GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH, 
 
 OR HOW TO GROW 
 
 VEGETABLES AND FRUITS, 
 
 BY THE LATE 
 
 WILLIAM N. WHITE, 
 
 O1T ATHENS, GA. 
 
 WITH ADDITIONS BY Mil. J. VAN BUKEN, AND DE. JAS. CAMAK. 
 REVISED AND NEWLY STEREOTYPED. 
 
 ILLUSTRATE D. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 ORANGE JUDD AND COMPANY, 
 
 245 BROADWAY. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by 
 ORANGE JUDD & CO., 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
 Southern District of New-York. 
 
 LOVEJOY, SON & Co., 
 
 ELECTKOTYPERS & STEREOTYPEBS, 
 
 15 Vandewater Street, N. Y. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Publishers' Preface 5 
 
 Preface to the Kevised Edition 7 
 
 From the Preface to the First Edition 8 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 Formation and Management of Gardens in General 11 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 Soils Their Characteristics. . . , 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 The Improvement of the Soil. . 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Manures , 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Manures Their Sources and Preparation 42 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 Rotation of Crops 60 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Hot-beds, Cold Frames, and Pits 67 
 
 CHAPTER YIH. 
 Garden Implements 73 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Propagation of Plants 87 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Budding and Grafting 112 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Pruning and Training 122 
 
 CHAPTER XH. 
 Transplanting 134 
 
 CHAPTER Xm. 
 Mulching, Shading, and Watering 140 
 
 CHAPTER XTV. 
 Protection from Frost 152 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Insects and Vermin 156 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Vegetables Description and Culture 161 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Fruits Varieties and Culture 334 
 
PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 
 
 FOE THE SOUTH had long been out of print, 
 and in 1865 its distinguished author made an arrangement 
 with the publishers to produce a new and enlarged edition. 
 A number of the engravings were made at once, with a 
 view to the immediate publication of the work. Its au- 
 thor wished to make it especially full, as regarded South- 
 ern fruits, and delayed completing his manuscript until 
 the American Pomological Society should have met in 
 1866, in order that he might compare notes with his po- 
 mological friends. This meeting was postponed until 1867, 
 and before this took place the author was removed by 
 death. The incomplete manuscript of the work was 
 placed in the hands of Mr. J. Van Buren, of Clarksville, 
 Ga., an eminent pomologist and friend of the author, who, 
 as a labor of love, compiled and mainly wrote out that 
 portion relating to fruit culture. The publishers would, 
 on behalf of Southern fruit-growers, express their thanks 
 to Mr. Van Buren for the kind office he has performed, 
 as well as to Dr. Jas. Camak, who revised the other por- 
 tions of the work. The manuscript of Mr. White contained 
 tables of chemical analyses of most of the plants described, 
 but as they were not from the most recent authorities, and 
 would increase the size of the work more than they would 
 add to its value, they have been omitted. The original 
 plan of Mr. White included a treatise on ornamental 
 gardening for the South, but this could not be properly 
 included in the present volume. It is believed that the 
 work will be more valued by his many friends, as well as 
 by pomologists generally, for the portrait which is given 
 of its lamented author. 
 
 5 
 
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 The revised edition of Gardening for the South was 
 mainly prepared by our lamented friend, W. N". White, 
 the author of the first edition, whose sudden death left 
 the work in an incomplete state. At his special request, 
 made while on his death-bed, we have undertaken to finish 
 the work begun by him, to the best of our ability, and 
 while we do so, we ask the indulgence of the reader to 
 pass over and forgive any imperfections he may detect, 
 for we feel conscious of our inability to present to the pub- 
 lic as perfect and interesting a work as would have been 
 done had the author been permitted to have finished it. 
 
 The necessity for a new and revised edition must be 
 apparent to every reader, as the former edition was pub- 
 lished in 1856 ; since which time the discoveries, improve- 
 ments, and progress in Agriculture and Horticulture have 
 been very great. 
 
 Ten years' additional experience in Agriculture and Hor- 
 ticulture, by the talented author of the first edition, is our 
 warrant for recommending the present work to the favor 
 of the public, as few men were more ardently devoted to 
 the culture of the soil than he was. 
 
 Should opinions and facts be found stated in the present 
 work at variance with those in the former edition, it will 
 be attributed to the experience alluded to above, for with 
 him it was always a pleasure to acknowledge an error 
 when it was found to be such. Many and valuable ad- 
 ditions have been made to all the departments, and more 
 particularly to the lists of varieties, both of vegetables 
 and fruits, together with the improved methods of culti- 
 vation, as the object of the author was to present to the 
 public a practical work adapted to the soil and climate of 
 the Southern States. 
 
 J. VAN BILKED, 
 DK. JAS. CAMAK, 
 7 
 
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 I have thought that, upon a subject so accordant with 
 my tastes as is horticulture, I might prepare a work 
 adapted to our climate and useful to the public. The re- 
 peated inquiries made of me, as a bookseller, for a practi- 
 cal treatise on the subject, and these inquiries growing 
 more frequent with the manifest growth of the gardening 
 spirit among us, led to the undertaking. Yet written as 
 it has been, in the intervals of trade and subjected to its 
 constant interruptions now advancing but a line at once, 
 again a page, or an article suspended totally for nearly 
 two years, then hastily finished, looked over, and printed 
 under circumstances that rendered the author's revision 
 of the proof impossible many defects of style, and errors 
 of the press, are manifest. These, if the work contain the 
 information sought, practical men will readily excuse in a 
 first edition. 
 
 To claim much originality in a modem work on garden- 
 ing, would display in its author great .ignorance or great 
 presumption. If it did not contain much that is found in 
 other horticultural works, it would be very defective. 
 Gardening is as old as Adam, and what we know to-day 
 of its principles and operations have been accumulated, 
 little by little the result of thousands of experiments and 
 centuries of observation and practice. Hence, from the 
 gardening literature of our language, have been selected, 
 for this work, those modes of culture which considerable 
 experience and observation has proved adapted to our 
 climate. The species and varieties of plants found here 
 8 
 
PROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IX 
 
 most desirable for use or ornament, have been selected and 
 described. This mass of material has been modified and 
 increased by. pretty copious garden-notes of my own. 
 Still, it has been my object, to make a useful and reliable, 
 rather than an original work. Where an author's language 
 suited my purpose, it was at once incorporated into the 
 text. If the expression is sometimes changed, it is gene- 
 rally to make it more concise. * * * * 
 
 The necessity of a Southern work on gardening is felt 
 by every horticulturist in our midst. Our seasons differ 
 from those of the Northern States in heat and dryness, as 
 much as the latter do from those of England. Treatises 
 perfectly adapted to their climate we are obliged to fol- 
 low very cautiously. English works require the exercise 
 of a still greater degree of judgment in the reader, the 
 climate of England being still more cool and humid. 
 Again, our mild winters admit of garden work nearly ev- 
 ery day of the year. All the heavy operations of trench- 
 ing, manuring, laying out, pruning, and planting trees, 
 shrubs, and hardy ornamental plants, are at that season 
 most conveniently performed. In this particular aspect, 
 our climate is much like that of the south of England. 
 Hence, while the calendars of operations, in works pre- 
 pared for the Northern States, seldom agree with our 
 practice, those in English works are often found to coin- 
 cide with it. But even where the time of performing cer- 
 tain operations is the same in both countries, the long, 
 dry summers, and still milder winters of this climate, often 
 render necessary a peculiar mode of performing the same. 
 
 We need then works upon gardening specially adapted 
 to our latitude and wants. But with the exception of the 
 valuable matter scattered through our agricultural and 
 horticultural periodicals, Homes' " Southern Farmer and 
 Market Gardener," written some years since, and briefly 
 treating of the kitchen garden department merely, is the 
 only work containing anything reliable on the subject. 
 1* 
 
X GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 The chief original features then, of this work, are, that 
 it endeavors to give more or less information upon the 
 whole subject of gardening ; and information, too, that is 
 practically adapted to our climate, habits, and require- 
 ments. In the fruit garden department, especially, a good 
 deal of new matter is to be found. Throughout the en- 
 tire work, processes are frequently described, and meth- 
 ods of culture given, which are suited only to climates 
 and seasons like our own. Those varieties of plants and 
 trees are pointed out which experience has proved are best 
 adapted to our orchards and gardens. * * * * 
 
 Unusual prominence is also given to the general subject 
 of manures, as they are the foundation, not only of suc- 
 cessful gardening, but of profitable husbandry. Besides 
 the various works consulted, the experience of horticul- 
 tural friends has been freely communicated. Valuable 
 hints have been derived from Rev. Mr. Johnson and Mr. 
 Thurmond, of Atlanta, Prof. J. P. Waddel, Dr. M. A. 
 Ward, and Dr. James Camak, of Athens, Right Rev. 
 Bishop Elliott, of Savannah, Dr. J. C. Jenkyns and Mr. 
 Affleck, of Miss. ; and especially from J. Van Buren, of 
 Clarksville, Ga., whose successful efforts to make known 
 and diffuse native Southern varieties of the apple, rendered 
 him a public benefactor. It is hoped we shall yet see a 
 work on fruit trees from his pen. 
 
 If this treatise, with all its imperfections, shall in any 
 degree increase the love of gardening among us ; if it 
 shall cause orchards to flourish, shade trees to embower, 
 and flowers to spring up around any Southern home, the 
 author's purpose is accomplished. 
 
GABDEHING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS IN GENERAL. 
 
 Situation. The situation of the flower-garden and lawn 
 should be immediately adjacent to the dwelling, in order 
 to yield the highest degree of pleasure. The most satis- 
 factory arrangement is to form the lawn directly in front, 
 and the flower-garden on the side, sufficiently near to be 
 overlooked by the drawing-room windows, while the sides 
 of the dwelling, in part, and its entire rear, including the 
 kitchen and servants' yard, are sheltered and concealed 
 by trees. A dwelling thus embayed in jrell-grown trees 
 is always regarded with pleasure. As neither the fruit or 
 kitchen garden, especially the latter, can be considered 
 Ornamental, they should not, though near the dwelling, 
 be placed obtrusively in view. Near they should be, for 
 if either is distant, time is lost in watching its progress ; 
 it is in danger of being neglected; and even if this is not 
 the case, its choicest products may gratify the palate of 
 any one besides its owner. A good arrangement is to 
 place them in immediate connection with the pleasure- 
 ground, proceeding from the shrubbery to the fruit de- 
 partment, and thence to the kitchen garden. The latter 
 should also have an independent approach. It should be 
 11 
 
GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 near the stables, in order that it may be copiously replen- 
 ished with manure without too much labor. 
 
 Much, however, depends upon the soil. The best at 
 command, in the vicinity of the dwelling, should be 
 chosen. Proximity to water is also highly important, 
 especially if it can be readily employed for irrigation. 
 Low situations are more liable to late and early frosts, but 
 their abundant moisture renders them desirable for sum- 
 mer crops. A diversity of soils and exposures in the same 
 inclosure is desirable. 
 
 Care should be taken that the productiveness of the 
 kitchen garden be not diminished by the proximity of 
 large trees, which are injurious by their drip to all plants 
 beneath them, and by their shade and extended roots to 
 those more remote. The small, fibrous roots of trees ex- 
 tend far beyond their branches, and one is not safe from 
 these devourers much short of the length of the stem 
 which they nourish. If trees exist too valuable to be re- 
 moved, dig a deep trench near them, and cut off all roots 
 that extend into it. This will probably relieve the ad- 
 jacent crops from their injurious effects. 
 
 Aspect and Inclination. A light exposure to the south 
 is generally to be recommended. Gardeners take pride in 
 having early croos, and this compensates in some measure 
 for their shorter duration in such an exposure. A north- 
 eastern aspect is to be avoided, as our worst storms are 
 from that direction. A north-western exposure, though 
 cold and late, is less liable to injury from late and early 
 frosts, as vegetation in such situations is sheltered some- 
 what from the rising sun, and does not suffer so much if 
 it becomes slightly frozen. It is not the frost that injures 
 plants so much as the direct heat of the sun falling upon 
 the frozen leaves and blossoms. Hence an easterly aspect 
 is generally objectionable for tender plants. 
 
 Cabbage, cauliflower, strawberries, spinach, lettuce, and 
 other salads, are much more easily brought to perfection 
 
FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 13 
 
 in a northern aspect. Many of these run up to seed im- 
 mediately if exposed to the full sun. Of fruit trees the 
 apple succeeds well on a northern slope. The soil, too, is 
 usually richer, and will retain its fertility longer, other 
 things being equal, in such an exposure. It is a great ad- 
 vantage, if the garden slope at all, to have it slope in 
 more than one direction, thus giving a choice of exposure, 
 and generally also of soil, as it is thereby adapted to both 
 late and early crops. But when the drainage is good, a 
 level is to be preferred, as by the aid of the fences any 
 desired exposure can be obtained for particular plants. 
 Indeed, in southern climates nothing after quality is more 
 to be regarded than the inclination of the soil. 
 
 Whatever be the situation or aspect, a garden must be 
 as level as possible. Any considerable inclination in a 
 southern latitude subjects the richest portion of the soil 
 to the danger of being washed away by its violent storms. 
 In the rich, mellow soil of a garden cultivated as it should^ 
 be, if there be much perceptible slope, a single storm will 
 often cause a loss of manure and labor that will require 
 considerable expense to repair. If the ground is not level 
 at first, it is necessary to resort to hillside ditching or to 
 throw it at once into terraces of convenient breadth. To 
 do this the eye cannot be trusted ; a leveling instrument 
 is required. The steeps of these can be clothed with 
 blue grass, or strawberry plants, to prevent them from 
 washing. 
 
 Each terrace must be so raised just at its edge, that it 
 will retain all the water which falls upon it, permitting 
 none to flow over even in the heaviest storms. Any ex 
 cess of water should be carried off by proper underdrains, 
 if needed, and not suffered to run off the surface. Sur- 
 face ditches are a poor substitute. Terracing is not very 
 expensive. The horizontal line is first determined with a 
 level and staked off. A few turns of the plow are made 
 on the hillside just below the stakes, and the earth thrown 
 
11 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 up with a shovel to the staked line. If more earth is re- 
 quired, the plowing and shovelling must be repeated until 
 a sufficient bank is formed to retain the water. During 
 the first year, occasional breaks in the bank may happen 
 from violent storms, but if well repaired, after the banks 
 become settled, they will rarely be broken over by the ac- 
 cumulation of water, particularly if proper underdrains 
 or surface ditches are provided. 
 
 Size. A garden should be proportioned to the size of 
 the family, and their partiality for its different products. 
 A small garden with a suitable rotation of crops, and well 
 manured and cultivated, will yield more pleasure and profit 
 than an ordinary one of three times its size. An active, 
 industrious hand can take care of an acre, provided with 
 necessary hot-beds, cold frames, etc., keeping it in perfect 
 neatness and condition ; or if the plow and cultivator be 
 brought into requisition, as they should be in large gar- 
 dens, four times that amount can be under his care, pro- 
 vided there is not much under glass. In market gardens 
 Henderson allows seven men to ten acres. 
 
 If but little room can be allowed near the house, cab- 
 bages, carrots, turnips, potatoes, and the common crops, 
 can be grown in the field, if well enriched, and be culti- 
 vated mainly with the plow. The fruit garden should be 
 in a separate compartment, as the shade of the trees is 
 very injurious, and the exhaustion of the soil by their 
 roots still more so. Dwarf pars upon the quince stock 
 are the least hurtful, and may be admitted into the vege- 
 table department along the walks. 
 
 Form. The form will often depend upon the situation 
 of the garden or the inclination of the ground. When a 
 matter of choice, a square or parallelogram is most con- 
 venient for laying out the walks and beds. A parallelo- 
 gram extending from east to west gives a long south wall 
 for shading plants in summer, and a long sheltered border 
 
FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 15 
 
 for forwarding early crops. An oblong shape has the 
 further advantage of giving longer rows for the plow or 
 cultivator. 
 
 Laying out, A convenient plan is given in figure 1, 
 showing the hedge enclosing the whole ; and the adjacent^ 
 border, b b, which should be about twelve feet wide. The 
 remainder of the space is taken up with walks and the 
 plots, a a a a. The walk next the boundaries should not 
 be less than four and a half feet in width. The long cen- 
 tral walk should be at least five or six feet wide, and in 
 large gardens still wider, so as readily to admit a cart. 
 In this case the main walk 
 should proceed as in the figure, 
 from the entrance until near 
 the farther border, where a 
 larger portion than in the 
 plan should be taken oif the 
 adjacent plots, to form a cir- 
 cular turning place, around an Fi - 1. GARDEN PLAN. 
 arbor or tool-house. If the ground is to be cultivated 
 with the plow, the central cross-walk should be omitted, 
 making two instead of four oblong plots. In this case 
 the borders should be made of sufficient width to give 
 room enough for all those vegetables that will not admit 
 cultivation with this implement. ^ 
 
 The other vegetables may be successfully cultivated in 
 these two plots in long rows. Where only the spade and 
 hoe are used, these plots may be further subdivided into 
 smaller- ones by walks three to four and a half feet wide, 
 extending from the borders to the main walk ; and a por- 
 tion of these should be laid out each year by very narrow 
 alleys into beds four feet wide, for onions, beets, carrots, 
 etc. The earth should be dug out of the main walks, four 
 inches deep, and spread evenly on each side over the ad- 
 jacent ground. The walks may be filled with gravel, so 
 as to be dry and comfortable, or fresh tan, if accessible, 
 
16 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 will answer very well, and will keep out the weeds for 
 two years, when it should be used as a dressing for the 
 strawberry beds, and its place filled with a fresh supply. 
 No more walks or alleys should be made than are required 
 for convenience in gardening operations. 
 
 Box is the best edging wherever it succeeds, which it 
 does admirably throughout most of the South. All main 
 walks should be wide enough for two persons to walk 
 abreast, for which not less than four and a half feet, are 
 required. 
 
 Fencing, The objects of fencing are to procure shelter 
 for delicate plants from cold winds, also shade for those 
 that require it, and, above all, to keep out of the garden 
 intruders of ail kinds, that the owner may enjoy its frftits 
 without molestation. A high, close board fence, or a stone 
 or brick wall, answers a tolerable purpose ; but the only 
 thing to be relied on is a living hedge. The Osage Orange, 
 the Pyracanth, the Cherokee and single White Macartney 
 roses, thrive in the South, and are all good for this purpose. 
 Osage Orange plants may be raised from seed, or bought 
 at the nurseries for five or six dollars per thousand. The 
 Pyracanth, or Evergreen Thorn, (Cratcegus pyracantha) , 
 will make a hedge as effectual as the Osage Orange, and, 
 as it is an evergreen, is much the more desirable. The 
 blossoms in springtare very showy, and it is covered in 
 winter with bright scarlet berries, and hence it is often 
 called the Burning-bush. It grows freely from cuttings 
 in sandy soil, but these cuttings should remain in the nur- 
 sery-bed a year, to become well rooted before use. Mr. 
 Nelson gives the following directions for planting and 
 trimming a hedge, which apply equally well to Osage 
 Orange and Pyracanth : 
 
 " Planting 1 , First dig a trench where the hedge is in- 
 tended to be grown, two spades deep, throwing the sur- 
 face to one, and the subsoil to the other side ; then throw 
 
FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 17 
 
 the surface soil down on the bottom of the trench, and if 
 it is very poor, add a little manure, or good surface earth. 
 Autumn is by far the best time for transplanting, and it 
 can safely be done as soon as the leaves are dropped. Cut 
 down the plants to within four inches above the roots be- 
 fore planting. Several authors recommend planting in 
 double rows, but I decidedly prefer a single one. Assort 
 the plants in two parcels, those of large and those of 
 small size, and lay the smaller ones aside for the richest 
 ground. Stretch the line firmly, and place the plants in 
 as straight a line as possible, one foot apart ; fill up the 
 trench with earth, leaving about two inches above ground ; 
 press the earth not too firmly, but water plentifully, and 
 after that, level the whole nicely." 
 
 " Trimming. It is perfectly useless to plant a hedge 
 and leave it to be killed by weeds, or grow without trim- 
 ming. A young hedge will require the same amount of 
 labor as a row of Indian 
 corn. The plants having 
 been cut down so much, will, 
 of course, start vigorously 
 the ensuing spring. A good ^ 
 hedge ought never to be 
 trimmed in any other than in 
 
 . , , . Fig. 2. SECTION OF HEDGE. 
 
 a conical shape, as in ngure 2. 
 
 When trimmed in a conical shape, every shoot will enjoy 
 the fall benefit of air, light, and moisture, and by this 
 simple and natural method, a hedge can be shorn into a 
 strong wall of verdure, so green and close from, bottom to 
 top, that even a sparrow cannot, without difficulty , pass 
 through it. In order to make a hedge so thick and im- 
 pervious as above mentioned, it is necessary to go to 
 work even in the first summer, with a pair of hedge 
 shears, pruning the young growth, when about three 
 months old, at the same time laying down some of the 
 most vigorous shoots to fill up any vacant places found 
 
18 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 near the ground ; these shoots may be fastened to the 
 ground with hooked pegs. They may be considered as 
 layers, will soon send up a number of sprouts, making the 
 hedge impenetrable for pigs, and nearly for rabbits. The 
 young twigs may be trimmed in a wedge shape, not more 
 than one foot high, and at the base, six inches broad. The 
 next season the hedge may be allowed to grow one foot 
 higher, and three or four inches wider at the base. This 
 pruning is most readily given with a reaping hook, (a 
 sharp sickle without teeth), making the cut with an up- 
 ward stroke. Thus the management must be continued 
 until the hedge has attained the intended height, allowing 
 an addition of four inches broader at the bottom for ev- 
 ery foot more in height. A hedge, regularly trimmed 
 twice a year, in June and November, with the exception 
 of the first years, when it requires a little more care than 
 afterward, will continue impenetrable for fifty or even one 
 hundred years." 
 
 The Cherokee rose, (Rosa, Icevigata), by planting the 
 cuttings by the side of a plank or wire fence, two feet 
 apart, will grow up and cover it in a short time, and ef- 
 fectually repel man and beast ; but it grows so rampant 
 that it requires constant shortening-in. It is also apt to 
 die out at the bottom, and become unsightly, and is in all 
 respects much inferior to the single white Macartney, 
 (JRosa bracteata), an evergreen, and very easily grown from 
 cuttings. It is very thorny, and of beautiful foliage. It 
 never dies out at the bottom, whether pruned or not, and 
 south of Virginia, is very hardy, and of luxuriant growth. 
 A satisfactory fence can be made with this, by setting 
 good chestnut or cedar posts, eight feet apart, planted 
 about two and a half feet in the ground. Bank up the soil 
 to form some twenty inches high along the line of the fence, 
 then form the usual paling fence, or nail a good wide bottom 
 board, and finish the fence with heart pine six inch planks, or 
 with stout wire, strained through holes in the posts. The 
 
FOKMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GAEDENS. 19 
 
 wire fence may be four feet high. The roses should be 
 rooted cuttings, and may be planted at first, even eight feet 
 apart, and by layering and training the bottom shoots, if 
 the ground is kept in good order, in three years they will 
 repel every intruder. It is better, where plants are abun- 
 dant, to set them out four feet apart. This hedge requires 
 less pruning than any other to keep it impenetrable. Af- 
 ter the posts and slats have decayed, the bank it- 
 self, grown over with roses, will repel all intrusion. The 
 roses should be set at about the original level of the 
 ground, and not at the top of the bank. My own hedge 
 of Macartney rose, when three years old, trained on a 
 common fence of rails and paling, formed a barrier per- 
 fectly secure, and very ornamental. I see but one objec- 
 tion to it. It is in summer always in blossom, and there- 
 fore attracts all the bees in the neighborhood. In my 
 fruit-garden I have thought that the injury done to peaches 
 and grapes by wasps and bees has been much greater since 
 the hedge has grown up than before. It is a fine bee 
 plant. In a more northern climate the sweetbrier might 
 answer as a tolerable substitute. 
 
 The American Holly makes an efficient and beautiful 
 hedge, but is slow of growth and very hard to transplant. 
 It can, however, be safely planted by selecting a mild, 
 cloudy day the last of February, or early in March, cut- 
 ting off the top as directed above by Mr. Nelson for the 
 Osage Orange, and exposing the roots meanwhile to the 
 air as little as possible. Thousands of yards can be 
 thus planted with little loss. 
 
 For an ornamental hedge about a cemetery lot or else 
 where, the Irish Yew and the Tree Box are decidedly the 
 best plants that can be used. The narrow-leaved variety 
 of Tree Box grows naturally, just the right shape, and 
 needs very little trimming after two or three years. The 
 Yew likes shade. 
 
 The Japan Quince planted by the side of a common 
 
20 GAKDEOTNG FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 picket or plank fence will, in a few years, make a good 
 enclosure for a fruit or vegetable garden, and in flower is 
 very ornamental. 
 
 After hedges are established, a trench should be cut on 
 the garden side, two and a half or three feet from their 
 base, sufficiently deep to keep their roots from extending 
 into the beds and injuring the crops. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 Soils. In all climates the character of the soil is of 
 as much importance as situation or aspect. Soils are of 
 two classes. They may be composed of matter derived 
 directly from the decay of rock, like clay, loam, sand, 
 lime, and other earthy and alkaline matters. Such a soil 
 is classed as inorganic. Soils may likewise originate from 
 the action and decay of plants and animals (organized be- 
 ings,) as for example, peat, mould, and shell-marl. Such 
 a soil is classed as organic. A good soil is the result of 
 the_proper union of both these classes. 
 
 The mechanical texture of a soil is likewise especially 
 to be regarded, as on this depends the proper retention of 
 manure and moisture. There are two grand divisions of 
 soils, the heavy and light, which pass into each other by 
 imperceptible gradations. 
 
 The best classification of soils is that of Schubler, a Ger 
 man, and is founded entirely upon the relative proportions 
 of the chief constituents of all soils, viz., clay, sand, lime, 
 and humus. He classes them as follows : 
 
 Argillaceous Soils. These contain over fifty per cent 
 of clay, and are readily known by their tenacity and 
 
SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 21 
 
 greasiness to the feel, caused by the predominance of the 
 clay in them. They are difficult to work, and in dry 
 weather bake like brick and are not permeable to light 
 dews and rains. In drying, they crack, exposing, in sum- 
 mer, the large roots of plants to the air and sun, and 
 breaking the smaller ones. After heavy rains they become 
 so saturated that they are for a long time unfit to work, 
 and the plants therein die from excess of moisture. In 
 short, they are very cold when they are wet, and very 
 hard when they are dry. The crops are full ten days later 
 in coming to maturity, than in a good, sandy loam. Or- 
 dinary clays contain about twenty-five per cent of sand. 
 If less than fifteen per cent, they are only fit for brick- 
 making and pottery. 
 
 Clays are rich in alkalies, and have the property of re- 
 taining potash, phosphoric and silicic acids, and all salts 
 necessary to the growth of plants; also of condensing am- 
 monia and other gaseous matters. Hence they retain the 
 virtues of manure better than most other soils. Where 
 there is present lime and organic matters in sufficient 
 quantity, clays, not too stiff, are excellent for wheat. 
 
 A Bandy Soil is in texture the opposite of the preced- 
 ing and the lightest of all soils. It contains not over ten 
 per cent of clay. Such soils are harsh to the feel, lack 
 cohesion, permit the water that falls upon them to pass 
 instantly through them, and, as they heat up quickly, the 
 crops raised in them soon suffer from drought. In them 
 vegetation is early, but less vigorous and sustained. They 
 do not readily combine with manures, the soluble parts of 
 which are leached into the subsoil, or are washed out by 
 the rains ; so that, if manure be not constantly applied, 
 they will yield but a moderate crop. Gravels are, in this 
 respect, from the coarseness of their particles, still worse 
 than sands, and are very properly called " hungry soils." 
 Indeed, the fertility of a soil depends in a very great de- 
 gree upon the fineness of its particles. Sand is sparingly 
 
22 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 soluble in water containing alkaline matter in solution, 
 and in this state forms a portion, and sometimes an impor- 
 tant portion, of the food of plants. It is soluble silica, in 
 other words, dissolved sand, which the plant of wheat or 
 maize has extracted from the soil and deposited upon the 
 exterior of its stem, that gives the stalk or straw its stiff- 
 ness, and the lack of which in sufficient quantity subjects 
 it to the attacks of rust. Silica usually forms a small 
 proportion, too, of grains, legumes, and succulent roots. 
 
 For garden purposes, the only kind of sand suitable is 
 that which is fine and has been rounded by moving water. 
 The angular particles of road sand form hard, impermea- 
 ble masses, and it should never be employed. (Lindley.} 
 
 A loamy sand is a better soil than the preceding, and 
 contains from ten to twenty per cent of clay. These light 
 soils are best adapted to tap-roots and bulbs and for strik- 
 ing cuttings, while those heavier are better fitted for 
 plants with fibrous roots. 
 
 A sandy loam contains between twenty and thirty per 
 cent of clay, while all soils containing from thirty to fifty 
 per cent of clay are classed as ordinary loams. 
 
 In a garden designed for the cultivation of a variety of 
 plants, both a light and a moderately heavy soil are desira- 
 ble. But the best soil for general purposes is a loam of 
 medium texture, rather light than otherwise, arising from 
 a suitable admixture of the two, as they reciprocally cor- 
 rect the defects of each other. Where the other essen- 
 tials are present naturally, or added by man, such a soil 
 is suitable for the production of nearly all garden crops. 
 Any soil, by judicious culture, draining, and ameliorators, 
 or amendments, can be converted into such a loam. 
 
 Lime in greater or less proportions is generally present 
 in soils, commonly as a carbonate. It is sparingly solu- 
 ble in water, and is especially, when combined with acids, 
 as in the sulphate (gypsum,) or the phosphate of lime 
 (bone earth,) an important portion of the food of our 
 
SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 23 
 
 most useful plants. There are some plants, however, as 
 the Kalmia, to which its presence, to any appreciable extent 
 in soils, is injurious. Any one of the foregoing soils that 
 contains from five to twenty per cent of lime is classed 
 as marly, (as a marly clay, a marly loam, etc. ) When it 
 contains over twenty per cent, it is classed as calcareous. 
 A small percentage only of lime is required for the suc- 
 cessful growth of plants. Marly soils, other things being 
 equal, are the best adapted to fruit trees and wheat. They 
 are also classed as argillaceous, loamy, sandy-loamy, and 
 loamy-sandy marls, etc., according to the relative amounts 
 in them of clay and sand ; while if they contain above 
 five per cent of humus (vegetable matter in a state of 
 decay,) they are classed as humus marls, which may be 
 also argillaceous, if containing fifty per cent of clay ; loamy, 
 if from thirty to fifty per cent ; and sandy, if less than 
 thirty per cent of clay. 
 
 Calcareous Soils (which contain more than twenty per 
 cent of carbonate of lime) also are classed in the same 
 manner with marly soils, according to the relative amounts 
 of clay, sand, and humus they contain as argillaceous, or 
 loamy calcareous, etc. 
 
 Organic Soils. Shell marls, though of organic origin, 
 are naturally classed with the calcareous soils. The other 
 organic soils are mainly of vegetable origin, resulting from 
 the decay of plants, and are named humus soils. This 
 last class is of three orders : 1st. Soluble mild humus, 
 that is, vegetable mould in a fit condition for the nourish- 
 ment of the plants which grow in it, such as thoroughly 
 rotted peat, black or leaf-mould. 2d. Acid humus, which 
 contains a free acid, injurious, if not destructive, to most 
 plants. 3d. Peat or other fibrous vegetable matter, which, 
 though free from acidity, is not yet in a proper condition 
 to impart nourishment to plants. Humus soils may be 
 argillaceous, loamy and sandy, and also contain, or be des- 
 titute of, calcareous matter. 
 
I 
 
 24 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Humus has the property of producing a constant sup- 
 ply of carbonic acid by slow combination with oxygen. 
 It aids greatly in keeping a soil in an open state, so as to 
 allow water and air to pass freely through it, and by vir- 
 tue of its porosity it condenses and retains gaseous mat- 
 ter within, and it absorbs saline substances. Though such 
 a soil freely parts with a superabundance of water, yet in 
 dry weather it imbibes from the atmosphere large sup- 
 plies of moisture. Schubler found that 100 pounds of 
 dry humus would hold 190 pounds of water without los- 
 ing a drop. In dry weather 1,000 grains of it spread up- 
 on a surface of fifty inches absorbed from the atmosphere 
 in three days 120 grains of moisture. Of silicious sand 
 the same amount absorbed nothing ; sandy clay, 28 grains ; 
 loamy clay, 35 ; stiff clay, 35 ; garden mould, 52. Hence 
 the best defence we have against drought is an abundant 
 supply of decayed organic matter in a loamy soil. Clay, 
 sand, humus, and lime, will neither of them, if pure, sus- 
 tain a healthy vegetation ; but properly mixed, constitute 
 the main ingredients of the richest soils in the world. As 
 good loam contains sufficient lime, therefore loam, peat, 
 and sand, in varying proportions, are constantly employ- 
 ed by gardeners as the essentials for proper development 
 of the plants they wish to grow therein. 
 
 Where true peat cannot be obtained, leaf-mould from 
 the woods, black muck from the swamps, well decomposed 
 and sweetened by exposure, or thoroughly rotted turf 
 mixed with powdered charcoal, are the best substitutes.* 
 
 The depth of a soil is quite as important as its texture. 
 If not naturally deep, it must be made so by trenching. 
 Deep soils retain a constant supply of moisture in dry 
 weather, so that the plants do not suffer ; they do not be- 
 come too wet in rainy seasons, as the earth drinks in and 
 retains the rain below the surface ; hence they are not so 
 
 (Rural Cyclopedia, Dr. Lindley.) 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 25 
 
 liable to wash away. If equally rich, they furnish plants 
 with a more abundant supply of food than shallow soils. 
 Especially for all tap-rooted plants, a deep soil is indis- 
 pensable. In the preparation of your garden, then, see 
 that the ground is dry, deep, and rich. Good vegetables 
 will not grow in a wet soil ; a shallow soil will not fur- 
 nish them with a regular supply of moisture ; and the crops 
 growing upon a poor soil never repay the labor bestowed 
 upon it. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 
 
 A soil may be improved in texture, in depth, and by the 
 addition of such constituents necessary for the growth of 
 plants as may be wanting. 
 
 The texture of a clayey soil can be rendered more per- 
 vious by thorough draining, deep trenching, and by the 
 application of sand, ashes, lime, and unfermented manure. 
 Any clayey, retentive subsoil will be greatly benefited by 
 good underdrains. A wet soil is always cold, as water 
 has a much greater capacity for heat than has earth. 
 The same quantity of heat that will warm the earth four 
 degrees will warm water but one. Water, also, is a bad 
 conductor of lieat downwards. Boiling water can be 
 gently poured over cold water without heating the latter, 
 except a very little at the surface. Now, if the soil in 
 spring be saturated with water colder than the summer 
 rains, unless it be removed by drainage, they cannot de- 
 scend to carry warmth into the ground ; neither will the 
 wet soil conduct the atmospheric heat downwards with 
 much rapidity. But draw off the cold water by proper 
 
26 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 drains, and the warmer water can percolate through and 
 raise the temperature of the soil. As the warmer water 
 settles, the porous space it occupies will admit warm air. 
 (Thompson.) Drainage, also, by admitting the atmos- 
 phere, renders the soil much more friable. Soils well 
 drained have likewise been found to suffer far less from 
 summer droughts than before. Underdrains should be 
 not less than three feet below the surface, and four feet 
 is much to be preferred. 
 
 Trenching renders the upper stratum of soil more light 
 and friable, acting as drainage, but imperfectly. Its great 
 utility is in increasing the quantity of soil to which the 
 roots of plants find access. 
 
 Ashes and lime each have the property of rendering 
 heavy soils lighter, and light soils more tenacious, and 
 both more productive, especially for potatoes, turnips, 
 beets, and peas, which delight in calcareous soils. In cold 
 climates, plowing clay lands deeply in the fall, and expos- 
 ing them to the action of the winter's frost, is very bene- 
 ficial, but in sections where there is little frost and abun- 
 dant and heavy washing rains, it is worse than useless. 
 Turning under coarse vegetable or carbonaceous matter, 
 as straw, leaves, pine straw, corn-stalks, a crop of cow- 
 peas, clover, or any other green crop, bog or leaf-mould, 
 decomposed peat, and even tan-bark itself, so deeply be- 
 neath the surface as not to interfere with cultivation, will 
 by the slow decomposition of these materials much increase 
 the fertility of a clay soil by improving its texture. It is 
 most improved by drainage if needed. 
 
 The frequent working of the soil with the hoe and 
 spade, thereby admitting the ammonia and fertilizing 
 gases of the atmosphere, is itself very beneficial to clay 
 soils, if done when the earth is dry. A clay soil is ex- 
 ceedingly injured if worked while wet. It is so difficult 
 to work, and so liable to bake into a hard crust after ev- 
 ery rain, that it will well repay, where materials for the 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OP THE SOIL. 27 
 
 purpose are at all convenient, to lay out a good deal of 
 time and labor in improving its mechanical texture. 
 
 The texture of a sandy soil is much more easily improv- 
 ed than a clay, as the percentage of clay required to con- 
 vert any sand into a loam is not very large and can easily 
 be added. Fortunately, too, in sandy soils, clay is gene- 
 rally near at hand, often lying but a few inches beneath 
 the surface. A few loads of stiff clay, scattered thinly 
 over the surface in autumn, arc worth more applied to 
 such a soil than any manure, for the clay will render ma- 
 nures permanent in their effect, which else would leach 
 through without benefit to the crops. The effect of the 
 clay itself is lasting. Lime, as before observed, stiffens 
 the texture of a sandy soil, and gypsum has the same 
 effect. Ashes, leached or unleached, are also an excellent 
 and profitable dressing to such a soil, but the best of all 
 applications is a good clay marl. Peat, vegetable manure, 
 and carbonaceous matters of all kinds, such as refuse 
 charcoal, are good applications to these sandy soils, as 
 they enable them better to retain the fertilizing proper- 
 ties of the manure applied, though they do not much affect 
 the texture of the soil. Sandy soils very often rest upon 
 a clay bottom, so that the thorough trenching which a 
 garden should receive will often greatly improve its tex- 
 ture. Working such a soil while wet, and the continual 
 use of the roller, will also render it more tenacious. But 
 clay is the great improver, and it is astonishing how small 
 a quantity of fine clay will cement a loose sand into a 
 good loam. 
 
 To conclude, in regard to the texture of soils, choose or 
 make for your garden a loam of medium texture a little 
 inclined to sand, and the finer its particles the better. 
 Clays and sands both become objectionable as they depart 
 from this friable, loamy texture, and the first step in their 
 improvement is to bring them to this condition. A medium 
 consistency best agrees with vegetation. 
 
28 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The depth of soil in the garden is as likely to need im- 
 provement as its texture. A deep soil is necessary that 
 the roots may penetrate it freely in search of food, and be 
 able to endure our summer droughts. The roots of a 
 strawberry have been traced five feet down in a deep, 
 rich soil. The difference in the freshness and growth of 
 plants raised upon trenched soils, and those growing upon 
 soils prepared in the common manner, is remarkable. In 
 lawns, the color of the grass will indicate very exactly 
 the greater or less depth of the soil. The depth of soils 
 may be increased by subsoil plowing, or trenching. 
 
 Trenching is the mode of improving the depth of the 
 soil in smaller gardens, and is usually performed in this 
 manner : At one end of the plot to be trenched, you dig 
 with the spade a trench three feet wide, and two feet deep ; 
 you throw the earth out on the side away from the plot 
 to be trenched. Shovel the bottom clean, and make the 
 sides perpendicular, leaving a clear open trench across 
 the plot. Open another trench the same width, and put 
 the surface spadefull of that into the bottom of the former 
 trench, and the next spadefull upon that, until opened to 
 the same depth as the first one, adding meanwhile the 
 necessary manures and amendments. When the plot is 
 entirely trenched in this w^ay, the last trench will remain 
 open, which must be filled with the earth thrown out from 
 the first one, which finishes the work. 
 
 Most subsoils are, however, so poor that this mode of 
 trenching will do more harm than good, except in worn- 
 out soils or in old, overrich gardens. It is, in general, a 
 better plan to remove from the first trench opened all the 
 rich surface mould, and place it on one side ; then trench 
 the subsoil to the required depth, throwing out enough 
 earth at one end of the trench to give room to operate, 
 leaving it still at the bottom. If the subsoil is stiff, it 
 will be greatly improved by intermixing with it while 
 trenching, as t{ amendments," leaves, straw, tan-bark, 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 29 
 
 saw-dust, or any other vegetable refuse, putting the 
 coarsest materials at the bottom. Now cover the loosen- 
 ed subsoil with surface mould from the adjacent strip, 
 which is next to be trenched, and loosen the bottom of 
 this strip also to the required depth, adding amendments 
 as before. Proceed thus until the plot is finished, cover- 
 ing the subsoil of the last strip with the surface mould 
 taken from the first one opened. If the soil is too light, 
 clay should be added to it while being trenched. If it 
 needs drainage, the drains should be laid at the same time. 
 Drain tile forms the most perfect mode of drainage where 
 they can be obtained at a reasonable rate. They should 
 be laid deep, below the bottom of the trenches. 
 
 Trenching is an expensive operation, but u nothing," 
 says Mr. Barry, " is so expensive and troublesome, as an 
 ill-prepared soil." This process is found to be of great 
 advantage in England, where there is no lack of moisture, 
 and still more so by the market gardeners of the North ; 
 while in our own dry, warm climate, it is, as I know by 
 trial, absolutely indispensable. Ground thus prepared is 
 not so liable to wash away, as it will readily soak up the 
 heaviest rain, if properly terraced. There is no poinC of 
 greater importance than this. Poor ground deeply mov- 
 ed sometimes yields better than rich with shallow tillage, 
 and when the ground has been prepared once in this man- 
 ner, it will feel the benefit forever after. Increasing the 
 depth of the soil in this jnode is to all intents and pur- 
 poses increasing the size of your garden; for one-fourth 
 of an acre thus prepared will yield in a dry season as 
 much as an acre will with shallow tillage ; and the growth 
 of the plants in a good season will be fully doubled. 
 Trees, especially, feel the benefit of this preparation, and 
 all fruit-gardens should be tlms prepared. ~No matter how 
 deep you may w r ork the soil for trees or plants, their fibers 
 will penetrate it, and feel the good effect. 
 
 Trenching should be pel-formed in the fall the coarse 
 
30 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 manure dug in at that time. At the top it should be well 
 manured with well-rotted dung, charcoal dust, ashes, or 
 other good manure, dug in shallow, taking care to level 
 the ground while trenching, so as to prevent washing. 
 Another good coat of compost should be added just be- 
 fore planting in the spring. 
 
 Subsoil plowing. is much cheaper and answers a very 
 good purpose when the spot to be prepared is large. A 
 common turning plow goes first, and plows as deep a fur- 
 row as practicable. It is followed by the subsoil plow in 
 the same furrow, which should loosen the soil, without turn- 
 ing it up, to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches, unless 
 it is a stiff clay or gravel. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 Anything which, by being added to the soil directly or 
 indirectly, promotes the growth of plants, may be consid- 
 ered a manure. Strictly speaking, manures are the arti- 
 ficial food supplied to plants. Those substances, that, when 
 added to the soil, promote plant-growth more by changing 
 its texture, correcting its acidity, and otherwise modifying 
 its condition than by the nourishment they directly afford 
 to plants, we shall, borrowing a French term, call amend- 
 ments. Such are sand, coal ashes, lime, clay, marl, old 
 plaster, etc., when applied to soils that need them. Many 
 of these substances, like marl, lime, rubbish, rotten chips, 
 broken charcoal, etc., act both as manures and amend- 
 ments. 
 
 Manures may be classified into organic, inorganic, and 
 
MANURES. 31 
 
 mixed ; into nitrogenous, carbonaceous, earthy, and saline ; 
 and into general and special. Organic manures include 
 those both of animal and vegetable origin ; inorganic ma- 
 nures are derived from minerals. 
 
 Manures may have a two-fold action directly assisting 
 vegetable growth by entering into the composition of 
 plants, and by supplying them with moisture and nutri- 
 tive gases which they absorb from the atmosphere. Ma- 
 nures may also indirectly assist the growth of plants 
 either by destroying vermin or weeds ; by decomposing in 
 the soil, and rendering available any stubborn organic re- 
 mains therein ; by protecting plants from sudden changes 
 of temperature ; or they may act as amendments by im- 
 proving the texture and physical condition of the soil. 
 All the above properties probably never are combined in 
 any one manure, each being characterized by superiority 
 in some one of the above qualities. 
 
 The manures most generally applicable are those com- 
 posed of substances which directly enter into and are es- 
 sential to the growth of plants. What are these sub- 
 stances ? 
 
 " Plants," says Liebig, " contain combustible and in- 
 combustible ingredients. The latter, which compose the 
 ash left by all parts of plants on combustion, consist, in 
 the case of our cultivated plants, essentially of phosphoric 
 acid, potash, silicic and sulphuric acids, lime, iron, mag- 
 nesia, and chloride of sodium." It is now fully establish- 
 ed " that the constituents of the ash are elements of food, 
 and hence indispensable to the structure of the different 
 parts of the plant." 
 
 The few ashes that remain after burning a plant are all 
 that it got necessarily from the soil. From eighty-eight 
 to ninety-nine per cent of the weight of the plant has es- 
 caped into the air, from which, and from water, the plant 
 has derived it immediately or remotely. The composition 
 of their ashes varies in different parts of the same plant 
 
32 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 and slightly in the same species when grown on different 
 soils; but they are always a valuable manure for the 
 species from which obtained, and, slowly dissolving in the 
 soil, they furnish the roots with just the salts required to 
 nourish the growing plant. 
 
 But, in general, over nine pounds in every ten have dis- 
 appeared under the action of fire. The combustible por- 
 tions which have been expelled are carbon, hydrogen, 
 oxygen, and a little nitrogen, which have been derived 
 from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, which are, as 
 elements of food, equally indispensable as the substances 
 of which the ashes of plants are composed. 
 
 The incombustible constituents of the plant come from 
 the soil alone, and are taken tip by the roots. 
 
 After the gaseous constituents of plants are driven off 
 by combustion, the small percentage of ashes remaining, 
 we have stated, consists of silicic and phosphoric acids, 
 potash, sulphur, lime, magnesia, iron, chlorine and soda, 
 (the two latter generally unite as chloride of sodium), all 
 of which, in greater or less proportions, enter into the 
 composition of our field and garden crops. These earthy 
 or saline constituents are found within the cells of plants, 
 or deposited as a lining to the cell-walls, or entering into 
 their substance. They are useful to the plant itself, and 
 useful in the plant's products as affording food to man. 
 Some of them are always present in the azotized substances 
 formed by plants. Thus sulphur and the phosphates are, 
 with ammonia, necessary for the formation of albumen, 
 fibrin, and caseine, which are essential constituents of our 
 blood. 
 
 Of these substances Lime, Potash, Soda, Phosphoric 
 Acid, Sulphur, and Chlorine, are all the gardener will 
 have occasion to supply, the others being always present 
 in sufficient quantity in all cultivated soils. 
 
 Lime generally occurs as a carbonate. Partially solu- 
 ble in water, it is an important portion of food to most of 
 
MANUKES. 33 
 
 onr cultivated plants. It is indispensable to such plants 
 as beets, potatoes, peas, beans, fruit trees, and vines, but 
 to Kalmias and coniferous trees it is injurious. It is 
 of special value when combined with phosphoric acid, as 
 in bone earths, or with the sulphuric, as in gypsum. Linie 
 in the soil enables it better to absorb and retain heat. 
 It is of great value as an application to cold, tenacious 
 soil-s, rendering them of more open texture, and making 
 the organic matters therein available to plants. It, on the 
 other hand, makes light soils more adhesive, acting as an 
 amendment. It decomposes organic matters, whether 
 vegetable or animal, and forms with them a partially solu- 
 ble compound peculiarly fitted for the food of plants. 
 But as it has the property of setting free ammonia, it 
 should never be applied in connection with fresh animal 
 manures. Mixed with stable manure or guano, it would 
 speedily free them from nearly all their ammonia, that indis- 
 pensable and most costly constituent of the food of plants. 
 
 This will not happen to any great extent, and there will 
 be little loss, if the mixture takes place in, and both the 
 lime and manure are entirely covered with the soil, which 
 will at once absorb whatever ammonia the lime sets free. 
 
 The great value of lime, aside from the small quantity 
 directly available to plants, is in hastening, as above stat- 
 ed, the decomposition of decaying matters in the soil, and 
 rendering them assimilable by plants. The old black' 
 mould of kitchen gardens and other soils rich in humus, 
 it will suddenly render wonderfully productive, and they 
 will consequently speedily become exhausted, unless new 
 supplies of organic manures are added. Lime alone, ad- 
 ded to a soil, will speedily exhaust it if the crops are re- 
 moved and no return of manure is made. 
 
 Potash is another alkaline substance indispensable to 
 healthy vegetation. It occurs in all plants, and this, and 
 lime and soda, are regarded by Liebig as specially destined 
 to serve as bases for the organic acids of vegetation, 
 
 o* 
 
34 GARDENING FOE TUB SOUTH. 
 
 Caustic potash acts upon decaying matters like lime. As 
 a manure, it is always used in the form of a salt, generally 
 as a carbonate, but also as a chloride and a nitrate. As 
 a carbonate, it is found in wood ashes, which are every- 
 where considered as a most valuable manure, and which 
 add great efficacy to all composts to which they are ap- 
 plied. The abundant potash from burning the brush and 
 timber is one cause of the great fertility of freshly cleared 
 lands. Chloride of potassium exists in soapboilers' refuse, 
 which is a good manure, chiefly from the presence of this 
 salt therein. Nitrate of potash (saltpetre) is the most 
 useful of the salts of potash, promoting the vigor of plants 
 and rendering their tissues solid. Potash, like lime, should 
 not be combined with animal manures, but in composts 
 of vegetable refuse will be found very useful, particularly 
 as an application to vines and fruit trees. Upon turnips, 
 cabbages, and other members of the cabbage tribe, it has, 
 when applied in the form of soapsuds, an immediate good 
 effect. (Zrindley.) 
 
 Soapsuds is also most excellent as a manure for roses. 
 Potash has the same effect as lime upon the texture of 
 soils, in rendering adhesive ones more friable, and light 
 ones more adhesive. Soils, in cultivation, if not manured, 
 soon part with so much of their soluble potash, that rest 
 and fallowing are required to render available that which 
 exists naturally in all clayey soils, but not in a soluble 
 form to the extent required by growing plants. After 
 ammonia and phosphoric acid, potash is the most likely to 
 be of benefit to the soil. 
 
 Soda is present in the structure of plants, but in smaller 
 quantities than potash, for which it is regarded by Liebig 
 as a natural equivalent. Some plants which naturally 
 grow in a soil containing a salt of soda will grow equally 
 well if a salt of potash is present, while, if both are ab- 
 sent from the soil, they will not thrive. Hence if a soil 
 contain enough alkaline matter for many plants, it does 
 
MANURES. 85 
 
 not much matter whether it be potash or soda ; but in 
 general it will be more productive if both these alkalies 
 are present. For plants which naturally inhabit the sea- 
 shore, such as asparagus and sea kale, its presence in the 
 form of common salt (Chloride of sodium) is indispensa- 
 ble. (Lindley.} The nitrate of soda is similar in its 
 beneficial action upon plants to the nitrate of potash, but 
 it is not yet settled whether the good effects of these salts 
 are owing to their nitrogen, or in part to their alkali. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, Next to ammonia, this is usually 
 the most necessary application to soils, because the first 
 element exhausted. Where not present in sufficient quan- 
 tity, its supply, artificially, is even of more urgent neces- 
 sity. A supply of ammonia may, in some measure, be de- 
 rived from the atmosphere, but the phosphates must be 
 restored by man. The presence of the phosphates in the 
 soil is required that ammonia may have its full effect. 
 
 u In wild plants, the phosphates are less abundant than 
 in cultivated crops. The latter produce a large quantity 
 of blood, forming food in a short space of time ; hence 
 more phosphates are required. All plants that are useful 
 for animal food have great power of taking up the phos- 
 phates, and cultivation increases this power. Evergreen 
 and perennial plants extend their vegetating processes 
 over many years, and do not in a given period require so 
 large a quantity of the phosphates as the ordinary culti- 
 vated plants, and their falling leaves restore much of the 
 inorganic matter to the soil. But cultivated plants are 
 mostly annual and herbaceous, grow rapidly, and require 
 an abundance of phosphates, which are annually removed 
 with the crop. If the crop, like that of wild plants, was 
 left upon the soil, the plants in their decay would restore 
 all they had taken. Phosphoric acid is present in the 
 blood, is a constituent of the brain and nerves, and enters 
 largely into the bones of the animals that consume these 
 plants or their seeds and roots. Providence never per- 
 
36 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 mits food-plants to grow, unless all the elements are with- 
 in their reach that are necessary to nourish and develope 
 the bodies of the beings that are to feed upon them. Those 
 manures are most valuable which furnish the materials 
 necessary for forming the azotized compounds required 
 for the food of man and animals. Hence the great value 
 of manures containing ammonia and the phosphates which 
 do not exist abundantly and are annually required and 
 taken away by the crops." (Balfour, Liebig.) 
 
 " Alkaline and earthy phosphates form," says Liebig, 
 " invariable constituents of the seeds of all kinds of grass- 
 es, of beans, peas, and lentils." It is said, in the ash of 
 tea-leaves, they amount to 17 per cent. 
 
 Bones, certain mineral substances, and the phosphatic 
 guanos, contribute to furnish the necessary supply. The 
 apparent effect of phosphates applied to t!he soil is to stim- 
 ulate vegetation and to promote the formation of roots. 
 If used for the drainage of pots in the form of broken 
 bones, or at the bottom of vine borders, the roots soon 
 find their way down to, and extract nutriment from them. 
 
 The phosphates, like all other plant food, to be of ser- 
 vice, must be within the reach of the roots of plants. 
 Fertility is not to be measured by the quantity of plant 
 food a soil contains, but only by that portion which exists 
 in a finely divided state, as it is only with such portions 
 that the rootlets of plants can come in close contact. An 
 ounce of bone in a cubic foot of soil produces no marked 
 effect upon its fertility if unbroken. Dissolve it and let 
 it be distributed through the soil, and it will suffice for the 
 food of 120 wheat plants. The most abundant applica- 
 tion of earthy phosphates in coarse powder can, in its ef- 
 fects, bear no comparison with a much less quantity, 
 which, in a state of minute subdivision, is dispersed 
 through every part of the soil. A rootlet requires, where 
 it touches the soil, a most minute portion of food, but it 
 
MANURES. 37 
 
 is necessary for its very existence that this minute supply 
 should be at that precise spot. (Liebig.) 
 
 Phosphates, then, to produce their best effect, must bo 
 made soluble, as it is only in this state that they can pene- 
 trate every portion of the soil. Broken bones dissolve 
 and part with their phosphoric acid very slowly in the 
 soil, but what good effect they produce continues a long 
 time. If finely ground, the present good effect is much 
 more evident. By mixing them in this state with sul- 
 phuric acid, it combines with a portion of the lime, con- 
 verting it into gypsum or sulphate of lime ; while the rest 
 remains in combination with the phosphoric acid as a bi- 
 phosphate (superphosphate) of lime. This is soluble in 
 water, and when applied to the soil is diffused through it, 
 and can be readily, and if not in excess, soon totally 
 absorbed, by the rootlets of growing plants, and conse- 
 quently its good effects upon the soil will soon disappear. 
 One peck of bones, thus prepared, will have as much pres- 
 ent effect as 16 bushels of ground bones undissolvecl. 
 (Lindley.) 
 
 The soluble phosphates, in estimating the values of ma- 
 nures, are now regarded as the most important ingredient, 
 next to ammoniacal salts, and, as before stated, are often, 
 indeed, more necessary to supply. 
 
 Sulphur i Plants contain, either deposited in their roots 
 or seeds, or dissolved in their juices, variable quantities 
 of compounds containing sulphur. In these, nitrogen is 
 an invariable constituent. These are always accompanied 
 by alkaline phosphates and alkaline earths, and for both, 
 in each seed there exists a fixed and unchangeable rela- 
 tion; whenever the percentage of phosphoric acid in- 
 creases or diminishes in any seed, there is the like increase 
 or diminution in the compounds of sulphur. In the seeds 
 of cereals and in those of leguminous plants, two of these 
 compounds exist, and a third in the juices of all plants, 
 
38 GAEDEXING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 but in the greatest abundance in the juices of those plants 
 we use for the table. (Liebig.) 
 
 This sulphur is obtained from the sulphates naturally 
 contained in or applied to the soil, especially from gypsum, 
 or sulphate of lime. Gypsum, it is believed, acts in two 
 ways, being sparingly soluble in water; it acts directly 
 as food for plants, supplying them with sulphur and lime, 
 and indirectly, by its action on the volatile carbonate of 
 ammonia which it unites with and fixes. When they meet 
 in solution, a double action takes place ; both substances 
 are decomposed, and their elements unite in the forms of 
 carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia. The latter salt 
 is not volatile, and the ammonia is thus retained in the 
 soil for the use of the crops. Gypsum is very beneficial 
 to green crops, as the cabbage, potato, also to maize, and 
 especially to clover, peas, and other leguminous crops. 
 (Lindley?) A bushel of it has been known to yield an 
 extra ton of clover hay to the acre when applied broad- 
 cast. Gypsum is very useful to sprinkle on manure heaps 
 and upon the contents of privies, to fix the ammonia con- 
 tained therein. 
 
 Sulphur alone may sometimes be used to advantage as 
 a manure. It is not soluble in water, but when finely di- 
 vided, it will slowly unite with the oxygen of the air. 
 
 Sulphur is destructive to most insects, and found very 
 serviceable to sprinkle about green-houses and vineries for 
 the prevention of mildew. 
 
 Chlorine. In districts remote from the sea, the chlo- 
 rides of sodium, calcium, and magnesia, when applied to 
 the soil, are useful to vegetation. These compounds are 
 frequently found in the sap of plants. As nearly all soils 
 contain more or less of common salt, the application of 
 any chloride is seldom absolutely essential, but is fre- 
 quently very serviceable, especially to certain crops. 
 
 Chemistry has endeavored to ascertain by analyzing 
 the ashes of plants whh;h of these substances is most im- 
 
MANURES. 39 
 
 portant to a given plant. As a result of these inquiries, 
 plants have been divided into four classes, according as 
 one or another inorganic element is found to predominate 
 in their ashes. 
 
 1. jSilex Plants. Those that abound m silica, as the 
 grasses, equisetums, etc. 
 
 2. Alkali Plants. Those that contain alkaline salts in 
 large proportions, as beets, potatoes, and the vine. Pot- 
 ash salts are necessary to all land plants, especially to 
 conifers and other trees, while soda salts, particularly its 
 chloride, to all marine plants. 
 
 3. Lime Plants. Those that contain the earths, espe- 
 cially lime and magnesia, as clover, peas, beans, etc. 
 
 4. Phosphorus Plants. Those that contain the phos- 
 phates, as the cereals, wheat, corn, rye, oats, fruits. 
 All food-bearing plants contain more or less of the phos- 
 phates in their ashes, as cabbages, turnips, onions, etc. 
 
 Phosphates of lime and potash are the inorganic sub- 
 stances most likely to be needed in soils, as they are soon- 
 est exhausted. The salts of lime, as the carbonate and 
 sulphate, after these, are generally next valuable. Lime, 
 however, is injurious to heaths. Nitrogenous manures, so 
 generally serviceable, are injurious to conifers and stone 
 fruits. (Lindley.) 
 
 An analysis of stable manure shows it to contain all the 
 elements required for the food of plants ; every part of it 
 has been formed of vegetable products, and is ready when 
 rendered soluble to enter into and minister again to their 
 growth. 
 
 The decayed parts of any plant rendered soluble, and 
 likewise its ashes, are among the best manures for plants 
 of its own species. Vineyards have been kept fertile by 
 digging into the soil the fresh prunings of the vines, and 
 indeed are said to have increased in richness from the 
 slight manuring their own leaves afford. So forests, we 
 know, are enriched by the falling leaves. 
 
40 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 It is by putrefaction that all animal and vegetable re- 
 mains are rendered available to plants, but if they are al- 
 lowed to decompose without care, the loss is immense ; the 
 soluble parts are washed away, the gases pass off into the 
 air, and a large proportion of the manure is dissipated. 
 
 The Indirect Action of Manures. Some manures 
 ameliorate the soil by absorbing and retaining moisture 
 from the atmosphere. This property is as beneficial to 
 a clay as to a sandy soil during drought, as at such times 
 clays are often baked so as to be impervious to the dew 
 and suffer nearly or quite as much as more sandy soils. 
 The best aborbents of moisture are stable manure, thor- 
 oughly decomposed tan-bark, and the manure of the cow 
 and pig, in the order named. After these come sheep and 
 fowl manure, salt, soot, and even burnt clay is not with- 
 out its virtue. All these absorbents are much more effec- 
 tual when finely divided, and the soil itself is a good ab- 
 sorbent in proportion to its richness, fineness, and the 
 friability produced by frequent culture. In the power of 
 retaining moisture absorbed, pig manure stands preemi- 
 nent ; next that of the horse, then common salt and soot. 
 
 Some manures are beneficial in absorbing not only mois- 
 ture, but nutritious gases from the atmosphere, which they 
 yield to the roots in a concentrated form. All animal and 
 vegetable manures have the power of attracting oxygen 
 from the air during decomposition. Charcoal and all car- 
 bonaceous matters have the power of absorbing carbonic 
 acid gas in large quantities, supplying constantly to the 
 roots of plants an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which is 
 renewed as quickly as it is abstracted. The same sub- 
 stances are especially valuable for their power of absorb- 
 ing ammonia. Charcoal will absorb ninety times its vol- 
 ume of ammoniacal gas, which can be separated by simply 
 moistening it with water. 
 
 Decayed wood absorbs seventy times its volume, while 
 
MANURES. 41 
 
 leaf-mould, perfectly rotted tan-bark, and in fact all vege- 
 table manures, are exceedingly valuable in this respect. 
 
 Manures indirectly assist the growth of plants hy de- 
 stroying weeds and predatory vermin. This is not a prop- 
 erty of animal and vegetable manures, (except that guano 
 repels most insects). They foster these enemies of the crop, 
 but salt, lime, and ashes, applied to the surface of the soil, 
 are very destructive to nearly all insects, while the roots 
 of weeds and grasses, if composted with ashes or lime, are 
 completely destroyed and converted into an excellent ma- 
 nure. 
 
 Another indirect action of manure in assisting the growth 
 of plants is in decomposing and rendering available any 
 stubborn organic substances in the soil. Stable manure, 
 and all decomposing animal and vegetable substances, 
 have a tendency to promote the decay of any organic re- 
 mains in the soil. All putrescent substances hasten the 
 process of putrefaction in other organic bodies with which 
 they come in contact. Even peat and tan-bark, mingled 
 with stable dung and Jcept moist, are converted into good 
 manure ; common salt in small proportions has a similar 
 septic property, and the efficacy of lime in this respect is 
 well known. 
 
 Ashes are of equal value, but not so easy to obtain in 
 sufficient quantity. Neither ashes or lime should ever be 
 mixed with manures that are rich in ammonia, such as 
 cotton seed or animal manures, as they would cause great 
 waste of ammonia by setting it free and permitting it to 
 be lost in the atmosphere. 
 
 Inorganic substances are sometimes released from their 
 combinations, and rendered soluble by the application of 
 carbonaceous manures. Ashes from which the soluble 
 potash has been leached, if composted with swamp muck, 
 are enabled to furnish plants with a further supply. By 
 composting the two, the value of both is greatly increas- 
 ed. Such a compost may be mixed with ammoniacal ma- 
 
42 GARDENING FOE TUB SOUTH. 
 
 nures, not only without loss, but with decided benefit, and 
 the ammonia will be retained. 
 
 Another indirect agency of manures is in protecting 
 plants from sudden changes of temperature. There is no 
 doubt that rich soils and those abounding in animal and 
 vegetable remains, are less liable to change their tempera- 
 ture with the incumbent atmosphere than those of poorer 
 constituents, for the decomposition of manures gives 
 warmth to the soil. Corn can be grown in high latitudes 
 upon rich land only ; upon a poor soil it would perish. 
 
 The last indirect eifect of manures upon plants is by 
 improving the texture of the soils in which they grow. 
 Decomposing in the ground, they leave interstices as they 
 become less in bulk, making it more light and porous. 
 The effect of manure in rendering a stiff soil light and 
 friable is very well known. It is equally true that vege- 
 table manures give to sandy soils greater tenacity, ena- 
 bling them better to retain moisture and ammonia. 
 
 Manures, then, should be adapted to soils and circum- 
 stances. Cohesive and binding manures are most suitable 
 for open sands ; those of open texture, for stiff clays ; those 
 that readily attract and retain moisture, for dry soils ; heat- 
 ing, dry, strawy, and turfy manures, for wet or clayey 
 soils ; and those of slow decomposition for hungry gravels. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 
 
 Having considered the modes in which manures act up- 
 on the growth of plants, a still more important inquiry 
 remains, viz. : What manures can we obtain and render 
 available ? The scarcity of manures with us is a great dif- 
 ficulty in gardening. But a small amount of live stock is 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 43 
 
 kept in proportion to the number of acres in cultivation. 
 What is thus obtainable is not well husbanded, and is 
 needed for corn and cotton. Still, on most country places, 
 enough is wasted to supply not only the garden, but to 
 leave a surplus for the field crops. In town^ wherever a 
 horse and cow can be kept, enough can be made for a larg 
 garden, while even a pig, if kept at work in his pen, with 
 the aid of soapsuds from the house, will convert some 
 fifteen loads of weeds, yard sweepings, chips, tan-bark, 
 and leaves, into a valuable manure. 
 
 Of Saline and Earthy Manures the most available are 
 ashes, leached and unleached, which should be most care- 
 fully saved, as potash is one of the elements drawn most 
 largely from the soil, and this ashes supply most cheaply. 
 They contain besides potash, phosphoric and sulphuric 
 acids, manganese, chlorine, soda, magnesia, carbonate of 
 lime, and soluble silica. They may be applied directly to 
 any crops, and especially to fruit trees. Composted with 
 swamp earth and other vegetable matter, they correct its 
 acidity, and form an excellent manure for all crops, and in 
 connection with lime form the best compost for orchards. 
 
 Lime may be applied in this compost for trees and for 
 all garden crops. Shell lime is the best to employ, as it 
 contains some phosphate of lime, which is still more valua- 
 ble. If liine is used alone, mix it intimately with the sur- 
 face soil, but do not plow or spade it in. Its efiect in im- 
 proving the texture of soils, we have already considered. 
 In soils of but moderate fertility and free from carbona- 
 ceous matters, it is often more injurious than useful. 
 
 Lime rul)Msh from old brick walls, and the plastering 
 of old houses, contains nitrate of lime. This salt furnishes 
 nitrogen abundantly to plants. This rubbish also contains 
 a portion of hair and silicate of lime, and is a very power- 
 ful manure. One ton is sufficient for an acre. 
 
 Common salt, on lands so distant from the sea that the 
 
44 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 spray does not reach them, is a very beneficial manure. 
 It is the cheapest mode of supplying plants with soda and 
 chlorine, and of course is beneficial to apply to asparagus 
 and other marine plants. The refuse salt which has been 
 used for bacon is the most valuable, as it contains in addi- 
 tion the blood and juices of the meat, which greatly in- 
 crease its virtues. It may be directly applied to aspara- 
 gus without injury, and at the rate of six or eight bushels 
 per acre applied in autumn, it benefits all garden crops, 
 keeping the soil moist and free from insects and worms. 
 It is well to supply it at the same time with lime, in the 
 lime and salt mixture hereafter described. 
 
 Gypsum* Of this a very small quantity will suffice. 
 One bushel per acre yearly is all that is needed. In ab- 
 sorbing ammonia from the manure heap, charcoal dust and 
 leaf-mould are much cheaper. It is the cheapest way of 
 supplying the soil with what sulphur is required. 
 
 Marl, where it can be obtained, may be applied with 
 advantage, especially to sandy soils. It is generally bene- 
 ficial in proportion to the quantity of lime it contains. 
 
 Some marls contain both phosphate of lime and potash 
 in considerable quantities, and hence are of increased 
 value. Before largely applying it, experiments should be 
 made on a small scale, as some marls, upon trial, are found 
 to be injurious. 
 
 Soot is rich in ammonia ; very little of this can be pro- 
 cured, but it should be carefully preserved and applied in 
 small quantities to cabbage and other plants infested with 
 insects. It drives these off, and its ammonia also promotes 
 the growth of the plants. 
 
 The Nitrates of Potash and Soda are applied in a finely 
 powdered state during wet weather by English cultivators, 
 and are found useful upon clays and loams, but of no bene< 
 fit on light, sandy soils. 
 
 Burnt Clay has been found to possess considerable value 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 45 
 
 as a manure. By burning, it loses its adhesiveness, which 
 in its natural state prevented air from permeating it, and 
 water from passing off. Its saline constituents, and those 
 also of the roots of the plants it contains, are set free, 
 while it is rendered permeable to the air and freely admits 
 the advancing roots of plants. The burnt particles ab- 
 sorb ammonia from the air, and hold it in their pores until 
 washed out by showers into the soil to act as nourishment 
 for the crops. It may be prepared in connection with 
 charcoal, as hereafter shown. There is some loss of or- 
 ganizable matter which is more than made up by chemical 
 changes produced. 
 
 Organic Manures, beginning with those of vegetable 
 origin. The very best is cotton seed cake, where it can be 
 obtained. Properly prepared, it is scarcely inferior in 
 strength to guano itself. It may be applied with advan- 
 tage to any crop. 
 
 Charcoal renders the soil light and friable, gives it a 
 dark color, and additional warmth for early crops. The 
 bed whereon charcoal has been burnt is always marked 
 by a most vigorous growth of plants when it becomes 
 sufficiently mixed with earth. It contains also small quan- 
 tities of salts of potash and other fertilizing salts. 
 
 It absorbs both carbonic acid and ammonia from the 
 air, and yields them to the roots of plants. It is most 
 marked in its effects on plants which require abundant 
 nitrogen. As it is indestructible, its beneficial effects last 
 as long as it remains in the soil, supplying the rootlets of 
 plants with carbonic acid, which is renewed as fast as ab- 
 stracted. Its good effects begin to be seen when the dust 
 is applied at the rate of forty bushels per acre. Charcoal 
 is invaluable for destroying the odor of decaying animal 
 matter, retaining all the gases in its own substance ready 
 to yield them up for the use of plants. Hence, the best 
 application of this substance is not directly to the soil, but 
 
46 GARDENING FOR HIE SOUTH. 
 
 to compost it with putrescent animal matters, urine pr 
 night soil, of which it will absorb all the odor and fertil- 
 izing gases given off during their decomposition. Com- 
 posted with the last named substance, it becomes pou- 
 drette, and is second only to guano as a fertilizer. 
 
 In striking cuttings or potting plants, fine charcoal is a 
 valuable substitute for sand, plants rooting in it with great 
 certainty. Plants will^flourish in powdered charcoal alone 
 with considerable vigor, and, added to the other materials 
 used in potting, it is found greatly to promote healthy 
 growth in most plants. 
 
 Fine charcoal can be obtained in considerable quantities 
 from the old hearths where it has been burned ; also from 
 the refuse of smith's shops, founderies, and machine shops. 
 All the refuse of the garden that will not decay, pea-brush, 
 trimmings of trees, cabbage and corn stalks, together with 
 tan-bark, saw-dust, and fresh shavings, may be collected, the 
 coarser materials placed at the bottom and set on fire when 
 the heap is building; then covered with the finer, beating 
 all well together, cover it well with short, moist rubbish, 
 weeds and clods. Bermuda grass turf is the best mate- 
 rial for this purpose if you are troubled with it, and it is 
 better if it has been obtained from a clayey loam. After 
 the heap is well on fire, clayey turf, together with the clay 
 of the soil, may be added to the top, and a large quantity 
 of the charcoal mixed with burnt clay is thus prepared. 
 At first there is great difficulty to keep the piles on fire, 
 and strict attention is required. Thrust a stake in differ- 
 ent places, that the fire may run through the entire heap, 
 and if it breaks out in any of these, stop them anew with 
 rubbish and brush, cover with earth, and make holes in a 
 new place. When the smoke subsides, the heap is char- 
 red enough. When finished and the fire put out, store it 
 up for use. The mixture thus prepared has been found 
 beneficial in every instance, and is a most valuable ma- 
 nure, especially for roses, producing invariably an abun- 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AXD PREPARATION. 47 
 
 dance of fibrous roots, clean, healthy, vigorous growth, 
 and luxuriant blooms. (Paul.) 
 
 Beside charcoal, there are many other vegetable sub- 
 stances of great value as absorbents of the fertilizing salts 
 and gases that would otherwise escape from animal ma- 
 nures. Carbonaceous matter of every sort should be pro- 
 vided for this purpose. Gather the leaves of trees of all 
 kinds, including pine straw. They contain many substances 
 necessary for the growth of the plants from which they 
 fall, or available to other plants. Throw them into the 
 stables and yards, moisten them and sprinkle them with 
 the lime and salt mixture, and if kept in a damp state and 
 turned over once or twice, they form the best manure 
 known for all kinds of trees and shrubs, and indeed afford 
 all the necessary constituents, organic and inorganic, of all 
 cultivated plants. 
 
 Swamp Muck is another valuable absorbent. Gather 
 the black earth of swamps, place in piles and let it dry out 
 the superfluous moisture, and haul it to the compost heap 
 or yard. Swamp muck, by its elasticity, keeps the soil 
 light and open, and is excellent both for absorbing and re- 
 taining moisture therein. It may be reduced with ashes 
 or lime, either of which will destroy all its naturally acid 
 properties. The salt and lime mixture is the best and 
 usually the cheapest for this purpose, but leached ashes 
 mixed with carbonaceous matter have an additional part 
 of their potash rendered soluble and available for plants, 
 and should be used thus where obtainable. 
 
 The Lime and Salt Mixture is thus prepared. Take 
 three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of salt 
 in as little water as possible, and slake the lime therewith. 
 If the lime will not take up all the brine at once, (which it 
 will if good and fresh burned), add a little more of the 
 brine daily, turning and adding until all is taken up. 
 Keep it under cover until wanted for use. Of itself it 
 
48 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 supplies plants with chlorine, lime and soda, and acts like 
 lime or ashes in reducing stubborn vegetable matters and 
 correcting their acid properties. 
 
 With a load of swamp earth, mix a bushel and a half 
 of the lime and salt mixture intimately while it is in a 
 moderately moist state, and in thirty days it will be de- 
 composed. Upon a layer of this earth six inches thick, 
 spread a coat of fresh stable manure, each day covering it 
 with ten times its quantity of prepared muck, which will 
 absorb all the gases and salts. Let the pile accumulate 
 until four feet high, and then turn it all over, mix it again, 
 and cover the whole with a thick coat of prepared muck. 
 If too dry to ferment, add water, and in three weeks it 
 will be fit for use, and will be found equal to common sta- 
 ble manure, and is entirely free from insects of all kinds. 
 In reducing composts of all kinds, the heap must be kept 
 moist or no fermentation will be produced. Keeping it 
 " always moist but never leached " is the way to produce 
 a strong compost. 
 
 A thick layer of the muck should be kept also in the 
 hog-pens and stables to absorb the urine, removing the 
 solid manure from the latter daily, and the muck at the 
 end of each week. Upon this muck also the house slops 
 of all kinds should be poured, and M'here charcoal is not 
 employed, a bushel every three days should be thrown 
 into the privy to destroy the offensive gases produced. 
 The muck, whether prepared with the above mixture, with 
 ashes or lime, will retain all the virtues of the animal ma- 
 nure. Neither lime nor ashes, unless in excess, when thus 
 combined with vegetable matters, will drive off the am- 
 monia. 
 
 Leaf-mould, or the black surface soil of the woods, is 
 of still more value. This is free from the acid properties 
 of swamp muck, and may be supplied directly to most 
 plants in the flower-garden, many of which will not flour- 
 ish unless this material is present in the soil. It is of still 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 49 
 
 more importance for potting plants in the green-house. 
 For the kitchen and fruit garden it is best composted like 
 swamp muck with fresh animal manure. It is indispensa- 
 ble in garden culture. 
 
 Tan-bark is another material abounding in carbon, 
 which may, to some extent, be used as an absorbent of 
 animal manure. It may be beneficially applied directly to 
 strawberries, to which itanswers the double purpose of 
 mulching and manure. But the crowns of the plants 
 must not be covered ; and for all purposes it should be 
 obtained as much decomposed as possible. Tan may be 
 applied directly to Irish potatoes when ready to cover in 
 the furrow. After they are dropped and the manure ap- 
 plied, a coat of old tan, "composted with ashes or the lime 
 and salt mixture, may be given, and finish planting by 
 covering this with earth. It improves the yield mate- 
 rially and the quality also, as all carbonaceous matters do. 
 Where swamp muck or leaf-mould can be obtained, it is 
 hardly worth while to use tan as an absorbent of animal 
 manures. 
 
 It is not of sufficient value to be worth hauling far. In 
 trenching, it may, with other coarse matters, be mixed 
 with the bottom soil to lighten its texture and act as a res- 
 ervoir of moisture. For corn it may, after composting 
 with ashes, be mixed with the surface soil, when, if not in 
 excess, it will be of some service to the crop. 
 
 It is very difficult to reduce, but if kept moist, the lime 
 and salt mixture will do it. It may be strewed in the 
 stock-yard six or eight inches thick, and sprinkled pretty 
 thickly with the mixture. The treading of the stock will 
 mix it. Let the whole be turned over in a moist state 
 once or twice, and in the course of the winter it will be- 
 come a valuable application to the plants that do well with 
 fresh manure. There are abundant elements of fertility in 
 tan, but it is more difficult to render them available than 
 with any other vegetable substance ; and it is, upon the 
 3 
 
50 GAEDEIHNG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 whole, quite a dangerous article to experiment with. Re- 
 duced thoroughly by composting it with stable manure, 
 using in this case no lime, and then mixed with decayed 
 leaves and plenty of sharp sand, it makes a tolerable com- 
 post for growing those plants which require peat, such as 
 Azaleas and Rhododendrons. Tan, properly composted, 
 will prove of most use in light soils deficient in vegetable 
 matter, and when less decompoed,for opening the texture 
 of close, heavy clays. 
 
 Decayed chips, saw-dust, shavings, etc., are best applied 
 to Irish potatoes, as directed in the case of tan-bark. 
 They should be covered with soil to promote a more 
 speedy decay. They have much the nature of tan- 
 bark without its acidity, and may be likewise, when some- 
 what decayed, composted with stable manure and used as 
 peat. All these substances are valuable for burning clay 
 or for charring, and then to be incorporated with urine, 
 night soil, or superphosphate of lime. In the case of tan- 
 bark, this is undoubtedly the safest and most profitable 
 way to use it. 
 
 Green Manures are various crops, raised to turn into 
 the ground in a fresh state for fertilizing it. For this pur- 
 pose all the weeds of the garden should be employed while 
 green, unless they are thrown to the pigs. Over any 
 vacant spots in the garden not wished to be used in au- 
 tumn, rye or barley can be sown, which will keep the soil 
 from washing, and when large enough may be either cut 
 for feed, or turned into the soil as the plots are wanted for 
 use. Spinach should be sown in considerable quantities, 
 as it grows all winter, and, spaded into the soil in spring, 
 adds a good deal to its fertility. The seed can be saved 
 in any quantity with little trouble. 
 
 But the most fertilizing plants for this purpose are 
 leguminous plants, like the Cow-pea, as they draw nourish- 
 ment largely from the atmosphere, and afford a great 
 amount of foliage for turning under as manure. This class 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 51 
 
 of plants is also quite rich in ammonia. This mode of 
 manuring was practised by the ancient Romans, and is 
 specially adapted to warm climates where vegetation is 
 rapid and luxuriant. A good vetch that would make its 
 growth in the winter months to be turned into the soil in 
 the spring would be a most desirable addition to our cul- 
 tivated plants. The spotted Lucerne, (Californian clover), 
 is the best plant for this purpose on soils already pretty 
 good. 
 
 Animal Manures, This is the most important class, 
 and the greatest attention should be paid to collecting, 
 preserving, and economizing them. All animal manures, 
 when compared with the preceding class, are more rich in 
 nitrogen, and more easily decomposed and rendered 
 soluble ; but though the effect of this class of substances is 
 much more obvious, it is not so lasting. 
 
 Its value consists in part of certain volatile and soluble 
 substances, which, in the common mode of preserving ma- 
 nure, are dissipated in the air or washed away by heavy 
 rains. In this climate it is necessary to shelter manure from 
 the sun and rain. All animal matter is either directly or 
 indirectly derived from vegetable substances ; hence, every 
 portion of the same that can be rendered soluble is a 
 valuable food for plants. Among the most important ani- 
 mal substances employed as manures are urine, and dung 
 of all kinds. The first of these is almost invariably wast- 
 ed, though in the case of the cow, it is of more value than 
 the solid excrements. It should be carefully saved by 
 bedding the yard and stables with swamp muck, wood 
 earth, or some other absorbent. Urine is particularly rich 
 in ammonia. This may be absorbed by the muck or by 
 sprinkling the floor of stables and the manure heap fre- 
 quently with fine charcoal or gypsum; this substance, 
 sprinkled upon the floors of stables, forms a compound 
 like the urate of commerce, so powerful that 500 pounds 
 will amply manure an acre. If you can obtain no other 
 
52 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 absorbent, tan-bark is not without its value, but the weeds, 
 sweepings of walks, and other refuse of the garden, particu- 
 larly leaf-mould and the dark top-soil of pastures, are to 
 be preferred. Urine may be diluted with three times its 
 bulk of water and permitted to grow stale, and be applied 
 at night or in moist weather directly to the growing crops. 
 
 The principal animal manures are those of the horse, 
 the hog, the cow, and the sheep. Of these horse manure 
 is most valuable in its fresh state. That of the hog comes 
 next, then that , of the ox, while the cow is at the bottom 
 of the list, because most of the enriching substances in 
 her food go to the formation of milk, leaving the manure 
 comparatively weakened. The richer the food given to 
 animals, the more powerful is the manure. If animal ma- 
 nures are employed in a fresh state, they should be mixed 
 intimately with the soil, and given to such coarse feeding 
 crops as corn and the garden pea. But nearly all plants 
 do better if the manure is composted and fully fermented 
 before use. Pig manure, used alone, is considered per- 
 nicious to the growth of the cabbage and turnip tribe, and 
 gives an unpleasant taste to many other vegetables, but 
 composted with muck or mould, it is much more beneficial 
 as well as more durable. 
 
 In managing animal manures, decomposition must be 
 promoted the volatile parts must be preserved from dis- 
 sipation in the air, and the soluble portions from being 
 washed out by rains. That it may ferment, it must be 
 nept in a body, that heat may be generated and its natural 
 moisture retained, while beneath it a layer of some ab- 
 sorbent substance should be placed, to receive and retain 
 its soluble parts, and as fast as it is thrown from the sta- 
 bles, it should be covered with layers of muck to retain 
 the ammonia. Horse manure, especially, should not be 
 exposed at all ; it begins to heat and lose ammonia almost 
 immediately, as may be perceived by the smell. Mix it 
 with other manures and cover it with absorbents as soon 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 53 
 
 as possible. Keep the stable bedded with muck, and over 
 this a good bed of leaves. 
 
 The Manure Of Birds is richer than that of any other 
 animals ; as the solid and liquid excrements are mixed to- 
 gether, it is particularly rich in nitrogen and the phos- 
 phates. Three or four hundred weight of the manure of 
 pigeons, fowls, turkeys, etc., is of equal value with from 
 fourteen to eighteen loads of animal manure. 
 
 Peruvian Guano is a manure of this class. It is the 
 manure of sea-birds, which has accumulated in tropical 
 latitudes where it seldom or never rains. These birds feed 
 upon fish entirely ; hence, the manure is remarkably rich 
 in nitrogen. Guano is this substance "with the water evap- 
 orated, and contains from 7 to 18 per cent of ammonia. 
 When it can be bought pure and the freight is not over 25 
 per cent on its cost, it is for many crops one of the cheap- 
 est manures to be obtained, as it is so easily applied the 
 labor of applying other manures often approaching the 
 price of guano. It is well to apply about two hundred 
 weight per acre with one-half the usual quantity of other 
 manure. Guano should ne vermin a fresh state, come in 
 contact with seeds or the roots of plants, as it is sure to 
 destroy their vitality. 
 
 The great value of guano is in forming liquid manure 
 one pound of guano to five gallons of water applied once 
 a week will add wonderfully to the growth of any plants 
 wntered with this mixture. For very delicate plants 
 twice the above quantity of water should be given. If 
 guano is not to be had, the manure of fowls is a good sub- 
 stitute. This liquid is especially valuable in the flower- 
 garden. It must be poured upon the roots, and not upon 
 the leaves or collars of the plants. On lawns, a pound 
 sprinkled upon each square rod will restore their verdure. 
 A great advantage of supplying guano, is that no seeds 
 of weeds are scattered in the soil 
 
54 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The Peruvian is the only guano rich in ammonia. 
 There are other guanos which contain little ammonia, but 
 are ridh in phosphates, some of them as much so as bone 
 phosphate of lime. Among the best of these are the Co- 
 lumbian and Sombrero varieties. If these are finely 
 ground and mixed in equal proportions with pulverized 
 Peruvian guano, the mixture is really more valuable as a 
 manure for most plants and soils than the same amount of 
 pure Peruvian, for ammonia, to be useful, requires the 
 phosphates to be present, and the cost is much legs. The 
 mixture contains a sufficient proportion of ammonia for 
 its phosphates, and its effect is more lasting. If the phos- 
 phatic guano is by the addition of sulphuric acid convert- 
 ed into a superphosphate, its value is greatly increased. 
 This mixture is better than the Peruvian guano for main- 
 taining the beauty of lawns, and for the whole cabbage 
 tribe it is greatly superior. 
 
 Bones are, when properly prepared, still more useful 
 than most of the phosphatic guanos. They contain sixty- 
 six parts of earthy matter, mostly phosphate of lime, 
 and thirty-four parts of gelatine. Gelatine is rich in ni- 
 trogen, so that in bones are united the most desirable or- 
 ganic and inorganic manures. Applied whole, bones de- 
 compose too slowly to be of much value, and would be 
 greatly in the way of tillage. They may be broken small 
 with a sledge-hammer or crowbar, in a large wooden mor- 
 tar, lined at the bottom with a thick iron plate. When 
 beaten small, the fine dust can be sifted out, and the re- 
 mainder moistened and thrown up in heaps, to ferment a 
 few months. Bones can be dissolved by boiling them in 
 strong lye, or, better, by mixing them with wet, unleached 
 ashes, and when dissolved and dried by mixing with woods 
 earth, burnt clay, ashes, or sand, can be applied broadcast 
 or in the drills. The best way to treat bones is to dis- 
 solve them in sulphuric acid, forming superphosphate of 
 lime. A carboy of sulphuric acid, costing about four 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION-. 55 
 
 dollars, at wholesale, in the cities, and containing one hun- 
 dred and sixty pounds, will dissolve three hundred to four 
 hundred and eighty pounds of bones. The bones should 
 be previously ground or finely broken. Put about sixty 
 pounds of bone-dust or phosphatic guano in a tub, and add 
 water enough to wet the mass, say about 40 Ibs. See that 
 it is well moistened. Add 20 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, which 
 is usually enough, and briskly stir the mass. If, after 
 standing a day or two the bones are not sufficiently dis- 
 solved, add more acid and water, pouring it on gradually, 
 and after a little the bones will entirely dissolve and form 
 a pasty mass with the acid and water. When the mass is 
 dried, it will assume the appearance of a granulated pow- 
 der, and it is then fit for use. It may also be used diluted 
 with thirty times its bulk of water as a liquid manure, 
 but it is more convenient to mix it with saw-dust, woods 
 earth, or fine charcoal, and apply it dry. Never mix a 
 superphosphate with lime, ashes, or any alkali, for by so 
 doing it is converted again into a phosphate, and your 
 labor and sulphuric acid are lost. One cwt. of bones with, 
 say half the amount of sulphuric acid, will be enough for 
 an acre. 
 
 The acid has converted the bones into a superphosphate 
 of lime, which is very soluble, and is readily taken up by 
 the plant. This is the most valuable of all manures for 
 the turnip, and the quantity needed for the acre is so lit- 
 tle that the expense is less than that of almost any other 
 application. 
 
 The addition of guano renders it still more valuable. 
 It may be used three days after its preparation, but im- 
 proves if kept longer. Fifteen bushels of compost may 
 be prepared from If bushels of bones and the absorbents 
 required ; and two bushels of this applied to an acre will, for 
 the present, equal in effect 16 bushels of half-inch bones. 
 (Lindley.) If bones are coarsely broken and mixed with 
 hot stable dung in the formation of a hot-bed, they will 
 
56 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 generally be found perfectly fine when the material of the 
 bed is removed. They can also, at any time, be further 
 broken up by composting with hot stable manure, cover- 
 ing the mass with absorbents to retain the ammonia of 
 the gelatine and manure. 
 
 Night Soil and chamber slops should be composted as 
 before directed with charcoal, or the black mould from 
 woods. Gypsum may be added to the mixture ; all smell 
 is thus destroyed, and an offensive nuisance is converted 
 into a valuable application to any crop. Where charcoal 
 is freely used, this substance becomes perfectly inodorous. 
 Guano and poudrette are the best possible manures for 
 the cabbage tribe and other plants that need phosphates 
 and nitrogen. Both these manures are exceedingly pow- 
 erful, but their effects do not last beyond one season. The 
 fertilizing properties exist in the right proportions to be 
 taken up at once by the plants, and nearly all their nutri- 
 tive properties are exhausted the season they are applied. 
 If in a hole or dry ditch are deposited all the leaves or 
 vegetable refuse that can be collected, and over this is 
 poured daily the house slops, and all smell prevented by 
 the timely application of charcoal or woods earth, a com- 
 post is formed exactly similar in its constituents to farm- 
 yard manure, and containing all the eight substances by 
 which plants are artificially fed. (Lindley.) 
 
 Liquid Manure. Almost any manure may be applied 
 to the soil with benefit in a liquid state. It generally im- 
 plies urine or the drainings of dung heaps and stables, 
 chiefly consisting of urine and the dissolved excrements 
 of animals. Diluted more or less as required, it can be 
 applied about once a week to plants in any stage of 
 growth, and is particularly useful to those grown in pots. 
 The soil should not be oversaturated with it, and it should 
 be used alternately with pure water. DC not give it to 
 plants in a state of rest. 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 57 
 
 There are several other substances which, when they 
 can be obtained, should be carefully applied. Among 
 these, the most available are the offal of slaughtered ani- 
 mals, their carcasses, hair, and bristles, leather, refuse from 
 the tanners and shoemakers, woollen rags, fish, blood, etc. 
 All these contain the elements required by growing plants 
 in a very concentrated state. The hair, bristles, etc., may 
 be applied directly to any crop. These matters are very 
 powerful, and a small quantity will suffice. Slaughter- 
 house offal, and the carcasses of any animals that may 
 have died, should be buried deeply in a pit, with absorb- 
 ents beneath, and covered with muck or loam. In a year 
 it will become a most valuable manure. 
 
 The following table from Boussingault gives a compre- 
 hensive view of the proportion of nitrogen contained in 
 the most common manures, and of their quality and equiv- 
 alents, referred to farm-yard dung as the standard. Thus 
 ten Ibs. of fresh cotton-seed cake is equal in value to one 
 hundred Ibs. of fresh or wet farm-yard dung, as far as the 
 nitrogen in each is concerned. To form a perfect table 
 of equivalents, the phosphates, potash, etc., must be also 
 taken into consideration. The ammonia merely indexes 
 the value. As a manure it is worth in the markets of the 
 world about 14 cents a pound, according to Prof. S. W. 
 Johnson. Insoluble phosphoric acid is valued by him at 
 4^ cts., and soluble phosphoric acid about 10^ cents per 
 pound for application to ordinary crops. Potash is not 
 generally so deficient in soils as to be. worth its market 
 price to be used as a manure, unless in the form of wood 
 ashes. Phosphoric acid in a soluble state is the only sub- 
 stance that approaches ammonia in money value for use as 
 a manure. 
 
