugations of verbs, distinguished by the ending
of the present infinitive, which in the first is -er, in the
second -ir, and in the third -re. The first contains about
nine tenths of all French verbs, the second about four
hundred verbs, and the third about fifty.
Some verbs undergo euphonic changes of the stem, con-
sequent upon the addition of the inflexional endings, and
some may be said to be irregular. These peculiarities will
be described in subsequent sections.
The simple tenses of the three regular conjugations
are given in the next section. The compound tenses are
formed exactly as in avoir, already given. The negative,
interrogative, negative-interrogative, passive, and reflexive
forms will follow.
Note. — Some grammarians make another conjugation out of a few
peculiar verbs ending in -oir ; there is also a class of verbs ending
REGULAR COKJUGATIOl^S.
89
in -ir, wliicli differ somewliat from the more common form of the
second conjugation. These might be erected into a fifth conjuga-
tion. Both these classes are described below.
149. Simple Tenses of Regular Verbs.
First Conjugation.
Chanter, * to sing.'
Second Conjugation.
Finir, * to finish.'
Third Conjugation.
Vendre, ' to sell.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Pbesent.
Present.
Present.
'Idng,* &c.
'I finish; &c.
'I sell; &c.
chante
finis
vends
chantes
finis
vends
chante
finit
vend
chantons
finlssons
vendons
chantez
finissez
vendez
chantent
finissent
vendent
Imperfect.
Imperfect.
Imperfect.
*Iwa8 singing,' &c.
* I was finishing; &c.
*I'was selling; &c.
chantaiH
finissais
vendais
chantais
finissais
vendais
chantait
finissait
vendait
chantions
finissions
vendions
chantiez
finissiez
vendiez
chantaient
finissaient
vendaient
Pretekite.
Preterite.
PrETERI'I'E.
* I sang,' &c.
'I finished; &c.
'Isold; &c.
chantai
finis
vendis
chantas
finis
vendis
chanta
finit
vendit
chantames
finimes
vendimes
chantates
finites
vendites
chanterent
finirent
vendirent
90
FRENCH GRAMMAR.
FUTUEE.
FUTUEE.
Future.
*I shall dng,' &c.
'I shall finish,' &c.
'I shall sell; kc.
chanterai
finirai
vendrai
chanteras
finiras
vendras
chantera
fiaiira
vendra
chanterons
finirons
vendrons
chanterez
finirez
vendrez
chanteront
finiront
vendront
Conditional Pees.
Conditional Pees.
Conditional Pees.
* I should dng,' &c.
'I should finisJi,' &c.
* I should sdi; &c.
chanterais
finiraia
vendrais
chanterais
finirais
vendrais
chanterait
finirai t
vendrait
chanterions
finirions
vendrions
chanteriez
finiriez
vendriez
chanteraient
finiraient
vendraient
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Peesent.
Peesent.
Peesent.
chante
finisse
vende
chantes
finisses
vendes
chante
finisse
vende
chantions
finissions
vendions
chantiez
finissiez
vendiez
chantent
finissent
vendent
PRETEEITE.n^
Peeteeite.
Peeteeite.
chantasse
finisse
vendisse
chantasses
finisses
vendisses
chantat
finit
vendit
chantassions
finissions
vendissions
chantassiez
finissiez
vendissiez
chantassent
finissent
vendissent
IMPERATIVE MODE.
chante
finis
vends
chantons
finissons
vendons
chantez
finissez
vendez
KEGULAR COJfJUGATIONS.
INFINITIVE MODE.
91
chanter
finir
vendre
PARTICIPT,F,S.
chantant
chante
finissant
fini
vendant
vendu
150. Remarks on the Regular Verb.
1. In tlie second conjugation the syllable -iss-, inserted
between the stem and the ending, in most verbs, in the
Present, Imperfect, Imperative, and Present Participle, is
derived from the Latin -isc- and -esc- in *' Inchoative"
verbs : — palir, Lat. pallesco ; g6mir, Lat. ingemisco ; noir-
cir, Lat. nigresco ; fleurir, Lat. floresco. But some verbs
follow this analogy and insert the -iss- which are not
derived from inchoative verbs : — p6rir, punir, finir, ravir,
r6gir.
A large class of verbs of the second conjugation do not
insert this syllable -iss- ; they will be described in Sec.
152.
2. The circumflex accent which will be noticed in the
Preterite Indicative and the Impe rfect Subjunctive, is a
mark of the dropping out of an s in the old Prench
form, which is also shortened from the Latin: — chantates,
Old French chantastes, Latin cantavistis; aimtoes, Old
French aimasmes, Latin amavimus. So also in the verb
etre, Latin esse, Late Latin essere, Old French estre ; etes,
Latin estis, &c.
3. The grave accent in the Preterite Third Person Plural
of the first conjugation, is the accent usually written over
the vowel e in French, when followed by a final e mute
after a single consonant ; as in fiddle, riviere (Latin ripa-
ria), and a large class of words derived from Latin words
92 FEEKCH GKAMMAR.
ending in -arius, -aria, &c., or following the analogy of
those which are so derived.
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY,
In Verbs otherwise regular.
151. First Conjugation.
1. Verbs which have e or 6 in the last syllable of the
stem, strengthen this syllable when followed by e mute in
the ending, by taking the grave accent, or by doubling the
final consonant of the stem if it is 1 or t :
Mener — mene, mends, menent, menerai, meneras, menera,
menerais.
Oeder — cede, cedes, cedent.
Appeler — appelle, appelles, appellent, &c.
Jeter — jette, jettes, jettent, jetterai, jetterais, &c.
Exceptions. — Verbs ending in -eger and -eer retain the acute ac-
cent in the stem :
Proteger — protege, protegent, protegerai, &c.
Oreer — cree, creeut, creerai, creerais, &c.
Note 1. — Some verbs wbose stems end in 1 or t take the grave ac-
cent instead of doubling the 1 or t, viz. :
Celer — cele, celent, celerai, &c.
Acheter — achete, achetent, acheterai, &c., and also ecarteler,
geler, harceler, and decoUeter.
Note 2, — Verbs which have e in the last syllable of the stem do
not change this to e in the Future: — Oeder — cede, cedent, &c., as
above, but cederai, cederais, &c. (the Conditional being a Future
form).
2. Verbs ending in -ger and -cer preserve the soft sound
of the g and the c before a or o of the ending, by inserting
an e after the g and adding a cedilla to the c :
Manger — mangeons, mangeai, mangeames, mangerent.
Placer — plaQons, pla9ais, placions.
3. Verbs ending in -ayer, -oyer, -uyer, -ier, -uer often
PECULIAEITIES OF OETHOGEAPHY. 93
elide e mute in the future forms, denoting its absence by
the circumflex accent :
Payer — ^paierai ; Balayer — ^balairai ; Oublier — oublierai, &c.
4. Verbs ending in -ayer, -oyer, and -uyer change this y
into i before e mute :
Payer — paie, paient, &c. ; payons, payez.
Employer — emploie, emploierai, &c.
Note. — ^Verbs in -ayer may retain the y :
Payer — ^paie or paye, paient or payent, &c.
5. In verbs ending in -Tier some writers add a diaeresis
to the i of the ending when it follows the u and precedes
another vowel :
Jouer — jonions, jouiez.
Tuer — tuions, tuiez, &c.
152. Second Conjugation.
1. Several verbs, called pure verbs, do not insert the
syllable iss in the Present, Imperfect, and Participle, as in
the regular form. They are mostly from the Latin fourth
conjugation. They are :
Dormir (dormire) 'sleep,' mentir (mentiri) 'he,' sentir (sentire)
*feel/ partir (partire) 'set out,' sortir (sortiri) 'go out,' servir (ser-
vire) * serve,' bouillir (bullire) 'boil,' saillir (salire) 'project,' * sally,'
v^tir (vestire) ' clothe,' fuir (fugere) ' flee,' cueillir (colligere) * cull,'
repentir (pcenitere) ' repent,' and their compounds.
Excepting — repartir, assortir, ressortir, asservir, investir, reussir.
Note that departir, repartir follow the pure form, though other
compounds of the same follow the inchoative.
Also, a few verbs otherwise irregular :
ouvrir (operire) ' open,' couvrir (cooperire) * cover,' ofl&rir (offere)
* ofEer,' souffrir (suffere) * sufEer,' and compounds.
2. Verbs of the above class whose stems end in m, t, or
V, replace it by s in the first and second persons of the In-
dicative Present, and those in m or v replace it by t in the
third person of the same tense :
94
FEENCH GEAMMAR.
Dormir —
dors dormons
dors dormez
dort dorment
Sentir —
sens sentons
sens sentez
sent sentent
Servir —
sers servons
sers servez
sert servent
Exception. — V^tir retains its t :
Vets, v^ts, v6t, v^tons, v^tez, v^tent.
3. Verbs of this class whose stems end in 11, vr, or fr,
take e mute in the first and second persons of the Present
Indicative and Subjunctive, like verbs of the first con-
jugation :
Oueillir —
cueille cueillons
cueilles cueillez
cueille cueillent
Ouvrir —
ouvre ouvrons
ouvres ouvrez
ouvre ouvrent
SoufiErir —
soufifre soufiirons
souflfres souffrez
soufire soufErent.
Exception. — Bouillir, ' to boil/ has in the present bous, bous,
bout, bouillons, bouillez, bouillent.
4. Hair drops the dia3resis in the singular of the Pres-
ent Indicative.
153. Third Conjugation.— This conjugation differs but
little from the pure verbs of the second conjugation. It
contains very few regular verbs, mostly from the third
Latin conjugation.
1. Verbs ending in -indre insert a g before the n, when
it is followed by a vowel of the ending:
Joindre, 'join,' joignons, joignant, &c. ; craindre, * fear,' crai-
gnons, &c.
2. Verbs ending in -indre also drop the d of the stem
when it is not followed by r of the ending :
Craindre, crains, crains, craint, craignons, &c. ; craindrai, &c.
3. Stems ending in c preserve the hardness of the c,
before e and i of the ending, by changing it to qu:
Vaincre, vainque, Subj. Pres. ; vainquis, Pret. Indie, &c. ; vain-
crai, Fut. Indie, &c.
Also, by analogy, the form vainquons, &c.
IKREGULAR VERBSt
95
4. Plaire, 'please,' takes the circumflex accent upon i
before t, after the analogy of verbs in aitre :
Plaire, plait, &c.
154, Verbs in -cevoir. — A few verbs ending in -cevoir,
derived from the Latin compounds of capere, are irregu-
lar in part. The c of this ending takes the cedilla before
a, 0, and u :
Recevoir (recipere) ' receive ' :
. regois
Fut.
recevrai
Pret.
regus
re9ois
recevras
regus
re9oit
recevra
regut
recevons
recevrons
regiimes
recevez
recevrez
regutes
regoivent
recevront
regxirent
Subj. Pres. receive, &c.
Imperf. regusse
Part. Pres. recevant*
Perfect. regu.
Note. — Devoir follows the analogy of verbs in -cevoir: Pres.
dois, dois, doit, devons, devez, doivent. Participle Perf. dii, &c.
Remark. — Other verbs ending in -oir are conjugated for the most
part like the pure verbs of the second conjugation, but bave, in
general, some irregularities. These few verbs in -cevoir are by-
some made a separate conjugation.
155. Irregular or Strong Verbs. — Some verbs not entirely-
regular are called " strong" because they strengthen the
stem-syllable by changing its vowel, in the singular and in
the third person of the plural of the Present Indicative:
Tenir, 'bold' —
tiens tenons
tiens tenez
tient tiennent
Mourir, 'die' —
meurs mourons
meurs mourez
meurt meurent
sais Savons
sais savez
sait savent.
Savoir bas savent, regular form, in the third plural.
Note. — The verbs in -cevoir, described above, are also " strong'
96
PREKCH GBAMMAK.
verbs, but were placed by themselves as forming a class, and having
some special peculiarities.
156. Table of Irregular Verbs. — At the end of this part
of this book will be found a table containing a full de-
scription of all irregular, anomalous, or defective verbs,
including those mentioned above. Hence Terbs of this
kind will not be further described at present. The above
sections describe all that can advantageously be classified.
The compound tenses and forms of the regular verb will
now be given, in the succeeding sections.
157. Compound Tenses. — Active verbs form their com-
pound tenses bv combining their Perfect Participles with
the simple tenses of the verb avoir, exactly as in the verbs
avoir and etre, already given in full. The following tabu-
lar view shows the manner of their formation.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Perfect Tense.
Pluperfect Tense.
J'ai
J'avais
0t
Tuas
chante
Tu avals
chante
Ha
fini
n avait
fini
Nous avons
vendu
Nous avions
vendu.
Ac,
&c.
Preterite Past.
Future Perfect.
J'eus
J'aurai
Tu eus
chante
Tu auras
chante
Ileut
fini
H aura
fini
Nous eumes
vendu
Nous a\irons
vendu.
&c.
&c.
CoNDrriONAL Past.
J'aurais
Tu aurais
chante
11 aurait
fini
Nous aurions
vendu.
&c.
•
PASSIVE FORMS.
97
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Perfect Tense.
Pluperfect Tense.
(Que) j'aie
(Que) tu aies
(Qu') il aie
(Que) nous ayons
chante
fini
vendu
(Que) j'eusse
(Que) tu eusse
(Qu') il ett
(Que) nous eiimes
chante
fini
vendu.
&c.
Infinitive Perfect.
Compound Participle.
f chante
r chante
avoir j fini
ay ant H
fini
vendu
[^ vendu.
Verbs conjugated with etre as auxiliary form their com-
pound tenses exactly like these, only substituting the sim-
ple tenses of etre for those of avoir.
158. The Passive Voice. — The passive forms are conju-
gated with the verb etre, the simple tenses of etre being
joined with the Perfect Participle of the active verb agree-
ing in gender and number with the subject. The follow-
ing tenses of the verb aimer, *love/ will serve as a model:
INDICATIVE MODE, Present Tense.
Je suis aime or aimee, I am loved.
Tu es aime or aimee, thou art loved.
II est aime or aimee, he is loved.
Nous sommes aimes or aimees, we are loved.
Vous ^tes aimes or aimees or aime or aimee, you are loved,
lis or elles sont aimes or aimees, they are loved.
Perfect Tense.
J'ai ete aime or aimee, I have been loved.
&c.
Nous avons ete aimes or aimees, we have been loved.
&c.
Future Tense.
Je serais aime or aimee, I shall be loved.
&c.
Nous serons aimes or aimees, we shall he loved.
(&C.
5
98 FKENCH GKAMMAK.
SUBJUNCTIVE Present.
(Que) je sois aime or aimee, (that) I may be loved.
(Que) nous soyons aimes or aimees, (that) we may be loved.
Perfect Tense.
(Que) j'aie ete aime or aimee, (that) I ) may have been
(Que) nous ayons ete aimes or aimees, (that) we ) loved.
INFINITIVE.
Eire aime or aimee or aimes or aimees, to be loved.
Avoir ete aim6 or aimee or aimes or aimees, to have been loved.
159. Reflexive Verbs are conjugated by means of a
double pronoun, tl>e subject and the object, both phiced
before the verb, and with the verb etre as auxiliary. The
verb se flatter, ' flatter one's self,' given below, will serve
as a model.
INDICATIVE Present.
Je me flatte, I flatter myself.
Tu te flattes, thou flatterest thyself.
Elle se flatte, she flatters herself.
n se flatte, he flatters himself.
Nous nous flattons, we flatter ourselves.
Vous vous flattez, you flatter yourselves.
•nn XI IX ' X !-they flatter themselves or one another.
Elles se flattent, ) ''
Perfect Tense.
Je me suis flatte or flattee, I have flattered myself.
Tu t'es flatte or flattee, thou hast flattered thyself.
Il or elle s'est flatte or flattee, he (or she) has flattered
him(her)self.
Nous nous sommes flattes or flattees, we have flattered ourselves.
Vous vous 6tes flatte or flattee or flattes or flattees, you have
flattered yourselves.
Us or elles se sont flattes or flattees, they have flattered them-
selves or each other.
IMPERATIVE.
Flatte-toi, flatter thyself.
Flattons-nous, let us flatter ourselves.
IKTEEROGATIVE FOKMS.
99
Other parts of the reflexive verb may easily be formed
on the above models. The parts given above are those
most used.
Note. — ^Verbs reflexive in Frencli are not always reflexive in
English :
Se rejouir, to rejoice. I S'endormir, go to sleep.
S'enrhumer, catch cold.
Se vanter, boast (one's self).
160. Negative Conjugation. — The negative form of any
verb is formed by placing the negative adverb ne before
the verb, and pas or some other word such as rien or plus,
to complete the negation, after the verb :
Je n'ai pas, I have not.
Tu n'as pas, thou hast not.
II n'a pas, he has not.
Nous n'avons pas, we have not.
Je ne suis pas, I am not.
Tu n'es pas, thou art not.
II n'est pas, he is not.
Nous ne sommes pas, we are not.
Je ne chante pas. or rien, I do not sing (or not at all).
Nous ne chantons pas, or plus, we do not sing (or not any more).
II n'a jamais tort, he is never wrong.
Exception. — In the Infinitive Present both negatives usually pre-
cede the verb ; the Perfect Infinitive follows the general rule :
Ne pas avoir, not to have.
Ne pas chanter, not to sing.
N'avoir pas eu, not to have had.
N'avoir pas chante, not to have sung.
Note. — See the sections on Negative Adverbs.
161. Interrogative Conjugation. — In the interrogative
forms the subject pronoun is placed after the principal
verb (between the verb and the auxiliary, if there be one),
and is made enclitic, joined by a hyphen, t being inserted
between the parts when necessary to avoid hiatus :
Suis-je ? am I ?
Es-tu ? art thou ?
Est-il ? LS he ?
Est-elle ? is she t
Ai-je ? have I ?
As-tu ? hast thou ?
A-t-il ? has he ?
Avons-nous ? have we '
&c.
&c.
100 FREXCH GIIAMMAE.
Ai-je eu ? have I liad ?
As-tu eu ? hast thou had ?
A-t-il chante ? has he sung ?
A-t-elle fini ? has she finished ?
Sont-ils venus ? are they come ?
Aurai-je, serai-je? shall I have, shall I be ?
Note. — The vowel of je is silent in these forms. Ai-je is pro-
nounced ej, &c.
162. Peculiar Interrogative Forms.
1. The regular interrogative form, described above, is
not generally used in the first person singular of the Pre-
sent tense, but the phrase est-ce que (see Sec. 125) is used
in its place :
Est-ce que je vends (not vends-je) ? Do I sell ?
Est-ce que je chante ? Am I singing ?
Est-ce que je me flatte ? Do I flatter myself ?
Note. — This form may of course be used in other persons, &c. ;
but euphony chiefly demands its use as described.
2. When the first person singular of the verb ends in e
mute, the regular form may be used, the e being marked
with the acute accent and being pronounced :
Aime-je ? Do I love ? Ohante-je ? Do I sing ?
3. Some of the most common every-day verbs generally
use the shorter, more direct, regular form :
Ai-je ? Have I ?
Fais-je ? Do I make ?
Vais-je? Do I go?
Dois-je ? Do I owe ?
Sais-je ? Do I know ?
Vois-je ? Do I see ?
Note. — For other interrogative forms see Sections on Interrogative
Pronouns.
163. Negative-Interrogative Conjugation. — The negative-
interrogative forms difier from the simple interrogative
only in the insertion of ne and pas, and in the order of
the words in compound tenses, where the participle is
placed last :
NEGATTYE-IKTERROGATIYE FOEMS. 101
N'ai-je pas ? Have I not ?
N'as-tu pas ? Hast not thou ?
N'a-t-il pas ? Has lie not ?
N'a-t-elle pas ? Has slie not ?
«&c. &c.
N'eus-je pas chante ? Had I not sung ?
N'eut-il pas fini ? Had lie not finislied ?
N'eumes-nous pas vendu ? Had we not sold ?
Note. — In the first person of the Present tense of most verbs a
circumlocution is generally used, similar to that described in the last
section :
N'est-ce pas que je chante ? Do I not sing ?
N'est-ce pas que je me trompe ? Am I not mistaken ?
N'est-ce pas que j'ai donne ? Have I not given ?
This form may also be used in other, persons and tenses.
164. Reflexive Forms. — The negative-reflexive, interrog-
ative-reflexive, and negative-interrogative-reflexive forms
are formed according to the rules and models given a})ove.
The following examples will sufficiently show their con-
struction :
Je ne me suis pas flattfe. I have not flattered myself.
Est-ce que je ne me trompe pas ? Am I not mistaken ?
Se trompent-ils ? Are they mistaken ?
Ne me suis-je pas flatte ? Have I not flattered myself ?
165. Some Peculiar Forms.
1. AUer ^to go,' venir ^to come,' devoir ^to owe,' &c.,
are used in certain expressions as auxiliary verbs. The
forms thus made may be conjugated throughout, and are
actually used in several tenses :
Je vais avoir. I am going to have (about to have).
Je dois chanter. I am to sing (owe to sing).
Je viens de venir. I have just come (come from).
J'allais recevoir. I was about to receive.
2. S'en aller 'go away,' s'en retourner 'come back,' and
s'en venir ' come away,' may be conjugated throughout,
and are used in several tenses. En is here an adverb of
n fallait. It was necessary.
II faudra. It will be necessary.
102 FREiq-CH GRAMMAR.
place, from the Latin inde, and may be translated ^ away,'
Whence/ 'hence/ &c. :
Je m'en vais. I am going away.
M'en vais-je ? Am I going away ?
Je ne m'en vais pas. I am not going away.
Va-t'en ! Ne t'en vas pas ! Go ! Don't go 1
Je m'en suis alle. I went off.
U ne s'en est pas alle. He did not go off.
Ne m'en suis-je pas alle ? Have I not gone awa"y ?
3. The unipersonal verbs y avoir and falloir may be
conjugated throughout, and are actually used in several
tenses :
II y a. There is. II faut. It is necessary.
II y avait. There was.
II y aura. There will be.
Note. — II fait, * it makes/ is used of the weather :
II fait froid. It is cold. I II fait chaud. It is warm,
n fit chaud. It was warm. | II fit bon temps. It was fine.
AGREEMENT OF VERBS.
166. The Verb Agrees Avith its subject in number and
person, as in English. Special cases :
1. After a relative the verb agrees in person and num-
ber with the antecedent :
Ce sera vous qui irez. It is you who will go.
2. If the verb has several subjects it is generally in the
plural, but —
3. A verb having several subjects which are synonymous
or in apposition generally agrees with the nearest:
L'amour de travail, le gout de I'etude est un bien. Love of
labor, taste for study (is a good thing) are good things.
4. A verb having different subjects of different persons
agrees with the first person in preference to the second,
Vous ou moi parlerons. You or I will speak.
AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 103
5. A yerb whose subject is a collective noun limited by
de with a noun is in the plural:
Une nuee de barbares desolerent le pays. A cloud of barbarians
desolated tlie land.
(The logical subject being barbares.)
Exception. — A noun of quantity often takes a singular verb, when
the logical subject may be considered as a unit :
Le tiers des livres ne fut pas vendu. Not a third of the books
were sold.
Note. — A collective noun alone does not, as often in English, take
a plural verb :
Le peuple s'est revolte. The people have revolted.
6. When two subjects are joined by ni — ni, 'neither —
nor/ the verb agrees with the logical subject in number :
Ni I'un ni I'autre ne savent lire. Neither knows how to read
(both are ignorant).
Ni I'un ni I'autre n'obtiendra le prix. Neither one will get the
prize (both could not).
Note. — ^Hence I'un et I'autre, and les uns ou les autres, take a
plural verb, but I'un ou I'autre a singular verb :
L'un et I'autre, a ces mots, ont leve le poignard (Eacine). Both
at these words raised their daggers.
7. Ce takes a plural verb only when the predicate nomi-
native is in file third person:
Oe sent des Anglais. It is some Englishmen.
O'est nous. It is we.
167. Government of Verbs. — Active verbs take both
nouns and pronouns for their objects, as in English.
There are no case-endings of nouns, but the direct object
of a verb may be said to be in the Objective Case, as in
English, or in the Accusative Case, as in Latin. Pro-
nouns have special forms for the Direct Object and for the
Indirect Object or Dative Case, which have been described
in the Cliapter on Pronouns.
104 fre:n'ch geammar.
When a verb lias more than one object the shorter gen-
erally precedes:
n aime le jeu et I'etude. He loves play and study.
168. Verbs with Prepositions. — Many verbs require cer-
tain prepositions after them, and often different preposi-
tions from those required by the corresponding verb in
English. Examples:
S'emparer de, to seize upon. Rire de, to laugh at.
