UC-NRLF 
 
UNIVERSITY FARM 
 
 H8 
 

THE RURAL 
 EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 4 
 
 STOCK BOOK 
 
 BY 
 
 G. C. HUMPHREY 
 
 Head of Animal Husbandry Department, 
 Wisconsin State University, 
 Madison, 
 
 THE PEOPLES EFFICIENCY 
 PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 CLEVELAND. O. 
 
 1918 
 
Copyright 1917 
 
 By 
 
 The People's Efficiency Publishing Co. 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO 
 
 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 THERE never was a time in the history of the world when it was so necessary for 
 the breeder and stock raiser to be efficient in his work. He must not only 
 raise better and more stock, but be able to save the great losses which are 
 occurring every year from preventable diseases. The magnitude of the Animal 
 Husbandrj interests may be judged from the manufacture of meat products. In the 
 United States alone during the year 1909 the value of the meat products of the 
 slaughter and packing industries or establishments amounted to the enormous sum of 
 $1,370,508,000. In value of the products turned out, these industries stand at the head 
 of all the manufacturing interests of the country. 
 
 The butter, cheese and condensed milk industries turn out products valued at 
 $274,558,000 per year, and yet such an eminent authority as Prof. Haecker, of the 
 Minnesota Experiment Station, makes the statement that the milk producers of his 
 state are/ losing all their profits simply because of lack of understanding of "how to 
 feed." The time has* come when only those who understand feeding are in a position 
 to realize the maximum profits from live stock. The food problem lies at the very 
 basis of success an all forms of animal husbandry. The object of this work 'is to so 
 present the scientific data concerning animal foods that the average stockman can 
 make rational use of them. 
 
 The subject of scientific breeding is of vast importance in all forms of animal 
 husbandry. All the average stockman needs is a clear conception of the type desired 
 to be produced and an adaptation of means to that end. It is possible for him to get a 
 clear conception of this when the results of experience are presented in a practical 
 way. 
 
 The care of animals in ways other than feeding is also of great importance. It 
 is estimated on good authority that in five states of the middle west during a ten-year 
 period the average loss per farm was: 5 horses, 16 cattle, 19 sheep and 64 hog's. The 
 Government statistics show that $200,000,000 worth of live stock was lost from disease 
 and exposure in the United States during the year 1915. This immense loss was due 
 largely to preventable diseases and to improper care. In the department on diseases 
 in this book is presented to the stockman the practical, simple methods in use among 
 the most successful, efficient stock raisers of the country. If these are put into 
 practice, they will help greatly in saving a large percent of the immense loss that 
 the farmers are now sustaining. Every farmer should know how to care for the 
 simpler difficulties. 
 
 It is not the aim of the author or compilers to substitute suggestions for the 
 services of a veterinarian in any locality. It is too well recognized that a lack of care 
 and attention to stock is in a large way responsible for the development of many 
 diseases that need the attention of a veterinarian. In the ' section devoted to the 
 diseases of stock, we merely aim to give suggestions that can be utilized in warding 
 off many diseases of the simpler character and suggesting how the stockman may 
 aid the local veterinarian where greater knowledge ij needed. A farmer understands 
 his stock better than anyone else, and can always give valuable aid in explaining the 
 conditions which preceded the calling of the veterinarian, so that a proper analysis 
 or diagnosis of the case may be had. 
 
 We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to "Klemheinz, Sheep Management," 
 for the illustrations on "Docking the Lamb" and "Drenching the Sheep"; Fuller, 
 Wisconsin College of Agriculture, for the illustration of the "A-Shaped Colony House 
 for Hogs"; Craig, "Judging Live Stock," for the illustration showing the "Horse's 
 Mouth." 
 
 If the book accomplishes, even in a small way, the purpose for which it was 
 written, it will prove a very valuable source of information for the farmer and stock 
 raiser. THE AUTHOR. 
 
 401241 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 STOCK 
 
 Pages 
 LIVE STOCK BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 1-60 
 
 CATTLE PRODUCTION 7-60 
 
 Types and Breeds of Cattle, Dairy Cattle Production and Management, 
 Score Card for Dairy Cattle, Feed and Care of The Dairy Cow, The 
 Composition of Feeds, Buying Feed for Dairy Rations, Description and 
 Definition of Concentrated Feeds, Barley, Oats and Rye, Buckwheat By- 
 Products, Dairy Farm Organization, Beef Cattle Production, Score Card 
 for Beef Cattle, Market Classes and Grades of Cattle, Stages, Baby Beef 
 Production, Selection and Management of Bulls. 
 
 A GUIDE TO THE DISEASES or STOCK 61 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE 62-100 
 
 General Symptoms, Anatomy of Cattle, Action of Drugs in Cattle and 
 Horses, Drenching a Cow, Bandaging and Stitching Wounds, Castrat- 
 ing Calves and Bulls, Diseases. 
 
 HORSE PRODUCTION 101-138 
 
 Market Classes and Sub-Classes of Horses, Types and Breeds of Horses, 
 Score Card for Draft Horses, Score Card for Light Horses, Mule Pro- 
 duction, Classification of Mules, How to Tell the Age of a Horse, 
 Teeth at Different Ages, Shoeing and Care of the Feet, Throwing or 
 Casting a Horse, Care of the Sick and Injured, Castration, How to 
 Locate Lameness, Blemishes Possible on a Horse. 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES ; 139-181 
 
 General Symptoms, Treatment for Diseases of Horses. 
 
 SHEEP PRODUCTION 183-199 
 
 Types and Breeds of Sheep, Score Card for Mutton Sheep, etc. 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP 200-212 
 
 General Symptoms, Treatment of Diseases of Sheep. 
 
 SWINE PRODUCTION 213-233 
 
 Types and Breeds of Hogs, Score Card for Hogs of Lard Type, Score 
 Card for Hogs of Bacon Type, Market Classes of Hogs. 
 
 DISEASES OF SWINE ....-.... 234-272 
 
 General Symptoms, Treatment for Diseases of Hogs. 
 
LIVE STOCK BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 The Importance of Farm Animals. The extent to which farm animals 
 furnish food, clothing and labor, is perhaps sufficient to emphasize their impor- 
 tance. A long list of useful articles manufactured from their hides, hair, bone 
 and other parts of the animal body give further evidence of how farm animals 
 contribute to the welfare of the human race. Moreover, live stock production 
 is the basis of most practical and profitable agriculture. Farmers have much to 
 encourage them in the production of live stock where they understand its care 
 and management. Well organized herds and flocks provide: 
 
 A profitable cash income from animals and animal products. 
 A home market and profitable, prices for farm crops. 
 A means of keeping up the fertility of land and a maximum produc- 
 tion of crops. 
 
 Cash returns for farm residues and by-products that have no general 
 
 market value. 
 
 A utilization of farm labor in a manner to make it profitable throughout 
 
 the year. 
 
 How to Make Live Stock Pay. There is evidence of serious misfortune or 
 mismanagement when live stock on the farm does not pay. Misfortune and 
 mismanagement resulting in serious losses are largely overcome and success in 
 making live stock pay is assured by acquiring a knowledge of types and breeds 
 of animals most useful in serving their purpose, and practicing a system of se- 
 lection, breeding and management that has proved most successful in the pro- 
 duction of farm animals. It pays to read the best live stock books and literature, 
 to make the acquaintance of successful stockmen and learn of their methods of 
 production, to practice consistently and persistently the best methods of breeding 
 and feeding and to raise the standard of one's herds and flocks by selecting and 
 keeping at all times the best animals one can secure. 
 
 The Necessity for Types and Breeds. Differences in size, character of 
 body and the purposes which animals best serve, make the differences in types 
 and breeds. The type of an animal indicates its utility and is important for this 
 reason. There may be several breeds representing a given type. Breed is im- 
 portant in that it represents a class of animals that reproduce themselves and 
 their good qualities with a greater degree of likeness and certainty than do ani- 
 mals of no particular breed. 
 
 The types and breeds of animals maintained on a given farm are a reflection 
 of the mind and the management of the farmer responsible for their production. 
 Improved breeds of farm animals are the result of many generations of con- 
 stant effort on the part of men who have had in mind types of animals best 
 adapted for serving a given purpose. The true stockman endeavors to select 
 and breed animals in a manner to preserve types that have been established. 
 Mismanagement resulting in mixing breeds, and failure to properly feed and care 
 
 l 
 
2 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 for animals, lowers the standard of live stock production and makes results un- 
 certain and disappointing. Natural laws that govern and control the reproduc- 
 tion of plant and animal life and which generally group plants and animals un- 
 der district varieties, emphasizes the importance of selecting recognized types 
 and breeds of farm animals. 
 
 The Best Breed to Select. Many factors enter into the selection of a 
 breed. Personal preference or no preference whatever accounts for the charac- 
 ter of many farm animals. The farm organization, its adaptability for producing 
 a given class of farm and animal products, its relationship to markets and local 
 manufacturing plants like creameries, cheese factories, condenseries and abba- 
 toirs, should be leading factors in deciding upon a breed. There are many ad- 
 vantages in buying and selling and in breeding and managing animals where 
 a community agrees upon a given breed and co-operates in an effort to promote 
 the breed. A lifetime is too short to accomplish all that one would like to do in 
 developing a given breed. Therefore, one's choice in the matter of selecting and 
 breeding should be carefully considered. A man is most fortunate when he can 
 chose the breed that his father, and his grandfather developed and adapted to a 
 given farm. 
 
 Definitions Applying to Animal Breeding. Breeding as it applies to live 
 stock is the art of reproducing and improving farm animals. Its prime object 
 is the improvement of animals for meat, milk, wool and labor. 
 
 Promiscuous Breeding. Mating animals without reference to type, breed 
 or individuality, most often results in undesirable farm animals and should be 
 discouraged. 
 
 Cross-Breeding. This system of breeding refers to mating animals of 
 two distinct breeds. It offers the advantage of increasing the size, vigor and pro- 
 ductive quality of animals. These good results, however, are confined to only 
 the first generation of animals. Cross-bred animals are not satisfactory for 
 breeding purposes except where one desires to establish new breeds and types. 
 The practice, therefore, tends to destroy the opportunity for preserving estab- 
 lished breed type and character and the work of generations of time consumed 
 in the development and perfection of given breeds. 
 
 Natural Breeding. Mating animals not related but corresponding in type 
 and breed, constitutes natural breeding. Where one has opportunity to use the 
 best of sires this system of breeding is capable of producing very satisfactory 
 results and may be regarded safer than breeding animals more or less closely 
 related. It is the approved system of breeding most generally employed. 
 
 Line Breeding. Mating animals within a given family, related to the 
 extent of twenty-five percent and less than fifty percent of the same blood, 
 is termed "line breeding." It is practically safe to practice line breeding 
 where one does not allow the relationship to become too close and is careful 
 to maintain definite standards relating to size and vigor. Line breeding tends 
 to insure more uniform results than natural breeding. 
 
 Inbreeding. Mating animals that are related to the extent of having 50 
 percent or more of the same blood, is inbreeding. When practiced by men 
 who understand the nature and results of such breeding, it is a safe practice. 
 
LIVE STOCK BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 3 
 
 There are many inbred animals which have become much noted for their excel- 
 lence in quality, prepotency and production. There are also many sad disappoint- 
 ments that have been experienced. Over-refined, under size, non-breeding, 
 malformed and idiotic animals are evil results which may accompany too close 
 breeding. Inbreeding tends to intensify both good and bad characters and it 
 is a safe rule never to inbreed when defects and characters that are not desirable 
 appear in the makeup of the animals to be mated. One must be prepared to 
 rigidly select or cull from the herd the undesirable types that follow this practice. 
 
 Out-Crossing. Inbreeding and line breeding confine animals to one 
 family or strain. When there is a tendency on the part of a herd thus developed 
 to show indications of weakness, it is well to select from some other strain or 
 family of the same breed, a sire that will overcome the weakness and instill into 
 the family the character that is lacking. Such a practice is termed "out-crossing." 
 
 Grade and High Grade Animals. A grade animal is usually by a pure 
 bred sire and out of a grade or native female. It, therefore, has 50 or more per- 
 cent of the blood of a pure bred class of animals. A high grade animal carries 
 a relatively high percent of the blood of a pure bred. Grade animals are not 
 eligible to registry in the herd books that record the names of pure bred animals. 
 
 Pure Bred Animals. The term "pure bred" applies to animals having 
 one hundred percent of the blood of a distinct breed. They are usually from 
 registered animals and are eligible to registration in the herd books of the 
 Association that promotes and preserves the records of animals of the breed 
 in question. 
 
 Cross-Bred Animals. Technically a cross-bred animal is the progeny re- 
 sulting from the mating of pure bred animals of two distinct breeds. The type 
 may be the same or different, for example, two breeds of cattle like the Short- 
 horn and Aberdeen Angus, or breeds representing beef and dairy cattle like the 
 Shorthorn and Guernsey. 
 
 Mongrel and Scrub Animals. Where animals have been promiscuously 
 produced by more or less crossing or inbreeding and have been poorly managed 
 or neglected, they are commonly known and termed mongrels or scrubs. They 
 may represent a survival of the fittest, but at best are unprofitable and a poor 
 foundation upon which to build for anything better. Time and money will be 
 gained by selling such animals and purchasing grades or pure breds to serve as a 
 foundation for breeding. 
 
 Factors that Insure Success in Animal Breeding. Select the best founda- 
 tion animals it is possible to secure, keeping in mind animals of the most useful 
 and desirable types. 
 
 Use only sires of pure breeding and as far as possible sires old enough to 
 have proved their prepotency. 
 
 Feed and manage the breeding stock to keep them in a healthy and thrifty 
 condition. 
 
 Avoid unsanitary conditions and all possibility of introducing contagious 
 and infectious diseases. 
 
 Keep young animals growing from birth to maturity. 
 
4 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Continue a line of breeding from year to year that leads to a definite stand- 
 ard. 
 
 Bear in mind that the best results in breeding animals require several years 
 of faithful work. 
 
 Endeavor to gradually grow into something better from year to year until 
 that which is most excellent is secured. 
 
 Breeders of Live Stock Classified. Men engaged in the breeding of im- 
 proved live stock do not all rank alike. The following classification may be 
 made: 
 
 Farmers who engage in general farming and maintain and breed grade or 
 high grade animals which best serve the general market demands. 
 
 Farmers and professional stockmen who make a specialty of breeding pure 
 bred animals that serve primarily for breeding purposes. 
 
 One's experience, knowledge and opportunity for successfully engaging in 
 the breeding of pure bred live stock are factors that should determine in which 
 class he should enter as a breeder of live stock. 
 
 Advantages in Breeding Grade Animals. The breeding of grade and 
 high grade animals offers the following advantages : 
 
 One gains a knowledge and an experience necessary in successfully 
 breeding any class of farm animals without incurring the danger of serious 
 financial loss. 
 
 It costs much less to start and to continue the business. 
 
 One is not obliged to spend time and money to find special markets for 
 animals. 
 
 Excellent individual animals and uniform herds may be produced. 
 
 Advantages in Breeding Pure Bred Animals. Excellent pure bred 
 animals tend to reproduce themselves and their good qualities with a greater 
 degree of certainty than do grade animals. 
 
 Prices paid for pure breds that serve for breeding purposes are much 
 higher than prices paid for grades. 
 
 There is a satisfaction in producing the best and also in attaining a 
 reputation as a stockman and in doing the most for the improvement of live 
 stock that is worth while. 
 
 Wherein Breeding Pure Bred Live Stock is More Expensive. There is 
 considerable more expense in breeding pure bred live stock that must be 
 anticipated by one who chooses to engage in breeding such animals. One 
 should also take this fact into consideration in buying pure bred sires and 
 other pure bred foundation stock. The items incurring greater expense are 
 as follows : 
 
 The purchase price of breeding stock. 
 
 The cost of breeding and maintaining animals in a manner to meet the 
 market demands. 
 
 The cost of registering animals and transferring their ownership in the 
 herd books of the association representing their breed. 
 
 The cost of advertising and marketing surplus stock sold for breeding 
 purposes. 
 
LIVE STOCK BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 5 
 
 The expenses incident to keeping in touch with affairs and making the 
 acquaintance of men prominent in directing the welfare of the breed in ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Knowledge and Skill Required to Breed Pure Bred Live Stock. The 
 breeder of pure bred live stock must seek to acquire more knowledge and 
 skill than is required by the farmer who breeds only grade live stock. Such 
 knowledge and skill pertains to the following: 
 
 Laws and fundamental principles of breeding, feeding and management 
 that tend to insure the greatest success. 
 
 The characteristics, individuality and lines of breeding that produce the 
 best results. * 
 
 The rules and regulations pertaining to registration, transportation and 
 management of animals sold for breeding purposes. 
 
 The true value of animals and prices commonly paid for animals of a 
 given line of breeding and individuality in order that prices may be fair both 
 to the seller and buyer. 
 
 The value and means of advertising and doing business in a manner to 
 command the respect and to secure the orders of men seeking animals for 
 breeding purposes. 
 
 The Live Stock Breeder's Calling. The live stock breeder, whether en- 
 gaged in the production of grade or pure bred animals, should consider his 
 occupation as one of high and dignified calling. He is in closest touch with 
 the work of Nature and cannot hope to succeed without being true to her 
 laws and principles and to himself and his fellow beings. The breeding and 
 selling of pure bred, registered live stock has been built and rests solely on 
 honor. Men who do not have faith in their fellowmen cannot regard pure 
 breds more valuable than grades of equal individuality. Pure bred animals 
 of excellent individuality and of families excelling in type and production and 
 preserved and reproduced by men of honor, will always be the most reliable 
 for breeding purposes and command the highest prices paid for any class of 
 animals. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 
 The production and maintenance of cattle play an important part in 
 Agriculture. There are several lines 'of cattle production that offer good 
 opportunities for'utilizing land and feed in a manner to insure profitable in- 
 comes and to keep up soil fertility. These lines of production may be enu- 
 merated as follows : 
 
 1 
 
 Beef (Shorthorn). 
 
 Dairy (Holstein). 
 Distinct Types of Cattle. 
 
THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Beef (Shorthorn). 
 \ 
 
 Dairy (Holstein). 
 
 Beef (Shorthorn). 
 
 Distinct Types of Cattle. 
 
 Dairy (Guernsey). 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 9 
 
 Breeding and maintaining cattle primarily for milk production. 
 
 Breeding and growing cattle for stockers and feeders. 
 
 Grazing cattle on ranches of the West or large areas of farm land. 
 
 Fattening cattle in feed lots where corn and fattening feeds are available 
 in sufficiently large quantities at reasonable prices. 
 
 Producing pure bred cattle to serve primarily for breeding purposes. 
 
 Types of Cattle. There are two distinct types of improved cattle, namely 
 dairy and beef. Cattle of dairy type excel in the production of milk and 
 utilize feed very largely for milk production. Good dairy cows will produce 
 milk at the expense of body weight which weight they regain only when the 
 milk flow is reduced and they are dried off. They are, therefore, comparatively 
 thin and light in form. 
 
 Cattle of the beef type excel in the production of beef and in many in- 
 stances do not give milk enough to pay the cost of milking them. In such 
 instances the calves are allowed to run with their mothers until they are 
 naturally weaned. Beef cattle consume large quantities of feed and utilize 
 it for beef rather than for the production of milk. 
 
 General Purpose Cow (Red Polled). 
 
 General Purpose Type. Many cattle do not conform distinctly to either 
 of the two respective types of highly specialized cattle and for this reason 
 and the fact that they serve in producing a fair amount of both milk and 
 beef, have been termed cattle of general, or dual-purpose type. Theoretically, 
 an animal might be expected to excel in both beef and milk and thus be most 
 ideal. In practice, however, general purpose cattle excel in the product that 
 is given most emphasis. It is unreasonable to suppose that animals could 
 excel for a given number of generations in milk production and at the same 
 time retain excellent beef forms. Beef cattle require liberal quantities of feed 
 to maintain the amount of beef they are capable of producing and their milk 
 production is cut short to the extent that they utilize feed for beef production. 
 
10 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 It should be understood that any specific type of animal is determined by th 
 disposition or temperament that governs the use it makes of the feed eatei 
 The beef and the dairy animal when put side by side are both capable c 
 consuming equivalent amounts of feed, granting that they have equal feedin 
 capacities, but under normal conditions there will be a marked difference i 
 the amount of milk and beef produced by them in a given year. The one wi 
 excel in beef production and the other in the production of milk. 
 
 In aiming to keep cattle of general purpose type, it is regarded best 1 
 select large, roomy cattle which have natural tendencies to produce mil 
 in liberal quantities during the early stages of their lactation and which ha-\ 
 a covering and quality of flesh indicating that they will produce offsprir 
 reasonably satisfactory for beef. As soon as one feels the necessity of en 
 phasizing beef or dairy quality in his cattle, it will be best for him to choo: 
 a specialized type and breed best adapted for serving his purpose. 
 
 Breeds of Cattle. The development of the respective breeds of catt 
 dates back to the latter part of the eighteenth century and began for the mo 
 part in the British Isles. Limited space does not permit herewith of mo: 
 than a tabulated statement of the various breeds and their distinguishir 
 characteristics. Material giving a more complete description and account 
 the breeds will be interesting and helpful. Secretaries of the National Bre( 
 Associations in most instances are in a position to furnish material pertainir 
 to the breed represented. However the above is sufficient for all practic 
 
 purposes. 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CATTLE 
 
 Type 
 
 Breed 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Average 
 per cent 
 Fat in Milk 
 
 Color and Characteristics 
 
 
 Ayrshire 
 
 Scotland, 
 County of 
 Ayr 
 
 1500-1700 
 1000-1100 
 
 3.84 . 
 
 White with red, black or mahoga 
 spots. Red may predomina 
 Horns long, inclining upward a 
 outward. Body well rounded a 
 rather heavy In hind quarte 
 Udder well attached and uniforn 
 symmetrical. Teats someCin 
 short. A hardy, rustling breed. 
 
 Dairy of the five 
 more prominent 
 Breeds 
 
 Brown 
 
 Swiss 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 1600-1900 
 1200-1400 
 
 3.78 
 
 Dark to light brown or gray. Ligh 
 color about nose along back a 
 on udder. A hardy breed w 
 comparatively heavy bone and hit 
 Some strains beefy, due to di 
 purpose qualities encouraged pr 
 to 1907. 
 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 Guernsey, 
 Island of 
 English 
 Channel 
 Group 
 
 1500-1700 
 1000-1100 
 
 4.77 
 
 Yellow or reddish fawn with wh 
 markings. Utility more th 
 showy and type given spec 
 attention in development of brec 
 Milk of rich and yellow color. 
 
 
 Holstein- 
 Friesian 
 
 Holland- 
 Province of 
 Friesland 
 
 1900-2000 
 1200-1500 
 
 3.28 
 
 Black and white. Either color m 
 predominate. Largest of da: 
 breeds, when well raised. Exc 
 in quantity of milk. Capacity 1 
 large consumption of rougha 
 makes milk production economic 
 where pasture is abundant. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CATTLE (Continued.) 
 
 11 
 
 Type 
 
 Breed 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Average 
 per cer.t 
 Fat in Milk 
 
 Color and Characteristics 
 
 Dairy of t h e five 
 more prominent 
 Breeds 
 
 Jersey 
 
 Jersey 
 Island of 
 
 KiiKlish 
 Channel 
 Group 
 
 1200-1500 
 700-1000 
 
 4.98 
 
 Fawn of light to dark shade. White 
 spots sometime! present. Smallest 
 of five breeds most commonly found 
 on dairy farms American bred 
 cattle larger than imported cattle 
 Cattle excel in quality and in the 
 economical productioi of rich milk 
 Some families polled. 
 
 
 V 
 
 Dairy of the less 
 prominent 
 Breeds 
 
 Dutch Belted 
 
 Holland 
 
 1200-1600 
 
 3.40 
 
 Black with white band about the 
 body. Attention to perfecting the 
 color marking in the early history of 
 the breed resulted in neglect of 
 other qualities that were more im- 
 portant to milk production. 
 
 French 
 Canadian 
 
 Canada, 
 Province of 
 Quebec 
 
 800-1000 
 700-800 
 
 3.99 
 
 Solid black or black with shade of 
 yellow fawn, brindle or brown with 
 black points. A very hardy breed 
 well adapted to scant and hilly 
 pastures. 
 
 
 Kerry 
 
 Ireland, 
 Kerry 
 Mountains 
 
 SOO-1000 
 500-600 
 
 4.36 
 
 Black, sometimes red. The "true 
 Kerry" is known in Ireland as the 
 "poor man's cow" and excels in 
 milk production. The Dexter 
 Kerry is more blocky and beefy, and 
 may be black, red or roan. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Aberdeen- 
 Angus 
 
 Scotland, 
 County of 
 Aberdeen 
 
 2200-2800 
 1400-1800 
 
 4.99 
 
 Black.jnrareinstancesred. Some white 
 on udder or navel, not objectionable. 
 Head polled . Very smooth and even- 
 ly fleshed body Popular in the feed 
 lot and on the market as beef cattle. 
 
 Galloway 
 
 Scotland, 
 Counties of 
 Wegton and 
 Kirkcud- 
 bright 
 
 1800-1900 
 1200-1300 
 
 High 
 
 Black. A reddish or brownish tinge 
 sometimes present. Hair long and 
 shaggy, making hides very popular 
 for robes and coats. Head polled. 
 Breed very hardy. 
 
 
 Hereford 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Hereford 
 
 2200-2800 
 1400-1800 
 
 Good 
 
 Red, with white face, switch and 
 underline. Horns, long and spread- 
 ing. Hair more or less curly. 
 Breed very popular on the range and 
 for grazing purposes. Excellent for 
 beef production. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Shorthorn 
 
 England, 
 Counties of 
 York, 
 Durham and 
 North- 
 umberland 
 
 1800-2200 
 1200-1600 
 
 3.73 
 
 Red, roan, white, red and white, a 
 most popular and cosmopolitan 
 breed, embracing several strains of 
 beef cattle and some strains that 
 possess deep milking qualities. Be- 
 cause of the crossing of the various 
 strains, considerable variation in 
 type is noticeable in herds where 
 careful selection has been neglected. 
 
 
 Polled 
 Durham 
 
 
 
 
 Same as Shorthorn, except for the 
 polled condition of the head are 
 practically beef Shorthorns. 
 
 General Purpose. . 
 
 Devon 
 
 England, 
 Counties of 
 Devon and 
 
 Somerset 
 
 1500-2100 
 1300-1500 
 
 4.90' 
 
 Bright red. White not permissible 
 except on udder of cow or on under- 
 line of body. Three hundred Ibs. 
 butter produced in a year by mature 
 cows. Small boned, moderate offal, 
 and fine grain of meat make car- 
 casses popular with butchers. 
 
 Red Polled 
 
 England, 
 Counties of 
 Norfolk and 
 Suffolk 
 
 1SOO-2200 
 1100-1600 
 
 3.73 
 
 Red with white switch. White on 
 underside of body permissible. 
 Certain families of breed produce 
 milk and butter fat in quantities 
 that compare favorably with dairy 
 breeds. Other strains excel in beef 
 production to the extent that milK- 
 ing qualities are impaired. 
 
 Dairy 
 Shorthorn 
 
 Same as for 
 Shorthorns 
 
 1800-2000 
 1100-1400 
 
 
 )airy Shorthorns are the result of 
 strains of Shorthorn cattle that 
 have been developed more especial- 
 ly for milk production as well as a 
 moderate beef production. 
 
12 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 WILLIAM DEMPSTER HOARD 
 Fort Atkinson, Wis. 
 
 The World's Foremost Dairy Exponent, Editor of Hoard's Dairyman, 
 Practical Dairy Farmer, Ex-Governor of Wisconsin. 
 
 A man of keen and farsighted intellect, who has expounded and demo 
 strated the value of the dairy cow as a profitable farm animal and an economic 
 producer of human food. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 13 
 
 DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Dairying as an Industry. Dairy cattle and milk production is an in- 
 dustry in itself. The importance of milk and its by-products in supplying food 
 for the human race has resulted in much attention being given throughout the 
 entire country to breeding and maintaining herds of dairy cattle. The production 
 and distribution of dairy products, engages the attention of many organizations, 
 both of a local and a national character. Under suitable conditions dairying, 
 though accompanied by considerable expense and labor, is highly profitable. The 
 dairy cow utilizes farm grown crops for milk production economically, and 
 gives the farmer a return at regular and frequent intervals. Dairy farming 
 requires, however, an intelligent consideration of many details pertaining to the 
 selection, care and management of the herd and providing conditions that insure 
 milk products being handled in a manner to conform with standards that reg- 
 ulate it as a food product. The dairy cow has no competitor in producing 
 milk in large quantities for commercial purposes, and with the increase in 
 population there is every encouragement for the farmer who intelligently en- 
 gages in the business of dairying. 
 
 Cows of Dairy Type and Breeds Essential for Success. Choosing cows 
 of dairy breed and type is fundamental to successful dairying. The development 
 of dairy breeds has been the result of high ideals and systematic effort on the 
 part of many generations of dairy men who realize the possibilities in a type of 
 cattle especially adapted for large and economical productions of milk and butter 
 fat. Cattle that are true representatives of the breeds generally recognized as 
 most suitable for dairy purposes, are a very distinct type from the ordinary native 
 cattle and cattle of the improved beef type. The distinct breeds of dairy cattle 
 tend to reproduce themselves from generation to generation with a marked 
 degree o-f uniformity and in this fact lies the importance of choosing high grade 
 or pure bred dairy cattle for dairy purposes. 
 
 Characteristics of Dairy Cattle. Cattle of dairy type conform to the fol- 
 lowing peculiarities arid characteristics which enable them to produce large and 
 economical yields of milk : 
 
 Medium to large size of body for the breed. 
 
 Large feed capacity, as indicated by a roomy and capacious abdominal 
 cavity, a large mouth and sufficient strength of body to consume and utilize 
 a large quantity of feed. 
 
 Dairy temperament or a disposition to convert the large portion of 
 feed consumed into milk rather than body flesh. It is indicated by the ab- 
 sence of surplus flesh and a comparatively lean and refined appearance of 
 the entire body. 
 
 An udder that is large, carried well up to the body, evenly and normally 
 developed in all quarters and of good quality. 
 
 A strong, healthy flow of blood to all parts of the body, giving vigor, 
 alertness and constitution. These characteristics are indicated by prominent 
 facial, udder and mammary veins, abundant secretions in the ears, skin of 
 the body and at the end of the tail and a coat of fine, straight hair. 
 
14 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Establishing a Dairy Herd. The surplus of dairy cattle in sectior 
 where dairying is the principal agricultural industry, offers an opportunity fc 
 the purchase of cattle suitable for establishing and maintaining dairy herd 
 Time is too short to depend upon any other means of laying the foundatioi 
 In many instances dairymen depend largely upon purchasing cows for the mair 
 tenance of their herds. This system has the advantage of keeping the her 
 filled with cows of mature age and capable of producing large and profitable quar 
 
 Dairy type and characteristics prominently developed. 
 
 tities of milk, if the dairyman is an expert cow buyer and can locate and secur 
 at reasonable prices such cows as it will be necessary for him to purchase. 
 
 Disadvantages in Buying Cows. Buying cows has the following disac 
 vantages : 
 
 It is difficult to locate and induce men to part with their best cows. 
 To secure the most suitable cows one must pay high prices. 
 The expense of locating and transporting purchased cows is considei 
 able. 
 
 Subjecting cows to new and strange environment has a tendency t 
 lower their productive capacity for at least a year. 
 
 One increases the danger of introducing disease into his herd an 
 every precaution has to be exercised. 
 
 Raise Heifer Calves to Maintain the Dairy Herd. The best way to mair 
 tain a most profitable dairy herd is to raise heifer calves. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 15 
 
 It will cost less to raise heifers than it will to buy cows. 
 
 The home raised heifers generally develop into better and more profitable 
 cows than most of those which can be purchased. 
 
 Raising the dairy herd lessens the danger from contagious abortion, tu- 
 berculosis and other infectious diseases. 
 
 A comparatively young herd may be kept from which surplus animals can be 
 sold at profitable prices. 
 
 Good dairy calves are secured from the best cows of the herd mated to 
 good, pure bred dairy sires. A calf must be well born as well as properly raised 
 to become the right kind of a dairy cow. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon 
 cows of good type and production capacity and sires that are of the best type 
 and breeding. Knowing the best cows in the herd and being particular to save 
 and raise well their heifer calves is the best way to get a profit-producing 
 dairy herd. 
 
 Judging Dairy Cows. The most successful dairyman is a good judge of 
 dairy cattle. The ability to select profitable from unprofitable cows has always 
 been a strong factor in successful dairying and in the future it will be even more 
 necessary for men who engage in dairying to become good judges of dairy cows. 
 
 Although the consumption of milk and milk products is constantly increasing 
 and the demand for bred-for-milk-and-butter-fat-production-cattle growing, the 
 cost of feed and labor and the price of land is also rapidly increasing thus making 
 it all the more necessary for the farmer to have better cows. It is becoming more 
 and more important for him to know the family history of the cow, whether her 
 ancestors were pure bred or grade and whether they were exceptional milkers 
 or just ordinary or even poor producers. 
 
 The farmer who is a good judge of dairy cattle gains many advantages : 
 Makes fewer mistakes in buying cattle. 
 Gets better prices for his surplus stock. 
 Selects and builds up a herd of cows of uniform size, type, breed and 
 
 quality. 
 
 Receives a higher and more uniform production of milk and butter fat. 
 Makes greater returns over and above the cost of feed and care. 
 Uses better sires and secures better calves. 
 
 Has better success in feeding and showing cattle at fairs and exposi- 
 tions. 
 
 Has greater satisfaction and pleasure in owning and managing a dairy 
 
 herd. 
 
 Profit-Producing Cows. A ready acquaintance with the qualifications 
 for dairy type previously named, as well as with the line of breeding represented, 
 will aid the dairyman in selecting profit-producing cows. It, of course, should 
 be admitted that even the most expert judges of dairy cattle are unable, by rely- 
 ing solely upon the appearance to the eye and a study of family records, to fore- 
 tell a cow's ability to produce milk and butter fat. That, in the end, is only 
 told by the use of the milk scales and the Babcock tester. 
 
 Experiments and experience have shown clearly that as a rule, cows which 
 possess certain so-called dairy characteristics are more economical producers of 
 
16 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 o *o 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
 in 
 
 N 
 
 *0^<S o 
 
 __ " tj 
 
 S- C W 
 
 C) C u 
 
 ^_r o o 
 
 ill 
 
 ^> <u <u so 
 
 C 
 
 O ^ 
 
 W 
 
 H ^ 
 
 S* 5 OT 
 S-a'a^ 
 
 2 5 "m 5 
 
 "3 1! " 
 
 5 3~ 
 SP E 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 17 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE A dairy cow should weigh not less than 800 pounds, have large 
 capacity for feed, a dairy temperament, well-developed milk organs, fine quality and perfect health, 
 and be capable of a large production of milk and butter fat. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Per- 
 fect 
 score 
 
 Points Deficient 
 
 Points Deficient 
 
 Student's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Student's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 INDICATION OF CAPACITY FOR FEED 
 25 POINTS 
 Face, broad between the eyes and long; muzzle, 
 clean cut; mouth, large; lips, strong; lower 
 jaws lean and sinewy 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Body, wedge shape as viewed from front, side 
 and top; ribs, long, far apart and well sprung; 
 breast full and wide; flanks, deep and full .... 
 Back, straight; chine, broad and open; loin, 
 broad and roomy . . .- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hips and Thurls, wide apart and high 
 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATION OF DAIRY TEMPERAMENT 
 25 POINTS 
 Head, clean cut and fine in contour; eyes, prom- 
 inent full and bright 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neck, thin, long, neatly joined to head and 
 shoulders and free from throatiness and dewlap 
 Brisket, lean and light 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shoulders, lean, sloping, nicely laid up to body; 
 points prominent; withers sharp 
 
 
 
 
 
 Back, strong, prominent to tail head and open 
 jointed . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hips, prominent, sharp and level with back .... 
 Thighs, thin and incurving 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tail fine and tapering . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Legs straight' shank fine 
 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATION OF WELL DEVELOPED MILK 
 ORGANS 25 POINTS 
 Rump, long, wide and level; pelvis, roomy .... 
 Thighs wide apart* twist, high and open 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 Udder, large, pliable, extending well forward and 
 high up behind; quarters, full, symmetrical, 
 evenly joined and well held up to body 
 
 
 
 
 
 Teats, plumb, good size, symmetrical and well 
 placed 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 INDICATIONS OF STRONG CIRCULATORY 
 SYSTEM, HEALTH, VIGOR AND MILK 
 FLOW 25 POINTS 
 
 Eves bright und placid - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skin, pliable; hair, fine and straight; secretions 
 abundant in ear, on body and at end of tail . . 
 Veins, prominent on face and udder; mammary 
 veins, large, long, crooked and branching; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture.) 
 
18 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 milk and butter fat than those which lack these features. It is then importa: 
 for the farmer who keeps cows for the milk and butter fat they yield, to see th 
 as far as possible his animals have the qualifications for dairy type. 
 
 Cows usually fail in the production of milk to the extent that they h 
 in one or more of these essential features. Each part of the body bears son 
 relationship to one or more of these essential features and enabl< 
 one to judge of its prominence and desirability. Where one is able to consid< 
 all parts of the body and judge these essential features, he is not likely to e 
 seriously in his judgment. 
 
 Cows Need Room for Digestive Organs. A large body, more especial! 
 the barrel, in proportion to the size of the animal, indicates capacity. The boc 
 of the dairy cow should be wedge shaped as viewed from either the fron 
 the side or the top of the withers. It should be wider at the hip points than ; 
 the withers. The floor of the chest between the forelegs should also be wid< 
 than the top of the withers. Again, the body should be deeper from the hi 
 points to the bottom of the udder than it is at the fore quarters. 
 
 These characteristics of the body have led to the term "triple wedge shaj 
 conformation," and in giving consideration to the digestive capacity of the co\ 
 it should be remembered that it is the base ends of the three wedges rather tha 
 the sharp ends that indicate feed capacity. 
 
 Ribs that are well sprung and far apart, an open chine, a back that is wic 
 over the loins, a large barrel, hips that are wide apart, rear flanks that are fu 
 and great depth from hips to lower line of the flank, all combine to indicate 
 large digestive capacity. A wide forehead, a comparatively long face, broa 
 muzzle, good sized mouth and strong, sinewy jaws, are also considered ind 
 cations of a large digestive capacity. 
 
 The tail is often measured in judging a cow and to meet the standard requir* 
 ment should reach to, or below, the hocks and carry a good switch. This rendei 
 it most useful in brushing flies which is its chief purpose. Excepting as the loo: 
 joints of the tail show an open condition of the vertebrae of the back, which 
 desirable in the dairy cow, it is difficult to understand how the tail would indica' 
 production. 
 
 Dairy Temperament and Milk Production. The dairy temperament c 
 dairy disposition of a cow indicates her ability to convert feed into milk rath< 
 than into flesh. It is a feature which the dairy breeds have acquired through tr. 
 process of selection and breeding for milk and butter fat production. It vari( 
 in its degree of strength, even among pure bred animals, and, therefore, needs 1 
 be carefully considered in judging. A cow that is a large and economical produc< 
 of milk and butter fat is almost certain to have a highly developed dairy ten 
 perament. 
 
 Cows excelling in dairy temperament show the following characteristics : 
 
 Features about the head and face are clean cut in outline and indicative c 
 fine quality ; eyes are prominent, bright and active ; neck is fine, clean, neatly joins 
 to the head, not too full at the throat and comparatively long and thin ; shoulde; 
 are oblique, comparatively bare of flesh and sharp at the withers ; the backbon 
 hips and pin bones are prominent and sharp ; ribs are more or less prominent ar 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 19 
 
 open ; thighs are thin and incurving, sometimes termed "cat hams ;" and bones 
 in all parts of the body indicate quality rather than coarseness. 
 
 Sharp Wedges Indicate Temperament. The lean, muscular tissue on the 
 outside and underneath the shoulder blades and along the back accounts for 
 the comparatively sharp conditions of the withers. The wedge-shaped con- 
 formation of the body is largely due to the absence of flesh about the neck 
 and the fore quarters. It may be said, therefore, that the sharp end of the triple 
 wedge-shaped conformation is indicative of dairy temperament. 
 
 In judging quality and condition of the muscular tissue of the body, considera- 
 tion should be allowed for the size, age and stage of lactation of the animal. It 
 should also be borne in mind that the bones and muscular tissues in a large cow 
 are naturally heavier than in a smaller or younger animal. Then, too, there is not 
 the natural refinement and spareness of form in the larger breeds that there is in 
 the smaller ones. Marked coarseness, however, in any animal is undesirable 
 and is usually accompanied by a sluggish disposition that in the case of the 
 dairy cow prevents her from "performing at the pail" satisfactorily. Young 
 heifers with their first calves usually carry more flesh than cows of mature 
 form. All cows that are properly fed usually show a higher condition of 
 flesh development toward the close of their lactation and prior to freshening 
 than they do when four or five months advanced in lactation. This should 
 be taken into consideration in judging dairy temperament. 
 
 A Well Developed Udder. The udder is the milk secreting organ and its 
 proper development is, therefore, essential. Cows, even of large digestive ca- 
 pacity and of pure dairy breeding, fail to make satisfactory productions when 
 they have poorly developed udders. 
 
 The udder consists of two large glands which are more or less distinctly 
 divided to correspond with each of the four teats. The duct of each teat enters 
 a small cavity termed the "milk reservoir." The milk reservoir of each quarter is 
 more or less surrounded by lobes of glands held in position and closely together by 
 connecting tissue. These lobes may be likened to thick bunches of grapes since 
 each lobe has several divisions called lobules, corresponding to the grapes. The 
 lobules are made of small divisions called "alveoli" which correspond to the 
 seeds of grapes. These alveoli consist of small cells surrounded by a fine net- 
 work of blood vessels and nerves. The milk is secreted by these cells. 
 
 The best cows of all breeds have comparatively large udders with equally de- 
 veloped quarters extending well forward underneath the body and a good dis- 
 tance up behind and between the thighs. Swinging or pendulous udders result 
 from poor attachment. Irregularity in the development of the quarters is a 
 criticism to be offered on many udders. The first consideration, however, 
 should be size and quality. The gland tissue should be fine and plastic rather 
 than fatty or coarse and hard. 
 
 Good Circulation of Blood Important. Only when there is a thorough 
 circulation of blood and all parts of the body are active in performing their respec- 
 tive functions, can the dairy cow be expected to yield a large flowof milk. When 
 the cow is sick, or, by virtue of her poor individuality, is dull and sluggish, there 
 
20 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 c 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 21 
 
 is an inactivity of all the glands of the body, resulting in a dry, harsh condition of 
 the skin, a staring coat and a low production of milk. The circulatory system in- 
 cludes the heart, lungs, arteries and veins. These organs, respectively, force, 
 purify and carry blood to and from all parts of the body. 
 
 When the feed which the cow eats is digested and assimilated, the blood car- 
 ries it to all parts of the body including the glands of the udder which are abun- 
 dantly supplied with blood vessels. A large amount of blood circulating to the 
 udder is important to milk secretion. The size of the mammary veins and the 
 openings or "milk wells" at the ends of the veins on the underside of the body 
 are the best indications of how much blood passes through the udder. These 
 veins, often called "milk veins," do not carry milk, as some believe, but rather 
 carry away blood from the udder. Blood sometimes becomes gorged in the 
 veins and as a result of too small milk wells, the size of the veins is mis- 
 judged. The blood passes into the udder through arteries located deep on 
 the inner side of the thighs. 
 
 The oily condition of the skin and the oily secretion noted in the ears and 
 at the end of the tail, are indications of healthy circulation of blood to all parts of 
 body and a general activity on the part of all healthy glands of the body, including 
 those of the udder. The large, open nostrils, protruding ample air passages 
 to the lungs for purification of the blood, are also important. 
 
 The escutcheon, which is outlined by a mark made by the difference in direc- 
 tion in which the hair runs at the rear of the thighs above the udder, was thought 
 by a French student of the dairy cow, Guenon, to be associated with the artery 
 that carries blood to the udder, and, therefore, indicative of the dairy quality of 
 the cow. If this is true, it should be given as much importance as the milk veins. 
 Guenon also regarded the peculiar condition of spots of hair noted at the back 
 side of the udders of some cows and termed "the thigh ovals," as an important 
 point to consider in connection with the escutcheon. A lack of positive knowledge, 
 however, concerning the relation of these features to milk production does not 
 warrant giving them as much consideration as is given to the milk veins. An 
 escutcheon which is wide and extends high up on the- quarters, is considered 
 most desirable and usually is allowed one or two points on the score card for 
 dairy breeds. 
 
 No Cow is Perfect. No cow ever existed that could be called perfect in all 
 respects when scored by a critical judge. It is expected that every animal will 
 be more or less deficient and the eye of the judge should be quick to note the de- 
 ficiency. In buying or selling, cows having deficiencies which tend to interfere 
 seriously with their being economical producers should be discarded. Deficien- 
 cies in digestive capacity, dairy temperament, milk secretion and constitution 
 should be given first consideration. Deficiencies in symmetry of form, breed 
 characteristics and qualities which simply please the eye are more pardonable 
 than those affecting production. 
 
 Some Common' Deficiencies in Cows. A deficiency in one part of the 
 body is usually accompanied by deficiencies in other parts which one acquiring 
 the art of judging should soon learn. An expert is able to judge the character of 
 an animal quite accurately by taking careful note of the head. A long, narrow 
 
22 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 head, for example, is usually accompanied by a long, narrow body. Good length 
 of body is desirable in a dairy cow, but a narrow head usually has small eyes 
 and nostrils and a small mouth. 
 
 A small, dull, listless eye expresses inability to do satisfactory work. Small 
 nostrils indicate contracted lung capacity and poor constitution. A small mouth 
 usually goes with small digestive capacity. Marked coarseness of bone, hide and 
 hair are indicative of low producing capacity. Heavy, coarse bones over the tops 
 of the shoulders, at the hip points, pin bones, in the tail and legs, are marks of 
 poor dairy temperament. 
 
 A body which is short and lacking in depth due to close, short or straight ribs 
 is objectionable because it detracts from the capacity for feed. The legs of an 
 animal often appear long on account of a small body. The floor of the chest 
 of a cow should be down to a point half way between the knee and elbow 
 joints of the forelegs. 
 
 Deficiencies which are common to the hind quarters of the cow, include short- 
 ness and narrowness of rump, a drooping rump, narrowness between the thurls 
 and pin bones and thickly fleshed thighs. Narrowness in the hind quarters, es- 
 pecially at the thurls and pin bones, is accompanied by thighs and hind legs 
 which are too close together to permit proper development of the udder. A 
 short rump and thick, heavy thighs are objectionable for the same reason. 
 
 There is practically always opportunity for criticising an udder on irregular- 
 ity of quarters, handling quality, or attachment. An udder does not necessarily 
 have to score perfectly to be capable of making a large production of milk, but 
 it is desirable to have it large in proportion to the size of the cow and extend 
 high up behind and well forward in front, with the quarters equally developed and 
 of pliable handling quality. Teats which are too short, too close together or 
 irregularly placed and inconvenient for milking, are often noted. 
 
 It is impossible to define perfection in the mammary veins, owing to the 
 great variation in their development. Small, straight veins extending only a 
 short distance forward from the udder and having very few, if any, branches, are 
 characteristic of the veins on poor cows. A network of fair sized veins entering 
 two or more wells on each side of the body, may be considered equal to larger and 
 more prominent veins without branches and extensions. 
 
 Constitution and Breeding Essential. A strong constitution is highly 
 essential for the reason that the work of the cow is strenuous when she is fed 
 for maximum production. A cow lacking vitality is rarely ever a good feeder, 
 and consequently is unsatisfactory for milk production. The cow which has 
 a constitution to enable her to be useful for a period of 10 or 12 years in mak- 
 ing a large production of milk and regularly bearing offspring, is most profit- 
 able. 
 
 The breeding or ancestry of a cow largely determines her characteristics, 
 the use she makes of her feed and the characteristics of her calves. The dairy 
 cow, by virtue of her breeding, has the characteristics of some one of the 
 recognized dairy breeds. Dairy breeding insures against disappointment when 
 one buys or raises a cow for milk production. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 23 
 
 Records of Production a Sure Test. The cow is very much like a race 
 horse when it comes to judging her ability to perform. Both the race horse and 
 the cow must be judged by means of the eye assisted by the record of perform- 
 ance. The milk scale and the Babcock tester assisted by judgment of the eye, 
 are the best means of exercising judgment in building up a profitable dairy herd. 
 Persistently following- this means of judging will lead to the establishment of a 
 herd which is both pleasing to the eye and capable of a large and profitable pro- 
 duction of milk and butter fat. Every dairyman can afford to weigh the milk 
 from each cow at each milking and have a sample of the milk of each cow tested 
 once a month. Results accurate enough for all practical purposes may thus be 
 secured. 
 
 Milk Scale and Tester Increase Profits. If judging by means of the milk 
 scale and tester were employed on every dairy farm, feed worth millions of dol- 
 lars, now being eaten by cows which do not pay their cost of keep, would be 
 saved annually or converted into milk and the value of dairy products of the 
 state would be greatly increased. 
 
 The Advanced Registry system, maintained by dairy cattle associations, 
 records the milk and butter fat production of pure bred cows officially tested, 
 and renders valuable aid in judging pure bred dairy animals on the basis of their 
 ability to perform. A Cow Testing Association, which is usually a group of 
 twenty-six farmers united to hire a man to weigh and test the milk and keep 
 records of feed costs and milk production, is the best means for having entire 
 herds of cows tested. It pays to belong to such an association. Only by elim- 
 inating the poorer cows of the herd can a high herd average be maintained. A 
 breeder of dairy cattle who is particularly anxious to improve the quality and 
 excellence of the herd will be careful to judge dairy cattle by means of the eye 
 assisted by a careful consideration of milk and butter fat production. Further- 
 more, attention should be given to the pedigree of the animals. 
 
 A Good Family Tends to Insure Good Cows. The pedigree of an animal 
 is a record of its ancestors, or family. The ordinary pedigree usually shows the 
 ancestors for five or six generations. The value of the pedigree lies in the funda- 
 mental law of nature that "like produces like." Where ancestors of a given an- 
 imal are known to be good, one can judge more accurately than by the eye alone. 
 The careful dairyman, who is anxious to build up the best possible herd, will 
 find it profitable to study carefully the individuality, pedigree and performance 
 of his cattle. 
 
 FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW. 
 
 Feeding Dairy Cows. The prime object in dairying is to convert feed 
 into milk and money. Healthy cows of dairy type and breeding- and an 
 abundance of feed suitable for dairy rations, are two equally important factors 
 in mil'k production. 
 
 When prime grass pasture in abundance is available, good cows produce 
 milk profitably and require very little of the dairyman's attention to the 
 
24 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 matter of feeding. Many cows are unprofitable, however, for the reason that 
 they have been underfed, improperly managed, or allowed to live an easy, 
 unproductive life. 
 
 The following fundamental facts are important to consider in feeding 
 dairy cows: 
 
 That cows are machines which convert feed into milk. 
 
 That each cow requires a maintenance ration whether milking or dry, 
 and that feed additional to the maintenance ration is required for milk pro- 
 duction. 
 
 That feed is the source of milk and that cows produce milk throughout 
 the greater part of their lactation periods in proportion to the kinds and 
 amounts of feed supplied. Cows which are heavy feeders are usually large 
 and economical producers* 
 
 Practical Suggestions on Feeding and Management. Dairy cows require 
 careful attention at all seasons of the year if one hopes to secure the most 
 profitable returns from them. In order to have conditions suitable for suc- 
 cessfully feeding and keeping up a full flow of milk, the following practical 
 suggestions are offered : 
 
 At All Times. Treat cows gently and avoid excitement. The treatment 
 cows receive in these respects has a marked effect on their production. 
 
 Follow a regular schedule of daily work, remembering that cows are 
 creatures of habit. 
 
 Weigh the milk of each cow at each milking. The time spent doing so 
 is well paid for by the increased interest and production it secures. 
 
 Regulate the amount of feed by the milk record and the individuality of 
 each cow. 
 
 Allow free access to salt daily. Granulated or lump stock sale" is most 
 economical. Three-fourths of an ounce per 1,000 Ibs. of live weight daily, 
 plus six-tenths of an ounce for each 20 Ibs. of milk, is regarded sufficient 
 where salt must be mixed with the feed. 
 
 Give cows six to eight weeks rest between lactation periods. Feed them 
 during the resting period in a manner to increase their weight and strength 
 if they are in a rundown condition. 
 
 Discard the cow which has had a fair chance and failed at the end of the 
 year to pay market prices for all the feed she has consumed. One cannot 
 afford to feed and care for cows that do not pay expenses. 
 
 Belong to a dairy cattle breeders' association, a cow testing association 
 and other organizations that will help to keep one posted and in touch with 
 the best up-to-date methods of managing a dairy herd. 
 
 At Calving Time. Have cows in good condition. It gives reserve energy 
 for milk production. 
 
 Keep them in comfortable, clean box stalls, or a suitable place for calving. 
 
 Be prepared to treat an attack of milk fever, which may occur within the 
 first forty-eight hours after calving in the case of cows that have passed their 
 first lactation period. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 25 
 
 Guard against cows becoming chilled immediately after calving by blan- 
 keting if necessary. 
 
 Do not milk heavily producing cows completely dry for a few days after 
 freshening. It is not Nature's practice and has often been the means of 
 producing milk fever. 
 
 Feed fresh cows sparingly the first few days after calving. Water with 
 the chill removed, a few quarts of scalded bran or oats, and good hay, is suf- 
 ficient for a cow the first day or two after calving. The condition of the 
 cow should determine the manner in which she is fed following the first two 
 or three days. It ordinarily requires two to three weeks to gradually work 
 cows onto full feed. For best results one should be cautious not to over-feed 
 or allow the cow at any time to get off feed or out of condition. 
 
 Remove the afterbirth if necessary inside of forty-eight hours after calv- 
 ing and do not allow it to be eaten. 
 
 In Winter Time. Do not turn cows out to remain and suffer in cold or 
 stormy weather. It prevents the right use of feed and reduces the milk pro- 
 duction. Remember that cows do not have thick coverings of flesh like beef 
 cattle to protect them from the cold. 
 
 Do not depend on frozen pasture for feed in late fall and the early winter. 
 Cows that go off in milk production at this season are difficult to make profit-- 
 able during the winter. 
 
 Keep cows in clean, comfortable, well lighted and properly ventilated 
 stables. Pure, fresh air is as important as feed. 
 
 Brush cows daily. It pays better than grooming horses, which, as a rule, 
 is not neglected. 
 
 Provide water two or three times daily which is not colder than that from 
 a deep well. A tank heater is a profitable investment if necessary to warm 
 water for cows. 
 
 Feed daily three pounds of corn silage or roots and one pound of clover 
 or alfalfa hay for each 100 Ibs. of live weight. These are approximate amounts 
 and serve merely as a guide in feeding roughage to cows. 
 
 Feed cows 1 Ib. of grain mixture for^ every 3 to 4 Ibs. of milk produced. 
 This will be equivalent to feeding about 7 Ibs. of grain for 1 Ib. of butter fat 
 produced. Cows producing milk with high per cent of butter fat should re- 
 ceive the larger amount of grain. 
 
 In Summer Time. Do not try to save feed by turning to pasture too 
 early in the season. It is bad for both cows and pasture. 
 
 Provide plenty of pure, fresh water, shade and protection against flies. 
 
 Supplement poor pastures with corn silage or green soiling crops like 
 rye, oats and peas, green corn fodder, and other available feed. Keep up the 
 production by feeding hay and grain if necessary. 
 
 A Winter Schedule for Dairy Barn Work. Cows as well as people are to 
 a very large extent creatures of habit, and regularity in all work pertaining 
 
26 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 to management of the herd is most easily and successfully accomplished by 
 following a definite schedule. Irregularity in feeding and milking times re- 
 duces the year's production of cows very materially. The following schedule 
 for herd and barn work is offered as a suggestion : 
 
 Morning. Afternoon. 
 
 4 :30 Feed grain. 3 :00 Reclean stables. 
 
 4:45 Milk cows. 4:00 Water cows. 
 
 6:15 Feed silage. 4:15 Feed grain.* 
 
 6 :30 Feed hay. 4 :30 Milk cows. 
 
 7 :30 Water cows. 6 :00 Feed silage. 
 
 7 :45 Clean stables and bed cows. 6 :15 Feed hay. 
 
 9 :00 Groom cows/ 8 :00 Water cows and arrange bed- 
 ding. 
 
 Turn cows out each day for one-half to two hours, unless it is extremely 
 cold or stormy. 
 
 *If barn is well ventilated and there is no difficulty from silage flavor 
 in milk, the grain and silage may be fed together. 
 
 The Selection of Feeds for Dairy Rations. Dairy rations ordinarily con- 
 sist of a combination of concentrated feeds and roughages. Concentrated 
 feeds include farm grains, by-products of grains and a mixture of feeds 
 offered on the market as commercial feeding stuffs. Roughages include 
 various kinds of hay, silage, soiling crops, roots, fodder and straw. Straw and 
 the poorer grades of hay and fodder should be fed to dry stock and the better 
 grades of roughages saved for cows that are fresh and capable of doing the 
 best work. 
 
 Home-Made Grain Mixtures for Dairy Cows. These mixtures are more 
 satisfactory and, at normal prices, less expensive for milk production than 
 feeding farm grown grains exclusively. Dairymen in every community should 
 co-operate with their local feed dealers or feed agents to secure these feeding 
 stuffs at the most reasonable prices. 
 
 No. 1. Lbs. No. 3. Lbs. 
 
 Wheat bran 40 Corn and cob meal 20 
 
 Gluten feed 10 Ground oats . 30 
 
 Ground oats 20 Wheat bran 40 
 
 Corn meal 20 Oil meal 10 
 
 Oil meal 10 
 
 No. 4. Lbs. 
 
 No. 2. Lbs. Ground oats 25 
 
 Wheat bran 30 Corn meal 25 
 
 Corn meal 25 Wheat bran 20 
 
 Ground oats 30 Malt sprouts 20 
 
 Oil meal . , 15 Oil meal . , 10 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 27 
 
 No. 5. Lbs. No. 7. Lbs. 
 
 Dist. grains 30 Wheat bran 40 
 
 Wheat bran 30 Corn meal or hominy 30 
 
 Ground oats 20 Dist. grain or gluten feed 20 
 
 Corn meal 15 Cottonseed meal 10 
 
 Oil meal 5 
 
 No. 6. Lbs. No. 8. Lbs. 
 
 Wheat bran 40 Wheat bran 40 
 
 Ground oats 35 Distillers' Grains 40 
 
 Gluten feed 25 Cottonseed meal 20 
 
 A complete ration for a cow weighing approximately 1,000 Ibs. may be 
 made by feeding 1 Ib. of grain for every 3 or 4 Ibs. of milk produced in addition 
 to: 
 
 30 Ibs. of corn silage or soiling, and 10 Ibs. hay, (clover or alfalfa 
 
 preferred), or 
 
 30 Ibs. roots arid 15 Ibs. of hay, or 
 8 Ibs. dried beet pulp soaked 12 to 24 hours prior to feeding and 10 
 
 Ibs. hay, or 
 
 20 Ibs. of hay with 1 to 2 Ibs. of oil meal extra. 
 
 Cows which give milk of high percent of butterfat should receive 1 Ib. 
 of grain for every 3 Ibs. of milk produced, and cows exceeding 1,000 Ibs. in 
 live weight should receive a relatively larger amount of hay and silage or 
 roots. If dried distillers' grains are not available, gluten feed, dried brewers' 
 grains or malt sprouts, with preference in the order named, may be substituted 
 for them. Barley, hominy, rye or Kafir grain may be substituted for corn. 
 Equal parts of bran and corn meal are a substitute for oats when prices and 
 the available supply necessitates. Cotton seed meal does not have the laxative 
 property that oil meal contains, but with succulent feeds like silage and roots 
 and other laxative feeds like bran, clover and alfalfa hay, may be fed to good 
 advantage as a substitute in supplying protein. 
 
 THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS. 
 
 Feeds for dairy rations are selected and purchased largely on the basis 
 of their values and composition. Feeding stuffs are composed primarily of 
 water, crude fiber, crude protein and fat. The more important compounds 
 that all feeds contain and that should be carefully considered in the selection 
 of feeds for rations are: dry matter, crude fiber, protein, carbohydrates and 
 fat 
 
 Dry Matter. The portion of a feeding stuff "that would remain if the 
 water or moisture contained therein were driven off by heat. It constitutes 
 the main mass or bulk of feeds. An excess of moisture should be guarded 
 against. It may incur the loss of feed and in buying one does not want to 
 pay for more moisture than is necessary. 
 
28 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 -o 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 29 
 
 Crude Fiber. The woody portion of feeds having a low nutritive value. 
 Farm grown grains of good quality range in fiber from 2 percent for corn 
 to approximately 11 percent for oats. Wheat bran of good quality averages 
 about 10. percent fiber, although it is most often guaranteed at 11 or 12 per- 
 cent. As a rule it is not good economy to buy concentrated feeds containing 
 more than 12 to 14 percent crude fiber unless there is some compensating 
 factor like high protein content or a price per ton that warrants their sub- 
 stitution for other more expensive feeds. 
 
 Protein. The portion of feeding stuffs which contains nitrogen. The 
 whites of eggs and the casein or cheese part of milk are good examples. Feed 
 containing a high protein content are frequently spoken of as nitrogenous 
 feeds. Oil meal is a good example. Protein is used in the animal body essen- 
 tially for the production of muscular tissue, tendons, hide, hair and the casein 
 or cheese part of the milk. 
 
 Carbohydrates. The elements of feed rich in carbon and containing 
 oxygen and hydrogen. They do not contain nitrogen. Sugar and starch are 
 good examples. Carbohydrates and fat serve the purpose of 'supplying the 
 animal body with heat, energy for work, material for the repair of the body 
 tissues, the formation of body fat and the fat in milk. Feeds containing a 
 high percent of carbohydrates and a comparatively low percent of protein 
 are frequently called carbonaceous feeds. Corn is a good example. 
 
 Fat. The oil of feeds. Fat serves the same purpose as carbohydrates 
 and is 2.25 times as valuable. 
 
 BUYING FEEDS FOR DAIRY RATIONS. 
 
 The greatest opportunity to profit in buying feeds is : 
 
 To learn to know the quality and values of different kinds of feeds for 
 milk production. 
 
 To know where, when and how feeds may be secured at the most reason- 
 able prices. 
 
 To co-operate with other dairymen in buying feed in large quantities. 
 
 To have a suitable place for storing purchased feeds where their cleanli- 
 ness and palatability will not be lessened by rats, mice and dampness. 
 
 DESCRIPTION AND DEFINITION OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS. 
 
 A brief description of the concentrated feeds commonly used in mixtures 
 for dairy cattle in the Northwest will be helpful in selecting and utilizing them. 
 
 Corn. Corn in the form of meal or chops regardless of its being dent, 
 flint or of various colors, is valuable as part of a dairy ration. It is palatable 
 and one of the best sources of energy. On account of its low protein contents 
 and heavy nature, it is best to feed it in combination with feeds of bulkier 
 and comparatively heavier protein contents. Commercial corn meal, corn 
 chop and corn feed 'meal may be considered equal in feeding value. 
 
30 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Corn meal may be the entire ground corn grain or corn meal and by- 
 products of corn grain. The corn feed meal is the sifting obtained in the 
 manufacture of cracked corn and table corn meal. Corn germ meal or germ 
 oil meal is the corn germ layer from which a part of the oil ha.s been extracted 
 and is secured in the manufacture of starch, glucose and other corn products. 
 It is not ordinarily used in dairy rations. 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal. Corn and cob meal is the result of grinding corn 
 and cob. In order to lighten and give bulk to the mixture, ear corn is often 
 ground for dairy rations. It should be finely ground to insure best results and 
 avoid digestive disturbances. 
 
 Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed. Gluten meal is a corn by-product remain- 
 ing afte'r the starch germ and bran have been removed in the process of manu- 
 facturing cornstarch and glucose. Gluten feed is the finely ground combina- 
 tion of gluten meal and corn bran. It is very frequently used in mixtures of 
 considerable variety, to supply protein in dairy rations. A mixture of equal 
 parts of gluten feed and wheat bran with corn silage and alfalfa hay has 
 proven satisfactory as a ration for dairy cows. 
 
 Continental Gluten Feed. This by-product is a dried distillers' grain and 
 should be considered in a class with distillers' grains rather than as gluten 
 feed. 
 
 Hominy Feed, Hominy Meal, Hominy Chop. These feeds are a mixture 
 of bran, the germ and a part of the starchy portion of corn obtained in the 
 manufacture of hominy grits and brewers' grits. It is similar in composition 
 to corn meal, is somewhat bulkier and keeps better in storage. It is a suitable 
 feed to take the place of corn meal in dairy rations. 
 
 Wheat By-products. Bran, shorts or standard middlings, flour or wheat 
 middlings and Red dog flour are by-products of wheat suitable for dairy 
 rations. 
 
 Wheat Bran. This is the outer coatings of the wheat kernel. It is gen- 
 erally regarded one of the very best feeds for cows. It is slightly laxative, 
 keeps the cow's digestive system in good condition and gives bulk and palata- 
 bility to the ration. Bran contains a high proportion of phosphorus and 
 potash in its ash content. 25 to 50 percent of a mixture for dairy cows can 
 well be bran. The price and other available feeds should determine the 
 amount used. Bran that is pure has a higher feeding value than bran with 
 mill run screenings which is pure bran plus the screenings which are separated 
 from the wheat used in preparing the bran. In buying large quantities of bran 
 it is well to secure samples and buy subject to them. 
 
 Shorts or Standard Wheat Middlings. Shorts or standard wheat mid- 
 dlings consist of the finer particles of bran with considerable flour adhering. 
 
 Flour or Wheat Middlings. These are the portions of ground wheat 
 separated from the fine flour and coarse bran. 
 
 Red Dog Flour. This is a 'low grade of wheat flour containing chiefly 
 the wheat germs. It is comparatively rich in protein and more valuable than 
 middlings. These feeds are less bulky, less laxative and contain a smaller 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 31 
 
 quantity of ash than wheat bran. They are slightly higher in protein and in 
 total nutrients than wheat bran and usually higher in price. Their pasty 
 condition when moist necessitates using them in mixtures having considerable 
 variety to insure palatability. 
 
 Wheat Screenings. They consist of broken, shrivelled wheat kernels, 
 weed seeds and other foreign material. Screenings should be finely ground 
 to overcome the growth of noxious weeds from seeds which may pass un- 
 injured through animals and be carried to -the fields in manure. They may 
 be regarded as more valuable for sheep feeding than for dairy rations. Except 
 as bran with mill-run screenings in the ration, they are not generally used for 
 dairy cattle. 
 
 BARLEY, OATS AND RYE. 
 
 Barley. Barley is a palatable feed and substitute for corn meal where 
 the price permits. Like corn it should be ground and fed in combination with 
 other feeds that increase the bulk and protein of the mixture. 
 
 Oats. When ground oats compare with bran in price, they are well 
 adapted for feeding dairy 'cattle. They are bulky, palatable and slightly 
 laxative. The price should determine the amount included in grain mixtures. 
 
 Rye. Rye is not especially palatable and tends to produce a tallowy 
 butter. Its composition is similar to corn and if fed to dairy cows should be 
 mixed with other feeds. 
 
 Ernmer or Speltz. This grain is a part of the wheat family grown in 
 semi-arid regions. In composition it is similar to barley and corn. Feeding 
 trials with dairy cows indicate that its value is more than 10 per cent less 
 than that of barley or corn. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT BY-PRODUCTS. 
 
 Buckwheat Hulls. These are the black wheat hulls of buckwheat grain 
 dnd have little feeding value. 
 
 Buckwheat Middlings. These are the part of the kernel immediately 
 under the hulls which are separated from the flour in the process of milling. 
 They are heavy and are best fed in comparatively small quantities in com- 
 bination with other feeds. They are often a cheap source of protein. 
 
 Buckwheat Bran or Feed. This is a combination of middlings and a 
 given per cent of hulls, and possesses a feeding value considerably lower than 
 that of middlings. 
 
 Dried Distillers' Grains. The dried residue from corn obtained in the 
 manufacture of alcohol and distilled liquors constitutes a bulky, palatable, 
 high protein feed for dairy cows. Dried distillers' grains from rye possess 
 less than two-thirds the value of dried distillers' grains from corn. 25 to 40 
 per cent of the grain mixture for dairy cows can well be corn dried distillers' 
 grains. 
 
 Brewers' Dried Grains. These grains are the properly dried residue from 
 cereals used in the manufacture of beer. They constitute a bulky feed rich 
 
32 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 in protein. In combination with feeds that insure palatability they serve well 
 in dairy rations. It is often necessary to develop the appetite of cows for 
 them by gradually introducing them into the mixture. 
 
 Brewers' Wet Grains. The freshly extracted residue obtained in malting 
 and brewing grains for beer provides a suitable feed for dairy cattle. On 
 farms near breweries where the grains can be secured and kept and utilized in 
 a fresh, wholesome condition, 20 to 30 Ibs. per head daily may be fed with 
 hay and other roughage. 
 
 Malt Sprouts. As a source of protein, malt sprouts mixed with other 
 feeds to insure palatability, may be fed to good advantage to dairy cows. 
 They are the shrivelled sprouts from dried malt grains. The amount fed daily 
 should not exceed 2 Ibs. unless they are soaked before feeding. 
 
 Linseed Oil Meal. The ground residue of flaxseed obtained in the process 
 of extracting oil from flaxseed, can well be 5 to 20 per cent of the grain 
 mixture for dairy cattle. Old process oil meal refers to the residue obtained 
 from crushing the flaxseed and pressing out the oil. New process oil meal 
 is the result of crushing the flaxseed and dissolving out the oil meal with 
 naphtha. In the United States nearly all the linseed oil meal is made by the 
 old process which is regarded the better process from the feeder's standpoint. 
 Oil meal is laxative and is valuable for conditioning animals as well as in 
 furnishing protein. 
 
 Cotton Seed Meal and Cotton Seed Feed. Cotton seed meal is the finely 
 ground residue secured in extracting oil from cotton seed. The meal is graded 
 on the basis of its protein content. Choice refers to meal excellent in quality, 
 sweet in odor, yellow in color without excess of lint and contains at least 41 
 per cent of protein. Prime refers to meal similar to choice and contains only 
 38.6 per cent protein. Good refers to meal finely ground, not necessarily 
 bolted, however, of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color and must contain 
 at least 36 per cent of protein. Cotton seed meal is slightly constipating and 
 is used largely as a source of protein. Prices often warrant using 5 to 20 per 
 cent of cotton seed meal in mixtures for dairy cattle. 
 
 Dried Beet Pulp. The dried residue of feeds used in the manufacture 
 of sugar is commonly used as a feed, for dairy cattle. This feed is best used 
 when soaked 24 hours prior to feeding it and fed in combination with other 
 feeds. Approximately 8 Ibs. of dried beet pulp soaked 12 to 24 hours offers 
 a substitute for green roots or corn silage. The pulp is often fed to good 
 advantage, to give variety to rations for test cows. 
 
 Alfalfa Meal. Commercial alfalfa meal is the entire alfalfa hay ground 
 without an admixture of ground alfalfa straw or foreign materials, except in 
 combination with molasses to keep down the dust and with feeds that require 
 greater bulk and palatability, alfalfa is best fed to dairy cattle in the form 
 of hay. Dairymen desiring to use alfalfa meal should consider the possibility 
 of grinding their own hay and mixing it to suit their needs. 
 
 Mixed Dairy Feeds. These vary in their character owing to the nature 
 of the materials of which they are composed. Some possess merit and others 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 
 33 
 
 cannot be considered desirable feeds. Mixed dairy feeds containing less than 
 8 per cent of crude protein and as much as 20 per cent of crude fiber, do not 
 constitute good concentrated feeds even if sold at attractive prices. 
 
 DAIRY FARM ORGANIZATION. 
 
 A well organized and well tilled dairy farm does much to provide suitable 
 feeds and to reduce the cost of feeds for dairy cattle. A rotation that will 
 provide an abundance of corn silage, alfalfa, clover or mixed hay, one or more 
 cereal grains and pasture in rotation or of a permanent kind, should be adopted 
 and secured as early as possible. 
 
 Pastures in most sections cannot be depended upon for feed throughout 
 the summer and soiling crops or the silo for summer silage should be provided. 
 The following tabulation of crops offers a suggestion on a series of crops that 
 may be grown for soiling purposes. The acreage under average conditions 
 is considered sufficient for ten cows that have the benefit of good grass pasture 
 for right pasture. 
 
 A SUCCESSION OF SOILING CROPS FOR DAIRY COWS 
 
 Pounds 
 CROP Seed 
 per 
 Acre 
 
 Time 
 of 
 Sowing 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Degree 
 of 
 Maturity 
 
 Pala- 
 tability 
 
 Time 
 of 
 Cutting 
 
 Daily 
 Feed 
 per 
 Cow 
 
 Acre- 
 age for 
 10 
 Cows 
 
 Fall rye . . 168 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 May 15- June 1 
 
 June 1-15 
 June 15-25 
 
 June 25-July 5 
 -July 5-15 
 
 July 15-25 
 July 15-30 
 
 Aug. 1-15 
 Aug. 15-25 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 10-25 
 Sept. 25-Oct. 10 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 36 
 
 32 
 32 
 
 32 . 
 36 
 
 42 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 1/3 
 
 1/3 
 
 1/8 
 
 1/6 
 1/6 
 1/6 
 
 Before blooming 
 
 Before blooming 
 In bloom 
 
 In milk 
 In milk 
 
 In milk 
 Before blooming 
 
 Mature 
 In silk 
 
 When well headed 
 
 In silk 
 Mature 
 
 Poor 
 
 Fair 
 Fair 
 
 Average 
 Average 
 
 Average 
 Average 
 
 Good 
 Very 
 good 
 Very 
 good 
 
 Very 
 good 
 Good 
 
 \lfalfa 20 
 
 Red clover 20 
 Peas and oats. P60-O48 
 Peas and oats. P 60 O48 
 Oats . . 80 
 
 
 Apr. 16 
 Apr. 26 
 May 5 
 
 2d crop alfalfa . . 
 
 Rape 2.5 
 
 May 26 
 May 20 
 
 June 1 
 
 May 31 
 July 20 
 
 1/8 
 
 1/8 
 
 1/10 
 
 1/8 
 1/8 
 
 Flint corn 
 
 Sorghum 50 
 
 Evergreen 
 sweet corn .... 
 
 Rane.. 2.5 
 
 Total acreage 1.9 
 
 Soiling Crops vs. Silage for Dairy Cows. There are several reasons why 
 the silo is a better source of feed for cows in summer than land seeded to soil- 
 ing crops: 
 
 It requires less labor to grow corn for silage than it does to grow a 
 variety of soiling crops. 
 
34 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 35 
 
 The seed for a crop of corn to put into the silo costs less than the seed 
 for sowing soiling crops. 
 
 The labor required to put up and feed a given amount of silage will be 
 less expensive than the labor required to secure and feed soiling crops. The 
 inconvenience of feeding silage will also be much less. 
 
 Corn for silage returns a large tonnage per acre and is much less sus- 
 ceptible to loss due to drought or over-ripe condition. 
 
 Silage provides a more uniform feed. as regards quality and palatability 
 than one is assured of getting in soiling crops. 
 
 On the whole it is much easier to control conditions that insure good 
 silage than it is to control those which insure good soiling crops. 
 
 Silos and Silage. The organization of dairy and general live stock farms 
 is not complete without one or more silos. Silos made of concrete, brick, wood 
 and other materials which insure an air-tight wall, are in general use, and 
 satisfactory. The chief differences between silos are in cost, durability and 
 expense for repairs. 
 
 Crops Suitable for the Silo. A silo is most valuable for the storage of 
 corn that is harvested when the ears are nicely glazed or the crop is ordinarily 
 ready to be put into the shock. Peas and oats cut when the oats are in the 
 milk or dough stage, freshly cut clover and alfalfa, a mixture of corn and clover, 
 alfalfa or soy beans, shock corn or stover mixed with beet tops, and refuse 
 from canning factories, may also be stored in the silo to good advantage. Two 
 bushels of peas and one bushel of oats mixed and sown at the rate of two bushels 
 per acre, can usually be cut with a grain binder and handled very conveniently when 
 ready for the silo. They make an excellent means for providing summer silage 
 for dairy cows where there is not an abundance of corn silage. Clover or alfalfa 
 is best made into hay and only when the weather does not permit good hay being 
 made is it advisable to put these crops into the silo. Late cuttings of these 
 crops mixed with corn, increase the amount and add to the protein content of 
 silage. 
 
 Silage an Economic Feed. Three tons of corn silage contain practically 
 the same amount of digestible nutrients as one ton of hay and require only one- 
 third as much storage space. The entire plant is usually put into the silo, thus 
 there is the least chance of waste. The loss of dry matter from corn when 
 shocked, husked and handled in the usual manner, ranges from 20 to 25 per- 
 cent. Properly put into the silo the loss is only 5 to 10 percent, and the crop is 
 preserved in a manner to yield a uniform quality of feed as long" as it lasts, and 
 comes the nearest to being a substitute for good grass pasture of any other feed. 
 
 Corn silage is especially valuable for dairy and beef cattle, sheep and 
 horses. Hogs like it, but do not utilize it in a manner to warrant their receiving 
 it. All classes of animals need to be gradually accustomed to silage, after which 
 dairy cattle may receive 25 to 40 pounds per head daily, beef and growing 
 cattle 15 to 20 pounds, sheep 1 to 2 pounds, and horses 10 to 15 pound?. 
 Horses must be fed judiciously and guarded against colic. 
 
 A silo on a dairy farm saves 25 to 30 percent of the amount of hay other- 
 
36 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 wise required. It provides excellent succulent feed with which to supplement 
 or replace summer pastures that are short or spoiled by drought. 
 
 Silo Troubles Not Serious. Mold, due to improperly mixing and packing 
 the silage at time of filling, or not feeding it at a rate to keep the surface from 
 spoiling, and freezing in winter are the chief difficulties experienced with silos. 
 Moldy silage is injurious and must not be fed. Frozen silage is dangerous and 
 should not be fed until after being thawed out, when it is perfectly wholesome 
 if fed before mold develops. In winter time one should be careful to keep the 
 surface level or the outer edges slightly lower. Silage freezes from the top and 
 more about the edges than in the center. Covers to keep out the cold made with 
 straw or blankets are helpful. 
 
 Location of the Silo. The silo to protect the silage from freezing should 
 be located if possible at the south side of the barn. In extremely cold sections 
 it may be advisable to build the silo inside the barn. The diameter of the silo 
 should be such that it can be fed down at the rate of i l / 2 to 2 inches over the 
 entire surface each day. This rate of feeding is necessary to prevent mold and 
 to insure the best quality of feed. A silo of small diameter is most suitable 
 for summer feeding. 
 
 When to Fill the Silo. Corn makes the best silage when the majority 
 of the ears are dented or are just beginning to glaze. If corn is put into the 
 silo before this stage of maturity is reached, the silage becomes very sour or acid 
 and will have a low feeding value. 
 
 If the crop is allowed to get over-ripe or dry it does not pack well and being 
 deficient in moisture is almost certain to produce moldy silage. 
 
 Moisture Necessary for Good Silage. When the corn becomes dry from 
 being allowed to get ripe or due to frost, good silage can be made from it if 
 water is added at the time of filling. No definite rule can be given as to the 
 right amount of water to add. A sufficient amount should be used to insure 
 having the corn well packed. The water should be added during the process of 
 filling, otherwise it may fail to reach all the parts and thus cause moldy silage. 
 Water can be run into the blower or distributed in the silo by means of a hose. 
 
 Length to Cut Corn for Silage. Silage is usually cut in l / 2 -mch lengths. 
 If cut longer than this the cows refuse to eat the coarser portions of stalks and 
 thus cause waste. Dull cutter knives increase the amount of power required to 
 cut the corn and also leave it in a shredded condition which makes it difficult to 
 properly pack the silage. 
 
 Distribution of Corn in Silo Important. It is very essential that the 
 cut corn be well distributed at the time of filling. If this is not done the heavier 
 portions will fall in one place and the higher material in another. This will cause 
 the mass of silage to settle unevenly and spoiled silage will result. Thor- 
 oughly mixed fodder and corn are also desirable to insure best results in 
 feeding. 
 
 Silage Must Be Well Packed. During the process of filling the cut ma- 
 terial should be kept slightly higher at the edges than in the center and should 
 be well tramped against the sides where the friction of the silage against the 
 wall tends to prevent settling. Tramping in the center of the silo is not neces- 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 37 
 
 sary for the weight of a man is small compared to the weight of the silage. 
 Silos that are deep and of small diameter require less tramping than those of 
 larger dimensions. Two competent men in a silo who understand the importance 
 of securing well packed silage are insurance against loss. 
 
 Sealing the Surface. It is not necessary to put on any cover after fill- 
 ing is completed. A few inches of the top will always spoil. If the ears are re- 
 moved from the last few loads of corn nothing will be lost except the fodder. If 
 there happens to be some refuse close by such as weeds, slew grass, or waste 
 from the barn floor, to put on, the saving will pay for the extra labor. The usual 
 practice of sealing is to wet down the surface immediately after filling and to 
 tramp thoroughly several times during the first week. By this method a seal of 
 rotten silage will form on the top and only a few inches will be spoiled. This 
 crust should not be broken until feeding begins when all the spoiled silage should 
 be removed and discarded. 
 
 The silo should be well ventilated until heating and fermentation is over. 
 
 Silage from Sugar Beet Tops and Shock Corn. Sugar beet tops and shock 
 corn have been successfully cut up together for silage at the University of Wis- 
 consin. The silage had a slightly stronger odor than the ordinary corn silage 
 but was not offensive. Cows relished it and did as well on it as they did on regular 
 corn silage. Chemical analysis showed that this silage had practically the same 
 feeding value as clear corn silage. Professor Henry states that the leaves of sugar 
 beets have about half the feeding value of the roots. Taking into consideration 
 this fact one is impressed with the importance of utilizing the beet tops for feed. 
 Making them into silage with corn fodder proved so satisfactory that it seems 
 worth while to publish the fact as a suggestion to the many farmers who grow 
 large crops of sugar beets and who are undoubtedly facing the problem of how 
 best to utilize the tops for feeding purposes. 
 
 After the beets were removed from the field, the tops which had been left 
 in small piles were run through an ensilage cutter into the silo with about an 
 equal quantity of corn fodder taken from the shock. By throwing beet tops onto 
 a large layer of corn and running both through the cutter together, no difficulty 
 was experienced in 1 getting the beet tops cut. Enough water was added to the cut 
 material to give it proper moisture and make it pack well when two men tramped 
 it during the time of filling. 
 
 The Dairy Barn. No cow can be kept in a healthy condition in a dark, 
 poorly ventilated stable. Sunlight is a disinfectant and insures healthy cows and 
 conditions under which milk can be produced in a most satisfactory manner. 
 Barns 36 feet wide and extending lengthwise north and south are best lighted. 
 Four to six square feet of window sash should be provided for each cow. The 
 stable should be properly ventilated and kept clean as well as supplied with plenty 
 of light. The King system of ventilation which provides a circulation of fresh air 
 and at the' same time renders the stable comfortably warm, is highly recom- 
 mended. This system admits air through flues with opening into the stable near 
 the ceiling, and draws the stable air out through another set of flues with openings 
 from the stable near the floor of the stable. The Rutherford system of having 
 
38 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 a more direct intake and outtake of air with the amount properly regulated, is 
 also highly recommended. 
 
 Frequent applications of whitewash over the walls and ceiling of the stable, 
 keep stables clean and disinfected. Cobwebs and dust should not be allowed to 
 collect. Where hay is kept in a loft above the stable, there should be no cracks 
 in the floor through which dust can sift. Dust that rises at feeding time and in 
 the process of bedding cattle, should have settled before the hours of milking. 
 The stable manure should be removed frequently and doors and windows 
 screened during fly seasons. It pays to groom cows and wipe the udders with 
 a damp cloth just prior to milking; use half-covered pails in which to milk 
 and strain the milk through a strainer provided with a layer of absorbent cotton. 
 These practices render milk most free from dirt and bacteria. 
 
 The Production and Handling of Market Milk. To further insure the 
 highest grade of market milk, the milkers should be provided with clean, white 
 suits and have facilities for washing their hands before milking each cow. Dairy- 
 men should also be particular to have men in charge of the herd and employed 
 to do the milking who are in perfect -health and who especially are free from 
 contagious and infectious diseases. The expense of producing milk with bacteria 
 reduced to a point beloyv 10,000 per cubic centimeter, the standard for certified 
 milk, necessitates dairymen receiving prices for their milk that are considerably 
 above the ordinary prices charged for market milk. 
 
 "Milk is highly perishable and susceptible to foreign odors and flavors. Every 
 precaution must be taken to avoid contamination. All utensils used for milk 
 should be carefully washed by using washing powders, sterilized with boiling 
 water or live steam and kept where they will not come in contact with dust or 
 dirt Pails, cans and containers of all kinds should be constructed in a manner 
 to have all cracks filled with solder or the surface with which the milk comes 
 in contact perfectly smooth, to prevent the collection of dirt or stale milk that 
 is the source of contamination. 
 
 The milk room should be separated from the stable, and be provided with 
 walls and floors which are easily washed and cleaned. The doors and windows 
 should be screened and ventilation provided to insure the circulation of pure, 
 fresh air. A milk room provided with hot and cold water, racks for utensils and 
 arranged for the convenient handling of milk, is essential to the successful handling 
 of milk. 
 
 As soon as milk for the market is drawn from the cow, it should be properly 
 cooled and bottled or put into containers and kept cool. The quicker this can be 
 done after milking, the less difficulty there will be in keeping the milk sweet and 
 wholesome. Warm milk should never be mixed with cool milk. Milk that has to 
 be separated for producing cream or for standardization purposes is best separated 
 immediately after milking and then subjected to the cooling process. 
 
 The care and handling of market milk does not cease with the delivery on the 
 part of the producer. The patron who is supplied must see to keeping the milk 
 where it will remain cool and be free from bad odors, flies and other sources of 
 contamination. The producer should emphasize this fact to safeguard his busi- 
 ness. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 RAISING DAIRY CALVES. 
 
 39 
 
 The best way to get a profit-producing dairy herd is to use only good, pure 
 bred sires, take good care of the cows, and keep the calves "coming" right from 
 birth. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon a good sire. 
 
 The Dairy Sire. There are three qualifications which every sire should 
 
 Normal position of calf in utero. 
 
 Showing position of twin calves in womb. 
 
 Method of putting rope on calf to 
 assist cow in calving. Clean, well 
 oiled hands should be used in push- 
 ing rope into neck of womb. 
 
40 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 possess. He should be pure bred and from a family of cattle having high milk 
 and butter fat production records. 
 
 He should be a well developed, strong, vigorous, individual possessing 
 depth and length of body indicating feed capacity and a muscular and angular 
 condition of body indicating a dairy disposition. 
 
 His dam should be of ideal type and character and capable of a large milk 
 and butter fat production. The proof of the value of every sire is in his get. It is 
 desirable to select mature sires that have proved themselves capable of producing 
 heifers that are of the most desirable type and character. Too many sires are 
 sacrificed before one has an opportunity to appreciate their value. 
 
 The Calf Should Be Well Born. To give the calf as well as its mother a 
 fair chance, a cow should be carefully dried off six weeks before date of calving. 
 This allows her to feed well her unborn calf and to get ready for her period of 
 milk production. Cows that are not given such rest usually produce weak and 
 undersized calves. In such cases both the cow and her calf are seriously handi- 
 capped. 
 
 From two to four pounds of grain a day, equal parts of bran and oats and one 
 pound of oil meal, make a good feed for the cow during the dry or rest period. 
 The amount of grain to be fed will, of course, depend upon the condition of 
 the cow. She should be placed in a clean and comfortable box stall several 
 days before calving. 
 
 Give Calf Colostrum, or "First Milk." The calf should be left with its 
 mother for the first two to four days so that it may get the colostrum, or "first 
 milk." From then until it is four weeks old it should be fed from two to five 
 pounds of its mother's milk three times a day. Many experienced breeders 
 feed calves which are weak a smaller amount but give it four times a day. It 
 is well to remember always that there is more danger from overfeeding a young 
 calf than from under-feeding it. Have the pails clean and the temperature of the 
 milk as near as possible that of freshly drawn milk, or about 95 to 100 degrees F. 
 
 Feed Skim Milk and Silage During Fifth Week. During the fifth week 
 change gradually from whole to skim milk. Do not increase the amount fed until 
 about the eighth week, when the calf needs from 6 to 10 pounds twice daily. 
 Froth, which rises on separator milk, should not be fed to calves. It is almost 
 sure to produce indigestion, bloat, and scours. ' If available, skim milk can be 
 fed profitably until the calf is a year or more old. In order to get the greatest re- 
 turns from the milk, the amount fed to any calf should not exceed 20 pounds 
 per day. Corn silage, free from coarse cobs and butts, and fed in small 
 amounts, makes a good feed for calves which are a month or six weeks of age. 
 
 Feed Hay and Grain Carefully. When the calf is from ten days to two 
 weeks old give it a small amount of choice mixed clover or alfalfa hay. A little 
 later feed a very small amount of grain and increase the allowance gradually as 
 the young animal develops. It is well to keep a calf a little hungry, rather than to 
 tax its digestive organs. A calf's appetite and the condition of its bowels are the 
 two arms to the guide-post which mark the course the feeder should follow. 
 
 Prevent young calves from eating coarse butts of fodder or cobs from silage 
 as these will cause serious indigestion and scours. Nothing of this kind should 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 41 
 
 be left in the feed or bedding. Occasionally, a craving appetite for hay and straw 
 results in too much being eaten and indigestion follows. In such cases separate 
 the ailing calf from its mates and reduce its feed until the appetite becomes 
 normal. 
 
 Don't Allow Calves to Suck One Another. The calves should be sep- 
 arated and penned in groups according to their ages. They can be fastened 
 in stanchions when milk is fed and grain can be supplied them immediately after 
 they drink. Feeding the grain at this time and keeping them locked in the 
 stanchions until the grain is eaten, helps to overcome the habit of sucking. Calves 
 that continue to suck one another after being turned loose should be separated 
 or some other means taken to prevent the practice. Heifers often have their 
 udders injured by being sucked. 
 
 Grain Mixture for Calves. A good grain mixture for young calves con- 
 sists of 50 parts of whole oats, 30 parts of wheat bran, 10 parts of corn meal, 
 and 10 parts of oil meal. After calves are six months old less grain will be 
 wasted if it is ground. The amount of grain fed should vary from a small 
 handful for the young calf to three pounds, or possibly more, in some instances, 
 to heifers from 24 to 30 months' of age. If, for any reason, a heifer is thin, 
 an extra amount of grain should be fed to get her in good condition. 
 
 Feed Calves Regularly the First Year. During the first year feed the 
 calves regularly in the barn and turn them out for exercise in shady paddocks 
 or during the nights only. This will insure satisfactory growth at an age when it 
 may be secured at lowest cost. Supply water and salt to the calves daily. 
 
 Grow Well and Breed the Second Year. During their second year feed 
 or pasture the heifers in such a way as to get the maximum growth. It has 
 been found that the most productive and profitable cows are produced by getting 
 the maximum growth from birth to maturity. Heifers which are bred at 
 from 16 to 20 months of age and that are in good flesh at calving time usually 
 develop satisfactorily. 
 
 Keep Stables Clean. Calf pens should be kept clean and comfortable. 
 The calves should be protected from cold cement floors by board overlays. Cold 
 draughts of air often prove fatal and should be carefully avoided. Abundant win- 
 dow space lets the sunlight in during the winter and in the summer can be 
 darkened to keep out flies and heat. The stable needs ventilating so as to supply 
 fresh air and to regulate the temperature. Young calves should never be exposed 
 to a hot, burning sun. Watch the calves carefully and whenever necessary, 
 treat them for lice and ringworm. 
 
 Raising Calves on Oil Meal Gruel. Where skim milk is not available 
 for feeding purposes, calves are likely to suffer and make an unsatisfactory growth. 
 However, if care be taken calves may be grown successfully without skim- 
 milk. In one of the prominent cheese districts of Wisconsin it was an interesting 
 fact that very few calves were fed whey. The whey is fed to pigs and the 
 calves raised on whole milk, oil meal gruel, and hay and grain. The usual prac- 
 tice is to feed whole milk regularly until the calf is from four to six weeks old. 
 Then a tablespoonful of oil meal, thoroughly cooked, is added to a pint of water 
 and substituted for a pint of the whole milk. Every third day following, an 
 
42 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 additional pint of water and a tablespoon ful of cooked oil meal is substituted for a 
 pint of the whole milk until half the milk ration consists of oil meal and water. 
 This half and half mixture is usually continued until the calf is from three to 
 four months old and able to do well on the ration of hay and grain. 
 
 The Whole Milk Method. In a prominent condensery district a breeder 
 of fine Holstein cattle who gets splendid size in his cows, feeds whole milk 
 until the calves are twelve weeks old and then depends on whole oats, hay and 
 pasture. 
 
 In all instances calves should be encouraged at as early an age as possible 
 to eat grain and hay. Oats alone, or bran and oats, or a mixture of 50 parts 
 oats, 30 parts bran, 10 parts corn meal, and 10 parts oil meal make a good 
 grain ration. Hay of fine quality, and preferably well cured second cutting 
 of clover or alfalfa, should be fed. Pure fresh water should be supplied daily. 
 Calves should have free access to salt at all times and everything should be 
 done to provide clean and comfortable quarters. 
 
 How Whey May Be Used. If whey is used for raising calves, it should 
 be sweet and clean and fed at about the temperature of freshly drawn milk. 
 Each patron of a cheese factory should have special cans for getting as much 
 whey each day as will be needed for the calves and have these filled directly 
 from the cheese vat. Whey from the general whey vat is likely to be sour or 
 otherwise unfit to feed to calves. Sweet whey should only be fed after the calf has 
 been well started on whole milk. 
 
 One man reports good results from feeding sweet whey and shelled corn. If 
 a handful of shelled corn is thrown into the whey the calf soon learns to eat this 
 immediately after drinking the whey. Whey, shelled corn, good hay and pasture, 
 when in season, together with good care, gave good results for this stockman. 
 
 Treating Calves for Scours. Calves that scour may be treated success- 
 fully in several ways if the case is not too serious. It is well to have one good 
 remedy for serious cases and the following may be recommended : 
 
 As soon as symptoms appear, from two to four tablespoon fuls of caster oil are 
 mixed with one-half pint of milk and given to the calf. This is followed in from 
 four to six hours by a teaspoonful of a mixture of one part salol and two parts sub- 
 nitrate of bismuth. This mixture can be purchased at any drug store and will be 
 ready for use at any time. The powder can be given in one-half pint of milk or 
 placed on the calf's tongue and washed down with a small amount of milk. 
 The allowance of feed should be reduced at once and not increased until the con- 
 dition of the calf warrants. In mild cases castor oil is unnecessary and therefore 
 can be omitted. Forcing the calf to eat an egg and the shell, feeding lime water 
 and give a tablespoonful of wheat flour are simple home remedies that are used 
 successfully. 
 
 Precautions Against Scours. Special care needs to be taken to avoid 
 scours. Tincture of iodine or a solution of one part bichloride of mercury (corro- 
 sive sublimate) to 500 parts of water applied several times to the navel of the 
 new born calf, safeguards against contagious scours. It is important to have 
 the cows calve in disinfected, clean, well lighted, well ventilated pens, and to 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 43 
 
 keep the calves in similar quarters. The following points are important to 
 bear in mind : 
 
 Do not overfeed ; have milk at proper temperature.; feed milk regularly and 
 from pails that are scrupulously clean; if possible, feed the calf its mother's 
 milk ; if necessary to feed other milk, choose a cow which has recently freshened 
 and continue regularly with her milk; make any changes in feed gradually; 
 
 Dehorning the calf with caustic potash. A con- 
 venient method of securing the calf and doing 
 the work suggested in the picture. Read method 
 of dehorning calves. 
 
 guard against feeds or materials that will produce indigestion like sour milk, 
 moldy, very coarse or woody feeds, and paint, blankets, sacks, etc., which calves 
 will sometimes eat ; keep calves clean, dry, and out of cold draughts of air. 
 
 Dehorning Calves with Caustic Potash. For several years calves born 
 at the Wisconsin University Farm have been dehorned by the use of caustic 
 potash and it has been demonstrated that this method is successful when properly 
 applied. 
 
 The caustic potash should be applied as soon as the "buttonlike" horns can be 
 felt, which is usually when the calf is three to ten days old. If postponed, the 
 operation will be unsatisfactory. To apply the potash, remove the hair from 
 about the horns close to the skin. Moisten the potash slightly and run it over 
 the skin which covers the. points of the horns until the skin is white. 
 
 Do not rub the skin until blood comes, as this will cause unnecessary sore- 
 ness. One such treatment is usually sufficient to prevent the growth of the horns. 
 
 The following precautions need to be taken: the caustic should be wrapped in 
 
44 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 heavy paper so as to protect the hands of the operator; the caustic should be 
 only slightly moistened ; too much moisture will cause the liquid to run down 
 the side of the calf's head,, and cause unnecessary pain ; the calf must be securely 
 fastened so that its head may be held still to avoid applying the caustic anywhere 
 else than upon the horns. Preserve the stick of caustic potash in a tightly corked 
 bottle, and you will have enough to dehorn many other calves. 
 
 Treatment for Lice and Ringworm. Thoroughly washing or dipping 
 calves is the most effective means of destroying lice. Unless special provision 
 has been made for doing so, it is unsafe to wash calves in cold weather. Usually 
 a two to three per cent solution of some of the coal tar disinfectants is recom- 
 mended for washing stables and for washing or dipping calves for lice. The 
 solution should not be strong enough to irritate the skin. A good remedy for 
 lice on calves may be made by steeping for four hours four ounces of Larkspur 
 (Delphinium) in one gallon of boiling water, then straining and applying the 
 liquid to the affected parts. In the winter, if the calves are badly infested with 
 lice and the weather is too cold to wash them, pyrethrum powder may be used 
 to advantage. As a general rule, however, lice powders are not as effective as 
 thoroughly washing or dipping calves with some disinfectant. 
 
 Ringworm may be successfully treated by washing thoroughly the affected 
 part of the skin and applying a liquid made by dissolving two ounces of sulphate 
 of copper (blue stone) in one gallon of boiling water. 
 
 BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION. 
 
 The Production of Pure Bred Beef Cattle. Breeding pure bred cattle 
 is the highest type of beef cattle production and represents the largest invest- 
 ment and the greatest amount of capital necessary for successful operation. 
 One engaged in the production of this class of cattle must also understand methods 
 of breeding, feeding and developing live stock in a manner to impress buyers 
 favorably and to secure profitable prices. It is necessary to depend upon the 
 demand for breeding stock in order to sell and secure prices that are profitable. 
 The production of pure bred beef cattle is ordinarily confined to well organized 
 and productive farms and it is considered best for one to graduate into this class 
 of producers after having had considerable experience and having gained a 
 thorough knowledge of the cattle industry. 
 
 Cattle for Meat Purposes. The production of cattle primarily for meat 
 purposes includes three lines of industry, namely, the production of stockers 
 and feeders, the grazing of cattle and the fattening of cattle. The section of the 
 country, the character of the land and the organization of the farm should de- 
 termine what line of cattle production will be best for one to select. Pure bred 
 beef cattle not suitable for breeding purposes, grade beef cattle resulting from the 
 use of pure bred sires for several generations, and cross bred beef cattle are all 
 well adapted for meat purposes and should be selected where one depends upon 
 producing beef as the primary object in live stock production. 
 
 The Production of Stockers and Feeders. Stockers and feeders consti- 
 tute classes of cattle suitable for grazing or fattening and may be profitably 
 produced on well organized farms having more or less land that cannot be plowed 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 Points Defi cient 
 
 Points Deficient 
 
 Student's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Student's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 26 POINTS 
 
 Weight, estimated Ibs. , according to age. . . 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 1 
 3 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Form, straight top line and underline; deep, 
 broad, low set 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quality, firm handling; hair fine; skin pliable; 
 fine bone; evenly covered with firm flesh. . . . 
 Style, active upstanding 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temperament, quiet docile 
 
 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 8 POINTS 
 
 Muzzle, good size, mouth large; lips thin, nos- 
 trils large 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eyes, large clear placid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Face, short quiet expression 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forehead, broad full. 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ears, medium size, fine texture 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neck thick short throat clean .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORE QUARTERS 13 POINTS 
 
 Shoulder Vein full 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, snug 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth 
 BODY 28 POINTS 
 Chest, full deep, wide ;girth, large; fore-flank, full 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 3 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 25 POINTS 
 Hips, smoothly covered; distance apart in pro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rump, long, even, wide; tail head smooth, not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Legs, straight, short; shank fine, smooth 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture.) 
 
46 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 profitably, but which yields excellent pasture. In addition to an abundance of 
 pasture there should be a sufficient amount of tillable land to produce roughage 
 for the maintenance of breeding and other stock retained during the winter. 
 Silage, clover, alfalfa and a cereal crop are well adapted and highly essential 
 to this type of farming and cattle production. A given amount of commercial 
 feeding stuffs to supplement roughage will be profitable in maintaining the breed- 
 ing herd and growing the young stock successfully. Herds of high grade beef 
 cattle headed by pure bred sires of the strictly beef breeds, produce the most 
 profitable grades of stockers and feeders. 
 
 Cattle Grazing. In the West on ranches and in other sections of the 
 country where large areas of land are unadapted for the cultivation of farm 
 crops and where the seasons are suitable, cattle may be grazed in a manner to 
 be profitable. Cattle for this purpose are largely purchased and shipped in by 
 trainload or driven across the country. The feeding season is limited to the 
 months during which pasture grass grows and is provided in abundance. The 
 larger and older classes of stock cattle graze and finish on grass pasture to a 
 better advantage than do younger cattle. The character of the land and the 
 amount of grass which it produces, the character of the season which affects 
 growth of grass, and the matter of securing cattle of suitable type and quality at 
 prices which permit a margin of profit, are factors that enter into the success of 
 the grazing industry. 
 
 Pasture Conditions. Mistakes are frequently made in buying and graz- 
 ing cattle by misjudging the amount of feed available. One should become a 
 judge of pasture lands and understand the approximate amount of feed a given 
 area of land will supply under ordinary conditions before investing too much money 
 in cattle for grazing purposes. The more land over which steers have to run to se- 
 cure ample feed, the less favorable will be the results. Land that does not provide 
 native or tame grasses in abundance is questionable for beef cattle grazing. One 
 having land suitable for grazing should do everything possible to secure a good 
 stand of grass. This may be accomplished by destroying noxious weeds, draining 
 land that may be too wet, disking and harrowing in clover, timothy and other 
 grass seed, and applying top dressings of stable manure or commercial fertilizer. 
 Remembering that beef cattle require luxuriant pastures, one will not turn them 
 onto pasture until the grass has attained a good growth and also be careful 
 not to overstock a given area of pasture land. 
 
 Clover, alfalfa and other crops for pasture, grown in rotation with other 
 form crops, may be utilized to good advantage under proper supervision. The 
 system of pasture that will provide the greatest amount of feed and the largest 
 returns in beef, may be regarded best for a respective locality and type of farm. 
 The climate and amount of rainfall have a marked influence upon the amount of 
 feed a given pasture will provide and judgment will always have to decide to what 
 extent other feed should be used to supplement pasture or in what manner 
 extenuating circumstances shall be met. Rotating cattle from one to another 
 of two or more fields, using meadow land after hay has been removed and grass 
 has made a start, will be beneficial to both cattle and pasture land. Corn silage 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 47 
 
 where it can be produced, is one of the most valuable feeds for supplementing 
 pastures that become scant or are too limited in area for a given number of 
 cattle. 
 
 Turning Cattle Onto Pasture. Cattle not accustomed to grass should 
 be gradually changed to it. This is true in the case of turning onto any luxuriant 
 grass pasture and especially should one be careful in turning cattle onto clover or 
 alfalfa. It overcomes the difficulty and danger of serious loss from bloating and a 
 good plan is to turn cattle to grass for only an hour or less the first day after 
 they have been well filled on regular feed and the grass is free from dew or wet. 
 Allow them to remain on the pasture for a little longer time each succeeding 
 day until their systems have become accustomed to the grass as indicated by the 
 bowel condition when the danger is past and they may be allowed to remain on 
 pasture continuously. It is always a safe precaution to watch cattle closely 
 and be prepared to treat cases of bloat while they are being accustomed to 
 pasture. Having access to dry feed, hay or straw after coming off the pasture, 
 helps cattle to correct for themselves any abnormal conditions that might arise 
 from too much grass being eaten when first turned to pasture. 
 
 Fattening Cattle on Grass. Best authorities agree that if cattle have 
 been grain fed during the winter with the idea of marketing them in early summer, 
 it is best not to turn them to pasture at all. Two and three year old cattle that 
 have been wintered largely on roughage will make gains on luxuriant pasture 
 that may be more profitable than gains made in any other manner. A lower price 
 is usually paid for grass- fat cattle than for corn- fed cattle and the character and 
 value of land and the cost of producing gains, should determine the policy of 
 utilizing the pasture land. Young cattle under two years of age which are to be 
 marketed for beef during or at the close of the pasture season, will require 
 continuous grain feeding. Older cattle in fair condition of flesh can be marketed 
 to good advantage by giving them a full grain ration in addition to pasture and 
 turning them off about the middle of July before the fly season or dry, hot weather 
 comes on. 
 
 Corn is one of the best concentrates used in combination with pasture. 
 Shelled corn should be soaked 12 to 18 hours prior to feeding it to overcome 
 its dry and flinty nature at this season of the year. For young cattle and for older 
 ones that it is desirable to finish in the shortest possible time, the corn should 
 be fed with some concentrate like oil meal, cotton seed meal or gluten feed rich in 
 protein. Clover or alfalfa pasture make the rich protein feeds less necessary. 
 Steers fed corn on pasture should be followed by hogs which utilize the droppings 
 from the steers to a better advantage on pasture than they do in the feed lot. 
 
 Fattening Cattle in the Feed Lot. In corn belt regions where the land 
 is practically all tillable and capable of growing large yields of corn and other 
 feeds adapted for fattening purposes, it is profitable to fatten steers in feed lots 
 during the winter months. Corn fed cattle, well finished, produce beef in the 
 largest quantities and of the best quality. Steers for fattening purposes are 
 purchased usually at the leading cattle markets and fed for periods ranging from 
 90 to 160 days. Much of the profit in fattening steers depends upon the type and 
 quality of steers selected and one's ability to buy them at the proper time and at 
 
48 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 suitable prices to insure a fair margin when they are returned to market in 
 finished form. A market classification of cattle can be found in the market re- 
 ports of any reliable live stock journal which should always be consulted carefully 
 during the seasons of buying and selling live stock of any class. The following 
 classification without market prices is submitted. "Class" indicates the use to 
 which cattle are put, and "Grade" the quality or degree of fitness of the animal in 
 a given class. 
 
 MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF CATTLE. 
 
 Classes 
 
 Grades 
 
 Classes 
 
 Grades 
 
 Beef Cattle. 
 
 Prime Steers 
 Choice Steers 
 Good Steers 
 Common Rough Steers 
 
 Stockers 
 and 
 Feeders. . . 
 
 Fancy Selected Feeders 
 Choice Feeders 
 Good Feeders 
 Medium Feeders 
 Common Feeders 
 Inferior Feeders 
 Feeder Bulls 
 Fancy Selected Yearling Stockers 
 Choice Yearling Stockers 
 Good Yearling Stockers 
 Medium Yearling Stockers 
 Common Yearling Stockers 
 Inferior Yearling Stockers 
 Good Stock Heifers 
 Medium Stock Heifers 
 Common Stock Heifers 
 
 Prime Heifers 
 Choice Heifers 
 Good Heifers 
 Medium Heifers 
 
 Butcher 
 Stock 
 
 Prime Cows 
 Choice Cows 
 Good Cows 
 Medium Cows 
 
 Common Rough Steers 
 Common Bulls 
 Good Bulls 
 Medium Bulls 
 
 Veal Calves . 
 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Medium 
 Common 
 
 Cutters and 
 Canners . . 
 
 Good Cutters 
 Medium Cutters 
 Common Cutters and Good Can- 
 ners 
 Medium Canners 
 [nferior Canners 
 Bologna Bulls 
 
 Sub-Classes . 
 
 Texas and Western Range Cattle 
 Distillers 
 
 Miscel- 
 laneous.. . 
 
 Baby Beef 
 Export Cattle 
 Shipping Steers 
 Dressed Beef Cattle 
 
 Stags 
 
 STAGS. 
 
 The Most Desirable Type of Beef Cattle. What are classified on the 
 general market as beef cattle, constitutes the most desirable type of cattle on the 
 market. In general this type includes animals that are blocky in form, with a 
 short, broad head, a short neck, and a broad, deep, low set body with straight 
 and parallel top and bottom lines. In finished form there is a thickness and 
 mellowness of flesh over the entire body, indicating a finished condition. Beef 
 cattle have the characteristic disposition of taking on fat over the entire body, more 
 or less of which is mixed with muscle fibers to produce the rich, marble con- 
 dition so much appreciated in a good carcass of beef. The steer that is compact, 
 with a short, broad back, wide top line, deep, thick thighs, and a full twist, not 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 49 
 
 only produces the best quality of beef, but the highest percentage of dressed 
 carcass and commands the highest market price. It requires experience to 
 feed and finish steers that will top the market and at the same time be most 
 profitable. Not infrequently does the feeder of beef cattle realize greater profits 
 on feeding cattle of the commoner grades and classes than he does on feeding 
 better cattle. 
 
 Advantages In Finished Cattle. There are three reasons for feeding 
 and producing a finished condition of the steer. It increases the percentage of 
 dressed carcass, renders the beef most tender and juicy and insures its curing 
 properly when hung in the cooler. The evidences of steers being finished in 
 the feed lot are fullness at the throat, well covered shoulder points, thickness 
 of the flank and a full purse or scrotum. When cattle approach this condition, 
 quotations should be watched and the cattle disposed of at the most opportune 
 time. The amount of feed required for producing a pound of beef increases as 
 the feeding period advances and one cannot afford to feed finished cattle except 
 to secure an advance in the market price. 
 
 The Feeding Margin. The difference between the cost price per 100 Ibs. 
 and the selling price per 100 Ibs. is known as the margin. Without a sufficient 
 margin it is impossible to make a profit in fattening steers or to secure market 
 prices for feed supplied to them. Ordinarily 800 to l,ooo Ibs. of concentrated 
 feed is necessary to produce 100 Ibs. of meat. The cost of producing gains at 
 this rate, makes it evident that in order to secure a profit, there must be a con- 
 siderable margin between the cost and the selling prices. The following factors 
 influence the necessary margin in fattening cattle: 
 
 Distance necessary to ship cattle to and from feed lots. 
 Shrinkage in cattle during shipments. 
 Expenses incident to buying, selling and shipping. 
 Losses which may result by accident or disease. 
 Prices for feeds and cost of producing gains. 
 
 Other Conditions Influencing Margin. The class of cattle fed have an 
 influence on the margin required as does also the season of the year and the 
 character of the winter months. A wider margin is necessary in winter than 
 in summer because the cost of gains at this season is greater. Young cattle 
 are fed more economically than are mature cattle and may be fed on nar- 
 rower margins. 
 
 A uniformly good class of feeder steers can be fed on a narrower mar- 
 gin than a poorer class of feeders, when both classes are relatively high. In 
 some instances, however, poor feeders are relatively lower in price than the 
 difference between their quality and the quality of a better class of feeders 
 would warrant, and under such conditions one may sometimes secure a bet- 
 ter margin and greater profits in feeding such classes. Margin must neces- 
 sarily increase as the length of the feeding period and the cost of feeding 
 increases. The heavier the cattle fed the less the margin must necessarily 
 be. It is evident that the necessary margin will vary under different condi- 
 tions of time and circumstance. By taking into account all the items of cost 
 
50 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 and probable loss in buying and feeding a lot of steers, one can calculate the 
 approximate margin necessary to break even or make a given profit. When 
 cattle 'are finished or tKe feeding period is about to close, one should study 
 the market situation and endeavor to sell in a manner and at a time to make 
 the actual margin, which is the difference between the cost price and the 
 selling price, as great as possible. 
 
 Suitable Rations for Fattening Steers. Rations to be most satisfactory 
 for fattening steers must conform to the age of steers and their ability to 
 make the best use of them, to the condition of the cattle and the length of the 
 period they are to be fed, to the stage of the feeding period and to the prices 
 for cattle and feed. The tendency at the present time is to fatten cattle be- 
 fore they are full grown and take advantage of the more economical gains 
 that occur with the younger classes of cattle. This is a good tendency where 
 cattle are grown on valuable land and quick returns on the investment are 
 required. The ration in this instance must be suitable for growing and fat- 
 tening, otherwise a proper finish will not be secured. Legume hay and ni- 
 trogenous concentrates, together with a liberal supply of fattening concen- 
 trates are required. Young cattle do not have the strength to eat and mas- 
 ticate shock and ear corn that older cattle have, and greater preparation of 
 the ration like crushing, chopping or grinding the corn is necessary. 
 
 Cattle that are thin may be profitably fed for longer periods than cattle 
 in good flesh, during the first part of which the ration may consist of good 
 roughages that will be reduced as concentrated feed takes its place with 
 the advance of the period. The cattle in this instance should make gains that 
 will produce the desired finish at the time it is aimed to dispose of them. 
 Heavy cattle as a rule should be fed a heavy allowance of concentrates that 
 will produce a finish, to satisfy the market demands in as short a period as 
 possible. 
 
 The ration for fattening cattle should become heavier as the feeding 
 period advances. Corn and a liberal allowance of legume hay may be suf- 
 ficient to make good gains in the early part of the feeding of comparatively 
 thin steers. With the advance of the period, however, and as the hay is re- 
 duced and the corn increased, a nitrogenous concentrate like cotton seed, 
 gluten feed or oil meal will prove profitable. 
 
 When the market is slow and does not. pay a premium for highly finished 
 steers or the market price of feed and cattle is not such as to warrant fair 
 profits in feeding, one should regulate the ration accordingly. 
 
 Silage from well matured corn is fast becoming a popular feed for fat- 
 tening steers. The cost of producing silage may be considerably more than 
 feeding shocked corn, but the amount of fodder saved and the results secured 
 may be regarded sufficient to more than offset all of the extra labor. The 
 shrinkage on steers fed corn silage at time of marketing has been one of the 
 principal objections to silage as part of the ration. This objection, how- 
 ever, is largely overcome by substituting dry feed in place of the silage a 
 few days prior to shipping. Grass in abundance and more or less shelled corn 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 51 
 
 constitute suitable summer feed for fattening- steers. The corn should be 
 soaked 12 to 18 hours and barrels or boxes in which it is soaked kept clean 
 and sweet. 
 
 The following average rations will be suggestive in preparing rations 
 for steers in the feed lot and for securing the most satisfactory results : 
 
 Shocked corn 15 Ibs. 
 
 Clover or alfalfa hay 7 Ibs. 
 
 Ear corn 13 Ibs. 
 
 Oil meal, cotton seed meal or gluten \]/ 2 Ibs. 
 
 Clover or alfalfa hay 9 Ibs. 
 
 Shelled corn 16 Ibs. 
 
 Gluten feed, oil meal or cotton seed meal 3 Ibs. 
 
 Clover or alfalfa hay 8 Ibs. 
 
 Corn and cob meal 20 Ibs. 
 
 Gluten feed, oil meal or cotton seed meal. . . . .. 3 Ibs. 
 
 Getting Steers on Full Feed. The amount of feed supplied all steers 
 must be comparatively small when cattle are first put into the feed lot and 
 the amount gradually increased until they are on full feed. Mumford of Illi- 
 nois recommends that cattle be given all the clover or alfalfa hay they will 
 eat and in addition 2 Ibs. of corn per steer per day to start with. The amount 
 of grain can be increased one pound daily until 10 Ibs. per head daily is 
 reached. After three days increase the daily ration one pound again until 
 17 Ibs. is fed; 15 days later this amount can be increased to 22 Ibs. Cattle 
 getting from 12 to 15 Ibs. of corn daily should have 12 Ibs. of clover or al- 
 falfa hay per 100 Ibs. of live weight. As the amount of grain increases the 
 hay should be reduced to about one-fourth of the ration.- The length of the 
 feeding period should determine how rapidly the ration is increased from 
 day to day. Where .the feeding period is to be 180 days, thirty days to six 
 weeks should elapse before the cattle are on full feed. Judgment on the part 
 of the feeder in watching steers consume the feed from day to day and in 
 watching the condition of the bowels should largely govern the amount of 
 feed supplied. 
 
 Use of the Self-Feeder. The use of the self-feeder offers two advan- 
 tages, it economizes labor and is regarded by some feeders as being more 
 reliable than a careless man who may be entrusted with the work of feed- 
 ing. The self-feeder must be used judiciously, however, to overcome ob- 
 jectionable features incident to its use. Cattle must be accustomed to their 
 grain ration and practically on full feed before being allowed access to the 
 self-feeder. The self-feeder is best adapted to long feeding periods or where 
 cattle are to be fed liberally from three to four months. Watching the self- 
 feeder and the condition of the cattle in addition to the precautions incident 
 to getting them onto full feed, should overcome objections to its use. It has 
 been suggested that the self-feeder may be used to advantage from the start 
 
52 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 by shredding or cutting the roughage and mingling it with the concentrated 
 feed prior to putting it into the self-feeder. Under these conditions cattle 
 may be safely turned to the feeder as soon as they are turned into the feed 
 lot, and as the feeding progresses the roughage can be reduced to the extent 
 that the cattle utilize concentrates to the best advantage. 
 
 Hogs Should Follow Cattle. It is unprofitable to feed steers without 
 hogs in the feed lot. Decreasing the cost of preparing feed is an item of 
 saving in the steer feeding operation. The usual manner of feeding corn 
 incurs considerable waste unless hogs follow the steers and utilize that which 
 would otherwise be wasted. Hogs weighing 100 to 150 Ibs. that are active 
 and capable of making good gains, are best for the steer lots. Hogs that 
 are too fat are not active enough to serve the purpose. Brood sows and a 
 small class of hogs are very likely to be injured and, are therefore, unprofit- 
 able. The age of the cattle and the character of the ration fed to them, de-' 
 termines the amount of feed available for the support of the hogs, and the 
 character of the feed will also affect the gains made by the hogs. 
 
 On the average the number of hogs per steer in the feed lot according 
 to the Missouri Experiment Station, Bulletin 76, should be as follows for 
 rations of different character, the steers being two-year-olds and the hogs 
 weighing 100 to 150 Ibs.: 
 
 Snapped ear corn 2 to 3 hogs per steer 
 
 Ear corn 1^4 hogs per steer 
 
 Shelled corn 1 to 1J/2 hogs per steer 
 
 Crushed or ground corn 1-3 to y 2 hog per steer 
 
 It is profitable to include more hogs than are necessary to utilize the 
 waste and to supply additional feed to the extent that the hogs are satisfied 
 and do not disturb the steers too much. 
 
 Equipment for Cattle Feeding. Ordinarily feeding sheds about 20 ft. 
 deep and of sufficient length to accommodate a given number of steers with 
 lots or yards approximately 24 ft. deep and feed bunks suitable for supply- 
 ing grain, constitute the equipment for fattening steers. It is advisable to 
 have the shed arranged to offer as much shelter as possible from prevailing 
 winds and storms. The roughage may be fed in racks inside the yard or 
 shed or in racks located in yards adjoining the shed where the cattle can be 
 turned. Feed bunks in which concentrates and silage are fed, should be made 
 of heavy material. It is advisable to so construct them that they can be 
 moved about from place to place as circumstances necessitate. They should 
 be arranged in a manner to make feeding most convenient. Having the feed 
 lots paved or the floors arranged to keep the droppings where hogs have the 
 best chance to get them will be an advantage. The condition of many feed- 
 ing lots is unsatisfactory at seasons of the year and in localities where the 
 ground does not freeze and becomes wet and muddy. Experiments indi- 
 cate that a sufficient gain and return is secured as a result of having the 
 feed lots in suitable condition to justify the expense of paving and main- 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 53 
 
 taining them in good condition. Steers in a muddy condition do not command 
 the best prices on the market. Grading the yard in a manner to control the 
 water that comes in contact with it, will be helpful and should be done 
 whether the lots are paved or not. 
 
 General Care of Fattening Cattle. The operation of fattening cattle 
 should not be regarded as an easy task. The feeder has many details to keep 
 in mind. Excitement prevents cattle from making the largest gains and the 
 feeder should endeavor to do everything possible to keep cattle in a quiet 
 condition. Successful feeders endeavor to gain the confidence of cattle in 
 charge and do their work with the regularity that does not disturb them 
 from their usual habits of eating and resting. The majority of cattle feeders 
 feed cattle grain and roughage twice a day in winter and under summer con- 
 ditions grain once a day. Steers may run in bunches of 100, although it may 
 be more convenient to feed and handle them in groups of 50 which will 
 require three fee^d bunks, 3 feet wide and 15 feet long. The size and age of 
 the cattle would affect the number most conveniently fed in a given yard. 
 
 Salt and Water for Fattening Cattle. Cattle should have free access to 
 salt, and pure, clean water supplied in the feed lot. Advantages in feeding 
 dehorned cattle make it desirable to have cattle of the stocker and feeder 
 types dehorned prior to being put into the feed lot. A difference of lOc 
 to 25c per hundredweight is frequently made, due to the presence of horns. 
 The shrinkage in weight during shipment is also less with dehorned cattle 
 and as a rule they are quieter and subject to few bruises. 
 
 Grooming Fattening Cattle. Some cattle feeders advocate grooming 
 fattening cattle. The practice is not generally considered a necessary one, 
 however, for best results. Only in the case of carload lots of show cattle 
 can it be generally recommended. It is desirable, however, to have posts 
 or other arrangements that will enable cattle to rub and thus groom them- 
 selves. Under summer conditions fattening cattle may be protected during 
 the heat of the day by placing strips of burlap across the doorway or opening 
 of the shed. The darkened shed is undoubtedly the most practical method of 
 overcoming the difficulty with flies. 
 
 Marketing Cattle. Selling cattle at home to local buyers or shipping 
 them to packing house centers are two ways of disposing of them. The 
 condition of the market, quality of the cattle, number of cattle one has and 
 one's familiarity with market conditions, should determine which plan will 
 be adopted. Selling to the local buyer is the only plan where one has only 
 a few cattle to sell. Cost of shipping and commission charges do not war- 
 rant shipping less than a carload lot. There is less risk in selling to local 
 buyers for the reason that the home market is always steadier than is the 
 larger market and the expenses are reduced to the minimum. On a declin- 
 ing market it is well to sell at home. To ship on a falling market is unsafe 
 unless there is necessity for doing so and the home market is very unsatis- 
 factory. There is opportunity to sell to advantage to the home buyer when 
 
54 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 the general market is rising. It pays the feeder well to be well posted on 
 market conditions. 
 
 If one has two or more cars of stock in fit condition to sell and under- 
 stands the market conditions, there is no reason why he should not ship and 
 sell on the market. Selling in this manner insures the producer getting all 
 the possible profit that might go to the local buyer. He also incurs the same 
 risk of losing that is incurred by the shipper. Shipping and accompanying 
 stock to the market offers advantages in one's becoming familiar with market 
 types and classes and their values. To be on the market with cattle enables 
 one to come in contact and make the acquaintance of men from many sections 
 of the country and to gain a knowledge of their methods, conditions and 
 opinions, which is valuable from the standpoint of fattening cattle in the most 
 profitable manner. To make the acquaintance of commission firms at the 
 leading markets also secures their interest in one's welfare and it should be 
 understood that they are glad to keep feeders posted accurately on market con- 
 ditions and the most suitable times for buying and selling to* the extent that 
 it is possible for them to do so. 
 
 How to Ship Fat Cattle. The feed for fat cattle should be changed 
 for a day or two prior to loading cattle for shipment in order to avoid undue 
 shrinkage. Cattle fed silage, grass or beet pulp are subject to greater shrinkage 
 than cattle fed otherwise unless particular precaution is taken. In all instances 
 cattle should be filled when loaded, with feed having as little moisture in it as pos- 
 sible like the best of hay and whole oats if any grain is supplied- Clay, of the 
 Chicago Union Stock Yards, writes : "A steer full of water is apt to have loose 
 bowels and show up badly in the yards. Properly handled cattle should arrive 
 in the sale pens dry behind and ready for a good fill of water ; not very thirsty, 
 but in good condition to drink freely. As to feed on the road, nothing excels 
 corn or other grains because it is easily digested and does not fever the animal. 
 Cattle should arrive at the sale yards at 5:00 to 8:00 A. M., appearing on the 
 scene as near the later hour as possible' since they always look better just after 
 they have been fed and watered." 
 
 BABY BEEF PRODUCTION. 
 
 Farms that are worked intensively on which beef cattle are maintained have in 
 many instances adopted the practice of producing baby beef. Cattle falling within 
 this classification are from one to two years of age, and ordinarily weigh about 
 1,000 Ibs. Only well bred beef cattle capable of producing calves of quality and 
 natural beef tendencies are adapted to the production of this class of cattle. 
 Breeding high grade and cross-bred animals of beef type may be regarded 
 excellent for baby beef production. Beef cows that tend to produce large 
 quantities of milk add much to the initial growth and quality of baby beeves. 
 