 3* 
 
58 
 
 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 || 
 
 79 3 
 
 Azote in 
 100. 
 
 Quality 
 according 
 to state. 
 
 Equivalent 
 according 
 to state. 
 
 Dry 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Farm-yard dun^ 
 
 1 95 
 
 0.41 
 0.79 
 0.06 
 0.85 
 1.18 
 0.32 
 0.54 
 4.02 
 0.32 
 0.44 
 0.41 
 0.55 
 2.61 
 2.74 
 0.63 
 1.11 
 3.85 
 8.30 
 5.00 
 5.40 
 3 95 
 
 100 
 107 
 78 
 150 
 80 
 20 
 36 
 231 
 117 
 194 
 132 
 113 
 641 
 154 
 172 
 153 
 225 
 462 
 323 
 361 
 807 
 730 
 795 
 
 903 
 
 775 
 1039 
 809 
 67 
 53 
 
 100 
 107 
 2 
 212.5 
 293 
 80 
 135 
 1000 
 80 
 110 
 102.5 
 137.5 
 652.5 
 185 
 157.5 
 277.5 
 962 
 2075 
 1247 
 1349 
 3487 
 3260 
 3045 
 1326 
 3835 
 3445 
 4495 
 3590 
 287.5 
 
 100 
 94 
 127 
 66 
 125 
 488 
 256 
 32 
 84 
 51 
 75 
 88 
 
 151/2 
 
 66 
 58 
 65 
 44 
 21 H 
 
 311/2 
 
 28 
 1214 
 184 
 
 12!/i 
 
 11 
 13 
 
 9y 2 
 
 12% 
 149 
 189 
 
 100 
 51 
 68 
 47 
 34 
 125 
 74 
 10 
 125 
 91 
 98 
 73 
 
 W 
 
 63 
 36 
 
 10% 
 5 
 80 
 74 
 281/2 
 3 
 
 % 
 
 t* 
 J* 
 
 35 
 33 
 
 Dung from an Inn yard 
 
 60.6 
 99.6 
 70.9 
 25.0 
 17.9 
 26.0 
 11.0 
 85 9 
 
 2.08 
 1.54 
 2.94 
 1.57 
 0.40 
 0.72 
 4.52 
 2.30 
 3.80 
 2.59 
 2.21 
 12.50 
 3.02 
 3.37 
 2.99 
 4.40 
 9.02 
 6.20 
 7.05 
 15.73 
 
 Dung water 
 
 Withered leaves of carrots 
 
 do. do. do. oak 
 
 Oyster shells 
 
 Oak saw-dust . ... 
 
 Oil cake of cotton seed 
 
 Solid cow dung 
 
 Urine of cows 
 
 88.3 
 84.3 
 
 75 3 
 
 Mixed cow dung . 
 
 Solid horse clung 
 
 Horse urine 
 
 79.1 
 75.4 
 81.4 
 63.0 
 12.5 
 9.6 
 19.6 
 23.4 
 11 3 
 
 Mixed (horse dun^) 
 
 Pin- dung 
 
 Sheep dung 
 
 Poudrette of Belloni 
 
 Pigeon's dung 
 
 Guano from England 
 
 [dem 
 
 do. imported from France 
 
 Dried muscular flesh 
 
 8.5 
 81.0 
 30.0 
 12.9 
 8.9 
 11.3 
 9.0 
 5.6 
 
 14.25 
 
 17.61 
 15.12 
 20.26 
 15.78 
 1.31 
 1.03 
 
 13.04 
 2.95 
 5.31 
 15.34 
 13.78 
 17.98 
 14.36 
 1.15 
 
 Liquid bl'ood 
 
 ^resli 'bones 
 
 Feathers. 
 
 Cow hair flock 
 
 Voollen rao'S. 
 
 Horn shavings 
 
 Wood soot 
 
 Vegetable mould 
 
 Composts* The composting of manure should take 
 place, as a general thing, as fast as it is made. In the gar- 
 den, out of sight, there should be a compost heap for re- 
 ceiving all kinds of rubbish that can have the least value 
 as fertilizers. Make a shallow excavation of a square or 
 oblong form, with the bottom sloping to one end. Into 
 this collect the litter and sweepings of the yards, decayed 
 vegetables of all kinds, brine, soapsuds, and slops from 
 the house, woollen rags, leaves, green weeds, and garden 
 refuse. After it has accumulated a little, turn it over, ad- 
 ding a little of the salt and lime mixture, and keep the 
 whole inodorous, by covering it with rich mould or black 
 earth from the woods. If the heap is formed entirely of 
 vegetable materials, ashes or lime should be added ; but 
 if it contain animal matter, they would do harm by set- 
 ting free the ammonia. The heap should not be deep, 
 
MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 
 
 50 
 
 but, like all other manure heaps, should be kept " always 
 moist, but never leached," by the addition of liquids from 
 the house and kitchen. If this compost be for a sandy 
 soil, the addition of clay would be veiy beneficial. 
 
 Composting is the best way of rendering available all 
 sorts of refuse organic matter, but do not introduce those 
 antagonistic in their effects. For instance, never compost 
 lime with animal matters which, in their decomposition, 
 form ammonia. 
 
 Special Composts are prepared for different species of 
 plants, and they are of great utility in floriculture. Com- 
 posts for plants in pots are made up of loam, leaf-mould, 
 sand, peat, and manure. The loam is the decomposed 
 turf from a rich, old pasture, which should not rest upon 
 clay, and the upper three inches only are taken. It 
 should lie one year before using. Leaf-mould is the dark 
 surface soil of the woods, formed from decayed leaves. 
 Sand should not be from roads, but fine surface or river 
 sand. The manure is unfit to use if less than a year old, 
 and improves by frequent turning, and lying two years. 
 Peat is the black soil from swamps, mingled with very fine 
 sand. It should be exposed a year and frequently turned 
 before using. Black woods earth, mingled with one-third 
 pure sand, is the best substitute. The proportions of the 
 most common composts are given in the following table : 
 
 Number of 
 Compost. 
 
 Loam. 
 
 Leaf- 
 mould. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Peat. 
 
 ]jf(l1\fMfT&, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
60 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 The same crops cannot be grown from year to year 
 upon the same soil without decreasing in productiveness. 
 All plants more or less exhaust the soil, but not in the 
 same degree, nor in the same manner ; hence, as different 
 plants appropriate different substances, the rotation of 
 crops has considerable influence in retaining the fertility 
 of a soil. If the same kind of plants is continued upon 
 the same soil, only a portion of the constituents of the ma- 
 nure applied is used ; while by a judicious rotation every- 
 thing, in the soil or in the manure, suitable for vegetable 
 food, is taken up and appropriated by the crop. How- 
 ever plentiful manure may be, a succession of exhausting 
 crops should not be grown upon the same bed, not only 
 because abundance is no excuse for want of economy, but 
 because manure freshly applied is not so immediately bene- 
 ficial as those remains of organized matter which by long 
 continuance in the soil have become impalpably divided 
 and diffused through its texture, and of which each suc- 
 ceeding crop consumes a portion. 
 
 Some crops are so favorable to weeds, that if continued 
 long upon the same bed, the labor of cultivating them is 
 much increased, while if raised but once in a place and 
 followed by a cleaning crop, the weeds are easily kept un- 
 der. Besides, many crops planted continually in the same 
 soil are more liable to be attacked by the insects and 
 parasites which are the peculiar enemies of those plants. 
 
 Many insects injurious to plants deposit their eggs in 
 the soil which produced the plants they have infested, 
 ready to commit their depredations upon the succeeding 
 crop ; but if this is changed to a distant locality, they 
 often perish for want of their proper food. So, many 
 
EOTATIOX OF CROPS. 61 
 
 parasites -leave their seeds or spores in the soil, to the in- 
 creased injury of the succeeding crop, if of the same 
 species. 
 
 Again, different plants derive their principal nourish- 
 ment from different depths of soil. The roots of plants 
 exhaust only the portions of soil with which they come 
 in contact. Perpendicular rooted plants throw out few 
 side roots, and derive most of their nourishment from a 
 considerable depth, while fibrous-rooted plants seek their 
 food near the surface. Plants of the same species extend 
 their roots in a similar direction, and occupy and exhaust 
 the same strata of earth. 
 
 Different plants by means of their roots act differently 
 upon the physical nature of the soil. Surface roots 
 spread abroad their tufted fibers, which in their decay 
 break up and lighten the surface soil, while the roots of 
 clover have a somewhat similar effect upon the deeper 
 strata. 
 
 The most exhausting crops are, in general, those which 
 are allowed to perfect their seeds, as they extract from 
 the soil all the essentials of the plant, from the root to the 
 seed. The seeds of many species draw from the soil more 
 largely its ammonia, phosphates, etc., than the total 
 amount extracted in the formation of all other parts of the 
 plant. Root crops are generally less exhausting, and 
 plants cultivated for their leaves are usually still less so. 
 
 A rotation was formerly thought necessary from an 
 idea that each plant throws off from its roots into the soil 
 certain matters which are injurious to others of the same 
 species afterward grown upon the soil. It was also thought 
 that there were some tribes of plants, the fig for instance, 
 of which the acrid juices from the root injured the soil 
 and the plants grown near them, while of others, as le- 
 gumes, the sweet juices were beneficial to the soil and the 
 adjacent or succeeding crops. These views are not now 
 considered tenable, 
 
62 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Enough has been stated to show the necessity of a 
 change of crops, and the following are found the best 
 rules to observe in practice : 
 
 1st. Crops of the same species, and even of the same 
 natural order, should not succeed each other. 
 
 2d. Plants with perpendicular roots should succeed 
 those with spreading and superficial roots, and vice versa. 
 
 3d. Crops which occupy the soil for several years, like 
 asparagus, rhubarb, etc., should be followed by those of 
 short duration. 
 
 4th. Two crops alike favorable to the growth of weeds 
 should not occupy the soil in succession. 
 
 5th. Crops abstracting largely from the soil the sul- 
 phates, phosphates, and nitrogenous principles, should not 
 follow each other immediately, but be succeeded by those 
 which draw less from the soil and more from the atmos- 
 phere. These exhausting crops, should follow and be fol- 
 lowed by those which bear and will profit by heavy ma- 
 nuring. 
 
 6th. Plants grown for their roots or bulbs should not 
 follow those grown for the same purpose, and still less 
 should plants grown for their seeds follow each other di- 
 rectly in succession. 
 
 The following are found in practice to be convenient 
 crops to succeed each other in rotation, beginning after an 
 application of manure, viz. : Onions, lettuce, cabbage, car 
 rots, manure ; or, turnips, celery, peas, potatoes, manure. 
 
 The following is also a very good rotation : 
 
 1. The cabbage tribe to be followed by 
 
 2. Alliaceous plants, as onions, leeks, etc., to be follow- 
 ed by legumes, as beans or peas. Peas may be followed 
 the same year with celery. 
 
 3. Tap-rooted plants, as carrots, beets, parsnips. 
 
 4. Surface roots, as onions, potatoes, turnips. 
 
 5. Celery, endive, lettuce, spinach, etc. 
 
 Celery is excellent to precede asparagus, onions, cauli- 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. G3 
 
 flowers, c r turnips ; old asparagus beds for carrots, pota- 
 toes, etc. ; strawberries and raspberries for the cabbage 
 tribe ; cabbage for the tap-rooted plants ; potatoes for the 
 cabbage tribe. 
 
 In these rotations it is not necessary to apply manure 
 to every crop. For the bulbous roots, as the onion, and for 
 plants cultivated for their leaves, as spinach and asparagus, 
 the ground can scarcely be too rich ; and the bulk of the 
 manures may be applied to them and the cabbage and tur- 
 nip crops, while for plants raised for seed it is best that 
 the foliage should not be stimulated into too great luxu- 
 riance by fresh manuring. 
 
 In practice these rules should as far as possible be fol- 
 lowed, but it is often necessary to vary from them or let 
 a part of the soil lie, for a time, idle. Rotations in gar- 
 dening become less necessary if the ground is trenched 
 deeply and manured highly. Vacant ground thus treated 
 may be filled at once with any crop ready for planting. 
 
 To get the highest possible results from a garden, there 
 must be not only a general rotation of crops year by year, 
 but a number of sub-successions each year, as fast as the 
 crops are removed. One-fourth of an acre thoroughly 
 manured and kept perfectly free from weeds, upon 
 which a constant succession of crops is kept up, will 
 yield more than an acre managed in the common way. 
 It is not, however, always necessary to wait until the crop 
 occupying the soil is removed before another is put in. 
 Simultaneous cropping, that is, making two crops occupy 
 the ground at the same time, as in field culture the cow- 
 pea in corn-fields, can often be resorted to in the kitchen 
 garden. In the fruit garden, De Candolle says the vine 
 and the peach can with advantage be grown together, the 
 light shade of the peach not injuring the vines. 
 
 Directions to meet all circumstances cannot be given, 
 still the following hints may be suggestive of the best 
 
64 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 methods to secure in the kitchen garden satisfactory re- 
 sults. 
 
 For instance, in the fall a portion of the garden may be 
 occupied with spinach ; this should be heavily manured, 
 and may keep the ground until time to plant melons and 
 other vines, when just enough of the ground may be 
 deeply dug to form the melon hills, and the crop will be 
 ready to remove before the melons begin to run. The 
 melon crop may be followed by one of turnips. All such 
 plants as radish, lettuce, and other small salads, need take 
 up no room ; they can, any of them, be raised between 
 the potato beds or drills, or between melon hills, rows of 
 corn, etc., and they will come to perfection before the potato 
 or other crops require the ground. Radishes can be raised 
 between the rows in the beds of all kinds of plants that 
 are slow in coming up, as carrots, parsnips, etc., and will 
 be ready to remove by the time the others come up. 
 
 Any vacant spot that occurs early in summer should be 
 occupied with plantings of extra early or sweet corn, po- 
 tatoes, beets, kidney beans, for preserving for winter use, 
 and cucumbers for pickling. Those coming later in the 
 season may be occupied by sweet potatoes until July, then 
 corn, cow-peas, or rutabaga turnips. Where the early 
 onions grow, both in the alleys and in the centre of the 
 bed, before much of the crop is removed, may be planted 
 with late cabbages or Siberian kale. Cabbages will head 
 if the winter sorts be planted as late as the early part of 
 August, and Early Yorks put out in September, if in rich, 
 moist ground, and well cultivated. Sweet corn may be 
 planted until Ajigust. Still later, every unoccupied corner 
 should be covered with turnips and winter radishes, which 
 may cover nearly the whole garden, being sown in drills 
 between the rows of plants not yet quite ready to be re- 
 moved. After the frost has come, any vacant spaces 
 should be immediately sown with spinach, onions, and 
 other crops for early spring use, or with barley or rye for 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 65 
 
 the cow. The secret of successful cultivation, says Down- 
 ing, is an abundant supply of manure. A small extent 
 of ground well manured and trenched deeply, by these 
 sub-successions, will produce an enormous amount of 
 vegetables, while only the same surface needs to be hoed, 
 manured, and kept free from weeds, as if it produced but 
 one crop. To be sure, more manure and more labor are 
 needed, but nothing like the amount which would be re- 
 quired to produce the same crops without these sub-suc- 
 cessions. Many other sub-successions will occur to a 
 thoughtful gardener, but to derive the full benefit of them 
 the grounds should be trenched at least thirty inches deep 
 when the garden is formed. 
 
 Profits Of Gardening, The results of the above mode 
 of procedure, in the case of the garden of the Retreat 
 for the Insane, at Utica, New York, were published by 
 Dr. Brig-ham. The land was good and yearly manured. The 
 product was as follows on one and one-fourth acres of 
 land: 1100 heads lettuce, large; 1400 heads cabbage, 
 large; 700 bunches radishes ; 250 bunches asparagus; 300 
 bunches rhubarb ; 14 bushels pods marrowfat peas ; 40 
 bushels beans ; sweet corn, 3 plantings, 419 dozen ; sum- 
 mer squash, 715 dozen; squash peppers, 45 dozen ; cucum- 
 bers, 756 dozen ; cucumber pickles, 7 barrels ; beets, 147 
 bushels ; carrots, 29 bushels ; parsnips, 26 bushels ; onions, 
 120 bushels; turnips, 80 bushels; early potatoes, 35 
 bushels ; tomatoes, 40 bushels ; winter squash, 7 wagon 
 loads ; celery, 500 heads all worth 621 dollars in Utica 
 market, but supplied one hundred and thirty persons 
 with all they could consume. Only one man was required 
 to do all the necessary labor. 
 
 The supply of Northern markets with early fruits and 
 vegetables is becoming yearly more and more profitable 
 to all points which have direct steam communication with 
 their great cities. Charleston, Savannah, and Norfolk, now 
 ship very largely asparagus, peas, snap beans, cucumbers, 
 
66 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Lima beans, squashes, okra, and of fruits the apple and 
 peach. The pear and the Delaware grape will be still more 
 profitable in time. Chicago, Cincinnati, St. Louis, etc., 
 will soon largely receive similar supplies by railroad from 
 Southern points. 
 
 Forwarding Early Crops. Early crops in the open air 
 should be planted in a sheltered situation, on a dark-color- 
 ed, silicious soil. It may be brought to a proper state by 
 the admixture of sand and charcoal. Crops, on the con- 
 trary, may be retarded by planting in a border sheltered 
 from the sun, and of a lighter color and more aluminous. 
 There are many plants which do much better if sown in 
 the fall. Rhubarb, parsley, etc., come up more freely if 
 suffered to be in the ground all winter. Potatoes, too, 
 may be early planted, and if they come up, should be 
 sheltered by a covering of straw or litter, added from time 
 to time to keep them from frost. ' Cabbage, cauliflower, 
 broccoli, etc., sown in autumn and transplanted, may be 
 kept out all winter in boxes made by nailing four pieces 
 of boards together, eight inches wide. Cut the pieces 12 
 inches long at the bottom, and 10 at the top ; nail them 
 together at the corners. After the frosts begin to be se- 
 vere, throw in a handful of loose straw, which will pre- 
 vent the sudden freezing and thawing of the plants. 
 Great care should be taken to produce early crops, as they 
 are less liable to be injured by insects or weeds, and very 
 much increase the satisfaction of gardening. Early plants 
 may be obtained by sowing them in a box set in a warm 
 window, or may be raised in autumn and protected in 
 winter in a cold frame or pit, or grown any time during 
 winter in a hot-bed for those more delicate, or in a cold 
 frame under glass for the hardier kinds. Such plants, 
 when set out in the spring, need to be gradually hardened, 
 and then require shading a few days until established. 
 Radishes sown under glass without heat early in January 
 are generally fit for use early in March. But to forward 
 
HOT-BEDS, COLD-FRAMES, AND PITS. 
 
 67 
 
 plants with any success requires suitable structures for 
 the purpose. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HOT-BEDS, COLD-FRAMES, AND PITS. 
 
 Frames or Hot-Beds are most usually employed for 
 forwarding plants. The frame for general use has from 
 three to five sashes, (see fig. 8), and is made for con- 
 venience about four and a half or five feet wide, and the 
 
 Fig. 3. HOT-BED AND FRAME. 
 
 length depends on the number of sashes, which are usually 
 about forty inches wide. Use the smallest glass you can 
 obtain, certainly not over seven by nine ; a smaller size is 
 preferable, as it is not so liable to be broken, and can be 
 more readily repaired. These sashes are made without 
 cross-bars, the glass overlapping like the shingles of a 
 house, and resting on bars extending lengthwise of the 
 sash. The lap of each pane of glass need not be over 
 half an inch, and if the glass is set in the sash when 
 freshly painted with two coats of paint, no puttying 
 
63 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 is necessary, if the sash is well made. The frame should 
 be made of incli and a half plank as high again in the 
 back as in the front, to give the sashes the proper slope to 
 the sun, and sufficient inclination to carry off the wet. 
 The front, of course, is towards the south. Let the back 
 and front be nailed to corner posts, so as to admit the ends 
 to fit in neatly, which ends are to be made fast to the posts 
 by common carriage bolts, in order that the frame may be 
 taken asunder to store when not in use. All joints in the 
 sides and ends should be tongued and grooved to prevent 
 the admission of cold air or the loss of warm air from the 
 bed. Each end should be made an inch and a half higher 
 than the back and front, and grooved out one-half its 
 thickness, to permit the sash to slide and leave the other 
 half to support the outside. At the corner, also, of each 
 sash, let another piece of scantling be placed, and on the 
 top of these, narrow strips the length of the sash are to 
 be nailed, for the sash to slide upon. Between the sashes, 
 nail an inch strip a little thicker than the sash to the nar- 
 row plank on which they slide, and put on the sash ; and 
 upon this strip, in cold weather, lay another narrow strip, 
 projecting over the sash a little, to cover the joint and 
 keep out the cold. Provide for the bed a full supply of 
 good horse manure from the stable, mixed with moist- 
 litter, preferring that which is fresh, moist, and full of heat. 
 If there is not sufficient litter in the mass the heat will 
 not be lasting ; so as a substitute add oak-leaves or tan- 
 bark. There should be at least one-third litter in the heap. 
 Shake it up and mix it well together, sprinkling with 
 water if dry, and throw it into a compact heap to ferment. 
 In two or thrae days if warm, or if cold in a week, turn it 
 over, and if dry and musty in any part, water again. Let 
 it be two or three days longer, and then work it over 
 thoroughly, as before, and water if necessary. In a dry, 
 sheltered situation opening to the south, mark out the 
 dimensions of the bed, making it fully a foot longer and 
 
HOT-BEDS, COLD-FRAMES, AND PITS. CO 
 
 wider than the frame each way. Throw out the earth 
 about ten or twelve inches deep. Then begin to form the 
 bed by spreading a thin layer of the prepared manure 
 upon the ground, mixing the long and short well together. 
 Upon this spread other layers mixed in the same manner, 
 beating each layer with the back of the fork, but not too 
 heavily, to keep it level, and equally firm throughout. 
 Stakes should be placed at the corners to work to. The 
 edges should be kept true and the corners firm, to do 
 which the outside of each layer must be first laid down, 
 and to make the manure keep in place a proper admixture 
 of long litter is required. Continue until the bed is three 
 feet above the surface, then spread the fine manure that is 
 left, evenly over the top, and water freely. As soon as fin- 
 ished let the frame and glass be put on with care, and keep 
 them close until the heat rises and a steam appears upon 
 the glass. As soon as the heat rises, give air at noon each 
 day, but keep closed in the evening and at night, unless 
 the heat is very violent, when a little air should be given. 
 In three days, if the manure was sufficiently moist, the 
 bed will be ready for use. If it has settled unequally, 
 raise the frame and level the surface. Place in the frame 
 six inches of fine, dark-colored, sandy garden-soil, spread 
 it evenly, and put on the sash. When warmed through, 
 sow in pots plunged in the mould, or in small drills from 
 one-eighth of an inch to an inch deep, varying in depth 
 with the size of the seeds, and cover by sifting fine earth 
 on the surface. Water gently by sprinkling with tepid 
 water through the fine rose of a watering pot. When the 
 plants appear, they should have air every day freely (un- 
 less absolutely freezing) which will bring them up strong, 
 and prevent their dropping off by excess of confined 
 moisture. There are very few days which will not permit 
 opening the bed, not by sliding down the sashes, but by 
 raising them at the back, holding them open by a trian- 
 gular block to slip in so that they can be opened from two 
 
70 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 to five inches. Open the bed in the middle of the day, as 
 above, but close early that the plants may not become 
 chilled. During warm, gentle rains, the sash should be 
 opened, but closed very carefully during cold or heavy 
 washing storms. About 60 is the proper temperature ; it 
 should not rise above 75. Such a bed as this is invalu- 
 able for striking cuttings of all kinds, in which case there 
 should be an inch of clear river sand or charcoal spread 
 over the surface. Annuals of all kinds for the flower 
 garden, tomatoes, peppers, cabbage and lettuce plants, etc., 
 will be ready, if the bed is made in January, for trans- 
 planting quite as soon as they can be removed with safety. 
 Make the bed six or eight weeks before the plants will be 
 required. The quantity of manure required to form a hot- 
 bed varies with the season and external temperature, a 
 larger bulk being needed in January than at a later season. 
 Even a small bed should have the mass not less than five 
 feet long by four feet wide, to maintain the proper heat. 
 If the soil whereon it stands is clayey the whole bed should 
 be made above ground, as the water settling in the trench 
 would check the heat of the entire bed. If the bed is 
 made early in the season it will require the application of 
 fresh materials at the sides or " linings " to keep it at the 
 proper temperature. 
 
 The best substitute for stable manure in forming a hot- 
 bed is spent tan, but to keep it in its position a plank bin 
 or a brick pit is required. It takes more time for the heat 
 to rise, but it is longer continued, milder and more manage- 
 able than stable manure, and is quite sufficient for a seed 
 bed. A little slightly fermented stable manure is needed 
 to be added to the center of the bed, as it will start 
 fermentation sooner. 
 
 In sowing the bed let the more tender plants, as egg- 
 plants, peppers, etc., be sown under the same sash, and 
 separated by a thin plank partition under the cross-bar 
 from the rest of the frame. The finer and more delicate 
 
HOT-BEDS, COLD-FRAMES, AND PITS. 71 
 
 seeds will require the sash above them to be shaded until 
 the plants appear, or each pot may be separately covered 
 until the seeds are up. At night, if cold, cover the bed 
 with plank shutters, old carpets, or mats. Gradually, as 
 the plants grow strong, accustom them to the air as the 
 season grows mild. This can be done by opening the frames 
 entirely during the day, and leaving them exposed dur- 
 ing mild nights, or by transferring them to the cold frame. 
 
 Cold Frames are made just like those for the hot-bed, 
 only the box need not be over 15 inches high at the back, 
 and are excellent for wintering nearly hardy plants of all 
 kinds, and also for forwarding the more hardy plants, as 
 hardy annuals, cabbage, lettuce, etc. Indeed, they are 
 quite as indispensable as the hot-bed, and less expensive, 
 as they require no manure, but rest directly on the soil. 
 They are also of great service in hardening off hot-bed 
 stock, which should be transferred to them before it is 
 set out in the open ground. In very severe weather, the 
 heat may be kept in by earthing up the sides and covering 
 the sash with mats during the night. Air should always 
 be given when the weather will admit, or the plants will 
 grow up yellow and spindling. In managing frames, the 
 secret of success is to give plenty of air. Plants raised 
 in cold frames are generally more hardy and desirable than 
 those from a hot-bed, unless the latter are repotted early, 
 and when reestablished, transferred to the cold frame, to 
 harden them. A cold frame or pit covered with tiffany (a 
 prepared thin cotton cloth) is even better than one covered 
 with glass, for the purpose of hardening off young stock. 
 
 Frames of all kinds should be painted of a light color, 
 every year, both for the preservation of the wood and for 
 the destruction of insects and their eggs, that are con- 
 cealed in their crevices and angles. * A frame for raising 
 seedlings or striking cuttings need not be over 18 inches 
 deep at the back, to 9 inches in front, as it is important to 
 keep the seedlings near the glass. 
 
GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Pits, Fig. 4 shows a section of a lean-to pit, in which 
 tall plants may be set upon the bottom, while a stage may 
 be put in to bring small plants near the glass. All pits 
 should be built of brick, and those with the walls built 
 hollow above the surface are preferable. In a pit 6 feet 
 wide the back should be about 15 to 18 inches higher than 
 the front. Pits are also useful in protecting delicate plants 
 in summer, from heavy rains and scorching suns, and for 
 bringing up many seedlings in the spring that do not 
 require artificial heat. In all cases ample provision must 
 be made for drainage, as 
 plants will not nourish 
 in . damp, confined air. 
 When a pit is desired 
 merely to preserve plants 
 during the winter, it is bet- 
 
 , , , - , , n Fig. 4. SECTION OF FIT. 
 
 ter that the glass should 
 
 face rather to the north, that is from north-east to north- 
 west, in order that growth may not be excited, and the 
 plants thus kept perfectly at rest during the winter. If 
 the pit faces any other quarter the air within gets heated 
 and the plants keep on growing late in the autumn, are 
 stimulated into temporary growth too early in the spring, 
 and are much more in danger of destruction by frost. 
 The pit should be kept as dry as possible and ventilated 
 daily when the frost is not too severe, and to protect the 
 roots of plants from frost and to prevent the necessity of 
 frequent waterings, the pots should be plunged in some 
 dry material, as sand or tan-bark. Very little water should 
 be given to plants in their dormant state, for they cannot 
 assimilate it. Many plants, as geraniums, etc., in such a 
 pit will require but one or two waterings during an entire 
 winter. Plants thus managed will endure a very low 
 temperature, and start into more vigorous growth in spring. 
 At night, if cold, and during severe weather by day, it 
 will be necessary to cover the glass with mats or shutters, 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 73 
 
 to prevent the frost from penetrating and the heat from 
 being lost by radiation. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 The principal implements employed in gardening are 
 the following : 
 
 1. Implements for Preparing and Operating upon the 
 Soil, 
 
 SUBSOIL PLOW. This is of great service in large gardens; 
 it answers as a tolerable substitute for the spade in trench- 
 
 Fig. 5. SUBSOIL PLOW. 
 
 ing for orchards and market gardens, doing the work more 
 cheaply and expeditiously, but not so well. It requires a 
 powerful team to manage it. One form is shown in fig. 5. 
 THE ONE-HORSE TURNING PLOW is very efficient in 
 deeply stirring the soil among plantations of trees and 
 the larger garden crops. The whiffletrees should be short 
 that the trees and plants may not be injured. A strong 
 animal is required, and the plow must not come too near 
 the trees and plants. The common plantation plows are 
 also quite useful in garden culture. 
 4 
 
GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 THE CULTIVATOR supersedes in a great degree the ne- 
 cessity of hand-hoeing among the main crops in market 
 
 gardens. By passing it 
 over once a week be- 
 tween the rows, all the 
 hoeing required is a nar- 
 row strip of a few inches 
 in the row. The first 
 working of the season 
 should be with a narrow 
 
 . 6. HARROW-TOOTHED CULTIVA- plow, tO Stir the Soil 
 TOR. 
 
 deeply ; then keep it 
 
 light with the cultivator. The teeth are made of various 
 shapes. That given in figure 6 has harrow teeth. 
 
 THE WHEELBARROW is indispensable in the smallest 
 garden. In carrying manures, applying composts, mov- 
 ing soils, and gathering crops, it is of constant service. 
 The handles and frame should be of tough wood, but the 
 sides and bottom may be of poplar or any light material. 
 
 THE GARDEN ROLLER. (Fig. 7.) This consists of two 
 cast iron sections one foot in width 
 and twenty inches in diameter, 
 with an iron handle. Weights can 
 be attached to the inside to make 
 it heavier. Being made in two 
 sections, the earth is not scraped up 
 while turning around. It is very 
 useful in keeping grass lawns 
 smooth and velvety, and is valu- 
 able to follow the putting in of all 
 seeds in sandy soils. Lawns should 
 be rolled when the ground is moder- 
 ately soft with rain, after each mowing. A tolerable sub- 
 stitute, for a small plot of grass, is a 
 
 TURF BEETLE, made of plank three inches thick, 
 eighteen inches long, and ten wide, with a handle inserted 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 75 
 
 in the centre, (fig. 8). With this the lawn should be 
 
 beaten, when the turf is set, to a perfect level. If the han- 
 dle is slightly inclined towards the 
 operator, it is easier to bring down 
 the sole perpendicularly. This is 
 quite as effectual a mode of smoothing 
 a lawn as by the use of the roller, but 
 much more time and labor are re- 
 quired. 
 
 THE PICK. This is indispensable 
 in trenching hard clay subsoils which 
 the spade cannot penetrate. It con- 
 sists of a wooden handle inserted in 
 a head composed of two iron levers 
 5TLK both pointed with steel, one of which 
 
 should come to a point 
 
 and the other be made 
 
 about two inches wide 
 
 for cutting roots or 
 
 any obstructions. 
 THE SPADE. The 
 
 best are Lyndon's, 
 
 made of cast steel. A 
 
 large one is required 
 
 for lifting trees, trench- 
 
 ng, 
 
 etc. A liht six- 
 
 inch spade (figure 9) 
 is very convenient for 
 removing small shrubs 
 and plants, which are 
 a little too large to be 
 lifted with a trowel. 
 The long - handled 
 shovels and spades are 
 perhaps best, except 
 for the small sizes. 
 
 Fig. 9. SPADE. Fig. 10. MANURE FORK. 
 
76 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 SHOVELS are necessary for loading and spreading com- 
 posts and manures. The round-pointed one is most con- 
 venient for garden purposes. Let it be of steel. 
 
 MANURE FORKS (figure 10), with 
 from four to eight tines, are indispen- 
 sable for moving fresh, long manures 
 with celerity and ease. 
 
 SPADE FORK. A four-tined or as- 
 paragus fork, also called a spade fork, 
 made of cast steel with Avide tines 
 cut out of a solid plate, as in figure 11, 
 is one of the most desirable of garden 
 tools. With this implement, in a 
 stony or stiff soil, spading can be 
 done more rapidly, with greater ease 
 to the workman, and quite as effectu- 
 ally. It is also used to loosen the 
 earth, and for digging manure into 
 asparagus beds, or about trees, with- 
 out injury to or cutting the roots. 
 THE CROWBAR is used in the gar- 
 den, mostly for setting poles for 
 climbers, pea brush, or* other fixtures 
 for training plants, and for removing 
 rocks and other obstructions. 
 
 HOES. These are of constant use in 
 gardening. They are of two kinds, the 
 draw-hoe and thrust-hoe, but the draw- 
 hoe is the most convenient. The most 
 useful are the round and square draw- 
 hoes, etc. ; made of a cast steel plate six 
 inches long and four wide ; the common 
 cotton hoe for ordinary use ; the triangu- 
 ar d raw-hoe (fig. 12) for digging furrows 
 and sowing seeds ; and the narrow semi- 
 circular or narrow square turnip hoes with sharp edges for 
 
 te. 11. SPADE FORK. 
 
 12. TRIANGU- 
 LAR HOE. 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 77 
 
 scraping the surface and killing weeds. For breaking up 
 
 the crust which 
 forms after a rain, 
 the scuffle hoe, fig. 
 13, is of great use. 
 This hoe, the six- 
 inch spade, and the 
 trowel, are the fa- 
 vorite tools for the 
 personal use of 
 amateurs, being all 
 light and in con- 
 stant requisition. 
 The handles of all 
 hoes should be 
 smooth and light, 
 and there should 
 be no extra weight 
 about the imple- 
 ment. 
 
 THE GARDEN 
 RAKE (figure 14) 
 
 Fig. 13. SCUFFLE HOE. 
 
 Fig. 14. STEEL RAKE. 
 
 is indispensable for levelling and finely pulverizing the 
 
 ground preparatory to sowing small 
 
 seeds after it has been spaded or 
 
 hoed. The best are those hammered 
 
 out of a solid bar of steel, as they 
 
 never lose their teeth or get out 
 
 of order. 
 
 THE POTATO HOOK is useful for 
 many of the purposes of both hoe and 
 rake, as for loosening the earth among 
 young plants, for covering seeds in 
 drills, and also for digging out Irish Fig. 15. HOE-FORK. 
 and sweet potatoes without cutting them. This is also 
 called the hoe-fork ; one form is shown in fig. 15. 
 
78 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 DRILL RAKES OR MARKERS are made of wood, and the 
 teeth placed at a greater or less distance for sowing differ- 
 ent seeds. In using, the first drill is guided by stretching 
 
 a line, and afterwards 
 the first tooth is kept 
 in the drill last made 
 to guide, and thus all 
 the rows in a long 
 bed can be made per- 
 fectly parallel. Sev- 
 eral different sizes are 
 Fig. 16. DOUBLE MARKER. required. That re- 
 
 presented in figure 16 has a set of teeth on each side, at 
 nine and twelve inches apart. By using every mark, or 
 every other one, four different distances may be marked 
 with this. 
 
 THE DIBBLE is very convenient in transplanting cab- 
 bages and all those plants that readily 
 succeed when moved. It is usually made 
 of a stick of hard wood about fifteen 
 inches long ; the point should be a little 
 blunt. The hole is made with the imple- 
 ment, the plant is put in, and set by again 
 inserting the dibble so as to press the 
 earth against the roots. Figure 17 shows 
 two forms. 
 
 THE TROWEL is an indispensable 
 implement for removing flowers and other Figl 17> ~~ DIBBLES - 
 tender plants, as they can be taken up with a ball of earth 
 attached, without injury or mutilation to the roots. It 
 should always be of polished steel. 
 The blade is shaped like the curved 
 Fig. 18.-TROWEL. portion of the section of a cone, as 
 
 in figure 18. 
 
 THE TRANSPLANTER consists of the two parts, a and , 
 fig. 19, hinged together on one side at c. When a plant is 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 79 
 
 Fig. 19. TRANS- 
 PLANTER. 
 
 to be taken up, the transplanter is sunk into the ground 
 with the foot to the required depth. The handles are then 
 pressed apart, which compresses the earth 
 closely about the root of the plant 
 operated upon, which with the ball of 
 earth enclosed, can be readily removed 
 bodily and with no more disturbance than 
 if planted out from a pot. The hole in 
 which it is set must be previously pre- 
 pared for receiving it. 
 
 THE GARDEN REEL AND LINE. The 
 line should be a good hemp cord J of an 
 inch in diameter. The axis of the reel is 
 fastened in the earth. It is indispen- 
 sable where neatness and regularity are 
 desired in the rows and plats. It can be 
 easily and quickly wound up when not in use. Figure 
 20 gives the form usually sold by the implement dealers ; 
 a wooden one can be easily made. 
 
 THE LEVEL is necessary in laying 
 off terraces and drains. A frame 
 shaped like the letter A ma y be used 
 with a plumb line attached at the 
 point, and long enough to reach be- 
 low the cross-bar. Make a mark 
 upon the cross-bar, at the place where 
 the line hangs when both legs are 
 upon a level surface. A spirit level, 
 which may be screwed on to the 
 cross bar, is more convenient. 
 
 SCREENS for sifting earth, for filling flower-pots or 
 covering small seeds, are best made with rather stout 
 wires, and the meshes should be of two or three sizes, 
 varying from f of an inch to an inch in diameter; the 
 frames may be square or round. 
 
 i. 20. REEL & LINE. 
 
80 
 
 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 2. Cutting Implements, for Operating on Plants. 
 
 THE PKUNING-SAW (fig. 21) is from fourteen to eighteen 
 inches long, lias fine / 
 teeth, and a hooked 
 handle, for hanging upon 
 a limb, while in the tree. 
 
 Fig. 21. PRUNING SAW. 
 
 It is also used in cutting off large stocks for grafting. One 
 with a blade tapering nearly to a point will be found 
 convenient. 
 
 THE Bow-SAW (figure 22) has a narrow blade, stiffen- 
 ed with an arched 
 back, the blade of 
 which can be made 
 more or less stiff, by 
 Fig. 22.-BOW-SAW. tightening the screw 
 
 on which the back turns, is the best for gardening pur- 
 poses, and indispensable for sawing off stocks horizontally, 
 near the ground. A small tenon saw is very convenient. 
 HAND J?RUNING-SHEAKS. Various patterns' are made, 
 one of the latest of which is given in figure 23. They 
 are useful in clipping hedges, shortening in peach trees, 
 
 Fig. 23. PRUNING SHEARS. 
 
 and cutting out small, dead branches. One man, with 
 them, can do as much as four with a priming-knife. Small 
 sizes are made for ladies, and are very highly finished. 
 
 POLE PRUNING-SHEARS are fastened to a long handle, 
 and worked with a cord passing over a pulley. They are 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 81 
 
 used for removing dead branches, or those infested with 
 insects, from high trees. Branches an inch in diameter 
 
 can be cut off with this in- 
 strument. They are best 
 with a sliding centre. Figure 
 24 shows one of the several 
 forms. 
 
 HEDGE SHEARS (figure 25) 
 are needed for giving an even 
 face to a hedge in pruning it, 
 and also for trimming box 
 edgings. 
 
 PRUNING-SCISSORS are also 
 made with a sliding centre 
 Fig. 34. POLE PRYING-SHEARS. an( j spring. They cut as 
 smoothly as a pruning-knife, and are very convenient for 
 ladies to use when 
 pruning rose-bushes. 
 VINE-SCISSORS are 
 used in thinning 
 grapes, when they 
 are too much crowd- 
 ed in the bunches. Fig. 25. HEDGE SHEARS. 
 
 PRUNING-KNIVES. Those of English make (Saynor's) 
 are the best. One of moderate size, about four inches 
 long, is most convenient for the pocket. Another, of 
 
 larger size, for 
 heavy work, is de- 
 sirable. For some 
 uses those with a 
 Fig. 26. PRUNING KNIFE. blade more curved 
 
 than in figure 26 will be found convenient. 
 
 THE BUDDING-KNIFE has a broad, flat blade, the edge 
 of which is rounded outwards, to make the incision in the 
 bark more readily. It has an ivory haft, thin and smooth 
 4* 
 
GARDENING FOIl THE SOUTH. 
 
 at the end, for raising the bark. Figure 27 shows the 
 most common form. 
 
 Fig. 27. BUDDING KNIFE. 
 
 THE GRAFTING-TOOL (figure 28) is much employed in 
 cleft-grafting large 
 stocks. It is used 
 ior splitting the 
 stock, and has a 
 sharp edge, curved 
 inwards, to cut the 
 bark in splitting. 
 The wedge part is Fi S- 28.-GBAnnra-TooL. 
 
 used to keep the stock open while the scions are inserted. 
 THE LAWX-SCYTHE, with snath, is very necessary, to 
 keep the grass smooth shaven and of that soft 
 green, velvety appearance, so desirable. Those 
 made of a thin plate of steel, welded to an iron 
 back, are light and durable, and may be whetted 
 until the blade is within half an inch of the back, 
 without grinding. Where there is much extent 
 of lawn, a Lawn-Mowing Machine, drawn by one 
 or two horse-power, will be found convenient. 
 THE BUSH-HOOK (figure 29) is useful about 
 old rose hedges, and is valuable for clearing up 
 the undergrowth in opening 
 new lands. 
 
 THE GBASS-EDGER (figure 
 30) is used for trimming the 
 edges of grass plots. A long 
 handle is attached, and it is 
 pressed forward, guided by 
 a line or the eye of the operator. 
 
 Fig. 29. BUSH- Fig. 30. 
 
 HOOK. GRASS-EDGER. 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 83 
 
 3, Instruments for Designating, Watering, etc. 
 
 TALLIES. Those for common use, to last a single sea- 
 son, are most readily prepared from the white pine of 
 which most dry-goods boxes are made. The wood is very 
 soft. For marking trees or grafts, a small tally, three- 
 quarters of an inch wide by three inches long, notched at 
 one end for attaching the wire, is commonly used. 
 The name of the variety should be marked on it with 
 a lead pencil, immediately after the tally has been 
 brushed over with a thin coat of white 
 lead. If marked while the paint is wet, 
 it can be read as long as the tally lasts ; 
 otherwise it will soon be effaced. 
 
 Another kind is made, about six or 
 eight inches long by an inch wide, of the 
 same material, and marked in the same 
 manner, to be stuck in the beds of flowers 
 and vegetables, to mark the different 
 varieties. Zinc labels are very durable. 
 They may be cut in any desired shape 
 out of sheet zinc. Write on it with an 
 ink made of two parts fine verdigris, two 
 sal ammoniac, one lampblack. After this 
 is made fine in a mortar, add twenty 
 parts water; bottle and shake it oc- 
 casionally some days before using. It 
 will keep for years, if the bottle is kept 
 cork downward, to prevent the ammonia 
 from escaping. The labels should be 
 fastened to the limbs with a stout wire. 
 be mapped, that the names may be ascertained should the 
 tallies get lost or become effaced. 
 
 FOLDING-LADDERS are very convenient in gathering 
 fruit. The rounds are fastened by pivots at the ends on 
 which they turn, and when the ladder is folded up, they 
 lie in grooves made in the side-pieces. Figure 31 shows 
 the ladder both open and closed. 
 
 31. FOLDING 
 LADDER. 
 
 Orchards should 
 
 
84 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 THE STANDING-LADDER is also indispensable in the fruit 
 garden. It should be made light, with Hat steps. 
 The supports are two sticks of light timber fixed 
 to the top, with hooks and straps, to be expanded 
 or contracted at pleasure. It should be six 
 or eight feet high. 
 
 THE ORCHARDIST'S HOOK is a light rod with 
 a hook at the end, with a movable piece of wood 
 which slides upon the rod, as in figure 82. The 
 branches to be gathered from are brought near 
 by the hooked end, and retained in place by 
 hooking the sliding-piece over another branch. 
 GARDEN ENGINES. These are made of wood 
 or iron in many forms, and act upon the princi- 
 ^ op pie of the forcing pump. The tubes should be 
 made very strong, or they will be likely to burst 
 
 in case of any obstruction. They are very convenient for 
 
 watering on an 
 
 extended scale, as 
 
 in plantations of 
 
 strawberries, etc. 
 WATERING-POTS 
 
 are well - known 
 
 implements, very 
 
 necessary in a Pig. 88.-w ATEK i NO POT. 
 
 garden or green-house (figure 33) . The best are of cop- 
 per. There should be two or 
 three roses of different fineness 
 Hang them so the water can 
 run out, when not in use. Tin 
 ones should be painted oc- 
 casionally, to prevent rusting. 
 In the French watering-pot, 
 figure 34, by the peculiar 
 construction of the handle, 
 
 Fig. 34. FRENCH WATERING POT. the weight is more easily 
 
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. 85 
 
 balanced in the hands, which enables the user to empty 
 with far less muscular exertion than with a pot upon the 
 old plan. 
 
 HAND SYRINGES are useful in watering plants in gar- 
 dens or in pots. They will also be found very necessary 
 in the pit or green-house, in 
 washing the foliage of plants. 
 They should be made of copper, 
 with several caps of greater or 
 less fineness. There should also 
 be an inverted or gooseneck cap, 
 
 Fig. 35. VINE SHIELD. 
 
 for washing the under side ot 
 leaves. They are made of any desired size, up to a gallon. 
 Insects may be expelled from plants by using an infusion 
 of tobacco or sulphur-water for sprinkling them. 
 
 VINE-SHIELDS (fig. 35) are for protecting young plants 
 from the cucumber and squash bugs. The top may be 
 covered with millinet. They should be about eight or 
 ten inches high, and made bevelled, 
 so that one can be set within the 
 other when put away. They are 
 made with or without a pane of 
 glass in the top. Put around any 
 half-hardy plant, with a lock of 
 hay in them, they afford a very Fig " ^.-HAND-GLASS. 
 good protection during winter. With a movable top, 
 containing a pane or two of glass, they are a tolerable 
 substitute for the next described. 
 
 THE HAND-GLASS. The frame is made either of hard 
 wood or cast iron. It is made in two parts, to give air 
 readily to the plants. Its mode of construction is readily 
 seen in figure 36. It is used for protecting and forward- 
 ing vegetables, etc. 
 
 BELL-GLASSES (figure 37) of different sizes are cheaper, 
 and in protecting and forwarding small plants are as use- 
 ful as the hand-glass. 
 
80 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 PLANT-PROTECTORS. These are made as follows: Cut 
 up a three-fourth inch plank, at least a foot wide, into 
 lengths of twelve or fifteen inches. These are the covers 
 or tops, which are to screen your plants from sun and frost. 
 Raise them above the plants you wish to protect, by nail- 
 ing them at each end to a narrower bit of thick plank, 
 say nine inches in width, and of 
 the same length as the width of 
 the cover, as at , figure 38. 
 They are also made by tacking 
 together at the edge two pieces 
 of plank a foot square, as at b. 
 They may be braced with strips 
 of lath, where dotted, if desired. 
 Fig. 37. BELL-GLASS. When you fear a frost, put these 
 over the hills of beans, cucumbers, etc. It will protect 
 them perfectly. If you wish to transplant your cab- 
 bages, or anything in your flower-garden, do not wait 
 for a " season," but do it any day, just at night, in fresh- 
 dug soil, giving the roots a good watering. Cover them 
 daily with the protectors, 
 taking them off at night, 
 that they may be freshened 
 with the dew. After 
 couple of days it will be 
 sufficient to stand the pro- 
 
 T ,1 -i Fiff 38 PLANT PROTECTOR. 
 
 tector on edge on the south 
 
 side of the plants, to keep off the mid-day sun. In 
 three or four days the roots will be established. They 
 are also of use when the weather is so dry that hills 
 of melons, squashes, etc., will not come up. Water 
 the hills with a fine rose watering-pot, and lay the 
 protector over the hills, and the young seedlings will soon 
 make their appearance. When above ground, take off 
 the protector and let the dew fall upon them at night, and 
 in a day or two dispense with it entirely. They are ex- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 8? 
 
 cellent, also, to put over the patches of newly planted 
 flower seeds, causing them to come up much sooner. Re- 
 move them when necessary to admit mild rains, and en- 
 tirely when the plants appear. 
 
 Shingles, sharpened so as to enter the earth easily, are 
 very useful to protect plants, newly set out, from the di- 
 rect rays of the sun ; two of them, inserted at right angles 
 to each other, with the point of the angle to the south, and 
 inclined so that the tops come a little over the plant, will 
 screen it completely from the sun, and at the same time 
 allow the night dews and gentle rains to refresh the plants. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 There are two modes of propagating plants, viz., by 
 seed and by division. Species are propagated by seed, 
 but varieties, except in the case of annuals, generally by 
 division, as they do not always continue true from seed. 
 There are also two modes of propagating by division; in 
 the one, the plants root in the ground as suckers, layers, 
 and cuttings, and in the other they are made to unite with 
 another plant, as in budding, grafting, and inarching. 
 While all plants are naturally multiplied by seed, most 
 kinds also allow of propagation by division, as by taking 
 offsets, or parting their roots, by suckers, cuttings, run- 
 ners, layers, etc. Propagation by seed often produces 
 new varieties, which are only to be perpetuated by division 
 of their roots, cuttings, layers, or by budding and grafting 
 upon stocks. 
 
 Propagation by Seed, The most healthy and vigorous 
 plants are generally produced by seed, though many varie- 
 
88 GARDE >vC*G FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 ties can only be perpetuated by propagating by division 
 The following conditions are necessary, says Thompson, 
 for successful propagation by seed : 1st. That the seeds be 
 perfectly ripened. 2d. That they have been properly kept 
 until the period of sowing. 3d. That they be sown at 
 the proper time ; and, finally, that the sowing be per- 
 formed in the proper manner. And it may be added that 
 to accomplish the object of sowing, the seeds sown must be 
 of just the kind intended to be used, and true to that kind. 
 
 The Maturity and Soundness of Seeds are necessary, to 
 ensure the growth and perfection of the young plant. 
 These can generally be determined by their external and 
 internal appearance. If in cutting the larger seeds the 
 substance of the seed be of the natural color, and the em- 
 bryo be fresh and perfect, it will probably germinate. So 
 if externally they have a clear color and a fresh, plump 
 appearance, they will be likely to grow. The soundness 
 of those that sink in water when good, (and most seeds do,) 
 may be tested by putting them in warm water. Nearly 
 all sound seeds will sink in this fluid in a short time. Of 
 the finer seeds, a skillful eye will determine the quality 
 with the microscope. But the surest test is, planting a 
 few properly in a pot, protecting the surface from drying 
 with a square of glass, and keeping it in a warm room, 
 or plunged in a hot-bed or in a pit, giving it the heat nat- 
 urally required by the species for germination. 
 
 Seeds are more often unsound from mouldiness or age, 
 than from not having been properly ripened. They should 
 be stored where they will be least afiected by the presence 
 of moisture and the changes of temperature. About 40, 
 but not lower, is said to be the* best. Many oily seeds be- 
 come rancid, and will not vegetate when sown. 
 
 Generally, seeds should be kept dry, but acorns and 
 chestnuts thus kept soon lose their vitality and must be 
 kept until planted in rather dry loam, or slightly dampen- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 89 
 
 ed moss, well packed. Nearly all seeds keep better in 
 closely packed dry soil, the air being thus mostly exclud- 
 ed, than hermetically sealed in bottles. In close stopped 
 bottles or jugs, the air often becomes saturated with the 
 moisture and exhalations from the seeds, which, in the im- 
 pure, damp, close atmosphere, soon become completely 
 spoiled. But peas, beans, and other seeds, where liable 
 to insects, after they are well dried, should be put in bot- 
 tles well corked, and a few drops of spirits of turpentine, 
 of chloroform, or a bit of camphor, put in with the seeds. 
 Either of these is fatal to these insects. For most seeds 
 it is sufficient that they be gathered, when fully ripe, in 
 dry weather, and thoroughly dried before they are thresh- 
 ed. If any moisture then appears, dry them further, and 
 store in paper bags where they will be free from damp 
 and vermin. In the first column of the following table 
 is given the time that certain seeds will keep, according 
 to Vilmorin; the second column gives the earlier table of 
 Cobbet. It is generally best to select fresh seed, as seeds 
 lose their vitality very soon. 
 
 Tears. Tears. Tears. 
 
 Artichoke 5 31Dock 3 1 [Pennyroyal 2 
 
 Asparagus 4 4jEndive 9 4IPotato (Sweet) 2 3 
 
 Balm 2!E<?g Plant 7|Potato (Irish) 3 
 
 Basil 8 2 Fennel 5 5;Pumpkin 510 
 
 Bean 6 2|Garlick SlPurslane 8 2 
 
 (Kidney) 3 1 Gourd 
 
 Beet 5 10 Hop 
 
 Borage 3 4 Horseradish 
 
 Broccoli, 5 4|Hysso 
 
 Burnet. .2 6 Jerusalem Artichoke 
 
 Cabbage 5 4 
 
 Calabash. . . . . 5 7 
 
 sop 
 salem 
 
 5 10 Radish .............. 52 
 
 5 2 
 4 
 Rhubart _____ ........ 3 1 
 
 as .............. 
 
 8 Rampion ............. 
 
 4 Rape 
 
 6|Rhub 
 
 alem Artichoke SjRosemary 4 3 
 
 Kale 5 4lRue 3 
 
 _ . " (Sea) 3 3iRuta-baga 54 
 
 Camomile 2 Lavender 2iSa2:e. 3 
 
 Capsicum 4 2 Leek 2 2; Salsify 22 
 
 Caraway 2 4 Lentil 3! Samphire 9 
 
 Carrot 4 II Lettuce 5 3 1 Savory 3 
 
 Cauliflower 5 4|Mangel Wurzel 5 10 Scorzonera 2 
 
 Celery 
 
 Chervil 
 
 Cives 
 
 Corn 
 
 Corn -Salad 
 
 Coriander.. 
 
 lOMarjoram 2 4,Shalot 4 
 
 2 6 Marigold 3 ! Skirret 2 4 
 
 2 SjMelon 5 lOlSorrel 2 7 
 
 2 3iMint '..... 4Spinach 5 4 
 
 5 2|Mustard 5 4iSquash 510 
 
 3 Nasturtium 5 2|Tansy ... 
 
 Cress 5 3 Okra 4jTarragon 4 
 
 " (Winter 3 Onion 2 2jThvme 22 
 
 " (Water) 4 Parsley 3 6 Tomato 5 2 
 
 Cucumber 5 lOjParsnip 2 1 Turnip 54 
 
 Dandelion 10! Pea (English) 4 H Wormwood 3 
 
90 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The Time Of Sowing all indigenous seeds in any locality 
 is most favorable when they naturally fall from the plants. 
 Hardy annuals, likewise, do much better if sown in au- 
 tumn, or quite early in the spring. If not in the ground 
 early, they flower late and badly. There are some excep- 
 tions, as in the case of haws and cedar berries, which hang 
 until swallowed by birds, and sprout more freely after 
 having undergone the digestive process. Some exotics 
 of a hardy character likewise succeed best when sown at 
 the time the seed falls, vegetating in autumn, growing 
 slowly through the colder months, and progressing rap- 
 idly when spring opens. Others coming from a different 
 climate, starting into growth in autumn, would perish 
 during the winter months ; but kept and sown when the 
 temperature of the air and soil in spring is suitable 
 for vegetating them, they will advance rapidly as the 
 weather becomes more and more favorable to growth. 
 In some cases where it might be best to sow at the 
 natural period, if the aim was simply to continue the spe- 
 cies, other motives render it necessary to sow at other 
 times. A succession of flowers or a continued supply of 
 vegetables during the season may, in the case of annual 
 or biennial plants, make repeated sowings at proper inter- 
 vals desirable. 
 
 Trees and shrubs it is well to sow, if practicable, at the 
 natural period, but it is desirable the seedlings should not 
 make their appearance above ground until a favorable 
 season for growth. This is most readily secured in the 
 case of seeds that do not keep well dry by stratification 
 or mixing them with soil in autumn, but not encouraging 
 growth until spring. This is done by placing a layer of 
 seeds upon the surface of the soil, then a layer an inch or 
 two thick of sand or light soil, and so on, the whole being 
 laid so as to form a cone, over which is spread a covering 
 of soil to protect from wet and frost. This should be 
 done where least likely to invite the attacks of mice and 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 91 
 
 other animals. Small quantities of seeds of this kind may 
 be stratified in boxes and flower pots, covered from rats 
 and mice and placed in a cool situation until spring. Holly 
 seed requires to be kept thus two years. When vegeta- 
 tion begins to take place, the seeds, still mixed with the 
 earth in which they have lain, can be sown in soil properly 
 prepared. The larger seeds can be taken from the soil 
 and planted out in the drills at proper distances. 
 
 Seeds must be sown in the proper manner. Seedsmen 
 are often blamed for selling bad seed, when the sole fault 
 is with the planter. That seed may germinate, moisture, 
 air, and a certain degree of warmth, varying with each 
 variety, are necessary. Chick weed will vegetate at 32 
 F., but for most seeds of plants of temperate climates the 
 best germinating temperature is about 60 F.; of half-hardy 
 plants 70 F.; of tropical plants about 80 F.; but some 
 require 100 F. 
 
 Light must also be excluded until the root can derive 
 nourishment from the soil. The first effect of air, heat, 
 and moisture upon the seed, is to change its starchy mat- 
 ter into the proper food of the embryo. If at this time 
 the seed be withered by exposure to heat without sufficient 
 covering, it will perish. It often happens that seeds are 
 planted in a fresh-dug soil, and the above change in the 
 properties of the seed takes place, but the earth not being 
 pressed upon it, the seed dries up and the embryo perishes. 
 Others, again, are buried too deeply, and though the seed 
 swells, yet sufficient air and warmth are not obtained to 
 give the embryo life. The seed should be just so far 
 covered as to exclude light, and afford barely sufficient 
 moisture for its wants. The first thing in sowing is a 
 suitable preparation of the soil, so that the young roots 
 thrown out may easily penetrate it. It must be made 
 more or less fine for different seeds. Peas and beans do 
 not require the soil to be as finely pulverized as small 
 seeds. The seeds must also be firmly fixed in the soil, and 
 
92 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 pressed by the earth in every part, in order to retain moist- 
 ure sufficient to encourage vegetation ; but they should not 
 be so deeply buried as to be deprived of air, or have their 
 ascending shoots impeded by too much soil above. In all 
 cases, seeds should be sown in fresh-dug soil, that they 
 may have the benefit of the moisture therein, but they 
 should never be put in when the soil is really wet, as the 
 ground will bake and the seed perish. Moist weather in 
 summer is excellent for putting in seeds, provided the 
 ground is still friable. Just before a light rain is the best 
 possible time for sowing turnips and other summer-sown 
 crops. 
 
 Seeds of most kinds should be sown in drills or rows. 
 In these they can be placed at any required depth, while 
 if broadcast, some will be uncovered, and others too 
 deeply buried in the earth. In drills you can know also 
 where to look for the young plants ; they can have the 
 soil dug around them ; they will thus grow much faster, 
 and are much more easily thinned and cultivated. When 
 the seeds are planted, the earth should generally be press- 
 ed upon them with a roller, by treading with the feet, 
 in the case of large seeds, by smoothing the surface 
 with the back of the spade, or by walking over them on a 
 board for the smaller kinds. Pressing the earth upon 
 them will retain the moisture about them, and hasten 
 their vegetation. When they come up, keep them free 
 from weeds, and thin them as hereafter directed in treat- 
 ing of each plant. 
 
 A great deal of the subsequent growth of the plant de- 
 pends upon their not being sown too thickly, or at least 
 thinned properly as soon as the young seedlings appear. 
 A plant raised among a lot of crowded seedlings is very 
 apt to die before it has made its fourth leaf. This seldom, 
 happens if the seeds are sown thin, and a little powdered 
 charcoal is mixed with the earth. 
 
 Some seeds, which, like those of the carrot, adhere to- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 93 
 
 gether, must be rubbed in the hands with dry sand to in- 
 sure a more equal distribution in the drill. Others, like 
 the beet, are covered with a hard shell, and others still with 
 a tough skin. Both these may be soaked in water until it 
 is somewhat softened, and by notching into the latter, 
 germination is hastened. For broadcast sowing, very 
 small seeds are often mixed with fine soil in order to en- 
 sure their being scattered more equally. 
 
 Among the other most frequent causes of failure in seeds 
 are being sown in too dry earth and sowing them too deep. 
 Excessive moisture is also to be guarded against, and giv- 
 ing them too much or too little bottom heat. M. AppeJius 
 observes that seedlings raised in hot-beds or frames fre- 
 quently cause disappointment from bad management. 
 Asters, Stocks, Phlox, Petunias, Pansies, etc., do better 
 in a very gentle hot-bed, and produce stronger plants less 
 likely to die off. When the dung of a hot-bed has given 
 off its first heat, it begins to absorb moisture from the 
 earth with which it is covered. And as the earth of the 
 bed generally slopes to the south, the greater part of the 
 water given runs off toward the front, and at the back of 
 the bed the earth in which the seeds are sown is often too 
 dry. Hence seeds that vegetate slowly and need constant 
 damp, as Phlox and Pansy, should be sown at the front 
 of the bed, and those that grow more readily at the top 
 or back. The time required for certain seeds to germi- 
 nate at a temperature from 52 to 65 is, according to M. 
 Appelius: garden cress, 2 days; spinach, 3; cabbage, 
 turnip, and lettuce, 4 ; peas, endive, poppy, melons, cucum- 
 bers, mustard, 5 ; lupine, lentil, horseradish, radish, onions, 
 (often also in 15 days), leeks, 6 ; barley, rye, maize, broc- 
 coli, beans, beet, 7; wheat, thyme, marjoram, and some 
 kidney beans, 8 ; marrowfat peas, 9 ; vetch, sugar beet, 
 tobacco, hemp, 10 ; tomato, sea-kale, scorzonera, carrots, 
 savory, basil, stocks, celery, 12 (turnip rooted celery some- 
 times 20) ; anise, fennel, 13 ; sunflower, artichoke, burnet, 
 
94 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 14; balm, clover, 15; lavender, purslane, 16; sage, pep- 
 per, 20 ; parsnip, parsley, asparagus, 21 ; and potato in 
 28 days. It seems that seeds lighter than water do not 
 germinate so soon as those heavier. 
 
 Though seeds will vegetate with due supplies of heat 
 and moisture, a fertile soil is necessary for their further 
 progress. Fine, light, rich mould favors the vegetation 
 and early progress of most seeds, though many, after they 
 are a little advanced, flourish best in strong, heavy loam. 
 A compost of peat or leaf-mould, fine sand, and well rot- 
 ted manure, should be prepared, and if all the finer seeds 
 are covered therewith, one great difficulty in growing 
 fine vegetables on stiff soils will be removed, as well as 
 their early maturity secured. Even in dry weather one 
 can generally bring up seeds by digging and finely pulver- 
 izing the earth ; then soak it well with water that has 
 been some time exposed to the air to raise its temperature ; 
 then sow the seed in drills of the proper depth, and sift 
 over the bed a coat of this compost. In the case of large 
 seeds, as corn, beans, etc., after the ground is prepared, 
 only the hills or drills need to be thus soaked, and then 
 covered with the compost. 
 
 Special directions for managing seeds requiring peculiar 
 care will be given hereafter. 
 
 Seeds must not only be properly managed, but there is 
 no pleasure in growing them unless of the right kind, as 
 it is very vexatious to sow Early Yorks when you think 
 you are sowing Drumheads, and vice versa. The way to 
 avoid such mistakes is either to raise your own seed, care- 
 fully label them, or to know of whom you buy. Your 
 own eye in the case of many seeds will not assist you at 
 all in discriminating. 
 
 Seed must not only be of the right sort, but true to that 
 sort. Early York cabbage seed may be sown, or Scarlet 
 radish seed ; yet, from having been planted near to some 
 other varieties, the seed is crossed with them and the most 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 95 
 
 valuable qualities of the variety lost. The cabbage may 
 be late or long-legged, and not head at all, or the radish 
 tough and misshapen. 
 
 Preserving Seed, The very finest plants should be 
 chosen for this purpose, that is, those most true to their 
 kind and most perfect in shape and quality. In the cab- 
 bage, for instance, a small, short stem, well formed head 
 with few loose leaves ; in the turnip, large bulb, small neck, 
 few, short and slender-stalked leaves, and solid flesh. In 
 the radish, high color (unless white,) small neck, few and 
 short leaves ; and in the case of flowers, seed should be 
 saved only from those most perfectly developed. 
 
 Great care should be taken to preserve the varieties un- 
 mixed, for, as just stated, if varieties of the same species, 
 or very similar species, are planted near each other, they 
 will cross and produce untrue seed. In this way, it is 
 true, valuable varieties often originate, but the chances 
 are that the produce will be worthless. There can be no 
 cross between a cabbage and a carrot, because they are 
 of totally different families, and there is no similarity ; but 
 all the varieties of cabbage will cross with each other, 
 with Brussels sprouts, in short with all others of the genus 
 Brassica. So of corn ; in a few years the early varieties 
 from the North, planted in Southern gardens, become so 
 intermingled with the ordinary sorts, that the early char- 
 acter is lost. The difficulty of keeping seeds pure renders 
 it advisable not to save seeds of two varieties of any spe- 
 cies the same year, except in large gardens. Many kinds 
 of seed it is more advantageous to buy of the regular 
 seedsmen, than to grow and save them at home. The 
 finest seeds in the world are grown where an amateur 
 makes one or two species of plants, like Truffaut with 
 Asters, a specialty, using every possible care for their im- 
 provement. 
 
 Crossing and Hybridizing. These terms are used by 
 many as meaning the same thing ; strictly speaking, Jiy- 
 
9G 
 
 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Fig. 39. FLAX FLOWER. 
 
 bridizing is when two distinct species are made to form a 
 union, while crossing is where the same takes place with 
 varieties of the same species. To make the matter plain, 
 we must give the structure of the flower. The organs 
 
 concerned in the produc- 
 tion of the fruit or seed 
 are the stamens, which 
 correspond to the male 
 organs, and the pistil or 
 pistils, which are the 
 female organs. These 
 two are for the most part 
 in one flower, and differ 
 greatly in number in the 
 different families. The simplest case is where both kinds 
 are in one flower, as in fig. 39, which represents a flower 
 of the flax split down, to show the arrangement of its 
 parts. In figure 40 all of the flower is removed, except 
 the stamens and pistil, which are en- 
 larged. The central body is the pistil, 
 and is surrounded by five stamens, which 
 are shorter. It will be seen that each 
 stamen is composed of two parts; a 
 slender portion, the filament, which bears 
 a two-lobed body, the anther, which pro- 
 duces a fine fertilizing powder, the pollen. 
 The pistil has an enlarged base, the ovary, 
 which contains the ovules, which are to 
 become seeds; above this is usually a 
 prolonged portion, the style. The styles 
 may be one or several ; in the case of the flax there are 
 five, each one of which is surmounted by a stigma, that 
 part which receives the fertilizing powder, or pollen. 
 
 The stamens and pistils are not always found together 
 in the same flower. In Indian corn they are separated, 
 but on the same plant the tassel containing the stamens 
 
 Fig. 40. STAMENS 
 AND PISTILS. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 97 
 
 or male organs, while the silk and ear are the pistillate 
 parts; such plants are called monoecious. In other in- 
 stances, as spinach, the flowers which contain the stamens 
 are not found upon the same individual plant with those 
 that bear the pistils. These are called dioecious plants. 
 
 Cross breeding, where both sexes are united in the same 
 blossom, is accomplished by removing the stamens and 
 dusting the pistil with the pollen of a different variety, a 
 simple process ; but from the resulting seed a new variety, 
 partaking somewhat of the qualities of both parents, will 
 be produced. Care is required in the process. A blossom 
 must be selected not fully expanded, and all the anthers 
 be cut out and removed. "Protect the blossom with a 
 loose bag of gauze to keep off the bees. As soon as the 
 blossom is fully expanded, collect on a camel's hair pencil 
 the pollen from a full blown flower of the variety selected 
 for the male parent, and apply it to the stigma or point 
 of the pistil. The conditions are a careful extraction of 
 the anthers before they are advanced enough to fertilize 
 the pistil, and to apply the selected pollen when in perfec- 
 tion, that is, in a powdery state, upon the stigma while 
 still moist, and to prevent natural fertilization from pollen 
 carried by insects or by the wind. Cross breeding often 
 takes place naturally. If different varieties of corn are 
 planted near together, often three or four kinds and colors 
 of grain will be found upon one ear from natural inter- 
 mixture. 
 
 But there are limits to the power of crossing plants. 
 Those between two varieties of the same species, as be- 
 tween two kinds of corn or pear, are common enough, and 
 these are fruitful and produce perfect seeds. In the same 
 genera, also, certain nearly allied species are capable of 
 fertilizing each other ; the offspring in this case is called a 
 hybrid, and does not always produce perfect seeds. Thus 
 the different species of the strawberry, also those of the 
 gourd and melon^ family, readily intermix. So also do 
 5 
 
98 GAKDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 those of the rose. But no one has succeeded in crossing 
 the apple with the pear, or the gooseberry with the cur- 
 rant, though in both cases they are species of the same 
 genus. Still less will such totally different plants as 
 oranges and pomegranates intermix. 
 
 Our flower-gardens in modern times have been greatly 
 enriched by cross breeding and hybridizing. Thus have 
 originated a great number of new and beautiful roses, 
 rhododendrons, azaleas, camellias, fuchsias, dahlias, etc., 
 so beautiful in color and perfect in form and habit. There 
 is no doubt of their great utility here. Cross breeding 
 and hybridizing, it is claimed, are processes equally useful 
 in 'fruit-growing; but it is certain that very few artificially 
 cross-bred fruits are yet in cultivation, and of true hybrids 
 it is doubtful if there are any which are valuable. It is 
 certain that those most successful in producing improved 
 varieties have not generally resorted to cross breeding. 
 
 True hybrids rarely produce perfect seeds, and those 
 that do, revert to one of the parents after a few genera- 
 tions. From not being subjected to this drain on their 
 vitality, they frequently bloom more freely, and the blos- 
 soms remain longer in perfection than those of plants that 
 seed freely. Seed-bearing is the greatest tax upon the 
 vigor of a plant to which it can be subjected. Hybrid 
 varieties are increased and continued in existence by prop- 
 agating them by division. 
 
 Propagation oy Division, Every other mode of prop- 
 agating plants, except by seed, whether it be by bulbs, 
 tubers, runners, suckers, parting the roots, layers, cuttings, 
 budding or grafting, is effected by a division of the plant 
 to be increased. 
 
 Bulbs. Propagation by division, in the case of bulbs or 
 tubers, is analogous to sowing seeds. The new bulbs may 
 be separated when the leaves of the mother-plant decay. 
 The onion, hyacinth, tulip, etc., are generally taken up 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 99 
 
 and stored in a moderately dry, airy place, until it is the 
 proper season for growth, and are thought to grow better 
 in consequence of their surplus moisture being evaporated. 
 The corras or bulbs of the crocus, thus treated, produce bet- 
 ter plants and stronger flowers. Removal gives an oppor- 
 tunity for changing the soil before the bulbs are reset. 
 There are, however, many scaly bulbs, as the lily, that are 
 injured if long out of the ground, and if not planted again 
 at the proper season, the strength of the plant is much 
 diminished. Bulbs generally like a light, rich, sandy soil, 
 well pulverized, and most bulbs and tubers require to be 
 planted more deeply than seeds. 
 
 Tubers may be taken up when mature, and kept until 
 the proper season for replanting. They may generally be 
 cut into as many pieces as they have eyes, and each eye 
 will produce a plant. The tubers of the Chinese yam have 
 no visible buds, but if cut into pieces and planted, buds 
 will push out from the wrinkles that appear upon its surface. 
 
 Runners are thrown out by the strawberry and many 
 other plants. They spring from the crown of the plant, 
 deriving from it their nourishment, and at a greater or less 
 distance from the parent plant throw out a bud above and 
 small projections or rudiments of roots, which, in favora- 
 ble conditions, strike into the soil and help to nourish the 
 young plant above. The growing point of the runner 
 extends to form another new plant beyond. Runners 
 cannot well take root in dry weather, but in contact with 
 moist soil the roots soon strike. To facilitate the rooting, 
 the joint is often pegged down, or a small stone placed 
 over it a little behind the bud, which preserves the earth 
 in a moist condition as well as keeps the joint close to the 
 soil. If it is desired to obtain as many plants as possible, 
 do not permit the parent-plant to waste its vigor in pro- 
 ducing flowers and fruit, but cut off the flower stalks as 
 they appear. If strong plants are desired, stop each run- 
 
100 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 ner after it has made one or two plants. The new plants, 
 when well rooted, are ready for removal at the proper 
 season. 
 
 Suckers* These proceed either from the root or from 
 the stem, or collar of the plant. Root suckers are pro- 
 duced from those plants which send out stray horizontal 
 roots, as the sucker is in fact a bud from one of these 
 roots which has pushed its way through the soil and be- 
 come a stem. As this stem generally forms fibrous roots 
 of its own above the point of junction with the parent- 
 root, it may be slipped off and planted like a rooted cut- 
 ting. 
 
 Root suckers are thrown up by some plants, like the 
 currant, close to the main stem ; by others, like the plum 
 and paper mulberry, at considerable distance. Raspber- 
 ries, poplars, roses, lilacs, and many other shrubs and 
 trees, are thus readily propagated, the offspring with the 
 roots that properly belong to it being carefully separated 
 from the parent and replanted in suitable soil. The roots 
 of the parent-plant should be injured as little as possible. 
 Remove the soil, and if the sucker springs from a large 
 root, detach a slice of it with the sucker instead of sever- 
 ing it. The supply of nourishment being diminished by 
 separation from the parent-plant, the head of the plant re- 
 moved must be cut in, except in the case of coniferous 
 plants, to prevent evaporation. 
 
 The great objection to planting suckers is, that plants 
 grown from them have a much greater tendency to throw 
 out suckers, and thereby become exceedingly annoying in 
 gardens, by encroaching on other plants, than if propagat- 
 ed by other methods. 
 
 Stem Suckers spring from the stem of the old plant 
 where its base is beneath the surface. Shoots originating 
 at this point frequently strike root and become rooted 
 suckers. In plants in which this natural tendency is not 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 101 
 
 sufficiently strong, it may be increased by earthing them 
 up well with good mould, which may be kept moist by 
 mulching. The quince and other plants are propagated 
 in this manner. 
 
 Propagation by Slips. This is the mode in which many 
 small undershrubs, like box, sage, rue and lavender, are in- 
 creased. They are dug up in spring or fall, and the young 
 shoots, with some portion of root attached, slipped off 
 with the thumb and finger, and if small, they are planted 
 a year in nursery rows. Many kinds of plants grow from 
 slips of the young branches with little or no root attached. 
 The number of young plants to be obtained by division 
 can be increased in some cases by sprinkling fine soil 
 among them that the lower branches may strike root in 
 it, or taking up the plant and resetting deeper than before. 
 Box edging when overgrown, if taken up in spring, partly 
 divided and replanted so that the base of each shoot is 
 covered, can, after rooting, again be divided into as many 
 plants as there were shoots. Stem suckers are often called 
 slips. 
 
 Parting the Roots is the ordinary way of increasing 
 herbaceous perennials with annual stems, such as phloxes, 
 chrysanthemums, etc., which can be taken up in spring or 
 autumn, and divided by hand, or with the trowel, knife or 
 spade, into a number of plants with a portion of root to 
 each. 
 
 Propagation by Layers. A layer is a branch or shoot 
 bent down into, and covered with, the soil, in order to 
 make it take root. Meanwhile it is fed by the parent 
 stock with which its communication is, however, partially 
 obstructed to make the returning sap form roots, instead 
 of going back into the stock. "With some plants a suf- 
 ficient check is given by simply bending and properly 
 covering it with earth ; the branch is held in its place 
 by hooked pegs until it takes root. But in general this is 
 
102 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 not enough. The most common way of obstructing the 
 return flow of sap is when the shoot is bent into the earth 
 to half cut it through near the bend, the free portion of 
 the wound being 'called a tongue. This is kept open 
 by a bit of twig, or piece of crock. Such layers are in 
 fact cuttings, only partially separated from parent-plants. 
 The incision is made through the bark at the base of a 
 bud. The object of the gardener is to induce the layer 
 to emit roots into the earth at the tongue. There are 
 other modes of effecting this. 
 
 With this view, he twists the shoot half round, so as to 
 injure the wood vessels ; he heads it back so that only a 
 bud or two appears above ground, and when much water- 
 ing is required, he places a handful of silver sand around 
 the tongued part, then pressing the earth down with his 
 foot, so as to secure the layer, he leaves it without further 
 care. The intention of both tongueing and twisting is to 
 prevent the return of the sap from the layer into the main 
 stem, while a small portion is allowed to rise out of the 
 latter into the former. The effect of this operation is to 
 compel the returning sap to organize itself as roots, in- 
 stead of passing downwards to form wood ; the bending 
 back is to assist this object, by preventing the expenditure 
 of sap in the completion of leaves. The bud left on the 
 tongue favors the emission of roots, as a tendency exists in 
 nearly all plants to throw out roots at the joints, and the 
 silver sand secures the drainage so necessary to cuttings. 
 
 The old mode of forming the tongue, and the best, un- 
 less the shoot is brittle, is shown in the figure, where 
 the tongue is shown upon the underside of the layer. 
 " A plan," says the Gardener's Monthly, " which is now 
 much in vogue with the best propagators, is to cut the 
 tongue on the upper surface. On bending down into the 
 soil, the tongue is then twisted on one side, and the young 
 shoot intended to form the future plant may then be lifted 
 up and bent towards the parent as rapidly as one pleases, 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 103 
 
 without any danger of it snapping off. There is another 
 advantage in this way of layering. It is often necessary, 
 in the stereotyped way, to place a chip or something be- 
 tween the tongue to keep it open. By this, the twisting 
 of the tongue aside keeps it always separate from the old 
 cut. Again, by this mode, very green shoots can be oper- 
 ated on, magnolias, for instance, in June, and plants be 
 got well rooted by fall, instead of waiting for the wood to 
 ripen in August, when we have to wait for another year 
 
 Fig. 41. LAYERING. 
 
 before our layer is sufficiently rooted to take from its 
 parent. Another method of forming the tongue is to 
 make the cut upon the side, as in figure 41. 
 
 Instead of forming a tongue to make a shoot throw out 
 roots, the branch may be split in the centre for two inch- 
 es, more or less according to its size, and the parts sepa- 
 rated with a bit of wood. Roots will be thrown out 
 along the edges of the split. The returning sap may also 
 be arrested by ringing; in which case a ring of bark is 
 removed from the branch for the purpose, or by a wire 
 twisted tightly around it pinching the bark. 
 
 When the roots are thrown out naturally wherever 
 a joint touches the earth, as in the verbena, the branches 
 only require pegging down to make them form new plants. 
 
104 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Where it is difficult to get the shoot to be layered down 
 to the soil, a portion of the soil may be raised to the plant, 
 as the Chinese gardeners practice in a pot, the earth in 
 which should be kept steadily moist. 
 
 Another mocte of layering is by insertion of the grow- 
 ing point in the soil. When the shoots of a raspberry or 
 gooseberry are of some length and firmness, if the grow- 
 ing points are inserted in well-dug soil, they will form a 
 nice bundle of roots and a good bud ready for transplant- 
 ing in autumn. This is worthy of trial with many other 
 plants. 
 
 The grape is best layered by digging a trench and lay- 
 ing therein a thrifty cane in the spring ; let remain until 
 young shoots, three or four inches long, are formed ; then 
 gently draw a little of the soil into the trench covering 
 the parent-cane, and as the shoots increase in strength, 
 fill up the trench, and each young shoot will make a fine 
 plant by autumn. 
 
 In general, the best season for layering is before the sap 
 begins to rise in the spring, or from the last of June, dur- 
 ing summer on wood of the same season's growth. A 
 good time for roses is after the first bloom is over. Lay- 
 ered at this time, they will generally be fit to take up the 
 ensuing winter, but most plants require twelve months, 
 and some two years, before they will root. In nurseries 
 the ground is prepared around each stool by digging and 
 manuring, and the branches laid down neatly, so as to 
 form a circle of rays around the stool, with the ends ris- 
 ing all around the circle to about the same height. 
 
 CllttingSt A cutting is a part of a plant detached from 
 the parent-stock, which, placed in proper conditions, will 
 emit roots and become in its turn a new plant. It may be 
 a portion of the stem, the branches, or the root, and some- 
 times even a leaf. 
 
 In a cutting, as in a growing plant, two forces are in 
 constant activity, those of absorption and of evaporation. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 105 
 
 Its life cannot be long continued, unless these correspond 
 with each other. A cutting, from the lack of roots, absorbs 
 feebly from the soil ; hence evaporation must be diminished 
 to correspond, and the base of the cutting must be in con- 
 tact with a substance more or less humid. Evaporation 
 is diminished by planting in a northern exposure, shading, 
 the use of bell-glasses, etc. The more herbaceous or im- 
 mature a cutting may be, the greater care is required to 
 protect it from excessive evaporation. 
 
 Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs should 
 be taken off after the leaves fall, or before the sap rises in 
 the spring. Those that strike readily in the open ground 
 in mild climates may be planted out to form the callus, 
 and be ready to enter into growth with the opening spring. 
 In more northern climates they may be prepared for plant- 
 ing, and stored in moistened moss or damp earth, and 
 kept from frost. The callus will be forming, and they 
 will be ready to plant in early spring. GeneraUy, cuttings 
 should not be taken when the sap is in full flow, as moist- 
 ure is then rapidly evaporated and the cutting exhausted 
 before roots are formed. They should be taken when the 
 plant is dormant, or when a new shoot has been made 
 with leaves so fully formed and matured as to be in the 
 act of forming abundance of woody tissue. 
 
 In selecting cuttings, they should come from healthy 
 plants, from shoots of average strength, well nourished, 
 but not over vigorous, as the latter are more quickly ex- 
 hausted when deprived of their usual supply of nourish- 
 ment. Horizontal branches growing near the ground, 
 especially those which recline upon it, have a greater ten- 
 dency to throw out roots. Upright shoots from near the 
 summit are generally, but not always, less likely to suc- 
 ceed. The willow and poplar strike freely from old wood, 
 and trunks of considerable size, if planted, will emit 
 roots, but of most trees the best plants are made from 
 well matured shoots of the current year's growth. In the 
 5* 
 
106 GAKDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 case of hard-wooded plants that are hard to strike, it is a 
 nice matter to select a portion of shoot in which the wood 
 is neither too old and hard, from which roots will not be 
 readily emitted, or too young and soft, as in this case they 
 will damp off. Rose cuttings strike most readily when 
 not quite fully matured. The proper state of firmness dif- 
 fers in different species. The age at which a cutting of 
 any species will strike best or strike at all, is determined 
 by experiment, but when once ascertained, it is invariably 
 the same. The proper age of an untried species may be 
 proximately determined from that of the most closely re- 
 lated species in which it is known, and will often prove 
 to be right if the species are nearly allied. 
 
 Some cuttings require little preparation. A willow may 
 be sharpened and driven into the soil and will take root, 
 and in some instances has done so, if planted bottom up- 
 wards. Currants and gooseberries, cut into suitable 
 lengths, will emit roots not only from the callus, but from 
 any part beneath the soil. Of these, as of cuttings of all 
 deciduous trees, the buds on the part of the cutting be- 
 neath the soil must be removed before planting, or they 
 will push and become shoots. Cuttings of which the 
 leaves have fully performed their office, and the wood is 
 ripened early in the season, if made and planted out in 
 warm, moist soil, will form roots before winter, and be 
 ready to push into vigorous growth in spring. Such cut- 
 tings, planted in August or early in September, are nearly 
 a year in advance of spring-planted cuttings. 
 
 Cuttings of plants, difficult to strike, may have a ring 
 of Jbark taken out just beneath a joint, at mid-summer, 
 which will cause a swelling of the branch above the ring. 
 The branch is cut off in autumn at the base of the swell- 
 ing, the top shortened, and it is planted as a cutting, or 
 it is buried in the soil for the swelling to soften, and plant- 
 ed early in the spring. With plants that are not very free 
 to strike, it is from the joints only that roots can be ex- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 107 
 
 pected to grow ; hence, in making cuttings, the shoot is 
 divided just below a joint, and it is considered best to 
 choose a joint between the young wood and that of the 
 previous season. The cut should be quite smooth, for if 
 the shoot be bruised, the returning sap will not be able to 
 reach the wound in sufficient quantity to make it heal over 
 and form the callus quickly, and the cutting will be likely 
 to fail. When the callus is properly formed, there is lit- 
 tle difficulty in striking cuttings. To form the callus, they 
 may be mixed with damp sphagnum moss, or old tan, and 
 
 kept in a dark cellar until 
 about to push roots. Cuttings 
 may be placed loosely in a 
 common preserving bottle, 
 with a wet sponge, the water 
 drained out, and the bottle 
 stopped with a cork, which has 
 a half-inch hole in the top to 
 admit air. This may be kept 
 where the atmosphere ranges 
 from temperate to summer 
 heat, and the callus will form 
 very quickly. 
 
 Preparation. The way to 
 prepare cuttings for planting 
 is best shown by an illustration. Figure 42, A, shows a 
 cutting formed from a lateral shoot, and has been cut off 
 from the main branch with a heel attached. Such cuttings 
 are sometimes torn out and the bottom smoothed with a 
 sharp knife, and present a larger surface for the absorp- 
 tion of moisture. At B is a deciduous, woody cutting, 
 as commonly prepared. At C -is shown a mode in 
 which grape cuttings are sometimes prepared ; the two 
 extremities of the fragment of branch at the base are 
 furnished with buds. This is a mode which greatly 
 favors the emission of roots. Figure 43 is a cutting 
 
 Fig. 42. DIFFERENT FORMS OF 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
108 
 
 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 of a geranium ready for insertion in the soil. In this 
 case the lower leaves have been removed ; they should be 
 clipped but very little farther from the base than where 
 the cutting is to be inserted in the 
 soil. The leaves being kept near 
 the moist surface, do not evaporate 
 as rapidly as when elevated much 
 above. The petiole (or leaf stalk) 
 should be cut off as close to the 
 stem as can be done without injury 
 to the bark. If much of it is left 
 and buried, in the soil', it is apt to 
 rot and produce decay in the cut- 
 ting itself. If an old leaf or two 
 is left, it will elaborate more sap 
 for the formation of new roots than the very young ones. 
 Cuttings of succulent plants, like the cacti, geranium, etc., 
 require to dry a little that the wound may heal over be- 
 fore inserting in the soil. 
 
 The grape is often propagated from a single eye a 
 
 Fig. 43. GERANIUM CUT 
 TING. 
 
 Fig. 44. THREE FORMS OF GRAPE CUTTINGS. 
 
 mode now very much in use for new varieties. These 
 cuttings, shaped in one of the forms shown in fig. 44, are 
 
PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 109 
 
 planted in small pots under glass, the surface kept damp, 
 and bottom heat applied. They soon take, and form the 
 best vines. 
 
 The substances in which cuttings are struck are various. 
 Many plants, as crysanthemums, currants, etc., will root 
 in common garden soil. Powdered charcoal, brick dust, 
 and even pure water are employed, but the most useful 
 substance is pure silver sand, white, clean, and fine. Sea 
 sand must not be used, unless all saline matter is washed 
 out. Sand contains little food for plants, and they need 
 little until the roots are formed, but it is free from matters 
 which induce decay. It is porous and gives ready pas- 
 sage for the young rootlets, and, being fine, retains moist- 
 ure by capillary attraction. 
 
 Some plants will strike roots if the ends of the cuttings 
 are kept in water of the proper temperature. Bottles, 
 vials, and jars, are used to hold the water, but as light is 
 rather an obstacle to the ready formation of roots, if the 
 vessel is transparent, it should be shaded. As soon as the 
 roots begin to appear, the cuttings should be taken from 
 the water and planted in fine soil, which must be kept 
 moist, and the plants carefully shaded until they take 
 fresh root. 
 
 Insertion. Cuttings of hardy plants that strike readily 
 in the open air are sometimes inserted with a dibble, but 
 it is better to cut off by a line a straight edge in the dug 
 soil, and place the prepared cuttings against it ; press the 
 soil closely around them. These are usually set perpendic- 
 ularly. If the cuttings are long, they can be set in a slop- 
 ing direction so as to be within reach of atmospheric in- 
 fluences. If not herbaceous, they should be inserted so 
 deep that but two buds will be above the surface, and in 
 the vine but one. Herbaceous cuttings are inserted lesa 
 deeply. 
 
 When small cuttings are planted under glass, a pointed 
 stick of proper size is used. Many kinds may be planted 
 
110 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 all over the surface of the pot, but most do better when 
 inserted near the sides or bottom of the pot, and take root 
 more readily. The soil in all cases about a cutting must 
 be closely pressed against its extremity, or it will never 
 strike root. 
 
 Temperature. Many cuttings that rarely strike root in 
 the open ground do so freely when moist bottom heat is 
 applied. When the soil is but slightly warmer than the 
 air, the roots grow in proportion to the top, but if the 
 soil is constantly warmer, the disposition to produce roots 
 will be greater than to produce tops. In striking cuttings, 
 the object is to produce roots, and then leaves will follow ; 
 hence the temperature of the soil should be somewhat 
 higher than that in which the species naturally commences 
 growth, in order to secure good roots, without which 
 there can be no vigorous leaf-buds. This stimulus should 
 be applied to soft-wooded plants almost immediately ; oth- 
 ers may require some delay until the callus is formed. De- 
 ciduous shrubs in a dormant state should at first be placed 
 in a temperature very little higher than would excite and 
 swell their buds on the parent tree. Increase the bottom 
 heat gradually, keeping the soil warmer than the atmos- 
 phere. From 50 to 60 is about right for the soil at this 
 period, and about 50 for the atmosphere for hardy and 
 green-house plants, increasing the bottom heat to 65 or 
 70 very gradually, when the roots commence growth, and 
 care should be taken to prevent its falling lower until root- 
 ed, when it may gradually be lessened until but little 
 above that of the air of the place in which they are grow- 
 ing. 
 
 Moisture. The cutting, while rooting, must be kept in 
 a suitable state of moisture. In vine cuttings, and oth- 
 ers, nearly covered with soil, all that is required is to keep 
 that in such an equable state of moisture that the cutting 
 can have as much as it can appropriate, and no more. A 
 
PROPAGATION OP PLANTS. Ill 
 
 cutting requires more moisture in the soil than if it were 
 a rooted plant. 
 
 To recapitulate ; the principal points to be attended to 
 in making cuttings are to cut off the shoot at a joint, with- 
 out harming the stem ; to select shoots with well matured 
 buds ; to fix the end which is to send out roots firmly 
 in the soil ; to keep up an equable degree of heat and 
 moisture; to cut off part of the leaves and shade the 
 whole, to prevent evaporation, without too much excluding 
 light, of which a portion is needed to stimulate the cut- 
 ting into growth; to keep the soil moist but not too 
 damp. It is well to transplant them into small pots, 
 supplied with water regularly and moderately as soon as 
 they begin to grow. Cuttings of slow-growing plants are 
 those most liable to fail. An excess of heat, cold air, 
 water, and light, are all injurious to tender cuttings 
 
 Pipings* Cuttings of plants with tubular stems, like 
 the pink, are called pipings. The upper part of a shoot, 
 when nearly done growing, is pulled out of the socket 
 close above a joint, leaving the part pulled out with a pipe 
 like termination. These pipings usually have their leaves 
 or " grass " trimmed a little, and are struck in sand about 
 an inch apart, with a bell-glass closely fixed over them. 
 If well watered at first, they will not require it again for 
 some time. They are planted about f of an inch deep, 
 and treated like other herbaceous cuttings. Under a north 
 wall they succeed finely. 
 