Echapper a, to escape from. Songer a, to think of.
S'enteter a (or de), to be obstinate in. Tarder a, to delay.
S'excuser de, to excuse one's self from. Fremir de, to tremble at.
These peculiarities cannot all be classified, but the fol-
lowing rules are of value :
1. Those verbs are followed by de which in Latin re-
quire the genitive case. More particularly: V^rbs of —
a. Pain, grief, complaint, anxiety, fear, doubt, &c. : souflErir de,
* suffer with ; ' fremir de, * tremble at ; ' douter de, * doubt ; ' s'affli-
ger de, ' be sorry for ; ' se chagriner de, * be vexed at.'
b. Repentance, shame, jealousy, tedium, anger, astonishment, &c. :
rougir de, ' blush at ; ' se repentir de, * repent of ; ' s'indigner de,
* be angry about.'
c. Joy, amusement, sport, &c. : s'amuser de, ' make fun of ; *
sourir de, ' smile at ; ' se rejouir de, ' rejoice in ; ' se mqquer de,
*have fun with.'
d. Pride, anger, punishment, revenge, blame, thanks, trust, &c.:
se piquer de, * pride one's self on ; ' punir de, * punish for ; ' re-
mercier de, * thank for ;' s'excuser de, *beg pardon for.'
2. Those verbs are followed by k which in Latin require
the dative. More particularly : Verbs of —
a. Participation, acquiescence, obedience, contradiction, refusal,
&c. : participier a, 'participate inj' adherer a, * adhere to;' con-
venir a, ' suit ; ' renoncer a, ' give up ; * register a, ' oppose ; ' obeir
a, * obey ; ' ceder a, ' give way to ; ' siorvivre a, ' survive.'
b. Advantage, disadvantage, plenty, want, appearance, disappear-
ance, &c. : subvenir a, * relieve, succeed to ; ' disparaitre a, * dis-
USE OF THE TEXSES. 105
appear from ; ' echapper a, * escape from ; ' suffire a, ' be enougli
for ; ' manquer a, ' be wanting.'
Note. — Adjectives of similar meaning take after them
the same prepositions respectiA-ely :
Jaloux de, * jealous of ; ' furieux de, ' angry at ; ' insouciant de,
* careless about ; ' coiipable de, * blamable for ; ' egal a, * equal to ;'
utile a, * useful to ; ' fidele a, ' f aitliful to ; ' favorable a, ' favorable
for,' &c.
USE OF THE TENSES.
169. Use of the Present Indicative. — The Present Tense
has but one form to correspond to the three forms of the
English. Thus, je chante may mean ^I sing/ ' I am sing-
ing/ or 'I do sing.'
1. The Present is used to describe actions now going
on> as in English.
2. The Present is used to describe an action or state
which is past but still continuing:
n y a trois ans que je suis ici. I have been here three years.
3. The Present may be used in historical narration, to
describe past actions or states more vividly:
On m'appella ; je le vois etendu parterre. They called me ; I
saw him stretched on the ground.
4. The Present may be used for the Future, to convey
the idea of certainty:
Je pars demain. I am going to-morrow.
Son proces se juge demain. His case will be tried to-morrow.
Le peuple frangais, s'il tire I'epee, en jettera le fourreau. Tlie
French people, if it draws the sword, will throw away the scabbard
(Mignet).
170. Use of the Perfect Indicative.— The Perfect Tense
corresponds to the English Perfect in form, but rarely
does so in sense. It is the tense most used in conversa-
tion.
5*
106 FREJTCH GRAMMAR.
1. Tlie Perfect is used to describe an action or state in
a past time not fully past or not specified:
Quand avez-vous appris votre leQon ? When did you learn your
lesson?
Nous avons vu la reine aujourd'hui. We saw the queen to-day
(or have seen).
2. The Perfect is often used interchangeably Avitli the
Preterite :
Je fus bien fache hier. I was very angry yesterday.
J'ai tenu hier ma seconde seance. I had my second meeting
yesterday.
Les poetes ont cree les dieux. The poets made the gods.
II a vecu cent ans, 11 fut cent ans utile. He lived 100 years, he
was useful 100 years (or has lived).
3. The Perfect is sometimes used for the Future Per-
fect :
Attendez, j'ai fini dans le moment. Wait, I shall have finished
in a moment.
Atteiidons, d'abord que je lui ale parle. Let us wait till I have
spoken to him.
171. Use of the Imperfect Indicative. — The form of the
Imperfect is derived from the Latin Imperfect in -abam,
to which also it corresponds in meaning, but answering
also in part to the Latin Perfect. It describes past actions
or states, and has but one form to equal the three forms
in English. Thus je chantais may mean ' I sang,' * I was
singing/ * I used to sing,' or * I did sing.'
The Imperfect regards an action as occupying time, as
concrete ; the Preterite views the action as a completed
event or a unit, as abstract. Hence the Imperfect is the
tense of description, depicting scenes and events ; the Pre-
terite being the tense of historical narration, relating
facts.
1. The Imperfect is used to describe continued or re-
peated or customary past actions or states:
USE OF THE TEJ^SES. 107
Calypso ne se pouvait consoler. Calypso was inconsolable.
Roland avait des manieres simples. Roland had simple manners.
Les vaisseaux restaient a sec, tant que dnrait I'hiver. The
ships remained on the dry land as long as the winter continued.
Oui, tout a I'heure j'etais un extravagant. Yes, all at once I be-
came extravagant. ^
2. The Imperfect is often used in historical narration
for the sake of vividness of description:
Je lui en parlait encore I'autre jour. I spoke to biTTi about it
again the other day.
Leur flotte effectuait une descente et detruisait les moissons.
Their fleet effected a descent and destroyed the crops.
3. The Imperfect may be used of an action which was
not completed, or was prevented, or is contrary, to an ex-
pressed supposition or fact:
Je me noyais, dans la Tamise, tu m'a tire de I'eau (V. Hugo).
I was drowning myself in the Thames, you pulled nie out of the
water.
Je pouvais gagner cette victoire, Si le ciel, n'eilt voulu m'en
derober la gloire (Moliere). I could have won that victory if
heaven had not willed to deprive me of the glory of it.
4. The Imperfect may be used to denote an action or
state during which some other action is described as hav-
ing occurred:
Je n'etais eloigne de la riviere ; je vis pres de la des pas, &c.
I was not far from the river ; I saw near there steps, &c.
Elle se mit a fair ; il etait trop tarde. She prepared to flee ; it
was too late.
J'ai trouve que la liberte valait mieux que la sante (Voltaire).
I found that liberty was worth more than health.
5. The Imperfect is used in hypothetical clauses whose
meaning is represented as contrary to fact:
Si ces brefs parvenaient aux ev^ques, il etait a craindre, &c.
If these despatches had reached the bishops, it was to be feared, &c.
(Voltaire).
Si le sante le lui permettrait, il sortirait. If health permitted
him, he would go out.
108 EEENCH GRAMMAE.
Note. — Sometimes the hypotlietical supposition is only rhetorically
contrary to fact :
Si Lara connaissait I'orgueil, c'etait en parlant de Gonsalve.
If Lara knew pride, it was in speaking of Gonsalvo.
172; Use of the Preterite Tense.— The form of the Pre-
terite is derived from the Latin Perfect. It is the tense
of historical narration, somewhat resembling the Greek
Aorist. (Sec. 171.)
1. The Preterite is used to describe an event or state
occurring in a period of time wholly elapsed (last year,
yesterday, &c.):
Je fus a Rome Tannee passee. I was at Rome last year.
II partit hier. He started yesterday.
2. The Preterite is much used to describe historical
events, e^ien those of a continued nature, where the im-
perfect might seem more appropriate:
Je le priai de me prendre sur son cheval; il y consentit. I
begged him to take me upon his horse ; he consented to do so.
Pendant que les Romains mepriserent les richesses, lis furent
sobres et vertueux (Bossuet). While the Romans despised riches,
&c.
3. The Preterite is used to describe an action or state
which took place during the time of another action or
state, expressed by the Imperfect:
Je dormais quand il antra. I was asleep when he came in.
II etait neuf heures et demi quand les chefs se rencontrerent.
It was half -past nine when the chiefs met one another.
Remark. — The choice between the'Perfect and the Imperfect, or
the Preterite tenses, often turns on considerations of rhetoric rather
than of grammar.
173. Use of the Pluperfect Indicative. — The Pluperfect is
formed from the Imperfect, by Joining the perfect partici-
ple, as the Preterite Past is formed from tlie Preterite.
Its use is very similar to that of the English Pluperfect.
USE OF THE TEl^SES. 109
1. The Pluperfect is used both in principal and in de-
pendent clauses :
Necker avait conseille I'economie ; Colonne vanta la prodi-
gality. Necker had counselled economy ; Colonne boasted of prodi-
gality.
Quand j'avais tue un oiseau, 11 fallait, &c. When I had killed
a bird, it was necessary, &c.
J'avais cru entendre de ce cote .... I had thought I heard on
that side ....
2. The Pluperfect is used in hypothetical clauses where
the supposition is contrary to fact, corresponding to the
use of the Imperfect described above :
Si j'avais dit un mot, on vous donnait la mort (Voltaire). If I
had said one word, they would have killed you.
J'en parlerai avec la m^me liberte que s'il avait cesse d'ex-
ister (Lamartine). I shall speak of him with the same freedom as
though he had ceased to exist.
174. Use of the Preterite Past. — The compound tense of
the Preterite .does not differ in meaning from the Pluper-
fect. It is used with particles of time, such as d6s que,
aussit^t que, ' as soon as ; ' quand, lorsque, ' when ; ' a peine,
* scarcely ; ' bientSt, ^ soon,' &c. :
D3S que Raymond eut donne le signal du depart, as soon as
Raymond had given the signal of departure.
L'orsqu'il fut entre dans la classe, when he had entered the
class.
Les habitans avaient abandonne la ville avant que Tennemi y
entrat. The inhabitants had abandoned the city before the enemy
entered it.
Note. — The Pluperfect is sometimes used with these par-
ticles to express a general or" universal truth :
Mentor, qui craignait les maux, ne savait plus ce que c'etait
que de les craindre, des qu'ils etaient arrives (Fenelon).
175. Use of the Future Tenses. — The Future and the
Future Perfect are used like the corresponding tenses in
110 PRElirCH GRAMMAR.
English ; the future is often used as a mild form of the
imperative :
Vous m'ecrirez demain. Write me to-morrow.
Note. — The Future is not replaced by the Present so
often as in English, and is sometimes used for the Pres-
ent, to express politeness, irony, &c. :
Vous pouvez venir quand vous voudrez. You can come when
you (shall) please.
Oomme il vous plaira, monsieur. As it pleases (shall please)
you, sir.
Vous saurez que je suis fils unique d'un riche bourgeois (Le
Sage). You know (will know) that I am the only son of a rich
merchant.
170. Use of the Conditional Tenses. — The Conditional (or
Past Future) tenses differ only in time. They are used
in dependent clauses as follows :
1. The Conditional Present (or Imperfect of the Fu-
ture) and Conditional Past (or Pluperfect of the Future)
are used in dependent clauses to describe an action which
is future with reference to the time of the princijial verb :
lis jurerent qu'ils n'attaqueraient pas le roi. They swore not to
attack the king.
Un seul espoir restait, que le vice-roi se serait reuni, &c. Only
one hope remained, that the viceroy might (afterwards) rejoin, &c.
2. The Conditional is used in the conclusion of a hy-
potlietical sentence whose condition is contrary to known
fact :
Si mon coeur etait libre, 11 pourrait itre a vous. If my heart
were free it might be yours.
II lui aurait donne cette place, s'il I'avait demandee. He would
have given him that place if he had asked for it.
Note. — The condition may be suppressed or abridged :
II serait impossible, it would be impossible (if I were to try).
Que deviendrais-je sans eux ? What would become of me with-
out them (if I did not have them) ?
USE OF THE TEN'SES. Ill
3. The Conditional may be used as a softened form of
the Indicative, to express an assertion made doubtfully,
or politely, or ironically :
Quoi, vous auriez I'audace ! What 1 you would have the bold-
ness (would you).
Je voudrais qu'il fit beau temps. I (would) wish it might be fine
weather.
Je me laisserais proteger par elle ! That I should let myself be
protected by her 1
Vous auriez dii ecrire une lettre. You should have written a
letter (I tliink).
N'aurait-elle point re9u ma lettre ? Could she not have received
my letter (possibly) ?
177. Tenses of the Subjunctive. — The Subjunctive is al-
most exclusively used in dependent clauses, and hence its
tense-relations are better described under the head of Se-
quence of Tenses. The following uses maybe noticed here :
1. The present Subjunctive is used for the Imperative,
or to express a wish or a prayer :
Vienne qui voudra. Let who will come.
Qu'il vienne. Let him come (may he come).
Vive le roi. Let the king live (hurrah for the king).
Que Dieu vous benisse. God bless you.
Qu'il parle, tout se tait. Let him speak, all is silent.
A Dieu ne plaise, may it not be God's will.
Vous le voulez ; soit. You desire it ; so be it.
2. The Present Subjunctive is used in a few phrases to
soften an assertion out of doubtfulness or politeness :
Je ne sache rien, I know nothing (I think).
Que je sache, for all I know (Latin quod sciam).
Pas que je sache ! Not that I know of I
Que je pense, as I think, as it seems to me.
3. The Preterite Subjunctive is sometimes also used in
commands or prayers :
Plut a Dieu que, that it might.
Doit le ciel egaler le supplice a I'oflfense ! That heaven were
obliged to equal the punishment to the offence 1 *
112 FREI^rCH GRAMMAR.
Qu'il choisisse, s'il veut, d'Auguste ou de Tibere. Let Mm,
clioose, if lie will, Augustus or Tiberius.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
178. Sequence in the Indicative. — The tenses of the Indi-
cative may follow one another according to the time-rela-
tions of the action or state described^ as in English. One
point requires notice.
1. The Imperfect is used in hypothetical sentences to
express a supposition contrary to fact in the present, and
the Pluperfect to express" a similar supposition in the
past:
J'irais avec vous si j 'avals le temps. I would go with you if I
had the time.
Si je n' avals pas appalse le querelle, &c. (Comeille). If I had
not appeased the quarrel.
179. Sequence of Subjunctive Tenses.
^ 1. The Present Subjunctive is used after the Present,
the Future and the Perfect Indicative (but the Perfect
only in its own ])roper meaning) :
n veut que je le serve. He wishes me to serve him.
Le sceptre ne sortira de Juda, jusqu'a ce que vienne celul qui,
&c. (Bossuet). The sceptre shall not depart from Juda until he shall
come who — .
2. After other tenses, including the Perfect used with
the meaning of the Preterite, and after the Conditional,
the Preterite Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses, or
the Pluperfect, according to the time-relation with the
principal verb :
Je doutais que vous etudlassiez aujourd'hui.
Je doutai
J'ai doute
Je douterais
J'aiurais doute
J'a-^ais doute
USE OF THE MODES.
113
I was doubting that jou were studying to-day.
I doubted
I should doubt
I should have doubted
I had doubted
Je doutais que vous eussiez etudie hier.
Je doutai
J'ai doute
Je douterais
J'aurais doute
J'avais doute
I was doubting
I doubted
I should doubt
I should have doubted
I had doubted
that you had studied yesterday.
USE OF THE MODES.
The Indicative and Imperative are used as in English,
except so far as already described. The Subjunctive, the
Infinitive and the Participle require special attention.
180. Use of the Subjunctive. — The Subjunctive is used
to denote uncertainty, conditionality, or dependence of
thought, and chiefly in relative clauses. — Special Rules :
1. The Subjunctive is used in substantive dependent
clauses after verbs which express will, purpose, desire,
command, forbidding, or any idea which throws uncer-
tainty over the action of the dependent verb :
J'ordonne qu'il aille. I order him to go.
Que voulez-vous que je sache ? What do you wish me to know ?
Je defends qu'on prenne les armes. I forbid them to take arms.
Prends garde qu'on ne te vole. Take care they don't see you.
Tl faudrait attendre que les peres des victimes fussent morts.
It would have been necessary to wait until the fathers of the victims
should be dead.
Exception. — Verbs of this class may be followed by the
Indicative to imply an assertion of fact or of certainty :
114 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Ordonna que chacun regnerait son annee (Racine). He ordered
that eacli should reign his year.
Le tribunal a decide que la donation etait nuUe (Academy). The
court decided that the donation was null.
Prenez garde que I'auteur ne dit pas ce que, &c. Take care the
author does not say that which, &c.
2. The Subjunctive is used in substantive clauses de-
pendent on expressions of mental state or action, such as
knowing, forgetting, being ignorant, hoping, fearing, com-
plaining, being sorry or angry, &c. :
Je m'etonne qu'il ne voie le danger ou il est (Acad.). I am as-
tonished that he does not see the danger he is in.
Nous sommes heureux qu'il n'en ait rien su (Acad.). We are
glad that hejoiew nothing about it.
II se plaint qu'on I'ait calomnie (Acad.). He complains that he
has been slandered.
On pensait que ce fussent des Bohemes (Sevigne). It was
thought that they were some Bohemians.
Supposons que notre histoire generale fut a composer (Chateau-
briand). Suppose our general history were still to be composed.
N'esperez plus alors que I'on vienne a votre aide. Do not hope
then any longer that any one will come to your aid.
J'ignorais qu'elle fut comedienne (Lesage).
Voit-on a mes yeux que j'aie pleure ?
Exception. — The Indicative is sometimes used after such
phrases, to express an assertion of positive fact on the
part of the speaker ;
Claire se plaignait de ce qu'on I'avait appele par son nom.
Claire complained that they called her by her name.
Je suppose qu'un moine est charitable (La Fontaine). I take for
granted that a monk is (of course) charitable. (Ironical.)
Ne vols tu pas que I'escalier est rompu ? Do you not see that
the staircase is broken ?
Si I'on savait mdme que tu as parle pour lui. If he only knew
that you have spoken for him.
3. The Subjunctive is used in a substantive clause which
is the subject of a verb used impersonally, like il faut ; il
USE OF THE MODES. 115
suffit, ^it is enough ;' il semble, 'it seems ;' il est faux, 'it
is false ; ' c'est dommage, ' it is a pity/ &c. :
II importe que vous y soyez. It is important for you to be
there.
II etait naturel que le pouvoir se concentrat. It was natural
tliat power should concentrate.
C'est heureux qu'il fasse nuit (Dumas). It is lucky that it is be-
coming night.
Mieux vaudrait que le soleil perdit ses rayons, &c. It would
be better that the sun should lose his rays.
4. The Subjunctive is used in temporal clauses, that is,
adverbial clauses denoting time, after avant que, ' before ; '
en attendant que, ' whilst ; ' jusqu'a ce que, ' until ; ' tant
que, ' insomuch that,' &c. ;
Avant qu'il soit neuf mois, &c. , before nine months.
En attendant que les nouvelles levees se formasseni. Whilst
the new levies were forming.
Des fosses profondes, ou Ton precipite,&c., jusqu'a ce qu'elles
soient remplies.
Exception. — Sometimes the Indicative is used in tem-
poral clauses, to give positiveness to the assertion in the
dependent verb:
Lucain fut d'abord ami de Neron, Jusqu'a ce qu'il eut la noble
imprudence de disputer centre lui le prix de poesie (Voltaire).
5. The Subjunctive is used in causal, conditional, con-
cessive, consecutive (expressing result), and final (ex-
pressing purpose) clauses ; that is, in adverbial clauses ex-
pressing cause, or with pos6 que, 'granted that;' en cas
que, ' in case that ; ' pourvu que, ' provided ; ' bien que,
quoique, ^ although ; ' soit que, ^ whether ; ' si que, ^ so ; ' qui
que, quel que, ' whoever ; ' de sorte que, de manidre que, ' in
such a way that ; ' pour que, * in order that ; ' sans que,
' unless ; ' &c., or que used in place of any of these :
Ce n'est pas que nous eussions de voix fort agreables, mais, &c.
(Le Sage). It was not because we had very agreeable voices, but — .
116 FREKCH GRAMMAR.
Je ne me serais console si monsieur le comte eiit succombe.
I should have been inconsolable if the Count had fallen.
Mais que Moliere eiit traite ce sujet, &c., but if Moliere had
treated this subject, &c.
Pose le cas que cela fM, que feriez-vous? (Acad.). Granting
that this were the case, what would you do ?
Pourvu qu'il y eut un fait vrai ou faux a raconter, que ce fait
pflErit un, grand spectacle, cela leur suffisait (Chateaubr.). If only
4^-hftd something, true or false, to tell, and it made a fine show, that
was enough for them.
II fait bon craindre, encore que Ton soit saint (La Fontaine). It
is well to fear, although one is holy.
Soit qu'il ait de I'appetit ou qu'il n'en ait pas, il croit toujours
qu'il est malade. Whether he has any appetite or not, he always
thinks he is sick.
Quelque puissants qu'ils soient, je ne les crains point (Acad.).
However powerful they may be, I do not fear them at all.
Tout auteur que je sois, je ne suis pas jaloux. Author though I
be, I am not jealous.
Quel qu'il soit, nul rempart ne le peut proteger. Whoever he
may be, no rampart will protect him.
Vous n'^tes pas si bas que vous ne puissiez vous relever (Le
Sage). You are not so low that you cannot rise.
Le mal fut assez grand pour que . . . il fit epoque (Segur). The
misfortune was so great as to make an epoch.
lis ne voulurent point le quitter qu'ils ne I'eussent tire de la
Russie, et qu'il fdt en surete (Segur). They were not willing to
leave him until they had taken him out of Russia, and he was in
safety.
Pour qu'une innovation soit pacifique, il faut, &c. (Mignet). For
an innovation to be peaceful, it is necessary, &c.
Exception. — The Indicative is sometimes used in such
clauses to express a positive assertion of the fact contained
in the dependent chiuse :
Bien entendu que vous ferez ce que je vous demande (Acad.).
It being well understood that you will do what I ask of you.
Tout casse que je suis, je cours toute la ville (Corneille). All
injured as I am I run through all the city.
Combien que les malhonn&tes gens prosperent, &c. However
dishonest men may prosper (and they do), &c.
USE OF THE MODES. 11?
6. The Subjunctive is used in adjective dependent
clauses ; that is, after a relative, a superlative, a negative,
or such a phrase as le seul, Tunique, ' the only ; ' le pre-
mier, ' the first : ' le dernier, ' the last ; ' il n'y a que, ' there
is only,' &c. :
Je voudrsds inventer quelque petit cadeau, qui coiitat peu d'ar-
gent, et qui pariit nouveau (Regnard). I would like to find some
little present, whicli would cost but little, and appear new.
Montrez-moi des heros que je puisse honorer. Show me heroes
whom I can honor.
Reprends des sentimens qui soient dignes de toi. Take again
sentiments worthy of yourself.
. Le meilleur usage qu'on puisse faire, the best use that one could
make.
II est peu d'hommes qui sachent veritablement aimer (Stael).
Few men know truly how to love.
Neron est le premier empereur qui ait persecute I'eglise (Bos-
suet). Nero was the first emperor to persecute the church.
Qu'est il arrive qui puisse voua degager de Tobeissance ? What
has happened that could release you from obedience?
A quoi sert d'avoir un rois qui sache bien ? &c. What use to
have a king who knows well how to 1 &c.
Quel que fAt le nombre d'iuvitations qui put lui arriver.
Exception. — The Indicative is frequently used after
superlatives and the like, and rarely in other adjective
clauses :
C'est le moindre secret qu'il pouvait, &c. It is the smallest
secret which he could, &c.
O'etait la plus intrepide menteuse que j'ai connue. She was
the boldest liar I ever knew.
II n'y eut que moi qui esperai la victoire (Fenelon). I alone
expected victory.
181. Use of the Infinitive (alone). — The Infinitive is
really a verbal noun, and as such is used as subject, pre-
dicate, object, or in apposition, &c. :
1. The Infinitive is used as subject or as predicate, or
in apposition:
118 FRE^N^Cn GEAMMAR.
S'etonner est du peuple, admirer est du sage. To be astonished
belongs to tbe people, to admire to the wise.
Vous entendre louer me rend heureux et fiere. To hear you
praised makes me happy and proud.
II faut ^tre utile aux hommes, pour ^tre grand a leurs yeux
(Massillon). One must be useful to men to be great in their eyes.
II me semble avoir vu remuer cette porte (Dumas). It seems to
me I saw that door move.
A la fin c'est parler. After all, it is to speak.
Cette dignite qui parait venir avec la puissance. That dignity
which seems to come with power.
II n'y a pour Thomme que trois evenemens, naitre, vivre, et
mourir (La Bruyere). There are for man but three events, to be
bom, live, and die.