 Mumford in writing on the subject, states that profitable baby beef production 
 requires experience, judgment and skill of a high order and that it is a mistake 
 for the inexperienced to dip heavily into this enterprise. 
 
 Successful producers endeavor to keep the calf in the milk fed bloom until 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 
 55 
 
 it is marketed. Calves should be accustomed to grain before they are weaned and 
 must be fed continuously on rations that will prevent shrinkage at any time. 
 Any shrinkage in baby beef production is expensive and lengthens the time 
 required to mature them. Good roughage such as clover or alfalfa hay, silage 
 during the winter months and abundant pasture during the 'summer, together 
 with corn, oil meal and other grains to give variety, where prices permit their 
 being used, should be supplied in a manner to keep the calves in a fat condition 
 as they develop. Liberal feeding is necessary for the reason that calves tend 
 to grow rather than fatten. Heifer calves tend to fatten more quickly than 
 steer calves. 
 
 A type and finish desirable in baby beef production. 
 
 Male calves should be castrated before they are weaned and this may be done 
 when the calf is less than one week old. Vaccination to prevent blackleg is 
 recommended. It is seldom possible to get spring calves ready for the baby 
 beef market before July of the second summer. More frequently they are not 
 marketed until the fall when they are approximately 18 months of age. 
 
 General Care of the Breeding Beef Herd. Cows of the breeding beef 
 herd should be cared for in a manner to maintain them in the most economical 
 manner and at the same time keep them in a condition to produce strong, vigor- 
 ous calves that will develop rapidly while getting the benefit of nursing their 
 dams. Cows may be wintered at a more reasonable cost if bred to drop their 
 calves in the spring of the year. This is also regarded the best time to have 
 the calves dropped for the production of baby beef steers to be finished off at 
 two years of age. 
 
 Where pasture is available it is more economical to secure growth and gains 
 on the part of calves during the summer than during the winter. Beef cows will 
 
56 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 also produce more milk during the summer season with which to give the calf 
 the best start in its development. In the case of cows that are milked and calves 
 that are hand raised on more or less skim milk, there is undoubtedly more profit 
 in having cows freshen in the fall of the year. In any event cows should be bred 
 in such a manner that the calves of the herd will be as nearly uniform in age 
 as possible. The breeding herd should be culled from time to time of cows that 
 do not possess the size and ability to produce calves of the most desirable type 
 and character for beef production. 
 
 Feeding the Breeding Herd. Beef cows that have access to good pasture 
 will require little attention during the pasture season. Where pastures become 
 short to affect the milk flow of the cow or cause her to seriously reduce in 
 flesh, it is best to supplement the pasture with silage, clover or alfalfa hay, 
 soiling crops or concentrated feeds. An abundance of pure, fresh water, shade 
 and salt should be provided. 
 
 In winter the cows should be fed in a manner to keep them in a thrifty, 
 normal condition of flesh. No more grain should be fed than is necessary. 
 A ration of corn silage and good clover or alfalfa hay under ordinary conditions 
 will be highly satisfactory. A ration composed of 18 to 20 Ibs. corn silage, 4 
 Ibs. clover hay and cheaper roughage like straw, corn stover, should provide ample 
 feed for keeping cows in good condition and gaining 1 to 1^4 Ibs. per day. 
 Where silage is not available, shocked corn and clover hay together with 
 straw may be fed to advantage. Where cheaper and lower roughages are 
 utilized enough grain should be supplied to keep cows in a thrifty condition. 
 
 Methods of Rearing Beef Calves. Beef calves may be reared in one of 
 three following ways : 
 
 On farms where cattle are raised primarily for beef production, it is 
 customary to allow calves to run with their dams until six or eight months of 
 age. 
 
 Calves should be taught to eat grain before being weaned to prevent shrinkage 
 at weaning time. A good grain mixture for beef calves consists of corn meal 
 50 parts, ground oats 30 parts, wheat bran 20 parts. In addition to this grain 
 mixture clover or alfalfa hay should be fed in such quantities as calves will 
 clean up without waste. Cotton seed meal is not a good feed for young calves. 
 Daily gains of \ l / 2 to 2 Ibs. should be expected. 
 
 In some instances half the cows of the herd are hand milked and the other 
 half are required to nurse two calves. Under this system it is best to select the 
 easy and heavy milkers for hand milking and let the calves nurse those that 
 are indifferent. Additional calves may be bought if necessary to have all cows 
 nurse- two calves. Where two calves nurse one cow it is well to have a shady pad- 
 dock or stable in which calves spend the day and are turned with cows to nurse 
 twice daily. Grain and other feeds should be supplied in such quantities as to 
 keep them growing and in a good condition of flesh at all times. In some in- 
 stances beef calves are raised by hand and the cows hand milked throughout their 
 lactation periods. In such instances the calf is left with the dam for only two to 
 four days and raised practically in the same manner with all of the precautions 
 heretofore discussed with reference to raising dairy calves. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 
 RINGING THE BULL 
 
 Act 1. Snub the bull's head securely to a 
 post, letting a second man hold the rope in 
 order to loosen it should the bull throw him- 
 self, and insert a trocar and canula. 
 
 Act 2. Withdraw the trocar and insert 
 ring by letting open end follow the can- 
 ula as it is withdrawn. 
 
 Act 3. When the ring has been closed and 
 
 secured file off any rough points about the 
 
 joints of the ring to prevent their irritating 
 
 the nose. 
 
58 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Throwing the bull. Note adjustment of rope and loops that tighten naturally at all points 
 
 about the body as the rope is drawn. The rope should be secured about the horns or to a 
 
 halter in the case of a polled animal in a manner to insure against its slipping. 
 
CATTLE PRODUCTION 59 
 
 A sufficient amount of grain of the mixture suggested for beef calves should 
 be fed to keep the calf in a thrifty, growing and well fleshed condition. The 
 amount of grain fed a beef calf varies from a handful up to 4 or 5 Ibs. at six 
 months of age. 
 
 Heifers that are to be retained for the breeding herd should be bred at the 
 age of 18 to 20 months of age. 
 
 SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF BULLS. 
 
 Selection of Bulls. In the dairy or the beef herd there is no more im- 
 portant duty than the selection, care and management of bulls suitable to head 
 the .herd. In all instances the bull should be a pure bred, registered animal with 
 ancestors representing the leading families and the most typical individuals of 
 the breed. In no instance can a breeder of cattle feel himself justified in using a 
 bull of common or indiscriminate breeding. Beef bulls should be the progeny of 
 animals that excel in the production of beef and dairy bulls the progeny of cat- 
 tle that excel in the production of milk and butter fat. Improvement in the 
 beef and dairy cattle interests of the country can be accomplished most econom- 
 ically through the selection of choice bulls. 
 
 Management of Bulls. Under some conditions it may be advisable to 
 allow the bull to run with the cows. In most instances, however, it is more de- 
 sirable and 'much better to keep the bull by himself in quarters especially pro- 
 vided for him. Such quarters should consist of a strong pen and paddock in 
 which he can be comfortably housed and permitted to exercise, and at the same 
 time be handled without incurring the danger of his doing injury to attendants 
 in charge. Bulls should be kept in a thrifty condition- but not in high condition 
 of flesh where best results in using them are to be secured. An abundance of 
 exercise and a moderate ration of legume hay, grain during the breeding season 
 and a small amount of silage not to exceed 10 to 15 Ibs. should keep the bull in 
 suitable condition for doing best service. 
 
 The number of cows to which the bull should be bred during the year will 
 depend upon his age, condition and treatment, together with the distribution of 
 the cows bred to him. The bull should not be used for service until a year 
 old. The number of cows bred to him should vary from 12 to 15 during the time 
 he is a year old to 30 to 60 a year when he is full age. 
 
 Frequently the feet of a mature bull get into a condition that renders it dif- 
 ficult for him to do service. A bull's feet are best trimmed by throwing him in 
 a manner illustrated in the accompanying cut on opposite page. Bulls that 
 are inclined to be vicious may be rendered manageable by throwing them 
 in a similar manner. At the age of 8 to 10 months a ring should be inserted 
 in the nose of the bull in order to handle and control him without difficulty. 
 Mature bulls should be handled with the staff especially dairy bulls that 
 are more nervous and treacherous than beef bulls. Handling and man- 
 aging the bull in a manner to never allow -him to realize his strength and 
 possibility of gaining mastery over his attendant, should be practiced to 
 the fullest extent. The disposition of bulls is in most instances a reflection 
 of mismanagement at some time in their development. 
 
60 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 The greatest mismanagement on the part of many owners of bulls is in 
 disposing of them to the butcher before their merits as sires have been proven. 
 The most valuable bulls are those that have proved themselves capable of siring 
 most satisfactory calves. Prepotency or that power of a bull to get calves of 
 uniform, excellent type and character is rare and for this reason every precaution 
 should be taken to preserve sires that have proved themselves valuable in this 
 respect. 
 
A GUIDE TO DISEASES OF STOCK 
 
 In this department the general symptoms are alphabetically arranged so 
 the reader may easily determine what is troubling his stock. The general 
 symptoms of the diseases of each kind of stock are placed just before the 
 treatment of those diseases. 
 
 How to Use This Guide. An animal cannot talk to tell you what the 
 trouble is but he acts and makes signs peculiar to his ailment. To use this 
 guide one only has to observe the actions and appearance of a sick animal, 
 notice any particular symptom and find it in its proper place. When he looks 
 up that symptom he will find the other symptoms of the disease. He can 
 then pick out the group which suits the particular case. This being found 
 he sees the disease indicated and can then look it up in the main department. 
 
 Explanation. The subjects in this department are arranged in alpha- 
 betical order so as to help the reader find what he is looking for without even 
 turning to the index. However, a complete index will be found at the back 
 of the book. 
 
 61 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 (GENERAL SYMPTOMS.) 
 
 Back arched; belly greatly enlarged especially on left flank; moves, slowly ; 
 breathes with difficulty. Bloat, Page 76. 
 
 Back arched; quick breathing; fast pulse; sweating; poor appetite; colicky 
 pains; high fever; frequent but scanty passage of urine that is dark and 
 thick ; moves hind quarters with difficulty. Inflammation of the Kidneys, 
 Page 89. 
 
 Back arched ; stands alone ; moves slowly with a wabbling gait ; kicking to- 
 wards belly; switching tail; as the disease develops there is severe pain 
 and delirium; moaning; bellowing. Cornstalk Disease, Page 81. 
 
 Back arched ; tail elevated ; bowels irregular ; milk flow stops ; breath offen- 
 sive ; manure streaked with blood ; straining severely ; high fever ; walk- 
 ing slowly ; great thirst ; loss of appetite. Dysentery, Page 82. 
 
 Back has small round lumps on it from which a grub can be squeezed. 
 Grubs in the Back, Page 86. 
 
 Belly greatly enlarged especially in left flank ; moves slowly ; breathes with 
 difficulty; back arched. Bloat, Page 76, 
 
 Blisters following red swollen parts ; blisters break causing severe lameness ; 
 inclination to lie down ; chill followed by fever. Foot and Mouth Disease, 
 Page 84. 
 
 Blisters on skin which leave the skin moist with their contents; sometimes 
 swelling and large sores ; severe itching. Eczema, Page 82. 
 
 Blood in Milk. Bloody Milk, Page 79. 
 
 Blood in milk; dullness; fever; shivering; pus coming to surface of udder; in 
 some cases there is no pus but udder gets hard ; part of udder may fall 
 off in severe cases; udder hot, swollen and tender. Garget, 
 
 Bloody, foul smelling fluid runs out of swelling when opened ; lameness, stiff- 
 ness; swelling of affected parts; the swellings emit a crackling sound 
 when rubbed ; high fever ; poor appetite. Anthrax, Page 75. 
 
 Bowels loose; coughing up worms; suffocating sort of breathing; cough dry 
 and husky ; poor appetite. Filaria Bronchitis. 
 
 Breathing difficult ; back arched ; belly greatly enlarged especially in left flank ; 
 moves slowly. Bloat, Page 76. 
 
 Breathing difficult ; bowels loose ; coughing up worms ; cough dry and husky ; 
 poor appetite. Filaria Bronchitis. 
 
 Breathing fast and hard ; loss of appetite ; fever ; sometimes delirium. Blood 
 Poisoning, Page 78. 
 
 Breathing quickened ; fever ; quick pulse ; standing with elbows turned out ; 
 well marked crease extending from the flank to the back of the elbow; 
 
 62 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE 63 
 
 coughing ; pointing nose toward the side ; if the ribs are tapped over the 
 
 chest a clear hollow sound is heard. Pleurisy, Page 94. 
 Breathing quickened ; rapid pulse ; rattling sound heard in lungs when ear is 
 
 placed to chest ; lying down ; chill followed by fever which gradually in- 
 creases for a time. Pneumonia, Page 95. 
 Chill followed by fever ; affected parts red and swollen ; followed by blisters 
 
 which burst and cause severe lameness ; inclination to lie down. Foot 
 
 and Mouth Disease, Page 84. 
 
 Chill followed by fever; dullness; discharge of mucus from nostrils that be- 
 comes pus-like ; constipation. Catarrh, Page 80. 
 Chill followed by fever ; pulse full and rapid ; cough short, dry and husky ; 
 
 constipation ; poor appetite. Bronchitis, Page 79. 
 Chill followed by fever which increases gradually for a time ; quickened 
 
 breathing; rapid pulse; rattling sound heard in lungs when ear is placed 
 
 to chest ; lying down. Pneumonia, Page 95. 
 Colicky pains ; high fever ; frequent but scanty passage of urine which is dark 
 
 and thick ; moves hind quarters with difficulty ; arched back ; quick 
 
 breathing; fast pulse; sweating; poor appetite. Inflammation of the 
 
 Kidneys, Page 89. 
 Constipation following diarrhea ; legs and ears cold ; nose dry and hot ; fever ; 
 
 pulse fast and full. Inflammation of the Stomach, Page 89. 
 Cough dry and husky ; poor appetite ; looseness of bowels ; coughing up 
 
 worms; suffocating sort of breathing. Filaria Bronchitis. 
 Cough dry and persistent ; diarrhea ; animals reduced to skin and bones ; poor 
 
 appetite ; eyes lusterless. Tuberculosis, Page 98. 
 Cough short, dry and husky ; constipation ; poor appetite. Bronchitis, Page 
 
 79. 
 Crackling emitted from swellings when rubbed ; high fever ; poor appetite. 
 
 When one of the swellings are opened a foul smelling, bloody fluid runs 
 
 out ; lameness ; stiffness ; swellings on affected parts. Anthrax, Page 
 
 75. 
 Crease well marked from the flank to back of elbow; coughing; pointing nose 
 
 toward side ; if the ribs are tapped over the chest a clear hollow sound is 
 
 heard ; quickened breathing ; fever ; quick pulse ; standing with elbows 
 
 turned out. Pleurisy, Page 94. 
 Crusty patches on head and neck, under which a pus-like fluid forms; severe 
 
 irritations and itching. Ring Worm, Page 95. 
 Diarrhea; animal reduced to skin and bones; poor appetite; lusterless eyes; 
 
 some coughing. Tuberculosis, Page 98. 
 Diarrhea followed by constipation; legs cold; ears cold; nose dry and hot; 
 
 fever ; pulse fast and full. Inflammation of the Stomach, Page 89. 
 Delirium; breathing fast and hard; loss of appetite; fever. Blood Poisoning, 
 
 Page 78. 
 
64 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Ears and legs cold; nose hot and dry; fever; pulse fast and full; diarrhea fol- 
 lowed by constipation. Inflammation of the Stomach, Page 89. 
 
 Elbows turned out when standing; well marked crease extending from flank 
 to back part of elbow ; coughing ; pointing nose toward the side ; if the 
 ribs are tapped over the chest a clear hollow sound is heard. Pleurisy, 
 Page 94. 
 
 Eyes inflamed and swollen ; pulse full ; bowels constipated ; tips of horns and 
 extremities cold; sneezing; fever; cough; thin, watery discharge from 
 nose, but this soon thickens. Catarrh, Page 80. 
 
 Eyes lusterless; some coughing; diarrhea; animals reduced to skin and bones; 
 poor appetite. Tuberculosis, Page 98. 
 
 Eyes, mouth and nostrils reddened; muzzle and mouth dry; urine colored; 
 v pressure on the abdomen causes pain; falling down and moaning; manure 
 covered with slime; flanks heave; gait staggering. Inflammation of the 
 Bowels, Page 89. 
 
 Eyes red and inflamed ; lids swollen sometimes ; profuse discharge of tears 
 and mucus ; strong light irritating. Sore Eyes, Page 96. 
 
 Eyes very red with thick discharge; head hangs; loss of appetite; weakness; 
 constipation ; fever ; watery discharge from nose ; throat sore. Pink Eye, 
 Page 94. 
 
 Falling down and moaning; manure covered with slime and often streaked 
 with blood; flanks heave; gait staggering; nostrils, mouth and eyes are 
 reddened ; muzzle and mouth dry ; urine colored ; pressure on abdomen 
 causes pain. Inflammation of the Bowels, Page 89. 
 
 Falling in partially unconscious condition after staggering; constipation; 
 scanty urine ; uneasiness ; poor appetite ; lessened secretions of milk. 
 Milk Fever, Page 93. 
 
 Falling unconscious; breathing slow; pulse weak and irregular; stopping; 
 panting violently. Sunstroke, Page 97. 
 
 Fear of imaginary objects; fits or crazy spells especially when warm; head 
 trembles violently ; sluggishness ; difficult locomotion ; almost impossible 
 to get up after lying down. Loco Disease, Page 92. 
 
 Fits or crazy spells especially when warm ; head trembles violently ; sluggish- 
 ness ; difficult locomotion ; almost impossible to get up after lying down ; 
 fear of imaginary objects. Loco Disease, Page 92. 
 
 Flank drum-like ; belly greatly enlarged ; moves slowly ; breathes with dif- 
 ficulty; back arched. Bloat, Page 76. 
 
 Flank swollen and drum-like ; bowels constipated ; uneasiness ; animal shifts 
 position ; moaning. Impaction of Rumen or Paunch, Page 87. 
 
 Flanks heave; gait staggering; nostrils, mouth and eyes reddened; muzzle 
 and mouth dry ; urine colored ; pressure on the abdomen causes pain ; 
 falling down and moaning; manure covered with slime. Inflammation of 
 the Bowels, Page 89. 
 
 Flesh lost ; poor appetite, lusterless eyes ; some coughing ; diarrhea ; animal 
 reduced to skin and bones. Tuberculosis, Page 98. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE 65 
 
 Gait wabbling; stands alone; kicking toward belly; switching tail; as the 
 disease develops there is severe pain and delirium; moaning; bellowing. 
 Cornstalk Disease, Page 81. 
 
 Head hangs ; loss of appetite ; weakness ; constipation ; eyes very red with a 
 thick discharge; temperature rises to 104 or 105 degrees; watery discharge 
 from nose ; throat sore. Pink Eye, Page 94. 
 
 Head has crusty patches under which a pus-like fluid forms; severe irritation 
 and itching. Ringworm, Page 95. 
 
 Head thrown from side to side; switching tail; kicking abdomen with hind 
 feet; lying down often; moaning; grunting. Colic, Page 81. 
 
 Head trembling violently; sluggishness; difficult locomotion; almost impos- 
 sible to get up after lying down; fear of imaginary objects; fits or crazy 
 spells especially when warm. Loco Disease, Page 92. 
 
 Hind quarters stiff ; recurrent fever ; gradual falling away in spite of a normal 
 appetite ; excessive urination ; mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth 
 are pale ; extreme weakness. There may be improvement for a time and 
 then the same symptoms will return with more severity until the horse 
 may die from weakness or heart failure. Swamp Fever, Page 179. 
 
 Itching severely ; water blisters on skin which leave the skin moist with their 
 contents ; sometimes swelling and large sores. Eczema, Page 82. 
 
 Kicking abdomen with hind feet; lying down often; moaning; grunting; 
 switching tail ; head thrown from side to side. Colic, Page 81. 
 
 Kicking towards belly; switching tail; wabbling gait; stands alone; as the 
 disease develops there is severe pain and delirium; moaning; bellow- 
 ing. Cornstalk Disease, Page 81. 
 
 Lameness; stiffness swellings on affected part; these swellings emit a crack- 
 ling sound when rubbed; high fever; poor appetite. When one of the 
 swellings are opened a foul smelling, bloody fluid runs out. Anthrax, 
 Page 75. 
 
 Legs and ears cold ; nose hot and dry ; fever ; pulse fast and full ; diarrhea fol- 
 lowed by constipation. Inflammation of the Stomach, Page 89. 
 
 Legs close together; bowels constipated; fever; labored chest breathing; 
 shivering fits; nervousness; turning head to sides; muzzle dry. Peri- 
 tonitis, Page 94. 
 
 Legs stocky ; skin may be scaly and has eruptions ; unthriftiness ; coat rough ; 
 dullness. Bad Blood, Page 88. 
 
 Lids swollen; profuse discharge of tears and mucus; strong light irritating; 
 eyes red. Sore Eyes, Page 96. 
 
 Lumps on back of animal from which a grub can be squeezed. Grubs in the 
 Back, Page 86. 
 
 Manure covered with slime; flanks heave; gait staggering; nostrils, mouth 
 and eyes are reddened ; muzzle and mouth dry ; urine colored ; pressure 
 on the abdomen causes pain; falling down and moaning. Inflammation 
 of the Bowels, Page 89. 
 
66 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Manure dry with glazed covering; muzzle dry. Constipation, Page 81. 
 Manure thin and watery; weakness, loss of flesh; thirst, back arched; milk 
 dries up. Diarrhea, Page 82. 
 
 Milk does not come through teats. Blocked Teats, Page 78. 
 
 Milk flow stopped; breath offensive; manure streaked with blood and very 
 offensive ; straining severely ; high fever ; walking slowly ; great thirst ; 
 loss of appetite; back arched; bowels irregular. Dysentery, Page 82. 
 
 Milk given in less quantities; constipation; scanty urine; gait staggering; 
 falls down in partially unconscious condition. Milk Fever, Page 93. 
 
 Milk has blood in it. Bloody Milk, Page 79. 
 
 Milk is stringy. Stringy Milk, Page 97. 
 
 Milk streaked with blood or curdled; dullness; fever; shivering; pus com- 
 ing to surface of udder; in some cases there is no pus but the udder gets 
 hard ; part of udder may fall off in severe cases. Garget, Page 79. 
 
 Moaning; left flank hard and swollen; bowels constipated; uneasiness; animal 
 
 shifts position. Impaction of the Rumen or Paunch, Page 87. 
 Mouth has discharge of saliva ; is red and gives off a foul smell. Sore Mouth, 
 
 Page 96. 
 Mucous rope hanging from vulva; vagina has yellow sores on its lining. 
 
 Abortion, Page 74. 
 Mucus and tears discharged from eyes; strong light irritating; eyes red; 
 
 lids swollen. Sore Eyes, Page 96. 
 Mucus that becomes pus-like discharged from nostrils ; constipation ; chill 
 
 followed by fever ; dullness. Catarrh, Page 80. 
 Muzzle dry ; manure dry with glazed covering. Constipation, Page 81. 
 
 Neck arched; coughing; heavy breathing; poking out nose; frequent attempts 
 at swallowing. Choking, Page 80. 
 
 Neck has crusty patches on, under which a pus-like fluid forms; severe ir- 
 ritation and itching. Ringworm, Page 95. 
 
 Nervousness ; turning head to sides ; muzzle dry ; legs close together ; bowels 
 constipated; fever; labor breathing; chest breathing. Peritonitis, Page 
 94. 
 
 Nose dry and hot; fever; pulse fast and full; constipation following diarrhea; 
 legs and ears cold. Inflammation of the Stomach, Page 86. 
 
 Nose has discharge of mucus that becomes pus-like ; constipation ; chill fol- 
 lowed by fever; dullness. Catarrh, Page 80. 
 
 Nose has thin watery discharge at first but this soon thickens ; eyes inflamed 
 and swollen ; pulse full ; bowels constipated ; tips of horns and extrem- 
 ities of limbs cold. Catarrh, Page 80. 
 
 Nose pointed towards side; breathing quickened; fever; quick pulse; stand- 
 ing with elbows turned out; well marked crease extending from the 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE 67 
 
 flank to the back of elbow; coughing; if the ribs are tapped over the 
 chest a clear hollow sound is heard. Pleurisy, Page 94. 
 
 Nose, watery discharge from ; throat sore ; eyes very red with thick discharge ; 
 head hangs ; loss of appetite ; weakness ; constipation ; fever. Pink Eye, 
 Page 94. 
 
 Pains, colicky ; high fever ; frequent but scanty passage of urine which is dark 
 and thick; moves hind quarters with difficulty; arched back, quick 
 breathing; fast pulse; sweating; poor appetite. Inflammation of the 
 Kidneys, Page 89. 
 
 Pains come suddenly in abdomen ; animal falls down and moans ; manure 
 covered with slime and often streaked with blood ; flanks heave ; gait stag- 
 gering; nostrils, mouth and eyes are reddened; muzzle and mouth dry; 
 urine colored; pressure on abdomen causes pain. Inflammation of the 
 Bowels, Page 89. 
 
 Panting violently; losing consciousness and falling; breathing slow; pulse 
 weak and irregular. Sunstroke, Page 97. 
 
 Patches where there is no hair, on head and neck ; pus-like fluid forms under 
 these; severe irritation and itching. Ringworm, Page 95. 
 
 Poking out nose; frequent attempts at swallowing; saliva runs from mouth; 
 neck arched ; coughing ; heavy breathing. Choking, Page 80. 
 
 Pimples coming on body following a slight fever of about a week's duration. 
 
 This fluid soon forms a scab. The scab comes off leaving pock marks. 
 
 Cow Pox, Page 82. 
 Protruding of uterus through vagina. Eversion of the Womb, Page 84. 
 
 Pulse rapid; rattling sound in lungs when ear is placed to chest; quick 
 
 breathing ; lying down ; chill followed by fever which gradually increases 
 
 for a time. Pneumonia, Page 95. 
 Rough coat ; legs stocky ; skin may be scabby and has eruptions ; unthriftiness ; 
 
 dullness. Bad Blood, Page 88. 
 
 Saliva discharges ; mouth red ; gives off foul smell. Sore Mouth, Page 96. 
 Saliva runs from mouth; neck arches; coughing, heavy breathing; poking 
 
 nose out ; frequent attempts at swallowing. Choking, Page 80. 
 Scabs forming on body from pimples that contained a watery fluid. The 
 
 scabs come off forming pock marks. Cow Pox, Page 82. 
 Shivering fits; nervousness; turning head to sides; muzzle dry; legs close 
 
 together ; bowels constipated ; fever, breathing labored, chest breathing. 
 
 Peritonitis, Page 94. 
 Shivering; pus coming to surface of udder; in some cases there is no pus 
 
 but the udder gets hard ; part of the udder may fall off in severe cases ; 
 
 milk streaked with blood ; udder hot, swollen and tender. Garget, Page 
 
 79. 
 
 Skin eruptions ; unthrifty condition ; coat rpugh ; dullness ; legs stocky ; skin 
 may be scaly. Bad Blood, Page 88. 
 
68 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Sneezing; fever; cough; thin, watery discharge from the nose at first but this 
 soon thickens ; eyes inflamed and swollen ; pulse full ; bowels consti- 
 pated; tips of horns and extremities of limbs cold. Catarrh, Page 80. 
 
 Sound rattling sound heard; breathing quickened; lying down; chill fol- 
 lowed by fever which gradually increases for a time. Pneumonia, Page 
 95. 
 
 Staggering and falling in partially unconscious condition ; uneasiness ; poor 
 appetite; lessened secretions of milk; constipation, scanty urine. Milk 
 Fever, Page 93. 
 
 Staggering gait; nostrils, mouth and eyes reddened; muzzle and mouth dry; 
 urine colored; pressure on abdomen causes pain; falling down and moan- 
 ing; manure covered with slime; flanks heave. Inflammation of the 
 Bowels, Page 89. 
 
 Stiffness; swellings on affected part; these swellings emit a crackling sound 
 when rubbed; high fever; poor appetite. When one of the swellings are 
 opened a foul smelling, bloody fluid runs out. Anthrax, Page 75. 
 
 Stopping; panting violently; losing consciousness and falling, breathing slow; 
 pulse weak and irregular. Sunstroke, "Page 97. 
 
 Straining severely; high fever; walking slowly; great thirst; loss of appetite 
 back arched; tail elevated; bowels irregular; milk flow stops; breath 
 and manure very offensive and streaked with blood. Dysentery, Page 
 82. 
 
 Swallowing frequently attempted; saliva runs from mouth; neck arched; 
 coughing; heavy breathing; poking out nose. Choking, Page 80. 
 
 Sweating; poor appetite; colicky pains; high fever; frequent but scanty 
 passage of urine which is dark and thick; moves hind quarters with dif- 
 ficulty ; back arched ; quick breathing ; fast pulse. Inflammation of the 
 Kidneys, Page 89. 
 
 Swellings on affected part ; the swellings emit a crackling sound when rubbed ; 
 high fever; poor appetite. When one of the swellings are opened, a foul 
 smelling bloody fluid runs out ; lameness ; stiffness. Anthrax, Page 75. 
 
 Swelling that is soft, coming at the navel ; it is easily pushed back with the 
 finger. Navel Rupture, Page 93. 
 
 Swelling that is soft on belly, usually on the right side. Ventral Rupture, 
 Page 96. 
 
 Swollen red feet followed by blisters which burst and cause severe lameness ; 
 inclination to lie down ; chill followed by fever. Foot and Mouth Disease, 
 Page 84. 
 
 Tail, switching; head thrown from side to side; kicking abdomen with hind 
 feet; lying down often; moaning; grunting. Colic, Page 81. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE 69 
 
 Tears and mucus discharged from eyes; strong light irritating; eyes red; lids 
 swollen. Sore Eyes, 'Page 96. 
 
 Teats will not pass milk. Stricture of the Teat. 
 
 Teeth loose following lump on the jaw. This lump softens, breaks and 
 
 throws out thick pus containing yellow masses of germs. Lump Jaw, 
 
 Page 92. 
 
 Thirst excessive loss of appetite ; back arched ; tail elevated ; bowels irregu- 
 lar; milk flow stops; breath and manure very offensive and streaked 
 with blood. Dysentery, 'Page 82. 
 
 Ticks that are very small found on the thighs, forelegs and belly; extreme 
 weakness; high fever; loss of appetite; bowels constipated; urine highly 
 colored. Texas Fever, Page 97. 
 
 Udder tender; swollen, hot; milk streaked with blood or curdled; dullness; 
 fever; shivering; pus coming to surface of udder; in some cases there is 
 no pus but the udder gets hard; part of udder may fall off in severe 
 cases. Garget. 
 
 Unconscious ; falls down ; breathing slow ; pulse weak and irregular ; stop- 
 ping ; panting violently. Sunstroke, Page 97. 
 
 Uneasiness ; poor appetite ; lessened secretions of milk ; constipation ; scanty 
 urine; gait staggering; falls down in partially unconscious condition. 
 Milk Fever, Page 93. 
 
 Urine colored ; pressure on abdomen causes pain ; falling down and moan- 
 ing; manure covered with slime; flanks heave; gait staggering; nostrils, 
 mouth and eyes reddened ; muzzle and mouth dry. Inflammation of the 
 Bowels, Page 89. 
 
 Urine frequent but scanty passage of urine that is dark and thick; moves 
 hind quarters with difficulty; arched back; quick breathing; fast pulse; 
 sweating; poor appetite; colicky pains, high fever. Inflammation of the 
 Kidneys, Page 89. 
 
 Urine scanty ; staggering gait ; falls down in partially unconscious condition ; 
 uneasiness ; poor appetite ; lessened secretions of milk. Milk Fever, Page 
 93. 
 
 Urine very highly colored ; very small ticks found on the thigh, forelegs and 
 belly ; extreme weakness ; high fever ; loss of appetite ; bowels consti- 
 pated. Texas Fever, Page 97. 
 
 Uterus protruding through vagina. Eversion of the Womb, "Page 84. 
 
 Vagina has yellow sores on its lining; rope of mucus hanging from vulva. 
 Abortion, Page 74. 
 
 Water blisters on skin which leave the skin moist with their contents ; some- 
 times swelling and large sores ; severe itching. Eczema, 'Page 82. 
 
70 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Weakness, extreme; high fever; loss of appetite; bowels constipated; urine 
 very highly colored; very small ticks found on the thighs, forelegs and 
 belly. Texas Fever, Page 97, 
 
 Weakness of hind quarters before calving. Paralysis of Hind Quarters be- 
 fore Calving, Page 94. 
 
 Worms coughed up; bowels loose; suffocating sort of breathing; cough dry 
 and husky ; poor appetite. Filaria Bronchitis. 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF CATTLE 
 
 ANATOMY OF CATTLE. 
 
 While there is considerable difference in the bony construction of the ox 
 and horse the bones and joints are known by the same names. The ribs of 
 the horse are joined to the breast bone by cartilage while those of the ox are 
 united by joints. The horse has eighteen pair of ribs and the ox has only 
 thirteen pair. The breast bone of the horse is more round than that of the 
 ox. When suffering from diseases of the lungs the ox usually lies down and 
 the horse stands up, because he has more breathing capacity when standing 
 and the ox has more when lying down. The ox has a divided foot and of 
 course the bones are different than those in the foot of the horse. 
 
 The Digestive Organs. The digestive organs of the ox differ in some 
 respects from those of the horse. The tongue is rough and thicker than 
 that of the horse and is used to convey food to the mouth. The teeth differ 
 very much from those of the horse. There are eight front teeth in the lower 
 jaw but none in the upper jaw, their place being filled by a thick hard tissue 
 which answers the purpose of teeth. This makes it difficult for cattle to 
 thrive on short pasture. The molars (grinders) are quite similar to those 
 of a horse. The palate of the ox is small and does not close the opening 
 into the pharynx as does that of the horse. The pharynx is larger than in the 
 horse. The fibers of the gullet have a double action. While the animal is 
 eating, they carry the food from mouth to the stomach ; while chewing the 
 cud, they act in opposite way, carrying food from stomach to mouth. 
 
 The gullet thus carries the food from the stomach to the mouth and 
 back to the stomach when masticated. 
 
 The stomach of the ox has four compartments : the first, called the 
 rumen or paunch; the second, the reticulum; the third, the omasum, and the 
 fourth, the true stomach or abomasum. The first three have an important 
 part in the preparation of food for the fourth, or true stomach, where the 
 greatest part of digestion takes place. The rumen or paunch is held in 
 position by ligaments which attach it to the left side. It occupies a large 
 space and is the organ operated on in tapping for bloat. The rumen has two 
 openings on the front side. One for the food to enter and the other for its 
 passage into the reticulum. The food enters the reticulum from the front and 
 passes into the omasum from a back opening. From the omasum the food 
 enters the true stomach, to be digested and passed into the small intestines. 
 
 71 
 
THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Both the large and small intestines are similar to those of the horse, 
 but are larger and longer and less liable to become diseased. When the food 
 enters the intestines, it is acted upon by the bile secreted in the liver; the 
 nourishment is carried into the blood and the balance is passed out as manure. 
 
 The gall bladder in the liver of the ox accumulates gall which is forced 
 into the intestines during the process of digestion. 
 
 SKELETON OF THE COW 
 
 Some knowledge of the skeleton is advisable to facilitate the study of diseases of 
 bones and the accidental injuries to which they are exposed. The skeleton of the adult 
 ox is made up of the following number of bones: 
 
 Spinal column 45 
 
 Head 28 
 
 Chest 27 
 
 Shoulder 2 1 on each side. 
 
 Arm 2 1 on each side. 
 
 Forearm 4 2 on each side. 
 
 Forefoot 40 20 on each side. 
 
 Pelvis 2 1 on each side. 
 
 Thigh 2 1 on each side. 
 
 Leg 6 3 on each side. 
 
 Hind foot . 38 19 on each side. 
 
 Total . ..196 
 
 Urinary Organs. The bladder and urinary passage are much the same 
 as in the horse, but the kidneys of the ox are larger. 
 
 Respiratory Organs. The respiratory organs of the ox are not as sus- 
 ceptible to disease as those of the horse although they are much the same in 
 construction. In the normal animal the heart beats from forty-eight to fifty- 
 six times in a minute. The pulse may be taken on the under side of the lower 
 jaw, taking the artery between the first and second fingers. The normal respir- 
 ation is from ten to twenty per minute and is easily counted by watching the 
 nostrils. The temperature in cattle is very important in ascertaining the 
 presence of disease and every cattle owner should possess a clinical thermome- 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 73 
 
 ten The temperature may be obtained by inserting the thermometer in the 
 rectum for two or three minutes. In normal cattle it should register about 
 101 degrees. If very much above 101^ the animal is considered feverish. 
 
 ACTION OF DRUGS IN CATTLE AND HORSES. 
 
 Certain remedies do not always affect cattle and horses the same way. 
 Mustard acts better with cattle than horses but turpentine does not act as well. 
 Oils make a good cathartic for horses, but melted lard is much better for cattle. 
 It is generally better to dilute the drugs well that are to be given to cattle 
 because of the great size of the stomach and the amount of food in it. Also 
 cattle require nearly twice as much medicine as horses. 
 
 DRENCHING A COW. 
 
 It is quite a simple matter to drench a cow. Hold the animal's head 
 high enough to form an incline for the medicine to run into the back of the 
 mouth. Stand on the left side and hold the nostrils with the thumb and 
 finger. The only thing left to do is to put the nozzle of the bottle into the 
 mouth and let the medicine run down. Caution: Pour the medicine down 
 slowly so that it will run into the fourth stomach where it should go. 
 
 BANDAGING AND STITCHING WOUNDS. 
 
 In some way, the edges of the wound must be brought together and kept 
 there ; in case it is on the legs, a bandage or strip of adhesive plaster applied 
 smoothly around the leg may be sufficient to hold the wound together, if 
 not, and stitches are required, a surgeon's needle having sharp edges and silk 
 thread or catgut should be used. Bring the edges together as smoothly as 
 possible by passing the needle through both edges of the wound. Do not 
 draw the stitch too tight as a little swelling of the parts will cause them to 
 tear. A small opening should be left near the bottom for pus to drain out. 
 After the wound is sewed, it should be treated with antiseptics, and carefully 
 protected from injury. If catgut is used in stitching it will absorb, but if 
 thread is used the stitches may be removed in five or six days if the wound 
 has done well. In treating wounds, see "Horse Department." 
 
 CASTRATION OF CALVES AND BULLS. 
 
 This operation consists in removing the reproductive organs. Calves 
 should be thrown on their sides to be castrated, but a bull is usually castrated 
 while standing. He should be fastened in by stocks or else tied to the wall 
 and a stout post. His right side should be towards the wall. He can be 
 held there by means of a surcingle around his body. Wash the ccrotum, 
 hands and knife in a carbolic acid solution (1 part to 30) before performing 
 the operation. In this operation the testicles are forced low down in the 
 sack with the left hand while a bold incision is made with the knife on the 
 back side of the sack clear to the bottom. Draw one testicle down and cut 
 
 
74 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 off the cord well up. Tie the end of the cord with silk or catgut or else use 
 the ecraseur or emasculator. Be sure the string is long enough to be pulled 
 off later. 
 
 The cord in calves can be cut off with a knife without danger. The parts 
 should be washed thoroughly in peroxide of hydrogen or one part carbolic 
 acid to thirty parts of water at least once a day until they are healed. 
 
 Drenching the Cow 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 Explanation. The subjects in this department are arranged in alphabet- 
 ical order so as to help the reader find what he is looking for without even 
 turning to the index. However, a complete index will be found at the back 
 of the book. 
 
 Abortion. 
 
 Abortion is the expulsion of the immature young. It is more common 
 in cattle but it occurs in other farm animals, especially where large numbers 
 are kept together. Usually caused by copulation but may be transmitted 
 from one cow to another. Some assert that consuming affected food or water 
 is often the cause. 
 
 Symptoms. In the early months there is usually no warning before an 
 abortion has taken place. A sticky, rusty and odorless discharge a few days 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 75 
 
 before the abortion. Soon after a yellowish-gray discharge lasts for several 
 weeks, also a rope of mucus often hangs from the vulva. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment can be very little aside from good care and 
 sanitary measures. To prevent the bull from carrying the infection, clip the 
 hair from the opening of the sheath. Disinfect the parts with */ 2 percent of 
 compound cresol solution or lysol. Irrigate the uterus of the cow daily with 
 the same solution. Remove diseased animal from the herd. Do not breed 
 her again for two months. Use antiseptics, taking precautions against breed- 
 ing to infected animals, and keeping the stock in good vigorous condition. 
 A cow that has aborted should not be bred for some time after all discharge 
 has ceased. For two days before breeding wash out the vagina with a solu- 
 tion of corrosive sublimate (4 drops to a teacupfnl of water). On the day of 
 breeding use warm water instead of the solution, as the latter will destroy 
 the semen. 
 
 Home Prevention for Abortion. Mix ten pounds of salt, one pound of 
 sulphur and one pound of powdered hyposulphite of soda. Give a medium 
 handful about three times each week to pregnant cows. 
 
 (Also See "Horse Department," Page 152.) 
 
 Afterbirth, Retained. 
 
 This occurs because of inflammation of the womb; lack of preparation 
 because of abortion ; imperfect power of contraction ; innutritions food ; rapid 
 closure after calving; a too prompt milking by attendant or sucking by the 
 
 calf. 
 
 Symptoms. Membranes hang from vulva and decay, causing offensive 
 odor ; ill health ; drying up of the milk ; wasting away in flesh. 
 
 Treatment. If the cow is in low condition or the cause is connected 
 with food, give hot drinks and hot mashes of wheat bran. If besides the 
 above conditions the bowels are tight, give an ounce of ground ginger, or \ l / 2 
 pound of Glauber's salt in 4 quarts of warm water, or half an ounce of black 
 pepper given with a quart of sweet oil. Give one or two quarts of boiled 
 flaxseed tea frequently. Seize the dependent part of the afterbirth between 
 two sticks, roll it on them until they lie against the vulva, by careful drawing 
 and moving from side to side the afterbirth is wound up until finally its last 
 connections are severed. Do not neglect attending to this removal. 
 
 Anthrax. (See "Sheep Department," Page 203.) 
 Barrenness in Cows and Bulls. (See "Horse Department," Page 152.) 
 
 Black Leg. 
 
 This is a contagious disease usually affecting young cattle. Germs 
 entering through some abrasion in the skin while the animal is on pasture, or 
 taken into the body with the drinking water or with the food. It seems to 
 affect calves that are in good flesh rather than those that are thin. 
 
76 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. Lying apart from other stock, lameness, stiffness, swellings 
 on affected part, which swellings are full of gas and emit a crackling sound 
 if rubbed ; high fever, poor appetite. When one of the swellings is opened a 
 foul smelling fluid runs out, which is often streaked with blood. 
 
 Treatment. Animals with black leg generally live several days, but few 
 recover. Put the well calves on new uninfected pasture or barns and give 
 uninfected water. This is a reliable and safe preventive and should be done 
 before the trouble occurs, if there is black leg in the country. 
 
 Dissolve a scant teacupful of Glauber's salt and one-half to two-thirds 
 teacupful of table salt in a quart of water. Give this dose again from 4 to 
 6 hours and once a day for several days. This is one of the most effective 
 remedies known. 
 
 Prevention for Black Leg. A safe and reliable prevention is to vaccinate 
 with a good black leg virus. 
 
 Take three pounds each of air-slaked lime and saltpeter, six pounds of 
 sulphate of iron and ten pounds of sulphur, pulverize and mix thoroughly. 
 Instead of feeding salt alone, use a pound of this mixture to a gallon of salt. 
 This medicine is used to prevent black leg in many parts of the West. 
 
 Bleeding. 
 
 Slight hemorrhages may be stopped by the continual application of ice, 
 snow or cold water to the wound. Lint or sponges may be forced into a 
 wound and held with bandages. Tie a piece of string tight around the end 
 of a cut artery. When necessary saturate a bandage in vinegar or alum and 
 apply tightly to the wound. 
 
 Blind Staggers. (See "Horse Department," Page 158.) 
 
 Bloat. 
 
 Bloat means an enlarged condition of the paunch caused by being filled 
 with gases of fermentation. Green food, choking, acute indigestion, gases in 
 the digestive tract are the causes of bloat. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily and 
 is evidently distressed. Drum-like sounds are made when the fingers are 
 snapped against the left flank. The animal moves slowly, breathes with diffi- 
 culty, often emits a grunt or moan as it breathes. There is a dripping of 
 saliva from mouth, colicky pains are shown by kicking at belly or stepping 
 about uneasily. The animal may stagger and fall as bloating increases and 
 die if not relieved. 
 
 Treatment. In a light case of bloat no medicine may be needed ; it may 
 be sufficient to walk the animal around for half an hour. When the life of 
 the animal is in danger, tapping should be resorted to since there is little 
 danger from this operation. This should be done, if the flank is drum-like, 
 in order to let the gas escape. After medicine is used the bowels should be 
 opened by injections of warm soapy water. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 
 
 77 
 
 In moderate cases give adult cattle two-ounce doses of aromatic spirits 
 of ammonia or dissolve half an ounce of chloride of lime in a pint of warm 
 water and give as a dose. Repeat every half hour until relieved. 
 
 Dash cold water against animal's sides until relieved. A prominent 
 farmer writes that covering the animal with wet cold blankets and changing 
 them often brings relief. 
 
 Tapping the Paunch of the Cow for Bloat 
 
 Be sure to tap on the left side and as near a point midway between the last rib 
 and the point of the hip as it is possible to determine. 
 
 Arrange the animal's front feet about a foot higher than the hind feet. 
 This allows the gas to escape. 
 
 A good remedy for bloat is two tablespoonfuls of common baking soda 
 given in water as a drench. 
 
 Give heaping tablespoonful doses of finely pulverized charcoal in J4 
 gallon of water as a drench. 
 
 The gas may often be started by putting red or black pepper on the 
 animal's upper lip. This causes him to run out the tongue. 
 
 Pull the tongue out of one side of the mouth and throw a small handful 
 of salt well toward the back part before loosening the tongue. The cow will 
 then work the tongue and stimulate the flow of saliva which promotes the 
 gulping up of gas. This will often work better if the mouth is bitted open. 
 
78 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 An excellent remedy is to tie a piece of tarred rope through the mouth 
 and back of the horns. 
 
 Hold the mouth open by putting a stick about the size of a fork handle 
 through it. Tie this in place with a rope around the horns. Daub some 
 pine tar on this stick if you have it. If the bloat is not relieved tap the 
 animal. 
 
 Give one tablespoonful of baking soda and two tablespoonfuls of salt in 
 a quart of warm water as a drench. If bloat is reduced give from one to 
 two pounds of Epsom salts. . 
 
 Tapping should always be done when the medicines do not give relief 
 and the paunch becomes drum-like. Tie the animal's head securely if possible 
 and wash the part where the body is to be tapped, with any good disinfectant. 
 Make a small incision through the skin over the most prominent part of the 
 swelling on the left side about midway between the last rib and the point of 
 the hip, to admit the trocar. Push the trocar in boldly in a downward and 
 forward direction and you will not fail to tap the paunch. Remove the 
 trocar and leave the canula until the gas escapes. If the food clogs up the 
 canula, push the trocar in again to clear it out. In some cases it may be 
 necessary to remove both the trocar and canula and plunge them in again 
 in a different direction, using the same hole in the skin. It may be even 
 better to perform the operation in a different spot. Give the animal one 
 pound of Glauber's salts after the operation to avoid constipation. 
 
 In case the paunch becomes drum-like and you have no. trocar and canula 
 do not desitate to tap the animal with a small bladed knife. Make the incision 
 on the left side at the most prominent part which is usually half way between 
 the last rib and point of thejiip. Direct the blade downward to avoid making 
 too large a cut if the cow jumps. Insert a quill or clean pipe stem into the 
 opening to allow the gas to escape. If the gas does not escape tap again. 
 
 Blocked Teats or Stricture of the Teats. 
 
 This often happens to cows. It is caused by some irritant inside the teat, 
 injuries, a growth inside the teat blocking the passage or unhealthy condition 
 of the glands. 
 
 Treatment. When the trouble is caused by a growth it may often be 
 removed by looping a fine spring passed as a loop through a fine tube and 
 insert into the teat. 
 
 If an application of iodine is put on the teat once a day it will often remove 
 the trouble. 
 
 Blood Letting. 
 
 Blood letting is not practiced any more by the most enlightened people 
 except in the most extreme cases and then only when everything else has 
 failed. 
 
 Blood Poisoning. 
 
 Germs entering the body through open sores, or some poisonous matter 
 entering the system. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 79 
 
 Symptoms. Loss of appetite, fever, fast, quick breathing, and sometimes 
 delirium. 
 
 Treatment. Take care of the animal immediately. See if there is an 
 abscess causing the trouble. 
 
 If an abscess has formed apply peroxide of hydrogen (1 part to 2 of 
 water) after breaking the abscess. Then apply a carbolic acid solution (1 
 teaspoonful to a cup of water). Use this treatment several times daily and 
 give a good tonic three to five times a day. Watch the bowels and give 
 a good cathartic when necessary. 
 
 Bloody Milk. 
 
 Symptoms. Injuries, excitement caused from heat, circulation increased 
 by more abundant food than usual, tumors in the udder, eating of logwood or 
 madder, all may cause blood in the milk. 
 
 Treatment. Study out the cause and remote it. See that the animal 
 has proper bedding. 
 
 Bathe the bag in hot or cold water and rub with camphorated lard. Reduce 
 the feed if it is too rich or abundant* 
 
 Mix one part of iodine ointment to two parts of soft soap, and rub the 
 bag frequently with this mixture. 
 
 Breathing in Young Calves (How to Start). 
 
 Clear the mouth and nose, and remove the membranes, then start the calf 
 to breathing. To do this press the chest in and out gently or blow into the 
 nostrils. 
 
 Bronchitis. 
 
 Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes is a com- 
 mon disease with domestic animals. The usual causes are: exposure to cold 
 and dampness, it sometimes follows sore throat, breathing irritating gases, 
 etc. 
 
 Symptoms. Bronchitis often starts with a chill and is followed with 
 fever. The pulse is hard and rapid; the cough short, dry and husky; the 
 bowels are constipated ; loss of appetite. 
 
 Treatment. Supply fresh air but avoid drafts. Keep the contents of 
 the bowels in a soft condition by enemas. Keep the body warm by blanketing. 
 In the early stages give a solution consisting of 4 fluid ounces acetate of 
 ammonium, 2 drams extract of belladonna and yt> pint water. Give this three 
 times daily. 
 
 Make a paste of mustard and lard and apply to the chest, the lower part 
 of the neck, and the sides. 
 
 Put one tablespoonful of carbolic acid in a bucket of hot water and let the 
 animal inhale the fumes. Repeat every hour. 
 
 Give injections of soapy water to open the bowels. Violent purgatives 
 should never be given. 
 
80 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Buffalo Gnat. 
 
 These are known also as black flies, they have a humped back and are 
 about one-eighth of an inch long. They breed in running water. Their bite 
 is poisonous and causes heavy losses. 
 
 Treatment. Burning of smudges often keeps them away. They appear 
 more on sunny days. Cattle will not be molested when in darkened stables. 
 Use repellant as shown under flies. 
 
 Capped Elbow. (See "Horse Department," Page 175.) 
 
 Catarrh. 
 
 This is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose and parts 
 of the head. It oftens affects the eyes and throat by making them red and 
 watery. 
 
 Damp stables, exposure to sudden changes of weather, especially when 
 wet and cold, inhalation of irritating gases, are some of the causes. 
 
 Symptoms. Often some fever and cough ; discharge from the nose that 
 is watery at first but soon thickens ; eyes inflamed and swollen ; constipated, 
 poor appetite ; tips of horns and ears have variable temperature. 
 
 Treatment. Take good care of the animal. Give him a roomy dry stable. 
 Feed laxative foods. In severe cases hot medicated inhalations may be 
 given. Give the animal about one pound of Glauber's salt to loosen the 
 bowels. Repeat this dose in 24 hours if necessary. Give from one to two 
 ounces nitrate of potassium in the drinking water three times daily. This is 
 to reduce the fever. 
 
 Chapped Teats. 
 
 Contact with cold water; sudden chilling in winter; anything which 
 irritates them will cause them to become chapped. 
 
 Treatment. Applications of vaseline are very good. A mixture of 
 equal parts of oil of sweet almonds and spermaceti may be applied producing 
 excellent results. If very severe, wash with a solution of one dram sugar of 
 lead in one pint of water, then apply benzoated zinc-oxide ointment. Equal 
 parts of sweet oil and belladonna rubbed on after milking is an excellent 
 remedy. 
 
 Choking. 
 
 This is caused by attempting to swallow too large an object such as a 
 beet, potato, pear, apple or turnip. Sometimes caused by bolting dry food. 
 
 Symptoms. Animal coughs frequently; saliva discharges from the 
 mouth; after drinking, the water is soon ejected; the expression is troubled; 
 breathes fast and sometimes there is bloating. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the object by pressing it up if possible. To assist 
 this give the animal a half pint of raw linseed or olive oil before doing as 
 above stated. A well wrapped, twisted wire, a piece of thin garden hose or 
 a piece of new rope with the end closely wrapped, waxed, and oiled, may be 
 used in emergencies, as a probang. Also the end of a tug may be used. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 81 
 
 Tobacco formed into a ball half the size of a man's fist and forced down 
 the cow's throat as far as possible, will often make the animal sick and cause 
 it to throw up. This will relax the muscles of the throat and throw the 
 object out. 
 
 Add a little sweet oil to a strong soap suds. Pour this down the animals 
 throat and work the object loose with the hands. 
 
 Cold water poured in the animal's ear is often effective. This causes the 
 animal to shake the head violently and thus dislodge the object. This is 
 more applicable to a horse than a cow, writes a prominent Michigan farmer. 
 Throw a handful of salt into the animal's throat. Put a small handful of gun- 
 powder on the back of the tongue. This oils the passage and helps loosen the 
 obstacle. 
 
 Colic. 
 
 Produced by drinking too freely of cold water, which brings on cramps 
 of the stomach and bowels and stops digestion. 
 
 Symptoms. Distension of the abdomen but no gas. Animal is nervous 
 and restless. Often seized with a fit of trembling or a chill. The distention 
 and pain occur immediately after the animal has drunk the water. 
 
 Treatment. Walk the animal about for ten minutes. Then give a 
 tablespoonful of powdered ginger in a pint of warm water. Put two table- 
 spoonfuls of spirits of camphor in a pint of warm water and give as a drench. 
 
 Constipation. 
 
 This is more a symptom of disease or of faults in feeding than a disease 
 itself. It occurs most generally in fevers, from feeding on bulky or dry food, 
 and from obstructions of all kinds. 
 
 Symptoms. Animal's nose is dry, lack of interest in feeding, manure 
 usually dry. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the cause which gives rise to constipation. Then 
 give purgatives in repeated small doses instead of one or two large doses. 
 Flaxseed is a fine feed laxative. Give the animal plenty of salt. An enema 
 of soapsuds and warm water is good. 
 
 Constipation in New Born Calves. 
 
 At birth the calf's bowels contain a sticky, brownish-yellow material 
 partially derived from the liver. Before they start their normal functions 
 this must be expelled. The cow's first milk is nature's remedy to expel this 
 
 material. . . 
 
 Treatment. Give the calf a one-ounce dose of castor oil and inject 
 soapsuds. Give the cow a sloppy, laxative diet. 
 
 Cornstalk Disease. 
 
 Canvbe found in Central and Western states. It is caused by poisoning 
 from cornstalks; sometimes from too much bulky food. Young cattle are the 
 most easily affected, especially in wet weather. 
 
82 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. Moaning and bellowing; actions denoting delirium, avoid- 
 ance of the other cattle. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. Feed and water the cattle well before turning 
 them out into the field at first. Leave them in the cornfield but half an 
 hour the first day. Give laxative foods and salt regularly. Drench with 
 strong tansy tea to affect a cure, writes a Missouri farmer. 
 
 Cow Pox. 
 
 This is a contagious inflammation of the udder and usually spreads from 
 animal to animal by the hands of the milker. Sometimes it affects the legs 
 or heels of the horse and is thus transmitted to the cows. 
 
 Symptoms. Cow has slight fever. Tenderness of the teats is usually 
 noticed first, and pale-red bunches appear. These grow from the size of a pea 
 to nearly an inch in diameter. The yield of milk lessens. Blisters form 
 in about ten days and soon become yellow from containing pus. Milking 
 causes raw sores instead of blisters. 
 
 Treatment. Heal the sores. Milk gently using teat tube or dilator if 
 necessary. Wash the teats in a solution of half an ounce hyposulphite of 
 soda in a pint of water. 
 
 Dehorning Calves. 
 
 Apply caustic potash to the horns when 
 they start if you would kill them. (See 
 page 43.) 
 
 Dysentery Chronic. 
 
 This word as commonly used signifies a 
 severe form of diarrhea. It is a symptom of 
 irritation of the intestines causing increased 
 muscular contractions or secretions. Some- 
 Chronic Dysentery times the result of improper feeding, chilling 
 
 or parasites. 
 
 Symptoms. Passages from bowels are frequent, consisting of watery 
 and offensive dung which may be streaked with blood. The animal becomes 
 weak and restless, lies down and shows evidence of abdominal pain. Some- 
 times loss of flesh and strength quickly results. 
 
 Treatment. If caused by irritating properties, give a pint of castor oil 
 or raw linseed oil. When there is lack of appetite but no fever, mix two 
 ounces of powdered gentian and one ounce Tannic acid and give one-twelfth 
 three times a day until normal appearance is shown. Parched rye flour, strong 
 coffee, raw eggs or a tea from oak bark are excellent remedies for this 
 disease. 
 
 Eczema. 
 
 This is a noncontagious inflammation of the skin, caused by filthiness, 
 overfeeding, overcrowding, or stables which are too damp or excessively 
 warm. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 
 
 83 
 
 Supports for Prolapsed Uterus in Eversion of the Womb 
 
84 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. Swelling and increased heat of the skin, small rounded 
 elevations containing a water fluid. Water disappears and crust forms. Skin 
 becomes red and thickens, crust peels off. Animal keeps parts raw by 
 rubbing. 
 
 Treatment. Feed moderately such feeds as ground oats, clean hay, bran 
 mashes, green feed and plenty of salt. Give half an ounce of acetate of potas- 
 sium twice a day. Give Epsom salts if a purgative is needed. If animal 
 is poor give a tablespoonful of the following mixture in feed twice a day : 
 Sulphur, gentian, powdered copperas and sassafras bark, equal parts by 
 weight. Be careful the animal does not have lice. 
 
 Eversion of the Womb. 
 
 This is failure of the womb to contract after calving. 
 
 Symptoms. The womb is distinguished by from 50 to 100 mushroom- 
 like bodies, each 2 or 3 inches in diameter, clustering on its sides. 
 
 Treatment. Treat the case promptly. In partial eversion, have an as- 
 sistant pinch the back to prevent straining while the operator pushes the 
 mass back through the vagina with his closed fist. In complete eversion, with 
 the womb of its natural bulk and cow standing, pinch the back as before 
 mentioned, have two men to hold a sheet to sustain the womb and raise 
 it to the level of the vulva. Sponge clean with cold water ; this reduces the 
 bulk and drives out the blood. Plant the closed fist in the rounded end of 
 the largest horn and push, turning it back within itself and carrying it on 
 through the vagina. Use the other hand to assist in the inversion. Retain 
 the returned womb by tying a strap or rope around the neck and a surcingle 
 around the body. Make a rope truss from two ropes each about 18 feet 
 long and one inch thick. Double each rope at its middle, and lay one above 
 the other at the bend so as to form an egg-shaped loop about 8 inches in 
 its long diameter. Twist each end of the one rope twice around the other 
 so this loop will remain when drawn tight. Place the rope truss so the loop 
 will surround the vulva. The two descending ropes are carried forward on 
 the sides of the animal and tied to the surcingle and neck collar. Twist 
 the other ropes and proceed forward on the cow's back tying them to the 
 surcingle and collar. The rope ring should press firmly around the vulva. 
 See that this is worn for several davs. 
 
 Foot and Mouth Disease. 
 
 This disease is highly infectious and attacks cloven footed animals 
 chiefly. It affects the mouth, between the toes and above the hoofs. Every 
 outbreak starts from a previous outbreak. 
 
 Symptoms. There is tenderness of affected parts, lameness, loss of 
 appetite, and the quantity of milk diminishes. The animal opens and closes 
 its mouth with a smacking sound and ropy saliva soon hangs from the 
 lips. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 
 
 85 
 
 1. Sorts Between and Above the Cl.-ft in tin- lm,,f 
 f FOOT-AND-JtOL'TH DISEASE 
 
86 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Keep healthy animals 1 of all kinds away from infected cattle. 
 Keep people connected with other animals away from the premises. While 
 the affected cattle may recover in a few weeks, the virus may be carried 
 on them and the disease thus spread. Get rid of all cattle that have had the 
 disease. Disinfect with any of the following solutions : A 5 percent solution 
 of pure carbolic acid; standard chloride of lime, 1 pound to 3 gallons of 
 water; formaldehyde, 1 quart 40 percent solution to 5 gallons of water; or a 
 3 percent solution of cresol compound. Burn the manure and plow under. 
 Do not purchase other cattle for at least 60 days after disinfection. 
 
 Flies Keeping Them Off Stock. 
 
 The following is said to protect cows for a week : One pound common 
 laundry soap, 4 gallons water, 1 gallon crude petroleum, 4 ounces powdered 
 naphthalin. Cut the soap into thin shavings and dissolve in warm water; 
 then dissolve the naphthalin in the crude oil and mix the two solutions 
 thoroughly. Stir well before using and apply with a brush, or use 1 
 pound rancid lard and one-half pint kerosene. Mix into a creamy mass. 
 Recommended by Minnesota Experiment Station. A mixture of cottonseed oil 
 and pine tar has produced excellent results. Use every day or two. 
 
 Frost Bites. 
 
 A day or two after freezing, the ear becomes swollen and painful. The 
 dead part is cold and begins to shrivel. Mix one part each of turpentine, am- 
 monia and chloroform, then add six parts of sweet oil. Rub this on affected 
 part. It relieves pain and stimulates the circulation. 
 
 Grubs in the Back. 
 
 These grubs develop from the eggs of the heel fly or warble fly. The 
 fly resembles a small black bee. It appears early in summer and lays its 
 eggs on the skin of cattle. The usual mode of entrance is through the skin, 
 although the eggs or newly-hatch larvae may be taken into the mouth by the 
 cattle licking themselves. 
 
 Symptoms. Conspicuous lumps form during the latter part of winter and 
 spring. 
 
 Treatment. When the grubs have reached a late stage of development 
 they may be squeezed out and killed. When lumps are small, cut with a sharp 
 knife and press out the grub. You can kill the grubs by forcing grease or 
 oil into the openings of the lumps. The only objection is that the dead 
 grubs remain beneath the skin. 
 
 Impaction of the Omasum or Third Stomach. 
 
 This is caused by food clogged in third stomach resulting from eating 
 a lot of old dead hay in summer or extra dry feed in winter. 
 
 Symptoms. There are sharp pains on right side and the animal has 
 considerable fever. No bloating is usually shown, animal does not like 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 
 
 87 
 
 to move and keeps looking toward the right side. Below the ribs on right 
 side a hard substance can be felt. Delirium often sets in. 
 
 Treatment. Give a drench consisting of two ounces of ginger and one 
 and one-half pounds of Glauber's salts. Twelve hours after the bowels have 
 moved feed moist mashes or gruels and keep this up for several days at 
 regular intervals. 
 
 To insure bowel movement, give one quart of linseed oil or one quart 
 melted lard after twelve hours. 
 
 A. Rumen or First Stomach. 
 
 B. Recticulum or Second Stomach. 
 
 C. Omasum or Third Stomach. 
 
 D. Abomasum or Fourth Stomach. 
 
 E. Esophagus or Gullet. 
 
 F. Opening from Fourth Stomach to Small Intestines. 
 
 On being swallowed the food passes into the first (A) stomach from the gullet (E). In 
 (A) and (B) a churning motion is kept up which keeps the food passing from stomach 
 to stomach. From (A) the food is returned to the mouth through (E) for rechewing 
 before it is finally passed on to the third and fourth stomachs, and the small intestines. 
 
 Impaction of the Rumen. 
 
 This often happens after heavy meals which remain in the stomach un- 
 digested, often causing temporary paralysis. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal is greatly distressed. It breathes as though it 
 was suffocating. Fever develops. The animal moans frequently. The bowels 
 are bound and the manure is foul smelling. 
 
88 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. A drench consisting of 2]/2 ounces of ginger and one pound 
 of Glauber's salts often gives relief. Raw linseed oil is also good. When 
 paralysis has actually occurred, the operation termed rumenotomy must be 
 performed. This is an operation for the removal of the contents of the paunch 
 through the side. Cut into the paunch on the left side and remove a large 
 part of the contents with the hand. The incision should be made up and 
 down midway between last rib and point of hip. The incision should not 
 be more than six inches in length. Cleanse the parts well and sew up with 
 catgut. Be careful about feeding anything but nourishing slops for eight 
 or ten days. Animals have often recovered from this operation, when a 
 common jackknife was used, but get a surgeon if there is time. 
 
 Impure Blood. 
 
 This is often caused by overfeeding, lack of exercise, damp stables and 
 poor care. 
 
 Symptoms. Eruptions or scaly condition of skin. Animal is not thriving. 
 It has a dull eye and appears listless. 
 
 Treatment. Cleanse out the system with a good cathartic. Charcoal or 
 sulphur will purify the blood. Give lots of exercise and plenty of salt. 
 
 Indigestion. 
 
 Irritating or damaged feed, overloading of stomach, lack of exercise, 
 deficiency of water or sudden changes of diet causes indigestion. 
 
 Symptoms. Tongue coated, diminished appetite, mouth slimy, dullness, 
 fullness of flanks and dung showing undigested matter. 
 
 Treatment. -Give sweet silage, roots, or selected hay several times each 
 day in small quantities. Feed sparingly. Dissolve one pound of Glauber's 
 salts in a pint of molasses and a quart of linseed tea. Diet should be laxa- 
 tive; avoid ice water. 
 
 Indigestion in Calves. 
 
 Indigestion is caused by the milk being too rich or too plentiful; con- 
 stipation ; allowing a calf to suck the first milk of a cow that has been violently 
 excited ; too long between meals ; feeding fermented or spoiled milk ; keeping 
 calves in dark, bad smelling pens. 
 
 Symptoms. Dullness, uneasiness, sour breath, loss of appetite, indisposi- 
 tion to move or lying down and rising as if in pain, and fullness of stomach. 
 Diarrhea may carry off the offensive matters and restore health, or the 
 bowels may become inflamed, fever set in and the calf die. 
 
 Treatment. Prevent the causes mentioned above. Remove the irritant 
 by giving castor oil, about 2 ounces at a dose. Then at each feeding give 30 
 grains of pepsin and a teaspoonful of tincture of gentian. Injections of warm 
 soapy water will help. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 89 
 
 Enteritis Inflammation of the Bowels. 
 
 This may follow severe indigestion, or it may be caused by swallowing 
 irritant poisons. The disease may be produced by exposure to cold or 
 inclement weather. 
 
 Symptoms. Drooping of the ears, dullness, dry skin, rough coat, dry- 
 ness of muzzle, loins sensitive, fullness of left flank caused by distention 
 of fourth stomach by gas, loss of appetite, pulse weak, animal staggers and 
 grunts. Passages few at first and often coated with blood. Later a severe 
 diarrhea begins and passages have an offensive odor. Animal has colicky 
 pain which may continue. Fever occurs, there is general depression and in- 
 sensibility before death. The disease is often fatal. After death the walls of 
 the stomach are thick and soft and often show ulcerations. 
 
 Treatment. Feed selected food carefully. Do not force the appetite. 
 Protect from cold and dampness. Give boiled milk, rice water, boiled oatmeal 
 gruel, or linseed tea. Subnitrate of bismuth in 2 teaspoonful doses is good, as 
 is also Y-2 to one teaspoonful dose of Tannopin. 
 
 Inflammation of the Fourth Stomach. 
 
 This results from the presence of a foreign body in the stomach. The 
 animals often swallow their food without chewing it carefully, thus un- 
 digestible objects may be swallowed. Calves often get this disease by 
 eating frozen or decomposed food. 
 
 Symptoms. Grunting and pain upon sudden motion, coughing, pain on 
 pressure over the second stomach. 
 
 Treatment. If the presence of a foreign body is recognized, the animal 
 may be killed for beef if there is no fever. Give a good dose of Glauber's 
 salts and two ounces of ginger in warm water. Raw linseed oil is also good. 
 Feed easily digested foods. 
 
 Inflammation of the Kidneys. 
 
 Eating irritating plants, exposure to wet and cold, stone or gravel in the 
 kidneys, injuries to the back or loins, drinking alkaline or stagnant water, 
 consumption of musty fodder, are all causes of this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. Hurried breathing, rising temperature, fever, dry, hot muz- 
 zle, loss of appetite, sensitiveness in the loins, suspended chewing of cud, 
 burning at the roots of the ears and horns, back arched, hind legs extended 
 backward and outward, passes thick highly colored water frequently in 
 driblets, hesitates and groans when moved, are all symptoms of this disease. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the cause if possible. Acrid plants may be removed 
 from stomach by doses of olive or castor oil. Warm blankets or mustard 
 poultices over the loins are important. Check the fever by 15 drops of 
 tincture of aconite, or one-third ounce of acetanalid every four hours. As 
 the disease lessens in severity give 2 teaspoonfuls of quinine or 4 teaspoonfuls 
 of gentian powder daily as a tonic. Warm drinks are preferable. In its 
 
90 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 chronic form give a tonic daily consisting of 2 drams phosphate of iron, 20 
 grains powdered mix vomica and 4 drams powdered gentian root. 
 
 Caution: Blisters of Spanish flies, turpentine or other agent that may be 
 absorbed and irritate the kidneys must be avoided. 
 
 Inflammation of the Liver. 
 
 This usually occurs as a complication of some infectious disease. It also 
 occurs from fermented or putrid feeds or from overheating. 
 
 Symptoms. Yellowness of the white of the eye and the lining of the 
 mouth ; appetite is poor ; the urine comes often and is very dark ; pain is 
 caused by pressing over the liver; the dung is light colored. Animal lies 
 down often and rests its head on the side of its chest. 
 
 Treatment. Give Glauber's salts to cause a good bowel movement. 
 After it has operated, give a heaping tablespoonful of artificial Carlsbad salt 
 in the feed three times each day. 
 
 Inflammation of the Udder. 
 
 Blows on the udder, exposure to wet or cold, congestion, overfeeding 
 on rich albuminous feed like peas, beans or cotton seed, sore teats, insufficient 
 stripping of the udder in milking, are causes of the trouble. 
 
 Symptoms. Following exposure, the animal shivers, with general erec- 
 tion of hair and cold extremities. Then there is a reaction in which the 
 horns, ears and limbs become very warm and the glands swell up. In other 
 cases shivering is not noticed but tenderness of the bag, heat and the firm 
 swelling are first observed ; animal straddles with its hind limbs and lies 
 down on the unaffected side if at all. 
 
 Treatment. If the animal is shivering, drench with plenty of warm water 
 and give warm injections. Wring a blanket out of hot water and place 
 on animal, or place bags loosely filled with hot salt, sand or chaff on the 
 loins and back. Give one ounce of ground ginger to help shorten the attack. 
 Sweat the animal for half an hour, rub it well and cover with a dry blanket. 
 If there is little or no fever and but slight inflammation, rub briskly with a 
 weak iodine ointment or camphorated ointment and milk gently from 3 
 to 6 times a day. Each time the bag should be rubbed thoroughly. Where 
 fever and inflammation are more advanced, give 2 pounds of Glauber's salts, 
 and 1 ounce of saltpeter. 
 
 Insect and Snake Bites. 
 
 The poison injected by bites of certain poisonous insects and snakes 
 under the skin of animals is a very powerful agent. It usually produces 
 serious local irritation, oftentimes causing death. It does so by checking the 
 heart action through narcotic influence and through diffused inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. Local swellings, pricks, depression, weakness, feeble pulse, 
 difficult breathing, stupor or convulsions. 
 
 Treatment. It may be local or general. First make every attempt to 
 prevent absorption of the poison. If found immediately, cut out the bitten 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 
 
 91 
 
 Fig. 3. Lumpy Jaw. Fig. 2. Lumpy Tumor. Fig. 1. Diseased Jaw Bone. 
 
92 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 part. At least run a stick through a rope tied about the limb affected and 
 twist it tight to stop circulation in the bitten part. Enable the wound to 
 bleed freely. Squeeze out the poison with the fingers. Permanganate 
 of potassium in 5 percent solution should be applied to and injected into the 
 wound. Drench with stimulants such as Jamaica ginger, coffee, digitalis, or 
 aromatic spirits of ammonia. 
 
 Lice. 
 
 Cattle lice fasten their eggs or nits to the hair. Infested animals rub 
 against trees, posts, etc., and lick themselves. Mange is often suspected 
 by the hair coming out and the skin becoming thick. 
 
 Treatment. Mix one-half pint kerosene and one pound lard, then smear 
 it on the body. A good home-made nicotine dip is prepared as follows: for 
 each 18 gallons of dip desired take 4 pounds of good prepared tobacco leaves, 
 soak them in luke-warm water for 24 hours in a covered container; then for 
 a moment bring the water to the boiling point and let it stand over night. 
 Strain and dilute with water. 
 
 Locked Jaw or Tetanus. (See "Horse Department," Page 169). 
 Loco Disease. (See "Horse Department," Page 169). 
 
 Lump Jaw. 
 
 This is a chronic infectious disease that chiefly attacks the lower and 
 upper jaw. It may also appear under the skin in different parts of the 
 body. It is conveyed into the tissues through decayed teeth, slight wounds, 
 or shedding of the milk teeth. 
 
 Symptoms. A large swelling appears, in which one or more smaller 
 peculiar tumors are formed. These tumors vary from the size of a nut to that 
 of an egg. These break through the skin as reddish, small, fungus-like bodies. 
 Or sometimes the original swelling changes into an abscess which finally 
 discharges creamy pus, the abscess cavity soon filling with fungus-like 
 growths. The disease may start in the marrow of the bone or on the covering 
 of the bone. 
 
 Treatment. Give \ l /z or 2*/2 teaspoonfuls of iodide of potassium once 
 each day. This should be dissolved in water and administered as a drench. 
 Vary the dose according to the size of the animal and the effect produced, 
 lodism appears in course of ten days if the dose is large enough. There 
 is loss of appetite, weeping from the eyes and the skin becomes scurvy. When 
 these symptoms appear, stop the medicine for a few days and then resume. 
 Do not give iodide of potassium to milch cows. It decreases and spoils the 
 flow of milk. If given to an animal in advanced pregnancy, it may produce 
 abortion. 
 
 Lung Worms in Calves. (See "Sheep Department," Page 208). 
 
 Maggots in Wounds and Screw Worms. (See "Horse Department," 
 Page 175). 
 
 Mange. (See "Horse Department," Page 170). 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 93 
 
 Milk Fever. 
 
 This disease is most prevalent among plethoric cows or those having ex- 
 cessive fullness of the blood vessels. It occurs only at or near the time of 
 calving. 
 
 Symptoms. Sudden loss of voluntary movement and sensations, showing 
 collapse of nervous power. In the congestive form the cow droops the head, 
 shows uneasiness, sudden dullness, staggers, eyes appear red and pupils are 
 dilated, no longer notices feed or calf, unable to rise after lying down, her 
 nose often resting on the right flank. Pulse is high and she struggles con- 
 vulsively. 
 
 Milk Fever 
 
 Treatment. The distention of the udder with common air has proved 
 invariably successful in all kinds of cases. It is best to have on hand an 
 elastic rubber ball such as the common Davidson syringe with tubes. Into 
 the free end of the delivery tubes fit a milking tube. Before using, sterilize 
 by boiling the entire apparatus for 30 minutes. Use warm soap suds to 
 wash the teats and udder, rinse with a 5 percent solution of carbolic acid. 
 Insert the end of the tube into the teat and fill as full of air as it will hold. 
 After withdrawing the tube, tie a broad tape around the end of the teat 
 to prevent escape of the air. In case of emergency, use a bicycle pump ; 
 even an automobile pump has been used successfully. Be as careful to 
 prevent infection as possible. 
 
 Navel Rupture. 
 
 The navel or umbilicus is the passage through which the blood vessels pass 
 from the womb to the fetus or unborn calf. Sometimes this aperture remains 
 open and a portion of the bowels or lining of the stomach may slip through 
 the opening. This may be caused by any severe straining or blow on the 
 belly. 
 
 Treatment. The smaller ruptures often cure themselves. Where there 
 are no indications of the rupture healing of its own accord, place the calf on its 
 back and gently assist the organs to return into the abdomen. Clip the hair from 
 the skin covering the hernia, smear the skin with pitch and cover with about ten 
 folds of cotton or linen used as a compress. Next pass a bandage about 4 inches 
 wide round the body to hold the compress in place. Smear bandage and compress 
 
94 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 with pitch to hold it in place. In extreme cases where the sac will not return, cut 
 the skin open in the long direction, replace the parts and sew with catgut. This 
 should be done by a veterinarian. 
 
 Open Joint. (See "Horse Department," Page 170). 
 
 Paralysis of Hind Parts During Pregnancy. 
 
 In unthrifty, weak, or ill-fed cows, the hind limbs and tail may become para- 
 lyzed during the last weeks they are pregnant. Exposure to wet and cold in this 
 condition hastens this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The rectum is often completely clogged. Loss of use of 
 hind quarters. 
 
 Treatment. Give an abundance of warm food and a dry warm bed. Rub 
 the back loins and limbs vigorously with a liniment of equal parts of oil of tur- 
 pentine and sweet oil. If an electric battery is handy send a current of electricity 
 through the muscles in the hind limbs daily. 
 
 Peritonitis. 
 
 This consists in an inflammation of the delicate membrane lining the abdo- 
 men and its organs. It is usually caused by a wound and may follow an operation 
 for hernia or castration. 
 
 Symptoms. Animal is uneasy and shivers; turns its head towards its 
 belly; has no appetite; nose is dry; does not chew the cud; legs are placed well 
 under its body; pulse is weak; pressing the flanks produce pain. 
 
 Treatment. Discover and remove the cause. Give 2 ounces of borax 
 every six hours until three doses are given, then give 6 teaspoonfuls three times 
 daily. Use injections instead of laxatives to loosen the bowels. Sustain the 
 strength by giving camphor or coffee. Place a blanket wrung out of hot water 
 over the stomach, cover this with several dry blankets and strap them to the 
 body. Change the wet blanket as soon as it cools. The object is to bring as much 
 blood to the skin as possible. Give laxative food and such drinks as linseed tea. 
 If the disease assumes a chronic form, give nutritious food such as grass, 
 selected clover hay and linseed cake ; also give one dram of iodide of potas- 
 sium in a pint of water three times daily. 
 
 Pink Eye. 'Grip." (See "Horse Department," Page 171). 
 
 Pleurisy. 
 
 This is an inflammation of the thin membrane lining the chest and enveloping 
 the lungs. It often makes pneumonia more serious. It often arises when a rib 
 is broken, or from exposure to wet or cold. 
 
 Symptoms. Severe pain, increased when animal moves. The pulse is 
 hard and quick; the breathing is from the stomach, the chest being quite fixed. 
 When pressed between the ribs, the animal flinches and grunts; nose is hot and 
 dry ; mouth slimy and the secretions scanty. After a few days the severity of 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 95 
 
 symptoms lessen, patient loses strength, the countenance is haggard and the eyes 
 sink into their sockets. In unfavorable cases death occurs during the second or 
 third week. 
 
 Treatment. To reduce the fever in the early stages, give one to two 
 drams of Fleming's tincture of aconite for a short time ; discontinue as soon as the 
 fever begins to abate. For relief of the cough, place a small tablespoonful of the 
 following mixture frequently on the tongue or back teeth; 8 ounces pulverized 
 Chlorate of potassium, 2 ounces fluid extract of belladonna, 8 ounces powdered 
 licorice root, sufficient quantity of syrup. In the stage of effusion, give the follow- 
 ing three times daily : one ounce Digitalis tincture, one-half to one teaspoonful io- 
 dide of potassium ; mix. Give Glauber's salts or linseed oil to open the bowels. 
 A plaster made of mustard and lard and fastened on the chest will give relief. 
 
 Pneumonia. 
 
 This disease is an inflammation of the lining substance caused by congestion ; 
 this may be brought about by exposure to wet or cold, or sudden change in tem- 
 perature. A cow with this disease always lies down as she has more lung space 
 for breathing in this position. A horse always stands up for the same reason. 
 
 Symptoms. Animal chills, pulse quickens, nostrils are dilated, nose is 
 hot and dry, the skin is harsh and dry, the tongue is slimy, the urine is diminished 
 and high colored and the bowels constipated. Animal stands with forelegs wide 
 apart. In second stage the cough is quick and painful, the secretions are sus- 
 pended, the animal has a haggard look and the pulse is small. In the third stage 
 if the animal recovers, the cough loosens, the appetite returns, and the symptoms 
 leave. 
 
 Treatment. Good nursing and surroundings are necessary. If the pulse 
 is strong in the early stage, give one to two teaspoonfuls of Fleming's tincture of 
 aconite every 4 or 5 hours. Do not give this after the fever begins to abate. If 
 constipated, give 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls of calomel. In the second stage give the 
 following mixture in a gruel three times daily : 2 ounces Spirits of nitrous ether 
 and one ounce aromatic spirits of ammonia. Two to five teaspoonfuls carbonate 
 of ammonia has been found beneficial. Apply counter irritants such as turpen- 
 tine, mustard plasters or ammonia liniment. 
 
 Ring Worm. 
 
 This affection of the skin is caused by a vegetable parasite and is very con- 
 tagious. 
 
 Symptoms. Circular patches on the skin soon loosens the hair, the skin 
 is slightly inflamed, later scaly, brittle crusts appear. The patches then appear a 
 silvery-gray. 
 
 Treatment. Wash with soap and water to remove all crusts, then apply 
 sulphur ointment, tincture of iodide, acetic acid or nitrate of mercury ointment 
 once a day. Cleanse and whitewash the stable thus destroying the spores scattered 
 by the crusts. 
 
96 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Rupture Ventral Hernia. 
 
 When one of the abdominal organs escape through a rupture in the abdominal 
 muscles, the skin remaining intact, it is called a rupture and is caused by falls, kicks 
 or blows. 
 
 Treatment. When possible push the hernia back into the abdomen. 
 Then place a layer of melted pitch and turpentine on the skin over the hernia, 
 cover with a layer of soft cloth, then a new layer of pitch and turpentine is spread 
 on the cloth. Then cover this with a piece of pasteboard which in turn is covered 
 with the same preparation. Place a bandage about four inches wide so that it will 
 retain the hernia long enough for the wound to heal permanently. 
 
 Scours. 
 
 Overloading the stomach by sucking the cow at long intervals, improper feed- 
 ing of the cow, exposure to cold and damp, indigestion caused by feeding cold 
 milk at long periods, feeding calves, damaged, sour or dirty food. 
 
 Symptoms. Appetite is poor, calf is depressed, extremities are cold, 
 sometimes there is fever, dung gradually grows cream colored and as light as milk. 
 It has an offensive odor, later contains mucus and gas bubbles. There are pains 
 when passing dung, belly contracted and back arched. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the cause and treat promptly. Give nourishing feed 
 in small quantities. Clean and disinfect the stalls and utensils. For the diarrhea, 
 give a cup of strong coffee or two raw eggs. In severe cases, give one ounce of 
 castor oil, one teaspoonful of creolin and twenty grains of subnitrate of bismuth. 
 Repeat the creolin and bismuth with flaxseed tea every four hours. A dose of 15 
 to 30 grains of Tannopin may be given. When a calf which is fed by hand 
 develops diarrhea, put four drops of formalin into each quart of its milk. Feed 
 in the usual quantity. If the diarrhea is not much better in four days, use some 
 of the remedies mentioned above. A paste of flour and water is good. 
 
 Sore Eyes Inflammation of the Eyes. 
 
 Weeds, twigs or trees, stems of straw or hay, pieces of cornstalk, etc., may 
 break off in the eye. While they may enter the eyeball, they more often glide oft" 
 and enter between the eye and the ocular sheath. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the object. To do this it is often necessary to cast 
 the animal. Apply cooling washes and a cold water compress over the injured 
 eye. Five drops of sulphate of zinc to 2 tablespoonfuls of water make a good 
 wash. Boric acid is also very good. Maintain an opening for the discharge of 
 pus when an abscess forms. 
 
 Sore Mouth Stomatitis. 
 
 By eating some irritating substance the membrane of the mouth may become 
 inflamed. Blisters may form in the mouth of calves because of indigestion 
 
 Symptoms. Saliva runs from mouth, surface of tongue appears red and 
 inflamed and sometimes small red elevations appear. 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 97 
 
 Treatment. When merely red and inflamed, syringe the mouth out with 
 four ounces of the following solution : one ounce alum and one quart of water. 
 Do this several times daily. When the tongue and mouth are covered with ulcers, 
 paint them daily with a solution consisting of twenty grains permanganate of 
 potassium and one ounce of water. When indigestion is associated with this 
 disease, treat it separately. 
 
 Sore Throat. (See "Horse Department," Page 175). 
 
 Sprains. (See "Horse Department," Page 176). 
 
 Stifle. (See "Horse Department," Page 177). 
 
 Stomach Worms in Calves. (See "Sheep Department," Page 211). 
 
 Stringy Milk. 
 
 Often caused by the cow drinking water in which there is a spongy morbid 
 growth. 
 
 Treatment. Eliminate the cause. Give the animal plenty of pure water. 
 Give each affected cow 2 drams bisulphite of soda daily and the trouble will 
 promptly stop. 
 
 Sunstroke. 
 
 Exposure to rays of sun, confinement in hot close places, driven some dis- 
 tance in hot weather, often cause sunstroke. 
 
 Symptoms. Frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out, panting, dull- 
 ness, animal is uneasy and may stagger, fall and soon become quiet. 
 
 Treatment. In light cases remove to a sheltered, quiet place and give a 
 light diet for several days. When animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to 
 the head, rub the limbs and body with straw or cloths for some time. If the ani- 
 mal can swallow give three teaspoonfuls of strong ammonia in a quart of cold 
 water, \ l / 2 ounces aqua ammonia will be found just as good. If the animal can- 
 not swallow, inject the ammonia and water into the rectum. Help the animal to 
 the nearest shelter as soon as it can rise and give it all the cold water it will 
 drink. Repeat the ammonia and water twice at half hour intervals, then each 
 three hours until strength returns. Give bran slops and a little grass for several 
 days. Where the animal has been unconscious but strength has returned, 12 
 ounces of Epsom salts in a quart of warm water may be given. 
 
 Texas Fever. 
 
 This is a blood disease caused by indirect infection. Cattle from an infected 
 district first infect pastures, cars, pens, etc., where other cattle obtain the infection 
 secondhand. The ticks which adhere to the infected cattle are the only known 
 means of carrying the infection to other cattle. The tick is essentially a parasite. 
 It obtains its food when attached to the skin of cattle and can mature no place 
 else. The female drops to the ground and lays a large number of eggs which 
 hatch in from three to six weeks according to the temperature. When hatched 
 the tick soon finds its way on to cattle and growth begins. Cattle may have Texas 
 fever in one week after the young ticks get on them. 
 
98 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. There is dullness, loss of appetite, the animal stands alone, 
 
 "high fever appears, later the urine has a deep red color, rapid loss of strength 
 
 and death. The dung becomes soft and deeply tinged with bile. As the end 
 
 approaches the animal gets very thin, may lie down much of the time and appear 
 
 stupid. 
 
 Treatment. No satisfaction of a permanent nature is secured from the 
 use of medicines. Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be 
 treated with an agent that will kill all the ticks present, or they may be rotated on 
 tick-free fields until all the ticks have dropped. All the ticks will drop from cattle 
 placed on tick-free soil in from six to ten weeks according to temperature. The 
 time required to free pastures from ticks by starvation is from eight to ten months 
 according to climate and temperature. To do this all animals must be kept from 
 the field for this period. 
 
 Grease the limbs and sides of the cattle with crude petroleum or cotton 
 seed oil. This helps to prevent the ticks crawling onto the body. Smear a 
 mixture consisting of one pound sulphur, one gallon of kerosene, and one gal- 
 lon cotton seed oil. Do this three times each week during the tick season. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 This germ, called tubercle bacillus, gains entrance to the body, lodges in the 
 tissues and begins to grow and multiply at that point. As they spread through 
 the body they cause the formation of many small knob-like masses. These masses 
 unite and often form tubercular material of great size. 
 
 Symptoms. A short dull cough is noticed when the lungs are involved. 
 As the disease progresses the animal grows thin, the skin grows harsh, eyes 
 sink in their sockets, quality of milk lessens and there is tenderness of chest 
 when pressure is applied. 
 
 Treatment. Treatment is not seriously considered. However, many 
 cases can be prevented. Great care should be given to the feed, surroundings and 
 breeding of the animal, so it may resist infection when exposed to it. Apply the 
 tuberculin test to all strange cattle before permitting their entrance into the herd. 
 Do not allow healthy cattle to stay near an infected one. After slaughtering the 
 affected animal, scrub and disinfect the stables and walls. Remove all manure 
 and disinfect. A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals will prevent the appear- 
 ance of the disease. 
 
 Tuberculin Test. Stable and feed cattle as usual. Examine each one and 
 give a number by which it will be known during the test. Take the temperature 
 three or four times at two hour intervals on day of injection. At 8 or 10 p. m. 
 inject a dose of tuberculin under the skin in the region of the shoulder. First 
 disinfect the skin at point of injection with a 5 percent solution of carbolic acid 
 or any good antiseptic solution. It is not necessary to dilute the tuberculin made 
 by the Bureau of Animal Husbandry ; the dose is 2 cubic centimeters for a grown 
 cow. Yearlings and 2-year-olds may receive from one to one and a half cubic cen- 
 timeters. Extra large animals and bulls may receive 3 cubic centimeters. 
 Begin taking temperatures the next day at 6 a. m., and continue two or 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE TREATMENT 
 
 99 
 
 A TI HI:K< i i.osrs DAIRY row 
 
 Such mule up*) tuhcrclr bacilli lmot without txrtption with 
 thrir (rrr und ith mute tin! that t drolled, ilobbcrn! nd uprmrrf 
 
 Tubcrculoi-is of I'l.nr.i <>< a (o. Sn-rnllrd " 
 
100 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 three hours until the twentieth hour after injection, or until 4 or 6 in the after- 
 noon. If the temperature shows no tendency to rise, the test may cease If there 
 is a rise of two or more degrees Fahrenheit above the highest temperature of 
 the preceding day, providing the temperature exceeds 103-8 degrees F., it should 
 be taken as an indication of tuberculosis. 
 
 Vaginal Rupture or Hernia. 
 
 This often happens during pregnancy from chronic relaxation of the vaginal 
 walls, or lying in stalls that are higher in front than behind. 
 
 Symptoms. The protrusion is smooth and of a rounded form. If it covers 
 both sides of the canal it is double, with a passage between. 
 
 Treatment. Sometimes remedied by raising the hind part of the stall 
 higher than the front part. A home-made truss may be applied and worn until 
 the period of calving approaches. 
 
 Warts. 
 
 A hard, dense clublike growth on the skin. 
 
 Treatment. They may be removed with the scissors, or ligatured by 
 means of a horse hair or rubber band. Burn the roots with tincture of iron, lunar 
 caustic or glacial acetic acid. Never use acid near the mouth or eyes. Give young 
 cattle Fowler's solution of arsenic, one tablespoonf ul twice each day for a calf six 
 months old. 
 
 Yellows Jaundice. 
 
 It may arise from the presence of gallstones or parasites in the biliary ducts. 
 These close up the ducts and the bile, which then passes into the intestines, 
 may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. This happens 
 when there is an inactive condition of bowels as in constipation. A swollen 
 condition of the mucous membrane of the small intestine may also cause the 
 disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The appetite is poor; the animal drinks very little; the white 
 of eyes and lining of mouth are yellow, the urine is yellow or brown ; animal lies 
 down and moans when it moves ; it staggers when it walks. Pressure on the 
 short ribs on the right side produces pain. 
 
 Treatment. Move the bowels by giving one pound of sulphate of soda, 
 one pint of molasses and one quart of warm water. Follow this with a heaping 
 tablespoonf ul of artificial Carlsbad salt in the feed three times daily. Give injec- 
 tions of warm soapy water. Give laxative diet like coarse bran mash, pulped 
 roots and grass or hay in moderate quantities. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION. 
 
 Types and Market Classes. Horses of various types are indispensable 
 in spite of the large number of automobiles and auto trucks. The farm and 
 other lines of industry will always require a given amount of horse labor. 
 Horses suitable for serving different purposes must continue to be produced 
 and the farm is one of the most satisfactory places to produce them. 
 
 The height, weight, form, action and disposition of the horse signifies its 
 type. Its usefulness and market value will depend upon which of the several 
 types it represents and upon its age, soundness, condition and ability to work. 
 The market value will further depend upon the supply and demand. The more 
 common types of horses furnish the greater supply and sell at the lowest prices. 
 Misfits, or horses that do not conform to definite market types, are difficult to 
 sell. There is a demand and an established market for types of horses suitable 
 for doing definite kinds of work. Such horses are bought and sold on general 
 markets under classes and subclasses that are named and briefly described in 
 the following tabulation : 
 
 MARKET CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES OF HORSES.* 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Sub-Classes. 
 
 Height, 
 Hands. 
 
 Weight, 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 [Light Draft 
 
 15-3 - 16-2 
 
 1600 to 1750 
 
 Draft Horses 
 
 ] Heavy Draft 
 
 16-0 - 17-2 
 
 1750 to 2200 
 
 
 1 Loggers . . 
 
 16-1 - 17-2 
 
 1700 to 2200 
 
 Chunks . ... 
 
 [Eastern and Export Chunks . 
 \ Farm Chunks 
 
 15-0 - 16-0 
 15-0 - 15-3 
 
 1300 to 1550 
 1200 to 1400 
 
 
 [Southern Chunks 
 
 15-0 - 15-3 
 
 800 to 1250 
 
 
 f Expressers 
 
 15-3 - 16-2 
 
 1350 to 1500 
 
 Wagon Horses 
 
 J Delivery Wagon 
 
 15-0 - 16-0 
 
 1100 to 1400 
 
 
 1 Artillery Horses 
 
 15-1 - 16-0 
 
 1050 to 1200 
 
 
 [Fire Horses 
 
 15-0 - 17-2 
 
 1200 to 1700 
 
 
 fCoach 
 
 15-1 - 16-1 
 
 1100 to 1250 
 
 Carriage Horses . . . 
 
 1 Cobs 
 
 14-1 - 15-1 
 
 900 to 1150 
 
 
 ] Park Horses 
 
 15-0 - 15-3 
 
 1000 to 1150 
 
 
 [Cab. . 
 
 15-2 - 16-1 
 
 1050 to 1200 
 
 Road Horses 
 
 /Runabout 
 
 14-3 - 15-2 
 
 900 to 1050 
 
 
 \Roadster 
 
 15-0- 16-0 
 
 900 to 1150 
 
 
 [Five-gaited Saddler 
 
 15-0- 16-0 
 
 900 to 1200 
 
 Saddle Horses 
 
 \ Three-gaited Saddler/ Light . \ 
 [ ' \Heavy/ 
 Light } 
 f Hunters \ Middle \ 
 
 14-3-16-0 
 15-2 - 16-1 
 
 900 to 1200 
 1000 to 1250 
 
 
 [Heavy J 
 ) Cavalry Horses 
 
 15-0 - 15-3 
 
 950 to 1100 
 
 
 [Polo Ponies 
 
 14-0 - 14-2 
 
 850 to 1000 
 
 * University of Illinois Bulletin No. 122. 
 
 101 
 
THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 It only pays to breed horses of a definite type and character. Prices paid 
 on the Chicago market for the different classes of horses for the year 1916. 
 show the trend of market values. Horses five to eight years of age, sound, 
 in good condition for hard work and of colors easily matched, sell for the 
 best prices. 
 
 MONTHLY AVERAGE PRICE OF HORSES FOR YEAR 1916. 
 
 Month 
 
 Draft 
 Horses 
 
 Carriage 
 Horses* 
 
 Drivers 
 
 General 
 Use 
 
 Bussers 
 and 
 Trammers 
 
 Saddlers 
 
 Chunks 
 
 January 
 
 $210 
 
 $435 
 
 $160 
 
 $145 
 
 $165 
 
 $185 
 
 $ 95 
 
 February 
 
 220 
 
 475 
 
 165 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 195 
 
 100 
 
 March 
 
 225 
 
 490 
 
 170 
 
 155 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 110 
 
 April 
 
 225 
 
 490 
 
 170 
 
 155 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 110 
 
 May 
 
 220 
 
 490 
 
 165 
 
 155 
 
 175 
 
 195 
 
 100 
 
 June 
 
 215 
 
 490 
 
 165 
 
 150 
 
 170 
 
 195 
 
 100 
 
 July 
 
 210 
 
 485 
 
 165 
 
 145 
 
 170 
 
 190 
 
 95 
 
 August 
 
 205 
 
 475 
 
 160 
 
 140 
 
 165 
 
 185 
 
 90 
 
 September 
 
 200 
 
 460 
 
 155 
 
 140 
 
 165 
 
 180 
 
 85 
 
 October 
 
 200 
 
 450 
 
 150 
 
 140 
 
 165 
 
 175 
 
 90 
 
 November 
 
 205 
 
 450 
 
 150 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 175 
 
 90 
 
 December 
 
 200 
 
 450 
 
 150 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 170 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average, 1916. . . . 
 
 210 
 
 470 
 
 160 
 
 146 
 
 169 
 
 187 
 
 96 
 
 * Prices are for pairs. 
 
 Breeds of Horses. 
 
 The best types of horses show a predominance of breed character. Breed 
 and feed are the principal factors that determine type. The table on pages 103 
 and 104 names and furnishes a brief description of the more important breeds 
 of horses bred and maintained in America at the present time. 
 
 Draft vs. Light Breeds on the Farm. Market values and the fact that 
 heavy weight and ability to work are the principal features demanded in the 
 breeds of draft horses, make it appear that, under ordinary conditions, horses 
 of the draft type are best for the farmer to produce. Much of the value of the 
 lighter classes of horses is developed by training, which the farmer is not 
 always in the best position to give. Light horses that have to do heavy work 
 do not have the opportunity to develop gaits, manners and a spirit that makes 
 them attractive and are also rendered unsalable by accidents resulting in 
 blemishes. Furthermore, the automobiles and auto truck have taken the 
 places of the lighter classes of horses to a much larger extent than they have 
 for horses of the draft breeds. 
 
 Breeding the Draft Horse. A weight of 1600 Ibs. or over, feet, limbs and 
 body of sound character, a compact form with strength and quality, and a 
 disposition that is kind and intelligent, are the more essential features of a 
 good draft horse. "Like produces like" and, therefore, the production of 
 desirable draft horses is secured by the selection of mares of grade or draft 
 breeding free from hereditary unsoundnesses, mating them to pure bred draft 
 stallions of the most approved types, and rearing the foals in a manner to 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 103 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 Type 
 
 Breed 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Height 
 Hands 
 
 Color and 
 Characteristics 
 
 
 Belgian. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1500-2000 
 1200-1800 
 
 15.3-17 
 
 Bay, roan, chestnut, brown, 
 black, gray. Body com- 
 pact, deep, heavily mus- 
 cled. Legs short and 
 clean. 
 
 T) r oft 
 
 Clydesdale. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1800-2100 
 1500-1800 
 
 16 -17 
 
 Bay, black, chestnut, roan, 
 brown with white on face 
 and legs. Feather on 
 legs. Intelligent; good 
 action. 
 
 Percheron. 
 
 France. 
 
 1700-2200 
 1500-1800 
 
 15.3-17 
 
 Gray, black, bay, brown, 
 roan, chestnut. Legs 
 clean. Intelligent; good 
 action. Most popular 
 draft horse in America. 
 
 
 Shire. 
 
 England. 
 
 1800-2400 
 1600-1800 
 
 16-17.3 
 
 Bay, brown, chestnut, roan, 
 black with white on face 
 and legs. Feather on 
 legs. Feet and bone 
 large. Heaviest of draft 
 breeds. 
 
 Suffolk. 
 
 England. 
 
 1600-2000 
 
 16-16.2 
 
 Chestnut. Legs clean. Body 
 broad and deep. Small- 
 est of draft breeds. 
 
 Coach, Carriage, 
 or 
 Heavy Harness 
 
 Hackney. 
 
 England. 
 
 750-1300 
 
 13.2-16 
 
 Any color. Extremely high 
 action. Good feet. Type 
 ranges from pony to 
 heavy coach. 
 
 French 
 Coach. 
 
 France. 
 
 1300-1475 
 1100-1300 
 
 15.2-16 
 
 Bay, black, chestnut. Clean 
 limbs. High action. Body 
 long. 
 
 German 
 Coach. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1350-1475 
 
 16-16.2 
 
 Black, bay, brown. Legs, 
 clean. Feet excellent. 
 Body comparatively deep. 
 
 
 Cleveland 
 Bay. 
 
 England. 
 
 1250-1550 
 
 16-16.3 
 
 Bay with black legs, mane 
 and tail. Legs clean. 
 Head quite large. Larg- 
 est of coach breeds. 
 
 Roadster or Light 
 Harness 
 
 Standard 
 Bred. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 1000-1200 
 
 15-16 
 
 Bay, brown, black, chest- 
 nut, gray. Feet good. Body 
 comparatively deep.Trot- 
 ters or pacers. Remark- 
 able speed and endur- 
 ance. Highly intelligent. 
 
 Orloff. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 1000-1300 
 
 15.3-16 
 
 Gray, white, black, chest- 
 nut, bay. Substantial in 
 size and type. 
 
 
 Morgan. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 
 950-1100 
 
 14-15 
 
 A branch of the American 
 Standard-bred. A sturdy 
 roadster type. 
 
104 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF HORSES Continued. 
 
 Type 
 
 Breed 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Height 
 Hands 
 
 Color and 
 Characteristics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bay, brown, chestnut. 
 
 
 Thorough- 
 bred. 
 
 England. 
 
 900-1050 
 
 14.2-16 
 
 Head, small; neck, long. 
 Muscular and speedy. 
 
 Saddle 
 
 
 
 
 
 Excels in running races. 
 
 
 American 
 Saddle 
 Horses 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 
 950-1150 
 
 15-16 
 
 Bay, black, chestnut, gray. 
 Highly intelligent. Ex- 
 treme action and style 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with numerous gaits. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Color variable piebald or 
 
 
 Shetland. 
 
 Shetland 
 Islands. 
 
 200-350 
 
 9-10.2 
 
 spotted quite common. 
 A miniature draft horse 
 in type. Ears, short; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hair, abundant. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Color, variable. A small 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 coach horse in type. 
 
 Pony. . . 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Wales. 
 
 600-1000 
 
 12-15 
 
 Prominent in style ac- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion, and endurance. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Variable in color and size. 
 
 
 Mustang 
 Broncho. 
 
 America. 
 
 600-1000 
 
 Under 
 14.2 
 
 Remarkable in endurance 
 Often high class and 
 attractive. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Small, with general char- 
 
 
 Hackney. 
 
 England. 
 
 750-800 
 
 Under. 
 14.1 
 
 acteristics of the Hack- 
 ney horse. 
 
 secure a maximum normal growth. Diseases like heaves, roaring, moon- 
 blindness and weakened, malformed limbs predisposed to curbs, spavins, ring- 
 bone and other diseases of the feet and limbs and which are hereditary, should 
 be avoided both in the mare and in the stallion. 
 
 Breeding Light Horses. Particular emphasis must be placed upon purity 
 of breeding and breeding in line where one undertakes to produce light horses. 
 This system of breeding is highly essential to the successful production of 
 this type of horses. Families or strains that have excelled in the type, quality, 
 disposition and spirit desirable must be depended upon. A carriage horse is 
 heavier than the roadster, but weight is less important than style and action 
 in both types. Cold blooded, indifferent light horses are misfits incapable of 
 high development and may be regarded unprofitable. 
 
 Judging Horses. It is important to be able to judge a horse and know 
 his value. One's ability to exercise good judgment in the selectior) of horses 
 is developed largely by learning to know all the parts of the horse and their 
 relationship to one another in forming a well-balanced body. With this there 
 must be the proper disposition, energy and training that combines to enable 
 the horse to do its work efficiently. Practice makes perfect when one has 
 learned the parts and disposition of horses and acquired the ability to observe 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 105 
 
 carefully and quickly and arrive at a judgment. The parts of the horse named 
 in the accompanying score card for light and draft horses, together with the 
 discussion of diseases and blemishes, should enable one to acquire the art of 
 
 1. Muzzle. 
 
 2. Lips. 
 
 3. Nostril. 
 
 4. Face. 
 
 5. Eye. 
 
 6. Forehead. 
 
 7. Foretop. 
 
 8. Ears. 
 
 9. Poll. 
 
 10. JaW. 
 
 11. Throatlatch. 
 
 12. Neck. 
 
 13. Crest. 
 
 14. Withers. 
 
 15. Shoulder. 
 
 16. Breast. 
 
 17. Point of shoulder. 
 
 Parts of the Horse. 
 
 18. Arm. 
 
 19. Elbow. 
 
 20. Fore flank. 
 
 21. Forearm. 
 
 22. Knee. 
 
 23. Cannon. 
 
 24. Fetlock joint. 
 
 25. Pastern. 
 
 26. Coronet. 
 
 27. Hoof. 
 
 28. Seat of sidebone. 
 
 29. Seat of splint. 
 
 30. Chestnut. 
 
 31. Abdomen. 
 
 32. Ribs. 
 
 33. Back. 
 
 34. Loin. 
 
 35. Point of hip. 
 
 36. Coupling. 
 
 37. Hind flank. 
 
 38. Sheath. 
 
 39. Stifle joint. 
 
 40. Seat of thoroughpin. 
 
 41. Seat of bog spavin. 
 
 42. Seat of bone spavin. 
 
 43. Seat of ringbone. 
 
 44. Seat of curb. 
 
 45. Hock. 
 
 46. Gaskln. 
 47 Thigh. 
 
 48. Quarter. 
 
 49. Croup.. 
 
 50. Point of buttoclr. 
 
 51. Tail. 
 
 judging horses and be competent to make selections without chances for loss 
 or disappointment. 
 
 The Brood Mare. It is a serious mistake to use mares retired from work 
 because of unsoundness or old age for breeding purposes. The best plan for 
 
106 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 30 POINTS 
 Height, 16 hands or over 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight, 1,500 Ibs. or over 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 
 10 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Form, broad, massive, evenly proportioned, 
 svmmetrical, blocky 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quality, refined; bone clean, large, strong; ten- 
 dons, clean, defined, prominent ; skin and hair 
 fine; "feather," if present, silky 
 
 
 
 
 
 Action, walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight; 
 trot, free, springy, balanced, straight 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temperament, energetic; disposition, good 
 
 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 10 POINTS 
 
 Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well car- 
 ried; profile straight 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forehead, broad full 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eyes, bright, clear, full, same color 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 
 
 
 
 
 
 Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, 
 even, firm 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neck, muscled, arched; throat-latch, fine, wind- 
 pipe large . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 20 POINTS 
 
 Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, 
 extending well back 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well 
 set 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled. . . . 
 Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, de- 
 fined, prominent 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fetlock, wide, straight, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean .... 
 Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 
 soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, 
 elastic; heels wide, one-half length of toe .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES Continued. 
 
 107 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 Points deficient v 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 BODY 10 POINTS 
 Chest, deep, wide; breast bone, low; girth, large 
 Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip. . . 
 Back, broad, strong, muscular 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loins, short, wide, thick muscled 
 
 
 
 
 
 Underline, low, flanks full 
 
 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 30 POINTS 
 
 Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled 
 
 
 
 
 
 Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly 
 drooping 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quarters, plump with muscle, deep 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gaskins, (lower thighs,) long, wide, clean, 
 heavily muscled 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set . 
 Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, de- 
 fined, prominent '. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean .... 
 Feet, large, even size, sound; horn, dense, 
 waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs 
 large, elastic; heels, wide, one-half length of 
 toe, vertical to ground 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis.) 
 
 the farmer is to have one or more mares of the best individuality and keep 
 them raising foals, year after year, as long as they are successful in doing so. 
 
 The Pregnant Mare. Exercise is necessary and one of the things often 
 neglected especially during the winter season in caring for the brood mare that 
 is in foal. It is best to work the mare under conditions that insure against 
 overwork and strains that result from too heavy loads. The mare foals 48 
 weeks or about 340 days after the time of service. During this time she should 
 occupy a comfortable stall and when she begins to show signs of being in 
 
108 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 30 POINTS 
 Weight, estimated in Ibs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Height, estimated in hands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Height, 15 hands or over 
 
 2 
 5 
 5 
 15 
 3 
 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Form, type symmetrical, smooth, stylish 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quality, refined; bone clean, fine, tendons clean, 
 defined, prominent ; hair and skin fine 
 
 
 
 
 
 Action, walk, long, fast, elastic, regular, straight; 
 trot, rapid, regular, straight, balanced 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temperament, active, disposition good 
 
 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 10 POINTS 
 
 Head, proportionate, well carried, features well 
 defined profile straight 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eyes, full bright, clear, large, same color 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, alert . . 
 Muzzle, neat, nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, 
 firm, even 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neck, muscled, arched; throat-latch fine; wind- 
 pipe large 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 20 POINTS 
 
 Shoulder, long, sloping, smooth, extending well 
 back 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well 
 get 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forearm, long wide clean muscled 
 
 
 
 
 
 Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, 
 strongly supported 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cannons, short, clean, wide; tendons large, 
 hard clean prominent 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fetlocks wide straight strong, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pasterns lengthy sloping strong clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feet, medium size, even, sound; horn dense, 
 waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs 
 large, elastic, heels, wide, one-half length of 
 
 toe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 109 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES Continued. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 Points Deficient 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 BODY 10 POINTS 
 Withers, high, extending well back 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chest, deep, low ; girth large 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ribs, deep, well sprung 
 
 
 
 
 
 Back, broad, strong, muscular 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loins, short, wide, thick muscled, close coupled . 
 Underline, low, flanks full, well let down 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 30 POINTS 
 Hips, smooth, wide level 
 
 
 
 
 
 Croup, long, wide muscular, not drooping 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tail, attached high, well carried 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thighs, deep broad, strong, muscular 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quarters, deep, plump with muscle 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stifles, strong, muscular, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gaskins, (lower thighs) long, wide, muscular . . . 
 
 Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set . 
 Cannons, short, clean, wide; tendons large, 
 hard, clean, prominent -. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pasterns, strong sloping, springy, clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feet, medium size, even, sound; horn, dense, 
 waxy; soles concave; bars strong; full; frogs, 
 large elastic* heels wide 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis.) 
 
 foal, a box stall well ventilated and as comfortable as it can be made should 
 be provided. A mare never should be allowed to 'foal in a narrow stall or too 
 small a box stall. The stall should be kept clean, dry and well bedded. In 
 the warmer seasons of the year it is better for mares to foal in a secreted place 
 in the pasture field rather than in an unsuitable stall. 
 
110 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 DELWART'S TRUSS 
 
 This supports vagina and prevents escape of womb when after 
 pains following parturition cause heavy straining. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 111 
 
 Stall Suitable for Mare Foaling. Stalls 12 x 12 feet and preferably 14 x 
 14 feet should be provided for brood mares. An absolutely clean foaling 
 place is necessary, to safeguard the foal against infection resulting in navel 
 and joint disease. To prepare the stall for foaling and to insure against in- 
 fection it is recommended that the floor be scraped and cleansed and sprinkled 
 with a 1 to 50 solution of coal tar disinfectant or a solution of four ounces of 
 
 Hind Feet First 
 NORMAL PRESENTATIONS 
 
 Furnished by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 sulphate of copper (blue stone), to one gallon of hot water, or a 1 to 1,000 
 solution of corrosive sublimate. Follow the cleansing with a coat of lime 
 whitewash to each gallon of which has been added 1-3 of a pound of chloride 
 of lime. Bed the stall with fresh, dry straw that is free from chaff and dust 
 and keep it as clean as possible until the mare has foaled. 
 
 The Mare at Foaling Time. As foaling time approaches the mare should 
 be given lighter work and the ration decreased. Laxative foods to keep the bowels 
 
112 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 acting freely should be supplied. Bran and a little flaxseed meal, carrots or roots 
 produce a laxative condition and relieve constipation which must be avoided. 
 About three days before foaling wax will form on the teats. At this time the 
 mare should occupy the box stall prepared for foaling, and be watched until the 
 foal is born. 
 
 Watch the mare from a distance where she will not be disturbed or excited 
 by one's presence when she has gone approximately her full gestation period and 
 there are indications that she is about to foal. Ordinarily no assistance in foaling 
 is necessary and the mare should be left alone. It pays, however, to be where as- 
 sistance can be given if necessary. 
 
 If conditions are normal it is best to leave the mare alone for a time after 
 she has foaled. If the afterbirth does not come away within an hour, or two, it 
 should be removed. One experienced in doing this should perform the work. In 
 all instances the afterbirth should be removed from the stall as soon as it comes 
 away from the mare. The stall should also be cleaned and fresh bedding supplied. 
 
 Delivering Hind Feet of Colt First. To meet this situation first tie a 
 strap tightly around the breast of the mare to stop her straining. Then you 
 can get your arm into the vagina, turn the colt around and save the life of both 
 the mare and the colt. Recommended by Will Perry, De Witt; Iowa, Route 1. 
 
 Labor Pains Coming on Before Mouth of Womb is Relaxed. When this 
 happens pass the hand into the vagina and dilate the opening of the womb. Use 
 the thumb and finger at first but later the hand. Be sure the nails are short and 
 the hand is well oiled with carbolic acid and sweet oil or vaseline (1 part to 10 of 
 oil or vaseline) before the hand is passed. 
 
 When to Assist Most. Assist the mother when she is making an effort 
 herself. Remember a delivery cannot be accomplished unless you are pulling on 
 both forefeet or both hind ones. 
 
 Calf or Colt Dropsical. If the calf or colt is found dropsical push it back, 
 take your knife and tap its belly and then help finish the delivery. 
 
 Water on Head of Foetus. If water is found on the head of the foetus 
 it should be tapped with a small knife or small trocar. 
 
 Feet or Head of Calf or Foal Turned Back. When this occurs push the 
 foetus back into position, arrange the parts as they should be and produce a nat- 
 ural delivery. The back quarters of the mother should be raised almost a foot 
 before this operation is begun. It makes delivery easier many times in such cases 
 if pieces of soft rope are tied around the feet and head of the foetus before it is 
 pushed back. One should remember which ropes are on the feet and which one 
 is on the head. 
 
 Cleanliness. In assisting a cow or mare one should always have his hands 
 perfectly clean and should use disinfectants to kill all germs. 
 
 Care in Assisting at Birth. One should always be careful in helping the 
 mare or cow as the parts are easily injured. Be sure the fingernails are short 
 and smooth. 
 
 Offer the mare a pailful of lukewarm water a half hour after the birth of 
 the foal and again at intervals of two hours, Blanket her if the stable is at all 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 113 
 
114 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 cold and there is danger of her becoming chilled. If she is accustomed to a mash 
 of steamed feed such a feed of oats and bran may be fed an hour after foaling, 
 otherwise give her a small feed of her ordinary grain ration. Under favorable 
 conditions the mare in foal may be exercised after a few days and in 12 to 15 
 days she should be recovered from foaling and able to resume light work. 
 
 Feed for the Brood Mare. Properly feeding the brood mare insures 
 success in developing a strong, well developed foal. During pregnancy she should 
 be fed sound, whole oats, pure wheat bran and mixed clover or timothy hay. A 
 few ears of corn with the oats and bran will keep her in good condition and give 
 strength to the foal. If the mare is idle, feed hay night and morning, and bright, 
 dry fodder or other good roughage at noon scattered in the field or paddock, when 
 weather permits her to be out. One feed of hay at night, one feed of corn stalks 
 and access to a rack of bright straw and a few ears of corn daily has been recom- 
 mended as a suitable ration for idle mares. Avoid moldy hay or silage, damaged 
 grain, fodder or rusted straw. Give plenty of pure, fresh water. Allow free 
 access to salt if mare has been accustomed to it, otherwise feed salt in limited 
 quantities until she has become satisfied and may have free access to it without 
 overeating. Do not allow the mare to become too fat, but keep her in fair flesh, 
 and do not let her condition indicate too scanty a ration. 
 
 Oats and bran in equal bulk and %. in bulk of corn, makes a good ration for 
 a mare in milk. It is a good plan to moisten this before feeding if it is practic- 
 able. Clover or alfalfa hay and grass pasture in season, if mare can be turned out, 
 provide most suitable roughages for keeping up a good milk flow. The condition 
 of the mare, her milk flow and the condition of the colt, should govern the feeding, 
 and judgment must be exercised to the fullest extent possible. 
 
 Care of Foal at Birth. The first and most important attention to give to 
 the foal is to see that the navel cord has been properly severed and disinfected. 
 Navel and joint disease, from which many colts die, gains entrance to the system 
 through the navel cord. Every precaution should be taken to prevent infection 
 from filth or germs of any kind. It is best for the cord to break off naturally in 
 which case it is unnecessary to tie it. If the cord has to be cut, disinfect a string in 
 five percent solution of lysol or carbolic acid, or a 1-500 solution of corrosive sub- 
 limate ( bichloride of mercury), tie it one inch from the body and cut it below 
 the knot. Castrating instruments, the emasculator or ecraseur, if at hand, may 
 be used to pinch the cord off and thus make it unnecessary to tie the cord. 
 
 Whether the cord is tied or not it should be saturated with a disinfectant 
 twice a day until it shrivels up and no raw spot remains. Do not saturate the 
 body of the foal. Fresh lard or vaseline smeared on the foal's belly will prevent 
 the disinfectant blistering it. 
 
 Solution for Saturating Foal's Navel. The following disinfectant has 
 been recommended by Dr. A. S. Alexander, of the Wisconsin College of Agricul- 
 ture, and used effectively : 
 
 Powdered corrosive sublimate, 2 drams; boiling water 1 pint. When cool, 
 color the solution with 2 drams of tincture of iron. The solution is poison and 
 should be so marked and kept away from the reach of children. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 115 
 
 If it is not possible to use this solution and to give attention to foals fre- 
 quently, it is recommended that the stump of the navel be saturated with full 
 strength tincture of iodine and covered with a dry dressing powder composed of 
 
 ORGANS OF A MARE 
 
 1. Uterus. 
 
 2. Horn of Uterus. 
 
 3. Anus. 
 
 4. Bladder. 
 5. 7. Vulva. 
 6. Rectum. 
 
 8 Vagina. 
 
 9. Kidney. 
 
 10. Oviduct to Uterus. 
 
 11. Abdominal Muscle. 
 
 12. Ovary. 
 
 Foal With Water on the Brain. 
 
 one part each of calomel, powdered alum and either tannic acid or starch and five 
 parts of boric acid. Keep the navel as well coated with the powder as possible. 
 A supply of good disinfectant kept on hand and used properly at foaling time, 
 will insure against losses that are more or less certain to occur without them. 
 
116 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Caring for Weak Foals. A strong foal will be on its feet and nursing in 
 a very short time and requires no assistance. Weak foals should be assisted to 
 suck until they gain enough strength to do so alone. 
 
 The bowels of a weak foal and even of a strong one, may need attention. 
 If there is not a prompt bowel movement, give an injection of either warm water, 
 sweet oil or equal parts of cream and molasses and warm water. A small rubber 
 hose, or a fountain syringe with a small rubber nozzle is best to use in giving an 
 injection. A dose of two or four tablespoonfuls of castor oil, in milk should be 
 given if bowels do not move in 24 hours. 
 
 Scouring is an indication of bowel trouble, resulting in young foals from in- 
 digestion and constipation and there is no better remedy than castor oil and vary- 
 ing the ration to overcome or counteract the cause. 
 
 Feeding and Weaning the Foal. Draft foals should make one-half their 
 mature weight the first year of their life. To accomplish this they must be fed 
 liberally. Foals should be accustomed to grain before five months of age, when 
 they are usually weaned. After weaning the following ration will prove success- 
 ful until they are turned out the second summer at 13 to 15 months of age : 
 
 Crushed oats 65 Ibs. 
 
 Corn meal 15 " 
 
 Bran *. 10 " 
 
 Finely cut alfalfa or clover 15 " 
 
 Feed all of this mixture they will eat three times per day. No other hay 
 is necessary until they are one year old. A foal will eat 9 to 15 Ibs. (20 to 30 
 qts.) daily, according to the age. To dampen and thoroughly mix the feed is an 
 advantage. Where one is not in a position to feed such a mixture, a ration of 20 
 parts bran and cut alfalfa or cut clover with 80 percent crushed oats will prove 
 satisfactory. Combinations of coarse roughage and corn should be avoided. 
 Silage is not a good feed for foals. Allow free access to salt and provide plenty 
 of fresh water. Exercise is very essential to the best growth. Well bred foals 
 are most easily fed and properly developed to produce types that are most satis- 
 factory for work and market purposes. 
 
 Raising the Orphan Foal. Occasionally there is necessity for raising a 
 foal by hand. This may be done successfully by exercising patience and giving 
 careful attention to every detail. 
 
 Milk low in butter fat from a cow recently fresh, sweetened with molasses 
 or sugar, diluted with warm water and lime water, constitutes the feed that most 
 closely resembles the mare's milk. A tablespoonful of sugar with warm water 
 enough to dissolve it, 3 to 5 tablespoonfuls of lime water and milk enough to 
 make a pint, would be a proper mixture for this amount. The lime water tends 
 to correct digestive troubles and is very necessary. At first the foal should be 
 fed half a teacupful every hour. Lengthen the feeding periods and increase the 
 amount gradually as the colt gains strength. In a few days feeding six times a 
 day will answer and later four times. When the foal is 5 to 6 weeks old, some 
 skim milk may gradually be added to the feed and feeding periods be reduced to 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 117 
 
 three daily. Oatmeal at first and then wheat bran should be offered when the 
 colt will nibble it from the hand of the attendant. 
 
 In case of scouring reduce the amount of milk and give castor oil treatment. 
 Be careful not to overfeed and lay emphasis on keeping everything sweet and 
 clean. 
 
 Care of the Foal's Feet. Under natural conditions a foal's feet may be 
 expected to grow and develop normally and without the necessity of giving them 
 attention. It is true, however, that bad feet, ankles, and the wrong kind of action 
 often develop as a result of the feet growing unevenly or in the wrong manner. 
 
 Well Developed Draft Foals. Wisconsin College of Agriculture. 
 
 They should be watched and trimmed whenever there is an opportunity to level 
 them at the bottom or keep them in line with a straightforward action. Do not 
 pare the foot away any more than is necessary and aim to grow all the foot pos- 
 sible. 
 
 Training the Foal. The horse is much more susceptible to training than 
 many people stop to consider. Much of the disposition and habit of a horse and 
 the ease or difficulty with which he is handled is a matter of acquirement. It is, 
 therefore, important that from the beginning the foal be handled and devel- 
 oped in a manner to become most satisfactory and pleasing. Regular lessons in 
 teaching the foal and horse what is expected of him accompanied with firmness 
 and patience, is the most approved system of training. There shouH be a clear 
 understanding of what the foal is to do. Avoid confusion by not trying to teach 
 too many things at a time. Aim to develop the intelligence and confidence of the 
 
118 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 foal rather than to force him into subjection by breaking his spirit and having 
 him obey through fear. Guard against bad habits and do not let them become 
 fixed. Mismanagement and the want of something better to do are the cause 
 of most bad habits in horses. Exercise and a proper amount of work play an 
 important part in the training and development of all classes of horses. At the 
 age when the foal may begin to work, two and a half to three years, be particu- 
 larly careful not to overwork him. Reserving his strength will result in a more 
 complete development and a longer lifetime of the most satisfactory service. 
 
 Age to Castrate Colt. Castration should be done by one well qualified 
 to do the work and is usually done after the colt is a year old. Too early castra- 
 tion interferes with the development of masculine characteristics that are impor- 
 tant in the gelding. Colts should be in a healthy condition at time of castration 
 and exercised or turned to pasture following the operation. There is less oppor- 
 tunity for infection and colts heal faster if turned out to pasture prior to and at 
 time of castration. 
 
 The Care and Feed of the Stallion. Stallions of a better class than the 
 average would greatly increase the value of the horse industry and improve the 
 general character of horses in every community. There should be a community 
 interest in the type and character of the stallions that stand for service within it. 
 Owners of mares should be as much concerned about the care and management 
 of stallions as they are with the care and management of their brood mares and 
 foals. 
 
 Four important evils prevent stallions from having the vigor and fertility to 
 insure mares being safely bred and from possessing the ability to impart soundness, 
 strength and longevity to their foals. These evils are hereditary unsoundness 
 and disease, idleness, pampering with the wrong kind of feed, and service at too 
 young an age and in excess. There is no reason why these evils should exist or 
 cannot be avoided. There are plenty of sound, healthy colts of good parentage 
 in the country which if properly reared should make it unnecessary to use any- 
 thing of secondary class. A community effort and proper appreciation on the 
 part of owners of mares and stallions in selecting and handling stallions would 
 save money, time and disappointment and insure a class of horses and a market 
 for them that would be highly profitable. 
 