 Root Cuttings. Many shrubs and plants are in this 
 way most easily increased. Pyrus Japonica, blackberry, 
 rose, apple, pear, quince, elm, mulberry, osage orange, 
 etc., if their roots are cut in pieces some three to nine 
 inches long, and planted vertically with the end nearest 
 the stem up, and covered slightly with earth, will soon 
 form buds and throw up shoots. Many herbaceous plants, 
 as sea kale, horseradish, Japan anemone, etc., are thus in- 
 
GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 creased. Of these the cuttings are made short, and, except 
 the second named, planted horizontally. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 
 
 Budding is the art of making a bud unite to the stem 
 or branch of another tree independently of its parent. It 
 is a cutting with a single eye inserted in another tree 
 called a stock, instead of in the ground. The operation 
 may be performed at any time after the buds of the new 
 wood are sufficiently matured. These must be perfectly 
 developed, which is seldom the case until the shoot has 
 temporarily ceased to lengthen, which is indicated by the 
 perfect formation of the terminal bud. If the buds are 
 desired very early, their maturity may be hastened by 
 pinching the tops of the shoots. 
 
 The ordinary time for budding, north of Virginia, is 
 from the middle of July to the middle of September, and 
 the buds in general remain dormant until spring. Roses 
 are, however, budded earlier, and allowed to make some 
 growth. In the South, buds are inserted at any time 
 when the bark will rise, from June to October. Those 
 put in early will make a fine growth before autumn, in 
 favorable seasons. A very necessary condition to success- 
 ful budding is that the bark rise freely from the stock, and 
 this must be in a thrifty, growing state, as when pushing 
 into new growth a day or too after a fine rain. If the 
 weather is too cold or the soil too dry, the bark will not 
 rise. Such trees as make most of their growth early in the 
 season must be budded before they cease to grow. Young 
 shoots, when the buds are in a proper state, are cut below 
 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 
 
 113 
 
 the lowest plump bud. If to be budded immediately, all 
 the leaf is cut off, except the leaf stem, which is left for 
 convenience of inserting, and in order to attract the sap 
 into the buds. If the buds are to be preserved any time, 
 the whole leaf with half of the leaf stem is removed to 
 prevent evaporation. If this is done as soon as they are 
 cut, they may be preserved several days in a closely cov- 
 ered tin box, or tightly corked 
 preserve jar, if in a cool place, 
 and indeed, if the wood is well 
 ripened, though the footstalk of 
 the leaf will drop, the bud will be 
 in perfect condition some weeks. 
 No water need be given if there 
 are several cuttings in the box, as 
 the air becomes sufficiently satu- 
 rated with moisture from the cut- 
 tings themselves. 
 
 The strings used for tying are 
 taken from bass-mats, which 
 should be wetted before use, until 
 perfectly pliable. Better strings 
 are made of white woollen yarn, 
 as they are more elastic, and 
 the color reflects the heat. The 
 pruning and budding knives are the only implements re- 
 quired for the operation. The condition of the budding 
 knife is of importance to success. It should be made thin, 
 and the edge kept perfectly smooth and keen. It is fig- 
 ured in the chapter upon tools. The mode in which bud- 
 ding is performed is shown in figure 45. 
 
 Having the implements, stocks, and buds in the proper 
 condition, take the shoot in the left hand, and the bud- 
 ding knife in the right. Insert the edge of the knife in 
 the shoot, half an inch above the bud to be taken off. 
 The bud is taken off with a drawing cut, parallel with the 
 
 Fi. 45. BUDDING. 
 
114 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 shoot, removing the bark and the bud attached, with a 
 slight portion of the wood beneath the bud, half an inch 
 above, and three-fourths of an inch below. The English 
 remove this slight portion of the wood, taking great care 
 not to injure the root of the bud; but it does not succeed 
 so well in this climate as if a small portion of wood be 
 left directly under the bud. Select, then, a small portion 
 of the stock, smooth and free from branches, and make 
 two cuts through the bark, one across the end of the 
 other, in the shape of a T, as in the figure. Then raise 
 the bark on the two edges of the perpendicular cut with 
 the smooth ivory haft of the budding knife ; insert the 
 bud gently beneath* the parts raised, not forcing it down 
 like a wedge so as to rub off the cambium of the stock, 
 but pressing very little against the stock until so fully in- 
 serted that its own cambium can be applied directly to 
 that of the stock where it is to remain ; cut off the top 
 of the bark attached to the bud square, that it may fit the 
 cut across the stock ; then wind the bass pretty tightly 
 about the stock, commencing below the end of the bud, 
 and pass it closely around up to the bud. The shield 
 should here be firmly pressed, that the base of the bud may 
 closely rest upon the alburnum ; bring the tie pretty close 
 to the under side of the bud, making the next turn wider, 
 so that the point of the bud and the leaf stalk may be 
 seen between the turns of the tie ; continue binding closely 
 until the cross incision is covered, then fasten with a knot. 
 Cove.r every part of the incision, except the bud and leaf 
 stalk attached, which should remain uncovered. Do not 
 tie it so tightly as to cut into the bark, but so as to exert 
 upon it a moderate pressure. The bud is put upon the 
 north side of the stock, when practicable, and when not, 
 a little paper cap may be tied to the stock, to project over 
 the bud, so as to admit the light, but exclude the direct 
 rays of the sun. The success of the operation depends 
 on its being performed rapidly, and with fresh, healthy 
 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 115 
 
 buds ; clean, smooth cuts ; the bark rising cleanly and 
 freely from the wood; the exact fit of the bud to the in- 
 cision ; and close, secure tying, to exclude the air and wa- 
 ter. If the operation is performed in moist weather, and 
 the bark of the bud is joined closely to the wood of the 
 stock, success is almost certain. If the stocks are in a 
 proper state, the upper edges only of the slit need be raised 
 with the haft, and the bud being gently pushed to its 
 place, will raise the bark smoothly before it, and the inser- 
 tion be more firm than if the bark had been entirely raised 
 with the haft. It is an operation requiring much exactness, 
 but may be done in one minute ; the point where a beginner 
 will most likely fail is in the proper removal of the bud. 
 
 As soon as the bud has taken, the ligature may be loos- 
 ened, and should be entirely removed when it begins to 
 cut into the bark. If the leaf stalk, after a few days, drops 
 off, it indicates the bud has taken ; if it withers or adheres, 
 the bud is likely to be dead or dying. The buds must be 
 frequently examined, and the ties loosened, if becoming too 
 tight, as they will in growing stocks. If it is desired to 
 start the bud into immediate growth, soon after it has 
 evidently taken, the stock may be shortened to within 
 ten or twelve inches of the bud, and all shoots rubbed 
 off as they appear, except that from the inserted bud. 
 When this has grown three or four inches, the stock is cut 
 off again near the budded shoot, and when this has grown 
 some inches, the stock is cut off close to its base. When 
 it is desired that the bud should remain dormant, cutting 
 back the stock is delayed until just before the flow of sap 
 starts in spring. Buds that are not permitted to push 
 until spring soon overtake the others in growth. 
 
 Budding is the most rapid mode of increasing rare va- 
 rieties, of which every bud is almost sure to make a good 
 plant if the operation is quickly and skillfully performed. 
 It is the easiest method of propagating apples, pears, and 
 most other fruit trees. In the case of peaches it is almost 
 
116 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 universally applied, and also with those roses that will not 
 succeed readily from cuttings. Budding and grafting can 
 be performed only upon plants of the same, or nearly re- 
 lated, species. Thus a peach can be budded on a plum, as 
 they are both stone fruits, and belong to the same natural 
 group of plants, but no art could make the peach flourish 
 on the apple or pear as a stock. 
 
 Grafting. This differs from budding in its being the 
 transfer of a shoot, with several buds upon it, from one 
 tree to another, instead of merely employing a single bud. 
 It is performed by bringing portions of two growing shoots 
 together, so that the soft wood of the two may unite to- 
 gether. The shoot to be transferred is called the scion, 
 and the tree which is to receive it is called the stock. The 
 stocks are of all ages and sizes, but they must be sound 
 and healthy. The scions employed are generally shoots 
 of the preceding year's growth, which may be cut at any 
 time after the leaves fall, and may be buried in a dry soil, 
 with the upper extremities slightly projecting on the north 
 of a wall. They must be protected from heavy rains, or 
 the buds will start too early. Amateurs can best keep all 
 they wish in a corked preserve jar, or a tin box, or closely 
 covered bucket. Examine them occasionally, and if too 
 much moisture is present, leave the cover off a few hours. 
 The drier the better, if they do not begin to ehrivel 
 Keep in a cool place. 
 
 Scions of healthy, close-jointed wood should always be 
 chosen. If they are to be sent to a distance, those of 
 rather large size and close joints should be selected, en- 
 veloped in a little thin paper slightly dampened, and the 
 whole covered tightly with oiled silk. In this way, they 
 will go a thousand miles in perfect safety. The but and 
 extremities of scions should both be rejected. The tools 
 required are, a grafting-knife, saw, and chisel ; but, for 
 whip-grafting, the knife only is employed. Two kinds 
 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 117 
 
 should be used, one to prune and pare the stock, and the 
 other to prepare the graft. 
 
 Grafting Wax. A composition of very good quality is 
 made of four parts rosin, two of beeswax, and one of tal- 
 low. Melt it altogether, turn it into cold water, and work 
 and pull it thoroughly until it turns whitish ; just as chil- 
 dren do molasses candy. A wax for cold weather will 
 work better with a little less rosin, and in warm with a 
 little more. The stiffness of the wax is increased or di- 
 minished by employing less or more of tallow. In cold 
 weather keep the composition in warm water, and in warm, 
 in cold water. In putting it on, the hands must be 
 slightly greased, to keep it from sticking to them, but 
 grease the scion and stock in operating as little as possible. 
 
 In applying the wax, be careful to cover the scion on the 
 sides and the cleft in the stock, forming a cap over the top, 
 and press it closely and tightly around the graft, so as to 
 cover every crack, and carefully to exclude the air and 
 water. Cloth, saturated in a composition made a little 
 softer by a greater addition of tallow and beeswax, is 
 more convenient than the wax itself, especially for whip 
 grafting. Take any thin, half- worn calico or muslin, tear 
 it into narrow strips, roll them loosely into small balls, 
 and soak them in the hot composition until every pore i? 
 filled. When wished for use, it is unwound from the 
 balls, and torn into smaller strips, of the proper length 
 and breadth required by the size of the stock; this, 
 wound two or three times around the stock and graft, se- 
 cures it perfectly, and is the most convenient way of 
 applying wax. 
 
 Modes and Time of Grafting, The modes of grafting 
 most usually practised are whip and cleft grafting, and 
 they are practised on the stem and branches, or the roots 
 of trees. Root-grafting can be performed at any time in 
 this climate, or from the fall of the leaf until the buds be- 
 
118 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 gin to open. The peach, grafted in this way early in the 
 season, succeeds perfectly at the South, but generally fails 
 north of Virginia. Stone-fruits of all kinds must be 
 grafted earlier than apples, pears, etc., as their sap seems 
 to lose all agglutinating properties after its first flow. 
 
 Graft them just as the buds are about to swell, but for 
 most other species the best time for grafting, except in the 
 root, where the scion will be protected by the earth cov- 
 ering it, is while the buds are swelling in the spring. If 
 put in before that time, the alternate freezing and thawing 
 to which they are exposed often destroys the vitality of 
 the graft. Apples, pears, etc., may be grafted until 
 they blossom, if the scions are kept perfectly fresh, and 
 have not started. Grafting succeeds perfectly well just 
 before the second growth, early in August, if the sap is 
 thrown into the graft, by rubbing off the other shoots as 
 they appear; but it is just as well to wait until spring, 
 there being no gain in the growth of the graft over those 
 put in at the usual season. 
 
 Whip, or Splice Grafting, This mode is applicable to 
 all small stocks, and succeeds best where the scion and 
 stock are exactly the same size. Both stock and scion are 
 cut off with a sloping cut about an inch and a half long 
 on each, so as to match precisely, if of the same size ; or, 
 if not, at least on one side. A tongue is then made by 
 slitting the scion upward, and the stock downward, which 
 is raised on each and fitted into the slit of the other 
 holding the scion firmly in its place ; bind it closely with 
 the cloth covered with the composition. The engravings, 
 figures 46 and 47, (next page,) show the different steps of 
 the operation. It is the neatest, most expeditious, and 
 most successful mode of grafting, where the stocks are 
 of the proper size. Stocks, three-fourths of an inch in 
 diameter, or even an inch, may be grafted in this way, but 
 for inch stocks cleft grafting is preferable. 
 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 
 
 119 
 
 Cleft Grafting is the more common mode. It may be 
 practised on large or small stocks, but 
 for the latter whip-grafting only should 
 be employed. The top of the stock 
 is cut off carefully with a fine saw, and 
 pared smoothly with a sharp knife. 
 The stock is then split with the graft- 
 ing tool, and held open with the chisel 
 of the same, figure 48. A common 
 knife will answer for splitting, and the 
 split may be kept open for insertion 
 with a wooden wedge or a large nail of 
 which the point has been ground down 
 to a wedge shape. Sharpen the lower 
 part of the scion into a smooth wedge, 
 one and a half inch long, more or less, 
 according to its size and that of the 
 split in the stock. The exterior side 
 of the scion when sharpened should be 
 slightly thicker than the other, that it 
 
 may be sure to make a close fit there, figure 49. Let the 
 
 scion have two or more buds, 
 
 of which one should be on 
 
 the wedge and inserted just 
 
 below the top of the stock, 
 
 figure 50. This often grows 
 
 when the others fail. The 
 
 main point is that the inside 
 
 bark of the scion and that of 
 
 the stock should exactly cor- 
 respond, and meet at their 
 
 edges at least in one place. 
 
 To effect this, it is usual to 
 
 set the scion so that its upper Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. 
 
 extremity falls a little without the line made by the con- 
 tinuation of the stock on the side in which it is inserted. It 
 
 Fig. 46. Fig. 47. 
 
 SPLICE GRAFTING. 
 
120 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 is better as in figure 51 to set it a little within or towards 
 the heart of the stock, and the base of the scion a little out, 
 and when the scion and stock cross each other, a meeting 
 of the edges will be certain, and even a novice will thus 
 succeed. One or two scions are set in the stock according 
 to its size ; the wedge is then withdrawn, and 
 the whole carefully covered with the composi- 
 tion so as to exclude all air and moisture. 
 
 Root Grafting. Both the whip and cleft 
 modes are successfully applied in root graft- 
 ing, but splice grafting is more generally in 
 use. In root grafting fruit trees, the best 
 stocks for the purpose are seedlings which are 
 cut off at the collar and grafts inserted in 
 one or the other of these modes, according to 
 the size of the stock. If such stocks cannot 
 be got, roots f thrifty trees may be em- 
 ployed, but are more apt to produce diseased 
 trees. This work can be performed at any 
 leisure time during the winter, and when the 
 winters are mild and open, they should be 
 set out in the open ground at once and 
 covered about an inch above the point of 
 junction with soil. 
 
 In^ colder latitudes they are packed closely in small 
 boxes with sandy earth among the roots, and kept in a 
 cool cellar until they can be planted in spring. In root 
 grafting, either waxed cloth or twine is used to hold the 
 scions in place. 
 
 In grafting, as in budding, always have sharp instru- 
 ments ; make the cuts clean and smooth ; bring the inner 
 bark, that is, the active young parts, of stock and scion 
 in close contact, by a permanent pressure of the stock up- 
 on its scion ; the top of the scion should be cut off next 
 to a bud, and have a bud just beneath the shoulder where 
 it unites with the stock j every portion of the wound 
 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 
 
 should be perfectly covered with the composition, and the 
 stock and scion must correspond, not only hi their nature, 
 but in their habits of growth. 
 
 Inarching, or Grafting by Approach, This mode is 
 practised with Camellias and Magnolias. A 
 branch is bent and partly cut through, as in 
 figure 52, and the heel, thus formed, is slipped 
 into a slit made downward in the stock to re- 
 ceive it ; the parts are then made to meet as 
 exactly as possible, and are bound with bass 
 strings, as in figure 53, and covered with graft- 
 ing clay, or with the composition. In five or 
 six months the union is complete, and the in- 
 arched plant may be separated from its parent, 
 which is done with a sharp knife so as to leave 
 a clean cut. The head of the stock, if not 
 removed before, is then cut away, and the 
 
 plant is ready for removal. 
 
 There are several other modes of budding and grafting, 
 
 but the above are most useful and commonly practised. 
 The advantages of these operations 
 
 are, the rapidity with which a valuable 
 
 kind may be propagated, which will not 
 
 grow from seed or cuttings: trees of 
 
 worthless fruit may be changed into 
 
 more valuable varieties; seedlings can 
 
 be brought into early bearing ; foreign, 
 
 tender fruits may be rendered hardier 
 
 on hardy, native stocks; a kind of fruit 
 
 may be grown in a soil not congenial to 
 
 it, as the pear by grafting on the quince ; 
 
 several varieties of fruit may be grown 
 
 upon the same tree ; and, finally, by graft- 
 ing on dwarf-growing stocks the trees 
 
 may be so dwarfed as to afford many 
 
 ripening in succession within the limits of a small garden, 
 6 
 
122 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 Experience shows the graft and stock mutually influence 
 each other. The effect of the stock upon the graft in im- 
 proving its product, is evident in such pears as succeed on 
 the quince, their size and flavor being much improved. 
 The graft in turn affects the stock, increasing or diminish- 
 ing its vigor. The Newtown Pippin will roughen the 
 bark of any other apple stock. A Collins pear, grafted 
 upon the branches of another variety, is very likely to 
 cause the death of the whole tree. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PRUNING AND TRAINING. 
 
 Pruning. This operation is generally performed more 
 at random than any other in gardening, yet is one of the 
 most important and most delicate. Not even a twig 
 should be removed from a tree without some definite ob- 
 ject. This work above all others requires care, knowl- 
 edge, and judgment, and should never be left to ignorant 
 operators. In their hands the results can hardly fail to be 
 injurious, but performed by those who base their practice 
 on the laws of vegetation, it contributes to ensure a regu- 
 lar production of beautiful and perfect fruit, and still 
 more to prolong the life and fruitfulness of trees. 
 
 The benefits of skillful pruning, as stated by Du Breuil, 
 are: 
 
 1st. It permits one to impose upon its subject a form 
 corresponding with the place it is designed to occupy. 
 Thus to standard fruit trees is given the pyramidal form, 
 or that of the vase. Trees thus managed produce larger 
 and more abundant fruits than those left to grow at ran- 
 dom, and occupy less space. Trees upon an espalier or 
 
PRUNING AND TKAINlXa. 123 
 
 wall, and vines upon a trellis, are made to develop their 
 wood with symmetry and regularity, and occupy usefully 
 the whole surface they were designed to cover. 
 
 2d. By pruning, all the main branches of the tree are 
 furnished with fruit bearing branches duly exposed to air 
 and light in their whole extent. An unpruned peach tree 
 will produce fruit only at the extremity of each branch, 
 but by pruning, all parts of the tree are made fruitful. 
 
 3d. By pruning, fructification is made more equal. 
 By suppressing each year the superabundant flower-buds, 
 and thinning the branches themselves, one preserves for 
 the formation of new flower-buds for the following year 
 the sap which would have been absorbed by the parts re- 
 moved. 
 
 4th. Finally, pruning renders the fruit larger, and of 
 better quality. A large part of those nourishing fluids 
 which would have supplied the suppressed parts, are turned 
 to the benefit of the fruit on the remaining branches. 
 
 Lindley adds that the time in which a fruit ripens may 
 be changed by skillful pruning. If raspberry canes are 
 cut down to three eyes in the spring, a late summer or 
 autumn crop will be produced. By removing the flower- 
 buds of remontant roses, fine autumn blooms are obtained. 
 
 Time for Pruning, Pruning is performed at two pe- 
 riods during the year. Winter pruning is that given to 
 trees while vegetation is in repose, and summer pruning 
 includes all that a tree or plant receives in its stages of 
 active growth. 
 
 Winter Pruning. This may be performed at the South 
 directly after the fall of the leaf, and in mild weather 
 through the winter months, until vegetation is about to 
 commence ; at the North, from the tune the severe frosts 
 are over, until the sap begins to move, that is, in Febru- 
 ary and March. If pruned before the -heavy frosts, the 
 cut, being exposed to their severity, does not heal readily, 
 
124 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 and the terminal bud is often destroyed. Priming must 
 not be undertaken while the branches are frozen, as the 
 wood cuts with great difficulty, and the wounds are torn 
 and commonly heal badly, and the nearest bud generally 
 perishes. If delayed until the shoots begin to start, all 
 the sap from the roots, that has been absorbed by the parts 
 of the tree cut off, is lost. A great many of the expand- 
 ing leaf and flower-buds will be broken off, and finally the 
 sap, in full flow, pours from the wounds and the tree is 
 greatly weakened thereby. 
 
 Pruned at the proper season, the tree throws all its force 
 upon the remaining buds, developing those which would 
 else be dormant. Where, however, a tree is too vigorous 
 to fruit well, a late spring pruning, when the shoots begin 
 to lengthen, will check its vigor and cause the formation 
 of fruit buds. 
 
 The vine, currant, and gooseberry, may be pruned at 
 any time between the suspension of growth and the first 
 flow of sap. In general, it is best to prune plants in the 
 order in which vegetation commences ; first apricots, then 
 peaches, just as their buds begin to swell, plums and 
 cherries, then pears and apples. Stone fruits should be 
 lightly pruned, as they are apt to be injured by the issue 
 of gum from the wounds. 
 
 Summer Pruning, Shoots may be removed at any 
 time, if the tree seems to be throwing its strength in a 
 wrong direction. This is better accomplished by disbud- 
 ding, that is, removing those buds which would produce 
 unnecessary shoots, or pinching the extremities of those 
 shoots which are making too much wood. 
 
 Pinching, or removing the growing point with the fin- 
 ger and thumb, is the most essential operation in the sum- 
 mer management, both of fruit trees and ornamental 
 plants. The tendency of the sap is to the growing points, 
 and especially to those more elevated and exposed to the 
 light. The upper buds, if the tree or plant is near to and 
 
AND TRAINING. 125 
 
 shaded by others, are the only ones to develop, and, con- 
 sequently, it shoots upward rapidly, while the stem is not 
 proportionally developed, and few side branches are thrown 
 out. Such a tree must not only be cut back severely at 
 the winter pruning so as to shorten the leader to perhaps 
 one-third of its growth, but it needs looking to in summer, 
 or it will push upward as strongly as before. To 
 strengthen its side branches, then, it is necessary to pinch 
 in early, while they are in active growth, the leader or 
 any other shoot that is evidently receiving an undue 
 amount of sap, which operation checks the flow of sap to 
 that point, and directs it to where it is more needed. 
 When a side shoot shows a disposition to outgrow the 
 leader, the defect is remedied by pinching, with no loss 
 of wood or growth to the tree. Pyramidal forms can only 
 be secured in this way by summer pinching, keeping the 
 lower limbs always the longest. In the same way early 
 bearing is promoted, for the check given to the growing 
 point concentrates the sap, and, unless the shoots again 
 start into growth, it is likely to form fruit buds. Bushy 
 specimen plants in the green-house and flower-garden are 
 not to be seen in plants left to themselves. The stems 
 are soon naked, and, if cut back, they soon grow up as 
 bad as before. If the leading and other dominant shoots 
 are pinched back, leaving the side shoots unchecked until 
 ripe, when they may, be cut back a little to make them 
 branch, they will be as healthy and full of bloom as those 
 at the upper part of the plant. Pinching should be per- 
 formed at once as soon as a shoot shows itself out of pro- 
 portion. Further directions as to the summer manage- 
 ment of particular trees and plants will be given hereafter. 
 Implements * The implements required in pruning are 
 the common pruning knife, a small saw with very fine 
 teeth, a socket chisel two or three inches wide, with a 
 long handle, and a pair each of large pruning shears, 
 pruning scissors, and pole pruning shears ; these should 
 
126 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 divide the branch with a clean, smooth cut, and not 
 bruise it on the side next the stem. 
 
 Mode of Operating upon the Branches. They should 
 be so cut that they will heal kindly. If it was desired to 
 cut off a branch as- at fig. 54, it is cut as near to the bud 
 as possible, without injury to it. The knife is entered 
 
 directly opposite to the base 
 of the bud, and comes out 
 even with the point of the 
 bud. In this way the bud 
 will not suffer, and the cut 
 quickly heals. In fig. 55 
 the cut is so far above the 
 
 bud that the shoot will die 
 Fig. 54. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. down to near the budj and 
 
 require to be again cut off that it may heal over. If the 
 cut is made, commencing too far below the bud, as at fig. 
 56, the bud is badly nourished and will be less vigorous, 
 and perhaps perish. In cutting off a branch it should not 
 be cut so close to the stem as to wound it, or make the 
 cut larger than the base of the branch, neither so long as 
 to leave a snag to decay slowly for years, if it do not send 
 out new vigorous shoots again requiring removal. 
 
 Considered mechanically, the great art is to make a 
 clean, smooth cut, so as to leave the bark in a healthy 
 state to cover the wound, and to prune so near a bud as 
 to leave no dead wood. Hence, if the branch be removed 
 with the saw, the cut must be smoothed over with the 
 knife. In cutting off large branches, the wound should 
 be covered with grafting wax, or painted over with Mr. 
 Downing's preparation of shellac dissolved in alcohol, in 
 order to exclude the air. 
 
 General Principles of Pruning. The secret of prun- 
 ing judiciously consists in 1st, " Calculating intelligently 
 the proportion one ought to establish between the 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 127 
 
 branches with fruit and those with none, and which serve 
 only to nourish the tree. 2d, In establishing an equilibrium 
 among the parts of the tree, so that neither side nor its 
 leader may grow out of proportion so as to weaken the 
 other side or the base by drawing to kself all the sap." 
 
 Pruning is most commonly intended either to improve 
 the form of the tree by directing the growth from one 
 part to another ; to renew the growth of stunted trees ; 
 to induce or diminish fruitfulness / to remove diseased 
 or decaying branches ; and in cases of transplanting, to 
 proportion the head to the roots. 
 
 In pruning to improve the form of the tree, whether 
 fruit trees, or ornamental trees in pleasure grounds, the 
 object is to preserve its natural shape, so that it may be 
 an agreeable object on the lawn, or when combined with 
 others in a group. Lawn trees should never have the 
 stems trimmed up to bare poles, but the branches should 
 proceed from near the ground, so that when covered with 
 foliage they will nearly sweep the surface, and be one 
 mass of green from the base to the top. So in all kinds 
 of fruit trees, the branches should be allowed to proceed 
 from the trunk about a foot and a half from the ground. 
 Such trunks are screened from our burning sun, and are 
 much more healthy and fruitful than those with naked 
 stems five or six feet high. Every tree growing naturally 
 has its trunk sheltered from the sun. If it grow in the 
 open ground, this is accomplished by its own branches, 
 while in the forest all the trunks are sheltered by the 
 canopy of foliage above. If one part of the tree is dis- 
 posed to outgrow another, and thus destroy the balance, 
 it may be shortened in winter, and the shoots pinched off 
 the next summer, until the sap is thrown in the right di- 
 rection into weaker branches that were left entire, and 
 the balance is restored. When it is desired that new 
 shoots of a branch should take an upright direction, prune 
 to an inside bud. If you wish an open 9 spreading top, 
 
128 GAEDEJS1NG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 prune to an outside bud of the branch. If the branches 
 be cut at an inside bud, as at A, figure 57, the growth 
 from the upper buds will be as in figure 58 ; but if the 
 cut at an outside bud, B, figure 57, the new branches will 
 spread apart, as shown in figure 59. To make a stem 
 
 Fig. 57 Fig. 58. Fig. 59. 
 
 PRUNING TO IMPROVE FORM. 
 
 grow erect, in the annual cutting back which young 
 trees require, select the bud intended for a leader on 
 opposite sides each successive year, and the tree will 
 grow upright. Selecting it two or three years on the same 
 side, will cause the trunk to incline in that direction. 
 Symmetrical growth is not only agreeable to the eye, but it 
 assists in maintaining the equilibrium of vegetation, pre- 
 venting the sap from being drawn more to one side than 
 the other. 
 
 Pruning to Renew the Growth. When a tree has 
 
PRUNING AND TEAINING. 129 
 
 stopped growing, remaining stationary, it often happens 
 that if it is cut back in winter to a few buds, the whole 
 force of the sap being made to act on these few buds, 
 vigorous young shoots will be produced, and these sending 
 down new woody matter to the stem, new roots are form- 
 ed, and the whole tree is renewed. In young trees where 
 the growth has not been checked, an annual cutting back 
 of the new growth is likewise necessary, and will strengthen 
 the branches on the lower parts of the tree, and thicken 
 up the trunk, enabling it to maintain an erect position. 
 
 Pruning to Reduce or Diminish Fruitfulness, Every- 
 thing that is favorable to rapid, vigorous growth, is gener- 
 ally unfavorable to the immediate production of fruit. 
 Hence pruning, to induce fruitf illness, is performed after 
 vegetation has commenced. If a tree be severely pruned 
 immediately after its leaves have put forth, it is so checked 
 as to be unable to make a vigorous growth the same 
 season, the circulation of the sap is impeded, and the 
 young shoots that would have made wood branches, had 
 the growth been unchecked, will become fruit spurs. 
 Pinching the extremities is, however, the usual mode of 
 pruning to induce fruitfulness. The same result is pro- 
 duced by pruning the roots, which also lessens the dimen- 
 sions the trees would otherwise obtain, by diminishing 
 the quantity of food they receive from the soil. 
 
 Pruning at Transplanting, At this time all bruised and 
 broken roots and branches should be removed with a sharp 
 knife. When trees are taken from the ground, a greater 
 or less portion of the roots is destroyed or injured, and 
 the natural balance between the root and top is destroy- 
 ed, and the tree in this condition will either die or make 
 a slow growth. In England, the climate is so moist that 
 trees may be removed and leave nearly all the branches 
 as they were ; but under the hot suns and strong winds 
 of an American climate, a vigorous shortening in is req- 
 uisite. 
 
 6* 
 
130 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 As horticultural theorists strongly insisted that pruning 
 at transplanting was injurious, J. J. Thomas, Esq., author 
 of the Fruit Culturist, has settled the question by direct 
 experiment. Of six apricots, two years from the bud, 
 about seven feet high, five were cut back and one left un- 
 cut at transplanting. The most vigorous of the five made 
 21 shoots, from 6 to 21 inches long. The weakest had 9 
 shoots 6 to 7 inches long, not counting the shoots less 
 than 6 inches in length. The unpruned tree had on 7 
 shoots all less than 2 inches, and not one-twentieth part 
 of the amount of foliage to be found on other trees. Ex- 
 periments upon cherry trees, planted at the same time, 
 equally showed the necessity of pruning at transplanting. 
 Trees unripened when transplanted are so checked that 
 it requires years to restore them. In a southern climate 
 they must be more severely cut back, when planted out, 
 than in that of Macedon, 1ST. Y., where the experiments 
 were made. 
 
 It matters very little how closely we prune the top of 
 the trees ; only have good roots, and a single season's 
 growth will restore the balance. Do not leave more than 
 one or two buds to a branch of the previous year's growth 
 if the tree is of much size at the time of transplanting. 
 Coniferous trees, as the pines, firs, etc., are exceptions, for 
 if cut back at planting, the leader being lost, the form of 
 the tree is difficult to restore. Hence those only of this 
 class should be planted which have been taken up and re- 
 set annually in the nursery until a mass of fibrous roots 
 has been formed. These must be protected from the air 
 until the tree is reset. Broad-leaved evergreens, like 
 English Laurels, evergreen Oaks, may be cut back and a 
 portion of the leaves removed to lessen evaporation, with 
 the same advantage as deciduous trees. Indeed, many of 
 the broad-leaved evergreens, taken from the woods, cannot 
 be transplanted with any success, unless nearly all the top 
 is removed. Nursery-raised trees are taken up and reset 
 
PRUNING AND TRAINING. 131 
 
 so often, that they can be replanted safely without cutting 
 in so severely. 
 
 M. Du Breuil, from whose work we have already drawn, 
 bases the whole theory of pruning fruit trees upon the 
 following six general principles, which, in giving, we con- 
 dense : 
 
 L The vigor of a tree subjected to pruning depends 
 in a great measure on the equal distribution of sap in all 
 its branches. That this equal distribution may take place 
 
 1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very 
 short, and those of the weak parts long. The feeble parts 
 being pruned long, present a great number of buds and a 
 large surface of leaves, which attract the sap, and produce 
 vigorous growth ; while the vigorous parts being pruned 
 short and the surface of leaves diminished, growth in those' 
 parts is also diminished. 
 
 2. Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong party 
 and remove the whole or the greater part from the feeble. 
 The sap which arrives in the strong part will be appropri- 
 ated by the fruit, and the wood there will make little 
 growth, while tKe feeble parts being deprived of fruit, 
 the sap will be appropriated by the growing parts and 
 they will increase in sizo and strength. 
 
 3. Send the strong parts and keep the weak erect. The 
 more erect the branches are, the greater will be the flow 
 of sap and consequent growth ; hence, the balance may 
 be restored by bending down those disposed to make too 
 much growth. 
 
 4. Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous 
 shoots as early in the season as possible, and from the 
 feeble parts as late as possible. The fewer the young 
 shoots are in number, the fewer the leaves, and the less the 
 sap is attracted there ; but leaving these standing on the 
 feeble parts, these leaves attract the sap and induce vig- 
 orous growth. 
 
132 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 5. Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the 
 vigorous parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts, 
 excepting always any shoots which may be too vigorous 
 for their position. By this practice the flow of sap to 
 that point is checked and turned to the growing points 
 that have not been pinched. 
 
 6. In training, lay in the strong shoots on the trellis 
 early and leave the feeble parts loose as long as possible. 
 Laying in the strong shoots obstructs in them the circu- 
 lation, and favors the weak parts which are at liberty. 
 Giving also the feeble parts the benefit of the light in 
 training, and confining the strong parts more in the shade, 
 restores a balance. 
 
 II. The sap acts with greater force and produces more 
 vigorous growth on a branch short pruned than on one 
 long pruned. The whole sap of the branch acting on two 
 buds must produce greater development of wood on them 
 than if divided among fifteen or twenty. Hence, to pro- 
 duce wood branches, we prune short, or if fruit branches 
 we prune long, because slender and feeble shoots are more 
 disposed to fruit. Hence, also, tree? that are enfeebled by 
 over-bearing should for a year or two be pruned short, 
 until the balance is restored. 
 
 III. The sap tending always to the extremities of the 
 shoots causes the terminal bud to push with greater vigor 
 than the laterals. When we wish a prolongation of a 
 stem, we should prune to a vigorous wood bud, and leave 
 no production that can interfere with the action of the sap 
 on it. 
 
 IV. The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, 
 the more likely it will be to produce fruit-buds. Sap, cir- 
 culating slowly, is subjected to a more complete elabora- 
 tion in the tissues of the tree, and becomes better adapted ' 
 to form fruit buds. If we wish a branch to bear fruit, we 
 can obstruct the circulation of the sap by bending or 
 
PKUOTXG AND TRAIXIXG. Io3 
 
 making incisions around the branch, or if wished to change 
 a fruit into a wood-branch, raise it into a vertical position 
 and prune it to two or three buds, on which we concen- 
 trate the action of the sap and induce them to grow 
 vigorously. 
 
 V, The leaves serve to prepare the sap absorbed by the 
 roots for the nourishment of the tree, and aid in the for- 
 mation of buds on the shoots. All trees therefore, de- 
 prived of their leaves, are liable to perish. Hence, the 
 leaves should never be removed from a tree under the 
 pretext of aiding the growth, or ripening the fruit, as de- 
 prived of leaves trees cannot grow, neither can their fruit 
 mature. 
 
 VI i When the buds of any shoot or branch do not de- 
 velope before the age of two years, they can be forced into 
 activity only by a very close pruning, and in some cases, 
 as the peach, even this will fail. Hence the main branches 
 should be trimmed so as to secure a development of their 
 successive sections, and so shortened in as not to allow 
 the production of long, naked stems, leaving the interior 
 of the tree bare of shoots, and consequently unproductive. 
 
 In order to induce trees to grow in any particular form, 
 it is not so much labor as continued attention that is re- 
 quired. A thorough pruning once a year will not pro- 
 duce the desired eifect, but a little attention two or three 
 times a week during the growing season, will be sufficient 
 to examine every shoot in an acre of garden trees, and the 
 eye is very soon trained so as to detect at a glance the 
 shoots that require attention. (Du JSreuil, Lindley, 
 JBarry, etc.) 
 
 Training. The principal objects of training are to 
 render plants more productive of fruits and flowers than 
 if left to grow voluntarily, also to form screens of various 
 running plants to keep any unsightly object from view. 
 The points to be attended to, are to entirely cover the 
 
134 GAEDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 wall or trellis, bending the branches backwards and for- 
 wards so as to form numerous deposits of returning sap, 
 and ensure the full exposure of the fruit-bearing branches 
 to the sun and air. The long shoots are shortened or 
 pinched to make them throw out side branches, with which 
 the trellis is covered, without permitting them to cross 
 each other. Training flowering plants is necessary that 
 they may appear in elegant and symmetrical form. It 
 should be regulated by a knowledge of their habits of 
 growth,and consists principally in checking over-luxuriance 
 of growth and tying them to stakes or frames. Direc- 
 tions for training the grape, etc., will be given hereafter. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING. 
 
 In the operation of transplanting, the main points to be 
 regarded are the proper preparation of the soil for receiv- 
 ing the plant ; care in taking it up so as to avoid injury 
 to the small, fibrous roots ; setting it firmly so that its 
 roots may take a secure hold of the soil ; planting with as 
 little delay as possible ; and, lastly, maintaining the bal- 
 ance as far as practicable between the top of the plant and 
 its roots, so that the former may not lose more by evap- 
 oration than the roots absorb, until again established. 
 
 Preparation Of the Soil, Plants, when removed, need 
 a freshly dug soil which affords a moist situation in which 
 the delicate fibers may be emitted, and therein quickly 
 establish themselves. If also well drained and trenched, 
 the effect upon present and subsequent growth is very de- 
 cided : a tree or vine thriving much better in such a situa- 
 
TRANSPLANTING. 185 
 
 tion, than if the roots are put into a hole with none of the 
 surrounding soil loosened. The soil ought also be enriched 
 with fine manure, but no coarse, unfermented manures 
 should be applied where they will come in contact with 
 the roots. When the ground is in a suitable condition, 
 holes should be dug for the reception of the roots of the 
 plants. These had better be made square than round, as 
 a large hole in that form can be sooner made. The diam- 
 eter should be such that it will receive all the roots when 
 fully extended. The holes should be made too large rather 
 than too small. In digging the holes, throw out the best 
 soil on one side and the poor on the opposite. If the 
 ground has been prepared deeply, the holes may be made 
 just deep enough to receive the roots, which, in some cases, 
 are spindle-shaped and extend downwards to a considera- 
 ble depth, and in others run along the surface. For most 
 plants the hole should be deeper at the sides than at the 
 centre, leaving the bottom convex and not basin-shaped. 
 It should have the bottom soil loosened, and in dry weather 
 be watered, but the water should be allowed to subside so 
 as to be moist, not wet, at the time of planting. It should 
 be left of such depth in all good soils, that the neck of the 
 plant may be as near the surface as before, or but a trifle 
 above ; but in clayey soils, ill drained, let it be somewhat 
 above on a broad, slightly elevated mound. 
 
 Taking up the Plants* In this operation avoid injury 
 to the roots ; with the utmost care they will be mutilated. 
 A little attention will save a year's growth to a tree. The 
 roots are of two kinds, the main roots which support the 
 plant in the earth, and the small branching or fibrous roots, 
 the fresh tips and numerous fibrils or root hairs of which 
 supply it with nourishment. These parts are of great 
 delicacy, and if injured or broken off, the plant must throw 
 out others, or perish for want of nourishment. These 
 fibrous roots are the ones most likely to be destroyed or 
 injured in taking up, and in replanting to be squeezed be- 
 
138 GARDENING FOE THE SO'JTH. 
 
 tween stones and hard lumps of earths, so that the circu- 
 lation is weakly and imperfectly carried on through dis- 
 eased and defective organs. The roots of a tree therefore, 
 when transplanted, must be examined, and all those in- 
 jured, and all the small fibrous extremities in bad condi- 
 tion, should be cut back with a sharp knife to the sound 
 parts before it is reset, in order to force the root to throw 
 out new fibres, which, in many plants, are produced in great 
 abundance from where a root has been cut back with a 
 clean cut. Roots, matted with fibers, should be disen- 
 tangled and soil introduced among them in planting, so as 
 to separate them from each other. 
 
 While the plant is out of the ground, its roots should 
 be protected from exposure to the air, and, if not planted 
 immediately, should be covered with earth. Many trees 
 are ruined by lying out exposed to the sun for hours while 
 holes are being dug to receive them. Before the tree is 
 reset, the top also should receive the necessary pruning. 
 
 Replanting. After the holes are ready and the tree 
 prepared, its roots should be laid upon the convex surface 
 to see if the hole is of the proper depth, which may be 
 judged by the eye, or more exactly by laying a rod across 
 the hole close to the stem, resting on the level ground on 
 each side. If the neck of the plant is too high or too 
 low, make the necessary alteration, bringing the bottom 
 to the proper height, and convex as before. Hold the tree 
 lightly, if it is in the same aspect as before, in respect 
 to the points of the compass, it certainly can do it no 
 harm, and many cultivators think it important. Let the 
 roots be nicely spread over this convex surface, training 
 out the leading roots at distances as near equal as possible, 
 not bundling the small roots together, but separating them 
 with particles of fine soil. Then holding the stem firmly 
 and erect, save a slight inclination towards the side from 
 which the heaviest gales or most constant winds are ex- 
 pected, throw the finest, lightest soil, from that reserved 
 
TRANSPLANTING. 137 
 
 by itself, down near the stem, letting it fall down towards 
 the extremities of the roots, and introduce it carefully 
 with the hand among the roots. Having thus covered the 
 lower roots, those above should also be adjusted and cov- 
 ered with the same care, and when all are well covered, 
 water may be given with advantage, unless the soil and 
 weather are moist. If not watered, when the roots are 
 well covered, the earth should be moderately pressed upon 
 them by treading the soil, (being careful not to injure 
 them,) if the ground is light and friable, but by no means 
 if wet. After watering or treading, the remaining soil 
 should be put on, leaving the collar of the plant covered 
 a very little deeper than before, (in the case of trees some 
 two inches,) and the looser and drier this surface soil is, 
 the better will it resist drought. If the body of the tree 
 is held firm by tying it to a stake, it will prevent the loosen- 
 ing of the roots by the action of the wind upon the tops. 
 Checking undue Evaporation until the Plant is estab- 
 lished, The maintaining the balance between the top and 
 root of the plant is best secured by performing the whole 
 operation at the proper season, in mild, moist weather, 
 and with as much despatch as possible, meanwhile protect- 
 ing the roots from the air and sun ; by pruning severely 
 the tops of plants that admit the operation, thus lessening 
 the evaporating surface ; and by guarding with the greater 
 care from injury the roots of conifers and other plants that 
 do not. Removing a large portion of the. leaves will like- 
 wise diminish the evaporating: surface, and is very neces- 
 sary in planting hollies and evergreen oaks. Shade 
 from the sun those plants that require such protection, 
 (and nearly all are thus benefited,) and water to sup- 
 ply the absorbing extremities of the roots with an abun- 
 dance of food, that the increased quantity imbibed by each 
 may, in some degree, make up for their diminished num- 
 ber. Mulching the surface thinly after a rain is also use- 
 ful in preventing undue loss of moisture from the soil. 
 
138 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 Preparation of Trees for Transplanting. As a rule, 
 there is little gained by planting out large trees. Small 
 trees, as Downing remarks, can be taken up with a system 
 of roots and branches entire, while the older and larger 
 tree, losing a part of its roots, requires years to resume 
 its former vigor. Trees, transplanted while small, will 
 prove more healthy, vigorous, and enduring ; but some- 
 times, for immediate effect, or to preserve a favorite tree, 
 it is necessary to transplant it when of larger size. This 
 is done by shortening in the leading roots at a distance 
 from the trunk, varying with the size of the tree to be 
 operated upon. A circular trench is dug in spring or be- 
 fore mid-summer around the whole mass of roots, partially 
 undermining them and cutting off all that extend into the 
 trench, which is dug at such a distance from the tree that 
 it encloses a sufficient ball of roots ; the trench may be 
 filled with poor earth, or covered with plank. The tree 
 will be checked somewhat, and will fill the ball around it 
 with a mass of fibrous roots, and in the proper season can 
 be moved with safety. Many trees naturally tap-rooted, 
 and evergreens difficult to transplant, are, by being trans- 
 planted annually or biennially from their seedling state, 
 compelled to throw out a mass of fibrous roots, retain- 
 ing among them a ball of earth, and are thus ready to be 
 moved at any time without danger. 
 
 It is often desirable to plant fruit trees before the leaves 
 naturally fall, in seasons when autumn frosts are unusually 
 late. A week or two before the trees are to be taken up, 
 pluck from them every leaf, and allow them to remain and 
 ripen their wood. After this time they can be taken up, 
 packed, and sent safely long distances without shriveling. 
 Meanwhile the ground should be prepared, the holes made, 
 and, after pruning, plant them out, giving them a good 
 watering before the last soil is thrown in. In this way, 
 where much planting is to be done, a month's time in au- 
 tumn is gained. 
 
139 
 
 Transplanting Herbaceous Plants, Most of these are 
 easily transplanted as soon as they have done flowering, or 
 before they begin to grow in the spring. For annuals, when 
 the season is somewhat advanced, a damp, cloudy day, just 
 before or just after a shower, or in the evening, is the 
 proper time for the operation. Immediately after a very 
 heavy rain is not the best season, as the soil, if moved 
 while too wet, forms, a crust about the plant. In the case 
 of choice young plants, they should be taken up with a 
 trowel, removing them with a ball of earth, and the plant 
 will hardly be checked in its growth. Larger plants may 
 be taken up in the same way with the transplanter or 
 spade. Those not removed with a ball, may be grouted by 
 mixing up a quantity of rich lonm in water to a semi-fluid 
 state, and inserting the roots therein. Plants that suffer 
 little in taking up, like the cabbage, may have a hole 
 made in the earth with a dibble and the plant inserted 
 therein, when the dibble is again inserted a little obliquely 
 near the stem, and the earth pushed up close to the roct. 
 All tap-rooted plants are moved with difficulty. Many 
 herbaceous plants, sweet potato slips for instance, can be 
 safely set out in dry weather in freshly moved soil, by 
 making a hole for their reception, setting the plants there- 
 in, and just covering the roots with fine soil ; then fill the 
 hole with water about the roots and cover them at the 
 surface with dry soil, to retain the moisture and keep the 
 surface from baking. The operation must be performed 
 in the evening. 
 
 All valuable herbaceous plants should be protected with 
 sun shades or plant protectors, when just planted, if the 
 sun comes out hot. These are described in the chapter 
 on Implements. 
 
GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MULCHING-, SHADING, AND WATERING. 
 
 Mulching* Mulching is placing litter of various kinds, 
 as leaves, pine straw, or strawy manure, upon the surface 
 soil over the roots of plants and shrubs. If leaves are 
 used, a little earth may be required to keep them in place. 
 Mulching is used as well to prevent moisture from evap- 
 orating from the soil in summer, as to prevent frost 
 from penetrating to the roots in winter. In summer a 
 mulch is usually applied to trees and shrubs newly trans- 
 planted, and to herbaceous plants that are impatient of 
 heat about the roots. Irish potatoes, mulched, produce 
 more abundantly, and are of better quality. Strawber- 
 ries, thinly mulched, with the crown uncovered, are much 
 more productive and continue longer in fruit. Rhubarb 
 and other plants, requiring a cool soil, can thus be more 
 easily raised ; and so with many other crops. Summer 
 mulching should be applied directly after a rain, that the 
 moisture in the soil may be retained. It should not be 
 applied to potatoes or other tender plants until the danger 
 of frost is over, as the increased evaporation from damp 
 mulch will produce a white frost when there is none or 
 little elsewhere formed. Fruit trees, by having their roots 
 mulched, are kept in better health and vigor. Mulching 
 not only wards off drought, but, in this way, by keeping 
 the ground moist, and by the decay of the mulching sub- 
 stance, a good deal of food is conveyed to the plants. 
 Some authors are of the opinion that ground will become 
 continually richer by being shaded. A supply of small, 
 fibrous roots is thrown out at the surface by mulched 
 plants, and thus is prevented the formation of tap-roots, 
 which aro inimical to the production of blossom buds. 
 But the great benefit of mulching is that a steady perma- 
 
MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 141 
 
 nency of moisture is retained, in spite of adverse circum- 
 stances, and without stagnation. In general, the coat of 
 litter for mulching must be thin, that the rain may not be 
 prevented from reaching the roots of plants. 
 
 Many plants, nearly hardy, can be kept through the 
 winter safely by a coat of dry litter over the roots, and 
 especially the crown of the plant, to turn off a portion of 
 the rain and to keep frost from penetrating to their roots. 
 Verbenas, which would perish without this protection, are 
 often kept over safely under a cover of two or three inches 
 of leaves. So of other plants, where the object is to 
 protect the root and crown, but not the foliage. Mulch- 
 ing has the disadvantage of being untidy in appearance, 
 and of affording shelter to insects and mice, and damage 
 also may occur from its being carelessly set on fire from a 
 cigar, or in cleaning up the garden, thus destroying the 
 plants it was intended to protect. 
 
 Shading* In all glass structures during the warmer 
 portion of the year, some provision must be made for 
 shading. This may be done by thin sheeting, but as this 
 is expensive from its rapid decay, it is usual to whitewash 
 the glass externally as often as may be necessary. The 
 autumn rains will soon wash it off when the season conies 
 in which more light and heat is desirable. The lime of 
 the whitewash, however, soon loosens the putty, so that a 
 preparation of thin flour sizing, thickened with a little 
 pipe clay, will be found better, though not as easy to re- 
 move. Where a glass is not needed, as for keeping camel- 
 lias, and other plants, in pots through the summer, a sort 
 of lattice, made by nailing laths upon a light, oblong 
 frame made for the purpose will be found useful. Laths 
 can also be tied together with coarse twine, being separated 
 by one or more knots, as greater or less distance is desired. 
 Mats and old salt and coffee sacks are often used, but 
 they exclude too much light, and are best employed to 
 prevent radiation, and thus keep out frost in winter. 
 
142 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Water is beneficial to plants as a vehicle for conveying 
 all soluble matters, which form the food of plants, whether 
 they be animal, vegetable, gaseous, or earthy. 
 
 Other elements being present in sufficient quantity, the 
 growth and health of a plant will be more or less satisfac- 
 tory in proportion as it is or is not supplied with all the 
 water it can consume. The action of water is not, how- 
 ever, always beneficial. Injudiciously applied, it destroys 
 more plants than almost any other item of mismanage- 
 ment. In excess, it is always injurious. It fills the spa- 
 ces in the soil which would otherwise be filled with air, 
 and plants are choked and perish for want of this indis- 
 pensable element. A superabundance of water, for a time, 
 increases the growth of foliage and renders it tender and 
 succulent ; hence a good supply thereof is needful to plants, 
 the leaves of which are eaten, as lettuce and spinach. 
 
 But by this excess the production of flowers and fruits 
 is delayed. The odor of the former and the flavor of the 
 latter are weakened and impaired. The size of the fruit is 
 increased by abundance of water, and without it the straw- 
 berry, for instance, will not swell; but the increased size, 
 unless it ripens in a bright atmosphere or the quantity of 
 water is diminished as the fruit ripens, is partly at the ex- 
 pense of flavor. Fruit is not only impaired in quality, but 
 is very liable to crack or burst from excess of moisture, as 
 the plum, grape, or stanwix nectarine often do, or rot upon 
 the tree while still immature, as the peach, plum, etc. 
 
 An excess of water softens the tissues of plants, and 
 renders them much more liable to injury by frost. A frost 
 directly after warm and abundant rains, when plants are 
 full of sap, is much more fatal than the saine temperature 
 in dry weather. 
 
 The temperature of the soil, if wet, is greatly lowered, 
 and its capacity for heat diminishes. The constant evap- 
 oration from wet soil so lowers the temperature of the 
 adjacent stratum of air, that frosts occur when there are 
 
MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 143 
 
 none on dryer soils. The constant dampness of the atmos- 
 phere, produced by excess of water in the soil, diminishes 
 evaporation from the leaves of plants, and hence renders 
 the process of assimilation slower, and less food is taken 
 up by the roots. By diminishing the absorption of car- 
 bonic acid, it lessens the atmospheric supply of food. It 
 creates a tendency in the organs of plants to vary from 
 the normal type of growth, changing the flowers, for in- 
 stance, into green leaves and ill-formed shoots. 
 
 Succulent plants, those with fleshy roots, and those with 
 leaves that appear dry, and transpire but little, and in 
 which vegetation proceeds slowly, are most subject to in- 
 jury from excess of water. Plants growing in a clear light 
 are less endangered by an over supply, than if growing in 
 a shaded situation, as they can both assimilate and perspire 
 more. Plants in pots are most likely to be injured by in- 
 judicious watering, at times being drenched with too 
 much, and at others allowed to become too dry. 
 
 Where water exists in excess, it must be removed by 
 drainage. This is indispensable in pot culture. It is par- 
 ticularly to be attended to in the case of plants which are 
 to be kept through the winter in green-houses or pits. 
 
 The quantity of water that plants require varies with the 
 species of plant and with its condition, whether in a state 
 of growth or repose. A plant cultivated for its leaves re- 
 quires more water than if grown for its flowers, and still 
 less is needed if grown for its seeds or fruit. In propor- 
 tion, also, as the roots of plants extend into the earth, the 
 less water at the surface is required. Tap-rooted plants, 
 like cotton, when once established, are not apt to suffer 
 from drought ; but those with roots at the surface only, 
 need frequent watering. Perennial plants, also, in general 
 require less the artificial application of water than annuals. 
 The growth of the former is merely suspended by dry 
 weather for the time being, to be resumed when moisture 
 is supplied ; but if water and the food of which it is the 
 
144 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 vehicle be withheld from annual plants, the double tax im- 
 posed upon them by nature of forming both roots and shoots 
 at the same time, can no longer be met. Growth being 
 suspended, the plant attempts to flower and ripen seed, 
 and thus, while imperfectly developed, it reaches the limit 
 of its existence and dies. 
 
 Plants with fleshy or fibrous roots are impatient of 
 abundant waterings, yet do not well resist drought. Bul- 
 bous and tuberous rooted plants, and those with fleshy 
 leaves, can support drought a long time and do well with 
 rare but abundant waterings. Germinating seeds and 
 young plants should have them light but frequent. In a 
 state of free growth, water abundantly j. while ripening 
 fruit, water rarely ; when transplanting, water freely. 
 
 The lighter the soil, the more frequent and copious must 
 be the supply of water. So as the temperature in summer 
 becomes elevated and the days are clear and the atmos- 
 phere dry, evaporation increases, while rains become less 
 frequent ; hence the more water" will have to be artificially 
 supplied. At such times it must be given copiously, for 
 mere sprinklings bake the soil, and do more harm than 
 good. 
 
 When at rest, as in the winter of temperate climates 
 and in the dry season of the tropics, very little moisture 
 in the earth is required by perennials, unless marsh plants. 
 Bulbs in a state of rest will endure almost any amount 
 of dryness, and may even be exposed to excessive heat, 
 somewhat resembling, in this respect, a ripened seed. 
 Bulbs that have been kept dry for some time, when 
 again to be started into growth, should receive but little 
 water at first. If much is given, it will be absorbed with- 
 out being digested, and stagnating within, will destroy 
 the bulb. Hence, we plant bulbs in a light soil and on 
 raised beds, that the superabundant moisture may not de- 
 stroy the roots. 
 
 But a moderate degree of water is needed when vegeta- 
 
MULCHING, SHADING, AXD WATERING. 145 
 
 tion commences in the spring, for the earth is usually suf- 
 ficiently moist ; but when they have started into growth, 
 plants should be abundantly supplied, and the quantity 
 gradually diminished as the organization becomes complete. 
 As autumn approaches, evaporation becomes less, and the 
 supply of water should be diminished, both in the quantity 
 and frequency of application. Withholding water gradually 
 from plants that are to be kept through the winter will 
 cause them to ripen their shoots, and they will be more 
 likely to survive the cold season. 
 
 IS T o plant, at any time, should receive more moisture 
 than it can consume either by assimilation, or rejection in 
 the form of perspiration. Plants with large, broad leaves, 
 like tobacco, squashes, etc., expose more surface to the 
 light and sun, perspire freely, and hence need more water 
 than those with small, pinnate leaves, like the acacia, or 
 than succulent, or fleshy plants, a class that requires but 
 little water at any time, and is very impatient of an exces- 
 sive supply, especially in winter. 
 
 Watering artificially is resorted to in order to maintain a 
 proper degree of humidity in the soil. This is indispen- 
 sable in hot-houses, etc., and with all plants in pots. With 
 these the protection of the glass assists in keeping the air 
 about the plants in a state of humidity. 
 
 But in open air culture, artificial watering can never be 
 so beneficial as natural rain, and is often, indeed, a real 
 disadvantage to plants. 
 
 Artificial watering, with all its disadvantages, must, to a 
 considerable extent, be resorted to in hot climates, or the 
 results of gardening will often be quite unsatisfactoiy. 
 In giving it, the conditions of beneficial, natural water- 
 ing should as far as possible be observed. The rains that 
 are most refreshing to plants are those of mild tempera- 
 ture and which distil gently, bringing to the roots of 
 plants not moisture only, but ammonia and carbonic acid. 
 If rain did not bring with it fertilizing matters, it would 
 7 
 
146 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 in time wash out all the fertility of the soil and leave it 
 sterile. This is the effect of heavy, beating storms, which 
 carry away more of fertility than they bring ; while if the 
 soil be stiff they puddle the surface, rendering it, when dry, 
 impervious, preventing the access of atmospheric air and 
 the moisture of the dew and of any gentle rains that fol- 
 low. 
 
 Hence, in applying water, it should not be thrown upon 
 the soil with force from a coarsely perforated watering 
 pot, as its effects would be injurious in precisely the same 
 way as a washing rain. To tender plants and germinating 
 seeds it should be applied through a very fine rose. The 
 rose to a garden watering-pot should not permit a com- 
 mon pin to enter its perforations. For delicate seedlings 
 in pots it is better to give water by sprinkling gently from 
 a wetted brush, both the plants and the soil. For 
 larger plants in pots or in the ground, the leaves may be 
 sprinkled, unless too succulent, but the main supply of wa- 
 ter should be given by pouring it gently upon the sides 
 of the pot or upon the surface of the earth, and let it flow 
 gradually over and sink into the soil. 
 
 It is not best, in general, to water close by the stems of 
 plants. The roots take up food only at their extremities, 
 and generally extend as far as the branches. Both the 
 roots and leaves of plants require water, and receive it in 
 natural watering. But the rains that fall upon a tree do not 
 fall upon its trunk, but roll off all around it, and drop pre- 
 cisely where the extending roots are ready to take it up. 
 Watering directly at the base of a plant, close to its stem 
 and collar, will be likely to rot or injure that vital part, and 
 small, delicate plants are pretty sure to damp off. Thus 
 applied, much of the water never reaches the absorbing 
 extremities of the root. As a plant increases in size, the 
 farther from the stem should the water be applied. 
 
 Vines trained to verandas, or growing up under the 
 eaves of dwellings, often suffer from the want of water ap- 
 
MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 147 
 
 plied to the foliage. Trained against the walls, evapora- 
 tion goes on very rapidly from the heat reflected upon 
 them, and but very little rain falls upon the foliage. 
 They also become covered with dust and their pores chok- 
 ed therewith. When the sun shines warm and brightly, 
 plants should be watered only about the roots, for if ap- 
 plied to the foliage, the drops, remaining thereon, act as 
 so many burning glasses, and scorch the leaves, covering 
 them with brown spots wherever the water rests. But 
 in the spring, when the earth is moist, if the air is dry, and 
 indeed at all times when the atmosphere is dry, and par- 
 ticularly when plants become covered with dust, they will 
 be greatly refreshed by syringing or sprinkling the foliage 
 in the evening or morning, if their leaves are not suscep- 
 tible of change by humidity. 
 
 Plants in pots should be watered frequently and little 
 at a time. If the ball has become dry, do not deluge it 
 at once, as it will flow directly through the pot or out at 
 the sides, carrying with it the richness of the soil, while 
 the ball still remains dry. Give it a little water, and when 
 that soaks up, give, a few minutes after, a little more, until 
 the entire ball is in a suitable state of humidity. The 
 drainage must be good, or if much water is given to plants 
 in pots, the soil will become heavy, water-logged, and im- 
 pervious to the atmosphere. 
 
 The best water to use is rain water, caught in open cis- 
 terns, as it is well aerated and abounds in ammonia and fer- 
 tilizing gases. If spring or well water must be used, add 
 a very little guano, say a pound or two to twenty gallons 
 of water, giving the smaller quantity to delicate plants, 
 and the larger to gross feeders, and before using let it 
 stand a few hours. Manure from the hen roost in double 
 quantity may be substituted for guano. For sprinkling 
 the foliage, pure water is better. 
 
 The temperature of water, too, must be regarded. The 
 good effects of bottom heat in hot-beds, or of artificial 
 
148 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 heat in green-houses, are often entirely counteracted, and 
 plant growth brought to a stand, by watering with cold 
 water. It is not only the lowering the temperature of 
 the roots of plants, but the suddenness of the change 
 that is injurious and often fatal. Water should always 
 be applied a few degrees warmer than the soil, that growth 
 may be promoted and not checked. 
 
 As to the time of day at which water should be given, 
 unless applied quite freely, it does little good in the heat 
 of a summer's day, as the hot atmosphere drinks up the 
 moisture before the plant can imbibe it. The effect of 
 rain can be best secured by watering just at night, when 
 the falling dew will, in some measure, prevent evaporation 
 from the plants, and they get fully refreshed during the 
 night. But in the spring of the year, to water in the even- 
 ing in dry weather darkens the soil, and, therefore, increas- 
 es radiation. Evaporation is also greatly increased ; the tem- 
 perature sinks rapidly, the plants are chilled, if not frozen, 
 and make less growth than if not watered at all. So, also, 
 in autumn, for the same reason, at those times water only in 
 the morning, and the heat of the soil will not be materially 
 lowered, the sun's rays communicating fresh warmth. 
 
 It should be the great object of the gardener to avoid 
 the necessity of watering, by shading the earth or the plants 
 themselves, by mulching, top-dressing, or sun shades. Seeds 
 will come up much more satisfactorily in the open ground 
 if shaded, than if one depends upon watering. If water- 
 ing is resorted to at all, it should be given copiously and 
 the supply kept up until the plants are established. After 
 watering, the ground should be stirred about the plants, if 
 up, as soon as it is sufficiently dry, and never allowed to 
 become hard. A mulching of leaf mould is desirable, to 
 keep the surface in a proper state, and if applied when the 
 surface is wet, it will prevent the necessity of repeated wa- 
 terings. (De Candolle, Lindley, MJIntosh.) 
 
 Summer Cultivation. If before seeds are planted, the 
 
MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 149 
 
 soil be deeply moved and finely pulverized, the labor neces- 
 sary in the subsequent culture of garden crops is greatly 
 diminished. Still the hoe cannot be dispensed with, and 
 the soil is stirred therewith among our growing crops, in 
 order that the earth may be kept in a light and permeable 
 state, so that the roots of plants may extend freely through 
 it in search of food. If kept in this condition, water de- 
 posited by rain and dew is imbibed more readily and sinks 
 more deeply into the soil, supplying plants both with moist- 
 ure and ammonia. Moisture from beneath is also more free- 
 ly supplied by capillary attraction from the subsoil if the 
 earth is kept in a light, porous state. The atmosphere, la- 
 den with nutritive gases, freely penetrates the soil and de- 
 posits nourishment within reach of the young rootlets of 
 plants. By the same process weeds are destroyed, their 
 growth prevented, and there is also a thorough pulveriza- 
 tion and intermixture with the soil of the manures which 
 have been applied. 
 
 Judgment as to the time and manner of hoeing must be 
 exercised. Even hoeing may do harm but there is more 
 danger that it will not be done sufficiently often, than per- 
 formed imperfectly. In a hot and a dry climate, hoe less 
 deeply than in those that are cold and moist, as hoeing fa- 
 vors evaporation, and this may prove injurious where the 
 sun is hot and the rains are not frequent. So in spring, hoe 
 more deeply and frequently than when the season becomes 
 advanced. A heavy, argillaceous soil should be more deep- 
 ly moved than one more sandy. Where a poor soil has 
 been recently manured, it should not be hoed too deeply, but 
 the compost should be allowed to remain intermixed with 
 the surface soil. 
 
 In practice the plants cultivated and their stage of ad- 
 vancement must also be considered. Plants with long tap- 
 roots, like beets and carrots, are benefited by deep hoeing, 
 which might be injurious to those with fibrous and spread- 
 ing roots. Among the latter, deep culture between the 
 
150 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 rows is beneficial, so long as the plants are young and their 
 roots not extended ; but when they begin to shade much 
 of the surface, and to occupy most of the soil with their 
 roots, merely loosening the immediate surface, at the same 
 time destroying all weeds, will be quite sufficient. 
 
 All garden crops, then, should be frequently and deeply 
 hoed early in the season, and in the early stages of their 
 growth. Even to suppress the weeds which spring up freely 
 in the moist soil at that time requires frequent and thorough 
 hoeing. Of course hoeing, or moving the soil in any way, is 
 not to be undertaken while it is wet. When young seed- 
 ling plants first appear, the earth must be lightly stirred 
 about them, to break up any crust upon the surface that 
 may have formed. Take care not to injure the young 
 plants, though at this time the mutilation of a few roots, if 
 the most of them are unhurt, is easily repaired ; and the 
 plant is not so much injured by their loss as benefited by 
 that thorough pulverization of the soil, that permits the 
 free extension of the roots, and opens it to the air and 
 night dews. 
 
 At this time all weeds should be removed, and the plants 
 thinned to an inch apart, so as not to interfere with each 
 other. When they have made a little more growth, and 
 there is less danger of insects and other disasters, they 
 should be thinned to the proper distance and hoed more 
 deeply, taking care not to cover or injure the young plants. 
 After this continue to keep the soil light and open, of course 
 destroying all weeds. 
 
 In heavy loams, watering or dashing rains will frequently 
 puddle the surface, which bakes in the sun so effectually as 
 to exclude the atmosphere. The rains that follow flow off 
 without sinking into and moistening the soil. But a soil 
 which, soon after each rain, while not too wet, is freshly 
 hoed, will, at all times, present an open, porous, finely pul- 
 verized surface, ready for the absorption of plant food from 
 
MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 151 
 
 the atmosphere, and easily permeable to the roots of 
 plants in search of it. 
 
 As the plants increase in size, the ground is shaded by 
 their foliage, which, in a measure, prevents the growth of 
 weeds and protects the surface of the soil from being hard- 
 ened by the sun. At this time hoeing is less required, nor 
 can it be performed without considerable mutilation of the 
 branches and larger roots, and thus cutting off in part their 
 communication with the soil injuries from which plants in 
 an advanced stage of growth, and under the burning heat 
 of summer do not readily recover. 
 
 It is not fully decided whether the soil should be fre- 
 quently stirred during droughts. Our present opinion is, 
 that in all warm climates it should, at such times, be un- 
 disturbed. If the earth be already loose and in fine tilth, the 
 air that enters into its pores will deposit its moisture there- 
 in. At night the dews are deposited much more heavily 
 upon freshly dug soil. But this deposit of atmospheric 
 moisture will avail little if the surface is often stirred, as 
 more water will be given off by day than is absorbed at 
 night ; and a plot frequently hoed during a drought would 
 at length become quite dry to nearly the depth it was cul- 
 tivated. However it may be in England, here no deposit 
 of moisture from night dews, or supply brought up by ca- 
 pillary attraction from beneath, can make good the loss of 
 water by evaporation from the soil in a hot summer day. 
 De Candolle says that in most hot countries frequent hoe- 
 ings are avoided, as they really have the evil of favoring 
 evaporation of moisture from the soil at the time when, the 
 heat being most intense, the water is naturally retained 
 therein by the hardening of its surface, and would act with 
 most activity, in decomposing and dissolving the organic 
 matters it contains. The true course is deep, thorough cul- 
 ture early in the season and while plants are young. But 
 hoeing must not be performed in spring or autumn, at times 
 when the indications are that frosty nights will follow, as 
 
152 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 tender plants are much more likely to be killed thereby from 
 the increased evaporation at the surface of fresh dug soil. 
 Through the summer, after each good rain, as soon as the 
 ground will do to work, stir the surface and kill the weeds, 
 leaving it in a light, friable condition, to be undisturbed, un- 
 less to destroy any weeds that appear, until another rain 
 renders further hoeing necessary. Continue this until the 
 plants approach blossoming, or begin to cover the ground, 
 after which hoeing, if performed at all, must be as shallow 
 as possible. A soil thus managed is always open to atmos- 
 pheric influences, and what moisture it may have or receive 
 is better retained. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PROTECTION FROM FROST. 
 
 Late spring frosts are the terror of gardeners. In sec- 
 tions of country subject to them, tender plants should not 
 be planted early. As mulched or newly dug soils are much 
 more liable to the white frosts of spring, mulching should 
 not be applied to Irish potatoes, etc., until danger of frosts 
 is over, nor should tender plants be hoed when a change 
 to cold may be anticipated. If a frost is apprehended, 
 plants in hills are best protected with boxes, vine shields, 
 or plant protectors placed over them. Rows of beans or 
 potatoes can be secured by covering them with wide 
 plank placed on blocks two or three inches above the 
 plants. " Almost all the modes of protecting plants are 
 founded on the doctrine of radiation, and hence the fact 
 Should be kept constantly in mind that all bodies placed 
 in a medium colder than themselves are continually giv- 
 ing out their heat in straight lines, and that these straight 
 
PROTECTION FROM FROST. . 153 
 
 lines, when the body is surrounded by air, may always be 
 reflected back upon the body from which they emanate by 
 the slightest covering placed at a short distance from them ; 
 while, on the other hand, if this slight covering be placed 
 close to the body, instead of reflecting back the heat it 
 will carry it off by conduction, that is, the heat will pass 
 off through the covering closely applied, and be radiated 
 from its surface." (Daniel.) Hence the covering or pro- 
 tection given is far more efficient if it enclose a stratum 
 of air without actually touching the plant. 
 
 When , plants are actually frozen, in many cases they 
 may be saved if they can be thawed gradually without ex- 
 posure to the sun. To effect this, if coverings are applied 
 before sunrise, or the plants are sprinkled repeatedly with 
 water until the frost is extracted, they generally escape 
 without serious injury. If a frosty night is followed by a 
 cloudy or foggy morning, injury to plants need not be ap- 
 prehended. 
 
 Fruit trees and vines in blossom, or with young fruit 
 set, are in some large districts so liable to suffer from late 
 spring frost, that fruit bearing, in the case of those first 
 to bloom, is the exception. The crop is lost perhaps two 
 years out of three. It is seldom in the most frosty locali- 
 ties that they are endangered more than two or three 
 nights in a season, all the fruit of the peach being rarely 
 killed until it begins to enlarge, and the blossom is on the 
 wane. Such trees are too large to admit of being cover- 
 ed. They can, however, be fully protected by smoke. Or- 
 dinary smoke in still, frosty nights, rises rapidly, and to 
 be of any service, it must settle over the trees in a mod- 
 erately dense cloud, acting as a screen and preventing 
 radiation. A heavy, damp smoke, not rising rapidly, in 
 which the trees are kept fully enveloped until some time 
 after sunrise, is what is necessary to protect a fruit garden. 
 A slight frost will do fruit blossoms little injury, and there 
 are some, which, like those of the Forelle pear, will bear a 
 
 7* 
 
154 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 good many more degrees of cold than others. "When a 
 severe frost is pretty certain, billets of short, dry wood, fat 
 light wood, and piles of wet tan, saw-dust, or other damp 
 trash, should be distributed about 2 rods apart over the fruit 
 garden, and the most to the windward. The tan or trash 
 should be distributed during the winter. About three 
 o'clock in the morning is soon enough to start the fires, 
 each of which is made with three or four of the billets, 
 being kindled with the light wood. When well lighted, 
 put on and nearly smother it with the wet tan. If it 
 again break out into a blaze, apply more tan, and keep up 
 damp, smouldering fires, and a curtain of smoke over the 
 trees until the sun is well up and the frost fully extracted. 
 If the fruit is frozen hard as bullets, have no fears, but 
 keep up a dense smoke. By this mode of applying smoke 
 the peach crop can be saved every year. There is no 
 doubt about it. When a boy, thirty-five years ago, we ate 
 of pears thus saved by an uncle of ours, and have our- 
 selves since repeatedly practiced it and seen it tried by 
 others. Our Gardening was the first English work, so far 
 as we know, in which this mode of protection was publish- 
 ed, though French authors, we find, allude to the process. 
 Boussingault says it is as old as the Incas of Peru. The 
 peach crop has thus been preserved with the mercury as 
 low as 24 on the morning of March 27th, arid the blos- 
 soms mostly fallen. Without such protection few good 
 varieties of the peach are safe with the mercury below 
 30. The expense of the operation is but a trifle, com- 
 pared with the value of a fine crop of fruit in a locality 
 where all, not thus protected, is cut off. 
 
 Winter protection is also necessary for the preservation 
 of many valuable plants, the limits within which they are 
 naturally found being much narrower than those within 
 which they can be grown in perfection with a little, pro- 
 tection. Besides ordinary bedding plants which are stored 
 during the winter in pits or other structures, and again 
 
PEOTECTION FKOM FKOST. 155 
 
 occupy the beds and borders when danger of frost is over, 
 there is a large class of plants, that, with a slight protec- 
 tion where they stand, will pass the winter safely and 
 throw up much more vigorous shoots than if taken up 
 and replanted. A friend of ours succeeds perfectly with 
 tlie fig in Pennsylvania by bending down the limbs yearly 
 and covering them with earth ; and with no protection, in 
 Georgia, they are occasionally killed to the ground. 
 
 Ordinary herbaceous plants need no protection, unless 
 they have been divided or transplanted in autumn. Those 
 that are more tender may have their roots and crowns 
 protected with moss, straw, or coarse stable manure, not 
 placed so thick as to heat. Leaves, if employed, will re- 
 quire a little soil or brush thrown over to keep them in 
 place. Tender bulbs are protected in the same way. If 
 the foliage is evergreen, it must not be smothered with 
 too thick a covering. 
 
 Shrubby plants may have their roots well covered thus, 
 and their stems bound with straw or moss. For small 
 shrubs, a few evergreen boughs thrown over them is a good 
 protection ; larger ones may have their branches drawn 
 together and wound with straw. Tender roses may have 
 tan -bark or saw-dust banked up about their stems, to be 
 removed in spring. 
 
 Climbing plants, if tender, must be taken down and 
 laid upon the soil to be covered with leaves or earth. 
 
 There is some danger, where much litter is used, of 
 harboring vermin. Many things are better protected by 
 bending a few hoops across the bed with three or four 
 laths lying on them, on which is thrown a cloth or mat- 
 ting in severe weather. Pansies, carnations, and stocks, 
 are thus generally protected, giving them light and air in 
 mild weather. Flower pots, sun shades, vine shields, and 
 wooden frames, covered with canvas or oiled paper, are 
 all useful in protecting low plants. Boxes and barrels are 
 convenient for larger ones. None of these must touch 
 
156 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 the plant they cover, as they would conduct the heat away 
 from what they touched. The main object of. these cov> 
 erings is to confine the air and protect the surface from 
 radiating heat. 
 
 All plants will endure more frost uninjured in a dry, 
 well-drained soil. In low, damp locations, plants, else- 
 where considered hardy, are frequently killed by frost. 
 They are also much more easily injured directly after a 
 mild term starts them into growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 INSECTS AND VERMIN. 
 
 To these numerous and most destructive foes all our 
 gardens are exposed. ISTo plant and no part of a plant is 
 exempt from their attacks. One devours its tender leaf 
 as it issues from the ground ; another preys upon the root, 
 and the plant perishes ; another burrows into the stem, 
 boring it in every direction until it is broken off by the 
 wind. The caterpillar preys upon the leaves when it gets 
 more mature, while the black grub cuts off the young 
 plant just as it is shooting into growth. Some feed upon 
 the flowers, while others devour the matured fruit or seed. 
 
 Insects are on the increase in American gardens, partly 
 from the fact that the destruction of forest trees and wild 
 plants has driven them to the cultivated ones for food, 
 (the apple tree borer, for instance, originally subsisting on 
 the thorn,)partly from being constantly imported from all 
 other countries from which seeds and plants are brought, 
 and partly from the diminution of birds and other enemies 
 by which they are naturally held in check. 
 
INSECTS AND VERMIN. 157 
 
 Insects are the most extensive class of animals. They 
 are destitute of an internal skeleton, but possess a sort of 
 external one, serving both, for skin and bones, and divided 
 into numerous segments connected together by slender 
 points of attachment. They all have six or more articu- 
 lated legs, and are generally oviparous, or produced from 
 eggs. They possess sight, hearing, smell, and touch at 
 least, senses in common with those of the superior animals. 
 They do not breathe through the mouth or nostrils, but 
 through vessels, for the reception of air, called spiracula, 
 placed along each side of the body. 
 
 Nearly all insects have four stages of existence. First, 
 eggs which hatch into larvae ; these change into pupae, 
 where they remain dormant for a longer or shorter period, 
 and from which they emerge at last as perfect insects. 
 Some insects, however, bring forth their young alive, as 
 well as deposit eggs. In others, as the Orthoptera, or 
 grasshopper family, the young has nearly the form of a per- 
 fect insect. Some insects are injurious to plants only in 
 one stage of their existence, others at all times, when not 
 in a dormant state. 
 
 A knowledge of the habits and transformations of in- 
 sects is necessary to detect how and at what period of 
 their existence they can best be destroyed, or in what man 
 ner vegetation can best be shielded from their attacks. 
 
 By many insects plants are at once destroyed ; by others 
 wounds are inflicted that end in a diseased condition of 
 the parts affected, which is communicated to the whole 
 plant. Plants in a weak or diseased state are far more 
 liable to be attacked by insects than those which are 
 healthy and vigorous. 
 
 Various remedies are proposed when plants are attacked 
 by insects, among which those most generally applicable 
 are dusting the leaves with quicklime, sulphur, snuff, 
 soot, dust impregnated with the oil of turpentine. Also 
 sprinkling or washing the plants with water heated to 
 
158 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 130 ; or with infusions of aloes, tobacco, quassia, China 
 berries; also with soapsuds, especially that made from 
 whale oil soap, guano dissolved in water, fumigating with 
 tobacco smoke, etc. 
 
 A camphor and aloes preparation is also found service- 
 able for sprinkling plants, and was first recommended by 
 Dr. Batty, of Georgia, in the Southern Cultivator, and is 
 thus prepared : Put into a barrel of water a quarter of a 
 pound of camphor, in pieces the size of a hickory nut ; fill 
 with water and let it stand a day, and with this water your 
 plants, and fill the barrel for the next watering. The 
 camphor is slowly dissolved, and will last a long time. If 
 the camphor water is too weak, add to a barrel of water a 
 cupful or more of strong lye, and more will dissolve. Add 
 also a pound of cheap cape aloes to a gallon of lye (or 
 water in which a pound of saleratus or potash has been 
 dissolved) ; add a pint of this to a barrel of water, and 
 use as the camphor water. Camphor and aloes (especially 
 the former) are offensive to most insects. 
 
 Preventive measures are of more value than remedial, 
 in protecting plants from insects. Among those most 
 likely to be of value, are the following : 
 
 Rotation of Crops, Each species of insect generally 
 feeds on the same species of plant, or at least on plants of 
 the same natural family ; hence a constant change of crop 
 prevents the forthcoming brood from finding their proper 
 food, and many of them perish. This is, however, more 
 applicable in the case of field crops, than in orchards and 
 gardens. 
 
 Decaying Trees. Destroy all decaying trees in the 
 neighborhood of orchards and gardens, as they are often 
 a refuge, and tend to propagate insects destructive to the 
 neighboring crops. 
 
 Scraping of the rough bark of trees, and washing them 
 with tobacco water, lime water, or a wash of lime, sulphur 
 
INSECTS AND VERMIN. 159 
 
 and clay, or a solution of potash, destroys the hiding 
 places of insects, and many of the insects themselves, which 
 infest trees. 
 
 Birds aiid Other Animals. The encouragement of in- 
 sectivorous birds and other animals, instead of their 
 thoughtless and injurious destruction, is one of the most 
 promising methods of lessening the insect tribes. A single 
 pair of breeding swallows, Bradley has calculated, destroy 
 over three thousand worms in a week. Toads live almost 
 entirely upon insects, and do not injure plants. A large 
 class of insects also live entirely upon insects that are 
 injurious to plants, and should be encouraged. 
 
 Lime and Salt. Dressing the soil with lime, sowing 
 in autumn six or eight bushels of salt to the acre, turning 
 over the soil and exposing it to frost just before winter, 
 or during the winter months when the ground is open, 
 are all found to be beneficial. Rolling the surface soil 
 smooth when crops are planted destroys the hiding places 
 of many insects, and renders them less destructive. 
 
 Any insect peculiarly injurious must be watched as to 
 its habits, mode of feeding, and its transformations, in or- 
 der to discover where it may be most successfully attacked. 
 
 As healthy plants are less subject to attack, keep the 
 ground in good order, sow good seed, cultivate thorough- 
 ly, and the crop will be less endangered. 
 
 Fires, Insects also maybe destroyed and their increase 
 prevented by bonfires of brush, just after dark, which will 
 attract and destroy immense numbers of moths and 
 beetles. 
 
 " Erect a post in the centre of the garden, on which 
 nail a platform of planks some thirty inches square, which 
 cover with sand ; on this build nightly a fire of fat light 
 wood for some weeks, from the time that moths, millers, 
 and butterflies begin to infest the garden. Large numbers 
 will fly into the fire and be consumed." 
 
160 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 TrapSi Hang up common porter bpttles, though wide- 
 mouthed bottles are preferable, during the insect season, 
 with a few spoonfuls of sweetened water or molasses and 
 vinegar in them, to be renewed every second evening, and 
 hundreds of moths that would have been the parents of a 
 new race of destroyers will be caught. This is the most 
 promising mode of waging war also upon the melon-worm, 
 as well as the corn and boll- worm, and many other insects. 
 For filling the bottles, a better preparation still is a pint of 
 water to half a pint of molasses, the water having as much 
 cobalt dissolved in it as it will take up before mixing with 
 the molasses. Put a wineglassful to each bottle, and 
 empty once or twice a week. Mr. Downing mentions an 
 acquaintance who, using the molasses and water only one 
 season, caught and exterminated three bushels of insects 
 in this manner, and preserved his garden almost free from 
 them. Mr. Robinson, of New Haven, caught over a peck 
 in one night. 
 
 Hand-picking 1 . In some cases, the only effectual mode 
 is hand-picking. If the leaf-roller, the beetle, or the grub 
 is crushed under foot, by preventing reproduction, a thous- 
 and enemies are destroyed at once. 
 
 Descriptions of the principal insects, and the means of 
 destroying them will be found in that portion of the 
 work which treats of the plants which they attack. 
 
 Mice may be caught in traps, or poisoned with arsenic ; 
 but the latter is dangerous if fowls or children have access 
 to the garden. 
 
 MolCS are often very troublesome in undermining beds 
 of cuttings or young plants in search of worms and insects. 
 They may be caught in various traps sold for the purpose, 
 but by putting tarred sticks in their burrows they will be 
 driven from them. Salting the soil is fatal to many insects 
 that are the food of the mole. 
 
 Hares and Rabbits are very destructive to trees and 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 161 
 
 garden vegetables in all country places, and even in towns 
 we do not escape ; they can be repelled by a tight board 
 fence, or a close hedge of the Macartney rose. Choice 
 trees can be bound up in straw during the winter, or in an 
 envelope of chestnut bark slipped over the stem. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 
 ARTICHOKE, (Cynara Scofymus,) 
 
 The garden artichoke is a perennial plant, a native of 
 the south of Europe, where it has been in cultivation from 
 the time of the Romans. Columella mentions it, and says 
 its name Cynara is from cinere (ashes), because the soil 
 for artichokes should be dressed with ashes. The plant 
 resembles an overgrown thistle, but is more beautiful ; has 
 large pinnatifid leaves, three or four feet long, covered 
 with an ash-colored down. The eatable portion is the 
 undeveloped flower head, which is only fit for use before 
 it begins to open its bloom ; it is about the size and some- 
 what the shape of a small pineapple. 
 
 As the artichoke is a native of a hot climate, it is per- 
 fectly adapted to the temperature of the South, and is 
 hardy throughout the Union. It adds a pleasant variety 
 to our early summer luxuries, and should be in more gen- 
 eral cultivation. 
 
 There are three varieties : the Globe, the Oval Green, 
 and the Purple. The first has dull purplish heads with 
 scales turned in at the top, and is most esteemed, the edi- 
 ble parts being larger. The Oval Green is the hardiest 
 sort, and has a conical or ovate head, with pointed scales 
 
162 
 
 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 turned outward. The Purple is earlier than the others, 
 the scales pointed, tinted with purplish red towards their 
 points, but is not so good when cooked. There is also the 
 largo green, which grows larger than the common green, 
 and is most esteemed at Paris under the name Gros vert 
 de Laon. The base of the scales of this variety is quite 
 thick and fleshy. 
 
 The ash of the artichoke has been analyzed, and it is 
 
 found that potash and 
 phosphoric acid are the 
 most abundant constit- 
 uents, indicating the 
 application of ashes and 
 bone-dust as the best 
 special manures. 
 
 Propagation and Cul- 
 ture. Artichokes are 
 propagated by seed, or 
 by offsets from the old 
 roots. If by seed, sow 
 in early spring when the 
 poach is in full blossom, 
 in very rich earth, in 
 drills an inch and a half 
 deep, and a foot apart ; 
 they do still better by 
 sowing them earlier in a 
 cold frame. Transplant 
 them when from six to 
 
 Fig. 60.-ARTICHOKE. twelyc kcfces hig]l into 
 
 a rich soil. If the beds are thinned out by transplanting, 
 so that the plants are left a foot apart in the rows, the rest 
 may remain in the seed bed until fall. The finest heads 
 are produced in a rich, moist loam, and they should be 
 transplanted into such a soil. The best compost is a 
 mixture of three parts well-decomposed manure, and one 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 163 
 
 of leached ashes. They require an open exposure, free 
 from the shade and drip of trees, or the plants will spindle 
 and produce worthless heads. The rows must be four feet 
 apart, and the plants three feet in the rows. Plants from 
 seed are better and more permanent than from offsets. 
 
 If propagated by suckers, these must be slipped off in 
 spring from the parent plant, retaining as many fibrous 
 roots as possible. They should be selected when the 
 leaves are eight or ten inches high, and be taken only from 
 those shoots which are sound and strong, and have al- 
 ready formed some roots. Uncover the old stools to the 
 origin of the suckers, of which from six to twelve will be 
 produced to each plant. Allow two or three of the best 
 of these to remain ; slip off the others with a heel, from 
 which trim off the rough part smoothly, retaining the 
 fibrous roots. Remove the large outside leaves, or their 
 exhalations will exhaust the plant before it gets rooted. 
 They are greatly invigorated if set in water three or four 
 hours before they are planted. Set them in rows, the 
 same distance as above, about four inches deep, in holes 
 made with a trow r el ; press a portion of fresh soil about 
 their roots and water freely. When this has settled away, 
 fill up to the surface with soil. Keep sun shades or shin- 
 gles upon the south side of them a few days, until estab- 
 lished, giving water, if needed, until they begin to grow. 
 
 The only other attention they require during the sum- 
 mer is the frequent use of the hoe. They will produce 
 heads the same year from June to October, and annually 
 thereafter from April to June or July, accordin'g to the 
 season. The quality is improved, though at the expense 
 of the quantity, by allowing only the head surmounting 
 the main stem to grow on each stalk, removing all the 
 laterals of the stem while young. As often as the head 
 is cut, the stem should be broken down close to the root, 
 to encourage the production of suckers before winter. 
 They should receive their winter dressing before the ground 
 
164 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 freezes deeply. Cut away the old leaves without injuring 
 the centre or side shoots, dig the ground over, and throw 
 the soil in a low broad ridge over each row, putting it 
 close about the plants, but leaving the hearts clear. As 
 soon as the shoots appear four or five inches above the 
 surface, the ridges thrown up must be levelled and the 
 earth removed from about the stock to below the part 
 whence the young shoots spring. Remove all these shoots 
 but two, or at most three, leaving the most vigorous, 
 taking care to select those lowest down on the stock, as 
 the strong, thick ones from the crown have hard woody 
 stems, and produce but indifferent heads. 
 
 Although the artichoke is a perennial, yet after the fifth 
 year, the heads grow small and dry. The beds should in 
 consequence be broken up at this time, or as soon as they 
 begin to fail, and fresh ones be formed on another site. 
 
 As the newly-made beds come into flower after the sea- 
 son for the old plants is over, those fond of this vegetable 
 will prefer to make a new plantation every -year. 
 
 Artichokes are made to attain a much larger size than 
 they otherwise would by twisting a ligature tightly 
 around the stem below each head, and thus preventing 
 the reflux of the sap. 
 
 The artichoke is much benefited by the application of 
 sea-weed or any other manure containing common salt. 
 This is probably in a great measure because salt keeps the 
 soil moist. 
 
 Chards. After the best heads have been cut, when old 
 plantations are to be destroyed, cut off the stems as low 
 as possible, and the leaves within six inches of the ground. 
 When the new leaves are two feet high, blanch them, as 
 directed for Cardoons, which many think they excel. 
 
 For Seed. Select a few of the finest heads and permit 
 them to flower. Bend over the stalk and tie the head to 
 a small stake, to prevent the water from settling among the 
 expanded scales. When the flower has withered, the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CCLTUEE. 165 
 
 seeds will be ripe. One ounce of the seed will produce 
 about six hundred plants, and for three and sometimes 
 five years will vegetate freely if kept cool and dry. Put 
 away in paper bags for use. 
 
 Properties and Use. -The artichoke is wholesome, yet 
 it contains but little nutriment, and is cultivated merely 
 to please the palate. The heads are sometimes pickled. 
 It is eaten by the French as a salad, with oil and vinegar, 
 salt and pepper ; the bottoms are often fried in paste like 
 the egg plant. The English gather them when they 
 spread their scales and the flower appears about to open ; 
 the whole head is boiled and the scales pulled off, one or 
 two at a time, dipped in butter and pepper, and the mealy 
 part stripped off with the teeth. The bottom, when the 
 leaves are disposed of, is eaten with the knife and fork. 
 The flowers have the properties of rennet in curdling milk. 
 
 ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM, (HeliantTius tuberosus.) 
 
 This is a hardy, perennial species of sun-flower, a native 
 of Brazil, introduced 
 into England in 1617, 
 and was much esteem- 
 ed as a garden vege- 
 table until the Irish 
 potato took its place. Fi - 61- JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. 
 
 The crops obtained in good soils are enormous. The salts 
 found in ths ashes are mainly potash and lime, the former 
 very largely. 
 