2. The Infinitive is used as direct object only after
verbs of sensation or mental state or action, including
dire, ' to tell ; ' faire, ' to cause ; ' laisser, ' to permit ; '
devoir, * to be under obligation ; ' 6crire, ' to write ; '
pouvoir, * to be able ; ' oser, * to dare,' and the like:
Oe que j'avais oui dire. What I had heard said.
Chacun pense voir son image. Each one thinks he sees his
image.
Elle desire vous parler. She wishes to speak to you.
Je ferai batir une maison. I shall have a house built.
Je crois ^tre bless e. I believe (myself) to be wounded.
II s'imagine §tre un grand homme. He thinks himself a great
man.
II ne fait que jouer. He does nothing but play.
J'ai manque me trahir. I was on the point of betraying myself.
Exceptions. — Verbs of desiring, preferring, and hoping
(excepting vouloir) admit after them the Infinitive with
de. Devoir in the sense of ' to owe ' regularly takes the
Infinitive with de :
Je preferais mourir que de trahir men ami.
Peut-on esperer de vous revoir ?
On se doit a soi-mSme de respecter les bienseances.
USE OF THE MO
Ex. 2. — Also, if an indirect object (Dative case) inter-
venes between the Infinitive and the principal verb, the
Infinitive with de is required :
Dites au roi, seigneur, de vous I'abandonner (Racine). Tell tlie
king, sir, to abandon him to you.
3. The Infinitive is sometimes used with a subject, de-
pending on a verb of the classes mentioned in 2, like the
Latin Accusative with the Infinitive :
Nous I'avons entendue parler (Voltaire). We have heard him
Je sens des larmes baigner men visage. I feel tears bathing my
face.
Cest ce qui le fait vivre. It is this wbich. makes Mm live.
O Julie ! si le destin t'eut laissee vivre.
4. The Infinitive is used after verbs expressing or im-
plying motion, to denote the purpose of the motion :
lis allerent demeurer a Oviedo. They went to live at Oviedo.
Elle a ete trouver le roi. She went to find the king.
L'alliance que Judas avait envoye demander. The alliance
which Judas had sent to ask for, etc.
Exception. — The verb venir in the sense of ' to come to
be,' Ho arrive at,' takes the Infinitive with a:
Nous vinmes a parler de telle chose (Acad.). We came to speak
(arrived at speaking) of such a thing.
Si le secret venait a 6tre decouvert. If the secret reached being
discovered (came to be).
5. The Infinitive is sometimes used elliptically in ex-
clamations or questions :
Moi, vous abandonner ! I, to abandon you 1
Comment decouvrir le secret, how to discover the secret.
Pourquoi toujours parler, &c., why always talk, &c.
Ou done te rencontrer, where then to find thee !
6. The Infinitive may be used after any preposition ex-
cept en, which requires the present participle :
120 FEENCH GKAMMAR.
Sans aller, without going.
Pour voir, in order to see.
Avant de partir, before going.
Par les detruire, by destroying them.
En les regardant, in looking at them.
Note. — For en with the Participle, see Sec. 18^.
182. The Infinitive with De.
1. The Infinitive with de is used after verbs, nouns,
adjectives, and particles, wherever a noun with de (Geni-
tive case) might be used in the same way :
As-tu peur de mourir ? Are you afraid to die ?
Je suis siir de I'avoir entendu.
On I'accusa d'avoir eu des intelligences avec I'ennemi. He was
accused of having had communication with the enemy.
II n'est pas pres de finir. He is not near finishing.
2. The Infinitive with de is used as the logical subject,
where the grammatical subject has been supplied, usually
with il or ce, before the principal verb :
H est doux de revoir les murs de la patrie (Comeille). It is
sweet to see again the walls of my country.
C'est bien mal d'effrayer ainsi ses amis (Dumas). It is very
wrong thus to frighten his friends.
Le defaut de Flechier est de toujours ecrire, et de ne jamais
parler. Flechier's fault is always writing, and never speaking.
(The usual form O'est le defaut de Flechier de, &c., explains this
last example.)
Note. — When two infinitives are compared together, the
second takes de, the first not:
Plutot mourir que d'etre esclave (Acad.). Sooner die than be a
slave.
So also after comparatives, and after \i moins que, avant que, si
que, &c. :
J'ai voulu te revoir avant que d'expirer.
A moins d'etre fou, &c. (que omitted), unless one is a fool.
Qui vous rend si hardi que de m'interroger ? What makes you
so bold as to question me ?
USE OF THE MODES. 121
3. The Infinitive with de is used as the object of transi-
tive verbs, either with or without a personal object :
II resolut de cultiver mon esprit (Le Sage). He determined to
cultivate my intellect.
On craint de se montrer. One fears to show himself.
Adele lui demand e de revenir souvent.
Note. — Verbs of sensation and mental state or action, &c., as de-
scribed in Sec. 181, take the Infinitive without de, and some verbs
require a, as below :
4. The Infinitive with de is sometimes used elliptically
to introduce a subject, or like the Latin historical Infini-
tive :
De recourir a Blanche, to return to Blanche.
Chaque electeur alors de dire : O'est vrai. Each voter then
said, "It is true."
183. The Infinitive with A.
1. The Infinitive with k is used after a verb to denote the
purpose, manner, instrument, condition, cause, &c., of the
action of the principal verb :
Aidez-moi a oublier que je suis roi.
Tu vas passer encore une nuit a travailler (Dumas). You will
pass still one night in labor.
lis n'ont rien a gagner. They have nothing to gain.
A vous entendre, on croit que vous avez raison. To hear you,
one would suppose you were right.
Oette f^te, a vrai dire, &c., this festival, to tell the truth.
2. The Infinitive with a is sometimes used like a gerund,
either attributively or predicatively, to denote obligation
or possibility :
Une trone n'est pas a dedaigner. A throne is not to be despised.
II restait a sauver quatre mille habitans. It remained to save
4000 inhabitants.
O'est un proces a ne jamais finir (Acad.). It is an unending pro-
6
122 FEEKCH GRAMMAR.
Un sourire a glacer I'improvisateur. A smile fit to freeze tlio
improviser.
Facile a remarquer, easy to notice (be noticed).
Impossible a passer, impossible to pass (be passed).
Aise a trouver, easy to find (be found).
3. The Infinitive with a is used after some transitive
verbs, for the most part the same which in Latin take the
Infinitive, viz. : verbs of giving, having, seeking, finding,
teaching, learning, forgetting, preparing, t^^inning, end-
ing, longing, loving, and the like :
J'ai a faire une visite. I have a call to make.
II y a tout a esperer. There is everything to hope.
II est a croire. It is credible.
Ohercher a se rappeler, to try to remember.
Je commence deja a parler Fran9ais. I am already beginning to
speak French.
Oublier a chanter, to forget how to sing.
(Oublier chanter means ' to forget to sing *).
Enseigner a lire, to teach how to read.
184, The Infinitive with A or De. — In some cases the In-
finitive may be nsed with either a or de, but with a differ-
ence of meaning :
Manquer a faire, to neglect to do.
Msmquer de faire, to come near doing.
S'il venait a apprendre, if he happened to learn.
lis viennent de sortir, they have just gone out.
O'est a yous a parler, it is your turn to speak.
Cast a vous de parler, it is your duty to speak.
Note. — The Infinitive may be used with either a or de without
change of meaning, after a few verbs :
n ne demande qu'a manger et a boire.
Elle demanda au ciel de lui pardonner sa faute.
Le banquier s'engagea a (or de) payer la somme de 1000 francs.
THE PKESEN^T PARTICIPLE. 123
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE,
185. The Present Participle is really a gerund in its na-
ture, and is usually indeclinable ; but it is sometimes used
as a verbal adjective, agreeing in gender and number witli
its noun. The verbal noun is in French not the partici-
ple but the Infinitive.
1. The Present Participle when used like a gerund is
invariable :
Amitie, triomphant a son tour, friendship conquering in its turn.
Les animaux, vivant d'une maniere plus conforme a la nature
(Rousseau), the animals, living in a manner nearer to nature.
O'est que nous ne pouvions savoir, etant sans pilote, et ne pou-
vant voir les bancs, &c. (Segur).
die nous faisait signe, comme nous disant un etemel adieu
(St. -Pierre).
2. The Present Participle may be used with a noun, ab-
solutely ; like the Latin Ablative Absolute :
Le cas echeant, je suis, &c., it happening so, I am, &c.
Les Romjiins, se destinant a la guerre, et la regardant comme le
seul art, &c. (Montesquieu).
3. The Present Participle is often used with the Pre-
position en, to denote that two events occur at the same
time :
II riait en me regardant (Fenelon). He looked at me and
laughed.
On hasarde de perdre en voulant trop gagner. One risks losing
when he tries to get too much.
Ij'appetit vient toujours en mangeant. The appetite grows while
eating.
En disant ces mots, les larmes lui vinrent aux yeux (Fenelon).
As he said these words, the tears, &c.
En rentrant chez moi, as I re-entered my house, &c.
Note. — A construction derived from the Latin * in ' with a gerund.
4. The Present Participle nsed adjectively agrees in
gender and number with its noun :
124 FEEN^CH GEAMMAR.
EUe parait souflfraate. She appeared to suiEer.
II m'offrit una main fumante de sang (Voltaire). He oUered me
a liand smoking with, blood.
Note. — The Participle may be invariable even in such
cases, in order to make the idea of action more promi-
nent :
Tu foules une terre toujours fumant du sang. You tread a soil
that always smokes with blood.
Une fen^tre donnant sior une petit^ue (Dumas). A window that
looks upon a narrow street.
5. The Adjective-Participle may, like any other adjec-
tive, be used as a noun :
Les mourants, the dying.
Une intriguante, a female intriguer.
Les habitants, the inhabitants (dwellers).
THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
186. The Perfect Participle is used adjectively, or ab-
solutely, or as a part of the compound tenses of the verb.
1. The Perfect Participle used absolutely (like the
Latin Ablative Absolute), is placed with its subject in the
Objective (Accusative) case, and agrees with its subject in
number and gender :
Eux punis, nous pourrons, &c., they being punished, we might
be able.
II ne sera pas dit que, moi parti, vous rirez de la dupe que vous
venez de faire (Dumas). It shall not be said that, when I am gone,
you laugh at the dupe you have just made.
La constitution etant achevee (Thiers), the constitution being
finished.
Note. — Sometimes the noun is omitted, and must be supplied from
the context, the Participle standing absolute, alone :
Arrives a ce point (Dumas), having come to this point.
Accoutumes a tout ce que (Massillon), accustomed, &c.
2. The Perfect Participle may be used as an adjective,
THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 125
either attributively or predicatively, agreeing with its noun
in gender and number :
La terre n'est couverte que de palais detruits, de tr6nes ren-
verses. The earth is covered witli nothing but ruined palaces and
overturned thrones.
Tenez toujours divises les mechants (La Fontaine). Keep the
rascals always divided.
Je vols aux fiammes eternelles,
Nos rois precipites sans fin (Beranger).
I behold our kings ever plunged in endless flames.
Note. — This inchides the past participles of all verbs
conjugated with etre (passive and intransitive), as well as
all that can have a predicate nominative after them. In
all these the Perfect Participle may be considered as used
like an adjective used predicatively.
Exception. — The participles attendu, * whereas * (* expected ') ;
compris, ' included ; ' excepte, * except ; ' oui, * heard/ * said ; * passe,
* past ; ' suppose, * supposed ; ' vu, ' examined/ ' seen ; ' ci-joint, * an-
nexed ; ' ci-inclus, ' enclosed/ are used as adjectives with a peculiar
agreement. When they precede the noun to which they belong
they are indeclinable, when they are placed after the noun they
agree with it :
Vous trouverez ci-joint copie du contrat.
Mes amis exceptes. Excepte mes amis.
But, ci-joint and ci-inclus agree with a following noun, if an arti-
cle intervenes :
Vous trouverez ci-incluse la copie du contrat (Academy).
3. The Perfect Participle agrees in number and gender
with its object, when it forms a part of a compound tense
of a transitive or reflexive verb (that is, any verb which
can have a direct object), if the object precedes the Par-
ticiple :
La lettre que j'ai regue, the letter I received.
Le bruit les a tous attires. The noise attracted them all.
La fable que j'ai eue a composer. The story which I had to
compose.
126 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Que de miracles les historiens ont prodiguees (Voltaire.) How
many miracles the historians have lavished 1
Exceptions. — When a verb is used impersonally tlie Per-
fect Participle always remains unchanged. Also the par-
ticiple 6t6 is always invariable :
Les chaleurs excessives qu'il a fait (Condillac), the excessive
heat which there has been.
Que de maux 11 en est deja resulte ! How many evils have
already resulted from it.
Note. — A noun used absolutely to denote time, &c. (Ac-
cusative of time, &c.), is of course not the direct object,
and the Participle does not agree with it :
Les nombreuses annees que j'ai vecu (Rousseau), the many years
I have lived.
La peine que ce travail m'a coiite (Academy), the trouble which
this work cost me.
Exception. — The Participle is sometimes attracted into agreement
with a noun dependent on the direct object, when the latter is a
noun of quantity :
Le peu de legons que j'ai prises ont suffi (Academy). The few
lessons I took were enough.
But compare : Le peu de diligence qu'il a mis dans la conduito
de cette affaire (Academy). The little diligence (lack of diligence),
&c. Here if the Participle were in agreement the meaning would be
changed.
4. In all other cases the Participle is invariable, viz.:
when the object follows the verb, the parts of the verb
being thrown together ; or when there is no direct object:
J'ai perdu mes livres. I have lost my books.
lis se sent ecrit deux lettres. They wrote each other two letters.
Note. — The following cases of the absence of a direct
object may need remark.
(1.) When the object of the compound tense is an In-
finitive :
THE ADVERB. 127
Elle s'est fait aimer, elle m'a fait hair (Corneille). She made
(people) love lier, slie made (them) hate me.
Tous las soldats s'etaient Izdsse prendre (Voltaire). All the sol-
diers let (them) take them (themselves to be taken).
La verite qu'il a neglige de suivre (Fenelon). The truth which
he has omitted following.
Compare Je les ai vu frapper, I saw (some one) strike them
(saw them struck), with Je les ai vues frapper, I saw them strike
(some one else).
(2.) When the adverb en, in a partitive sense, intervenes,
implying the real object :
Avez-vous des fleurs ? Oui, il nous en a donne.
Here no direct object is expressed.
Sometimes, however, even though en intervenes, the Participle
agrees with the real object, to avoid ambiguity :
Li' usage des cloches est de la plus haute antiquite ; nous n'en
avons eues en France qu'au sixieme siecle (Voltaire).
Here if eues were not in agreement, the" object might be thought
to be usage, and not cloches.
(3. ) When the apparent object is really a noun (Accu-
sative) of time, space, price, &c. See above, 3, Note.
(4.) When the Participle is followed by an Infinitive
with a, it may either agree or not agree with the object,
if there is one :
La fable que j'ai eue a composer.
Les peines qu'ils ont eu a souffrir.
5. Compound Participles require no special attention,
being treated like Perfect Participles.
THE ADVERB.
187. Adverbs are, in general, formed from adjectives,
as follows :
1. Adjectives ending in a vowel form adverbs by adding
-ment :
128
FUEI^CH GEAMMAR.
aise, easy,
poll, polished, smootli,
absolu, absolute,
sage, wise.
aisement, easily,
poliment, smootlily.
absolument, absolutely,
sagement, wisely.
Except — beau, nouveau, fou, and mou, wbich make bellement,
nouvellement, &c. , according to the rule following, and traitre, which
has traitreusement.
2. Adjectives ending in a consonant form adverbs by
adding -ment to the feminine form :
franc, free, franchement, freely,
vif, quick, vivement, quickly,
leger, light, legerement, lightly.
Except — gentil, pretty, gentiment ; gros, coarse, grossierement.
3. The following adjectives form adverbs by changing
final e into 6, and adding -ment :
aveugle,
blind.
aveuglement.
commode,
convenient.
commodement.
conformej
conformable.
conformement.
confus.
confused.
confus ement.
diffus.
diffused,
diffusement.
enorme.
enormous.
enormement.
expres.
express.
express ement.
immense.
immense.
immens ement.
importim,
importunate.
importunement.
obscur.
obscure,
obscure ment.
opiniatre,
obstinate.
opiniatrement.
precis.
precise,
precisement.
profond,
profound.
profondement.
profus,
profuse.
profusement.
uniforme.
uniform.
uniformement.
by this analogy.
impuni,
unpunished.
impunement.
4. Adjectives in -ant and -ent drop the t and assimilate
the n to the m of the ending :
prudent, prudent, prudemment.
elegant, elegant, elegamment.
eloquent, eloquent, eloquemment.
THE ADVERB.
129
Except — ^lent, slow, lentement j vehement, veliement, vehe-
mentement.
188. Many Adverbs are not formed from adjectives :
diablement,
betement,
profuse ment,
incessament,
ailleurs,
souvent,
encore,
longtemps,
alors,
enfin,
partout,
depuis,
derriere,
desormais,
dorenavant,
ensemble,
ici,
jadis,
deja,
like the devil,
stupidly,
profusely,
incessantly,
elsewhere,
often,
more,
long since,
then,
at last,
everywhere,
afterwards,
back,
henceforth,
henceforth,
together,
here,
formerly,
already.
from diable).
from b^te).
as if from profus).
cesser, * to stop ').
Lat., aliorsum).
" subinde).
hanc horam).
longum tempus).
ad illam horam).
in fine).
' per totum).
■ de post).
' de retro).
de ipsa hora magis).
de hora in ab ante).
' in simul).
' ecce hie).
' jam diu).
' jam).
189. Some Adjectives are used as adverbs without any
change, as in English :
vite, quick-ly.
haut, loud-ly.
droit, straight-way,
ferme, firm-ly.
fort, strong-ly.
bas, low, in a low voice.
juste, exact-ly.
cher, dear, at a high price.
mauvais, bad-ly.
clair, cLear-ly.
190, Comparison of Adverbs. — Those adverbs which are
capable of comparison are compared in the same way as
adjectives, by the use of plus, le plus, moins, le moins, &c.
191. Position of Adverbs.— An adverb which qualifies a
verb generally follows the verb in simple tenses, and is
placed between the verb and the participle in compound
tenses :
Je pense souvent a vous. I often think of you.
Je n'ai jamais vu votre livre.
6* ^
130 FRE]!^CH GRAMMAR.
Exception. — Adverbial phrases, and the adverbs aujourd'hui,
* to-day ;' demain, 'to-morrow ;' hier, 'yesterday/ are placed after
both parts of a compound tense :
Je I'ai rencontre par hasard. I met him by chance.
192. En, Y, Dont, and Ou are usually used for pronouns,
and are explained Sec. 130, f. As adverbs they need no
special remark.
NEGATIVES.
193. Ne with a Completing Word. — The general negative
adverb is ne ; but in ordinary sentences ne (which becomes
n' before a vowel or h mute) is followed by some word to
complete or strengthen the negation. This completing
word may be an adverb, as pas (originally a noun from
Latin passus), point (Latin punctum), gu6re, * little' (from
grandem rem), jamais, *ever' (from jam magis), plus,
*more,' &c. ; or a noun, as rien, *a thing' (Latin rem),
goutte, ^a drop,' mie, 'a crumb' (colloquial only) ; or an
indefinite pronoun, as personne, * any one,' aucun, * any one '
(Latin aliquis), nul, ^ none,' quelconque, Svhosoever, &c.;
or a conjunction, as ni, * neither ' (Latin nee), que, * but,
only, unless ' ( Latin quod) :
Le considat n'est point fait pour son age (Voltaire). The consu-
late is not at all made for his age.
Je ne sais plus. I know no more. •
Elle n'a jamais dit cela. She never said that.
II ne prend aucun soin de ses affaires (Academy). He takes no
care of his business.
Personne ne veut 6tre plaint de ses erreurs. No one likes to be
complained to about his errors.
Elle n'est ni belle ni riche. She Is neither beautiful nor rich
Ni vous ni moi ne le pouvons. Neither you nor I can do it.
Je n'ai que deux soeurs. I have only two sisters.
Nous n'avions guere que neuf ans. We were scarcely nine years
old.
Exception. — The completing word is very rarely omitted in ordi
nary sentences :
II ne faut tenter Dieu. You must not tempt God.
Oe n'est sa faute, &c., it is not his fault, &c.
NEGATIVES. 131
Note 1. — ^Pas, point, rien, and plus may be strengthened
by du tout :
II n'aura rien du tout. He will have nothing at all.
Je n'y songe plus du tout. I don't care any more about it at all.
Note 2. — Sometimes different completing words are com-
bined :
On ne garda plus aucunes mesure. They no longer kept any
bounds.
Je n'ai jamais rien accorde a la menace. I never granted any-
thing to threats.
Note 3. — Two complete negatives make an affirmative :
Je ne puis point, a la verite, ne point admirer leur courage, mais
je ne puis (Sec. 194) aussi ne pas sentir, &c., et ne point hair, &c.
(Rollin).
Note 4. — Non plus que, 'no more than,' may be used after
ne without a completing word :
II ne dort non plus que votre pere (Racine). He is not asleep,
any more than your father.
Vous ne le voulez pas, ni moi non plus (Academy).
But — Je n'en sais rien, non plus que vous (Academy).
194. Ne without Completing Word, — In some expressions
ne is used alone as the negative, and a completing word is
not admitted :
1. Ne alone is used in negative clauses containing the
verbs pouvoir, ' to be able ; ' oser, * to dare ; ' cesser, ' to
cease ;' bouger, 'to budge ;' savoir, 'to know,' except in
the sense of ' to understand,' and the phrase avoir garde,
*to take care,' and the like :
Elle n'osait rentrer. She did not dare to enter.
La liberte ne cesse d'etre aimable (CorneiUe). Liberty never
to be lovely.
Je ne saurais me taire. I should not be able to keep silent.
II ne sait ce qu'il veut. He does not know what he wants.
Note. — The form peux, in the present of pouvoir, takes ne-pas.
132 FREiq^CH GEAMMAK.
2. Ne alone is used in negative rhetorical questions
(those asked for confirmation), and in questions with que,
4iow ' or *why' :
Qui n'a ses torts dans ce bas monde ? Who has not his wrongs
in this world below ?
Qui ne sait son pouvoir ? Who does not know his power ?
Que n'attendez vous ? Why don't you pay attention ?
Que ne se corrige-t-il ? Why does he not correct himself ?
3. Ne alone is used in some colloquial expressions and
some elliptical expressions or incomplete sentences :
N'importe. No matter.
Je n'ai que faire a cela. I have nothing to do with that.
A Dieu ne plaise. God forbid 1
Ne vous deplaise. Are you willing ?
Qu'a cela ne tienne. Never mind 1
N'avoir d'autre que, to have no other way but.
Ne dire mot. Not to say a word.
4. Ne alone is used in limiting clauses expressing an
exception, introduced by si, 'if,' a moins que, 'unless,'
and the like :
Je ne sortirez pas si vous ne me venez prendre en voiture
(Academy). I will not go out unless you come to take me in a car-
riage.
A moins que vous ne preniez bi-en votre temps, &c. (Academy),
if you do not well choose your time.
Fuis, si tu ne veux Stre attrappe. Flee, unless you wish to be
taken.
Si je n'etais moil, &c., if I were not myself.
5. Ne alone is used in a relative clause depending on a
negative proposition, or one which has a negative effect :
II n'y a pas une de ces lettres dont je ne sache d'avance le oon-
tenu.
Est-il un seal de vous qui ne tremble pour lui ?
n est peu de grand hommes qui ne soient sensibles au plaisirde
commander. Few great men {i. e., none) are not, &c.
195. Other Negatives without Ne. — The absolute negative
NEGATIVES. 133
is non ; also many of the completing words given above
may stand alone without ne :
1. When the negative qualifies a single word, except an
infinitive, non is used. Non is also the direct negative
answer to a question :
Non loin de la ville, not far from the city.
II y a un non-moi. There is a not-me, non-ego.
Non plus que moi, no more than I.
Non, monsieur. No, sir.
Exception. — With the Infinitive, ne pas, ne point, &c. , are used,
both words preceding it :
Ne pas se venger, not to avenge one's self._
Ne rien manger, to eat nothing.
When the Infinitive is used in all respects as a noun, this does not
apply.
2. To render negative an incomplete sentence, includ-
ing an answer to a question which is more than a simple
negative, pas, point, rien, jamais, &c., are used without ne:
Avez-vous ete a Rome ? Jamais.
Etes-vous fache ? Point. Are you angry? Not at all.
Avez-vous de I'argent ? Pas trop. Have you any money ? Not
too much.