 Proper Age for Service. Properly reared and managed, the best service 
 of a stallion is from eight to sixteen years. A two-year-old colt will serve mares 
 without indications of harm at the time, but experienced horsemen claim that in 
 after years he will show undesirable results of it in both himself and his colts. 
 One of the most successful breeders of horses in America advises not to let a 
 colt serve until he is at least four years old and further states that five is better. 
 
 Number of Mares Stallion Should Serve. Commence breeding twenty 
 mares at the proper serviceable age and increase each year at the rate of ten 
 until fifty mares are bred each season, never going beyond this number and never 
 serving more than two mares a day. This should insure a high percentage of 
 mares safely bred, colts of a vigorous, sound character and a long useful lifetime 
 of service on the part of the stallion. Stallions are frequently required to serve 100 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 119 
 
 or more mares in a season. The results, however, do injustice to the stallion, 
 his foals, his owner and the owners of mares. 
 
 Feeding the Stallion. The greater number of stallions are likely to be 
 overfed at the beginning of the breeding season and poorly fed during their 
 idle season. Pampering the stallion with drugs, stock foods, tonics and un- 
 healthful feeds to fatten and stimulate him is unnecessary and produces unsatis- 
 factory results. Feeding must be a matter of intelligent judgment. It is safe to 
 depend upon bright, clean oats and hay and a bran mash once or twice a week as 
 the condition may seem to warrant. A liberal quantity of oats and bran, two 
 parts of oats and one of bran fed twice a day, and once daily through the breed- 
 ing season, giving a feed of boiled barley with a little flaxseed cooked with it 
 and fed hot at night, is recommended. Fresh grass is always relished and keeps 
 the bowels in good condition. 
 
 Authorities, differ on the matter of feeding corn. Some advocate a few ears 
 occasionally, others avoid feeding it. This is evidence that more than one system 
 of feeding may be followed. Stallioners of the older school recommend saltpetre 
 to keep the system clear and to avoid "Monday morning" difficulties. A table- 
 spoonful of saltpetre in the Saturday evening bran mash is the customary prac- 
 tice of many good stallion owners. Intelligent feeders keep the stallion in normal 
 condition throughout the year; feed to have him gain rather than lose weight 
 during the breeding season, avoid radical changes in the system of feeding and 
 do not feed hay or give large quantities of water in the morning to distend the 
 belly and make service difficult. 
 
 Dr. Campbell, of the Kansas State Agricultural Experiment Station, sug- 
 gests the following combination of feeds that might be fed to stallions. The parts 
 are by weight : 
 
 Oats ; prairie or timothy hay. 
 
 Oats 4 parts ; corn 6 parts ; bran 3 parts ; prairie or timothy hay. 
 
 Oats 4 parts ; corn 6 parts ; linseed meal 1 part ; prairie or timothy hay. 
 
 Corn 7 parts ; bran 3 parts ; linseed meal 1 part ; prairie or timothy hay. 
 
 Corn; alfalfa hay; prairie or timothy hay. 
 
 He further suggests that one-third alfalfa fed in the morning and two-thirds 
 prairie hay fed at night and corn fed three times a day, is a comparatively cheap 
 and satisfactory ration where alfalfa is grown, and that barley or kafir might be 
 substituted for corn. 
 
 The judgment of many stallion owners leads to the conclusion that rations 
 containing oats and a variety of the most wholesome feeds should be seriously 
 considered and provided, especially as the breeding season approaches and 
 advances. 
 
 Exercising and Grooming the Stallion. Daily exercise throughout the 
 year is essential to best results in keeping a stallion. To work him regularly is 
 one of the best means of exercising. Driving, riding and allowing him to run 
 in a paddock daily are other means. He should not be overworked, but kept in a 
 firm muscular form, that gives energy, vigor and health. 
 
120 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Regular and thorough daily grooming does much to insure health and vigor 
 and is all that is necessary under a proper system of feeding to make the stallion 
 the pride of his owner and of the community, in which he does service. 
 
 A Precaution in the Use of Stallions. It is necessary that a stallion be 
 absolutely clean and free from infectious diseases and in no instance should he 
 be allowed to serve mares which are questionable. Mares having a diseased con- 
 dition of the reproductive organs will not be likely to breed successfully and 
 there is no object in taking a chance on breeding them and infecting the stallion 
 and the mares he serves later. 
 
 Buying a Stallion. An individual or a community of farmers should take 
 into consideration the following suggestions on buying a stallion : 
 
 Decide upon the best type and breed of horses for the community. 
 
 Arrive at a decision early enough to have plenty of time to make the proper 
 selection. 
 
 Consider the number of mares to be bred and buy a horse old enough or 
 enough horses to do the service most successfully. 
 
 Buy a proven sire whose colts may be seen if possible. 
 
 Buy of reliable breeders nearest by. It will save money and insure the most 
 satisfactory attention to your needs. 
 
 Arouse and maintain a community interest in the stallion and in the foals 
 that he will get. 
 
 Suggestions for Stallion Owners. Employ if necessary a regular attend- 
 ant whose judgment on matters pertaining to horse production will insure 
 the best care of the stallion, and enable him to make many valuable suggestions to 
 owners of mares. 
 
 Keep the stallion in a roomy, well lighted, ventilated box stall where sun- 
 light will help to keep it dry and free from filth. 
 
 Have the stallion where he can enjoy the company of other horses. It 
 h*elps to keep him agreeable and easy to control. 
 
 See to it that his feet are in the best of condition, level at the sole, not 
 pared down at the sole, frog and bars, or rasped on the outer wall. Shoes that 
 are well fitted should be provided when the stallion is traveled about the country 
 and worked. 
 
 Endeavor to conserve the strength and prolong the usefulness of a good 
 stallion as much as possible. 
 
 Sterility in Stallions and Mares. Most stallions are potent and retain 
 their potency to an old age. There may be an inability or an indisposition to 
 serve a mare, however, due to causes resulting in temporary or permanent steril- 
 ity. Permanent sterility is usually congenital, present at birth, and the result of 
 an incomplete or abnormal development of the reproductive organs. Stallions 
 with both testicles retained in the body undeveloped are usually sterile. Stallions 
 with one testicle developed (ridglings), may be sure breeders, but there will be a 
 tendency for his colts to be in the same condition and it is undesirable to. select a 
 stallion of this character. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION m 
 
 Temporary sterility is caused by injuries or diseases affecting the repro- 
 ductive organs and also may be the result of extreme change of environment, 
 overfat condition or rundown condition and excessive use in the stud. 
 
 Many instances are known where imported stallions have failed to serve 
 mares successfully for the first year or two in this country after which they proved 
 to be entirely satisfactory. In most instances stallions are sold with a guarantee 
 to get 60 per cent of normal brood mares in foal. A much better result than this 
 may be expected, however, if the stallion is potent and not used to excess. 
 
 Mares frequently cause more or less difficulty as a result of their sterile or 
 barren condition. Mares past twelve or fourteen years of age are likely to be 
 sterile due to disuse and changes that have rendered the reproductive organs 
 inactive. Over fat mares are difficult to get with foal. Diseased and closed and 
 hardened condition of the reproductive organs are causes of inability to con- 
 ceive. Some mares appear to have an inability to produce a foal oftener than 
 once in two years. It is easier to breed mares successfully in the spring of the 
 year than it is in the fall, in fact, the spring when mares are shedding their coats 
 may be regarded as the normal and most successful season to breed them and to 
 have them raise their foals most satisfactorily. 
 
 Care and Management of the Work Horse. The work horse is the ulti- 
 mate and most important end of the horse industry. He is worthy of every care 
 and comfort that can be given him and the driver and caretaker of the working 
 class of horses have a responsibility equal to that of any other class of men en- 
 gaged in animal production. 
 
 Work Horse Suggestions. To the fullest extent possible, choose a work 
 horse of the class that is best adapted to the kind of work he must perform. If 
 work for which he is unsuited must be performed, give him extra consideration 
 and every encouragement. 
 
 Do not expect young, immature or aged horses to do the work that horses in 
 their prime can do. It is unprofitable to depend upon either for work that is 
 urgent. 
 
 Retire from work, horses that are lame, sick or seriously out of condition. 
 
 Do not turn off an old horse that has paid his cost and keep many times and 
 let him fall into the hands of men who are inconsiderate of his welfare. Horse 
 hides, bone and meat serve purposes that render it possible to have old horses 
 humanely and profitably destroyed. 
 
 As far as possible to do so, keep work horses' working regularly to their 
 fullest capacity. It is better for them and much more profitable to their owner. 
 Farm horses are idle during a large percentage of the working days of the year 
 which fact must be taken into consideration in keeping and feeding them to the 
 best advantage. 
 
 Guard against diseases by never watering horses at public watering places 
 especially in times of an epidemic of distemper. 
 
 Buying the Work Horse. Judgment and money secure a good work 
 horse. One must expect to pay a reasonable price for a work horse and there is 
 nothing saved in buying something undesirable at a reduced cost. The best is 
 
122 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 cheapest in buying, breeding and raising a work horse. If one does not feel con- 
 fident to judge a work horse, it will pay to hire an expert and get the benefit of his 
 judgment. 
 
 Be careful to consider and secure suitable age, sound, serviceable feet, limbs 
 and body, a well balanced straightforward action, a good disposition and a good 
 feeder. 
 
 Feeding and Watering the Work Horse. The character and amount of 
 work a horse is required to do should determine largely the kind and amount of 
 the ration. The system of feeding has more to do in determining one's success in 
 feeding the work horse, than the feed itself. Especially should one bear in mind 
 that the horse is not like the cow or steer and that he performs a different service. 
 The stomach of the horse is not adapted to carrying large quantities of roughage 
 and at the same time permitting the horse to work with ease. The practice should 
 be then to feed grain and a small amount of hay in the morning, grain and very 
 little hay if any at noon, and grain and a liberal amount of hay in the evening when 
 there is opportunity for the horse to eat and digest at his leisure. 
 
 Amount of Hay to Feed. One pound to one and one-fourth. pounds of 
 hay per 100 Ibs. of body weight may be considered an approximate amount of hay 
 necessary to feed the work horse daily. The hay should be bright, clean 
 quality. While timothy may be regarded the standard roughage for horses, es- 
 pecially in sections where it is commonly grown, it is not necessarily the only 
 good roughage. Prairie hays and hays made from cereal crops like oats, barley 
 and wheat, cut in the milk stage, and southern hays like Johnson grass and les- 
 pedeza properly cured, may be regarded satisfactory roughages. Thickly grown 
 corn fodder and corn stover well cured and free from mold, provide excellent 
 roughage for horses in winter, and may be used to advantage. It is always best, 
 however, for the work horse to have well cured hay if it is possible to secure it. 
 Straw that is bright and clean may be used to good advantage in winter and will 
 save the hay for later use or for other classes of stock. 
 
 Clover and Alfalfa Hay for Horses. Many condemn the feeding of clover 
 and alfalfa hay to horses. For work horses, however, these hays may be fed to 
 advantage if the amount is limited and the horse is not allowed to eat too much. 
 Horses like these feeds better than other kinds of hay and will be sure to eat more 
 than is good for them if judgment is not used in supplying them proper amounts. 
 A somewhat less amount than 1 pound per 100 Ibs. of live weight may be safely 
 fed. Timothy or prairie hay fed in combination with legume hay, make a fine 
 combination. 
 
 Silage for Horses. The following summary statement by E. A. Trow- 
 bridge, of the Missouri Experiment Station, indicates the possibility of utilizing 
 silage where careful judgment is used in feeding it: 
 
 Corn silage is now being fed with success by a large number of horsemen 
 and farmers to all classes of horses and mules. Horses at hard work need 
 a concentrated ration and should not be expected to eat large quantities of silage. 
 
 Corn silage should always be fed in combination with other feeds. 
 
 Within the limits of usefulness, it is a cheap substitute for hay and adds 
 variety and succulence to the ration. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 123 
 
 Silage is not a success except in the hands of a careful feeder with an eye 
 to the thrift of the animal. 
 
 Under no circumstances should spoiled silage, either moldy or rotten, be fed 
 to horses or mules. 
 
 Suitable Grain Mixtures for Horses. Oats are the most common and the 
 safest of all feeds for the horse. They are improved upon for horses doing heavy 
 work by the addition of other feeds. Nine parts of oats and one part of bran 
 by weight with two to four ears of corn thrown in with the mixture at each 
 feeding time, form a suitable feed for horses doing heavy work. Thin horses may 
 be given six ears of corn in addition to the oats and bran. 
 
 Corn is commonly fed in the middle and southern states and, when fed 
 with judgment and balanced by feeding it in combination with clover or alfalfa 
 hay or other concentrates relatively high in protein, it may be regarded an excel- 
 lent feed. Fed on the cob or shelled are usual methods of feeding it. Experi- 
 ments as well as the practice of the Paris Omnibus Company, indicate that corn 
 and cob meal finely ground is equal to corn alone. The ground cob renders the 
 corn meal less likely to form a heavy mass in the stomach of the horse and thus 
 produce colic. 
 
 Corn fed with timothy or prairie hay is best fed in combination with bran 
 and oil meal. A mixture of six parts of shelled corn, three parts of wheat bran 
 and one part of oil meal, proved equal to a ration of oats in trials conducted at 
 the Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 Barley is used on the Pacific Coast for horses. Feeding trials indicate that 
 a slightly greater quantity of barley is required than oats to produce the same 
 results. 
 
 Careful judgment on the part of feeders will make it possible to feed a great 
 variety of grains and grain by-products. Care should be exercised in getting 
 combinations that are bulky like oats or the other combinations suggested and 
 that will balance the ration with reference to starchy feeds like corn or barley 
 and nitrogenous feeds like beans, bran and oil meals. 
 
 Amount of Grain to Feed. Farm work horses at hard labor should re- 
 ceive from one and one-fifth to one and one-third pounds of grain per 100 Ibs. of 
 live weight per day. This amount will ordinarily maintain their weight. Ad- 
 ditional amounts will have to be fed at the discretion of the feeder to increase 
 the body weight if it is desirable to do so. The grain should be fed in three equal 
 feeds morning, noon and night. 
 
 Precautions in Feeding Grain. Horses should be gradually accustomed 
 to grain and the amount governed according to the work and condition of the 
 horse. The grain feed should be reduced one-half on Saturday nights and on idle 
 days, until four days have elapsed, or until the horses have again been put to 
 work, when an increased amount may again be fed. "Monday Morning Diseases," 
 (Lymphangitis) and Azoturia are prevented by carefully adhering to this rule. 
 
 Avoid letting horses eat their grain too rapidly by mingling chaffed hay with 
 it or compelling them to nose it out from between round, smooth rocks that have 
 been placed in the feed boxes. 
 
124: THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Grinding Grain. A saving of about ten percent may be made by grind- 
 ing, crushing or rolling grain for farm work horses when at hard labor. Horses 
 having poor teeth will naturally do better on ground grain. Crushing or rolling 
 renders grain less dusty and it has been found that ground grain fed dry requires 
 twice as long for horses to consume it as when it is thoroughly dampened. How 
 well horses eat and thrive and the expense of grinding or crushing should de- 
 termine to what extent it pays to grind feed for them. Small, hard grains should 
 be ground to produce satisfactory results. 
 
 Watering Horses. Methods of watering may vary, but a certain order 
 of watering should be followed after a horse has been accustomed to it. 
 Horses that have been without water for a long time should be allowed only 
 a small amount of water at first chance of getting it. It is dangerous to allow 
 a horse when very warm, to gorge himself with water, but a small amount 
 will be refreshing and unharmful. It is well to have horses cool enough upon 
 entering the stable to drink before they are fed and also water them the first 
 thing in the morning. 
 
 Providing Salt. Horses require salt and are fond of it. An ordinary 
 handful supplied on Sunday is a practice that provides a sufficient amount. 
 Horses at hard work require more salt than idle horses. Regularity and not 
 overfeeding at irregular intervals are precautions to be observed in feeding 
 salt. A lump of rock salt kept before the horse at all times is the practice 
 followed by many horsemen. 
 
 Grooming, Clipping and Blanketing. Thorough grooming is as important 
 as feed for the work horse. Removing the waste material that comes from 
 perspiration and keeping the pores of the skin open and clean, insures health 
 as well as a good appearance of the horse. Idle horses do not need the groom- 
 ing that work horses do. The work horse should be groomed at night suf- 
 ficiently to enable him to rest well. A scraper to remove perspiration that 
 may be flowing freely will reduce much of the work of grooming. An old 
 broom to sweep fresh mud from the legs as soon as a horse is brought into 
 the stable is also an easy way to reduce the work of grooming. Currying with 
 a curry comb not sharp enough to injure the hide and briskly brushing with 
 a good brush and woolen cloth, improves the appearance of the horse as well 
 as keeps him in fine health and spirit. The curry comb should never be used 
 on the head or on the limbs below the knees and hocks. A stiff, "Dandy" 
 brush or corn brush takes the place of a curry comb for the head, limbs, mane 
 and tail. 
 
 In the spring of the year when the coat of hair is heavy and just prior 
 to the time shedding commences, much discomfort can be saved the horse 
 by clipping him. Clipping is most conveniently done by two men and the use 
 of the machine clipper. This will also be the means of saving feed and over- 
 coming danger of overheating, chills, colic and resultant ills. There is little 
 danger from clipping if the horse is properly sheltered and blanketed when 
 not at work. 
 
 The driver should regard blanketing during the fall and winter seasons 
 as necessary as he regards the necessity of putting on a coat to keep himself 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 125 
 
 warm. Blanketing horses in the stable tends to keep their coats in better 
 condition than they otherwise will be, although in stables properly constructed 
 it may not be regarded as a practice that justifies the expense. Horses that 
 are blanketed while in the stable are more susceptible to taking cold when 
 taken out of the stable if they are not carefully blanketed when left standing. 
 
 Care of the Harness and Shoulders. One should be particularly careful 
 to see that the harness properly fits the horse and that the draft or pull 
 against their collar comes as near to being at right angles with the shoulder 
 as possible. Keeping the harness in good repair and properly fitted to the 
 horse overcomes trouble with sore shoulders and makes the work which the 
 horse has to do much easier. The harness should be kept clean especially at 
 points which come in contact with the body. Collars should be pounded and 
 kept soft and smooth. A collar that fits snugly at the beginning of the spring 
 work when perhaps the horse is in high condition of flesh, may be somewhat 
 too large when the horse becomes reduced in flesh. Ordinarily the collar 
 should fit so that there is just room for one's hand between the collar and 
 the lower part of the neck. The use of sweat pads tends to overcome the 
 collar being too large and may offer protection to shoulders that are soft and 
 tender. In all instances they should be kept clean and dry. An extra pair 
 of sweat pads that will enable a dry pair of pads to be used in all instances, 
 will be a good investment. Much of the difficulty from sore shoulders is 
 overcome by working horses early in the spring season to harden their 
 shoulders gradually and have them in good condition before the heaviest 
 work comes on. Bathing the shoulders thoroughly with salt water and drying 
 them thoroughly each day in the early part of the spring season, tends to 
 harden them and overcomes soreness. 
 
 Stabling Horses. In the construction of new barns and in the modifica- 
 tion of old barns, there is always opportunity to improve upon the arrange-- 
 ment of stables and conveniences for giving live stock of the various classes 
 the most suitable care and attention. The horse stable should be carefully 
 constructed to afford plenty of air, sunlight and ventilation. Stalls should be 
 arranged in a manner to avoid sunlight shining directly into the faces of the 
 horses. Large, roomy stalls ^ l / 2 to 5 feet wide and 10 feet deep, provide roomy 
 stalls in which horses can rest comfortably, and be easily groomed and 
 harnessed. The floors should be constructed to drain properly and keep the 
 bedding and stall as dry as possible. A concrete floor with a rough surface 
 to prevent slipping and a wooden grate immediately under the horse is the 
 most suitable floor. The grate should be so constructed that it can be lifted 
 up and the floor cleaned whenever necessary. Horse stables need not neces- 
 sarily be as warm as stables for other classes of stock and it is not a good 
 plan to have the horse stable in the same part of the barn with cattle and 
 other classes of stock. 
 
 If the horse stable is included in the same barn with cattle, a partition 
 that will separate them is desirable. Horses kept in cow barns which are 
 as a rule much too warm for horses, incur danger of taking cold upon being 
 exposed to cold outdoor weather. The horse stable should be arranged with 
 
126 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 a suitable room for hanging harnesses. This affords a saving in keeping 
 harnesses dry and away from the stable atmosphere which contains more or 
 less ammonia that tends to rot the leather. 
 
 Where hay chutes are provided and lead from the hay mow to the 
 manger, precautions should be taken to have the opening at the manger large 
 enough to prevent horses getting their heads fast. Getting their heads fast 
 has resulted in their throwing themselves and breaking their necks. Where 
 hay chutes are used, judgment should also be exercised in the amount of hay 
 that is put in the chutes in order to prevent the horses overeating. Stalls 
 should be well bedded with straw, shredded corn stalks, shavings or sawdust. 
 While shavings and sawdust are suitable for bedding, they do not make as 
 good manure for the land as do straw and cornstalks. Horses that are in- 
 clined to eat their bedding may be kept in better condition if shavings and 
 sawdust are used for bedding purposes. 
 
 MULE PRODUCTION. 
 
 The breeding of mules in America dates back to 1878 when the king of 
 Spain presented George Washington with a jack which was used at Mount 
 Vernon and sired mules that sold at high prices. The mule is a hybrid result- 
 ing from the cross of the jack and the mare, and will not breed. Jacks from 
 Spain of the Catalonian breed have been the most popular of several breeds 
 used in America for the production of mules. This breed stands 14*^ to 16 
 hands high and possesses style, size, action and hardiness and early maturing 
 quality that combine to make the desirable qualities a jack should possess 
 to sire the best class of mules. 
 
 Types of Mules. The mule is generally smaller than the horse, being 14 
 to 17 hands high and weighing from 600 to 1,600 pounds. The size of the 
 jack and of the mare determine the type and character of the mule. As a 
 rule, mares of good quality weighing from 1,300 to 1,400 pounds, bred to jacks 
 of good size and quality and action, having heavy bone and long, erect ears, 
 produce mules of the most desirable type. Better prices are usually paid for 
 mare mules than for horse mules. The most desirable color is black with a 
 tan nose and flank. Bay, brown, gray and dun colors are more or less common. 
 
 Hughes, in "Successful Farming," makes the following classification of 
 mules bred in America and handled on the markets in mule breeding sections : 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF MULES 
 
 Class 
 
 Height 
 
 Weight 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Draft 
 
 16 -17.2 
 
 1200-1600 
 
 Large, heavy boned, thick set. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 16 -17.0 
 
 1150-1300 
 
 Tall with good quality and finish. 
 
 Cotton 
 
 13.2-15.2 
 
 750-1100 
 
 Small, compact with good quality. 
 
 Mining 
 
 12 -16 
 
 600-1350 
 
 "Pit" mules, small; "Miners" large and rugged. 
 
 Farm 
 
 15.2-16 
 
 1000-1350 
 
 Plain and thin, with good constitution. 
 
 
 
 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 127 
 
 Adaptability of Mules. The mule has proved to be a most useful beast 
 of burden and his popularity is increasing. His hardiness, ability to take care of 
 himself and adaptability to most kinds of climate, especially the extremely warm 
 climates, have led people, including many farmers, to regard him more practical 
 to use than the horse. More has been done in America to develop the mule than 
 in any other country. More than one-half of the mules in the world are in the 
 United States. Prices paid for mules compare favorably with those paid for 
 horses, and one should expect to pay fully as much to secure a good pair of mules 
 as he would pay for a good team of horses. 
 
 HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF A HORSE. 
 
 Names of Teeth. In a complete set of teeth a horse has forty and a mare 
 thirty-six. They are named as follows : front six on either jaw, (twelve in num- 
 ber) incisors ; next tooth on each side of the incisors in a horse, canine or bridle 
 tooth (four in all) ; next six, double teeth, on each side of both jaws, molars or 
 grinders (twenty- four in number). 
 
 Two Sets of Teeth. A horse has two sets of teeth corresponding to the 
 baby teeth and permanent teeth of a human being. The first set are called milk 
 teeth or temporary teeth and consist of twelve incisors and twelve molars. Half 
 of these are in each jaw. The temporary teeth are whiter, smaller and have a 
 better defined neck at the gums than the permanent ones. 
 
 TEETH AT DIFFERENT AGES. 
 
 Birth. At birth a colt has two "nippers" or central incisors on each jaw 
 and three molars. Sometimes these teeth may not break through for a day or two. 
 
 Four to Six Weeks. At this time the lateral incisors break through on 
 both jaws. (The lateral incisor is the tooth on each side of the two central 
 incisors). 
 
 Six to Ten Months. The corner incisors break through when a colt is 
 from six to ten months old. (The corner incisor is the outer incisor in each half 
 of both jaws). 
 
 One Year Old. W'hen a colt is one year old he has a full set of twenty- 
 four temporary teeth. 
 
 Two and One-Half Years Old. At this age the two central incisors are 
 shed and also the fifth permanent molar on each jaw. The first and second 
 molars are replaced by permanent ones. (See Photograph.) 
 
 Three Years Old. The two central incisors are up in wear. (See Photo- 
 graph). 
 
 Three and One-Half Years Old. The third temporary molar is replaced 
 by a permanent one. The lateral incisors are shed. 
 
 Four Years Old. The permanent lateral incisors are up in wear. (See 
 Photograph) 
 
 Four and One-half Years Old. The corner incisors are 'shed. In males 
 the "bridle" or canine teeth are also shed. 
 
128 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 
 
 129 
 
 
 7_An 8-year-old mouth. TEe cups 
 out of nil the lower teeth. 
 
 fig. 9 A 22-year-old mouth. The incisors meel at 
 an acute angle and the wearing surfaces have 
 triangular shape. 
 
 Fig. 8 A- 14-yvar-e!d mouth. After 8 years the age 
 i* estimated by the angle at which the incisors 
 come together, by their length, and by the shape 
 
 ' of the wearing surface. The older the horse the 
 nearer this surface approaches a triangle. It Is 
 practically impossible to estimate the age correct- 
 Iv after the caps have disappeared from the teeth. 
 
 CONDITION OF THE TEETH. 
 
 This Is one of the first points that 
 should be considered In purchasing a horse 
 or in the care of one. Many a horse be- 
 comes weak, poor in condition, and ema- 
 ciated simply as a result of bad teeth which 
 have been neglected. If the horse turns 
 his head to one side while eating, shows 
 signs of poor nutrition, and passes whole 
 grains of oats or corn with the feces, his 
 teeth need attention. 
 
 The continual grinding of the teeth In 
 eating causes the outer edges of the upper 
 molars and the inner edges of the lower 
 molars to become sharp. These sharp edges 
 lacerate the thin skin of the inner cheek 
 and the tongue, and make chewing painful. 
 This and irregular teeth tend to cause the 
 animal to imperfectly chew his feed before 
 swallowing it; and unless the teeth re- 
 ceive proper attention, the animal becomes 
 emaciated. 
 
 In old animals the teeth often become 
 smooth, making it impossible for them to 
 chew hay and grain. In such cases only soft 
 feeds should be given. 
 
 An examination of the teeth may be 
 made by running the hand Into the mouth 
 and feeling them to see if they are sharp 
 or if any of them are too long. Only a 
 qualified veterinarian should be allowed to 
 treat the teeth. 
 
130 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 o 3 Years 
 
 S..., 3'A to 4 Years 
 4 ' > to 5 Years 
 
 Sketch of the permanent incisors, 
 indicating the order in which they ap- 
 pear in pairs. The central pair of 
 permanent incisors m both the upper 
 and lower jaws appear when the horse 
 is about two and one-half or three 
 years of age, the next pair replace 
 the temporary incisors when the horse 
 is about four years of age, and the 
 outside pair, making a. full mouth, 
 usually appear at five years of age. 
 
 Passing to the permanent incisors in the 
 upper jaw at nine years the central pail 
 have almost completely lost their mark 
 At ten those adjoining these have reachec 
 the same condition, while at eleven th< 
 marks have about vanished from all 01 
 the permanent incisors. It will be noticec 
 that as the age advances the appearance o1 
 the worn tables assumes a more tri 
 angular form. 
 
 jfvEN YEARS 
 
 Lower Incisors 
 
 EIGHT YCAR> 
 Lower Incisors 
 
 At five years it will be noticed that marks 
 are very distinct and the tables worn but 
 slightly in all of the incisors. At six years 
 the center pair in the lower jaw show some 
 wear, the mark becoming smaller. At seven 
 years the second pair have nearly lost their 
 marks, while at eight the third or outside 
 pair show considerable wear with but a 
 trace of the mark. 
 
 OwYows 
 
 Comparison of a five-year-old mouth witl 
 one that is twenty years old, showing th< 
 marked contrast that develops, as age ad 
 vances, in the slope of the teeth as viewec 
 from the side. To Goubaux and Barrier'; 
 "Exterior of the Horse" the author is greatl] 
 indebted for the prints of horses' teeth whicl 
 have been shown. These have been modifiec 
 somewhat to bring out more clearly the neces 
 sary distinctions. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 131 
 
 Five Years Old. The permanent corner incisors are almost up into wear 
 and the animal has a full set of permanent-teeth. At this age the filly becomes 
 a mare and the colt becomes a horse. (See Photograph) 
 
 Six Years Old. At six years old the cups in the center incisors of the 
 lower jaw are almost obliterated. (See Photograph) 
 
 Seven Years Old. The cups do not show plainly in the teeth of the lower 
 jaw except in the outside pair of incisors. (See photograph) 
 
 Eight Years Old. The cups are worn out of all the lower teeth. (See 
 Photograph) 
 
 Nine to Ten Years Old. The cups disappear from the central incisors of 
 the upper jaw. 
 
 Eleven Years Old. The cups are worn out of the lateral incisors of the 
 upper jaw and remain only in the two corner incisors. 
 
 Twelve Years Old. The cups are worn out of all the upper teeth. The 
 central incisors of the lower jaw are about as thick as they are broad. 
 
 Thirteen Years Old. The central and lateral incisors of the lower jaw are. 
 nearly round. 
 
 Fourteen Years Old. The corner incisors of the lower jaw are round 
 and the teeth tend toward the horizontal. (See Photograph) 
 
 Twenty-two Years Old. The central incisors of the upper jaw are tri- 
 angular and the incisors meet at an acute angle. (See Photograph) 
 
 SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET. 
 
 Nearly all diseases of the feet are the result of improper shoeing and the 
 lack of care of the feet. If the conditions are such that the horn is not worn 
 off faster than it grows and the foot is strong, shoes are unnecessary. 
 
 Shoes become necessary when the animal shows signs of the feet be- 
 coming sore because of the rapid wearing away of the horn when traveling 
 on hard roads, etc. This may be confined to the front feet only and will dis- 
 appear when shoes are applied to their feet. For ordinary purposes simple plates, 
 without calks and just heavy enough to prevent bending, are better. 
 
 Shoes with sharp calks are necessary when the roads are slippery and when 
 heavy pulling requires that the horse get a grip which will enable him to stand. 
 
 Extra heavy shoes are sometimes required on the front feet of draft 
 horses, and often a horse is shod to suit some abnormal condition of the foot such 
 as the high-heeled shoe to give relief in bone spavin, or the barred shoe for horses 
 subject to corns. 
 
 Shoe Fitting. All loose horn should be removed. Care must be taken 
 to keep the sole of the foot perfectly level for otherwise injuries to the joints 
 may result. The frog should be left in its normal shape and size and the bars 
 should not be cut away. The shoe must be the exact size and shape of the foot 
 after the foot is trimmed to its normal form. The shoe should be fitted cold, 
 never hot; the nails should be small and when driven out well down on the 
 hoof. After the shoe is fastened clinch the nails by imbedding them slightly 
 in the hoof with a hammer and smoothing them off with a rasp. The outside 
 
132 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 of the hoof should never be rasped. Shoes should be reset every five or six weeks 
 if the feet are to be kept in a normal condition. For all defects such as inter- 
 fering, overreaching and other defects in gait consult a first-class horseshoer. 
 
 Fig. i. Arrangement of ropes to throw a 
 horse. 
 
 Fig. 2. Throwing a horse. 
 
 Fig. 3. Holding a horse down^ 
 
 THROWING OR CASTING A HORSE. 
 
 Side-line Method. Take a three-fourths inch rope about forty feet long, 
 double it at the center and tie to make a loop about two feet long. Slip this 
 loop over the horses neck like a collar letting the knot come at the top of 
 the neck. Pass the two loose ends down either side of the horse, around the 
 hind leg under the fetlock joint and back through the collar Now with one 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 133 
 
 man at the animal's head and one holding each rope, slowly back the horse. 
 The men holding the ropes pull them tight and this draws the animal's legs 
 forward and up to his sides throwing him. His legs should be tied in this 
 position to hold him down. This method is especially valuable for throwing 
 young horses for castration as their hind legs are forward and out of the way. 
 
 One-man Method. Take up the "off" foreleg with a strap. This can be 
 done by passing the strap over the animal's back and holding it on by putting 
 a surcingle on and tying the strap to this. Hold the foot up with one hand 
 and draw the horse's head to his shoulder (away from the foot that is up) with 
 the other. This throws the animal to the side with the foot raised. The 
 operator should get on the side close to the horse's head as it goes down to 
 keep him from getting up. 
 
 Hobble Method for Old Horses. Put a strap with a ring on each leg just 
 below the fetlock joint. Pass a rope or chain through these rings and draw 
 the horse's feet together until he loses his balance and falls. Use this method 
 on horses over ten years old. If old horses are thrown with side lines they 
 are liable to injure their backs by struggling. 
 
 Preparation for Throwing. To avoid injury to the horse pick out a level 
 place in which to throw him. Have a folded blanket ready to put under his 
 head while down. 
 
 CARE OF THE SICK AND INJURED. 
 
 A sick or injured horse should be put in a box stall if one is available. In 
 case there is no box stall put the animal in a wide, comfortable stall as far 
 away from the other horses as possible, where he can be made comfortable 
 and it will be quiet. His stall should be clean, and free from drafts. 
 
 Making Patient Comfortable. The patient should be made as comfort- 
 able and contented as possible. The stall should be kept clean and tidy. The 
 floors should be scraped often. The stall should be well ventilated as pure air 
 is essential to a speedy recovery. It should be kept at a comfortable tem- 
 perature and should be dry. All disagreeable odors of medicine should be 
 eradicated. If the patient can lie down he should have a good bedding of dry, 
 fine, loose litter. If he eats this bedding he can be bedded with moss or saw- 
 dust. Unless it is necessary from the nature of the disease to have the stall 
 dark, enough light should be admitted to make it cheerful. A horse suffering 
 from a nervous disease must not be excited. One person should do all the 
 doctoring to avoid frightening him. After the patient is fed any food that 
 remains should be immediately removed or it will make him lose what little 
 appetite he may have if it is left. He should always have pure clean water 
 where he can get it without effort. Even when he is not thirsty he enjoys 
 washing his mouth out with the water. If hay is fed it should be the best 
 and should be clean. If a horse has colic he should have plenty of space in 
 which to roll over. 
 
 Blankets and Bandages. It may be necessary to protect the patient from 
 drafts with blankets. This can be done by putting blankets on him or by 
 
134 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 hanging them up to enclose the stall. In putting them on the horse keep them 
 well forward and tied under the chest and in hanging them up to enclose the 
 stall be sure sufficient space is left for ventilation. The blankets should be 
 woolen and their weight carefully adapted to the weather. The extremities 
 may be protected with light woolen bandages after being rubbed lightly to 
 increase the circulation. In applying a bandage take a strip of woolen cloth 
 about three inches wide and six feet long, roll it into a neat roll and begin 
 wrapping the part at the bottom winding upward. With a little practice a 
 good bandage can be put on in this way. If a liniment is applied to a part 
 after it is bandaged care should be taken to prevent its blistering. 
 
 Slings. It is often necessary to place a sick or injured horse in slings. 
 A sling can be made from a wide piece of stout canvas or from wide straps. 
 It is supported from above by means of a chain and tackle. This enables the 
 patient to rest his legs and still be in an upright position. It is seldom neces- 
 sary to carry the whole weight of the animal in using a sling. It is better to 
 place the sling under him so he can settle his weight into it when his legs 
 are tired or stand on his legs at will. Remember to so adjust the sling as 
 to have it fit closely behind the elbows and throw the animal's weight on his 
 chest and not on his abdomen. 
 
 Side Supports. Side supports are often very beneficial to the patient that 
 is unable to lie down. These should be placed in about the same position 
 that the shafts would come. It may also be well to place one in front of his 
 breast and one in back of him, in case he is injured behind. Such supports 
 should be wound with clothes to protect the animal. 
 
 Food for Sick Animals. It is very important to know what and how to 
 feed a sick animal if he is to make the speediest recovery possible. As a rule 
 the main thing is to preserve the animal's strength. If the patient can eat he 
 should be given cooling, laxative, nutritious but not bulky foods. This will 
 keep his bowels free and open. Food should not be forced upon an animal. It 
 should be prepared attractively so as to tempt him to eat. In case it is re- 
 fused, the food should be at once removed and offered again in a short time. 
 Do not force the animal to eat unless recovery depends upon his conservation 
 of strength alone. Medicine should not be given in the food if it spoils the 
 flavor for the patient. The following make excellent foods for sick animals : 
 roots such as carrots, good fresh grass, apples (fed from the hand), milk, 
 gruels and bran mashes. Gruels and mashes may contain dry or boiled oats, 
 raw eggs (beaten), bran and ground oats mixed in cut hay and wet with cold 
 water. To make a gruel stir about a quart of oatmeal or cornmeal into a 
 gallon of cold water and let it soak for an hour. To make a bran mash add 
 some salt to about five quarts of bran. Put this into a pail and cover with 
 boiling water. Cover the pail with cloths to keep in the steam and to keep 
 it warm. It is well to add a few oats to the mash if necessary to tempt the 
 horse to eat. 
 
 Giving a Horse Medicine. Medicine is given to horses in the form of a 
 drench, in the form of pills or with a small syringe. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 135 
 
 The Drench. To drench a horse his head must be drawn up high enough 
 to make the medicine run down but not too high. The head can be easily 
 raised by means of a rope, a loop of which is passed back of the incisor teeth 
 of the upper jaw. The end is then passed under the nose band of the halter 
 and through a pulley or over a beam. The medicine is given in liquid form 
 from a strong glass bottle such as a wine or whiskey bottle. It is poured in 
 slowly at a corner of the animal's mouth. 
 
 How to Make a Horse Swallow Medicine. If the horse refuses to swallow 
 pour a teaspoonful of water into one of his nostrils. This will make him take 
 the medicine. 
 
 Pills or Balls. To give medicine in the form of a pill or ball hold it in 
 the tips of the three middle fingers of the right hand. Grasp the tongue of 
 the horse with the left hand and pull it well forward, turning the tip of the 
 tongue towards the roof of the mouth. Next insert the right hand and push 
 the pill far back past the bulge in the tongue. Withdraw both hands quickly 
 and the medicine will go down. 
 
 The Syringe. The syringe makes a fine way to give medicine to a horse. 
 One can get a small hard rubber syringe for this purpose. The syringe is held 
 in the right hand while the animal's mouth is opened with the left and the 
 medicine is forced into the back part of the mouth. Medicine can be given 
 quickly and easily this way. 
 
 Action of Drugs in Horses. (See "Cattle Department.") 
 
 CASTRATION. 
 
 This consists in removing the organs of generation of the males. Colts 
 are generally castrated when a year or two years old. If a colt is not well 
 developed it is better to let him go until he is three years old. Colts should 
 not be castrated when it is exceedingly hot or cold or when the flies are bad. 
 The best time is generally in the spring when the pastures are good and the 
 weather cool. 
 
 The colt to be castrated should be thrown on his left side or stood with 
 his side to a wall and restrained by a twist on his nose. The scrotum or 
 testicle sack should be washed clean and antiseptics used. Remove the smaller 
 testicle first. The scrotum should be firmly grasped below the testicles and 
 the testicles squeezed against the skin until it is tight. Next a bold incision 
 is made close to the line dividing the scrotum in the center and well forward. 
 This cut should be long enough to allow the testicle to drop out easily and 
 allow sufficient drainage. The cord should be cut at least four inches from 
 the testicle to prevent a tumor forming. Among the ways of severing the 
 cord are by tying the cord with a strong but small string and cutting the 
 testicle with a knife close to the string, and by using the emasculator or 
 ecraseur, instruments designed for that purpose. 
 
 A colt should rest for some time after being castrated; then he should 
 have light exercise to remove the blood clots that collect in the scrotum. His 
 bowels should be kept open with injections of glycerine and warm water and 
 the wound should be bathed with antiseptics. 
 
136 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Swelling after Castration. In case the scrotum swells badly after the 
 colt is castrated and the animal does not eat well he should be looked after. 
 Infection due to a lack of cleanliness during the operation ; confining the colt 
 in dirty stables after being castrated. 
 
 Treatment. Put the colt in clean quarters or better let him run in a good 
 pasture. Give him plenty of exercise and a tablespoonful of saltpeter (to a 
 two-year old) once a day for three or four days. Be sure the kidneys are 
 active and the bowels well opened. Dip the finger in disinfectant and open 
 the wound in case it needs draining. Twice every day it is well to inject a 
 solution of carbolic acid into the sack. Use it one part to thirty of water. It 
 will help relieve the pain if you wash the sack with hot water. 
 
 Throw cold water upon the loins and the parts. This usually stops the 
 bleeding quickly. 
 
 Apply vinegar to the parts after washing them well with salt water. 
 
 It is said that a string tied tightly around the tail will stop bleeding from 
 castration in a short time. 
 
 HOW TO LOCATE LAMENESS. 
 
 Below we give the indication of lameness in each different part of the 
 horse in the simplest way possible, so as to make a handy reference when 
 an animal goes lame. 
 
 In locating lameness remember the following : 
 
 1. A horse that walks lame will always trot very lame. Lameness is 
 best shown in a slow trot. 
 
 2. One should not jump too hastily to a conclusion as to the location of 
 the lameness. Rather than put a blister on the wrong place he might better 
 delay until the indications are more prominent. 
 
 3. The horse should be trotted immediately upon leaving the stable. 
 
 4. The lame foot should be examined closely as a horse may be lame in 
 two places at the same time. 
 
 5. Lameness seldom exists any length of time without some inflamma- 
 tion, but a stone in the foot may be very painful to the animal before any 
 great heat can be perceived. 
 
 6. In examining the foot, the shoe should be removed, the nails should 
 be examined for signs of pus or blood and the bottom of the foot cleaned and 
 gone over for punctures or bruises. 
 
 7. Horses are likely to flinch when their shoulders are pressed firmly. 
 This should not mislead. 
 
 8. To determine heat, aside from the touch, one may wet the 'correspond- 
 ing parts on each leg. The leg drying first is the one heated. 
 
HORSE PRODUCTION 137 
 
 Location. Indications. 
 
 In the Leg. 
 
 When Standing. Pastern of lame leg held more upright than others; 
 resting. leg more often and longer than others; lying down unusually 
 long; heat, swelling or pain in some part of leg, (discovered by hand- 
 ling and moving it). 
 
 When Trotting Slowly. Lame foot is lifted more quickly than others 
 and less weight is put upon it, making a different noise as the foot hits 
 the ground. (Turning the animal sharply to the left or right so as to 
 bring the weight alternately on the right and left legs generally in- 
 creases any signs of lameness.) 
 
 In One Forefoot. 
 
 When Standing. One forefoot held far in advance of the other, indi- 
 cates soreness in back part of leg; resting the toe on the ground, bend- 
 ing the fetlock and knee, both forefeet being about even. 
 When Trotting Slowly. Head and forequarter raised on lame side as 
 forefoot comes to the ground but drops on well side. Caution : Do not 
 mistake this for lameness behind because of the depression in the 
 opposite hind hip. 
 
 In Both Forefeet. 
 
 When Standing. Both forefeet kept in advance of the body, horse 
 resting on heels; hind legs held well under body; changes position 
 often ; shoulders held upright and stiff ; head held high ; loins arched ; 
 hind feet held well under the body." 
 
 When Trotting Slowly. Takes short steps and puts feet down care- 
 fully. 
 
 In One Hind Leg. 
 
 When Standing. Lame foot held in advance. (Indicates soreness low 
 
 down). 
 
 When Trotting Slowly. Lame hip raised higher than opposite one; 
 
 lame foot put down carefully. 
 
 In Stifle. 
 
 When Trotting Slowly. Drags toe. 
 
 In Hip. 
 
 When Trotting Slowly. Drags leg on lame side and trots out of align- 
 ment. 
 
 In Both Hind Quarters. 
 
 When Standing. Forefeet well under the body. 
 When Backing. Backs up with difficulty. 
 
 In Both Legs on Same Side. 
 
 When Trotting Slowly. Never trots squarely, ambles instead ; drops 
 heavily on well side. 
 
 Deep Seated. 
 
 No pain, heat or swelling discovered by handling and moving. 
 
138 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 BLEMISHES POSSIBLE ON A HORSE. 
 
 1. Short ear. 34. 
 
 2. Drooping ear. 35. 
 
 3. Pus from nose. 36. 
 
 4. Saliva caused by wound. 37. 
 
 5. Loose lip partially paralyzed. 38. 
 6-8. Fistula of jaw. 39. 
 
 7. Salivary fistula. 40. 
 
 9. Blind eye. 
 
 10. Bony tumor. 41. 
 
 11. Ewe neck. 42. 
 
 12. Goitre. 43. 
 
 13. Enlarged jugular vein. 44. 
 
 14. Swelling of paroted gland. 45. 
 
 15. Poll evil. 46. 
 
 16. Itch or mange. 47. 
 
 17. Fistula from improper bleeding. 48. 
 
 18. Farcy. 49. 
 
 19. Swelling of breast glands. 50. 
 
 20. Abscess. 51. 
 
 21. Enlarged fetlock joint. 52. 
 
 22. Ridge in hoof. 53. 
 
 23. Poorly formed pastern. 54. 
 
 24. Ox foot. 55. 
 
 i 
 
 25. Quarter crack. 56. 
 
 26. Gall on fetlock joint. 57. 
 
 27. Thickened tendons. 58. 
 
 28. Splint. 59. 
 
 29. Enlargement of the knee. 60. 
 
 30. Mud fever. 61. 
 
 31. Stilt foot. 62. 
 
 32. Contracted hoof. 63. 
 
 33. Inflamed skin on knee called 64. 
 
 Mallenders. 
 
 Shoe boil. 
 
 Flank or ventral hernia. 
 
 Stifle lameness. 
 
 Farcy buds. 
 
 Bog spavin. 
 
 Bone spavin. 
 
 Inflamed skin on hock joint 
 
 called Sallenders. 
 Navel rupture. 
 Inguinal hernia. 
 Bursal enlargement. 
 Rings on hoof. 
 Sand crack. 
 Small thigh. 
 Capped hock. 
 Thoroughpin. 
 Blood spavin. 
 Curb. 
 
 Wind galls. 
 Big leg. 
 Quittor. 
 Flat foot. 
 Grease heel. 
 
 Hair off tail called Rat-tail. 
 Drooping rump. 
 Wasting of muscles. 
 Pointed hip. . 
 Eel back. 
 Saddle gall. 
 Sway back. 
 Fistulous withers. 
 Saddle gall. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 
 
 GENERAL SYMPTOMS. 
 
 Abdomen sensitive to pressure; pain continuous in bowels; high fever; pulse 
 hard and rapid; horse hates to lie down and before doing so stands with 
 feet together, legs partially bent and hesitates before going down. 
 Inflammation of the Bowels, Page 163. 
 
 Afterbirth is detached within a few hours after foaling. Removing Placenta. 
 
 Appetite changeable ; hair rough ; signs of ill health ; passage of worms. 
 Intestinal Worms, Page 167. 
 
 Appetite gone; sluggishness; pawing now and then; general uneasiness. 
 Indigestion, Page 167. 
 
 Breathing difficult; perspiring freely; trembles violently if forced to go; 
 staggers and seems unconscious until he falls ; attack usually occurs when 
 the horse is exercising soon after feeding. Stomach Staggers, Page 177. 
 
 Breathing labored ; nostrils standing open because of double hitch in breath- 
 ing; often a deep moist cough and frequent discharges from the nose; 
 cannot work hard without stopping frequently to breathe. Heaves, 
 Page 167. 
 
 Breathing quickened ; cough ; chill followed by a fever which increases grad- 
 ually; rapid pulse; rattling sound in the lungs detected by putting the 
 ear to the chest. Pneumonia, Page 171. 
 
 Belly. Swelling of before foaling. Dropsy, Page 163. 
 
 Bleeding from cracks and chaps on back part of pastern in cold weather; 
 hollow of pastern is swollen. Scratches, Page 175. 
 
 Bone broken and displaced; part cannot be used; a grating sound can be 
 heard when the bone is moved; the broken bone may be felt; pain and 
 swelling. Fractures, Page Page 166. 
 
 Bones of head becoming larger and lighter; face full and round; later the 
 legs are affected and there is some inflammation. Big Head, Page 153. 
 
 Bowels move often and pass a thin, watery manure. Diarrhea, Page 162. 
 
 Breathing with a roaring or whistling sound. Roaring, Page 173. 
 
 Bunch. Bony bunch usually on side of joint; severe lameness; pastern joint 
 swollen, heated, tender. Ringbone, Page 173. 
 
 Bunch on back of hock following some inflammation of part ; sometimes 
 lameness. Curb, Page 162. 
 
 Cavity in the flesh from which issues pus for a long time ; does not heal 
 readily. Fistula, Page 163. 
 
 Chill followed by fever; great pain; pulse full and hard; movement difficult 
 and stiff; walks on heels. Founder, Page 164. 
 
 139 
 
140 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Chills followed by fever; the glands inside of the leg are swollen and sore; 
 manipulation of leg causes pain; leg enlarged. Big Leg, Page 153. 
 
 Chill followed by fever ; pulse full and rapid ; short, dry, husky cough ; bowels 
 constipated. Bronchitis, Page 159. 
 
 Chill followed by fever which increases gradually for a time ; quickened breath- 
 ing; rapid pulse; cough; rattling sound in the lungs which can be de- 
 tected by placing the ear to the chest. Pneumonia, Page 171. 
 
 Coffin-joint is not bent when walking and horse points the affected foot out 
 while standing; lameness that may be worse when exercised; stands 
 on toes when possible; excessive pressure produces pain. Coffin-joint. 
 
 Consciousness lost ; stops ; pants violently ; falls ; breathes slow ; pulse weak ; 
 heart beats irregular. Sunstroke, Page 179. 
 
 Cough ; chill followed by a fever which increases gradually ; quickened breath- 
 ing; rapid pulse; rattling sound in the lungs detected by putting the ear 
 to the chest. Pneumonia, Page 171. 
 
 Cough dry, short and husky; pulse full and rapid; chill followed by fever; 
 bowels constipated. Bronchitis, Page 159. 
 
 Cough. Often a deep moist cough and frequent discharges from the nose; 
 horse cannot work hard without stopping frequently to breathe ; labored 
 breathing; nostrils standing open because of double hitch in breathing. 
 Heaves, Page 167. 
 
 Coughing ; throat swollen ; some fever ; swallowing difficult ; water runs out 
 through the nose when drinking. Sore Throat, Page 175. 
 
 Crack in the wall of the hoof extending downward or upward; severe lame- 
 ness. Quarter Crack, Page 172. 
 
 Cracks and chaps extend in all directions on back of pastern ; hollow of 
 pastern is swollen ; red and tender ; bleeding in cold weather. Scratches, 
 Page 175. 
 
 Discharge from the nose that is thin and colorless becoming thicker and 
 darker as the disease progresses; pimples on the lining of the nostrils; 
 glands under the jaw large and tender; general weakness. Glanders, 
 Page 166. 
 
 Discharge of foul smelling pus from crack in horny frog of foot; hoof dry; 
 heel feverish ; tenderness and lameness more noticeable when foot hits 
 hard object. Thrush, Page 180. 
 
 Discharge of pus from a cavity in the flesh often continuing for long periods ; 
 does not heal easily. Fistula, Page 163. 
 
 Discharges of a whitish slimy nature that give off an offensive odor ; signs of 
 general debility. Whites, Page 180. 
 
 Discharge that is thick from eyes; eyes Ted; throat sore; high fever; con- 
 stipation; weakness; poor appetite; head hangs; watery discharge from 
 lining of nose. Pink Eye, Page 171. 
 
 Dry, scanty and hard manure; mild colicy pains which may become severe 
 if condition is not relieved. Constipation, Page 161. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 141 
 
 Dull and listless appearance of animal; loss of appetite; fever; eyes watery 
 and discharge from nostrils; throat usually swells and an abscess forms 
 under lower jaw. Distemper, Page 162. 
 
 Ears and legs of mare are cold ; some fever ; bowels constipated ; secretion of 
 milk small ; may be some inflammation of the udder. Milk Fever, Page 
 93. 
 
 Eating impossible; jaw muscles firmly contracted; stiff muscles hard; sweats 
 profusely; head elevated; nose protrudes; easily excited; "haw" drawn 
 across corner of eye ; usually stands. Lockjaw, Page 169. 
 
 Eating with difficulty; spitting food out; holding head to one side; slobber- 
 ing when drinking; loss of flesh; swelling on side of face or under lower 
 jaw; pus often discharges from swelling. Abnormal Teeth. 
 
 Elbow has swelling that is soft and flabby and contains a watery fluid. 
 It increases in size and .becomes hot and tender. Shoe Boil, Page 175. 
 
 Eye. "Haw" drawn across corner of eye ; head elevated ; sweats profusely ; 
 muscles of body hard and stiff ; jaw held shut ; cannot eat ; nose protrudes ; 
 easily excited ; horse usually stands. Lockjaw, Page 169. 
 
 Eyes inflamed and have thick discharge ; head hangs ; loss of appetite ; weak- 
 ness ; constipation ; high fever ; watery discharge from lining of nose ; sore 
 throat. Pink Eye, 'Page 171. 
 
 Eyes red and inflamed ; lids swollen sometimes ; profuse discharge of tears and 
 mucus ; strong light irritating. Sore Eyes, Page 96. 
 
 Eyes watery and discharge from nostrils ; animal dull and listless ; poor appe- 
 tite; fever; throat usually swells and an abscess forms under lower jaw. 
 Distemper, Page 162. 
 
 Face of horse full and round; bones of head larger and lighter than usual; 
 later the legs are affected and there may be some inflammation. Big 
 Head, Page 153. 
 
 Falling insensible after stopping; throwing head up; acting stupid; reeling 
 and staggering; soon gets up as if nothing had happened; sometimes 
 horse only stops, gives a few convulsive movements of his head and 
 shivers. Blind Staggers, 'Page 158. 
 
 Fetlock-joint held forward past its normal position. Knuckling, Page 169. 
 
 Fever high ; pulse hard and rapid ; pain continuous in bowels ; flank is sensi- 
 tive to pressure ; horse hates to lie down and before doing so stands with 
 his feet together ; legs partially bent and hesitates before going down. 
 Inflammation of the Bowels, Page 163. 
 
 Flank. Horse looks toward flank; pain moderate but continuous; lies down 
 often or stands stretched out as if to urinate. Indigestion, Page 167. 
 
 Flank if pressed causes horse to flinch; pain continuous in bowels; high 
 fever; pulse hard and rapid; horse hates to lie down and before doing so 
 stands with his feet together, legs partially bent and hesitates before 
 going down. Inflammation of the Bowels, "Page 163. 
 
142 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Food spit out when eating; eating with difficulty; holding head to one 
 
 side; slobbering when drinking; loss of flesh; swelling on side of face 
 
 or under lower jaw; pus often discharged from swelling. Abnormal 
 
 Teeth. 
 Foot pointed out when standing; coffin-joint is not bent when walking; 
 
 lameness that is worse when exercised; stands on toes when possible; 
 
 excessive pressure produces pain. Coffin-joint Lameness. 
 Going down of hind parts ; perspiration profuse ; muscles trembling, swollen 
 
 and stiff; hind quarters lame and stiff; difficulty in moving; urine dark in 
 
 color; animal makes unsuccessful efforts to get up. Azoturia, Page 
 
 152. 
 Hair comes off in patches; skin rough and scaly; severe itching. Usually 
 
 affects head and neck first. Mange, Page 170. 
 Hair rough ; appetite changeable ; signs of ill health ; passage of worms. 
 
 Intestinal Worms, Page 167. 
 Hard, dry and scanty manure ; mild colicy pains which may become severe if 
 
 condition is not relieved. Constipation, 'Page 161. 
 Head elevated; sweats profusely; muscles of body hard and stiff; jaw held 
 
 shut ; cannot eat ; nose protrudes ; easily excited ; "haw" drawn across 
 
 corner of eye ; horse usually stands. Lockjaw, Page 169. 
 Head full and round ; bones of head larger and lighter than usual. Later the 
 
 legs are affected and there is some inflammation. Big Head, Page 153. 
 Head hangs; loss of appetite; weakness; constipation; eyes become very 
 
 red with a thick discharge; high fever; water discharge from lining of 
 
 nose; sore throat. Pink Eye, Page 171. 
 Head held to one side; eating with difficulty; spitting out food; slobbering 
 
 when drinking; loss of flesh; swelling on side of face or under lower 
 
 jaw; pus often discharged from swelling. Abnormal Teeth. 
 Head has a painless swelling on top of it at first ; later there is some pain and 
 
 the swelling is full of pus; there is a feverish condition of the parts. 
 
 Poll Evil, Page 172. 
 Head thrown up ; horse stops, seems stupid ; staggers ; reels ; may fall down 
 
 for a few minutes insensible and then get up, shake himself and act 
 
 as if nothing had happened; at other times the horse stops and only gives 
 
 a few convulsive movements of the head and shivers. Blind Staggers, 
 
 Page 152. 
 Head turned toward flank; pawing; severe pain coming on suddenly, letting 
 
 up then returning; breathing rapid. Spasmodic Colic, Page 176. 
 Heart beats irregular ; consciousness lost ; horse stops ; pants violently ; 
 
 falls; breathes slowly; pulse weak. Sunstroke, Page 179. 
 Heat. Coming in heat again is proof that mare has aborted. In early 
 
 months there is usually no warning before an abortion has taken place. 
 
 Abortion, Page 152. 
 Heels walked on; chill followed by fever; great pain; pulse full and hard; 
 
 movement difficult and stiff. Founder, Page 164. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 143 
 
 Hock is inflamed on back side and a bunch soon forms in seat of inflamma- 
 tion ; sometimes lameness. Curb, Page 162. 
 
 Hock joint has a puffy swelling on front part. Bog Spavin, Page 158. 
 
 Hind-leg jerked up spasmodically when horse walks. Stringhalt, Page 178. 
 
 Hindquarters lame and stiff; trembling of the muscles; profuse perspiration; 
 difficulty in moving; often hind parts go down before horse can be moved 
 to stable ; muscles swollen and rigid ; animal makes unsuccessful efforts 
 to get up ; urine dark in color. Azoturia, "Page 152. 
 
 Inflammation at back part of hock followed by a bunch on the part; some- 
 times lameness. Curb, Page 162. 
 
 Itching severely ; skin rough and scaly ; hair comes off in patches. Usually 
 affects the head and neck first. Mange, Page 170. 
 
 Jaw held shut by firmly contracted muscles; impossible to eat; sweats pro- 
 fusely ; muscles hard ; head elevated ; nose protrudes ; easily excited ; 
 "haw" drawn across corner of eye ; horse usually stands. Lockjaw, 
 Page 169. 
 
 Joint at the fetlock held forward past its normal position. Knuckling, Page 
 169. 
 
 Joint swollen following a wound on the leg in which there is a slippery fluid ; 
 joint inflamed; horse becomes very lame; fever; loss of appetite; intense 
 pain ; as the inflammation increases the fluid becomes darker and may 
 contain pus. Open Joint, Page 170. 
 
 Knuckling forward at fetlock-joint throwing the joint forward past its nor- 
 mal position. Knuckling, Page 169. 
 
 Lameness and some inflammation at back part of hock, followed by a bunch or 
 thickening of the part. Curb, 'Page 162. 
 
 Lameness, and tenderness, more noticeable when foot hits a hard object; 
 slight discharge of foul smelling pus from crack in horny frog; hoof 
 dry ; heel feverish. Thrush, Page 180. 
 
 Lameness improving with exercise ; soreness and small swelling just at 
 the bottom and inside the hock joint towards the front; holds foot for- 
 ward bending hock joint when standing. Bone Spavin, Page 158. 
 
 Lameness severe at first ; pus discharged over top of hoof. Gravel. 
 
 Lameness, severe; crack in the wall of the hoof extending downward or 
 upward. Quarter Crack, Page 172. 
 
 Lameness severe especially when on hard roads; leg held loose when stand- 
 ing; dark spot found where corn is located. This spot generally con- 
 tains pus and causes pain when pushed. Corns, Page 161. 
 Lameness severe; pastern joint swollen, heated, tender; bony bunch' usually 
 
 on side of joint. Ringbone, Page 173. 
 Lameness sometimes; small swelling on inside of fore leg. Splint, Page 
 
 176. 
 
 Lameness that is worse when exercised ; coffin-joint is not bent when walking; 
 stands on toes when possible; excessive pressure produces pain; points 
 affected foot out when standing. Coffin-joint Lameness. 
 Leg enlarged; glands inside of the leg swollen and sore; manipulation of 
 leg causes pain ; chills followed by fever. Big Leg, Page 153. 
 
144 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Leg held loose when standing; lameness severe especially when on hard 
 roads; dark spot found where corn is located. This spot generally con- 
 tains pus and causes pain when pressed. Corns, Page 161. 
 
 Leg. Hind leg usually drags; swelling little below stifle-joint; muscles 
 appear cramped. Stifled, 'Page 177. 
 
 Legs and ears of mare are cold; some fever; bowels constipated; secretion 
 of milk small ; may be some inflammation of the udder. Milk Fever, 
 Page 93. 
 
 Leg swollen on inside just below the knee ; an abscess may form. Bruised 
 Knee. 
 
 Looking toward flank; pain moderate but continuous; lies down often or 
 stands stretched out as if to urinate. Indigestion, Page 167. 
 
 Manure scanty, hard and dry; mild colicy pains which may become severe 
 when condition is not relieved. Constipation, Page 161. 
 
 Manure thin and watery; bowels move often. Diarrhea, Page 162. 
 
 Milk secretion small; ears and legs cold; some fever; bowels constipated; 
 may be some inflammation of the udder. Milk Fever, Page 93. 
 
 Mouth inflamed; discharge of saliva; sometimes frothy; tongue swollen 
 sometimes ; eating difficult. Sore Mouth, Page 96. 
 
 Mouth slavers; swallowing frequently attempted; neck arched; often makes 
 peculiar noise. Choking, "Page 80. 
 
 Moves hind quarters with difficulty; nose often turned towards flank; high 
 fever; colicky pains; frequent and scanty passage of urine that is dark 
 and thick. Inflammation of the Kidneys, Page 167. 
 
 Mucus. Profuse discharge of tears and mucus from eyes; eyes red and 
 inflamed; lids swollen sometimes; strong light irritating. Sore Eyes, 
 Page 96. 
 
 Muscles appear cramped ; lump or swelling little below stifle-joint ; hind leg 
 usually drags. Stifled, Page 177. 
 
 Muscles of body hard and stiff ; jaw held shut ; cannot eat ; sweats pro- 
 fusely; head elevated; nose protrudes; easily excited; "haw" drawn 
 across corner of eye ; horse usually stands. Lockjaw, Page 169. 
 
 Muscles of shoulder waste away ; skin seems to grow to bone ; muscles on 
 outside of shoulder blade seem to disappear. Sweeny, Page 179. 
 
 Neck arched; mouth slavers; swallowing frequently attempted; often makes 
 peculiar noise. Choking, Page 80. 
 
 Nose has thin colorless discharge becoming thicker and darker as the disease 
 progresses ; pimples on the lining of the nostrils ; glands under j;aw large 
 and tender; general weakness. Glanders, Page 166. 
 
 Nose has watery discharge from its lining; eyes inflamed and have thick 
 discharge; head hangs; poor appetite; weakness; constipation; high 
 fever; sore throat. Pink Eye, Page 171. 
 
 Nose often turned towards flank ; moves hind quarters with diffic ulty ; high 
 fever; colicky pains, frequent and scanty passage of urine that is dark 
 and thick. Inflammation of the Kidneys, Page 167. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 145 
 
 Nose turned toward flank ; severe pain coming on suddenly, breathing rapid ; 
 
 pain stops for a short time but soon returns. Spasmodic Colic, Page 
 
 176. 
 Pain coming on suddenly ; severe pain ; turns nose toward flank, and paws ; 
 
 breathing rapid; pain stops for a short time but soon returns. Spas- 
 modic Colic, Page 176. 
 Pain continuous in bowels ; fever high ; pulse hard and rapid ; horse hates to lie 
 
 down and before doing so stands with feet together, legs partially bent 
 
 and hesitates before going down; sensitive to pressure on abdomen. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bowels, Page 163. 
 Pain great; chill followed by fever; pulse full and hard; movement difficult 
 
 and stiff; walks on heels. Founder, Page 164. 
 Pain suffered by horse; looks toward flank; lies down often or stands 
 
 stretched out as if to urinate; pain moderate but continuous. Indiges- 
 tion, Page 167. 
 Pains which assume a colicky nature; moves hind quarters with difficulty; 
 
 nose often turned towards flank; high fever; frequent passage of urine 
 
 that is dark and thick. Nephritis, Page 170. 
 Panting violently; stopping; loses consciousness; falls; breathing slow; 
 
 pulse weak; heart beats irregular. Sunstroke, Page 179. 
 Paralysis of different parts. Paralysis, Page 170. 
 Part cannot be used ; displacement of broken bone ; a grating sound can 
 
 be heard when the bone is moved; the broken bone may be felt; much 
 
 pain and swelling. Fractures, Page 166. 
 Pastern. Hollow of pastern is swollen, red and tender ; cracks and chaps 
 
 extend in all directions and often bleed in cold weather. Scratches, 
 
 Page 175. 
 Pastern-joint swollen; heated, painful; severe lameness; bony bunch usually 
 
 on the side of the joint. Ringworm, Page 95. 
 Pains which appear colicy and may be severe if condition is not relieved; 
 
 manure scanty, hard and dry. Constipation, Page 161. 
 Patches of hair come off; skin rough and scaly; severe itching. Usually 
 
 affects head and neck first. Mange, Page 170. 
 Pawing and turning nose toward flank; severe pain coming on suddenly; 
 
 breathing rapid ; pain stops for a short time but soon returns. Spasmodic 
 
 Colic, Page 176. 
 
 Pawing now and then ; sluggishness ; no appetite ; general uneasiness. In- 
 digestion, Page 167. 
 Perspiration profuse ; muscles trembling, swollen and stiff ; hind quarters lame 
 
 and stiff; difficulty in moving; urine dark in color; often hind parts go 
 
 down before horse can be moved to stable; animal makes unsuccessful 
 
 efforts to get up. Azoturia, Page 152. 
 Perspiring freely; breathing difficult; trembles violently; if forced to go 
 
 staggers and seems unconscious until he falls; attack usually occurs 
 
 when the horse is exercised soon after feeding. Stomach Staggers, Page 
 
 177. 
 
146 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Pimples on the lining of the nostrils ; nose has thin colorless discharge 
 
 becoming thicker and darker as the disease progresses; glands under jaw 
 
 large and tender; general weakness. Glanders, Page 166. 
 Puffy swelling on front part of hock joint. Bog Spavin, Page 158. 
 Puffy swelling on inside and outside of leg just in front of large tendons. 
 
 By pressure the joint oil is forced from side to side Thoroughpin, Page 
 
 180. 
 Puffy swelling on leg, usually on the outside just above the fetlock-joint. 
 
 Wind Puffs, Page 181. 
 Pulse full and rapid ; chill followed' by fever ; short, dry, husky cough ; 
 
 bowels constipated. Bronchitis, Page 159. 
 Pus discharged from a cavity in the flesh for long periods ; does not heal 
 
 readily. Fistula, Page 163. 
 Pus discharged from crack in horny frog of foot; pus foul smelling; hoof 
 
 dry; heel feverish; tenderness and lameness more noticeable when foot 
 
 hits hard object. Thrush, Page 180. 
 Pus found in a dark spot on hoof; affected leg held loose when standing; 
 
 lameness severe especially when on hard roads. The dark spot usually 
 
 contains pus and causes pain when touched. Corns, Page 161. 
 Pus discharged over top of hoof; severe lameness. Gravel. 
 Rapid and full pulse; chill followed by fever; short, dry and husky cough; 
 
 bowels constipated. Bronchitis, Page 159. 
 Rattling sound in the lungs detected by putting the ear to the chest ; cough ; 
 
 chill followed by a fever which gradually increases ; quickened breath- 
 ing; rapid pulse. Pneumonia, Page 171. 
 Reeling; head thrown up; seems stupid; staggers; may fall insensible and 
 
 then get up as though nothing had happened ; sometimes horse only 
 
 stops, gives a few convulsive movements of his head and shivers. 
 
 Blind Staggers, Page 152. 
 Roaring or whistling sound with each inspiration of air, especially when 
 
 exercised. Roaring, Page 173. 
 Running sore that does not heal easily ; discharge of pus often continues for 
 
 long periods; cavity in the flesh. Fistula, Page 163. 
 Saliva discharge from mouth ; saliva is sometimes frothy ; eating difficult ; 
 
 mouth inflamed ; tongue sometimes swollen. Sore Mouth, 'Page 96. 
 Saliva runs from mouth ; swallowing frequently attempted ; neck arched ; 
 
 often makes peculiar noises. Choking, Page 80. 
 Shivering after stopping and giving a few convulsive movements of the 
 
 head; in severe cases horse stops, throws head up, acts stupid, staggers, 
 
 reels and may fall insensible only to get up in a few moments as though 
 
 nothing had happened. Blind Staggers, Page 152. 
 Shoulder muscles wasting away ; skin seems to grow fast to the bone ; 
 
 muscles on outside of shoulder blade seem to disappear. Sweeny, Page 
 
 179. 
 Skin over shoulder blade seems to grow fast to bone ; muscles of shoulder 
 
 waste away and seem to disappear. Sweeny, Page 179. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 147 
 
 S'kin rough and scaly; severe itching; hair comes off in patches. Usually 
 
 affects head and neck first. Mange, Page 170. 
 Slimy, whitish discharge of an offensive nature; signs of general debility. 
 
 Whites, Page 180. 
 
 Slobbering when drinking; head held to one side; eating with difficulty; 
 spitting out food ; loss of flesh ; swelling on face or under lower jaw : 
 pus often discharged from swelling. Abnormal Teeth. 
 
 Sluggishness; no appetite; pawing now and then; general uneasiness. 
 Indigestion, Page 167. 
 
 Soreness and sniall swelling just at the bottom and inside the hock-joint 
 
 towards the front ; lameness improving with exercise ; holds foot forward, 
 
 bending hock-joint when standing. Bone Spavin, Page 158. 
 Sound. Grating sound can be heard when part is moved ; the broken bone 
 
 may be felt; pain and swelling; bone broken and displaced; part cannot 
 
 be used. Fractures, Page 166. 
 Spot that is dark and usually contains pus found on hoof; pressure on spot 
 
 causes pain; affected leg held loose when standing; lameness severe 
 
 especially when on hard roads. Corns, Page 161. 
 Spot that is tender found by pressure on sole of foot, frog or heel ; lameness ; 
 
 removing shoe and finding no nail, prick or corn. Stone Bruise, Page 
 
 177. 
 Sprains of ligaments and muscles. Sprains of Ligaments and Muscles, 
 
 Page 176. 
 Staggers ; head thrown up ; seems stupid ; reels ; may fall insensible and 
 
 then get up as though nothing had happened; sometimes horse only 
 
 stops, gives a few convulsive movements of his head and shivers. 
 
 Blind Staggers, Page 152. 
 Stiff and difficult movement; walks on heels; chill followed by fever; great, 
 
 pain ; pulse full and hard. Founder, Page 164. 
 Stopping of horse; head thrown up; seems stupid; staggers; reels; may fall 
 
 insensible and then get up as though nothing had happened; sometimes 
 
 horse only stops, gives a few convulsive movements of his head and 
 
 shivers. Blind Staggers, P'age 152. 
 Stopping; panting violently; losing consciousness; falling; breathing slow; 
 
 pulse weak; heart beats irregular. Sunstroke, Page 179. 
 Stupid actions of horse; head thrown up; stops; staggers; reels; may 
 
 fall insensible and then get up as though nothing had happened; some- 
 times horse only stops, gives a few convulsive movements of his head 
 
 and shivers. Blind Staggers, Page 152. 
 Swallowing attempted frequently ; saliva runs from mouth ; neck arched ; 
 
 often makes peculiar noise. Choking, Page 80. 
 Swallowing difficult; when drinking some of the water runs out through 
 
 the nose; throat usually swollen; some fever; coughing. Sore Throat, 
 
 Page 175. 
 
148 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Sweats profusely; muscles of body nard and stiff; jaw held shut; cannot 
 eat; head elevated; nose protrudes; easily excited; "haw" drawn across 
 corner of eye ; horse usually stands. Lockjaw, Page 169. 
 
 Swelling just below the knee and on the inside of the leg; an abscess 
 may form. Bruised Knee. 
 
 Swelling just below stifle joint; muscles appear cramped; drags stifled leg. 
 Stifled, Page 177. 
 
 Swelling on face or under lower jaw; pus often discharged from swelling; 
 slobbering when drinking; head held to one side; eating with difficulty; 
 spitting out food; loss of flesh. Abnormal Teeth. 
 
 Swelling on the elbow that is soft and flabby and contains a watery fluid. 
 It increases in size and becomes hot and tender. Shoe Boil, Page 
 175. 
 
 Swelling on top of head at first; later there is some pain and the swelling 
 is full of pus ; feverish condition of the parts. Poll Evil, Page 172. 
 
 Swelling, small and sore just at the bottom and inside the hock- joint 
 toward the front ; lameness improving with exercise ; holds foot for- 
 ward bending hock-joint when standing. Bone Spavin, Page 158. 
 
 Swelling that is puffy and feels as if it contained air; usually on the outside 
 of the leg just above the fetlock-joint. Wind Puffs, Page 181. 
 
 Swelling that is puffy on inside and outside of leg just in front of large ten- 
 dons. By pressure the joint oil is forced from side to side. Thorough- 
 pin, Page 180. 
 
 Swelling that is puffy on the front of hock-joint. Bog Spavin, Page 158. 
 
 Swelling that is small on inside of foreleg; sometimes lameness. Splint', 
 Page 176. 
 
 Swollen glands inside of the leg; leg enlarged; manipulation of leg causes 
 pain; chills followed by fever. Big Leg, Page 153. 
 
 Swollen in hollow of pastern ; swelling red and tender ; cracks and chaps 
 extend in all directions and often bleed in cold weather. Scratches, Page 
 175. 
 
 Swollen and inflamed joint following a wound on the leg in which there 
 is a slippery fluid; horse becomes very lame; fever; loss of appetite; 
 intense pain; as inflammation increases the fluid becomes darker and 
 may contain pus. Open Joint, P'age 170. 
 
 Tears. Profuse discharge of tears and mucus from eyes; eyes red and 
 inflamed; lids swollen sometimes; strong light irritating. Sore Eyes, 
 Page 96. 
 
 Tender and hot swelling on the elbow; it is also soft and flabby and con- 
 tains a watery fluid. Shoe Boil, Page 175. 
 
 Tenderness and lameness of foot more noticeable when foot hits hard object ; 
 slight discharge of foul smelling ptis from crack in horny frog; hoof 
 dry, heel feverish. Thrush, Page 180. 
 
 Tender spot found on sole of foot, frog or heel by pressure; more or less 
 lameness ; removing the shoe and finding no nail prick or corn. Stone 
 Bruise, Page 177 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 
 
 149 
 
 Throat sore; high fever; constipation; weakness; poor appetite; head hangs; 
 
 watery discharge from lining of nose ; eyes become very red with a 
 
 thick discharge. Pink Eye, Page 171. 
 Throat swollen; some fever; coughing; water runs out through the nose while 
 
 drinking; swallowing difficult. Sore Throat, Page 175. 
 Tongue swollen sometimes; mouth inflamed; discharge of saliva; sometimes 
 
 frothy ; eating difficult. Sore Mouth, Page 96. 
 
 /'. 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 C. 
 D. 
 E. 
 F. 
 G. 
 H. 
 I. 
 
 K.' 
 L. 
 M. 
 N. 
 O. 
 P. 
 
 Q- 
 R. 
 S. 
 T. 
 U. 
 V. 
 X. 
 Y. 
 
 Bony Structure of the Horse. 
 
 Lower jaw. Z. 
 
 Head. a. 
 
 Atlas. b. 
 
 Axis. . c. 
 
 The remaining five cervical vertebrae. d. 
 
 Spinous processes of the back and withers. e. 
 
 Lumbar vertebrae. f- 
 
 Sacrum. 
 
 Tail bones. 2. 
 
 Shoulder blade. 4. 
 
 Arm bone. 5. 
 
 Bones of the fore arm. 6. 
 
 Large cannon bone. 9. 
 
 Knee bones. 11- 
 
 Small cannon bone. 
 
 Lower pastern bone. 
 
 Sesamoid bones. 14. 
 
 Pastern bone. 
 
 Coffin bone. 
 
 Ribs. 
 
 Pelvis. 
 
 Thigh bone (femur). 
 
 Stifle bone (patella). 
 
 Leg bones (tibia and fibula). 
 
 Hock bone (tarsal). 
 
 Large cannon bone (metatarsal). 
 
 Upper pastern bone. 
 
 Sesamoid bones. 
 
 Lower pastern bone. 
 
 Coffin bone. 
 
 Neck ligaments (ligamentum nuchas). 
 
 Cranium. 
 
 Orbital cavity. 
 
 Incisor teeth. 
 
 Molar teeth. 
 
 Shoulder joint. 
 
 Cartilage of prolongation. 
 
 Rib cartilages. 
 
 Elbow bone (ulna). 
 
 Point of hip. 
 
 Point of croup. 
 
 Ischiurn. 
 
 Hip joint. 
 
 Stifle joint. 
 
 Stifle bone. 
 
 Calcaneum. 
 
 Cuboid. 
 
150 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Trembling of muscles; hind quarters lame and stiff; profuse perspiration; 
 difficulty in moving; urine dark in color; often hind parts go down 
 before horse can be moved to stable ; muscles swollen and rigid ; animal 
 makes unsuccessful efforts to get up. Azoturia, Page 152. 
 
 Trembling violently; perspiring freely; breathing difficult; if forced to go 
 staggers and seems unconscious until he falls; attack usually occurs 
 when the horse is exercising soon after feeding. Stomach Staggers, 
 Page 177. 
 
 Urine. Frequent and scanty passage of urine that is dark and thick; horse 
 moves hind quarters with difficulty; often turns his nose toward his 
 flank; high fever; collicky pains. Inflammation of the Kidneys, Page 
 167. 
 
 Water runs out through the nose when drinking ; swallowing difficult ; throat 
 
 swollen; some fever; coughing. Sore Throat, Page 175. 
 
 Whistling or roaring sound with each inspiration of air, especially when ex- 
 ercised. Roaring, Page 173. 
 
 Whitish and slimy discharges of an offensive nature ; signs of general debility. 
 Whites, Page 180. 
 
 Worms passed in manure ; hair rough ; appetite changeable ; signs of ill health. 
 Intestinal Worms, Page 167. 
 
 Wound on leg in which there is a slippery fluid. Soon the joint becomes 
 swollen and inflamed; horse becomes very lame; fever; loss of appetite; 
 intense pain; as the inflammation becomes more severe the fluid be- 
 comes darker colored and may contain pus. Open Joint, Page 170. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES 
 
 151 
 
 iiillJiJiJiiiii 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 Abortion. 
 
 This is the expulsion of the embryo colt. It is caused by inflammation 
 of the bowels, kidneys, bladder or lungs. Blows from other animals, over- 
 work, or falls are also causes. 
 
 Symptoms. Coming in heat early, straining, neighing, swelling of the 
 vulva, flanks falling in, pawing and kicking are indications of abortion. 
 
 Treatment. Prevention is most practical. Prevent the above named 
 causes. Feed properly, avoid constipation, bloating from frozen foods, etc. 
 
 Azoturia. 
 
 This is a disease of the liver and blood-forming functions. It is usually 
 caused by overfeeding during the lighter working periods which do not give 
 enough exercise to carry off the food. It attacks the horse shortly after being 
 taken from the stable, or onto the road. It causes partial paralysis of the hind- 
 quarters. 
 
 Symptoms. In mild cases this affection sometimes appears as lameness 
 in one limb. In severe cases the horse suddenly loses the spirit of starting out. 
 Dullness, heavy flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face and marked trembling are 
 visible. Muscles of loins swell, horse moves stiffly, sweats profusely, drops 
 behind and soon falls. When the horse falls it is usually hard for him to recover. 
 
 Treatment. Here, also, prevention is best. Watch your stock. Regu- 
 late the feed. Let the animal get enjoyment from eating. Most animals as well 
 as human beings will over-eat. Exercise regularly or turn out into the pasture 
 every day. 
 
 In severe cases give 5 drams of aloes, followed by 4 drams of bromide of 
 potassium which may be given again in o hours. This quiets the horse. 
 
 Hot fomentations such as blankets rung out of hot water placed on loins or 
 small of the back eases the spinal cord, muscles, liver and kidneys and help the 
 kidneys to act. 
 
 Barrenness. 
 
 This is a condition in mares which prevents conception. It often causes 
 great loss where one can use the colts to good advantage. The condition should 
 be eliminated if possible as it often injures both mare and stud, also decreases 
 the number of mares that can be successfully served in a neighborhood. The 
 causes are over acidity and abnormal conditions of the womb. Inversions, re- 
 version and closed womb are causes which necessitate a veterinarian. In case 
 of over acidity use the remedy given below. 
 
 Treatment. Take one cake of bread yeast and dissolve in one pint of 
 boiled lukewarm water. First flush the vagina with boiled water, then with clean, 
 well oiled hands (rubbed with sweet or olive oil) and smooth finger-nails, insert 
 
 152 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 153 
 
 hand into womb gently dilating it with the fingers. About three to six hours be- 
 fore serving the mare, inject the yeast mixture. This is the most successful 
 method used by breeders. 
 
 Big Head. 
 
 This is a disease of the bones in the head and causes them to become soft 
 and porous. There is an enlarged, swollen condition of the head from which 
 the disease gets its name. It affects all types of horses, mules, etc., and is found 
 under all conditions. No cause is known, but the idea is, that it is a condition 
 due to microbes. 
 
 Symptoms. The beginning of the disease is not noticeable. Hock lame- 
 ness, rheumatism, and straining of the back are indications. Loss of vitality, ir- 
 regular appetite and stumbling often occur. Balls of food drop from mouth into 
 manger when the bones become badly porous. The disease spreads to other parts 
 of the body. 
 
 Treatment. A veterinarian is the one to perform the lesions oftentimes 
 necessary. The animal should be given a change of conditions ; take to high al- 
 titude if possible. 
 
 At the beginning of the disease acid lime to the drinking water. One peck 
 of lime slaked in a keg of water is satisfactory and inexpensive. 
 
 Give a tablespoon ful of powdered bone meal with each feed and give free 
 access to plenty of rock salt, also give foods which are rich in mineral salts, such 
 as : oats, beans, cottonseed meal, etc. 
 
 Big Leg. 
 
 This is shown by many different names, but the actual disease is a swollen 
 inflamed condition of the leg usually affecting the two hind legs. Sluggish ani- 
 mals are susceptible also well fed animals in which case it is due to an excess of 
 food elements in the blood. 
 
 Symptoms. Disease starts with a chill ; there is high temperature, rapid 
 hard pulse, quick breathing, uneasiness, bowels constipated, scanty urine, and 
 the horse perspires freely. There is a swelling on the inside of thigh which 
 surrounds the limb arid extends down to the foot. Swelling grows larger and 
 becomes permanent. Hair often comes off. 
 
 Treatment. Bathe parts with hot water and follow with applications 
 of cloths soaked in a solution of hot vinegar and water, equal parts, to which has 
 been added 2 ounces of caustic potash per gallon. Dry thoroughly and bathe with 
 camphorated soap liniment. Put the animal on light diet and give complete rest. 
 
 Blind Staggers. 
 
 This is known by a number of names. It is due to congestion of blood in 
 the vessels of the brain, caused by excessive exertion, extreme heat, stimulants, 
 or by an ill fitting collar stopping blood circulation. Short fat animals usually 
 are the ones affected. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal stops suddenly with eyes staring, with nostrils 
 dilated and shakes the head, or stands quietly braced till he staggers and falls. 
 Convulsive movements and death, as a rule, follow. 
 
154 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES-TREATMENT 
 
 155 
 
 2. Cured Spavin 
 
 a. Young Spavin 
 
156 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 
 
 157 
 
 COCKED ANKLE 
 
 Kcsult of Corn* and Similar 
 Disease* 
 
 Crooked Hind Ug With 
 Cocked Ankle at X 
 
 BLFMISHES THAT CAN BE PREVENTED EASIER THAN THI.Y 
 CAN BE CURED 
 
158 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Remove above causes. A veterinarian should perform any 
 operation necessary. Prevention is the easiest. Allow good movement, check 
 the bowels carefully, give plenty of pure food and water. 
 
 Remove any obstruction of circulation such as a tight collar. If an opera- 
 tion, such as tapping the jugular vein or removing abscesses, is necessary, call a 
 veterinarian. In case the horse becomes unconscious, bathe the head with cold 
 water and rub the legs with strong mustard water. 
 
 Blood Poisoning. 
 
 This is due to the infection of a wound or cut. The poison from the affected 
 part is taken up by the blood and carried through the system. 
 
 Symptoms. If the case has progressed far the symptoms are very 
 marked. The animal is feverish, will not eat, breathes rapidly, and oftentimes it 
 is delirious. 
 
 Blood Poisoning. Bad Case of Internal Poisoning. 
 
 Treatment. This trouble can mostly be prevented by the proper and 
 immediate care of all wounds, no matter how slight. The wound should be 
 washed out with some good antiseptic solution such as hydrogen peroxide. Clean 
 it out thoroughly. 
 
 Kerosene is also good to pour on the part, or wash it with carbolic acid water, 
 1 part to 30 parts water. Bathe the part with hot water and if on the foot or lower 
 part of the leg, rub the leg well toward the wound and away from the heart. 
 
 Bog Spavin. 
 
 This is a smooth, round tumor just in front and a little inside of the hock 
 joint. Bog Spavin may cause lameness. 
 
 Treatment. Rest is good. Strong liniments and blisters are satisfactory. 
 Early, deep and well performed cauterization by a good ve f erinarian is the most 
 successful. 
 
 Bone Spavin. 
 
 This occurs on the hock joint and may be seen in various parts of it. 
 This is a disease of the bone and tends to enlarge the joint, weakening it and 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 159 
 
 then causing lameness. Sprains and torn ligaments caused by galloping, jumping 
 or hard driving on heavy roads are causes. Any injury to the hock joint may bring 
 it on. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a lameness which is very characteristic of spavin 
 and which is more pronounced when the horse first starts out. After being driven 
 some distance the lameness may disappear. The horse steps on the toe of the 
 affected foot while traveling and mostly stands with the heel of the affected foot 
 resting on the toe of the other foot. 
 
 Treatment. The object is to weld together the diseased parts of the 
 bone. To do this give absolute rest. Apply fomentations of hot water to reduce 
 inflammation. Blisters may be applied with good results. Firing is often effective. 
 
 Bots in a Horse's Stomach and the Gadfly Which Causes Them. 
 
 Bots. 
 
 Caused by gadflies laying eggs on the hair of horses. The horse gets them 
 into his mouth while biting himself and they are taken into the stomach, where 
 they hatch out, attaching themselves to the lining of the stomach where they feed. 
 They cause indigestion and severe inflammation of the stomach resulting in the loss 
 of flesh. A horse badly affected with bots acts something like one with spas- 
 modic colic. It often turns head to side, rolls on ground, rubbing sides. Rubs 
 against stall or posts trying to relieve himself. 
 
 Treatment. Rub him with a rag soaked in kerosene. Also scrape eggs 
 
 off with a knife. , 
 
 Feed horses raw potatoes in feed. This has been found effective by farmers 
 in driving bots from horses. Give the animal one quart of molasses in two quart 
 of "milk, and follow with a good cathartic. 
 
 Bronchitis. 
 
 This is an acute inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When exerted the 
 animal breathes heavily. Often appetite is lost and he becomes debilitated 
 other cases, there is a cough, discharge of whitish matter, and a rattle wnicn 
 
160 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 be heard when the ear is placed against the chest, behind the shoulder blade. The 
 causes are the same as those of a cold and generally starts in the same way. 
 
 Treatment. Rest is necessary. One ounce of Fowler's solution of ar- 
 senic water, three times daily, is good. Mustard application on the chest is ef- 
 fective. Linseed mashes, scalded oats, grass or green fodder is good for food. 
 
 Capped Hock. 
 
 This is a condition caused by horses hitting or rubbing their hocks against 
 the walls or partitions of their stalls. 
 
 Symptoms. A development of a bruise at the point of the hock. At 
 first the swelling is spread, but later becomes like a callous. If pus collects the 
 bones are liable to become diseased. It often causes lameness. 
 
 A Contrivance to Break a Horse of the Habit of Kicking in the Stall. 
 
 Treatment. Sometimes a capped hock indicates a kicking horse. Hang 
 a heavy bag, attached to a rope, directly behind the horse (see illustration). This 
 will break him of kicking. 
 
 If there is inflammation, apply hot water. Most treatments are slow in pro- 
 ducing results. Apply strong tea made from marshmallow leaves. 
 
 A severe blister at the start is go6d. 
 
 Catarrh. 
 
 This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose and throat. It 
 is usually caused by cold or irritation of these membranes. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 161 
 
 Symptoms. Membrane is dry and congested. Then it becomes pink or 
 red, a watery discharge follows, which later becomes thick and pus like. There are 
 also chills followed by fever. The bowels are constipated. 
 
 Treatment. Care should be taken to keep this disease from developing 
 into something worse. Let the horse rest for a time. While feeding pour hot 
 water on the hay. Give feed mashes and linseed gruel. Steam the head by hold- 
 ing pail of hot water to which has been added a tablespoonful of carbolic acid, 
 under the nose. 
 
 Give Y-Z dram of reduced iron, three times a day, mixed with dampened feed. 
 Sprinkle chloride of lime in stall. 
 
 Colic. 
 
 There are several different kinds of colic but the most common are wind 
 and spasmodic colic. It is a painful crampy condition of the bowels caused by 
 some irritant or by undigested food. Frozen foods cause development of gas 
 and a crampy pressure results. The intestinal movements are much like the 
 opening and closing of the hand. 
 
 Symptoms. Restlessness, lying down, turning the head to the side, 
 kicking the belly, sweats, shows severe pain ; all indicate colic. 
 
 Treatment. Baking soda, charcoal, or warm lard (1 quart), any one of 
 which if given at once is good. Charcoal absorbs a thousand times its own weight 
 in gas so a small quantity given immediately often saves much pain and trouble. 
 
 Essence of Jamaica ginger in 2 ounce doses, given in hot water, is effective. 
 
 Constipation. 
 
 This is a "bound up" condition of the bowels- When permitted to go too 
 far, it causes colic which is often very hard to deal with. Colts are very often 
 troubled with this disease. It is due to improper food and feeding. 
 
 Treatment. Always keep horses in good condition by great care and 
 feeding. Prevention is best. Oils are good to give internally. Injections may 
 have to be given to soften .f eces. Use warm soapy water. Light sloppy diets are 
 good. Green foods give relief. As young colts represent potential farm and 
 money values, one must make every effort to save them. 
 
 Corns. 
 
 The forefeet are mostly subject to corns. These are formed on the sole in 
 the angle between the bar and outside wall of the hoof. The color of the affected 
 parts is often darkened by blood escaping from a ruptured blood vessel. The live 
 horn is affected and dry, moist, pus gathering corns are formed. These are caused 
 by contracted heels, long feet, bad shoeing, and excessive knee action in traveling. 
 
 Symptoms. Lameness, restlessness, pawing the bedding behind him, 
 feet advanced, pus or inflammation in affected part. 
 
 Treatment. Always remove cause if possible. Correct the shoeing. 
 Keep the hoof moist by bedding with damp tanbark. Use wet clay, flaxseed 
 
162 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 meal, or a greasy hoof ointment to keep the hoof from becoming hard and dry. 
 The horse may be made to stand with his feet in a box containing any of these. 
 
 Moist corns should be cut out. Inflammation should be poulticed and cold 
 baths applied. If wound looks red, dress with oakum balls saturated in a weak 
 solution of aloes or spirits of camphor. 
 
 If there is pus, open surface for its escape, then inject a weak solution of 
 bichloride of mercury to cleanse the wound. 
 
 Curb. 
 
 This is a bunch on the back part of the hock, where in the normal state there 
 should be a straight line. It is usually caused by a sprain of the tendon or one 
 of its sheaths. Overbent, coarse, or thick hocks are especially subject to curb. 
 
 Symptoms. There is usually a bunch spread over the affected surface, 
 which sometimes develops permanent lameness. Later the bunch diminishes 
 and becomes set. A curb makes the horse unsound. 
 
 Treatment. Cold applications are best at the start. This stops the in- 
 flammation. Later, use pressure of bandages, to reduce the size. Blisters of 
 cantharides and rubbing with iodine ointment are good. Strong applications of 
 a mixture of salt, vinegar, turpentine and eggs are good. Take one ounce each of 
 vinegar and turpentine, % cup of salt, eggs to make a good running fluid. Apply 
 with a rag. 
 
 Horse should have rest and a high heeled shoe on the foot of the affected leg. 
 
 Diarrhea. 
 
 This is due to irritation of the intestines and bowels ; it is caused by eating bad 
 food, by having poor teeth, low, damp pastures and stables. Colds and fast 
 traveling are also causes. Long, rangy horses are subject to diarrhea. The 
 horse suffers pain in the abdomen, has loss of appetite, passes liquid feces, and 
 becomes thin and poor. 
 
 Treatment. It is often simple, for good care and change of feed and 
 water is probably all that is necessary. 
 
 Give a quart of raw linseed oil. Flour and water are good, also starch water. 
 These should be given in a light paste form. 
 
 Distemper. 
 
 This is an infectious disease usually found in young animals. After its ap- 
 pearance, it usually leaves the animal in sound condition, however, it may develop 
 a wind-broken horse. The abscesses most always break on the outside. It is 
 passed directly from one horse to another or indirectly through the discharge being 
 left on the fences, in drinking places or by contaminated air where the affected 
 animals have been. Horses from 3 to 5 years old often get it in being shipped 
 from one locality to another. 
 
 Symptoms. During the coming of the last permanent teeth, the animal 
 is most susceptible to this disease. Horse is sluggish, loses its appetite, its coat 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 163 
 
 becomes dry, legs become cold, eyes and mouth become rosy red, and a discharge 
 is noticeable. 
 
 Treatment. Moistened hay, warm baths and coverings, with proper diet 
 are the most practical. Keep the animal from catching cold as complications set 
 in at that time. Isolate the animal so the other stock may not be exposed. 
 
 During the fever one handful of Glauber's salts, three times a day, is good. 
 Give a tablespoon ful of baking soda several times a day. Steaming the head with 
 tar is quite effective. Do not apply blisters or strong liniments to the throat. 
 A serum can now be obtained from your veterinarian to combat the disease. 
 
 Dropsy. 
 
 This is known by the tissues being distended with a liquid and the skin when 
 pressed, does not fill out but retains the impression. Good food and plenty of 
 exercise is found to give the better results. 
 
 Enteritis. 
 
 This is an-inflammation of the bowels. 
 
 The symptoms are much like those of colic. However, it may be distinguished 
 from colic by the fact that the animal hesitates to lie down. It will often stand 
 with all four feet close together. In colic relief is obtained in pressure on the 
 abdomen, while in enteritis this causes much pain. If there is reason to believe 
 that the disease is enteritis call a good veterinarian at once, as it is very fatal. 
 The pain may be relieved by hypodermic injections. These must be given by the 
 veterinarian. 
 
 Fistula and Poll-Evil. 
 
 This is a disease usually noted by tubes extending from the external wound 
 to an internal defection of cancerous or tumorous nature. The tubes discharge 
 a pus to the outer surface. There may be fistulas in the shoulder, poll or head, 
 and foot. The treatment can be very similar. The disease is caused by abscesses, 
 wounds or bruises, blows from a whip or a club or butting the head or shoulder 
 against a post or building. 
 
 Symptoms. Soreness in front legs often follow an injury. Swollen lines 
 appear on the withers which are painful to the touch. The swelling enlarges 
 and the animal objects to being rubbed or touched at affected spot. When the 
 tumor appears it is well to probe with a stiff doubled wire for the tube or the 
 opening. This may be hard to find until the pus begins to run. 
 
 Treatment. At first applications of cold water are good as a preventive. 
 Later, when the tube is found, flush it clean with warm boiled water. Then 
 tie a small lump of blue vitriol to a cord and gently push it to the bottom of 
 the tube. Leave six inches of string hanging out. As soon as the tube pro- 
 jects a little from the flesh this shows it has been eaten off at the base. 
 
 Pull out the string and the tube, and wash out the cavity with hydrogen 
 peroxide and keep the wound clean. Take good care that no infection enters 
 
164 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 the wound. If there are several tubes, the same treatment applies, as it is the 
 root from which the tubes start that one wishes to eat out with the blue 
 vitriol. 
 
 Before pus forms apply oil of cedar. 
 
 Pour crude oil into the tube several times a week. 
 
 Fistula of long standing. There is considerable 
 inflammation, with hair, skin, and underlying tissues 
 destroyed. 
 
 Founder. 
 
 This disease affects the feet and usually the front feet. In unusual cases 
 all four feet are affected. Founder does not affect any other part of the body. 
 There are many causes for this disease ; hot sand on feet, causing contraction 
 of the hoofs ; giving cold water while warm, or after heavy feeding of grain ; 
 or fast driving. Any injury to the feet is liable to bring it on. 
 
 Symptoms. There are many symptoms, but the main one is loss of 
 power to travel. The horse appears stiff and cramped because he does not 
 want to use his feet. The horse stands with all four feet well under the body 
 which is characteristic of the disease. 
 
 Diarrhea may start and fever appear, rapid perspiration, feet hot and dry 
 and intense pain shown by pressing the hoofs. 
 
 Treatment. Prevention here, as in all diseases where possible, is sug- 
 gested. Proper care and common sense, in the use of an animal gets the best 
 results. Avoid the causes given in the above paragraph. 
 
 Fill a tub partly full of clay and stand the horse with the affected feet in 
 it. Make the clay moist and cool. The feet should be placed in a tub partly 
 full of warm clay or water. After an hour they may be changed to cold sand 
 or water. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 
 
 165 
 
 Along with the foot baths give large doses (four ounces) of saltpeter in 
 a pint of water four times in 24 hours. If the horse Hes down put a good 
 poultice in a sack and tie to each foundered foot. 
 
 A Good Way to Doctor a Horse's Feet. This Treat- 
 ment Should Not Be Overdone. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Great care should be taken especially with tender horses to see that the 
 harness, collar or saddle does not cause sores by friction. A gall is like a 
 water blister at first, and when the skin breaks, the hair, dirt and sweat work- 
 ing into it will cause a bad sore. It is often called a "sit fast." When the 
 callous forms it generally remains as a permanent bunch. 
 
166 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Proper adjustment of the harness and use of good pads will 
 prevent these. Gradual work and good care in the spring will prepare the 
 body for the harder work. 
 
 Cold water rubs, after the saddle or harness is taken off, will prove a fine 
 preventive. 
 
 Two eggs in a pint of witch hazel is fine to rub on the gall. In well 
 developed cases, the tumor can be cut off and treated with good results. 
 
 Fracture. 
 
 This is a break in a bone and is one of the most serious conditions to 
 which an animal may become subject. There are many forms of fracture, and 
 the displacements always call for the service of a good veterinarian. They 
 are generally caused by external violence. 
 
 Symptoms. The most positive symptom is the inability of the horse to 
 use the part. Make a close examination ; if a grating sound is heard, or a 
 bunch appears on the injured part, a fracture has likely taken place. 
 
 Treatment. Call a competent veterinarian to take care of the injury. The 
 rapidity with which a fracture will heal depends on the age of the animal. 
 Old animals with broken limbs had better be shot. Young valuable animals 
 can be rigged up in a sling until the fracture heals. The animal must not be 
 allowed to use the injured part. 
 
 Glanders or Farcy. 
 
 Glanders and Farcy are the same except that Glanders affects the head 
 and Farcy other parts of the body, frequently the hind legs. This disease is 
 very contagious and can be passed from animals to people. It usually results 
 in death to the animal. 
 
 Cattle seem to be rather immune to tne disease. The cause of Glanders 
 is due to a specific virus of this disease being transmitted by direct contact. 
 It is spread by watering troughs, stable men, hitching posts and anything on 
 which has been any of the discharge from the nose of an affected horse. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a sticky, colorless discharge from the nostrils. Also 
 little ulcers appear on the membrane lining of the nostrils. In Farcy little 
 bunches which are' hot and sensitive to the touch appear under the skin. These 
 are usually found on the hind legs. 
 
 Treatment. Most states require the animal to be Killed immediately and 
 allow an indemnity. This is perhaps best, considering its highly contagious 
 nature. Good feeding and tonics sometimes stop the progress but usually the 
 horse will ultimately die because of the disease breaking out again. The cost 
 of a veterinarian is slight compared with .the damage an uncared case can do. 
 All animals dying of this disease should be burned at once, and the stables 
 thoroughly disinfected. 
 
 People who are around animals suffering with this disease must exercise 
 the greatest care as it is extremely infectious and fatal. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 167 
 
 Heaves. 
 
 This is really a continuous affection of the breathing m'uscles which leads 
 to paralysis of them. It is usually found where improper food, such as dry 
 clover, or damaged feed is given. Horses are affected much as people are 
 with asthma. This is not a fatal disease. It could be avoided if young horses 
 were driven correctly and not over driven at the beginning. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a catchy moving in the flanks while breathing, also 
 a grunting cough. Anyone can detect heaves although stramonium, if placed 
 in the mouth, will allay it. The lungs lose their elasticity. Indigestion often 
 accompanies heaves. Be careful in buying a horse that he is not "doped" with 
 certain things which makes it hard to detect the ailment for several hours. 
 
 Treatment. In old cases there is no cure. Wetting the hay and grain 
 relieves it and enables the horse to work more efficiently. 
 
 A tablespoonful of baking soda given to the horse before a drive will 
 enable it to travel well. A diet of chopped carrots, potatoes or turnips is good. 
 Fowler's solution of arsenic, following directions, also gives relief. Give a 
 teaspoonful of oil of tar in a pint of warm water. 
 
 Impure Blood. (See Cattle Department, page 88). 
 
 Indigestion. 
 
 There are two kinds acute or that coming quickly, and chronic, the form 
 developed by continuous irritation. It is usually caused by improper feeding, 
 so prevention is the easiest and most logical thing. Weak digestive organs, 
 improper food, bad teeth, worms, working too soon after feeding, are all 
 causes. 
 
 Symptoms. Irregular appetite, refusing food at times and at other times 
 being greedy, loss of flesh, passed grain, and colicky pains are signs. 
 
 Treatment. Put teeth in good shape. 
 
 For worms give 1 tablespoonful of turpentine. 
 
 Equal parts of ginger, baking soda, and powdered gentian thoroughly 
 mixed. Give one heaping tablespoonful morning and evening before feeding. 
 Dissolve in l / 2 pint of water and give as a drench. 
 
 Digestive Tonic. One heaping tablespoonful of the following well mixed : 
 Glauber's salt, 2 pounds ; common salt, 1 pound ; baking soda, Y* pound. 
 
 Inflammation of the Kidneys. (See Cattle Department, page 89). 
 
 Insects and Snake Bites. (See Cattle Department, page 90). 
 
 Intestinal Worms. 
 
 There are a number of different kinds of worms which infest the diges- 
 tive tract of horses. They are usually more prevalent in the large bowel. 
 They are known as: tapeworms, flukes, roundworms, pinworms, stomach 
 worms and strongyles. They are often passed from the body in bunches. 
 
 Symptoms. Colicky pains, poor appetite, constipation, or diarrhea are 
 indications that a horse has worms. These symptoms with worms in the 
 manure are proof the horse has worms. 
 
1GS 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Worms That Trouble 
 a Horse. 
 
 Intestinal or Round Worms. 
 
 Liver and Lung Worms. 
 
 Pin or Large Intestinal Worms. 
 
 Stomach Worms. 
 
DISEASES ()F HORSES TREATMENT 169 
 
 Treatment. Turpentine is one of the best and simplest remedies. Give 
 one ounce of turpentine and half a pint of linseed oil as a drench. An ounce 
 of tobacco, once each day, for two weeks, is good. For pinworms inject a quart 
 of warm salt water each day. 
 
 Knuckling. 
 
 This is a deformity of the fetlock joint. It is also known as cocked ankle. 
 It is caused by a sprain of the tendon, or from weakness at birth. 
 
 Other diseases of the foot also bring it about. The hind legs arc usually 
 affected since they do the greater amount of work in carrying the body. 
 
 Symptoms. Dislocation or knuckling forward of the bones in the ankle. 
 The heels do not touch the ground in traveling and this develops clubfoot. 
 
 Treatment. It cannot really be cured in its later stages. Line firing is 
 often effective in treating the disease. Complete rest is needed. Proper shoe- 
 ing should be given. A thick heeled shoe will help. If necessary an operation 
 should be performed by a veterinarian. 
 
 Lockjaw. 
 
 This is a disease of the muscles in the face, neck and body. It usually 
 causes spasms. From the fact that this serious and fatal disease is caused by 
 a germ entering the system from the soil through simple nail pricks, deep 
 cuts, and skin bruises, which heal on the surface, one can see the great care 
 necessary. All cuts should be immediately washed with kerosene oil or 
 hydrogen peroxide. Use a small syringe and probe to the bottom of the wound 
 before releasing the liquid. If the wound can be kept open in pure air it is 
 better as the germ thrives best where there is no oxygen. The poison is 
 easily absorbed in the system. 
 
 Symptoms. In acute attacks the animal will die in four or five days. 
 There is difficulty in chewing and swallowing; the "haw" covers the inner 
 part of the eye; jaws become locked and cannot be opened; noises make the 
 animal go into spasms ; the tail is elevated and immovable ; the muscles are 
 rigid. Lockjaw is different from spinal meningitis. 
 
 Treatment. In a serious wound an injection of serum should be given. 
 Have a veterinarian give it. The animal should be isolated so as to be kept 
 quiet. Seven drams of Barbados aloes and two drams of solid extract of 
 belladonna should be given at once. No treatment can be sure. Often the 
 cost of treatment will be more than the animal is worth. 
 
 Loco Disease. 
 
 This is caused by animals eating the loco weed which grows in the great 
 plain region. Their appetite for hay and grass diminishes, and, owing to the 
 scarcity of nutriment in the plant they starve to death. Barium salts are 
 found in the weed and tend to develop an unsound mind. The animal staggers 
 about and finally loses power to travel. 
 
170 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 The animal has fits and delirium. If taken at once, coaxing will often 
 cause the animal to eat mashes and well prepared foods. It should be imme- 
 diately fattened and shipped out of the section. 
 
 Mange. 
 
 Small mites burrow under the skin, especially when dirty, and lay their 
 eggs. These hatch, causing a sore on which a scab is found. The head, mane, 
 tail, and back are affected. Rubbing produces a pleasant feeling to the horse 
 as shown by a stretching of the head and upper lip. 
 
 Treatment. Wash parts well with soap and water, then brush in a solu- 
 tion of lj/2 ounces of tobacco and 2 pints of boiled water. Every 15 days a 
 new brood of mites appear, so continue the application. The harness and 
 stables should be disinfected. A lime and sulphur dip is good. 
 
 Milk Fever. (See Cattle Department, page 93). 
 
 Open Joints. 
 
 An external condition caused by blows, bruises, falls, kicks and other in- 
 juries. Carelessness in use of forks, boards, etc., result in cuts which cause 
 the fluid to escape from the joint. A horse with a stiff leg is not of much 
 value. 
 
 Treatment. Warm fomentations or cold water applications should be 
 applied at once. The joint fluid should be checked so it cannot escape. Im- 
 mediate aid is essential and will save the animal lots of unnecessary pain and 
 suffering. A sling in which to put the horse will be found to relieve the pain 
 caused by standing on the limb. 
 
 Paralysis. 
 
 This is a condition where use of the muscular parts of the body are lost. 
 It may affect part or all of the body. Most cases are caused by some injury 
 to the brain or spinal cord. The causes are pressure or tumors on the brain, 
 or disease of the blood vessels of the brain. General paralysis causes imme- 
 diate death. 
 
 Symptoms. Animal falls ; is powerless to move, and unable to swallow ; 
 tongue hangs out ; tail is curved ; and limbs get cold. 
 
 Treatment. Chloroform liniment may help relieve the local pain. The 
 cause must always be removed. Fly blister or strong liniment should be 
 applied. Internally give 1 dram powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate 
 of strychnine. Some give a teaspoonful of Fowler's solution of arsenic twice 
 a day in water. Light food, good air and clean stables should be had all the 
 time. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 
 Pink Eye or Influenza. 
 
 171 
 
 This in an inflammation which extends over the eye and because of its 
 color named "Pink Eye." Blows from whips, twigs, clubs, or dust, sand, flies 
 or any foreign substance cause this condition. 
 
 Influenza or Pinkeye. Note the Swelling at "X." 
 
 Influenza or Pinkeye. Notice swelling at 
 
 "X." Also note the eye of this 
 
 animal is normal. 
 
 Symptoms. Watering of the eye, swollen lids, pink flush, fever, protrud- 
 ing "haw" and dilated ^upil distinguish the disease. Pus may form and the 
 lid becomes granular. 
 
 Treatment. Remove any cause. Examine thoroughly. Take horse away 
 from any cause of ammonia gas ; keep off dusty roads. Wash eye with warm 
 water mixed with white of egg. Salt solution is a good wash, also dissolve 
 saltpeter in water (1 heaping teaspoonful) twice a day. 
 
 Pneumonia. (See Cattle Department, page 95). 
 
172 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 Poll Evil. 
 
 This disease is similar to fistula and is in fact fistula of the head. It is 
 caused by hitting the head against a low beam or door. (For treatment see 
 Fistula, Page 163). 
 
 Poll Evil. 
 
 Quarter-Crack. 
 
 A fissure in the front wall of the hoof of the hind leg is called a toe-crack. 
 When in the front feet it is called a sand or. quarter-crack. They are caused 
 by dry wall of the hoof, or a change from damp to dry roads, floors, etc. 
 Thick hoofs on small feet are subject to cracks. Heavy nails, improper nail- 
 ing, cankers, quittor or corns with pus cause cracks. 
 
 Symptoms. A fissure is usually the only sign. A discharge often comes 
 from the crack, inflammation is present, also slight lameness. 
 
 Treatment. Prevent enlargement of cracks. Keep the horn of hoof well 
 oiled. Put clasps on fissures. Poulticing the hoof gets it back into good 
 condition. Sometimes a leather "shoe" will keep the sand out. 
 
 Quittor. 
 
 This is a disease of a fistulous nature on the foot which causes pus to 
 form and flesh to slough off. It occurs in both fore and hind feet. The heels 
 and quarters are most liable but the coronet or top of the hoof is also at- 
 tacked. Bruises in which infection develops from mud, foul water, etc., are the 
 widest source of this ailment. Heavy horses with heavy hanging hair on the 
 fetlocks and thick skins are most usually affected. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 173 
 
 Symptoms. Lameness usually precedes the development of a quittor. 
 The opposite leg becomes swollen because of doing work. Thirst increases. 
 A rubbery feeling tumor develops. Pus usually comes from tubes that form 
 in the injury. 
 
 Treatment. Mud and dirty water should be avoided. Wash off the foot 
 with warm water. Cold water should be applied to stop the increase of inflam- 
 mation. Use poultices of linseed meal or boiled turnips. Great care should 
 be taken in dressing the wound and the poultice should be renewed every 
 two days. 
 
 Put wet balls of oakum in a solution of eight drops of bichloride of mer- 
 cury to 2 tablespoonfuls of water and add a few drops of muriatic acid to dis- 
 solve the mercury. 
 
 The tubes after cleaning with boiled water can be flushed out with tinc- 
 ture of iodine. 
 
 Rheumatism. 
 
 This is a disease similar to that of people resulting from practically the 
 same causes and treated in the same way. Damp, cold stables are always 
 likely to develop rheumatism in not only the animal, but also the attendants. 
 It is usually felt in the joints and is a condition which can be considered as 
 one in which the joint fluid is affected. Plenty of exercise, good food and 
 treatment, applications of good liniments to the swollen parts are recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Ringbone. 
 
 Often when a young horse is being trained, a slight bruise may be made 
 near the coronet of the hoof, before the permanent hardening or development 
 of the foot takes place. Much later, a ringlike or bulging surface can be 
 seen. There are high, middle or low ringbones. Interfering while traveling 
 causes many. Short, upright pastern joints are often affected. 
 
 Symptoms. Lameness is the first symptom and there is some heat in 
 the ankle. In traveling, the heel is placed on the ground first. If the ring- 
 bone interferes with the joints or tendons it may cause permanent lameness. 
 
 Treatment. At the beginning, cold applications may stop the disease. 
 Strong blisters may be applied. Firing is often successful. If in lower 
 joints a cure is doubtful. Proper shoeing may help. No animal with ring- 
 bone should be bred as some consider the disease a hereditary one. 
 
 Roaring. 
 
 Usually the left side of the larynx is affected by some object obstructing 
 the breathing apparatus of the horse. Well established cases cause the roar- 
 ing noise when drawing air into the lungs. A paralysis of the muscles is 
 caused by some derangement of the two nerves which supply energy to either 
 side of the throat. Medical treatment is of no use in set cases. The inser- 
 tion by a veterinarian of a whistling tube gives about the best results in the 
 more serious cases. 
 
174 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 175 
 
 Scratches. 
 
 An inflammation of the glands of the skin in the regions of the heels. It 
 is usually the result of improper feeding or overfeeding on grain, or irrita- 
 tion while traveling on slushy, muddy roads. Caustic soap washes, improper 
 bandaging or severe exertion are frequent causes. There are scaly substances 
 on the heels and cracks develop similar to chapping on hands. 
 
 Treatment. Clean the part. Clip the hair close to the skin and apply a 
 warm poultice of bread and milk; repeat in 12 hours. Then cleanse thor- 
 oughly and dust boric acid into the sores. 
 
 A good vaseline or ointment of 1 teaspoonful sugar of lead, carbolic acid, 
 10 drops, and lard is used by many farmers. Pine pitch smeared on parts 
 proves successful. Cover with a cloth. Grease the parts twice a day when 
 the horse is worked. 
 
 Screwworms Or Maggots in Wounds. 
 
 The fly bites the horse and sucks the blood. It lays eggs in wounds, 
 which develop into small maggots that burrow in and cause poisonous devel- 
 opment. This may be stopped by applying kerosene oil to kill them. The 
 kerosene is antiseptic and healing. It acts somewhat as though it seared 
 the wound and causes it to heal from within toward the outer surface, in 
 place of just on the surface leaving a wound that may later develop into a 
 poisonous sore. 
 
 Tobacco juice is a good remedy to give. 
 
 Hickory wood ashes are used by some farmers. 
 
 Shoe Boil. 
 
 Shoe Boil or Capped Klbow 
 
 Kicking with the hind feet or chafing of the belly 
 band of the harness causes a bunch to appear. It may 
 appear on any part of the lower limbs. They have a 
 core which distinguishes them from a common swell- 
 ing. It is similar to both a tumor and an abscess. 
 
 Treatment. These should be cut once across in 
 both directions with a sterilized, sharp, clean knife. 
 A good poultice will often soften the core which can 
 then be pressed out. A mixture of salt and soap is a powerful application to 
 soften and bring it to a head. 
 
 Sore Throat. 
 
 An inflammation of the throat is serious more from the point of the dif- 
 ferent diseases into which it may develop, than of the temporary disease 
 itself. The chief causes are chills and exposure. 
 
 Symptoms. A cough develops and there is difficulty in swallowing. 
 Glands below the ears and between the jaws are swollen. Discharge comes 
 from nostrils and breathing becomes hard. 
 
176 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Steaming the nostrils is advised. Put oil of turpentine 
 in a bucket of hot water and have the animal inhale the fumes. Repeat this 
 treatment frequently. The horse should be fed soft mashes and if possible, 
 fresh grass. Good light liniments should be rubbed from ear to ear on the 
 throat and a short distance from the windpipe. A mixture of kerosene and 
 lard is good. 
 
 Spasmodic Colic. 
 
 The small intestines often become clogged with indigestible food. It 
 is often caused by drinking cold water while the animal is warm; also from 
 cold rains or drafts. 
 
 Symptoms. Spasmodic colic starts suddenly. Horse stamps; looks 
 around to side ; cramps ; shows acute pain ; paws ; rolls ; gets up and down : 
 sweats and only passes a small quantity of urine. Colic is usually quite 
 plain to all horse owners. 
 
 Treatment. Give the animal an injection of 6 quarts warm water which 
 contains ^4 CU P of glycerine. Chloral hydrate is good given one ounce in a 
 pint of water as a drench. Baking soda, 1 tablespoonful in a pint of water 
 absorbs the gas. About 30 drops of tincture of aconite relieves the pain. 
 Walking helps horse to pass the gas. Force must be avoided. Tansy tea has 
 never been known to fail for many farmers who use it. Jamaica ginger in 2 
 ounce doses gives good results. 
 
 Splints. 
 
 This is a bony enlargement on the cannon bone between the knee or hock 
 and the fetlock joint. They are usually found on the inside of the forelegs. 
 It is sometimes the cause of permanent lameness. 
 
 Symptoms. Passing the hand over the limb will usually show presence 
 of small bunch or splint. It is often caused by external hurts. Race horses 
 often twist the leg and cause the small crack, which nature in healing and 
 strengthening, covers with a bony bunch. There is lameness and limb is 
 carried outward from below the knee. There is pain under pressure and 
 usually swelling is shown. 
 
 Treatment. Not much attention is needed in most cases and one is ad- 
 vised against continuously irritating the part. Surgical treatment is usually 
 useless. Iodine applied to the part has given good results. White liniment 
 is used also by many farmers. Eggs, vinegar, and turpentine mixed one 
 ounce each with one or two eggs has been highly recommended. 
 
 Sprains. 
 
 Most ligaments and muscles are subject to external violence and falls, 
 slips, etc., which often causes them to become torn. However, inflammation 
 and loss of use are the usual indications of a sprain. 
 
 Treatment. Local applications, warm fomentation, liniments and blisters 
 are applied. Rest permits the torn section to heal. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 177 
 
 Stifled. 
 
 The stifle or patella in a horse compares to the kneecap in man and is 
 held in place by the muscular tendons passing over the thigh bone. It acts 
 in keeping proper action between the joint bones. Often a horse slips, 
 wrenching the ligaments and muscles holding the patella which slips out of 
 place. Heavy pulling also dislocates it, especially in stumpy land. 
 
 Symptoms. The horse in most cases drags the affected leg on its toe. 
 There is stiffness at the thigh joint. Horse will not back up. When led forward it 
 goes in jumps, dragging the injured leg. 
 
 Treatment. If the dislocation is discovered immediately, a slap with 
 the line or whip will cause the bone to slip back into place. This is not ad- 
 vfoed, however, as it might chip or injure the lining surface of the bone. 
 Backing the horse up against a two foot bank will aid in the replacement. 
 Often the patella can be worked into place with the finger. Placing the 
 collar on the horse then tying a rope to the fetlock and running the rope 
 up through the collar makes a pulley effect which is used by many farmers in 
 treating a stifled horse. The affected leg is strapped forward until it heals. 
 After the bone is snapped back into place a paste of salt and eggs applied 
 to' the joint will contract the muscles and heal the ligaments in a very short 
 time. 
 
 Stone Bruise. 
 
 In traveling, many horses step on sharp stones or get a stone wedged 
 between the shoe and frog. The pressure is severe and causes lameness. 
 The animal may hobble on three legs. Pus forms and poisoning is liable 
 to develop. 
 
 Treatment. Stone should be removed immediately. Shoe should be taken 
 off and the foot placed in cold water, to prevent inflammation. The wound 
 should be well cleaned and poulticed with oakum balls, turpentine, or kero- 
 sene oil. A blacksmith can pad the foot with oakum and a leather-soled 
 
 shoe. 
 
 Stomach Staggers. 
 
 In this disease which results from improper digestion the circulatory 
 system of the horse may be affected. The large colon or stomach becomes 
 packed with unpassed feces. It gradually hardens until death comes. Dry 
 hay or stalks often develop impaction. 
 
 Symptoms. Slight pains come on. The animal keeps its head low. ^ It 
 paws and walks around slowly. Lies down fully stretched out on its side 
 for from fifteen to twenty minutes. Tapping the sides brings solid, deadened 
 sound. The horse often trembles violently. 
 
 Treatment. Immediate movement should be induced. A long hose should 
 be soaped or well oiled and run into the rectum, then warm soapy water 
 should, be gently injected. As this is a serious situation good care must be 
 used. A large cathartic of 1 ounce of powder barbardos, 2 drams calomel and 1 
 dram powdered nux vomica; or 1 pint linseed oil and 15 drops of croton oil, 
 
178 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 are good. After a movement is induced a quart of castor oil will have a heal- 
 ing affect on the bowels which will be extremely sore. Twenty-four hours 
 are usually required for the cathartic to work. Give plenty of water to drink. 
 Rubbing the sides of the horse gently with a soft rag may aid in breaking up 
 the packed material in the bowels and aid the horse in obtaining a passage. 
 Ginger and red pepper are good. 
 
 Stringhalt, 
 
 Stringhalt. 
 
 So many conflicting theories are broadcast about this ailment that an 
 attempt to explain it in detail is useless. It is usually recognized because 
 of the jerking up of the leg. It affects both hind legs but usually only one 
 at a time. Sometimes the downward movement is as hard as the upward. A 
 competent veterinarian will be the judge of what to do. There is no need for 
 a man to attempt the impractical things that may be done. Only those 
 treatments that give known and definite results are the ones for an unskilled 
 man to use on his stock. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 179 
 
 Sunstroke. 
 
 During the hot summer months all horses that work continuously in dry 
 open fields are subject to sunstroke. Heavy horses are the most liable to be 
 affected by the heat. Improper care in watering and feeding induce improper 
 respiration. 
 
 Symptoms. Just before the critical period the driver will notice that he 
 has to urge the animal more than usual to get it to work. Right then is the time 
 to stop in a cool place and rest the animal. If the animal is not stopped in 
 time the perspiration ceases, there is hard breathing, blowing nostrils, stag- 
 gering, and a fall results. When the animal is down it is much harder to aid 
 in recovering. 
 
 Treatment. As stated above, prevention when first symptoms appear 
 obtains the best and surest results. Take the horse to a cool place. Pour 
 cool water on its head and take off the harness. Do not work the animal 
 for several days. A horse that is once affected will always be susceptible 
 to heat, so a few days rest at the right time is well given. Do not bleed. Rubbing 
 the limbs is good. A half ounce of carbonate of ammonia given in a pint 
 of water will be found beneficial. 
 
 Swamp Fever. Notice how animal has fallen away. 
 Little blood is in the system. 
 
 Swamp Fever. 
 
 In parts of Manitoba, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Virginia, Texas 
 and New York, the horses are often badly affected with this disease. It is 
 known by many names and is easily distinguished in these localities because 
 of the sudden onset fever, continuous emaciation, great appetite and stag- 
 gering gait. The mortality is so great that no satisfactory treatment has yet 
 been found. Stimulating the bowels aids the horse and gives much relief. 
 Cold water sponge baths are good. The sick animals should be kept apart and 
 all places where the sick have been should be disinfected with a solution of six 
 ounces of carbolic acid, chloride of lime or compound solution of cresol to a 
 gallon of water. A potato sprayer is good to use in disinfecting. 
 
 Sweeny. 
 
 This is often due to lameness or injuries below the elbow and not always 
 
 o shoulder diseases. There are numerous causes because of the hard work 
 
 carried by the shoulders. Slips, sprains, and soreness are among the causes. 
 
180 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. These are peculiar to this disease alone. The lameness is 
 continuous. Shoulder movement is practically stopped. At rest the leg is 1 
 carried forward. Upon stepping forward the leg is carried in a peculiar man- 
 ner. The shoulder muscles become contracted and withers away. 
 
 Treatment. Rest will tend to give the most relief. Cool applications 
 give results. Good liniments and massaging will start constructive action. 
 Pay close attention that the ailment does not get worse. Feed oats and good 
 hay. Give the animal exercise if it is not lame. 
 
 Thoroughpin. 
 
 This is found at the back and on the top of the hock in the part im- 
 mediately behind the shank bone. It is round and smooth. The swelling is 
 usually on both sides and a little in front of the hamstring. 
 
 Treatment. Blister when found. Soap and salt is good. The famous 
 farmers' liniment of vinegar, turpentine, and eggs, has proven successful. If 
 you wish to get a "white" liniment add ammonia, which will prove bene- 
 ficial. 
 
 Thrush. 
 
 Draft horses often get a bad wound in the cleft of the frog which devel- 
 ops pus. All horses are liable to the disease. Filthy stables and bad, muddy 
 roads cause it. 
 
 Symptoms. Increased moisture in frog and a bad smell. Discharge takes 
 place. There is lameness only in bad cases. 
 
 Treatment. Cleanse thoroughly and remove causes. Pare away the 
 diseased parts. A blacksmith's knife is all right to use, but be careful not 
 to cut too deep. Apply a good poultice of boiled turnips mixed with a hand- 
 ful of powdered charcoal. Some cases are not curable. Proper shoeing will 
 help to relieve the animal. 
 