 Culture. It flourishes best in a rich, light soil, with an 
 open exposure, but will thrive in almost any soil or loca- 
 tion. Plant in spring or fall, either small tubers or the 
 large ones, cut into sets of one or two eyes, four inches 
 
166 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 deep, in rows three and a half feet apart. Make the rows 
 run north and south, to admit the sun, and put the plants 
 eighteen inches apart in the rows. Keep the ground free 
 from weeds and earth up slightly. They will be fit for 
 use in the falJ. Take care to dig them up thoroughly, as 
 the smallest piece will vegetate. They will grow on land 
 too poor for almost anything else. If the top be cut off 
 one-half way down in August, it is said by some that the 
 size of the tuber will be very much increased by the ad- 
 mission of air and light. This is doubtful. 
 
 Use. The roots are eaten boiled, mashed with butter, 
 and are considerably nutritive, nearly as much so as the 
 Irish potato. It has a moist, soft texture, and a tolerably 
 agreeable taste. It is, however, rather a second-rate dish. 
 They are better pickled in vinegar. The plant is most 
 useful in feeding cows and pigs, affording large quantities 
 of food from quite poor soils. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. (Asparagus officinalis.) 
 
 This plant has been cultivated as a garden vegetable 
 for at least two thousand years. Cato, 150 years before 
 Christ, gives a full detail of its mode of culture among 
 the Romans. Its culture originated probably in Greece, 
 for its name is pure Greek, and signifies a bud not fully 
 opened ; and it is known throughout Europe, by names 
 derived or corrupted from the Greek. 
 
 The wild asparagus is found on the sea coasts of most 
 parts of Europe. Its stem is not thicker than a goose- 
 quill. From this wild plant, by the aid of manure and 
 culture, our delicious garden varieties were raised. Miller 
 has succeeded in effecting the same result in modern times. 
 
 There are only two varieties of any importance, the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 167 
 
 green and the red-topped. The latter, with purplish green 
 shoots, is the one principally cultivated. There are some 
 sub-varieties, but these derive all their merit from superior 
 cultivation. R. Thompson states there is really but one 
 sort of asparagus. 
 
 An analysis of asparagus by Thomas Richardson shows 
 the ashes to contain about T V<r of soda, and nearly -^ s of 
 chloride of sodium, or common salt. 
 
 In other analyses the proportion of soda is considerably 
 reduced. Asparagus, like some other plants, has the 
 power of substituting the other alkalies, lime and potash, 
 in the place of soda. All the analyses exhibit large pro- 
 portions of chloride of sodium, or its elements, chlorine and 
 sodium, also of phosphoric acid. In asparagus, over three- 
 fifths of the inorganic elements of the plant are made up 
 of these constituents. This explains why salt and sea- 
 weed are found useful, and shows that the application of 
 bane manure, or superphosphate of lime, in connection 
 with animal manures, may be beneficial. 
 
 Culture. Asparagus is propagated only by seed, one 
 ounce of which will produce a thousand plants. Sow 
 quite early in spring on a bed of fresh and deep sandy 
 loam, the richer the better as free as possible from all 
 shade of trees or shrubs. Draw the drills one foot apart, 
 and with a dibble make holes six inches distant, in which 
 drop two or three seeds. Let the seed be covered an inch 
 deep, and press the earth upon it. If unable to sow early, 
 shade must be given to the bed, for which purpose pine 
 boughs are. well suited. These should be removed at 
 night and on cloudy days, and entirely as soon as tho 
 plants are up. 
 
 Care must be taken to keep the seed-bed light and free 
 from weeds, though this operation must be delayed until 
 the plants come up. If two plants appear in the same 
 place, the weaker must be removed. Transplanted, these 
 will make pretty good plants by fall. When the stems 
 
168 GABDEXING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 are withered, cut them down and spread well-rotted stable 
 dung over the bed two inches deep, which will increase 
 the vigor of the plants the next year, and also protect 
 them from frost. 
 
 Let the plants remain in the seed-bed until they are 
 about to grow early in spring. To have this delicacy as 
 early as possible, choose a site where the bed can be fully 
 exposed to the sun. If you wish to prolong its season, 
 another bed may be planted on a northern exposure. The 
 subsoil should be dry, and if not naturally so, must be 
 well drained. It must be dug up thoroughly at least two 
 and a half feet deep, the poor soil removed, and its place 
 supplied with rich, light loam. 
 
 After taking out the soil, the bottom should be, covered 
 with at least six inches of well-rotted manure, as this can 
 never be reached after the roots are once planted. Inter- 
 mix as much more throughout the bed, except the top 
 four or five inches, as the manure should not come in con- 
 tact with the fresh roots. Bury your manure and mix it 
 well throughout the whole depth, as you can hardly make 
 the ground too rich. Asparagus will grow, it is true, 
 without all this trouble, but the size, sweetness, and ten- 
 derness of the shoots, will pay for doing the work in the 
 best manner. 
 
 The upper five inches should be light, rich, sandy loam 
 mixed with leaf-mould, and the top left as light as possi- 
 ble. So manured and deeply dug, the plants will send 
 down their roots too deeply to fear a drought. The plants 
 should be carefully taken up with a fork, and the roots 
 preserved uninjured. Select mild, cloudy weather, when 
 the ground is in good working order, for it must not be 
 wet. Lay the roots separately and carefully together, 
 that they may not be entangled and injured while plant- 
 ing ; keep them, while planting, in a basket covered with 
 a little mould. 
 
 Plant your first row by straining a line eight inches 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 169 
 
 from the edge of the bed ; then with the spade cut out a 
 trench six inches deep with the side next the line perpen- 
 dicular, in which set the plants twelve inches apart, if 
 large heads are desired. Place the roots against the per- 
 pendicular side of the trench, and spread them out like a 
 fan against the cut without any doubling, keeping the 
 crowns all at the same level, at about two inches beneath 
 the surface, and cover them by drawing back the light 
 earth regularly over the plants. Draw the line againn 1 f- 
 teen inches from the first, and proceed as above, leaving a 
 path of two feet wide a little below the level of the bed, 
 eight inches from every third row. Some plant lettuce 
 and radishes between the rows, but it is not advisable, 
 though a crop of cabbages may be made in the alleys. 
 After the beds have been planted, rake them smooth, and 
 do not tread between the rows. Keep the edges of the 
 bed smoothly trimmed and even. The beds are made 
 narrow to avoid the necessity of treading upon them with 
 the feet, as they should be left as light as possible, for, 
 lasting from ten to twenty years without working, the 
 rains will render them compact, and walking upon them 
 would be very injurious. If some of the beds are made 
 wit.h but two rows, these, being narrower, will warm 
 through quicker and be earlier in the season. 
 
 Water them daily in dry weather until the plants are 
 well-rooted. All weeds must be removed as they appear. 
 As salt is an excellent manure for this plant, the weeds 
 may be easily kept down by its application. Old brine 
 or refuse salt, in which meat or fish has been packed, is 
 better than any other, as it abounds in the blood and 
 juices of the meat, which are a most valuable fertilizer. 
 Asparagus is a sea-whore plant, and salt will not hurt it, 
 but is life and nourishment to it. 
 
 Old beds have been covered an inch deep, and the plants 
 continued to thrive; but a sprinkling just sufficient to 
 make the soil look white is enough. As soon as the 
 8 
 
170 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 plants have turned yellow in the fall, cut them down close 
 to the ground, but be careful not to do this early, or they 
 will throw up new shoots and be much weakened. Re- 
 move the stalks and all weeds, cover the beds with three 
 or four inches of good stable manure, and let it remain 
 until time for the spring dressing. If you have charcoal 
 dust at command, a layer of an inch thick over the manure 
 will be found quite useful in preventing the loss of ammo- 
 nia. When the weather grows warm and spring has 
 fairly opened, and the ground is sufficiently dry, before 
 growth commences, with an asparagus fork dig in the ma- 
 nure placed on the beds hi the fall, and loosen the earth 
 four inches deep, taking care not to wound the crowns of 
 the plants. Give the beds a top-dressing of salt, 2 Ibs. to 
 the square yard, before growth commences, and water 
 freely in dry weather. Applications of liquid manure are 
 likewise very salutary. A good liquid manure for aspara- 
 gus is an ounce of guano and four ounces of salt to two 
 gallons of water. Guano or night soil composted with 
 charcoal, so as to be entirely inodorous, is also beneficially 
 applied at any time. Another slight covering of charcoal 
 dust, after the spring dressing, will be of service, and 
 make the shoots earlier. Until the bed is two years old, 
 the alleys should be also deeply dug and well manured, 
 as the plants will derive much nourishment from them. 
 After that period the roots will extend so widely that they 
 cannot be worked without injury. 
 
 "When the bed is one year old, it may, if it has been 
 well treated, be sparingly gathered from. The plants will 
 not be injured if the shoots are of good size and but few 
 are taken. They will yield a full crop when two years 
 transplanted. Asparagus should be cut before the heads 
 lose their compact form, when only four or five inches 
 above the ground. Remove the earth to the bottom of 
 the stalk, and cut it ^ff sloping with a pointed knife, tak- 
 ing care not to wound any other shoots that may be near 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 171 
 
 it, as they are constantly putting forth from the crowns. 
 Too many shoots should not be cut from the beds, nor the 
 gathering prolonged too late. Whenever the bed puts 
 up weak and small shoots, these should be allowed to re- 
 main, which will increase the size of those remaining, and 
 the future value of the bed. When green peas become 
 plentiful, the asparagus bed should rest. After the cutr 
 ting ceases, you may judge from the size of the summer 
 shoots the productiveness of the bed the coming spring. 
 These elaborate the food for the future crop. The manure 
 applied in autumn has but little effect on the next spring's 
 shoots, but from its influence the strong growth of the 
 succeeding summer will prepare an abundant supply of 
 large shoots the second spring. The spring and autumn 
 dressings should be continued while the bed lasts, for the 
 top soil must be kept perfectly free and light, that the 
 shoots may readily push through it, and the surface left 
 rough, that it may catch and retain the winter rains so as 
 thoroughly to moisten the lower roots. Finally, good as- 
 paragus is not to be obtained without an abundant supply 
 of manure. The beds will, if thus treated, remain pro- 
 ductive twelve or fifteen years. 
 
 Asparagus can be forced by planting a hot-bed thickly 
 with thrifty roots ; it comes into bearing in four weeks, 
 and affords asparagus for a month in the winter season. 
 Give plenty of air in mild weather. 
 
 For Seed. Reserve some of the best shoots in the 
 spring, and mark them by placing a stake by each one, 
 and let them run up and ripen their seeds. Take shoots 
 with fine, round, close heads ; fasten them, as they grow, 
 up to the stake, and the seed will ripen better. Gather 
 the seed when ripe, and wash off the pulp and husk, which 
 will pass off with the water, if gently poured off, and the 
 seeds will sink to the bottom. Dry them thoroughly, and 
 store away for use. They are, for your own sowing, just 
 
172 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 as well kept and sown in the pulp. Asparagus seed will 
 keep four years. 
 
 Use. The tender shoots thrown up in the spring when 
 from four or five inches long, are the parts in use, and are 
 very delicate and much esteemed, though not very nutri- 
 tious. They are excellent simply boiled, or as an addition 
 to soups when in season. 
 
 BASIL. (Ocymum Basilicum, and 0. minimum.) 
 
 Two species are cultivated, Sweet Basil, (0. Basil- 
 icum ). and Bush Basil, ( 0. minimum). Both are annuals, 
 with small leaves and small white flowers, and natives of 
 the East Indies. Sweet basil is the species most cultivat- 
 ed, and was introduced into England in 1548. 
 
 Culture. Basil likes a rich, light soil, free from shade. 
 The plants may be started early in March, under glass, in 
 gentle heat. They should be thinned when the young 
 plants appear, and transplanted when of sufficient size 
 where they are to remain. Basil is rather difficult to 
 transplant, but can be carefully lifted in tufts with the 
 balls of earth attached, in a moist time, with complete 
 success ; give water and shade until established. It can 
 also be sown on the borders where it is to remain, but if 
 sown too early in the open air, the seed is apt to rot or 
 the young plants to be killed by frost, as they are rather 
 tender. April is the month for sowing in the open ground. 
 Do not cover the seed deeply, but press the earth upon it. 
 Make the rows ten inches apart, and thin the sweet basil 
 to ten inches, and the bush, which is more dwarf, to five 
 inches in the row. Weeds must be kept under, and the 
 soil mellow, by frequent hoeing. Bush basil makes a very 
 pretty edging. It should be cut not too closely just as it 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 173 
 
 comes into flower, and hung up in small bundles in the 
 shade to dry for winter use ; thus cut, it will soon grow 
 up again. When thoroughly dried, it may be pounded 
 fine and kept any length of time in closely stopped bottles. 
 
 Seed. Let some of the finest plants remain uncut, and 
 gather the seeds as they ripen. They will keep for six years. 
 
 Use. The leaves and small tops are the parts employed, 
 and give a delightful flavor in cookery. They have a 
 strong flavor of cloves, and are used in soups and sauces, 
 and other high-seasoned dishes. They are much employed 
 in French cookery. It is the most agreeable of the pot 
 herbs, and the most useful, except parsley and sage. 
 
 A small sprig of basil, on account of its odor, is an 
 agreeable addition to a bouquet of flowers. 
 
 BEAN, ENGLISH BROAD.-(F*aa Faba.) 
 
 The English Broad Bean is an annual from two to four 
 feet high, with white, fragrant, papilionaceous flowers, with 
 a black spot in the middle of the wings ; seed pods thick, 
 long, woolly within, enclosing large, ovate, flat seeds, for 
 the sake of which it is much cultivated in Europe. It is 
 a native of the East some say of Egypt, but is probably 
 from Persia, near the Caspian Sea and has been cultivated 
 from time immemorial. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 Mazagan* Sweet and agreeable in flavor, and produces 
 well if planted early. Far the most productive variety 
 with me. Pods contain three or four beans, which are 
 small, oblong, and thick. 
 
 Long Pod. Stems rise about three or four feet high ; 
 bears well ; the pods are long, narrow, and generally con- 
 
174 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 tain four beans of good quality ; remains in use later than 
 the preceding. 
 
 Broad Windsor. Stems 3 to 4 feet high ; pods short, 
 but very broad, containing two beans, very large, roundish, 
 and flattened. Best for a late crop, as it is longest in use. 
 
 Dwarf Early. This is very early and productive, but 
 has a long tap-root, and is not suited to shallow soils. 
 
 Culture. The early crops should be on a dry soil mod 
 erately rich and warm, to promote their growth during the 
 winter. The latter crops should be on a deep, strong 
 loam. They are to be sown in drills 2^ feet apart for the 
 Dwarf and Mazagan, and 8 feet for the others ; put the 
 beans four inches apart in the row, and cover three inches 
 deep with earth, which should be pressed upon the seed. 
 If any miss, they may be supplied by transplanting. This 
 bean will do well wherever the winters remain open, and 
 the mercury does not, in ordinary years, fall below about 
 10 Fahrenheit, and should be planted from October to 
 February inclusive. In Virginia, and where frosts are se- 
 vere, they must be put in as soon as the ground opens in 
 spring, but they are then not as productive as when they 
 can be planted during the months above named. ~No or- 
 dinary frost will injure them. When two inches high, 
 hoe between and draw the earth about the stems of the 
 plants. Continue this during their growth. When the 
 plants come into bloom, take off two or three inches of 
 the tops of the stems, which will increase the crop and 
 hasten its maturity. The crop should be gathered before 
 they are full grown, while they are still tender and delicate. 
 
 To Save Seed. Allow a portion of the crop to remain 
 until ripe. Thresh for use. 
 
 Use. The English use these beans while young and 
 tender, as we do green peas. They must be cooked very 
 young, and in the same manner ; or may be boiled with 
 bacon. They are not likely to come into general use. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 175 
 
 BEAN, KIDNEY. (Phaseolus.) 
 
 These are tender, Leguminous annuals, mostly natives of 
 India, first cultivated in England in 1597. The species cul- 
 tivated are P. vidgaris, Pole or Running Bean, with seed- 
 pods long, straight, and pointed, brittle while young ; j. 
 nanuS) the Bush Bean, is probably a sub-species of this, with 
 more acuminate leaves and larger bracts ; P. multiflorus 
 is the Scarlet Runner ; and P. lunatus^ the large and small 
 Lima Bean, with broad, compressed, scimetar-shaped pods, 
 and seeds broad and compressed. 
 
 The Asparagus, or Yard-long Bean, is a species of 
 Dolichos. 
 
 Of these species there are many varieties, which, for 
 convenience, we will class as dwarfs and running beans. 
 Those with edible pods, breaking crisply, are called snaps. 
 Of Dwarf or Bush Beans the best are : 
 
 Early Mohawk* Pods long, beans large, oval, with dark- 
 colored specks ; it bears very well, is one of the earliest 
 varieties, and is least injured by frost. In good seasons, 
 fit for the table about five or six weeks after sowing. 
 
 Early Valentine* Pods round, and continue crisp 
 longer than most other varieties. The beans are pink- 
 speckled on a salmon ground; bears well. Sown with 
 Early Mohawk, is about five days later. 
 
 Newington Wonder. t ery dwarf, pods of medium 
 length, dark green color, thick and fleshy; seeds form 
 slowly, and the pods continue long crisp and fit for use; 
 seeds small, oblong, and light chestnut-colored when ripe. 
 
 Late Valentine* Pods similar to Early Valentine, 
 equally crisp and tender, color dark brown, speckled ; a 
 better bearer, and grows more thrifty than the early sort. 
 One of the best. About ten days later than the Mohawk. 
 
 Royal Kidney. Pods long, finely flavored ; seeds 
 white and large. Sown at the same time, is a fortnight 
 
176 GAKDEXING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 later than the Mohawk. This is one of the best for winter 
 use when ripe. 
 
 Yellow Six Weeks, China Red-eyed, and Turtle Soup, 
 are likewise good varieties. 
 
 Of Running or Pole Beans, the best are : 
 
 Dutch Case Knife, with large, broad pods, and flattisb, 
 kidney-shaped, white seeds, and is a good winter bean. 
 
 Algiers OF Wax Bean is an early, running kind, with 
 pale yellow pods, free from any tough lining, very tender 
 and soft when cooked; seeds medium-sized, roundish, 
 black. Excellent, but at the South soon stops bearing. 
 
 Loriflon Horticultural is also excellent, the pods con- 
 tinuing tender until the seeds are quite large ; the latter 
 are large and roundish. 
 
 In Southern corn-fields are grown several excellent 
 kinds, which are not described in our books. Three are 
 particularly desirable, viz: 
 
 White Prolific is a medium-sized, white, oval, kidney- 
 shaped bean, with roundish tender pods, and exceedingly 
 prolific ; desirable green or for winter use. 
 
 Dark Prolific resembles the last, but the seeds are of a 
 very dark dun color. 
 
 Black Speckled has the pods more flattened; seeds 
 roundish, of a dull white, black speckled, and skin rather 
 thick, but the pods are excellent to use green. Of very 
 vigorous growth, and best endures the summer heats. 
 Not over two plants should remain to a pole. 
 
 Lima BeailS are from the East Indies. There are the 
 green, the white, the speckled, and the small white or 
 Carolina. The white Lima is not quite so large as the 
 green, but, bearing with greater abundance, is to be pre- 
 ferred. It is also not quite so hardy nnd productive as 
 the Carolina, but is much larger and richer flavored, and 
 is the most grown for city markets. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUBE. 177 
 
 Carolina or Butter bean closely resembles the white 
 Lima, but is smaller, earlier, hardier, and bears much more 
 abundantly, and though not quite so rich, is for general 
 culture the best running bean. 
 
 Wood-ashes and bone-dust, or superphosphate of lime, 
 will supply the soil with the most necessary elements for 
 the bean crop, which, by the way, like most legumes, 
 draws most of its sustenance from the atmosphere. 
 
 Culture. As beans are very easily destroyed by spring 
 frosts, there is no use in planting the main crop too early. 
 A few of the Extra Early or Mohawk may be planted at 
 the same time with early corn, and if there is danger, 
 protect them when they come up, by placing wide planks 
 over the rows an inch or two above the plants, supported 
 on blocks or bricks every cold night. The main early crop 
 is planted in Georgia the last of March, or early in April ; 
 at New York City, about the first of May. Planting 
 may continue until about eight weeks before the autumn 
 frosts occur. The soil for the early crop should be dry 
 and light ; if wet or tenacious, the seed often decays with- 
 out germinating, or comes up spindling and unproductive. 
 For the summer-sown crop, a soil slightly moist, but still 
 inclining to a sand, is to be preferred. 
 
 Plant in drills eighteen inches or two feet apart, and 
 the seed two inches apart in the row. Cover the seeds 
 about an inch and a half deep. A pint of seed will plant 
 about one hundred and twenty-five feet of rows. When 
 the plants come up, thin them gradually to six or eight 
 inches in the row, and they will be much more vigorous 
 and productive. The Late Valentine does best in hills 
 eighteen inches apart. Plant four or five beans to a hill 
 Keep them always clean, and the soil light and mellow 
 with the hoe. Draw the earth carefully about their stems 
 when about to flower, making broad, low hills to protect 
 the roots from heat and drought. If well cultivated, the 
 same plants will continue to bear a long time. Do 
 8* 
 
178 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 not hoe any of the kidney beans, whether dwarf or run- 
 ners, when the foliage is wet, as the plants will rust and 
 be greatly injured, if not destroyed. Choose dry weather 
 for working them, and hoe shallow when the plants get 
 large. The value of the crop depends greatly upon their 
 being properly thinned in the drills while young. 
 
 Pole or running beans for snaps may be planted when 
 the main crop of bush beans is put in, or a few days later; 
 and at the South, a few hills should be planted monthly, 
 until July, to give a succession, for which nothing is bet- 
 ter than the corn-field varieties described. They should 
 be planted in rows about four feet apart, and the hills 
 from two and a half to three feet in the row. The hills 
 should be broad and raised some three inches above the 
 ground level. Put in the poles before planting, let them 
 be uniformly about ten feet long, and inserted well in the 
 ground. Put five or six beans around each pole, and 
 cover them an inch and a half deep, and when up, reduce 
 the plants to three in a hill, and where there are less than 
 that, plant again. 
 
 Lima beans require a rich, strong soil, and will thrive 
 on heavy loams, where the other running beans and 
 snaps would not flourish. They are still more tender 
 than snaps, and should not be planted until settled warm 
 weather, as the seed will rot in cool weather, and the 
 slightest frost will destroy them if they chance to vege- 
 tate. The tenth of April is early enough in Middle 
 Georgia ; near New York City they plant a month later. 
 They may be forwarded by planting in small pots in a 
 hot-bed to be transferred, by breaking the balls, to the 
 open ground when three inches high. Lima beans will 
 not thrive if too much crowded ; the rows must be five feet 
 apart, and the hills three feet in the row. The space be- 
 tween may be cropped early in the season with Irish po- 
 tatoes, etc. When the plants begin to run, give them a 
 little assistance, if not inclined to cling to the poles. If 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 179 
 
 these are too high, the vines are later in bearing, and the 
 crop out of reach in gathering. When they blossom, 
 pinch off the tips of the leading shoots, to hasten the 
 maturity of the crop. 
 
 In planting Lima beans, place the eye downward and 
 the narrow end the lowest, as the bean always rises from 
 the ground in that position, and if not planted right, it 
 has to turn itself over in the soil, and if prevented by any 
 obstruction from turning over, it is sure to rot in the 
 ground. Planted in this way, they come up sooner, bet- 
 ter, and more evenly. A quart will plant about four hun- 
 dred hills. The subsequent culture consists in keeping 
 the ground frequently hoed when the vines are dry. They 
 will continue in bearing until cut off by the hard frosts. 
 
 For Seed. Gather both the Lima and kidney beans 
 when ripe and dry them thoroughly. The seed should be 
 kept pure by planting the varieties at a distance from each 
 Other. Where subject to be destroyed by bugs, if saved 
 in paper bags, put them up in glass bottles or earthen jugs 
 well corked. Into each one pour, before corking, a tea- 
 spoonful of spirits of turpentine. The turpentine odor 
 will destroy the bugs, if the vessel is tightly corked, with- 
 out injuring the vitality of the bean. 
 
 Use. The tender, fleshy pods of snap-beans are a favor- 
 ite summer vegetable, very delicate, wholesome, and mod- 
 erately nutritive. They are boiled while green, and may 
 be preserved for winter use, by cutting them into pieces 
 and laying them down in salt. They will make their own 
 brine, and must be kept covered by it, or they will spoil. 
 Cook in two waters to extract the salt. The Lima beans, 
 and the snaps also, when full grown, are shelled, and may 
 be preserved for winter use, and afford in proportion to 
 their weight, more nutrition than most other vegetables. 
 Wheat contains but 74 per cent of nutritive matte r^ 
 while kidney beans contain 84 per cent. They abound in 
 the constituents that produce muscle and fat, and will 
 
180 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 supply better than most vegetables the place of animal 
 food. Gather them in their green state when full grown, 
 and dry them carefully in the sun. They are better gath- 
 ered thus than if delayed until ripe, and are also free from 
 bugs. Soak them over night before being boiled. They 
 can also be laid down with layers of salt like snap-beans. 
 They are very good gathered when ripe, and dried care- 
 fully in an oven in order to keep them free from insects, 
 which, at the South, are quite destructive. Snap-beans 
 are also pickled, while young, in the same way as cucum- 
 bers. 
 
 BEET. (Seta vulgaris, and B. Cicla.) 
 
 The Common Beet, Beta vulgaris, is a biennial plant, a 
 native of the sea coasts of the south of Europe, and is said 
 to have been cultivated for its beautiful red roots long be- 
 fore its edible properties were discovered. 
 
 It was introduced into England by Tradescant, in the 
 year 1656. Its name is said to come from the resemblance 
 of its seed to the letter JBeta, of the Greek alphabet. 
 
 The best varieties are the following: 
 
 Extra Early Turnip, or Bassano Beet. The root is 
 oval; color, pale red. Downing truly says "it is the 
 sweetest, most tender, and delicate of all beets ; " but the 
 color boils out, so that it is not as beautiful as some oth- 
 ers, yet it is the best early beet and one of the easiest 
 grown. 
 
 Early Turnip-rooted is a week or two later ; the ex- 
 posed part of the root is brownish, red below ground, and 
 flesh of purplish red, which becomes lighter in boiling ; ap- 
 parently coarse, but really tender, sweet, and well-flavored. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 181 
 
 Long Blood is the kind most grown for winter use. It 
 grows a foot or more in length, and four or five inches in 
 diameter, mostly beneath the earth. It is a good keeper 
 and very sweet. 
 
 Early Long Blood resembles this ; but about half the 
 root is above ground, and if not gathered and stored 
 early, is more exposed to injury from frost. 
 
 The London Horticultural Society, after a comparison 
 of many kinds, prefer the following : 
 
 Nutting's Selected Dwarf Red. Leaves 9 to 12 inches 
 high, dark red. Roots, under ground, 9 inches around ; 
 flesh dark red, and when baked, deep crimson; of smooth, 
 close texture, sweet and well-flavored, of no earthy taste ; 
 the best sort. 
 
 Short's Pineapple. Leaves 6 or 7 inches high, dark 
 purple stalks, tinged with dull orange. Roots 8 inches in 
 circumference; flesh, deep crimson. Baked, of a dull, 
 deep crimson, tender, mild, sweet, and well-flavored, but 
 with a slight earthy taste. Both these are small kinds. 
 The large-growing, coarse beets are never good. 
 
 Culture. The beet, being a native of the sea-shore, 
 abounds in soda, which can be supplied, when deficient, 
 by an application of common salt the autumn before plant- 
 ing. This, and leached or unleached ashes, will afford 
 nearly all the inorganic elements of the crop. 
 
 The main summer crop of beets should be planted when 
 the peach and plum are in full blossom. A few Bassano 
 or Early Turnip should be planted a few weeks earlier, 
 and of other kinds successive beds may be made whenever 
 the soil is in a suitable state, from January until the sum- 
 mer droughts come on. Advantage should be taken of 
 the rains that usually occur about the last of July, or 
 early in August, to put in a crop for winter. This crop 
 should be put in earlier the farther northward the locality. 
 At New York, the mam crop is planted as early as the 
 
182 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 middle of June, about three and a half months before 
 killing frosts. This last planting often proves a failure 
 in the dry autumns of a Southern climate. It generally 
 will succeed in rich, fine soil. 
 
 When the surface soil is rich and the bottom poor, it 
 will be difficult to make the beet, carrot, and other tap- 
 rooted plants produce fine, smooth roots. This difficulty 
 will cease if the ground be deeply and thoroughly worked, 
 mingling the soil and making it uniform throughout, and 
 taking care to place at the depth of one foot below the 
 surface a layer of good manure. 
 
 The best beets grow in sandy bottom lands, but any soil 
 will answer for them if deeply and thoroughly worked 
 and well manured. This is necessary with all tap-rooted 
 plants, and especially with the beet. Beet seed is some- 
 what slow in vegetating, and the later sowings may be 
 soaked in water twenty-four hours before planting, and 
 the drills well watered upon the seed, which is then cov- 
 ered with light soil pressed gently upon the seed ; a good 
 method of planting all summer crops. Make the beds 
 four or four and a half feet wide, for convenience of culti- 
 vating ; spade them up at least a foot deep, eighteen 
 inches is still better ; mix in a good supply of well-rotted 
 manure throughout, if the ground requires it. Rake the 
 ground even and smooth, and mark out the rows twelve 
 inches apart across the bed ; draw the drills an inch and a 
 half or two inches deep, in which drop the seed two inches 
 apart, and press the earth gently upon it. When the 
 plants are up, thin them to eight or nine inches apart, fill 
 any vacancies by transplanting, and keep the ground 
 around them loose and free from weeds until matured. 
 
 In planting crops of beets, carrots, and parsnips, particu- 
 larly the two latter, sprinkle a few radish seeds, if you 
 like, and the ground is rich, in the rows to distinguish 
 them. The radishes will be up in a week, and the ground 
 can be hoed or weeded without any danger of destroying 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 183 
 
 ihe young plants. Drills can also be made between every 
 two rows of beets, making a drill every six inches, which 
 can also be sown with radishes or lettuce plants, which 
 can thus be grown abundantly between other crops with- 
 out loss of room. But a rich soil is required to bring 
 forward both crops to perfection. 
 
 For early beets it is well to prepare a good bed under 
 glass in which the rows should be marked out a foot apart. 
 The ground should be deeply spaded and thoroughly ma- 
 nured. Mark out your rows for the beets, and between 
 the first two draw a drill in which you can sow your early 
 York cabbage ; between the next two you can raise all the 
 Butter-lettuce you wish to set out for heading. In the 
 rows of beets themselves, you may sprinkle a few radish 
 seed; then a row of later head-lettuce, tomatoes, egg 
 plant, peppers, etc. The drills retained for the beets should 
 be sown in this climate with the Bassano beet about the 
 tenth of January. By the time the hard frosts are over, 
 the beets, cabbages, etc., will be fit to transplant. Thin 
 out to six inches apart, planting out those pulled up in the 
 open ground. In transplanting the beet, a deep hole 
 should be made with a dibble, and the root not bent. 
 Those that remain in the bed will soon come into use, and 
 by the time they are gone, the transplanted ones will come 
 on for a succession. 
 
 The winter crop should be secured as soon as the first 
 killing frosts occur, as the sweetness is lost by remaining 
 in the soil. The roots should be taken up, dried a little, 
 and stored away in casks with layers of dry sand, where 
 they will keep in good condition until spring. The mangel 
 wurtzel beet is much cultivated in some countries for feed- 
 ing stock, and is very good for the table when young and 
 tender, but in our long season it loses its sweetness before 
 winter. Here the sweet potato, rutabaga, and other tur- 
 nips, are more promising. 
 
184 
 
 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 The Swiss Chard, or White Beet, Beta Cicla, is also 
 called the Sea Kale Beet. There are two varieties, the white 
 and the green, which receive their names from the color 
 
 of the foot-stalks of 
 the leaves. Either of 
 these is good. The 
 plant very much re- 
 sembles the common 
 beet, but the leaves 
 and their stalks are 
 much larger, thicker, 
 more tender and suc- 
 culent, and less capa- 
 ble of resisting frost. 
 The root of this 
 plant is small, coarse, 
 and of no value : only 
 the leaves and their 
 stalks are employed, 
 especially the latter, 
 which are cooked and 
 eaten as asparagus. 
 
 The culture is ex- 
 actly the same as the 
 common beet, except 
 the plants should be 
 twelve or more inches 
 apart. The soil may 
 be richer and not so 
 deep, and the plants 
 
 Fig. 62. SWISS CHAKD. 
 
 copious watering, especially with 
 winter use, the leaves may be 
 
 are more benefited by 
 liquid manure. For 
 covered with litter 
 and afford blanched leaf stalks all winter. If the soil 
 be moist and kept mellow and free from weeds, it will yield 
 bountifully. Salt is a beneficial manure for this crop, ap- 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUBE. . 185 
 
 plied while preparing the ground, as it keeps it moist. It 
 is singular that a plant of so easy culture, and yielding 
 during the entire season after May a supply of the most 
 delicate greens, has not come into more general cultivation. 
 
 For Seed. Select a few of the finest looking roots, 
 those smooth and well-shaped. Plant the different vari- 
 eties as far apart as possible ; indeed, it is better to save the 
 seed of only one kind the same year for fear of intermix- 
 ture and degeneracy. Keep them free from weeds, and 
 tie the seed stalks to stakes to support them. Gather and 
 dry the seed as soon as ripe, and put away in paper bags. 
 Keep dry, and it will be good for ten years. 
 
 Use. The young and tender tops of the common beet, 
 and the leaves and stalks of the chards, are boiled as sum- 
 mer greens, or of the latter the midrib and stalk may be 
 peeled and boiled separately from the rest of the leaf and 
 prepared as asparagus, for which they are an excellent 
 substitute. In gathering, the largest outside leaves should 
 first be taken, and the inner ones left to increase in size, 
 taking care to gather them while still perfectly green and 
 vigorous. 
 
 When common beets are thinned, the young beets pulled 
 up, if cooked, tops and bottoms, are very sweet and deli- 
 cate. When well grown, the roots give an agreeable va- 
 riety to our table vegetables, being tender, sweet, and 
 considerably nourishing. They also make an excellent 
 pickle. If eaten moderately, they are wholesome, but in 
 too large a quantity produce flatulence and indigestion. 
 
 When old, the addition of a little powdered sugar to 
 the roots, when prepared for the table, restores some of 
 their lost sweetness. The leaves are said to abound in 
 nitre ; the roots are full of sugar, and a variety, the Sugar 
 Beet, is largely cultivated in France for its manufacture. 
 
186 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 BORECOLE. (Brassica oleracea, var. acephela.) 
 
 This plant, known also as Kale and German Greens, is 
 the easiest cultivated, and one of the most valuable of the 
 cabbage tribe. It has large curled or wrinkled leaves, 
 forming an open head, and such a hardy constitution that 
 it resists the severest frosts, which serve only to improve 
 it. It remains green and eatable all winter without the 
 least protection at the South, and in the Northern States 
 requires only a slight covering. The best varieties are : 
 
 Dwarf Green Curled, very popular in northern cli- 
 mates, because from its small size it is completely protect- 
 ed by winter snows, and gives a good crop in a small space. 
 
 Buda Kale, with purplish leaves, somewhat glaucous, 
 cut and fringed ; very hardy ; may be blanched like Sea 
 Kale ; taller than the preceding. 
 
 Turner's Cottager's Kale is a new kind, very popular 
 in England, and promises well here ; it stood the winter 
 of 1859-60 at Philadelphia ; grows two and a half feet 
 high ; leaves green, not so much curled as the Dwarf. 
 
 Culture. Raised from seed, like the rest of the cabbage 
 tribe, which may be sown in April with the winter cab- 
 bages and treated in the same manner. Transplant, if the 
 Dwarf Green Curled, into rows eighteen inches apart and 
 twelve inches in the row. Give it a good soil. The other 
 sorts require about the same space as winter cabbages. 
 Borecole may be sown as late as the middle of August in 
 the place where it is to remain, and managed like the Ruta- 
 baga turnip. Like the cabbage, it is visited by the Aphis 
 or Cabbage-louse, and caterpillar, for which see Cabbage. 
 
 Seed. Manage some of the best plants as cabbage. 
 
 Use. The outside leaves can be cut off for use when 
 from 7 to 9 inches long, but they will be coarse and rank 
 until mellowed by frost. The better way is after frost to 
 cut off the hearts, not square across, but with a sloping 
 cut, in order to threw off the rain, and the stem which is 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 187 
 
 left will throw up fresh sprouts for a succession. For 
 winter and spring greens this vegetable is nearly equal to 
 the Savoy cabbage, after the frost has rendered it sweet 
 and tender. 
 
 BROCCOLI. (Brassica oleracea, var. Botrytis cymosa.) 
 
 This is a biennial plant of the cabbage tribe, resembling 
 cauliflower, from which it differs in its undulating leaves, 
 its larger size, and the color of some of its varieties. 
 
 It is supposed to have originated from the cauliflower ; 
 it is a hardier plant, but not so delicate in flavor. It has 
 been cultivated about two hundred years, and was intro- 
 duced into England from Italy. Broccoli is raised more 
 easily than cauliflower. The Early Purple Cape broccoli, 
 producing large, brownish heads, very close and compact, 
 is the best of over 40 sorts. 
 
 It requires the same special manures as cabbage and 
 cauliflower, and for cultivation sow, transplant, and man- 
 age like late cauliflower. To protect from insects, see 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Use. The same as cauliflower, to which it is inferior 
 and where that succeeds, will hardly be worthy of culture, 
 
 BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 
 
 (Brassica oleracea, var. bullata gemmifera.) 
 
 This plant is a hardy variety of the Savoy cabbage, 
 producing an elongated stem, often four feet high and 
 crowned with leaves similar to the Savoy. Small, green 
 heads like cabbages spring from the axils of the stem leaves, 
 which, dropping off, leave the little heads arranged spirally 
 
183 
 
 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 around the stem as the plant proceeds in growth. Brus- 
 sels Sprouts are raised from seed, which may be sown in 
 April. Set the plants in rows two feet by one and a half 
 
 feet apart, and treat in all 
 respects as directed for win- 
 ter cabbage. Cut off the 
 leaves at the top of the stem 
 some ten days or a fortnight 
 before the little heads are 
 gathered, and use for greens. 
 It will stand the winters 
 without protection souih of 
 Virginia, but the product is 
 rather small, and the plants 
 are very subject to the Aphis 
 during the winter. 
 
 For Seed. Cut off the 
 top of the stem and permit 
 the flower stalks to spring 
 from the little heads only. 
 Keep at a distance from all 
 the other varieties of Bras- 
 sica, in order to have pure 
 seed. 
 
 Use. The top boiled for 
 winter greens is very delicate in flavor and similar to the 
 Savoy. But the little sprouts after they have been touched 
 with frost, which very much improves them, are the parts 
 most used. The sprouts are fit for use all winter. 
 
 Fig. 63. BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 
 
 SUBNET. (Poterium sanguisorba.) 
 
 A hardy, perennial, Rosaceous plant from Britain, of 
 which the young leaves taste and smell like cucumbers, 
 and are put into soups and salads. The leaves are green 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 189 
 
 all winter. Propagated by seeds or parting the roots. 
 Sow in autumn or early in spring, in drills eight inches 
 apart, and thin to six inches in the drill. Make new 
 plantations once in three years by dividing the roots. 
 Seldom cultivated. 
 
 CABBAGE. (Brassica ol&racea^ var. capttato.) 
 
 This is a Cruciferous biennial plant, quite hardy, found 
 wild on the coasts of England, France, and many other 
 parts of Europe. The wild variety is known as Sea Cole- 
 wort, bears but a few leaves, and is far from palatable, 
 unless boiled in two waters to remove its saltness. The cul- 
 tivated variety was probably introduced into England by 
 the Romans, and the common name doubtless comes from 
 the Latin Caput, or head. This is one of the most useful 
 crops in cultivation. Cabbages are eatable almost from 
 the time they leave the seed-bed until they have acquired 
 a hard, close head ; it is a crop that can be put on every 
 bit of otherwise idle ground. They can be planted be- 
 tween beds and rows of anything and everything else, to be 
 eaten as greens when young, or left to head on the coming 
 off of other crops, and if there should be a superabun- 
 dance above the wants of the family, nothing is better 
 for the cow and the pig. For early cabbage it is neces- 
 sary to rely upon English seed, as the seed of the early 
 varieties saved in this country grow later by our cul- 
 ture, soil, and climate. For late cabbage, the American 
 seeds are superior to the imported, and produce finer and 
 larger heads. No seed for late cabbage is better than our 
 own, if saved from fine, large heads. But all the late 
 cabbages in hot climates, without proper care, are prone 
 to run into coleworts or " collards." 
 
190 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 The best varieties are as follows : 
 
 Early York, which has been in use over a century as 
 the best for the earliest crop. Stem short, head oval, a 
 little heart-shaped, very firm, and of fine, delicate flavor ; 
 its small size enables it to be grown in rows a foot apart 
 each way, giving over 40,000 heads to the acre. 
 
 Large Early York, or Landreth's Large York, succeeds 
 the above. It is of larger size, not quite so early, and 
 more robust, and bears the heat better, and will often con- 
 tinue in eating all summer. 
 
 Early, Battersea has a very short stem, is about 3 feet 
 in circumference, or about 26 inches when the outside 
 leaves are removed. The ribs boil tender. If cut close 
 to the ground, the sprouts it throws up, if all but one or 
 two are removed, will form new heads late in the season. 
 Early Sugar Loaf, Early Emperor, Early Nonpareil, and 
 Early Yanack, are nearly allied to this. 
 
 Early WinnigStadt. Stem dwarf, head large, broad at 
 the base, sharply conical, heart firm, boiling tender. Sown 
 late, it proves a good winter cabbage. 
 
 Early Wakefield and Early Oxheart are also excellent, 
 quite early sorts, and like the Battersea. 
 
 Early Dutch is an excellent variety that connects the 
 early and late sorts, and is one of the very best in culture. 
 It is succeeded by the winter cabbages, such as 
 
 Flat Dutch, which is a large, spreading, short-stemmed 
 variety, flat on the top, close headed, firm in texture, and 
 if headed late, keeps well, and is of better flavor than 
 
 Bergen, which is also a drumhead cabbage, but larger, 
 and a little coarser ; one of the best for late keeping. 
 
 The Drumhead resembles the Flat Dutch, but is less 
 dwarf. 
 
 Green Glazed, in this climate, is more capable of resist- 
 ing the caterpillar and other insects, but it is a coarse va- 
 riety with very loose heads. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 191 
 
 Red Dutch is used principally for pickling, and should be 
 sown at the same time with the drumheads. Early York 
 and Flat Dutch are the best of the above kinds. 
 
 SAVOY CABBAGES. (B. oleracea, var. lullata-major.) 
 
 These differ from the preceding in their wrinkled leaves. 
 The varieties are hardy, being rendered more sweet and 
 tender by frost. The only two worthy of culture are : 
 
 Curled SaYOy . An excellent winter variety, much im- 
 proved in sweetness and tenderness by frost. It does not 
 head firmly, but is very fine flavored, and even the outside 
 leaves are tender and palatable. 
 
 Drumhead Savoy is almost as large and firm as the 
 drumhead cabbage, and keeps very well. The head is 
 round, flattened at top. It is nearly as delicate as the 
 curled variety. 
 
 The Savoys are not as certain a crop as the other cab- 
 bages, but far superior in delicacy. They are nearly equal 
 to cauliflowers. 
 
 Culture. An analysis of different varieties of the cabbage 
 shows them all to contain a very large proportion of nitro- 
 gen ; after evaporating the water, drumhead cabbage gives 
 of nitrogen 17.899 parts in a hundred ; Savoy, 20.763 ; red, 
 16.212; turnip-rooted, 19.052. We also find this plant 
 remarkably rich in phosphorus and sulphur ; hence its un- 
 pleasant smell in decay, like that of animal matter. It 
 abounds also in soda and potash. Hence, common salt, to 
 yield soda and chlorine, wood ashes for potash, bone for 
 phosphoric acid, and gypsum, to add sulphur and lime, to- 
 gether with a soil saturated with manure of animals, 
 especially the liquid excretion, all come in play in making 
 
192 GABDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 fine cabbages. Frequent stirring the soil, too, will rob 
 the atmosphere of its ammonia for the same purpose. 
 
 The genus to which the cabbage belongs, (Brassica^ 
 embraces also the Turnip, Borecole, Broccoli, Cauliflower, 
 Brussels Sprouts, etc., and the following observations ap- 
 ply to the whole of them. 
 
 For the seed-bed the soil should be a moist loam, but 
 more dry in the case of plants which are to stand the 
 winter. For final production most plants of this genus 
 like a fresh, very rich, moderately clayey loam. A moist, 
 cool bottom suits them admirably ; such of them as are 
 to stand the winter in the open ground should be grown 
 in a lighter soil, not over rich. Good, well-decomposed 
 stable manure is usually employed in preparing the soil 
 for this genus. Pure hog manure is by some considered 
 objectionable, as it is said to cause any of the cabbage 
 tribe to become clump-rooted and lose their regularity of 
 shape. A plentiful application of salt the autumn before 
 planting, say at the rate of eight or ten bushels per acre, 
 is very beneficial to this tribe, as it destroys the cutworm 
 and keeps the soil moist and cool. Bone-dust, and espe- 
 cially superphosphate of lime, has a very surprising effect 
 upon them, far more than analysis would lead one to 
 suppose. 
 
 The ground is advantageously dug twice the depth of a 
 spade, and should be well pulverized by the operation. 
 All of the cabbage tribe are particularly benefited by fre- 
 quent and deep cultivation ; they especially like to have 
 the soil about them thoroughly worked while the dew is 
 on them. There will be a very great difference in the 
 growth of two plots of cabbages treated alike in other 
 respects, one of which shall be hoed at sunrise, and the 
 other at midday ; the growth of the former will surpris- 
 ingly exceed that of the latter. But the cabbage tribe 
 cannot be hoed too much for their benefit even if daily. 
 The situation must be open and free from all shade or drip 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 193 
 
 of trees ; if shaded from the midday sun, it is an advan- 
 tage, but it must not be by trees. In the shade of trees 
 and other confined situations, they are much more subject 
 to be infested with caterpillars, and to grow weak and 
 spindling. In planting out, any of which the roots are 
 knotted and clumped should be rejected. 
 
 Early York cabbage seed may be sown early in 
 September or October in the open ground, watering 
 in the evening when dry, as it usually is this month. 
 The seed should be sown in drills, six inches apart, and 
 one inch deep, and the ground deeply dug; water the 
 drills before covering the seed, unless the ground is moist. 
 Cover with fine, rich soil, pressed lightly upon the seed. 
 The plants will appear in about a week, and a little soot 
 should be scattered over them to prevent the attacks of 
 insects. When large enough to transplant, they can be 
 set very thick in a cold frame or box, to stand over the 
 winter. Cover over with glass, or boards if you have 
 not glass, during severe weather, but give air every mild 
 day, and set out when the weather grows mild in the 
 spring. 
 
 From Washington southwards, a still better way than 
 putting the plants in a frame, is to throw a piece of 
 ground into high ridges, two feet apart, running east and 
 west. On the south side of these ridges, set out the 
 plants a foot apart, so that they will be shielded from the 
 cold north winds, and enjoy the full warmth of the sun. 
 Plant on the sides of the ridges and not in the trench. 
 When the weather grows severe in December, cover 
 slightly with straw or litter ; remove it when mild weather 
 returns, and cultivate as usual, gradually levelling the 
 ridges, and you will have cabbages earlier than by any 
 other mode ; the ground should be good. If you raise 
 your plants in the cold frame, they will be ready to trans- 
 plant from the 20th to the last of February. They will 
 be very liable to be eaten off by the cutworm when 
 9 
 
194 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 transplanted. There are two modes of preventing this. 
 The best method is to sow the ground intended for cab- 
 bage, the autumn after being spaded up, with salt at the 
 rate of eight bushels per acre. If you have not already 
 sown your cabbage plot with salt, there is another plan to 
 keep off the cutworm, equally successful. Throw your 
 ground into ridges and trenches sixteen inches apart ; let 
 these trenches be at least six inches deep. In the bottom 
 of these transplant your cabbages, one foot apart. Some 
 use a dibble, but a trowel is much better, as it does not 
 leave the soil hard. Prepare your ground in dry weather, 
 but choose a moist day for transplanting. It is a good 
 plan to wet the roots before planting out. When they 
 get rooted, stir the soil gently about them, but do not fill 
 up the trenches until the plants are so large that there is 
 no danger of the worm. This method of protecting cab- 
 bages was pointed out to me by a negro gardener several 
 years since, and I have tried it repeatedly. The worm 
 will not go down into the trenches to destroy the plants. 
 
 When the plants get strong, the ground should be 
 deeply and repeatedly hoed. Do this while the dew is 
 on, and retain its ammonia in the soil. The cabbage is 
 partial to moisture, so hoe it frequently, and when you go 
 out in the morning, you will find the plot moist with dew, 
 while the unstirred soil around is dry as ever. The only 
 secret in raising early cabbage is, set your plants in rich 
 ground and stir the soil. On poor ground (and even on 
 rich, if half tended) they will run into collards. Stir the 
 soil, and less manure is required. 
 
 If the fall sowing has been neglected, sow the seeds in 
 January or early in February, in a'cold frame, as directed 
 in the article on the Beet ; or they may be sown in the 
 open ground when the heavy frosts that freeze the soil are 
 over, covering them with litter, if protection is needed 
 against unseasonable frosts, to be removed when the 
 danger is over. Transplant and cultivate as above. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 195 
 
 For the middle crop to last through the summer, the 
 seed can be sown as above, or any time until the middle 
 of April. The cultivation is the same, except that the 
 plants should be set about sixteen to eighteen inches 
 apart. The varieties are the Large York, Battersea, and 
 Early Dutch. These will not head unless the ground be 
 rich, rather moist, and, above all, diligently worked. 
 
 The late crop, Red Dutch, Savoys, Flat Dutch, etc., sow 
 about the first of April. It is sown the 1st of May near 
 New York, but, sown at that season in the South, it is 
 not certain to come up. If seed of any of the cabbage 
 tribe be sown after the weather grows warm, it must be 
 watered in the drill, or covered with rich, fresh earth, 
 which must be pressed upon it by walking on a board, 
 and it must be shaded by a covering of boards or pine 
 brush during the day, removing it at night, until the 
 plants get a little established. If the weather is warm 
 and wet, the covering may be dispensed with. They 
 should not be transplanted until July or August. Let the 
 ground be well spaded, and thoroughly manured. They 
 must be set in the ground up to the first leaf, no matter 
 how long the stem may be, or they will not head. They 
 also require a rich soil, but not from fresh manure. The 
 manure for the cabbage crop should be thoroughly de- 
 composed, or the plants will be covered with aphides or 
 cabbage lice. The best way is to throw the ground into 
 ridges from two to two and a half feet apart, making the 
 trenches between more or less deep, according to the 
 length of the stems; wet the roots thoroughly, and 
 transplant in moist weather, doing it carefully with 
 a trowel, and when the ground gets dry, draw the earth 
 level, which should just reach up to the lower leaves, not 
 all at once, but gradually. If you have not late plants, 
 sow Early and Large Yorks, or Winnigstadts, in July here, 
 or June northward, and good heads of a smaller size can 
 be produced. 
 
196 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 After the late cabbages are transplanted, let them be 
 well cultivated by deep and frequent hoeing, and do not 
 strip off the lower leaves if you wish them to head. 
 
 Insects. Many remedies are employed to keep off the 
 green worm, so destructive to the cabbage tribe. An in- 
 fusion of tobacco or of the ripe berries of the Pride of 
 China tree, sprinkled on them once or twice a week from 
 a water-pot, is said to be effectual. Sprinkling with ashes 
 is a good practice ; also to coop a brood of chickens near, 
 as they destroy the worm without injury to the cabbage. 
 Break off a leaf at night and place it on the top of the 
 head. In the morning early, most of the worms will be 
 on the under side of this leaf. Brush them off into a dish 
 of soapsuds. Repeat this daily until the worms are de- 
 stroyed. Aphides are not so apt to be troublesome when 
 the plants are in vigorous growth; an application of 
 strong soapsuds generally destroys them. Wetting the 
 leaves with water raised to the temperature of 130F., it 
 is said, will kill them without injury to plants. Dry 
 charcoal dust mixed with Scotch snuff and dusted over 
 them is another remedy. Air-slaked lime in which a 
 few drops of spirits of turpentine have been diffused, will 
 generally drive away both the aphides and the green worm. 
 
 The small, black Flea-beetle, or Turnip-flea, frequently 
 attacks the young plants, and it is sometimes nearly impos- 
 sible to drive them away. In some localities the plants 
 have to be raised in boxes elevated five or six feet from 
 the ground to escape them. 
 
 To preserve Cabbage. Heel them in in a dry situation, 
 up to their lower leaves on the north side of a fence or 
 building, and cover slightly with plank, straw, or pine 
 brush, to keep them from freezing and thawing during 
 the winter. It is not the frost, however, but the sun upon 
 them, while frozen, that does the injury. In Virginia and 
 northward, dig a trench on a gentle slope, and lay two or 
 three bean poles in the bottom ; on these, beginning at the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 197 
 
 upper end, lay the cabbages, head downward, a little 
 sloping, so that the water may run out from the heads. 
 Cover now with earth a few inches thick, forming a sharp 
 ridge about their roots, whicli should be made firm by 
 treading or beating. Begin at the lower end and dig out 
 as wanted for use. 
 
 Seed. Set out some of the best heads in the spring at 
 a distance from turnips and all other members of this 
 family, or they will intermix. Of the late varieties, home- 
 grown seed, if pure, is the best. Support the stems as 
 they rise by stakes, and gather the seed before it scatters. 
 Seed will keep four years. 
 
 Use. Cabbage, as an article of food, is not so remark- 
 able for its fattening properties as for its power of supply- 
 ing strength for labor by producing muscle and bone, 
 which it owes to its richness in blood-forming material, 
 abounding in nitrogen, phosphates, and sulphur. Hence 
 it is very nutritious for, and much relished by, laboring 
 people in all parts of the world, but is apt to disagree 
 with those of quiet and sedentary habits. With the latter 
 it is more wholesome and digestible if eaten uncooked. 
 Many persons can eat "cold slaugh" with impunity that 
 are unable to use boiled cabbage without great inconven- 
 ience. It is by many much relished when made into 
 sauer-kraut, and is also pickled. 
 
 CARDOON", (Cynara Cardunculus.) 
 
 The Cardoon is a perennial plant, a native of Candia, 
 introduced into England in 1658. It resembles, and is a 
 species of artichoke, but is of larger size, some five feet in 
 height, with the leaves spreading out widely. In conti- 
 nental Europe, it is considerably cultivated, but it is a 
 
198 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 fancy vegetable, raised mostly as a curiosity, and of no 
 great merit as an esculent. In France the Tours Cardoon, 
 a very spiny, thick or fleshy-ribbed variety, is most culti- 
 vated, and, being the least liable to run to seed, is the best 
 sort. The common spineless variety is the only one of 
 which seed is usually offered in America. 
 
 Sow in drills five feet apart when the spring frosts are 
 over, and at intervals until within four months of killing 
 autumn frosts, as the early sown ones may run to seed. 
 Other crops may at first occupy the space between the 
 drills. Plant the seed an inch deep, and thin the plants 
 gradually until they are eighteen inches apart in the drills. 
 Those taken up may be reset to fill vacancies or to enlarge 
 the plantation. The soil must be light, deep, well pulver- 
 ized, and tolerably rich. Keep the ground loose about 
 them, hoeing up all the weeds. When the plants are 
 eighteen inches or two feet high, they must be blanched. 
 The decayed leaves must be removed, and the rest closed 
 together by strings or bass matting. Then bind up the 
 plant carefully with twisted bands of hay or straw, be- 
 ginning at the root. Select a dry day, or the plants will 
 rot. Bind up two-thirds of the height of the stem ; then 
 dig and break the ground and earth up to nearly the same 
 height. As the plants grow, continue to tie and earth up. 
 Watering liberally in hot weather is the only way to keep 
 them from seeding. When the plants are blanched eight- 
 een inches or two feet, they are fit for use. They will 
 blanch fully in about two or three weeks. Do not let the 
 earth get between the leaves or they will decay. 
 
 For Seed. Leave a few full-grown plants unblanched 
 to stand the winter, and they will shoot up to seed the 
 next season. 
 
 Use. The stalks rendered white and tender by blanch- 
 ing are used in stews, soups, and salads, the leaves and 
 steins being white and crisp for two feet in length. The 
 plant is not very nutritious. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 199 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea, var. Botrytis cauliflora.) 
 
 This plant is a biennial, and was introduced into Eng- 
 land from the Island of Cypress, in the early part of the 
 seventeenth century. It is a kind of cabbage with long, 
 pale green leaves, surrounding a mass or head of white 
 flower buds in short, " a giant rose wrapped in a green 
 surtout," but much more like a mass of fresh curds than 
 a rose. Since its introduction, it has been much improved 
 by the skill of the gardener. The seed is generally im- 
 ported from Europe. 
 
 There are several varieties, of which the Walcheren is 
 the best ; a dwarf, rather broad-leaved variety, which re- 
 sists better summer droughts and winter's cold than the 
 others. The London and Asiatic are also cultivated. 
 
 Cauliflower requires the same manures as cabbage. 
 There is much less difficulty in its cultivation near the 
 sea-shore than inland. The ground should receive a 
 dressing of common salt. 
 
 Culture. Cauliflowers are sown at two periods for the 
 early and late crop. For the former sow early in Septem- 
 ber thinly in drills six inches apart, in rich, light soil, and 
 if the ground is too dry and hot, water the seed in the 
 drill before covering ; cover with fine, light soil, and shade 
 with a mat until the seeds are just beginning to come up, 
 (not longer.) When the plants are three inches high, in 
 the colder localities, they are taken up carefully and pot- 
 ted singly in small pots, three in a pot where the quart 
 size is used. Instead of potting, they may be set out in 
 a cold frame or pit four inches asunder, to remain until 
 spring opens, giving them meanwhile all the air the 
 weather will admit to harden them. They will stand 
 light frosts without injury. As early as safe, remove the 
 sashes entirely a few days, take them up from the bed 
 with a transplanter with balls of earth, or, if in pots, di- 
 vide the ball carefully if it contains more than one plant, 
 
200 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 and set them out in very rich ground 20 by 24 inches 
 apart, inserting their stems in the earth nearly to the first 
 pair of leaves; shield them with plant protectors from 
 heavy frosts. 
 
 In milder localities, as the coast and middle section of 
 the more Southern States, the plants, when taken up, are 
 set out in rows where they are to remain, four inches 
 apart in the row and the rows four feet apart ; they are 
 protected during frosts and heavy storms by hoops and 
 mats, or by a covering of four planks a foot wide to each 
 row. These are supported by rafter-like supports, every 
 5 or 6 feet, to which one of the planks is nailed on each 
 side, while the others are movable and are taken off in 
 all mild weather, but the plants are kept covered in severe 
 frosts and storms. The ends are closed with plank. In- 
 stead of plank, white cotton cloth, prepared with linseed 
 oil, affords a suitable covering. They must have air and 
 light at all times when practicable. Slugs must be watch- 
 ed, whether wintered thus or in a hot-bed. They may be 
 driven off by sprinkling the soil and plants with quick- 
 lime. As early as may be safe in February, prepare the 
 soil between the rows, which, during the winter, should 
 have been protected from treading by a coat of leaves, 
 or a few old plank, and plant another row therein with 
 the plants 20 inches apart. Thin the plants that were 
 wintered to 20 inches, taking them up with a transplanter, 
 and plant out those not required for the intermediate row 
 in a plot prepared for the purpose. Shade a little with 
 plant protectors until established, if there is danger of 
 their flagging ; afterwards cultivate them as cabbages. 
 
 For the late crop sow in the manner above directed, at 
 the same time with winter cabbage, from April to July. 
 An ounce of seed will yield three or four thousand plants. 
 The seed-bed should be of light, rich soil, and when the 
 plants are two or three inches high, they should be taken 
 up and set out in a bed four inches apart, shading them 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 201 
 
 until again established, or, if the weather is too dry and 
 hot, thinned to that distance in the seed-bed. They should 
 be taken up with balls of earth in a transplanter and 
 planted out at the same time with winter cabbage, in 
 rows 20 by 24 inches apart. Protect them from the cut- 
 worm and insects in the same manner. If possible, give 
 them a plot of moist bottom soil, made very rich with 
 well-decomposed manure. Water freely when needed, 
 which, in dry weather, is every other day at least ; if with 
 liquid manure, so much the better. Let them never suf- 
 fer from drought ; they will show when they need water 
 by their drooping leaves. Soapsuds is an excellent appli- 
 cation. Keep the ground hoed thoroughly about them, 
 especially the day after each watering, that it may not 
 bake. 
 
 The hills should be hollowed about the cauliflower like 
 a- shallow basin, to retain moisture. The head may be 
 blanched by bending the leaves and confining them loosely 
 with a string. They will head in succession during the 
 autumn. To protect them from insects, see cabbage. 
 
 When a cauliflower has reached its full size, which is 
 shown by the border opening as if about to seed, the plant 
 should be pulled, and if laid entire in this state in a cool 
 place, may be kept several days. It should be pulled 
 in the morning, for if gathered in the middle or evening 
 of a hot day, it boils tough. When there is danger of 
 severe frost injuring the cauliflowers that have not already 
 headed, they may be protected by pine boughs or empty 
 boxes or barrels where they stand, or pulled up with the 
 earth attached to the roots, and removed to a cellar or 
 out-building, where they will flower in succession. In the 
 low country this will hardly be necessary, and the spring 
 crop is, I believe, more certain with them. 
 
 For Seed. Set out, in spring, some of the finest heads, 
 with fine, close flower-buds, and proceed as with cabbage. 
 It is very liable to intermix w r ith the other Brassicas ; so 
 9* 
 
202 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 that it is best to depend upon foreign seed. Seed will 
 keep three or four years. 
 
 Use. The heads or flowers boiled, generally wrapped 
 in a clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate 
 dish. " Of all the flowers in the garden," says Dr. John- 
 son, " give me the cauliflower." It is one of the very 
 best of vegetable products, and so prized wherever known. 
 It is nutritious and wholesome even x for invalids, beside 
 being a very ornamental addition to the table. 
 
 To Cook. Cut off the green leaves, and look carefully 
 that there are no caterpillars about the stalk ; soak an 
 hour in cold water, with a handful of salt in it; then boil 
 them in milk and water, and take care to skim the sauce- 
 pan, that not the least foulness may fall on the flower. It 
 must be served up very white, with sauce, gravy, or 
 melted butter. Mrs. Hale. 
 
 CARROT. (Daucus Carota.) 
 
 The carrot is a hardy, Umbelliferous biennial, found wild 
 ill Great Britain, as well as in this country, growing in 
 sandy soil or by road-sides. The root of the wild plant 
 is small, white, dry, woody, and strong flavored ; while 
 that of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and 
 generally of a reddish yellow or pale straw color. The 
 cultivated carrot is, however, thought to have been brought 
 into Europe from the island of Crete, where it was early 
 cultivated. It was carried to England by Flemish refu- 
 gees in the days of Elizabeth, and the leaves were thought 
 beautiful enough to be used in ladies' head-dresses. Cul- 
 tivation has changed a wild, worthless plant into a most 
 nutritious root. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 203 
 
 M. Yilmorin, of Paris, has done the same in our day, 
 and from the wild plant by selecting seed, in three gener- 
 ations produced roots as large as the best garden carrots, 
 the flavor of which, by most of those who have tasted 
 them, is considered superior to the old varieties. (Son 
 Jardinier.) 
 
 The best varieties for the garden are : 
 
 Early Horn, which is very early, high colored, and 
 sweeter than other varieties. It does not grow very long, 
 and may be known by its conical root shortening abruptly 
 to a point. It will grow closer together, and is better on 
 shallow soils than other kinds, except 
 
 Early French Short Horn, which is an earlier and 
 superior variety of the above, and for an early crop the 
 best. 
 
 Altringham* Color, bright red, and growing with the 
 top an inch or two above ground, which sometimes freezes 
 in very severe winters, if left in the ground, as is usual 
 with this crop in Southern gardens. Of excellent quality. 
 
 Long Orange* Is paler in color, and of great length, 
 the root not above the ground. It is next in quality to 
 the above, and best for winter use where the crop is to be 
 left in the ground. 
 
 Analysis shows that lime, potash, soda, sulphuric acid, 
 and chloride of sodium or salt, abound in the ashes of this 
 plant. The salt and lime mixture, composted with leaf- 
 mould or swamp muck, a little plaster of Paris, bone-dust, 
 and wood ashes, are the special manures needed. 
 
 Culture. Carrots like a light and fertile soil, dug full 
 two spades deep for the long varieties, as they require a 
 deeper soil than any other garden vegetable. The manure 
 should be put as near the bottom as possible, not less 
 than eighteen inches from the surface ; but the soil should 
 be fertilized by a previous crop, if fine, smooth roots are 
 desired. 
 
204 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 In the Southern States carrots, for the early crop, may 
 be sown in October or the first of November, and again 
 from January to April inclusive, after which the seed 
 comes up badly. At New York, the late crop is sown in 
 June for winter use, and for the early crop they sow in 
 September, and protect it a little with litter through the 
 winter. 
 
 Late sown seed do not vegetate freely. Sow in drills 
 fifteen inches apart ; cover the seed half an inch deep with 
 fine soil, and for the late crop, if the ground is dry, water 
 the seed before covering, and after a few hours press the 
 earth upon the seed with a roller or plank. Thin the 
 young plants to six inches apart. In short, the culture 
 of the carrot is just that of the beet, which see. Six 
 hundred bushels have been produced from one acre. The 
 carrots need not be pulled at the South, but may be left 
 safely in the ground to draw as wanted for use during the 
 winter. In severe weather, they may be protected by a 
 covering of litter ; but it is hardly necessary, except for 
 the Altringham. At the North, they are stored in cellars 
 or in piles, covered with straw and earth, like the potato. 
 
 For Seed. Leave some of the finest roots, protected 
 with litter, where raised, to blossom and seed the next 
 summer; save only the principal umbels. Each head 
 should be cut as it turns brown, dried in the shade, rub- 
 bed out, and dried in paper bags. The seed will not vege- 
 tate if more than two years old. 
 
 Use. The carrot is a very wholesome food for man or 
 beast. It is a valuable addition to stews and soups, and 
 is also boiled plain, pickled, and made into puddings and 
 pies. Boiled or grated, it is an excellent poultice. The 
 grated root is often added to cream to improve the color 
 of winter butter. One carrot, grated into cold water, 
 will color cream enough for eight pounds of butter, with- 
 out any injury to the flavor. One bushel of boiled car- 
 rots and one of corn are said to be worth as much as 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 205 
 
 two bushels of corn to feed to pigs. They are excellent 
 for feeding horses and milch cows, and for this purpose 
 are the most profitable of all roots in deep, fertile soils. 
 
 CELERY. (Apium graveolens.) 
 
 Celery is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a native 
 of Britain, where the wild variety, called Smallage, is 
 found growing in low, marshy grounds, and by the sides 
 of ditches, and is a coarse, rank weed, with an unpleasant 
 smell and taste. 
 
 There are several varieties, some of which have hollow 
 stalks. None but those which are solid are worthy of 
 notice ; among the best are : 
 
 Red Solid* The hardiest variety, for winter use, with- 
 stands frost, and is distinguished by its color from the 
 
 White Solid 9 which is more crisp and delicate in flavor, 
 and a general favorite, on account of its color. 
 
 Seymour's White seems to be an improvement on the 
 old Red and White Solid, producing larger and finer 
 stalks, which are solid, flat at the base where they over- 
 lap, and form a crisp, well blanched heart ; quality best. 
 
 Curled White. Leaves dark green, curled, resembling 
 parsley, and, like that, useful iu garnishing ; hardy for win- 
 ter use, but not as fine flavored. Useful to stand over 
 the winter to use for soups in the spring. 
 
 Early Dwarf Solid White, Dwarf, thick-stemmed, 
 with a full heart, blanching promptly ; quality excellent, 
 and giving more well blanched substance than the taller 
 sorts. 
 
 The soil for fine celery must be rich in potash, lime, 
 phosphoric acid, and chloride of potassium. But it wil- 
 
20(5 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 not do to depend upon special manures alone, without the 
 addition to the soil of well rotted animal manures. 
 
 Celery flourishes best in a soil moist, friable, and rather 
 inclining to lightness. It must be quite rich, without the 
 application of heating manure. It likes a cool, moist, but 
 not wet soil. There are several modes of cultivation. 
 The common mode is to sow the seed in April thinly in 
 drills eight inches apart. As celery is a long while vege- 
 tating in the open air, it is desirable to sow the early crop 
 under glass. Let the seed-bed be very rich, and if not 
 sufficiently moist, sprinkle the drills well before covering, 
 and cover thinly with light, sifted soil. Shade the bed on 
 sunny days, but admit mild rains and warm dews, but 
 keep all close in cool weather until the young plants make 
 their appearance. Unless managed as directed for fine 
 flower seeds, celery will not readily come up. Water 
 must be given from a fine rosed pot if the soil is dry. 
 
 [The manuscript of the author gives no directions for 
 the cultivation of celery. The old way is to plant in 
 trenches, a foot deep, well manured at the bottom, and 
 to earth up gradually, as the plants make their growth. 
 This plan is now abandoned by our best growers, and in 
 the lack of Mr. White's directions, we give those of a 
 well-known authority, Mr. Peter Henderson, taken from 
 his valuable work called " Gardening for Profit." Pubs.] 
 
 Celery may be planted any time from middle of June 
 to middle of August ; but the time we most prefer is 
 during July, as there is but little gained by attempting it 
 early. In fact, I have often seen plants raised in hot-beds 
 and planted out in June, far surpassed both in size and 
 quality by those raised in the open ground and planted 
 a month later. Celery is a plant requiring a cool, moist 
 atmosphere, and it is nonsense to attempt to grow it early, 
 in our hot and dry climate ; and even w^en grown, it is 
 not a vegetable that is ever very palatable until cool 
 weather. This our market experience well proves, for 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 207 
 
 although we always have a few bunches exposed for sale 
 in August and September, there is not one root sold then 
 for a thousand that are sold in October and November. 
 Celery is always grown as a " second crop" by us, that is, 
 it follows after the spring crop of Beets, Onions, Cabbage, 
 Cauliflower, or Peas, which are cleared off and marketed, 
 at latest, by the middle of July; the ground is then thor- 
 oughly plowed and harrowed. No additional manure -is 
 used, as enough remains in the ground from the heavy 
 coat it has received in the spring, to carry through the 
 crop of Celery. After the ground* has been nicely pre- 
 pared, lines are struck out on the level surface, three feet 
 apart, and the plants set six inches apart in the rows. If 
 the weather is dry at the time of planting, great care 
 should be taken that the roots are properly "firmed." 
 Our custom is, to turn back on the row, and press by the 
 side of each plant gently with the foot. This compacts 
 the soil and partially excludes the air from the root until 
 new rootlets are formed, which will usually be in forty- 
 eight hours, after which all danger is over. This practice 
 of pressing the soil closely around the roots is essential in 
 planting of all kinds, and millions of plants are annually 
 destroyed by its omission. After the planting of the 
 Celery is completed, nothing further is to be done for six 
 or seven weeks, except running through between the rows 
 with the cultivator or hoe, and freeing the plants of weeds 
 until they get strong enough to crowd them down. This 
 will bring us to about the middle of August, by which 
 time we usually have that moist and cool atmosphere 
 essential to the growth of Celery. Then we begin the 
 " earthing up," necessary for blanching or whitening that 
 which is wanted for use during the months of September, 
 October, and November. The first operation is that of 
 " handling," as we term it, that is, after the soil has been 
 drawn up against the plant with the hoe, it is further drawn 
 close around each plant by the hand, firm enough to keep 
 
203 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 the leaves in an upright position and prevent them from 
 spreading, which will leave them as shown in fig. 64. 
 This being done, more soil is drawn against the row, 
 
 Fig. 64 CELERY AFTER "HANDLING." 
 
 (either by the plow or hoe, as circumstances require), so as 
 to keep the plant in this upright position. The blanching 
 process must, however, be finished by the spade, which is 
 done by digging the soil from between the rows and bank- 
 
 . 65. CELERY EARTHED UP. 
 
 ing it yp clear to the top on each side of the row of Celery, 
 as in fig. 65. Three feet is ample distance between the 
 dwarf varieties, but when " Seymour's Superb," " Giant," 
 or other large sorts are used, the width between the rows 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 209 
 
 must be at least 4 or 5 feet, which entails much more 
 labor and loss of ground. For the past eight years I have 
 grown none but the dwarf varieties, and have saved, in 
 consequence, at least one-half in labor, and one-third in 
 ground, while the average price per root in market has 
 been always equal and occasionally higher than for the 
 tall growing sorts. 
 
 My neighbors around me have at last got their eyes 
 opened to the value of the dwarf sorts, and I think that a 
 few years more will -suffice to throw the large and coarse- 
 flavored sorts, such as " Seymour's Superb," and " Giant," 
 out of our markets. 
 
 The preparation, of the soil and planting of Celery for 
 winter use, is the same in all respects, except that, what is 
 intended for winter need never be " banked up" with the 
 spade. It merely requires to be put through the handling 
 process, to put it in a compact and upright position pre- 
 paratory to being stowed away in winter quarters. This 
 should not be done before the middle of September, or 
 just long enough before the Celery is dug up, to keep it 
 in the upright position. 
 
 We have, however, another method which we have 
 found to answer very well for the late crop, and it is one 
 by which more roots can be grown on the same space and 
 with less labor than by any other. It is simply to plant 
 the Celery one foot apart, each way, nothing farther being 
 required after planting, except twice or thrice hoeing, to 
 clear the crop of weeds until it grows enough to cover 
 the ground. No handling or earthing up is required by 
 this method, for, as the plants struggle for light, they 
 naturally assume an upright position, the leaves all assum- 
 ing the perpendicular instead of the horizontal, which is 
 the condition essential before being put in winter quarters. 
 This method is not quite so general with us as planting in 
 rows, and it is perhaps better adapted for private gardens 
 than for market ; as the plant is more excluded from the 
 
210 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 air, the root hardly attains as much thickness as by the 
 other plan. 
 
 Our manner of preserving it during the winter is now 
 very simple, but as the knowledge of the process is yet 
 quite local, being confined almost exclusively to the Jersey 
 market gardeners, I will endeavor to put it plain enough, 
 so that my readers "may go and do likewise." In this 
 locality we begin to dig up that which we intend for winter 
 use about the end of October, and continue the work 
 (always on dry days) until the 20th -or 25th of November, 
 which is as late as we dare risk it out for fear of frost. 
 Let it be understood that Celery will stand quite a sharp 
 
 Fig. 66. CELERY STORED FOR WINTER. 
 
 frost, say 10 or even 15 degrees, while 20 or 25 degrees 
 will destroy it. Hence experience has taught us, that the 
 sharp frosts that we usually have during the early part of 
 November, rarely hurt it, though often causing it to droop 
 flat on the ground, until thawed out by the sun. It must, 
 however, never be touched when in the frozen state, or it 
 is almost certain to decay. The ground in which it is 
 placed for winter use should be as dry as possible, or if 
 not dry, so arranged that no water will remain in the trench. 
 The trench should be dug as narrow as possible, not more 
 than 10 or 12 inches wide, and of the depth exactly of 
 the height of the Celery ; that is, if the plant of the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 211 
 
 Celery be 2 feet in length, the depth of the drain or 
 trench should be 2 feet also. The Celery is now placed in 
 the trench as near perpendicular as possible, so as to fill it 
 up entirely, its green tops being on a level with the top 
 of the trench. Figure 66 represents a section across a 
 trench filled with Celery in the manner just described. 
 No earth whatever is put to the roots other than what 
 may adhere to them after being dug up. It being closely 
 packed together, there is moisture enough always at the 
 bottom of the trench to keep this plant, at the cool season 
 of the year, from wilting. That which is put in trenches 
 about the 25th of October is usually ready to be taken 
 up for use about the 1st of December, that a couple of 
 weeks later, by 1st of January, and the last (which we try 
 always to defer to 15th or 20th November) may be used 
 during the winter and until the 1st of April. For the 
 first lot, no covering is required, but that for use during 
 the winter months must be gradually covered up, from the 
 middle of December, on until 1st of January, when it will 
 require at least a foot of covering of some light, dry 
 material hay, straw, or leaves the latter perhaps the 
 best. I have said the covering up should be gradual. 
 This is very important, for if the full weight of covering 
 is put on at once, it prevents the passing off of the heat 
 generated by the closely packed mass of Celery, and in 
 consequence it to some extent " heats," and decay takes 
 place. Covered up in this manner, it can be got out with 
 ease, during the coldest weather in winter, and with perfect 
 safety. These dates of operations, like all others named 
 throughout, are for this latitude ; the cultivator must use 
 his judgment carefully in this matter, to suit the section 
 in which he is located. 
 
 To save 8eed. Leave some plants where grown ; in the 
 latter part of February, take them carefully, cut off the 
 outside leaves, and remove the side shoots, and plant 
 them out in moist soil, one foot apart. Select those which 
 
212 GAEDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 are solid and of middling size. Tie the seed-stalks to 
 stakes, to preserve them from being broken off by violent 
 winds. After the flowers open, while the seed is swelling, 
 if dry weather occurs, water at least every other night. 
 When the seed is dry, it may be rubbed out and stored hi 
 a dry place. They will keep good four years. 
 
 Use. Celery has some little nutriment, but is cultivat- 
 ed chiefly as a luxury. The sweet, crisp stalks, used raw, 
 with a little salt, form a most grateful salad. It is also 
 used as a seasoning, and is a great improvement to soups 
 and gravies. A few plants for this purpose are as neces- 
 sary and wholesome as onions. The unblanched leaves 
 and seeds are sometimes employed in flavoring. The 
 blanched stalks form a pleasant conserve, with the addi- 
 tion of sugar. 
 
 CELERIAC. (Apium graveolens, var. napaceum.) 
 
 Celcriac, or Turnip-rooted Celery, is a variety of celery 
 which forms at the base of its stem an irregular knob, 
 which is the part used, either cooked or raw, in salads. The 
 roots have been grown to three or four pounds weight. It is 
 sweeter, but not so delicate as common celery, and is not 
 much in use, except in climates so cold that the common 
 sort can not be easily preserved through the winter, 
 while this can be stored like turnips. 
 
 The young plants of celeriac are raised exactly like those 
 of celery. When six inches high, they are fit for final trans- 
 planting. Set them in rows two feet asunder, and eight 
 inches apart in the rows upon the level ground, or in 
 drills drawn with the hoe three inches deep, as they re- 
 quire but little earthing up. When arrived to nearly 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 
 
 213 
 
 their full size, they must be covered over with earth to 
 the depth of four inches. In dry weather they should 
 
 be watered plenti- 
 
 \ r (i/\ 
 
 Fig. 67. CELERIAC. 
 
 ever y even- 
 ing, as they like 
 even more water 
 than celery. The 
 only additional at- 
 tention required 
 is to keep them 
 free from weeds. 
 The plant is more 
 easily cultivated 
 than celery. 
 
 Saving Seeds. 
 The directions for 
 celery are in every 
 respect applicable 
 to celeriac. 
 
 Use.ThQ stalks 
 are used for sea- 
 soning soups, etc., 
 the same as cel- 
 ery, from which 
 they can hardly 
 be distinguished. 
 The roots are nice 
 boiled tender, cut 
 in slices and dress- 
 
 ed like turnips. They nre often made into a salad, after 
 boiling them, and are used in seasoning soups or meat pies. 
 
214 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 CHICK-PEA. (Cicer arietum.) 
 
 This is an annual Leguminous plant from southern Eu- 
 rope, of which there are three varieties, one with whitg 
 and one with yellow seeds, both of which have white 
 flowers ; and a third variety has red seeds, and rose-colored 
 flowers. It is sown like peas early in spring, in drills three 
 feet apart. The pods should be gathered before they are 
 quite ripe. The seeds are largely used in soups, purees, 
 etc., in France and southern Europe. They are less nour- 
 ishing than the common pea, and not very digestible. In 
 shape they somewhat resemble a ram's head. They suc- 
 ceeded quite well in Georgia, as far as growth was con- 
 cerned, but on gathering, they were found each to contain 
 a worm which made them worthless for use when ripe. 
 Seeds of this plant were distributed under the name 
 " Garbanza" by the U. S. Patent Office. 
 
 CHIVES, or GIVES. (Allium Schcenoprasum.) 
 
 A hardy, perennial plant of the onion tribe, growing 
 wild in the meadows of Britain, as some varieties of the 
 same genus do in this country. The bunches are made 
 up of a mass of little bulbs, and produce pretty purplish 
 flowers early in summer. 
 
 Culture. Any common soil will answer. Divide the 
 roots in autumn or spring, and plant them on a bed or 
 border, in little bunches of ten or twelve offsets, in holes 
 made with the dibble ten inches apart. If kept free from 
 weeds, they will speedily make large bunches, a few of 
 which will supply a large family. Cut the tops smoothly 
 off near the surface, when wanted, and fresh ones will 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 215 
 
 soon spring up. Chives make a very pretty edging for 
 beds in winter and spring. Renew every four years by 
 taking up and dividing the roots. 
 
 Use. It is an excellent substitute for young onions in 
 winter and spring salading, and is also used like leeks and 
 onions in seasoning soups, gravies, etc. The leaves, cut 
 up fine and mixed with meal and water, are often fed to 
 young chickens as a preventive of disease. The little 
 bulbs may be taken up and stored, and are a tolerable 
 substitute for small onions. 
 
 CHERVIL. (Scandix cerefotium.) 
 
 An annual Umbelliferous plant, a native of southern 
 Europe, with finely divided leaves, somewhat resembling 
 parsley. Formerly it was much cultivated. There are 
 two sorts, the plain and curled. 
 
 It is propagated from seed, which is sown early in 
 spring, and every three or four weeks until autumn. The 
 summer sowings must be in a shady situation. Make the 
 drills very shallow and nine inches apart, and cover lightly 
 with the back of the rake. When the leaves are three or 
 four inches high, they are fit for use. Keep them closely 
 cut, and they will afford a succession for some time. Keep 
 the soil light and free from weeds, and let a few shoots re- 
 main uncut to run up to seed. 
 
 Use. The young leaves have a milder flavor than pars- 
 ey, and are used in soups and salads, and also boiled. 
 " Chervil should be eaten," says an old writer, " with oil 
 and vinegar, being first boiled, which is very good for old 
 people that are dull and without courage ; it rejoiceth and 
 comforteth the heart and increaseth the strength." It is 
 now nearly out of use. 
 
GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 CORN. (&^ 
 
 Indian Corn, or Maize, is a native plant, found distrib- 
 uted in all the milder climates of America at its discovery. 
 It is of more universal culture than any other plant on 
 this continent, and can be made to produce more food per 
 acre than any other grain. The best garden varieties are : 
 
 Extra Early with short ears, small cob, and large 
 grains, which are of excellent flavor. It can be grown fit 
 for the table in six weeks from the time of planting. 
 
 Eight-rowed Sugar. Ears of larger size, grow two or 
 more on a stalk, remain in a milky state, and fit for the 
 table a long time ; grains, when dry, are small and shriv- 
 elled ; of very sweet and excellent flavor when boiled. 
 
 Stowell's Evergreen Sweet Corn, A twelve-rowed va- 
 riety with ears larger than the Eight-rowed. The grains 
 resemble the Sugar Corn, but are thinner when dry. It 
 produces well, and is quite as good. 
 
 The common Dent corn of the South better endures 
 intense summer heat, and will supply green corn for 
 the table when the preceding sorts fail from drought. It 
 is less injured by the corn-worm, which eats into the end 
 of the ear, than Sweet or Sugar corn. 
 
 Maize likes a soil abounding in soluble silica. Gypsum 
 and ashes, experience has proved the best special manures. 
 Sweet corn has much less starch than the other varieties, 
 but much more sugar and extract. It has also a greater 
 portion of dextrine and gum. 
 
 Culture. In the Northern States, a dry soil and a hot 
 season are required to produce large crops of corn. At 
 the South, we raise far better crops in moist seasons, and 
 on moist bottom lands. Rich, deep loam affords the plant 
 plenty of moisture and nourishment, which the corn likes. 
 The Extra Early and Sugar corn will bear thick planting. 
 Plant the first crop in the open air when the peach is well 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 217 
 
 in bloom, and every three weeks thereafter to July at 
 New York, and until August in Georgia, selecting the 
 early sorts for the first and last plantings. 
 
 The early crop may be forwarded a month, by planting 
 a few hills in pots under glass, on a large scale, in boxes, 
 thus : " Prepare boxes about 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 
 5 inches high. Make one of the sides so that it can be 
 easily removed. Fill these boxes with loam mixed with 
 some manure. Then prepare some strips of board 2J 
 inches wide, 5 inches long, and as thin as the blade of a 
 hoe. Put these down endwise into the loam, so as to di- 
 vide the loam into squares, 2$ inches square and 5 inches 
 deep. (As these squares are each to contain a hill of 
 corn, it will be seen that the thin strips are to prevent the 
 roots of one hill from interfering with those of another.) 
 Place these boxes in a sunny place, well protected from 
 the west wind, and about a month before the usual plant- 
 ing time, plant 4 kernels of corn in each one of these 
 squares. By planting time, that corn will be 5 or 6 inches 
 high. Having prepared the ground and opened the hills, 
 take the hills of corn from the boxes in the hand, put them 
 into the prepared hill, press the earth around them, and 
 the corn is at once planted and hoed the first time. It 
 would be well to use some phosphate of lime or hen ma- 
 nure, so as to cause the corn to start immediately. In a 
 short time the corn will be as large as usual when hoed 
 the second time." (New England Farmer.) 
 
 The ground for corn should be deeply plowed or spade- 
 ed, then laid off in hills three feet apart each way, for 
 Sugar and Early corn, leaving three or four .plants in a 
 hill, while two plants in hills five feet apart is near enough 
 for large Southern corn. If the ground is not rich, place 
 a shovelful of decayed manure to each hill. Fresh dung 
 can be immediately applied to corn, if spread before plow- 
 ing, and well turned in. Plant four or five grains to a 
 hill, and cover two inches deep. When they are up, thin 
 10 
 
218 GAKDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 as above. Hoe deeply and often while young, and draw 
 the earth each time a little about the stalk ; but after the 
 plant is six inches high, shallow surface culture, killing 
 the weeds and loosening the surface without cutting the 
 main roots, is all that is needed. 
 
 Cora is a gross feeder, and cannot get too much manure. 
 A sprinkling of guano about the hill is beneficial, if it 
 does not touch the seed. Growth is much improved by 
 giving the plants, at their first hoeing, a teaspoonful of 
 gypsum to each hill, or a pint of ashes, or as much of the 
 charcoal poudrette. Chickens, birds, and squirrels can be 
 prevented from pulling up the corn, by soaking it in wa- 
 ter twelve hours before planting, then stirring the seed 
 briskly in a vessel containing a little tar mixed with warm 
 water ; thus giving each grain a thin coat. Afte* which, 
 for convenient handling, it is to be rolled in as much ash- 
 es, gypsum, or lime, as it will take up. One-half bushel 
 of corn requires, a pint of tar and a gallon of warm wa- 
 ter, with as much ashes as will stick to the grain. It is 
 effectual against birds, squirrels, etc., while the seed vege- 
 tates freely, if previously soaked. 
 
 THE COEN-WOEM, (Heliothes?) comes from the egg of 
 a tawny yellowish moth deposited in June, and after, in 
 the silk or apex of the ears of Indian corn while in the 
 milk. The caterpillar, at first scarcely visible, increases 
 rapidly, and, sheltered by the husk, feeds voraciously up- 
 on the tender grains at the end of the cob. It is thought 
 to be identical with the boll-worm of the cotton plant. 
 Injury may jprob ably be warded off by catching the first 
 brood of moths in wide-mouthed bottles, or plates, contain- 
 ing a gill or more of molasses and vinegar. These, being 
 set upon a board some six inches square, fastened upon a 
 stake, raised above the plants, are found to attract the 
 moths from a great distance, and, alighting on it in their 
 eagerness to feed, its adhesive nature prevents escape. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 219 
 
 The light wood fires would also probably serve the same 
 purpose. 
 
 Where the worm has eaten the ear, a secure retreat is 
 afforded to many other insects, and as the dampness from 
 the exuded sap favors the growth of mould, the remainder 
 of the ear is thus destroyed. 
 
 The worms are brown, or green striped with brown, 
 and from half an inch to over an inch in length. They 
 are in some seasons quite destructive in the South, prefer- 
 ring the Sugar corn to the ordinary field varieties. 
 
 THE BILL-BUG, or COEN-BOEEE, (Sphenophorus), is 
 about half an inch in length, of a reddish-brown or red- 
 dish-black color. The head is furnished with a long bill 
 or trunk, whence its name. It is destructive to Southern 
 corn crops, where abundant. The bug eats into the corn- 
 stalk just at the surface of the ground, and deposits its 
 egg. The grub, when hatched, devours the substance of 
 the stalk, and at length is transformed into the pupa, or 
 chrysalis state, remaining in the stalk until spring. The 
 best remedy is to "burn the cornstalks and roots, by which 
 their number, the succeeding year, is greatly lessened. 
 
 For Seed. Select the best ears from stalks that bear 
 more than one. 
 
 Use. Indian corn is prepared in a greater variety of 
 ways for the table than any other grain. In fact, the 
 modes of preparation alone would almost fill a volume. 
 That from the garden is mostly boiled green. Green corn 
 can be very easily preserved for winter use, by cutting off 
 the kernels after boiling, and drying in a shaded, airy 
 place. Or, cut the corn off the cob, and put it in a stone 
 jar, with a handful of salt to a pint of corn. When the jar 
 is full, put a weight on it. When you wish to use it, re- 
 move a little of the top, and wash and soak it over night. 
 Sugar corn is the best for this purpose. 
 
220 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 CORN SALAD. (Fedto oh'toria.) 
 
 Corn Salad, Fetticus, or Lamb's Lettuce, is a small an- 
 nual plant, a native of English wheat-fields. It has long, 
 narrow leaves of a pale glaucous hue, and very small, pale 
 blue flowers. It has long been cultivated in English gar- 
 dens as a winter and spring salad. There is also a round- 
 leaved variety with leaves thicker, and of a darker green. 
 
 Culture. Corn salad likes a loam of moderate fertility, 
 not too heavy. It is raised from seed, one quarter of an 
 ounce of which will sow a bed four feet by fifteen. Sow 
 seed of the preceding year's growth, at intervals from 
 August until frost, in drills six inches apart. Thin the 
 plants as wanted for consumption to four inches in the 
 drills, and keep free from weeds by frequent hoeing. 
 Gather the leaves to eat while young, taking the outer 
 ones, as with spinach. It will be fit for use all winter, 
 where the ground keeps open. A spring sowing may 
 be made among the earliest crops, put in for later use 
 when desired. Allow some of the plants to shoot up to 
 seed, which, as they shed easily, is shaken out upon a 
 cloth spread under the plants. It keeps six years. 
 
 Use. It is used during winter and early spring, to in- 
 crease the variety of small salads, and as a substitute for 
 lettuce. In France it is boiled like spinach. There is a 
 species ( V. eriocarpd) with larger leaves, cultivated solely 
 to use in this way. 
 
 COW-PEA. (Dolichos.) 
 
 Several species of Dolichos are largely cultivated in 
 most southern climates, the vines of which are used for 
 forage, and the seeds employed not only for stock feeding, 
 but the finer kinds are used largely as substitutes for kid- 
 ney beans as food for man. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 221 
 
 Of these the most in use are Dolichos Sinensis and D. 
 sesquipedalis, Asparagus or Yard-long beans with edible 
 pods from one to two feet in length, cultivated like pole 
 beans; and D. unguiculatus^ under which the cow-peas 
 are included. These have either erect or twining steins, 
 according to the variety, and are mostly grown in the 
 field, either broadcast or between the rows of corn when 
 last worked. None of them are much in use north of 
 Virginia, they being a Southern institution. 
 
 CEESS, AMERICAN. (Bartorea vulgaris). 
 