Ferez-vous cela ? Du tout. Will you do it ? Yes, all I
Prendrai-je cela ? Non pas, s'il vous plait.
Vous a-t-il dit qui vous 6tes ? Pas encore. Not yet.
3. In exclamations, questions, &c., which imply refer-
ence to something preceding, ne is often omitted :
Rien de plus facile, nothing easier.
Rien de Monsieur le due de Richelieu ? Nothing of the Duke
of Richelieu?
Plus de my stere ! Plus de mariage secret ! No more mystery !
No more about a secret marriage !
Rien que pour ce mot-la vous meritez, &c. (Nothing but) for
that word you deserve, &c.
Similarly : — Les gens peu ou point instruits. Une perception
de Tame non point indecise.
134 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
196. Peculiar Use of Ne. — The word ne is used in some
peculiar expressions in which it admits of no translation
into English, or can only be rendered by *lest ;' a usage
derived from a similar use of the Latin ne :
1. Ne is required after expressions of hindrance, fear,
doubt, danger, denial, avoidance, forbidding, preventing,
and the like, in dependent clauses :
Je crains qu'il ne vienne. I fear (lest) he will come.
J'empdcher£U qu'il ne sorte. I will forbid his going out.
Je tremble qu'on ne vous volt. I tremble (lest) you may be seen.
II est dangereux que la vanite n'etouflfe une partie. There is
danger (lest) that vanity should stifle, &c.
Prends garde qu'on ne te voie. Take care lest you are seen.
Evitez qu'il vous ne parle. Avoid his speaking to you.
Je ne nie pas que je ne I'aie dit. I do not deny that I said it.
Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vienne. I do not doubt that he will
come.
Ne desesperez pas que ce moyen ne vous reussisse. Do not de-
spair but this means may succeed for you.
Vous ne sauriez disconvenir qu'il ne vous ait parle (Acad.). You
could not deny that he has spoken to you.
Note. — This rule includes expressions equivalent to de-
nial, though not such in form, and the rare phrases il
tient a, 'it depends on ;' and il s'en faut, 'there is want-
ing':
A quoi tient-il que nous ne partions (Acad.). On what does it
depend that we should depart ?
II ne tenait pas a lui qu'on n'oubliat ses victoires. It is not his
fault if one forgets his victories.
Peu s'en est fallu que je ne vinsse (Acad.). It lacked but little
of my coming.
II ne s'en faut presque rien qu'il ne soit aussi grand que son
frere. He lacks (it lacks to him) almost nothing of being as tall as
his brother. (Compare the Latin, non multum abest quin).
II etait impossible qu'il n'y eiit reussi (Montesquieu). It was
impossible that he should succeed.
Ce n'est pas que je ne convienne, &c. It is not because I con-
sent, &c.
NEGATIVES. 135
Note 2. — If pas is used in expressions of fear, &c., the
meaning is reversed :
Je Grains qu'il ne vienne pas. I fear that lie is not coming.
Note 3. — Expressions of denial, doubt, or despair may
be used affirmatively without ne. Negatively or interroga-
tively used they require ne, and affirmatively used they
frequently are followed by it. See Ex. 2.
Exceptions. — An Infinitive in the dependent clause does
not, of course, require ne :
II craint d'etre importun (Acad.). He fears being importunate.
Bientot ils defendront de donner ii Themis ni bandeau ni ba-
lance (Boileau). Soon they will forbid to give to Justice either
bandage or scales.
Sometimes, however, ne is used with a completing word :
II lui defendit de ne jamais se presenter devant lui. He forbade
him ever to appear before him.
Ex. 2. — Sometimes ne is omitted after an expression of
fear in a question which implies a negative answer :
Peut-on craindre que la terra manque aux hommes ? (Fenelon).
Can any one fear that the earth will not be large enough for man ?
(No I)
Ex. 3. — Sometimes also ne is omitted after expressions
of denial to denote an unquestioned fact :
Personne ne nie qu'il y a un Dieu. No one denies that there is
a God.
II n'y a pas de doute que je lui conseille, &c. There is no doubt
that I advise him, &c.
2. Ne is required after il y a que, depuis que, avant que,
and the like, denoting time in the sense of * until ' or
* since ; ' after k moins que, quoique, sans que, and the like,
in the sense of * unless ' or * although ; ' and after aucun,
jamais, nul, plus, nuUement, rien, and the like, denoting a
universal negative statement :
136 FEEiq^CH GRAMMAR.
Depxiis que je ne vous ai vu. Since I have seen you.
Plus que je ne devais. More than I ought.
Sans que son visage exprimat, without his face expressing.
Nul ne peut etre heureux. None can be hajDpy.
Personne n'aime a recevoir des conseils. No one likes to re-
ceive advice.
II y a six mois que je ne lui parle pas. It is six months since I
have spoken to him.
Je ne le connais pas plus que vous ne le connaissez (Acad.). I
don't know him any more than you do.
Note. — This use of ne may be explained by translating que sepa-
rately. *It is a year that I have not seen you,' &c. Compare Sec.
194, 4.
PREPOSITIONS.
197. Prepositions govern Nouns and Pronouns, as in
English. Few require special remark :
1. Many phrases, formed "by combining de or a with
other words, are treated as simple words and called prepo-
sitions :
Au dessus de, above. A c6te de, beside.
Aupres de, near. Ensuite de, after.
Au dela de, beyond. Vis-a-vis de, opposite.
2. Prepositions are regularly repeated with each word
which they govern :
Dans la paix et dans la guerre.
3. No preposition is used before the day of the week
or month, or the hour of the day :
n viendra jeudi. He will come Thursday.
4. The preposition is also omitted often with expressions
of price :
Dix sous la livre. At ten sous a pound.
5. En is used with the Present Participle to denote a
close connection between two events, and is often best
translated by 'whilst/ or the like. See Sec. on Pres. Part.
CONJUNCTIONS. 137
En creusant les fondemens, on trouva un squelette. While dig-
ging, etc.
6. Before the name of a country or province en means
both Ho ' and 'in ; ' before the name of a city or town a
means both * to ' and Mn ' :
Elle est allee en France. She is gone to France.
Avez-vous des amis a Paris ? Have you friends in Paris ?
n reside en Califomie.
7. In the following phrases h, is always used :
A la campagne, to or in the country.
A la chasse, a-hunting, to or in the chase.
A I'ecole, to, at, or in school.
A I'eglise, to, at, or in church.
Au marche, to, at, or in the market.
A la maison, home, or at home.
A la p6che, a-fishing, to fish.
A la ville, to, at, or in the city.
8. The agent of a passive verb is generally expressed
with de or par, de for mental actions or sentiments, and
par for outward actions :
II est aime de tout le monde.
II fut tue par les soldats.
9. Pour generally accompanies the Infinitive denoting
purpose :
Je suis venu pour vous voir.
10. Chez with the name of a person or with a personal
pronoun, is used for Miome/ 'at home,' or 'at the house of :
Monsieur S. est chez lui. Mr. S. is at home.
Nous fdmes chez Mme. B. We were at Mrs. B.'s.
CONJUNCTIONS.
198. Connective Words follow, for the most part, the
same usage as the corresponding English words. A few
require special notice :
138 FKENCH GRAMMAR.
1. Si, ' if/ elides its vowel only before il and lis; it does
not require the Subjunctive.
2. Que, *that,' must be repeated with each clause which
it affects, and can never be omitted. It is used in the place
of other conjunctions, even of si, to avoid repetition. Que
is also used elliptically in the third person of the Impera-
tive, and in some common phrases :
Que le diable m'emporte si, &c. May the devil cany me off if,
&c. (I wish that he may).
Moi, que j'eusse une ame si traitresse ! 1 1 (impossible) that I
should have a soul so base.
Je crois que oui. I think (I will answer) yes.
Je gage que non. I wager (that it is) not.
CATALOGUE OF lEEEGULAR VERBS.
CoMPOUN'DS of obvious formation, like a-battre, ad-
joindre, ad-mettre, &c., are nofc given, but the simple verbs
are found in their places, battre, joindre, &c.
199. — Irregular, Defective, and Peculiar Verbs.
ABSOXJDRE. * absolve,' Lat. solvere.
Indic. Pres. absous, absous, absoUt,
absolvons, absolvez, absolvent
Fut. absoudrai. Pret. wanting.
SuBJ. Pres. absolve, absolves, absolve,
absolvions, absolviez, absolvent.
Pret. wanting.
Part. Pres. absolvant; Perf. absous, fern, absoute.
S'ABSTENIR, 'abstain/ Like tenir.
ABSTRAIRE, ' abstract.' Like traire. Seldom used.
Faire abstraction de is preferred.
ACCROtTRE, increase.' Like croitre, but Perf. Part,
accru (not circumflexed).
ACQTJERIR, * acquire ; ' querir, Lat. quaerere.
Ikdic. Pres. acquiers, acquiers, acquiert,
acqu6rons, acqu6rez, acquidrent.
Fut. acquerrai; Pret. acquis.
SuBJ. Pres. acquidre, acquidres, acquidre,
acqu6rions, acqu6riez, acquiferent.
Imperat. acquiers, acqu6rez.
Part. Pres. acqu6rant; Perf. acquis.
ALLER, 'go,' Lat. aditare, vadere, and ire.
Ikdic. Pres. vais, vas, va, aliens, allez, vont.
Pret. allai; Fut. irai.
139
140 FREN^CH GRAMMAR.
Sub J. Pres. aille, allies, aille, alliens, aUiez, aillent.
Pret. allasse.
Imperat. va, aille; allez, aillent.
Part. Pres. allant; Perf. all6.
APERCEVOIR, 'perceive.' See -cevoir.
APPARTENIR, ' belong.' Like tenir.
APPRENDRE, 'learn.' Like prendre.
ASSAILLIR, 'assault.'
Indic. Pres., Subj. Pres., and Imperat., assaille.
Pret. assaillis ; Put. assaillerai.
ASSEOIR, 'set,' s'asseoir, * sit,' Lat. sedere.
Indic. Pres. assieds, assieds, assied,
asseyons, asseyez, asseyent.
Pret. assis; Put. assierai.
Subj. Pres. asseye; Pret. assisse.
I31PERAT. assieds, asseyez.
Part. Pres. asseyant; Perf. assis.
ASTREINLRE, ' force.' Like peindre.
ATTEINDRE, 'attain.'
AVOIR, ' have,' Lat. habere.
Indic. Pres. ai, as, a, avons, avez, ont.
Pret. eus; Put. aurai.
Subj. Pres. aie, aies, aie, ayons, ayez, aient.
Pret. eusse.
Imperat. aie, ayez. Part. Pres. ayant; Perf. eu.
BATTRE, 'beat.'
Indic. Pres. bats, bats, bat, battons, battez, battent.
Pret. battis; Fiit. battrai.
Subj. Pres. batte, battes, batte, battions, battiez, &c.
Pret. battisse, battisses, battlt, &c.
Imperat. bats, batte, battez, battent.
Part. Pres. battant; Perf. battu.
CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAE VERBS. 141
BENIR, * bless.' Eegular except having two Perf.
Part., beni, * blessed/ and benit, * consecrated.'
BOIRE, ' drink/ Lat. bibere.
Indic. Pres. bois, bois, bolt, buvons, buvez, boivent.
Pret. bus; Put. boirai.
SuBJ. Pres. boive, boives, boive, buvions, buviez, boivent.
Pret. busse, busse, but, &c.
Imperat. bois, boive, buvez, boivent.
Part, Pres. buvant ; Perf. bu.
BOUILLIR, 'boil,' Lat. bullire.
Ikdic. Pres. bous, bous, bout, bouillons, bouillez, bouillent.
Pret. bouillis ; Put. bouillerai.
SuBJ. Pres. bouille; Pret. bouillisse.
Imperat. bouille.
Part. Pres. bouillant ; Perf. bouilli. This verb is neuter.
The active is faire bouillir.
BKAIRE, 'bray.' Defective. Used only in Infin. and
in the 3d Pers.
Indic. Pres. brait, braient.
Put. braira, brairont.
CoxDiT. brairait, brairaient.
BRTJIRE, ' roar.' Defective. Used only in the Infin-
itive and the forms —
IiTDic. Pres. bruit ; Impf . bruyait, bruyaient.
Part. Pres. bruyant. (Liable to be confused with brouir,
regular. )
CEINDRE, 'gird,' Lat. cingere. Like peindre.
-CEVOIR. Verbs ending in -cevoir are from the Latin
compounds of capere.
Ij^^dic. Pres. -Qois, -gois, -^oit, -cevons, -cevez, -goivent.
Pret. -Qus, -9us, -Qut, -^umes, -gutes, -^urent.
Put. -cevrai.
SuBj. Pres. -Qoive, -^oives, -goive, -cevions, -ceviez, -^oivent.
Pret. -9usse, -gusses, -gut, -gussions, &c.
142 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Imperat. -goive, -cevez.
Part. Pres. -cevant; Perf. -qu.
CHOIR, 'fall/ Lat. cadere. Nearly obsolete. Used
only in Infinitive and Perf. Part, chu. The compounds
are less obsolete.
CrRCONSCRIRE, ' circumscribe.' Like 6crire.
CmCONVENIR, * deceive.' Like venir.
CLORE, 'close/ Lat. claudere. Defective.
Indic. Pres. clos, clos, clot; no plural.
No Pret. Put. clorai, &c. ; Con^dit. clorais.
Part. Perf. clos. Other parts obsolete.
CONCLURE, ' conclude/ compound of clore.
Indic. Pres. conclus, conclus, conclut,
concluons, concluez, concluent.
Pret. conclus, &c.; conclumes, &c.
SuBj. Pres. conclue, &c. ; concluions, &c. ; Pret. conclnsse.
Imperat. conclus, conclue, concluez.
Part. Pres. concluant ; Perf. conclu.
CONCEVOIR, ' conceive.' See -cevoir.
CONDTJIRE, 'conduct/ Lat. ducere.
Indic. Pres. conduis, &c. ; conduisons, conduisez, -sent.
Pret. conduisis, &c., conduisimes, &c.
Put. conduirai.
Sub J. Pres. conduise, «&c., conduisions, &c.
Pret. conduisisse.
Imperat. conduis, conduisez.
Part. Pres. conduisant; Perf. conduit.
CONFIRE, ' preserve, pickle.' Like lire.
CONNAITRE, ' know,' Lat. cognoscere.
Indic. Pres. connais, connais, connait,
connaissons, connaissez, connaissent.
Pret. connus ; Put. connaitrai, &c.
SuBj. Pres. connaisse; Pret. connusse.
CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 143
Part. Pres. connaissant ; Perf . connu.
CONftUERIR, * conquer,' Lat. conquirere. Like acque-
rir, but nearly obsolete except in Indie. Pret., Subj. Pret.,
and Part.
CONSTRTIIRE, 'construct.' Like conduire.
CONTRAINDRE, 'constrain/ Lat. constringere.
Ikdic. Pres. contrains, &c., like peindre. See Sec. 153.
CONTREDIRE, ' contradict.' Like d6dire.
COTJDRE, 'sew,' Lat. consuere.
Indic. Pres. couds, couds, coud, cousons, cousez, cousent.
Pret. cousis; Put. coudrai.
Subj. Pres. couse; Pret. cousisse.
Imperat. couds, cousez.
Part. Pres. cousant ; Perf. cousu.
COTJRIR, 'run,' Lat. currere.
Indic. Pres. conrs, cours, court, courons, courez, courent.
Pret. courus; Put. courrai.
Subj. Pres. coure ; Pret. courusse.
Imperat. cours, courez.
Part. Pres. courant; Perf. couru.
COUVRIR, ' cover,' Lat. co-operire. Like ouvrir.
CRAINDRE, 'fear,' Lat. tremere. Like peindre.
CROIRE, ' believe,' Lat. credere.
Ii^Dic. Pres. crois, crois, croit, croyons, croyez, croient.
Pret. crus; Imperf. croyais; Put. croirai.
Subj. Pres. croie, &c., croyions, &c.; Pret. crusse.
Imperat. crois, croyez.
Part. Pres. croyant; Perf. cru.
CROITRE, 'grow,' Lat. crescere.
In^dic. Pres. crois, crois, croit, croissons, croissez, croissent
Pret. crus, crus, crut, crumes, crutes, crurent.
Put. croirai.
Subj. Pres. croisse ; Pret. crusse, or crusse.
144 FEENCH GEAMMAR.
Impeeat. crois, croissez.
Paet. Pres. -croissant ; Perf . crii, crue, or cme.
CUEILLIR, 'pluck/ Lat. colligere.
Ikdic. Pres. cueiUe, cueilles, cueille, cueillons, &c,
Pret. cueillis; Put. cueillerai.
Sub J. Pres. cueille ; Pret. cueillisse.
Impeeat. cueille, cuiellez.
Paet. Pres. cueillant; Perf. cueilli
CXJIRE, * cook,' Lat. coquere. Like nuire.
DECEVOIR. See -cevoir.
DECHOIR, * decay/ compound of choir. Defective.
In DIG. Pres. d6chois, d6chois, d6clioit, d^choyons, -ez, -oient,
Pret. dechus ; Put. d6cherrai ; Imperf. wanting.
SuBJ. Pres. d6choie; Pret. d6cliusse.
Impeeat. wanting ; Paet. Pres. wanting ; Perf. d6cliu.
DEDIRE, ' disown/ compound of dire. Like dire, ex-
cept in Pres. Indie, and Imperat., which are d6disez (not
d6dites).
DETRTJIRE, ' destroy/ Lat. de-struere. Like conduire.
DEVOIR, 'owe/ Lat. debere.
Indic. Pres. dois, dois, doit, devons, devez, doivent. *
Pret. dus; Put. devrai.
SuBJ. Pres. doive ; Pret. dusse. Impeeat. dois, devez.
Paet. Pres. devant ; Perf. du.
DIRE, 'say/ Lat. dicere.
Indic. Pres. dis, dis, dit, disons, disez, dites.
Pret. dis ; Put. dirai. Impeeat. dis, dites.
SuBJ. Pres. dise ; Pret. disse.
Paet. Pres. disant; Pret. dit.
DISSOUDRE, ' dissolve.' Like absoudre.
DORMIR, 'sleep,' Lat. dormire.
In DIG. Pres. dors, dors, dort, donnons, donnez, dorment.
Pret. donnis; Put. donnirai. Impeeat. dors, dormez.
CATALOGUE OF IRKEGULAR VERBS. 145
Sub J. Pres. dorme, &c., dormions, &c. ; Pret. dormisse.
Part. Pres. dormant; Perf. dormi.
ECHOIR, comp. of choir, * fall out. ' Unipersonal.
li^Dic. Pres. 6choit, and 6choient.
Pret. 6chus ; Fut. ^cherrai. No Imperf.
SuBJ. Pres. wanting ; Pret. 6chusse. No Imperat.
Part. Pres. 6cheaiit; Perf. echu.
ECLORE, Miatch/ Lat. excludere. Unipersonal.
Indic. Pres. 6clot, 6closent ; Fut. 6clora, 6cloroiit.
CoifDiT. 6clorait, 6cloraieiit.
SuBj. Pres. 6close, 6closeiit.
Part. Pres. 6closaiit ; Perf. 6clos. Other parts wanting.
ECRIRE, 'write/ Lat. scribere.
Indic. Pres. 6cris, 6cris, 6crit, 6crivons, 6crivez, 6crireiit.
Pret. 6crivis; Fut. 6crirai.
SuBJ. Pres. 6crive ; Pret. 6crivisse. Imperat. 6cris, toivez.
Part. Pres. 6crivant; Perf. 6cri.
ENDUIRE, ' plaster,' Lat. inducere. Like conduire.
EMPREINDRE, 'imprint.' Like peindre.
ENVOYER, 'send,' Lat. in via.
Ikdic. Pres. envoie, envoies, envoie, envoyons, -yez, -lent.
Pret. envoyai; Fut. enverrai; Imperf. envoyais.
Otherwise regular. See Sec. 151.
ETEINDRE, 'extinguish,' Lat. exstinguere. Like
peindre.
ETREmDRE, ' bind,' Lat. stringere. Like peindre.
EXCLURE, ' exclude,' Lat. excludere. Like conclure.
FAILLIR, ' fail, be wanting,' Lat. fallere, Defective.
Ikdic. Pret. faillis. Part. Perf. failli.
Other parts wanting. In the sense of ' make a failure ' it
is regular.
FAIRE, 'do,' Lat. facere.
Ii^Dic. Pres. fats, fais, fait, faisons, faisez, font (25, 4).
146 FBEKCH GEAMMAR.
Indic. Pret. fis ; Fiit. ferai ; Imperf. faisais.
Sub J. Pres. fasse ; Pret. fisse.
Paet. Pres. faisaut ; Perf . fait. Impeeat. fais, faites.
FALLOIE, 'be necessary,' Lat. fallere. Unipersonal.
Iiq^Dic. Pres. faut (no pi. ) ; Imperf. fallait ; Fut. faudra.
Pret. faUut.
Sub J. Pres. faiUe; Pret. fallut.
Paet. Pres. wanting ; Perf. fallu.
FEINDRE, 'feign,' Lat. fingere. Like peindre.
FERIR, 'strike,' Lat. ferire ; used only in sans coup
f6rir, without a blow struck.
FLEURIR, 'blossom.' Regular when used literally.
Figuratively used, Indie. Imperf. florissait; Pres. Part.
florissant.
FRIRE, 'fry,' Lat. frigere. Defective. .Only in Indie.
Pres. Ms, Ms, Mt; Fut. frirai; Cond. frirais; Impcrat.
fris; Part. Perf. Mt.
FUIR, ' flee,' Lat. fugere.
Indic. Pres. fuis, ftiis, fait, fuyons, fiiyez, fuient.
Pret. fuis; Imperf. fuyais; Fut. fiiirai
SuBJ. Pres. foie ; Pret. fuisse.
Impeeat. fais, fiiites.
Pabt. Pres. fuyant; Perf. fui.
6ESIR, 'lie,' Lat. jacere. Defective.
Iis^Dic. Pres. git, gisons, gisez, gisent.
Imperf. gisait ; Paet. Pres. gisant.
Ci-git, 'here lies,' is used on tomb-stones.
HAIR, 'hate,' regular except diaeresis.
Indic. Pres. hais ; Pret. hais. Part. Pres. hai.
INDUIRE, 'infer,' Lat. inducere. Like conduire.
INSCRIRE, ' inscribe.' Like 6crire.
INSTRTJIRE, ' instruct.' Like conduire.
CATALOGUE OF lEREGULAR VERBS. 147
INTERDIRE, 'interdict.' Like d6dire.
rNTRODUIRE, ' introduce.' Like conduire.
ISSm, 'issue,' Lat. exire. Participles issant, issu.
East obsolete.
LIRE, 'read,' Lat. legere.
Ikdic. Pres. lis, lis, lit, lisons, lisez, lisent.
Pret. lus ; Put. lirai ; Imperf . lisais.
SuBJ. Pres. Use ; Pret. lusse.
Imperat. lis, lisez Part. Pres. lisant ; Perf . lu.
LUIKE, 'shine,' Lat. lucere. Like conduire, except
Perf. Part, lui ; Pret. Indie, and Subj. are wanting.
MATJDIRE, 'curse,' Lat. maledicere.
Ikdic. Pres. maudis, -dis, -dit, -dissons, -ssez, -ssent.
Pret. maudis ; Put. maudirai ; Imperf. maudissais.
Subj. Pres. maudisse, -isses, maudisse, maudissions, &c.
Pret. maudisse, maudisses, maudit, maudissions, &c.
Part. Pres. maudissant ; Perf. maudit.
MENTIR, 'lie,' Lat. mentire.
Ik DIG. Pres. mens, mens, ment, mentons, mentez, mentent.
Pret. mentis; Put. mentirai.
Subj. Pres. mente ; Pret. mentisse. Imperat. mens, -tez.
Part. Pres. mentant; Perf. menti.
METTRE, 'place,' Lat. mittere.
Ikdic. Pres. mets, mets, met, mettons, mettez, mettent.
Pret. mis; Put. mettrai.
Subj. Pres. mette; Pret. misse.
Imperat. mets, mettez.
Part. Pres. mettant; Perf. mis.
MOUDRE, 'grind,' Lat. molere.
Ii^Dic. Pres. mouds, mouds, moud, moulons, -lez, moulent.
Pret. moulus; Put. moudrai.
Subj. Pres. moule ; Pret. moulusse.
Part. Pres. moulant ; Perf. moulu. Imperat. mouds, -lez.
148 FEEKCH GEAMMAE.
MOTJIIIR, * die/ Lat. moriri.
Ikdic. Pres. meurs, meurs, meurt, mourons, -rez, meurent.