 Warts. 
 
 Warts or tumors grow many places on the animal's body. Small ones 
 can be cut off with shears and the larger ones with a sharp knife. On 
 broad-surfaced warts a hot iron applied will give good results. Acetic acid 
 applied with the end of a match to the wart will gradually eat it to the sur- 
 face of the skin. Care should be taken to keep from burning the live skin, 
 and hands in applying. 
 
 Whites. 
 
 This is a common disease known also as leucorrhea which consists of a 
 whitish discharge from the womb. It is due to subacute inflammation of the 
 mucous membrane of the womb and is caused by laceration. 
 
 Treatment. Flushing of the womb with warm boiled water should be 
 done first. This should be followed three times a day with an injection of 
 ? teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid ; y 2 dram of tannic acid in one quart of boiled 
 water. Three drams of iron sulphate may be given internally. 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES TREATMENT 181 
 
 Wind Puffs. 
 
 Small sized puffs appear usually on the forelegs in the upper part of the 
 fetlock joint between the tendon and shin bone. Colts are often affected. 
 Horses with small joints and too much knee action are most susceptible. 
 
 Symptoms. When standing on the foot the tumor bunch is hard, but 
 when foot is lifted the bunch is soft. Joint is bent while standing. The 
 animal is often lame. 
 
 Treatment. Resting the young horses tends to drive it away. High- 
 heeled shoes give satisfaction, also cold water applications. Blisters are used 
 by many. Elastic bandages help hold the joints stiff. Iodine often helps 
 to drive them away. 
 
 Wounds. 
 
 In most cases local treatment must be given. Keep the wound clean from 
 flies and infection. Kerosene oil is always handy and should be used. This 
 will heal wound from the inside. Flour will stop bleeding. Cold water will 
 also often stop bleeding. Bandage the inside of a dried puff-ball on the wound 
 to stop bleeding. 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION. 
 
 Their Adaptability. Sheep are adapted and fit nicely into the conditions 
 and systems of agriculture in many sections of the country. On most farms, 
 at least a small flock of sheep would be profitable, if the farm organization and 
 the help to care for them insures proper management. Sheep are valuable 
 for their wool and mutton and for the utilization of lands that ordinarily 
 grow up to brush and weeds or that are not adapted to other classes of stock 
 and other purposes because of their hilly, broken condition. The success of sheep 
 on ranches of the West and on small farms is evidence of their wide range of 
 adaptability. 
 
 Necessary Requirements. While sheep are capable of utilizing many 
 weeds and can live on scanty lands more or less covered with brush, it is a 
 mistake to expect or to think that they will thrive to the extent of being 
 profitable if maintained under such conditions altogether. Thousands of sheep 
 die every year from want of proper feed and shelter and because of improper 
 management. An abundance of feed throughout the year must be provided if 
 one is to expect the best results. Sheep are the most delicate of all classes 
 of farm animals and require the attention of a conscientious and faithful 
 attendant who understands the importance of regularity, gentle and patient 
 treatment, protection from excitement caused by dogs, wild animals and 
 even strangers, and who knows at all times when the flock is thriving properly. 
 Sheep will not do well and cannot be maintained on low, wet ground. Roll- 
 ing, hilly land is well adapted to sheep raising. Land that grows sweet, 
 luxuriant grasses and that is pastured to the extent that the sheep get short, 
 fresh bites, is ideal. 
 
 Sheep can endure cold weather and do not require protection from the 
 cold during the winter unless the ewe flock should be bred to lamb in 
 late winter or early spring when it will be absolutely necessary to have 
 a warm place for ewes and lambs during the lambing season and until the 
 lambs are well started. Sheep must be kept dry and sheds should be constructed 
 in a manner to keep out storms and to prevent the sheep from being subject 
 to winds and cold drafts. Plenty of pure, fresh air is necessary. Cold rains 
 in the spring and fall often do great damage to flocks that have been turned 
 out. Sheep are of a dainty disposition and subject to indigestion and infection 
 by parasites where conditions are not absolutely clean. Pure, fresh water, 
 clean feed boxes, wholesome feeds, pastures that are free from filthy pools and 
 that are rotated to prevent infection from sheep parasites, should be pro- 
 vided and are important requirements for success in the sheep industry. 
 
 Types and Breeds of Sheep. There is a greater variety of distinct types 
 among sheep than any other class of farm animals. In considering sheep 
 from the standpoint of wool production one has a choice of medium or 
 middle wool, long or coarse wool, and short or fine wool types. Breeds 
 
 183 
 
184 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 representing these types will be noted in the tabulation of breeds and their 
 principal characteristics. The variation in the form and thickness of flesh of 
 sheep, produces a range in the size and weight from very spare wool types 
 to very thick and heavy mutton types. The medium or middle wool and 
 the long or coarse wool breeds are naturally of the mutton type. The smaller, 
 fine wool breeds do not excel in mutton production. The larger, fine wool 
 breeds, more especially the Rambouillet, have been improved in mutton form 
 and compare more favorably with other mutton breeds. 
 
 Every animal sold off the farm carries pounds of fertility that must be replaced in some form. 
 
 Choosing a Breed. One's preference can be indulged in the selection 
 of sheep. The character of the land affects its adaptability for sheep of a 
 given size. Smaller breeds will be most satisfactory on hilly lands, while 
 the larger breeds are better adapted and require comparatively level land. 
 Breeds that excel in mutton production are under ordinary conditions re- 
 garded with most general favor. Hot house lambs for Christmas and winter 
 market demand breeds that will mate in summer. The Dorset Horn and 
 Tunis are the two most profitable breeds for this purpose. 
 
 Selection of Ewe Flock. The late summer or early autumn season is 
 when the flock owner culls his flock and prepares the breeding flock that he 
 expects to winter. There is usually a surplus of ewes suitable for breeding 
 and this offers the beginner, or one desiring to increase his flock, the best op- 
 portunity to buy. The owner as well as the buyer of breeding ewes should 
 avoid non-breeding, broken mouthed and diseased ewes. Ewes with injured 
 
SI IKK I' PRODUCTION 
 
 185 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP. 
 
 Type 
 
 Brood 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight of 
 Fleece 
 
 Distinguishing 
 Characteristics 
 
 Fine 
 
 Woolcd 
 
 American 
 Merino 
 
 Spain 
 
 140-175 
 90-125 
 
 15-20 
 12-15 
 
 Nose short, wrinkly, white. Ears 
 white. Skin wrinkled. Rams 
 have heavy spiral - shaped 
 horns, and neavy folds about 
 neck and shoulders. Wool 
 fine, short and dense. 
 
 Delaine 
 
 Merino 
 
 Ohio, 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 140-190 
 100-150 
 
 12-18 
 9-15 
 
 An offshoot of American Merino. 
 Considerably larger and 
 smoother. ' Wool longer. 
 Rams usually have horns, 
 though one strain is without. 
 
 Rambouillet 
 
 France 
 
 150-225 
 125-175 
 
 14-18 
 10-14 
 
 Considerably larger and more 
 rangy than Delaine Merino. 
 Except in size and having 
 fewer wrinkles very similar to 
 American Merino. Popular 
 for crossing with range sheep 
 because of size and hardiness. 
 
 Medium 
 Wooled, 
 Mutton 
 
 Southdown 
 
 England 
 Southdown 
 Hills 
 
 150-175 
 125-140 
 
 5-7 
 
 Face mouse colored. Body very 
 compact. Excellent for mut- 
 ton and for crossing to im- 
 prove mutton type. Smallest 
 of down breeds. Hornless. 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 England, 
 Counties 
 Shropshire 
 and Stafford 
 
 200-225 
 150-160 
 
 12-15 
 9-10 
 
 Face dark brown well covered 
 with wool. A very popular 
 breed, widely distributed be- 
 cause of its general purpose 
 wool and mutton type. Horn- 
 less. 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Hampshire 
 
 225-250 
 175-200 
 
 7-10 
 
 Face very dark brown or black. 
 Ears long and dark. Some- 
 what larger and more rangy 
 than Shropshires. Hornless. 
 
 Medium 
 Wooled, 
 Mutton 
 
 Oxford 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Oxford 
 
 250-350 
 180-275 
 
 6-10 
 5-7 
 
 Face light brown. Breed re- 
 sembles Shropshire slightly 
 but is larger and more massive 
 in frame and features. Wool 
 is longer and more open in 
 fleece. Largest of down 
 breeds. Hornless. 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Suffolk 
 
 200-240 
 175-200 
 
 7-9 
 
 Face and head bare of wool, 
 glossy black ; wool on face not 
 objectionable. Ears long. 
 Resembles Hampshire except 
 for bareness of head. Horn- 
 less. 
 
 Cheviot 
 
 England and 
 Scotland, 
 Cheviot Hills 
 
 200-225 
 150-160 
 
 8-10 
 
 Face and head bare to behind 
 ear, white in color. Very at- 
 tractive. Very hardy and 
 adapted to hilly lands. Usual- 
 ly hornless. 
 
18G 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP (Continued). 
 
 Type 
 
 Breed 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight of 
 Fleece 
 
 Distinguishing 
 Characteristics 
 
 Medium 
 Wooled, 
 Mutton 
 
 Dorset Horn 
 
 England, 
 Central and 
 Southern 
 Part 
 
 215-225 
 150-165 
 
 6-8 
 
 Face white. Both rams and 
 ewes have horns. Head car- 
 ries short foretop of wool. 
 Body somewhat rangy. Pop- 
 ular as an early lamb prcn 
 ducer. 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Africa 
 
 150-175 
 120-150 
 
 6-8 
 
 Face yellow brown or mottled. 
 Ears large and pendulous. 
 Usually hornless. Similar to 
 Dorset Horn in wool and 
 ability to produce winter 
 lambs. 
 
 Long 
 Wooled, 
 Mutton 
 
 Leicester 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Leicester 
 
 225-250 
 175-200 
 
 9-11 
 
 Face and head white, usually 
 bare of wool. Hornless. 
 Smallest of long wooled breeds 
 Fleece long, coarse and lies in 
 fine, spiral locks. 
 
 Cotswold 
 
 England, 
 Cotswold 
 Hills 
 
 250-275 
 200-225 
 
 11-14 
 
 Fancy white, gray or spotted. 
 Nose more or less Roman. 
 Fleece lies in long, coarse 
 rather large pencil-like locks. 
 Hornless. 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Lincoln 
 
 275-300 
 225-250 
 
 12-14 
 
 Face resembles Cotswold in 
 color. Good specimens have 
 short foretop of wool. Larg- 
 est and produces the longest 
 wool of all breeds. 
 
 udders and that are poor milkers are unprofitable for raising lambs and should 
 go to the butcher. The condition of the ewe in late summer usually indicates 
 whether she has raised a lamb successfully and as a rule the thinnest ewes at 
 this season are the best breeders. Never select ewe lambs with the object 
 of breeding them the first fall. 
 
 The Mating Season. The gestation period of the ewe is on the average 
 147 days and on this basis and the time it will be most desirable to have 
 ewes produce their lambs, one should determine when the ram should be 
 turned with the ewes. March and April are desirable months to have lambs 
 born if warm lambing quarters and all conditions are suitable for handling 
 the flock. Early lambs have the advantage of getting more personal attention 
 during the first week of their lives, making an earlier growth, and enabling 
 the farmer to put them onto the market before the bulk of lambs are ready and 
 shipped. 
 
 The care of ewes after lambs are weaned, has much to do with suc- 
 cessfully mating them. Lambs should be carefully weaned so as to leave 
 the ewe's udder in normal condition. To insure best results the ewes should 
 be put in scanty pastures and partly milked by hand the day following, and 
 again at intervals of two, three and five days respectfully, when usually there 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 
 
 187 
 
 is no further necessity of milking them and the udders are in perfect con- 
 dition for the next lambing season. Many ewes fail to raise a lamb because 
 their udders become caked and ruined as a result of weaning the lambs with- 
 out giving attention to them. 
 
 As soon as the ewe flock has been properly dried off and culled, it should 
 be given an opportunity to improve in condition by having access to good 
 pasture supplemented if necessary with special forage crop. Rape of the 
 Dwarf-Essex variety is a good crop to supply extra forage. Pastures may 
 
188 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 be supplemented by feeding oats with cabbage, but these feeds are more 
 expensive. 
 
 The system of improving the condition of the ewe and getting her into 
 strong, vigorous condition is called "flushing," and has the following ad- 
 vantages : 
 
 The lambs produced are usually stronger and more vigorous. 
 
 Ewes are more apt to produce twins and triplets and thus increase the 
 percentage of increase. 
 
 Ewes breed safely within a shorter period of time which accordingly 
 reduces the time that it will be necessary to watch and give special attention 
 to ewes during the lambing season. 
 
 Feeding the Ewe Flock. The ewe flock that is in good condition at mat- 
 ing season can be wintered at a very reasonable cost and on comparatively 
 little grain. A good grade legume hay and roots up to within a few 
 weeks of lambing time, may be all that is necessary. Clover cut in full 
 bloom or alfalfa and other leguminous hays are best. Oat and pea hay, blue 
 Efrass, bright fodder and a fine grade of oat straw may be utilized. Coarse 
 hays like timothy and marsh grass and fodders and hays that are moldy 
 and musty should never be fed. 
 
 For a few weeks prior to lambing time and oftentimes throughout the 
 winter when the roughage is not of the best quality, a mixture of three 
 parts oats and two parts wheat bran, fed at the rate of one-half pound per day, 
 insures good condition and milk flow on the part of the ewes. 
 
 Chopped roots are excellent for ewes where they can be grown at a rea- 
 sonable cost. Good corn silage, free from mold and not too acid, can be 
 fed as a suitable substitute for roots to a good advantage. Ewes accustomed 
 to succulent feed can be safely fed two pounds of roots or silage per head 
 daily. 
 
 After lambing there is danger of milk fever on the part of the ewe 
 during the first three days and grain should be reduced to a very small 
 amount if fed at all. After this danger is over, grain feeding should be 
 resumed and the ration increased to the extent that the ewes thrive well and 
 produce ample milk for their lambs. Seldom is it wise to feed more than 
 two pounds of grain. Keep salt where sheep have free access to it. 
 
 Additional Suggestions on Care of Ewe Flock. Keep the flock exer- 
 cising every day that the weather permits. 
 
 Do not allow ewes to become wet from storms and avoid draughts of cold 
 wind sweeping into their pens. 
 
 Be present to give any assistance necessary at lambing time. 
 
 Treat cases of caked udder by bathing with hot water, drying and apply- 
 ing melted lard or mercurial ointment, repeating this three times a day until 
 relief comes. 
 
 Treat sore teats by applying vaseline frequently. File the teeth of the 
 lamb having the sharp teeth that causes the difficulty. 
 
 Tag ewes to the extent that the wool about the udder does not inter- 
 fere with the lamb. 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 
 
 189 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON SHEEP. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Student's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Age Teeth 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 6 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 24 POINTS 
 Weight .... estimated actual pounds 
 
 according to age 
 
 Form, low, long, symmetrical, compact, and evenly covered 
 with firm flesh . 
 
 
 
 Quality, clean bone 5 silky hair 
 
 
 
 Temperament 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 9 POINTS 
 Muzzle fair size" nostrils large* lips thin; mouth large 
 
 
 
 Eyes full bright 
 
 
 
 Face short bold expression 
 
 
 
 Forehead, broad 
 
 
 
 Ears fine erect . 
 
 
 
 Neck thick short" throat clean 
 
 
 
 FORE QUARTERS 13 POINTS 
 Shoulder Vein full 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 
 Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm full, shank 
 
 
 
 BODY 13 POINTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 17 POINTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tlii oli c full Yt7P*11 flAViPfl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CONSTITUTION 10 POINTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 WOOL 14 POINTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Condition, bright, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 TYi+ol 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture.) 
 
190 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 ft 
 
 8" 
 
 o > 
 
 l 
 
 a!^ 
 <J . 
 '5.Q 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 PQ 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 191 
 
 Shearing the Flock. The season for shearing may be regarded as the 
 flock owner's harvest time. Usually this time is about April 1st or somewhat 
 later. The condition of the weather and opportunities to house and protect 
 sheep that have been shorn, from cold, determines how early one can com- 
 mence the work of shearing. Shearing is sometimes delayed in order to in- 
 crease the weight of the fleece by the additional amount of yolk or oil that 
 accumulates faster in warm weather than it does in winter. Everything 
 considered, this practice does not increase the profits in sheep practice and 
 the best flock owner's aim is to shear as soon as the weather becomes warm to 
 the extent that sheep begin to show signs of being uncomfortable, and one 
 is sure that the weather is riot going to be changeable and unsuitable for 
 sheep that have been shorn. Delaying the time of shearing not only incurs 
 discomfort on the part of sheep, but results in more or less loss of wool that 
 is shed about the legs and underside of the body or that becomes soiled to the 
 extent that it is unmarketable. 
 
 The earliest, quickest and best job of shearing can be done with a 
 shearing machine which is now mostly used. Hand or power machines may 
 be secured and for flocks of considerable size or in neighborhoods where 
 there is considerable shearing to be done it will undoubtedly pay to have 
 a power machine. 
 
 The following precautions are worthy of mention in shearing: 
 
 Handle the sheep as quietly and gently as possible. Struggling is espec- 
 ially bad for pregnant ewes and ewes nursing lambs. 
 
 Keep shears or 'knives sharp and run them as closely to the body as 
 possible. More wool and a better clip for manufacturing purposes is thus 
 secured. 
 
 Avoid cutting the sheep's skin by keeping the skin stretched by the free 
 hand and holding the cutter flat to the body. 
 
 Particular pains should be taken not to cut off the end of the teats of 
 ewes or the end of the vagina. This precaution is important to insure ewes 
 nursing their lambs and to insure their breeding successfully. 
 
 Method of Shearing. Where the machine is used it is considered the best 
 plan to shear on a clean floor. The sheep can be kept in a better balanced 
 position and turned to the several positions that enables the shearing to be 
 most quickly and easily done Shearing, the belly and inner side of the thighs, 
 then the lower side of the neck, the left side of the head and finishing with 
 the right side, is one of the common methods of shearing with the machine. 
 One should develop a system that comes most natural to him and that at 
 the same time accomplishes the work in the quickest time and with as little 
 shifting of the sheep as possible. 
 
 Tying the Fleece. The fleece should be kept intact and not torn apart 
 any more than is necessary in taking it off the sheep and tying it. Buyers 
 prefer to have wool rolled and tied neatly although wool tying boxes are 
 used in many instances. Only twine that is especially prepared for tying 
 wool should be used for the reason that the use of other twine reduces the 
 value of the wool for manufacturing purposes and buyers must take this into 
 
192 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 II 
 
 cj K 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 19U 
 
 consideration in buying a clip of wool. Wet and filthy portions of the fleece 
 and all foreign substances must be separated and kept out of the fleece. Buyers 
 can readily judge the character and value of wool and appreciate an at- 
 tractive clip to the extent that they will pay the top market price for it. Keeping 
 sheep away from straw stacks and protecting them from chaff and burrs of all 
 kinds add much to the value of the clip of wool. 
 
 Rams for the Breeding Flock. A vigorous, pure bred ram of desirable 
 type should be selected early in the season to insure no delay in the mating 
 season. He should not be over fat, but in good condition. For a month prior 
 to and during the mating season, he should be grained in addition to being 
 fed the best of hay and grass pasture. One-half to one pound of grain daily, 
 like oats, bran and peas with perhaps a little oil meal, should keep him in 
 good condition. Mangels, sugar beets and silage should not be fed. 
 
 The ram to be used for service should be a year and a half old at least. 
 It is very undesirable to use a ram lamb and if necessity demands his use, 
 he should not serve more than 8 to 12 ewes, during the season. An older 
 ram can be expected to breed fifty to fifty-five ewes successfully during 
 the mating season. Where the rams run with the flock, it is well to let 
 them run only for the night or for a few hours in the morning. Painting 
 the breast of the ram enables the owner to know what ewes are bred and in 
 pure bred flocks it is well to know the dates that each ewe is bred in order 
 to anticipate the date that she will lamb. Where two or more rams are 
 employed to serve a flock of more than fifty-five ewes, each ram should 
 be given a flock. After there has been an opportunity for all the ewes to 
 have been bred, rotating the rams will overcome failure on the part of any one 
 ram and insure most of the ewes being successfully bred. 
 
 Never hesitate to get the best rams possible. 
 
 Hand coupling is not always practicable, but it conserves the strength 
 of rams and is practiced by many of the best shepherds. 
 
 Allow the ram plenty of exercise at all seasons of the year. 
 
 The ram should have separate quarters from the ewe flock and remain in 
 them except at mating time to avoid his worrying the ewes. 
 
 Rearing Lambs. Little lambs are very dependent upon their mother's 
 and the shepherd's care during the first few weeks of their lives. During this time 
 about all that can be done to encourage their growth is to keep them in dry 
 comfortable quarters and see that they are properly owned and nursed by their 
 mothers. 
 
 Lambs that are not owned can be raised by hand where it is practicable to 
 do so. Oftentimes it is possible to put a lamb with another ewe that has lost 
 its lamb. Skinning the dead lamb and putting the skin on the lamb that is to 
 have the foster mother, is one means employed to encourage a ewe to adopt the 
 strange lamb. 
 
 Where lambs are raised by hand, the milk of a fresh cow testing high in 
 butter fat should be regularly fed and in very small quantities (two to three 
 tablespoonfuls), at intervals of two or three hours for the first few days. 
 Gradually increasing the amount as the lamb seems to thrive, keeping bottle and 
 
194 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
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SHEEP PRODUCTION 
 
 195 
 
 nipple thoroughly cleaned and the milk always heated at 92 degrees F. and never 
 scalded, are precautions that insure success in hand raising the lamb. 
 
 The Lamb Creep. As soon as lambs show indications of eating hay and 
 grain, they should be encouraged to do so by having a separate pen. in one cor- 
 ner of the barn or a convenient place in the field which they can enter by means 
 of the lamb creep. This is made by constructing and setting up a panel consist- 
 ing of two boards six inches wide to which slats three feet long, one inch thick 
 and four inches wide are nailed far enough apart to permit the lambs to crawl 
 through and not the ewes. 
 
 Hampshire Rams. 
 By Courtesy of Sherwood Bros. 
 
 Suitable troughs and racks for grain and hay enable lambs to eat and make 
 much more rapid gains than they otherwise would. Do not make the troughs too 
 deep and it is quite necessary to have a board fitted above the trough in a 
 manner to keep the lambs from getting into it with their feet. This is easily 
 done without interfering with the lambs eating at any time they may choose and 
 saves the grain which they will not eat if soiled in any manner. 
 
 A Suitable Grain Mixture for Lambs. Wheat bran four parts; whole 
 oats two parts; finely ground corn meal two parts ( and oil meal one part, is a 
 good mixture. In warm weather reduce the corn meal and increase the propor- 
 tion of oats. A fine grade of second cutting of clover or alfalfa provides the best 
 roughage. Finely chopped roots when lambs are old enough to eat them and 
 until lambs are put on pasture will be helpful. It pays well to feed lambs grain 
 on pasture and one should bear in mind that the better the lambs are grown the 
 stronger and better the flock will be for breeding as well as for mutton purposes. 
 
196 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Marking Lambs. Every owner of sheep should have some system of 
 marking his sheep and with pure bred lambs it is necessary to keep records of 
 each individual for proper identification. 
 
 The Dana Ear Label is one of the most satisfactory methods of keeping 
 individuals properly identified and these should be inserted the first or second 
 day to insure against mistakes and to do the work most conveniently. 
 
 Castrating and Docking Lambs. With the exception of the lambs that 
 are to be retained for breeding purposes, all buck lambs should be castrated. 
 Buck lambs retained for breeding purposes must be separated from the rest 
 
 Docking a Lamb. 
 
 of the flock at about three to four months of age, and given special care and 
 feed. Allowing lambs to run uncastrated with the flock results in greater 
 losses than perhaps many realize. 
 
 Choosing a bright day when lambs are one to two weeks old, having a pen 
 bedded with clean straw in which to turn lambs, using a disinfectant to insure 
 against infection, cutting off the lower third of the bag, drawing the testicles 
 out quickly with the fingers or a pair of pinchers, and applying some of the 
 disinfectant to the wound, accomplishes the act of castration successfully and 
 without danger of losses. 
 
 All lambs should be docked. It is best to dock ram lambs five to seven 
 days after they have been castrated for the reason that docking and castrating 
 is most too severe a shock for best results. Ewe lambs should be docked at 
 the age of eight to fourteen days. 
 
 Loss of blood is the principal difficulty in docking where methods of cutting 
 the tail off" with a knife or a chisel are employed. This is overcome by the use 
 of the docking iron shown in the accompanying cut and which burns and sears 
 the tail off in a manner to prevent any loss of blood. The shock does not appear 
 greater than that from other methods. 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 197 
 
 Two men must be employed to dock and castrate lambs. With proper ar- 
 rangements the work can be done rapidly and under no circumstances should it 
 be neglected. Docking prevents filth and infection from maggots, saves wool 
 and insures the safe breeding of ewes that otherwise will not be likely to get 
 with lamb. 
 
 Dipping Ewes and Lambs. Sheep require dipping to rid them of ticks 
 and in some instances of lice and other parasites. After the ewes have been 
 shorn, the ticks resort to the lambs. Eight to ten days after shearing when the 
 weather is bright and sufficiently warm, the entire flock should be dipped. Many 
 dip oftener, depending upon the necessity. Sheep should be examined for ticks, 
 especially lambs purchased in the fall for feeding and dipped whenever neces- 
 sary. Ticks will prevent profitable gains in spite of the best rations and feeding 
 quality of lambs. 
 
 Use standard sheep dips following directions submitted with them. Avoid 
 getting the dip into the ears, eyes and mouths of sheep and do not let sheep be- 
 come chilled by remaining out nights or out of doors day times should the 
 weather change and become cold. 
 
 Weaning Lambs. It is best to wean lambs at the age of four and a half 
 to five months. This offers the ewes a chance to regain strength and vitality 
 when the breeding season comes on which is more important than giving the 
 lambs the further benefit of their mother's milk. 
 
 Taking the lambs away from the ewes, turning them into a good pasture 
 some distance removed from their mothers and not allowing them to go back 
 again, is the best plan to follow in weaning. There is a less prolonged worry on 
 the part of lambs and their mothers which is accompanied by better gains to 
 both lambs and ewes. 
 
 Use of Rape. Good pasture at weaning time and later in the fall when 
 ewes and lambs make good use of green feed cannot be assured and it is there- 
 fore, a good practice to have a piece of rape on which lambs can be turned a 
 part of each day or run regularly when they have become accustomed to it 
 
 Bloat in Sheep. When turned on new pasture, sheep are very subject to 
 bloat and should be -watched carefully. Green clover, alfalfa, and rape when 
 wet at a more mature stage, are especially dangerous and should be pastured cau- 
 tiously. Sweet, warm milk is an effective remedy for bloat. One-half pint given 
 with a drenching bottle brings immediate relief if the sheep or lamb is not too 
 far gone to survive from any ordinary treatment. Tapping may be resorted 
 to when other methods fail, but should be the last thing to do to treat sheep 
 for bloat. 
 
 Marketing Lambs. The market for lambs is active from late summer 
 until late spring and should be studied by one having lambs to offer. There are 
 times when there is *a scarcity of lambs on the market and one having lambs in 
 good condition may find these times the best to market. 
 
 Lambs born in the early spring can be made to reach 80 pounds in weight 
 in late summer. This is a most desirable weight for the market providing the 
 lamb is fat and is in a good place to sell at this time to avoid the rush of many 
 lambs that are put into the market a little later. 
 
198 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Lambs that are put onto the market in the fall sell mostly for feeders and 
 at feeder prices and the producer must keep in mind the matter of feeding lib- 
 erally if he hopes to realize the best prices at this season. Grass fed lambs are 
 usually all sold by the middle of December and if a system of feeding can be 
 adopted to have choice lambs ready between this time and the middle of Janu- 
 ary when the winter fed lambs begin to arrive on the market, one can secure 
 good prices. 
 
 Late fed lambs that are ready for the market in April or possibly a little 
 earlier when most of the winter fed lambs have been marketed, have little com- 
 petition and may sell well, although the number of lambs that have been mar- 
 keted previously and the demand, determine the kind of a price one will 
 secure. 
 
 It is a safe rule to market lambs when they are fat and at the most de- 
 sirable weight, providing the market is normal. Avoid putting "half fed" stuff 
 on the market and being obliged to accept low prices paid for it. 
 
 The man having one or more carloads can always sell to a better advantage 
 than the man with a smaller lot. This is true providing he can make up a load 
 of uniform stuff which should always be done to the fullest extent possible. A 
 more uniform appearance may be secured by clipping loose wool and tagging just 
 a little about the tail. Expert buyers do not buy on appearance, but a favorable 
 impression tends to make them more liberal and well marketed loads are an in- 
 spiration to the seller. 
 
 Lambs that are shipped should not be stuffed prior to shipping. Dry feed 
 and a somewhat reduced amount enable them to reach the market in the best 
 condition. Do not crowd the cars, but watch the lambs during shipment to avoid 
 their piling up at one end of the car and becoming smothered. 
 
 Fattening Sheep. Feeding and fattening sheep that have simply been 
 grown and not fed grain to any extent on pasture, has always been an important 
 branch of the sheep industry. Men who thoroughly learn the business maintain 
 feeding stations where large numbers of lambs are purchased in the fall and feti 
 during the winter. The margin between purchase and selling price and the 
 gains in weight, are the source of profit in the business. Farmers who raise 
 their own lambs or buy on the markets and men who have access to suitable 
 sheds at convenient shipping points and near factories that supply refuse like 
 beet pulp, pea vine silage and other refuse possessing feeding value, engage in 
 this line of industry. 
 
 The Feeding Period. Early spring lambs if not fattened on grass pas- 
 ture can be fattened in the fall and marketed in December or January and in 
 some instances earlier. Later lambs are fed twelve to fourteen weeks, depend- 
 ing upon their condition, and marketed in March or April. A feeding period 
 of 100 days should secure a gain of 20 Jo 30 pounds per head and a suitable 
 condition for the market. The market should be studied and the most suitable 
 weights, approximately 80 pounds, provided. , 
 
 Rations Suitable for Fattening 1 . Light, low grade and heavyweight 
 screenings with clover or alfalfa, provide rations on which thousands of sheep 
 
SHEEP PRODUCTION 199 
 
 are fed in the vicinity of large grain elevators. Low grade screenings may be 
 used in starting lambs on feed, but the heavy weight grades are necessary for 
 finishing and are approximately one-third better than the low grade. Approxi- 
 mately one pound of screenings and two pounds of legume hay provide a suita- 
 ble fattening ration when sheep or lambs have been worked onto full feed. 
 
 Under careful management, silage from corn, pea vines, cannery refuse and 
 beet pulp fed at the rate of three to three and one-half pounds daily with one 
 and one-half pounds or more of grain and a small amount of hay, provides a 
 suitable ration. 
 
 Corn, barley and a combination of other concentrates that sheep will relish 
 and that are reasonable in cost, fed in combination with hay, both fed in quanti- 
 ties that sheep will eat without waste and remain on feed constantly, provide 
 suitable rations. 
 
 Helpful Suggestions. Secure all the information possible that will be 
 helpful in buying, feeding and selling intelligently. 
 
 Have pens arranged in a manner to do feeding conveniently and without 
 disturbing the sheep any more than is necessary. Regularity and quietness are 
 highly important factors. 
 
 Bring sheep onto full feed and make any necessary changes in the ration 
 gradually. Provide pure, fresh water and keep salt constantly before them. 
 Do not allow feeding troughs to become filthy. 
 
 Sheep eat and take on gains best in clear, cold weather. To avoid getting 
 them off feed reduce the amount of feed on days that are warm, wet or lowery. 
 Never feed more than sheep clean up readily. 
 
 It is useless to attempt to fatten sheep infested with ticks, lice or scab. 
 They should be dipped before the feeding period begins. 
 
 Fresh air in abundance is necessary. Plenty of shed room should be pro- 
 vided to shelter sheep from storms. Exercise is not conducive to the largest gains 
 and sheep feeding pens are usually provided with only small yards. 
 
 Lambs fed until late in the year may be shorn to good advantage six weeks 
 before they are ready for market. 
 
 Be sure to barricade pens and yards to prevent dogs getting into them. 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP 
 
 GENERAL SYMPTOMS 
 
 Appetite depraved; poor in flesh; debilitated; craving dirt and litter; diarrhea 
 sets in. Stomach Worms, Page 211. 
 
 Bloated, distended abdomen. Bloat, Page 203. 
 
 Bloating ; refusal to eat ; general uneasiness. Colic, 'Page 204. 
 
 Bowels loose; cough husky and dry; some fever; coughing up worms; poor 
 appetite; difficult bieathing. Bronchitis, Page 203. 
 
 Bowels tight ;' passing of hard, dry manure. Constipation, Page 205. 
 
 Breathing difficult ; skin papery ; coughing and strangling fits ; poor in flesh ; 
 often coughing up worms. Lung Worms, 'Page 208. 
 
 Breathing difficult ; worms coughed up ; bowels loose ; husky dry cough ; some 
 fever ; poor appetite. Bronchitis, Page 203. 
 
 Chill followed by fever ; great thirst ; cough ; panting and heaving at the 
 flanks. Pneumonia, Page 209. 
 
 Cough husky and dry ; some fever ; poor appetite ; loose bowels ; coughing up 
 worms ; difficult breathing. Bronchitis, Page 203. 
 
 Coughing and strangling fits ; loss of flesh ; often coughing up worms ; breath- 
 ing difficult ; skin papery. Lung Worms, Page 208. 
 
 Coughing; great thirst; chill followed by fever; panting and heaving at the 
 flanks. Pneumonia, Page 209. 
 
 Delirium; weakness; muscles tremble; gait staggering; swellings on body 
 full of bloody fluid which oozes through the skin ; some cases dying with- 
 out warning. Anthrax, Page 203. 
 
 Diarrhea following a dibilitated condition ; a poorness of flesh and a craving 
 for dirt and litter. Stomach Worms, Page 211. 
 
 Discharge from nostrils; head held low; sometimes difficult breathing. 
 Nasal Gleet, Page 208. 
 
 Discharge of watery nature from eyes and nostrils; sneezing; depression; 
 poor appetite. Catarrh, Page 204. 
 
 Discharge with a foul smell; swollen, tender, hot feet; lameness; in severe 
 cases sheep cannot walk. Foot Rot, Page 207. 
 
 Dull, yellow eyes; general debility; loss of appetite and flesh; wool rough. 
 Nodular Disease, Page 209. 
 
 Dying suddenly without warning; high fever followed by delirium; weak- 
 ness ; muscles tremble ; gait staggering ; swellings on body full of bloody 
 fluid which oozes through the skin. Anthrax, Page 203. 
 
 Eating dirt and litter ; poor in flesh ; depraved appetite ; debilitated ; diarrhea 
 sets in. Stomach Worms, Page 211. 
 
 Eating ; refusal to eat ; some bloating ; general uneasiness. Colic, Page 204. 
 
 Eyes and nostrils have watery discharge; sneezing; depression; poor appe- 
 tite. Catarrh, Page 204. 
 
 200 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP 201 
 
 Eyes dull and yellow; general debility; loss of appetite and flesh; wool 
 
 rough. Nodular Disease, Page 209. 
 Eyes full of tears; eyes kept partly closed; animal avoids the light; parts 
 
 streaked with red. Inflammation of the Eyes, Page 208. 
 Eyes kept partly closed ; full of tears ; sheep avoids light ; parts streaked with 
 
 red. Inflammation of the Eyes, Page 208. 
 Feet tender; hot, swollen; lameness; foul discharge; in severe cases sheep 
 
 cannot walk. Foot Rot, Page 207. 
 Fever; husky, dry cough; poor appetite; loose bowels; coughing up worms; 
 
 suffocating breathing. Bronchitis, Page 203. 
 Flesh poor; dull, yellow eyes; general debility; loss of appetite; wool rough. 
 
 Nodular Disease, Page 209. 
 Head held low; sometimes difficult breathing; discharge from nostrils. Nasal 
 
 Gleet, Page 208. 
 Heaving and panting at the flanks; coughing; great thirst; chill followed by 
 
 fever. Pneumonia, Page 209. 
 Inflamed eyes ; eyes kept partly closed ; full of tears ; streaked with red ; sheep 
 
 avoids light. Inflammation of the Eyes, Page 208. 
 Itching severe ; great uneasiness. Scab, Page 211. 
 Lameness in one or more feet ; parts hot, tender, swollen ; foul discharge ; in 
 
 severe cases sheep cannot walk. Foot Rot, Page 207. 
 Maggots. Maggots from Blow Flies, Page 209. 
 Manure dry and hard ; bowels tight. Constipation, Page 205. 
 Manure thin and watery. Diarrhea, "Page 206. 
 Muscles tremble; fever followed by delirium; weakness; gait staggering; 
 
 swellings on body full of bloody fluid which oozes through the skin; in 
 
 some cases dying without warning. Anthrax, Page 203. 
 
 Nostrils and eyes have a watery discharge; sneezing; depression; poor appe- 
 tite. Catarrh, Page 204. 
 Nostrils have some discharge ; head held low ; sometimes difficult breathing. 
 
 Nasal Gleet, Page 208. 
 Panting and heaving at the flanks; coughing; great thirst; chill followed by 
 
 fever. Pneumonia, Page 209. 
 Poor in flesh ; debilitated ; depraved appetite ; craving dirt and litter ; diarrhea 
 
 sets in. Stomach Worms, Page 211. 
 Poor in flesh ; violent coughing and strangling fits ; often coughing up worms ; 
 
 breathing difficult ; skin papery. Lung Worms, Page 208. 
 Skin papery ; breathing difficult ; coughing and strangling fits ; often coughing 
 
 up worms ; poor in flesh ; breathing difficult. Lung Worms, Page 208. 
 Sneezing; watery discharge from nostrils and eyes; depression; poor appetite. 
 
 Catarrh, Page 204. 
 
 Strangling and coughing fits ; poor in flesh ; often coughing up worms ; breath- 
 ing difficult ; skin papery. Lung Worms, Page 208. 
 Tears run from eyes; animal keeps eyes partly closed and avoids the light; 
 
 parts are streaked with red. Inflammation of the Eyes, Page 208. 
 
202 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Thirst abnormal ; chill followed by fever ; cough ; panting and heaving at the 
 flanks. Pneumonia, Page 209. 
 
 Thirst abnormal ; wool rough ; general debility ; poor appetite ; constipation 
 or diarrhea; manure full of worms' eggs if examined through a micro- 
 scope. Fluke Worms, Page 207. 
 
 Trembling of muscles ; fever followed by delirium ; weakness ; gait stagger- 
 ing; swellings on body full of bloody pus which oozes through the skin; 
 sometimes dying suddenly. Anthrax, Page 203. 
 
 Uneasiness ; refusal to eat ; bloating. Colic, Page 204. 
 
 Watery discharge from nostrils and eyes; sneezing; depression; poor appe- 
 tite. Catarrh, Page 204. 
 
 Weakness; trembling of muscles ; fever followed by delirium; gait staggering; 
 swellings on body full of bloody pus which oozes through the skin ; 
 dying suddenly in some cases. Anthrax, Page 203. 
 
 Wool rough ; general debility ; poor appetite ; great thirst ; diarrhea or con- 
 stipation ; manure full of worms' eggs if examined through a microscope. 
 Fluke Worms, Page 207. 
 
 Wool rough ; loss of flesh and appetite ; dull, yellow eyes ; general debility. 
 Nodular Disease, Page 209. 
 
 Worms coughed up; bowels loose; husky, dry cough; some fever; poor appe- 
 tite ; difficult breathing. Bronchitis, Page 203. 
 
 Worms coughed up ; breathing difficult ; skin papery ; coughing and strangling 
 fits; poor in flesh. Lung Worms, Page 208. 
 
 Yellow, dull eyes ; general debility ; loss of appetite and flesh ; wooi rough. 
 Nodular Disease, Page 209. 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF SHEEP . 
 
 Anthrax. 
 
 This is a malignant, infectious disease to which all domestic animals are 
 subject. Man himself can be infected from animals. It is more common in 
 parts of the West and South. There are great losses in cattle, sheep, and 
 mules. Anthrax is caused by a slender rod-shaped germ and is likely to 
 occur near tanneries, the hides being infected, or in localities where the disease 
 has existed before. It is sometimes contracted by man from infected wool. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms vary. Sometimes the animal appears well 
 and dies suddenly with little or no warning. In other cases there is a more 
 gradual development of the disease, showing high fever which may later de- 
 velop delirium. The animal shows great weakness, the muscles tremble and 
 the walk is staggering. There are often swellings on the body filled with a 
 bloody fluid which oozes through the skin. 
 
 Treatment. Great care should be taken to prevent the spread of the 
 disease. A vaccine has been discovered which is very effective. It can be 
 purchased on the market. Medical treatment is of little value ; however it is 
 well to isolate the animal until sure of the nature of the disease. Change 
 food and water and use disinfectants freely such as coal tar preparations. A 
 dead animal should be buried deeply in lime. Be careful not to get any blood 
 into a scratch on the hand or body. A report should be made to the State 
 Veterinarian. 
 
 Bloat. 
 
 The cause is fermentation of food which causes gas to generate, swells 
 the intestines and develops much pain. 
 
 Symptoms. The most noticeable symptom is the bloated and distended 
 appearance of the abdomen the most prominent part of which is the place to 
 tap. 
 
 Treatment. Burn a slender knife blade in a fire to sterlize it and then 
 use it after clipping the wool. Give one-half pint cow-warm milk ; repeat after 
 thirty minutes if needed. Recommended by Frank Kleinheim, herd shepherd 
 at University Farm, Madison, Wis. Mr. Kleinheim says he has lost but one 
 sheep with bloat in thirty-five years since using this remedy. This is an easy 
 and safe remedy. 
 
 Bronchitis. 
 
 This is an irritation of the bronchial tubes, affecting both lambs and young 
 calves. It develops from wrong treatment while sick, or from eating decayed 
 food. Eggs or flies are laid on the food and hatch into long worms which 
 distribute themselves through the bronchial tubes. 
 
 Symptoms. There is some fever ; a cough ; poor feeding and looseness in 
 
 203 
 
204 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 bowels; worms come out; the coat is dry, and there is trouble in breathing. 
 
 Treatment. Isolate the sheep ; give plenty of vegetables, grass and grain. 
 The usual remedy and most widely used is turpentine poured into the feed 
 or water. One small teaspoonful can be safely used. Linseed or castor oil 
 will also be found good. Feed a few raw potato parings once in awhile. 
 Drench the sheep properly. Coal tar in hot water makes a good solution in 
 which to soak a bag to put over the head for inhaling. Vinegar is good too. 
 Be careful not to strangle the animal. 
 
 Castration. This consists in removing the reproductive organs of the 
 males. Lambs are castrated when about six days old. If possible have 
 someone hold the lamb for you. Cut off quite a share of the lower portion of 
 the pouch, pull out the testicle and cut off the cord. Apply a carbolic acid 
 solution (1 teaspoonful to a cup of water) to the parts and be sure the instru- 
 ments used are free from germs and that the hands are clean. An old ram 
 may bleed to death in a short time after being castrated unless the cord is 
 tied. Catgut, silk or linen thread may be used for this and the thread left on 
 for several days. After castrating dress the wound at least once a day and 
 dip the instruments in an antiseptic solution before using them again. 
 
 Catarrh Influenza. 
 
 Catarrh is really a cold in the head which is chronic and is brought on 
 by catching cold. It may be passed from one animal to another. It usually 
 affects the membranes of the breathing organs. Animals are usually con- 
 stipated. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a watery discharge from the nostrils and eyes; 
 sneezing; depression and loss of appetite. The discharge may become like 
 pus. 
 
 Treatment. Remove to comfortable quarters. Prepare the following 
 drench: Pour one quart of boiling water over two ounces of composition 
 powder; let it stand one hour in a warm place ; pour off the clear liquid and add 
 two ounces of sugar of milk. Give a wineglassfull once or twice a day. 
 Keep the bowels open by feeding vegetables, like carrots, potatoes and turnips. 
 An onion once in a while has been found good by many farmers. Epsom salts 
 in four to six ounce doses will cure influenza when taken early. Give one 
 dose and repeat if necessary. Use all the boric acid a pint of warm water 
 will dissolve and inject while warm into the nostril and throat. 
 
 Colic Stretches. 
 
 Running in a pasture during a cold windy day as well as eating in- 
 digestible food, frozen vegetables and exposure cause colic. 
 
 Symptoms. General uneasiness, refusal to eat and more or less bloating 
 with some rolling and indications of pain show colic. 
 
 Treatment. If the bowels are constipated give four or five ounces of 
 Epsom salts. Hot water with a little camphor or camphor gum added is good. 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP TREATMENT 
 
 205 
 
 Give one teaspoonful each of ginger and baking soda. Dissolve in water and 
 give as a drench. Do not hold the head high in drenching as there is danger 
 of strangling. A teaspoonful of peppermint in a cup of water as a drench has 
 been recommended by many sheep raisers. 
 
 Drenching the Sheep. 
 
 Precaution should be taken in drenching the sheep 
 in order to avoid choking. Note size and shape of 
 bottle and how sheep is held in a manner to allow H 
 swallow naturally. _ , 
 
 Constipation in Lambs or Sheep. 
 
 An injury to the bag may make it necessary to take the milk from it. 
 When this is done there is considerable effect on the unborn lambs and they 
 are predisposed to constipation. Proper feed and care will do a lot toward 
 
206 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 regulating the bowels in the new born lambs. A little sugar in milk and water 
 has been given with good results. 
 
 Treatment. -In lambs empty the lower bowel by the injection of warm 
 soapy water and give a laxative diet or take a small pointed piece of pure 
 white soap about an inch and a half long and after dipping it in sweet oil, in- 
 sert in the rectum, pushing it well in. Give one teaspoonful of sweet oil once 
 or twice a day. 
 
 The same treatment may be given sheep in increased quantities. 
 
 Diarrhea. 
 
 This is usually the result of mismanagement and neglect ; the feeding of 
 indigestible food ; sudden changes of diet, and exposure. In lambs infection 
 from the udder and chilling are common causes. 
 
 Treatment. Diarrhea should not be checked suddenly as it is an effort of 
 nature to rid itself of irritants. Give a change of feed and pure drinking water. 
 If the case is obstinate try any good home remedy for diarrhea. Jamaica 
 ginger following cotton seed oil or an ounce of linseed oil will give good re- 
 sults. A small lamb may be given one tablespoonful of castor oil with good 
 results. This is both healing and cleansing. For a sheep the dose may be 
 increased to one-half teacupful. One dose will probably be sufficient. Milk 
 in which black pepper is mixed is good for diarrhea. 
 
 Docking. 
 
 In the younger lambs the pain is not great especially if cut at a joint. 
 If the skin is drawn tight from the tip of the tail after cutting it will leave 
 an overhanging section of skin that can be tied with a cord. Kerosene 
 oil or turpentine applied to the wound will help it heal rapidly. Lard or eggs 
 can be used as healing applications. 
 
 Dysentery Bloody Flux. 
 
 This disease is usually the result of obstinate and neglected diarrhea, or 
 eating improper food and having continued indigestion. It is nature's method 
 of attempting to throw off some irritating material in the bowels. 
 
 Symptoms. There is fever; extreme debility; rumbling of the bowels; 
 thin discharge mixed with mucus and sometimes streaked with blood, and more 
 or less pain. 
 
 Treatment. Place the animal in comfortable quarters; give light nu- 
 tritious diet such as gruels and mashes for a day or two. Flour and water 
 or milk in a paste form gives very good results. A teaspoonful of Jamaica 
 ginger acts well as a stimulant. Give two or three ounces of castor oil to 
 heal and cleanse the stomach and bowels, and follow up with tonics and a 
 laxative diet. 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP TREATMENT 207 
 
 Fluke Worms. 
 
 All sheep are subject to liver flukes which cause the so-called liver rot 
 They are small flat worms from one-fourth to one-half inch long, and multiply 
 very rapidly where there is stagnant water ; they make their way to the livei 
 and there develop. 
 
 Symptoms. General debility; the wool is rough; the appetite gone; 
 and there is abnormal thirst. There may be diarrhea, or the bowels may be 
 constipated. If the discharges are examined with a microscope they will be 
 found to contain many of the eggs. Swellings appear on parts of the body. 
 
 Treatment. The best treatment is to prevent the disease by removing 
 the animals to high and dry pastures; see that the drinking water is pure. 
 Medicines, except tonics, are of little value in this disease. Give plenty of 
 nutritious food, and feed plenty of rock salt and lump sulphur. Charcoal 
 may be given mixed with a little ginger. 
 
 Foot Rot. 
 
 Foot rot is an inflammation of the horny structure of the foot and skin 
 connections. Exposure in wet pastures ; general debility ; contagion, and 
 filthy surroundings usually develop it. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal is observed to limp. Sometimes the whole four 
 feet are affected. The parts are hot, swollen and tender; there will be a 
 foul discharge of fluid and the animal will soon be unable to walk; death 
 may ensue. 
 
 Treatment. The animal should be isolated; the treatment must be 
 immediate and thorough. Ascertain the cause if possible and remove it. 
 In mild cases a little tar rubbed on will be effective. If the disease has reached 
 a putrid type, clean the foot by washing, or turn the animals into wet grass; 
 remove all loose or superfluous horn. Then wash the parts with a solution made 
 by mixing four ounces pyroligneous acid with three ounces of water. Saturate 
 a piece of cotton with this solution and apply, changing when necessary. If 
 a number of animals are to be treated it can be accomplished more rapidly by 
 standing them for a short time in a wooden trough, which contains one inch 
 depth of the following solution: Linseed oil, two pints; pyroligneous acid, 
 four pints ; kerosene , one pint. Any amount can be made in the above propor- 
 tions. Improve the general condition with the following tonic: one ounce 
 each; powdered sassafras, charcoal and golden seal, one-half ounce sulphur, 
 two drams powdered asafetida, two pounds flaxseed. Mix and give a table- 
 spoonful twice a day in the feed. 
 
 After cleaning the foot carefully saturate the affected parts with turpen- 
 tine, then apply butter of Antimony; bandage the parts and stand on clean, 
 hard floors. This treatment has done much to relieve communities of this 
 disease, especially in low, swampy country. Kerosene oil is fine for sheep with 
 foot rot to walk through. 
 
208 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Grubs in the Head or Nasal Gleet. 
 
 This is a troublesome pest causing discomfort and injury to sheep. Grubs 
 in the nostrils are caused by a small gad-fly which deposits her eggs in the 
 nostrils of the sheep. In a few days the eggs are hatched and the young larvae 
 passes up the nostrils into the nasal cavities, where they develop, causing the 
 sheep much pain and annoyance. The irritation causes the greatest loss. As 
 a disease it is not fatal. 
 
 Symptoms. There is irritation of the nose with some discharge. The 
 sheep holds its head low ; sometimes there is difficulty in breathing. 
 
 Treatment. The best treatment is prevention. Smear the noses of the 
 sheep with common tar, put the sheep in a dusty lane or open field where they 
 can thrust their noses into the dust. This to be done during the hot summer 
 months when the gad-fly bothers the sheep most. Imagine how the sheep must 
 feel bothered with these worms and you will aid in preventing them from get- 
 ting into the head. Sulphur can be burned so it may be inhaled, or a spray of 
 turpentine and kerosene oil will be found very good for removing and killing 
 the little eggs and maggots. A paste of pitch pine applied on the nostrils will 
 be found satisfactory. Salt saturated with tar is used by many farmers. It 
 is placed in troughs where the sheep can get at it. 
 
 Inflammation of the Eyes. 
 
 This trouble affects the lining membranes of the eyelids and eyeball and 
 is caused by sand or little sticks getting into the eye. 
 
 Symptoms. Tears run from the eyes which the animal keeps partly closed 
 and avoids the light. The eyelids and eyeballs are streaked with red and 
 there is pain. 
 
 Treatment. Bathe the eyes with hot or cold water twenty minutes at a 
 time three or four times a day. Separate the animal from the flock. Salt 
 water is one of the best and simplest remedies. A poultice of bread crumbs 
 and mashed potatoes has proven good in many instances. Boracic acid is the 
 usual drug store remedy and is fine as a cleanser. It should be dissolved in 
 water. 
 
 Lung Worms. 
 
 In the lungs of sheep a thread-like worm is found which causes coughing, 
 sneezing and a discharge of mucus from the nose. The same worm infects 
 pigs and calves. 
 
 Symptoms. There is a falling away in flesh ; also violent fits of cough- 
 ing and strangling, often raising mucus which contains the worms. Usually 
 the breathing is difficult and the skin becomes exceedingly papery. 
 
 Treatment. The best preventive treatment is a frequent rotation of 
 pastures, thus preventing any pasture from becoming greatly infested. Isolate 
 the sick sheep and give nourishing, easily digested food. Inject into the wind- 
 pipe a mixture of one part turpentine in two parts olive oil, once a day for 
 three days, using the hypodermic syringe. Or use one-half ounce carbolic acid, 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP TREATMENT 209 
 
 four ounces turpentine and eight ounces olive oil ; mix well and inject into the 
 windpipe by means of a hypodermic syringe once a day for three days. Place 
 the animal on his rump and hold between the knees while inserting the hypo- 
 dermic needle into the windpipe two or three inches below the throat, in- 
 jecting the medicine gradually. 
 
 Maggots From Blow Flies. 
 
 Most of the maggots on animals are caused by the flesh-fly. The adult 
 fly deposits her eggs (larvae) on the surface of wounds or in the wool of 
 sheep where manure and other filth has collected. The larvae, as they de- 
 velop, will work their way into the skin, causing sores. When the tails of 
 lambs are docked, the cut surface must be treated with a proper antiseptic and 
 the lamb watched to guard against the fly. 
 
 Treatment. The essential treatment is cleanliness. Heavy wooled sheep 
 should have all wool cut away from parts where it is liable to become soiled 
 and filthy, especially in the spring before the flies come. In case a wound 
 has been attacked, all dead tissue, and as many of the parasites as possible 
 should be removed. Oil or tar, turpentine and lard or kerosene oil are about 
 the best and handiest remedies for preventing the flies from laying the eggs, 
 and also kills the eggs that have been laid. 
 
 Nodular Disease. 
 
 This disease is caused by a parasitic worm which burrows into the walls 
 of the intestines causing nodules or bunches. The trouble is most common 
 and serious in the South and older sheep are more often affected than lambs. 
 The disease is spread by allowing well sheep to graze on pasture which has 
 been used by diseased sheep. Lambs should be prevented from getting the 
 disease. 
 
 Symptoms. General debility; loss of appetite and flesh; the eyes are 
 dull and yellow and the wool is rough. 
 
 Treatment. No. medicinal treatment is satisfactory in ridding sheep of 
 this trouble. Prevent the lambs from grazing after their mothers if there is 
 suspicion of the disease existing. They may be kept on bare lots and fed green 
 crops from racks, carefully removing all food remaining after each feeding. In 
 this way there is little danger of lambs becoming infected even if the ewes 
 are badly attacked by the parasite. The ewes which are infested may thus be 
 kept for breeding purposes without danger of transmitting the disease to the 
 lambs. 
 
 Pneumonia. 
 
 This is the same in sheep as in all other animals affected with it, and 
 develops from exposure to cold which can in most cases be prevented. The 
 simple diseases are not serious in themselves, but it is what they may develop 
 into that should make one especially careful in prevention. 
 
 Symptoms. A chill, followed by fever, great thirst ; panting and heaving 
 at the flanks; quickened respiration and coughing. 
 
210 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Put the animal in clean dry quarters where there is plenty 
 of fresh air. Place upon the tongue ten drops of fluid extract of gelseminum, 
 
 Sheep With the Scab. 
 
 morning and night. Dissolve one ounce of chlorate of potash in one-half pint 
 of flaxseed tea, and give it daily as a drench until the animal is better. Good 
 hot applications to the chest and lungs are usually recommended. Ten 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP TREATMENT 211 
 
 drops of aconite should be given for the fever. Jamaica ginger (1 teaspoonful) 
 in a glass of milk will warm the patient and ease the pain. 
 
 Scab. 
 
 Scab and mange are somewhat similar and can be treated practically the 
 same. A little insect digs its way under the skin through filth and dirt that 
 has collected. Scabs form and the wool comes off in patches. Low ground and 
 damp stables are bad and sheep should be kept in dry clean pens which 
 can be easily cleaned. 
 
 Symptoms. There is an extreme irritation and itching which causes great 
 uneasiness. Unless the affected animal is isolated this disease will soon spread 
 through the flock as it is very contagious. Rubbing against posts and fences 
 is common. Wherever great patches of wool are seen hanging to posts there 
 is usually this affection among the sheep. 
 
 Treatment. Five or six pounds each of tobacco leaves and sulphur, and 
 25 gallons of water makes a valuable preparation. Scald the tobacco in part 
 of the water and add the sulphur after cooling to a comfortable heat by add- 
 ing cold water. Dip the sheep in this solution while it is warm for about three 
 or four minutes. This dip cannot be used strong enough to kill the eggs of 
 the mite. It is therefore necessary that the sheep be dipped again in about 
 ten days as the eggs will have hatched by that time. In this way the young 
 mites are destroyed. 
 
 A creolin dip or wash is very good. Crude petroleum and sulphur are 
 used by many farmers. Be careful of matches used around the dip. A good 
 double sectioned trough can be made for dipping and draining sheep. The 
 draining section should be elevated somewhat. 
 
 Stomach Worms. 
 
 These are small hair-like worms about three-quarters of an inch long 
 which infest the stomach of sheep, goats and calves, causing a most serious 
 disease. Lambs are more often affected than sheep. Wet seasons or marshy 
 land seem to be the best places for them to infect sheep. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal loses flesh, becomes debilitated; shows a de- 
 praved appetite, craving dirt and litter; a diarrhea sets in which may be 
 serious. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. A good preventive treatment is in a frequent rota- 
 tion of pastures so that none of the pastures will become too thoroughly in- 
 fected. 
 
 The sheep showing signs of this disease should be separated from the rest 
 of the flock. The same treatments given here are good for calves. One 
 teaspoonful of turpentine to a cup of sweet milk is good. One tablespoonful 
 of gasoline in a half cup of milk makes a splendid remedy. Repeat the dose 
 every three days and if there is no improvement at the end of ten days repeat 
 again every three days for two or three treatments. One of our authorities 
 for this is the Ohio Experiment Station, which advocates its use. 
 
212 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Ticks. 
 
 The sheep tick is an insect which does not multiply very rapidly, but 
 which is very troublesome in a flock. The so-called sheep tick is really not 
 a tick but a fly. It is easily killed by any mange cure. 
 
 Treatment. The parasites may be easily exterminated by dipping the 
 sheep in an infusion of tobacco. A preparation for that purpose is now manu- 
 factured, and can be obtained at any drug store with full directions for use. 
 The best time to dip sheep is immediately after shearing, as the solution 
 then readily comes in contact with the ticks. Sifting wood ashes in the wool 
 often drives ticks away. Glover's mange cure is very good. 
 
 Stomach of Sheep. 
 Action of Stomach. 
 
 Stomach of ruminants. 
 
 Stomach of a full'grown sheep, % natural size (after Thanhoffer, from R. Meade 
 Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals) : a, rumen, or first stomach; b, recticulum, or second 
 stomach ; c, omasum, or third stomach ; d, abomasum, or fourth stomach ; e, esophagus, 
 or gullet, opening into the first and second stomachs ; /, opening of fourth stomach into 
 small intestine; g, opening of second stomach into third; h, opening of third stomach into 
 fourth. 
 
 The lines indicate the course of the food in the stomachs. The incompletely 
 masticated food passes down the esophagus, or gullet, into the first and second stomachs, 
 in which a churning motion is kept up, carrying the food from side to side and from 
 stomach to stomach. From the first stomach regurgitation takes place; that is, the food 
 is returned through the gullet to the mouth to be more thoroughly chewed, and this 
 constitutes what is known as "chewing the cud." From the second stomach the food 
 passes into the third, and from the third into the fourth, or true stomach, and from there 
 into the intestines. 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 
 
 The Economy of Pork Production. No other farm animal produces meat 
 more economically than the hog. Pork and pork products are important food 
 articles and hog raising has steadily increased with the country's rapidly 
 growing population. The economy of the hog in converting feed into edible 
 flesh is deserving of consideration by every farmer as well as by everyone 
 concerned in the consumption of food. The well-filled pork barrel and supply 
 of lard, ham and bacon greatly reduce the cost of living. These products are 
 also available to all classes of people at prices that compare favorably with 
 other kinds of meat. 
 
 The hog is a great feeder and not particular in his appetite. He is, there- 
 fore, highly adapted to converting household garbage, unmarketable vege- 
 tables, fruit, grain, grass and numerous forage plants, dairy by-products and 
 even marketable grain into meat and cash. Approximately fifty percent less 
 feed is required by the hog to make a pound of gain than is required by the 
 steer. The hog also dresses 75 to 80 percent of his live weight as compared 
 .with 55 to 65 percent in the case of the steer. Henry and Morrison in "Feeds 
 and Feeding" have summarized data from over 500 feeding trials and show the 
 economy of gains made by pigs ranging from 15 to 350 Ibs. in live weight. In 
 considering the feed eaten, 6 Ibs. of skim milk or 12 Ibs. of whey are rated 
 as equal to 1 Ib. of grain. 
 
 Gestation Period, Frequency and Size of Litters for Brood Sows. The 
 
 average normal period of gestation for the brood sow is 112 days. The period 
 may range from 100 to 108 days for young sows and 112 to 115 days for old 
 ones. Under favorable conditions the sow may be made to raise two litters 
 a year. In such instances the spring litter must be early and weaned at not 
 less than three months of age or else the sow must be bred on the third to 
 seventh day after farrowing. In the latter case the pigs should be weaned in 
 sufficient time to allow the sow to regain strength and properly nourish the 
 unborn pigs of the second litter. Late fall pigs, where winters are rather 
 severe, never do as well as spring pigs and the earlier the second litter can 
 be produced the better. Only where the conditions are suitable for an abun- 
 dance of feed and giving the pigs suitable care is it advisable to try to s raise 
 more than the one litter a season. 
 
 Litters vary in size according to the age, care and condition of the sow 
 and the prolificacy of the family from which she comes. The vigor and 
 potency of the boar is also believed to be a factor in determining the size of 
 litters. Poorly developed boars and those that are overworked during the 
 breeding season, should not be used. Brood sows four to five years old pro- 
 duce larger litters than gilts bred at the age of eight months. Old sows that 
 become heavy and clumsy do not raise as large a percentage of their litters, 
 
 213 
 
214 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 however, as do young sows and one must use judgment in keeping older sows 
 for breeding purposes and exercise greater care to avoid losses at farrowing 
 time. The feed for maintenance, success with which sows naturally mother 
 their pigs, character and size of litter ordinarily produced, value of sow as a 
 pure bred and the amount of time one has to devote to sows at farrowing 
 time, are factors determining whether one shall depend upon holding over 
 sows from year to year for possibly five or six years or depend upon gilts or 
 younger sows for producing litters. 
 
 Relation of Weight of Pigs to Feed Consumed and Rate of Gain. 
 
 Weight of Pigs. 
 
 Actual 
 Average 
 Weight, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Number of 
 Animals 
 Fed. 
 
 Average 
 Feed Eaten 
 per Day, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feed Eaten 
 Daily per 
 100 Ibs. 
 Live Weight 
 Pounds. 
 
 Average 
 Gain 
 per Day, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feed 
 for 100 Ibs. 
 Gain, 
 Pounds. 
 
 15 to 50 
 
 38 
 
 174 
 
 2 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 293 
 
 50 to 100 . . 
 
 78 
 
 417 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 3 
 
 8 
 
 400 
 
 100 to 150 
 
 128 
 
 495 
 
 4.8 
 
 3 8 
 
 1 1 
 
 437 
 
 150 to 200 
 
 174 
 
 489 
 
 5 9 
 
 3 5 
 
 1 2 
 
 482 
 
 200 to 250 . . . 
 
 226 
 
 300 
 
 6 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 1 3 
 
 498 
 
 250 to 300 
 
 271 
 
 223 
 
 7.4 
 
 2 7 
 
 1 5 
 
 511 
 
 300 to 350 
 
 320 
 
 105 
 
 7.5 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 4 
 
 53") 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Types and Breeds of Hogs. The following tabulation briefly states the 
 types, breeds and characteristics of the more prominent breeds of hogs in 
 America. The lard type of hog is by far the more prominent on farms in 
 the United States. In a few instances a premium is paid for choice bacon 
 hogs of the bacon breeds, but the larger supply of bacon in this country is 
 supplied by hogs of proper size and condition selected from the numerous 
 lots of hogs of light character that frequent the packing house centers. 
 
 Hogs of the lard type include the breeds that are short legged and that 
 have deep, broad and thickly fleshed bodies. The flesh is especially thick in 
 the region of the back, hind quarters and shoulders and produces pork chops, 
 hams, shoulders, fat pork and lard in much greater quantities than do the 
 bacon types. The lard type is largely of American origin and is the result of 
 selecting hogs that excel in growing quickly and fattening readily on liberal 
 allowances of feed. Turning them to market at six months of age weighing 
 200 Ibs. is evidence of their early maturing qualities. Hogs of the bacon type 
 have been selected and bred to produce long, deep bodies, comparatively nar- 
 row, and are long legged and long in the head. The flesh over the entire body 
 is thin in comparison with the lard type of hog and produces cuts of pork most 
 excellent in quality and highly adapted for bacon purposes. They make a 
 rapid growth without the tendency and quality of fattening possessed by the 
 lard type of hog. Bacon hogs dress 70 to 75 percent of their live weight as 
 compared with 75 to 85 percent in the case of well developed hogs of the 
 lard type. In certain localities of Canada and the United States, considerable 
 attention has been devoted to the breeding of bacon hogs of the specific bacon 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 
 
 215 
 
216 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 breeds. Only in a few instances are prices paid that warrant specialized 
 breeding and feeding to produce choice bacon, otherwise the bacon breeds 
 would undoubtedly receive greater attention. Under conditions where corn 
 and fattening feeds are not grown successfully or are too expensive for fatten- 
 ing purposes, and where crops and dairy by-products suitable for growing 
 pigs in a thrifty condition are provided, the production of bacon hogs for 
 supplying home cured pork and furnishing the market with a desirable type 
 of bacon hogs may well be encouraged. 
 
 Selection of Breed Important. Under any circumstances or conditions it 
 is profitable to select a distinct breed of hogs and to aim to secure hogs of 
 uniform type, finish and quality. Uniformity in type, size and feeding quality 
 insures to the grower of hogs the best market price. It is often said that the 
 
 Parts of a Hog. 1, Head; 2, Ears; 3, Jowl; 4, Neck; 5, Brisket; 6, Shoulder; 7, Girth 
 around Heart; 8, Back; 9, Sides; 10, Ribs; 11, Loin; 12, Belly; 13, Flank; 14, Ham; 
 15, Tail; 16, Legs. 
 
 hog responds more quickly to good breeding than any other farm animal. 
 The differences in the improved breeds are confined to the shape of the head, 
 carnage of the ear, length and depth of the body and legs, the average size at 
 maturity and the color. It may be said that more depends upon a careful 
 selection of suitable individuals and strains and the painstaking management 
 after one has selected a breed, than upon the breed. The pure bred boar and 
 a herd of good bodied pure bred or grade sows are essentials to success in 
 pork production. 
 
 Selecting the Brood Sow. There is much to be gained in exercising good 
 judgment in the selection of brood sows. High grade or pure bred sows from 
 large, thrifty litters and having the conformation and -qualities of the lard or 
 bacon type, as the case may demand, tends to insure best results. The score 
 cards for hogs of the lard and bacon types will be helpful in giving considera- 
 tion to all the parts that combine to give the most satisfactory conformation 
 and character for sows of these types. 
 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF HOGS. 
 
 Type. 
 
 Breed. 
 
 Nativity. 
 
 Weight at 
 Maturity. 
 
 Distinguishing 
 Characteristics. 
 
 
 Berkshire. 
 
 England, 
 Counties of 
 Berkshire and 
 Wilts. 
 
 Boars, 500 
 Sows.. 400 
 
 Black with white on face, tail 
 and feet. Face well dished. 
 Ears erect, inclining forward. 
 Legs medium to long. 
 
 
 Chester White. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Chester County. 
 
 Boars, 600 
 Sows. .400 
 
 Pure white; bluish-black spots 
 on skin do not disqualify, but 
 are not desirable. Face com- 
 paratively straight. Ears 
 droop forward, breaking over 
 about one-half the tength. 
 Legs medium to short. 
 
 monly noted 
 
 Duroc-Jersey. 
 
 New York, 
 Saratoga 
 County. 
 
 Boars, 600 
 Sows. . 500 
 
 Red, varying from light to dark. 
 Face straight or slightly dish- 
 ed. Ears droop forward, the 
 top third breaking over. Legs 
 short. 
 
 
 Poland-China. 
 
 Ohio, 
 Butler and 
 Warren Counties 
 
 Boars, 
 500 to 700 
 Sows, 
 400 to 500 
 
 Black with white on face, legs 
 and tail; most common and 
 popular. Face straight from 
 eye to nose. Ears fine, outer 
 third breaking over into neat 
 droop. Legs short. Medium 
 and large types exist. 
 
 
 Cheshire. 
 
 New York, 
 Jefferson 
 County. 
 
 400 - 600 
 
 White. Face slightly dished. 
 Ears small and erect. Body 
 and legs inclined to be long. 
 
 
 Essex. 
 
 England, 
 Essex County. 
 
 400 - 500 
 
 Black. Face short, slightly 
 dished. Ears erect. Body 
 inclined to be chunky. 
 
 Lard, not com- 
 
 ijUffOiK. 
 
 England, 
 Suffolk County. 
 
 200 - 300 
 
 Yellowish white. Face short 
 and dished. Ears small and 
 erect. Body chunky. Legs 
 short. 
 
 monly noted 
 
 Small 
 Yorkshire. 
 
 England. 
 
 180 - 200 
 
 White. Face very short and 
 dished. Ears erect. Body 
 chunky and short. Legs 
 short. 
 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 450 - 600 
 
 White. Face medium dished. 
 Ears small and erect. Body 
 broad and deep. Legs mod- 
 erately long. 
 
 
 Hampshire. 
 
 England, 
 County of 
 Hampshire. 
 
 300 - 500 
 
 Black with white band about 
 the body. Face straight and 
 medium long. Ears erect, in- 
 clining forward. Body mod- 
 erate in depth, length and 
 width. Legs comparatively 
 long. 
 
 
 
 England, 
 
 
 White. Face medium long, 
 dished. Ears should be carried 
 
 
 Large 
 Yorkshire. 
 
 Yorkshire and 
 Lancaster 
 Counties. 
 
 600 -1000 
 
 upward, with slight forward 
 droop. Body long and deep. 
 Legs comparatively long. 
 
 
 Tamworth. 
 
 England, 
 Stafford 
 County. 
 
 450 - 600 
 
 Red, varying from light to red. 
 Face long and straight. Ears 
 erect, inclining forward. Body 
 long, deep and narrow. Legs, 
 long. 
 
 217 
 
218 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
SCORE CARD FOR HOGS OF LARD TYPE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Pos- 
 sible 
 score 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stud- 
 ent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 25 POINTS 
 Weight, estimated in Ibs. 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 6 
 4 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 5 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 8 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, 
 compact standing squarely on legs 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quality, bone clean; hair silky; skin soft; head 
 and ears refined, evenly covered with firm 
 flesh . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Disposition, quiet docile 
 
 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 10 POINTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jowl strong neat broad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 15 POINTS 
 
 Shoulder, symmetrical, broad, deep, compact 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Legs, straight, short, feet and pasterns strong . . 
 
 BODY 30 POINTS 
 
 Chest deep broad ' girth large 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Back, broad, slightly arched, thickly and evenly 
 fleshed 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loin thick wide and strong 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belly straight even and firmly fleshed 
 
 
 
 
 
 TTInnlr lrw anrl wpll flpjVipH Birth IflrffP 
 
 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 20 POINTS 
 Hips, wide apart, smooth and well covered 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hams, firm, heavily fleshed, deep and wide. . . . 
 Legs, straight, short; feet and pasterns strong. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TVif ol 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture.) 
 
 219 
 
220 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 a 
 
 v & 
 
 c 
 
 ^ rt 
 
 .b >> 
 
 P> -o s 
 
 o g 2 
 
 w >>f5 
 f^ E 
 
 H I 
 p, 
 
 O *" 
 " 
 
 60 
 
 52 
 
 
SCORE CARD FOR HOGS OF BACON TYPE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Per- 
 fect 
 score 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Points deficient 
 
 Stu- 
 dent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stu- 
 dent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 A. GENERAL APPEARANCE 
 Size, well developed for age 
 
 5 
 10 
 10 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 6 
 3 
 4 
 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 
 8 
 5 
 2 
 
 4 
 6 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Form, long, smooth, all parts proportionately 
 developed > 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quality, hair fine' bone clean and strong; flesh 
 firm and smooth 
 
 
 
 
 
 Condition, well covered with firm flesh, but not 
 heavily loaded with fat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Style, active and sprightly, and standing well 
 
 
 
 
 B. HEAD AND NECK 
 Snout, medium length and moderately fine 
 
 Face, broad between eyes; poll, broad and full . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jowl, fair width and muscular, but very neat . . 
 Ears, mbderately thin and fringed with fine hair . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. FORE QUARTERS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Fore Legs, set well apart; bone clean and strong. 
 
 D. BODY 
 Back, medium width, rising slightly above the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ribs, good length and moderately arched 
 
 Side, fairly deep ; long, smooth and straight .... 
 Heart Girth, full, filled out even with side of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flank, full and low 
 E. HINDQUARTERS 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rump, same width as back , long 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ham, full, thigh tapering 
 Hind Legs, medium length; bone, clean and 
 strong 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Score card used at Wisconsin College of Agriculture.) 
 
 221 
 
222 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Motherly Disposition of Brood Sow Essential. In addition to a careful 
 consideration of all the parts mentioned in the score card, the following 
 features and characteristics should be considered in selecting the sow. Select 
 the sow which is more roomy than the score card suggests and which at the 
 same time has a slightly arching back. The disposition and general behavior 
 should indicate motherly qualities. A gilt or sow of mean disposition or 
 lacking in motherly instincts, seldom gives satisfaction however good she 
 miy be in conformation. More can often be judged in this respect after the 
 sow has raised a litter, although one accustomed to handling hogs will not 
 go far wrong in selecting the young gelt. 
 
 Select the sow that has 10 or 1.2 good nipples. After the first litter is 
 born there will be opportunity to judge of the sow's milking qualities which 
 should be taken into consideration in deciding whether or not she will be 
 retained for further breeding purposes. One should also guard against 
 selecting sows that are deaf or that have bad habits of catching and eating 
 chickens or being breachy. Deaf sows are sure to kill many of their pigs 
 by lying on them. 
 
 In mating young sows to a large mature boar, or in using a young boar 
 on old sows, it is well to have some form of breeding crate to give the younger 
 animal advantages that are desirable and in many instances necessary. Patent 
 crates noted in swine journals serve the purpose best, although an ingenious 
 home device may answer. 
 
 Selection and Care of the Boar. The boar should be a pure bred, repre- 
 sentative of his" breed in all instances and possess all of the most desirable 
 features and characteristics of this type and breed. He should be more compact 
 and will naturally possess heavier bone than the sow if he is a good individual. 
 He should combine size and quality and possess a masculine appearance as 
 he approaches maturity. He should have good feeding quality and mature 
 rapidly, which are characteristics highly desirable in pigs that are being grown 
 and fitted for the market. 
 
 The pedigree or family from which the boar comes is deserving of more 
 consideration than it ordinarily receives. Breeders of pure bred hogs should 
 be particularly careful to confine their selection of both boars and sows to 
 the most popular and highly developed families, not forgetting, however, that 
 individuality must accompany good breeding. 
 
 Securing the Best Results from Mating Hogs. In addition to having 
 good type the following suggestions are offered to insure good results from 
 mating. Too often there are no definite plans in mating. The number of 
 sows to be saved should be determined by the number of pigs it appears pos- 
 sible to feed and develop or dispose of to good advantage subsequent to far- 
 rowing time. Sows should be at least eight months old before being bred 
 and many prefer to have them 10 to 12 months old. Conditions must be suit- 
 able for giving sows and little pigs comfortable quarters if the sows are to be 
 bred early in the season. The gestation period of the sow is 112 days and 
 one should have in mind and record the date of farrowing when the boar is 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 
 
 
224 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 turned with the sow. Having the sows of the herd all bred as closely together 
 as possible will add to the convenience and to the profits of feeding and de- 
 veloping a uniform lot of pigs the following season. Sows bred in the fall 
 should have been properly developed and in the case of sows having had one 
 or more litters they should have been separated from their pigs sufficiently 
 long and fed in a manner to be in good condition. It is reasonable to expect 
 that a sow will breed more successfully when in good, thrifty condition than 
 she will when in a rundown, weakened condition. Being in good condition at 
 the time of mating will also tend to reduce the cost of wintering her. The sow 
 should not be too fat, however, at mating time. At no time except for show 
 purposes is it profitable to have the sow in more than good, smooth thrifty 
 condition. Sows in too fat condition are likely to be shy breeders or to have 
 difficulty at farrowing time. About twenty-one days after mating sows should 
 be watched to note any return in heat that will occur at this time if sows have 
 not been safely bred. 
 
 Handling the Boar at Mating Time. A boar should not be put to service 
 until he is at least eight months old and his service should be limited to 20 
 sows the first season. In doing this amount of service and in fact under any 
 circumstances, he should have been grown well and be cared for during the 
 mating season in a manner to insure a vigorous and thrifty condition. Until 
 fully developed the young boar should be handled carefully, given plenty of 
 exercise and fed a growing ration. A mature and proven boar is best to 
 depend upon for securing the best litters and for that reason it is best to keep 
 a boar as long as he can be kept without inbreeding and his service is satis- 
 factory. The mature boar is best when kept on a maintenance ration of 
 grass and a small amount of grain when necessary. A sufficient amount of 
 grain to have the boar in good condition at and during the mating season will 
 tend to insure best results. It is best to have a separate pen and yard for the 
 boar and to turn the sows with him when they are to be bred, for the reason 
 that a greater amount of service can be required of the boar, and feed and 
 annoyance will be saved. 
 
 After a boar is a year old his tusks, four of which will have developed, 
 should be removed and kept from getting long enough to do damage to his 
 attendant and to other animals. Cutting them twice a year with a pair of 
 pinchers after the manner shown in the accompanying illustration is the best 
 practice to follow and is much more humane than breaking them out with a 
 hammer and chisel. The mature boar will perhaps need to have his feet 
 trimmed occasionally. They should not be allowed to become long or out of 
 shape to the extent that the boar cannot handle himself well. The feet are 
 best trimmed by throwing the boar and using a pair of pinchers and a rasp. 
 The boar is the most important animal in the herd and can well be the best 
 that money aad good care will provide. He should furthermore be safe- 
 guarded against infectious and contagious diseases, kept free from lice and 
 given the necessary attention to make him most serviceable. When his period 
 of usefulness as a stock hog is over he should be castrated and fattened which 
 as a general rule it is profitable to do. 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 
 
 225 
 
 The Care of Brood Sows. A lack of exercise and a proper variety of 
 feeds are undoubtedly the two greatest failures in the management of brood 
 sows. An abundance of exercise is necessary for growing animals and brood 
 sows and especially should this be kept in mind during the winter months 
 when there is likely to be no inducement for hogs to get far away from 
 their nest and feeding place. Pregnant sows should be encouraged or compelled 
 to take exercise. Having them travel about and root for their feed by having 
 the feeding place some distance from their sleeping quarters and more or 
 less of the grain scattered in litter on a feeding floor, accomplishes the end 
 of making them exercise. 
 
 The sleeping quarters should be kept clean and dry. Several sows kept 
 together with a good nest will keep comfortably warm in winter which is a 
 saving of feed, a kindness to animals and advantageous in other respects. 
 Sows should be free from lice and treatment to rid them of lice during 
 winter should be given before the weather becomes cold'. Avoid entrances to 
 pens or yards over which heavy pregnant sows have to drag their bellies over 
 a sill or cross piece. 
 
 The Feeding of Pregnant Sows. A variety of feeds should be supplied 
 pregnant sows in quantities that enables the sows to gain or retain a thrifty 
 condition. A ration of equal parts ground corn or barley, wheat middlings 
 and wheat bran or alfalfa, fed as a thick slop, provides a good ration. 
 
 Feeding alfalfa hay in racks in the yard if it is not practical to grind 
 it will answer very well. Ear or shelled corn scattered about and a thin slop 
 of middlings in addition to alfalfa, clover, soy bean or pea vine hay, pro- 
 vide an excellent and economical ration. A few sugar beets or sugar mangels 
 keep sows in a suitable laxative condition and take the place of bran that 
 may be used in the ration. 
 
 The Sow at Farrowing Time. Sows 
 that farrow late in the season are often 
 left to make their own nests and farrow 
 without attention on the part of the 
 owner. This does not insure the best re- 
 sults and a better plan is to have a clean, 
 roomy pen in the hog house or a sepa- 
 rate hog cot arranged and bedded prop- 
 erly for farrowing quarters. The sow 
 should be put into the farrowing pen sev- 
 eral days before she is due to farrow to be- 
 come accustomed to the new quarters. 
 The bedding should be fine, free from 
 dust to prevent coughing and pneumonia, 
 
 CORNER OP FARROWING and supplied in amounts that the sow 
 PEN EQUIPPED WITH FENDER w jj| ma ke best use of in making her nest. 
 
 Careless or indifferent sows will be less likely to injure or kill their pigs if 
 little bedding is used. The farrowing pen should be provided with a rail 
 
226 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 fender, as shown in the accompanying illustration, to protect the little pig as 
 the sow lies down. If the weather is cold, precautions should be taken to pro- 
 tect the sow and little pigs from becoming chilled. A box with a lantern 
 in the bottom and a basket suspended in the top in which the new born pigs 
 can be put until they are dry and have nursed the mother, will be helpful when 
 the weather is cold and quarters are not sufficiently warm. A hot bath may 
 revive a chilled pig. 
 
 Having sows familiar with the attendant and accustomed to being han- 
 dled and the attendant being on hand to see that the pigs are properly started 
 in life, insures against losses that frequently occur. 
 
 During the first day after farrowing the sow should be as quiet as pos- 
 sible Water with the chill removed should be offered her and only a small 
 amount of laxative feed like a thick slop of bran supplied if she appears to 
 be hungry. It is best to feed her sparingly for a few days to avoid milk fever 
 and difficulty with the little pigs. After 24 hours the feed should be gradually 
 increased until in two weeks time the sow is getting a liberal ration suitable 
 for milk production which should be continued until the pigs are weaned. 
 
 Suitable Rations for Sows With Litters. Rations for sows with litters 
 after they have been gradually worked onto full feed, must be liberal and of a 
 character to make lots of milk and keep the sow from losing flesh too rapidly. 
 Sows that are good milkers will naturally lose weight during the time they 
 are nursing their litters. Rich slop of skim milk, butter milk, wheat mid- 
 dlings, red dog flour, ground oats, peas, soy beans, cowpeas, tankage and oil 
 meal in combination with 'corn meal, barley and other starchy feeds should 
 be provided in quantities that the sow will clean up without waste twice or 
 three times daily. 
 
 A mixture of equal amounts by weight of corn or corn meal, wheat mid- 
 dlings and finely ground oats and to every 100 pounds of this six to eight 
 pounds of oil meal, fed with skim milk, suggests one combination for provid- 
 ing a suitable ration. 
 
 An abundance of good grass pasture or suitable forage will save much 
 of the grain that otherwise will be necessary to feed and greatly increase the 
 profits- of hog raising. In fact hog raising on a large scale may be regarded 
 unprofitable unless an abundance of pasture or forage or some comparatively 
 inexpensive by-product can be utilized. 
 
 Salt and Correctives for Hogs. Sows as well as growing and fattening 
 pigs should have salt and correctives which are better supplied by keeping a 
 suitable mixture in a covered trough or self-feeder where free access can be 
 had to them, than trying to mix them with the feed. Charcoal is a most ex- 
 cellent corrective. Day recommends a mixture of ten parts wood ashes, one 
 part salt and one part sulphur if charcoal is not available. Air slaked lime, 
 ground lime stone, rock phosphate, bone meal, soft coal and copperas are 
 other correctives used more or less in mixtures or placed in separate com- 
 partments of a self-feeder. During the summer when hogs have access to the 
 earth and vegetable matter they have little need of correctives as a rule. 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 227 
 
 Difficulties at Farrowing Time. Sows that eat their pigs at farrowing 
 time do so because of a feverish condition and an abnormal appetite. Proper 
 rations, access to correctives and abundant exercise are insurance against 
 difficulties at farrowing time as a rule. Where sows show the abnormal appe- 
 tite and desire to eat their- pigs, it has been recommended that three pounds 
 of salt pork be cut up and fed to the sow. Another recommendation is to 
 sponge the pigs with mucilage containing equal parts of aloes and asafetida 
 as soon as they are dry after birth. The offensive odor prevents the sows from 
 touching the pigs in this instance. 
 
 When conditions are abnormal and the sow is unable to give birth to 
 her pigs, it becomes necessary to remove them and this is done most satis- 
 factorily by means of pig forceps which it is worth while to have in the list, 
 of useful instruments on the farm. A successful farmer and stockman states 
 that in two instances where sows were found in a critical condition due to 
 inability to give birth to their pigs, they succeeded in doing so and were saved 
 by a method of treatment handed down to him by his father. The treatment 
 was to give the sow access to a pool of water or to shower or drench her with 
 cold water. 
 
 Care and Development of Pigs. Up to the age of about four weeks little 
 pigs derive all of their nourishment from the mother. To see that they are 
 properly owned by their mother, exercised sufficiently to avoid getting the 
 thumps and provided with a clean dry nest, is all that one can do for them up 
 to this age. When they begin to eat at the trough with their mother they 
 should be encouraged to eat from a small trough set in a pen or yard to which 
 they can enter and the mother cannot. This insures faster growth and de- 
 velopment and saves their drawing too heavily upon the mother. The same 
 ration of skim milk and grain supplied to the mothers will be suitable. 
 
 Castration of Pigs. The only excuse for delaying castration after pigs 
 are six weeks old is in getting a development of pure bred pigs that will decide 
 whether or not they will be saved for breeding purposes. For pork purposes, 
 castration is best done when the pigs are small and can be easily handled. The 
 operation is comparatively simple and anyone can perform it who has been 
 instructed and once shown how. The principal precautions are as follows : 
 
 Do not defer the operation after six weeks unless for good reasons. The 
 older the animal the greater the loss of blood and vitality and the longer it 
 will take the pigs to recover. 
 
 Choose a cool day when pigs will not easily become over heated from the 
 excitement. Avoid as much excitement as possible by having the pigs away 
 from their mothers and older hogs. 
 
 Have a clean pen in which to perform the operation. After a rain when 
 the yards and fields are clean and free from dust will be a time when the 
 wounds will heal with the least chance for infection. Do not allow pigs to 
 run to pools of stagnant or filthy water. 
 
 Hold the pig firmly and make the incisions large and low enough so that 
 the wound will properly drain. 
 
228 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Prior to making the incision and before releasing the pig after the opera- 
 tion has been performed, sponge the scrotum and wound with a three percent 
 solution of coal tar disinfectant. 
 
 Marking Pigs for Identification. Pure bred pigs that are to be registered 
 and sold for breeding purposes must be given some mark of identification in 
 order that there may be no question with reference to their breeding and age. 
 A system of marking widely used and recommended is herewith illustrated. 
 
 One notch in outer rim of right ear counts 1, in outer rim of left ear 3. 
 in inner rim of right 10, and in inner rim of left 30. Combinations of these 
 notches can easily be made to number up to 100, as shown in the Key. The 
 three figures at the right of the Key show how the ears are marked for litters 
 5, 17, and 41. The litters each year should be numbered in the order of their 
 birth, each pig of the litter given the same marking. Litter identification 
 marks should always be entered in a record book. 
 
 KEY 5 17 41 
 
 One method of marking the Pigs with a punch or a like instrument made especially for that purpose. 
 
 This system is quite easy to learn and remember. Numbers 1 and 3 
 should be firmly fixed in mind, also 10 and 30. Thus No. 2 is simply two 
 No. 1's; No. 4, a combination of 3 and 1, which makes four; No. 5, a combina- 
 tion of 3 and 2 ; No. 6 two 3's ; No. 7 a combination of 6 and 1 ; No. 8 a com- 
 bination of 6 and 2; and No. 9, three 3's. But few notches will be required 
 to mark the number of any litter up to 100. By keeping note book and herd 
 records of the litter markings, the date of farrowing and breeding of all ani- 
 mals can be tabulated and keep easily for reference. 
 
 Weaning and Growing Pigs. If sows are required to raise only one litter 
 a year, the pigs may be left with them and not weaned until three months 
 old. If sows raise two litters a year the pigs should not nurse more than 
 eight weeks. When pigs are weaned it is well to separate them into groups 
 according to size. Not more than 20 pigs will feed to good advantage in the 
 same lot. Good pasture of June grass, clover, alfalfa and forage crops lik'; 
 rape, peas and oats, should be available for growing pigs after they are 
 weaned and during the season. In addition to pasture two pounds of concen- 
 trates and never less than 1 pound per 100 pounds of live weight should be 
 fed. If available six pounds of skim milk or 12 pounds of whey may be re- 
 garded equivalent to 1 pound of the concentrates required. Pigs should gain 
 and make a growth so that if desirable to finish them at 6 or 7 months they 
 will weigh 200 pounds or more. The finishing period will need to be the last 
 two months in this instance and corn, barley or other fattening concentrates 
 fed in as large quantities as the pigs will consume. It pays to include with 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 229 
 
 these fattening feeds 10 per cent of high grade tankage or to feed more or less 
 other nitrogenous feeds like red dog flour, wheat middlings and oil meal in 
 addition to the highly carbonaceous feeds like corn or barley. Corn may be 
 fed on the ear or shelled and there is little or no gain in grinding or soaking 
 it. The exercise and feeding of coarse feeds should be reduced during the 
 finishing period. If pigs are to be carried and finished at an older age they 
 should be continued on pasture and a limited amount of grain until the finish- 
 ing period is reached. Only under conditions where pasture is abundant and 
 there is an opportunity to make an economical growth and to fatten hogs after 
 steers or in a manner to make profitable gains, is it a good policy to produce 
 heavy butcher hogs. The most economical gains are usually those made by 
 pigs weighing under 250 pounds. 
 
 Fall pigs that do not get the benefit of pasture and forage should be 
 provided with most suitable quarters and rations including dairy by-products, 
 a good mixture of concentrates and during the growing period clover, alfalfa 
 or other legume hay or chaff and roots. Finely cut legume hay mixed in the 
 slop is excellent for growing pigs in winter. 
 
 Cooked potatoes mashed and mixed with meal can be fed to good ad- 
 vantage. Only in the instance of feeding potatoes does it pay to cook feed 
 for hogs. Hot water to provide warm slop for pigs in winter will add to their 
 growth and the economy of gains made. 
 
 Self-Feeders for Hogs. Experiment Station trials on growing and fatten- 
 ing hogs with self-feeders and the experience of practical swine growers show 
 that this method of feeding after weaning is well adapted to the quick growing 
 and fattening of pigs. The method is also well adapted to fattening old sows 
 or sows that are to be turned to the butcher soon after pigs are weaned. 
 When it is the plan to grow pigs largely on pasture and not hurry the growth, 
 the self-feeder should not be used. Judgment must be exercised in using 
 self-feeders for pregnant sows. Bulky feed like cut legume hay will need to 
 be supplied to prevent sows getting too much grain and becoming too fat. 
 Corn and meat meal or tankage in separate compartments of the self-feeder 
 with good alfalfa or rape pasture, and access to salt and plenty of pure, fresh 
 water, provides a most economical system of producing pork. Evvard of the 
 Iowa Station has also found that the self-feeder may be used to good advan- 
 tage in dry lots for feeding shelled corn and tankage. Salt, ground limestone 
 and charcoal were also furnished pigs in a self-feeder under dry lot conditions. 
 
 Water Essential to Hogs. Dietrich, who is a good authority, concludes 
 that a proper amount of water for pigs ranges from 12 pounds daily per 100 
 pounds of weight, from time of weaning down to four pounds per 100 pounds 
 during the fattening period. It is his opinion that pigs do not drink water 
 enough in winter and that they should be encouraged to drink more than they 
 usually do by warming it and mixing more of it in their slop. 
 
 Feeding for Bacon. Day, of the Ontario Agricultural College, is one 
 of the best authorities on bacon production in America. The highest grade 
 and quality of bacon requires that the fat should be clear white, the flesh firm 
 
230 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 and the percentage of lean to fat much higher than in the carcass of the lard 
 hog. While the breeding of the hog has much to do with the conformation, 
 the feeding has much to do with the character of the meat. Fattening feeds 
 like corn fed exclusively do not produce the right character of flesh for bacon. 
 Oily carcasses, the result of feeding beans, more especially soy beans and 
 peanuts are rejected altogether and carcasses which approach an oily condi- 
 tion produce bacon of low quality. Barley ranks first for producing a high 
 grade of bacon, and is followed by oats and peas. Dairy by-products with 
 cereal grains, including corn and a considerable variety of feeds, produces 
 good results. Only where there is a premium paid for hogs most suitable for 
 bacon can it be expected that farmers will study to produce and finish bacon 
 hogs that will compare favorably with those that may be considered best for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Denmark has a select bacon trade and excels in the production of the 
 highest quality of bacon. The following is quoted relative to rations used by 
 the Danes in the production of bacon : 
 
 "Ground barley, cooked potatoes, and skim milk; shorts and skim milk; 
 2 parts shorts, 2 parts ground barley, 1 part corn meal, and skim milk; 2 parts 
 ground barley, 1 part wheat bran, 1 part ground rye, and skim milk ; 2 parts 
 ground barley, 1 part ground oats, 1 part corn meal, and skim milk. Corn meal 
 is fed with care, especially during warm weather; when fed in small quantities 
 with barley, shorts, oats, and bran, combined with a liberal allowance of skim 
 milk, there are no bad results. Some good feeders use corn meal to the extent 
 of one-third or one-half of the grain ration during the first three or four months 
 and then omit it and finish with oats or similar feed. Feeders are sometimes 
 compelled to use corn on account of the low price of bacon. Ground rye to 
 the extent of about one-third of the ration gives good results, but rye shorts 
 are not satisfacory and are only used in small quantities. The best feeds are 
 ground barley, crushed oats, and wheat shorts. Roots are fed during winter 
 and soiling crops during summer." 
 
 Marketing Hogs. As with other classes of stock, the producer should 
 study and keep posted on the market situation. The following market classi- 
 fication of hogs should be taken into consideration in deciding or anticipating 
 about what a given lot of hogs are worth on the market. One should also 
 be posted on other features of the market that influence prices and on freight, 
 yardage and commission charges. This knowledge will be helpful in selling 
 at home to drovers or shippers as well as in shipping a carload or more to a 
 packing house center. Unless one has at least a carload or can combine with 
 a neighbor to make a carload, it is best to sell at home or some nearby 
 slaughtering plant where it will not be necessary to ship. Stock yard com- 
 panies or live stock commission firms will be glad to furnish information on 
 commission, yardage and feeding charges, dockage and rules relating to in- 
 spection, disposal of dead animals and methods of practice. 
 
 Shipping Hogs to Market. The shrinkage on a carload of hogs weighing 
 15,000 to 17,000 pounds may be 1,000 pounds when conditions are wrong. The 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 
 
 231 
 
 MARKET CLASSES OF HOGS. 
 
 Classes 
 
 Sub-Classes 
 
 Grades 
 
 Prime heavy hogs, 350-500 Ibs 
 
 
 Prime 
 
 
 
 Butcher hogs, 180-350 Ibs 
 
 Heavy butchers, 280-350 Ibs 
 
 Prime 
 Good 
 Prime 
 Good 
 Common 
 
 Medium butchers, 220-280 Ibs 
 
 
 Light butchers, 180-220 Ibs 
 
 
 Packing hogs, 200-500 Ibs 
 
 Heavy packing, 300-500 Ibs 
 
 Good 
 Common 
 Inferior 
 
 Medium packing, 250-300 Ibs . 
 
 
 Mixed packing, 200-280 Ibs 
 
 
 T icrVit hncns 19^220 lh<? 
 
 English, 160-220 Ibs 
 
 Choice 
 Light 
 Fat 
 
 
 United States, 155-195 Ibs 
 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Common 
 
 
 Light mixed, 150-220 Ibs 
 
 Good 
 Common 
 Inferior 
 
 
 Light mixed, 125-150 Ibs 
 
 Good 
 Common 
 Inferior 
 
 
 Pigs 60-125 Ibs 
 
 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Common 
 
 
 
 Roughs, stags, boars. 
 
 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Roasting pigs, 15-30 Ibs. 
 Feeders 
 Governments 
 Pen-holders 
 Dead Hogs 
 
 
 
 shipper should aim to have as little shrinkage as possible and the following 
 suggestions are offered on shipping to the best advantage. 
 
 Hogs ship better and fill better at the end of their destination if they are 
 not fed just prior to being loaded. If they can be fed 12 hours after being 
 on the road in the car at some stopping point, it will be profitable to the 
 shipper to feed them. It is customary to feed and water as soon as they 
 arrive at their destination and are unloaded. 
 
 Cars should be thoroughly cleaned and well bedded. A layer of clean 
 straw covered with sand makes a turfrlike bed on which hogs will lie down 
 and ride comfortably and come out of at the market in a clean, strong condi- 
 tion that makes them sell well. Hogs that are uneasy and restless during 
 shipment always shrink badly. The condition of the hogs upon arriving at 
 the market makes more difference in the price received, than the commission 
 firm which sells them and which is criticised not infrequently for not securing 
 
232 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 a better price. It is well for the shipper to accompany his stock and observe 
 under what conditions best results may be secured. 
 
 Growing, Developing and Marketing Pure Bred Hogs. Pure bred hogs 
 for breeding purposes may be fed and developed after the manner suggested 
 for growing pigs from birth to the period when they are to be fattened. The 
 character of stock developed plays the greater part in making pure bred stock 
 breeding successful, and every effort should be made to have the stock to be 
 offered in the most attractive condition without its being pampered. Only 
 show animals are fattened to show all of their possibilities and the aim should 
 be to have sale stock in a thrifty, well developed condition without being 
 fattened but carrying an abundance of firm, natural flesh. 
 
 It is not always possible to tell just how a young pig will develop, but 
 all individuals that are off type and color, or deficient in any manner should 
 be separated from sale lots and only the best individuals retained. Boars and 
 sows should be kept in separate lots and not too many pigs should run to- 
 gether in a given lot. 
 
 A complete record of the breeding and identity of individual pigs is abso- 
 lutely necessary for success. A record book, as well as the certificates of 
 registration, should be posted and will be found valuable to the extent that 
 it contains a record and notes on all transactions. The secretary of the breed 
 association who looks after the registration and interests of the breed in ques- 
 tion will be able to furnish full information, forms for registering and trans- 
 ferring and suggestions on keeping complete records. Certificates of registry 
 and transfer should be promptly furnished. ' Stock that has to be shipped 
 should be crated and sent in as satisfactory a manner as possible. A pleased 
 customer is one of the best means of advertising and the true stockman en- 
 deavors to work for the best interest of his customers. 
 
 Buildings and Equipment for Hogs. Each farm is equipped with build- 
 ings peculiar to itself and the proprietor or manager. Good drainage and dry- 
 ness are two important features of buildings and yards for pigs. Good ven- 
 tilation, plenty of light, warmth in winter and a convenient arrangement of 
 pens, feeding troughs, bins for feed and facilities for providing and heating 
 water are desirable for a central hog barn. A damp, cold building is altogether 
 unsatisfactory. The central hog house should, therefore, be constructed to 
 admit the maximum amount of sunlight. What is termed the farmer's type 
 of sunlight hog house, commonly recommended, may be regarded as the most 
 approved type and admits the greatest amount of sunlight to ail parts of the 
 building. 
 
 Concrete floors and walls two feet above the floor are most sanitary and 
 may be used, provided that wood overlays are used in the pens, for sleeping 
 quarters. These overlays should be portable to enable pens to be thoroughly 
 cleaned and disinfected. 
 
 For summer when hogs should be moved to pasture fields, the small colony 
 house is highly desirable. The A-shaped house has the advantage of being easily 
 constructed, inexpensive and readily moved from place to place. It should be lo- 
 cated with reference to convenience and good drainage. The number of these 
 
SWINE PRODUCTION 
 
 233 
 
 houses can be increased as the herd may increase and it is possible to arrange and 
 bank them in a sheltered place to render them useful for providing winter quarters 
 for sows, gilts and fattening hogs. 
 
 The accompanying illustration of the framework of an A-shaped, portable 
 hog house and the following bill of lumber is necessary to construct the shed 
 in complete form : 
 
 Nine pieces 1" x 12" x 16' and 11 O. G. battens 16' long for roof. 
 
 Three pieces 2" x 6" x 16' and 11 O. G. battens 16' long for roof. 
 
 Five pieces 1" x 12" x 14' for ends. 
 
 One piece 2" x 4" x 10' for ridge. 
 
 Two pieces 2" x 8" x 10' for plates. 
 
 Seven pieces 2" x 4" x 16' for rafters and braces in frame. 
 
 Three pieces 2" x 6" x 8' for runners. 
 
 Four pieces 1" x 12" x 16' rough for flooring. 
 
 Sanitation, Disinfection and 
 Quarantine Measures. The hog 
 is naturally not a filthy animal. 
 One must exercise care, how- 
 ever, in keeping pens and yards 
 in a clean, sanitary condition for 
 otherwise filth rapidly accumu- 
 lates and the environment be- 
 comes undesirable. Hogs that 
 receive proper kinds and 
 amounts of feed are least in- 
 clined to root up their yards. If 
 the hog house and feeding yards 
 have proper drainage it is not 
 difficult to keep the hogs from 
 wallowing in filthy pools. Pro- 
 viding concrete pools in which clean water and crude oil or disinfectants can 
 be available for hogs, are desirable in many respects. 
 
 Disinfectants should be used freely. Five parts of creolin or crude car- 
 bolic acid in one hundred parts of water, chloride of lime, or proprietary disin- 
 fectants should be used to disinfect pens. Where a contagious disease has 
 been present, floors, walls, all equipment and immediate yards should be 
 scraped and disinfected. Larger paddocks and fields should be plowed where 
 they become foul. It is a good plan to have a regular season for cleaning, 
 whitewashing and putting building and yards in good repair and order. 
 
 Where animals are purchased or are returned from fairs and expositions, 
 a rigid rule of keeping them quarantined and separate from the home herd for 
 three weeks will guard against a general outbreak of disease. Any sick hog 
 should be removed from the herd immediately and the disease carefully in- 
 vestigated to prevent a further spread of it. Hogs, which die are best disposed 
 of by burning the carcass. They at least should be buried deeply enough to 
 prevent their being dug up by dogs or other animals. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE. 
 
 General Symptoms. 
 
 Appetite ; loss of appetite ; fever ; thirst ; much distress ; dry mouth ; diarrhea 
 with a little blood ; weakness ; once in a while vomiting. Inflammation 
 of the Bowels Enteritis, Page 252. 
 
 Appetite, loss of; udder tender and hard; fever; shrinkage in milk. Inflamed 
 Udder, Page 259. 
 
 Appetite poor (in sows) ; dullness ; thirst ; fever ; much pain/ Inflammation 
 of the Womb, 'Page 259. 
 
 Arched back ; pains in the side ; chills ; fever ; some coughing ; uneasiness ; 
 fast breathing. Pleurisy, Page 265. 
 
 Back arched; pains in the side; chills; fever; little coughing; uneasiness; fast 
 breathing. Pleurisy, 'Page 265. 
 
 Black teeth (veterinarians as a rule do not consider black teeth as a symptom 
 of disease). 
 
 Blind. Hog acts blind in last stages of the disease ; poor appetite ; rapid la- 
 borious breathing; delirium. (The hog runs about wildly, generally in 
 a circle. He runs into things.) Symptoms in first stages of the disease : 
 disinclination to move; acts stupid; bloodshot eyes; bowels constipated; 
 pulse hard and quick. Epilepsy, Page 253. 
 
 Blisters or tumors on the mouth or between the toes fever ; perhaps dullness. 
 Aphthous Fever, Page 248. 
 
 Bloating; little fever; ill smelling manure; passing of dry manure at first but 
 later thin manure containing blood and mucus ; uneasiness ; poor appe- 
 tite ; dullness ; some distress. Dysentery, 'Page 252. 
 
 Bloating; much pain. Acute Indigestion, 'Page 248. 
 
 Bloating, pain; chills; fever; quick breathing; tenderness of abdomen; vomit- 
 ing and quickened pulse. Peritonitis, 'Page 264. 
 
 Blood and mucus. Passing of dry manure at first but later thin manure con- 
 taining blood and mucus ; uneasiness ; poor appetite ; dullness ; some pain ; 
 fever and bloating ; ill-smelling manure. Dysentery, "Page 252. 
 
 Bloating with pain and uneasiness coming on very suddenly sometimes; 
 vomiting. Obstruction of the Bowels, Page 263. 
 
 Blood. Diarrhea with a little blood in the manure; weakness; dry mouth; 
 loss of appetite ; fever ; thirst ; much pain ; sometimes vomiting. Inflam- 
 mation of the Bowels or Enteritis, Page 252. 
 
 Blood discharges from nose (in severe cases) ; discharges of mucus ; snuffling. 
 Snuffles, 'Page 267. 
 
 Blood-shot, prominent eyes ; hog stupid ; restless ; suddenly he may drop over 
 as though hit with a sledge hammer and the limbs become straight and 
 
 234 
 
235 
 
 stiff; he may seem dead but for his heavy breathing. Apoplexy, Page 
 249. 
 
 Blood vomited out that is dark colored and contains particles of food ; loss of 
 appetite. Blood From Stomach, Page 250. 
 
 Bowels. Animal is found straining and unable to empty the bowels. Stric- 
 ture of the Rectum or Large Bowel, Page 263. 
 
 Bowels. Either too loose or costive ; craving for filthy food ; loss of appetite ; 
 fits (in young pigs) fever ; urine brown in color and scanty. Indigestion, 
 Page 259. 
 
 Bowels. Extreme looseness of bowels without any disease. Diarrhea and 
 Scours, Page 252. 
 
 Bowels. Soft tumors found near the outer opening of the large bowel. Piles, 
 Page 264. 
 
 Breathing difficult and quickened ; hoarse cough ; loss 'of appetite ; discharge of 
 mucus from the mouth (sometimes from the nose too) pushing head out; 
 fever; weakness. Bronchitis, Page 250. 
 
 Breathing difficult; sore and swollen glands under the throat; neck swollen; 
 swallowing difficult ; protruding of the tongue from the mouth covered 
 with slaver. Quinsy, Page 265. 
 
 Breathing fast and laborious breathing; fever following a chill; loss of appe- 
 tite; uneasiness; severe coughing; pain. Pneumonia or Lung Fever, 
 Page 265. 
 
 Breathing fast; back arched; pains in the side; chills; fever; some coughing; 
 uneasiness. Pleurisy, Page 265. 
 
 Breathing fast; bloating; pain; chills; fever; tenderness of abdomen; vomit- 
 ing ; quickened pulse. Peritonitis, Page 264. 
 
 Breathing fast ; dry, persistent, harsh cough, especially when exercised ; con- 
 tinued falling 1 away and weakness ; diarrhea or constipation. (The symp- 
 toms of tuberculosis have no very decided characteristics. The tuberculin 
 test is a surer way of determining the presence of the disease.) Tuber- 
 culosis, Page 269. 
 
 Breathing hard and difficult in later stages of the disease ; grating and gnash- 
 ing of teeth; groaning; convulsions. First symptoms are: extremely 
 painful swelling on the neck near the larynx. The hair on this swelling 
 soon becomes bleached, stands on end and is brittle and hard. White 
 Bristle, Page 271. 
 
 Breathing rapid and laborious in last stages of the disease ; poor appetite ; de- 
 lirium. (The hog runs about wildly, generally in a circle. He seems 
 blind and runs into things.) In first stages the symptoms are: acts 
 stupid : constipated bowels ; pulse hard and quick. Epilepsy, Page 253. 
 
 Bunch puffy soft bunch at the navel which can be pressed back through the 
 opening into the body. Navel Hernia or Rupture, Page 263. 
 
 Cancerous condition of sow's tail developed during pigging time. Cancer of 
 the Tail, Page 250. 
 
 Cheeks, lips and tongue are covered with pimples that are yellowish-white 
 and full of pus following a slavering at the mouth ; gnashing of teeth, dis- 
 
236 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 tressful and staring expression of the eyes, poor appetite and some fever. 
 These pimples soon change to brown and then to black. Gum Mouth, 
 Page 254. 
 
 Chill followed by fever ; accelerated and laborious respiration ; loss of appetite ; 
 uneasiness; severe coughing; and pain. Pneumonia or Lung Fever, 
 Page 265. 
 
 Chills and pain in the side; fever; little coughing; uneasiness; fast breathing; 
 the back is arched. Pleurisy, Page 265. 
 
 Chills; bloating; pain; fever; quick breathing; tenderness of abdomen; vomit- 
 ing; quickened pulse. Peritonitis, Page 264. 
 
 Chills followed by feverish heat in rapid succession; gait swaggering and 
 unsteady; very red mucous membrane; vomiting a discolored or bloody 
 fluid ; convulsions. Apoplectic Anthrax, Page 249. 
 
 Circle. Hog running in -a circle ; running into objects ; frothing at the mouth ; 
 rapid laborious breathing; hog acts stupid; falling over and straightening 
 out legs. Blind Staggers, Page 249. 
 
 Cold extremities ; head held down and mouth open ; great distress ; weak 
 pulse ; pig cannot stand ; blood running from the nose in some cases. 
 Pneumonia or Lung Fever, Page 265. 
 
 Constipation ; dullness ; yellowish mucous membranes ; some cough ; generally 
 comes on during hot weather. Liver Disease, P'age 260. 
 
 Cough. Dry, persistent, harsh cough ; rapid breathing, especially when exer- 
 cised ; continued falling away and weakness ; diarrhea or constipation. 
 (The symptoms of tuberculosis have no very decided characteristics. 
 The tuberculin test is a surer way of determining the presence of the 
 disease.) Tuberculosis, Page 269. 
 
 Coughing ; discharge of mucus from the nose ; heaving at the flanks ; loss of 
 appetite. Colds, Page 251. 
 
 Coughing, especially in .the morning when the pig comes from his bed ; jerking 
 of the body ; palpitation of the heart. Thumps, Page 268. 
 
 Coughing frequently with no mucus discharge and no apparent inflamma- 
 tion of the mucous membranes. Colds, Page 251. 
 
 Cough hoarse; loss of appetite, discharge of mucus from the mouth (some- 
 times from nose too) quickened difficult breathing; pushing head out; 
 fever; weakness. Bronchitis, Page 250. 
 
 Coughing; rash breaking out on fourth day; some sneezing; sore throat; in- 
 flamed eyes; fever; swollen eyelids; fast breathing. Measles, Page 261. 
 
 Coughing; severe coughing; pain; fast and laborious breathing; first a chill 
 and then fever; loss of appetite; uneasiness. Pneumonia, Page 265. 
 
 Coughing spasmodically ; swallowing with difficulty ; skin hot and dry ; throat 
 inclined to fill up. Sore Throat, Page 268. 
 
 Coughing when suddenly aroused ; sluggishness, disinclination to move when 
 disturbed; loss of appetite and flesh; growing so weak they walk with 
 an uncertain gait; sometimes staggering; hind legs particularly weak; 
 eyes inflamed and lids gummed together; profuse diarrhea; sick for sev- 
 eral months. Hog Cholera, (chronic form) Page 254. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE 237 
 
 Diarrhea, bad form of; gait uncertain; sometimes staggering; coughing when 
 suddenly aroused; sluggishness; disinclination to move when disturbed; 
 loss of appetite and flesh ; hind legs particularly weak ; eyes inflamed and 
 lids gummed together; sick for several months. Hog Cholera (chronic 
 form.) Page 254. 
 
 Discharge from nose; nose is inflamed and the inflammation steadily increases; 
 membrane of the nose swollen and dry; sneezing. Nasal Catarrh, Page 
 262. 
 
 Dropping over as though hit with a sledge hammer and the limbs becoming 
 straight and stiff following a stupid and restless condition of the hog; 
 eyes prominent and blood-shot ; he may seem dead but for his heavy 
 breathing. Apoplexy, Page 249. 
 
 Dry manure. Passing of dry manure at first but later thin excrement con- 
 taining blood and mucus; uneasiness; poor appetite; dullness; some 
 pain; a little fever and bloating; ill smelling manure. Dysentery, Page 
 252. 
 
 Dullness ; constipation ; yellowish mucous membranes ; some cough ; generally 
 comes on during hot weather. Liver Disease, Page 260. 
 
 Dullness ; (in sows) ; poor appetite ; thirst ; fever ; much pain. Inflammation 
 of the Womb, Page 259. 
 
 Dullness; languor; indisposition to move; lameness in one or more limbs; 
 swelling, heat or tenderness of a tendon, joint or bunch of muscles. 
 Rheumatism, Page 266. 
 
 Eating enormous quantities of food ; eating filthy food. Morbid Appetite, 
 Page 262. 
 
 Eating. Pig eats a plenty but does not gain as he should. He may even 
 fall away. Stunted, Page 268. 
 
 Eyeballs inflamed, tears falling over the cheeks. Inflammation of the Eyes, 
 Page 259. 
 
 Eye. Enlarging of the pupil. Paralysis of the Retina, Page 264. 
 
 Eye-lids swollen; eyes inflamed; sore throat; coughing; rash breaking out 
 on fourth day; some sneezing; fever; fast breathing. Measles, Page 261. 
 
 Eyes blood shot in first stages of the disease; hog is not inclined to move; 
 acts stupid, bowels constipated ; pulse hard and quick. Later symptoms : 
 poor appetite; rapid laborious breathing; delirium. (The hog runs about 
 wildly generally in a circle. He seems blind and runs into things.) 
 Epilepsy, Page 253. 
 
 Eyes have a distressful and staring expression; poor appetite; some fever; 
 restlessness; slavering; gnashing of teeth. Later yellowish-white pim- 
 ples that are full of pus come on the cheeks, lips and tongue. These 
 pimples though yellowish-white at first soon change to brown and then 
 to black. Gum Mouth, Page 254. 
 
 Eyes inflamed and lids gummed ; spots of red or purple in color on the ski 
 especially on the abdomen, inside the legs and around the neck and 
 ears; blood stained spots on snout; snout dry; disinclined to move about; 
 poor appetite; weakness; shivering; high fever; hiding under litter; 
 
238 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 weakness of hind limbs at first and then of front limbs; intense thirst; 
 bowels tight at first but later loose and offensive ; tender abdomen ; many 
 hogs dying within a few days. Hog Cholera (Acute), Page 254. 
 
 Eyes inflamed and lids gummed together ; gait uncertain ; sometimes stagger- 
 ing; coughing when suddenly aroused; sluggishness; disinclination to 
 move when disturbed ; loss of appetite and flesh ; hind legs particularly 
 weak ; profuse diarrhea ; sick for several months. Hog Cholera (Chronic 
 form), Page 254. 
 
 Eyes inflamed; sore throat; coughing; rash breaking out on the fourth day; 
 some sneezing; sore throat; fever; swollen eye lids; fast breathing. 
 Measles, Page 261. 
 
 Eyes prominent and blood-shot ; hog stupid ; restless ; suddenly he may drop 
 over as though hit with a sledge hammer and the limbs become straight- 
 ened and stiff ; he may seem dead but for his heavy breathing. Apoplexy, 
 Page 249. 
 
 Falling away of flesh, weakness; diarrhea or constipation; dry, persistent, 
 harsh cough ; rapid breathing especially when exercised. (The symp- 
 toms of tuberculosis have no very decided characteristics. The tuber- 
 culin test is a surer way of determining the disease.) Tuberculosis, 
 Page, 269. 
 
 Falling over and straightening out legs; hog acts stupid; running in a circle; 
 frothing at the mouth; rapid, laborious breathing. Blind Staggers, 
 Page, 249. 
 
 Fever (in sows) ; loss of appetite; udder tender and hard; shrinkage in milk. 
 Inflamed Udder, Page 259. 
 
 Fever (in sows) ; severe pain ; thirst ; loss of appetite ; dullness. Inflamma- 
 tion of the Womb, Page 259. 
 
 Fever; vomiting; stiffness; dullness; fast pulse; poor appetite; thirst; stupor; 
 men; quickened pulse. Peritonitis, Page 264. 
 
 Fever; vomiting; stiffness; dullness; fast pulse; poor appetite; thirst stupor; 
 delirium. Scarlet Fever, Page 267. 
 
 Fits (in young pigs) ; some fever ; urine brown in color and scanty ; bowels 
 either too loose or costive; craving for filthy food; loss of appetite. 
 Indigestion, Page 259. 
 
 Flanks heaving; discharges of mucus from the nose; coughing; loss of ap- 
 petite. Colds, P;age 251. 
 
 Flesh; continual falling away of flesh and weakness; fast breathing; dry, 
 persistent, harsh cough, especially when exercised ; diarrhea or constipa- 
 tion. The symptoms of tuberculosis have no very decided character- 
 istics. The tuberculin test is a surer way of determining the presence 
 of the disease.) Tuberculosis, Page 269. 
 
 Food. Craving for filthy food; loss of appetite; bowels either too loose or 
 costive ; fits (in young pigs) ; fever ; urine brown in color and scanty. 
 Indigestion, Page 259. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE 239 
 
 Food. Eating enormous quantities of food ; eating tilthy food. Morbid Ap- 
 petite, Page 262. 
 
 Food refused; gait unsteady; weakness; dullness; rooting in bedding; bury- 
 ing head or whole body in the litter; lying down more than usual; chills 
 alternating with fever in quick succession ; fast pulse ; constipated bowels ; 
 manure dark colored and hard ; red spots on inside of legs ; on abdomen, 
 breast and neck; these spots soon turn to erysipelatous swellings; small 
 pustules on parts of swollen surface; increasing fever; in last stages 
 hind quarters are paralyzed and convulsions set in. Erysipelas, Page 
 253. 
 
 Fore feet far in advance of the body when walking; continually shifting the 
 weight from one foot to another. Founder or Sore Feet, Page 267. 
 
 Gait uncertain; sometimes staggering; coughing when suddenly aroused; 
 sluggishness, disinclination to move when disturbed; loss of appetite 
 and flesh; hind legs particularly weak; eyes inflamed and lids gummed 
 together; profuse diarrhea; sick for months. Hog Cholera (chronic 
 form), Page 254. 
 
 Gait unsteady; refusal of food; weakness; dullness; rooting in bedding; bury- 
 ing head or whole body in straw ; lying down more than usual ; chills 
 alternating with fever in quick succession; fast pulse; constipated bowels; 
 manure dark colored and hard ; red spots on inside of legs ; on abdomen, 
 breast and neck; these spots soon turn to erysipelatous swellings; small 
 pustules on parts of swollen surface increasing fever; mucous membrane 
 is purple or lead-gray in color ; labored breathing ; later the hind quarters 
 of the hog are paralyzed ; convulsions set in, and death results if the dis- 
 ease is allowed to run this far. Erysipelas, Page 253. 
 
 Hair dropping from the skin in ring-like patches, the center of these patches 
 becoming dry and the edges moist. Ringworm, Page 266. 
 
 Head. Bending of head ; shaking and trembling of body ; unthrifty condition. 
 The pig soon gets stiff and tumbles over, struggling a short time. After 
 lying quiet for a short time he gets up and acts perfectly well until an- 
 other sick spell overtakes him. Fits in Pigs, Page 254. 
 
 Head held low down and mouth open; great distress; weak pulse; cold ex- 
 tremities; pig cannot stand;- blood running from nose in some cases. 
 Pneumonia or Lung Fever, Page 265. 
 
 Head. Moving head from side to side ; hog sits on haunches ; changes position 
 frequently ; grunts ; squeals ; and sometimes bloats. Colic, Page 251. 
 
 Head. Pushing head out ; fever ; weakness ; breathing difficult and quickened ; 
 hoarse cough; loss of appetite; discharge of mucus from the mouth 
 (sometimes from the nose). Bronchitis, Page 250. 
 
 Itching severely ; large sores caused from rubbing ; scabs on the skin. Mange, 
 Page 261. 
 
 Inflamed eyeballs ; tears falling over the cheeks. Inflammation of the Eyes, 
 
 Page 259. 
 
 Jerking of body; coughing, especially in the morning when the pig come 
 from his bed ; palpitation of the heart. Thumps, Page 268. 
 
240 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Lameness in one or more limbs ; swelling, heat or tenderness of a tendon, 
 
 joint or bunch of muscles ; indisposition to move ; languor ; dullness. 
 
 Rheumatism, Page 266. 
 Lice on animal. Lice, Page 260. 
 
 Manure clay colored; yellow appearing pig; poor appetite; dullness; constipa- 
 tion; vomiting; digestion out of order. Yellows, Page 272. 
 Manure. Diarrhea with a little blood in the manure ; weakness ; dry mouth ; 
 
 loss of appetite ; fever ; thirst ; much pain ; sometimes vomiting. Inflam- 
 mation of the Bowels or Enteritis, Page 252. 
 Manure. 111 smelling; a little fever and bloating; passing of dry manure at 
 
 first .but later thin manure containing blood and mucus ; uneasiness ; 
 
 poor appetite; dullness; some pain. Dysentery, Page 252. 
 Manure passed in dry, compact, ball-like masses. Constipation, Page 251. 
 Manure. Yellow thin manure, much distress. Diarrhea and Scours, Page 
 
 252. 
 Milk. Shrinkage in milk ; udder tender and hard ; loss of appetite ; fever. 
 
 Inflamed Udder, Page 259. 
 Mouth covered with blisters or tumors; blisters may also come between the 
 
 toes ; fever ; perhaps dullness. Aphthous Fever, Page 248. 
 Mouth dry; loss of appetite; fever; thirst; much distress; diarrhea with a 
 
 little blood ; weakness ; sometimes vomiting. Inflammation of the Bowels 
 
 or Enteritis, Page 252. 
 Mouth. Frothing at the mouth; rapid laborius breathing; hog acts stupid; 
 
 running into objects, running in a circle; falling over and straightening 
 
 out legs. Blind Staggers, Page 249. 
 Mouth open; head held down; great distress; weak pulse; cold extremities; 
 
 pig cannot stand; blood running from nose in some cases. Pneumonia 
 
 or Lung Fever, Page 265. 
 Movements of the muscles on various parts of the body are involuntary and 
 
 convulsive although they seem to be voluntary unless noticed carefully. 
 
 Chorea. 
 
 i 
 
 Moving. Hog is not inclined to move in first stages of the disease; acts 
 stupid ; blood-shot eyes ; constipated bowels ; hard and quick pulse. Later 
 symptoms; poor appetite; rapid laborious breathing; delirium. (The 
 hog runs about wildly generally in a circle. He seems blind and runs 
 into things.) Epilepsy, Page 253. 
 
 Mucus coming from nose; coughing; heaving of the flanks; loss of appetite. 
 Colds, Page 251. 
 
 Mucus discharged from the nose, also blood in severe cases ; snuffling. 
 Snuffles, Page 267. 
 
 Mucus. Discharge of mucus from the mouth ; loss of appetite ; hoarse cough ; 
 quickened difficult breathing; pushing head out; fever; weakness. Bron- 
 chitis, Paee 250. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE 241 
 
 Muscles on various parts of the body move involuntarily and convulsively. 
 
 The contractions are lax and irregular and seem to be voluntary. Chorea. 
 
 Navel. Puffy soft bunch at the navel which can be pressed back through 
 
 the opening into the body. Navel Hernia or Rupture, Page 263. 
 Neck swollen ; glands under the throat are sore and swollen ; breathing and 
 
 swallowing difficult; protruding of tongue from mouth covered with 
 
 slaver. Quinsy, Page 265. 
 Nose. Discharges of mucus from the nose; coughing; heaving at the flanks; 
 
 loss of appetite. Colds, Page 251. 
 Nose. Discharges of mucus from the nose; discharges of blood in severe 
 
 cases; snuffling. Snuffles, Page 267. 
 Nose. Membrane of the nose swollen and dry; sneezing; loss of appetite; 
 
 discharge from nose ; the nose is inflamed and the inflammation steadily 
 
 increases. Nasal Catarrh, Page 262. 
 
 Pain. Much pain and bloating. Acute Indigestion, Page 248. 
 Pain and uneasiness coming on very suddenly sometimes; some bloating; 
 
 vomiting. Obstruction of the Bowels, Page 263. 
 Pain; scratching of nose and hind parts; rooting; looseness or costiveness 
 
 of bowels ; sometimes a little blood and mucus in the manure ; enormous 
 
 appetite with little improvement in flesh ; uneasiness. Worms, Page 271. 
 Pains. Severe pain (in sows) ; thirst ; poor appetite ; dullness, fever. In- 
 flammation of the Womb, Page 259. 
 Pains in the side; chills; fever; little coughing; uneasiness; fast breathing; 
 
 the back is arched. Pleurisy, Page 265. 
 Paralyzed; cannot move about. Paralysis, Page 263. 
 Passing of dry manure in compact, ball-like masses. Constipation, Page 251. 
 Pimples appearing on skin from which liquid oozes; fluid hardens and comes 
 
 off giving the skin a scaly appearance. Scaly Skin Disease, Page 266. 
 Pimples that are yellowish-white and full of pus come on the cheeks, lips 
 
 and tongue following a slavering at the mouth, gnashing of teeth; 
 
 distressful and staring expression of the eyes; poor appetite and some 
 
 fever. These pimples soon change to brown and then to black. Gum 
 
 Mouth, Page 254. 
 Position. Changing position frequently; hog moves his head from side to 
 
 side; sits on haunches; grunts; squeals; sometimes bloats. Colic, Page 
 
 251. 
 Pulse weak; head held down and mouth open; cold extremities; pig cannot 
 
 stand; blood running from nose in some cases. Pneumonia or Lung 
 
 Fever, Page 265. 
 