 A biennial Cruciferous plant with yellow flowers, the 
 radical leaves of which are lyre-shaped, and the upper 
 ones pinnatifid, and cultivated in some gardens as a win- 
 ter salad. Often called water-cress at the South. 
 
 Sow either in drills or broadcast in a moist place, the 
 last of August, September, or early in October, giving 
 water in dry, hot weather. Let the plants remain six or 
 eight inches apart. Preserve a few good plants for seed. 
 
 Use. It is generally liked as a winter or early spring 
 salad, somewhat like the water-cress, but more bitter. 
 
 The Winter Cress, JS. prcecox, resembles the foregoing, 
 but is a perennial plant with larger leaves. The use and 
 culture are the same. Less bitter than the former. 
 
 CEESS, GARDEN. (Lepidium sativum.) 
 
 Cress, or Peppergrass as it is called, from its pungent 
 taste, is a hardy Cruciferous annual, probably from Persia, 
 and has been cultivated in England since 1548. 
 
 There are three sorts, of which the common Curled and 
 the Normandy are the best; the broad-leaved sort is 
 coarse and inferior. 
 
222 GARDENING FOR TOE SOUTH. 
 
 Culture. Cress likes a light, moist mould, and in sum- 
 mer a shady border is to be preferred. It is propagated 
 from seed, which, to keep up a succession of young and 
 tender plants, must be sown every week or two. Give it 
 rich earth, that it may grow rapidly. It is best when an 
 inch high, but is generally allowed to get two or three 
 times as high before cropping. Begin to sow for winter 
 and early spring use in September and October, in a shel- 
 tered situation ; and again as soon as spring opens, 
 sow in the open ground, in drills six or eight inches apart ; 
 cover lightly, and pat over the bed with the back of the 
 spade to press the earth upon the seed. Keep the ground 
 clear, and water in dry weather. It can be had all winter 
 by the use of the cold frame or hot-bed ; give plenty of 
 air. A few rows left uncut will produce seed abundantly. 
 
 Use. The young and tender leaves give to salads a 
 warm, pungent, and agreeable taste. It is generally used 
 in connection with lettuce and other salads. 
 
 CUCUMBER. (Cucumis sativus.) 
 
 This is a tender, trailing annual, with rough, heart-shaped 
 leaves, and yellow flowers, growing wild in the East In- 
 dies, etc. It is one of the earliest garden products men- 
 tioned in history, and was cultivated from the earliest 
 times in Egypt. (Numbers xi., 5.) 
 
 It has always been a vegetable peculiarly grateful and 
 refreshing to the inhabitants of warm climates. It was 
 probably early brought into Europe from the East, as it 
 was in high esteem among the Romans, who so well un- 
 derstood its culture, that it appeared on the tables of the 
 wealthy in winter. In England, it was introduced as early 
 as 1573. The best varieties are : 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 223 
 
 Early Cluster, named from the fruit growing in clusters. 
 The fruit is about five inches long, very productive. 
 Early Russian is a smaller and earlier variety of this. 
 
 Early Short White Prickly, growing five or six inches 
 long, with white prickles, remaining green longer than 
 most other varieties ; productive. 
 
 Early Frame. Six to ten inches long, much used for 
 forcing ; productive and good. 
 
 White Spined, or White Spined Long Green, is of fine 
 form, deep green color, which it retains well; a good 
 bearer, and of the best quality. 
 
 Long Green Prickly, Dark green color with black 
 spines, grows about ten inches in length and bears abun- 
 dantly ; excellent for pickles. 
 
 Gherkin* C. Anguria, a different species with small 
 and prickly fruit, and leaves much divided, or palmated ; 
 a great bearer, but used only for pickling. 
 
 There are many other varieties, some of which grow 
 two feet long, crisp and well flavored, but the foregoing 
 are the best for family culture. 
 
 Culture. The seed may be planted here about the first 
 of April, or as soon as it can be done with safety, as this 
 plant is very tender and will not bear the least frost. If 
 the soil be deeply trenched, the plant is much less suscep- 
 tible to drought. After the ground is prepared, dig out 
 holes fifteen inches deep and the same in diameter, six 
 feet apart each way, and partly fill them with well-decom- 
 posed manure. A little guano, or fowl manure, sprinkled 
 in the bottom of the hills, will be very beneficial. Do 
 not use fresh manure, or the plants will die out. Cow 
 manure and leaf-mould are excellent. Cover over the ma- 
 nure with rich, mellow loam. Raise the hills a little above 
 the surface, and put eight or ten seeds in the hill; cover 
 an inch deep, and when they get rough leaves, pull up the 
 poorest plants, and leave but three in the hill. Old seed 
 
224 GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 is much better than new, as the plants will run less to 
 vines and bear better. 
 
 As soon as the vines get rough leaves, nip off the ex- 
 tremities, to make them branch out, and they will fruit the 
 sooner. This is called stopping. Cucumbers are very 
 subject in cool, dry seasons to attacks of insects, especially 
 the striped bug and the cucumber flea. Dry wood ashes 
 or air-slaked lime, dusted thoroughly upon the plants 
 when the dew is on, will generally repel them, and bring 
 the plants forward. But warm rains will soon bring up 
 the plants beyond the reach of the depredators, or, if not, 
 put over the hills boxes covered with millinet. Hoe fre- 
 quently, until the plants cover the ground. The Early 
 Cluster should have the hills about four feet apart. 
 
 After the first planting, succession crops for pickles are 
 put in up to July near New York City, and in Georgia 
 until August. At the South, the melon worm makes its 
 'appearance in July, and unless the cucumbers are gathered 
 while small, they will be injured by this insect. 
 
 Cucumbers can be very much forwarded by planting 
 them in boxes covered over with glass. Two seven-by- 
 nine panes are large enough to cover a hill, and such hills 
 will not be troubled by the bugs, while the seed can be put 
 in four or five weeks earlier than otherwise. The seed can 
 also be planted in pots under a frame, or in a green-house, 
 to be turned out, when the weather gets favorable, into 
 the open air, and they will scarcely show they have been 
 moved. Or they can be raised wholly without removal, 
 in hot-beds made as directed in a former chapter. They 
 do best when started in pots placed in a small hot-bed, 
 and transplanted when the leaves are two or three inches 
 broad into new beds of a larger size. They must have 
 plenty of air, and be placed near the glass, or they will 
 be drawn up. If they begin to grow long-legged, give 
 them more air. The temperature of the seed-bed should 
 range between 65 and 85. Always water the plants 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 225 
 
 with tepid water, about noon, unless in mild days, when 
 it may be done in the morning. 
 
 Liquid manure, especially guano water, is very bene- 
 ficial. In planting in the bed for fruiting, do not break 
 the ball of earth; take them out of the pots carefully at 
 night, water gently, keep the sash down the next day, and 
 shade at noon-day, to keep them from withering. It is 
 necessary the beds should be shaded with a mat, during 
 the middle of the day, when the sashes are kept down, 
 until the plants get well established. 
 
 Stopping in the frame is still more important than in the 
 open air. The temperature now must be kept between 
 TO and 90, by external coatings of fresh dung, if neces- 
 sary. The shoots must be trained regularly over the sur- 
 face of the bed. Leave only two or three main branches 
 to each plant, removing the others as they appear. If the 
 plants that have been stopped have extended their runners 
 three joints without showing fruit, they must be stopped 
 again. The vines should blossom in a month from the 
 time of planting. Impregnate the pistillate or female 
 blossom (which may be known by its having fruit attach- 
 ed,) by taking the staminate blossom and placing its cen- 
 tre within that of the pistillate blossom. They may be 
 gathered in about two w r eeks after impregnation. Three 
 plants are sufficient for one sash of the usual size. 
 
 For Seed. Choose some of the finest fruit of each va- 
 riety growing near the root. Do not raise the plants near 
 other varieties, or the seed will mix and deteriorate. Let 
 them, remain until they turn yellow, and the footstalk 
 withers ; cut them off and keep in the sun until they be- 
 gin to decay ; then wash the seed from the pulp, and 
 spread it out to dry. It will keep eight or ten years, and 
 is even better when three or four years old, as the plants 
 are less luxuriant and more productive. 
 
 Use. Cucumbers are a very popular, but not very 
 wholesome vegetable. They are of a cold, watery nature, 
 10* 
 
226 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 and many persons of weak constitution cannot cat them 
 without positive injury. They possess scarcely any nutri- 
 tive properties, but their cooling nature renders them to 
 most palates very agreeable, and persons in good health 
 do not find them injurious. They are eaten raw, fried, 
 stewed, and pickled. 
 
 CHINESE YAM, (Dioscorea Batatas.) 
 
 . A perennial plant brought from China to France in 1850 
 or 1851 by M. de Montigny, the French Consul at Shang- 
 hai. It has annual stalks or vines, and perennial tuberous 
 roots. The leaves are heart-shaped, triangular, pointed 
 above, and seven or eight nerved. The length and 
 breadth of the leaf are about equal ; it has a smooth and 
 glossy surface, and is of a deep green color. Its footstalks 
 are half the length of the leaf, furrowed, and of a violet 
 color. Its flowers are dioecious, and of a pale yellow 
 color. The twining stems turn from left to right, and 
 grow, if staked, at least ten or twelve feet high, and de- 
 velope from the axils of the leaves small tubers, the size 
 of a large pea or kidney bean, which drop from the stem 
 at maturity. 
 
 Culture. The small, axillary tubers afford the readiest 
 mode of propagating the plant, though the largest product 
 seems to have been obtained where the root tubers were 
 cut in sections and inch or an inch and a half long. These 
 should be planted in rich ground deeply trenched, the 
 deeper the better, and then laid off in low ridges or beds 
 eighteen or twenty inches from centre to centre. On the 
 top of this ridge a furrow, three inches deep, is made with 
 the hoe, in which the sets are planted. This should be 
 done early in the spring, and where the seasons are short, 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 227 
 
 the plants should be started in pots to be planted out 
 when danger of frost is over. Keep the young plants 
 free from weeds, and cultivate like sweet potatoes, except 
 no earthing up is required. The plant likes moisture, and 
 growth is arrested in dry weather. It is found to produce 
 larger roots if not staked, and the plant is allowed to fall 
 upon, and shade, the ground. Watering in dry weather 
 is beneficial. The crop should not be gathered until after 
 the autumn frosts, and roots will be found somewhere be- 
 tween ten and thirty-six inches below the surface. The 
 whole root should be extracted, as the lower part is al- 
 ways the largest and most starchy. This should be re- 
 served for the table, while the upper or slender part should 
 be kept for propagation. It is a difficult matter to take 
 them up without breaking, as they often grow three feet 
 long. If not required for immediate use, the roots may safely 
 remain in the ground until spring, or may be taken up 
 and stored. The deep trenching required in preparing the 
 soil, and the great labor in gathering the crop, will pre- 
 vent its extensive cultivation. 
 
 Use; The roots, which are oblong and tapering, are the 
 edible part. The maximum size to which they grow is 
 two inches in diameter, the larger end tapering upward 
 to the size of the finger. They are covered with a brown- 
 ish-fawn-colored skin, pierced by numerous rootlets. Un- 
 der this is a cellular tissue of a white opal color, very 
 crispy, filled with starch, and a milky, mucilaginous fluid, 
 with scarcely any woody fiber. When cooked, it boils or 
 bakes quickly, and becomes dry and mealy, and is gener- 
 ally preferred to the Irish potato, which it resembles 
 in taste. Each plant often produces several tubers, but 
 generally only one, ranging in weight from eight ounces 
 to three pounds. It is more nutritive than the Irish po- 
 tato, which it may possibly rival in esteem wherever labor 
 is cheap and it is desirable to obtain a large amount of 
 food on a little space. 
 
228 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The other yams, Dioscorea sativa and alata, are culti- 
 vated on the Gulf coast to some extent, and in the same 
 manner as the sweet potato, except that the vines are sup- 
 ported by a stake or pole. 
 
 D. aculeata sometimes grows three feet in length, and 
 often weighs thirty pounds. The roots are cut up into 
 small sets and planted in rows two feet apart and eighteen 
 inches in the row, and by forwarding them in pots upon 
 hot-beds have been grown in Europe as far north as Paris. 
 
 EGG PLANT. (Solarium Melong&t^.} 
 
 The Egg Plant, or Guinea Squash, is a tender annual 
 from Africa, introduced into England in 1597. It derives 
 its most common name from the white variety, which, when 
 small, bears a close resemblance to an egg. When first 
 introduced, it was not regarded with much favor, but is 
 now rapidly working into general esteem. 
 
 Large Prickly-Stemmed Purple is the largest variety, 
 often growing to a diameter of eight inches, shape slightly 
 oval, and dark purple color. 
 
 Long Purple is perhaps the best kind for family use, as 
 it is ten days earlier than the other varieties, and though 
 not growing so large, is very prolific in fruit. 
 
 Striped Gaudeloupe is a variety the French cultivate, 
 which has a white fruit, striped and marbled with violet. 
 A large, white, edible variety has- just come into use in 
 Philadelphia. The New Scarlet, with tomato-shaped, 
 scarlet fruit, and the common White, are only grown for 
 ornament, not being considered wholesome. 
 
 Culture. Egg plants require a light, loamy, rich soil, to 
 bring their fruit early to perfection. They like the soil 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 229 
 
 manured with half decayed leaves, well dug in. To have 
 them early, sow in a hot-bed, or in a cold frame under 
 glass, the latter part of February, or early in March. The 
 rows may be six or eight inches apart, made shallow and 
 the earth pressed upon the seed. Keep the sash carefully 
 closed until the plants are up, and then give air in warm 
 days. They succeed best with a small frame to them- 
 selves, as they like a higher heat than is desirable for 
 other plants. As very few plants are required, they may 
 be planted in a small box without bottom, placed on the 
 ordinary hot-bed and covered with a square of glass. Prick 
 them out, when two inches high, into small pots, and after- 
 wards transfer them to larger ones, as directed for the 
 tomato. They can thus be planted out with the ball of 
 earth entire. Do not put them out until settled warm 
 weather, for if the plants get chilled while young, their 
 growth is so checked that they may never fully recover. 
 
 The plants, when young, are often destroyed in a day 
 or two by a minute flea. Keep them closely covered un- 
 til well out of the seed-leaf, and, if attacked, sprinkle them 
 with a solution of aloes or quassia, and dust them with 
 lime and sulphur. 
 
 It is hardly worth while to sow the seed in the open 
 ground, as they would be so late in coming into use. 
 Prepare the final bed for egg plants by making trenches 
 three feet apart, burying in them old cabbage stumps, 
 corn stalks, and other vegetable refuse, and covering them 
 with soil twelve inches deep, in which plant out the egg 
 plants two feet apart in the row. Water abundantly un- 
 til established. Keep the ground well hoed and free from 
 weeds, and earth up the plants a little from time to time. 
 Twelve to twenty plants will be enough. 
 
 For Seed. Allow one of the largest fruits from a pro- 
 lific plant to ripen seed. It will keep three or four years. 
 
 Use. Egg plant is used by the French in various ways 
 in soups and stews, but generally cut in thin slices, and 
 
230 GAEDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 fried in batter. They are not commonly liked at first, 
 but after a few trials become very agreeable to most 
 tastes, and are esteemed a delicacy. Thoy are fit for use 
 when some two or three inches in diameter, and continue 
 so until the seeds begin to change color. They are not 
 unwholesome 3 but cannot be very nourishing, as they con- 
 tain a very large proportion of water. Before frying, 
 they should be cut in slices a quarter to a half of an inch 
 thick, and piled on a plate with alternate layers of salt, 
 in order to remove the acrid taste. 
 
 ENDIVE. ( Cicliorium Endima.) 
 
 Endive is a hardy annual, a native of China and Japan ; 
 first cultivated in England in 1548. The root leaves are 
 numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, and smooth. The stem 
 rises about two feet high, producing generally blue 
 flowers. The best varieties are : 
 
 Large Green-Curled. A fine, hardy variety, with long, 
 beautifully curled leaves. It is the best for salads. 
 
 Broad-leaved Batayian has thick, plain, or slightly 
 wrinkled foliage. It is principally used for cooking, and 
 making a larger head is preferred for stews and soups, 
 but is not much used for salads. 
 
 White -flowered Batavian is a new variety which blanch- 
 es very white and tender; flowers white. These two 
 sorts are also called Scaroles. Besides the above, there 
 is another species, chicory or succory ( C. Intybusj) a 
 good deal used as a winter salad in Europe, but it is 
 mainly cultivated for the root, which is dried and ground 
 for the purpose of adulterating coffee. It is a hardy per- 
 ennial, which in many places is a common weed. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCEIPTIOX AND CULTURE. 231 
 
 Culture. Endives delight in a light, rich soil, dug 
 deeply to admit its tap-roots, and to serve as a drain for 
 any superfluous moisture in the winter standing crop. 
 The situation should be open, and free from the shade of 
 trees. 
 
 If desired in summer, sow as early in the spring as 
 possible. The main crop is sown near Philadelphia the 
 1st of July ; here in August or September for fall and win- 
 ter use. Sow at this season, if possible, everything just 
 before a shower ; draw a furrow the depth of the hoe, in 
 the bottom of which scatter the seed thinly, and cover 
 slightly with earth, pressing it upon the seed. Plant in 
 the evening, if dry, and before covering water copiously 
 with the line rose of a water-pot in the drill ; do not press 
 the earth upon the seed until morning ; shade during the 
 day, and continue watering in the evening until the plants 
 get rooted. The drills should be twelve or fifteen inches 
 apart. Hoe freely and keep the ground free from weeds ; 
 thin the plants when two inches high; those removed 
 may be transplanted to another location; choose moist 
 weather for this purpose, trim the leaves a little, and water 
 moderately every evening, until the plants get established 
 and during very long droughts. Those left in the seed 
 bed make the best plants. They should be thinned to 1.2 
 or 15 inches in the drill, or planted out that distance 
 apart, the JBatavian, requiring the most space. 
 
 In about three months after sowing, as they grow stocky 
 and full in the heart, the leaves being about eight inches 
 long, tie up the leaves of a few every week or so to blanch, 
 and render them tender and remove their bitter taste. 
 Perform this in dry days. The curled sort will some- 
 times blanch pretty well if neatly earthed up without 
 being tied, but it is better to tie it. The broad leaved 
 from its loftier and looser growth needs a bandage. Fold 
 the leaves round the heart as much as possible in their 
 natural position, and tie them up with a string or shred 
 
232 GAKDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 of bass; then cover them entirely with sand in the 
 form of a cone, making the surface smooth and firm. 
 This must be done in dry, but not frosty weather, as the 
 plants will rot if the leaves are wet or frozen. They may 
 also be blanched, under garden pots like sea-kale, or by 
 merely tying them closely, winding the string several 
 times round the plant and closing the top, so as to ex- 
 clude the rain, drawing the earth around the base to sup- 
 port it. This is the best mode in hot weather ; in autumn 
 they will blanch in ten days, in winter they require nearly 
 twice that time. Succory to blanch is taken up and 
 planted in boxes of mould, which are carried into a cellar 
 or dark room and watered when necessary. The blanched 
 leaves will be supplied all winter. Endive needs no pro- 
 tection in our Southern winters. At the North it is taken 
 up with earth about the roots, and wintered in frames. 
 
 For Seed. Let some of the best and most vigorous 
 plants remain till February, and transplant if you wish to 
 use the ground, in rows eighteen inches apart. Support 
 the stems by stakes, and gather the seed vessels as they 
 ripen. Dry them thoroughly on a cloth, thresh, and pre- 
 serve in paper bags. The seed will keep four years. 
 
 Use. Endive is cultivated for its stocky head of leaves, 
 which, after their bitterness is removed by blanching, are 
 used in autumn and winter for salads and stews. It 
 possesses a good deal of the virtues of the dandelion ; it 
 never disagrees with the stomach, but suits every consti- 
 tution. The French use it in a variety of forms, raw, 
 stewed, boiled, etc., but it is chiefly employed as a salad. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 233 
 
 GARLIC. (AlUum sativum.) 
 
 This is a hardy perennial from Sicily and the south of 
 France; it has been cultivated at least three hundred 
 years. There are two sorts, one with large and the other 
 with small bulbs ; each bulb consisting of a half dozen or 
 more small bulbs or -cloves. 
 
 Culture. Garlic likes a dry, light, rich soil, but not 
 freshly manured ; the manure should be put on the pre- 
 ceding crop. Prepare the ground as directed for the rest 
 of the onion tribe, and mark it off into drills eight inches 
 apart. Plant the cloves four inches distant in the drills, 
 and two inches deep, and see that they are put in right 
 side up. Keep the ground free from weeds, and light by 
 frequent hoeing ; plant from October to March. 
 
 A few roots may be taken up the latter part of May 
 for use as required, but do not lift the crop until the leaves 
 are withered. Break down the seed stalk if it rises, to 
 prevent it from running to seed, which would lessen the 
 size of the bulbs. 
 
 When the leaves turn yellow, take up the bulbs and dry 
 them thoroughly in the shade, tie them together by the 
 tops, and lay them up for winter in a dry loft as you 
 would onions. If the ground is not needed for another 
 crop, they may remain to be drawn as wanted. 
 
 Use. This plant has a well-known, strong penetrating 
 odor, which is most powerful at midday. In medicine it 
 is an excellent diaphoretic and expectorant; a diuretic 
 when taken internally, and has a reputation as an anthel- 
 mintic or worm destroyer. Some nations use it very 
 extensively for seasoning soups and stews, and indeed it 
 enters into almost every dish ; but in this country it is not 
 very much liked. Still, a very slight, scarcely perceptible 
 flavor, or, as the French have it, a soupqon (suspicion) of 
 garlic is not repugnant, but rather agreeable to most 
 tastes. The juice is a good cement for broken china. 
 
234 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 GROUND^ PEA- (AracJiis Jiypogcea.) 
 
 This plant is likewise known as the Ground-nut, Pindar, 
 and Pea-nut. Although not exactly belonging to the 
 kitchen garden, a few hills should be allow ed a place for 
 the sake of the little folks. It is a trailing, annual, Legumi- 
 nous plant, a native of South America, from whence it was 
 transported to Africa and our own country. It is one of 
 the few plants which ripen seed under ground. The yel- 
 low, pea-shaped flower springs from the part of the stem 
 near the surface of the earth, and after being fertilized, 
 the flower stem elongates, growing from four to eight 
 inches, turning downward until the small tubercle which 
 is to be the future seed-pod reaches and penetrates the 
 earth. The st-ed of the ground pea abounds in a fine oil, 
 which is sometimes expressed for table purposes. This 
 oil renders it a very valuable crop for fattening hogs, 
 being for this purpose fully equal to, and probably better 
 than corn. The vines are greedily eaten by most farm 
 animals. 
 
 Culture. The ground pea thrives and produces best on 
 a light, sandy, tolerably fertile soil, with a good clay sub- 
 soil. Like clover, it possesses a long tap-root, which ex- 
 tends deep into the earth, drawing thence the nutriment 
 which is beyond the reach of many of our cultivated crops. 
 The soil should be deep and mellow and well broken up, 
 so as to be ready for planting soon after the heavy frosts 
 are over. The last of March or the first of April is a suit- 
 able time. They succeed well as far north as Virginia, 
 beyond which they may be started early in hot beds, and 
 transplanted to the open ground when the weather be- 
 comes mild. 
 
 For field culture, they may be planted in the pod, two 
 in the hill ; but for the garden should be shelled. It is 
 best to drop about four in a hill on the level ground, the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 235 
 
 rows being laid off three and a half feet wide and the hills 
 t\vo feet asunder; cover them two or three inches. 
 
 When they come up, thin them to two in a hill, and, if 
 there be any vacancy, transplant. It is better to plant 
 them level than on ridges, as they are less liable to suffer 
 from drought. As they continue growing all the season, 
 it is well to get them started as soon as the severe frosts 
 are over. The only after-culture they require is to keep 
 the ground clean and mellow, and a slight hilling up when 
 they are laid by. They will produce from twenty-five to 
 seventy or eighty bushels per acre, according to soil and 
 culture, and are as easily cultivated as corn. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH. (Nasturtium Armoracia.) 
 
 Horse-radish is a Cruciferous perennial plant, grow- 
 ing naturally in moist places in England, and various 
 other parts of Europe. Its flowers are white, and appear 
 in panicles in May. It has long been an inhabitant of the 
 garden. 
 
 Culture. Horse-radish delights in a deep, rich mould, 
 moderately and regularly moist ; the roots are never of 
 good size if grown in poor soil, or under the shade of trees. 
 It seldom produces seed, and hence is propagated by sets 
 provided by cutting the roots and offsets into lengths of 
 two inches. The tops and crowns of the roots make the 
 best set?, as they are earlier and make a finer growth than 
 those from the centre of the root. Each set should have 
 two eyes. The finest crops are made by trenching the 
 ground two feet deep, and planting the cuttings with a 
 long, blunt-pointed dibble. It may be done late in the 
 fill, or if in spring, the earlier it is planted, if the ground 
 
236 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 is suitable, the better. The rows should be eighteen 
 inches apart, the plants twelve inches in the row, and 
 planted eight or ten inches deep. After the beds are 
 planted, smooth the surface and keep clear of weeds, arid 
 avoid treading upon the beds, as they should be kept as 
 light as possible. If planted in March, a crop of radishes 
 or lettuce may be taken off the ground before the plants 
 make their appearance. They speedily root and send up 
 long, straight shoots, those appearing in April that were 
 planted in autumn. The only cultivation is to keep them 
 free from weeds, and remove the decayed leaves in 
 autumn. Hoe and rake the bed over in autumn, and also 
 the following spring. By the next fall, the roots are 
 ready to take up as wanted. If the plants throw up suck- 
 ers, they should be carefully removed as they appear. 
 
 If any manure is applied to horse-radish, it must be put 
 at the bottom of the trench before planting, or the plant 
 will send out side shoots in search of the manure, which 
 would greatly injure the crop. 
 
 To take them up, a trench is dug along the outside row 
 down to the bottom of the upright roots, which are cut off 
 nearly level with the original planting. The earth from 
 the next row is turned over upon them to the desired 
 depth, and so on until finished. The pieces of roots left 
 will send up new shoots, and the same bed will produce 
 well in this way five or six years, when the site of the 
 plantation should be changed ; when this is to be done 
 every piece of root should be taken up, for the smallest of 
 them will vegetate and prove troublesome if left. The 
 best roots come from fresh plantations. 
 
 JT^.-^Horse-radish scraped into shreds with vinegar is 
 a well-known and desirable accompaniment to roast beef. 
 It is also used in fish and other sauces and chicken salads, 
 and is thought to assist digestion. The shreds pickled in 
 strong vinegar and closely stopped in glass bottles will 
 keep for years. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 237 
 
 HOP. (Humulus Lupulus.) 
 
 The hop is a plant of the Hemp or Nettle Family, with 
 a perennial root, throwing out many herbaceous climbing 
 stems, and is found growing wild on the banks of rivers 
 in Europe, Siberia, and our own country. It was culti- 
 vated in England, in or before 1525, when the old dog- 
 gerel states : 
 
 " Hops, heresy, pickerel, and beer, 
 Were brought into England in one year." 
 
 A few roots should be in the garden, as they are useful in 
 making yeast and beer. 
 
 Culture. It is propagated by dividing the roots in au- 
 tumn and spring. It being dioecious, care should be taken 
 to get sets from the pistillate plants; to produce the crop 
 in perfection, there should be a male plant in the vicinity. 
 Give the plant a deep, rich soil; put two or three plants, 
 six inches apart, in a hill, making with the plants, when 
 set, a triangle, and the hills six or eight feet apart. Keep 
 the ground free from weeds, and well stirred. Manure 
 them every year. Give them poles twelve or fourteen 
 feet long, and two or three poles to each hilL Gather 
 when of a straw t color, and the inside of the hop is cover- 
 ed with a plentiful yellow dust, and the seeds are brown ; 
 dry thoroughly, and put them up in bags for use. 
 
 Uce. The principal use of the hop is in the preparation 
 of yeast, etc. The young shoots and suckers are boiled 
 and eaten as asparagus. It is very largely cultivated 
 in fields, to be used in the manufacture of ale and strong 
 beer. Its medicinal qualities are tonic and soporific. In 
 gardens it is often grown as a screen, to hide unsightly 
 objects, the plants being set twelve inches asunder in a 
 row, and staked, or trained on a trellis. 
 
238 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 JAPAN PEA. W* hupida.) 
 
 This is an erect-growing, rough-hairy, annual Legumin- 
 ous plant, with a woody stem, growing some three feet 
 high, branching near the ground, with ternate leaves, re- 
 sembling those of the Kidney bean. There are three 
 varieties ; those with white, red, and yellow seeds. 
 
 They are planted at the same time with Kidney beans 
 in rows 3 feet apart and 2 feet in the row, leaving but one 
 plant in the hill ; cultivate as corn. The peas, when ripe, 
 after soaking over night, are prepared for the table like 
 Kidney beans, and are largely used for preparing the soy 
 sauce of Japan and China. 
 
 KOHLRABI. (Brassica oleracea var. Caulo-rapa.) 
 
 This plant, called also Turnip Cabbage, from the turnip- 
 like form of its stem, is but yet 
 little cultivated. The edible part 
 is the enlarged short stem, which 
 is of a globular form, with a few 
 leaves on top. Its culture is the 
 same as the cabbage, except that 
 in hoeing care must be taken not 
 to throw dirt into the heart of 
 the plant, or the bulb cannot 
 form. Keep the soil flat in hoeing. 
 The Early White Vienna, and 
 Early Purple Vienna, nre the 
 Fig. 68. KOHLRABI. best for the garden. It is cul- 
 tivated exactly like the Ruta-baga turnip, for which, when 
 cooked young, it is an excellent substitute. When full 
 grown, it is used for feeding stock. It is very hardy, and 
 needs no winter protection in the more Southern States. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 239 
 
 LEEK. (Allium Porrum.) 
 
 The leek is a hardy biennial of the onion tribe, found 
 wild in Switzerland, but has been cultivated in gardens 
 from the earliest times. It is mentioned in the Scriptures 
 with the onion as one of the vegetables of the Egyptians ; 
 and at the present day is often associated with the name 
 of St. David, the patron saint of the Welsh. This plant 
 endures the extremes of heat and cold without injury. 
 
 Ashes, bones, gypsum, and common salt, will supply the 
 requisite inorganic materials for this or almost any other 
 garden crop. A compost of guano, gypsum and charcoal 
 would be very beneficial. 
 
 Varieties. There are two in common use ; the Scotch, 
 which is the larger and hardier, and the ^London, which 
 by many is considered the better of the two, both tall, 
 with thick steins, and broad leaves. The Large Rouen 
 Leek, with dark green leaves and a short stem, sometimes 
 grown to the thickness of a man's arm, is now most liked 
 in France. Its stem is said to grow large enough for use 
 sooner than any other, and it is now much esteemed. 
 
 Culture. The leek is raised solely from seed, which may 
 be sown at any time during autumn, winter, and spring, 
 until the middle of April. February is the best month 
 for the purpose, if but one crop is raised. 
 
 The soil for leeks, as for the others of the onion tribe, 
 should be light and rich, the blackest and most fertile soil 
 of the garden but the manure applied must not be rank. 
 The same guano compost may be applied as for onions. 
 They are generally sown broadcast, but it is a much 
 neater method to sow in drills. Make the drills in the - 
 seed-bed eight inches apart, and about an inch deep, and 
 scatter the seed rather thinly. Press fine earth upon the 
 seed, as directed for onions. Some gardeners thin them 
 out, and allow them to remain in the seed-bed, but the 
 leek is so much improved by transplanting that this plan 
 
240 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 cannot be recommended. When the plants are three or 
 four inches high, they must be weeded and thinned to one 
 or two inches apart, and frequently watered in dry 
 weather. The seed-bed must be kept clean and light by 
 weeding, or the use of the hoe whenever required, until 
 the plants are six or eight inches high, when they will be 
 fit for transplanting. They must then be taken away from 
 the seed-bed, the ground being previously well watered, 
 if not already soft and yielding. 
 
 Having prepared beds four feet wide by spading in a 
 quantity of well-rotted manure, lay it off in little trenches 
 twelve inches apart, and as deep as the hoe will conven- 
 iently go. Dibble holes three inches deep, and nine inches 
 apart in the bottom of the trenches, in which set out the 
 plants. Press the earth to the roots and neck only, and 
 not to the leaves. The tops and roots may be slightly 
 trimmed and shortened. Some prefer planting them, as 
 is best for shallow soils, on the level surface of the pre- 
 pared bed, by inserting them in holes made with the dib- 
 ble nearly down to the leaves, with the whole neck be- 
 neath the surface, that it may be well blanched. Choose 
 a moist time for transplanting, and give a little water 
 should they droop. A portion may remain in the seed- 
 bed, six inches apart in the rows, but they do not grow as 
 large as the transplanted ones. 
 
 The beds must be hoed occasionally, to keep them free 
 from weeds and loosen the soil. In dry weather they 
 should be freely watered. By cutting off the leaves a lit- 
 tle about once a month, the neck will swell to a much 
 larger size ; earth them up gradually, if they stand on a 
 level ground, and, if in the trenches, the earth should be 
 drawn by a hoe, little by little, into the trenches, as the 
 plants increase in growth. 
 
 If a very early crop is desired, they may be planted in 
 September, and the plants will be ready to set out the 
 middle of February ensuing, and will come into use in 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 241 
 
 June or July. Leeks can be planted between almost any 
 other crop by giving six inches extra room. 
 
 For Seed. Some of the finest roots of last year's 
 growth may be transplanted in February eight inches 
 distant in a row. When the seed stems arise, they must 
 be supported by tying them to stakes. The heads should 
 be cut when changed to a brownish color, with about a 
 foot of the stalk attached, for the convenience of tying 
 them into bundles of three or four to dry. When dry, 
 they may be hung up in a dry place, and kept in the head 
 until wanted, or threshed out and stored in paper bags; 
 the seed will keep two years. 
 
 Use. The whole plant is much used in soups and stews, 
 but the most delicate part is the blanched stems. From 
 its mild, agreeable taste, it is esteemed by many above the 
 onion. 
 
 LENTIL. (Ervum Lens.) 
 
 The garden lentil is an- annual Leguminous plant culti- 
 vated in France for its flat seeds, of which two are con- 
 tained in each pod. Lentils are planted at the same sea- 
 son with snap beans, in warm, sandy soil. If planted in 
 one too rich, they grow vigorously, but produce few seeds. 
 Sow in drills 20 inches asunder, covering lightly, and 
 manage them like the snap bean. Harvest when the stems 
 begin to turn yellow, and the pods of a dark color, but do 
 not beat them out of the pod until required for use, as in 
 this condition they remain longer fit for use and sowing. 
 
 Green or dry they are cooked like beans, and when dry, 
 should be boiled two hours and a half. Soak in water be- 
 fore boiling. When done, add butter, pepper, and salt. 
 11 
 
242 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 They are an excellent addition to soups, being very nutri- 
 tious. Like beans and peas, but in a greater degree, they 
 are apt to be unwholesome for those of weak digestion. 
 
 LETTUCE. (Lactuca satwa.) 
 
 Lettuce is a hardy, annual, Composite-flowered plant, 
 generally considered a native of Asia. The Cos lettuce, 
 however, came from the Greek island of Cos, in the 
 Levant. It has been cultivated in England since 1562. 
 
 Of the two great families of lettuce, the Cos varieties, 
 which grow upright and of an oblong shape, and require 
 blanching, though more esteemed in England, do not gen- 
 erally succeed so well in this country, except at the 
 South, where they may be sown early in October. The 
 cabbage varieties are more hardy and free growing, and 
 better adapted to our common gardens. 
 
 The following are good cabbage lettuces : 
 
 Hammer smith, or Hardy Green, Leaves thick, dark 
 green ; the wrinkled and concave seeds, white ; stands the 
 winter better than any other sort, but in summer soon 
 runs to seed. 
 
 Butter, or Early Cabbage, Heads small, white, crisp, 
 and closely cabbaged ; leaves pale yellowish green ; ex- 
 cellent for hot-bed culture, or open air ; early and hardy. 
 
 Brown Dutch (yellow seeded). Heads much larger; 
 equally tender and excellent, and closely headed ; with 
 brownish green leaves. 
 
 The next three varieties, if sown at the same time with 
 the above, will come into use about two weeks after them : 
 
 Royal Cabbage, Black seed ; heads larger, and leaves 
 of a darker green than the early cabbage ; equally firm 
 and crisp. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 243 
 
 Philadelphia Cabbage. Of the same season as the 
 preceding, and equally good. 
 
 Victoria Cabbage. Withstands the heat rather better 
 than the two preceding, and produces large, white, crisp 
 heads ; perhaps the most desirable of the three. 
 
 After these come on : 
 
 Curled India. Leaf of a light yellow green, and very 
 much curled ; a very distinct sort ; heads large and close, 
 but not so fine and crisp as the other varieties, but will 
 continue to head much later. 
 
 Neapolitan. Very dwarf; leaves curled and serrated 
 on the edges ; head large, firm, blanching white, crisp and 
 excellent ; seeds white. It soon begins to head, and does 
 not run to seed as readily as most kinds. In England 
 it is considered the best summer cabbage lettuce. 
 
 The best Cos lettuces are : 
 
 White Paris COS. Very large ; leaves pale green, obo- 
 vate, hooded at top, closing over and blanching a large 
 heart without tying ; becoming white, tender, crisp, and 
 excellent ; seeds white. Seeds should be saved only from 
 those with leaves round, concave, and inclined to hood or 
 turn inwards. The best summer sort. 
 
 Paris Green COS, Very like the last, but the leaves are 
 of a darker green until blanched ; but the heart is white, 
 crisp, and excellent. Hardier and better for autumn sow- 
 ing than the last, and by some thought of equal excel- 
 lence. These two lettuces scarcely require tying for 
 blanching, and are always good. 
 
 Culture. In raising good lettuce three things are 
 necessary good seed, good soil, and frequent hoeing; and 
 of these the first is perhaps the most important. There is 
 generally no difficulty in making lettuce seed vegetate, 
 but if it is not saved from good heads it will not produce 
 heads, even with the best culture. Lettuce likes a good 
 mellow soil, enriched with well-rotted manure. Good 
 
244 GAEDENTNG FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 heads will not grow on poor ground. Lettuce may be 
 sown in autumn for six or eight weeks before the hard 
 frosts come on, and transplanted into frames for winter 
 cutting, or, protected with a little straw, it will stand 
 through the winter in the open air and be planted out for 
 heading in early spring. Hammersmith and Paris Green 
 Cos are best for autumn sowing, and at the South yield 
 small salad in mild weather through the winter. A sec- 
 ond sowing should be made at the first opening of spring, 
 and then at intervals until the summer's heat comes on. 
 
 If there has been no fall sowing, a little should be sown 
 the latter part of winter under glass, for which select 
 Hammersmith or Early Cabbage. Give it plenty of air, 
 but keep it covered nights and cold days, and as the 
 weather grows mild, leave off the glass altogether a little 
 while before setting out in the open air. Fall-sown But- 
 ter lettuce may also be transplanted under glass at nine 
 inches apart, and the table be kept supplied in this way 
 with fresh heads all winter. Plenty of air must be given 
 them, and they should be covered in freezing weather only. 
 For a fall heading, a crop can be sown at the same time 
 with turnips, in a shady situation, which being transplant- 
 ed, will give good heads. The fall and summer sowings 
 do much better if thinned to a suitable distance, and al- 
 lowed to head where they stand, as lettuce plants are im- 
 patient of transplanting in hot weather ; but they may be 
 safely moved if shielded by sun shades. 
 
 Lettuce should be sown in drills eight inches apart. An 
 ounce of seed will produce about ten thousand plants. 
 Let the seed be very lightly covered, and if dry weather, 
 press the earth upon it by walking over it on a board, or 
 patting it with the back of the spade. Beds about four 
 feet wide are most convenient. If the lettuce comes up 
 too thickly in the drills it must be thinned, as the plants 
 begin to crowd, to two inches apart. Transplant into 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 245 
 
 the ground where they are to remain, when the plants show 
 four leaves. The Early Cabbage may be planted nine 
 inches apart each way ; but the other varieties will not do 
 with less than a foot. The soil into which they are to be 
 removed to head must be rich, light, and mellow. Trans- 
 plant in moist weather with a trowel, disturbing the roots 
 as little as possible. Water the plants until established. 
 Rabbits are very fond of lettuce, but can be kept off by 
 dusting the young plants with ashes. After the young 
 plants get established, give them frequent hoeings ; and 
 if good seed was sown, there can be but little danger of 
 not being rewarded with beautiful crisp heads. 
 
 Seed. Some of the finest and most perfect heads of the 
 early sown crops should be selected. Each variety must 
 be kept separate, and all imperfect heading plants near 
 them destroyed. Tie them to stakes, and gather the 
 branches as fast as they ripen. Dry the seed in the shade, 
 and thresh and store in paper bags. Lettuce seed cannot 
 be relied upon when more than two years old. 
 
 Use. Lettuce is the most popular of all salads, and it 
 is also sometimes used in soups. Boiled, it is quite equal 
 to spinach. It is fit to boil from the time it is large enough 
 until the seed stalk begins to shoot up. Its juice contains 
 a narcotic principle somewhat like opium, which is in 
 small proportion when young, but increases with the 
 age of the plant. This principle has not the constipating 
 effects of opium. A tea prepared of lettuce leaves is 
 sometimes used in cases of diarrhoea. For a common 
 salad, let the leaves be carefully picked early in the morn- 
 ing, washed and drained before sending to the table, and 
 provide salt, oil, sugar, and vinegar, that each person may 
 season to his taste. The finer salads require hard-boiled 
 eggs, mustard, and other condiments. 
 
246 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 MAR JOB AM. (Origanum Onites, and 0. Marjorana.) 
 
 There are four species, two of which are sufficient for 
 the garden. 
 
 Pot Marjoram, O. Onites, is a perennial Labiate plant 
 from Sicily. It is propagated generally by dividing the 
 roots early in the spring, and may be by seed. Plants 
 should be set in rows twelve inches apart, and ten inches 
 in the row, in a light, dry soil, and a warm situation. 
 
 Sweet Marjoram, 0. Marjorana^ is a tender biennial 
 commonly grown as an annual; a native of Portugal, and 
 has been cultivated in England since 1573. It has small, 
 acute leaves, and flowers in small, close heads. Sow in a 
 slight hot-bed early in spring, and transplant when the 
 frosts are over into rows nine inches apart and six inches 
 asunder in the row ; or it may be sown in shallow drills 
 in the open air after the ground becomes warm. As the 
 seed is small, cover lightly with fine earth and thin out 
 the plants to the proper distance. The leaves, green or 
 dried, are used for seasoning soups, stuffings, etc. 
 
 MARIGOLD, OR POT MARIGOLD. 
 
 (Calendula offioinalis.) 
 
 A hardy annual, a native of France, Spain, and the 
 south of Europe. Its bright yellow flowers give it a place 
 in the flower-garden. A few plants only are needed by 
 any family. 
 
 There are two varieties, the single and double; the 
 former of which is a little the higher flavored. Sow in 
 autumn or early in spring on a good mellow soil, in drills 
 one foot apart, or broadcast ; when the plants are up, thin 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 247 
 
 them to twelve or fifteen inches apart, or transplant them 
 that distance, if more plants are desired. Water until estab- 
 lished. The flowers, during the summer, must be gather- 
 ed, dried thoroughly in the shade, a'nd put up in paper 
 bags. Leave a few fine flowers for seed. The darkest 
 colored ones are the best. The flower is a valuable ingre- 
 dient in soups. The plant is now but little used. 
 
 MELON. (Cucumis Melo.) 
 
 The melon, or musk-melon, is a tender, trailing annual, 
 of the same family as the cucumber, squash, etc. It is sup- 
 posed to be from Persia, but has been cultivated in all 
 warm climates so long, that it is difficult to assign, with 
 certainty, its native country. It has been cultivated in 
 Southern Europe at least four hundred years. It is the 
 richest and most delicious of all herbaceous fruits. In 
 England its culture is a difficult and expensive process, 
 but in this country the most luscious melons are raised 
 almost without trouble. 
 
 Melons may be arranged in two classes, the green-fleshed 
 and the scarlet-fleshed, the colors of the latter shading 
 through orange to yellow. The varieties are very numer- 
 ous. The best for garden culture are the green-fleshed. 
 
 Beechwood. One of the best and most productive of 
 its class ; ripens quite early, about twelve days after the 
 Christiana. Fruit medium size, oval, netted ; skin, green- 
 ish yellow; flesh, pale green, rich, melting, and very 
 sugary. 
 
 Citron. " Small, roundish, flattened at the end, regu- 
 larly ribbed, and thickly netted ; skin, deep green, be- 
 coming pale greenish yellow at maturity; rind moder- 
 
248 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 ately thick; flesh, green, firm, rich, and high flavored. 
 Pretty early." (Downing.) Best for general use. 
 
 Skillman'S Fine Netted." Earliest of the green-fleshed 
 melons. Small, rough-netted, flattened at the ends. Flesh 
 green, very thick, firm, sugary, and of the most delicious 
 flavor." (Downing.) 
 
 Hoosainee. A Persian melon. Fruit oblong, oval, and 
 of good size ; skin, light green, netted ; flesh, pale green- 
 ish white, tender, sweet and rich ; bears well ; rather late. 
 
 The pine-apple is one of this class, and one of the best 
 for forcing. Good and productive. 
 
 Christiana i Scarlet-fleshed; an orange-fleshed variety 
 from near Boston ; a week or ten days earlier than the 
 citron ; round ; skin dull yellow when ripe ; very good, 
 but inferior to all the green-fleshed sorts, though valuable 
 from its earliness. 
 
 Netted Cantaloupe. Fruit rather small, round, pale 
 green, netted ; flesh, orange red, sweet and rich ; the best 
 of the scarlet-fleshed, which are never equal to the others. 
 
 There are also several varieties of winter melon culti- 
 vated in Spain. The best of these are said to be Melon 
 cThiver d chair blanche, which will keep in a dry room 
 until February; green-fleshed, juicy, sweet and good: 
 Melon cThiver d chair rouge / like the last, but red-fleshed, 
 and does not keep so well: Melon de Valence ; large, 
 egg-shaped, thin rind, shaded green, white-fleshed, juicy, 
 and very sweet, and an excellent keeper. 
 
 An analysis of the melon shows it to contain about 90 | 100 
 of water. 
 
 Culture. The melon likes a rich, sandy soil, well ma- 
 nured, and deeply dug. If the soil is clay, it should be 
 corrected by the addition of charcoal-dust, sand, or leaf- 
 mould from, the woods. The most luscious melons are 
 grown on new land, fresh from the woods. They like, 
 also, soil manured by cow-penning. In selecting seed, get 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 249 
 
 the oldest to be had, and take great care to get that which 
 is perfectly pure, for the seed of melons raised in proxim- 
 ity to gourds, cucumbers, pumpkins, etc., will produce 
 new varieties, destitute of flavor. All plants of this fam- 
 ily are exceedingly liable to intermix, to their great 
 detriment. They will deteriorate, if planted within one 
 hundred feet of each other. 
 
 Plant in the open ground when the frosts are over, a 
 little later than the general corn crop is planted. In sec- 
 tions where the seasons are too short for it the melon is 
 planted in pots in a hot-bed, and the maturity of the crop 
 may be hastened every where in this way. When the 
 ground is warm, the balls are taken from the pots, and 
 set where they are to remain, protecting them with sun- 
 shades a little at first, or with hand-glasses, if cold. Have 
 about three plants to each pot. In the open ground, plant 
 in hills six feet apart, and ten seeds to a hill, an inch deep. 
 Thin to three, and finally two, in a hill. Make the hills as 
 for cucumbers. Superphosphate of lime has an almost 
 magical effect in improving the size and hastening the 
 maturity of the melon. The insects are the same as 
 attack the cucumber, and a little guano sprinkled around 
 the hill, not too near the plants, and intermingled with the 
 surface soil, will also by its pungent smell drive off the 
 bug and flea, and also prove a very valuable fertilizer of 
 the plants. Watering with guano water for the same 
 purpose is very beneficial. Until the vines touch, keep 
 the ground about them fresh dug, mellow, and free from 
 weeds. When the vines begin to run, and show the first 
 blossom, they must be stopped by pinching off the ex- 
 treme bud, as in the cucumber. This will render them 
 earlier and more prolific in large fruit. Their whole 
 culture is like that of the cucumber, and they may be 
 forced in the same manner. In sections where the melon 
 worm destroys the later grown fruits, get them into bear- 
 ing as early as may be. This is a green worm, the prog- 
 11* 
 
250 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 eny of some moth, which crawls up from the ground, eat- 
 ing its "way into melons, squashes, cucumbers, etc., admit- 
 ting the air, and causing them to decay at once, and fill 
 the atmosphere about them with a most disagreeable and 
 sickening odor. I know no remedy ; but when the first 
 fruit is attacked, early in August here, the vines are 
 removed and other crops put in. 
 
 To Save Seed. Select of each variety some of the 
 earliest and best melons ; wash the seed from the pulp, 
 dry them in the shade, and put away in paper bags. 
 They will keep ten years. Old seed is more prolific in 
 fruit than new. Be sure and plant the oldest seed to 
 be had, if it appears well preserved ; seeds will not be true 
 if the varieties are within one hundred feet of each other. 
 
 Use. The melon as a palatable and luscious fruit, very 
 cooling in hot weather, maintains a high rank. It is usu- 
 ally eaten with salt alone, though many like the addition 
 of sugar and spices. That it is wholesome is proved by 
 its constant use while in season as an article of food 
 among the people of Southern Europe. The musk-melon 
 contains but a trifle more water than the beet, and is 
 quite as nourishing. It contains albumen, casein, dex- 
 trin and sugar, which, combined with citric, malic, and 
 tartaric acid, give its peculiar rich flavor. The green 
 fruit may be cooked like the egg-plant, and is also made 
 into mangoes. 
 
 MUSHROOM. (Agaricus campestris.) 
 
 "The mushroom," says Loudon, "is a well-known native 
 vegetable, springing up in open pastures in August and 
 September. It is most readily distinguished when of mid- 
 dle size, by its fine pink or flesh-colored gills and pleasant 
 smell. In a more advanced stage the gills become of a 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 251 
 
 chocolate color, and it is then more apt to be confounded 
 with other kinds of dubious quality; but the species which 
 most nearly resembles it is slimy to the touch, having a 
 rather disagreeable smell ; further, the noxious kind grows 
 in woods, or in the margin of woods, while the true mush- 
 room springs up chiefly in open pastures, and should be 
 gathered only in such places." 
 
 Some of the species of this genus are very poisonous. 
 The mushroom is remarkable for its close assimilation in 
 taste to animal matter. It is beginning to be extensively 
 cultivated in this country near our large cities. 
 
 Culture. Beds may be readily constructed at any time 
 of the year, except between April and September, when 
 the temperature is rather too high for successful culture, 
 unless in the cool cellar of some outhouse. But November 
 and December are the best months for the purpose. Mush- 
 rooms are propagated by spawn, which may be obtained 
 for commencing from the seedsmen of our large cities. 
 After a little spawn is obtained, it may be increased as fol- 
 lows: Take a quantity of fresh manure from high-fed 
 horses, mixed with short litter ; add one-third cow's dung, 
 and a good portion of loamy mould. Incorporate them 
 thoroughly, mixing them with the drainings of a dung heap, 
 and beat them until the whole becomes of the consistency 
 of a thick mortar. Spread the mixture on the level floor 
 of an open shed, and beat it flat with a spade. When it 
 becomes dried to the proper consistency, cut it into bricks 
 about eight inches square ; set them on edge and turn fre- 
 quently until half dry, then dibble two holes about half 
 through each brick, and insert in each hole a piece of good 
 spawn ; close it with a moist composition similar to that of 
 which the bricks were made, and let them remain until 
 nearly dry. Then somewhere under cover place a bottom 
 of dry horse-dung six inches thick, and place the bricks, 
 spawn side up, one upon another. The pile may be made 
 three feet high ; cover it with warm horse-dung sufficient 
 
252 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 to diffuse a gentle heat through the whole. The heat 
 should not be over 70, and the pile should be examined 
 the second day to see that it does not overheat. When 
 the spawn is diffused entirely through the bricks the proc- 
 ess is finished. The bricks should then be laid separately 
 in a dry place, and if kept perfectly dry, retain their 
 vegetative power for many years. One bushel of spawn 
 will plant a bed four feet by twelve. 
 
 Beds for mushrooms may be made anywhere in a dry 
 situation under cover. Make them four feet wide and from 
 ten to fifteen feet long, according to the wants of the fam- 
 ily. A small shed might be erected for the purpose, but 
 the back of a green-house is a very good situation, as they 
 do not need much light. Space must be left for an alley, 
 and if the shed be ten feet wide, it will admit of a bed on 
 each side. 
 
 Mushrooms, like other fungi, abound in nitrogen ; hence 
 this substance is necessary to their nourishment, and unless 
 substances, like horse dung, rich in nitrogen, are supplied, 
 it is useless to attempt their culture. Earthy materials 
 are added to prevent the escape of ammonia, which would 
 pass off in fermentation, and the substances used are beat- 
 en and trodden to render the mass compact, that fermenta- 
 tion may be slower and more lasting. The process of 
 making the beds is as follows. 
 
 A sufficient quantity of the droppings of hard-fed hors- 
 es, pretty free from litter, must be obtained, which, while 
 collecting, must be kept dry, and spread out thinly and 
 turned frequently to prevent violent heating. When the 
 rank steam has escaped, the bed may be built. The site 
 should be dry. Dig out the earth six inches deep, the size 
 of the bed, and if good lay it aside for use. Fill this 
 trench with good fresh dung for the bottom, and lay on 
 this the prepared dung, until the whole is six inches thick 
 above the surface ; beat it down firmly with the back of 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 253 
 
 the fork, and build up the sides with a slight but regular 
 slope. Let the bed slope downwards towards the walk, 
 lay over it three inches of good clayey loam ; place anoth- 
 er layer ten or twelve inches thick of prepared dung, and 
 in the same manner continue until the bed is two and a 
 half or three feet thick. Cover the bed with clean litter, 
 to prevent drying and the escape of the gases, and let it 
 remain ten days, or until the temperature becomes mild and 
 regular ; about 60, and certainly not less than 50, is the 
 proper degree of warmth. Here skill and practice are most 
 required, for on the treatment at this precise point, the 
 success of the bed depends. If the manure has a brown color, 
 and is so loose and mellow that when pressed it will yield 
 no water, but has a fat, unctuous feel, without any smell 
 of fresh dung, the bed is in a right state. If it is dry and 
 hard, or sloppy and liquid, it is not in the proper condition. 
 In the first case moderate watering may restore it, but in 
 the latter the superabundance of water will probably spoil 
 it, and it is better to commence anew. When the bed is 
 ready, break the bricks of spawn into lumps the size of a 
 walnut, which plant regularly six inches apart over the 
 surface of the bed, including its sides and ends, just beneath 
 the surface of the manure. Level the surface by gently 
 smoothing with the back of the spade. Fine rich loam, 
 rather light than otherwise, is then put on two inches thick. 
 Lastly a covering of straw from six to twelve inches, ac- 
 cording to the temperature. If the bed gets too hot, take 
 off most of the covering. When the bed appears too dry, 
 sprinkle it gently with soft tepid water in the morning. 
 The water should be poured through the rose of a water- 
 ing-pot upon a thin layer of straw, laid on for the purpose, 
 and when the earth becomes a little moistened, the straw 
 should be removed, and the dry covering replaced. In 
 warm weather it will need frequent sprinkling, but in win- 
 ter very little. 
 
 As cow-manure, though it contains less ammonia, retains 
 
254 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 its heat longer than that of the horse, a mixture of the two 
 may be safely employed. 
 
 In four or five weeks after spawning, the bed should be- 
 gin to produce, and if kept dry and warm will last several 
 months. A gathering may take place two or three times 
 a week according to the productiveness. If it should not 
 come on in two or three months, a little more warmth 
 or a sprinkling of water will generally bring it into plen- 
 tiful bearing, unless the spawn has been destroyed by over- 
 heating or too much moisture. In gathering the mush- 
 rooms detach them with a gentle twist and fill the cavity 
 with mould ; do not use a knife, as the stumps left in the 
 ground become the nurseries of maggots, which are liable 
 to infest the succeeding crop. Gather before they become 
 flat, when half an inch or more in diameter, and still com- 
 pact and firm. 
 
 Use. This "voluptuous poison" has been cultivated 
 and in high esteem among epicures since the time of the 
 Romans. They are employed in catsups, pickles, and rich 
 gravies, and considered by those accustomed to them very 
 delicious. Dried and powdered they are preserved in close- 
 ly stopped bottles for times when they are not to be pro- 
 cured fresh. 
 
 MUSTARD. (Sinapis alba, and S. nigra.) 
 
 The leaves of the White Mustard, (S. alba) are used for 
 salads, and the seed of the Black Mustard, (S. nigra) fur- 
 nishes the well-known condiment. Both are hardy annual 
 Cruciferous plants, and succeed in any good common loam, 
 but where sown in September to stand the winter, as is com- 
 mon in the South for early greens, the soil should be rather 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 255 
 
 dry. White Mustard may be sown any time of the year 
 for a salad, in the same manner as cress, which see. It 
 must be used when the seed-leaf is just expanded, for if 
 it gets into the rough leaf it is fit for nothing but greens. 
 For use, cut them off with a sharp knife. They should be 
 used soon after gathering. Mustard for greens or for seed 
 should be sown^broadcnst or in drills eighteen inches apart, 
 to be finally thinned to about a foot in the drill. The 
 leaves at the South are gathered the latter part of winter 
 or in early spring. Keep the ground free from weeds. 
 When grown for seed, gather when the pods change color, 
 and thresh when dry. 
 
 Use. The tender leaves of both species are used for 
 salads, and should be more cultivated for this purpose. 
 They are also much cultivated for greens. The seeds 
 of the white variety, ground, form the Durham or London 
 table jnustard, but the flour of the black sort is that from 
 which our American table mustard is, or ought to be, 
 made. The seeds may be ground in a common spice mill 
 or crushed by a roller on a table. In this country the flour 
 is usually sifted after grinding, but the French do not sep- 
 arate the husk, and thus make a brownish flour, more pow- 
 erful and palatable than the other. Mustard is a very 
 agreeable condiment, assisting digestion and promoting ap- 
 petite. The seed used whole is an excellent seasoning to 
 various kinds of pickles. It is also much used in medicine, 
 both by the faculty and in domestic practice. It is an ac- 
 rid stimulant, and in large quantities acts as an emetic. 
 The proper dose for the latter is from a teaspoonful to a 
 tablespoonful in a glass of water. Mustard is a local 
 excitant applied to the skin in a cataplasm, made of the 
 ground meal with vinegar or lukewarm water ; if mixed 
 with boiling water the acrid principle will not be developed. 
 
256 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS. 
 
 (Tropcsolum majus and T. minus.) 
 
 There are two species, the Large Nasturtium (T. majus) 
 and the small Nasturtium (T. minus) both from Peru, 
 where they are perennials, but are here treated as annuals. 
 The large species was introduced into England in 1681. 
 The stalks are long and trailing; the leaves have their 
 petioles fixed at the centre. Flowers helmet-shaped, 
 of a rich, brilliant orange, and continue from their first 
 appearance all summer ; and if not so common would be 
 thought very beautiful. The small sort is preferable for 
 the garden, being productive and needing no support. 
 
 Culture. Nasturtiums flourish in a moist soil, but do 
 best in a good, fresh loam. If the soil is too rich, the plants 
 are luxuriant, but do not bear so abundantly, and the fruit 
 is of inferior flavor. Give them an open situation. Sow 
 in spring when the ground gets warm ; put the seeds an 
 inch deep and four inches apart, covering them three-fourths 
 of an inch. The seed must be of the preceding year's 
 growth. They may be sown by the side of a fence or 
 trellis. If more than one row is sown, they should be at 
 least four feet apart. Thin the plants, when they are well 
 up, to a foot in the drill. Hoe the ground well, and keep 
 down the weeds. If sown in the open ground, support 
 them as you would peas with lattice or brush. Give the 
 plants a little assistance in fastening themselves to the 
 trellis. Water in dry weather. Gather the fruit when 
 full grown, but while still fresh and green. 
 
 For Seed. Let some of the berries mature, gather them 
 as they ripen, spread them to dry and harden, and store 
 in paper bags. 
 
 Use. The flowers and young leaves are used in salads, 
 and have a warm taste like water cress. The flowers are 
 used in garnishing dishes. The fruit, gathered green and 
 pickled, forms an excellent substitute for capers. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CUITUKE. 257 
 
 OKRA- (Hibiscus esculentus.) 
 
 This is an annual Malvaceous plant, a native of the 
 West Indies, and much esteemed and cultivated wherever 
 its merits are known. There are several varieties the 
 round, smooth green, and the long fluted or ribbed white, 
 which grow tall ; also the dwarf. There is no great differ- 
 ence in quality, but the dwarf sort is best for gardens. 
 
 Okra likes a good, dry soil. Any soil will produce it 
 that is good enough for the cotton plant, which belongs to 
 the same natural family. The pods are not as pleasant or 
 early on over-rich soil. It is not planted until the frosts 
 are over, as it is tender, though it often comes up from self- 
 sown seed. The time of planting cotton or snap beans is 
 a very good guide, though some may be put in as an exper- 
 iment two weeks earlier. Make the drills three feet apart, 
 sow the seed rather thinly, and thin out to two feet apart 
 in the drill. Those thinned out may be transplanted and 
 will make productive plants. No seed should be allowed 
 to ripen on those stalks from which the pods are gathered 
 for eating. As fast as the pods become hard or unfit for 
 use, cut them off, for if left on, the stalk will cease to be 
 productive. If not allowed to ripen seed, the plants will 
 continue bearing through the season. The dwarf okra 
 may stand about fifteen inches apart in the drill, and it is 
 well when any plant begins to fail in productiveness to 
 cut it down to a foot from the ground and it will soon 
 throw up bearing shoots. 
 
 To Save Seed. Leave some of the earliest plants to ri- 
 pen seed, if you would have this vegetable in good season. 
 Shell out the seed, and stow away in paper bags. 
 
 Use. The pods gathered in a green state, and so tender 
 as to snap easily in the fingers, are the parts employed in 
 cooking. If old, they are worthless. They are very 
 wholesome, considerably nutritious, very mucilaginous, and 
 
258 GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 impart an agreeable richness to soups, sauces, and stews. 
 They are also simply boiled in salt and water, and served 
 up with butter, pepper, &c. Okra can be preserved for 
 winter use, by putting down the pods in salt like cucum- 
 bers, or by cutting them into thin slices and drying like 
 peaches. When dry, put up in paper bags. The seed is 
 sometimes used as a substitute for coffee, which it is not 
 very likely to supersede. 
 
 THE ONION. (Allium Cepa.) 
 
 The genus Allium contains several of the most useful 
 plants of our gardens. In it, besides the proper onions, are 
 included the Garlic, Leek, Rocambole SKallots, and Chives, 
 which are treated of in their several places. 
 
 YAEIETIES. There is a great number of varieties of 
 onions, among which are : 
 
 Large Red, a hardy variety raised abundantly in the 
 Northern States for export. It is deep red, medium size, 
 rather flat, and keeps well, and is the strongest flavored. 
 
 Yellow Strasburg. Large yellow, oval, often a little 
 flattened, very hardy ; keeps exceedingly well. Best for 
 winter use at the South. Flavor strong. 
 
 Yellow Danvcrs. Middle size, roundish oblate; neck 
 slender ; skin yellowish-brown ; early and good ; keeps well. 
 
 Silver-Skinned. Of smaller size but finer flavor, silvery 
 white, flat, and very much used for pickling on account 
 of its handsome appearance and mild flavor. 
 
 Potato Onion* This derives its name from forming a 
 number of bulbs on the parent root beneath the surface of 
 the soil. It ripens early, but does not keep until spring. A 
 sub-variety with smaller bulbs is said to produce bulbs on 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 
 
 Fig. 69. POTATO ONION. 
 
 the stem like the Top Onion. It is very prolific, and af- 
 fords a supply before other kinds are ready. Plant the 
 
 offsets in rows a foot apart 
 and ten inches in the row, 
 three inches deep, from Oc- 
 tober to March. 
 
 Top or Tree Onion, (Al- 
 lium Cepa. var. viviparum.) 
 Is said to have originated in 
 Canada. It produces little 
 bulbs ("buttons") at the top 
 of the seed stems ; hence its 
 name "Tree Onion". This is the easiest to manage of any 
 of the onions, is of good, mild flavor, early and productive 
 with little care, so that it is a favorite in climates too cold 
 and too warm for the other varieties. Plant the buttons 
 from October to March in drills one foot apart and six 
 inches in the drill. Plant 
 the apex of the button just 
 beneath the surface of the 
 soil. The small top bulbs 
 are fine for pickling. 
 
 Ciboulc or Welsh Onion, 
 
 (Allium fistulosum) .Of two 
 kinds, white and red ; is quite 
 distinct from the common 
 onion and does not bulb. It 
 is sown in September for 
 drawing early in spring. 
 Flavor strong, very hardy. FI S- W.-TOP ONION. 
 
 Thompson describes 20 sorts of onion, of which the fore- 
 going are the best. Of these the first two and the Top 
 Onion are to be preferred for general use. 
 
 Culture. Onions are raised from seed or sets, which 
 may be planted from October to April, but February is 
 
260 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 the best month for the purpose. They all require a rich, 
 friable soil and a situation enjoying the full influence of 
 the sun, and free from the shade and drip of trees. If 
 the soil be poor or exhausted, an abundance of manure 
 should be applied some time before planting and thor- 
 oughly incorporated with it; for rank, unreduced dung 
 is injurious, engendering decay. If applied at the time of 
 planting, the manure must be thoroughly decomposed, 
 and turned in only to a moderate depth. If the ground 
 be tenacious, sand, or better still, charcoal dust, is advan- 
 tageous ; ashes and soot are particularly beneficial. Com- 
 mon salt, at the rate of six to eight bushels per acre, is an 
 excellent application to this family of plants. In digging 
 the ground, small spadefuls should be turned over at a 
 time, that the texture may be well broken and pulverized. 
 
 The common onion, A. Cepa, a Liliaceous plant, is prob- 
 ably a native of Asia and Egypt, has been cultivated 
 from the most remote antiquity, and is one of the most 
 useful of our garden crops. 
 
 Ashes, bone-dust, gypsum, and the salt and lime mix- 
 ture will supply nearly all the inorganic constituents of 
 this crop ; and where they do not already exist in sufficient 
 quantities in the soil they may be supplied in addition to 
 animal manure. An experienced cultivator states that when 
 sufficient manure cannot be obtained, four hundred pounds 
 of Peruvian guano composted with five bushels of bone 
 dust, dissolved in sulphuric acid, and enough charcoal dust 
 to divide the mass, will be found to produce a maximum 
 crop. Guano water and spent lye well diluted are excellent 
 liquid manures. They do not require a change of soil, 
 being an exception to the general rule that plants like a 
 rotation, as they have been grown in Scotland a century 
 in the same spot without any diminution of the crop. 
 
 The onion can be grown in great perfection at the South. 
 In the hot climates of Spain, Portugal, and especially 
 Egypt, the finest onions in the world are produced, the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 2G1 
 
 roots being milder and of greater size than in most coun- 
 tries. 
 
 It is a good plan to make the beds just wide enough for 
 three rows, say thirty inches wide, with a narrow alley be- 
 tween, which may be filled with sweet corn or cabbages, 
 <after the crop is laid by. 
 
 But in common gardens beds four feet wide and the 
 rows thereon twelve to fourteen inches wide are most con- 
 venient. The soil of the beds must be finely dug, the sur- 
 face rolled smooth, and all the clods beat fine that may 
 have escaped the spade. The drills should be drawn very 
 shallow, as the best onions grow upon the surface of the 
 ground. For this reason, it is well to roll the bed, or beat 
 it smooth with the back of the spade, before making the 
 drills. Some soak the seed twenty-four hours before plant- 
 ing, but to little advantage. Do not sow very thickly 
 only one or two seeds in a place. A seed every inch is 
 quite thick enough, as thinning out, when too thick, is apt 
 to injure the remainder. Cover the seeds about half an 
 inch with fine sifted soil, and press down the earth upon 
 them by a roller, or walking over them on a plank. 
 
 When they come up, thin them out gradually in the 
 drills, to six inches apart. Keep the bed clean and free 
 from weeds, and stir it frequently, but not deeply, with a 
 hoe. Do not hill the earth up against the bulbs ; but draw 
 it away from them with the fingers, as they keep better 
 if grown pretty much above the ground. There is no 
 crop more easily raised or preserved, if the ground is rich 
 enough, and the bulbs made to grow upon the surface. 
 After the young onions have got a good start, it is best 
 to drop the hoe entirely and resort to hand-weeding. In 
 dry weather, a thorough drenching in weak liquid manure, 
 or soapsuds, is excellent. For pickling, the white kind 
 should be sown much more thickly, and thinned out until 
 about one or two inches apart in the row, which will cause 
 them to ripen early, before they have become too large. 
 
262 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 If onions grow thick-necked, and do not bulb properly, 
 bend down the stems about two inches above the neck, to 
 the ground, without disturbing the roots. This is needful 
 only in very wet seasons. 
 
 When very large bulbs are desired, the seed may be 
 sown quite thick, in pretty good soil, and not thinned out 
 at all. Little bulbs or sets will form about the size of the 
 button onion, which may be taken up when the tops die, 
 and preserved in a dry loft until time for preparing the 
 bed, and then may be planted, instead of the seed, eight 
 inches apart in the drills. If they throw up a seed stalk, 
 it must be promptly broken off, or they will form no bot- 
 toms. These sets, planted out early in the year, will form 
 fine large bulbs in May or June ; while those raised from 
 the seed do not ripen until July. Hence the latter are 
 better keepers. Besides, they are better flavored, and 
 more solid. The little bulbs of the top onion are managed 
 like these sets. 
 
 When the crop is ready for harvesting, it is known by 
 the drying up and change of color of the stems. 
 
 The Onion-fly, (Anthomya cepai^um^) is a native of 
 Europe, of late years becoming common in many American 
 gardens, and wherever found is very 
 destructive to the crop. The parent insect 
 is a small ash gray fly, about half the size 
 of the common house fly. The female 
 lays her eggs on the leaves, when they 
 are very young, close to the earth. As 
 soon as the maggots hatch, which is when 
 the young plants are about the size of 
 Fig. 71. a quill, they descend between the coats 
 
 of the onion to its base, feeding upon the bottom part 
 of the bulb, which soon becomes rotten, when the worm 
 leaves it, to enter the earth and complete its transform- 
 ations. Figure 71 represents the larva of the natural 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CHLTUKE. 
 
 2G3 
 
 size at a and at #, magnified several times. Figure 72 
 shows the way in which the insects work upon the young 
 plant. In figure 73 the perfect insect is given, the natural 
 size of which is indicated by the cross lines, and in the same 
 figure the magnified pupa or chrysalis 
 is shown at c?, and the actual size at a 
 These insects increase so rapidly that 
 unless destroyed at their first appear- 
 ance, which is shown by the leaves 
 drooping and turning yellow, it is al- 
 most impossible to eradicate them. 
 Such plants should be at once pulled up, 
 and with the soil in which they grew, 
 burned, which will prevent their in- 
 crease. Applications of soot or salt upon 
 the beds, of lime-water, stale urine, and tobacco water, are 
 also employed, and beds strewn with fine charcoal are said 
 to be less liable to attack. It is difficult, however, to reach 
 the insect, except by pulling up the bulb. It is said that 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 removing the earth from the onion bulbs as soon as growth 
 has well commenced will prevent the fly from depositing 
 its eggs, and the onion, being nourished by its fibrous 
 roots, ripens and keeps better. 
 
 To preserve them. Pull them on a dry day, dry them 
 thoroughly in the shade, and stow them in a loft where 
 
204 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 they can have plenty of air. When thoroughly dry they 
 can be strung in ropes, made by braiding the tops togeth- 
 er. From two to five hundred bushels per acre is the 
 usual crop. 
 
 For seed. Select the largest and finest bulbs and plant 
 out in the fall, about twelve inches apart, in beds of com- 
 mon garden soil, not too rich. Keep them free from weeds ; 
 and when they throw up seed stalks, support them by 
 poles laid horizontally on stakes, six or eight inches above 
 the surface of the beds. Home-grown seed from good 
 bulbs is as good as the best imported. It will keep three 
 years, but the fresh grown seeds are preferable. Onion 
 buttons are grown in the same manner upon the Top Onion. 
 
 Use. Onions are among the most useful products of the 
 garden. They are used especially as a flavoring ingredi- 
 ent and seasoning for soups, meats, and sauces ; for which 
 purpose they have been employed from time immemorial. 
 They contain considerable nutriment, and are tolerably 
 wholesome, especially if boiled. Onions, like all other 
 vegetables, need to be slightly salted while cooking, or 
 their sweetness will be mostly lost. Raw, they are not 
 very digestible, and they are the same if fried or roasted. 
 Eating a few leaves of parsley will destroy in a measure 
 the unpleasant smell they impart to the breath. 
 
 ORACH. (Atriplex Hortensis.) 
 
 A hardy annual, of the same natural family as the beet 
 and Jerusalem Oak, (Chenopodiacece) a native of Tar- 
 tary, and was first cultivated by English gardeners in 1548. 
 The stem rises three or four feet high, with oblong, various- 
 ly-shaped leaves, cut at the edges, thick, pale green, and 
 glaucous, and of slightly acid flavor ; flowers of same color 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 265 
 
 as the' foliage. There are two varieties, the pale green, 
 and the red or purple leaved, the latter of which is just 
 now coming into fashion as an ornamental plant, on account 
 of the fine color of its foliage. 
 
 Culture. Orach flourishes best in a rich, moist soil. 
 It is raised from seed sown in drills, fifteen to eighteen 
 inches apart. Sow very early in spring, or in October, 
 which is a good time in mild climates. Two or three 
 sowings may be made in spring for a succession. The 
 plants soon make their appearance; when an inch high, thin 
 them to four inches asunder. Those removed may be re- 
 planted, being watered occasionally until established. 
 Hoe them in a dry day, keeping the ground loose and free 
 from weeds. Once established, it sows itself. 
 
 Use. The leaves and tender stalks are cooked and 
 eaten like spinach, to which they are preferred by many. 
 They must be gathered while young, or they are worth- 
 less. The seed should be gathered before fully ripe, as 
 they are liable to be blown away by wind. 
 
 PARSLEY. (Petroselinum sativum.) 
 
 Parsley is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant from 
 Sardinia. There are two varieties used in garnishing: 
 the Common Parsley, with plain leaves, which is the 
 hardier sort, and the Dwarf Curled, which is much hand- 
 somer and longer in running to seed. 
 
 The Neapolitan or Celery-leaved is grown by the 
 French for the leaf-stalks, which they blanch and use like 
 celery. 
 
 The Hamburg Parsley (var. latifolium) is cultivated for 
 its fleshy roots, which are eaten like parsnips. 
 
 Parsley is raised only from seed, which may be sown 
 12 
 
266 GAEDEXING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 in autumn or spring, until the weather and soil are too 
 dry and hot, when it will come up readily. It is best to 
 sow it pretty early, as the seed remains long in the soil 
 before vegetating. The beds must be made annually, if 
 the plants are allowed to run to seed ; but if the seed 
 stalks are cut down as often as they rise, the plants will 
 last many years. Many sow parsley as an edging to 
 other beds or compartments. If in beds, it is better to 
 sow in drills ten inches apart. Any good garden soil is 
 rich enough for this plant. Pulverize the bed by thorough 
 spading, and rake it level before making the drills. Sow 
 the seed moderately thick in drills half an inch deep, and 
 press fine soil upon it. The plants will not come up in 
 less than three or four, and sometimes six weeks. If sown 
 late give it a shady border. Should the bed get weedy 
 before the parsley appears, pull the intruders out by hand. 
 As soon as the rows can be seen, hoe between them, and 
 draw a rake crosswise to break the crust which has been 
 formed, and the plants will grow vigorously. They will 
 be fit for use when two or three inches high. When they 
 get strong, thin them oat to three inches, and finally to 
 nine inches apart, being careful to reject all plants from 
 the seed bed that are not nicely curled. If they grow 
 too rank in summer, cut them near the collar. 
 
 Soot is the very best manure for parsley, but it should 
 be sparingly applied. A bed six feet long by four feet 
 wide is large enough for almost any family. It is best to 
 appropriate to it such a bed, where it will sow itself and 
 yield a constant succession of new plants. The plants 
 should have the stems cut down, if growing rank, three 
 or four weeks before heavy frosts are expected, that fresh 
 growth may be thrown up for winter and early spring 
 use. It is well to protect the plants with a little coarse 
 litter in cold climates, but this is not necessary south of 
 Virginia. 
 
 Hamburgh Parsley is grown in drills one foot apart, the 
 
VEGETABLK.1 DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 267 
 
 plants ten inches in the drill, in a good deep soil, and is 
 otherwise managed like carrots. 
 
 Neapolitan Parsley. The seeds are sown in early spring, 
 and when the young plants are four inches high, they are 
 planted out in rows or shallow trenches two feet apart, 
 and the plants nine inches in the row. They are otherwise 
 treated like celery, but need less moisture. 
 
 To save Seeds. Allow some of the finest curled plants 
 to throw up seed-stalks ; let them stand eighteen inches 
 apart ; when the seed ripens it may be stored in a dry 
 place. It will keep good several years, and it is singular 
 that seed four years old will come up more quickly than 
 that gathered six months before sowing. 
 
 Use. Parsley is a very agreeable and useful plant, 
 affording a beautiful garnish. It is also used for its aro- 
 matic properties in seasoning soups, stews, and meats. 
 The green leaves eaten raw diminish the unpleasant smell 
 of the breath after eating leeks and onions. It can be 
 dried in summer, pounded fine, and put away in bottles ; 
 but this is of no use in mild climates, where fresh, green 
 parsley can be had all winter from the garden. 
 
 PARSNIP. (Pastinacea sativa.) 
 
 This is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, of which 
 the wild variety is found in various parts of Europe, and 
 it is not rare in this country as a weed. It has long been 
 cultivated. In its wild state, it is said to have poisonous 
 properties; but it is rendered by cultivation sweet, pala- 
 table, and very nutritious for man and beast. The garden 
 parsnips have smooth and light-green leaves, while those 
 of the wild variety are dark-green and hairy ; but the two 
 
268 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 do not differ so much as the wild and cultivated car- 
 rot. By ten years' culture, Prof. Buckman hi England 
 succeeded in producing the garden variety from the wild 
 sort. This plant is of the hardiest nature, being improved 
 by remaining in the ground exposed to frost during the 
 winter. The best variety for the garden is the Hollow- 
 crown or Sugar Parsnip. Its roots are smoother, more 
 handsome, and better flavored than the other varieties. 
 It is distinguished by the cavity which crowns the root. 
 
 Parsnips like a rich, sandy loam, the more deeply dug 
 the better. They do exceedingly well on rich bottom 
 lands, but do not succeed well in stiff clays. The manure 
 should be applied to a previous crop. 
 
 Parsnip seed can be sown any time in spring before the 
 hot, dry weather comes on, which will prevent it from 
 vegetating freely. Scatter the seed thinly in drills fifteen 
 inches apart, and when the plants appear, thin them to 
 ten or twelve inches asunder. The culture in other 
 respects is the same as that of the beet. The roots in cold 
 climates are taken up and stored, if required for use in 
 frosty weather, but the flavor is improved by exposure to 
 the winter frosts, and they are commonly left where grown 
 until spring, when if taken up before growth commences 
 they will keep some weeks. 
 
 For Seed. A few of the best roots may be taken up 
 and set out two feet apart in a border ; but they do better 
 to remain undisturbed. The seeds cannot be depend^, 
 on for more than one year. 
 
 Use. The parsnip is a very wholesome and nourishing 
 root, though its peculiar sweetish taste is disliked by many 
 persons. It is, however, an agreeable addition to our sup- 
 ply of winter vegetables. Its fattening properties are 
 great, and it is therefore an excellent root for feeding all 
 kinds of farm stock. Cows fed upon it will yild milk 
 abundantly, and butter of the best quality. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 269 
 
 PEA. (Lathyrus Pisum.) 
 
 This is a hardy Leguminous annual, probably from the 
 Levant, where the gray field variety is found wild, but it 
 has been cultivated from time immemorial. It is a climb- 
 ing plant, producing its seeds in pods, which usually grow 
 in pairs. The pea is now one of the most desirable culi- 
 nary plants. Numerous varieties have been originated, 
 differing in the color of the blossoms, height, time of ripen- 
 ing, and also in productiveness. Among the best are : 
 
 Prince Albert, or Early Kent. Grows about 2 or 3 
 feet high. A small, white, very early pea, bearing moder- 
 ately well ; pods containing from eight to ten peas in 
 each. The true sort is the earliest variety grown. 
 
 Extra Early. This celebrated early pea comes into 
 use about five days after the preceding, and with the 
 Cedo-Nulli. The whole crop ripens at once. It is toler- 
 ably productive ; 2J feet high. 
 
 Daniel O'Rourke, as I have received it, is very simi- 
 lar to this. Sangster's No. I is said to be the same as 
 Daniel O'Rourke. 
 
 Cedo-IVulli comes into use with the preceding, and is a 
 much finer pea. It has a longer pod, which is better filled. 
 The vines are taller, and it bears about twice as many 
 pods to the stalks as the Extra Early ; the most prolific 
 of early peas, and continues long in bearing ; 3 feet high. 
 
 EaiTy Emperor ; said to be as early as Prince Albert ; 
 the pods and peas somewhat larger, and a more produc- 
 tive sort. 
 
 Early Frame, known also as Early May, Early War- 
 wick, Michaux de Hollande, etc., grows about 4 feet high, 
 with small, round pods, containing some five or six peas 
 of fine quality, which when dry are small, very round 
 and white. This is the parent of the preceding sorts, not 
 quite so early, but more productive, and one of the two 
 
270 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 hardiest for planting in late autumn, to grow through 
 the winter, in mild climates. 
 
 Early Charlton. Also called Early Hotspur, Michaux 
 Ordinaire, is of more vigorous growth, and larger foliage ; 
 5 ft. high, with broad, flat pods, containing six or seven 
 peas of excellent quality and larger size than the Early 
 Frame; just as hardy and fit for use a few days later. 
 
 Early Tom Thumb is the most dwarf sort known, being 
 only ten or twelve inches high, and of good flavor ; it re- 
 quires no sticks. 
 
 Bishop's New Long-Pod is also a very productive 
 dwarf sort, of excellent quality ; grows 1-J- to 2 feet, with 
 straight, cylindric pods, containing six or seven large peas. 
 
 The foregoing are for the early crop ; for the middle 
 season : 
 
 Fairbank's Champion. This is the very best large 
 pea ; a wrinkled marrow, of the highest excellence ; grows 
 about 4 feet high, and bears very well. Pods long, some- 
 what curved, slightly flattened, and containing seven or 
 eight large, sugary peas, which when dry are somewhat 
 shrivelled and of a bluish cast. 
 
 Dwarf Blue Imperial. About 3 feet high; pods long, 
 curved at the extremity, and containing eight or nine 
 good peas, of a bluish cast. 
 
 Victoria is an early, fine flavored, white, wrinkled mar- 
 row, about 3 feet high, and productive of fine large pods. 
 
 Napoleon is a fine blue, wrinkled marrow ; the earliest 
 of this class, and quite productive. 
 The most desirable late sorts are : 
 
 Large White Marrowfat, growing 4 or 5 feet high, 
 with broad pods, containing about eight large peas of 
 excellent quality ; round and white when dry. The Tall 
 White Marrowfat grows over six feet high. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTUEE. 271 
 
 Black-eyed Marrowfat seems to bear the summer heat 
 better than most kinds, and is of good flavor. 
 
 Hair's Dwarf Mammoth grows 2 feet high, with a large, 
 wrinkled seed, of a bluish green color, and the highest 
 flavor. Like Bishop's Long-pod, and Allen's Dwarf, the 
 peas should be planted from four to six inches apart in 
 the row, as they branch much. An improvement on 
 Knight's Dwarf Marrow. 
 
 Knight's Tall Marrow, This sort grows 6 or 7 feet 
 high, with large, dark glaucous green leaves, large, broad, 
 well-filled pods; seed large, thin skinned, tender, and 
 sugary, wrinkled, and of a bluish cast ; productive. The 
 rows should be six feet apart. 
 
 The Sugar Peas are without the tough interior lining 
 to the pod when young, and they will snap in two as readily 
 as the pod of the kidney bean, like which they are prepared 
 for the table. There are two sorts : the Dwarf Sugar 
 about 3 feet high, with small crooked pods; and the 
 Large Crooked Sugar, with large, broad, fiat, crooked 
 pods. The stems grow about 6 feet high. 
 
 As some families prefer white, others blue, some dwarf, 
 and others tall sorts, it will not be difficult to make a 
 selection from the foregoing list. There are some fifty 
 sorts in the catalogues, but many of them are synonyms. 
 
 Potash and phosphoric acid are large constituents of the 
 ash of the pea. Ashes and bone-dust, or superphosphate 
 of lime, especially the former, are likely to be the special 
 manures most needed. 
 
 Culture. A moderately rich and dry calcareous loam 
 is best suited for the early pea and the dwarf varieties. 
 The late peas and the lofty growers do better in heavier 
 soil, and a cool, moist situation. The manure should be 
 applied early the preceding autumn, to be well reduced by 
 the time the crop of peas is ready to feed upon it. In 
 poor ground, fresh stable manure is better than none. 
 
272 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 If the ground, however, be extremely rich, there will be 
 more vines than fruit. The soil must be deep, so that the 
 roots may penetrate deeply to obtain moisture in time of 
 drought, that the vines may not mildew. If the vines 
 mildew or get too dry after they begin to blossom, the 
 pods will not fill well. On this account it is found to be 
 of advantage to plant in a furrow some six inches deep, 
 as they continue much longer in bearing than when plant- 
 ed shallow. 
 
 The early crop may be planted as soon as the ground 
 will do to work in the spring. And in the Cotton States, 
 where the winters are mild, Early Frame and Charlton 
 Peas may be planted from the last of November until 
 March; Prince Albert, etc., in February; and the later 
 kinds until early in April, and for a fall crop in August 
 to come into use in October. 
 
 Near New York City they are planted from as early in 
 March as the ground opens, until late in May. The dis- 
 tance of the rows apart will depend upon the variety. 
 They should not be nearer to each other than the height 
 to which the sort planted generally attains. Tom Thumb 
 may be planted only fifteen inches apart from row to row, 
 but as it is a branching sort, the plants may be five or six 
 inches in the row. It is usual to plant in double rows, 
 from nine to twelve inches asunder, leaving the distance 
 above directed between each pair of rows. The sticks 
 are set midway between the double rows, supporting 
 the vines of both. It is maintained by many that from 
 its more full exposure to the air and sun a single row will 
 produce as much as two. The tall later sorts are far more 
 fruitful if the rows are put twenty or thirty feet apart, 
 and the space between occupied with other crops. 
 
 It is best to plant the early crop in rows running east 
 and west, that the sun may warm the ridge of soil drawn 
 up to the roots ; but the rows of the main crop should run 
 north and south. Early peas should be planted in the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUBE. 273 
 
 drills, about an inch apart ; the medium growers an inch 
 and a half; while for the tall kinds, as Knight's Tall Mar- 
 row, and the Mammoth, two inches are not too much. A 
 quart of seed of these varieties will plant not quite fifty 
 yards of double rows, while a quart of early peas will 
 plant nearly seventy yards twice as thickly. The soil 
 with which they are covered should be chopped fine, if 
 lumpy, and in planting pressed upon the seed. Better 
 delay a little than plant when the ground is wet. After 
 the peas are about two inches high, hoe them well, draw- 
 ing the earth a little toward them, and loosening the soil 
 between the drills, destroying every weed. Repeat this 
 once or twice, before brushing, which should be done 
 when the plants are six or eight inches high, or as soon as 
 the tendrils appear. This may be done by sharpened 
 branches of trees prepared fan-shaped, and of a height 
 proper for the pea to which they are to be applied, or 
 stakes may be driven down every six feet each side of the 
 drills, and lines of twine stretched from one to the other. 
 Pea brush is, however, the best, as the vines lay hold of it 
 more readily. It should be placed firmly in the ground, 
 between the drills. After brushing, draw up the earth on 
 each side, to help support the vine. Market gardeners do 
 not employ brush or twine, but let them fall over and 
 bear what they will. This does tolerably well with the 
 early varieties, if the spaces between the rows be filled 
 with straw or leaves. 
 
 Peas are forced by planting under glass in pots, to be 
 transplanted, when the season permits ; but in mild lati- 
 tudes this is needless, as the pea when young will survive 
 a temperature but two degrees above zero if not in a state 
 of rapid growth. If a hard frost occur when the plants 
 are in bloom the crop is lost. 
 
 Seed. The plants of the rows intended for seed should 
 not be gathered from for any other purpose. When the 
 pods begin to dry, gather and dry them thoroughly, and 
 12* 
 
274 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 store the seed in bottles, pouring into each a little spirits 
 of turpentine, as directed for preserving beans. The bean 
 and pea bugs belong to the genus JRritchus of Linnaeus, 
 a family devouring the seed of many Leguminous plants, 
 and the eggs of both species are deposited by the parent 
 beetle in the soft pods, and directly over the seed. The 
 maggots work their way into the seed, where they obtain 
 their perfect form. The pea bug does not usually destroy 
 the germ, but its congener, the species that infests the 
 bean, is much more destructive, several often inhabiting 
 a single bean, and leaving nothing but the outer skin and 
 a mass of yellow dust. Spirits of turpentine appears to be 
 fatal to them. 
 
 Some think that peas are earlier if the seed has been ob- 
 tained from a more northern locality than the one in 
 which they are planted. The garden pea is very whole- 
 some, and an Almost universal favorite. To have them in 
 perfection, they should be freshly gathered, and by no 
 means allowed to stand over night before use. They can 
 be shelled and dried in the shade, and form a tolerably 
 agreeable dish in winter, but they are much inferior to 
 those freshly picked. Green or dry they are very nutri- 
 tious, abounding in flesh-forming constituents. 
 
 PEPPER. (Capsicum.) 
 
 This genus (Capsicum) of plants belongs to the 
 Solamim family, and several species are in cultivation, 
 all of which are natives of tropical regions. Some of 
 them have been cultivated in England 300 years, O. an- 
 num, or Guinea Pepper, having been introduced there in 
 1548. Those most in use are : 
 
 Bell Pepper, This was brought from India in 
 1759 ; of low growth, with large, red, bell-shaped fruit. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 275 
 
 Its thick and pulpy skin renders it best for pickles ; more 
 mild than most varieties. It is a biennial. 
 
 Cayenne, or Long Pepper, Is a perennial, with small, 
 round, bright red, tapering fruit, extremely pungent. Of 
 this there is a large and small fruited sort, both excellent 
 for pepper sauce, and to grind as a condiment. 
 
 Large Sweet Spanish is a large, mild variety of an- 
 nual pepper, much used in pickling. 
 
 Tomato Pepper is of two sorts, red and yellow, both 
 tolerably mild ; fruit tomato shaped. 
 
 Culture. Capsicum likes a rich, moist loarn, rather light 
 than otherwise. Guano and fowl manure are excellent 
 fertilizers for peppers. 
 
 For early plants, sow the seed in drills, one inch deep 
 and six inches apart, under glass, in February, at the 
 South, or in March and April in the Northern States, and 
 transplant after the frosts are entirely over, when three 
 or four inches high, into good soil, in rows eighteen inches 
 apart each way. Sow at the South, also, in the open ground, 
 as soon as the settled warm weather comes on, say the 
 last of March or first of April, and thin them out to the 
 proper distance. An ounce of seed will give two or three 
 thousand plants. They should be transplanted in moist 
 weather only, and must be watered until well established. 
 Shading a few days at midday, after transplanting, is very 
 beneficial. Cultivate and earth up their stems a little. 
 