Pret. mourus ; Fut. mourrai.
SuBJ. Pres. meure ; Pret. mourusse.
Paet. Pres. mourant; Perf.mort. Impeeat. meurs, mourez.
MOTTVOIE, ' move/ Lat. movere.
Ikdic. Pres. meus, meus, meut, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent.
•Pret. mus ; Fut. mouvrai.
SuBJ. Pres. meuve ; Pret. musse.
Paet. Pres. mouvant ; Perf . inii. Impeeat. meus, mouvez.
NAITEE, M^e born/ Lat. nasci, natns.
Indic. Pres. nais, nais, nait, naissons, naissez, naissent.
Pret. naquis; Fut. naitrai.
SuBJ. Pres. naisse ; Pret. naquisse.
Paet. Pres. naissant ; Perf. 116.
NUIRE, * injure/ Lat. nocere.
In^dic. Pres. nuis, nuis, nuit, nuisons, nuisez, nuisent.
Like conduire, except Part. Perf. nui (not nuit).
OFFRIR, ' offer/ Lat. offere. Like ouvrir.
OINDRE, * anoint/ Lat. ungere. Like peindre.
OTTIR, *hear/ Lat. audire. Only in Indie. Pret. ouis;
Subj. Pret. ouisse ; and Part. Perf. oui.
OUVRIR, ' open/ Lat. operire.
Ikdic. Pres. ouvre, ouvres, ouvre, ouvrons, &c.
Pret. ouvris ; Fut. ouvrirai.
Subj. Pres. ouvre ; Pret. ouvrisse.
Paet. Pres. ouvrant ; Perf. ouvert. Impeeat. ouvre, -rez.
PAITRE, ^ graze/ Lat. pascere. Like naitre, except
that the Indic. Pret. and Subj. Pret. are wanting, and the
Part. Perf. is pu (not pait).
PARAiTRE, ' appear/ Lat. parere. Like connaitre.
PARTIR, 'set out/ Lat. partiri.
Indic. Pres. pars, pars, part, partons, partez, partent.
CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAE VEEBS. 149
In^dic. Pret. partis ; Fut. partirai.
SuBJ. Pres. parte; Pret. partisse.
Impeeat. pars, partez.
Paet. Pres. partant; Perf. parti.
PEINDRE, ' paint/ Lat. pingere.
Ikdic. Pres. peins, peins, peint, peignons, -gnez, -gnent.
Pret. peignis ; Fut. peindrai.
Sub J. Pres. peigne ; Pret. peignisse.
Paet. Pres. peignant ; Perf. peint.
Impeeat. peins, peignez.
FLAINDRE, 'pity/ Lat. plangere. Like peindre.
FIAIEE, 'please,' Lat. placere. .
Indic. Pres. plais, plais, plait, plaisons, plaisez, plaisent.
Pret. plus ; Fut. plairai.
Subj. Pres. plaise; Pret. plnsse.
Part. Pres. plaisant; Perf. plu.
Impeeat. plais, plaisez.
PLEUVOIR, 'rain/ Lat. pluere. Unipersonal.
Ikdic. Pres. pleut; Pret. pint; Imperf. pleuvait.
Part. Pres. pleuvant; Perf. plu.
POINDRE, ' dawn/ Lat. pungere. Used only in Infin-
itive and Indie. Fut.
POINDRE, 'to sting/ is regular, like craindre.
POUVOIE, 'be able,' Lat. potere, posse.
Ikdic. Pres. puis or peux, peux, pent,
pouvons, pouvez, peuvent.
Pret. pus ; Fut. pourrai.
Subj. Pres. puisse ; Pret. pusse, pusse, put, &c.
Part. Pres. pouvant ; Perf. pu.
POURVOIR, 'provide,' Lat. providere.
liNTDic. Pres. pourvois, -vols, -voit, -voyons, -voyez, -voient.
Pret. pourvus; Fut. pourvoirai.
Subj. Pres. pourvoie; Pret. pourvusse.
150 FEENCH GRAMMAR.
Part. Pres. pourvoyant ; Perf . pourvu.
Imperat. pourvoie, pourvoyez.
PREDIRE, ^foretell.' Like ni6dire.
PRENDRE, 'take/ Lat. prehendere
Indic. Pres. prends, prends, prend, prenons, -nez, prennent.
Pret. pris ; Put. prendrai.
SuBj. Pres. prenne; Pret. prisse.
Part. Pres. prenant ; Perf. pris. Imperat. prends, prenez.
PRESCRIRE, ' prescribe.' Like 6crire.
PREVALOIR, 'prevail/ Lat. praevalere. Like valoir,
except the Subj. Pres. pr6vale (not prevaille).
PREVOIR, ' foresee.' Like pourvoir, except Indie. Pret.
pr6vis.
PRODTJIRE, ' produce,' Lat. producere. Like conduire.
PROSCRIRE, 'proscribe.' Like 6crire.
QUERIR, 'fetch/ Lat. qna^rere. Used only in Infin-
itive. See compounds, acqu6rir, &c.
RECRoItRE, 'grow again.' Like croitre.
REDTJIRE, ' reduce,' Lat. reducere. Like conduire.
REPARTIR, ' set out again.' Like partir. R6partir,
distribute,' is regular.
REaUERIR, 'require.'. Like acqu6rir.
RESOUDRE, ' resolve,' Lat. resolvere. Like absoudre,
except Part. Perf. r6solu. R6sous is also used, but lias
no feminine, and means 'separated,' 'dissolved.'
RESTREINDRE, 'restrain,' Lat. restringere. Like
peindre.
RIRE, ' laugh,' Lat. ridere.
Indic. Pres. ris, ris, rit, rions, riez, rient.
Pret. ris; Put. rirai.
Subj. Pres. rie, ries, rie, riions, riiez, riient.
Pret. risse.
Part. Pres. riant ; Perf. ri. Imperat. rie, riez.
CATALOGUE OF IREEGULAR VERBS. 151
ROMPRE, 'break,' Lat. rumpere. Like vendre. Re-
tains the stem romp- throughout, and is really regular.
SAILLIR, ' project/ Lat. salire. Unipersonal.
IxDic. Pres. saille, saillent. Imperf. saillait, saillaient.
Fut. saillera, -ront. Coj^dit. saillerais, -aient.
Other tenses obsolete. In the meaning * gush out/ this
verb is regular though unipersonal.
SAVOIR, ' know,' Lat. sapere.
liiTDic. Pres. sals, sals, salt, savons, savez, savent.
Pret. sus; Fut. saurai.
Sub J. Pres. sache ; Pret. susse.
Part. Pres. sachant; Perf. su, Impbrat. sache, sachez.
SEDUIRE, * seduce,' Lat. seducere. Like conduire.
SENTIR, 'feel, smell,' Lat. sentire.
In^dic. Pres. sens, sens, sent, sentons, sentez, sentent.
Pret. sentis ; Fut. sentirai.
SuBJ. Pres. sente; Pret. sentisse.
Part. Pres. sentant; Perf. senti
Imperat. sens, sentez.
SEOIR, 'fit, become,' Lat. sedere. Unipersonal. Used
only in Indie. Pres. sied, si6ent ; Fut. si6ra, si6ront ; Con-
di t. si6rait, -aient ; Imperf. seyait ; Part. Pres. seyant.
In the meaning 'to sit,' this verb has only the Infinitive
and two Participles, s6ant and sis, in use. See compounds
asseoir, &c.
SERVIR, 'serve,' Lat. servire.
Indig. Pres. sers, sers, sert, servons, servez, servent.
Pret. servis; Fut. servirai.
SuBj. Pres. serve; Pret. servisse.
Part. Pres. servant; Perf. servi. Imperat. sers, servez.
SORTIR, ' go out,' Lat. sortiri.
In^dic. Pres. sors, sors, sort, sortons, sortez, sortent.
Other parts like servir.
153 FKEiq-CH GEAMMAR.
SOTOFRIR, 'suffer/ Lat. sufferre. Like ouvrir.
SOTJRDRE, ' spring up ' (of water), Lat. surgere. Only
used in Indie. Pres. 3d pers. sourd, and Infinitive. The
Perf. Part., source, has become a noun.
SOTJSCRIRE, ' subscribe.' Like 6crire.
SUFFIRE. ^suffice,' Lat. sufficere.
In DIG. Pres. suffis, suffis, suffit, suffisons, suffisez, suffisent.
Pret. suffis ; Put. suffirai.
SuBJ. Pres. suffise ; Pret. suffisse.
Part. Pres. suffisant ; Perf. suffi.
Imperat. suffis, suffisez.
STJIVRE, * follow,' Lat. sequi.
Indic. Pres. suis, suis, suit, suivons, suivez, suivent.
Pret. suivis ; Put. suivrai.
Sub J. Pres. suive; Pret. suivisse.
Part. Pres. suivant ; Perf. suivi. Imperat. suis, suivez.
STJRSEOIR, ' supersede ' (legal term).
Indic. Pres. sursois, sursois, sursoit, sursoyons, -yez, -oient.
Pret. sursis ; Put. surseoirai.
SuBj. Pres. sursoie ; Pret. sursisse.
Part. Pres. sursoyant; Perf. sursis.
Imperat. sursois, sursoyez.
TAIRE, ' be silent, conceal,' Lat. tacere. Like plaire.
Pres. tais, taisons, &c.
TEINDRE, 'dye,' Lat. tingere. Like peindre.
TENIR, ' hold,' Lat. tenere. Like venir.
TRADTJIRE, 'translate,' Lat. traducere. Like con-
duire.
TRAIRE, ' milk,' Lat. trahere.
Indic. Pres. trais, trais, trait, trayons, trayez, traient.
Pret. wanting; Fut. trairai.
Sub J. Pres. traie; Pret. wanting.
Part. Pres. trayant ; Perf. trait.
Imperat. trais, trayez.
CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAE VERBS. 153
TRANSCRIRE, ' transcribe.' Like ecrire.
TRESSAILLIR, 'start, tremble/ Lat. salire. Like
assaillir, but Fut. and Condit. end in -erai, -erais, or -irai,
-irais.
VAINCRE, ' conquer, ' Lat. vincire.
Indic. Pres. vaincs, vaincs, vainc, vainquons, -quez, -quent.
Pret. vainquis; Fut. vaincrai.
SuBJ. Pres. vainque ; Pret. vainquisse.
Part. Pres. vainquant; Perf. vaincu.
Imperat. vaincs, vainquez.
VALOIR, 'be worth,' Lat. valere.
Indic. Pres. vaux, vaux, vaut, valons, valez, valent.
Pret. valus ; Fut. vaudrai.
Sub J. Pres. vaille ; Pret. valusse.
Part. Pres. valant; Perf. valu.
Imperat. vaux, valez.
VENIR, ' come,' Lat. venire.
Ikdic. Pres. viens, viens, vient, venons, venez, viennent.
Pret. vins; Fut. viendrai.
SuBj. Pres. vienne ; Pret. vinsse.
Imperat. viens, venez.
V^TIR, 'clothe,' Lat. vestire.
Ikdic. Pres. vets, vets, v§t, v§tons, vetez, vetent.
Pret. v§tis; Fut. vetirai.
Sub J. Pres. v^te ; Pret. v§tisse.
Part. Pres. vetant ; Perf. vetu.
Imperat. vets, vetez.
VIVRE, 'live,' Lat. vivere.
Ii^Dic. Pres. vis, vis, vit, vivons, vivez, vivent.
Pret. v6cus ; Fut. vivrai.
Sub J. Pres. vive; Pret. v6cusse.
Part. Pres. vivant ; Perf. v6cu. Imperat. vis, vivez.
7*
154 FREN^CH GRAMMAR.
VOIR, 'see/ Lat. videre.
Ikdic. Pres. vols, vols, voit, voyons, voyez, voient
Pret. vis ; Put. verrai.
Sub J. Pres. voie ; Pret. visse.
Part. Pres. voyant; Perf. vu. Imperat. vols, voyez.
VOULOIR, ' will, be willing,' Lat. volo, yelle.
Indic. Pres. veux, veux, veut, voulons, voulez, veulent.
Pret. voulus ; Put. voudrai.
SuBJ. Pres. veuille ; Pret. voulusse.
Part. Pres. voulant; Perf. voulu.
Imperat. veux, voulez.
In the sense of *be so good as,' ' deign,' the Imperat. is
veuille and veuillez (really Subjunctive).
EXERCISES.
155
PART II.— EXERCISES.
EXERCISE 1.
Sees. 61-2.— The Definite Article.
1. Les chats sont les ennemis des souris. 2. Le sommeil
est Fimage de la mort. 3. Les chiens sont les plus fidoles
des animaux. 4. L'oiseau est sur le toit. 5. Je suis le
onzieme de ma classe. 6. Oii est le chemin du village au
chateau. 7. Oii est le jardin du fr^re ? 8. Le chapeau
du monsieur est ici, sur le table. 9. Les £onseils des
meres aux lilies. 10. La ressemblance du sing*a Fhomme.
11. Voila les portraits du frere, de la soeur, et des cou-
sins. 12. Donnez le parapluie au monsieur, et Fombrelle
a la dame.
je suis, I am.
tu es, thou art.
il est, he, it, is.
le chat, the cat.
la souris, the mouse.
le sommeil, sleep.
le chien, the dog.
animaux, animals.
le toit, the roof.
le chemin, the road,
les plus fideles, the
most faithful,
sur, upon.
Vocabulary.*
nous sommes, we are.
vous dtes, you are.
ils sont, they are.
elle est, she, it, is.
elles sont, they are.
ma, my.
ou, where.
voila, here is, are.
donnez, give.
le parapluie, the um-
brella.
I'ombrelle, the para-
sol.
le village, the village.
le jardin, the garden.
le chapeau, the hat.
le conseil, advice.
la fille, the daughter.
le singe, the monkey.
la sceur, the sister.
la dame, the lady.
le monsieur, the gen-
tleman.
Sees. 63-4.-
EXERCISE 2.
-Definite Article continued.
1. Le sommeil est I'image de la mort. 2. La mort est
le passage de la vie a Timmortalite. 3. Mars est le dieu
de la guerre. 4. Le vice est odieux. 5. La politesse est
souvent une vertu de mine et de parade (Mirabeau). 6. II
reve de tresors, de sceptres, de palais? 7. Londres est
* Words whose meaning is given in the text of the grammar in the present sec-
tions, and words exactly alike in both languages, are not give^jpi^s^'^r*«a«k^
(OF THB X
UNIVERSITY \
156
FKEKCH GRAMMAE.
en feu. 8. Ce vaisseau arrive de la Jamaique. 9. Le
beurre est bien cher a vingt sous la livre. 10. Le cheval
est bien utile a rhomme. 11. Voila los gants de la dame,
sur la chaise. 12. Vous avez une grande admiration pour
le Dante.
j'ai, I have.
tu as, thou hast.
il a, he, it, has.
Vocabulary.
nous avons, we have,
vous avez, you have,
avez-vous? have you?
ils ont, they have,
elles ont, they have.
elle a, she, it, has.
le dieu, the gAd.
la guerre, war.
la politesse, polite-
ness.
la mine, pretence.
le sou, half -penny.
le gant, the glove.
le cheval, the horse.
odieux, odious.
il reve, he dreams.
Londres, London.
11 arrive, he comes,
cher, dear,
vingt, twenty,
utile, useful,
grande, great,
pour, for.
les tresors, treasures.
les palais, palaces.
le feu, fire.
le vaisseau, the ves-
sel,
le beurre, butter.
la livre, the pound.
la chaise, the chair.
English into French.
1. Ine bird is on the tree. 2. Here is the history of
Christianity. 3. The man is on the roof. 4. Here is the
mother's advice. 5. Where are the gentleman's gloves ?
6. Have you my chair ? 7. He is useful to men. 8. We
have twenty pounds of butter.
EXERCISE 3.
Sees. 65-6. — Indefinite Article.
1. Nous avons le Misanthrope, comedie par Moli^re.
2. Votre ami est homme de coeur. 3. Ils sont a Eome,
yille d'ltalie. 4. J'ai un oncle qui est un tr^s-bon avocat.
5. Votre oncle, est-il medecin ? 6. Non, ilest journaliste.
7. Quel est le titre de ce livre ? Histoire de Kussie.
8. Faire une grande fortune n'est pas chose facile. 9. Nous
allons rendre une courte visite. 10. Nous avons un verre
et une bouteille de biore. 11. Le beau n'est pas ton jours
I'utile. 12. Achille (Sec. 40), ^me de feu, dont la rage
est d'un tigre (Delille). 13. Une fomme prudente est la
source des biens.
EXERCISES.
157
Vocabulary.
est-il ? is lie ?
est-elle? is she?
sont-ils ? are they ?
a-t-il ? has he ?
a-t-elle ? has she ?
ont ils ? have they?
votre, your.
par, by.
tres, very,
non, not.
bon, good,
quel, what ?
la villa, city.
le coeur, heart, cour-
age.
I'avocat, lawyer.
le medecin, doctor.
le titre, title,
ne — pas, not.
le livre, book.
I'histoire, history,
faire, to make,
ce, this, that,
facile, easy,
nous aliens, we are
going,
la chose, thing,
la bouteille, bottle.
English into French.
le verre, glass.
la biere, beer,
rendre, to pay, render,
toujours, always,
dont, of which, whose.
la rage, anger, rage,
courte, short,
mais, but.
beau, beautiful.
I'ame, soul.
le tigre, tiger.
1. The child has your book. 2. We are at Berlin, a
city of Prussia (la Prusse). 3. We are going to make our
fortune. 4. Is your brother a lawyer ? 5. 'No, sir, but
your cousin is a very good lawyer. 6. He has a use-
ful horse. 7. What (quelle) comedy of Moliere has he ?
8. We are men of courage. Are they men of courage ?
9. Has she a glass of beer ? He has a bottle of beer.
10. Has Achilles a soul of fire ? 11. No, but this soul
has the violence (rage) of a tiger.
[Note. — The teacher may extend these exercises in-
definitely by changing the combinations of words already
known. ]
EXERCISE 4.
Sees, 67-8. — ^Partitive Expressions.
1. Ma tante, a-t-elle du pain ? 2. Le roi a de Tor et de
Targent. 3. A-t-il de bon cafe ? 4. II a une carte de la
France. 5. L'enfant, a-t-il des plumes ? 6. S'il y a des
fleurs dans la vie, il y a aussi bien des epines. 7. Donnez-
moi un verre d'eau fraiche. 8. Voici d'excellent the.
9. Quel genre de maladie votre fr^re a-t-il ? 10. Je n'ai
encore mange ni des fraises ni des groseilles de votre
jardin, madame. 11. La lepre est un genre de maladie
158
FEEiq-CH GRAMMAR.
contre laquelle la science humaine ne peut rien. 12. Y
a-t-il du monde dans les rues ? 13. Elle a de Pesprit
comme un ange. 14. Je ne prends pas de la peine pour
rien. 15. L'ambition n'a guere de limites.
il y a, there is, are.
y a-t-il ? is there ?
donnez-moi, give me.
ai mange, have eaten,
ni — ni, neither — nor.
contre, against,
laquelle, which,
humaine, human,
ne peut, cannot do.
rien, nothing,
comme, like,
pour, for.
la tante, aunt.
le pain, bread.
Vocabulary.
I'or, gold.
I'argent, silver.
I'eau, water.
le the, tea.
le genre, kind, genus.
la fraise, strawberry.
la groseille, goose-
berry,
la rue, street,
dans, in.
range, angel,
je prends, I take,
guere, scarcely.
la carte, map.
un enfant, a child,
une epine, a thorn.
la fleur, flower,
aussi, also.
fraiche, fresh,
encore, yet, still.
le jardin, garden.
la lepre, leprosy.
le monde, world, peo-
ple.
I'esprit, wit, mind.
la peine, trouble.
English into French.
1. Have you any bread ? No, madam, but I have a
pound of coffee. 2. Give me some beer. 3. I have no
glass. 4. My aunt has some' money. 5. I have neither
silver nor iron. 6. Give me some strawberries. 7. Has
she any gooseberries ? 8. Here are some maps, and some
flowers. 9. There are people in the garden. 10. I take
trouble for nothing:.
EXERCISE 5.
Sees. 69-70. — Gender of Nouns.
1. L'orateur a beaucoup d'amis. 2. Le gar9on a un
bon chien et un mauvais cheval. 3. Le mois de mai est
un mois du printemps. 4. Le plaisir est souvent I'ennemi
de la raison. 5. Une ch6ne a beaucoup de feuilles. 6. Le
blanc et le noir sont deux couleurs opposees. 7. II y
a un juif a la porte. 8. 11 n'y a pas de lions dans I'Ame-
rique. 9. Je suis un malheureux FranQais. 10. ^tes-
vous fils de I'empereur ? 11. !fites-vous le fils de I'em-
EXEKCISES.
159
pereur ? 12. Y a-t-il du feu dans la maison ? 13. Avez-
vous le mal de dents ? 14. Non, monsieur, mais j'ai le
mal de t^te. 15. II est dangereux de conseiller les grands.
16. Ces peres de Teglise sont non-seulement des profes-
seurs eloquents (Sec. 76, N.), mais encore des hommes
politiques. ,
Vocabulary.
il n'y a pas, tliere is not, are not.
un orateur, an orator,
beaucoup de, much, many.
le printemps, Spring.
la couleur, color.
I'empereur, emperor,
malheureux, unhappy.
6tes- vous ? are you ?
oppose, opposite.
le juif, the Jew.
la porte, the door,
la maison, the house,
le t^te, the head,
dangereux, dangerous,
conseiller, to advise,
seulement, only.
le gar5on, the boy.
le chien, the dog.
le mois, the month
le plaisir, pleasure.
la feuille, the leaf,
blanc, white,
dans, in.
nolr, black.
deux, two.
le feu, fire.
le denf, the tooth.
le mal, evil, pain,
une eglise, a church,
le professeur, professor,
encore, more, still.
politique, wise, politic.
English into French.
1. Are you the son of the orator ? 2. Is he the unfor-
tunate Jew ? 3. What kind of leaves have you ? 4. Has
the emperor eaten some poison ? 5. Your brother is at
the door. 6. Are there any oaks in France ? 7. There
are many dogs and horses in London. 8. There are some
Jews in the garden.
i:ZERCIS£3 6.
Sec. 71. — Gender of Nouns continued.
1. La reine a une colombe. 2. Ma sceur a une rose, une
pomme, et une lis (Sec. 53, 3. 3. La corruption ducoeurest
sou vent la cause de la corruption des moeurs. 4. II n'y a
pas de poisson dans cette riviere. 5. Donnez cela a
160
JFKEXCn GKAMMAR.
rhomme, a la femme, aux filles, et aux gar9oiis. 6. Y
a-t-il beaucoup de monde dans la rue ? 7. L'eau de la
fontaine du pre, est-il bien bonne ? 8. Ma scour a de la
jalousie et de la paresse aussi. 9. Le chapeau du mon-
sieur est ici, sur une table. 10. Voici d'excellent fromage.
11. Ou est le chemin du chateau an village ? 12. Voici
la route. 13. De toutes les passions que les hommes op-
posent a la yerite, la jalousie est la plus dangereuse.
la sceur, sister.
la pomme, apple.
la lis, lily.
le ccBur, heart,
les mceurs, manners.
le poisson, fish.
la riviere, stream.
la fenune, woman.
la paresse, idleness.
le fromage, cheese.
Vocabulary.
souvent, often,
cette, this.
cela, that,
bien, very, well,
bonne, good, fine.
ici, here,
sur, upon, on.
ou, where,
opposent, oppose.
la plus, the most.
la fille, the girl.
le gar9on, the boy.
l'eau, water,
le pre, meadow.
la route, the way.
la verite, truth,
la jalousie, jealousy.
lafontaine,the spring,
la soeur, the .^ister.
que, that, which.
English into French.
1. Where is your candle ? 2. Where is the gentleman's
hat ? 3. It is in the meadow near (pret de) the spring.
4. Is truth often very dangerous ? 5. There is no jeal-
ousy in this woman's heart. 6. Are there any fish in the
house ? 7. The girl's sister has some excellent cheese.
EXERCISE 7.
Sees. 72-75. — Gender of Nouns continued.
1. Voici une orpheline pauvre. 2. Y a-t-il des Chretiens
en Afrique ? 3. Une menteuse, souvent enchanteresse,
est ton jours une vrai pecheresse. 4. L'aigle est le plus
fier des oiseaux qui volent dans I'air. 5. Combien d'ex-
emples avez-vous dans votre legon aujourd'hui ? 6. II
n'y a que trois dans mon livre. 7. Sur quel page sont-
ils ? 8. Allons a la poste avec les lettres de la poetesse.