 Pupil of the eye enlarged. Paralysis of the Retina, Page 264. 
 Rash breaking out on fourth day; coughing; little sneezing; sore throat; in- 
 flamed eyes; fever; swollen eyelids; fast breathing. Measles, Page 261. 
 Rectum. Turning out of the rectum. Eversion of the Rectum, Page 254. 
 
242 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Ring-like patches of hair dropping from the skin, the center of these patches 
 becoming dry and the edges moist. Ringworm, Page 266. 
 
 Rooting; looseness or costiveness of bowels; sometimes a little blood and 
 mucus in the manure; enormous appetite with little improvement in flesh; 
 uneasiness ; pain ; scratching of nose and hind parts. Worms, Page 271. 
 
 Running about wildly in last stages of the disease ; generally running in a 
 circle; running into objects; rapid laborious breathing; poor appetite. In 
 first stages the sympto.ms are : blood-shot eyes ; disinclination to move ; 
 acts stupid; bowels constipated; pulse hard and quick. Epilepsy, Page 
 253. 
 
 Running into objects ; hog acts stupid ; running in a circle ; falling over and 
 straightening out legs ; frothing at the mouth ; rapid laborious breathing. 
 Blind Staggers, Page 249. 
 
 Sack. Testicle sack is greatly enlarged and feels dough-like and soft to the 
 touch. Scrotal Hernia or Rupture. 
 
 Scaly appearance of skin; pimples appearing on the skin from which fluid 
 oozes ; fluid hardens and comes off giving the skin a scaly appearance. 
 Scaly Skin Disease, Page 266. 
 
 Scratching of nose and hind parts ; rooting; looseness or costiveness of bowels ; 
 sometimes a little blood and mucus in the manure; enormous appetite; 
 with little improvement in flesh ; uneasiness ; pain. Worms, Page 271. 
 
 Shaking and trembling and bending of head following an unthrifty condition. 
 The pig soon gets stiff and tumbles over, struggling a short time. After 
 lying quiet for a little while he gets up and acts perfectly well until an- 
 other sick spell overtakes him. Fits in Pigs, Page 254. 
 
 Shifting the weight from one foot to another continually; walking with fore- 
 feet far in advance of the body. Founder or Sore Feet, "Page 267. 
 
 Shivering; hiding under the litter; disinclined to move about; loss of appetite; 
 sluggishness; weakness; high fever; lying on belly; weakness of hind 
 limbs at first and later of front limbs ; inflamed eyes and gummed lids ; red 
 or purplish blotches on the skin, especially on the abdomen, inside the 
 legs and around the neck and ears ; rapid, weak pulse ; dry snout covered 
 with blood-stained spots; intense thirst; bowels tight at first but later 
 loose and offensive ; tender abdomen ; often a hard cough ; many hogs dy- 
 ing within a few days. Hog Cholera (acute), Page 254. 
 
 Sitting on haunches ; hog moves head from side to side ; changes position fre- 
 quently ; grunts ; squeals ; sometimes bloats. Colic, Page 251. 
 
 Skin. Hair dropping from the skin in ring-like patches; the center of these 
 patches becoming dry and the edges moist. Ringworm, Page 266. 
 
 Skin hot and dry ; throat inclined to fill up ; spasmodic coughing ; difficulty in 
 swallowing dry feed. Sore Throat, Page 268. 
 
 Skin. Pimples appearing on the skin from which fluid oozes; fluid hardens 
 and comes off giving the skin a scaly appearance. Scaly Skin Disease, 
 Page 266. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE 243 
 
 Slaver covering tongue when it protrudes from the mouth ; soreness and swell- 
 ing of glands under the throat followed by difficult swallowing and breath- 
 ing ; neck swollen. Quinsy, Page 265. 
 
 Slavering; gnashing of teeth; eyes have a distressful and staring expression; 
 poor appetite; some fever. Later yellowish-white pimples that are full 
 of pus come on the cheeks, lips and tongue. These pimples though yellow- 
 ish-white at first, soon change to brown and then to black. Gum Mouth, 
 Page 254. 
 
 Sluggishness disinclination to move when disturbed ; coughing when sud- 
 denly aroused ; loss of appetite and flesh ; growing so weak they walk with 
 an uncertain gait, sometimes staggering; hind legs particularly weak; 
 eyes inflamed and lids gummed together ; profuse diarrhea ; sick for several 
 months. Hog Cholera (chronic form), Page 254. 
 
 Sneezing; membrane of the nose swollen and dry; loss of appetite; discharge 
 from nose ; the nose is inflamed and the inflammation steadily increases. 
 Nasal Catarrh, Page 262. 
 
 Snuffling; discharge of mucus from the nose and discharges of blood in severe 
 cases. Snuffles, Page 267. 
 
 Sores back of pig's ears. Sorehead, Page 268. 
 
 Soreness of sow's tail due to sort of cancerous condition developed during pig- 
 ging time. Cancer of the Tail, Page 250. 
 
 Sores. Large sores on the skin caused by rubbing; severe itching; scabs on 
 the skin. Mange, Page 261. 
 
 Spots of red or purple color on the skin, especially on the abdomen, inside the 
 legs and around the neck and ears; blood-stained spots on snout; dry 
 snout; disinclined to move about; poor appetite; weakness; shivering; 
 fever; hiding under litter; weakness of hind limbs at first and then of 
 fore limbs ; inflamed eyes and gummed lids ; intense thirst ; bowels tight 
 at first but later loose and offensive ; tender abdomen ; many hogs dying 
 within a few days. Hog Cholera (acute), Page 254. 
 
 Spots red in color on- inside of legs, on abdomen, breast and neck ; these spots 
 soon turn to erysipelatous swellings; refusal of food; gait unsteady; dull- 
 ness ; burying head or whole body in litter ; lying down more than usual ; 
 chills alternating with fever in quick succession ; fast pulse ; constipated 
 bowels ; manure dark colored and hard ; dullness ; increasing fever ; in last 
 stages hind quarters are paralyzed and convulsions set in. Erysipelas, 
 Page 253. 
 
 Stiffness and tumbling over following a shaking and trembling and bending 
 of the head. The pig remains quiet for a short time and then gets up 
 and acts perfectly well until another sick spell overtakes him. Fits 
 in Pigs, Page 254. 
 
 Stiffness, dullness; fever; fast pulse; poor appetite; thirst; stupor; vomiting; 
 delirium. Scarlet Fever, Page 267. 
 
 Straining and unable to empty the bowels. Stricture of the Rectum, Page 
 263. 
 
244 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Straining and vomiting ; extreme looseness of bowels. Diarrhea and Scours, 
 Page 252. 
 
 Straw. Hiding under litter; disinclined to move about; loss of appetite; 
 sluggishness; weakness; shivering; high fever; lying on belly; weakness 
 of hind limbs at first and later of front limbs ; inflamed eyes and gummed 
 lids; red or purplish blotches on the skin; especially on the abdomen, in- 
 side the legs and around the neck and ears ; rapid weak pulse ; dry snout 
 covered with blood-stained spots ; intense thirst ; bowels tight at first but 
 later loose and offensive ; tender abdomen ; often a hard cough, dying 
 within a few days. Hog Cholera (acute), Page 254. 
 
 Stupid actions of hog; running into objects; running in a circle; falling over 
 and straightening out legs ; frothing at the mouth ; rapid laborious breath- 
 ing. Blind Staggers, Page 249. 
 
 Stupid, restless; the eyes are prominent and blood-shot; suddenly the hog 
 may drop as though hit with a sledge hammer and the limbs become 
 straightened and stiff; he may seem dead but for his heavy breathing. 
 Apoplexy, Page 249. 
 
 Swaggering and unsteady gait ; much pain ; temperature changing from fever- 
 ish heat to cold chills in rapid succession; very red mucous membrane; 
 vomiting a discolored or bloody fluid ; convulsions. Apoplectic Anthrax, 
 Page 249. 
 
 Swallowing is difficult when eating dry feed ; spasmodic coughing ; throat in- 
 clined to fill up ; dry and hot skin. Sore Throat, Page 268. 
 
 Swallowing with difficulty ; skin hot and dry ; throat inclined to fill up ; spas- 
 modic coughing. Sore Throat, Page 268. 
 
 Swelling, heat or tenderness of a tendon, joint or bunch of muscles; indis- 
 position to move; langour; dullness; lameness in one or more limbs. 
 Rheumatism, Page 266. 
 
 Swelling on the neck near the larynx that is extremely painful. The hair 
 on this swelling is soon bleached and stands on end. It is brittle and hard. 
 In the later stages of the disease the following symptoms are prominent : 
 grating and gnashing of teeth; laborious breathing; groaning, convul- 
 sions. The diseased hog dies within a few days. White Bristle, Page 
 271. 
 
 Swelling on throat that is painful, hot and hard; there is wheezing; laborious 
 breathing ; swollen tongue ; hoarse grunting ; dry snout ; brownish-red 
 color of the mucous membrane of the mouth ; attempts to vomit ; difficulty 
 in swallowing food; high fever. (This disease usually comes as an epi- 
 demic and spreads over a large territory) . Malignant Angina, Page 260. 
 
 Swollen testicle sack that feels dough-like and soft to the touch. Scrotal 
 Hernia or Rupture, Page 263. 
 
 Tears falling over cheeks ; inflamed eyeballs. Inflammation of the Eyes, Page 
 259. 
 
 Teeth. Grating and gnashing of teeth following a swelling on the neck near 
 the larynx that is extremely painful. (The hair on this swelling soon be- 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE 245 
 
 comes bleached, stands on end, and is brittle and hard); groaning; con- 
 vulsions. The diseased hogs die within a few days. White Bristle 
 Page 271. 
 
 Testicle sack is greatly enlarged and feels dough-like and soft to the touch. 
 Scrotal Hernia. 
 
 Thirst (in sows) ; poor appetite; dullness; fever; much pain. Inflammation of 
 the Womb, Page 259. 
 
 Thirst intense ; inflamed eyes and gummed lids ; bowels tight at first but later 
 loose and offensive; tender abdomen; many hogs dying within a few 
 days ; red or purple spots on the skin, especially on the abdomen, inside 
 the legs and around the neck and ears ; blood-stained spots on the snout ; 
 snout dry ; disinclined to move about ; poor appetite ; weakness ; shivering; 
 high fever ; hiding under litter ; weakness of hind limbs at first and then 
 of fore limbs. Hog Cholera (acute), Page 254. 
 
 Throat has a swelling on it that is painful, hot and hard; there is wheezing; 
 laborious breathing; swollen tongue; hoarse grunting; dry snout; brown- 
 ish-red color of the mucous membrane of the mouth; attempts to vomit; 
 difficulty in swallowing food ; high fever. (This disease usually comes 
 as an epidemic and spreads over a large territory.) Malignant Angina, 
 Page 260. 
 
 Throat inclined to fill up ; dry and hot skin ; difficulty in swallowing; dry feed ; 
 spasmodic coughing. Sore Throat, Page 268. 
 
 Throat sore; coughing; rash breaking out on fourth day; some sneezing; 
 inflamed eyes; fever; swollen eye lids; fast breathing. Measles, Page 
 261 
 
 Throat. Soreness and swelling of glands under the throat followed by diffi- 
 cult swallowing and breathing; swelling of neck; protruding of tongue 
 from mouth covered with slaver. Quinsy, Page 265. 
 
 Toes have blisters or tumors between them; the mouth is also blistered; 
 fever ; perhaps dullness. Aphthous Fever, Page 248. 
 
 Tongue protruding from mouth covered with slaver; soreness and swelling 
 of glands under the throat followed by difficult swallowing and breathing; 
 swelling of neck. Quinsy, Page 265. 
 
 Tongue swollen; wheezing; laborious breathing; hoarse grunting; dryness of 
 snout; brownish-red color of the mucous membranes of the mouth; trying 
 to vomit ;" difficulty in swallowing food ; swelling on the throat that is 
 painful, hot and hard; high fever. (This disease usually comes as an 
 epidemic and spreads over a large territory.) Malignant Angina, Page 
 260 
 
 Trembling and shaking; bending of head; unthrifty condition. The pig soon 
 gets stiff and tumbles over, struggling a short time. After lying quiet for 
 a little while he gets up and acts perfectly well until another sick spell 
 overtakes him. Fits in Pigs, Page 254. 
 
 Tumors. Soft tumors found near the outer opening of the large bowel that 
 bleed very easily. In case they do not bleed they are called blind piles. 
 Piles, Page 264. 
 
246 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Turning out of the rectum. Eversion of the Rectum, Page 254. 
 
 Udder tender and hard ; loss of appetite ; fever ; shrinkage in milk. Inflamed 
 Udder, Page 259. 
 
 Urine brown in color and scanty ; bowels either too loose or costive ; craving 
 for filthy food ; loss of appetite ; fits (in young pigs) ; fever. Indigestion, 
 Page 259. 
 
 Vomiting a discolored or bloody fluid ; convulsions ; swaggering and unsteady 
 gait; much pain ; temperature changing from feverish heat to cold chills in 
 rapid succession; very red mucous membrane. Apoplectic Anthrax, 
 Page 249. 
 
 Vomiting and straining; extreme looseness of bowels. Diarrhea and Scours, 
 Page 252. 
 
 Vomiting; chills; bloating; pain; fever; quick breathing; tenderness of abdo- 
 men ; quickened pulse. Peritonitis, Page 264. 
 
 Vomiting dark colored blood containing particles of food; loss of appetite. 
 Blood from Stomach, Page 250. 
 
 Vomiting ; manure clay colored ; yellow appearing pig ; poor appetite ; dullness ; 
 constipation; digestion out of order. Yellows, P'age 272. 
 
 Vomiting; severe distress and' uneasiness coming on very suddenly some- 
 times ; some bloating. Obstruction of the Bowels, Page 263. 
 
 Vomiting; stiffness; dullness; fever; fast pulse; poor appetite; thirst; stupor; 
 delirium. Scarle^ Fever, Page 267. 
 
 Vomiting. Vomiting, Page 271. 
 
 Walking with forefeet far in advance of the body Continually shifting the 
 weight from one foot to another. Founder or Sore Feet, Page 267. 
 
 Weakness ; continual falling away of flesh ; diarrhea or constipation ; dry, per- 
 sistent, harsh cough ; rapid breathing, especially when exercised. (The 
 symptoms of tuberculosis have no very decided characteristics. The 
 tuberculin test is a surer way of determining the presence of the disease). 
 Tuberculosis, Page 269. 
 
 Wheezing; laborious breathing; swelling of tongue; hoarse grunting; dryness 
 of snout ; brownish-red color of the mucous membranes of the mouth ; 
 trying to vomit ; difficulty in swallowing food ; swelling on the throat 
 that is painful, hot and hard ; high fever. This disease generally appears 
 as an epidemic, spreading over a large territory). Malingant Angina, 
 Page 260. 
 
 Yellow appearance of pig; poor appetite; dullness; constipation; clay colored 
 manure ; vomiting ; digestion out of order. Yellows, Page 272. 
 
 Yellowish mucous membrances; constipation; dullness; some cough; generally 
 comes on in hot weather. Liver Disease, Page 260. 
 
 Yellow thin manure ; much pain. Diarrhea and Scours, Page 252. 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF SWINE. 
 
 Castration. 
 
 This consists in the removal of the sex organs of the male pigs. 
 
 Castrating Pigs. Boar pigs should be castrated when they are from two 
 to eight weeks old so that they may recover before weaning time. The 
 earlier a pig is castrated the easier it seems to be for him. A young pig can 
 easily be castrated by one person if no help is at hand. To do this stand 
 the pig on his head in a nail keg or something of a like shape to prevent his 
 troublesome resistance. If help is at hand the assistant may hold the pig in 
 position. It is usually better to have a carbolic acid solution (1 part to 50 
 of water) at hand in which to dip the knife and hands and wash off the 
 parts. Many pigs come through an operation when no disinfectant is used 
 but of course there is danger in the practice. To remove the testicles place 
 the left hand under the sack and make a bold incision large enough for the 
 testicles to escape. Separate the testicles from the covering and tie a piece 
 of linen thread around the cord to prevent bleeding. Cut the cord just above 
 the thread. If the thread does not fall off it can be pulled off in a few days. 
 If flies are troublesome it is a good plan to pour some coal oil into and over 
 the wound. 
 
 Castrating a Boar. A boar may be castrated at almost any convenient 
 time. The operation is performed the same as for pigs unless he is ruptured. 
 If this is the case the hind quarters should be elevated a few inches. The 
 sack should be washed, then an incision made to, but not through the last 
 covering of the testicles. This should be taken out with the testicles by 
 separating it from the outer covering, forcing the testicles out, tying a string 
 around the cord about three inches above the testicles, and cutting off the 
 cord. Be sure the string is tight enough to keep the bowels from slipping 
 out If maggots develop in a wound apply buttermilk or turpentine. 
 
 Castrating a Ridgling. In a ridgling the testicles are not in their proper 
 place but are in the body of the animal, just behind the kidneys. To remove 
 them cut him in the side about midway up and down and a little back of the 
 last rib. Make an incision large enough to admit the whole hand. Through 
 this opening the seeds can be easily found and pulled out. 
 
 Giving a Hog Medicine. 
 
 In drenching a hog you will find it much handier to use a rubber hose 
 instead of a bottle as the hog may break the latter. The hose is run into the 
 back part of the mouth and the medicine poured through it. 
 Will Saunders, DeWitt, la., Route 1. 
 
 To drench a hog cut the toe from an old shoe, put the shoe into 1 
 part of the mouth and pour the medicine in at the top. I have found this 
 very handy. Will Saunders, DeWitt, la., Route 1. 
 
 247 
 
248 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Conditioners for Hogs. 
 
 Keep a mixture of equal parts of air slaked-lime and salt before the 
 hogs. This will help keep them in good health. Put this in a box where 
 they cannot get on to it with their feet. 
 
 Charcoal is fine for keeping the hogs in good health if kept before them 
 continually. (Good charcoal can be made by burning corn cobs to a red hot 
 mass and throwing water upon them.) 
 
 Smartweed tea is recommended as being excellent for bringing a hog 
 into good health at the first indication of anything being wrong. To make 
 the tea, take common smartweed, in its green state, press out the juice, and 
 mix it in the swill. Use just enough to make them sneeze hard. If one 
 desires to use the herb the year around it will only be necessary to gather it 
 when in bloom, tie it into bunches, and hang it in a dry, sheltered place. A 
 tea can then be made by boiling the weed. The smartweed with the nar- 
 rowest leaves is best for the purpose. 
 
 Keep a mixture of soft coal and wood ashes before the hogs. It is also 
 well to add a little salt. To last ]00 hogs about 4 months use about 5 tons of 
 so-called slack coal, 4 barrels of wood ashes, and one barrel of salt. This 
 can be kept in a box so that the hogs can dig it out from the bottom thus 
 keeping them out of it with their feet. 
 
 Acute Indigestion. 
 
 Too fast eating of strange food; overeating, or fermentation of food 
 already eaten ; frozen food or gas develops acute or crampy attacks, and may 
 cause rolling, or loud squealing. Immediate attention should be given as 
 chronic cases develop from lack of attention. 
 
 Treatment. Give a tablespoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia every 
 hour until the bloat goes down. Follow this up with a teaspoonful of ginger 
 or a tablespoonful of powdered charcoal at a dose in the feed two or three 
 times daily. Hot water is used by many farmers. Proper feeding will elim- 
 inate most of the diseases in stock. Read thoroughly all the Animal Hus- 
 bandry Department. 
 
 Aphthous Fever. 
 
 This is a contagious, eruptive disease, appearing between the toes or in 
 the mouth in the form of tumors. Contagion; improper feeding, and filth 
 are the causes. 
 
 Symptoms. Appearance of blisters or tumors on the mouth or between 
 the toes; fever; perhaps dullness. 
 
 Treatment. Isolate the diseased hogs and dress the hoofs with sulphate 
 of copper or lime wash. 
 
 Thoroughly mix the manure with lime or a solution of one teaspoonful 
 carbolic acid to a cup of water and put it where the other animals will not 
 come in contact with it. Chloride of lime will act in the same way. Put 
 some strong vinegar in the drinking water of the affected hogs or give them 
 skim milk to drink. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 249 
 
 Many hogs have been cured of aphthous fever by a solution of about one 
 tablespoonful of salicylic acid to a quart of water freely applied to the dis- 
 eased mouth and feet, also to the runs and houses. 
 
 Apoplexy. 
 
 This is an ailment that occurs in fat hogs. It is caused by an over- 
 supply of blood and fat. 
 
 Symptoms. The hog first acts stupid and restless; the eyes are prom- 
 inent and blood-shot; suddenly the hog may drop as though hit with a sledge- 
 hammer and the limbs become straightened and stiff; he may appear dead 
 but for his heavy breathing. 
 
 Treatment. If the attack occurs in hot weather put the hog in a cool 
 place and supply cold packs or ice to the head. Keep the bowels loose by 
 giving epsom salts in 2 or 3-ounce doses. Feed lightly. Proper care in feed- 
 ing, especially if for fattening, will prevent too high a blood pressure. A 
 veterinarian can bleed successfully and profitably if the hog is ,a good one. 
 
 Apoplectic Anthrax. 
 
 This is the most acute form of Anthrax. It seldom occurs in hogs and 
 when it does occur it generally terminates so quickly that nothing can be 
 done for the patient. The raiser usually comes just in time to see the hog 
 fall down and die, or to find him dead before he even knew the animal was 
 sick. This disease is caused by contagion ; filthy quarters and grounds ; poor 
 feeding ; and over exposure to heat and cold. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain; swaggering unsteady gait; temperature changing 
 from feverish heat to cold chills alternately and in rapid succession; very 
 red mucous membrane : vomiting a discolored or bloody fluid ; and convul- 
 sions. In some cases a carbuncle may make its appearance shortly before 
 death. 
 
 Treatment. We can suggest no cure for this disease. About all that 
 can be done is to isolate the diseased hog if possible as a protection to the 
 rest of the herd. The body should be burned or buried under a few inches of 
 quick lime and the premises thoroughly disinfected. Some farmers write 
 they have had success with this ailment by bleeding the hog. 
 
 Blind Staggers. 
 
 Over-feeding; filthy surroundings; and over-exposure in changeable 
 weather cause congestion of bowels and blood rushes to the brain too swiftly. 
 
 Symptoms. Hog acting stupid ; running into objects ; running in a cir- 
 cle ; falling over and straightening out legs ; frothing at the mouth ; and rapid 
 laborious breathing. 
 
 Treatment. Put the hog in a dry, clean pen. Make it as comfortable 
 as possible. Feed lightly. Many farmers draw a little blood which relieves 
 
250 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 the pressure. Put cold water or ice packs to the head and give from 2 to 3 
 ounces of epsom salts. Repeat the dose of salts when necessary. Give a 
 teaspoonful of calomel immediately. Next slit the skin on the head clear to 
 the bone above the eyes and put salt and pepper in the opening. If this does 
 not set up a counter irritation, apply a strong liniment on the upper part of 
 the head and around the base of the ears. Feed lightly. Epsom salts may 
 be given in 2 or 3-ounce doses in place of calomel to loosen the bowels. 
 
 Blood from Stomach. 
 
 Injuries to the stomach, from bunting, kicking, or when a pig swallows 
 a bone or some other hard substance that causes bleeding. 
 
 Symptoms. Vomiting blood (The blood should be examined and if it 
 contains particles of food and is dark colored it comes from the stomach.) 
 and a loss of appetite. There may be a coughing of blood. 
 
 Treatment. Take a teaspoonful of cold water and into this put about 
 ten drops of aconite and give as a dose every two or three hours. 
 
 Bronchitis. 
 
 As this disease is usually fatal great care should be taken with young 
 pigs to see that they are not exposed to wet and cold, especially after being 
 overheated; dusty quarters, lungworms, or condition of the atmosphere may 
 cause it. 
 
 Symptoms. Loss of appetite; cough; discharge of mucus from mouth 
 (sometimes from the nose too); fast difficult breathing; holding head out; 
 fever; weakness in limbs and stumbling. 
 
 Treatment. Give good quarters and a well balanced ration. Feed lightly 
 during the acute stage of the disease. Plasters on chest will give relief from 
 pain. Steaming is often used. Give from one-half to two ounce doses of 
 castor oil and allow the animal to inhale steam. Hold a vessel containing 
 one-half per cent boiling hot water solution of tar disinfectant or turpentine 
 close to the hog's nostrils, and allow the patient to inhale the steam for about 
 ten minutes. Do this three or four times daily. Throw a light cloth over the 
 head of the hog and over the pan to make the steam go into his nostrils. 
 
 Cancer of the Tail. 
 
 Sometimes during pigging time a sow develops sort of a cancerous con- 
 dition of the tail which may cause the tail to fall off if it is not given proper 
 care. 
 
 Treatment. Reduce the feed of the sow for ten or twelve days after 
 pigging and give a little sulphur (afeout a teaspoonful) two or three times a 
 week. A mixture of turpentine and lard has given good results as an applica- 
 tion as has kerosene oil with several drops of carbolic acid added. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 251 
 
 Colds. 
 
 The causes are improper care, exposure to cold and wet ; sudden changes 
 in temperature; and filth. 
 
 Symptoms. Discharges of mucus from the nose; coughing; heaving at 
 the flanks, and loss of appetite. 
 
 Treatment. Put the pig in a warm, dry pen. Feed loosening food such 
 as warm slop and vegetables. A full tablespoonful of tar is good. Steaming 
 with tar is also beneficial. Moisten some mustard flour with vinegar and apply 
 it to the chest and throat. 
 
 Colic. 
 
 Eating indigestible or frozen food, too much exposure, and lack of range 
 cause colic. 
 
 Symptoms. Hog sits on its haunches; moves head from side to side; 
 rolls ; changes position frequently ; grunts and sometimes bloats. 
 
 Treatment. Drench the hog with some warm lard. Give the hog a 
 teaspoonful of soda in a quart of buttermilk. Repeat in ]/ 2 hour if necessary. 
 Put soda in buttermilk just before giving. Mix a tablespoonful each of ginger 
 and common baking soda. Dissolve this in warm water and use as a drench. 
 
 Congestion of the Lungs. 
 
 This is caused by stagnation of blood in the lungs; keeping fat pigs in 
 close, filthy quarters. Feeding too much fat-making food is often a cause. 
 
 Symptoms. Great distress ; head held down and mouth open ; weak 
 pulse ; cold extremities ; pig cannot stand ; in some cases blood running out 
 of nose. Hard breathing is heard. 
 
 Treatment. Act promptly to prevent this disease developing into inflam- 
 mation of the lungs. Put the patient in warm, comfortable quarters and give 
 stimulants. Either aromatic spirits of ammonia or l / 2 teaspoonful of camphor 
 in a glass of milk is good. Put warm woolen blankets on the body and rub 
 the legs briskly. It is good to rub a solution of 1 pint witch-hazel and 1 tea- 
 spoonful of capsicum on the legs. Ammonia will act best in the beginning 
 and the stimulants later. 
 
 Constipation. 
 
 Constipation keeps the bowels from doing their normal work. Such a 
 condition shows that something is radically wrong in the swineyard. Bulk 
 food, lack of exercise, a cold or other common causes bring on constipation. 
 
 Symptoms. Passing of dry dung in compact, ball-like masses. Some- 
 times crampy pains and loss of appetite. 
 
 Treatment. Give the hog exercise and a more cooling loosening diet. 
 Green feed or soft mashes are good. Give stimulants and tonics if hog is weak. 
 2^ drams of green soap; \y 2 oz. of linseed oil and 15 oz. boiled water divided 
 
252 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 into five parts and injected into the rectum every half hour is good; 1 fluid 
 ounce of syrup of buckthorn is often used. Prepare a bran mash with hot 
 water and feed it to the constipated hogs. 
 
 Diarrhea and Scours. 
 
 Extreme looseness of bowels. Decayed foods; too much food; an in- 
 flamed and irritated condition of stomach and intestines ; unsanitary condi- 
 tions; improper action of liver; over-exercising on a hot day; all cause loose- 
 ness in bowels. 
 
 Symptoms. Extreme looseness of bowels. Much distress is shown and 
 dung is yellow. An acid condition is shown by straining and vomiting. 
 
 Treatment. It is important to remove the cause. Do not feed filthy food. 
 Keep the place clean. A paste of flour and water is good and healthy. Castor 
 oil is healing and can be given with good results. Plenty of water acts as a 
 cleanser. 1 grain of rhubarb and 10 grains of calcium carbonate may be used. 
 Any good astringent remedy will have the proper effect. Put a tablespoonful 
 of air-slaked lime in the slop of the pigs about 3 times a week. Give the 
 sow the amount of sulphur that will stand on a 5 cent piece, in a little milk or 
 upon a small piece of bread. Give 1 hour before feeding. 
 
 Dysentery. 
 
 This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels. It is 
 accompanied by frequent passing of feces containing mucus and blood. There 
 is too much acid in the system. 
 
 Eating rotten meat or vegetables ; lying in cold damp places ; inactive 
 liver ; worms, and constipation are many causes. 
 
 Symptoms. Uneasiness ; poor appetite ; dullness ; colic pains ; little fever 
 and bloat ; bad smelling feces passing off dry at first, but later thin feces con- 
 taining blood or mucus. 
 
 Treatment. Give big dose of castor oil, followed by calomel and 25 drops 
 of camphor. Give starch water. A teaspoonful of ginger is good in the last 
 stages of their sickness. Give three times daily until relieved. 
 
 Eating of Pigs. 
 
 Treatment. Keep a mixture of equal parts of sulphur, salt, wood ashes 
 and soft coal before the sows. Do this just before farrowing time. She likes 
 lime and eats the little pigs for that in their bones. If a sow is eating her 
 pigs, try feeding her pork which is well salted. This is expensive and it is 
 far better to. prevent rather than to cure. 
 
 Enteritis. 
 
 Often improper food is taken into the lower bowels and develops an 
 inflamed condition caused by colds; constipation; and drinking filthy water. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 253 
 
 Symptoms. Some indications are loss of desire to eat ; fever ; great thirst ; 
 much distress ; diarrhea with feces showing red ; weakness ; and the mouth is 
 dry and hot. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the pig on liquid food for a few days and apply water 
 and mustard to the belly each day. Any good cathartic can be given to move 
 the bowels and after the action ceases to be caustic a healing remedy like 
 olive oil should be given. 
 
 Epilepsy. 
 
 Overfeeding on rich food when the hogs are not receiving enough fresh 
 air and exercise ; exposure to changeable, stormy weather ; injuries ; faulty 
 circulation ; and other ailments cause thick blood or inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. First symptoms ; dullness ; hog is not inclined to move ; and 
 acts dull; blood-shot eyes; constipated bowels; and hard and quick pulse. 
 Later symptoms poor appetite; delirium (the hog runs about wildly, gen- 
 erally in a circle. He seems blind and runs into things. The breathing seems 
 rapid and laborious). 
 
 Treatment. Remove the cause if possible. If the attack occurs in hot 
 weather put the hog in a cool shed. Move the hog's bowels by giving a dose 
 of from 2 to 3 ounces of epsom salts. Tincture of aconite in four drop doses 
 should be given every three hours. Caution: Do not give aconite if it makes 
 the animal vomit. Rub a strong liniment on the neck twice daily at the point 
 where the brain and spinal cord meet. Apply ice packs to the neck until the 
 pig improves. Another good remedy is to give a teaspoonful of calomel im- 
 mediately. Next slit the skin on the head clear to the bone above the eyes 
 and put salt and pepper in the opening. If this does not set up a counter 
 irritation, apply a strong liniment on the upper part of the head and around 
 the base of the ears. 
 
 Erysipelas. 
 
 This is a very frequent contagious disease of swine, and is known by the 
 inflammation of the skin and tissue adjoining. Wounds on the skin admit the 
 germs to the blood cells. People are very much affected by this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. First symptoms : weakness ; dullness ; unsteady gait ; refusal 
 of food; rooting in bedding; often burying of head or whole body in straw; 
 lying down more than usual; changeable temperature; chills, with feverish 
 heat following ; fast pulse ; constipated ; excrements passed being dark colored 
 and hard; efforts to vomit in some cases. Later and more pronounced 
 symptoms; red spots on inside of legs, on abdomen, breast and neck; these 
 spots soon turn to swelling; small blisters on parts of swollen surface ; increas- 
 ing fever ; labored breathing ; later the hind quarters of the hog are paralyzed, 
 convulsions set in, and death results if the disease is allowed to run this far. 
 
 Treatment. Open the bowels with salts or castor oil. Feed milk and 
 eggs. Rub parts with hot milk. Open the blisters and apply a solution of 1 
 teaspoonful of carbolic acid in 1 pint of water to them. Give the hog lots of 
 clear, fresh water. 
 
254 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Eversion (Turning Out of the Rectum). 
 
 Poorly kept, neglected pigs are subject to protrusion of the rectum. 
 Straining in pig birth, diarrhea or constipation cause eversion. 
 
 Treatment. Make the patient as comfortable as possible and give a diet 
 of easily digested food. Empty the protruding part, clean it with warm water, 
 gently return the part and push it up a little ways inside the opening. The 
 finger should be oiled, with nails short and smooth. 
 
 Fits in Pigs. 
 
 Improper food regulation, worms and lack of exercise on account of small 
 pens develop poor bowel conditions and cause fits to pigs. 
 
 Symptoms. Poor appearance is first shown ; then the animal shakes and 
 trembles violently. The pig gets stiff, stumbles and struggles a short time. 
 In a little while he gets up and acts well but later has another attack. 
 
 Treatment. Proper attention and a wide range will do a lot toward 
 proper regulation of health. Put y 2 teaspoonful of turpentine in y 2 cup of 
 linseed oil and give in two doses. Repeat it each day if necessary for several 
 days. Ginger in a mash is good to relieve worms. 
 
 Gum Mouth. 
 
 This disease manifests itself in eruptions of the small sacs in the cheeks, 
 lips and tongue. It is a comparatively rare disease, but care should be taken 
 to keep it from spreading. Contagion or filthy condition of premises cause this 
 disease. 
 
 Symptoms. Animal eats very little; restlessness ; a little fever; distress- 
 ful and staring expression of the eyes, slavering and gnashing of teeth. Later 
 yellowish white pimples that are full of pus come on the cheeks, lips and 
 tongue. These pimples, though yellowish-white at first, soon change to brown 
 and then to black. There is a little swelling at the base of each pimple. 
 
 Treatment. First isolate the sick animal to prevent spreading of the con- 
 tagion. Put him in a dry, clean place. Put two ounces of alum into three 
 pints of water and apply to the affected parts three or four times a day. Make 
 a hot liquid food of milk and meal to feed the patient if he lacks strength. 
 When the pimples appear, it will usually be best to open them with a sharp 
 edged spoon (a tin spoon is good) and remove their contents thoroughly. 
 Care must be taken not to allow the pig to swallow the pus. Also the operator 
 must not allow any of the pus to touch him as it is dangerous should there be 
 a break in his skin. Apply a weak carbolic acid solution to the sores after 
 removing the pimples. 
 
 Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. 
 
 Hog Cholera and Swine Plague are so nearly alike that they will be 
 treated as the same disease. The difference in them can only be told by 
 examination of the dead body. In many states, the ravages of this disease 
 cost the farmers over a million dollars annually. Hogs come down with hog 
 cholera from about seven to fourteen days after being exposed. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 
 
 255 
 
 Ulcer* on the Lurgc Intetine 
 of Chofff Hot 
 
 Method of Burning _ Hog 
 from ('holer* 
 
256 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Causes. Hog cholera is believed to be caused by a germ or microbe so 
 small that it cannot be seen with the most powerful microscopes available. 
 This germ is present in the blood and excretions of sick hogs, especially in 
 the urine. Whenever these germs come in contact with a hog, they begin their 
 work immediately and this makes hog cholera highly contagious. 
 
 Predisposing Causes. There are many factors which make a herd more 
 susceptible to hog cholera such as : insanitary condition of hog lots, improper 
 feeding, cold or damp sleeping places, confinement, privation, and dirty feed- 
 ing and drinking troughs. In fact, anything that lowers the vitality of the 
 herd helps to make hogs easy victims to this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. Hog cholera manifests itself in both an acute and chronic 
 form. In the former, the animals die within a few days while in the latter 
 they may live for several weeks. In its acute form, the main symptoms are: 
 loss of appetite, sluggishness, weakness, disinclination to move, shivering, high 
 fever, hiding under litter, lying on belly, weakness of hind limbs at first and 
 later of front limbs, inflamed eyes and gummed lids, red or purplish blotches 
 on the skin, especially on the abdomen, inside the legs and around the neck 
 and ears, rapid, weak pulse, dry snout covered by blood-stained spots, intense 
 thirst, bowels tight at first but later loose and offensive, tender abdomen, and 
 often a hard cough. 
 
 In the chronic form of the disease, the symptoms are similar to those 
 found in an acute case such as : sluggishness and disinclination to move when 
 disturbed, coughing when suddenly aroused, loss of appetite and flesh, growing 
 so weak they walk with an uncertain gait, sometimes staggering, hind legs 
 particularly weak, eyes inflamed and lids gummed together, profuse diarrhea. 
 
 The symptoms of hog cholera are not particularly characteristic and only 
 such as might be observed in any severe disease. But if these symptoms 
 appear in several or all of the hogs in a herd and the disease is seen to be 
 contagious, cholera is probably present, though the only sure way of telling 
 is by holding a post-mortem examination. 
 
 Simple Method of Examining a Hog After Dying From Hog Cholera. 
 Lay the hog on his back and make an incision through the skin and under- 
 lying fat. Begin at the throat and cut the entire length of the body. Next cut 
 under the skin covering the chest so as to expose the ribs. Now sever the 
 ribs, beginning at their lower border about one or two inches on either side 
 o'f the breast bone and cutting toward the head, and remove them entirely. 
 Next make crosswise cuts from the first long incision toward each leg so that 
 the skin may be laid back on both sides of the body. 
 
 Caution. Do not injure the organs in opening the carcass. Also avoid 
 having any open cuts or bruises in your hands where germs might enter. 
 Cholera germs will not affect man but the body of a hog may be full of other 
 germs that might prove dangerous. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 257 
 
 Important Symptoms Found in Post-Mortem. 
 
 Red spots on the skin. 
 
 Bloody spots in the kidneys, on the surface of the heart, in the lungs, or 
 the outer and inner surface of the stomach and the intestines. 
 
 An enlarged spleen. (The spleen is found on the right har.d side as one 
 views the hog on his back. It lies a little below and to the ~2ght of the 
 stomach). 
 
 Reddened lymphatic glands. (These glands are easily recognized by the 
 farmer. The ones to be examined are in the fat immediately under the skin 
 of the abdomen near the center between the hind legs). 
 
 Ulcers on the inner lining of the large intestine. 
 
 All of the above indications are seldom found in a hog that has died 
 from cholera. In acute cases the hog may show only an enlarged spleen or a 
 bloody condition of the lymphatic glands, while in chronic cases there may 
 only be the button-like ulcers in the large intestine. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. Hog cholera is easier to prevent than it is to 
 cure. The preventive measures to be followed are : Keep all newly purchased 
 stock away from the herd for at least thirty days, give the hogs clean, dry 
 sleeping places, keep the feeding and drinking troughs clean, scatter slaked 
 lime about the lots occasionally and disinfect the troughs and buildings with 
 a compound solution of cresol (U. S. P.) or carbolic acid, do not put hogs 
 that have recovered from cholera with susceptible ones for at least two 
 months after complete recovery and then dip them in a disinfectant solution 
 first (compound solution of cresol 1 to 100), protect the hogs from hot, reeking 
 beds of manure, keep away from all places where the disease exists, a man 
 may carry the germs on his shoes ; keep all persons away from your place who 
 have been where the disease exists, separate the well and diseased animals; 
 burn, or if buried cover with lime, all dead bodies; do not leave slop or water 
 in the troughs for the hogs to wallow in ; keep the animals in good vigorous 
 health. 
 
 Many farmers have kept their hogs from getting cholera by using one of 
 the following receipts; 
 
 Two pounds each of Copperas, Sulphur and Madder, one-half pound each 
 of Saltpeter and Black Antimony, and two ounces of Arsenic. This quantity 
 is enough for 100 hogs. It is put in the slop allowing one small tablespoonful 
 to each full grown hog once a day. This receipt was recommended by a 
 prominent farmer in Illinois who writes that every time he tried it he had 
 about fifty head of hogs and that not one of them died that could walk to the 
 trough and drink the preparation. 
 
 Thoroughly dissolve one pound of Copperas in three gallons of water. 
 Apply this as a wash to the affected hogs whenever the skin begins to look 
 scaly and rough, or of a dark red color. Have the wash about milk-warm and 
 apply by dipping the hog into a barrel containing the solution or rubbing 
 
258 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 the solution on the hog until thoroughly wet. Apply the wash every day until 
 the scales are removed. Begin to use it before the alarming symptoms of 
 purging and vomiting set in. 
 
 For hog cholera the following prescription is the most effective remedy 
 I have ever seen tried writes a man who should know: Flour of Sulphur 8 
 ounces, pulverized charcoal 4 ounces, pulverized capsicum 2 ounces, pulverized 
 rhubarb 3 ounces, carbonate of iron 8 ounces, pulverized golden seal 1 ounce. 
 Mix thoroughly when ready for use. Put in air tight package to preserve 
 the strength. 
 
 Preventing Hog 1 Cholera and Swine Plague by Vaccination. A great 
 many hogs may be saved by treating the herd with a properly prepared serum. 
 There are two methods of treatment as follows : 
 
 Serum Inoculation. In this method the hogs which are to be protected 
 are injected on the inside of the hind leg with a dose of serum alone. This 
 injection will serve to protect them for several weeks and in case those treated 
 become exposed to hog cholera during this time, they will, so far as experi- 
 ments have shown, be protected for life. 
 
 Simultaneous Inoculation. The same serum is used in this method as 
 is used in the serum inoculation. However, in addition to the serum, there 
 is injected on the opposite side of the body a small amount of blood taken 
 from a hog sick with cholera. This treatment confers a lasting and permanent 
 immunity upon the hogs. 
 
 The length of time that protection is desired should govern one in his 
 choice of the method of vaccination to be used, remembering that the "Serum 
 inoculation" protects the hogs only for a few weeks unless exposed, while 
 the "Simultaneous inoculation" protects them for life. Vaccination should 
 be used mainly as a preventative. Little success can be expected in herds 
 that are badly affected before the vaccinating is done. 
 
 In many states the law permits the farmer to inoculate his own hogs 
 which if done temporarily, needing repetition, will save considerable for the 
 farmer. It is safe if directions given with the serum are followed closely. 
 
 If you find a case of cholera in a herd bend every effort at once to stamp 
 out the infection and prevent its spreading. Careless, indifferent treatment 
 is of no use in hog cholera. Isolate the affected animals and disinfect the 
 premises thoroughly. Feed a very light ration of thin slop of shorts or other 
 ground feed. Powdered copper sulphate can be given in the drinking water 
 and feed. Eight ounces of the powdered drug may be dissolved in one gallon 
 of warm water and a pint of the solution added to every ten gallons of water 
 and slop fed. Diet the whole herd, feeding only what they will clean up 
 quickly. Do not leave anything in troughs for the hogs to wallow in, disin- 
 fect the troughs thoroughly after each feeding and turn them upside down. 
 Burn all dead bodies or bury them. In burying, cover the bodies with a few 
 inches of quicklime. At the end of an outbreak, clean and disinfect the 
 premises thoroughly. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 259 
 
 Indigestion. 
 
 Insufficient change of diet, lack of exercise, or eating poor food are the 
 usual causes of indigestion in all animals. 
 
 Symptoms. Bowels either "bound up" or too loose; no desire to eat: 
 animal coughs ; urine is dark colored and stinted. The hog usually has a slight 
 fever. 
 
 Treatment. In loose bowels an astringent should be given and then a 
 dose of raw linseed oil will have a healing effect. A dose of castor oil is from 
 one to two ounces and is good. If bowels are costive, give from one to two 
 ounces of salts. An injection of warm water helps. Coffee is good to prevent 
 sickness of the stomach. 
 
 Inflamed Eyes. 
 
 Exposure to heat; cold or sunshine; foreign bodies entering the eyes; 
 and living pens where there are foul vapors develop bad eyes. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflamed eyeballs and tears falling over the cheeks. 
 
 Treatment. Examine the eyes to remove any foreign substance and put 
 the pig in a dark pen. Wash the eyes with hot water and apply boric acid 
 and water (as much acid as the water will dissolve). If a scum comes over 
 the eyes, blow some calomel into them once each day. 
 
 Inflamed Udder. 
 
 Exposure to cold and wet, poor care, and loss of pigs leaving milk unused 
 develops sore and caked udders. 
 
 Symptoms. Fever, a hard udder and drying up of bag; no desire to eat. 
 This may ruin the sow for further breeding so a good pigging or farrowing 
 pen should be used. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the bowels loose with Glauber's salts. Wash the udder 
 with hot water several times daily. Apply camphorated vaseline to the udder 
 once each day. Lard is a good application to apply freely. 
 
 Inflamed Womb. 
 
 Many times a sow is not assisted properly in pigging; or is kept 'in an ill- 
 smelling, damp pen after pigging; or the rectum is turned out. Cleanliness 
 is essential in treatment of all animals. 
 
 Symptoms. Dullness; no desire to eat; fever; and much distress. 
 
 Treatment. The fever should be reduced by giving saltpeter, and the 
 womb washed out with boracic acid and warm boiled water. Put plenty of 
 the acid in the water. It is very good for cleansing and healing. To inject 
 the solution a fountain syringe will be found well adapted to this work. 
 
 Kidney Worms. 
 
 Many worms affect the different parts of an animal. Passage of them 
 or the eggs show their presence, as does also a poor appearance. Worm- 
 
260 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 seed is often given ; a teaspoonful of turpentine to a gallon of liquid food is used 
 by many farmers. Kerosene dips will give good results ; kerosene given inter- 
 nally in small doses have brought improvement in the animal. 
 
 Lameness. 
 
 Bruises, cuts, lack of good bone building food, and kicks cause lameness. 
 Constipation develops a contracted action of the muscles often which makes 
 an animal lame. Plenty of wood ashes and salt or soft coal kept before the 
 hogs will keep them from being lame. Lump sulphur is used by many hog 
 raisers. 
 
 Lice. 
 
 9 
 
 On account of the bristles it is easier to treat for lice than on other animals 
 with more hair. It is also easy to rid a hog, in fact to rid the premises of lice, 
 so no place should have them. Clean pens are not infected by lice. White- 
 washing often brings relief. Tobacco washes are often used. Kerosene 
 rubbed or brushed on with a broom gives good satisfaction. The buildings 
 must be fumigated. Formaldehyde applied with a sprayer is practical. Sul- 
 phur burned carefully is a common remedy. 
 
 Liver Diseases. 
 
 There are so many diseases caused by too much or improper food, and 
 too little exercise that diagnosing a disease is hard for an inexperienced man. 
 Following closely the symptoms will give good results. Lack of exercise; 
 over-feeding on rich foods, and ill-kept surroundings cause liver disease. 
 
 Symptoms. Coughing up irregular matter as well as bad digestion and 
 sluggishness are always seen at this time. 
 
 Treatment. One should attend to the treating of this disease promptly 
 and carefully to prevent other and perhaps more serious complications f-rom 
 starting. See that the hog has clean quarters and good clean water to drink. 
 Relieving the bowels gives the best results. Salts or ginger and soda (1 tea- 
 spoonful each) in warm water, or buttermilk have a good effect. Linseed oil 
 heals the bowels in excessive action. 
 
 Malignant or Gangrenous Angina. 
 
 Description. Malignant Angina is a form of Anthrax that affects swine 
 quite frequently, generally appearing as an epidemic and spreading over a 
 large territory. It has its principal seat in the throat. Angina may be present 
 with other diseases especially malignant erysipelas. Contagion; filth; expo- 
 sure and poor condition cause it. 
 
 Symptoms. Laborious breathing ; wheezing ; swelling of tongue ; hoarse 
 grunting ; dryness of snout ; brownish-red color of the mucous membranes of 
 the mouth ; trying to vomit ; difficulty in swallowing food ; a swelling on the 
 throat that is painful, hot and hard (this swelling sometimes extends as far 
 as the lower surface of the chest and presents a crimson or red appearance 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 261 
 
 at first followed by reddish lead-gray and then purple), and a high fever. 
 The difficulty in breathing increases until the animal may even die of suffoca- 
 tion. He may make desperate attempts to catch a little air by opening the 
 mouth and protruding the swollen tongue. The hog has a high temperature 
 at first but in the later stages of the disease the temperature may go below 
 normal. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. Giving a little carbolic acid in the drinking water 
 or feeding unripe sour apples or sour buttermilk may help prevent your hogs 
 from getting this terrible disease when it is in the neighborhood. The treat- 
 ment to be at all effective in this disease must be begun when the first symp- 
 toms make their appearance. First give an effective emetic of from three to 
 twenty grains (depending on the size and age of the animal) of powdered 
 White Hellebore or of Tartar Emetic. The former is probably more reliable. 
 Give this medicine in a little milk if the hog will drink it. Other ways of 
 giving it are in pieces of boiled potato or a pinch of flour and water in the 
 form of pills. 
 
 Caution. Do not give these as a drench. Repeat the dose if the hog 
 does not vomit in about twenty minutes. This treatment may be followed 
 with doses of calomel, saltpeter, sulphate, or soda to advantage. Many people 
 find that injections of the following solution made through the skin into the 
 swollen parts of the neck at various places give better results than anything 
 else; Carbolic acid y* teaspoonful, glycerine 1 teaspoonful and water 1 tea- 
 cupful. Blood letting is sometimes satisfactory if resorted to in time. If done 
 too late it only hastens death. 
 
 Mange Scab Itch. 
 
 This is an ailment of the skin caused by a parasite and easily carried from 
 one hog to another. 
 
 Symptoms. Severe itching; large sores caused from rubbing; scabs on 
 the skin. 
 
 Treatment. In treating mange, purify all objects around the animals 
 such as sties and rubbing places by covering them with lime or chloride of 
 lime. Wash the hog with a decoction of Tobacco (4 teaspoonfuls of tobacco 
 to 1 pint of water) or Caustic Potash (2 teaspoonfuls Caustic Potash to 1 
 quart water) ; or concentrated vinegar. A couple of days following a thorough 
 application of one of above washes, scrub the hog well with soap and water 
 and apply the following: 
 
 Mange Ointment. Melt \*/ 2 pounds of lard and l / 2 pound of turpentine 
 together. Add 1 pound of Flowers of Sulphur to this and mix well. When 
 cool rub 2 ounces of strong Mercurial Ointment into the mixture. This can 
 be done on a stone slab. Glover's Mange cure is a very well-known remedy. 
 
 Measles. 
 
 This is a contagious disease in hogs that is quite common. It is similar 
 to measles in people and may be carried back and forth between the house 
 and pens. 
 
262 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. In many cases the animal sneezes and coughs, but if the 
 case is light, no sickness may be observed. In bad cases there is a loss of 
 appetite, a rash breaks out in about four days (this is more easily seen on 
 white-skinned hogs), the throat is sore, the eyes inflamed, the temperature 
 high, and the pulse is rapid. The disease begins to go away about the sixth 
 or seventh day. Be very careful of relapses. They develop more serious 
 diseases. 
 
 Treatment. Practically all the hogs need when they have measles is 
 good care and protection from storms, filth and wet. They seldom need 
 medicine unless it is something to check the cough or diarrhea or to loosen 
 the bowels. Milk and red pepper is good, also an egg fed to the hog. If the 
 hog shows weakness strong lye-like coffee will revive it. 
 
 A group of well grown and well finished hogs. 
 
 Morbid Appetite. 
 
 Bad foods usually have sour material which makes an excess of acid in 
 the stomach. This condition causes the hog to lose its desire to eat and causes 
 it to lose flesh. Regulate the feed. Put in closed pen for a while. 
 
 Treatment. Put the hog on a light diet which is easily digested. Many 
 farmers give a mixture of charcoal, ginger, and common baking soda. Egg 
 shells, sour milk, soft coal, and even soft wood and acorns neutralize the con- 
 dition. 
 
 Nasal Catarrh. 
 
 During a dry summer catarrh is prevalent in both animals and people. 
 Dust, chaff, grass seeds, and golden rod pollen have a great effect on animals 
 in developing catarrh and asthma. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 263 
 
 Symptoms. Membrane of the nose swollen and dry; sneezing; no desire 
 to eat ; discharge and inflammation of the nose. 
 
 Treatment. Give the affected hog 15 grains of saltpeter and 2 drams of 
 ginger. Follow this with two-grain doses of quinine several times daily. The 
 animal should be given good care. Strong salt water cleanses the stomach. 
 Smartweed may be given. Mint leaves are good for clearing out the passages. 
 
 Navel Hernia. 
 
 Sometimes a pig lays on a sharp stick or falls upon erne and when it rises 
 the bowel or part of one comes through. Also in farrowing a projection of 
 the bowels through an opening is not uncommon. Reopening of an improper 
 tied navel often permits a bowel to come partly through. 
 
 Symptoms. A puffy soft bunch at the navel which can be pressed back 
 through the opening into the body. If the rupture is small, it seldom causes 
 trouble and needs nothing done to it unless it stops the circulation. A pro- 
 trusion is dangerous however as the bowel itself might be punctured and the 
 inflammation set up may develop complications. 
 
 Treatment. Place the pig on its back and press the bowel and covering 
 back into place. Pick up the hide and put two wooden pins which have been 
 boiled and sterilized through it at right angles to each other and close to the 
 abdomen. Tie a string around back of these pins and close to the body. Do 
 not tie the string too tight. This operation causes the skin to soon unite. 
 The loose skin drops off in about ten days and the pig is well. Many farmers 
 have explained this and it is an easy and safe method if just proper common 
 sense precautions are taken to prevent infection. 
 
 Obstruction of the Bowels. 
 
 Eating bones, rooting in gravel, too hard coal, bad food and clusters of 
 worms attached to bowel lining is called obstruction of the bowels. 
 
 Symptoms. Sometimes the trouble starts quickly and severe pain results. 
 It is a serious ailment and great care should be taken to keep the bowels 
 from becoming punctured from the inside. In such instances there can be 
 no cure and the animal dies. 
 
 Treatment. Giving soapy water causes vomiting and may bring up the 
 obstruction. Linseed oil or any medicine that may -grease the passages will 
 help to release the obstacle. An injection of warm soapy water will help. 
 
 Paralysis. 
 
 Severe straining of the back resulting from sorrie accident while young or 
 being stepped upon by another animal affects the spinal column and develops 
 a helpless condition due to loss of the muscles. The base of the brain is often 
 affected; blows on the loins ; mistakes in feeding; or other ailments also cause 
 it. 
 
264 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Put the hog in comfortable quarters where he will not be 
 disturbed. Feed on soft, sloppy food. Sour milk is good. Keep the bowels 
 loose with injections of warm water or from two to three ounce doses of 
 Glauber's salts. Breaks in the spine are not curable, but if killed immediately 
 the hog will be good for meat. If the cause is known to be a strain of the 
 back, use cold application on the back for several days, or apply a strong solu- 
 tion of mustard and water to the affected animal's back each day. Equal parts 
 of lard, ammonia and turpentine make an excellent liniment to apply to the 
 back of a hog suffering with paralysis and have been recommended by farmers 
 in Ohio and elsewhere. 
 
 Paralysis of the Retina. 
 
 People and animals are often affected by the dilation of the pupil of the 
 eye which may cause blindness. It is often an ailment of the digestive organs 
 due to constipation, high blood pressure or intestinal parasites which really 
 cause clogged bowels. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the hog in a dark, clean pen with good ventilation. 
 Pumpkin seed tea is good for worms and will remove one of the worst causes 
 of the paralysis. Cathartics should also be given. 
 
 Peritonitis. 
 
 When any article taken into the intestines makes an internal rupture, an 
 inflamed condition of the membrane lining the abdominal cavity usually takes 
 place and blood poisoning often follows. The mortification or hardening is 
 almost incurable. Injuries such as kicks from horses or bunts from cattle; 
 puncturing of the stomach ; severe chills and other diseases, cause the internal 
 injury. It may follow castration or farrowing. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain ; bloating ; fever ; tenderness of the stomach ; vomiting : 
 and quickened pulse. The indications are very plain and the attention that 
 must be given is considerable. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the strength of the animal up with milk mashes or, in 
 severe cases, aromatic spirits of ammonia. Proper care by a veterinarian at 
 the first signs of this ailment will get the better results. 
 
 Piles. 
 
 These are soft bright red tumors found in or near the outer opening of 
 the large bowel. They usually bleed very easily. Sometimes they are called 
 fluid piles because there is no bleeding. Sitting back on damp muddy floors 
 and cold ground are common causes. 
 
 Treatment. Add some tannic acid to cold water and use as an injection 
 Give a cathartic of Glauber's salt or castor oil. When it is thought best to 
 open the tumors and let out the impure blood, use a thin sharp knife. Hot 
 applications may be then applied or anodyn wash is good. Injections of 
 slippery elm juice or mucilage are considered good. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 265 
 
 Pleurisy. 
 
 Many hogs as well as other animals catch slight colds and the membrane 
 which lines the chest and covers the lungs becomes inflamed and is known as 
 pleurisy. It may develop into pneumonia. Hogs should not sleep in cold 
 beds, or be exposed to drafts or winds when warm or injured. The air pas- 
 sages may be easily affected. 
 
 Symptoms. Fever; coughing; uneasiness; fast breathing; the back is 
 bent and pressure on side causes flinching. 
 
 Treatment. Give the hog dry, clean quarters. In case the bowels are 
 too tight, give him two ounces of Glauber's salts in warm water. In case the 
 animal does not urinate freely, give a teaspoonful and saltpeter three or four 
 times daily. Jamaica Ginger is fine for the inflammation and may be given 
 in tablespoon doses several times a day. It is also very good as a stimulant. 
 
 Pneumonia or Lung Fever. 
 
 A slight cold due to exposure often develops into more serious diseases 
 and an inflamed condition of the lungs is the most common. Light blood 
 often aids. Corn fed properly gives much heat and prevents many chances of 
 exposure. 
 
 Symptoms. The animal chills, then fever develops; quickened and la- 
 borious respiration ; loss of appetite ; severe coughing and pain tell of the 
 presence of inflammation. 
 
 Treatment. Give the hogs clean, warm, comfortable quarters and access 
 to saltpeter once a day ; 15 drops of aconite will reduce fever. Give strong 
 coffee to prevent vomiting. 
 
 Quinsy. 
 
 This is a disease that appears frequently in hogs. It is generally confined 
 to fat hogs or those highly fed. It is rapid in its course and often fatal. While 
 at first it is easily prevented and taken care of, later it is very hard to treat 
 successfully. 
 
 Symptoms. Soreness and swelling of glands under throat followed by 
 difficult swallowing and breathing; protruding of tongue from mouth covered 
 with slavor. There may be spots on the glands comparing with tonsils in 
 people. 
 
 Treatment. At the start, give an active emetic, such as 4 grains of 
 tartar-emetic (potasio-tartrate of antimony); 6 grains of White Hellebore; 
 and 6 grains of ipecacuanha. Mix and throw into the mouth or give in the 
 feed. If the hog can eat give 2 or 3 ounces of castor oil to clear the bowels. 
 If the hog has great difficulty in breathing, put an active blister on the throat 
 and give injections often. If the animal can drink water, dissolve a teaspoon- 
 ful of Nitre and Salammoniac in it. If a hog has a case of quinsy, split the 
 neck open on each side of the throat so it will bleed freely, then swab the 
 
266 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 throat well with turpentine. Also make the hog swallow from 1 to 2 tea- 
 spoonfuls of turpentine. This can be put in the swill when the patient can 
 drink. Enough turpentine poured on corn to make it oily is a good preventive. 
 
 Rheumatism. 
 
 Colds settling in the limbs and the loss or drying up of some of the joint 
 fluid is thought to cause this ailment in animals and people. Some hogs seem 
 to be more disposed to it than others and when an exciting cause arises they 
 become affected immediately. It is very common, yet hard to treat. 
 
 Symptoms. Indisposition to move ; languor ; dullness ; extreme lameness 
 in one or more limbs; swelling; heat; or tenderness of a tendon, joint or 
 bunch of muscles. The soreness may shift from one joint to another. 
 
 Treatment. Give the pigs warm, well-littered houses to go into any time 
 they choose. Feed steamed or boiled food and sour milk so as to get a bowel 
 action. Good liniments are usually used and can be made at home from 
 vinegar, eggs, turpentine and even lard added. Give a tablespoonful of cod- 
 liver oil to each pig once or twice a day in the feed. Cod-liver oil often not 
 only cures rheumatism, both chronic and acute, but also greatly improves the 
 condition of the pigs. 
 
 Rickets. 
 
 This is a condition in hogs caused by lack of proper foods containing 
 lime salts and affects the bones. Cold, damp buildings, improper feeding, 
 infection and weak constitutions are causes of the lack of health. The ribs 
 and long bones of the legs are most affected. The bones become thicker than 
 usual and the gait is stiff and painful. Discharges as in catarrh of the stomach 
 take place. 
 
 Treatment. Correct improper conditions, giving plenty of sunshine, 
 fresh air, exercise, food, and tonics are the best remedies. Plenty of lime salts 
 in the foods, lime in the drinking water and bone meal, will strengthen the 
 bones. 
 
 Ringworm. 
 
 This may break out over the body but is uncommon in hogs. It appears 
 in the form of rings and the hair drops from the skin in ringlike patches, the 
 center of the patches becoming dry and the edges moist. Sweet oil is good 
 if well rubbed in; kerosene will cleanse it thoroughly. Or apply iodine with 
 a brush. Sulphur and lard keeps the sore soft and helps it heal. 
 
 Scaly Skin Disease. 
 
 Exposure to heat and cold during all seasons causes skin to become frost- 
 bitten and crack, often making pus-like sores which scale over. 
 
 Symptoms. Appearance of pimples from which fluid oozes. This fluid 
 hardens and forms scales which come off. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 267 
 
 Treatment. Give good dose of salts and feed light food with lots of sour 
 milk for several days. Sulphur and lard or buttermilk and kerosene will 
 cleanse the skin thoroughly. Sweet oil or carbolic salve which can be made 
 in bulk at low cost is fine. Many farmers save a lot of money by getting the 
 ingredients of well-known salves, ointments and patent medicines and mixing 
 them up for their own personal use. In another section we give many prac- 
 tical ones. 
 
 Scarlet Fever. 
 
 Many of the diseases with a rash are confused with one another; as, for 
 instance, scarlet fever and measles are similar. About a week is required 
 for relief. It will spread from contact with other animals that have the 
 disease, or with man ; dirty pens or low vitality in pigs makes them sus- 
 ceptible. 
 
 Symptoms. It may be distinguished in many ways and sluggishness, 
 slight lameness, some fever, and poor appetite with increasing thirst are the 
 more common indications. 
 
 Treatment. Many pigs pull through a case of scarlet fever without any 
 special treatment. The affected animal should be separated from the rest 
 of the herd and given good clean quarters. Salts may be given if the bowels are 
 tight but care should be taken not to get the bowels too loose. Quinine and 
 ginger should be given about three times daily when the pig is weak. Spray 
 the throat several times a day with a solution made by dissolving a handful 
 of salt in a quart of water. This will relieve the soreness. A lemon juice 
 spray is also good. 
 
 Snuffles. ' 
 
 So many hogs are exposed to cold rains and weather that they take and 
 develop colds which are really continuous. It may run into more serious a 
 distemper which usually results in death. Such animals should be killed and 
 buried or burned. 
 
 Symptoms. Discharges of mucus from the nose ; discharges of blood (in 
 severe cases) ; snuffling, chills ; and some constipation. 
 
 Treatment. Put the pig in a warm, dry and clean pen. Protect him from 
 further exposure. Avoid over-feeding and feed loosening foods to keep the 
 bowels in good condition. Clear out the nose by washing it with a solution 
 of listerine and water several times a day. If the bowels are costive, give 
 from two to four ounces of epsom salts. Plenty of salt should be kept in the 
 pen. 
 
 Sore Feet or Founder. 
 
 Confinement in pen with hard cement floors and drinking cold water after 
 overfeeding with heavy grain often develop a case of founder. The sensitive 
 linings of the feet seem to act in sympathy with the abused lining of the 
 bowels. 
 
268 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. Lifting the fore feet and placing them down easily and 
 farther apart than usual is a good indication of sore feet. Often twitching of 
 the tail. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the bowels opened with salts, laxative foods like tur- 
 nips, beets, and green fodder. If sores come on the feet walk the pig through 
 a trough containing blue vitriol water. Butter of antimony is good for healing 
 these sores. If the pig gets foot sore in the winter, apply hot packs, but if he 
 goes sore in the summer allow the pig to run where he can stand on clay 
 ground. 
 
 Sorehead. 
 
 Sometimes there is soreness back of ears and a discharge of yellew 
 matter. This matter gives off a' very diagreeable odor and is not pleasant to 
 treat. Thorough cleansing with warm water and an application of turpentine 
 will aid in healing. Kerosene oil and lard will make a good salve to keep away 
 flies and prevent poisoning. A teaspoonful of sulphur can be given in the 
 feed each day. It dries up the sores. 
 
 Sore Throat. 
 
 This is a disease common in all animals and people. The causes are com- 
 mon as well as symptoms and treatments. Wet feet or weak lungs, and lying 
 in cold water or snow with poor ventilation usually brings it on. 
 
 Symptoms. Spots come in throat, head fills up and there is a smothered 
 cough. Swallowing is hard and there is loss of appetite and slow, restless 
 movements. 
 
 Treatment. Three ounces of castor oil or linseed oil should be given to 
 move the bowels. Doses of alum, several times a day, act well if given dur- 
 ing the first stages of soreness. 
 
 Stunted Pigs. 
 
 Most young pigs are affected with worms which cause indigestion and the 
 food strength is not utilized by the system. Growing ceases and small 
 scrawny pigs are the result. Improper nourishment will also stunt them 
 They eat as much as a growing pig so should not be kept in this condition any 
 longer than is necessary. A teaspoonful of turpentine is one of the best worm 
 remedies and it is best to remove the cause right at the start. A milk diet 
 will often give the proper nourishment. Oil meal or some good conditioning 
 powder with plenty of salt will tend to give the best results. Many farmers 
 get good results by using a little castor oil and kerosene. 
 
 Thumps. 
 
 This ailment attacks fat young pigs ; they do not have sufficient exercise 
 and are affected with worms. This may be a common condition and can be 
 prevented by proper regulation of food, plenty of beans and cowpeas fed to 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 269 
 
 the sow before farrowing. Coughing, especially in the morning when the pig 
 comes from his bed ; jerking of body, and the pig may fall to the ground. 
 Cold water and rubbing will aid in recovery. 
 
 Treatment. In case the pigs are too fat, the sow should be taken from 
 them for a while during each day. Proper and plenty of exercise will do wonders 
 towards keeping the litter in good condition. At the first sign of thumps all 
 of the pigs should be treated the same, as they are all subject to the same 
 condition. Eggs and milk with bran added and thrown into the trough will 
 help much in the treatment of this disease. Pigs that are given lumps of tar 
 several times will react satisfactorily. 
 
 Mix a little tartar-emetic with the drinking water or with the milk for 
 from five to ten days. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 Tuberculosis in hogs is closely associated with the same malady in cattle. 
 It is caused by germs or bacteria and affects the various organs of swine; 
 feeding unpasteurized skimmed milk; allowing hogs to run behind tubercu- 
 lous cattle and feed upon the undigested grain in the manure; feeding un- 
 cooked carcasses of other animals that contain tuberculosis germs ; consump- 
 tive attendants ; and eating carcasses of tuberculous fowls. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of tuberculosis have no very decided char- 
 acteristics. In intestinal tuberculosis there is often a general disturbance of 
 the digestive functions and diarrhea or constipation may result. In advanced 
 tuberculosis of the lungs there is a dry, persistent, harsh cough and rapid 
 breathing, especially when exercised. The cough cannot be distinguished 
 from that caused by lung worms. In severe cases of the disease there may 
 be continued falling away and weakness. Most cases of tuberculosis are not 
 recognized until the hogs are killed. In cases where the disease can not be 
 told by the symptoms exhibited, the tuberculin test is recommended which 
 makes it possible to detect the disease in its early stages and to stamp it out 
 by killing the affected animals. 
 
 Tuberculin Test. The intradermal method of using the tuberculin test 
 has given excellent results on hogs. Full credit for the perfecting of this test 
 should go to the Animal Industry Bureau, Washington, D. C, and State Ex- 
 periment Stations. In this method two drops of tuberculin is used. This is 
 prepared by evaporating away two-thirds of the volume of the tuberculin 
 obtained from the Bureau mentioned above for the subcutaneous tuberculin 
 testing of cattle. It is injected into the skin, not under it, near the base of 
 one of the hog's ears. If the hog is affected with tuberculosis, the ear will 
 swell near where the injection was made in about forty-eight hours and will 
 remain swollen from 10 to 12 days. If there is no infection no reaction will 
 take place. 
 
 Treatment. By applying the tuberculin test when tuberculosis in sus- 
 pected, the diseased hogs can be determined and killed before the whole herd 
 is affected and the hog raiser can thus clean up his herd with as little loss 
 as possible. After removing the diseased animals the place may be thor- 
 
270 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 ,/r 
 
 Fig, 2, 
 
 J. Intestines, lungs, livtr and spleen of a hoe affected wiih Tsib^r 
 ruiosis, 
 
 2. Uogs tsted for Taberculosin. Tht enlargtmi'nis shttw ri-u- result 
 of a positive reaction. 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE TREATMENT 271 
 
 oughly disinfected by cleaning up all loose dirt, tearing out all decayed wood- 
 work, and scrubbing the walls of the houses with hot water. Next a coat of 
 lime containing a good disinfectant should be applied to the walls and in all 
 dark places on the premises. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. The prevention is to remove the cause, by pas- 
 teurizing milk, cooking meat, etc., that is fed to the hogs. 
 
 Vomiting. 
 
 Sometimes the food a hog picks up has an irritating action on the stomach 
 and causes it to throw up its food. Weakness may also be the cause. People 
 often give strong coffee or a little camphor in water. Ginger and soda are 
 fine, all of these can easily be given to the hog. Mint leaves or smartweed 
 thrown into the pen will help in regulating the stomach. 
 
 Warts. 
 
 Warts often develop in skin surfaces that have been bruised and filled 
 with dirt. Bruising it continuously causes it to grow larger. 
 
 Treatment. A small wart can be cut off with a small silk thread. A 
 drop of carbolic acid will sear over the wound and keep it from bleeding. 
 Acetic acid or nitric acid applied to the wart only, and not the surrounding 
 skin, will cause it to go away and the surface will become smooth. Warts 
 should be cared for when starting. 
 
 White Bristle Anthrax Carbuncle. 
 
 This disease does not often appear in hogs. 
 
 Symptoms. High fever ; carbunculous swelling that is extremely painful 
 on the neck near the larynx. (The hair on this swelling is soon bleached and 
 stands on end. It is brittle and hard, therefore, it is called White Bristle). 
 In the later stages of the disease, the following symptoms are prominent : grat- 
 ing and gnashing of teeth; laborious breathing; groaning; and convulsions. 
 The diseased hogs die within a few days. 
 
 Treatment. The general treatment is the same as for Malignant Angina. 
 As a local treatment, destroy the carbuncle as soon as possible by burning it 
 with a red hot iron or by applying concentrated acid. The treatment must be 
 prompt and the animal must be given close attention to secure the best results. 
 
 Worms. 
 
 Practically all hogs and animals have worms. .Hogs eat the remains of 
 dead animals which contain the worm eggs. These soon develop inside the 
 hog the same as bots in horses. Constipation and improper digestion make 
 it very easy for worms to live in a hog's stomach. Once a hog gets sick it 
 is hard to cure. 
 
272 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Symptoms. Stomach pains, scratching extremities, rubbing up against 
 posts and barns or buildings while giving a pleasant feeling is also done in 
 trying to rid the intestines of the clinging worms. Often worms are passed 
 in the feces and clusters come forth. 
 
 Treatment. Cleanse the bowels with cathartics and injections and then 
 give a tea made from boiled pumpkin seeds. This is one of the finest remedies. 
 The whole system seems to respond and practically every worm is removed. 
 Then the proper thing is to keep everything clean. Tobacco is given by many 
 farmers while salt and ashes are kept in the pen by others. Turpentine added 
 to the swill is always recognized as one of the surer reliefs for worms in all 
 forms and all animals. A teaspoonful in a gallon of liquid food will do good. 
 Give several times a week, is the usual statement. 
 
 From 5 to 8 grains of calomel and 3 to 5 grains of santonin for every hun- 
 dred pounds live weight. Make a powder of this mixture large enough for 
 from ten to fifteen hogs. Divide the herd into bunches of this number. Place 
 ground feed in a trough and sprinkle one of the powders over the feed. Dose 
 the hogs in the morning after keeping them off feed over night. A remedy 
 for worms in hogs is to feed nothing for one day and then to a 100-pound 
 hog give a tablespoonful of a mixture of half turpentine and half raw linseed 
 oil or castor oil. The dose for smaller pigs should be proportionately reduced. 
 Always keep a mixture of wood ashes and salt where the hogs can get it, using 
 about a half bushel of ashes to five pounds of salt. Cob ashes will do just as 
 well. 
 
 Wounds and Cuts. 
 
 Apply one teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a teacupful of water to the 
 wound or cut several times daily, or put one teaspoonful of coal-tar disin- 
 fectant in a teacupful of water and apply to the wounded part each day. 
 
 Yellows Jaundice. 
 
 The urinary organs of a pig may become affected and the bile becomes 
 distributed in the system, causing poor action and impure blood. 
 
 Symptoms. Yellow appearance of the pig ; poor appetite ; sluggishness ; 
 poor bowel action and vomiting. 
 
 Treatment. Hot vinegar cloths over the kidneys or hot water containing 
 soda and ginger will be found good. 
 
 Give doses of from three to four ounces of linseed oil to open the bowels 
 and from 3 to 6 grains of calomel to keep them open and to act upon the liver. 
 
THE RURAL 
 
 POULTRY RAISING 
 
 BY 
 
 FLORENCE FORBES 
 
 Member National American Poultry Association 
 Executive Committee ; Secretary-Treasurer 
 Alabama Branch ; First Lady Granted a License 
 to Judge all Varieties of Poultry; Judge at 
 San Francisco, Birmingham, Montgomery, 
 Memphis and many other large shows. 
 
 THE PEOPLES EFFICIENCY 
 
 PUBLISHING CO 
 
 CLEVELAND.O. 
 
Copyright 1917 
 By 
 
 The People's Efficiency Publishing Co. 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO 
 
AUTHORS' PREFACE 
 
 book has been written for the purpose of furnishing the farmer and poultry 
 raiser with a convenient and effective source of information by the use of which 
 he may greatly multiply his poultry profits. 
 
 Very few realize the magnitude of the poultry industry. There are about 
 600,000,000 fowls in the United States, or about 100 for each farm. These are valued 
 at about $250,000,000. The egg production is nearly 2,000,000,000 dozen annually, valued 
 at nearly $500,000,000. In Canada the poultry is valued at about $10,000,000 and the 
 annual egg production at about $20,000,000 an industry second only to the corn crop 
 and one which each year amounts to enough to build two Panama Canals, or nearly 
 $700,000,000. However, there is an exceedingly large and ever-increasing demand for 
 poultry and poultry products, both at home and abroad, for which reason the poultry 
 business has become so profitable that no farmer can afford to lack the latest knowledge 
 necessary to substantially increase his profits. Of all live stock, the poultry flock is 
 most often poorly cared for and misunderstood. The material used in this book is 
 entirely practical. In its preparation an earnest effort has been made to lay the 
 foundation for a still greater poultry industry. 
 
 It is the opinion of the author that if the farmers realized the value of this great 
 industry and the profit in it, when managed in up-to-date methods, they would give 
 the matter far more attention. Surely if every farmer knew that the average hen 
 is only half producing, if he knew that this three-quarter billion dollar industry could, 
 with a little more care and management, be made into a one and a half billion dollar 
 industry, he would feel like doing his part and make his share of the profits. 
 
 I have long realized the great need of education among farmers on the scientific 
 breeding, feeding and handling of poultry. The farmer should fully realize that the 
 hen bred for a purpose is just as much a necessity on his farm if he would get the best 
 results from his poultry as is the bacon- hog in his pasture or the cow bred for a purpose 
 in his barn; that the pure bred hen is no more subject to disease than the speckled 
 hen of his forefathers. While the latter hen may possibly lay 60 eggs a year, the modern 
 hen bred for egg production will more than double that yield with no more care. 
 Artificial incubation and the scientific selection of breeds adapted to a specific purpose 
 have wrought wonders in the development of the industry. 
 
 It has been my aim to gather together the most practical knowledge gained in my 
 own experience and 1 put it in such plain, simple language that everybody would enjoy 
 reading it, and in such a form that the points may be easily found. Although 'getting 
 a large number of these ideas from my own personal knowledge and experience, I have 
 freely read and consulted the works of other well-known authors, and here I want to 
 acknowledge my indebtedness to the following men for the splendid ideas obtained 
 from their writings: Prof. James E. Rice, of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Prof. 
 James Dryden, Jr., of Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oregon; E. J. 
 Wortley, E. P. Clayton, of Mississippi State Agricultural College, and Miller Purvis, 
 Sunnycrest Farm, Wendell, Idaho. Besides the works of these authors, I have had 
 access to the leading poultry journals of the country, the splendid information put out 
 by the Government and the International Harvester Company; also that gained from 
 the farmers and poultrymen from all over the United States and Canada. It might 
 be well for me to state to my readers that I answer inquiries every week from poultry 
 raisers all over the country. These inquiries are answered by personal letter as well 
 as through our large papers and journals. 
 
 Because of my many years of practical experience on my large poultry farm here 
 at New Decatur, Alabama, where I am now actively engaged in the poultry business, 
 and from the many inquiries I have received from the farmers and poultry raisers all 
 over the country, I have had the opportunity to discover the practical needs of the 
 average poultry raiser. For this reason and on account of the insight into the needs 
 of the industry gained as a judge at many of the largest poultry shows of the country, 
 
PREFACE 
 
 as a speaker for the different poultry associations and as a contributor to many of 
 the leading poultry journals, I am perhaps as well qualified to speak upon this subject 
 as any poultry raiser in the country. 
 
 It is with the hope that I may not only make the farmers realize the money to 
 be made from poultry when given proper care, but that I may also show them how 
 to make those profits, that I have undertaken the writing of this book. The average 
 farmer will find that by applying the information given in this poultry book it will 
 increase the yearly yield of his flock at least one hundred percent. He will find single 
 recipes that will save him enough to make an excellent profit on the investment; if 
 he uses them as I have done in my own experience. If these things are used and 
 prove as beneficial to the farmer and poultry raiser as they have to me, I will feel 
 justly rewarded for my work in getting this information together. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 Pages 
 
 POULTRY RAISING 273-327 
 
 Classification of Breeds, Weights in Pounds, Selection of a Breed, 
 Poultry Houses and Fixtures, Housing, Points on Cleaning a Poultry 
 House, How to Disinfect a Poultry House, Poultry Droppings, Egg 
 Production, Table of Feeds, Egg Rations, How to Make Hens Lay in 
 Winter, Nests, Moulting, Raising Chickens, Eggs for Hatching, Incu- 
 bation, Capons and Caponizing, Systems of Feeding, Dry Feeding, 
 Mash Feeding, Miscellaneous Feeds, Quick Fattening, Cramming, Mar- 
 keting Poultry and Poultry Products, Killing and Dressing Chickens, 
 Points on the Care of Eggs, Grading Eggs, Home Preservation of Eggs, 
 Methods of Preserving Eggs, Marketing, Simple System of Poultry 
 Accounting, Yearly Egg Record, Monthly Summary Sheet, Yearly Sum- 
 mary Sheet, Balance Sheet, Inventory Sheet. 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 328-355 
 
 TURKEYS RAISING 356-375 
 
 Standard Weights of Turkeys, Housing, Breeding, Practical Sugges- 
 tions for Selecting Breeding Stock, Care of Breeding Stock, Turkey 
 Nests, Hatching, Rules' for Care of Setters, Raising Poults, Valuable 
 Points for Successful Turkey Raising. 
 
 DISEASES OF TURKEYS 376-380 
 
 DUCK RAISING 381-393 
 
 Housing, Breeding, Incubation, Brooding, Feeding Methods, Feeding 
 Ducklings, Feed for Breeding Ducks, Laying Ducks, Preparing for Mar- 
 ket, Valuable "Don'ts" in Caring for and Feeding Ducks. 
 
 DISEASES OF DUCKS 
 
 394 
 
 GEESE RAISING . 395-401 
 
 Management of Geese, Mating and Setting, Feeds for Growing Gos- 
 lings, Fattening Geese, Fattening Rations, Marketing. 
 
 DISEASES OF GEESE 
 
 402 
 
z 
 
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 BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 
 y 
 
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 J _ APAPTAftlUI ^^V ' J 
 
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 THE, MAM ANP THE LAND 
 
 
Prizes Won by Mrs. Forbes' Poultry at Various Shows. 
 
POULTRY RAISING. 
 
 Poultry Crop Exceeds All Others Save Corn, But It 
 Is Only Half What It Should Be. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS. 
 
 General Purpose Breeds. Plymouth Rocks, Orpingtons, Wyandottes, Javas, 
 Buckeyes, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds, Cornish, Oregons. 
 
 Egg Breeds. Leghorns, Campines, Anconas, Minorcas, Andalusians, Spanish, 
 Hamburgs. 
 
 Meat Breeds. Cochins, Brahmas, Langshans, Dorkings, Indian Games. 
 
 Ornamental Breeds. Polish, Bantams, Sultans, Silkies. 
 
 WEIGHTS IN POUNDS 
 
 
 Cocks 
 
 Cockerels 
 
 Hens 
 
 Pullets 
 
 Leghorns 
 
 sy 2 
 
 6 
 
 VA 
 
 9 
 8 
 6 
 8 
 No weights 
 11 
 12 
 11 
 10 
 
 7y 2 
 
 8 
 9 
 9 
 9H 
 10 
 8H 
 9^ 
 9 
 8 
 
 VA 
 
 9 
 Between L 
 Less than 
 
 4^ 
 5 
 
 4^ 
 
 7y 2 
 
 VA 
 
 5 
 
 VA 
 given. 
 9 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 6H 
 7 
 8 
 VA 
 8 
 8H 
 1 1 A 
 8 
 8 
 7 
 7^ 
 7H 
 Bghorns am 
 ,wo pounds. 
 
 4 
 4 
 4K 
 
 iy* 
 VA 
 
 5 
 
 VA 
 
 8 1 A 
 
 VA 
 8y 2 
 
 6 
 VA 
 
 VA 
 
 7y 2 
 
 8 
 
 VA 
 
 7y 2 
 
 6 
 6 
 6H 
 6^ 
 1 Plymouth 
 
 3H 
 
 V/2 
 
 3 1 A 
 
 VA 
 sy 2 
 
 4 
 5^ 
 
 7 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 5 1 A 
 6 
 
 sy 2 
 VA 
 i 
 VA 
 VA 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 zy 2 
 
 Rocks. 
 
 Campines 
 
 Anconas 
 
 Minorcas (Single-comb Black) 
 
 Minorcas (Rose-comb Black, Single-comb White) 
 Andalusians 
 
 Spanish . 
 
 Hamburgs 
 
 Cochins 
 
 Brahma Light 
 
 Brahma Dark 
 
 Langshans 
 
 Dorkings \Vhite 
 
 Dorkings, Silver 
 
 Dorkings Colored 
 
 Indian Games 
 
 Plymouth, Rocks , 
 
 Orpingtons 
 
 WVandottes 
 
 Javas 
 
 Buckeyes 
 
 
 Rhode Island Reds 
 
 Cornish 
 
 Oregons (new) 
 
 Bantams 
 
 
 Selection of a Breed. 
 
 General Purpose Breeds. General purpose breeds are of medium size, 
 fairly active, have medium sized combs and wattles and endure cold weather 
 well. The hens of this class can be made to produce a good quality of brown- 
 shelled eggs, and they are usually good setters and mothers. As one has to 
 
 273 
 
274 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Black Orpington Hen. 
 
 Barred Rock Cockerel. 
 
 White Leghorn Pullet. 
 
 White Leghorn Cockerel. 
 
POULTRY RAISING-CHICKENS 
 
 275 
 
 Whitr Wi.ndotU 
 
276 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Minorca. 
 
 Light Brahma. 
 
 Dorking. 
 
 Rosecomb Black Bantams. 
 
 Polish. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 27T 
 
 make frequent sales of flesh in the shape of surplus cockerels and hens, the 
 carcass as well as egg production should be considered, however, it is generally 
 agreed that the egg is of more value commercially than the meat. One of the 
 general purpose breeds is best for the farmer because he usually desires both 
 meat and eggs. 
 
 Egg Breeds. Egg breeds are of small or medium size, have large combs 
 and wattles, very active, ranging through the fields when given their liberty, 
 quick to mature and needing good houses in cold weather, more than the larger 
 breeds. They fatten slowly. The hens often begin laying when but four 
 and one-half months old and when matured produce an abundance of large, 
 white-shelled eggs. They are usually non-setters or at best but poor setters, 
 and rather poor mothers. It is usually necessary to keep a few fowls of 
 some other breed to keep up the stock if natural methods of incubation are 
 employed. Their pure white eggs are valuable for the market. 
 
 Meat Breeds. Meat breeds are large in body and especially suitable for 
 the production of large males. They are domestic, slow and sluggish of 
 movement, with little desire for foraging, easily confined by low fences, quite 
 slow to mature, and will readily take on weight when liberally fed. The hens 
 are persistent setters and rather indifferent layers of large, brown-shelled eggs. 
 This is the kind to handle if meat production for the market is desired. 
 
 Ornamental Breeds. Ornamental breeds as a rule are not as well adapted 
 for farm purposes as the breeds of the other three classes, as they are not 
 highly esteemed for eggs or meat. 
 
 Strain More Important Than Breed. Too much importance must not be 
 attached to the breed, for the breed is not as important as the particular strain. 
 The tendencies of a certain class can be changed by proper breeding. One 
 should breed for the particular result wanted. For instance, a meat breed 
 can be made to increase its laying by proper lineage and careful attention. 
 
 Pure Bred Stock Best. Best results are obtained from pure bred stock 
 for that means a uniformity of products. Pure bred fowls will make a greater 
 profit than mongrels if given the same care and proper marketing is done. 
 You should get stock from some one who has developed a strain bred to lay 
 if it is eggs you want and a strain bred for meat if you desire to market your 
 fowls as a main issue. The average poultryman is not usually very interested 
 in the ornamental points, but the time seems to be coming when utility and 
 fancy will be represented in the same fowls. Utility breeders are taking more 
 interest in fancy points and fancy poultry breeders are taking greater pains in 
 breeding laying strains. 
 
 Poultry Houses and Fixtures. 
 
 Location. Drainage and Southern Exposure. Select an elevation with 
 natural drainage away from the building. A gentle slope facing the south 
 is most suitable. Other things being equal, this will be warmer and dryei 
 If a southern exposure cannot be obtained, a southeastern is preferable 1 
 southwestern. Fowls prefer the morning to the afternoon sun. 
 
 Soil. A dry, porous soil such as sandy or gravelly loam is preferabl 
 
278 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 to a clay soil. The former is more easily kept in a sanitary condition and 
 drains more readily. If the soil is not naturally dry, it should be made so 
 by a thorough under drainage. 
 
 Sunlight and Dryness. Select a light and dry place. Sunlight is a great 
 germ destroyer. A poultry house should not be built in a hollow where cold 
 air settles. 
 
 Temperature. It is well to build it in the lee of a wind break for protec- 
 tion. Keep the lowest probable temperature in mind as the comfort of the 
 fowls is the main consideration. Depend on ventilation to let the heat escape. 
 
 Housing. 
 
 Give Hens a Home. The hen should not be just housed she should be 
 given a home. Rather than ha.ve the building damp, cold, dark or full of 
 mites, it should be clean, light, cheery and comfortable. As Professor Rice 
 of Cornell says : "The singing hen is the laying hen." The hens will not sing 
 unless you keep them comfortable and happy. 
 
 Make House Convenient. Save labor and you save money. Everything 
 that aids you in lessening the amount of labor in caring for your flock will 
 increase your profits. Do not build the house too far away from the other 
 buildings. Make it of easily cleaned material. Have dropping boards, a place 
 for surplus feed, handy nests and a barrel close by for manure. Have dropping 
 boards and roosts readily removable to make cleaning easy all to save 
 time. 
 
 Make House Comfortable. Allow at least two cubic feet of floor space for 
 each fowl. Never build a poultry house more than seven feet high in front 
 and five feet high in the rear. It must be low to be comfortable for the hens. 
 The hen is a great heat maker. Her temperature averages about 108 and a 
 flock of one hundred hens will throw enough heat from their bodies to keep 
 the temperature safe even if the thermometer goes below zero. 
 
 Make House Light and Dry. Let plenty of sunlight in the house as it 
 is the best germ destroyer in the world and poultry will not do well if housed 
 in dark, gloomy quarters. Have a good ventilating system and dry floor 
 to make the house dry and comfortable. Have the floor higher than the 
 ground surrounding it. If a house is built warmly and has a glass front, it gets 
 hot during the day and cools off quickly at night. Such a house is always damp 
 because there is no circulation of air to dry out the moisture which condenses 
 on the walls. The partial open front house is conceded to be the best for 
 most sections. Cold does not hurt hens but they are injured by sudden changes 
 of temperature. If the thermometer drops below zero, muslin curtains can be 
 stretched across the open windows to prevent the hens freezing their combs. 
 Such curtains keep out cold, snow and wind but permit the air to pass through, 
 keeping the house dry. When muslin is used, allow one square foot of muslin 
 placed on the south side to every 15 square feet of floor space in houses of 
 15 feet in width. If the house is ten feet wide, use one square foot of muslin 
 
POULTRY RAISING-CHICKENS 279 
 
 to 20 feet of floor space. In houses 20 feet in width allow one square foot of 
 muslin to every 10 square feet of floor space. 
 
 Keep House Ventilated but Prevent Drafts.-Fresh air is good for hens 
 but drafts are injurious. Remember that chickens cannot endure sudden 
 changes and easily catch colds. An open front poultry house, with the north 
 east and west fides closed prevent drafts and furnish plentv of good fresh 
 air. 
 
 Poultry Yards. 
 
 Keep House Clean. To have the house sanitary and cheerful, it must be 
 kept clean. Have boards to catch the manure at night, keep clean litter on 
 the floor and clean the chicken coop thoroughly at least once a month. Clean 
 the dropping board at least once a week in summer.* If a dirt floor is used, 
 remove the litter often enough to keep it dry and clean. If one gets the habit 
 of cleanliness he. need have no fear from poultry diseases. 
 
 An earth floor is best. Earth Itself is a disinfectant. The flodr should be raised above the 
 outside surface by putting in other dirt and packing it down well. Bricks may be used around 
 the lower outside to make a wall to retain the extra dirt in real cold, climates. A half-inch mesh 
 of steel wire under the dirt makes best guard against rats. Concrete floors are not desirable ai 
 they are nearly always damp. 
 
280 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Keep the House Free From Vermin. Keep the poultry house clean and 
 it will not be infested with lice and mites. Cover the nests and roosts with 
 kerosene or kerosene emulsion once a month during the spring and summer 
 to eliminate them. The best preventatives are sunlight and cleanliness. 
 
 House Need Not Be Expensive to Be Good. A good house does not 
 necessarily mean an expensive house. A shed made of posts with straw for 
 sides makes a. good house but this kind is hard to keep clean. 
 
 The Open Front Poultry House. 
 
 Keep These Things in Mind in Housing. 
 
 1. Floor Space. Two to five square feet of floor space should be allowed 
 per fowl. 
 
 2. Fresh Air. Fresh air should be secured by ventilation rather than 
 by increasing the amount of cubic air space thus giving more space than neces- 
 sary for the convenience of the attendant. 
 
 3. Intensive vs. Colony System. More birds can be kept per floor area 
 under the colony than on the intensive system in mild climates where the 
 hens have free range throughout the year. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 281 
 
 lity Mah K<J H.-ppcr For rhlck& Wire U KrinoraMt, Allowing 
 Ku*r of Cluutiiic 
 
 Poultry HOUM Skw)nt PUlfarm on Which 
 Are I'lnd All Fl And Drinkint V.-.wli. Th 
 
 p O TH nr. 
 rts Onlhiru And Pnvcnu Wmtini 
 
 r> From Uncifr th Corlicrib A 
 Pool 57<t<B 
 
282 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 4. Open-Front House. The partial open-front house is granted first 
 place as the best for most sections. (See illustration.) 
 
 5. Colony Plan. The colony plan is very good for many farms as it does 
 away with the danger of tainted soils. (See illustration.) 
 
 6. Roosts. Roosts should be built on the same level, two feet six inches 
 from the floor with a dropping board eight inches below them. 
 
 7. Material for Roosts. Good roosts may be made of 2 x 2 inch material. 
 
 8. iNests. Nests may be placed on the side walls under the dropping 
 boards. 
 
 9. Darkened Nests. It is best to have the nests darkened. Hens pre- 
 fer a secluded place to lay. 
 
 10. Cracks and Crevices. No cracks and crevices should be left for ver- 
 min. 
 
 11. Rats. Prevent them from getting in by sinking a wire netting all 
 around the poultry house Dig a foot ditch around the house and line the 
 inside bank with wire netting, one inch mesh, one foot wide, and replace the 
 earth. The wire should be wide enough to reach one foot below the lower 
 edge of the wall if the house stands off the ground. The use of a brick, stone 
 or cement foundation sunk one foot into the ground will prevent rats from 
 getting in when an earthen floor is used. 
 
 12. Earthen Floor. If the location is dry an earthen floor is better than 
 any other. 
 
 13. Board Floor. A board floor is better than an earthen one if the lo- 
 cation is damp. If used, build high enough to permit the air to freely cir- 
 culate beneath. 
 
 14. Walls. Use a double wall on the north and west sides if the climate 
 is severe. 
 
 Points on Cleaning a Poultry House. 
 
 Not every poultryman of experience even, knows how to really clean a 
 poultry house. The first thing to do is to remove all the litter and loose 
 dirt which can be shoveled out. Then give the floor, walls and ceiling a 
 thorough sweeping and shovel out the accumulated debris. Next play a garden 
 hose, with the maximum water pressure which can be obtained, upon floor, 
 roosting boards, walls and ceiling, until all the dirt which can be washed down 
 easily is disposed of. Then take a heavy hoe or roost-board scraper and 
 proceed to scrape the floor and roosting boards clean of the trampled and 
 caked dressing and dirt. Shovel out what has been accumulated and get 
 the hose into action once more and wash the whole place down again 
 thoroughly and follow this with another scraping. 
 
 Next, with a stiff-bristled broom thoroughly scrub walls, floors, nest 
 boxes, roost boards, etc. After another rinsing down and cleaning out of ac- 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 283 
 
 Poultryman's Medicine Cabinet. 
 
 Handy articles for thorough disinfection. 
 
284 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 cumulated dirt, let the house dry out for a day or two. Then make a search- 
 ing inspection to see if any dirt can be discovered. If so, apply the appropriate 
 treatment as outlined above. If, however, everything appears to be clean, 
 the time has come to make it really and truly clean by disinfecting. To do this 
 it is necessary to spray all parts of the house or thoroughly wash with a scrub- 
 brush. Wet with a good disinfectant. This should be done at least twice, 
 allowing time between for it to dry. 
 
 How to Disinfect a Poultry House. 
 
 First. See that the house is perfectly clean by following faithfully the 
 instructions given above. Where the garden hose is not available, use instead 
 a broom or a scrubbing brush. 
 
 Second. Fumigate. Before fumigating it will be necessary to provide 
 accommodations for the fowls. Usually these operations take place during mild 
 weather, when it will not hurt the birds to be shut out of the house for eight to 
 ten hours. The closing up need not be done until along towards noon when 
 most of the laying is over with. Should there be other houses, shed or coops 
 into which the hens can go to lay, the fumigating can be done at any time. 
 
 In case the disinfecting is done during cold weather, extra precaution 
 should be taken in caring for the hens. If they are laying, do not expose them 
 to sudden changes. Usually, however, when conditions are such that it is 
 necessary to do this house-cleaning in the winter time, very few eggs are 
 forthcoming and it is not a question of keeping up the egg yield, but of get- 
 ting the house properly disinfected. When the hens are removed, close up 
 the house as tight as possible and light sulphur candles. Let them burn 
 four or five hours or until they are exhausted. The house then can be opened 
 and in half an hour the rest of the disinfectant should be finished. 
 
 Third. Thoroughly disinfect by the use of good lice paint, applied with a 
 brush or sprayer. Paint the roosts, drop boards and nests very thoroughly. 
 Be sure the liquid gets into all the cracks and joints of the roosts. Miss no 
 place where the fowls go or where the insects may hide. Follow this with 
 some of the good, coal-tar preparations sprayed over the entire surface of the 
 inside of the house. Take pains to get into every corner. 
 
 Now that the house is clean, this spray should be used once a week 
 throughout the summer and once a fortnight during the winter. To do this is 
 important, because it is a simple matter to keep a poultry house clean after 
 it has once been thoroughly cleaned and properly disinfected. 
 
 Fourth. To make a complete job, follow the foregoing treatment with 
 a whitewash brush and your house will be as clean and healthful as hands 
 can make it. The whitewashing will depend upon the time of the year and the 
 accommodations for the fowls, but if possible have it done before they are al- 
 lowed to enter the house again. A good whitewash, one that will stick and not 
 rub off, is made as follows, or in these proportions : 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 285 
 
 U. S. Government Whitewash. 
 
 Unslaked lime 2 pecks 
 
 Common salt 1 peck 
 
 Rice flour 3 Ibs. 
 
 Spanish whiting V 2 lb. 
 
 Glue '. 1 lb. 
 
 Water Sufficient quantity 
 
 The quantities given are sufficient to make nine or ten gallons of- white- 
 wash. If only part of the whitewash is needed, the balance can be kept for 
 future use. Should a smaller quantity be desired, the proportions can be cut 
 down to suit. 
 
 Directions. To properly make the amount of whitewash above men- 
 tioned, two vessels are needed, one holding at least ten gallons and the other 
 holding half as much. A small barrel and a tub or any water-tight vessel will 
 answer very well. 
 
 1. Slake the lime in the barrel, using two or three gallons of water 
 for two pecks of lime. 2. Cover the barrel. 3. Dissolve the salt in water, 
 strain the brine and add it to the slaked lime in the barrel 4. Boil the rice 
 flour for ten minutes in a small quantity of water 5. Dissolve the glue in a 
 double cooker or water bath and avoid scorching. 6. In the tub mix the whit- 
 ing with about five gallons of hot water. 7. Add to the whiting mixture in 
 tub the boiled rice and dissolved glue. Mix thoroughly. 8. Pour mixture in 
 tub into the barrel containing slaked lime, stir well until thoroughly mixed. 
 9. Cover barrel to protect from dirt and let whitewash stand for a few days, 
 when it will be ready for use. 10. This whitewash should be applied hot if 
 best results are to be obtained. Heat it in any kettle or other metal vessel 
 on a stove or suspended over a fire. 
 
 Fifth. Before allowing the fowls to return to the clean house they them- 
 selves should be made clean by a thorough treatment for lice. It is a good plan 
 to go over them with some good insect powder or powdered sulphur before 
 removing them from the house, ind again on putting them back. Dust the pow- 
 der well into the feathers of every one and allow no sickly birds to enter 
 the clean house. 
 
 A first class lice powder can be made by mixing 5 parts of Naphthalene 
 flakes with 95 parts of some good carrier such as a cheap talcum powder 
 that can be purchased for 5 to 10 cents a pound. 
 
 Sixth. Remove and destroy all wooden feed troughs, and provide new 
 ones. If these are made of galvanized iron they can be kept clean with little 
 trouble. Galvanized or earthernware drinking vessels must be thoroughly 
 cleaned by scalding and scouring. If the old ones are not in perfect condition 
 it is much better to destroy them and to provide new. 
 
 Disinfectants. 
 
 Creoline, naphthos and zenoleum are good disinfectants and germicides, 
 each having a carbolic acid odor. 
 
286 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Whitewashes. 
 
 Whitewash is the cheapest of all paints and may be used for interior or 
 exterior surfaces. It can be made as follows : 
 
 1. Slake about ten pounds of quicklime in a pail with two gallons of 
 boiling water. Cover the pail with burlap or cloth and allow it to slake one 
 hour. Add enough water to bring the whitewash to a consistency which 
 may be readily applied. Adding fou-r ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of 
 whitewash increases its disinfecting power. 
 
 2. Whitewash for exterior surfaces (waterproof) : 
 
 First. Slake one bushel of quicklime in twelve gallons of hot water. 
 
 Second. Dissolve two pounds of common salt and one pound of sulphate 
 of zinc in two gallons of boiling water. Pour second solution into first, then 
 add two gallons of skim milk and mix thoroughly. 
 
 Poultry Droppings. 
 
 Poultry droppings are very good fertilizer as they are rich in sulphate 
 ammonia, kainit and high grade acid phosphate. One hundred birds running 
 at large on an acre should have added, in six months, to its fertility the equiva- 
 lent of at least one hundred pounds of high grade acid phosphate, two hundred 
 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, and sixty pounds of kainit. The droppings 
 should be saved during the winter. Twenty-five hens will produce in six 
 months three hundred seventy-five pounds of fertilizer from the roost drop- 
 pings alone. As a top dressing for grass, poultry droppings are exceedingly 
 valuable because they contain a large amount of nitrogen in the form of 
 ammonia compounds which are nearly as quick in their action as nitrate of 
 soda. However, droppings must be taken care of if they retain their value 
 because the gaseous contents soon escape. There are several chemicals, each 
 of fertilizing value in themselves, which can be added to the droppings now 
 and then with good effect, both in making the air of the henhouse more 
 wholesome and in stopping waste. They are: gypsum or land plaster, kainit, 
 cheap potash salt, acid phosphate. Each one of these chemicals forms a 
 compound with the ammonia as fast as it is set free from the original com- 
 bination. Plaster often forms a lumpy, dry mixture if used in large enough 
 quantities to stop the ammonia but kainit and acid phosphate make a moist, 
 sticky mass. Never use wood ashes or slaked lime as neither of these com- 
 bine with the ammonia but forces it out of its compounds and takes its place. 
 It is also well to add dry meadow muck or sawdust besides the chemicals. 
 It would require about one-half peck of either of these absorbents besides 
 about eight pounds of acid phosphate or kainit to the weekly droppings of 
 twenty-five hens when scraped from the roosting platforms. In case one 
 desired a balanced fertilizer for corn or some other hoed crop, he could use 
 equal parts of acid phosphate and kainit instead of either alone. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 287 
 
 EGG PRODUCTION. 
 
 (Farmers Lose $45,000,000 Annually From Bad Methods of Producing and 
 
 Handling Eggs.) 
 
 The Five "G's" in Egg Production. Grains, greens, grubs, grit and 
 gumption these mean egg production. 
 
 Produce Infertile Eggs. 
 
 Fertile Eggs Spoil Easily. Fertile eggs cause a $15,000,000 loss every 
 year in the United States alone. They spoil quickly. A fertile egg contains 
 the germ from which a chick develops. This development starts whenever the 
 temperature is above 70 degrees. Fertile eggs cause "blood rings" and "black 
 rot" which spoils them for market. 
 
 To Prevent Loss Dispose of Roosters. The rooster does not help the 
 hens to lay. He merely fertilizes the germ of the egg. It is not necessary 
 to keep a male bird in order to produce eggs. Hens lay just as many, if 
 not more eggs when there is no male in the flock. To have good eggs in hot 
 weather for food and market, kill the roosters as soon as the breeding season 
 is over. 
 
 Breeding for Egg Production. The strain is more important than the 
 breed. A pullet from a strain not bred to lay will not be a good layer no 
 matter how well fed she is. One must develop a laying strain. Select your 
 stock from a strain bred to lay. Select your stock from breeders of known 
 excellence as layers. Also look to the male bird. A rooster that has come 
 from parents of medium production can not produce a high producing in- 
 dividual when crossed with even the best of hens. The early maturing stock 
 will contain the high producing bird. 
 
 Improve Your Flock. Cull out the weaklings and the poor layers. 
 
 Cull Out the Old Hens. It is seldom profitable to keep hens for laying 
 after they are two and. one-half years old. Not that they will stop yielding 
 profit but younger fowls will yield a greater profit. Many poultrymen who 
 make a specialty of winter egg production keep nothing but pullets. They 
 dispose of the one-year-old hens before it is time to put them into winter 
 quarters. 
 
 Time Breeds Begin Laying. Yearling hens will not begin laying much 
 before January first and older hens not until later. November and December 
 eggs bring the high prices. Laying breeds should begin laying when about 
 five months old ; general purpose breeds when about six months and the meat 
 breeds at seven or eight months. 
 
 How to Select a Laying Hen. A good laying hen has bright eyes, the 
 comb is bright red and larger than the average of her breed; neck is long; 
 the breast is broad and somewhat receding from top to bottom; the back 
 is long and wider at the hips than shoulders ; she has a deep abdomen ; 
 the lower line being lower than the lower line of the breast; legs are wide 
 
288 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 A Young Mule of Wafc Vital- 
 ity. Xat* Kxrnmnrn of Badr 
 
 ^A Voang Ml<; With Siren* 
 ' Vior. Nut< Widlb of Brein 
 I an.<i Sprtad ( I>n 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 289 
 
 apart and the tail well spread. Examine the pelvic bones. These are the two 
 rather pointed bones which can be felt in the rear of the hen's body just below 
 and at each side of the vent. The pelvic bones of a good layer are wide apart. 
 If the points of these bones are close together the hen is not laying and she 
 is probably not a good layer. The hen may be considered a good layer if 
 three fingers can be laid between the points of these bones. A good layer 
 shows the pelvic bones well apart even when not in full lay. When the bones 
 are close together and difficult to press apart, the hen is generally a very 
 poor layer. High producing hens molt late, they have pale shanks at the end 
 of the laying season and are heavy eaters. 
 
 Bad Traits Are Inherited. While the chickens are maturing and their 
 distinguishing characteristics are asserting themselves, be on the lookout 
 for bad characteristics and weed out the undesirables. The bully is pressing a 
 tendency that was born in her. She interferes with the contentment of the 
 flock and keeps up a continual state of excitement. This affects the laying 
 and health of the other hens and she should be dealt with drastically. 
 
 No Extra Roosters. Extra roosters take room and feed and yield no 
 profits. Sell or kill them. The hens will lay just as well, or better, without 
 them. 
 
 Keep One Breed. A uniform breed means uniform products and uniform 
 products bring better prices. Such a flock is easier to tend. It is more at- 
 tractive and you will give it better attention. Breed from the best you have. 
 
 Feeding for Egg Production. The problem of feeding is of great im- 
 portance. It should be considered carefully for not only the general health of 
 the birds, but also the economy which promotes success depends upon it to 
 a large extent. This subject should be studied with common sense for there 
 are no hard and fast rules which apply to every case. On should consider 
 the general environment and price of feeds in determining the rations. Hens 
 must be given balanced rations if they produce results. If the ration is prop- 
 erly balanced the hens will make a good profit, but if the ration is improperly 
 balanced they will be kept at a loss. If the hen has considerable range, grain 
 is all that need be supplied during the summer months. In the winter, and 
 also if confined in summer, everything must be provided. It is false economy 
 to expect them to pick their living from the leavings of other stock. Many 
 farmers admit that they feed their hens nothing during the summer. In so 
 doing, they are saving feed but losing money. A productive hen requires 
 from 70 to 80 pounds of feed a year. If she gets only 40 or 50 pounds, she 
 will simply satisfy her body requirements. She will not lay eggs. The scantily 
 fed hen is a poor investment. 
 
 The nutriment in the feed of laying hens serves two purposes; first, to 
 furnish heat to the body and repair waste ; second, to supply the egg-making 
 materials. Only the surplus over what is needed for the body is used for 
 egg production so it is important to feed in sufficient quantities to induce this 
 production. To produce eggs one must have healthy vigorous stock, and feed 
 the material from which eggs are made. 
 
390 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 TABLE OF FEEDS 
 
 291 
 
 Provided by Nature 
 
 Classification 
 
 Fed by Poultrymen 
 
 Worms and bugs. 
 
 Protein or nitrogenous 
 material. 
 
 Meat (beef scrap or green cut bone), eggs, 
 cottage cheese, milk (skim, sour, butter- 
 milk). 
 
 Greens. 
 
 Succulents. 
 
 Cabbage, sprouted oats, mangels, clover, al- 
 falfa, lettuce, kale, beets, turnips, pota- 
 toes, etc. 
 
 Seeds. 
 
 Nonnitrogenous. 
 / 
 
 Grains, such as corn, wheat, buckwheat, oats, 
 barley, etc. 
 
 Grit. 
 
 Mineral matter. 
 
 Grit, oyster shell, old mortar, fine gravel, etc. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Water. 
 
 What It Takes to Make an Egg. An egg is about 74 percent water, 15 
 percent protein, 10 percent fat and 10 percent mineral matter. 
 
 Plenty of Water. Since 74 percent of an egg is water, it is very neces- 
 sary to keep plenty of good, clean water before the hens at all times. Running 
 water is best but if this is not available, keep the water in vessels fresh. 
 
 Antiseptic in Water. It is sometimes well to add enough permanganate 
 of potash to make it a wine red. This will act as an antiseptic in preventing 
 the transmission of disease through the water and will help keep down in- 
 testinal parasites. 
 
 Keep Water Warm in Winter. In winter, as in summer, the first thing a 
 fowl does when it leaves the roost is to hunt the water pan, and nearly the 
 last thing before going on the roost is to drink. If the water is icy cold 
 they will not drink much, but if warm, they will drink plentifully. If the 
 weather is freezing, warm the water several times a day. 
 
 Keep Water Clean. There are several ways of keeping the water clean. 
 One way is to punch three or four nail holes near the top of a syrup bucket 
 or tin can, fill the can or bucket with water and turn it upside down in a shallow 
 pan or saucer. The water oozes out no faster than the chickens drink it 
 and is always fresh and clean. (See illustration for other schemes for keeping 
 water clean). 
 
 Protein. Protein is the most costly but the most valuable part of any 
 ration. It is that material in feed which goes to make nerve cells, brain mat- 
 ter, tendons, skin, feathers, claws, beaks, intestines, vital organs, and, when 
 combined with lime, bones and muscle. It is found in the animal feeds such 
 as : buttermilk or sour skim milk, beef scrap, ground bone, cut bone or wild 
 game, some legume such as clover or alfalfa leaves, insects and bugs during 
 the summer, offals from butchering. One need exclude no animal food from 
 the ration. Hens relish and make good use of all of them. Feed them raw, 
 when possible, unless they are from an infected animal. Better results are 
 obtained by using cheap fats like beef scrap than by feeding higher priced 
 
292 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 animal meats. Beef scraps make an exceedingly cheap source of food for 
 chickens and should be bought when they can be had at reasonable prices. 
 
 Alfalfa. It has been found by the Utah Experiment Station that alfalfa 
 (lucern leaves) fed in winter has the same effect on the eggs that grass has 
 during the spring and summer, that is, it gives the yolk the natural rich orange 
 color. It is a fine winter feed. 
 
 Skim Milk. Skim milk contains a great deal of protein. When given to 
 the birds either as a drink or in the form of a wet mash, it will double the 
 egg yields, according to the Nebraska Experiment Station. Let it sour before 
 feeding as sour milk keeps the hens healthy. It may be given as a drink, 
 compounded with beef scraps or animal meal, or it may be mixed with ground 
 grain or meal. When added to a meal mixture use about two pounds of milk 
 to one of meal. The most economical gains are made in chickens when skim 
 milk is fed both ways, i. e., as a drink and added to the grain mixture. Skim 
 milk is also perhaps the best food for producing the desirable white skin in 
 chickens. (Commercial meat scrap is of equal value and may be substituted 
 when milk cannot be obtained). 
 
 Insects and Bugs. In the summer the hens get protein by eating insects, 
 bugs, grasshoppers and such things. During the winter months they must 
 be given feeds to take the place of these, such as: cut bone, meat scraps 
 and animal meal. The scraps and meal may be mixed with the mash but green 
 cut bone is usually fed by itself. Feed one-half to three-quarter pounds of 
 meal or meat scrap to twelve to fifteen hens. 
 
 Cut Bone. Hens under like conditions, with fresh cut, green bone added 
 to their feed, will lay nearly twice as many eggs in the winter season and a 
 third more right in the summer season than they will without it. Cut 
 bone is fresh bone shaved into thin pieces by a bone cutter. If the bone 
 has considerable meat on it all the better for the meat and bone together is 
 excellent for producing eggs. Cut bone must be obtained regularly as it can- 
 not be kept sweet long. If it is not sweet, bowel trouble may result. When 
 first beginning to feed, give one-half pound to twenty hens, then double the 
 amount. Meat is likely to be loosening to the bowels at first so the hens 
 should be watched carefully and not fed too much. When they are used to it it 
 may be kept constantly before them. 
 
 F a t s . Ten percent of an egg is fat. Fat is made from starch. Grains 
 contain a great deal of starch, especially corn. Wheat, milo, sorghum, 
 buckwheat, are also fat-producing foods. 
 
 Corn. Chickens can readily digest corn whether fed cracked or whole or 
 as corn meal and whether fed moist or dry. If the grain is finely ground it is 
 usually best to moisten it before feeding. Corn is fattening and heating. If 
 too much is fed it will produce fat instead of eggs. It should be balanced with 
 linseed meal, bone, meat, gluten, and nitrogenous feeds, for corn is deficient 
 in nitrogen. If corn is fed to hens having plenty of exercise, that secure 
 insects and green feed, much more satisfactory results will be obtained than 
 when it is fed to the same fowls closely confined. It may be fed largely in 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 293 
 
 cold climates during winter, but should not be fed much during the summer. 
 One should be careful not to feed enough corn to make the hens too fat as 
 they will become lazy and will not lay eggs. 
 
 Wheat. Wheat is believed to be the safest grain to feed alone. It is too 
 fattening when fed^alone but not as fattening as corn. When this grain is 
 fed it, should be supplemented by some skim milk or meat feed to increase 
 the amount of protein. Wheat is not as valuable for fattening as corn but 
 is much better for growth. 
 
 Mineral Matter. The 10 percent of mineral matter of an egg is lime. 
 This is used for the shell. Hens can usually get enough lime in the sand and 
 grit they pick up in the summer to supply themselves during that time, but in 
 winter this element must be supplied. Crushed oyster shell, crushed bone, 
 ground rock, sand, old mortar and fine gravel all supply lime. One of these 
 elements should be kept where the hens have access to it at all times. Crushed 
 bone is generally believed to be the best and oyster shell to be the most un- 
 desirable as it seems to injure the alimentary tract of the fowls. Feeding 
 ground rock, ground bone or sand does not do this. 
 
 Green Feed. Hens must have green feed to keep them healthy and in 
 good condition and to make them lay. When the ground is covered with 
 snow, green feed must be given them. Anything that is relished by the fowls 
 is good. Cooked potatoes, cooked turnips, beets, cabbages, steamed clover, 
 or alfalfa hay are fine for this purpose. In feeding vegetables hang them up 
 high enough to make the hens jump for them. Exercise is good for laying 
 hens. 
 
 Sprouted Oats. As a protein or egg-producing feed, oats rank much 
 higher than corn and contain more fat than wheat. Its high proportion of 
 hull to kernel makes it bulky and unpalatable. Sprouting overcomes this 
 difficulty, and also furnishes the green feed so essential. Oats can be sprouted 
 and fed at 4 to 6 inches high more economically than roots or vegetables can 
 be produced. The time required for the growth is short, the amount of suc- 
 culent or green material is large and increased egg production is invariably 
 the result. One hundred pounds of oats can be increased to 350 or 400 pounds 
 of succulent feed. 
 
 Oat-Sprouting Cabinet. Cabinet is thirty inches square and five feet 
 high Wooden trays two. inches deep and thirty inches square are made to fit 
 this rack and slide in and out on cleats nailed to each side of rack. Cleats are 
 placed about eight or ten inches apart. Gimlet holes are bored in the bottom 
 of each tray to drain off the water. Rack is placed in basement or cellar. 
 Oats are soaked over night and the next morning they are spread out on 
 the trays about one and one half inches deep. The oats are sprinkled each 
 day. No artificial heat is used so there is no trouble from mold. In any case 
 this can be avoided by stirring them on the second day. Oats are ready for 
 use in about six days. This is a cheap and easy way to supply green winter 
 feed. (See illustration.) 
 
294 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Miscellaneous Feeds. (See "Mustard." Learn about its egg-producing 
 qualities.) 
 
 Variety is Important. A hen likes variety and if she does not have it she 
 will not lay eggs. Grain alone is not sufficient. She must be given different 
 kinds of feeds so that she will relish each kind. 
 
 Egg Rations. 
 
 Ration 1. 
 
 Scratch Food. Mash (ground food). 
 
 In Winter 1 part bran 
 
 1 part wheat 1 part middlings (shorts) 
 
 2 parts corn 1 part cornmeal 
 
 In Summer 1 part commercial beef scrap. 
 
 2 parts wheat 
 1 part corn 
 
 Ration 2. 
 
 Scratch Food. Mash. 
 
 In Summer Ground oats 
 
 1 part corn Buttermilk or sour skim milk as a 
 
 2 parts wheat drink. 
 
 In Winter 
 
 2 parts corn 
 1 part wheat 
 
 Ration 3. 
 
 Scratch Food. Mash (ground food). 
 
 In Winter 6 parts cornmeal 
 
 6 parts wheat 6 parts middlings 
 
 3 parts corn 3 parts bran 
 
 3 parts oats 1 part alfalfa meal 
 
 3 parts buckwheat 1 part oil meal 
 
 In Summer 5 parts beef scrap. 
 
 6 parts wheat 
 6 parts corn 
 3 parts oats 
 
 Ration 4. 
 
 Scratch Food. Mash. 
 
 Early morning and night cracked corn. 3 parts bran 
 At noon equal parts wheat and oats. 1 part middlings 
 
 1 part corn meal 
 1 part meat scrap 
 
 Occasionally 1 part oil meal is added to 
 this ration. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 295 
 
 Ration 5. 
 
 Scratch Food. Mash. 
 
 In Summer 4 parts bran 
 
 1 part corn 8 parts shorts 
 
 2 parts wheat 8 parts corn meal 
 
 In Winter 8 parts ground oats 
 
 1 part corn 8 parts beef scrap 
 
 1 part wheat 4 parts gluten meal 
 
 1 part oil meal 
 
 Ration 6. 
 
 Scratch Food. Mash. 
 
 6 parts corn 2 parts bran 
 
 6 parts wheat 1 part corn meal 
 
 4 parts oats 1 part gluten meal 
 
 2 parts barley 1 part ground oats 
 1 part kafir corn 1 part middlings 
 
 1 part buckwheat 1 part beef scrap. 
 
 Ration 7. 
 
 For the production of eggs, the Mississippi Experiment Station recom- 
 mends the following ration: 
 
 Cotton seed meal . . . . 25 Parts 
 
 Corn meal 30 Parts 
 
 Wheat bran 30 Parts 
 
 Wheat shorts 15 Parts 
 
 A little salt may be put into this ration ; one pound to the hundred, is 
 advisable. 
 
 This mash should be put into clean, dry hoppers in dry sheds. If the 
 mash is dry, the hens will not eat too much of it. They should have access 
 to it at all times. 
 
 A grain mixture also should be given the laying hens. This mixture 
 may well be : 
 
 Corn 2 Parts 
 
 Wheat 2 Parts 
 
 Oats 1 Part 
 
 HOW TO MAKE HENS LAY IN WINTER. 
 (Practical Suggestions Gathered from the Best Poultry Raisers in the World.) 
 
 To have winter eggs, duplicate spring conditions. Give the hens a home. 
 Depend on pullets for winter egg production. 
 
 House the hens properly. Have an open front poultry house facing the 
 south. Have plenty of ventilation but prevent drafts. 
 
296 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Supply a nest for every four or five hens. Keep the nests clean and free 
 from vermin. 
 
 Gather the eggs regularly at least once each day. 
 
 Give the hens a dust bath. Laying hens must have their morning dust 
 bath if they are to lay the maximum number of eggs through the winter. It 
 is a necessary luxury for them. By its use they are enabled to rid themselves 
 of mites and to remove all scales and dirt from the skin. Lice and mites do 
 their greatest injury to the fowls at night, while on the roost. Instinctively 
 they look for a place to dust in the morning. Do not force the hens to dust 
 in the droppings or feed litter. During the summer they usually find their 
 own dusting place such as the road or in the shade of trees and shrubbery, but 
 in winter it must be provided for them. Nail an old grocery box in one corner 
 of the house. Elevate it above the floor so that it will not become filled with 
 straw or litter and put in six or eight inches of dusting material. A little 
 slaked lime added to it would not hurt anything. 
 
 Give the hens some ground mustard in their feed if they are not laying. 
 It will work like magic. Look up "mustard" for feeding. 
 
 Feed a mash once a day. The afternoon is a good time to feed it 
 
 Provide plenty of grit and ground oyster shells. 
 
 Feed about three pounds of succulent food, such as sprouted oats, daily. 
 
 Do not allow birds out of their house when there is snow on the ground. 
 
 Feed balanced rations, those carrying the proper proportion of protein, 
 carbohydrates and fats. 
 
 Feed evenly and regularly, not a feast today and a famine tomorrow. 
 
 Feed scratch grains morning and evening. Scatter the grain in the litter. 
 Birds need exercise. 
 
 Provide fresh, warm drinking water. Clean the water dishes every day. 
 
 Nests. 
 
 It is believed that there is no other one factor which contributes to the 
 great total of bad eggs so much as poor nests. On most farms there are only 
 about eleven nests for one hundred hens and these nests are improperly 
 located and dirty. Such a situation means that 50% of the fowls must seek 
 nests for themselves. This 50% usually seek places under the corn crib, 
 straw stack, in the horse stable or out in the weeds, and these are the very 
 places where there is an abundance of vigorous bacterial growth flourishing 
 upon the moisture and warmth. As a result, when a nest full of such eggs is 
 found, fifty to eighty per cent of them have already developed into seconds, 
 blood rings and rots. 
 
 Many farmers think that even though good nests are provided the hens 
 will not utilize them, that the hens prefer to choose their own nests. This is 
 true in some instances. However, it has been found that on farms where one 
 nest is provided for every four or five hens, 95% of the eggs are laid in them. 
 Of course, the nests must be clean and free from vermin. It yields no profit 
 to the farmer when the hens lay well but he is not able to find the eggs. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 297 
 
 Molting. 
 
 If the hens are to go into the winter in the best laying condition, they must 
 molt early so that their new plumage will be grown before cold weather begins. 
 Henry Van Dreser is the originator of the method for encouraging fowls to 
 molt early. This method consists in feeding the hens very lightly for about two 
 weeks to stop egg production and reduce their weight, and then feeding them 
 heavily on feed suitable for the formation of feathers. This causes the hens 
 to molt more rapidly and more uniformly and they enter the winter egg laying 
 season in better condition than fowls fed continually during the molting period 
 on an egg ration. The fowls should receive more nitrogeneous matter during 
 the molting period whether the Van Dreser method is employed or not. The 
 addition of linseed meal and more animal feed to the ration will assist in the 
 production of a new coat of feathers. 
 
 RAISING CHICKENS. 
 (Including Valuable Suggestions on Using an Incubator and Brooder.) 
 
 Selection and Care of Breeding Stock. It is necessary to have healthy, 
 vigorous breeding stock to be successful in raising chickens. Put only the most 
 vigorous and best grown birds into the breeding yards. Have each bird free 
 from any serious deformity and full of life and energy. No bird should be used 
 for breeding purposes that does not have a perfect record for health, neither 
 should one be used that does not have good digestive powers, as they are likely 
 to transmit these weak tendencies to their offspring. Chicks hatched from eggs 
 of puny stock seldom get beyond their infancy, and when they do they amount 
 to very little. Pullets are not usually as good for breeders as the year old hens, 
 because they lay more eggs during the early winter and use up their vitality before 
 the breeding season. One can often advantageously retain vigorous hens two 
 to four years old in the breeding yard. In fact, hens are usually better than 
 pullets for breeding purposes because they lay bigger eggs, and, since they do 
 not lay as many eggs as the pullets during the fall and winter, they should be 
 in better physical condition in the spring than pullets to give strong, vigorous, 
 good-sized chicks. Choose a male bird that is young and active. The rule is 
 to breed older males to younger females and vice versa. An early hatched 
 cockerel that is well developed is generally satisfactory, or a two-year-old cock, 
 or a good vigorous yearling may be chosen. Give the hens used for breeding 
 purposes the best care possible, provide them with large runs and do not force 
 them for heavy egg production during the early winter. This lowers their 
 vitality and they will not be as good for breeding purposes. The hens should 
 not be too fat, for fat hens as a rule will not lay many fertile eggs and chicks 
 hatched from their eggs are usually weak. Do not let them get lousy. Use 
 your lice powders freely. Provide a dusting bath in a dry place. 
 