 Seed. A plant bearing the earliest and finest fruit 
 should be selected. The varieties should be grown as far 
 apart as possible. When ripe, the pods are hung up to 
 dry, and kept until the seed is wanted for sowing. 
 
 Use. These plants are very much used in all hot 
 climates, where they enter as a seasoning into almost 
 every dish. The large kinds for pickling should be gathered 
 when full grown, and just before turning red. They are 
 
276 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 also dried when ripe, and used for seasoning. Cayenne 
 and the other small kinds are ground for table use, or made 
 into pepper sauce by the addition of strong vinegar. 
 Peppers are often rubbed upon meat to drive away insects. 
 The daily use of this plant in hot climates is decidedly a 
 preventive of bowel complaints, for which reason it is so 
 universally cultivated in tropical regions. 
 
 POTATO (IRISH.) (Solanum tuberosum.) 
 
 The Irish potato is a perennial plant, with a tuberous, 
 subterranean stem, of the same genus with the egg- 
 plant, and nearly allied to the tomato. It is reported to 
 have been brought into England from Virginia by 
 Raleigh, in 1586, but as he never visited Virginia, he prob- 
 ably obtained it from some other portion of this conti- 
 nent. Though called the Irish potato, it is really a native 
 of the western coast of South America, where it is still 
 found wild, both " on dry, sterile mountains, and in damp 
 forests near the sea," whence roots have recently been ob- 
 tained differing very little from the cultivated varieties. 
 Notwithstanding its excellence and complete adaptation 
 to the English climate, it appears to have come slowly in- 
 to use. Raleigh planted it on his Irish estate near Cork, 
 but it is only within about a hundred years that its culture 
 has been general, even in Ireland. In 1780, very few indi- 
 viduals in America raised as large a crop as five bushels. 
 Of the numerous varieties at this time, the best, perhaps, 
 for garden culture we name below. Varieties, however, 
 run out after a few years' culture, and those newly raised 
 from seed take their place, and there are many the popu- 
 larity of which is local. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 277 
 
 Fox Seedling. A medium-sized, round, white potato, 
 of fine flavor when it first matures, but does not keep for 
 winter. 
 
 Ash-Leaved Kidney. Kidney-shaped, thin-skinned, of 
 good form, with few eyes. In planting, cut it lengthwise 
 through the centre ; very early. 
 
 Mercer. Long, kidney-shaped, flattish, full of eyes, 
 and often knobbed, spotted with pink at the small ends. 
 It is early and productive. 
 
 Prince Albert. Oblong, a little flattened, yellowish, 
 white eyes, few, and scarcely sunk in the smooth skin ; 
 ripens with the Mercer. Several varieties have been directly 
 imported from South America, and others originated from 
 these, by Rev. C. E. Goodrich, of Utica, N. Y. We 
 cultivated several of his kinds for some years, and were 
 pleased with their quality and freedom from rot. Among 
 them were the Black Diamond, Garnet Chili, Pale Blush 
 Pink Eye, New Hartford, and Rough Purple Chili. 
 They are more hardy than the old sorts, but none are 
 entirely free from rot. [The Early Goodrich, one of Mr. 
 G's. seedlings, and the Sebec, are among the most prized 
 early varieties at the North, and the Early Rose, a des- 
 cendant of the Garnet Chili, is of excellent quality, and the 
 earliest yet known. Ed^\ At the South a potato is re- 
 quired that will continue growing through the long sum- 
 mer. The common sorts ripen early, and commence new 
 growth, so that it is very difficult to keep them in their 
 dry, mealy state. Starting the buds has the same effect 
 upon these tubers as upon the grains of wheat which lose 
 their starch by conversion into sugar and dextrine, mak- 
 ng both the flour and tuber, when cooked, far less pala- 
 table and nourishing. 
 
 Potash and phosphate of magnesia are indicated by anal- 
 ysis to be the most important inorganic elements of the 
 plant. Wood ashes will furnish most of the constituents 
 required from the soil. 
 
278 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Culture. The Irish potato likes a cool, moist climate 
 and soil like those of Ireland. The soil should be well en- 
 riched with vegetable and not with animal manure. The 
 best potatoes in this country are grown in the cool and 
 hilly sections of the North, and the best there are grown 
 by simply turning over a meadow sward ; upon this the 
 rows are laid off shallow, and the clover sods are often so 
 tough with matted roots when planting (having been 
 newly turned over), that earth is. with difficulty obtained 
 to cover the potatoes. Soon decomposition commences, 
 a gentle heat is given out, and by the time the potatoes 
 are ready for the first working they can be plowed with 
 ease. At the second working, when the plants are laid 
 by, the soil is mellow as an ash heap, the young plant the 
 meanwhile being supplied with moisture and the very 
 food required to perfect its tubers and render them fari- 
 naceous and nutritive. In our gardens we cannot obtain 
 such a soil, but we can very much improve the yield, and 
 especially the quality of our Irish potatoes by imitating 
 it as nearly as possible. We can dig into the soil vegetable 
 matter to decompose, such as leaves, garden refuse of all 
 kinds, and pine straw. Even tan bark is not a bad appli- 
 cation to the potato crop, but if used must be accompanied 
 with plenty of ashes or lime to correct its acidity. One 
 reason for the application of vegetable manure to this 
 plant is the superior quality of the tubers produced. 
 Liebig first remarked that ammoniacal manures injure the 
 quality of the potato, though they increase the size and 
 quantity. If manured with strong animal manure the 
 tubers are moist and waxy, while if grown upon a soil ma- 
 nured with ashes, lime, and an abundant supply of carbo- 
 naceous manures, such as decaying vegetable matter, the 
 produce is far more starchy and nutritive. Potatoes en- 
 riched with strong dung are far more liable to rot than 
 if manured with leaves, ashes, and lime. 
 
 The rows should be from two to two and a half feet 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 279 
 
 asunder, and the sets from six to twelve inches in the 
 row, the greater distances for the tall-growing sorts. 
 Experiments in England have proved that there the best 
 crops are secured when the sets are planted six inches 
 deep, or in light sandy soil not less than seven inches. 
 The sets should be cut a week before planting, and allowed 
 to dry. A medium-sized tuber will make five or six sets. 
 After the ground has been well prepared by plowing 
 or spading, dig a trench eight inches deep, the width of 
 the spade, and in the bottom of this form a slight furrow 
 with a hoe, that the sets may be in a line. In this furrow 
 the sets are placed (for Mercers eight inches apart). Cover 
 with a good coat of manure of the kinds before directed, 
 to which manipulated guano, or superphosphate of lime 
 and gypsum, may be added with advantage. The earth is 
 hauled over them, leaving the surface some two or three 
 inches below the general level, that the plants may receive 
 and retain near them all the rain that falls. After the 
 plants come up, hoe them well, but do not disturb the 
 ground if there is any apprehension of even a slight frost. 
 When all danger of frost is over, they should, if possible, 
 receive a good mulching of leaves directly after a good 
 heavy rain, and some trash may be laid over to keep the 
 leaves in place. The leaves must not be put on too early, 
 as if applied before the frosts are entirely over the evap- 
 oration from a bed of damp leaves so lowers the tempera- 
 ture at their surface that a frost scarcely perceptible else- 
 where may prove fatal to tender plants thus mulched. 
 
 If the leaves are not to be obtained, keep the soil free 
 from weeds by flat culture, until the tops cover the 
 ground. The early crop may alternate with Lima beans, 
 making the rows five feet apart in this case, and they will 
 be ready for digging when the beans are fit for use which 
 are planted in hills between the potato rows. This crop 
 should be planted as early in the spring as possible. At 
 the South, in January or February, and at the North in 
 
280 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 March or April. The main crop may be put in three or four 
 weeks later, but if they escape spring frosts the early 
 planted crops are best. In colder climates the sets are 
 often kept in a warm room covered with damp moss until 
 they have grown a half inch, and then if planted out with- 
 out being dried, in a warm situation, are considerably 
 earlier. A teaspoonful of gypsum dusted over the plants 
 when they appear above ground is very beneficial. Never 
 work the crop after the blossom buds appear. 
 
 When the tops begin to die, dig the crop, and store in a 
 cool, dry place. Sprinkle them with lime when dug, and 
 they are less in danger of rot. This disease often attacks 
 them while growing, beginning at the haulm, and descend- 
 ing to the tubers, which soon become a mass of rottenness. 
 It is caused by the fungus, JSotrytis infestans, but is 
 thought to be gradually disappearing. If potatoes are 
 allowed to remain in the ground until they begin to grow, 
 they become waxy and worthless, and those that are 
 stored will not remain eatable, unless the sprouts are 
 rubbed oif as they appear. 
 
 Use. The tubers of the Irish potato, consisting chiefly 
 of starch, and having no peculiarity of taste, approach 
 nearer in their nature to the flour of grain than any other 
 root. Hence the potato is almost universally liked, and 
 can be continually used by the same individual without 
 becoming unpalatable. It is a good supporter of respira- 
 tion, and adapted for the formation of fat, but is deficient 
 in nitrogenous or muscle-forming elements. Sustained 
 labor cannot be performed on this diet without the ad- 
 dition of other food better adapted to the formation of 
 flesh. Potatoes are boiled, baked, roasted, or fried. When 
 long kept, the best ones are selected, boiled, and mashed, 
 before going to the table. Starch can be manufactured 
 from potatoes, as may ardent spirits. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 281 
 
 POTATO, SWEET. (Convolvulus Batatas.) 
 
 This valuable plant, first cultivated in England in 1597, 
 by Gerard, is the potato mentioned by Shakespeare and 
 his cotemporaries, the Irish potato being then scarcely 
 known, " Let the sky rain potatoes," says Falstaff, allud- 
 ing to this vegetable, which was at that time imported 
 into England from Spain and the Canary Islands, and 
 considered a great delicacy. The sweet potato is a tender 
 perennial plant, of the Morning Glory family, a native of 
 China and both Indies. It has small leaves, with three to 
 five lobes, according to the variety, with herbaceous 
 vines which run along the ground, taking root at inter- 
 vals. Its roots are long, spindle-shaped or oval, often 
 very large, and abounding in starch and sugar. Its nutri- 
 tious properties and agreeable flavor have brought it into 
 general use in all parts of the globe, where the climate is 
 warm enough to admit of its successful cultivation. The 
 following are the most common varieties, and perhaps as 
 good as any. 
 
 Small Spanish. Long, grows in clusters, purplish 
 color, very productive, and of excellent quality, but if not 
 well grown, is fibrous ; flesh white. 
 
 Nansemond is a larger variety, and good at every stage 
 of growth ; the best for the North. 
 
 Brimstone. Sulphur-colored, long, of large size, and 
 productive ; keeps well with us, and is one of the best 
 sorts ; very dry, and excellent. 
 
 Red Bermuda is of the Yam family ; leaves, many- 
 lobed ; the best early potato ; productive. 
 
 Common Yam, Leaves many-lobed ; root yellow, 
 large, oblong, and somewhat globular; the best long- 
 keeper, and very productive. Has something of the pump- 
 kin flavor. 
 
282 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 Hayti Yanh Larger in size, white flesh, not so sweet, 
 but more farinaceous. Keeps equal to the last, and is dry 
 and floury.; the most prolific of all. 
 
 Culture. Sweet potatoes like a rich, sandy loam, per- 
 fectly friable, and, as indicated by analysis, abounding in 
 potash. The soil should be well enriched. A dressing 
 of wood ashes would be very beneficial to this crop. 
 Next to potash it demands a supply of the phosphates. 
 They do well on fresh lands, if well broken up and friable. 
 At the South, the Spanish potatoes are generally planted 
 where they are to remain, like the Irish potato, whole or 
 cut up into sets. But both these may, and the yams must, 
 be propagated by slips, as they grow larger and yield 
 more abundantly. 
 
 To raise slips, select a sunny spot sheltered by fences 
 or buildings, and lay it off in beds four feet wide, with 
 alleys of the same wddth between them ; slope the beds a 
 little towards the sun, dig them well, and add plenty of 
 well-decomposed manure, if not already rich. Do this in 
 Georgia in February, or early in March. At the North, a 
 gentle hot-bed will be required, and it will be found Very 
 useful in every locality, in order that the slips may be 
 ready as soon as all danger of frost is over. 
 
 Choose smooth and healthy-looking potatoes, and lay 
 them regularly over the bed an inch or two apart, and 
 cover them about three or four inches with fine soil; rake 
 the bed smooth, and it is done. In large operations, ten 
 bushels of potatoes should be bedded for every acre of 
 ground. 
 
 While the slips are sprouting, prepare the ground to 
 receive them. It should be rich, or made so with well- 
 rotted manure, and thoroughly and deeply broken up with 
 the plow or Spade. Lay it off just before the slips are 
 ready, in low, parallel ridges or beds, the crowns of 
 which are three and a half feet asunder, and about six 
 inches high, on which plant out the slips with a dibble 
 
YEGETABLES DESCBIPTION AND CULTURE. 283 
 
 eighteen inches apart, one plant in a place. Choose for 
 this operation such a day as you would for cabbage 
 plants, or do it in the evening. The sweet potato is 
 readily transplanted, and if holes are dug in the mellow 
 bed, deep enough to admit the plant, and the slips, set 
 upright therein, have the earth washed in about their 
 roots by pouring water upon them from the open spout 
 of a water-pot, finishing the operation by covering over 
 with a coat of dry, mellow earth, brought up and pressed 
 pretty closely about the slips to keep the moistened earth 
 from baking, very few will die, even if they are set out at 
 mid-day ; but as the plants would be checked, a cloudy 
 day, or just at night, should be selected for the operation. 
 
 This is an excellent mode of transplanting all plants, 
 and is of great use both in the vegetable and flower-gar- 
 den. If the slips are not washed in as above when taken 
 up in dry weather, it is of great advantage to grout them, 
 as well as all other plants you wish to transplant. This is 
 done by immersing the roots in water thickened with rich 
 earth. It refreshes the slips, and gives them a thin coat- 
 ing of earth as a protection against the atmosphere. 
 Draw the slips when about three or four inches high, by 
 placing the left hand on the bed near the sprout to steady 
 the root, and prevent its being pulled up with the sprout, 
 which is loosened with the right hand, taking care not to 
 disturb the fibrous roots of the mother potato, for this 
 continues to afford a succession of slips, which may be 
 successfully transplanted in Georgia until the first of July. 
 At the North, they should not be put in later than the first 
 of June. 
 
 After the piece is planted, go over it again in a few days 
 to plant over any place where the slips may have failed. 
 As soon as the ground gets a little weedy, scrape it over, 
 loosening the earth and covering up the weeds, but be 
 careful not to injure the young slips. Faithful cultivation 
 and frequent moving the soil are as beneficial to this crop, 
 
284 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 while young, as to any other. At one of the hoeings just 
 before being laid by, the ground should be deeply moved 
 with the plow or spade, but not close to the plants. They 
 should be laid by before the plants run a great deal, after 
 which they should be undisturbed. Be careful not to 
 cover the vines, but if they become attached to the soil, 
 loosen them up from it, so that the vigor of the plants 
 may be thrown into the roots and not into the running 
 vines. Make the hills large and broad, not pointed. In 
 hoeing, draw the vines carefully over towards you while 
 you draw up the earth and cover the weeds ; then lay 
 them carefully back, and finish the other side in the same 
 manner. At this time fill the spaces between the rows 
 with leaves and litter while the ground is wet, to retain 
 the moisture. After the vines have covered the ground 
 too much to use the hoe, any large weeds that appear 
 should be pulled up by hand. 
 
 The Yam potato can also be raised from seed, but 
 the Spanish variety, like the sugar cane and many other 
 plants long propagated by division, rarely produces seed. 
 
 Just as soon as the tops are killed by frost, the potatoes 
 should be gathered. In field crops they can be plowed up 
 and gathered by hands which follow the plow, depositing 
 the potatoes in small heaps, but in the garden the potato 
 can be gathered with the hoe or the potato hook, an im- 
 plement much used in gathering crops of the Irish potato. 
 It is better to do this in a dry day, and many prefer to 
 dig their potatoes just before the frost kills the vines, 
 thinking they keep better. 
 
 To keep sweet potatoes, it is necessary, at the North, 
 to store them in a dry, warm place, in well-dried sand. 
 At the South, they are safely stored in hills containing 
 thirty or forty bushels each. Let the potatoes, when dug, 
 dry in the sun through the day, and in digging and hand- 
 ling, they should not be bruised. Elevate the bottom of 
 the intended pile about six inches with earth, furnished by 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 285 
 
 digging around it a circular trench. On this put pine 
 straw two or three inches thick, or dry leaves, on which 
 place the potatoes piled in a regular cone. If the weather 
 is good, cover them only with pine or other straw for two 
 or three days, until the potatoes are well dried, before 
 their final earthing up. Let the covering of straw be 
 three or four inches thick ; then cover it over with large 
 strips of pine bark, commencing at the base, and cover as 
 shingling unto the top, leaving a small aperture. Cover 
 four or five inches thick with earth over all, except this 
 aperture, which must be left open for the escape of the 
 heat and moisture generated within. (Peabody.) 
 
 Some cover this opening with a piece of pine bark, to 
 keep out the rain, but a board shelter is preferable. It is 
 well to protect the hills from rain by a temporary roof of 
 plank. When the weather gets warm, in the spring, take 
 up the potatoes, rub off the sprouts, and keep on a dry 
 floor. If put up with care, they will keep until July. 
 One important step toward their certain preservation is to 
 gather them carefully from the ground, as the least bruise 
 produces rapid decay. 
 
 For Seed, some of the finest roots of the most produc- 
 tive hills can be packed in barrels, and covered with sand, 
 in a dry, warm place, free from all exposure to frost. A 
 small garden crop is best kept in barrels with dry sand or 
 leaves ; if the latter, a layer of leaves at the bottom, then 
 a layer of potatoes, then a layer of leaves, and so on until 
 the cask is filled. Use dry leaves, and store in a dry place. 
 
 Use. This root is deservedly a favorite at the table, 
 and the most wholesome grown. In nutritious properties, 
 it excels all other roots cultivated in this country, except 
 the carrot. Weight for weight, it contains more than 
 double the quantity of starch, sugar, and other elements 
 of nutrition, that are found in the best varieties of Irish 
 potato. For feeding stock, three bushels are equal to one 
 of Indian com, yielding, on the same land, five or sir 
 
GARDENING FOll THE SOUTH. 
 
 times the food that is produced by this most profitable 
 grain. 
 
 A good baked sweet potato is almost as nutritive* as 
 bread. They are better baked than boiled. They are also 
 used for pies and puddings, and sweet potato rolls are ex- 
 cellent. In short, the modes of cooking this valuable 
 vegetable are innumerable, but perhaps the very best is 
 Marion's mode of roasting in the hot ashes. 
 
 PUMPKIN. (Cterfo'fa Pepo.) 
 
 A trailing annual, from India and the Levant, with 
 globular or cylindrical fruit. It has become so crossed 
 that it is difficult to say of some varieties to which species 
 they should be referred. 
 
 The best variety for family use is the Cashaw, a long, 
 cylindrical, curved variety, swollen at one extremity, of 
 fine, creamy yellow color, very solid and excellent to use 
 as a winter squash, and quite as valuable as any for the 
 other purposes. Pumpkins are not as particular about 
 soil as melons and cucumbers, but will grow well on any 
 tolerably rich ground. It is not best to grow them in the 
 garden, as they will mix and corrupt the seed of the other 
 varieties. They like a soil freshly reclaimed from the 
 woods; the field is the proper place for their cultivation. 
 Plant when the main crop of corn is put in ; let the hills 
 be ten feet apart. Hoe frequently and keep clean. Let 
 only one plant remain in each hill. Do not earth *up the 
 plants, but keep the soil about them light and loose with 
 the hoe, until the vines prevent further culture. 
 
 Use. In France, as well as in New England, the pump- 
 kin is much used for stews and soups. The best, such as 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 287 
 
 Cashaw, are good substitutes for the winter squash, and 
 make an excellent pie. They are also a valuable food for 
 cattle. They can be preserved by boiling and drying the 
 pulp in an oven, or by cutting in strips and drying by the 
 fire, or will keep very well whole, if in a cool, dry place, 
 free from frost. 
 
 RADISH. (RapJianus sativus.) 
 
 This is an annual Cruciferous plant, grown in England 
 as early as 1548, being one of the plants mentioned by 
 Gerard. The lower leaves are lyrate ; stem about two 
 feet high, with pale violet flowers ; the root fleshy, spin- 
 dle or globular-shaped, of various colors. There are two 
 kinds of radish, the spindle-rooted, and the globular or 
 turnip-rooted. These are again divided into early and 
 late varieties, among which we will notice : 
 
 Early Scarlet Short-Top, Root long and spindle- 
 shaped ; leaves very short. It is the earliest, most crisp 
 and mildflavored, and requires less space than the other 
 varieties. Much esteemed for its bright color. The root 
 grows partly above ground. Long Scarlet Early Frame, 
 and Salmon, differ very slightly from this. 
 
 Scarlet Turnip-rooted, Turbinate ; scarlet-colored ; 
 flesh white and tender ; not equal to the last, but bears the 
 heat better. A sub-variety has rose-colored flesh. An- 
 other, the Purple Turnip-rooted, differs only in its exter- 
 nal skin, which is purple. 
 
 White Turnip-rooted has a white exterior, and a round 
 bulb, terminating in a small, fibrous root. Flesh, white 
 and mild. 
 
 Oval (or Oblong) Rose -colored, Root oval or oblong ; 
 
288 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 crimson skin, and tender, rose-colored flesh. The best of 
 all in quality ; good for forcing and the early crop. 
 
 Yellow Slimmer* This is a turnip-rooted variety, named 
 from its color, and will stand the heat better than any 
 other variety. 
 
 Black Winter or Spanish. Turnip-shaped, black, and 
 very large ; sown in August or September with turnips. 
 It can be gathered and stored for winter. The flesh is 
 white, hard, and hot. The White Spanish is white outside, 
 and the flesh milder than the Black. 
 
 Chinese Rose-colored Winter. Conical ; bright rose- 
 colored ; flesh solid ; texture fine ; rather hot. 
 
 White Chinese. Outside white ; bulb inversely turbi- 
 nate ; flesh milder than the last three, tender, and excel- 
 lent ; the best winter sort. The Scarlet Oval Rose and 
 White Chinese are the best sorts. 
 
 Culture. Radishes like a rich, sandy loam, dug a full 
 spade deep, but succeed in any good garden soil. Their 
 culture is very simple. If manure be freshly applied, it 
 should be at the bottom of the soil, or the roots will fork. 
 They are often sown in beds four or five feet wide, thinly 
 broadcast ; but it is better to put them in drills about 
 eight or ten inches apart, an inch deep, scattering the seed 
 thinly, which may be in beds devoted to this crop, or made 
 between the wider rows of beets, parsnips, onions, carrots, 
 as well as spinach, peas, beans, Irish potatoes, yielding 
 large crops, and taking up no room available for other 
 purposes. 
 
 From the first of November until March a succession 
 of the Oval Rose, or Scarlet Short-top varieties, can be 
 grown under glass. All that is required is a bed of good, 
 rich loam, watering them occasionally, and giving air ev- 
 ery day, when it does not absolutely freeze. Let the sash 
 be off every mild rain, and let the earth come within 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 289 
 
 seven or eight inches of the glass. On open ground crops 
 can be made for fall use, if desired, by sowing in succes- 
 sion, after the summer heats are over, until about the time 
 of the first frosts. With the first opening of spring, com- 
 mence planting in the open ground, and sow every week 
 or two until the dry, hot weather comes on. In the low 
 country South, they may be grown all winter, with no 
 other protection than a little litter thrown over the beds 
 in severe frosts. As birds are very fond of the seed, it is 
 sometimes necessary to protect the beds with nets. Rad- 
 ishes are of such rapid growth, that they will generally 
 take care of themselves after planting in a good soil, but 
 hoeing once will hasten their growth. 
 
 For Seed. Some of the finest and earliest can remain 
 where grown, or be removed to another bed and inserted 
 up to their leaves. Water frequently until established, 
 and while the flowers are opening. Let the roots be three 
 feet apart, and do not permit any others to flower near 
 them, if pure seeds are desired. When the pods turn dry, 
 gather, dry, thresh out, and save in paper bags. The seed 
 will keep three years. 
 
 Use. The tops used to be boiled for greens. The seed 
 leaves, when they first appear, are used as a salad, with 
 cress and mustard, and the seed-pods, gathered young, 
 form a good pickle, and are a substitute for capers. 
 
 There is a species, JKaphanus caudatus, or Rat-tailed 
 radish, of which the pod grows a foot or more in length, 
 with a peculiar pungent but delicate flavor, and it may 
 be eaten like the root, or pickled. It is from Java. 
 
 But of the common species the roots are the parts 
 mainly used. They are much relished, while young and 
 crisp, for the breakfast table. They'contain little besido 
 water, woody fiber, and acrid matter ; so they cannot be 
 very nourishing or wholesome. When young, and of 
 good varieties, they are much more digestible than when 
 older and more fibrous. 
 13 
 
290 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 RAMPION. (Campanula Rapunculus.) 
 
 This is an English "biennial plant, related to the Canter- 
 bury-bell, with a long, white, spindle-shaped root, lower 
 leaves oval lanceolate, with a panicle of blue bell-shaped 
 flowers in June. It has a milky juice. 
 
 Culture. Sow the seed in April or May in a rich, 
 shady border. It likes a moist, rich soil, not too stiff. 
 The seed must be very slightly covered, but fine earth 
 should be pressed upon it. As the plants grow, thin them 
 to four inches apart, and pull them before they run to 
 seed. 
 
 To save seeds, allow some of the best plants to remain. 
 
 Use. The root is eaten raw like a radish, and has a 
 pleasant, nutty flavor. Cultivated only by those in search 
 of variety. 
 
 RAPE, OR COLZA. (Brassica Napus, var. oleifera.) 
 
 Rape, or Colza, is a biennial plant of the cabbage tribe, 
 a native of England, with glaucous radical leaves and 
 yellow flowers, appearing early in spring. It is often 
 
 called Kale. 
 
 
 
 Culture. Sow at the same time with cresses and mus- 
 tard in late winter and spring. Sow in drills or beds, and 
 follow the culture directed for white mustard. Rape, 
 sown like turnips the first of September, will survive the 
 frosts and afford an abundance of fine greens the latter 
 part of winter and -early in spring, wherever the turnip 
 will stand the winter. 
 
 Seed. A few plants sown in August and r September, 
 and kept over, will flower and seed the next year abund- 
 antly. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 291 
 
 Use. The seed leaves are gathered young for a small 
 salad with cresses and mustard. Later it is used like 
 mustard for greens. This plant is much cultivated in Eu- 
 rope for the oil expressed from its seeds. 
 
 Rape, Edible-rooted, or French Turnip, J5. Napus, 
 var. esculenta, is another variety with edible roots, some- 
 times cultivated as a substitute for the turnip. The root 
 is white, carrot-shaped, about the size of the middle finger. 
 It is much grown in Germany and France. [This is not 
 the French Turnip of the North, and is the Teltow of the 
 Germans. ED.] 
 
 Culture. It is raised from seed, which may be sown in 
 August or September, and requires the same treatment as 
 turnip. It likes a sandy soil, and if grown in too rich 
 earth, it loses its sweetness. In dry weather, the beds 
 must be watered regularly until the plants get three or 
 four leaves. To save seed, see " Turnip." 
 
 Use. It is much used in continental cookery, and en- 
 riches all the French soups. Stewed in gravy, it forms an 
 excellent dish, and being white and carrot-shaped, when 
 mixed with carrots upon a dish, it is very ornamental. 
 In using, there will be no necessity of cutting away the 
 outer rind, in which the flavor chiefly resides. Scraping 
 will be quite sufficient. 
 
 RHUBARB. (Rheum.) 
 
 The garden Rhubarb, or Pie-plant, is a perennial of the 
 same natural family as the common dock. The varieties 
 now cultivated are hybrids, and have supplanted the 
 original species, Rheum Rhaponticum, palmatum, and un~ 
 dulatum, excelling them in size, earliness, and delicacy of 
 flavor. The best sorts are the Early, which is of but me 
 
292 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 dium size ; Myatt's Linnaeus, rather early, and yielding 
 large crops of large leaves, and the best flavored of all 
 Myatt's Victoria, which is two weeks later ; stalks ver;y 
 large, and good ; Downing's Colossal, and Gaboon's Mam 
 moth, very large varieties, of good flavor. 
 
 Rhubarb is remarkable for the quantity of phosphates 
 and soda it extracts from the earth. Crude soda might be 
 added to the soil. Guano and bone-dust are very beneficial. 
 
 Rhubarb succeeds best in a rich, deep, rather light loam, 
 and in a situation open to the air and light. Trench the 
 ground two spades deep. It may be raised from seed, but 
 thus grown, sports into new varieties. It is best prop- 
 agated by dividing the roots, reserving a bud to each 
 piece. These may set about two inches deep in rows three 
 feet apart, and from eighteen to thirty inches (according 
 to the sort) in the row. All the culture required is to 
 keep the surface soil light and free from weeds. The plan- 
 tation may be made in the fall, after the leaves are killed 
 by frost, and protected by litter, or as early in the spring 
 as the weather and soil permit. It should not be disturb- 
 ed after growth commences. Pluck no leaves the first 
 year, after which the crop will be abundant. Make a new 
 plantation about once in five years. If a plant or two in 
 summer dies out, as it is apt to do in the South, it is best 
 to remove the next autumn the old plant together with soil 
 in which it grew, and supply fresh soil. New plants to re- 
 set the vacancy can be obtained by uncovering an old crown 
 and cutting from it a bud with a piece of root attached. 
 
 To obtain the largest product, the flower stems should 
 be broken off when they appear, for the plant is weakened 
 by permitting it to seed. A yearly surface dressing of 
 well-rotted manure should be given, for the stalks, to be 
 good, must be quickly grown. 
 
 Forcing. This plant is forced by placing a large flower 
 pot over the roots, and covering with stable manure. The 
 more common way is to surround the plant with a small 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 293 
 
 barrel without a head ; a cover is placed over it at night 
 and in cold days, and it is then surronnded with a pile of 
 stable manure built up in as sharp a cone as it can be made 
 to form. If the root is good, it will soon fill the barrel with 
 shoots. The plant should be permitted to rest after this 
 crop through the season, and others be selected for the pur- 
 pose the next year. This operation, at the North, is com- 
 mon enough, but at the South it is generally death to the 
 plant. 
 
 Use. The leaf-stem, or petiole of this plant, when the 
 external skin is removed, is cut up in thin slices, and hav- 
 ing an agreeable acid, is used exactly like the apple for 
 pies, tarts, and sauce, at a time that fruits cannot be 
 obtained. Gather them while young, just as they attain 
 their full size, before they lose their fine flavor. They 
 should be gently slipped from the root without using a 
 knife. 
 
 This plant is in almost universal use in England, France, 
 and the Northern States, and succeeds perfectly well in 
 Middle Georgia. We hope to see it common in Southern 
 gardens wherever it will succeed. 
 
 ROCAMBOLE.- {Allium Scorodoprasum.) 
 
 This is a hardy, perennial, Liliaceous plant, of the onion 
 tribe, from Denmark, and is sometimes called Spanish 
 Garlic, and Great Shallot. It has its bulbs and cloves 
 growing in a cluster, forming a kind of compound root. 
 The stem also bears bulbs at its summit. These are often 
 sold for onion buttons. 
 
 Culture. It is best propagated by the root-bulbs, thos 
 
294 GABDEXING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 of the summit being slow in production. The planting 
 may be made at any time in the fall, winter, or spring. 
 Insert the bulbs in drills eight inches apart and six inches 
 in the drill, with the dibble, about two inches deep. Keep 
 clear of weeds, and cultivate and store like garlic. A 
 very few roots are sufficient for any family. 
 
 Use. The bulbs are used in the same manner as garlic, 
 and are preferred for cooking, being of much milder flavor. 
 
 BOQUETTE. (Bramca eruca.) 
 
 This is an annual plant from France, of which the 
 leaves are used as a salad. Sow thinly in drills a foot 
 apart, as soon as spring opens; here in February and 
 March. Water frequently, if necessary, which will lesser 
 the acrid taste of the young leaves ; gather young. Not 
 much cultivated. 
 
 SALSIFY. (Tragopogon porrifolifolius.) 
 
 Salsify, or Vegetable Oyster, is a hardy, tap-rooted bi- 
 ennial, a native of various parts of Europe, with long 
 tapering root of a fleshy, white substance, the herbage 
 smooth and glaucous, the flower-stem three or four feet 
 high, and the flower of a dull purple color. It belongs to 
 the Composite Family. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 395 
 
 Salsify likes a light, mellow soil, dug very deeply, as for 
 carrots and other tap-rooted plants. Sow early in spring, 
 and for a succession until the summer 
 heats come on, rather thickly, in drills 
 an inch deep and a foot apart. An 
 ounce of seed will sow a square rod. 
 Scarlet radish may also be sown thinly 
 in the same drills. When an inch high, 
 thin the plants, and continue by degrees 
 until the plants are six inches apart. If 
 the soil is deep and moist, they will grow 
 all summer and not run up to seed. Wa- 
 tering in dry weather, especially with 
 guano water, will greatly invigorate the 
 plants. Cultivate the soil, and keep it 
 free from weeds, as for beets and car- 
 rots. The roots may be drawn and 
 stored in sand, but where the winters 
 are open should remain in the ground 
 all winter, to be pulled as wanted. 
 
 For Seed. Leave, or transplant some 
 of the best plants in spring, which will 
 produce seed abundantly. Gather and 
 dry in the heads, where they may be 
 kept until wanted. 
 
 Use. The stalks of old plants are 
 sometimes cut in the spring, as a substi- 
 tute for asparagus. The roots are boiled 
 or stewed like carrots, and have a mild, 
 sweet flavor, being wholesome, palatable, 
 
 and tolerably nutritive. They are most- 
 Fig. 74. SALSIFY, i i a '.L i i_ 
 
 ly cooked to imitate oysters, to which 
 the flavor has some resemblance. 
 
290 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 This is a genus of Labiate plants of which there are 
 two species in cultivation ; the Summer Savory, Satureja 
 hortensis, a hardy annual ; and Winter Savory, Satureja 
 montana, a shrubby perennial both natives of Italy, 
 and cultivated for their warm, aromatic flavors. 
 
 Both may be propagated by seed. Sow in spring, as 
 soon as the ground is a, little warm, moderately thick, in 
 shallow drills, and cover lightly. For Summer Savory, 
 the rows should be twelve inches apart, and the plants 
 thinned to six inches; the thinnings may be transplanted 
 to the same distance. Winter Savory requires more room ; 
 the plants should be a foot apart, in drills fifteen inches 
 asunder. This can be propagated also, by slips, cuttings, 
 or division of the roots. All the care required is to keep 
 free from weeds. Seed can be gathered as it ripens from 
 a root or two left uncut for the purpose. 
 
 Use. The leaves of these herbs are much employed in 
 soups, salads, stuffings, &c., on account of their agreeable 
 pungent flavor. They are also said to possess the desirable 
 power of " expelling fleas from a bed." Formerly, they 
 were much used in medicine. Gather when they come 
 into bloom, and dry for winter use in the shade, pound in a 
 mortar, pass through a sieve, and put up in bottles closely 
 stopped, and they will retain their fragrance any length 
 of time. 
 
 SCORZONERA. (Scorzonera Hwpanica.') 
 
 Scorzonera is a hardy, tap-rooted perennial, a native of 
 Spain, and cultivated in England since 1576. The stem is 
 two 'or three feet high, few-leaved, branched at the top. 
 The flowers are yellow. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 297 
 
 Culture. It is raised from seed, which must be sown 
 yearly. The soil, like that for most root crops, must be 
 mellow, deep, and fertile. Sow any time in spring, in drills 
 a foot apart, and cover the seed half an inch deep. In 
 the South it is better to sow two or three different times, 
 as the early sown may run to seed, and the late sown may 
 not vegetate. When the plants are three inches high, 
 thin them to eight inches in the drill. In short, to culti- 
 vate and save seed, see Salsify. 
 
 Use. The roots are carrot-shaped, but with a black 
 skin. They are white within, are agreeable to the taste, 
 and nutritive, but before use, the bitter outer rind must 
 be scraped off. They are then boiled and used like salsify 
 or carrots. The roots continue good all winter. The 
 plant is too similar to salsify to render its cultivation 
 an object where that is grown. 
 
 SCTJEVY GRASS. (Cochlearia officinalis.) 
 
 A hardy, Cruciferous, annual plant, found near the sea 
 shores of most temperate climates. 
 
 It is propagated by seed sown as soon as ripe, or very 
 early in spring. Sow in shallow drills, eight inches apart, 
 and thin to four inches. Keep free from weeds, and water 
 in dry weather. Used as an addition to salads, like 
 cresses, and medicinally in scurvy. 
 
 SEA KALE. (Crambe maratima.) 
 
 This is a hardy, Cruciferous perennial, a native of the 
 
 dry, shingly shores of Great Britain. The plant is smooth, 
 
 of a beautiful glaucous hue, covered with a fine meal, and 
 
 with large, sinuated radical leaves. The flower is of a 
 
 13* 
 
298 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 rich white appearance, and a honeyed smell. It has 
 probably been cultivated in gardens one hundred and 
 fifty years, but not very generally until the beginning of 
 the present century, though the English peasantry have 
 been in the habit of gather- 
 ing the blanched shoots as 
 they pushed through the 
 sand, and boiling them as 
 greens, from time immemo- 
 rial. Though a native of a 
 cool climate, it succeeds 
 perfectly in middle Georgia. 
 Culture. The native soil 
 of sea kale is a deep sand, 
 mingled with matter from 
 the sea. It likes a deep 
 mould, or sandy loam, and if 
 poor, well-putrified dung 
 and half-decayed leaves may 
 be added. Upon the richness 
 and proper preparation of 
 the soil the luxuriance of the 
 plant depends. The situation 
 must be free from all shade 
 of trees. Sea kale is propa- 
 gated by seeds, or offsets, or 
 cuttings of the root ; but the 
 best plants are raised from 
 seed. Sow the seed in a well- 
 prepared soil, rich, or made 
 so with well-decomposed manure, and shaded by a fence, 
 or building, from the midday sun. Draw the drills one 
 foot apart, and scatter the seed thinly along the drills. 
 The beds should be about four feet wide, for convenience. 
 Sow very early in spring. If the outer coat of. the seed 
 be bruised,, not injuring the latter, the germination will 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 299 
 
 be accelerated. The plants are very slow in appearing ; 
 never less than three weeks, often four or five months, and 
 sometimes a full year. Water plentifully in dry weather, 
 and keep the seed-beds free from weeds during the season. 
 Thin the plants, as they appear, to an inch apart, and, as 
 they grow strong, to two or three inches, and keep free 
 from weeds. In the autumn, when their leaves decay, clear 
 them away, and earth them up about the crowns with an 
 inch or two of soil from the alleys, or leaf-mould from the 
 woods, and cover over the whole bed, four inches deep, 
 with long litter, and leave it to stand until the time of 
 transplanting. 
 
 As early as possible the spring ensuing, prepare the per- 
 manent bed for those you wish to transplant. Those 
 raised where they are to remain succeed best. 
 
 Let the soil be light, and well enriched with good com- 
 post. Leaf manure is better than hot dung. Dig it up 
 deeply and thoroughly, at least two feet deep, and lay it 
 off in beds three feet wide, with alleys between, two feet 
 in width. Upon each of these beds plant two rows of 
 plants eighteen inches apart, and the same distance in the 
 row. Take up the plants very carefully with the trowel, 
 so as not to disturb the roots. If you plant cuttings of 
 old plants, put two in each place, to guard against failures. 
 In all cases, be careful in transplanting that the roots 
 are not broken or dried by exposure to the sun and 
 air. During the dry, hot weather of summer, the beds 
 should be liberally watered, the first season after replant- 
 ing, as upon their summer growth depends the next 
 season's crop. Keep the soil clean, and after the plants 
 get well rooted, dig over the ground between the rows, 
 making the soil as fine as possible. 
 
 The coming autumn, the earthing-tip must be a little 
 increased ; give a coat of leaf-mould, or compost manure, 
 and over this a thick coat of leaves, which will bring the 
 plants on early in the spring. The next spring remove 
 
300 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 the litter, and dig in some of the manure into the alleys, 
 and then, if you blanch with pots, spread over the beds 
 about an inch deep of clean sand. The shoots may be 
 blanched, and a few cut for use, but sparingly, as the 
 plants must not be weakened. The better way is not to 
 remove the covering of leaves until you have gathered 
 what you desire. On a portion of the bed to produce 
 early, the winter covering of compost and leaves must be 
 yearly applied. 
 
 Another portion must be left uncovered until the shoots 
 begin to rise, and then covered with eight or ten inches 
 of sand, for a later crop. Each spring give it a dressing 
 of salt, like asparagus, and dig over the surface of the 
 bed, as before. Retain for each plant only four or five of 
 the best suckers, at regular distances around the stem ; 
 suffer none of these to seed, if you would not greatly 
 injure the next year's growth. 
 
 Sea kale, though eatable without blanching, as spring 
 greens, is vastly improved when blanched. This may be 
 done by earthing-up the crowns eight or ten inches with 
 sand, or light mould, or by retaining the coat of dry 
 leaves put over the beds in autumn. 
 
 This covering may remain until the cutting ceases in 
 the spring, when all covering must be removed at evening, 
 or in cloudy weather. The shoots will raise the covering 
 when in a fit state for cutting. The courses of leaves 
 should be from five to twelve inches thick, according to 
 the age of the plants, and as directed above, may remain 
 on all winter. But a large flower pot, with the hole in 
 the bottom stopped, and light at the edges carefully 
 excluded by a coat of litter, is the best of all modes of 
 blanching. 
 
 For Seed. A plant that has not been blanched or cut 
 from must be allowed to run to seed in the spring. A 
 single plant will produce an abundant supply. 
 
 . s ea kale comes on early in March, when vege- 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 301 
 
 tables are scarce, and affords a very wholesome and agree- 
 able table luxury. The young shoots and leaf stalks, 
 before unfolding, are boiled and dressed like asparagus, 
 are employed in soups, and also make an agreeable salad. 
 
 SHALLOT, OR ESCHALLOT. (AlUum Asoolonicum.) 
 
 This is a plant of the onion tribe, which derives its 
 botanical name from growing wild at Ascalon, in Syria. 
 It has a strong taste, but as the strong flavor is not 
 offensive, like the garlic, and does not remain so long upon 
 the palate as the onion, it is often preferred. The root is 
 bulbous, similar to that of garlic in being divided into 
 cloves, included in a membrane. It rarely sends up a 
 flower-stock, and hence is often called the barren onion. 
 
 The best sorts are the Common and the Long-Keeping, 
 of which last the bulbs have been kept two years. The 
 " Big Shallot" of our gardens is Rocambole. 
 
 Culture. It is propagated from the offsets of the roots* 
 Prepare the beds as for the rest of the onion tribe, but it 
 will do with not quite as rich a soil. Let the soil be made 
 perfectly light and friable. The last of September is the 
 best time for planting the early crop, but they may be 
 planted any time during the autumn and winter. The 
 early planted ones come into use early in May. Make the 
 beds four feet wide, and mark them off in drills an inch 
 leep, ten or twelve inches distant, and put the offsets out 
 ix inches apart in the drills. Do not cover deeply ; leave 
 the point of the clove just even with the surface of the 
 earth, and press the soil around. Keep the ground free 
 from weeds, but be particular, in hoeing, not to earth up 
 the bulbs. The leek is the only member of the onion 
 tribe that is not injured by gathering the earth about its 
 
302 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 stem. Take up the bulbs when ripe, dry in the shade, 
 and preserve as garlic. They may be kept until the next 
 spring. 
 
 Use. The shallot, though more pungent than some 
 members of the onion family, is preferred by many in 
 seasoning gravies, soups, sauces, and other culinary prep 
 arations, and is by some considered almost indispensable in 
 the preparation of a good beefsteak. It can be pickled in 
 the same manner as the onion. 
 
 SKIRRET. (8ium sisarum.) 
 
 Skirret is a perennial Umbelliferous plant from China, 
 known in Europe since 1548. It grows a foot high, 
 with pinnate lower leaves. The root is composed of 
 several fleshy tubers, the size of the little finger, joined at 
 the crown. 
 
 Culture. Skirret likes a deep, rich, rather moist soil, 
 with the manure applied at the bottom. The situation 
 should be open. It is propagated by seeds, or by offsets 
 of established roots. Seedlings produce the best roots. 
 Sow in spring, when the ground becomes warm, in drills 
 an inch deep and ten inches apart. "When the plants are 
 an inch or two high, thin to six or eight inches apart. 
 Cultivate like salsify, and keep clear from weeds. They 
 will be fit for use in August, but can remain in the ground, 
 to use as wanted, all winter. Slips of the old roots may 
 be set out nine inches apart and cultivated in the same 
 manner. Leave some of the plants in the ground, and 
 they will throw up seed-stalks and ripen seed during the 
 summer following. 
 
 Use. The tubers are boiled and are very sweet, some- 
 what like the parsnip, and are thought more palatable by 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. o03 
 
 some, but are disagreeable to many. They are boiled, 
 and served up with butter, or cold, with vinegar and oil, 
 and are also cooked, like salsify, in batter. It was 
 formerly esteemed as " the sweetest, whitest, and most 
 pleasant of roots." 
 
 SORREL, (Rumex.) 
 
 The sorrels are perennial plants belonging to the same 
 family as dock and rhubarb. There are three species cul- 
 tivated, viz : Rumex acetosa^ or common English garden 
 sorrel, of which the Belleville variety is best ; R. scutar 
 tus ; French or Round-leaved Sorrel, a trailing plant, 
 with more acid leaves than the last; JR. montanus, 
 Mountain Sorrel, like the last, a native of France, Of this 
 last there are two varieties, the Common Mountain, and 
 the Green Mountain Sorrel. The first has pale green, 
 blistered leaves, less acid than the common English, and 
 does not run quickly to flower. The Green Mountain Sor- 
 rel is earlier than this, and is the latest to flower, pro- 
 ducing freely dark green leaves of considerable acidity. 
 The flowers of the first and last species are dioacious. 
 
 Sorrel will grow from seed, or dividing the roots early 
 in spring. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart, and as they 
 come up, thin them to one foot in the row; or part the 
 roots in the autumn or spring, and set them out at the 
 same distance. "Water them occasionally until well estab- 
 lished. Keep the plants free from weeds ; cut down the 
 stalks occasionally in the summer, and cover the crowns 
 with a very little fresh earth, that they may send up large 
 and tender leaves. When, in two or three years, the 
 plants begin to dwindle, replant them in fresh soil. For 
 seed, let some of the stalks run up, and gather when ripe. 
 
304 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Use. Sorrel is much used by the French in soups, 
 sauces, and salads, and also cooked as spinach, and when 
 cooked in this way with turnip tops is thought to improve 
 their flavor. Some use the leaves in pies as a substitute 
 for rhubarb. 
 
 SPINACH. (Spinacia oleracea.) 
 
 Spinach is a hardy annual of the same family with the 
 beet, Chenopodiacece, and has been cultivated in Eng- 
 lish gardens since 1568, and probably long before. Some 
 refer its origin to Western .Asia. The leaves are large, 
 stems hollow, and the male and female flowers produced 
 on different plants. Its name, Spinaeea, is derived from 
 the Latin, spina, a thorn, on account of the prickly seed 
 of one variety. 
 
 There are four sorts, three of which are smooth seeded, 
 and the other prickly. 
 
 Round-leaved has large, roundish, and fleshy leaves, 
 and is the sort commonly used for spring and summer 
 crops, but late in the season it soon runs to seed. 
 
 Flanders has smooth seeds, and large, hastate leaves, 
 six inches broad ; a hardy, good, winter sort. 
 
 Lettuce-leaved, Leaves rounder than the last ; fleshy, 
 or thick, and of a dark green color; nearly or quite as 
 hardy as the last. 
 
 Prickly-seeded, or Winter Spinach, Leaves smaller 
 and thinner than the other sorts, triangular shaped, and 
 very hardy. 
 
 Culture. For the winter crop, a light, dry, but fertile 
 soil is preferable ; while for spring sowings, to have them 
 long in use, a rich, moist loam is desirable. The lime and 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 305 
 
 salt mixture with superphosphate of lime will supply most 
 of the inorganic elements required by spinach. Give them 
 an open situation. The earth should be well pulverized 
 before sowing, as fine tilth greatly promotes vigorous 
 growth. Spinach is propagated from seed so easily, and 
 is so valuable for winter greens, that no garden should be 
 without it. 
 
 The first crop is sown at the South the first of October, 
 and in succession until winter sets in, and on the coast 
 through the winter months the sowings are continued. 
 At New York the first of September is the proper season. 
 For this crop the prickly is the hardiest, but the Flanders 
 and Lettuce-leaved are the best. Another sowing should 
 be made as soon as spring opens, and they may be 
 continued until the summer heats come on, when the 
 plants will quickly run to seed. Use the smooth-seeded 
 kinds for the later crops. 
 
 Sow thinly in drills an inch deep, about fifteen inches 
 apart, or eighteen inches for the larger varieties. Sow in 
 moist weather, or if dry, water the seed in the drill before 
 covering, for if moisture be wanting during the early 
 stages of vegetation, not half the seed will come up. Thin 
 them by degrees, separating them at first only an inch or 
 two as the plants grow fit for use. Thinning should com- 
 mence when they attain four leaves an inch or so in 
 breadth. The plants must finally stand for the prickly 
 spinach, five inches, and the round leaf, eight inches in the 
 drill. Keep the rows frequently hoed and free from 
 weeds. Hoe in dry weather. Spinach kept clean and 
 thinned properly is not so liable to die out in winter. 
 During severe weather a thin covering of straw or ever- 
 green brush is essential for the protection of the winter 
 crop north of Washington, and is very beneficial south of 
 that point. Regular gathering greatly promotes the 
 health of the plants. The outer leaves only should be 
 used, leaving the centre uninjured to supply successive 
 
306 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 crops. At the end of the winter, the soil between the 
 rows of the winter standing crop should be gently stirred, 
 to assist their production in early spring. For summer 
 spinach and all other plants cultivated for their leaves, the 
 soil cannot be too rich. 
 
 For Seed. Some of the latest plants of the standing 
 crop should be allowed to run up to seed ; let these plants 
 be eight or ten inches apart. Spinach is dioecious, and the 
 male plants may be removed when the seed begins to 
 form. When ripe, pull the plants, dry thoroughly on a 
 cloth, and beat out and store the seed in paper bags. 
 Spinach seed will keep three years. 
 
 Use. Spinach and German Greens are the best plants 
 to raise for a supply of early spring greens. Spinach 
 eaten freely is laxative and cooling ; it is not very nutri- 
 tive, but very wholesome. It is so innocent that it is per- 
 mitted to be eaten in diseases where most vegetables are 
 proscribed. The leaves are very tender and succulent, 
 and of a most beautiful green when boiled. The juice is 
 often used for coloring various culinary preparations. 
 
 SPINACH, NEW ZEALAND. (Tetragonia expansa.) 
 
 An annual plant brought by Sir Joseph Banks from 
 New Zealand, in 1772, with thick, succulent, pale green, 
 procumbent, deltoid leaves, and with small, green, incon- 
 spicuous flowers. It grows four or five feet high, and is 
 of the same natural family as the ice plant. 
 
 Culture. New Zealand Spinach may be sown early in 
 April. The best soil is loam, deeply dug, and enriched by 
 a liberal supply of manure. Make the drills three feet 
 apart, and scatter the seed about six inches apart in the 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 307 
 
 drill, and cover them an inch deep. Thin out the plants 
 to twenty inches apart. Keep the ground thoroughly 
 tilled and free from weeds, that the plants may make a 
 luxuriant growth. In five or six weeks the young leaves 
 will be ready to be picked. Preserve the leading shoot, 
 and the branches will continue long in bearing, as in 
 autumn they survive a pretty heavy frost. Twenty 
 plants are enough for a family. Seed may be gathered as 
 it ripens, dried carefully in the shade, and put up in paper 
 
 It is used as a substitute in summer for the common 
 spinach. Swiss Chard is a better one. The seed vessels 
 make a good pickle. 
 
 SQUASH. (OucurUta Melopepo.) 
 
 The squash is a tender trailing annual, and was first 
 brought to England in 1597. It is a native of the Levant. 
 It is a much esteemed garden vegetable, and in some of 
 its varieties can be had for the table the greater part of 
 the year. 
 
 Summer Squashes. The best are the Early Bush Scol- 
 lop, which is small, and either white or golden yellow in its 
 two subvarieties ; both good; the Summer Crookneck, 
 also a bush variety ; bright yellow, covered with warts ; 
 Bergen, small, bell-shaped, striped dark green and white ; 
 used green, like the preceding, and when the shell hard- 
 ens, becomes still better, being very dry and rich, and 
 keeps well. 
 
 Winter Squashes are of many varieties ; as Valparaiso, 
 or Cocoanut, as it is named from its shape. It has a 
 rough, grayish coat, flesh deep orange, very dry, and 
 sugary ; it is the best of all, but a great runner, and bears 
 
303 GABDEjSJTNG FOE TIIE SOUTH. 
 
 but moderately. Boston Marrow, Bell, Canada Crook- 
 neck, and Hubbard, are all good winter sorts. The last 
 is a new variety of great excellence, related to the Valpa- 
 raiso. The Cashaw Pumpkin is a good substitute for the 
 winter squash. 
 
 Vegetable Marrow Squashes are in England the favor- 
 ite sort, and used from the time the blossom drops until 
 matured. The Custard Vegetable Marrow is now the 
 kind preferred there. From a single trial they do not ap- 
 pear productive. 
 
 Culture. The squash is planted at the same time as the 
 cucumber and melon. Put six or eight seeds in a hill, 
 and thin out to two or three when they get up. The 
 bush squashes should be five feet apart, and the winter vari- 
 eties at least ten. For cultivation, see Cucumber. Squashes 
 are much better grown in rich soil ; do not plant them 
 near the cucumber or melon, if you would not have worth- 
 less seed from all the plants in their vicinity. Gather 
 summer kinds while the finger nail can easily penetrate 
 the rind ; they must be plucked as soon as fit for use, or 
 the fruitf ulness of the vines will be much impaired. To 
 keep winter squashes, they must be put away in a cool, 
 dry place, free from frost. 
 
 The Squash Bug, Ooreus tristis. This insect is of a 
 rusty black color above, and yellowish beneath ; of a foul, 
 disgusting smell; of quick motions. It eats the leaf and 
 stem, and at length destroys the stem. It lays its dark 
 colored eggs in patches upon the under surface of the leaf, 
 to which they adhere strongly. As soon as hatched, the 
 young enemy in little swarms commence feeding upon the 
 leaf, upon its under side, which soon withers. They are 
 quite timid, but may be found in the cool of the day con- 
 cealed under the leaves or clods of earth, and should be 
 sought for while the vines are young, daily, in the morn- 
 ing, and crushed before they become numerous. (Harris.) 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 309 
 
 Another squash bug is the Coccinnella borealis, a 
 species of Ladybird, which with its larva feed upon and 
 destroy the leaves. Most of the ladybirds are beneficial 
 in freeing plants of Aphides, but this is an exception. 
 The color is dull yellow, and upon the thorax and wing 
 cases are nineteen black spots, counting as two those 
 divided by the suture of the wing. The eggs are laid in 
 groups upon the under surface of the leaf. Successive 
 broods are hatched through the summer. The remedy is 
 hand picking. 
 
 The squash vine borer is the larva of ^Egeria cucurbitce, 
 an orange-colored moth, with black spots, which deposits 
 its eggs near the roots of cucumber and squash vines, 
 often several upon a single plant. When hatched, the 
 larva is a small, white worm that bores into the substance 
 of the vine and soon destroys it. It is very troublesome 
 in Southern gardens. A few ashes placed about the 
 roots of the vine are said to be the best remedy. 
 
 Use. The squash is a very wholesome and tolerably 
 nutritious vegetable, prepared for the table in the same 
 manner as the turnip for which it is an excellent sub- 
 stitute to eat with fresh meat. To be fit for use after 
 being boiled tender, the summer sorts must be squeezed 
 between two plates, for when full of water, as often 
 served, it is not fit to be eaten. The winter squashes 
 should be boiled dry ; they make a good pie, like the 
 pumpkin and the sweet potato. 
 
 TANYAH. (Oalocasia esculenta.) 
 
 This is a large-leaved, tuberous rooted, perennial plant 
 of the Arum family, much cultivated at the Sandwich 
 Islands, and forms the principal ingredient in the favorite 
 poi, a food much in use there, and remarkable for its fat- 
 tening properties. 
 
310 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 It is cultivated somewhat near Charleston, and along 
 the coast, and is perfectly hardy here, and probably near 
 the coast as far north as Washington. The foliage is 
 quite striking. 
 
 Culture. It may be planted in any rich, well-drained, 
 low spot. Select the eyes or buds, and plant like the 
 potato. The small roots are the ones generally reserved 
 for this purpose. There are two distinct kinds, named 
 from their color the pink and the blue, of which the latter 
 is thought by many to be the most farinaceous, but others 
 prefer the taste of the pink variety. The sets may be 
 put out in March or early in April, and the most attention 
 required is to keep the soil clean and mellow. The rows 
 may be three or four feet apart, and the plants two feet in 
 the rows. It comes to maturity the autumn after plant- 
 ing, and may remain in the bed until wanted. It keeps 
 better than either the sweet or Irish potato. It is pre- 
 pared for the table by simple roasting, and eaten with 
 salt. By many they are much liked, as they are quite 
 farinaceous. 
 
 TARRAGON, (Artemisia Dracunculus.) 
 
 This is a perennial plant, of the same genus as the 
 wormwood, but its fragrant smell and warm aromatic 
 taste have introduced it into the kitchen garden. 
 
 Culture. This plant does not require a rich soil, and as 
 it is a native of a cold climate, it is best to give it a bleak 
 winter exposure. Poor, dry earth is necessary to perfect 
 its flavor. Tarragon is propagated by seed, slips, cut- 
 tings and parting of the root. The latter is the easiest 
 mode and most generally practiced. It may be planted 
 in early spring, the plants being ten inches apart. Give 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 311 
 
 a little water in dry weather until they are rooted. As 
 they run up, if seed is not desired, cut down the seed 
 stalks and they will shoot up afresh. Keep them free 
 from weeds. It has been cultivated here with success. 
 It must be taken up, divided, and reset every year, or it 
 will die out. 
 
 Use. Tarragon is used in salads, to correct the cold- 
 ness of other herbs. Its leaves are excellent pickled, or 
 for flavoring vinegar to be used for fish sauces, or with 
 horse-radish for beefsteaks. 
 
 TH YME. ( Thymus.) 
 
 Common Thyme, Thymus vulgar is , is a low, evergreen 
 undershrub, a native of Spain, Italy, and Greece, culti- 
 vated in English gardens since 1548, and probably earlier. 
 Its name, Thymus, comes from the Greek word for cour- 
 age ; as it was thought to renew the strength and spirits. 
 It has a pleasant, aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent 
 taste. There are two varieties, the broad and narrow 
 leaved. 
 
 Lemon ThyniCj Thymus citriodorus, is also a low, trail- 
 ing, evergreen shrub, seldom rising above four or six 
 inches high. It has a strong smell of lemons, which gives 
 it its common name, and is preferred for some dishes. 
 
 Culture. Thyme is raised by seed, cuttings, and divid- 
 ing the roots. A light, dry soil is suitable. The root 
 slips may be set out^ in rows six inches apart each way. 
 The seeds are very small, and should be sown in moist 
 weather in spring, the soil for their reception made very 
 fine, and the seed raked in lightly with the back of the 
 rake. Press the surface gently with a board or the back 
 of a spade. Make the drills six inches apart and very 
 
312 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 shallow. Water lightly in hot, dry weather, both before 
 and after the plants are up. Let them remain in the drills, 
 or transplant when two or three inches high. Thin the 
 plants to six inches apart, and keep free from weeds while 
 the plants are small. 
 
 Thyme is often used as an edging. A very small plot 
 is enough for any family. 
 
 For Seed. It bears seed abundantly, if permitted. The 
 spikes should be gathered as it ripens, before it is washed 
 out by the rain. Dry upon a cloth in the shade. 
 
 Use. The young leaves and tops are used in soups, 
 stuffings, and sauces. They can be dried and preserved 
 like other herbs ; but in mild climates this is unnecessary, 
 as it is evergreen. 
 
 TOMATO. (Lycopersicum esculentum.) 
 
 The Tomato is a tender annual, a native of South 
 America, and some say of Mexico, and of the same natural 
 family with the Egg-plant and Irish potato. It was intro- 
 duced into England in 1596, and was long cultivated in 
 the flower garden for its beautiful red and yellow fruit, 
 which was not used for food, but by many considered pois- 
 onous. "As an esculent plant, in 1828-9," says Buist, 
 speaking of its use in this country, " it was almost detested ; 
 in ten years more, every variety of pill and panacea was 
 4 extract of tomato.' " It is now one of the most popular 
 vegetables in cultivation, and springs up self-sown in all 
 our gardens. There are many varieties. 
 
 The Large Red is one of the best. It is patty-pan- 
 shaped, and extra large specimens are sometimes six inches 
 in diameter, or as large as a common bush squash. One 
 of the best flavored. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 318 
 
 Gallagher's Mammoth is a variety of this, of larger size, 
 having few seeds, and of good flavor. 
 
 Large Yellow resembles Large Red in form, but is of a 
 somewhat different flavor and is'a good sort for preserves. 
 
 Large Smooth Red is a new variety of the Large Red, 
 equally well flavored, and a favorite in the kitchen, as it 
 grows regular and free from knobs. 
 
 Fejee Island, a rather later variety with more solid flesh, 
 said to be a new kind from the Fejee Islands, came to this 
 place from Naples twenty years ago and is a good sort. 
 
 Cherry is excellent for pickling. It is named from its 
 size and shape. 
 
 Pear-shaped is of a pink color, firm flesh, and few seeds. 
 Much used for pickling, and excellent for the table. 
 
 Early Red is a new French subvariety of Large Red, 
 at least ten days earlier. 
 
 The tomato likes a light, loamy soil, of moderate fertility, 
 as in a soil too rich it runs to vine, and the fruit ripens 
 late. For the early crop, sow at the first indications of 
 spring, some six weeks before corn planting time (early in 
 February here and at the North in March) in a hot bed, or 
 in boxes in the house. 
 
 Sow in drills eight inches apart, and when the plants 
 come up, thin to two or three inches, and transplant into 
 the open ground when the frosts are over. While in the 
 seed bed give air at all times when there is no danger of 
 frost.* It is better to sow quite early and transplant when 
 ready into small pots, and a couple of weeks after, when 
 the*se are full of roots, shift them into five-inch pots, in 
 which they may be kept until they blossom, if a late 
 spring or apprehension of frost renders it necessary. 
 Transfer them with the ball to the hill in the open ground 
 in a cloudy, damp time, in fresh-dug soil. If the weather 
 is dry they may be planted, the fresh soil pressed closely 
 about the ball, a plentiful watering given, finishing with a 
 14 
 
314 GABDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 covering of light soil to keep the ground from baking, and 
 shade during the day until established. The Early Red 
 should be selected for the first crop, and when planted out 
 a warm exposure chosen. Let the rows be about three feet 
 apart and the plants eighteen inches in the row. In poor 
 soil less room is required between the rows. As they are 
 very tender, do not plant out until danger of frost is over, 
 and protect them by large flower pots or boxes, if there is 
 any fear of frost. For a succession, sow in the open ground 
 about corn planting time in a rich, sheltered spot, water 
 with tepid water in dry weather, shield them with a mat 
 or box in cold nights, and thin the plants while young to 
 three inches, and carefully transplant these, when ready, 
 with a trowel and ball into their final situation. Another 
 sowing or two should be made, to keep up a full succession 
 in the long summer of our Gulf States. The Large 
 Smooth Red is a good sort for the main crop. 
 
 As soon as the lower fruit is half grown, cut off the 
 npper part of the plant above the larger fruit, that its 
 growth may be stopped, and the fruit below will be larger, 
 and several days earlier. Ninety per cent of the fruit 
 grows within eighteen inches of the ground, but a large 
 portion of the vines grow above that height. Tomatoes 
 like the soil about them well hoed, and free from weeds. 
 Plants grown in the open air are more abundant in bear- 
 ing than those forwarded under glass. In well-trenched 
 ground, they will continue bearing until frost. 
 
 To Save Seed. Select the largest early fruit, mash with 
 the hand, and wash the seed from the pulp ; spread out 
 upon plates and dry in the shade ; when dry, put thein in 
 paper bags. 
 
 Use. Few vegetables are prepared in as many different 
 forms as the tomato. It is pickled when green, and pre- 
 served when ripe ; it is eaten raw or cooked ; it enters into 
 soups and sauces, and is prepared in catsups, marmalades, 
 and omelets. The French, and the Italians, near Rome 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 315 
 
 and Naples, raised them by the acre, long before used by 
 other nations, and, it is said, prepared them in an almost 
 infinite variety of ways. There are very few preparations 
 into which it enters, which are not improved by the addi- 
 tion. A good supply should be prepared when in season 
 by stewing and putting up in patent cans for winter use. 
 On account of the acid of the fruit, earthen or glass jars 
 are best. 
 
 TURNIP. (Brassica rapa.) 
 
 The turnip is a- hardy biennial of the cabbage tribe, a 
 native of many parts of Europe, and has been cultivated 
 for centuries. It was held in considerable estimation by 
 the Romans. Cato is the first writer that mentions it. 
 " Sow it," says he, " after an autumnal shower, in a place 
 that is well manured, or in a rich soil." Columella recom- 
 mends its cultivation, " because that portion of the crop 
 not wished for the table will be greedily eaten by the 
 farm cattle." It is cultivated in all temperate climes, and 
 is now extensively grown as a field crop in England, for 
 feeding stock, and is considerably raised for the same pur- 
 pose in our Northern States. 
 
 Early White Dutch (Strap-leaved). A round, flat tur- 
 nip, with short, narrow, strap-like leaves ; is the earliest 
 kind. 
 
 Early Red- Top Dutch (Strap-leaved,) differs from the 
 preceding only in the red color of the portion of the roots 
 which is above ground. Both of these, in a moist, cool 
 fall, are fit for the table six weeks after sowing. 
 
 The above are best for spring sowing, and also very 
 useful for the autumn crop. 
 
 White Globe is a beautifully shaped, globular root, of 
 the largest size. 
 
316 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 White Norfolk is another large field sort ; both are good 
 varieties, and much cultivated South, both for their roots 
 and for winter greens. 
 
 Yellow Dutch is very hardy, more so than the forego- 
 ing. Sweet, fine-flavored, and very nutritious. It is of a 
 yellow color, round, handsome shape, firm and sweet, and 
 keeps well. 
 
 Yellow Aherdeen is perhaps the same as the last. 
 
 Ruta Baga, .OF Swedes Turnip is a different variety, 
 (JBrassica campestris var. ruta baga^) of which the foliage 
 differs from those preceding in being smooth and covered 
 with glaucous bloom. There are several varieties, all 
 hardy and good. 
 
 Pu-rple-topped Swede, The roots are very large, of an 
 oval, tapering form, and the greater their size, the sweeter 
 and more nourishing they become. It keeps until spring. 
 
 Skirving's Improved Swede, This is of still better 
 form than the foregoing, the leaves not so large, less 
 smooth, and free from bloom ; flesh fine, yellow, and very 
 nutritious. 
 
 Sweet German Turnip, Called also White Ruta Ba- 
 ga and Cabbage Turnip, (Brassica campestris JVapa 
 Brassica, D. (7.,) resembles the last two, but the flesh is 
 white, very sweet, with somewhat of the cabbage flavor, 
 and is a good keeper. Roots large, but not as regular as 
 the preceding. 
 
 It is found that the most important fertilizer is phos- 
 phate of lime. Either bone dust, superphosphate of lime, 
 or guano, all rich in phosphoric acid, seems to supply 
 everything this crop requires. Manured with either of 
 these, it is soon beyond the reach of insects and casualties. 
 For the spring crop guano or manures rich in ammonia 
 are essential, but for the autumn crop the superphosphate 
 of lime seems to act more beneficially than any other ap- 
 plication. Manipulated guano, honestly prepared, is valu- 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 317 
 
 able at both seasons, and still better is tlie mixture of 
 guano and superphosphate of lime. 
 
 Culture. Th,e turnip likes a rich, sandy soil. If raised 
 on ground manured by cow-penning, the crop rarely fails, 
 as the urine deposited in the soil affords the phosphates 
 so necessary for this crop, and in such places it is far less 
 infested with insects. Soil fresh from the woods also suits 
 it.' For the early crop seed grown north of the local- 
 ity in which it is sown is generally preferred, but for the 
 main crop, pure seed from handsome shaped roots of home 
 growth is sufficiently good. In the more Southern States, 
 sow early turnips late in January, or through February, 
 and farther North as soon as the ground is in a suitable 
 condition, and the danger of its becoming again frozen is 
 over ; that is, when the atmosphere begins to feel like 
 spring. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart, in fine, light, 
 well-manured soil, in drills one inch deep, covering the 
 seeds half an inch, with fine soil pressed thereon. Keep 
 the soil free from weeds. As soon as the plants get a lit- 
 tle strong, thin out to two inches, and finally to six inches 
 in the row. If the ground is not kept light and well 
 worked, and the plants properly thinned, it is a mere 
 waste of time and seed. The Early White Dutch is the 
 kind to be preferred. They do much better in drills than 
 broadcast. 
 
 For fall turnips, sow the Early White Dutch, etc., any 
 time in August and September, broadcast, or better in 
 drills, as directed above. If broadcast, thin them to about 
 twelve inches apart or more. If sown just before a rain, 
 they will come up at once. Soot, wood ashes, and un- 
 slaked lime are all useful to promote growth and drive 
 away insects. The Red-top is an excellent variety for a 
 general fall crop, and may be sown in October even, with 
 success in the more Southern States. The last of July or 
 the first of August is the time for sowing the main crop 
 
318 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 of common turnips, while in Georgia the last sowing for 
 greens is made the first of November. 
 
 The varieties of the Ruta Baga and the Sweet German 
 are the best when planted for late winter use. These are 
 sown at New York the last half of June, or early in July ; 
 in Georgia, from the 1st to 20th of August. Sow in 
 very rich, fresh-prepared soil. Let the drills be two feet 
 apart, and thin the plants by degrees until twelve or fif- 
 teen inches in the row. As soon as the plants appear, 
 loosen the earth about them. It requires a richer soil 
 than the other varieties. Fill any vacancies in the row 
 by transplanting; these plants will make nearly as 
 large roots as the others. Keep the soil light and mellow 
 by the use of the hoe. Large crops can be tended with 
 the plow and cultivator to great advantage. In good 
 soil the yield is immense. The crop may be drawn as 
 needed. Some should be taken before they begin to grow 
 up to seed and stored in a cool place for late keeping. 
 
 The Turnip Flea Beetle, HaUica nemorum. This 
 is a small, hard-shelled insect, of a smooth, shining, 
 brassy, or greenish-black color, about an eighth of an 
 inch in length. There are two yellow stripes down the 
 wing cases. The hinder legs are formed for leaping. It 
 attacks the turnip, and other plants of the same family, 
 both in its perfect and larva states. When the plants 
 have attained some size the injury to the crop is slight, 
 but they generally take the young plants while in the seed 
 leaf, and destroy the crop entirely in a few hours, whether 
 it be a small bed, or a large field. 
 
 The best remedies are preventive, such as to roll 
 the surface smoothly, so that the insects may find 
 no hiding places in the soil, to sow the seed in drills, 
 and in a fine, rich soil, and apply superphosphate of lime 
 upon the seed in the drills, to apply plenty of seed, and 
 thin out the plants when in the rough lea Any thing 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 319 
 
 that will accelerate growth will soon place the crop out 
 of danger from, these little insects. Some sow radish seed 
 with turnips, as the flea prefers the young radish leaf. If 
 they once attack the plants, dusting them with lime ashes 
 and soot is sometimes useful, but when in great numbers, 
 it is scarcely possible to save the young crop. 
 
 To Save Seed. Select a few of the best roots, shorten 
 the tap-root, and plant them two feet apart. Tie the 
 stalks to stakes, and keep them at a distance from all other 
 members of the cabbage tribe. Seed of the turnip should 
 be changed every few years, as the plant degenerates. It 
 keeps three years. 
 
 Use. This is one of those useful vegetables, that can be 
 enjoyed with everything. The tops gathered in winter and 
 spring make the greens so much prized by us all in early 
 spring. The roots are wholesome, though they disagree 
 with some stomachs. They are considerably nutritious 
 also ; four ounces of White Dutch containing eighty-five 
 grains of nutritive matter, and four ounces of Ruta Baga 
 containing one hundred and ten grains of the same. Any 
 over-supply of this crop may be fed with great advantage 
 to cows and swine. 
 
 WATEE 
 
 This is a hardy, perennial, English, Cruciferous plant, 
 growing in running streams. There is but one variety in 
 use. 
 
 The Water-cress likes a clear, cool, running stream, 
 fresh issuing from a spring, the nearer its source the bet- 
 ter, with the water about an inch and a half deep, with 
 a sandy or gravelly bottom. It must, of course, at first 
 be raised from seed, which can be sprinkled at the source 
 
320 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 of some gravelly stream. If once established, it will 
 soon propagate from self-sown seed. If the stems get 
 choked with mud and weeds, they must be taken up and 
 the beds cleared and replanted. The shoots ought always 
 to be cut, as breaking injures the plants. 
 
 They grow best in water not over two or thy^e inches 
 deep, and if plants can be got, should be^el in rows 
 parallel with the stream, eighteen inches ajmrt. 
 
 Use. Water-cresses are generally liked for their warm, 
 pungent taste, and are used alone or in mixed salads. 
 
 WATER "MSWB.iOitrullut vulgarfa) 
 
 This is a trailing annual, a native of the tropics, and of 
 the same natural family as the cucumber and musk melon, 
 but belongs to a distinct genus. It is a largq, succulent, 
 and refreshing, but not high-flavored fruit, and is proba- 
 bly the melon mentioned in the Bible. The varieties are 
 numerous, and many of them not known out of a limited 
 locality. 
 
 Imperial o Medium size, nenrly round, skin pale green 
 and white, marbled ; rind thin, flesh solid, light red, crisp," 
 rich, and high-flavored; seeds small, reddish-brown; pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 Spanish* Round, very dark green, thin rind, bright 
 red flesh, and black seeds ; rich and sugary. (Buist.} 
 
 Mountain Sweet, Large, oval, striped with light and 
 dark green ; sometimes with a neck ; flesh light red, quite 
 solid, and of fine flavor. 
 
 Ice Cream. Large, round, early, and productive; skin 
 light green, rind half an inch thick; flesh white, crisp and 
 sugary, excellent ; seeds white. 
 
VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 321 
 
 Clarendon* Large, mottled gray, with dark green 
 stripes ; rind half an inch thick; flesh scarlet, sugary, and 
 exquisite ; seeds yellow, spotted with black, and with a 
 black stripe about the edge. 
 
 Souter is striped with pale and dark green, rind thin, 
 flesh red, and of best quality ; seeds white, with a russet 
 stripe about the edge ; form oblong to roundish. 
 
 Ravenscroft is oblong, dark green, faintly striped with 
 lighter green; rind thin, flesh red and sugary; seeds 
 white, with a brown stripe about the edge. The last 
 three are fine varieties of Southern origin. The others 
 are more cultivated in the North. The varieties intermix 
 if grown near each other. The Citron watermelon is a 
 small, round, pale-green, marbled sort, liked by many for 
 preserves. Seeds red. 
 
 Culture. The watermelon likes a deep, rich, sandy 
 soil. Where this plant is most successfully cultivated, it 
 always grows upon sand. The hills should be not less 
 than ten or twelve feet apart in warm climates, and seven 
 or eight at the North. Do not plant until the ground is 
 warm, and cultivate exactly in the same manner as the 
 muskmelon and cucumber. It should not be grown 
 within one hundred feet of other melons, gourds, etc., if 
 you would gather pure seed. Protect from insects as 
 directed in the article, " Cucumber." The melon worm 
 does not annoy the watermelon. 
 
 Use. This is a wholesome fruit, very popular in sum- 
 mer from its beauty and the refreshing coolness of its 
 juice. It is not very nutritious, as it contains ninety-five 
 per cent of water. It is not by any means as nourishing 
 as the muskmelon, and lacks its peculiar rich flavor. 
 The outer rind is used for preserves. In many parts of 
 Europe the juice is boiled into a pleasant syrup, or made 
 into beer. 
 
 14* 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 
 
 A few roots of the most useful of these should be found 
 in every garden. The medicinal properties of many of 
 them depend upon their aromatic qualities, and they are 
 never so fragrant and full of virtue when grown upon 
 ground highly manured. Chamomile, lavender, rose- 
 mary, rue, wormwood, and many others, lose much of 
 their strength when forced into rank growth. Common 
 garden soil, without manuring, is quite good enough. 
 Whenever the plants begin to decline, take away the old 
 surface soil, and apply fresh, or set out new plants in fresh 
 ground. 
 
 Medicinal, pot, or sweet herbs, as a general rule, should 
 be gathered when in bloom, and dried carefully and thor- 
 oughly hi the shade. When thoroughly dry, press them 
 closely into paper bags, or powder them finely ; sift, and 
 keep in closely-stopped bottles. 
 
 Angelica, (Archangelica officinalis,) is an Umbellifer- 
 ous biennial plant, growing from three to five feet high, 
 and a native of many parts of Northern Europe. The 
 whole plant is powerfully aromatic. Its roots have a 
 fragrant, agreeable odor, and at first a sweetish taste, 
 which soon turns acrid in the mouth. Its medical proper- 
 ties are aromatic, stimulant, and gently tonic. 
 
 Its stalks were formerly blanched and eaten like celery, 
 but it is mostly cultivated to make a sweetmeat from 
 them when young and tender. They are also candied by 
 the confectioners. 
 
 Sow the seed one foot apart in August or September, 
 and when they get about four inches high, the next spring 
 322 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 323 
 
 set them in rows two feet apart each way. Though the 
 plant is only a biennial, yet by cutting down the seed- 
 stalk whenever it rises, the same plant may be preserved 
 several seasons. Angelica likes a moist, cool soil, such as 
 the banks of ditches. 
 
 Anise, (PimpineUa anisum,) is an Umbelliferous an 
 nual, a native of Egypt. It is cultivated for its seeds, 
 and its leaves, which are occasionally used as a garnish, 
 and for seasoning like fennel. The seeds have a fragrant, 
 agreeable smell, and a sweetish, pleasant taste. They are 
 useful wherever an aromatic stimulant is required. 
 
 The plant grows about 18 inches high. Sow the seed 
 where it is to stand in spring, in a dry, light soil, and thin 
 out the plants, if too thick, to three or four inches apart. 
 
 Balm, (Melissa officmalisj) is a hardy, Labiate-flowered 
 perennial, native of Switzerland and the south of France, 
 but has long been cultivated in gardens. It has an aro- 
 matic taste, and a grateful, fragrant smell, a little like 
 lemons. 
 
 It is a square-stemmed plant, rising about two feet high. 
 It is used in making balm tea, a grateful drink in fevers, 
 and for forming a pleasant beverage called balm wine. 
 It is a great favorite with the bees. 
 
 Any garden soil will do for balm. It is readily propa- 
 gated either by slips, or by parting the roots in spring. 
 Plant ten inches apart, giving water if dry weather. 
 
 Bcnc, (Sesamiim orientalej) is an annual plant, and 
 a native of Africa and India, Introduced into this coun- 
 try by the negroes. It grows from three to six feet high, 
 bearing numerous pods, filled with smallish seed. These 
 are used for food in many parts of the world, and are also 
 cultivated for the oil with which they abound. It resem- 
 bles that of olives, and is nearly as good. The leaves abound 
 in mucilage ; one or two stirred in a half pint of water 
 will form a bland mucilaginous drink very useful in cholera 
 
324 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 infantum, dysentery, and summer complaints generally. 
 
 The leaves should 
 be freshly gather- 
 ed, and enough 
 may be added to 
 make the water 
 ropy without af- 
 fecting its color 
 or taste. 
 
 Sow a row in 
 spring, on the 
 ed'ge of a plot or 
 border, and thin 
 out as the plants 
 require room. A 
 few plants will 
 furnish all the 
 leaves desired. 
 
 Boneset, or 
 Thorough wo r t , 
 (Eupatoriumper- 
 foliatum,) is a 
 Composite - flow- 
 ered perennial, a 
 native of most of 
 the United States, 
 which, if not 
 found growing 
 wild in the vicini- 
 ty, should be cul- 
 tivated, as it is 
 one of the best 
 herbs in family 
 practice. It has a 
 
 76. BENE. faint odor, an in- 
 
 tensely bitter taste, and is slightly astringent. Its mecli- 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 325 
 
 cinal virtues are diaphoretic, tonic, and in larger doses, 
 emetic and aperient. It is principally used as a diaphoret- 
 ic in colds, catarrhs, and rheumatism, in intermittent, 
 remittent, and inflammatory diseases, or given cold as a 
 tonic in dyspepsia. 
 
 Boneset can be raised by transplanting the roots, or 
 sowing the seed in spring. 
 
 Borage, (JSorrago offieinalis^ is an annual European 
 plant. The tender tops, young leaves, and flowers, are 
 sometimes used as a salad by the French, and boiled by 
 the Italians. 
 
 Medicinally it was formerly thought endowed with very 
 great virtues, and numbered among the four cordial 
 flowers. 
 
 Old Gerard says : " Those of our time do use the flowers 
 in salads, and to exhilarate and to make the minde glad. 
 There be many things made of them used for the comfort 
 of the heart, to drive away sorrow and increase the joy 
 of the minde." The plant is not much used now except 
 as an ingredient in the drink called " a cool tankard," 
 made of wine, water, lemon-juice, and sugar, to which a 
 few of the tender leaves seem to give additional coolness. 
 
 Sow early in spring, broadcast, and a little thinning 
 and weeding is all the attention that will be needed. 
 
 Caraway) [Co/mm Caruij) is a native of England and 
 various other countries of Europe. It is a biennial, Um- 
 belliferous plant, well known to the ancients. Pliny men- 
 tions it. Caraway is cultivated for its aromatic seeds, 
 which are useful in confectionery, as in cakes, comfits, 
 etc., and the leaves are sometimes used in soups. The 
 roots are said to excel those of the parsnip, being formerly 
 cooked and used in the same manner. Medicinally the 
 seeds are used in an infusion for flatulence. Sow in au- 
 tumn, or early spring, and thin so as to give each plant 
 ten inches of room. Keep free from weeds. Plants sown 
 in autumn will give seed the next season. 
 
326 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 < hainoinile. (Anthemis nobilis,) is a hardy, Composite- 
 flowered perennial, a native of England, cultivated for its 
 flowers, which have a bitter, aromatic taste, and are in 
 small doses a useful tonic, but given largely, act as an 
 emetic. An infusion of them improves digestion and 
 gives tone to the disordered stomach. The flowers are 
 sometimes chewed as a substitute for tobacco. 
 
 It is best propagated by dividing the roots in spring. 
 Keep the ground free from weeds. Plant nine inches 
 apart. As to varieties, the single-flowered has the most 
 virtue, but the double-flowered is most cultivated, from its 
 greater productiveness. 
 
 Clary, (Salvia sclareaj) is a Labiate-flowered biennial 
 from Italy. The leaves of this plant were formerly used 
 in soups, and its flowers are now made use of in a fer- 
 mented wine. 
 
 The medicinal virtues of the plant are cordial and as- 
 tringent, and it is used either in its fresh or dried state. 
 For propagation and culture, see " Sage," which belongs 
 to the same genus. Clary, however, must be yearly 
 renewed by fresh sowing. Thin the plants to 15 inches 
 apart each way. 
 
 oriander 9 ( Coriandrum sativum,) is an Umbelliferous 
 annual from the East, and also grows naturally in the 
 south of Europe. Some like its tender leaves for soups 
 and salads, but it is raised mostly for its seeds, which 
 have a pleasant aromatic taste, though the smell is dis- 
 agreeable. Coriander seed is carminative and stomachic. 
 It is often used to disguise the taste of medicines, but it is 
 principally employed in confectionery. 
 
 Sow the seed in spring or autumn, where they are to 
 remain, in drills twelve inches apart. Thin the plants to 
 four inches, and keep free from weeds. 
 
 Dill, (Anethum graveolens,) belongs to the same genus 
 with Fennel, and is a biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 327 
 
 native of Southern Europe, cultivated for its seeds, which 
 have an aromatic odor, and a warm, pungent, and some- 
 what bitter taste. Medicinally, they are good for flatu- 
 lence and colic in infants. The leaves are sometimes used 
 for culinary purposes, and the seeds are occasionally added 
 to pickled cucumbers to heighten the flavor. 
 
 Sow the seeds either early in the spring, or soon after 
 they are ripe, in a light soil. Thin, if crowded, and keep 
 clean. The plants should be 8 inches apart. 
 
 Elecampane, (Inula Hdenium,) is a native of England 
 and Japan. It is a Composite-flowered, perennial plant, 
 cultivated for its thick, fleshy, carrot-like root, which is 
 useful as an aromatic tonic and expectorant. Cut up fine 
 and fed with their corn, the root is a great relief to the 
 distemper in horses. 
 
 It is propagated by offsets, or by parting the roots in 
 autumn or spring, but may also be grown from seeds 
 sown in the fall. It likes a moist soil, and the plants 
 should be fifteen inches apart. 
 
 Fennel, (Fceniculum vulgare^) is a hardy, aromatic, 
 perennial, Umbelliferous plant from the south of Europe, 
 growing wild on the banks of rivers, and perhaps quite as 
 properly belongs to the culinary as to the medicinal depart- 
 ment of the garden. It has a finely divided leaf, and tall, 
 umbel-bearing stems, crowned with small yellow flowers. 
 
 Culture. Fennel will grow in almost any soil. It is 
 propagated by offsets, parting the roots, or by seed ; all 
 which modes may be successfully practised at any time in 
 autumn or spring. 
 
 The best season, however, for sowing the seed is when 
 it ripens in the fall, in drills twelve inches asunder. The 
 seed may be sown moderately thick, about half an inch 
 deep, and the earth pressed upon them. "When the young 
 plants are four or five inches high, thin them out to twelve 
 inches. Those taken up may be planted out to enlarge the 
 
328 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 bed. Water them freely, if the weather is dry. Keep 
 the plants free from weeds, which is all the cultivation 
 required. If the seed is not desired, the stems should be 
 cut down as often as they run up ; for if allowed to ripen 
 seed, the old plants will last but a few years. But this is 
 of little consequence, as plenty of self-sown seedlings will 
 be ready to take their place. Eight or ten roots are 
 enough for any family. It should be kept within proper 
 limits, as it is much inclined to spread. 
 
 Use. Fennel is a good deal used, in continental Europe, 
 in soups, fish-sauces, garnishes, and salads. It is also con- 
 siderably used in England, but less with us. The Italians 
 blanch and eat the stalks of one variety called Finochie, 
 like celery. A little fennel seed sometimes gives an agree- 
 able variety in flavoring apple-sauce and pies. But it is 
 most used medicinally. The seeds are carminative and 
 stimulant, and in an infusion are excellent for the flatulent 
 colic of infants. 
 
 Ilorchound 3 (Marrubium vulgare]) is a hardy, Labiate- 
 flowered, perennial plant, a native of most parts of Europe, 
 growing in waste grounds, among rubbish, in warm, dry 
 situations. It has a strong aromatic smell, and a bitter, 
 pungent taste, which is permanent in the mouth ; medici- 
 nally, horehound is a tonic, somewhat stimulant and diu- 
 retic, and, in large doses, laxative. It enters largely into 
 the composition of cough syrups and lozenges. 
 
 Sow the seeds in the spring, in any common soil. It 
 scarcely needs any attention. It may also be propagated 
 by dividing the roots. Plant eighteen inches apart. 
 
 Hyssop^ (Hyssopus officinalis^ is a Labiate-flowered, 
 hardy, evergreen imdershrub, from the south of Europe, 
 of which the leaves and flower-spikes are the parts used 
 medicinally. It has an aromatic odor, and a warm, pun- 
 gent taste. It is stimulant and expectorant. 
 
 Hyssop is propagated by slips, or dividing the roots, or 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 329 
 
 by sowing the seed in the spring. Transplant the young 
 plants to where they are to remain, or you may thin them 
 to six inches apart, and leave them in the seed-bed until 
 autumn before transplanting. It likes a dry, sandy soil, 
 and about eighteen inches space should be given to each 
 plant. 
 
 Lavender, (Lavandula veraj) is a Labiate-flowered 
 undershrub, a native of the south of Europe, and hardy 
 south of New York. It is cultivated for its fragrant 
 spikes of flowers, which are used for the distillation of 
 lavender-water. Being dried, and put up in paper bags, 
 they are also used to perfume linen. Both flowers and 
 leaves are. very aromatic. It has an agreeable pungent 
 bitterness to the taste, and its medicinal properties are 
 stimulant, cordial, and stomachic. There are three varie- 
 ties the narrow-leaved, one sort with blue and the other 
 with white flowers, and the broad-leaved lavender. 
 
 Lavender may be propagated by seeds, slips, or cuttings. 
 Sow the seed in drills ten inches apart, in spring, and 
 transplant the next spring to a dry soil of but medium 
 richness, and it will be more highly aromatic. Give each 
 plant about two feet of space ; for drying, gather the 
 flowers before they begin to turn brown at the lower part 
 of the spike. 
 
 Liquorice, (Grlycyrrhiza glcibra^ is a Leguminous, 
 hardy perennial, from Southern Europe, the saccharine 
 juice of the fleshy root of which is useful in catarrhs, 
 fevers, &c. Its taste is sweet and mucilaginous, and it is 
 much used as a demulcent, either alone or combined with 
 other substances. 
 
 A few roots of this plant, when once started, will be of 
 very little trouble in the garden. The plant is propagated 
 early in spring, by cuttings of the roots. Dig the soil at 
 least two feet deep. Take the horizontal roots of estab- 
 lished plants, five or six inches long. Every shoot planted 
 
330 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 should have at least two eyes ; make the rows three feet 
 apart, and the plant twelve to fifteen inches in the rows, 
 and cover the roots well with mould. Onions, lettuce, or 
 radishes, may be grown between the rows the first year ; 
 afterwards keep the soil free from weeds, dress the surface 
 with manure every autumn, and at the end of the third 
 year take up the crop as soon as the leaves are fully 
 decayed, and dry the roots thoroughly. In shallow or 
 poor ground, it will not succeed. 
 
 Mint) (Mentha.) Three species of this genus of Labiate 
 plants are cultivated, all hardy perennials, natives of 
 Britain. 
 
 Spearmint, (Mentha viridis]) belongs rather to the 
 culinary than the medicinal department of the garden. 
 It is employed in sauces and salads, as well as dried for 
 soups in winter. A few sprigs of mint, boiled a little 
 time with them, and then withdrawn, are thought by 
 some to improve the flavor of green peas. It is also used 
 in preparing mint-julep. Its medicinal properties are aro- 
 matic, stimulant, and stomachic. The leaves, boiled in 
 milk, are useful in diarrhoea. Its infusion is good to pre- 
 vent nausea. There are two varieties, the broad and nar- 
 row leaved, equally good. 
 
 Peppermint, (M. piperita,) has a strong, agreeable odor, 
 a pungent, aromatic taste, giving a sensation of coldness 
 in the mouth. Its medical properties are aromatic, stimu- 
 lant, and stomachic. The essential oil and essence are the 
 forms in which it is employed in medicine, and they are 
 also largely used in confectionery and cordials. 
 
 Pennyroyal, (M. Pulegium^ is more acrid than the 
 other mints, and its taste and smell are less agreeable. It 
 possesses their warm, pungent flavor, and other general 
 properties, but is not so good a stomachic. The American 
 pennyroyal belongs to a different genus, Hedeoma. 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 331 
 
 All these species require a tenacious soil, which is all 
 the better if moist, or even wet. 
 
 A border sheltered from the midday sun, but not 
 entirely secluded from its influence, is always to be 
 allotted them, as in such a situation they are most vigor- 
 ous and constant in production. 
 
 They are readily propagated by dividing the roots in 
 the winter or spring, or by cuttings planted in moist soil 
 during Summer. Plant in rows nine inches apart each 
 way, and cover the roots about two inches deep. In 
 autumn clean off the old stems, and add two inches of 
 mould to the raked surface. Through the summer remove 
 grass and weeds. Make new beds every three or four 
 years. 
 
 Rosemary, (Itosmarinua officinalis) is a Labiate-flow- 
 ered, hardy, evergreen undershrub, a native of the south 
 of Europe. It has a fragrant, grateful odor, and a warm, 
 aromatic, bitter taste. Its medicinal virtues are tonic. 
 
 It was formerly believed that this plant gave strength 
 to the memory. The tender tops are the parts used in 
 medicine. 
 
 Rosemary may be raised from seed, or by planting slips 
 or cuttings in the spring or autumn. Sow the seed in 
 drills sixteen inches apart. Transplant the next spring 
 or autumn. Two or three plants will be enough. 
 
 Rue, (Ruta graveolens]) is a perennial evergreen under- 
 shrub of the Rue Family from the south of Europe. It 
 flowers all summer, and is very well known from its peculiar 
 strong, unpleasant smell. Its taste is bitter and pungent, 
 and the leaves so acrid as to blister the skin. It is a very 
 powerful medicinal agent, too much so to be generally 
 used in family practice. 
 
 Rue is propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips. It must 
 not have a very rich soil, nor be suffered to run to seed. 
 Sow the seed and cultivate as hyssop. 
 
332 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Sage, (Salvia officinalis^ is a Labiate-flowered, hardy 
 evergreen undershrub, a native of the south of Europe. 
 It has been cultivated from the earliest times, was classed 
 among the heroic remedies, and considered the best of 
 medicines for prolonging human life. An old Latin adage 
 is " Cur moriatur homo cui salvia crescit in horto ?" " Why 
 should a man die while sage is growing in his garden ? ; " 
 It grows about two feet high, with wrinkled ashy green 
 leaves, and terminal blue flowers in long spikes. It has a 
 fragrant smell, and a warm, bitterish, aromatic taste. 
 
 Culture. Sage is raised from seed, slips, or cuttings. 
 It likes a dry, fertile soil. Sow the seeds on a gentle hot- 
 bed, or in the open ground, early in spring, in shallow 
 drills, eight inches apart. Press the earth upon the seed, 
 covering them not over half an inch deep. Thin the 
 plants, when well up, to half a foot apart, planting those 
 taken up at a similar distance. Keep the soil light and 
 free from weeds. In the autumn, or the next spring, plant 
 them out in rows eighteen inches each way. Layers and 
 rooted offsets may be set out at once at this distance. 
 Cuttings of the outward shoots of the current year's 
 growth, planted out in a shady border, in moist weather, 
 readily take root ; set them in rows six inches apart. In 
 autumn or ' spring, take them carefully up and set them 
 out in their final stations. Trim the plants to a round, 
 bushy head. Gather and dry the leaves for winter use, 
 but do not trim the plants too closely, especially in 
 autumn or winter. 
 
 Use. The leaves are used for seasoning stuffings, 
 sauces, and many kinds of meat, as well as to improve 
 the flavor of various other articles of cookery. Medici- 
 nally its infusion is given warm as a sudorific, or mingled 
 with vinegar and alum is an excellent gargle in sore 
 throat. It is stated by Bomare, that it was exported 
 formerly by the Dutch to China, and it was so much pre- 
 
MEDICINAL HERBS. 383 
 
 ferred by the Chinese to their own tea, that they willingly 
 exchanged two boxes of it for one of sage. 
 
 Southernwood, (Artemisia Abrotanum,) is a hardy ever- 
 green, with fragrant, finely-divided leaves, nearly allied to 
 wormwood, both being species of the same genus, and 
 similar as to medical properties. Like that, it has a grate- 
 ful odor, but it is not much used in medicine from its 
 nauseous taste. As an ornamental evergreen, it is worth 
 cultivating. 
 
 For culture, see " Hyssop." 
 
 Tansy, (Tanacetum vulgare,) is a hardy, Composite- 
 flowered perennial, a native of Europe, long cultivated 
 in gardens. It was formerly used to give flavor to pud- 
 dings and omelets. 
 
 Its medicinal properties are tonic and stomachic. It is 
 also a vermifuge. It was formerly of very general use in 
 the preparation of alcoholic bitters. 
 
 Divide the roots, and set out a few slips in autumn or 
 spring. After it is well rooted, be careful you do not get 
 too much of it. There are two varieties, the common 
 and the curled. 
 
 Wormwood, (Artemisia Absinthium,) is a native of 
 Europe, and is a hardy, Composite-flowered perennial, 
 cultivated much in gardens. Its odor is strong and fra- 
 grant, and its taste aromatic, but intensely bitter. It is 
 cultivated for the tops or extremities of the branches. Its 
 properties are tonic and diuretic, and it is a vermifuge. 
 
 Wormwood likes a calcareous soil, and may be raised 
 either by cuttings, seeds, or dividing the roots. Culti- 
 vated same as hyssop, the roots being eighteen inches apart. 
 A dry, poor soil is necessary to bring out the* peculiar 
 virtues of this plant. 
 
 Roman Wormwood, (A. Pontica,) is less nauseous than 
 the preceding, and generally preferred. 
 
334 GAEDEN1NG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 ALMOND. (Amygdalw communis.) 
 
 The almond is a native of Asia and northern Africa. 
 It is a tree of medium size, nearly allied to the peach in 
 habit and general appearance. The leaves are similar to 
 the peach, having glands like some varieties of the latter 
 fruit, and flowers of similar shape, but much larger and 
 more ornamental, varying in color from pure white to a 
 fine blush. The chief difference is in the fruit, the stone 
 of the almond being flatter, not so hard, and covered with 
 a woolly skin that opens spontaneously when the kernel 
 is ripe. 
 
 In southern Europe, the almond is much cultivated, and 
 large quantities of nuts exported. The kernel is the part 
 used ; the sweet varieties, whether green or dry, form a very 
 nutritious article of food, and a most agreeable addition 
 to the dessert. Almonds are used in confectionery, cook- 
 ing, perfumery, and medicine. The bitter almond is the 
 kind used in perfumery and flavoring; it contains prussic 
 acid, which, though a violent poison, is not thought in- 
 jurious in the small quantities required for these purposes. 
 
 Cultivation. A warm, dry soil is most suitable for the 
 almond, which is cultivated exactly like the peach, and is 
 subject to the same diseases ; it may be budded on the 
 almond, peach, or plum stock. The varieties are : 
 
 Common Almond. Nuts one and one-fourth inch 
 long, hard, smooth, compressed, and pointed, with a ker- 
 nel of agreeable flavor. The hardiest and most produc- 
 tive variety, and is the common hard-shelled almond of 
 the shops ; flowers open before the leaves appear. 
 
FKUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 335 
 
 Long Hard-Shelled* Nuts of the same size as the 
 former, with a larger kernel and better flavor ; flowers 
 large and rose-colored. The tree is quite ornamental, 
 when in bloom. 
 
 Ladies' Thin-Shelled. The soft-shelled almonds of the 
 shops ; flowers are of a deeper color than the foregoing 
 variety. Nut oval, one-sided, pointed, with a porous, 
 light-colored shell, so tender that it may be crushed with 
 the fingers. Kernel sweet, rich, and highly esteemed. 
 
 Bitter Almonds* Are of several varieties, differing in 
 the hardness of the shell, closely resembling the others, 
 except in the bitter kernel ; blossoms pale pink ; leaves 
 larger, and of a darker green than the other varieties. 
 
 THE APPLE. (Pyrus Mdlwt.) 
 
 The apple probably originated from the European Crab, 
 but centuries of cultivation and reproduction from seeds 
 of new and improved varieties have brought it to its 
 present state of perfection in quality, size, and beauty. 
 
 Where the apple can be grown and preserved in perfec- 
 tion, it is the most useful of fruits. Varieties can be 
 selected which will afford a succession through the entire 
 year. 
 
 They can be thus preserved in our own mountain region, 
 from which excellent fruit is brought as late as the month 
 of May. The best varieties are excellent dessert fruits. 
 For the table, they are prepared in many ways, as baking, 
 stewing, in pies, tarts, puddings, dumplings, jellies, and 
 preserves. They are also dried for winter use. 
 
 The best mode of propagating the apple is by budding 
 or grafting on seedling stocks. For the raising of stocks, 
 
336 GAKDENZtfG FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 the seed should be sown in the fall, or early winter, in good 
 soil, in rows eighteen inches apart ; transplant them in rows 
 four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row. If any of 
 the plants become infested with woolly aphis, wash them 
 with tobacco water. The young grafted trees should be 
 planted in the orchard when one or two years old, at dis- 
 tances of twenty-five to thirty feet apart. 
 
 Analysis shows that one-half the ash of the bark of the 
 apple, and over one-sixth of that of the sap-wood, is lime. 
 
 When this mineral is not abundant in the soil, the tree 
 cannot be kept healthy. Swamp muck or leaf mould, 
 composted with lime and bone-dust, or ashes, are the best 
 manures for the apple tree. The best soil for the apple, 
 in this climate, is a deep, cool, moist loam ; a northern, or 
 north-west aspect, is preferable to any other. One of the 
 greatest difficulties to be encountered in the cultivation 
 of the apple is the sun-burning of the trunk, which can 
 be prevented by training the trees with low heads, so as 
 to shade their trunks from the rays of the sun. 
 
 By shortening in the branches of the young trees, when 
 transplanted into garden or orchard, they can be made to 
 put out branches about two feet from the ground, which 
 is about the proper height to form a good top. The 
 apple tree needs but little pruning ; removing the water- 
 sprouts and such limbs as cross each other is about all 
 that is required. 
 
 INSECTS INFESTING THE APPLE TREE. 
 
 Many insects injure the apple tree by attacking the root, 
 bark, wood, leaves or fruit. Of these only the most im- 
 portant can be mentioned, with the remark that many of 
 them attack other fruit trees and even forest trees. 
 
 Apple Root-blight, (Pemphigus pyri.} Upon the roots 
 of the apple, wart-like excrescences are found growing, in 
 the crevices of which are contained minute, yellow lice, 
 
FRCITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 337 
 
 often accompanied with larger winged ones of a black 
 color, having their bodies covered with white, cotton-like 
 matter. The wounds made upon the root by these insects 
 produce an increased flow of sap to the spot affected, and 
 these morbid enlargements are the result. Nursery trees 
 affected should have their roots soaked in soapsuds before 
 planting. Trees affected in the fruit garden may have 
 their roots partly bared, and a liberal application of char- 
 coal dust, ashes, or soapsuds, poured upon the warty ex- 
 crescences. Their presence gives the affected trees a yel- 
 low, unhealthy appearance. 
 
 Woolly A pit is, or Apple-tree Blight, (Eriosoma lanigera,) 
 is found upon the apple tree. The female is a small, egg- 
 shaped, dull reddish-brown insect, with a black head, dust- 
 ed with white powder, and with a tuft of white down 
 growing from the hind part of the back, which makes a 
 colony of these insects look like a small patch of white 
 down. Each tuft contains a female and her young, which 
 last are of a pale color. In Europe, trees are often white 
 with these insects. Here they are generally found at the 
 base of twigs and suckers from the trunk, or where a 
 wound in the bark is healing. Scrape the bark of the tree, 
 if rough, and wash the tree, filling every crevice with a 
 solution of 2 pounds potash to 7 quarts of water, or Har- 
 ris' Composition, 2 parts soft soap and 8 of water, with 
 lime enough to make a thick whitewash. Sulphuric acid, 
 mixed with ten times its bulk of water, is also recommend- 
 ed. This is the " American Blight " of English authors. 
 
 Apple Bark-louse, (Aspidiotus conchiformis.) An ob- 
 long, flat, brown, oyster-shell shaped scale insect, fixed to 
 the smooth bark, which it sometimes nearly covers. Its 
 length is about one-eighth of an inch. Under each of these 
 scales are from a dozen to a hundred minute white eggs, 
 which hatch in spring, and the young lice disperse them- 
 selves over the smooth bark, to which they attach them- 
 15 
 
838 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTD. 
 
 selves and suck its juices. The females remain affixed, 
 and when dead, their dried relics protect the eggs during 
 the winter. 
 
 The Apple-tree Borer, (Saperda Uvittata.) The per- 
 fect insect is a cylindrical, butternut-brown, long-horned 
 beetle, hoary white beneath, with two milk-white stripes 
 above, running the whole length of its body; length 
 from three-fifths to three-fourths of an inch. The larva 
 is one of the worst enemies of the fruit grower. It is 
 a large, cylindrical, white, footless grub, broadest ante- 
 riorly ; its head chestnut-brown ; mouth black. The in- 
 sect appears early in summer, and deposits its eggs one at 
 a time upon the bark near the earth. As soon as hatched, 
 the minute worm mines through the bark, feeding upon it 
 first and then upon the sap-wood, and finally upon the 
 heart. At first it pushes out its excrement through a hole 
 in the bark, which it afterwards closes. Trees are so 
 weakened by this insect that they are easily blown down 
 by the wind. 
 
 ^Remedies. Wash the lower part of the trunk with soft 
 soap just before the beetle makes its appearance, or with 
 lye early in August, to kill the newly hatched grubs. If 
 the presence of the grub is manifested in the trunk by the 
 sawdust-like castings on the soil close to the tree, insert a 
 wire or small twig into the hole, pushing it gently forward 
 until the crushing of the worm is felt at the extremity. 
 Piling leached ashes or lime about the base of the tree is 
 beneficial. Unleached, they will sometimes kill young 
 trees. The various species of woodpecker destroy thous- 
 ands of these insects, and their presence in the fruit gar- 
 den should be encouraged. Trees that branch low are less 
 likely to be attacked by this insect. 
 
 The Apple B up rest is, or Thick-legged Apple-tree Borer, 
 \Chrysoboihris femorata^) is another quite destructive in- 
 sect, infesting not only the apple, but the peach and white 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 339 
 
 oak. The beetle is about half an inch long, flattened; 
 color greenish-black, with a brassy polish; two very dis- 
 tinct metallic spots on the wing cover ; eye prominent ; 
 head broad ; antenna? short ; thighs of the hind legs thick- 
 ened and dilated. The insects make their appearance from 
 about the time the apple blossoms, and continue some 
 two months. They may be seen running up and down the 
 trunk of the tree, and the eggs are deposited on the bark. 
 The larva has nearly the same habits as the common 
 borer, but differs greatly in appearance. It is a pale yel- 
 low, footless grub, with its anterior end enormously large, 
 round, and flattened. The remedies are the same as for 
 the common borer. 
 
 The Apple-tree Caterpillar, or Tent-caterpillar, 
 campa Americana?) is a black, hairy caterpillar, with white 
 lines, and along each side a row of blue spots. They live 
 in societies in large, cobweb-like nests in the forks of the 
 apple and wild cherry, which they form when the tree comes 
 into leaf. From these, after having perhaps deprived the 
 tree of all foliage, they finally disperse and spin oval 
 white cocoons, which they place in a sheltered situation. 
 The moth appears some eight weeks after the caterpillar 
 first comes, and is dull brownish-red, with its fore wings 
 crossed by two white bands parallel to the hind margin. 
 The moth lays its eggs in large rings on the branches of 
 trees, which are hatched the ensuing spring. If any of 
 these clusters of eggs are found at pruning time, cut them 
 off and burn them. If any caterpillars appear in the spring, 
 they may be removed by a round bush fastened to a pole, 
 which is put into the nest, and with a few turns, web and 
 all are removed to be crushed by the foot. It is best to 
 search for and destroy the nest and its contents when very 
 small. Evening fires in the orchard will attract and de- 
 stroy the moth. This insect is very injurious. 
 
 The Handmaid Moth, \Datana ministra,) is a brown, 
 
340 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 hairy moth, which deposits its eggs in June upon the un- 
 der sides of the leaves. The caterpillars are very de- 
 structive to the foliage. 
 
 The Palmer Worm, ( Chcetochilus pometellus^) is another 
 very destructive insect in the orchard. 
 
 Apple-Worm, or Codling Moth. (Garpocapsa Pomo- 
 nclla.) The parent moth drops its eggs singly on the 
 calyx end of the young fruit, from which the young 
 worm, when hatched, eats its way to the centre. The 
 worm, when small, is white, with a black head ; the 
 larger ones are flesh-colored, with brown heads. The 
 wings of the perfect insect are marked with large 
 brown spots, and shades of brown and gray. The worm 
 gnaws a hole through the side of the apple, and thrusts 
 out of it the refuse of its food. The fruit usually falls 
 prematurely, and the worm escapes into the ground, or 
 if not, crawls out upon the tree, hiding in crevices of 
 the bark, and, in either case, spins its cocoon and is trans- 
 formed into a pupa, in which state it remains through the 
 winter. The remedies are scraping the bark in the 
 spring and burning the scrapings ; allowing swine to run 
 in the orchard to consume the fallen fruit ; or gathering 
 all that fall, and feeding them out or using them, destroy- 
 ing the insects within the fruit when cut open. A hay 
 rope or cloth wound around the limbs, or placed in the 
 forks of the tree, will attract the worms, which can be 
 removed towards spring, and the chrysalids burned. 
 Small fires in the orchard, early in summer, will attract 
 and destroy thousands of these moths. 
 
 Gathering the Fruit. Those 1 intended for keeping, or 
 sending to market, should be carefully picked from the 
 tree, and handled with care, to prevent bruising. Those 
 that fall of themselves must be kept separate, as the least 
 bruise will cause decay. They must be frequently looked 
 over, and every one the least decayed must be removed, 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 341 
 
 or it will infect the others. They should be kept at a 
 uniform temperature, in .1 dry, cool situation. Choice 
 specimens may be wrapped in absorbent paper, and laid 
 singly on shelves. They should not be exposed to much 
 frost, and still less to extremes of heat. Specimens may 
 thus be kept in good condition until March. A fruit room 
 should be kept as cool as possible, and if the temperature 
 could bo uniformly at 32, iio decay would take place. 
 
 In selecting varieties for cultivation, preference should, 
 as far as practicable, be given to those of southern origin. 
 Of northern varieties, those classed as summer apples suc- 
 ceed very well here. Some of the early autumn varieties 
 also do well, and, of course, are summer apples with us. 
 But the winter apples, as a class, arc entirely unsuited to 
 the Southern States. The last ten years have developed, 
 with us, a very large number of as choice and beautiful 
 varieties of winter apples as can be found anywhere, so 
 that, at this time, we can have an abundant supply dur- 
 ing the entire* year. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 Early May. Fruit small, round ; skin thin, yellowish- 
 green, when ripe, 
 with sometimes a 
 brownish-red cheek; 
 stem short, in a shal- 
 low cavity ; calyx 
 small, closed, in a 
 shallow basin ; flesh 
 yellowish- white ; fla- 
 vor mild acid, but 
 rather astringent ; 
 begins to ripen from 
 the 10th to the 20th 
 
 Fig. 77. EARLY MAT. 
 
 of May. 
 
342 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Early Harvest. Fruit medium to large size, round, 
 sometimes flattened ; skin smooth, with a few white dots, 
 and of a pale yellow color; stalk half to three-fourths of 
 an inch long, slender, in a moderate cavity ; calyx in a 
 shallow basin; flesh white, tender, juicy, crisp; flavor 
 rich, sprightly, and sub-acid. One of the best northern 
 varieties; ripens from the 15th to the 20th of June. 
 
 Red June* Fruit medium size, generally oblong in 
 form ; skin smooth, green in the shade, changing rapidly, 
 
 Fig. 78. RED JUNE. 
 
 at maturity, to a fine dark crimson ; stem half to three- 
 fourths of an inch long, inserted in a moderate cavity ; 
 calyx in a shallow basin; flesh white, tender, mellow, 
 and digestible, fine grained, slightly acid, moderately 
 
FKUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 343 
 
 juicy, but not rich. A fine fruit, and very productive; 
 tree very liable to be attacked by the borer. 
 
 Jillien, Fruit medium size, roundish, tapering some- 
 what to the eye; calyx small, in a narrow basin; stem 
 short, in a moderate cavity ; skin thin, yellowish- white, 
 beautifully striped and marbled with carmine ; the fruit 
 is of a delicate, waxen appearance ; flesh white, tender, 
 
 Fi. 79. JULIEN. 
 
 juicy, and fine flavored. The best summer apple known ; 
 tree a fine grower and very productive ; ripens the middle 
 of July ; rarely affected by worms. 
 
 Maiden's Blush. Fruit medium size, flat, smooth, and 
 fair ; skin thin, clear lemon yellow, with a fine blush to 
 the sun ; stalk short, in a wide, deep cavity ; calyx closed, 
 in a moderate basin ; flesh white, tender, sprightly, sub- 
 acid. Excellent for drying and culinary uses, and a fair 
 dessert fruit. Ripens the 1st of July. 
 
344 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Bough. Large size ; oblate in form ; skin bright yellow, 
 thickly dotted with russet specks ; stalk rather long, in a 
 deep, narrow cavity; calyx deeply sunk; flesh white, 
 juicy, and very sweet ; tree a poor grower. 
 
 Yellow June. Fruit medium size; form rather flat^ 
 stem short, in a deep cavity ; calyx large and open, in a 
 moderate basin ; skin thin, and of greenish-yellow color ; 
 
 Tig. 80. YELLOW JUNE. 
 
 flesh yellowish, tender and juicy. An excellent variety, 
 and worthy a place in every garden. Ripens from the 
 15th to the 20th of June. 
 
 Cane Creek Sweet. Medium size ; ovate in form ; skin 
 pale green; stem long and slender, in a deep cavity; 
 calyx closed, in a narrow basin ; flesh white, tender, and 
 sweet; when in perfection, juicy, but becomes mealy when 
 over ripe. Quality very good. Ripens July 15th. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 345 
 
 Toccoa. Above medium size, conical ; skin yellow, 
 shaded and striped with red ; flesh yellow, with a brisk 
 Spitzenburgh flavor, moderately juicy; core large. A 
 native of Habershain County, Georgia. Ripens August 
 1st. A fine fruit, and healthy tree. 
 
 Aromatic Carolina* Fruit large size ; oblate in form, 
 tapering to the eye ; stalk short and fleshy, in a deep, 
 
 Fig. 81. AROMATIC CAROLINA. 
 
 wide cavity; calyx in a wide, shallow basin; color 
 green, striped with dull crimson, and covered with a white 
 bloom; juicy, and of a fine aromatic flavor. Tree a 
 vigorous grower, and very productive. Ripens July 15th 
 to August 1st. 
 
 Fall Pippin. Fruit very large, roundish, flattened, 
 obscurely ribbed ; stalk three-fourths of an inch long, in 
 a deep, narrow cavity ; calyx small, in a deep, narrow 
 basin; flesh tender and mellow, with a rich, aromatic, 
 sub-acid flavor. A splendid apple here. Ripens in 
 August. 
 
 15* 
 
346 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Horse* Size medium to large; conical inform; skin 
 thick, golden yellow, when thoroughly ripe, with a blush 
 cheek on the sunny side, a little russeted about the stem ; 
 stem short, and rather large, in a shallow cavity ; calyx 
 in a narrow basin; core large and hollow, seeds few; 
 
 Fig. 82. HORSE. 
 
 flesh yellow, firm, coarse grained, with a rich acid flavor. 
 Best known variety for drying. Ripens August 1st. 
 Tree vigorous, and very productive. 
 
 Disharoon. Fruit large, nearly round ; skin thin, pale 
 green ; stem about three-fourths of an inch long, slender, 
 inserted in a moderate sized cavity ; calyx open, of com- 
 mon size, in a small basin ; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, 
 and of an excellent mild, acid, aromatic flavor. Ripens 
 in September. A native of Habersham County. 
 
 Buff* Fruit of the largest size, roundish and somewhat 
 ribbed and angular ; skin thick, ground color yellow, but 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 347 
 
 striped and shaded with dull red, marked with a few 
 greenish russet spots; stem three-fourths of an inch 
 long, in a medium cavity; calyx in a large, irregular 
 
 Fig. 83. BUFF. 
 
 basin; flesh yellowish, and, when well ripened, tender 
 and good, sometimes indifferent. Ripens October to 
 March. 
 
 II a her sham Pear main, Fruit medium sized, and of 
 ovate form ; stem short and slender ; calyx of moderate 
 size, in a slight basin ; color bright crimson, and very fair 
 and beautiful in general appearance ; flesh white, rather 
 dry, of firm texture, and of a brisk, sub-acid flavor. 
 Ripens middle of September. Tree of upright growth, 
 and very symmetrical. 
 
 MeigS. Fruit large ; regular oblong, narrowing to the 
 eye, sometimes slightly ribbed ; skin yellow, but mostly 
 
348 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Fig. 84. MEIGS. 
 
 Fig. 85. BTERS. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 349 
 
 covered with a marbling of red, and sprinkled with 
 prominent yellow dots; calyx small, closed, and set in 
 a narrow basin ; stalk very short, thick, in a deep, narrow 
 cavity ; flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, with a rich, 
 slightly sub-acid flavor. A fine native variety. Treo 
 thrifty, and less infested with woolly aphis than many 
 others. Ripens in September. 
 
 Byers, Buckingham, Batchclor, This very popular 
 apple is known by fifteen or twenty names. Fruit large 
 to very large ; a little oblate in form, narrowing toward 
 the eye; skin rich yellow, nearly covered with bright red, 
 dark crimson on the side exposed to the sun, sprinkled 
 with white specks ; calyx small, open, in a rather deep 
 basin ; stalk very short and fleshy, inserted in a moder- 
 ate sized cavity, which is russeted ; flesh white, tender, 
 fine grained, juicy and rich, of a sub-acid flavor. Ripens 
 in October. A splendid fruit. 
 
 WINTER VARIETIES. 
 
 Walker's Yellow, Large, oblong or oval; skin yel- 
 low, with a slight blush to the sun ; stem short, and set 
 in a deep cavity; calyx large, open, in a small basin; 
 flesh white, of firm texture, and acid flavor. Raised by 
 George Walker, Esq., of Pulaski Co., Georgia, where it 
 ripens in October, and keeps until February. A fine 
 Southern variety. 
 
 Cllllasaga* Large, regular, and a little conical; skin 
 yellow, and nearly covered with crimson ; calyx small, in 
 a moderate basin ; stem short and fleshy ; flesh yellow, 
 tender and juicy, of a fine aromatic flavor. Ripens in 
 October. A first rate variety, a seedling from the Horse 
 Apple, by Miss Ann Bryson, of 1ST. C. 
 
 Summeronr, or Mckajack, Fruit large to very large, 
 of an oblate form; color a yellow ground, striped with 
 
350 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 dark red, sprinkled with russet specks ; calyx large and 
 open, set in a broad, shallow basin ; stem short, in a regu- 
 lar cavity ; flesh juicy, tender and rich, mild acid. Ripens 
 late, and keeps well until April. Originated by John 
 Sumrnerour, of Burke Co., North Carolina. 
 
 Red Warrior. Fruit very large, nearly globular, but 
 a little rhombic ; color yellow, striped and marbled with 
 light and dark red stripes, with russet specks and spots ; 
 
 Fig. 86. NICKAJACK. 
 
 stem medium size, three-fourths of an inch long ; cavity 
 medium ; calyx closed, in an even, deep basin ; flesh 
 white, moderately acid, with abundant juice. From 
 Montgomery, Alabama. Keeps until March. A very 
 fine winter apple. 
 
 Cedar Falls. Size medium to large ; a little oblate in 
 form; deep yellow, nearly covered with purplish-red, 
 with a large patch of russet around the stem ; flesh yel- 
 low, and of a firm texture ; flavor exquisitely aromatic, 
 sub-acid. Ripens November 1st, and keeps to February 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 351 
 
 without shrivelling. A native of Forsyth Co., N". C. A 
 No. 1 apple. 
 
 Oconcc Greening* Medium size, and resembles the 
 
 FJ. 87. OCONEU GBEENIXG. 
 
 Disharoou a good deal in external appearance, but keeps 
 well much longer, and is of a more acid flavor. 
 
 Great Unknown* Size large ; regular in form ; color a 
 waxen yellow, beautifully shaded and marbled with car- 
 mine ; stem slender, of medium length ; calyx open, in a 
 smooth basin ; flesh yellowish, very tender, juicy, and de- 
 licious. An early winter fruit, and every way worthy of 
 general cultivation. Origin unknown; found in the 
 orchard of S. McDowell, Esq., in Macon Co., N. C. 
 
 Webb's Winter* Size medium ; form globular ; color, 
 greenish-yellow, shaded with dull red, with specks of 
 russet ; flesh yellow, juicy and tender, brisk, pleasant acid 
 flavor ; stalk long and slender, in an acute cavity ; calyx 
 small, in a regular, smooth, small basin. Ripens in Novem- 
 ber, and keeps well and good until February. The tree 
 has slender, drooping branches. From Mississippi. 
 
352 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Chestoa, or Rabbit's Head. Size medium ; conical in 
 form; color dark crimson on a greenish ground; stem 
 short, slender, in a moderate cavity ; fruit somewhat dis- 
 
 Fig. 88. CHESTOA, Oil UABBIT'S HEAD. 
 
 torted about the calyx, so as to resemble the nose of a rab- 
 bit ; a patch of russet about the stem. Ripens in Novem- 
 ber, and keeps until March. 
 
 Elarkee. Size medium; form conical; color dark red 
 on a yellow ground ; flesh yellowish, hard, and with suffi- 
 cient juice ; acid when first gathered, but becomes of 
 pleasant flavor in March and April. Tree thrifty and 
 very hardy. Origin, Macon Co., N. C. 
 
 Chestatee* Medium to large; slightly conical; calyx 
 in a hollow basin ; stem short and slender, in a deep cav- 
 
Fig. 89. ELAKKEE. 
 
 Fi. 9<{ CHESTATEE. 
 
354 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 ity, with spots and small specks of black ; flesh white and 
 juicy, rather too acid for a dessert fruit, but good for cook- 
 ing. Ripens in September, and keeps until December. 
 
 CattOOgaja* Large to very large ; irregular and con- 
 siderably ribbed, broadest at the base ; yellow, mottled 
 with black specks, and sprinkled with flecks of green ; 
 stalk of medium length, slender ; cavity very deep ; calyx 
 in an open, deep basin ; flesh yellowish, with a mild, sub- 
 acid flavor. October to January. 
 
 Camak's Sweet, Fruit medium to large ; nearly round ; 
 dull whitish-green, mottled with green russet, the patches 
 
 Fi. 91. CAMAK'S SWEET. 
 
 of which are made up with small dots, with a dull blush 
 cheek toward the sun ; stem short and slender ; cavity 
 and basin broad; calyx closed; flesh firm and tender; 
 scarcely sweet; juicy and fine flavored; best. Keeps 
 until February. 
 
 lUangum. Size small to medium ; regular, slightly 
 conical; stalk small, in a narrow cavity; color green, 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 355 
 
 Fig. 92. MAXGUM. 
 
 93. MOUNTAIN BELLE. 
 
356 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 nearly covered with dark red stripes ; flesh yellow and 
 firm ; of excellent quality, and keeps until March. 
 
 Mountain Belle* Size medium to large; oblate and 
 conical ; color, an orange ground, shaded and striped with 
 red ; stem short, in a wide, deep cavity ; calyx in a mod- 
 erate sized, smooth basin ; flesh white, hard, and juicy, a 
 little tough in texture, and of a fair, sub-acid flavor. 
 Ripens November to May. Second quality, but a famous 
 keeper. A native of Habersham County, Ga,, found in an 
 old Indian field by J. Van Buren. 
 
 Van Buren. Size medium to large ; globular, and a 
 little conical in form ; color, yellow ground, shaded with 
 dark red ; with specks and patches of russet ; stem short 
 and fleshy, in a narrow, medium sized cavity ; calyx small, 
 and closed in a shallow basin ; flesh yellow, juicy, and 
 quite tender for a good keeper. Ripens in October, and 
 keeps until April. A new and first rate winter apple, 
 found and named by Elijah Sutton, Esq., Habersham 
 Co., Ga. 
 
 Vahoola, Fruit medium size ; oblate in form ; color, 
 dull green, speckled and streaked with russet ; stem long 
 and slender ; calyx medium size, in a moderate sized 
 basin; flesh greenish- white, juicy, and of fair quality. 
 Ripens in September, and keeps until January 1st. Tree 
 with slender, wiry limbs. Origin, Lumpkin Co., Ga. 
 
 List of varieties recommended for cultivation in the 
 Southern States : 
 
 SUMMER VARIETIES. AUTUMN VARIETIES. 
 
 Early Harvest. Buckingham. 
 
 Red June. Disharoon. 
 
 Julien. Myers' Nonpareil 
 
 Aromatic Carolina. Autumn Wine. 
 
 Sweet Bough. Rome Beauty. 
 
 Red Astrachan. Meigs. 
 
 Toccoa. Chestatee. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 357 
 
 WINTER VARIETIES. 
 
 Summerour. Camak's Sweet. 
 
 Van Buren. Great Unknown. 
 
 Mangum. Webb's Winter. 
 
 Cedar Falls. Mountain Belle. 
 
 Elarkee. Gladney's Red. 
 
 APRICOT. (Prunus Armeniaca,) 
 
 The apricot is a fruit somewhat resembling both the 
 plum and the peach. The tree is ornamental as well as 
 useful ; larger than the plum, with glossy, heart-shaped, 
 large leaves and white blossoms, which appear so early 
 that they are usually killed by spring frosts. But, as with 
 the nectarine, the great obstacle to its culture is the cur- 
 culio, which may be treated as in the case of that fruit. 
 In favorable seasons, the apricot is very productive. The 
 apricot is a native of Armenia and other parts of Central 
 Asia. In quality it is second only to the peach, but, 
 coming earlier, it is very acceptable. 
 
 For jellies, tarts, and preserving in brandy or sugar, it 
 is much esteemed, and is excellent when dried as directed 
 for the peach. The apricot is generally budded on the 
 plum stock ; it is sometimes propagated on its own root, 
 and also upon the peach. The plum is the hardier stock, 
 and makes the better tree. It may be root-grafted on the 
 Chickasaw plum. Those propagated by seed are usually 
 very hardy and productive. On the peach stock, the tree 
 is liable to be destroyed by the borer, and the fruit is 
 inferior. 
 
 Apricots are apt to bloom so early in the spring that it 
 is best to plant them in a northern exposure, where they 
 will be retarded in blooming ; by the side of a building, 
 
358 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 there is less danger of frost. It is just as necessary to 
 shorten in. the young branches of the apricot as those of 
 the peach. 
 
 The best soil is a deep loam ; cultivate and manure the 
 same as the peach. The hardiest apricots are the Dubois, 
 Orange, and Breda. The best varieties are Dubois and 
 Early. 
 
 Dubois. Fruit small, roundish oval, pale orange color, 
 moderately juicy, sweet, and good ; very productive and 
 hardy. Ripens June 10th. 
 
 Large Early* Fruit medium size, oblong and com- 
 pressed ; suture deep ; skin slightly downy, pale orange 
 in the shade, ruddy in the sun ; flesh yellow, and separates 
 from the stone, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. Ripens 
 June 10th. 
 
 Orange* Fruit medium, roundish, with suture hol- 
 lowed at the stalk; skin orange, with a ruddy tinge; 
 flesh dark orange, rather dry, and somewhat adhesive to 
 the stone, which is small and roundish ; kernel sweet; not 
 first rate, but good for pies and tarts, preserving or dry- 
 ing ; a good bearer. Ripens June 10th. 
 
 Peach Apricot* Fruit very large, roundish, sides 
 compressed, and with a distinct suture; skin yellow, 
 but deep orange, mottled with brown, in the sun ; flesh 
 deep yellow, rich and delicious ; the best variety in culti- 
 vation ; stone rough. Ripens last of June. 
 
 Breda. Small, roundish ; color deep yellow, darker in 
 the sun; flesh deep orange, high flavored, rich, and juicy, 
 separating from the stone ; kernel sweet ; a native of 
 Africa ; hardy, productive, and fine for the dessert or 
 preserves. Ripens middle of June. 
 
 Moorpark* Large, roundish oval; skin orange, with 
 a ruddy cheek ; flesh bright orange, free from the stone, 
 juicy, and of rich, luscious flavor; stone perforated; 
 
PR CITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 359 
 
 hardly differs from the peach apricot, not quite so large, 
 and a little later. Ripens July 20th. Very productive. 
 
 Hemskirke. Fruit large, roundish, but considerably 
 compressed on its sides ; skin orange, with a red cheek ; 
 flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy than the 
 Moorpark, with a rich, luscious flavor ; stone small, and 
 kernel bitter. Ripens July 1st. 
 
 Royal* Fruit round, large, slightly compressed ; skin 
 dull yellow, with a darker cheek, faintly tinged with red ; 
 with a slightly marked suture ; flesh pale orange, firm and 
 juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor. Ripens July 1st. 
 
 THE BLACKBERRY. (Rubus villosus, etc.) 
 
 We do not consider it necessary for us to give any de- 
 scription of this fruit, as it is well known by everybody, 
 and is one of the greatest pests the planter and farmer have 
 to contend with, springing up everywhere along the 
 fences, in the field, the vegetable and flower garden. To 
 us of the South it is amusing to see the excitement gotten 
 up by Northern horticulturists about it. Their New 
 Rochelle, Doolittle, Kittatinny, etc., etc., are thrown far 
 in the background by the wagon loads that can be gath- 
 ered from almost any of our old fields. 
 
 The Blackberry is a tolerable dessert fruit, continues a 
 long time in bearing, and is also used for drying, for 
 tarts, pies, puddings, jams, and preserves. A very good 
 wine is made from the juice, which more nearly resembles 
 Madeira than any made from our native grapes. There 
 is a white variety, which differs from the black only in 
 color, and is occasionally found growing wild amongst 
 the black. 
 
360 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 The Dewberry, (comprising both JRubits Canadensls 
 and trivialis,) is also very common at the South; is 
 running or trailing, and ripens its fruit some two weeks in 
 advance of the high bush varieties, and the fruit is sweeter. 
 
 CHEERY. (Prunus vulgaris.) 
 
 The Cherry, it is said, was brought from Asia by Lucul- 
 lus, the Roman General ; and from Rome its culture spread 
 over Europe. In cooler latitudes some of the varieties 
 are quite ornamental on account of their fine foliage and 
 early white blossoms, but it stops growing and drops its 
 leaves too early in our climate to be esteemed for this pur- 
 pose. By the older authors the Plum and Cherry were 
 placed in different genera, but the best botanists of the 
 present time consider them both as species of JPrunus, and 
 the old name Cerasus, as applied to the Cherry, is dropped. 
 
 In the Southern States but few varieties succeed well, 
 except the common Morello or Pie-Cherry. The trees of 
 the finer varieties grow very well for some three or four 
 years, and then commence splitting and dying on the 
 south-west side of the trunk ; we have seen a few that 
 grew and bore fine crops for a few years when planted on 
 the top of poor, rocky hills; the splitting of the bark ap- 
 pears to be caused by a too luxuriant growth. The trees 
 should be planted in poor ground, and have but little or 
 no manuring. Train the trees with low heads, so as to 
 shade the trunks and protect them from the sun. Cher- 
 ries are generally grafted or budded on the Mazzard or 
 wild European stock, though the Mahaleb or Perfumed- 
 cherry stock is preferable, as it dwarfs the tree, and is less 
 liable to split and sun-burn. 
 
 It is not probable that the finer varieties of the Cherry 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 361 
 
 will ever be very successfully cultivated at the South, un- 
 til we raise seedlings suited to the climate. 
 
 Of the varieties described below, the Elton, May Duke, 
 Sweet Montmorency, and common Morello, are the only 
 ones that have ever produced good crops with us. 
 
 May Duke i Fruit roundish, medium size, and in clus- 
 ters ; skin lively red at first, dark red when ripe ; flesh 
 reddish, tender, melting, very juicy ; rich and excellent 
 when fully ripe. Ripens early in May. 
 
 Doctor. A heart Cherry, small, roundish heart-shaped, 
 distinct suture ; bright yellow and red, which are blended 
 and mottled ; flesh white, tender and juicy, with a sweet, 
 delicious flavor. Tree cracks at the South. 
 
 Rockport Bigarreau. Very large, heart-shaped ; skin 
 deep red on amber ground; flesh pale yellow, fine, juicy, 
 with a sweet, rich flavor. Splits at the South. 
 
 Elton. Very large, heart-shaped ; skin pale yellow, 
 with a mottled red cheek ; stalk long and slender ; flesh 
 firm at first, becoming tender, juicy, with a rich, luscious 
 flavor. Tree grows slowly, and is not disposed to split. 
 Ripens May 20th to June 1st. 
 
 Kentish. Fruit small to medium, round, a little flat- 
 tened, grows in pairs ; skin bright red, growing dark 
 when ripe ; stalk one and a fourth inch long, stout, and 
 set in a pretty deep hollow ; flesh melting, juicy, and of a 
 rich, sprightly flavor. A hardy variety, and excellent for 
 cooking. 
 
 Late Kentish. Resembles the above, but is two weeks 
 later, a little larger, and excellent for cooking, preserving, 
 and drying. 
 
 Kirtland's Mary. Very large, roundish heart-shaped ; 
 color light and dark red, mottled on a yellow ground ; 
 stalk of moderate size ; flesh light yellow, half tender, 
 rich, juicy, with a sweet flavor. 
 16 
 
GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Black Heart. Large, heart-shaped; skin glossy, dark 
 purple, changing to black when ripe ; stalk one inch and 
 a half long, in a moderate cavity; flesh half tender, juicy, 
 and of a rich, sweet flavor. A large, hardy tree, but dis- 
 posed to split. 
 
 Downer's Late. Fruit medium, borne in clusters, 
 roundish heart-shaped, inclining to oval ; skin smooth, of a 
 soft, lively red color, mottled with amber in the shade ; 
 flesh tender, melting, with a sweet, luscious flavor. 
 
 RcillC Ho r tense, Fruit large, bright red, tender, juicy, 
 nearly sweet, and delicious. Tree grows vigorously, bears 
 well, and if planted on poor ground is not inclined to 
 split. An excellent fruit. 
 
 Belle Magnifique. A large red cherry; rather acid, 
 tender, juicy, and rich ; fine for cooking, and for dessert 
 when fully ripe. Tree of slow growth, but bears pro- 
 fusely. 
 
 English Morello, Tolerably large, roundish, nearly 
 black ; flesh reddish-purple, tender, juicy, of a pleasant 
 sub-acid flavor. The common Morello of this country is 
 smaller and inferior to the above. Ripens May 20th. 
 
 Plumstone Morello. Large, dark red, rich and fine 
 flavor ; the best of all Morellos. Tree slow grower, and 
 has small, wiry shoots. 
 
 Sweet Montmorency. Fruit of medium size, round, 
 and a little flattened ; skin, pale amber in the shade, light 
 red, slightly mottled in the sun ; stalks long and slender, 
 inserted in a small, even depression ; flesh yellowish, ten- 
 der, sweet, and excellent. One of the best at the South. 
 
 CURRANT. (Ribes rubrum.) 
 
 The currant is a low shrub, a native of Great Britain 
 and the northern parts of Europe and America; with 
 smooth branches, doubly-serrate, pubescent leaves, and 
 
FEITITS. VAEIETIES AND CULTUEE. 363 
 
 yellowish flowers, which ripen early in the spring. The 
 fruit ripens with the later strawberries and raspberries. 
 It succeeds and thrives admirably in our mountain sec- 
 tions, and will live and bear tolerably well here in a cool 
 northern exposure, but would probably die the first sea- 
 son near the sea-coast. 
 
 The fruit is of an agreeable acid taste ; when ripe it is 
 used with sugar at the dessert, and also alone, or mixed 
 with raspberries, for jams, jellies, and wine. It is used 
 both green or ripe for stewing, tarts and pies. In cool 
 climates it is the most easily cultivated and useful of 
 small fruits. 
 
 The Currant is propagated from cuttings, which should 
 be planted in the fall in a shaded place, but not under 
 trees ; the north side of a plank fence is an excellent situa- 
 tion, provided it is open to the morning sun. 
 
 The Currant requires a moist, rich soil, and should be 
 trained as a bush. All the pruning it requires is to cut 
 out the superabundant old wood, and to shorten that of 
 the last season's growth. 
 
 The varieties we have cultivated are : 
 
 Red Dutch. Fruit of large size, oblate, borne in clus- 
 ters, and less acid than the common red ; color, fine trans- 
 parent red. 
 
 White Dutch. Large, yellowish-white, less acid than 
 the red varieties. 
 
 "We could describe several other varieties, but not 
 having had any success with them, we only give those 
 with which we have succeeded. 
 
 THE FIG, (Ficus Carica.) 
 
 The fig is a large shrub, or a low, spreading tree, accord- 
 ing to the manner in which it is trained. Some varieties 
 grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, in favorable 
 
364 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 localities, but it generally does not reach above half that 
 height. The leaves are large, cordate, and deeply sinu- 
 ate, with three to five lobes, thick and pubescent on the 
 under surface. The blossoms are not apparent, but con- 
 cealed in the inside of the fleshy receptacle that becomes the 
 fruit, which consists of a pulp, containing numerous peri- 
 carps enclosed in a rind, which becomes variously colored 
 in the different varieties. Though the fruit is too sweet and 
 luscious for those unaccustomed to it, it with use soon be- 
 comes a great favorite, and is perhaps the most wholesome 
 and nutritious of fruits. The fig is a native of Asia and 
 Africa, and has been cultivated from the earliest times. 
 It is perfectly at home in all the low country and middle 
 portions of the Southern States, and as universally 
 cultivated below the mountain section as the peach. 
 Large quantities of dried figs are imported into the United 
 States, and are even sold in our midst. These, at very 
 little expense, could be put up at home and even ex- 
 ported at a profit. 
 
 A good way to dry figs is to gather them when per- 
 fectly ripe ; boil them in a preserving kettle in a syrup of 
 nice sugar about five minutes. Take them out, dry them 
 in a warm oven, or a kiln made for drying fruits ; when 
 dry they can be packed in drums or boxes. 
 
 Imported figs are dipped in a hot lye made of fig wood 
 ashes, and dried on frames in the sun ; when dried here 
 they are apt to be infested with minute insects. The fig 
 is readily propagated by shoots, or cuttings from the 
 roots, planted in the fall or spring. Cuttings should be 
 eight or ten inches long, and include a small portion of 
 old wood at the base of each ; if planted in a hot bed in 
 January, they will make handsome plants the same sea- 
 son. Figs should be planted twelve to fifteen feet apart 
 in good, rich earth. The Celestial Fig is best trained as a 
 low tree. The best soil for the fig is a mellow loam of a 
 calcareous nature. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 365 
 
 Ashes, marl, or composts prepared with mild lime form 
 the best manure. If the soil is too moist the fig continues 
 its growth too late in the fall, when the new wood is 
 killed by the frost ; while young, it is best to protect the 
 tree during winter with branches of evergreens. I have 
 found that young trees will mature their fruit and wood 
 much more perfectly, and better endure the winter, if the 
 young shoots are broken off at the ends, and if all fruit 
 forming after that is removed, and no more growth is 
 permitted after the middle of September. 
 
 As a general rule, however, with the fig, the more it is 
 pruned the less is the crop. This, however, does not ap- 
 ply to root pruning. 
 
 If from too rank growth of wood the tree drops its 
 fruit, cut off all the roots that project more than half the 
 length of the branches at any time during winter. 
 
 The nomenclature of figs is still very uncertain, as few 
 are described with minuteness and accuracy. The names 
 of several of our common varieties do not appear in the 
 books, or they are so imperfectly described, that we do 
 not recognize them. 
 
 DARK-COLORED VARIETIES. 
 
 Brunswick. Fruit very large, long, pyriform, with an 
 oblique apex ; eye depressed ; stalk short and thick ; 
 skin, pale green, tinged with yellow in the shade, dull 
 brownish-red in the sun, and sprinkled with pale brown 
 specks ; flesh reddish-brown, pinkish at the centre, semi- 
 transparent, rich, sweet, and high flavored. If I have 
 the true variety the leaves are deeply cut, and generally 
 seven-lobed. Wood of strong growth, and very hardy. 
 
 Brown Turkey. Fruit large, oblong or pyriform; 
 sMn dark brown, covered with thick blue bloom ; flesh 
 red and delicious. Said to be very hardy and prolific. 
 It may be our common blue variety. 
 
SG6 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Brown ISChia* Fruit medium to large, roundish obo- 
 
 vate ; skin chestnut brown ; 
 flesh purple, sweet, and ex- 
 cellent; leaves broad and 
 five-lobed. 
 
 Small Brown Ischia, 
 
 Fruit small, pyriform, with 
 a short stalk; skin light 
 brown ; flesh inclining to 
 purple, high flavored ; leaves 
 less sinuate than in the other 
 sorts. This and the Brown 
 Turkey are generally con- 
 sidered the hardiest varieties. 
 
 Black Genoa. Leaflets 
 narrow, and the leaf seven- 
 Fig. 94.-BROWN ISCHIA. i o b e a ; fruit large, long, 
 obovate, tapering to the stalk, which is slender ; skin al- 
 most black, glossy, covered with purple bloom ; flesh 
 bright red, of excellent flavor. 
 This continued to bear fruit abund- 
 antly until frost, and like the 
 Brunswick is indispensable. 
 
 Celestial* Fruit quite small, 
 pyriform ; stalk slender ; skin very 
 thin, dark colored, and covered 
 with purple bloom; flesh light 
 red, and of delicious flavor. 
 
 In dry weather the fruit hangs 
 on the tree until it shrivels, im- 
 proving in sweetness and flavor. 
 Trees grow quite large, and are 
 very productive, yielding constant- Fi - 95. CELESTIAL. 
 ly from July to October. Leaves five-lobed. May prove 
 to be the Malta of Downing, and others. Very hardy. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES ANI> CULTURE. 367 
 
 The Common Blue. This is rather inferior in flavor to 
 the foregoing ; but is very hardy and productive. Fruit 
 large, oblong, bluish-purple; early, and produces two 
 crops. 
 
 Pregussatta, Fruit medium, roundish, flattened; skin 
 purplish-brown in the shade, dark brown in the sun ; flesh 
 deep red, high flavored, and luscious. This is usually 
 placed among the light-colored figs, but properly belongs 
 here. 
 
 WHITE, YELLOW, AND GREEN VARIETIES. 
 
 Lemon White, or Common White, Fruit turbinate, 
 flattened ; stalk short ; bkin pale yellowish-green ; flesh 
 white and sweet, not high flavored. Ripens quite early, 
 and is a good bearer. Its color renders it a favorite for 
 preserving. 
 
 White Genoa, Fruit large, globular, a little length- 
 ened to the stalk ; skin thin, yellowish when ripe ; flesh 
 light red, and of sweet, delicious flavor. If protected, the 
 fruit is the first to ripen. A good bearer. Indispensable. 
 
 iVerii, Fruit small, roundish obovate ; skin light green- 
 ish-yellow; flesh red, slightly acid, delicate and rich. 
 Has borne here some years, and is a very nice little fig. 
 
 Alicante, A very large and delicious purple fig, bear- 
 ing abundantly early in the season, until frost, in the low 
 country, but not suited to this latitude, as it is more 
 tender than those described. 
 
 Black Ischia and White Ischia are said to be good. 
 The above list we know are. The White Marseilles, Gen- 
 tile, and Yellow Ischia are worthless. The Matanzas is 
 said to be a very desirable variety, but as we have never 
 seen the fruit, we cannot give a description of it. 
 
368 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY. (Ribea Grossularia.) 
 
 The Gooseberry, like the Currant, is a native of Eu- 
 rope. Green, it is used for pies, tarts, and puddings; 
 ripe, it is a very agreeable dessert fruit. It is more im- 
 patient of heat than the currant, and cannot be expected 
 to thrive except among the mountains. It is, like the cur- 
 rant, propagated from cuttings, likes the same soil and 
 treatment generally, even in the Northern States, and in 
 our mountain region the fruit is liable to mildew, the 
 foreign varieties being much more subject to it than the 
 native varieties. 
 
 Houghton's Seedling and Downing's Seedling are the 
 best native varieties we have seen. Woods earth, or leaf 
 mould, and ashes, are the best manures for both the cur- 
 rant and gooseberry that we have tried. 
 
 THE GEAPE.-(F^.) 
 
 The vine was one of the first plants brought into culti- 
 vation. The foreign grapes are all varieties of Vitis vini- 
 fem, and came originally from Asia. Of native grapes, 
 we have Vitis Labrusca, of which Isabella, Catawba, 
 Concord, Diana, and Hartford Prolific, and many others, 
 are varieties ; Vitis cordifolia and V. cestivalis include 
 the wild Summer, the Frost Grape, and of the cultivated 
 varieties, the Ohio, Warren, or Herbemont, Lenoir, 
 Taylor's Bullit, and a host of new ones of the same 
 class; Vitis rotundifolia includes the wild Muscadine, 
 or Bullace, of the South, and the Scuppemong, and, we 
 are almost inclined to add, the Mustang. 
 
 Our American grapes are seedlings from the wild varie- 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 369 
 
 ties, removed some one, two, and three generations from 
 the original type. Foreign grapes do not succeed in our 
 climate in open air or out-door cultivation. All the 
 foreign varieties do well both North and South, in cold 
 graperies, under glass. 
 
 The grape is a cooling and refreshing fruit, of the 
 highest excellence ; green, it is used for pies and tarts ; 
 when ripe, it is a nutritious and most delicious dessert fruit, 
 and is also used for preserving and jellies. The dried 
 fruit, or raisins, are employed extensively for the dessert, 
 and in many preparations of cookery. The leaves are an 
 elegant garnish to other table fruits, but the chief product 
 of the grape is wine, which is superior to that made of 
 any other fruit. 
 
 Large quantities of wine are now made in the United 
 States, more especially in California, where most of the 
 foreign varieties succeed. In the Southern States, vine- 
 yard culture has proved a failure with all derived from 
 the Labrusca and JEstivalis species. After one or two 
 fair crops, the vines become stunted and unfruitful, or if 
 stimulated by extra culture and manuring, both vines and 
 fruit mildew and rot. There are but very few varieties 
 which can be depended upon with anything approaching 
 to certainty, and we shall only recommend such, as we 
 have thoroughly tested most of the celebrated varieties 
 cultivated in the Northern States for the past six to ten 
 years. 
 
 We here insert the mode of culture of a vineyard of 
 the Catawba grape, together with the several methods of 
 training the vine, as laid down in the first edition of this 
 work, by Mr. White, but our subsequent experience com- 
 pels us to say that we have been much disappointed in the 
 results : 
 
 "For vineyard culture of the Catawba grape, the 
 ground should be subsoiled with a plow, or deeply 
 trenched. A declivity should be worked into terraces, 
 16* 
 
370 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH 
 
 with a slight inclination to the hill, that the water may 
 be collected there to be carried thence to the main drains. 
 The Catawba grape is planted by the vine-growers on 
 level ground, in rows seven feet apart, and four feet in the 
 row, but on hill-sides, three by five feet apart. The vine- 
 yard is laid off with a line, and a stake put down where 
 each vine is to grow ; then a broad hole, a foot deep, is 
 dug, in which are placed two' cuttings, six or eight inches 
 apart at the bottom, in a slanting position, but with the 
 top eyes only about an inch apart, and even with the sur- 
 face ; throw in a shovelful of well-decayed leaf mould, 
 that the cuttings may strike freely. Cover with an inch 
 of charcoal dust, or light mould, when the cuttings are 
 planted. The cuttings should be short-jointed and well 
 ripened, each cutting having about four eyes, or buds. 
 Cut them off close to the lower joint, and about an inch 
 above the upper. The earth should be pressed closely 
 about the cuttings. The best time for putting them out 
 is the last of November or December. The finest vines 
 are raised from cuttings planted where they are to remain. 
 Being undisturbed by removal, they are more thrifty and 
 long-lived. Remove all the cuttings but one, if more 
 than one succeeds, and use them to replace where others 
 have failed. During the summer, keep the ground clean 
 and light, by repeated hoeings, and pull off superfluous 
 shoots, leaving but one or two to grow at first, and one 
 eventually. Next spring cut the vine down to two buds, 
 one of which remove when the vine shoots; drive a 
 stake seven feet long to each plant. Chestnut, charred at 
 the end, is very good, but locust and cedar are the most 
 durable; tie the young vines to the stake, remove all 
 suckers, and allow but one cane to grow. Keep free from 
 weeds, and cultivate as before. The next spring, cut down 
 to three buds, and the year after, to five, and this year, 
 train two canes instead of one. The pruning should take 
 place from November to the last of February. The third 
 
FEUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 371 
 
 or fourth year, according to the strength of the vine, cut 
 down the weakest cane to a spur of two or three eyes, 
 arid select the best shoot of the preceding year, cut it 
 down to six or eight joints, bend it over in the form of a 
 hoop, and tie to the stake, or fasten it to the adjoining 
 stake, in a horizontal position. 
 
 ? The bow form, figure 96, is the best. Training the 
 
 vine in this form checks the 
 flow of sap, and causes the 
 buds to break more evenly, 
 retarding growth and increas- 
 ing productiveness. 
 
 " From this bow the fruit 
 is to be produced the current 
 year, and the bearing wood 
 of the next year from the 
 spur left for this purpose. 
 The next winter, this bow is 
 to be cut away, and the bow 
 for the next crop is formed 
 from the best branch of the 
 new wood of last year. Keep 
 the old stalk within eighteen 
 inches of the ground. Tie 
 the vines carefully, without 
 breaking them, in damp 
 weather, when the buds are 
 swelling, the last of February 
 or early in March. In the summer remove the suckers, 
 and pinch off lateral shoots, leaving but two for the next 
 year. 
 
 " The object is to throw the strength of the vine into 
 the fruit and the next year's bearing branches. The vine- 
 yard should be heavily manured once in two or three 
 years. Wood ashes and gypsum are good applications, 
 and are thought to prevent the rot. The trimmings of 
 
 Fig. 96. BOW TRAINING. 
 
372 GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 the vines, dug in, are found to be beneficial; but leaf 
 mould, well rotted, with the addition of lime and ashes, is 
 the best application. Vines highly manured and allowed 
 to grow rampant, covering a large space, will produce a 
 weak and worthless vine, and continue in bearing but two 
 or three seasons." We have only copied the foregoing 
 remarks for the purpose of giving a system for the benefit 
 of amateurs and those desirous of experimenting, and not 
 as our own views, as we tried all methods with the 
 Northern varieties, and found all to fail, in the prevention 
 of rot and mildew. 
 
 If vines are protected by a coping of boards, so as to 
 protect them from the rain and dew, a few varieties suc- 
 ceed very well for two or three years. Vines planted by 
 the side of a building, so as to be partially protected by 
 the projecting roof, ripen perfectly for a few years, while 
 those exposed decay. 
 
 Wine. There is no more art or mysteiy in making 
 wine than in making cider. The grapes are crushed 
 between wooden rollers, which run sufficiently near each 
 other to crush the grapes, but not the seeds. 
 
 To make red wine, the crushed grapes should stand 
 about twenty-four hours, before pressing, so as to extract 
 a portion of the coloring matter from the skins, when they 
 may be pressed by means of an ordinary screw press. To 
 each gallon of juice, one and a half pound of good clari- 
 fied sugar must be added ; if made from the pure juice 
 of the grape, the wine will be thin, weak, poor, acid, and 
 astringent stuff, not better than hard cider. All the best 
 foreign wines have a large portio'n of brandy added ; such 
 as the Madeira and Sherry have near twenty per cent. In 
 February or March following, the wine should be racked 
 off into clean casks, if intended for still wine, or bottled, 
 if for foaming wine; at the time of bottling, a table- 
 spoonful of No. 1 clarified sugar must be put into each 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 373 
 
 bottle, which should be well corked. Some recommend 
 rock candy to be added. "We have found nothing better 
 than good clarified sugar. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 Catawba. Clusters, of medium size, shouldered, some- 
 what loose ; berries, large, round ; skin, rather thick, pale 
 red in the shade, but deep red in the sun, with lilac bloom ; 
 flesh, slightly pulpy, juicy, sweet, with an aromatic, rich, 
 musky flavor. Ripens last of August. 
 
 Concord, One of the best of the Northern varieties, 
 but the juice is too weak and thin to make a good wine. 
 Clusters, large, loose, and well shouldered ; berries, very 
 large, juicy, sweet, with but little aroma ; a fair dessert 
 grape; color, black, with a heavy bloom. Vine very 
 vigorous, and the fruit is less liable to rot and mildew 
 than any other Northern variety. 
 
 Perkins. Does very well at the South, and is next to 
 the Concord in exemption from disease ; berries, large, 
 and slightly oval ; color, a pale, dingy pink ; flesh, hard, 
 but not pulpy, sweet and good, but destitute of aroma ; 
 is a very good dessert fruit. Yine vigorous and produc- 
 tive. 
 
 Clinton, which succeeds well here, is but one remove 
 from our wild Summer-grape ; clusters, medium size, 
 shouldered, compact, similar to its parent ; berries, round, 
 below medium size, black, covered with bloom, juicy 
 with large seeds, and some acidity, and tough pulp. 
 Ripens a little later than Isabella, but improves by hanging 
 upon the vine. 
 
 Warren, or Herbemont's Madeira. When this grape 
 does perfect a crop, and the fruit is thoroughly ripened, it 
 is the most delicious of all the American grapes. Unless 
 protected by some kind of covering, it rarely produces a 
 crop of fruit, being very liable to the rot. This grape 
 
o 4 4 GARDENING FOR THE- SOUTH. 
 
 becomes eatable the middle of August, but should not be 
 picked before the 1st of October, if to be eaten by a con- 
 noisseur. Few persons have ever seen it when perfectly 
 ripe, and fewer still have ever tasted it. 
 
 The Scuppemong. We consider this very peculiar 
 grape one of the greatest boons to the South. It has 
 
 . 07. THE SCUPPEKNONG. 
 
 very little resemblance to any of the grapes of the other 
 sorts. It is a rampant grower, and requires little, if any, 
 care or culture ; grows well in any soil south of the 
 Potomac River ; has none of the shaggy bark peculiar to 
 
FRUITS. -VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 375 
 
 other vines, and bears only from the old, and not from the 
 current shoots, as do other grapes. The leaves are cor- 
 date, or heart-shaped, coarsely serrate, smooth on both 
 upper and under surfaces. It blooms from the 15th to 
 the last of June, and ripens its fruit the last of September 
 and beginning of October. It has no diseases, in wood, 
 leaf, or fruit, and rarely, if ever, fails to produce a heavy 
 crop. We have never knpwn it to fail. 
 
 It will produce a greater weight of fruit than any other 
 variety in the world. The clusters vary in size from two 
 to twenty berries, and the berries in size from three-fourths 
 of an inch "to one inch and a quarter in diameter. 
 
 Vines, six years transplanted, have this year given us 
 an average of three bushels to each vine, and we shall be 
 disappointed if they do not double every year for many 
 years in the future. It is the sweetest and most luscious 
 of any grape we have ever seen or tasted ; makes a fine, 
 heavy, high-flavored, fruity wine, and is peculiarly adapted 
 to making foaming wines. The vine should be trained on 
 an arbor or scaffold, and should have ample room to 
 spread ; for, if it becomes matted, it dies in the interior, 
 and fails to produce fruit ; give it room to spread itself, 
 and it will do so, both in vine and fruit. The directions 
 before given for making wine apply also to this ; it re- 
 quires one and a half pound of clarified sugar to one 
 gallon of juice. 
 
 We are credibly informed that a vine of this variety is 
 growing near Mobile which has produced two hundred 
 and fifty bushels of grapes in a year, and we know that 
 vines ten years old have given and will give thirty bushels 
 per vine. A bushel of this grape will give from three 
 to three and a half gallons of juice, according to ripeness. 
 
 The aroma given off by this grape, when ripening, is 
 of honied sweetness, and very fragrant and delicious ; it 
 can be detected for some considerable distance. Neither 
 
3T6 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 insects or birds ever attack the fruit ; 'possums and coons 
 are fond of these grapes, as they fall from the vine. 
 
 We do not hesitate to recommend this variety to our 
 friends at the South, and pledge our reputation, as a 
 pomologist, that he who plants it will never regret having 
 done so. 
 
 MULBERRY. (Morus.) 
 
 This genus includes two species worthy of cultivation, 
 both hardy, deciduous trees, ripening their fruits in May 
 with the later strawberries. The fruit is of very agree- 
 able flavor, and of abundant sub-acid juice. An agree- 
 able wine may be made of the juice. All the species of 
 Mulberry are of the easiest culture, and are generally prop- 
 agated by cuttings of the branches or roots. The former 
 should be shoots of the last season, having one joint of old 
 wood ; they may be three feet long, and buried half their 
 length in the soil. The tree requires little or no pruning. 
 
 The soil should be a rich, deep, sandy loam. The fruit 
 falls when ripe ; hence, when the tree commences bearing, 
 the surface below should be kept in short turf, that the 
 fruit may be picked from the clean grass. 
 
 Black Mulberry, (Morus nigra,) is a native of Persia, 
 and is a slow-growing, low-branched tree, with large, tough 
 leaves, often five-lobed, producing large and delicious fruit, 
 frequently an inch and a half long, and an inch across ; 
 black, and fine flavored. Tree a very poor grower. 
 
 Red Mulberry j (Morus rubra,) is a native of our woods ; 
 leaves large, rough, and generally heart-shaped ; fruit an 
 inch long, sweet and pleasant, but inferior to the black. 
 The vigorous growth and fine spreading head of this vari- 
 ety makes it worthy of culture as an ornamental tree. It 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 377 
 
 is the most tenacious of life of any tree we have ever met 
 with ; twenty-seven years since we dug one up in our gar- 
 den, and annually up to the present time shoots put up 
 from fragments left in the ground, and thus far we have 
 been unable to exterminate it. If the cherry is planted 
 near the house, and the Mulberry a little more distant, 
 the latter will often attract the birds from it. 
 
 Downing's Everbearing was originated by Charles 
 Downing, of Newburgh, 1ST. Y., from the seed QfMorus mul- 
 ticaidis. Tree very vigorous and productive ; an estimable 
 variety, and surpassed by none except the black English, 
 and possessing the same rich, sub-acid flavor. It continues 
 in bearing a long time. Fruit one and a quarter inch 
 long, and nearly a half inch in diameter. Color maroon, 
 or intense blue-black at full maturity ; flesh juicy, rich, 
 and sugary, with a sprightly vinous flavor. 
 
 NECTARINE. (Amygdalus Persica, vcvr. Icevis.) 
 
 The Nectarine is merely a peach with a smooth skin ; it 
 is impossible to distinguish the tree from the peach by its 
 leaf and flowers. 
 
 Nectarines usually produce nectarines from the seed ; 
 but the Boston Nectarine originated from a peach stone. 
 
 The tree is cultivated and pruned like the peach, and is 
 propagated by grafting or budding on peach stocks. The 
 great difficulty in raising Nectarines (and the same is 
 true of the apricot and plum), is the curculio. The smooth 
 skin of these fruits offers an inviting place for this insect to 
 deposit its eggs. The injured fruit may be known by be- 
 ing marked with a small, semicircular scar, as if cut by a 
 baby's nail. 
 
 It is useless to plant either the Nectarine, Apricot, or 
 
378 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Plum, especially in sandy soils, unless the trees are daily 
 jarred, and the insects collected on sheets as they fall, and 
 immediately destroyed. A limb may be sawed off a tree, 
 and the stump hit a few smart blows with a mallet ; if 
 gently shaken, the insect will not let go its hold. Or 
 another plan is to plant the trees by themselves, and ad- 
 mit poultry and hogs to eat the fallen fruit, which will, if 
 other fruit gardens are not near, protect the crop. The 
 borer infests the Nectarine as well as the Peach. Aside 
 from the curculio, the nectarine is as hardy and easily 
 raised as the peach, though scarcely equal to the best 
 peaches in flavor. It requires the same soil and treatment 
 as the peach. The best varieties are : 
 
 Hunt's Tawny. Leaves serrate ; flowers small ; fruit 
 medium size, roundish oval, with a swollen point; skin 
 pale orange, dark red in the sun, mottled with russet 
 specks ; flesh orange, juicy, melting, and rich ; a good 
 bearer. Ripens July 10th. Free. 
 
 Violet Hativc, or Early Violet, Glands reniform; 
 flowers small, fruit large, roundish, pale yellowish-green, 
 with a purplish-red cheek, mottled with brown; flesh 
 whitish-red at the stone, melting, juicy, and delicious. 
 Ripens July 20th. 
 
 Elruge, Glands reniform ; flowers small, fruit medium, 
 roundish oval ; suture slight ; skin pale green, with deep 
 violet or blood red cheek, and minute brown specks ; 
 flesh pale green, pale red at the stone ; melting, juicy, 
 and rich ; stone oval, rough, and pale colored. Ripens 
 July 25th. 
 
 1)0 WiltOll, Glands reniform ; fruit large, roundish oval ; 
 skin pale green, flesh-red at the stone ; melting and de- 
 licious. Ripens July 25th. 
 
 Boston, Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, 
 roundish oval ; skin bright yellow, with a deep red cheek ; 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 379 
 
 flesh yellow, not rich, "but sweet and pleasant. Ripens 
 last of July. Cling. 
 
 New White. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit 
 large, nearly round ; skin white, with slight tinge of red 
 in the sun ; flesh white, tender, juicy, vinous, and rich ; 
 stone small. "Ripens August 1st. 
 
 Stanwick. A European variety ; skin pale greenish- 
 white, shaded into deep violet in the sun ; flesh white, 
 tender, juicy, and rich, sweet, and without the slightest 
 prussic acid flavor. Ripens August 1st. Free. 
 
 The best clingstone nectarine is the Early Newington, 
 and the best of all nectarines is said to be the Stanwick. 
 Temple's is said also to be a fine variety. 
 
 NUTS. 
 
 There are several kinds of Nuts worthy of cultivation 
 by every planter, many of which are ornamental shade 
 trees, besides being valuable for the fruit they yield. For 
 convenience, we class them under one head. 
 
 Chestnut, ( Castanea vesca). The Chestnut is a very 
 large forest tree, and common to both continents. The 
 Spanish Chestnut or Marron, produces a very large, sweet 
 nut, and is propagated by grafting on our common chest- 
 nut. There are several varieties of this, of which " Mar- 
 ron de Lyon " is the best. It will bear the second year 
 from the graft. Chestnuts are difficult to transplant 
 when taken from the woods. The improved varieties are 
 much superior to the wild sorts. The chestnut as a shade 
 tree is very effective in landscape gardening. 
 
 Shell-bark Hickory, (Gary a alba). This tree is found 
 in fertile soils all over the United States, producing the 
 common thin-shelled, white hickory nut. The tree is very 
 
830 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 regular and beautiful for ornamental purposes. There is 
 considerable difference in the size and flavor of the nuts 
 of different varieties. It is generally cultivated by plant- 
 ing the nuts in the fall ; these should be slightly covered 
 with leaf mould. 
 
 Filberts, ( Corylus AveUana,) are generally raised from 
 layers. They should not be allowed to sucker ; but trained 
 to form low heads near the ground, which should be kept 
 tolerably open by thinning out the small spray, and short- 
 ening back the young shoots every spring. Of the varie- 
 ties, 
 
 Cosford is a large, oblong nut, with a thin shell, and of 
 fine flavor. Prolific. 
 
 Frizzled, Known by the frizzled husk ; nut medium 
 size, oval, compressed ; husk hairy ; shell thick ; kernel 
 sweet and good. Productive. 
 
 White Filbert, Like the last, but with a light yellow 
 or white skin ; husk long and tubular ; nuts ovate. 
 
 Madeira Nut, (Juglaus JRegia,) is a fine, lofty tree, 
 with a handsome, open head, producing the well-known 
 nuts of the shops. It is produced from the seed, or by 
 grafting. Likes a rich, moist soil. Juglaus Prcepar- 
 turiens is similar to the above, but bears fruit when three 
 years old, and is valuable on this account for the garden. 
 
 Black Walnut, (Juglaus nigra^) should have a place 
 in the grounds of the amateur, as it is not only a fine shade 
 tree, but is valuable for its fruit and timber. 
 
 Pistachio Nut, (Pistacia vera,) an ornamental tree, pro- 
 ducing agreeable flavored nuts, is much cultivated in 
 Southern Europe. 
 
 The tree is dioecious, so that to produce fruit the male 
 and female trees must be planted together. The nuts are 
 oval, the size of the Olive, slightly furrowed, with a mild- 
 flavored, oily nut. The tree grows to the height of fif- 
 teen or twenty feet. Nuts of this* variety have been dis- 
 
FEUITS. VAEIETIES AND CULTUEE, 381 
 
 tributed in various parts of the Union by the Patent 
 Office. The tree will probably succeed in the low coun- 
 try. 
 
 OLIVE, (Olea Europea.) 
 
 The Olive is a low-branching, evergreen tree, rising to 
 the height of twenty or thirty feet, with stiff, narrow, 
 bluish-green leaves. The fruit is a drupe, of oblong, sphe- 
 roidal form ; hard, thick flesh of a yellowish-green color, 
 turning black when ripe. The tree is a native of Greece 
 and the sea-coast ridges of Asia and Africa ; it has been 
 cultivated from time immemorial for the oil expressed 
 from its ripe fruit. Where cultivated it answers all the 
 purposes of cream and butter, and enters into every kind 
 of cooking. Unripe olives are much used as pickles, 
 which, though distasteful at first to most persons, become 
 by custom exceedingly grateful, promoting digestion, and 
 increasing appetite. The ripe Olive is crushed to a paste, 
 when the oil is expressed through coarse hempen bags in- 
 to hot water, from which the pure oil is skimmed off. If 
 the stone is crushed the oil is inferior. Lime and potash 
 should be applied as fertilizers, should the soil be deficient 
 in these substances. 
 
 Propagation and Culture. Olive plantations are gen- 
 erally formed from the suckers which grow abundantly 
 from the roots of old trees. 
 
 It grows readily from cuttings and seeds. Knots and 
 tumors form on the bark of the trunk, which are removed 
 with a knife, or planted like bulbs an inch or two deep, 
 when they take root and form new trees. 
 
 The cultivated Olive may perhaps also be grafted on 
 our Olea Americana, or Devil Wood, which abounds on 
 
382 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 our sea-coast. The best trees are from seeds which com- 
 mence bearing in five or six years, but are not remuner- 
 ative until ten or twelve years old. The trees produce fifteen 
 to twenty pounds of oil per year, and their longevity is 
 greater than that of any other fruit tree. The dry lime- 
 stone soils of Florida would probably become exceedingly 
 valuable if planted with the Olive. 
 
 It should be tried wherever the Orange will survive the 
 winter. In planting, the trees are set from thirty to forty 
 feet apart. The European varieties are many, but we 
 enumerate only a few. 
 
 Olea anglllosa is a hardy variety, with scanty foliage ; 
 fruit reddish, with long stem ; it is preserved in some 
 places. 
 
 " Oil of- medium quality," says Gonan, but very good 
 according to others. 
 
 Olea amygdalina is the variety most commonly culti- 
 vated; fruit almond shaped; is often pickled. Oil very 
 sweet. 
 
 Olea Cranimorpha, or Weeping Olive, is a large and 
 fine tree, with drooping branches ; fruit small, crooked, 
 pointed, very black. 
 
 Olea spheric a has fruit more round than any other 
 variety. Oil delicate. 
 
 Olea Oblonga yields fruit best for pickling ; oil fine and 
 sweet. Produces abundantly. Tree hardy. 
 
 THE ORANGE, LEMON, ETC. 
 
 The Orange, ( Citrus AurantiumJ) is a native of Asia. 
 The rich golden fruit displayed among its dark, glossy, 
 evergreen foliage renders it the most beautiful of fruit 
 trees. The tree grows to the height of twenty to thirty 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 383 
 
 feet, with a round, symmetrical head ; the bark of the 
 trunk is of an ashy-gray, while that of the twigs is green. 
 The leaves are of a fine, healthy, shining green ; its blos- 
 soms are delicately fragrant, and as the tree is in all stages 
 of bearing at the same time, in flower and ripe golden 
 fruit, nothing can surpass an Orange grove in attractive- 
 ness. The wild, bitter-sweet orange is found in various 
 parts of Florida as far north as 29 ; its occurrence is said 
 to be indicative of a good soil. It may have originated 
 from the Seville orange introduced by the Spaniards. The 
 orange at this time is extensively cultivated iu Florida, 
 and somewhat on the coast of Georgia and Carolina. 
 
 Lime is essential to the healthy growth of the tree ; the 
 best soil is a deep fertile loam on the banks of rivers. 
 
 The wild orange taken from the woods is generally 
 used as a stock to graft the most desirable varieties upon. 
 
 The scale insect, Coccus Hisperidum, and others, prove 
 annoying to those who attempt to cultivate the orange in 
 green-houses, but can be destroyed by washing the leaves 
 and wood with a strong decoction of tobacco heated 
 nearly to boiling heat ; the warm liquid irritates the in- 
 sect, so that it looses its hold, permitting the liquid to 
 enter between it and the wood or leaf. 
 
 There are about forty varieties of oranges cultivated, of 
 two principal classes, viz. : The Sweet or China Orange, 
 and the Bitter Seville or Wild Orange. The latter class 
 is much the more hardy, but of no value as a dessert fruit. 
 They are used in cooking, preserving, wine making, and 
 for flavoring. Of the sweet oranges, the Maltese has a 
 thick and spongy rind, red and delicious pulp, but some- 
 times with a trace of bitterness. The glands which 
 secrete the oil are prominent. 
 
 St. Michaels. Small, with thin, smooth rind, and 
 small glands ; pulp light colored, and of a luscious, sugary 
 taste ; often seedless. The most delicious of all oranges. 
 
384 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 Mandarin* Is a small, flattened fruit, with a thin rind, 
 parting freely from the pulp, frequently separating itself; 
 pulp dark orange, juicy, and rich. 
 
 Havana^ or Common Sweet Orange, is a well-known 
 variety of good size and rough rind ; pulp yellow, and 
 well filled with delicious juice. 
 
 Bergamoti Has small flowers and pear-shaped fruit. 
 The leaves, fruit, and flowers are all very fragrant, and 
 much used by perfumers. 
 
 Otaheitan Orange, Is a very small variety, and makes 
 a beautiful bush in the green-house ; fruit small and round ; 
 color pale orange ; flesh rather dry, but sweet and pala- 
 table ; has winged leaves same as the common orange. 
 
 The Lemon 9 ( Citrus Limonium^ is cultivated like the 
 orange, but has longer, lighter colored leaves, with naked 
 petioles or footstalks ; flowers tinged with red exter- 
 nally; fruit oblong, with a swollen point ; pale yellow 
 color, with an acid pulp. Used mostly for flavoring, 
 and lemonade and other cooling drinks. The trees are 
 usually very productive. 
 
 The Lime 9 ( Citrus Limettd). Has smaller flowers than 
 the lemon, which are white ; fruit small, round, and pale 
 yellow color, with a slight protuberance at the end ; very 
 acid. Used for the same purposes as the lemon. The 
 green fruit makes a delicious preserve. 
 
 Citron, (Citrus Medico). Has large, oblong, wingless 
 leaves ; flowers tinged with red or purple ; the fruit is very 
 large and lemon shaped, with warts and furrows. Rind 
 thick and fragrant, pulp sub-acid. Used for preserves. 
 
 Shaddock, (Citrus Decumana). Has leaves winged 
 like the orange ; flowers white ; fruit globular, and very 
 large, weighing often six to eight pounds ; rind very thick ; 
 pulp dry, sweetish, or sub-acid, but not very desirable, 
 except for its showy appearance. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 385 
 
 PEACH. (Amygdcdus Persica.) 
 
 The Peach is a native of Persia, whence its cultivation 
 has proceeded westward ; but it has nowhere found a soil 
 or climate more congenial to it than in these Southern 
 States. Indeed, the peach is the favorite, and in many 
 instances the only, fruit tree cultivated by our planters. It 
 requires a soil of but moderate fertility ; its enemies and 
 diseases are but few, and the return so speedy that there 
 is no excuse for being without good peaches. We entire- 
 ly escape the yellows and the curled leaf, I believe, except 
 in the case of Northern imported trees, which generally 
 recover, though checked for a season. The peach borer is 
 very abundant, but from the luxuriant growth of the trees 
 it seldom causes their death. The worm in the fruit is 
 very annoying, especially in the white-fleshed varieties ; 
 it is best prevented by permitting pigs and fowls to con- 
 sume all the fallen fruit of the orchard as it drops. 
 
 The Peach-Tree Borer. (Trochilium exitiosum.) 
 The moth comes abroad from midsummer until October. 
 Its body is of steel-blue color, with an orange band around 
 the middle of the abdomen of the female. Her wings are 
 blue, while those of the male are clear and glossy. The 
 eggs are deposited the latter part of summer, at the base 
 of the trunk, on the soft bark ; when hatched they bore 
 their way under the bark, sometimes proceeding upwards 
 along the trunk, at other times downward into the root. 
 Its presence is made known in spring by the effusion of 
 gum ; as it does not penetrate the wood, it is easily traced 
 by its holes under the bark. The worm is soft, white, 
 with a tawny, yellowish-red head, and sixteen feet, grow- 
 ing to over half an inch in length. It forms a tough, 
 pod-like cocoon on the side of the root, jutting just above 
 the surface. Remedies are various. Haul the earth from 
 the collar of the tree, clean away the gum, and cut out 
 17 
 
386 GAEDEN1NG F0K THE SOUTH. 
 
 the grub with a knife and kill it ; or pour scalding water 
 into his haunts from the spout of a tea-kettle, which will 
 kill the grub and benefit the tree ; leave the basin about 
 the root of the tree open, and reexamine a few days later, 
 as some of the worms may have escaped. Where the 
 mercury does not usually sink below 8 during the 
 winter, it is best to leave the collar of the tree uncovered 
 and exposed to the action of frost during winter. In 
 spring, a small mound of ashes, or slaked lime, or even 
 earth, should be placed about the base of the trunk, which 
 will render the borer less likely to attack the tree. These 
 should be spread over the surface in autumn. The trees 
 should be closely examined in autumn and spring. 
 
 A somewhat serious difficulty in peach culture is the re- 
 sult of bad pruning. It is the tendency to overbear and 
 break down the limbs from the excess of the crop. More 
 peach trees are destroyed or badly injured from this cause 
 than any other. Peach trees should always be pruned by 
 cutting off the extremities of the branches, so as to leave 
 about one-half of the last year's growth. The fruit is pro- 
 duced on these small branches ; and by reducing the top 
 in this manner, overbearing is prevented, the fruit is 
 effectually thinned, and is larger, finer flavored, and nearly 
 as much fruit can be taken from each tree without danger 
 of breaking. The tree is also kept low and close, and 
 more trees and larger crops can be grown to the acre. 
 
 This method of pruning is called shortening in, or head- 
 ing in, and is expeditiously done with pruning shears. 
 Old trees that have got out of shape can be pruned and 
 brought into a symmetrical form by sawing off limbs of 
 two or three years' growth at or near the forks ; by this 
 method old trees can be renewed in vigor as well as in 
 form. Pruning can be performed at any time when the 
 leaves are off. If it is wished to make young trees pro- 
 duce early, they may be shortened in the last of July, the 
 year they are transplanted. Care should be taken that 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 387 
 
 the branches do not divide into forks, as they are exceed- 
 ingly apt to split when bearing a crop of fruit. The peach, 
 like all other fruit trees, should branch low, say within 
 two feet of the ground, and be kept in a pyramidal or round 
 form, as nearly as can be done. 
 
 The loss of the fruit by decay as it approaches maturity 
 is more annoying than anything else in peach culture. 
 
 If the season is warm and wet, very few kinds ripen 
 well if on moist or rich earth or soil. There is a very 
 common opinion that peaches propagated from the stones 
 of unripe fruit are more liable to rot than those from 
 stones or pits of fully ripened fruit ; some also think decay 
 is caused by planting the trees too deep. It is, however, 
 certain, that some varieties are much more subject to de- 
 cay than others placed in the same position. 
 
 The most suitable soils to ripen sound and high flavored 
 fruit are dry, but moderately fertile ; hills and hill sides 
 generally are the best locations for the peach ; thinning 
 the fruit so that no two peaches touch each other is very 
 necessary in order to prevent decay. The peach is most- 
 ly used in its fresh state for the dessert, and is generally 
 considered the most delicious fruit of temperate climates. 
 When allowed to ripen on the tree, it is the most whole- 
 some of fruits, and as an article of food is considerably nu- 
 tritious. Peaches are also used for pies, are preserved in 
 brandy and sugar, and are excellent when dried for winter 
 use. For culinary purposes, the Clings are most preferred. 
 Peaches and cream form a delicious dessert dish. 
 
 For drying take those of the best quality, just as they 
 are ripe enough to eat ; halve them, remove the stones, and 
 sprinkle over them a little nice sugar, and dry them in a 
 brick oven, moderately warm. Thus prepared the aroma 
 and flavor are preserved, and they are free from insects. 
 If the peaches were fully ripe, no cooking will be required, 
 but when used they are simply soaked in cold or warm 
 water. Sufficient sugar, varying with the acidity of the 
 
388 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 fruit, is added before drying. The firm, yellow fleshed 
 are the best for drying. Peaches thus prepared are only 
 inferior to the fresh fruit, as they retain much of the 
 flavor. Dried in the usual way from unripe fruit, exposed 
 to the sun, much of the flavor is dissipated. Peaches are 
 excellent preserved in self-sealing cans, which now can be 
 purchased at reasonable prices. 
 
 Lime, potash, and the phosphates, are the chief elements 
 the peach requires in the soil. Bone-dust and wood ashes 
 are valuable applications, much more suitable than com- 
 mon animal manures. They may be dressed with com- 
 post of woods' earth, or swamp muck, if the soil is very 
 poor. 
 
 When the trees are planted, the holes may be made 
 large, and enriched with well-decayed manure, to give a 
 good growth of wood. For this purpose guano is an ex- 
 cellent application ; but it is fatal to the tree if it comes in 
 contact with the roots. I have applied it with success to 
 all kinds of fruit trees. After the holes are dug, a little 
 guano is sprinkled in them; this is then covered with 
 about two inches of good mould, on which the tree is 
 planted. When the tree is planted, another sprinkling of 
 guano may be added, and covered with a little more 
 earth; two or three tablespoonfuls are sufficient for a 
 tree, and but a small quantity is required for a large or- 
 chard. For this purpose, as well as for manuring most 
 shrubs, rose bushes, etc., few applications are so cheap 
 and satisfactory. After the tree begins to fruit, applica- 
 tions of lime, ashes, or leaf mould are much better than 
 those which excite growth, as they do not impair the 
 flavor of the fruit or induce decay. 
 
 The peach is best propagated by budding and grafting 
 upon seedling peach stocks. There are, however, many 
 varieties of the clings, particularly, that reproduce them- 
 selves from the seed, especially if the tree from which the 
 stone is taken stands apart from other varieties. It is be- 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 389 
 
 lieved that the stone of a seedling is more apt to repro- 
 duce its kind, than if taken from a budded tree. Seed- 
 lings often escape frosts that are fatal to the finer varie- 
 ties, but the highest flavored varieties of seedlings are 
 often quite as susceptible of injury as those budded or 
 grafted ; those varieties bearing large flowers are much 
 less liable to be injured by frost than those having small 
 ones. 
 
 Plum stocks are recommended by foreign writers; but 
 they are of little use in this climate, for the graft soon out- 
 grows the stock, and breaks off. Peach stocks are raised 
 by planting the stones two or three inches deep, in the au- 
 tumn or winter. If the stones are cracked, they are more 
 sure to grow. Abundance of stocks can often be pro- 
 cured, by taking the volunteers that spring up under the 
 trees in early spring, when about an inch high, and trans- 
 planting in rows three feet apart, and one foot in the row. 
 Plant them in good soil where they will grow rapidly ; if 
 the season is good they will be of sufficient size to bud in 
 August. When the inserted buds start in the following 
 spring, the stocks may be cut down to within two inches 
 of the bud, and then keep rubbing off the shoots or rob- 
 bers for at least two months ; otherwise the inserted buds 
 will be overpowered by them, and die, or make but feeble 
 growth. 
 
 The buds had best be inserted in the north side of the 
 stock to screen them from the sun. Peach trees raised, or 
 varieties originating in the Northern States are not at all 
 unfitted for our climate, yet there is some risk of import- 
 ing trees from the North on account of diseases peculiar 
 to that section from which Southern raised trees arc ex- 
 empt. 
 
 Some varieties of European fruits are found to succeed 
 better here than where they originated, but as a general 
 rule, all fruits succeed best in their native locality. 
 
 Peach trees in transplanting are set twenty feet apart 
 
390 
 
 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 each way, which gives one hundred and eight trees to 
 the acre. They may, if shortened in yearly, be set fifteen 
 feet apart, which will give one hundred and ninety-three 
 trees to an acre ; in gardens fifteen feet is generally the 
 best distance. 
 
 Peaches are so mucli alike in general character the 
 difference in outline, color, flavor, and. texture being less 
 than with other plants, that it is necessary in order to 
 determine the name of a variety to resort to other 
 methods of distinction. 
 
 The two most obvious distinctions or divisions are into 
 freestones and clingstones ; or, as we call them, soft, and 
 
 plum peaches ; the 
 ^ v\ N I flesh of the former 
 parting freely from 
 the stone, and being 
 of a melting con- 
 sistency ; and that 
 of the latter named 
 sorts adhering to 
 the stone, and being 
 of a firmer texture. 
 The English give 
 to these divisions the names of *' melters " and " pavies." 
 Both these grand divisions are subdivided into classes 
 according to the color of the flesh, viz. : those with light 
 colored, and those with deep yellow flesh. These classes 
 are again divided into three sections. At the base of the 
 leaf of some varieties will be found small glands, which 
 are either round and regular, or oblong and irregular, or 
 kidney shaped; while others have no glands, but are 
 more deeply cut or serrated like the teeth of a saw. 
 
 Hence the three sections, viz. : 1. Leaves serrated, 
 without glands, #, fig. 98 ; 2. Leaves with small, round, 
 or globose glands, &, fig. 98 ; 8. Leaves with large, ir- 
 regular, reniform or kidney-shaped glands, o, fig. 98. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 391 
 
 From the blossom another characteristic is derived, 
 giving us two subsections: the first embracing large 
 flowers, red in the centre, and pale at the margin; the 
 second, small flowers, tinged with dark red at the margin. 
 Most native peaches in this vicinity have large flowers, 
 but the great mass of the finer varieties have small 
 flowers. 
 
 Varieties. The following varieties have been tried in 
 this vicinity, and are found among the most desirable. 
 They are classed pretty much in the order of ripening. A 
 full list of good clingstones, in succession, from the begin- 
 ing to the end of the peach season, is yet to be obtained. 
 All named are good bearers, 
 
 Columbus June i Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit 
 medium to large, flattened, or slightly hollowed at the 
 apex ; suture shallow ; skin pale yellowish-white, with a 
 rich red cheek ; flesh slightly red at the stone, melting, 
 juicy, and high flavored ; excellent. Ripens here June 
 20th. Free. 
 
 Halo's Early. Glands globose; fruit medium, nearly 
 round ; skin mottled red, cheek dark red ; flesh white, 
 melting, juicy, and high flavored ; flowers large. Tree 
 vigorous, healthy, and an abundant bearer, ripening ten 
 days or two weeks before any other good variety. Free. 
 (Thomas.) 
 
 Early Tillottson, Leaves deeply serrated, without 
 glands ; fruit medium, round ; skin nearly covered with 
 red ground ; color pale yellowish-white, dotted with red, 
 the cheek being quite dark ; flesh white, red at the stone, 
 to which it adheres slightly, although a freestone ; melt- 
 ing, rich, and juicy, with a high flavor. Ripens from the 
 15th to the 20th of June. Free. 
 
 Serrate Early York, Leaves serrate, glandless ; flowers 
 large ; fruit medium, roundish oval ; suture slight ; skin 
 thickly dotted with pale red on a greenish- white ground, 
 
392 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 dark red in the sun ; flesh greenish-white, tender, melting, 
 full of rich, slightly acid juice. Ripens June 20th. Free. 
 
 Walter's Early, Glands globose ; flowers small ; fruit 
 above medium ; color nearly white, with a fine, red cheek ; 
 flesh whitish, slightly red at the stone, melting, juicy, 
 sweet, and fine flavored ; not so easily injured by frost as 
 some others ; likes sandy soil ; succeeds as far South as 
 Mobile. Ripens July 1st. Free. 
 
 Early Newington Free, Glands globose, flowers large ; 
 fruit medium to large, round ; suture distinct ; skin dull 
 yellowish-white, dotted and streaked with red, cheek rich 
 red ; flesh white, red at the stone, to which it partially 
 adheres; juicy, melting, and vinous. Ripens early in 
 July. 
 
 George 4th. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit 
 large, round, with broad suture ; skin white, dotted with 
 red, cheek rich dark red ; flesh pale, melting, very juicy, 
 with rich, luscious flavor; stone small Ripens July 10th. 
 Free. 
 
 Gross Mignonnc. Glands globose ; flowers large ; fruit 
 large, roundish, apex depressed ; suture distinct ; skin 
 dull white, mottled with red, and with a purplish-red 
 cheek ; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, with a rich 
 vinous flavor ; stone small and very rough ; perhaps the 
 best freestone peach in cultivation. Ripens July 10th. 
 Free. 
 
 Crawford's Early. Glands globose; flowers small; 
 fruit yellowish-white, with a fine red cheek ; flesh yellow, 
 melting, sweet, and excellent. Ripens middle of July. 
 Free. 
 
 Belle de Bcaucaire, Glands globose; flowers small; 
 fruit very large, roundish, with a protruding point ; suture 
 shallow, but distinctly marked; skin yellowish-green, 
 with a red cheek ; flesh pale greenish-yellow, red at the 
 stone, a Kttle coarse, but melting and delicious, full of 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 393 
 
 rich, vinous juice ; skin slips readily from the flesh with- 
 out the use of a knife. Ripens last of July. Free. 
 
 Oidmixon Cling, Glands globose ; flowers small ; fruit 
 large, roundish oval ; suture at the top ; skin yellowish- 
 white, dotted with red, cheek red ; flesh light, melting, 
 juicy, and rich, with a high, luscious flavor. Ripens last 
 of July, and early in August. 
 
 Late Red Rareripe. Glands globose ; flowers small ; 
 fruit large, roundish oval; skin downy; color grayish- 
 white, marbled with red in the sun ; flesh pale, juicy, 
 melting, and of a rich, luscious flavor. Ripens last of 
 July. 
 
 Late Admirable. Glands globose ; flowers small ; fruit 
 large, roundish oval ; suture distinct ; apex swollen, acute ; 
 skin pale yellowish-green, with a pale red cheek, marbled 
 with . dark red ; flesh pale, melting, and fine flavored. 
 Ripens August 10th to 15th. Free. A superb peach. 
 
 Crawford's Late. Glands globose ; flowers small ; 
 very large, roundish; suture shallow, but distinct; skin 
 yellow, with dark red cheek ; flesh deep yellow, red at the 
 stone, juicy, and melting, with rich, vinous flavor. Ripens 
 early in August. Free. 
 
 Newington Cling. Leaves serrate : flowers large ; fruit 
 large, roundish ; suture slight ; skin pale yellowish-white, 
 with a fine red cheek ; flesh pale yellowish-white, deep 
 red at the stone ; melting, juicy, and rich. Ripens 
 August 10th. 
 
 Lemon Cling, Glands reniform; flowers small; leaves 
 long ; fruit large, oblong, narrowed at the top, with a 
 swollen, projecting point ; skin dark yellow, reddened in 
 the sun ; flesh fine yellow, red at the stone, flavor rich 
 and vinous. Ripens August 10th. 
 
 President Glands globose ; large, roundish oval ; su- 
 ture shallow; skin downy, pale yellowish-green, with a 
 dull red cheek ; flesh pale, but deep red at the stone, very 
 17* 
 
394 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 v 
 
 juicy, melting, and high flavored; stone very rough. 
 Ripens August 15th. Free. 
 
 Blanton Cling 1 . Leaves large - glands reniform ; fruit 
 large, and shaped like Lemon Cling, with the same pro- 
 jecting point; color rich orange, with a slightly reddened 
 cheek; flesh orange yellow, firm, but full of delicious 
 vinous juice. Later and better than Lemon Cling. 
 Reproduces itself from seed. Ripens August 10th. 
 
 Tippacanoc* Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit 
 very large, nearly round, with a point ; skin yellow, with 
 a fine red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, with a fine vinous 
 flavor. Ripens August 20th. Cling. 
 
 Van Buren's Golden Dwarf. Glands reniform ; flowers 
 small ; fruit large, nearly round, with a swollen point ; 
 suture deep ; skin yellow, beautifully dotted and marbled 
 with carmine ; flesh yellow, firm, with plenty of juice, 
 vinous ; leaves large and close, dark rich green. Tree a 
 dwarf, growing to the height of 2 or 3 feet. A fine fruit, 
 and very distinct from the Italian dwarf, which is a white 
 freestone, and of very poor quality. Ripens August 15th. 
 A very ornamental variety. Cling. 
 
 Chinese Cling. Leaves large and very dark green ; fruit 
 very large, sometimes weighing one pound ; color creamy 
 yellow, with a pale red cheek in the sun; flesh pale yel- 
 low, coarse, but of good vinous flavor, juicy enough, but 
 has a little too much prussic acid flavor. Tree a very 
 vigorous grower ; flowers large. Ripens August 10th. 
 
 White English Cling. Glands globose ; flowers small ; 
 fruit very large, oval ; suture slight, with a swollen point ; 
 flkin clear, creamy white, with a slight hue of red in the 
 sun ; flesh white, free from red at the stone, to which it 
 firmly adheres ; very rich, juicy, and high flavored ; as it 
 is free from color, one of the best for preserving in brandy 
 or sugar. Ripens August 20th. 
 
FEU ITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 395 
 
 i Leaves with globose glands; fruit medium, 
 roundish, terminated with a small point; suture slight; 
 skin pale yellow, nearly white, with a slight blush toward 
 the sun; flesh pale yellow, melting, and juicy, with a 
 sweet, pleasant flavor. Free. Ripens October 1st. 
 
 Baldwin's Late* Fruit large and round, with a swollen 
 point; skin greenish- white, with a pale red cheek; flesh 
 firm, juicy, and melting, and good flavored. Ripe October 
 20th, and will keep for several weeks hi the house. Free. 
 
 Pride Of Autumn*' Glands reniform; flowers large; 
 fruit medium size, oval ; skin white, with a red cheek ; 
 flesh white and firm ; flavor vinous, juicy. A fair Octo- 
 ber Cling. 
 
 Eaton's Golden (ling, A premium peach from N". 
 Carolina ; flowers large ; fruit large, and resembles Craw- 
 ford's Late in appearance ; color bright yellow, marbled 
 with bright red, dark on the sunny side. The best late 
 Cling we have yet seen. Ripens October 10th. 
 
 PEAR. (Pyi'us communis.) 
 
 The pear is often found growing wild in hedges in vari- 
 ous parts of Europe, China, and Western Asia. It is a 
 thorny tree, with upright branches, tending to the pyram- 
 idal form. The wild fruit is exceedingly harsh and 
 astringent ; but no fruit whatever is more delicious, 
 sugary, and melting, than its best improved varieties. 
 The pear was early brought into cultivation ; there were 
 thirty-two varieties in Pliny's time, yet they were " but a 
 heavy fruit, unless boiled or baked," and it was not before 
 the seventeenth century that it became really worthy of 
 culture for the dessert. Indeed, the majority of the best 
 varieties have originated within the last fifty years. The 
 
396 . GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 pear, under favorable circumstances, is a long-lived tree. 
 The Endicott pear tree, still living in Danvers, Mass., was 
 planted by Gov. Endicott, in 1628, or eight years after 
 the landing of the Pilgrims. 
 
 M. Bosc mentions trees in Europe which are known to 
 be 400 years old. Even in this State, trees that were in 
 full bearing forty years ago are still healthy, vigorous, 
 and productive. It will endure, in suitable soils, greater 
 extremes of heat than the apple, succeeding well in lati- 
 tudes too warm for the latter fruit to flourish. It is better 
 adapted to southern climates than the apple, while in cold 
 climates it succeeds as well. 
 
 The pear is the most delicious of fruits for the dessert ; 
 and, in this latitude, by choosing proper varieties, we are 
 able to have them ten or eleven months of the year. The 
 finer kinds often sell in the cities for one or two dollars 
 per dozen. It is excellent for baking, preserves, and mar- 
 malade. It may be dried like the apple and peach, and, 
 with or without sugar, will keep for years. Perry is 
 made from the juice, as cider from the apple. The wood 
 is fine-grained and compact, and, dyed black, is used in 
 place of ebony. 
 
 Dessert pears should have a sugary, aromatic juice, and 
 a soft, melting, subliquid texture. Some few of a crisp, 
 firm, or breaking consistency, are very good. Pears for 
 stewing or baking should be large, firm-fleshed, and 
 moderately juicy. The harsh, austere kinds are thought 
 best for perry. 
 
 Gathering and Preserving the Fruit. Most varieties 
 of the pear are much better if picked from the tree before 
 fully ripe, and ripened in the house. Indeed, some few 
 kinds, like the Heathcote, Bartlett, and Van Assche will 
 r^pen well if gathered at any time after they are half 
 grown. When a few begin to turn yellow and ripen on 
 the tree, then gather the whole crop. 
 
 Many of the most delicious varieties, if allowed to 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 397 
 
 ripen on the tree, become dry, insipid, and only second 
 or third rate. They will also ripen more gradually, last 
 longer, and be less liable to loss or injury, if ripened in 
 the house. It is said, however, a few varieties do best to 
 ripen on the tree. When gathered, some few kinds ripen 
 more perfectly by exposing them to the light and air- 
 Most of them do best, however, in kegs or small boxes, or 
 on the shelves of a cool, dark fruit room, each one sepa- 
 rately enveloped in paper or loose cotton. This is not 
 necessary with the summer varieties. Pears, like apples, 
 must be gathered by hand, with the same precaution to 
 prevent bruises, or they will soon decay. Winter pears 
 should hang as long as may be upon the tree. A week or 
 two before their proper time to ripen, bring them from 
 the fruit room into a warm apartment; this will much 
 improve their flavor. 
 
 Propagation and Culture. Pears are propagated by 
 budding or grafting on seedling pear stocks or on certain 
 varieties of the quince. Pear suckers should never be 
 employed for this purpose, for they seldom have good 
 roots, and the trees are short-lived ; a great deal of prej- 
 udice exists against pear culture -from this cause. Seed- 
 lings raised from the thrifty-growing kinds that are found 
 about the country are much more healthy than those 
 raised from the improved varieties. 
 
 Sow the seed thickly in autumn, in drills eighteen inches 
 apart, or, better still, mix the seed with sifted sand in a 
 box, and place it out doors during winter, and sow in 
 the spring, when they begin to sprout, in good, rich 
 earth; the latter mode saves the seed from being 
 destroyed by ground mice. 
 
 Ashes are an excellent application to the seed bed j the 
 soil should be moist, as much of the value of the stocks 
 depends on vigorous and continued growth the first 
 season. Take up the stocks in November or December, 
 shorten the tap-root, and reset them in rows four feet 
 
398 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 apart, putting those together which are of about the same 
 size. The best of them, if in a good, rich soil, will be fit 
 to bud during the next summer, and nearly all the balance 
 can be whip-grafted the ensuing spring. 
 
 Many kinds of pears grow well on the quince, and come 
 some years earlier into bearing. We have found the 
 common quince to be equally as good as the Angers, when 
 worked side by side with them. The fruit produced from 
 trees worked on the quince is usually larger and better 
 flavored than on the pear, and the trees can be set much 
 nearer together. They come into bearing in two or three 
 years, but are not as long-lived as when worked on the 
 pear stock. In planting the trees, on pear stocks, they 
 should be set twenty feet apart; but as these will be 
 several years before they come into bearing, the spaces 
 should be filled up with dwarf trees, growing on the 
 quince stock, so as to have them, when planted, ten feet 
 apart. Thus a plantation of sixteen trees, set in a square, 
 on the pear stock, would require thirty-three on the quince 
 to fill the intervals making a square of seven trees on a 
 side. This will prevent the attacks of the quince borer, 
 and add to the longevity of the tree. 
 
 The soil must be kept clean and well tilled ; but it 
 should not be deeply spaded within two feet of the trunks 
 of the trees. No fruit tree will be healthy or bear well 
 if the ground is deeply spaded near its stem. The pear 
 likes a deep, strong loam, similar to that required by the 
 apple. Iron is beneficial ; hence the pear succeeds well in 
 our red clay loam, if deeply dug and sufficiently manured. 
 For pears on the quince stock, the soil should be deep and 
 cool. From the analysis of the wood and bark of the 
 pear tree, it is apparent that wood ashes and superphos- 
 phate of lime cannot but be very beneficial to the growth 
 and fruitfulness of the pear. 
 
 In pruning the pear, the object is to make it throw out 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 399 
 
 branches within a foot of the ground, and to encourage 
 its growth in its natural pyramidal shape. 
 
 Not much priming is required the first year ; "but any 
 shoot tli at, by over-growth, threatens to destroy the 
 beauty of the tree should be pinched in at once. When 
 the tree is transplanted, if it has been out of the ground for 
 any length of time it must be severely shortened in. If 
 the tree has good roots, the top will soon be renewed. 
 Severe pruning at this time is the only way to make the 
 tree branch out near the ground, so as to shade the trunk 
 and give a fine pyramidal shape. To secure this, plant 
 maiden trees, or those one year old from the bud. When 
 they have grown one year, cut back the branches in 
 the winter; pinch in any shoots, during the summer, 
 that would mar the symmetry of the tree, or remove them 
 entirely, if superfluous. 
 
 Head back the leader each year, to strengthen the side 
 branches. The leader must be shortened more or less, 
 according to its vigor. A little practice will enable any 
 one of ordinary judgment to form his trees in the desired 
 shape. Do not let the branches remain so close together 
 that, when they come to bear, they will cause the fruit and 
 foliage in the interior to suffer from want of air ; keep the 
 lower shoots the longest by pinching those above, when 
 disposed to overgrow them. This makes a beautiful tree, 
 ornamental even for a flower garden. 
 
 The great obstacle in pear culture is the blight, a 
 disease whose virulence is almost peculiar to this fruit 
 tree. The causes are not well known ; some attribute 
 it to insects, others to electrical causes, and others to 
 atmospheric causes, and yet others to late and immature 
 growth of wood, which is frozen the subsequent winter. 
 
 Yet, notwithstanding all these theories and proposed 
 remedies, the blight goes on from year to year with un- 
 abated violence. 
 
 With us, the past three years have been particularly 
 
400 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 disastrous, for, out of some two hundred and fifty trees, 
 not more than twenty have escaped the pestilence. The 
 frozen sap theory has been a very plausible and favorite 
 one with Northern pomologists, but is not the correct one, 
 for the reason that the sap never freezes here in our warm 
 climate. 
 
 There is but one remedy for the disease that we have 
 ever had any success with, and that is the free use of 
 the saw and knife. Cut off the diseased limb, or trunk, a 
 foot below the lowest affected spot, and you may some- 
 times save the life of the tree, but not always. 
 
 Whenever the leaves begin to wither, or the tree ceases 
 growing, at once examine the trunk and larger limbs for 
 the gangrened spot, which is sure to be on one or both ; 
 when you have once discovered the diseased spot, don't hesi- 
 tate, but amputate it at once ; it will result in the death 
 of the tree if you let it go on, and it can do no more if 
 you kill it by a surgical operation. 
 
 We have thus far found no difference in good, bad, and 
 indifferent cultivation. In our vegetable garden, where the 
 soil is rich and well cultivated, we have lost by blight, 
 within the last three years, at least three-fourths of our 
 trees, and in our orchard, in sod, and in moderate cultiva- 
 tion, about the same proportion. Dwarfs and standard 
 trees have fared alike. 
 
 Query. Have we not poisoned the whole race of pears 
 by working it on the quince stock? For this tree is subject 
 to the Bame disease, and when it attacks it, it usually 
 dies. If so, how are we to get out of the scrape? 
 Sowing seeds and raising new ones will not help us ; for 
 the seeds themselves are impregnated with the virus, which 
 will, sooner or later, manifest itself. The only remedy 
 will be to go back to such trees as the Endicott, Dix, 
 and Seckel ; sow the seeds from these, and get a new, 
 pure, and unadulterated race to begin with, and keep them 
 clear from the quince stock. 
 
FRUITS. - VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 401 
 
 A greater number of varieties of the pear are in cultiva- 
 tion than of any other fruit. Of those that have fruited 
 here, the following are the most desirable. The varieties 
 do not always observe with us the order as laid down in 
 the books : 
 
 Joaanet. The earliest pear with us, ripening in May ; 
 but it is small, and of indifferent quality, though it bears 
 well, and is desirable to fill out the season. 
 
 Madeleine comes next in succession ; fruit medium, obo- 
 vate, tapering to the stem, which is long and slender, set 
 on the side of a small swelling ; skin smooth, yellowish- 
 green ; calyx small, in a shallow basin ; flesh white, melt- 
 ing, juicy, sweet, and perfumed. Ripe from the 1st to 
 the 15th of June. 
 
 Abercromby, A seedling from Alabama ; size medium 
 
 to large ; ovate in form ; 
 greenish-gray color, with 
 a blush cheek; flesh 
 white, juicy, and rich; 
 stem short and fleshy ; 
 the best large early pear 
 we have. Ripens June 
 10th. Tree a poor 
 grower. 
 
 Doyenne d'Ettf. 
 
 Fruit small, roundish, 
 slightly turbinate; skin 
 smooth, light yellow, 
 shaded with bright red, 
 sprinkled with small 
 gray or russet dots ; 
 stalk rather short, thick, 
 
 ? esh / 7* ere . inserted 
 
 m the fruit, m a very 
 slight depression ; calyx small, partly closed in a shallow, 
 
402 
 
 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 slightly corrugated basin; flesh white, melting, juicy, and 
 sweet. The best very early pear; ripens with, and supe- 
 
 Fig. 100. BEURRE BOSC. 
 
 rior to, the Madeleine ; in Georgia early in June, in New 
 York last of July. Tree vigorous ; an early and profuse 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 403 
 
 bearer; leaves long, oval, pointed, and dark green; seeds 
 dark. 
 
 Beurre BOSC. Fruit large, pyriform, somewhat uneven, 
 tapering gradually to the stalk ; skin smooth, dark yel- 
 low, nearly covered with rich cinnamon russet ; stalk varies 
 sometimes, being large and fleshy, as in the figure, or long, 
 rather slender, and curved ; flesh white, melting, buttery, 
 abounding in rich, sugary, and delicious juice, slightly per- 
 fumed. Ripens, Georgia, in September and into October; 
 New York, October and November. Tree healthy and 
 productive. 
 
 Louise Bonne dc Jersey, Fruit large, oblong, pyri- 
 form ; skin smooth, 
 glossy, pale green in the 
 shade, brownish-red in 
 the sun, sprinkled thick- 
 ly with minute dots; 
 stalk about an inch long, 
 obliquely inserted with- 
 out depression or with a 
 fleshy base ; calyx small, 
 open, with rather long 
 segments, in a shallow, 
 uneven basin ; flesh 
 greenish - white, very 
 juicy and melting, 
 and excellent. Ripens, 
 Georgia, August 10th, 
 and through the month ; 
 New York, September 
 and October. The tree 
 is an upright, vigorous grower, forming a fine pyramid. 
 The fruit is much better on the quince than on the pear. 
 
 Dearborn's Seedling, Tree vigorous, with long, dark 
 brown shoots, fruitful and healthy ; fruit small, turbinate, 
 regular ; skin very smooth, clear light yellow, sprinkled 
 
 101. DEARBORN'S SEEDLING. 
 
404 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 with minute dots ; stalk an inch or more long, sometimes 
 erect, inserted in a slight depression, but in my specimens 
 generally as in the figure ; calyx with spreading segments, 
 in a shallow basin; flesh white, fine grained, juicy, and 
 melting, sweet and sprightly, not rich. Ripens in Georgia, 
 early in July ; in New York, middle of August ; valuable. 
 BloodgOOd, Fruit medium, turbinate, (at the South 
 
 often oblate,) generally 
 thickening abruptly to 
 the stalk ; skin yellow, 
 considerably russeted in 
 dots and net - work 
 patches ; calyx large, 
 open, in a slight depres- 
 sion ; stalk obliquely in- 
 serted, about an inch 
 long, dark brown, fleshy 
 at its base ; flesh yellow- 
 ish-white, buttery, with 
 a rich musky aroma, 
 melting and sweet ; core 
 small. Georgia, last of 
 June ; New York, last of 
 July. Generally larger 
 than in the figure. 
 
 Manning's Elizabeth. 
 Growth of tree moder- 
 ate ; shoots reddish, dotted with brown ; fruit rather small, 
 regular oblate inclining to obovate, or Doyenne-shaped ; 
 skin smooth, bright yellow, dotted with russet, with a 
 bright red cheek ; stalk scarcely an inch long, often a lit- 
 tle fleshy at its base, inserted in a shallow, regular cavity ; 
 calyx open, in a broad, shallow basin ; flesh white, juicy, 
 melting, with a sprightly saccharine flavor. Ripens, 
 Georgia, July 10th ; New York, middle and last of Au- 
 gust. The best pear of its season ; productive. 
 
 Fig. 103. BLOODGOOD. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE* 405 
 
 Bartlctt* Fruit large, irregular, knobby, obtuse-pyri- 
 form, often much more oblong than in the figure ; skin 
 very thin, smooth, clear light yellow, with a slight blush 
 in the sun, sprinkled with minute russet dots and with 
 
 Fig. 103. BARTLETT. 
 
 faint russet markings towards the stem ; stnlk about an 
 inch long, stout, in a shallow cavity; calyx small, partly 
 open, in a very shallow, slightly plaited basin ; flesh white, 
 exceedingly fine-grained, melting, full of agreeable, vinous 
 juice. Ripens, Georgia, through August; New York, 
 
406 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 September. Specimens that fall before they are fully 
 grown, ripen nicely in the house. Sometimes too acid, 
 but one of the most desirable sorts. Origin, England, 
 1770. Tree quite fruitful, and bears young. 
 
 Henry the Fourth. Fruit varies from the size figured 
 to small, roundish pyriform, irregular, skin pale greenish- 
 
 Fig. 104. HENRY THE FOURTH. 
 
 yellow, clouded with darker green, and dotted with gray 
 specks ; stalk about an inch long, twisted obliquely, plant- 
 ed on an irregular prominence, or under a swollen lip ; 
 calyx small, closed ; basin shallow and abrupt ; flesh white, 
 exceedingly juicy and melting, with a pleasant perfumed 
 flavor ; a dull fruit externally, but a nice dessert pear, 
 bearing abundantly, and continues several weeks to ripen 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 407 
 
 successively. Ripens, Georgia, from the 20th of July in- 
 to September ; New York, September. 
 
 Brandywme, Fruit above medium, varying from ob- 
 late-cTepressed-pyriform to elongated pyriform ; skin yel- 
 lowish-green, dotted 
 and sprinkled with 
 russet, with a bright 
 red cheek ; stalk 
 fleshy where it joins 
 the fruit ; calyx 
 open ; basin shallow ; 
 flesh white, juicy, 
 melting, sugary, and 
 somewhat aromatic. 
 Georgia, ripe the 
 middle of July ; 
 New York, the last 
 of August. Growth 
 vigorous and up- 
 right ; leaves small, 
 deep glossy green; 
 productive. 
 
 Doyenne, White. 
 
 The White Doy- 
 
 105. BRANDT WINE. enne, or Virgalieu, 
 
 is one of the most esteemed pears. Fruit medium to large 
 size, generally larger than the figure, varying from obo- 
 vate-pyriform to oblate ; skin clear pale yellow, regularly 
 sprinkled with small dots, with a fine red cheek ; stalk 
 from one-half an inch to over an inch long, generally a 
 little curved, and planted in a small, round cavity ; calyx 
 small, closed, in a shallow, generally smooth basin; flesh 
 white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, with a rich, delicious 
 flavor. Ripens, Georgia in August ; New York, Septem- 
 ber to December. 
 
408 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Selleck. Fruit varies from obovate to obtuse-pyriform, 
 somewhat ribbed ; skin fine, rich yellow, thickly dotted 
 and sprinkled with russet, full russet about the base of the 
 stalk ; stalk long and curved, fleshy at its insertion in a 
 moderate cavity ; calyx partly closed, in a small, uneven 
 
 Fig. 106. SELLECK. 
 
 basin; flesh white, firm, juicy and melting, sugary, with 
 a rich, aromatic flavor; keeps well without decay at the 
 core ; a very valuable sort. Ripens, in Georgia, 20th of 
 August ; New York, in September. 
 
 Van AsschCt Tree vigorous and fruitful, with reddish- 
 brown shoots and plump buds; fruit medium, or large, 
 turbinate, inclining to conical, in very large specimens ob- 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 400 
 
 late ; skin light yellow, with numerous russet and red dots, 
 with a bright red cheek ; stalk an inch long, rather stout, 
 obliquely planted in a slight depression; calyx partly 
 closed, in a broad, deep, and wrinkled basin ; flesh white, 
 
 Fig. 107. VAN ASSCHE. 
 
 fine-grained, juicy, with a delicate blending of sweet and 
 acid, and a rich, excellent flavor. Ripens, August in 
 Georgia ; October, in New York ; generally larger than 
 the engraving. 
 
 Nabours, Fruit medium to large, varying from oblate 
 to obovatc and obscure pyriform ; skin greenish, rough, 
 often with dull russet, and sprinkled with white dots; 
 stalk slender, long, curved a little, fleshy at the base, and 
 set in a slight depression ; calyx small, partly closed, set 
 in a deep, narrow basin : flesh whitish, melting, fine-grain- 
 18 
 
410 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 ed, buttery, abounding in sugary juice. Where suffered 
 to overbear, or hang too long upon the tree, it lacks flavor ; 
 otherwise good. From North Carolina, Tree healthy 
 and vigorous, with stout shoots ; very productive. 
 
 Duchesse d'AngOllltfme. Fruit very large, obovato, 
 varying from oblong to oblate, with a knobby, uneven 
 surface ; skin dull greenish-yellow, dotted and spotted with 
 
 russet; stalk about 
 an inch long, quite 
 stout, set with an in- 
 clination in a rather 
 deep cavity; calyx 
 closed, set in a 
 narrow, somewhat 
 knobby basin ; flesh 
 white, buttery, very 
 juicy, with a rich, 
 sugary flavor. Ex- 
 cellent for so large 
 a pear. Brings the 
 very highest prices 
 in market. Ripens, 
 Georgia, the latter 
 half of August into 
 September ; New 
 York, in October. 
 Fig. 108. SECKEL. From France. 
 
 Seckcl. Fruit small, generally obovate ; skin at first 
 brownish-green, at last becoming yellowish-brown, with a 
 bright red, russet cheek; stalk half to three-fourths of an 
 inch long, slightly curved, set in a slight depression ; calyx 
 small, open, in a very shallow basin ; flesh whitish, but- 
 tery, very fine-grained and melting, filled with rich, sugary, 
 aromatic juice. Ripens, Georgia, the last half of August 
 and into September ; New York, September and October. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 
 
 411 
 
 Tree of slow growth, but remarkably healthy and pro- 
 ductive. Origin, Philadelphia. This is by many consid- 
 ered, and perhaps justly, the very best variety of pear. 
 
 . 109. BEURRE CLAIRGEAU. 
 
 Bcurrc lairgeail. Fruit large, pyriform, with unequal 
 sides ; skin warm yellow, inclining to fawn, thickly sprink- 
 led with large, yellow dots, with russet tracings and spots, 
 
412 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 shaded with orange and crimson ; stalk short and stout, 
 often fleshy, and inserted by a lip at an inclination, or in 
 an uneven cavity ; calyx open, with stiff segments ; flesh 
 yellowish, buttery, very melting and juicy, with a sugary, 
 vinous flavor. Ripens, Georgia, September to October 
 10th ; New York, October to January. A beautiful fruit, 
 often so much larger and broader than the cut, that it 
 could not be figured on this page. Tree vigorous, and an 
 early and profuse bearer. 
 
 Compte de Flandre. Fruit large, pyriform ; skin yel- 
 lowish, dotted and marked with russet, particularly about 
 the stalk ; stalk long, inclined in a shallow, plaited, russet- 
 ed cavity ; calyx open, set in a shallow basin ; flesh whit- 
 ish, buttery, juicy, a little coarse or granular, rich, but some- 
 what astringent near the skin. Ripens, Georgia, the mid- 
 dle of September and lasts into October ; New York, No- 
 vember. This pear considerably resembles Passe Colmar, 
 which it excels in size and flavor. 
 
 Belle Lucrative. Fruit medium, obovate to obscure 
 pyriform ; skin pale yellowish-green, with dots and traces 
 of russet ; stem varying from- short, stout, and fleshy, to 
 more than an inch long, often obliquely inserted in a slight 
 cavity ; calyx open, in a medium basin ; flesh fine-grained, 
 melting, full of rich, sugary, and delicious juice. Ripens, 
 Georgia, in August ; New York, last of September. A 
 Flemish variety. Tree of moderate growth, very fruitful, 
 and bears young ; one of the very best. 
 
 St. Michael Archangel. Fruit above medium size, 
 obovate-pyriform ; skin smooth, shining, greenish-yel- 
 low, sprinkled with russet dots ; stalk an inch long, in 
 clined, fleshy at its insertion, and surrounded by russet 
 calyx small and closed; basin small and uneven; flesh 
 yellowish-white, tender and melting, abundant in sugary 
 juice, with an agreeable perfume; an excellent fruit. 
 Tree healthy, vigorous, and fruitful. Ripe, Georgia, last 
 of August ; New York, October. 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 413 
 
 Catherine Gardcttf. Fruit roundish-obovate, some- 
 times obscure pyriform; skin light yellow, with russet 
 dots and markings, with carmine dots to the sun ; stalk 
 an inch long, curved, a little fleshy at its base, inserted in 
 a slight, generally russeted, depression ; calyx small, in a 
 
 Fig. 110. STERLING. 
 
 narrow basin ; flesh fine, buttery, melting, sweet, and with 
 a delicate perfume. Ripens, Georgia, early in October. 
 
 Sterling". Fruit medium, and varying from oblate to 
 obovate, or obscure pyriform ; skin yellow, with a few 
 russet patches, and a mottled crimson cheek ; stalk medi- 
 um, inserted in a slightly plaited cavity; calyx small, 
 open, in a medium basin ; flesh somewhat coarse, juicy, 
 melting, with a sugary, brisk flavor. Ripens, Georgia, 
 
414 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 July 15th; New York, the last of August. Keeps a long 
 time after gathering, and is an excellent fruit to send to a 
 distant market. Very desirable. Tree vigorous and up- 
 right, with yellowish-brown wood. An early and pro- 
 ductive bearer. 
 
 Beurre Richelieu. Fruit large, pyriform, sometimes 
 truncate ; skin greenish, changing to yellow, with russet 
 dots and markings ; stalk short, fleshy at the base, inserted 
 by a lip and inclined, in a broad depression ; calyx small, 
 closed, in a furrowed basin ; flesh buttery, melting, juicy, 
 with a fine, sweet, aromatic flavor. Georgia, October; 
 New York, December. Tree vigorous and productive. 
 
 PaSSC ( olmar, Fruit large, varying from obovate to 
 obtuse-pyriform ; skin rather thick, yellowish-green, turn- 
 ing yellow when mature, a good deal russeted about the 
 eye and at the base of the stalk ; ' stalk rather long, often 
 fleshy at its base, inserted in an uneven cavity; calyx 
 open, in a slight, regular basin; flesh yellowish, fine, 
 melting, and juicy, with a sweet, rich, aromatic flavor. A 
 rapid grower and profuse bearer, but if the fruit is not 
 well thinned, it will be small and astringent. Georgia, 
 October and November ; New York, December. 
 
 GlOUt Morcean. Fruit large, varying in form from 
 obovate to obtuse-pyriform, and often depressed some- 
 what ; skin pale greenish-yellow, marked with small dots, 
 russeted about the stem, with a brownish cheek on the 
 more exposed fruits ; stem long, slender, in a slight cavity ; 
 calyx mostly open, in a rather deep basin ; flesh white, 
 fine-grained, very melting, juicy, sugary, and perfumed. 
 A fine, pyramidal, healthy grower, and quite fruitful. 
 Georgia, October and November ; New York, December. 
 
 Josephine de M alines, Fruit medium, truncate, ob- 
 conic ; skin yellowish, somewhat russeted, especially about 
 the base and crown, and sprinkled with russet dots ; stalk 
 long, stout, curved, inserted in a moderate, russet-lined 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 415 
 
 cavity ; calyx small, open, with caducous segments, in a 
 slight basin; flesh greenish- white, buttery, very juicy, 
 sugary, melting, and perfumed. An excellent keeper. 
 Georgia, October to January, and has been kept until 
 
 Fig. 111. SOLDAT LABOUREUB. 
 
 March ; New York, November, and through the winter. 
 Tree productive and vigorous. 
 
 Soldat Labourcur. Tree vigorous, with upright, chest- 
 nut-colored wood, and succeeds well on the quince. Fruit 
 rather large, oblique-pyriform, largest toward the centre ; 
 skin smooth, pale yellow when ripe, shaded with thin 
 greenish-russet; stalk rather stout, about an inch long, 
 
416 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH. 
 
 curved, inserted in a small, abrupt, russet-lined cavity ; 
 calyx open, scarcely sunk in a slight basin ; flesh yellow- 
 ish, a little granular, melting, juicy, sugary, rich, and per- 
 fumed. One of the very finest, ripening a little later than 
 the Columbia. Georgia, the middle of September ; New 
 York, October and November. 
 
 Belle Epine Dumas. Fruit medium or large, long-pyri- 
 fonn ; skin green, becoming greenish-yellow as it ripens, 
 with small brown dots, and at the South is generally 
 somewhat marked with russet about the base and stem ; 
 stalk long, rather stout, curved a little, swollen at the 
 base, inserted in a slight depression ; calyx small, partly 
 closed, in a shallow, regular basin ; flesh white, fine, melt- 
 ing, juicy, rich, sugary, and perfumed ; core medium, 
 with large, long, pointed seeds. Georgia, October ; New 
 York, November and December. 
 
 Parsonage, Fruit medium or large, obovatc, inclining 
 to obtuse-pyriform ; skin warm yellow, rough, often shad- 
 ed with dull crimson, netted and thickly dotted with rus- 
 set; stalk short, stout, curved, fleshy at its insertion; 
 calyx open, with short, stiff segments, in a russeted, shal- 
 low basin ; flesh white, somewhat coarse, granular, sugary, 
 and refreshing. In Georgia it has kept until November. 
 Tree fruitful and healthy. 
 
 BeiHTtf Gris d'Hiver NOTCau, Fruit medium to large, 
 obovate-truncate, obscurely pyriform ; skin pale yellow, 
 mostly overspread with golden russet, with a crimson 
 cheek ; stalk stout, inclined and curved, inserted by a lip, 
 or in a slight wrinkled depression ; calyx open, in a mod- 
 erate basin ; flesh somewhat granular, buttery, melting, 
 abundant in rich, sugary juice, with a peculiar aroma. 
 Georgia, October ; New York, November to February. 
 
 Doyenne d' Alcneon* Fruit medium, varying from 
 roundish oval to obovate or pyriform ; skin rough yellow, 
 shaded with dull crimson, dotted thickly and sprinkled 
 
FIIUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTUIIE. 
 
 417 
 
 with russet; stalk rather short, stout, in a medium cavity ; 
 calyx small, mostly closed ; flesh somewhat granular, but- 
 tery, juicy, sugary, rich, sprightly, and perfumed. Georgia, 
 November to January ; New York, December to March. 
 
 Fig. 112. COLUMDIA. 
 
 Columbia* Fruit large, oblong-obovate, or pyriform, 
 often simply obovate, broadest in the middle; skin 
 smooth, pale green, turning yellowish when ripe, with a 
 soft brown cheek, dotted with russet, with a little russet 
 also about the stalk and calyx ; stalk about an inch long, 
 18* 
 
418 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 rather stout, slightly curved ; calyx small, partly closed, 
 in a shallow basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, melting, and 
 abundant in rich, sugary juice. Ripens, in Georgia, from 
 the 15th of August to the last of September, and is not 
 
 113. ST. GEBMAIN. 
 
 excelled by any other pear ; in New York, November, 
 and is said to be variable there, but generally fine. 
 
 St. Germain. Fruit large, irregular^- oval-pyriform, 
 tapering to the eye and stalk ; skin yellowish-green, a good 
 deal covered with russet, with a brown cheek ; stem stout, 
 swollen at its insertion, generally planted obliquely by the 
 side of a small, fleshy swelling ; calyx small, open, in a 
 very shallow basin ; flesh yellowish-white, a little gritty, 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 419 
 
 melting, juicy, rich, and sugary. Georgia, October and 
 November; New York, November and December. This 
 is one of the most desirable pears grown at the South. 
 Tree healthy and productive, and the smallest fruits always 
 of excellent flavor. 
 
 Winter Nelis. Fruit medium to small, varying from 
 oblate to roundish 
 obovate ; skin yel- 
 lowish - green, but 
 generally a good 
 deal covered with 
 russet; stalk an inch 
 long, curved, and 
 planted in a narrow 
 cavity ; calyx open, 
 in a shallow basin, 
 with stiff, short seg- 
 ments ; flesh pale 
 yellowish- white, fine- j 
 grained, buttery and 
 melting, abounding 
 in rich, sugary, aro- 
 matic juice. Ripens, 
 Georgia, in October ; 
 New York, Dec. Fig. 114. WINTER NELIS. 
 
 Lawrence. Fruit large, obovate, obscurely pyriform; 
 stalk rather short, inclined, inserted by a lip or in a slight, 
 regular depression; cavity generally partly closed,in a broad 
 shallow basin ; skin fine lemon yellow, uneven, sprinkled 
 thickly with small dots ; flesh white, a little granular, but- 
 tery, with a very rich, sugary, aromatic flavor. Georgia, 
 September 20th to October 20th ; New York, November 
 to January. Tree of moderate growth, very healthy ; an 
 early and abundant bearer. Far the most desirable pear 
 of its season. 
 
420 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Easter Beurrtf, Fruit large, obovatc or obtuse-pyri- 
 form; skin yellowish-green, sprinkled with large russet 
 dots, and marbled somewhat with greenish-russet ; stalk 
 rather stout, in abrupt cavity ; calyx usually small, closed, 
 in a plaited basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, juicy, 
 
 Fig. 115. EASTER BETJRBE. 
 
 and sweet. Georgia, November to March ; New York, 
 January to May. Succeeds best on quince. 
 
 Jamincttc* Fruit large, varying in form from obovate, 
 narrowing to the stalk, to oblate ; skin green, turning to 
 pale yellowish-green when ripe, dotted with brown, and 
 marked with russet ; stalk rather short, obliquely planted 
 in a slight depression, (in obovate specimens without de- 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AIO> CULTURE. 421 
 
 pression,) and surrounded with russet; calyx small, open, 
 in a slight basin ; flesh white, a little gritty at the core, 
 juicy, buttery, and sweet. A good fruit, but must be 
 eaten as it begins to soften, or will be found decayed at 
 the core. Georgid, October. 
 
 PLUM. (Prunus Domestica.) 
 
 The plum tree is probably a native of Asia, whence it 
 was early introduced into European gardens. The tree 
 grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is conspicuous 
 early in spring for its white blossoms. 
 
 London asserts that it is probable the natural color of 
 the fruit is black; but the cultivated varieties are of 
 various shades of green, yellow, red, and blue. It is a 
 delicious dessert fruit, in its best varieties, and is very 
 much esteemed for pies, tarts, and preserves. 
 
 It is also dried for winter use. The prune, or dried 
 plum, enters considerably into commerce. When fully 
 ripe, plums are, in moderate quantity, very nutritious and 
 wholesome, but in an unripe state are more apt to dis- 
 agree with the stomach than most other fruits. 
 
 Prunes are dried by artificial heat. They are laid 
 singly, without touching each other, on plates, which are 
 placed in ovens, after the bread is removed, or in kilns 
 prepared for the purpose, and occasionally moved and 
 turned. In order to have them fair and glossy, they must 
 be suddenly cooled when taken from the oven. They 
 should be dried carefully and gradually. They are excel- 
 lent when dried with sugar, as directed for peaches. 
 From the analysis of the stones, bark, leaves, and wood, 
 it is evident that common salt is one of the most essential 
 manures to apply to the soil in which the plum is culti- 
 
422 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 vated. Burnt clay, swamp muck, common salt, and wood 
 ashes, are amon<* the best fertilizers. 
 
 Propagation and Culture. The plum is generally bud- 
 ded or grafted upon stocks raised from the seed of some 
 free-growing variety. The Chickasaw plum, however, 
 makes a very good stock; it should be grafted at the 
 collar, and transplanted so deep that the scions can throw 
 out roots. This stock makes very pretty dwarf trees for 
 the garden. By this mode, the tree can be propagated 
 at any time during the winter months. 
 
 Stone fruits require to be grafted early in the season. 
 In transplanting where they are to remain they should be 
 twelve feet apart. The best soil for the plum is a heavy 
 clay loam, moderately rich. The fruit is better in a clay 
 soil than in a sandy one, and when planted in a sandy soil, 
 clay should be added. There are three obstacles to be 
 overcome in raising the plum successfully. The first and 
 greatest is the curculio, which infests all the smooth- 
 skinned stone fruits. 
 
 The Cnrcnlio, or Plum Weevil, ( Conotrachelus 
 pharj) is a short, thick, rough beetle, of a dark brown or 
 blackish color, varied with spots of "white and yellow ; 
 with a long snout hanging down in front like an elephant's 
 trunk. It makes a small, crescent-like incision upon the 
 side of the plum and cherry, just after they are set, in 
 which it drops an egg. From this is hatched a small, white, 
 footless worm, which bores into the fruit, causing it to 
 drop prematurely from the tree. The worm enters the 
 ground, and in three or four weeks comes out, and the 
 successive broods attack the plum, apricot, cherry, nec- 
 tarine, and peach, until the fruit ripens. Their incisions 
 have been found in the limbs of the pear tree. The beetle, 
 if discovered, feigns death, and can hardly be distinguished 
 from the dried flower buds by careless observers. The 
 instinct of the curculio leads it to avoid puncturing frui 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 423 
 
 
 
 that hangs over a beaten path, a hard, paved surface, a 
 pond of water, or pigsty, where the larva would be unable 
 to enter the soil or would be destroyed by enemies. It is 
 not so destructive in clayey or hard soils. The remedy 
 that has hitherto proved most successful is to pave the 
 ground so that the grub cannot enter it to complete his 
 transformation. Picking or sweeping up the fruit as fast 
 as it drops, and boiling it for pigs, before the worm can 
 
 enter the earth, has also 
 been found beneficial; 
 likewise jarring the tree 
 (by striking sharply 
 with a mallet on the 
 stump of a limb removed 
 for the purpose) as soon 
 as the fruit is the size of 
 a pea, and collecting the 
 insects on a white sheet 
 as they fall, and destroy- 
 ing them. As the in- 
 sects are torpid in the 
 morning, that is the best 
 time for the operation, 
 which should be kept 
 
 Fig. 116. CURCULIO MAGNIFIED. MI i 
 
 up until the iruit be- 
 
 begins to ripen. Plant all stone fruits in an enclosure by 
 themselves in* which pigs and poultry are admitted ; these 
 will collect the fruit as fast as it falls, and tread the ground 
 firmly together, so that it is not easy for the insects to 
 enter it. None of these methods will be fully effectual 
 if there are neglected trees near by from which the insect 
 may emigrate. The most reliable of them is jarring the 
 trees, and destroying the insects daily ; the next is giving 
 access to a large flock of ducks and chickens, which, 
 destroying the perfect insect, are a much more efficient 
 remedy than the pigs alone. It is, perhaps, fortunate to 
 
424 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 
 
 have the crop entirely cut off by frost, as often as every 
 third year, in order to check, for a time, the rapid increase 
 of this pest of the orchard. 
 
 Another serious difficulty is the rot ; to prevent this, 
 the varieties least subject should be selected and planted, 
 with the roots not too deep; and the fruit thinned, if very 
 abundant upon the tree. 
 
 The third obstacle to plum culture is, happily, not very 
 prevalent in the South. It is a black knot, or excrescence, 
 growing upon the bark and young wood. The bark swells 
 and bursts, and finally assumes the appearance of a 
 " large, irregular lump, with a hard, cracked, uneven sur- 
 face." The flow of sap is obstructed by this tumor, and 
 its poison is gradually disseminated over the whole tree. 
 The dark-colored fruits are most infected. The disease 
 also attacks the common Morello cherry. It appeared 
 here, for the first time, in the year 1853, on a tree from 
 the North. ISTone have appeared since that time. The 
 only remedy is to cut off every branch or twig that 
 shows a tumor, and burn it at once. As the plum throws 
 out long, straggling branches, which are unsightly and 
 unproductive, this should be remedied by shortening 
 in, as with the peach, so as to form a round, compact 
 head. Most stone fruits require to be shortened in, 
 more or less, or the growth becomes unsightly and the 
 tree short-lived. It is an excellent plan, where practicable, 
 to plant a tree or two near the door of the house and 
 kitchen, where there is considerable passing and repassing 
 and the ground becomes hard-trodden. Such trees are 
 less infested by the great enemy to stone fruit the cur- 
 culio which is quite a timid, as well as cunning, in sect. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 Chickasaw. (Prunus ChicJcasa.) A tree or two of 
 both red and yellow varieties of this, our indigenous 
 plum, should be admitted into the garden. The fruit is 
 
FRUITS. DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 425 
 
 much improved, both in size and flavor, by cultivation. 
 Some trees produce better fruit than others. Leaves 
 lanceolate, and more like the peach than the plum ; 
 branches thorny; fruit small; skin either light red or 
 yellow; flesh yellow, very juicy and sweet, but somewhat 
 astringent about the stone, to which it adheres. Ripe 
 here about the 20th of May ; lasts a month. Doubtless 
 many excellent varieties will be originated from this hardy 
 native fruit. Some are now found nearly free from astring- 
 ency. This plum appears to be free from curculio, and 
 never fails to ripen a crop. 
 
 Sea, or Early Purple, Ripens 8th of June, and is 
 here the earliest of plums ; fruit small, roundish ; skin 
 brownish-purple, with a slight bloom; flesh greenish- 
 yellow, sweet, juicy, and parts from the stone ; highly 
 perfumed. This nice little plum was, I believe, first 
 introduced here by some grafts received from Germany. 
 It does not rot. 
 
 Prince's Yellow Gage, Fruit medium size, broadest 
 toward the stalk ; suture slight ; skin golden yellow, 
 slightly clouded, and with copious white bloom ; stalk 
 an inch long, inserted in a small cavity; flesh deep 
 yellow, sweet, juicy, and fine flavored ; freestone ; tree 
 very productive ; fruit lasts a long time ; one of the best 
 for a long time in this climate. Ripe June 10th. 
 
 iiingham, Fruit large, oval ; skin deep yellow, spotted 
 with red toward the sun ; stalk in a small cavity ; flesh 
 yellow, juicy, rich, and delicious ; clingstone ; tree a fine 
 grower and good bearer. Ripens July 1st. 
 
 Columbia. Very large, roundish ; skin brownish-pur- 
 ple, with fawn-colored specks; bloom thick and blue; 
 stalk an inch long, stout, in a narrow cavity ; flesh orange, 
 not very juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent; freestone. 
 Ripe June 20th. A magnificent variety, of excellent 
 quality. Tree hardy and productive. 
 
426 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 Elfry, Branches small; fruit less than medium size, 
 oval; skin blue; flesh greenish, sweet, juicy, and excel- 
 lent ; freestone. In this climate, the Elfry is one of the 
 most desirable of plums. It generally escapes the cur- 
 culio and the rot, if properly thinned. Tree thrifty and 
 hardy. An indispensable variety. Ripe July 1st. 
 
 Jefferson. Fruit of the largest size, roundish oval; 
 stalk an inch long, pretty stout; suture distinct; skin 
 golden yellow, purplish-red on the sunny side, and thinly 
 covered with white bloom ; flesh deep orange, a little dry, 
 good ; not equal to the description in the books. As the 
 tree bears abundantly, and the fruit ripens late, hangs 
 long on the tree, and is entirely free from decay, it is 
 indispensable. The handsomest of all plums. Ripens 
 last of July and first of August. 
 
 Red Magnum Bonum, or Purple Egg. Large and 
 beautiful ; egg-shaped ; violet red, deeper in the sun, with 
 small gray dots ; flesh greenish, rather firm, juicy, and 
 agreeably sub-acid ; freestone. A fair plum for the table, 
 and makes the best of preserves. Ripens July 10th. 
 Not much subject to rot. 
 
 Washington* Tree vigorous; leaves large, broad, 
 glossy, and rumpled; wood light brown; fruit very 
 large, roundish oval ; suture shallow, except at the stalk ; 
 skin pale greenish-yellow, faintly marbled with green, 
 changing at maturity to darker yellow, with a bright 
 blush in the sun ; stalk short, in a shallow, wide cavity ; 
 flesh yellow, firm, sweet, and luscious ; stone pointed, and 
 separates freely. Ripens, Georgia, early in July; New 
 York, the latter half of August. This is one of the most 
 attractive and desirable varieties in all sections. 
 
 Harvest Gage* Fruit rather small, roundish oval, with 
 a slight suture ; skin pale yellowish-green, with a thin, 
 white bloom ; stalk short and slender, in a very slight 
 cavity; flesh pale greenish-yellow, juicy, sweet, and 
 
FRUITS. DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 427 
 
 excellent ; adheres to the stone. Ripens early in July in 
 Georgia, just before the Washington. 
 
 Rivers' Early Favorite. Fruit medium, or a little 
 below, roundish oval, with a shallow suture ; stalk very 
 short ; skin deep blackish- purple, sprinkled with russet 
 dots, and covered with a thin, blue bloom ; flesh greenish- 
 yellow, very juicy, sweet, of excellent flavor, separating 
 ireely from the small stone ; shoots slender, slightly 
 downy. Ripens, Georgia, June 15th to 30th ; New York, 
 August 1st. An excellent, early, dessert plum, follow- 
 ing immediately the Jaune Hative. Productive. 
 
 Duane's Purple. Branches downy ; fruit very large, 
 oblong, swollen on one side of the suture ; skin reddish- 
 purple in the sun, paler in the shade, dotted sparsely with 
 yellow specks, and covered with lilac bloom ; stalk slender, 
 of medium length, in a narrow cavity; flesh amber- 
 colored, juicy, sprightly, moderately sweet, adhering par- 
 tially to the stone. Ripe, Georgia, July 10th; New 
 York, August 10th, with the Washington. 
 
 Jaune Hat ire, Fruit small, roundish obovate, with 
 a suture, generally shallow on one side ; stalk short and 
 slender; skin pale yellow, with a thin, white bloom; 
 flesh yellow, juicy, of sweet, agreeable flavor ; freestone. 
 The earliest plum to ripen, which it does from the 1st to 
 the 20th of June ; branches slender and downy. Tree re- 
 sembles Ho well's Early. 
 
 Blue Plum. A native plum, generally raised from 
 suckers ; fruit medium size, roundish, scarcely oval ; 
 suture very obscure ; skin dark blue, with a light bloom ; 
 stalk half an inch long, inserted in a shallow cavity; 
 flesh yellowish-green, juicy, sweet, and refreshing; ad- 
 heres to the stone ; shoots smooth ; leaves rather small. 
 A very pleasant and agreeable plum, and the tree is a fine 
 bearer. Does not rot. 
 
428 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 QUINCE. (Cydonia vulgaris.) 
 
 The quince is a small, hardy tree, seldom growing over 
 twelve to fifteen feet in height ; thickly branched ; with 
 ovate leaves, whitish underneath, on short petioles ; the 
 flowers are white or pale pink color, and the fruit appears 
 on shoots of the same year's growth, varying in shape, 
 but having a resemblance to that of the apple or pear. It 
 is, when ripe, highly fragrant, and of a fine golden yellow 
 color, making the tree quite ornamental. Quinces are 
 seldom eaten raw, but for baking, stewing, preserving, 
 marmalades, or pies, along with apples, they are much es- 
 teemed. They are also dried for winter use, giving an 
 excellent flavor to dried apples and peaches. 
 
 For these purposes the quince has been long in cultivation, 
 having been in great esteem among the Greeks and Romans. 
 The mucilage from the seeds was formerly used in medi- 
 cine instead of gum-water. The quince is propagated 
 from seed, layers, slips or cuttings, and grows very readily 
 from the latter. Cuttings, if planted about the time the 
 buds commence swelling in the spring, rarely fail to grow. 
 Quinces usually reproduce themselves from seed, but oc- 
 casionally vary. Quince stocks are very much used for 
 budding the pear upon, for which the Angers quince is 
 preferred, although we have found the common or apple- 
 shaped equally good in every respect. The quince likes 
 a deep, moist soil and cool exposure, growing naturally 
 upon the banks of streams. It, however, grows to ad- 
 miration in any good, rich, friable soil, and no tree is more 
 benefited by manuring, especially with vegetable manure. 
 Salt is said to act beneficially if applied during winter. 
 If applied occasionally in small doses at a distance from 
 the trunk, the fruit will not drop ; plant the trees ten feet 
 apart. 
 
 The quince is subject to the blight, like the pear, and is 
 
FRUITS. DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 429 
 
 also attacked by the borer which infests the apple ; the 
 blighted portion must be cut off and burned, as with the 
 pear. The borer must be dug out. 
 
 The best fruit is obtained from those trained in the form 
 of a tree, but on account of the borer it is best to use the 
 bush form with three or four main stems, so if one is de- 
 stroyed there are others left to take its place. Thus trained, 
 the bush should be moderately pruned, or the fruit will be 
 inferior. If there is an over-crop, the fruit should be thin- 
 ned. The quince begins to bear when three or four years 
 transplanted. Varieties : 
 
 Apple or Orange-Shaped. This is the common variety, 
 with large, roundish fruit, with a short neck ; skin light 
 golden yellow ; flesh firm, but stews tender ; leaves oval ; 
 shoots slender. If the core be cut out and the hole filled 
 with sugar and baked, it forms a fine dessert dish. 
 
 Pear-shaped. Fruit large, pyriform, oblong, tapering 
 to the stalk ; skin yellow ; flesh of firmer texture than 
 when preserved, and not quite as good in flavor and color 
 as the former. Fruit ripens a fortnight later, and when 
 picked, keeps much longer; leaves oblong-ovate. Tree 
 of more vigorous growth, but does not bear so well. 
 
 Portugal. Fruit still more oblong, of lighter color, 
 milder flavored, and of better quality than the preceding 
 kinds; leaf larger and broader ; shoots stouter; ripens 
 between the other two ; a shy bearer, pretty good as a 
 stock for the pear. Tree larger than the other varieties. 
 
 Angers* A variety of the last, the strongest grower 
 of all the quinces, and much used for pear stocks. The 
 fruit is said to be larger and better than any other kind. 
 
 Chinese Quince, ( Cydonia Sinensis.) Leaves resemble 
 those of the common quince in form, but have a glossy 
 surface ; the flowers are rose-colored, with a delicate fra- 
 grance, similar to that of the violet. The fruit is very 
 large, oblong, and somewhat ribbed like a muskmelon; 
 
430 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 ekin golden yellow ; flesh hard and acrid, but is said to 
 make a desirable preserve. A very beautiful thrub when 
 in fruit. 
 
 THE RASPBERRY. 
 
 The raspberry is a low, deciduous shrub, of which sev- 
 eral species are common along the fences, both in Europe 
 and America. The large-fruited varieties most esteemed 
 in our gardens all originated from the long cultivated 
 JRubus Idceus, or Mount Ida Bramble, which appears first 
 to have been introduced into the gardens of the south of 
 Europe, from Mount Ida. It is now quite naturalized in 
 some parts of the country. Besides this we have growing 
 wild the common black and white raspberry, or Thimble- 
 berries, (Rubus occidentalis^ and the red raspberry, 
 (Rubus strigosus,) with very good fruit. 
 
 Uses. The raspberry is held in general estimation, not 
 only as one of the most refreshing and agreeable fruits for 
 the dessert, but it is employed generally for preserving, 
 jams, ices, sauces, tarts and jellies ; and on a larger scale 
 by confectioners for making syrups, and by distillers for 
 making brandy. Raspberry wine is made in the same way 
 as currant wine, and is considered the most fragrant of all 
 domestic wines. 
 
 Propagation. The raspberry is propagated by suckers 
 or by dividing the roots. The seeds are planted only when 
 new varieties are desired. 
 
 Soil and Culture. The best soil is a rich, deep loam, 
 rather moist than dry, provided it is not too much expos- 
 ed to our hot Southern sun. The raspberry succeeds best 
 at the South when planted on the north side of a fence or 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 431 
 
 building, but where it can have the morning sun ; planted 
 in the shade of trees it never does well. Give a good 
 manuring every spring with well-rotted stable manure, 
 and keep clear from grass and weeds with the hoe ; prune 
 out the old dead canes every spring. A fine late crop can 
 readily be obtained by cutting over the whole stool, in the 
 spring, to within a few inches of the ground. They will 
 then shoot up fresh wood, which conies into bearing in 
 August or September. 
 
 Varieties. The finest raspberries in general cultivation 
 for the dessert are the Red and White Antwerp, Fastolf, 
 Orange, Gushing, French, Franconia, and Philadelphia. 
 
 The common American Red is most esteemed for flavor- 
 ing liquors, or making brandy and cordials; and the 
 American Black is preferred by most persons for cooking. 
 
 The ever-bearing varieties are esteemed for prolonging 
 the season of this fruit. 
 
 Red Antwerp. This variety is also known as Old Red 
 Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red Antwerp, How- 
 land's Red Antwerp, Burley, etc. It is the common Red 
 Antwerp of England and America, and is quite distinct 
 from the North River variety, which is shorter in growth, 
 and has conical-shaped fruit. Canes strong and tall; 
 spines light red, rather numerous, and pretty strong ; fruit 
 large, nearly globular, color dark red, with large grains, 
 and covered with a thick bloom ; juicy, with a brisk vinous 
 flavor. 
 
 Yellow Antwerp. Large, nearly conical, pale yellow, 
 sweet and excellent; canes strong and vigorous, light 
 yellow, and spinous ; bears a long time, and does moder- 
 ately well at the South. 
 
 American Black, (JKubus occidental is.) Small, flatten- 
 ed, black or dark purple, with a whitish bloom ; later and 
 more acid than the preceding. This is the well-known 
 Thimble-berry ; succeeds well here. From its rich, acid 
 
432 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 flavor it is the best for cooking, as in tarts, pies, puddings, 
 etc. It is much improved by pruning and cultivation; 
 should be set at wider distances than the other varieties, 
 as it grows more rampant. The Ohio Ever-bearing is a 
 variety of this, but bears through the season. 
 
 American White. Similar to the preceding in all re- 
 spects, except the color of the fruit and canes, which are 
 both of a pale yellow and covered with a white bloom. 
 The White is a little sweeter than the Black, and ripens 
 some ten days earlier. Both varieties are propagated by 
 the tips of the canes, which droop upon the ground, and 
 then take root and form new plants or stools ; after these 
 have taken root the old cane dies. 
 
 American Red. A sort of mongrel between the Ant- 
 weip variety and the American Black. Fruit of medium 
 size, light red ; flavor not so acid as the American Black 
 or White, and more juicy than either of those varieties. 
 A vigorous grower, and succeeds well at the South ; canes 
 of a brownish-red color and with darker spines. 
 
 Fastolf. One of the most vigorous of the foreign va- 
 rieties, and does very well in Georgia. Fruit very large, 
 roundish, conical, purplish-red ; tender, rich, and high- 
 flavored. Canes strong, erect, branching, with strong 
 spines. The foregoing are all that we can recommend for 
 Southern cultivation from personal experience. The va- 
 riety cultivated in the Northern States is very large ; many 
 of them we have tested here with but poor success. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. - 
 
 The botanical name of the strawberry is derived from 
 the delightful fragrance of the ripe fruit. Its common 
 name has arisen from the ancient practice of laying straw 
 between the plants, to keep the ground moist and the 
 
FRUITS. VAEIETIES AND CULTURE. 433 
 
 fruit clean. This fruit is fragrant, delicious, and univer- 
 sally esteemed. The first offering of the season, in the way 
 of ripe fruit, nothing that comes after it can excel " a dish 
 of ripe strawberries smothered in cream," or fresh from 
 the plant. It is, indeed, the most popular and wholesome 
 of all the small fruits ; for, besides its grateful flavor, the 
 sub-acid juice has a cooling quality peculiarly acceptable 
 in summer. In addition to its excellence for the dessert, 
 it is a favorite fruit for making jams, ices, jellies, and 
 preserves. 
 
 The English wood strawberry was the first brought 
 into cultivation. Says old Tusser, turning over its culti- 
 vation to the ladies, as beneath his attention : 
 
 " Wife, unto the garden, and set me a plot 
 With strawberry plants, the best to be got, 
 Such growing abroad, amid trees in the wood, 
 Well chosen and picked, prove excellent good." 
 
 Plants taken directly from the field into the garden yield 
 at once a tolerable crop. This climate is well adapted to 
 the culture of this fruit, since by giving the plants a due 
 supply of moisture, fruit can be gathered the greater part 
 of the summer and autumn. 
 
 In its natural state, the strawberry generally produces 
 perfect or hermaphrodite flowers ; the hermaphrodite are 
 those which have both the stamens and pistils so well de- 
 veloped as to produce a tolerably fair crop of fruit. Cul- 
 tivation has so affected the strawberry in this respect, 
 that there are now three classes of varieties. First, those 
 in which the male or staminate organs are always perfect ; 
 but the female, or pistillate organs, are so defective that 
 they will very rarely bear perfect fruit. Those are called 
 staminate. Second, those in which the female, or pistil- 
 late organs, are perfect ; but in which the male organs are 
 generally so defective that they cannot produce fruit at 
 all, unless in the neighborhood of, and fertilized by, stam- 
 inate or hermaphrodite plants. Impregnated by these, 
 19 
 
434 QAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH. 
 
 they bear enormous crops. Third, those which, like the 
 native varieties, are true hermaphrodites, that is, perfect 
 in stamens and more or less perfect in pistils, so that they 
 generally produce a tolerable crop, and, in favorable sea- 
 sons, the pistils being fully developed, they will produce a 
 good one. 
 
 This is called the staminate class in some books. The 
 first of these classes, the staminate, rarely producing fruit, 
 and running exuberantly to vine, should be dug up wher- 
 ever found, since the hermaphrodite are productive, and 
 equally useful for fertilizing. It is to the pistillate varie- 
 ties, fertilized by the hermaphrodite, that we must look for 
 large crops of fruit. 
 
 In beds of each of these varieties, seedlings will spring 
 up, differing from the parents; but runners from any 
 variety will always produce flowers of the same class and 
 similar in all respects to the parent plant. By the due 
 admixture of hermaphrodite and pistillate plants, five 
 thousand quarts have been picked from an acre at Cin- 
 cinnati, where the strawberry season is usually less than a 
 month. 
 
 Potash, soda, and phosphoric acid are the elements 
 most likely to be wanting in the soil. Wood ashes and 
 the carbonates of potash and soda prove very beneficial 
 applications. f 
 
 The good effects of applying the phosphates, or lime, 
 have not been so apparent, perhaps, owing to there being 
 enough already in the soil. 
 
 Propagation and Culture. To raise the strawberry in 
 perfection requires good varieties, a proper location, care- 
 ful cultivation, vegetable manure, mulching the roots, and 
 regular watering. 
 
 The strawberry bed should be in the lowest part of the 
 garden, succeeding best on a bottom near some little 
 stream of water, where the soil is moist and cool; no 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 435 
 
 trees or plants should be allowed to overshadow it, to 
 drink up the moisture of the soil New land is the best, 
 and the most easily kept free from weeds. The soil should 
 be dug or plowed deep. 
 
 It is not required to be very rich, unless with decayed 
 vegetable matter, as animal manures produce only a 
 growth of vine. Plant good, vigorous runners from old 
 stocks, three feet apart each way ; three rows of pistillates, 
 and then one row of good hermaphrodites, and so on, 
 until the bed or plot is filled ; cultivate precisely as you 
 would corn, and as often. As the runners appear, cut 
 them off, and keep the plants in hills; this is a much 
 better plan than to permit them to run together and 
 occupy the entire surface of the ground ; after the beds 
 have done fruiting, still keep them clear from grass and 
 weeds, and when the leaves fall from the trees in the fall, 
 give a good coat of these as a winter protection. 
 
 There is no fruit which has been so greatly improved 
 within the last ten years as has the strawberry, in size, 
 productiveness, and flavor; it is now as generally culti- 
 vated as the apple or any of our standard vegetables. 
 Most of the then esteemed varieties are now superseded 
 by new and improved ones, amongst which stand pre- 
 eminent Wilson's Albany, Jucunda, Agriculturist, Dr. 
 Nicaise, Downer's Prolific, McAvoy's Superior, and some 
 others. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 Wilson's Albany. This is the most popular strawberry 
 now under cultivation in the United States, although not 
 of first quality in flavor, being rather too acid, but as it is 
 a very hardy variety, vigorous grower, and very produc- 
 tive, it will long be a favorite fruit for domestic cultiva- 
 tion. Fruit large, very dark red, conical in form, trusses 
 short and stout; leaves large, dark green, with short 
 
436 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 petioles. An enormous bearer, and continues for a long 
 time. One of the most desirable varieties. A standard 
 sort. 
 
 Hovey's Seedling, When we consider the size, flavor 
 of its fruit, and its habit of long-continued bearing, this is 
 one of the finest of strawberries. Like all the pistillate ber- 
 ries, it needs a fertilizer. It is an old variety, and still 
 remains one of the best, and is excelled in flavor by few 
 of the new kinds. Leaves large, bright green, with long 
 petioles, which stand erect ; fruit very large, conical, 
 bright scarlet ; seeds slightly imbedded ; flesh firm, with 
 a rich, luscious flavor. Should be in every garden. 
 
 McAvoy'S Superior. This won a prize of $100 at Cin- 
 cinnati, as the best pistillate variety, for size, flavor, and 
 fruitfulness. Leaves dark green, serrate ; footstalk long, 
 trusses of fruit full; berry large, of rich dark color, 
 irregular, roundish conical ; seeds large, slightly sunk ; 
 flesh crimson and white, tender, and juicy; core of rather 
 open, coarse texture ; too soft for a market fruit. 
 
 Triomphe de Gaud, A foreign variety, but one that 
 succeeds well at the South. Leaves large, bright green, 
 on long petioles, or footstalks ; fruit large, and in high 
 trusses, bright scarlet, and of excellent flavor; fruit 
 resembles Hovey's Seedling in appearance. 
 
 JllCimda, or " Our 700." A fruit of great merit, dis- 
 tributed by J. Knox, of Pittsburg, Pa. Fruit very large, 
 of a conical form, occasionally cockscombed ; color bright 
 scarlet ; of firm flesh, yet tender and juicy, sweet, and 
 delicious. Probably the most popular variety now grown, 
 if we except Wilson's Albany. We do not hesitate to 
 recommend it for general cultivation. 
 
 Agriculturist, A seedling by Seth Boyden, of Newark, 
 N. J., which, from the encomiums bestowed upon it, must 
 occupy a very prominent place in the great list of new 
 and desirable varieties ; as we have never seen the fruit, 
 
FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 437 
 
 we can only speak upon the opinions of those competent 
 to decide upon its merits. 
 
 Dr, Mcaise. Judging from the plates we have seen of 
 this new European variety, which is as large as a good- 
 sized apple, and the transports of praise bestowed upon it, 
 it must meet with a ready sale, if nothing more. How it 
 will prove, on further trial, remains to be seen. "We shall 
 neither recommend nor condemn it, as we have never seen it. 
 
 Downer's Prolific. A seedling from Kentucky; with 
 us it has no remarkable traits about it, and we have culti- 
 vated it for several years. In some places it proves to be 
 very prolific and a very desirable variety, some even con- 
 sidering it as one of the very best of the new varieties. 
 
 We could add many others of prominent claims to the 
 foregoing list, but think we have described and recom- 
 mended a sufficient number to satisfy any amateur or 
 market gardener. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Almond 384 
 
 Bitter 335 
 
 Common 334 
 
 Ladies' Thin-shelled 335 
 
 Long Hard-shelled 335 
 
 Angelica 322 
 
 Anise 323 
 
 Apple 335 
 
 Aromatic Carolina 345 
 
 Bachelor 349 
 
 Bough 344 
 
 Buckingham 349 
 
 Buff. 346 
 
 Byers 349 
 
 Camak's Sweet 354 
 
 Cane Creek Sweet 344 
 
 Cattoogaja 354 
 
 Cedar Falls 350 
 
 Chestatee 352 
 
 Chestoa 352 
 
 Cullasaga ..349 
 
 Disharoon 346 
 
 Early Harvest 342 
 
 Early May, 341 
 
 Elarkee 353 
 
 Fall Pippin 345 
 
 Great Unknown 351 
 
 Habersham Pearmain 347 
 
 Horse 346 
 
 Julien 343 
 
 Maiden's Blush 343 
 
 Mangum ...354 
 
 Meigs 347 
 
 Mountain Belle 356 
 
 Nickajack 349 
 
 Oconee Greening 351 
 
 Rabbit's Head 352 
 
 Bed June 342 
 
 Red Warrior 350 
 
 Summerour 349 
 
 Toccoa 345 
 
 Van Buren 356 
 
 Walker's Yellow 349 
 
 Webb's Winter 351 
 
 Yahoola.. 356 
 
 Yellow June 344 
 
 Apricot 357 
 
 Breda... 358 
 
 Dnbois 358 
 
 Hemskirke 359 
 
 LargeEarly 358 
 
 Moorpark 368 
 
 428 
 
 Apricot Orange 358 
 
 Peach 358 
 
 Royal 359 
 
 Artichoke 161 
 
 Jerusalem 165 
 
 Asparagus 166 
 
 Balm 323 
 
 Basil 172 
 
 Bean, Kidney 175 
 
 Algiers 176 
 
 Black Speckled 176 
 
 Butter 177 
 
 Carolin a 177 
 
 Dark Prolific 176 
 
 Dutch Case-knife 176 
 
 Early Mohawk 175 
 
 Early Valentine 170 
 
 Late Valentine 175 
 
 London Horticultural 176 
 
 Newington Wonder .175 
 
 Royal Kidney 175 
 
 Wax 176 
 
 White Prolific 176 
 
 English Broad 173 
 
 Dwarf Early 174 
 
 Dwarf Windsor 174 
 
 Long-pod 173 
 
 Mazagan 173 
 
 Lima 176 
 
 Beet 180 
 
 Bassano 180 
 
 Early Long Blood 181 
 
 Early Turnip-rooted 180 
 
 Extra Early Turnip 180 
 
 Long Blood 181 
 
 Nutting's Selected Dwarf 181 
 
 Sea-Kale 184 
 
 Short's Pineapple 181 
 
 White 184 
 
 Bene 323 
 
 Blackberry 359 
 
 Black Walnut 380 
 
 Bones 54 
 
 Boneset 324 
 
 Borage 325 
 
 Borecole 186 
 
 Broccoli 187 
 
 Brussels Sprouts 187 
 
 Budding 112 
 
 Bulbs 98 
 
 Burnet 188 
 
 Burnt Clay 44 
 
INDEX. 
 
 439 
 
 Cabbage ....189 
 
 Bergen 190 
 
 Curled Savoy. 191 
 
 Drumhead Savoy 191 
 
 Early Battersea 190 
 
 Early Dutch 190 
 
 Early Winningstadt 190 
 
 Early York 190 
 
 FlatDutch. 190 
 
 Green Glazed 190 
 
 Ked Dutch 191 
 
 Savoy 191 
 
 Capsicum 274 
 
 Caraway 325 
 
 Cardoon 197 
 
 Carrot 203 
 
 Altringham 203 
 
 Early French Short Horn 203 
 
 Early Horn 203 
 
 LongOrange 203 
 
 Cauliflower 199 
 
 Celeriac 212 
 
 Celery f 205 
 
 Curled White 205 
 
 Early Dwarf Solid White 205 
 
 Eed Solid 205 
 
 Seymour's White 205 
 
 White Solid 205 
 
 Chamomile 326 
 
 Charcoal 45 
 
 Burning .... 46 
 
 Cherokee Hose 18 
 
 Cherry 360 
 
 Belle Magnifique 362 
 
 Blackheart 362 
 
 Doctor 361 
 
 Downer's Late 362 
 
 Elton 361 
 
 English Morello 362 
 
 Kentish 361 
 
 Kirtland's Mary 361 
 
 Late Kentish 361 
 
 May Duke 361 
 
 Plumstone Morello 362 
 
 Keine Hortense 362 
 
 Rockport Bigarreau 361 
 
 Sweet Montmorency 362 
 
 Chervil 215 
 
 Chestnut 379 
 
 Chick-Pea 214 
 
 Chinese Yam. . 226 
 
 Chives 214 
 
 Chlorine... .. 38 
 
 Ciboule .259 
 
 Citron 384 
 
 Cives 214 
 
 Clary 326 
 
 Colza 290 
 
 Cold Frames 71 
 
 Composts 58-88 
 
 Coriander 326 
 
 Corn 216 
 
 Dent 216 
 
 Eight-rowed Sugar. 216 
 
 Extra Early 216 
 
 Sto well's Evergreen 216 
 
 Corn Salad ..220 
 
 Cow-Pea 220 
 
 Cress, American 221 
 
 Garden 221 
 
 Winter 221 
 
 Crossing and hybridizing 95 
 
 Cucumber 222 
 
 Early Cluster 223 
 
 Early Frame 223 
 
 Early Short White Prickly 223 
 
 Long Green Prickly 223 
 
 White Spined... 223 
 
 Currant 362 
 
 Red Dutch 363 
 
 White Dutch 363 
 
 Cuttings 104 
 
 Dewberry 360 
 
 Dill 326 
 
 Edgings 16 
 
 Egg Plant 228 
 
 Large Prickly-stemmed Purple. 228 
 
 Long Purple 228 
 
 Striped Guadaloupe 228 
 
 Elecampane 327 
 
 Eschallot 301 
 
 Endive 230 
 
 Broad-leaved Batavian 230 
 
 Large Green Curled 230 
 
 White-flowered Batavian 230 
 
 Evergreen Thorn 16 
 
 Fencing 16 
 
 Fennel .327 
 
 Fetticus 220 
 
 Fig 363 
 
 Alicante 367 
 
 Black Ischia 367 
 
 Black Genoa. 366 
 
 Brown Ischia 366 
 
 Brown Turkey 365 
 
 Brunswick 365 
 
440 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Fig-Celestial , 366 
 
 Common Blue 367 
 
 Common White 367 
 
 Lemon White 367 
 
 Nerii 367 
 
 Pergussatta 367 
 
 White Genoa 367 
 
 White Ischia 367 
 
 Filberts 380 
 
 Cosford 880 
 
 Frizzled 380 
 
 White 380 
 
 Forwarding of Early Crops 66 
 
 Frames 67 
 
 French Turnip 291 
 
 Frost, Protection from 152 
 
 Garbanza 214 
 
 Garden, Aspect and Inclination 12 
 
 Form of 15 
 
 Laying out 15 
 
 Situation of. 11 
 
 Size of. 14 
 
 Garlic 233 
 
 Gherkin 223 
 
 Gooseberry 368 
 
 Grafting, 116 Cleft, 119 Mode and 
 Time of, 117 Root, 119 Splice, 
 
 118 Whip 118 
 
 Grafting Wax 117 
 
 Grape 368 
 
 Catawba 373 
 
 Clinton 373 
 
 Concord, 373 
 
 Herbemont's Madeira 373 
 
 Perkins 373 
 
 Scuppernong 374 
 
 Warren 373 
 
 Ground-Nnt 234 
 
 Ground-Pea 234 
 
 Guano 53 
 
 Guinea Squash 228 
 
 Gypsum 44 
 
 Holly, American 19 
 
 Hop ...237 
 
 Horehound 328 
 
 Horseradish 235 
 
 Hot-beds 67 
 
 Humus 23 
 
 Hybridizing 95 
 
 Hyssop , 328 
 
 Implements 73 
 
 Bell-glass 85 
 
 Bow-saw 80 
 
 Implements Budding Knife....... 81 
 
 Bush-hook 82 
 
 Crowbar 76 
 
 Cultivator 74 
 
 Dibble 78 
 
 DrillRakes 78 
 
 Folding Ladder 83 
 
 Garden Engines 84 
 
 Garden Roller 74 
 
 Grafting Tool 82 
 
 Grass-edger 82 
 
 Hand Glass 85 
 
 Hand Syringes 85 
 
 Hedge Shears 81 
 
 Hoes 76 
 
 Lawn Scythe 82 
 
 Level 79 
 
 LineandReel 79 
 
 ManureForks 76 
 
 Marker 78 
 
 Orchardists' Hook 84 
 
 One-horse Turning Plow 73 
 
 Pick 75 
 
 Plant Protectors 86 
 
 Pole Pruning Shears 80 
 
 PotatoHook 77 
 
 Pruning Saw 80 
 
 Pruning Knives 81 
 
 Pruning Scissors 81 
 
 Pruning Shears 80 
 
 Rake 77 
 
 Screens 79 
 
 ScuffleHoe 77 
 
 Shovels 76 
 
 Spade Fork 76 
 
 Spades 75 
 
 Standing Ladder 84 
 
 Subsoil Plow 73 
 
 Tallies 83 
 
 Transplanter 78 
 
 Trowel 78 
 
 Turf Beetle 74 
 
 Vine Scissors 81 
 
 Vine Shields 85 
 
 Watering Pots 84 
 
 Wheelbarrow 74 
 
 Inarching 121 
 
 Indian Cress 256 
 
 Insects 156 
 
 Apple Bark-louse 337 
 
 Apple Bupestris 338 
 
 Apple-root Blight 336 
 
 Apple-tree Borer 338 
 
INDEX. 
 
 441 
 
 Insects Apple-tree Caterpillar 339 
 
 Apple-worm 340 
 
 Bill-bug 219 
 
 Codling Moth 346 
 
 Corn-borer 219 
 
 Corn-worm 218 
 
 Curculio 422 
 
 Handmaid Moth 339 
 
 Onion-fly 262 
 
 Palmer Worm 340 
 
 Peach-tree Borer 385 
 
 Plum Weevil 422 
 
 Squash-bug 308 
 
 Squash-vine Borer 309 
 
 Tent Caterpillar 539 
 
 Thick-legged Apple Borer 338 
 
 Turnip Flea-beetle 318 
 
 Woolly Aphis 337 
 
 Japan-Pea 238 
 
 Japan Quince 19 
 
 Jerusalem Artichoke 165 
 
 Kale, Buda 186 
 
 Turner's Cottager's 186 
 
 Kohlrabi 238 
 
 Lactura sativa 242 
 
 Lambs' Lettuce 220 
 
 Lavender 329 
 
 Layering 101 
 
 Leaf Mould 48 
 
 Leek 239 
 
 Lemon 384 
 
 Lentil . 241 
 
 Lettuce 242 
 
 Brown Dutch 242 
 
 Butter 242 
 
 Curled India 243 
 
 Early Cabbage 242 
 
 Hammersmith 242 
 
 Hardy Green 242 
 
 Neapolitan 243 
 
 Paris Green Cos 243 
 
 Philadelphia Cabbage 243 
 
 Royal Cabbage 242 
 
 Victoria Cabbage 243 
 
 White Paris Cos 243 
 
 Lime 32-43-384 
 
 Lime and Salt Mixture 47 
 
 Lime-rubbish 43 
 
 Liquid Manure 56 
 
 Liquorice 329 
 
 Loamy Sand 22 
 
 Macartney Rose 16 
 
 Madeira Nut 880 
 
 19* 
 
 Manures 30 
 
 Manures, Animal 51 
 
 Bird 53 
 
 Green 60 
 
 Indirect action of 40 
 
 Management of 52 
 
 Organic 45 
 
 Saline and Earthy 43 
 
 Sources and Preparation 42 
 
 Marigold 246 
 
 Marjoram 246 
 
 Pot 246 
 
 Sweet 246 
 
 Marl 44 
 
 Medicinal Herbs 322 
 
 Melon 247 
 
 Melon, Beechwood 247 
 
 Christiana 248 
 
 Citron 247 
 
 Hoosainee 248 
 
 Netted Cantaloupe 248 
 
 Skillman's Fine Netted 248 
 
 Mice 160 
 
 Mint 330 
 
 Mulching 140 
 
 Mulberry 376 
 
 Black 376 
 
 Downing's Everbearing 377 
 
 Red 376 
 
 Mushroom 250 
 
 Muskmelon 247 
 
 Mustard 254 
 
 Black 254 
 
 White 254 
 
 Nasturtium 256 
 
 Nectarine 377 
 
 Boston 378 
 
 Down ton . . 378 
 
 Early Violet 378 
 
 Elruge 378 
 
 Hunt's Tawny 378 
 
 New White 379 
 
 Stanwick 379 
 
 Violet Hative 378 
 
 Night Soil 56 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 44 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 44 
 
 Nuts 379 
 
 Okra 257 
 
 Olive 381 
 
 Onion 258 
 
 Large Red 258 
 
 Potato 258 
 
442 
 
 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH. 
 
 Onion Silver-skinned 258 
 
 Top 258 
 
 Tree 259 
 
 Welsh 259 
 
 Yellow Strasburgh 258 
 
 Yellow Danvers 258 
 
 Orach. 264 
 
 Orange 382 
 
 Bergamot 384 
 
 Havana , 384 
 
 Mandarin 384 
 
 Otaheitan 384 
 
 St. Michaels 383 
 
 Osage Orange 16 
 
 Parsley... 265 
 
 Parsnip 267 
 
 Pea 269 
 
 Bishop's New Long-pod 270 
 
 Black-eyed Marrowfat 271 
 
 Cedo Nulli , 269 
 
 Daniel O'Rourke 269 
 
 Dwarf Blue Imperial 270 
 
 Early Charlton 270 
 
 Early Emperor 269 
 
 Early Frame 269 
 
 Early Kent 269 
 
 Early Tom Thumb 270 
 
 Extra Early 269 
 
 Fairbanks' Champion 270 
 
 Huir's Dwarf Mammoth 271 
 
 EJuight's Tall Marrow 271 
 
 Large White Marrowfat 270 
 
 Napoleon .270 
 
 Prince Albert 269 
 
 Victoria 270 
 
 Peas, Sugar 271 
 
 Pea-nut 234 
 
 Peach ..385 
 
 Baldwin's Late 395 
 
 Baugh 395 
 
 Belle de Beaucaire 392 
 
 Blanton Cling 394 
 
 Chinese Cling 394 
 
 Columbus June 391 
 
 Crawford's Early 392 
 
 Crawford' s Late 393 
 
 Early Newington Free 392 
 
 Early Tillotson. ... 391 
 
 Eaton's Golden Cling 395 
 
 George IV 392 
 
 Grosse Mignonne 392 
 
 Bale's Early 391 
 
 Late Admirable... ..393 
 
 Peach Late Red Rareripe 393 
 
 Lemon Cling 393 
 
 Newington Cling 393 
 
 Oldmixon Cling 393 
 
 President 393 
 
 Pride of Autumn 395 
 
 Serrate Early York 391 
 
 Tippecanoe 394 
 
 Van Buren's Golden Dwarf. .... 394 
 
 Walter's Early 392 
 
 White English Cling 394 
 
 Pear 395 
 
 Abercromby 401 
 
 Bartlett 405 
 
 Belle Epine Dumas 416 
 
 Belle Lucrative 412 
 
 Beurr6 Bosc 403 
 
 Beurr6 Clairgeau 411 
 
 Beurr6 Gris d'Hiver Noveau 416 
 
 Beurr6 Richelieu 414 
 
 Bloodgood 404 
 
 Brandywine 407 
 
 Cath'arine Gardette 413 
 
 Columbia 417 
 
 Compte de Flandre 412 
 
 Dearborn's Seedling 403 
 
 Doyenne d'Alencon 416 
 
 Doyenne, White. 407 
 
 Duchesse d'Angouleme 410 
 
 Easter Beurr6 420 
 
 Glout Morceau 414 
 
 Henry th%Fourth 406 
 
 Jaminette 420 
 
 Joannet. 401 
 
 Josephine de Malines 414 
 
 Louise Bonne de Jersey 403 
 
 Madeleine 401 
 
 Manning's Elizabeth 404 
 
 Nabours 409 
 
 Parsonage 416 
 
 Passe Colmar 414 
 
 St. Germain 418 
 
 St. Michael Archangel 412 
 
 Seckel 410 
 
 Selleck 408 
 
 Soldat Laboureur 415 
 
 Sterling 413 
 
 Van Assche 408 
 
 Winter Nelis.. 419 
 
 Pennyroyal 330 
 
 Pepper 274 
 
 Cayenne 275 
 
 Large Sweet Spanish 875 
 
INDEX. 
 
 443 
 
 Pepper Long 275 
 
 Tomato 275 
 
 Peppermint 330 
 
 Peruvian Guano 53 
 
 Phosphates 35 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 35 
 
 Pindar 234 
 
 Pipings Ill 
 
 Pistacio Nut 380 
 
 Pits 72 
 
 Plum 421 
 
 Bingham 425 
 
 Blue 427 
 
 Chickasaw 424 
 
 Columbia 425 
 
 Duane's Purple 427 
 
 Early Purple 425 
 
 Elfry 426 
 
 Harvest Gage 426 
 
 Jaune Hative 427 
 
 Jefferson 426 
 
 Prince's Yellow Gage 425 
 
 Purple Egg 426 
 
 Red Magnum Bonum 426 
 
 Rivers' Early Favorite 427 
 
 Sea 425 
 
 Washington 426 
 
 Potash 33 
 
 Potato, Irish 276 
 
 Ash-leaved Kidney 277 
 
 Fox Seedling 277 
 
 Mercer 277 
 
 Prince Albert 277 
 
 Potato, Sweet 281 
 
 Brimstone 281 
 
 Common Yam 281 
 
 Hayti Yam 282 
 
 Nansemond 281 
 
 Red Bermuda 281 
 
 Small Spanish 281 
 
 Pot Marigold 246 
 
 Profits of Gardening 65 
 
 Propagation of Plants, 87 By Cut- 
 tings, 104 By Division, 98 By 
 Layers, 101 By Roots, 101 By 
 
 Seed 87 
 
 Pruning, 122 General principles of, 
 126 Implements for, 125 To im- 
 prove form, 127 Mode of operat- 
 ing, 126 To reduce Fruitfulness, 
 129 To renew growth, 128 Sum- 
 mer, 124 Time for, 123 At Trans- 
 planting, 129 Winter 123 
 
 Pumpkin 286 
 
 Cashaw 286 
 
 Pyracanth 16 
 
 Quince 428 
 
 Angers 429 
 
 Apple-shaped 429 
 
 Chinese 429 
 
 Orange-shaped , 429 
 
 Pear-shaped... 429 
 
 Portugal 429 
 
 Radish 287 
 
 BlackSpanish 288 
 
 Black Winter 288 
 
 Chinese Rose-colored Winter. . . 288 
 
 Early Scarlet Short-Top 287 
 
 Oval Rose-colored 287 
 
 Purple Turnip-rooted 287 
 
 Scarlet Turnip-rooted 287 
 
 White Chinese 288 
 
 White Turnip-rooted 287 
 
 YellowSummer 288 
 
 Rampion 290 
 
 Rape 290 
 
 Edible-Rooted 291 
 
 Raspberry 430 
 
 American Black 431 
 
 American Red 432 
 
 American White 432 
 
 Fastolf 432 
 
 Red Antwerp. 431 
 
 Yellow Antwerp 431 
 
 Rhubarb 291 
 
 Rocambole 293 
 
 Root Cuttings. Ill 
 
 Coquette 294 
 
 Rosemary 331 
 
 Rotation of Crops 60 
 
 Rue 331 
 
 Runners 99 
 
 Ruta-baga 316 
 
 Sage 332 
 
 Salsify 294 
 
 Salt 43 
 
 Sandy Loam 22 
 
 Savory, Summer 296 
 
 Winter 296 
 
 Savoy Cabbages 191 
 
 Scaroles 230 
 
 Scions 116< 
 
 Scorzonera 296 
 
 Scurvy Grass , 297 
 
 Sea Kale 297 
 
 Seeds, Maturity and Soundness of, 
 
444 
 
 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH. 
 
 88 Preservation of, 95 Sowing 
 of, 91 Time required to germi- 
 nate, 93 Time of sowing, 90 
 
 Vitality of 89 
 
 Shaddock. . '. 384 
 
 Shading 141 
 
 Shallot 301 
 
 Shell-bark Hickory 379 
 
 Skirre t , 302 
 
 Slips 101 
 
 Soda 34 
 
 Soils, 20 Argillaceous, 20 Calca- 
 reous, 23 Depth of, 24-28 Im- 
 provement of, 25 Organic, 23 
 
 Sandy, 21 Texture of. 25 
 
 Soot 44 
 
 Sorrel 303 
 
 Southernwood 333 
 
 Spearmint 330 
 
 Spinach 304 
 
 Flanders 304 
 
 Lettuce-leaved 304 
 
 New Zealand , 806 
 
 Prickly-seeded 304 
 
 Bound-leaved 304 
 
 Winter 304 
 
 Squash 307 
 
 Bergen 307 
 
 Cocoanut 307 
 
 Early Bush Scollop 307 
 
 Summer 307 
 
 Valparaiso 307 
 
 Winter 307 
 
 Strawberry 432 
 
 Agriculturist 436 
 
 Dr.Nicaise 437 
 
 Downer's Prolific 437 
 
 Jucunda 436 
 
 Hovey's Seedling 436 
 
 McAvoy's Superior 436 
 
 "Our 700" 436 
 
 Triomphe de Gand 436 
 
 Wilson's Albany 435 
 
 Subsoil plowing 30 
 
 Suckers 100 
 
 Sulphur 37 
 
 Superphosphate of Lime 54 
 
 Swamp Muck 47 
 
 Sweet Potato 281 
 
 Swiss Chard 124 
 
 Tan sy 333 
 
 Tan-bark... .. 49 
 
 Tanyah 309 
 
 Tarragon 810 
 
 Teltow 291 
 
 Terraces 12 
 
 Thoroughwort 324 
 
 Thyme, Common 311 
 
 Lemon 311 
 
 Tomato 312 
 
 Cherry 313 
 
 Early Bed. 313 
 
 Fejee Island 313 
 
 Gallagher's Mammoth 313 
 
 Large Bed 312 
 
 Large Smooth Bed 313 
 
 Large Yellow 313 
 
 Pear-shaped 313 
 
 Training 133 
 
 Transplanting 134 
 
 Preparation of Trees for 138 
 
 Herbaceous Plants 139 
 
 Tree Box ... 19 
 
 Trenching 28 
 
 Tubers 99 
 
 Turnip 315 
 
 Cabbage 316 
 
 Early Bed-top Dutch 315 
 
 Early White Dutch 315 
 
 French 291 
 
 Purple-topped Swede 316 
 
 Buta-Baga 316 
 
 Skirving's Improved Swede 316 
 
 Swedes 316 
 
 Sweet German 316 
 
 White Globe 315 
 
 White Norfolk 316 
 
 Yellow Aberdeen 316 
 
 Yellow Dutch 316 
 
 Vegetable Marrow 308 
 
 Vegetable Oyster.... , 294 
 
 Watering 142 
 
 Water Cress 319 
 
 Watermelon 320 
 
 Clarendon 821 
 
 Ice Cream 320 
 
 Imperial 320 
 
 Mountain Sweet 320 
 
 Bavenscroft 321 
 
 Souter 821 
 
 Spanish 320 
 
 Wine 372 
 
 Wormwood 833 
 
 Boman... ,..., 833 
 
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