9. N'avez-vous pas un souris pour moi ? 10. Oui, mon-
sieur, maijs mon voile est trds-epais. 11. Cette histoire n'est
qu'un coq-a-Pdne. Elle n'est pas vraie. 12. L'honneur
EXERCISES.
161
et la justice sont entierement bannis de ce monde. 13. Le
flambeau de la critique ne doit pas brtiler, mais eclairer.
tin orphelin, orphan.
le chretieiijCliristian.
le menteur, liar.
I'enchanteur, enclian-
ter.
le pecheur, sinner.
I'oiseau, bird.
I'air, the air.
le legon, lesson.
le lettre, letter.
le souris, the smile.
le voile, the veil.
coq-a-rine, cock-and-
bull story.
Vocabulary.
pauvre, poor,
toxijours, always,
le plus, the most.
fier, proud,
volent, fly.
qui, who, which,
combien, how.
aiyourd'hui, to-day.
ne — que, only,
trois, three,
men, my.
aliens, let us go.
avec, with,
oui, yes.
mais, but.
epais, thick,
vraie, true.
entierement, wholly,
bannis, banished.
doit, ought.
briiler, to burn,
eclairer, to illumi-
nate.
I'honneur, honor,
le flambeau, torch.
la critique, criticism.
le monde, world,
rhistoire, story.
English into French.
1. The orphan-boy has a she-bear for his friend. 2. Is
there often a princess who is also (anssi) a poetess ? 3. I
have a smile for you, sir, but you have not any beard.
4. There is a mouse in my uncle's house. 5. Where is
the tower ? 6. The alder-tree has many leaves. 7. Where
is the sentinel ? 8. He is in the king's garden, where
there is an intruder.
EXERCISE 8.
Sees. 76-7. — Number of Nouns.
1. La vache aime les choux. 2. Avez-vous du feu dans
votre maison. 3. Combien de fils, votre ami a-t-il ? 4. Les
yeux de Dieu sont partout. 5. Je n'aime pas le detail.
6. Les chevaux sont tres-utiles. 7. Vous avez trois eglises
dans votre ville. 8. Les vents du midi sont chauds. 9. Les
etoiles sont Tornement des cieux. 10. J'ai vu le beau
ciel d'ltalie. 11. Voici du betail. Nos bestiaux sont sur
la montagne. 12. Dieu a I'oeil partout. 13. Nous avons
vu les funerailles d'une dame tres-riche. 14. II y a peu
de difference entre les moeurs anglaises et les americaines.
163
FRENCH GRAMMAR.
15. J'ai vu les cMteaux et les palais. 16. La fierte d'ua
grand nom rend ses maux plus per9ans. 17. Le temps ou
la mort sont nos remedes.
j*aime, I like (love),
tu aimes, thou lovest.
Vocabulary,
il aime, lie loves.
elle aime, she loves.
aime-t-il ? does he
love?
aime-t-elle ? does she
love ?
la vache, the cow.
le chou, cabbage.
le feu, fire.
un ami, a friend.
un ceil, an eye.
Dieu, God.
le detail, details.
retoile, the star.
la fierte, pride.
le temps, time.
le cheval, horse.
le vent, wind.
le ciel, heaven, sky.
le betail, cattle.
la montagne, moun-
tain.
les funerailles, fune-
ral.
la dame, lady.
les moeurs, manners.
le nom, name.
la mort, death.
partout, everywhere.
riche, rich.
tres, very.
peu, little.
entre, between.
vn, seen.
rend, makes, renders.
ses, his, her, its.
per9ant, piercing.
nos, our.
la remede, remedy.
English into French.
1. I have two brothers and three sisters. 2. Have you
the corals and the enamels ? 3. Does he like horses and also
jewels ? 4. We have the children on our knees. 5. The
cow has seen our cabbages. 6. I have seen your labors.
7. Are there jackals in America ? 8. There are no reme-
dies.
EXERCISE 9.
Sees. 78-80. — ^Number of Nouns continued.
1. Y a-t-il des arcs-en-ciel ? 2. Aimes-tu les beaux-
freres de ma mdre ? 3. Les chefs-d'oeuvre de Michel-
Ange (Sec. 40) sont a Rome. 4. Les parapluies sont des
compagnons tr^s-utiles en Ecosse. 5. Les passeports sont
demandes en France par les gendarmes. 6. lis ont deux
ou trois essuie -mains. 7. Les enfans ont les pleurs fa-
ciles. 8. Donnez-moi deux demi-livres, une de sucre,
I'autre de cafe. 9. Les Jesuites ont plus d'arriere-pensees
dans Fesprit que de paroles dana la bouche. 10. Les plai-
EXERCISES.
163
sirs ainsi que les peines troublent rdme.
exemple tire des papiers anglais.
Vocabulary.
11. Voici un
arc-en-ciel (bow-in-sky), rainbow,
beau-frere (fine-brother), brotlier-
in-law.
chef-d'oeuvre (chief of work),
masterpiece,
parapluie (for rain), umbrella,
passeport (pass gate), passport,
gendarme (man of arms), police.
Ecosse, Scotland,
pleurs, tears.
le Sucre, sugar.
I'autre, other.
le cafe, coffee.
I'esprit, mind.
le parole, word.
la bouche, mouth.
le plaisir, pleasure.
la peine, pain.
arriere-pensee (back-thought),
reservation,
essuie-main (wipe-hands), towel,
ainsi que, as well as.
demi-livre, half-pound,
troublent, disturb,
tire, taken.
le papier, paper,
exemple, instance,
facile, ready, easy.
English into French.
1. Where are your (vos) towels ? 2. The stars of the
sky are one of God's masterpieces. 3. Do children have
(children have thej) tears always ready ? 4. Do you have
many reservations m your words ? 5. Where is my mother's
umbrella ? 6. Your passports are on the table or in your
hat. 7. Give me some sugar for (pour) my brother's
children, also some paper.
EXERCISE 10.
Sees. 81-2. — Case of Nouns.
1. Je distingue, d I'horizon, la fumee d'un bateau d va-
peur. 2. L'eau de fontaine est dangereuse en ete. 3. Merci
de la genealogie ! 4. Bonne reussite ! bon voyage, mon
ami. 5. Un honnete homme et un noble projet vont tou-
jours figure decouverte (Dumas). 6. Sa probite I'a rendu
I'arbitre de tons ses voisins. 7. Le roi I'a nomme ministre
des affaires etrangeres. 8. II a invente cette histoire.
9. Elle vend ce secret (Sec. 39, 2, N.) mille louis d'or a
Fouche. 10. II a passe I'ete a la campagne. 11. Un juge,
I'an passe, me prit a son service. 12. AUez tout le long
164
FRESrCH GRAMMAR.
de la prairie. 13. II va ton jours son chemin. 14. Les
langnes mortes et les vivantes ont presque tontes une
grande analogie. 15. II dormit d'nn sommeil calme.
je vais, I go.
tu vas, thou goest.
il va, lie goes.
Vocabulary.
nous aliens, we go.
vous allez, you go.
ils vont, they go.
va-t-il ? does lie go?
allez-vous? are you
going?
vont-ils ? are they
going?
la fumee, smoke.
le bateau, boat.
la vapeur, steam.
la genealogie, geneal-
ogy.
la figure, face.
la probite, upright-
ness.
I'arbitre, arbiter.
le voisin, neighbor.
le ministre, minister.
les affaires, business.
le chemin, road.
le sommeil, sleep.
le voyage, journey.
la reussite, success.
le projet, project.
la campagne, field.
distingue, perceive.
dangereuse, danger-
ous.
merci ! spare 1
honnete, honest.
decouverte, discov-
ered.
rendu, rendered.
tout, all.
ses, their, his, her.
nomme, named.
etranger, foreign.
mille, 1000.
invente, invented.
cette, this, that.
vend, sells.
English into French.
passe, passed, past.
le, him, it.
me, me.
prit, took.
le langue, language.
I'ete, summer.
bonne, good.
rami, friend.
louis d'or, gold piece.
le juge, judge.
mort, dead.
vivant, living.
presque, almost.
dormit, slept.
calme, calm.
le long, the length.
1. Have you anj spring- water ? 2. No, sir, we are go-
ing to the spring in the meadow. 3. I perceive in the road
the minister of foreign affairs. 4. Steamboats are dan-
gerous but useful also. 5. The king is the friend of the
judge. 6. Are we going the whole length of the prairie ?
7. No, sir, my friend is dead.
EXERCISE 11.
Sees. 83-85. — Gender of Adjectives.
1. Nous avons des anneaux d'or massif, et des boutons
de metal jaune. 2. Votre cheval, est-il tres-vif ? 3. Non,
EXEKCISES.
165
mais ma jument est tr^s-vive. 4. Le temps est doux ; la
chaleur du soleil est tres-douce. 5. J'ai envie d'une robe
bleue. 6. Tous les citoyens sont eganx devant la loi.
7. Les etoiles de la Grande-Ourse sont des astres boreaux.
8. J'eiitends deja Baldus, ce pedant froid et sec, Qui
mache a tout propos du latin. 9. Voila une fleur gentille,
n'est-ce pas ? 10. Non, monsieur, mais votre bouquet est
gen til. 11. Aimez-vous les phrases ambigues ?
massif, solid.
jaune, yellow.
vif, quick, lively,
doux, sweet.
bleu, blue,
egal, equal,
boreal, northern,
froid, cold,
sec, dry.
gentil, nice,
un anneau, a ring.
I'or, gold.
Vocabulary.
le boutou, button,
le cheval, horse,
le metal, metal.
la jument, mare.
le temps, weather,
la chaleur, heat,
le soleil, sun.
I'envie, desire.
la robe, dress.
le citoyen, citizen,
la loi, law.
I'etoile, the star.
English into French.
I'astre, constella-
tion.
I'ours, the bear,
le latin, Latin.
la fleur, flower,
devant, before,
j'entends, I hear,
deja, already,
mache, mumbles,
propos, occasion.
est-ce ? is it ?
1. Where is my father's big dog ? 2. I desire some very
nice flowers. 3. Are all men and women equal before the
law ? 4. Here is a solid gold ring. 5. Where is the cold
and dry pedant who mumbles Latin ? 6. Their buttons
are of solid metal. 7. My mare is very pretty and also
quick. 8. Do you like the sun's heat ? 9. Your bouquet
is dry, is it not ? 10. You have a blue dress, have you
not ? 11. You do not mumble Latin, do you ?
EXERCISI! 12.
Sees. 86-90. — Gender of Adjectives, and Number.
1. Qui a mon nouveau crayon ? 2. Nous donnons une
rose blanche a la soeur de I'actrice. 3. La chair du cliien
n'est pas bon a manger. 4. Vieux soldat, vielle bete c'est
une proverbe. 5. Ce vin est frais, cette eau n'est pas
fraiche. 6. Vous etes fou si vous avez ce fol espoir, car
166
FEEKCH GRAMMAR.
c'est line folle idee. 7. J'ai un nouvel eventail, un nou-
veau manteau, et une nouA^elle ombrelle. 8. La nation
franque etait belliqueuse. 9. Le coeur etouilait les objec-
tions timides de Tesprit. 10. II y a des lieros en mal
comme en bien.
nouveau, new.
blanc, white.
bdte, stupid,
frais, fresh,
fou, foolish,
belliqueux, warlike,
timide, timid.
mal, ill, bad.
bien, well.
Vocabulary.
le crayon, pencU.
la chair, flesh,
le chien, dog,
le soldat, soldier,
le vin, wine.
I'espoir, hope.
I'idee, idea.
I'eventail, fan.
le manteau, cloak.
I'esprit, mind.
le heros (Sec.
hero,
qui, who.
manger, eat.
fetait, was.
etouflfait, stifled,
comme, as, like.
45),
English into French.
1. The flesh of the horse is not bad to eat. 2. It is" my
sister who has some fresh wine. 3. You are very stupid
if you have that silly idea. 4. His heart was timid in evil.
5. He stifled his foolish objections. 6. Are you a hero in
good or in evil ? 7. Where is your father's old horse ?
8. Who has my (ma) new white rose ?
EXERCISE 13.
Sees. 91-94. — Agreement and Position of Adjectives.
1. Le fer donne aux vegetaux et aux animaux les cou-
leurs rouges et bleus. 2. La musique et le dessin sont
tres-amusantes. 3. L'humilite est la base des vertus chre-
tiennes. 4. Je n'aime pas les personnes qui sont cruelles
envers les animaux. 5. Les liens conjuganx sont sacres.
6. Oe chien est mon fidele ami. 7. Le bien i)ul)lic est
preferable d I'interet particulier. 8. II y a deux heures
et demie. 9. II est nu-tete et nu-jambes. 10. Mon frero
a les pieds nues. 11. Je vous donne les deux lettres
ci-incluses. 12. Les maisons qui sont proches de la
ville sont sujettes aux inondations. 13. Ces etoffes sont
belles, aussi colitent-elles cher. 14. Me preservent les
EXEECISES.
167
cieux d'une nouvelle guerre
avez !
15. Quel noble cceur vous
rouge, red.
amusant, amusing.
Chretien, Christian,
cruel, cruel,
sacre, sacred,
fidele, faithful,
particulier, private,
demi, half,
nu, naked,
inclus, enclosed,
proche, near,
sujet, subject.
Vocabulary.
cher, dear,
le fer, iron,
le vegetal, vegetable.
I'animal, animal,
la couleur, color.
la musique, music,
le dessin, drawing,
la vertu, virtue.
le lien, bond.
le bien, the good.
I'inter^t, interest.
la tdte, head.
la jambe, leg.
le pied, foot,
le lettre, letter.
la maison, house.
I'etoflfe, stuff.
la guerre, war.
aussi, also,
coiitent, cost,
preservent, preserve.
de, from, of.
quel, how, what a.
envers, toward, to.
English into French.
1. Does your brother love new books ? 2. I do not love
a boy who is cruel to animals. 3. The man, the horse,
the dog, are all ready. 4. We are going to the house
with naked feet. 5. Are you going to the city bare-
foot ? 6. My uncle's horse has white legs. 7. We give an
hour and a half of time. 8. There is a little man in the
road.
EXERCISE 14.
Sees. 95-98.— Comparison of Adjectives, &c.
1. Le chien, est-il plus fort que le loup ? 2. L'ane est
moins beau que le cheval. 3. Mon plus grand plaisir c'est
la peche ou la nage. 4. Plus nous avons besoin de gens
pour nous servir, moins nous sommes heureux. 5. Les
hommes les plus savants ne sont pas toujours les plus
vertueux. 6. L'homme est plus puissant, plus sacre que
la loi (Voltaire). 7. Les faux patriotes sont plus tyrans
que les peres despotes. 8. Ces orphelins sont d'autant
plus a plaindre qu'ils n'ont personne au monde. 9. Les
mouches sont on ne pent plus desagreable. 10. Je ne
suis pas si fou que de vous croire.
168
FREI^'CH GRAMMAR.
Vocabulary.
fort, strong,
plus, more,
que, than, as.
heureux, happy,
savant, wise,
vertueux, virtuous,
puissant, powerful,
faux, false,
desagreable, unpleas-
ant,
grand, great.
le loup, wolf.
I'ane, the ass.
le plaisir, pleasure.
la peche, fishing.
la nage, swimming.
le besoin, need,
les gens, people.
la loi, the law.
la patriote, patriot.
le despote, despot.
I'orphelin, orphan.
d'autant plus, so much the more,
a plaindre, to be pitied.
on ne pent plus, as possible (one
ne-personne, no
one.
le monde, world,
le tyran, tyrant.
la mouche, the fly.
pour, in order to.
servir, serve,
moins, less,
toujovirs, always.
croire, believe.
can't more).
English into French.
1. Is the flesh of the horse good to eat ? 2. It is better
than the flesh of the dog. 3. Do you like fishing ? 4. Yes,
but swimming is the best. 5. Despotic tyrants are often
cruel to the people. 6. The ass is so much the more to be
pitied because he is not so beautiful as the horse. 7. Are
you so foolish as to believe the false patriots ? 8. Is not
the tyrant as disagreeable as possible ?
EXERCISE 15.
Sees. 99-100. — Numerals and Expressions of Size.
1. II y a plus de deux cent quatre-vingt quinze per-
sonnes dans la rue. 2. J'ai vingt-trois ans. 3. La grande
muraille a le nord de la Chine a environ quinze cent milles
de longueur. 4. Sur la riche couronne de sa majeste il y
a une grosse 6meraude de sept pouces de tour, la plus belle
du monde. 5. Les tours de I'eglise Notre-Dame a Paris
sont hautes de 250 pieds. 6. Vous dtes plus petite que Ini
de toute la t^te. 7. J'ai regu cent dix couteaux, cent
vingt canifs, et mille quarante plumes. 8. Vous avez un
cent d'huitres. 9. J'ai deux metres de drap. 10. Trois
cents Turcs sont tues. 11. La reine Victoria monta au
tr6ne d'Angleterre, I'an mil huit cent trente-sept.
EXEKCISES.
169
Vocabulary.
un an, a year.
la rue, tlie street.
la muraille, wall.
le nord, north.
la Chine, China,
la longueur, length.
la couronne, crown.
I'emeraude, emerald
1 e p o u c e, inch
(thumb).
I'eglise, church,
le pied, foot.
le couteau, knife.
le canif, pen-knife.
la plume, pen.
une huitre, oyster,
le metre, yard,
le drap, cloth.
English into French.
le tr6ne, throne,
plus de, more than,
environ, about,
gros, large,
petit, small, short,
toute, all.
re9u, received,
tues, killed,
monta, mounted.
Angleterre, England.
1. How long is your house? 2. It is 97 feet long and 73
feet wide. 3. Napoleon III. died in 1873. 4. I have been
(am) here 21 days. 5. How many (combien de) Frenchmen
were killed ? 305. 6. How many yards of cloth have you ?
69. 7. When did Napoleon mount .the throne ? 1851.
EXERCISE 16.
Sees. 101-106. — Expressions of Age and Time. — Cardinal
Numbers.
1. Le pape Pie neuf est Tennemi de Tempereur Guil-
laume trois. 2. Je suis dans ma vingt et unieme annee.
3. Louis est le dix-huiti^me de sa classe, et Jules est le
dernier. 4. Quelle heure est-il ? 5. II est midi et demi.
6. C'esfc aujourd'hui le premier Janvier. 7. La semaine
est la cinquante-deuxieme partie de I'annee. 8. Avez-vous
le deuxieme volume de Fhistoire d'Angleterre, par Macau-
lay ? 9. Donnez-moi une livre et demie de sucre. 10. Vous
avez les trois quarts de cette orange. 11. Eomulus fut le
premier, Numa le second roi de Rome. 12. Quel quan-
tieme avons-nous aujourd'hui ?
le pape, the pope.
I'annee, year.
la classe, class.
le dernier, last.
rheiire, hour.
Vocabulary.
Janvier, January.
la semaine, week.
le quart, quarter,
aiyourd'hui, to-day.
la partie, part, frac-
tion.
par, by.
quantieme, day of the
month,
quel, quelle, which,
what.
170
FKEi^CH GRAMMAR.
English into French.
1. How many weeks are there in a year ? 52. 2. Give
me 56^- yards of cloth. 3. Kapoleou III. died in 1873.
4. It is the 31st day of the month. 5. What time is it ?
Half -past twelve at night. 6. What day of the month is
it ? January 27th. 7. The first week in January.
EXERCISE 17.
Sees. 107-109. — Personal Pronouns.
1. Donnez-moi mon chapeau. 2. Je te le donne. 3. II
me le donne. 4. Je le lui donne. 5. Vous ne me le don-
nez pas. 6. Avez-vous le fusil ? Oui, je I'ai. 7. Oii sont
les essuie-mains ? 8. Nous ne les avons pas. 9. M'aimez-
Tous Marie ? Oui, je t'aime. 10. Nous vous disons ce que
nous pensons. 11. Elle ne nous ecrit pas souvent. 12. Plus
une chose est difiicile, plus il est honorable. 13. Elle se
donne du plaisir. 14. lis s'entre-parlent. 15. Je te le dis
du fond de mon ca3ur. 16. La revolution I'a fait a son
image. 17. L' Amour est cclui de tons les dieux qui salt
le mieux le chemin du Parnasse.
Vocabulary.
Verb dire, ' to say,' Present Indicative.
je dis, I say.
tu dis, thou sayest.
il dit, he says.
elle dit, slie says.
le fusil, the gun.
pensons, we think.
ce que, that which.
fait, made,
parlent, they talk.
nous disons, we say. I dit-il ? says he ?
vous dites, you say. dites-vous ? say you ?
ils disent, they say. I dit-elle ? says she ?
elles disent, " " j dis-je ? do I say ?
ecrit, writes.
souvent, often.
la chose, the thing.
celui, the one.
le plaisir, pleasure.
entre, between,
le fond, bottom,
tons, all.
sait, knows.
English into French.
1. Are you giving it to me ? 2. He is giving himself
pleasure. 3. We are saying it to one another. 4. I am
older than you by ten years. 5. Do you love the cliikl ?
Yes, I love him. 6. I love her. I do not love her (liim,
it). 7. Where is the gun, Mary ? I am saying to you
EXEKCISES.
171
where it is (telling). 8. Are all honorable things difficult ?
Yes, they are the most difficult.
EXEROISI] 18.
Sec. 110. — Personal Pronouns continued.
1. Avez-vous quelques verites a dire aux rois, ne lesleur
dites pas. 2. Un ecrivain qui s'aime, forme tous ses heros
semblables a soi-meme (Boileau). 3. N'allons point nous
appliquer a nous-memes les traits d'une censure generale
(Moliere). 4. !fites-vous la soeur de mon oncle ? Oui, je
la suis. Oui, je le suis. 5. II est, il est encore des mortels
genereux. 6. II me vient une idee. 7. Pourquoi done
vient-il par ici tant de jeunes gentilshommes ? (V. Hugo).
8. Les objets de nos Yoeux le sont de nos plaisirs (Oor-
neille). 9. II est de grands hommes qui ne le sont que
par des vertus. 10. Cette f emme est belle, et le sera long-
temps. 11. Je me regarde comme la mere de cet enfant ;
je la suis de coeur, je la suis par ma tendresse pour lui
(Academy.)
Vocabulary.
la verite, truth.
1' ecrivain, writer.
le trait, feature,
gentilhomme, gentle-
man,
le voeu, vow.
la tendresse, tender-
quelque, some,
dire, to say.
forme, forms,
semblable, similar,
appliquer, apply,
genereux, generous,
vient, comes.
pourquoi, why.
done, then,
tant, so many.
par, by.
longtemps, long,
ici, here,
ne— que, only.
English into French.
1. Are you the mother of this child ? I am. 2. There
is coming here a very old man. 3. Is he a great man ?
He is (so). 4. Are the features of the censure general or
special ? (particulier). 5. How many gentlemen are there
in the garden ? 95. 6. Your friend is a great man ; but
he is only so by his virtues.
EXERCISE 19.
Sees. 111-113. — Personal Pronouns continued.
1. Je suis plus grand que toi, qu'elle. 2. Qui est ici,
172
FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Ini ou elle ? C'est moi. 3. Mon frcre et eux sont ici.
4. Je suis mille'fois plus criminel que lui (Racine). 5. Eux
seuls sont exempt de la loi commune. 6. Ce n'est pas moi,
dit-il, c'est lui. 7. Toi et moi, nous sommes bons amis.
8. Moi, Je suis americain. 9. Qui parle ? Eux. 10. La
vertu est aimable en soi. 11. Les ajiiiants sont entre eux
un peuple bien bizarre. 12. Vos chevaux ont faim. Don-
nez-leur du foin. 13. On aime les autres rarement plus
que soi. 14. fortune ! tu fais de nous un jeu. 15. Y
a-t-il des corps subtils en soi ? 16. Chacun ne songe plus
qu'a soi (Rousseau).
Vocabulary.
la fois, the time.
I'apiant, lover,
le peuple, people.
le faim, hunger,
le foin, hay.
I'autre, the other.
le jeu, game, sport.
le corps, body.
que, than,
criminel, criminal,
seul, only, alone,
commune, common,
aimable, lovely,
bizarre, queer, odd.
entre, between,
among.
on, one, people.
rarement, rarely.
fais, do.
j subtil, light, subtle.
I chacun, each one.
English into French.
1. Are you giving it to me ? 2. Do not give it to him.
3. Your dog is hungry. Give him some water. 4. She
and I do good to each other. 5. We are the sport of for-
tune. 6. Do you love others more than yourself ? 7. Who
is more criminal than they ? Than we ?
EXSRCISE 20.
Sees. 114-116. — Personal Pronouns continued.