 If breeders are confined, feed them a varied supply of meat, grains and 
 green feeds and give them plenty of fresh air. The green feed helps to keep 
 the fowls in good breeding condition. Free range is usually better than con- 
 finement in the production of hatchable eggs, as it is easier to keep up the vitality 
 
298 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 of the stock. More males must be kept if the birds are on free range than if 
 they are yarded. 
 
 Number of Females to One Male. (For confined fowls) Light, active 
 breeds, such as Leghorns and Minorcas under ordinary conditions, use one 
 male to a pen of twelve to fifteen females. Medium-sized breeds, such as 
 Plymouth Rocks and Rhode Island Reds, use one male to ten or twelve females. 
 Heavy breeds, such as Cochins and Brahmas, use one male to no more than 
 ten females. When twenty or thirty females are kept in one flock, keep two 
 males. Allow one to run with the hens one day and the other the next. 
 Keep the male not with the hens, in a coop. Mate the hens ten days before 
 eggs are needed for hatching. 
 
 Eggs for Hatching. 
 
 1. Gather the eggs every day. Do not let them get chilled. Keep them 
 in a room where the temperature is between fifty and seventy degrees, if 
 possible. A greater strength of germ and higher fertility is observed in eggs 
 kept at a temperature of seventy degrees than those kept at a lower tem- 
 perature. 
 
 2. Eggs for hatching should be kept at a uniform temperature and turned 
 daily. 
 
 3. Select eggs of uniform size. Discard eggs that are small, abnormal 
 or poorly shaped. 
 
 4. Eggs that have thin or very porous appearing shells should not be used. 
 
 5. Use fresh eggs as nearly as possible. Never use them over two 
 weeks old. 
 
 6. Select uniformly large eggs for hatching as it is one of the quickest 
 ways to secure uniformity in the offspring and increase the size of the eggs. 
 
 7. Clean the dirty eggs by rubbing them lightly with a damp cloth. Be 
 careful not to rub off any more of the natural bloom of the egg than is necessary. 
 
 8. Do not allow broody hens to set on the nests all day. It may hurt the 
 hatching qualities. 
 
 9. Do not mix eggs of the smaller and larger breeds as the eggs of the 
 smaller breeds often hatch earlier than those of the large breeds. 
 
 10. All hatching should be concluded by May 15th. and the male birds con- 
 fined for the remainder of the summer. 
 
 Number of Eggs to Hen. This depends on the season, the size of the 
 hen, and the size of the eggs. The average number for spring is thirteen. No 
 more than eleven would be given the same hen in winter. After the middle of 
 May she can handle fifteen. Give less than she can cover rather than more. If 
 too many are given they may become chilled. 
 
 Testing Eggs. Test each setting and remove the infertile eggs. This 
 gives a better chance to those left. If several hens have been set on the same 
 day and there are many infertile eggs, some of the hens can be reset. Test 
 the eggs about the 6th or 7th day in a dark room or at night when the coop is 
 dark. Hold the egg against the hole in the side of the box. This allows the 
 light to shine through the egg and show 1 its condition. An infertile egg is clear, 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 299 
 
 while a fertile egg will show a small dark spot, a spider like formation having a 
 center with blood veins or ligaments leading outward. This formation will float 
 as the egg is turned. The infertile eggs may be used for cooking purposes. 
 
 Home-made Testers. Take a large shoe box or any box large enough to 
 go over a lamp. Cut a hole a little larger than a quarter in the bottom of the 
 box so that when the box is placed over the lamp, the hole comes opposite the 
 blaze. Cut a hole the size of a dollar in the top of the box to allow the heat to 
 escape. If possible get the colored egg charts from the Poultry Division, Bureau 
 of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and study them in testing your eggs. 
 
 Magnifying Tester. To make this tester only the following articles are 
 necessary: Ordinary cardboard, oat meal box, round paper box about the size 
 of a tomato can ; a few brass clinch rivets ; and a small handled magnifying or 
 "reading" glass from three to five inches in diameter. Make as follows : Cut a 
 slot down one side from the top of the box to within about two and one-quarter 
 inches of the bottom. The slot should be just wide enough to admit the handle 
 of the reading glass. Next cut a length from the smaller box open at both ends 
 two and one-quarter inches long and slip it inside the larger box, (box with 
 slot). Then put in the glass and another section of smaller box, open at each 
 end. Make this section solid with the rivets put through the sides of the outside 
 box. Make a small, smooth edged hole in the bottom of the box and blacken 
 the inside. This makes the tester complete and a revelation. 
 
 Natural Incubation. If setting hens are given proper care and are 
 handled with a little system, they will produce a large number of chickens at a 
 comparatively small expense. They should be given comfortable and convenient 
 quarters in which to set. Nest boxes should be constructed so that they may be 
 opened or closed when necessary. A good way to prepare a nest is to cut some 
 sod three inches thick ; put this in the bottom of the nest box and cover it with 
 a good thickness of straw or sweet hay. Put the nest in a quiet place where the 
 hen will not be disturbed. 
 
 Insect Powder. It is advisable to sprinkle both hen and nest with insect 
 powder before setting her. This should be repeated once a week throughout 
 the setting period. To apply the powder, hold the hen by the feet, head down, 
 working the powder well into the feathers. Give special attention to regions 
 around the vent and under the wings. 
 
 Testing Hen. A hen should be tested before being set. To do this put 
 her in a nest she cannot get off. Put a china egg or two under her. On the 
 second day, toward evening, go quietly in where she is setting, leave some water 
 and feed, open the front of the nest and let her come off when ready. If she 
 returns to the nest after feeding, it is safe to put the eggs under her. The 
 hens are less likely to become restless if the nests are darkened a little. 
 
 Care of Setting Hen. If several hens are setting at the same time, care 
 should be taken to see that they come off the nest just once a day to receive feed 
 and water. If some do not care to come off they should be taken off and all 
 of them should be put back on before the eggs have time to chill say in 20 
 minutes in ordinary weather. If a large number are setting in a room, it is 
 
300 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 better to let them off four or six at a time. Examine the eggs and nests and 
 clean them. Remove all broken eggs and wash soiled ones. Any soiled nesting 
 material should be removed and replaced by clean straw. Dirty nests soon become 
 infested with lice and mites and this makes the hens uneasy. If the nest is in- 
 fested with mites, the hen will generally stand over rather than sit on the eggs. 
 Many eggs laid in the late winter and early spring are infertile so it is advisable 
 to set several hens at the same time. The eggs should be tested after they have 
 been under the hens from five to seven days, depending on the color and thick- 
 ness of the shells White shelled eggs are easier to test than brown shelled ones. 
 The infertile and dead germed eggs should be removed and the fertile eggs put 
 back under the hen. When the eggs are tested, it is often possible to put the 
 eggs that several hens started under a few hens and to use the others. For 
 example, forty eggs are set under four hens at the same time, ten under each. 
 On the seventh day when testing we find that thirteen are infertile. This leaves 
 twenty-seven to be reset. We put these under three hens and have the fourth 
 hen to set over again after she has been setting only seven days. Much time can 
 be saved in one's hatching operations this way. 
 
 Feeding Setting Hens. Setting hens should be fed well. Their feed 
 should be mostly whole grain such as wheat, oats and corn. They require food 
 for their bodily maintenance. Very little meat or vegetable food should be 
 given. The meat food would be inclined to make them want to quit setting 
 to begin laying and the vegetable food would tend to loosen the bowels. 
 Feed the grain in hoppers and supply fresh water in a clean vessel. 
 
 Taking Chicks from Nest. Chicks should be taken from the nest about 
 twenty-four hours after the first ones are hatched. They generally want to get 
 out from under the hen and begin moving about when no more than a day old. 
 This will often make the hen restless and cause her to leave the nest. 
 
 Incubation. 
 
 Incubators vs. Hens. Incubators as a rule give better service than we 
 think. Most people expect entirely too much from a machine. They read only 
 about the big hatches as the failures are seldom printed. In comparing incubator 
 hatches with those of hens, we forget the hens' failures. The average is not even 
 kept in ^ind, so of course, we are disappointed with anything less than a 90% 
 hatch. 
 
 There is no way of knowing just how many of the eggs set under hens 
 hatch out, however, we believe that only about half of them produce strong chicks 
 and only about half of those live to market size. If these figures are at all near 
 the truth, a 50% incubator hatch should be satisfactory. Hundreds of people 
 report 50 to 80% hatches throughout the season. Incubators are steadily gain- 
 ing in popularity. People find that most of the trouble with incubators is due 
 to carelessness in operation rather than to any imperfection of the machine. 
 Since complete directions come with the machine, we shall not go into detail 
 here but shall give you a few points to keep in mind when using an incubator. 
 
POULTRY RAISING-CHICKENS 
 
 A HOME MADE BROODER CHEAP A\n !rH.<"Il\K 
 
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 1. F!r*lM Brooder. 2. Top to Broodtr. I. Homt-niMlr Proodrr. 
 4. B Cndlr. i nd . Mtlhod. of Krpin W.Ur Clt.n. 
 
 7. Grain Hoppr. 8. To* Mrk for Chlrk- S. OnI-Sprenlln, fh- 
 Inet. 
 
302 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 POINTS TO REMEMBER IN USING AN INCUBATOR AND 
 
 BROODER. 
 
 (Gathered from the World Over.) 
 
 1. The most successful incubator operators worry the least about their 
 machines. 
 
 2. With good eggs and good oil in the lamp, the average incubator will per- 
 form its work without much outside assistance after it is properly started. 
 
 3. The best place to operate an incubator is in a dry, well ventilated cellar. 
 
 4. The cellar should contain no odors of decaying vegetables, should have 
 a free circulation of air, and should not vary widely in temperature. 
 
 5. Never have an incubator in a room where the sun shines while hatch- 
 ing is going on. 
 
 6. Keep the incubator room clean and well ventilated. 
 
 7. Any condition surrounding the eggs which saps their vitality makes 
 them more subject to infection. 
 
 8. Guard against the eggs being infected with bacteria or moulds. This 
 is one of the chief causes of poor results in incubation. 
 
 9. Disinfect the incubator each time before putting in the eggs. To do 
 this, scrub it thoroughly with coal-tar disinfectant ; hot water and creosol soap, 
 or with a solution of one gill of creolin in eight and one-half parts of soft water. 
 Scrub each part thoroughly, especially the egg trays. 
 
 10. Dry the machine carefully before putting eggs into it. 
 
 11. Disinfect the eggs by dipping them in a solution made of one gill of 
 creolin in eight and one-half quarts of rain water. Make a new solution each 
 time you have a new batch of eggs to disinfect. Allow them to drain before 
 putting them into the incubator. 
 
 12. Careless use of disinfectants is detrimental, especially using too much 
 of them. 
 
 13. Moisture is necessary to the best results in artificial incubation. Moisture 
 machines produce 100% better hatches by test. 
 
 14. Too much moisture is as injurious as too little. 
 
 15. - The most common cause of poor results and failure in incubation is 
 the use of eggs of low vitality. 
 
 16. Eggs only a few days old are the best. 
 
 17. Use eggs from stock that has not been over fed on green or animal feeds. 
 
 18. Turning and cooling the eggs is essential in obtaining a good hatch. 
 
 19. Within from five to seven days the eggs should be tested. (See Egg 
 Testing.) 
 
 20. See that your air space is correct at each stage of the hatch. 
 
 21. Do not turn the eggs until the third day or after the eighteenth day. 
 
 22. The best way to turn the eggs is by hand. 
 
 23. It is necessary to turn the eggs half over.,. 
 
 24. Do not open the machine unless absolutely necessary except when 
 turning and cooling the eggs. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 303 
 
 25. After the first shell is pipped close the egg drawer and do not open it 
 unless for a very urgent reason until all the chicks are hatched. 
 
 26. Do not try to help a chick out of its shell. If it is not strong enough 
 to get out alone it is not worth saving. 
 
 27. It is but natural for the chicks to struggle and gasp when they first 
 come from the shell as it gives them strength. Do not help them at this time. 
 
 28. When a very good hatch is coming off, the chicks will sometimes gather 
 at the glass in front and pile up. To prevent this put a cloth over the glass and 
 thus darken the machine. Never open the machine to take out a few chicks. 
 Wait until hatch is over. Never take any out unless there is danger of losing 
 some chicks. 
 
 29. Leave the chicks in the incubator from 24 to 36 hours. If they are 
 left that long no harm will come to them. 
 
 30. "My best success has always been with a temperature ranging not over 
 102 the first week, then 103 to the time of hatching when I allowed the tem- 
 perature to go as high as 105." 
 
 31. Follow the directions with your machine very closely as the manufac- 
 turer knows the way that that particular machine should be run to produce the 
 best results. 
 
 Brooders. 
 
 1. A brooder is a necessity for those who use incubators. 
 
 2. Keep the brooder disinfected. Disinfect it between each brood of chicks. 
 Have the bottom covered with good clean straw. 
 
 3. Operate the brooder a day or two before putting chicks into it. 
 
 4. Do not overcrowd the brooder. It is the worst mistake one can make. 
 Have the chicks comfortable. 
 
 5. The capacity of a brooder is generally greatly overestimated by the 
 manufacturers. 
 
 6. Have the brooder regulated at a uniform temperature day and night. 
 Low and irregular temperatures in brooders have caused more disease and deaths 
 than any other one thing. 
 
 7. The temperature after the first day or two should be governed by the 
 action of the chicks, not by the thermometer. 
 
 8. Crowding of chicks to outside of brooder, panting or breathing hard, 
 
 indicate too much heat. 
 
 9. Crowding and huddling about the heater indicates a need of more heat. 
 10. When the chicks spread out comfortably at night, midway between the 
 
 heater and brooder walls, or just inside the fringe, where a hover is used, it 
 signifies a right amount of heat. 
 
 11 The chicks should not be allowed to huddle together outside the brooder. 
 
 12. If the chicks are not supplied with artificial heat they will crowd no 
 matter how few are in the brooder. 
 
 13 Do not take the heat away from the chicks too soon. Keep the brooder 
 heated until they are far enough developed that they do not go under the hover. 
 
304 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Care and Feeding of Chicks. 
 
 Care. If an early maturity is to be obtained with chicks, it is necessary 
 to give them a good start. They should be given outdoor runs on dry ground 
 and grass as soon as the weather is pleasant. They should be kept moving 
 and not penned up in a small space where exercise is impossible. 
 
 Ground. Exercise is necessary. They can and should be made to exer- 
 cise by putting rolled oats in fine litter. Chicks should be kept inside on rainy 
 or damp days or when the dew is heavy on the grass. Dampness often causes 
 leg weakness and bowel trouble. They should be kept free from lice. 
 
 Feeding. Feeding is an important factor in the successful raising of 
 chicks. For the first thirty-six hours no feed should be given at all as the yolk 
 of the egg is absorbed, furnishing sufficient nourishment. The two systems in 
 vogue for feeding chicks, as well as older fowls, are dry and wet feeding. The 
 first is simpler and easier and beginners are usually more successful with this 
 one. More care should be given in feeding chicks than in feeding older fowls 
 because the chicks know less about what is good for them and they are liable 
 to overeat. 
 
 Feeds. 
 
 1. Egg and Bread Crumbs. A good feed for the first meal is hard-boiled 
 egg the infertile eggs from the incubator may be used for this chopped fine, 
 shell and all, mixed with three times its amount of stale bread crumbs or bread 
 and milk. 
 
 2. Bread and Milk. Another good feed for chicks is stale bread soaked 
 in whole or skim milk. The milk should be squeezed out until the mass crumbles 
 easily. This is excellent for the first week or so. 
 
 3. Oatmeal and Bran. Oatmeal and dry bran where they pick it is good. 
 
 4. Green Feed. Green feed must be given. If the chicks can get grass 
 they will supply themselves but if not they must be given some that can be easily 
 assimilated. Finely cut grass, onion tops chopped fine, sprouted oats, lettuce 
 leaves or boiled vegetables are all good. 
 
 5. Grain Feed. It is well to begin grain feed when the chicks are a few 
 days old. Feed it in hoppers. Never feed any wet, sloppy feeds as it causes 
 bowel trouble. Several good cracked grain feeds are given. Two parts "pin- 
 head" oatmeal, two parts wheat, one part corn, one part millet seed and one part 
 rice. 
 
 6. Egg and Rolled Oats. A good feed for the first two or three days is 
 made by boiling the infertile eggs for about one-half hour and mixing these 
 together with about six times their bulk of rolled oats. The eggs are put through 
 a meat chopper. 
 
 7. Egg and Corn Bread. A good feed for newly hatched chickens is 
 corn bread with egg in it. Until they are a month old, everything fed to them 
 should be cooked. 
 
 8. Cracked Corn, Millet Seed, Cracked Wheat, Oatmeal and Beef Scrap. 
 Another mixture is: 4 pounds cracked corn, 2 pounds millet seed, 10 pounds 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 305 
 
 cracked wheat, two pounds "Pinhead" (granulated) oatmeal or cracked hulled 
 oats, and one pound pulverized beef scrap. 
 
 9. Cracked Corn, Oatmeal and Millet Seed. Another mixture is : Steel 
 cut oatmeal, fine cracked corn and millet seeds. 
 
 Frequency of Feeding. Feed young chicks a very little at a time. They 
 should be fed at least five times a day, once early In the morning, then just 
 before they are put away for the night and three times in the intervening 
 period. It is well the first two weeks to feed three meals of soft feed and two 
 of hard, and after two weeks to feed two of soft and three of hard. Do not 
 give any more moistened soft feed each time than the chicks will clean up. 
 The feed must be kept sweet and clean as sour feed causes looseness of the 
 bowels and dysentery. The chicks will grow faster at first if a part of the feed 
 is ground than if just cracked grains are fed. The frequency of feeding may 
 be decreased to three times a day after the chicks are six weeks old. 
 
 Animal Feed. If the chicks are in the open on free range in the spring 
 and summer they pick up bugs and insects which will help supply their animal 
 feed. If they cannot get these abundantly, it must be furnished in some other 
 form. The hard-boiled eggs will be sufficient when fed to the youngest chicks 
 but later on they should be given green cut bone and beef scraps. 
 
 Water. Cool, fresh water should always be kept before the chicks. See 
 that the water basin is clean. This will save one much trouble later. If the 
 chicks are allowed to get very thirsty and then fill up on water it may give 
 them bowel trouble. 
 
 Milk. Milk is fine for young chicks ; it is highly nutritious and promotes 
 growth, taking the place of other animal food to a certain extent. Skim milk 
 is excellent; if whole milk is fed it is better to dilute it with one-third or 
 one-half water. 
 
 Grit. Grit is a necessity. A dish of it in the form of fine sand and grit 
 should always be before the chicks. 
 
 Charcoal. Charcoal is not a necessity but it is a fine thing to keep them 
 in good health. It is also well to give charcoal, if the chicks are not thrifty, 
 before changing the feed or giving medicine. Most people keep charcoal 
 before the chicks at all times. 
 
 Exercise. The chicks should be induced to exercise from the very first. 
 Their grain feed should be fed in the litter to make them scratch for it. If 
 their green feed is a cabbage or other vegetable, hang it up. This will make 
 them jump. Exercise promotes growth and health. 
 
 Teach Chicks to Roost. Chicks can be taught to roost by putting the 
 perches near the floor and placing with them two old hens or older chicks 1 that 
 are used to roosting. If this is not effective or convenient, place the chicks 
 on the perches after dark for a few nights and they will learn to go there of 
 their own accord. It is often advisable to teach the chicks to roost when eight 
 to twelve weeks of age, as they get dirty and crowd themselves on the floor. 
 If wide roosts three to four inches are used there is little danger from 
 crooked breasts. 
 
306 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Toe-mark Chicks. The successful poultry raiser should know the age of 
 his birds. It is strange to say that 95% of the farmers have no definite way 
 of determining the age of their poultry. When a farmer markets his poultry, 
 he ought to have some positive method of knowing the ages of the birds he is 
 selling. Such a plan would greatly decrease the number of yearling hens and 
 pullets which, through lack of system, are now being disposed of while older 
 birds that ought to be sold are retained. Eggs are conceded to be the greatest 
 source of income from the farm poultry. The pullets and yearling hens will 
 return the farmer a much larger profit in eggs during the year than the older 
 hens. Hens are kept, as a rule, at a good profit until their third year but 
 after that they are seldom profitable. A great amount of money will be saved 
 if more attention is paid to keeping a record on the ages of the chickens. 
 
 Several methods of marking poultry are used by different poultry raisers 
 over the country but the most practical one for the farmers is that of toe- 
 marking. Instruments for toe-marking are sold by supply houses but an 
 ordinary saddler's punch may be used successfully. The illustration given 
 shows sixteen different combinations of toe-marking. If just one mark is 
 used for all chicks hatched in a given year, no farmer would have to use more 
 than three or four of these marks, but if he desires to show the ages more 
 closely, all the forms might be useful. The chick is toe-marked when hatched. 
 The operation is simple and painless. An entire hatch may be marked in a 
 very short time. All that is required is to punch the web of the foot. (See 
 illustration for combinations.) 
 
 CAPONS AND CAPONIZING. 
 
 The Capon Industry is increasing every year. It is valuable to the Farmer. 
 
 A capon is a castrated male bird. After a bird is caponized it becomes 
 more quiet, the comb and wattles cease to grow, it is more readily fattened 
 and the plumage becomes glossy and heavy. Caponizing is not done to in- 
 crease the weight so much as to improve the quality of the flesh. It lengthens 
 the period of growth and the flesh' retains that tender, sweet, palatable charac- 
 ter so characteristic of spring chickens. The great difference in flavor between 
 the flesh of capons and other fowls is not realized by very many, but in local- 
 ities where it is known, dressed capons bring from 35 to 50 cents a pound. 
 The larger the bird the more they bring a pound. They -often show great 
 fondness for little chicks and can be utilized to good advantage in rearing 
 broods of chickens. Some people say they make better mothers than hens. 
 
 Teaching a Capon to Mother Chicks. It is no trouble to start a capon 
 with little chicks if he is gentle. For best results have a small yard with a 
 coop in it. The capon should be placed in this yard a few days before the 
 chicks are to be given him so he will get used to it. It is best to have the 
 chicks about a week old if the capon has never raised chicks before. If the 
 coop has no perches in it the bird will roost squatting on the floor. Just about 
 dark the little chicks should be placed under his wings one or two at a time. 
 The capon will not object to this but rather like it If he seems restless tickle 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 307 
 
 LITTLE HELEN BEL'OY, 
 
 CEDAR VALE, KANSAS. 
 
 MAKING A CAPON. 
 
 At the time this picture 
 was taken Helen was only 
 ten years old. This little 
 girl makes spending money 
 by working birds for the 
 neighbors. She gets 
 cents for each capon 
 
 ten 
 he 
 
 in eaiy for her 
 to operate on fifty in one 
 afternoon. In her letter 
 giving us the right to ue 
 the above photograph she 
 say*: 
 
 "I learned to caponize 
 when I wi nine years old. 
 although the picture was 
 taken when I was ten. and 
 have eaponlzed successfully 
 for the last s*ven seasons 
 without killing a bird. How- 
 ever, my youngest brother 
 learned to caponize success- 
 fully when only seven years 
 old." 
 
308 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 him under the chin and talk to him in a soothing voice and all will be well. 
 The next morning the birds should be looked after. The capon will usually 
 be hovering the little fellows, but if he is in doubt, standing on one leg and 
 not clucking much, they should be taken away leaving the capon alone until 
 night when the chicks should be put under him again. By the second night 
 the most obstinate of capons will be ready to fight for the brood. When a 
 capon has once been taught how to brood he can be given a brood of chicks 
 with perfect safety. 
 
 The larger breeds such as the Cochin, Brahma, Plymouth Rock, Langshan, 
 or Wyandotte are the most suitable for caponizing. 
 
 When to Caponize. Fowls can be caponized practically any time in the 
 year. However, it is an advantage to perform the operation in the spring 
 before hot weather comes. They should be from two to three months old and 
 weigh about two pounds, depending upon their development. Caponizing is 
 usually done about the time the cockerels begin to exhibit sexual proclivities, 
 that is about the time they begin to crow. The operation is comparatively 
 painless and safe as but from two to five per cent die from it. Since these die 
 by bleeding in a few minutes, they are still excellent for table use. A good set 
 of tools is necessary and can be purchased for two or three dollars. A com- 
 plete set of instructions comes with each set so it would be a waste of space 
 to give detailed directions here. 
 
 After caponizing, give the bird plenty of soft feed and water to drink. A 
 capon begins eating immediately after being caponized and one would not 
 think that any radical change had taken place in his nature. He should be 
 left to himself as he is his own doctor for the time being. Two or three days 
 after the operation, however, it is well to look the bird over to see if any air 
 has gotten under the skin, causing a slight swelling or "wind puff". If one 
 has formed, it can be relieved by piercing the skin at one side of the swelling 
 with a sharp needle and gently pressing out the air. Feed capons nourishing, 
 not fattening, food, thus keeping them growing. They should be allowed to 
 grow until they are matured, which is generally one year. 
 
 Caponizing has not been widely practiced in this country so far but it is 
 steadily gaining in favor. Any man with ordinary intelligence can learn to 
 caponize quickly and efficiently in a short time. More capons appear on the 
 market each year and never fail to bring a very high price. 
 
 Capons should be fattened for about three weeks before they are sent to 
 market. Put them in a small yard and feed them two or three times a day. 
 They can be fattened on one of the rations given under "Fattening Poultry," 
 or on the following: equal parts, by weight, of ground oats and corn meal, 
 moistened with milk or water. 
 
 Dress capons so they can be distinguished on the market. A good way 
 is to leave the head and hackle feathers, the tail feathers, including those a 
 little way up the back, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, and those 
 on the legs halfway up the thigh. Also leave the head on as the undeveloped 
 comb and wattles make a distinguishing mark. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 309 
 
 SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 
 
 (Including Some of the Most valuable Feeding Methods and Formula* Known.) 
 
 There are two systems in common use for the feeding of fowls. One is 
 known as the dry-feed system ; the other the "mash" system. In the former 
 all feed is given dry either whole or crushed while in the latter, one or more 
 of the daily feeds consists of a moistened mash; i. e., the feed is ground. 
 Poultrymen disagree as to the better of these two systems and as to the time 
 at which grain and mash should be fed. Fowls in confinement should be fed 
 three times a day and those having free range twice a day. There are advan- 
 tages to be gained in the dry system in that it saves time and labor, and lessens 
 the danger of bowel trouble resulting from feeding soured or sloppy mashes. 
 
 Dry Feeding. 
 
 In the dry-feeding system, a mixture of whole grains is thrown in the 
 litter early in the morning and again about 11:30 or about an hour before 
 they go to roost at night. A dry mash mixture is opened to them about 10 :00 
 or 12 :30 and they have access to it the remainder of the day. If one cannot 
 feed early in the morning, it is advisable to scatter the grain plentifully in the 
 litter after the birds have gone to roost. This grain will furnish feed for early 
 morning. Fowls should have empty crops in the morning but the crops should 
 never be quite full the rest of the day until roosting time. Keep the birds 
 slightly hungry during the day and do not give them all they will eat until 
 just before roosting time. The birds should be handled once in a while when 
 they are on the perch and if they are either too fleshy or too poor, their rations 
 should be changed accordingly. 
 
 Several feeds for dry feeding are given below. The feed given early in 
 the morning and at 11 :30 we call the "grain mixture" and that given at 12:30 
 the "dry-mash." 
 
 Valuable Feeding Formulas for Dry Feeding. 
 Grain Mixture. Dry Mash. 
 
 (Amount for 100 hens). Wheat bran, 2 parts by weight. 
 
 Middlings, 1 part by weight. 
 Cornmeal,! part by weight. 
 Linseed meal, 1 part by weight. 
 Gluten, 1 part by weight. 
 Beef scrap, 1 part by weight. 
 
 Dry Mash. 
 
 Grain Mixture. 2 parts meat scrap. 
 
 3 parts by weight of corn. 2 parts ground corn. 
 
 1 part by weight of wheat. 1 part bran feed. 
 
310 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Grain Mixture. 
 
 (Winter Ration.) 
 Wheat, 3 parts by weight. 
 Corn, 2 parts by weight. 
 Oats, 1 part by weight. 
 
 Whole Grain Mixture. 
 
 By weight. By measure. 
 
 Corn 60 pounds 36 quarts 
 
 Wheat 60 pounds 32 quarts 
 
 Oats 30 pounds 30 quarts 
 
 Buckwheat .30 pounds 20 quarts 
 
 Whole Grain Mixture. 
 (For Summer.) 
 
 By weight. By measure. 
 
 Corn 60 pounds 36 quarts 
 
 Wheat 60 pounds 32 quarts 
 
 Oats 30 pounds 30 quarts 
 
 Dry Mash. 
 
 (Winter Ration.) 
 60 pounds of cornmeal. 
 60 pounds wheat middlings or shorts. 
 50 pounds meat scraps. 
 30 pounds wheat bran. 
 10 pounds linseed oil meal. 
 
 10 pounds milled alfalfa. 
 
 11 pounds salt. 
 
 Mash Mixture. 
 (For Winter and Summer.) 
 
 By By 
 
 Weight. Measure. 
 
 W r heat middlings. . .60 Ibs. 71 qts. 
 Cornmeal .......... 60 Ibs. 
 
 Wheat bran ......... 30 Ibs. 
 
 Oil meal ........... 10 Ibs. 
 
 Alfala meal ........ 10 Ibs. 
 
 Beef scrap .......... 50 Ibs. 
 
 Salt ............... 1 Ib. 
 
 57 qts. 
 57 qts. 
 8 qts. 
 20 qts, 
 43 qts. 
 Y* qt. 
 
 This mash mixture is fed in dry hoppers kept open only in the afternoon. 
 The whole grain feed should be restricted so that they will eat at least one- 
 third ground feed. 
 
 Dry Mash. 
 
 Bran 5 pounds 
 
 Shorts 5 pounds 
 
 Meat Scraps 3*4 pounds 
 
 Grain Mixture. 
 
 Corn 10 pounds 
 
 Wheat 10 pounds 
 
 Oats 5 pounds 
 
 25 pounds 
 
 In order to keep the above feed properly balanced the 13^ pounds of 
 mash should be consumed in the same time as the 25 pounds of whole grain. 
 Hens are inclined to eat too much of the whole grain and slight the mashes. 
 This must be prevented. The above mixtures are figured out for confined 
 hens and should be varied to meet other conditions. 
 
 Grain Mixture. 
 Wheat, 10 parts by weight. 
 Corn (cracked preferred), 10 parts by 
 
 weight. 
 Oats, 5 parts by weight. 
 
 Dry Mash. 
 
 Corn meal, 6 parts by weight. 
 Middlings, 6 parts by weight. 
 Bran, 3 parts by weight. 
 Beef scrap, 5 parts by weight. 
 Oilmeal, 1 part by weight. 
 Alfalfa meal, 1 part by weight. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS :ill 
 
 Grain Mixture. Dry Mash. 
 
 360 pounds cracked corn. 32 parts corn meal. 
 
 200 pounds wheat. 30 parts ground alfalfa. 
 
 130 pounds oats. 30 parts animal (meat) meal. 
 
 2 parts oyster shell. 
 
 1 part grit. 
 
 1 part charcoal. 
 
 Mash Feeding. 
 
 Where dry feeding and mash feeding have been compared it has been 
 found that chickens are very fond of broken grain and whole grain moistened 
 and that they will eat such material better than a dry mixture of finely ground 
 feed. The mash is moistened with water or milk. It should be a com- 
 paratively dry, crumbly mash, and not a thin slop. For the morning feed, 
 grain scattered in the litter is preferred as this exercises the birds. It should 
 be given as soon as possible after they leave the roost. The moistened mash 
 should be given at noon all that the chickens will eat in fifteen to twenty 
 minutes and at night just before roosting time a liberal supply of grain 
 should be scattered in the litter. (Many poultrymen feed the mash in the 
 morning and a few feed the mash at night. It is probably more important 
 that a part of the grain is ground than that it is fed at a particular time of 
 day.) The following sample mashes are given : 
 
 Valuable Formulas for Mash Feeding. 
 
 150 pounds ground oats 100 pounds wheat bran 
 
 150 pounds wheat bran 100 pounds ground corn 
 
 100 pounds corn meal 100 pounds ground barley 
 
 30 pounds linseed meal 100 pounds ground oats 
 
 30 pounds beef scraps. 
 
 100 pounds corn meal 
 
 100 pounds corn meal 100 pounds wheat bran 
 100 pounds wheat bran 75 pounds cut clover or alfalfa 
 
 100 pounds ground oats 75 pounds wheat middlings 
 
 Miscellaneous Feeds. 
 
 Mustard. Keeps the chickens healthy. Makes the hens lay more eggs. 
 The feeding of mustard is a revelation to poultry keepers. When fed to 
 breeding stock their vigor and stamina are increased, the eggs are highly 
 fertile and they hatch strong chicks. When fed to the other fowls it increases 
 their health and vigor. Mustard is not found to be a stimulant but a mild 
 tonic. 
 
 Can be had by Farmer. Mustard greens can be easily raised in any 
 climate and fed to the chickens with excellent results. Ground mustard is 
 another form in which mustard is fed. In feeding this use about one teaspoon- 
 ful for six hens. 
 
312 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Mustard Bran. This is a by-product of the spice mills and if it can be 
 obtained is cheaper than ground mustard. There are two kinds of the bran 
 brown and yellow. The yellow is considered the best. Mustard bran is fed 
 in the mash, wet or dry. When dry it has no odor. Feed just enough bran to 
 flavor the mash, except in case of hens just over the molt that refuse to lay. 
 
 Pullets should be given small doses of mustard about a month before it 
 is time for them to lay and the quantity increased as they approach laying 
 age. At this time begin feeding it to all stock and it will solve the fall and 
 winter egg problems. 
 
 Animal and Green Feeds. Chickens are able to pick up a large amount 
 of insects, worms, and other low forms of animal life during the summer, but 
 in the winter months a substitute must be given them. For this purpose meat 
 scraps, such as offals from butchering, green cut bone, animal meal and beef 
 scraps are excellent. The same is true of green feeds. Chickens must have 
 the animal and green feeds in addition to the dry grain feeds to keep them 
 healthy. 
 
 Silage. The secretary of the Wisconsin Poultry Association advises that 
 silage made from corn is being fed to poultry in that state with splendid 
 results. It is fine to make hens lay. The average run of silage is the best. 
 If there is too much grain in it, the hens become too fat to lay. There is no 
 question but silage is going to be used more largely in feeding poultry. 
 
 Hay. Clover hay makes a fine feed for chickens. Prepare it as follows : 
 Cut it as short lengths as possible (y^ to }/2 inch) and place in a bucket. Pour 
 boiling water over it and allow it to stand two or three hours or over night. 
 When ready to feed, drain off the water and mix the hay with the mash. The 
 hay may make about one-half the bulk of the feed. The exact proportion is 
 immaterial. Any kind of hay is valuable but clover hay is best. Do not give 
 too much bulky feed. 
 
 Table Scraps. In feeding table scraps, salt and acids of one kind or 
 another should be avoided as much as possible. The feeding of large quan- 
 tities of scraps is not very satisfactory, inasmuch as it has to be fed in a trough, 
 and when given to the birds they generally pick out the pieces and scatter 
 them all about the house in the litter, and it makes a more or less bad method 
 of feeding. They should be fed fairly dry ; that is, they should always be well 
 drained, so there will be no liquid matter in with the scraps. 
 
 Birds cannot be kept on table scraps alone. This form of feed is a rough- 
 age and should be considered as nothing more than a variety or stimulating 
 feed given along with the regular rations of grain and mash. It acts as an 
 appetizer and is a valuable feed when given fresh. Moldy and sour feeds 
 should be guarded against. 
 
 Corn Gluten. Corn gluten feed makes an excellent addition to the ration 
 and may be procured through almost any feed store. It is highly palatable and 
 may be fed to advantage in the dry mash with other feed, such as follows : One 
 hundred pounds of cornmeal, one hundred pounds of bran, one hundred pounds 
 of white middlings, one hundred pounds of corn gluten feed, one hundred pounds 
 of meat scrap, six pounds of charcoal, six pounds of salt. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 313 
 
 Grit. Grit is essential to economy in feeding and to the health of the 
 fowls. It aids the digestion as it takes the place of teeth and is required for 
 the proper preparation of feed in the gizzard. If the feed is not properly taken 
 care of by this organ, an undue strain is thrown on the fowl's whole system. 
 This often causes disease and allows a great deal of nutriment to pass through 
 the bird's body without being absorbed. A box of grit should be kept in every 
 pen and yard. It gives the fowls strong bones, bright plumage and aids in the 
 assimilation of the food. 
 
 Charcoal. Charcoal is fine for chickens when their stomach is sour and 
 their digestion has been impaired. It acts as a corrective because it has a great 
 absorptive power for gases, impurities, and acids. It is often well to give char- 
 coal to the birds in case they are dumpy before the feed is changed or before 
 medicine is given. Charcoal of excellent quality can be made by burning a pile 
 of corncobs until it is a glowing mass and then dousing it with water. 
 
 Varied Ration Important. In feeding grain one must give a variety. No 
 one kind of grain is best. Variety should be secured by feeding different kinds 
 of grain on different days or by mixing the grain. If grain is made the sole 
 feed, fat instead of eggs is the result. 
 
 Feeds Interchangeable. The following grains may be substituted for 
 each other in the manner indicated below. That is not saying that any one is 
 exactly equal in food value to the one opposite but they do not vary far enough 
 to make a material difference. If one grain is high in price in your locality it 
 will be a saving of money for you to use another and sacrifice the difference 
 in food value in that direction. 
 
 Grain. Substitutes. 
 
 Wheat * Corn, barley, oats, kafir-corn. 
 
 Corn Buckwheat (too fattening fed alone), wheat. 
 
 Oats Wheat, barley, kafir-corn. 
 
 Barley Wheat, oats. 
 
 Quick Fattening. 
 
 To fatten readily, the poultry must be put in a small place where they will 
 have very little space to run about and a place that can be darkened, just enough 
 light being admitted for them to see to walk about when not eating. If they 
 have little exercise they will fatten more readily. The sexes should be separated. 
 Make a small "V" shaped trough, like a hog trough, only smaller, in which 
 to put the wet food. The essentials of fattening are quiet, darkness, except 
 at meal time, and plenty of soft feed given at regular intervals, usually three 
 times a day. Give the birds plenty of water, grit, and charcoal. Keep all 
 green feed from them. Vegetables may be given if necessary to vary the 
 ration. Fowls should be marketed at once when fat as they will lose their 
 appetites when fed too long and begin losing weight. If a bird shows signs 
 of getting off its feed, it should be sent to market immediately or put on the 
 
314 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 range to recuperate. It takes from ten days to two weeks to fatten poultry. 
 Fowls brought up in confinement are much better for the table than those off 
 the range. 
 
 Feeds for Quick Fattening. 
 
 1. Oats, Wheat, Middlings and Cornmeal. Feed a mixture of ground 
 oats, cracked wheat and wheat middlings, cornmeal, scalded and made into 
 a dough with hot water. Feed as often during the day as the chrckens will 
 eat the feed clean. 
 
 2. Cornmeal, Bran and Sour Milk. Equal parts of cornmeal and bran 
 mixed to a thin batter with buttermilk or sourmilk makes a good fattening 
 ration. Give little first day ; after that give all they can eat in twenty minutes. 
 
 3. Buckwheat Flour, Cornmeal and Milk. Make a mixture of buck- 
 wheat flour, cornmeal and milk. Mix these to a batter that will just drop 
 from a spoon but not run. Feed all they will eat. Remove troughs after 
 feeding. Fowls fattened this way are deliciously palatable and tender. 
 
 4. Barley, Oats, Corn, Beef Scraps and Buttermilk. Take equal parts 
 of finely ground barley, finely ground oats (with hulls sifted out), finely 
 ground corn. To this mixture add 10% of beef scraps. Use buttermilk if 
 possible, if not, skim milk for moistening. Feed at regular intervals. 
 
 5. Corn, Oats, Flour and Tallow. A fine ration may be made as fol- 
 lows : 100 pounds ground corn, 100 pounds ground oats, 50 pounds flour and 
 4 pounds tallow. 
 
 Cramming. 
 
 If some of the fattening stock does not eat all they should they can be 
 crammed to good advantage as follows: Make the feed into balls about one- 
 half inch in diameter and two inches long. Have from fourteen to eighteen 
 balls for each bird. Sit down on a box or stool, grasp the bird firmly between 
 the knees, elongate the neck, grasping the head in the left hand, and placing 
 the first finger in the mouth to keep it open. Then dip one of the balls in 
 skim milk or water and force it into the bird's mouth, pressing it down the 
 throat with the finger. Next grip the neck above the ball with the thumb 
 and first finger; run them downward along the neck and force the ball into 
 the crop. It will take fourteen to eighteen to fill the crop of one bird. Cram- 
 ming is done just before roosting time. One can soon learn to cram the birds 
 easily and readily. 
 
 MARKETING POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS. 
 
 (Including Systems of Marketing, Employed by People All Over the Country.) 
 
 The average farmer and poultryman can generally figure out that he is 
 making a profit from his chickens, but it cannot be denied that with better 
 methods of preparing fowls for market and better systems of marketing, the 
 profit made from them would be much greater. In the far East where more 
 care is taken in the marketing and in localities farther west where system is 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 315 
 
 used, poultry products bring prices far above the average. Farmers are 
 realizing more and more thai the farm hen who "just eats her head off" can 
 be handled so as to produce a handsome profit. All the loss from poor 
 handling comes out of the farmer. The farmer should study his market con- 
 ditions and learn how to successfully meet the requirements of his particular 
 market. Where marketing is done to the best advantage, farmers find that 
 it is important to have their products put up in an attractive style. They 
 insist upon selling them on a quality basis. Such farmers study the details 
 of killing, dressing and packing that they may arrange their products in the 
 best manner possible. 
 
 Killing and Dressing Chickens. 
 
 Killing. The birds should not be allowed a bit of food for eighteen to 
 thirty-six hours before killing if they are to be sent off the farm undrawn. 
 If they are to be drawn (i. e., inwards removed), feed should be kept from 
 them at least ten hours before killing. In either case keep all drinking water 
 from them for at least eight hours before killing. If food is left in the crops 
 it quickly ferments and produces an uncanny appearance in the fowls. When 
 ready to kill, suspend the fowls by the legs and lock the wings together to 
 prevent flapping. You can take all sense of feeling from the birds by piercing 
 the brain with a knife run through the roof of the mouth or by hitting the 
 bird a blow on the head. After this is done, the blood vessels in the neck 
 should be cut. To do this, grasp the fowl by the comb or feathers on the 
 back of the head with the left hand ; with the right hand insert the blade of a 
 sharp knife in the neck back of the ear lobe and run the blade through the 
 neck. Give the blade a twist in withdrawing it. This will sever the artery 
 and cause the blood to flow freely. Another way to cut the artery is by 
 running the knife through the mouth into the back part of the throat. The 
 blood should be saved as it makes a fine food for laying hens and young 
 fowls. 
 
 Dry Picking. Most markets prefer dry-picked birds. Dry-picking should 
 be begun immediately after killing, before the bird stops bleeding and the 
 flesh has a chance to become cold. Care must be taken not to tear the skin. 
 Pick up the breast and up the side to tail, unlock the wings and pick them 
 also ; remove the feathers from the back, and finish the job by plucking.. If 
 no time is lost, the feathers will come out easily. A slightly higher price is 
 usually received on the market for dry-picked fowls than for those which are 
 scalded before picking. The work of dry picking is, of course, a little more 
 tedious than after scalding, however, the dry-picked fowl is in better shape 
 for the market. 
 
 Scalding. To scald a bird, it should be immersed in hot water a little 
 below the boiling point as soon as it is through bleeding. The bird should be 
 immersed three or four times. Holding it by the neck and legs, dip the breast 
 and then the back into the water. It is now ready for plucking. Be careful 
 not to over scald, as this will cause the outer surface of the skin to rub off. 
 
316 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Drawing. If the market demands a drawn fowl, cut a slit about an inch 
 long from near the end of the keel bone, back of the vent and parallel with 
 it, large enough to insert the fingers. Insert the index finger and remove the 
 intestines. To remove the egg sac and lower end of the intestines, it may be 
 necessary to enlarge the slit to a half circle so that it joins the end of the vent. 
 Cut off the head, then draw the skin back about half an inch and cut off that 
 much of the neck bone. Next pull the skin forward and tie. 
 
 Shrinkage. If the intestines are not removed, fowls lose from eight to 
 eleven percent. If the intestines are removed they lose from twenty-five to 
 thirty percent. The shrinkage will not exceed the smaller figures given if 
 they have been well fattened and have been deprived of food at least twelve 
 hours before killing. 
 
 Plumping. To plump a fowl, dip it for about eight or ten seconds into 
 nearly boiling water, then immerse it in cold water and let it remain for 
 fifteen or twenty minutes. If the fowls are to be shipped allow them to become 
 thoroughly dry. 
 
 Packing. Birds should be thoroughly cooled before packing. Pack them 
 neatly and cleanly and in packages that can be easily handled. Any farmer 
 delivering dressed poultry in town can greatly improve the looks of his 
 product by packing each bird in a small pasteboard box, back downward. 
 Proper packing will make a more salable product and should bring a higher 
 price. 
 
 Points on the Care of Eggs. 
 
 1. Gather Eggs Daily. Eggs should be gathered every day. They spoil 
 easily. 
 
 2. Keep Eggs in Cool Place. Keep them in a cool, well-ventilated place. 
 An egg is over seventy percent water and the water evaporates through the 
 shell. 
 
 3. Producing Infertile Eggs. Keep only two or three roosters for the 
 breeding season and kill the rest. Hens lay better without them. You will 
 not be troubled with rotten eggs if you have no roosters in your flocks when 
 not needed. 
 
 4. Nests. Have a nest for every four or five hens. Keep the neste clean 
 and free from vermin. One of the greatest causes of poor eggs is poor 
 nests. Clean nests mean clean eggs. 
 
 5. Clean Dirty Eggs. Clean the eggs before sending into market by 
 rubbing them lightly with a damp cloth in case dirt gets on them. 
 
 6. Sell Eggs Every Week. Sell your eggs every week. Do not give 
 time for the water in them to evaporate. A stale egg is always shrunken. 
 In time it becomes light enough to float. 
 
 7. Test Eggs. Test the eggs before sending them to market. Be sure 
 they are all good. The loss from bad eggs comes out of the farmer's profit 
 in the end. 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 317 
 
 8. Sort Eggs. Sort the eggs before sending them to market. Have 
 those of like color together. Use the small or dirty eggs at home. Insist 
 upon selling them on a quality basis. 
 
 Grading Eggs. 
 
 Proper grading and marketing of eggs is an important subject and one 
 which does not receive the attention it deserves. It is neglected mostly by 
 the smaller egg producer who is not properly posted along this line. He is 
 not informed on market conditions and does not realize the losses which 
 result from the lack of attention to grading. 
 
 Grades of Eggs. 
 
 
 
 Fresh Eggs. An egg to be accepted as a first class, or fresh egg, must 
 be newly laid, clean, of normal size, showing a very small air cell, and must 
 have a strong, smooth shell, of even color and free from cracks. With the 
 exception of the air cell, which is only visible through the aid of the candle, 
 these are the points by which eggs are graded in the early spring, at which 
 time they are quite uniform in quality, thereby making candling unnecessary. 
 
 Checks. This term applies to eggs which are cracked but not leaking. 
 
 Leakers. As indicated by the name, this term applies to eggs which 
 have lost a pait of their contents. 
 
 Seconds. The term "seconds" applies to eggs which have deteriorated to 
 a sufficient extent as to be rejected as firsts. 1'hey are, however, of a high 
 enough quality to be used for human consumption. The several classes of 
 eggs which go to make this grade may be defined as follows : 
 
 (a) Heated egg: One in which the embryo has proceeded to a point cor- 
 responding to about 18 to 24 hours' normal incubation. In the infertile egg 
 this condition can be recognized by the increased color of the yolk; when 
 held before the candle it will appear heavy and slightly darker than the fertile 
 egg. 
 
 (b) Shrunken egg: This class of seconds can be easily distinguished by 
 the size of the air cell. It may occupy from one-fifth to one-third of the space 
 inside the shell. The holding of the eggs for a sufficient length of time to 
 allow a portion of the contents to evaporate, is the main cause of this con- 
 dition. 
 
 (c) Small egg: Any egg that will detract from the appearance of normal 
 eggs on account of its small size, will come under this class although it may 
 be a new laid egg. 
 
 (d) Dirty egg : Fresh eggs which have been soiled with earth, droppings, 
 or egg contents, or badly stained by coming in contact with wet straw, hay, 
 etc., are classed as seconds. 
 
 (e) Watery egg: Those in which the inner membrane of the air cell is 
 ruptured, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the egg and thereby 
 giving a watery or frothy appearance. 
 
318 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 (f) Presence of foreign matter in eggs : Small blood streaks or clots. This 
 condition is found in many fresh laid eggs. Often eggs are laid which show 
 small clots the size of a pea. These are sometimes termed "liver" or "meat" 
 spots. 
 
 (g) Badly misshapen eggs : Eggs which are extremely long or very flat, 
 or in which part of the shell's surface is raised in the form of a ring; in other 
 instances a number of hard, wartlike growths appear on the outside of the 
 shell. 
 
 Spots. Eggs in which bacteria or mold growth has developed locally and 
 caused the formation of a lumpy adhesion on the inside of the shell. There 
 are three well recognized classes of mold spots namely: White, brown and 
 black. In cases where an infertile egg has been subjected to natural heat for 
 a sufficient period of time, the yolk will often settle and become fixed to the 
 membrane. This condition might be termed a "plainspot." 
 
 Blood Rings. Eggs in which the embryo has developed to a sufficient 
 extent so that it is quickly recognized when held before the candle. It has 
 been found that it requires between twenty-four and thirty-six hours of incu- 
 bation under a setting hen to produce this condition. 
 
 Rots. Eggs which are absolutely unfit for food. The different classes 
 of rots may be defined as follows : 
 
 (a) Black rot: This is the easiest class of rots to recognize and, conse- 
 quently, the best known. When the egg is held before the candle the contents 
 have a blackish appearance, and in most cases the air cell is very prominent. 
 The formation of hydrogen-sulphide gas in the egg causes the contents to 
 blacken and gives rise to the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes 
 causes the egg to explode. 
 
 (b) White rot : These eggs have a characteristic sour smell. The con- 
 tents become watery, the yolk and white mixed, and the whole egg offensive 
 to both the sight and the smell. It is also known as the "mixed rot." 
 
 (c) Spot rot : In this the foreign growth has not contaminated the entire 
 egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such eggs are readily picked 
 out with the candle and when broken show lumpy particles adhering to the 
 inside of the shell. These lumps are of various colors and appearances. It 
 is probable that spot rots are caused as much by mold as bacteria, but for 
 practical purposes the distinction is unnecessary. 
 
 To all intents and purposes the spot rot, as explained above, is practically 
 the same as the brown and black spots described under the general head of 
 "spots." The spot rot is also placed under the general head of rots, simply 
 because some candlers will call it a spot while others designate it as a spot 
 rot. Pink and blood rots are names which are also applied to certain classes 
 of rotten eggs, the pink rot deriving its name from the peculiar pinkish color 
 of the contents when held before the candle. The same is true of the blood 
 rot, which is bloody or red in appearance. 
 
 If the farmer will study the foregoing and then grade his eggs accord- 
 ingly, he will s.oon obtain better prices and will build a reputation for quality 
 which will soon result in a gain for him financially. 
 
POULTRY RAISING-CHICKENS 319 
 
 Home Preservation of Eggs. 
 
 Preserved vs. Fresh Eggs. Many people desire to preserve eggs for 
 home use when they are getting a great number of them. Preserved eggs 
 are as good for nearly all purposes as fresh eggs if the preservatives are 
 properly made and the eggs are strictly fresh when put into them. 
 
 Eggs Should be in Good Condition. Eggs from hens that have no males 
 running with them will keep longer than eggs that are fertile. It is best 
 to put the eggs into the preservative the day they are gathered, being very 
 careful not to use any with cracked or dirty shells. 
 
 Putting Eggs in Preservative. Care should be taken not to crack the 
 shells when placing them in. They may rest in any position. Eggs that do 
 not remain beneath the surface of the solution should be weighed down. Be 
 sure to have at least two inches of the solution above the eggs. When the 
 eggs are removed for use they should be wiped. Before boiling eggs that 
 have been preserved in a liquid, puncture the shell with a needle to keep them 
 from cracking. 
 
 Containers. Barrels, earthenware vessels, cement tanks and galvanized 
 tin buckets are all suitable for storing eggs. The container should be clean 
 and scalded to make it free from all germs. Keep the vessel containing the 
 eggs in a dark, cool place and do not disturb it any more than necessary. 
 
 Methods of Preserving Eggs. 
 
 Water-Glass. This is one of the best methods for home use. To pre- 
 serve eggs by this method use one gallon of water-glass (sodium silicate) to 
 nine or ten gallons of water. Boil the water, add the water-glass, and mix 
 the solution thoroughly. Put it in a clean container where the eggs are to 
 be stored and it is ready for use. The vessel need only be half filled as the 
 eggs will make it rise. Before using the eggs stored in water-glass, rinse in 
 warm water and wipe them dry. Water-glass is nonpoisonous and is harmless 
 to both hands and clothes. It acts only on the shell of the egg, making it 
 water and air tight and costs from 60 to 75 cents per gallon. One gallon 
 of water-glass makes enough liquid to preserve from 75 to 100 dozen eggs. 
 The solution should not be used a second time. 
 
 Will Keep a Year. Eggs preserved by this method will keep at least a 
 year in good condition. April, May and June are the best months in which 
 to preserve eggs. Those put down in too hot weather will not come out quite 
 so well as those put down earlier. If eggs are put down in the months named, 
 use those put down in June first, then those in May, and those in April last. 
 
 Limewater. A good limewater preservative can also be made as follows: 
 6 gallons of water, one quart of salt and 3 quarts of finely slaked lime. After 
 stirring thoroughly allow the solution to stand about three days and pour 
 off the liquid for the preservative. The eggs can be put in the container after 
 the limewater or they may be put in first and the limewater poured over them. 
 Have at least two inches of liquid above the top layer of eggs. Lime preserved 
 eggs can be distinguished by the roughness of the shell. 
 
320 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Bran and Salt. Packing in bran has been found to be a satisfactory 
 method of preserving eggs in many cases. They may also be preserved for 
 several months by packing them in dry salt. Have at least two inches above 
 the upper layer of eggs in either case. 
 
 Grease and Paper. Eggs may be kept for some time by greasing them 
 and wrapping each one in paper. 
 
 Rolled Oats. In cold countries like Alaska they preserve eggs by simply 
 packing them in rolled oats. 
 
 Marketing. 
 
 Selling Direct to the Consumer. If the farmer produces a high quality 
 of goods, puts them up in attractive style, and carefully works up a large 
 retail trade in a nearby town, he will find this method of disposing of his 
 goods the most profitable because he eliminates the charges of the middlemen. 
 To do this successfully, however, he must study his customers and learn their 
 tastes. In fact, he must be a salesman. The eggs should be carefully graded. 
 Many farmers who have worked up a good retail trade have found it advisable 
 to pack the eggs in paste-board egg boxes, holding one or two dozen as the 
 trade demands. This enables one to easily grade the eggs since he can quickly 
 pick out a dozen alike. This way a customer desiring eggs of a certain color 
 can be supplied. Keep them covered. It is also possible to secure customers 
 in a city within reasonable shipping distance, expressing them a certain 
 amount of eggs at regular intervals (once or twice a week). By furnishing 
 eggs of a superior quality and having them strictly fresh, the farmer can soon 
 secure a substantial increase over prices paid in the open market. Hotels, 
 clubs and restaurants are also good customers to supply. 
 
 Selling Direct to Retailer. In selling direct to the grocery or provision 
 dealer, seek out the one who caters to a select trade. Sell your goods on a 
 quality basis and secure the top price. 
 
 Selling to Commission Merchants. The returns by following this method 
 are usually not as great as the others but it is the simplest and does away 
 with the trouble 1 of handling the private trade. In selling to commission mer- 
 chants, try to deal with those who have developed a trade along a certain line 
 as they can pay the highest prices. 
 
 Shipping by Parcel Post. The parcel post offers a means by which eggs 
 can be snipped direct from the farm to the consumer. It is rather new, but 
 is fast becoming popular. Eggs to be shipped by this method must be of a 
 first class quality and have the best of care. The postal requirements are 
 as follows: Eggs shall be accepted for local delivery when so packed in a 
 basket or other container as to prevent damage to other mail matter. This 
 embraces all collection and delivery service within the jurisdiction of the local 
 office. Eggs shall be accepted for mailing regardless of distance when each 
 egg is wrapped separately and surrounded with excelsior, cotton, or other 
 suitable materials and packed in a strong container made of double-faced 
 corrugated pasteboard, metal, wood or other suitable material and wrapped 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 321 
 
 
 
 so that nothing can escape from the package. All such parcels shall be 
 labeled "Eggs." Eggs in parcels weighing more than 20 pounds, shall be 
 accepted for mailing to offices in the first and second zones when packed in 
 crates, boxes, buckets, or other containers having tight bottoms to prevent 
 the escape of anything from the package and so constructed as properly to 
 protect the contents. Such packages to be marked, "Eggs This side up," 
 and to be transported outside of mail bags. The weight of a single dozen 
 of eggs in a carton properly packed and wrapped for mailing will weigh from 
 2 to 3 pounds If the eggs are small, the container light, and the package does 
 not weigh over 2 pounds, the postage within the 150 mile limit, or first and 
 second zones, would be 6c; if the package weighed between 2 and 3 pounds 
 it will cost 7c within the first and second zones under normal conditions. 
 Remember that the sender's name and address preceded by the word "From" 
 must be on every package. It is well to know that the larger the package 
 (within the size and weight limits) the cheaper is the postage as the first 
 pound costs 5c within the first and second zones, while each additional pound, 
 up to 50, only costs Ic. 
 
 Marketing Through a Creamery. In some localities marketing through 
 a creamery has been found very profitable. To make the most of this method 
 a high quality of product should be maintained and the eggs stamped so that 
 the consumers, recognizing the merit of the goods, will call for them. A mar- 
 ket is sought in a city. Some large grocery store is good. It does not take 
 long to work up a paying business by following this plan, as the quality of 
 the goods calls for high prices. 
 
 Co-operative Marketing. In a few sections of our country the organiza- 
 tion of egg circles for the co-operative marketing of eggs has been successfully 
 tried out. In European countries this system has been very successful and 
 we believe it deserves more widespread attention in the U. S. This method 
 is similar to the one of marketing through a creamery. However, in- 
 stead of the creamery tending to the business, a manager is hired to collect 
 and dispose of the eggs. The manager must have considerable ability since 
 the success or failure of the undertaking rests largely upon him. Usually 
 twenty-five or thirty farmers form one group. They agree to furnish fresh, 
 sorted, strictly guaranteed eggs. In this way they put out an article of high 
 quality and soon raise the standard of their product. With a better article 
 comes a higher price. 
 
 There is more money in the poultry business every year for the farmer 
 who markets his poultry products in a systematic way. It will pay him to give 
 more attention to this branch of the business. 
 
 SIMPLE SYSTEM OF POULTRY ACCOUNTING. 
 
 It shows : 
 
 1. The value of the houses and appliances. 
 
 2. Value of stock. 
 
 3. Amount of feed bought and its cost. 
 
322 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 4. Number of eggs laid each day in the year. 
 
 5. Average number of eggs laid by each hen. 
 
 6. Number of eggs used at home. 
 
 7. Number of eggs used for hatching. 
 
 8. Number of eggs sold and money they brought. 
 
 9. Value of stock sold. 
 
 10. Value of extra time used in care of poultry. 
 
 11. Profit at end of year. 
 
 Keep track of the poultry. See if the chickens are making money for you. 
 Be square with yourself and with the hens. A system of poultry accounting 
 is one of the greatest needs of most poultry keepers. A poultry raiser should 
 have a definite record of receipts and expenditures. 
 
 Simple Plan. We hereby give you one of the simplest forms possible 
 for keeping track of the poultry flock. By following this simple plan, the raiser 
 can know definitely the standing of his chickens at the end of each year. 
 
 Forms Necessary. The only forms necessary are: Egg record monthly 
 sheet, yearly summary sheet, balance sheet, and inventory sheet. These forms 
 can be ruled off either on loose sheets of paper or in a blank tablet or book. 
 The latter is really the best at it removes the danger of the pages being scat- 
 tered. When it is used the left hand page can be used for the debits and the 
 page opposite or right hand page for the credits. 
 
 Debit or Dr. On the debit side of the account is put the value of feeds 
 fed to the flock, the value of extra labor (if just the extra labor is put down 
 then the profit at the end of the year, shows the returns for the regular time 
 and labor spent in caring for the flock.), cost of any appliance on anything to 
 be used for flock, etc. 
 
 Credit or Cr. On the credit side is kept the returns on the flock such as 
 money received for eggs, or fowls sold, and the value of things used at home, 
 as birds or eggs eaten. By noticing the examples given and following them, 
 one can soon learn the side on which to enter an account. 
 
 Egg Sheet. This sheet is to keep an account of the number of eggs 
 gathered each day, so as to check up on those used at home and credit the 
 flock with them. If the columns headed "Average number of hens" and 
 "Average egg production" are used it will show if the hens are laying satis- 
 factorily. The "average number of hens" can be determined by keeping track 
 of the deaths each month. The exact number would be as follows: Suppose 
 that in a 31 day month there were 62 hens at the beginning of the month, that 
 2 died on the 7th and 1 on the 20th. For ihe first 7 days there were 62 hens, 
 for the next 13 days there were 60 hens, and for the last 11 days there were 
 59. The average number equals: 
 
 60.1 
 
 31 
 
 An approximate "average of hens" close enough for practical purposes 
 may be obtained by taking the average between the number of hens at the be- 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 323 
 
 ginning and the end of the month. Suppose there were 40 hens at the begin- 
 ning and 36 at the end of the month. To find the average add these two 
 numbers together and divide by 3. 
 
 Average Egg Production. After the "average number of hens" is obtained 
 the "average egg production" is determined by dividing the total number of 
 eggs laid by the "average number of hens." 
 
 YEARLY EGG RECORD 
 
 Day of Month 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fT'.J.-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i otai 
 Average number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hens 
 Average egg pro- 
 duction 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monthly Sheet. One monthly sheet is used for each month in a year. 
 All chickens and eggs consumed at home should be put on the credit side of the 
 sheet at their regular market value. Eggs used for hatching purposes should 
 be put on both the debit and credit sides at the same price. If the demand 
 for hatching purposes is great enough to take care of all suitable eggs, the 
 price should be the rate obtained for hatching eggs. If only the extra labor re- 
 
324 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 quired now and then is debited against the flock, the balance at the end of the 
 year represents the payment the chickens have made for the raiser's time. How- 
 ever the raiser's time can be estimated and debited against the flock each 
 month, if desired. The balance sheet at the end of a year, will then show the 
 net profit of the fleck. In the column headed "Equipment" should be charged 
 such purchases as brooders, incubators, etc. Glass, roofing paper, lumber, etc., 
 should be charged under "Miscellaneous." If day-old chicks are sold they 
 should be credited under "Breeding Stock." 
 
 MONTHLY SUMMARY SHEET 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Date 
 
 Item 
 
 Feed 
 
 Equip- 
 ment 
 
 Labor 
 
 Mis- 
 cella- 
 neous 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1918 
 Apr 1 
 
 Lumber 
 
 $3.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 $3.00 
 
 6 
 
 Carpenter work on brooder . . . 
 
 3.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 7 
 
 1 indoor brooder 
 
 3.25 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 25 
 
 8 
 
 6 gallons kerosene 
 
 
 
 $2.00 
 
 
 
 2 00 
 
 g 
 
 3 bushels wheat . 
 
 
 
 
 $4.00 
 
 
 4 00 
 
 10 
 
 4 bushels shelled corn 
 
 
 $8.00 
 
 
 
 
 8 00 
 
 11 
 
 5 bushels oats 
 
 
 
 
 .72 
 
 
 72 
 
 19 
 
 100 pounds beef scrap 
 
 
 
 
 5.75 
 
 
 5 75 
 
 21 
 
 100 pounds oyster shell 
 
 .80 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 300 eggs for hatching . . . 
 
 3.75 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 13.80 
 
 8.00 
 
 2 00 
 
 10 47 
 
 
 34 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CR. 
 
 Date 
 
 Item 
 
 Mar- 
 ket 
 eggs 
 
 Hatch- 
 ing 
 eggs 
 
 Market 
 P'ltry 
 
 Breed- 
 ing 
 stock 
 
 Mar- 
 ket 
 stock 
 
 Total 
 
 1918 
 Apr. 4 
 
 300 eggs, hatching (home use) 
 
 $2.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 $2 40 
 
 9 
 
 100 eggs, hatching 
 
 
 
 
 $5 00 
 
 
 5 00 
 
 12 
 
 10 dozen eggs, at 24 cents 
 
 4.32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 32 
 
 14 
 
 18 dozen eggs, at 24 cents 
 
 
 
 $0.55 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 15 
 
 1 pen breeding fowls 
 
 
 
 1 80 
 
 
 
 1 80 
 
 16 
 
 1 hen (home use) 
 
 1.92 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 92 
 
 17 
 
 3 market hens 
 
 3.45 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 45 
 
 19 
 
 8 dozen eggs (home use), at 24 cents 
 
 1.61 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 61 
 
 20 
 
 15 dozen eggs, at 23 cents 
 
 
 $5.75 
 
 
 
 
 5 75 
 
 20 
 
 7 dozen eggs (home use), at 23 cents 
 
 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 25 
 
 50 day-old chicks 
 
 1.61 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 61 
 
 28 
 
 7 dozen eggs (home use), at 23 cents 
 
 
 3.00 
 
 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 30 
 
 6 dozen eggs, at 22 cents 
 
 1.32 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 16.63 
 
 8 75 
 
 2 35 
 
 8 00 
 
 
 35 73 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yearly Sheet. The totals of each "Monthly Record" are entered on this 
 sheet as is shown by the sample given. (Shown on following page.) 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 325 
 
 Yearly Summary Sheet. 
 
 DR. 
 
 CR. 
 
 Date 
 
 Feed 
 
 Equip- 
 ment 
 
 Labor 
 
 Mis- 
 cella- 
 neous 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Mar- 
 ket 
 eggs 
 
 Hatch- 
 ing 
 eggs 
 
 Mar- 
 ket 
 P'ltry 
 
 Breed- 
 ing 
 stock 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1919 
 January . . . 
 February . . 
 March .... 
 April .... 
 
 $11.25 
 10.85 
 11.50 
 13.80 
 13.00 
 
 $18.00 
 
 '20^00 
 8.00 
 
 $'2.'66 
 "2:60 
 
 $ 2.45 
 2.00 
 9.90 
 10.47 
 5.35 
 
 
 $31.70 
 14.85 
 41.40 
 34.27 
 18.35 
 23.45 
 15.25 
 18.75 
 17.70 
 18.85 
 17.23 
 21.90 
 
 $21.65 
 24.83 
 20.66 
 16.63 
 11.52 
 6.00 
 7.08 
 5.37 
 9.10 
 8.60 
 8.17 
 12.56 
 
 
 $ 2.35 
 
 
 
 $22.00 
 40.66 
 35.73 
 36.95 
 39.23 
 31.02 
 36.61 
 22.90 
 23.27 
 24.00 
 28.13 
 28.27 
 
 
 3.30 
 
 
 
 $ 6.50 
 8.75 
 4.50 
 5.75 
 2.00 
 
 3.50 
 2.35 
 4.25 
 15.20 
 22.15 
 13.90 
 10.80 
 4.40 
 7.85 
 4.05 
 
 $10.00 
 8.00 
 8.00 
 10.00 
 8.00 
 4.00 
 3.00 
 9.00 
 15.00 
 20.00 
 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 15 50 
 
 
 2.50 
 
 5.45 
 1.10 
 
 
 July 
 
 14 15 
 
 
 August 
 
 13 80 
 
 
 
 4.95 
 
 
 September . 
 October . . . 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 1^.00 
 16.10 
 4.80 
 13.75 
 
 
 2.25 
 
 "l.OO 
 
 .45 
 2.75 
 1.43 
 8.15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 163.50 
 
 46.00 
 
 9.75 
 
 54.45 
 
 
 273.70 
 
 152.17 
 
 27.50 
 
 94.10 
 
 95.00 
 
 
 368.77 
 
 Balance Sheet. 
 
 Balance Sheet. On this sheet are entered the year's expenditures and 
 receipts which are the totals of the "yearly summary sheet." Also the totals 
 of the invoice sheets are entered, etc., as can be easily understood by sample. 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Bal. 
 
 Value of inventory January 1 1918 .... 
 
 $409.00 
 
 
 
 Interest at 6 per cent on capital invested, as represented by 
 
 24.64 
 
 
 
 
 273.70 
 
 
 
 
 
 $479.70 
 
 
 Receipts during 1918 
 
 
 368.77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $707.24 
 
 $848.47 
 
 
 
 
 
 $141.23 
 
 
 
 
 
326 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Inventory Sheet. 
 
 Inventory Sheet. This sheet is used at the beginning of each year to 
 take a complete inventory of the value of the equipment, feed, stock, etc. Each 
 item should be listed at its value the time the inventory is taken. If buildings 
 are well constructed allow about 5 percent deterioration for each year they 
 have been built. The deterioration on incubators that have received good 
 care is about 10 percent. The inventory does not necessarily need to be taken 
 on January 1st; October 1st or November 1st will do just as well. 
 
 INVENTORY, JANUARY 1, 1918 
 
 1 henhouse, 15 by 40 feet $150.00 
 
 1 240-egg incubator 24.00 
 
 2 indoor brooders 17 . 00 
 
 2 colony houses, 8 by 8 feet each 45 . 00 
 
 Miscellaneous feed troughs, pails, pans, etc 15 . 00 
 
 1 bushel wheat ' 2.00 
 
 1 bushel corn 1 . 00 
 
 100 pounds beef scrap 3 . 50 
 
 150 pounds bran 2 . 50 
 
 50 barred Plymouth Rock hens 50 . 00 
 
 50 barred Plymouth Rock pullets 75 . 00 
 
 5 barred Plymouth Rock cock birds 10 . 00 
 
 7 barred Plymouth Rock cockerels 14 . 00 
 
 Total.. ..$409.00 
 
 INVENTORY, JANUARY 1, 1919 
 
 1 henhouse, 15 by 40 feet; 5 per cent deterioration $142 . 50 
 
 1 240-egg incubator; 10 per cent deterioration 21 . 60 
 
 1 150-egg incubator, new 18 . 00 
 
 2 indoor brooders; 10 per cent deterioration 15 . 30 
 
 1 indoor brooder, new 8 . 00 
 
 2 colony houses, 8 by 8 feet each, repaired; no deterioration 45 . 00 
 
 Miscellaneous feed troughs, pails, pans, etc 15 . 00 
 
 2 bushels wheat 3.00 
 
 1 bushel oats .70 
 
 100 pounds bran 1 .80 
 
 50 pounds beef scraps 1 . 80 
 
 27 barred Plymouth Rock hens 27 .00 
 
 95 barred Plymouth Rock pullets 150.00 
 
 2 barred Plymouth Rock cock birds 4 . 00 
 
 12 barred Plymouth Rock cockerels 26 .00 
 
 Tota.1 $479.70 
 
POULTRY RAISING CHICKENS 
 
 327 
 
 :OMB 
 
 SICKLES EAR LOBE 
 SADDLE 
 
 SKELETON OF A FOWL 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF CHICKENS. 
 
 (Value of Prevention.) 
 
 As a means of profit, poultry raising can be made successful only by main- 
 taining the most vigorous campaign against disease. The best way to carry on 
 this campaign is by preventive measures. Too few people ever think of disease 
 until it makes its appearance, and to ignorance, carelessness and lack of fore- 
 thought in this respect, is due, to a large extent, the prevalence of poultry 
 diseases. 
 
 Fowls are often affected by a number of diseases which spread rapidly 
 through the flock and kill a large part of the birds. They are also infested by 
 different kinds of parasites which live in the crop, intestines, or stomach of the 
 bird and on the surface of the body. These parasites are injurious as they take 
 a part of the nourishment which should be used by the fowl to produce eggs or 
 to put on flesh, and also because their biting and their movements cause irritation 
 to the parts which they attack. 
 
 Important Conditions to Consider. The most important conditions 
 which the poultryman has to consider in an endeavor to keep his fowls in a 
 healthy condition, are the larger parasites to which reference has just been made 
 which causes weakness and loss of flesh and the contagious diseases, which are 
 caused by vegetable and animal germs. These parasites and germs should be 
 kept out of the flock by preventive measures. Disease can be prevented much 
 more easily and with far less expense than it can be cured. A person should 
 therefore study diseases not so much with the idea of knowing how to cure them 
 as knowing how to prevent them. 
 
 Many times medicines can be advantageously applied or given to fowls, 
 however, as a rule, if the patient is not a very valuable bird, it is better to kill 
 it because the time and work required for treatment is worth more than the 
 bird. Again a sick bird may be affected with some contagious disease which 
 may spread through the entire flock before it is recognized. Another reason for 
 killing sick birds is that they are more susceptible to disease than the other birds 
 of the. flock, so they should be culled out in order to establish a strong flock, 
 capable of resisting disease. 
 
 Preventing Disease. 
 
 Elements Necessary. Stock with vigorous constitutions ; proper feeding 
 and housing; absolute cleanliness; start chicks right. 
 
 328 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 329 
 
 Breed for Health. "Like produces like." Do not expect birds with weak 
 constitutions to produce healthy chicks. Breed from the best stock you have. 
 Breed for health. Health gives one a solid bed-rock foundation upon which to 
 build a strain well fitted to develop all the other desirable qualities. The ten- 
 dencies to certain weaknesses are readily transmitted from parent to offspring. 
 When these tendencies are handed down from generation to generation they 
 become more firmly fixed. The strong, vigorous birds should be mated and the 
 weak strains eliminated. 
 
 Indications of Health. Use the birds with bright eyes; bright, smooth, 
 well-kept plumage ; red comb ; those that are alert, active, and have a keen ap- 
 petite. Examine the body to see that it is free from defects and deformities, 
 especially the legs. The legs should be bright, clean, clear, and well formed. 
 
 Legs Show Condition. The legs of a fowl indicate its condition as much 
 as the pulse of a person. If the veins on the legs are prominent, if the legs feel 
 dry and hot to the touch, especially if this condition is accompanied by a hot 
 breath and dry mouth, separate the bird from the others until you find out what 
 is wrong. 
 
 Do Not Breed "Cured" Fowls. Birds that have been sick are dangerous 
 as breeders. They are necessarily the weak ones, besides there is always the 
 danger of their not being entirely cured. Some taint often remains which may 
 transmit a predisposition to disease to the offspring. 
 
 Feeding to Prevent Disease. Be sure that the chickens receive the kinds 
 of feed and the right amounts to supply their needs. In winter they must be 
 given the feeds that take the place of what they pick up on the range during the 
 summer months. Even in summer they do not always get all they need. This 
 must be supplied them if necessary. 
 
 Housing to Prevent Disease. See that the fowls have plenty of fresh air 
 but avoid drafts and damp coops. Do not allow the birds out when there is 
 snow on the ground. Colds lead to other troubles and result in loss to the 
 owner. Besides fresh air the fowls also need sunlight in order to be healthy. 
 If possible, the coop should be so situated that during the day, sunlight pene- 
 trates to all parts of it. Fresh air and sunlight are purifiers and natural disin- 
 fectants. This applies to all poultry buildings. Many brooder houses which 
 seem to be veritable death traps and which have proven unsatisfactory, will 
 work well if they are changed so as to let in the sun whenever possible. Of 
 course the chicks should be able to get in the shade when they choose. Feed- 
 ing and housing play a large part in keeping the birds healthy and vigorous. 
 Give them a home. 
 
 Cleanliness in Preventing Disease. If everything about the place were 
 kept clean, there would be little trouble from diseases in poultry. Keep clean 
 litter on the floor of the poultry buildings and clean the coop thoroughly at least 
 once a week. Have a dropping board to catch the manure at night. This should 
 be cleaned at least twice a week in summer. Scald out the drinking basins to 
 keep them free from germs and clean the hoppers. Do not keep poultry on the 
 same ground season after season. The ground becomes infected and harbors 
 
330 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 insects and disease germs. Old ground should be treated to kill these germs by 
 applying a good coating of freshly slaked lime to the entire surface and then 
 plowing a few days afterwards. It may then be cultivated 3 or 4 times with 
 intervals of a week and then sowing it finally to rye, oats or other grain. The 
 greater part of the germs will be destroyed in a few months, however, if possible 
 the ground should be left unoccupied by fowls through the winter, as the freez- 
 ing and thawing is more effective in killing the germs than continued warm 
 or cold weather. Keep the coop disinfected and whitewashed. Whitewash 
 once a year at least. In the spring or fall is a good time. 
 
 Start Chicks Right. Be sure that the chicks are not infested with germs 
 at the start. If a hen is used to hatch the eggs, she should be free from lice 
 and mites. Keep her dusted with a good insect powder. Be sure the nest is 
 free from vermin. Avoid putting eggs to be hatched in any packing such as oats, 
 chaff, or cut straw which may be musty or moldy ; wipe the eggs with a cloth 
 wet in a solution of 70 per cent, to 80 per cent, alcohol. If an incubator is used 
 have it thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The young chicks should be free 
 from parasites and injurious germs of all kinds. To keep them in this condition 
 put them in clean, disinfected brooders, and allow them to run only upon that 
 ground which has been free from poultry for several years. If this cannot be 
 done, disinfect the soil as mentioned above. 
 
 By beginning this way, a flock can be had practically free from parasites and 
 disease germs, but to keep them in this condition frequently clean and disinfect 
 the premises. There are several reasons for this. First, the germs of contagious 
 diseases may be brought to the place by pigeons or other birds which fly from one 
 poultry yard to another, or by rats or mice ; second, certain germs are generally 
 present in the intestines of healthy birds and are scattered with the manure, 
 which, if permitted to accumulate and become verv numerous may cause out- 
 breaks of disease ; third, grounds for the poultry are seldom entirely free from 
 infection with the eggs of parasitic worms and the spores of disease-producing 
 microbes. To keep these parasites and germs from 'developing and increasing 
 their numbers, the feed troughs and drinking fountains should be washed every 
 day or two with boiling water or other disinfectant and the brooders and run- 
 ways thoroughly disinfected. One should study diseases to know how to pre- 
 vent them. Eliminate the cause of the disease and the disease itself will soon 
 disappear. 
 
 SIMPLE REMEDIES. 
 (Their Uses and Doses.) 
 
 Following is a list of simple remedies and a few articles which the progres- 
 sive poultryman should include in his medicine chest. A small glass, graduated 
 into ounces for measuring liquids ; a glass tumbler in which to mix remedies a 
 teaspoon ; small pair of tweezers ; medicine dropper, small oil can with which to 
 apply roup or cold cures by direct application when several birds are affected- 
 sharp pen knife. All powders should be removed from the packages placed 
 in small, air-tight cans and neatly labeled. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 
 
 331 
 
 Medicine 
 
 Strength of Dose 
 
 Disease Used For 
 
 Castor oil 
 
 1 teaspoonful. 
 
 Diarrhea, indigestion, etc. 
 
 
 Epsom salts. . 
 
 20 to 30 grains in tea- 
 spoonful warm water. 
 
 Constipation, liver dis- 
 ease, diarrhea. 
 
 
 Calomel 
 
 1 to 2 grains. 
 
 Constipation, diarrhea, 
 liver disease. 
 
 
 Quinine 
 
 1 grain. 
 
 Fever, colds, roup. 
 
 
 Aconite 
 
 1 drop. 
 
 Fever, colds, roup. 
 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 (Internal) 5 to 10 drops in 
 1 teaspoonful castor oil. 
 
 Worms, colds, sore throat. 
 
 Bruises, skin injuries, 
 cramp and rheumatism. 
 
 
 (External). 
 
 Carbolic acid 
 
 *1 to 5 percent solution. 
 y<t to 2 percent sohitiota. 
 50 percent. 
 
 Roup, colds, diphtheria, 
 injuries and cuts. 
 
 Permanganate of Potash .... 
 
 Hydrogen peroxide 
 
 
 Creolin and sweet oil 
 
 Equal parts of each. 
 
 Dressing cuts and injuries. 
 
 
 Iodine 
 
 Tincture. 
 
 Reduce swellings. 
 
 
 Sweet oil 
 
 1 ounce. 
 
 Cramp, rheumatism, keep- 
 ing legs polished. 
 
 
 Ointment: 
 Kerosene 
 
 1 part. 
 1 part. 
 2 parts. 
 
 Scaly legs, ticks, mites, 
 lice. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Lard 
 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 
 Scaly legs. 
 
 
 
 Lice powders. 
 
 
 Mites, lice. 
 
 
 
 Tincture of iron 
 
 In drinking water, enough 
 to color. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 
 Carbonate of iron 
 
 Little in mash, during 
 molting time. 
 
 Produce gloss in feathers. 
 
 
 Potassium sulphide 
 
 Small amount in drinking 
 water. 
 
 Cholera. 
 
 
 Copper sulphate 
 
 2 drams in 1 gallon water. 
 
 Intestinal disinfectant. 
 
 
 * A 1 percent solution (approximately) 1^ teaspoonfuls to 1 pint water. This is accurate 
 enough for practical purposes. By figuring from this any of the dilutions wanted can be easily 
 prepared. 
 
332 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Apoplexy. 
 
 This disease is usually caused by the rupture of a blood vessel brought 
 about by too high feeding, sudden fright, violent exertion or straining in laying 
 eggs. Birds are sometimes found dead in the nest. 
 
 Treatment. There is usually no previous warning or symptoms and in 
 most cases treatment is impossible. 
 
 If the bird is still alive, pierce a vein underneath the wing causing the blood 
 to run freely and reducing the blood pressure on the brain. In this way one 
 will usually produce a cure. 
 
 Regulate the diet to reduce the fat and give plenty of exercise. 
 
 Aspergillosis. 
 
 This is a disease which exists more often than is expected. It attacks the 
 respiratory or digestive organs of fowls. In adults, the disease may be mis- 
 taken for tuberculosis and in chicks for white diarrhea. Aspergillosis of 
 chickens is dealt with under brooder pneumonia. 
 
 A fungoid growth in the wind pipe and bronchial tubes, sometimes ex- 
 tending to the lungs and liver. Infection may be due to musty hay, straw or 
 grain. 
 
 Symptoms. Fowls gradually lose weight, mope and die without any 
 pronounced ailment except difficulty in breathing and extreme weakness. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. This is a most difficult disease to cure. It can 
 be prevented by feeding no musty grain and giving only clean, bright chaff or 
 straw to scratch in. 
 
 Sometimes affected fowls may be saved by applying flowers of sulphur or 
 tincture of iodine to the patches seen in the mouth and throat and causing the 
 birds to inhale the vapor of tar water or turpentine. Tar water is obtained by 
 adding two tablespoonfuls of wood tar to a quart of warm water and letting 
 the mixture stand a few hours. Then the birds are taken into a closed room 
 where the tar water is poured, a small quantity at a time on a hot brick or stone 
 until the atmosphere is charged with the vapor. 
 
 Brooder Pneumonia. 
 
 This is an inflammation of the lungs caused by the growth of the aspergillus 
 fungus in the smaller air tubes and in the lung tissue. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are very similar to those described in white 
 diarrhea and the disease may be easily mistaken for the same. However, the 
 breathing is more rapid and difficult and is sometimes accompanied by sounds 
 due to obstruction of the air tubes. The white diarrhea is usually present in 
 the lung disease as well as in the intestinal infection. 
 
 Treatment. The sick chicks can seldom be cured and so all efforts should 
 be directed toward prevention. The measures mentioned for the prevention of 
 white diarrhea are applicable to brooder pneumonia. It is probable this disease is 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 333 
 
 generally caused by failure to maintain proper cleanliness and ventilation. Care 
 should be taken to disinfect the incubator and brooder thoroughly in which the 
 chicks are to be hatched and reared. 
 
 Bumblefoot. 
 
 Bumblefoot is caused by some bruise or injury such as jumping from a high 
 roost upon some hard substance or by stepping on bits of glass or splinter. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflamed condition of the bottom of the foot. Usually pus 
 forms under the skin in the form of an abscess. As the pressure is increased, 
 there is a tendency of the pus to work out into other parts of the foot and leg. 
 The fowl limps and is inclined to stand on one foot. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the fowl in a clean, dry place and do not allow much 
 exercise until the wound heals. It is best to bandage the foot and dress with 
 fresh vaseline each day. Wash in strong vinegar or paint with iodine. If pus 
 has formed, drain it and wash thoroughly with peroxide of hydrogen. After 
 this apply 30 parts vaseline and one part iodoform. 
 
 Canker. 
 
 Ill smelling quarters and feeding unclean and diseased foods produce canker 
 in fowls. Musty or "rotten" grain is also apt to induce the trouble. 
 
 Symptoms. Sores on the head and often in the mouth and throat, with 
 a discharge of matter from the eyes. 
 
 Treatment. Cleanse the sores with one-third peroxide to two thirds 
 water three times daily. Then apply lard mixed with sulphur. Mix up a light 
 solution of permanganate of potash and add to the drinking water, giving them 
 no other water to drink. 
 
 Catarrh or Bronchitis. 
 
 Catarrh or irritation of the air passages affecting the tubes of the lungs, is 
 termed bronchitis. 
 
 Symptoms. It can be detected by a whistling sound in the breast. The 
 bird acts stupid and may gasp for breath. In bad cases breathing is difficult. 
 
 Treatment. Place the sick fowl in a dry room where there is plenty of 
 fresh air. 
 
 Aconite. Give twenty drops of tincture of aconite in a quart of drinking 
 water. In mild cases this will be found sufficient provided the sanitary condi- 
 tions are as they should be. Flaxseed tea is also recommended. If taken in 
 time, 10 drops of turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil will relieve. Give one 
 teaspoonful of glycerine in which four drops of vinegar has been dissolved. Re- 
 peat each night for a week. Mix equal parts of vinegar and water. Give one 
 teaspoonful two or three times a day. 
 
 Catarrh of the Crop. 
 
 Eating putrifying or stale food or some poisonous matter. 
 
 Symptoms. Fowls are found to have distended crops which upon ex- 
 
334 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 amination are found to be filled with gas and foul smelling fluid but very little 
 food. The bird becomes sluggish, the feathers rough and the comb dull in 
 color. 
 
 Treatment. Empty the crop by holding the head downward and carefully 
 pressing the contents out through the mouth. Giving one-tenth grain tablet of 
 bichloride of mercury dissolved in one quart of drinking water. Weed soft, 
 easily digested food. 
 
 Catarrh of Stomach (Gastritis). 
 
 Enlargement or swelling of the food passage near the gizzard. It is sel- 
 dom met with except in connection with catarrh or inflammation of the crop. It 
 may be caused by overfeeding, eating decomposed food or other poisonous 
 matter. 
 
 Symptoms. Lack of appetite, bowel trouble, diarrhea one day and con- 
 stipation the next, some fever and general weakness. 
 
 Treatment. Do not feed irritating food. Omit from mash all bran and 
 mix with clover tea. Add one-tenth of a grain of arsenite of copper to each 
 pint of drinking water. 
 
 The irritation may be allayed by a little rice boiled in the drinking 
 water. 
 
 Chicken Pox or Sore Head. 
 
 Chicken pox is strictly a contagious disease. It may be introduced by 
 an infected bird; by lice or other insect pests. 
 
 Symptoms. Small, scabby, wart-like growth varying in size from a mil- 
 let seed to that of a pea, on the comb, wattles and ear lobes. 
 
 Treatment. Mild cases of this disease may be successfully treated by 
 local applications. Isolate affected fowls. 
 
 Apply tincture of iodine after removing the scabs. Or creolin 2 percent 
 solution may be used instead of the iodine. 
 
 Apply a solution of boric acid to the affected parts. Some prefer carbolated 
 oil to watery solutions. If there is inflammation of the eyes, the boric acid 
 solution may be used as a wash. 
 
 Bathe head and eyes with equal parts water and witch hazel. 
 
 For the eruption there is nothing better than common vaseline. Feed 
 a mash of one-third clover mixed with boiling milk. Avoid exposure to cold 
 and wet. 
 
 Cholera. 
 
 Cholera of poultry is a virulent, usually fatal, contagious disease. Many 
 simple ailments of poultry are accompanied by diarrhea, but the poultrymen 
 should bear in mind that a troublesome diarrhea is not always cholera. 
 
 Cholera is caused by infection, brought on usually by food or drink which 
 has been infected by the discharges of diseased fowls. The germs often gain 
 entrance to the body by inhaling the dust in coops which have not been 
 properly disinfected or by eating the flesh of fowls which have died of the 
 disease. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 335 
 
 Symptoms. Loss of appetite, great thirst and high temperature. If 
 a fever thermometer is placed next to the flesh under the wing, it will often 
 register 110 degrees. The crop is usually distended with food which cannot 
 pass owing to the paralysis of that organ. Sleepiness which may last until 
 death. A rapidly fatal disease, always accompanied by copious, yellowish or 
 deep blue green diarrhea. Infection of a large number of birds in one flock. 
 Caution : A combination of indigestion and lice produce symptoms which are 
 very much like those of cholera. Nine-tenths of the reported cases of cholera 
 are not that disease at all. Get rid of the vermin, supply charcoal, grit, feed 
 less corn and you have the best cholera remedy there is. 
 
 Treatment. If sure your chickens have cholera, the treatment should 
 mainly be preventive. Observe cleanliness in every way. Do not use eggs for 
 hatching unless you know they are from healthy stock. Isolate all suspected 
 cases as soon as found. Give these birds a few drops of creolin in their drink- 
 ing water, just enough to turn it slightly milky or give them drinking water 
 in which has been dissolved one-tenth of a grain tablet of corrosive sublimate 
 to a quart of water. If they develop marked symptoms of cholera, they had 
 better be killed and cremated at once. Kill by strangulation or the blow of a 
 club. If blood is drawn it will be a means of infection for other fowls. Spray 
 the building with a 5 percent solution of carbolic acid and then whitewash it. 
 
 A good home remedy in any case of diarrhea and often in mild cases of 
 cholera, is to drop twenty to thirty drops of spirits of camphor on sugar and 
 dissolve the whole in a pint of water; allow no other drink. As a diet give 
 them stale bread soaked in scalded milk and well seasoned with pepper. 
 
 A Prescription. In use for twenty years and found to be one of the most 
 successful remedies ever tried : Carbonate of iron, 8 ounces ; pulverized golden 
 seal, 1 ounce; pulverized rhubarb, 3 ounces; pulverized capsicum, 3 ounces; 
 flowers of sulphur, 8 ounces ; pulverized charcoal, 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly 
 together. Keep in air-tight can. For chicken cholera make a pill of this 
 remedy the size of a small pea and force the sick bird to swallow by forcing 
 the mouth open and dropping into the throat. As a preventive, put 1 tea- 
 spoonful in feed enough for twelve hens. Use this three times a week. It will 
 also increase egg production fifty percent. 
 
 Coccidiosis (Brooder Pneumonia in Chicks Blackhead in Turkeys). 
 
 This disease germ does not usually affect adult fowls seriously but causes 
 severe loss in chicks and turkeys. In chicks it is known as brooder pneumonia 
 and in turkeys as blackhead. 
 
 The same germ causes this disease that produces blackhead in turkeys. 
 Pigeons are particularly susceptible to it and are often responsible for the 
 outbreak in poultry yards as it is spread by contagion. The germ (coccida) 
 multiply very rapidly in the intestines of the diseased fowls and are discharged 
 with the droppings and carried on the feet to the drinking and feed troughs 
 unless they are well protected. 
 
 Symptoms. When adult fowls are attacked, the symptoms are stupid- 
 ness, laziness and sometimes diarrhea. The fowl loses weight although the 
 appetite is retained for a time. 
 
336 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Treatment. Put three grains of copperas to one quart of water, or fifteen 
 grains of catechu to one gallon water and give the birds to drink. This has 
 been a very successful remedy. They should also be given a dose of calomel 
 (three-fourths to one grain) or two to three teaspoonfuls of castor oil occasion- 
 ally. 
 
 Give doses of castor oil containing 5 to 10 drops of turpentine with each 
 dose. Disinfect the premises thoroughly with a 10 percent solution of cresol. 
 Burn the bodies of all birds that die. 
 
 Crop Bound. 
 
 Crop bound is caused by food swelling and forming a hard mass in the 
 crop. Fowls deprived of the necessary vegetable diet often eat the litter, 
 bringing on this condition. The absence of grit in the food has the same result. 
 Sometimes a quantity of green leaves or grass is eaten by the fowl and be- 
 comes packed in the crop, making the passage of food impossible. 
 
 Treatment. In some cases an operation is necessary. However, the 
 following treatment is recommended: Sweet oil, olive oil, or fresh melted 
 lard should be poured down the throat; from one-fourth to one-half ounce 
 of any one of above remedies. With the hand, work the contents of the crop 
 so as to break up the hard mass. Then give the bird warm water to drink and 
 soft, easily digested food for a few days. 
 
 Diarrhea. 
 
 Indigestion caused by food which is too laxative or food which may be 
 partly decomposed. A cold may also be a cause. 
 
 Symptoms. Looseness of bowels and staining of feathers around the 
 anus with excreta. 
 
 Treatment. Give Epsom salts, 20 to 50 grains in food or warm water. 
 
 Give a teaspoonful of castor oil. Change diet if food is suspected. Often 
 no treatment is necessary but it is not wise to neglect a mild case for fear of 
 the development of "Severe Diarrhea or Epidemic." 
 
 Diphtheria. 
 
 In diphtheria we find some of the symptoms of roup or contagious. catarrh, 
 but it differs from these by raised patches of whitish or yellow skin which in- 
 vades the throat and mouth, and sometimes appears like sores or ulcers on the 
 face, comb, nostrils and eyes. 
 
 Diphtheria of fowls is strictly contagious and probably never develops as 
 the result of cold or dampness. The contagion is spread through mucus which 
 escapes from the nostrils or that which is forced out by sneezing or coughing. 
 When the disease is present, the feeding troughs, drinking pans, etc., are 
 quickly infected and thus the disease is conveyed to the well birds. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms first show themselves by irritation or inflam- 
 mation of the surface of the throat, mouth, nostrils or eyes, sometimes ex- 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 337 
 
 tending from the air tubes to the lungs or from the gullet to the crop. The 
 poison which is produced by the growth of the microbe beneath the false 
 membranes is absorbed and affects the nervous system causing depression 
 and sleepiness. At this time, which may be three to five days from the ap- 
 pearance of the first symptoms, the condition is very serious. The breathing 
 is so obstructed that hardly sufficient air can be inhaled to support 'life. The 
 head is swollen, there is considerable fever and an exhausting diarrhea sets 
 in. There is loss of weight and death soon follows. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of diphtheria requires much time and pa- 
 tience and unless the fowl is valuable, does not pay. It is better to kill and 
 burn those affected, disinfect the houses and in that way stop the contagion 
 as soon as possible, even if the whole flock must go. If the birds are to be 
 treated, remove them from the flock. Make a swab of cotton tied on a stick 
 and swab the mouth with hydrogen peroxide. Remove any of the growths 
 that come away easily. 
 
 A solution which gives good results is 35 grains of chlorate of potash, two 
 grains of salicylic acid in one ounce of water and 1 ounce of glycerine. This 
 to be applied to the spots three or four times daily. 
 
 A solution consisting of one and one-half ounces boric acid and one 
 ounce of powdered borax dissolved in one quart of water and applied warm, 
 is good. The two last mentioned solutions may be used as an eye wash or in- 
 jected in the nostrils. Disinfect the rooms where the sick birds stay daily with 
 a 5 percent solution of cresol or carbolic acid. 
 
 Diseases of the Liver. 
 
 The liver is affected by several diseases. The most common are con- 
 nected with digestive disorders. Others are due to a specific disease such as 
 tuberculosis or coccidiosis. 
 
 The diseases which are due to indigestion are congestion, inflammation, 
 fatty or enlarged liver and atrophy of the liver. While there is a distinct dif- 
 ference in these diseases, the methods of treatment are very much the same. 
 
 Wrong feeding is usually the cause of this trouble. The fowls may be 
 eating too much heat-producing food and not enough green food. 
 
 Symptoms. The first symptoms are a watery diarrhea. The affected 
 birds show no appetite and lack ambition to move around. Later there is an 
 increased desire for water and the fowls lose weight rapidly. 
 
 Treatment. The return to rational food is the first step. Give more green 
 food. Make the mash as largely to cut clover as the birds will eat. Drop out 
 some of the flour and corn meal. Encourage exercise. Give as scratching 
 material waste from hay mows. If it is warm weather, give the birds access 
 to a clean grass run. 
 
 At the first appearance of liver trouble, give a teaspoonful of castor oil. 
 This will be effective if given in time. 
 
 For worms, add one-half teaspoonful of sulphate of magnesia to the drink- 
 ing water of each bird. 
 
338 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Dropsy. 
 
 It may be due to a sluggish condition of the circulation. Overfeeding 
 with little exercise tends to bring on this disease. Dropsy is frequently the 
 manifestation of some other disease. 
 
 Symptoms. This disease usually shows itself in the abdomen where 
 water collects and causes a distention. The feet and legs are swollen. 
 
 Treatment. Unless the disease is caused by some organic trouble, plain 
 food, green vegetables and a dose or two of castor oil will probably cure 
 it. As the legs reduce in size, give more exercise to stimulate the functions 
 of the whole body. A solution of one teaspoonful of nux vomica to two 
 quarts of drinking water is valuable as a tonic. If the fowl has some other 
 organic trouble, it is best and most merciful to kill it. 
 
 Dysentery. 
 
 Some bacterial or other specific infection of the intestines. It may origi- 
 nate from a filthy condition of the poultry yards, foul floor, filthy water or 
 decomposed food. 
 
 Symptoms. Extreme looseness of the bowels with more or less blood in 
 the discharge. The bird shows weakness and loss of appetite. 
 
 Treatment. First place the yards in a sanitary condition. Isolate the 
 sick fowls. Give 6 to 8 drops of chlorodyne on a small piece of bread. The 
 food should be non-irritating for a few days. Feed wheat rather than corn 
 for a week. 
 
 (For small chicks.) Give all they will drink three or four times a day 
 of scalded milk to which has been added a little grated nutmeg. 
 
 Feed boiled rice sprinkled with fine bone meal. 
 
 Egg-bound. 
 
 Egg-bound is a condition of the egg passage, affecting most frequently 
 the heavy breed of hens. 
 
 The cause is attributed in most cases to an over fat condition. This pro- 
 duces pressure on the egg passage causing difficulty in the proper function. 
 Sometimes the muscles are weakened by streaks of fat which cause straining, 
 the weak walls give way permitting the egg or its contents to pass into the 
 abdominal cavity. This condition produces inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. The fowl thus affected has a constant desire to strain. The 
 violent strain sometimes ruptures a blood vessel causing sudden death. 
 
 Treatment. It is generally more merciful to kill the fowls as treatment 
 is tedious and painful. 
 
 Hold the fowl's vent over steam from boiling water and then pass a 
 finger up the vent. Have the finger well oiled. If the case is bad, pierce the 
 egg and remove the contents, then break the shell and withdraw the pieces. 
 Be sure and leave none of the broken shell behind. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 339 
 
 Egg Eating. 
 
 The habit of egg eating may be caused by the nests being low and near 
 the light. The hens get into them, scratch around and break the eggs and 
 thus form the egg-eating habit. Soft shelled or broken eggs about the yards 
 may be a cause. 
 
 Treatment. Place all nests at least 2 feet above the floor and in a medium 
 dark place. Remove all signs of broken eggs. The fowl detected should be 
 removed to a different place. 
 
 Dump a pail of egg shells in the yard and mash some of them. One 
 dose should cure the egg eaters. If it does not, get more and keep them 
 constantly on hand. "This is a positive cure for egg eating" writes a raiser 
 who ought to know. 
 
 Remove the inside of an egg through an opening in one end. Mix the 
 contents with a little pepper; put them back into the shell and stick a piece 
 of white cloth over the broken part. Put this where the egg eating hen can 
 peck it. After she has tried to eat it she will seldom bother about eating her 
 eggs again. 
 
 Feather Eating. 
 
 It is usually due to a poultryman's carelessness in some way. Over- 
 crowding, improper feeding or lack of exercise are prime causes of these habits. 
 
 Bare patches and injured feathers are signs of feather eating. It is more 
 common during the molting season. 
 
 Treatment. See that the birds get all the animal food they need. Keep 
 them busy scratching for their food. Isolate the offender for a time. 
 
 Drop a piece of sulphate the size of a small cherry in the throat of the 
 bird. Repeat the third day. 
 
 Give the fowls plenty of salt in their feed and they will seldom acquire 
 this habit. 
 
 Boil oats till soft and plump, and into a pail of this mixture stir a good 
 pinch of salt and one quart of beef scrap. Feed this to the birds. 
 
 Mix some boiled finely cut cow's liver with oats and feed every morn- 
 ing. 
 
 Give sour milk to drink and cover the floor with clover chaff to keep the 
 fowls busy scratching. 
 
 Gapes. 
 
 Gapes is a disease which develops in small chicks and is caused by the pres- 
 ence of a parasite worm which attaches itself to the mucus lining of the wind- 
 pipe. 
 
 The worm which causes this disease is sometimes called the red worm 
 or the forked worm because of its color and the fact that the male and female 
 are firmly grown together in forked shape. The heads of both are attached 
 to the mucous membrane of the windpipe, sucking the blood and causing an 
 irritation and obstruction of the passage to such an extent as to interfere 
 seriously with the breathing. 
 
340 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 The symptoms are more often observed in chicks from ten days to 
 four weeks old. The affected birds are found gaping, sneezing or coughing 
 with an effort. When badly affected, the bird shakes its head frequently as if 
 suffocating; stands in a "dumpish" position with wings drooped and mouth 
 open. 
 
 Treatment. All sick birds should be removed from the well ones. Coops 
 and runs should be thoroughly disinfected. To the coops apply an appli- 
 cation of hot whitewash. The ground or runs should be well limed with air- 
 slaked lime, spaded up and should be sprinkled with one of the following so- 
 lutions : A two percent solution of sulphuric acid in water or two ounces of 
 copperas (sulphate of iron) dissolved in a bucket of water, or a solution of 
 permanganate of potassium in water, half an ounce of the crystals in a barrel 
 of water; or a strong solution of creolin, two tablespoonfuls in each gallon 
 of water. The ground should be well sprinkled with one of the above solutions 
 after infected chicks have been removed. Then plow or spade and sprinkle 
 again. Repeat this disinfection whenever infected chicks have been on the 
 ground. Scald all drinking vessels used by sick birds. Burn all chicks which 
 die of gapes. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. A piece of copperas placed in the drinking water 
 is said to prevent contagion. Tincture of asafetida, a teaspoonful in a quart of 
 water, is used for the same purpose and has a curative action. Three drams of 
 salicylate of soda in a quart of drinking water is also recommended as a pre- 
 ventive. 
 
 A farmer in the tobacco raising section of western Ohio was bothered 
 considerably with the loss of a number of small chickens from gapes. One 
 day he was burning some tobacco stubs and a number of the gaping young 
 chicks walked into the smoke smudge. He noticed that as they came out they 
 were coughing and appeared to be greatly relieved. Deciding to experiment 
 he placed some others that were almost dead in the smoke for a short time 
 and then placed them in the open or fresh air. They also coughed and looking 
 closely he found numbers of dead gape worms on little chips on the ground. 
 He concluded that the smoke killed the gapes which were smothering the 
 chicks and. the fresh air revived them causing the worms to be coughed from 
 the throat. 
 
 Just put a small cover of coals in a basket or small box the size de- 
 pending on the number of chickens, and cover it with a screen. After 
 placing the affected chickens in the box place some dampened tobacco upon 
 the coals. This will cause a smudge and the chickens will have to inhale 
 it. Cover the box for a minute or two. When the chickens begin to weave 
 about or fall over take them out into the fresh air which will revive them and 
 start coughing. The smoke will kill the worms, the coughing will expel them 
 and the chicken is relieved. Other chickens picking up the dead worms can- 
 not be affected with the disease. 
 
 Put a small quantity of kerosene into the pan of drinking water accessible 
 to the chickens with gapes. Put several pieces of camphor gum in the drink- 
 ing pan. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 341 
 
 Going Light. 
 
 This trouble may be due to insufficient or poor food, lack of exercise or 
 poorly ventilated houses. Lice or mites may be contributing cause, and it may 
 be due to some such disease as tuberculosis, aspergillosis or worms. 
 
 Symptoms. "Going Light" is a term applied to fowls which lose weight 
 rapidly, become weak and emaciated without any apparent reason. When 
 lifted they seem to weigh little more than the feathers with which they are 
 covered. 
 
 Treatment. First, if possible, discover the cause. If no defect is found 
 in the food and the fowls and houses are free from lice, much time may often 
 be saved by killing one or more of the birds and making a post-mortem ex- 
 amination to discover if the trouble is caused by some specific disease. Open 
 the intestines the entire length to learn if there are a sufficient number of 
 worms to account for their condition. If any diseased condition is found, 
 follow the treatment recommended for such disease found elsewhere in this 
 department. 
 
 Indigestion. 
 
 While this is not a disease, it leads to many. 
 
 The cause of indigestion is traceable to improper feeding, the lack of 
 grit and to loss of vigor in the flock. 
 
 Treatment. A well balanced ration, not too much bulky food, clean, fresh 
 water, birds kept in a dry, well ventilated house and compelled to take plenty 
 of exercise, will ordinarily put back into condition a deranged digestive tract. 
 Green food should be given poultry once every day in the year. * It invigorates 
 the liver, sends pure blood into the vital organs of the system, and will keep 
 them in better condition than all liver tonics combined. 
 
 Inflammation of the Egg Passage. 
 
 Inflammation of the egg passage may occur in connection with an egg- 
 bound condition. This condition is usually the result of too much fat and is 
 more frequently found in the larger breeds. Inflammation may be due to the 
 use of some of the egg-foods advertised to increase egg production and which 
 have an irritating effect if used too long. Many of these cases are due to a 
 retained egg that might be removed. The eggs are large, the passage is fatty, 
 an egg is retained and inflammation follows. 
 
 Symptoms. There .is a constant desire to strain. The violent strain 
 sometimes ruptures a blood vessel and causes sudden death. The feathers 
 of the bird are ruffled and the wings droop as though there were a relaxing 
 of the muscles. The vent of the bird is hot, red and in motion. The tempera- 
 ture of the bird drops and death follows from the extended inflammation. 
 
 Treatment. If the disease proceeds from the retained and perhaps broken 
 
 egg, it must be removed at once. Oil the finger and carefully insert in the 
 passage. If the broken egg is within reach, it can, with patience, be re- 
 moved. If too far away, use injections of olive oil repeatedly. This will have 
 a soothing effect and tend to remove the broken or retained egg. 
 
342 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 343 
 
 The broken egg being removed, the passage should be syringed with warm 
 oil containing a few drops of carbolic acid and 20 to 30 grains of sulphate of 
 magnesia administered and repeated two or three times. 
 
 Influenza or Cold. 
 
 Influenza, or grippe, is generally applied to a severe cold that has no 
 symptoms of roup. 
 
 Colds mos1| frequently occur in wet weather and among poorly housed 
 fowls. 
 
 Symptoms. The most common symptoms are a "roupy cold" without the 
 "roupy smell" which may or may not be accompanied by a watery diarrhea. 
 The fowl is dumpish and feverish, the eyes and nostrils are watery and there 
 is much sneezing; no patches on the throat. 
 
 Treatment. Warm housing and protection from cold and wet. Give 
 1 grain quinine to an adult fowl. It is well to isolate the birds as the early 
 stages of roup are sometimes mistaken for a simple cold. The fowls are more 
 liable to contract roup when suffering from a cold and on this account, should 
 be isolated and examined often. 
 
 Use equal parts of hydrogen peroxide and water as a wash for mouth and 
 nostrils. 
 
 Put 20 drops of camphor in a teaspoonful of sugar, and dissolve in a 
 pint of water. Give this as the birds' only drink. This often checks the 
 trouble at once. 
 
 Red pepper given with the food is recommended. 
 
 Wash the eyes and nostrils with 3 percent boric acid in water or equal 
 parts of witch hazel and water. 
 
 Immerse the fowl's head in a strong solution of permanganate of potash. 
 This is an excellent remedy. 
 
 Leg Weakness. 
 
 Leg weakness is seldom seen except in a flock from three to six months 
 old. The cockerels are more apt to be affected than the pullets. One of the 
 causes is over feeding of fat producing foods, thus producing more weight 
 than the legs can properly support. The larger the variety, the more tendency 
 there is to leg weakness through feeding. Another cause for leg weakness is 
 the feeding of too little bone and muscle-forming foods. Chicks kept on board 
 floors too long and not given soil to run on are liable to leg weakness. 
 
 Symptoms. The first symptom is a slight weakness of the legs in walk- 
 ing. The gait is unsteady and in a few days the fowl may be found sitting 
 while eating and tries to avoid walking. During the first few days, the ap- 
 petite is not affected but as time passes, the bird is slow to feed and fails to 
 get its share of grain. It is driven about and picked at by the other fowls and 
 at last becomes thin and louse ridden. 
 
 Treatment. Reduce the quantity of fat producing foods to a small 
 amount. Do not feed corn or corn meal. Feed only three times daily. If 
 possible, put the weak birds in a place by themselves. Feed steamed cut 
 
344 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 clover as a noon meal in summer or winter. As in all cases, clean water and 
 houses go with good care. Rub the legs with arnica and add half a teaspoon- 
 ful of tincture of nux vomica to each quart of drinking water. Do not confuse 
 leg weakness with rheumatism. In the latter disease, there is always swollen 
 joints. A good bran or meat meal containing at least one-fifth bone should 
 be made part of the morning mash, proportion : One part meal to six of grain 
 and clover. 
 
 A good food is to give bran, wheat and oatmeal; skirn milk instead 
 of water. Cook oatmeal and when cool add 30 drops of diluted phosphoric 
 acid for each bird affected and give twice daily. Give from 3 to 6 grains citrate 
 of iron each day as a tonic. 
 
 One teaspoonful of air-slaked lime daily to each five chickens has proven 
 good. 
 
 Lice. 
 
 Lice are almost always present in small numbers and may become a 
 serious pest if neglected. 
 
 Symptoms. The fowl shows signs of irritation, cannot rest and looks 
 unthrifty. Sometimes setting hens leave their nests before hatching time, and 
 upon examination it will be found that the presence of lice is the cause of it. 
 They will be found largely under the wings, about the vent and on the head 
 and neck. It is with young chicks that lice work the worst havoc. They are 
 usually found under the throat and on the top of the head. 
 
 Treatment. Lice are found deep among the feathers and any treatment 
 to be, successful must reach them. Dust the fowls with some good lice killer. 
 Persian insect powder, or powdered sulphur are very successful. Use a box 
 with a perforated cover and dust the fowls after they have gone to roost. 
 Hold the hen firmly by the legs, head downward, and sift the powder through 
 the loosened feathers. Dust at least three times about a week apart. Begin 
 the fight early. There is no harm in giving the fowls an application even in 
 midwinter. As they are seldom entirely free from lice this will keep them 
 from getting a start. Dust setting hens with the powder before putting them 
 on the nest. 
 
 For young chicks make an ointment of sulphur and lard, rub under the 
 throat and on top and back of the head. 
 
 Rub a little sweet oil, vaseline or lard where they are. 
 
 Road dust 2 quarts, and tobacco dust 1 pint, or well sifted hard coal 
 ashes may be substituted for the road dust and Persian insect powder or 
 flowers of sulphur may be used in place of tobacco dust. The principal thing 
 is to have the ingredients mixed to a very fine dust. 
 
 One teaspoonful of sulphur in the feed for 20 chicks or a tablespoonful for 
 20 adult fowls is good. A large quantity will not hurt them. Repeat every 
 day until the lice are, gone. Some say not to feed sulphur in wet weather but 
 it will not hurt the chickens. 
 
 Put a few drops of kerosene (coal oil) on hens' wings and in hovering 
 the chicks they will get sufficient on them to destroy the lice. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 345 
 
 Limber Neck. 
 
 Limber neck is a symptom of diseased conditions rather than a distinct 
 poultry disease. 
 
 The condition is due to the absorption of poison which acts upon the 
 nervous system and causes paralysis. It is generally associated with indiges- 
 tion or worms. It is very similar to ptomaine poisoning. 
 
 Symptoms. The muscles of the fowl's neck become so relaxed they can- 
 not support the head, and the fowl stands or squats with the head resting on 
 the ground. 
 
 Treatment. For adult fowls give from one to two teaspoonfuls of oil of 
 turpentine mixed with the same amount of sweet oil. For small chicks give 
 a mixture of from two to ten drops of each. In one-half hour mix one tea- 
 spoonful ginger with one-half cup hot, sweet milk slightly sweetened. To 
 adult fowls give one to two tablespoonfuls every hour or two and to chicks 
 one-half to one teaspoonful. 
 
 Fifty to 60 grains of Epsom salts or three or four teaspoonfuls of castor 
 oil to a grown fowl. 
 
 Mix equal parts of lard, ginger, mustard and cayenne pepper. Form into 
 flat pills the size of a dime and give one of these every three hours if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Mites. 
 
 These parasites breed in the cracks or joints of, poultry houses, or any- 
 where that filth is allowed to accumulate. They suck the blood and are dan- 
 gerous to the health of fowls of all ages. 
 
 Treatment. A good preparation which will destroy the mites, and also 
 lice, is made by shaving one-half pound laundry soap into one-half gallon 
 rainwater. Boil until the soap is dissolved, remove from the fire and stir into 
 it, while still hot, 2 gallons of kerosene oil. This also makes a good disin- 
 fectant. When it is to be used for killing mites or lice in the houses, use one 
 part of this mixture to 10 parts of water. When used as disinfectant add 
 one quart of the mixture to 10 quarts of water and stir well; then add one 
 pint of crude carbolic acid or cresol and stir again. When well mixed apply 
 to all crevices and cracks, and spread over walls, floors, roosts and nest boxes. 
 
 The free use of kerosene is highly recommended in fighting mites. Applv 
 to roosts, nests and all cracks and crevices. The walls may be sprayed with 
 kerosene. 
 
 Poultry houses should be whitewashed frequently to kill disease germs 
 as well as insects which lodge in cracks and walls. The following formula 
 for whitewash will adhere to walls and last for a long time, either inside or 
 outside: Half a bushel of unslaked lime slaked in warm water. Keep 
 covered so the steam will not escape. Strain the liquid through a fine sieve. 
 Add a peck of salt previously dissolved in water, three pounds of rice which 
 has been ground and boiled to a thin paste. One-half pound of Spanish whit- 
 ing and a pound of glue which has been melted over a slow heat, and 5 gal- 
 lons of hot water. Stir well and let stand covered 5 days. Heat before ap- 
 
346 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Roup 
 
 Roupy eye. 
 
 Scabies. 
 
 Cholera. 
 
 scaly leg. 
 
 Mite that causes 
 Scaly leg. 
 
 Ecru bound. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 347 
 
 plying to walls. If properly applied one pint of this mixture will cover one 
 square yard. Coloring may be added to make any shade. It will retain 
 its brilliancy for years. For inside of poultry houses, add 2 pints of carbolic 
 acid for disinfectant. 
 
 Pip. 
 
 Pip is sometimes a dry condition of the tongue appearing in several 
 diseases of the air passages, such as catarrh, bronchitis, roup and pneumonia. 
 It is a symptom of disease, not a disease itself. 
 
 Pip, or the dry condition of the tongue, is produced by the rapid passing 
 ovec the tongue of feverish breath combined with increased temperature of 
 the body. 
 
 Symptoms. The end of the tongue becomes hard and dry and eating 
 becomes difficult. 
 
 Treatment. Study the whole bird, finding out the trouble underlying 
 this one symptom and treat the real disease. 
 
 Give soft food for a day or two, and 20 grains of Epsom salts for two 
 mornings. Wash the mouth with water containing boric acid. Paint the 
 tongue twice a day with glycerine or olive oil. 
 
 Rheumatism. 
 
 This is a disease affecting all parts but is more noticeable in the legs. 
 
 The causes of the ailment are exposure to cold and dampness, the feeding 
 of too much animal matter and not enough vegetable matter. There is some- 
 times a hereditary tendency to this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of rheumatism and leg weakness are not al- 
 ways distinguishable. One of the first symptoms of the former is the jerky 
 walk and the joints become swollen. . Inflammation and pain in the joints and 
 muscles cause the bird to sit down most of the time. Trying to straighten 
 the limbs hurts the bird. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment also suggests the line to follow in the pre- 
 vention of the disease. The birds should be housed in dry, sunny quarters and 
 fed an abundance of green vegetables not forgetting clover mash. For internal 
 treatment iodide of potassium is highly recommended, fifteen grains to every 
 quart of drinking water. Use small dishes so it will all be used while fairly 
 fresh. This is good for chicks as well as old fowls. 
 
 Rub the swollen parts with extract of witch hazel two or three times each 
 day. Common baking soda, 1 level teaspoonful to each quart of drinking 
 water, has given good results. Give 20 grams of Epsom salts followed the 
 next day by fifteen grains bicarbonate of soda to each pint of drinking water. 
 
 Roup or Contagious Catarrh. 
 
 This disease in poultry closely resembles the more malignant forms of 
 catarrh or influenza in man and is very contagious. 
 
 It is caused by a specific germ closely related to the germ that causes white 
 
348 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 diarrhea in chicks and blackhead in turkeys. It is encouraged by keeping 
 fowls in badly ventilated houses, keeping too many in one room and allowing 
 the poultry house to become damp and the droppings to accumulate in the house. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms at first resemble those of a severe cold at- 
 tended with a feverish condition, a discharge from the nostrils and a frothy 
 substance in the corners of the eyes. The appetite diminishes and the fowl 
 sits with head drawn in, wings drooping and having the general appearance 
 of depression and illness. 
 
 Treatment. The sick fowls should be removed from the flock to a warm, 
 dry and well ventilated room. The affected membranes should then be treated 
 by applying antiseptic and healing mixtures. The best method is a spraying 
 apparatus but an oil-can or even a medicine dropper can be used. A good 
 remedy for this treatment is boric acid 1 ounce, water 1 quart, or permanganate 
 of potash 1 dram, water 1 quart, or peroxide of hydrogen 1 ounce, water 3 
 ounces. Before applying these remedies it is well to wash the mouth and eyes 
 with a solution of warm water containing 1 teaspoonful of salt to a quart. 
 Don't forget to wash the hands well after handling sick fowls. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. If the disease be taken in hand early, or as a 
 preventive measure it can frequently be stamped out by using a creolin spray. 
 Mix 1 teaspoonful of pure creolin in a gallon of water. With a small spray 
 pump that throws a very fine mist, spray this solution about the poultry houses 
 after the birds have gone to roost. Spray about the heads of the birds so they 
 may inhale the vapor. It will cause a great deal of sneezing and coughing. 
 This treatment every night for ten days or two weeks, will cure many stubborn 
 catarrhal colds and often cures mild cases of roup. 
 
 Apply a 2% solution of carbolic acid to the affected parts. 
 
 Kerosene mixed with an equal part of olive oil has given good results. 
 
 Cleanse the nostrils and throat with equal parts of hydrogen peroxide and 
 water several times daily and grease the nostrils with vaseline. 
 
 Make small pills of well mixed sulphur and camphorated vaseline. 
 
 A tablespoonful of clear lard, half a tablespoonful each of vinegar, cayenne 
 pepper and mustard; mix well together and add flour until the whole has the 
 consistency of dough; roll into slugs about the size of the top joint of the 
 little finger and put one down the patient's throat. Repeat in twelve hours, 
 if necessary. One dose often cures a mild attack. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine, one part, with glycerine six parts, makes a good 
 lotion for bathing the face and eyes, for injecting into the nostrils and for 
 swabbing the throat of roupy fowls. 
 
 Make a 20% solution of common baking soda. Bathe the head and inject 
 into the cleft in the roof of the mouth. Then repeat this process using peroxide 
 of hydrogen instead of baking soda. Then inject into the cleft in the roof of 
 the mouth and down the throat, the following prescription: Oil of thyme 1 
 dram, oil of eucalyptus 20 drops, oil of petrol 2 ounces. 
 
 Get some two-decimal tablets of bin-iod of mercury, and for adult fowls 
 give two tablets night and morning. In the drinking water use permanganate 
 of potash. Get the crystals and dissolve them in a bottle of water and then 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 349 
 
 put enough of this solution in the drinking water to make the water quite 
 purple. Continue this latter medicine for a week and it will take the disease 
 out of the flock. It is only the worst cases that will need the bin-iod of 
 mercury. 
 
 Scaly Leg. 
 
 Scaly leg is caused by a parasite and is decidedly contagious. This para- 
 site works its way in between the scales of shanks or toes. It may come from 
 another fowl or from an infected house or brooder. The scales are irritated, 
 pushed apart and filth begins to accumulate. This filth together with the 
 parasite working produces a disgusting appearance of the legs. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are enlargement of the feet and legs. At 
 first there is seen only a slight roughness but the continued irritation of the 
 mite causes a spongy substance which raises the scales until they are nearly 
 perpendicular. In severe cases the joints become inflamed and the birds walk 
 with difficulty. 
 
 Treatment. Wash and brush the legs with warm soapy water, removing 
 all scales that come off easily. Dry the legs and apply a coating of balsam of 
 Peru or an ointment containing two percent carbolic acid. 
 
 A remedy highly recommended is oil of caraway 1 part and 5 parts of 
 vaseline. 
 
 When a large number of fowls are to be treated, make a mixture of one- 
 half pint kerosene and one pint raw linseed oil in a quart can. Take this to 
 the poultry house at night and dip both legs of each affected bird into the mix- 
 ture and replace them on the roost. The feathers -must not be wet as this 
 causes the skin to blister. Repeat this in three days. 
 
 A good ointment to kill the parasite is made of one ounce of sulphur and 
 ten tablespoonfuls of lard or vaseline. Rub this into the rough parts every 
 other night for a week and give one application in about three weeks. 
 
 Another good method is to fill a common wooden pail nearly full of water, 
 adding one gill of kerosene carefully so it will float on the surface. Take each 
 fowl and dip both legs down through the oil, holding for half a minute. Repeat 
 this in four or five days. If the shanks are feathered, care should be taken 
 to dry the feathers as they will hold the oil, producing much discomfort by 
 irritating the skin. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 This disease is a chronic, contagious disease. Its development is caused 
 by germs called tubercles in various organs of the body, but more often in 
 the liver, spleen and intestines. The germ differs somewhat from the germ 
 which causes tuberculosis in man. 
 
 If tuberculosis exists in a neighboring flock, it may be carried by birds 
 or animals going from one yard to another or from fowls purchased from 
 infected flocks. The eggs of diseased birds often contain the baccilli and 
 chickens hatched from such eggs are diseased when they leave the shell and 
 ready to infect the poultry with which they run. Pigs, cats, rats etc., may 
 
350 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 be infected with fowl tuberculosis from eating the bodies of birds which have 
 died from this disease and these animals may infect other fowls. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms begin with gradual loss of weight, wasting 
 of the muscles and prominence of the bones. The comb becomes pale. The 
 bird is weak and languid. In the latter stages, there is persistent diarrhea. 
 Very often there is an inflammation of the joints which causes enlargement 
 and lameness. Occasionally the skin over the joints breaks and they are found 
 to be ulcerated. Many of the symptoms of this disease are very similar to 
 those occurring with other diseases, thus making a diagnosis difficult. A micro- 
 scopic analysis showing the presence of the bacillus is the best evidence. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. The treatment is entirely preventive as the. 
 disease cannot be cured. All birds that are known to be infected should be 
 killed and burned. No attempt should be made to keep any of the fowls that 
 have been exposed to the contagion. All of the manure and scrapings of the 
 yards should be burned. Sprinkle a 5% solution of carbolic acid over the funs 
 and wash floors and walls, feeding troughs and drinking vessels with the same. 
 Then whitewash the whole interior of the poultry house adding 16 ounces of 
 crude carbolic acid to each pail of whitewash. Keep the house and yards open 
 to sun for three weeks before putting in a new flock. 
 
 Vertigo. 
 
 This is a disease of the brain, and may be regarded as a minor apoplexy. 
 
 Symptoms. The bird shows dizziness. The gait is uncertain and stag- 
 gering. 
 
 Treatment. The fowl can often be revived by holding the head under a 
 stream of cold water after which keep it in a cool place and on a light diet. 
 
 White Comb (Favus). 
 
 This is a contagious disease quite disfiguring but easily controlled if treated 
 early. 
 
 White comb is the result of close confinement, little or no air and sun- 
 shine and absence of sufficient vegetable food. The disease is transmitted from 
 fowl to fowl by contact. 
 
 Symptoms. Favus begins by the formation of white or grayish spots on 
 the comb and wattles. These spots enlarge, run together and become more 
 inflamed until the skin of the head and neck is covered and bare of feathers. 
 As the disease advances, the skin becomes thicker until in a few weeks it may 
 change very much the shape of the head. There will be noticed a paleness 
 of all mucus surfaces and a weakness in all the movements of the bird. 
 
 While the disease is confined to the head, it may be cured by applying tinc- 
 ture of iodine to the parts. 
 
 An ointment of calomel 1 part, vaseline 8 parts, well mixed and applied 
 daily, is an efficient remedy. 
 
 Olive oil with 1% carbolic acid is good to apply. Isolate the afflicted fowls. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 
 
 351 
 
352 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 White Diarrhea in Chicks. 
 
 There are various causes for this ailment. A common one is wrong feed- 
 ing. Either the chick is fed while too young, the food given is too heavy to 
 digest or is fermented or spoiled. Other causes are chilling, low vitality in the 
 breeding stock, careless feeding, too little or too much heat, impure drinking 
 water, infected food and unsanitary surroundings. 
 
 Symptoms. Chickens are usually attacked when 10 to 15 days old. They 
 appear listless, their feathers become rough and they stand about with drooping 
 wings. White diarrhea is soon noticed. The chick eats less and less, is 
 thirsty, and shows signs of general weakness. The symptoms increase in sever- 
 ity and the chick is apt to be found dead. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment is mostly preventive. If the hatching is done 
 by the hen, the chicks should be put upon fresh ground, and any chicks which 
 sicken should be immediately isolated or killed. By removing frequently to 
 fresh ground or by frequent disinfection, the disease may be limited to a few 
 chicks. If hatched in the incubator, it is well to divide the trays and brooders 
 by light partitions so that the chicks will not be in one lot. If white diarrhea 
 appears in any lot, such lots may be removed and the places disinfected. After 
 four or five days, the healthy lots may be put together. In this way the greater 
 part of the chicks are protected against a most common form of the disease. 
 Begin feeding at from 24 to 36 hours of age and feed according to the formulas 
 given for. dry bran, rolled oats and hard boiled eggs. Give neither cracked 
 wheat nor cracked corn until chicks are a week or 10 days old. Be sure they 
 have an opportunity to be comfortably warm at all times. 
 
 Give small doses of castor oil. 
 
 A few drops of turpentine in a little olive oil is good for white diarrhea. 
 
 Worms. 
 
 These worms are commonly parasitic on fowls. 
 
 Symptoms. Worms are frequently present in the digestive canal of 
 fowls, particularly young chicks. Occasionally flat tape worms are found but 
 these are not common. Chicks infected with worms go off feed and become 
 thin and sickly. The symptoms are really those of indigestion. 
 
 Treatment. If you suspect worms, try to remove them. Powdered areca 
 nut 20 to 40 grains per fowl, administered in mash or mixed with butter or 
 lard into pills is an effective remedy. 
 
 Beat a new laid egg with one tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and mix 
 thoroughly. Give a teaspoonful of this mixture night and morning for a few 
 days. 
 
 Divide a quarter of an ounce of areca-nut powder into four parts and give 
 one part every morning, follow this with a dessert spoonful of sweet oil two 
 hours after each powder. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS-TREATMENT 353 
 
 Liver 
 
 Internal organs of a chicken, removed (post-mortem examination). 
 
354 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 When the poultry die off from an unknown cause, post-mortem examina- 
 tions should be undertaken at once. By this means, alone, can the raiser ascer- 
 tain with certainty what the trouble is and remedy it. It will show him what 
 disease he has to fight and will enable him to doctor his fowls with greater 
 success. 
 
 It is better to pluck a bird before performing an examination and to ex- 
 amine him in a systematic way. However, a speedy examination may be made 
 without plucking, by hurriedly bending back or removing the breast-bone. 
 To handle the body easily it should be nailed, breast upward, to a board. Then 
 the performer can easily get inside the bird by cutting along each side of the 
 breast and bending back the breast-bone. 
 
 An examination of the afflicted organs can next be made and the disease 
 determined by observing what the various symptoms indicate that are given 
 below. The operator should notice whether the organs diseased are spotted, 
 enlarged, inflamed, ruptured or gorged with blood. No single organ will give 
 conclusive evidence unless the symptoms are very pronounced, but the appear- 
 ance of all must be taken into consideration. Following are the main symptoms 
 found in each organ and what they indicate. For names of organs see illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Organ. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 Indications. 
 
 Brain 
 
 Gorged with blood 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Different sized yellowish-white spots, 
 raised and convex, that can be easily 
 separated from the organ; often 
 the organ itself is greatly enlarged. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 Liver 
 
 Enlarged organ, soft and dark shade 
 of green, many times shows whitish 
 spots. 
 
 Cholera. 
 
 
 Round patches, sunken in center asso- 
 ciated with each caecum being 
 clogged and sores on its lining. 
 
 Coccidial Diarrhea. 
 
 
 Organ swollen and congested, can be 
 easily torn. 
 
 Congested Liver. 
 
 
 Organ overloaded with fat. 
 
 Fatty Liver. 
 
 
 Organ small and hard. 
 
 Fatty Degeneration. 
 
 
 Minute, chalky crystals on liver and 
 other organs. 
 
 Gout. 
 
 
 Dead parts covered with mold. 
 
 Aspergillosis. 
 
 Heart 
 
 p , , , , 
 
 , i 
 
 
 
 
 Stomach 
 
 T ' ' fl J J J J J 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 Caecum 
 
 
 Coccidial Diarrhea in 
 
 
 
 Blackhead in turkeys. 
 
DISEASES OF CHICKENS TREATMENT 
 
 355 
 
 Organ . 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 Apoplexy . 
 
 
 Upper portion reddened. Contents 
 streaked with blood. 
 
 Cholera. 
 
 Intestines 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 Lining inflamed. 
 
 Diarrhea. 
 
 
 Presence of worms. 
 
 Worms. 
 
 
 Thick excretion of mucus in bron- 
 chial tubes. 
 
 Pneumonia. 
 
 
 Blood from lungs in tubes. 
 
 Congestion of lungs. 
 
 Windpipe 
 
 Red worms, about %-inch long, cling- 
 
 Gapes. 
 
 
 ing to trachea. 
 
 
 
 Whitish mold inside. 
 
 Aspergillosis. 
 
 
 Dark and congested with blood. 
 
 Congestion. 
 
 
 Spots present (in lungs of little chicks). 
 
 Brooder Pneumonia. 
 
 
 Organ is not spongy, air sacs Are filled 
 with a rather solid substance. 
 
 Pneumonia. 
 
 Spleen 
 
 Much enlarged. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blood vessels swollen with blood. 
 
 Cholera. 
 
 Mesentery 
 
 Covered with little lumps. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
TURKEYS. 
 
 Opportunity for Profit. When turkeys are properly handled, that is, 
 when the unnatural losses are eliminated, there is a greater opportunity for 
 profit in raising them than in any other kind of live stock. These unnatural 
 losses are due largely to the neglect of raisers to follow the laws of nature in 
 selecting and paring the breeding stock. Turkeys are more self supporting 
 than any other live stock. From the time that they are six weeks old until 
 winter sets in they will gain the greater part of their entire living from insects, 
 bugs, grasshoppers, and waste grain that they pick up in their free wanderings 
 over the range. In other words, when given sufficient range, they may be called 
 self-sustaining foragers. The chance for profit in turkey raising moreover is 
 gradually increasing due to the more general use of the flesh. Turkeys are 
 used not only for roasting but a large number of the poults (young turkeys) 
 are used for broilers. The flesh is also used to an increasing extent for salads, 
 sandwiches and cold cuts. If the late hatched poults cannot be brought to 
 maturity, they will sell for broilers at a good profit. The broiled poult is a very 
 valuable dish in our large cities at the present time. 
 
 STANDARD WEIGHTS OF TURKEYS. 
 
 
 Adult Cock 
 (2 years old 
 or over). 
 
 Yearling 
 (1 year old 
 and less 
 than 2). 
 
 Cockerel 
 (less than 
 1 year old). 
 
 Hen 
 (1 year old 
 or over). 
 
 Pullet 
 (less than 
 1 year old). 
 
 Bronze 
 
 Pounds. 
 36 
 
 Pounds. 
 33 
 
 Pounds. 
 25 
 
 Pounds. 
 20 
 
 Pounds. 
 16 
 
 Bourbon Red 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 Narragansett 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 White Holland 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 Black 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 Slate 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The main difference in the varieties given are size and color. The Bronze 
 and the Narragansett are the largest, the Bourbon Reds and Slate are the medium 
 and the Black and White the smallest. A great improvement has been made 
 in the Blacks and Whites of late years, so much so in fact that they are crowd- 
 ing for third position. 
 
 There is a nonstandard variety besides the above, known as the Buffs. 
 They are quite like the Bourbon Reds and might well claim their place. The 
 Bourbon Reds are more largely grown for the market than the Buffs. 
 
 Selection of a Breed. The Bronze turkeys are the most popular in this 
 country, although considerable numbers of white turkeys are bred. Scarcely 
 any preference is shown on the open market for any particular breed of turkey, 
 but great stress is always laid upon the quality. The best grown and best fin- 
 
 356 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 357 
 
 ished specimens of all varieties are always in demand. So we see it is not so 
 much the breed that counts as it is the quality. One must only know how to 
 take care of the birds to make a success of turkey raising. 
 
 Bronze Turkey. This variety runs more to size than any of the others, 
 perhaps too much so. Size within reasonable limits is desired and encouraged, 
 but when it consists in a gain in length of thigh and shank, it is an increase of 
 weight with but little value. The Bronze turkey is naturally the largest in size, 
 the most vigorous in constitution, and the most profitable to grow. However, 
 through carelessness in breeding they often lack their natural characteristics. 
 
 Narragansett. For all purposes this variety holds its own with any of 
 the rest, and should be more generally cultivated for market purposes. The 
 turkeys of this variety have fine form in breast and body, shorter legs than the 
 Bronze as well as a more contented nature. They average smaller but some 
 declare that they can be made to mature faster and reach market size quicker 
 than the Bronze. These birds are highly valued by those who grow them. 
 
 Slate. These turkeys are about the size of the Blacks and Buffs as a rule. 
 Some value them highly but they have not been bred extensively enough to 
 determine their market value. 
 
 White. This is another fine variety for all purposes. They grow to the 
 most profitable sizes and dress well for market. With them, as with other 
 white poultry, the pin feathers do not show as much as in the darker varieties, 
 and their pinkish white shanks add to their appearance. White turkeys are 
 largely grown in some localities. They are no harder to rear and have as much 
 vitality as the other varieties. Also the Whites are more contented to stay at 
 home than some of the others, so they are suited to farms with limited range. 
 
 Black. These turkeys are fine for table purposes. When dressed they 
 present a most desirable plumpness and finish. The Blacks are quite hardy. 
 They round up nicely at an early age and mature for the early markets. Like 
 the Whites, the Blacks are quite contented at home which makes them a desir- 
 able bird for the farmer who wishes to keep them on a limited area. 
 
 Bourbon Red. This is a good, all around variety and some think the 
 rich color of flesh and skin excels the others. The birds grow large, vigorous 
 and strong with a splendid fullness of breast. 
 
 Buff. This variety is scarce. They are very attractive when dressed and 
 grow quickly. The average weight of the birds is several pounds less than 
 that of the Narragansetts. Some growers in the East are paying more attention 
 to this variety in order to determine their value. 
 
 HOUSING. 
 
 As a rule little housing is done for turkeys except in very cold climates. 
 They need the open air. However it is always advisable to give them some kind 
 of shelter to protect them from the direct blast of the cold wintry winds. Where 
 shelter is necessary a coop may be .built patterned after poultry houses with the 
 slanting roofs. An open ventilator should be built in front, close to the roof, 
 and this should never be closed, except in cold weather. Just enough light is 
 
358 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 359 
 
 necessary to show the turkeys the way to and from the roosts. The roosts 
 are built on a level in the front of the house, with a rolling or sliding door in 
 the rear. Turkeys should not be confined so the door should be left open all 
 day that they may come and go as they wish. In cold, snowy weather they may 
 be fed in the house. 
 
 Good House for Cold Climates. A good house for the cold climate of 
 Canada is the double inclosed apartment house. This is used for breeding stock 
 in winter. Connected with the house is an inclosed run to protect the birds from 
 the cold and at the same time furnish opportunity for fresh air exercise during 
 the day. It will keep the turkeys from being carried away by all kinds of mid- 
 night marauders. Such a house is easy to build and inexpensive. 
 
 Coop for Poults. The following makes a splendid roosting coop for 
 poults in mild climates. It keeps out incursions of night animals. The frame 
 should be 6 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, 5 ft. high in front and 4 ft. high in rear, back 
 and roof boarded, ends and sides enclosed with small mesh poultry netting. Put 
 in low perches and keep brood until they are ready to fly up out of danger. 
 Move this coop to fresh ground frequently, thus keeping the ground pure. 
 
 Do Not House With Chickens. Turkeys will not do well if housed with 
 chickens. They easily become infested with lice from them and lice are sure 
 death to young poults. 
 
 BREEDING. 
 
 (Including Valuable Information on the Care of Breeding Stock and 
 
 Hatching.) 
 
 Selection of Breeding Stock. "Like Begets Like" is a good rule to follow 
 in breeding turkeys. The careless selection, or no selection at all, of breeding 
 stock has given no end of trouble to turkey raisers. In many localities all of the 
 turkeys raised have descended from the same original pair, no new blood having 
 come into the neighborhood. Such a foolish procedure means the destruction of 
 the constitutional vigor of the birds and failure is sure to follow. A wise farmer 
 always selects the best corn or grain he has for seed ; he should exercise as much 
 care in the selection of his breeding stock in turkeys. In fact if a person wishes 
 to succeed in this profitable industry, he must give much care to the breeding of 
 his birds. 
 
 Kinds of Hens to Select. The hens to be used for breeding should be 
 strong, healthy and well matured. They should be of medium size, well formed, 
 strong boned, and possess constitutional vigor. Exceedingly large hens as well 
 as very small ones are seldom the best of breeders. Vigor and stamina are ab- 
 solutely necessary. The best producers are turkey hens in their 2nd or 3rd 
 year of laying. The best young hens should be kept with this in mind. 
 
 Kind of Males to Select It is of first importance to have a first class 
 male serve as breeder. This, can easily be seen when we say that the male is 
 one-half of the entire flock in the matter of breeding. None can be too good. 
 The male should be of long body ; he should have a full, round breast and plenty 
 of bone and should not be oversized. 
 
 The male should be of some standard variety, no matter whether the hens 
 
360 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 are or not, for he will carry with him the influence of his breeding. If the hens 
 are of a standard breed, the male should be of the same breed so as to keep the 
 stock in its purity. Much better results are obtained by selecting individuals 
 of some one of the standard varieties than by cross-breeding. Where turkeys 
 are cross-bred, it tends to bring the weak points of both sides of the cross to the 
 surface. Proper crosses sometimes improve the first issue but are seldom suc- 
 cessful when followed up. 
 
 It should be remembered that the female influences the size of the off- 
 spring. Fair sized females of good health, constitutional vigor and mature age 
 with a medium-sized male will do far better than small females with an exceed- 
 ingly large male. Pairing small weakly females with large males is poor policy. 
 
 In-breeding. Turkey hens will wander miles if necessary to pair with a 
 male and this is one of the chief sources of in-breeding. In localities where 
 few turkeys are raised, one male is often depended upon to serve for all the 
 females. This too often forces him to pair with his own descendants, and 
 causes a lack of vitality in the offspring. Turkeys suffer from in-breeding more 
 than any other of our domestic fowls. 
 
 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR SELECTING BREEDING STOCK. 
 
 1. Turkeys Demand New Blood. Do not in-breed. It is better to send 
 away for a new male than to risk close breeding. Turkeys must have new blood 
 if they maintain their constitutional vigor. 
 
 2. Secure Tom in Fall. The male should be secured in the fall that one 
 may be sure of his vigor and health in general before the breeding season. 
 
 3. Kind of Tom to Use. Do not think that a large overgrown male is 
 as good for this purpose as a well-proportioned, medium sized one that is full 
 of health, strength and constitutional vigor; one that has a broad masculine 
 head, heavy ear carunculations and wattles, long stout shanks, large feet, and up- 
 right carriage, as these indicate health and vigor. 
 
 4. Age of Hens. The turkey hens used as breeders should always be 
 over one year old. If she continues to lay she will be useful until about eight 
 years of age. 
 
 5. Kinds of Hens to Breed. Use medium-sized hens. Avoid the smaller 
 ones and those unnaturally large. Use only those that are healthy, strong and 
 vigorous. Size, with large feet and legs, broad heads, and good length of body 
 and constitutional vigor are influenced largely by the female; color and finish 
 by the male. 
 
 6. Indication of Value. Value is indicated most clearly by a full- 
 rounded breast and body. 
 
 7. Length of Thigh and Shank vs. Size. Do not mistake length of thigh 
 and shank, if out of proportion, for size. 
 
 8. Profitable Market Characteristics. The most profitable market char- 
 acteristics are constitutional vigor, compactness of form, and length of breast and 
 body. Select birds having these characteristics for breeding purposes. 
 
 Number of Females to Male. In farm flocks that are running free on the 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 361 
 
 range, it is best to have not more than six females to one male. When the turkeys 
 are yarded in flocks of eight to twelve, it is better to use two males. When this 
 is done allow only one male with the hens at a time. Change the males at least 
 twice a week. 
 
 Care of Breeding Stock. 
 
 Range. The flock should have free range or a large inclosure after they 
 have been mated. Without plenty of range, turkey raising is seldom satisfactory 
 or profitable. Turkeys are by nature wild birds and wild or semi-wild habits 
 are necessary to their best welfare. Some flocks have done well on 8 to 20 acres 
 but only a few can be grown at a time in this way, and they require close atten- 
 tion and excellent care. A wide range of territory for them to go over undis- 
 turbed is of vital importance. If allowed free range they will pick up the kind 
 of foods suitable to their needs and liking, besides getting plenty of needed ex- 
 ercise. 
 
 Roosting Places. Turkeys do the best when allowed to roost in the 
 open. They enjoy roosting in the trees or upon poles hung in the lee of some 
 building. A good roosting place can be made by planting posts that project 
 about 7 feet above the ground and placing upon these long poles about 2 inches 
 in diameter. Turkeys will roost the year around in such places and fare ex- 
 ceedingly well unless, of course, the weather should be extremely severe. If 
 housed at all their quarters should be roomy, perfectly clean and well ven- 
 tilated, and they should be permitted to come and go at will during the day. 
 Any house will' do, that will protect them from marauders of every kind and 
 from the weather. 
 
 Condition of Stock and Feeding. The breeding stock should never be 
 allowed to become too fat. A turkey that is once fat seldom, if ever, regains its 
 former vigor. Access to granaries and barns often produce an overfat condition. 
 If they have a tendency to become overfat feed them boiled oats. Some corn and 
 wheat may also be fed to advantage. Although we say they should not be al- 
 lowed to become fat, we do not mean they can go without feed entirely. Do not 
 make them go underfed. If the birds have access to the whole farm there is 
 slight danger of their going hungry, especially if any stock is fed on the place. 
 When they are unable to find feed it should be supplied them. When oats, bar- 
 ley, corn or wheat are fed it should be scattered on the ground so that they will 
 have to pick up the grains, kernel by kernel. Avoid feeding much corn as it 
 tends to produce too much fat resulting in infertile eggs. The breeding stock 
 need vegetable food, grit, charcoal and some meat food. They will eat lots of 
 charcoal and it is fine to keep them in condition. 
 
 The Tom should be well fed. He is generally underfed when fed with 
 the flock. It is well to give him an extra ration of corn every day. 
 
 Laying. A properly managed hen turkey generally means one that is 
 allowed to run her own affairs. Such a bird begins laying from the middle of 
 March to the first of April depending upon the latitude and the season. She will 
 lay about 3 clutches in a season, about 30 eggs in all, if a good layer. When 
 she becomes broody she can be broken up by simply destroying her nest and 
 
362 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 rotation For a Turkey Nes 
 
 to Prevent Turkey Hens From 
 
 Firing Over Fence 
 
 A Typical Torkey Rot 
 
 Packed Ready for Shipment 
 
 Cop Ued For Turkey Hets While Sitting 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 363 
 
 putting her to laying again. Those who only have a few hens and wish to 
 raise a great many poults should keep the turkey hen laying and rear the poults 
 with domestic hens. 
 
 Pairing. It is best not to allow more than one male turkey at a time to 
 run with a flock of breeding hens as extra males only disturb each other when 
 pairing. The pairing with the male should be complete. If it is not, the whole 
 clutch of eggs will be infertile. Immediately upon pairing with the male the 
 hen sets out to find a nest in which to lay her eggs. If the eggs are infertile 
 her work is all for nothing. This shows the importance of having the male full 
 of vigor at pairing time. 
 
 Care of Eggs. One should watch the hen-turkey very closely to see when 
 she lays her eggs. The eggs should be gathered regularly and carefully. They 
 should be kept in a cool place and turned daily. If the eggs are left out in 
 changeable weather they may lose their vitality. When the eggs are taken from 
 the nest, eggs of some other kind, preferably large-sized china eggs, should be 
 placed under the hen to keep her from becoming dissatisfied and changing her 
 nesting place. 
 
 Turkey Nests. 
 
 If a turkey-hen is not watched she will naturally find a nest in the most out- 
 of-the-way place she can find, such as under a pile of logs or wood, or in a heap 
 of brush. Here she will lay her eggs and in case they are neither chilled nor 
 carried away by wild animals, she will hatch them into vigorous poults herself. 
 She will then take them into the fields as far away from the accustomed paths 
 of man as possible and here she will feed and rear her brood after her own in- 
 clination. When autumn comes she will come forth with a flock of large, vig- 
 orous, young turkeys. They will be robust in development, vigorous in health, 
 and bright in plumage. Some of the largest turkey raisers in the country desire 
 their hens to seek their nests and rear their young in the above fashion. This is 
 the ideal way where there is plenty of range and the farm is so situated that the 
 hens can be given their freedom without danger to the eggs and brood. On 
 small range the hiding of nests should be carefully guarded against. 
 
 To Prevent Wandering. Watch the hen closely to determine her nesting 
 place. If she selects a place that is not protected, it is well to provide a coop or 
 box, with an opening for her to go in and out, to protect her eggs from the 
 weather during the four weeks of incubation in case she is going to hatch 
 them herself. Just before time for the eggs to hatch a slat frame can be placed 
 over the hen to keep her from wandering off with the newly hatched poults. 
 Instead of the frame it might be all right to simply nail a couple of slats across 
 the opening of her coop. This plan will increase the size of flocks as the 
 young poults can be watched and given better care. 
 
 Preparing Nests. Nests should be secreted in the places that the hens 
 would be most likely to pick for themselves such as thick brush or a secluded 
 fence corner. The places are easy to locate after the first season because hen 
 turkeys almost invariably select a place to lay near their previous season's nest. 
 An empty barrel is a fine thing to use for the purpose. Holes should be made in 
 
364 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 the lower side to let out water which might accumulate. The barrel is placed 
 on its side and the nest within made of clean straw or hay. If the hen avoids her 
 nest, she should be fed close in front of it. If she still refuses to use it, it may 
 be necessary to enclose her until she is content to lay where requested. 
 
 To Prevent Hiding of Nests. If the grower wishes to keep the hens from 
 hiding their nests' and to save all the eggs laid, it may be necessary to confine 
 them. By doing this he can teach them to lay and sit in his prepared nests. If 
 the hens are confined they should be let out each day after they have laid until 
 roosting time when they can be put back into the inclosure. Turkey hens will 
 lay about twenty eggs before becoming broody and then if broken up will lay 
 again. They can be set on their second clutch of eggs, if the eggs are to be 
 hatched out by the hen turkey herself. They are usually hatched under domestic 
 hens. 
 
 Keep Nests Separated. In a large flock of turkeys it is often the case 
 that two or more hens will try to nest close to each other or even together. If 
 this is allowed, trouble is certain to follow unless they become broody at the 
 same time and this seldom happens. Two hens sitting on the same nest will get 
 along fairly well until about the fourth week when they will begin fussing for 
 possession of the eggs. This generally results in the destruction of most of them. 
 
 Keeping Record of Nests. Keeping a record of each nest is very essen- 
 tial. A record is easily kept and is useful for reference. It should show when 
 the hen began to lay, the number of eggs laid, when she became broody, when 
 the eggs hatched, etc. 
 
 Hatching. 
 
 Hatching by Turkey Hens. Turkey hens are rather good mothers. They 
 produce such a limited number of eggs it is seldom necessary to hatch them 
 in an incubator. Turkey hens are practically a necessity for the -successful 
 rearing of poults so they should be permitted to hatch out a few of their eggs 
 at least. This will induce them to brood the poults. 
 
 Hatching by Domestic Hens. If a breeder has only a few turkey hens 
 and wishes to hatch out a large number of poults, he should keep the turkey 
 hens laying and hatch her eggs under large domestic hens. When the turkey 
 hen has laid from fifteen to twenty-three eggs she will want to sit but she can 
 be easily broken up by shutting her in for a few days. After she is given her 
 liberty she will soon begin laying again. The turkey hen can be allowed to sit 
 on some of her second clutch of eggs; in this way many more poults can be 
 hatched than by allowing the turkey hen to sit on her first clutch. 
 
 Hatching with Incubators. Turkey eggs can be hatched in incubators 
 about as well as any others but we believe that the hens themselves will pro- 
 duce the biggest hatch. They will hatch out more of the weak germed eggs. 
 Unless an exceedingly large number of poults are to be hatched the other methods 
 will probably be, the most profitable. It is the prevailing custom to hatch turkey 
 eggs under hens, as most people have more confidence in that method. 
 
 Time Required for Incubation. The period of incubation for turkey eggs 
 is about four weeks, 27 to 29 days. The eggs tliat are fresh when they are 
 put under the hen will hatch before those that have been kept for some time. 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 365 
 
 Number of Eggs for a Sitting. If the pairing of the hen with the torn 
 is complete and the torn is in good condition, practically every egg laid by the 
 hen will be fertile. Many times each egg in the nest will produce a living poult. 
 No more eggs should be put under a hen than she can properly cover. Domestic 
 hens of course cannot cover nearly as many as the turkey hens. It is much better 
 to put too few under a hen than too many. If too many eggs are given for a 
 sitting, a poor hatch is almost certain. 
 
 Two Broods in One Season. It is natural for a turkey hen, when not 
 allowed to sit on her first clutch, to lay a second clutch of eggs. She may find 
 another nesting place to do this. The first clutch of eggs can be gathered, given 
 proper care, and set. Thus by preventing the hen from sitting on her first clutch, 
 a second may be raised in one season. 
 
 Rules for Care of Setters. 
 
 1. Dusting Hens. Dust the hen with insect powder at least twice while 
 setting. Never use kerosene for this. Lice are sure death 1 to young poults. 
 
 2. Dust Bath. Provide a dust bath near her nest. This can be done by 
 working up a few feet of ground in a sunny location. If the soil is not fit it 
 will be easy to carry a bushel of dry loam to the place. It is a good plan to 
 throw some lice-killing powder into the dusting place. This will aid in keeping 
 the hen free from lice. 
 
 3. Fasten Hen on Nest at Hatching Time. Fasten the hen on her nest 
 after she has sat about 26 days to prevent her leaving it before all the poults 
 are strong enough. If the hen can not be fastened on her nest, she can often 
 be prevented from leaving by throwing corn within her reach. 
 
 4. Food and Water. Supply the hens with food and good, clean water. 
 Have these close at hand. Corn and wheat are the best feeds for them at this 
 time. 
 
 5. Grit and Charcoal. Give them plenty of grit and charcoal. 
 Brooding Natural. If given a little more attention a domestic hen will 
 
 successfully bring up a brood of young poults until they begin to wander, then 
 she cannot keep them together. At this time they should be given to a turkey 
 hen. The poults will usually leave their foster mother in time anyway, to go 
 with a brood headed by a turkey hen. Many times the poults are given to a 
 turkey hen as soon as they are hatched. Turkey hens are generally pretty good 
 mothers. Those that have reared a brood or two will generally care for the 
 poults better than hens that have never reared a brood. The little poults must 
 be taught how to eat and old hens usually give more care and attention to doing 
 this. Domestic hens are often better, for this purpose, than turkey hens because 
 they give the matter special attention and teach the poults how to eat when very 
 young. 
 
 Artificial. The artificial brooding of poults has been tried in some places. 
 Any person that can successfully brood chickens this way can brood turkeys. 
 Some breeders think it is safer to brood a large number of poults artificially 
 than to trust them to turkey hens. The chief difficulty to overcome in artificial 
 
366 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 brooding is teaching the poults to eat. They will run about the brooder with 
 their heads up, never thinking to* look down to the floor for their food, until they 
 die from hunger and exhaustion. 
 
 Teaching Poults to Eat. To induce poults to eat take the food between 
 the fingers and hold it close to their bills until they take it. They will have to be 
 fed this way many times a day for several days before they will learn to eat 
 of their own accord and to look on the floor for their food. 
 
 RAISING POULTS. 
 
 (Valuable Information is Given in This Department on the Feeding and Care 
 
 of Poults.) 
 
 Caring for the poults is the most difficult part of turkey raising and requires 
 the utmost care. One must study and then practice the things he learns, to know 
 what to do and just when to do it. Practice makes perfect in this line as well 
 as in others. A person must learn to use his own head to make a success at 
 turkey raising. He should study the experiences of other breeders and learn 
 to profit by their successes or failures. But above all he should study his own 
 conditions. One year's actual experience in raising poults will teach him more 
 than all he can learn from others. 
 
 How to Handle. 
 
 No arbitrary rules can be set down for handling poults. One person will 
 care for them one way and another will use opposite methods with equal 
 results. Some persons give lots of freedom, others hold them in check. There 
 are about as many different methods of feeding as there are neighborhoods 
 where turkeys are fed. 
 
 Care of Mother and Brood. Where the simple method of permitting the 
 turkey hen to take care of herself and brood as her nature and inclination 
 directs, can be followed, very little care is necessary. About all that can be 
 done is to hunt the flock up once a day to see that they have sufficient food. 
 If it is yet too early for them to get bugs and worms and if the grass is not 
 green it will be necessary to feed the hen some whole corn and the poults 
 some prepared dry grain feed. Such extra feeding, once a day, will hasten 
 the growth of the poults even when the season is far enough advanced for 
 them to pick up their feed. 
 
 Coops. If the flock is to be confined, a lath or slat coop should be placed 
 over the hen just before the eggs are hatched. This will keep her from leaving 
 the nest too soon and also prevent her from wandering off with her young. 
 The coop should be large enough for her to stand erect and move around. 
 The roof may be covered with tar paper to protect the brood from the sun 
 and rain. The floor must be clean and dry for the poults. It may be of earth 
 or boards. However, earth is best because a natural environment tends to 
 increase the health and vigor of the flock and helps to keep up their spirits. 
 
 Have Coop Sufficiently Large. Be sure the coop is large enough. It 
 should be at least from 3 to 4 feet square. Many times the restless condition 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 367 
 
 of the mother hen is caused by too small a coop. She becomes irritated, 
 tramps about and kills her young just because the coop is undersized. Do 
 not try to use a chicken coop for this purpose. The slat coop will do for the 
 first day or so. 
 
 Requirements for Coop. Any coop or house that will protect them from 
 rain and storms and is large enough will do for the hen and poults after they 
 are taken from the slat coop. Care should be taken to have it ventilated and 
 not too warm and damp. It should be light, clean, and entirely free from 
 parasites. These are the essential requisites of the building which is to house 
 them the first week or so. 
 
 Dampness Injures Poults. The poults should be given free range part 
 of every day if possible, but they should be made to stay in nights and on wet 
 days ; even the morning dew will injure young poults as they cannot stand 
 the wet. 
 
 Old Coops. Old coops should never be used unless they have been given 
 a thorough cleaning on all sides. A week before the coop is needed it should 
 be painted with crude petroleum in which some naphthalene balls have been 
 dissolved. Fill every crack and crevice with this and be sure that all odor 
 from the preparation has disappeared before it is used, because it is harmful 
 to the young poults. 
 
 Runs. Early in the spring (which means until about the last of May in 
 the Northern states, for there are generally some cold windy days up to that 
 time) it is a good plan to provide a runway in front of the coop. This can 
 be made from boards a foot to a foot and one-half high and about sixteen feet 
 long. Three of these boards will make a triangular shaped pen which will 
 protect the little poults from the winds when they run from the coop. The 
 sun will shine into the run and make it warm and comfortable. The poults 
 will thrive better if they are not exposed too much to cold winds. The en- 
 closure should be located on high ground, that is well drained, so the poults 
 will have no water to venture into, to get wet or drowned. 
 
 Sun's Rays. While the poults are young they must never be allowed 
 where they will get the direct rays of the sun, or it may wilt them completely. 
 Many times when they are exposed to the direct rays of the sun they will reel 
 as though suffering from sun-stroke and become very weak. They will then 
 move about slowly, dragging one foot after the other, and give forth a feeble 
 peep, which means they are near their end. 
 
 It is a good plan to make a large run, as described above, in which to 
 place the hen and brood. The hen can step over the sides and leave the en- 
 closure when she so desires but the poults cannot. She will not go far away 
 from the poults. Many times, if given entire freedom with her brood, the 
 hen will take them into the brush or into the fields, and it will be impossible 
 to get them into -the coop again. 
 
 When the poults are stout and sturdy, the hen can be set at liberty so 
 as to teach them how to pick their own living off the range. The poults will 
 be old enough at 6 or 8 weeks. 
 
368 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Feeding. 
 
 Various Methods. After thoroughly investigating the many methods 
 used in feeding young poults, we find to what degree the general rules already 
 given are followed. All who succeed use practically the same methods. The 
 chief differences are as follows: first, soak some bread in milk and squeeze 
 it dry before feeding, giving it to the poults as soon as they will eat, while 
 others feed bread and milk in a saucer; second, some give a diet entirely of 
 grain, while others feed practically everything they think the poults will eat. 
 
 Follow Nature in Feeding. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
 dangers from feeding unnatural food. Food that is too rich produces bowel 
 trouble and other complications. Nc feed of any kind should be given before 
 the poults are from 36 to 48 hours old. 
 
 Feeds Used at First. 
 
 1. Cracked Corn and Wheat, Oatmeal, Grit and Scraps. Finely cracked 
 corn or wheat or fine oatmeal, together with a little fine grit and a very little 
 granulated meat scrap. Feed the first few days. 
 
 2. Bread Soaked in Milk. Stale bread soaked in sweet milk. Press out 
 the milk as much as possible. Poults are not slop eaters. Feed every hour or 
 two for 2 or 3 days, then add a little hard boiled egg, shell and all broken fine. 
 Caution : Never use sour milk and do not feed bread soaked in this way after 
 it has soured. 
 
 3. Chick Foods. A diet of one of the dry grain chick foods is good for 
 poults the first two weeks. 
 
 4. Rolled Oats, Hard Boiled Eggs and Lettuce. Rolled oats, hard boiled 
 eggs and lettuce, all chopped fine, make a good food for the first week. This 
 is given to chicks being raised in brooders. 
 
 5. Clabbered Milk and Onion Tops. Make a curd by scalding clabbered 
 milk. Squeeze as dry as possible before feeding. Mix this with finely chopped 
 onion tops and add a little black pepper. 
 
 6. Hard Boiled Eggs and Stale Bread. Mix hard boiled eggs and stale 
 bread into a crumbly mass. Many feed this with good results. 
 
 7. Bread, Milk, Onion Tops and Eggs. Soak stale bread in milk and 
 squeeze dry. To this add hard boiled eggs and onions, chopped fine. As the 
 appetite increases, stale bread, corn meal, onion tops, rolled oats, oat meal, 
 middlings, etc., may be added to the ration. 
 
 8. Wheat, Oatmeal and Cracked Corn. A mixture of broken wheat, oat- 
 meal, and finely cracked corn is fed by one of the most successful breeders in 
 the country. 
 
 Grit. Grit should be kept before the poults from the first. The poults 
 cannot grind their food without it. Coarse sand is fine for this purpose, and 
 it will supply all the grit that is needed if kept constantly on hand. 
 
 Water. Give the poults plenty of good clean water. Keep it before them 
 at all times and keep the water dishes scalded out. 
 
 Charcoal. Charcoal is another fine thing for the poults, as it is a safe- 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 369 
 
 guard against fermentation in the gizzard or crop and thus aids digestion. 
 Charcoal helps to keep the poults in good health. If given at first it should 
 be finely ground. 
 
 Green Feed. If the poults are not at large, they should have a supply of 
 fresh green feed given them. If a run is used, it should be moved to a fresh 
 spot every day. 
 
 Dried Blood. A little dried blood is very good to mix with the feed of 
 the poults as it takes the place of worms. Too much, however, will loosen the 
 bowels. 
 
 Meat. After the first couple of days it is well to add a little finely cut 
 meat to the ration. Care should be taken that the meat is pure and sweet. 
 Infected or tainted meat will injure the bowels of the young poults in a few 
 hours and cause great trouble. Cooked meat is better for them than green 
 meat. If any green meat is fed, have it finely cut and feed very little at first. 
 Well cooked, lean beef, cut into fine pieces is very good for this purpose. 
 
 When to Feed Little Poults. One should begin giving little poults food 
 quite early in the morning and should feed them at frequent intervals during 
 the day probably from 4 to 6 times a day, the first couple of weeks. 
 
 Amount to Feed. Give them only what they will eat willingly and no 
 more. Be sure they have sufficient food to supply their wants but avoid over- 
 feeding them. Overfeeding is dangerous. It has a tendency to congest and 
 clog the bowels. Many poults are killed by overfeeding. Even too much milk 
 curd or hard boiled egg is injurious. 
 
 Hand Feeding Important. It must be remembered in raising poults that 
 turkey hens are not as attentive to their offspring as domestic hens. They 
 will not spend as much time in teaching them to eat. For this reason hand 
 feeding is important, in fact, too much stress can hardly be laid upon it. A 
 great deal of benefit might result if more attention were paid to practicing 
 it. To feed by hand successfully one must take the food between the thumb 
 and fingers, hold it to the beak of the young poult, and induce it to eat. This 
 requires patience but it will often return benefits far in excess to the effort 
 and time expended. 
 
 Overdoing. The best results can never be obtained by handling turkeys 
 like hothouse plants or cage birds. Such handling does not agree with 
 their semi-wild nature. It is natural for turkeys to wander over the range 
 and pick up their feed at leisure, getting plenty of exercise as they eat. In 
 their present semi-domestic condition, they require care and attention but this 
 should not be overdone. One must use common sense in tending them. Do 
 not feed turkeys on unnatural foods nor overfeed them at any time. Give 
 them plenty of fresh air and outdoor exercise. Treat them like turkeys. 
 
 Neglect. The mistake is often made of giving poults too much care when 
 young and then neglecting them as they grow older, perhaps at just the time 
 they need the most attention. One enjoys caring for the "cute little poults", 
 but the novelty wears off to their disadvantage as they grow older. 
 
 Times for Special Care. There are two times when poults need special 
 care. The first is when they are growing their feathers and the heat easily 
 
370 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 overcomes them. The second is in the fall when the frost destroys their 
 natural foods on the range. Many poults are lost at these critical times every 
 year. Care should be taken to see that they have plenty to eat at these times. 
 While they are growing their feathers they should not be allowed in the direct 
 rays of the sun. 
 
 Feeds For Older Poults. 
 
 1 Corn, Wheat and Oats. As the poults grow older a mixture of 
 coarsely cracked corn, whole wheat and hulled oats are excellent. Still later 
 whole grains of corn should be given. 
 
 2. Hulled Oats. A more nutritious grain for growing poults is not 
 known than hulled oats. This can be fed even before corn or wheat is given. 
 Oats should be hulled to avoid the injurious effects caused by the pricking 
 and irritating portions of the hull. Plump, heavy oats that are mostly kernel 
 should be selected for this purpose. 
 
 3. Oatmeal, Wheat, Corn, Meat Scrap. A good ration to feed at this 
 time is oatmeal and finely cracked corn or wheat. To this add a little finely 
 cut meat. Have the meat pure and sweet. 
 
 As the poults grow older, the size of the grains can be increased until the 
 whole grains are being fed. They will learn to forage more each day and 
 the more they pick up for themselves the less food will have to be given them. 
 However, the breeders who have the best success are those who feed their 
 turkeys at least once a day, regardless of their age or the condition of the 
 range. The poults should always have access to good clean water. When on 
 the range they will pick up enough grit; however, it is always well to keep 
 them supplied with charcoal. 
 
 Feed Wandering Flocks Once a Day. If the poults have been confined 
 they can be given their liberty when about two weeks old. They should be 
 watched and fed once or twice a day. It is a good plan to get them in the 
 habit of coming to the barn every night for food. If they miss coming of their 
 own accord just once, they should be brought up or they will not come again. 
 Feeding them at least once a day helps to keep them tame and makes them 
 mature earlier. 
 
 Feeding in Wet Weather. A continued wet spell soon deprives the 
 poults of the bugs and worms they are used to feeding upon and also keeps 
 them from getting enough other food. They should be fed at least twice a 
 day under such conditions. 
 
 Avoid Poor Grain. It does not pay in the long run to use shriveled, 
 musty or poor grain of any description. To do so is but a loss of time and 
 money for the results are certain to be disappointing. The greatest financial 
 rewards are gained by those who keep the best stock and give them the best 
 food and care. Good sound grain is the best at all times for feeding the grow- 
 ing poults. 
 
 Stock Turkeys. A great many breeders make the great mistake of selling 
 off their very best, most thrifty birds and keeping the least matured for breed- 
 ing stock. They feed the birds altogether instead of separating their breeding 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 371 
 
 stock from those intended for market. This practice soon undermines the 
 vitality of the flock. The very best should be kept for producing stock and 
 the others sent to market. Do not keep fowls for breeders that are poor and 
 thin in flesh. 
 
 Condition for Egg Production. To secure the best results in egg produc- 
 tion hens should neither be too lean nor too fat. They should be kept in good 
 condition out of laying season and during it. When out of laying season they 
 should have food enough to maintain their physical condition and during it 
 they must have the food suitable for egg production. Too much fat in the 
 body comes from feeding an excess of fat producing material while the hen 
 is not laying. While laying a hen seldom becomes overfat. 
 
 Feeds. 
 
 1. Boiled Oats, Wheat, Corn. An excellent feed for stock turkeys is 
 boiled oats, drained of all moisture, a little corn, and some wheat. This ration 
 is one of the best known to make turkey hens lay. It can be successfully fed 
 if the hens are kept in condition before the laying season. 
 
 Feeding For Market. 
 
 Fall Feeding. At this time of the year the turkeys must be sure to be 
 fed. The cold weather and frosts make the natural food scarce and it must 
 be supplied them. Many turkeys die at this time of the year from neglect. 
 Feed must be given to begin their preparation for market. If it is not given 
 them they will lose fat and flesh in hunting for it. A mixture of corn and 
 wheat is the best for this purpose. Just a little should be fed at first, and the 
 supply gradually increased until they are fed all they will eat. Feed them three 
 times a day at the same place and they will soon form the habit of coming to 
 that place for their food. When their longing for food is satisfied, they will 
 cease taking such violent exercise and put on flesh. 
 
 Fattening. 
 
 Confinement. The most successful turkey raisers in this country never 
 confine their fowls to fatten them, but allow them free range and feed them 
 all the wholesome fattening grain they will eat. 
 
 Feeding. The main thing is to keep the turkeys growing from start to 
 finish and have them ready for market by Thanksgiving. Prices are generally 
 higher at Thanksgiving than the holidays. To do this the birds should be 
 well fed when cold weather sets in and should be in robust condition. Wher 
 the turkeys are used to grain feeding as given above, they should be given 
 one of the following feeds : 
 
 Feeds. 
 
 1 Corn Give them all they will eat of sound old corn. If new corn 
 is fed in large quantities it often gives turkeys diarrhea and keeps them f 
 
372 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 putting on weight. If new corn must be fed it should be introduced gradually 
 into the ration. 
 
 2. Corn, Wheat, Oats, Corn Meal, Milk. Feed a grain mixture of corn 
 and wheat, and a mash of corn meal and ground oats mixed with milk. Give 
 the grain feed morning and night; the mash at noon. If more convenient the 
 mash may be fed twice between morning and evening about 10 o'clock and 
 2 o'clock. Feed all they will eat up clean with a relish each time. 
 
 3. Chestnuts and Celery Seed. If one is near a market where he can 
 get an extra big price, it may pay him to feed the fowls chestnuts and celery 
 seed during the last few weeks of fattening. Feeding these gives the flesh a 
 splendid flavor and quality. They are rather expensive, however, and it will 
 not pay to feed them unless a much higher price can be obtained for them on 
 the market. 
 
 Grit and Water. See that a fresh supply of grit is before the fowls at 
 all times and plenty of good clean water. 
 
 Marketing. 
 
 It requires quite as much care to kill and prepare turkeys for market as 
 it does to raise them. If the proper time and attention cannot be given to the 
 killing, dressing and packing for market, the birds should be sold alive. A 
 great deal depends upon the proper marketing, so much so in fact that small 
 growers should either dress and sell to their home market or sell to some 
 person making a business of handling such stock. Carelessly dressed stock 
 never commands the highest quotations, no matter how well fattened it is. 
 Stock with bruised or torn skin or scalded stock is not wanted, except at low 
 prices. For instance, if a box of a dozen turkeys contained just 2 or 3 damaged 
 birds, the whole 12 would be sold at a lower figure than they would otherwise 
 bring. Dress the birds well or sell them alive. 
 
 Killing. It is hard enough to kill turkeys at best, so the most humane 
 methods should be used. No food should be given the birds for 24 hours 
 before killing them. This permits the entrails and crop to become emptied 
 and lessens the danger of spoiling. 
 
 Methods Used. 
 
 1. Stunning and Sticking. The most common method of killing and 
 we believe the most humane method, is as follows : Suspend a cord or wire 
 from a beam or some object above the head so that the lower end comes 
 about even with the shoulder; hang Jhe bird to this by his shanks head 
 downward; hit a sharp blow on the back of the head to remove all sense of 
 pain ; reach the knife through the mouth and cut crosswise to sever the arteries 
 in the throat and allow the bird to bleed. The head can be held downward 
 by a weight with a short cord and a hook to fasten in the beak or nostrils. 
 When the blow is delivered properly, the muscles of the bird will relax im- 
 mediately and the feathers can be removed. 
 
 Breaking Neck with Backward Jerk. Another plan is to break the neck 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 373 
 
 with a quick jerk or twist backward. After the neck is disjointed the head is 
 pulled away, so that it will form an open place in which the blood may settle. 
 It is claimed by some that the birds will keep longer when killed this way 
 than when killed by the other methods, as there is no opening to admit the 
 air into the body. This method requires a little practice to do it well. 
 
 Beheading. A third way is the old method of beheading with an ax, 
 which has been used for so many years. This plan is not as good as the other 
 two when the birds are sent away from the home market because large 
 markets demand that the heads be left on. 
 
 Dressing. 
 
 Dry-picking. If the birds are to be dry picked, begin plucking out the 
 feathers immediately after sticking them before the blood stops flowing. Be 
 careful not to tear the flesh. Pull the wing feathers and the main tail feathers 
 first by yanking them straight out. Some markets demand that the main 
 feathers of the tail and the primaries of the wings be left on the carcass, and 
 if that is the case they should not be removed. Remove the breast feathers 
 next because the skin of the breast is tender and likely to tear if cold. Jerk 
 them straight outward from the bird as it hangs, a few at a time. After 
 plucking the breast move up over the body and then to the back. Finish on 
 the neck. A few neck feathers are usually left on. Do not remove the en- 
 trails, head or feet. Be sure the whole carcass is absolutely clean. Wash 
 out the mouth to remove the blood. 
 
 Scalding. Everyone knows this method. However, let me urge the per- 
 former to guard against tearing or breaking the skin while plucking after the 
 bird is scalded. Do the plucking as quickly as possible. 
 
 Plumping. Before plumping, hang the bird, head downward, in a cool 
 place to remove all animal heat from the body. To plump simply hold the 
 bird in cold water for a short time. This improves them whether dry-picked 
 or scalded. In cold weather, some breeders prefer keeping the birds out of 
 cold water and simply hanging them head downward, after they are thor- 
 oughly cleaned, in the open air to dry. Of course, this can be done only 
 when the weather is cold. 
 
 Packing. 
 
 Packing Several Together. When packing a number of specimens for the 
 same destination, they can be put in a barrel or close box. Line these with 
 manila or white paper (do not use printed, soiled or brown paper.) Pack them 
 as closely as possible. The holes left can be filled with fine excelsior. In 
 shipping to a critical market do not use straw or hay as it stains or marks 
 the birds, which detracts from their value. Be sure no space is left for the 
 birds to chuck around in transit. When the box or barrel is nailed up, desig- 
 nate its contents on the outside. It is bad practice to ship mixed lots of 
 poultry in the same package when it can be avoided. 
 
 Packing One Bird. Line a clean wooden box with two thicknesses of 
 wrapping paper ; be sure the paper has a smooth surface. Let the paper ex- 
 
374 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 tend over the sides of the box. In this, make a good nest of fine excelsior. 
 Put the bird on its back in the nest and cover it with the projecting paper. 
 Put enough excelsior on top to prevent shifting and nail up the box. This 
 method of packing a bird insures a fine appearance when it arrives at its 
 destination. (See illustration). 
 
 VALUABLE POINTS FOR SUCCESSFUL TURKEY RAISING. 
 
 1. The young turkey should never be permitted to get wet : the slightest 
 dampness is generally fatal to him. 
 
 2. Feed nothing from 24 to 36 hours after they are hatched. 
 
 3. Never use an old coop without first cleaning it thoroughly, inside and 
 out, as described under "Coops". 
 
 4. Before 'putting the little poults into a coop, see that they are perfectly 
 clean and free from lice. Dust them with a good insect powder at least twice 
 a week. 
 
 5. Look for mites and large lice on the necks, heads and vents. Prac- 
 tically all the young poults that die, die from lice. 
 
 6. Keep the hen free from lice. Dust her every week with lice powder. 
 Give her a good dust bath in which to dust herself. 
 
 7. For lice, grease the necks, heads and rumps with lard. Never use 
 kerosene. Do not use too much lard and work it well into the down. If too 
 much lard has been applied, the down will stick together. 
 
 8. Dirt and filth will make very short work of young poults. 
 
 9. Give water in shallow vessels so they can not get wet above the beaks. 
 
 10. Remove coops to new ground every day to avoid disease and furnish 
 fresh grass. 
 
 11. Tend to the poults carefully until they are well feathered. Have them 
 in the open on dry warm days. 
 
 12. An open shed, facing south, with a high roost is best for growing turkeys. 
 13. One mating of male and female fertilizes all the eggs laid in one 
 
 season, so one male will be enough for 12 or more hens. 
 
 14. A good mating is made by two-year-old gobblers with pullets or year- 
 ling gobblers with old hens. It is better not to mate gobblers and hens of the 
 same age. 
 
 15. Turkeys can be successfully hatched in an incubator and reared in a 
 brooder until they are 3 months old, but in lots of no more than 25, because they 
 require constant attention. 
 
 16. Do not mate a 40-pound gobbler with a little hen as injury is liable to 
 result. Use a medium sized gobbler. The poults take their size more from the 
 hen. 
 
 17. Many farmers use capons to mother young poults. They make 
 splendid nurses. 
 
 18. One can tell a young gobbler by his masculine appearing head, heavy 
 caruncles, the development of "tassels" on his breast, and his heavy build. 
 
POULTRY RAISING TURKEYS 375 
 
 19. Do not keep adult turkeys in confinement. It will make them pine 
 away. 
 
 20. If turkeys are fed in the barnyard every morning and evening they will 
 not stray very far away. However they cannot be kept from roaming about. 
 
 21. Hen turkeys prefer making their own nests. 
 
 22. Feed little poults many times a day and they will eat with a relish. 
 Do not overfeed. 
 
 23. Keep the best stock for breeding purposes. Build up the flock. 
 
 24. To insure the best egg production, keep the turkey hens in good shape 
 when out of the laying season. 
 
 25. Do not feed a mash to grown turkeys. Feed whole grains, principally 
 wheat, corn, and oats. Do not feed new corn to them in large quantities. Give 
 old corn if possible and be on the safe side. 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES^ OF TURKEYS. 
 
 Blackhead. 
 
 This is a very serious disease which is common and most injurious to 
 turkeys. It first attacks the blind intestine, situated between the large and 
 small intestines. Then it attacks the liver, which becomes very much en- 
 larged. 
 
 The disease is caused by a germ or microbe, which enters the digestive 
 organs of healthy birds by means of food or water infected by the excrement 
 of a sick bird. Eggs may also be a means of infection. While it is not proven 
 that the germ or microbe is present within the egg of the diseased turkey, it 
 no doubt often exists on the outside of the egg. For this reason the eggs 
 should be carefully cleansed with a cloth wet in alcohol before they are put 
 into the incubator or under the hen. It has been proved that adult fowls 
 as well as sparrows, pigeons, etc., act as hosts to these microbes. Although 
 they have a great degree of resistance themselves, they are a means of in- 
 fecting turkeys. Young turkeys being more susceptible, contract a more fatal 
 form of the disease and nearly all die. For this reason it is much better to 
 keep turkeys entirely separated from other fowls. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of blackhead are more frequently seen in 
 young turkeys. The bird stands by itself with drooping wings and tail ; shows 
 a loss in weight and has no appetite. The head and comb show a dark purple 
 color when the disease is at its height. Diarrhea is a marked symptom caused 
 from inflammation and internal weakness. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment is largely preventive as the use of medicine 
 has not proved very successful. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. The measures of prevention are summarized as 
 follows : 
 
 The turkeys should be kept on fresh, new grounds and isolated entirely 
 from any other fowls. 
 
 Keep very close watch of every turkey and at the first indication of 
 disease, isolate the bird until the nature of the trouble is ascertained. To 
 leg-band each turkey and keep a record of its weight from time to time would 
 be a good plan. If it is found that any bird is losing weight, it should be 
 regarded with suspicion and taken from the flock. 
 
 If blackhead exists in any of the poultry, the houses and feed boxes 
 should be kept free from mice and rats, and the yards from sparrows or 
 pigeons, as these have been known to carry the infection. 
 
 Frequent disinfection of houses, drinking and feed troughs. 
 
 Immediately burn the body of any bird dying of the disease. 
 
 In all bowel trouble of turkeys the feeding of boiled rice has proven 
 beneficial, and it is largely practiced by experienced poultry men to prevent 
 
 376 
 
DISEASES OF TURKEYS TREATMENT 377 
 
 the coming of the dreaded diarrhea. Avoid feeding wet or sloppy foods, and 
 guard against the young poults taking cold. 
 
 Ten grains of sulphur mixed with one grain of sulphate of iron; or ten 
 grains sulphur, one grain sulphate of iron and one grain sulphate quinine. 
 This treatment should be repeated 2 or 3 times daily for considerable time to 
 obtain results. 
 
 For turkeys under 3 months old give ^ grain of copperas and 2^ grains 
 of salicylate of soda in the evening. Give epsom salts every 3 or 4 days, and 
 keep the ground and feeding places well sprinkled with slaked lime. 
 
 Bowel Trouble. 
 
 Caution : Simple bowel trouble should not be mistaken for cholera or 
 blackhead. 
 
 Indigestion is the prime factor in this trouble, and this is brought about 
 by improper feeding, exposure to cold and dampness. Filth or lice may also 
 be a cause. 
 
 Treatment. The best cure is to remove the cause, which is generally 
 improper feeding. 
 
 Rice boiled in milk until it is almost dry, is highly recommended for 
 diarrhea. 
 
 The feeding of finely broken charcoal, will be found a great aid to diges- 
 tion, and a safeguard against fermentation in the crop and gizzard. 
 
 Cottage cheese seasoned with black pepper has been very successful. 
 
 Mix equal parts of cloves, cinnamon, ginger and cayenne pepper. Mix 
 one level teaspoonful of this in the mash for one dozen turkeys. When they 
 are 4 or 5 weeks old, double the amount. 
 
 Chicken Pox. 
 
 This disease affects the head and comb of turkeys. It is also known as 
 "sorehead." 
 
 It is caused by infection. 
 
 Symptoms. Scabby eruptions about the head; there is a feverish con- 
 dition and loss of appetite. If it is damp weather there may be cankers in the 
 mouth and throat. 
 
 Treatment Isolate the affected poults; soak the scabs off with warm 
 water; then wash the sores with a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or pot- 
 assium permanganate. 
 
 Add just a little kerosene to every dish of drinking water as a preventive 
 treatment. 
 
 Bathe head and eyes with equal parts water and witchhazel. 
 
 There is nothing better than vaseline for the eruptions. 
 
 Diphtheria. (See "Chicken Department"). 
 
378 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Gapes. 
 
 This is sure to prove a very troublesome and destructive ailment with 
 young turkeys. 
 
 The cause is identical with that which is discussed under the head of 
 Gapes in chickens. Some believe turkeys or chicks are infected with gapes by 
 eating angleworms found in the ground, which is infected with gapeworm eggs, 
 as these eggs may readily infect angle worms. 
 
 Treatment. The same treatment discussed under Gapes in chickens is 
 recommended. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. Prevention is the main and most successful 
 treatment. Cleanliness in poultry yards and houses. Some have recommended 
 sprinkling the ground with water, into which has been mixed sulphuric acid; 
 after 24 hours cover the ground with lime and turn under with a plow. Or a 
 better way even is to remove the poultry to an entirely new ground. 
 
 Impaction of Crop. 
 
 Eating indigestible substances, such as dry grass, feathers, etc. The ab- 
 sence of grit and oyster shells tend toward bringing this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The crop is bulging and hard. 
 
 Treatment. The crop can usually be emptied by careful manipulation. 
 First give a teaspoonful of sweet oil and then work the contents of the crop 
 with the fingers up through the gullet and out through the mouth; holding: the 
 bird with its head down. 
 
 Leg Weakness. (See "Chicken Department"). 
 
 Lice and Mites. 
 
 Symptoms. Much the same as in other fowls, only that turkeys are much 
 more susceptible to unfavorable conditions than other birds. They must be care- 
 fully protected from the effects of parasites, dampness and excessive heat, until 
 they are able to wander away with the hen turkey. They thrive much better 
 when not confined. 
 
 Treatment. Turkeys are in more danger from the effects of parasites 
 directly after they are hatched, so the best plan is to treat the hen turkey 
 before they are hatched. The feathers should be thoroughly dusted with 
 insect powder down to the skin, using great care not to get it into the eyes. 
 This should be repeated several times a week, until a day or so before hatching. 
 There is nothing better than the Persian insect powder, but any good insect 
 powder which does not contain ingredients harmful to the eyes will answer. 
 Never use lime or sulphur for this purpose, and kerosene should never be used 
 to destroy lice on the body of the turkey. As soon as the turkeys are hatched 
 examine them for lice. If present they will probably be found under the 
 throat, on top of the head, about the vent or under the wing. 
 
 Sweet Oil and Lard: If lice are found, the use of a little sweet oil or 
 fresh lard will destroy them. Rub a very little on top of the head and under 
 the throat. The insect powder can be used for the rest of the body. 
 
DISEASES OF TURKEYS TREATMENT 379 
 
 Limber Neck. 
 
 This is a paralysis of the muscles of the neck. 
 
 It is caused by absorbing poison from the intestines. The presence of the 
 poison is due to indigestion or worms, or from eating decayed meats 'or moldy 
 feed. 
 
 Symptoms. The muscles of the neck become so relaxed they cannot 
 support the head. 
 
 Treatment. A good cathartic may effect a cure by cleaning out intestines 
 and then removing the cause. 
 
 Give 1 tablespoon ful of castor oil to which 15 drops of turpentine have 
 been added. 
 
 A level teaspoonful of Epsom Salts in 6 of water is fine for limber neck. 
 
 Liver Disease. 
 
 Liver trouble is one of the most common diseases the turkey raiser has to 
 contend with. 
 
 It is usually brought on by indigestion caused by overfeeding. If the 
 digestive organs are overloaded and unable to perform their functions properly, 
 part of the food decays before it has time to digest, and is as dangerous to 
 health as food decayed before being eaten. The impurities or poisonous matter 
 is carried into the blood circulation to various parts of the body. The liver acts 
 as a filter or strainer, and it is here these impurities or microbes find lodging 
 and proceed to develop. 
 
 Symptoms. In old birds symptoms are inactiveness, listlessness, pros- 
 tration, loss of appetite and a rapid loss in weight, accompanied by a yellowish 
 discharge from the bowels. Young turkeys are usually affected when from two 
 to eight months old. Some are taken very suddenly, while others droop around 
 for several days. We have known young turkeys to eat a hearty supper, and 
 to all appearances be in perfect health, the next morning refuse to eat and by 
 night die. Others droop around a day or two. This trouble is not contagious. 
 Turkeys are usually fed in the same manner, but some being stronger than 
 others, are not affected as soon, but keep coming down one after another so that 
 it appears contagious. If in the last stages of this disease a turkey is killed and 
 examined, the liver will be found very much enjarged, and it may be found 
 covered over with round, yellowish, sac-like bunches in which a pasty or cheesy 
 substance is found ; or if the disease is not fully developed, these sacs will con- 
 tain a transparent liquid. 
 
 Treatment. There are very few remedies for this trouble after it gets 
 a start. 
 
 Preventive Treatment. A good preventive is to take a gallon of wheat 
 pour 5 or 6 tablespoonfuls of turpentine over it and over all pour boiling water 
 and let stand over night. In the morning feed to the turkeys. Give wheat 
 treated in this way once or twice a week. Turkeys should not be pampered or 
 fed with unnatural food. Remember that it is natural for them to run about 
 here and there seeking bugs, seeds, etc., getting plenty of exercise, as well as 
 
380 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 food, the exercise being one of the most important factors in turkey raising. 
 Very young turkeys should not be allowed to run when the grass is wet and 
 deep, as becoming wet has an injurious effect on them. 
 
 Roup. 
 
 Roup is one of the most serious contagious diseases. 
 
 Infection with the disease germ; these germs are believed to be always 
 where unsanitary conditions prevail. 
 
 Symptoms. The first symptoms of roup are those of a severe cold ; later 
 a swelling develops under the eyes; there is discharge from the nostrils; eyes 
 weak and watery, and the poult has difficulty in breathing. 
 
 Treatment. Isolate the poult, and disinfect the quarters from which it 
 was taken. Clean out the nostril passage. This may be done by : 
 
 Pressing against the roof of the mouth from the inside and squeezing the 
 nostrils from above downward. 
 
 Syringing out the nostrils. 
 
 Dipping the fowl's head in a solution of disinfectant for a second or two. 
 This method is safe only when permanganate of potash is used. 
 
 Wash the mouth and nostrils with 5 percent solution of carbolic acid- 
 
 Or use 50 percent solution of hydrogen peroxide to wash nostrils and 
 mouth. 
 
 Scaly Leg. (See "Chicken Department"). 
 
 Tapeworm. 
 
 Turkeys are very susceptible to the injurious effects of the tapeworm and 
 other worms. 
 
 Symptoms. The birds will steadily lose flesh in spite of a good appe- 
 tite. They appear indolent and drowsy. If the droppings are watched pieces 
 of the worm will be found, looking like narrow tape. 
 
 Treatment. If a tapeworm is even suspected, give the bird one tea- 
 spoonful of castor oil in which has been mixed six drops of oil of male fern. 
 Give this in the morning. It will be better if the feed has been light the night 
 before. Give one more teaspoonful of castor oil in a light mash 2 hours after 
 giving the male fern. Withhold all food for 3 hours after giving worm medi- 
 cine, and then give a warm soft meal. Continue this diet for 2 days. 
 
 A drop of kerosene given night and morning after the turkeys are 2 or 3 
 weeks old, is good for worms. 
 
 Oil of turpentine is an excellent remedy. 
 
 One-half teaspoonful Epsom Salts dissolved in 'a little warm water and 
 poured down the throat is good. Or add a tablespoonful of salts to a quart of 
 drinking water, giving no other drink. 
 
 Tuberculosis. (See "Chicken Department"). 
 White Comb. (See "Chicken Department"). 
 
DUCKS. 
 
 The average farmer has all the facilities necessary to raise a large number 
 of ducks and he can make it a profitable source of revenue. It is not necessary 
 that he should have a pond or creek on the place, to be successful in the busi- 
 ness, because many successful breeders have nothing but wells. The only dif- 
 ference that can be noticed between "water" and "upland" ducks is the cleaner, 
 prettier plumage of the former. 
 
 Meat Breeds. Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Egg Breeds. Indian Runner. 
 
 Ornamental Breeds. Call, Black East India, and the Crested White. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 Breed 
 
 Adult 
 Drake 
 Pounds 
 
 Young 
 Drake 
 About 
 Pounds 
 
 Adult 
 Duck 
 Pounds 
 
 Young 
 Duck 
 About 
 Pounds 
 
 Pekin 
 
 9 
 
 7M 
 
 8 
 
 65i 
 
 Aylesbury 
 
 g 
 
 75^ 
 
 8 
 
 *A 
 
 Muscovy 
 
 10 
 
 7% 
 
 7 
 
 5H 
 
 Rouen 
 
 9 
 
 7% 
 
 8 
 
 6% 
 
 Buff 
 
 8 
 
 6% 
 
 7 
 
 5% 
 
 Cayuga 
 
 8 
 
 1 A 
 
 7 
 
 5% 
 
 Swedish 
 
 8 
 
 y\ 
 
 7 
 
 5X 
 
 Indian Runner 
 
 4^ 
 
 3% 
 
 4 
 
 3M 
 
 Call ... 
 
 Bred for 
 
 small size. 
 
 
 
 Black East India 
 
 Bred for 
 
 small size. 
 
 
 
 Crested White 
 
 7 
 
 5M 
 
 6 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Common Breeds. Of the above breeds the most prominent are the Pekins, 
 Aylesburys, Muscovys, Rouens and Indian Runners. 
 
 Pekins. The Pekin ducks hold first place as being the most popular 
 breed of all, both to the commercial duck raisers and the general farmer. The 
 Pekins are smaller than the Rouens, Muscovys or Aylesburys but they have 
 long, deep bodies, capable of carrying a large amount of flesh in proportion to 
 their size. They are easy fatteners, rapid growers, and good breeders. Pekin 
 ducks are hardy, fair layers and practically non-sitters. They are especially 
 adapted to the production of flesh. When the ducklings are ten days old, they 
 will thrive under any reasonable conditions and they grow very rapidly, reach- 
 ing a weight of about 10 pounds per pair when 10 weeks old. Pekin ducks are 
 docile and easily confined by low fences. All of these characteristics combined 
 are what have made the Pekins so popular. 
 
 Color Creamy white with orange-colored bills and legs. 
 
 381 
 
382 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Aylesburys. The Aylesburys are a little larger than the Pekins which 
 they resemble in many ways. They are white skinned and quick maturing but 
 not quite so hardy as the Pekins. They appear to have practically all the qual- 
 ities which have made the Pekin so popular, and can be kept successfully on 
 either commercial or general farms. 
 
 Color, Pure white. 
 
 Muscovys. The Muscovys are the largest of the breeds but are not 
 generally considered as good for market purposes as the others, because of the 
 difference in size between the drake and the duck. They are easily distinguished 
 by the crest-like formation of feathers on the head of the duck which stands 
 up when the bird is alarmed and the large red face of both the drake and duck. 
 A peculiar thing about the Muscovys is that they do not quack like other ducks. 
 They are strong of wing and will fly all over the farm for exercise if the wings 
 are not clipped. They are not greatly esteemed as layers but sometimes a few 
 good layers are found. The meat is good when the birds are young, but as 
 they grow older, it becomes rather coarse and tough. Muscovys are the only 
 ducks of these practical breeds that prepare nests and deposit their eggs. All 
 others must be penned at night, or they will scatter them broadcast. They are 
 unusually good foragers, requiring very little care, and can be kept with a 
 fair degree of success by general farmers. 
 
 Colon White variety; pure white; pale orange or yellow legs, flesh- 
 colored .beak. Colored variety: lustrous blue-black, broken with a little white 
 on body, breast and back; wing coverts lustrous blue-black, broken with white; 
 tail, black; bill, pink; legs, yellow or dark leaden. 
 
 Rouens. The Rouens are decidedly beautiful and this accounts for 
 much of their popularity. They are not as desirable a market duck a-s the Ayles- 
 bury or Pekin. They are slower to mature than either; they have dark pin 
 feathers and are not as good layers. They are not adapted for commercial duck 
 farming, but they can be kept successfully by fanciers or on general farms. 
 
 Color. Drake ; brown back, mixed with green ; green head and tail ; 
 neck has white ring around it ; breast claret ; wings have a wide purple bar with 
 narrow white bars on either side the purple. Duck; barred on wings like drake; 
 brown penciled plumage on body. 
 
 Indian Runners. This breed is much smaller than breeds of the meat 
 type so fails as a market duck. Its stronghold is its laying qualities. A record 
 of 160 eggs a year is not at all remarkable for them. Their eggs are larger 
 than hen's eggs but smaller than those of other ducks. Indian Runners are non- 
 setters, hardy, good foragers and active, They can be told by their upright 
 carriage and instead of waddling as other ducks do they run rapidly. There 
 are three varieties the Fawn and White, the White and the Penciled. 
 
 Housing. 
 
 Houses similar to hen houses can be used for breeding ducks. A certain 
 size coop will be suitable to house many more ducks than chickens. For instance, 
 a flock of fifty ducks will thrive in an inclosure that would not do for half that 
 
POULTRY RAISING DUCKS 
 
 383 
 
 Indian Runner. 
 
 Pair of Pekin Ducks. 
 
 Rouen. 
 
 White Muscovy. 
 
 Crested White. 
 
 _FUt ter trough. Outtcr ' trough. 
 
384 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 number of chickens. However, ducks cannot stand as much confinement as a 
 hen. They are more like turkeys in that respect. A single boarded shed from 
 12 to 15 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet in the rear, made wind and 
 water proof by covering with prepared roofing, makes a suitable building for 
 this purpose. A good front is made by one window, covered with a good-sized 
 muslin curtain in front of each pen. The house should be well ventilated. The 
 floor can be of dirt raised 5 to 8 inches above the ground level, provided that 
 the soil is well drained, or board raised 6 to 8 inches above ground level and 
 covered with 3 or 4 inches of dry sand or earth. Partition must be from 2 to 
 2^2 feet high. For breeding ducks in houses, an alley is not required unless 
 the house is over 15 feet deep, but it is often used in growing pens and brooder 
 houses. The floor should always be covered with plenty of litter, as they do not 
 mind the cold if they can keep their feet warm. Cold feet affects a duck as 
 badly as a frozen comb does a hen. Ducks should be permitted to make their 
 own nest. They are likely to break their eggs unless nest boxes are used sim- 
 ilar to those illustrated. Six to seven square feet of floor space should be 
 allowed for each duck. The house should be as convenient as possible to save 
 time. Many people overlook the item of labor in raising poultry, and by doing 
 so materially reduce theif profits. 
 
 Breeding. 
 
 Selecting Stock. Only healthy, active, medium-sized females should 
 be used for breeding. Extra large specimens seldom prove as satisfactory as 
 do those of medium size, or a little larger. They should be matured and well 
 proportioned. Pick out ducks with short necks, flat backs, medium long bodies, 
 and of good depth to the keel bones. 
 
 Caution: Avoid ducks with watery eyes as it is generally a sign of weak- 
 ness. Ducks should seldom be kept over two years unless they are extra good 
 breeders and layers. 
 
 How to Tell a Drake. In the colored breeds the difference in the sexes 
 is easily told by the difference in plumage but in the white breeds the sexes are 
 of the .same color. However, the drake can be told in the white breeds as 
 he has a more masculine and coarser appearance, and two of his tail feathers 
 curl over into a short curl. Drakes cannot always be told by their tail feathers 
 as they sometimes get pulled out. A surer way is to notice the quack. A duck 
 quacks and has a deep bass voice, while the drake hisses and his voice is very 
 soft. 
 
 Number of Females to a Male. Ducks are usually mated in flocks of 
 about 30 females with 6 or 8 males. One may reduce the number of males 
 about March 1st and again near the 1st of April, making the proportion after 
 the first reduction 1 male to 6 females and after the second reduction 1 male 
 for 7 to 10 females. The males do _not fight one another. 
 
 Care of Breeding Stock. The stock is not seriously troubled by any 
 degree of cold, but if early laying is desired, the birds should have some pro- 
 tection from storms and should be kept out of drafts. The litter should be 
 kept clean and dry. The layers should be shut up at night or they will scatter 
 
POULTRY RAISING DUCKS nsr, 
 
 their eggs all over the place. They may even lay them in a pond and they \\ill 
 be lost. The eggs should be gathered early in the morning. Ducks lay early 
 and the eggs may freeze. They should have their liberty during the day. It 
 is not necessary for them to have a pond to swim in, but a good swimming place 
 seems to increase the fertility of the eggs. 
 
 Incubation. 
 
 Time Required. The eggs of all breeds of ducks require 28 days for 
 incubation, except the Muscovy duck which requires from 30 to 35 days. 
 
 Eggs for Hatching. The first eggs the duck lays, if confined and fed 
 rather stimulating feeds, seldom hatch well. 
 
 Eggs for hatching must be fertile and strong. They can be made this way 
 only, by having the stock properly mated and full of health and vigor. 
 
 Eggs from overfat breeding stock, seldom produce a big percent of strong 
 young ducks. 
 
 If the eggs are dirty they should be cleaned. Washing does not seem to 
 injure their hatching qualities. 
 
 Hatching With Hens. Practically all duck eggs not hatched in incu- 
 bators are hatched under hens because ducks do not make satisfactory setters. 
 Before a hen is set she should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder. If 
 several hens are sitting in the same room they should each be confined to their 
 nests and let off once a day for feed and water. If a large number of hens are 
 used for hatching, as many of them as possible should be set at a time, and the 
 ducklings raised in brooders. Hens must be well taken care of in hatching duck 
 eggs because they have to set a week longer. After the ducklings pick the 
 shells it generally takes from 24 to 48 hours for them to hatch. For this reason 
 it is best to allow the hen to get off the nest for food and water when the first 
 duckling picks its shell and then keep her on the nest for the remainder of the 
 hatch. The eggs should be sprinkled with warm water previous to hatching, 
 because ducks' eggs require more moisture than hens' eggs at hatching time. 
 
 Number of Eggs to a Hen. Put about 9 eggs under a hen in cold and 11 
 in warm weather. 
 
 Artificial Incubation. The main points on incubation are given in the 
 chicken department and we will not repeat them here. We shall only mention 
 a few special points which apply directly to incubating duck eggs. 
 
 Temperature. An incubator is generally kept at a slightly lower tem- 
 perature in hatching ducks' eggs than in hatching chickens' eggs. It should be 
 run at 103 degrees the first three weeks and 104 degrees the last week. 
 
 Supply Moisture. It is always advisable to supply moisture by: 
 
 Introducing a pan of water, a wet sponge, or a dish of moist sand below 
 the egg tray. 
 
 Sprinkling the eggs with water heated to about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Soaking or sprinkling the floor to the incubator room. 
 
 Placing a pail of warm water under the lamp. 
 
 Keep Machine Closed at Hatching Time. The machine should be shut 
 
386 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 up tightly at hatching time to retain the moisture in the incubator. It takes 
 duck eggs quite a while to hatch, even after the eggs are pipped. 
 
 Turning and Cooling. The eggs should be turned twice each day be- 
 ginning the third and through the 24th day, and cooled once each day begin- 
 ning the 8th and through the 26th day. In two tray machines reverse the trays 
 end for end and from one side of the incubator to the other, after turning 
 the eggs. 
 
 Broken Egg Shells. As the ducklings are hatching, the broken egg- 
 shells should be removed every 6 or 7 hours to prevent them from slipping over 
 the pipped eggs, which means death to the imprisoned ones. 
 
 Gauge Machine Higher When Birds Are Out. As soon as the ducklings 
 are all out of the shell, the machine should be gauged one degree higher. This 
 is because the eggs radiate a great deal of heat just before hatching, and the 
 duckling, when first out, absorbs it, being about like a little sponge. In other 
 words, the rapid evaporation which takes place produces cold. After the birds 
 have dried off, the machine will run at least two degrees lower than when they 
 were still in the egg. They should be kept in the machine from 24 to 36 hours 
 after hatching before they are removed to the brooder. 
 
 Testing Eggs. Directions for making an egg tester are given in the 
 chicken department. Every egg should be tested at least twice during incuba- 
 tion, and the infertile and dead germed ones taken out. It is best to do this 
 on the 7th and 14th days. Dead germs decompose rapidly and soon send off 
 an odor. White shelled eggs can sometimes be tested successfully the 4th or 
 5th day. Hold the large end of the eggs up when testing. This shows the con- 
 dition of the embryo and the air cell. 
 
 Fertile and Infertile Eggs. A fertile egg exposes a small dark spot with 
 little blood veins extending in all directions if the embryo is living. If the 
 embryo is dead the veins will have settled away from it towards the edge of 
 the yolk, forming an irregular circle of blood which is called a blood ring. After 
 the 14th day the eggs which have strong living embryos are dark and partly 
 filled up. They also show a distinct line of demarcation between the growing 
 embryo and the air cell, while dead germs lack this distinct line and are only 
 partially developed. 
 
 An infertile egg appears practically fresh, i. e., looks perfectly clear. 
 
 Brooding. 
 
 See Brooding in chicken department. It is important in brooding ducks 
 not to have too much heat, as it means weak legs. They do not need quite as 
 much heat as chickens. Start the brooder at about 95 degrees Fahrenheit and 
 after the first 6 or 10 days reduce the heat to about 80. The reduction of heat 
 depends upon the season. At first the ducklings should be kept around the 
 hover to teach them the source of the heat. Artificial heat can be removed 
 after about three weeks. The brooding systems used for chickens are also good 
 for ducks. 
 
 Brooding With Hens. Ducks can also be brooded successfully by hens. 
 
POULTRY RAISING DUCKS 387 
 
 If hens are used it is better to keep the hens confined and allow the ducklings 
 free range, for hens are inclined to wander off too far with them. The young 
 ducks grow surprisingly fast and soon adapt themselves to new conditions. 
 
 After they are 3 or 4 weeks old, the ducklings can be kept in a cool house 
 where they will eat better and grow faster. When warm weather comes no 
 more than a roof or sun shade is necessary for them. In fact, any more hous- 
 ing may be detrimental. The young birds need protection from both sun and 
 rain, but they must have exercise and fresh air. Their pen should be kept as 
 clean as possible. As they grow older it will be found advisable not to have 
 too many in one pen no more than can be killed at one job. Ducks put on 
 flesh rapidly but they also fall away rapidly when excited. 
 
 Handling. In handling ducks pick them up by the neck, and do not 
 grasp them any tighter than is necessary to hold them. Never pick a duck up 
 by the legs because they are too easily broken. 
 
 Feeding Methods. 
 
 Ducks can be fed successfully on the same rations given for chickens, but 
 it is better as a rule to feed more mash feed and a larger proportion of vege- 
 table and green feeds. When ducks are raised for the green ducklings (green 
 ducklings are those which are grown very rapidly and marketed when from 8 
 to 12 weeks old. They weigh from 4 1/2 to 6 pounds each), they are fed a 
 maintenance ration only, after they have stopped laying in the summer until 
 about the first of December. Then the amount of mash is increased and a 
 laying ration given. Where ducks are kept for egg production they should be 
 given a laying ration the year around. Ducklings and ducks should be fed on 
 flat clean boards instead of in troughs. They are rapacious eaters and will stow 
 away a lot of food. If too concentrated, too rich, they will overeat and go off 
 their feed. When they have free range and a swimming place they can stand 
 heavier feeding than when confined. The ration may be mixed and made up 
 in many different ways but it is generally best to feed it in the form of a moist 
 mash. 
 
 Ducks should always have plenty of good clean water before them. They 
 have no crops so they must have water to help wash the food into the gizzard. 
 
 Feeding Ducklings. 
 
 Methods Gathered From the Most Successful Raisers in the Country. 
 
 Ducklings should not be fed until they are from 24 to 36 hours old. They 
 should always have plenty of water right by their feeding place because ducks 
 need water to wash down their food. The water should be deep enough for 
 them to run their bills in up to their eyes, as it keeps their nostrils washed out 
 and prevents disease. 
 
 Five times daily, beginning early, feed them on a mixture of equal parts, 
 by measure, of bread crumbs and rolled oats. Into this thoroughly mix 3 per- 
 cent of sharp sand. Beginning the 4th day change this feed to equal parts corn- 
 meal, rolled oats, bran and bread ; then after the 7th day to three parts bran, 
 
388 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 one part each of corn meal and low grade wheat flour, 5 percent of beef scrap, 
 and 10 percent of green feed, with about 3 percent of sand or other grit in each 
 
 ration. 
 
 After the 7th day, feed the ducklings four times daily until they are about 
 2 or 3 weeks old, then drop down to three times daily. The grit or sand may 
 be fed either in a hopper or in the mash after the young birds are a week old, 
 but it is usually fed in all duck rations. As a rule, beef scrap is not fed until 
 the ducklings are a week old, then 5 percent is given in the ration. This is 
 increased gradually so that at the end of the 3rd week it is 15 percent. If the 
 ducks are to be marketed, the proportion of corn meal should be gradually 
 increased and the proportion of bran gradually decreased until the rations is the 
 same as the fattening ration given below. Those saved for breeding purposes 
 should be given the above ration with the increased 15 percent of beef scrap, 
 but should not be fed a fattening ration . They should have a good range where 
 they can have plenty of grass and water, running water if possible. If the 
 ducklings are confined in yards a great deal of vegetables and green feed should 
 be given. 
 
 Fattening Ration. Fatten the ducks to be marketed for two weeks on 
 the following ration : two parts by weight of low grade flour of middlings, three 
 parts of corn meal, one part of bran, one-half part of beef scrap, with 10 per- 
 cent green feed and 3 percent grit. This mash is fed three times daily. 
 
 Another good mixture is : 3 parts corn meal, one part each of bran and low 
 grade wheat flour, 3 percent oyster shell, 5 percent beef scrap, with grit and 
 green feed added. 
 
 Green feed tends to produce a flabby, rather than firm flesh, and to color 
 the meat, so it may be well to leave it out the last week of fattening. Never- 
 theless one can 'keep the birds in better feeding condition with the green feed 
 in the ration. 
 
 Boiled fish may be substituted in place of beef scrap. This should not be 
 fed, however, within 12 days before the birds are to be marketed, because it 
 tends to give the meat a fishy taste. 
 
 Another good system for feeding ducklings is as follows : When two weeks 
 old feed a mixture of equal parts shorts, bran and corn meal. Mix these together 
 and moisten with new milk. Gradually decrease this and add middlings. At 
 two weeks begin to add meat scraps. Gradually increase this until at the end 
 of 7 weeks it comprises about l /% of the feed. Have 10 percent of sharp sand 
 or grit in each feed. (A duck has no crop, the food going directly to the giz- 
 zard ; they must have grit to help grind it.) Feed the birds all they can eat 
 three times daily. Have plenty of water before them. Recommended by E. 
 Albertson, Seattle, Wash. 
 
 The first few days feed one part meal, two parts bran, one-half part sharp 
 sand. Mix with raw eggs taken from the incubator 3 eggs to a quart of feed. 
 Keep this mixture before the ducklings the first four days. Give them plenty 
 of water. On the fifth day begin feeding the mixture four times daily, adding 
 a little No. 2 flour and beef scrap. Gradually decrease the amount of eggs and 
 increase the amount of beef scrap. Beginning the 4th week feed the following 
 
POULTRY RAISING DUCKS 389 
 
 mixture : 2 parts corn meal, 3 parts bran, 1 part each of beef scrap and No. 2 
 flour. This can be fed until the ducks are sold. If the trade demands fatter 
 birds the amount of corn can be increased. F. H. Fehrenschild, Westwood, 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Feed a mixture made as follows: Two parts each of corn meal, ground 
 oats, and middlings. For every 6 quarts of these, add a large handful of fine 
 sand and one quart of meat scraps. Mix thoroughly and wet up just a little 
 more than for chicks. Feed four times a day. When the ducklings weigh 
 about 2 pounds apiece, add 2 parts of cracked corn to the mash each night. You 
 can almost see them plump up. They will be ready for market when about ten 
 weeks old. Sell them just before the pin feathers start-^because ducks shrink in 
 flesh as the feathers come out. Merrill Hutchinson, Reading, Mass. 
 
 When the ducklings are 36 hours old, feed them oatmeal moistened with 
 sweet milk. Feed this five times daily the first week, then add one feed of shorts 
 and'bran and a little beef meal once a day for the second week. The third week 
 discontinue the oats and give bran twice a day, and Kafir corn once a day. 
 When ten weeks old feed only morning and evenings. Mrs. Henry Shrader, 
 Wauneta, Kans. 
 
 The first two or three days feed the ducklings the following mash : 1 part 
 corn meal, 2 parts wheat bran, one-half part middling and 5 percent sand. When 
 three days old add 5 percent meat scrap and one-third green stuff to this ration. 
 Feed until birds are about 6 weeks old, then feed the following mixture : One 
 part each of bran, dry brewer's grains, corn meal and middlings. To this add 
 one-third part green stuff, 10 percent meat scrap and 5 percent sand. Ever- 
 green Poultry Farm, Glassboro, N. J. 
 
 Feed a mash of prepared poultry feed, beef scrap, sand and finely cut cow- 
 pea vines the first three weeks. The 4th week begin feeding a mash of one-half 
 each wheat middlings and prepared feed. The 6th week start using all wheat* 
 middlings. The 4th week gradually begin increasing the amount of green stuff 
 and beef scraps. Feed the ducklings 5 times a day the first two weeks and then 
 three times daily 6 a. m., noon and 5 p. m. First three weeks feed all they 
 will eat hut do not crowd them the last seven weeks. 
 
 First week feed four times daily on bran and bread or cracker crumbs 
 mixed with a little fine sand. The second week begin feeding just as often, one- 
 third each of bran, corn meal and bread or cracker crumbs, adding a little meat 
 meal and fine sand. The fifth week begin giving equal parts bran and corn 
 meal, 10 percent sand and meat meal, and mix in a little cut clover. Feed four 
 times daily if confined. Edward G. Norman, Marietta, Pa. 
 
 Feed four times daily the following mixture : 1 part each shorts, rolled 
 oats, corn meal and bran, and blood meal, 1 teaspoonful to each quart of feed. 
 Dampen this with skim milk or water until it crumbles. Keep green food, water 
 and grit before the ducklings at all times. The second week begin feeding the 
 above ration, but use 2 parts of bran instead of one part, and a tablespoonful 
 of blood meal to each quart of food instead of a teaspoonful. Keep grit and 
 water before them. F. D. Fowler, Carlinville, 111. 
 
 When milk can be fed reasonably, the rations given for crate-fattened 
 
390 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 chickens, will give good results in fattening ducklings. This method will pro- 
 duce a well-bleached green duck. 
 
 Celery seed is often used in fattening ducklings to flavor the flesh. 
 
 For the first 5 days of feeding, give the following mixture: Equal parts 
 by measure of corn meal and cracker or bread crumbs; hard boiled eggs, 15 
 percent of total bulk of crackers and meal ; sand, 5 percent of the total of meal 
 and crackers. Mix thoroughly with milk or water and feed four times daily. 
 
 From 5 to 20 days old the following mixture (by measure) : One part corn 
 meal, 2 parts bran, rolled oats 50 percent of this bulk; sand and beef scraps 
 each 5 percent; green feed 10 percent. Dampen with water to a dry crumbly 
 state. Feed four times daily. 
 
 From 20 to 42 days old feed the following four times daily (by measure) : 
 2 parts wheat bran ; 1 part corn meal ; sand 5 percent of this bulk ; beef scraps 
 5 percent; green feed 10 percent. Moisten with water to a dry crumbly mass. 
 
 From 42 to 70 days old feed four times daily the following: 1 part (by 
 measure) wheat bran, 2 parts corn meal; beef scrap 10 percent of this bulk; 
 green feed, 10 percent; coarse sand, 5 percent. Mix with water to a crumbly 
 mass. 
 
 Hours for Feeding. 6 A. M., 10 A. M., 2 P. M., and 6 P. M. 
 
 Feed for Breeding Ducks 
 
 The ducks that are kept for breeding and not for egg production should be 
 kept on a grass range if possible and fed on the following: 1 part each, by 
 weight, or low grade wheat flour, corn meal and green feed, 2 parts bran, 3 
 percent grit, 9 percent beef scrap. Dampen slightly. Give this sparingly once 
 or twice every day, with one feed of mixed grains. 
 
 Another good mash for breeding stock is as follows (by measure) : 4 parts 
 bran, 3 parts corn meal, ^4 part beef scrap, 2 parts low grade wheat flour, and 
 2 parts green feed. Add a little shell, grit or other mineral matter to this and 
 make a wet mash. Feed sparingly once or twice daily, with one feed of mixed 
 grains. 
 
 In feeding breeding stock give them very little hard, dry grain, but more of 
 the following mash : 2 parts each of oats, cracked corn, wheat shorts and meat 
 scraps. Keep a supply of sand or other grit near the feeding trough. Merrill 
 Hutchinson, Reading, Mass. 
 
 For breeders: Morning food, equal parts bran and shorts; corn and oats 
 chop ; 5 percent each fine grit and beef scrap ; 20 percent green cut clover. Feed 
 wheat or oats at noon. Evening feed same as morning. For variety give green 
 or boiled vegetables. Keep flock on grass range with plenty of water. W. E. 
 Ritter, Williamsport, Pa. 
 
 Feed breeding stock the following: equal parts wheat bran and corn meal. 
 10 percent green rye with cut clover, same of beef scrap. Mix a little grit in 
 the food and keep ground oyster shells and grit by them. James Rankin, So. 
 Easton, Mass. 
 
 Begin feeding the breeding stock early in June the following: one part 
 each wheat middlings, dried brewers' grains, and corn meal, three parts bran. 
 
POULTRY RAISING DUCKS 391 
 
 To this add five percent each sand and meat scrap, and l / green feed. Feed 
 this twice a day until November 1st. Then feed as follows: one part each of 
 bran, dried brewers' grains and middlings, two parts corn meal, to which add 
 one-third to l /4 green stuff, 5 percent sand and 15 percent meat scraps. Feed 
 night and morning. At noon give: one part each whole oats and cracked corn. 
 July 1st begin feeding first ration again. Evergreen Poultry Farm, Glass- 
 boro, N. J. 
 
 Feed breeders same as market ducks until about eight weeks old then feed 
 twice a day on the following mash: two parts meal, three parts bran, one part 
 No. 2 flour, and ]/ 2 part beef scraps. About December 15 change the feed to 
 seven parts each of bran and meal, two parts beef scrap, and three parts No. 2 
 flour. Also feed green stuff such as beets, potatoes, cut clover or apples until 
 the birds have grass again in the spring. H. H. Fehrenschild, Westwood, 
 N.J. 
 
 For breeders feed night and morning by measure: one part each corn meal 
 and rolled oats, four parts bran, and two parts shorts. Dampen with water or 
 skimmed milk until it is a crumbly mass. Three or four times each week add 
 ground meat and oil meal to the ration. Feed all they will eat in about 15 
 minutes. Remove what is left. Have grit, oyster shell, green feed food and 
 water constantly before them. Give free range from 9 :30 a. m. to 6 at night. 
 F. D. Fowler, Carlinville, 111. 
 
 Feed breeders three times daily on: one part each of ground oats and corn 
 meal, two parts bran, four parts green corn or cut clover chopped fine, a little 
 grit and beef meal. C. E. Bradley, Lake City, Iowa. 
 
 Keep the breeding stock on a grass run with plenty of water. In the morn- 
 ing feed following mash : one gallon bran, two quarts of shorts, one-half pound 
 beef scrap, one-half pound oyster shell, mixed thoroughly with sweet skim 
 milk. Give Kafir corn or corn at night. Mrs. Henry Shrader, Wauneta, 
 Kans. 
 
 Give breeding stock free range in a swamp where they can get plenty of 
 bugs, insects, mud frogs, etc. Feed bran mornings and corn evenings, also 
 plenty of meat scraps. 
 
 This is a good mixture for breeders : equal parts of wheat bran, corn meal, 
 and green feed, also 5 percent each of coarse sand or grit and beef scraps. 
 
 A ration for laying ducks is recommended as follows (by measure) : corn 
 meal, 50 percent; green feed, 15 percent; wheat bran, 15 percent; beef scraps, 
 12 percent ; grit or coarse sand, 8 percent. Dampen to a dry crumbly state and 
 feed night and morning. 
 
 Laying Ducks. 
 
 Two parts each of oats, wheat and barley to one quart each buckwheat and 
 corn ground together and 15 percent of fish scrap added. This is a splendid 
 laying ration if the fish can be conveniently obtained. 
 
 A good formula for feeding Indian Runner ducks for eggs is as follows: 
 100 pounds bran, 100 pounds corn chops or meal, 100 pounds white middlings, 
 50 pounds beef scraps, 50 pounds alfalfa meal. Mix with hot water before 
 
392 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 feeding in cold weather. In a box keep a mixture of two-third grit and one- 
 third shell, with lots of good bedding for them in the house. Feed them once 
 a day when on range and twice a day when confined. 
 
 Begin feeding Pekin ducks for eggs about December 1st. Feed the follow- 
 ing both morning and night : one pound each of low grade flour or middlings, 
 corn meal and bran, 15 percent each of beef scrap and vegetables or green feed, 
 also some grit. When laying heavily, feed the following at noon : one quart of 
 mixed wheat and corn to every thirty ducks. Feed these rations throughout the 
 year to any ducks kept principally for egg production. Thirty laying Pekin 
 ducks will eat about ten quarts dampened mash each meal. 
 
 A good laying ration is as follows : two parts bran, one part corn meal, one 
 part wheat middlings or low grade flour, 10 percent alfalfa or clover and 5 per- 
 cent beef scrap. 
 
 Give the layers the following: three parts (by measure) wheat bran, two 
 parts of Indian corn meal, one part each of low grade flour and beef scrap. 
 Salt this slightly and dampen to a crumbly mass. 
 
 A good ration is as follows: Five measures each of bran and corn chop, 
 two measures middlings, \ l / 2 measures beef scrap, three measures each of cut 
 green stuff and boiled vegetables, and 5 percent sand. 
 
 Preparing for Market. 
 
 How to Kill. To kill ducks stun them with a sharp blow on the head 
 and then stick them through the throat or just back of the eye with a knife 
 which has a narrow blade. To make them easier to handle run a hook in the 
 mouth and out through the nostril. 
 
 When to Kill Ducks should be killed just before the pinfeathers start 
 or when about ten weeks old to make the best appearance. Pin feathers make 
 a bird look coarse and unsightly. 
 
 How to Tell Condition. The condition of ducks can be judged best by the 
 amount of flesh on their backs. 
 
 Picking Steam Picking Saves Artificial Drying. Pull tail and wing 
 feathers and throw them away before steaming the ducks. Six or eight ducks 
 which have been stuck and bled can be steamed at a time. Hang them on 
 hooks in the top of a barrel which is airtight and steam them from one-half 
 to two minutes until the feathers come off easily. Then pluck. 
 
 Removing Down. The down can be removed very easily by sprinkling 
 powdered rosin over the duck's body and dipping the bird in hot water. This 
 melts the rosin so that the down and rosin can be rubbed off easily with the 
 hand and leave the skin clean. 
 
 Plumping. As soon as the feathers are off, no matter whether they are 
 removed by steaming as given above or by scalding or dry picking, they should 
 be put in cold water to remove the animal heat and harden the flesh. 
 
 Worth Remembering. When but a few ducks are raised, they should 
 be sold to local trade. Good money can be made from ducks sold in this way. 
 
POULTRY RAISING DUCKS 893 
 
 If the fanner wants to raise them to ship away, he must generally produce 
 them by the thousands and do business on a large enough scale to warrant the 
 outlay of a great deal of time and capital. 
 
 Valuable "Don'ts" in Caring for and Feeding Ducks. 
 
 Don't feed any old time. Have regular hours for feeding. 
 
 Don't overfeed, and keep on grass range if possible. 
 
 Don't let the ducks be without plenty of oyster shells, charcoal, grit, sand 
 and drinking water. 
 
 Don't change the feed through the laying season. 
 
 Don't make the mash too wet. Dry crumbly mash is best. 
 
 Don't let the ducks sleep outside on damp, cold ground. 
 
 Don't allow the ducks to make the ground sloppy around the drinking 
 fountain. 
 
 Don't keep more than thirty ducks in one flock. 
 
 Don't give the ducks drinking water in shallow vessels. 
 
 Don't yard ducks and other poultry together. 
 
 Don't use poor beef scrap for feeding and don't feed too much. 
 
 Don't feed ducks in pans. Feed in long troughs. 
 
 Don't feed so much mash that it is not all eaten and becomes sour. 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF DUCKS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Ducks are generally strong and free from disease. However, they are 
 sometimes troubled by some of the same diseases that infect chickens. The 
 symptoms and treatments of these diseases are generally the same. 
 
 Aspergillosis. (See "Chicken Department.") 
 
 Catarrh. (See "Chicken Department.") 
 
 Congestion of Lungs. (See "Chicken Department.") 
 
 Cholera. (See "Chicken Department.") 
 
 Diphtheria. (See "Chicken Department.") 
 
 Sunstroke. 
 
 Too much exposure to the direct rays of the sun. 
 Symptoms. Reeling and tottering over as if in a fit. 
 Treatment. Remove the cause. Take tJie duckling out of the sun. 
 Caution : Do not allow ducklings in the direct rays of the noon-day sun. 
 Many are killed this way. 
 
 Worms. (See "Chicken Department.") 
 
 394 
 
GEESE. 
 
 Varieties. Gray Toulouse, White Embden, Gray African, White Chinese. 
 Brown Chinese, Canadian or Gray Wild and Colored Egyptian. 
 
 WEIGHTS IN POUNDS. 
 
 
 Old 
 Gander 
 
 Young 
 Gander 
 
 Old 
 Goose 
 
 Young 
 Goose 
 
 Toulouse 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 l"i 
 
 Embden 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 ifi 
 
 African 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 Brown and White Chinese 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Canadian 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 10 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toulouse Geese. This variety is bred in large numbers by farmers and 
 is undoubtedly the most popular in America. They are not considered to be 
 the best market geese, however, as their flesh is somewhat flabby and coarse. 
 They make heavy weights on coarse feed but are late in maturing. Their 
 late maturity gains the title for them of the Christmas goose, They are just 
 about ready for market at Christmas time. The females of this variety are 
 rather good layers, laying about forty eggs a season. The sexes are the same 
 color grayish on the breast and above, running to white under the body and 
 in the rear. 
 
 Embden. The Embdens are probably second in popularity in this 
 country. They are about the same size as the Toulouse but their flesh is 
 better for table use. They are practical birds for farmers, paying well for 
 their keeping. The females are very good layers and setters. They do not 
 lay as many eggs as the Toulouse geese but they are persistent setters. 
 Their eggs are very large and white and have a rough, thick shell. The 
 young of this variety are quick to mature. The male and. female are both 
 white. 
 
 African. This breed is considered by many the most profitable to raise. 
 They grow heaviest in the shortest time, as they will weigh from 8 to 10 
 pounds when only ten weeks old. The flesh is splendid for table purposes 
 as it is highly flavored and fine. The females are excellent layers, averaging 
 about forty eggs a season. These geese are light and dark gray. The neck 
 plumage is light gray with a dark gray stripe running from the head to the 
 body. The back is dark gray blending into light gray under the body. The 
 tail and wings are dark gray. Considering the time and labor spent in 
 raising them, this breed is a most profitable one to keep. 
 
 395 
 
396 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Chinese. This is a practical variety for those who raise a limited num- 
 ber of geese. They are the smallest, also the noisiest of any variety. The 
 females are excellent layers, averaging from fifty to sixty eggs a season. 
 They can, no doubt, be bred up to become paying for their eggs alone. The 
 young mature early and are quite hardy. The flesh is of the finest quality, 
 being decidedly superior to other geese. 
 
 The Gray Chinese are the same color in both sexes, being a brownish 
 gray on the upper parts and running into a lighter shade on the lower parts 
 of the body. Like the Africans, they have a knob at the junction of the bill 
 and skull. The Gray Chinese are smaller and more brown than the African. 
 The White Chinese are pure white. 
 
 Canadian. These are the wild geese that are so common to the country. 
 They are among the best known of our domestic geese although more wild 
 and harder to confine. They cannot be held in check without removing the 
 outer joint of the wing. These birds are hardy and easy to rear. They are 
 a fine table fowl. The females are good layers. This breed can be told by its 
 black head and neck and the white stripe nearly covering its feet. The back 
 is dark gray, breast light gray, becoming darker as it nears the legs, the 
 plumage from the legs to th.i tail is white. 
 
 Egyptian Geese. This is purely an ornamental variety kept for show 
 purposes. They are the bantams of the goose tribe. The males are very 
 quarrelsome. Two can seldom be kept in the same pen as they will fight to 
 death. Their color is chestnut, gray, buff and black. There are but few of 
 them in the country. 
 
 Management of Geese. 
 
 The conditions necessary for the successful raising of geese are almost 
 entirely different from those necessary for successful duck raising. Geese 
 require a much larger space than ducks. They need free range and water. 
 There are many places on the farm that are useless for cultivation that could 
 be turned into profitable runs for them. They will thrive on farms that have 
 branches, streams, or unused springs on them. Farmers who profit by this 
 add considerably to their annual incomes. Geese need very little care and 
 attention in comparison with other poultry. If they have plenty of pasture 
 on the farm and water, they will take care of themselves. 
 
 Water. When running water is not available, geese should be watered 
 in dishes deep enough for them to wash out their nostrils. This prevents 
 the insects and dirt from bothering them too much. 
 
 Housing. All that is necessary in the way of houses is protection from 
 wind and storms. Cold weather does not ever inconvenience geese when they 
 have a dry, well ventilated place to rest. Any shed-like structure is sufficient 
 that is about six feet high in front and three feet high in the rear, built any 
 width and length that is large enough to accommodate the birds. Each mem- 
 ber of the flock should have about ten square feet of floor space. It is ad- 
 visable not to have a shed over twelve feet wide as it is liable to be damp. 
 The house may be built of cheap lumber and covered with tar paper, or made 
 
POULTRY RAISING GEESE 3<J7 
 
 more durable by covering with a prepared roofing paper. The front of the 
 shed can be closed with heavy cotton cloth curtains. The curtains may be 
 fastened on frames to be swung open like hinged doors, or swung up and 
 fastened with a hook. The main objection to the latter method is that when 
 the curtains are in a horizontal position they catch dust. This makes them 
 less sanitary and less able to admit air and light. These curtains may be 
 left open continually in fair weather and closed only during the night in 
 extremely cold weather or during storms that would beat through the open- 
 ings and make the floor damp and uncomfortable. 
 
 Mating and Setting. 
 
 Number of Geese to Gander. Mate from two to four geese with one 
 gander. 
 
 Mating. The breeding stock should be at least two years old and well 
 matured. Geese live to a great age and frequently remain vigorous and lay a 
 fair number of fertile eggs when thirty years of age. Of course, the ganders are 
 not reliable after they are about eight years old. When convenient, it is a good 
 plan to seclude each mating a week or two just at the beginning of the breeding 
 season. The time will readily be determined by the actions and cries of the birds. 
 As soon as the birds are rightly mated they may be permitted to run together as 
 they will not mix nor mate over again. When a good mating is secured, it should 
 be continued for six or seven years ; i. e., as long as the -birds get results. Some 
 breeders prefer old birds to young ones' but we believe the characteristics of the 
 individual are more important than the age. 
 
 The season for breeding begins about February, but some geese will begin 
 laying earlier, say in December, then stop, and begin once more in February. 
 No feed is necessary outside of what they pick up off the range until cold 
 weather destroys this source of food. Laying geese must not be allowed to get 
 too fat as it injures the fertility of the eggs. 
 
 Setting. Geese rniake their own nests from the litter and straw on the 
 floor of their house. They will lay from ten to twenty eggs before they become 
 broody. Just as soon as a goose shows broodiness or an inclination to set, she 
 should be removed and placed in a small coop or dark box, and kept there for 
 two or three days with plenty of water to drink but no food. This will break 
 her up and she can be put back into the yards to begin another laying of eggs. 
 One should set the first and second laying of eggs under hens, giving four or five 
 eggs to a hen. When the goose has laid the second laying of eggs, she will have 
 to be confined and broken of her broodiness again, then she will lay a third lot. 
 She should be permitted to set on the third laying herself instead of putting them 
 under hens. 
 
 Time for Incubation. Thirty days are required for the incubation of 
 goose eggs. 
 
 Feeding Breeders. When there is a scarcity of food in the fall or when 
 the geese are laying, they should be fed. We give the following mixtures that 
 have proved very satisfactory : 
 
 Equal parts, by measure, of corn meal, middlings and bran. To this add 5% 
 
398 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 of beef scraps, and feed 10% of the bulk of the whole ration of steamed clover, 
 green feeds, and cooked vegetables. Give a light feed of this ration in the morn- 
 ing, and at night feed cracked corn. 
 
 Morning and night feed what oats and corn the geese will eat up clean. At 
 noon give vegetable food such as alfalfa, steamed clover, apple parings, etc. Let 
 them to run in all kinds of weather. 
 
 In the morning feed equal parts of corn meal and shorts, mixed with 10% 
 of beef scraps to a crumbly state. Feed only what they will eat up quickly. In 
 the afternoon feed whole grain, barley, corn and oats. Put feed in small boxes. 
 Also give vegetable feeds and plenty of good clean water and oyster shell. 
 
 By measure : 2 parts shorts, 4 parts each of bran and cut clover and 1 part 
 corn meal. Dampen with water or skimmed milk to make a crumbly mass. Fre- 
 quently add cooked vegetables and ground meat to this ration. Feed morning and 
 evening. At noon give a light whole corn feed. Keep oyster shell and grit before 
 them continually. 
 
 Care of Goslings. The hen and goslings should not be disturbed for 
 about twenty-four hours after the young birds are hatched. It is sometimes ad- 
 visable to remove all but two or three of the little fellows as soon as they dry 
 off. Some hens are clumsy and trample them to death if left on the nest with 
 them. If the birds are removed, they should be kept in a warm place. This 
 gives them time to dry off. After they are thoroughly dry the hen and brood 
 should be put in a large, roomy coop for four or five days. When the goslings 
 are about five days old they can shift for themselves in good weather. Before 
 feathering, they are easily chilled and should be looked after during cold rains. 
 When one is found chilled or cast on his back in the mud, he should be put 
 into a warm place and kept until he recovers. 
 
 Feeds for Growing Goslings. 
 
 One-third shorts, two-thirds corn meal and 10% beef scrap. Moisten with 
 water until crumbly and give them only what they will eat up clean three times 
 daily for about a month. 
 
 For about the first forty-eight hours give nothing but tender grass, then feed 
 every two or three hours two-thirds shorts and one-third corn meal. Wet 
 up and then squeeze practically dry. Do not give sloppy food and feed spar- 
 ingly. The second week give cracked corn and a run of grass. 
 
 Feed all the grass or lettuce leaves they will eat. At first give a mixture of 
 bran and corn meal but feed whole grain later. Let the chief feed be grass or 
 other green food and let them have plenty of water at all times. 
 
 As soon as the goslings are dry put them in brooders. After they are twenty- 
 four hours old, feed them four times a day: 1 part each (by measure) of shorts, 
 rolled oats, bran, and corn meal, blood meal, a teaspoonful to a quart of food. 
 Dampen with water or skimmed milk until crumbly. Have grit, water and green 
 food constantly before them. Give water in such a way they cannot get into it. 
 Reduce brooder heat from 90 degrees until they need no heat at all then remove 
 them to other quarters and feed three times a day : 1 part each (by measure) 
 of rolled oats, bran and shorts, blood meal, a tablespoonful to a quart of feed. 
 
POULTRY RAISING GEESE 399 
 
 Add cooked vegetables and corn meal occasionally. Mix with skimmed milk 
 or water into a crumbly mass. Have water and grit before them. Do not 
 allow the goslings in water until they are full feathered. 
 
 Start the goslings on fresh, green grass, then gradually add a slightly 
 moistened corn meal to the ration. It is also good to mix a little sand and 
 charcoal with the corn meal. Feed this three times daily for about two days, 
 then change to the following ration : equal parts (by measure) of middlings, 
 bran, and steamed cut clover or cooked vegetables. Feed this three times 
 daily until the birds are eight weeks old then fatten for market. 
 
 After the first twenty-four hours, give the goslings fresh, tender grass 
 to eat and water to drink. In a couple of days gradually begin feeding them 
 finely cracked corn, well scalded, and permit them to run on tender grass. If they 
 are confined, move their pen to a fresh grass spot every day. Feed them often. 
 During stormy weather they must have green feed, such as tender grass, finely 
 cut green oats, rye, or clover, given them. Protect them from rains until their 
 feathers are grown. After that they need only come home to get grain food 
 each night, when necessary. 
 
 Fattening Geese. 
 
 When geese are to be fattened they should be put in a pen small enough 
 to keep them from running around too much. They should be allowed from 
 eight to fourteen square feet apiece. Care should be taken not to frighten or 
 disturb them. If geese are irritated in the least they will not get fat, but instead 
 will grow another crop of feathers. When the tips of the wings reach the tail or 
 when about ten weeks old, they will be ready for market, weighing from eight to 
 ten pounds. It takes about two weeks to fatten young geese. 
 
 Fattening Rations. 
 
 Mix corn meal to a dry crumbly state and add twenty percent of this bulk 
 of beef scrap. Salt slightly. Feed all the geese will eat clean, three times 
 daily. During the middle of" the day the birds may receive some whole grain, 
 especially if it is soaked. 
 
 Famous Watertown Method of Fattening. This method is given its 
 name because it is practiced mainly by the farmers around Watertown, Wis. 
 It is a new plan of fattening for this country, being started by some German 
 farmers, but it is very successful and we feel that it should be taken to other 
 farmers that they may reap its benefits. A demand for the geese, fattened in 
 this way, can soon be created and they bring a high price. The method 
 follows : 
 
 The geese are fed and kept growing fast until about Thanksgiving time, 
 when they are confined and the process of fattening begun. As stated above, 
 the birds that have been running at liberty are naturally shy and timid, and 
 must be handled cautiously. The feeder must reconcile them to his presence. 
 Strangers should not be permitted around their pens and everything should be 
 done to gain their confidence. Feeding is begun gradually at first, the geese 
 being fed only a little, three times a day. The number of meals and the 
 
400 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 amount of feed are both gradually increased until the birds are really stuffed 
 every four hours. It takes about ten days for full feed to be reached after 
 the process is begun. 
 
 How to Make Feed. A cooked feed is given and is made as follows: 
 Two parts of ground and sifted barley or oats, one part wheat flour and 
 one part sifted corn meal are well mixed together, moistened with water, 
 and made into a stiff dough. This is worked into noodles about the size 
 of small pork sausages. The dough may be run through a sausage mill and cut 
 into the proper length as it comes out. The ends are moulded into a dull point 
 with the fingers. This process makes noodles that are about three inches in 
 length and one inch thick. The noodles can either be boiled or baked, pref- 
 erably boiled. The noodles are put into a wire basket made from the same 
 kind of wire that is used in ash sifters. The basket is just the right size 
 to fit into a wash boiler. It is fastened a little off the bottom to prevent 
 burning. When the noodles are thoroughly cooked they rise to the surface. 
 Then the basket is taken out and immersed in cold water. This prevents 
 them from clinging together. After being treated in this manner they can 
 be heaped into a basket with no danger of their losing shape or sticking 
 together. 
 
 How to Feed. The goose to be fed should be confined in a small place 
 off the pen. The feeder can sit on a stool with a pail of water and basket 
 of noodles near him. He then dips a noodle in water, opens the bird's mouth 
 and slips it in. The goose will readily swallow a few of them of its own accord, 
 then the feeder gently pushes enough of them down its throat to stuff it full. 
 When the bird is released it immediately drinks its fill of water, which should 
 always be fresh. Each bird is stuffed in this way and then they are left undis- 
 turbed until the next feeding time. If at any time a goose has not digested all 
 the food it was given before, it is not fed so much. If a bird goes off its 
 feed, it must be put on the range for a couple of days. If it shows signs of 
 indigestion, a feed or so should be skipped. Some feeders think it wise to re- 
 duce the feed once in a while, after they are on full feed, and then gradually 
 bring them back. They will" not become "stale" when treated this way. 
 
 This is a very simple method and one can soon learn to stuff a- goose very 
 quickly. It is practiced at a time of the year when there is practically nothing 
 else to do on the farm and it will produce paying returns. It is a method 
 that is fast gaining ground where its success is known. 
 
 Bran, Shorts, Scraps, Oil Meal and Corn Meal. Keep confined closely 
 and feed : two parts (by measure) of bran, one part each of shorts, beef scraps, 
 oil meal and corn meal, moistened with sufficient water to make it crumble. 
 Feed three times daily. Give whole corn once in a while. Grit, green food, and 
 water should be constantly before them. F. D. Fowler, Carlinville, 111. 
 
 Corn Meal, Ground Oats, Middlings and Barley. Feed one-half corn 
 meal, one-fourth ground oats, and the remainder wheat middlings and barley. 
 Mix together thoroughly and dampen with scalding milk or water. Feed as 
 much of this ration as they will eat up clean four or five times daily. Give 
 plenty of water. Mrs. M. Swartsley, Columbus, Neb. 
 
POULTRY RAISING GEESE 401 
 
 Alfalfa. Turn geese into a field of alfalfa when old enough to fatten. 
 and they will become very fat and heavy. M. B. Caldwell, Broughton, Kas. 
 
 Killing and Dressing. Geese are killed by sticking in the throat the 
 same as ducks, then they are dry picked. About two inches of feathers should 
 be left on the neck and on the wings at the first joint. After the feathers are 
 taken off the down is wiped off by brushing the body with the hand moistened 
 in water. The birds should be plumped in cold water for about an hour after 
 they are picked. However, they should not be left in the water too long or 
 they will become bleached and water-soaked. They are then ready for 
 market. 
 
 Marketing. 
 
 It is better to market young geese some time in October. If possible they 
 should be marketed before it turns cold weather because the cold makes them 
 much harder to dress. The feathers are harder to pull, and one is more 
 liable to tear the flesh. 
 
TREATMENT FOR DISEASES OF GEESE. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The same is true of geese as of ducks, if they are given free range and a 
 dry, clean coop in which to retreat when necessary they are seldom troubled 
 by any disease. The diseases which do overtake them have practically the 
 same symptoms and require the same treatments as those of chickens. 
 
 Aspergillosis. (See Chicken Department). 
 Cholera. (See Chicken Department). 
 Congestion of Lungs. (See Chicken Department). 
 Diphtheria. (See Chicken Department). 
 Worms. (See Chicken Department). 
 
 402, 
 
GENERAL LIVE STOCK INFORMATION 
 
 National Live Stock Breeders' Associations. 
 
 Stockmen and others interested in the production of live stock may secure booklets and circulars 
 criptive of the various breeds by applying to the secretaries of the respective associations: 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 Association. 
 
 Amercian Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association. 
 
 Ayrshire Breeders' Association 
 
 Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association 
 
 American Devon Cattle Club 
 
 American Galloway Breeders' Association 
 
 American Guernsey Cattle Club 
 
 American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association . 
 
 Holstein-Friesian Association of America 
 
 American Jersey Cattle Club 
 
 Polled Durham Breeders' Association 
 
 Red Polled Cattle Club of America 
 
 America Shorthorn Breeders' Association . . 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 Address. 
 
 Charles Gray 
 
 Chicago 111 
 
 C. W. Winslow. . . . 
 
 Brandon Vt 
 
 Ira Inman 
 
 Beloit Wis 
 
 L. P. Sisson 
 
 Charlottesville Va 
 
 Robert W. Brown . . 
 Wm. H. Caldwell.... 
 R. J. Kinzer 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 Peterboro, N. H. 
 Kansas City Mo 
 
 F. L. Houghton . . . 
 
 Brattleboro Vt 
 
 R. M. Gow 
 J. H. Martz 
 
 NewY9rk, N. Y. 
 Greenville Ohio 
 
 H. A. Martin . . . 
 
 Gotham Wis 
 
 Rov G. Groves . . 
 
 Chicaeo. 111. 
 
 HORSES 
 
 American Association of Importers and Breeders 
 of Belgian Draft Horses 
 
 J D. Conner Jr 
 
 W^abash Ind 
 
 American Clydesdale Association 
 
 R. B. OgUvie 
 
 Chicago 111 
 
 American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association . . . 
 Percheron Society of America 
 
 Roger H. Lillard. . . . 
 Wayne Dinsmore 
 
 Lawrenceburg, Ky. 
 Chicago 111 
 
 American Morgan Register Association 
 
 T. E. 'Boyce 
 
 Middlebury Vt 
 
 American Shetland Pony Club 
 
 Miss Julia M Wade 
 
 LaFayette Ind 
 
 American Hackney Horse Society 
 
 Gurney C Geel 
 
 Hempstead Long 
 
 American Shire Horse Association 
 
 Charles Burgess, Sr 
 
 Island, N. Y. 
 Wenona, 111. 
 
 German Coach Horse Association of America .... 
 
 J. Crouch 
 
 LaFayette, Ind. 
 
 American Suffolk Horse Association. . 
 
 Alex. Galbraith. . . 
 
 DeKalb. 111. 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 American Cheviot Sheep Society 
 
 F. E. Dawley 
 
 Fayetteville, N. Y. 
 
 American Cotswold Registry Association 
 
 F. W. Harding 
 
 Waukesha, Wis. 
 
 Continental Dorset Club . . 
 
 J. E. Wing 
 
 Mechanicsburg, O. 
 
 American Hampshire Breeders' Association 
 
 Comfort A. Tyler. . . . 
 
 Coldwater, Mich. 
 
 American Leicester Breeders' Association 
 
 A. J. Temple 
 
 Cameron, 111. 
 
 American Oxford Down Record Association 
 
 W. A. Shafer. 
 
 Hamilton, Ohio. 
 
 American Shropshire Registry Association 
 
 Miss Julia M. Wade . 
 
 LaFayette, Ind. 
 
 \merican Southdown Breeders' Association .... 
 
 Frank S. Springer . . . 
 
 Springfield, 111. 
 
 
 
 
 SWINE 
 
 American Berkshire Association 
 
 Frank S. Springer . . . 
 J. C. Hiles 
 
 Springfield, 111. 
 Cleveland, Ohio. 
 Thorntown, Ind. 
 Peoria, 111. 
 Peoria, 111. 
 Chicago, 111. 
 Winchester, Ind. 
 Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 Whitebear Lake, 
 Minn. 
 
 O I C Swine Breeders' Association. 
 
 American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Association 
 National Duroc-Jersey Record Association . . 
 
 T. B. Pearson . 
 
 J. R. Pfander 
 
 American Hampshire Swine Record Association . . 
 American Poland-China> Record Association. 
 
 E. C. Stone 
 
 W. M. McFadden . . . 
 A. M. Brown . 
 
 National Poland-China Record Company. 
 
 E. N. Ball 
 
 American Yorkshire Club 
 
 Harry G. Krum 
 
 
 
 403 
 
404 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 National and State Agricultural Departments and Institutions. 
 
 Bulletins and Circulars of Information pertaining to live stock and other 
 agricultural topics can be secured from the national departments and from one's 
 State Experiment Station that are helpful and the following list of departments 
 
 and stations is submitted: 
 
 t 
 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., Scientific Bureaus. 
 
 Weather Bureau C. F. Marvin, Chief. 
 
 Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. Melvin, Chief. 
 
 Bureau of Plant Industry W. A. Taylor, Chief. 
 
 Forest Service H. S. Graves, Forester. 
 
 Bureau of Soils Milton Whitney, Chief. 
 
 Bureau of Chemistry C. L. Alsberg, Chief, 
 
 Bureau of Crop Estimates L. M. Estabrook, Statistician. 
 
 Bureau of Entomology L. O. Howard, Entomologist. 
 
 Bureau of Biological Survey E. W. Nelson, Chief. 
 
 Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering L. W. Page, Director. 
 
 Office of Markets and Rural Organizations C. J. Brand, Chief. 
 
 States Relations Service A. C. True, Director. 
 Office of Experiment Stations E. W. Allen, Chief. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 
 
 Alabama College Station, Auburn, J. F. Duggar 1 ; Canebrake Station, Union- 
 town, L. H. Moore 1 ; Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee Institute, G. W. Carver. 1 
 
 Alaska Sitka ; C. C. Georgeson. 2 
 
 Arizona Tucson ; R. H. Forbes. 1 
 
 Arkansas Fayetteville ; M. Nelson. 1 
 
 Calif ornia Berkeley ; T. F. Hunt. 1 
 
 Colorado Fort Collins ; C. P. Gillette. 1 
 
 Connecticut State Station, New Haven; Storrs Station, Storrs; E. H. 
 Jenkins. 1 
 
 Delaware Newark: H. Hayward. 1 
 
 Florida Gainesville : P. H. Rolfs. 1 
 
 Georgia Experiment : J. D. Price. 1 
 
 Guam Island of Guam: C. W. Edwards. 3 
 
 Hawaii Federal Station: Honolulu; J. M. Westgate. 2 Sugar Planters' 
 Station: Honolulu; H. P. Agee. 1 
 
 Idaho Moscow : J. S. Jones. 1 
 
 Illinois Urbana: E. Davenport. 1 
 
 Indiana La Fayette: A. Goss. 1 
 
 Iowa Ames: C. F. Curtiss. 1 
 
 Kansas Manhattan : W- M. Jardine. 1 
 
 Kentucky Lexington : A. M. Peter. 4 
 
GENERAL LIVE 'STOCK INFORMATION 405 
 
 Louisiana State Station: I'.aton K>ugc: Sugar Station: Audnhnn Park, 
 New Orleans; North La. Station: Calhoun ; \Y. R. Dodson. 1 
 
 Maine Orono: C. D. Woods. 1 
 
 Maryland College Park: II. J. Patterson. 1 
 
 Massachusetts Amherst: W. P. Brooks. 1 
 
 Michigan East Lansing: R. S. Shaw. 1 
 
 Minnesota University Farm, St. Paul : A. F. Woods. 1 
 
 Mississippi Agricultural College: E. R. Lloyd. 1 
 
 Missouri College Station: Columbia; F. B. Mumford. 1 Fruit Station: 
 Mountain Grove ; Paul Evans. 1 
 
 Montana Bozeman: F. B. Linfield. 1 
 
 Nebraska Lincoln: E. A. Burnett. 1 
 
 Nevada Reno: S. B. Doten. 1 
 
 New Hampshire Durham : J. C. Kendall. 1 
 
 New Jersey New Brunswick: J. G. Lipman. 1 
 
 New Mexico State College: Fabian Garcia. 1 
 
 New York State Station: Geneva; W. H. lordan. 1 Cornell Station: 
 Ithaca; A. R. Mann. 4 
 
 North Carolina College Station : West Raleigh ; State Station : Raleigh ; B. 
 W. Kilgore. 1 
 
 North Dakota Agricultural College : T. P. Cooper. 1 
 
 Ohio Wooster: C. E. Thorne. 1 
 
 Oklahoma Stillwater: W. L. Carlyle. 1 
 
 Oregon Corvallis : A. B. Cordley. 1 
 
 Pennsylvania State College : R. L. Walts. 1 State College : Institute of Ani- 
 mal Nutrition ; H. P. Armsby. 1 
 
 Porto Rico Federal Station : Mayaguez ; D. W. May. 2 Insular Station : 
 Rio Piedras ; W. V. Tower. 1 
 
 Rhode Island Kingston : B. L. Hartwell. 1 
 
 South Carolina Clemson College: C. C. Newman. 4 
 
 South Dakota Brookings : J. W. Wilson. 1 
 
 Tennessee Knoxville : H. A. Morgan. 1 
 
 Texas College Station: B. Youngblood. 1 
 
 Utah Logan: F. S. Harris. 1 
 
 Vermont Burlington': J. L. Hills. 
 
 Virginia Blacksburg.: A. W r . Drinkard, jr. 1 Norfolk: Truck Station; T. C. 
 Johnson. 1 
 
 Washington 'Pullman: I. D. Cardiff. 1 
 
 West Virginia Morgantown : J. L. Coulter. 1 
 
 Wisconsin Madison: H. L. Russell. 1 
 
 Wyoming Laramie: H. G. Knight. 1 
 
 iDirector. 2Agronomist in charge. SAnimal husbandman in charge. 4Acting director. 
 
 Dominion of Canada Department of Agriculture and Office of Experimental 
 Farms, Ottawa, Canada. 
 
406 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 LIVE STOCK BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Many stockmen enjoy having a more or less complete library of books treat- 
 ing in detail and at length the numerous subjects and phases of live stock hus- 
 bandry. A few of the best books on important subjects and two of the most 
 generally read live stock periodicals follow. The publishers of "The Stock Book" 
 will gladly help you to secure them: 
 
 "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," Plumb. 
 "Judging Farm Animals," Plumb. 
 "Breeding Farm Animals," Mumford. 
 "Feeds and Feeding," Henry and Morrison. 
 "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production," Eckles. 
 "Beef Cattle Production," Mumford. 
 "Pork Production," Day. 
 "Sheep Management," Kleinheinz. 
 "Horse Production," Gay. 
 
 Live Stock Periodicals. 
 
 "Breeder's Gazette," Chicago, 111. A weekly publication devoted to all classes 
 of live stock. 
 
 "Hoard's Dairyman," Fort Atkinson, Wis. A weekly journal devoted to 
 dairy farming. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Normal Temperatures. 
 
 Horses from 100 to 101 degrees (Fahrenheit) ; cattle from 100 to 103 
 degrees; sheep from 101 to 103 degrees; hogs from 102 to 104 degrees. 
 
 In diseases a rise of four degrees is serious. The temperature of an animal 
 is generally taken in the vulva or anus. 
 