1. Dieu vient de I'appeler a lui. 2. Je ne vous fais pas
des reproches frivoles. 3. De qui parlez vous ? Je leur
parle, je parle d'elle, je parle a elle. 4. Je desire vous
acheter votre chien ; vendez-le-moi. 5. II desire votre
chien. Ne le lui donnez-pas. 6. Je vous le donne pour
six francs. 7. Je donne plus que vous et qu'elle. 8. Votre
montre est magnifique ; vendez-la moi. 9. Mon avocat et
moi, nous sommes de cet avis. 10. Moi seul a votre
amour ai su la conserver. 11. Mon pere est endormi. Ne
le parlez pas. 12. II n'a rien a lui ; tout est a ses amis
(Lamennais). 13. Un bienfait porte sa recomjiense en
EXERCISES.
173
soi (Acad.)- 14. L' Anglais porte partout sa patrie avec
lui (St. Pierre). 15. Fussent-ils innocent, leur trouvera
des crimes (Racine). 16. Qui plus de moi desire vous voir
une volonte ferme.
vient de (comes from),
has just.
appeler, to call,
fais, make, do.
acheter, buy.
porte, carries.
la patrie, country.
Vocabulary.
trouvera, will find,
vendez, sell,
la montre, the watch,
magnifique, magnifi-
cent.
le bienfait, the favor.
avec, with.
la volonte, the will,
avis, opinion, advice,
seul, alone,
endormi, asleep,
partout, everywhere,
fussent, were they,
ferme, firm.
English into French.
1. Are you giving me your horses and your dogs ? I
give them to you. 2. We are the sport of fortune.
3. God has just called him to heaven. 4. Do not make
frivolous reproaches to me. 5. I am giving more money
than you and thou and he and she. 6. Sell me your horse.
Here are thirty francs. 7. Do not sell him to him or to
her or to them, but give him to us. 8. I am not speaking
of him or of her. 9. Will he find crimes for them ? Has
he a firm will ?
EXERCISE 21.
Sees. 117-118. — Possessive Pronouns.
1. J'aime vos grands et vos petits enfans. 2. Ma tante,
ou etes-vous ? Je suis dans ma chambre. 3. Avez-vous
un de mes livres ? 4. Monsieur votre pere, est-il ^ la
maison ? 5. Madame votre epouse, oii est-elle ? 6. Je
I'aime comme mon propre frere. 7. Quel malheur est le
notre ! 8. Mais j'ai les miens, la cour, le peuple, a con-
tenter. 9. Voici une de mes nieces, que je vous presente.
10. II est douloureux de se separer de ses amis, quand
c'est pour un long voyage. 11. J'ai vu Londres ; ses pa-
lais, ses eglises, ses ecoles, ses monuments n'ont rien
d'extraordinaire. 12. Je n'ai pas vendu du leur, mais j'ai
vendu du votre, et nn pen du mien. 13. Notre merits
174 . FREKCH GRAMMAR.
nous attire la loiiange des lionnetes gens, et notre etoile
celle du public (La Eochefoucauld).
Vocabulary.
la chambre, cliamber, room,
une epouse, wife, spouse,
propre, own, proper,
le malheur, misfortune,
une ecole, school,
le merite, merit,
contenter, satisfy.
presente, introduce,
vendu, sold.
la cour, court.
le peuple, people.
la niece, niece.
le voyage, journey.
la louange, praise.
une etoile, star.
douloureux, painful.
separer, to separate.
les miens, my own (people).
English into French.
1. Are your children large or small ? 2. Where is your
uncle ? He is in the garden. 3. One of my aunts is ill.
4. Our misfortunes are great. 5. It is i)ainful to be
separated from one's own friends. 6. Have you seen the
palaces and churches of Paris ? Are they extraordinary ?
EXERCISS 22.
Sees. 119-120.— Demonstrative Pronouns "Ce" and "Celui"
1. Quel est ce cri ? 2. Cette femme est capricieuse.
3. Les maladies de I'esprit sont plus dangereuses que celles
du corps. 4. Qui sont ceux qui pretendent a cette place?
5. Celle-ci me coute dix mille francs, et celle-la douze
mille. 6. Get enfant que vous voyez au bout de ce peu-
plier, c'est Jules. 7. Le moment du peril est celui du
courage. 8. Qui trahit son pays, celui-la est infame.
9. Ces livres sont ceux que j'aime taut. 10. L'ame et le
corps out une role bien different ; celle-la commande, et
celui-ci obeit. 11. Voici mon jiarapluie et celui de ma
soeur. 12. Cirez mes souliers et ceux de mon ami.
13. Ceux qui connaissent la race romaine ceux-la sentiront
le recit de Tite-Live (Michelet).
Vocabulary.
le cri, the cry.
la maladie, disease.
I'esprit, mind.
le corps, body,
le franc, franc.
le bout, end, base.
EXESCISES. 175
le peuplier, ppplar.
le peril, danger.
le pays, country.
la r6le, part, role.
le Soulier, slioe.
le recit, narrative.
Tite-liive, Livy.
capricieuse, capricious.
coute, costs,
trahit, betrays,
iiofame, infamous,
tant, so much,
obeit, obeys.
cirez, black, polish,
connaissent, know,
sentiront, will feel, enjoy.
English into French.
1. Who is it that betrays his country ? 2. He who is
infamous. 3. What is good often costs much. 4. This
is yours, but I have sold my own. 5. This poplar is 159
years old. 6. She who is capricious is unfortunate. 7. The
history of Livy is the one I like so much.
EXERCISE 23.
Sec. 121.— The Neuter Demonstrative " Ce."
1. Ce que je crains le plus, c'est le trahison. 2. Ne
faites pas cela ! 3. Oe qui coute pen est trop cher quand
il n'est d'aucun usage. 4. Je sais qui c'est. 5. Ce qui
I'arrete, c'est la peur. 6. Voila ce que j'aime. 7. Oeci
est pour vous et cela pour moi. 8. Ce n'etait pas un leger
fardeau que I'episcopat (Chateaubriand). 9. C'est etre
criminel que d'etre miserable. 10. C'est a vous, mon
esprit, a qui je veux parler (Boileau). 11. Ce n'est de ces
sortes de respects dont je vous parle. 12. Celui qui dit
qu'il connait Dieu et ne garde pas ses commandemens,
c'est un menteur (Bossuet). 13. Ce qu'on souffre avec le
moins de patience, ce sont les perfidies, les trahison s, les
noirceurs. 14. Avez-vous vendu de notre ble on du leur ?
15. J'ai vendu du votre. 16. Chaque science a ses prin-
cipes.
Vocabulary.
le trahison, treason.
I'usage, use.
la peur, fear.
le fardeau, burden.
le respect, consideration.
le menteur, liar,
la perfidie, perfidy,
la noire eur, foul deed,
le ble, wheat.
le principe, principle.
176 FKEN"CH GKAMMAE.
je craina, I fear.
vous faites, you do.
il coiite, he, it costs.
il arr^te, he, it stops,
il etait, he, it was.
je veux, I wish. .
qui, who.
^tre, to be.
quand, when.
pour, for.
parler, to speak,
aucun, any.
il connait, he knows,
il garde, he keeps.
il soufiEire, he suffers.
je s£ds, I know,
trop, too, too much,
char, dear.
leger, light.
peu, little.
dent, of which.
English into French.
1. That which is good often costs much. 2. Is this
wheat yours or mine ? 3. Tliis science costs more than
that. 4. It is to you tliat I am telling this. 5. Of what
kind of considerations does he speak ? 6. Treason is not
a light burden. 7. What do you fear most, perfidy or
dark deeds ? 8. I know the principles of that science.
EXERCISE 24.
Sees. 122-123. — Interrogative Pronouns, " Quel, Qui, Que,
Quoi"
1. De qui est-ce que vous rirez tant ? 2. Pour qui, un
avare, amasse-t-il d^s richesses. 3. Que sont les hommes
devant Dieu ? 4. A quoi pensez-vous ? 5. J'ignore quoi,
oil, et comment. 6. Quelle heure est-il ? 7. Quelle folie
d'agir ainsi ! 8. A qui est ce parapluie-la ? 9. A quoi
sert d'avoir un roi ? (Fenelon). 10. Que sert la politique ?
11. Moi, que je lui prononce un arr^t si severe ! (Racine).
12. Que veux-tu que nous fassions ? 13. A. qui done
veux-tu que ce soit ? 14. Mais que veux-tu qui nous
arrive de pis ? 15. Que la terre est petite a qui la voit
des cieux ! (Delille). 16. Que les moeurs du pays ou vous
vivez sont saintes, qui arrachent a Fattentat des plus vils
esclaves ! (Montesquieu).
Vocabulary.
que, like the English * that,' maybe a conjunction as well a pronoun.
Tavare, miser. I una heure, an hour. 1 la politique, policy,
richesses, riches. | la folie, folly. | politics.
EXEKCISES.
177
un arr^t, judgment.
la terre, earth,
les cieux, sky.
le pays, country.
I'esclave, slave.
I'attentat, attempt,
avoir, to liave.
vous rirez.you laugh.
il amasse.hepilesup.
agir, to do, act.
vous pensez, you
think.
j 'ignore, I am igno-
rant.
nous fassions, w e
should do.
ils arrachent, they
take away.
vous vivez, you live.
11 sert, it is of use.
tu veux,thou wishest,
il voit, he sees.
devant, before,
comment, how.
ainsi, thus,
severe, severe,
pis, worse,
saint, holy.
vil, vile, base.
English, into French.
1. To whom are you speaking ? 2. Who is there wlio
has no principles ? 3. Who is the greatest miser in tlie
world ? 4. Of what use is a slave ? 5. Whom do you
love ? 6. What do you like ? 7. What are you laughing
so much about ? 8. What do I wish you and her to do ?
rll-^
EXERCISE 25.
Sec. 124. — Interrogatives, "Lequel, Que'st-ce," &c.
1. Lequel de vos fils est malade ? 2. Auquel de ces
ecoliers donnez-vous le prix ? 3. Lequel est le plus heu-
reux dans ce monde, du sage avec sa raison, ou du devot
dans son delire ? (Rousseau). 4. Apres cela tu jugeras
toi-meme, lequel vaut mieux de ce que tu dis, ou de ce que
tu fais. 5. Qui est-ce que vous demandez ? 6. Qu'est-ce
qui vous fait mal ? 7. Laquelle de ces dames est votre
epouse ? 8. Est-ce votre desir d'aller par la ? Oui ce Test.
9. Qu'est-ce que vous voulez que je vous donne ? 10. Est-ce
un autel aux dieux des champs ? 11. II a ete vole la nuit ;
mais aussi pourquoi n'a-t-il personne pour garder sa mai-
son ? (Acad.) 12. Que m'importe quel est le faible ou le
puissant ? (Dumas). 13. Que faites-vous la ? 14. En quel
etat sont les choses ?
Vocabulary.
Verb Faire, 'to do,' present tense.
je fais, I do, make.
tu fais, thou doest.
il fait, he does.
nous faisons, we do.
vous faites, you do.
ils font, they do.
elles font, they do.
elle fait, she does.
fait-il? does he?
178
FREKCH GEAMMAE.
Tecolier, scholar,
le prix, prize, price.
le sage, wise man.
la raison, reason.
la dame, lady.
I'autel, altar.
le champ, field.
la nuit, night.
la chose, thing.
le fils, son.
le devot, devotee.
le delire, extacy.
le desir, desire,
voulez, you wish,
vole, robbed,
aussi, also.
pourquoi, why.
garder, watch.
English into French..
il importe, it matters,
faible, weak,
puissant, powerful,
la, there.
I'etat, state.
jugeras, shalt judge.
il vaut, it is worth,
oui, yes.
mal, harm.
1. Which of your dogs is the largest ? 2. Which one
of these gentlemen is your father ? 3. The one of those
coats which I like best is the bhie one. 4. What are ihey
doing here? 5. Who is the god of the fields? 6. Has he
an altar there? 7. It matters not to me which one you
have.
EXERCISE 26.
Sees. 126-128. — Relative Pronouns.
1. Le mensonge est un vice pour lequel on a beaucoup
d'horreur. 2. II ne faut pas tenir les promesses qui sont
nuisibles d ceux a qui on les fait. 3. Monsieur Pierre,
avec le fusil duquel {or de qui) je chasse, est malade.
4. Le temps que nous perdrons est irreparable. 5. J'aime
les chiens qui sont fideles, et le chat qui prend les souris.
6. Ce sont eux qui ont froid. 7. II faut donncr a chacun
le sien. 8. Un jour sur les evenemens duq\iel il faut jcter
une voile. 9. Celui qui amasse les richesses, ne sait pas
pour qui il les amasse. 10. Ceux qui se con tentent de ])eu
sont heureux. 11. Mais nem'es tu pas fiancee ? Je le suis.
12. Si vous ^tes bavarde, votre frere ne Test pas moins.
il faut, it is necessary,
you must.
le mensonge, lie, ly-
ing.
la promesse, promise.
Pierre, Peter.
Vocabulary.
le fusil, gun.
le chat, cat.
la souris, mouse.
le froid, cold,
tenir, to hold,
fideles, faithful.
perdrons, we shall
lose,
chacun, each one.
fiancee, affianced,
horreur, horror.
le jour, day.
EXERCISES.
179
I'evenement, event.
la voile, veil.
le peu, little.
bavarde, loquacious.
beaucoup, much,
nuisible, injurious.
11 chassej lie hunts.
il prend, he takes,
catches.
Jeter, to throw,
de, with,
lis contentent,
content.
they
English into French.
1. What is the cat good for ? She catches the mice
which eat our bread. 2. With whose gun are you hunt-
ing ? 3. With that of my friend Peter, who is also a lo-
quacious person. 4. For whom does the miser amass
riches ? Often for those whom he does not love.
EXERCISE 27.
Sees. 129-131.— The Substantive Relative.—" Dont," and
"On."
1. Le petit garpon dont le pere est mort est maintenant
chez nous. 2. Apres I'existence de Dieu, il n'y a rien
dont je doute moins que de I'immort'alite de Fame. 3. Oe
que j 'admire le plus dans I'elephant, c'est cette pompe dont
il saisit sa nourriture. 4. Ce qui est beau a voir, c'est la
chute du Niagara. 5. Qu'est-ce que c'est qu'un peuple
en furie? (V. Hugo). 6. Insense que j'etais, de croire a
leur bonne foi! (Acad.). 7. Le fripon qu'il etait, m'em-
porte dix mille francs (Acad.). 8. Voihi ce que c'est.
9. Fuir n'est un deshonneur que pour ceux dont on pent
soup9onner la valeur (Orebillon). 10. C'est une grace ou
je n'osais pretendre. 11. Par ou reussira-t-il ?
mort, dead,
chez, with,
doute, doubt,
moins, less.
saisit, grasps,
voir, to see.
croire, believe.
Vocabulary.
fuir, run away,
maintenant, now.
soup9onner, expect,
pretendre, pretend,
reussira, will succeed,
insense, senseless.
emporte, carry off.
osais, should dare,
la nourriture, food,
la chute, fall.
la furie, rage.
le fripon, rogue.
la valeur, courage.
la grace, grace.
English into French.
1. Who does not admire the fall of Niagara, whose
height is 198 feet. 2. Rogue that he is, he will not sue-
180
FEENCH GRAMMAR.
ceed. 3. The lady wliose child is dead is very unfortunate.
4. How foolish you are, to believe in the good faith of
that loquacious fellow !
EXERCISE 28.
Sec. 132. — "En" used as a Pronoun.
1. La fortune a son prix; Fimin-udent en abuse, I'hypo-
crite en medit, et I'honnete honinie en use. 2. De mes
sujets seduits qu'il comble la misere ; II en est I'ennemi,
j'en dois etre le pere (Voltaire). 3. Vous avez de bon
cafe; donnez-leur-en. 4. Demain! le temps est court, et
le terme est prochain; il en faut profiter. 5. N'y a-t-il
pas de terre dans Tunivers pour en donner a tons les
hommes? 6. Les limites des sciences sont comme I'hori-
zon ; plus on en approche plus elles reculent. 7. Les
causes de notre elevation, le sont souvent de notre mine.
8. Disez-vous que nous en sommes les auteurs? Oui, vous
I'etes. 9. II est de grands hommes qui le sont par les
vertus.
Vocabulary.
medit, slanders,
seduit, seduced,
comble, fills up.
je dois, I ought,
demain, to-morrow,
prochain, near.
le prix, price, value,
le sujet, subject.
la misere, misery.
le terme, end, term.
la terre, land, earth.
la ruine, ruin.
reculent, withdraw,
court, short,
pour, for.
tons, all,
comme, like,
auteur, author.
English into French.
1. How much land have you? Give me some. 2. Time
has its value. Theprudent does not abuse it. 3. Do you
say that I am the author of your misery? Yes, you
are. 4. Who is a hypocrite? He who slanders fortune.
5. Where are the boundaries of science? Who approaches
them?
EXERCISE 29.
Sees. 133-5. — "Y" as a Pronoun, and the Indefiinite
"On."
1. Vous avez pen de bien; joignez-y ma fortune.
2. Chargez-vous de cette enfant; donnez-lui vos soins.
EXERCISES.
O'NIVERSITY
3. Chargez-vous decette affaire; donnez-y vos soiiis. 4. Ne
soyez a la cour, si yous voulez a plaire, Ni fade adula-
teur ni parleur trop sincere (La Fontaine). 5. On par-
donne aisement le mal involontaire. 6. On n'cst des juifs.
7. N'est-on jamais tyran qu'avcc le diademe? 8. Quitte-t-
on aisement, pour jamais, ce qu'on aime? 9. Quoiqiie je
parle beaucoup de vous, ma fille, j'y pense encore davan-
tage (Mme. Sevigne). 10. On finit par oii Ton devait
commencer. 11. En quelque pays que j'aie ete, j'y ai
yecu, comme j'avais du y passer ma vie.
le bien, goods, prop-
erty.
le soin, care, atten-
tion.
la cour, the court.
adulateur, flatterer.
parleur, speaker.
aisement, easily.
le tyran, tyrant.
quoique, although.
Vocabulary.
beaucoup, much,
davantage, more,
soy ez-vous, he, be ye.
trop, too, too much.
il quitte, he leaves.
il finit, he ends.
par ou, where.
il devait, he ought,
quelque, whatever,
vecu, lived.
dd, been obliged,
ought,
joignez, unite.
fade, insipid,
avec, with,
jamais, ever,
plaire, to please,
en, in.
avais, had.
ete, been.
English into French.
1. Unite your fortune to mine and giye your care to it.
2. What do they say at Paris ? 3. You are their enemy ;
but I ought to be their father. 4. How many countries
haye you been in ? How haye you lived in them ?
EXERCISE 30.
Sees. 136-9. — "Personne, Rien, Aucun, Tout."
1. Personne a-t-il jamais raconte plus naivement que La
Fontaine? (Kestaut). 2. Oette place lui convient mieux
qu'a personne (Landais). 3. Que vous a coute cela ?
Rien. 4. II semble que cela se soutienne sur rien. 5. Je
compte cet homme-la pour rien (Acad.). 6. Je doute
qu'aucun de vous le fasse. 7. H a obtenu ce^ qu'il de-
mandait sans aucuns frais (Acad.). 8. Aucuns a coups de
pierre poursuivirent le dieu (La Fontaine). 9. Toute sa
famille est en bon sante. 10. En toute chose il faut con-
182 FEE}!?-CH GEAMMAE.
Biderer la fin (La Fontaine). 11. Les premiers Chretiens,
tons egaiix et tons obscurs, gouvernaient secretement leur
societe a la pliiralite des voix (Voltaire).
Vocabulary.
jamais, ever,
raconte, related,
naivement, naturally.
il convient, it suits.
semble, seems.
la pierre, stone,
egal, equal.
compte, count,
fasse, may do.
obtenu, obtained,
frais, expenses.
le coup, the blow.
la fin, tbe end.
poursuivirent, pursued.
English into French.
1. Nobody is any prettier than your little sister. 2. Who
has told stories better than La Fontaine ? No one. 3. Is
the world sustained upon nothing ? So it seems. 4. At
how much do you reckon that man ? Nothing at all.
5. In everything some expenses must be considered. 6. I
doubt that any of them can do anything. 7. Were the
first Christians entirely equal ?
EXERCISE 31.
Sees. 140-143.—'* Tel, Meme, Nul, Autre."
1. Pour ^tre heureux ou malheureux il faut se croire
tel (Acad.). 2. Sa memoire est telle. qu'il n'oublie jamais
rien (Acad.). 3. Tel homme est recompense qui meritait
d'etre puni (Acad.). 4. II fait cela de lui-m^me. 5. Ce
mensonge n'a rien qui ne soit innocent. Les dieux memos
ne peuvent le condamner. 6. Ce n'est qu'une seule et
meme chose. 7. Les auteurs des livres nuls sont respon-
sables envers Dieu du temps qu'ils fontperdre aux lecteurs
(Boistc). 8. Nul plus que moi ne respecte ce qu'il y a de
beau dans des certaines situations (Lamartine). 9. Des
deux livres que vous me demandez, voici I'un, voila I'autre
(Acad.). 10. Connaissez-vous mon autre soeur ? 11. Tout
le peuple suivit Virginie, les uns par curiosite, les autres
par consideration pour Icilius (Vertot). 12. Votre habit
est use, il faut en acheter un autre (Acad.). 13. L'autre
jour.
EXEKCISES.
183
il oublie, he forgets,
puni, punished.
il soit, he, it may be.
ils peuvent, they can.
seule, alone, only.
Vocabnlary.
envers, toward,
perdre, to lose.
le lecteur, reader,
connaissez, yon know
suivit, followed.
I'habit, coat.
use, worn out
acheter, buy.
le jour, day.
la me moire, memory.
[Note. — After this no English-French exercises will be
given. The teacher can easily obtain an abundance, suited
to the needs of each class, by combining words given in
the French-English exercises, or already known.
No exercises are give on the form of the verb, regular
or irregular. While these forms are being learned, the
class should take a thorough review of previous lessons.
References will be given, in the remaining exercises and
in the Reader, in connection with every peculiar verb-
form. ]
EXERCISE 32.
Sec. 147. — Use of Auxiliary Verbs.
1. J'aurais ete soldat, si je n'etais pofete. 2. Quelques
services que vous m'ayez rendus, j'en ai ete reconnaissant
3. Votre ami, a-t-il eu besoin de moi ? 4. II y aura tou-
jours des guerres entre les hommes. 5. Quelqu'un a-t-il
jamais doute serieusement de I'existence de Dieu ? 6. Vous
avez re9u une lettre de votre pere, n'est-ce pas ? 7. Les
lettres et I'ecriture ont ete inventee pour parler aux yeux.
8. Que d'hommes commettent les memes f antes qu'ils
avaient resolu d'eviter ! 9. On a souvent regrette que
I'origine de presque toutes les nations, soit ou perdue dans
les fables ou ensevelie dans Tobscurite. 10. Demetrius,
informe que les Atheniens avaient renverse ses statues ; —
lis n'ont pas, repliqua-t-il, renverse la valeur qui me les
a fait eriger. 11. Votre pere et moi, nous avons ete long-
temps ennemis I'un de I'autre (Fenelon).
Vocabulary.
le soldat, soldier.
le poete, poet.
le service, favor.
le besoin, need.
la guerre, war.
I'ecriture, writing.
la faute, fault.
la valeur, valor.
184
FREI^CH GRAMMAR.
rendu, rendered,
reconnaissant, grateful,
doute, doubted.
re9u, received,
invente, invented,
resolu, resolved,
presque, almost.
perdue, lost.
ensevelie, overwhelmed,
renverse, overturned,
repliqua, replied.
fait, caused, done.
I'enaenii, enemy,
eriger, to erect,
longtemps, long,
entre, among, between.
EXERCISE 33.
Sec. 166. — Agreement of Verbs.
1. C'est eux qui ont bati cette maison. 2. La vertu et
I'ambition sont incompatibles. 3. Son courage, son in-
trepidite etonne les plus braves. 4. Mon frere ou moi
ferons la reponse a cette lettre. 5. La plupart des femmes
n'ont guere de principes. 6. Une troupe de montagnards
ecrasa la maison. 7. Ni Tor ni la grandeur ne nous ren-
dent heureux. 8. Le peuple accourait en foule. 9. Ni
I'une ni Tautre maniere n'est elegante. 10. Ce ne furent
plus les soldats de la republique. 11. Tout le monde,
roi, reine, ministres, croit a une conspiration procbaine.
12. La plupart (des liommes) ont le mal de mer quand
il font un long voyage. 13. Le sommeil ou la mort sont
les meilleurs contre-poisons de nos douleurs. 14. Des
preuves administrees de cette maniere perdent toute auto-
rite dans mon esprit vis-a-vis de vos observations (Ilous-
seau).
Vocabulary.
la reponse, reply,
la plupart, majority.
la foule, crowd.
la maniere, method.
la conspiration, plot.
le contre-poison, an-
tidote.
bail, built,
etonner, to astonish,
ferons, will make,
ecraser, to destroy.
il croit, he believes.
la mer, the sea.
vis-a-vis, face to face.
le sommeil, sleep,
guere, hardly,
rend re, to render,
accourir, to run up.
prochaine, at hand,
la preuve, proof,
perdre, to lose.
EXERCISE 34.
Sees. 167-168.— Government of Verbs.
1. Sa probite I'a rendu I'arbitre de tons ses voisins.
EXEKCISES. 185
2. Une fois je me serais vue riclie et paree. 3. II abuse
de ma confiance. 4. N"oiis nous defions de lui. 5. Quelque
incredules que soient les hommes pendant leur vie, ils
cliangent souvent de disposition quand la mort approche.
6. Nous devons user de diligence, et ne pas abuser du
temps, paree que la vie dont nous jouissions est courte.
7. De faibles gemissements remplissent les deserts d'nne
sombre et sauvage harmonie (Chateaubriand). 8. Chacun
d'eux resolu de vivre en gentilhomme (La Fontaine).
9. A cette terrible vue le matelot s'elanQa a la mer.
10. Pourquoi vous etes-vous leve si tard? 11. Vous vous
etestrompe, mon ami, n'est-ce pas? 12. Ne vous moquez
pas du malheur d'autrui, au lieu d'en avoir pitie. 13. C'est
la profonde ignorance qui inspire le ton dogmatique.
14. Qu'on aime avec crainte, on aime avec exces.
Vocabulary.
I'arbitre, arbitrator.
le voisin, neighbor.
la confiance, confidence.
paree que, because.
court, short.
faible, weak.
sombre, dark, somber.
sauvage, savage.
se tromper, to be mistaken.
se lever, to arise, get up.
autrui, other people.
le lieu, place.
une fois, once, at one time.
paree, jeweled, adorned.
se defier de, to defy.
pendant, during.
le gemissement, groaning,
remplir, fill, fulfill.
resolu, resolved.
le matelot, sailor.
se moquer de, to make fun of.
la pitie, pity.
inspirer, to inspire.
rendre, to render.
EXERCISE 35.
Sees. 169-170. — ^Use of the Tenses. — ^Present and Perfect.
1. II s'assied et lui prend les deux mains dans les siennes.
2. Depuis que tu es avec moi je ne suis plus reine.
3. Thucydide n'a pas un seul citation. 4. Caesar, atteint de
plusieurs coups a la fois, porte ses regards autour de lui ;
mais des qu'il voit Brutus lever le poignard (Sec. 44) sur
lui, il quitte la main de Oasca qu'il tenait encore, et se
couvrant la tete de sa robe, il livre son corps au fer des
conjures (Miclielet). 5. J'ai eu une assez longue conversa-
tion avec Firmin. J'ai commence par I'assurer que son
186
TRENCH GRAMMAR.
mariage avec toi etait certain ; il s'est obstine a me dire
que non (Sec. 198, 2) ; et il m'a toujours repoiidu la
dessus froidement. Ensuite je lui ai dit que je voulais te
donner une dot ; et alors il m'a repondu tres-gaiement,
il m'a saute au cou, et n'a plus doute de t'epouser demain.
Apres cela, je lui ai confie que pour des raisons dont je
I'ai fait juge, je ne pouvais pas payer ta dot (Sec. 54, 2) le
jour me me de ton mariage, et il est retombe dans ses
doutes. Oh ! tout cela m'a paru clair, et j'ai conclu que
Firmin ne t'aime pas (Florian).
Vocabulary,
s'asseyer, to sit down. J conclure, to conclude.
prendre, to take,
atteindre, to reach,
porter, to carry,
voir, to see.
lever, to raise,
quitter, to let go, quit.
tenir, to hold,
couvrir, to cover,
livrer, to deliver,
s'obstiner, to persist,
vouloir, to desire,
sauter a, to leap upon,
epouser, to marry.
confier, to confide.
depuis que, since.
la coup, blow.
le regard, look, glance.
autour de, around.
des que, as soon as.
le fer, the sword, iron.
le coiyure, conspirator.
ensuite, then, next.
la dessus, thereon.
froidement, coldly.
le dot, dowry.
le cou, neck.
retomber, to fall again.
paru, Part, of paraitre, appeared.
EXERCISE 36.
Sees. 171-172. — ^TJse of Tenses. — Imperfect and Preterite.
1. Ce fut vous que refusiites ma requite. 2. Eomulus
et Eemus bdtirent la ville de Rome, I'an 753 avant Jesus-
Christ (Sec. 54, 3, N.). 3. Elle con9ut (Sec. 154) de
grandes esperances. 4. 1^ ous aper9umes un voleur. 5. La
paix qui avait etc jusqu'a la le bienfait de ce regne, venait
d'etre tout a coup compromise. 6. II serendit le soir a la
Societe populaire. II fut rcQU (154) avec enthousiasme.
II hit le discours, et les Jacobins le couvrirent d'a])plau-
dissemcnts. II leur fit alors le recit des attaqucs qui
avaient etc diregees contre lui, et leur dit pour les exciter
davantage : Je suis pr^t, s'il le faut, a boire la coupe do
EXERCISES.
187
Socrate. Robespierre, s'ecria un depute, je la boirai avec
toi (Mignet). 7. II me prit done sur Tarpon de la selle, et
mon frere fut place de meme entre lesbras du domestique.
Ce mallieureux valet le serra si fort sur restomac, que I'oii
rapporta mon frere mourant (Florian).
la requite, request.
le voleur, robber,
la paix, peace.
le bienfait, blessing.
le regne, reign.
le recit, recital,
davantage, more,
pr^t, ready.
la coupe, cup.
le bras, arm.
I'estomac, stomach.
Vocabulary.
le domestique, ser-
vant.
batir, to build.
concevoir, to con-
ceive.
apercevoir, to per-
ceive.
jusqu'a, up to, until.
compromettre, to
compromise.
recevoir, to receive.
lut, from lire, to read,
couvrir, to cover (Sec.
152).
diriger, to direct,
boire, to drink,
prit, from prendre, to
take,
serrer, to press,
squeeze,
mourir, to die.
rapporter, to report.
EXERCISE 37.
Sees. 173-176. — ^TJse of Tenses. — ^Pluperfects, Conditionals,
&c.
1. Ainsi la philosopbie fut pratiquee secr^tement par
les pr^tres ; c'est le premier pas ; elle fut etudiee par
quelque hommes superieurs de la Grece hors des sanctu-
aires ; c'est le second pas ; elle fut livree a la foule par les
Chretiens ; c'est son troisieme et dernier pas (Chateau-
briand). 2. Malesherbes avait herite des vert us parlemen-
taires (Mignet). 3. Dans ma rage je m'elan9ai vers lui,
mais I'equipage avait disparu (Scribe). 4. Soyez sur qu'il
justifiera ce que vous aurez fait pour lui. 5. Nous em-
ploierons (Sec. 151, 4,) toutes nos forces. 6. Nous con-
vinmes (Sec. 152) que nous partirions le lendemain. 7. Le
due ordonna que les jugemens civils seraient prononces
par un podestat civil. 8. Si I'on m'en avait cru (Sec.
199), tout n'en irait que mieux. 9. Jesus-Ohrist (Sec.
54, 3, N.) a promis qu'il viendrait juger les vivants et
les morts. 10. Si nous aurions bien fait, nous t'au-
rions etrangle. 11. Pose le cas que cela fut, que feriez
vous ?
188
FRENCH GRAMMAR.
Vocabulary.
pratiquer, to practise, cultivate,
etudier, to study,
hors de, outside of, beyond.
livrer, to deliver, give over,
heriter, to inherit,
s'elancer, rush, (launch oneself),
disparaitre, disappear,
soyez, from §tre, be ye.
justifier, justify.
employer, to employ,
convenir, to agree.
le pr^tre, priest.
le pas, step.
le lendemain, next day.
civil, civil.
le podestat, judge.
cru, from croire, believe.
poser, to put, suppose.
etrangler, to strangle.
promettre, to promise.
prononcer, to pronounce.
ordonner, to order, decree.
partir, to go away, set out.
EXERCISE 38.
Sees. 177-179. — ^Use of Tenses and Sequence of Tenses.
1. Dieu soit loue. 2. Le diable m'etrangle si je n'aime-
rais mienx vous savoir enterre que moucliarde (Le Sage).
3. Ainsi soit-il. 4. Pour grands que soient les rois ils
sont ce que nous sommes (Corueille). 5. Le tribunal a
decide que la donation etait nulle. 6. Ne vois-tu pas
que I'escalier est rompu ? 7. Si Ton savais ni6me que tu
a parle pour lui ! 8. J'en jugerai lorsque je serai mieux
informe. 9. II est vrai que pendant quarante ans que je
Tai servi, je ne lui ai jamais rien vu faire de semblablo
(De Vigny). 10. Si vous pardonnez a notre ville, j'y re-
tournerai plein de joie ; si vous la condamnez (Sec. 48), je
n'y rentrerai jamais (Chateaubriand). 11. Dis-leur qu'ils
soient prets au besoin. 12, Ils oubliaient qu'ils eussent
jamais eu du chagrin.
louer, to praise,
enterrer, to bury,
ainsi, thus,
voir, to see.
informer, to inform,
servir, to serve,
retourner, to return,
rentrer, to re-enter,
oublier, to forget.
Vocabulary.
le moucharde, informer, spy.
I'escalier, staircase,
vrai, true,
pendant, during,
semblable, like, similar,
pret, ready,
le besoin, need, want,
le chagrin, chagrin, annoy-
ance.
EXERCISES. 189
EXERCISE 39.
Sec. 180.— Subjunctive Mode.
[Note. — The Section on the Subjunctive cannot well be
divided. It is thought better that the class should go over
it several times, more thoroughly each time.]
1. A qui dois-je que la terre de France me soit inter-
dite ? 2. S'il est vrai qu'Homere ait fait Virgile, c'est
son plus belle ouvrage. 3. Les ]^gyptiens sont les premiers
qui aient bien connu les regies du gouvernement (Rousseau):
4. Les Tyriens furent les premiers qui dompterent les
flots (Fenelon). 5. La meilleure satire qu'on puisse faire
des mauvaises poetes, c'est de donner d'excellents ouvrages
(Voltaire). 6. lis mour^aient (199) tons, soit que nous
les traitassions fort mal, soit que leurs maladies fussent
incurables (Le Sage). 7. J'ai ete malheureusement le
premier qui ait fait connaitre en France la poesie Anglaise
(Voltaire). 8. Je pris conge des deux epoux en leur pro-
testant que j'etais ravi que I'hymen (35, 4) eut succede a
leurs longues amours (Le Sage). 9. Je ne sache pas qu'il
y ait eu d'hommes blancs devenus noirs. 10. L'homme
est le seul animal qui sache qu'il doit mourir. 11. II y a
pen d'hommes qui sachent connaitre leurs veri tables in-
terets (Acad.). VZ. La pluralite des dieux est une chose
qu'on ne pent s'imaginer qui ait ete adoptee par des
hommes de bon sens (Restaut). 13. Mentor voulait une
grande quantite de jeux qui animassent le peuple (Fe-
nelon). 14. Laquelle des deux tetes crois-tu qui vaille le
mieux en ce moment ? (V. Hugo). 15. A tel prix qui ce
soit, il m'en faut acheter (Corneille). 16. Que la mort la
ravisse, ou qu'un rival I'emporte, La douleur d'un am ant
est egalement forte (Corneille).
Vocabulary.
interdit, interdicted.
Homere, Homer.
I'ouvrage, work.
connu, from connaitre, to know.
la regie, rule.
le flot, wave.
conge, leave, departure.
I'hymen, marriage,
sens, sense, judgment,
le jeu, game, play,
emporter, carry off.
dompter, tame,
mourir, to die.
traiter, to treat.
190
FEEi^CH GEAMMAR.
fort, strong, very,
pris, from prendre, to take.
ravir, to ravish,
devenir, to become.
doit, from devoir, to owe, ought,
vaille, from vale
acheter, to buy,
I'amant, the lover.
EXERCISE 40.
Sec. 181.— The Infinitive (Alone).
L Attendre est impossible, agir ne Test pas moins.
8. A quoi bon vouloir sauver ma vie ? 3. N'aimer que
soi, c'est aimer peu cle chose. 4. Venez nous voir demain.
5. Je ne sais pas nager. 6. Chacun dans ce miroir pense
voir son image. 7. J'ai vu la tempete faire tourbillonner mon
vaisseau (Dumas). 8. Travailler f ortifie le cor^^s et I'esprit.
9. Naitre avec le printemps, mourir avec les roses, Voila
du papillon le destin encliante (Lamartine). 10. Je
sens (152), de jour en jdur deperir mon genie (Boileau).
11. Quoi ! personne a qui me fier ici (V. Hugo). 12. II
lui restait deux partis a prendre ; s'emparer du pouvoir
sujireme ou descendre de sa puissance tribunitienne (Clia-
teaub.). 13. Je me rappellais tout ce que j'avais oui (198)
dire a Mentor. 14. Les grands ne croient etre nes que
pour eux-memes (Massillon). 15. Quel parti prendre !
16. All ! plutot mille fois mourir sous les poignards, Que
garder a ce prix le trone des Caesars (Arnault). 17. Don-
nez moi de quoi ecrire. 18. C'est un homme qui a de
quoi vivre. 19. De quel front soutenir ce facheux entre-
tien ! (Racine).
Vocabulary.
attendre, to wait,
agir, to act.
vouloir, to wish,
sauver, to save,
nager, to swim,
penser, to think,
tourbillonner, to whirl,
travailler, to labor,
naitre, to be born,
descendre, to descend,
tribunitienne, tribune's.
rappeler, to call back.
le parti, part, side,
ecrire, to write.
vivre, to live,
demain, to-morrow.
sais, from savoir, to know.
la tempete, tempest.
le papillon, butterfly.
le destin, destiny, lot.
sens, from sentir, to feel.
fier, to confide,
rester, to remain.
s'emparer de, to seize on.
EXERCISES.
191
le pouvoir, power,
la puissance, power,
ouir, to hear.
ne, from naitre.
plutot, rather,
soutenir, to sustain.
EXERCISE 41.
Sees. 182-184.— Infinitive with '' De " and " A."
1. Le premier commandement de la religion est d'aimer
Dieu. * 2. J'aime mieux mourir que de trahir mon secret.
3. II faillit de nous arriver un grand malheur. 4. Allons,
c'est a toi de parler. 5. II est doux de revoir les murs de
la patrie. 6. O'est un maladie d'esprit que de souhaiter
des choses impossibles (Fenelon). 7. Verite que j'implore,
aclieve (151, 1) de descendre ! (Racine.) 8. Que vous etes
hardi, de vous railler de la reine ! (V. Hugo.) 9. Si je
sais le secret de lui plaire, Je sais I'art de punir un rival
t6meraire (Racine). 10. lis n'ont j-ien a gagner a se
tromper Tun I'autre (V. Hugo). 11. Le diner est pret k
servir. 12. Qui pardonne aisement invite a I'offenser.
13. II y a dans certains hommes une certaine mediocrite
d'esprit qui contribue a les rendre sages (La Bruyere).
14. II parle de manidre a convaincre les juges de son in-
nocence (Acad.). 15. La vanite commence par ternir les
bonnes qualites et finit par les detruire. 16. Ce serait
trop long a vous expliquer en un jour (Scribe). 17. La
nolitique ne s'occupait qu'a maintenir Fautorite (Sesfur).
Vocabulary.
trahir, to betray.
faillir, to fail, not quite do.
arriver, to happen.
revoir, to see again.
le mur, wall.
la patrie, one's country.
souhaiter, to expect.
la verite, truth.
plaire, to please.
punir, to punish.
temeraire, rash.
gagner, to gain, earn.
tromper, to deceive,
la vanite, vanity.
ternir, to tarnish.
achever, to deign, grant.
hardi, bold, hardy,
se railler, to make fun of.
le diner, dinner,
oflfenser, to injure.
convaincre, to convince.
le juge, the judge.
detruire, to destroy.
expliquer, to explain.
192 FEENCH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISE 42.
Sees. 185-186, 2. — The Participles, Present and Past.
1. Les animanx, vivant d'une maniere plus conforme a
la nature, doivent (154) ^tre sujets a moins de maux que
nous (Rousseau). 2. Si le barbier lui tira de sang etant
malade, vous lui en avez tire se portant bien (Le Sage).
3. Les Eomains, se destinant a la guerre, et le regardant
comme le seul art, ils avaient mis tout leur esprit a la per-
fectionner (Montesquieu). 4. Je ne puis cacher a Votre
Majeste les craintes qu'eprouvent ses fiddles sujets en ne la
voyant pas reconnaitre hautement cette grande association
(Dumas). 5. Ainsi notre amitie, triompliant a sou tour,
Vaincra la jalousie en cedant a I'amour (Corneille). 6. En
disant ces mots, les larmes lui vinrent aux yeux. 7. Le
merite et la vertu sont estimes et recherches. 8. Quand
elle se fut aper9ue (154) de son erreur, elle fut toute lion-
teuse. 9. Eux punis, nous pourrons faire admirer au
monde la liberte (Ponsard). 10. Cette disposition faite,
nous entrames dans la salle de reception. 11. J'evitais
une gr^le de coups qui seraient tombes sur moi. 12. Mon
dme demeure suspendue.
Vocabulary.
vivre, to live,
devoir, to owe, ought,
tirer, to draw, take.
se porter, to carry one's self, be.
mis, from mettre, to place,
puis, from pouvoir, to be able,
eprouver, to experience,
reconnaitre, to recognize,
vaincre, to conquer,
ceder, to give way.
disant, from dire, to say.
vinrent, from venir, to come.
estimer, to esteem.
le barbier, the barber,
larmes, tears.
la gr^le, hail,
suspendre, to suspend,
demeurer, to remain,
tomber, to fall,
eviter, to avoid,
entrer, to enter,
pourrons, from pouvoir.
apercu, from apercevoir.
rechercher, to seek for.
EXERCISE 43.
Sec. 186, 3-5. — Perfect Participle continued.
1. Quelle guerre intestine avons nous allumee ! 2. L'e-
v^que de Meaux a cree une langue que lui Seul a parlee.
EXERCISES. 193
3. La traduction que j'en ai faite, est loin d'atteindre k la
force de I'original (Voltaire). 4. Tons les hommes ont
tou jours quelque petit grain de folic mele a leur science
(Voltaire). 5. O'est une des idees les plus utiles a la
morale qu'il y ait jamais eu. • 6. Je lui ai rendu tons les
services que j'ai du, que j'ai pu (lui rendre). 7. II crut
avoir vu des miracles et meme en avoir fait. 8. Tout le
monde m'a offert des services, et personne ne m'en a rendu.
9. Savez-vous les peines qu'ils ont a souffrir ? 10. lis se
sont presente des fleurs. 11. II n'est pas probable que vous
eussiez obtenu le consentement de votrepere, si je n'avais
pas parle en votre faveur. 12. Je les ai vues f rapper.
13. Voila, mon fils, le sujet des larmes que tu m'a vue
verser (Florian). 14. Les airs que je vous ai entendu
chanter.
Vocabulary.
verser, to shed.
I'ev^que, bishop. •
la langue, language.
la traduction, translation.
la morale, morals, ethics.
creer, to create,
atteindre, to reach, attain,
m^ler, to mix.
dA, from devoir, to owe.
pu, from pouvoir, to be able,
crut, from croire, to believe,
vu, from voir, to see.
obtenu, from obtenir, obtain.
le sujet, subject.
larmes, tears.
EXERCISE 44.
Sees. 187-192.— Adverbs.
1. On se repent rarement de parler pen, mais tres
souvent de parler trop. 2. Cette robe coute trop cher.
3. Comment vous portez-vous? Tres bien, je vous re-
mercie. 4. L'esprit retourne au ciel, d-ont il est descendu.
5. Je ne sais plus oii j'en suis. 6. La sagesse inutile au
monde est pire que certaines folies qui servent au moins
a Tamuser. 7. D'ici je ne veux pas sortir, je m'y trouve
trop bien. 8. Ce mal lui a pris tout-a-coup, comme il y
pensait le moins. 9. La politique a ses martyrs comme la
religion, car il y a eu des hommes, devoues aux principes
de la liberte des peuples, qui ont ete autant persecutes
que les premiers Chretiens a Rome. 10. II est de bles-
194 FRENCH GRAMMAR.
sures dont un coeur genereux pent rarement gnerir (Vol-
taire). 11. Un vieillard amonreux merite qu'on en rie.
12. Comme le soleil chasse les tenebres, ainsi la science
chasse Terrenr (Acad.).
Vocabulary.
comment, how ?
comme, as, how.
tres, very.
pire, worse,
au moias, at least,
car, for.
autant que, as much as.
guerir, to heal, recover.
rier, to laugh.
la blessure, wound.
le vieillard, old man.
tenebres, shades, shadows.
EXERCISE! 45.
Sees. 103-194.— Negatives.— " Ne."
1. Je ne puis point, a la verite, ne point admirer Icnr
courage, mais je ne puis anssinepas sentir la i)laie cruellc
que leur mort a faite a mon coeur, et ne point hair et de-
tester les Atheniens, auteurs de cette malheureuse guerre
(Rollin). 2. Je n'ai vu, de ma vie, un tel homme. 3. Je
n'en dirai rien a personne. 4. Je ne sais (155) ce que c'est.
5. II n'y a de puissance que dans la conviction. 6. Je ne
dois (154, N.), ni ne veux (155), ni ne puis (155) vous
obeir. 7. Le domestique n^est pas encore rentre, ni le
chien non plus. 8. Je vais vous rapporter le fait, mais
n'en soulliez mot a ame qui vive. 9. lln'est toujours bon
d'etre trop politique (Rotrou). 10. Je n'ai Jamais rien
accorde a la menace (Scribe). 11. EUe n'est ni belle ni
riche. 12. Suspendez votre marche. II ne faut tenter
Dieu (De Vigny). 13. II ne salt ce qu'il veut. 14. Nous
n'avions guere que neuf ans.
Vocabulary.
sentir, to feel.
hair, to hate.
tel, such.
sais, from s avoir, know.
dois, '* devoir, owe.
puis, " pouvoir, be able,
veux, " vouloir, wish.
vais, from aller, go.
la plaie, injury.
la guerre, war.
la vie, life,
rapporter, to relate.
soufHer, to breathe,
tenter, to tempt.
EXERCISES. 105
EXERCISE 46.
Sees. 195-196. — Negatives continued.
1. Non, non, le consiilat n'est point fait pour son dge.
2. Aucun n'est prophete cliez soi. 3. Je serai t morte
avant qu'il n'entre. 4. Ne craignez-vous 2)as que monsieur
le due ne reconnaisse que c'est vous-meme? 5. Prends
garde qu'on ne te voie. 6. Un cliretien doit aimer, non
seulement ses amis, mais meme ses ennemis. 7. Prendrai-
je cela? Non pas, s'il vous plait. 8. La jiatrie est plus
digne de respect que pere ni mere. 9. 11 doit apprehender
que cette occasion ne lui ecliappe (La Bruyere). 10. Crai-
gnez (153) que le ciel rigoureux ne vous liaisse assez pour
exaucer vos voeux (Racine). 11. Elle ne redoutait pas
moins que le peuple ne la rend it responsable (Thierry).
12. fivitez qu'il ne vous parle. 13. Doutez-vous que mes
voeux ne soient honorables? (Dumas). 14. II ne s'en faut
pas de beaucoup que la somme n'y soit (Gram. Nationale).
15. Que leur tete soit livree a I'expiation, si vous n'aimez
mieux que I'expiation retombe sur votre tete (Thierry).
16. Elle ne voyait aucun etre souffrant sans que son
visage n'exprimat la peine qu'elle enressentait (St. Pierre).
17. J'entends 1-e philosophe et non I'homme d'etat (Pon-
sard). 18. Que Je me trompe ou non, respectoz ma chi-
mere (Segur). 19. Est-il un seul de vous qui ne tremble
pour lui?
Vocabulary.
chez soi, at home,
avant que, before that,
echapper, to escape,
craindre, to fear,
eviter, to avoid,
livrer, to give up,
ressentir, to experience.
entrer, to enter.
garde, care.
plait, from plaire, to please.
exaucer, to grant
redouter, to doubt.
retomber, to i*etum, recoil.
exprimer, to express.
se trojnper, to be mistaken
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