 Normal Pulse Beat. 
 
 Horses from thirty to forty beats per minute ; cattle from forty to fifty beats 
 per minute; sheep from seventy to eighty beats per minute; hogs from seventy 
 to ninety beats per minute. 
 
 To take the pulse of a horse stand on the left side and run the finger gently 
 along the lower jaw bone until you feel the artery just at the front edge of the 
 large muscles at the side of the jaw. To take the pulse of a cow stand on the left 
 side but reach over the neck and feel the artery on the right side of the jaw. 
 The pulse of sheep is generally taken on the inside of the hind leg. 
 
 PEOPLE'S TABLE FOR LIQUID MEDICINES. 
 
 Use this when there is no time for more accurate measurements. 
 
 1 small teaspoonful 60 small drops Y tablespoonful. 
 
 1 tablespoonful 240 small drops 3 teaspoonf uls. 
 
 1 dram 60 drops 1 scant teaspoonful. 
 
 1 ounce 2 tablespoonfuls 6 teaspoonf uls. 
 
 1 teacupful 16 tablespoonfuls 48 teaspoonfuls. 
 
 1 minim 1 drop (generally). 
 
 1 grain 1 drop (generally). 
 
 1 pint 2 teacupfuls. 
 
 1 wineglassful 3 heaping tablespoonfuls. 
 
 STOCK FOODS AND CONDITION POWDERS. 
 
 Condition Powder for Horses or Cattle. 
 
 Black Antimony 6 ounces 
 
 Powdered Sulphur 5 ounces 
 
 Ground Poplar Bark 3 ounces 
 
 Powdered Resin 1 ounce 
 
 Powdered Alum 1 ounce 
 
 Cumin Seed ^ ounce 
 
 Give about one tablespoonful mixed well with the feed three times a day. 
 
 For Horses. 
 
 Sulphate of Iron, powdered 4 ounces 
 
 Nitrate of Potash, powdered 2 ounces 
 
 Ginger Root, powdered 2 ounces 
 
 Gentian Root, powdered 2 ounces 
 
 Nux Vomica Seed 2 ounces 
 
 407 
 
408 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Another Good Powder. 
 
 Sulphur 2 pounds 
 
 Glauber's Salts 1 pound 
 
 Black Antimony 8 ounces 
 
 Powdered Bloodroot 4 ounces 
 
 Copperas, powdered 8 ounces 
 
 Resin 8 ounces 
 
 Asafetida 4 ounces 
 
 Saltpeter 8 ounces 
 
 Mix well and give one good tablespoonful in grain morning and evening. 
 
 Stock Foods. 
 
 Oil Cake 10 pounds 
 
 Powdered Licorice Root 5 pounds 
 
 Pulverized Fenugreek 5 pounds ^ 
 
 Elm Bark 4 pounds 
 
 Salt 10 pounds 
 
 Mix well and give two good tablespoonfuls morning and night. 
 
 Good Milk Producer for Cattle. 
 
 Salt 10 pounds 
 
 Powdered Anise Seed 10 pounds 
 
 Bruised Fennel 10 pounds 
 
 Ground Clover 5 pounds 
 
 Cream of Tartar 1 pound 
 
 Alum 1 pound 
 
 Sublimed Sulphur 1 pound 
 
 Powdered Chalk 1 pound 
 
 Mix well and give each cow a big handful each morning in the feed. 
 
 A Simple Stock Food. 
 
 Common Salt 1 pound 
 
 Pulverized Fenugreek 4 pounds 
 
 Ground Flaxseed 7 pounds 
 
 Oil Cake 5 pounds 
 
 Powdered Licorice Root 4 pounds 
 
 Stir well together. Give each animal two heaping tablespoonfuls in the 
 
 morning feed. 
 
 Chick Starter. 
 
 Fine Corn Meal 15 pounds 
 
 Middlings 15 pounds 
 
 Corn Gluten 9 pounds 
 
 Bran, Wheat 7 pounds 
 
 Thick Loppered Milk 4 quarts 
 
 Black Pepper 1 ounce 
 
 Charcoal 1 ounce 
 
 Mix these together in a tub and give plenty, as long as it is eaten clean each 
 
 meal. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 100 
 
 Egg Producer. 
 
 Coarse Corn Meal pounds 
 
 Middlings or Shorts 10 ]XHin<N 
 
 Bran 7 pounds 
 
 Ground Oats 10 pounds 
 
 Corn Gluten 8 pounds 
 
 Salt, coarse y 2 pound 
 
 Charcoal y 2 pound 
 
 Thick Sour Milk 3 quarts 
 
 This can be dampened when it is given to the hens, if desired. 
 
 Egg Producer. 
 
 Powdered Bone, Lime or Oyster Shells 1 pound 
 
 Powdered Ginger 2 ounces 
 
 Ground Gentian ounces 
 
 Capsicum 1 ounce 
 
 Sulphur 1 ounce 
 
 This should be well mixed and one teaspoonful mixed with each quart of 
 
 feed. 
 
 USES AND DOSES OF OVER FIFTY STABLE MEDICINES. 
 
 Acetic Acid. Soak warts well in pure acetic acW and it will remove 
 them. 
 
 Aconite (Tincture) .Use 20 to 30 drops for cattle; 10 to 20 drops for 
 horses; 10 drops for sheep; 1 to 5 drops for pigs- Good for inflammations and 
 fevers. It relieves pain when applied externally in small amounts. Do not give 
 when heart is weak. It is poisonous. 
 
 Aloes. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls for cattle , 1*4 to 2 tablespoonfuls for 
 horses. This is a very good tonic. 
 
 Alum. Use 3 scant teaspoonfuls for cattle; 1 scant teaspoonful for 
 horses; 30 drops for sheep; 15 drops for pigs. This is good for diarrhea, and 
 when dissolved in water is fine for sore mouth. 
 
 Alum (Burnt). This is fine to shake on proud flesh or old sores. 
 
 Ammonia Water. Use 2 tablespoonfuls for cattle; 1 tablespoonful for 
 horses ; 2 scant teaspoonfuls for sheep ; l / 2 to 1 scant teaspoonful for hogs. Di- 
 lute with water. Good as a stimulant, and in bloating, indigestion and colic. 
 
 Arnica, Tincture. Use 2 tablespoonfuls for cattle; 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls 
 for horses; 2 scant teaspoonfuls for sheep; l / 2 scant teaspoonful for pigs. 
 Checks fever and causes the animal to sweat. 
 
 Arsenic (Fowler's Solution). Use 1 to \y 2 tablespoonfuls for cattle; y 
 to 1 tablespoonful for horses ; 5 to 20 drops for sheep ; 5 to 20 drops for pigs. 
 Give after eating or in the food. Used for heaves and chronic diseases. 
 
 Asafetida Gum. Use 1 tablespoonful for cattle; l / 2 tablespoonful for 
 horses ; 1 scant teaspoonful for sheep. 
 
410 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Asafetida Tincture. Use 6 to 8 tablespoonfuls for cattle ; 4 tablespoon- 
 fuls for horses ; 1 tablespoonful for sheep ; 1 to 2 scant teaspoonfuls for pigs. 
 
 Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate). Use 4 tablespoonfuls for cattle; 
 2 tablespoonfuls for horses ; 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for sheep and hogs. Good for 
 indigestion, constipation, wind colic. Has the faculty for reducing gases and 
 sweetens the stomach. 
 
 Belladonna, Fluid Extract. Use 1 scant teaspoonful for cattle; y 2 scant 
 teaspoonful for horses ; 20 drops for sheep ; 3 drops for pigs. Given with good 
 effect in severe colic, fevers, caked bag, and lockjaw. 
 
 Blue 'Vitriol. Use 2 tablespoonfuls in a pint of water. This is a good 
 antiseptic and also astringent. Cleaning wounds is the usual use for it. 
 
 Borax. Used chiefly for skin treatments. It is also used for sore mouth. 
 Borax is a good germ killer. It is an antiseptic and will "bind up" the bowels. 
 
 Boric Acid. Dissolve in water all that can be held without settling. 
 This is one of the finest of the antiseptic medicines. It is not poisonous and can 
 be used on any part of the body. 
 
 Buchu, Powdered Leaves. Use 1 to 7 tablespoonfuls for cattle ; 1 to 
 5 tablespoonfuls for horses ; 1 tablespoonful for sheep and hogs. These can be 
 used as diuretics. Will develop heat and sweat quickly. 
 
 Butter of Antimony. Used mostly as an external application. It is 
 usually applied in salve form for cleansing sores. Fine for foot-rot and any sore 
 on the body. 
 
 Calomel. Use 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for cattle; 30 drops to 1 teaspoonful 
 for horses ; 8 to 20 drops for hogs and sheep. It has a good effect as a purgative 
 and for intestinal worms. When used in dry form it is good for healing open 
 wounds. 
 
 Camphor. Use 2 good tablespoonfuls for cattle ; 3 teaspoonfuls for 
 horses ; yt> teaspoonful for hogs ; 2 small teaspoonfuls for sheep. Give in half a 
 cup of water. This makes a fine remedy to relieve nausea, colic, diarrhea, coughs 
 and to stop pain in a wound. Good for lameness and if applied to bag will stop 
 milk flow. 
 
 Cantharides, or Spanish Fly. Used often in powdered form 1 teaspoon- 
 ful mixed with seven level teaspoonfuls of lard, and applied externally makes a 
 good blister. A drop or two given in a handful of grain tends to excite the gen- 
 erative organs. 
 
 Capsicum. Use 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls for cattle; 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for 
 horses ; y 2 teaspoonful for sheep and hogs. This is a spicy drug and acts in such 
 a way as to diminish the effect of a stronger drug. This is a good stimulant. 
 
 Carbolic Acid. Use 2 small teaspoonfuls in a cup of water. This is used 
 as an antiseptic and aids in healing wounds and sores. It keeps flies away. This 
 is very poisonous and burns the body if not diluted. 
 
 Castor Oil. Use 1 cupful for cattle ; 3 cupfuls for horses ; 4 tablespoon- 
 fuls for sheep and pigs. This is used as a purgative and is well known. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS 411 
 
 Charcoal. Very good for sweetening the stomach and absorbing gas. 
 Can be given as half burned wood. Good if applied to open sores. 
 
 Chloroform. Used to relieve or deaden pain and to produce sleep. A 
 little poured on a handkerchief and held to the nostrils of an animal quiets it 
 quickly. Very seldom given internally. 
 
 Cinchona, Powdered Bark. Use 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls for cattle ; 1 to 3 
 teaspoonfuls for horses ; y 2 teaspoonful for sheep and hogs. A very good tonic. 
 
 Copperas. Use 2 teaspoonfuls for cattle ; 1 scant teaspoonful for horses ; 
 20 drops for sheep; 10 drops for pigs. This ;s a very good blood tonic and is 
 good for animals in a rundown condition. It will also stop looseness of the 
 bowels. It is usually mixed with the food. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate. Use 1 small drop in three or four big tablespoon- 
 fuls of water. Very good as an antiseptic and for disinfection. It is very poi- 
 sonous, so should be handled with great care. 
 
 Creolin. Use 1 teaspoonful to a pint of water. Good especially where 
 quantities are used. Antiseptic action. Many farmers use it as a mange cure 
 and for lice. 
 
 Digitalis. Use 20 to 30 drops for cattle ; 10 to 20 drops for horses ; 5 
 drops for sheep and hogs. This is one of the five most valuable medical drugs. 
 Very good as a quieter, soothing pain and quieting the nerves. 
 
 Epsom Salts. Use 1 to 2 pounds according to size, for cattle; 1 pound 
 for horses ; 3 to 5 ounces for sheep and hogs. This is very effectively used as a 
 purgative. Dissolve salts in warm water and give as a drench. 
 
 Fenugreek. Use 2 to 6 tablespoonfuls for cattle; 1 to 5 tablespoonfuls 
 for horses; 1 to \ l /2 tablespoonfuls for sheep and hogs. This is a good ingredi- 
 ent usually found in stock foods. It is a good stimulant. 
 
 Gentian Root. Use 4 level teaspoonfuls (powdered) for cattle; 2 level 
 teaspoonfuls for horses ; l /2 teaspoonful for sheep and hogs. This is one of the 
 most useful of farm drugs. In many localities it can be dug from the woods. 
 It is used as a bitter tonic and especially in condition powders. 
 
 Ginger. Use 2 good tablespoonfuls for cattle ; 1 good tablespoonful for 
 horses ; 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for sheep and hogs. Very good as a stimulant and 
 to relieve sickness of the stomach. Reduces gas if combined with soda. 
 
 Glauber's Salts. Use 1 to 2 pounds for cattle; 1 pound for horses; 4 to 
 6 tablespoonfuls for sheep and hogs. Very good purgative for all animals that 
 have two or more stomachs. It is dissolved in water and given as a drench. 
 
 Glycerine. Given as an injection. Very good for healing inflamed bowels. 
 Keeps sores from becoming hard. 
 
 Iodine. Use in tincture v form, 30 drops or a scant half teaspoonful for 
 cattle; 20 drops for horses; 10 to 15 drops for sheep and hogs. Good applica- 
 tion for diminishing swellings, wind-puffs and ringworms. Very good as a 
 blood purifier. 
 
412 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE STOCK 
 
 Jamaica Ginger. Use 2 ounces for cattle ; 2 big tablespoonf uls for horses ; 
 1 tablespoon ful for sheep and hogs. This is an excellent stimulant and can be 
 used in the place of alcohol or whiskey. Can be used in combination with other 
 medicines where whiskey or alcohol was formerly used. Very good for stomach 
 troubles. The best way to give this is in milk. 
 
 Juniper Berries. Use 2 to 5 tablespoonfuls for cattle ; 2 to 4 tablespoon- 
 fuls for horses ; 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls for sheep and hogs. These are good for 
 increasing the flow of urine and sweating. 
 
 Kerosene. Use 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls in a cup of olive or linseed oil for 
 cattle; 2 tablespoonfuls in linseed oil or sweet oil for horses. Very good given 
 internally for worms and externally to blister or to cleanse deep cuts and 
 wounds. Has the tendency to heal a wound from the innermost surface. 
 Keeps away flies. 
 
 Lard. Use 1 pint of warm lard for cattle ; 1 pint for horses ; 1 cupful 
 for sheep or hogs. Given internally to relieve bloat, indigestion and constipation. 
 Externally it may be mixed with turpentine, kerosene or cantharides for sores 
 or blisters. 
 
 Lime. Use 2 tablespoonfuls for cattle ; l /> to 1 tablespoonful for horses, 
 YT. teaspoonful for sheep and hogs. This is good for strengthening the bones in 
 animals. When used in liquid form mix with fresh water and allow to settle. 
 Very good as a disinfectant and can be sprinkled about in the dry form. 
 
 Linseed Oil, Raw. Use 1 to l l / 2 quarts for cattle; ^ to 1 quart for 
 horses; 1 to 2 cupfuls for sheep and hogs. This is used as a purgative and is 
 very soothing and healing to the bowels. It is used as a drench and in combina- 
 tion with other medicines. 
 
 Mustard. Use as an emetic and especially for poulticing to draw out 
 inflammation. Can be applied to any part of the animal's body as a counter- 
 irritant. 
 
 Nux Vomica. Use 2 teaspoonfuls for cattle; 1 level teaspoonful for 
 horses; 10 to 15 grains or a little on the tip of a small spoon for sheep and hogs. 
 This is poisonous, but is used for animals in a rundown condition. Very good 
 when used in condition powders. Acts as a stimulant. 
 
 Peppermint, Essence of. Use l / 2 teaspoonful for cattle; 20 drops for 
 horses ; 5 to 10 drops for sheep and pigs. Give in warm water with sugar. Used 
 in colic and indigestion for pains in the stomach. 
 
 Resin. Use y 2 to 1 tablespoonful for cattle; 5 teaspoonfuls for horses; 
 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for sheep and hogs. This has a very good effect on the kid- 
 neys of all animals and is quite often used as one of the ingredients in condition 
 powders and stock foods. This is given in the ground or powdered form. 
 
 Salt. Good when used as an antiseptic. Keeps animal in condition. 
 Always give animals plenty of salt. 
 
 Saltpeter. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls for cattle; 2 tablespoonfuls for 
 horses ; 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for sheep and hogs. Stimulates kidneys, reduces 
 fever and watery swellings. Good blood purifier. 
 
MISCELLANEi >1 T S -\\-> 
 
 Sulphur. Use 1 tablospoonful for cattle; I tablespoonfnl for horse 
 to 1 teaspoonful for sheep and pijjs. This is good for lice, internally or exter- 
 nally, and a blood purifier. 
 
 Sweet Spirits of Nitre. Use 4 to 6 good tablespoonfuls for cattle; 2 to 
 1 tablespoonfuls for horses; 2 to 4 teaspoonfuls for sheep and ho^s. This sin mid 
 always be kept on the farm. It is very good for sudden attacks of colic, indiges- 
 tion, inflammation of the kidneys and reduces fever. 
 
 Turpentine. Use 4 to 6 tablespoonfuls for cattle; 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls 
 for horses, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls for sheep and hogs. This is fine for colic, worms, 
 bloat, and is good as a stimulant or externally as a liniment. It can be mixed 
 with lard if applied to a wound. 
 
 Vinegar. (See Acetic Acid). 
 
 BEES. 
 
 The bee industry is becoming one 
 of the profitable and interesting occupa- 
 tions for people on small farms, and as 
 "extra" work for the boys and girls on 
 the farm. There is a great opportunity 
 for development. As the industry itself 
 is so little known, many fine articles 
 which are written do not reach the peo- 
 ple who wish to read them. Such topics 
 as "Beginning with Bees," "Wintering," 
 "Feeding and Breeding," "Diseases of 
 Bees," as well as articles on Honey, 
 Combinations of Bees and Poultry, 
 Bee Outfits, etc., can be obtained from 
 specialists in this line. The Government 
 has a number of good documents. Va- 
 rious State Experiment Stations are good 
 sources. A very well recognized organi- 
 zation that takes pleasure in the distri- 
 bution of bee literature and information 
 is the A. T. Ropt Bee Company of Me- 
 dina, Ohio. 
 
LIVE STOCK BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 MANY stockmen enjoy having a more or less complete 
 library of books treating in detail and at length the numer- 
 ous subjects and phases of live stock husbandry. A few of 
 the best books on important subjects and two of the most gen- 
 erally read live stock periodicals follow. The publishers of "The 
 Stock Book," will gladly help you to secure them : 
 
 "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," Plumb. 
 "Judging Farm Animals," Plumb. 
 "Breeding Farm Animals," Mumford. 
 "Feeds and Feeding," Henry and Morrison. 
 "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production," Eckles. 
 "Beef Cattle Production," Mumford. 
 "Pork Production," Day. 
 "Sheep Management," Kleinheinz. 
 "Horse Production," Gay. 
 
 LIVE STOCK PERIODICALS 
 
 "Breeder's Gazette," Chicago, 111. A weekly publi- 
 cation devoted to all classes of live stock. 
 
 "Hoard's Dairymen," Fort Atkinson, Wis. A 
 weekly journal devoted to dairy farming. 
 
 414 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Abbatoirs Slaughterhouses. 
 
 Abrasion A breaking of the outer layer of the skin or mucous membrane. 
 
 Absorptive Having power to absorb. 
 
 Accessories Assistants. 
 
 Accrue To increase. 
 
 Acidulation Act of making moderately sour or acid. 
 
 Aerate To expose to action of air. 
 
 Aerated Supplied or impregnated with common air. 
 
 Agar Sea weed. 
 
 Aggregate To collect into a mass. 
 
 Albuminous Containing albumen. 
 
 Alveoli Deep cavities in the receptacles of composite flowers, as the cotton- 
 thistle. 
 
 Annual Yearly ; returning every year. 
 
 Anthracuose A destructive disease of plants usually manifested by 1 dis- 
 colored spots. 
 
 Antiseptic Preventing or destroying putrefaction. 
 
 Aperture Opening. 
 
 Aphid Bee-like insect. 
 
 Aphids Plant lice. 
 
 Appendicular Like a small appendage. 
 
 Aspergillus Brush used by priests to sprinkle holy water. 
 
 Assimilate To take up or change a thing or element, to make it harmonize 
 with another. 
 
 Assimilated Incorporated or transformed into a homogenous part of some- 
 thing. 
 
 Astringent An agent producing contraction of organic tissues. 
 
 Autopneumatic Self-operated by air. 
 
 Awn One of the barbed appendages known collectively as the beard, in 
 barley, oats, etc. 
 
 Bacterial Pertaining to or consisting of bacteria in the widest sense ; result- 
 ing from or caused by bacteria. 
 Bacterial Resembling bacteria. 
 
 Barrel Name given to large stomach of horse or cow. 
 
 415 
 
416 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 Biennial Occurring every two years. 
 Biliary Conveying the bile. 
 Bolls Pods of a plant. 
 
 Calcareous Containing lime. 
 
 Cam A wedge-shaped clamp which moves about an axis. 
 
 Canula Small tube left in wound after tapping to enable escape of air or 
 
 fluid. 
 
 Capillary A minute blood-vessel. 
 Capsicum A large tropical herb, the pulverized berries of which are used 
 
 as a stimulant and counter irritant in neuralgia and rheumatism. Also 
 
 used as a spice. 
 
 Carbohydrates Vegetables containing fats. 
 Carbolized Filled with carbolic acid. 
 Carbonaceous Containing or composed of carbon. 
 Carunculations Fleshy elevation of surface. 
 Cast To throw. 
 
 Catalpa Genus of American and East Indian trees. 
 Cauterize To burn over. 
 Cellulose Containing cells. 
 Centrifugal Radiating from center. 
 Chime Edge or border. 
 Chufas (pi. of chufa) A kind of sedge of southern Europe. It produces small 
 
 edible tubers of which hogs are fond. 
 Circulis Any snout beetle. 
 
 Coagulate To curdle ; clot ; congeal ; to form into a compact mass. 
 Collards A variety of kale, used as a green vegetable. Found mainly in 
 
 South. 
 
 Colocynth A drastic cathartic, causing a watery discharge. 
 Colostrum The first milk of a mammal after giving birth. 
 Combustible That may be set on fire and burned. 
 
 Commutator A device to change the direction or strength of an electric 
 current. 
 
 Complication Combination of diseases. 
 
 Component Helping to form; a part. 
 
 Composted Manured. 
 
 Compress A folded piece of cloth used over a wound. 
 
 Compressor A device for producing a graduated pressure upon an object. 
 
 Concentrates Something reduced to state of purity. 
 
 Conclave Gathering. 
 
GLOSSARY 417 
 
 Concretion Act of growing together. 
 
 Conspicuous Plainly visible. 
 
 Constituents Elements, or component parts. 
 
 Constitutional Inherited disease; those that are general or that pervade the 
 
 whole system. 
 Contributory Pertaining to giving jointly in common with others for a 
 
 common purpose. 
 
 Convalescence The period of recovery after disease. 
 Copulation Sexual connection. 
 Correlation A mutual or reciprocal relation, as of part to part, or of parts 
 
 to a whole. 
 
 Corrosion Eating away. 
 
 Corrosive A substance that eats away or destroys. 
 Costive Constipated. 
 
 Cropping To cut off the tops or tips of; to reap. 
 
 Culms Jointed stems of grass which are usually hollow except at the nodes. 
 Curbs An inclosing frame, border or edging. An edging of upright stone 
 
 along the outer limit of a sidewalk. 
 Cuspidor A spittoon. 
 Cylinder Long tube. 
 
 Debilitant An agent allaying excitement ; weakening. 
 
 Debris Ruins ; rubbish. 
 
 Decomposition Decay; the analysis of a body; disintegration. 
 
 Delirium A temporary state of mental disturbance, manifested by irrita- 
 tion and confusion. 
 
 Demarcation The limit boundary, or lines so fixed or determined. 
 
 Depleted Reduced, lessened or emptied. 
 
 Desquamation The separation or shedding of the cuticle or epidermis in 
 the form of flakes or scales. 
 
 Dilator An instrument for stretching a cavity; also a dilating muscle. 
 
 Distillation Vaporization of a liquid with subsequent condensation. 
 
 Diuretic A medicine increasing the flow of urine. 
 
 Dividends The profits apportioned among shareholders. 
 
 Dolomite A marble-like substance consisting of calcium-magnesium car- 
 bonate. 
 
 Dropsical Diseased with dropsy; tending to dropsy. 
 
 Ecraseur A wire loop or chain for amputating. 
 Effusion Pouring out of liquid. 
 
418 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 Elements Essential parts of anything. 
 
 Emaciated Wasted away in flesh. 
 
 Emaciation A loss of flesh; leanness. 
 
 Emasculation Act of removing testicles. 
 
 Emasculator One who castrates. 
 
 Embryonic Pertaining to the embryo. 
 
 Emmer A hardy cereal grain, related to spelt, commonly cultivated in 
 
 Russia and Germany where it is used as stock feed and is also made 
 
 into gruel and porridge. 
 
 Endive An annual or yeai-ty plant with long root. 
 Endosperm The nutritive tissue formed within the embryo sac in seed 
 
 plants. 
 
 Enteritis Inflammation of the bowels 
 Enumerated Named one by one. 
 Epithelial Pertaining to epithelium. 
 
 Epithelium Tissue forming outer layer of mucous membrane. 
 Erosion Act of wearing away. 
 Erroneous Incorrect, mistaken. 
 
 Erysipelatous Pertaining to or of the nature of erysipelas. 
 Escutcheon Any shield-shaped surface or device. 
 Essential Necessary ; substantial. 
 Eucalyptus A tree native of Austria and Tasmania ; Eucalyptus oil made 
 
 from the leaves. 
 
 Eustachian Tube Canal to supply air to part of ear. 
 Evacuation Defecation ; the act of voiding. 
 Excreta Waste matter eliminated from the body. 
 Excretion The discharged waste products of the body. 
 Expectoration The expulsion of the secretions from the chest. 
 Extenuating Diminishing. 
 
 Fallacy Unproved statement. 
 
 Fanging Seizing, grasping. 
 
 Feces Sediment after infusion or distillation ; dregs ; refuse ; excrement. 
 
 Feldspar An important constituent of rocks. 
 
 Flat Any field growing a crop. 
 
 Flatulence The presence of gas in the digestive canal. 
 
 Flatulent Characterized by flatulence. 
 
 Floats, Float A heavy platform of planks for drawing over the soil to 
 
 compact it and improve its mechanical condition. 
 Foetus or Fetus The product of conception after fourth month of gestation. 
 
GLOSSARY 419 
 
 Frenching-A fungus disease of uncertain nature affecting plants, causing 
 
 the leaves to lose color and die. 
 Fundamental Essential ; indispensable. 
 Fungicides Any substances that destroy fungi. 
 Fungoid Character of fungus. 
 
 Generation Process of producing offspring; reproduction; descent; gen- 
 ealogy. 
 
 Germinate To sprout. 
 
 Gestation The act of bearing; pregnancy. 
 Get Offspring; breed. 
 Gilts Young sows. 
 
 Girdled Enclosed; bound with a belt or sash. 
 Glaciated Acted upon by ice and snow. 
 Globular Globe-shaped. 
 Glucose A syrup obtained by imperfect conversion of starch into sugar. 
 
 Haw Third eyelid of horse. 
 
 Hectic Habitual ; reddening of the cheeks in tuberculosis. 
 
 Helebore A genus of herbs. 
 
 Herbaceous Pertaining to or having the characteristics of an herb; herb- 
 like. 
 
 Hernia A protrusion consisting of an organ or part projecting through 
 some natural or accidental opening in its natural cavity. 
 
 Humus Dark colored substance formed by the decay of vegetable matter. 
 
 Hydrated Combined with water. 
 
 tji 
 Igneous Pertaining to or resembling fire. 
 
 Immune Safe from attack. 
 
 Impalpable Not capable of being felt. 
 
 Impervious Not capable of being penetrated. 
 
 Impervious Permitting no passage into or through; impenetrable. 
 
 Impoverished Reduced to poverty; poor. 
 
 Incrustration The formation of a crust. 
 
 Indiscriminate Making no difference or distinction. 
 
 Infection The communication of disease germs. 
 
 Infiltration The act or process of filtrating or passing through. 
 
 Inoculated (Soil) Having introduced special forms of micro organisms 
 by means of infected soil or pure cultures to promote fixation and as- 
 similation of free nitrogen and other beneficial activities. 
 
420 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 Inoculation The introduction of the virus of a particular disease into the 
 system through the skin. 
 
 Insecticides An insect destroyer. 
 
 Insoluble A substance that cannot be dissolved. 
 
 Insulator A device made of an insulating substance for preventing the pas- 
 sage of electricity, heat or sound. 
 
 lodism A morbid state produced by the use of iodine and its compounds. 
 
 Irreparable That cannot be rectified or made amends 'for. 
 
 Irritation Excitement ; stimulation. 
 
 Judicious Wise ; prudent. 
 
 Kafir Indian millet. 
 
 Kainit A natural salt used as a fertilizer. 
 
 Kalsomine (Calcimine) A wash consisting of a mixture of whiting, with 
 
 glue and water, often tinted. 
 Kaolin A clay-like compact friable or mealy, pearly to earthy, white, grayish, 
 
 or reddish hydrous, aluminum silicate. 
 
 Koumiss Fermented mare's milk. 
 
 i 
 
 Laceration A rending, or tearing of the flesh. 
 
 Lactation Time of suckling or milk period. 
 
 Languor Sluggishness, inaction or inertness. 
 
 Laquered Paneled or spaced. 
 
 Laterals A side ditch or canal. 
 
 Leaching Sinking into ground. 
 
 Legumes Pods of the seed-bearing plants, as beans and peas. 
 
 Leguminous Relating to legume ; bearing plants. 
 
 Lesions A hurt ; an injury. Med : Any morbid change in exercise of func- 
 tions. 
 
 Lespedeza One seeding; one jointed pod plant. 
 
 Levy Collect. 
 
 Ligatured Tied or stopped blood vessel. 
 
 Lobe A projecting part, especially if rounded or globular, as of the ear or of 
 a leaf or petal. 
 
 Lobes Rounded part or projection. 
 
 Locknut Nut to keep other nuts from slipping. 
 
 Loppered Clotted ; scoured. 
 
 Lupine Any plant of the seed-bearing species. 
 
GLOSSARY 421 
 
 Macule A spot or blemish. 
 
 Malanders Eruption on hock of horse. 
 
 Maturity The state of being developed. 
 
 Mediocre A middle quantity. 
 
 Metamorphic Liable to variation or change; producing changes that go 
 
 on in rocks. 
 
 Microscopic Very small. 
 Minimum A portion so small as to be incapable of further division; an 
 
 atom. 
 
 Miscible Mixable. 
 Moldboard A curved plate of iron back of a plowshare. It turns over the 
 
 earth in plowing. 
 
 Mottler A brush used in mottling. 
 Mulch A covering of the soil with any loose material. 
 Mummies The embalmed bodies of human beings or sacred animals. 
 Muriade A chloride. 
 
 Nasturtiums A plant (dwarf or climbing) of any one of several species of 
 
 the genus Tropaeolum. 
 Neutralize To render ineffective. 
 Neutralizing Checking the action of an agent. 
 Nitrifying Combining or treating with nitrogen. 
 Nitrogenous Containing nitrogen. 
 Non-symboliotic Not mutual. 
 
 Obesity Fatness ; corpulence. 
 Oblique Slant. 
 
 Obviates Removes from the way or path. 
 Offal Waste meat. 
 
 Omasium The small stomach of the cow. 
 Optimum Best or most favorable degree. 
 
 Organic Showing animal or vegetable characteristics ; pertaining to or having 
 organs. 
 
 Paddock Inclosed space 
 
 Palatability State of being pleasing to the taste. 
 
 Palatable Acceptable ; agreeable to the palate or taste. 
 
 Palate Roof of mouth. 
 
 Panicle A tuft on plants. 
 
 Paroxysm A spasm or fit ; a convulsion. 
 
 Parturition Act of bringing forth young. 
 
422 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 p ec tin A white amorphous compound contained in various fleshy fruits 
 
 as apples or pears. 
 
 Peptones Products of digestion which cannot be precipitated by ammonium 
 sulphate. 
 
 Peptonized Converted into peptone. To digest or dissolve by a proteolytic 
 ferment. 
 
 Percolation Seeping through. 
 
 Perennial Continuing through the year or through many years. 
 
 Perforation State of being pierced through. 
 
 Peritonitis Inflammation of the peritoneum or lining of the abdomen. 
 
 Pestle Instrument used to pound or pulverize. 
 
 Pictorially Representing in or as if in pictures. 
 
 Piquancy Cleverness; brightness; sauciness. 
 
 Plethoric Full-blooded. 
 
 Pliant Flexible, easily bent or twisted. 
 
 Polled Dehorned. 
 
 Porosity State of being porous or containing holes. 
 
 Port Hole for passage of steam or water. 
 
 Potency Mental, moral or physical power. 
 
 Potential Endowed with power; existing in possibility, not in actuality. 
 
 Poulard A fat pullet. 
 
 Poult A young chicken. 
 
 Predisposition Previous inclination ; tendency. 
 
 Prepotency Superior, powerful. 
 
 Progeny Offspring ; descendants. 
 
 Prolific Fruitful. 
 
 Prolificacy Producing or reproducing. The quality of being prolific. 
 
 Promiscuously Indiscriminately. 
 
 Propagated To be produced or multiplied. 
 
 Prostration Extreme nervous exhaustion. 
 
 Protein Nitrogenous material in vegetable or animal substances. 
 
 Pupa The intermediate, usually quiescent, form assumed by metabolic in- 
 sects after the larval stage. 
 
 Purulent Having the character of pus. 
 
 Pustules Elevations resembling pimples or blisters. 
 
 Putrefaction Decayed ; process of putrefying. 
 
 Pyrethrum Plant good for medicine. 
 
 Quarantine To compel to remain at a distance without intercourse, when 
 suspected of having contagious disease. 
 
GLOSSARY 423 
 
 Raspacious Given to plunder. 
 
 Rebushing To furnish again with bush or lining. 
 
 Rectangular Longer on two sides than on the ends. 
 
 Reeving To pass through a hole. 
 
 Rejuvenation To reinvigorate ; to stimulate. 
 
 Residue That which remains after a part is taken or removed; remnant; 
 
 remainder. 
 Rotation (of crops) The cultivation of a succession of different crops on the 
 
 same piece of land before it is again planted with the original crop. 
 Roughage Coarse fodder; any rough or coarse substance. 
 Rumen Largest stomach of cow or sheep. 
 
 Saline Consisting of salt or containing salt. 
 
 Sallenders An eruption occurring on hind leg of horse ; similar to malanders. 
 
 Scrofulous Cold abscess. 
 
 Scurfy Having or producing thin dry scales or scabs on the body; as 
 
 dandruff. 
 
 Seasonal Pertaining to a season. 
 Sedative Soothing insidiously ; treacherously. 
 Sedentary Occupied in sitting. 
 Sedimentary Having the character of sediment. 
 Sedimentation Act or process of depositing sediment. 
 Semi-arid Half barren. 
 
 Septic A substance that promotes putrefaction. 
 Sequela (pi.) Sequelae Followers, results. 
 Shanks The lower part of the leg. 
 Shot (Surveying) Range in general. 
 Shucks Husks ; bundles of sheaves. 
 Silt Soil. 
 
 Siphon Tube to draw liquid from well or container. 
 Siphonage The action of a siphon or tube in conveying a liquid from one 
 
 vessel to another at a lower level. 
 Sizing Applying a liquid used by painters. 
 Slavor Running at mouth. 
 
 Sludge Material from waste soap, liquors or wool-scouring industries. 
 Sludge Mud; mire; slush; to cover or fill in with soft mud or mire. 
 Soiling Crops Those that enrich the soil for succeeding crops, such as the 
 
 legumes, etc. 
 Soluble May be dissolved. 
 
424 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 Solvent An agent capable of dissolving substances. 
 
 Sordes Foul matter; excretion; useless matter. Med: The crust that col- 
 lects on the teeth and lips in low fever. 
 
 Spatula Broad bladed paddle or knife. 
 
 gpelt A race of wheat having loose ears, the grains being hung triangular 
 in cross sections. 
 
 Spike An ear of corn or grain. 
 
 Spores Any minute organization; germs. 
 
 Spuddung Digging ; removing. 
 
 Stale Urine of horses or cattle. 
 
 Stallioners Men who travel with stallions. 
 
 Stanchion Upright bars, posts or timber forming a principal support. 
 
 Stavesacre European and Asiatic larkspur. Seeds contain delphinine; a 
 violent emetic and cathartic. 
 
 Stimulant An agent increasing functional activity. 
 
 Stover Fodder or food for cattle. 
 
 Subcutaneous Lying beneath the skin. 
 
 Subsequent Succeeding or following. 
 
 Substantiate To verify. 
 
 Succulent Juicy. 
 
 Suffice To be enough. 
 
 Sump Puddle or pool. 
 
 Superficial Pertaining to surface; shallow. 
 
 Supines Plants of the genus Lupinus. 
 
 Susceptible Yielding readily; capable of being influenced. 
 
 Symbiosis Living together. 
 
 Symmetry Harmonious relation of parts. Similarity of parts on opposite 
 sides of an axis or center. 
 
 Tamped Packed down. 
 
 Tankage Waste matter from tanks. 
 
 Teosinte A large grass grown for fodder in many warm countries. 
 
 Testicle One of the genital glands of the male in which spermatozoa and 
 
 other portions of the semen are formed. 
 Thurl To drill or bore; specifically in mining. Crossholes or ventilation 
 
 passages between two headings. 
 Tillage Preparing land for seed ; cultivation. 
 Tiller A sprout; a shoot. 
 
 Tillering To put forth new shoots from the roots. 
 Tilth Cultivation. 
 
GLOSSARY 425 
 
 Topography The description in detail of any tract of land, place or region ; 
 
 as in surveying a country. 
 Trachea Windpipe. 
 
 Transpiration A passing through or out ; escape. 
 
 Trocar Instrument for puncturing animals and letting out fluid or gas. 
 Turbidity A disturbed condition. 
 
 Ulceration The process of forming an ulcer, or becoming ulcerous. 
 
 Vehicle A medium, as a liquid with which is mixed some other substance 
 
 that it may be applied or administered more easily. 
 Velocities Speeds. 
 
 Velocity Swiftness ; speed ; to cover or fill in with soft mud or mire. 
 Vertebrae One of the segmented portions of the spinal column. 
 Vesicles Small blisters. 
 Vetch A fabaceous plant ; like a bean. 
 Viability Ability to live. 
 Viability Being capable of living. 
 Virus A slimy or poisonous liquid. Med: The poison or contagium of 
 
 an infectious disease. 
 Viscid Viscous (See Viscous). 
 
 Viscous A gummy substance produced in glutinous fermentation. 
 Vitrified Turned or converted into glass ; to resemble glass. 
 Vogue Fashion ; style ; mode. To row ; to soil. 
 Voided Cleared or vacated. 
 Voracious Greedy ; hoggish. 
 
 Whorls Turns. 
 
 Woolly Aphis A woolly plant louse. 
 
MEMORANDA 
 
INDEX 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 A. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Abortion 74 
 
 Abortion, Home Prevention for 75 
 
 Action of Drugs in Cattle and Horses. 73 
 
 Advantage in Breeding Grade Animals 4 
 Advantage in Breeding Pure Bred 
 
 Animals 4 
 
 Advantages in Finished Cattle.'. 50 
 
 Afterbirth, Retained 75 
 
 Alfalfa Meal :32 
 
 Anatomy of Cattle 71 
 
 Animal Breeding, Definitions 
 
 Applying to 2 
 
 Animal Breeding, Factors that 
 
 Insure Success 3 
 
 Animals, Cross Bred 3 
 
 Animals, Farm, Importance of 1 
 
 Animals, Grade, Advantages in 
 
 Breeding 4 
 
 Animals, Grade and High Grade 3 
 
 Animals, Mongrel and Scrub 3 
 
 Animals. Pure Bred 3 
 
 Animals. Pure Bred, Advantages 
 
 in Breeding 4 
 
 Anthrax 75 
 
 B. 
 
 Baby Beef Production 55 
 
 Back, Grubs in the 86 
 
 Bandaging and Stitching Wounds 73 
 
 Barley 31 
 
 Barn, Dairy 37 
 
 Barn Work, Dairy, Schedule 
 
 for Winter 25 
 
 Barrenness in Cows and Bulls 75 
 
 Beef, Baby, Production 55 
 
 Beef, Breeding Herd, General Care.... ."><> 
 
 Beef, Calves, Methods of Rearing 57 
 
 Beef Cattle, Most Desirable Types 49 
 
 Beef Cattle Production 45-55 
 
 Beef Cattle, Pure Bred Production 45 
 
 Beef Cattle, Score Card 46 
 
 Beet Pulp, Dried 32 
 
 Beet Tops, Sugar and Corn, Sfiagc 
 
 from ' 37 
 
 Best Breed to Select 2 
 
 Bites, Frost 86 
 
 Bites, Snake and Insect 90 
 
 Black Leg ""> 
 
 Black Leg, Prevention for 7G 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bleeding 70 
 
 Blind Staggers 76 
 
 Bloat 76 
 
 Blocked Teats or Structure of 
 
 the Teats 78 
 
 Blood, Good Circulation Important... 19 
 
 Blood, Impure 88 
 
 Blood Letting 78 
 
 Blood Poisoning 78 
 
 Bloody Milk 79 
 
 Bowels, Inflammation of* Enteritis 89 
 
 Bran or Feed, Buckwheat 31 
 
 Bran, Wheat 30 
 
 Breathing in Young Calves (How 
 
 to Start) 79 
 
 Breed, Best to Select 2 
 
 Breeders of Live Stock, Classified 4 
 
 Breeding Animal, Definitions Apply- 
 ing to 2 
 
 Breeding, Animal, Factors that 
 
 Insure Success 3 
 
 Breeding Beef Herd, General Care 56 
 
 Breeding and Constitution Essential... 22 
 
 Breeding, Cross 2 
 
 Breeding Grade Animals, Advan- 
 tages in 4 
 
 Breeding Herd, Feeding 57 
 
 Breeding, Live 2 
 
 Breeding and Management of Live 
 
 Stock 1-10 
 
 Breeding, Natural 2 
 
 Breeding, Promiscuous 2 
 
 Breeding Pure Bred Animals, 
 
 Advantages in 4 
 
 Breeding Pure Bred Live Stock, 
 
 Wherein it is more Expensive 4 
 
 Breeds of Cattle 10 
 
 Breeds and Types of Dairy Cows, 
 
 Essentials for Success 13 
 
 Breeds and Types, Necessity for 1 
 
 Brewers' Dried Grains 31 
 
 Brewers' Wet Grains 32 
 
 Bronchitis 79 
 
 Buckwheat Bran or Feed 31 
 
 Buckwheat By-Product 31 
 
 Buckwheat Hulls 31 
 
 Buckwheat Middlings 31 
 
 Buffalo Gnat 80 
 
 Bulls and Calves. Castration of 73 
 
 Bulls and Cows, Barrenness in 75 
 
 427 
 
428 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 Bulls, Management and Selection 59 
 
 Buying Cows, Disadvantages 14 
 
 Buying Feeds for Dairy Rations 29 
 
 By-Products of Buckwheat 31 
 
 c. 
 
 Calf, Feed Hay and Grain Carefully.. 40 
 Calf, Feed Skim Milk and Silage 
 
 During Fifth Week 40 
 
 Calf, Give Colostrum or First Milk... 40 
 
 Calf Should be Well Born 40 
 
 Calves, Beef, Methods of Rearing 57 
 
 Calves and Bulls, Castration of 73 
 
 Calves, Dairy Raising 39 
 
 Calves, Dehorning 82 
 
 Calves, Dehorning with Caustic Potash 43 
 Calves, Don't Allow to Suck one 
 
 Another 41 
 
 Calves, Feed Regularly First Year.... 41 
 
 Calves, Grain Mixture for 41 
 
 Calves, Grow Well and Breed 
 
 Second Year 41 
 
 Calves, Indigestion in 88 
 
 Calves, Keep Stables Clean 41 
 
 Calves, Lung Worms in 92 
 
 Calves, New Born, Constipation in.... 81 
 Calves, Raising on Oil Meal Gruel.. 41 
 
 Calves, Stomach Worms in 97 
 
 s Calves, Treating for Scours 42 
 
 Calves, Treatment for Lice and 
 
 Ringworm 45 
 
 Calves, Use of Whey 42 
 
 Calves, Young, Breathing in 
 
 (How to Start) 79 
 
 Calving Time, Care of Cows 24 
 
 Capped Elbow 80 
 
 Carbohydrates, Feeds 29 
 
 Card, Score for Beef Cattle 46 
 
 Card, Score for Dairy Cow 17 
 
 Care and Feed of Dairy Cow 23-33 
 
 Care, General, of the Breeding 
 
 Beef Herd 56 
 
 Care, General, of Fattening Cattle.... 54 
 
 Castration of Calves and Bulls 73 
 
 Catarrh 80 
 
 Cattle, Beef, Most Desirable Type 49 
 
 Cattle, Beef, Score Card 46 
 
 Cattle, Breeds of 10 
 
 Cattle, Dairy, Characteristics 13 
 
 Cattle, Dairy, Production and 
 
 Management 13-23 
 
 Cattle, Diseases of 62-100 
 
 Cattle Diseases, General Symptoms. 62-70 
 
 Cattle, Equipment for Feeding 53 
 
 Cattle, Fat, How to Ship 55 
 
 Cattle, Fattening in Feed Lot 48 
 
 Cattle, Fattening, General Care of.... 54 
 
 Cattle, Fattening on Grass 48 
 
 Cattle, Fattening, Grooming 54 
 
 Cattle, Fattening, Salt and Water for. 54 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Cattle, Finished, Advantages in 50 
 
 Cattle, General Purpose Type 9 
 
 Cattle Grazing 47 
 
 Cattle, Hogs Should Follow 53 
 
 Cattle and Horses, Action of 
 
 Drugs in 73 
 
 Cattle, Market, Classes and Grades.... 49 
 
 Cattle, Marketing 54 
 
 Cattle for Meat Purposes 45 
 
 Cattle Production 7-11 
 
 Cattle Production, Beef 45-55 
 
 Cattle Production and Management 
 
 Dairy 13-23 
 
 Cattle, Pure Breed Beef, Production... 45 
 
 Cattle, Treatment of Diseases 71-100 
 
 Cattle, Turning Onto Pasture 48 
 
 Cattle, Types of 7 
 
 Caustic Potash, Dehorning Calves 
 
 with 43 
 
 Chapped Teats 80 
 
 Characteristics of Dairy Cattle 13 
 
 Choking 80 
 
 Chop, Hominy 30 
 
 Chronic, Dysentery 82 
 
 Circulation, Good Blood Important... 19 
 Classes and Grades of Market Cattle.. 49 
 
 Colic 81 
 
 Colostrum, Give Calf 40 
 
 Common Deficiencies in Cows 21 
 
 Composition of Feeds 27 
 
 Concentrated Feeds, Corn 29 
 
 Concentrated Feeds, Description 
 
 and Definition 29 
 
 Condition of Pastures 47 
 
 Conditions Influencing Margin of 
 
 Profit, Other 50 
 
 Constipation 81 
 
 Constipation in New Born Calves 81 
 
 Constitution and Breeding Essential 22 
 
 Continental Gluten Feed 30 
 
 Corn 29 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal 30 
 
 Corn, Length to Cut for Silage 36 
 
 Corn in Silo, Distribution Important.. 36 
 Corn and Sugar Beet Tops, Silage 
 
 from 37 
 
 Cornstalk Disease 81 
 
 Cornstalk Disease, Preventative 
 
 Treatment 82 
 
 Cotton Seed Meal and Feed 32 
 
 Cow, Dairy, Care and Feed 23-33 
 
 Cow, Dairy, Parts of 16 
 
 Cow, Dairy, Score Card for 17 
 
 Cow Drenching a 73 
 
 Cow, None Perfect 21 
 
 Cow Pox 82 
 
 Cows and Bulls, Barrenness in 75 
 
 Cows, Calving Time, Care of 24 
 
 Cows, Care of in Summer Time 25 
 
 Cows, Care of in Winter Time 25 
 
 Cows, Common Deficiencies in 21 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 429 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Cows, Dairy, Feeding 23 
 
 Cows, Dairy, Judging 15 
 
 Cows, Dairy, Soiling Crops vs. 
 
 Silage for 33 
 
 Cows, Dairy, Succession of Soiling 
 
 Crops for 33 
 
 Cows of Dairy Type and Breeds 
 
 ^Essential for Success 13 
 
 Cows, Disadvantages of Buying 14 
 
 Cows, Good Family, Tends to Insure 
 
 Good 23 
 
 Cows Need Room for Digestive Organs 18 
 
 Cows, Points on 24 
 
 Cows, Profit Producing 15 
 
 Crops, Soiling vs. Silage for Dairy 
 
 Cows 33 
 
 Crops, Soiling, Succession for Dairy 
 
 Cows 33 
 
 Crops Suitable for Silo 35 
 
 Cross-Breed Animals 3 
 
 Cross-Breeding o 
 
 Crude Fiber, Feeds 29 
 
 D. 
 
 Dairy Barn 37 
 
 Dairy Barn Work, Schedule for Winter 25 
 
 Dairy Calves, Raising 39 
 
 Dairy Cattle, Characteristics 13 
 
 Dairy Cattle Production and 
 
 Management 13-23 
 
 Dairy Cow, Care and Feed 23-33 
 
 Dairy Cow, Parts of 16 
 
 Dairy Cow, Score Card for 17 
 
 Dairy Cows, Feeding 23 
 
 Dairy Cows, Home-made Grain 
 
 Mixture for 26 
 
 Dairy Cows, Judging 15 
 
 Dairy Cows Soiling Crops vs. Silage for 26 
 Dairy Cows, Succession of Soiling 
 
 Crops for 33 
 
 Dairy Farm Organization 33 
 
 Pairy Feeds, Mixed 32 
 
 Dairy Herd, Establishing 14 
 
 Dairy Herd, Raise Heifer Calves to 
 
 Maintain 14 
 
 Dairy Rations, Buying Feeds for 29 
 
 Dairy Rations, Selection of Feeds for. 26 
 
 Dairy Sire 39 
 
 Dairy Temperament and Milk 
 
 Production 18 
 
 Dairy Types and Breeds of Cows, 
 
 Essential for Success 13 
 
 Dairying as an Industry 13 
 
 Deficiencies, Common in Cows 21 
 
 Dehorning Calves 82 
 
 Dehorning Calves with Caustic 
 
 Potash 43 
 
 Digestive Organs, The 71 
 
 Digestive Organs, Cows Need Room 
 
 for 18 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Disease, Cornstalk gl 
 
 Disease, Foot and Mouth 84 
 
 Disease, Loco ] 92 
 
 Diseases 74 
 
 Diseases of Cattle 62-100 
 
 Diseases of Cattle, General 
 
 Symptoms (^.70 
 
 Diseases of Cattle, Treatment 71-100 
 
 Diseases of Stock, Guide to 61 
 
 Distillers' Grains, Dried '.'.'.'.'. 31 
 
 Distribution of Corn in Silo 
 
 Important 35 
 
 Drenching a Cow , 73 
 
 Dried Beet Pulp 32 
 
 Dried Brewers' Grains 31 
 
 Dried Distillers' Grains 31 
 
 Drugs, Action of in Cattle and 
 
 Horses 73 
 
 Dry Matter, Feeds .,..'...'.'.'.'. 27 
 
 Dysentery, Chronic '. 82 
 
 E. 
 
 Economic Feed, Silage 35 
 
 Eczema 32 
 
 Elbow Chapped 80 
 
 Emmer or Speltz .. , 31 
 
 Enteritis Inflammation of the 
 
 Bowels 89 
 
 Equipment for Cattle Feeding 53 
 
 Establishing a Dairy Herd 14 
 
 Eversipn of the Womb 84 
 
 Eye Pink 94 
 
 Eyes, Sore Inflammation of the 
 
 Eyes go 
 
 F. 
 
 Factors that Insure Success in 
 
 Animal Breeding 3 
 
 Family, Good, Tends to Insure Good 
 
 Cows 23 
 
 Farm Animals, Importance of 1 
 
 Farm Organization, Dairy 33 
 
 Fat Cattle, How to Ship 55 
 
 Fat, Feeds 29 
 
 Feeding Cattle, Equipment for 53 
 
 Fattening Cattle in Feed Lot 48 
 
 Fattening Cattle, General Care 54 
 
 Fattening Cattle on Grass 48 
 
 Fattening Cattle, Grooming 54 
 
 Fattening Cattle, Salt and Water for 54 
 
 Fattening Steers, Rations Suitable for. 51 
 
 Feed, Buckwheat or Bran 31 
 
 Feed and Care of Dairy Cow 23-33 
 
 Feed, Continental Gluten 30 
 
 Feed, Full, Getting Steers on 52 
 
 Feed, Hominy 30 
 
 Feed Lot, Fattening Cattle in 48 
 
 Feed and Meal, Cotton Seed 32 
 
 Feed, Silage and Economic 35 
 
430 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Feeders and Stockers, Production 45 
 
 Feeding the Breeding Herd 57 
 
 Feeding Dairy Cows 23 
 
 Feeding Margin 50 
 
 Feeds, Barley 31 
 
 Feeds, Buying for Dairy Rations ~9 
 
 Feeds, Carbohydrates 29 
 
 Feeds, Composition of 27 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated 29 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated, Corn and Cob 
 
 Meal 30 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated, Flour or Wheat 
 
 Middlings 30 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated, Gluten Meal 
 
 and Gluten Feed 30 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated Red Dog Flour 30 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated, Standard Wheat 
 
 Middlings or Shorts 30 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated, Wheat Bran 30 
 
 Feeds, Concentrated, Wheat By- 
 
 Products 30 
 
 Feeds, Crude Fiber 29 
 
 Feeds, for Dairy Rations, Selection of 26 
 
 Feeds, Dry Matter 27 
 
 Feeds, Fat 29 
 
 Feeds, Mixed Dairy 32 
 
 Feeds, Oats 31 
 
 Feeds, Protein 29 
 
 Feeds, Rye 31 
 
 Feeds, Speltz or Emmer 31 
 
 Fever, Milk 93 
 
 Fever, Texas 97 
 
 Fill Silo, When 36 
 
 Finished Cattle, Advantages in 50 
 
 Flies, Keeping Them off Stock 86 
 
 Flour, Red Dog 30 
 
 Flour or Wheat Middlings 30 
 
 Foot and Mouth Disease 84 
 
 Fourth Stomach, Inflammation of 89 
 
 Frost Bites 86 
 
 G. 
 
 General Purpose Type, Cattle 
 
 General Symptoms, Cattle Diseases. 62 
 Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed.. 
 
 Gnat, Buffalo \ 
 
 Good Family, Tends to Insure Good 
 
 Cows 
 
 Grade Animals, Advantage in Breeding 
 
 Grade and High Grade Animals 
 
 Grain and Hay, Feed Calf Carefully.. 
 
 Grain Mixture for Calves 
 
 Grain Mixtures for Dairy Cattle, 
 
 Home-made 
 
 Grains, Brewers' Wet 
 
 Grains, Dried Brewers' 
 
 Grains, Dried Distillers' 
 
 Grass, Fattening Cattle on 
 
 Grazing Cattle 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 30 
 SO 
 
 23 
 4 
 3 
 
 40 
 41 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 48 
 47 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Grooming, Fattening Cattle 54 
 
 Grubs in the Back 86 
 
 Guide to Diseases of Stock 61 
 
 Guide, Explanation of 61 
 
 Guide, How to Use 61 
 
 H. 
 
 Handling and Production of Market 
 
 Milk 38 
 
 Hay and Grain, Feed Calf Carefully... 40 
 Heifer Calves, Raise, to Maintain 
 
 the Dairy Herd 14 
 
 Herd, Breeding Beef, General Care.'.!'. 56 
 
 Herd, Breeding, Feeding 57 
 
 Herd, Dairy, Establishing 14 
 
 Herd, Dairy, Raise Heifer Calves 
 
 to Maintain 14 
 
 Hernia or Vaginal Rupture 100 
 
 Hernia, Ventral Rupture 96 
 
 High-Grade and Grade Animals 3 
 
 Hind Parts, Paralysis of, During 
 
 Pregnancy 94 
 
 Hogs Should Follow Cattle 53 
 
 Home-made Grain Mixture for Dairy 
 
 Cows 26 
 
 Home Prevention for Abortion 75 
 
 Hominy Feed, Hominy Meal and 
 
 Hominy Chop 30 
 
 Horses and Cattle, Action of Drugs in 73 
 
 How to Make Live Stock Pay 1 
 
 How to Ship Fat Cattle 55 
 
 How to Start Breathing in Young 
 
 Calves 79 
 
 How to Use Guide 61 
 
 Hulls, Buckwheat 31 
 
 I. 
 
 Impaction of the Omasum or Third 
 
 Stomach 86 
 
 Impaction of the Rumen 87 
 
 Importance of Farm Animals 1 
 
 Impure Blood 88 
 
 Inbreeding 2 
 
 Indigestion 88 
 
 Indigestion in Calves 88 
 
 Industry, Dairying as an 13 
 
 Inflammation of the Bowels Enteritis 89 
 
 Inflammation of the Eyes Sore 
 
 Eyes ge 
 
 Inflammation of the Fourth Stomach. 89 
 
 Inflammation of the Kidneys 89 
 
 Inflammation of the Liver 90 
 
 Inflammation of the Udder 90 
 
 Insect and Snake Bites 90 
 
 J. 
 
 Jaundice Yellow 100 
 
 Jaw, Lump 92 
 
 Joint, Open 94 
 
 Judging Dairy Cows .15 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 431 
 
 K. 
 
 Kidneys, Inflammation of the. 
 
 PAGE. 
 . 89 
 
 L. 
 
 Leg, Black 75 
 
 Leg, Black, Prevention for 76 
 
 Length to Cut Corn for Silage 36 
 
 Letting, Blood 78 
 
 Lice 92 
 
 Lice and Ringworm, Treatment of 
 
 Calves for 45 
 
 Linseed Oil Meal 32 
 
 Live Breeding 2 
 
 Live Stock Breeders Calling 5 
 
 Live Stock Breeders, Classified 4 
 
 Live Stock Breeding and Manage- 
 ment 1-10 
 
 Live Stock, How to Make Pay 1 
 
 Live Stock, Pure Bred, Knowledge 
 
 and Skill Required to Breed 5 
 
 Live Stock, Pure Bred, Wherein it is 
 
 More Expensive 4 
 
 Liver, Inflammation of the 90 
 
 Location of Silo 36 
 
 Locked Jaw or Tetanus 92 
 
 Loco Disease 92 
 
 Lump Jaw 92 
 
 Lung Worm in Calves 92 
 
 M. 
 
 Maggots in Wounds and Screw Worms 92 
 
 Malt Sprouts 32 
 
 Management and Breeding of Live 
 
 Stock 1-10 
 
 Management and Feeding, Practical 
 
 Suggestions on 23 
 
 Management and Production Dairy 
 
 Cattle 13-23 
 
 Management and Selection of Bulls.. 59 
 
 Mange ; 92 
 
 Margin, Feeding 50 
 
 Margin, Other Conditions Influencing. 50 
 Market Classes and Grades of Cattle.. 49 
 Market Milk, Production and Handling.. 38 
 
 Marketing Cattle 54 
 
 Matter, Dry, Feeds 27 
 
 Meal, Alfalfa 32 
 
 Meal and Feed, Cotton Seed 32 
 
 Meal Gruel, Oil, Raising Calves on.... 41 
 
 Meal, Hominy 30 
 
 Meal, Linseed Oil 32 
 
 Meat Purposes, Cattle for 45 
 
 Methods of Rearing Beef Calves 57 
 
 Middlings, Buckwheat 31 
 
 Middlings, Standard Wheat or Shorts. 30 
 
 Milk, Bloody 79 
 
 Milk, Fever 93 
 
 Milk, First, Give Calf 40 
 
 Milk, Market, Production and Handling 38 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Milk, Method, Whole 42 
 
 Milk Production and Dairy 
 
 Temperament is 
 
 Milk Scale and Tester Increase 
 
 Profits 23 
 
 Milk, Stringy 97 
 
 Mixed Dairy Feeds 32 
 
 Moisture Necessary for Good Silage.. 36 
 
 Mongrel and Scrub Animals 3 
 
 Mouth and Foot Disease 84 
 
 Mouth, Sore Stomatitis 96 
 
 N. 
 
 Natural Breeding 2 
 
 Navel Rupture 93 
 
 Necessity for Types and Breeds 1 
 
 New Born Calves, Constipation in 81 
 
 o. 
 
 Oats 31 
 
 Oil Meal Gruel, Raising Calves on 41 
 
 Oil Meal, Linseed 32 
 
 Omasum or Third Stomach, 
 
 Impaction of 86 
 
 Open Joint 94 
 
 Organization, Dairy Farm 33 
 
 Organs, The Digestive 71 
 
 Organs, Digestive, Cows Need 
 
 Room for is 
 
 Organs, Respiratory 72 
 
 Organs, Urinary 72 
 
 Out-Crossing 3 
 
 P. 
 Paralysis of Hind Parts During 
 
 Pregnancy 94 
 
 Parts of a Dairy Cow 16 
 
 Pasture Conditions 47 
 
 Pasture, Turning Cattle on 48 
 
 Peritonitis 94 
 
 Pink Eye 94 
 
 Pleurisy 94 
 
 Pneumonia 95 
 
 Poisoning, Blood 78 
 
 Pox, Cow 82 
 
 Practical Suggestions on Feeding 
 
 and Management 23 
 
 Pregnancy, During, Paralysis of Hind 
 
 Parts 94 
 
 Prevention for Black Leg 76 
 
 Prevention, Home, for Abortion 75 
 
 Production of Baby Beef 55 
 
 Production, Beef Cattle 45-55 
 
 Production, Cattle 7-11 
 
 Production and Handling Market 
 
 Milk 38 
 
 Production and Management, Dairy 
 
 Cattle 13-23 
 
 Production of Pure Bred Beef Cattle. 45 
 Production, Records of, Sure Test.... 23 
 Production of Stockers and Feeders... 45 
 Profit-Producing Cows 15 
 
432 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 Profits Milk Scale and Tester Increases 23 
 
 Promiscuous Breeding - 
 
 Protein, Feeds 29 
 
 Pulp, Dried Beet 32 
 
 Pure Bred Animals 3 
 
 Pure Bred Animals, Advantage in 
 
 Breeding 4 
 
 Pure Bred Beef Cattle, Production 45 
 
 Pure Bred Live Stock, Knowledge 
 
 and Skill Required to Breed 5 
 
 Pure Bred Live Stock, Wherein it is 
 
 More Expensive 4 
 
 R. 
 
 Raise Heifer Calves to Maintain the 
 
 Dairy Herd 14 
 
 Raising Dairy Calves 39 
 
 Rations, Dairy, Buying Feeds for 29 
 
 Rations, Dairy Selection of Feeds for. 26 
 Rations, Suitable for Fattening Steers. 51 
 
 Rearing Beef Calves, Methods 57 
 
 Records of Production a Sure Test.. .. 23 
 
 Red Dog Flour 30 
 
 Respiratory Organs 72 
 
 Retained Afterbirth 75 
 
 Ring Worm 95 
 
 Ringworm and Lice, Treatment of 
 
 Calves 45 
 
 Rumen, Impaction of the 87 
 
 Rupture, Navel 93 
 
 Rupture, Vaginal, or Hernia 100 
 
 Rupture, Ventral Hernia 96 
 
 Rye 31 
 
 S. 
 
 Salt and Water for Fattening Cattle.. 54 
 Schedule for Dairy Barn Work 
 
 for Winter 25 
 
 Score Card for Beef Cattle 46 
 
 Score Card for Dairy Cow 17 
 
 Scours 96 
 
 Scours, Precautions Against 42 
 
 Scours, Treating Calves for 42 
 
 Screenings, Wheat 31 
 
 Screw Worms and Maggots in 
 
 Wounds 92 
 
 Scrub and Mongrel Animals 3 
 
 Sealing the Surface, Silage 37 
 
 Seed Meal and Feed, Cotton 32 
 
 Selection of Feeds for Dairy Rations. 26 
 
 Selection and Management of Bulls... 59 
 
 Self- Feeder, Use of 52 
 
 Sharp Wedges Indicate Temperament. 19 
 
 Ship Fat Cattle, How to.' 55 
 
 Shorts or Standard Wheat Middlings. 30 
 
 Silage an Economic Feed 35 
 
 Silage, Length to Cut Corn 36 
 
 Silage, Moisture Necessary for Good. 36 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Silage Must be Well Packed 36 
 
 Silage, Sealing the Surface 37 
 
 Silage and Silos 35 
 
 Silage vs. Soiling Crops for Dairy 
 
 Cows 33 
 
 Silage from Sugar Beet Tops and 
 
 Shock Corn 37 
 
 Silo, Corn in, Distribution Important. 36 
 
 Silo, Crops Suitable for 35 
 
 Silo, Location 36 
 
 Silo, Troubles Not Serious 36 
 
 Silo, When to Fill j 36 
 
 Silos and Silage 35 
 
 Sire, Dairy 39 
 
 Snake, Bites and Insect 90 
 
 Soiling Crops vs. Silage for Dairy 
 
 Cows 33 
 
 Soiling Crops, Succession for Dairy 
 
 Cows 33 
 
 Sore Eyes Inflammation of the Eyes ... 96 
 
 Sore Mouth Stomatitis yo 
 
 Sore Throat 97 
 
 Speltz or Emmer 31 
 
 Sprains 97 
 
 Sprouts, Malt 32 
 
 Stables for Calves, Keep Clean 41 
 
 Staggers, Blind 76 
 
 Stags 49 
 
 Start Breathing in Young Calves, 
 
 How to 79 
 
 Steers, Getting on Full Feed 52 
 
 Steers, Suitable Rations for Fattening 51 
 
 Steers, Use of Self- Feeder 52 
 
 Stifle 97 
 
 Stitching and Bandaging Wounds 73 
 
 Stock Breeding, Live, and Manage- 
 ment 1-10 
 
 Stock Flies, Keeping them off 86 
 
 Stock, Guide to Diseases of 61 
 
 Stock. Live, Breeders Calling 5 
 
 Stock, Live, Breeders Classified 4 
 
 Stock, Live, How to Make Pay 1 
 
 Stock, Live, Pure Bred, Wherein it 
 
 is More Expensive 4 
 
 Stockers and Feeders, Production 45 
 
 Stomach, Fourth, Inflammation of.... 89 
 
 Stomach Worms in Calves 97 
 
 Stomatitis Sore Mouth 96 
 
 Stricture of the Teats or Blocked 
 
 Teats 78 
 
 Stringy Milk 97 
 
 Sugar Beet Tops and Corn, Silage 
 
 From 37 
 
 Suggestions, Practical, on Feeding 
 
 and Management 23 
 
 Summer Time, Care of Cows 25 
 
 Sunstroke 97 
 
 Symptoms, General, Cattle Diseases. 62-70 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 433 
 
 T. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Teats, Chapped 80 
 
 Teats, Stricture of, or Blocked 78 
 
 Temperament, Dairy, and Milk 
 
 Production 18 
 
 Temperament, Sharp Wedges Indicates 19 
 
 Test, Records of Production Sure 23 
 
 Test, Tuberculin 98 
 
 Tester and Milk Scale Increase 
 
 Profits 23 
 
 Tetanus, Lock Jaw, or 92 
 
 Texas Fever 97 
 
 Third Stomach, Omasum or, 
 
 Impaction of 86 
 
 Throat, Sore 97 
 
 Treatment for Diseases of Cattle. .71-100 
 
 Troubles, Silo, Not Serious 36 
 
 Tuberculin Test 98 
 
 Tuberculosis 98 
 
 Types and Breeds of Cattle 10 
 
 Types and Breeds of Dairy Cows, 
 
 Essentials for Success 13 
 
 Types and Breeds, Necessity for 1 
 
 Types of Cattle 7 
 
 Type, General Purpose, Cattle 9 
 
 U. 
 
 Udder, Inflammation of the 90 
 
 Udder, Well Developed 19 
 
 Urinary Organs 72 
 
 y. 
 
 Vaginal Rupture or Hernia 100 
 
 Ventral Hernia Rupture 96 
 
 W. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Warts 100 
 
 Water and Salt for Fattening Cattle.. 54 
 Wedges, Sharp, Indicate Temperament.. 19 
 
 Well Developed Udder 19 
 
 Wet Grains, Brewers' 32 
 
 Wheat Bran 30 
 
 Wheat By-Products 30 
 
 Wheat Middlings or Flour 30 
 
 Wheat Middlings, Standard or Shorts. 30 
 
 Wheat Screenings 31 
 
 Whey, How Used for Calves 42 
 
 Whole Milk Method 42 
 
 Winter Schedule for Dairy Barn Work... 25 
 
 Winter Time, Care of Cows 25 
 
 Womb, Eversion of 84 
 
 Worm, Ring 95 
 
 Worms, Lung, in Calves 92 
 
 Worms, Screw, and Maggots in 
 
 Wounds 92 
 
 Worms, Stomach, in Calves 97 
 
 Wounds, Bandaging and Stitching.... 73 
 Wounds, Maggots in, and Screw 
 
 Worms . 98 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellows Jaundice 100 
 
 Young Calves, Breathing in (How to 
 Start) 79 
 
 HORSES 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Abortion 152 
 
 Action of Drugs in Horses 135 
 
 Adaptability of Mules 127 
 
 Age to Castrate Colt 118 
 
 Age of Horse, How to tell the 127 
 
 Age, Proper, for Service 118 
 
 Alfalfa and Clover Hay for Horses 122 
 
 Amount of Grains to Feed 123 
 
 Amount of Hay to Feed 122 
 
 Assisting at Birth, Care in 
 
 Foaling Time 112 
 
 Azoturia 152 
 
 B. 
 
 Balls or Pills 135 
 
 Bandages and Blankets, Care of the 
 
 Sick and Injured 133 
 
 Barrenness I 52 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Big Head 153 
 
 Big Leg 153 
 
 Birth at, Care of Foal 114 
 
 Birth, to Four and One Half Years 
 
 Old, Teeth 127 
 
 Blanketing, Clipping and Grooming. .124 
 
 Blankets and Bandages 133 
 
 Blemishes Possible on a Horse 138 
 
 Blind Staggers 158 
 
 Blood Poisoning 158 
 
 Bog Spavin 158 
 
 Boil, Shoe 175 
 
 Bone Spavin 158 
 
 Bots 1 159 
 
 Breeding the Draft Horse 102 
 
 Breeding Light Horses 104 
 
 Breeds and Types of Horses 103 
 
 Bronchitis 159 
 
 Brood Mare, The 105 
 
 Brood Mare, Feed for the 114 
 
434 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Bruise, Stone 177 
 
 Buying a Stallion 120 
 
 Buying the Work Horse 121 
 
 C. 
 
 160 
 
 Capped Hock 
 
 Care in Assisting at Birth, 
 
 Foaling Time 112 
 
 Care and Feed, The, of the Stallion 118 
 
 Care of the Feet and Shoeing. 131 
 
 Care of Foal, at Birth 114 
 
 Care of the Foal's Feet 117 
 
 Care of Harness and Shoulders 125 
 
 Care and Management of the Work 
 
 Horse 121 
 
 Care of the Sick and Injured 133 
 
 Caring for Weak Foals 116 
 
 Casting or Throwing a Horse 132 
 
 Castrate Colt, Age to 118 
 
 Castration 135 
 
 Castration, Swelling after 136 
 
 Catarrh 160 
 
 Classification of Mules 126 
 
 Cleanliness, Foaling Time 112 
 
 Clipping, Grooming and Blanketing. .124 
 
 Clover and Alfalfa Hay for Horses 122 
 
 Colic 161 
 
 Colic, Spasmodic 176 
 
 Colt, Castrate, Age to 118 
 
 Comfortable, Making Patient 133 
 
 Condition of the Teeth 131 
 
 Constipation i . . . . 161 
 
 Corns 161 
 
 Curb 162 
 
 D 
 
 Diarrhea 162 
 
 Disease, Loco 169 
 
 Diseases of Horses 139 
 
 Diseases of Horses, Treatment 
 
 for 152-181 
 
 Distemper 162 
 
 Draft Horse, Breeding the 102 
 
 Draft vs. Light Breeds on the Farm. ..102 
 
 Draft Horses, Score Card for 106 
 
 Drench, The 135 
 
 Dropsy 163 
 
 Drugs, Action of, in Horses 135 
 
 Enteritis 163 
 
 Exercising and Grooming the 
 Stallion 
 
 Farcy or Glanders 166 
 
 Farm, Light Breeds vs. Draft on the. ..102 
 Feed, Amount of Grain to... ..123 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Feed, Amount of Hay to 122 
 
 Feed for the Brood Mare 114 
 
 Feed and Care, The, of the Stallion. . .118 
 
 Feeding Grain, Precautions in 123 
 
 Feeding the Stallion 119 
 
 Feeding and Watering the Work 
 
 Horse 122 
 
 Feeding and Weaning the Foal 116 
 
 Feet, Foal's, Care of the 117 
 
 Feet, Shoeing and Care of the 131 
 
 Fever, Milk 170 
 
 Fever, Swamp 179 
 
 Fistula and Poll-Evil 163 
 
 Fitting, Shoe 132 
 
 Five to Twenty-two Years Old, 
 
 Teeth 131 
 
 Foal, The, Feeding and Weaning 116 
 
 Foal, Orphan, Raising the 116 
 
 Foal The, Training 117 
 
 Foaling, Mare, Stall Suitable for.... Ill 
 Foaling Time, Care in Assisting at 
 
 Birth 112 
 
 Foaling Time, Cleanliness 112 
 
 Foaling Time, The Mare at ill 
 
 Foal's Feet, Care of the 117 
 
 Foals Navel, Solution for Saturating. . .114 
 
 Food for Sick Animals 134 
 
 Founder 164 
 
 Four and One Half Years Old, From 
 
 Birth to, Teeth 127 
 
 Fracture 166 
 
 Galls 165 
 
 General Symptoms, Diseases of 
 
 Horses 139-151 
 
 Giving a Horse Medicine 134 
 
 Glanders or Farcy 166 
 
 Grain to Feed, Amount of 123 
 
 Grain, Grinding 124 
 
 Grain Mixtures for Horses, Suitable.. .123 
 
 Grain, Precautions in Feeding 123 
 
 Grinding Grain 124 
 
 Grooming, Clipping and Blanketing. . .124 
 Grooming and Exercising the 
 
 Stallion 119 
 
 H 
 
 Harness and Shoulders, Care of 125 
 
 Hay to Feed, Amount of 122 
 
 Hay for Horses, Clover and Alfalfa.. 122 
 
 Head, Big 153 
 
 Heaves 167 
 
 Hobble Method for Old Horses, 
 
 Casting or Throwing 133 
 
 Hock, Capped 160 
 
 Horses, Blemishes Possible on a 138 
 
 Horse Medicine, Giving a 134 
 
 Horse Production 101-181 
 
 Horse, Throwing or Casting a 132 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 435 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Horses, Action of Drugs in 135 
 
 Horses, Diseases of 139 
 
 Horses, Judging 104 
 
 Horses, Light, Breeding 104 
 
 Horses, Market Classes and Sub 
 
 Classes of 101 
 
 Horses, Silage for 122 
 
 Horses, Suitable Grain Mixture for 123 
 
 Horses, Watering 124 
 
 I 
 
 Indigestion 167 
 
 Influenza or Pink Eye 171 
 
 Injured and Sick, Care of the 133 
 
 Intestinal Worms . . 167 
 
 Joints, Open 170 
 
 Judging Horses 104 
 
 K 
 Knuckling 169 
 
 Lameness, How to Locate 136 
 
 Lameness, Indications of 137 
 
 Lameness, Location of 137 
 
 Leg, Big 153 
 
 Light Breeds vs. Draft on the Farm... 102 
 
 Light Horses, Breeding 104 
 
 Light Horses, Score Card for 108 
 
 Locate Lameness, How to 136 
 
 Location, Lameness 137 
 
 Lockjaw 169 
 
 Loco Disease 169 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Mule Production 126 
 
 Mules, Adaptability of 127 
 
 Mules, Classification of 126 
 
 Mules, Types of 126 
 
 N 
 
 Navel, Foal's Solution for Saturating. .114 
 Number of Mares Stallion Should 
 Serve 118 
 
 O 
 
 One-Man Method, Casting or 
 
 Throwing 133 
 
 Open Joints 170 
 
 Orphan Foal, Raising the 116 
 
 Owners, Suggestions for Stallion 120 
 
 Paralysis 170 
 
 Patient Comfortable, Making 133 
 
 Pills or Balls 135 
 
 Pink Eye or Influenza 171, 
 
 Pneumonia 171 
 
 Poisoning, Blood 158 
 
 Poll Evil .".. 172 
 
 Poll Evjl and Fistula 163 
 
 Precaution, A, in the Use of Stallions. .120 
 
 Precautions in Feeding Grain 123 
 
 Pregnant Mare, The 107 
 
 Preparation for Throwing 133 
 
 Price of Horses for Year 1916, 
 
 Monthly Average 102 
 
 Production, Mule 126 
 
 Proper Age for Service 118 
 
 M 
 Maggots, Screw- Worms, in Wound.... 175 
 
 Making Patient Comfortable 133 
 
 Management and Care of the Work 
 
 Horse 121 
 
 Mange 170 
 
 Mare, The, Brood 105 
 
 Mare Foaling, Stall Suitable for Ill 
 
 Mare, The, at Foaling Time Ill 
 
 Mare, The, Pregnant 107 
 
 Mares, Number of, Stallion Should 
 
 Serve 118 
 
 Mares and Stallions, Sterility in 120 
 
 Market Classes and Sub-Classes of 
 
 Horses 101 
 
 Market Classes and Types 101 
 
 Medicine, Giving a Horse 134 
 
 Medicine, How to Make a Horse 
 
 Swallow I 35 
 
 Milk Fever 170 
 
 Mixtures for Horses, Suitable Grain.. 123 
 Monthly Average Price of Horses for 
 
 Year 1916 102 
 
 Q 
 
 Quarter-Crack 172 
 
 Quittor 172 
 
 R 
 
 Raising the Orphan Foal 116 
 
 Rheumatism 173 
 
 Ringbone 173 
 
 Roaring 173 
 
 Salt, Providing 124 
 
 Score Card for Draft Horses 106 
 
 Score Card for Light Horses 108 
 
 Scratches 175 
 
 Screw-Worms or Maggots in 
 
 Wounds 175 
 
 Serve, Number of Mares Stallion 
 
 Should 118 
 
 Service, Proper Age for 118 
 
 Shoe Boil 175 
 
436 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Shoe Fitting 132 
 
 Shoeing and Care of the Feet 131 
 
 Shoulders and Harness, Care of 125 
 
 Sick Animals, Food for 134 
 
 Sick and Injured, Care of the 133 
 
 Side-Line Method, Throwing or 
 
 Casting 138 
 
 Side Supports 134 
 
 Silage for Horses 122 
 
 Slings 134 
 
 Solution for Saturating Foal's 
 
 Navel 114 
 
 Sore Throat 175 
 
 Spasmodic Colic 176 
 
 Spavin, Bog 158 
 
 Spavin, Bone 158 
 
 Splints 176 
 
 Sprains 176 
 
 Stabling Horses 125 
 
 Staggers, Blind 158 
 
 Staggers, Stomach 177 
 
 Stall Suitable for Mare Foaling Ill 
 
 Stallion, Buying a 120 
 
 Stallion, The, Care and Feed of 118 
 
 Stallion, Exercising and Grooming 
 
 the 119 
 
 Stallion, Feeding the 119 
 
 Stallion Owners, Suggestions for 120 
 
 Stallion Should Serve, Number of 
 
 Mares . . 118 
 
 Stallions and Mares, Sterility in 120 
 
 Stallions, A Precaution in the Use of.. 120 
 
 Sterility in Stallions and Mares 120 
 
 Stifled 177 
 
 Stomach Staggers 177 
 
 Stone Bruise 177 
 
 Stringhalt 178 
 
 Sub Classes and Market Classes of 
 
 Horses 101 
 
 Suggestions for Stallion Owners 120 
 
 Suggestions, Work Horse 121 
 
 Sunstroke 179 
 
 Swallow Medicine, How to Make a 
 
 Horse 135 
 
 Swamp Fever 179 
 
 Sweeny 179 
 
 Swelling After Castration 136 
 
 Symptoms, General Diseases of 
 
 Horses 139-151 
 
 Syringe, The 135 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Teeth, Condition of the m 
 
 Teeth, At Different Ages 127 
 
 Teeth, Five Years to Twenty-two 
 
 Years Old 131 
 
 Teeth, From Birth to Four and One- 
 Half Years Old 127 
 
 Teeth, Names of 127 
 
 Teeth, Two Sets of 127 
 
 Thoroughpin 180 
 
 Throat, Sore 175 
 
 Throwing or Casting, Hobble Method 
 
 for Old Horses 13:$ 
 
 Throwing or Casting a Horse 132 
 
 Throwing or Casting, One Man 
 
 Method 133 
 
 Throwing or Casting, Side-Line 
 
 Metlwd 132 
 
 Throwing, Preparation for 133 
 
 Thrush 180 
 
 Training the Foal 117 
 
 Treatment for Diseases of Horses . . 152-181 
 Twenty-two Years Old, Five to, Teeth. 131 
 
 Types and Breeds of Horses 103 
 
 Types and Market Classes 101 
 
 Types of Mules 126 
 
 U 
 Use of Stallions, A Precaution in the.. 120 
 
 W 
 
 Warts 180 
 
 Watering and Feeding the Work 
 
 Horse 122 
 
 Watering Horses 124 
 
 Weak Foals, Caring for 116 
 
 Weaning and Feeding the Foal 116 
 
 Whites 180 
 
 Wind Puffs 181 
 
 Work Horse, Buying the 121 
 
 Work Horse, Care and Management 
 
 of the 121 
 
 Work Horse, Feeding and Watering 
 
 the 122 
 
 Work Horse Suggestions 121 
 
 Worms, Intestinal 167 
 
 Wounds 181 
 
 Wounds, Screw-Worms or Maggots in. 175 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Adaptability of Sheep 183 
 
 Anthrax 203 
 
 B 
 
 Bloat 203 
 
 Bloat in Sheep 197 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Bloody Flux Dysentery 206 
 
 Blow Flies, Maggots from 209 
 
 Breed, Choosing 184 
 
 Breeding Flock, Rams for 193 
 
 Breeds and Types of Sheep 183, 185 
 
 Bronchitis . 203 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 437 
 
 Card, Score, for Mutton Sheep I N'.I 
 
 Care of Ewe Flock, Suggestions 188 
 
 Castrating and Docking Lambs 196 
 
 Catarrh Influenza 204 
 
 Choosing a Breed 184 
 
 Colic Stretches "... 204 
 
 Constipation in Lambs or Sheep 205 
 
 Creep, Lamb 195 
 
 D 
 
 Diarrhea 206 
 
 Dipping Ewes and Lambs 197 
 
 Diseases, General Symptoms 200-202 
 
 Diseases of Sheep 200-212 
 
 Diseases, Treatment 203-212 
 
 Docking 206 
 
 Docking and Castrating Lambs 196 
 
 Drenching 205 
 
 Dysentery Bloody Flux 206 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Lambs and Ewes, Dipping l'.7 
 
 Lambs, Marketing l'.)7 
 
 Lambs, Marking I'.M; 
 
 Lambs, Rearing !'.:! 
 
 Lambs, Suitable Grain Mixture for.... 195 
 
 Lambs, Weaning 197 
 
 Lung Worms 208 
 
 M 
 
 Maggots from Blow Flies 209 
 
 Marketing Lambs 197 
 
 Marking Lambs 196 
 
 Mating Season 186 
 
 Method of Shearing 191 
 
 Mutton Sheep, Score Card for 189 
 
 N 
 
 Nasal Gleet 208 
 
 Necessary Requirements 183 
 
 Nodular Disease.. ..209 
 
 Ewe Flock, Care of, Suggestions 188 
 
 Ewe Flock, Feeding 188 
 
 Ewe Flock, Selection of 184 
 
 Ewes and Lambs, Dipping 197 
 
 Eyes, Inflammation of 208 
 
 Fattening Sheep 198 
 
 Fattening, Suitable Rations 198 
 
 Feeding the Ewe Flock 188 
 
 Feeding Period 198 
 
 Fleece Tying 191 
 
 Flies, Blow, Maggots from 209 
 
 Flock, Breeding, Rams for 193 
 
 Flock, Ewe, Care of, Suggestions 188 
 
 Flock, Ewe, Feeding 188 
 
 Flock, Ewe, Selection of 184 
 
 Flock, Shearing the 191 
 
 Fluke Worms 207 
 
 Foot Rot ' 207 
 
 General Symptoms, Diseases 200-202 
 
 Gleet, Nasal 208 
 
 Grain Mixture, Suitable for Lambs 195 
 
 Grubs in the Head 208 
 
 H 
 Helpful Suggestions 199 
 
 Inflammation of the Eyes 20 
 
 Influenza, Catarrh 204 
 
 Lamb Creep 195 
 
 Lambs, Castrating and Docking 19 
 
 Period of Feeding 198 
 
 Pneumonia 209 
 
 Production of Sheep 183-199 
 
 R 
 
 Rams for Breeding Flock 193 
 
 Rape, Use of 197 
 
 Rations Suitable for Fattening 198 
 
 Rearing Lambs 193 
 
 Requirements, Necessary 183 
 
 Rot, Foot 207 
 
 Scab 211 
 
 Score Card for Mutton Sheep 189 
 
 Season, Mating 186 
 
 Selection of Ewe Flock 184 
 
 Shearing the Flock 191 
 
 Sfiearing, Method of 191 
 
 Sheep, Diseases 200-212 
 
 Sheep Production 183-199 
 
 Stomach of Sheep 21 
 
 Stomach Worms 211 
 
 Stretches Colic 204 
 
 Suggestions, Helpful 199 
 
 Suitable Grain Mixture for Lambs 195 
 
 Symptoms, General, Diseases 200-202 
 
 Ticks 212 
 
 Treatment for Diseases 203-212 
 
 Tying the Fleece 191 
 
 Types and Breeds of Sheep 183, 185 
 
 W 
 
 Weaning Lambs 197 
 
 Worms, Fluke 207 
 
 Worms, Lung 208 
 
 Worms, Stomach 211 
 
438 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 SWINE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Acute Indigestion 248 
 
 Angina, Malignant or Gangrenous 260 
 
 Anthrax, Apoplectic 249 
 
 Anthrax Carbuncle 271 
 
 Aphthous Fever 248 
 
 Apoplectic Anthrax 249 
 
 Apoplexy 249 
 
 Appetite, Morbid 262 
 
 B 
 
 Bacon, Feeding for 229 
 
 Bacon Type 220 
 
 Bacon Type, Score Card 221 
 
 Blind Staggers 249 
 
 Blood from Stomach 250 
 
 Boar, Castrating 247 
 
 Boar, Handling at Mating Time 224 
 
 Boar, Selection and Care 222 
 
 Bowels, Obstruction of 263 
 
 Breed, Selection of Important 216 
 
 Breeds and Types 214, 217 
 
 Bristle, White 271 
 
 Bronchitis 250 
 
 Brood Sow, Motherly Disposition 
 
 Essential 222 
 
 Brood Sow, Selection 216 
 
 Brood Sows, Care of 225 
 
 Buildings and Equipment 232 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Diseases of Liver :>oo 
 
 Diseases of Swine 234-272 
 
 Diseases, Treatment for 247-272 
 
 Disinfection Measures 333 
 
 Dysentery 252 
 
 Eating of Pigs 252 
 
 Economy of Pork Production 213 
 
 Enteritis 252 
 
 Epilepsy 253 
 
 Equipment and Buildings 232 
 
 Erysipelas 253 
 
 Eversion 254 
 
 Eyes, Inflamed 259 
 
 Farrowing Time, Difficulties 227 
 
 Farrowing Time, Sow at 225 
 
 Feeders, Self, for Hogs 229 
 
 Feeding for Bacon 229 
 
 Feeding Pregnant Sows 225 
 
 Feet, Sore 267 
 
 Fever, Aphthous 248 
 
 Fever, Lung 205 
 
 Fever, Scarlet 267 
 
 Fits in Pigs 254 
 
 Founder 267 
 
 Frequency and Size of Litters 213 
 
 Cancer in Tail 250 
 
 (7-arbuncle, Anthrax 271 
 
 Card, Score, Bacon Type 221 
 
 Card, Score for Lard Type .....219 
 
 Care of Brood Sows 22J5 
 
 Care and Development of Pigs 23f 
 
 Care and Selection of Boar 222 
 
 Castration . , 247 
 
 Castration of Pigs 227 
 
 Catarrh, Nasal 262 
 
 Cholera and Swine Plague 254 
 
 Classes, Market 231 
 
 Colds 251 
 
 Colic 251 
 
 Conditioners for Hogs 248 
 
 Congestion of Lungs 251 
 
 Constipation 251 
 
 Correctives and Salt for Hogs 226 
 
 Cuts and Wounds 272 
 
 D 
 
 Development and Care of Pigs 227 
 
 Diarrhea and Scours 252 
 
 Difficulties at Farrowing Time 227 
 
 Disease, Scaly Skin 266 
 
 Gangrenous Angina 260 
 
 General Symptoms, Diseases 234-246 
 
 Gestation Period 213 
 
 Giving Medicine to Hog 247 
 
 Growing Pure Bred Hogs 232 
 
 Growing and Weaning Pigs 228 
 
 Gum Mouth 254 
 
 H 
 
 Handling Boar at Mating Time 224 
 
 Hernia, Navel 263 
 
 Hog Cholera and Swine Plague 254 
 
 I 
 
 Indigestion 259 
 
 Indigestion, Acute 248 
 
 Inflamed Eyes 259 
 
 Inflamed Udder 259 
 
 Inflamed Womb 259 
 
 Inoculation, Serum 258 
 
 Itch ..261 
 
 Jaundice 272 
 
STOCK INDF.X 
 
 -130 
 
 PAOB. 
 
 Lameness 260 
 
 Lard Type, Score Card for :: 1 :i 
 
 Lard Type Sow 21. s 
 
 Lice ...280 
 
 Litters, Frequency and Size :>i:; 
 
 Liver Diseases 260 
 
 Lung Fever , 265 
 
 Lungs, Congestion of 251 
 
 M 
 
 Malignant or Gangrenous Angina 260 
 
 Mange 261 
 
 Market Classes 231 
 
 Market, Shipping to 230 
 
 Marketing Hogs 230 
 
 Marketing Pure Bred Hogs 232 
 
 Marking Pigs 228 
 
 Mating Hogs, Securing Results 222 
 
 Mating Time, Handling Boar 224 
 
 Measles 261 
 
 Measures for Sanitation, Disinfection 
 
 and Quarantine 233 
 
 Medicine, Giving to Hog 247 
 
 Morbid Appetite 262 
 
 Motherly Disposition of Brood Sow 
 
 Essential 222 
 
 Mouth, Gum 254 
 
 N 
 
 Nasal Catarrh 262 
 
 Navel Hernia . ..263 
 
 O 
 Obstruction of Bowels.. ..263 
 
 Paralysis '. 263 
 
 Paralysis of Retina 264 
 
 Peritonitis '. 264 
 
 Pigs, Care and Development 227 
 
 Pigs, Castrating 247 
 
 Pigs, Castration of .227 
 
 Pigs, Eating of 252 
 
 Pigs, Fits of 254 
 
 Pigs, Marking 228 
 
 Pigs, Stunted 268 
 
 Pigs Weaning and Growing 228 
 
 Piles 264 
 
 Plague, Swine, and Cholera 254 
 
 Pleurisy 265 
 
 Pneumonia or Lung Fever 265 
 
 Pork Production, Economy of 213 
 
 Pregnant Sows, Feeding 225 
 
 Production, Swine 213-233 
 
 Pure Bred Hogs, Growing and 
 
 Marketing 232 
 
 Q 
 
 PAQB. 
 
 Quarantine Measures ........... .... 
 
 Quinsy .............................. .., ;: , 
 
 R 
 Rate of Gain to Feed Consumed ...... -J14 
 
 Rations, Suitable for Sows with 
 
 Litters ............................ 226 
 
 Rectum, Turning Out of .............. 254 
 
 Relation of Weight of Pigs to Feed 
 
 Consumed and Rate of Gain ........ 214 
 
 Results, Secured from Mating ........ 222 
 
 Retina, Paralysis of .................. 264 
 
 Rheumatism ........................ 266 
 
 Rickets .............................. 266 
 
 Ridgling, Castrating ................. 247 
 
 Ringworm ................ ..266 
 
 Salt and Correctives for Hogs 226 
 
 Sanitation Measures 233 
 
 Scab 261 
 
 Scaly Skin Disease 266 
 
 Scarlet Fever ; 267 
 
 Score Card for Bacon Type 221 
 
 Score Card for Lard Type 219 
 
 Scours and Diarrhea 252 
 
 Selecting Brood Sow 216 
 
 Selection of Breed Important 216 
 
 Selection and Care of Boar 222 
 
 Self- Feeders for Hogs 229 
 
 Serum Inoculation Cholera 258 
 
 Shipping to Market 230 
 
 Size and Frequency of Litter 213 
 
 Skin, Scaly, Disease 266 
 
 Snuffles 267 
 
 Sore Feet or Founder 267 
 
 Sore Throat 268 
 
 Sore Head 268 
 
 Sows, Brood, Care of 225 
 
 Sow, Brood, Motherly Disposition 
 
 Essential 222 
 
 Sow, Brood, Selection 216 
 
 Sow at Farrowing Time 285 
 
 Sow, Lard Type 218 
 
 Sows with Litters, Suitable Rations for. 226 
 
 Sows, Pregnant, Feeding 225 
 
 Staggers, Blind 249 
 
 Stomach, Blood from 250 
 
 Stunted Pigs 268 
 
 Suitable Rations for Sows with 
 
 Litters 226 
 
 Swine Plague and Cholera 254 
 
 Swine Production 213-233 
 
 Symptoms to Diseases, General. . .234-246 
 
 Tail, Cancer in 250 
 
 Teeth, Removing 223 
 
440 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Throat, Sore 268 
 
 Thumps 268 
 
 Treatment for Diseases 247-272 
 
 Tuberculosis 269 
 
 Turning Out of Rectum 254 
 
 Types and Breeds 214, 217 
 
 U 
 Udder, Inflamed 259 
 
 W 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Warts 271 
 
 Water Essential to Hogs 229 
 
 Weaning and Growing Pigs 228 
 
 Weight of Pigs to Feed Consumed.. ..214 
 
 White Bristle 271 
 
 Womb, Inflamed 259 
 
 Worms 271 
 
 Wounds and Cuts 272 
 
 Vomiting 271 Yellows 272 
 
 POULTRY CHICKENS 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Accounting, System 321 
 
 Alfalfa 292 
 
 Animal Feed 305 
 
 Animal and Green Feeds 312 
 
 Antiseptic in Water 291 
 
 Apoplexy 332 
 
 Aspergillosis 332 
 
 Bad Traits Are Inherited 289 
 
 Balance Sheet '. 325 
 
 Board Floor 282 
 
 Bone, Cut 292 
 
 Bound Crop 336 
 
 Bran, Mustard 312 
 
 Bran and Oatmeal 304 
 
 Bread Crumbs and Eggs 304 
 
 Bread and Milk 304 
 
 Breed for Health 329 
 
 Breed, Keep One 289 
 
 Breed, Selection of 273 
 
 Breed, Strain More Important 277 
 
 Breeding for Eggs 287 
 
 Breeding Stock, Selection and Care... 297 
 
 Breeds, Classification 273 
 
 Breeds, Egg 273 
 
 Breeds, General Purpose 273 
 
 Breeds, General Purpose Selection. .. .273 
 
 Breeds, Meat 273 
 
 Breeds, Ornamental 273 
 
 Breeds, Time Begin Laying 287 
 
 Bronchitis or Catarrh 333 
 
 Brooder and Incubator, Points on 
 
 Using 302 
 
 Brooder Pneumonia 332 
 
 Brooders 303 
 
 Bugs and Insects 292 
 
 Bumblefoot . ..333 
 
 Cabinet, Oat-Sprouting 293 
 
 Canker . ..333 
 
 PAGE. 
 Capon, Teaching to Mother Chicks. .. .306 
 
 Caponize, When to 308 
 
 Caponizing and Capons 306 
 
 Capons and Caponizing 306 
 
 Care of Eggs, Points on 316 
 
 Care and Feeding Chicks " 304 
 
 Care of Setting Hen 299 
 
 Catarrh or Bronchitis 333 
 
 Catarrh, Contagious or Roup 347 
 
 Catarrh of the Crop 333 
 
 Catarrh of Stomach 334 
 
 Charcoal 3^5, 313 
 
 Chicken Pox or Sore Head 334 
 
 Chickens, Killing and Dressing 315 
 
 Chickens, Raising 297 
 
 Chicks, Feeding and Care 304 
 
 Chicks, Start Right 330 
 
 Chicks, Taking from Nest 300 
 
 Chicks, Teach to Roost 305 
 
 Chicks, Teaching Capons to Mother.. 306 
 
 Chicks, Toe-Mark 306 
 
 Cholera 334 
 
 Classification of Breeds 273 
 
 Cleanliness to Prevent Disease 329 
 
 Coccidiosis 335 
 
 Corn Bread and Egg 304 
 
 Cold or Influenza 343 
 
 Colony vs. Intensive, System 280 
 
 Colony Plan 282 
 
 Comb, White 350 
 
 Condition of Health, Legs Show 329 
 
 Conditions to Consider 328 
 
 Contagious Catarrh or Roup 347 
 
 Corn 292 
 
 Corn Gluten 312 
 
 Cracked Corn, Millet Seed, etc.... 304, 305 
 
 Cracks and Crevices 282 
 
 Cramming 314 
 
 Crop Bound 336 
 
 Crop, Catarrh of 333 
 
 Cut Bone 292 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 441 
 
 D 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Darkened Nests 282 
 
 Diarrhea 336 
 
 Diarrhea, White 352 
 
 Diphtheria 336 
 
 Disease, Cleanliness in Preventing. .. .329 
 
 Disease, Feeding to Prevent 329 
 
 Disease, Housing to Prevent 329 
 
 Disease, Preventing 328 
 
 Diseases of Liver 337 
 
 Diseases, Treatment for 328-355 
 
 Disinfect House, How to 284 
 
 Disinfectants 285 
 
 Doses and Uses, Remedies 330 
 
 Drafts, Prevent in House 279 
 
 Drawing 316 
 
 Dressing and Killing Chickens 315 
 
 Droppings, Poultry 286 
 
 Dropsy 338 
 
 Dry Feeding 309 
 
 Dry Feeding Formulas 309 
 
 Dry Picking 315 
 
 Dryness and Sunlight 278 
 
 Dysentery 338 
 
 Earthen Floor 282 
 
 Eating Eggs 339 
 
 Eating Feathers 339 
 
 Egg-Bound 338 
 
 Egg Breeds 273 
 
 Egg and Corn Bread 304 
 
 Egg Eating 339 
 
 Egg Passage, Inflammation 341 
 
 Egg Production 287-297 
 
 Egg Production, Five "Gs" 287 
 
 Egg Rations 294 
 
 Egg Record. Yearly 323 
 
 Egg, What It Takes to Make 291 
 
 Eggs and Bread Crumbs 304 
 
 Eggs, Breeding for 287 
 
 Eggs, Feeding for 289 
 
 Eggs, Fertile, Spoil 287 
 
 Eggs, Grades of 317 
 
 Eggs, Grading 317 
 
 Eggs for Hatching 298 
 
 Eggs, Home Preservation 319 
 
 Eggs, Infertile, Produce 287 
 
 Eggs, Losses from 287 
 
 Eggs, Marketing 320 
 
 Eggs, Methods of Preserving 319 
 
 Eggs, Number to Hen for Hatching. . .298 
 
 Eggs, Points on Care of 316 
 
 Eggs and Rolled Oats 304 
 
 Eggs, Testing 298 
 
 Examinations, Post-Mortem 354 
 
 Exercise 305 
 
 rats 
 
 Fattening, Quick 
 
 .292 
 ,313 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Fattening, Quick, Feeds for 314 
 
 Favus 350 
 
 Feather Eating 339 
 
 Feed, Animal 305 
 
 Feed, Grain 304 
 
 Feed, Green 293, 304 
 
 Feeding and Care of Chicks 304 
 
 Feeding, Dry 309 
 
 Feeding for Eggs 289 
 
 Feeding Formulas, Dry 309 
 
 Feeding, Frequency of 305 
 
 Feeding, Mash 311 
 
 Feeding, Mash Formulas 311 
 
 Feeding to Prevent Disease 329 
 
 Feeding Setting Hen 300 
 
 Feeding, Systems of 309 
 
 Feeds, Animal and Green 312 
 
 Feeds, Interchangeable 313 
 
 Feeds, Little Chicks 304 
 
 Feeds, Miscellaneous 294, 311 
 
 Feeds for Quick Fattening 314 
 
 Feeds, Table of 291 
 
 Feeds, Variety Is Important 294 
 
 Females, Number of, to One Male 298 
 
 Fertile Eggs Spoil 287 
 
 Five "Gs" in Egg Production 287 
 
 Fixtures and Houses 277 
 
 Flock, Improve 287 
 
 Floor, Board 282 
 
 Floor, Earthen 282 
 
 Floor Space, Housing 280 
 
 Formulas, Dry Feeding 309 
 
 Formulas, Mash Feeding 311 
 
 Fowl, Parts of 327 
 
 Fowl, Skeleton of 327 
 
 Frequency of Feeding 305 
 
 Fresh Air, Housing 280 
 
 Gapes 339 
 
 Gastritis 334 
 
 General Purpose Breeds 273 
 
 Gluten, Corn 312 
 
 Going Light 1 ... 341 
 
 Government Whitewash 285 
 
 Grades of Eggs 317 
 
 Grading Eggs 317 
 
 Grain Feed 304 
 
 Grain Substitutes 31 
 
 Green and Animal Feeds 312 
 
 Green Feed 293, 304 
 
 Grit 305, 313 
 
 H 
 
 Hatching, Eggs for 298 
 
 Hay 312 
 
 Head, Sore 33 
 
 Health, Breed for 32 
 
 Health, Indications of 32 
 
 Hen, Laying, How to Select 28? 
 
442 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Hen, Number of Eggs for Hatching. . .298 
 
 Hen, Setting, Care of 299 
 
 Hen, Setting, Feeding 300 
 
 Hen, Testing, Hatching 299 
 
 Hens, Give a Home 278 
 
 Hens, How to Make Lay in Winter. . .295 
 
 Hens vs. Incubators 300 
 
 Hens, Old, Cull Out 287 
 
 Home, Give Hens 278 
 
 Home Preservation of Eggs 319 
 
 Home-Made Testers 299 
 
 House, How to Disinfect 284 
 
 House. Keep Clean 279 
 
 House, Keep Free from Vermin 280 
 
 House, Keep Ventilated but Prevent 
 
 Drafts 279 
 
 House, Make Comfortable 278 
 
 House, Make Convenient 278 
 
 House, Make Light and Dry 278 
 
 House, Need Not Be Expensive 280 
 
 House, Open Front 282 
 
 House, Points on Cleaning 282 
 
 Houses and Fixtures, Poultry 277 
 
 Houses, Location 277 
 
 Housing 278 
 
 Housing, Floor Space 280 
 
 Housing, Fresh Air 280 
 
 Housing, Keep in Mind 280 
 
 Housing to Prevent Disease 329 
 
 How to Make Hens Lay in Winter ... .295 
 How to Select Laying Hens 287 
 
 I 
 
 Incubation 300 
 
 Incubation, Natural 299 
 
 Incubator and Brooder, Points on 
 
 Using 302 
 
 Incubators vs. Hens 300 
 
 Indigestion 341 
 
 Infertile Eggs, Produce 287 
 
 Inflammation of Egg Passage 341 
 
 Influenza or Cold 343 
 
 Insect Powder 299 
 
 Insects and Bugs 292 
 
 Intensive vs. Colony System 280 
 
 Inventory Sheet 325-326 
 
 K 
 Killing and Dressing Chickens 315 
 
 Laying Hen, How to Select 287 
 
 Leg, Scaly 349 
 
 Leg Weakness 343 
 
 Legs Show Condition 329 
 
 Lice 344 
 
 Liver Diseases 337 
 
 Location of Houses 277 
 
 Losses from Eggs 287 
 
 M 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Magnifying Tester 299 
 
 Male, Number of Females to 298 
 
 Marketing, Cooperative 321 
 
 Marketing Eggs 320 
 
 Marketing Eggs, Commission 
 
 Merchants 320 
 
 Marketing Eggs, Consumer 320 
 
 Marketing Eggs, Parcel Post 320 
 
 Marketing Eggs, Retailer 320 
 
 Marketing Eggs, Through Creamery. .321 
 
 Marketing Poultry and Products 314 
 
 Mash Feeding 311 
 
 Mash Feeding Formulas 311 
 
 Material for Roosts 282 
 
 Meat Breeds 273 
 
 Methods of Preserving Eggs 319 
 
 Milk 305 
 
 Milk and Bread 304 
 
 Milk, Skim 292 
 
 Mineral Matter .293 
 
 Miscellaneous Feeds 294, 311 
 
 Mites 345 
 
 Molting 297 
 
 Monthly Sheet 323 
 
 Monthly Summary Sheet 324 
 
 Mustard 311 
 
 Mustard Bran 312 
 
 Mustard Greens 311 
 
 N 
 
 Natural Incubation iiO! 
 
 Nests 282, 296 
 
 Nest, Taking Chicks from 300 
 
 o 
 
 Oatmeal and Bran 304 
 
 Oats, Sprouted 293 
 
 Oat-Sprouting Cabinet 293 
 
 Old Hens, Cull Out 287 
 
 Open Front House 282 
 
 Ornamental Breeds 273 
 
 Packing 316 
 
 Parts of a Fowl 327 
 
 Picking, Dry 315 
 
 Pip 347 
 
 Plumping 316 
 
 Pneumonia, Brooder 332 
 
 Points on Care of Eggs 316 
 
 Points on Cleaning House 282 
 
 Points to Remember in Using Incu- 
 bator and Brooder 302 
 
 Post-Mortem Examinations 354 
 
 Poultry Crop Excels All but Corn 273 
 
 Poultry Droppings 286 
 
 Poultry Houses and Fixtures 277 
 
 Poultry Raising 273-327 
 
 Powder, Insect 299 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 443 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Practical Suggestions from World 
 
 Over 295 
 
 Preservation of Eggs, Home 319 
 
 Preserving Eggs, Methods 319 
 
 Preventing Disease 328 
 
 Prevention, Value of 328 
 
 Production Eggs 287-297 
 
 Products of Poultry, Marketing 314 
 
 Protein 29 1 
 
 Pure Bred Stock Best. . . .277 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Strain More Important Than Breed... 277 
 
 Substitutes, Grain 313 
 
 Suggestions on Laying, From World 
 
 Over 295 
 
 Summary Sheet, Monthly 324 
 
 Summary Sheet, Yearly 325 
 
 Sunlight and Dryness 278 
 
 Systems of Feeding 309 
 
 System of Poultry Accounting 321 
 
 Q 
 Quick Fattening 313 
 
 R 
 
 Raising Chickens 297 
 
 Raising Poultry 273-329 
 
 Ration, Varied, Important 313 
 
 Rations, Egg 294 
 
 Rats 282 
 
 Remedies, Simple 330 
 
 Remedies, Uses and Doses 330 
 
 Rheumatism 347 
 
 Rolled Oats and Eggs 304 
 
 Roost, Teach Chicks to 305 
 
 Roosters, Dispose of 287 
 
 Roosters, Keep No Extra 289 
 
 Roosts 282 
 
 Roup or Contagious Catarrh 347 
 
 Scalding 3J5 
 
 Scaly Leg 349 
 
 Scraps, Table 312 
 
 Selection of Breed 273 
 
 Selection and Care of Breeding Stock. .297 
 
 Selection, Egg Breeds 277 
 
 Selection, Meat Breeds 277 
 
 Selection, Ornamental Breeds 277 
 
 Setting Hen, Care of 299 
 
 Setting Hen, Feeding 300 
 
 Sheet, Balance 325 
 
 Sheet Inventory 325-326 
 
 Sheet, Monthly 323 
 
 Sheet, Monthly Summary 324 
 
 Sheet, Yearly 324-325 
 
 Sheet, Yearly Summary 325 
 
 Shrinkage 316 
 
 Silage 312 
 
 Simple Remedies 330 
 
 Skeleton of Fowl 327 
 
 Skim Milk ' 292 
 
 Soil 277 
 
 Sore Head or Chicken Pox 334 
 
 Sprouted Oats 293 
 
 Start Chicks Right 330 
 
 Stock, Pure Bred Best 277 
 
 Stomach, Catarrh of 334 
 
 Table of Feeds 291 
 
 Table Scraps 312 
 
 Tester, Magnifying 299 
 
 Temperature 278 
 
 Testers, Home-Made 299 
 
 Testing Eggs 298 
 
 Testing Hen, Hatching 299 
 
 Time Breeds Begin Laying 287 
 
 Toe-Mark Chicks 306 
 
 Traits, Bad, Are Inherited 289 
 
 Treatment for Diseases 328-355 
 
 Tuberculosis 349 
 
 U 
 Uses and Doses, Remedies 330 
 
 V 
 
 Value of Prevention 328 
 
 Varied Ration Important 313 
 
 Variety Is Important, Feeds 294 
 
 Ventilated, Keep House 279 
 
 Vermin, Keep House Free from 280 
 
 Vertigo 350 
 
 W 
 
 Walls, House 282 
 
 Water ....305 
 
 Water, Give Plenty 291 
 
 Water, Keep Clean 291 
 
 Water, Keep Warm in Winter 291 
 
 Water, Put Antiseptic in 291 
 
 Weakness of Legs 343 
 
 Weights in Pounds 273 
 
 What It Takes to Make Egg 291 
 
 Wheat 293 
 
 When to Caponize 308 
 
 White Comb 350 
 
 White Diarrhea 353 
 
 Whitewash, Government 285 
 
 Whitewasher 286 
 
 Winter, How to Make Hens Lay 295 
 
 Winter, Keep Water Warm 291 
 
 Worms 352 
 
 Y 
 
 Yearly Egg Record 323 
 
 Yearly Sheet .'524-325 
 
 Yearly Summary Sheet 325 
 
444 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 TURKEYS 
 
 Age of Hens 
 
 Amount to Feed 
 
 Artificial Brooding 365 
 
 360 
 369 
 
 B 
 
 Backward Jerk, Breaking Neck with.. 372 
 
 Bath, Dust 365 
 
 Beheading 373 
 
 Black 357 
 
 Blackhead 376 
 
 Blackhead, Preventive Treatment for.. 376 
 
 Blood, Dried 369 
 
 Bourbon Red 357 
 
 Bowel Trouble 377 
 
 Breaking Neck with Backward Jerk.. 372 
 
 Breed, Selection of a 356 
 
 Breeding 359 
 
 Breeding Stock, Care of 361 
 
 Breeding Stock, Practical Suggestions 
 
 for Selecting 360 
 
 Breeding Stock, Selection of 359 
 
 Bronze Turkey 357 
 
 Brood and Mother, Care of 366 
 
 Brooding, Artificial 365 
 
 Brooding, Natural 365 
 
 Broods, Two, in One Season 365 
 
 Buff . 357 
 
 Care of Breeding Stock 361 
 
 Care of Brood and Mother 366 
 
 Care of Eggs 363 
 
 Care of Setters, Rules for 365 
 
 Characteristics, Profitable Market 360 
 
 Charcoal 368 
 
 Charcoal and Grit 365 
 
 Chickens, Do Not House with 359 
 
 Chicken Pox 377 
 
 Cold Climates, Good House for 359 
 
 Condition of Stock and Feeding 361 
 
 Confinement 371 
 
 Coop, Requirements for 367 
 
 Coops 366 
 
 Coops, Hare, Sufficiently Large 366 
 
 Coops, Old 367 
 
 Coop for Poults 359 
 
 Corn 371 
 
 Crop, Impaction of 378 
 
 D 
 
 Dampness Injures Poults 367 
 
 Diphtheria 377 
 
 Disease, Liver 379 
 
 Diseases of Turkeys, Treatment for... 376 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Domestic Hens, Hatching by 364 
 
 Dressing 373 
 
 Dried Blood '. 369 
 
 Dry-Picking 373 
 
 Dust Bath 365 
 
 Dusting Hens 365 
 
 Egg Production, Condition for 371 
 
 Eggs, Care of 363 
 
 Fall Feeding 371 
 
 Fasten Hen on Nest at Hatching Time. 365 
 
 Fattening 371 
 
 Feed, Amount to 369 
 
 Feed, Green 369 
 
 Feed Wandering Flocks Once a Day. . .370 
 
 Feed, When to, Little Poults 369 
 
 Feeding 368 
 
 Feeding 371 
 
 Feeding, Follow Nature in 368 
 
 Feeding, Hand, Important 369 
 
 Feeding for Market 371 
 
 Feeding and Stock, Condition of 361 
 
 Feeding, Various Methods 368 
 
 Feeding in Wet Weather 370 
 
 Feeds 371 
 
 Feeds for Older Poults 370 
 
 Feeds Used at First 368 
 
 Females to Male, Number of 360 
 
 Food and Water.. ..365 
 
 Gapes 378 
 
 Gapes, Preventive Treatment for 378 
 
 Good House for Cold, Climates 359 
 
 Grain, Poor, Avoid... 370 
 
 Green Feed 369 
 
 Grit 368 
 
 Grit and Charcoal 365 
 
 H 
 
 Hand Feeding, Important 369 
 
 Handle Poults, How to 366 
 
 Hatching 364 
 
 Hatching by Domestic Hens 364 
 
 Hatching with Incubators 364 
 
 Hatching Time, Fasten Hen on Nest 
 
 at 365 
 
 Hatching by Turkey Hens 364 
 
 Hens, Age of 360 
 
 Hens to Breed, Kinds of 360 
 
 Hens, Kinds of, to Select 359 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 445 
 
 PAOK. 
 
 Hens on Nest, Fasten, at Hatching 
 
 Time 365 
 
 Hens, Turkey, Hatching by 364 
 
 Hiding of Nests, To Prevent 364 
 
 House, Do Not, with Chickens 359 
 
 House, Good, for Cold Climates 359 
 
 Housing 357 
 
 Impaction of Crop 378 
 
 In-Breeding 360 
 
 Incubation, Time Required for 364 
 
 Incubators, Hatching with 364 
 
 Indications of Value 360 
 
 K 
 
 Killing 372 
 
 Kinds of Hens to Breed . .' 360 
 
 Kinds of Hens to Select 359 
 
 Kinds of Males to Select 359 
 
 Laying 361 
 
 Leg Weakness 378 
 
 Lice and Mites 378 
 
 Limber Neck 379 
 
 Little Poults, When to Feed 369 
 
 Liver Disease 379 
 
 Liver Disease, Preventive Treatment. .379 
 
 M 
 
 Male, Number of Females to 360 
 
 Mates to Select, Kind of 359 
 
 Market Characteristics, Profitable 360 
 
 Market, Feeding for 371 
 
 Marketing 372 
 
 Meat 369 
 
 Methods Used 372 
 
 Mites and Lice 378 
 
 Mother and Brood, Care of 366 
 
 N i 
 
 Narragansett 357 
 
 Natural Brooding 365 
 
 Nature Follow, in Feeding 368 
 
 Neck, Limber 379 
 
 Neglect 369 
 
 Nests, Preparing 363 
 
 Nests, To Prevent Hiding of 364 
 
 Nests, Separated, Keep 364 
 
 Nests, Turkey 363 
 
 New Blood, Turkeys Demand 36 
 
 Number of Eggs for a Setting 365 
 
 Number of Females to Male 360 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Older Poults, Feeds for 370 
 
 Opportunity for Profit 356 
 
 Overdoing 359 
 
 Packing 373 
 
 Packing One Bird 373 
 
 Packing Several Together 373 
 
 Pairing 353 
 
 Places, Roosting 351 
 
 Plumping 373 
 
 Poor Grain, Avoid 370 
 
 Poults, Coop for 359 
 
 Poults, Dampness Injures 367 
 
 Poults, to Eat, Teaching 366 
 
 Poults, How to Handle 366 
 
 Poults, Little, When to Feed 369 
 
 Poults, Older, Feeds for 370 
 
 Poults, Raising 366 
 
 Practical Suggestions for Selecting 
 
 Breeding Stock 360 
 
 Preparing Nests 363 
 
 Prevent to, Hiding of Nests 364 
 
 Prevent Wandering, To 363 
 
 Production, Condition for Egg 371 
 
 Profit, Opportunity for 356 
 
 R 
 
 Raising Poults 366 
 
 Range 361 
 
 Record of Nests, Keeping 364 
 
 Requirements for Coop 367 
 
 Roosting Places 361 
 
 Roup 380 
 
 Rules for Care of Setters 365 
 
 Runs 367 
 
 Scalding 373 
 
 Scaly Leg 380 
 
 Selecting Breeding Stock, Practical 
 
 Suggestions for 360 
 
 Selection of a Breed 356 
 
 Selection of Breeding Stock 359 
 
 Several Together, Packing 373 
 
 Sitting, Number of Eggs for a 365 
 
 Slate Turkey 357 
 
 Special Care, Time for 369 
 
 Standard Weights of Turkeys 356 
 
 Sticking and Stunning 372 
 
 Stock and Feeding, Conditions of 361 
 
 Stock, Selection of Breeding 359 
 
 Stock, Turkeys 370 
 
 Stunning and Sticking 372 
 
 Suggestions, Practical, for Selecting 
 
 Breeding Stock 360 
 
 Sun's Rays 367 
 
,446 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Tape Worm 3S 
 
 Teaching Poults to Eat 366 
 
 Time Required for Incubation 364 
 
 Times for Special Care 369 
 
 Tuberculosis 38 
 
 Turkey Hens, Hatching by 364 
 
 Turkey Nests 363 
 
 Turkey Raising, Valuable Points for 
 
 Successful 374 
 
 Turkeys 356-380 
 
 Turkeys Demand New Blood 360 
 
 Turkeys, Standard Weights of 356 
 
 Turkeys, Stock 370 
 
 V 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Valuable Points for Successful Turkey 
 
 Raising 374 
 
 Value, Indications of 360 
 
 W 
 Wandering Flocks, Feed, Once a Day.. 370 
 
 Wandering, To Prevent 363 
 
 Water 368 
 
 Water and Food 365 
 
 Weakness, Leg 378 
 
 Weights of Turkeys, Standard 356 
 
 Wet Weather, Feeding in 370 
 
 White 357 
 
 White Comb 380 
 
 DUCKS AND GEESE 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 African Geese 395 
 
 Alfalfa for Geese 401 
 
 Artificial Incubation 385 
 
 Aylesburys 382 
 
 B 
 
 Breeders, Geese, Feeding 397 
 
 Breeding 384 
 
 Breeding Ducks, Feed for 390 
 
 Breeding Stock, Care of 384 
 
 Breeds, Common 381 
 
 Breeds, Egg 381 
 
 Breeds, Meat 381 
 
 Breeds, Ornamental 381 
 
 Brooding 386 
 
 Brooding with Hens 386 
 
 Canadian Geese 396 
 
 Care of Breeding Stock 384 
 
 Care of Goslings 398 
 
 Caring and Feeding, Dont's 393 
 
 Chinese Geese 396 
 
 Common Breeds 381 
 
 Condition, How to Tell ..392 
 
 D 
 
 Diseases of Ducks, Treatment 394 
 
 Diseases of Geese 402 
 
 Don'ts in Caring for and Feeding Ducks. 393 
 
 Down, Removing 392 
 
 Drake, How to Tell 384 
 
 Dressing and Killing Geese 401 
 
 Ducklings, Feeding 387 
 
 Ducks ..381-394 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Ducks, Breeding, Feed for 390 
 
 Ducks, Handling 387 
 
 Ducks, Laying 391 
 
 Egg Breeds 381 
 
 Eggs, Fertile and Infertile 386 
 
 Eggs for Hatching 385 
 
 Eggs, Number to Hen 385 
 
 Eggs, Testing 386 
 
 Egyptian Geese 396 
 
 Embden Geese 395 
 
 Fattening Geese 399 
 
 Fattening Geese, Watertown Method.. 399 
 
 Fattening Ration 388 
 
 Feed for Breeding Ducks 390 
 
 Feed for Geese, How to Make 400 
 
 Feeding Breeders, Geese 397 
 
 Feeding and Caring, Don'ts 393 
 
 Feeding Ducklings 387 
 
 Feeding Ducklings, Hours of 390 
 
 Feeding Methods 387 
 
 Feeds for Geese 400 
 
 Feeds for Growing Goslings 398 
 
 Females, Number to Male 384 
 
 Fertile and Infertile Eggs 386 
 
 Gander, Number Geese to 397 
 
 Geese 395-402 
 
 Geese, Alfalfa for 401 
 
 Geese, Diseases of 402 
 
 Geese, Fattening 399 
 
 Geese, Fattening, Watertown Method.. 399 
 Geese, Feeding Breeders 397 
 
STOCK INDEX 
 
 447 
 
 I'ACK. 
 
 Geese, Feeds for 400 
 
 Geese, How to Feed 400 
 
 Geese, Killing and Dressing 401 
 
 Geese, Management of 396 
 
 Geese, Marketing 401 
 
 Geese, Mating :!D7 
 
 Geese, Mating and Setting 397 
 
 Geese, Number to Gander 397 
 
 Geese, Setting :!<)7 
 
 Goslings, Care of 398 
 
 Goslings, Growing, Feed for 398 
 
 Growing Goslings, Feed for 398 
 
 H 
 
 Hatching Eggs 385 
 
 Hens, Brooding with '...386 
 
 Hens, Hatching Ducks with 385 
 
 Hours of Feeding Ducklings 390 
 
 Housing 382 
 
 Housing Geese 396 
 
 How to Kill 392 
 
 PAQ1L 
 
 Mating Geese :;;i r 
 
 Mating and Setting Geese :;;i7 
 
 Meat Breeds :;> i 
 
 Methods, Feeding.. 
 
 Muscovys 
 
 O 
 Ornamental Breeds . ..881 
 
 Pekins .............................. 381 
 
 Picking ............................. 392 
 
 Plumping .......................... 392 
 
 Preparing for Market ................. 392 
 
 Ration, Fattening ..................... 388 
 
 Removing Down .................... 392 
 
 Rouens .......... ..382 
 
 Incubation 385 
 
 Incubation, Geese, Time of :....397 
 
 Indian Runners 382 
 
 K 
 Killing and Dressing Geese 401 
 
 Setting Geese 397 
 
 Stock, Selecting 384 
 
 Testing Eggs 386 
 
 Time for Incubation 385 
 
 Toulouse Geese 395 
 
 LayingDucks 391 Varieties of Geese . 
 
 .395 
 
 M 
 
 Male, Number of Females to 384 
 
 Management of Geese 396 
 
 Market, Preparing for 392 
 
 Marketing Geese 401 
 
 W 
 
 Water for Geese 396 
 
 Watertown Method for Fattening 
 
 Geese 399 
 
 When to Kill 392 
 
 GENERAL STOCK INFORMATION 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Stations 404 
 
 B 
 
 Bibliography, Live Stock ...406 
 
 Breeders' Association, National Live 
 Stock 403 
 
 Cattle Associations 403 
 
 Chick Starter 408 
 
 Condition Powder for Horses and 
 
 Cattle 407 
 
 D 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Departments and Institutions, Agricul- 
 tural, State and National 404 
 
 Doses and Uses of Stable Medicines, 
 Over Fifty 409 
 
 Egg Producer 409 
 
 Experiment Stations, Agricultural 404 
 
 General Live Stock Information. . .403-413 
 
448 
 
 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 
 
 H 
 
 Horse Associations. 
 
 PAGE. 
 ..403 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Normal Pulse Beats 407 
 
 Normal Temperatures 407 
 
 I 
 
 Information, General Live Stock. .403-413 
 Institutions and Departments, Agricul- 
 tural, State and National 404 
 
 People's Table for Liquid Medicines. .407 
 Pulse Beat, Normal 407 
 
 Liquid Medicines, Table for 407 
 
 Live Stock Bibliography 406 
 
 Live Stock Breeders' Associations, 
 
 Live Stock 403 
 
 Live Stock, General Information 403-413 
 
 Live Stock Periodicals 406 
 
 M 
 
 Medicines, Stables, Uses and Doses, 
 
 Over Fifty 409 
 
 Medicines, Table for Liquid 407 
 
 Milk Producer 408 
 
 Miscellaneous 407-413 
 
 N 
 
 National Live Stock Breeders' Asso- 
 ciations 403 
 
 National and State Agricultural Depart- 
 ments and Institutions 404 
 
 Sheep Associations 403 
 
 Stable Medicines, Uses and Doses, 
 
 Over Fifty 409 
 
 State and National Agricultural Depart- 
 ments and Institutions 404 
 
 Stock Breeders' Associations, National 
 
 Live Stock 403 
 
 Stock Foods 408 
 
 Stock, Live, Bibliography 406 
 
 Stock, Live, General Information. .403-413 
 
 Stock Periodicals, Live 406 
 
 Swine Association ..403 
 
 Table for Liquid Medicines, People's. .407 
 Temperatures, Normal 407 
 
 U 
 
 Uses and Doses of Over Fifty Stable 
 Medicines . . .409 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 BRANCH OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 5m-8,'26 
 
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 LIBRARY, BRANCH OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE