CENSUS OF INDIA, 1911 VOLUME I INDIA Part I.-REPORT BY E. A. GAIT, C.S.I., C.I.E., I.C.S., FELLOW OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY CALCUTTA SUPERINTENDENT GOVELRNMENT PRINTING, INDIA 1913 Price Rs. 5 or 7s. 6d. LIBRARY UNJVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE CENSUS OF INDIA, 1911 Volume I INDIA Part T.-REPOET AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE Superintendent of Government Printing, India, Calcutta. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. Brunard tiuAKiTCH, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. Constable & Co., 10, Orange St., Leicester Square, London, W.C. H. S. King & Co.. 05, Cornbill, and 9, Pall Mall, London. P. S. King & Son, 2 & 4, Great Smith St., West- minster, London, S.W. Kegan Pai l, Trench, Trubnek & Co., 68 — 74, Carter Lane, E.G. Gkindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. T. Fisher Unwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. W. Thacker & Co., "2, Creed Lane, London, E.C. LuzAC & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. Deightox, Bell & Co., Cambridge. B. H. 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Ram CiiANDiiA GoviND & Son, Bombay. Y. Kalyaxarama Iyer & Co., Madras. G, A. Natesan & Co., Madras. HiGGiNBOTHAM & Co., Madras. I S. MuRTHY & Co., Madras. I TflOiiPSON & Co., Madras. Temple & Co., Madras. CoMBRiDGE & Co., Madras. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. N. B. -M.ATHUR, Superintendent, Nazir Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad. Superintendent, American Ba])tist Mission Press, Rangoon. I A. Chand & Co., Lahore. Rai Sauib ^I. Gulab Singh and Sons, Mufid-i-Am Press, Lahore and Calcutta. Babu S. C. Talukdar, Proprietor, Students & Co., Cooch Behar. A. M. AND J. Ferguson, Colombo, Ceylon. UNIVERSITY OF C^U^S^ RIVERSIDE AUG 25 1965 LIBRARY W^. ZL A/_- -/' . CENSUS OF INDIA, 1911 Volume I INDIA PaET I.-REPOET BY E. A. GAIT, C.S.I., CLE., I.C.S., PKLLOW OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY CALCUTTA SrPEEIXTENDEXT (iOVERXMENT I-IUNTING, INDIA 1913 Pk nn TABLE OF CONTENTS. CII.vrrElt I.— nistribiitiou of the Popiiliitioii. Page. Diversity of local conditions — Xatural Divisions — Area, population and density — (a) by Political, (6) by Natural, Divisions — Towns and Villages— Cities — Houses and Families ............ 1 Subsidiary Tables 48 CHAPTER II.— MoveiiKMit of Poimlation. Changes since 1872 — Factors determining the growth of the population — Variations in individual Provinces and States — General Summary ..... 55 SoBSiDiAEY Tables 84 CIUPTER III.— Birthplace. Types of Migration — Total volume — Migration within India — Migration between India and other countries ........... 89 SuBsiDiABT Tables ............ 99 Appendix — Statistics of Indians Enumerated in Great Britain . . . • • HI CHAPTER IV.— Religion. Differentiation by religion — Hindus — Brahmos — Aryas — Sikhs — Buddhists — Jains — Zoroastrians — Muhammadans — Auimists — Christians — Europeans and Anglo-Indians 113 Subsidiary Tables ............ 141 CHAPTER v.— Age. Part I. — General Observations — Value of the return — Sundbiirg's theoi-y — Variations in age distribution — Infantile mortality ........ 147 Part II. — Actuarial Report ....... ... 154 Subsidiary Tables ............ 193 CHAPTER Vl.-Sex. Main features of statistics — The local hox proportions — The accuracy of the statistics^ Sex proportions in India and other countries — Comparison with vital statistics — Female infanticide — Causes of a deficiency of females ...... 205 Appendix. — Relative mortality of males and females in famine years .... 220 Subsidiary Tables 223 CHA1>TER VII.— Maniiiffe. Part I. — De.scriptive : — Mother-kin — Polyandry — Premarital communism — Divorce — Polygyny — Widow marriage — llestrictions on marriage — Exogamy — Totomism — Hypergamy — Coasin marriage — Forms of raarriagC'^The Couvnde — Circumcision — Marriage customs . . ......... 235 Part II. — Statisticai. : — Universality of marriage — Variation by religion — Infant marriage — Widow marriage ...... • • 2t>l Subsidiary Tables .......-..•• 275 11 Page. CH A TTKR VIII.— F.dncaf ion. Introdnctorv remarkfi — General review — ilain results bj Provinces and States . 291 SuESiuiAKr Tables ........... 311 CHAPTER I.\.— Laiisuasre. Value of the roturn — Classification of languages — The Austro-Asiatic family — The Munda langnages — Won-Klimer langnages — Race and language — Tibeto-Chinese family — Assam-Burmese Branch — Dra vidian languaees — Ar^ran languages — Gipsy languages — Dying and dominant languaL;es— The statistics of language . . . .319 Sdbsidiaet Tablk? ......-•■-.. 338 CHAPTER X.— Infirmities. General Remarks — Insanity— Deaf -mutism — Blindness — Leprosy ... 343 Sdbsidiakt Tables ........ . • . . 3.57 CHAPTER AI.~Caste, Tribe and Race. Definition of caste — Caste and sub-caste — Definition of tribe — Types of caste land sab-caste — Admission of outsiders to caste — Caste changes — Caste and race — Anthropometry as a test of race — Blue pigmentation — Caste restrictions — (Jaste- Government — Caste Panchayats . . . . . . - . .-''-.b. 365 ScrsiDiARY Tables ............ 396 CHAPTER All.— Occupation. The scope of the return — New occupation scheme — Main features of the statistics — Urban occupations — Village occupations — Female occupations — Production of raw materials — Preparation and supply of material substances — Public Administration and Liberal Arts — Miscellaneous — The Industrial Censu.s— Occupation by caste . . 397 ScBsiDiARY Tables 431 APPi:.\Di\. Summary Tables ...... INDEX lU The Series at liidl.iii Census Reports tor 1911. Pbovimcb, State ob Agemcy. India ^ Ardamans and Nicobars __ Assam • . Baluchistan ^ Bengal, Bihar and Orissa Calcutta City Bombay Bombay City Burma • • ^ Central Proyinces and Berar -— - Coorg • • _ Madras Y^- K.-W. Frontier Province Punjab . • • United Provinces . Baroda Stat t Central India Agency . Cochin State . • Hyderabad State . * Kashmir State Mysore State Rajputana Agency and Ajmer wara. ^ Travancore State Mer- Serial Ko. of Roport. Number of Yolomes. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XY XYI XVII XNIIl XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII Reuabes. a 1 Usually each ri-poit is in two patt^, viz. : — Fai't I. — Report ])iopi-r, Iiouiiq in blue, and Part II.— Tables, bound in red. In the case of the smaller units both parts are hound together in a blue cover. In the case of Bi'ngal, Bihar and Orissa, there is a single report for both Provinces, and a separate Tables Volume for each. Part II contains the Bengal Tables and Part III those for Bihar and Orisna. The thud volume for the Punjab contains some lengthy Appendices to the Imperial Tables. INTRODUCTION. A FULL description of the arrangements for taking the census and tabulating Previous oetuasek. -^^ tlie lesults has been given in a series of volumes compiled for the guidance of the Provincial Superintendents and their subordinates.* These have not been published, as they are too technical and elaborate for the tjeneral reader. But he "will probably wish to know in broad outline how the work was done, and I propose, therefore, to repeat briefly the information on this subject which I gave in the Report on the Census of 1901, In several provinces the custom of making periodic estimates of the popu- lation is of very old standing, but the first attempt to take a general census was made between the years 18G7 to 1872. Even then, many of the Native States were left out of account. The enumeration, moreover, was non-synchronous ; the arrangements for it were seldom very elaborate, and in some of the more remote tracts it was admittedly carried out in a very rough and imperfect manner. The experience gained, however, was valuable, and it paved the way for the first regular census on the modern system, which was carried out on the 17th February 1881. On this occasion the operations were extended to all parts of the Indian Empire as then constituted, except Kashmir and various small remote tracts. The count was a synchronous one, except in certain remote and jungly tracts where the Enumerators were unable to move about at night. In these tracts the final revision of the record was eitliei carried out in the day- time or dispensed with altogether ; and in some parts a simplified schedule was em{)loyed. Where there was no final revision, the schedules showed the persons ordinarily residing in each house and not, as elsewhere, those actually present on the night of the census. The second general census of India was taken on the 26th February 1891. The general procedure was the same as before, but more elaborate arrange- ments were made to ensure completeness ; the non-synchronous area was smaller; and Upper Burma, which had meanwhile been acquired, was included in the operations, as well as Kashmir and Sikkim. The third census followed on the 1st March 1901. Its operations embraced for the first time a large part of the Baluchistan Agency, the Bhil country in Rajputana, the settle- ments c)f the wild Nicobarese and Andamanese, and certain outlying tracts on the confines of Burma, the Punjab and Kashmir. The non-synchronous area was again reduced ; and even where it was not found practicable to effect a final revision, the enumeration was ordinarily carried out on the standard schedule. I)i some of the newly added areas, however, no detailed enumera- tion was possible, and the population was estimated witli reference to the ascertained number of houses or the returns of the tribal headmen. The fourth general census was taken on the night of the 10th March Tho ce?*?" «>/ ~ ° March 10th. 1911. 1911, or ten years and nine days after the jirevious one. The date was chosen, partly with the object of enabling the census staff to go about theu' Avork by moonlight, and partly in order to avoid, as far as possible, religious • Imperial Ch of the contents of a number of foreign books and essays relating to casta or the census, buch as vcn llayr's reviews of the ludian Census of 1901, Bougie's JSssais sur le Bigime dee Castes, ete. Tl INTRODTJCTION. festivals and fairs and the dates regarded as auspicious for marriages or for batliing in the sacred rivers. Unfortunately there was a serious recrudescence of plague, which interfered considerably with the enumeration in some parts of the country, and caused a large temporary decrease in the population of certain towns, such as Nagpur, Gaya and Indore, many of whose inhabitants had temporarily gone away. This census included within its scope the whole of Baluchistan, the Agencies and tribal areas of the North-West Frontier Province, and several remote tracts in Burma which had not previously been dealt with. In a few tracts where the previous count had been non-synchron- ous, a synchronous census was effected, and in a few others an actual enumeration took the place of an estimate. Tho^Enumeration TIic standard procedurc to be followed was laid down by the Census Commissioner for India in a Code, on the basis of which the Provincial Superintendents prepared their local instructions with such modifications in matters of detail as were needed in order to meet local requirements. The general scheme provided for the division of the whole Empire into blocks, each of which (except in the non-synchronous tracts where they were larger) contained from thirty to fifty houses and was in charge of an Enumerator. Above the block came the circle, comprising from ten to fifteen blocks, or about 500 houses, under a Supervisor, who was responsible for the work of all the Enumerators in his circle. Circles were grouped according to tahsils, taluks or other recognized administrative divisions, into charges under Charge Superintendents, who exercised general supervision over the operations and tested a large proportion of the work of their subordinates. The total strength of the census staff was about two millions. An Indian census is beset with special difficulties owing to the long lines of railway, the big rivers on which boats travel, sometimes for days, without coming to the bank, the forests to which wood-cutters resort, often for weeks at a time, and the numerous sacred places which, on occasion, attract many thousands of pilgrims. "It would be tedious to describe the arrangements which were made in these and similar cases, but they were all carefully provided for. In the case of railways, for instance, all persons travelling by rail who took tickets after 7 p.m. on the night of the census were enumerated, on the platform if there was time, and if not, in their train. Those alighting at any station during the night were enumerated there, unless they could produce a pass showing that they had already been counted. All trains were stopped, and every carriage visited, about 6 a.m. on the following morning, in order to include any travellers who up till then had escaped notice. At one large junction alone, sixty special Enumerators were engaged for the census of travellers by rail. In Europe the census schedules arc usually filled in by the head of the family, but this is impracticable in a country where the great majority of the people are illiterate. As a rule, therefore, the schedules were filled in by the Enumerators. But as it was impossible for them to enter all the required particulars for all the persons in their blocks in the course of a few hours on the niglit of the census, and as owing to their generally low standard of education, the entries made by them required careful revision by the superior staff, it was arranged, as on previous occasions, to have the bulk of the work done beforehand. In the first instance, classes were held at which each grade of INTRODUCTION. Vll census officers was trained l)y some officer of a higher grade. A rough drafts of the census record was prepared by the Enumerators, a few Aveeks before the census, for all persons ordinarily residing in their blocks. This was carefully checked by the Supervisors and other superior officei^s, after which it was copied into the schedules. On the night of the census, the record was brought up-to-date by striking out the entries relating to persons no longer present and filling in the necessary particulars for new-comers. Some errors, of course, remained, but, on the whole, tlianks to the careful preliminary training and the subsequent examination of the schedules, the work was well done. The entries, at any rate, were, as a rule, more accurate than those made by the limited number of private persons (chiefly Europeans) who filled in the schedules, for themselves and their families. In the latter, owing to failure to read the instructions, numerous errors came to liglit. A High Court Judge, for instance, included in his schedule a relative away on a short visit, who was thus enumerated twice over. Many persons in hotels entered ' none ' or ' traveller ' as their means of subsistence, and the head of a large Government department was content to describe himself as a ' doctor. ' The superiority of the work done by trained Enumerators over that of individual house-holders is now so well established that the tendency is to discourage the issue of private schedules, even to Europeans, and, as far as possible, to get the whole record prepared by the Enumerators, On the morning of the 11th March the Enumerators of all the blocks in a The provisional totals. circle met the Supervisor at a place previously arranged, and filled in a form showing the number of occupied houses and of persons (males and females) in each block. The Supervisor, after testing these figures, prepared from them a summary for his circle, Avhich he transmitted to his Charge Superintendent. The latter dealt similarly with the figures for his charge. The cliarge summaries were added up at the district head-quarters, and the result was telegraphed to the local Provincial Superintendent and the Census Commissioner for India. Careful arrangements were made for checking the additions at each stage and for preventing the omission of the figures for any unit. The organization was so thorough that the results for the whole of India were received complete on the 19th March, i.e., within nine days of the census, and were issued in print next day with an explauatoiy note and details of the variations since 1901, not only for Provinces and Agencies, but also for the individual districts and States and the principal towns. The returns for many tracts came to hand much sooner. Within four days of the census, the figures had already been reported for a population of 131 millions, while on the sixth day they had been ascertained for 238 millions, or nearly four-fifths of the total population. The record Avas broken by two Native States (Rampur and Sarangarh), where, by dint of working all night, the local officers were aljle, with the aid of mounted messengers and other means of conveyance, to get the figures for all parts of the State to head-quarters in time for the telegram reporting the result to reach me in Calcutta by 8 a.m. on the following morning. Apart from the extreme celerity with wliich this work was accomplished, which is not approached even in the smallest European States, the accuracy of the provisional totals is also noteworthy. The net difference in the whole of India between them and those arrived at after detailed tabulation was only Vm INTRODUCTION. •0-i per cent*; and for nearly lialf of this, a mistake in one district in Burma was responsible. The nearest approximation to the final results was obtained in Ajmer-Merwara, the Central Provinces and Berar, Madras, Hyderabad and Mysore, in all of which the error was less than •01 jDer cent. The information The information collected at the census included, as usual, sex, a?e, religion, civil condition, education, language, birthplace, caste or race, occupation (includ- ing subsidiary occupations and the means of subsistence of dependants) and certain infirmities. Sect was recorded for Christians, and in some provinces for other religions also. In a few provinces the sub-caste was entered as M^ell as the caste. A novel feature of the present census was the introduction of a separate schedule for the collection of particulars regarding persons working in factories and other industrial undertakings in which not less than twenty hands were employed. Special returns were also obtained of the number of persons working on railways aid canals and in the postal and telegraph departments on tlie date of the census. The tabulation of Prior to 1901 the information Contained in the schedules was extracted on the resnlts. . abstraction sheets, one for each final Table, which were divided by lines into spaces corresponding to the headings of the Table concerned. A separate sheet was used for each Enumerator's book of schedules, and a tick was made in the appropriate column for every entry therein. When the wiiole book had been abstracted, the ticks were counted and totals struck. These were posted iu tabulation registers of which there was one for each tahsil or other administra- tive unit. In 1901 this method was abandoned in favour of the slip system, which was invented by Herr von Mayr in connection with the Bavarian census of 1871. The system being new to India, a great deal of latitude was allowed to • Provincial Superintendents in the manner of applying it. At the present census, in the light of the experience then gained, an uniform code of 2:)rocedure was drawn up by the Census Commissioner for India, on the basis of which the Provincial Superintendents prepared their local codes. The required particulars were transcribed from the schedules on to small forms, or slips, measuring 4-^" X 2", a separate slip being prepared for each individual. Religion was denoted by the colour of the slips, and sex and civi^ condition by symbols printed on them. The selection of the proper slip from a rack in front of him thus rendered it unnecessary for the copyist to make any entry on account of the above particulars. The amount of writing required for the other entries was reduced by means of abbreviations; and each man was thus able, on the average, to prepare about 500 slips a day. The completed slips were compared with the original entries in the schedules, and their total number checked with reference to the Enumerator's abstract ; if any difference was found the slips were again compared with the schedules. Those for each village were then sorted by sex and religion, and the results were recorded in the " village census tables," a volume compiled solely for purposes o[ district administration. The slips of the same sex and religion were then thrown together for the tahsil or other unit, and sorted and re-sorted for the different Tables into pigeon-holes labelled with the appropriate headings. This method of work is not only much simpler and more expeditious than the one which it superseded, but it is also more accurate, and can more easily be tested. Moreover, by sorting at once for a comparatively large unit, the laborious process of posting and adding up the • The population of Kharnn in B.iluchistan ha« mi been tiiken into Hccount. For political re.iS'ns. the ennmeration if t'.is State wii> po>tponed until Bome months after the general census ; and it w.is thus noeos- sarily umitted from the provisioD.il totals, IKTRODUCTION. ix figures for individual villagjes is dispensed with. The system is especially ad- vantageous iu the more complicated tables, sxich as those relating to language, caste and occupntion. Thus, in the case of occupation, t\vo-thirds of the people of India ar,e employed in agriculture, and most of the remainder on some fifteen to twenty simple avocations. By labelling the pigeon-holes for these occupa- tions and sorting into them the slips on which they are shown, the great major, ity can be disposed of at a single sorting. Those remaining can be dealt with at a second, third, and, if necessary, a fourth, sorting ; and, their number being comparatively small, much more attention can be devoted to their proper classi- fication than would otherwise be feasible. It may be asked why the Hollerith machine, or some similar mechanical device, has not been used. The answer is that in a country like India, where the lower kinds of clerical work are very cheap, while the supply of highly trained men is limited, the slip system is not only more economical than that of electrical tabulation, but also more reliable. There is more room for error in the perforation of the complicated cards which are a necessary adjunct of that system than in the preparation and sorting of our slips. It would, moreover, be difficult to apply the system of electric tabulation to our more complicated tables, such as those mentioned above. The question whether it would not be expedient to dispense with the subse- quent preparation of slips by taking tlie census on " bulletins ittdividtiels," or separate forms for each person, was considered, and decided in tlie negative for the following reasons :— '3 (1) In the course of sorting, there is always a danger of the forms being damaged, destroyed, lost or mixed up with those for other areas, either wilfully or by accident. This had actually happened in some cases in 1901. So long as the original schedules remain available such accidents can be remedied, but not otherwise. (2) It is useful to keep the original record intact for the purpose of reference where necessary. Doubtful entries can often be cleared up, if those for other persons iu the same house or block can be examined. (3) The bulletins iiidividiiels would be much more cumbroixs to handle than our slips, on which there are no columns for name, sex, reli- gion or civil condition, while the other items are for the most part entered in a very abbreviated form. (4) The task of the Enumerator would be rendered more difficult, and the schedules would be twice as bulky, as one side only could be written on. (5) The use of symbols and colours is of great assistance iu preventing and detecting errors in the primary sorting by sex, religion and civil condition. (G) The cost of preparing the slips in India is barely a shilling, or twelve annas, per thousand. After deducting the extra cost of paper, there would be very little economy in the alternative arrange- ment, and the sole advantage would be the saving of the time INTKODTJCTION. The Cost of the Census. The Provincial Superintendents. taken up in slip-copying. This work, however, was completed in a few weeks, and even if the census were taken on bulletins indlvlduels, at least ten days or a fortniejlit would be needed to get them ready for sorting. The actual cost of the census operations to the Imperial Government was 20'3 lakhs of rupees (£135,000), or rather less than in 1901. This is not unsatis- factory, when it is remembered that there has been a marked rise in prices and wages during the decade, and that the population dealt with has increased by over 20 millions. The incidence of the cost per thousand persons enumerated slightly exceeded Rs. 5 in the Punjab, and it was less than Es. 6 in Madras, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and the United Provinces. The reduction in the total cost was due mainly to economies effected by the Provincial Superintend- ents of the Punjab, Burma, the Central Provinces and Berar and Madras. The Darbars of the Baroda, Cochin, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Mysore and Travan- core States bore the whole cost of the census in their respective territories ; in other States the cost was divided between the Durbar and the Imperial Government, the actual apportionment varying according to circumstances. The work in each Province and in certain States was in charge of " Provincial Superintendents," who carried out the operations subject to the of the Cen- Province, etc. Andamans and Nicobars Assam Baluchistan Bengal and Bihar and Orissa Bombay .... Burma .... Central Provinces and Eerar Mad as and Coorg PuDJab .... N.-W. frontier Province United Provinces Baroda State Central India Agency Cochin State . . . Hyderabad State Kashmir State . Mysore Stntf . . Eajputina and Ajmer-Merwara Travancure State Name of Provincial Superintendent. Mr. R. Y. Lowis. Mr. J. McSwiney, I.C.S. Mr. D. deS. Bray, I.C.S. Mr. L. S. S. O'Malley, I.C.S. C Mr. P. J. Mead, I.C.S. \ Mr. G. Laird MacGregor, I I.C.S. Mr. C. Morgan Webb, I.C.S. Mr. J. T. Marten, I.C.S. Mr. J. C. Molony, I.C S. Rai Bahadur Pandit Hari Kishan Kaul, CLE. Mr. C. Lat'mer, I.C.S. Mr. E. A. H. Blunt, I.C.S. Rao Bahadur G. H. Desai. Majr.rC. E. Luard, I. A. .Mr. C. Achyuta Menon. Mr. Abdul Majeed. \'aulvi Matin-uz-zaman Khan. Mr. v. R. Thvagaraja Aiyar. Mr.E. H. Kealy, I.C.S. Mr. X. Suliramhanya Aiyar. general control sus Commissioner for India, and I am glad to take this opportunity to acknowledge the ability and devotion with which they performed their arduous duties. Where all did so well, it may seem invidious to single out any for special notice, but I cannot refrain from men- tioning a few names. Mr. O'Malley had an excep- tionally difficult task, owing to the territorial redistribu- tion which was announced by His Majesty the King-Emperor at Delhi. This involved the separation, at a late stage of tabulation, of the statistics of the new province of Bihar and Orissa, and the amalgamation of those of the rest of Bengal with the statistics of the Eastern Bengal districts, which had been compiled at Dacca by Mr. McSwiney, Superintendent of the defunct province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, Avhose own report refers only to the resuscitated Chief Commissionership of Assam. Mr. O'Malley has written a single report for the two provinces of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa taken together, but has published the Tables relating to each in a separate volume. These changes neces- sarily caused some delay in the completion of the work. Mr. O'Malley's Report, which reached me in May last, is full and interesting, and contains, in addition to a careful analysis of the statistics, a very valuable account of the system of caste government and other matters of ethnographic interest to which the special attention of Provincial Superintendents had been directed. Amongst INTRODtJCTION. XI other reports deserving similar commendation, may be mentioned those of Mr. Bhmt for the United Provinces, Rai Bahadur Pandit Ilari Kishan Kaul, CLE. for the Punjab and Mr. Marten for the Central Provinces and Berar. Mr. !MoIouy in Madras was hii^hly successful in his arrange- ments for compiling the statistic-!, and his Report reached me complete early in July 1912, or more than five months sooner than any of those mentioned above ; it is thus naturally less detailed, but it contains many shrewd observations, and is written with a humour and lightness of touch rarely met with in statistical publications. Mr. Morgan Webb, in spite of a very inferior stail, brought the work in Burma to a close in May 1912, with the issue of a Report which is not only of high statistical value, but also contains a great deal of interesting descriptive matter relating to the languages and marriage customs of the people of his Province. Bombay was unfortunate in losing Mr. Mead's services, owing to illness, after the work of tabulation had been commenced, but Mr. MacGregor, who succeeded him, In-ought it to a successful conclusion and, in collaboration Avith Mr. Mead, Avrote an eminently readable report, which includes a very good glossary of the local castes and tribes. From a statistical point of view Baluchistan, with its scanty population, scarcely counts; but Mr. Bray's Report contains a mass of first-hand inform- ation of the highest linguistic and anthropological interest regarding the Brahui and other local tribes. Rao Bahadur G. H. Desai managed the operations in Baroda most successfully and published a very methodical and tveU-written report in less than a year from the date when the census Avas taken. In fine the work was done well everyAvhere, except in Hyderabad, where it has been unduly protracted. Several of the Imperial Tables were seriously delayed, owing to the non-receipt of the figures for Hyderabarl, and the Report for that State has not yet reached me. I have held the oflBcc of Census Commissioner for India from the com- cemms Report for mencement of the operations to the end, but since 1st April 1912, when I was appointed to a more responsible post, I have been able to devote to census Avork only such time as could be snatched from other engrossing duties. This has not only delayed the issue of the Report, though it still appears sooner than in 1901, but has also rendered it impossible to discuss certain questions as fully as I had originally intended. The latter consequence will perhaps be regretted by my readers less than by myself, but if omissions or other defects come to their notice, I would ask them to judge them leniently. Work of this kind demands a degree of concentration Avliich it is difficult to bestow on a parergon. The present Report is in one resi^ect more interesting than its predecessors, in that it contains a valuable analysis of the age statistics, and an estimate of the rates of mortality deduced from them, by Mr. T. G. Ackland, the Avell-known Actuary. On previous occasions similar actuarial reports Avere obtained, but, except in 1881, they Avere received too late for incorporation in the general Census Report. In conclusion I have to express my obligations to ilr. Meikle, Superintend- ent of Government Printing, India, for the assistance Avhich he has given by undertaking the printing not only of this Report, but also of several of those for individual Provinces and States ; to Rai Mon Mohan Roy Baliadur, avIio was appointed my special assistant when I ceased to be Avhole-tirae Census Commissioner ; and to my Head Clerk, Babu Anukul Chandra IMallik, on Avhom I have had to rely very largely for the detailed examination and check- ing of the statistical matter, and who has throughout performed his duties Avith the utmost zeal and efficiency. E. A. GAIT. REPORT ox THE CENSUS OF INDIA, 1911. CHAPTER I. Distribution of tlie Vo]iiilatioii. Introductory Reinarks, The remark that India must be regarded as a coutinent rather than a G^at diversity of country may be trite, but it is essential to bear the fact in mind when dealing P*'y''"!»"eati'e8, with the statistics of the census. Though geographically a part of Asia, its connection with that continent is recent as geology reckons time. Prior to the tertiary period, when the Himalayas were thrown up, the present peninsida of India was bounded on the north by the great central sea known to geologists as Tethys. while on the south it was joined to the ancient land area which stretched from Madagascar to the Malay Archipelago. And even now it is largely isolated from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas form a mighty barrier, which cuts off all access by man except for a narrow strip at the two extremities, and impedes the air movements to such an extent as to give to India a practically independent meteorology. But it is chiefly in respect of its size, equal to that of all Europe excluding Russia, its teeming population — a fifth of that of the whole world — and still more its remarkable diversity of physical aspects, climate, soil, and races that it claims recognition as a continent, or collection of different countries. No one who travels through India can fail to be struck with the extraordinary variety of its physical aspects. In the north rise the highest mountains in the world. Their summits are clothed in perennial :mow and their lower slopes bm*ied in dense forest. At their foot is an extensive plain, arid and sandy in the west and overlaid with luxuriant verdure in the east. Further south is a great central plateau, bordered on the west by the rugged outline of the Western Ghats and on the soutli by the rounded peaks of the Nilgiris. Between the plateau and the sea are narrow low-ljang plains covered with tropical vegetation. Included within the Indian Empire as the term is now understood are, on the west, Baluchistan, a country of bare hills and rocky deserts interspersed l)y a few scattered oases, and the mountainous region bordering on Afghanistan ; and on the east Assam and Burma, with their mighty rivers flowing rapidly through fertile valleys, their impenetrable jungles, and their well-wooded hill ranges. 2. From the point of view of geology India has been described as the lands oiu^aora and of paradoxes. The peninsula is one of the oldest formations in the world and the Himalayas one of the most recent. Every geologic epoch is re- presented in one part or another of the Empire. As regards soils, those of alluvial origin are the most extensive ; their consistence ranges from loose drift sands to very stiff clays. In the Deccan trap formation they are thin and poor on the higher levels, while in the low lands the well known black cotton soil predominates. In the rest of the peninsula area tlu; soils are derived in the main from crystalline rocks, but they vary greatly in appearance, depth and fertility. The flora of India is more varied than that of any otlier area of the same extent in the Eastern Hemisphere, if not in the world ; and the species of animals 2 CHAPIEK I. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION. etimic types. lacgaages, creeds, customs. far surpass in number those found in Europe. The climate is equally diversified. In northern India there are great extremes of temperature. In the cold season the minimum falls to, or below, freezing point, Avhile in the hot weather there are many places where the maximum has exceeded 120°: there is also a very great diurnal range. Further east, the variations, though still avcU marked, are slighter. In the south the diurnal changes of temi^erature are comjiara- tively small ; there is no cold season, and the coolest time is during the rains. There are remarkable contrasts in the rainfall, Avhich in some localities exceeds 300 inches, and in others is less than 5 ; and while most parts depend mainly on the moistvu-e brought by the south-west monsoon, some receive more rain from the north-east monsoon, and others from cyclonic disturbances ; others again get little except from land-formed storms. 3. Nowhere is the complex character of Indian conditions more clearly exemplified than in the physical type of its inhabitants. To the foreigner all Chinamen appear very much alike, but the most inexperienced eye cannot fail to note the remarkable contrasts presented by the natives of India. No one could confuse the main types, such as Gurkhas, Pathans, Sikhs, Rajputs, Biu-mans, Nagas, Tamils, etc. : nor does it take long to cany the differentiation much further. As noted by the Abbe Dubois more than a century ago — " A good observer will remark, under all general points of resemblance, as much difference between a Tamul and a Telinga; betAveen a Canara andaMahrata, as one would perceive in Europe between an Englishman and a Frenchman, an Italian and a German." The typical inhabitants of India — the Dravidians — differ alto- gether from those of Northern Asia, and more nearly resemble the tribes of Malaya, Sumatra and ]^Iadagascar. Whatever may be their origin, it is certain that they have been settled in this countiy for countless ages, and that their present physical characteristics have been evolved locally. They have been displaced in the north-west by successive hordes of invaders, including Aryans, Scythians, Pathans and Moghals, and in the north-east by Mongoloid tribes allied to those of Burma, which is India only in a modern political sense. Between these foreign elements and the pure Dravidians is a border land where the contiguous races have intermingled. The Hindus of Bengal have been classed by the late Sir Herbert Risley as Mongolo-Dravidiau, those of the United Provinces and Bihar as Aryo-Dravidian, and those of Bombay as Scytho-Dravi- dian.* Owing to their religion there has been less fusion between the Pathans and Moghals and the earlier inhabitants than there was in the case of previous invaders. There are numerous local converts to Muhammadanism, some of whom have intermarried with those of foreign extraction. But the better class amongst the latter have, to a great extent, kept themselves aloof, and have thus preserved their original physical type. To these differences of race are superadded others due to environment- The brave and sturdy peasant of the Punjab, who is so marked a contrast to the cultivator of the steamy delta of the Ganges, owes his physical sui)eriority, not only to his ancestry, but also to the arid climate and comparatively hard life which have hitherto characterized the laud of the five rivers, and to the constant operation there of the law of the survival of the fittest. What changes will be wrought in his character and i^hysique l)y modern conditions of assured peace and an artificial water-supply the future alone can show. ■i. The linguistic survev has distinguished in India about a hundred and thirty indigenous dialects belonging to six distinct families of speech. In tlie domain of religion, though the bulk of the people call themselves Hindus, there are millions of Muliammadans, Animists, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Christians. Hinduism itself includes " a comjjlex congeries of creeds and doctrines." It shelters within its portals monotheists, polytheists and i^autheists ; worshippers of the great gods Siva and Vishnu or of their female counterparts, as well as Avorshippers of the divine mothers, of the spirits of trees, rocks and streams and of the tutelary village deities; persons who propitiate their deity by all manner of bloody sacrifices, and persons Avho will not only kill no living creature but Avho must not even use the word " cut " ; those whose ritual consists mainly of prayers and hymns, and those who indiilge in unspeakable orgies in the name of religion ; and a host of more or less unorthodox sectaries many of whom deny • Tlie above classification, »o far at Icaet aa Bombay is concerned, must etill be regarded as tentative. iNTRODrCTORY REMARKS. 3 the supremacy of the Brahmans, or at least have non-Brahmanical religious leaders. So also in respect of social customs. In the north near relatives are forbidden to marry; but in the south cousin marriai^^e is prescribed, and even closer alliances are sometimes ])ermitted. As a rule female chastity is highly valued, but some communities set little store by it, ai any rate prior to marriage, and others make it a rule to dedicate* one daughter to a life of religious prostitution. In some parts the women move about freely ; in others they are kept secluded. In some parts they wear skirts ; in others trousers. In some parts again vrheat is the staple food ; in others rice, and in others millets of various kinds. All stages of civilization are found in India. At one extreme are the land-holding and professional classes, many of whom are highly educated and refined ; and at the other various primitive aboriginal tribes, such as the head-hunting Nagas of Assam and the leaf-clad savages of the southern hills who subsist on vermin and jungle products. 5. The heterogeneity of political conditions is equallj great. TVhen the and pouucai Aryans first came to India they found the country in possession of scattered '=°" tahsil for statistical and general administrative purjwses. Except in ^ladras, the districts are grouped to form divisions. Each division contains from three to seven (in one case eight) districts, and is in charge of a Commissioner, Avho holds an intermediate position Iietween the District OUiccr and the Government. 9. The partition of India into provinces, states and districts has been Natural dtvisiona. ■determined bj^ political considerations, and does not always correspond to varia- tions in the climate and soil, or the ethnic distribution of the people. l''he statistics of density and movement of population should therefore be discussed with reference both to the actual administrative units, which obviously cannot be ignored, and also to the " natural divisions." The latter must necessarily vary according to the criterion adopted. A distribution made on a purely ethnic basis will differ from one grounded on geological or geographical peculiarities, •on the nature of the soil, or on meteorological conditions. Though there are many exceptions and limitations, in an agricultural country like India it is the rainfall, more than anything else, which determines the population that a given tract will support. There are places where no crops will grow owing to the poverty of the soil, the configm'ation of the surface, or the presence of the saline efflorescence known as reh ; and there are others where the climate is so unhealthy as to be unfit for human habitation. But except where there is irrigation, the rainfall is ordinarily the most important factor. It was therefore decided at the census of 1901 to adopt a scheme of natural divisions (twenty in number), based chiefly on meteorological characters, drawn up by the late Su* John Eliot for use in the reports and maps showing rainfall and temperature, which are published daily for the information of the public. Experience has since shown that these divisions are not suflficiently well understood for practical use ; and the scheme has been abandoned by the Meteorological department in favour of one l)ased primarily on political divisions, which are sub-divided in •cases where the climatic features require it. The new " Rainfall Divisions " are as follows : — Province or State. Rainfall Division, Andamans ar id Nicobars . . 1. Bay Islands. Burma • • a Lower Burma. j> . . 3. Upper Burma. Assam • • ■ . 4. Assam. Bengal • . 5. Eastern Bengal. a . . 6. Bengal. Bihar and Oi rissa . 7. Orissa. J) » ji . 8. Chota N.agpur. » » >} • . 9. Bihar. U nited Provinces of Agra ai id Oudh . . 10. United Provinces East. » » >i . 11. United Provinces West. Punjab . . . 12. Punjab, East and North. » . . 13. Punjab, South and West. Kashmir . . U. Kashmir. N.-W. Frontier Province . 15. X.-W. Frontier Province. Baluchistan . 16. J5aluchistau. Bombay . 17. Sind. 11 . 20. (iujarat. » . 26. Kunkan. It . 27. Bombay Doccau. 6 CHAPTER I. -DISTEIBUTIOX OF THE POPULATION. Rainfall DirUion. 18. Rajputana "West. 19. Rajputana East. 21. Central India West. 22. Central India East. 23. Berar. 24. Central Provinces West. 25. Central Provinces East. 2S. Hyderabad North. 29. Hyderabad South. 30. Mysore with Coorg. 31. Malabar. 32. Madras South-East. 33. Madras Deccan. 3 1. Madras Coast North. 10. Tlie above rainfall dirisious are too numerous to be dealt with individnally in a comprehensive review of the statistics for the whole of India. I propose, therefore, to group them excluding the Bay Islands. the population of which is neghgible, imder the sixteen heads given below which Dr. Walker has kindly suggested to me : — Province or State. Rajputana . . . „ ... Central India }) J) • • Central Provinces and Berar j> j> J) >) ji fy Hyderabad „ ... Mysore and Coorg Madras Natural Division. Rainfall Divisions included. Administrative Divisions or Districts included. I Lower Burma . 2. II Upper Burma . 3. Lower Burma Upper Burma III Assam . IV Benaral . . 4. . 5. 6. Y Orissa and Ma- 7. dras Coast North, 34. VI Bihar and 9. United Provinces 10. East. VII United Provin- 11. ces "West and Punjab East and 12 ' North. Assam Eastern Bengal Bengal. Orissa . Madras Coast North Bihar United East United West. Punjab North Provinces VIII Kashmir . 14. IX The North-West 13. Dry Area. 15. 17. IS. X Baluchistan . 16. XT Rajputana East 19. and Central India 21. West. Kashmir Punjab &outh-"V\'est North-West Frontier Province. Sind. Rajputana West. Baluchistan Rajputana East Central India West. Arakan, Pegu, Irrawaddy andTenasserIm Divi- sions. Magwe. Mandalaj', Sagaing and INIeiktiia Divisions ; the Northern and Southern Shan States; Pakokku Hill Tracts and Chin Hills. The Province of Assam, The Presidency of Bengal (except Darjeeling) and Sikkim. Orissa Division with Orissa Tributary States ; Districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Goda- vari, Kistna, Guntur and Neilore. Patna, Tirhut and Bhagalpur Divisions, and the district of Darjeeling ; Lucknow. Benares, Gorakhpur, Allahabad (except Jalaun and Jhansi districts) and Fyzabad Divisions, and the districts of Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur and Farrukhabad. Provinces Meerut, Kumaun, Rohilkhand (except Shah- jahanpur and Pilibhit districts) and Agra (excluding FaiTukhabad district) Divisions ; the districts of Jalaun and Jhansi, and the States of Rampur and Tehri Garhwal ; Delhi, Jullundur, Lahore and Rawalpindi (except Shahpur and Mianwali) Divisions, and all Native States in the Punjab, except Baha- walpur. Kashmir. Multan Division (including the Biloch Trans- frontier), the districts of Shahpur aud Mian- wali, and the Bahawalpur State ; N.-W. F. Province ; Sind with Khairpur State ; Bikaner, Jaisalmir and Marwar. ■ Baluchistan. , Ajmer-JIcrwara ; all States in the Rajputana Agency, except Bikaner, Jaisalmir and Marwar; Indore and Gwalior Residencies, and the Agencies of Bhopawar. Malwa and Bhopal. East NATURAL DIVISIONS. Natural Division. Rainfall Divisions included. Administititive Divisions or Districts included. XII Gujarat 20. Gujarat . XIII Central India 22. East, CentralPro- ii. vinces and Berar aud Chota Nag- 25. pur. 23. S. 27. 2S. 29. 30. 33. XIV The Deccan. Central India East . Central Provinces West. Central Provinces East Berar Chota Xagpur Bombay Deooan , Hyderabad North Hyderabad South ^Mysore with Coorg Madras Deccan Bombay Northern Division (except Thana); Cambay, Cutch, KatLiawar, and the Agencies of Palanpur, Mahikantha, Rewakautha aud Sui-at ; Baroda. Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand Agencies ; Central Provinces and Berar, and Chota Nagpur Division of Bihar aud Orissa with Chota Nagpur States. XV Malabar and 31. Konkan. 26. XVI Madras South East. :?o Bombay Central Division ; the districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, and Dharwar, the States of Akalkot, IBhor, Surgaua, Kolhapur, S. M. Jaghirs and Savanur, and the Agencies of Khandesh, Satara, and Bijapur ; Hydera- bad ; Mysore and Coorg ; the Madras districts of Bellary, Kurnool, Anantapur and Cuddapah aud the States of Sandur and Banganapalle. Malabar . . The Madras districts of South Cauara, Anjen - Konkan. go and Malabar (excluding Laccadives) and the States of Cochin and Travancore ; Bombay City; the districts of Thana, Kolaba, Ratnagiri and Kanai-a, and the States of Janjira, Jawahar aud Savantvadi. Madras South East . Districts of Madi-as, Chingleput, Chittoor, North Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore, South Arcot, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura, Ramuad, Tiunevelly, Nilgiris and the State of Puduk- kottai. 11. The following brief description of the above natural divisions is based Naturaa divisione on notes -o-hich I have received from Mr. Hayden, Director of the Geological ^^scribed. Survev, aud Dr. Field, OfBciatiug Director General of Observatories. JJoicer Burma comprises the coast and deltaic districts of Burma fi'om Arakan in the north to Mergui in the south. This tract falls geologically into three divisions, (a) the coastal strip of the Arakan Yoma, composed chiefly of Mesozoic aud older Tertiary rocks, {b) the lower valleys aud deltas of the Irra- waddy and Salween rivers covered by alluvium and soft beds of Upper Tertiary age, aud (c) the high parallel ranges, composed of slates, schists and granite, of Tenasserim. The mean annual rainfall is a little beloAV 150"; and of this over 95 per cent, occurs in the period from May to October. Humidity is high at almost all times of the year, while during the rains the atmosphere is very nearly satui'ated with moisture, even in the interior. The rainfall is very regular, the mean variability * being only 64 per cent. During the dry season the range of temperature is almost as great as in the Punjab, and the well- known unhealthiness of the climate may, in part at least, be due to this feature. Upper Burma, or the rest of the province, falls readily into two parts, one on the west of the Irrawaddy, covered chiefly by the sandstones and shales of the Pegu and Irrawaddy series of the Tertiary system, and one on the east, including the Northern and Southern Shan States, and consisting of a great variety of sedimentary rocks, both Palaeozoic and Mesozoic, and a metaniorphic series of gneisses and schists. The climate differs considerably from that of Lower Burma. The monsoon blows as a comparatively dry wind, with the result that the total rainfall received is not only much lighter than that in tlie region to the south Init is also more irregidar iu its occurrence. The mean annual rainfall is -iS", and but little falls from December to March. Thunder- storms occur at intervals in April and frequently in May. The variability • The tcnn " variability " is liere used to signify tbc difference between the higbest and lowest annuil rainfall tiprcgsed as a percentage of the average. Thus if tbe average at a given place be 00 inclies, tbc niaiiiiiuni S5 and the minimum 40, tbe variability woald be ^85 — tO) ^ 100 + 60, or 75. As u rule, tbc variability lias been calculated on the observations made during a period of forty to fifty years. Except iu Kasbuiir aud Baluchistan, where all stations have been classed together, the figures for places more than 3,500 feet above sea-level bav e been left out of account. 8 CHAPTER I. — DISTRIBrnOX OF THE POPULATION. ranges from 53 per cent, at Lasbio to 102 per cent, at Thayetmyo ; and tliere is sometimes a partial failure of the crops. Assam. — The central part of Assam is formed of a crystalline mass (gneiss and schist) forming the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir Hills. Between this and the Tertiary fringe of the Himalayan foot-hills, the Brahmaputra valley is filled Avith a broad belt of alluvium. On the cast and south, Tertiary (and possibly Cretaceous) shales and sandstones form the long jmrallel ranges of the Naga, Manipur and Lusbai Hills. The most characteristic feature of the climate is the great dampness of the atmosphere at all seasons, combined with a moderately high temperatiu'e. In the cold weather months thick fogs prevail along the course of the larger rivers, and rainfall occurs from time to time during the passage of cold weather storms across north-east India. In the spring season thunder-showers are frequent, and in the first half of June merge imperceptibly into the monsoon rainfall which lasts until October. December is the driest month of the year. Excluding the hills above 3,500 feet, where there is in some parts extraordinarily heavy precipitation, that at Chera- punji being the highest registered anywhere in the world, the average rainfall is 92", the highest being 125" at Silchar and the lowest 63" at Gauhati. The variability ranges between 55 per cent, at Dibrugarh and 99 per cent, at Silchar. Bengal. — Almost the Avhole of this division lies on the deltaic alluvium of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. On the west, Bengal embraces the granites and other crystalline rocks and laterite of Bankura and Burdwan, as well as a portion of the Eaniganj coal-field. On the east, the hills of Cliittagong and Hill Tippera are composed of soft Tertiary sandstone and shale, and on the north the sedimentary rocks of the outer slopes of the Darjeeling Himalaya rapidly give place to the gneisses, schists and granites, of Avhich the whole of Sikkim and the greater part of the Darjeeling district are composed. The climate of this tract, like that of Assam, is very damp during the major part of the year, and the diy hot westerly winds which sweep down the Gangetic Plain in the spring months are either not felt at all or only occasionally. The cold season extends from December to February, sea winds beginning there- after to blow from the head of the Bay, and resulting during April and May in frequent thunder-storms and "norwesters." The monsoon rains proper begin in the second week of June and end with the last week of October. Mean annual rainfall increases from 55" at Berhampore to 122" at Jalpaiguri near the foot of the hills, the average for the division being 76". The variability ranges from 81 per cent, at Calcutta to 116 at Saugor Island, and averages Q'i per cent, for the whole division. Orissa and Madras Coast, North. — This division, Avhich includes the Tributary States, as well as the British districts, of Orissa and the coast districts of Madras from Nellore northwards, consists of Archaean schists and gneisses with a fringe of laterite and alluvium along the sea-coast. Small patches of sand- stone and sliale (Gondwanas) occur at Cuttack and in the small coal-field of Talcher. But little rain falls from December to February. Thunder-storms begin in March and give light to moderate rain in Orissa during the next two months, and in the southern half of the division in May. The south-west monsoon aifects Orissa to a much greater extent than it does the north coast of Madras, so that while in the former locality rainfall diminishes considerably after September, on the Madras coast it is at its maximum in October. As most of the rainfall in this division occurs in connection with cyclonic storms, it is very irregular in its incidence, and severe droughts are of not infrequent occurnnicc, particularly in Ganjam. The annual rainfall of the whole division is nearly 50", but it varies from 35" at Nellore to 60" at Sambalpm-. Variability increases from north to south, and is highest at Waltair, where it amounts to 167 per cent. Bihar and the United Pi'ovinces, East — Is bounded on the north by the Tertiary foot-hills of Nepal, and on the south and south-east by the Vindhyan sandstones of the Kaimur range in Mirzapur, the gneisses and granites of Gaya and Bhagalpur and the traps of the Rajmahal Hills. Otherwise the whole area is covered by the Gangetic alluvium. This tract lies within the influence of the winter storms, and receives occasional showers during the first two months of the year. Dry winds set in during March and continue NATURAL DIVISIONS. ^ until about the middle of May. Tho current is, however, somewhat unsteady ; damp easterly winds from the Bay penetrate at intervals well into the United Provinces and give rise to thunder-storms, particularly along the hills. The monsoon rains appear about the middle of June, and last till tho end of September or the first part of Octol)er. The total rainfall received during the year over the division as a whole amounts to IT", and of this nearly half falls during July and August. It is very uncertain in the northern parts of Bihar ; and in Purnea the variability is as high as 168 per cent. United Provinces West, and Punjab East and North. — The south- western half consists of plains of Indo-Gangetic alluvium, whilst the north-eastern embraces the parallel ranges of the Himalaya consisting of {a) the Tertiary outer ranges including theSiwalik Hills and extending from Kangra at the one end to Nepal at the other, next, (b) the metamorjihic and unfossiliferous sedimentary belt of the Lesser Himalaya; behind this (c) the great Himalayan range on which lie the high peaks and which consists chiefly of granite and metamorphic rocks, and behind this again (d) the eastern part of the Zanskar range of highly fossiliferous sediments, interrupted here and there by masses of intrusive granite. From about the middle of December to the end of March this region is influenced by winter storms which give light to moderate precipitation, especially along the hills. Hot weather conditions appear in April and continue until the third or fourth week of June when the rainy season sets in. During the hot season thunder-storms and dust-storms occur at short intervals, and in the hill districts are sometimes accompanied by heavy rain. The rains are on the whole heavier, steadier and of longer duration in the eastern half of the division than in the western. Very heavy downpours are occasionaUy experienced in connection with cyclonic storms. In October and November dry weather ordinarily prevails. The annual rainfall varies between 1-t" and 85", and is subject to large fluctuations from year to year, particularly in the region around Sirsa, where the percentage of variability is 174. Kashmir. — The Kashmir area embraces the western extension of tho Himalayan system, the Zanskar and Ladakh ranges, the Hindu Kush and the Karakoram ranges. They consist of granite and metamorphic rocks, chiefly developed in the Hindu Kush and Karakoram, with a great fossiliferous sedi- mentary series in the Ladakh range, whilst the wide intervening plains of the Tibetan uplands (Ladakh and Chaugchenmo) are covered with sands and gravels. The south-eastern border of the area includes the sedimentary rocks and granites of the Pir Panjal, and is fringed by the Tertiary belt of the outer ranges of Jammu, Mii-pur and Punch. As might be suppo.sed from its topographical characteristics, the climate of Kashmir is by no means uniform ; and while snow begins to fall on the higher ranges in October or November, it is only by the end of December that the snowline has descended to the level of the Sriuagar valley. In some locahties the snowfall is very heavy and almost continuous ; in others spasmodic and light. Kashmir is not quite beyond the influence of the south-west monsoon ; in some years moderately heavy rain occurs in the summer months, and, coupled with the consequent melting of snow accumulations, gives rise to disastrous floods. The total annual precipita- tion varies between 3" at Leh and 78" at Sonamarg. Its variability is least at Skardu (66 per cent.) and greatest at Leh (266 per cent.). The North- West Drrj Area includes the south-west of the Punjab, the North- West Frontier Province, Sind and the west of Rajputana. The greater part of this area consists of alluvial plains. In the extreme north, however, it embraces the Tertiary Ijcds of the North-West Frontier Province and the older sedimentary, metamorphic and granitic rocks of the Hindu Kush. In Western Rajputana desert conditions prevail, the surface being covered with sand through which crop out small exposures of rocks of a great variety of ages. Ihis is on the whole the driest and hottest of all the divisions of India proper. The average rainfall for the year is about ten inches, and of this nearly two inches are contributed by winter storms. Owing to the peculiarities in the distribution of pressm-e, even the sunmier monsoon rainfall in tliis region is intermittent and comparatively light ; and as it occm-s chiefly in connection Avith cyclonic storms, or with the changes in the jiosition of the semi-permanent barometric dei)ression over Sind, it is necessarily very uncertain. 10 CnAPTER I. — BISTRIBUTION OF THE POPCLATIOX. The variability ranges between 156 per cent, at Khusliab and 35-i per cent, at Karachi, which is the highest in Iiidia. Baluchistan extends from the Suleiman range on the east to the Persian frontier on the west and from the southern limits of Afghanistan to the Arabian Sea. The hills are composed mainly of younger Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks— the lower levels l)eing coAcred 1)y wind-blown deposits. Unlike Kashmir, Baluchistan is nearly beyond the influence of tlic monsoon, and deijends for its rainfall chiefly upon the depressions of the winter season. The average yearly rainfall is less than 9", and even this small amount is very uncertain. The variability, as determined from the data of the few stations available, is very high, and averages IGO per cent. Bajptitana East and Central Ttidia West. — This division lies between •the Aravalli and Vindhya Hills and the Gangetic Plain. It is about 2,000 feet •in elevation near the Viudhyas and Aravallis, but slopes north-eastwards and eastwards to the level of the Gangetic Plain. The north-west section consists of gneisses and granites with old schists and slates of the Aravalli range. The south-west portion is covered by basaltic lava-flows. Here, as in the Punjab, the year may be divided into three well-defined seasons. During the cold season, •which lasts from December to March, light rain associated with disturbances of the cold weather type is liable to occur. Marked temperature changes usually precede and follow these cold weather storms ; and occasionally very low tempera- tures are recorded. The hot season is characterized by the prevalence of very hot dry winds and severe dust-storms, particularly in the western parts of the division. The rains commence in the second or third week of June and last until the middle of September. October and November are as a rule dry months. The average rainfall is 25", the highest being 33", and the lowest 20". With a mean variability of 149 per cent, the rainfall of this region is quite as fitful as in the Deccan or the eastern parts of the Punjab, w^hile even during the monsoon it is of an intermittent character ; and in a bad season such as that of 1899 is liable to fail altogether. Gujarat. — This tract includes Gujarat, Kathiawar and Cutch. Geologi- cally it consists of flows of basaltic rock surrounded by a fringe of alluvium. Tliis is one of the driest parts of India and is liable to severe droughts. Scarcely any rain falls from November to May. The summer rains begin in June and last up to about the middle of September. Cyclonic storms from the Bay occasionally pass through Gujarat, and give deluges of rain , resulting in destructive floods. The mean annual rainfall A'aries between 1-1" and 1-1". Its average variability is 188 per cent., being greatest in Cutch ; at Bhuj the measure of variability is 245. Central India East, Central Provitices and JBerar and Chota Nagpur. — This division consists largely of gneiss, schist and granite, covered on the west by basaltic lava-flows (Deccan trap), on the north by the old sedimentary rocks of the Vindhyan system, and in the centre and south-west of the division h\ sandstones and shales of the Gondwana system. Between Jubbul- pore and Hoshangabad the valley of the Nerbudda is filled with alluvium of pleistocene age. The dry season commences about the middle of October and lasts until about the second week in June. During January and February occasional light rain is received from winter storms, and the succeeding three months contribute liglit shoAvers. Central India, like the United Provinces, is swept during the spring months by dry westerly winds, which extend as far as Ranchi. The rains set in during the first fortnight of June and last to the end of September or the earlier part of October. During this period cyclonic storms from the Bay frequently advance through the northern half of the division, sometimes i)roducing very heavy doAvnpoiu-s of rain The annual rainfall averages 47". It varies considerably in amount, being heaviest at llanchi in the east of the division, and Hghtcst at Khandwa in the west. The variability is on the whole inversely proportional to the actual amount : it is least at Chaibasa (03 ])er cent.) and greatest at Akola (170 per cent.). The division is occasionally liable to a partial failure of the rains, due either to a weakness of the monsoon current or to its early withdrawal. The Deccan. — This division comprises the Bombay Deccan, the Madras Deccan, Hyderabad and Mysore. The rocks consist of Deccan trap in the NATtTRAL DIVISIONS. H northern and western half, with o-neisses and schists on the east. In the southern part, the gneisses are associated with the schists of the Dharwar system, whilst an old series of pre-Cambrian sedimentary rocks is exten- sively developed in Cuddapah on the south-east. The winter rains of northern India do not, as a rule, extend southwards beyond the Satpuras, and the period from December to February is accordingly dry. In the Bombay Deccan the dry season is prolonged into May, l)ut elsewhere spring showers occur, sometimes in March and April, and more frequently in May! The Bombay monsoon sweeps across this region from June to September, but having deposited much of its moisture on the western face of the Ghats it gives comparatively light rain. In October and November easterly winds from the Bay prevail and, in conjunction with cyclonic storms, occa- sionally lead to heavy though local i)recipitation. The west monsoon thus lasts longer than in northern India. The average rainfall for the year over the division amounts to 30" but in the central parts, i.e., round about Bellary, it is only 20" ; in this area of scanty rainfall famine conditions are of frequent occurrence. The average A-ariability of rainfall is 136 per cent., ranging from 90 per cent, at Belgaum to 195 per cent, at Sholapur. Malabar and Konlan. — This division comprises the coast districts of Bombay from Thana southwards to the Soutli Canara and Malabar districts of Madras and the Cochin and Travancore States. It is covered in the northern part by Deccan trap and laterite. To the south it consists of gneiss and granite, with a fringe- of recent deposits on the coast of Malabar and Travancore. In Malabar there is but little rain from December to March. Sea breezes set in in April and give rise to frequent and heavy thunder-showers which last till early June, when the true monsoon rains begin. The rainfall of the monsoon, lasting until the end of October or the middle of November, is heavy all along the coast. The annual aggregate is greatest at Mangalore, where it averages 127", and decreases rapidly southwards to 63" at Trivandrum. The variability of rainfall is greatest at Trivandrum (92 per cent.) and least at Cochin (72 per cent.). In the Konkan, owing to the absence of spring showers, the dry season is much more protracted than in Malabar, lasting practically from the latter part of October to the end of May. The summer monsoon rains ajDpear in the iirst week of June, and continue until the middle of October. The rainfall decreases northwards from 122" at Karwar to 72" at Bombay; this district, especially in its northern parts, is largely influenced by any weakness in the monsoon or by an early retreat. The variability of rainfall averages 106 per cent, for the whole division. Madras South-East includes the Madras districts lying south and east of Mysore. It is composed of crystalline rocks (gneiss and charnockite) and Archaean schists belonging to the Dharwar system. Some shales and sandstones of Upper Gondwana age are found near Madras and laterite and sandstone of comparatively recent fpleistocene) age along the coast. The climate of this division differs in some important respects from that of other parts of the Peninsula. The dry season lasts from about the middle of December to the end of June, with occasional thunder-showers in April and May. Showers become more frequent and heavier during the succeeding four mouths, but the total quantity of rain received is by no means large. Heavier rain commences about the middle of October and lasts till the middle of December, when the wet monsoon withdraws finally from the Indian Seas. It is in this period that severe cyclonic disturbances appear over the Bay and occasionally cross into Madras to give heavy doAvnpours of rain. The mean rainfall of the year is about 39", and is subject to large vicissitudes, the measure of its variability being 135 per cent. Area, Population ami Density. 12. "With the exception of a few sparsely inhabited and unadministercd Tho scope or tue tracts on the confines of Burma and Assam, the statistics in these ^*"' "*"" volumes cover the whole Empire of India, that is to say, the territories administered by the Government of India and tlie mediatized Native States. They do not include the Frontier States of Afglianistan, Nepal and Bhutan ; c2 12 CHAPTER I. — DISTRIBrXION OF THE POPULATION. in statistics of I whole Empire. State or Settlement. Area in 6q uare Afghauistan Nci«l Bhutan French Possessions Portngnesc „ 250,000 54,ono 20,000 193 1,638 Fopulation. nor of course do they include the French and Portuguese Settlements. The area and j)02)ulation of these tracts are noted in the mavgiu. The statistics for the rrench and Portuguese Settlements are based on a regular census, taken in the former case concurrently Avith that of British India, and in the latter, on the 31st December 1910.* The figures for K'epal are based on a pioneer census taken by the Durbar in March 1911. Those for merely a very rough estimate on which no 4,600,000 5,639,092 350,000 282,386 602,5Gi are Afghanistan and Bhutan reliance can be placed. 13. According to the revised areas adopted in the census of 1911, the Indian Empire contains 1,802,657 square miles, or some 36,000 more than in 1901. About 23,000 square miles have been added owing to the enumeration ,,..,, . •, J , tf 4, for the first time of Map showinq tne area, density and population of the main ,i . i , j_ political divisions. ' the A gcucy tracts at- tached to tiie North- West Erontier Pro- vince. A further 6,500 represents the area of the Sunder- bans, or swampy littoral of the Ganges delta, which was left out of account at pre- vious enumerations. Finally the frontier State of Manipur has been found to contain about 5,000 square miles more than the estimate made in 1901. Various smaller changes are the result of new surveys and revised calculations. The provinces u.nder British administration comprise 1,093,07-1 square miles or 606 per cent, of the total. The remainder is included in the various Native States. The total population is 315,156,396, of which British territory contains 21i4i, 267,542 or 77"5 per cent. andlEeNalive States 70,888,864 or 22-5 percent. It may facili- tate the comprehension of tliese stupendous figures if some comparison is made with the area and population of European countries. The Indian Empire is equal to the whole of Europe except Russia. Burma is about the same size as Austria-Hungary ; Bombay is comparable in point of area with Spain ; Madras, the Puujali, Baluchistan, the Central Provinces and Berar and Kajputana are all larger than the British Islands ; the United Provinces and Bihar and Orissa than Italy ; and Hyderabad and Kashmir tlian Great Britain, excluding Yorkshire. The population of India exceeds that of Europe without Russia, and is considerably more than three times that of the United States of America. The United Provinces and Bengal with the States attached to tliem both liavc as many inhabitants as the British Islands, Bihar and Orissa as France, Bombay as Austria, and the Punjab as Spain and Portugal combined. The population of the Central Provinces and Berar approaches that of Brazil ; Hyderaliad and Burma have as many inhabitants as Egypt, Central India and Rajputana as Scotland and Ireland combined, and Assam as JBelgium. In the whole Empire there are on the average 175 persons to the square mile, or much the .same as in Europe outside Russia. In British territory the number to the square mile is 223 and in the Native States 100 ; the former figure exceeds by 34 the density ratio in France and the latter is identical with that in Spain. • The Spares for the Portuguese Possessions are provisional. The results of the detailed tahulation for Goa nere not nrailable whin this Chapter went to press. AREA, POPULATION' AND DENSITY. 13 ( There are great- local variations in density. In nearly two-thirds of the •districts and States the number of persons to the square mile is less than 200, and in about a quarter it ranges from 200 to 500. The units with less than 100 persons to the square mile cover two-fifths of the total area but contain only one-eleventh of the population, Avhile those with more than 500, though their area is only one-eleventh of the whole, contain one-third of tlie population. The centre of the population, that is to say, the point of intersection of two lines drawn, the one north and south and the other east and Avest, each dividing the pojnilation of India into two equal parts, is at the southern extremitvof the Panna State in the Central India Agencv, in 23° 49' N. and 80° E. 14. TVe may now proceed to consider in more detail the statistics of the Density ty poiiti- individual Provinces and States and of the various natural divisions already "^ *"'' described. It will be convenient to deal first Avith the former. But before doing so, it must be explained that the natural divisions which will be referred to in this part of the discussion are not those described in paragraph 11, which have been selected with the object of throwing light on the density of population in the whole of India as determined by its varying physical and meteorological characteristics, but smaller ones selected by the Provincial ■ Superintendents for the purpose of distinguishing between the different parts of their individual Provinces and States. It is obvious that Avhen a single Province or State is being dealt with, more minute distinctions can be recog- nized than is possible for the purpose of broad generalizations regarding the population of the Empire as a whole. 15. Assam, which Avas originally administered as part of Bengal, was made Assam, into a separate province under a Chief Commissioner in 1874. Thirty-one years later the burden of administering the overgrown satrapy of Bengal with its population of eighty millions was again found too heavy. The three northern and eastern divisions Avere accordingly cut off, and Assam was amalgamated with tJiem to form a new province xinder a Lieutenant-Governor. These ■arrangements haA'e recently been revised, and Assam is now once more a ■ separate province under a Chief Commissioner. With an area, including Manipur, of 61,471 square miles, Assam has only '7,059,857 inhabitants, or 115 to the square mile. The province falls naturally into three parts. The first two consist of the valleys of the Brahmaputra and Surma rivers, and the third of the intervening hills together. AAith Manijnir and the Lushai country in the south. The rainfall is abundant everywhere, : and the variations in density are determined by other factors. In the Brah- maputra valley the rivers have a rapid flow, eroding their banks and depositing - sand in the tracts flooded by them. In the strath of these rivers permanent cultivation is out of the question. Along the foot of the hills the climate is malarious ; and here also the population is sparse, except Avhere tea gardens have been opened out. Por more than half a century before the annexation of the valley in 1824, extensive tracts had been depopvdated in the course of the Moamaria insurrections and Burmese invasions. In more recent times the popu- lation sustained a severe set-back by the Kald Ajar epidemic that prevailed for nearly tAventy years and has only lately subsided. These causes, partly physi- cal and partly historical, account for the low density in the Brahmaputra valley, where there are only 12G persons to the square mile. The Surma A^alley, Avith 406, is far more densely populated. In this natural division the rivers have a less rapid flow, the climate is more healthy, the greater part of the area is a fertile rice plain, and the conditions are generally similar to those prevailing in the adjoining parts of Eastern Bengal. The Hills division has only 34 in- habitants to the square mile, the smallest number being found in iS'orth Cachar and the Lushai Hills, where there are only 16 and 13 respectively. 16. " Baluchistan," says Mr. Bray, " is a land of contradictions and Baiociiuta«. contrasts. Prom a bird's-eye view the general impression Avould proliably be a chaotic jumble of mud-coloured mountains, for all the Avorld like a bewildered herd of titanic camels. Yet it contains many a rich A'alley and upland plateau, and at least one broad plain as flat and low-lying as any in India. Por a brief and fitful season its rivers are rushing torrents ; for the greater part of the year there is hardly a trickle in their giant beds. On the maps there arc three large lakes of limpid blue — very different from the gloomy swamps of reality. But 14 CHAPTEll I. — DISTRIBITION OF THE POPULATIOX. the maps are cramuied full of unconscious ivouy ; and if you come to the country- after poring over these elaborate iiatchworks of Avell-defined rivers, refreshing oases of green, r.nd named localities inunmerable, small wonder if you condemn it on sight as a land of rivers without water, of forests without trees, of villages without inhabitants. The whole outlook seems bleak and bare. Yet you have only to scratch the soil and add a little water and you can grow what you please. But often enough nature is so perverse that where there is land, there is no water, and where there is water, there is no land. Probably no province in India can show so vast a range of climate. The winter cold of the uplands baffles description . . As for the mid-summer heat of the Kachhi plain, I can only fall back on the hackneyed local proverb of the superfluity of Hell to depict that burning fiery furnace . . On first acquaintance a newcomer is temjDted to svxm vip Baluchistan as ' a vast country, mosth' barren,' unconsciously echoing the unflattering verdict passed on Makran more than a thousand years ago by the Arab traveller and historian, Al Istakhri. Yet among those who have sojourned long enough in Balvichistan for their first impressions to fade a^A■ay, there are few who have not fallen under the mj'sterious spell cast by this wild country and its wild inhabitants." In few parts of this un-Indian country, which geographically and racially belongs rather to Central Asia, does the rainfall exceed seven or eight inches. This is insufiicient to support any but a very precarious form of agri- culture. Though the soil itself is often extraordinarily fertile, cultivation is- possible only with the aid of irrigation, the characteristic form of which is from the laboriously-constructed Jcarez, or underground channel, along which the fertilizing Avater is sometimes carried for miles. In the low country on the northern boundary of Sind there is some irrigation from the Sind canal system. And in the Kachhi plains due north of it, extensive use is made of the flood water from the hill torrents, which is carried over the country in number- less channels and held up by an ingenious system of dams. The total amount of irrigation in the country is, however, very small. Large numbers of the inhabi- tants are pastoral nomads, not merely by habit but by necessity, wandering from place to place in search of grazing grounds for their sheep and goats, camels and other animals. In such a country the population, though sturdy and warlike, is necessarily sparse. Though larger than the British Islands, Baluchistan has only 834,703 inhabitants, or six to the square mile. It contri- butes about 8 per cent, to the area of the Indian Empire, but less than 0'3 per cent, to its population. In Chagai there is only one inhabitant to the square mile. The only three districts where the density is markedly in excess of the average are Quetta-Pishiu (21 to the square mile), Sibi administei'ed territoiy (21) and Loralai (,11). The Quetta-Pishin district consists in the main of upland valleys surrounded by hills, the snow on which feeds numerous springs^ and streams, whose water is distributed to the fields by means of karezes. In the Quetta tahsil, Avith its large military station which provides an excellent market for the local products, there are 100 persons to the square mile, or 40^ if the town of Quetta be excluded. Sibi owes its position mainly to the southern tahsil of Nasirabad with its irrigation from the Sind canals. Loralai, with a density about half that of Sibi, enjoys what is for Baluchistan a fairly copious rainfall of 11 inches. Bengal 17. At the time of the census of 1901 the territories which now comprise ihe provinces of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa formed a single province with a population (including its Native States) exceeding 78 millions, or considerably more than a quarter of that of the Avhole Indian Empire. It Avas impossible to administer satisfactorily so unwieldy a charge. Accordingly, in 1905, tliree divi- sions — Dacca, Chittagong and Bajshahi (Avhicli was given the Malda district in lieu of Darjeeiing) — were joined Avith .Vssam to form a new province called Eastern Bengal and Assam, under a Lieutenant-Governor. At the same time the five Hindi-speaking States on the borders of Chota Nagpur were transferred to the Central Provinces in exchange for the district of Sambalpur and five Feudatory States Avhose vernacular Avas Oriya. This measure Avas unpopular with the Bengali Hindus, who vicAved Avith dislike and suspicion the division of their race between two administrations. Accordingly, on the occasion of the Coronation Durbar at Dellii in December 1911, His Majesty the King-Emperor ARKA, POPULATION AHV DENSITV. 15 announced a fresh scheme of division. Assam again became a separate province under a Chief Conunissioner. The rest of "Eastern lU'iigal and Assam" was reunited with the Presidency and Burdwan divisions of Bengal and the district of Darjeeling to form the Presidency of Bengal under a Governor in Council ; and Bihar, with Chota Xag])nr and (Jrissa, was made into a separate province under a Lieutenant-Governor in Council. These changes took effect from the 1st April 1912, or more than a year after the date of the cen.sus, hut for convenience' sake the statistics have been rearranged according to the provinces as now constituted, and a sei)rirate volume of tables has l)een prepared for each. Assam also has a separate Report ; but the discussion of the results of the census inthe other two ])rovinces is contained in a single volume written by 3Ir. O'Malley, the Bengal Provincial Superintendent. 18. The Presidency of Bengal, including the States of Cooch Behar and Hill Tippera, has a population of 46, 305, 6.12 persons and an area of 8-l<,092 square miles. Though somewhat smaller than Great Britain, it contains nearly a million inliabitants more than the whole of tht; British Isles. It is the smallest of the main provinces, but its population is exceeded only by that of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It contains on the average 551 persons to the square mile, or many more than any European country except England and Belgium. Its density is far greater than that of any other Indian province ; it is nearly doulile that of Madras, more than three times that of Bombay, and more than four times that of the Central Provinces and Berar. As now constituted, Bengal is perhaps the most homogeneous of all Indian pro- vinces. Practically the wliole of it is a fertile alluvial plain, in which rice is almost everywhere the predominant crop ; and the differences between its four natural divisions are not at first sight very apparent. They are dependent more on historical and sanitary considerations, and on the extent to A\hich the soil is enriched by silt deposited when the rivers are in flood, than on any striking con- trasts in tlie climate, people or physical features. The region of swamp ar;d forest along the sea coast, known as the Sundcrbans, is practically uninhal)ited Tlie population is sparse in the north where there are extensive areas of hilly country and reserved forest which are not available for cultivation ; in the west, on the borders of Chota Nagpvir where the alluvinm gives way to laterite, except in the Eaniganj Sub- Division where coal more than comjiensates for an infertile soil ; and in the hills to the south-east, between Chittagong and Bui-ma. The highest density is found in the metropolitan districts of Howrah and the 2J--Parganas. The former has 1,850 persons to the square mile. Even if Howrah city be excluded it still has 1,523; and in no thana in the district does the number fall below 1,293. The district is the home of many who earn their living in Calcutta ; and the river bank is lined with jute mills, brick fields, lime kilns and other industrial concerns. The conditions are very similar in the 2J!-Parganas. Excluding the portion in the Suudar1)ans, this district has a mean density of 777, rising to 1,510 in the Barrackpore su])-division with its numerous towns, factories and mills, and tailing off to a hundred in the thanas adjoining the Sunderbans. Away from these two districts and Hooghly, the u'reatest density is found in several districts of East Bengal, wlien^ the climate is .salubrious and the rainfall ample, and the Ganges and Brahmaputra vie with each other in replenishing the soil with fresh deposits of silt. In this tract the cultivation of jute is rapidly being extended. The Dacca district has a mean density of 1,066, rising in one sub-division to 1,791 and in one thana (Srinagar) to 1,996. This thana is largely inhabited by the educated classes, Avho find employment in all parts of Bengal and Assam : only half its inhabitants are su])poited by agriculture. In Tipjjera the density is 972, and it is equally great in parts of Faridpur, Mymensing and Noakhali. In Central Bengal, excluding; the 21- Parganas, the conditions are less favourable. Tiie Ganges, having strayed further east, has ceased to enrich the soil with its fertilizing silt. The numerous distri- butaries doAvn which it once found its way to the sea have degenerated into stagnant lagoons, and the health of the ])eople has thus been .seriously allV-ettid- In this part of the province the mean density is lower than in the districts already mentioned, but here and there favoured tracts are found where it is very high. Xatural Divisiou. XuiiiIkt of persons per equare mile. West Bengal Central Bengal . East Bengal North Bengal . 607 634 .'-,16 52-1 16 CHAPTER I. — DISTEIBTJTION OP THE POPULATION. BUiar and Orissa. Natural Division. North Bihar South Bihar Orissa Chota Nagpur plateau Number of ' persons per ^square mile. Mui'shidabad, for instaBCe, has four tbanas ■nith a density exceeding a thousand- North Bengal also is full of silted-up river beds, and parts are very unhealthy. In Jalpaigm-i and Darjeeling there are extensive reserved forests ; and in the south-central portion is an extensive elevated tract with an infertile quasi- laterite soil. The density is greatest in the districts bordering on the Brahma- putra. One of the thanas in Pabna has 1,209 inhabitants to the square mile and another in Eangpm* 1,188. These figures are in marked contrast to those of the Jalpaiguri district, where the Alipur thaua has only 162. 19. With a larger area than Bengal (111,829 square miles), Bihar and Orissa has a smaller population (38,435,293). The province comprises three tracts with very divergent physical characteristics — the open plains of Bihar, the coast districts of Orissa and the hills and uplands of the Chota Nagpur plateau. This latter term is used to denote the whole of the elevated tract which divides Bihar from Bengal and Orissa ; it includes the Sonthal Parganas,. the Chota Nagpur Commissionership, Sambalj>ur, An gul and all the Feudatory States. Bihar again falls naturally into two parts, the one north and the other south of the Ganges. North Bihar is a level alluvial formation which ordinarily enjoys a copious rainfall and contains many tracts of great natural fertility. South Bihar has a strip of alluvium along the course of the Ganges, but further • south the country rises towards the Chota Nagpur plateau, and the soil becomes less fertile. The rainfall is frequently deficient, but is supplemented to a varying extent by irrigation. In respect of its density of 344 persons to the square mile, Bihar and! Orissa stands third amongst the main British Provinces. In British territory the density ratio ■ is 415 against only 138 in the Native States. On the whole the local variations depend less on the rainfall than on the configuration of the surface. In the plains the density is everywhere, high, while in the hills it is almost universally low. It is highest in North Bihar, especially in the centre and south-west, where in eight thanas it exceeds a thousand to the square mile. In the Sitamarhi sub-division of Muzaffarpur it is 1,037, and in that district as a whole it is 937. In the east and north-west of this natural division the density is much lower, owing to the existence of numerous lakes and swamps which have made the climate unhealthy and limited the area available for cultivation. In Purnea there are also extensive sandy wastes caused by the vagaries of the Kosi river. The riparian part of South Bihar has a high density (734), but further south, on the borders of Chota Nagpur, it is much lower (268). In Orissa there are similar local variations. This natural division may be divided roughly into three strips, one along the coast,. a second bordering on the hills, and a third between these two. The strip along the coast, where the soil is swampy and impregnated with salt, and thecompara-- tively barren country bordering on the hills are alike sparsely inhabited. The. intermediate zone has a fertile alluvial soil and a considerable amount of irrigation ; and it supports a large pojiulation, rising to 963 to the square mile in one thana of Cuttack. In the Chota Nagpur plateau, save in a few States adjoining Orissa where the conditions are not typical, the population is every- where sparse. In this tract the surface is often very uneven and the soil poor ; large areas are under forest or unfit for tillage ; and the aboriginal tribes who form the bulk of the inhabitants are very poor cultivators. The density reaches its minimum for British territory (93 to the square mile) in the Khondmals sub-division of Angul, and for Native States ( 38) in Rairakhol. Both these tracts are still mainly under forest. In Manbhum the development of the coal industry accounts for a much larger population than would otherwise find subsistence there ; two thanas in the coal-field area have each about 650 inhabitants to the square mile, while a neighbouring thana where there are no collieries has only a third that number. Bombay. 20. Bombay, including its States, though larger (186,923 square miles) than any other province except Burma, holds only the fifth place in respect of itS' population. This is 27,084,317, or 145 to the square mile, viz., 160 in the British districts and 116 in the States. The greatest density (433) is found in. Number I Nataral Dirlsioo, ' of per sons por equa re mile. Konkan 227 Peocan 172 Karnatak , 1 190 Gujarat 276 Siiid . 7t AREA, POPULATION AXD DEySITT. 17 Kaira, a district of Gujarat, and the least (25) in tlio Khaiidcsh Apjoncy. The most sparsely pcoi)]cd British district is Thar and Parkar in Sind where there are 33 inhahitants to the square mile. Exchidincf Aden, five natural divisions may he distinguished. In the south is the Konkan, a narrow strip of land between the Western Ghats and the sea. Exposed to the full forceof the south-Avest monsoon, its normal rain- Aotr.—The figures for Natural Divisions n n • ^ £ -, r^r^ • t mi i i refer to British districts only. tall IS upwards 01 100 inchcs. The stapIc crop is a coarse rice. The mean density is not very high, hut this is because there are extensive forest reserves and other uncultivable areas. In projiortion to its cultivable area, the Konkan supports a larger population than any other division. The soil is not especially fertile, but the heavy rainfall is const „ Central 550 ,. East . 706 Ceutral India Plateau (Bun.ielkiiand) . 211 East Satpuras (Mirzapur) . 205 22 CHAPTER I. — DISTKIBFIION OP THE POPULATION. and a considerable amount of irrigation, especially in the Jumna-Gauges Doab. It enjoys exceptionally good raihvay communications. It also contains most of the capitals ot the old Muhammadan rulers, many of which are still important cities. EolloAving the classificatiou adopted at the previous census, Mr. Blunt subdivides the plains north of the Jumna intO' five natural divisions, vk., the western and eastern sub-montane tracts and the Avestern, central, and eastern parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain. The Himalayan area, though it has the heaviest rainfall, has a lower density than any other division. The greater part of this division consists of mountains and broken country where cultivation of an inferior kind is possible only in the narrow valleys and on the more gentle slopes. It contains the hill-stations of Naiui Tal, Almora and Mussoorie, and also Dehra Dun, the .sub-montane part of which is much more highly cultivated than the rest of the division, and has attracted many European settlers. One of its districts, Garhwal, is the most sparsely peopled in the province. Bundelkhand and Mirzapur in the south have also a very scanty population. The black cotton soil of the former tract is peculiarly retentive of moisture, while when dry it becomes so hard as to be almost unworkable. The crops are thus liable to damage both when the rainfall fails and also when it is in excess. Cultivation, more- over, is rendered impossible iu some parts by the luxuriant growth of the weed called Kails {Saccharum spontmieum), which strikes its roots deep into the soil. Prior to its annexation in ]804, tliis tract was a constant scene of warfare, and the land revenue settlements made in the early days of British rule were unduly high. The greater part of Mirzapur is covered with forest and low hills. Throughout the remaining natural divisions the conditions are fairly homoge- neous, and the variations in the density are not very great. The relatively low figure for the Sub-Himalaya, West, is due mainly to the presence of extensive areas of forest. If these be excluded from the calculation its density is very nearly equal to that in the eastern S ub-Himalayan area. The maximum density in the latter tract is reached in Gorakhpur (707) where European planters have been instrumental iu opening out waste lands and introducing valuable crojis and improved methods of agriculture. In the Indo-Gangetic plain the density of population increases steadily from west to east. The west- ern portion, though better irrigated, has a less favourable rainfall. In the latter respect there is little difference between the central and eastern portions of the Gangetic plain, but in the eastern division a larger area is double cropped, there is more irrigation, and far more rice is grown. The most thickly peopled district is Benares, with 890 persons to the square mile, but if the city popula- tion be exchided, Jaunpur in tlie eastern division takes the first place with 726. Mr. Blunt is inclined to think that ethnic considerations help to account for the growing density from west to east. He notes that the Aryan element in the population gradually becomes weaker in this direction. The lower castes are rela- tively more numerous ; their standard of living is lower, and the absence of the restrictions which place an artificial check on the growth of population amongst the higher castes enables them to increase more rapidly. A further reason for the higher density in the eastern districts is that (excluding Oudh) they came under British rule at an earlier date, and have tluis been longer in the enjoyment of peace and settled conditions. If the tahsil be taken as the unit, it appears that in about a quarter of the total area there are less than 3U0 inliabitants to the square mile, in a fifth there are 300 to 450, in nearly a third there are 450 to 600, and in a fifth there are over 600. Mr. Blunt examines at some length the various factors affecting density. In this province the rainfall is every where svifiicient, and does not therefore account, to any appreciable extent, for the local variations which exist. In the Himalayan region and the country south of tlie Jumna the sui-face is so broken that cultivation can never be very extensive, but elsewhere the main factors are the fertility of the soil, the area available for cultivation, including that douljle-crop])ed, and the nature of the crops grown. To some extent rice seems capable of supporting a larger population than other cereals. The density is also affected by tho salubrity of AREA, POPULATION' AXD DENSITY. 23 the cMmate, the past history of a tract and the social habits of the people, includinij their standard of comfort. 28. The area of the Bavoda State is now returned as 8,182 sqiiarc miles and b*""****- the population iis 2,032,798. There are on the average 2i8 persons per square mile, or sominvhat fewer than in the British districts of Gujarat. The greatest density (719) is found in the fertile and highly cultivated Gaudevi triiuka in the south of the Navsari division, and the lowest (ol) in the Songhad taluka in the east of the same division, Avhere an extensive area is under forest ; the surface is hillv and the inhabitants are mainly Bhils and other forest tril)es. About three-quarters of the total area of the State is cultivated, the prineiiwl crops l)eing bcijri, jowar and cotton. 29. The Central India Agency, with an area of 77,307 square miles and a central indin. population of 9,356,980, or 121 to the square mile, contains about 130 States of - J all sizes, ranging from petty chiefships with one or two villages to Gwalior, which , . .' ■ ■ --^ is as large as Greece and has a greater population. The Agency falls naturally ' '• into three divisions — the Plateau, Low-lying and Hilly. The first of these includes . the uplands, 1,600 feet and more above sea level, stretching from the great wall oi j,,^ u^ Adilal)ad district is a medley of hills and forests with occasional patelies of cultivation, and has necessarily a sparse population. In the Marathwara division the density is more uniform, the maximum being 186 in Nander aud the miiiimum 110 in Aurangaliad. 24 CHAPTEB I. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATIOls'. Nandcr eujoys a comparatively high rainfall (32 inches), and its rich alluvial black soil yields the finest variety of cotton in the Deccan. In spite of its low rainfall (26 inches) the district of Osmanabad ranks next in point of density, chiefly owing to its black cotton soil, which is very retentive of moisture. Aurangabad consists for the most part of hilly country, inhabited mainly by Bhils ; and it has suffered during the past twenty years from famine and, more recently, from plague, Kashmir. 32. The Kashmir State contains a narrow sti'ip of level land along the Punjab border, and the fertile elevated valley of Kashmir proper. But almost everywhere else the surface is extremely broken, though there are sporadic oases in the deep canons of the mighty rivers ; but the mountains are the predominating featu.rc in the landscape. These include in the north-west some of the highest peaks of the great Himalayan range. In such a country the jwpulation must necessarily be sparse. The total area, 84,432 square miles, exceeds that of the Hyderabad State, but the population, 3,158,126, is less than a quarter as great ; it is in fact much smaller than that of the Mymensingh district in Bengal. The number of persons to the square mile is only 37, or less than in any other important political division except Baluchistan. The local variations in density are very marked. Jammu district with only I'l per cent, of the total area has 10"3 per cent, of the population, while Ladakh with more than half the area has only 6 per cent. In the latter tract and in the Frontier Haqas there are only 4 jiersons to the square mile, against 228 in Kashmir South and 280 in the Jammu district. •irsore. 33. Including the civil and military station of Bangalore, Mysore has an area of 29,475 square miles and a population of 5,806,193, or 197 to the square mile. The State naturally falls into two divisions, the Malnad or hilly tract sloping down from the Western Ghats, with a density of 151, and the Maidan, or open country to the east, with 214. The relatively low density in the Malnad is due entirely to the contiguratiou of the surface ; it has a greater rainfall and better irrigation facilities than the Maidan, but the area fit for cultivation is much more restricted. In this tract indeed the density varies, not directly but inversely, with the rainfall, the tracts where it is most copious being those where the surface is most broken. In the Maidan or eastern division, on the other hand, the correlation between rainfall and density is complete: the Bangalore district, for instance, which has the heaviest rainfall, has also the highest density, and Chitaldrug with the lightest rainfall the lowest. Xajunt^and 34. With a total area of 128,987 square miles, the 21 States and Chiefships of the Rajputana Agency have only 10,.530,432 inhabitants or 82 to the square mile. The individual States vary greatly in size, from Marwar, which is larger than Scotland, to Jhalawar, which is considerably smaller than an average English county. The Chiefships of Shahpura and Kushalgarh and the Thakurate of Lawa are of course smaller still. The little province of Ajmer-Merwara, the census of which was taken by the Census Superintendent of Rajputana, is situated in the middle of the Agency and has an area of 2,711 square miles and a population of 501,395, or 185 to the square mile. Mr. Kealy divides his charge, as was done at the two previous censuses, into three natural divisions — the Eastern, Southern and Western. The first-men- tioned division resembles the adjoining part of Central India. There is a sprink- ling of rocky hills, but on the whole the surface is level and the soil fertile, and there is generally sufficient rain. This division is intersected by several rivers. It is better served by railways and has more and better roads than the other parts of the Agency. The Southern division consists mainly of forest-clad hills enclos- ing fertile well-watered valleys, but occasionally more open tracts are met with. Tlie Western division, Avhich is by far the most extensive, forms part of the North-West Dry Area. It has a very scanty rainfall and its liability to famine is proverbial.* The physical characteristics of these divisions are clearly reflected in the density of their population. In the Eastern division there are 164 inhabitants to the square mile, in the Southern 103, and in the Western • Mr. Ktaly quotes two proverbs refen-ing to the frequency of famines : — " His feet are in Pungal, his head is in Meiia, liis belly's in Bikanar. In forgetful momi-'nts he'U visit Jodlipur ; but lie's always in Jaisalmer " ; and " Expect one lean year in three, one famine year in eight " AREA, POPULATION AND DENSITY. 25 only 38.* In the Jaisalmcr State, iu the west, there are only 5 inhabitants to the square mile, or even fewer than in Baluchistan : in the four most thinly peopled parganas of this State there are only two people to the square mile. The antithesis to this is found in the State of Bharatpur on the eastern l)(n-der of the Agency, where there are 282. Except where the surface is much broken, the density varies more or less closely with the rainfall. In the Western division it is greatest (59 pei'sons to the square mile) in Marwar, which has twelve inches, and least, as we have just seen, in Jaisalmcr, wliich has less than seven. The general low density throughout this division is diie entirely to its scanty rainfaU. The soil itself is often fertile, and if irrigated would no doubt, in some parts at least, be capable of supporting as great a popidation as the canal colonies of the Punjab. 35. Travancore in the extreme south-west of the peninsula has a population Travaaooro. of 3,4.28,975 and an area of 7,59l< square miles. It falls naturally into two parts — the Western, littoral and deltaic, and the Eastern, mountainous and sub-montane. There are on the average 452 persons to the square mile, but there arc extraordinary local variations ; in the Western division the number is 1,081 against 252 in the Eastern. The latter tract has a heavier rainfall, bvxt the surface is so broken that half the total area is unfit for ciUtivation; the soil is relatively veiy poor, and the climate unhealthy. Along the coast, on the other hand, the level soil is rich, and is fertilized every year by fresh alluvial deposits ; there is also some irrigation. The staple crop is rice, but there are many other highly profitable products, including cocoanuts and other palms. Three talukas iu the Western division have a density exceeding 1,500 to the square mile. 36. It remains to consider the distril)ution of the population with reference Density by to the natm-al divisions described in paragraphs 10 and 11. Their density is °''*'"'*' ° correlated in Subsidiary Table I at the end of this Chapter with the rainfall, the cultivated, cultivable and irrigated areas, and the principal crops grown. In the previous part of this Chapter the political divisions have ])een taken iu turn, and an attempt has been made to explain the local variations in their density with reference to the rainfall, fertility of the soil and other factors which appear to account for them. It Avill now be convenient to reverse the process, and to consider the influence of the various factors on Avhich the growth of the popidation depends by correlating them with the density in natural divisions where they operate to a varying extent. In other Avords, the density factor and not the locality will now form the foundation for the discussion. The predominant density factors in India are by no means those which count for most in Western countries, wdiere the variations in the population depend mainly on the progress made in commercial and industrial development. In England, next to London and its environs, we find the most teeming population in Lancashire with its cotton mills, and Durham with its numerous collieries. The density in these two counties is more than five times that in pastoral and agricultural counties sucli as Oxfordshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Devonshire. In the latter the i\iuiil)er of persons to the square mile nowhere exceeds 200, and in some it is nuich less ; and it would seem that Trunnier's dictum regarding Germany to the effect that agriculture alone is unable to support more than 250 persons to the square mile t is equally true of England, and in fact of all parts of Europe. The conditions are quite different in Iudia» where two-thirds of the population is directly dependent on agriculture, as compared with less than 7 per cent, in England. In large areas, such as the natural divisions -which here form the basis of the discussion, manufactm-es and trade affect the density to a comparatively small extent ; and even the num- ber of individual districts who.se density is greatly atfected l)y the existence of trading and industrial centres is still comparatively small. Moreover, while in Europe, as we have seen, agriculture is unable to support more than 250 persons to the square mile, in India there are some purely agricultural tracts ■where it already supports three or even four times that number and others ■where it cannot sup])ort a tenth of it. The variations in the productiveness of the land are far greater than they are in Europe ; and it is the causes which • If Ajmer wid Uorwara be left out of iiicjunt, tlio density in the Eastern division is IGl', anJ in the Southern, 100. ^ Btitrage sum Problem der VolkidioHte, ■ 2G CHArTEB. I. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION. Density and rainfnll. Irrigation. produce these variations that are of the greatest importance iu determining the density. 37. It is possilile that the density may, to some extent, be affected by certain economic conditions, such as the system of land tenures, the rates of rent and the standard of comfort of the people. It would seem a priori that the land can support a larger population in a raiyatwari tract, where rents are low and the cultivators can afford to employ hired labourers, than in a zamindari tract where rents are relatively high and the cultivators have to do most of the work tliemselves. This, however, does not ajipear to be the case : the most densely peopled tracts are often those where the land is in the bauds of zamindars. It might be supposed, again, that a great deal must depend on the standard of living : where it is low a larger number of mouths could be fed from a given holding than where it is relatively high. This consideration seems to have some effect in the United Provinces, where Mr. Blunt attributes to it the greater density of the eastern districts whose population contains a much larger proportion of low castes, that is to say, of people with a comparatively low standard of living, as compared with that of the western districts of his province. On the other hand, we find a still hi2;her densitv in certain districts of East Bengal where the standard of living is higher than in many other parts of India. However this may be, it is clear that these economic conditions, even if they do to some extent affect the density, are less important than the A^ariations in the productiveness of the soil ; and they are too elusive for it to be possible to appraise them in a Report for the Empire as a whole. There can be no question that, for practical purposes, the factors of primarj^ importance are those connected with agriculture. In his work already referred to, Trunnier condemns as vmsound "the tendency to regard density as dependent solely on the cultivated area," but in India there is no doubt whatever that it is dependent, if not solely on the area under cultivation, at least on the sum total of the agricultural conditions, of which that is one of the most important, which taken together determine the productiveness of the soil. 38. And first let us consider the effect of the rainfall. It has often been said that in India it is this more than anything else which determines the density of the population, but a glance at the map overleaf will suffice to show that such a statement is at the best a broad generalization which is subject to many exceptions and limitations. By far the heaviest rainfall received in any part of India occurs in Lower Burma, where there are only SO persons to the square mile. The rainfall in Assam is more than three times that in Gujarat and the Deccan, but Assam has a lower density than either of these divisions. Bengal and " Bihar and the United Provinces East," which are far more densely peopled than any other part of India, have a rainfall, the former of 7ii" and the latter of only -i? ". A casual observer might thus be tempted to assert that the converse of the above proposition is the true one, and that there is no correlation whatever between the rainfall of a given tract and the population which it will support. As a matter of fact a very close con- nection undoubtedly exists, but there are other considerations which must also be taken into account. In the fii'st place it is obvious that, although a certain amount of rain is necessary for successful cultivation, there is a point beyond which an additional quantity is no longer beneficial, and may even be injurious. Provided that it is projjcrly distributed, it appears that an annual precipitation of 40" is sufficient in most parts of India, and that it is only Avhen it is less than this, or is l)adly distributed, that differences in the amount received have any marked influence on the success of cultivation and consequently on the density of population. If we confine our attention to the natural divisions with an annual jirecipitation of less than -lO", a general correspondence will at once he noticed between the rainfall and the density of the population. Thus the Deccan with 30" has 169 inhabitants to the square mile, liajputana East and Central India West with 25" lias 131, Kaslimir with 21" lias 37 and Balu- chistan with 8" only 0. But even in these tracts the correlation is only partial ; and the North-West Dry Area has twice the density of Kashmir with less tlian half its rainfall. 39. Here a new factor comes into play. The North-West Dry Area owes the greater part of its population to the circumstance that it has the most extensive AREA, POPULATION' AND DENSITY. 27 system of in-ii^ation ol" any part of India. For tlie success of cultivation the essential thinn- is Avater, and it does not greatly matter Avhether it is received in the shape of rain or from canals or tanks. There is perhaps no administrative problem in India which has received so much attention from Government, and with such successful results, as that of providing water by artificial means for tracts where the natural supply is deficient. In the discus- sion of density in political divisions frequent mention has been made of the influence of irrigation. In Madras, for example, it has Ijecu shown tliat this is one of the reasons why the East Coast South with a rainfall of only 32" has nmch the same density as the West Coast with 110". Similar instances could be multiplied almost indefinitely. Thus in Gaya " canal ii-rigation has turned a most infertile tract, a large part of which was sandy and unproductive, into a region of rich fertility."* In 1910-11 the total irrigated area in India exceeded 22"5 million acres. In the map facing page 25 the principal irrigated areas are enclosed within green lines, but in considering the density of their population, it must be borne in mind that many of them have only recently been provided with an artificial watcr-su])ply, and that sufficient time has not yet elapsed for its full effect to become apparent. The majority of the tracts Avhich are u-iost extensively irrigated had formerly a very scanty population ; and although this is now growing very rapidly, it has not yet reached its limit. To take one of the most striking instances : as recently as 1891 the Lyallpur district in the Punjab was a barren desert with only seven inhabitants to the square mile, but when the canals were opened in the following year cultivators flocked in at once from far and near, and by 1901 the district already had a population of 187 to the square mile. This has now risen to 272, 'and it is still growing rapidly. 40. Irrigation, where it exists, is an extremely important factor, hut it affects conflguration ot a comparatively small area, and is not to be compared in its general influence '"^ s^rfaoe. on density with the physical configuration. Crops cannot grow without a certain amount of water, but where that is forthcoming, the extent of culti- vation and the character of the crojis are alike determined by the shape of the surface. Where it is level, practically every inch, can be brought under the plovigh ; water can be retained on the land by means of small ridges to supply the moistm'e, so necessary under the tropical sun, during the intervals when no rain falls ; there is no erosion, and permanent cultivation is possible. Where the surface is undulating, the bottoms of the slopes, which get the drainage and detritus from the higher levels, are extremely fertile ; hut on the slopes themselves, cultivation is more precarious, and it becomes increasingly so towards the top. The higher the field the more rapidly does the water di'ain off from it, and the greater is the need for constant and regular rain. On high ground, even a short break is injurious to the crops, and a long one destroys them. Moreover, whenever land on a slope is broken np for culti- vation, it becomes subject to erosion and the soil is soon washed away. On such ground only the hardier and less productive crops will grow, and long intervals of fallow are required in order that it may regain a modicum of fertility. Much depends, of course, on the gradient of the slope. Where it is very gentle the drawbacks are less marked, w'laile where it is steep, cultivation of any kind becomes impossible. Sometimes the natural disadvantages of sloping ground are minimized by an elaborate system of terracing, the hill- sides being laboriously cut out into a series of steps, each of which is held up by a retaining wall. But these terraces are possible only where the hill-sides are not too steep and there is a sufficient depth of soil for excavation; and in a very hilly country the proportion of the total area which can be thus treated is extremely small. Throughout India the most thickly peopled tracts are level ])lains wliere practically every inch ot the land is fit for tillage. This is notably the case in Bengal and Bihar and the United Provinces East. The next most densely peopled tracts arc the low-lying plains along the sea coast in the southern part of the peninsula. In the United Provinces West and the Punjab East the configuration of the surface is equally favourable; the rainfall is more scanty and less regular, but it is supplemented in many parts by water from • Gaya Dittrict Gazetteer, page 135. E 2 28 CHAPTER I. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPrLATION. CUouite. Historical consi- derations. Fertility of the sou. the canals. The natural division which contains the coast districts of Orissa and north ^ladras, with a rainfall of 50", has a relatively low mean density, hut this is hecause it includes on the west a considerahle hilly area, Avhilc on the east near the sea the ground is swampy and impregnated with salt. In the intermediate strip hetween the littoral and the hills the density is as great as in many parts of the lower Gangetic Plain. Want of water is the main explanation of the comparatively sparse population in several more or less level tracts, such as Gujarat, Rajputana East and Central India West, and the Xorth-West Dry Area. In Assam there are extensive tracts of hill and jungle, and sandy stretches in the strath of the Brahmaputra river, where permanent cultivation is out of the question. The agricultural returns show that three-quarters of the whole area is cultivahle, hut this simply means that crojDS of some kind can occasionally Ije grown. The proportion of the area fit for permanent cultivation must he Jess than half that shown in the returns. 41. In Assam, moreover, the climate has to he reckoned with. The country is extremely malarious ; and even in tracts which could support many more inhahitants than they at present possess, the population is practically stationary. This question of unhealthincss is also a serious one in the United Provinces West and Punjah East and North. Here also the growth of the population is retarded, not becavise the limit of the soil's capacity has been reached, but on account of the ravages caused by malaria and, in recent times, by plague. Numerous local instances of the influence of climate on the density of the population have been given in the preceding paragraphs, and others will be found in the next Chapter. 42. Many parts of Burma are level enough, and in the deltaic districts the rainfall is more than ample. Here the low density is explained by the past history of the country, Before its annexation it had suffered for several generations from misrule and internecine wars, in the course of which the joopu- latiou had been almost exterminated. Since the advent of peace and good government the pojDulation is growing rapidly ; and it is not improbable that a hundred years hence many parts will contain three or four times their present number of inhabitants. Very similar conditions prevailed a century ago in Assam, but that province has had more time in which to recover from the murderous raids of the Moamarias and Burmese that preceded the introduction of the Fax Bntannica. At different times many parts of India have been almost depopulated by marauding armies. The Nimar district of the Central Provinces was devastated during the Maratha and Pindari wars in the early part of the last century ; and although many parts have been reclaimed in recent years from the jungle into which they had relapsed, some tracts of considerable natural fertility still remain almost uninhabited. 43. To any one accustomed to European conditions it will seem strange that no mention should yet have been made of what is there the most important factor of all, viz., the nature of the soil. The reason is that in India the soil itself counts for very little as compared with the rainfall and the physical configuration. That there are great differences in the quality of different soils is undeniable ; and where other conditions are the same, the outturn of the crops must vary accordingly. But the variations due to this cause are, gene- rally speaking, far less marked than those due to differences in the rainfall or in the shape of the surface. The valleys of the Ganges and the Indus are alike alluvial formations, but while the one is the most densely, the other is almost the most .sjiarsely, peopled tract in India. The ingredients of the soil are probably much the same, but in the Lower Gauges A'alley the rainfall is ample, while in that of the Indus it is lamentably small. As stated in the Imperial Gazetteer : " The soil of Sind is plastic clay deposited by the Indus. With Avater it develops into a rich mould; without water it degenerates into a desert. " A further reason Avhy soil cannot be taken into account when dealing Avith large areas, is that the variations are comparatively minute ; except In the great alluvial plains the same natural division often contains many diiterent kinds of soil. Instances of this Avill be found in Mr. Marten's discussion of density in the smaller natural divisions of the Central Provinces and Berar Avhich he has distinguished for the purpose of his Provincial llcport. TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 29 lu view of the iinpossilnlity of isolating the soil factor it is impossil)le to form any opinion as to the kind of soil which is capable of su])porting the heaviest population. The fertility of l)lack cotton soil has often beoi lauded, but nowhere is it associated with a density approaching that supported by the alluvial soils of the lower Gaiigetic plain. 41. It is equally difficult to correlate density and crops. The same crop crop^ may be far more produetive in one place than in another. There are also varieties of the same crop which produce very different results. Thus in Chota Xagpur the upland rice, which is sown broadcast, is in th(^ nature of a catch crop which gives a fair yield in seasons of regular and aljundant rainfall and in other seasons may fail altogether ; while the transplanted variety in the levelled and embanked valley bottoms, which always have plenty ol" water, yields pleuteously every year. These and other disturbing factors make it difficult to arrive at any wide generalization. In the Bengal Report for 1901 where a more minute analysis was possible than in a Report for the \vhole of India, the conclusion ivas arrived at that in Bihar " the tracts which can support most people are those where rice is grown." This is also the opinion of several of the Superintendents of the Census of 1911. In the Central Pro- vinces and Bcrar, on tlie other hand, Mr. Marten is unable to trace any connection between density and particular crops. On the whole, however, it would seem that in most of the more densely peopled tracts rice is the predominant crop. Totvns and Villages. 45. The definition of a town was the same as in 1901. Por the purpose of Definition or town. the census the term was held to include — \V) Every Municipality. (2) All Civil Lines not included within Municij)al limits. (3) Every Cantonment. (4) Every other continuous collection of houses inhabited by not less than 5,000 persons, Avhich the Provincial Superintendent may decide to treat as a town for census purposes. A few places, chiefly in Native States, which do not satisfy the above require- ments have been treated as towns for special reasons, but their number and population are too small to have any appreciable influence on the statistics. Our definition has been criticised by a distinguished German statistician on the ground that the adoption of a double criterion — the possession of ^Municipal government and of a population of 5,000 — introduces an element of uncer- tainty. He also holds that in taking 5,000 as the minimum population of a town the standard is drawn too high. In framing the definition the object in view was, as far as possiI)le, to treat as towns only places which are of a more or less urban character. In most provinces there is a provision of the law which prohil)its the creation of Municipalities in places which contain a large proportion of persons dependent on agriculture for t-lKur subsistence. It may thus be assumed that all places which are under Municipal government possess some urban characteristics. The converse proposition, ho\\evcr, is not always true ; and it sometimes happens that places of a distinctly urban nature have not yet been raised to Municipal rank. If therefore the first criterion alone had been adopted, various places which deserve to be treated as towns would have been excluded from the return. It was for this reason that the second criterion, that of population, was introduced. The Provincial Superin- tendents were, however, instructed, when considering the question of treating places as towns on the basis of their population, to take care to exclude such as are merely overgrown villages and have no urban features. It is true tliat the discretion thus allowed has occasionally led to a certain Avant of uniforniity. In the Punjab, for instance, there has been a decrease of Gi towns of this class at the present, as compared with the preceding, census. But on the whole inequalities due to the idiosyncrasies of the local census ollicei-s may be regarded as balancing one another when the statistics for the whole of India are considered ; and it may safely be said, as a general rule, there is no marked difference in kind between the jilaccs which have been treated as towns in 30 CHAriER I.— DISTRIBI'TIOX OF THU POriLATlOK. accordance Avitli the population criterion and the smaller towns •which have been classed as such because they are under some form of Municipal adminis- tration. It may be noted that of the 297 million persons enumerated in the 2,153 places classed as towns only 5'5 millions or 18*6 per cent. Avere found in. the 57i places which were so classed by virtue of their population ; of such l^laces 205 with a population of 2'2 inillious arc in the Madras Presidency. 46. It remains to consider the suitability of the standard which has been taken for the population test. In Germany •' landstildte," or plaecs with a population of 2,000 to 5,000, arc included in the urban category ; in America the same category is used to include all " incorporated " places with a population of 2,500 and upwards, and in England all sanitary districts with 3,000 or more inhabitants. In tixing the standard for India at 5,000, however, we have certainly not erred in the direction of over-exclusiveness. The local con- ditions are wholly different from those prevailing in western countries ; and the great majority of places with that number of inhabitants, whether Muni- cipalities or not, partake rather of the natm-e of overgrown villages than of towns as the term is understood in Europe. Trade and industry are still to a great extent monopolized by the larger towns. With the spread of railways and the .general improvement in means of communication, the smaller towns are growing in importance as distributing centres, but the process is a slow one and comparatively little progress in this direction has yet been made. The small market town so common in Europe and America is rarely found in India. Nor as a rale do the smaller Indian toAvns possess the otlier amenities associated Avith urban life in Europe, such as a better class of schools and public institutions of various kinds. It is true that a new tyjie of town is sjiringing up in the neighbourhood of important railway stations with stores and provi- sion shops and a considerable coolie population, and that these in many cases have not yet reached the prescribed standard of population. But the total number of such places is still small, and their exclusion has had no material effect on the statistics. On the other hand, if the standard had been lowered, many places would have been included which bear no resemblance to the ordinary conception of a town ; and thus w ould ^have obscured the statistics, especially those relating to the distribution of the population of towns by sex and religion. The population of towns at each succeeding enumeration and the distri- bution of their inhabitants by sex and religion are shown in Imperial Tables IV and Y. The principal features of the statistics contained in these Tables are exhibited in Subsidiary Tables IV to VII at the end of this Chapter. 47. In Assam only three per cent, of the population reside in places classed as towns. Excluding the conglomeration of villages which make up Imphal, the capital of Manipur, there is not a single town which contains twenty thousand inhabitants, and there are only five Avith more than ten thousand. Of the larger toAA-ns the only progressive ones are Dibrugarh and Shillong, the head-quarters of the local administration. In the ordinary .sense of the term a village is a collection of houses. But there is also the survey village or the revenrte unit of area. Eor the purpose of the census the latter has tliis great adA'antage that it is a perfectly definite entity. This is not the case Avitfi the residential village, and it is often very hard to say whether an outlying house or group of houses should be assigned to one such A'illage or to another. For this reason, in spite of tlu> fact that the survey village does not always correspond to the residential, it has been taken for census purposes wherever it exists and is suflficiently well known. In As.sam it was so taken in the greater })art of the Brahmaputra A'allcy and in Cachar. Elsewhere the residential village Avas taken. As a rule, the houses are scattered through the rice fields and are rarely collected on a central village site. In the hill districts the houses AA-ere formerly packed closely together on the hill-tops for the jiurpose of defence and mutual protection, but the present tendency is to build them near the cultivated land, which is often miles away from the old village sites. The average population of a village is 233. It is greatest in the Brahmaputra valley and loAvest in the hill districts. BKiuohistan. 48. Socictv iu Balucliiktan is based on an interesting and archaic tribal Assam. TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 81 system (analysed by 'Mr. Bray iu some detail), and urban development is necessarily sIoav. Seven per cent, of the people live in the nine places treated as towns ; but these are either overgrown villages or garrison towns of recent growth. Quctta, the capital of the province, is almost entirely the creation of British rule and owes its rapid growth mainly to strategic considerations ; not many years ago it Avas hardly more than a cluster of nuid huts. This single town contains over half the total ur])au ])opulation. Of its 33,922 inhabitants — its summer po])ulation is at least 3 1 per cent, greater — only l,vt27 are indi- < genous Brahui, Baloch and Pathans ; and that most even of these were casual visitors is shown by the fact that there were amongst them only 3S5 females. The statistics of villages are not wortli considering. In the districts, the reve- nue unit of area was taken, but even that is an artificial and recent creation. In the States the village was merely an ar])itravy group of hamlets, sometimes even of nomadic encampments, which one day may contain a few black blanket tents stretched on ]mhs and next day may be devoid of inhabitants. 49. In the Bengal Presidency 12-1 places were treated as towns. They Bengal, contained 6 per cent, of the total population and had on the average about 21,000 inhabitants. If, however, Calcutta and its suburbs including Howrah, which contain 11 per cent, of the dwellers in towns, be left out of account, the number of inhabitants per town is less than ] 5,000 and the proportion of the urban to the total population falls to 1 per cent. Small as is this proportion, it is made up largely of foreigners— traders from Eajputana, servants from Bihar and Orissa, and coolies from the same parts and from the United Provinces. The ordinary Bengali is not a lover of town life, though the upper classes are coming more and more to appreciate the social, intellectual and sanitarv amenities of Calcutta and other lars^e centres. Of the Hindus, nearlv 10 per cent, are found m towns and of the ^luhammadans less than 1 per cent. The local Muhammadans are mostly of the cultivating class ; and although more than half the people of Bengal profess this religion they contribute less than a third of the urban population. As usual in Indian towns females are in marked defect. Their jn'oportion is highest in the minor towns which are often merely overgrown villages ; it is much smaller in the main centres of trade and industry, and smallest of all in Calcutta, where only one person in three is a female. During the last decade the urban population has registered a gain of 11 per cent, against only 8 per cent, in the general population. The main factors in the growth of towns at the present day are the extension of railway communication and the development of large industries of the western type. The progressive towns are those at important jioints on the railways or where mills of various kinds have been established. A striking instance of the former is furnished by Kharagpur, an important junction on the Bengal- Xagpur Piailway. In 1901, shortly after railway communication Avas estab- lished, it had less than 1,000 inhabitants, but ten years later it had nearly 19,000. The most progressive industrial towns are those on the banks of the Hooghly, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta. Titagarh has nearly trebled, and Bhatpara has more than doubled, its population in the last ten years. Bhadreswarin the Hooghly district has a gtiin of over GO per cent. Two of the suburbaii munici- palities, which have groAvn equally rapidly, owe their advancement partly to industrial expansion and partly to the tendency of the people Avho earn their living in Calcutta to make their home in the suburbs. The comparatively small gain recorded in Howrah {13"G per cent, against 35 in the previous decade) is to some extent fortuitous. The jute trade was dull Avhen the census was taken, and the mills were not in full Avork ; some of them, moreover, had closed down for the Aveck-end. Dacca, the third city in the province, owes its growth of 21 per cent, largely to the circumstance that it Avas made the cajjital of the ephemeral province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The older toAvns are many of them decadent. Most of them Avere built on the i)anks of riA^ers, Avhieh were formerly the principal means of communication. Trade has transferred its allegiance to the raihvays ; and the rivers themselves have often taken a ucav course. The towns on the banks of their old channels, Avhich are often little better than chains of stagnant pools, ha\'e thus .become liot-beds of malaria. [Murshidabad, a fdrmer capital 32 CHAPTER I.— DISTRIBrTlON OF THE POPULATION. of Bengal, has thus harel y half the number of inliahitants which it had forty years ago ; the population of Krishnagar is chvicdling, and that of Jessore is stationary. 50. The census village corresponds to the mauza or survey unit of area in the Burdwan and Presidency divisions and Cooch Behar, and elsewhere to the residential village, or collection of houses liearing a common name with its dependent hamlets. As a rule, the diiference between the mauza and the • residential village is small; but this is not so in tracts which were unin- habited at the time of the revenue survey, and so were not properly subdivided. A striking instance of this is found in the western part of the Midnapur district, known as the Jungle Mahals, Avhcre nineteen mauzas contain more than 20,000 villages and hamlets. The village is thus a somewhat indeterminate entity, but taking the statistics as they are, it may be noted that tbe average number of inhabitants per village is 352. There is a marked difference in the size of villases in West and Central Bengal. In the former the average popu- lation is only 326, while in the latter it is o74<. These statistics cannot properly be compared with those for East and jS'ortli Bengal, which are based on th& residential village ; in North Bengal the aA^erage population per village is only 261 against "91 In East Bengal. Except in places where markets are held once or twice a week, the villages are, for the most part, of a purely rural type, and contain very few shops ; but under modern conditions, villages of a new kind, consisting chiefly of shops, godowns and the quarters of coolies, are springing up in the neighbourhood of railway stations, mills and mines. In Central and West Bengal, though the houses are seldom unduly crowded together, and each has its own patch of homestead land, they are generally constructed on a single village site. Many of the villages are situated on the banks of silted-up rivers and buried in a mass of bamboos and other vegetation, and are very unhealthy. In the other two natural divisions there is often no regular village site and the houses are very scattered. In East Bengal they are sometimes erected in straggling rows .along the high banks of rivers, or in small chisters on mounds raised to a height of from twelve to twenty feet, which form small islands when the country is inundated in the rainy season. BUtarudOrissa. 51. The province of Bihar and Orissa contains an even smaller urban population than Bengal. Only 3'4 per cent, of its people live in the 76 places classed as towns. Modern industrial enterprise has as yet made hardly any im- pression on the economic conditions of this province. Excluding Jamalpur, where the East Indian Railway has extensive workshops, the only truly industrial town is Sakchi in the Singhbhum district, the head-quarters of the Tata Iron and Steel Works. Although at the time of the census it had only recently come into existence, it already contained nearly 6,000 inhabitants. The great majority of the towns are old established centres which owe their origin to a state of things that bas long since passed away. The diversion of trade due to the construction of railways has robbed them of much of their former importance ;. and such industries as they possess, being of the cottage type, are decadent. Some of them like Bihar, Patna, Rajmahal, Monghyr and Cuttack, have lost the poUtical importance which they once enjoyed. The natural tendency is thus downwards ; and this tendency has been greatly accentuated in Bihar in recent years by repeated outlu'caks of plague. Patna City, which has been chosen as the ca])ital, has a slight increase over the regular census of 1901, but at tbat time plague was raging and tlie population was abnormally small ; as compared with a count taken later on in the same year there is a drop of more than 11 per cent. Practically all the toAvns in South Bihar show similar losses, the only noticeable exception being Jamalpur, of which mention has l)een made above. In North Bihar also most of the towns have lost ground, especially those of the Saran district. It is only in Chota Nagpur that any marked growth is noticeable; the towns there are still in an early stateof development, but Banchi, Daltonganj and Purulia have all grown l)y more than 20 per cent. This is due largely to improvements in railway communications. The proportion of females (932 per thousand males) is unusuall}' high in the towns of this province. This is a natural corollary of tlie conditions described above. Wliere towns are decadent and immigrants are few in number, the proportions of the sexes tend naturally to approximate to those in TOWNS AXD VILLAGES. 33 the general population. Though the Muhannnadans form lo.^s tlian one-tenth of the total, they constitute more than one-fifth of the urhan population. Eight per cent, of their numher reside in to-wns, against only 3 per cent, in the case of Hindus. Tlie Muhammadans of Bihar belong to a A'cry different class from those of Bengal. They include a considerable number of people of good family, descended from the aristocracy of Moghal times, and a large proportion of weavers and other artisans. 52. Except in three districts where the residential village was taken, the mauza or survey unit ol' area was everywhere adopted as the census village. The residential village is very indeterminate ; there are many grovips of liouses which one person would class as hamlets and another as independent villages. The statisticj\l value of a village thus defined would therefore be small, while the administrntive convenience of taking the survey unit of area is very great. It enables the local staff to make absolutely certain that no tract, however remote, is left out of ac(?ount. In some places the census village or mauza includes several residential villages, but in spite of this its average popidation is only 3-14. Only 14 per cent, of the rural population reside in villages with more than two thousand inhabitants. Large villages are particularly rare in the Chota Xagpur plateau. As in Bengal, shops are rarely found in the ordinary mufassal villages ; they are confined mainly to those where markets are held and to the bazars which are springing up near important railway stations. In the typical Bihar village the houses are closely packed together, and there are no intervening homestead lands. In Orissa each house has its own small compound and resembles the Bengali homestead. In Chota Nagpui" the village site is usually on a ridge, or near the crest of a slope, where there is a long straggling row of houses, or two rows on opposite sides of a pathway. Throughout the province very little care is taken ])y the l)eople to secure the cleanliness of their villages, which in this respect are in- ferior to those of Bengal. 53. Owing to its greater industrial development Bombay has a larger Bombay. urban population than almost any other part of India. Of every hundred inhabitants, 18 live in towns and 82 in villages. Towns of from ten to fifty thousand inhabitants contain one-third of the total urban population and the five cities of Bombay, Ahmedabad, Karachi, Poona and Sm-at another third ; about a quarter lives in towns with less than ten thousand inhabitants. As usual in Indian towns, females ai'e in marked defect. There are only 83 of this sex per hundred males, as compared with 93 in the province as a whole. The Muhammadans, amongst whom is a large proportion of traders, are more addicted to town life than the Hindus; they form only 18 per cent, of the total, but 23 per cent, of the urban, population. The proportion of Christians is three times, and that of Jains nearly twice, as great in towns as it is in the total population. But it is the Parsis who are the most inveterate town-dwellers : there are 84,000 Parsis in the Presidency, and of these all but 11,000 were enumerated within urban limits. There has been little cliangc in the numl)er or population of towns since 1901, Urban industries, especially cotton mills, have continued to grow ; but on the other hand plague seems to liave become endemic in many towns. The presence of this disease operates in three ways : it kills off large numbers, it deters many from immigrating to towns, and it induces many of those who earn their living in towns to seek their dormitory in the healtliier and loss crowded suburl)s. This lattcn- tendency has bee7i encouraged in the case of Bombay by the improvement in the means of communication between tlie city and its suburbs. The revenue village has been taken as the census unit. This corre- sponds fairly closely to the residential village, except in the wilder tracts which Avere often survevcd in large blocks, some of which now contain several residential villages. The ordinai-y Bomljay residential village consists of a cluster of houses on a comparatively elevated position, in the midst ol" cultivated lauds. The depressed castes live outside in a rookery of their own. In the Marathfi country, the villages are congreirated on a central site. Thost' Avhich were once the capital of a ^Maratiifi feudal chief are surrounded l)y high walls of rubble and concrete, and entered by gates guarded by watch towers. These defences are no longer needed and are noAv crumbling away. In the Enrma- 34 CHAPTER I. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION, Konkan, especially iu Kanara, there is often no regular village site ; each family has its homestead amongst the fields or spice gardens belonging to it. 54. In Burma 9 '3 per cent, of the people Uvc in towns, but Mr. Webb points out that of the 63 places so classed only fourteen have marked virban characteristics ; the rest are merely " covxntry towns occupying an intermediate position between the central and industrial units on the one hand and the petty rural communities on the other." The two cities of Mandalay and Rangoon contain between them about two-fifths of the total urban population. The former, the last capital of the Kings of Ava, shows a decline of 25 per cent, since 1901 ; repeated ej)idemics of plague and an extensive fire have combined to accelerate the natural process of decay, due to the disappearance of the Court and the diversion of trade resulting from the extension of the railway to Lashio. Rangoon, with its important industries and commerce, has continued to grow rapidly. There has been some slackening in the rate of increase, but the actual addition to the population, though less than in 1891-1901, is about the same as in the preceding decade. To illustrate the great contrast between the conditions in these two cities, it may be noted that in Rangoon three-fifths of the inhabit- ants are born outside the province, against only one-tenth in Mandalay, and that the num])er of females per hundred males is only 41 compared with 98. Of the other towns, those which are favourably situated for trade, or which have well established industries, are growing, but elsewhere a movement back to the land seems to be in progress. "The Burman, though fond of the amenities of town life, is most averse to the hard, rigid discipline essential to modern urban industry." Of the places treated as towns in 1901, thirty have added 17 "4 per cent, to their population and seventeen have lost 15 per cent. A striking feature of the statistics is the extent to wliich the immigrant population from India concentrates itself in towns. 55. Prior to the British occupation the village in Burma had no terri- torial connotation. Except in the'Specially Administered Areas, two local units of area have now been recognized — the " village tract " or administrative unit, whicli includes a residential village, or in many cases a portion only of a main residential village, together with the subsidiary hamlets and the lands in which the residents have most of their cultivation, and the Eioin, or survey unit, which was fixed solely for survey purposes with reference to natural features. In 1901 a village was defined for census j)urposes as the hamlet, or " smallest collection of houses known by a separate name." At the present census, as in 1891, the "village tract" was taken as the census village, exceirt in the Specially Administered Areas, where the residential village was taken. The advantage of taking the village tract as the census unit is that it facilitates the arrangements for the census, and enables the local population to be compared with the agricultural statistics. There is, however, little or no correspondence between the village tract and the residential village, and no conclusions can be drawn from the figures as to the manner in which the people are distributed over the country. There are in all 37,678 census villages with an average population of 292. In Burma proper there are 18,640 village tracts with an average of 509 inhabitants, and in the Specially Administered Areas 19,038 residential villages with an average of 79 inbabitants. Central Provinces 56. In thc Central Proviuces and Berar 8 per cent, of the population live iu towns, but the proportion vanes greatly in dinerent parts. It is 11 per cent, m the Nerbudda valley and Maratha plain divisions, against only 4 in the Plateau, and 3 in the Chhattisgarh plain division ; in the Chota Nagpur division there are no towns at all. Of the townspeople, nearly one-third live in places Avith upwards of 20,000 inhabitants and more than one-third in those with 5,000 to 10,000. The Muhammadans, Cliristians and Jains are most prone to town life, and the Animists are specially averse from it. It is imj)ossible to gauge the growth of thc urban population, which is undoubtedly taking place, from tho returns of thc present census. At tlio time when it was taken plague was extraordinarily prevalent, and many of the towns were almost deserted. The result was an apparent decrease of 94,000 or 7 jier cent. Tlie artificial and temporary character of this decline is clearly sean from the results of a fresh and Berar. TOWNS AXJJ VILLAGES. 35 enumeration of some of the lars^er towns effected about six mouths later. Thus EUicbjnir, -nhich had a population of 13,909 at the time of the general census, was found to have 2-l',43o at the i-ocount in the I'olloAving Soptcmhev. This province contains two cities, Nagpur and Jul)lnilpore. According to the general census Nagpur had a population smaller by 21 per cent, than in 1901, but at the recoxmt in September it was found to have 13-i,712 inliabitants, or nearly 5 per cent, more than in tliat year, and 59 per cent, more tlian in 1872. This city is not only the seat of Government, but is also an important centre of the cotton trade and weaving industry. Jubbulpore, which takes rank as a city for the first time, has grown during the decade by 11 per cent. The construction of railways has greatlv stimulated trade in tliis land- locked province, whence tlie export of surplus produce was previously almost impossible. There lias in consequence been a rapid gro\^th of many towns, including Chanda, Dhamtari, Chindwara and Seoni. The revenue mauza was everyAvhere treated as the census village, except in the Chota jSTagpiu- division, where tlie residential village was taken as the unit. The majority of the villages are small. The largest ones are found in the Marathij districts, Avhere consideral)ly more tlian half the rural population live in villages with a population of 500 to 2,000. In the Nerbudda valley division, on the other hand, more than half live in villages with less than 500 inhabitants. 57. Of the total population of the Madras Presidency 11"7 per cent, live in Madras, the 280 towns. The proportion is highest (15'9 per cent.) in the East Coast South, and lowest (S"l) on the West Coast. Most of the towns are overgrown villages with few urban characteristics. Thev have on the aA"erage 17,570 inhabitants. Towns with from ten to fifty thousand inhabitants contain more than half the total urban population. The Muhamraadans, who arc mostly traders and artisans, affect town life more than the Hindus and Christiaus ; nearly a quarter of their number are found in towns, against one-fifth of the Christians and less than one -ninth of the Hindus. In this Presidency the proportion of females to males is almost the same in towns as it is in the general population. There are few places with manu- factures of any importance ; the bulk of the urban population is of a settled character, and even amongst immigrants the proportion of females is higher than in the north of India owing to the weakness of the parda system and the srreater readiness of women to work in uublic. The urban population has risen since 1901 by only 15 per cent, against 25 per cent, in the previous decade. Favourable agricultural conditions have enabled the labouring classes to obtain employment ueartheir homes, and fewer have found it necessary to seek a livelihood elsewhere. Of the more important towns, Madura, with its growing textile industry, shows the largest increase (26'6 percent). There has been a falling-off in Coimljatore, Salem and Eellary owing to an outbreak of plague at the time of the census. The revenue unit of area, which often includes two or more residential villages, was taken as the cen.sus village. Half of the total rural population live in villages (as thus defined) with from 500 to 2,000 inhalntants. 58. Excluding the Agencies and Tribal areas, the population of which is uor*pr?rtSoe.'""' wholly rural, 1?> per cent, of the inhabitants of the Xorth-West Frontier Province live in the nineteen places classed as towns, but the majority of these are merely overgrown villages. The province is practically without manufactures, and the industrial element is very small. Nearly a quarter of the oppidan population was enumerated in cantonments, wliich are a very artificial form of urban aggregation. The only other towns of any importance are those at the head- quarters of the five districts; these are conveniently placed on the trade routes which connect India with the trans-border tribal territories and the marts of Afghanistan and Central Asia. The average number of inhabitants per town is about 15,000 ; and three-fifths of the total ur1)aii population is found in towns with more than 20,000 inhabitants. (July 10 pen- cent, of the ^Iiduunmadans of the province live in urban areas asrainst 54 and 55 per cent; of the Hindus and Sikhs respectively. The explanation is that the great majority of the natives of the province are Aluhammadans, while the Hindus and Sikhs are chiefly immigrant traders and sepoys. j VABIiTIOK PES CENT. Tear of I popdhtion. censuB. Urban. 36 CHAPTER I. — DISTRIBfTIOX OF THE POPULATION. As usual in towns, females are in marked defect, there being only 626 of that sex per thousand males, as against 900 in rural areas. The proportion is lowest in cantonments ; if thev he left out of account it rises to 803. Since 1901, the urban population has grown by 13 per cent., but this is due mainly to the inclusion of new "towns " and the expansion of the cantonments. The rate of growth in the places, other than cantonments, classed as towns in 1901 is only half that in the population as a whole. It is greatest in towns with between ten and twenty thousand inhabitants. The census village corresponds to the revenue unit of area and has no neces- sary connection with the residential village. The character of the latter varies considerably in the different parts of the province. In the more hilly tracts of the Hazara district, scattered homesteads are very common, but elsewhere the houses are often closely packed. This is notably the case in parts of the Peshawar district. Punjab. 59. The nvimber of towns in the Punjab has fallen from 228 in 1901 to 174. The change is the net result of the omission of f>l * places, chiefly notified areas, which, though twenty of them have more than 5,000 inhabitants, are merely overgrown villages and have' no urban characteristics, and the inclusion of twelve others, all i)ut two of which have more than 5,000 inhabitants. On the basis of the present classification 10"6 per cent, of the population live in towns and 89'Ji per cent, in villages. The tendency to urban aggregation is greatest in the Indo-Gangetic Plain West, where the proportion of town- dwellers is 14'5 per cent., and least in the Himalayan area where it is only 2-9. The three cities of Delhi, Lahore and Amritsar have between them 614,280 inhabitants, or 24 per cent, of tbe total urban population ; 32 per cent. is found in other towns with a population exceed- ing twenty thousand, 38 per cent, in toAvns -n'ith from five to twenty thousand, and the remain- der (6 per cent.) in smaller towns. The propor- tion of the urban poj)ulation has been gradually falling during the last thirty years. The improvement of communications tends to en- courage the opening of local shops, thereby re- to-:^tare?ehSs"rbe°«etp'Jrrd"itL\"fpr duclug thc trading popuUtiou at the larger pnlation of the same place, at the previous censas. QeutrCS, aud the iudustrlal deVClopmeut Is Uot yet sufficient to neutralize these losses. It may be noted, however, that the towns with a population exceeding 50,000 are grooving fairly rapidly. DeDii, the largest industrial centre in the province and an important railway junction, has gained 11-6 per cent, during the decade, while the district in which it lies has lost 4-6 per cent. Lahore, Sialkot and Multan also show large increases. As usual in Northern India, the urban population contains a relatively large proportion of males. The Jains, who are nearly all traders, show a special predilection for town life ; and more than half the total number in the province reside in places classed as towns. A special hot weather census of several summer resorts in the hills gave interesting results. In Simla the population during the season was thus found to be 37,895 against 19,405 in March, at the time of the regular census, and in Murree 16,934 as compared with 1,705. The revenue unit of area was usually taken as the census village. In the east and the south this corresponds fairly closely to the residential village with its dependent hamlets, but in some parts it is a more or less artificial division, in- cluding a number of scattered hamlets. More than half the rural population live in villages with a population of 500 to 2,000 each, and over a quarter in villages with less than 500. 60. Including the 24 places treated as cities by the Provincial Superinten- dent there are 435 towns in the United Provinces. These contain between them 10-2 per cent, of the total population, the remaining 89-8 per cent, being resident in villages. ^Many of the larger toAvns, including Agra and Lucknow, were founded by the Muhammadans ; others, such as Benares and Muttra, owe their importance to their religious sanctity; aud a few, like Cawnpore and * ThiB \s cxclueiTe ot Juioglj avi Easumpti, which, thongh treated is separate units in 1901, have now been taken ne part of the Sjuila town. 1911 -1-7 -1-7 1901 +6-9 +4-7 1891 +10-0 +7'4 tTnited Provinces. TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 37 Meerut, to modern political conditions or industrial devcloi)nicnt. The average number of iuliabitauts per town is 11,585. One-fourth of the total url)an popu- lation is resident in the cities and two-fifths in towns with from five to twenty thousand inliabitants. The proportion of females to males is 853 per mille, against 915 in the general population. In the cities, where immi'^rants are more numerous, it is only 809 ; while in Cawnporc, the most important industrial centre, it is only 728. OF the .Mnhammadans of the i^rovince, 27 per cent, are resident in towns, and of the Hindus only 7 per cent. The Muhaminadans of this part of India are, in the main, of foreign extraction, and far fewer are descended from local converts tlian in Bengal. Many of the larger towns Avcrc founded by Musalman rulers and their followers natui-ally congregated in them. Gl. The ravages of plague make it impossible to institute any eifective ex- amination of the variation in the urban population since 1901. There has been a considerable apparent decline, but it is by no means all genuine. By far the greater part of it is due to a temporary exodus on account of an epidemic which was raging at the time when the census was taken. A fresh count of >ome of the towns, ma2 ICl.OiXI 17,97 i 113,490 500,02;$ 46 CHAPTER I.— DISTRIBUTIOX OF THE POPULATION. Houses and Fainilies. Definition of house. SI. The European conceiitiou of a house as a single structure, inclucling- not only the living and sleeping apartments of the family but also the kitchen and servants' rooms, is quite inapplicable to India. Even in the residences of Europeans, the kitchen and servants' quarters are detaclicd from the main structure ; ^hile in those of Indians the difference in the character of the buildings is still more marked. The precise arrangement varies, but generally speaking, it may l)e said that, -while the lal)ouring classes usually have only one, or at most two, single-room huts, the home of a well-to-do peasant consists of a public sitting room and of a cook-iroom and several ajoartments (frequently detached huts) which are arranged round, and open on to, a courtyard. Some- times the courtyard is the property of a single commensal family, and some- times it is shared by two or three families who, though separate in mess, are as a rule related to each other. Owing to the varying local conditions in different parts of the country it has always been considered inadvisable to jjrescribe a general definition of house for the Avhole of India, and the Census Superin- tendents of tlie individual Provinces and States have been left free to adopt the definition best suited to their requircnnents. The question can be regarded from two different points of view — the structural and the social. Where the structural criterion is taken, a house is ordinarily defined, with minor local qualifications, as the residence of one or more families having a separate independent entrance from the common way. AVhere the social aspect is looked to, it is defined as the home of a commensal family with its resident dependants and servants. At the earlier censuses the former type of defini- tion was most in favoiir, but it is gradually being supplanted by the latter whicli, at the present census, has been adopted for the first time in Bombay, the North-West Eroutier Province and the Punjab. Where it is otherwise suitable, the social criterion has several advantages over the structural. It is . easier to ap])ly ; it enables a simpler form of house list to be vised ; and it furnishes a clue to the number of commensal families. The alternative defini- tion is useless from a statistical point of view. 82. The variation in the average number of persons per house resulting from differences in the definition jorescribed is often much smaller than would be supposed. The average in Bengal and the United Provinces, where a house is defined as the residence of a commensal family, is 5"3 and 4'6 respectively, as against 5*3 and -i'O in Madras and the Ceiitral Provinces and Berar, where the structural standard is taken. In the Punjab, however, the change from the structural to the social criterion has been accompanied by a fall from 6*2 to 4-5 in the average number of persons per house. Here, as in the west of the United Provinces, the practice of erecting a number of houses inside a single enclosure is far more common than it is further south, and the decrease is no doubt due partly to the change in the definition. But the high mortality of recent years must also have had miich to do Avith it. The influence of these adverse conditions on the average size of a family is seen in the United Provinces, Avhere there is a drop from 5'5 to 4G, although there the definition was the same at the present census as in 1901. Jt is possible that the change from the structural to the social standard, which was introduced in 1901, was not then fully observed liy enumerators who had held the same office in 189], but the fall must have been due mainly to the unhealthiuess of the decade. S3. In spite of the joint family system, the number of houses corresponds very closely to the number of families in the European sense, i.e., married couples with their 'children and dependants. The total number of houses is 63-7 million and there are 64'G million married females aged 15 and over. Excei)t amongst the higher castes, who form but a small fraction of the total iiopulation, the joint family is not nearly so common as is frequently supposed. It scarcely exists amongst Muhannnadans, the aboriginal ti-i))es and the lower castes of Hindus. With all these classes it is the general custom for sons to set up separate establishments as soon as they marry, or at least when their wives begin to l)ear children ; and even when thev still remain joint, the familv almo.st invariably breaks up on the death of the father. Moreover, where the joint family system is in vogue, there is often a strong disruptive tendency, owing to Nnmber of Inhabi- tants per house. Comparison between house} and families. HOUSES AND FAMILIES. -l? quarrels amoiipf the women, the dislike of a man's wife to see a larcje part of liis •earniu2;s taken for the support of others, audlier natural desire to be free from the control of her mother-in-law. Sej)aration in mess often takes place while the family property is still held in common. This is especially the case amongst the land-liolding and tradinij' classes.* At the same time it mu.st also be admitted that the comparison has to some extent been vitiated by accidental causes. Evcu where a family remains joint it often happens that the sons earn their living away from home, and the members of a single commensal family may thus occupy two or three separate "houses." Moreover, a numl)er of shops and other non-residential l)uildings were classed as houses at the census l)ecause a caretaker occupied them at night, and it was therefore necessary toinclnde them in the Enumerator's list. If these disturbing factors could be (■liminated, tlie average number of persons to a house would no doubt be larger than tliat sliowu in the returns ; but as they affect only a small i)roportion of tlie total number of houses, the difference would probably not be very appreciable. In the returns as they stand, the average population per house is Id or much the same as in European countries. In the British Islands it ranges from -I'S in Scotland to 5-2 in England and Wales. In several of the Provincial Keports the opinion has been expressed that the joint family shows a growing tendency towards disintegration, owing to various new factors, such as the growth of individualism, the rise in the standard of living, which makes it increasingly difficult for a large number of people to live together, and increased migration, due to the ! better means of communication afforded by Average uopulatiou per house. , , ., m j5 i i j. x the railways. The ngures lend some support to 1881 . . . . j 5-s this view, but it would be unsafe to rely too i|^i . . . . I 5-4 much on them in view of the changes Avhicli 19U '. '. '. '. 49 have been made in the definition. In Madras and Bengal, where the definition has remained the same, there are just as many persons per house now as there were twenty years ago. 81. The character of the buildings varies with the climate. "Where it is very Type of -ouudings. damp the walls are made of wattle ; this is plastered with mud in the north-east of India, where there is a well marked cold season. Where the climate is dry, the walls are usually built of mud. In tracts with a very slight rainfall, the roof is often flat, but ordinarily it has a double slope. If thatching grass is plentiful, the roof is usually constructed of that material ; elsewhere tiles are commonly used, but corrugated iron is becoming increasingly common, wherever people can afford to use it. As exceptional types of houses, mention may be made of the round beehive-like huts of the Todas on the Xilgiris, the l)la]iket tents of the nomad tribes of Baluchistan, the leaf huts of the Juang.s, and the houses built on piles to which access is obtained by means of a ladder which are common amongst varions hill tribes in Assam and Burma. * An interesting note on the joint family system as now existing in the Punjab will be toiv. I on pige 29 of the ■Report for that Province. 48 ClIAl'TER I.— DISTRIBITIOX OF THE TOPULATIOX. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. Deiisit). water-supply and crops. Provisce, State or Agencv. jMean Density i PEKrENTing op rSK SgrARE MILE. TOTAL AREA. Percentagb op cdltivablb area Of total area. Of culti- vated area. CiUti- vable. ludia. Ajmer-lleiwara Assam . . • • BaluchistaD Bengal . - • • Bihar and Orissa Bombay . . • • Bnima . ■ ■ ■ Central Provinces and Bcr 55 57 72 83 47 57 60 5 45 (h) By yattifftl Dirisions. • • 18 24 » • 50 71 52 71 38 61 13 32 39 60 14 45 38 65 31 56 33 58 53 74 73 87 25 1 63 56 97 54 89 4 84 33 1 72 • 45 74 «3 — — -4 t Normal rainfall inches. 45 : 39; 76 ' 70 1 I 57 81 I 57 I ! I S I .55 1 77 64 62 51 61 16 10 18 50 35 60 42 4 19 50 38 51 30 43 36 27 24 71 61 74 74 84 34 65 60 as 59 70 2 1 • 1 17 4 IS 12 2 14' 1 7 4 S 4 3 9 30 8 23 10 32 15 28 4 5 3 5 17 1 4 j 6 17 24 3 15 1 * 7 19 s. 1 s 18 2 1 17 4 » 33 20 17 14 20 17 24 4 62 » • 4 4 4 4 1 7 8 1 37 19 116 8 70 53 46 95 48 127 43 21 31 42 103 30 24 38 22 85 146 48 92 76 50 47 34 24 10 8 25 24 47 30 101 39 PERCENTAOE of OROSS CULTlVillD AREA I'NDEK Kice. Other Crops. 11 10 31 74 Tea 6, Jute 1. Oil seeds 6, Other I crops 14. Jute 8, Other food crops 13, Other crops 1(1. Maize 5, Other cereals and pulses 27, Other crops 14. Other eercils 55, Cotton 15, Pulses 12, Other crops B. 72 20 58 42 4 17 12 29 92 41 74 69 50 29 4 17 9 9 SO Other cereals and pulses 11, Oil seeds 8, Other crops 9. Wheat 12, Pulses 23, Other crops 45. Coffee 31, Other food crops 2, Bagi 4, Other crops 5. Other food crops 20, Cholom, etc., 31, Other crops 21. Wheat 35, Maiie 13, Barley 9, Jawar, etc., 14, Other crops 29. Wheat 27, Pulses 23, Other crops 46. Wheat and Barley 27, Gram 12, Millet 17, Other crops 30. Bajra 15, Cotton 17, Jawar 14, Other crops 48. Wheat 11, ,7awar 17, Gram 11, Other food crops 56. Other crops 58. Wheat 4, Pulses 7, Other crops 85. Wheat 18, Pulses 6, Maize 29, Other crops 30. Bagi 36, Cliolum 10, Pulses 12. Other crops 30. Palms 7, Other trees 2, Other crops 62. ^ Other (Odd crops 1, Other crops 7. Other food crops 12, Other crops 47. Tea 6, Oil seeds 5, Other crops 15. Jute 8, Other food crops 13, Other crops 10. Maize and Jawar 8, Other food crops 14, Other crops 28. Other food crops 33, Other crops 38. Wheat 23, Other food crops 20, Other crops 53. Wheat 18, Maizes 29, Other crops 36 Wheat 30, Other crops 61. Wheat 46, Other food crops 12, Other crops 33. Wheat and Pulse 27, Other food crops 4, Other crops 39. Other food crops 36, Other crops 59. Other food irops 9, Other crops 42. Jawar 11, Other food crops 18, Other crops 45. • Not available. KOTE — The figures in column 2 have been cnlculiitrd on the areas shown in Imperial Table I. Those for Provinces are inclusive of the States attached to them, but the figures for Madras exclude those for Cochin and Tiavuncore which arc given separately. For the purpose of columns 3 to 11 the areas shown in the Revenue returns have usually been taken. In calculatinK the percentages, those areas for whieii figures are not available have been Jeft out of account. The figures against India, except those in column 2, relate only to the main British Provinces, In the case of Natural Divisions' the figures for normal rainfall arc those supplied by the Meteorological Department, which have been calculated on an average of about thirty years, in the case of Provinces they have been taken from the Provincial Reports where the average usually relates to the decade 1901-10. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 49 SUBSIDIARY TABLE II. Coiii|) aiisoii ularea a lid |>o|iiila(ioii of (listri its ill tlie main |»n)viiK-i>s • il'opiilation o Area of British Districts. Number oJ Districts. Aki;.i i.su PoptiAroN of DiaiRicia. N'umber of Districts uitli a population exceeding on' mlUloD. Province. Britiali Diatricts. Average Area. Average Population. Maximum Area 1 in square mUes. Maximum Population. 1 2 3 4 & 6 7 8 Assam 6,713,635 53,015 12 4,418 559,470 Lushai Hills ! 7,2L'7 Svlliot 2,472,671 1 ;Kha8i and J. Hills Sibsagar 6,n27 690,299 Svlliet Kamiup 5,388 667,828 , Sibsagar 1 4,996 Goalpara Bengal 45,483,077 600,643 78,699 28 2,810 1,624,390 Mymeiisingh Mvmersingh 21 6,249 4,526,422 MidTia])ore Dacca 5,186 2,960,402 Cluttagoiig Hill Midnapore Tracts 3,821,201 5,138 24-Pavganas Bihar and Oiissa . 34,490,084 24-Pargana3 4,844 2,434,104 83,181 21 3,961 1,642,385 1 Eanchi Darbhanga 17 ' 7,104 2,929,682 Hazavibagh Muzaffarj ur 7,021 2,845,514 Sontbal Pavganas Savan 6,463 2,289,778 Purnea Gaya 19,626,477. 4,730 4.998 2,159,498 Bombay 122,979 26 754,864 Thar and Parkar Ratnagiri 6 (Excluding Aden.) 13,888 Karachi 11,783 Hyderabad 8,(34 Ahmednagar 6,613 l,2|3,ti:8 Satara 1,081,278 Poona 1,071,513 Hyderabad i;037,144 Banna 12,115,217 230,839 41 5,630 295,493 S. Shan States 40,434 Upper Chindwin 15,163 N. Shan Slates 14,294 Myitkyina 10,977 S. Shan States^ 900,202 Hanthawaddy 539,109 Henzada 53:',357 Akvab 5;9;943 None C. P. and Berar . 13,916,308 99,823 22 4,537 632,559 Raipur 9,776 Cbanda 9,312 Bilaspur 7,618 Yeotmal Raipur 1,3.;4,856 BilaS] ur ],146,i'23 Amiaoti 875,904 Kagiur ■> Madras 41,405,404 142,330 26 5,474 1,592,516 6,205 809,901 19 Viiagiiijalam Vizag&patam 17,221 3,18!i,821 Ganiam Malabar t 8,380 , 3,015,119 NcUoi e Tan jo-, e 7,973 2,362,689 Kurnool South Arcot 7,580 2,362,566 N..W. F. Province. 2,196,933 13,418 5* 2,684 • 439,387 Deva Ismail Khan 3,460 Hazavu 2,984 Koliat 2,695 Pealiawar Peshawar 865,009 Hazaia 603,028 Deia Ismail Khan 266,120 Bannu None Punjab 19,974,956 99,779 29 3,U1 ^ 688,792 2,605 Kangni 250.08(! 1 La hole 9,978 1,036,158 Multaii Sialkot 6,107 979,553 1 MuzifTargarh Foioi'epoio 6,052 959,657 Mian wall Gujrm wala 5,395 923,419 United Provinces . i 17,182,044 107,267 48 2,235 982,959 Oarhwal 6,6i9 Altnoiu 5,372 Mirzapur 5,233 Gorakhj ur Goriikhpur 3,201.180 Basti 1,830,421 Moorut 1,519,364 Azani(;arh 22 4,528 1,192,818 Excludes Malal^nDd, Khyber, Eunum, loclil and Wane, the areas lor which ate sot available. t Include* Laccodlveo. 50 CHAPTER I. — DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPDLA.TION. SUBSIDIARY Distribution of tlie population Tabbils with 1 POPULATION Under 150. 150-300. 300-450. o "3 ■c Province, State or Agenoy. Area. Population (OOO's omitted.) Area. Population (OOO's omitted.) Area. Population (OOO's omitted). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 INDIA. 1,088,902 61-S 05,073 20-8 365.029 20-7 75.197 240 128,618 7-3 47,372 15-1 1 Ajmev-Merwara .... ... 2,711 100-0 501 100-0 ... ... 2 Assam ..... 46,861 77-2 2,361 53-4 5,624 9-5 1,187 16-8 5,007 8-3 1,791 25-4 3 Baluchistan ..... 134,638 100-0 835 100-0 ... ... 4 Bengal ..... 12,892 15-9 . 734 1-6 4,110 5-1 976 2-1 13,683 16-8 5,167 11-1 5 Bihar and Orissa .... 27,623 24-7 2,814 7-3 36,029 32-2 7,632 19-9 19,188 17-2 6,912 18-0 6 Bombay ..... 113,738 60-8 9.115 33-7 63,378 33-9 12,807 47-3 7,977 4-3 2,873 10-6 7 Burma ..... 214,101 91-9 7,614 62-9 18,110 7-8 3,647 30 -i 674 •3 1 232 i-9 S Central Provinces and Berar . 90,245 68-9 7,915 49-4 39,473 30-1 7,725 48-2 ; 1,279 1-0 393 2-4 9 Coorg . . . . " . 1,364 86-2 134 76-6 218 13-8 41 23-4 .. 10 Madi-as ..... 41,689 29-0 4,047 9-7 41,459 28-8 8.608 20-6 34,325 23-8 12,659 30-2 11 North- West Frontier Province 8,996 670 811 36-9 1,975 14-7 448 20-4 1,997 14-9 676 30-S 12 Punjab ..... 59,665 46-2 4,105 17-0 45,519 35-2 9,753 ^•3 16,175 i2-5 5,831 24-1 13 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh 21,667 19-3 1,988 41 13,171 11-7 2,823 5-9 21,261 i8-9 8,368 17-4 U Baroda State .... 1,808 22-1 138 ry7 4,496 54-9 1,038 51-3 1,554 19-0 549 27-0 15 Central India Agency . 77.367 100-0 9,3-.7 100-0 ::. ... 16 Cochin State .... ... 285 2i0 91 9-9 17 Hyderabad State .... 39,813 48-1 4,192 31-3 41,913 50-7 8,378 62-G 899 11 291 5-2 IS Kashmir State .... 75,224 89-1 1,092 34-6 7,494 8-9 1,522 4S-2 1,714 2-0 544 17-2 19 Mysore State .... 10,914 37-0 1,250 21-3 16,524 56-1 3,596 62-0 1,989 6-7 651 yi'2 2a Rajputana Agency 107,130 83-1 6.280 596 21,857 16-9 4,250 40-4 ::: ... 21 Trarancore State .... 3,167 41-7 290 8-5 968 12-7 265 7-7 611 244 71 Note. — In Ajmer-Merwara and Rujpntana details for TalisiU are not available. In tho State, lias been tak)*u as the unit. The clisoropnncy Lotwntn tlio areas hero shown and those eivenin Imperial Table I tho Punjib and Burma), tho Kevonue areas have been taken. In tho c.aso o excluded from tliiit Table furmor aroa tho District, and in the lattor the 15 duo to tho fact that in cortain cases (eq. i Bengal, the area of the -'uudarb»ns hue betil SUBSIDIA.KT TABLES. 51 TABLE II t'liissified iU'(-4irdiii<>- to dciisity. PER SQUABE 1III.E OF 450—600. Area. 83,598 i-7 2.389 S-9 17,017 20-9 8,845 7-9 828 •4 85 16,155 11-2 450 3-4 5,223 41 31,601 28-1 84 10 418 307 28 480 ii-3 Population i (OOO's I omitted). 4:3.3«4 13-8 1,201 170 8,833 19-1 4,fi3n 12-0 453 17 44 ■4 8,097 19-3 262 11-9 2,650 no 16,698 34S 44 21 194 13 ■1 246 60O— 750. 750—900. Area. 10 49.00:2 2-S 778 1-3 13,781 16-9 7,482 6-7 520 -.3 72 6,449 4-5 ],.559 17,418 lo'o 228 2-8 271 444 5-9 Popnlation (OOO's omitted). 11 33,776 10-4 521 7-4 9,308 20-1 4,935 i-3-S 340 - 1-2 50 •4 1,027 11,547 241 ICl 7-9 165 299 8-7 Area. 12 35,276 1-4 8,817 JOS 7,477 6-7 4,423 I 2,385 10-6 ] 1-7 1,006 •8 4,755 4-2 225 606 8-0 Popnlation (OOO's omitted). 13 20,533 6-5 7,228 15-6 6,059 io-8 1,908 4-0 822 3,834 80 170 i8-5 498 900—1,050. Area. 14 11,848 ■7 5,201 6-4 4,226 5-8 345 ■2 790 •5 851 •8 435 5-7 Popnlation (OOO's omitted). 1,050 and OTcr. 15 11.480 3-7 4,996 lOS 4,123 10-7 347 1-3 759 i'8 832 1-7 423 ia-3 Popnlation Area. (OOO's I omitted). 16 10,499 •6 5,862 7-2 959 •8 137 ■1 92 672 •5 1,622 1-5 12 •2 162 11-9 50 •i 48 R8» 11-6 17,736 5-7 I 9,064 I 4 19-6 1 1.330 5 3-5 1,160 1 e 4-2 524 i 7 4-3 1 I 8 i 9 1,369 10 3-5 11 12 1,924 13 40 103 14 50 15 298 ' 16 32-5 601 17 3-8 18 309 19 5-3 ; 20 1,164 31 340 NoTt.— The fig, rcB in italics reprci-ent the propcrtiou per ( out. which the area and popnlation of each density pronp boar to the total area and population of the ProTinco, State or Agency cuncomed. The 6pnre8 for Provinces arc incluBive i>f tho States attached to them except in the case of the North-West FroctioT ProTinoc, where they arc for liritieh territory only, and Madras, where they exclnde Cochin and Travancore. H 2 52 CHAPTER I.— DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. Distribution of the popuhittoii between towns and viilafes. .4VEKAQE PoPrLA- TION PER Nl-MBER PER .MILLK RESID- ING IN NrjIBER PER MILLE OF UEDAN POPULA- TION BESIDINO IN Towns with a Population oi' Nt'MBER PER MILLE OF RdKAI, Population residing in VILLA' ;ES with a POPDIA- TION OF Province, State or Agency. Town. Vill.igo. Towns. 4 Villages. 20,000 and over. 6 10,000 to 20,000. 5,000 to 10,000. Under 5,000. 9 5,000 and over. 2,000 to 5,000. 11 500 to 2,000. Under 500. 1 2 7 8 10 12 13 ll\DI\ 13,81 « 394 tt.j <.>0.) 52.5 ^07 200 68 IS 139 483 SCO Proviuccs 15,71.1 412 ys !)«7 563 211 175 51 20 146 491 343 Ajmei-Merwava 28,079 4^6 280 720 921 79 213 474 313 Aiidamaiis and Nicobavs . ... 118 1,000 78 360 562 Assam 6,833 236 20 980 ... 482 403 115 2 55 385 558 Baluchistan . 8,268 233 120 880 684 ••• 133 183 ... 60 4,52 488 Bengal 24,753 355 65 935 708 193 83 16 22 114 452 412 Bihar and Orissa . 18,368 379 37 963 620 S14 142 24 17 141 453 389 Hombav 3 18,693 612 190 810 i!35 168 153 44 21 174 568 237 Bu'ma 17,904 292 93 907 586 190 204 20 10 67 534 389 C. P. and Berav 10,50^ 317 85 915 :i30 256 350 64 ... 76 422 502 Coorg .... 4,991 335 57 013 628 372 38 551 411 Madras 17,536 078 118 882 511 303 176 10 53 291 504 152 N.-W. Frontier Province 15,3.53 628 133 867 621 170 160 49 45 27S 466 211 Punjab 15,913 531 111 889 606 146 185 63 22 151 550 277 United Provinces . 11,509 4CKI 102 898 491 100 106 123 3 96 522 379 States and Ai!,'eii€i<"s. 9,887 341 100 900 401 195 283 121 10 114 454 423 Assam State 74,650 184 216 784 1,000 ... 34 346 620 B.aluchistan States . 3,317 146 24 976 503 497 ... 58 359 583 Bavoda State 9,878 533 199 801 315 270 276 130 167 567 266 Bengal States 4,525 228 28 972 179 302 219 26 66 468 440 Bihar and Orissa States . 6,2m 193 991 889 111 21 251 728 Bombay States 8,831 427 157 843 308 248 278 166 9 133 503 355 Central India Agency 10.209 260 81 916 315 198 356 101 1 65 376 558 Central Provinces States 7,365 240 17 083 325 675 14 306 680 Hyderabad State . 15,239 599 97 903 485 185 318 12 5 164 587 244 Kashmir State 4,932 322 05 905 525 172 303 2 51 455 492 Madras States 16,611 942 73 927 614 216 130 40 92 318 480 100 Cochin . 1Q,217 ^■,.95^ 120 S80 621 289 90 328 500 169 ,9 Trauancore 19,Jbl 813 (i'i 9H8 of}2 335 65 IS 39 282 556 123 Mysore State 7,231 308 113 887 470 35 204 291 2 40 423 535 Punjab States 10,152 351 81 916 259 306 369 66 8 145 199 348 Rajputana Agency 10,098 285 128 872 3.50 238 296 116 3 102 414 481 Riklcim State 279 1,000 . •• ... 265 735 United rrnvin^fls .sutes , 17,931 31(1 108 802 829 63 108 13 37 323 627 » oiE.— In IhiB 1 rable Ibo Ageuciri and Trib ■1 areas ot I je N.-W. F. Province lu ve been exclt deil. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 53 SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. ;ViiiiiIk'1- per iiiille ot each main l(cli$^i(»ii \\\i» live in I'owns. Province, State or Agency. KUMBKB PEU UUL£ WHO LIVE IN TOWNS. 1 All Bcliglont. < 3 Jain. 4 Piiriji. MusMman. airisti»n. 1 2 5 6 7 IMUV »5 88 29fi 8(i.> 123 213 Provinces 93 90 354 883 1 110 267 Ajmev-Merwara ..... 280 219 283 996 , 523 872 Assam ...... 20 •24 233 20 51 Balucliistan ...... 120 669 900 976 61 958 Fengal ...... 65 97 592 926 37 478 Bihar and Oi'issa ..... 37 34 378 657 80 81 Bombay ..... 190 173 369 880 211 542 Burma ...... 93 533 861 897 352 224 Central Provinces and Berar 85 79 255 896 379 605 Coorg 57 45 670 765 206 270 Madras ...... 118 108 106 926 246 203 Korth- West Frontier Province 133 540 750 980 100 980 Pun3ab ...... 111 135 533 952 104 248 United Provinces ..... 102 72 397 924 269 411 States and Aseucies 100 84 262 754 208 117 Assam State .... 216 353 973 ■ • • • 135 485 Baluchistan States .... 24 79 22 164 Barodi State . . . 199 181 ■" 388 799 423 216 Bengal St«tes 28 32 351 18 364 Bihar and Orissa States .... 9 10 13J 71 2 Bombay States .... 157 131 283 517 3^4 271 Centra India Agency . 84 66 240 859 402 8i2 Central Provinces States 17 24 3^9 759 187 10 Hyderabad State 97 71 183 778 318 383 Kashmir State ..... 95 128 977 1,000 86 551 Madras States ..... 73 70 927 833 114 70 Corhtn ...... ISO 103 992 1,000 162 150 Travancore ..... 62 63 1,000 106 50 Mysore State ..... 113 94 201 990 347 702 Punjab States .... 84 72 508 1 889 1-21 491 Rajputana Agency .... 128 107 235 ! 898 323 626 United Provinces States . 108 35 578 280 172 XoTE. — Iho Agencies and Tribal areas of the N.-W. F. Province have bcin omitted from llib Table SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI. Towns classified by Po pulatitMi. Class of Town. Proportion to total Urbau Popnlation. Number of Females per 1.000 Males. 847 Increase peu cent, in Towns as CLASSED AT rBEVions Census. INCRKABV. I'EU CENT. IK Ubban Population op sacb class from 1881. 1901 to 1911. 18D1 to 1901. 1881 lo 1891. + 10 « (a) In towns us classed in 1881. ('-) In the toUl of each class in 1911 as com- pared with the corresponding total iu 1881. Total lOO'O + 10 + .i'!> + 175 + 243 1—100,000 and over , 33-8 711 + 6-1 + 6-5 + 162 + 30-8 + 336 II— 50,0()0— 100,000 . 101 842 - 1-5 + 4-6 1 11 ;t ♦ 120 + 24-8 111-20.000—50,000 18-7 863 + 2-1 + 4-5 + 9-0 + 12-9 r 240 IV-10,000-20,000 20 7 918 — 1-2 + 4-1 + o-ti -t 119 + 27-3 V— 5,000-10,000 200 932 — 2-1 + 6-6 + 9-2 -f U-1 + 18-2 VI— Under 5,000 . 6-7 888 + 29 + 141 + 173 + 28-8 + 8-4 54 CHAPTER I.— DISTKIBUTIOX OF THE POPULATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE VII. Main Statistics for Cities. Population Number of persons Number o( females Proportion ot foreign PBEOENXAOB OP TAWATIOK, IKOEEASB ( + ), DEOEBASB (-), City. 1911. per square per 1,000 born per • mile. males. mille. 1801-1911. 6 1891-1901. 1881-1891. 1872-1881. 1872-1911. 1 3 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 Calcutta with Suburbs 1,048,307 24,811 495 702 + 9-9 + 23-3 + 10-1 - 31 + 44-6 Bombay .... 979,445 42,585 530 801 + 26-2 — 5-6 + 6-3 + 20-0 + 52-0 Madras and Cantonment 518.660 19,210 946 334 + 1-8 + 12-6 + 11-5 + 2-1 + 30-5 Hyderabad and Cant. 500,623 10,012 &37 227 + 11-6 -1- 8-1 + 13-0 ... + 36-3* Rangoon and Cantonment . 293,316 10,476 409 583 + 19-5 + 34-8 + 35-7 -f 35-9 + 197-0 Lucknow and Cantonment . 259,798 11,484 794 425 - 1-6 — 3-3 + 4-5 — 8-2 — 8-8 Delhi and Cantonment 232.837 15,248 739 361 + 11-6 + 8-3 + 11-1 + 12-3 + 50-8 Lahore and Cantonment 228,687 7,810 506 436 + 12-7 + 14-8 -H2-4 + 254 + 82-3 Ahraedabad and Cant. 216.777 21,678 848 360 + 16-6 + 25'3 +16-3 + 6-6 -t- 811 Ben.ires and Cantonment 203,804 20,394 926 218 — 4 4 — 4-6 + 2-2 +22-6 + 143 Agra and Cr.ntonment 185.449 11,002 830 162 - 1-4 + 11-5 + 5-3 -4- 7-5 + 24-5 Howrah . . . . 179.006 20,985 562 756 + 13-6 + 35-2 +28-4 + 8-0 -h 112-9 Ca-mipore and Cantonment . 178,557 18,260 728 420 — 12-0 + 4-5 +24-9 + ?3-4 + 41-9 Allahabad nnd Cantonment . 171,697 11,246 785 146 — -2 — 1-8 + 94 + 114 + 19-5 Poona and Cantonment 158,856 12,220 862 338 + 3-6 — 5-0 + 24-4 + 91 + 33-6 Amritsar and Cantonment . 152,756 15,276 719 202 -6-0 + 18-8 —10-0 + 11-8 + 12-5 Kiuachi and Cantonment 151.903 2,139 683 592 + 30-2 + 10-9 +43-0 +29-6 + 167-7 Mandalay and Cantonment . 138,299 5,532 984 S'3 —21-8 — 2-6 — 26-8t ■Jaipur .... 137,098 45,699 935 (a) —14-4 + -9 + 11-4 — 3-8* Patna .... 136,153 15,128 922 98 + 1-0 —18-4 - 3-2 + 7-4 — 14 3 Madura .... 134,130 19.161 999 150 + 26-6 + 21-2 + 18-5 + 42-0 + 158-0 Trichinopoly and Cant. 123,512 15,439 1,006 189 + 179 + 15-6 + 7-3 + 10-3 + 61-4 Srinagar and Cantonment . 126,344 15,735 848 19 + 30 + 3-1 + 6-2t Bareilly and Cantonment 129,462 16,552 834 110 -2-8 + 8-4 + 6-7 -(-lOl + 23-8 Meerat and Cantonment 116,227 26,327 753 183 - 1-6 — 11 + 19-9 + 22-3 + 42-8 Surat and Cantonment 114,868 38,289 926 155 — 3-7 + 9-2 — -6 + 1-8 + 6-5 Dacca .... 108.551 15,917 721 198 + 210 + 10-0 + 4-1 + 14-2 + 58-2 Nagpur .... 101,415 5,071 889 281 —20-6 + 9-2 + 19 + 16-4 + 20-1 Bangalore C. and M. Station 100,834 7,447 948 343 + 12-5 -10-5 + 7-0 + 143 •r 23-3 Jubbulpore and Cant. 100,1,51 6,710 796 428 4-11-2 + 6-9 + 11-4 + 37-1 + 81-5 (a) X ot available. • Eelates to t he period 18 81—1911. t Relates to the period 1891—1911. SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII. Persons pei ' honse and lionses per sqnare mile. AVEIIAQE NCMBEK OF PEKSONS PER HOOSE. . AVESAQE NCUBEE OE HOCBES PER SQUARE MILS. j Protisce, State ok Agescy. 1 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 INDIA 4-9 5*3 54 5*8 35*8 3 16 33'9 31-; Ajmev-Merwara Andamang and Nicobars . 4-1 7-2 4-4 5-3 7-2 45-3 1-2 39-6 37-5 23-7 Assam ..... Baluchistan .... 4-6 4-9 4-6 4-5 4-8 5-5 250 13 23-1 2-3 22-8 18-5 Bengal ..... Bihar and Orissa Bombay .... Burma ..... 5-3 5-2 4-9 4-9 5-2 5-3 5-1 5-0 5-2 5-7 5-4 5-3 6-3 6-4 5-6 5o 104-5 66-5 2!i-5 10-7 100-2 62-2 26-5 8-8 960 71-4 25-6 8-3 74-6 60-9 211 7-8 Central Provinces and Borar . 49 Coorg . .... 5-2 .Madras ..... 5'3 .N ortli-West Frontier Province . 5-0 Punjab ..... 4-5 4-8 5-9 5-4 6-1 6-2 :V0 6-4 5-3 61 6-6 4-5 7-9 5-5 6-0 6-8 ?4-8 21-3 55-0 32-4 39-6 21-3 19-3 50-3 21-3 29-7 22-5 16-9 47-6 17-9 27-2 22-7 14-1 40-5 15-0 26 1 United Provinces . . . ' 4-6 Barodd State . . . . | 4'0 Central India Agency . . 4'6 Hyderabad State ... 4-9 Kashmir State . . . , 5-7 1 5-5 40 51 4-9 63 5-7 4-5 52 50 5-7 6-4 4-6 5-5 3-3 92-3 61-9 264 32-8 6-6 78-7 80-5 21-5 27-6 5-7 74-2 65-5 25-2 27-6 5-5 62-8 56-0 22-3 25-9 Cochin State .... Mysore State Rajputana Agency . Sikkim State .... Tiavuncore State 5-6 5-0 43 53 52 5-6 4-9 51 5-3 51 54 5-5 55 "5-0 4-8 5-7 4-9 4-9 120-0 39-8 189 59 S7-3 1(17-1 37-7 15-0 3-9 81-9 961 320 16-7 76-8 920 29-6 16-2 '73-3 KOTE.- -the flgurcJ! (or rrovlnccs arc Iniluslvc ol the States attached to them except in the case of the N.-W. F. Province, whore they arc (or British territory onl.v', and Madras, wticrc they exclude Cochin and Tiavancore. CHAPTER M. Movement of Population. Inttodtictory Hemarks. So. In the l;tst Chapter the distribution of the population as it stood on the introductory 10th March 1911 has lieen examined, and an endeavour made to explain jts'®™'^**- varying density iu different parts of the country and the manner in -which it is apportioned between towns and villages. In the present Chapter the statistics will be regarded in their dynamical aspect ; the results of the recent census will be compared with those of previous enumerations and the causes of the varia- tions which are thus disclosed will be investigated. The raw material for this discussion will be found in Imperial Table II. In the Sulisidiary Tables at tbe end of this Chapter it is worked up in various ways in order to bring out more clearly the most important features of tbe changes which have taken place. As stated in the Introduction, the first general census was taken in the year 1872 and the second in 1881; and since then enumerations have been effected every ten years. The variations disclosed at the successive enume- rations up to 1901 have been fully examined in the previous Census Reports. It is unnecessary to repeat at length what has already been said, and the discussion will here be directed mainly to an examination of the changes Avhich have taken place since 1901. 86. According to the census returns the total population of India has increased by 7"1 per cent., during the last decade and by 529 j^er cent., since 1872, but the real gain since the latter date is very much less than this. Large tracts of country including the Central India and Rajputana Agencies, Hydera- bad and the Punjab States, which had* been omitted from the returns for 1872, were included in those for 1881. In 1891 the greater part of Upjier Burma and Kashmir and several smaller units were enumerated for the first time. In 1901 the most important additions were a portion of Upper Burma and the greater part of Baluchistan. In 1911 the Agencies and Tribal Areas in the North- West Prontier Province together with a few smaller areas were included within the scope of the operations^ Apart from the additions due to the enumeration of new areas, which can be definitely ascertained, there has been a further, but less easily recognizable, gain resulting from the relatively greater accuracy of the later enumerations. It is known that in many places the census of 1872 was veiy im]3erlect, whiJe even in 1881, though a very great improvement was effected, there were still numerous omissions. Since then a high standard of accuracy has been obtaiiu'd and although improvements have still been effected at each succeeding census, they have had comparatively little effect when considered from the point of view of the total population. There Is no doubt that the arraniTOinents uoav made for the enumeration of travellers both by land and ^^•atc^ are far more efficient than they were even in 1891. 'Iherc has also been a great improve- ment since then in the accuracy of the census in backward tracts, such as the States of the Central Provinces. This accounts in part for tiie extraordinarily large proportional increases iu these and similar areas. Their total iiopulation, 1 Variation. per cent. Ccnsns of Popalation. since prerions censQS. 1872 ■2O6,162,S60 1881 253,896,330 +23-2 1891 287,314,071 + 13-2 lyoi 294,3(51,050 + 2-5 1911 315,156,390 -1- 71 66 CHAPTBR II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. Increase dae to Real in- Rate pir cent, of real in- crease. Period. Inclo- Bion of new areas. Im- prove- ment of meth- od. of po- pula- tion. Total. Mil- lions. Mil- lions Mil- lions. Mil- lioi.s. 1872-81 SR-0 120 3-0 480 1-5 1881-'a 5 7 3-5 243 33-5 9-6 1891-01 2-7 ■2 4-1 r-0 1-4 loni-11 1-8 lS-7 ! 20-5 6-4 Total 43-2 15-7 50-1 109 1 19-0 Note.— part of the renl increase ha.i ot course occurred in the new areas shown in colimin 2 of the statement however, is so small that the gain from this cause becomes negligible when the population of India as a whole is considered. Sometimes, moreover, as in Baluchistan, greater accuracy has resulted, not in a gain, lint in a loss. It is unnecessary to go more fully into this question, as it was discussed in the last Census Report. The general result is exhibited in the marginal statement, from which it will be seen that the real increase in the population in the last 39 years is estimated at about .50 millions, or 19 per cent. This is less than half the increase which has taken place diu'ing the same period amongst the Teutonic nations of Europe, but it considerably' exceeds that of the Latin nations. In France the population has groAvn Ity less than 7 per cent, since 1870, l)ut this is because of its exceptionally low birth-rate. In India the birth-rate is far higher than in any European country ; and it is the heavy mortality, especially amongst infants, which checks the rate of increase. This subject will be dealt with more fully in a subsequent paragraph. Mean- while it may be noted that, if the population were to continue to grow at the same rate as it has done since 1872, it would double itself in about a century and a half. But before discussing further the figures for the Empire as a whole, it will be convenient to consider tliem for the individual Provinces and States of vrhich it is composed. ^*the°* "^wth of* ^'^- ^e may first, however, enumerate the various factors which determine popniation. the growth of pojiulation and pass briefly in review the conditions in respect of them which have prevailed during the decade. One of the most obvious of these factors is migration. If the number of immigrants exceeds that of the emigrants the natural groAvth of population will of course be artificially augmen- ted, while the reverse is the case when emigrants are in excess. It is in the smaller units, such as districts, that the efi'ect of njigratiou is most marked ; and we sbaU see further on that, even in the case of provinces, this factor is often of considerable importance. In India as a whole, however, it counts for very little. Table XI shows that the number of immigrants into India from other countries Avas about 627,000 in 1901 and 650,000 in 1911. It is less easy to ascertain the number of emigrants. "We know from the cen.sus returns for Great Britain and the Colonies that the total numljer of persons there enumerated who were born in India was about 915,000 in 1901 and 1,023,000 in ] 911, but we have no information regarding the emigration to adjoining countries in Asia, including Afghanistan, Xepal, Bhutan and China. There is, however, no reason to suppose that its volume has varied much during the last ten years. In the Report for 1901 the total number of emigrants to the.se adjoining countries was estimated roughly at 208,000. If we assume that the number is still the same, we get 581,000 as the net excess of emigration over immigration in India at the pn^sent census, as compared with 496,000 ten years ago. The adverse l)alance thus shows an increase of 85,000 during the decade. This is too small to be worth consideration when dealing with a variation of more than twMity millions. The otber atpeits of the iiiovementB fo and from India will be considered in the next Chapter. 88. Apart from migration the growth of the population is determined by the relation which exists between the l)irth and death rates ; and this again depends partly on the racial characteristics and social practices of the people and jiartly on external conditions, such as their material well-l)eing and the state ot the public health. It is difficult to distinguish between the influence of race and that of social customs. Some races undoubtedly have a greater fecundity and longevity than others, but it is impossible to say bow far these characteristics are inherent and how far they are the outcome of their customs and environment. In India the birth-rate is everywhere much higher than in Europe, but this is due largely to the universality of marriage. It is higher amongst Muhammadaus and Animists than amongst Hindus, but this is other factors wbich determine the growth of pO' puIftlioD. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 57 because the Hindus have a much larger proportion of widows at the child- bearing ages. The high birth-rate again is largely discounted l)y a heavy mortality, especially amongst infants and women at child-ljirth. This as- pect of the subject will be considered more fully in the chapters on Age and Sex. It will suffice to say here that social practices change but slowly, and that the periodic fluctuations in the rate at which the population is growing depend almost entirely on the second set of factors, namely, those affecting the material condition of the people and the state of the public health, which ^e shall now proceed to discuss. 89. In a country like India, where more than two-thirds of the inhabitanis ramm*,. are dejiendent oia agriculture, the state of the harvests is of primary importance. When the crops are good the peojile are prosi)erous, but when they fail famine supervenes. All agricultural countries are liable to this scoui'ge, and India is peculiarly so, owing partly to the variability of its rainfall and partly to the way in which the soil is parcelled out amongst petty farmers, who have no capital and no organized system of credit, and whose millions of field labourers are at once throAvn out of work when the crops fail. In former times the effects of famine were far more serious than they are at the present day. There was no organized system o+" State relief ; and in the absence of railways, even local crojj failure meant starvation to many. All this has now been changed. A watcliful eye is kept on the state of the crops, the course of prices and the returns of bii'ths and deaths. Programmes of relief works have been prepared and are carefully kept up to date, and all necessary arrangements have been made for commencing relief operations the moment they are needed. But even so, there are many obstacles in the way of complete success, espe- cially in the Native States, where the preliminary organization is less complete than in British territorv ; and AAhenever a severe famine occurs its effect is immediately seen in a diminished birth-rate and a high mortality. In British territory, at least, the mortality is rarely due to actual starvation, but rather to diseases brought on by improper food and epidemics of chohira, which frequently attack the crowded relief camps. The influence of famine will be repeatedly referred to in the discussion of the growth of the population in individual Provinces and States. We shall see how the famine of 1877 reduced the population of Mysore and Madras and how those of 1897 and 1900 caused heavy losses in the Central Provinces and Berar, Eajputana, Central India and Bombay. We shall also see that the immediate effect of these visitations soon disajDpears. The persons who die are those at the extremes of life, the very old and the very young many of whom would in any case have died during the next few years. The number of persons in the prime of life is but- little affected. Also, after a period of suspended activity, the reproductive powers of the people reassert themselves. For some years after a famine births are thus more numerous than usual and there is an abnormally low death-rate. 1 he result is an unusually rapid growth of population. Thus in the decade 1881-91 which followed on the great South India famine of 1877, Madras had an increase of 15-7 and Mysore of lH-1 per cent., and after the famines of 1897 and 1900 the Central Provinces and Berar gained 17"9 per cent, in the decade 1901-11. That the rebound was not equally great in Bombay and Rajputana is due to a continuance of adverse conditions as will be explained below. 90. The decade preceding the census of 1911 was free from -wade-spread stato of «rop« to famines such as those of the preceding ten years. In 1907 there was a partial failure of the monsoon which Avas felt over a wide area, extending from Bihar to the Punjab and Bombay, and caused actual famine in the United Provinces and in a few districts elsewhere. In several other years the crops suffered locally to a varying extent from want of rain or, occasionally, from an excess of it. Prices ruled high in most years, but this, though it ])resse(l hard on the poorer sections of the non-agricultural population, Avas I)enefieial to the cultivators and did no great harm to tlie landless labourers, whose wages, when not paid in kind, rose in much the same proportion. Tliere has been an extension of the area under sj)ecial cro])s, such as jute and cotton, which are more profitable to the cultivators than food-grains. The period was certainly I 58 CHAPTER n.— MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. The state of the PnbUo bealth. Irrigation. Progress of trade and Indnstry. not SO favourable as that ending in 1891, but in India as a whole, it may be regarded as one of moderate agricultural prosperity. 91. India is peculiarly liable to fatal epidemics. From time to time cholera breaks out with great virulence and small-pox also at times causes a very heavy mortality. Until recently, however, the greatest harm has been done by epidemic fevers, such as the Burdwan fever epidemic which devastated West and Central Bengal a third of a century ago and Eald Ajar which more recently wrought such havoc in the Brahmaputra valley. In the decade which has iust ended epidemics of malarial fever decimated the irrigated tracts of the Eastern and Central Punjab and the Ganges-Jumna Doab in the United Provinces, where in 1908 alone th<" reported mortality from " fevers " was nearly two millions. On the whole, however, the decade might perhaps have been regarded as an average one from the point of view of the pubUc health, had it not been for the ravages of plague, from which India had been prac- tically free in recent times, until it broke out in Bombay in 1896. Spreading from that city it had already by March 1901 caused a recorded mortality of about half a million. Since then it has continued its ravages, especially in Bombay and Upper India. The mortality from it rose from about a quarter of a million in 1901 to 1 '3 milHons in 1907. It fell below a quarter of a million in each of the next two years, but in 1910 it exceeded half a million. The total number of deaths from plague during the decade was nearly 6' 5 millions, of which over one-third occurred in the Punjab and two-fifths in the United Provinces and Bombay taken together. The disease fortunately has failed to establish itself in Bengal, Assam and on the East Coast and in the extreme south of the peninsula. This moreover is only the recorded morta- lity. As is well known, when epidemics are raging, the reporting agency breaks down and a large number of deaths escape registration. Tlie omis- sions are most numerous in the Native States, where registration is usually far less accurate than in British territory. A peculiarity of plague Avhich has been noticed and explained elsewhere is that, in northern India at least, it attacks women more than men, and people in the prime of life more than the young and old. Consequently its after effects must shortly become apparent in a diminished birth-rate in the tracts most seriously affected. If it be accepted that the mortality of the decade apart from plague was normal, it follows that, but for this disease, the population at the census of 1911 would have been greater than it was by at least 6'5 millions. In other words the population would have increased by 9*3 instead of 7'1 per cent. i»2. Great progress continues to be made with the extension of irrigation facilities. The total area actually irrigated in 1910-11 was 22-5 million acres (this was about half the area " commanded ") against 18"9 million acres at the commencement of the decade. The total capital expenditufe on Govern- ment irrigation works classed as productive, Avhich in 1910-11 yielded a return of more than 8 per cent, now exceeds 42 crores of rupees as compared with 34'5 crores in 1900-01, and that on protective works has risen during the same period from 2 to 4 crores. Even more rapid progress may be expected in the near future. The great Triple Canal Project in the Punjab, which is nearing completion at a cost of more than ten crores of rupees, is designed to irrigate two million acres in the Chej, Rechna and Bari Doabs. A still more ambi- tious scheme is the proposed Kistna reservoir in Madras which is expected to cost 8-5 crores, and to have a capacity double that of the enlarged Assuau dam. Various other large schemes are in contemplation, and some of them have already been sanctioned. 93. Although Indian trades and industries are still in their infancy, as compared with those of Western countries, rapid progress has been made in recent years, and especially so during the last decade. The estimated value of the imports of merchandise from foreign countries rose from 53 crores of rupees in 1880-81 to 81 crores in 1900-01 and to 134 crores in 1910-11. The exports of merchandise Avere valued at 75 crores in 1880-81, at 108 crores in 1900-01 and at 210 crores in 1910-11. During the first mentioned period of twenty years the groAvth in the A^alue of imports was 52 per cent., and it was 65 per cent, during the ensuing period of ten years. The corresponding in- Diagmm showing the birth and death rates per mille in certain provinces. 60 50 40 30 20 10 PUNJAB C. P. AND BERAR UNITED PROVINCES (•♦♦l***!^ BOMBAY M 60 50 40 30 20 10 40 BENGAL BIHAR AND ORISSA BURMA MADRAS 30 20 10 40 *♦«*** 30 20 lO 01 02 03 04;06 06 07l08 09 ro 01 02103 04 06 06 07 08 09 10 01 !02!03 04 06 06 07 08 09 10 01 02 03 04 05 0607 08 09 10 BIRTHS **• DEATHS FROM FEVER □ CHOLERA □ PLAGUE D OTHER CAUSES C R«« No t47l E 12. H -3SI2 AJMER-MERWARA — ASSAM. 59 creases in exports were 44 and 95 per ccut. resj)ectivoly. Since 1900-01 the value of the imports of metals, niachinery and railway materials has risen by 100 and that of cotton, including piece goods, by 50 per cent. In 18^0-81 there were in the whole of India only 58 cotton mills employing 48 thousand operatives. By 1910-11 tlie uumber of mills hatl risen to 250 and that of their emj^loyds to 231 thousand. During the same period the number of jute mills from 21 to 58, and the number of persons employed in them from 35 to 216 thousand. The Burma oil industry has made great strides. There has been a remarkable expansion of railway and engineering work-shops, arms and ammunition factories and the like. The most notable and promising of recent developments is the establishment of Tata's Iron and Steel works at Sakclii which, with its imitators when they come, may be expected to make India self- supporting in the matter of rails and girders. In 1880-81 the total production of coal was barely one million tons ; but in 1910-11 it exceeded 12 millions. The expansion of these and other industries is not only a benefit to the country as a whole, but is also of great use in opening out fresh avenues of employ- ment for the swarm of landless labourers who formerly were dependent solely on agricultural labour lor their subsistence. Another way in which tlie growth of the material prosperity in recent years can be gauged is by the rate at which the precious metals are being absorbed. The value of the net imports of gold and silver in 1880-81 was respectively 3-7 and 53 crores. In 1900-01 it was 11-9 and 12-7 crores, and in 1910-11, 27-9 and 118 crores. The net imports of gold showed a fiirther rise of 50 per cent, in 1911-12. 94. The improvement in railway communications since 1880 has been verv improvement in great. In that year the number of miles open to traffic was less than 9,000'; °°S^'"'«»<«»«'>»« '>' since then there has been an addition of roughly 8,000 miles in each successive decade ; and by the end of 1910 the total mileage exceeded 82,000. The traffic has increased even more rapidly. In 1910 over 371 mOlion passengers and 66 million tons of goods were carried, as compared with 49 and 10 millions respectively in 1881. The net earnings of the State and guaranteed railways in 1910 represented 5-|- per cent, on the capital outlay. Variation by Provinces and States. 95. The small British province of Ajmer-Merwara is surrounded by the Ajmer-Merwara. States of the Bajputana Agency. The first reliable census was that of 1881 when the population was returned as 460,722. During the next ten years it grew by 17 7 per cent. The province was badly affected by the great famine of 1899-1900 which brought about a decrease of 12 per cent, at the ensuing census. This loss, though considerable, was far smaller than in the adjoining States. Since 1901 plague has been prevalent throughout the province. There was famine in 1905-06, and also in parts in 1901-02. There has, besides, been a considerable loss by migration : the number of immigrants is much the same as it was ten years ago, but the emigrants luxmber 84,110 against 25,293 in 1901. It is this which mainly explains the low rate of increase during the last decade, which is only 5'1. There is a gain of nearly 20 per cent, in the natural population, i.e., amongst pei-sons born in the province ii'respective of the place where they were enumerated. The variation is veiy unequally distributed Ijetween the two di.'^tricts into which the province is divided ; for while in Ajmer the increase is only 3"5, in Merwara it is 10" 6, per cent. 96. The conditions of Assam are peculiar owing to the extensive immigration to its tea gardens. During each of the periods 1872-81 and 1881-91, the rate of increase, after allowing for improved enumeration, was roughly 9 per cent. In the course of the next ten years the growtli of the population received a severe check owing to the ravages of Kuld Ajar, an acute form of malaria which was first oljserved in the Garo Hills in 18(59, wlience it spread gradually up tlie Brahmaputra vallf^y as far as Golaghat. Its ravages were greatest in Jv^owgong, where the pi)|)ul;ition was reduced hy it below the figure at which it had stood nearly thirty years previously. The net result in the Brahmaputra valley of the deaths from this disease on -60 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. REFERENCES INCREASE 9-I3PC.- " 15-16 "- " OVER 21 "- the one hand and of continued immigration on the other, coupled with a normal natural growth in the other parts of the Province, was an increase in 1901, exchiding additions due to the inclusion of new areas, of 5-9 per cent. The hulk of this was due to immigration ; and only 1"4 per cent, was the result of natural growth. Since 1901 the conditions have been favourable. The crops have been good ; and the high prices of food-grains have benefited the •cultivators, while they liave done no harm to the tea garden coolies, who are supplied by their Map of Assam shotoing variations in the poj)ulation since 1901. CmploveVS with rlcC at a fixed rate per maund. About the middle of the decade, the tea industry, which had been suffering for some years from the effects of over-production, began to show signs of reviving pros- perity. The im- provement has since been conti- nuous, with the result that in 1910 the labour force ex- ceeded by 114,000 the number employ- ed ten years pre- viously. During the same period the land revenue of the jiro- vince rose from 68 to 68 lakhs of rupees. The opening of the Assam-Bengal Railway and the extension of the Eastern Bengal State Eailway to Gauhati have greatly improved communications, and have facilitated an influx of settlers to tlie Brahmaputra valley from North and East Bengal. In several years there were bad cholera epidemics, but, on the whole, the public health was satisfactory. Kald Ajar has disappeared,* and there has been no plague. 97. The result of these favourable conditions is an increase, in the area enumerated at the previous census, of 893,928, or 14-6 per cent. For the first time the rate of increase in the natural, is greater than that in the actual, population. The greatest proportional growth has occurred in the Brahmaputra valley and the Hill districts, where the rate is nearly double that recorded in the Surma valley. The large increase (30 per cent.) in Goalpara is due mainly to an extensive immigration of Muhammadans along the course of the Brahmaputra from Mymensingh, Rangpur and Pal)na. In the Bengal Census Report for 1901 it was noted that these hardy and prolific cultivators were gradually working their way northwards, and the movement has now spread beyond the limits of that province. These people are accustomed to the risks arising from diluvion and devastating floods, which other cultivators are unwilling to face ; and as the cJia?'s already occupied fill up, the surplus nopulation finds no difficulty in securing land in the higher reaches of the river. Lakhimpur which registered an increase of more than 40 per cent, at each of the three previous censuses, has now gained 26 per cent. This slackening of the rate is the natural result of the development whicli had already taken place. AU the available land near the existing lines of communication has been taken up, and further rapid expansion is possible only in the more remote portions of the district. The ijain of 16 per cent, in Nowgong represents to a great extent a recovery from the losses caused by Kald Jjdr ; and the railway has brought settlers into the south of the district from the Surma valley and Eastern * There has been a small local recrudescence in Golaghat which so far shows no signs of spreading. BALUCHISTAN — BENGAL. Gl Bengal. The population has grown rapidly, throughout the hills except in North Cachar, where the figures for 1901 were inflated by the presence of a large number of coolies engaged on railway construction. The largo increase in the jVaga Hills is due in part to the inclusion of new areas ; and that in Manipur to greater jirosperity, the result of l)ctter administration during the period Avhen the State was under British management. It is interesting to note tliat the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills, where in 1901 the population seemed to have received a chock, again shows a rapid rate of increase. It would be useless to compare the results of the census with the recorded births and deaths, as the return of these occurrences are still very imperfect. In the Census Report for 1901 it was concluded, from the statistics of 49 castes and tribes peculiar to Assam, that the indigenous population of the Brahmaputra valley was declining in the western districts ; and the net loss in the course of ten years was estimated at (V-1 per cent. Mr. McSwiuoy shows that the same castes have now an increase of more than 11 per cent. Although this is less than the general rate of increase in the valley, it is sutficient to dis- prove the idea that the Assamese are a dying race. The decline in the j^revious decade was due to temporary causes which have now happily been removed. 98. The first attempt at a general census of Baluchistan was carried out in Bamohuun. 1901. But even then the operations were so incomplete thnt it is impossible to regard the results as sufficiently accurate to furnish a basis for comparison. Nearlv two-fifths of the total area was left untouched; and of lialf the remain- der only a rough estimate was made, which has now been proved to have been too sanguine. It seems probable that in the distant past Baluchistan enjoyed a much heavier rainfall than it does at the present day. In the western portion of the country there are numerous traces of ancient irrigation works and, in some parts, of terraced fields. " Whether Baluchistan under present ■conditions could support a much larger population than it actually does is, " says Mr. Bray, " open to question. Geologists indulge in gloomy prophecies of its gradual dessication and ultimate depopulation. But large schemes for damming up its mighty floods are now being evolved, and should they come into being, the census reports of the future may have a very different tale to tell." In recent years the alien population has greatly increased; so also probably has the semi-indigenous. " As for tlie tribesmen and other indi- genous peoples, the very general impression is that they are barely holding their own : if one year finds more in the country than another, this is simply because large numbers of them are nomadic, or to use their more expressive term khdna-badosh — people ready to shift in or out of the country at a moment's notice, as conditions change for the better or the worse." At the time when the census was taken, owing to drought, large numbers of Brahiiis and Baloch had wandered from Baluchistan into Afghanistan and Persia. Births and deaths are registered only in Quetta town. In the absence of any other definite data from which to gauge the growth of the indigenous popvilation, the Provincial Superintendent has made an interesting enquiry regarding the number of children born to 6,6-il fathers, and the numl)er still surviving. It appears that on the average every ten fathers had 59 children of whom 30 were surviving on the date of enquiry. In considering these figures it must be rememl)ered that the fathers were of all ages, and that in many cases the family was far from complete ; that they include the not very common cases where a man had two or more wives ; and that the enquirers omitted to include sterile unions. The last consideration is of less importance than would appear at first sight. The number of such unions is small ; and when a man's first wife fails to bear children he almost invariably marries again. 99. When the direct administration of Bengal and Bihar was taken Bong»L over by the Ea.st India Company, the country had just emergofl from the throes of a terrible famine in which it is estimated that one-third of the population was swept away. The eastern littoral had suffered repeatedly from the devastations of the MaLjlis, and the country north of Orissa, which was still in the hands of the Marathas, was constantly l)eing overrun and pillaged by their marauding bands. Though various attempts were made from time to time during the first half of the 19th century to a.scertain the popu- 62 CHAPTEK n. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. Period. Bate of increase per cent. 1872-1881 1881-1891 I,'<9i-i9'n 1901-1911 6-7 7-5 7-7 8-0 invaded the affected, but districts of Nadia East Benijal and rapidly. The conditions were Map of Bengal showing variations in the population since 1901. nzrcfiLKCCi OCCnEASC 0-5fiUI lation of individual districts, we have no reliable information prior to the census of 1872. The population or the area which now forms the Presidency of Bengal was then found to be 34-,G87,292. It has now risen to 46,305,642, a gain of 33 per cent. During these 39 years, though there have been local instances of crop failure, famine has been a negligible factor in the determina- tion of the rate of increase. This has been very uniform in the successive inter-ceusal periods. In the first of these periods a severe epidemic of malaria, the well-known " Burdwan fever," reduced the population of West Bengal ; and in 1876 a terrible tidal wave oorih^ coast of Noakhali and Backerguuge dS,used widespread destruction. In the rest of the province there was everywhere a large increase ; but the pioneer census of 1872 was admittedly imperfect, and part of the apparent £cain was no doubt attributable to better enumeration. During the next ten years, the fever epidemic crossed the Hooghly and and Jessore. Parts of North Bengal also were the metropolitan districts continued to grow very similar during the decade ending in 1901. Plague then appeared for the first time, but the resulting mortality Ma» small. There was a cyclone on the Chittagong coast in 1897, the loss of life from which was estimated at 50,000. 100. Since 1901 the crops have, on the whole, been satisfactory. The rice harvest was poor in 1905 and the three succeeding years, and prices ruled high, partly on this account and partly because of the ever-growing area devoted to the cultivation of jute, which in ordinary years is more profitable than rice. There was a general rise in wages on account of the great demand for labour in fac- tories and mines. Industrial develop- ment Avas fostered to some extent by the Swadeshi movement, which helped to revive the cottage weaving industry and led to the opening of numerous small factories for the manufacture of soap, cbn'ilis, etc., and a limited number of lar- ger concerns ; but the greatest expansion was in undertakings financed and con- trolled by Europeans. The number of jute mills rose during the decade from 34 to 58, and the average daily number of operatives from 110 to 200 thousand. The number of cotton mills has risen from ten to fifteen, and that of their operatives from 8,000 to nearly 12,000. The number of employes in railway and engineering workshops, dockyards, arms and ammunition factories and the like has also largely increased. There has, at the same time, been a consi- derable development of railway communication ; and several important exten- sions have Ijeen made in connection with the Eastern Bengal, East Indian and Bengal-Nagpur Railways. In fine, all the material conditions were favourable to a continued rapid growth of the population. The only obstacle was the state of the public health. Plague, it is true, has never gained a footing outside the metropolitan area; and cholera, thougli there were epidemics in several years, has failed materially to affect the growth of the population. But malaria has long been the S|)eciai scourge of this province. It is not only responsible for a heavy mortality, l)ut it saps the vitality of the survivors and reduces the birth-rate. Except in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where industrial developments are the most important factor, it may be said that the growth of the population is determined mainly by the varying prevalence of malarial affections. Nataral Divisii>u. Kate of increase p«r ocnt. West Bengal Ooutral Bengal North Ben^'.il Bast Bengal 2-8 4-5 80 12-1 BENGAL — BIHAR AND ORISSA. 88 101. Of the four natural divisions the largest increase has occurred in East Bengal, where it is due entirely to natural growth. This tract is, perhaps, the health- iest in the j^rovince. It lies mainly in the joint delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, where the fertility of the soil is replen- ished yearly by fresh deposits of silt. Two- thirds of the inhabitants are Muhammadans who, as is now well known, are more prolific than the Hindus. The growth of this favoured tract has been continuous for the last forty years, and the population now exceeds by 57 per cent, that recorded in 1872. Dacca, which in 1901 already had 952 persons to the sqviarc mile, has added 12 per cent, to its population, and Tippera, wliich had 848, has added nearly 15 per cent. Such rapid i growth in a densely j^eopled and purely agricultural tract might almost be i described as phenomenal. North Bengal, which has increased at the same rate as the Presi- dency as a whole, contains three districts which have added li per cent, and upwards to their population and two w'hich are practically stationary. In the others the rate of increase is moderate. Bogra, ■which has grown by 15 per cent., has been opened out by the railway ; and half of it lies in the sparsely peopled Bariud which is now rapidly being brought under the plough. The conditions are very similar in Malda which has an increase of 11 per cent. Jalpaiguri, which has grown at about the same rate, is extremely malarious, but tea cultivation is extending rapidly in the head-quarters sub-division, while the jungles of the Alipur sub-division are being cleared by settlers from other districts, who are attracted by the fertile soil and the low rates of rent. Excluding the metropolitan area, the districts of West and Cen- tral Bengal are all nearly stationary. The largest increase is less than 4 per cent., while two districts— Nadia and Jessore— show a decrease. The popu- lation of both these districts is less now than it was thirty years ago, though they still show a considerable increase as compared with 1872. The statistics of variations according to density are of much in- terest. During the last ten years the actual addition to the population has been as great in thanas which at the commencement of the decade had a population exceeding 1,050 to the square mile as in those where .^ i it was less than 150. The greatest increase of all occurred in thanas with a '^* oLl- population of from 300 to 450. The largest proportional growth, however, -y— ' has occurred in the most sparsely inhabited tracts. The recorded excess of births over deaths durinij,- the decade was about 2 millions, while the increase of population according to the census was nearly 3^ millions. It is said that births are not so fully recorded as deaths, bvit the difference between the above figures is explained by the fact that the number of immigrants to the province exceeds that of its emigrants n by a million and a half. 102. According to the census of 1872 the population of the tracts Avhich now form the province of Bihar and Orissa was 28,210,382. It has now risen to 38,435,293, or by 362 per cent. The census of 1872, however, was by no means as accurate as the subsequent enmnerations, and a great part of the gain recorded in 1881 was fictitious. As compared with the Jatter year, the increase is only 15'1 per cent. The ten years ending in 1891 were prosperous and there was a fair general gro'n'th. During the ensuing decade plague made its first appearance in Bihar and caused a very heavy mortality. The seasons were often unfavourable to agriculture, and there was famine in 1897 and again in 1900. The earlier of these calamities was most severe in North Bihar and tlio later one in Chola Nagpur. In consequence of these adverse conditions the general rate of increase was the lowest on record. The first four years of the decade ending in 1911 \Aere a period of fair agricultural prosperity, but they were succeeded by four years of depression. In 1907 high floods followed by drought caused a local famine in Darbhanga. The early cessation of the rains in the same year resulted in slight famine in Bihar and Orlass. 64 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMKNT OF POPULATION. Eanchi and acute scarcity in Orissa, Bliagalpur, Muzaffarpur and the Sonthal Map of Bihar variations in 1901. and Orissa showing the population since Parganas. Darbbanga suffered again from famine in 1909, but in most parts the crops were good in the last two years of the decade. The area irrigated by the Soue and Orissa canals rose from 900 square miles in 1901 to over 1,200 in 1910. The decade has seen a considerable development of railway communication. The Bengal and North Western Kailway system has been linked up with that Bengal State Hallway, and the Grand Chord of the East Indian Railway has greatly reduced the lead from the coal mines of Manbhum to Upper India. The output of coal is between two and three times as great as it was ten years ago, and the coal mines of the jiro- vince now produce two-thirds of the total output of India. The number of mica mines has largely increased. The Iron and Steel works recently established by Messrs. Tata at Sakchi in Sinsh- of the Eastern opening of the bhum are the largest undertaking of the kind Note. — In this map Orissn Tributary States Imve lieen divided into nine divi- sions according to the rate3 of increase, and Saraikela and Kharswan treated as part of Singhbhuni. which has yet been seen in India. Though they were not then in full working order, they already at the time of the census gave employment to nearly five thousand workmen. The rapid development of the above industries coupled with the growing demand for labour in Calcutta has brought about a general rise in wages, including those of agricultural labourers. On the other liand, plague has continued to cause a very heavy mortality in Bihar, and the number of deaths recorded from it during the decade was about half a million. Malaria was prevalent in Shahabad and in the northern part of Bihar. The volume of emigration, already large in 1901, is now greater than ever, the excess of emigrants over immigrants being 1-5 millions, or 50 per cent, more than in 1901. It is this which mainly accounts for the fact that while, according to the vital statistics, there was an excess of 1-9 nulHon births over deaths, the census shows an increase of only 12 millions in the area from which the returns are received. 103. The general rate of increase is the resultant of very different propor- tions in the four natural divisions. The Chota Nagpur plateau has a gain of li per cent, while the other three divisions are practically stationary. North Bihai^ has gained 1-9, Orissa 09 and South Bihar 0'7 per cent. 1 he Cliota Nagpur jilateau is peopled mainly by aboriginal tribes who multiply rapidly when the conditions are favourable. The largest increase (20 per cent.) has occurred in the Orissa States. This may be due in part to the excellent arrangements made on the present occasion by the Political Agent for the enumeration of this diflBcult and sparsely peopled country ; but most of it is no doubt genuine. There lia? been extensive immigration from the adjoining British districts. Three States which showed a decline in 1901 owing to the famine of the preced- ing year have more than made good the losses then sustained. Manbhum, which has the largest increase (18-9 per cent. ) of any British district, owes its development entirely to the coal mines, whose growing demand for labour has turned the former net loss from migration into a large gain. During the past twenty years the Jheria thana, which Avith Topechanchi contains the bulk of the collieries, has trebled its population, and Topeclianchi has nearly dculjled it. In spite of a growing loss from migration, Ranclii with its healthy climate and prolific aboriginal population has gained 168 ])er cent. Its density of 195 persons to the square mile, though small in comparison with that of the alluvial districts of the Gangetic plain, is dense for an upland tract where the area availal)le for permanent rice cultivation is limited. Many of the ryots' holdings are already so small that the income from tliem has to be eked out by earnings from other sources. The gain of 165 per cent, in Saml)alpur is noteworthy in view of tlie abnormal amount of emigration which has taken place. The smallest increases were recorded in the little BIHAR AND ORISSA — BOMBAY. 65 district of Angiul and in the Sonthal Pavi^anas. The latter district, though it contains a large area nnfit for cultivation, already has 3.t5 inhabitants to the square mile, and it would seem as if there is room for very few more. Tlie natural growth of its population is largely discounted l)y eniigrcition ; the number of persons born in this district who were enumerated beyond its limits is now 321,283 compared with 226,008 ten years ago. In Xorth Bihar, Purnea and Cliamparan alone show a fair rate of growth. These are the only districts in this natural diA'ision which have gained by migi-ation ; and they are, with Bhagalpur, the most sparsely peopled. Muzaffarpur, which now has 1)37 persons to the square mile, has added 3 per cent, to its population. Darbhanga, with 875, is stationary. The decrease of 49 per cent, in Saran follows on a decrease about half as great at the previous cen.sus. These losses arc due to plague, which was responsible for 166,000 deaths during the decade. There is, moreover, extensive emigration from this district to the industrial centres further east. 104. Although South Bihar has only 515 persons to the square mile, com- pared Avith 616 in North Bihar, it is more densely inhabited in lirojjortion to the area tit for permanent rice cultivation. Tts rainfall, as we have already seen, is smaller and le.«s certain. In the southern part the surface is broken and undulating, and the soil is not very fertile. Plague is no doubt mainly re.spon- sible for the decreases which have occurred in Patua and Shahabad, but even before that disease appeared, their rate of growth was very slow. In 1891, when there was no plague and agricultural conditions were favovu'able, the increase in South Bihar was only 2 '7 per cent. The population is now slightly less than it was in 1881. Orissa, after increases of about 7 per cent, in two successive decades, has now gained less than 1 per cent. Throughout the decade the seasons were less favourable to agriculture in this division than in any other part of the province. In 1907 and 1908 there was scarcity in all three districts ; it Avas acute in Balasore, and in Puri it culminated in famine. The opening of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway has greatly encouraged emigration. The net loss from this cause is now 231,502 compared with 151,654 in 1901. In this jirovince the bulk of the population is found in the old settled districts of Bihar. These districts were already highly cultivated many centuries before the British occupation, and they escaped the losses from internecine wars which many other parts of India sustained during the decline of the Moghal empire. They have hitherto taken no part in modern industrial development ; and in many parts the population is already pressing hard upon the soil. In these circumstances a rajjid growth of population is not | to be expected. Unlike Bengal the increase of population is confined to the I sparsely populated thanas, while those with the highest density are decadent. / The decrease in their case is due mainly to the extended emigration of the labouring classes to Calcutta and other industrial centres. 105. A rough estimate of the population of the Bombay Presidency was Bombay, made in 1854, but the first census with any pretensions to accuracy was that taken in 1872, when the jjopvilation was found to be 23,099,332. Even this count cannot have been very complete ; for in spite of the famine which devastated the Deccan and Karnatak in 1878, the census of 18S1 disclosed, not a loss, but a small gain of 1-4 per cent. The famine lo.s^es were rapidly recouped — thanks to a succession of good harvests — and the census of 1891 showed an increase of 15"1 per cent. For the first half of the next decade the progress was prol}ably normal ; I)ut then followed five most disastrous years. Plague broke out and sjiread gradually all over the province. Nor did trouble come singly. In 1897 the Deccan was badly affected by famine, and there Avas another even more severe famine in 1900. Ihe brunt of tliis lattor famine fell on Gujarat, Avhich until then liad been regarded as outside the famine zone. The coml)ined effect of these visitations was seen in a decrease of 55 per cent, at the census taken in 1901. During the ensuing decade the crops were very poor in Gujarat in 1901 and 1904, in the Deccan and Karnatak in 1905, and in most parts of the province in 1907. But, on the AAhoIe, the agricultural conditions Avere not unfa- vourable ; and in Sind they were above the average. The cultivation of cotton €6 CHAPTER II.— MOVEMKNT OF POPULATION. Mav of Bombay showing variafionx in the population ' -^ ^ since 1901. REFtRELNCES IJANJIRA i JAW MAR J SAVANT VADl 4AKALK0T 4BH0R eXMANDESHAGENCil 7 SATARA AGLNCY aSURQAMA 9 S.MARATriA JA&IRS 10 BIJAPUH AGENCY Bnmub •which is more profitable than cereals has become more extensive ; but iu Gujarat a series of irregular monsoons has resulted in a tendency to substitute di-y crojis for rice. There was a steady development of industry uud trade up Id the year 1908, when the high price of cotton caused a temporary set-back ; but in 1909 tliere was a rapid recovery, and the trade at the port of Karachi was greater than it had ever been before. The growing demand for labour has caused a marked rise in wages. About 325 miles of newly constructed railway have been opened since 1901, and tlie existing lines have been greatly improved. There has been a steady extension of irri- gation works; and in 1909-10 the irrigated area in the Deccan and Gujarat was the largest on record. So far as the material Condition of the people is con- cerned, the conditions, except j^erhaps in Gujarat, were fairly favourable, and in ordinary cir- cumstances there would have been a rapid recovery from the famine losses of 1897 and 1900. Hut during the greater part of the decade plague continued to be very prevalent, causing a re- ifoie.-Savanur ha. been omitted from tl.is map as the area gistcrcd mortality of 1 " Ji millioUS. issmaU. The variation there is— 2-9 per cent. OwiUg tO thlS SCOlirgC thc nCt increase in the population was •only 6*3 per cent, viz., 60 per cent, in the British districts and 73 in the States ; otherwise it would have been nearly twice as great. The vital statistics are unreliable. Instead of a gain of 1,110,801 they show a net loss of 217,469 ; and even after allowing for migration the difference is still very considerable. 106. Excluding Bombay City, which has already been dealt Avith (paragraph 77), the greatest increase (9 per 'cent.) has occurred in Sind. This division, except the Karachi City, enjoys practical immunity from plague ; and its culti- vation depends on canal irrigation and not on the caprices of the rainfall. Gujarat, which suffered a loss of 13 per cent, during the previous decade, now has a gain of 4 per cent. The Bhil country, in this division and Khandesh, has grown by no less than 24 per cent. This represents in the main a recovery from losses during the famine of 1900 which was exceptionally severe in this tract ; but to some extent it is due to a more complete enumeration of these timid aborigines. The net increase in the Konkan was only 2 ])or cent. ; and in the Karnatak the population was stationary. Of individual districts, six show decreases varying from 8 to 2 per cent. Plague was the cause of this in Kaira, Satara, Dharwar and Belgaum, malaria in Kanara, and emigration to Bombay City in Kolaba. The influence of the famines of 1897 and 1900 is well marked in the age distribution. The numl^er of children under 5 years of age is greater by 30 per cent, than it was in 1901, while that of children aged ' 10-15, ' i.e., the survivors of those Avho were under 5 in 1901, shows a drop of 13 per cent. 107. Thc recorded population of Burma has risen from 2,747,148 in 1872 to 12,115,217 at the present census, but this is due very largely to the inclusion BURMA. 67 of new areas. At the censuses of 1872 and 1881 the operations were con- fined to the tract which then constituted British Burma, viz., Lower Burma, as the term is now understood, and the district of Thayetmyo. In 1891 the "reater part of Upper Burma, Aviiich had been annexed in 1886, was enumerated for the first time and was found to havt; a population of 3,063,426. The continued extension of census limits gave a further addition of 1,287, 719 jwrsous in 1901 and of 53,289 in 1911. Even now, the count is not qviite complete. There has heen no attempt to ascertain the population of East Manglun in tlie Northern Shan States, or of the unadministered areas in North Arakan and north of the Upper Chindwin and Myitkyina districts. Mr. AVebb says that when the first outposts of British rule were established in Burma the population was Map of Burm a showing variations in the population since 1901. at a lower leVCl tlian it had been for many generations. The covuitry had suffered for nearly a century from inces- sant warfare which was carried almost to the point of exter- mination. " Whole tracts of country were devastated, neither age nor sex being spared ; and large po{)ul'itif)ns were either oompulsorily transferred to some remote region in the conqueror's terri- tory, or driven to take refuge in otlier countries." The first territories to come . under British rule (in 1826) were Arakan and Tenasserim. Both tracts were at that tiiuf veiy sparsely peopled ; but the return of fugitives and immi- s.' rat ion from tracts still Burmese led to a very rapid increase. By 1862 Arakan alieady had more tlian three times, and Tenasserim more than five times, the popu- lation ascertained sliortly after the annexation. Pesu, which was occupied in 1853, douhled its population within the next seven ye;rrs. During the decade ending in 1872, when the first regular census was taken, these tlu-ee tracts taken together had a further i-jcrease of 36 per cent. Since then they liave continued to grow rapidly, hut at a steadily diminishini: rate. The fact tbat in Upper Burma the growth (18 per cent, in 1901 and 14 per cent, in 1911) has not been nearly so rapid is easily accounted for. Tliis tract had suffered less tlian Lower Burma from the wars between native rulers, and though tilt! soil is less productive, in proportion to its capacity, it already supported a comparativelv dense population at the time of its anne.xation. This event was thus not only not followed by an extensive immiirrati m, but on the other hand there was a continued exodus to the more favoured districts of the delta. 108. We may now consider in somewliat greater detail the growth of the population during the last decade. Since 19()1 the .agricultural conditions have, on tlie Avhole, been satisfac^tory. In two or three years tlie crops were short, markedly so in Upper Burma, but, on the other hand, there li.ave liccn several years of bumper harvests. The staple crop is rice, and the people K £ Increase per cent in Ihe paonUtian of Lower Barma. ' 1872-1881 1881-1891 1891-1901 1901-1911 35 25 21 14 135 1872-1911 6S CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION, have gained by the marked rise -n-hich has taken place in its price. There has been a substantial extension of irrioration in the Central Basin. The development of the oil industry has also added to the general prosperity. The public health has been fairly good. Plague broke out in 1905, and bad epide- mics were experienced in >ome of the larger towns, but in the province as a Avhole the niort-ility from it, as from cholera and small-pox, was not very material. The total cross increase of population since 1901 is 1,621,593 or 155 per cent, of which 11 per cent, is accounted for by the inclusion of new areas and about 1-3 per cent, by improved enumeration. The real growth may be taken to be about IS'l per cent. Of this about 11 per cent, is the result of increased immigration, chiefly from Madras. The natural growth would thus be about 12 per cent. Prior to 1901, as noticed above, there were great variations in the rate of increase. At the census taken in that year a gain of 28 per cent, was registered in the Deltaic Plains against only 9 in the Central Basin. The movements from one part of the province to another, which were the chief cause of the different rates of increase have now almost ceased. The best of the waste lands in the Deltaic Plains have already been taken up, while, on the other hand, irrigation has improved the capacity of various tracts in the Central Basin, where also the growth of the petroleum industry has resulted in a considerable demand for labour. An equilibrium has thus been approached in the two tracts in the relation between the means of subsistence and the density of jiopulation. There is still an ebb of population ' from the Central Basin to the Deltaic Plains, but it is now comparatively small. The consequence is that while the rate of increase in the Deltaic Plains has di-opped from 28 to 16 per cent., that in the Central Basin has risen from 9 to 13 per cent. In the Coast Ranges and the Northern Hill Districts it is 16 and 17 per cent, respectively against 17 and 70 at the previous census. In the former tract the growth of the mining and rubber industries in the south has helped to keep up the rate. In the latter the high increase in 1901 was due in part to the inclusion of new areas and improved methods of enumeration. Turning to the figures for individual districts Ave find marked differences. While several are more or less stationary, thirteen have registered gains of 20 per cent, or upwards. Excluding Bhamo where the increase is chiefly due to under-estimation of the population in 1901, the largest (28 per cent.) is in Magwe, where the oil industry has developed enormously. The vital statistics in Burma are still so imperfect that it is not worth comparing their results with those of the census. 109. As regards the future, Mr. Webb thinks that " a density of 150 to the square mile is under the present conditions of the province a critical one. In the Central Basin, once this limit is reached, there is a tendency to emigrate and the increase of the population falls below the natural rate of increase. In the deltaic districts, on passing the limit of 150 persons per square mile, there is a cessation of immigration, and population thenceforward tends to approximate to the natural rate of increase." So long as there is plenty of waste land avail- able elsewhere it may be true that the people will prefer to migrate rather than sub-divide their holdings or cultivate inferior land. But there can be no reasonable doubt that the province is capable of supporting at least three or four times its present population. In respect of their soil and rainfall the deltaic districts are perhaps unsurpassed by any part of India, but their population, though greater than that of any other part of Burma, is a mere fraction of that found in the loAver Ganges valley. Central Provinces 110. The administrative changes affecting the Central Provinces and Berar which have taken place since 1901 have been "described in the last Chapter. At the census of 1872 the population of the area which now forms the Central Provinces was 8,651,730. Berar was not enumerated in that year, but the census of 1867 showed that it then had 2,227,654 inhabitants. The census of 1881 showed a net increase over the above figures in the Central Provinces and Berar taken together of 23 per cent, viz., 49 per cent, in the Feudatory States, 20 per cent, in the British districts of the Central Provinces and 20 per cent, in Berar. This large increase represented the recovery from losses in the famine of 1869, coupled, in the case of the Feudatory States, with more accurate enumeration. There was a further net gam of 11 per cent, in the and Berar. CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR. 69 decade euding- in 1891, but between that year Map ufthe Central Provinces and Berar shovjinrj variations in the populatiun since 1001. Note. — llakrai and Chhuikliadaii Iiave been omitted from this map as their ■area is smal!. The rate of increase is 15"2 and 18 1 per cent, respectively* and 1901 a serious set-back occurred. In several years the crops were poor; and in 189G and ai;;iiu in 1899 they l'ail(!d almost entirely, witli fhe result that on both occasions a severe iaininc ensued. There Avere also serious ejji demies of cholera and malarial fever. It is unnecessary to expatiate on these visitations -niuch were fully dealt with in the re])ort on the last census. The resulting loss of popidation ac- cordins: to the census of 1901 was 79 per cent., viz., 9'2 per cent, in the British districts of the Central Provinces, 4 '8 in the Feudatory States and 5 per cent, in Berar. Since 1901 the conditions have been generally satisfactory. The first seven years were, on the whole, favourable to agriculture ; though there were local crop failures, some districts enjoyed bumper harvests, and there was a steady recovery among the agricultural classes. In 1907 the monsoon came to an untimely end. Tlic consequences were serious in the Jubbulpore and Nerbudda divisions, where a population of about 2f millions was badly affected. Less harm was caused elsewhere, but throughout the province the people felt the pinch of the resulting high prices. In spite of this the birth-rate in 1908 (53 per mille) was exceptionally high, and the death-rate (38 per mille) low. With good crops in the ensuing two years, the agricultural depression soon passed away. There has been a steady extension of tlae cultivated area, aiul especially of that under cotton, which of late years has been a most profiiable crop. Other crops also have generally fetched high prices, to the great advantage of the agricultural classes who form the bulk of the population. There hns been a steadily growing demand for labour, and consequently a rise in wages, owing to the succession of good seasons, the construction of numerous public works and the development of industries, such as cotton giniiing and the quarrying of manganese ore. This has led to immigration on a scale more than sufiicient to neutralize the drain to the Assam tea gardens. The only black spot in tie history of the decade is the appeamuice of plague, Avhich affected chiefly the towns of the ]\Iaratha plain and Nerbudda valley divisions. Al)out a quarter of a million deaths were recorded from this cause, but even this unusual mor- tality made no visible impression on a decade when all other conditions ■were favourable. The population in 1901 contained an exceptionally large proportion of persons at the reproductive ages. The whole of the decrease recorded at that census liad occurred amongst pei-sons under 10 or over iO years of age, and the number of persons at the intervening ages was slightly greater than in 1891. In view of these figures I wrote in the la.st Census Report : " It may therefore be concluded with confidence that the recuperation will be rapid and that, in the absence of any fresh check on the growtli of popu- lation, the losse? of the last decade Avill have l)een repaired l)efon! the time comes for taking the next census." This prediction has proved correct. In tho whole province there has been an increase of 18 percent., viz., 3'' per cent, in the Feudatory States, 18 in the British districts of the Central Provinces and 11 in Bernr. 70 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OP POPULATION. Nataral Dlrision. Rati' of increase per rent. Nerhudda Valley Division Maratlia Pkin Division Plateau Division . CliattiSijarh Plain Division Chota Nagpur Division . 10- 13-9 27-3 ■ 23'3 29-4 111. It will be seen from the figures in the margin that all j)arts of the 2)ro\iace have gained largely. In the Nerbudda valley division the largest increase (19"5 per cent) was in the Nimar district, where new land is being opened out for cultivation by colonists from the neighbouring districts and Central India. The districts of Narsinghpur and Hoshangabad in this division, whicli have failed to share in the general improvement, are fertile enough, but the climate is unhealthy ; their combined population is now much tlie same as it was in 1872. The Plateau division shows large increases iu all dis- tricts, varying from 36 per cent, in Betul to 21 jjer cent, in Seoul. The aboriginal tribes and low Hindu castes who iuha])it this part of the country are veiy prolific ; and its resources have been developed by the construction of the Satpura Railway and the exploitation of coal and other minerals. The division has also gained largely by migration, and especially by the return of persons who left it during the famines of the previous decade. The Maratha plain division lias benefited largely by the boom in cotton, which is extensively grown on its fertile black soil, and by the industrial expansion whicii has taken place. On the other hand it suffered severely in the plague epidemics. In spite of this the Balaghat district has registered a gain of 19-5, Yeotmal of 25'6, and Chanda in the \\ainganga valley of 27 per cent. The districts of the Chattisgarh plain division show increases varying from 15 per cent, in Drug to 25 per cent, in Bilaspur, and the States of Chota Nagpur, from 22 per cent, in Surguja to 77 per •cent, in Korea. In the last mentioned tract there has been a good deal of immigration; but apart from this and the recovery from famine losses, there can be no doubt that the resvdt is also due in part to better enumeration. The excess of births over deaths according to the vital statistics- is less than the enumerated increase in the area in which they are recorded by 317,000. The difference is due mainly to migration, and also perhaps in ])art to the reporting of births being less complete than that of deaths. 112. Estimates of the population of the Madras Presidency were made through the agency of the revenue staff in 1821-22 and in some subse- quent years, but they are not sufficiently reliable to be worth quoting. The first regular census was taken in 1871, but like all first essays in a work of such magnitude, it lacked com- pleteness, and many persons escaped enmneration. This is why, in spite of the terrible famine of 1878, the census of 1881 disclosed only a nominal decrease in the population. During the thirty years that have since ela2is(>d the Presi- dency has been comparatively fi'ee alike from destructive famines and widespread epide- mics. The fii-st of the three decades was a period of ra])id recovery from the effects of th(! i'amine of 1878, and the popula- tion rose by loo per cent. In the second the rate of increase fell to 7' 2 per cent ; there were Kadras. Map of Madras xhowing variations in the population since 1901. 1 j ^ ^^^ '^''sonE BEFERCNCCS. iNCHrASE 0-3PC ^ Sote.—iiviniur and lianpannimUp have been omitted fniin tliin inai, »9 their area is sniall. The rate of increase is liO 8 and 21-9 per cent, respectively. MADRAS — NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE. 71 three bad agricultural yeai's, resuUing locally in scarcity and distress, but there was no actual loss of life. Since 1901 the conditions have been fairly favourable. There was local scarcity in three districts in 1905 and in one in 19()8, but it was not sufficient to affect materially the growth of the popula- tion. The area under irrigation rose during the decade from 9 to 15 thousand square miles. There was a steady increase in the number of emigrants to Burma, Ceylon and the Malay peninsula, but this movement is of a purely temporary character; most of the emigrants ultimately return home, l)ringing their savings with them. There were epidemics of cholera during the years 190G to 1908, and there was a certain amount of sporadic plague, but, on tlit* wiiole, the public health was good. The increase of 83 per cent, may therefore perhaps be regarded as representing the rate of growth to be expected in India when the past and jiresent conditions are normal. The rate would of course be much higher (as it was in 1881-91) during a period of recovery from famine, and much lower in one of disease or serious croj) failure. The increase in the tliirty years 1881-1911 amounts to no less than 31-3 per cent. In this connec- tion it may be of interest to note that at an even earlier period a high authority expressed the opinion that the limit of cultivation in the ^ladras Presidency had already been readied.* 113. The genernl progress is shared by all the natural divisions. The larsrest increase (16"7 per cent) has been recorded in the Agency tracts, and the smallest (3'8) in the Deccan. The high rate in the former is due, to a certain extent, to better enumeration in a wild and sparsely peopled country where the work is beset with special difficulties. In the Vizagapatam Agency, where a gain of 20 per cent, follows on a small decline, it appears that a number of villages wdth a population of about 30,000 were left out of account in 1901. The Deccan division is a land-locked area Avith no industries; its red soils are poor, and though the black cotton soil found in many parts is fertile, it is easily affected by drought as Avell as by excessive moisture. The Bellary district in this division suffered badly both from plague and malaria. As a contrast to the rest of the division, Banganapalle and Sandur show large increases, exceeding 20 per cent. Their present density is low; the soil in Banganapalle is fertile, and in that State the gain is in the nature of a recovery from losses in the previous decade, when the local conditions were much worse than in most other parts of the Presidency. Amongst the abnormal local variations in other divisions may be mentioned a drop of nearly 27 per cent, in the Koraput taluk of the Vizagapatam district, owing to the migration of Khonds, and an increase of 157 per cent, in Anjengo, due partly to the opening of tea gardens and of six rubber estates, and the extension of cocoanut cultivation. The rate of increase during the decade amongst Hindus is almost the same as that in the population as a whole; their gains from the ranks of the Animists are very nearly balanced by their losses to those of the Christians, who have increased at about twice the provincial rate. Ani- mists, who have lost to Ijoth the above religions, show a slight decline. The Muhammadans owe their gain of 11"6 per cent, partly to their greater proli- ficness, but mainly to the proselytizing zeal of the Mappillas on tlie Malabar Coast. The births reported during the decade outnumljcred the deaths l)y 2,797,197 which is less by nearly 400,000 than the increase disclosed by the census in the area in which vital statistics are collected. The excess of the census over the registration figures, which is found mainly amongst females, would have been still greater but for the large emigration that has taken place. The net loss from this cause is estimated at nearly two-thirds of a million, or 200,000 more than at the previous census. Most of the emigrants being men, it is easy to see how it is that the excess of the census over the registration ligurcs is far less in tlieir case than it is iii that of the less migratory females. 11-1. At tlie time of its annexation in 18 19, the tract wliich now bn-iiis the vcrtb-WMt ftob North- West Prontier Province; was in a very j)arlous condition. Owing**"" to repeated invasions by the Sikhs and constant internal feuds, proi)erty and cultivation were insecure, and the population , had been greatly reduced. • Modi-as Ccniiug ficport for 1881, pagi' 21. 72 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. Map of North-M'ent Frontier Province shon-inrf variations in tlie population since 1901. Since the establishment of settled goyernment, a good climate, fertile soil and immunity fi'om famine have combined to produce a steady increase of the pojuilation, Avhich has douljled itself in the British districts during the last fifty-six years. Since 1901, though there have been sporadic outbreaks of epidemic disease, and malaria has always been more or less- prevalent in the autumn and winter months, the public health, on the whole, has been good. The province is exceptionally well furnished with irrigation facilities and enjoys a fairly copious and regular rainfall. There has been no serious crop failure. Two new lines of railway have been opened and there has been a great increase in the trade with Afghanistan. A new canal has been constructed which, with earth- work on a new line of railway, has provided profitable emjoloyment for the labouring classes. In spite of these favourable conditions the- population in British territory has grown by only 76 per cent, or less than in any previous inter-censal period. This is due, in part at least, to migration. Immigrants are now fewer, and emigi'ants more numerous, than they were at the time of the previous census. The number of persons born in the British districts has increased hj 103 per cent. The vital statistics are still so inaccurate that it is impossible to refer to- them for an explanation of variations in the rate of growth. Of the five British districts which the province contains the increase has been above the average in Bannu and Peshawar, and below it in Kohat and Dera Ismail Khan, the two most sparsely inhabited districts in the province. Itote. — The A from this map. reiicios ami Tribal areas have been omitted Paniab, 115. The two earlier censuses of 1855 and 1868 did not include the whole- of the Punjab ; nor were they very reliable. Between 1881 and 1901 the population grew steadily, the increase in the first of the two decades being Map of the Punjab showing variations in the population since 1901. J-" Ij anci m tUe .J second 64 j^er cent. Since 1901 the crops- have, on the whole, been satisfactory. There has been a large exteneion of irriga- tion, chiefly in the canal colonies ; 520 miles have been added to the total length of canals and distribu- taries, and the gros& area irrigated from them has risen by 32 per cent. Both here and in the dry west- ern districts there has been a marked in- crease in the area vmder cultivation. The prices of food grains, oil-seeds and ii^''/'i'~ "'*' ^-^'^'9). Knimrthala (-14-7), Dujana (+B'4). and Kalsia (-16 8). have been omitted from this nap ns their are.i ia small. Biloch Traiis- !• rentier (-hly?) has biea included in Dcra Ghazi Khan. PUNJAB. 7.5 cotton have risen. Tliei*e has been a great improvement in railway communi- cations, more than a thousand miles of new lin.e having been constructed ; and this has been accompanied by a remarkable development in the rail, and to a smaller extent in the river-borne, trade. In 1899-19U0 the imports and exports aggregated 12 million maiinds, valued at over 21 crores. Ten years later thiiy had risen to 8G million maunds, valued at 50 crores. The number of factories with more than twenty operatives has risen from 132 to 143. There has been an extraordinary rise in the wages of agricultural and other labourers. The material conditions were thus all in favour of a rapid growth of the population. Unfortunately, except in the western districts, the state of the public health has been deplorable. Plague, which tirst appearefl in the Punjab in 1896, prevailed throughout the decade, and in British territory alone was responsible in all for about two million deaths, of which nearly one-third occurred in 1907. Malaria also has been terribly prevalent, especially in the irrigated tracts in the eastern and central districts. It was worst in 190S and the three first years of the decade. Altogether, in the i3ritish districts alone, four aud-a-half million deaths from " fever " Avere recorded, or more than one-fifth of the total population of 1901. The result of these virulent epidemics is that, in spite of a marked advance in material prosperity, the population of the province (British territory) shows a decline of 1"7 per cent. The actual decrement disclosed by the census is 355,381, while the excess of deaths over births, according to the vital statistics, is 557,417- The ditfer- ence is to a great extent accounted for l)y migration. The number of emigrants frcim British territory is greater by -19,000 than it was at the previous census, while there is a fall of 12-1,000 in the number of immigrants. Tt e return of emigrants moreover is not quite complete, as it does not include those to certain colonies and foreign countries for which figures were not received or in whose statistics emigrants from the Punjab were iiot distin- guished from those of other parts of the Indian Empire. 116. When we come to examine the figures for natural divisions some strik- ing differences are disclosed. The somewhat congested tracts forming the Indo- Gangetic plain west and the Sub -Himalayan districts which bore the brunt of epidemics of plague and malaria have declined by 89 and 59 per cent, respectively. Apart from a high mortality, some of these districts have sustained considerable losses by emigration to the canal colonies. The llima- laynn area, which comprises the districts of Simla and Kangra and the adjacent Native States, has a sn.all gain of 2 per cent. Th(T Simla district shows a slight loss, but this is due solely to tlie dejiarture of the workmen of the Simla-Kalka Railway which was under construction Avhen the previous census was taken. The ])urely nominal increase in Kangra is not unsatisfactory when it is remembered that the Dharamsala earthquake of April -4th, 1905 not only caused widespread damage, but also had an ascertained death roll of more than 20,000. On the other hand, the Xorth-West Dry Area which, like the Himalayan area, escaped to a great extent the ravages of 2)lague and malaria and has benefited by the great extension of canal irrigation, has added 178 per cent, to its population. The gi'owth of this tract has been extremely rapid ever .since 1881, the total gain in the thirty years being 629 per cent. The rainfall here is so scanty that cultivation is in most parts impossible without the aid of an artificial supply of water ; and before the era (^f canals, the wholo area A\as very sparsely inhabited. In 1881 it supported on the average only 61 persons to the square mile, compared with 301 in the Sul)-Himalayaii districts and 270 in the Indo-Gangetic plain west. In 1892 the complctiim of the Khanki weir and the concomitant develoimient of the Chenab canal system l>rought about a remarkable change At that time the tract which now forms the district of Lyallpur was a barren desert, where a handful of nomads, numbering only seven to the s(|uare mile, found precarious grazing for their animals. With tlie advent of water everything was changed. Immigrants flocked in, chiefly from the congested districts of Jullundiir, Amrit.sar, Hoshiarpur, Gurdasi)ur and sialkot, and converted wiiat was formerly a wilderness into one of the most fertile wheat-producing tracts in the whole of Northern India. By 1001 it already liad a population of 187 7i CHAPTER IT. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. United Provinces. to the square mDe. This lias now riseu to 272, and it is not unlikely that it will eventually become one of the most densely inhabited districts in the Punjab. An even greater project — the " Triple Canal Scheme " — is now under construction and •nill be completed within the next two or three years. There •will be three canals. The first, or Upper Jhclum, will convey the surplus •waters of the Jhelum to the Chenab ; the Upper Chenab canal will draw off at least an equivalent supply and carry it through the Gujranwala district to the Ravi, whence it will then be taken ])y the Lower Bari Doab canal for the irrigation of the Montgomery Bar (jungle). These canals will command four million acres, of which it is expected that half will be actually irrigated. When this great project was commenced, it was of course anticipated that the population would continue its normal course of expansion. It remains to be seen whether under present conditions the peojile will be able to take up and cultivate the extra land that will shortly become fit for the plough. It is now recognized that irrigation is largely responsible for the spread of malaria, and attention is being directed to tlie question of regulating the supply of water in such a way as to give all that is actually needed for cultivation without leaving pools of stagnant water as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. 117. In British teri'itory the loss of population which has taken jJace has occurred entirely amongst females ; the number of males is slightly greater than it was in 1901, but that of females is less by two-fifths of a million or 4<-3 per cent. The reasons for this will be discussed in the chapter on Sex, but the fact is noted here as it has an important bearing on the potential growth of the population. From this point of view it is also important to note that the greatest decrease has taken place at the age-period ' 10-15,' that is, in the group which is just entering on the reproductive stage. The number of jiersons at this age is less by -i'S per cent, than it was ten years ago ; males are fewer by 3-2 and females by 8-4 per cent. Married females between tiie ages of 15 and -30 show a droj) of 3-7 per cent. On the other hand, there is practically no change in the number of children under ten years of age. The high birth- rate in the prosperous and healthy parts of the jirovince has, it would .seem, neutralized the excess mortality from plague and malaria elsewhere. 118. One of the earliest attempts at ascertaining the population of any part of India was carri- 31ap of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh shotvinq variations in the population since 1901. RErERENCLS TTTTn IIMII mm ed througli in 1826 in the pro- vince of Agra as then constituted. It was then cal- culated that the nvunber of in- habitants was 32 millions. This estimate, which Avas based on a complete count of villages and a partial one of houses, was clearly too high, as it exceeded by 50 per cent, that made in the same area on better data twenty years later. The cen- sus of 1872 placed the popu- lation at 28-8 millions. Oudh was annexed in 1850 and a UNITED PROVINCES. 75^ census was taken there in 18(59. Its population in that year coml)ined with that of Agra in 1872, inchulinti^ Dehva Dun, Jhansi, Jalaun and Kumaun and the Native States of Rampur and Tchri-Garhwal, made a total of 42-6 millions. The census oi 1881 showed a 2:ain of 5-3 per cent. This nmst have been due lari?ely to better enumeration ; for there can be no doul)t that the famine of 1878 and the fever epidemic of the following year must have pre- vented any real increase. In the next decade the total rose to 47'7 millions, an increase of 63 per cent. These were years of good rainfall, but part of the gain was still attributable to better enumeration ; the real increase was esti- mated to be 55 per cent. The decade ending in 190], began with wet years ; and in the abnormal season of 1891 the rainfall exceeded the average b}* more than fifty per cent. This caused serious damage to the crops and led to a severe outbreak of malarial fever. Then followed a period of deficient rainfall, cul- minating in the severe famine of 1^97. After these adversities it is not sur- prising that the census of 1901 disclosed an increase of only 17 per cent. 119. The first four years of the decade which has just come to a close were a period of returning prosperity. Then bad crops in 1905 followed by a poor harvest in the spring of 1906 led to famine in Buudelkhand and the south of the Agra division. Prosperity was restored l)y good crops in the followin<> autumn and spring, bvit in 1907 the monsoon failed entirely in August, causing a severe famine, which continued until a good autumn crop was harvested in 1908. From that time up to the end of the decade the agricultural conditions were everywhere favouralile. Prices of food-grains rose in 1905 and ruled unusually high till 1910. There was a good demand for labour, even in famine years ; and wages Avere high. There Avas considerable emigration to Calcutta and other indvistrial centres. Though the area under cultivation was almost stationary, a larger tract was irrigated, and the aggregate length of canals increased by about eighteen per cent. There has been general industrial development, the outstanding feature being the rapid growth of the cotton industry. Considerable additions were made to the railways and metalled roads. The state of the imblic health, however, was extremely unsatisfactory. There were virulent outbreaks of plague which were responsible for 1"3 million deaths. The mortality from malaria was even more serious ; and in 1908 alone nearly two million deaths from " fever " were recorded, of which more than half occurred during the last four months of the year when the epidemic Avas at its height. An indirect consequence of this epidemic was an abnormally Ioav birth-rate in 1909. The prevalence of plague and malaria resulted in a decrease of one per cent, during the decade. The whole of this loss occurred amongst females, the number of males being slightly greater than it was at the commencement of the decade. "Women at the reproductiA^e period of life suffered from jilague out of all proportion to their numbers. According to Mr. Blunt, the mortality from malaria in 1908 Avas also far greater amongst females than amongst males. 120. There is a notable difference between the population ascertained at the census and that calculated on the basis of the returns of births and deaths. According to latter the births exceeded the deaths by about a millioji, Avhile the census disclosed a decrease of half a million in the population. This difference is due very largely to emigration to Calcutta and other parts of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Nepal, and also to foreign countries. Mr. lUunt says that the losses from this cause must have exceeded I5- millions. He also thinks that the record of deaths Avas incomplete during the Cjiidemics of plague and malaria. The net variation in the jjopulation is the resultant of increases of lOl- per cent, in the Himalayan area, of 1 and 3'5 per cent, respectively in the Avestern and eastern Sub-Himalayan districts and of -l^ per cent, in Buudel- khand and of decreases of 11 percent, in Mirzapur and 2, 37, and 55 per cent. respecti\'ely in the Avestern, central and eastern portions of the Indo- Gangetic plain. The rapid growth in the Himalayan districts is due to their generally healthy climate, their practical innuunity from plague and their Ioav density. The population of these districts has increased by -17 per cent, since 1872 ; but even now the number of persons to the square mile is only 103, or less than a quarter of the general provincial average. Tliere is still a good deal of temporary immigration to this tract. The increase of 35 per cent, in the eastern Sub-Himalayan districts is the result of the continued o 76 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. Baxoda. Central India. development of Gorakhpur, which, though it is one of the most densely- populated districts iu the province, has grown hy 9 per cent, during the decade and by 60 per cent, since 1872. There has been practically no variation in the population of other districts in this division. The increase in Buudelkhand represents a partial recovery from the losses of the previous decade. The population of this highly precarious tract is almost stationary ; it has grown by only 21 per cent, in the last 39 years. Of the western Suh-Himalayan districts, one (Saharanpur) suffered severely both from plague and mala'ria, and has lost 56 per cent. The other four districts have all added to their population, especially Kheri (6 per cent.) Avhich suffered very sHghtly from plague and escaped the malaria epidemic of 1908. The western, central and eastern divisions of the Indo-Gangetic plain, which all show a decrease, are amongst the most prosperous in the province, but their death-rate was abnormally high. The malaria epidemic of 1908 fell with special severity on the western, while plague was worst in the eastern, division. From the latter tract raoi-eover there was extensive emigration. The biggest decreases in indi- vidual districts are those sustained by Muttra in the western, and Ballia in the eastern, division of the Indo-Gangetic jilain, both of which lost about 14 per cent. The former district had an average plague death-rate of 10 per niille, whilst the mortality from malaria in 1908 was the greatest in the pro- vince. The district is extremely well supplied with canals, and it is not unlikely that these, in combination with a naturally defective system of drainage, which has now, however, to some extent been imjiroved, had much to do with the spread of malaria. Another effect of the extensive irrigation is the saline effervescence known as reh, owing to which much good land has l^ccome unculturable. In Ballia, though malaria was less fatal, the plague mortality was the heaviest in the province, being on the average no less than 13-4 per mille. There has also been extensive emigration from this district. Mr. Blunt points out that the districts which now show a loss of poindation are not only prosperous, but also, in normal years, healthy. The malaria epidemic appears to have made most headway in those districts where the disease is not, as a rule, sjoecially prevalent, and least in those in which it is in a high degree endemic. It was the climatic and not the material conditions which determined the movement of the j)opulation during the decade. 121. The {first reliable census of Baroda Avas taken in 1872, when the State was found to have 1,997,598 inhabitants. During the next nineteen years, in spite of a partial famine in 1877, the agricultural conditions were generally satisfactory, and the population grew by 21 per cent. The people continued to prosper up to 1899, when the almost total failure of all crops caused the most severe famine known in recent times in Gujarat. The measures taken to relieve the distress were less successful in Baroda than in the neighbouring British districts, and the census of 1901 showed that the whole of the increase which had taken place since 1872 had been wiped out. In ordinary circum- stances a heavy loss like this is succeeded by an equally rapid recovery. The Central Provinces and Berar, where a loss of 8 per cent, was recorded in the year 1901, now shows a gain of 18 per cent. In Baroda there has been no such rebound, and the increase as compared Avith 1901 is only J."l per cent. The seasons have been almost uniformly unfavourable. In most years the rainfall was scanty ; and even when the total amount wa§ sufficient, it was often l)adly distributed. The State has in addition suffered from repeated ravages of plague. The registration of vital statistics is very defective, and the real number of deaths from this disease was far in excess of the 78,000 actually recorded during the decade. There has been a considerable industrial develop- ment in recent years, and a marked improvement is said to have taken place in consequence in the material condition of the labouring classes. This, however, has not sufficed to counteract the effect of bad crops and plague. The present population of the State as a whole is only 18 per cent, greater than it was in 1872. The one division which is really progressive is Navsari, which has grown by 39 per cent, in the same number of years. 122. The first census of the Central India Agency taken in 1881 left much to be desired in point of accuracy and completeness. The growth of 9'4i per cent, recorded ten years later was thus due largely to improved enumeration. CENTRAL INDIA — COCHIN — HYDERABAD. 77 RErCRtHCES IGWAUOn RCSID£NC> a.lNOORE •• 5 BMOPAL AGCNCY 4 MALWA 5BH0B^WAR .. eBUNDELHHAND • 7BAGMELKMAND • During- the ensuing decade lliere Avere two seAxre famines. That of 1897 affected mainly the States of Buudelkhand and Eaglielkhand in the eastern part of the Agency. The famine of 1900, which Avas far more severe, caused a terrible mortality throughout ]\[alwa, and esjiecially in the hilly tracts along the A indhya aiul Sat])ura ranges. In consequence of these visitations the population of the Agency in 1901 showed a decrease of 1G2 per cent. The subsequent period has, on tlie whole, been one of i-ecuperation ; but the process has been retarded by several virulent plague epidemics. These were specially severe in urban areas. Map oj the Cetitral India Agency showing variations in the A'^ital statistics for the popvlation since 1901. i i « whole Agency are not availal)le, but those maintained in some of the toAvns show how appalling the mortality must have been. In Indore city the epidemic of 1901? killed oil' T) ])er cent, of the inhabitants. The fact that in spite of this the population of the Agency in 1911 shows a net gain of 10 per cent, is a striking illus- tration of the rebound Avhich so often occurs after a set-back caused by famine. The growth, however, is by no means equally distributed. Of the three natural divisions into Avhich the Agency is divided, the Hilly tract has a gain of 23'8 per cent, and the Plateau of 107, Avhile in the Low-lying tract it is only 1"5 per cent. The first tAvo divisions bore the brunt of the destructive famine of 1900, and the reaction has been of corresponding strength. The Low-lying tract suffered from famine in 1897 but not nearly to the same extent. The public health in this tract was bad for some time prior to 1901, and this must have resulted in a fall in the birth-rate during the next few years, and while elsewhere in the Agency the crops have, on the Avliole, been good during the decade, they were deficient in several years over a large part of the Low-lying tract. Lastly there has been considerable emigration from this tract to the other, and more sparsely populated, parts of the Agency, and also further afield. About 8,000 persons from RcAva and Gwalior emigrated to the tea gardens of Eastern India. 123. The first census of Cochin taken in 1875 disclosed a population of coomn. 601,11-1. This has now grown to 918,110, a gain of 52-7 per cent. The last decade has been one of great agricultural prosperity and industrial development ; rubber has been planted on a large scale, a railway has been l)uilt through the •State, and its forests have been opened up by the construction of a steani tramway. The result of these favourable conditions is an increase of 131 per cent. The rate varies from 20 per cent, in the Makundapuram taluk, Avhich has benefited by the exploitation of its extensive fore.sfe, to a little less than 2 per cent, in Chittur. The last mentioned taluk is unhealthy and the seasonal exodus of coolies from the coffee plantations had made more progress Avhen the recent census Avas taken than on the occasion of the previous one. 124. According to the first regular census Avhich Avas taken in 1881, the Hydorabad. Hyderabad State had a population of 9,845, 59-1. The increase of 17 2 per cent. disclosed in 1891 Avas due partly to more accurate enumeration, but chiefly to the rebound after the famine of 1877. The famines of 1897 and 1900 caused a loss in 1901 of 34 per cent., and this has now been foUoAved by an increase of 20 per cent. The present population of 13' I millions exceeds that of 1881 by 35-8 per cent. Except for a certain amount of cholera and plague, which was Avorst in the north-Avestcrn part of the MarathAvara division, the public health has been 78 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. fairly irood siuce 1901. There were local scarcities in several years, and des-^ tractive floods swept over an extensive area in 1908, but, on the whole, the decade has been one of fair agricultural prosperity. Several large irrigation projects were carried out, and the area under irrigation has already increased considerably. The Hyderabad-Godavari Valley Railway, which taps a fertile- tract, was opened for traffic at the beginning of. tbe decade. A large nuinl)er of cotton ginning and pressing factories and a fcAv rice-busking and oil mills have come into existence. These favourable conditions in a period of recovery from famine losses have resulted in an unusually rapid growth of the population since 1901. Tbe gain of 20 per cent, is due entirely to natural increase. Migration has had nothing to do with it. Of tbe two natural divisions Telingana has registered a gain of 23'8 per cent., orexchiding tbe Hyderabad city, 25-3 per cent., while Marathwara has gained only 16"4< per cent. The increase in the former division varies from 355 per cent, in the Karimnagar district, where the previous enumeration was perbaps not very accurate, to 14"2 per cent, in Nizamabad. Tbe smaller increase in the Marathwara division is due to its deficient and irregular rainfall and to the absence of irrigation facilities. The rate varies from 26'5 per cent, in Bbir to only 68 per cent, in Eaichur. Bbir has a rich black soil and a health}- climate, but suffered greatly from the famine of 1900, and the present increase is in the nature of a recovery of the ground A^hich it tben lost. Tbe vital statistics, which show a slight excess of deaths over births, are too inaccui-ate to be worth consideration. Kashmir. 125. Tbe first attempt to ascertain the population of the Kashmir « State was made in 1873, but it was not a success, and the experiment was not repeated until 1891, when a fairly accurate enumeration was effected. According to this census the population was 2,543,952. It increased by 12'1 per cent, between that year and 1901, leaving out of account the Frontier ilaqas which were then enumerated for the first time. Througbout the last decade the fertile Kashmir valley was favoured with bumper harvests, except in 1903 when a disastrous flopd entirely destroyed the paddy on tbe lower levels. Elsewhere the agricultural conditions were generally fair. There has been a steady extension of cultivation, esj^ecially in the Kashmir valley and Gilgit, as well as a marked increase in the irrigated area. Prices of all kinds of agricultural produce have risen and the wages of the labouring classes have followed suit. The silk industry has grown rapidly, the number of cocoon rearers baving increased since 1901 from 0,000 to 35,000 and tbe daily attendance at the Srinagar Silk Factory from 900 to 3,700. Steady progress has been made in all brandies of the administration. Improved communications have helped to develop the resources of the State, and great activity has been shown by the Forest Department in exploiting the extensive forests, especially those in tbeJhelum valley. On the other hand, there were several bad epidemics of cholera, chiefly in Kashmir, and of plague in Jammu ; there has also been a small loss from migration. On the Avhole, the period under review may be regarded as a normal one, and the increase of .8'8 per cent, disclosed by the census of 1911 as representing very fairly the rate of growth Aihich is to be expected when no disturbing influences are at work. The rate varies con- siderably in different parts, from 14 per cent, in the Indus A^alley (Fron- tier districts) to 5 per cent, in Jammu. The relatively large increase in tbe former remote area is due partly to better enumeration and partly to impro- ved communications. Plague has helped to keep down the increase in Jammu, l)ut it is to be noted that in the tahsil of Basohli there has been a steady decline since 1891. The hill tribes of this and other parts of Jammu dernaud so high a bride price tbat it is almost impossible for a man to get a wife unless he has a sister or otber female relative whom he can give in exchange. This has resulted, especially amongst the Thakkars, in a great laxity of morals and tlie spread of venereal diseases. In Ladakh, the practice of poly- andry prevents a rapid growth, but the town of Leh is flourishing. The statistics of variation by tahsils show that the rates of increase are in inverse proportion to the density ; the spai'sely inbabited tracts have added largely to tlieir population, while those with a density of 300 and upAvards , have declined. MYSORE — RAJPUTANA. 79 126. From 180-1 onwards various estimates were made of the population of Mysore. Mysore, but they cannot be relied on as a basis for comparison. The lirst regular census, taken in 1871, disclosed a populalion of 5,05r),l-C2. The State was hit very hard by the great Soutliern India famine of 1876-78 which caused a terrible mortality, Avith the result that in 1881 the ])i)pulati()u was found to have fallen liy 17'2 per cent. The ensuing years were heultliy and prosperous; and the process of recovery was so rapid that in 1891 there was an increase of 181 per cent. This was followed in the next decade l)y a further gain of 121 per cent. Since 1901 the agricultural conditions have, on the whole, been normal. There were four lean years, and in one of them there was considf^rable distress ; but in the other six years the crops were good and tlie agricultural •classes profited by the high prices of food grains which pre\ ailed. S(;veral big irrigation works have been completed, but they have not yet had time to produce their full effect. The coffee plantations have been languishing, but there has been marked progress in various industrial undertakings. The gold-fields have continued to develop, and more than 25,000 persons are now employed in them. On the other hand, there have been heavy losses from plague, especially in the towns ; and malarial fevers have been prevalent in the Maluad or Western division. The birth-rate was jirobably l)elow normal in the earlier years of the decade, when the num])er of persons of child-bearing age was smaller than usual owing to the heavy infantile mortality which occurred in 1876-78. '1 he net result of these opjiosing factors is seen in the com- paratively small increase of -iiS per cent, recorded at the recent census. This increase is the resultant of a gain of 7 per cent, in the Eastern division and a loss of 17 per cent, in the Western division where, though there is more room for expansion, the climate is in parts very bad, and the coffee industry is declining. The vital statistics show a considerable excess of deaths over births, but they are still too inaccurate to be Avorth detailed examination. Ever since 1881, the Hindus have been increasing at a slower rate than the Muhammadans and Christians. 'The number of Christians has risen by 105 per cent, in thirty years and by 19"5 per cent, in the course of the last decade. The figures show a slight gain amongst Animists since 18*^1, but this seems to be due to changes in the enumeration procedure ; there is reason to believe that in reality they are losing ground. 127. Between the first general census of the Eajputana States which was Rajpntana. taken in 1881 and the ensuing census of 1891 the recorded popu- lation grew by 20"6 per cent.* Part of this was due to the imper- fections of the earlier enumeration, l)ut the decade was a prosperous one and the real growth w^as no doubt very considerable. The Agency suffered thereafter from a succession of seasons of deficient or ill-distributed rainfall, culmina- ting in the terrible famine of 1900. This unparalleled disaster found the Durbars unprepared ; and although at the eleventh hour everything possible was done to cope with it, there was a terrible loss of life. There were in addi- tion several epidemics of fever, the most virulent of all being that which brola' out in the antunin of 1900 immediately after the famine. In consequence of these calamities the census of I'.iOl revealed a decrease of 20-5 per cent.* Several of the southern States lost more than two- fifths of their population and the western States about a quarter. Jifap of Ra/putant shoicing variations in the population aince 1901. Hole. — Lana (—10) hanbeen omitted from thia map as the arcs is small. • Tl'ese proportions hive Wn calciiliitcd on tlio ndjiiKtwl popnlntion< fur 1881, IfiOl and 1001. Tlie manner in whioli they have been adjuetel ha.s been explained in pnragmph .5 of Chiipter II of the Provincial Report. 80 CHAPTER II. — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. Stkklm. Travancore. Since 1901 there have beeu no -widespread famines and no terrible epidemics of fever like those which raged in the previous decade, but at the same time the conditions have been far from satisfactory. The thickly pojiu- lated States in the north-east of the Agency bordering on the United Provinces suffered from famine in 1905-06. Other States were more or less affected in that year and again in 1907-08. Most of the States in the eastern part of the Agency suffered from outbreaks of plague, and several of them from severe fever epidemics. There has been very little industrial development and no marked extension of railways or irrigation. In these circumstances it is not surprising to find, instead of the usual rebound after famine, a moderate increase of only 69 per cent. Even this is due in part to migration. The number of immigrants has risen by 65, and that of emigrants has fallen by 59, thousand. The natural increase is only 5"2 per cent, and the popula- tion is still less by 15 per cent, than it was in 1891. It may be noted that in the only eight States of the Agency in which vital statistics are collected,, the gain recorded at the census is far in excess of that indicated by a compari- son of the reported births and deaths. The difference is due to the inaccuracy of the vital retm'ns. Of the three natural divisions into which Mr. Kealy divides the Agency, the largest growth — 26 per cent. — has occurred in the Southern division. It is this tract w'hich suffered most in the famine of 1900, and the in- crease now recorded is due partly to natural growth and partly to the return to their homes of jjersons who emigrated in the famine years ; Dungarpur which in 1901 showed a loss of 39 o per cent, now has a gain of 59 per cent. The Western division which lost 25'4 per cent, in the previous decade has non- a gain of 9*8 per cent. The increase here is greatest in the sparsely peopled State of Jaisalmer, to which there has been extensive immigration, chiefly from Marwar and the Punjab, and in Bikaner. The population has remained practically stationary in .the Eastern division, which escaped almost unscathed from the calamities of the previous decade. It is this tract which in recent years has suffered most from plague, fever and 'crop failure. Bharatpur, which borders on the Jumna, has registered a loss of 10'8 per cent, and the adjoining States of Alwar, KarauH and Dholpur have also lost population. The condi- tions in these States are very similar to those prevailing in the adjacent part of the United Provinces, where also there has been a decrease of population. 128. The first census of this small Himalayan State was taken in 1891. A Political Officer had been appointed, and British methods of administration introduced, only two years previously ; and the enumeration was necessarily somewhat rough. It disclosed a population of 30,-i58. This rose to 59,01-i in 1901 ; and although some part of the apparent gain was due to the imperfections of the previous enumeration, there can be no doubt that the real increase was very large. In 1889 the interdiction ou immigration from Nepal was removed and cultivators from that State flocked in. At the census of 1901 two-fifths of the inhabitants of Sikkim returned Nepal as their birthplace. Since that year the seasons have been favourable, and there have been no widespread epidemics. The population has continued to grow rapidly, both by natural increase and by fresh immigration from Nepal. The result is a further gain of 49 per cent., the population being now 87,920. Many of the earlier Nepalese settlers are now dead and most of their children are Sikkim-born, but in sjiite of this the number of persons who have returned Nej)al as their Inrthplace is greater now than it was ten years ago. 129. The Travancore State in the south-western corner of India has grown very rapidly dm-ing the last twenty years. The increase of 15"1< per cent, recorded in 1901 was more than twice as great as that of the previous decade ;, and in the absence of any apparent reason it was thought that it must have been due in part to an incomplete enumeration in 1891. On the jDresent occasion, however, the increase (162 per cent.) is even greater. There are no grounds for supposing that the present census was more accurate than its immediate predecessor ; and the Avhole of the increase must, therefore, be regarded as genuine. The influx of people from outside has Iieen greater than the corresponding exodus, but the net gain from migration amounts only to about 0"5 per cent. The increase in the population is the result almost en- tirely of its natural growtli during a period free from destructive epidemics and SUMMARY. 81 of considerable a£»ricviltural prosperity. lu only tliree years of the decade were the crops below normal. There has been a i^reat extension of special cultivation including that of cocoanuts, tea, rubber, pepper, gi^o*^'^ ^^'^ areca nut. These crops are so profitable that they are displacing the cultiva- tion of rice, of which large and increasing quantities are iniporletl from Madras and Burma. Ihc fisheries also are important. The largest proportional increase is in the sparsely populated Devikulam division in the north, on the lower slopes of the "Western Ghats, where it amounts to 6-18 per cent. There are now 55 persons per square mile in this division compared with only 14- in 1875. The northern half of it has more than doul^led its population during the decade. This is due largely to the operations of the Kannan Devan Hills Produce Company, which holds a concession over an extensive area and is rapidly bringing a large part of it under tea and rubber cultivation. Although the greatest proportional gain has taken place in the more sparsely populated areas, the absolute addition to the population has been greatest in talukas with a density of 750 to 900 persons per square mile, and the next greatest in those with a density exceeding 1,050. General Summary. 130. Having passed in review the changes which have occurred during the decade in the individual Provinces and States, we are now in a position to focus the main results for the Empire as a whole. We have already seen (paragraph 86) that, after allowing for additions due to the inclusion of new areas and more accurate enumeration, the net increase of population during the ten years ending in March 1911 was 6i per cent, as compared with I'-l, 9"6 and 1'5 per cent, respectively in the three preceding inter-censal periods. There are, moreover, great local, as well as periodic, variations in the rate of growth. The general average for India as a whole is the resultant ot Snmmorjr. very different figures for various parts of have taken place in the main provinces in shown in the accompanying diagram. Diagram shou-ing (he variation since 1872 per 1,000 of the population in the main provinces. the Empire. I'he changes which each of the last four decades are ■cao ■am- ■CDO- BIHAR a ORiSSA. 2joc-BOM8AY_^ BURMA ^""-C. P. & BERAR_ MADRAS .... ■«»-, REFERENCES ASSAM BENGAL / PUNJAB « N.W.F PROV...-^ UNITED PROVINCES ^^ / (872 1881 IBS! yofe. — The proiiortlorn rclato and in Bornia to Lower Burma only. ISOl to Britieb territory 'I'he mo'it noticeable feature is the continuous rapid growth in Burma. Lower Burma has grown by 135 per cent, since 1872 and the whole Province including Upper Burma, Avhich was annexed in 1886, by 37 per cent.* since 1891. In Assam including Manijiur the increase since 1872 amounts to 70 and in the Central Provinces and Berar to 47 per cent. In the other main provinces the rate of growtli has been much slower. In some provinces, such as Burma, Assam and Bengal there has l)een contin- uous progress but others, at some time or another, have sustained a set-back. In the larger provinces at least, the internal variations are also frequently considerable. In Bengal one district has at tlif present time a smaller population than it had in 1872, while four others have more than doubled their population since that date. In British territory there has been a gain of 9'1 per cent, over about nine-tenths of the area, with thr('C-([uarters of the total jxqnila- tion, and a loss of 5"3 per cent, in ' Exclasive of the Specially Adoiiniatcred Teiritories which were not enumerated in 1891. 82 CHAPTER 11.^ — MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. Vatiatlons In relation to lscwherc. The relatively greater net increase ia the Native States as com- ])ared with British territory is explained l)y the fact that many of the States suffered severely from famine in the previous decade when they sustained a net loss of 5 per cent., while British territory gained 47 per cent. As ^\e have already seen the recovery from famine losses is usually very rapid. Apart from this, in ordinary circumstances, a comparatively high rate of increase is to he expected in the Native States, as they are, on the whole, more undeveloped than British territory, and contain a much larger proportion of cultivahle waste land. It will he seen from Subsidiary Table VI that if the district be taken as the unit, the net increase in India as a whole during the last decade is the resultant of a gain of 10"3 per cent, in an area of 1,517,000 scpiare miles with a population of 245 millions and a present density of 162 to the square mile, and a loss of 5"5 per cent, in an area of 218,000 square miles with a population of 68 millions and a density of 312 to the square mile. 131. In Subsidiary Table V the variations in the population Avhich have taken place in the minor administrative units (tahsils, taluks or thauas) are co- ordinated with their density. Half the net increase in the population has occurred in tahsils which in 1901 had less than 150 inhabitants to the square mile and almost the whole of it in those with less than 450. Those with a greater density than this had a net increase of less than half a million, the gains in three of the higher density groups being largely counter- balanced by losses in the other two. The losses in these groups weie exceptional and were due entirely to the epidemics of plague and malarial fevers Avhich raged during the decade in some of the most prosperous districts of the United Provinces. But even so it is clear that in India as a whole the rate of increase tends to vary inversely with the existing density of the population. There are of course local exceptions to this rule, e.g. in Bengal, Avhere some of the most thickly peopled districts are growing more rapidly than others with a relatively sparse population. Dacca Avith 952 persons to the square mile in 1901 has since added 12 per cent, to its population and Tippera with 848 nearly 15 per cent. 132. If the registration of births and deaths were accurate it v/ould be easy at any time to ascertain the population of a given tract, except in so far as it is affected by migration, by adding to the population ascertained at the previous census the number of births since recorded and deducting from it the number of deaths. In order to elucidate this point I have shown in Subsidiary Tal)le IV the number of births and deaths recorded during the decade 1901-10, the birth and death rates per mille and the net excess of births over deaths. This '^'Tcess is collated with the variations disclosed by the census of 1911 in the actual, and also in the natural, population. The figures for the natural popula- tion are not in all cases quite accm-ate, as it has sometimes been difficult to make allowance for the areas in which vital statistics are not at present registered. In the main British provinces the A'ital statistics for the decade show an excess of 9"4 million births over deaths whereas the census shows that the actual increase in the population was 12-1 millions. The census figures show an excess ovei" the vital statistics in all provinces except the United Provinces, where, if the vital statistics were correct, there should have been an increase of a million in the population instead of a decrease of more than half that amount, and Bihar and Orissa, wliere the vital statistics indicate an increase of 1'9 millions, against an increase according to tlie census of 1'8 millions in the natural population. The two figures in the latter case correspond very closely. Elsewhere the nearest approximation l)etwecn the two sets of statistics is in the Central Provinces and Berar, where the excess of reported births over deaths was 1"6 millions against a census increase in the natural population of ]-9 millions, and Madras, Avhere the figures are 28 and 8-2 millions respectively. It is unnecessary to examine the figures in greater detail. Enough has been said to show that we cannot at present rely on the vital statistics for accurate inter-censal estimates of the population. At the same time, except in the case of severe e2)idemics when the reporting agency breaks down, the degree of error COMPAKISON OF CENSUS AND VITAL STATISTICS. 83 may be assumed to bo fairly constant, and the periodic variations in the returns may be relied ou as retiecting the real changes in the number of births and ilcalhs. The imperfection of the recorded vital statistics is not to be wondered at when we rememl)er tlie weakness of the reporting agency. In this connec- tion Mr. Blunt writes as follows : — " 111 rural circles, the reporting agency is the cLaukidar, a low paitl, totally illiterate person, who brings his record of Miths and deaths (which is written up by tiie patwari or other literate person in the village) to the thanu with him when he visits it. lie is frutiueutlv away from his circle on duty, assistinu' the jiolice, monntint;' guard at camps, or givinsf evi- dence in courts ; and it is obvious that errors from omission in such cases must frequentlv occur. Pie is assisted occasionally by the village headman or chief landlord, if these happen to be persons with some >mall anieunt of public spirit; but it is clearly quite possible that births and deaths (esjiecially deaths in the com se of epidemics} may escape his notice alto- gether. His powers of judging of the causes of death are not particularly great : and unless it is a well known and easily distinguishable disease, his diagnosis of a death is not reliable A))art from deaths due to injury or accident, his knowledge of diseases is limited to small-pox, cholera, plague and fever : everything which is not a ease of one of the hrst three, and a good many cases that are, go down under fever. For our piesent purposes, however, this is less impoitant than the completeness of this record. In this decade there have been reasons why his records should be less complete than usual. When plague was raging (especially in the early years of plague when it was far more feared than it is now), the chaukidar may well have shirked his duties to some extent. Even if he did not, with death succeeding death in rapid succession, he may very v;ell have failed to find out on his return all the cases that had occurred during one of his frequent abgences from his circle. The same, though in less degree, applies to the malaria epidemic of LOOs. During famine he was wanted for various other duties and was apt to neglect his duties in res])ect of vital statistics ; for famine disorganizes most things. And lastly plague and malaria spared him no more than any one else, and registration was disorganized because of the illness or death of the reporting chaukidar. We might reasonably e.\])ect that though registration tends, normally, to improve with time, the calamities of the decade should have greativ retarded that improvement or even caused retrogression. Further, since plague and malaria were the chief ultimate causes which would prevent him in some way or another from pro- perly discharging his duties, and since they caused far more loss among women than men, we might also expect that the omissions in the vital record would be rather of deaths than bii'ths, and rather of female than male deaths. In towns matters are different, and it can be asserted with some confidence that regis- tration there is more satisfactory. The head of the house, the policeman of the beat, the sweeper employed in the house, one or all have to report the birth or death. ^Moreover the agency is far better educated : in some places (IMeerut for instance) the causes of death are all tested by a medical man : and generally speaking, it is probable that little fault can be found with urban vital statistics in any respect." The wonder is not that the returns are still incomplete but that they arc as good as they are. In some provinces the nimiber of omissions is now ex- tremely small. In the Central Provinces and Berar, for example, the births actually reported during the decade represent 190 per mille of the population of 1901. The actuarv who examined the age statistics did not deal with the Central Provinces and Berar but his estimates of the actual birth-rates else- where ranged from 410 in Bombay to ■IG? in Bengal. In this couni'ction it may he mentioned that the statistics compiled by a special staff maintained for three years in a small area in licngal showed a total of 4,670 births and 0,910 deaths against +,G90 and t),i)17 resjiectively returned by the ordinary reporting agency. The excess of 20 births in the ordinary returns was the net result of the inclusion of two cases of abortion, 20 of still-births, and three of double registration, and the failure to report 11 births. The excess of seven deaths was due to the erroneous inclusion of three cases of abortion, 23 of still-births and one death occurring outsid«! the period of encjuiry on the oiu^ hand, and the omission of 20 deaths on the other. The actual excess of deaths over births diffe'edouly by 1;') from that returned by the ordinary reporting agency. It has to be remembered, however, that the knowledge that a sej arate record was being prejtared must have put the ordinary reiKxrters on their mettle and made them more careful than usual. 81 CHAPTER II.— MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. Variation in relation to density since 1873. FBOTIRCB, STAIE OB AQKNOy. Percentage of variation : Increase ( + ), Decrease ( — ) j" piicent. 1901-1911. INDIA Ej^cliidinff 7iew areas Provinces . E-icluding new areas Ajmer-Meiwaia Andamans and Nicobars Baluohifitan . . Bengal • • Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Burma Central Provinces and Berar Coorg Madras N.-W. Frontier Province Punjab . United Provinces . States and Agencies Excluding new areas Assam State (Manipur) . Baluchistan States Baroda State Bengal States Bihar and Orissa States Bombay States Central India Agency Central Provinces States Hyderabad State . Kashmir State Madras States Cochin Travancore Mysore State Punjab States Eajputana Agency Sikkim Slate United Provinces States + 1891-1901. 1881-1891. 1872-1881. "•1 + 6-5 + 5-5 -f 5-i + 5-1 + 7-3 + 14-9 + 8-5 -1- 7-9 + 3-8 + 60 -f 15-5 -f 16-2 — 31 -f 8-3 -f 7-6 — 1-7 — 1-1 + 13-0 -f 10-3 -f 21-7 — 1-9 •4- 4-1 + iri -f 19-0 + 7-3 -f 10-1 + 29-8 -f 20-0 + 8-7 + 14-9 -f 13-1 + lG-2 + 4-8 — 4-8 -f 6'9 + 49-0 -f 3-7 -f 2-5 + 1-5 + 4-7 + 3-9 - 121 + 57-9 + 6-7 -f 7-8 + 1-1 - 1-7 -f 35'9 - 8-3 + 4-4 -1- 7-3 + 9-9 + 6-9 -t- 1-7 5-0 - 6-6 1872-1911. Mean density per square mile. + 13'3 -1- 10-9 + 112 + 9-7 -f23-2 + 7-1 + 7-4 + 7-4 1911. + 17-7 I + 16-2 •f 6-7 + 11-6 , + 18-2 19-2 + 3-3 -f 9-5 — 14-5 — 16-2 — 4-8 — 3-4 -f 14-2 + 13-2 + 12-3 + 15i + 121 + 3-8 — 19-0 -!- 93-8 + 1-2 + 7-6 + 61 -f 14-.5 -t- 106-6 + 9-3 — 2-9 + 15-6 -f 17-9 -f 100 + 6-2 -I- 20' 1 -(- 15-4 + 10-7 + 2-6 + 25-6 -f 16-5 -f 9-4 + 23-4 -f 17-2 -f 106 ■f 20-4 -f 6-5 + 181 ■f 10-4 + 22-5 + 6-8 -f C-4 -I- 17-0 + 1-2 + 3t5-0 + 20-0 -f 5-9 y2 - + 70 + 5-1 -I- 16»-0 + 4-2 -f 52'9 -1- 31-9 + 31'9 -f 29-3 + 265 -f 61-7 -f 33-3 -f 30 2 + 20-7 + 3110 -f 39-8 + 4-0 + 32-6 j -f25-9 -f 12-3 + 237'6 + 545 -)- 1-8 -»- 23-0 ! -f 44-9 + 39-8 + 2'1 4- 49-5 + 1-7 — 1 + 3-9 — 17-2 4- 128-9 -t 90 + 1281 -f- 46-3 4- 52-7 + 48-4 + 14-9 1901. 1891. + 161 -(- 30-3 175 223 185 8 127 8 578 415 160 52 139 111 291 lt!.l. 200 440 100 41 5 248 153 138 116 121 68 162 37 456 675 452 197 116 82 31 164 163 176 8 110 7 535 400 151 45 120 114 269 152 204 445 S8 34 5 239 137 116 108 110 52 Uo 34 397 597 389 188 121 76 21 158 159 202 200 5 103 497 395 153 33 131 109 250 138 191 437 93 1881. 1872. 10 11 295 133 106 127 131 55 140 30 351 531 337 168 117 94 11 166 141 114 182 170 6 93 461 373 134 16 120 113 217 117 173 412 78 26 267 129 84 109 120 45 119 317 441 316 142 106 77 I4t! 169 146 78 434 318 132 12 100 106 219 [lo6 392 30 244 105 60 106 30 312 442 304 172 126 KoTB,— Thq ApcnficB and Tribal area of tlic N.-W. F. Province have not been shown in this table. The fifr«refl njcninst Btirma in cole. 4 and G iaclodc th* popalatton of Upper Darma which was annexed in 1980. The figures in cole. 10 ami U relate to Lawcr itnrma only. * SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 86 SUBSIDIARY TABLE Vti Variation in natural population— 1901-1 f>ii. rioriscs, SiiTi OB AGISCI. PoPCtiTIOS IK 1911. PopiLATios in 1001. ActDal population. Immigrante. Emigrants. Natural popalation. Actual popalaiion. Immigrants. Emigrants. Natural population. 1 . 3 4 5 « 7 8 B 10 L\DU. 315,156,396 650,502 1,023,505 315,529,399 294.361,056 627,438 915,000 294,648,618 +7-1 Ajmer-Merwara 501,395 96,578 84,110 488,927 476,912 93,876 25,293 408,329 + 18-7 Andamans and Nico- bais. 26,159 14,402 !i70 13,027 24,649 14,219 349 10,779 +20-9 AsKim 7,059,857 832,068 74,294 6,252,083 6,126,343 775,842 51,481 5,401,982 + 15-7 Baluchistan 834,703 58,500 76,273 852,476 810,746 41,232 70,986 840,500 + 1-4 Bengal 46,305,642 1,970,778 584,757 44,919,fi2i 42,881,776 [ 894,371 872,580 79,417,242 + 6-8 Bihar and Orissa 38,435,293 449,712 1,916,806 39,902,387 36,557,257 -) Bombay . 27,084,317 1,021,224 622,831 •26,685,924 25,468,209 840,781 626,799 25,254.227 + 5-7 Burma 12,115,217 590,965 14,166 11,538,418 10,490,624 475,3?8 9,460 10,024,756 +15-1 C. P. and Berar 16,033,310 749,985 315,233 15,598,558 13,602,592 630,901 302.257 13,273,948 +17-5 Coorg 174,976 45,535 3,862 133,303 180,61)7 55,098 3.192 128,701 +3-6 Madras 41,870,160 253,877 1,518,179 43,134,462 38,653,558 258,812 713,203 39.107,949 +10-3 X.-W. F. Province 3,819,027 135,345 67,378 3,751,0:0 2,l-i5,496 ) [ 792,259 435.V40 26,523,721 +4-8 Punjab 24,187,750 660,219 517,485 24,045,016 24,754,735 3 United Provinces 48,014,080 660,085 1,4-J9,310 4S,7.-3,305 48,494,371 680,691 1,510,205 49,323.978 — 11 Baroda State 2,032,798 222,957 235,528 2,045,369 1,952,692 172,914, 202,302 1,982,080 + 3-2 Central India Agency . 9,356,980 474,255 536,133 9,418,858 8,497,805 672,263 462,310 8.-J87,852 + 13-6 Cochin State 918,110 47,266 23,268 894,112 812,025 50,054 14,623 776,593 + 151 Hyderabad State 13,374,676 260,713 306,388 13,420,351 11,141,142 325,197 317,790 l!.133,r?6 + 20-5 Kashmir State . 3,158,126 76,773 81,'.i68 3,163,321 2,905,578 85.597 86,157 2,906. 38 + 8-8 Mysore State 5,806,193 312,908 139,607 5.032,892 5.539.399 306,263 131,632 5,31^4,818 + 50 Uajputana Agency 10,530,432 303,553 855,947 ll,(i82,82') 9,853,366 231,107 9CO,224 :0,o 9,1.':3 + .V4 Sikkim State . 87,920 29,835 3,445 61,530 o'.t.Oll 25,004 2,lf^8 36,198 +700 Travancore State 3,428,975 C!,165 33,113 3,100,953 2,952,157 51,903 2t,4S6 2 921.710 + 16-4 KoTE. — The fltrurt'ft for Iho Provincoi arc incliifliTc of the S n'cs attnchcj to Ihom, except in tho rnno i>f ^I.'l'r.Mli y .'xi-IuJo Cochin and TrAranot :o. Coil. 2 and 6— Personi nit ennmonitM by birthpbco or who-t- birth[ilico waf not relarnwl Imvo boon lnclii . Density per square mile. Mean annual rainfall in inches. 1 2 3 5 6 I. Lower Burma 77,359 6,212,412 + 14-9 80 146 11. Upper Burma ...••• 151,480 5,849,516 -1- 15-0 39 48 III. Assam ...••••• 61,471 7,050,857 + 15-2 115 92 IV. Bengal ...■»•• 86,910 46,393,562 + 80 534 76 V. Orisss and Madras Coast, Xorth 93,226 21,015,526 4- 10-2 225 50 VI. Bihar and United Provinces, East 103,377 54,887,105 — -1 526 47 VII. United Provinces, West and Punj.ib, East anil 130,950 35,936,995 — 3-9 274 34 VIII. North. Kashmir ..... 84,432 3,158.126 + 8-7 37 24 IX. The North-West Dry Area . . . . 200,282 14,429,531 + 11-8 72 10 X. Baluchistan ....... 134,638 834,703 + 30 6 8 XI. Kajputana East and Central India West 109,901 1J,394,069 + 7-6 131 25 XII. Gujarat ....... 63,634 9,718,673 + 7-6 153 24 XIII. Central India East, Central Provinces ami Berar 183,500 1:4,935,209 4- 15-9 136 47 XIV. and Chota Nagpur. The Deccan ....•• 203,167 34,336,0i3 + 9-7 169 30 XV. Malabar and Konkan ..... 34,027 13,001,985 + 9-7 382 101 XVI. Madras, South-East ..... 56,351 21,753,306 + 81 386 39 Note.— In the case of II and IX the figures for area, variation and density relate to the tract enumeratod iu 1901. The Andamane and Laccadiye Islands aud Aden which do not fall within the scheme of natural divisions have been left out of aeoonnt in this Table. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. Couiparisoii with vital statistics. Pkovince oa Staib. Assam Bengal . Bihar and Orissa Eombay Burma . C. P. and Berar Madras K.-W. Frontier Province Pin jab . Uni'.ed Provinces J'.iiroda State . Cochin State ■ Hyderabad State Mysore State . 'J'lnvancore State Is 1901-1910 TOTAI KUUBBIt OV XCUBBB PEB MICLE OP POPULATION OP 1901 OF Births. 2 1,883,545 15,797,344 13,554,098 6,177,362 1,853,296 5,907,914 11,314,152 679,069 8,286,261 19,764,839 404,377 88,935 ' 823,984 944,667 517,217 Deaths. Births. 1,564,022 13,728,296 11,645,026 6,394,831 1,393,731 4,280,406 8,516,955 559,016 S,84?,708 18,747,113 594,374 89,906 928,040 1,089,186 486,476 35-7 37-6 410 33-4 33-2 49-6 30-8 34-6 412 41-4 20-7 11-0 73 171 17-8 Deaths. Excess ( + ) or deficiency (— ) of Births OTcr Deaths. ^INCBEASE (-i-) OB D t- C BEASeT^Top" POPi:iiATiaiff op 1911 COMPABBS wixn 1901. Natural popnlatioa. 29-7 32-7 352 34-6 25-0 35-9 23-2 28-5 44-0 39-3 30-4 IM ! 8-3 19-7 151 + 319,523 + 2,069,048 + 1,909,072 — 217,469 -f 459,565 + 1,627,508 + 2,797,197 + 120,053 — 557.447 + 1,017,726 — 189,997 — 971 — 104,056 — 14'1,519 + 80,741 -f 687,950 + 3,098,714 + 1,758,037 Not available . -f- 812,848 + 1,864,142 + 3,310.729 I + + + + i- + 194,508 182,334 608,451 63,289 117,519 2,286,616 268,074 479,213 Actual population. 8 + 775,801 + 3,312,532 + 1,239,761 + 1,110,801 -f 80-4,691 + 1,944,856 + 3,175,750 + 155,399 — 355,3^3 — 609,738 + 80,106 -f 106,685 -f 2,233,5^4 + 266,794 -t- 476,818 NoTt. — This Tabic refers only to ilio arijs in which vital slalislics were collected. In the case oj liurma, the figures relate to twenty-one districtB ""'y- The figures lor llie variation in the natural ixipulation are in some cases onU- approiiinaie. It haa not always been easy to allow for variations d'lo to the excIueIou#l ftreae in which vital statistics are not recorded. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 87 SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Viiiiatioii by talisils i-lassitinl iiKonliiiii to density. Province, State ob ASEHCT. 1\I)IA. Ajmer-Morwara Assam Bahichistan Bengal Biliar ami Oriss i Kombay Barma C. P. and B«rar . Coorg Madras N.-W. F. Province Penjab United Provin.-es Baroda State Cc-nlral India Agency Cochin State Kashmir Stnte Mysore State Rajpatana Agency Sikkim State Travancorc State Variation in tahsile with a population pur Jiqiiarc uilt: at coiumcnuomca; ol ibe decaJe 1001-lU I Under IBO. 160-300. 300-450. ■Ko-mo. + r.740.:{40 +4,:KC,4«;J +i,89I,312 4-19S,4I3 + 1^5 + + + 7-4 .+ 6-0 51 + 465,192 + 187,995 + 182,469 + 20-1 + me + 12-8 + 23,957 -f 30 + 323,713 -f 184,005 + 543,455 + 22-0 + 1^-0 + 10-4 + 641,168 + 324,219 + 283,837 + 200 + 4-3 + 30 — 4,505 -f 1,657.029 — 271,908 '+ 160 — 4- 1,216,958 + 368,612 + + 17 + 11 + + 2,009,571 4- 446,556 — + 22-0 + 10- 1 — 8-9 15.367 7 25,409 61 + + 88,004 + 7-S + 260,379 + 3-3 — 14,036 — -3 — 9,426 — 2-0 3.444 — 2-5 — 2,187 .5-0 -f 329,030 [-f 618,244 |+ 1,348,423 + 7-1 \+ 7-0 \+ 10-0 + 137 f 397,522 + 8-7 + 38,831 l-f 77,428 l-f 25,569 ^. 13,581 + 6-2 + 102 + 8-9 -I- 5-.5 600-750. — 846,23; 2-4 9,864 8-3 + 260,814 rsoooo. 000-1,050. 1,050 and over + 1,104,877—324,377 +303,24i + 6-6 — 2-3 + + 2-4 + + 82,904 + 2-0 + 8,186 + 2-0 + 2.112 + 4 + 343.992 + 7-3 215,916 64,876 1-4 I + 734,907 + 186,212 |— e24,411 + + + + + + + + + + + 15-2 20,571 - 1-0 ;— 42,800 -1- 19-6 + 859,175 101 2-7 I— 111 77,255 2-7 + 1,432,749 + 20-7 71,124 — 9-2 I— + + 11,672 2-3 — -616,591 - 14-2 + 16,720 •t- i 12,332 33,837 13-5 ' + ■H 13,799 91 145,484 1+ 116,384 — 167 U- 6-3 — 45,713 i+ 177.0S8 i— 3-2 1+ I 811,549 — 14-8 |- 28,906 ' 490 67,900 + 24-9 ,+ 5-3 6 !,603 J-8 33,U0 14-5 8,335 6-6 67,880 10 8 35,50.» 12-3 — 10,795 — 13-7 163,883 — 9-3 - 90,257 90 83,219 7-0 -1,447,877 I -I- 695,910 — 11-1 1 + — 4,412 - 2-7 + 21.652 -t- 170 22-2 + 71.419 + 37,411 + 180 I f 260 + 152,469 + 2-6 + 140,174 + 2-5 32,202 + 10-3 2-7 + 317,589 -f 7-9 — 82,279 — 7-9 + 204,530 + 216 + 12,284 + 2 + 15,603 <- 7-2 — 697,060 — 45-6 + 73.625 + 5-7 131.137 ISO 4- 32,235 r 10 2 382,910 — 16-6 — 5,402 — 50 + 33,797 + 12-8 + 16-6 + 88,043 ■>- 130 NOTi. — The fipnrti Id thit* Table are i'lcomplete ts sevonl Suporlntcndcntt* have oinittLMl tli-iwo f-ir tahniln wlioro owing to chtJigi-a of area cr nthrr C.Ttt>*j» it \\m» iropoieitle to afic--Tt«in the variation ttincc lUOl. The PDtrie-* in it.ili-d ropre-*- nt the protmrttoo ] rndation In e»rh dcniiity KTOiip. The fifTorei lor the Provinc s incliule thof for ihe Seated attached to'tViom, ozeepi lu tbo caic of tic N.-W. F. Province wh-T* thoj arc for Hrltiih tcrritoi7 only and Madrat where thejr exclude Cochin and Travancorc. 88 CHAPTER n.— MOVEMENT OF POPULATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI. Variation distrihiifed by areas of increase and decrease. PROVINCE. State ob Agency. i iEEAS SHOWIKQ AS INCREASE. AREAS SHOWINQ A DBCEXASE. 1 Ares. Popnlation. Increase per cent. Area. Population. Decrease per cent. 1911. 1901. 1911. 1901. • . '• 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IKDIA. 1.517,500 •245,:U7,153 2-33,415,7:i7 + 103 •217,833 68,015,879 71,945,.319 —5-5 Proiiuces. 960,525 187,501,327 171,817,209 + 9-1 133,549 56,689,549 59,872,693 —5-3 Ajmer-Merwara . 2,711 501,595 476,912 + 5-1 ... Andamans and Nicobars 3,143 26,459 24,649 + 7-3 ... Assam 53,015 6.674,019 5,841,878 + 14-2 ... ... Baluchistan 54.228 413,792 382,106 + 80 ... ... Bengal 72,981 42,106,967 38,670,041 + 8-9 5,715 3,376,110 3,471,436 —2-7 Bihar and Orissa . 71,971 27,069,447 26,172,889 + 5-7 11,210 6,820,637 7,069,894 —3-5 Bombay . . . 101,313 14,905,081 13,531,862 + 10-1 21,746 4,767,561 5,027,788 -5-2 Burma . . 228,722 11,721,158 10,124,117 + 15-8 2,117 340,770 366,507 —7-0 C. P. and Berar . 99,823 13,916,308 11,971,452 + 16-2 Coorg ... 1,582 174,976 180,607 -31 Madras . • . 142,330 41,405,404 38,229,654 + 8-3 ... ... N.-W. Frontier Province 13,418 2,214,762 2,125,496 +4-2 ... ... ... Punjab 68,025 8,415,838 7,533,225 + 11-7 31,754 11,559,118 12,797,112 — 9-7 United Provinces 48,842 17,531,667 16,732,928 +4-8 58.425 29,650,377 . 30,959,349 -4-2 States and Agencies. 556,975 57,845.825 50,598,528 + 14«3 85,274 11,326,330 12,072,626 —6-2 Assam State (Manipui') . 8,456 346,222 284,465 +21-7 ... ... ... Baluchistan States 7,132 61,205 56,109 +9-1 31,444 264,481 872,531 —29-0 Baroda State 8,182 2,032,798 1,952,692 +4-1 ... ... ... Bengal States 5,393 822,565 740,299 + 11-1 ... ... ... ... Bihar and Orissa States 27,185 3,675,034 3,040,813 +20-9 1,463 270,175 273,662 —1-3 Bombay States . 56,265 5,652,290 5,061,061 + 11-7 7,599 1,759,385 1,847,498 —4-8 Central India Agency . 75,065 9,019,227 8,134,052 + 10-9 2,302 337,753 363,753 — 7-1 Central Provinces States 31,174 2,117,002 1,631,140 + 29-8 ... ... ... Hyderabad State 62,69S 13,374,676 11,141,142 +20-0 ... ... ... ... iSashmir State 82,276 2,679,633 2,407,347 + 11-3 2.156 478,493 498,231 —4-0 Madras States' . l(t,549 4,811.841 4,188,086 + 14 9 ... ... Mysore State 22,656 4,9.51,020 4,648,393 +6-5 6,819 855,173 891,006 —4-0 Punjab States 27,935 1,S69,7!)1 1,766,783 + 5-8 8,616 2,343,003 2,657,615 -11-8 Bajpntana Agency 105,011 6,043,782 5,218,248 + 15'8 23,976 4,486,650 4,635.118 —3-2 Sikkim State 2,818 87,920 59,014 + 49-0 ... ... ... Unitel Prcvincos States 4,1S0 3n(I.Kl9 26S,R85 + 11-9 899 531,217 533,212 — ■4 • Inrlndes Codhin and Travancorr, Note.— In tliis Table the district or corrcspondinK area In Native States has ordinarily been taken as tbo unit. The areas (where available) and the population enumerated for the flrst tjm*^ bavc been left out of account. CHAPTER I Birtliplaee. 133. The statistics of birthi^lace arc contained in Imperial Table XI. The mtrodnotorj following Subsidiary Tables in which the principal results are displayed in a""""*"' more comjiendious form will be found at the end of this Chapter :— I. General distribution by birthplace of persons enumerated in each Province, etc. XL General distribution by place of enumciation of persons born in Province, etc. III. The i)roportioual migration to and from each Province and Slate. IV. Proportion of persons born (o) in the district where enumerated and [b) elsewhere. V. Variation as compared with 1901 in the volume of migration Avithiu India. VI. Migration between Provinces and States in 1901 and 1911. VII. Variation as compared with 1901 in the number of immigrants from certain foi'eign countries. VIII. Total number of immigrants from outside India at each of the last three censuses. Two other tables have been added to show — IX. The number of Indians liorn in India but enumerated in other parts of the British Empire. X. The nvimber of emigrants to certain colonies who were registered at the ports of Calcutta and Madras during the decade 1901-10. The statistics of birthplace are important from various points of view. By showing the extent to which people have moved from one part of the coun- try to another, they help to explain the variations in the total population of each local area. They also make it possible to ascertain the propor- tions of the sexes in the natm-al population, i.e., amongst persons born in a given tract irrespective of the place of enumeration, which is often very different from that in the actual population, or persons present in the district on the date of the census. In Calcutta proper, for example, there are only 475 females per 1,000 males in the actual, as against 869 in the natural, population. The same statistics enable allowance to be made for the effect of migration on the age distribution, though it must be admitted that, in the absence of a table combining the statistics of age and birthplace, the adjustment is necessarily a somewhat rough one. Lastly, by shoAving the direction and volume of the movements between different parts of the country, they throw light on the effect of modern industrial developments and on the general economic conditions. So far as they affect the growth of population, the statistics of birthplace have already been considered in the last Chapter ; and their influence c)n the age and sex dis- tribution will be dealt with in Chapters V and VI. In the present Chapter the discussion will be confined to an examination of the main streams of migration, the reasons that induce them and the changes which have occurred since the previous census. 13i. In the first place it should be noted that migration is of various ''^''^■''"iikt"""" kinds : — (i) Casual, or the minor movements between neighbouring villages. These minor movements are called casual, not because tliey are temporary or accidental — for they are often, as will be seen further on, of a permanent character — but because a change of residence from one place to another within a very short distance does not amount to migration in the ordinary acceptation of that term. 90 CHAPTEK III. — EIRTHPLACE. Sucli movements are going on all over the country, but they find expression in our statistics only where they take place between villages which happen to lie on opposite sides of the district boundary. (if) Temporary, due to the migration of coolies to meet the demand for labour on new canals and lines of . railway, and to journeys on business or in connection with pilgrimages, marriage cerononies and the like. Throughout India there are sacred places where large crowds assemble on special occasions. Wlien fixing the date of the census, care was taken to avoid, as far as possible, the dates when these festivals were expected to occur and also those regarded by Hindus as auspicious for marriage ceremonies. The object in view was to facilitate the taking of the census, but the incidental result was that on the date selected the volume of temporary migration was con- siderably less than it usually is at that season of the year. On the other hand, the census having l)een taken at the season when public works are actively carried on, the number of labourers col- lected on such works, e.g., the Ganges bridge works at Sara Ghat in Bengal and the triple canal project in the Punjab, was larger than would have been the case a few months earlier or later. 'Eamine, when it occurs, is a potent cause of temporary migration ; but fortunately it was nowhere in operation at the time of the census of 1911. {iii) Periodic, due to the seasonal demand for labour. Of this character is the annual migration to the Sunderbans, Burma and the wheat districts of Upper India at harvest time, and the extensive movement from Bihar and the Uinted Provinces to Bengal during the cold weather months for work on the roads. To this type also belongs the annual immigration of tlie Powindahs or itinerant traders from Afghanistan and other places beyond the North- West frontier. {iv) Semi-permanent, where the inhabitants of one place earn their live- lihood in another, but maintain their connection with their old homes, where they leave their families and to which they ultimately return. This type of migration is exemplified in the case of most Europeans in India. It includes many of the labourers in mills and factories in Calcutta and other big cities ; clerks in Government offices and domestic servants, and also the ubiquitous Marwari trader and money-lender, who plies his business in the remotest corners of the Empire, but who, in his old age, almost invariably returns to his home in Rajputana. (») Permanent. This type of migration is in the nature of colonization. It usually takes place when, owing to irrigation or improved com- munications or changed political conditions, new lands become available for occupation. As illustrations of this type of migra- tion may be mentioned the extensive colonization of Lower, from Upper, Burma Avhicli took place after the annexation of the latter tract, and the rush from the congested districts of the Punjab to the canal colonies, as soon as the irrigation works there were completed. A minor form of permanent migration is to be found in the practice common amongst old people, especially Hindu widows, of spending their latter days at some sacred spot, such as Benares or Brindaban. The statistics of birtliplace throw licht only on the movements of this character which are actually in progress, or which have taken place during the life-time of the present generation. When the original settlers have died out and been replaced by tlieir children born in the new home, all traces of the movement disappear from the census tables. The 1)ulk of the present inhabitanfs of Sikkim are of Nepalese origin, l)ut this fact will soon cease to be apparent from the census return of birthplace. TOTAL AMOUNT OF MIGRATION. 91 135. The first thinsr which strikes one in connection with migration is its Total amount oi comparatively small volume. Of the total iwpulatiou of India all hut 27"2 mil- lions,* or 87 per cent., wei-ehorn in tlie districts in which they were resident at the time of the census. There are two main causes — the one social and the other economic— which account for the reluctance of the native of India to leave his ancestral home. The social cause, which affects chiefly the Hindus, is the caste system. The restrictions which that syst(!m involves make a man's life v'ery uncomfortahle when he is separated from the memhers of his own social circle. Not onlv is he unahle to mavrv hevond its limits ; he mav not even cat or drink with memhers of other groups, nor may he smoke from their huqqa. He often finds it difficult to get any one to cook his food ; and if he dies, there will he no one to perform his ohsequies, and his hody may haA'e to he removed l)y scavengers. Nor is it only a question of the inconveniences to which a Hindu is exposed during his ahsence. A man who is long away from home is often looked at askance on his return ; he is susjiected of having broken the rules of his caste, and he may find, it hard to regain his old position. The penalties Avhich a journey across the ocean involves are well knoAvu ; and on the west coast of India the crossing of certain rivers is similarly interdicted in some cases, especially where women are concerned. The economic hindrance to migration is to he found in the fact that the jieople of India are mainly dependent for their support on a single calling, i.e., on agriculture. When, owing to some change, such as the extension of irrigation facilities, land previously unculturable becomes fit for the plough, there is a general movement towards it, but ordinarily there is no sufficient incentive to lead a man to leave his home in order to take up land elsewhere. At the present time, however, great changes are in progress. In the old days the diflBculties and dangers attendant on long journeys helped to keep peo- ple at home, but these have now been removed, and a journey of a thousand miles is easier than one of a hundred miles a century ago. With the growth of large industries, the cultivation of commercial products, the exploitation of minerals and the construction of railways and canals, a new demand for labour has arisen which is leading many of the landless classes to seek a livelihood in the big centres of industry, where the pay offered is far better than that for field work. This demand will no doubt continue to grow and the volume of migra- tion will increase accordingly. The great difference in the matter of migration between a pastoral and an agricultural oommunity is clearly seen from the state of things in Baluchistan, where most of the inhabitants are supported by their flocks and herds. To quote Mr. Bray : — " Probably no feature of Baluchistan life impresses a new-comer more forcibly than the apparent fact that the population, such as it is, is always on the move. If he travels through Zhob and Loralai at the fall of the vear, he ■will come across swarms of Af gh an Powindahs on their yearly journey into India, shedding some of their numbers here and thereto seekjiasturage during the winter within Baluchistan itself. If he travels up the Bolan, he will have tothicail his way through a moving mass of Sariiwan Brahuis, leaving their native highlands with their wives and their children, their flocks and their herds, for the warmth of the KachhI. And if he travels up the Mula or any of the other passes to the south, he will be nret by hosts of their Jhalawan brethren, wending their way into Sind. These are extreme cases, where whole masses of the population move down-country like a slowly advancing glacier. But wherever he travels, he will — if only he travel long enough — come across families camped in blanket- tents, or living in temporary huts made of bark or dwarf-paliu leaves or similar material, or even sheltering in holes in the hillside. And if he chance to revisit the spot a short while later, he will find the tents gone, or their places taken by others, and the huts may be abandoned, and the holes tenantless. As for the permanent villages which jostle one another on the maps, he will look for most of them in vain. Even in the more settled parts of the country many of the permanent villages he descries from afar are permanent only in the sense that the same structures on the same sites serve as dwelling-places year after year : to-night there may bo no room for the traveller to sleep in ; to-morrow, before he awakes, half the inhabitants may have flitted, to summer abroad in the open. Now and then ho may be drawn to a village of fairish size, only to regard it as a village of the dead, until he stumbles up against a few unfortunates who have been left behind to look after the ('rope." 136. Of the 26-5 million natives of India who were enumerated in a district coanai mi»-»tioa. other than that in which they were born, 16-5 millions, or 62 per cent., were l)orn in a district adjoining that in which they were enumerated. The great majority of these were doubtless emigrants of the casual type, that is to say, * Inclndin? 650,000 noraons born ontside India. V 2 92 CHAPTER III. BIRTHPLACE. persons who had moved only a few miles from their original home, hut in so doing happened to cross the district houndary. Such movements can scarcely be regarded as migration in the ordinary sense of the word. As has already been noted, only a very small proportion of their total number are noticed in the census statistics. The chief cause of these minor movements is the custom, almost universal amongst Hindus, whereby parents seek wives for their sons in a different vUlage from their own, and the fact that in some parts a young wife returns to her parents' home for her confinement, and especially for the first one. Where her parents' home is in a different district from that of her husband, her children thus appear in the returns as born in a district other than the one in which they afterwards reside. There are various reasons for this custom of village exogamy. Inter-marriage is forbidden between persons of the same clan or within certain degrees of relationship, and persons resident in the same village often have a feeling that there must be some kinship between them, even when it is not actuallv known to exist. And it is often thought undesirable to take a bride from a neighbour's family, as she might be tempted to divulge the family secrets and seek her parents' intervention whenever a difference of opinion takes i^lace between her and her husband or his people. The statistics of casual migration are swollen by the visits which members of connected families pay to one another at frequent intervals, esjiecially on the occasion of marriages and other festivals, and by temporary evacuations when plague or other epidemic disease is prevalent. M^^^onrrents oi' 137. Tlie movemcuts between the different parts of each Province or State are dealt with in the Provincial Census Reports. These intra-provincial move- ments are for the most part too small to require examination in a general review for the whole of India, and attention will here be directed mainly to the exter- nal, or inter-provincial, currents of migration. These again are of two kinds, viz., migration between adjoining Provinces and States, and migration to a distance. "Map showing the main currents of inter-provincial migration. Note. — The arrows aliow the nit result after deducting migration in the op|iosiic direction. Wlien the diflerenco is less than 6,000 It has not been "liown The former kind of migration is to a great extent of the casual type, and will be dealt with in a subsequent paragraph, MAIN CURRENTS OF MIGRATION. 93 138. The most noticeable movements are the large streams of emigration b?^1S*"°° *** from Bihar and Orissa, "Madras, the United Provinces and llajputana and of immigration into Bengal, Assam and Burma. Thanks to its fertile soil, Bengal is able to support practically the whole of its teeming indigenous population by agricultm'e, and there arc very few landless lal)ourers. It is necessary tliere- fore to satisfy from outside the great and growing demaudfor unskilled workmen in the jute mills on the banks of the ITooghly, the numerous other industrial un- dertakings in and around the metropolis, and the tea-gardens of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri and for road and railway construction throughout the province. The police also are, for the most part, natives of other provinces ; and so are the warders in tlie jails, the peons of the zamindars and a large number of the better class of domestic servants. In this province the net excess of immigrants over emigrants is close on 1,400,000. Of these about 236,000 arc natives of a district in Bihar and Ori-ssa or Assam contiguous to the Bengal district in which they were enumerated. Tliese are for the most part immigrants of the casual type. Of the remainder comparatively few are permanent settlers ; the great majority are immigrants of the temporary and periodic types. They either visit the province during the cold weather months, as is the case with the labourers on roads and railways, or, like the mill hands, stay for a period varying from a few months to several years; at the end of this time they return to their permanent homes, where they stay until they have spent their savings and necessity again drives them to seek employment elsewhere. They seldom bring their families with them. 139. Assam and Burma are both very sparsely peopled. The land available Assam. for cultivation being ample, very few of the indigenous inhabitants find it necessary to work for hire. Consequently the tea-gardens of Assam and the rice mills and oil wells of Burma have to obtain their coolies elsewhere. The result is that in the former 2)rovince 12"5 per cent., and in the latter 5 per cent., of the population are immigrants. The influx to Goalpara and Sylhet takes place from the adjoining districts of Bengal, but otherwise the great bulk of the immigration to Assam is due to the demand for labourers for its tea-gardens, which is supplied by an elaborate and expensive system of recruitment. The emigration returns show that, during the last quinquennium, on the average nearly 51,000 labourers and dependants have gone each year to the tea- gardens of Assam. When these emigrants leave the tea-gardens, many of them stay on in the province and assist in the task of reclaiming from jungle the vast areas of fertile land which are still available for culti- vation. In 1911 the area of land held by ex-tea-garden coolies direct from Government was close on 200,000 acres. In addition a large area was held by them as under-tenants, but of this no statistics are available. Many of them also find employment as carters, hucksters and general labourers. The tea-garden population, the bulk of which is of foreign origin, is about 700,000, and Mr. McSwiney estimates the number of ex-coolies at 350,000. The tea industry, therefore, has given to Assam at least one-sixth of its total population. 140. In Burma there are tAvo main streams of immigration. Madras supplies Borma. labourers for the rice-milling, oil and other industries, while numerous coolies flock into the province from Chittagong, chiefly for the rice harvest in Akyab and for rice-milling, etc., in Kangoon. The total number of natives of Madras and Bengal who were enumerated in Burma at each of the last three censuses is noted in the margin. A groat part of this immigration is of a • These flgurcs relate to Bangui ,.» it rtood m scasoual or pcHodic charactcr, but many l7-or^"'Vrr^t:roi'':^;^^ !^,l^ of those who go originally for a few months, wrn"t;eVrmb''«e^\'L'y°8:^Vr" •'■''''''''''" stay oufora few years, and ultimately settle down as cultivators, cartmeu and ]a])Ourcrs. More than two-thirds of the immigrants to this j)rovincc were enumerated in towns, and less than one-third in rural areas. 141. The net loss to Bihar and Orissa on account of migration is about 1-5 Im's^at'on from millions. The western districts of Bihar are amongst the mo.st densely peopled Born in 1 ENCHEBAIED IN BuRKl. 1 1911. 1901. 1891. Bengal Madras . 135,756 248,06'J, 157,034* 112,081* 189,828 12;»,316 94 CHAPTER III. — BIRTHPLACE. tracts ia India. The pressure of the population on the soil is severe, and many families either have no land at all, or their holdings are too small to support them. They are thus driven to supplement their local earnings hy sending one or more of their adult male members to seek a livelihood elsewliere. These districts, with the adjoining part of the United Provinces, are the main sources from which the industrial undertakings of Bengal derive their labour supply. The Chota Nagpur plateau has a far less fertile soil than Bihar, and owing to its broken surface, the area fit for permanent cultivation is very limited. The result is that, although it is much less thickly populated, the pressure on the soil is equally severe. The inhabitants are mainly prolific aborigines, who are in great request on the Assam and Jalpaiguri tea-gardens, of which they furnish the bulk of the labour force. The number of persons born in Bihar and Orissa, most of whom come from the Chota Nagpiu- plateau, who were enumeiated in Assam at the recent census was 399,000, or 42 per cent. more than in 1891. The Orissa division furnishes the metropolitan districts of Bengal with many domestic servants, door-keepers and palki-bearers. unued Presets. 142. The United Provinces sustains a net loss of about 800,000 from putana. migration, chiefly in the direction of Bengal. The emigration to that province, which takes place chiefly from the eastern districts, is of the same type as that described above in the case of certain districts of Bihar. Excluding adjoining provinces, the only other imjjortant currents of migration are those to Assam (98,000) and Bombay (9'1,000). Of the movement between the United Pro- vinces and contiguovis parts of India it is worthy of note that the number of emigrants to Central India has fallen from 320 to 169 thousand, whereas tlie numl)er of immigrants from the same tract remains practically unchanged. Madras is still very backward from an industrial point of view, and there is no great local demand for labour. At the same time it has an exceptionally large proportion of persons belonging to the "untouchable" castes, comparatively few of Avhom have land of their own. Their local earnings are small, and they have no scruples about seeking a livelihood elsewhere, even across the sea. We have already seen that it is this province which chiefly supplies Burma with labourers for its various industries. It has also for a long time prov-ided Ceylon Avith coolies for its tea and coffee plantations, and it is now assisting, in the same way, in the rapid development of rubber cultivation in the Federated Malay States. Although the number of its emigrants to other parts of the Indian Empire is only about one-half of the number who go from Bihar and Orissa or the United Provinces, the total number of its emigrants is greater than that from the latter of these provinces. The number of emigrants from Raj pu tana is much smaller than that from the provinces already mentioned, but the proportional net loss from migration (more than 5 per cent.) is far greater than that sustained by any other part of India. Most of the emigrants have settled in the contiguous British territory, but the enterprising Marwari traders have penetrated to all parts of India, and their shops are to be found in every important bazar throughout Bengal and even in remote Assam. ^m*Bomb2y.*"* 143. The figures relating to migration in the Bombay Presidency are in marked contrast to those for Bengal. In the matter of industrial development, Bombay is more advanced than Bengal ; but although its population is not nearly so dense, the soil is so much less productive that there is a large local supply of labourers, and a comparatively small portion of the demand has to be met from outside the province. This is particularly noticeable in the case of Bombay City, which obtains more than half of its immigrants from the districts in the immediate neighbourhood. The United Provinces gives more than four times as many labourers to Bengal as to Bombay. SSi^toVng pro*rtn-'' I'^l. The cbb and flow of population between adjoining Provinces and States ces and States jg ghowu in tlic map ou tlic ucxl pagc. The volume of these movements is deter- mined very largely l)y the length of the common boundary line. Where it is long, as in the case of Madras and Mysore, the figures include a great deal of migration of the casual type ; and in such cases the important question is, not the total amount of migration, but the net result. But it often happens that the migration between adjacent provinces is of a periodic, semi-permanent or perma- IIIGEATION 15ETWEEX ADJOINING PROVINCES AND STATES. 95 neut type. Thus the bulk of tlie emigration from Bihar and Orissa to Bengal is periodic. jUiip thotoing the ehh and JJow i>f migration betaeen contiguous Provinces and States. Note. — The arrows show the total volume of migratiuD in each direction when it exceeds 5.000. On the other hand, of the 12tt,000 persons born in the United Provinces who were enumerated in Bihar and Orissa, two-thirds were found in the four border districts of that pi-ovince, and these were, in the main, emigrants of tlie casual type. The United Provinces gives 131,000 emigrants, chiefJy field labourers, to the Central Provinces and Berar and receives in return less than one-eighth of that mimber. The United Provinces loses also to the Punjab, giving 220,000 and receiving only 122,000 ; more than half the movement in both directions is of the casual type, but the Punjab sends to the United Provinces sepoys, police and a number of traders and jiedlars and receives in exchange many domestic servants. The Central Provinces and Berar gains not only from the United Provinces, as noted above, but from all its neighbours. The wheat harvest was in full swing when the census was taken, and many of the immigrants were temporary field labourers. Some came for work on railway and canal construction and in the mines ; and others again were timber workers and sawyers from Chota Nagpur or traders from Bombay. The Punjab gains largely not only from the United Provinces on its eastern, but also from Rajputana on its southern, border. Much of the movement is of the casual type, but a great deal, especially in Bahawalpur, is due to the enormous demand for labour for canal construction and for agricul- tural purposes in tracts which irrigation has recently rendered fit for cultivation. Uajputana loses largely not only to the United Provinces and Punjab but also to Bombay and Central India. As already noted, the movement between Madras and Mysore is largely of the casual type, but Madras also gives to this State many of the labourers employed in its gold fields, coffee plantations and other industries. An interesting feature of these movements between provinces is the large diminution in the emigration from the United Provinces to Central India, which has already been referred to. The Jhalawan Brahuisof Baluchistan who migrate toSind every winter arc gradually becoming periuanent residents of that province ; and the number of Biahuis enumerated there is double \\hat it was only twenty ye;irs ago. There is a permanent drift from the Sonthal Par- ganas district of Bihar and Oris.sa into the slightly elevated tract in North Bengal, known as the Barind, which the Santals are rapidly reclaiming from 96 CHAPTER III. — BIRTHPLACE. Intra provijiolal ml£Tatioii. Migration between British territory and Native States. the iungle that has covered it for centuries. In the same way numerous Muhammadan cultivators from the riparian districts of North and East Bengal are moving up the coixrse of the Brahmaputra into Assam in search of laud which is becoming more and more scarce in the neighbourhood of their old homes. 145. As has already been explained, the Provincial Census Reports should be referred to for details regarding the movements within provincial boundaries. It may he of interest, however, to mention a few of the more impor- tant of these movements. Most noteworthy of all is the inrush to the canal colonies of the Punjab from the surrounding districts. The local Superintendent has dealt very fully with this important movement. In the Cheuab colony, althouo-h many of the earlier settlers have been replaced by their children born locallv? the number of persons born elsewhere still exceeds 600,000. Of these the laro-est' contingents have come from the congested districts of Sialkot, Amritsar and Jullundur, none of which are contiguous to the colony. The Jats contribute about one-fourth of the total number of immigrants and the A rains one-ninth ; oulv 1 in 50 is a Eajput and 1 in 333 a Brahman. In Bihar and Orissa, the'districts of North Bihar show a gradual drift eastwards ; and the number of immio-rants to Purnea, with its extensive areas of cheap cultivable land, from the fo'iir districts to the west of it has risen during the decade from 68 to 130 thousand. Por many years after the annexation of Upper Burma in 1887 therS was a strong ebb of population to Lower Burma, but this has nearly ceased, owin'' partly to the construction of canals which have made land in Upper Burma more valuable, and partly to all the best land in Lower Ikirma having now been taken up. In Bombay there is a considerable amount of periodic mi"-ration to the large towns, especially from the Deccan, Konkan and Gujarat, wl\ere the poor harvests in recent years have rendered labour more fluid. 146 The details of migration between British and Native territory are nnfprl in the margin. The net outcome of this interchange of population is a loss ^ of 135,000 on the part of the Native States. Por this the Rajputana Agency is responsible. Of the total number of emi- grants from the States of this Agency 182,000 go to the Punjab, 118,000 to Bom- bay and 103,000 to the United Provinces. Excluding those of the casual type, a large proi^ortion of the emigrants are engaged in trade and look forward ulti- mately to returning to their homes in Rajputana. A heavy net loss has also been sustained by the States attached to the Bombay Presidency, especially those of Kathiawar and Cutch. On the other hand, there has been an extensive movement from British territory into the Bihar and Orissa States and Mysore. The former are still very sparsely peopled ; and the improvement of communications, com- bined with the low rents charged for waste land, has encouraged cultivators from the adjacent Britisli districts to settle there. The immigration into Mysore is of a differeiit character. It consists largely of coolies from Madras, who go to work on the coffee and cardamom plantations, and in the Kolar gold-fields, where no less than 85 per cent, of the population is foreign-born ; so also are about one-third of the inhabitants of the Bangaloi-e city and civil and military station. The large amount of immigration into the Bengal States is the result of the overflow of population from the Sylhet and Tippera districts into Hill Tippera, where there are extensive areas of cultivable waste land. Miaration between Native States and British territory (GOO's omttted). State oa Aoesot. Gives to British territory. Beceives from British territory. Net result gain ( + ), and loss (-) Bengal States B. and 0. States . Bombay States . C. I. Agency C. P. States Hyderabad State . Madras States* . Mysore Saate N.-W. P. Province (Agencies and Tribal areas) . Punjab Stales . Eajputana Agency Others 37 77 582 408 119 288 43 126 55 388 595 336 3,054 135 309 425 313 194 229 128 300 6 422 170 288 + 98 +232 -157 — 95 + 75 —59 + 85 + 174 —49 + 34 425 -48 ToTAt 2,919 —135 Includes Cochin and Travancore. ImmlKrants to India from othor Asiatic ooun trios. 147. Of the 501,000 persons born in other Asiatic countries who were resident in India at the time of the census, more tlian half were natives of Nepal. Of these more than three-quarters were enumerated in the contiguous EMIGRATION FROM INDIA TO OTHER COUNTRIES. 97 districts of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and the United Provinces, and in the Sikkim State. The intlux of Nepalese into Sikkim is worthy of special note. In 1901 nearly half the inhabitants wore innnii^rants from across the Nepal frontier, and in 1911 the proportion still greatly exceeded a quarter. Of the Nepalese enumerated elsewhere, a cocsiderahle number arc sepoys in the army and militnry police battalions and tlieir dependants. In Assam numerous Nepalese are engaged in breeding buffaloes, making ghee or working as sawyers in the Government forests. .Many of them arc temporary or periodic visitors, but the majority are semi-permanent or permanent settlers. Their number is rapidly increasing, and has risen from 21 to 48 thousand during the last decade. Of the 92,000 immigrants from Afghanistan all but 11,000 were enumerated in the North-AVest Frontier Province, the Punjab, Baluchistan and Sind, and most of the remainder in the rest of Bombay, Bengal and other parts of Northern India. The latter ai-e for the most part cold weather visitors who travel al)out the country peddling piece-goods and other articles of clothing. Owing to diminished innnigration to the North-West Frontier Province and the Punjab, the total number of immigrants from Afghanistan is less by 22,000 than it was ten years ago. The number of persons born in China has risen since 1901 from 47 to 80 thousand. Most of these are found in Burma, where the number has risen from 43 to 75 thousand. Part of this increase is due to the enumeration by birthplace for the first time of two tracts on the frontier in which Chinese are numerous ; but even in Burma proper the number of Chinese has risen by 55 per cent, since 1901. The Chinaman settles freely in Burma, where he usually marries a Burmese wife. The sons of these mixed marriages call themselves Chinese, this being regarded as the superior race ; the daughters, on the other hand, allege that they are Burmese, in order to secure the benefit of the higher position accorded to their women by the latter. Mr. Morgan Webb says that in order to suj^port their claim to Chinese nationality, the sons, even if born in Burma, are apt to return China as their birthplace, so that the number really born in that country is somewhat smaller than would appear from the statistics. The number of persons born in China and enu- merated in Bengal is still only 3,000, but it is steadily rising. The merits of the Chinaman as an artisan are becoming increasingly recognized. He has long since established himself as a shoe-maker, and he is now in growing demand as a carpenter. Arabia is the only other Asiatic country from which there are many immigrants to India. The total number is 23,000, of whom the majority are found in Bombay. 148. The total number of immigrants from countries outside Asia is 146,206. Jnt^J^i^iu.'""" Of these 131,968 come from Europe. The United Kingdom sends 122,919 ; Germany comes next with only 1,860 and then France with 1,478. As com- pared with 1901 there is an increase of about 26,000 in the number of immigrants from the United Kingdom. Of the British-born 77,626* were serving in the army as compared with 60,965 at the time of the previous census, wiien a strong contingent had been sent from India to reinforce the British garrison in South Africa. The rest of the increase is accounted for by the industrial development which has taken place, the extension of railways, and the growing extent to which Englishmen in India marry : the number of females born in the British Islands and enumerated in India lias risen during the decade from 14,663 tD 19,494. The figures for other European countries do not call for any special comment. 149. The Indian census statistics naturally tell us nothing of the emigration EmiRmtion from from India to other countries. This emigration is of two kinds — the movement oountrie«. across the border which separates India from contiguous countries, such as China, Nepal, Afghanistan and Persia, nuicli of which is of the casual type, and emigration to distant countries. No statistics are available regarding the emigration from India to the countries on its borders. There is probably very little movement from Burma into China, but, on the other hand, it is believed that the emigration into the somewhat sparsely peo[)led Nepal terai from some of the adjacent British districts where the poj.ulation is much congested, exceeds the countervailing immigration. Very few people go from • Tho details aro :— Officers 2,326 ; ether rani's 73,350 j nnnttached list tanks 1,950. 98 CHAPTER ni.— BIRTHPLACE. British territory to settle permanently in Afghanistan or Persia, but at the time when the* last census was taken, owing to drought in Baluchistan, a considerable number of nomad Brahuis from Chagai, and of Baloch from Makran had passed over temporarily into .Afghanistan and Persia. At a rough guess the number of emigrants across the Indian frontier may be taken to be about a fifth of a million. Of the emigrants to distant countries a certain number find their way to French or Dutch colonies, such as Surinam, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. But the majority go to other parts of the British lunpire ; and of the greater part of this movement we have accurate information, thanks to the courtesy of the local census authorities, who have favoured me with advance copies of their sta- tistics. The information thus obtained is exhibited in Subsidiary Table IX. The total number of emigrants from India to other parts of the British Empire slightly exceeds a million, of whom about two-thirds are males ; more than four- fifths of the aggregate are Hindus and only one-tenth are Muliammadans. Of the total number, about 474,000 were enumerated in Ceylon, 231,000 in the Straits Settlements and the Malay States, 88,000 in British Guiana, 73,000 in Natal, 51,000 in Trinidad, 35,000 in Mauritius, 29,000 in Fiji and 8,000 each in Jamaica and Zanzibar. About one-fifth of these emigrants failed to specify their province of birth ; of the remainder no less than 693,000, or 85 per cent., were from Madras, 32,000 from Bengal, about 20,000 each from the United Provinces and Bombay, 16,000 from Bihar and Orissa, 13,000 from the Punjab and 8 000 from the Mysore State. The number who emigrated from other parts of India was inconsiderable. Most of these emigrants to the colonies went as ordinary labourers in sugar, tea, coffee, rubber and other plantations, but a laro-e number of those from Bombay and Bengal arc lascars on ships, while many of the natives of the Punjab are employed in the army or military police. Some interesting information regarding the Indians in Great Britain which was compiled at my request by tlie Registrars General of England and Scotland will be found in the Appendix to this Chapter (page 111). ' ' ■ As already stated, the movement to Ceylon is of long standing. Owing to the rapid expansion of tea cultivation, the number of natives of India enumerated in that island increased by 65 per cent, in the decade ending in 1901. Since then there has been a fur- ther increase of nearly 10 per cent., chiefly on account of the new rubber plantations. The great majority of these emigrants are from the southern districts of Madras. jMysore sends about 8,000, Travancore 7,000, and Cochin and Bombay 3,000 each. Most of them are tem]wrary emigrants, who return after a time to their homes in Southern India. The total number of Tamils enumerated in Ceylon exceeds a million, but about half of them have been domiciled in the is- land for many centuries, and barely 100,000 are the offspring of recent settlers. The emio-ration to the Straits Settlements and the Malay States is of quite recent growth, and is due almost entirely to the demand for labour on the rubber plantations. Most of the emigrants are temporary settlers, who return to their homes when they have saved a little money ; and the total num- ber of Indians enumerated there exceeds by only 12 per cent, the number who returned India as their birthplace. Almost four-fifths of the total number are males. Here also Madras is the principal source of supply, the Punjab (8,754) being tlie only other province which sends an appreciable number. In Natal, there has been a great deal of permanent settlement ; and of the total number of Indians enumerated there, nearly half were born in the colony. Many of these have forgotten their native language and now talk only En"lish. But it is in Mauritius that the process of colonization has made most headway. The introduction of Indian coolies to work the sugar planta- tions dates from the emancipation of the slaves, three-quarters of a century a"-o ; and from that time onwards many of the coolies wiio have gone there have made the island their permanent home. Though it now contains only 35,000 persons who were born in India, the total number of Indians is 258,000, or about 70 per cent, of the whole i)opulation. A large i)art of the land is now owned by Indians, and they arc dominant in commercial, airricultural and domestic callings. Number of peisons born in India iCar. ^iio were enumer ated in Ceylon. 1881 1891 1901 1911 276,788 26-l,,580 436,6/2 473,830 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. 99 Oeiieial distribution by birtliplace of persons enumerated in eae 1 Province , etf • PEOTISCB, STiTB OR AOBSOV Tiff w n T /I rr o V TT if ^ D a t* D TA BORN IS (OOO'S OMITTED). PROVINCE, State or Aoencv IS WHICH ESCMERATED. CoNTiotora parts op other Provinces. NoHOONTioooug parts op other Protinoks. OUTBIDI IHDIA. la WHICH Er Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. ! Males. ! I' emales. Pcreou Males. 1 raalai. 1 2 S 4 S 6 7 8 9 1 10 ! 11 12 13 Ajmer-Merwara 405 222 183 62 24 :^8 33 19 14 1 1 ... Andamans and Nicobars 12 6 6 ... ... 14 13 1 ... Assam 6,178 3,139 3,039 99 51 45 732 410 322 51 35 16 Baluchistan .... 776 421 355 33 26 7 9 7 a 16 12 4 Bengal ..... 44,335 22,425 21,910 381 195 186 1,458 1,104 354 132 80 52 Bihar and Orissa 37,985 18,585 19.400 257 118 139 153 97 56 40 15 26 Bombay ..... 26,063 13,433 12,630 798 411 .187 156 114 42 67 6?r 14 Banna . . • 11,465 5,653 5,812 76 72 4 418 351 67 97 78 19 Central Provinces and Berai . 15,283 7,579 7,701 419 202 217 321 197 127 7 6 1 Coorg ..,.,. 129 66 63 45 31 14 1 1 ... ... ... Madras 41,616 20,474 21,142 209 101 108 30 20 10 15 10 5 North-West Frontier Province 2,075 1,097 978 37 27 10 45 36 9 53 36 18 Punjab ..... 23.528 12,963 10,565 460 219 241 146 87 59 54 46 9 United Provinces 47,354 24,780 22,574 425 lo5 27(t 166 91 75 70 48 22 Baroda State .... 1,810 966 844 1S8 70 118 35 20 15 ... Central India Agency 8.883 4,587 4«96 321 131 IfO 149 80 69 4 3 1 Cochin State .... 871 434 437 43 20 23 4 3 1 ... ... Hyderabad State 13,114 6,665 6,419 127 54 73 126 71 55 8 7 1 Kashmir State 3.027 1,607 1.420 64 29 35 11 8 3 2 2 ... .M}-80re State .... 5.493 2,760 2,733 230 127 103 78 44 34 5 4 1 Rajpatana Agency 10,227 5,399 4,828 262 93 169 41 23 18 1 1 ... Sikkim State .... 58 29 29 3 2 1 1 1 ... 26 14 12 Tra van core State 3,368 1.701 1,667 49 24 2S "i fl 6 1 1 ... Note. — In Subsidiary Tables I and II the flgures tor Provlncea Inclade those (or the :t r ■ni i' 1 lo tlmi, except In the case of MAilnu, uhcrc they exclude Coobln and TraTancore. The flgnrcs In colomna 5 to 10 Include Immlgranti (48.000) from French and Fortugu< c ros^ii^lons and tho«c Indians (17.000) whose bicthpltce was not apocUcd These bavs not been token Into account In Sobaldlarr Table n. 02 100 CHAPTER III. — BIB''HPLACE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE II. General distribntioii hy place ofeiiuiiieratioii of persons born in each Province, etc. PBOTiNOE, State or aoency. IN WHICH BOKH. ENUMEEATED IN (OOO'S OMITTED). 1 PBOviNCE, State oe agkhcj IN WHICH BOKN. COHTIOUODS PAETS OF OTBEB FEOVmOES. NOH-COIITIOnODS PAETS OP OTHEE PEOTINOES. Outside Ihdia. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Fenuln. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 U Ajmer-Merwara 405 222 183 24 8 16 60 39 21 ... ... An damans and Nioobais 12 6 6 ... ... 1 1 ... Assam ..... 6,178 3,139 3,039 56 29 27 18 14 4 1 1 ... Baluchistan .... 776 421 335 64 36 28 12 8 4 •• Bengal . ... 44,335 22,425 21,910 314 186 U8 239 169 70 31 23 8 Bihar and Orissa 37.985 18,585 19,400 709 375 334 1.192 846 346 16 11 6 Bombay ..... 26,063 13,433 12,630 407 173 234 196 118 78 ly 16 3 Burma . . . . 11.465 5,653 5,812 3 1 2 10 6 4 1 1 ... Central Provinces and Berar 15,383 7,579 7,704 162 69 93 153 79 74 1 1 Coorg ..... 129 66 63 3 1 2 1 1 ... ... ... • •< Madras .... 41,616 •20,474 ai,ll2 470 257 213 355 266 89 693 460 343 North-West Frontier Province . 2,075 1,09 7 978 23 14 9 44 32 12 1 1 ... Punjab ..... 23,528 12,963 ■0,565 323 166 157 181 138 ■ 13 13 12 1 United Provinces 47,354 24,780 22,574 S07 106 201 1,102 748 351 20 14 6 Baroda State .... 1,810 966 844 216 84 132 19 11 8 Central India Agency 8,883 4,587 4,296 447 177 270 89 54 35 t*. Cochin State . . . . 871 434 437 19 9 10 1 ... 1 3 3 ... Hyderabad State 13,114 6,663 6,449 258 107 151 48 28 20 ... ... ... Kashmir State .... 3,027 1.607 1,420 59 28 31 23 18 5 ... ... • •* Mjsoi-e State .... 5,493 2,760 2,733 75 36 39 56 30 20 8 5 3 Rajpatana Agency 10,227 5,399 4,828 567 255 312 289 187 102 .«- Sikkim State .... 58 29 29 3 1 2 ... ... ... ... TraTanoore State 3,368 1,701 1,667 21 10 11 5 3 2 7 4 3 Vide (oolnotc to Subsljiary Table 1. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 101 SUBSIDIARY TABLE III Proportional migration to and from each Province and Stiite. Province, State ok Aoescy. NUMBEH PKR SlILLE OF NUMBER OF FEMALES TO lO'J .MALES A.MO.NUST IHHIQBANTS. Ehiobanis. IHHIOBANTS. Ehiobahtb. Total. From contigaoas distilcta. From other places. Total. To contiguous districts. To otlicr places. From contiguous districts. From other places. To contl- guoas distdcta. To other places. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ajmer-Merwaia 193 124 69 16S 49 119 165 71 196 53 Assam ...•..• 125 14 111 11 8 3 82 76 92 26 Baluchistan ..-,.. 70 40 30 91 76 15 28 28 79 41 Bengal ....... 43 8 .36 13 7 6 95 34 69 40 Bihar and Orissa 12 5 49 18 31 118 72 89 41 Bombay . . . . 37 29 8 23 15 8 94 33 135 60 Bui'itia .....'• 49 6 43 1 ... 1 6 20 106 57 Central Provinces and Berar 47 26 21 20 10 10 107 63 136 93 Coorg . . • • 260 256 4 22 17 5 46 23 117 84 Madras ...... 6 5 1 36 11 25 107 60 83 46 North-West Frontier Province . 61 17 44 30 10 20 36 39 61 39 Punjab ...... 27 19 8 21 13 8 110 52 95 30 United Provinces ..... 14 9 5 29 7 22 203 70 200 47 Baroda State 110 92 18 116 107 9 170 73 166 76 Centrallndia Agency .... 51 U 17 57 4S li 144 83 152 66 Cochin State ....•• 51 47 4 25 20 6 113 47 114 30 Hyderabad State 19 9 10 23 19 4 134 78 141 72 Kashmir State 25 21 4 26 19 7 118 89 109 30 Mysore State ..... o4 40 14 24 IS 11 81 73 108 84 Hajpntana Agency ..... 29 25 4 81 64 27 181 78 122 55 Sikkim State 389 34 306 39 84 6 02 80 109 86 Travancore State . . 18 15 3 9 6 8 106 71 104 68 Note.— The Bgurw (or Prorioces Include those (or the Stat«B attached to them, except In t>ic cose o( Madras, where tiioy < irlude Cochin and Travancore. The proportion In thl!< Table has been worked out on a taal flguri-^ and not on thoi shown In Subsidiary Tnblc-i I and II In wlilcli thousands have beeu omitted. Thla la why certain columns In this Table contain flgarea while the corrospondlng columns In Subaidlory Tables I and li are blank. 102 CHAPTER III. — BIRTHPLACE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. Proportion of persons born {a) in tlie district wliere enumerated and (6) elsewliere. Peotikcb, State ob AoBscr. NUMBBB PBB 10,000 OF POPOLATIOIT. Bora in district where enumerated. Bom elsewhere. 1 1 S INDIA. 9,135 866 Ajmer-Mei-wai-a . 7,978 2,022 Assam ... . . • . • • • 8,572 1,423 Balucbistan ..,..,... 9,153 847 Pengal ......... 9,173 827 Bihar and OrLoa ....,,,. 9,582 478 Bombay ......... 8,811 1,189 Burma ......... 8,8:8 1,172 Central Provinces and Berar 8.689 1,311 Coorg ......... 7,372 2,628 Madr.13 ......... 9.583 417 North-West Frontier Province . . ■ 9.075 926 Punjab ......... 8.532 1,468 United Provinces ........ 9,121 879 Maroda State ........ 8,850 1,150 Central India Agency . 8,625 1,375 Cocliin State 9,487 513 Hyderabad State 9,475 625 Kashmir State 9,540 460 Mysore State ........ 9,132 868 Rajputnna Agency . . ..... 9,324 B76 Sikkim State .... .... 6,697 3,403 Travancore State ....... 9,7! I 289 Note.— Tlu! flsrurf-H for I'rovinccs include those for the States attached to tlicm, except In the case of Madras, where tlipy exclude Cocbiu and Trnvoncore. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 108 SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Variation as compared with 1901 in tlie volume of migration witliin India. PBOTISOE, SIATB OB Aqesot. Provinces. Ajmer-Merwara Andftmans and Nicobara Assam .... Balacbistan . Bengal . * • Bihar and Orissa Bombay . • Burma Central Provinces and Berar Coorg .... Madras N.-W. F. Province Punjab United Provinces . States and Agencies Baroda State Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State . Kashmir State Mysore State Rajputana Agency Sikkim State Travancore State . Total Imsicgbants. 1911. 1901. 2 I 3 1,985,011 1,937,834 95,112 14,119 831,118 42,309 C 831,169 954,552 493,699 743,067 45,427 238,730 i 583,927 590,414 1,432,340 222,427 470,391 47,190 253,117 74,397 308,202 302,4S9 3,808 60,613 93,113 13,955 750,811 34,822 730,774 770,091 415,953 625,713 54,960 245,837 620,875 615,535 1.593,742 172,598 668,525 49,987 312,314 82,932 303,676 233,718 2,186 54,200 Variation. + 47,177 + 1,999 + 164 + 80,307 + 7,487 + 100,395 + 184,461 + 77,746 + 117,354 — 9,533 — 7,107 — 36,948 — 25,121 -161,402 + 49,829 — 198,134 — 2,797 — 59,197 — 8,535 + 4,527 + 68,771 + 1,622 + 0,413 Total Emiobantb. 1911. 1901. Variation. 5 6 17 1,426,177 1,587,039 -160,862 84,110 967 73,739 76,031 1,035,865 602,966 12,653 314,515 3,858 824,723 25,293 349 61,481 70,986 872,580 + 58,817 + 618 + 22,258 + 5,045 + 163,285 626,799 — 23,833 9,460 + 3,193 302,257 1 + 12,258 3,192 713,203 466,726 I 435,749 + 30,977 + 666 + 111,520 Excess ( + ) or deficiency ( — ) of Immigrants over Emigrants. 1911. 8 558,834 + 11,002 + 13,152 + 757,379 — 33,722 — 204,696 + 351,586 + 481,046 1901. 9 r 350,795 + 67,820 + 18,606 + 699,330 -36,164 — 141,806 + 143,292 + 406,493 1,408,656 1,886,257 235,523 635,847 20,381 306,272 81,931 131,257 855,625 3,445 26,270 1,510,295 1,855,368 202,302 462,310 14.622 317,790 83,157 131,682 900,224 2.188 24,486 — 101,639 + 30,889 + 33,221 + 73.537 + 5,759 — 11,518 — 4,226 — 425 _ 44,599 + l,2r.7 + 1.7S4 -453,917 -261,626 + 428,552 I + 323,456 + 41,569 + 51,T'^8 i " I — 585,993 — 467,366 + 117,201 — 818,242 + 185,126 ■ 894,760 — 13,096 — 65,456 4 26,809 — 53,155 — 7,534 + 176,945 — 553.136 363 + 34,341 — 29,704 + 206,215 + 35,365 — 5,47G 3 005 + 171,993 — 066,506 2 + 29,714 Note.— The figures for Provinces inclmlr those for the fc^tatcs sttnchcil to Ihcni. ixceiit in llic iru-.' of Mmlriu, wln-ro tlioy c\cl\iile Cu-Ikii and Travancore, The figures in columns 2 and 3 include immigrnnts from French and Portngncse PoHBeasions nnd those Indians whose hirthiilaco nna not specified. Also see footnote to Subsidiary Tahlc VI so far as it relates to tlie 1901 figures. Tlie litll figures for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. the Punjab and N.-W. F. Province are shown in Subsidiary Table VI. 104 CHAPTER III. — BIllTHPLACK. LU m < I- >- < 9 CO CQ D W a s « V S '> O be i ^ 01 « -n" ko CD t* 00 Oi ^ •leqran^ [•siiog .— ^ ^— \ /^^ ^-^ /-~^ -^\ - — ^-^ , ^^A-^ /-—N /~*— \ I-H q4 S ^ Ch ^ »-i I-H CO t^ s? CO CJS CO CO o ^ I-H 10 S 00 o c^ o» c^ !>■ >»■ I-H « o> t^ Oi CO ^ i?3 CJ Ci ■<^ c>r CO CO* n ^ of t^ QU L-- 10 10 rH 00 c5 to n ^ tS c^ ■* CM CJ ^ Co f-i 1-* is ■M gs CM r4 V • • ■^ 1:0 >o H a (N I-H f-H W CO *-* (N C CO *^ CO i-( •— t 1~^ CO 8 s s" § •^ 1-1 *^ 5 OS S , CO t^ l> c^ l-H mS .— i g" s" ' • Q o3 CO t^ 00 Oi V5 I-H CO r- t> o« OS 10 ■^ !>- >H a i-H da 00 r- t* l-H I-H r-i '-I 03 Ed ^ s s CO • »-1 S fe S ^ ■ a 01 eo r-l i-i N ^ 10 e» i? ?*< a I-H CO p § i-» • • • -H • : 2; '^ «a H , CO S W3 o> I-H CO CO o 1-H iff : ! ;:j I-H »n -H CO S : : ^ fe OS D- >*< o> CS ~t 2 l-H M e^ r* i-H o ir, 1 ^ ^ a y >j go GO CO 0:3 1— 1 I^ CI l« OS « »ft 10 CO CO GO ■* t» H . rl Ci" -^ y^ t^ 00 o> I-H »^ CO M CO 1i| i-H ■^ o ^ ) § -* l-t -M 00 00 c^ ^Ah.S iH (M <>j" I-H Cl S g OS CO > h3 ? CO S J3 CO ^ Oi t^ (M CVTl 2 S oa W CO "-1 g S o a f^ i-H >-1 1— 1 T-H '^p 10 l^ 3 fH s L"^. 1— ( CO* co~ -* iH to r~t tH '-h Oli CO ^ii 'S i "^ >h CO 00 s <^ Ol SI t^ r-^ ■»^ C* Cd ■* CD CO t^ I-H ca h u .—I »-i 5 S 1— < 1 I-* s I-H 1 •-< nH I-H f-i s .-H 1 OS 01 r-H '-I 53 § Virf^^fc' ■*" "* ^ Mo . • . o a Sta 52 rH 3 n :3 . , s QD •c g a .a • . . * . a o 1 to S »■ i e t 3 1 d 73 1 1 a a Id g n •a a a. A •" m pa m CQ n n -* 1/) CO t^ 00 f~t •J nquinx 1"!^"!? SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 105 M CO - ^ 00 Ci s I-H 3J S3 s "^ »o OJ s I'- S / — ^^ ^^ *^'- " ■' ' ' ■ a; 00 CO CO Ci o s CO CO t« ^ o> M !S I-H ,^ t^ o» lO M« eo *ir o %> OI on kO ^ O) on •^ t^ ^3 rH 1 CI If 1 1 CO CO o" CI ?J Ci r-T 00 !5 2 CO lO o>^ of s ?? 0| Oi S" ^<;^ s t5 s i S o u? 1 g i f^ c oo CO i s i to OU »J0 5 1-4 § S i^ s a ^ =3 i GO i-H CO lO s ■»?■ -* U-5 I-H o o l>. tc ^ -# »-I 1 rH s »o ^ ¥ o U-5 -* -< CO s C-) -^ >-i i QO »-0 ? . rH Ol Im ^ "J »-0 t^ 9 ?■ OS l^ r- 00 nn Ci I-H CJ ^ CO CO 1 00 . ^ cr; ■V . . . . oc CO c^" O) o ° ;^ ws m CO 1-H >-l o C^ r- en en 10 C^ « ^ a c^ (N o> 07 ^ CO o> r-t OI •**< Ci to 00 .^ --0 oc <© 53 s i? «5 c^ lO s b? '^ s § I-H 04 I> s r- g IS -^ CO rH -* CJ " i ^ ^ -i 3 CO 00 »-^ 1 *^ 03 s U3 SS W3 S , GO o I-H § S o r- s s ■^ CO 00 6: CO fe S S3 U5 in S 1 CO s t— 1 a ^ 1 . I-H t^ § g (fe ■-H Oi . rH i . . OI , 1 f-H Oo CO CO ■-• ■^ 00 '-I 1 i N •* (M « 2 5 ▼-4 CO SR 2 ^ CO Oi -HI en CO »c d o> Oi Ch !>. •* ^ 00 to « « Ol oc OT o* rH oo I-H c^ C4 CO c^ I-H o ■»*« 00 -* ra; fe ^_, QC CO 1~ I>- c> C; -^ Oc CO 05 ^ 5? CO Ct ^ ^ C; r- t- to CD ^ w r: o C^J C^"" ffi t-H CO Ci CM o I-H " — o o "4" ■~- Oc 1 ^J* r? t^ ■Ti t^ o C-, OO c^ CO o> o Oc CO 10 oc CO 2 5 ^ s s o* I-H o ?3 S o ■v ^ o* <::; s " ' ' '" >o ? iC O ^ »o -* o >« c-^ -^ o> t* f^ Oi 00 in 9 -3 OT s 58 K S 00 CO -tj" ^ Ci ■<* OI «:v era ^ »o 01 ^ ^ « ^ >^ oa 04 o ■w r^ en »*1 CQ 03 CO ©4 C4 « i § s 01 rN- -* e> c-- rH eo Oi CO (iD l~^ 1= S 00 ^ S§ 04 S ci lO Ci ■^ I-H a s s^ CO ^ oi *-i rH ^ S5 ^ '-' ot '^ ^ s s ^ ^ '-I f-H '^ g § CO CO in Ob ^ cu CI Ci m^ CS o> CO •^ Ci ■* eo Ci ^^'•l t^-^ OO ■^ cc ^1 o Cl ca CO U5 o CO to t-( ' ,rr CO CO CO (M 1^ s I-H OD 1-0 CQ ■«• w c» OJ 1 to cc C3 ?^ 'M c^ I-H o to CO -^ cS o tN. 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B u D 3 1 a Q 1 V > ! ^1 3 •i J 1 9 i I 3 S ;z; Ph CU p n O O t I] i tj ^ 3 ( 4 H *■ d M c > ^ 'J 1^ 00 Oi c S ^ ^ ^ , ^ m 10 r . '^ rH I-H — — ' — •"^ * > ^ . ' "^ ' 3 S S n o o o 00 3 O CD ,2 --^ 0«^ eS ^ ".2.S ■S.SS s « - i -ss-g ■s B-ii •is O o — = a - CJ OS 3Sf O.S. £•0- PJ •a c d a '^ "^ c ** S o ,,*« _ o.i o d * ^ - *^ -c cj To ^ o •,- ^ "C 4 o - ^§2 ~ Ss.-, " .£ "^ S « -^-^ M g « o ^ a-S g = (3, * I ■::!! 2 2 tc SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 107 TABLE VII. ttoui certain foreiiin countries. COCKTBIES. OlXKUIT. Fbakce. 1911. 12 1360 1,756 1901. 29 9 305 148 353 214 74, 4 403 8 76 132 IM 1 16 i 4 3 6 52 8 3 11 IS 1.696 1,608 2 22 2 281 128 65S 149 21 71 23 44 11 11 1,478 1,319 29 1001. Otrix EnoTXAir COUMTBIEF. 1911. 1901. 175 26 164 211 101 I 10 ' 6 239 ! 504 1 -( ;: 36 1 24 2 12 3 90 20 1,351 1,223 8 23 222 31 16 5,711 5,233 14 40 21 843 115 240 j 2,219 127 558 92 2 385 43 45 88 159 I 128 16 5 15 2 12 S 72 11 111 3 505 37 468 ' j 299 478 8 51 24 131 8 182 12 17 4,883 1,566 7 26 11 717 126 2,172 363 111! 363 419 243 317 5 95 3 66 12 90 11 Anioi. 1911. 1901. 10,270 9,717 9 14 8 232 30 19 8,293 8,193 3 1 15 15 125 45 8,006 7,00" 53 46 893 i 122 553 257 129 98 6 46 18 58 17 2 672 87 146 100 23 13 2 16 8 18 16 1911. 1901. 2,760 2,505 I 9 I 3 I 58 i 37 I 312 66 : 287 403 145 2 255 26 267 J635 2S5 12 89 8 40 10 76 16 2,069 If 992 5 49 273 101 340 211 89 212 273 425 77 2 12 2 19 Afbteai-akia. 1911. 1,267 1,207 12 25 19 306 40 150 205 00 97 2S 107 154 60 8 1 11 1 34 4 1901. 841 795 7 25 176 47 36 145 114 93 126 46 25 6 alt3cli>-'d tu thoui, except in the cage of Madra.a, where they exclude Cochin and Traroncort* Melanesia, >'ew Zealaod, Phlllpplneaj Folytiesla, Somatra and Tasmania. r 2 108 CHAPTER III. — BIRTHPLACE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII. Total iiniuber of iniini^aiits from ontside India at each of the hist three censuses. NmBBB IN 1 BIBTHFLACB. 1»11. 1901. 1891. 1 i 3 4 GRAND TOTAL. 650,50:2 637,438 535,531 Aala. 504,113 511,53S 402,917 Afghanistan 91,640 112,502 84,963 Arabia •23,078 33,013 28,092 Bhotan 2,647 2,660 4,353 Ceylon 6,165 5,273 5,612 China and Japan . 81,568 47,184 25,688 Further India, etc.* 6,995 5,171 8,757 Nepal 280,248 243,037 236,398 Persia , 6,772 11,660 4,411 Tibet 4,509 3,020 1,641 Turlustan 91 816 816 Other Asiatic countries , 1,400 47,202 2,186 Europe. I31,96S 104,5S3 107,772 United Kingdom ..... • 122,919 96,653 100,551 Austria-Hungary ..... 599 531 418 France . . . , . 1,478 1,351 1,258 Germany ...... 1,860 1,696 1,458 Gibraltar, etc. 269 227 304 Greece ...... 274 226 236 Holland and Belgium . , 588 711 337 Italy 894 1,010 881 Eussia ..... 314 525 262 Spain and Portugal 1,101 384 378 Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland 443 423 542 Turkey 111 201 256 Eui'ope, Unspecified , . ■ 809 460 63.-^ Other Eui'opean countries 309 185 258 Africa. , 10,270 S,293 11,568 America. 2,760 2,06 » 2,368 Australasia. 1,267 S41 H48 At Sea. 124 114 248 • liitludcs islam, StxuiU Settlcmouts, Maluj :i and t!ic Maldives. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 109 no CHAPTER III. — BIRTHPLACE. fer u o III «3 _l m < 3^ -k* >- •+* cc ^5 < S n C^ -^A CO IK CD t' D CO 9 «> ^ ^ e '5 ct 5£ (N 'C W3 o o ■ 00^ 0-^ o^ r-<^ c^ t* r-^ ^ to 0-. O Q K ■< M -< H u o B CI g o b ? t. rt "ffl S S _? S 5>o a p. •M -P Z n O 99 B o OQ « _C F^- O -g 00 O ^5 K^ « j; 2 m c P N 0£^H N rt rt c3 «a >^ -5j <; < m m cq pQ o fe 00 00 o 1=2 ^ o B o * ;^- a ° IB ?5 Ht* S<1 i-i o O (M c to of X 00 CO i 05 ■N !>. i^ o ei cs O r-l ;31 us t~ to •^ ■* O lO to (N "* «) OT' «> fM 04 -^ a 3 O -: « rt a S S 5^ e '5 S APPENDIX. Ill Q z UJ a. a. < ■ i . •— o : ; : : • • • S M O ^ a ' i S 00 »H i ^H : ■ : 8 I-H Q "3 § t* VH ! - • • • • • P3 ») •< Q a 1 o 10 • W -* f-H "^ rH ; ; : I $; i 73 1 U5 1-1 \ : ^^ : : : : C • • O a r« OQ s « ,_ iN QC ^H p M rt a •# C4 t i-H lO W • • * ^-1 .-H 09 C9 •^ § ^ • ' ' ' •l ^ ^ k5 1 N oo CO I-H to 5 lO f-H : : ; n s t4 Is V s O CO CO •9 ':D rH t-t 2 ^ ^ ■ I-H «> ■* ', • O S ^ iH ■ a PLH •1-4 13 ID at •4-a O CO , . CO ^ O « : : OS s i-« ffl • - - ' ^ a £ a> S _. fl f 00 1 O s : • : to § CO ^H o rH \a 1 1 • F^« > O 8 s !« a r.^ : 1 •< S a *D 00 r-t I-H ^H •zi a a CS a> ffl a c^ la CD >-H I-H m ^o lO •o f-H be *5 (4 P m o CO CT ■* CO So CD o I-H CO . . <; 1 lO 9. iH • "a t-» ^ •^ •HI CO OT CTi 115 00 CO '>! : •*■ t- f-H I-H w -+ n IN o S r^ s -a a eo 00 w 5 ^ g fh" rH —1 CO — I-H H i oa o 05 m o to 00 5 00 CD •-H s g Ht »0 »H T-t ^ B* • • • • • • • • • ■ • . • • • • • • • • K • CA •E & . ^ , . . • • • g M O iH -< a, c -< ^4 5 a> rH i 1 1 CO 1 3 1 1 CO 1 :* :i. "^ l^ 00 c 1 1 " 1 o 1 1 1 1 us IS lO lO w «) «>. 00 112 CHAPTER III. — BIRTHPLACE. 2. Occupations o£ Indians enumerated in Great Britain. EHOLAND AND WALES. SCOTLABD. Xumber of Order. Ooofpahoh. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total 3,867 163 138 2 1 Pasture and Agriculture ....... 1 , ,, 3 Mines .......... 1 ... '•• 6 Textile Industnes ......... 2 ... 8 Wood Industries 1 ... 13 Industries of dress and the toilet ...... 2 ... ... 1- Production and transmission of physical forces . 7 ... ... 18 Industries of luxury and those pertaining to literature and the arts and sciences. O 1 ... 20 Transport by water ........ (a) Navigating department .... (b) Engineering department .... (c) Cooks, stewards, etc. .... 2,536 577 1,363 591 ... 1 *•• 21 Transport by road . . ...... 1 ... 22 Transport bj rail ........ 3 ... ... 24 Banks, establishments of credit, exchange and insurance 4 ... ... 25 Brokerage, commission and export ..... 14 ... 26 Trade in textiles .... . . 5 ... 30 Trade in po'tery 1 ... 32 Hotels, cafes, restaurants, etc. 12 3 1 ... 33 Other trade in food stuffs ...... 4 ... ... 35 2 1 ... 39 Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters and the arts and sciences. 2 ... 41 Trade of other sorts ........ 34 ... ... 42 Army 15 ... ... 45 Public administration ....... 14 ... ... 4G Religion .......... 9 1 ... 47 Law ........... ... ... ... •18 Medicine .......... 76 7 1 49 lastmction ......... 2 1 ... ... 50 Letters and arts and sciences ...... 41 3 S 51 Persons living principally on their income ..... 34 27 ... »»i. 52 Domestic service ........ 42 27 > • •• 53 Genera! terms which do not indicate a definite occupation i'Oi 101 122 1 Students [included in above) 932 28 122 1 NoiK.— I'll!' flsuri'8 lor EnaUind and \\ii\-s In thin elatemcDt rolato to persom agod 10 ycare and iipwardj. Thoy are inoliislvc ot 00 natives of Ceylon. CHAPTER IV. Relii^ioii. 150. Tlie religious disti-ibution of the people of India is shown in Roferenoo to sto- Imperial Table VI. Table VIA (an optional table coininled ouly in a limi- ""**°* ted number of Provinces) shows the strength of certain Sects of Hindus and IMuhammadans, and Table XVII (a general table) the sects of Christians. In several other tables the distinction by religion is presented in connection with other data. In Table V the urban population is classified by religion. In Table VII religion is coinliined Avith age and civil condition, in Table VIII with education, in Tal)le XIII Avith caste and in Table XV-D (optional) with occupation. There is also a special age Table (XVIII) for Europeans, Ano-lo- ludians and Armenians. In these Tables the distinction is made in order to throw light on special subjects wliich are dealt with in other parts of this Report, such as the constitution of the urban population, and the mamace customs of, and spread of education amongst, different sections of the population. The discussion in the present Chapter will be confined to matters arising out of the data contained in Tables VI and XVII and the corresponding tables prepared at previous censuses. The main aspects of the statistics are pre- sented, as usual, in a series of sul^sidiary tables at tlie end of the Chapter, viz. : I. General distribution of the population by religion. II. Proportional strength of the main religions in each Province, State or Agency. III. Distribution of Christians by locality. IV. Eaces and sects of Christians. V. Proportional distribution of Christians by race and sect. VI. Statistics of Europeans and Anglo-Indians. 151. In this country no one has any objection to stating his religion, and J''°oi£^^^'"*"°° if all the creeds were clear and definite and mutually exclusive, there would have been no difficulty whatever in the way of obtaining au accurate retiu'n. But with the exception of the exotic religions, such as Christianitv and Muhainmadanism, there is no sucli thing as a definite creed. The Hindu word " dhanna," which corresponds most closely to our word " religion," connotes conduct more than creed. In India the line of cleavaae is social rather than religious, and the tendency of the people themselves is to classify their neighbours, not according to their beliefs, but according to their social status and manner of living. No one is interested in what his neiglibour believes, but he is very much interested in knowing Avhether he can eat with liim or take water from his hands. Before the advent of the Aryans, tlie inhabitants appear to have been divided into a great number of petty independent communi- ties, each with its own social organization and tribal priests. Their beliefs were of the amorphous Animistic type of which an account Ava< given in the last Census Keport, and which have their counterpart amongst primitive races in all parts of the world.* The Aryans when they first came to India were worsliippei-s of the great forces of nature. They held themselves aloof from the aljorigines as far as possible, but a gradual intermixture was inevitable, and the process led to the evolution of caste. It also led to a gradual modification of the Aryans' religious cults and to the incorporation of manv local deities in their pantheon. Prom time to time religious reformers ap- peared and gained disciples, sometimes from one particular class, sometimes from all sections of the communiiy, but it was seldom that tlie fervour they evoked was .sufficient to break down the growing strengtli of the social barriers. And even when it did so, the social influences usually remained so strong as gradually to vKluce the religious differences to a position of relative inferior- ity. Nor is it only the strengtli of the social segmentation which lends to • A verjr interesting description of the Animistic belief* of the livtaks i.f Saiuatra has been given l>y Wameckin his Living Forces of the Gotpel. Ill CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION. make differences of belief seem a matter of relatively small importance. The Indian, though, much less tolerant than the European in the matter of his neighbour's acts, is far more so where his beliefs are concerned. Eearing many gods himself, he is quite ready to admit that there may be others of Avhom he has no ken, and it seldom occurs to him to differentiate himself from his fellows merely because they iuvolie a different deity in time of trouble. It is only Avhen a new religious cult is joined to some strong social or political propaganda that any real cleavage is established. This was the case with Buddhism, Avhich repudiated the Brahmauical supremacy, and Jainism, Avhich denied the authority of the Vedas, and also with Sikhism in the form given to it by Guru Gobind, who aimed at the establishment of a political ascendancy and openly repudiated many of the ordinary Hindu scruples. The peculiar tenets of the Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs are well known, and it would be superfluous to describe them here. It will suffice to say that they differ Avidely from the ordinary forms of Hinduism. There are numerous minor cults, such as those of the Satnamis and Panchpiriyas, which differ equally widely, and Avhich, from a strictly logical point of view, should be placed on the same footing and treated as separate religions. But they have no history and no religious literature, and are relatively of minor importance, and it would have been somewhat absurd to elevate them to the rank of a separate religion. For census purposes the only indigenous reli- gions which we attempted to differentiate from Hinduism are, on the one hand, its offshoots, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, and on the other, the primi- tive beliefs of the aboriginal tribes who have not yet been absorbed in the Hindu social system, which are lumped together as Animistic. In order, as far as possible, to meet the views of those who object to the Buddhists, .iains and Sikhs being dissociated from the Hindus, all four religions have been grouped in Table VI under the general head Indo-Aryan. S^Snesso" the''^" 152. The Hiudu residuum is a most heterogeneous mixture. As stated term '■ Hindu. • ^^ paragraph 1 the term includes :— A complex congeries of creeds and doctrines. It shelters within its portals monotheists, polytheists and pantheists ; worshippers of the great gods Siva and Vishnu or of their female counterparts, as well as worshippers of the divine mothers, of the spirits of trees, rocks and streams and of the tutelary village deities; persons who propitiate their deity by all manner of bloody sacrifices, and persons who will not only kill no living creature but who ]nust not even use the word 'cut '; those whose ritual consists mainly of prayers and hymns, and those who indulge in unspeakable orgies in the name of religion ; and a host of more or less hetero- dox sectaries, many of whom deny the supremacy of the Brahmans, or at least have uon-Brah- manical religious leaders. The category of Hindus includes not only many who do not enjoy the ministrations of the Bnihmans, nor worship in the ordinary temples, but also sweepers and other low castes, whom many Hindu enumerators in Northern India hesitated to describe as Hindus, and some who did not so class them- selves, and even a few, such as certain Satnami Chamars in the Central Pro- vinces, who actually objected to being so classed. Mr. Mclver put the matter very clearly in the Madras Census Report for 1381, where he wrote : — " A o-ood deal might be said as to the propriety of the use of the word •' Hindu ' as a reli'^ious classification when applied to the mass of the Southern Indian population. Regard- ed as a definition of religion, or even of race, it is more liberal thin accurate. Prom the point of view of race it groups together such widely distinct peoples as true Aryan Brahmans and the few Ksh;itriTas we possess, with the Vellalas and Kallars of the South, the Nairs of the West, and tlie aboriginal tribes of the Southern hill sides. As a religious classification it lumps the purest surviving forms of Vedic belief with the demon worshippers of Tinnevelly and South Canara. On the other hand, if it conveys no very distinct idea of a race limitation or a relicriou-s group, it serves fairly as a socio-political classification, since it treats as a whole the people who recognize! caste, and who are governed by one form or other of Hindu Law.^' Reason why a 153. It may be asked why, when the term covers .such a multitude of not mrcBcribed.''** liclicfs and diversity of races, an attempt has not been made to disentangle them by a return of sect. I'he answer is three-fold In the first place there is a bewildering maze of sects which overlap each other in a most extra- ordinary way. Tliere a' e the two main divisions of Saiva and Vaishnava ; and it has been said that all Hindus belong to one or other of these, but this does not seem to be correct. There is, for example, the S.nkta sect, wliich owes its origin to the Tantrik developments that infected both Buddhism and Hinduism, DEFINITION OF " HINDUISM. 115 chiefly in North-East India, about the sevenlh century of our era. This cuU is based on the Avorship of the active jiroduciiii? i)rincij)le of nature as manifested in one or other of the goddtss -wives of Siva ; it is a religion of bloody sacrifices and magic texts. Tlie ritual is laid down in the mecliaiTal scri])tures known as Tautras, in one of which it is expressly stated that the Vedas have become obsolete. It would be incorrect to treat the followers of this cult as Saivas. The same remark applies to the Smarta, Gaiipatya and Saura sects, as well as to numerous minor sects, such as the Panchpiriya and Kartabhaja, which it would be equally wrong to allocate to cither of the above main heads. Secondly, there is the practical impossibility of obtaining a complete return of sect. Of the great mass of Hindus, only a relatively small minority belong detinitely to special sects, and still fewer have any idea that their peculiar cult difPerentiates them in any way from ordinary Hindus. It has been noted already that there are some sects, sucli as the Sakta, which cannot properly be grouped either as Saivas or Vaishnavas ; but apart from this, the great mass of Hindus eannot be said to be followers of the one God rather than of the other. Thus a well known Bengali scholar and writer Avrote to me recently, denying that he was a special follower either of Siva or Vishnu. He said : — " I fast on the Sivaratri day because it is sacred to Siva, and I fast on the Jikadas/ii day because it is sacred to Vishnu. I plant the bel tree because it is dear unto Siva, and the tulsi because it is dear unto Vishnu. The bulk of Hindus are not sectaries. Though the sects write much and make the most noise, they are only a small minority." The Punjab Superintendent points out that in his province the diflFerence between Saiva and Vaishnava is by no means well defined. The religious orders are distinctively Saiva or Vaishnava, but the ordinary householder makes very little distinction between the two creeds and worships Earn, Krishna, Siva, the Goddesses, etc., as tlie occasion seems to require. In one sense " the bulk of the Hindus may be considered as Saivas, for vioddess worship in one form or another is very prevalent, but with reference to the main forms of worship and usages it may be equally true to call them Vaishnavas." It may be added that the results attending the attempt made in 1901 to obtain information regarding sect were very unsatisfactory. In one pi'ovince, only one Hindu in nine claimed to belong to any particular sect, and in two others only one in four and one in five respectively : the proportion who used the terms Saiva and Vaishnava was even smaller, and even when a sect was named, the return was not free from doubt. In one province the number of persons returned as belonging to a certain sect rose to three times the number recorded at the previous census merely because the sect in question happened to be mentioned in the instructions to the enumerators as an illustration of the kind of entry required. At the recent census of the United Provinces a return of sect was again prescribed locally, but of the total population only one-tenth appeared in it ; ^^ hile the number returned as Vaishnavas was only 2"0, as compared with 2Q, millions in 1901. Lastly, the mere record of Saiva or Vaishnava means very little. Both categories include persons of all shades of belief and religious development, from the philosophic doctrines of the educated few to the gross idolatry of the masses ; even the outcaste Paraiyans of the Madras Presidency, whose real religion is little better than Animism and who are utterly ignorant of the essentials of any form of Hinduism, often claim to be Saivas or Vaishnavas. For a further discussion of this subject the Provincial Reports should be referred to, e.g., United Provinces (jiages 121-30), Central Provinces and Berar (pages 75-76), Punjaii (pages 125-29) and Rajputana (pages O-l-Q?). 154. It being impossible to sort out the heterogeneous elements in the .?^«]°J,'i^°„«»?: Hindu mass by means of a return of sect, the question arose whether it Avould Ix- possible to distinguish between those who are really Hindus and those who liave been so cla.ssed for want of any other designation. And here there was a great initial diflBculty owing to the absence of any generally acceptable definition of Hinduism. The composite cbnractcr of the word was pointed out by Sir Alfred Lyall who said that Hinduism — " is not exclusiTely a religious denomination, but denotes also a country and, to a certain extent, a race Whrn a man tells m.- he is a Hindu, I know tliat he means all three things taken together — religion, parentage and country Hinduism is a matter of birthrijfho and Q 2 116 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION. inheritance it means a civil community quite as much as religious association. A man does not become a Hindu, but is born into Hinduism. " To these three ingredients — religion, race, country— must be added a fourth, viz., social organization. The caste system is an essential feature of Hinduism, and a maa who does not belong to a recognized Hindu caste cannot be a Hindu. A cii'cular which was issued asking Provincial Superintendents to report as to the criteria which might be taken to determine whether or no a man is a genuine Hindu in the popular acceptation of the term, produced an extraordi- nary diversity of opinions which, if it did nothing else, served admirably to show the extreme complexity of the question and the indeiiniteness of the word's connotation. Incidentally the enquiry generated a certain amount of heat, because unfortunately it happened to be made at a time when the rival claims of Hindus and 2iluhammadans to representation on Legislative Councils were being debated, and some of the former feared that it w^ould lead to the exclusion of certain classes from the category of Hindus, and would thus react unfavourably on their political importance. The subject is too large a one to be discussed adequately in the pages of a Census Report, but it will be interesting to glance very briefly at the divergent views which were expressed by many of the persons who were consulted by the Provincial Superintendents. Some looking merelv to the question of country, argued that all the inhabitants of India are Hindus unless thev are Muhammadans or Chilstiaus. This view appears to be based mainly on the theory that Hindu was the term applied by the early Muhammadan invaders to the races living east of the Indus. But apart from the fact that the etymology of a word is often no guide to its present connotation — as iu the case of villain, knave, booby— it is absurd to suppose that because the term was applied to people living on the banks of the Indus it must also include those remote from it, of whose existence the originators of the word were ignorant, and who in race, language and customs differed altogether from the habitants of the country along the Indus. And in this case where is the line to be drawn ? "Why stop at Madras, Nepal or Assam rather than at Ceylon, Tibet, Burma or even China ? The modern conception of India has no relation to the conditions existing when the word Hindu first came into use. The term Indian is used for a native of India, and it would be absurd to use the term " Hindu " in the same sense and thereby deprive it of its distinctive connotation. Others, professing to take race as the sole test, say the word is equivalent to Arya. They regard all the modern castes as descended from the four traditional classes, and hold that all members of Indian castes including Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are Aryas, and therefore Hindus, though they exclude the aborigines such as Bhils, Lepchas, Mundas and Todas. Those who rely solelv on the racial test overlook, on the one hand, the fact that many ^luhammadans and Christians, who are admittedly not Hindus, are descended from the same stock as many Hindu castes, and on the other, the fact that many Hindu castes are the direct descendants of aboriginal tribes and have no more claims to " Aryan" origin than have the Bhils or Mun- das. This is the ease not only with the great bulk of the population of Southern India, but also with large sections of it in Bengal and the United Provinces. The law books and epics are full of contemptuous references to the non-Aryan aborigines to the south and east of the comparatively limited area occupied by the Aryas at the time when they were compiled. Others again think that the only test to be taken is that of religious belief. According to them the Hindu religion is one thing and the Hindu social system something quite differ- ent. According to this view, it is immaterial whether a person is excluded from temples, denied the ministrations of the Brahmans, kept rigidly apart and regarded as so unclean that his mere proximity causes pollution —if he believes in " the Hindu religion ''■' he is just as good and complete a Hindu as even a Brahman. One of the exponents of this theory objected to certain suggested tests of Hinduism on the ground that they would exclude Mrs. Besant, who is a staunch Hindu (sic). But here we are confronted mth the fact that Hinduism has no definite creed. The beliefs of persons who are by all admitted to be Hindus often differ more widely from each other than do those of Christians and Muhammadans. So long as a member of a recognized Hindu caste does not flagrantly disobey his caste rules, he is recognized as a Hindu quite irrespective of his beliefs or unbeliefs. On the other hand, a person who is not a member of a Hindu caste cannot be a Hindu in the popular sense of the word. Those who take religious belief as the main test differ among themselves as to the beliefs which are of cardinal Importance. Some say tU;it all the Hindu scriptures must be accepted, but some would exclude the Tantras, while others would regard only the Vedas as of primarv import- ance ; some again think that the sole essential Is belief in the doctrine of karma and metem- psychosis. It was surprising to find how little stress was laid in the majority of the reports on three very important factors, viz., membership of a recognized Hindu caste, the acknowledgment of the supremacy of the Brahmans and veneration for the cow. Partly a«»imuoted 155. The tcuour of the I'cijorts from different parts of India was so diver- gent, that it was clearly impracticable to lay down anything in the nature of an uniform standard. Moreover, when the term Hindu refers not only to reli- Hlndas. BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN HINDUS AND MUHAMMADANS. 117 . gion but also to race, birthplace and social organization, it is impossible to say ■whether a man is within the pale or not on the basis of a number of tests some of which refer to his beliefs, others to his social standing and otbcrs to his rela- tions Avith the Brahmans. Instead therefore of discussing whetlier the mem- bers of particular castes — it would in any case be necessary to take the com- munity rather than the individual as the unit — should be regarded as genuine Hindus or not, the Provincial Superintendents were asked to enumerate the castes and tribes returned or classed as Hindus who do not conform to certain standards, or are subject to certain disabilities, leaving the reader to draw his own inferences. In this view they were asked to prepare a list of all but the minor castes which qua castes — (1) deny the supremacy of the Brahmans ; (2) do not receive the mantra from a Brahman or other recognized Hindu guru ; (3) deny the authority of the Vedas ; (tt) do not worship the great Hindu Gods ; (5) are not served by good Brahmans as family priests ; (6) have no Brahman priests at all ; (7) are denied access to the interior of ordinary Hindu temples ; (8) cause pollution (a) by touch ; (b) within a certain distance ; (9) bury their dead ; (10) eat beef and do not reverence the cow. The extent to which these tests are satisfied varies in different parts of India. In the Central Provinces and Berar a quarter of the persons classed as Hindus deny the supremacy of the Brahmans and the authority of the Vedas ; more than half do not receive the mantra from a recognized Hindu guru ; a quarter do not worship the great Hindu Gods, and are not served by good Brahman priests ; a third are denied access to temples ; a quarter cause pollu- tion by touch ; a seventh always bury their dead, while a half do not regard cremation as obligatory ; and two-fifths eat beef. Some castes satisfy certain tests but not others. Of the thirteen castes whose touch causes pollution, nine do not eat beef, while of the eiglit who eat beef, four are not regarded as pollut- ing, and two are allowed access to temples. In the Punjab the number who question the authority of the Vedas is in- significant, and jjractically the only i)ersons who disown the supremacy of the Brahmans and fail to worship the great Hindu gods are the Avyas and a few minor sectarian groups. About a quarter of the total Hindu population, chiefly Chamars and Chuhras, cause j^oUution by tovich ; these alone do not enjoy the ministrations of Brahnian priests and are denied access to the interior of rlindu temples. The conditions are very similar in the United Provinces. In Bengal and Bihar and Orissa Mr. O'Malley says that there are 59 castes, including seven with a strength of a million and upwards, Avho do not conform to some of the ten tests, and there are fourteen beef-eating castes all of whom are denied access to temples. In the south of India the supremacy of the Brahmans is denied by the Lingayats, an important sectarian group, and also by certain artisan castes who themselves claim to be Brahmans. Numerous castes are excluded from the temples, and tlie theory of pollution generally is carried to a mucli greater length than in Xorthern India. The Madras Report, liowever, contains very littJc defi- nite information regarding the extent to which the tests enumerated above apply to individual communities. For further details tlie rroviiuial Ri'ports may be referred to, e.g., Assam, page tO ; ■Bengal and Bihar and Orissa, page 232 : Central Provinces and Berar, page '/3 ; Madras, page .')1 ; Punjab, page 109 ; United Provinces, page 1~1 ; Baroda, page 5.5 ; Mysore, page 58 ; Rajputana, pages 94 and 105 ; Travancorc page 19S. 156. We have thus far been dealing with the Hindus and the imperfectly Boundarv iino bc- assimilated aboriginal elements. But it is not only in respect of them that s^°hammadwa».*"** difficulties of classification arise. In various i)arts of India groups arc found whom it is difficult to class definitely cither as Hindus or Muham- 118 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION. madans. There are many so-called Hindus whose religion has a strong Muliammadan flavour. Notable amongst these are the followers of the strange Panchpiriya cult, who worship five Muhanuuadan saints, of uncertain name and identity, and sacrifice cocks to them, employing for the purpose as their priest a Muhammadan Dafali fakir. Throughout India many Hindus make pilgrimages to Muhammadan shrines, such as that of Sakhi Sarwar in the Punjab.* A friend of mine who served in that Province tells of a Mullah most of whose clients were Sikhs. On the other hand, many descendants of persons "converted" to Islam are far from being genuine Muhammadans, though they have been classed as such at the census. Of these the Malkanas of the country round Agra furnish a striking instance. "These," savs jMr. Blunt, " are converted Hindus of various castes belonging to Agra and the adjoining districts, chiefly Muttra, Etah and ]\Iainpuri. They are of Eajput, Jat and Bania descent. Thev are reluctant to describe themselves as Musalmans, and generally give their original caste name, and scarcely recognize the name Mfdkana. Thpir names are Hindu ; they mostly worship in Hindu temples ; they use the salutation Ram, Ram ; they intermarrv amongst themselves only. On the other hand, they sometimes frequent a mosque, practise circumcision and bui-y their dead ; they will eat with Muhammadans if they are particular friends ; thev prefer to be addressed as Mian Thakur. They admit that they are neither Hindus nor Muhammadans, but a mixture of both. Of . late some of them have definitely abjured Islam." In Gujarat there are several similar communities — such as the Matia Kunbis, who call in Brahmans for their chief ceremonies, but are followers of the.Pirana saint Inmm Shah and his successors, and bury their dead as do the Muhammadans, the Sheikhadas who at their weddings employ both a Hindu and a Muhammadan priest, and the Momnas who practise circumcision, bury their dead and read the Gujarati Koran, but in other respects follow Hindu custom and ceremonial. These and similar communities lean more strongly to the one religion or the other according to their environment. Those who told the enumerators that they were Hindus or Muhammadans were classed accord- ingly ; others who did not, were shown in the religion column of the schedule under their caste name and Avere classed by the Bombay Superintendent as Hindu- Muhammadans. It would have been better, if, instead of adding this new cates:ory to the religious terminology, he had followed the practice adopted in similar circumstances elsewhere, and had relegated the persons concerned to the one religion or the other as best he could, following, if he could ascertain it, the procedure adopted at previous enumerations. But as the total number of per- sons in this new category is less than 35,000 the mistake is not very material ; and it has perhaps served a useful purpose in drawing prominent attention to the extremely indefinite character of the boundary line between different religions in India. Hindu* and sikbs. 15?. The boundary line between Hindus on the one hand, and Sikhs and Jains on the other, is even more indeterminate. The word " Sikh " is said to be derived from the same root as Sewak, meaning "disciple." The faith is founded on the teaching of Guru Nanak, but it would never perhaps have been recognized as a separate religion had it not been for the political character which was given to the creed by Guru Gobind, who organized the Sikhs as a nation and, in order to mark their individuality, imposed on them certain rules of conduct and a definite rite of initiation {pahol). The principal outward sign of those who follow the ordinances of Guru Golnnd, is the wearing of the hair (/es) long. Those who do this are known as Kesdhari, and those who do not as Sahjdhari. Both sections alike reverence the Granth, a book containing the utterances of Nanak and other gurus, and aliove all the memory of their guru ; they are strict monotheists, and have no regard for the Vedas. At the same tim(; they are believers in the Hindu doctrines of metempsychosis and karma and in the three Hindu modes of attaining union with the Supreme Being. Many of the religious ideas of the Sikhs are borrowed from the Hindus, and it is the outward symbols prescribed by Guru Gobind that constitute the main distin- guishing feature. In 1891 an arbitrary rule was laid down in the Punjab, Avhere the bulk of the Sikhs are found, that only those who wore the Ices and abstained from tobacco should be entered as Sikhs, and the same rule was • In the same way, according to Mr. O'Malloy. offi rings Inivo been mad" by Cbristians at Kaii^'hat ami thtre is in Bow Bazar Strett, (Jiil'Mitta, a shiino of Kali known as Fii'ingi-Kali whoso prieft, a ^j' od b;ihmun, aagmcnts his income frora the offerings oE low-claes Aufflo-Indiam. HINDUS. 119 Tepeatecl in 1901. It Avas thous^lit that in this way a return would ho ohtained of the number of Sikhs in the strict sense of the term, i.e., the Singhs, or followers of Guru Gobind, but the result showed that this was not so, and that many persons must have returned themselves as Sikhs who were not oliservers of his ordinances, and liad never undergone his rite of initiation. Moreover, the boundary line between the Kesdhari and Sahjdhari is a very uncertain one. Even in the case of brothers it often happens that some belong to the former In-auch, and others to the latter ; a man may be Kesdhari, his son Sahjdhari and his grandson again Kesdhari. There is no bar on marriage between the two groups. At the recent census, therefore, the above arbitrary rule was replaced by the ordinary provision that the statements of the persons enumerated as to their religion should be accepted. The result has been largely to increase the number of jiersons returned as Sikhs by the inclusion in that category of many who would have been classed as Hindus at previous censuses. and especially of Mazhabi. Sikhs, or caste, who do not wear the kes and converts from the Chuhra or sweeper have no scruples about smoking. It may be added that while a large number of persons on the border line between Hinduism and Sikhism have thus nominally crossed over from the former religion to the latter, about 44,000 expressed their view that Sikhism is a form of Hinduism by describing themselves as Sikh Hindus. These have been classed as Sikhs in Table VI. The difficulty of drawing the Hue between Sikh and Hindu is well illustrated by the statistics for Sind. In 1881 1£7,000 persons were returned as Sikhs, in 1891 the numbpr was less than a thousand, in 1901 it was nil, while in 1911 about 1-Z,0U0 persons were thus returned. These variations are due mainly to differences of opinion as to the correct classification of the followers of Guru Nanak. 158. The Jains share the Hindu belief in transmigration and the doctrine of Hindn» andjain». karma ; they employ Brahmans in their domestic ceremonies and they belong to the same social system. Some castes contain adherents of both religions and allow intermarriage between them. But, as noted elsewhere, the Jains reject the Vedas and worship their twenty-four deified Saints instead of the Gods of the Hindu pantheon. Their views on these matters are perfectly definite, and there would ordinarily be no difficulty in ascertaining whether a given individual is or is not a Jain. On the other hand, many of the Jains regard themselves as Hindus and are apt so to return themselves at the census. Their real nimiber is therefore probably greater than that shown in Table VI. 159, The total number of Hindus in India is 2173 millions,* or rather more mndnB. than two-thirds of Map shoioing the distribution of Hindus. \\^^q -whole popula- tion. In British territory the pro- portion is 67, and in the Native States 78, per cent. Of the major provin- ces (British terri- tory only), Madras with 89 per cent, has the largest l)roportion of per- sons returned as Hindus, but in that part of the country Hinduism is an exotic religion and exists in most parts as a thin veneer over the original Animistic beliefs of the peoi)le, many of ^^hom in other KoTl — AJmtr-Menrtre hu hen been Incloded in B^Jpatan* >Dd Birod* iu Bombay. parts of India ' Including. Brahmos and Aryas the number is about a third of a million morr. 120 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION. would hardly be regarded as Hindus at all. The iDroportion of Hindus in the United Provinces (85 per cent.), though nominally smaller, is really greater than in Madras. In Bihar and Orissa and the Central Provinces and Berar about 82 per cent, of the people were returned as Hindus, and in Bombay 76 per cent. Assam (5-1 per cent.) is the only other main province where Hindus constitute more than half the population. In Burma Buddhists preponderate, and Midiammadans in the North-West Prontier Province, the Punjab and Bengal. The paucity of Hindus in the two tracts, first mentioned- can be readily understood as it was by that route that successive hordes of Muhani- madan invaders entered India. In the west of the Punjab only one-eighth of the inhabitants are Hindus. In Bengal, where the Hindus claim 45 per cent ^ the lower proportion is due, not to a large foreign element in the i^opulation, but to the wholesale conversions effected by the earlier Muhammadan invaders in the eastern part of the province, which was inhabited chiefly by various aboi'- iginal tribes, such as Koch, Eajbansi and Chandal, who had never been fully Hinduized and Avere despised by their Hindu neighbours as unclean. In West Bengal, where this element in the population is not found, the proportion of Hindus is exactly the same as in the adjoining province of Bihar and Orissa. In the latter province also there are considerable local variations ; in Orissa all but S per cent, of the inhabitants are Hindus, while in the Chota Nagpur plateau Animists and Christians combine to reduce the proportion of Hindus to 72 per cent. Similarly in Bombay ; in the Konkau and Deccan nine-tenths of the people are Hindus, but in Sind less than a quarter. The Hindus in Burma (3 per cent.) are recent immigrants, and many of them are only temporary settlers. Those who have made the province their permanent home frequently intermarry with the Burmese and gradually lose their caste scruples until, after two or three generations, they are absorbed in the general Buddhist population. Of the Native States, Mysore has the largest proportion of Hindus (92 per cent.) and Kashmir (22 per cent.) the smallest. Hyderabad, though it has been under Muhammadan rulers for nearly six centuries, has a larger proportion of Hindus than any British province except Madras. varution since -^qq rpj^g number of Hiudus has increased since 1901 by 5 per cent, while that of Muhammadans, Sikhs and Buddhists has increased respectively by 7, 37 and 13 per cent. As is now well known, the Hindus are less prolific than the Muhimmadans, Buddhists and Animists and other communities OAving mainly to their social customs of early marriage and compulsory widowhood. Girls are com- monly married long before they reach maturity to men who may be much older than themselves, and a very large proportion of them lose their husbands while they are still of child-bearing age, or even before they have attained it. Ajjart from this, the Hindus have perhaps suffered more than their share from the vicissitudes of the decade : plague, malaria and famine have, on the whole.affected chiefly the tracts where they preponderate, while they are in a minority in some of the most progressive tracts, such as Eastern Bengal and Burma. In the Punjab they have sustained an artificial loss by the removal of the restric- tion of the term Sikh to those who wear the kes and observe the other rules of conduct ordained by Guru Gobind Singh. At this census, as stated above, all persons who claimed to be Sikhs were entered as sttch. This led to nearly half a million persons being classed as Sikhs who in 1901 would have been returned as Hindus. Conversions to and 101. xt remains to considcr the question of conversions. A cardinal tenet from Hinduism. i • • ii ^ i -r-r- i i • i of Hinduism is that no one can hocome a Hindu unless he is born one. Formal conversions from the ranks of Muhammadanism and Christianity are thus impossible. Nor can persons who have once renounced Hinduism in favour of these religions be taken back.* It is this niiich accounts for the numerous groups of Muhammadaus whose ancestors were forcibly converted to the faith of the Prophet. Abbe Dubois mentions a typical instance of a number of Brahmans who were forcibly converted by '1 ippu Sahib in the course of one of his nraraudiug expeditions. After a long disputation fheir fellow Brahmans decided to allow them to l)e taken back into caste on their under- going a severe ceremony of atonement and purification. But it was then discovered that they had been compelled to eat beef ; and this was at once •Some instaiicei) of the gradual sliding back of communitifis into Hinduism will be given iu the next paragraph. CONVERSIONS TO AND FROM HINDUISM. 121 held to make tlieir reinstatement absolutely impossible. Forcible conversions are of coarse a thirg of the past, but none the less there is a steady drain going on. Though there is at the present time no organized proselytism by the Mullahs, here and there individuals are constantly attorning to !Muhaninia- daiiisiii, some few from real conviction, but more for material reasons, such as the desire to escape from an impossible jjosition when outcasted or, in the case of widows, the allurement of an offer of mai'riage. Whenciver there is a love affair between a Hindu and a Muhammadan, it can only culminate in an ojien union if the Hiudu sroes over to Islam, while the discoverv of a secret liaison often has the same sequel. A Brahman of my acquaintance told me that his sister's husband became a Muhammadan in order to take as his second wife a girl of that religion. His sister thercui^ou left him and is now supported by her brother. In Appendix II to the Bengal Census Report for lOOl I gave a large number of actual cases of conversion with the reasons assigned for each. At the present time, however, the defections from Hinduism are chiefly the result of conversions to Christianitv. These will be dealt with when the growth of that religion is examined. 162. These losses to Christianity and Muhammadanism, however, are coun- terbalanced by gains from the ranks of the Animists. It is true that indivi- duals cannot ordinarily gain admission to the Hindu fold ; for to I)ecome a Hindu a man must become a member of a recognized Hindu caste, and that is generally an impossibility. But the case is different where communities are concerned. An aboriginal tribe in an environment where Hindu influences are strong comes gradually and half unconsciously to adopt Hindu ideas and pre- judices, to take part in Hindu festivals, to attend at Hindu temples and to pay a certain amount of homage to the Brahmans. Some degraded member of the priestly Caste, or perhaps some Vaishnava Gosain in search of a livelibood, be- comes their spiritual guide ; and as time goes on, the difference between them and their Hindu neighbours, in respect of their social customs and outward religious observances, becomes less and less marked, vmtil at last thev are renarded bv themselves and their neighbours as regular Hindus. The change takes place so slowly and insidiously that no one is conscious of it. There is no formal abandonment of one ritual for another. Sometimes it happens that a tribe is thus divided into two sections, the one Hinduized and the other still Animistic. In such cases open proselytization often takes place amongst the unregenerate. The theoiy seems to be that the latter bave lapsed from a higher state, and the Hinduized section of their community make no difficulty in admitting them after they have performed such ceremonies of purification as may be prescribed by their spiritvxal preceptors. In the Goalpara district of Assam the large decline in the number of Animists as com- pared with 190] is due to a Sannyasi named Siv Narayan Swami, an up-countiy Erahman, who has preached a form of Vedic Hinduism in many parts of India. Amongst his disoiples are most of the Rajliansi zamindars in the Goalpara district, 'the movement amongst the- Meches started about ten years ago, when a few educated young men became his disciples. It has since then spread rapidly. One of his doctrines is Ihat all men are equal in the sight of God, and that the differences in caste, rank and religion are illusional. The use of beef, pork and liquor is strictly prohibited. The followers of this Sannyasi use the word '' Brahma " as a title after their names. For further information on this question of the Brahmanizing of the non-Aryan or caste- less tribes references may 1)6 made to Sir Alfred Lyall's Essay on Missionary and noii-Missiou- ary Religions; Risley's Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Vol. I, page xv ; Assam Census Report for 1891, Vol. I, pages 83 and 84, and Bengal Census Report for 1901, page 152. It will be shown in paragraph 165 that the Aryas are bestirring themselves to counteract by active proselytization the steady drain to Islam and Christianity, but it remains to be seen whether the persons "re-converted" by them are eventually accepted as Hindus. Ai)art from these recent efforts it appears that here and there small communities of Christian and Muham- madan converts have drifted back into Hinduism. The Urap and Varap Agris of the Thana district of Bombay are said (o have reverted to Hinduism from Christianity rather less than a century ago. The Kirpal Bliandaris of the same district were forcibly converted to Christianity by the Portuguese, but were afterwards accepted back into Hinduism. Tlie Matia Kunbis and Sheikhadas of Bomliay have been referred to in jwragraph l.'Mi. Regarding those of Baroda, the local Superintendent writes that they became Muliammadans about three centuries ago, but have gradually abandoned their Muhammadan practices, and many of theirs were recently admitted into the Vaishnava sects of Ramanaud and Swami Narayan. B 122 CHAPTBE IV. — RELIGION. Another iuilication of the awakening of Hinduism and the tendency of errant sects to return to the main fold is found in the fact reported by the Punjab iSuperintendeut that certain Panehpiriyas in that province have substituted a purely Hindu combination (Bhairon, Siva, Parbati, Guga and Sitala) for the five Muhammadan saints ordinarily worshipped by this sect. Owing to the difl&culty of ensuring the same method of classification at successive censuses, it is not easy to form a definite opinion from the statistics as to the extent to which the Animistic tribes are passing over to Hinduism, but it would seem that, at the present time, the movement is not very rapid. In the open plains where they are surrounded by Hindus, the Hinduizing jirocess, nominally at least, has been almost completed, but in the hills and uplands, where these tribes predominate and the tribal constitution remains more or less intact, Hinduism is making very little headway. The Mundas and Hos of Chota Nagpur return a larger proportion of persons claiming to be Hindus than they did ten years ago, but this is not the case with most of the other tribes, such as the Khasis, Garos and Nagas of Assam ; the Oraons of Bihar and Orissa ; the Santals of that Province and Bengal ; the Gonds and Korkus of the Central Provinces and Berar, and the Koyis and Yanadis of Madras.* On the other hand, the losses by conversion to Islam and Christianity continue. The Punjab Superintendent estimates that during the last decade Hinduism has given 40,000 converts to Muhammadanism and nearly three times that number to Christianity. These defections are chiefly from the lowest castes, such as Chuhra and Chamar. The losses elsewhere are much smaller, but every- where a steady drain is going on. In the whole of India the proportion of Hindus to the total population has fallen in thirty years from 74 to 69 per cent., but this is due partly to the inclusion at each succeeding census of new areas in which Hindus, if they are found at all, are in a great minority. In the area enumerated in 1881 the proportion of Hindus is now 71 per cent., or only 3 per cent, smaller than it then was. This figure represents the loss they have sustained owing to a relatively slower rate of increase and to conversions to other religions. '^a' Hindu sects. 163. As already stated, the general scheme did not provide for a return of sects, but Local Governments Avere given the option of prescribing it. This was done in the North- West Frontier Province, the Punjab, the United Provinces and Baroda, but the returns disclose nothing of general interest. The reported strength of individual sects often varies greatly at suc- cessive censuses. In the Punjab, for instance, between 1891 and 1911 the numljer of Kalupanthis has fallen from 129 to 36 thousand, while that of Panehpiriyas has risen from 24 to 89 thousand. Changes like this must be due mainly to imperfections in the record. As the Punjab Superintendent points out, a man who worships several deities or saints may be returned as the follower of one of them while another man with the same beliefs may be fehown as the follower of anotlier. A few new sects have come to notice. The dissatisfaction of certain Marathas with their Brahman priests, who by refusing to use "Vedic manti'as at tlieir ceremonies showed that they rejected their claim to be Kshatriyas, led to a dispute, which came to a head in the Kolhapur State, where some of the leading families decided to dispense with Brahman priests and to appoint instead men of their own caste. Their lead is being followed in increasing numbers by the Maratha Kunbis, Telis and Malis. The sect thus formed is known as Satya Shodhak Panth. The Kumhhipatia sect of the Orissa States, which is described in the Bengal Report (page 211), was founded about forty years ago by one Mukunda Das. It is characterized by hostility to the Brahmans and Hinduism, and its doctrines appear to be based on a survival of early Buddhist or Jain l)eliefs. Its real strength is estimated to be 25,000, but the census shows only 755. The Birsait sect of Chota Nagpur is named after its founder, an apostate Christian, who preached a curious mixture of religion and politics. It also is believed to have many times the number of adherents who were returned at the census. The Shains of Bankura in Bengal refuse to recognize any deity whom they cannot see, and worship only their Guru. The Deb Dharmis of the Punjab, Avho began as a theistic sect allied to the Brahmo Samaj, now deny the existence of a creator. They regard the • There has been a marked drop in the number of Animists in the Central India Agency, but this it due to change of system, vide paragraph 176. BRAHMOS, ARYAS. 123 universe and its constituents — matter and force— as eternal, and the human soul as a I'orm of life evolved from lower forms and subject to the law of change ; it may degenerate and lose its individuality, or niay by i^radual development attain the highest goal of human life, i.e., spiritual union with Shri Dev Guru Bhagwan, by which name the founder, Pandit Satyanand Agnihotri, is known in the literature of the sect. Mr. McSwiney, the Assam Superintendent, has some interesting notes on the question whether Sankar Delj, the local founder of modern Vaishnavism, drew his inspiration from Chaitanya or not, and comes to the conclusion that he did not. He points out that the opposite view involves an anachronism and also that there was a marked difference in the doctrines of the two reform- ers : — " Saukar Deb worshipped Vishnu alone, while Chaitauya worshipped Radha and Krishna : the exclusion of the female energy from the creed of the former is a most important distinc- tion. Moreover, Sankar Deb excluded females entirely, while Chaitanya admitted them as disciples. '' 164. The remark that there was no general return of Hindu sects requires Brahmos. one qualification. Instructions were given to the enumerators to show sepa- rately in the schedules the adherents of the two modern schismatic sects, Brahmo and Arya, both of which have been described in previous Census Re- ports. The Brahmos have grown in number by 30 per cent, during the last decade, but their total strength is stiU only o,504>. They are found chiefly in Bengal, especially in Calcutta, where more than a quarter of their total number were enumerated. About half the decennial increase comes from the Punjab, where it is due mainly to the fact that in 1901 Brahmos were not distinguished from ordinary Hindus. The gain in Bengal is extremely small. This is account- ed for, as was explained in the last Eeport, by the greater latitude of thought and action which is now allowed to the advanced Hindus of that province ; lari^e numbers of them have tluownoff many of the trammels of caste, especially those concerned with food, without let or hindrance from tlieir neighbours. Brah- moism is thus no longer needed as a refuge for the Hindu nonconformist ; and the present tendency is for Brahmos, other than those of the Sadharan Samaj, to be reabsorbed in Hinduism. Another reason for the stagnation of the sect is that the intolerance of idolatry, which was so strong a characteristic of the founders of the Samaj, has lost its force. Idolatry is now regarded by many advanced Hindujs as a stage in the evolution of religious beliefs ; and they no longer think it necessary to sever connection with their society meriely because most of its members are in what they consider to be a lower stage than that to which they have themselves attained. In Bengal and Bihar and Orissa two-thirds of the persons who described themselves as Brahmos by religion returned their caste also as Brahmo, and may therefore be assumed to beloug to the Sadharan sub-sect. Of the remainder, more than half were Kayasthas and less than a quarter Baidyas. 165. Unlike the Brahmos the Aryas area vigorous and rapidly growing Aryas. body. As is well known, this sect was founded by Swami Dayanand' Saras- wati, a native of Kathiawar, who inculcated monotheism and proclaimed the infallibility of the Vedas. Their total strength now exceeds 243,()00, or about two and a half times what it was ten years ago, and six times the number returned in 1891. Nearly half the total number arc found in the Meerut, Agra and Hohilkhand divisions in the west of the United Provinces, and more than two-fifths in the Punjab. During the decade the number of Aryas has doubled itself in the United Provinces and quadrupled itself in the Punjab. This rapid increase is due to the elaborate missionary organization, which Mr. Blunt describes as follows : — " Dayanand founded the first branch of the Arya Samaj at Bombay in 1875. When he died in lii83 there were over 300 branches in the Punjab and tlio United Provinces. By his will he constituted the Paropkarini i^uhlia at Ajmer, and left all his wealth to if, with the in- junction that it should bo spent on the jjublication of the Yedas, Vcdangas, and commentaries on them, on the preaching of the word, and the maintenance and education of orphans. It is still the central organization of the Arya commnnity. In each province there is a Pratinidhi Sabha composed of delegates from each local t^abha. lu this province it was located at Meerut from 1886 to ls97, at Moradabad till 1'J07, and it is now at Agra. Its funds are raised by sabscriptions ; each Arya is supposed to, and most do, give one-hundredth of their income to their local sabha, who contribute one-tenth of such subscriptions to the Pratinidhi 6abha. n 121 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION'. The central sabha of this province is said to control 260 branches, 73 i/padeskoh (or mis- sionaries), 5 guruhch and 53 pathshalas, besides honorary lecturers and trained choirs. Ever since 1S97 " Veda Prachar" or missionary teaching has been the chief means of propagandipm. The «/fl.,,1,11,„',. moon days of Baisakh and Kartik, which they regard as the days of Buddha's Hindu festivals Jains birth and his attainment of Xirvana. They do not observe nor employ Brahman priests. In Burma 86 per cent, of the inhabitants are Buddhists, or 91 per cent, if persons born in other parts of India be left out of account. The proportion of Buddhists in the actual population is greatest in the Central Basin, where all but 4i per cent, of the inhabitants profess that religion. The number of Buddhists has risen in the whole of India since 1881 by 211 per cent, but this is explained by the gradual expansion of census limits in Burma. One of the most significant of recent religious developments is the formation of the South India Sakya Buddhist Society with the object of con- verting the people to Buddhism. The Society began work in Bangalore in 1906 and established a branch at Kolar in 1909, They already number 622 converts in the Mysore State. The Provincial Superintendent writes : — " The disciples belong to the Indian Church o£ Buddhists, which is akin to the Buddhist Church of Burma and Ceylon. The lofty principles and beautifully simple life enunciated bv the founder of the religion seem to appeal with peculiar force to the Tamil-speaking artisans and middle classes in the localities mentioned above. In fact it is learnt that but for the unavoidable absence of the Buddhist priests (who are naturally at this infant stage of their mission, required to be touring to all the branch societies in Mysore and elsewhere in Southern India), many more persons would have received the ' Tri Saranam ' (three refuges) and the ' Fancha Sila ' (five precepts) which ceremonial is necessary for admission into the fold of the Buddhist Church.-" In most provinces the Chinese were returned either as Buddhists or Confucians, but in Burma the great majority of them were classed as Animists. Mr. Webb explains his proce- dure as follows : — " The religion given by the majority of the Chinese in the province is ancestor-worship, or as it is translated in the vernacular, nat-worship,.or Animism. A few (71) Chinese gave Confucianism as their religion, and there were small numbers of Chinese Buddhists, Muham- madans and Christians, but Animism is the correct designation to apply to a belief implying the existence of a spirit world peopled with beings producing human characteristics and emotions in an intensified decree. The inclusion of the Chinese population among the Animists introduces into this religious group an element of heterogeneity. It includes on the one hand, the primitive tribes, too backward and uncivilized to have accepted Buddhism, and on the other hand, the representatives of the oldest existing civilization in the world. »i 169. Of the indigenous religions of India, that of the Jains, with 1^ million adherents, is numerically the least important. Its followers are highly localized. Of their total strength 353,000 are found in Eajputana and Ajmer- Map showinq the distribution of Jains, Merwara and 815,000 in the adjoining States and Provinces. In Ajmer-Merwara and the Bombay States they form 4 per cent, of the population, in Raj- putana 3, in Baroda 2, and in Bombay 1, per cent. Elsewhere their numbers are very attenuated. They are mostly traders, and those who are found in the East of India are chiefly emigrants who have gone thither for business purposes. In the South there is a small indigenous com- munity of Jains who Note,— AjuiLT-Merwara has here been included in RajputBDa and Barcda In Bombay. live by agiiculture, and not by trade, as do their co-religionists in Rajputana Since 1891 the number of Jains has been steadily diminishing, and a loss of ZOROASTRIAXS, IIUHAMMADANS. 127 5 '8 per cent, in 1901 has now been followed by one of 6-4i per cent. As already stated, the Jains iorm an integral part of the Hindu social system and are thus often disposed to regard themsehes as Hindus. In quite recent times a number of them have joined the Arya Samaj. In the Punjab, United Provin- ces and Bombay they are prone to take part in Hindu festivals, and are likely gradually tu become merged in that religioii. During the decade they have lost lO'o per cent, in the United Provinces, G-'l per cent, in tlie Punjab and 86 per cent, in Bombay. In the Baroda State the Provincial Superintendent considers that the loss of 10 per cent, is due mainly to emigration, and says that a Jain revival, which has recently taken place, makes it impossible to suppose that it is due to some of them having described themselves as Hindus. There has also been a revival in the Central Provinces and Berar, but here it has admittedly led to secessions on the part of the lukewarm ; and the Kasars of Akola and the Jaia Kalars have on this account attorned to Hinduism. A loss of 22 per cent, in Central India is attributed, like that in Baroda, to emigration. It is possible that this may be a partial explanation, but there can be no doubt that a good deal of their recent losses is due to plague. The Jains are, to an exceptional degree, a town-dwelling community, and many of the places in which they are numerous have been repeatedly stricken by that disease. In the absence of a general return of sect it is impossible to say anything of the relative strength of the Digambara and Svetambara sects, or of the rate at which the olfshoot from the latter, variously known as Sthauakvasi, Dhundia or Samaiya, is growing. The members of this sect carry to an extreme the solicitude for "the preservation of animal life, and do not worship idols. They are ardent sectarians, and submitted numerous petitions asking to be shown separately in the census retui'ns, but not until it was too late to take action. 170. The religion of the Parsis is called Mazdeism, from the name of their zorowtrians. Supreme Deity, or more popularly Zoroastrianism, from the Greek rendering of Zarathustra, the reputed founder of the creed. In spite of their importance and wealth, the total number of Parsis in India is only 100,096. Nine-tenths of them are concentrated in the Bombay Presidency and Baroda, and more thaa half in Bombay city. The remaining tenth are scattered all over India, but are most numerous in the Central Provinces and Berar, Hyderabad and the Central India Agency. There are practically no artificial changes in the number of Zoroastrians;'^the Parsis do not proselytize, neither do they readily abandon their own distinctive creed. Except for a negligible loss by emigra- tion, the variations in their number are identical with the difference between the number of births and deaths. During the last decade they have increased by 63 per cent., as compared ^^dth 4-7 and 6"3 per cent, respectively in the two preceding decades. This slow rate of increase in a community that boasts of exceptional material prosperity is in accordance with the state of tilings in Europe where, as is well known, the classes multiply much less rapidly than the masses. The Parsis are disinclined to contract improvident marriages, and their families are small. The greater y)art of their increase during the last decade has taken place at the ages above 20. It must, therefore, be due mainly to a fall in the death-rate, rather than to a higher birth-rate. 171. The Muhammadans number 666 millions, or more than one-fifth of the MnnamraadanB. total population of India. Their distribution is far from uiiiform. In the Xorth-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan 93 and 91 per cent, respectively of the inhabitants profess this religion, in the Punjab 55, and in Ik-ng-al 53, per cent. The proi»rtion falls to 28 per cent, in Assam, 20 per cent, in Bombay and 14 per cent, in the United Provinces of Agra and Qudh. Bihar and Orissa is the only other major province Avhere it exceeds 10 2)er cent., while in tlm Central Provinces and Berar it is only 4, and in Burma 3o, per cent. In the Native States, taken as a whole, the proportion of Muhammadans is much smaller than in Britisli territory, but they are very numerous in the Baluchistan States and Kashmir and fairly so in the States of the Punjab. Bengal and United Provinces. Within Provincial lioundaries there are often great local variations. In the Punjab f(jur-fiftlis of the inhabitants of the North- West Dry Area are Muhammadans and thn-e-lifths of tliose of the Sub- Himalayan Area, but in the Indo-Gangetic Plain West the proportion falls 128 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGIOX. V arlatlon stnco to hvo-fiftlis and iu the Himalayan Area to Jess than one-twentieth. Tlie same is the case iu Bengal, where the proportion ranges from 13 per cent, in West, to 59 jjer cent, in North, and 68 per cent, in East, Bengal. Ahout half the Bombay Mvihammadans are found in Sind, and half those of Burma in the Map shoifuiQ the dMribuUon of Muhammadans. northern COast districts, where they form one- seventh of the population. The single district of Purnea con- tains one-quar- ter of the Muhammadans of Bihar and Orissa, and AJalabar one- third of those of Madras. The general distribution of the Muham- madans is in accordance witli historical con- s i d e r a t i o ns. They bvxlk most Note. — Ajmcr-Merwara has teen included iu Bajputana and Bflroda in Bombay. lar^'ClV lU the population of the North-West Frontier Province and adjoining tracts through Avhich successive generations of Pathan and Moghal invaders marched on their way to the conquest of India, and are least numerous in the Central Provin- ces and Berar and on the east coast of the Peninsula, where Muhammadan rule was never securely established. There is, however, one remarkable exceji- tion — Bengal contributes 24 millions, or 36 per cent., to the total number of Muhammadans in India. They are found chiefly in the eastern and northern districts. In this tract there was a vigorous and highly successful propaganda in the days of the Pathan Idngs of Bengal. The inhabitants had never been fully Hinduized, and at the time of the lirst Muhammadan invasions most of them prol)ably professed a debased form of Buddhism. They were spurned by the high class Hindus as unclean, and so listened readily to the preaching of the Mullahs, who proclaimed the doctrine that all men are equal in the sight of Allah, backed as it often was, by a varying amount of compulsion.* Another, but less notable, exception is found in Malabar., where the Mappillas are the descendants of local converts, the earliest of whom were made by the Arabs, who began to frequent the coast in the eighth century. A certain number of new converts are still being made. It should be added that even in Northern India the Muhammadan population is by no means wholly of foreign origin. Of the 12 million followers of Islam in the Punjab, 10 millions showed by the caste entry (such as Rajput, Jat, Arain, Gnjar, Muchi, Tarkhan and Teli) that they were originally Hindus. The number who described themselves as belonging to foreign races, such as Pathan, Baloch, Sheikh, Saiyid aiid Moghal was less than 2 millions, and some even of these have very little foreign blood in their veins. Pandit Hari Kishan Kaul is of opinion that only 15 per cent, of the Muhnmmadaus of the Punjab are really of foreign origin. 172. The number of Muhammadans, has risen during the decade by 67 per cent., as compared with only 5 per cent, in tlte case of Hindus. There is a small but continuous accession of converts from Hinduism and other religions, but the main reason for the relatively more rapid growth of the f ollowers of the Prophet is that they are more prolific. This may possilily be due partly to their more nourishing dietary, but the main reason is that their social customs are more favourable to a high birth-rate than those of the Hindus. They have * For n more complete discussion of this question, see Bengal Census l?epoit for 1901, page 165 el seq. ANIMISTS, 129 figures. Statement shoxeinff increase in the numbe-- of Hindus and Miisalmans in the areas enumerated in 1881. ISCBBiSE lER CENT. | SINCE 1881. Province. Hindu. Musalman. Assam + 18-7 +43-2 Bengal + 15-9 + 31-8 Bihar and Orissa . + 13-3 + 11-2 Centrsl Provinces and Berar + 220 + 24-J, Madras +30-6 + 43-0 Pnnjab and N.-W. F. Province -5-0 + 22-5 United Provinces . +5-6 + 12-0 fewer marriage restrictions ; early marriage is uncommon, and widows remarry more freely. The greater reproductive capacity of the Muhammadans is shown by the fact that the proportion of married females to the total number of females aged ' 15— iO ' exceeds the corresponding proportion for Hindus. The result is that the Mu hammadans have 37 children aged '0 — 5' to every 100 persons aged '15 — 40' while the Hindus have only 33. Since 1881 the number of Muhammadans in the areas then enumerated has risen by 26"J. per cent, while the corresponding increase for Hindus is only lo'l ])er cent. Their advantagje over the Hindus is clearly seen by an examination of the Provincial Since 1901 the Muhammadans have everywhere grown more rapidly than the Hindus or sustained a smaller loss, in all provinces except the Central Provinces and Berar, where their total number is small and many of them are inmiigrauts, and Burma where the result is due entirelv to mitriation. The exceptionally rapid growth in Assam since 1901 (20 per cent.) is duo to the drift of Muham- madan cultivators from Bengal along the course of the Brahmaputra, Avhich has already been mentioned in paragraph 97. The proportion which the Muhammadans bear to the total population of India is now 213 per mille against 197 in 1881. 173. We have seen that in Burma the Hindu settlers have a tendency to become absorbed in the Buddhist population around theni, but this is not so with the Muhammadans. There are scattered communities of Muliam- madans who have been settled in Bm-ma for several generations and still retain their faith unimpaired. When a Muhamniadan marries a Burmese wife he brings up his children in his own religion. The offspring of these mixed mar- riages are known as Zerbadis. For a fuller discussion of the origin of the Indian Muhammadans and the reasons for their more rapid growth, the Report for 19U1 should be referred to. The matter is also dealt with at some length in several of the Provincial Reports for the present census, including those for Bengal, the United Provinces and the Punjab. In the Bengal Report Mr. O'Malley shows that, where the social practices of the Muhammadans differ little from Those of their Hindu neighbours, there is not much difference in their relative prolificness. He also points out that the average height and weight of Hindu and Muhamniadan prisoners on their admission to jail are much the same in both cases. 174. Animism is the term used to cover the miscellany of superstitions Animtot*. which prevail among primitive tribes in all parts of the world. These tribes are very vague in their religious conceptions, but they all agree in believing in the presence on earth of a shadowy crowd of powerful and malevo- lent beings, Avho usually have a local liabitation in a hill, stream or patch • of primeval forest, and who interest themselves in the affairs of men. Illness and misfortunes of all kinds are attrilnited to their influence. There is also a general belief in magic and witchcraft. Wizards are employed to ascertain the cavise of trouble, and to remove it either by incantations and exorcism, or by placating the offended ghostly being by a suitable sacrifice ; their services are also requisitioned ^\hen it is desired to ensure good crops, to cause an injury to an enemy, or to ascertain the omens relating to some proposed course of action. These features of Animism are, I believe, universal. They may some- times be coupled vrith belief in a supreme God, u.sually faineant, and an after life or metempsychosis ; and the shadowy beings may, sometimes, be invested with definite powers and functions and provided with a genealogy and bodily form. These are possiljly later developments, and they are, in any case, far less universal. The subject, however, is far too large a one to be discussed here. From the point of view of the census it will suffice to say that Animism is used as the name of the category to which are relegated all tlie pre-Ilindu religions of India. The practical difficulty is to say at Avhat stage a man ceases to be an Animist and becomes a Hindu. The religions of India, as we liave already seen, are by no means mutually exclusive, and it does not by any means follow that a man gives up his inherited Animistic beliefs because he seeks the help of a Brahman priest or makes offerings at a Hindu shrine. When he does this 130 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION. rec^ularly he is labelled a Hindu. This label is applied more freely in Southern India than elsewhei'e, and it would be no exagijeration to say that in that part of the Empiro the majority of the so-called Hindus are still in essentials Animists.* Broadly speaking, it may be said that the persons shown as Animists in the census returns are those who liave not yet made a practice of worshipping Hindu gods and have not remodelled their original tribal organization on the lines of a Hindu caste. The Hinduizing process, however, is a very gradual one, and it is extremely difficult to say at what stage a man should be regarded as having become a Hindu. There is no diflBculty in classifying the tribes of Assam who are outside Hindu influences. But there are others whose classitication is less easy, such as the Bhils of Gujarat and the Central India and Hajputana Agencies and the Gonds of the Central Provinces, whose tribal system is breaking down and who are coquetting to a varying extent with Hindu gods. The decision in many cases would depend on the idiosyncrasy of the enumerator and on the €xact wording of the instructions laid down for his guidance. A high caste Hindu enumerator might record as Animists those whom a Christian or aboriginal enumerator might enter as Hindus. The practice followed in different tracts varied according to local conditions. The aboriginal tribes of South Mirzapur were almost all shown as Hindus, while their congeners in Palamau were usually entered as Animists. Mr. MacGregor says that the vast majority of the Dangi Bhils of the Bombay Presidency, who were returned as Hindus, are outside the j^ale of Hinduism and ought to have been shown as Animists. 175. There is thus a considerable element of uncertainty in the figures. As they stand, they show that in the whole of India the Animists nvimber 10'3 millions, or about 3 per cent, of the total population. They form 17 per cent, of the popu- lation of Assam where they are the principal inhabitants of all the hill districts, IB per cent, of that of the Central Provinces and Berar, and 6 per cent, of that of Bihar and Orissa. The Animists of Bengal are chiefly iumiigrants from Bihar and Orissa, who have either drifted across the bou.ndary, or have migrated temporarily for work during the winter months or as coolies in the tea- gardens of Darjeeling and the Duars. Of the Native States, Animists are most numerous in those Map showing the distribution of Animists. fittached tO Assam and the Central Provinces and Berar, where they form more than one- third of the aggregate po- pulation, and in those of Bihar and Orissa where they are more than one-eightli. In order to show more clearly their local distribution, I have distinguished in the marginal map the parts of each pro- vince where they are chiefly found. Tlie Animists of Bihar and Orissa are almost wholly con- fined to the Chota Nagpur plateau, those of the Central Provinces and Berar to Bastar, Mandla and the five Chota Nagpur States, those of Madras to the Agency tracts, and those of Burma to four hilly tracts. In fine the universal rule is "that they^ are most connnon in the remote upland tracts which are, or were until recently, comparatively difficult of access. In the open plains they have nearly all been submerged in Hinduism. • The same remark applies in fiurma to the Buddhist*. CHRISTIANS. 13L Thus in the hills to which they have given their name the Khonds are still purely Animistic but those of the Puri district have all become Hiuduized. Many- similar instances could he given. las boon ^i'*"°" * '°'* 170. The uncertainty of the classification to which attention drawn above prevents any effective comparison with tlie results of previous censuses. The figures as they stand show an increase of 20 per cent, during the last ten years, but it is not wortb dwelling on them at length. In Bom])ay where more care was taken than at tlie previous census to discriminate between Animists and Hindus, the former luive an increase of 238 per cent, while in Central India, where in 1901 all EhiJs had been treated as Animists without regard to the entry in the religion column, they are only half as numerous as they were then shown to be. A third of the increase of 30 per cent, in the Central Provinces and Berar is attributed by Mr. Marten to changes of classi- fication ; the Korea and Udaipur States now return 40 and 48 thousand Animists respectively, against only 10 and 4 thousand in 1901. Although the figures for individual provinces are marred by these errors due to the personal equation, it is probable that the net gain recorded for India as a whole is not far wide of the mark. The social customs of the Animistic tribes are favourable to a rapid growth of population. Child marriage is rare and widows remarry freely. The proportion of females aged '15 — -iO' who are married is slightly smaller than amongst Muhammadans, but the proportion of children aged '0 — 5' to persons aged '15 — 40', is higher, viz., 43 as against 37 per cent. 177. There are now 3,876,203 Chri.'itians in India or 12 per mille of the cunstua.. total population. Of these 3,574,770 are Indian Chi-istians, the remainder being chiefly Europeans and Anglo-Indians. Of the Indian Christians nearly two-fifths are Roman Catholics and one-ninth Eomo-Syrians. The Anglicans and the Baptists each claim about one-eleventh of the total, and bite and Reformed Syrians taken together, one-twelfth. Of the other Lutherans claim 6 jier cent., the Methodists and Presbyterians each 5, and the Congregationalists 4 per cent. About thi-ee-fifths of Map showing the Distribution of Christians. the Jaeo- sects the less than the total number of In- dian Christians are found in Madras and its Native States, including Cochin and Travancore. In these two States, where the old Syrian Church has most of its adherents (705,000 out of 728,000), more than a quarter of the total popula- tion are Chris- tians. About half the Chris- tians of Madras proper are found in the Southern districts, ^liere many of them are the descendants of converts made in the days of St. Francis Xavier and Sehwarz. A long interval separates !Madras from any other pro- vince, but then come in clo.^e succession Bihar and Ori.ssa (268,000), Ijomhay (246,000), Burma (210,000), the Punjab (1:00,000), and the United Provinces (180,000). Of the major provinces the smallest number of Christians is found in Bengal (130,000), tlie Central Provinces and lierar (73.000), and Assam (67,000). As will be seen from the maj), the local distribution of Christians is very irreguJar. In some tracts they are numerous while in others they are s2 132 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION, Variation 1901. since Dlstrlbntlon by seot. Anglican Com- mnnlon. Baptists. Imthorans Variation per cent, in the period. number of Indian Christians. 1872-1S81 -f22-0 1881-1891 -f33-9 18in-1901 -t-30-8 1901-1911 + 34-2 scarcely to be found. Except iu the case of the Syrians main factors are the location and strength of the missionary agencies and the jDcriod for Avhichthey have been established, but much also depends on the amenability of the classes whom they seek to convert ; the hill tribes of Chota Nagprn* and the Assam range, and the depressed castes of Madras and the Punjab are far more ready to accept Christianity than the Muhammadans or higher Hindu castes. 178. Though the total number of Christians is still small, it is increasing very rapidly. During the last ten years it has grown by 32'6 per cent., and it has more than doubled since 1881 ; the number of Indian Christians has multiplied nearly three-fold since 1872. The rate of increase Avould be still greater if the adherents of the ancient Syrian Church cou.ld be excluded from the calculation, but this is impossible, as so many of them now call themselves Roman Catholics. Of the major Provinces and States,Travancore has registered the largest actual addition (206,000) to the number of its Chris- tians; and then Madras (170,000), the Punjab (133,000), Bihar and Orissa (.96,000), the United Provinces (77,000), and Burma (63,000). The proportional increase is greatest by far in the Punjab, where there are now three times as many Christians as there were in 1901 ; in the Central Provinces and Berar there is a gain of 169 per cent, and in Hyderal^ad, Assam and the United Provinces of 136, 85 and 75 j)er cent, respectively. Bihar and Orissa has a gain of 56, Burma of ■i2, and Ti'avancore of 30 per cent. During the last ten years the greatest absolute increase has been won by the Roman Catholics who have added 289,000, or 24 percent., to their numbers, but much larger proportional gains have been made by the Presbyterians (235 per cent.), Salvation Army (176 per cent.), Methodists (123 per cent.) Baptists (53 per cent.), and Lutherans (il per cent.). The gain of 257 per cent, recorded by the Congregationalists is due mainly to their having been largely returned in 1901 under the heads Protestant and Unsectarian. 179. The Anglican Communion has increased during the decade by only 9 per cent., but its numbers in 1901 were unduly swollen by the addition of per- sons returned simply as Protestants without further specification. The real in- crease is probably at least 14i per cent. In Madras there has been a gain of 29,000 or 21 per. cent., in the Punjab of 17,000 or 47 per cent., and in Bihar and Orissa of 15,000 or 66 per cent. In the Hyderabad State, where there are now 14,000 Anglicans, the number has more than doubled since 1901 ; but the actual increase is smaller here than in several British districts such as Kistna in Madras and Lyallpur in the Punjab. In Burma and the Baroda, Cochin, Mysore and Travancore States the reported number of Anglicans is smaller than it was ten years ago, but this is due entirely to the fact that at that census the Protestants who did not specify their jjrecise denomination were classed as Anglicans. 180. The Baptists, who now approximate to the Anglicans in the number of their Indian Christians, have grown much more rapidly. Their principal centre is in Madras where about two-fifths of their converts are found, chiefly in the districts of Guntur, Nellore, Kurnool and Kistna. They have here groAvn by 24,000, or 22 per cent., dm-ing the decade. In Burma, where there are now 122,000, they have nearly doubled their number, but the increase is probably less than would appear from the figures, as in 1901 many failed to return their sect and Avere thus not shown as Baptists. In Assam, though the actual figures are comjiaratively small, the proportional increase is even gi'cater. The Baptist Missions in this province have been at work for many years, and the seed thus laboriously sown is now yielding its harvest. 181. The Lutherans, who now number 218,000, have grown by 41 per cent, since 1901. Nearly half of them arc found in Madras, where they have gained 35 per cent. Their number is only slightly smaller in Bihar and Orissa, where an increase of 43 per cent, has been registered. Their head-quarters there are in the Ilanchi district, but they have spread during the last few years into the adjoining Native States, where their efforts are meeting with marked success. CHRISTIANS. 133 182. The Methodists with 172,000 adherents are 2^ times as numerous as Metuodut*. they "Were ten years ago. Three-fifths of their present strength is in the United Provinces, where they have doiil)Ied their following in the course of the decade. Though tlicir numher is still comparatively small, they have grown even more raj^idly in the Punjab, Eombay, Baroda and Hyderabad. 183. The figures show that the Presbyterians have achieved even more ^^*'»y**»^~»"- remarkable results. Iheir present strength of 181,000 is more than three times what it was only ten years previously. The most phenomenal progress has been made in the Punjab, Avhich now contains 95,000 Presbyterians against only 5,000 in 1901 ; in the two districts of Sialkot and Gujranwala alone there are now 52,000, whereas in 1901 there were only 500. Most of the converts Ijelong to the Chuhra, Cliamar and other depressed castes. The 31,000 Presbyterians in Assam are mainly converts of the Welsh Calvinistic Mission in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, where their number has risen from IG to 28 thousand. In the United Provinces there are 11,000 adlierents of this sect, or jiearly three times as many as in 1901. Etah is here the most successful centre. 184. The Iloman Catholics have grown by only 8 per cent, in Madras where *o™*° °***">"°»- they are most numerous (69-1,000), but they have gained 68 per cent, in Bihar and Orissa, chiefly in the Banchi district and the State of Gangpur, 62 per cent, in Burma, 35 per cent, in Bombay and 19 per cent, in Bengal. Their most remarkal)le success is in the Jashpur State of the Central Provinces and Berar, where they have now 33,000 adherents, chiefly aboriginal Oraons, practically all of whom have been gathered into the fold since 1901. 185. The Salvationists, whose numbers have risen from 19 to 52 thousand, Salvationists, have shown remarkable activity in the Punjab, where they had only a few hundred adherents in 1901 and now have 18,000, and the Travancore State, ' where their present strength of 17,000 is five times what it was at the previous census. A special feature of the activities of the Salvation Army is the atten- tion which they pay to the criminal tribes and depressed classes generally. In several provinces they have entered into special arrangements with Govern- ment for the reclamation of tribes whose criminal proclivities it has been found impossible to curb by means of police surveillance. They endeavour to improve the moral and material condition of these people by sympathetic supervision and by teaching them various industries which will enable them to earn an honest livelihood. They are also actively engaged in attempts to improve economic conditions generally. They have established numerous weaving schools ; and one of these at least attracts pupils from all parts of India. Steps are being taken to foster the silk industry; and the rearing of silk worms and various food and fodder crops are experimented with. Pruit farming is car- ried on in the Kulu Valley. 186. Ihe ancient Syrian Church on the Malabar coast, whicli claims to syriana. have been founded by the apostle St. Thomas and is known to liave been in existence as far l)ack as the beginning of the sixth century * consists, as is well known, of three main divisions — Romo-Syrians who acknowledge the atithority of the Pope hut whose services are in the Syrian language and who follow^ in part the Syrian ritual ; Jacobite Syrians who are under a bishop consecrated by the Patriarch of Antioch, and Reformed Syrians who differ from the last mentioned in that they have adopted certain practices of the Anglican Chiirch : there are also a few Chalda^ans. The total number of Syrians is 728,301, of Avhom more than half are Romo-Syrians, less than a third Jacobites, about a tenth Reformed, and a fiftieth Chaldsean. As compared with 1901 the Syrians as a whole have gained over 27 per cent., the increase being fairly evenly distributed ])ctween the Romo-Syrians and the other sections of the Syrian Church. Nearly four-fifths of this community are found in Travancore, and most of the remainder in Cochin. In Travancore the Syrians have increas- ed by nearly 27 per cent., while the population as a whole has gained only 16 per cent. • Kosmas IndikoploaBtes, writing aliout the mirldlo of the 6th century, gpoko of n church of Christiniif in Ceylon and on tht- west coast of India under a Ijish ip iippointed from I'oisia. Then' woio also t'hriatiana in Socotra desce? ded from Greek colonists sent liy the Ptulemios wlio succeeded Alexander. .McCrindle's Ancient India, VI, 16a 134 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION, Dtstiiliatlon by Provinces— Assam. Baagak Bihar and Oiissa. Bombay. Burma. 1S7. The total number of Christians in Assam is nearly 67,000, of whom all but about 3,000 are Indian Christians. The number of the latter has nearly- doubled in the last decade and has increased nearly eleven-fold since 1881. Almost all the converts come from the ranks of the aboriginal tribes, such as the Khiisis, Nagas, Garos, Lushais and Kacharis. The princijial mis.sions in Assam are the Welsh C'alvinistic Methodist, whose adherents, numbering 31,000, or nearly double their strength in 1901, are classed as Presbyterian. Their head-quarters is in the Khasi aud Jaintia Hills, where nearly half the Indian Christiaiis of the province were enumerated. This mission has branches in Cachar, Sylhet aud the Lushai Hills. The last mentioned branch is meeting with wonderful success. Founded only a very few years ago it already claims 1,700 converts. The Americnn Baptists (over 21,000) are at work chiefly in the Brahmaputra ralley and in the Garo and iS'aga Hills. There are also Eoman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran missions, but they are small aud of comparatively little importance. 18S. Bengal now contains nearly 130,000 Christians, of whom rather more than a third are Europeans and Anglo-Indians and the remainder (83,000) Indians. The Indian Christian community has risen during the decade by 30 per cent. Of the toial number 35 per cent, are Roman Catholics, 27 per cent. Baptists and 22 per cent. Anglicans. Nearly two-tifths of tlie Homan Catho- lics are found in the single district of Dacca. The Baptists have obtained their greatest success amongst the Namasudras of Eastern Bengal, and half their converts are in the Dacca division. The great majority of the Indian members of the Anglican Communion are found in Nadia, 24-Parganas and Calcutta. 189. The number of Christians in Bihar and Orissa is 268,000, of whom 259,000 are Indian Christians. The latter have grown by abovit 58 per cent, in the course of the last ten years. Nearly the whole of this increase has taken place in the Chota Xagpur plateau, where an addition of 92,000 has been registered, of which the Ranchi district claims 52,000 and the adjoining State of Gangpur 32,000. Ranchi is one of the greatest centres of missionary activity in India, and one-eighth of its inhabitants are now Christians ; of these 78,000 are Roman Catholics, 76,000 Lutherans and 24^,000 Anglicans. Nearly nine-tenths of the Indian Christians belong to the aboriginal tribes of Oi-aon, Munda, Kharia and Santal. The spread of Cbristianity in Gangpur is very remarkable. Ten years ago the number of Christians there was less than 2,000, but it now exceeds 33,000 ; tAvo-thirds of them are Roman Catholics and nearly all the remainder are Lutherans. 190. The strength of the Christian community in the Bombay Presidency is about 246,000, or 12 per cent, more than in 1901. Of the total number about four-fifths are Indian Christians ; and these have increased by 12 per cent, since 1901. Abovit three-fourths of them are Romau Catholics ; the Aiiglicalis, Congregationalists and Methodists each claim about 12,000 and the Salvation- ists 10,000. Except in the case of the Roman Catholics, who have gained 35 per cent., it is impossible to institute an effective comparison with the figures for the previous census, when the return of sects Avas very defective. The principal fields of missionary enterprise are Ahmadnagar, Kaira and Poena. 191. The Christian population of Burma has risen from 84 to 210 thousand in the course of the thirty years ending in 1911. Of the latter all but 24,000 are Indian Christians. By far the largest mission is that of the Baptists, who now have 185 missionaries and 122,000 adherents, or almost double the number recorded ten years previously. Iheir chief work is amongst the Karen;-, of whom nearly one-eighth are now professed Christians. The Shans, Talaiugs and Kachins also show a fair amount of recei^tivity ; l)ut not so the Burmans, who are quite content with the Buddhist beliefs in which they have been brought v.]). One element, says Mr. Webb, in the success of this mission is its press, which serves to bring all sections of the community into close touch with each other. The Roman Catholics, Avho now have nearly a hundred missionaries, have also made great progress, and their present strength of 60,000 represents a gain of 62 per cent, in ten years. As Avith the Baptists, most of their converts are Karens. The only other sect of local numerical importance is the Anglican (21,000) which on paper appears to have CHRISTIANS. 135 lost ground, but this is because at tbe previous census it was credited with a large number of persons who had returned themselves as Protestants, the majority of whom were in reality Baptists. 192. There are over 73,000 Christians in the Central Provinces and Berar, ^^"S.fi^V^"" of whom nearly 63,000 are Indians. Between 1881 and 1901 the number of the latter rose from six to nineteen thousand, or by 220 per cent, and there has now been a further increase of 223 per ceut. This is mainly the result of the extraordinary success of the Koman Catholic mission in the Jashpur State, which now has 33,000 adherents against only 12 in 1901. The total number of Koman Catholics in this province exceeds •i4,000, of Avhom 1-1,000 are Indian Christians. They maintain a number of educational institutions of all kinds, including special schools for the depressed Mahars. Regarding their methods, Mr. Marten says : — " The Roman Catholic missionaries admittedlj do not interfere with caste distinctions. They object only to those caste customs which are distinctly idolatrous, and the converts conform to most of their c;iste customs and often claim to belong to their caste. The condi- tions exacted from a proselyte before baptism are probably not as exacting in this sect as in some others, nor is a public profession of faith required. There is, however, a high standard of organization and discipline, and the priests keep constantly in touch with the members of their aock." 193. Though attached to the Madras Presidency, the returns for the States Madraa. of Cochin and Travancore were compiled separately and the results were not included in the Madras Census Report. There are in all 1"1 million Christians in these two States of whom the great majority belong to some branch or other of the Syrian church. Excluding the above States, Madras now contains 1-2 million Christians, of whom all but 3 per cent, are Indians. The number of the latter has grown by 17 per cent, in the last decade. They are found chiefly on the east coast, and especially in the southern portion. About three-fifths of the Indian Christians are Roman Catholics ; the Anglicans and the Baptists claim respectively 1 3 and 12 per cent, and the Lutherans 9 per cent. The Roman Catholics are found mainly in South Canara and the east coast districts south of Madras city, while half the Anglicans are congregated in the single district of Tinnevelly. The Baptists are most numerous in the districts of Gvmtur, Nellore, Kurnool and Kistna. They have gained 22 per cent, in the course of the last ten years. The Lutherans, of whom two-fifths are found in Guutur, have an increase of 35 per cent. The Syrians have multiplied eight- fold ; but nearly the whole of this increase has taken place in Malabar, where there has been a large falling off in the number of Roman Catholics, and Mr. Molony thinks that these changes are in the main artificial and due to a number of Romo-Syrians having been wrongly entered as Roman Catholics in 1901. 194. Of the 200,000 Christians in the Punjalj, 161,000 arc Indians, com- Panjab. pared with only 38,000 in 1901. More than half the Indian Christians are Presbyterians, who have multiplied twenty-fold in the course of the decade. Their most remarkable gains have occurred in Sialkot and Gujranwala and the neighbouring districts. The two districts mentioned now contain between them a third of the total number of Christians in the province. The .Vnglicans, who greatly outnumbered the Presbyterians in 1901, are now barely half as nume- rous, and claim less than a third their following, of Indian Cliristians. They are found chiefly in Lyalljmr, Sialkot, Lahore and Amritsar. Their nomi- nal gain during the decade is artificially reduced, on theoT^e hand, by Protestants unspecified having been classed as Anglicans in 1901, and increased, on tiie other, by a large addition to the European garrison, which was then nmch below its normal strength. Tbe Salvationists, who were a negligible quantity in 1901, now have about a third the strength of the Anglicans ; they arc found chiefly in Gurdaspur, Lyallpur and Amritsar. The Roman Catholics have more than doul)led their number in the ten years. Nearly half of them are Europeans and Anglo-Indians. Their Indian converts have increased most largely in Sialkot, Gujranwala and Lyallpur. The Methodists have gained practically the whole of their Indian converts since 1901. Ihey are found chiefly in Lahore, Delhi and Gurdaspur. 195. The total numl)er of Christians in the United Provinces has risen Ooifod Provinoo* from 103 to 180 thousand, and that of Indian Christians from 09 to 138 thousand. tbe return of Cbrlstlaos 186 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGION". In 18S1, there were only 13,000 Indian Christians. The striking increase which lias taken place in recent years has occurred chieiiy in the three western divisions of Hohilkhand, Mcerut and Agra. The most successful of the local missions from a numerical point of view is the Methodist, which has 104,000 converts, or twice as many as in 1901. This is an American Mission ; it is concerned chiefly with the lower castes and it maintains a large nnmber of schools, both for boys and girls. The next most important mission is that of the Church Missionary Society, which is responsible for most of the 6,U00 Anglican Indian Christians. It commenced operations in 1813 and now carries on work in eleven districts. It maintains two colleges and schools of all kinds for both sexes, and in this way its influence for good is far greater than would appear from the number of its professed adherents. The society is more particular than many others as to its catechumens' fitness for baptism, and a relatively large proportion of its converts belong to the better castes. The Baptist Missionar}^ Society (2,000 Indian adherents), which began work in the United Provinces in 1811, also carries on a certain amount of educational work ; it is engaged chiefly in the Agra and Muttra districts. The Salvation Army have as yet only about a thousand followers, but they are actiif^Ijat work on the lines already described in jiaragrajDh 185. The aoonracy of 190. There is no rcasou to suppose tliat, taken as a whole, the returns "'are otherwise than accurate. Isolated instances occurred where an attempt Avas made to induce Christians to return themselves as Hindus but, except perhaps in Rajpulana, these were very rare, and any losses on this account were no doubt balanced by persons who returned themselves as Christiaiis Avithout having been admitted to any Christian communion. It occasionally happened that the census returns differed from those prepared by the missionaries them- selves, but the latter sometimes referred to a date later than that of the census, which in a growing mission may make a great deal of difference. Moreover, while taking count of all new adherents, mission returns often fail to allow for deaths, defections and departures, and they occasionally include enquirers and catechumens who at the census did not themselves profess to be Christians. Mr. Blunt discusses at some length a discrepancy of this kind which was brought to his notice^ and gives good reasons for accepting the census figures as more accurate than those of the mission. The Superiatendeat of Census Operations in Assam enquired at mj request into a simifar discrepancy to which my attention had been drawn, with the result that the local missionaries informed him that the census figures were substantially correct. A few months after the general census, a systematic count was made by the Roman Catholic missions in India, with a view to ascertain the number of their adherents. The result was to show 1,624',267* Roman Catholics according to the Ecclesiastical census, as compared with 1,490,863 according to that carried out by Government. The Mission figures include 9.5,000 catechumens, some of whom may not have been returned as Christians at the Government census ; and having been compiled some six months later they were no doubt augmented by a certain number of new converts. The differences between the two sets of figures were greatest in Southern India where they were due largely to many of those claimed as Roman Catholics at the Ecclesiastical census having been treated as Syrians or Romo-Syrians at the census earned out by Government. Fr. J. C. Houpert, S.J.^ who collected the returns from the various Roman Catholic missions, objects to the distinction which has been drawn in Imperial Table XYII between Roman Catholics and Komo-Syrians. He points out that both groups belong to the same denomination, that their rites are equally Catholic, and that they acknowledge the same spiritual head ; and he urges that even if the Romo-Syrians are tabulated separately (which I think they ought always to be) they should be classed under the main head Roman Catholic and not under Syrian. There is much to be said in favour of this suggestion, but it was received too late to be acted on at the present census. In other parts of India the chief discrepancies between the two sets of figures occurred iu two thanas of the Ranchi district of Chota Nagpur and in several districts of Southern Burma, where the Government figures were far below those reported by the local missionaries. It has unfortu- nately not been found possible at this stage to check all the fiirures, but iu the case of Ranchi there is I fear no doubt that at the Government census, owing to a mistake in the local tabula- tion office, about 2,."j00 Roman Catholics and 2,600 Lutherans were wrongly shown under the head Anglican Communion. affcctiig°chri8tian 197. Thc greatest success of Christian missions is attained amongst aboriginal tribes such as tlie Khasis of Assam, the Mundas and Orilons of Chota Nagpur, and the Karens of Burma, whose beliefs are of the undefined Animistic type and who, being outside tlie caste system, arc not, on conversion, so com2)letcly cut oft' from their relations and friends. In the case of Hindus Mr. Blunt points out • Exc-ludiiig 25,918 in French, and 296 148 in Portuguese, territory. Conditions propaganda CONDITIONS AFFECTING CHRISTIAN PROPAGANDA. 137 tliat the main obstacle to the success of the missionary propacjanda is the fear of social ostracism. The high caste convert lias literally to lose all if he is to follow Christ. The low caste convert has much less to lose, wliile he gains materially in the facilities for education, assistance in gettins^ employment and the like ; and he can drop his despised caste designation. The great majority of the converts from Hinduism belong to the lowest castes, such as the Chuhras of the Punjab, the Mahars of the Central Provinces and Berar and the Shanans of Madras, to whom conversion means an accession of rosi)ectability as well as a cleaner and purer life. The social difficulty is growing less with the increasing number of Christians ; for though a convert from Hinduism or Islam is still turned out of his original community, he has another into which he is received. The converts, as their numbers increase, find the loss of caste rights easier to beai\ The missionaries have raised their converts' standard of cleanliness in dress and habits, and their position in general estimation has improved accord- ingly. 1 he success of a mission cannot always be judged by the number of its converts. Most missions are very careful to baptise no one until he has given satisfactory proof of his being at heart a Christian, but a fe^v• accept all who are willing to join their fold, and occasionally take in, not only individuals, but the people of entire villages, when they are willing for any reason to accept Christianity. It is obvious that in such cases the converts, of the first generation at least, are often far from being genuine Christians. They are often only half- hearted and are apt to apostatize. Mr. MacGregor says that in Kaira many converts made during the famine reverted afterwards to their ancestral beliefs, and Mr. Blunt mentions the case of a number of persons who, though they had been duly baptisL'd, refused to record themselves as Christians. A well known Ptoman Catholic Missionary in Chota Nagpur writes to me as follows regarding the inducements to conversion : — " As a general rule religious motives are out of the question. They want protection against zaminJari and police extortions and assistance in the endless litigation forced on them by zamiudars.*** As a consequence — (a) most of the converts came over (after panchayats) in whole villages or in groups of villages ; (b) a certain number of isolated families came ever, either for help against zaraindars or police extortion, or against the rest of their co-villagers who persecuted them because they were pointed out by the Soi:has as wizards or witches. (c) Personally I know of some cases where individuals came over from religious motives. But these cases are rare.^' 198. The Hindu has no fanatical opposition to Christianity. So long as The influence ot he is not asked to abandon his own religion, he is quite ready to appreciate °°"" what is good in Christianity and to listen to the teaching of tlie missionaries. Mr. Molony mentions that he has even seen a Brahman presiding at a mis- sionary meeting, and it is Avell known that many Hindus have no prejudice whatever against sending their children to mission schools and colleges. In this way Christian thought influences large numbers who remain Hindus, and Christian ideals and standards are everywhere gaining vogue. There is a growing tendency to monotheism amongst the educated classes throughout India. The European reader of Indian newspapers is frequently astonished at the writers' familiarity with the Bible, while no politician can fail to take note of the influence of Christian thought on social questions, such as polygamy, child marriage and the inequalities of the caste system. Of the effect of conversion on the Indian Christians themselves Mr. Blunt \vrites : — "The missionaries all these years have been providing the corpus saniim (if one thing is uoticeable about Indian Christians it is their greater cleanliness in dress anil habits) and now they arc being rewarded by the appearance of the inenx nana. The new convert, may be, is no better than his predecessors ; but a new generation, the children of the iirst generation of converts, is now growing up. If the missionaries could and can get little out of tiiat first generation, the second generation is in their hands from their earliest years. The children of the converts born in Christianity, are very different to their parents ; their grand children will be better still. It is this which provides the other side to the black picture so often drawn of the inefficiency of Christian conversion. And this generation is now beginning to make its influence felt. The Hindu fellows of thesf converts ha\ e now to acknowicdge, not only that they are in many material ways better off than themselves, but that they are also better men. " T ] 38 CHAPTER IV. — RELIGIOX. Similar testimony is borne by a Bengali gentleman* :— " The most careless observer can tell the house of a Christian convert of some years' stand- ing from that of his non-Christian fellow tribesman by the greater cleanliness of the Chris- tian's house and the general neatness and orderliness of everything about it. The contrast illustrated by the various pictures given in this book of Munda and Oraon Christian men and women, boys and girls on the one hand, and, on the other, of non-Christian Mundas and Oraons at their feasts and elsewhere will, we hop', help the reader towards an appreciation of the brilliant achievements of the Christian Missions in their noble work of civilwing and educating the aborigines of Chota Nagpur." The Census Superintendent of the Mysore State, himself a Hindu, says that the missionaries work mainly among the backward classes and that — " the enlightening influence of Christianity is patent in the higher standard of comfort of the converts, and their sober, disciplined and busy lives. To take educaiiou, for instance, we find that ;imong Indian Christians no less than 1 1,523 persons or 25 percent, are returned as literate, while for the total population of the State the percentage is only 6.* * * The suc- cess in gaining converts is not now so marked as the spread of a knowledge of Christian tenets and standards of morality." The opinion of the Roman Catholic missionary from Avhom I have already Quoted is as follows : — " For a long time Christian influence was practically non-existent. It would be a stupen- dous wonder if masses of aborigines, so limited in intellectual capacity and so indifferent to our teaching in itself, had suddenly risen to a higher standard of morality-. The non-Chris- tians among the ilundas looked upon the Christians rather with a certain moral indignation because they gave up some social religious practices which Mundas hold as sacred, and which for them really are strong preservatives against immorality in the joint family system still in practice to a great extent. But I can assert with lull and critically-tested personal knowledge that large numbers of boTS and girls having remained long in our schools do rise to quite a serious moral life,a6 exacted by the moral precepts of the Church, and although 1 am not an optimistic enthusiast in any sense of the word, I have a great confidence in the moral regeneration of the race through a well developed school system. I have also personal knowledge of the good and strong impres- sion made on pagans and nominal Christians by the truthfulness and the morality of young people during the past few years." The great work done by the missions in bringing education within the reach of the backward classes among whom they chiefly work will be seen from the statistics of education by religion which will be discussed in Chapter VIII. The South India 199- One noticeablc feature of the decade has been the tendency shown by Untied Church. certain Protestant missions in the south of India to sink their denominational differences and to form a United Christian Church. All the Christians of the following five missions are now organized !is one bofly under the name of the South India United Church, viz., The United Eree Church of Scotland Mission in and about Madras, the Arcot Mission of the Reformed Church of America in the Arcot and Cuddapah districts, the American Madura Mission, and the two great London Missionary Society Missions, viz., the Travancore Mission and the South Indian District Committee Mission. In order to enable the progress made by these missionary bodies to be gauged, nnd to permit of com])ari.sou with the returns of the last census, the adherents of these missions have been shown in Table XVII according to the sect of the mission ; but it should be understood that the denominational differences connoted by these names are now a thing of the past. Their converts are all members of the South India United Church, whicVi is organized as a homogeneous religions comuumity. Its affau-s are managed by a small committee, elected by the General Assembly, which meets once in two years. The individual units of the South India United Church are the local churches organized in the associated missions. The Ministei's and lay representatives of these local churches are grouped in the Church Councils, of which there are nine in all. These Church Councils elect the delegates who form the (icneral Assembly. The organization of the South India United Church has attracted the atton'ion of other missions, and some of them, especially the Basel German Evangelical Mission and the Mission of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, are considering the question of uniting with it organically. There are certain other Churches with which a much closer association than has hitherto existed is regarded as desirable, although for various reasons, organic union is at present impossible. To this end it is •TAj Mundas by liabu Sarat Chandra Boy, Calcutta, 1912, page 168. NATIOXALISM IX CltflSTIANITY. 139 proposed fo incorporate in a "Federation of Christian Churches in India" all Cluirches and Societies that "accept tlie AVord of God as contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament as tlie sui)renie rule of faitli and prac- tice, and wliose teaeliini; in rei^ard to God. sin and salvation is in general agree- ment with the great bodv of Christian truth nnd (undanicntal doctrines of the Christian faith." The declared object of tins Fodi-ratiou is to emplmsize the essential unity and brotherhood of all Christians without interfeiing with the existing creed of the individual Churches or with their system of Church govern- ment. These proposals for federation do not extend to Churches which regard the mutual i-ceognitiou of ministry and sacraments to be contrary to their fundamental principles. Jn the case of such Churches all that is thought possible is " co-operation, " but no delinite steps in that direction have yet been taken. 200. On the other hand the rising national spirit in India sometimes Nationauam ta manifests itself in hostility to tin' missionaries and determined efforts to impede their progress. This is notably the case with the Arya Samaj and may j)erhaps be one of the motives for the efforts which they are making to get the untouch- able castes placed on a higher level in the estimation of the Hindu public. A spirit of independence is also abroad in the Iiidian Church itself. Of this there are various local nianifestn lions. The Karens of Burma show a tendency to break adrift from the missionaries and set up their own church under tribal leaders. The Yuyoniayam sect in 'J'ravancore is an offshoot fi'om Christianity. The Bible is the basis of its beliefs, but no higher ecclesiastical authority than the family of the founder is recognized. The sect have no places of public worship, and their ceremonial benedictions are after the mannt-r of the Brahmans. Many of the missionaiy bodies are recognizing the desirability of encouraging the spirit which has given rise to these movements and guiding it along right lines. As an instance of this it may be mentioned that tlie Anglican Christians have just been given their first Indian bishop, -who Avas consecrated by the Metropolitan of India in the Calcutta Cathedral a few months ago. 201. According to the returns the number of Europeans and allied races isEnropooa.. 199,787, as compared with 169,677 in 1901 and 168,158 in 1891. The figures are not altogether reliable, owing to the tendency of persons of mixed race to re- turn tliemselves as pure Europeans. Some special enquiries made in certain towns by Mr. O'Malley showed tiiat three-tenths of the persons returned as Eu- ropeans were in reality Anglo-Indians. There are, however, some reasons for thinking that tlie errors due to this cause at the recent census were consider- ably less numerous than on previous occasions ^ owing to the use, under the orders of the Government of India, of the term Anglo-Indian as the olficial designation of the mixed race, instead of Eurasian, their former designation, which was very unpopular amongst them. The real increase in the number of Europeans is thus greater than w'ould appear from the figures. On the other hand in 1901, owing to the despatch of a force to Soutl Africa, the European garrison was about 7,000 below its normal strength. This deficiency lun* since been made up. The real increase in the number of Europeans, which is i)rol)ably not less than 25,000^ is attributable to the growth of railways, the extension of collieries and the general industrial development which has taken place, and ^ which is still financed and fostered mainly by European enterprise. Of the total number of Europeans, al)out 70,000 are in tlie army, ami their wives and de])c'n- durits j)robably account for at least another 15,000. The number of Europeans in each j)rovinee is thus determined largely by the strength of its European garri- son. They are most numerous in the United Provinces (33,(J0()), and almost equally so in the Punjab and Bombay. Bengal (25,000) has very few l-^uro- pean soldiers and owes its position mainly to the large nundjcr of Earoj)eans engaged in trade and the jute, tea and coal induslries. Madras and Hurma are the only other provinces where tbei-e are more tuan ten thou.sand Europeans. The States and Agencies taken togetlier have fewer Kuropeans than the single province of Bengal, ^lost of them were enumcrat^-d in My.'^ore, where they are numerous in tiie Kolar gold field and the coffee plantations, and in Hyderabad and the Central India Ai?eiicy, which contain the large cantonments of Seeun- derabad and Mbow respectively. As would lie expected from their occui)ations, T 'Z 140 CHAPTEJi IV.- RELIGION. Europeans tend to congregate in cities and large towns. Of the total number in Bengal, three-fifths were enumerated in Calcutta, Howrah and the suburban municipalities ; of those in Bombay, 36 per cent, were found in the capital of the Presidency, and of those in Burma, -11 per cent, were in Rangoon. By nationality all but 7 per cent, of the Europeans are British, subjects. About one-third of them were born in India ; the proportion falls to one-iifth if we exclude children under 15, most of whom may be assumed to have been born in this country, but it rises again to one-third if we exclude the army, which may be taken to be wholly English-born. Of the British born, England and Wales contribute 79, Scotland 11 and Ireland 10 per cent. Females, thougli still in marked defect, are gradually becoming more numerous. In 1911 there were 388 females per thousand males against 381 in 19<>1. Up to the age of 15, i.e., amongst those born in India, there is comparative- ly little difference in the proportions (957 females per thousand males) but at the age-i5eriod'15-30,' which includes the bulk of the European troops, males outnum- ber females in the ratio of five to one,and at '30-50' they are still twice as numerous. Of the males of British nationality no less than 81 per cent, are between 15 and 50 years of age, and less than 5 per cent, are over 50, as compared with 11 per cent, in the general population. This abnormal age distribution is of course due to the fact that very few Europeans make their permanent home in India. It would be still further removed from the normal but for the inclusion in the figures of a certain number of Anglo-Indians, who have still succeeded in return- ^ iug themselves as Europeans. Kearly two-thirds of the Europeans and allied races claim to belong to the Anglican Communion ; one in five is a Eoman Catholic, one in thirteen a Presbyterian, and one in 29 a Methodist. The number belonging to other sects is very small. The high proportion of persons professing to belong to the Anglican Communion is due largely to the tendency of persons of all denominations thus to return themselves, when not very ardent sectarians, in a country where that church is often the only one whose reKgious ministrations are available. The number of Presbyterians has grown by 56 per cent, since 1901, owing jjartly to the presence of more Scotch regi- ments, but it is still far less than might be expected from the large number of Scotsmen in India. The large proportion of European Koman Catholics is possibly the result of the intrusion of Anglo-Indians into this category. Anglo-Indians. 202. As explained in the last paragra^ih, the term Anglo-Indian is used at the census as the designation of the mixed race, descended usually from European fathers and Indian mothers, which was formerly known as Eurasian. The total number of persons returned under this head, excluding Feringis, is now 100,451 or 15 per cent, more than in 1901. Anglo-Indians are most numerous in Madras (26,000) and Bengal (20,000). In the United Provinces, Bombay and Burma tlie number ranges from 8 to 11 thousand, and in Bihar and Orissa, the Central Provinces and Berar and the Punjab it is about 3,500. In the States and Agencies Anglo-Indians aggregate^ only 14,0 jO, more than half being found in Mysore and Hyderabad. The increase iiTtlieir number as compared with 1901 may be due partly to some Anglo-Indians having returned themselves under their new designation who would have claimed to be Europeans if Eurasian had been tlie only alternative, and it is also perhaps due in part to a growing ten- dency amongst certain classes of Indian Christians to pass themselves off as " Anglo-Indians ; the Punjab Superintendent accounts in this way for the greater part of the increase of 12 per cent, in the number returned as Anglo-Indians in his province. The proportional increase is also large in the United Provinces, Bombay, Burma, the Central Provinces and Berar and the Cochin State. Although Madras still has the largest number of Anglo-Indians, the total is slightly less now than it was twenty years ago. Possibly this is because more careful enumeration has reduced (he number of Indian Christians who thus re- turned themselves. Thenuml^er of Anglo-Indians in Burma is remarkably large in view of the comj)arativcly short time that has elapsed since it became a British possession and the strength of its European population. In this com- munity there are 981 females per thousand males, or slightly more than the corresponding proportion in the general population of India. More than half of the persons returned as Anu'lo-Indians are Roman Catholics, and one-third are Anglicans; the number of Pres])yterians, Baptists and Methodists ranges from 2 to 2^ per cent. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. 141 General distribution of tlie population by religion. Bxueios. IND0-4RTAN Hindu Brahmanic . Arya. Brahmo Sith . Jaia Buddhist IRiXIAN. Zoroastrisn (Parti) SEMITIC. Musalman Christian Jew PRIMITIVE. Animistic MISCELLAXE0C8. Minor Rfiliginna and Religions not retarned.l Aotnal number in 1911. 232,670,993 217,686,892 217,337,943 243,445 5,504 3,014,466 1,248,182 10,721,453 100,096 100,096 70,644,482 66,647,299 3,876,203 20,980 10,295,168 10,295,168 ST.lOl S7A01 I'BOPOKlIOIl PBI 10.000 OF rOPULATION IN 1911 1001 1891 7,417 6,939 6,931 96 40 342 2,251 2,126 124 328 328 7,479 7,596 7,037 1 7,232 7,034 7J231 ■18 14 75 46 67 49 322 248 1881 Vabutigh PKIl CBITT. (IncieaM +, Deoreaw— .) 1001-11 7,688 7,432 7,432 I '04 73 48 135 2,222 2,076 2,122 1,99G 99 292 828 292 823 2,048 1.974 73 26» 259 + 5'6 + 5ai + 5'0 + 163 4 + 33 9 + 37-3 — 6-4 + 13-1 1891-01 + 6-3 -I- 6-3 + 7-9 ■H6-7 + 32 6 ■I- 151 + 19 9 + 19-9 — 7IM —71 I 1881-91 + •9 +11-8 -■3 I +101 3 ^ + 1313 + 32-7 + 151 —58 + 32-9 1881-1911 + 4*7 + 4-7 + 9'7 + 8-9 + 280 + 60 -7-6 -7'6 + 20,T7 + 203-7 + 101 + 163 9 + 379 9 + 2-9 + 15 9 + 108-6 + 5*8 + 5 3 + 14'6 + 14-3 + 22-6 + 431 + 41*2 + 41-2 -^88*7 -28-7 14,2 CHAPTER IV. RELIQIOX. SUBSIDIARY Propoitioiiiil strength of the iihiiii religions in each Province, State or NCMfiEB PEB 10,000 OF THE ^-Jf' raoviscE, State OB AotKCT. 1 Riudn. Sikh Jain. 1011 1901 1891 1881 1911 1901 1891 1881 1911 1901 1891 1881 1 - 1 2 3 4 6 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 India 6,931 7,034 7,231 7.432 96 ' 75 t 67 73 40 45 46 48 Provinces. 6.688 6,835 7,014 7,197 89 ( 68 64 1 63 19 21 22 23 1 Ajmer-Merffara .... 7.750 7,977 8,034 8,162 18 6 1 1 ■» 4 405 418 497 528 - Andamans and Ificobars 3,578 3.768 172 no i 1 25 3 Assam 5,418 5,578 5,4-2 6.273 1 1 1 ! '■■ t 3 3 2 1 4 Halochiston 622 643 128 85 , •• y Hen^l , 4.480 4,060 4,727 4,655 1 1 1 1 ! - liihar and Oriesa .... 8.223 8,3.'!3 8,290 8,430 1 1 i 1 1 1 " HombaY 7.585 7,651 - 7,766 7,4«0 6 1 1 77 108 123 127 1 132 1 ( 514 •136 306 236 4 3 1 1 ** Unrnia < ( 322 272 S2S e 6 6 1 !' Central Provinces and Bcrar . 8,261 8,320 8,244 8,266 2 2 , 1 m 56 62 t 65 10 Coorg 7,939 8.840 9.063 0,113 ... 6 6 7 6 11 Madras 8.889 8.914 8,981 U,141 7 7 8 8 12 Xorth-Wi-6t Fronlier Province (Km- Iricts and AdminisUred Territorieg) 546 629 638 708 138 125 103 50 13 Punjab ... ... 3,297 3,873 1 4,077 1 4,130 1,048 746 737 668 20 21 21 21 14 United ProTinces of Agra and Oudh 8,504 8,632 8,609 8.627 3 3 ■2 1 16 18 18 18 States and Agencies. 7,788 7,769 7,957 8,277 122 99 76 109 1 114 t 136 140 1 15 Assam State (Manlpur) . '6,816 n,»i;6 6,921 ... 3 16 lialuehiBtan States . j 282 342 74 ... 17 Baroda State 8,349 ' 7,922 8,8.50 8,480 1 ... 214 247 208 214 18 Bengal States 1 8,900 6,985 6,066 6,262 1 7 6 3 a 19 Bihar and Orissa States . 8,689 j 8,624 8,027 8.245 ... 20 Bombay SUtes . . . 8,169 8,278 8,414 7,962 3 1 ... 376 446 391 *» i 21 Contra! India Agency 8,830 8,081 7,408 i 8,422 1 2 2 2 94 131 87 i 64 22 Central Provinces States 6,195 (1.802 7,386 8,621 1 1 ... ... 6 6 3 I 23 Hrderabad State . ; 8,693 8,860 8,941 9,033 3 * 4 4 16 18 24 8 21 Kasbmir State .... 2,183 2,371 2,720 -. 100 89 45 1 1 2 2S Madras States 0.903 7,111 7,4.56 7,467 ... ... ... ... Coehiti r,,706 G.li2S 6,.<>.-!S 7,152 , I ... Travaticorf .... B,«57 c.sor. 7.31S 7,3/2 ... -0 Mysore Slate 9,196 9,206 0,248 9,308 1 30 26 27 26 1 27 Norib-WcHl Frontier Prorinee (Ageneiet and Tribal areas) . 1,984 823 ... 4,953 6,682 6,849 6,.«)5 1,875 1,325 1,127 1,541 17 16 14 18 29 llajpntan* Agency .... 8,811 8,327 8,361 8,750 9 2 1 316 349 338 375 30 Siklcini State 6,674 6.491 1 31 Cnitcfl ProTlncet States . 7.006 0.862. 6,934 6,701 4 2 3 • This ip due to (he iiuliimon of 127,039 iH-r-otH who were shown under NoTB. — Thf pnijiortions lor Hindu in c-dnntnH 2 In f> rclitt.' to Minda The Koniaii (iKtir<'ii *KBi"'*^ Hurma rolato to Lower Burma The nKured for AninilHta are in many cases {f-Q., Coorf?, The proportions tn the caeo uf Agonces and Tribal areas of the SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 113 TABLI-: II. Agency at eiu h (»f tlic last tour leiisuses. POPILATIOX WHO ABE Buldhist. Mnulman. 1911 ' IBOl 1891 1891 14 1 15 IG 17 342 322 248 135 436 406 321 172 16 8,351 S,S71 11 116 3,289 766 ... ! I I 16 ' 14 ! u 60 4S 43 8,633 S,680 8,702 S,755 ! 9,053 10 ; 5 I 6; ... I .. I ... j I I 81 66 2 4 n>u 1001 IJl 116 1 I ... I I 1 18 2,126 2.361 l.lill! 1,731 2,810 8,10« 5.274 1,063 2,046 547 Ji? 106 751 062 I'.l 2,122 2,324 1,510 1,707 2,680 0,160 6.168 1,061 2,026 309 J2:i 421 766 64:) ;i,'-'8i; 9,221 6,325 1,411 I 1.4U 1.331 1.376 410 i 365 0.643 791 3,009 42 9,e68 846 2,885 .30 1891 1881 1.184 ' 1,217 546 606 96 06 1,032 1,037 7.594 7.410 6.54 634 896 671 mi n-ti; R-a 623 7.096 3,133 I 3,008 I 936 I O.W 3,016 20 j 1.996 t 2,240 1,369 5,108 1 .076 1,871 152 J33 385 732 631 0.230 6.136 1.363 1,176 781 2.002 40 1.06O .-146 87 087 7.051 600 nsi 612 21 1.974 2.260 1,266 2,608 5,000 1,089 1,836 452 386 :03 623 0,212 5,173 1,343 946 221 801 2,886 18 1,085 561 86 IHO 573 BBS 612 479 Christian. 3,006 2,0V. 8,061 3,2.36 124 102 108 214 00 121 20 67 119 281 173 26 203 288 30 no 38 200 4 1 35 3 07 17 10 183 41 3 2,399 S,B39 2,636 103 1901 1891 1881 99 82 78 197 61 116 25 51 112 237 141 23 204 33 22 162 39 4 9 16 10 4 21 1 2,174 2,441 i,S8S 90 79 68 SO 31 t 21 34 86 24D 159 U 196 243 13 120 64 225 11 177 227 30 16 11 128 6 10 I 6 2 18 t I 1 ' 1,031 I 2,404 j »,060 ! i 77 1,966 2,272 2,n7a 70 4 3 2 32 23 21 6 1 26 328 301 79 3.670 1,652 161 I 641 87 300 ' 679 I 1,264 1,000 164 Auimlat. lOOl 27 292 250 3.326 1.652 105 554 38 281 3S1 1,176 183 168 425 3.768 568 7 1.267 202 517 3.621 214 41 .<6 12-i I 445 3,632 003 39 1,326 36 1.168 3,002 60 77 48 .W 166 422 366 1891 28 1.771 03 608 113 320 221 1.307 133 520 14 1,314 121 1,890 2,622 26 13« 1881 29 323 260 264 221 70 464 342 38.4 394 3,8.58 124 ! 466 S48 1,702 632 962 1,203 1011 30 13 14 24 31 1 23 1 1 49 42 1 1 61 2 1 3 3 13 Others. 1901 1801 1881 31 33 I 33 11 7 6 14 II 62 I 1 40 1 122' 2 2 14 3 7 26 i 1 ' 46 ; 1 I 66 34 37 54 the bend " V innr ReliKiO'S and Keligiuns n.it returned." (Brahnt^nii ). only tlinH'. In italicK are for the whn)e Province. VadraM, Hjdermliad), inclnded ii> Ihott.* for Hindai in 1881. J».-W. F. I'roTincc relate to TrBn.»-Ffonticr pOHta onlj. Hi CHAPTER IV. — EELIGION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE III. Distribution ut Christians by locality, Province, Statb ob AOBNCT. ACrlTAI. SUMBKB OP Cheistians rx Vabiatiox PKE CKNT. (InCBEASE + , DeCKEASE — .) 1911 1901 1891 1881 1901—11 1891—01 1881—91 1881—1911 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 INDIA. 3,8:6,>0:J 2,923,341 3,284,380 1,802,634 + 32'6 4- 28-0 + 23-6 + 108- 1 Provinces. 2,603,026 1,935,358 1,516,356 1,175,738 + 34-5 + 27-6 + 29 + 121-4 Ajmer-Merwara 5,432 3,712 2,683 2,225 + 46-3 + 38-4 + 20-6 + 1441 AiidamanB and Nicobars . 566 486 483 ... + 16-5 + •6 ... Assam .... 66,562 35,969 16,844 7.093 + 851 + 113-5 + 137-2 + 838-4 Baluchistan '• . 5,OS5 4,026 3,008 ... + 26 3 + 33-8 ... ... Bengal . . • ■ 129,746 106,596 82,339 72,289 + 21-7 + 29 5 + 13-9 + 79-5 Bihar and Orissa 268,265 172,340 110,360 55,943 + 55-7 + 56-2 + 97-3 + 379 5 Bombay . • • . 245,657 220,087 170,009 145,154 + 11-6 + 29-5 + 17-1 + 69-2 Barma .... 210,081 147,525 120,922 84,219» + 42 4 + 22-2 ... Central Provinces and Berar. 73,401 27,252 14,451 13,174 + 169-3 + 88-6 + 93 + 457-2 Coorg .... 3,553 3,683 3,392 3,152 -3-5 + 8-G + 7-6 + 12-7 Madras .... 1,208,515 1,038,863 879,438 711,117 + 16 3 + 181 + 23-7 + 69-9 N.-W. F. Province . 6,718 5,273 5,437 5,645 + 27-4 -3-0 -3-7 + 19 Punjab .... 199,751 66,591 48,472 28,054 + 200 + 37-4 + 72 8 + 612-0 United Provinces 179,694 102,955 58,518 . 47,673 + 74-5 + 75-9 + 22-7 + 2769 States and Agencies. 1,273,177 . 987,883 768,024 686,896 + 28'9 + 28-6 + 11*8 + 85-4 Baroda State . 7,203 7,691 646 771 -6-3 + 1.090-6 —162 + 834-3 Central India Agency 9,358 8,113 5,992 7,065 + 15-3 + 35-4 -15-2 + 32 5 Cochin State . . 233,092 198,239 173,831 136,361 + 17 6 + 14-0 + 2V6 + 70-9 Hyderabad State 54,296 22,996 20,429 13,614 + 1361 + 12 6 + 60-1 + 298-8 Kashmir State . 975 422 218 ... + 131-0 + 93-6 ... Mysore State , 59,844 50,059 38,135 29,249 + 19-5 + 31-3 + 30 4 + 104-6 Bajpntana Agency . 4,256 2,841 1,862 1,294 + 49-8 + 62 6 + 43-9 + 228-9 Sikkim State . 285 185 ... ... + 1111 ... • •• Travancore State . . 903,868 697,387 526,911 498,542 + 29 6 + 32 4 + 5-7 +81-3 ; 1 • Refers to Ldwcr Hurttia only. Note. — The figures in tlii« Table iijclnde tlie States attached to eacli Province, but those for Madras ciclui!e Cochin and Travancore. The tiinircs for previous censuses in Bihar and Orissa, Central Provinces and Hcrar, Madras, Central India and Rajputana Agencies liave been. adjastei with reference to the subsequent changes in area. SUBSIDLA.aT TABLES. SUfiSIDIARY TABLE IV. 1^ Races and sects ot (liristiaiis (actmil niiiiibers). DISTRIBUTION BY RACE. Total. Variation EUBOPEAX AVD ALLIED Sect. Races. AHG-LO-iNSIAN. Insiav. 1911. 1901. Increase + , decrease — . Males.' Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 ■2 3 4 5 6 7 ' 8 9 10 I\DIA 143,974 55,802 51,3i}3 50,435 1,815,523 1,759,247 3,876.303 2,923,241 + 953,962 Abyssinian .... 7 18 25 9 + 16 Anglican Communion . 91,728 33,664 17,591 16,962 168,695 164.112 492,752 i 453,462 Protestant (Unsectanan or + 71,470 sect not specified) 1,849 1,013 924 775 14,694 12.890 32,180 J Armenian .... 737 400 25 5 16 17 1,200 1,053 + 147 Baptist .... 1,671 1.145 1,156 1,083 167.599 164,572 337,226 221,040 + 116,186 Cougi-egationalist 443 293 173 116 68,160 66,080 135.265 37,874 + 97.391 Greek .... 40S 113 8 9 31 25 694 656 -62 Lutheran .... 974 495 124 65 107,182 109,660 218,500 155,455 + 63,045 Methodist .... 5,099 1,805 1.122 1,451 85.374 76,993 171,844 76,907 + 94,937 Minor Protestant Denomina- tions . . . ■ . 295 286 80 106 6.039 5,663 12,469 22,699 -10.230 Presbyterian 11.991 3,159 1,164 747 86.759 77,310 181,130 54,029 + 127,101 Quaker .... 21 24 3 3 623 571 1,245 1,309 -64 Roman Catholic . ,27,338 12.781 28.542 28,482 702,434 691,286 1.490,863 1,202.169 + 288.694 Salvationist 93 96 11 8 27,699 24,500 52,407 18.960 + 33.447 Syrian, Eomo-Syrian . 1 1 3 3 209,409 203,725 413.142 322.586 + 90.556 Syrian, Cbaldsean 3 7,244 6,533 13.780 Y Syrian. Jacobite Syrian, Reformed 1 1 114,232 39801 110,956 36.047 225,190 75,848 C 248.741 + 66.421 Syrian, Cnspecified ... • • • 194 150 344 J Sect not returned 857 376 271 601 8,516 7,333 17,954 104.785 — S6.831 Indefinite Beliefs 1 465 115 35 9 815 806 2,245 1,507 + 738 XOTE. — ITie difference between the number of Europeans and Anglo-Indians as shown in this Table and that in Subsidiary Table VI has been explained in the Title -page to Imperial Table XVIII SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Disti'ibntioii of Christians per iiiille—(«) Races by sect and (b) Sects by race. Sect. Racks disibibuted by sect. Sects disteibcibd bt eace. European. Anglo- Indian Indian. Total. European. Anglo- Indian. Indian. Total 1 2 3 4 e 6 7 8 TOTAL 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 52 26 928 1.000 Abyssinian .... 1.000 1,000 Anglican Communion 628 340 93 127 255 1 70 676 1,000 Armenian . . . . ■ 6 947 25 28 l.COO Baptist . . . . • 14 22 93 87 8 7 985 1.000 Congregationalist .... 4 ' 38 35 6 2 992 1,000 Greek ..... 3 877 29 94 1,000 Lutheran ..... 7 O 61 56 7 1 992 1,000 Methodist 34 25 45 44 40 15 945 1.000 Minor Protestant Denominations 3 2 3 3 47 15 938 J. 000 Presbyterian . • • • 70 19 46 47 84 10 906 1,000 Protestant (Cnsectarian or sect not specified). 14 17 8 8 90 r,3 8.17 1.000 Quaker ..... ... ... 36 G 959 1,000 Roman Catholic .... 201 5GI 390 385 27 38 935 1,(0(1 SaWat'oniSt .... 1 15 13 4 996 1,000 Syrian. Chaldaean .... 4 4 ... ... 1,000 1,000 Syriau. .lacobito ... 63 58 .. . 1.000 1,000 Syrian, Hcfonncd 21 20 1,00(1 1.000 jyriaii, Ronio-Syrian ... 116 1(*7 1.000 1.000 Syrian. Unspeciiied ... ... ... l.t-OO 1.000 Sect nr)t returned 6 9 4 5 69 48 883 1,000 Indefinite lielicfs 3 ... M 268 20 722 i,too 146 CHAPTER IV.— RELIGION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI. Stitistics of Europeans and Anglo-Indians. PaOTISOB, Stats ob Agency. 1 1!SDIA Provinces Ajmer-Merwara Aadamans and Nicobars f^aflam , , . Baluchistan . • • • Bsngal . . . Bihar and Orissa . • /■ Bombay . . . Burma • Central Provinces and Berar Coorg Madras . . • • • • >..-W. Frontier Province . . . Punjab . • • • • United Provinces . States and Agencies Baroda State .... Central India Agency . Cochin State . Hyderabad State . Kashmir State . Mysore State . llajijutana Agency Sikkim State . fnivancorc State XrUBEE OP PEBSOXS BOEN IS EtJBOPE, Ameeioa, AXl) ArSTEALIA.* 1911 1901 135,767 107,298 122,851 1,287 187 1,574 3,378 14,080 2,967 24,389 8,896 5.333 94,932 605 195 1,409 2,870 11,359 2,574 19,173 6,588 3,84S TABLE XVIII. EUEOPEAX AND ALLIED RACES IN 1911. British Subjects. 115 8,238 I 7,285 4,945 24.260 i 22,591 j 23,218 16,320 185,431 167,259 1,702 243 2,172 4,169 22,327 5,646 28,983 11,828 7.033 174 12,741 5,693 31,732 32,811 82 3,372 54 3,983 137 4.373 580 14 321 35 3,388 35 5,848 114 2,319 293 4 3(0 Others. 12,916 i 12,366 18,175 123 3,96S 47 5,230 226 7.123 1,127 11 320 Armenians. li,«48 11,323 63 8 73 41 2,061 578 3,680 1,342 300 33 2,130 29 507 438 1,325 36 612 29 152 25 339 60 3 79 1,705 Total 199,787 1,696 180,278 1,755 251 2,250 4,210 25,451 6,316 32,727 13,443 7,333 207 14,905 1,063 92 64 273 34 14 39 112 Total European and Allied Races in 1901 5,741 32,278 33,411 19,509 159 4,5S2 77 6,384 251 7,463 1,179 14 400 169,677 154,894 1,009 280 2,099 3.477 22,096 5,464 31,879 9,885 5.165 228 14,022 4,698 26,155 28,437 Anglo-Indians. 1911 100,451 86,227 710 78 475 123 19,838 3,405 9,175 11,106 3,488 138 26,023 100 3,479 8,094 91 3,827 55 4,347 197 4,753 969 10 14,783 14,224 82 565 2,446 3,004 17 5,827 529 4 534 ; 1,750 • Includes New Zealan 1 anil Tasmania. Note. — The 6;;urca for Provinces are inclusive of the Stales attache.l tj them, cx.-ciit in the case of Madras, where they exclude Cochin and Travaneore. In this Table the Feriagis have not been taken into, account. CHAPTER V. Are. Part I, — General Observations. 203. The instruction to the enumerators for filling in the age column of ^h'e^ mum*°' "' the census schedule was : — Col. 7 (age). Enter the number of years which each person has completed. For infants less than one year of age enter the word infant. The rule was sufficiently precise, Init the results obtained were extremely unsatisfactory. Even in western countries the entries of age are most unrelial)le, owing partly to ignorance, partly to carelessness, and partly to deliberate misstatement, which is very common amongst women, especially elderly spinsters. Errors due to ignorance are far more common in India than in Europe. The common people have so little idea of their real age and give such absurd replies when questioned regarding it that Magistrates seldom trouble to ask persons appearing before them what their age is, preferring to guess it for themselves. In the same way, at the census, the ages were usually guessed by the enumerators. If the latter had been educated persons, the result might not have been unsatisfactory ; but ordinarily they were not so, and their guesses must often have been very wide of the mark. Of the total number of persons retm-ned at the age of 10 and upwards, the ages of no less than 31 per cent, were shown as multiples of 10 and of 22 per cent- as uneven multiples of 5. This use of round numbers can be eliminated by various processes of smoothing ; and if there were no general tendency to exaggerate or understate age at certain periods of life, the errors due to individual inaccuracy Avould disappear in the return for the whole of India, or even in that for the larger provinces. Intentional misstatement exists chiefly in connection with unmarried girls who have attained the age of puberty, who are almost invariably returned as younger than they really are. Men approaching the meridian of life, especially if they are widowers, also commonly understate their age. Unintentional error in a' particular direction occurs chiefly in the case of very old people, who are prone to exaggerate their age, and of young wives with children, who also are nearly always entered as older than they are. The measures adopted to eliminate these errors are explained in Mr. Ackland's report on the age statistics which will be found on page 154. It may be added that the errors in the return may be assumed to be fairly constant from one census to another, so that even if the actual data are unreliable, they can be relied upon as showing the periodic changes which take place in the age distril)ntion. The extent to which the age return is vitiated by misstatements, intentional and other- wise, was disscused at some length in the last Censuu Report, and it is unnecessary to repeat what was there said. I may mention, however, one cause of misstatement given by the Punjab Superintendent which has not, I think, previously been noticed. There is, he savs, an idea that telling one's correct age tends to reduce the span of life ; and in the Niti Slidstra it is laid down that a man's age is one of the nine things which he must carefully conceal. A Hindu, therefore, who knows his age, will very often state it to be a few years more or less than it really is. It is suggested that the reason for this practice is that a man's age, coupled with the Rdnhi (sign of the Zodiac), which is usually indicated bv his true name, would give his enemies an opportunity of setting the forces of black magie against him. This ex- planation would also account for the common Hindu practice of concealing the true name and adopting a secondary one for actual use. It has been suggested by an European critic that the errors in the age return might be reduced if the persons enumerated were asked to give the date of their birth instearar, Central India and Eajputana, where the famines of 1897 and 1900 were severe, • According to the vital statistics of the decade 1901-1910, in British territory except tlie Central Provinces and licrnr, the death-rate for isale^ at the age — 1 is 291 jier iiiille; it is ,')2 jior mille at 1 — ."i, I7al 5—10 anil 12 at 10 — 15. It U 16 at 15 — 211 and rises 9tca»lily to 28 at 40 — 50 ; at 5tl — 60 it is 42, and aviongst person* over 60 it is 84. The female mortality follows the same general curve, but it is lower than that of males, ixci'jit at ttio ages 10 to 30. t This is not always the case. Plague attacks persons at these ages more than those at the extreinrs of life X .\ similar Tabic will he found at page 497 of the 1a«t Census Report for India. 150 CHAPTER T. — AGE. the proportion of children under 10 years of age was much below the normal in 1901, but since then it has risen considerably, though in the two last mentioned areas it is still somewhat below the average for all India. In Burma, where there has been no famine, tlie proportion of children has remained practically unchanged since 1891. In the Bombay Presidency there has been a slight decline as compared with 1901, and a more marked one in the United Provinces and Madras. In the tracts which had suffered from famine- shortly before the census of 1901, the proportion of old persons was then abnormally low ; it has now again risen but it is still beloAv that existing in 1891. In India as a whole the proportion of children under 10, though greater than in 1901, is still less than it was in 1891 ; while the proportion of persons over 60 has been exactly the same at each succeeding census. Periodic variations 209. It has already been stated that the age distribution varies from time fetuSS **'* ""«tr'- ^Q time. To some extent this is due to migration. Where whole families emigrate the age distribution is not affected, but the case is otherwise where adults only do so, as usually happens when the migration is of the temporary type. Such migrants are mainly males in the prime of life, and where the movement is large, its result is to disturb the proportion of persons between the ages of 20 and 45. The statistics of birthplace were not combined with those of age, but it is possible to gather some idea of the effect of this form of migration from the statistics for Burma, where the native inhabitants are mainly Buddhists and the Hindus and Muhammadans are nearly all immigrants. Amongst the Buddhists of that province only 35 per cent, of the males are from 20 to 45 years of age, but amongst Hindus and Muhammadans the coiTCspouding proportions are 71 and 52 resiiectively. The difference is greatest at the age period ' 25—30 ' which contains only 76 males per mille in the case of Buddhists against 191 and 137 respectively amongst Hindus and Muhammadans. It is impossible in other provinces to thro^v light on the figures l)y a reference to the religious distribution, but there can be no doubt that the I'elatively high jjroportion of persons in the prime of life in Assam is due primarily to immigration, and the low proportion in JVIadras to emigration. Variations in the age distribu.tion are also due sometimes to epidemics, which have a tendency to attack persons at certain ages more than those at others. Thus in the Punjab in 1907, owing to a severe outbreak of plague, there was a great excess in the mortality of persons from 10 to 50 years of age and especially of tliose aged 15 to 40. But the most potent factor of all is famine. When this occurs tlie mortality rises in a greater or less degree according to the severity and duration of the calamity and the efficacy of the measures taken to combat it. All sections of the population, however, are not equally affected. The very old and the very young suffer most, while the mortality is comparatively small amongst those in the prime of life. The number of young children, moreover, is reduced not only by a high mortality, hut also by a greatly diminished birth-rate. During the Madras famine of 1877 a Medical officer examined about 15,000 women of child-bearing age in the famine camps and relief works of the Nellore district and found that only 2"5 per cent., or one-ninth of the normal number, Avere pregnant. .A striking instance of the effect c>f famine on the infantile population is furnished by the figures for the Pvajputana Agency. In 1891 the number of children under five years of age was 1,396 per 10,000 of the population. In 1901, after the famine of 1900, it fell to 914, and it has now risen to 1,445. The nvunl)er of children under one year of age was three times as great in 1911 as it was in 1901. Very similar results are to be seen in- the • figures for the Central India Agency, Bombay and other tracts which suffered severely from the famine of 1900. 210. In paragraph 753 of the last Report it was shown that the decrease in 1901 of over 8 per cent, in the population of the Central Provinces due to the famines of 1897 and 1900 bad occurred entirely at the two extremes of life. There was a loss of 20'() per cent, amongst persons under ten and of 30 per cent, amongst those over sixty, whereas the number of persons aged 15 to 40 remained practically the same as at the ])revious census. It was there- fore concluded that the process of recuperation would be rapid. This forecast has been substantiated. The population of the province as now constituted has Number per 10,000 males aged.l year. 0—5 10—15 20—25 30—35 1881 . 1891 . 1901 . 1911 . 915(h) l,3S4(a) 1,282 1,157 1,396 921(b) 1, 326(a) 1,256 848 902 850 829 664(b) 762' S65(a) ,7l0(b) VARIATIONS BY RELIGION AND CASTE. 1^1 grown by 17'9 per ceut. since 1901. The greatest gain is at the two extremes of life; there is an increase of 33'5 per cent, at the age period ' 0—10 ' and of 42'2 per cent at ' 60 and over. ' At the present time the general age distribution is very similar to that existing in 1S81, Init lliere ar(3 many fewer persons in the age group' 10— 20 'which contains the juvenile population of the famine years. The persons in this group will soon enter the rejiroductive stage, and the secondary effects of the famines must then become apparent in a diminished birth-rate, and a consequent slackening in the rate of increase. 211. The Superintendent of Census Operations, Mysore, makes the follow- ing interesting observations showing how famine influences the age distribution for a series of decades : — "A comparison of the figures for the last four censuses reveals unmistakeable traces of the famine of 1876-77. Taking- only the case of males, as their ages are likely to be more accurately returned than those of females, it will be noted that in 1881, close after the famine, the proportion of children aged 0-5 wiis considerably reduced, with a similar shrinkage in the age-groups comprising their survivors in the next three censuses, viz., 10 — 15 in 1891, 20 — -Zb in 1901 and 30 — 35 in 1911. So also is the rebound after famine visible in the large proportion of children aged — 5 in 1S91 and a perceptible increase due to the inclusion of their survivors in the age-group 10-15 in 1901 and in 20 — 25 in 1911. The statistics relevant to the subject are exhibited in the marginal statement where the inflated and reduced figures are shown in italics and marked [a] and (4) respectively. "It will also be seen from the statement that the disparity in the italicized figures as compared with those against the same age-groups in other censuses becomes less and less marked as we recede farther and farther from the famine period 1876-77. The inflated figures for ] 881 under the age-groups 10 — 15,20 — 25 and 30 — 35 must be due to the circumstance that the majority of victims in the famine of 1876-77 were either children or aged persons.'" It follows from what has been said above that, in tracts where famine occurs periodically, there can be no such thing as a truly normal decade. The age constitution is constantly changing. "A famine is followed by a period of unusually rapid increase, and this again is succeeded by a period of retarded growth, when the generation born shortly before the famine, and reduced in numbers by it, arrive at the child-bearing ages. 212. The age distribution by religion is exhibited in Subsidiary Taljle IT. Jeu^cJi'SSd'^aste The Animists have by far the largest proportion of children under 10. Their gu-ls ^ ° °° °^ "' are usually married after the age of puberty to youths not much older than themselves. The proportion who become widows when still in the prime of life is thus comparatively small, while those who do so almost invariably marry again. They are thus very prolific. The Muhammadans and Christians also have a considerably larger projoortion of children than the Hindus, whose social customs are less favourable to rapid growth. Hindu girls are, as a vale, married before puberty, and the difference in age between them and their husbands is often very great. A very large proportion of them become widows while they are still capable of beai'ing children ; and these are fre- quently not allowed to marry again. The proportion of persons over 60 is lowest amongst the Animists. Though this is due partly to their greater number of children, which necessarily affects the proportions at other ages, it,is also in part the result of their shorter duration of life. Their standard of comfort is very low ; they subsist largely on jungle products, which at the best are not very sustaining ; they lead a hard life ; and many of them inhabit tracts which are particularly unhealthy. Apart from this, it seems not unlikely that the Dravidian and Mongolian races are by nature less long-lived tlian the Aryan. The Muhammadans have a larger proportion of males over 60 than the Hindus, but tlie latter have more elderly females. It has sometimes been said that Anglo-Indians, or the mixed race resulting from the union of Indians and luiropeans, have very small families, but this does not appear to hi tlie case. The cliildren under 12 years of age constitute about one-fourth oHheir total population ; and though this is con.siderably less tiian the corres- ponding pi'oportion amongst tlie lower Hindu castes, it is liigher than that existing among.st tliosc at the top of the social ladder, such as Brahman, Kliatri. Babhan and Kayastlia. In tliis respect the results of the census are confirmed 152 CHAPTER v.— AGE. Corr espondence between infantile mortality and the fivolv<:> general death-ratCr l"1-1>c by a special enquiry made in Madras by Mr. Thurston, who found that of 71 Anglo-Iudiau marriages only three were infertile : the total number of children that had been born at the time of the enquiry was 271, of whom 1J;1 were males and 130 females. The hypothesis that the Aryan race has a lesser fecundity and greater lougevit}' than the Dravidian or Mongolian is supported by the statistics of tlie various castes (Subsidiary Table V). Those at the top of the scale, Avhich arc supposed to have the largest infusion of Aryan blood, have fewer children and more old i)eo])le tlian those at the bottom, which are almost jmrely Dravidian or Mongolian. It would, however, be dangerous to press this argument too far. As pointed out by Mr. Blunt, it is possible that custom and occupation may have as great an influence as race. Statistics collected in Europe show that a person's longevity is greatly influenced by his way of living. In England and ^Vales it has been found that between the ages of 20 and 65 the mortality amongst clergymen is only half, and that among lawyers only three-quarters, the normal rate ; but it is about double that rate amongst general labourers and inn servants.* 213. In India, where about a quarter of the children born die within mouths, years when births are exceptionally numerous are fre- quently years of high mortality. The seasonal fluctuations in the death-rate correspond very closely with those iu the birth-rate ; and it has often been thought that this correspondence is to be explained in the same way, e.g... that deaths are most numerous at the seasons when the birth-rate is highest because so many infants die within the first month after birth. Mr. O'Malley has shown that this is not the case. This will be seen from the following diagram prepared by him in which the deaths occurring amongst infants under one year of age are distinguished from those at all other ages : — Mr. O'Malley explains the correspondence between the seasonal variations in the number of births and deaths by jiointing out that the birth-rate depends on the conditions obtaining at the time of conception. Conceptions are most nvunerous in the healthiest months, whereas the periods at which births take place are unliealtliy, so that a high birth-rate is synchronous with a high death- rate. Colonel Robertson, Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India, who has kindly investigated the matter at my request, while agreeing with Mr. O'Malley, explains the coincidence in somewhat greater detail. He says : — " In India the birth-rate and death-rate curves usually foUoweach other very closely. This fact has generally been interpreted as indicatinf^ a direct correlation between the two, and the high raoitality during the first year of life has frequently been put forward as the most obvious explanation. This explanation, however, will not bear scrutiny and 3Ir, 0''Mal- ley's chart illustrates t\\y Mr. Hardy, in his llcport on ])revious Censuses, based on an investigation made by him of throe areas, in which the immigrant po])ulation was exceptionally large, and on estimated figures deduced as to the age-distri])ution of the migrant ])opulation. Tiie proportions which I have employed for the purpose of this age-dibtributioii» ACTUAEIAi REPORT. 165 do not materially differ from those employed by Mr. Hardy, and are shown in the followiug Table : — TABLE V. Showing the estimated Age-distribution of the Male Migrant Population. Age -group. Percentage of Migrants. Age-group. Percentage ot Migrants. 0-^ 35—39 11 5—9 1 40-^4 9 10—14 4 45-^9 7 15—19 9 50—54 5 20—24 14 55—59 3 25—29 19 60—64 2 30—34 15 65— €9 1 70 and over. The number of net male emigrants in the Province of Madras, and in the United Provinces, having been deduced to correspond with a total male popula- tion of 100,000, the reduced numbers were distributed in the above proportions over the population figures, which were then again reduced to a total of 100,000, and the effects of migration were thus allowed for in these two areas. The method followed, and the effect of the assumptions made as to migration, is shown in the following Table : — TABLE VI. Showing the effect of Migration on the age-distribution, in the Province of Madras and in the United Provinces. (Male Lives.) Madbas. United Pbovinces. Mean numbers Net Mean numbers 1901 and 1911 Net Age 1 1901 emi- Mean Corrected emi- Mean Corrected numbers reduced to 100,000. Age groups. and grants numbers numbers grants numbers groups. 1911 per corrected reduced Censuses corrected for age (males). per corrected Censuses corrected 100,000 of popu- for emi- gration. to 100,000. 100,000 of popu- for emi- gration. for age (males). lation. lation. 0-^ 14,998 14,998 14,739 13,493 13,493 13,207 0—4 5—9 13,737 18 13,755 13,517 12,648 22 12,670 12,402 5—9 10-14 11,122 70 11,192 10,999 11,495 86 11,581 11,336 10—14 15—19 10,139 158 10,297 10,119 9.976 194 10,170 9,954 15—19 20—24 7,558 246 7,804 7,669 8,«87 303 9,190 8,996 20—24 2^—29 I 8,776 334 9,110 8,953 9,466 412 9,878 9,669 25—29 30—34 1 6,574 264 6,838 6,720 7,209 325 7,534 7,375 30—34 35—39 1 6,902 193 7,095 6,972 7,111 238 7,349 7,193 35—39 40-^t4 5,237 158 5,395 5,302 5,633 195 5,828 5,705 40-^4 45—49 : 4,609 123 4,732 4,650 4,558 151 4,709 4,609 45-^9 50—54 ' 3,352 88 3,440 3,381 3,376 108 3,484 3,410 50—54 55—59 j 2,679 53 2,732 2,685 2,489 65 2,554 2,500 55—59 60—64 1 1,944 35 1,979 1,945 1,796 43 1,839 1,800 60—64 65—69 1 943 18 961 944 760 22 782 764 65—69 70 and 1,430 1,430 1,405 1,103 1,103 1,080 70 and over. over. 100,000 1,758 101,758 100,000 100,000 2,164 102,164 100,000 235. I have, so far, dealt only with the age-distribution and graduation and FemaieUToa. the methods followed in deducing tlie rates of increase and of mortality, for male lives. As regards female lives, it is evident, for reasons which are fully stated in the reports on previous Indian Censuses, that the data ai-e extremely defective. The age-distribution appears to be quite untrustworthy, and is certainly affected seriously by inaccuracies in tlic age returns, It also appears to me to be jirobable tliat some of the anomalies in the figures, as returned, must arise from omissions of data in certain Provinces, although this cannot be certainly determined. It has therefore appeared to me that any elaborate and detailed investigation of the female data, as recorded, would not be Y 2 Doluotlvo and Inaocnrato Dnta. 164 CHAPTER V — AGE. worth the trouble taken in making it, and would not be likely to produce results which could be considered as even apiJroximately accurate, or as indicating the true rates of mortality at the several ages throughout life. I have therefore adopted the plan, followed at previous Censuses, of taking the adjusted male numbers living as a base-line, aud deducing therefrom estimated numbers for female lives, having regard to the proportion of female lives relatively to male lives assumed to be in existence at each age. Method Adopted. YoT this purposc I havc compared, in each Province, the male and female population in grouped ages, and thus deduced the number of female lives recorded in each group, corresponding to 10,000 males. Taking, then, the pro])ortion of registered female births to a thousand male births registered in TABLE VII. Showing the adjusted number of females (k^ ) to 10,000 males living at each age, in each of the Pro- vinces specified, also the rise or fall in the adjusted numbers ( a ) from age to age throughout life. Benoai.. j Bombay. i Burma. Madras. United Pro- Age 1 X K A k^ A k^ A K A K A 10,233 + 15 ^ 9,886 + 15 9,772 +34 9,600 +224 9,874 + 5 I 10,248 13 ' 9,901 15 9.806 35 9,824 163 9,879 5 2 10,261 13 9,916 14 9,841 35 9.987 178 9,884 4 3 10,274 12 9,930 14 9,876 35 10,105 113 9,888 4 4 10,286 10 9,944 14 9,911 35 10,278 73 9,892 4 5 10,296 8 9,958 12 9,946 33 10,351 23 9,890 2 6 10,304 6 9,970 12 9,979 31 10,374 —26 9,898 1 7 10,310 3 9,982 11 10,010 28 10,348 24 9,899 1 8 10,313 2 9,993 10 10,038 26 10,324 23 9,900 — 1 9 10,315 10,003 9 10,064 25 10,301 22 9,899 2 10 10,315 — 3 10,012 8 10,089 22 10,279 —21 9,897 — 2 1 10,312 4 10,020 6 10,011 21 10,258 20 9,895 4 2 10,308 6 10,026 4 10,132 18 10,238 19 9,891 3 3 10,302 6 10,030 4 10,150 16 10,219 18 9,888 2 4 10,296 7 10,034 2 10,166 13 10,201 17 9,886 3 15 10,289 — 9 10,036 1 10,179 12 10,184 —16 9,883 — 1 6 10,280 9 10,037 10,191 10 10,168 14 9,882 — 1 7 10,271 10 10,037 — 1 10,201 8 10,154 14 9,881 + 1 8 10,261 10 10,036 1 10,209 7 10,140 13 9,882 2 9 10,251 10 10,036 2 10,216 6 10,127 12 9,884 4 20 10,241 —10 10,033 — 3 10,222 4 10,115 —10 9,888 4 1 10,231 9 10,030 3 10,226 2 10.105 10 9,892 6 2 10,222 8 10,027 3 10,228 2 10,095 8 9,898 7 3 10,214 7 10,024 5 10,230 — 1 10.087 7 9,905 8 4 10,207 6 10.019 4 10,229 2 10,080 6 9,913 9 25 10,201 — 5 10,015 — 5 10,227 — 3 10,074 — 5 9,922 11 6 10,196 4 10,010 1 10,224 5 10,069 4 9,933 11 7 10,191 3 10,009 6 10,219 7 10,065 3 9,944 12 8 10,188 2 10,003 5 10,212 9 10,062 1 9,956 14 9 10,180 1 9,998 6 10,203 11 10,061 — 1 9,970 14 30 10,185 — 1 9,992 — 5 10,192 —11 10,060 + 1 9,984 15 1 W,184 9,987 5 10,181 13 10,061 1 9,999 16 2 10,184 + 1 9,982 3 10,168 13 10,062 3 10,015 17 3 10,185 2 9,979 3 10,155 12 10,065 4 10,032 18 4 10,187 3 9,976 1 10,143 11 10,069 6 10,050 19 35 10,190 3 9,975 10,132 —12 10,074 7 10,069 19 6 10,193 5 9,975 + 2 10,120 10 10.081 7 10,088 20 7 10,198 6 9,977 3 10.110 10 10,088 9 10,108 19 8 10,204 6 9,980 5 10,100 8 10,097 10 10,127 18 9 10,210 6 9,985 7 10,092 7 10,107 11 10,145 17 40 10,216 8 9,992 7 10,085 — 5 10,118 13 10,162 17 1 10,224 9 9,999 9 10,080 4 10,131 13 10,179 16 2 10,233 10 10,008 10 10,076 2 10,144 15 10,195 14 3 10,243 10 10,018 11 10,074 1 10,159 17 10,20y 14 4 10,253 12 10,029 13 10,073 10,176 17 10,223 13 ACTUARIAL KBPORT. 165 Showing the adjusted number of females (kx ) to 10,000 males living at each age, in each of the Provinces specified, also the rise or fall in the adjusted numbers ( a ) from age to age throughout life — contd. Benqal. Bombay. BUKiU I 1 ^NLiDKAS. United Pro- VINCES. Age X K A k. A 14 K 1 A K A K A 45 10,265 12 j 10,042 10,073 + 1 10,193 19 10,236 13 6 10,277 14 10,056 15 10,074 3 10,212 20 10,249 Vi 7 10,291 15 10,071 16 10,077 4 10,232 21 10,262 13 8 10,306 16 10,087 17 10,081 5 10,253 23 10,275 13 9 10,322 18 10,104 18 10,086 7 10,276 24 10,288 13 50 10,340 + 18 10,122 + 18 10,093 + 7 10,300 + 20 10,301 + 13 1 10,358 21 10,140 20 10,100 10 10,326 27 10,314 14 2 10,379 21 10,160 20 10,110 10 10,353 28 10,328 14 3 10,400 23 10,180 21 10,120 11 10,381 30 10,342 15 4 10,423 23 10,201 22 10,131 13 10,411 31 10,357 15 55 10,446 24 10,223 22 10,144 13 10,442 32 10,372 16 6 10,470 23 10,245 24 10,157 14 10,474 34 10,388 16 7 10,493 25 ! 10,269 25 10,171 15 10,508 37 10,404 17 ■8 10,518 24 10,294 25 10,186 16 10,545 36 10,421 19 9 10,542 24 10,319 27 10,202 16 10,581 36 10,440 19 60 10,566 24 ' 10,346 27 10,218 16 10,617 35 10,459 20 1 10,590 24 10,373 28 10,234 16 10,652 35 10,479 20 2 10,614 23 10,401 27 10,250 16 10,687 34 10,499 21 3 10,637 24 10,428 27 10,266 17 10,721 34 10,520 22 4 10,661 24 10,455 26 10,283 17 10,755 34 10,542 21 65 10,685 23 10,481 27 10,300 18 10,789 33 10,563 22 6 10,708 22 10,508 25 10,318 17 10,822 32 10,585 22 7 10,730 22 10,533 25 10,335 18 10,854 33 10,607 22 8 10,752 21 10,558 26 10,353 18 10,887 31 10,629 22 9 10,773 21 10,584 24 10,371 18 10,918 31 10,651 21 70 10,794 21 10,608 25 10,389 19 10,949 31 10,672 22 1 10,815 20 10,633 25 10,408 18 10,980 30 10,694 22 2 10,835 21 10,658 24 10,426 17 11,010 30 10,716 22 3 10,856 20 10,682 23 10,443 18 11,040 29 10,738 22 4 10,876 19 10,705 23 10,401 17 11,069 28 10,760 21 75 10,895 20 10,728 21 10,478 17 11,097 28 10,781 21 ■6 10,915 19 10,749 21 10,495 17 11,125 28 10,802 20 7 10,934 19 10,770 21 10,512 17 11,L53 27 10,822 20 8 10,953 18 10,791 20 10,529 17 11,180 27 10,842 19 9 10,971 18 10,811 19 10,546 16 11,207 26 10,861 18 .80 10,989 17 10,830 19 10,562 16 11,233 25 10,879 18 1 11.006 17 10,849 17 10,578 15 11,258 25 10,897 17 2 11,023 16 10,866 17 10,593 15 11,283 24 10,914 16 3 11,039 16 10,883 15 10,608 14 11,307 24 10,930 16 4 11,055 16 10,898 15 10,622 14 11,331 23 10,946 16 •«5 11,071 16 10,913 13 10,636 14 11,354 23 10,962 15 6 11,087 16 10,926 13 10,650 12 11,377 22 10,977 15 2» 11,103 15 10,939 12 10,662 12 11,399 22 10,992 14 11,118 14 10,951 12 10,674 11 11,421 21 11,006 14 9 11,132 14 10,963 12 10,685 10 11,442 20 11,020 13 90 11,146 14 10,975 11 10,695 11 11,462 11,033 12 1 11,160 12 10,986 11 10,706 10 11,045 12 2 11,172 13 10.997 11 10,716 10 , . 11,057 11 3 11,185 12 11,008 11 10,726 9 . , 11,068 10 4 11,197 11 11,019 8 10,735 10 •• 11,078 11 •96 11,208 11,027 10 10,745 10 .. 1 11,089 .. 6 11,037 , . 10,755 10 t 7 .. . . 10,765 10 8 , , . , 10,775 10 1 99 10,785 " each Province, which varied in the deceuniuni cndini^ 1911 from i)02 in the Junjab (including the North-West Frontier Province) to 958 in ^Mjulras, and 166 CHAPTER V — AGE. Kx&mlnatlon of the Relative Mortality of Female Lives, as oompared with Blale Lives. Punjab. after making some allowance for unregistered births, and having regard to the ratios indicated in the successive age-groups in each Province, I was able to draw .smooth curves representing, from birth to the end of life, the assumed ratio of female to male lives, and these graduated ratios, ^iven in Table VII above for all Provinces (except the Punjab) being applied to the adjusted numbers living at each age for male lives, in each Province, figures were deduced for female lives, which are given for the several Provinces in the Tables appended to this Report, and in which the anomalies arising from defective and inaccurate female data may be presumed to be to some extent eliminated. It need hardly be added that the method followed can only be regarded as a rough approximation to the truth, and that the resulting mortality Tables for female lives for each Province cannot be considered as anything like so trustworthy as those given for male lives. 236. It will be observed from Table VII that the ratios of female to male lives, differ somewhat materially in the several Provinces tabulated. The difference between the ratios have been taken out at successive ages, and it will be noted that, where these differences are positive in sign, the female mortality is superior to the male mortality, whilst, where the difference are negative in sign, the female mortality is inferior to that of male lives. In the following Table, the groups of ages are shown, in each Province, in which the estimated female mortality is greater than, equal to, or less than, the male mortality :— TABLE Vni. Comparison of estimated Female and Male Mortality. Province. Mortality of Female lOVES. Less than Equal to More thaa that of male lives in the following Age-groups :— . Bengal Bombay . . . . . • • • • Burma ......... Madras ......... United Provinces ....... 0—9, 33 — end Ages 10 and 32 0—16, 37— end Ages 17 and 36 0—23, 46— end Age 45 0—6, 31— end 0—8, 18 — end 11—31 18—35 24^-^4 7—30 9—17 Having' regard to the method by which these ratios were deduced and graduated, too much weight must not be given to these indications in particular Provinces or age-groups, but the general trend over the whole, as indicating a superior mortality for female, as compared with male, lives in the early years, and after middle life, with an inferior mortality in the intermediate years, appears to be well marked, and unmistakeable. The ratios deduced for the United Provinces are somewhat abnormal, as indicating an inferior female mortality from the early age of nine years, with a superior female mortality from age 18 throughout the remainder of life. 237. As regards the Punjah, I made experimental calculations, with a view to deducing the ratio of the female to the male lives, and thence a Table of mortality for female lives at all ages. I found, however, that there were such grave irregularities in the ratios between male and female lives, that it was practically impossible to deduce a female mortality table which could be regarded as even ap])roximately representing the facts, the progres- sion of the rate of mortality, in an experimental table, deduced for female lives, being unduly rapid up to about age 12, with an abnormal retarda- tion at the following ages up to about age 25. These irregularities, no doubt, arise partly from material defects in the data supplied as to female lives, and are also no doubt affected by similar defects of less marked character in the figures for male lives, as well as by the heavy visitations to which lives of both sexes in the Punjab has been exposed in the dcccnuium. I was ultimately driven, reluctantly, to the conclusion that no usefvil purpose could be served by publishing the mortality table for female lives in the Punjab, and ha^e ACTUARIAL REPORT. 167 thus had to follow, in tliis respect, tlie course adopted by Mr. Hardy in his report on the 1901 Census. 238. In Tables E to P (pai,'es 177 to 187) the resulting mortality xawe or Moruuity tables are given for each sex and for each province, other than the Punjab fMai^rro'^o (Female lives) and in Tables Q and R the figures for all India, males and "r!" '^''"''' ^ femalas, are deduced by weigliting the numbers living at each a^e in each province Avith the total population of that province, male or female. Tables E to R include (1) the numbers living at age x, (2) the numbers dyin" between age x and (x + 1), (3) the mortality per cent, at each age, deduced from the numbers living and dying as above, (4) the number living between ages X and (x +1), (5) the numbers living above age x, deduced by summa- tion of the previous column from the oldest age, and (6) the complete expecta- tion of life, or mean after-life-time at age x, deduced by dividing the numbers in column (5) by those in column (1), regard being *had, at the oldest ages, to the fractional part of the figures omitted from column (1). As regards the figures given in column (4), namely the numbers living between ages x and ( X + 1), the numbers were obtained for ages 15 and over, with close accui-acy, by taking the mean values of those in column (1), but for earlier ages, and especially in the infantile period, a material error would be introduced by adopting the mean values, and the figures given at ages to 12 were deduced from the modifications of Mr. Hardy's mathematical expression, as given in the Appendix for each Province. 239. I desire strongly to endorse Mr. Hardy's recommendation, contained in suggestions and paragraph 49 of his report on the 1901 Census, as to the desirabilitv, in view n^ supervision*"" of the defects which are still evident in the registration of births and deaths in toRefres'en'tetU'e India generally, that efforts shovild be concentrated upon limited representative ^"*'" areas in each of the main Provinces, with a view to securing more comjilete data, in respect of the birth and death rates, and the age-distribution of the deaths. I -n'ould refer in this connection to the note, advocating this course, prepared by Mr. E. A. Gait, the Census Commissioner for India, and dated 24th May 1911, and would express the hope that this important question may be considered, and that the course suggested may be approved b}^ the Government. 240. If the suggestion cannot be adopted in its entirety, it is most desirable Age of infancy and that a closer supervision should be made of registrations of births, and of the *"'"*''*"'*^ deaths at ages below 15, in representative areas in each Province. The only trustworthy figures relative to births, and deaths at these early ages, have been obtainable from the reports on the Proclaimed Clans statistics in the United Provinces, and the value of these in the deduction of complete life tables, can hardly be over-estimalfed. The record and investigation of these statistics apparently ceased in 1904, and, as explained earlier in the present report and in Mr. Hardy's 1901 report, the data furnished between 1891 and 1904 were so limited as to age as to be practically useless for the purposes desired. It is ■clear that results, based on statistics referring to the period 1876-1890, could not properly be employed in any future investigation of Census Returns ; and it is therefore most desirable, and indeed essential, if complete life tables are to be deduced in future, that some effort should be made to secure trustworthy data as to tlie births in the several Provinces, and the deaths at the ages of infancy ai^d childhood. 241. Ab regards the records of the population by age, it would, of course, (2) Records at be far preferable to have these publishc^l in respect of every year of life, instead o^ii'mffwiiS^^ of in 13 quinary groups from 5 to 09 inclusive. This course, if feasible, would ^"'""""^ ^'"""^ obviate the necessity for the seiwrate jireparation of the sp^^cimen schedules, showing the age-distribution of a selected body of each sex in each province. As an alternative course, and if the Returns at individual ages are llioiii^ht to be im])ractical)lc (as has been found up to the present in the United Kingdom, notAvitlistanding the repeated and m-gent representations of statisticians and actuaries as to their dcsiialnlity) it would bo a great improvement if the quinary groups were so arranged tliat the multiples of five were in the centre, instead of at the beginning, of each group. This would very largely obviate •the necessity of transfers from one auc-group to another, i'n respect of the 168 CHAPTER y — AGE. (3) Records of Migrants aooordlng to age. Comparative Expeotattona of Life. excess numbers undoubtedly returned at the ages which are multiples of five. I am aware that the Censuses in the United Kingdom, and in other European countries, are returned in the same groups as the Indian Census; and that a different arrangement of the Indian iigures might be deemed objectionable, from the point of view of comparative data, but, as the manifest defects of the present figures Avould render any comparisons quite useless, this objection does not appear to me to be a valid one. 242. I would also suggest that the full particulars, returned in the volume of Census Tables, as to the migrant population, should be supplemented, at future Censuses, by information as to the age-groups in which the emigrants and immigrants are respectively included. This would largely add to the value of the figures given, and would obviate the necessity of deducing an assumed age-distribution for the migrant population by approximate calculations. 2i3. In Tables IX and X, I give the adjusted expectations of life for male and female lives respectively in each jirovince, and in all India, deduced from Tables E to R, and from the corresponding Tables for j^revious decenniums ; and I have added the expectations of life deduced for English male and female lives in 1901 and 1911, the former being taken from English Life Table Xo. 0, and the latter from Life Tables computed, on the basis of Census figures of 1911, and the relative births and deaths, by the Chief Actuary to the National Health Insurance Joint Committee. These 1911 Life Tables are not pul)lished for ages younger than 15, and the expectations, in the appended Tables, at birth, and at age 10, have been based, up to age 16, on the mortality shown by the English Life Table Iso. 6. In comparing the values of the expectation of life now deduced with those estimated in 1891 and 1901, regard must be /_li_!Ll^„!l _" TABLE IX (MALES). , Showing comparative expectation of life at decennial ages, as dediu;ed from the results of the 1891, 1901, and 1911 censuses respectively in the several Provinces specified, and over the combined area, with corresponding values for England. Bengal Presidency. Bombay Presidency. Madras Presidency. United Pro^ INCES. Age. 1891. 1 1901. ' 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901 ' 1911. 1 22-78 21-57 21-47 26-12 22-77 22-52 26-92 i 26-21 25-92 24-45 25-30 21-21 10 33-85 32-95 32-54 37-20 34-62 33-33 38-70 36-93 ^7-78 ^31-60 34-10 35-26 31-44 20 27-77 27-50 27-10 30-87 28-39 26-43 32-55 30-43 27-75 28-43 25-27 30 22-51 22-64 22-15 24-67 22-27 21-32 26-57 24-24 25-35 22-35 22-01 L 20-89 40 17-98 18-28 17-56 18-94 16-90 17-23 21-06 • 18-60 20-06 17-74 16-76 1 17-18 50 13-83 13-93 13- .39 13-88 12-48 13-51 15-91 ' 14-05 15-74 13-56 12-64 13-47 60 9-89 9-52 9-27 9-59 8-73 9-94 1 11-06 10-10 11-70 9-63 8-92 9-84 70 6-35 5-61 5-40 6-05 5-38 6-55 ! 6-94 6-27 7-68 6-15 5-50 6-5a 80 3-59 2-86 2-49 3-39 2-81 3-48 3-85 3-35 3-98 3-43 2-96 ] 3-42 90 1-69 1-07 -95 1-65 1-07 1-41 1-82 1-56 1-50 1-60 1-23 1 Ml Punjab. BimMA. All Indl4. England. Age. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901. 30-29 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1901. 1 ! 1911. i 26-58 23-18 21-23 31-48 24-59 23-63 22-59 44-07 46-04* 10 38-07 35-45 31-38 39-93 39-88 35-46 34-73 3.3-36 49-65 52-35* 20 31-76 29- .M 26-12 33-28 32-82 29-24 28- .59 27-46 41-04 43-67 30 25-60 24-54 21-60 27-68 27-30 23-66 22-90 22-45 ; 33-06 35-29 40 20-22 19-99 17-55 22-58 22-04 18-75 17-91 18-01 , 25-65 27-27 50 15-56 1.5-43 14-15 17-45 16-51 14-28 13-59 13-97 18-89 19-85 60 11-41 10-70 10-63 12-18 11-00 10-12 9-53 10-00 12-90 13-33 70 7-60 6-39 6-. 53 7-37 6-66 6-48 5-80 6-19 8-02 8-25 80 4-48 :i-28 3-11 3-84 3-61 3-65 3-07 3-06 1 4-40 4-64 90 2-26 1-38 1-13 1-75 1-77 1 1-69 1 1-23 1-15 2-32 2-37 • Estimated valups. ACTU.\RIAL REPORT. 1()9 giveii to the fact that the deceuniuiii ending 1891 was free from famine or severe visitations, whilst the figm-cs for I'JOl were deduced so as largely to eliminate exceptional causes of mortality. The period 1901-1911, having been characterized by severe attacks of plague and famine in certain areas, may he considered, generally speaking, as representing an inferior vitality as compared with that shown by either of the previous tables referred to. 244. For male Hves, the expectations of life in Bengal, Madras, and the Mai© uvea. Punjab are lower than those estimated in 1891 and 1901, at })ractically all ages, and in Burma are higher at birth, ])ut lower at all older ages, than those of 1901. In Bombay, there is an inferior vitality in the last decennium as compared with previous periods at ages to 30, and a superior vitality at ages 60 to the end of life, whilst at ages 10 and 5o, the expectations of life lie between those of 18'.)1 and 1901. In the United Provinces, the expectations at ages — 30 in the lust decennium are below those of the previous periods, whilst at ages 40 and 50, and 80 and 90 they lie between those of 1891 and 1901, and at 60 and 70 are higher than those of previous periods. TABLE X (FEMALES). Showing comparative expectation of life at decennial ages, as deduced from the results of the 1S91, 1901, and 1911 censuses respectively, in the several Provinces specified, and over the combined area, with corresponding rallies for England. Bengal Presid ekcy. Bombay Presidency. Madras Presidency. United Provinces. Age. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 23-73 22-51 21-58 27-07 24-05 22-86 27-99 27-13 27-65 25-25 23-93 21-50 10 32-76 32-03 32-44 36-15 33-69 33-50 37-78 36-27 37-62 32-97 34-90 31-94 20 27-76 27-55 27-20 30-92 2S-52 26-54 32-78 30-65 32-02 27-71 28-89 25-88 30 23-52 23-86 22-45 25-69 22-98 21-57 27-90 25-06 26-01 23-31 23-33 21-42 40 19-43 19-99 17-91 20-31 17-78 • 17-60 22-78 19-56 20-73 19-15 18-38 17-51 50 15-16 15-14 13-67 15-07 13-.37 13-81 17-41 15-03 10-28 14-85 13-82 13-(19 60 10-65 10-18 9-40 10-24 9-30 10-13 11-89 10-86 12-00 10- .30 9-52 9-99 70 6-68 5-87 5-43 6-33 5-58 6-62 7-28 6-60 7-79 6-45 5-74 6-50 80 3-70 2-95 2-48 3-47 2-92 3-49 3-97 3-51 4-00 3-54 3-02 3-43 90 1-59 1-31 -95 1-59 1-20 1-42 1-85 1-77 1-50 1-65 1-50 1-00 Burma. All India. England. Age. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1901. 1911. 32-21 32-61 25-54 23-96 23-31 47-70 1 50-02* 10 38-92 40-22 34-40 33-86 33-74 51-98 56-02* 20 32-98 32-67 29-28 28-64 27-96 43-45 46-36 30 28-96 27-21 24-69 23-82 22-99 35-43 37-84 40 24-62 22-24 20-20 19-12 18-49 27-81 29-65 50 19-00 16-75 15-59 14-50 14-28 20-63 1 21-87 60 13-16 11-15 10-87 10-02 10-11 14-08 14-81 70 7-77 6-72 6-80 ' 5-98 6-22 8-74 : 9-13 80 3-96 3-03 3-76 1 312 3-06 4-84 510 90 1-83 1-77 1-75 1-64 1-10 2-68 1 2-55 * Estimated values. 245. For female lives, the expectations in the last decenniinn in Bengal an- romoio uvo^ below those of previous periods, at practically all ages, and in Burma are lower than those of 1901, at ages 20 and upwards, but higber at birth, and at age 1(» ; whilst in the United Provinces there are lower expectations up lo age 50, and those at higher age lie substantially l)etween the values of 1891 and 1901. In Bombay, the expectations are lower tlian in previous periods, up to age 10, and at practically all hiii:hcr ages lie botwecni the values of 1891 and 1901.'. In Madras the expectations Vw. between tbo.se of 1891 and 1901. up to age 50, and are higher than either at practically all older ages. 170 CHAPTER V AGE. Mortality of Snliordlnate Government £mploy'='s. All India and 246. TliB estimated expectations for male and also for female lives, for all (M^^aiid India, lie below those of 1^91 and 1901 at all ages, and are, as might be antici- tIwm^ix andx P^'i^cd, materially below those deduced from English lives, both in 1901 and 1911, at all ages, the Indian expectation at birth being 2259 years for males, and 23'31 for females, and the English in 1911, IG'O-i years for males, and 5002 for females, the differences diminishing at higher ages, but being quite marked throughout life. The expectations for female lives in all India are only slightly higlier than for male lives, at all ages, the excess being 0'72 years at birth, diminishing to O'll at age 60 ; whilst in England, the superior expectation of female lives is 3-9S years at birth, and 1"43 years at age 60. 247. The separate investigation upon which I am engaged, under instruc- tions from the India Office, as to the mortahty experience of about 50,000 persons in subordinate Government emjiloy in India, i-ecorded during a period of 15 years, is only at the present time in the early stages of sorting, with a view to tabulating, and no results are therefore available for the j^urposes of comparison with those deduced in this Report and in previous Reports in respect of the population of India generally. It is probable, however, that no direct comparison Ijetween the results, if available, Avould be of very much service, as it is probable that the 50,000 lives referred to represent on the whole a select class of literate persons whose mortality experience Avould differ quite materially from that of the general Indian population. It is possible, however, that the cards supplied in resjsect of these 50,000 lives would give useful and trustworthy information as to age-distribution, which might form a useful basis for correcting the manifest errors of the Census Returns ; but the age-distribu- tion of these lives has not yet been taken out, and in any case it could throw no light upon the ages during the important period of infancy and childhood. TABLE XI. Male Lives. Showing the number of registered deaths at all ages, and the estimated total number of deaths, also Fstlraated Birth a nd D eath rates in eacn Province. Tafcle XI. the registered death rate and the estinmted birth and death rates in each Province. Esti- mated numbers Esti- Average Average in last mated Regis- Regis- popu- popu- column net Deaths in 10 tered tered lation lation aged 10 immi- years out of deaths Regis- Estimated Death rate death Esti- under under and grants numbers in aged 5 tered deaths at per 1,000 rate mated Province. Regis- Regis- over, ( + )or column (2) years deaths all ages on mean per birth tration 1901 Census tration 1911 Census being sur- vivors emi- grants (— ) adjusted for migration (2)-K5)— (4). and upwards 1901-11. at all ages 1901-11. (6) X (8) population (9) 1,000 1901-11 (8) rate (7) per 5[(2)-K8)J 1,000 Males. Males. of diu-ing 10 X (2) 1901-11. numbers decen- in nlum. column (2). 1 2 3 1 4 6 6 7 8 10 11 12 BcnRal 40,273 43,198 30,068 143 10,348 8,705 14,060 16,714 40-0 34-9 46-7 Bombay . 9,5,13 10,215 7,404 149 2,298 2,144 3,304 3,641 33-8 34-6 41-0 Uumia 4,408 5,054 3,645 166 929 671 1,118 1,648 32-7 25-4 42-9 Martris . I8,8.'-.l 20,383 14,692 —141 4,018 2,665 4,343 6,64S 33-4 23-0 41-9 Punjab 12,035 12,158 8,865 11 3,181 2,884 4,752 B,24l 43-3 39-5 44-3 I'nitod Provinces 24,617 24,642 18,211 —104 6,302 6,331 9,580 11,323 46-0 38-9 46-5 Note. — In columns (2) to (9) inclusive, the figures have been divided throughout by 1,000. 248. In Table XI, I have deduced estimated values of the mean birtli and death rates in the areas under registration in each Province during the di'cennium, adopting similar methods to those employed by Mr. Hardy in Table IV included in liis Report of 1901, l)ut specifying separately the allowance for migration in column (5), and thus obtaining, in column (6), corrected figures for the deaths in the decennium amongst those in existence in 1901. It will be seen that the defects in registration of deaths, indicated by a comparison of columns (8) and (9), or columns (10) and (11) are much reduced, as com- pared with the figures deduced by Mr. Hardy in 1901, in columns (7) to (10) of his Table lY. Tlie deatli and birth rates deduced in columns (10) and (12) of my Table XI can only be regarded as apj^roximate. From a comparison of the deaths at grouped ages ivith those brought out by the rates of mortality ACTUARIAL REPORT. 171 given in Tables E to R, it would appear, either that the rates of infantile mortality are decidedly lower than has been estimated, or, as seems to nie more probable, that the incompleteness of registration becomes more marked in pro- portion as the youngest ages are approached. It further appears that the ages at death are mis-stated, iu jirecisely the same way as the ages in tbe Census Returns ; thus, a number of deatiis have obviously been transferred from age- group 1 — 5 to age-grou]) 5 — 10, and the same tendency is noticeable, though to a smaller extent, as regards age-groups 5 — 10 and 10 — 15. Tbe registered deaths at ages 5 and upwards in column (7) are therefore doubly over-stated, as com- pared wdth the total deaths in column (8) firstly as being more completely registered, and secondly, as including certain dcatbs of persons at younger ages ; but on the other hand, a certain addition shouUl be made to the figures in column (7) in order to make them comparable with those in column (8), as the latter include deaths at infantile ages at the beginning of the decennium, \rhich, owing to the heavy rates of mortality at these ages, outweigh the deaths at ages over 5, omitted at the end of the period. I find that, making such assvmiptions as appear reasonable in these respects, the neglect of this adjust- ment practically neutralizes the effect of the over-statement above referred to, and the rates in column (10) and (12) may be regarded as fair approximations, though, they are, if anything, somewhat below the truth. TABLE XII. Relative rates of birth and mortalit>j for the period 18S1-1911. MORTALITY RATES. Birth rates. Province. At.t, ages. Over 5 years of age. 1881-91. 1891-01. 1901-11. 1881-91. 1891-01. 1901-11. 1881-91. 1891-01. 1901-11. Bengal . 52-9 43-9 46-7 45-9 38-9 40-0 28-8 29-6 29-4 Bombay . 50-3 43-9 41-0 36-4 45-9 35-8 21-2 33-2 27-1 Burma . . . 42-9 32-7 . , 231 Madras . 51-3 44-8 41-9 38-0 38-1 33-4 20-5 27-2 24-0 Punjab . 46-8 47-1 44-3 37-0 40-3 43-3 25-3 2.5-1 30-4 United Provinces 45-1 44-7 46-5 38-6 43-4 4C-0 24-7 27-7 29-4 249. In Table XII, the mean estimated birth and death rates, deduced as comparison or above, are compared with those deduced by Mr. Hardy over the two previous ^tM^^rtth*^**** decenniums.* It will be seen that the birth rates are for Bombay, Madras, and previous periods. the Punjab, below those of the previous periods, whilst in Bengal the rate for 1901—1911 lies between those for 1881—1891 and 1891—1901, and in the United Provinces exceeds the estimated rates for both previous periods. Tbe mean death rates are given for all ages, and in respect of persons iu existence at the date of the 1901 Census, the latter being approximately the rate in respect of deaths at ages 5 and over. The death rates at all ages for tbe period 1901 — 1911 are reduced as compared with previous periods in Bombay and Madras, in * In a paper subsequently read bei'oro the Institutn of Actuaries Mr. Ackland gavo an alternative estimate of the birth and death rates in the decade liiOl-ll as noted below ; — Estimated death-rate per niille. 48-7 456 31-4 38-7 472 47-1 431 The death-rates are hero estimated on the basis of the number of deaths which Wiiuld occur kt each year of life acconlint; to tho mortality >-howii in tiio life tables E to R (pai,'OS 177-189). The hirth-rat.'s are based upon the movement of the whole I'Opnliition "S ehown by tbe Census riturn« of IPOl and I'.ill, iiftor allowinj; for migr«- lion, and th>' estimated denths calculated hs abovi-. Mr. Aciiland thinks that on the whole these alternative e^ti- mates are probably neaier the truth than those given in his Table XII abo^o l./ournal uf tho Institute of AHu- aries, July 1913, puge 352). z 2 Province. Estimated birth-rate per mille. Benpal 560 Bombay , 508 Burma 42 5 Mailras 472 Punjab 52-9 United Provinces . •17-7 Combined Provincen . -» -,1-3 172 CHAPTER V — AGE. Bengal lie between the death-rates for 1881 — 1891 and 1801 — 1901, and in the Punjab and the United Provinces show higher rates than in the previous period, arising no doubt from the severe visitations of famine and disease in those two areas. 250. It will be observed that, throughout my investigation, the methods followed have not departed, in any very material respects, from those adopted by Mr. Hardy, although the figures submitted to me have throughout been subject to an independent scrutiny and treatment. Having regard to Mr. Hardy's wide and exceptional experience in matters relating to Indian mortality, and to his unrivalled ability in all questions involving the adjustment and graduation of life tables, it is not perhaps surprising that I have not seen my way to improve upon these methods, or rather to vary them in directions which might or might not be in the nature of improvements. The nature of the investigation was also such that, having regard to the available data, and especially to the known defects in the Registration statistics, little or no choice was left as to the fundamental methods to be followed throughout the investigation. It seemed also most desirable that the methods adopted on the present occasion should not, except where absolutely necessary, depart materially from those adopted by Mr. Hardy, in order that the tabular results might conveniently be compared, and for this reason I have also drawn up the Tables E to R appended in a form identical with the corresponding tal)les included by Mr. Hardy in his Reports. 251. I have been in constant correspondence, during the course of this investigation, with the Hon'ble Mr. E. A. Gait, the Census Commissioner for India, who has supplied me M'ith all necessary data, and has most courteously and fully dealt with all points as to which information or explanations were desired. Mr. Gait's intimate acquaintance with the questions involved, and with their treatment in similar investigations made in the past, has been of the greatest assistance to me during the whole of my investigation. THOMAS G. ACKLAND, Actuarial Aildser to. the Board of Trade. Felloio of the Institute of Actuai'ies. Bon. Fellow of the Facnlty of Actuaries. The 31st October 1912. ACTUARIAL REPORT. 173 TABLE A. Number of Persons living at each age, out of a total Populatwn of lUO.OOO, according to specimen schedules ■prepared in each Province, and for each sex, for the purpose of this investigation. Age. 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1& 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 SO 61 62 63 64 66 6« 67 68 59 60 61 62 63 64 66 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 70 80 81 82 83 84 95-89 »0— 04 B5— 99 100 & over. liKtiQAI,. Males. 3,348 1,V33 3,234 3,356 3,121 3,712 3,041 3,022 3,974 1,948 4,099 1,310 3,743 1,037 1,662 1,979 1,896 925 2,693 764 3,306 666 2,156 733 1,014 4,572 991 895 1,904 429 4,951 312 1,768 374 458 3,641 968 392 965 261 4,291 210 724 155 202 2,395 217 196 501 123 2,995 117 347 87 112 1,017 174 102 192 63 1,996 64 153 84 45 449 39 40 68 21 622 24 66 14 12 165 11 13 25 7 801 11 17 4 5 01 71 27 32 Females. Males. Females. 3,325 3,307 1,738 1,839 3,238 2,842 3,573 2,934 3,073 2,912 3,568 3,474 2,889 2,664 3,039 2,405 3,203 2,974 2,011 1,612 3,1 40 3,545 1,394 1,171 2,771 3,358 1,033 1,234 1,661 1,486 1,905 2,676 2,173 1,794 1,081 933 2,839 2,039 894 719 4,303 4,463 926 480 2,336 1,984 770 631 1,097 800 4,943 5,656 984 1,111 881 770 1,833 1,488 538 371 5,160 6,C11 388 270 1,501 1,294 335 350 406 311 3,079 4,789 872 659 356 309 797 655 303 253 4,310 5,494 254 168 638 769 177 160 208 228 2,065 2,975 244 222 195 209 481 404 153 163 3,237 3,543 143 146 376 315 99 125 145 119 910 1,413 199 124 104 78 221 226 79 80 2,565 2,054 121 150 213 190 50 125 79 90 475 516 34 63 49 34 76 55 26 31 783 422 20 13 64 45 11 17 10 11 180 193 It 8 13 7 28 10 9 6 871 265 11 3 17 11 5 3 6 2 68 61 69 71 19 10 30 U 3,631 2,073 3,238 3,216 3,172 3,131 2,650 2,441 2,988 1,800 2,797 1,206 2,731 1,081 1,425 2,237 1,696 1,120 1,988 889 4,739 1,092 1,966 847 1,056 5,501 946 809 1,506 442 6,149 290 1,180 300 424 4,213 555 306 670 330 4,970 288 543 261 366 2,782 218 187 380 153 3,490 192 325 191 195 1,191 124 72 162 95 2,295 80 178 79 132 687 29 24 90 25 644 8 41 70 48 232 8 5 33 2 210 3 10 4 2 .56 12 23 BCB5U (BCDDUISIS). Males. 2,122 2,496 3,002 3,262 2,903 2,867 2,989 2,467 2,862 2,175 3,651 1,924 2,809 2,277 1,872 2,236 1,720 1,641 1,878 1,529 3,085 1,078 1,490 1,488 1,091 2,984 1,265 1,284 1,269 913 3,519 773 1,136 1,097 740 2,536 993 1,118 1,065 843 2,637 589 975 743 611 1,767 687 673 615 417 1,816 331 533 413 344 994 522 372 347 224 1,322 305 432 369 240 610 190 271 159 85 673 06 142 121 55 201 89 57 61 30 215 19 16 22 8 63 50 33 7 Females. 2,249 2,610 3,041 3,333 2,875 2,962 2,982 2,632 2,897 2,064 3,478 1,795 2,546 2,099 1,729 2,361 1,869 1,995 2,259 1,683 3,579 1,189 1,556 1,536 1,174 3,010 1,187 1,177 1,263 967 3,259 778 1,177 923 777 2,074 955 860 1,030 727 2,536 548 870 792 612 1,602 609 589 619 367 976 463 393 365 239 1,483 249 288 266 195 633 143 271 151! 100 989 lot 136 108 62 239 62 40 69 36 352 30 18 27 10 01 57 36 8 Madras. Moles. 2,598 1,710 2,924 3,204 2,781 3,062 2,763 2,300 2,881 1,777 3,768 1,081 3,715 1,317 1,624 2,116 2,468 757 2,542 702 3,892 583 1,727 710 1,222 3,694 1,141 605 1,250 402 5,039 414 1,194 319 600 3,089 957 431 827 387 4,602 402 762 368 401 2,332 537 269 576 296 Females. 1,862 3,518 323 322 520 444 450 250 351 301 1,232 427 159 318 124 2,697 169 271 145 183 641 157 lOS 159 97 904 41 iin 36 III 132 31 122 216 886 24 78 122 97 332 228 18 3 2,565 2,057 2,843 3,160 2,720 3,011 2,805 2,487 3,278 1,894 3,909 1,175 3,227 1,272 1,618 1,680 2,221 829 2,486 676 5,147 723 1,800 680 1,166 4,285 1,232 678 1,320 149 5,973 433 1,087 362 542 3,040 710 332 653 287 4,609 288 652 247 269 1,894 368 203 449 201 4,043 174 365 138 315 1,064 295 131 262 105 3,014 170 266 120 126 516 118 82 131 66 1,055 55 87 61 66 198 41 17 67 37 404 26 65 88 19 194 10:i 12 4 United Peovinces. Males. 3,682 1,767 2,451 2,605 2,530 3,247 2,617 2,498 3,185 1,811 3,590 1,460 3,556 1,047 1,716 2,214 2,304 570 2,313 686 4,220 613 2,033 470 1,308 5,383 1,049 669 1,942 412 6,003 350 1,988 299 480 3,316 1,529 246 665 285 5,601 285 727 123 308 2,572 263 141 472 160 3,810 151 325 79 147 848 219 64 152 62 ' 2,259 81 131 26 46 362 29 26 55 18 683 19 4« 6 10 95 11 20 7 339 11 16 6 8 48 82 10 20 Females. 4,065 2,055 2,909 3,151 2,867 3,284 2,767 2,618 2,874 1,891 3,086 1,356 2,855 960 1,382 1,664 2,025 627 1,978 496 4,542 530 1,919 508 1,505 5,051 965 600 2,087 423 6,064 345 1,660 252 486 3,100 1,437 229 827 348 5,393 265 601 120 303 2,296 251 124 472 194 4,107 140 304 58 146 877 243 74 180 78 3,064 112 162 33 76 420 64 32 62 31 877 21 64 123 12 20 638 12 19 3 66 105 21 £8 Punjab. Males. 12 4,121 1,829 2,103 2,627 2,590 3,048 2,876 2,500 3,178 2,122 3,175 1,635 3,768 1,554 2,218 2,225 2,331 1,034 2,642 754 3,836 550 2,203 636 969 4,625 1,207 867 1,442 323 4,595 187 1,899 456 501 3,471 797 211 501 174 4,928 162 557 150 209 3,023 240 140 371 107 3,968 132 346 86 164 1,316 160 69 114 64 2,543 87 149 38 66 703 66 47 64 32 1,079 26 40 10 14 163 14 4 8 672 7 15 6 6 60 163 27 .12 Femalea. 4,834 1,913 2,601 2,930 2,898 3,138 3,078 2,725 2,933 2,053 2,930 1,458 2,907 1,281 1,786 1,815 2,120 840 2,420 573 4,353 455 2,089 . 534 1,058 4,804 1,245 801 1,507 280 5,559 228 1,746 289 447 3,689 643 159 648 191 5,844 170 506 96 163 2,705 208 92 363 87 4,191 111 225 45 92 1,150 118 69 116 60 2,875 73 116 30 26 606 20 28 35 19 1,113 19 39 3 9 186 8 s 13 9 371 6 15 1 4 04 103 19 23 174 CHAPTER V — AGE. TABLE B. Population enumerated at each age out of a total population of Kiil.OOO of each sex, in each Province, obtained by distributing tJie numbers actually enumerated in each qtiinary age group in proportion to the numbers in Table A. Ages. - Benqal BojiBir [ BBKJLi (BUDDHISIS) Af »nRiR USIIEJ) FMVIMCES Punjab \ Males. 1 Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 3.065 3,245 3,300 1 3,597 2,085 2,187 2,620 2,579 3,282 3.428 4.018 4,820 1 1,586 1,696 1,835 2,054 2,452 ' 2.538 1,724 2,068 1.575 1.733 1.783 1,908 2 2.961 3,160 2,836 3,208 2,949 2,957 2,949 2,858 2,185 2.453 2,050 2,494 3 3.072 3,487 2,928 3,1S« 3,203 3,241 3,231 3,177 2,322 2.657 2,562 2,921 4 < 2.857 2,998 2,905 3,143 2,852 2,795 2,804 2,734 2,256 2.417 2,323 2,890 si 3,689 3,747 3,338 3,051 2,909 2,941 3,196 2,933 3,255 3,241 2,995 3,203 6 3.022 3,033 2,559 2,582 3,033 2,961 2,884 2,732 2,823 2,731 2,826 3,142 7 3,003 3,191 2,311 2,378 2,503 ' 2,613 2,400 2,423 2,504 2,584 2,456 2,782 8 3,949 i 3,363 2,857 2,911 2,904 2,876 3,007 3,193 3,193 2,837 3,123 2,994 9 1.936 j 2,112 1,549 1,754 2,207 2,049 1,854 1 1,845 1.815 1,866 2,085 2,098 10 4,142 ' 3,105 3,559 2,799 3,601 3,403 4,000 3,810 3.866 3,288 3,118 2,922 U 1,324 j 1,379 1,176 1,207 1,898 1,756 1,147 1,145 1,572 1,444 1,506 1,449 12 3,782 2,740 3,370 2,733 2,771 2,492 3,942 3,145 3,829 3,042 3.697 2,890 13 1,048 1,021 1,239 1,081 2,246 1 2,054 1,398 1,240 1,127 1,023 1.525 1.273 14 1,679 1,643 1,492 1,426 1,847 1,692 1,723 1,577 1,848 1,473 2,178 1,774 15 1,996 1,902 2,765 2,232 2,233 2.245 2,160 1,801 2,381 1,881 2,239 1,868 16 1,913 \ 2,169 1,853 l',692 1,718 1.777 2,519 2,381 2,478 2,288 2,346 2,182 17 933 1,079 964 1,118 1,639 1,897 773 829 613 698 1,041 885 18 2,717 2,834 2,106 1,984 1,876 2,148 2,395 2,686 2.487 2.235 2,859 2,491 19 771 893 743 887 1,527 1,600 717 725 629 559 759 590 20 3,179 4,125 4,706 4,743 2,906 3,423 3,912 5.129 4,235 4,683 3,949 4,489 21 641 888 506 1,093 1,015 1,137 586 720 815 647 568 469 22 2,073 2,239 2,092 1,967 1,403 1,489 1,735 1,793 2.040 1.980 2,208 2,154 ^i 705 738 665 848 1,401 1,469 713 678 472 524 655 551 975 1,052 844 1.057 1,028 1,123 1,228 1.162 1.313 1.552 998 1,092 us 4,732 5,040 5,782 5.618 2,940 3,134 4,118 4.494 5.112 5,049 4,765 4,887 26 1.026 1,003 1,138 966 1,247 1,236 1,272 1,292 996 964 1,244 1,268 27 926 898 787 826 1,265 1,226 675 711 635 600 893 815 28 1,970 1,869 1,521 1,538 1,231 1,315 1,394 1,384 1.844 2,080 1,486 1,533 29 444 549 379 452 900 1,006 468 471 391 423 333 283 30 5,101 5,167 6,278 6,444 3,714 3,426 4,964 5,813 6,695 6,089 4,715 5,583 31 321 388 282 304 816 818 408 421 326 346 192 229 32 1,822 1,503 1,351 1,237 1,199 1,237 1,176 1,058 1,853 1,667 1,948 1,754 33 885 335 366 314 1,158 970 314 343 279 253 468 290 84 472 407 325 444 781 817 592 ■ 527 448 488 514 449 85 3,868 3,176 4,708 4,075 2,535 2,145 3,197 3,220 3,277 3,085 3,587 3,592 36 1,028 899 648 537 993 988 990 752 1.511 1,421 824 826 87 416 367 304 296 1,118 890 446 352 243 226 218 165 38 1.025 822 644 648 1,065 1,065 856 692 657 818 618 634 39 277 313 249 319 843 752 401 304 282 344 179 186 40 4.430 4,206 5,226 5,124 2,686 2,615 4,525 4,985 6,512 6,738 4,852 5,533 41 217 248 160 297 600 565 395 312 281 282 159 161 42 747 623 732 560 993 897 749 705 715 639 343 479 43 160 173 152 269 757 817 362 267 121 128 148 91 44 209 202 217 377 622 631 395 291 303 323 206 155 45 2.579 2,132 2,955 2,632 1,735 1,583 2,382 2,152 2,717 2,485 2,946 2,717 46 234 252 221 206 674 602 549 418 278 272 234 209 47 211 201 208 177 661 582 275 231 149 134 138 92 48 540 497 401 360 604 612 588 510 498 511 362 1^ 49 132 158 162 145 409 363 302 229 169 210 104 50 3,015 3,083 3,628 3,569 1,970 2,038 3,302 3,756 4,038 4.335 3,931 4,031 51 118 136 149 196 359 354 302 162 160 148 131 107 52 349 358 323 333 578 569 417 339 344 321 343 216 53 88 94 128 195 448 493 235 128 84 81 84 43 54 113 138 122 200 373 384 282 292 156 154 162 89 55 1.108 996 1,283 1,127 973 967 1,186 1,078 1.059 978 1,390 1,116 56 190 218 113 117 511 459 411 299 274 271 169 119 67 111 114 70 68 364 390 153 133 80 82 73 60 58 209 242 205 153 340 362 306 266 190 201 120 116 59 09 86 73 90 219 238 119 106 77 87 68 60 W 1.957 2,368 1,919 2,474 1,380 1,662 2,278 2,607 2,446 2,910 1,913 2,667 61 63 112 140 86 318 279 148 147 87 108 65 68 62 150 197 178 192 451 323 237 230 142 155 112 107 63 33 4;i 117 85 385 298 127 104 28 31 29 28 64 44 72 84 143 251 218 160 109 49 72 42 24 ii 440 556 502 558 615 623 618 610 483 486 1,710 609 66 38 40 61 28 191 141 127 117 39 60 136 29 67 39 57 33 23 273 267 87 81 34 35 114 26 68 66 89 53 85 160 154 129 130 74 69 156 36 69 20 31 30 24 86 98 78 65 24 34 78 19 70 610 775 400 597 681 1,012 490 840 870 881 805 1,115 71 24 20 12 7 97 106 23 44 18 19 19 19 72 66 63 43 38 144 139 64 69 43 48 30 39 73 14 11 16 65 122 110 20 41 5 8 8 3 74 12 10 10 44 55 63 61 62 10 17 11 9 75 162 178 183 214 203 244 146 158 93 108 114 185 76 11 14 7 8 90 63 72 33 11 10 10 8 77 13 13 7 5 58 41 17 14 9 8 3 3 7^ 24 27 « 31 62 70 67 45 19 18 6 13 7ft 7 9 5 2 30 36 120 29 7 8 4 9 80 295 367 243 195 218 361 212 322 333 474 427 372 81 !• U 11 3 3 19 31 13 21 11 11 5 5 S2 17 17 10 9 16 18 40 44 16 17 11 15 83 4 5 3 4 23 28 67 30 5 4 1 84 6 6 2 2 8 10 53 15 8 8 4 4 85—89 89 57 58 60 64 93 183 163 1 ' « «» 45 64 90—94 70 68 67 62 51 S8 125 82 80 92 122 103 l)r>— 99 26 19 9 11 33 37 10 9 18 18 20 19 1110 * 31 30 10 21 8 1 3 20 25 24 23 OVfT. ACTUARIAL REPORT. 175 TABLE C. Showing age-dlslrihution of 100,000 persotis of each sex jor the censuses 1901-1911. MiLtiS. FtllALtS. FroTisce. c = g-o SI g Ages. — t 5—9 10—14 15—19 20—24 25—29 30 — 34 35—39 40 — 44 45 — 19 6U — 54 55 — 59 60 2,695 2,686 2,711 2,586 2,556 2,656 6 2,819 2,824 2,692 2,676 2,656 2,616 2,600 2,642 2,504 2,476 2.570 6 2.720 2,726 2,606 2,593 2,581 2,551 2,532 2,579 2,442 2,416 2.506 7 2,638 2,645 2,536 2,527 2,516 2,494 2,478 2,518 2,395 2,369 2,456 8 2,567 2,576 2,478 2,472 2,458 2.442 2,427 2,460 2,356 2.331 2,415 » 2,505 2,514 2,427 2,423 2,404 2,395 2,379 2,407 2,323 2,29S 2,380 10 2,449 2,456 2,382 2,380 2,353 2,350 2,334 2,356 2,293 2,268 2,349 11 2,394 2,402 2,340 2,340 2,305 2,306 2,292 2,309 2,266 2,240 2,318 12 2,340 2,346 2,307 2,303 2,259 2,264 2,250 2,262 2,240 2,214 2,282 13 2,286 2,291 2,265 2,267 2,215 2,224 2,209 2317 2,215 2,188 2,244 14 2,232 2,235 2,229 2,232 2,172 2,184 2,167 2,171 2,188 2,162 2,203 15 2,179 2,180 2,194 2,198 2,128 2,146 2,126 2,127 2,161 2,134 2,162 16 2,126 2,126 2,159 2,163 2,084 2,103 2,085 2,082 2,132 2,105 2,120 17 2,074 2,072 2,123 2,127 2,040 2,061 2,043 2,037 2,101 2,074 2,078 18 2,022 2,018 2,086 2,080 1,996 2,018 2,002 1,993 2,067 2,041 2,036 19 1,971 1,965 2,047 2,050 1,952 1,975 1,962 1,951 2,030 2,005 1,994 20 1,920 1,913 2,007 2,009 1,908 1,931 1,921 1,908 1,991 1,968 1,952 21 1,870 1,861 1.964 1,966 1,864 1,888 1,881 1,866 1,951 1,929 1,910 22 1,820 1,810 1,921 1,922 1,820 1,844 1,841 1,825 1,912 1,891 1,868 23 1,771 1,760 1,876 1,877 1,777 1,800 1,801 1,784 1,872 1,853 1,826 24 1,723 1.711 1,830 1,830 1,734 1,756 1,761 1,743 1,831 1,814 1,784 25 1,675 1,662 1,784 1,783 1,691 1,713 1,720 1,701 1,790 1,774 1,742 26 1,628 1,615 1,737 1,736 1,648 1,669 1,680 1,661 1.747 1,734 1,699 27 1,581 1,568 1,690 1,687 1,606 1,625 1,640 1,621 1,704 1,693 1.657 28 1,535 1,522 1,642 1,639 1,564 1,581 1,600 1,581 1,661 1,652 1,615 2» 1,490 1,476 1,594 1,590 1,522 1,538 1,560 1,541 1,617 1,611 1,573 30 1,445 1,432 1,546 1,541 1,481 1,494 1,520 1,501 1,573 1,569 1.531 31 1,401 1,388 1,498 1,493 1,440 1,452 1,479 1,461 1,529 1,527 1.489 32 1,357 1.345 1,450 1,444 1,399 1,409 1,438 1,421 1,484 1,485 1,447 33 1,314 1,302 1,402 1,396 1,359 1,367 1,398 1.382 x,4*0 1,443 1,405 34 1,272 1,261 1,354 1,348 1,320 1,326 .1,358 1,343 1,396 1,401 1,363 35 1,230 1,219 1,307 1,300 1,280 1,285 .1,317 1,303 1,352 1,360 1,321 36 1,189 1,179 1,250 1,254 1,242 1,244 1,277 1,264 1,308 1,318 1,279 37 1,149 1,139 1,213 1,207 1,203 1,204 i,236 1,224 1,264 1,276 1.237 38 1,109 1,101 1,167 1,162 1,165 1,166 1,195 1,185 1,220 1,235 1.195 39 1,070 1,062 1,121 1,117 1,128 1,127 1,155 1,147 1,177 1,193 1.153 40 1,031 1,025 1,076 1,073 1,091 1,090 1,114 1,107 1,134 1,152 1,111 41 993 988 1,032 1.029 1.055 1,053 1,074 1,069 1,092 1,111 1,069 42 956 951 988 986 1.019 1,017 1,030 1,030 1,050 1.070 1,028 43 919 916 945 944 984 981 994 992 1,009 1,029 987 44 883 881 902 903 949 946 956 955 968 98il 946 V 45 848 347 861 862 915 913 918 919 928 949 906 a 46 813 813 820 823 881 879 882 885 888 910 866 B. 47 779 780 780 784 848 846 845 849 849 871 828 O 48 74« 748 741 746 815 814 809 815 811 833 791 ..J 49 713 716 703 709 783 782 773 780 773 795 755 S 50 681 685 666 672 752 751 739 746 736 758 719 51 649 654 629 637 721 721 705 715 700 722 684 52 618 624 594 602 691 691 672 683 665 686 649 53 587 594 560 569 661 662 640 652 631 652 616 54 557 564 527 536 632 634 609 623 597 618 584 55 527 535 494 504 60S 606 578 693 564 584 554 56 498 507 463 473 575 578 547 563 532 552 525 57 469 479 433 443 548 552 517 634 500 520 498 58 441 451 404 415 521 525 488 506 470 490 471 59 414 424 376 387 495 500 460 478 441 460 445 60 387 397 349 360 469 474 433 462 412 431 420 61 361 371 323 334 442 448 406 424 385 403 396 62 335 346 298 309 414 420 380 399 358 376 371 63 310 321 274 285 386 392 355 374 332 349 348 64 285 296 251 262 358 364 331 350 308 324 325 65 262 272 229 240 331 337 307 325 284 300 303 66 239 248 209 219 304 310 284 301 261 276 282 67 217 226 189 199 278 284 262 279 239 253 262 68 195 204 171 180 253 259 240 256 218 232 242 69 174 182 153 162 228 234 220 236 198 211 228 70 154 161 137 14S 205 211 201 216 179 191 203 71 135 141 122 129 182 188 183 197 162 178 184 72 117 123 107 114 161 166 105 179 145 155 165 73 100 105 94 100 141 146 148 160 129 138 146 74 84 89 82 87 122 127 132 143 114 122 127 75 70 74 71 76 105 109 117 128 100 107 110 76 67 60 60 65 89 92 102 HI 87 94 93 77 45 48 51 55 74 77 89 97 76 81 78 78 35 38 42 46 61 64 76 83 64 69 65 79 27 28 35 37 60 52 64 71 54 68 62 80 20 21 28 30 40 42 53 59 44 48 41 SI 14 15 22 24 31 33 43 47 86 39 32 82 10 10 17 18 24 25 34 87 29 31 24 83 7 7 13 14 18 19 26 28 22 24 17 84 4 5 9 10 13 14 19 22 17 18 12 85 3 3 6 7 9 10 13 15 12 13 8 86 2 o 4 4 7 7 9 10 8 9 6 87 1 i 2 2 5 5 5 6 5 6 3 88 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 S 3 2 80 90 2 1 2 1 ' 1 1 2 i 1 01 •• •• ■• 1 1 •• •• •• ACTUARIAL REPORT. 177 TiVBLE E. Life Table, Bengal Presidency. Males. Age. Living at age x. CI an 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 8& 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 9& K 97 98 99 Dying between agB) < Mortality per cent. Living between ages zaDax+l. I ^ '^ sanctx-fl. ' 1 2 I 5 I 6 I 7 ' t i 10 11 : 12 I 13 14 15 100,000 70,13S C3.4IJ8 69,0S8 50.(108 SS,91G 52,308 61,066 50,058 49,202 48,444 47,751 47,103 46,457 45,808 45,U5 16 44,463 17 43,758 18 43,031 19 42,286 20 41,533 21 40,775 22 40,012 23 39,246 24 38,478 25 87,706 26 36,931 27 36,153 28 35.371 29 34,587 30 33,799 SI 33,007 32 32,210 33 31,409 34 30,603 35 29,792 36 28,977 37 28,157 33 27,333 39 26,504 40 25,674 41 24,843 42 24,013 43 23,185 44 22,300 45 21,541 46 20,729 47 19,926 48 19,132 49 18,346 50 17,570 51 16,801. 16,041 53 15,292 54 14,557 55 13,834 56 13,124 57 12,425 58 11,737 69 ' 11,061 60 10,396 9,742 9,097 8,463 7,839 7,227 6,627 6,039 5,407 4,911 4,373 3,857 3,305 2,899 2,464 2,060 1,692 1,362 1,071 819 608 433 300 198 124 73 40 21 10 4 2 29,862 6,670 4,380 3,020 2,158 1,602 1,242 1,008 856 758 693 648 646 649 663 682 705 727 745 753 758 763 766 768 772 775 773 782 784 788 792 797 801 806 811 815 820 824 829 830 831 830 828 825 819 812 803 794 786 776 769 760 749 735 723 710 699 688 676 665 654 645 634 624 612 600 588 572 656 533 SIS 492 466 435 404 368 330 291 252 211 172 136 102 74 51 33 19 11 G 1 1 Living atwvo age x. 69*04 29-86 70,694 951 66,550 690 61,138 511 57,490 3-85 54,932 2-97 53,072 2-37 51,664 1-98 50,540 1-71 49,020 1-53 48.816 1-42 48,094 1-36 47,424 1-37 46,788 1-40 46,132 1-45 45,476 1-51 44,804 1-58 44,110 1-66 43,394 1-73 42,658 1-78 41,910 1-82 41,154 1-87 40.394 1-91 39,629 1-96 38.862 201 38,092 206 37,318 211 36,542 216 35.762 2" 22 34.979 2-iS 34.193 2-34 33,403 2-41 32,608 249 31,810 2-57 31,000 2-65 30.197 2-74 29,384 2-83 28,567 2-93 27,745 303 26,918 313 26,089 3-24 25,258 3-34 24,428 3-45 23,599 S-56 22,772 3-67 21,950 3-77 21,135 3-87 20,328 3-98 19,529 4-10 18.739 4-23 17,958 4-33 17,186 4-52 16,421 4-67 15,666 4-81 14,9-24 4-96 14.190 514 13,479 5-33 12,774 5-53 12,081 5-76 11.399 601 10,728 6-30 10,069 6-62 9,420 6-97 8,780 7-37 8,151 7-81 7,533 S-31 6,927 3-86 6,333 9-48 5,753 1017 5,189 10-94 4,642 11-80 4,115 12-76 3,611 1334 3,132 15-03 2,682 16-37 2 262 17-86 1,876 19-53 1,527 21-39 1,216 23-45 945 25-77 714 2832 622 31 12 368 3418 249 37-49 161 4104 93 44-82 66 4'<-80 30 52-113 16 .'.7 16 7 61-45 3 65-73 2 2,148,903 2,()7I),209 2,003.059 1,942,521 1,885,031 1,830,099 1,777,027 1,725,383 1,074,817 1,025,197 1,570,381 1,528,287 1,480,803 1,434,075 l,3-<7.»4;i 1,342,467 1,297,663 1,253,553 1,210,159 1,107,,S01 1,125,591 1,084,437 1,044,043 1,004,414 965,552 927,460 890,142 853,600 817,838 782,859 748,660 715,263 682,655 650,845 619,839 589,642 560,258 531,691 503,946 477,028 450,939 425,681 401,253 377,654 354,882 332,932 311,797 ■291,469 271,940 253,201 235,243 218,057 201,636 185,970 171,046 156,850 143.371 130,597 118,510 107,117 96,389 86,320 76,900 68,120 59,969 62,436 ' 45,509 39,170 33,423 28,234 23,592 19,477 15,866 12,734 10,052 7,790 5,914 4,387 3,171 2,-226 1,512 000 022 373 212 114 68 28 12 Mean after life-time at age 2. 21-47 29-52 31-57 32-88 33-62 33-95 33-97 33-79 33-46 33-03 32-54 32-01 31-44 30-87 30-30 29-74 2919 28-65 28-12 27-61 27-10 26-60 26-09 25-69 26-09 24-60 24-10 23-61 23-12 22-63 22-15 21-67 21-19 20-72 20-25 19-79 19-34 18-88 18-44 18-00 17-56 1713 16-71 16-20 16-87 15-46 1504 14-63 14-21 13-80 1339 12-98 12-57 12-16 11-75 11-34 10-92 10-51 10-10 9-68 9-27 8-86 8-45 8-06 7-«5 7-26 6-87 6-49 611 6-75 6-40 6-06 4-71 4-30 4-08 3-78 3-49 3-22 2-90 2-71 2-49 2-27 2-07 1-88 1-71 1-56 1-41 1-28 1-17 1-00 •95 •2 A 178 CilAPTER V AGE. TABLE F. Life Table, Bengal Presidency. Females. Agf. Living at age x. Dyiug between ages z aii(! x +1, 100,000 29,759 1 70,241 6,594 li 63,647 4,319 :i 59,328 2,971 4 1 50,357 2,116 5 54,241 1,571 52,670 1,221 7 51,449 998 H 50,451 853 y i 49,598 762 lU j 4t<,83B 706 11 48,130 674 1- •1 7,456 676 13 40,780 682 14 46.098 700 15 45,398 721 18 44,677 748 17 43,929 772 18 43,157 789 19 42,368 796 20 41,572 798 21 40,774 798 22 39,976 796 23 39,180 795 24 38,385 793 25 37,592 793 26 36,799 793 27 36,006 792 28 35,214 792 29 34,422 793 30 33,629 793 31 32,836 794 32 32,042 801 33 31,241 797 34 30,444 799 30 29,645 801 36 28,844 804 37 28,040 806 38 27,234 809 39 26,425 811 40 25,614 810 41 24,804 808 42 23,996 806 43 23,190 802 44 22,388 796 45 21,592 789 46 20,803 779 47 20,024 770 48 19,254 761 49 18,493 754 60 17,739 745 51 16,994 737 52 16,257 726 53 15,531 715 54 14,816 704 55 14,112 695 56 13.417 685 57 12,732 677 68 12,055 668 69 1 1,387 660 60 10,727 653 61 10,074 645 62 9,429 638 63 8,791 630 64 8,161 621 65 7,540 611 66 8,929 601 67 6,328 688 68 5,740 574 69 5,168 556 70 4.810 536 71 4,074 514 72 3,560 486 7Z 3,074 458 74 2,616 424 75 2,192 388 79 1,804 350 77 1,454 309 78 1,145 267 79 878 225 80 653 184 81 469 147 82 322 110 83 212 79 84 133 55 85 78 35 86 43 21 87 12 88 W 6 89 4 2 90 2 1 91 1 1 1 92 1 Mortality per cent. | Living bclwceu ages X and X + 1, LJviDg above age x. Mean after life-tiine at age x. 29-76 9-39 6-79 501 3-76 2-90 2-32 1-94 1-69 1-54 1-44 1-40 1-42 1-46 1-52 1-59 1-67 1-76 1-83 1-88 1-92 1-96 1-99 2-03 2-07 211 2-15 2-20 2-25 2-30 2-36 2-42 2-50 2-55 2-62 2-70 2-79 2-88 2-97 307 3-16 3-26 3-36 3-46 3-56 3-65 3-76 3-84 3-95 407 4-20 4-34 i-47 4-60 4-75 4-92 5-11 5-31 5-54 5-80 609 6-41 6-78 7-16 7-61 8-11 8-67 9-30 9-99 10-77 11-63 12-60 13-67 14-87 16-21 17-71 19-39 21-26 23-34 25-65 28-21 31-01 34-08 37-40 40 -M 44-74 48-72 52-86 67-11 91-41 65-69 69-90 76,746 06,692 01,318 57,75« 55,243 63,120 52,038 50,935 50,016 49,211 4S,480 47,791 47,118 46,439 45.748 43,038 44,303 43,543 42,762 41.970 41,173 40,375 39,578 38,782 37,988 37,196 36.402 35.010 34.818 34.026 33.232 32.439 31,642 30.842 30.1144 29,-244 28,442 27,637 26,830 20,020 25,209 24,400 23,593 22,789 21,990 21,198 20,414 19,639 1.S.874 is.iie 17,366 1 6,626 1 3,894 13,174 14,464 13,764 i:!,U74 12.394 11,721 11,057 10,-100 9,752 9,110 8,476 7,850 7,234 6,62S 6,034 3,453 4,888 4,342 3,817 3,817 2,845 2,404 1.998 1.629 1,300 1,012 768 561 396 267 172 106 00 32 16 7 3 1 2,157,549 2,080,803 •2,014,111 1,952,763 1,895,007 1,839,764 1,786,344 1 ,734,306 1,683,371 1,633,355 1,„84,144 1,535,664 1,487,873 1,440,755 1,394,316 1,348,668 1,303,530 1,259,227 1,215,684 1,172,922 1,180,052 1,089,779 1,049,404 1,009,826 971,044 933,056 895.860 859,458 823,848 789,030 755,004 721,772 689,333 657,691 626,849 696,805 567,561 639,119 511,482 484,652 458,632 433,423 409,023 385,4-30 362,641 340,651 319,463 299,039 279,400 260,3-26 242,410 225,044 208,418 192,524 177,350 162,886 149.122 136,048 123,654 111,933 100,876 90,476 80,724 71,614 63,138 55,288 48,054 41,426 35,392 29,939 25,051 20,709 1 6,892 13,575 10,730 8,326 6,328 ■ 4,699 3,399 2.387 1.621 1,060 664 397 225 119 69 27 11 4 1 21-58 29-62 31-65 .S2'9I 33-83 33-92 33-92 33-71 33-37 32-93 32-44 31-91 31-35 30-80 30-35 29-71 29-18 28-67 28-17 2 7 -OS 27-20 26-73 26-25 25-77 25-30 •24-82 24-34 23-87 23-40 22-92 22-45 21-98 21-51 21 05 2059 20-13 19-68 19-23 18-78 18-34 17-91 17-47 1705 16-62 16-20 15-78 15-36 14-93 14-51 1409 13-67 13-24 12-82 12-40 11-97 11-54 nil 10-69 10-26 9-83 9-40 8-98 8-56 8-15 7-74 7-33 0-94 0-55 6-17 6-80 5-43 5-08 4-74 4-42 4-10 3-80 3-51 3-23 2-97 2-72 2-48 2-26 2-08 1-89 1-72 1-58 1-42 1-29 117 ) 116 •95 ACTUARIAL REPORT. 179 TABLE G. Life Table, Bombay Presidency. Males. UvlDg at age>. 11 100,000 1 70,313 2 63,818 i 59,613 4 56,768 5 54,785 6 53,358 7 52,291 8 51,458 9 50,777 10 50,194 U 49,676 12 49,203 13 48,755 14 48,318 15 47,880 16 47.425 17 46,943 18 46,421 19 45,848 20 45,216 21 44,524 22 43,782 23 43,000 24 42,180 25 41,329 26 40,451 27 39,548 28 38,623 29 37,683 30 36,727 31 35,761 32 34,787 33 33,807 34 32,824 35 31,840 36 30,855 37 29,874 38 28,895 39 27,923 40 26,957 41 25,999 42 25,049 43 24,109 44 23,180 43 22,262 46 21,357 47 20,464 48 19,586 49 18,721 50 17,871 51 17,036 52 16,217 53 15,413 54 14,626 55 13,8)6 56 13,102 57 12,366 58 11,648 59 10,948 60 10,266 61 9,602 62 8,958 63 8,334 64 7,729 65 7,146 66 9,581 67 6,038 68 5,517 69 5,018 70 4,541 71 4,087 72 3,655 73 3,247 74 2,862 75 2,501 70 2,1«S 77 1,852 78 1,565 79 1,303 80 1,068 81 856 82 671 83 513 84 381 85 273 86 188 87 123 88 77 89 45 90 25 91 13 92 6 93 3 94 1 95 90 97 98 99 29,687 6,495 4,205 2,845 1,983 1,427 1,067 833 881 583 518 473 448 437 438 455 482 522 573 632 692 742 782 820 851 878 90S 925 940 956 966 974 980 983 984 985 981 979 972 966 958 950 940 929 918 905 893 878 865 850 835 819 804 787 770 754 736 718 700 682 664 644 624 605 584 564 643 521 499 477 454 432 408 385 361 336 318 287 262 237 210 186 158 132 108 85 65 46 32 20 12 7 3 2 1 Mortality per cent. Liviu^ between ages z aud X + i. Living above ago z. 4 6 6 29-69 76,782 2,252,433 9-24 66,812 2,175,651 6-59 61,575 2,108,839 4-77 58,103 2,047,284 3-49 55,720 1,989,161 2-60 64,035 1,933,441 200 62,801 1,879,406 1-59 51,859 1,826,605 1-32 51,107 1,774,746 1-15 50.479 1,723,639 103 49,931 1,673,160 •95 49,437 1,623,229 •91 48,978 1,573,792 •90 48,536 1,524,818 •91 48,099 1,476,280 •95 47,652 1,428,181 102 47,184 1,380,529 111 46,682 1,333,345 1-23 46,134 1,286,663 1-38 45,532 1,240,529 1-53 44,870 1,194,997 1-06 44,153 1,150,127 1-79 43,391 1,105,974 1-91 42,590 1,062,683 202 41,754 1,019,993 212 40,890 978,239 2-23 40,000 937,349 2-34 39,086 897,349 2-44 38,153 858,263 2-54 37,205 820,110 2-63 36,244 782,905 2-72 35,274 746,661 2-82 34,297 711,387 291 33,316 677,090 300 32,332 643,774 309 31,348 611,442 3-18 30,364 580,094 3-28 29,384 549,730 337 2(5,409 520,346 3-46 27,440 491,937 3-56 26,478 464,497 3-65 25,524 438,019 3-75 24,579 412,495 385 23,644 387,916 3-96 22,721 364,272 408 21,810 341,551 418 20,910 319,741 4-29 20,025 298,831 4-42 19,154 278,866 4-54 18,298 259,652 4-87 17,454 241,356 4-81 16,626 223,902 4^96 15,815 207,278 6^11 15,020 191,461 5-27 14,241 176,441 544 13.479 162,200 5'62 12,734 148,721 5-81 12,007 135,987 801 11,298 123,980 6-23 10,607 112,682 6-46 9,934 102,076 671 9,280 92,141 6-97 8,646 82,881 7-26 8,032 74,215 756 7,437 66,183 7-89 6,863 58,746 8-24 0,310 61,883 8-63 5,778 45,573 905 5,26S 39,795 9-51 4,780 34.527 1001 4,314 29,747 10-56 3,871 26,433 1117 3,451 21,582 11-84 3,054 ^*'i!i 12-61 2,682 15,057 13-46 2,333 12,375 14-43 2,008 10,042 15-51 1,708 8,034 19-75 1,434 6,328 18-16 1,184 4,892 19-74 961 3,708 21-54 764 2,747 23-57 592 1,083 25-85 447 1,391 28-38 327 944 31-16 230 617 34-21 156 387 37-51 100 231 41-04 111 131 41-79 :(.■> TO 4S-72 19 36 52-79 111 16 66-96 4 6 01-17 2 2 65-36 69-48 Mean alter lltr-Umo at ago X. 22-52 30-94 3304 34-34 35-04 35-29 35-22 34-93 34-49 33-95 33-33 32-68 31-99 31-28 30-55 29-83 29-11 28-40 27-72 27-06 26-43 25-83 25-26 24-71 24- IK 23-67 23-17 22-69 22-22 21-76 21-32 20-88 20-45 2003 19-61 19-20 18-80 18-40 18-01 17-62 17-23 16-85 16-47 16-09 15-71 15-34 14-97 14-6(1 14-21 13-87 13-51 13-14 12-78 12-42 12-06 11-71 11-35 ll-OO 10-64 10-20 0-04 9-60 9-25 8-91 8-56 8-22 7-88 7^55 7^21 6-8.-1 6-55 6-22 6-90 6-58 6-26 495 4-114 4-31 4-11 1 3-75 3-48 3-21 2-U6 2-71 2-48 226 2'l>6 1-88 1-71 1-56 1-4 1 1-2S 1-lU 1-112 A -Z 180 CHAPTER V — AGE. TABLE H. Life Table, Bombay Peesidency. Feinales. Age. Liviug at age x. Dying between ages «andi+l. Mortality per cent. 100,000 1 70,424 2 64,015 3 59,8S4 * 67,106 6 55,180 6 53,817 7 52,806 8 62,021 9 51,384 10 50,838 11 50,352 12 49,901 IS 49,470 14 49,043 15 4«,008 16 48,153 17 47,664 18 47,130 19 46,544 20 45,892 21 45,178 22 44,412 23 43,602 24 42,753 26 41,872 26 40,96i 27 40,025 28 39,068 29 38,094 30 37,108 31 36,114 32 35,114 38 34,111 34 33.110 35 32,114 86 31,121 37 30,137 38 29,160 39 28,193 40 27,234 41 26,286 42 25,347 43 24,421 44 23,507 45 22,604 46 21,716 47 20,839 48 19,977 49 19,127 50 18,200 61 17,468 62 16,669 68 15.865 64 15,086 65 14,322 6« 13,578 67 12,841 68 12,124 69 11,428 60 10,780 61 10,071 62 9,421 63 8,787 64 8.170 66 7,572 66 6,992 67 6,431 68 6.890 60 6,370 70 4,871 71 4,398 72 3.930 73 3.507 74 3,098 75 2,713 76 2,362 77 2,017 78 1,707 79 1,424 80 1,188 31 [989 62 |7S8 88 505 84 419 86 301 86 207 87 137 88 86 89 60 90 28 91 14 92 7 93 3 04 1 05 ,, 29,576 6,409 4,131 2,778 1,920 1,369 1,011 785 637 646 486 451 431 427 435 455 489 634 686 662 714 766 810 840 881 911 936 067 074 986 994 1,000 1,003 1,001 996 993 984 977 967 969 949 938 026 914 903 888 877 862 860 837 822 809 794 779 764 749 732 717 701 684 650 634 617 598 680 1661 541 t 520 499 478 464 432 409 385 361 SS5 310 283 266 220 201 173 146 118 U4 70 62 35 22 14 7 4 29-58 910 6-45 4-64 3-36 2-48 1-88 1-49 1-22 106 •96 •90 •86 •94 1^02 1-12 1^24 1-40 1^66 1-70 1-82 195 206 2^18 2^28 230 2-49 259 2^68 2^77 286 2-94 801 309 316 3-24 3-32 340 3-48 S57 366 3-74 3-84 3-93 4^04 414 4^25 437 4-50 4-63 477 491 5^06 523 640 &58 6^78 699 6-21 646 673 7-02 7^83 7^66 8^02 8^41 8-84 020 080 10-35 1097 11^65 1243 1829 14-26 15-85 16-59 18-00 10-60 21-42 28-46 26-74 28-28 81-08 34-13 87-44 40-98 44-73 48-67 62-74 56-92 61-13 05-33 69-45 Living between ages X and x + 1. 76,83S 66,967 lil,810 58,408 56,090 54,466 53,289 52,399 51,693 51,105 60,592 50,125 49,688 49,256 48,826 48,380 47,908 47,397 46,837 46,218 45,535 44,795 44,007 43,178 42,312 41,416 40,493 39,546 38,581 37,601 36,611 35,614 34,612 33,610 3-2,612 31,618 30,629 29,648 28,676 27,714 28,760 25,816 24,884 23,964 23,056 22,180 21,278 20,408 19,552 18,708 17,879 17,064 1 8,'262 16,476 14,704 13,948 13,207 12,482 11,774 11,081 10,405 9,746 9,104 8,478 7,871 7,282 6,712 6,160 6,630 6,120 4,632 4,166 3,723 3,302 2,900 2,632 2,184 1,862 1,566 1,296 1,054 652 492 360 254 172 111 68 39 21 10 5 2 5 above age x. Mean after life-time at age I. 6 7 2,286,318 2,-209,478 2,142,511 2,080,701 2,022,293 1,966,203 2286 31-37 3347 34-75 35-41 35-63 1,911,737 1,858,448 1,806,049 1,754,356 1,703,251 35-52 35-19 34-72 34-14 33-50 1,652,659 1,602,534 1,652,848 1,503,592 1,454,766 32-82 32-11 31-39 30-66 29-93 1,406,386 1,358,478 1,311,081 1,264,244 1,218,026 29-21 28-50 27-82 27-18 26-54 1,172,491 1,127,896 1,083,689 1,040,511 998,199 25-95 25-39 24-85 24-34 23-84 956,783 916,290 876,744 838,163 800,582 23-38 122-89 22-44 22-00 21-57 763,951 728,337 693,725 680.115 ^627,503 2M5 20^74 20-3-i 19-94 19-54 ,695,885 i 665,256 635,608 ^506,932 479,218 19-15 18-76 18-37 17-98 17-60 452,458 426,642 401,758 377,794 354,738 17-21 16-83 16-45 10-07 15-69 332,578 311,300 290,892 271,340 252,832 15-31 14-94 14-58 14-19 13-81 234,753 217,680 201,427 185,951 171,247 13-44 13-07 12-70 12-33 11-96 157,290 144,002 181,610 119,838 108,755 11-59 11-22 10-86 10-49 10-13 98,350 88,604 79,500 71,022 68,161 9-77 9-40 9-05 8-69 8-34 66,869 49,157 42,997 37,367 82,247 7-99 7-64 780 69« 662 27,615 23,449 19,726 16,424 13,518 626 505 5-62 6-30 4^98 10,986 8,802 6,940 5,374 4,078 467 436 4-07 3-77 3-49 3,024 2,186 1,634 1,042 682 3-22 2-98 2-72 2-49 2-27 428 266 145 77 88 2-07 1-89 1-71 1-60 1-42 17 7 2 1-28 116 1-02 ACTUARIAL REPORT. 181 TABLE J. Life Table, Burma. Males. Age. LiriDg at ago x. Dying between ages z and X -t- 1. Mortality per cent. 100,000 1 77,800 2 72,714 3 69,485 4 67,27« 5 65,714 64,568 7 63,693 8 62,994 9 02,4US 10 61,896 11 61,432 12 61,002 13 60,583 14 60,103 15 09,727 16 59,267 17 08,775 IS 58,241 19 57,666 20 57,045 21 56,387 22 65,690 23 54,959 24 54,195 25 53,395 26 52,565 27 51,711 28 50,839 29 49,956 30 49,065 31 48,174 32 47,285 33 40,402 34 45,530 35 44,668 36 43,816 37 42,972 38 42,137 39 41,308 40 40,481 41 39,656 42 38,830 43 38,001 44 37,169 45 36,331 46 35,4S8 47 34,633 48 33,782 49 32,919 50 32,049 51 31,174 52 30,292 53 29,406 54 28,514 55 27,618 56 26,720 57 25,818 58 24,907 59 23,977 60 23,005 61 21,988 62 20,885 63 19,769 64 18,834 65 17,490 66 16.341 67 15,192 68 14,046 69 12,',>07 70 11,734 71 i 10,692 72 9,607 73 8.506 74 7,586 75 6,815 70 .'■.,71s 77 4,882 73 4,113 79 3,111 80 2,789 81 2.23'? R2 1,762 83 1.358 84 1,023 85 751 SO 336 87 373 88 249 89 161 80 100 91 no 92 34 93 18 9( e 95 4 96 2 97 98 99 22,340 4,946 3,229 2,209 1,562 1,146 S75 899 586 512 464 430 419 420 436 460 492 534 575 621 658 697 731 764 800 830 854 872 883 891 891 889 883 872 862 852 844 835 829 827 825 826 829 832 838 843 830 856 863 870 875 882 888 892 896 898 902 911 930 972 1,037 1,083 1,116 1,135 1,144 1,149 1,149 1,146 1,139 1.123 1,102 1,075 1,041 1,000 951 897 838 769 699 ll!!5 551 476 404 335 272 215 184 123 88 61 40 26 16 9 22-34 6-37 4-44 3-18 2-32 1-74 1-36 1-10 •93 •82 •75 •70 •69 •69 •72 •77 •83 •91 •99 108 115 1-24 1-31 1^39 1-48 155 1-63 1-68 1-74 1^78 1^82 1-84 1-87 1-88 1^89 1-91 1-92 1^94 1-97 200 2^04 2^08 213 2^19 2-25 2^32 2-40 2-47 2^56 2^64 2-73 2-83 2^93 3^03 3^14 3-25 3^38 3^53 3-74 405 4-51 4^93 5^34 5-74 614 8-57 701 7^54 810 8-70 9'36 1006 10-83 11-07 12-58 13-56 14-62 1578 16-99 18-32 19^74 21 -ao 22-92 24-69 2H-36 28^58 30-70 32-95 33-34 37-81 10-49 43-30 46-34 49-63 53-20 57-08 Living between ages X and z-rl. 82,549 74,006 70,994 68.315 86,452 65,115 64,113 63,332 62,093 62,147 61,681 61, .'13 60,794 60,373 59,945 59,497 59.021 58,503 57,954 57,358 56,716 56,038 55,324 54,577 53.795 32,980 5-2,138 51,-275 50,398 49,510 48,620 47.730 46,844 45,966 45,099 44,242 43,394 4-2,534 41,722 40,894 40,068 39,243 38,416 37,585 36,750 35,910 35,063 34,210 33,350 32,484 31,612 30,733 29,849 28,960 28,066 27,169 26,269 23,362 24,442 23,191 2-2,486 21,426 20,327 1 9,-202 18,062 16,916 15,768 14,619 13,476 12,346 11,233 10,144 9,086 8,066 7,090 «,I66 5,300 4,493 3,764 3,102 . 2,514 2,(100 I,. -.00 1.190 8'^7 641 134 310 205 130 SO 47 26 14 6 3 Living above age x. 3,148,034 3,003,485 2,991,479 2,920,485 2,852,170 2,785,718 2,720,603 2,6.-i6,4a0 2,593,158 2,530,485 2,468,318 2,408,857 2,345,442 2,284,648 2,224,-275 2,164,330 2,104,833 2,045,812 1,987,304 1,9-29,330 1,871,994 1,815,278 1,739,-240 1,703,916 1,649,339 1,595,544 1,542,564 1,490,426 1,439,131 1,388,753 1,339,243 l,290,6-23 1,242,893 1,196,049 1,150,083 1,104,984 1,060,742 1,017,348 974,794 933,072 892,178 852,110 812,807 774,451 736,808 700,116 664.206 029, 1 43 594.933 561,583 529,099 497,487 466,754 436,903 407,945 379,379 352,718 326,441 301,079 276,037 233,146 330,600 209,-234 188,907 ]0!>,703 151,643 134,727 118,961 104,342 90,886 78,520 67,287 57,143 48,057 Mean aft«r life-time at age X. 31-48 39-47 41-14 42-03 42-40 4-2-3U 42-14 41-71 41- 17 40'55 39-88 39-18 38-45 37-71 38-97 3624 33-51 34-81 3412 33-46 32-82 32-19 31-39 31-00 30-43 29-88 29-33 2882 28-31 27-80 2;-30 26-79 28-29 23-78 •25-26 24-74 24-21 23-67 23-13 22-59 22-04 21-49 20-93 20-38 19-82 19-27 18-72 18-16 17-61 1706 16-31 15-98 15-41 14-88 14-31 1375 13^20 12-64 12-09 11-54 11-00 10-50 1002 9^56 9^11 8-67 8-24 7-83 7-43 7-0 J 0-66 6-.30 5-95 5-81 32,901 4-97 26,735 4-68 21,435 4-39 10,937 4-12 13,173 3-80 10.071 $-61 7,567 S-39 5,357 3- 15 i 3,997 ^•ui 2,907 2-74 1,920 ' 2-58 1,276 E-38 822 2-21 512 J-On 307 rui 177 1-7? 07 l-M 60 1-4!" 24 1 34 10 I-IT « 1-00 1 •50 •• 182 CHAPTER V AGE. TABLE K. Life Table, Burma, Females. Age. Living at age i. Dying between ages xand x+1. Mortality percent. 1 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 lU 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 60 61 62 63 64 66 66 57 68 69 60 61 62 63 64 66 6S 67 68 69 70 7» 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 86 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 03 91 96 96 97 «8 99 100,000 77,929 73,222 70,220 68,232 66,li81 65,933 65,242 64,708 64,273 63,901 63,564 63,246 62.923 62.585 62,214 61,804 61,351 60,844 60,285 59,671 59,005 58,288 57,531 56,727 55,880 54,995 64,073 53,125 52,157 61,173 50,186 49,199 48,221 47,255 46,305 45,370 44,450 43,544 42,653 41,771 40,898 40,032 89,169 3S,305 37,442 36,578 35.712 34,843 33,971 33,096 32,216 31,333 30,447 29,557 28,664 27,768 26,869 25,959 25,028 24,050 23,002 21,902 20,766 19.605 18,432 17,251 16,065 14,878 13,697 12,527 11.375 10,248 9,158 8,098 7,092 6,140 6,252 4.431 3,684 3,014 2,422 1,909 1,474 1,111 817 684 406 272 176 lib 65 37 20 10 5 2 1 22,071 4,707 3,002 1,988 1,351 948 691 534 435 372 337 818 323 338 371 410 453 .507 659 614 666 717 757 804 847 885 922 948 968 984 987 987 978 966 950 935 906 891 882 873 866 863 864 863 864 866 869 872 875 880 883 886 890 893 896 899 910 931 978 1,048 1,100 1,136 1,161 1,173 1,181 1,186 1,187 1,181 1,170 1,162 1,127 1,095 1,055 1,006 952 888 821 747 670 592 613 436 363 294 233 178 134 96 06 45 28 17 10 6 3 1 I 2207 604 410 2-83 1-98 1-42 105 •82 •67 •58 •63 •50 •51 •54 •59 •66 •73 •82 •92 102 1^12 1'22 130 1-40 1^49 1-58 1^68 175 182 1-80 1-93 1-96 1-99 200 2^01 2^02 2^03 2^04 205 207 209 212 2^16 220 2^25 £•31 2-37 243 2-50 258 2^66 274 2-83 2^92 302 312 324 3-39 359 390 436 4^78 519 6^69 5^9S 641 6-88 7-38 7-94 8-64 9^20 991 10^68 1152 12^4S 13^41 14-48 1662 ie-80 18-211 1962 21^17 22^81 24^59 2647 2849 80-62 3288 3528 87^78 40^43 4325 46^29 49'68 6S16 67-04 «1^20 e5-64 Living between a X and x + 1. 82,683 74,394 71,616 69,161 67,614 66,381 65,570 64,964 64,483 64,082 63,729 63,403 63,086 62,754 62,400 62,009 61,578 61,098 60,564 59,978 69,338 68,646 57 910 57,129 56,304 55,438 54,534 53,599 52,641 51.605 50,680 49,692 48.710 47,733 46,780 45,838 44,910 43,997 4.1,093 42,212 41,334 40,465 39,600 38,737 37,874 37,010 86,145 35,278 34,407 83,534 32,656 31,774 30,890 30,002 29,110 28,216 27,318 26,414 25,494 24,539 23,526 22,452 21,334 20,186 19.018 17,842 16,658 15,472 14,288 13,112 11,951 10,812 9,700 8,626 7,695 6,616 6,696 4,842 4,058 3,349 2,718 2,166 1,692 1,292 964 700 496 339 224 143 88 51 28 16 8 4 Living above'nge'x. Mean after life-time at agcf. 3,-2fil,lB5 3,178,482 3,104,088 3,032,472 2,963,311 2,895,797 2,829,416 2,763,846 2,698,882 2,634,399 2,570,317 2,606,588 2,443,185 2,380,099 2,317,345 2,-254,945 2,192,936 2,131,358 2,070,260 2,009,696 1,949,718 1,890,380 1,831,734 1,773,824 1,716,695 1,660,391 1,604,953 1,550,419 1,496.820 1,444.179 1,392,514 1,341.834 1.292.142 1,243.432 1,105,694 1,148,914 1,103,076 1,058,166 1,014.169 971.071 928,869 887,525 84T,0fi(! 807,460 708.723 730,849 093,839 057,694 622.416 588,009 664,475 621,819 490,045 459,155 429,153 400,043 371,827 344.509 318,095 292,601 268,062 2i4,636 222,084 200,750 180,564 161,546 143,704 127,046 111,574 97,286 84,174 72,22S 61,411 51,711 43,085 35,490 28,874 •23,178 18.336 14,-278 10,929 8,211 6,045 4,363 3,061 2,097 1,397 902 663 339 196 108 67 20 14 6 32-61 40^79 42-39 4319 43^43 43-30 42-91 42-36 41-71 40-9'J 40^22 3943 3863 3783 3703 3624 3548 3474 3403 33-34 32-67 32-04 31-43 30-83 30-20 29-71 29-18 28-67 28-18 27-69 27-21 26-74 26-26 25-79 25-30 24-81 24-31 23-81 23-29 22-77 22-24 21-70 21-10 20-01 20-07 19-52 18^97 18^42 17-86 17-31 16-75 16-20 15-64 15-03 14-52 13-90 13-39 12-82 12-25 11-69 1115 10^63 10-14 9-07 9-21 8-76 8-33 7-91 7-50 7-10 672 635 69» 6^65 6^32 6^00 470 4^41 414 3^88 363 3^39 3^17 2^95 276 2^57 2^39 2^22 2^06 191 1^77 l^e4 1-62 1-89 1-27 1-12 ■95 •67 ACTUARIAL REPORT. 183 TABLE L. Life Table, Madras Presidency. Males. Age. Living at iige x. 100.000 1 72,11U7 2 «8,4U5 3 02,323 4 59,515 5 57,521 6 56,051 7 il.VM 8 54,031 9 53,276 10 52,615 11 52,0 IB 12 61,450 13 50,916 14 50,373 15 49,832 16 49,292 17 4S,753 18 48,214 19 47,674 20 47,134 21 46,591 22 40,044 23 45,491 24 44,932 25 44,364 26 43,783 27 43,187 28 42,570 29 41,933 30 41,277 31 40,599 32 39,'JOO 33 39,175 34 38,427 35 37,656 36 36,859 37 36,040 38 35,202 39 34,333 40 33,444 41 32,536 •42 31,624 43 30,706 44 29,787 45 28,866 46 27,946 47 27,026 48 26,108 49 25,194 50 24,284 51 23,381 52 22,484 53 21,595 54 20,714 55 19,844 56 18,985 57 18,137 58 17,:!01 59 ir.,479 60 15,«7I 61 14.878 62 14,009 63 13,335 64 12,585 65 11,848 66 11,126 67 10,417 68 9,722 69 9,041 70 8,375 71 7,723 72 7,US7 73 6,467 74 6,863 75 5,280 76 4,7 IB 7T 4,171 78 3,648 79 3,151 80 2,081 81 2,242 82 1,837 83 1,471 84 1,148 85 HdV 86 631 87 440 88 292 89 183 90 107 91 68 92 29 93 13 94 5 93 2 U« 1 »7 ^^ 93 99 Dying between ages landz+l- 27,393 6,202 4,082 2,808 1,994 1,467 1,124 899 755 001 599 557 543 643 541 540 539 539 540 540 543 547 563 559 568 581 596 617 637 656 678 699 725 748 771 797 819 838 869 889 908 912 918 919 921 920 920 918 9U 910 903 897 889 881 870 859 848 836 822 808 793 779 764 730 737 722 709 695 681 668 652 636 620 601 585 564 545 523 497 470 439 405 366 325 279 236 191 148 109 76 49 29 14 B 3 I I Mortality pet cent. Living between ages X and x + l. Living above age x. 27 39 8-54 615 4-50 3-35 2-55 201 1-64 1-40 1-24 114 107 108 106 107 108 110 111 112 113 115 1-17 1-20 T23 1-26 1-31 1-36 1-43 1-50 1-56 1-64 1-72 1-82 1-91 201 2-12 2*22 2-33 2-47 2-59 2-71 2-Sl 2-90 2-99 309 3-19 3-29 3-40 3-50 3-61 3-72 3-83 3-96 4-08 4-19 4-33 4-47 4-61 4-75 4-90 506 5-24 5-42 5-83 5-85 610 6-37 6-B7 700 7-37 7-78 8-24 8-75 9-32 9-96 10-70 11-54 12-54 13-B3 14-91 16-38 18-04 19-94 22-08 24-33 27-22 30-26 33-82 37-33 41-37 45-7 » 50-41 55-33 60 43 6,^-6 1 70-83 76-00 78,709 69,288 64,233 60,835 58,462 56,761 53,469 51,465 53,643 52,939 52,311 51,736 61,188 50,644 50,102 49,502 49,022 4>',484 47,944 47,404 46,802 48,318 45,788 45,212 44,648 44,074 43,485 42,878 42,252 41,605 40,938 40,250 39,538 38,801 38,042 37,258 36,450 35,621 34,768 33.888 32,990 32.080 31,165 30,246 29,328 28,406 27,486 26,567 25,651 24.739 23,832 22,932 22,040 21,154 20,279 19,414 18,381 !;,719 1 6,890 16,075 15,274 14.488 13,717 12,960 12.216 11,487 10,772 10,070 9,382 8,708 8,049 7,405 6,777 6,165 5,572 4,998 4,444 3,910 3,400 2,916 2,462 2.040 1,654 1,308 1.008 749 536 366 238 145 82 44 II 9 4 2 2,592,775 2,514,066 2,444,778 2,380,545 2,319.710 2,261,248 2,204,497 2,149,028 2,094,563 2,040,926 1,987,981 1,935,670 1,888,934 1,832,746 1,782,102 1,732,000 1,882,438 1,633,416 1,584,932 1,536,988 1,489,584 1,442,722 1,396,404 1,350,636 1,305,424 1,260,776 1,216,702 1,173,217 1,130,339 1,088,087 1,046,482 1,005,544 965,294 925,736 888,955 848,913 811,655 775,205 739,584 704,816 670,928 637,938 605,858 574,693 544,447 615,121 486,713 459.229 432,662 407.011 382,272 358.440 335,508 313,468 292,314 272,035 252,621 234.060 216,341 199,451 • 183,376 168,102 153,614 139,897 126,937 114,721 103,234 92.4112 82,392 73,010 64,302 56,253 48,848 42,071 35,iK)« 30.334 25,336 20.892 16,982 13,582 10,666 8,204 8,164 4,510 3,202 2,190 1,447 911 545 307 182 80 Mean after lUe-time at agex. 25-92 34-63 36-82 38-20 38-98 39-31 39-33 39-12 38-77 38-31 3778 37-21 36-61 36-00 35.38 34-76 34-13 33 50 32-87 32-24 31-60 30-97 30-33 29-69 2905 28-42 27-79 27-17 26-55 25-95 25-35 24-77 24 19 23-63 23-08 22-52 22-02 21-51 21-01 20-53 20-06 19-61 19-16 18-72 18-28 17-85 17-42 16-90 16-57 16-18 15-74 15-33 14-92 14-52 14-11 13 71 13-31 12-91 12-50 12-10 11-70 11-30 10-90 10-49 10-09 9-68 9-2S 8-88 8-47 8-08 7-fl3 7-28 6-89 6-51 6-12 575 5-37 5-0I 4-66 4-31 3-98 S-66 3-39 3-07 2-79 2-53 2-29 2-07 1-84 I ft? 1-50 l-3« 1-21 1-08 ■90 •83 "12 184 CHAPTER V AGE. Ti^JBLE^M. Life Table, Madras Presidency. Fenmles. Age. Living at age x. 100,000 1 74,208 2 69,?60 3 65,980 4 63.716 6 ■ 62,017 6 60,569 7 59,324 8 68,247 9 67,305 10 66,472 11 55,715 12 55,010 13 54,330 14 53,664 15 63,002 16 62,347 17 51.609 18 51,058 19 50,422 20 49,792 21 49,1 6!> 22 48.543 23 47.929 24 47,30.-, 25 46,670 26 46,037 27 45,:iil2 28 44,7:!1 29 44,055 SO 43.364 j 31 1 42,654 S2 41,926 33 41,176 34 40,405 35 39,614 36 38,801 37 37,968 38 37,118 39 86,237 40 35,338 41 34,421 42 33,500 43 32,577 44 31,652 45 30,726 46 29,802 47 28,878 48 27,954 49 27,033 60 26,120 SI 25,212 52 24,308 S3 23,410 64 22,520 55 21,840 56 20,768 57 i0,906 58 19,034 59 18,211 60 17,377 61 16,352 62 15,737 63 14,932 04 14,136 6S 13,351 6S 12.575 67 11,809 68 11,054 69 10,310 70 9,577 71 ' 8,856 72 • 8,149 73 7,457 74 0,780 75 6,120 76 B,47y 77 4,859 78 4,260 79 3,683 80 3,145 61 2,636 82 2,105 83 1,737 84 1,356 65 1,028 86 750 87 524 8» 340 S« 210 00 129 01 70 02 35 03 16 04 03 2 96 I 97 (18 09 Dying between j xandz+l. 25,702 5,038 3,271 2,273 1,699 1,448 1,245 1,077 942 833 757 705 680 666 662 655 648 641 . 636 6S0 624 620 619 624 629 639 645 661 676 691 710 728 750 771 791 813 833 850 881 899 917 921 923 925 926 924 924 924 919 915 908 904 898 890 880 872 S62 852 843 834 825 815 803 796 785 776 755 744 733 721 707 692 677 660 641 620 599 572 543 609 471 428 381 328 278 226 175 130 90 59 35 19 lU 4 1 Mort^ty „er cent. "^-'f^^HXV^'^ ^^'"^ "bove age ^. Mean after Wc-time at age*. 25-70 6-78 4-72 3-44 2-67 2-34 206 1-82 1-62 1-43 1-34 1-26 1-24 1-23 1-23 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-25 1-25 1-26 1-27 1 30 1-33 1-37 1-40 ]'46 1-31 1-57 1-64 1-71 1-79 1-87 1-96 205 2-15 2-24 2-37 2-48 2-60 2-67 2-76 2-84 2-93 301 3-10 3-20 3-29 3-38 3-48 3-58 3-69 3-80 3-91 4 03 415 4-28 4-42 4-58 4-75 4-92 511 5-33 5-56 5-81 609 B-40 B-73 711 7-53 7-98 8-30 908 !l-73 10-47 11-32 12-32 13-43 14-72 16-19 17-86 19-77 2l-9-i 24-18 27-08 30-12 33-50 37-21 41-26 45-64 60-32 55-26 60-37 65-58 70-78 79,253 71,301 67,493 64,769 62,810 61,257 59,923 58,770 57,765 56,882 56,089 55,361 54,670 53,997 53,333 52,674 52,023 51,378 50,740 50,107 49,480 48,858 48,238 47,617 46,990 46,356 45,714 45,062 44,393 43,710 43,009 42,290 41,551 40,790 40,010 39,208 38,384 37,643 36,678 35,788 34,880 33,960 33,038 32,114 31,189 30,264 29,340 28.416 •27,494 26,57S 25,666 24,760 23,859 22,063 22,080 21,-204 20,337 19,480 lS.6:i-2 17,794 16,904 16,144 15,334 14.534 13,774 12,963 12,192 11,432 10,682 9,944 9,216 8,502 7,803 7,118 6,450 5,800 5,169 4,560 3,974 3,416 2,890 2,400 1,951 1,546 1,192 889 637 436 284 174 100 62 26 11 4 2 6 7 2,765,111 2,685,856 2,61 4,295 2,546,802 2,482,033 2,419,223 ' 27-65 36-15 37-75 38-69 38-95 1 39-01 2,357,966 2,298,043 2,239,273 2,181,508 2,124,626 38-93 38-74 38-44 38-07 37-62 2,063,537 2,013,176 1,958,506 1,904,509 1,831,176 37-13 . 36-60 36-05 35-49 34-93 1,798.502 1,746,479 1,695,101 1,644,361 l,594,-254 34-36 33-78 33-20 32-61 3202 1,544,774 1,495,916 1,447,678 1.400,061 1,353,071 31-42 3081 30-20 29-60 28-99 1,306,715 1,261,001 1,215,939 1,171,546 1,127,836 28-38 27-78 27-18 26-59 26-01 1,084,827 1,042,537 1,000,986 960,196 920.186 25-43 24-87 2431 23-76 23-23 880,978 842,594 805,051 768,373 732,585 22-71 22-19 21-69 21-20 20-73 697,705 663,745 630,707 598,593 567,404 20-27 19-81 19-36 18-91 18-47 537,140 507,800 479,384 451,890 425,312 18-02 17-38 17-15 10-71 16-28 399,646 374,886 351,027 328,062 305,982 15-85 15-42 14.09 14-57 14-14 284,778 264,441 244,961 226,329 208,533 13-71 13-28 12-86 12-43 12-00 191,571 175,427 160.093 145,559 131,815 11-57 11-15 10-72 10-30 9-87 118,852 106,660 ■■ 95,228 84,546 74,602 9-45 9-03 8-61 8-20 7-79 05,386 56,884 49,081 y 41,963 35,513 7-38 6-98 6-58 6-19 5-80 29.713 24,544 19,984 16,010 12,594 . 5-42 5-05 4-69 4-34 4-00 9,704 7,304 5,35S 3,807 2,615 3-6S 3-37 3-08 2-81 2-64 1,726 1,089 653 369 195 2-30 2-OS 1-87 1>«S 1-60 93 43 17 6 2 1-35 X-20 1-07 ■04 ■80 ACTUARIAL REPORT. 185 TABLE N. LiFK Table, Agra and Oudh (United Provinces). , Males. Age. LlTlng at age z. a Dying between age» J and X + 1. 1 j Mortality per cent. Living between ages I xandz-t-1. Living above age x. Mean after lUe-Umc at agez. 1 1 2 ' 3 4 6 6 7 100,000 29,787 29-79 76,732 2,120,880 21-21 1 70,213 6,595 9-39 66,662 2,044,148 29-11 2 63,618 4,305 6-76 61,325 1,977.486 31-08 ■i 59.313 2,946 4-96 57,753 1,916,161 32-31 4 56.368 2,083 3-70 55,270 1,858,403 32-97 5 54,285 1,527 2-81 63,485 1,803,138 33-22 6 62,758 1,167 2-21 52,151 1,749,663 33' 16 7 : 51.591 933 ISl 51,109 1,697,602 3290 8 50,658 781 1-64 60,257 1,646,393 32-50 9 49,877 683 1-37 49.529 1,696,136 3200 10 49,194 618 1-26 48.881 1,546,607 31-44 U 48,576 575 1 18 48,288 1,497,726 3083 12 48.001 552 1 15 47,726 1,449,440 30-20 13 • 4V.449 648 116 47,175 1,401,714 29-54 14 46,901 661 1-20 46,620 1,354,539 28-83 15 46,340 589 1-27 46,046 1.307.919 28-22 16 45,751 634 1-39 45,434 1, -261, 873 2.-53 17 45,117 676 1-50 44,779 1,216,439 26-96 13 44,441 740 1S6 44,071 1,171,660 26-36 1» 43,701 788 1-80 43,307 1,127,589 25-80 20 42,913 830 1-93 42,498 1,084,282 25-27 21 42,083 865 200 41,650 1,041,734 24-76 22 41.218 900 218 40,768 1,000,134 24-26 23 40,318 928 2-30 39,854 959,366 23-79 24 39,390 950 2-41 38,915 919,512 23-34 25 36,440 967 2-62 37,936 880,697 22-91 26 37,473 977 2-61 36,984 842,641 22-49 27 36,496 986 2-70 36,003 803,657 22-08 28 i 35,510 988 : 2-78 35.016 769,654 21-67 29 34,522 989 2-86 34.028 734,638 1 21-28 SO 33,533 987 2-94 33,040 700,610 ' 20-89 sr 32,546 981 301 32,056 667.570 20-51 32 31.565 974 309 31.078 635,514 20-13 33 30.591 967 316 30.108 604,436 19-70 34 29,624 966 3-23 29,146 574,328 19-39 35 28,668 946 3-30 28,195 545,182 1902 36 27.722 933 3-37 27,256 516,987 18-66 37 26.789 921 344 26,328 480,731 18-28 38 25,868 907 3-61 26,414 463,403 17-91 39 24.961 893 3-58 24,514 437,989 17-55 40 21,068 878 3-65 23,629 413,475 1718 41 23.190 865 3-73 22,758 389,846 16-81 42 22,325 849 3-80 21,900 367,088 16-44 43 21,476 835 3-89 21.058 345,188 1607 44 20,641 820 3-97 20,231 324,130 15-70 43 19,821 805 406 19,418 303,899 15-33 46 19,016 791 416 18,620 284,481 14-96 47 18,225 777 4-26 17,836 265.861 14-59 48 17.448 763 4-37 17,066 248.025 14-21 49 16.685 750 4-19 16.310 230.959 13-84 60 15.935 737 4-62 15.5«« 214,649 13-47 51 15.198 723 4-76 1 4..S.3rt 199,083 13-10 52 14.475 710 4-91 14,120 184,247 12-73 53 13,765 697 506 13,416 170,127 12-36 54 13,068 683 5-23 12.726 156,711 11-99 55 12.385 671 5-41 12.050 143.985 11-63 56 11.714 657 5-61 11,386 131.935 11-26 67 11,057 643 5-82 10.736 120.549 10-90 58 10.414 629 604 10.100 109.813 10-54 69 9.785 614 6-27 9.478 99.713 10-19 60 9,171 598 6-52 8,872 90,235 9-84 61 3.573 582 6-79 8,282 81.363 0-49 62 7.991 584 706 7,709 73,081 9-14 63 7.427 549 7-38 7,152 65,372 8-80 64 6,878 630 7-71 6,813 58.220 8-46 65 6,348 511 805 6.092 61,607 8-13 66 5,837 491 8-42 5,592 46,615 7-80 67 5,346 4/2 8-82 6,110 89,923 7-47 68 4,874 454 9-24 4,619 34,813 7-14 «9 4,424 426 9-71 4.209 30,164 6-83 70 3,994 403 10-27 3.790 26,955 6-50 71 3,586 385 10-75 3,394 22,165 6-18 72 3,201 363 11-34 3,020 V,771 5-86 73 2.838 340 11-99 2,668 15,751 6-55 74 2.498 318 12-72 2,3.39 13,083 5-24 75 2.180 295 13-52 2,032 10,744 4-93 76 1,885 272 14 43 1,749 8,712 4-62 77 1,613 249 15-45 1,488 6,»6S 4-32 78 1.364 227 16-62 1.260 5,475 4-01 79 1,137 204 17-96 1,035 4,225 3-72 80 933 182 19-54 842 3,190 3-42 81 751 161 21-41 670 2,348 S-13 82 500 140 23-64 620 1,678 S-86 83 4.50 118 26-28 391 1,168 2-57 84 832 B8 20-40 28S 7"T S-31 85 234 77 33-04 196 484 207 88 157 68 37-22 128 288 I -83 87 99 48 41-04 78 160 1*62 88 57 27 47-U 44 82 1-43 89 30 10 52-76 22 S8 1-20 90 14 8 58-64 iO 16 l-ll 01 « 4 64-64 4 6 ■98 92 2 1 70-56 o 2 ■86 93 I 1 76-21 • • .. •• 94 95 •• • • .. ,, 9« 97 •• •• •• • • 90 .. ,, ^. 99 •• •• •• • > •• 186 CHAPTER V — AGE. TABLE 0, Life Table, Agra and Oudh (United Provinces). Females. Age. Living at age z. Dying between ages . X andx-t-1. 1 Mortality per cent. 1 Living between ages z audz+1. Living above age z. Mean aft*r life-time at age X. 1 1 2 3 4 & 6 7 1 > loo.ooe) 29,754 29-75 78.748 2,150,333 21-60 1 70,246 6,562 9 34 66,712 2,073,585 29-52 2 63,684 4,281 6-72 61,403 2,006,873 31-61 3 59,403 2,926 4-93 57,853 1,945,470 82-75 4 66,477 2,069 368 55,386 1,887,617 33-42 5 5»,408 1,518 2-79 53,813 1,832,'231 33-68 6 52.890 1,161 2-20 52,288 1,778,818 33-63 7 61,729 933 1-80 51,242 1,728,332 33-37 8 50,796 787 1-55 50,387 1,875,090 32-98 9 50,009 694 1-39 49,655 1,624,703 32-49 lu 49,315 632 1-28 48,995 1,575.048 31-94 11 48,683 694 1-22 48,384 1,526,053 81-35 12 48,089 566 118 47,806 1,477,889 80-73 13 47,523 563 118 47,242 1,4-29,863 30-09 14 46,960 572 1-22 46,674 1,382,621 •29-44 15 46,388 597 1-29 46,090 1,335,947 28-80 18 45,791 637 1-39 45,472 1,289,857 28-17 17 45,154 673 1-49 44,818 1,244,385 27-58 18 44.481 732 1-64 44,115 1,199,567 26-97 19 43,749 773 1-77 43,362 1,155,452 26-41 20 42,976 811 1-89 42,570 1,112,090 25'88 21 42,165 843 200 41,744 1,069,520 25-37 22 41,322 874 211 4(i.885 1,027,778 24-87 23 40,448 898 2-22 39,999 988,891 24-40 24 39,550 918 2-32 39,091 948,892 23-94 25 38,632 932 2-41 38,166 907,801 23-50 26 37,700 942 2-50 37,229 869,635 23-07 27 36,758 948 2-58 38,284 832,406 2-2-65 28 35,S10 961 2-65 35,334 796,l'22 22-23 29 34,859 960 2-72 34,384 760,788 21-82 30 33,909 947 2-80 33,438 726,404 21-42 31 32,962 942 2-86 32,491 692,968 21-02 32 32,020 936 2-92 31.552 660,477 20-63 33 31,084 928 2-99 30.6-20 628,925 20-23 34 30,156 919 3-05 29,696 598,305 19-84 35 29,237 910 311 28,782 588,609 19-45 36 28,327 901 318 27,876 539,827 1908 37 27,426 894 3-26 2(1,979 511,951 18-87 38 26,532 884 3-33 28,090 484,972 18-28 39 25,648 874 3-41 •25,211 458.883 17-89 4U 24,774 886 3-49 •24,341 433,671 17-51 41 23,908 865 3-58 23,480 409,330 17-12 42 £3,053 845 3-66 22,630 385,850 16-74 43 22,208 834 378 21.791 863,220 16-36 44 21.374 823 3-85 20,962 341,4'29 15-97 45 20.551 810 394 •20,146 320,467 15-69 46 19,741 798 404 19.342 300.321 16-21 47 18.943 785 4-15 l.-«,550 280,979 14-83 48 18,158 773 4-25 17,772 262,429 14-45 49 17.3S5 760 437 17,005 244,657 14-07 5U 16,625 748 4-50 16,251 227,652 13-89 51 15,877 735 4-63 15,510 211,401 13-31 52 15,142 723 4-78 14,780 195.891 12-94 53 14,419 710 4-93 14,084 181.111 12-56 54 13,709 699 6-09 13,360 167,047 12-19 55 13,010 685 5-27 12,868 153,087 11-81 !>6 12,325 874 5-46 11,988 141.019 11-44 67 11,651 659 5-88 11,322 1-29.031 11-07 68 10,992 646 5-87 10,689 117,709 10-71 59 10,346 631 8-10 10,030 107,040 10-35 60 9,715 818 6-34 9,407 97,010 9-99 61 9,099 601 6-61 8,798 87,603 963 62 8,498 584 6-87 8,'208 78,805 9-27 63 7,914 570 719 7,629 70,599 8-92 64 7,344 6.^2 7-52 7,068 62,970 8-67 65 6,792 634 7-86 6,525 65,902 8-23 68 6,258 615 8-23 6,000 49,377 7-89 67 5,743 495 8-63 5,498 43,377 7-65 68 6,248 476 906 5.010 87,881 7-22 69 4,772 465 953 4,544 32,871 8-89 70 4,317 433 1002 4,100 28,327 0-58 71 3,884 410 10-68 3,879 24,227 «-24 72 3.474 388 1118 3.^280 20,548 6-91 73 3.086 364 11-82 2,904 17.268 5-60 74 2.722 342 12-65 2,551 14.364 5-28 75 2,380 318 13-36 2,221 11,813 4-96 78 2,062 294 14-27 1,915 9,592 4-65 77 1,768 270 1530 1,633 7,677 4-34 78 1,498 247 18-47 1.374 6.044 403 79 1,251 223 17-83 1,140 4,670 3-73 80 1,028 200 19-41 9^28 3,530 3-43 81 828 178 21-29 740 2,802 314 P2 652 153 23-52 578 1,862 •,i-8« t3 499 ISl 2617 484 1,286 2-.58 84 368 108 29-30 314 852 2.12 85 260 85 32-95 218 538 2-08 80 176 05 3714 142 320 i-8S 87 110 46 41-86 87 178 1-82 88 84 30 47-08 49 91 1-42 89 34 18 62-70 25 42 l-'24 90 18 9 68-60 12 17 1-06 91 7 5 64-80 4 6 •98 92 2 1 7043 1 1 •87 93 ' 1 75-29 ACTUAKIAL REPORT. TABLE P. Life Table, Punjab. Males, 187 Age. Living ftt age X. DylDg between ages land x + 1. 1 Mortality pel cent. Living between ages xandz-fl. Living above age ». Mean after life-time at ago 2. 1 ! 3 4 5 « 7 100,000 29,787 29-79 76,732 2,122,761 21-23 1 70,213 6,595 9-39 66,662 2,046,0-29 29-14 63,618 4,305 6-77 61,325 1,979,367 3111 3 59,313 2,945 4-97 57,753 1,918,042 32-34 4 56,368 2,083 3-70 55,270 1,860,289 3300 5 54,285 1,527 2-81 53,485 1,805,019 33-25 6 52,758 1,167 2-21 52,151 1,751,534 33-20 7 51,591 877 1-70 51,137 1,699,383 32-91 8 50,714 738 1-46 50,345 1,648,246 32-50 9 49,976 631 1-26 49,660 1,597,901 31-97 10 49,345 6U0 1-22 49,045 1,548,241 31-38 11 48,745 623 1-28 48,434 1,499,196 30-76 VZ 48,122 672 1-40 47,786 1,450,762 3015 13 47,450 724 1-53 47,088 1,402,976 29-57 It 46,726 777 1-66 46,338 1,355.888 2902 15 45,949 814 1-77 45,542 1,309,550 28-50 16 45,135 839 1-86 44,716 1,264,008 28-00 17 44,296 852 1-92 43.870 1,219,292 27-53 18 43,444 854 1-96 43,017 1.175.422 27-06 ID 42,590 852 200 42.164 1.132,405 26 59 20 41,738 853 204 41.312 1,090,241 26-12 21 40,885 854 209 40,458 1,048,929 25-66 22 40,031 854 2- 1 3 39,604 1,008,471 251 9 23 39,177 857 219 38,748 968,867 24-73 24 38,320 859 2-24 37,890 930,119 24-27 25 37,461 862 2-30 37,030 892,229 2382 26 36,599 863 2-35 36,168 855,199 23-37 27 35,736 866 2-42 35,303 819,031 22-92 28 34,870 866 2-48 34,437 783,728 22-48 29 34,004 866 2-55 33,571 749,291 22-04 30 33,138 867 2-62 32,704 715,720 21-60 31 32,271 868 2-69 31,837 683,016 21-16 32 31,403 869 2-77 30,968 651,179 20-74 33 30,534 871 2-85 30,098 620,211 20-31 34 29,663 874 2-95 29,226 590,113 19-89 35 28,789 876 304 28,351 560,887 19-48 36 27,913 878 315 27,474 532.536 19-08 37 27,035 881 3-26 26.594 505,062 ' 18-68 38 26,154 883 3-37 25,712 478,468 18-29 39 25,271 882 3-49 21,830 452,756 17-92 40 24,389 881 3-61 23,948 427,926 17-55 41 23,508 878 3-74 23,069 403,978 17-18 42 22,630 873 3-86 22.194 380,909 16-83 43 21,757 866 3-98 21,324 358,715 16-49 44 20,891 854 409 20.464 337,391 16-15 45 20.037 838 418 19,618 316,927 15-82 46 19,199 821 4-27 18,788 297,309 15-49 47 18,378 801 4-36 17,978 278,521 15-16 48 17,577 781 4-44 17,186 260.543 14-82 49 16,796 761 4-53 10,416 243,357 14-49 50 16,035 742 4-62 15,661 226,941 1415 51 15,293 721 4-72 14,932 211,277 13-82 52 14.572 702 4-32 14,221 196,345 13-47 53 13.870 683 4-92 13,528 182,1-24 13-13 54 13,187 663 5-03 12,856 168.596 12-79 55 12,524 643 514 12,202 155,740 12-44 56 11,881 625 5-26 11,568 143,538 12-08 57 11,256 606 538 10.953 131,970 11-72 58 10,650 587 5-51 10,356 121.017 11-36 59 10,063 569 5-65 9,778 110.661 1100 60 9,491 550 6-80 9,219 100,883 10-63 6l 8,944 532 5-95 8,678 91.664 10-25 62 8,412 515 612 8,154 ' 82,986 9-87 63 7,897 497 6-29 7,648 74,832 9-48 64 7,400 480 6-48 7,160 6?,184 9-08 65 6,920 462 6-68 6,689 60,024 8-87 66 6,458 445 6-90 6,S36 63,335 8-26 67 6,013 431 717 5,798 47,099 7-83 68 5,5*2 421 7-54 5,372 41,301 7-40 69 5,161 4 IS 806 4,953 35.929 6-96 70 4.745 416 8-76 4,537 30,976 6-53 71 4,329 41S 9-60 4,122 26,439 6-11 72 3,914 414 10-59 3,707 22.317 5-70 73 3,500 411 11-72 3,294 18.610 5-32 74 3,089 399 12-91 2,890 15,316 4-9tl 75 2.690 380 1415 2,500 12,426 4-62 76 2,310 352 15-21 2,131 9,926 4-SO 77 1,958 327 16-72 1,794 7,792 S-98 78 I,fi31 296 18-25 1,4H2 5,998 S-6S 79 1,333 267 2002 1,200 4,516 338 80 l,Otl« 285 2204 948 3,316 , 3-11 81 82 831 200 24-09 731 2,368 2-81 G31 1«9 26-82 546 1,637 2-511 83 462 137 29-60 394 1,091 2-35 64 32.~> 104 32-76 272 697 2-13 85 •nv 80 3C23 170 *ib 1-92 go ISO 55 40-08 112 24« 1-73 87 &i 37 44-29 66 134 1-56 88 47 28 48-74 36 08 1-40 89 24 13 S3-43 18 32 1-26 90 11 6 5839 8 14 113 91 92 3 1 6S-40 4 n n 1-ni ■MO 03 1 1 2 B 2 188 CHAPTER V — AGE. TABLE Q. Life Tablk, all India. Males. Age. Living at age x. Dying between ages xandz + 1. Mortality per cent. u 10(1,000 1 71,002 2 64,529 3 1 80,288 * 57,375 5 1 55,308 6 53,785 7 52,617 8 51.684 » 50,898 10 50,212 11 49,588 12 48,993 13 48,408 14 47,818 15 47,213 16 46,587 17 45,936 18 45,260 10 44,557 20 • 43,833 21 43,091 22 42,333 23 41,560 24 40,773 25 39,973 26 39,162 27 38,342 28 37,613 29 36,675 30 35,831 31 1 34,981 32 ! 34,126 33 33,265 34 32,400 35 31,631 36 30,659 37 29,784 38 ' 28,907 89 28,028 40 : 27,149 41 26,270 42 25,395 43 24,524 44 23,659 45 22,803 46 21,954 47 21.112 48 20,283 49 19,464 60 18,656 61 17,858 S2 17,071 63 16,296 54 15,534 65 14,784 68 11,047 67 13,SZS 63 12,612 69 11,014 60 11,229 61 10,555 62 9,894 63 9,248 64 8,812 65 7,992 66 7,387 67 8,797 68 6,223 69 6,668 70 6,127 71 4,806 72 4,104 73 8,624 74 8,187 75 2,738 76 2,334 77 1,962 78 1,622 79 1,316 80 1,045 81 809 82 609 83 443 84 310 t<6 208 86 132 87 79 88 44 89 23 90 11 SI 5 B2 2 83 1 94 .. 28.998 6,473 4.241 2,013 2,067 1,523 1,168 933 786 686 626 593 585 590 605 626 651 676 703 724 742 758 773 787 800 811 820 829 838 844 850 855 861 865 869 872 875 877 879 879 879 875 871 865 856 849 842 829 819 808 798 787 775 762 760 737 724 711 608 685 674 661 648 634 620 605 690 574 687 639 621 602 480 467 481 402 372 340 306 271 236 200 166 133 102 76 63 36 21 12 8 > 1 1 29-00 912 6-57 4-83 3-60 2-75 2-17 1-77 1-52 1-35 1-25 1-20 1-19 1-22 1-26 1-32 1-40 1-47 1-65 1-62 1-69 1-76 1-82 1-89 1-96 2-03 2-10 216 2-23 2-30 237 2-44 2-52 2-60 2-68 2-77 2-85 2-94 304 3-14 3'24 3-33 3-43 3-63 3-62 3-72 3-83 3-93 4-04 4-16 4-28 4-41 4-54 4-68 4-83 4-98 6-15 6-34 6-53 6-76 600 6-26 6-55 6-86 7-20 7-57 7-98 8-44 8-95 9-51 10-17 10-89 11-70 12-60 13-60 14-71 16-92 17-31 18-85 20-59 22-55 24-73 27-21 29-95 32-97 36-35 40-02 43-97 48-18 52-61 67-20 82-28 68-29 76-84 Living between ages X andx + l. Living above age z. 77,289 67,522 62.271 58,745 56,287 64,511 53.178 52,135 51,281 60,549 49,895 49,287 48,700 48,113 47,516 46,900 46,262 45,598 44,908 44,195 43.462 42,712 41,946 41,166 40,373 39.568 38,752 37.928 37,094 36.253 35.406 34,554 33,696 32,832 31,966 31,095 30,222 29,346 28,468 27,588 26,710 25,832 24,960 24,092 23,231 22.378 21.533 20,698 19,874 19,060 18,257 17.464 16,684 16,915 15,159 14,416 13,685 12,968 12,263 11.672 10,892 10.224 9,570 8,929 8,302 7,690 7,092 6.510 5,944 5,396 4,866 4,355 3,864 3,396 2,952 2,535 2,148 1,792 1,469 1,180 027 700 526 376 269 170 106 62 34 17 8 4 2 2,258,626 2,181,337 2,113,815 2.051.544 1,992.799 1,936.512 1,882,001 1,828.823 1,776.688 1,725,407 1,674,858 1,624,963 l,575,«76 1.526,976 1.478,863 1,431.347 1,384,447 1.338,185 1,292,587 1.247.679 1.203,484 1,160,022 1.117,310 1.075.364 1.034.198 993,825 954,257 915.505 877 577 840,483 804,230 768,824 734,270 700,574 667,742 635,776 604,681 574.459 645,113 616,645 480,057 462,347 436,515 411,565 387,463 364,-^32 341,854 320,321 299.623 279.749 260,689 242,432 224,968 208,284 192,369 177,210 162,794 149,109 136.141 123,878 112.306 101.414 91.190 81.620 72,601 64,380 66,600 49,607 43,097 37,163 31,757 26,891 22,536 18.672 15,276 12,324 9.789 7.641 5,849 4,380 3,200 2,273 1,564 1,038 662 403 233 127 65 31 14 6 2 Mean after life-time at age X. 22-59 30-72 32-76 34-03 34-73 85-01 34-99 ,34-76 34-38 33-90 33-36 32-77 3216 31-54 30-93 30-32 29-72 29-13 28-56 28-00 27-46 26-92 26-39 25-87 25-36 24-86 24-37 23-88 23-39 22-92 22-45 21-98 21-52 21-06 20-61 2016 19-72 19-29 18-86 18-43 1801 17-60 17-19 16-78 16-38 15-07 15-57 16-17 14-77 14-37 13-97 13-58 13-18 12-78 12-38 11-99 11-59 11-19 10-79 10-40 1000 fl-61 0-22 8-83 8-44 8-06 7-68 7-30 6-93 6-56 6-19 5-84 5-49 5-15 4-82 4-50 4-19 S-89 3-61 3-33 3-08 2-81 2-57 2-34 2-13 1-93 1-75 1-58 1-42 1-28 1-15 1-03 -89 ACTUARIAL REPORT. 189 TABLE R. Life Table, all Indu. Fenuiles. Age I. Living at age x. Dying between ages X and X 1-1. Mortality per cent. Living between agas laudx+l. Liviiigaljrjv-j agex. Mean alter Ufe-tlme at age X. 1 2 3 4 6 7 100,000 1 28,460 28-46 77,558 2,330,505 23-31 1 71,540 6,165 8-62 68,214 2,252,947 31-49 i ti5,375 4,027 6-16 63,224 2,184,733 33-42 3 S1,34S 2.706 4-51 59,879 2,121,509 3458 4 58,5o2 1,974 3-37 57,541 2,061,630 35-19 6 50.OO8 1,485 2-62 55,830 2,004,089 35-40 6 55,1-23 1,169 2-12 54,516 1,948,239 35-34 7 53,a64 959 1-78 53,459 1,893,743 35-10 » 5-,J,9a5 817 1-54 52,577 1 .840,-284 34-73 U 52,i;s 728 1-40 51,808 1,787,707 34-26 10 51,450 663 1-29 51,115 1.735.899 33-74 11 50,787 627 1-24 50,471 U1184.784 3.1-17 11 50,160 615 1-23 49,852 1,034,313 32-58 13 49,545 614 1-24 49,238 1,584,461 31-98 14 48,931 627 1-28 48,618 1,333,223 31-38 lo 4».3tJ4 646 134 47,981 1,486,003 30-78 Itt 47,058 670 1-41 47,323 1,433.024 30-19 17 46,088 695 1-48 46,640 1,391.301 29-61 •18 46,293 722 1-50 45,932 1,344,661 29-05 1» 45,571 743 1-63 45,200 1,2»»,729 28-50 ::u 44,828 761 1-70 44,418 1,233,529 27-90 21 44,067 774 1-76 43,680 1,209,081 27-4* •^ 43,2a3 786 1-82 42,900 1,103,401 26-92 ■a 42,507 798 1-88 42,108 1,122,301 26-41 ■JA 41,709 808 1-94 41,305 1,080,393 25-90 -6 40,901 818 200 40,492 1,039,088 25-40 26 40,083 825 2-06 39,670 998.596 24-91 a7 39.25S 832 2-12 38,342 958,926 24-43 2iilatioii of 1 at all ages ; and 2 is a function of x, determined, by examination of the unadjusted data, as of the form [a ■\- bx + cx^ + dx^) for all values of x. The above formulte were employed, generally speaking, from about age 18 to the end of life. For ages under 18, the age-distribution was determined by combining the rate of mortality shewn amongst the Proclaimed clans, modified as explained below, with the reduced annual rate of increase of the population at each age. (2) Rates of mortality at age — 12, based on Proclaimed Clans data. Mr. G. F. Hardy's formulaj for the graduation of the rates of mortalitv were as follows : — U = 53,075 - 492 x + 24,(;i0 (-H.^)- + -^~^ L, = /"' *lldx = 53,429 - 492 a- i- 19,997-fi (-CB)"' + 2,500 log 2 .T + 2 1 20 a; + 1 These formula; were emploved in the United Provinces, from ages to 12, and in the Punjab from age to 6, after which the values were adjusted, so as to make a smooth junction with those alicady deduced for ages 15 and upwards. ACTUARIAL REPORT. 191 The formuliB given above were modified in the remaining Provinces as under : — Bengal — I, = 53,675 - 5G7 X + 24,610 (•65)^ + ^^^^i L. = 53,891-5 - 567 ;r+ 19,997-6 (■65)« + 2,500 log ^J"^-"^! 10 i\) X + 1 Bombay — /, = 53,675 - 392 ar + 24^,610 (-65)' + .'J'~^^,'^-f Lx = 53,479 - 392 ar + 19,9976 (•65)» + 2,500 log ,,,; ^ . 10 2 592 SUBSIDIAl^Y TABLES. 195 SUBSIDIARY TABLE \—concld. \«:e distrihntion ot lO.OOO ot ciuli s(>\ in India and the main provinces— canc^cf. Abb. 1911. 1901. ' 1891. 1881. Males. Females. JIalcs. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PUNJAK. TOTAL 10.000 10,000 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10.000 0—1 1—2 2—3 3—4 4—5 381 146 229 259 262 444 172 264 302 290 301 160 255 256 273 327 177 272 284 290 409 288 292 291 323 466 313 327 309 326 318 179 205 247 267 367 201 231 280 287 Tofal 0—5 1,377 1,472 1,245 1,350 IfiOS 1.741 1,216 1^56 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 20—26 . 1.333 1,189 915 850 1,388 1,029 817 889 1,354 1,231 913 794 1,365 1,087 842 852 1,364 1.054 1.(J45 927 1,355 916 1,078 948 1,354 1,216 902 856 1,363 1.069 861 915 25—30 . 30—35 . 35—40 . 40^5 . 45—50 . 874 790 536 601 377 884 828 514 652 347 837 820 551 642 355 874 861 542 673 337 942 648 659 356 504 1,000 602 708 326 503 852 833 514 648 354 882 859 493 693 323 60—55 . 55—60 . 60—65 . 65—70 . 70 and over *r5 182 236 195 170 460 152 297 71 200 488 184 j. 806 462 159 596 201 372 325 163 364 296 496 174 685 47;i 140 575 Mean Age 25'3 24-7 25-0 24-9 23-0 22 6 25-0 24 7 UNITED PROVINCES. TOTAL 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10.000 0-1 .. . 1—2 2—3 3-^ 4—5 320 144 211 245 240 336 1.59 238 279 254 304 172 275 244 233 314 188 298 266 246 342 148 247 294 277 359 165 281 335 396 262 229 192 266 279 280 248 219 299 287 Total 0—5 1,160 1.266 lji28 1,312 1,308 1,436 1^123 1,333 5—10 . 10—16 . 15—20 . 20—25 . 1.339 1,226 859 868 1,326 1,028 756 929 1,299 1,287 864 829 1.264 1,074 764 886 1,328 1,166 838 853 1,290 941 732 899 1.337 1,248 807 848 1,276 999 719 915 25—30 . 30-35 . 35—40 . 40—45 45-50 . 898 849 697 692 382 913 884 588 711 362 886 870 563 690 373 896 882 663 719 368 867 892 564 703 341 895 910 644 722 321 931 918 631 696 327 945 927 525 737 315 50—55 . 55—60 60-65 . 66—70 70 and over 478 168 275 66 143 502 162 327 66 180 486 178 1 ■ 482 610 173 599 493 152 600 617 150 643 491', 149 485 537 144 f,2S Mean Age 2608 25-7 24-9 26-8 24-8 tB-4 t6-» 2.V8 2 c 2 196 CHAPTER V— AGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE II. Ao;e distribution of 10,000 and ot persons over «0 to those aged 15—40 : also of married females ajied l.»— 40 per 10» females. I'BOPOBllON OS IHILDKEN, IKIIll rsE 100 -E\t:s, PkOI'OKUO.V op PBESON'S OVBB 60 PEB 100 AGED 15 — 4>). .Ninnli er of nmrried females a^«Ml l.'> —40 |)f'r 1(») females of all ajres. 1 ; Pboviscb, State or Agency. Persons aged 15—40. Marriec 1911. 1 fcmal 15-40 '8 aged 1911. 1901. 1891. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1901. 1891. Males. Females. 9 Males. 10 Females. Males. ; Females. 1 1911. It 1901. 15 1891. 10 1 •> 3 4 5 ^' 1 8 11 12 13 INDIA. m 67 71 U7 16/ in 11 U 12 U 12 14 :u :{:{ 34 Provinces. 69 69 7."$ 1B!» 170 n.-) li 14 13 14 12 1.-. 33 33 34 Ajmer-JIerwara 58 38 72 144 100 171 8 11 (> 9 11 14 39 38 35 Assam .... 78 73 79 197 192 202 10 10 9 9 11 12 33 33 32 Bengal .... 73 73 75 181 182 187 11 12 11 13 12 14 34 33 32 Bihar and Orissa 73 71 78 168 164 174 12 16 12 16 13 17 33 33 33 Bombay 64. 65 71 159 166 171 10 12 10 12 11 13 35 33 35 Burma . . . • 6.5 64 65 211 206 211: 14 16 13 16 14 17 26 26 25 Central Provinces and Berar 73 62 80 160 148 177 12 15 9 12 14 17 36 34 34 Coorg . . . ■ 45 48 51 156 164 163 5 8 5 7 4 : 7 32 - 35 Madras .... 68 73 73 163 179 175 15 15 14 15 13 15 32 31 32 K.-W. F. Province . 82 77 82 212 205 2]« 10 13 13 12 7 6 32 32 35 Punjab .... 70 69 72 183 170 178^ 15 15 16 15 8 7 34 34 37 United Provinces 62 64 67 150 153 157 ii; 14 12 15 12 : 16 35 34 35 States and Agencies. 67 60 70 162 157 171 11 13 10 12 II IS 34 33 So Assam State 88 82 232 209 14 15 16 17 i 27 29 Baroda State . 60 50 6« 145 135 162 8 10 6 9 9 12 38 34 30 Bengal States . 74 73 75 200 208 210 11 10 11 10 14 13 33 31 30 Bibar and Oriesa States 79 78 83 189 190 199 8 11 9 11 9 13 33 32 32 Bombay States 68 60 73 160 153 110 10 12 7 10 10 13 36 34 35 Central India Agency 64 49 67 158 199 8 11 7 9 9 12 36 33 ... Central Provinces States 84 73 89 188 184 203 9 12 7 10 10 14 35 33 33 Hyderabad State 68 62 71 157 157 104 14 15 12 13 13 15 35 33 35 Kashmir State 77 77 81 183 190 17 14 10 15 17 14 34 33 Madras States 66 64 61 170 160 150 11 12 10 11 11 12 33 32 33 Mysore State . 04 75 6S 163 193 170 16 16 14 17 11 14 31 29 32 Punjab States 63 C2 67 103 155 lO'J 14 14 15 15 7 6 35 35 38 Rajputana Agency . 63 49 70 151 132 10 12 9 11 11 14 37 34 ... Sikkim State . 72 62 ... 186 157 15 17 16 15 ... 31 34 United Provinces States . 06 60 04 152 140 MO 12 M M 1! l.'-. 20 30 37 36 NuiK. — In the coses where the columns have been left blank, either the civil condition was not recorded or it was recorded fur a very small number uf persons. 198 CHAPTER V— AGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. Variation in population at certain ao:e-peiiod$. Pbotiucb, State, oe Agbncx. INDIA Ajnier-MerwarB Asaam Bengal Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Kuriia C. P. ami liersr . . I'oorg ^ladras -V.-W. F. Proyime Punjab United Provinceg Haroda State Central India Agency . Cochin State Hyderabad State . Kashmir State Mysore State Rajpntana Agenry Travaiicorc State Period. USSl— 1891 1891—1901 1901—1911 1S81— 1891 1S91— 1901 1901—1911 1881—1891 1891—1901 1901—1911 1881—1891 1891 -1901 1901—1911 1881—1891 1891 — 1901 1901—1911 1881-1891 1891—1901 1901—1911 1881—1891 1891—1901 1901— 1911 1881—1891 1891— ] 901 1901—1911 1881— 1S91 1891—1901 1901-1911 1881—1891 1891—1901 1901—1911 1881—1891 1891—1901 1901—1911 1881—1891 1891—1911 1901—1911 1881-1891 18'Jl— 1901 1001—1911 ISSl— 1891 1891-1901 19(11—1911 1891-1901 1901—1911 1891—1901 1901—1911 1881-1891 1891—191)1 1901—1911 1891—1901 IHOl— 1911 1881—1891 18!il -1901 1911-1911 1891—1901 1901-1911 ISOl- 19111 191)1 1911 Vabiatiox pbe cent, in population (Inobease +, Decbeasb — ). All ages. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 11-2 1-8 6-6 17-7 12-1 51 15-5 7-4 15-2 75 7-7 80 6-4 1-1 3-5 158 5-5 6-4 24-6 21-3 162 10-7 79 17-9 2-9 4-4 31 185 7-8 S4 17 10 7 101 8-2 2-2 63 16 09 10-5 19-2 4-1 lfi-4 S-4 12-3 lH-1 192 3-4 200 160 68 181 121 48 18-9 8-3 15 4 J«2 0—10, + + + + + + + + 161 51 9-7 20-1 44-5 535 141 4-2 19 S 9-6 61 93 10-15. + + 3-4 3-4 6-6 + + 23-3 15-2 104 + + + 19 6 22-3 13-3 + + 11-5 21-8 333 + . 10 6 39 '!-4 + + + 29-2 4-3 3-9 + + 33 3 9 + + 26-5 51 03 + 99 3-2 11 + + 146 356 22 + 32-9 3.57 + 11-8 12 8 26 9 14-2 28 8 8'0 8-2 421 90 4-4 37-8 34-7 21 S 191 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4-3 14-5 1-7 555 8-4 396 25-5 7-1 9-8 11-5 14-3 38 180 1-4 3 6-5 19-8 13-6 22-9 13-2 24-7 18-3 4-1 11-3 18-6 33-8 13 6 30 31-3 27 2 38 6 5-0 27-2 6 2 03 122 41 0-8 11 2S4 ini 12 9 18-4 79 2-7 18-7 3-1 48-1 1-6 223 595 39 2-8 235 21-4 19-4 15—40. 40-60 + + + + + + + + 10-8 ! + 2-3 + 7-3 I + 5-5 i + 51 0-8 t - 70 + 8-6 i + 101 I + 5-2 + 5-2 + 3-5 + 13-6 41 7-7 286 23-8 14-2 66 01 130 8-3 1-8 11 161 33 11-8 26 3 3 18-2 0-2 1-9 5-5 1-6 07 10-9 12-4 2-2 93 42 n-6 144 17-0 2-8 180 132 86 10-9 07 127 118 60 14-3 13-6 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 9-7 5-2 51 232 4-3 1-7 + 16-4 + 11-8 + 12-2 + 7-0 + 126 + 16-4 231 221 17-4 12-3 40 130 8-1 7-1 36 215 116 102 8 33 11 70 271 3-2 61 43 16 91 14-7 4-9 6-8 30 111 137 199 34 18-9 141 2-6 286 208 04 13-4 4(? 9-3 146 15-4 6-1 3-S 70 0-3 ■7 20'5 I + 3-4 I - 9 2 I + 60 and over. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +* + + + NoTl.- Colnmn 3 shows variation in popnlation for which age was returned and not in total population. Kor the purjiose of this table unspecified ages have been left out of account. Kxcept in the case of C. P and Herar the percentages are based on variations in unadjusted figures for previoua censuge?. In calculating tlie figures for Itihar and Orissa, Sanibalpnr and the Feudatory States have been left out of accuuat. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 199 SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Age distrihiitioii of l.OOO ot earli se\ in ek hull aubd 169 198 180 199 102 196 208 257 208 168 221 204 225 205 208 190 202 205 215 212 227 199 208 201 190 207 230 187 213 215 216 230 223 185 200 210 19.1 194 192 202 193 191 198 204 161 176 198 240 192 194 212 198 217 186 164 194 199 193 200 172 144 162 220 134 199 205 J93 184 224 159 233 ISO 215 224 182 237 202 224 210 232 203 247 100 182 164 211 173 171 157 129 98 149 139 132 135 123 138 134 142 134 139 132 129 136 143 133 145 166 159 116 165 133 127 121 110 119 141 131 127 133 142 122 133 136 146 129 133 154 154 136 116 130 119 136 144 126 147 161 139 150 14! 173 193 168 148 114 1«5 133 123 137 148 200 129 171 147 134 1.10 137 102 114 147 Hll 147 117 I3B 223 193 199 210 210 216 164 128 1811 188 173 184 1li2 173 189 187 173 178 169 177 167 185 178 186 199 199 157 213 180 163 138 173 171 2110 193 189 190 207 178 196 188 201 171 184 194 188 184 173 19(1 178 190 200 183 190 211 193 221 1.S6 2114 203 219 214 177 202 193 1.SS 10:! 102 HIS 17C1 153 152 1111 170 175 170 158 1119 175 1 17 ■ 111 1.13 203 10 60 56 65 65 63 66 67 61 68 61 58 66 51 67 67 65 66 66 43 58 54 65 48 62 49 66 57 59 68 51 51 61 53 49 50 63 67 53 73 69 E6 74 71 52 48 59 61 4K 103 122 BS 59 40 and over. 383 413 378 382 391 368 426 418 413 407 402 426 414 430 422 417 420 427 418 404 418 422 418 424 401 416 410 394 420 418 416 396 396 401 392 403 404 387 403 398 400 385 406 394 430 420 398 393 403 402 400 I 387 ' 401 398 361 386 I 397 400 448 366 425 404 392 371 386 400 396 415 309 421 415 «3» 416 40O 420 306 404 434 425 481 413 407 398 153 193 161 184 180 200 217 3(18 195 197 230 197 233 197 199 189 208 193 216 233 218 182 210 187 168 175 250 161 202 226 239 274 236 2114 219 233 211 215 231 216 217 210 343 238 161 185 233 266 214 234 221 196 221 209 193 211 180 223 116 171 142 173 271 139 164 220 21i 18il 226 131 243 194 22:i 230 leii 246 221 SIS 206 235 181 266 169 200 CHAPTER V— AGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE \l—contd. Age (listriliution of 1,000 of cadi sex in eeitiiiii m^ics—contd. CiSTE. Males. Kuhbbr peb HILLE AOEO Females. NOUBKB PEE UILLB AQED 0—5. 5—12. 12—15. 16—40. 40 and over. 0—5. 5—12. 12—16. 15—40. 40 and over. 1 2 s 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 BXmMA— ronW. Taaiigtliu isa 180 65 353 222 141 165 94 405 195 266 Wa-Palflung 128 123 67 421 261 122 145 57 420 C. P. and BSRAR. Ahir (Hindu) 168 193 59 401 184 168 182 45 403 202 164 240 249 Ahir (AnimUCi . . . . 1 175 202 55 390 178 180 192 46 418 Baniya . , . , . , 119 156 66 434 225 131 166 61 412 BmhmaD . 118 156 63 431 232 133 172 49 397 Oiamar ..... 173 177 1 48 406 194 177 162 37 418 206 203 208 223 Dhimar ..... 164 181 56 401 198 170 170 45 412 Dhobi 161 186 59 400 194 164 172 46 410 Gond (Hindu) . . . . ; 164 178 52 402 204 162 164 40 411 Gond UnimUl) . . . ! 170 192 56 390 192 171 179 47 405 198 Ealar 1 153 18S 59 400 205 157 176 48 398 221 Kunbi 1 141 164 61 380 264 146 169 46 395 244 216 Kunui ..... 154 187 83 411 185 157 174 49 404 Lodhi 158 189 64 405 184 155 176 48 408 213 Lobar : 156 188 62 395 199 167 178 50 401 204 Mali ' 156 172 59 384 229 160 168 47 388 237 Mehra 171 177 56 380 216 172 172 46 402 208 Kajput 135 171 63 416 215 144 171 53 394 238 Tcli 167 182 59 389 203 166 171 48 394 221 MADRAS. Balija 119 168 73 380 260 117 173 60 391 259 Brahman (Tamil) Brahman (Telugu) 109 119 152 1 189 I 72 84 412 384 255 224 111 109 144 168 59 55 394 378 292 300 286 132 174 74 383 237 119 157 64 394 Kailrolan ..... 139 179 78 379 225 137 184 72 380 227 Kammalau .... 135 180 72 386 227 135 176 61 400 228 Kamsala ..... 112 188 79 403 218 120 190 56 394 240 Kapu ..... 112 194 76 381 237 115 193 61 389 242 Komati ..... 121 171 77 376 255 121 170 70 374 265 Mala 147 222 72 350 209 140 198 63 394 205 Paraij-aii 164 195 69 357 215 162 181 53 404 200 Shanan 141 187 1 76 382 214 140 186 66 387 221 Tivan 13S 182 81 419 ' 180 135 169 72 438 186 Vellala 122 170 77 392 23',) 123 173 70 890 244 N.-W. F. PROVINCE. Awan 142 191 92 365 210 179 186 68 383 184 Pathan 151 187 96 364 202 162 182 77 371 208 PUNJAB. Agarwal . ... 116 163 78 430 213 130 167 66 417 220 Ahil- 121 165 72 410 232 150 165 61 885 239 208 Arain 135 186 77 379 223 161 190 66 377 Arora 121 184 76 399 220 139 182 70 894 216 217 Awan ..... 142 192 76 369 221 150 189 61 383 Biloch 145 200 79 344 232 165 195 66 367 217 248 201 182 227 Brahman .... 105 154 73 423 245 124 164 60 404 Chamar ..... 129 171 77 414 209 148 172 66 413 (Hiuhra ..... 153 190 78 390 189 176 188 63 391 Jat 125 176 80 394 225 144 175 66 388 Jhinwar 124 169 74 410 223 148 176 63 400 213 Julaha ..... 134 174 73 384 235 154 179 63 393 211 246 238 238 Kanct 104 155 71 411 259 113 163 59 419 Kashmiri ..... 124 173 86 382 235 139 176 68 379 Khatri 112 164 78 415 231 136 368 66 392 Kumhar ..... 139 177 77 390 217 154 177 64 390 215 214 208 Lobar 135 1 178 76 387 224 147 180 68 391 Macbhi 152 1 190 76 364 218 165 189 63 375 Mirasi 138 178 73 384 227 151 177 62 384 226 Mochi 142 186 76 373 223 161 185 65 378 211 Xai 127 175 76 396 226 146 175 62 396 222 Pathan 113 159 71 430 227 144 181 66 385 225 Eajput 125 174 78 396 227 145 170 63 398 224 Saiyid 124 179 74 391 232 135 178 65 393 229 Sbclkh IH 158 75 428 225 137 172 66 410 219 131 175 76 390 229 151 176 64 388 221 Tell 1:17 182 77 395 209 157 175 64 396 £08 UNITED PROVINCES. At'arwal 97 151 84 418 250 116 172 74 394 244 Ahir 108 184 74 414 220 116 178 60 411 235 Barbal 113 176 75 408 228 128 174 61 405 232 BhangI 124 190 77 398 211 138 190 65 404 203 Bbar 143 204 64 392 197 148 179 66 406 212 Brahman . . . . . 103 167 73 411 246 110 161 59 398 £72 Chamar . . . . . 126 193 71 406 204 137 182 59 406 210 Dhobi . . . . . 123 192 73 404 208 134 183 69 411 2i;t Dom 138 184 69 439 211 153 178 62 406 201 Gadariya 117 188 76 406 213 127 186 62 407 218 Gujar 107 182 85 409 217 119 176 73 407 oor Jat ...... 105 168 84 404 239 117 167 79 394 24:t Julaha ..... 136 194 69 378 223 148 187 133 321 211 Kaliar ..... 1 Kaya.'dha .... 123 185 74 402 216 132 177 69 402 2'tO 104 168 74 4211 244 118 167 63 397 255 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 201 SUBSIDIARY TABLE \J—concld. A«:e (lisfribiitioii of 1,000 ot ea
  • sex aud age. AOE. BENGAL . Under 1 year 1—5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15-20 . 20—30 . 30 — 40 . 40—50 . 50—60 . 60 and over BIHAR AND ORISSA I nder 1 year 1—5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 20—30 . 80 — 10 . 40—50 . 50—60 . 60 and over . , Average of decade 1901-10. 1903. BOMBAY InJer 1 year 1—5 . 6—10 . 10—15 . 15 — 20 . 20—30 . 30—40 . 40—50 . 50—60 . 60 and over BURMA Under 1 year 1 — 5 5—10 10—15 15—20 20—30 30 — 10 40—50 60—60 60 and over MADRAS . Luder 1 year 1—5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 20—30 . SO — 40 . 40 — 50 . 50—60 . 60 and over PUNJAB Under 1 year 1—5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 20—90 . 30 — to . 40—50 . 60—60 . to and over tJNITED PROVINCES Under 1 year 1—5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 20—30 . SO — 40 . 40—50 . 50—60 . SO and ovet . Males. 34 270 46 19 14 19 20 23 28 42 79 304 69 20 16 16 20 23 30 46 93 35 320 54 15 IS 18 20 23 32 100 ! 27 332 30 14 10 16 15 17 23 29 63 24 199 31 9 7 10 12 14 20 31 71 41 306 68 19 17 19 21 24 33 46 !i5 39 352 71 18 12 14 18 19 80 51 87 Females. Males. 31 228 39 15 12 21 21 23 25 37 64 34 262 62 17 14 14 18 20 23 42 77 34 285 52 16 16 21 21 23 26 39 98 24 238 25 12 9 12 13 17 20 24 59 22 47 310 71 23 25 24 24 29 36 50 105 40 331 71 18 13 19 20 22 28 44 74 33 262 43 19 14 19 19 22 28 40 78 37 3U 60 20 15 16 20 22 29 43 86 43 317 63 22 24 29 29 33 43 61 114 26 332 29 13 10 14 13 16 21 28 56 23 165 204 29 30 !1 !) 7 6 13 9 12 11 12 13 15 18 26 30 67 67 45 346 72 20 18 19 22 26 30 60 102 40 426 UO 19 11 13 15 18 24 40 76 Females. 31 221 37 15 13 21 21 22 25 36 66 33 267 53 17 14 14 18 19 22 39 71 44 284 51 25 30 32 30 S3 38 55 112 23 228 25 11 9 12 12 17 19 24 54 170 29 9 7 12 12 12 14 26 63 64 351 80 26 28 26 28 :<4 41 57 121 804 88 17 12 18 18 18 22 86 •8 1905. Males. 37 292 64 23 16 21 21 24 29 43 83 48 820 69 24 19 19 23 25 32 49 100 362 55 12 11 16 17 19 26 41 88 as 337 30 14 10 IS 15 17 21 26 57 28 Females. 1907. 321 67 20 28 25 26 28 87 47 02 «3 361 64 21 17 20 25 I 26 I <4 68 i 93 I 85 249 48 18 14 24 24 24 27 40 88 284 61 21 17 17 21 23 27 46 84 818 62 13 18 18 IS 19 21 83 80 240 27 12 9 12 IS 16 18 23 54 !01 166 27 26 7 7 6 5 8 11 lU 11 12 11 18 18 29 24 70 65 68 310 61 26 84 32 81 85 42 66 106 46 341 •6 £2 20 27 28 29 84 61 as Males. 34 248 43 20 14 20 21 26 SO 46 291 60 22 17 18 22 26 82 60 101 316 64 12 11 17 19 22 SO 45 96 298 30 16 12 16 17 21 28 33 70 25 195 33 10 7 10 12 14 20 82 74 69 SOS 76 81 38 38 39 43 66 72 124 43 848 80 21 14 18 21 24 83 62 08 Femalei, 212 88 16 12 21 23 26 27 41 70 267 64 20 16 17 21 22 26 46 87 276 62 IS 14 20 21 22 26 87 87 25 212 25 14 9 13 14 19 23 28 67 24 1909. 66 306 81 88 47 I 44 41 48 69 77 185 44 828 79 22 18 24 £5 26 32 49 80 Females. 10 266 42 17 11 17 19 22 27 41 77 , 34 271 64 18 13 18 17 21 28 46 100 309 47 10 8 12 14 17 24 36 85 370 30 13 10 14 15 19 27 S3 77 162 210 32 27 10 8 7 6 13 9 13 11 IS 12 16 18 26 2n 69 71 30 247 46 11 8 10 13 16 25 87 84 38 £A« 68 17 10 12 IS 23 36 •1 109 U 3« 223 37 14 10 20 21 22 24 35 58 31 235 48 15 11 11 15 17 22 43 86 27 270 46 10 9 14 16 16 18 29 75 26 276 27 12 8 12 14 19 23 27 72 21 171 25 7 6 12 11 11 14 24 65 32 246 48 13 11 11 14 18 23 85 81 37 2'.:) :n' 16 10 16 19 22 82 64 91 .Note.— .The rall'M la Iho ix^i' o( Uiirma rilate to Lower Banna only. 2 I) 204 CHAPTER V-AGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX. Reported deaths from ceitaiu diseases per iiiille of each sex in tlie main provinces. Actual number ol deaths in Average DISE^O. Sex. Total. annual rate per miUe. 14^ 16 6 160 1801. 3 44,755 88,941 1902. 1908. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. IMS. 1909. 1910. ASSAM. Fever . . [ 2 Male Female . 4 41.732 35,947 6 39,666 35,338 6 37,503 33,668 7 35,518 32,133 8 37,268 33,427 9 88,642 35,505 10 50,492 47,469 11 53,974 49,456 '12 45,483 41,897 13 425,031 383,781 Cholera . . | Male Female . 3,944 3,524 6.328 6,330 4,326 4,034 2,857 2,731 11,345 11,538 16,605 17,077 4,848 4,244 11,682 10.807 4,219 3,862 17,130 17.382 82,984 81,529 81 3-2 Small pox . . [ Male Female . 1,695 1,579 3,409 3,264 570 541 798 761 1,162 1,067 1,588 1,406 2,269 1,984 2.475 2.124 1,609 1,604 970 967 16,545 15,187 ■6 •6 BENGAL. Fever. . . | Male Female . 601,170 443,358 570,933 612,620 617.683 471,803 527,727 485,123 556,203 512,772 512,476 468,709 512,664 470,109 496.988 447.867 468,357 459,732 479,376 442,437 6,143,675 4,712,530 240 230 Cholera . • | Mate Female . 84,899 29,425 49,286 41,511 60.490 43,356 54.372 48,088 89.130 83,048 71,792 68.829 83,111 75,079 68,649 66.822 46,527 41,829 62,938 •56,748 609,194 539,734 2-9 2-6 Small pox . • { Male . Female . 11,223 8,964 16,194 14,543 6,976 6,012 4,968 4,529 2,469 2,044 7,609 5,968 8,328 6,987 6,155 6,018 20,592 17.028 6,325 6,360 90,838 76,453 •4 ■3 Plagae . . | BIHAR AND ORISSA. Fever. . . { Male Female . Male Female . } 8,241 346,765 325,726 7,598 336,344 302,024 8,708 347,561 317,894 4,986 { 328,133 314,215 6,317 3,004 406,879 377,242 2,151 834 379,096 349,338 2,699 1,044 381,901 363,918 1,436 409 418.415 390,621 1,545 619 386,215 370,991 1,043 878 373,726 343,982 ] 51,012 3,705,034 8,455,949 ■2 231 20-4 Cholera . . | Male . Female . 23.637 22,792 31,007 29,167 56,831 62,729 18.278 16,963 48,304 68,553 45,286 63,018 58,130 57,671 94,145 88,232 16.780 15.231 65,133 61.249 480,798 452,338 30 2-7 Small pox . . { Male Female . 8,859 8,634 13,868 12,825 8,961 8,511 3.910 3.923 2,687 6,521 2,607 6,086 9,330 8,861 15,294 14,273 11,350 10,130 2,363 2,085 83,143 77,835 •5 ■5 Plagne . . { Male Female . } 70,388 25,369 66.972 70,450 ^ 48,940 23,881 67,829 1 32,827 33,086 46,781 5,945 8,158 4,186 5,429 19,060 26,149 } 545,450 26 BOMBAY. Fever. . . { Male Female . 152,285 139,666 139,817 131,028 134,048 125,656 129,384 121,946 126.976 118,398 142,030 132,623 135.125 ■ 125.204 126,099 117,273 116,896 106,992 186,882 127,161 1,339,021 1,245,947 141 13-9 Cholera . . ] Male Female . 7,299 6,301 1,900 1,323 976 849 6,853 6.303 2,888 2,508 23,740 22,379 4,131 3,526 938 821 14,755 13,959 2,133 1.581 65,619 59,529 •7 •7 Small pox . . ] Male Female . 2,808 2,532 1,132 1,057 1,488 1,244 2,222 2'067 8,750 8,235 2,105 1,958 937 925 1,395 1,181 2,533 2,488 2.874 2,226 25,744 23,861 ■3 ■2 Plagae . , | Male Female . 66,318 61,941 93,402 91,350 141,559 139,710 111.933 112,024 37.790 33,573 27,950 23,575 47,324 46,285 14,818 12,527 13,185 11,184 18,273 11,770 567.502 643,939 60 61 BURMA. Fever. . . i Male Female . 29,383 21,313 38.026 29,529 43.652 34,166 41,879 33,677 38.893 30,790 42.128 33,716 44,487 34,758 43,236 34,425 44,575 36,284 44,168 35,848 410,407 324,504 9-9 8-4 Cholera . . | Male Female . 2.187 1,366 1,264 637 4.860 3,373 1.903 1,077 3,218 2,129 4,548 3,328 5,381 3,017 7,020 4,891 6,818 4,771 1,267 744 38.244 25,331 •9 •6 Small pox . . 1 Male Female . ' 1,451 1,024 1,146 769 1,070 850 1,022 787 3,666 2,495 6,053 3,487 1.587 1,295 745 643 660 351 1,123 694 17,523 12,295 •4 3 Plagne . . \ C. P. ANB BERAR. Fever. . . -J Male Female . } 3 1 9 •i 2,599 1,093 6,208 3,429 5,431 3,818 3,975 2,777 3,976 2,971 4,372 8,369 ] 43,038 10 Male Female . 88,533 82,752 89.780 84,277 95,397 90,447 84,631 78,571 107,655 99,640 115,911 109,230 110,291 103,617 112,984 104,789 94,227 86,317 132,699 123,793 1,032.108 963,333 17-6 180 Cholera . . \ IVtale Female . 41 25 23 21 219 205 1,540 1,427 674 54« 19,656 19,112 2,199 2,092 4,744 4,304 3,976 3,711 2,711 2.605 35,783 34,045 •6 •6 Small pox . . \ Male Female . 3,139 2,836 2.467 2.183 1,114 970 1,002 943 4,431 3,933 5,242 4,647 1,962 1,864 4,750 4,294 2,161 1,994 1,516 1,278 27,784 24,942 •5 ■4 Plague . . 1 Male Female . } » 5,249 51,514 42,866 [ 6,441 6,265 9,513 8,608 19,060 18,714 3,229 3,007 9,970 9,246 15,000 13,961 1 222,652 29 MADRAS. Fever. . . [ Male . Female . 160,784 144,070 141,408 136,281 159,174 165,752 149,719 143,550 135,347 153,628 129,897 151,400 145,040 139,390 150,321 145,513 136,541 131,867 162,791 158,590 1,484,651 1,436,110 8-2 7-7 Cholera . . | Male Female . 42.906 38,464 15,782 13,987 14,305 13,088 12,045 11,064 8,701 75,047 8,187 67,764 41,359 40,206 73,884 68,286 20,847 18,577 17,228 16,371 821,899 294,994 1-8 1-8 Small pox . . i Male Female . 13,425 12,777 12,613 12,354 7,596 7,419 5,137 4,754 9,410 9,130 15,069 14,771 11.251 11.204 11,240 10,964 9,758 9,104 9,730 9,408 105,229 101,945 •6 •8 Plagne . . '. Male . Female . j 3,035 10,795 13,291 20,125 { 3,070 2,718 464 434 1,529 1,348 1.689 1,669 1,964 1,880 2,390 2,477 1 68,878 •2 PUNJAB. Fever. . . ', Male Female . 269,090 248,945 240,444 232,908 254,358 264,949 191.042 187,363 186,409 183,638 203,765 204,113 208,866 198,625 347,828 349,230 214,812 195,661 177,699 166,226 2,282,108 2,221,658 20-9 28-7 Cholera . . | ilale Female . 95 85 198 173 8,582 6,108 396 320 1,324 873 2,495 1,789 265 172 6,892 6,405 881 882 1,262 869 22,390 18,874 •2 •2 Small pox . .J Male Female . 3,277 2.877 6,099 6.530 8,026 7,609 5,018 4,606 2,442 2,281 6,892 6.347 5,788 5,314 15,074 13,578 1,720 1.632 1,697 1.422 55,913 61,196 •5 •5 Plagne . . j Male . Female . 6.043 8.916 75.783 95,619 89,348 116,114 178,433 217,924 1.58,534 176,363 43,83t; 47,876 306,193 302,492 16.014 15,694 17,631 18,024 65,890 69,593 956,705 1.088,615 8-8 11-4 UNITED PRO- VINCES. Fever. . { Male Female . 678,652 640,325 699,752 569,348 677.429 641,090 569,03s 571,991 649,053 629,375 670,935 646,546 695,501 654,904 989,009 981,310 738,675 691,916 681,990 609,016 6,850,034 6,685,821 27-8 283 Cholera . . | Male Female . 27.129 26,866 18,014 12,146 23.752 23,407 3.420 3.197 60,597 01,180 76,863 72,887 11,401 11,037 43,368 40,178 11,216 10,607 52,741 49,721 323,499 311,036 1-8 13 Small pox • \ Hale Female 630 451 2,746 2,23C 11,634 10,316 3.802 3,198 1,732 1,541 7,264 6,948 12,119 10,626 32,005 27,991 8,182 2,725 480 393 75,484 65,317 •3 •8 Plagne . . [ Male Female . } 9,776 40,223 84,499 179,082 [ 173.477 30,889 210,325 J 38,771 144,789 184,073 10,071 12,807 18,298 22,006 70,405 87,U09 } 1,315,252 2-8 CHAPTER VI. / Sex. Refcieae* to sta- tlStlCB. 252. Ill all tlie census tables the distiuction of sex is maintained, Imt for the purpose of this Chapter the most important are Tal)lo VII in which the statistics of sex are combined with those for age, religion and civil condition and Table XIV in which they are com1)ined with caste, tribe or race. The following proportional tables \vill be found at the end of this Chapter : — I. The number of females per thousand males in different parts of India at each of the last four censuses. II. The corresponding proportion at different ages in the total population and the main religions. III. The proportion for certain selected castes. Two other tables based on the vital statistics are added showing : — IV. Actual number of births and deaths of each sex reported during the last two decades in certain provinces. V. Deaths by sex and age in the quinquennium 1905-09, and the propor- tion of female to male deaths in certain provinces. 253. In India as a whole the proportion of females per thousand males rose J?th??^rt?*°'*' steadily from 954.' in Map showing the proportion of the sexes in the natural 1881 to 963 in 1901 population of each Province and State. j^ -^^^ j^^^ ao-aiu fallen to exactly the same figure as in 1881. The results for the whole Empire are but little affected by migration, but the reverse is the case when we come to consider those for provinces, and still more so, those for in- dividual districts. In the Darjeeling district, for example, the number of females per thousand males in the actual population, or the persons actually pre- sent in the district on the date of the census, was only 869, Avhereas, calculated on the natural population, or the persons bom there irrespective of the place of enumeration, it was 96-i. It is thus essential in discussing the proportions of the sexes, to make allowance for migration. This has been done in Subsidiary Table I at tlic end of this Chapter, where figures are given both for the actual, and for the natural, population of each province — for the persons enumerated there, and for those claiming it as their birthplace wherever they happened to be at the time of the censius.* The proportions shown in the above map are those existing in the natural i)0})u- lation. It will be seen that the proportion of females is lowest in the nortli-west of India and that it gradually increases towards the south-east, being highest in Madras, the Central Provinces and Berar, Biliar and Orissa, and Burma. * The figures for the natural population are not quite accurate, as it hss not been possible to make allowance for emigrants to Nopal und certain Colonieu, etc., from which returns have not been received, or for which dutails by provinces are not available. RZrCRCNCES 811-653 PD^MIULE 8 80- 95.7 .. . 912-9C4 , „ 370-9S0 .• .. 1001- 1MJ .. .. I 206 CHAPTER VI. — SEX. Aasam. B«ngaL Blliar and Orlssa. Bombay. Before discussing the subject from a general point of view it will be convenient to glance at the principal features of the statistics in each of the main provinces. 25-i. In the actual population of Assam there are only 940 females per thousand males, but the proportion rises to 963 if migration be left out of account. Throughout the plains, males are in excess, but females predominate in most of the hill districts, which are inhabited mainly by Animistic tribes, who practise adult marriage and whose women, though they have to work hard, enjoy a better position than those of most other Indian communities. The deficiency of women is less among Muhammadans than among Hindus ; it is also less among the lower Hindu castes than among those of higher status. Between 1881 and 1901 the proportion of females in the natural population showed an upward tendency, but it has now fallen slightly below the level at which it stood thirtv vears ago. 255. In Bengal the number of females per thousand males is 945 in the actual, and 970 in the natural, population. Males are in excess in the natural popu- lation in all but six districts, four of -which border on Bihar and Orissa. The Muhammadans have a higher proportion of females (958) than the Hindus (931) in the province as a whole, and in every natural division. Females are in defect amongst all the local Hindu castes except seven, of which four rank very low and two, though clean, are castes of inferior status, while one (Baishnab) is in the habit of admitting outsiders, who are chiefly women. Mr. O'Malley can trace no correlation between social status and the proportion of the sexes. The proportion of females to males has fallen continuously during the last thirty years, not only in the actual, but also in the natural, population. In the latter it is now only 970 per mille, compared with 1,013 in 1881. 256. In Bihar and Orissa there is a preponderance of females, their number per thousand males being 1,043 in the actual, and 1,014 in the natural, population. The only districts in which females are in defect in the natural population are Pviruea on the Bengal border, and Patna and Gay a, where the deficiency is due largely to plague which, as will be shown in jraragraph 269, is specially fatal to females. The Muhammadans (1,074) have a larger proportion of females than the Hindus and Animists (1,040). Nearly every local caste shows an excess of females, except the three high castes of Brahman, Rajput and Babhan, the trading Baniya and the Animistic Bhumij, In this province, also, the Provincial Superintendent has been unable to trace any general connection between social status and the sex proportions. In the actual population the proportion of females was highest iu 1901. In the natural population it reached its maximum in 1891. Tliere was a slight drop in 1901, and at the present census the proportion is 4 per mille lower than it was in 1881. • 257. In Bombay there are only 933 females per thousand males m the actual, and 942 in the natural, population. This is due largely to the figures for Sind, where the conditions resemble those of the Punjab rather than the rest of Bombay. In that sub-province there are only 812 females per thousand males, or 834 if migration be allowed for. In the rest of the Presidency the proportion of females in the natural population ranges from 919 in Gujarat, where female infanticide was once very common, to 996 in the Konl extremely rare. On the other hand, the Pathjin is exceptionally jealous of his woman- Tdnd ; and the Superintendent concludes from an examination of the proportions at different ages that some omissions may have occurred, chiefly at the age-jieriod '10 — 15'. He does not, however, think that these omissions are by any means sufficient to explain the great deficiency of females. That such a deficiency exists is clearly shown by various local customs, nnd in particular by the high prices paid for brides. Nor iis it easy to .see w hy there should be a special tendency to omit females of this age. Marital jealousy would lead rather to omissions at the age-period '20 — 25' where, however, there is a 208 CHAPTER VT. — SEX. Pnajab. Dnlted Provlnoes. The aoonraoy of the statistics. great excess of females. Mr. Latimer ascribes sucli omissions as may have occurred not to marital but to paternal jealousy. In his opinion a father may feel that he is depressing the market ralue of his daughter if he talks much about her, but his objection to do so disappears aa soon as she is married or betrothed. It is impossible Tvithout local knowledge to say how much weight should be given to this view, but the matter is of no great moment, as Mr. Latimer considers the apparent deficiency at this age-period to be due mainly to migration and misstatement of age. There has been a gradual rise in the proportion of females since 1881, but in that year tliere was a considerable fall as compared with 1868. The Inrtli statistics support the census to this extent that they show an extraordinarily large excess of male births. They are, however, still so inaccurate that no great reliance can be placed on them. 262. There is a great dearth of females in the Punjab. In the actual population there are only 817 of this sex per thousand males, and in the natural population only 811. The proportion is lowest (795) in the south-eastern part of the province and highest (901) in the Himalayan region. It is higher amongst the Muhammadans (833) than amongst Hindus (820) and lowest of all amongst the Siklis (746). In this province the high castes have a larger proportion of females than many of those of lower status. The greatest inequality in the sex proportions is found amongst those sections of the community who were formerly suspected of female infanticide. This aspect of the question will be further discussed in paragraphs 276 and 279. Between 1881 and 1901 the proiDortion of females rose from 844 to 854, but it has now dropped to 817, or less than it has ever been before. The Provincial Superintendent says that this is due chiefly to the ravages of plague which, as vnW be seen in paragraph 269, is most fatal to females. It is satisfactory to note that, in spite of the general fall in the proportion of females to males, in the age-jieriod ' — 5 ' it has risen since 1901 from 926 to 941. 263. In the actual population of the United Provinces there are 915, and in the natural ])opulation 902, females per thousand males. The province thus occupies an intermediate position between the Punjab on its western border and Bihar and Orissa on its eastern. Females are in greatest defect (848 per thousand males) in the districts contiguous to the Punjab, and their proportion increases gradually towards the east. The Muhammadans have slightly more females than the Hindus and the low caste Hindus have more th.in those of twice-born rank. The number of females per thousand males rose from 925 in 1881 to 937 in 1901, but has now fallen to 915. The decrease, which is shared by all parts of the province, is ascribed by Mr. Blunt to the ravages of plague and malaria. "Por every four men whom plague carries off, it carries off five women." 264. Keturning now to the proportions for the whole of India, the first thing to be noted is the great contrast between them and those obtaining in wr^stern Europe, where the number of females per thousand males varies from 1,093 in Portugal and 1,068 in England and Wales to 1,013 in Belgium and 1,003 in Ireland, the general average being 1,038.* In the Report for 1901^ while not denying the possibility of some few females having been omitted from^ the record, I concluded that the local conditions of India tending to produce a. relatively high mortality amongst females were sufficient to account for the difference referred to above. As this view has been questioned in some quarters,! it is necessary to deal somewhat more fully with the matter on the • This figure is taken from Sir J. A. Baines's paper on The Recent Orowth of Population in Western.- Europe. (Journal of the Moyal Statistical Society, LXXII, 685.) t I refer principally to the article on the Indian Census of 1901 by Dr. Georg ron Ma>T published in the Allgemeine Statisiische Arc/iiv, 7th Vol., Part I, pages 265-329. This distinguished statistician has made a close study of Indian, as of all other, census literature, and it is with great deference that I venture to differ from him on this question. His criticism of the chapter on Sex in the last Census Report for India was ekbnrated by Kirchhoff in his Essay Wier das Verkaltnis der Geschlechter in Indien (Miinehen 1909). Mr. T. G. Ackland, F.I. A., whose report, on the ajre statistics has been reproduced in the last chapter, is inclined to share von Mayr's opinion. He \vrites, " I entirely agree as to the complete elficiency of the system laid down for ennmeration, and that the results have never probably been so accurate ns on the present occasion ; i)ut I still think that it is almost impossible to consider the anomalies arising in the female figures as entirely due to the inaccuracy of the age return, or to variations in the rates of mortalitv of female, as comp.ired with mal", lives. I agiee, however, that this point is open to doubt, and that it would not be right to be dogmatical upon it." In reply to a letter nsking for the reasons which led him to this conclusion, Mr. Aoliland wrote : — " I should not propose to follow the matter up farther, as I do not think that the data available enable one to come to n definite conclusion upon the subject." THE ACCURACY OF THE STATISTICS. 209' present occasion. The objections to it which have been put forward are briefly as follows : — "^ (1) It is very unlikely that there should be so great a difl'erence between the proportions in India and in western Europe. (2) It is well known that natives of India are reticent regarding their women, and that in some parts women are regarded as of very little account. It is, therefore, natural to suppose that the return of them at the census should be incom[)lete. (3) The age statistics show that the pro])ortion of females is lowest be- tween the ages 10 and 20. This is the time of life when it might be supposed that there would be a tendency to conceal the existence oE unmarried females. (4) The increasing accuracy of each succeeding census has been accom- panied by a rise in the proportion of females. It is only reason- able to suppose that there is a connection between the two phenomena. (5) The vital statistics for the decade 1891-1900 disclosed a relatively low female mortality, and in this respect they were confirmed by the mortality rates deduced from the age return of the last census. 265. In reply to the argument based on the difference between the propor- tions in India and western Europe, it may be pointed out that the latter is the only part of the world where females are in excess. In the south-east of Europe they are in marked defect ; and in some of the Balkan States the deficiency is almost as great as it is in India. The same state of things exists in all eastern countries where censuses have been taken, as well as in the United States, Canada,. New Zealand and several of the Australian Colonies. It may be objected that in the latter countries the deficiency is caused by the immigration of males. This is no doubt true to some extent, but it must be remembered that a similar objection applies to the proportions quoted for western Europe, which also refer to the actuaJ, and not to the natural, popula- tion. There can be no doubt that in Ireland, at least, the small excess of females wordd be more than wiped out, if allowance were made for the relatively large emigration of males.* That immigration is not the full explanation is clearly shown by the interesting statistics compiled in connection Avith the latest census of the United States of America which show that the proportion of females in the native white population born of native parents is almost identical with that existing in India ten years ago. The sex proportions in the United States have been worked out separately for the native- born population, distinguishing between those boru of native white parents and those born of immigrant white parents and negroes. In the first category the proportion of females per thousand males is 961, in the second it approac-hes equality, and in the third it is 1,011. The excess of males in the native white population born of native parents is ascribed to the fact that while, as elsewhere, the number of males at birth exceeds that of females and the male mortality is greater than the female, the general death-rate is relatively so much lower, that the excess mortality amongst males does not produce equality in the number of the sexes at so early an age as in Europe ; consequently, in the population at all ages, the slightly greater male death-rate does not overcome the advantage which males have at birth. Amongst the native white population born of foreign parents, the general rate of mortality is higher ; consequently the males lose sooner their initial advantage and equality in the sex proportions results. The low proportion of females in Ceylon, 920 per thousand males excluding immi- grants, is of special interest, as in that colony there is admittedly no tendency to omit females. The Singhalese have always held their women in coniidi'rable respect, and they treat their sons and daughters alike with the greatest kindness. In other respects also the conditions of female life are better than in India. Infant marriages are rare and women seldom have to do hard work. It may I think, be taken as proved that, in respect of tlie sex propiu*- tions, the figures for western Europe are exci'jJtioMal, and that those in India do not differ greatly from the proportions in other ])arts of the world. T will endea- * There are, moreover, certain locaUtii-8 ivheie males ure in exu(>8» in Uie actual |H>|>alatioii, t^ , Britt-knj. 2 E XrMBEE OF FEMALES PEE THOtrsAND MALES. Roumania (Census of 1899) . 968 Bulgaria ( ., 1905) . 982 Servia ( „ 1900) . 946 Japan ( ., 191U) . 979 Ceylon ( „ 1911) . 888 „ excluding immigrants . 920 Siberia (Census of 1897) . 955 Caucasus ( „ 1897) . 897 United States(„ 1910) . 9J3 Canada ( „ 1911) . 886 New Zealand (,. 1906) . 887 males. 210 CHAPTER VI. — SEX. vour later on to explain why they should differ from those in western Europe, but will first refer briefly to tlie other ari^'umeuts which have been brought forward against the conclusion arrived at in the last Census Report. omi3s?proportlOon ulnorent ag*- at riodB. however, Tvives are so hard to ohtaiii that these scruples disappear, and men who cannot otherwise provide themselves with help-mates frequently purchase w^omen imported from elsewhore of whom tliey know absolutely nothing, aoceptiui; without enquiry tlie procurer's assuiaucos regarding them, altliougli they must often know jjerfectly well that their statements are untrue. 26S. At first sight tlie figures in Suhsidiaiy Table TI showing the proportion- oi' the sexes at different age-periods would seem to supjwrt the view tlial females between the ages of 10 and 20 have been omitted from the record. This, however, is not the case. 'I'ho deficipncy at this period of life is due partly to the greater inaccuracy of the age returns of females, and in particular to the under-statement of the ages of those who have attained puberty but are still unmarried and the exaggeration of the ages of very young* mothers, and partly to the fact that the mortality amongst young married females is far higher than it is amongst males of the same age. It is worthy of note that tliL' deficiency at this time of life is least marked in Burma, where the ages are more accurately returned than in other parts of India, and where girls seldom marry before puberty. The deficiency at the age-period in question occurs, not only in provinces where females generally are in defect, but also in those like Madras where they outnumber males to a greater extent than in many countries of western Europe, and where, therefore, there is no a priori reason to suspect any omissions from the returns. On the other hand, the relative deficiency in the Punjab as compared with India generally is not quite so great at this time of life as it is amongst persons over 20 years of age. Lastly, omissions of females, if they occurred, would be expected among -t those under 30 years of age, but Subsidiary Table II shows that the proportion of females to males below that age is higher than it is in the female poinilation as a Avhole. For a fuller examination of the question from the point of view of the age distribution the reader is referred to paragraphs 205 and 219 to 222 of the last Census Eeport. I have not thought it necessary to repeat at length what I wrote ten years ago. 269. The suggest'on that the steady increase in the proportion of females Tho^peri^o^^ between 1881 and 1901 was due to 'the growing accuracy of succeeding sexppopor- enumerations has been shown to be unfounded by the result of the recent census, when the proportion has again fallen to that found to exist in 1881. It was stated, moreover, in the Report for 1901 that practicallv no portion of the general increase in the population then recorded was due to the enumera- tion liaving been more accurate than in 1891. Improved enumeration cannot, therefore, have had anything to do with the rise of five per mille at that census in the proportion of females to males. And that being so it seems improbable that it should have had much to do with the smaller rise of four per mille in 1891. Moreover, the continuous improvement which was noticeable up to 1901 was not uniformly distributed. In two of the larger provinces there was no change between 1881 and 1891, and in two others between 1891 and 1901, while in one there was a steady decline. The net gain was greater in the second decade than in the first. If improved enumeration had been the cause of the variations, they would have been more uniform, and the gain would have been greater in the first of the two decades. The fall in the proportion which has now taken place is due mainly to the figures for the Punjab and the United Provinces, where the extreme uuhealthiness of recent years has re- sulted in a decrease in the population. This decrease has occurred entirely amongst females ; the nuinl)er of males remains almost the same as in 1901. Before the census was taken the vital sta- tistics had already shown that in Upper India the female mortality "from jilague was far in excess of male ; and enquiries had been instituted as to why this should be so. The con- NUMBFB OF FEMiLKS PEE THOnSAND MAIES. Provincee. 1881 1891 1901 Bengal • 1,008 1,005 998 Bombay . 938 938 945 Burma . 877 962 9G2 Madras • 1,020 1,020 1,026 Punjab • 843 851 852 United Provinces 925 930 937 * These figures relate to Bengal and tlie Punjnb as they stood in I'.iOI. those for Coohin and Tiavancore. The fignrog for Ma.lras inejude Sufi ,212 CHAPTER TI. — SEX. elusion arrived at was that it is due to the different habits of the two sexes. "Women spend much more time than men in their houses, in which they sit most of the day. Tliey generally go barefooted. They sweep the floors and handle the grain for threshing or grinding. They nurse persons suffering from plague ; and, when death occurs in a house, they assemble there for purposes of mourning and sit round the corpse. They are thus much more exposed to infection through the rat-flea, which attacks human beings when its natural host dies, and is now generally recognized as the medium by Avhich bubonic plague is chiefly spread. A similar esplauation would account for a greater mortality of women from malaria, such as occurred in the epidemic of 1908 in the United Provinces, vide paragraph 36 of the Provincial Report. The mosquitoes which carry the germs of the disease are found chiefly in the dark corners of houses ; and the women, who are most confined to them, would thus naturally be more frequently bitten. In 1904 when plague raged in the Punjab the recorded mortality per mille was 4i"5 for males and 54'4. for females ; and the mortality attributed to plague was 16'0 and -ZS'^ respec- tively. In the south of India women do not appear to be specially liable to plague. For this there are several reasons. They are less confined to their houses, and take a more active part in out-door work. Also, in these parts, plague chiefly attacks the inhabitants of the slums of large towns, where the proportion of males is much greater than in the general population, on tbe basis of which the death-rate is calculated. 270. However that may be, the fact remains that there has been a fall in the proportion of females at the present census, and that it is the result of a rl^e in their relative death-rate. In the previous decade, as stated in the Report for 1901, the improvement in the proportion which was then registered was due mainly to a relatively high mortality amongst males in the tracts affected by the great famines of 1897 and 1900. Tliis explanation has been challenged, but it is none the less correct. The fact that women suffer from famine less than men is clearly proved by the vital statistics of famine years, as was shoAvn in paragraph 221) of the last Report. It is also well recognized by famine administrators, as will be seen from the extracts from various famine reports and other official papers which I have collected in the Appendix to this Chapter.* Their greater immunity is due partly to physical causes— they have more fat on their bodies and are less metabolic — and partly to external circumstances. It is they who collect edible jungle products, and who cook for the family ; they have the handling of the food for their children ; they more frequently receive gratuitous relief, and when employed on famine works their tasks ai*e comparatively light ; they wander less than the men ; they are less ashamed to beg and at the same time are probably more successful when they do so. Lastly, during a famine there is a great diminution in their fecundity with the result that there are fewer deaths than usual from child-birth. 271. The truth seems to be that the proportion of the sexes is never constant. Changes similar to those which have taken place in India occur also in Europe. In Ireland the proportion of females per thousand males fell from 1,050 in 1871 to 1,027 in 1901 and 1,003 in 1911, while in England it rose from 1,042 in 1851 to 1,068 in 1901. Just as the general birth and death rates vary from time to time, so also do the rates for the two sexes taken separately. Some conditions are more adverse to females and others to males ; and the relative mortalitv varies accordingly. In Ireland the number of female, per thousand male, deaths rose from 995 in the quinquennium 1866-70 to 1,016 in 1901-05, and in Eng- land it fell from 976 in 1816-50 to 936 in 1901-05. Though the causes deter- mining sex are still obscure, it is well known that the proportion of female to male births also varies from time to time. In England in fifty years it rose bv 15, and in Prance in a hundred years by 26, per mille. These variations have been examined by one of the best known of recent writers on sex, who con- cludes that the proportions are in a sense self -regulating, so that disturbances tend to bring aljout their own compensation.t Such variations are naturally to be expected if, as is now generally be- lieved, sex is not inherent in the ovum, but is determined by external circum- * In the famine of 1900 women on relief works were paid the same wages as men .^imiJarIv• employcii. The Commission wlio afterwards reported on the operations cimo to the conchision that the sex distinction should be revived. They said it was a physiological fact that women require less food than men. t C. Diising, — Die Regulierui>g des Gexchlecht-iverhaltnisses hei der Vermehrtinr/ dtr Mtnschen, Thiere und P/a//zen,— Jena 1884. COMPABISON WITH BIRTH AND DEATH EETURNS. 213 stances, such as the degree of nourisbmeut of the mother, her age and that of the father. 272. It remains to examine the bearing of the birth and death i-eturns on the 51""^*^^° ^^^ doing return*. JJtagram showing the mille in the main Provinces. 1901 'OX "Oi ^CA *0S ^6 ^07 ''06 ''091910 40 -___ ^ ^^-^^ _J BENGAL 50 ^-'' -•-v. ..-. ^'•' "^^ -._,- ~*— x^ -*— «- -tr—H- 45 - ^_,^ -— ,^_ 31HAR AND ■= — ^ "-T*"""" _,...-^ CRISSA .yi -"— 1^ *' "'-»- ■"*•- V ^*^'*'^ 45 - ,, ,*^ •-► K BOMBAY Pi ^ ^ =''^ *=«-. ~'~^,^ ^t.--*" sij - ^ y ^^^^ ■If _ / \j ^ - C.P. AND --*' ~~ "^.^ ^, / EERAR ' •- ^^ / Sb <- '^'^^■^ >^ ' '^ Zf ^.^ , MADRAS £0 ^ __,i.-«- —.^ ,.--*' ■•'->', ..-H 1 60 - PUNJAB 50 AG .-^' — - V \ / *\ \ A / 60 — X \ UNITED ~^ '^^^^ ^^ \ PROVINCES 40 ;.o _«-♦- ^v * *" \ ■;^ BIRTHS- DEATHS - census ligures, but l)el'ore yearly mimberofhirlhs and deaths per ^q'x'i'x-^ nccessarv lo consider the extent to which they are to be relied upon. The main results disclosed l)y the Ijirtli and death returns are exhibited in the dia- gram in the margin. The ques- tion how far they can be taken as a basis for reliable intercensal estimates of the growth of the population has already been con- sidered in Chapter II, where the variation in the natural popula- tion is compared with the differ- ence between the number of births and deaths recorded during the decade. It must be remem- bered, however, that omissions of births and deaths go to couijter- balance one another, so that there may be a good deal of leakage without the net result being materially affected. It is necessary, therefore, for the ])ur- pose of this Chajiter to go further and consider how far the rejwrt- ed occurrences agree with the birth and death rates calculated by the Actuary, and whether there is any special tendency to fail to re^jort occurrences of seen from the marginal statement that the estimated and reported birth and death rates agree very closely in the Punjab, there is often a very considerable difference. It is clear that in most provinces the vital statistics are still very defective. They are based on returns from village headmen or watchmen ; and although they are tested to a certain extent, this checking is notliing like as complete and thorough as the checking of the census schedules by supervisors and charge superintendents. 273. The general opinion of Provincial Superintendents is that there is no special tendency to fail to report the vital occurrences of females, but Ah-. Blunt in the United Pro- ' vinces thinks that deaths in epidemics are not fully reported and that the omissions mostly refer to females. However that may be, it would clearly be very unsafe to draw any inference adverse to the accuracy of the results of the census from a (liscrej)ancy between them and the vital statistics. But there is in reality no discrei)ancy. The fact that prior to 1901 these statistics showed a greater excess of l)irths over deaths in the case of females does not, as has been supposed, contradict the conclusion arrived at in the last Census llej)ort. Contrariwise it supports it. If, as was there urged, the steady rise in the proportion of A^males at (uicli successive census up to 1901 was genuine, it must necessarily have been because the excess of births over deaths was greater in their case than in that of males. According to the census of 1911 tliere has been a fall in the ])rop<)rtion of females, and this again is confirmed by the vital statistics, AvJiich show that in any particular kind. It will be Province. K.ATE PES MILLE OF BiBTHS. Deaths. I H 3 J3 =3 Assam aud > <1J Peiigall Bombay , Burma Mndras I'unjab United I-'io- 3R-9 33-4 33-9 41-2 46-7 41-0 4-i-9 41'9 443 41-4 46-5 33-6 34-6 25-2 23-2 440 400 35-8 32-7 33 4 43-3 although 39-3 I 46-0 214 CHAPTER VI. — SEX. Reasons for differ- ence In sex proper tlons in India as compared with Europe. XtrjIBER OF FEMALE PER THOrsAND MALE BIHTHS. Madras . . 9.'S Scotland . . 959 Bihar and Orissa . 955 Belgium . . 955 C. P. & Berar . 954 Gprnianv, Ireland 949 | Bengal . . 941 Norway . 914 Burma . . 938 Eoumania . . 935 Bombay . . 926 Bulgaria . . 927 United Provs. . 924 Spain . 907 Punjab . . 909 Portugal . . S99 X.-W F. Prov. . 819 Greece . 8S4 Note— The proportions for India are tbe average of the decailo 1901-10, and those for European countries (er- cept Ronmania, Portugal and GrocLt) of the qninqaer- nium 1901-05. PROVINCE NUMBEROFFEMALES TO 100 MALES the main British provinces during the decade 1901-10 the male hirths exceeded' the male deaths by -l-O millions, while the corresponding excess in the case of females was only J<'5 millions. It is true that the relative gain to the male population according to the vital statistics is smaller than that disclosed by the census, but the difference is only a matter of degree, and can be explained by the inferior accuracy of the vital statistics, and also, to some extent, by migra- tion between British territory and Native States. The important point is that both sets of statistics agree in showing a relatively more rapid growth of the female population in the period 1891-1901 and a relatively more rapid growth of the male i^opuiation in 1901-10. 27J). ^Ve may now investigate the reasons why the proportion of females shovild be lower in India than in western • Europe. In both cases more males than females are born ; and altliough the excess is on the whole slightly greater in India, the mean difference is not very great. In Europe, as in India, there are marked local variations, but except in Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province, where the vital statistics are not very reliable, every area under registration in India has its counterpart in Europe. The very unusual ligures for the North-West Frontier Province attracted considerable attention during the first half of the last decade ; and in each of the years 190-3 to 1906 steps were taken to test the retxirns in Diagram comparing the proportion of the sexes at the census smaXX selected areas. The final con- (natural populalion) with that acnirding to the birth returns elusion arrived at bv the Sanitary for the decade 1901-10. Commissioner Tvas thk the reported deficiency of female births was due largely to defective registration. The net result of the testing was to raise the proportion of female, per thousand male, births from 819 to 832. Cal- culated oji the orijj'in:!! returns, the omissions detected amounted in the case of miiles to 10, and in that of females to 12, percent. In one or two of tbe annual Sanitary Reports the testing was de.scribed as perfunctory, so that even the latter figure cannot be relied upon. All that can safely be said is that the proportion of females at birth is even lower in this province than it is in the Punjab. The Baluchistan Superinlendent, noting that males preponderate largely amongst children born dead, suggests that the relatively large proportion of males amongst infants born alive may be explained in part by the rarity of still births amongst the hardy women of his province. It may be interesting to mention that during the last twenty years 1,522 births have been reported by European members of the Indian Civil Service in connection with their family pension fund. Of these 800 were males and 722 females. There were thus only 903' female, per thousand male, births. This is far below the corresponding pioportion for Great Britain and Ireland, but th ' absolute figures are perhaps too small to justify any inference as to the influence of climate on the sex proportions at birth. Nor is it safe to draw general conclusions from the figures for a special section of the community ; according to A. Bertillon the proportion of male births in England is relatively high amongst the clergy. It may be noted, however, that the male-producing tendency amongst Europeans in India which is suggested by these statistics appears to have its counterpart in Cuba, where the black race tends to produce an excess of females and the white race an excess of males * 275. It will be noticed, that in seeking an equivalent elsewhere for the sex proportions at birth in Burma and elsewhere it *lias sometimes been neces s-ary to go beyond the limits of western Europe. In that tract as a whole, t here * W. Heape, " Ihe Proportion of ike Segues prmlv red In/ White and Coloured Peoples in Cuba. Phtliiso fl teal Transacliont of the Royal Society of London, Series B.. Vol. 2'>0, pp. 318-!I31. 80 85 90 PROPORTION AT BIRTH HH PROPORTION ATCENSUS Y//////A FEMALK INFAXTICIDV:. '215 are 948 fomale to a tliousand male births, compared with an average of 937 in the Indian provinces. The difference ])vv mille is only 11 ; and this does not §0 very far towards acconiitini;; Tor the difference of 84 in the sex pro])ortioii8 at the census. It is therefore in the conditions after birth, as attectint^ the relative mortality of the two sexes, that an explanation must l)e souii'ht. As Letonrneau has said " it is the social actions of men wliicli produce the most profound dis- turbances in the proportion of the sexes."* In Europe, boys and cfirls are equally well cared for. Consequently, as boys arc cimsti'tutionally more delicate tlian girls, t by the time adolescence is reached, a hii^her death-rate has already obliterat- ed the excess of males and produced a numerical equality between the two sexes. Later on in life, the mortality amontrst males remains relatively high, OAving to the risks to which they are exjjosed in their daily avocations ; hard work, ex^josure in all weathers and accidents of various kinds combine to make their mean dura- tion of life less than that of women, who are for the most part engaged in domestic duties or occupations of a lighter nature. Hence the pj-oportion of females steadily rises. In India the conditions are altogether different. Sons are earnestly longed for, while daughters are not wanted. This feeling exists every- where, but it varies greatly in intensity. It is strongest among.vt communities, such as the higher Rajput clans, where large sums have to be paid to obtain a husband of suitable status and the cost of the marriage ceremony is excessiA-e, and those like the Patliaus, who despise women and hold in derision the father of daughters. Sometimes the prejudice against daughters is so strong that abor- tion is resorted to when the midwife predicts the Inrth of a girl. Formerly female infants were frequently killed as soon as they were born, and even now they are very commonly neglected to a greater or less extent. The advantage which ]iature gives to girls is thus neutralized by the treatment accorded to them by their parents. To make matters worse, they are given in marriage at a very early age, and cohabitation begins long before they are physically fit for it. To the evils of early child-bearing must be added unskilful midwifery ; and the combined result is an excessive mortality amongst young mothers. In India almost every woman has to face these dangers. Lastly, amongst the lower classes, who form the bulk of the population, the women often have to work as hard as, and sometimes harder than, the men ; and they are thus less favourably situated in respect of their occupations than their sisters in Europe. So ardently are sons longed for by Hindus that, in all parts of India, whin a woman becomes pregnMnt, a special ceremony is performed in order to induce the birth of a male child. In Travaneore tlie form which this ceremony takes is the " handing by the luisband to his pregnant wife of a small quantity of curdled milk with a grain of a special kind of naddy and two peas. Before sipping this drink she is asked, by way of attention being prominently drawn ' What are you drinking. ' She then answers, as it w-ere by way of openly expressing the exercise of her will-power in the desired direction of sex determination, 'I'vmmvanam' i.e., it is a rite that would give male offspring/' 276 The above is a summary of the conditions prevailing in India which ^emaie tend to reduce the proportion of females below that in western Europe, but "^ in order to appreciate them fully and to arrive at a conclusion as to their relative importance, it is necessary to discuss them in more detail, and to correlate them with the local variations in the sex proportions. And first as to female infanticide. Hypergamy, or the rule that a girl nnist be given in marriage to a man of higher rank, makes it difficult and vei-y expensive to obtain a suitable husband, while the admission of inferiority which is implied in giving a girl in marriaue is a blow to a man's pride. Apart from this a Kajput husband often tyrannizes over his father-in-law. Female infanticide was resorted to in order to avoid these troubles which the marriage of a daughter involved. This practice is of very old standing in the north-west of India. After the British occupation it first came prominently to notice towards the end of the 18th century amongst the hypergamous Eajpul clans of Gujarat, where steps Avere taken to put it down l)y Duncan, AA'alker and others. The practice was soon afterwards found to be extremely prevalent in the United Provinces, the Punjab and Rajputana amongst various sections of the pojjula- • The lirolution of i^xrriage, p. 75. t Dniwin has rointe't out tlmt the iniili> sex \s more vnrinblein stvuctnre than the ti-mnle. niid vni-iations in important orfAiis woiilil i^eni'mlly In' injuriniis. It niHV be inentiono^l lien- that mcordiiip to the same authority fema'p infanticirle, if lonn eoiitinucd, wouhi tend to cauiie an excos" of mah's at liiith. Gnl« hiiiig killed in farailieK where the majority of the ihildnn aie families, and. sjjand in those wl.ire the majority are iiialeB, those ' who Harvive and become mothers would belong to a stock with a male-producing tendency. 2\Q CHA.PTEB VI. — SEX. tion, especially Khatris, Rajputs and Jats and all classes of Sikhs.* With the Jats' it frequently happened that where several brothers lived jointly,, the eldest alone married and the younger brothers shared his wife. There was thus no need for many women.f In most cases infanticide was practised only to a limited extent, and the first and possildy second daughter would be allowed to live, especially when there ^^•ere also several sons. But with some tribes every single daughter was killed, so that sometimes not a single girl was to be found in a whole village. After other measm-es to pnt a stop to it had been tried and found unsuccessful, an Act (VIII of 1870) was iDassed with the object of placing under police surveillance the communities suspected of the practice. 277. Infanticide seems always to have been rare amongst Hindus of Bengal and the peninsula area, but it Avas by no means unknown amongst the aboriginal tribes. Eussell, writing in 1836, says that amongst the tribes of the Orissa hills — " The destruction of female ehildieti is common, I may sav general. The expense attend- ino" the marriao-e rites is said to be the origin of this cruel custom. They purchase their women from other parts of the country without reference to their parentage." Tbe Khonds were specially addicted to the practice. Lieutenant Mac- pherson, who in 18-11 was deputed to Ganjam to suppress it and human sacrifices, came across many large villages in which there was not a single female child. This tribe was influenced largely by the belief that souls return to human form in the same family, but that they do so only if the naming ceremony on the seventh day after birth has been performed. Infants dying before that ceremony do not return. As Khonds, like other natives of India, ardently desire male offspring, this belief was a powerful inducement to the destruction of female infants, as a means of reducing the number of female souls which might be- reborn in the family. J The crime was also common amongst the Todas of the Nilgiris who, being polyandrous, had no great need of women and, being poor, did not wish to rear superfluous offspring ; and amongst certain Naga tribes in Assam, whose object was to avoid raids by their stronger neighbours in quest of wives. Amongst the Todas the low proportion of females returned at the census has been amply confirmed in the course of independent enquiries by Dr. Elvers- and other anthropologists. The extent to which the practice prevailed half a century ago in Northern India was clearly shown by the Hon-'ble Mr. Strachey in his speech introducing the Bill which after- wards became Act VIII of ISTO. He said that the prevalence of female infaiiticide in many parts of India had long been a matter of unhappy notoriety. From time immemorial this crime had been practised in many parts of India, and especially in the north by many tribes of Rajputs. Although it might be said that the crime was peculiar to the Rajputs, this was not, strictly speaking, true; for there were other tribes of Hindus- with whcm the practice was common, and in some parts of the country female in- fanticide was practised even by some classes of Muhammadans... Mr. Unwin, the Mao-istrate and Collector of Mainpuri, found that, in that district among the Chauhan Rajputs, hardly a single female child, young or old, was forthcoming. In Etawah Mr. Monckton soon afterwards found the same, and Mr. Gubbius made the same discovery in Agra.,.. Shortly afterwards the first Punjab war occurred, and in 184-6 the Jullundur Doah was annexed to the British territories. Lord Lawrence was Commissioner of the new division, and he found this practice equally prevalent there. It was found, subsequently, that there were other tribe?, besides the Rajputs in the Punjab, who commonly practised the same crime, especially the Bedis, a numerous and very influential class of Sikhs... In the Benares division, Mr. Moore personally made most minute investigations into the facts in three hundred and eight villages. In sixty-two of these villages he found that there were no female children under the age of six years. In another part of the division, Mr. Moore found a community of Hara Rajputs, regarding whom he said : — " Not only are there no girls to be found in their houses now, but there never have been any, nor has such an event as the marriage of a daughter taken place for more than two hundred years.'' In some reports of 1S()9 it was stated that in practising infanticide it had become customary, instead of suffocat- ing the unfortunate infant at once, to allow it to die a cruel and lingering death. Elsewhere the usual methods were to drown the infant in milk, or poison it with bhang, or by a preparation of datura or opium smeared on the mother's breast. The following extract from a letter written by one of the Kathiawar Chiefs in 1807 to Major Walker,°the Resident at Baroda, who had asked him to put a stop to female in- * The last Sikli Guru fonr.d it necessary specially to e.\communicate the Kurt mart, or slayers of female chMreTi (Punjah Census Report \n9l, page 219). , i, . x ex, t As noted further on, the Todas are also suspected of infanticide, but there is no trace ot the practice among;. the Tibetan*, nor ;iniong the other Indian communities that are or were formerly polyandrous. J 1 have not I'ecn able to hear of any similar superstition elsewhere. FEMALE INFANTICIDE. 217 fanticide is interesting as showing, not only that the practice was common, but also that it was openlj admitted by the persons addicted to it : — "...It i->s notorious that since the Avatara of Sri Krishna, the people (the Jarejahs) who arc descended from the Jadus, have during a period of 4,900 ve.ars been in the habit of killing their daughters; and it has no doubt reached your knowledge that all God's creation, even the mighty Emperors of Hindustan,... have" alw.-ivs preserved fneudship with this Court; and never acted in this respect (female infanticide) unreasonably... But you, wha follow the paths of the King, and who are an Amir of the groat Sirkar, the Honourable Company, having written me on this subject, I have derived much uneasiness; for it does not accord with your good character... God is the giver, and God is the taker-away. If any oner's affairs go to ruin he must attribute his fortune to God. No one has until" this day wantonly quarrelled with this Durbar, who has not in the end suffered loss. This Durbar wishes no one ill, nor has it ever wantonly quarrelled with any one. Evervthing that may happen is from God. I bow oyedient. Do not again address me on this subject^" In his book on /n^^ioM /?(/aHYm^6; (W. H. Allen & Co., Loudon 1857) the Reverend John Cave Brown gave some interesting figures of the sex proportions amongst this class of Rajputs, showing that the crime was gradually becoming less common. In 18 1--2 there were only 701 females to 6,208 males ; five years later there were 1,1.30 to 6,145, and aaain five years later 1,7^3 to 6,761. ^ Macpherson in his report of LS41 regarding the Khonds writes: — " This usage appears to have existed from time immemorial. Generally the life of no female child is spared, except when a woman's first child is a female, or when the head of a tribe, etc., wishes to form connections by intermarriage. The infants are destroyed by exposure in the jungle ravines immediately after their birth, and I found many villaget without a single female child." The crime is common amongst many primitive races. Amongst the Trobriands of New Guinea, for example, " no man likes a family of girls, and if a couple have no sons and three girls are born in succession, the last born might be killed. Formerly this was the opea and recognized practice. Now it can only be done secretly." * 278. It is difficult to say how far the murder of female infants still prevails. The figui-esfor certain communities, which will be quoted in the next paragraph,' show that there is still, in their case, a great dearth of females, hut there is very little direct evidence that it is due to actual infanticide, and it may equally well be the result of the more or less deliberate neglect of girls. We have seen that,, as far back as 1869, the destruction of female infants was already 1)eginning to take this more insidious form ; and the change would no doubt have l^een^ ac- celerated, after the Infanti(;ide Act was passed, by the fear of detection and the gradual growth of a feeling that the actual killing of female children was wrong. But that infanticide continued long after 1870 is certain. A Panjabi Brahman of good family says that, though the practice has now been disconti- nued, it was formerly quite common in his family : he himself was forced as a boy to assist at the murder of his infant sister, who was killed by having ice-cold water poured over her head, and an aunt of his had seven daughters ;ill of whom were starved to death. Not many years ago a Political Officer, when discussing with the Durbar of a Native State the expenditure to be incurred on the marriage of the Chief's sister, in reply to his question as to the amount spent on previous occasions when ladies of the family were married, was told that tliere had never before been such a marriage, in other words, this A\-as the first female in the family who had been allowed to live. In view of facts like these, it seems highly improbable that actual infanticide has ceased alto'^e- ther in northern India, but the general opinion is that it is now comparatively rare. It must, however, be remembered that a whole generation would have to pass aAvay, before a diminution in the prevalence of infanticide would take full effect. It would seem from tlieir present sex pro])ortions that the Khonds must have completely abandoned the practice. The Todas still have a great dearth of women ; Dr. Rivers, who recently made an exhaustive study of this tribe, writes : — " All accounts of the Todas agree in attributing to them the practice of female infanticide, though at the present time the Todas are very charv of acknowledging the existence of the practice. They deny it absolutely for the present and they are reluctant to speak about it for the past." • Tke Melanesiani of Nem Guinea, p. 705. For other instances see Westermarok, The Origin and J)evelopment of the Moral Ideas, LonAon, 1906, \, .394. It iimy 1)0 interesting to note that infmiticidi' in mentioned by Strabo b» a practice of the Kathaians, who inhahitcJ tho recion east of the Ravi, while accoidiiiif to Arrian, in the country of Sopithos, all childicn wero inepocted by officois appointod for the pui-poso.and those appeared deformed or otherwise defoctirc wore killed. McCrindle's Ancient India, Ed. 1896, pp. 219, 3.17. 2v 218 CIIAPTKU VI. — SEX. u2SJ?uf°/. '°™^° 279. The neglect of female infants is of two kinds. There is the deliberate neglect with the object of causing death, which is practically infanticide in a more cruel form ; and there is the half unconscious neglect, due partly to habit and partly to the parents' great solicitude for their sons. The boys are better clad, and when ill are more carefully tended. They are allowed to eat their fill before anything is given to the girls. In poor families, when there is not enough for all, it is invariably the girls who suffer. In this way, even where there is no delil^erate intention of hastening a girl's death, she is at a gi-eat * disadvantage as compared with her brothers in the struggle for life. In the Punjab the lowest proportion of females is found amongst Jat Sikhs (702), Hindu Eajputs (756), Gujars (703) and Hindu Jats (774). Infan- ticide was at one time notoriously prevalent among all these communities. Castes such as Kanet (947), Dagi and Koli (934) and Jogi Eawal (1,035) that were never suspected of the practice have a much larger proportion of females. Pandit Hari Kishan Kaul says that the amount of actual infanticide is now insignificant, but that the neglect of female infants is the general rule : — " Girls are usually insufficiently clad and less trouble is taken to protect them from heat and cold than is the case of boys. In the illness of female children no notice is taken unless the ailment becomes serious, while the slightest indisposition in a boy upsets the whole family and the best available medical assistance is summoned But the neglect of female infants, which has probably been the most important cause of the disparity of the sexes, is diminishing rapidly, owing partly to the spread of education and partly to changes in custom.'''' It is to be noticed that in the above communities the proportion of girls to boys under the age of 5 is only 832, Avhile in the case of several castes which charge a bride price and therefore presumably take more care of their girls it ranges from 1,005 to 1,052. The excess of the female, over the male, infantile death rate is still far greater than elsewhere in the districts where female infanticide was formerly most common. In the United Provinces the smallest proportion of females is found amongst the Jats (769) and Gujars (755). In that Province suspicion of infanticide has rested more heavily and more continuously on the Jats than on any other caste. Mr. Blunt says that " if there is no infanticide there is considerable and very widespread neglect of girls." He points out in this connection that, while amongst Hindus the proportion of females to males under five years of age is 997, amongst Muiiammadans it is 1,012. In Rajputana the Hindu Rajputs have only 779 females per thousand males, whereas the Muhammadan Rajputs have 847, and the proportion in the Agency as a whole is 909 ; in the age-period ' 0-5 ' the proportion of females among Hindu Rajputs is only 831, as compared with 1,003 among all Hindus. Early marrtage. 280. The cvll cffects of early marriage on the female constitution are well known and have been cited in other countries also as the main reason for a deficieiicy of women. Amongst certain Australian tribes, for example, the great excess of males has been attributed, not to the paucity of females born, but to the far greater mortality amongst them after puberty, on account of their too early maternity.* The Baroda Census Superintendent of 1901 (himself an Indian) speaking of the hard lot of child wives, says that numbers of them " march from the nuptial bed to the funeral pile. Nervous debility, consump- tion and uterine diseases create a havoc among them." Deatus cpnseqiiont 281. Thc general birth-rate is much higher in India than in western Europe (about 44 against 32 per mille) so that, even if other things were equal, the deaths from child-birth would be more numerous. But other things are not equal. There are no trustworthy statistics on the subject in this country ; except where death occurs in tlie course of parturition, it is usually returned as due to ' fever.' But it is well known that the mortality is very high owing to unskilful midwifery and septicaemia. In some parts as many as a third of the children born die during the first year of life, and it is believed that tlie majority of these die during the first month from septic poisoning. If so the deaths of the mothers also must be very numerous. * P. Beveridge quoted Ly Frazer (Totemlam and Jixogamy IV, 86) says : " I have seen pirU frequently of uot more than t-leven or twelve years old becoming mothers ; and child-bearing at these tender years entails future infirmities which materially assist in carrying them off ere they liave well reached maturity." on child birth. CAUSES OF A DEFICIENCY OF FEMALES. 219 Nor is it merely in the above respect tliat the (lan2:ers of childbeariiig are far greater iu India than in Europe. The niidwives ol' thi.s country are notorious- ly ignorant and unskilful.* Tliey are entirely useless in cases of cross birth ; and even in ordinary confintMncnts the patients get very little helj) from them. After deliveiy the mother is given various nauseous messes, wliich are often selected mainly for their supposed efficacy in scaring demons ; she is confined for days to a dark, ill-ventilated room in which a fire is kept smouldering and incense is sometimes burnt^and she gets no proper nursing and no special noiu-ishment. It vrould seem probable that the more delicately nurtured women of the higher castes must suffer more from treatment like this than (he hai'dier women of the cultivatiuij and labourina- classes. 282. In many parts girls are subjected to a somewhat trying ordeal at the Bad treatmwt or time when they attain puberty ; and all Hindu Avomen during their monthly "''™*"' periods are regarded as imclean and compelled to live apart from the family. Widows, esiDceially those who lose their husbands while they are still very young, are generally treated as family drudges, and, being supposed to be practically dead to the world, are expected to lead a life of absolute self-denial and to content themselves with the coarsest food and only one meal a day. Amongst the higher castes widows ofteu live to a great age, but as a general rule, their longevity nuist be affected by the conditions under which they live. Young widows, again, are sometimes apt to form illicit connections ; when this becomes known they are often made away with, while if they become pregnant abortion is resorted to, and death not infrequently ensues. The caste statistics for most 2)rovinces show that the proportion of females in different castes tends to vary inversely with the number of widows. Thus in the Central Provinces and Berar, the twice-born castes, who have most widows, have the smallest proportion of females to males ; the position is exactly reversed with the menial castes, while the higher cultivating castes occupy an intermediate position in botli resjiects. The Doms of Bihar, who have very few widows, have more females than males, while there is a marked deficiency of females amongst tlie Doms of Bengal, Avith whom widows are more numerous. Similar variations are found in the barber, blacksmith and milk- man castes of tliese two provinces. 283. Amongst many sections of the i)opulatiou women have to take their Hard woriu share, or more than their share, in the work by which the family is supported, but as a rule this does not seem to affect their longevity. The proportion of females is, on tlie whole, highest amongst the lower castes, whose women work hardest ; and it is exceptionally high amongst the Lushais where they do practically all the work, and the men spend their time loafing and smoking. That hard work sometimes goes a good way to account for the dearth of females is clear, however, from the proportions amongst the nomad, semi-nomad and settled people of Baluchistan. Females are most numerous amongst those who are settled, and least so amongst the nomads. .Mr. Bray explains this as follows : — " No one who has seen the Avoman of Baluchistan trudge heavily bui'dened along the road with her lord and master stepping briskly ahead, or has Avatched her wearily pitch the tent Avhile he looks on Avith a critical eye, can doubt that nomadism tells far more hardly on the women than it does 07i the men." Similarly in the North-West Frontier Province, Avhere the proportion of females is exceptionally low, Mr. Latimer says that " Avomen are regarded as chattels, and are valued cliiefly for their capacity to AAork like cattle; and it is thus not likely that they can Avithstand tlie rigours of the climate as Avell as males, Avho in childhood are more carefully tended by their parents and in later life take care to provide for their own food and comfort without much thought for their Avomenkind." But on the Avhole, it would seem rather that the inactive life led by ladies of the upper classes, who are secluded in dark and often ill-ventilated houses, is more adverse to longevity than hard Avork out of doors. It is well known that tuberculosis is a frequent visitor to zenanas, and that ladies behind the parda suffer from many female troubles Avhich their poorer sisters escape. • The methods of the indi.'enoiis luidwife wore described in piirsgraph 939 of the Bengal CenBiis Report forlPOl. See also some of tlic 14eport« on the present census, e.g., I'unjub, para. 824 ; United Provinces, pKra. 207 ; and Bombay, para. 151*. 2 p 2 220 CHAPTER VI. — SEX. APPENDIX. Relative iiiortalitv of males and females in famine years. Extract from Report hy the Sanitary Comtnissioner, Madras. — [Review of the Madras Famine, 1876-78, Appendix B.^page 122.) The ratio of male mortality in fact was just one-fifth in excess of that of the female. These •figures relate to actual statistics of relief camps in the Salem district, and I think there can be DO doubt that what is true in regard to this district and ia relief camps in every part of the country must be held to apply generally to the distressed populations, viz., that the mortality pressed unduly on the bread winners amongst the adults. * * * fpjjg very unusual proportion of male mortality registered throughout the Presidency during the past jrear (58'i per mille of males to ■iS04' females) points most clearly to the fact that those who left home to seek work and food and exhausted their energies in hopeless wandering had the least chance of surviving the hardsliips to which they were exposed. Extract from Report by Mr. W. C. Rennet, C.S., on the mortality in the Lucknow and Rae Bareli JJivisious. — [Report on the Famine in the Korth-Wcstern Provinces and Oudh, 1877-79, page 350.) The only poiut which I wish to notice here, and perhaps the most noticeable feature in the Teturn, is the great preponderance of adult male over adult female mortality, a preponderance which is striking enough in the case of deaths from all causes, but still more remarkable in the .case of deaths from famine. When it is considered that an enormous majority of the deaths from famine occurred among the veiy lowest classes, it is quite absurd to suppose any attempt at concealment of the deaths of grown women. From what I know of native feeling geueralU-, and from the particular experience I have gained in the last month, I am positive that there is no more reluctance to admit the deaths of their women than there would be in an English village, and that even in the highest classes there is never a momentary thought of conceal- ment. I over and over again came across families where all the adult males and most of the children had died, leaving only the women and one or two young ones alive. I am, in fact, unable to entertain a shadow of doubt as to the substantial accuracy of the figures given above ; at the same time I do not conceal from myself the extreme difficulty of giving an adequate explanation. Causes. — There probably is no one general cause that can be alleged ; but a number of small concurrent causes, which, each comparatively unimportant in itself, combined to produce the result. When questioned on the point, the natives assert it even more strongly than the statistics do, and offer the following explanations : — In the first place, they say the woman in a Hindu family always keeps the household stores, and has no scruple in availing herself of the advantage this gives her. In the second place, she commonly has some small metal ornaments which she disposes •of in time of need for her own benefit. Thirdly, — and this is a reason which will account for much, — her ordinary means of livelihood were not extinguished so completely as those of her husband ; the household work of sweeping and garnishing the dwellings of the well-to-do continued to support large numbers of women when the men had absolutely no work to look for. Fourthly, they refer to the common feelings of tenderness with which women are regarded. Not only is charity extended to them which would be denied to an adult male, but the husbands themselves will very generally rather starve than see their wives starve before them. No one who has seen an Indian famine can fail to have been struck by the extraordinary habits of self-restraint and patience under suffering which arc the fruits of the lifelong discipline and of the religious system of the people, and I have little doubt that this sacrifice on the part of the males, which is alleged without boasting as a matter of course, really had the effect of saving a largo number of women who would otherwise have perished. Finally, it was on the males that the brunt of the struggle fell. The incessant anxiety,, the wanderings from place to place in search of employment, the long watches by the growing crops during inclement nights, all operated fatally on bodies enfeebled by want, and destitute of even the ordinary insufficient clothing. Extract from Report by Captain D. G. Pitcher on the mortality in the Rohilkhand Division,— [Report on the Famine of 1877 in (he Xorth-lFestern Provinces and Oudh, page 313.) The excess of deaths in men over women is a singular fact well known to the people themselves, and accounted for in identically the same manner by all classes from Shahjahanpur to Bijnor — from the peasant to the police. It is attributed to the women, who have the ^■^ APPENDIX. 221 cooking to do for the whole household, taking for themselves and for their children more than a fair share of the food provided. I tried one day to find out from some labourers irrigating fields what they purchased with their small wage' of tive pice a day. " That we can't say/' was the reply ; " we give all cash to our women, and if you want to" know how it is spent, you must ask them, as we don't know." Another reason given for the preponderance of male over female deaths was that the men when hard pressed were too proud to Leg of their neighbours, but that the women and children felt no such shame, and importuned the more wealthy villairers. Again the women when hard up would go off to the mother-in-law's house, but the men once married and separated from the parental roof appear to look for little help therefrom. Another reason was no doubt due to the fact that the watching of crops at night is done by men only. Last year, whatever the thermometer may have shown, the cold was more trving with the cutting wind and rain that accompanied it than it had been for many years past, while owing to the scarcity of food the fields required an extra number of watchers, and indeed, watching fields constituted one of the chief sources of income of the poor. Straw for bedding was scarce and many who had enough wherewith to purchase food were yet unable to purchase clothing. Hence it is conceivable that many in these niglit watcUings contracted fever, of which, when disabled from work, they were left by their relatives to die. There remains also the fact that the men considerably exceed the women in numbers, to what extent mv vil- lage returns when completed will afford some indication. Extract from Mr. Baines' Eeport on the Census of -Bombay, 1881, pages 34 and 35. In the worst period of famine males suffered more than females * * * Tjjg smaller mortality amongst females than amongst males appears to be a general characteristic throughout the four districts most affected ; and if the year of greatest mortality be taken it will be seen that though the number and proportion of the deaths differ so wudely in the four districts, the proportion of the females that died to males is singularly uniform, more so than in any other year of the series. The action of the famine in equalising the numbers of the two sexes, too, is seen in the comparison of the figures for the two enumerations. Extract from Appendix J I to the JResolution on the Administration of Famine Relief in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh during the years 1896 and 1897, Volume II, page 126. There were 823,839 deaths among males as opposed to 681,898 deaths among females. This higher death-rate among males has been observed in former famines, and various reasons have been adduced for its occurrence. Of these, the greater exposure of males to vicissitudes •of weather, as in watching fields at night, etc., seems the most proliable. To this it is added that women having the control of the food and cooting of the household, are able to secure a larger share for themselves. But it is also to be remembered that, as a matter of fact, the male population of these provinces is considerably larger than the female. Extract from the Report on the Famine in the Madras Fresidency during 1896 and 1897, pages 165 and 166. The actual excess over normal, however, that is, the difference between 19'2 per mille and 22"6 per mille, shows that 1,767 more females died than in the period selected to afford an average. This calculation does not differentiate the mortality from epidemic diseases, but, on the other hand, the increased rate of death of females in proportion to that of males, is of special significance, if it be held in mind that the tendency on the part of the indifferent ngency •employed for registration is to ignore occurrences affecting the inferior sex. The women undoubtedly exhibited more signs of deterioration than the men. During the 1877 famine, the late Surgeon-General Cornish, then Sanitary Commissioner, found that deaths among men were far more numerous than amongst women. This he ascribed to the exhaustion following the aimless wandering of the men in search of emplov- ment that formed a special feature during the famine of that time. With, however, labour provided for the population, as in the present instance, the women have suffered disproportion- ately owing, it may be presumed, to the special tax upon their vitality in connection with their functions as mothers, and the extra strain involved in fulfilling domestic duties, in addition to the day's work, of a nature most were not accustomed to. The fact tliat the wife, according to Hindu etiquette, eats what the husband deigns to leave her also cannot be ignored. [N.B. — The famine of 18!l6-97 in the Madras Presidency was not very severe and the excess mortality was slight.) Extract from the Central Provinces Census Report for 1901, pages 116 and 117 . Colonel Scott-Reid, the late Administrative Medical Officer, informed me that he had remiirked the better condition of women in famine time, especially on admission into and residence in Jail * * * Mr. Fuller also noticed on several occasions that women on relief works looked fitter than mei\. During the whole ten years 2,012, 217 deaths of males were reported as against 1,721',655 of females or 1,000 to 6\i. In 1896 the number of female deaths to 1,000 males was 838 ; in 1897 it was as low as 801, and in 1900 it was S39, Thus in 1S97, when the famine morta- ility was most severe, five men died for every four women. 222 CHAPTER VI.— SEX. Age. Female deaths to 100 male deaths in — lb91. 1897. 1901. 1908. 96 103 85 80 103 109 94 87 91 105 0-1 . 1—5 5 -10 . 10-15 . 15-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40—50 . 50—60 60 aud over 90 99 76 71 114 101 78 75 74 8L 95 102 79 70 103 90 72 72 73 80 89 102 81 74 121 113 86 84 82 89 Extract from a paper read hy the late Sir Charles Elliott before the Royal Society of Arts in 1905. All the authorities seem agreed that women succumb to famine less easily than men ; and the diminution in the birth-rate, with the lessened risk of life from parturition, tends in the same direction. [Sir Charles Elliott was Famine Commissioner in Mysore in 1S76, and Census Commis- sioner for India in 1881.] Extract from the United Provinces Census Report for 1911, pages 195 and 196. The kind of effect produced by famine on the ratios of the sexes may be seen by com- paring the proportions of female to male deaths in a normal and famine year. I put side by side the figures of 1891 (normal; aud 1S97 (famine) and 1901 (normal) and 1908 (famine). I have reproduced the older figures because of the striking difference between them and the newer figures. In both series we find that the ratio of female deaths rises above the normal in infancy. At 1 to 5 and 5 to 10, it is slightly higher than the normal, between 15 and 30 it is very appreciably lower. The reason is that when scarcity begins to threaten, conception dimi- nishes ; the birth-rate of a famine year is conse- quently lower than the normal, though not so much lower as the birth-rate of the year succeed- ing a famine is. The peculiar dangers of this period are lessened, and woman, who in their absence is at her prime of life, reaps to the full the advantages which assist her in famine. Nor- mally one would expect similar though smaller diminutions in the ratio of female deaths at all other age-periods, owing to these very advan- tages ; and in 1897 the figures fulfil expectation. But in I'JOS thej' do not. The ratio of female deaths is very appreciably higher than the normal at all these age-periods. Of this striking difference an explanation is needed. One cause of the difference is undoubtedly the effect of malaria. Both in 1897 and 1908 there were epidemics of this disease, which is the usual concomitant though not the effect of famine ; and in attempting to gauge the effect of famine on the ratio of the sexes the effect of the subsequent malaria on the ratio should be excluded. For malaria attacked equally those who had felt the pressure of famine aud those who had not, European troops, Emopean ladies, who had passed the summer in the hills, poor and rich alike. Indeed malaria attacked most those who had felt the pressure of famine least, for it was most severe and most fatal just To get a true picture of the effect of famine on the ratio work out the figures given above for the months of the This is unfortunately impossible as figures by age-period and sex are not available for separate months. But the measure of the difference that would result if the calculation were possible can be gauged from the following facts. From January to August 1908 (the famine period) the ratio of female deaths to 100 male deaths was 88 : from September to December 1908, after famine was over and malaria had appeared, the ratio was lOti ; 48 percent, of the total deaths of the year occurred during the famine months, 52 per cent, during the malaria months. The ratio of female to 100 male deaths from fever was 99 over the whole year : during the famine months it was 88, during the malaria months it was 110. The ratio of female to 100 male deaths from fever in 1901 was 9-2. These facts make it quite clear that in famine woman suffers proportionately less than man, and that the figures for the whole year 1903 are upset merely by the epidemic of malaria of its last months. In 1897, it may be noted, malaria was much less dangerous to females : the percentage of female to male deaths from fever was only 86 through the whole year ; whilst the total deaths of that year were fewer by 70,000 than the deaths from fever alone in 1908. There is also another and more gratifying cause. There can be no doubt that a part of the differences mentioned are due to the fact not that more women died but that fewer men died during the famine. This is attributable chiefly to the absence of wandering. This absence of wandering was, I think, due to the fact that the people by 1908 had learnt by experience that Government was anxious and willing to assist them. In 1897, as the report of the famine shows, they had not yet obtained such confidence in Government, and took to their traditional methods of escape from famine — at best, wandering in search of work, and at worst, looting the grain dealer's shops. In 1908 there was no predisposition to wander : a timely distribution of gratuitous relief at an unusually early date kept them at home ; and when the relief works opened, they flocked to them at once, often in ready-made gangs. It is these wanderers who feel the worst effects of famine ; it is chiefly they who starve. And it is amongst them that mau would most severely feel his disadvantages and woman would reap the fullest benefit of her advantages. If male mortality has decreased at this famine it is- because there was next to no wandering. where famine had not been present, of the sexes it would be necessary to ve;ir in which famine was prevalent. SUBSIDIAKY TABLES. 223 SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. ]\uiiiber of feiiiak'S per 1,000 iiuilesi by Provinces. States and Agencies. ProTitice, State or Apency. NrMTiKR OP PEMALE8 TO l.WO MALES, iflll. 1901. 1891. lau. Actual population. Nat a rat popalation. Actual population. Natural population. Actual popnlBtiOD. Natnr.il population. Actual population. Natural population. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 S INDIA. 9M 953 963 963 968 958 96* 966 Ajtner-Merwara 884 818 90CI 876 881 893 851 773 Assam ....... 940 963 949 973 948 966 953 965 fialuchistan ...... 790 833 ... ... ... ... Bengal ...... 945 970 960 982 973 995 994 1,013 Bihar aod Orissa ...... 1,043 1,014 1,047 1,027 1,040 1,032 1,024 1,018 Bombay 933 942 945 950 938 946 938 947 Barma ....... 959 1,028 962 1,027 962 1,017 877 980 Central Provinces and Berar .... 1,008 1,019 1,019 1,026 985 » 973 • ''oorg . . ■ 799 962 801 963 804 954 775 939 -Madi-ag 1,032 1,011 1.029 1,029 1.023 1.025 1,021 1,019 Xorth-West Frontier Province 858 887 846 885 843 892 819 879 Punjab ....... 817 811 851 846 850 844 844 844 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh 915 902 937 926 930 917 925 914 Baroda State 925 927 936 970 928 929 917 890 Cential India Agency 949 955 948 954 912 921 897 903 Cochin State 1,007 1.001 1,004 996 998 692 989 • Hyderabad State 96<» 974 964 970 964 971 968 974 Kashmir State ...... 887 881 884 887 880 887 t*i ... Mysore State 979 990 980 994 991 1.000 1,007 1,008 Rajputana Agency 909 898 905 901 891 883 862 848 .Sikkim State 951 Xfi'iT, 916 966 936 ... Travancore State ..... 981 979 981 986 982 • 1.006 • • Nut avtiUblc. jjOTi.— The i>ro|iortionB for ProviDcea iiiclade the Native Stat*-- attncbed to them, t-xcept in the law o( Iho N.-W. K. Pro\iDco, where lh»y aro f.ir Bntiah territory odIt and Madra-, where tht-y eiclade tho8^ for C'whin an-l Traiancor*-. The proportion for Iitdi* in colamn 2 has been calcuUtod on the population dealt with in Imperial ' able VII. In caU-iilatiK^thc natural population for India ntiA nhola.the cmigruita from lodia to the Strait* Bettlcmenla, Ceylon ind nihor placcfl for which rrtanm arcarailable ba%e bt'*;D taktn into act oant. 224 CHAPTER VI.— SEX. St UJ _J CQ < I- >- cr < 9 CO CQ D CO an a o -S) •pa a» »« s •*< i?S a t« >^ S«; .£ o IX! o N •mm H V 1^ V )^ ») H *5 'I +s s a> ^ .« fe OS S e e e on s i j^ U3 « CO « ^ <=>. OS c» 9 o> iH I-« 11 »^ rH « A ■* S Ol ^ oa ^ 00 ^ s o ca o ca Ok o OS- o o» Ph 1 "^ •^ *"* " '"' '^ S ^ rt rH o> o »o $ § a ^ a 04 a 1-1 o. T^ o> o> o <» rH ^ ^ o (M 04 m t* eo la o> t- (5 CO eo CO o lO t- O] lO ^ ta § .2. § 03 o> a. o 00 OO l> I> OO t4 ^ CO oO . s 04 o> o O) 00 00 00 00 «o S g * «-< 04 M *»i rH 5; oa tH <£> § 04 o ' a» 00 fr- t- So 00 to CO ^ o> *H •h" :^- o o_ rH Ct m •^J" Ctl o W c o_ o o^ fH •^i^ o_ ^ 5 tH ■* 01 OO 2 SR OS ■* o CO s iH o o «>. 00 Oa 04 • •^ F-1 rH ft r-( r^ rH rH rH 01 i i U3 00 04 CO OJ . y 8 g . 1 CO • • • * • • • • • r«. • s h OS iH '^ •^ o rf «^« y^ « O Ok ■* o OS ^_^ -«f «a r- /"'^ — ^ ^ r» « o O oa s a »-H~ •^ •-^ CO o_ rf u 04 «o -f O i;- 00 rH rH rn" i C4 « « -* •=s ^ ^ 00 o» g s <» CO i 3 ^ CD o c> »^ 00 t- 00 03 J^ Oi oa >* rH o o o o H O at w 00 00 Ol o * a* *H '"' "^ iH " " '"' (M QO « tN. »n 04 o « 00 «. o t- 00 O o c^ oa o a r-4 o o o o Oi t=l 00 CTl ,_l cr* a >• "^ '"' t-1 *"* y^ '"' ••^ 00 (M 00 s ^ to i 00 ss & C4 J5 s ■* ■^ s r- Oi s ■Q o o o o o o c a Ol 1 o ri rH t-t l-l *"* rH »« 00 s rH 00 o g § CO o o 00 rH o s o o o OI s o ""^ •^ ■^ rH rH »-1 rH r-t rH 00 ■* lO O S C4 a s t* o o c O •"1. 00 o CO •^ •^ ^^ t-H " "" " ^^ »^ r^ C4 S OO 04 » i o s o o o <» 04 CO 00 o s rt" «-t I-I rH fH 1*1 rH rH •^ rH •5 « t^ 01 •^ ■-H o* 8 2 >n o o O c> n-* t- 00 o> OO o> "^ , 3 ^ s U» o r4 3t ><« 01 to 00 s s 8 I-t ■* o o o o ^. ot o> Ok "^ f* '~* " " rH in ■* 01 o ^ r- -»• s g Tf< s M o o o o rH <7> C3 3 I-I .-1 rH rH •-T rH rH a ^ ■* § 04 o 04 3 r-t 55 s 01 o o o O O <=» S o> "^ "^ *~* '"' *^ " " • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • k • § 7 7 1 0) 8) < i-( ' ■ ■ " 1 ^ ^ rN -a ^ "9 * * ' o Irt o lO o 5 »9 ■s S f? i I 7 ^1 i I I 1 o i 1 I k i ^ o I s 03 a i! I 5 i SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 226 OS s OS a ise s uJ _l CQ < H >- < ■«ia eg CO bt OQ 58 13 ■kd CO C>> OR £? r* ^ , .. ,, ^ s t >a a» c o o £ ©^ S 1- s •c » to at s s: CI o> o C4 Ol . ^ o ■* ©1 ^ Ok o 00 ■-• « ^ s 01 at ^ s a S^ ^ s r^ % m i So eo 00 s g g «0 3 J3 2 s S a S 2 ^ lO i a 3 o °. o °. ^1 ^ & 01 & s s o ». S3 2. 1 i '^ ^* rt n ■-*' n p M ^■' ^ M *t ^ S ■§ 1 «■ Ci_ o a o_ <=>, . C» o eo 1* » o» t- M o • o 00 c» C4 • § •-< •-' •-« --• •-• ^ i-t *-t (-t s a M >2 ^ 5g s o CO B cs «" • * • • o_ • S- "3 _*--- a 2 £r H >o ■* r* eo rH •* a o S o s g s fe n o' ^ s *a s s S S " ^^ ^ " "^ " '"' »*i rn- '^ ^ <£) CD Cl -f o =c C6 o o rr> o s >5> CO d o: lO S O ■Ss o c cs OJ a o CI w <3» a " " *"* f-« >. ^ ■^ »ft -f o h. 2 o r- r- o o s Oi c_ •^ ca CD q^ cs at « O) s « 2 *© -* 00 o t^ r- la co Cl U3 M o o C6 o CI a •"• ^. O) CXi c d CS o o !-< Oi, " 1-1 " *"* *"* •^ •^ -K lO M -f ■•*« ^* ^ CO la ^ s - - - o_ o> o> Ct c_ o> Ct o CO ^ "^ ■^ •H •^ «-» r< s> s « t- s r- « 'W « ^ ^ s q o «> o> o o» Ct a 04 s *-* iH •H r^ •^ '^ i-« . 1 o « ^ *- t* )-• ^ i V, § O c- ®. Ci 00 e> o Oa o at o H t~* •-« « 1 3 s § 5 i B s s g i 0« 1 «0 s s i s w «■ rJ IH -,- " 1 7 : s 1 60 ■a • 1 ■? • ' S ^ cs a • * • ' "e 3 CA "5 o < • • • a in T • s ^ n o S h I T 1 1 1 1 X i J 1 T .1 o ct K "^ " Cl ■* S3 £ ■■■% s ■■i G 226 CHAPTEK YI. — SliX. 'T2 o o 3! » «) as in »4 LU s fe; _I ^ m J^ 3 < "^ h ^ 50 >- ^ b QC 0^ ^ < "T* V Q -ef) CO -w m D S CO !g as e as r- ■* eo ^ S QO »^ OC ^ o^ g i 1 s o_ s i-T D- 00 o_ a s o> * o 1 „ ^ o o o ^ t* 00 lA o o *H o ^ » C4 00 ta o »• S 13 s 1-« 04 u. ^- T-T * *^ o CO 00 I-H c> a » o o o» •a w o » oa t^ c l> ^ g a> « o^ c^ Ci l> c_ o Ol © o> © (A 04 r- •^ M o> ^ o o TP ^ o ws ^ OO ^ v4 ■^ CD r- t» t* o o C6 00 t- o o> 00 c« S CO [ o CD 00 o to C4 2 ^ o CJ ■^ o» © r- SS OD »« o M- 05 CO CO 3 S a a Oi c» OC I> 00 3 « to CO o o § o 5 ^ o 00 i CO o o o © o n o t fH ^ ■^ 1M »*< tH 1-« r^ »»H '^ t-1 « »n :*; o t^ 00 M -* M « on r- s o 00 c •-T d Cl_ - •^ o o c^ 2- rt t* c o 00 o C4 CS s- CO 00 o o CO o cc § © © © o *^ '~* 1-* "^ " " "^ '^ '"' •-" »-1 2 o o o o c c Ci Cb 00 eo o • CO 00 OC o © OC i n •-* »-< " — — ^- -o a CI \a o _^ s d cc 00 o A S s lO • • • « • 00 « • • • r- © • > o 1 iH a> . , T-t ■* 1 o s 00 CO o cc © la 00 o 00 CO i o s S 1 CO 00 •-' 00 1 1 s CO o to 00 00 Ok o i s CO lO 00 03 CO 00 o» B l-< " «0 « (D ta 1:^ u: \a » ^ oa s 00 a o 1H O) CI o^ O: 00 OO 00 00 o_ OO i ;q e4 o 00 -* Oi oa rt ^ (N ^ ^ U3 00 eo © o> tH D4 c o at c% 9> to CO r- s 00 00 00 s 5 s 00 eo *o to ^ s to s i s o o o o o t* •^ CO ^- to i 00 00 § •-1 m-a o> 1-> I-t ri '-' •^ ^ r-« '"' ■■^ ^" S 1 ^ 00 o 1 o 04 CO 9 i eo CO S s to GO 00 00 CO © c 10 § f-< I-< r^ '^ rH «^ " •^ fH ^ »a OO t^ t- lO tft ^ o 8 a a t- o o o o ^. r- '-' <:i t'- " ■^ '^ *"* '^ '-n " a « Ot t* CO o in ^ s s S « o o s g S 04 00 o 00 i o (M \a s «o '^• w X <0 09 eo <» oa s o co § 00 S8 a S § a »-< »*i s a> »-< eo CO ^ ^ ^ t^ _ ^1 c» y °- § CO OS S xn o £ S 00 Cl © § s • • • • ? • • • • • T • • • •§ a • • • • § ^ o o o O <2i •o 1 Tl -f 1-, e 7 1 T CO 1 T 1 T a (3 J^ J. 1 CO J_ 1 U3 o ta s a o •9 6 q SE SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 227 § OS «> B o» (XI o ^ ei <© ri 04 -1 s J5 t- m « •o ^ Ol s a 'i ■h * ^- o •^r a 00 00 o r>« O W 00 o C4 - U _l CO < I- en < Q CO CD D CO S 'bin J2 -^ r '-I I ^ I an 4^ 9 o s Cm e CO t-l c ■* to 00 a •^ -^ o i-< t* to <-^ rH « 3 a 3 s £ 00 ^ »* ^ P^ ^*' O CO A O O f t* 00 O) o GO f-t o o lA t^ _, — • « ».. ^ri •*■ pri ® »N. r— o 00 o aj o c> O l-« r-T rt t-s' 1-1 »-1 •-* 00 fH « to a s ■* •r ;; '^ i-t 1-* tft o s? s eo O O •" »H '^ ft .-» o S o ss MOO I -^ ei M -f if> i i ,1 J I 2 a a _i -^ ^ S i J 2* s 3 2 o 2 228 CHAPTER VI. -SEX. SUBSIDIARY TABLE II!. IVniiiber of females per 1,000 males for certain selected castes. Caste. ASSAM. Ahom .Tugi . Kachari (Hindu) , Kachari (Animist) Kalita Koch . Ksliattriya (Manipuri) BENGAI.. Bagdi . Baidya . Baishnab Baiui . Bauri . Brahman Dhoba (Hindu) Goala (Hindu) Hari . Jcgi . Jolaha Kaib.iitta, Chasi Kaibaitta, Jaliya Kamar ; Hindu) Kayastha Jfalo . Muchi (Hindu) Namasudra . Napit (Hindu) Pod . Rajban^i (Hindu) Sidsop Santal (Hindu) . Santal (Animitt) . Sutradhar . . , Tanti and Tatwa (Hindu) Teli and Tili BIHAR AND ORISSA. Babhan Brahman Chamar Cliasa Dhanuk Dhobi (Hindu) Dhuniya (uiwia . Goala (Ahii) Hajjam (Napit) (Hindu) najjara (Muaalman) Jolaha Kahar Kalwar Kandh (Hindu) Kandh (Animist) Kand 1 Kayastlia Kowat Khandayat . Koiii Kumhar Kuiini Ijuhar (Hindu) Mundu {Hindu Munda (Animinl) Miisalar Xuiiiya Oraon i Hindu) Oraoii (Animift) NcuBSB OF Females pee 1,000 Males. All ages. 987 96 1 839 999 '.121 9li(~( 1,008 1.010 983 1,205 950 1,0^0 878 933 819 982 977 863 1,001 95n 948 954 971 875 973 948 961 942 990 970 984 944 912 936 967 1,000 l.liS 1,042 1,095 1,063 1,141 1,099 1.003 1,071 1,111 1,123 1,U9 1.04fi 1,057 1,040 1.082 1,1104 ],063 I,l(J4 1,021 1.012 1,027 1.071 ; 1,048 I 0—6. 1,054 1,032 970 1,063 1,024. 1,027 997 l,05.00 945 927 919 941 953 893 909 965 852 968 910 947 974 942 880 939 945 912 945 953 938 .935 928 962 ■ 916 891 9.S0 985 1,010 942 961 975 977 921 937 982 962 925 911O 990 984 919 988 1,034 992 962 967 1,056 944 1,083 j 1,015 I 962 I 962 I 940 999 887 740 996 919 724 738 l,<.i02 846 726 876 797 703 788 739 7. '5 816 766 760 816 810 831 716 864 846 791 808 868 738 848 897 848 869 811 785 659 787 89.J 860 898 923 874 875 866 868 87$ 888 824 818 846 932 780 748 860 889 820 985 852 749 987 910 811 745 928 873 15—20. 1,093 1,055 1,122 1,313 S04 964 1,019 20—40. 880 985 737 1,000 960 1,013 1,037 1,103 1,023 935 969 1,175 1,271 1,120 94s 1,045 1,096 966 769 1,055 902 913 695 1,203 977 1,122 985 1,010 805 1,138 980 1,215 917 1,089 1 88S 981 904 1,105 954 1,069 817 1,235 972 1,059 901 1,203 956 1,040 971 992 962 1,231 1,016 1,161 1,051 999 940 1,014 827 987 877 785 976 881 1,005 1,080 1,809 945 1,060 1,011 1,188 1,030 1,126 1,086 1,292 1.010 1,153 932 1,037 950 1,178 1,063 1,284 1,015 1,323 1,042 1,276 904 1,110 1,070 1,079 1,182 1.047 915 1,181 79? 1,035 1,008 1,074 1,006 1,143 950 1,063 981 1.042 896 1,074 961 1,197 1,107 1,033 891 1,036 1,015 1,127 934 1,339 938 1.092 878 1,10(1 40 and over. 1,068 1,005 1,1 '47 1,208 1.145 1,213 921 1,323 1,015 1,932 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 229 SUBSIDIARY TABLE contd. Nnmher of feiiuiles per 1,000 iihiU's lor ciTtiiiii selected castes— cow^i. CASII. .N'lMHEE OF i'EMALKS PKR l.lOO .MALES. All ages. 1 0-5. 1 6—12. 12—15. 15—20. 20— W. Mud over. 1 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 BIHAR AND ORISSA— corKd. Pan ( Hindu) P;iD (A nimitt) ..... Riijput {Hindu) ..... Santal (5.nrfu) . . . . Santal (Animitt) ■ . . , T^nti and Tatwa {Hindu) Teliand liliCSinrfu) . . , . 1,056 1,000 995 1,146 1,008 1,113 1,040 1,096 1,UK) 1,031 1,013 1,006 1,015 1,041 986 988 906 1,183 914 961 945 824 739 658 1,398 1.147 906 8*3 1,050 1.060 727 1,H60 1,035 1048 975 1,112 1.020 1,023 1.166 1,015 1,253 1,084 1,130 9^1 1,226 941 1,045 J,:; 39 1.156 BOMBAY. AsHri . Bharvad ...... Bhil Brahman ...... Koli 996 976 1,013 916 928 1,046 1,0S8 1,092 ySa 1,016 964 974 911 974 846 801 766 894 744 704 982 957 1,191 8h2 796 1,029 1,001 1,032 887 960 1,005 983 P69 955 1,001 Kunhi ....... i.ingayat ...... Lohnna ...... Mahar, Holiya or Dhed .... Maratha , ..... 1,023 9H8 857 1,059 1,034 1,037 990 1.017 1.052 1,056 927 1,051 s23 920 955 820 735 752 802 736 986 883 790 983 966 1,099 988 836 1,1H8 1,134 1,059 993 89i 1,139 4,069 BURMA. Arakanese . . .... Chin . ... Kachin . . ... Kaifii ...... 943 1,036 1.010 1,004 990 1,103 1,155 1,047 1,0113 1,005 873 1,012 869 780 7.50 1,002 079 1,024 1,119 1,081 1,070 1,116 1,053 1.026 918 987 1.029 897 ^•'h.an ... Talaing ...... Taungthu ...... Wa-Palaung ..... 1.033 1,014 998 1,016 956 1,035 781 970 968 1,040 920 1.189 925 976 1.437 873 1,045 1,180 1,354 933 1,031 1.018 1.064 1.051 1,098 904 879 994 C. P. AND BERAR. Ahir {Hindu) ...",. Ahir {Animist) . ... Bauiva ...... Brahman ...... Chamar ...... 1,011 1,115 935 876 1.035 1,042 1,144 1,037 985 1,051 949 l,0ii2 990 H68 945 771 932 724 682 798 917 1,161 872 763 996 1,036 1,201 891 816 1,080 1,113 1,029 997 941 1,095 Dhimar ...... Dhobi liond {Animist) ..... 1,014 1,040 1.060 1,(150 1,026 1,056 1,055 1,0 J 9 1,053 1,052 955 962 981 979 986 806 808 . 8(i8 887 828 1,044 1,107 982 1,024 956 1.039 1,057 1,105 1,105 1,036 1,038 1,12: 1.156 1,084 1,107 Kurmi ..... Lobar ....... .Mehra .....■• 987 1,015 1,013 994 1,007 1,025 1,024 1 11.36 993 1,059 l,ii:)6 1,030 1,015 945 y42 943 98S 996 753 785 761 793 800 847 1,059 S98 865 903 1,030 1.135 1,019 1,022 1.057 1,037 1,014 1,072 946 1,187 1.176 1,020 1,040 9s9 Haiput ...... 974 1,035 1,041 ],(»26 !71 976 811 835 864 978 936 1,066 l,'i80 1.133 • Balija Hrahmaji I Tamil) ..... Brahman (Telugu) Cheruman ...... Chctti 1,004 982 994 1,11(5 1.132 992 !t9B 916 1,007 1,026 1,036 931 9» ) 1,018 826 «02 666 906 977 943 908 863 l.l!2 1,022 1.038 952 1,024 1.18-1 1.310 l.oOl 1,123 1,3l'S 1.230 1.2-2 Kaikolan ...... Kamiiialar. ..... Kampala ... ... Kapu ....... Komati . ... 1,037 1,071 l,(i28 1,034 1 .OoS 1.022 1,1178 1,104 1,056 1,038 l,il(iti l.otl l,n3;t 1,028 1.028 957 lHi:< 726 837 941 990 1.057 9-.'8 887 1,041 1,064 1.126 1,081 1.109 1,022 1,047 l,o7il 1.I3I l,o.ji; 1,074 .Mala I'araiyan ...... Tivan ...... Velial. 1.0J7 1.0S7 1.042 i.oan 1,' 17 980 1,044 ).031 1,000 l.i'2-i 917 t>S2 1,'.38 1"3:! 89-1. 816 915 92S 1,179 1,090 917 l,o8« 1,160 1,230 1,09« 1.071 l,or,5 l,00t! 9So 1,079 1,061 l,"3l 230 CHAPTER VI. — SEX. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IW^contd. Unuiher of females per 1.000 males for eertain selected castes— cohW. Awan . Pathan N. W. F. PROVINCE. PUNJAB. Agarwal (IIi7idu) Ahir (Hindu) Arain {Musalman Arora (Hindu) Awan . Biloch Chamar {Hindu) Chuliia {Musalman) Jat (Musalman) . Jhinwar (Alusalman) Julaha [Hindu) Knnet (Hindu) Kashmiri (Musalman) Kbatri (Hindu) Kumhar (Hindu) . Kumhar (Musalman) Lobar (Hindu) Lobar (Musalman) Maclihi (Musalman) Mirasi (Musalman) Mochi (Musalman) Xai (Hindu) Nai (Miisalman) , Patban Rajput (Hindu) . Rajput (Musalman) Saivid Sbeikb larkban (Musalman) Teli (Musalman) . United Provinces. Atrarwal Ahir . Barhai Bhangi Bbar" . Brahman Chamar ]>hobi . Doin GHclariva Gujar . Jat ■1 ulaha . Kaliar . Kayastba Kuiiibar Kurnii Lodha Loliar . Mallah Nai . Pasi . Pathan Hajput . Saivid Slieikh Toh . BARODA STATE. Koli . Kunbi — Kadw* Kiinhi — Icwn NCMBER OF rKMALKS PEE 1,000 MALES. AU Ages. 843 880 850 792 807 853 876 838 846 822 807 855 840 947 859 802 827 844 836 841 828 864 832 805 842 757 756 841 875 807 836 822 793 895 875 900 1.026 899 958 937 938 906 760 769 945 932 890 941 929 896 912 1,143 921 957 922 873 I 928 i 8<)5 928 905 941 834 1,058 945 958 982 963 987 927 959 964 955 936 972 1,000 1,087 963 1,022 931 936 934 915 901 9441 941 970 943 964 836 I 976 953 967 , 949 943 944 952 991 997 1,064 960 1,036 1,025 1,039 985 844 852 1,025 1,004 1,012 1,000 988 977 967 1,076 1,007 1,041 1,035 948 978 1,011 1,009 962 1,107 910 S— 12. 12—15. 819 8o5 873 790 826 S68 863 818 851 782 808 868 940 I 992 873 834 831 840 844 851 823 860 823 811 842 861 754 817 868 876 830 792 902 863 865 900 898 866 903 891 910 901 737 766 914 889 941 895 897 857 901 956 883 903 891 855 943 886 888 669 1,016 767 629 705 713 666 699 766 700 587 729 681 674 759 690 791 686 677 674 711 706 782 688 732 713 640 709 690 625 674 166 699 736 679 707 729 714 760 852 728 801 760 8c0 740 654 725 797 736 761 792 741 800 731 915 731 806 755 719 777 740 764 774 1,361 663 824 746 774 641 726 749 844 800 785 789 706 768 887 927 824 690 697 780 762 782 855 787 797 676 774 659 707 759 831 771 785 769 717 784 796 851 892 742 875 864 933 839 718 693 894 784 795 9:i0 812 841 817 1,033 822 863 797 783 851 832 838 783 884 646 20— «0. 905 938 837 779 824 848 929 914 868 893 829 903 837 976 860 75(1 861 863 863 850 887 858 838 870 6S4 763 880 896 775 872 842 758 919 889 938 1,116 906 980 979 962 925 771 772 1,009 976 854 970 947 907 930 1,304 950 1,014 944 892 945 901 958 891 843 891 40 and over. 739 905 SUBSIDIARY TABLES, 231 SUBSIDIARY TABLE Ill-cow C'/j KASBMIB STATE. Pat Brahman ....•• 856 866 965 974 855 1,042 816 656 847 762 877 870 762 813 BTVSORE STATE. leda Besta . . .... Golla Holeya ...... 980 ],005 973 969 981 1,072 l.Ofil 1,079 1,091 1,065 1,062 1,023 1,016 1.057 1,062 867 884 863 854 880 946 984 1,023 923 971 962 1,050 902 979 989 913 958 998 897 913 Kumba Lingayat Madisja . . . . , Sheikh Vakkaliga 997 998 980 939 999 1.057 1,052 1,086 1.044 1,067 1.043 1.100 1,043 l,. Jat {Hindu) 989 84 1 853 938 1.019 984 957 1,029 879 825 820 8«0 698 660 723 776 776 691 707 829 956 847 f)46 948 1.028 930 997 Mahajan (Jain) ..... Meo (;l/u*a/nian) . . . . . 961 1,056 9. '5 807 994 998 1,011 999 P22 947 879 874 753 950 711 761 868 1,006 803 760 986 1,085 968 919 1,027 1,165 961 920 MinafFinrfa) Nai \Hindu\ . . . . . Rajput (Hindu) ..... Shoikh . . . . . 881 912 779 880 1,006 1,054 831 980 828 851 697 926 689 662 662 692 706 769 696 796 905 912 789 886 943 98S 918 875 TRAVANCOBE SFATX. liiilian Christian ..... N:iv;ir ... . . I'ulayan ...... Slian.iTi ...... 960 1,011 1,00 1 »ft5 9fi+ 1.059 1.039 1,117 985 995 1,207 963 931 1.002 891 868 942 921 1,080 h,-,'J 997 1.010 1,111 1.270 9(i6 945 1.061 963 1.013 1.155 882 996 1.06S 7st? 232 CHAPTER VI. — SEX. SUBSIDIAHY TABLE IV. Attnal nuiuiier o! births and deatlis repurted since l;s91 in tlie main provintes. KCUBEB OF BISTUB. Kdmbes jdf Deaths. Difference Difference ' Difference TEAE. " between columns 2 and 3, excess of latter between ' bptwepn Nnmber of female births per 1,000 male births. Number of female deaths per 1,000 male deaths. Uales. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total, columns 5 and 6, excess of latter column.-! 4 and 7, excess of former over former over former over latter 2 -r , delect — . + , defect — , + , defect — . 1 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 BENGAI.. 1891 .... 724,981 678,836 1,403,817 573,414 515,397 1,088,811 — 46,145 — 68,017 + 316,006 936 899 1892 549,941 605,874 1,055,815 625,971 549,581 1,175,552 — 44,067 — 76,390 — 119,737 920 878 1893 754,389 699,30(1 1,453,689 622,340 555,851 1,178,191 — 56,089 — 66,489 + 276,498 927 893 1894 649,572 609,340 1,258,912 636,372 563,334 1,199,706 — 40,232 — 73,038 -f 69,206 938 885 1895 705,891 661,555 1,367,446 688,275 604,839 1,293,114 — 44,336 — 83,436 I + 74,332 937 879 1896 761,853 717,010 1 478,863 704,510 606,466 1,310,976 — 44,843 — 98,044 , + 167,887 941 861 1897 ; : 758,179 708,576 1,466,755 687,241 582,820 1,270,061 — 49,603 — 104,421 + 196,694 935 848 1898 738,688 693,453 1,432 141 604,631 519,311 1,123,942 — 45,235 — 85,320 + 308,199 939 859 1899 821,769 775,822 1,597,591 702,788 617,413 1.320.201 — 46,947 — 85,375 + 277,390 944 879 1900 784,545 738,597 1,523,142 767,121 663,780 1,430,901 — 46,948 — 103,341 + 92,241 941 865 Total lSai—1900 7,249,808 6,788,363 14,038,171 6,612,663 5,778,792 12,391,455 — 461,445 — 833,871 + 1,646,716 936 874 1901 .... 806,527 761.058 1.567,585 674,837 586,765 1.261.402 — 45,469 — 87,872 + 306,183 944 870 1902 839.706 792,427 1,632,133 779,387 687,269 1,466 656 — 47,279 — 92,118 + 165,477 944 882 1903 787,868 741,401 1,529,269 710,264 636,973 1,346,237 — 46,487 — 74,291 + 183,032 941 895 1904 877,116 827,682 1,704,798 726,990 657,167 1.384 157 — 49.434 — 69,823 + 320,641 944 904 1905 810,318 764,617 1,574,935 798,743 725,269 1,524 012 — 45,701 — 73,474 + 60,923 944 908 1906 764,143 714.493 1,478,636 733,002 656,914 1,389,916 — 49,650 — 76,088 + 88.720 935 896 1907 771,220 729,764 1,500.984 737,786 666,477 1,404.263 — 41,456 - 71,309 + 96,721 946 903 1908 819,474 767,337 1,586,811 706,296 624,825 1,;>31121 — 52,137 - 81,471 + 255,690 936 885 1909 849,575 796,814 1,646,389 690,156 616,217 1,306373 — 52,761 - 73,939 + 340,016 938 893 1910 • 813,978 761,826 1,575,804 688,930 625,229 1,314.159 — 52,152 - 63,701 + 261.645 936 908 Total 1901—1910 8,139,925 7,657,419 15,797,344 7,246,191 6,482,105 13,728,296 — 482,506 — 764,086 +2,069,048 941 895 BIHAR AND ORISSA 1801 .... 592,225 557,678 1,149,903 429,123 378,327 807,450 — 34,547 ■— 50,796 + 342,453 942 882 1892 482,961 443,184 926,145 668,503 503,220 1,071,723 — 39,777 — 65,283 — 145,578 918 886 1893 • 560,070 621,100 1,081,170 437,198 390,074 827,272 — 38,970 — 47,124 + 253,898 930 892 1894 . 552,750 520,585 1,073,335 679,879 599,511 1,279,390 — 32,165 — 80,368 — 206,055 942 882 1895 . 562,065 529,112 1,091.177 507,719 430,625 938,344 — 32,953 — 77,094 + 152,833 941 848 1896 . 630,732 593,891 1,224,623 605,445 512,409 1.117.854 — 36,841 — 93,036 + 106,769 942 846 1897 596,318 562,771 1.159,089 583,456 488,115 1,071.571 — 33,547 — 95,341 + 87,518 944 837 1898 572,764 538,796 1,111,560 413,777 360,749 764,526 — 33,968 — 63,028 + 347,034 941 848 1899 . 1 744,488 711,099 1,455,587 477,932 420,110 898,042 — 33,389 — 57,822 + 557,545 955 879 1900 . . . . j 627,877 698,563 1,226,440 617,652 655,183 1,172,835 — 29,314 — 62,469 + 63,605 9.53 899 Total 1891—1900 . 5,922,250 5,576,779 11,499,029 6,320,6Si 4,628,323 9,949,007 — 345.471 — 692,361 + 1,550,022 942 870 1901 ' . . . .1 678.550 643,954 1,322,504 646,880 514.900 1 061.780 — 34,596 — 31,980 + 260,724 949 942 1902 . ' 708.724 676.756 1,385,480 643.616 491,559 1.035 175 — 31,968 — 52,057 + 350,305 966 904 1903 715,729 684.733 1,400 462 594,263 563,450 1,147,713 — 30,996 — 40,813 + 252,749 967 931 1904 764,078 731,830 1,495,908 537,372 508,165 1,045,537 — 32,248 — 29,207 + 450.371 958 946 1905 705,287 674.287 1.379.574 660.508 633,154 1,293,662 — 31,000 — 27,364 + 85.912 956 959 1906 683,570 663.945 1,337,515 628,909 687,210 1,216,119 — 29,625 — 41,699 + 121,396 957 934 1907 674.894 644,360 1,319.254 629,117 611,540 1.240 657 — 30.534 — 17,577 i + 78,597 965 972 1908 646.203 614,565 1,260.768 697,551 650.496 1,348 047 — 31,638 — 47,055 - 87,279 951 933 1909 656.301 625,692 1.281,993 551,407 522,769 1,074,176 — 30,609 — 28,638 ; + 207,817 953 948 1910 .... 701,288 669,352 1,370,640 612,200 589,960 1 182,160 — 31,936 — 42,240 1 + 188,480 954 931 Total 1901—1910 6,931.621 6,619,474 13,554,098 6,001,823 5,643,203 11,645,026 — 315,150 — 358,620 +1,909,072 955 910 BOMBAY. 1891 .... 354,626 328,047 682.673 21)7,282 245,8,50 513,132 — 26,579 — 21,432 ' + 169.541 925 920 189Z 337,150 313,517 650.667 317,031 294,711 611,742 — 23,633 — 22,320 : + 38,925 930 930 1893 34-.,424 318,881 664,305 2(;ii,654 245,277 511,831 — 26,643 — 21,277 + 152,474 923 920 1894 342,911 317,357 660,368 316,786 290,393 607,179 — 25.654 — 26,393 + 53,089 925 917 1895 350.115 324,189 674.304 280.869 257.674 538.543 — 25,926 — 23,195 + 136,781 926 917 1896 359,097 332,7511 691.847 312.751 284.014 596 765 — 26.347 — 28,737 + 95,082 927 908 1897 327,5 73 305,140 632 713 396,154 353.762 749,916 — 22,433 — 42,392 — 117,203 932 893 1898 302.635 279,736 58'^371 2,-8,790 260,029 548,825 — 22,899 — 28,767 + 33,546 924 900 1899 355,869 329,449 685.318 355,241 317,019 672 260 — 26,420 — 38,222 + 13,058 926 892 luoo .... 262.837 242,825 505,662 706,275 612,608 1.318.783 — 20,012 — 93,767 — 813,121 924 867 Total 1S91—1900 3,338,237 3,091,S91 0.430. 12S 3,507,739 3,161,237 0,608,976 — 246,346 — 346,502 — 238, 84S 926 901 1901 .... 242,382 223.265 465.647 357,586 328.648 686,134 — 19,117 — 29,038 — 220,487 921 Cl9 I'.t02 327.549 303.844 631,393 369.491 351,971 721,462 — 23,705 — 17,520 — 90,069 928 952 1903 290,485 277,464 576,949 413.783 397.742 811.525 — 22,021 — 16,041 — 234,576 926 982 1904 836.315 312.279 648.594 389.980 374.934 764,914 — 24,036 — 16.046 — 116,820 929 961 l'.l05 . 317.958 293.215 611,173 306,039 282.355 588,394 — 24,743 — 28,684 + 22,779 922 923 1906 324,195 301.291 625,486 336,017 312,002 648,019 — 22,904 — 24,015 ; — 22,533 929 928 1907 316.867 293.666 610 533 313,890 202,713 606,606 — 23,201 - 21,174 + 3.927 927 933 1908 342,689 317,532 660,201 261,646 240,192 501 838 — 26,137 - 21,454 + 168,363 927 918 liiO;> 341,454 316.231 657,685 264.378 241,668 505,936 — 25,223 - 22,820 + 151,749 926 914 1910 .... 357,949 331,752 689,701 290,698 269,307 560.003 — 26,197 - 21.389 + 129,698 927 926 Total 1901—1910 3,206,823 2,970,539 6,177,362 3,303,506 3,091.325 6,394,831 — 236,284 — 212,181 — 217,469 926 936 BURMA. If-!II 49,124 46,208 95,332 40.369 32,821 73,190 — 2,nic — 7,548 + 22,142 941 813 1>^92 57,9.59 54,111 112,070 .50,594 39.639 90,233 — 3,848 — 10,955 + 21,837 933 783 ]fS9:j 60,963 66,499 117.462 54,221 43,926 98,147 — 4.464 — 16,295 + 19,815 921 810 IHitI 64,364 60,389 124,753 58,.- 37 47,870 106,407 — 3,975 — 10,667 + 18,346 938 817 l«'.t5 . 67,850 63.297 131.147 .55,429 45,731 101.160 — 4,558 - 9,698 + 29,987 933 825 1«9(( 75,148 70,640 145.688 58,245 48,442 106,687 — 4,608 - 9.803 + 39,001 939 832 l^i'l7 74,587 69,072 143.659 66,308 62,262 118,570 — 6,515 - 14,046 + 25.089 926 78k IH'.tS 80,190 73.6.1H 153,838 66,621 51,23-. 117,856 — 6,542 - 15,386 + 35,982 918 781 1H99 91,266 84,447 175,713 93.9.59 79,427 173,386 — 6,819 — 14,.532 + 2,327 925 ' 845 1900 .... 94,408 88,264 182,672 95,476 80,734 176210 — 6,144 — 14,742 + 6,462 935 846 Total 1891—1900 7U.sr,9 666,476 1,382,334 630,759 522.087 1,161.846 — 49,384 — 117,672 + 220,488 931 817 1901 .... 97.909 91.290 189,199 73.156 57,419 130,576 — 6,619 — 15,737 + 58,624 932 785 1902 96.369 00.195 186,664 90.603 76,702 167.305 — 6,174 — 13,901 + 19,259 936 847 1903 101.273 94.335 195.608 106.541 90.167 195,708 — 6,938 — 16,374 — 100 931 984 1904 98.580 91,841 190 421 96.456 82.270 178.732 — 6,739 — 14,180 + 11,689 932 ' 853 lOO."; l^>0« 103.644 97.933 201.577 110.788 03.623 204,391 — 6,711 — 17,145 — 2,814 945 845 98.377 92.003 190.380 122,832 104.854 227.686 — 6,874 — 17,978 — 87,306 935 853 1907 143.614 134. HH9 278,533 122,961 102,731 226,692 — 8,765 - 20,230 + 82.841 939 1 835 1908 1.52.472 143,155 295,627 129.082 110.377 239.469 — 9.317 - 18,705 + 58.168 939 855 1909 15H,iil7 148.790 306.807 137.769 120.093 267.862 — 9,227 - 17.676 + 48.945 942 872 1910 15M.Kri6 149,135 307.941 128,898 111,463 240 359 — 9,671 - 17,433 + 07,582 989 s«5 Total 1901—1910 1,209,091 1.133,566 2.342,657 1,118,064 949,705 2,067.769 — 75,625 — 168,359 ! + 274,888 938 849 NoTE.—A« births were not rini-'ic-i.il In rural ari-a-. in M.nK'l an 1 Bihar and Orisaa in 1891. the Uiiuroa in columns 2, 3, and 4 of Ujat year have been obtained In tlie.so provinces by taking one-ninth of the osjgretjati: of the years 189.;— looO. SIJBSIDIAUY TABLES. 233 SUBSIDIARY TABLE \\/—contd. Actnal iiiimber ot hiitlis anil (h'.itlis rriMtrted since lH\n in tlie main provinces. NUHBSl Ot BiBtHa. NvUDBB or Deaths. DifTeroDce DifforoDce DifTureuce bet wee D columne between colamne between coiumDS Knmber of female births per 1,000 male births. Nambcr of fe.nale deatljfl per 1.000 male deaths. TiAI. Malei. Femalea. Total. Males. Females. Total. 2 and 3, oicesB of latter 6 and 6, excess of latter 4 and 7. excess of former over former OTer former over latter + ,aofisct-. + , defect-. + , defect-. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 u CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR. 1S91 .... 251,104 235,063 486,167 222,523 195,852 418,375 — 16.041 — 26,671 + 87,792 »36 830 1S92 238,710 224,458 463,168 209.4S3 181,211 390.691 — 14.25i — 28,272 ; + 72,474 940 86S 1893 237,172 222,313 459,490 188,318 160,354 1 347,172 — 14,854 — 25,464 + 112,318 937 863 1394 230,870 217,458 448.328 246,232 21.-,,672 461904 — 13,412 — 30,560 — 13,576 942 879 189'. 209,905 198,814 408,719 257,972 221,277 482.249 — 11,091 — 33,695 — 73,680 947 869 1896 204,567 191,592 396 159 315,175 266,28:1 681.458 — 12,975 — 48,892 — 185,299 937 846 1897 182,905 170,190 353,101 I 440,538 356,775 797,313 — 12,709 — 83.763 — 444.212 931 810 1898 195,538 134,324 379.912 ' l«o.o;il 141,481 301,517 — 11,264 — 18,556 + 78.395 942 884 1899 3l4,tU5 297,.<24 612.469 : 209,354 179,536 388.890 — 16,^21 — 29,318 + 223,579 947 858 WOO 206,772 195,371 402.143 429.247 362,792 792.039 — 11,401 — 66,455 — 389,899 945 846 Total 1S91—1900 :',372,2.W 2,137,418 4,409,656 2,676,878 2,284,733 4,901,611 — ; 134,820 — 392,145 — 151,955 941 863 1901 .... 177,045 167,432 344 477 151,805 138,370 \ 290.175 — 9,613 — 13,485 + 54,802 946 911 1902 305,364 291,551 596,915 171,806 156,728 ; 328,029 — 13.813 — 14,583 + 268.886 966 818 1903 275,117 261,891 637,008 1 222,989 207,957 430,896 -.- 13,226 — 14,982 + 109.112 1 952 988 1004 324,869 809,339 634,208 i 199,859 186,880 386,239 — 15,530 — 18,479 + 247.969 1 962 988 1905 327,988 314,211 642,199 231,573 210,810 442,383 — 13,777 — 20,763 + 199.816 958 910 190« 314,101 300,515 614,616 268,105 248,508 516.613 — 18,586 — 19,597 ' + 98.008 967 927 1907 319,847 303,682 623,529 257,483 238,120 495,603 — 16,165 - 19,368 + 127,929 949 926 1908 323,051 310,524 633.575 239,476 217.605 457,081 — 12,627 - 21,871 + 176,494 961 909 1909 316,194 301,798 617,987 209,711 186,424 396.135 — 14,401 - 28,287 , + 221.852 954 889 1910 340,552 322,848 663,400 1 281,090 256,162 537,252 ! — 17,704 1 - 24,928 + 126,148 948 9ll Total 1901—1910 3,024,128 2.S83.786 5,907,914 2,233.317 1 2,047,059 4.280,406 — 140,342 —186,288 + 1,627,608 954 917 1 *• MADRAS. 18»1 . . . . 471,690 453,662 925,352 383,000 365,626 748.626 — 18,028 — 17,374 + 176.729 992 966 1892 431,523 414,613 846,136 1 385,676 366,037 751.713 — 16,910 — 19,639 1 + 94;42S 991. !; *o 1893 464,837 445,337 910,174 ; 333,388 317,220 650.608 — 19,500 — 16,163 ; + 259.596 958 962 1894 477,513 456,668 931,181 :i44,612 323,S6'. 673.477 — 20,345 — 15,747 + 290,704; 969. 964 1895 499,223 478,427 977,650 ;;37,.'.ll 322,04.3 1 659.559 — 20,796 — 15,463 + 313,091: 958. 954 1896 502,063 478,989 981,057 ;i47,f.02 323,933 676,575 — 23,079 — 13,609 + 304,482: 954 8^7 1897 477,434 459,392 936,826 1 426,0'll 402,397 828,398 — 18,042 — 23,604 + 108,428 992 945 1898 466,067 446,724 912,791 \ 360,798 339,219 700,017 — 19,343 — 21,579 + 212.774 959 9411 1S99 534,634 514,749 1,049,383 343,59-1 332,286 675.884 — 19,385 — 11,312 ; + 373.'499 991 ftSS 1900 536,984 513,282 1.050,246 396,311 375,453 771,764 — 23,682 — 20,358 + 273,432 956 > 947 Tofai nil— 1900 4,861,953 4,661,843 9,Si3,7SG 3,65S,4S3 3,478,134 7,136,621 — 200,110 — 180,353 + 2,387,175 959 051 1001 .... 477.490 458,259 935,749 407.975 388.165 796.140 — 19,231 — 19,810 1 + 139,609 960 951 1902 521.745 501.401 1,023,146 373,355 3.59.082 732.437 — 20,344 — 14,273 + 290,709 961 ' 962 1003 693,713 571,387 1,165,080 419,275 407,338 826.663 — 22,346 — 11,887 1 + 338,417 962 972 1904 573.819 651,982 1,125.751 419,825 404,453 824,278 — 21,887 — 15,372 ! + 801,473 962 968 190S 599,469 576,787 1,176,256 401,406 384,717 786,123 — 22,682 — 16,689 I + 390,188 962 958 1906 575,074 550,904 1,125,978 507,823 490.568 998,391 — 24.170 — 17,255 + 127,587 958 966 1907 573,041 546,129 1,119,170 440,290 433.726 883,016 — 26,912 — 15,564 + 288,154 958 966 1903 610,268 531,868 1,192,136 491,062 469,857 960,919 — 28,400 1 — 21,205 1 + 231,217 96* 957 1009 621,369 594,348 1,215,717 410,589 390,977 801,566 — 27,021 — 19,612 ; + 414.151 ' 959 952 1910 631,684 608,485 1,235.169 462,051 445,371 907,422 — 28,199 — 19,680 1 + 827,747 955 964 Total 1901-1910 5.777,672 5,536,180 11,314.152 4,342 651 4.174,301 8,516,956 — 241,192 — 168,347 +2,797,197 •58 ' 961 PUNJAB i 1891 341,158 301,911 643,069 239.770 251,411 541.184 — 39,247 — 33,359 + 101,835 885 S68 1892 . 380,672 333,240 718,912 4 7.-., 422 432,814 908,236 — 42,432 — 42,608 — 189,324 889 910 1893 350,215 314,063 664,283 2sn,423 247,095 527.518 — 36.147 — 33,328 + 139,765 897 881 1894 433,731 391,359 825,090 363,SSt 332.545 696,426 — 42,372 — 31,336 + 128,994 902 914 1895 428,727 391,148 819,875 289,446 2 '.8,868 548,314 — 37,579 — 30,578 1 + 271,661 913" 894 1696 420,759 385,253 806,017 305,698 276,591 682.289 — 85,501 — 29,107 + 223,728 916 905 1897 415,410 370,559 794,969 289,54.! 275,733 665,276 — 35,851 — 1.3,810 1 + 229.603 914 952 1803 403,231 367,438 770,719 206,188 278,620 674,808 — 3.5,743 — 17,568 + 195,911 911 941 037 1899 474,937 43,-., 672 910,609 234,385 266,602 560,987 — 39,265 — 17,783 + 859,622' 917 1900 • ■ ■100,158 36»,0r,0 761,218 467.823 447,115 914938 — 36,098 — 20,708 — 150,720 91.0 96 Total 1891—1999 i,04S,99S 3,668,763 7,717,761 3,342,579 3.067,397 6,409.9:6 — 380,238 — 275,182 + 1,307,785 90S 91^ loot 373,466 339,067 712,533 372,350 354.261 726.611 — 84,899 — 18,089 — 14,078 908 961 l'.K)2 461,952 418,525 880,477 448,473 443,500 886,973 — 43.427 + 27 — 9,499 900 l.OOO l:o"l} 1,000 988 1003 452.622 410.240 862,862 486,802 498.674 985,476 — 42.382 + 11,872 — 122,914 906 1004 486,678 897,371 834,049 480,2.50 506.208 986.458 — 39,307 + 25,958 — 152,409 910 1005 467,536 425,824 893.360 475.973 480,135 956.108 — 41,712 + 4,182 — 62,748 911 1906 459,329 418,677 878.006 374,880 308,026 713,906 — 40,652 — 9,854 + 135,100 911 1907 430,253 389,318 819,571 637.357 611.372 1,248,729 — 40,985 — 25,985 - 429il6e 905 95(31 1903 489,539 400,522 840,061 517,219 602,906 1 020,125 — 39.017 — 14.818 - 180,064 911 SSI 1909 369,694 336,216 705,910 820,613 294.470 621.083 — 83.478 — 82,148 1 + 84-.827 1 909 1910 • 449,269 410,163 859,432 345.(173 324,166 669,239 — 89.106 — 20,907 : + 190, 193 ' 918 039 Total 1901-1910 i.310,338 3,915,923 8,286.261 4,459,990 4,383,718 8,813.708 - 394,415 — 76,278 1 - 687.447 1 909 983 UNITED PROVINCES. 1 1.S91 .... 818,759 741,129 1,559.888 781,7.-.0 678,982 1,460,732 — 77,930 — 102,763 1 + 99.159 00.5 899 1892 8^9,814 806,613 1,696.427 854,242 745,811 1.600,053 — 83.201 — I0i,4;)i + 96.374 900 87a 1803 l,n0-i,H52 910,079 1,920,831 602,648 527,569 1.130,217 — 86,873 — 75,079 * 790,614 913 876 1894 973,.-.97 83H,4:(8 1,862,0J5 1,051,920 911,8.52 1,933.778 — 85,159 — 110,074 — 131,743 913 896 1895 K54,20! 733,012 1.637,235 727,. 02 638,h71 1.366.143 — 71,171 — 8'*,70I + 270,792 ; 917 878 1896 865,417 . 794,970 1,660.387 812,801 720.091 1.562.894 — 70,447 — 122,712 + 07,493 919 854 1897 760,8)6 698,111 1,458.947 1,022,21'' 875,374 1.897.592 — 62.725 — 149,344 — 43S645 1 918 850 1898 909,746 811,979 1.751.725 672,072 612.2.57 ' 1.284,319 — 67,767 — 59,805 + 467,409 925 911 1809 1,168.209 1.087,41s 2,255,627 817,067 739,754 ' 1.556,821 — 80,791 — 77,313 + 69>,809 1 93 1 905 1900 • -1 979,850 812,319 1.892,169 763.8115 091,334 1.460,130 — 67,531 — 77,471 1 + 432.030 1 931 899 Total U91—1900 9,224,283 \ 8,470,988 17,695.271 8,141,093 7,171,896 18,312.988 — 783.295 — 969,198 + 2,382. tSS ^ US SH 1901 .... 1,022,769 049,862 1.972,131 752.949 692,086 ! 1.445.03 6 — 73.407 — 60,898 + 527,000 ' 928 919 I:i02 1.181,319 1,054.8«2 1 2,186.201 801,040 751.000 1.552.046 — 76,437 1 — 60,046 + 9S4.165 ; 982 937 lo03 1,140.228 1,059.808 ' 2,200.031 988.354 932.549 1.920.903 — 80.426 — 65,805 + 279,128 929 ' 944 1004 1,154,988 1,070,769 2.225.757 825,100 829.340 1.654,919 — 84,210 + 4,740 + 570.808 927 1 1.000 999 1005 1,028,092 , 943,917 1,967.009 1,049.703 1,048.592 2.098,300 — 79.175 1 — 1.116 — 181,291 928 1906 999,311 919,114 1,918,425 9.53.309 910.027 1.863.336 — 80.197 — 48,282 , + 55,089 920 955 1907 1,022.818 941,045 1.963,963 1,049.012 1 1,023.524 2,072.536 — 80.678 — 26,488 - 108,578 921 979 1908 932,276 854,426 1.786702 1,274.966 1 1,239,795 2,514.761 — 77.850 — 35,171 - 728,069 910 072 1900 827,782 761,464 1,589.196 022.139 I 853,380 1.781.069 — 66.268 — 98.809 - 101 878 920 981 1910 1,017,005 983,359 1.955.424 963,480 1 880,698 1.844.178 — 78,709 — 82,782 + 111,246 928 914 Total 1901-1910 10,271,098 9,493,741 19.761.839 9.580.113 D.167.000 18.747.113 - 777.387 — 413.113 a. 017. 726 924 957 2U CHAPTER YI. — SEX. SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Naiuber of deaths of encli se\ at ditfereiit ages in the main provliiees. Aaa. 1906. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. TOIAL. Average number oJ female deaths per 1 Males. Females. Hales. Females. M.llcs. Fimali-s. Males. Females. M.-.l^. Femalis. Males. Females. 1,000 male deaths. 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 (BENGAI.. 798,743 725,269 733,002 656,914 737,786 666,477 706,296 624,825 690,156 616,217 3,665,983 3,289,702 897 1—5 . : 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 20—30 30—40 . 40—50 . 50—60 60 and over 182,082 122,269 73,679 40,641 38,768 157,482 114,812 66,342 29,421 47,629 167,043 104,166 61,317 33,498 33,477 142,352 96,108 47,716 23,980 41,566 154,917 97,024 63,966 35,554 36,293 133,746 92,677 60,753 25,242 42,824 165,330 89,025 54,825 31,270 33,017 138,488 83,756 43,177 22,278 38,379 166,262 94,617 66,413 29,163 31,358 140,986 89,089 43,098 21,329 39,617 835,634 607,001 309,200 170,126 172,913 713,054 476,442 241,086 122,250 210,015 85S 940 780 719 1,216 76,254 74,147 60,868 50,124 79,911 89,401 63,349 47,662 46,473 73,798 71,225 72,221 69,590 60,022 80,443 84,101 59,989 44,755 43,3.52 72,995 74,396 75,654 62,801 52,974 84,307 86,067 64,253 48,264 46,258 76,393 68,606 72,883 60,426 52,266 78,648 78,978 60,462 45,774 44,964 68,579 66,753 68,690 56,417 47,420 74,163 79,732 57,733 42,040 39,946 62,647 357,234 363,495 300,102 252,806 397,472 418,270 305,786 228,395 219,983 364,412 1,171 841 781 870 892 BIHAB AND OBISSA. 660,508 633,164 628,909 587,210 629,117 611,540 697,551 650,496 561,407 522,769 3,167,492 3,005,169 949 0— 1 . 1— 5 . '5—10 10—15 . 16—20 . 146,331 112,048 56,429 37,727 25,207 129,490 108,799 48,647 29,314 22,408 140,117 104,722 62,225 33,862 24,018 124,295 100,086 43,432 24,886 21,003 132,448 98,489 53,497 35,282 24,254 119,929 96,9.S7 47,165 27,359 22,608 148,734 116,568 57,271 34,212 25,610 135,099 112,606 46,618 25,034 22,421 123,057 88,300 43,066 25,866 18,086 109,761 87,043 36,341 18,934 15,629 690,687 620,127 262,488 166,949 117,075 618,674 505,490 222,203 125,527 104,069 896 972 847 762 889 20—30 . 30 — 40 40—50 . 50—60 . 60 and over 69,036 56,092 49,629 45,261 72,748 61,346 53,944 43,873 46,676 88,657 67,342 55,343 48,441 44,164 68,675 57,342 60,120 40,317 44,248 81,482 57,307 56,691 60,167 47,025 73,957 60,470 53,360 43,422 48,107 92,163 62,142 62,835 56,490 64,326 79,463 61,392 55,587 44,781 52,513 94,445 45,240 47,327 44,007 43,274 73,184 44,162 41,140 36,099 43,753 89,907 281,067 278,288 248,734 234,050 368,027 284,712 254,151 208,492 235,297 446,654 1,013 913 838 1,005 1,214 tBOMCBAY. 306,039 282,365 336,017 312,002 313,890 292,716 261.616 240,192 264,378 241.658 1,481,970 1,368,823 924 0— 1 . 1— 5 . r5— 10 10—15 . 15—20 . 72,978 60,743 16,222 13,422 12,284 64,234 49,248 16,422 12,633 12,377 73,268 58,512 20,570 14,769 13,828 04,529 68,415 19,999 13,285 13,874 63,696 49,652 16,152 13,846 13,143 55,826 48,774 17,137 13,735 13.717 66,741 45,134 11,710 8,884 9,454 66,775 43,763 11,843 8,352 9,753 64,058 43,541 13,611 9,318 9,378 54,616 43,554 13,041 8,588 9,846 341,741 247,582 78,265 60,239 68,087 295,979 243.764 78,442 56,593 59,567 866 985 1,002 939 1,025 20—30 . 30—40 . 40—50 . 50—60 60 and over 28,882 28,887 25,691 23,238 33,692 29,896 25,237 18,967 17,763 35,578 32,696 32,578 28,299 26,440 36,057 34,515 28,551 20.936 19,661 38,237 31,093 32,616 29,458 26,471 36,763 33,314 28.846 22.412 20,386 38,569 22,950 23,795 22,187 20,601 31,190 24,557 20,654 15,614 15,668 33,213 23,604 24,609 23,274 20,741 32,244 25,373 21,322 16,307 1 15,676 33,236 139,225 142,485 128,909 115,491 169,946 147,655 124,610 94,236 89,154 178,833 1,061 876 731 772 1,062 iBUBUA. 110,768 93,623 122,832 104,854 122,961 102.731 129,082 110,377 137,769 120,093 623,412 531,678 853 0— ■'I . , 1—' 5 . ' 5—10 . io— 15 . 15—20 . 30,715 14,063 6,962 4,338 4,977 23,307 12,780 5,949 8,480 4,255 32,070 15,808 8,168 5,132 6,670 24,413 14,686 7,409 4,256 4,847 31,241 13,838 8,025 6,097 5,861 24,046 12,361 7,151 4,110 4,817 34,797 16,434 7,545 4,920 6,201 26,977 15,369 6,804 4,065 4,627 38,099 17,117 8,080 4,941 6,607 30,225 16,246 T,398 4,163 4,935 106,922 77,260 38,780 24,428 27,216 128,968 71,341 34,711 20,054 23,381 772 923 896 821 850 20—30 30—40 . 40—50 . 50—60 6U and over 10,475 10,225 7,932 6,734 14,347 8,639 8,182 5,923 5,725 15,383 11,989 11,633 8,733 7,512 16,117 10,068 9,252 6,553 6.055 17,415 11,953 12,509 9,846 7,996 16,595 9,856 9,492 7,080 6,453 17,365 11,309 12,341 10,125 8,284 18,126 10,160 9,853 7,304 6,641 18,687 11,864 12,756 10,740 8,899 •19,766 11,096 10,579 7,751 7,114 20,597 57,590 69,464 47,376 39,425 84,951 49,819 47,368 34,611 31,988 89,447 886 796 731 811 1,053 {C. P. AND BERAR. 231,573 210,810 268,105 248,508 267,483 238,120 239,476 217,605 209,711 186,424 1,206,348 1,101,467 013 0— 1 . 1— 5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 98,821 44,078 8,982 5,649 4,921 85,132 39,610 8,098 5,081 5,344 91,769 57,100 15,352 8,774 7,316 80,042 63,893 13,027 7,216 7,652 91,088 51,302 11,822 7,149 6,851 78,323 47,621 10,829 6,570 7,036 90,416 49,912 11,011 6,726 5,488 78,286 45,708 9,803 4,902 6757 75,231 39,229 10,229 5,282 5,266 61,926 35,285 9,037 4,732 6,633 447,325 241,711 57,396 32,480 29,842 383,709 222,117 60,794 28,501 31,422 858 919 885 877 1,053 20—30 . 30—40 . 40—50 . 50 — 60 60 and over 11,718 12,669 12,703 11,855 20,277 13,731 11,089 9,377 9,968 22,780 17,072 17,298 16,517 14,500 23,407 19,922 15,892 12,148 12,369 26,347 16,037 16.821 15.661 15,038 25,624 18,724 15,790 12,177 13,072 27,978 13,163 14,114 13,809 13,141 22,706 14,533 12,423 0,840 11,070 25,283 13.029 13,905 13,478 12,995 21,067 14,532 12,099 9,882 10,693 22,605 71,009 74,807 71,168 67,629 113,081 81,442 67,893 53,424 57,172 124,993 1,147 908 751 847 1,105 MADRAS. 401,406 384,717 607,823 490,568 449,290 433,726 491.062 469,857 410,689 390,977 2,260,170 2,169,846 960 0— 1 . 1- 5 . 5—10 . 10—15 . 15—20 . 109,364 62,872 19,541 12,668 12,200 94,012 62,392 18,826 11,734 16,189 114,999 74,731 34,395 22,227 19,451 100,325 74,524 32,647 19,573 23,393 106,302 64,453 27,370 17,270 15,579 91,828 64,959 25,779 15,650 19,045 118,271 65,618 30,410 20,784 18,724 100,747 65,561 28,747 18,307 22,192 114,307 61,629 20,262 13,286 12,887 96,732 51,365 19,306 12,301 16,424 663,243 309,303 131,984 86,241 78,821 483,644 308,801 126,305 77,466 97,243 859 998 949 898 1,234 20—30 . 30—40 . 40—50 . 50—60 . 60 and over 26,355 30,912 84,513 35,274 67,707 33,764 29,063 26.079 29,446 74,212 38,873 40,250 41,526 41,700 79,671 47,038 37,690 32,117 36,263 87,998 33,441 36,881 38,688 38,609 70,785 41,461 34,861 30,307 32.218 77 718 38,621 42,698 42,914 40,711 72,411 46,609 40,773 34,327 34,284 78,410 28,942 31,622 . 84,694 35,125 67,955 36,764 30,346 26,143 28,897 73,709 166,132 182,363 192,235 191,319 358,529 204,626 172,733 147,973 160,108 392,047 1,231 947 718 836 1,094 PUNJAB. 475,973 480,136 374,880 368,026 637,357 611,372 517,219 602,906 326,613 294,470 2,332,042 2,256,909 968 0— 1 . > 1— 5 . 5—10 10—15 . 15—20 10!i,:ir.9 60,499 30,388 30,735 25,081 100,627 59,797 33,861 34,867 25,203 106,739 74,034 21,699 15,829 13,054 100,539 74,914 22,085 17,160 13,676 104.889 79.940 45,885 44.397 37,663 96,546 78,535 49,202 48.047 34,748 134,191 117,371 34,427 20,312 16,347 128,945 118,770 33,728 20,290 16,104 84,113 48,967 17,171 11,446 9,971 77,699 46,716 16,177 11,342 8,902 538,291 380,811 149.470 122,719 102,116 604,266 378,732 166,053 131,706 98,638 937 995 1,037 1,073 966 20—30 . 30—40 . 40—50 50—60 . 60 au[l;ovcr 44,994 41,825 39,099 33,041 61,162 49,331 46,454 39,760 31,910 68,335 24,947 24,251 23,722 22,086 49,619 29,672 25,463 21,473 18,618 44,626 68,267 64,207 59,605 50,353 82,151 65,916 63,431 55.593 44.466 74,889 30,052 29,313 31,032 30,668 73,506 33,682 31,627 28,019 25,732 66,009 22,857 24,083 26,899 25,676 55,430 23,194 23,437 22,052 20,038 45,013 191,117 183,479 180.357 161,824 321,868 201,694 190,412 166,887 140,764 288,772 1,055 1,038 925 870 897 UNITED PROVINCE". 1,049,708 1,048.592 953,300 910,027 1,049,012 1.023,524 1,274,966 1.239,795 922,189 868,880 6,249,184 5,080,818 968 0— 1 . 1— 5 . 5—10 . 10—15 15—20 . 270.313 145,803 66,471 61,998 43,245 246,814 150,155 65,013 60,010 47,413 249„574 177,736 62,340 87,217 30,956 231,810 180,341 62,759 30,862 33,048 260,342 182,653 66,480 44,H03 39,290 236,923 182,269 64,208 44,762 41,854 313,732 263,695 83,024 42,035 34,260 302,950 270,913 70,817 33,569 - 36,083 201,242 132,728 63,843 30,622 26,165 182,726 136,809 47,774 24,366 26,269 1,295,203 902,615 332,158 206,676 173,916 1,201,223 919,477 300,671 183,548 183,667 927 1,019 906 889 1,066 20—30 30—40 . 40—50 60—60 . 60 snd over 97,074 90,918 88,211 85,610 110,066 112,978 95,212 85,090 81,052 114,856 76,505 72,989 73,462 73,644 98,896 84,062 69,662 64,169 65,358 97,956 89,564 85,513 86.277 83,994 110,(196 100.686 86.463 79.141 76.989 110,249 86,867 88,602 100,251 108,175 154,335 94,378 83,386 87,910 99,181 161,668 75,246 80,894 93,824 98,334 129,391 77,634 73,806 79,280 85,207 126,031 425,246 418,916 442.015 449,757 002,783 469,738 408,618 395,590 407.737 610,769 1,106 976 895 907 1,013 NOTB.— The flgurcs shown against tihar and Orlsea for the year 1905 arc cxcloslvr of Sambalpur, for which figures are not availablo. CHAPTER VII. iMariisme. Part I. — Descriptive. 281. lu order to uuclerstaucl clearJy the meaning of the statistics of marriage, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the customs which underlie them. Some of those customs have been fully descril)ed already, but others are not so well known. Even Avhcre tl)ey have been described, it has often been assumed that they are peculiar to India, or that statements which are true of one part of the country are of general application. The first assumption has frequently led to erroneous inferences as to the way in which a given practice originated ; the second has resulted in faulty generalizations and in the failure to recognize the many limitations and exceptions to wliich almost every general statement regarding marriage in India is subject. I propose, therefore, before dealing with the figures, and with the questions, such as infant marriage, wliich are more directly connected with them, to give an outline of the main features of the Indian matrimonial customs with special reference to the areas where, or classes amongst whom, they are found ; those which have already been sufficiently described Avill be dealt with very briefly, but mention will be made, where neces- sary, of the occurrence of similar practices in other countries. The customs in the south of India differ in many respects from those in the north ; and as they are both more primitive and less widely known, special attention will be devoted to them. Many of the local peculiarities on the Malabar coast are accounted for by the fundamental difference in the family system which will be described in paragrai^h 289. 285. By mother-kin or mother-right, frequently called the matriarchate, is Mother-idn. meant the system of tracing descent and transmitting property in the female line. This system has often been supposed to be a relic of a state of society where, owing to i:)romiscuity or polyandry, it was impossible to affiliate the children. Hartland has recently shown' that its origin is to be sought rather in the fact that paternity itself was once not understood. At that time the family in the modern sense did not exist ; a woman spent her whole life with her mother's kindred, who brought up any children that might be born to her. As civilization advanced and men began to take wives to live with them amongst their own people, the children usually came to be regarded as belong- ing to the husband's rather than the -wife's family. The change was first and foremost juridical, and was not necessarily the result of greater certainty as to paternity. Great sexual laxity still exists auiougst many communities who trace relationship through the male. According to Mayne, even in the Hindu Shastras, sonship and marriage|stand in no absolute relation to each other ; a son need not necessarily have been begotten by his father, nor need he have been produced by his father's wife.- Although, on the whole, instances of sexual laxity are less tmcommon in India where descent is traced through the female, there are, as will be seen further on, various communities who observe patrilinear descent and yet allow great freedom within the limits of their own community. Where mother-kin outlived the primitive state of society in which it originated, it tended to increase the importance of women, and, in extreme cases, to cause them to be recognized as the sole owners of proijerty. Over the greater part of India kinship is now traced through the father, and there is, as a rule, very Httle to indicate the previous existence of uterine descent. In the Mahdbhdrata,^ however, it is said of the Vahikas whose capital is believed to have been near Sialkot, that owing to the unchastity of their women, their sisters', and not their own, sons became their heirs. Tliere ' Primitive Paternitt;. This valuable work has thrown much new light on the history ui huixinn ranrrinee and the system of reckoning kinship. Fur a gencrnl discussion of mother-kin, sea AJmiix, Atlis, Osiris, ZSi- 391. ' Hindu Law, 7th edition, page 81. Instances will be given further on of Revcrnl kinds of fictitious sods, such as the son of a man's widow or of his daughter. In Iluqa Padar in Kashmir, an old man with a youu^ wife will often engage a lusty youth to beget children upon her on his behalf. This custom is known as Pachhanc/a. It. was recognized by the early law writers, who called a son thus obtained Kshetraja. In cnn- pcction with Ilartland's theory it is interesting to note- Maync's view that iu Hindu law a son was always •s9igned to the male who was tho legal owner of the moth'?r. *Karna Parva, XLIV, XLV. 2 H 2 236 CHAPTER Vir. — MARRIAGE. are also certain customs still in existence which may perhaps be a survival of that system. 286. In many parts of India there are isolated instances of a man's family being continued through a daughter who lives in his house. With the hillmen of Kishtwar in Kaslunir if, as often happens, an unmarried girl has children, they may either be taken by the man who afterwards marries her, or remain as members of her father's family; in the latter case they inherit her father's property equally with the children of her brothers. The Mukkuvans of Madras recognize two forms of marriage, the ordinary one or kalydnmn, and a maimed rite known as viddram, where no bride price is paid. A gir) married by ithe latter rite need not reside in her husband's house. Her children inherit from their father only if he recognizes them and makes a small payment to their mother ; otherwise they belong to the family of their maternal grand- father. The viddram form of marriage can be completed at any time by the performance of the kalydnam ceremony. A girl married after puberty must remain for some time in the status of a viddram Avife. Amongst the Coorgs, who are said formerly to have been polyandrous, a man who has no male children, may give his daughter in marriage on the exjiress understanding that she will remain in his house, and that any issue she may have will belong to his family. A similar custom prevails amongst the Holeyas of Dharwar in the Bombay Presidency, the Kuunavans' and Madigas of Madras, and the Kandyan Singhalese of Ceylon. It prevails also sporadically in Assam and Kashmir, where a man having no sons imports a boy into his family as the husband of his daughter, and the offspring of this union inherit his property. In Assam, in such cases, the bridegroom often assumes his father-in-law's gotra. Amongst the Eabhas of that province, a man without sons usually selects his sister's son as the husband of his daughter. "With the Santals and Oraons of Cliota Nag- pur, the husband of a Avoman who has no brothers, if he stays in his father-in- law's house and works for him till lie dies, inherits his j^roperty. In such cases, the eldest son is named after his maternal, and not, as is the usual rule, after his paternal grandfather. Other Dravidian tribes have a similar custom, but some modify it by permitting inheritance only with the consent of those who would otherwise be the heirs. Sometimes, as in the Punjab, when a resident son-in-law has more sons than one, the eldest is adopted into the maternal grandfather's group, Avhile the younger ones retain that of their own father. A maa who resides ia his fatUer-iu-law's house as a member of his family is com- monly known as ghar-jamai, gliardi-jaioae, ghar-damad or kkdnadamad. The same designation is applied to a man who, being unable to jiay for the girl of his choice, in lieu of doing so, serves for several years in the house of her father, after whicli he marries her and takes her to a house of his own. The resident son-in-law described above occupies a very similar position to that of the Garo nokrong (paragraph 2^8) whicli is admittedly a mother-kin institution. Analogous to it is the Ladakhi custom (now de^'adent) of introducing a distant relative, or even a, stranger, into the family to assist in the cultivation of its land. This man who is called farmlh becomes a permanent member of the family and shares the common wife. 287. The worship of the divine mothers which is so prominent a feature in the religion of the people, especially in the south of India, probably had its origin in mother-kin. So also, no doubt, had the jiractice which, according to Father Hoffmann, still survives in some Munda villages, of alloAving the matrons at the Ba-poroh, or flower festival, to officiate at the sacrifice to the ancestors, which must 1)6 offered in every house. Amongst certain low castes the sister's son performs the funeral obsequies. He also, though more seldom, plays an impor- tant part at weddings ; and he is sometimes the recipient of gifts, as Avith the Halbas of the Central Provinces and Berar. In Southern India and the Cen- tral Provinces and Berar, a Avoman's brother frequently (daims her daughter as a Avife for his son ; and Avhen she is given to some one else, he receives com- pensation, or a mock fight takes place ])et\veen his son and the bridegroom. It is not uncommon to find the maternal uncle making the arrangements for the marriage of his nephew or niece, Avhicli cannot be effected Avithout his consent ; and he sometimes receives the Avhole or part of the bride price. He often takes a prominent part in the marriage ceremony and, more rarely, in other ceremonies of childhood and at funerals. As pointed out by llivers, however, these rights and duties of the maternal uncle, though they are ordinarily derived from ' With the Kunnavans the girl goes through a mock marriage ceremony with a door-post and then consorts at her plcasuie with E>en of her own caste. Here, as elsewhere in this Chapter, the illustrations for Madras are taken mainly from Thurston's Castes and Tribes of Southern India. MOTHEK-KIK 237 jiiother-kiu, may sometimes simply be a survival of the custom of cousin mar- riage^ ; and the father's sister, or her husband, occasionally has rights or duties similar to those of the mother's brother. Mr. Bray makes some interesting observations on the traces of mother- kin in Baluchistan from ■which the following is an extract : — " It certainly seems as if glimpses of bygone mother-kin — glimpses of davs when the family centred round the mother, and her brother and not her husband was its natural head. — peep out from some of these customs ; notably from the payment of bow-price not to the bride's father but to her brother j from the omission or the slurring over of her father's name iu the marriage service ; aud from his self-effacement at the wedding, more especially as this used to be coupled with the prominence of her maternal uncle. And these and other instances of the kind are all the more signiticant because they are found in a country where the father is now a patriarch of the patriarchs. I3ut space and time forbid a plunge into the eddies of the controversy which rages round this subject of mother-kin. I can only pause on the brink aud fling over a few other local customs to those engaged in the wordy struggle. It is quite clear, for instance, that a Brahui mother's rights in her child received formal and tangible recognition ages before the Brahui father had learnt to assert his. For nothing can be more certain than that she claimed a milk-price on the marriage of her daughter ages before her husband dreamt of claiming a bride-price for himself. Nor is marriage the only occasion when the milk-price crops up ; until a Erahuf mother has expressly renounced all mother rights in her dead child, no one would dream of removing the body to the grave." 288. There are two parts of India where mother-kin still ])revails amonerst Mother certain sections of the community, oue in the Assam range and the other on the Malabar Coast. In Assam, the Khfisis" and allied tribes trace descent solely through the female. Xo man can own any property except that Avhich he acquires himself. Public offices are filled by men, but they are transmitted through women ; even a chief is succeeded, not by his own, but by his sister's son. A man, when he marries, goes to live with his wife iu her mother's house. In the Synteng country he usually visits her only after dark. With the Khasis, after one or t"\A'0 children are born, he may remove his wife to a house of his own, but all his property acquired before marriage descends to his mother's heirs, and only that acquired subsequently to his wife and children. The way in which it is divided varies ; usually the youngest daughter gets the largest share. The ceremonial religion is in the hands of the women; and if the female members of a family die out, a girl is adopted from another family to perform the religious ceremonies and inherit the ancestral property. The marriage tie is very loose and divorce is easily accomplished. TTith the Garos also the children belong to the mother's clan.* The woman is the owner of all except self-acquired property, and her daughters inherit to the exclusion of sons. Though the property cannot pass out of the motherhood, the husband has full use of it during his life-time, and he can select a person [nokroiiff, house-supporter) to succeed him as the protector of his family and manager of its proj^erty. The nolcrong, who is usually his sister's son, comes to live in his house as the hi;sband of one of his daughters ; and when he dies marries also his widow. Should a man's wife predecease him without daughters, or be divorced, her clan will provide him with a second wife, who takes the property of the first wife and so maintains him in actual posses- sion of it. These customs are of special interest as showing how a primitive community adapts to new conditions a system which it has outgrown. The proposal of marriage, it may be noted, comes from the girl. Ihe Babhas are in a stage of transition from female to male kinship. The children belong to their mother's clan, but proi:)erty devolves from father to son. So far as I have been able to ascertain, the only other Bodo comuutnity still tracing descent in the female line is the small tribe of Pani Koch, which may reasonably be regarded as a non-Hiuduized remnant of the great Koch tribe that was formerly dominant in North Bengal and West Assam.* The existence ' The Marriage (f Cousins in India, Journal of the Boi/al Asiatic Society for 1897, page 611. Mr. Blunt, in the Kopon for the United Provinces, notes sume instances of lij^lits and duties attucliinj; to the aibtor's sou in addition to those enumerated by I'r. Kivers in the essay liere i] noted. The rights and duties of the maternal unci? in I'aluchistan are described in Mr. Bray's Ueport ipara. I'Jli. • GurdoD, The Khasis. V\n,yia.\i, The Garos. Among the Barongii tribe in South Africa H.e nephew inheiil» his uncle's widons {Primitive Paternity, II, 208). With the Dallas a snn taUes over his fathi-r's widows I'Xiept only his owu motDfT. The same rule is followid by ih-- Dinkas of the Bahr el Ghazal {Primitive Paternity, I, 313) and, until recently, ly the Battaks of Sumatra (Tutemitm and Eavaamy. Ill, 189). Accordiuf; to Marco I'olo the a.ime custom existed amongst the Tartars (Yule, ?rd edition, I, 263); aud it probably did so formerly umougst the £anne>e. * Bengal Census Report for 190!, paragrapli 539 and footnote. >l£l]x In 238 CHAPTER VII. — MARRIAGE. of the custom amongst the Garos,Rabhas and Pani Kocli suggests that mother-kin was once the rule amongst all Bodo tril:)es. Very little -weight need be attached to the fact that few traces of it survive ; for customs like this disappear very rapidly. There is a small caste of Garo affinities in Mymensingh, the Dalu, who now trace descent through the male, but are known to have done so through the female only thirty years ago. The custom by which, amongst the Kacharis of the North Cachar Hills, sons are regarded as belonging to the father's clan and daughters to the mother's, may perhaps, like that of tbe Rabhas described above, represent a stage of transition from the one system to the otber. Mother-uin on the 289. Thc systcm of tracing inheritance through the female, known as °** ■ Aliya Santana in Canarese, and Marumakhathayam in Malayali, both terms meanino- "descent through sister's son," prevails amongst various castes in the south of India, chiefly on the Malabar coast.^ There are signs that it was formcrlv more common. Some castes, while no longer following this system of descent^ have customs indicating that they formerly did so ; while some have certain sections who trace kinship through the male and other sections who do so through the female. Bhutal Pandya's Vattu, an old Canarese pamphlet on the subject, mentions various castes as observing the Aliya Santana^ system who now follow the ordinary mode of inheritance under the Hindu Law.^ When the system was in full force a woman after marriage continued to reside in her family home, where she was visited by her husband. The children Avere regarded as hers, not his, and were brought up by her family. The husband now often sets up a home of his own and takes his wife there to live with him. The children, however, always belong to the clan of the mother. Under this system, all property vests jointly in the members of the family, or tarwdd, which consists of all the descendants in the female line of a common ancestress except those who have abandoned the family home, but they cannot encumber or alienate it. Partition may be effected only Avith the consent of all the members. The management is in the hands of the senior male member in Malabar, and of the senior member, Avhether male or female, in South Cauara. This primitive constitution of society has not always received sufTicient recognition from those who have speculated regarding the origin of the family, and of marriage, totemism and exogamy. It has too often been assumed that even in the earliest times, the wife went to live in her husband''s house. Tt may be mentioned that in Ceylon the Kandyan Singhalese recognize two kinds of marriage, one grounded on male, and the other on female, kinship. In the former the girl is given to her husband with a do-wTy and loses all claim on her own ancestral property; in the latter, the husband enters his wife's family and is dependent on her and her parents. In both cases, but especially the latter, divorce is easily accomplished. A survival of mother-kin prevails among the Nangmli Vellalas of Tinnevelly. A girl cannot marry without the consent of her maternal uncle, but when she marries her father gives her a house and a dowry. Her husband is expected to take up his abode in her house, and her dowry descends to her daughters. Polyandry. 290. " Though polyandry, like mother-kin, is a survival from a primitive state of society, the two customs arc not necessarily connected at the in-esent day. Mother-kin, as we have seen, originated at a time when paternity was not understood and women remained in their family homes where their husbands or lovers visited them. There Avas then, no doubt, great laxity in the relations of the sexes, as tliere still is in soutliern India amongst the communities Avith whom the system still survives. But the change to male Idnsbip, Avhich resulted from the Avife going to live in the home of her husband or husbands, Avas not necessarily accompanied by the growth of marital jealousy. The first Avivcs to reside in their husbands' homes were perhaps Avomen obtained ' This category includes the following castes : — Agasa, Bant, Bellara, Billava, Basavi, Devadiu'a, Gatti. Gui-ukkal, Izhava, .lo^i Puvusha, Ki l.isi, Koil Tampunin, Malayali Kehatviya, ICudan, Kudiya, Kmava, Mabkkar, Mannan, Moger, Mudnvai, Nayar, I'alLin, Pishavati. Samantan, Tiruvallan, Tiyan, Urali, W vn;id ; and also some sections of the following:— Chali van, (iudigara, lloleya, Krishna Vakkakar Kiidumi, Kuric chan, Idyhava, Mala Arayan, Mappilln, Mukkuvan, Namijutiri Brahman, I'oduval, Unni, Varaiyar, Veluttedan. A blend of hotb systems occurs amongst the following :— Nanchinad Vellala, Natta Kottai CUutti. Awny from the Malabar Coast inheritance tliioiigh the female occurs amongst a few tribes, including the Pallan of Madura and the UrSli of Travancore. Tliis system of inheritance, though common in South Canara, is very rare in the adjoining Bombay District of Kanara. ^ This book jias been condemned as a forgeiy, but a recent writer believes it to be genuine. [Alii/a Santana Law and Usage Mangalorc 1893, \>. 15.1 POLYANDRY. 239 "by capture or purchase, wlio were i-esj^arded as a sort of chattel ; l)ut it did not necessarily follow that the husband would oljject to his wife receivini? other meu, especially those who were related to liim, or who soui;-ht her favours throufjh liiia. In many parts of the world coninuinities arc still to l)e found wlio, thou^-li they trace desceut through the male, are careless of their wives' chastity, aud punish infidelity only where it is regarded as an infringement of their rights. On the otlier hand, the feeling of jealousy might very Avell develop and lead to mono- gamy without any change in tlie system of reckoning relationship. There are communities goyerued by uterine descent, such as the Khasis and Garos of Assam, wlio do not allow 2)olyandry, aud there arc others, like the Todas of the Nilgiris, who trace desceut through the male and yet allow polyandry and are Avholly devoid of the feeling of marital jealousy. Where this feeling has developed, the position of Avomen in communities with male descent makes it easier for husbands to enforce their rights, and the consequences of infidelity are more serious. There is thus a tendency to greater sexual laxity where mother-kin prevails than under the opposite system, but it does not necessarily take the form of j)olyandry. Polyandry may be regarded as a state intermediate between promiscuity and monogamy. It is of two kinds — the matriarchal, where the husbands need not be related, and the fraternal, where they are brothers, or possibly cousins on the father's side. The former is simply a modified form of communism. The 'husbands' are merely recognized lovers or cicisbei; they acquire and lose their privileges at the p'leasm-e of the woman, without any formal ceremony either of marriage or divorce, aud they are in no way responsible for the main- tenance of the woman or her children. The relation is seldom a permanent one. Fraternal polyandry may exist in a community where mother-kin is the rule, but it is generally associated with male kinship, the wife being taken to live in her husbands' home. It merges gradually into monogamy by the steady growth of the rights of the elder brother. The wife and children come gradually to be regarded as his, until at last the younger lu'others can scarcely be regarded as husbands at all, but merely as the casual recipients, at her discretion, of the wife's favours when their elder brother is out of the way. 291. A few cases of fraternal polyandry are mentioned in the ancient liter- Polyandry in ature, the 1)est known instance being that of Draupadi, wife of the five Panda- vas. At the present day it is extremely rare in northern India ; and it -exists naked and unashamed only in the Himalayan border laud. Amongst the Tibetans and BhQtias, when the eldest of several brothers marries a woman, he takes her to live in the family house, aud she is regarded as the common wife of them all ; but it has been said that, though she ordinarily does so, she is not obliged to bestow her favours on the younger brothers. If one of the latter marries, he sets up a separate house of his own, and brothers who are still younger may choose whether they will follow him and share his wife, or remain with the eldest brother. The surplus women become nuns. This system has been attributed to the poverty of the country and the desire to avoid large families. Fraternal polyandry also prevails amongst the Kanets aud other Sudra castes of the Punjab Hills, including Kulu, where the relations of the sexes are of the very lowest order. ' In the Bashahr State, there is a large trade in the surplus women, Avho are very good looking and are often sold for as much as Hs. 500. Although not openly recognized, the utmost freedom prevails, amongst the Thakkars and Meghs of Kashmir, between a woman and her husband's hrothers. According to Crooke fraternal polyandry was common only a few years ago amongst the Gujars of the United Provinces, where it has been attributed to the scarcity of women resulting from the ]n-acticc of killing female infants; it has died out owing to gii-ls beino: more plentiful now that infanticide has become rare. The Punjab Census lleport for 18S1" disclosed a very similar state of things at that time amongst the Jats of the en.stcrn plain ; when a family of brothers lived in community of goods, the elder brotlicr alone took a wife, whom his younger brothers shared. According to one ofTicer, the Jats were not the only people following this custom ; in the submontane part of Ambala, amongst all classes of Hindus, a sister-in-law was looked on as the •common property, not only of uterine brothers, but of all bhiiis, including ' Indian Antiquarj/, September 1907, page 277. ' PnrnRraph 908. 240 CHAPTER VII — MARRIAGE. first cousins. It is said that this laxity has now disappeared. Further east, almost the only people still admitting customs similar to the above are the Sautals, who not only allow a husband's younger brothers to share his wife's favours, but i)ermit tlie husband in his turn to have access to his wife's younger sisters. This latter custom is an approach to the old Hawaiian group marriages of brothers and sisters, which formed the foundation for Morgan's theory of a Punaluau family. ^ To a modified extent it has its counterpart in Ladakh, where the wife of several brothers can bring in her sister as a co-wife. It is said that the Khoncis in the east of the Central Provinces allow immarried younger brothers to have access to their elder brother's wife. 292. The absence of polyandrous customs in any given locality at the pre.sent day does not of course mean that they never existed. In Orissa, apart from the Levirate (see paragraph 300), there are now no signs of a man's brothers having ever been allowed to share his wife. But traces of this custom still surviA'ed a century and a half ago. Motte, describing his journey through Balasore in 1766, wrote : — '" Seven thousand of the stoutest young fellows go into Bengal leaving their families behind. These people stretch the Levitical law so that a brother not only raises up seed to another after his decease, but even during his absence on service, so that no married woman lies fallow.''^ Mr. ]\Iarten finds traces of fraternal polyandry in the Central Provinces, both- in Aryan and non-Ar^-au communities, in the peculiar part assigned to the younger brother at the marriage of the elder : — " Among Oraons there is a ceremony in which the girl at her marriage repudiates the rights over her of her dewar (husband's younger brother), who guides the hand of his elder brother in putting on the bride the vermilion mark of the blood covenant. Among the Halbas of Chhattis- garh the dewar embraces the girl formally at the marriage ceremony, and the same ceremony obtains among so distant a tribe as the Korkus of Betul. In many tribes the detvar's rights are formally bought off by a present at the wedding consisting of money or cloth Like her husband he addresses his brother's wife in the singular, and may use familiar and even indecent epithets. On certain ceremonial occasions which demand the right of knotting the cloths of husband and wife together the deicar may represent his brother in the latter's absence Another interesting survival is a birth ceremony among the Kirs, a cultivating caste of Hoshangabad, in which at birth the younger brother of the husband catches hold of the mother's skirt and has to have his rights on the child bought Out bv a present of a few pice. Yet another survival is a ceremony common in Telugu castes and performed on the nine month of a wife's pregnancy, at which her husband's younger brother blows through a reed flute into her right ear — clearly a symbol of impregnation the right side b^'ing favourable to the birth of a boy." 293. The Pvinjab Superintendent has the following notes on this subject : — " Polyandry is commoii among the Kanets of the higher hills, but the lower castes also practise it, and the Rajputs and other castes residing in the tracts where this custom is prevalent, also appear to have been influenced by it. The polyandry practised generally is of the fraternal type known as Tibetan. All the brothers in a family have usually one joint wife. But only full brothers can do so, although in some case step-brothers and cousins who are on as intimate terms as full brothers are allowed to share the common wife. In rare cases, persons belonging to different families, marry a jointwife, by agreement and merge their separate properties into a joint holding. The wife is married by a ceremony resembling marriage by capture. The rule about access to the wife is different in different places. The elder brother usually has the preference, and it is only in his absence that the younger brothep can enjov her company. But where the younger brothers go out for trade or on other business and one of them comes back periodically, the eldest brother allows him the exclusive use of the wife during his short visit. Where, however, all the brothers stay at home, the wife not unfrequently bestows her favours on all of them equally, by turn, one evening being reserved for each. The house usually has two rooms, one for the wife and the other for the husbands. When one brother goes in1o the wife's room, he leaves his shoos or hat at the door, which is equivalent to the notice ' engaged/ and if another brother wishes to visit the wife, he has, on seeing the signal, to return to the men's apartment. " All the sons of the wife by whichsoever husband begotten, are generally called the sons of the eldest brother, but the son calls all the husbands of his mother, as his fathers. Indeed, the larger the number of fathers, the prouder the son feels. In some places, the first son is supposed to belong to the eldest husband, the second to the second, and so on, even ^ Ancient bvciet II, iii. Morgan included in his I'unalimn family cases where men not related marned a group of sieteiB and wlieie women not related married a group of brothers. Such marriages occir fometimes an onsrst tlie Todas. Polygyny i« allowed as well ax polyandry; and it usually tikes the form of several brothers harint: two or more wives in cmmon. Mr. Molony tells me that when a Badaga man-ies, bis brothers are often allow( d a great deal o{ liberty with his wife's sisters. 2 T. .Motte, Narrative (fa Jinirnev to the Diamond Mines ai Svmhhulfoyr, Asiatic Annual Beyister 179f I lim indebted to Mr. O'M alley for this referenc* I POLYANDRY. 241 though the second husband may have been absent at the time of conception of the second son. In other eases the wife is permitted to name the father of each boy ; and if she is not particularly scrupulous, she names each time the richest of the brothers as the father of the boy. '■ The brothers may, if necessary, marry a second or third joint wife, or one of the brothers who may have gone out, may marry a separate wife there. ^Vlien he returns home, it depends on the choice of the wife whether she will remain the exclusive wife of the husband who married her or become the joint property of the family. Cases are known in which a family of three brothers has three or as many as four joint wives " The custom is approved in the higher hills, where it tends to prevent from partition the holdings which, from force of circumstances, are extremely small ; but the facilities of communication with the rest of the Province, where the practice does not exist and is looked down upon, together with the influence exerted by western education, have had an appreciable effect in discouraging- the custom. The following quotation from the Tribuiie, dated the 7th June 1911, will show that eltorts have been made in the Simla Hills for eradicating this evil and primitive custom. 'The following notice is being widely circulated in the Simla Hill States : — The marriage custom of polyandry prevailing in the Simla district is not only obnoxious and demoralizing in its effect but is revolting to all educated people who bestow any thought on the social improvement of the hillmen. It is unnecessary to dilate on the evils resulting from this disgraceful and shameful practice, and it is high time that this pernicious custom, which is not countenanced by any Hindu law-giver, should be done away with altogether. Something has no doubt been done by the Himalaya Vidya I'rabodhini Sabha, Simla, in getting up small gatherings and explaining the disadvantages of this custom to the ignorant masses, but they are in a great degree indebted to ^Ir. A. B. Kettlewell, the Deputy Commissioner of the district, for the interest displayed by him in trying to check the prevalence of the custom, and they cannot adequateh- tender their heartfelt thanks for his kindness. It is, indeed, hoped that through his influence and assistance, and with the co- operation of the leading men in the Hill States, the desired end will be gained in the near future. His Highness the Raja of Keonthal has graciously accepted the presidentship of the Sabha, and the members and office-bearers also feel that his influence and useful suggestions will be of the utmost value in attaining the desired end.' " 294. In Southern India polyandry is still a recognized institution amongst f°i^^'i^, the Todas and Kurumbas of the Nilgiris and a few low castes, chiefly on the Malabar Coast. At the present time the polyandry of the Todas is usually of the fraternal type ; when a girl marries a boy she becomes also the wife of his brothers. *AVhere the husbands are not brothers, they ordinarily belong to the same clan. Descent is traced through the male. When a woman becomes pregnant she decides which of her husbands is the father. The Tolkollans, a leather-working caste of Malabar, allow two or more brothers to have a wife iu common, and formerly only those in good circumstances indulged in the luxuiy of a private wife. Tlie Izhavans, Kaniyans and other castes in Cochin,^ and elsewhere on the Malabar Coast, also allow several brothers to share a wife. With one section of the Kammalans all the brothers take part in the maiTiage ceremony. The elder brother cohabits with the wife on the wedding day, and special days are set apart for the others in turn. The Muduvars of the Travan- core plateau practise the matriarchal form of polyandry ; but the husbands must not be brothers or cousins on the paternal side. Amongst the Western Kalians a woman may have as many as ten husbands, who are all regarded as the fathers of her children. But although recognized polyandry is now rare, there are indications that it was formerly widespread in the country forming the ancient kingdom of Kerala, on the west coast from Canara southwards. Various castes such as the Badagas, Kappiliyaus, Kudans and Tottiyans allow great freedom between a woman and her l)rothers-in-law, especially when the husband is away from home. The Kanisans though no longer polyandrous, admit that they were so formerly. Thurston quotes various authorities to show that polyandry of the maternal type prevailed until quite recently amongst the iS'ayars. In a pro- clamation issued in 1788 Tipu Sultan enjoiacd them to abandon " the ^)ractice of allowing one woman to associate with ten men." Although polyandry is no Ioniser practised, at least openly, the Xayars still trace their descent through the female.^ It is probable that the custom also prcvailal in former times amongst other castes of the same tract who still follow the uterine system of descent and whose exogamons divisions are traced iu tlie female line. Tiiis method of counting relationship would not by itself prove very much, but there is another striking peculiarity which these castes have in common with the Nayars. The ordinary rc^;5,-„ rntefanrfCai^w, I, 101,173. 182, 200, 3(11, :U6. « Mr. L. K. Ananta Krishna Iyer, Siijicrintendcnt o£ KtlmogTaphy, Cochin Statc,_ infoina mo that matri- archal polyandry still lingers amongst the NSyars in some p-irts of Travancorc and Cochin. 2 I 242 CHAPTEE VII. — MARRIAGE. Hindu marriage ceremony is disj^ensed with altogether. Cohabitation, or sam- handham, is inaugurated ;it the most by a few simple formalities in which Brah- mans t;ike bo part; the union entails no legal obligation whatever on the part of the husband towards his wife and children ; it can be dissolved at will ; and it is not recognized by the courts as having the effect of a legal marriage. ^ The ceremony, such as it is, is !)elieved to be of recent origin. It is preceded by a mock marriage {tali kettu) with some man, often an elderly Brahman, who does not thereby acquire any marital rights, though the procedure is that of a regular marriage, is often performed by a Brahman priest, and is also in some cases, e.g., with the Paduvals, followed by a mock consummation.^ In some parts the bridegroom is considered to have some sort of claim to the girl and may afterwards enter into samhandham with her. But ordinarily the ceremony is looked on merely as a necessary preliminary to cohabitation, and it often concludes Avith a svmbolical divorce. So little real meaning has it that it is always performed before a girl reaches puberty and often includes all the girls in a family, or even in a group of connected families. Two explanations lave been given of the tcdi I'cttii ceremonj, which hears a curious resem- blaace to the mock mairiage to a god which is often ]ierfornied when girls are dedicated tj temple service and religious prostitution. The first is that it was instituted under Brahman- ical influence as an important sacrament anterior to polyandrous cohabitation, and the second that it is a relic of the time when the Namputiri Biahmans were entitled to the /MSjomwac noctis. The objection to the latter explanation is that the ceremony is performed also amongst castes of a lower status, with whose women no Brahman would cohabit ; and in the earliest ac- c )Uuts of it there is no mention of Biahmans being employed as bridegrooms. The former expla- nation is more plausible. It is conceivable that, in the days wheu the Nayars wielded political power, while the Brahmans could not bring themselves openly to assist at polyandrous marriages, they would not object to performing a pivdiminary ceremony with a single bridegroom, leaving it to the parties to do what they pleased afterwards. Possibly the ceremony may be the Hinduizel survival of a custom of formal defloration, such as is still practised by the Todas, who employ fur the purpose a man of their. own tribe. A similar custom appears to have preceded the tali keltu, ceremony amongst the Nayars. ^ The following extract from the report of the Malabar Marriage Commission is interesting as showing how different from what we call marriage are the relations of the sexes in commu- nities living in a state of matriarchal polyandry : — " If by polyandry we mean a plurality of husbands publicly acknowledged by society and bv each other and sharing between them a woman's favours by mutual agreement, the legal and regulated possession publicly acknowledged of one wo. nan by several men who are all husbands by the same title, it may be truly said that no such custom is now recognized by the Marumakkihai/am castes in Malabar. If by polyandry we simply mean a usage which permits a female to cohabit with a plurality of lovers without loss of caste, social degradation or dis- grace, then we apprehend that this usage is distinctly sanctioned by MaruinakJcathutjam and that there are localities where, and classes among whom, this license is still in practice." * It is difficult to trace any connection betsveen the form of polyandry which prevails on the Malabar Coast and the customs existing in other parts of India. It may be that it is a survival of a practice which disappeared elsewhere so much earlier that no traces of it remain, or it may be that it is an importation from outside by some prehistoric conquerors who imposed their customs on the people. It is well known that the ^Malabar Coast was visited by traders of various nations from the most ancient times. The taller stature and finer noses of the Nayars, Coorgs and cognate castes (and also of the polyandrous Todas who are believed liy Caldwell and llivers to have come from Malabar) as comj^ared with the typical Dravidians indicate an admixture on some other type. The architecture of the Malabar temples, it is said, suggests Mongolian influence. The faces of the demons carved on them arc almost identical with those of Tibetan masks. The custom which allows only the eldest son of a ' The Madras High Court has held that under this syKtem "tho relation between a wife and her husband ik in truth not marriage but a state of conculiiiiago into which the woman enters of her own clioico and is at liberty to change when, and as cften as, she pleases. From its very ii;iturc it mijjLt be inferred as pmbable tliiit the woinau remained with her family and was visited by the man ot' her ehiiice. Though women in Caniira do, it seems in soine instances, live with their husbands still there is no doubt that they do so of their own free will, ami that 'ib'-'v m..y at any time lejoin their own families." This decision is not in aecurdance with the views of many members of the community, who are in favour of the marriage relation beicj; reco^inized as jjermaiient ; and an Act (IV of 189(5) has accordingly been passed by tlie Madras GoveiTiment under which persons governed by the rule ot mother-kin can contract valid leiral marriages. In the Tiavaiicore Statu a local law has been passed which renders tlie husband liable f.>r tho support of th.- children ; and tlie Courts there punish as an adulterer a man who is proved to liave had inter- course with the samhmulham wife of another. ^ The Izbavans <.r Tiyyins of Cochin allowed the tali kettu brhlegroom to upend several days in the bride's house. In Travnncore the tali kettu husliand is a Xuyai or Tirumulpad of marriageable age. ' Moore, ^alalia)- Law and Custmn, page 75. ' It will be noted that the state -if things here described doe< not altonethev accord with Maynu's delinition of ]ioIvandry as a system under whicli a woman is the Ic^gal property of several husbands at once, or who though le^jally married to one husband has the right which he cannot dispute to admit other men at her pleasure. {Uiiu'u Lair, 7th Edition, p.ago 73). PREMARITAL COMMUNISM. 243 Namputiri Brabmaii to manv has its ocuntcvpart in Tiliet, tliougli with this difference that ill that country the younger brotliers sliare their elder brother's wife. The mock marriage, though a similar ceremony is often performed before a girl becomes a prostitute, is celebrated as a preliminary to a reguhir, though less formal, union nowhere nearer than Nepal, where it is in vogue amongst the Newars, who likewise until recently allowed great liberty to their women.i With tiienr the ' husband ' is not a man but a iel fruit, which, after the ceremony, is thrown into some sacred river. The KaUans. who are still polyundrous, have a tradition that they eatne from the north, and they bury their dead with the face laid in that direction. 295. If , as has been suggested, cliastity orii^inat(.'tl with the2;r.>wth of marital ^'■omarit»i jealousy, it would naturally affect at lirst only those Avomen wlio wore married. ''°™'"""'"™- There would still be entire freedom amoug-st the unmarried of l)oth sexes, and this would cease only Avith the advance of civilization and the growth of the idea that fornication is wrong in itself and not simply where it is an infringe- ment of the rights of the husband. Certain Pathinis in Baluchistan alloAv great freedom to tlieir inimarried girls. Hut, Avith this sin2:le exception, the Muhammadans throughout India and the great majority of Hindus differ in no way from the people of Europe in tbeir views regarding the chastity of their women. On the other hand, most of the aboriginal tribes, lioth Dravidian and Mongolian, the low castes in Kashmir and the Punjab Hills, and various Ioav castes in the United Provinces, Central Provinces and Berar and Southern India" allow the utmost freedom between the sexes prior to marriage, so long as they confine their amours to persons of their own community. Most Dravidian tribes prohibit intercourse between persons of the same exogamous group, but it nevertheless occasionally takes place.^ The Mongolian tribes are more often indifferent to this consideration. So also are the Todas''. It is the custom with many aboriginal tribes for the children to sleep away from their parents. The boys spend the night in a large dormitory, Avhich in Assam is often a guard-house. The girls are supposed to sleep in separate huts, which are sometimes in charge of old W(jmen, but they generally find their way at night to the boys' dormitories. Occasionally there is only one house for the young of both sexes. This method of housing the boys and girls shows signs of dying out, in the case of some Dravidian tribes, but it is nevertheless still very common. "When pregnancy occurs, the putative father is expected to take the girl as his wife. Should he refuse to do .so, he is made to pay compensation, and the girl is free to marrv some one else, Avhich she seldom has any difficultv in doing. Some times abortion is resorted to, esjiecially when the man belongs to the girl's exogamous group and is thus not allowed to marry her. A modified form of communism prevails amongst the Animistic tribes of Baroda, the Muduvars of Madras, and the Ghasiyas of the United Provinces, who allow a probationary period of cohabitation. No stigma attaches to the girl if this does not culminate in marriage, but in the case of the Baroda tribes it is .said that if the prol)ationary husband should die prior to marriage, the girl must go through the ceremony with his dead body. There are also certain castes who, though they reprobate these premarital amours, do not deal with them very severely when the parties l)elong to the same caste. A Gujar girl going astray with a man of anpther ca«te is expelled from the community, but if the lover is a Gujar, her offence is condoned on the parents' giving a feast. Even whei-e these practices are generally forbidden, they are still sometimes allowed on special occasions. With the Garos it is an unwritten law that the young men and girls may sleep together after certain great festiA^als.^ These festivals are regarded as affording an occasion for great sexual license amongst many primitive communities in India and also in other parts of the world. Even in Rnssiii such orgies were common only a hundred years ago on the day Ijefore the festival of St. John the Baptist.* ' For some other instances of mock tnariiiige sec rnragraphs 299, 300, 315. 320 and 322. * Sucli as BilLiva, Gandii, KaMiera, Kuiiygyny. Widow marriage. is seldom acted on. The Buddhists of Biivma regard marriage mei-ely as a civil contract, and either side can annul it. " A Avoman can obtain a divorce on such grounds as that her hus1)and is too poor to he able to support her, tliat he is idle, or a cripple, or a chronic invalid, or incapacitated by old ago. Simi- larly a man can obtain a divorce on such grounds as that his wife has no male children, or that she docs not love her husband or that she visits houses or friends against her husband's wish. " 298. We have seen that polyandry is often associated with laxity in the rela- tions between the sexes. This is not the case with polygynj-. The Hindu law places no restriction on the number of wives a man may have, and sometimes polygamy is a regular practice, as witli the Ivunnuvans and Kaikolans of Madras. But most castes object to their memliers having more than one wife, except for special reasons, such as tlie failure of the first wife to l)ear a sou, or her affliction with some incurable disease or infirmity. In such cases the consent of the caste panchayat must generally be obtained before a man marries ao'ain. Sometimes a second wife may be taken only vtith the consent of the first. In such cases the _second wife is often the younger sister of the first ; but her elder sister may on no account l)e married. INfuch the same rules prevail amongst the Buddhists and most of the Animistic tribes. The Saurias have a curious corollary of their own — a man may have intercourse with a junior wife onlv when permitted by the senior one, and should he break through this rule, be is liable to be fined on the senior wife preferring a complaint to the tribal elders.^ It is the practice of the Binjhals in Sambalpur for a man to marry a new wife when he succeeds to landed property, irrespective of the number he already has. It should be noted that there is a certain amount of compulsory polygamy owing to the practice whereby certain castes expect a man to marry his elder l)rother's widow.' The Garos expect him in certain cases to marry his widowed mother- in-law." The Namxnitiri Brahmans are polygamous, as the eldest son alone is allowed to marry, and unless he took several wives, many of the girls would perforce remain unwed. A jNIithammadan may have four wives, but he also in practice is gene- rally monogamous. As a rule, it is only the comparatively rich avIio indulge in the luxury, if such it should prove, of a second wife. In the Punjab poly- o-amv is mote frequently practised by well-to-do Muhammadans than in other parts of India. 299. The logical outcome of the theory that marriage is a religious sacra- ment is that a Hindu widow cannot take a second husband. This rule is o-enerally observed amongst the higher castes. The extent to whicii it has permeated the lower strata of the Hindu community varies in different localities. In Bengal only the lowest castes allow widows to re-marry, but, in many parts the prohibition is far less general. In the Punjab it applies only to the castes of twice-born status. Widow marriage is exceedingly common in Orissa ; and in Baroda it is said that there are even certain low classes of Brahmans who rec<^gnize the practice, while in the Punjab hills and Marwar certain Rajputs do so. Where widow marriage is allowed, the o-eneral rule in most parts of India is that the deceased husliand's younger brother may, if he so wishes, take the widow as his wife, and she may marry no one else without his consent ; sometimes, indeed, she must first obtain from him a formal deed of separation. Marriage with the deceased husband's elder brother is generally forbidden, but it is allowed l)y the Kanets in the Punjab, by the Banjaras of the Central Provinces, and by the Gaudas and Koppila Velamas of Madras. The Muduvars and Udayas of the same Presi- dency forbid marriage with either l)rother, and regard the son of the deceased husliand's maternal aunt as having the ])cst claim to her. The Arayans of Cochin forbid a widow to marry any brother-in-law, and the Meches of the Bengal Terai forbid her to marry any rchitive of her late husband. The Goalas of Shigiibhum require a widow to marry a man of 1 ho exogamous group to which the lir.4 hus1)and belonged, if there is no younger brother alive. In the Central Provinces and Berar it is said that the Chief or zamindar has the right ' Bainbiidgo. — The Saorias, Memoirs of the Asiatic Societi/ of Iien(ial, II, o7. ' Latoumcau gives in9tiim(.'s of this peculinr i-ustom in otlier parts of tlie world, JIvoluiton oj Marriage, 259. WIDOW MAIIRIAGK 217 to dispose of widows amongst the aboriginal tri1)es. Occasionally it is held that a Avidow may marry only a widower, but a bachelor may sometimes qualify himself by ))er forming a mock marriage with a tree, an earthen ]wt lilled Avith cakes, or some other inanimate ol)jeet. Sometimes, as with tlie Holeyas of Mysore, the Malas of Madras and the Kacharis of Assam, a Avidow is allowed to live Avith a man, usually a AvidoAA-er, as his concubine ; no stigma attaches to the union, and the children are generallj'^ regarded as legitimate, though in tin; matter of inheri- tance they rank below the offspring of a regular marriage. The children of a woman by her second husliand are regarded as his and not his predecessor's ; he also usually accepts as his own a child born to her shortly after the marriage, even though he is not the father. 300. The custom by Avhich a Avoman is taken as the Avife of the younger tuo i.ovirate. brother of her late hush lud is commonly known as the levirate, but it must not be confused Avith the similarly-named custom amongst the Jews, the object of Avhich was to jtrovide a son for the deceased. It is true that in the Hindu laAV books the practice, there called niyoga, Avas also as a rule pc^nnitted only Avhere the widow Avas childless, with the object of j)i'oviding a son for the first husband; ■ and Mann expressly says that cohabitation must cease as soon as one, or at most two, sous have been begotten.' There are, however, indications that this theory was not ahvays in accordance with the actual facts. Apastamba, though agreeing generally Avith Manu, adds the significant remark that " people say the woman belongs to the husband's familv, not to the husband alone." Gautama allows a childless Avidow to cohabit Avith any person of her own caste until she lias begotten two children avIio, he says, belong, unless there is an agreement to the contrary, not to the first husband, but to the begetter. With one or tAvo local exceptions, the idea of raising u.p seed to the deceased is entirely foreign to the custom of Avidow marriage as it now obtains in India. The woman is regarded as the permanent wife of the second husband, Avhoever he may be, and the children, as we have seen, are held to be his. Thurston mentions one isolated case in the Madras Presidency where a younger brother merely pro- creates children for the deceased husband Avhose property they inherit." The only other instance of the vicarious procreation of heirs Avhicli I have been rdjle to trace has been reported from Kashmir. The Thakkars of that State permit a widow, so long as she remains in her late husband's house, to have intercourse Avith whom she Avill ; the children thus born to her are regarded as legitimate and take their share of the deceased husband's property. At the present day the castes that allow the levirate are ordinarily not those of twice-born rank, who would be most influenced by the precepts of the Shastras, but of a much lower status. It may be concluded that Avhile the custom may sometimes have originated Avith the object of raising up seed to the deceased husband, it did not always do so. More often it seems to be a survival of fraternal irolyandry, or at least of a state of society Avhere the Avoman was regarded as a chattel bought with a price and at the disposal of her husl)and's heirs.' A Hindu Avidow cannot be married according to the ordinary relig- ious rites. Where her second husband is the younger brother of tlie first, there is often no ceremony at all ; aiid in oilier cases it is of a very informal character. Such as it is, it generally takes jilace at night in the dark half of the month. It lias been suggested that there is a spirit basis for the rule that the marriage of a widow 7nust take place at night in the dark half of the month, namely, tlie belief that tiie spirit of the first husband may be enraged at his widow niarrying again and the cousecjuent desire to evade his notice. It has also been suggested that a buelielor mairying a widow first performs a mock marriage with some plant or other object in the belief that the new husband's first wife would ordinarily be tin* main obji'ct of the spirit's revenge, and that a man not previously married might bj attacked himself unless he provides a bogus wife as a substitute. ' In many parts of the world it is regardel as a widow's duty to proWde children for her deceased husband. Amongst the Oinkas of tlie Bahr el Ghazal if tli.> widow hersilf proves tarrcn, she marnesi a girl in the name of the deceased and piocure-i a man to colia'oit with liei. The children of this union are reckoned as children of the doccaaed husband. (Primitive Paterni't/, I, 315.) A siiuilar custom prevails amongst the I'Srsis. In West's Tahlavi ZVaV< it is stated that when u male over fifteen years of age dies childl-SH, liis relatives provide a maiden with a Oowiy iiui niarrv her to anotner man; half her children belong to the di'ad man and half to the living, and she herself is tt^ dead muu'& wife in the other world. Sacred Book* of Ike lia-il, V. l-l^. ' Castes and Tribes of Sotit/icni India, IV, 78. ' For othei- cases where a widow passes by inhcritai.ceibio footnote to paragiaph 288. 2i8 CHAPTER VII. — ]MAKKIAGE. Au objection to this theory is that the dark half of the month is si)ecialiy associated with spirits, and that the night is the very time when thev return to earth. The mock marriage of a bachelor seems rather to be intended to bring him on the same level with the- widow. The Punjab Superintendent suggests that the real object in view in selecting the time mentioned for a widow's marriage is to prevent the gods from knowing about it ; the dead of night and the dark half of the month are particularly disagreeable to the gods, and all worship is forbidden between midnight and 4 a.m. On the other hand, certain customs exist which support the theory. In the Central Provinces a second wife of the Chitari caste worships the spirit of the dead first wife, offering it some food and a breast cloth, in order to placate it and prevent it from troubling her. In the Punjab, the death of subsequent wives is often believed to be caused bv the angry spirit of the lir.st ; and for this reason, amongst the Aroras of the western Punjab, the subsequent wife, at the time of her marriage, wears round her neck the picture of the first, or a paper on which her name is written, thus identifying herself with her predecessor. The Koltas of Sambalpur believe that a bachelor marrying a widow would become an evil spirit after death, if he did not first go through a mock marriage of the kind described above. The real explanation mav be much simpler. Sometimes there is a rule that ordinary mai- riages must taks place during the bright half of the month so that the moon may witness them. As widow marriage is looked down on, the converse rule may simply mean that the ceremony, being of a less reputable character, is one which the moon should not witness. inflnsnoe of 301. Accordiug to Westermarck^ " contact with a higher culture has proved otvtUsUlon on . . ■, ° -,■ , ,. ^ 11 ^ i , • •exma morauty. peroicious to the morauty 01 savage people ; and we Jiave some reason to behave that irregular connections between the sexes have, on the whole, exhibited a tendency to increase along with the progress of civihzatiou." This theory is opposed to the nu.merous instances of irregular connections amongst jirimitive races collected by Hartland in his Primitlue Fateniiti/ from all jiarts of the world, and to the strict rales of avoidance in regard to near relatives, which are so common amongst primitive races, and which presumably have their origin in the assumption that o2:>portunity must necessarily lead to adultery. Nor is it in accordance Avith cm- experience in India. Over the greater part of the country female chastity has long been highly prized, and there has certainly been no deterioration in recent times. The exceptional communities which were once, from oiu- point of view, immoral are steadily becoming less so. The relations of the sexes among the people of Malabar, who trace descent through the female, were formerly " of as loose a descri^jtion as it is j^ossible to imagine"" but sexual irregularities are steadily dying out ; even as regards divorce, a change of feeling is becoming apparent, and it is said to be growing rare amongst the higher classes. The practice amongst certain castes of southern India of allowing the father or some other relative of an immature bridegroom to beget children on his behalf, is also becoming less common.^ There is a Kanarese proverb " stealing cotton is no theft ; to go with a mother- in-laAv is no sin," but now the existence of any such intercourse is firmly denied. Premarital license, once the custom amongst all the aboriginal tribes, is falling into disfavour. With some it has already disappeared; others are confining it more and more to the occasion of certain festivals ; and, where it siu'vivcs, it is often discountenanced by the more respectable members of the community."* In the valley of the Brahmaputra, free love at festivals is not allowed, but traces of it are perhaps to be found in the dances at the New Year in which the boys and girls take part, and which still lead to many runaway matches ; most of the songs sung at the New Year festival are too indecent for publication. Certain Pathan clans in Baluchistan Avere accustomed, as a matter of course, to place an unmarried girl at the disposal of any guest who might spend the night with them, but this custom, like premarital freedom generally, is on the Avane. Several castes of the Malabar coast (such as the Nayars and Kanisans), A\'ho were polyandrous not many years ago, are so no longer. The Todas have exchanged the matriarchal for the fraternal form of jwlyandry, and there are indications of a tendency amongst them to become monogamous.'"' Even in Ladakh polyandry is beginning to be condemned by the better classes. The Khonds were stigmatized in ISil by Maci)herson as grossly inmioral, but at the present day, although great latitude is allowed to spinsters, married Avomen arc said to be generally faithful to their husljands. The Jats and Gujars of Northern India, Avho used to allow much freedom to a ' Hislory of Human Marriage, 53. ' Moore, Malabar Law and Custom, 87. • See Thurston's remarks regarding the Malayilis, op. c't- IV, -Jil. * See for instance T/ie Qaros, page 68, ' The Todas, page 519. RESTEICTIONS OX MARRIAGE. 249 Tvomsn in her relations with her husband's brothel's, are growing more parti- cular. The Newar women could formerly change their husbands at will, and infidelity was readily condoned ; but divorce is now move rave, and husbands have become much less complacent. It was formerly a very common practice, especially in the case of Kajas, for the bride's father, at the time of marriage, to present his son-in-law with a number of unmarried gii-ls as concul)ines. This practice is still veiy common in the Himalayan tract in the Punjal), ])ut elsewhere it is dying out. In Orissa it is said that the late Maharaja of Mayurbhanj was the fii-st of the local chiefs to refuse to accept such a gift. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the spread of western ideas regard- ing female liberty, may sometimes give opportunities for intrigue which were formerly wapting, and that the introduction of our system of law, which does not hold a woman criminally liable when she is abducted or enticed aAvay, has lessened the fear of punishment Avhich formerly helped to keep women chaste. The abduction of wives has been encouraged in the Punjab by the great dearth of women and the high prices Avhich can thus be oljtaiued for them. But, on the whole, there can be no doubt that the relations of the sexes in India are steadily becoming more regular. The examples of chastity iu the lower culture quoted by Westermarck are perhaps in some cases based on inaccurate information. My own enquiries regarding the existence of blue pigmentation (see Caste Chapter) show how cautious one has to be in accepting a negative answer. In many districts where it was at first reported that this pigmentation was non- existent, further investigation proved it to be almost universal. Negative replies would be still more common in answer to enquiries of such a delicate nature as those here dealt with ; and recent reports go to show the existence of sexual irregularities in places where it was formerly thought that they did not exist. As a case in point, it may be noted that Westermarck men- tions the Andamanese as a people who ai'e chaste prior to marriage (a statement which is repeated in the article on Chastity in the £iic!/clojjadia of Religion and Ethics), whereas Mr. E. H. Man, whose authority is unquestioned, says that the greatest license is allowed to the unmarried of both sexes. 302. The general nature of the restrictions which hem in a Hindu in the Restrictions on matter of marriage is well kuov.n. Xot only must he not marry outside the ™ minlus. limits of his caste, but most castes are divided into a number of sub-castes ; and where this is so, he must ordinarily not marry outside his sub-caste. Sometimes he may marry in certain sub-castesbut not in others ; and there may be some from whom he may take a girl in mamage but to whom he may not give one. Most castes again are further divided into groups consisting of persons supposed to be descended from a common ancestor and so forbidden to inter- marry. A Hindu is thus exogamous as regards his family group and endoo-a- mous as regards his caste or sub-caste. Endogamy is the essence of the caste system and will be dealt with in Chapter XI. Exogamy, on the other hand, is found amongst primitive communities all over 'the world, and in Hinduism it is probably a survival from an earlier culture. Usually descent is traced through the male, but in parts of southern India it is often, as we have seen, traced through the female. In either case, the general rule is that a man may not many a girl of his own exogamous group. Sometimes, as with the Mara- thas, be may not marry in the group to which either parent belongs, or more rarely, any grand-parent. The latter rule is observed by some Ahirs in the west of the United Provinces : other castes of the same area prohibit marriage, not only in a man's own group, but also in those of his maternal uncle and paternal aunt. Amongst the Brahmans, these exogamous groups are generally eiwnymous ; each group or gotra is supposed to consist of the descen- dants of one or other of the great Vedic saints or Rishis.' Gotras with similar names are found amontist numerous other castes ; in their case descent is claimed, not from the saint after whom the group is named, but from those memljers of the caste who were numbered amongst his disciples. The Ilajputs, and castes of the Rajput type, often have chiefs of comparatively modern times as the re] )uted ancestors of thtMr exogamous sections. Sometimes tlie group is named after the place where the founder resided, or with reference to some per- sonal peculiarity of his ; and sometimes it is purely local. Lastly, tliere are the totemistic groups which are found amongst cables of the tribal type. The totem is some animal or vegetable formerly lield in revei'ence by the members of the ' I'Or an arcOuiit of the (70/rn jiVKteni .iinoiigi-t the Brfthmaim of Southern Indin. see 77ie Prinriple.t of Pravara and Gotra by P. ChintMil Kaage 103. 2 K 250 CHAPTER VII. — MAKRIA.GE. clan and associated with some taboo ; but by the time a tribe has developed into a caste, tlie origin of the name has generally been forgotten, and the name itself is transformed. Thus Kaehchap (a tortoise), whicli was a totem of many race castes of Bengal, has now often been changed to Kasyapa, the name of a Vedic saint. As instances of'exogamous groups of the toteraistic type may be mentioned the devaks of the Ramoshi and Kunbi castes in Bombay. The ano-- ma. The etymology of these names is unknown. Each pluatry is again divided into machongs or motherhoods, i.e., into exogamous groups of the type usually met with ; many of these are evidently of totemistic origin. At the present day the rule of exogamv based on the phratry is breaking down, and the totemistic clan is taking its jilace, though even here the restriction is not invariably oliserved.^ The jMikirs of Assam have five main exogamous divi- sions each of which is subdivided into a large number of smaller ones. The Khasis :ilso have major and minor exogamous groups, but with them the major groups are more numerous and it seems more likely that they ai-e of the same pattern as the smaller oues^ which split off from them when they began to grow unwieldy. The Bhotias of Sikkim also have a numbsr of main exogamous groups which are 6ul)divided into mhior groups. In the south of India there are numerous instances of a twofold exogamous di\'ision. The Koravas, Komatis, Bants, Anappaus, Janappans and Billavas' all have several main exoo-amous divisions with a number of sections (often totemistic) in each. The rule of exogamy applies to the major grou]) as well as to the minor. The Aliya and Kaiiiiji castes have lioth sections and titles; persons of the same section may marry if the title is different, and so mav persons of the same title if the section is different. Th^- Irula have six sub-divisions, of wliieli five are regard- ed as related and can intermarry only with the sixth ; in other words, for marriage purpo.ses they are divided into two exogamous group.s. The Gf)nds have a confusid mcdlev of exoga- mous groups. In some parts there are two or more large groups, each containing a number of smaller ones. The major and minor groups are often both of the totemistic type. .V man may not marry a woman of any minor gionp comprised in the mnin group to which he belongs ■ ' Totemism and Exogamt/, Volume II, Chapter X. ^ Assam L'onsus Report, ls«l, page 2:i6. ' Playfaiv, 7Ae <3aro», pages 64-67. I ijave a long list cf the names of tbe exogamous groups of Assam tribes in H.art III of the Assam CenKUS Uenort for 1S91. * Aocording to Thurston numerous other castes, such as KSppiliyan, Tigala, Toreya and Toltiyau have both exogamous seuU and sub-scpts, and others, e.g., Gnmalln, Kamma, Ivevuto, Khutti, Kurulia, Xa^'arnlu and Ulzu have exogamous sept* and gotras (s'c). His uomenclatuie. liowcver, is somewhat confused, and the ivhole subject needn further investii^ation. 254r CHAPTER VII. — JIAREIAGE. nor ma}' lie many a woman of a group with his own totem, even though it is incUuled in a. difffi-ent major group. In this connection the question suggetts itself whether the division of many Madras castes into right hand and left hand sections may not he a survival of a dual exogamous grouping which existed before the developnunt of the caste system. At the present time the wliole of a caste usuallv belongs to one and the same section, but this is not always the case. With the Pallans -aaid Chakkiliyans, the men belong to the left hand, and the women to the right hand, section. The Kaikolaus belong to the left hand section, but their Dasls usually to the right hand one. The Chaliyans and Dasis have.,i'ight and left hand sub-eastes. There is a close bond between the castes of the same section ; and the lower ' right-hand ' castes select their headmen from the Balija, and not from their own, caste. It is also perhaps possible that the practice in voo-ue amono-st the Pallan women of calling the IMalayalis of the Kottaimalais " brother-in- law •" is a survival of some defunct marriage system. The term "brother-in-law " (connoting the /«« connvbii) is applied to the Kanikar endogamous illams in contradistinction to the ' " brothers " or members of the same exogamous group. Hyperagamy. 309. Hypergauiy is sometimes regarded by European writers as signifying' marriage into a higher caste.' Such marriafjos do take place, in the case of a few castes, such as the Das of Sylhet, the Sudra of East Bengal, the Chasa and' Khandait of Orissa and the Dom of Kumaon, Avhose limits are not very clearly defined, and who by purchasing brides from the ranks of a particular higher caste are able in course of time to gain admission to that group. It is also the. rule amongst certain castes of southern India, who trace descent through the female and have no rcgvilar marriage, that a woman may enter into samba iidham^ (see paragraph 294<) with a man of her own, or any equal or higher caste, but with no one of lower rank. But this is not what is generally understood by hypergauiy in India. This word, which was coined by Mr. Coldstream when reporting on the caste customs of the Punjab in connection with the census of 1881, is used in India to designate the rule whereby, when a caste is divided into several sections of different status (frequently the result of a different origin), parents are obliged to marry their daughters into an equal or higher section, and if they fail to do so, are themselves reduced to the status of the section in which their daughter marries.^ The men may marry girls of their own or any inferior section, but the girls may marry only in their own or a higher one. The marriage of a daughter to a man of a higher section is re- garded as very desirable, and such men are, therefore, in great request as bride- grooms. The result is that it is extremely difficult for parents of the highest- sections to find husbands for their daughters. The practice first came to notice amongst the Rajputs and Jats of the Punjab, with whom, as with similar castes to the south and east, the difficulty of finding husbands led, as noted in Chapter VI, to the wholesale murder of their female infants. The higher sections of these castes generally owe their position, which varies in different localities, to their former political ascendancy, or to some honour conferred on their ances- tors by the rulers of the land. The same practice ol)tains in'the country of the east and south of the Punjab amongst the above-mentioned and several other castes, including in Gujarat several sub-castes of Brahmans, the Lcwa Kunbis, high class Marathas and Prahma Bhats. But it lias reached its great- est development amongst the Brahmans of Bengal, who are organized according, to a highly complicated system, whereby the jus conmibii is so strictly limited that the highest class, or Kulins, experience the utmost difficulty in finding •• suitable husbands for their daughters.^ With them the remedy took the form, not of infanticide, but of wholesale polygamy. Some Kulins went so far as to make marriage their means of livelihood, and many girls, after marriage, seldom saw their husbands again. With the spread of education this wholesale polygamy is growing rare, with the result that some girls never get married at all, or if they do, become th@ wives of the man who mairlcs their younger sjgter. As the former existence of Kulin polygamv has recently been denied by a retired Indian official who might be supposed to be acquainted with the facts, it seems desirable to quote some authorities on the subject. A well known Kulin (the late JcgendraNath Bhattacharjya) writing in 1896 said that "in former times a Kulin of a high olass might marry more than a hundred wives without any difficulty,, and there are still some who have such large numbers of wives as to necessitate their keeping regular registers for refreshing their memory about the names and residences of their spouses.'"* In his Bdliubibdha, published In Calcutta in 1871, Vidyasagar gives a list with names ' See for example Eo.igld, Essais sur le Jtigime des Castes, page 28. ' Mr. Coldstream suggested that the rule pnscribiiig mamage into a soetion of equal status should be called isogamy. Bv.t it is inconvenient to multiply technical terms. • I'rihcs and Castes of Bengal, I, 11(5 ; 11, 11. ♦ Hindu Castes and Sects, pagu 11. See also article in Calcutta Revieio for 18il by Rev. K. M. Banerji. HYPERGAJIT. — COUSIN MARRIAGE. 255 :aud addresses of soaie polygamous Kulin Brahmans. He mentions four in a single village who had lesjieitively 65, 56, 55 and 41 wives; a fifth, a boy of 20, had already married sixteen. Bhatfcu'harjya says that thejHigh Court gave the coiij< de grdce to Kulinism when they ruled that a Kulin is bound to give maintenance to his wives. The example of the Brahniaiis has been followed in Bengal, not only by other hiiih eastes, su©h as the Kavasthas, but also bv sonic of lower rank such as the Sadgops, Pods and Chasii Dhobas. 310. Hyperganiy in its proper sense is almost unknown in the south of India and in Assam. There are cases Avhere a section of a caste, such as the Jambavas, or priestly section of the Madigas of ilysorc, and the Vaisliuava Smartha and vegetarian Idaiyans of Madras, will not give their daugliters to^ men of lower status. But there is no widespread demand on tlie j^art of the lower sections to secure husbands from the higher ; and it is this which constitutes the essence of hypergamy. With the spread of education and Avestern ideas, it may be anticipated that this practice, like other vexatious restrictions on marriage, will fall into i: thought that if a girl he married in a connected family she is likely to be more kindlv treated than she i\'ould be by strangers. Sometimes cousin marriage may l)e encouraged by the feoling that a man who has received a wife from a certain family should reciprocate bv giving it at least one of his daughters ; she would naturally be married to a man of her own generation, and ordinarily to the son of her mother's brother. This idea is clearly implied in the expression diid/i laiitana (giving back the milk) by which, as we have seen, this kind of marriage is known amongst certain tribes of the Central Provinces. Where descent is traced through the female, a woman's brother has the disposal of her children, and he might seek to provide for his daughter by marrying her to his sister's son who would he his own heir. Or, if there were a dearth of girls, he might find it easiest to provide a wife for his son by giving him his sister's daughter. We have seen that after the change to male kinship, the maternal uncle continued to enjoy certain rights arising out of the previous system, and among others that of disposing of his sister's daughter in marriage. He would naturally, therefore, continue to claim her for his son. 313. As a rule, marriage is by purchase. The high castes ordinarily pay for Forms of marrug* the bridegroom and the low castes for the bride. But there are mauy excejitious. Sometimes even high castes, such as the Havik Brahmans of Bombay, pay a bride-price, n-hile low castes, such as the Bhangi of the United Provinces, occa- sionally pay a bridegroom jirice. In some cases the payment is nominal, but in others very large sums are paid, especially where hypergamy prevails or there is a great shortage of women. In recent times the bridegroom price has been affected very largely by the educational qualifications of the bridegroom. A Kayastha graduate in Bengal usually fetches from Rs. 500 to Rs. 1,000, but there are said to be instances of as much as Rs. 10,000 having been paid. Even where the bride is usually bought, the parents of a girl are sometimes "willing to pay for an educated bridegroom. With the aboriginal tribes it is^ almost invariably the bride who is paid for, and sometimes the rate is very high ; the Lushais have been known to give as much as Rs. 200 for their wives. A virgin usually fetches a highei' price than a widow, but an exception is found amongst certain artisan castes whose women help them in theii' work. The amount occasionally varies with the age of the bride. The Baniyas of the Punjab pay no bride-price for a girl up to the age of eight, but after that, pay- ment is made at the rate of Rs. 100 for every year of her age up to thirteen, which is regarded as the age of puberty. Where marriage by purchase prevails, brides are often exchanged. Thus in the Baroda State, when a man of one of the lower castes gives his daughter in marriage, he often does so on condition that a girl is given to his family in return. The primitive form of marriage, known as marriage by service, still survives amongst the aboriginal trilics and various low castes. The prospective son-in-law works in the house of the girl's father for a period of from one to five years, or even longer. This practice is resorted to mainly by poor men who are unable to purchase a wife. Traces of marriage by capture are found not only amongst most of the aborigi- nal tribes but sometimes also amongst the higher classes. A mimic figlit between the bridegroom's and bride's parties is a regular feature of many low caste marriages. Ordinarily, it is the bride whose capture is simulated, l)ut amongst the matriarchal Garos it is the man ;^ and it is said that the Kulam tribe in the Central Provinces were formerly in the habit of capturing husbands for women who would otherwise have gone unwed." a"- 314. The essential and binding part of the marriage ceremony varies in different parts. In the Punjab it consists of the phere, or circumaml)ulation of the sacrificial fire, which is held to imply the consunmialiou of tlie vows in tlie presence of Agni and the other sacrificial gods. In the United Provinces the young couple walk round, not a fire, but the marriage shed or a pole. In the cast of these provinces, and also in Bengal and Bihar and Orissa, the binding portion of the ceremony is generally the sindurdan, or paiiitiui; of the bride's forehead with vermilion. That this is probably a survival of a blood covenant is shown by the fact that amongst certain castes, such as the Ilari, tli(> bri{l(> and the bridegroom smear each other Avitli their blood, which they olitaiii by pricking their fingers with a thorn. In Bombay the higher castes follow tlie practice of ' PLiyfai'-, The Uarot, p. 67. * Central Provinces EihnoijraT>hic Survey, V, 53. 2 r. 258 CHAPTEli VII. — MARRIAGE. circumambulation. The lower castes sprinkle rice over the bride and l3ndegrooin, while some of Dravidian oriii;in pour milk or water over the joined hands of the young couple. In Orissa their right hands are tied together with kusa grass, or their left hands, when the bi-ideisa widow. In Madras there are various ceremonies, such as making them eat from the same dish, or knotting their garments together, or pouring Avatcr over them so that it runs from the man to the woman. But the most common is the tying of the tali, ov necklace, by the bridegroom round the bride's neck. The Brahman bridegroom places the bride's foot seven times on a mill-stone, a symbol of constancy. Further particulars regarding this subject will be fouud iu the Provincial Reports. Con- siderations of time and space prevent its elaboration here. Marriage seasons. 315. The Kadwa Kuiibis of Baroda and the Central Provinces have a curious custom of celebrating marriages on a single day fixed by the astrologers once every nine, ten or eleven years. As so long an interval must elapse before another opportunity occurs, every family disposes of all its unmarried members. Sometimes even unborn children are thus given in wedlock ; if when born, they prove to be of the same sex the ceremony is treated as void. When a suitable bridegroom is not availal)le, a girl is married either to a bunch of flowers, which is afterwards thrown into a well, or to some married man who divorces her as soon as the ceremony is over. She is then regarded as a widow and can at any time be married according to the maimed rite- for widows. The Bharvads of Baroda celebrate their marriages only once in every twelve, fifteen or twenty-four years, and the Motala Brahmans once every four years. The Agharias of tlie Central Provinces celebrate their marriages only once in every five or six years, when all children Avhose matches can be arranged are married oif. The Chettis of Madras have a marriage season at intervals of ten or fifteen years. A similar custom prevails amongst certain classes in the Cochin State, where, from motives of economy, a family or group of allied families marries off all its girls in a batch once every ten or twelve years. During the conjunction of Jupiter vdth. Leo, which takes place every twelfth year and lasts for about eighteen mouths, all marriages (and various other religious and secular acts) are forbidden in the tract between the Ganges and the Godavari, but as the castes who observe this rule are for the most part addicted to infant marriage, it has very little effect on the time when real married life commences. Tkeconvade. ^\Q Ti^e custoui kuoAATi as the Couvade, though rare, is not unknown in India. In Madras, when a Korava woman feels the bu-th pains, her husband puts on some of her clothes, makes the woman's mark on his forehead and retires to bed in a dark room. As soon as the child is born, it is washed and placed beside its father, who is carefully tended and dosed with various drugs. The woman meanwhile is left alone in an out-house. She is held to be polluted for 28, and her husband for 1-i, days. Among the low caste Nayadis of the Malabar Coast, while a woman is in labour, her husband shampoos his abdomen and prays to the gods for a safe delivery. Certain Paraiyans of the same Presidency expect a husband to fast for seven days after his wife's confine- ment. The Malla Arayans treat him as under pollution for a month after the bu'th of a child, and the Uralis for three days after that of his first child. Nam- putiri Brahman and Mukkuvan husbands let their hair grow during the last two months of pregnancy of their wives. The same is done by old fashioned peojile of various castes in North Kanara. The practice is enjoined in the Dharma- Sindhu, a religious work. The object is to ensure a safe delivery. As soon as this is accomplished the husband shaves. It is of course far from certain that this abstention from hair cuttinfr has anv connection with the Couvade ; the practice is frequently associated with the making of vows, as for examj)le tiie Nazarite vow among the Hebrews. In Baroda, when a woman of the Pomla caste is delivered of a child, she at once leaves the house and is not allowed to return to it for five days. Daring this period the husband lies confined and undergoes the treatment which is usually given to females on such occasions. It is claimed that he actually feels the pains of child birth. A similar custom prevails amongst the Dombars and Lambanis of the Bombay Karnatak ; after the birth of a child the husband is oiled and fed, and remains at home, while the wife goes about her work as usual. THE COUVADK. CIRCUMCISIOK. 259 lu most Nicobar villages special huts are provided, which are occupied by married couples a day or two before a confinement is expected. Por some days proA'iousIy, the lms])and and other members of the family are required to take measiu'es for ensuring an easy delivci-y by severing the cane lashings of their spears and otber articles. Tbc husband must also abstain from violent exercise and rich food. He must remain with his wife in the lyinir-in hut, and be treated and fed as a sick person, for a month after the birth of a first child, and for one or two days at subsequent births, Avhether the wife be the same or not. The object is to avoid any misfortune to the wife or child, who might otherwise be subject to fits or convulsions. It is said tliat a specially anxious husband will extend the period of his couvade to as much as six months. 317. Several Assam tribes bave similar customs and superstitions. Amongst the Maram Xagas of Manipur the husband of a woman in advanced pregnancy avoids going out at night lest he should meet the god Sarapu, who might return with him and injure the child or its mother. For ten days after its birth he must stay in the house during wdndy or cloudy weather, for fear the wind god might injure the child. During bis wife's pregnancy, a Liushai husband avoids all hard work, because it is thought that this would be injurious to the child's health. He must not dismemlier any animal, lest his child should be born- without the corresponding limbs. There is a belief that if he were to eat the flesh of any Avild beast found dead, his child would be still-born, and that if he were to give any article of clothing to a man of a distant villa:^'e, its health would be permanently impaired. A Ladakhi will not leave his house during the period, usually a month, of his -nife's lying-in ; still less will he cross flowing water at such a time. In the Central Provinces and Berar a man must not " thatch his house nor repair liis axe during his wife's pregnancy. 318. It is well known that the Muhammadans, like the Jews, cii'cumcise circumoisioB their boys. In India the operation is usually performed with a sharj) razor i^y <*'"*'**• the barber, or more rarely the village Mullah, when the boy is about 6 to 8 years of age ; but sometimes it takes place much earlier ; the Bohoras and Moghals of Gujarat circumcise their boys on the sixth day after birth. In Baluchistan the severed fore skin is carefully threaded and tied round the boy's ankle or neck until the wound is healed, when it is buried under a green tree. Though common enough elsewhere, e.g., amongst many African, Australian, and Polynesian tribes, circumcision is very rare in non-Muhammadan India. It is not, however, entirely unknown. It occurs amongst the Myasas and KaUans of Southern India, who may jiossibly have adopted it from the Muhammadans. It has been stated that the Tibetans are also addicted to tlie practice of circumcision, but the enquiries now made go to show that this is not so, unless they happen to be Muhammadans. 319. The circumcision of females, though widespread amongst primitive (b) Femaiea. races in Africa, America and Australia as well as in Arabia, Kamchatka and Malaya, is very rare in India. It is in vogue, however, amongst certain groups of Muhammadans in Baroda, Bombay, the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, and it was formerly practised by the Jats of Sfuzaffargarh and Multan. In Baroda it occurs amongst the Dandi Bohoras and other Shialis ; it is said to be dying out, and is uoav performed secretly only in a few " orthodox " families. In Bombay ])roper the practice, Avhich is said to have been introduced from Arabia, is indulged in l)y the Bohoras and possibly a few other Shiahs ; the operation is performed by an old woman while the girl is stiU an infant. Here and in Baroda it is the clitoris wbich is cut, and the object is said to be to prevent concupiscence.' In Sind tlie custom is more conmion, especially am^. S9> HOP r^ r" 2:^.,^ \ \ 80O Tir, ^ ^ ^^. 1 > 750 Tim / , / \\ 1 X " ~- 700 W / \ !>L 1 / / \ \ ^SO Mm / \: [ 1 \ ^, £00 W / ^ / 1 \ \ SH fon / / / 1 \ \ HO 4VI / / 1 \ \ 4S0 / / / \ I 4«l ?SI / j / / \ \ 350 ?m / / I / \ \ }0O rm / 1 / \ 250 jm 1 1 j / / \ V too l-iO / J / / 150 / / AI9II / 1 INDIA isn 100 100' .0 J / / y i 1 50 y / 1 AGE IpERIOOS / ^^J AGEPERiOOS 0-10 10-15 15-20 |20-a5 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-OVER 0-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-OVERJ 1 but of those as^ed 5 to 10, 4 per cent, are married, and of those aged 10 to 15, 13 per cent. At ' l-o— 20 ' the proportion rises to 32, and at ' 20—30 ' to 69 per cent. Of the females under 5, one in 72 is married, of those between 5 and 10, one in ten, between 10 and 15, more than two in five, and between 15 and 20, four in five. In the whole of India there are 2^ million wives under 10, and 9 million under 15, years of age. 328. The Hindu law books inculcate marriage at a very early age, while many of the aboriginal tribes do not give their girls in wedlock until after they have attained puberty. It has been concluded that infant marriage was foreign to the earlier inhabitants of India, that it was introduced by the Aryans, and that it is spreading gradually amongst the lower castes owing to the influence of Hinduism and the example of their high caste neighbours. I shall show further on that the facts as they exist in India are at variance with this theory which, like others of the same kind, ignores the important part played by the aborigines in the development of Indian religious ideas and social practices. Bougie, in criticizing Senart's theory that the origin of the caste system is to be traced to the ancient Aryan family, points out that in many ways the part played by the Aryan con- querors has been exaggerated.' It may now be regarded as proved that the caste system is by no means an exclusively Aryan product. In the matter of religion also the influence of the aborigines is well marked. Many of the Hindu deities are of aboriginal origin ; and even the idea of metempsvehosis is foreign to Vedic Hinduism. The intense desire for a son as a means of spiritual benefit is far from being peculiar to the Aryan Hindu. It is shared by many races all over the world. Amongst the Battaks of Sumatra^ for example, " it is deemed absolutely necessary to one's well being, both in this world and the next to have children, no matter how they are begotten.'"' The ideas regarding purity and pollution are less fully developed in the north of India than in tlie south where the population is almost wholly Dravidian. 329. Meanwhile it may be noted that in this respect also the Indian custom is not by any means exceptional, and that it is only amongst the European races that marriage is postponed until a much later period in life. The idea that '•primitive man^knows nothing of infant marriage" has been shown to be unfounded by Hartland, who gives numerous instances of its existence amongst the most primitive tribes in Australia, Africa and other parts of the Avorld. Hottentot girls are not infrequently married in their eighth or ninth year, and Bushman girls still younger. Amongst the Wagas a girl of only five may be married to, and cohabit with, a youth who is much older. Tlie Mpogoro boys and girls many and colial)it in their seventh or eighth year.^ The Registrar General of Nyassalaud in his Report on the Census of 1911 says that in that Protectorate every male over 17 and every female over 14 is married. ' Essais tur le Regime des Castes, 57 — 67. = Wariieck's Living Forces of the Gospel, ti-anslated by Buchanan, p.ige 128. See also the piniticfl of tlio Dinltas q'loted in the footnot<' to pa™jj;raph 300. . on oio » Primitive Paterriity, II, '.!53— 272. See also Westermavck, Eistory of Human Marriage, 137, 213. VARIATION BY RELIGION. 265 330. It is only when we come to a consideration of the widowed that we <'-)TheiB«B» find a state of thini^s peculiarly Indian and one that seems to be derived from widowB."" the prescriptions of the Hindu law-givers. The proportion of widowers (5 per cent, of the total male population) does not differ greatly from that in other countries, hut that of the widows is extraordinarily large, being no less than 17 per cent, of the total number of females, against only 9 ])er cent, in western Europe. When we consider their distribution by age, the difference becomes more still striking, for while in western Europe only 7 per cent, of tlie •nridows are less than 40 years old, in India 28 per cent, are below this age, and 1-3 per cent, (the actual number exceeds a third of a million) are under 15, an age at which in Europe no one is even married. The large number of widows in India is due partly to the early age at which girls are given in marriage, and partly to the disparity which often exists between the ages of husband and wife, but most of all to the prejudice against the re-marriage of widows. Many castes, especially the higher ones, forbid it altogether, and even where it is not absolutely prohibited, it is often unpopu- lar. Although widow marriage is permitted by their religion, and the Prophet himself married a widow, the Muhammadans of India share the prejudice to some extent. How the re-marriage of Avidows first came to be objected to, it is impossible to say, but it seems highly probable that the interdiction originated amongst the Aryan Hindus, that it was confined at first to the higher castes, and that it has spread from them downwards.^ The varying extent to which the lower castes have followed the lead of the higher will be discussed in a sul)se- quent paragraph. 331. The figures quoted above are those for India as a whole, but there variation *» are great variations both by religion and locality. As more than two-thirds * Hindus, of the population are Hindus the proportions for them do not differ very Diagram showing the proportion per mille of each age-period who are *,, t. . " married. ' ail rcfigions taken to- gether. The propor- tion of the unmarried is somewhat smaller and that of the married and widowed larger. The difference is greatest in respect of females, of whom 32 in every hundred are unmarriwi, 49 married and 19 widowed, as compared with 35, 48, and 17 respectively in 1 he general population. The larger num])er of married and widowed amongst the Hindus is the result of the earlier age at which marriage takes place. At the age-period '10—15,' for example, 49 per cent, of the Hindu females are married, as compar- ed with only 39, 18, and 1 in the case of -Muhammadans, Ani- mists and Buddliists respectively. Only 1 in 18 of thf unmarried Hindu females is over the age of 15, as compared vdth 1 in 14 in the population as a whole. 1 For a discuesion of thU subject see India Cennas Repurt for 1901, pariigrapha 7ul to 707. 2 u 266 CHAPTER 711. — MARRIAGE. (t) Milliammadans. (3) Anl mists. iH Baddiiists. (5) Christians. Variation by locality. At the higlier ages the proportion of Hindus of both sexes who are married IS somewhat smaller than it is in the general population, and the proportion of the widowed is higher at every age-period. It will thus be seen that the three main features of the Indian marriage statistics — the universality of marriage, the early age at which marriage takes place and the large proportion of widows — are more prominent amongst the Hindus than in the popiilation as a whole. 332. The proportions for Muhammadans differ considerably from those noted aljove. The proportion of the unmarried is larger and that of the married and ■0 idoAved smaller. Of every 100 males 53 are unmarried, 43 married aud ^ widowed, while of the same number of females 38 are unmarried, 47 married and 15 widowed. The difference is most noticeable amongst the young of both sexes. Under the age of 5, the proportion of Mvihammadan girls who are married is not much more than a quarter of the corresponding figiu-e for Hindus, and between 5 and 10, it is only a half. It is not until the age-period '15 — 20' that an equality between the proportions is reached, while above that age the relative number of females Avho are married is greater amongst Muham- madans than amongst Hindus. The Mahammadans have fewer widows at all ages, but the difference is mo.st marked in the prime of life. This is owing to the fact that women who lose their first husband while still capable of bearing childi'en have less diflBculty than their Hindu sisters in marrying a second time. A prejudice against widow marriage exists, however, amongst many classes of Muhammadans, especially those who are descended from local converts. The effect of this is clearly seen from a comparison of their statistics Avith those of the Buddhists who have only seven widows to every ten of the Muhammadans. 333. The Ani mists have exactly the same proportion of married males as the Muhammadans, but more of them are unmarried and fewer are widowed. In respect of females the difference is much more marked : of every hundred, 45 are spinsters, as compared with only 38 in the case of the Muhammadans, Avhile 44 are married and 11 are widowed against 47 and 15 respectively. The difference is due to the higher age at which the Animistic tribes enter into wedlock. At the age-period '10 — 15' only 18 per cent, of their females are married, or less than half the Muhammadan proportion, and at '15 — 20' only 60 per cent., or less than three-fourths. On the other hand, at all ages above 30, the proportion of Animistic females Avho are married is much larger than it is with the Muhammadans. 334. The Buddhists, who are practically confined to Burma, marry even later than the Animists, with the result that r)7 per cent, of their males and 52 per cent, of their females are unmarried. Only 39 and 37 per cent, respectively are married and 4 and 11 per cent, are widowed. Under the age of 15, marriage is extremely rare, and in the age-period '15—20' only 1 male in 14 and 1 female in 4 is married. It is not till after the age of 40 that the proportion who are married exceeds that amongst Animists. The proportion of widowers is inter- mediate between that for Muhammadans on the one hand and Christians and Animists on the other ; but that of widows is the loAvest of all. The ])roportion of the unmarried has been rising slowly but steadily since 1891, and that of the widowed has been falling. 335. In considering the statistics for Christians, it has to be borne in mind that many of them are recent convei'ts avIio were already married at the time when they entered the fold. The proportion Avho are unmarried is lai'ger, and that of the married smaller, than in any other important religious community except the Buddhists. The proportion of the widowed is much the same as amongst the Buddhists and Animists, l)ut the age return suggests that this is due partly to a difference in the ag'- distribution, and to a relatively smaller nvmiher of Christian females at the higher ages when widowhood is naturally most frequent. Many more girls are married before tlie age of 20 than is the case with the Buddhists. 336. The marriage customs of the people vary, not only according to religion, bat also according to locality. In the North- West Frontier Province, Burma ~^ INFANT MAUBIAGE. 2g; aud Cocliin nearly three-fifths of the males are unmavried against 13 per cent, iu the Baroda State and -it in Jiihar and Orissa and the Central Provinces and Berar. The proportion of unmarried females ranges from 28 per cent, in the Baroda State and 34 in Bengal to 45 per cent, in the North-West Frontier Province and Travancore and 52 per cent, in Burma. Married males number 48 per cent, and upwards in tlie Hyderabad State, the Central Provinces and Berar, Bihar aud Orissa, Baroda State and the Central India Agency against 40 per cent, or less in the North- West Frontier Province, Punjah, Bui'ma, Assam, Cochin and Mysore. Of every 100 females, 54 are married in Baioda and 50 or more in Ajmer-Merwara, Bomhay, the Central Provinces and Berar, the United Provinces an(* Uyderabad against only 38 in Burma, 41 in Cochin and Travancore, and 42 in Assam and Mysore. Ihe proportion of widowers is more than twice as great in the Punjah as it is in Bengal, Madras aud Hydera- bad, Avhile that of widows^exceeds 19 per cent, in Madras, Mysore and Bengal and is barely 10 per cent, in Burma, the North- West Frontier Province and Kashmir. The proportion of girls who are married under the age of 5 is negligible in Assam, Bengal, Burma, the North- West Frontier Province, the Punjab and the States of Southern India ; but in Bihar and Orissa, Bomljay and Hyderabad it is 3 per cent., and in the Baroda State it exceeds 8 per cent. It would be tedious to discuss in detail the variations at each age-period, but it is desirable to examine somewhat more fully the local prevalence of infant marriage, on the one hand, and on the other, the varying proportions of the widowed at the reproductive time of life, i.e., between the ages of 15 and 40. 337. In considering the question of infant marriage it must be remembered that with the Hindus marriage is not necessarily, nor even usually, followed immediately by cohabitation. At the same time, in some parts cohabitation often takes place before the child-wife has reached the age of pubertv, and it does so, at the latest, immediately after her first menstruation. In the whole of India, 7 boys and 14 girls per thousand of each sex iu the age-period ' — 5 ' are married, 37 and 105 respectively in the period ' 5 — 10 ' aud 129 and 430 in the period ' 10—15. ' In Assam, Burma, the North-West Frontier Province, Cochin, Travancore and Mysore marriage before the age of ten is practically non-existent. The custom prevails chiefly in Bihar and Orissa, Bombay, Baroda, the Central India Agency and Hyderabad. In other words infant marriage is rare in the east, west and sovith of India and jn-evails chi«.'tlv in certain central tracts touching on one side or the other a line drawn uortli- eastwards from Bombay to Bhagalpur. In Baroda, of every tliousand children ot each sex aged '0 — 3,' 39 males and 83 females are married, aud of those aged ' 5 — 10,' 111 males and 188 females. In this latter ag-e-period the proportion in Bihar and Orissa is slightly higher in the case of females, while in Hyderabad no fewer than 219 females in every thousand are married. As already stated, infant marriage is most common amongst Hindus, of whom in the whole of India, 10 males and 18 females in every thousand children aged '0 — 5' are married, 48 males and 132 females in the age-period ' 5 — 10,' and 159 males and 488 females iu the age-i)eriod ' 10 — 15.' The number per mille who are married at these early ages is much smaller amongst the !Muhammadans, and much smaller still amongst Christians and Animists, wliile amongst the Buddhists mar- riage below the age of 10 is practically unknown, and is extremely rare below the age of 15. The local variations in the custom amongst Hindus follow the same course as has already been described in the case of the population as a whole. They are also nmch the same among Muhammadans except that in their case the practice is relatively less prevnlent in Bombay ; the reason is that the Muhammadans are found chiefly in Sind, where early marriage is less common than in the rest of the Presid'eucy. Similar variations often occur within 2)rovincial boundaries. A notable instance •2 .M 2 Statement s/iowinr/ the proportion per mille of each sex who are married at the age-periods '0 — 5" and '3 — 10' respectively. 0- -5. 6- 10. Males. Females. Malee. Femalea. All Religions 7 14 37 105 Hindu 10 18 48 132 Mnsalman . 2 5 15 t;5 Christian . 2 4 6 15 Bafldhist . *• • Aninjist ■t 4 10 22 Infant marrlaga 268 CHAPTER VII. — MARRIAGE. The castes most addicted to Infant narrtage. in girls : of this is afforded by Bihar and Orissa. In that province as a whole, the Map showing the number per thousand Hindu females number per miUe of aged 0-10 who are married. Hindu boyS and girls aged 5—10 ' who are married is 126 and 219 respec- tively. Amongst boys the proportion ranges from 4 in Orissa to 228 in Nortb Bihar, while in the district of Darbhanga it reaches the extra- ordinary figure of 481. Similarly the case of the number per mille who are mar- ried at this age in Orissa is 33, while in North Bihar it is 845, and in the Dar- bhanga district G17. Infant marriage is far more common in the Darbhanga district than anywhere else in India. Nearly lialf the boys and more than three-fifths of the girls aged '5—10' are married. The reasons for this very exceptional state of things were investigated in 1901 (paragraph 729 of the last Report), but no very definite result was arrived at. The practice is generally attributed to the influence of a sjDecial class of Brahmans, but it is difficult to say why these Brahmans should inculcate infant marriage more than other members of the priestly caste. In the general population there has been practically no change since 1891 in the prevalence of infant marriage amongst males, llie proportion of child- wives is higher by a fraction than it was in 1901,but a good deal less than at the preceding census. Amongst Muhammadans the number of children of both sexes who are married below the age of 10 vseems to be gradually diminishing. The proportion who are married amongst the Animistic tribes, though lower than in 1901, is practically the same as it was twenty years ago. 338. The statistics of marriage by caste are of great interest in connection with this subject. They show that while the Hindus as a body are more addicted to infant marriage than any other religious community, tlie high castes are usually far less prone to it than the low. Thus in Bengal the castes with the largest proportion of child-wives are the Pod, Dom, Chasi Kailiartta, Bagdi and Muchi, the proportion per thousand girls aged '0 — 5' wlio are married ranginti; from 43 in the first mentioned caste to 9 in the last two. The Brahmans, on the other hand, have only 3 girls per mille who are married at that age and the Baidyas and Kayasthas only 2. Tlie same difference is to be seen in the proportion of girls who are married between the ages of 5 and 12. It is to be noted that in this province the Muhammadan Jolahas, who are descended from local converts and practically form a caste of the Hindu type, are as much addicted to infant marriage as any Hindu caste except the Pod and Dom. In Bihar and Orissa the Dhanuks, Tantis, Kumhars, Barais and Goalas have from 72 to 102 girls per mille who arc married in tlie age-period ' — 5' and from 383 to 630 between the ages of 5 and 12. Amongst the Babhans, Brahmans and Kayasthas, on the other hand, the projDortion at the lower age ranges from 8 to 13, and at the higher from 60 to 178. Amongst the Bajputs the proportions are 19 and 105 respectively. In Bombay only 7 Brahman girls per mille are m;irried at the age ' — 5 ' as compared with the Mahars' 46, the Lingayats' 79, the BharvJids' 83, the Bedars' 105 and the Cliliatris' (mostly weavers) 113. In Baroda infant marriage prevails chiefly amongst tlie Kadwa Kunbis, of whom 625 girls per mille are married at the age ' — 5,' INFANT MARRIAGE. 269 and 89-i at the age '5 — 12.' As noted in a previous parat^rapli, this caste have a marriage season only once in every ten or eleven years ; and when this season comes round every spinster is provided Mith a spouse however tender her age may he. The high proi)ortion of the married amongst this community is due to the fact that the last marriage season occuiTcd only a few months before the census. In the Central Provinces and ]krar, Eajputana nnd the United Provinces the castes most addicted to infant marriage also belong to the lower social strata, but an exception to this general rule occurs in the Central India Agency and Hyderabad, in both of which tracts infant marriage is most •common amongst the Brahmans, Avhile in the former the li:ijputs take the second place. 339. As a general rule, the castes who practise infant marriage allow their widows to marry again, Avith the result that, in spite of the early age at which children are given in wedlock, the proportion of widows is smaller than amongst many other castes. Thus in Bihar and Orissauone of the five castes mentioned above as being specially addicted to infant marriage have more than IM) widows per thousand females aged '20 — 40,' whereas with the Kayasthas, Babhans and Brahmans the proportion ranges from 217 to 210. The Ivunbis, Mahars and Bharvads of Bom])ay have at the most 133 widows per tliousacd females of the above age-period, while the Brahmans of the same province, with far fewer child-wives, have 2-t!7. The great majority of the castes practising infant marriage are innocent of the custom of hypergamy. There are no restric- ■tions on marriage beyond the ordinary rule of endogamy, the bride-price is usually very small, and the marriage ceremony comparatively inexpensive. It may be added that where infant marriage is most common, there is often less inequality between the ages of husband and wife than where it is ■comparatively rare. Thus amongst the Tantis, Kumhars and Goalas of Bihar and Orissa the proportion of husbands to wives at tl^ age-period '5 — 12' ranges from 6G to 75 while the corresponding proportions for Brahmans, Balihans and Kayasthas are 23, 45 and 57 respectively. Amongst the Kadwa Knnbis ■of Baroda, who at the recent census had a larger proportion of child-wives than any other community in India, the proportion is 69. "Where the ages are fairly equal, there is obviously less danger of early widowhood. Thus the Brahmans of Hyderabad, though they marry their children far earlier than the Brahmans of Bengal, have a much smaller proportion of widows at the child bearing ages. The disparity of ages between husband and wife is greatest in the ■case of Bengal castes, where among tlie Pods, ^luchis, Brahmans and Kayasthas there are only 11 husbands to every 100 wives in the age-period '5 — 12.' In this province more than in any other part of India the males are in the lialnt of marrying immature wives far younger than themselves. 340. The influence of locality on the practice of infant marriage is another feature that is brought out very clearly in the statistics of marriage by caste. Amongst the Brahmans, the proportion of girls aged '0 — 5' who are married is only 3 per mille in Bengal, and it is 7 per mille or less in Bombay, ^Madras and several Native States ; while in Bihar and Orissa and the Central Provinces and Bevar it is 12, in Ilydei-abad 31, and in the Central India Agency GO, per mille. The corresponding ])roportion amongst the Goalas, Kumhars and Tantis of Bengal is only 7, while amongst those of Bihar and Orissa it is 72, 77 and 81 resjwctively; amongst the Telis of Bengal it is S and amongst those of Bihar and Oris.sa 58. The Chamars of tlie Punjab have only 2 wives per thousand girls of this age ; those of the United Provinces have 11, of tiie Central Provinces and Berar 18, and of Bihar and Orissa 63 ; the Agarwals of the Punjab have 2, while those of the United Provinces 17. 341. We can now proceed to test the various theories as to the origin of conoroi oonoim- infant marriage. As already mentioned, it has been asi^juined that the custom originated with high caste Hindus and spr(!ad gradually from them to the lower castes. Its origin has, therefore, usually ])een sought in the social conditions of the higher castes. The statistics show, Iiowever, tliat the practice is least common in the north-west of India, where the Aryan element is strongest, and that elsewhere it is often most prevalent amongst the lower rather than the higher castes, i.e., amongst the communities of Dravidiau -origin. It exists, as we have seen, in many other jjarts of the Wdrld, and slons. *fc 3 270 CHAPTER VII. — MARRIAGE. is by no means peculiar to this country. When the Aryans first came to India they were strangers to infant marriage. In the society depicted in the B.ig and Atharva Vcdas, courtship of a modern type was fully recognized ; and the consent of the girl's father or brother was sought only when the youn people had themselves come to an understanding. Neither in the dramatic nor in the epic literatu.re does child marriage play any noteworthy part, nor is it known in the legendary literature of the Buddliists. It may, therefore, be con- cluded that it was either a feature of the primitive Dravidian culture, or the result of contact bet weeu it and the culture of the Aryans, rather than a spontan- eous develoj)ment of the Aryan culture itself. In the former case it must have arisen in conditions common to the Dravidians and the other primitive races who also observe it, rather than in any peculiarities of the caste system. In a state of society addicted to cousin marriage, where it was recognized that a particu- lar boy and girl ought to marry, it would be natural to perform the ceremony whenever an opportunity occurred. And where marriage was universal, it may well have become the practice to provide eacli child with its mate as soon as a suit- al)le one was discovered. The child wife is often little better than a drudge ; and the mothers of sous would naturally like to get wives for them quickly in order to utilize theu- services in the house. On the other hand, where tlie wife is purchased, the parents of a girl would be anxious to pocket the bride-price at the first opportunity ; and the indvicement to do so would be especially strong where marriage by captm-e is a recogiaized institution. A marriage, again, is usually an occasion for some display, the parents becoming for the nonce persons of importance in their community ; and it is conceivable that they might be glad to pose in this position as soon as possible. 342. There is one obvious objection to the theory that the Dravidians practised infant marriage before they came in contact with the Aiyans — most of the existing Animistic tribes marry as adults. There are, however, some excep- tions. Amongst the Todas a child is ofteu given in wedlock when only two or three years old.^ Similar customs are widespread amongst many low castes, such as Dhed and Chamar, wliich are still but one step removed from Animism, and it might ha argued that these low castes brought with them from their previous culture the practices in which they still indulge. But on the whole, it seems more likely tliat the practice had its origin, neither in the pure Uravidian, nor in the jjure Aryan, culture, but was the result of their impact. The non-Hindujzed Dravidian tribes, though ordinarily they do not give their girls in marriage before puberty, allow them great sexual freedom so long as they are sjainsters. When such tribes come under the influence of Hinduism, this premarital communism falls into disrepute. The simj)lest method of putting an end to it would obviously be by providing the girls with husbands before the promptings of nature could lead them astray. In the same way the new-born desire to get virgin wives for their sons Avould lead parents to select girls who are so young that there can be little fear of their having already lost their virginity. This hypothesis is the one which, on the whole, seems to fit most closely into the facts. It explains how it is that while the non-Hinduized tribes have adult marriage, those that have become Hinduized are ordinarily more addicted to infant marriage thau any other section of the community. 3-13. It is unnecessary to dwell longer on these speculations as to the reasons which first led Indian jiarents to give their children in wedlock long before they are capable of bearing children, the less so as it is by no means certain that the practice originated everywhere in the same way. We may, however, advert for a moment to the causes which have been suggested by those who think that the custom originated with the Aryan Hindus ; for although it had an origin in- dependent of the caste system, it is of course quite possil)le that there may be incidents of that system wliich tend to encourage or perpetuate it. Those who hold the Aryans responsible for the introduction of infant marriage have attri- buted it to the rigidity of the connubial rules and the consequent desire of parents to get their girls safely mated to suitable lms])ands, before they can bring shame on their family by making an improper alliance on their own account ; to the difficulty which often occurs in obtaining such a husband and the con-- ' IheTod'is, 5(2. INFANT MARRIAGE, 271 ■sequent haste to clinch the matter -whenever one is found ; and to the custom of hypcrgamy. The first two considerations would no doid)t often load to early marriages in a community where they are already regarded as permissible. The practice of hj^ergamy does so in some cases, but not in others. The boys of the higher sections are in great demand as husbands ; they are the only ones available for gii'ls of their oavu rank, and they are also eagerly sought for by parents of girls of inferior status, who are anxious, by an alliance with them, to improve their own social position. Consequently when the father of a girl can afford to pay a heavy bridegroom price, he may give her in marriage, however young she may be, whenever a suitable husband is forthcoming. On the other hand, hypergamy often leads to the postponement of marriage. A poor man Avith many daughters finds it extremely difficult to pay the l)ridcgroom price ; and it often happens in consequence that his girls remain unmarried until long after the age of puljerty. So frequently is this the case that, in A-arious castes, the hypergamous sections no longer penalize a man for failing to give his daughters in marriage before they attain jmberty. The Eujputs, who are much addicted to hypergamy, are by no means in the front rank as regards infant marriage. On the whole, therefore, it cannot be said that hypergamy leads to early marriage. It seems rather to be the case that infant marriage is most common where the difficulty of obtaining a husband is small and the marriage ceremony inexpensive. Another cause tending to encourage the marriage of very young girls where that of wddows is forbidden, which has not so far as I know previously been suggested, is the fact that girls are wanted as wives by widowers as well as bachelors. When a man loses liis wife, his first thought is to get another. The result of this unequal demand is that there are not enough girls of marriageable age to go round, and younger ones must be taken. It seems obvious that grown up men do not from choice many immature wives. The Baroda Superintendent mentions that in Gujai at widowers who can afford to pay a large bride- price usually bring their wives from Kathiawar, because there the girls are kept unmarried until they are sixteen or even older. The late Sir J. Campbell was of opinion that early marriage was due to the belief that of all classes of dead who walk and trouble the living, none are more troublesome and dangerous than those who die with unfulfilled wishes. The great wish of a Hindu's life is to get mar- ried and have children, and no class is so likely to give trouble as those who die unwed. ^ 344;. It is difficult to draw from the statistics in Subsidiary Table I any Present day definite conclusion as to whether infant marriage is becoming more or less °° °°° ^' common, but so far as they go, they point to a slight diminution of the practice. The figures for 1901 were ahnormal owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900, and it is safer to take the year 1891 as the basis of comparison. There are now 18 Hindu girls per mille who are married at the age ' — 6 ' as compared with only 16 at that time, but at the age ' 5 — 10 ' tlie proj)ortion has fallen from 1-lG to 132 and at ' 10 — 15 ' from 512 to 188. Amongst Muliammadans the propor- tion at the first mentioned age-period has fallen from 7 to 5, at the second from 83 to 65 and at the third from 171 to 393. Amongst the low castes with whom the practice is most common the feeling in favour of infant marriage is extremely strong ; so much so that parents who fail to give their children in marriage at an early age often find great difficulty in doing .so afterwards, the idea being that the delay must be due to the existence of some physical or mental defect. Many of these castes regard infant marriage as a badge of respectability, and encourage it on that account. The practice has been denounced by many social reformers since Mr. Malabari opened the campaign a quarter of a century ago ; and the Social Con- ference which holds its meetings annually in connection Avith the National Con- gress has made the abolition of child maiTiage one of the leading })laiiks in its platform. It is, as we have seen, strongly discouraged by the Erahmos in Bengal and the Aryas in Northern India. The more enlightened juembers of the higher castes, Avho do not allow widows to rc-marry, arc beginning to realize kow wrong it is to expose their daughters to the risk of lifelong widowhood, and a feeling against infant marriage is thus springing up amongst them. The Maithil Brahmans of Bihar are endeavouring to fix the minimum age for marriag^e at 12 in the case of females and IG in the case of males. In various jjarts of India numerous ' Poona Qateifeer, 589. 272 CHAPTER VII. — MARRIAGE. castes have passed similar resolutions at their conferences. The Muhijal Brahmans of the Punjab have declared 13 and IS to be the minimum age limit for girls and boys respectively, and in some parts even the lower castes are beginning to discourage the practice. The Goalas of Bihar, who have recently shown much activity in trying to raise themselves, are endeavour- ing to put a stop to infant marriage in their community. So also are the Namasudras of Bengal. The steps taken by the Rajputs of Rajputana to discourage early marriage were des- cribed iu the last Report (paragi'aph 733), 345. Though the evils of child marriage are undoubted, the subject is not one with which the British Government can exercise much direct intei'ference,. and the only legislative measure adopted has been the enactment of a law which makes it penal for a man to have intercourse with his wife before she is twelve years old. In two Native States, however, holder action has been taken. In, Mvsore an Act has been passed forbidding the marriage of girls under eight altogether, and that of girls under fourteen, with men over fifty, years of age. The" object of the latter provision is to prevent those unequal marriages of elderly widowers with very young girls which are popularly believed to be so disastrous to the health of the latter, and which in any case must result in a large proportion of them leading a long life of enforced widowhood. The Gaekwar of Baroda, the pioneer of so much advanced legislation, has gone further. He passed for his State in 1904, in the face of a good deal of popular opposition, an "Infant Marriage Prevention Act," which forbids absolutely the marriage of all girls below the age of nine and allows that of girls below the ao-e of twelve and of boys below the age of sixteen, only if the parents first obtain the consent of a tribunal consisting of the local Sub-Judge and three assessors of the petitioner's caste. Consent is not supposed to be given except on special grounds, which are sj^ccified in the Act. In Mysore the marriage of girls under five years of age AAas always rare, and it is now practically unknown. At the age ' 5 — 10 ' the number per mille who are married has fallen from 51 in 1891 to 8 at the present census. This decrease is no doubt largely the result of the legislation referred to above. In Baroda the census shows that there has been a large increase as com- pared with 1901 in the proportion of both sexes below the age of ten who are married. This is due partly to the fact that there has recently been a marriage season of the Kadwa Kunbi caste (see paragraph 315) when every child was married. The statistics for 1901, moreover, Avere abnormal owing to the famine of 1900. But even allowing for these disturbing causes it must be admitted that the effect of the legis- lation on the sub- ject has not j'et been very noticealde. riie statistics of the working of the Act show that in the first seven years after it was passed into law, there were about 22,000 applica- tions for exemption from its jjrovisions, of which only 5 per cent, were rejected. Although it is very unlikely that all cases of infringement came to notice, there were 27,334 prosecutions, of which 86 per cent, ended in conviction. As with most legislation of this kind, the educative value is probably greater than Map tlioning the niimhei per thousand Hindu females aged '13 — iO' who are wtdoxced. WIDOW MAURIAGE. 273 the direct effect ; aud it may hv anticipated that, as time goes ou, the people of the State will learn to modify tlieir views on the subject of child marriage iu the direction indicated by the new law. 346. In the whole of India no fewer than 11 per cent, of the females aged tso proportion or ' 15 — -40 ' are widowed. Amongst the Hindus tbe proportion is 12, aud amongst is'^m!" ***"* Muhammadans 9, j)er cent. The local variations are very gi'eat. Excludintj Baluchistan, where the statistics are incomplete,the proportion is smallest in the North-West Frontier Province aud Burma (6 per cent.), Kashmir (7 per cent.) and the Central Provinces and Berar and the Punjab (8 per cent.). The propor- tion does not differ greatly from that for the whole of India in Boml)ay, Mad- ras, the United Provinces, Baroda, Cochin aud the xlgencies of Central India and Kajputaua, but it reaches 13 ])er cent, in Mysore and Assam, while in Bengal it exceeds 16 per cent. The local variations amongst Hindus follow the same general lines as those in the populatioiT as a wiiole. But in their case the excess of widows iu Bengal, as compared with other jiarts of India, is greatly accentuated, the proportion in that province being no less than 22-1 per miile, or nearly a quarter of the total number of the females at the age-period in question. Amongst Muhammadans, the proportion of widows (11 per cent.) at the above ajre-period is not higher in Bengal than it is in several other provinces ; the maximum proportion, excluding the minor units, is found in Bihar and Orissa (12 per cent.) and the minimum in Kashmir (5 per cent.). The corresponding proportion of widows amongst the Buddhists and Animists is only 6 and 7 per cent, respectively. In the case of the latter there are great local differences. In Bombay and Rajputana the proportion is only 3 and 4 per cent, respectively ; it is 6 per cent, in the Central Provinces and Berar, 7 per cent, in Burma, 8 in Bihar and Orissa and 9 in Assam. The statistics of marriage by caste show that excej^t in Bengal the propor- tion of widows is greatest amongst the higher castes. Thus in Bihar and Orissa, of every hundred females aged '20 — 40' more than one-tifth are widowed amongst the Babhans, Brahmans, Ivayasthas and Rajputs, and one-eighth or less, amongst the Chamars, Chasas, Dhanuks, Dhobis, Goalas, Kumhars, Koiris, Lobars, Musahars, Telis and others. In Bombay amongst Brahmans one-fourth, aud amongst the Marathas and Lingayats, one-fifth of the females at this age-period are widowed, while amongst the Mahars, Lohanas, Kunbis, Kolis and Agris the proportion is less than one-seventh. The same rule applies in the Central Provinces and Berar, the Punjab and the United Provinces, and also in Madras, except that here two comparatively low castes — the Kamsalas and Tiyans — have also a very large proportion of widows. The Kamsalas, it is to be noted, lay claim to a Brahmanical origin. 347. The number of widows per thousand females, which was 187 in 1881, comparuon wuu fell to 176 in 1891 ; it rose to 180 in 1901 and has now fallen to 173, the lowest iuses.""* °°°' on record. The decrease since 1901 is shared by all the religious communities. It is greatest in the case of the Animists, who have now only 114 widows per mille compared with 139 at the previous census. The explanation is that at the time of that census the conditions were abnormal, owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900, Avhich hit the primitive Animistic tribes harder than any other section of the conmi unity and caused an unusually high mortality amongst them. The proportion at the recent census is almost the same as it was in 1881 and 1891. Amongst the Muhammadans the projiortion of widows has declined steadily since 1881, and is now- only 148 per mille compared with 170 in that year. It would seem that the prejudices against widow marriage are gradually becoming weaker. The proportion of Hindu females who are widowed, though larger by 2 per mille than iu 1891, is less by 9 i)er mille than it was in 1S81. The proportion who are widowed at all ages below 30 in the total population is larger now than it was twenty years ago, l)ut there is a slight improvement be- tween the ages of 20 and 30. The variations in the distribution of the population by civil condition are often the result of a change in the age constitution. Thus in the Punjab the falling off which has occurred during the last decade in the proportion of femak-s who are married is due to plague, which caused the heaviest mortality amongst persons in the prime of life and the least at the two extremes. 2ir 274i CHAPTER VII. —MARRIAGE. Present day ten- g^g ijij^g prohibition of Avidow marriage is a badge of respectability. Castes Avbo do not allow it rank higher on that account in social estimation. As will be seen in Chapter XI castes are sometimes divided into two sections, the one allowing and the other forbidding the practice ; and in such cases the latter will often refuse to intermarry with the former. There is thus a strong tendency amongst the lower Hindu castes to prohibit, or at least to discountenance, the marriage of widows. At the other end of the social structure there is a movement in the opposite direction. Many social reformers have inveighed against the condemnation of virgin widows to perpetual widowhood, and have pointed out that the custom is a modern innovation which was unknown in Vedic times. In many provinces there have recently been cases iu which such Avidows have been given in marriage a second time, not only amongst Brahmos and Aryas, who natvu*ally lead the way, but also amongst orthodox Hindus. A very well- known instance occurred not long ago in Calcutta, where a high class Brahman, Avho holds a distinguished official position, gave his widowed daughter in marri- age a second time. A number of such marriages have taken j^lace amongst the Dhatias of the Bombay Presidency. It is said that in the United Provinces considerably more than a hundred Avidows have been re-married in the last ten years. The actual results no doubt are small so far, but the first step has been taken and the most violent of the opposition has perhaps been overcome. '^^ SUBSIDIARY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. 275 Disti'ibntioii by (ivil (oiiditioii of 1,000 «t cadi sev, reIi«:ioii and iiiaiii age period at each of the hist tour censuses- rNUABBIEp. Aas. Males 0— .i 5—10 10—15 15- 20 20—30 30—40 40—60 60 and over Females 0—5 5—10 10—15 15— iO 20—30 30-40 40-60 60 and over Males 0—5 5-10 10—15 15-20 20—30 30-40 40-60 00 and over Females . 0-5 5—10 10—15 15-20 iO—'M) :;0— 40 40—60 60 and over Males 0—5 5—10 10—15 15—20 20—30 3()— 40 40—60 00 and over Females 0-5 5-10 10—15 15—20 2(1 — 30 30—40 40—60 60 and over 1911. leoi. 1891. 1881. SItBRlBD. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881 Widowed. 1911. I 1901. j 1891. I t 10 11 11 490 993 962 866 6H5 276 79 44 38 311 985 891 555 163 34 16 12 12 470 990 950 835 626 259 77 45 37 317 981 863 495 122 23 13 9 8 527 99R 984 922 727 295 72 34 28 379 995 932 695 137 27 14 1(» 10 492 993 962 860 650 275 87 49 39 344 986 893 559 179 40 21 13 12 475 992 952 833 613 260 87 51 40 321 983 872 511 141 33 20 11 8 526 997 982 914 714 290 77 S8 29 376 992 927 597 161 33 17 12 10 472 993 953 811 587 245 77 40 29 319 983 8.^0 442 100 19 12 9 6 519 997 983 904 674 257 62 28 20 365 992 914 ,) 614 104 20 11 9 8 ^ Hindu. Mttsalman. 432 3 17 83 276 ti7it 870 8-6 717 471 7 70 391 80M N98 801 50 ■> 175 515 990 427 2 15 907 75 G.S4 2.;9 280 671 74 86!) 35 848 27 697 350 473 9411 \ 6 65 517 393 120 834 22 91 19 11 806 8 505 7 17(» 440 3 \ 16 ) 93 316 714 ; >-8'i 862 1M 475 7 X 83 ) 171 8(17 911 786 •162 142 445 10 90 306 691 878 86 f. 733 480 49 470 ^4'.i 902 7SS 490 159 46 1 3 10 34 59 118 275 148 3 11 29 64 ISO 4«5 S20 42 1 3 10 31 53 106 264 153 All Beligions. 487 484 456 454 465 467 54 54 48 994 962 ] 975 37 7 36 6 36 ; 24 1 f-i '" 2 '" 2 i 841 843 129 131 154 152 6 6 5 621 617 322 334 368 369 13 16 11 255 262 687 686 715 703 37 39 30 75 78 857 847 86=1 863 64 66 67 38 41 S19 816 837 838 137 135 125 28 32 660 669 687 693 302 292 285 339 323 483 476 485 490 173 180 176 986 874 1 923 \ 14 105 13 102 13 123 ] '^ f 1 I 4 1 5 1 3 ■; 491 481 43(1 423 495 500 15 18 14 132 122 800 777 833 834 37 41 35 26 22 N84 868 893 882 82 92 81 13 11 784 7ti5 779 764 200 214 208 10 7 487 484 477 476 501 503 513 8 5 158 163 143 149 830 825 849 470 472 466 478 478 58 59 50 1 1 969 f 10 I 4S 8 46 7 45 1 30 [ - . "" 2 "" 2 818 159 IflO 183 176 6 7 6 589 350 369 401 395 15 18 12 251 703 698 725 712 38 42 30 78 856 843 865 859 67 70 58 41 811 805 831 830 144 144 129 33 649 654 675 679 314 306 296 307 495 485 495 496 188 194 186 ] 910 C 18 I 132 16 122 16 146 ^ 87 1 < 1 i 5 1 6 1 4 446 4^8 468 542 533 17 21 16 101 83»i MO 862 8.IH 42 49 38 19 887 867 895 877 90 101 86 10 773 751 772 751 214 229 216 7 468 467 468 4f,2 523 522 523 5 142 1.50 133 140 850 842 831 41 1 3 10 29 62 no 249 160 1 1 3 3 12 12 31 29 69 69 182 203 433 629 815 860 49 a 14 35 59 121 275 187 2 19 44 96 225 517 846 52 6 16 37 63 129 288 197 21 60 104 239 531 865 40 3 10 28 48 99 24) 170 13 31 76 201 602 834 •J. S 276 CHAPTER VII. — MARRIAGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE \-confd. Distribution by civil condition of 1.000 of Ciuh sex. rclio:ion and main ajre jjeriod at each of the last four •c s 3 % o E B i ■E 1 1 •o "E u 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 a a b 14 -a ! S i a •c cs •6 o 1 2 4 5 6 7 ' 8 1 9 10 11 12 13 1 15 16 17 18 19 Males. TSmA. «M 466 64 993 7 1 968 37 1 , 866 129 • 887 671 48 43 782 178 Ajmer-Merwara . . • • 472 451 74 996 4 ... 966 32 2 876 116 8 311 627 62 47 736 217 Assam 555 398 47 1.000 ... 997 3 ... 977 22 1 855 598 47 27 825 148 Bengal 5U 454 35 999 1 988 U 1 940 59 1 273 701 26 20 852 128 Bihar and OrisB* . • • • 444 504 52 982 17 1 885 110 5 724 1 264 12 196 757 1 47 26 809 165 Bombay 469 474 57 982 17 1 951 44 2 ] 862 ! 142 6 269 691 40 37 775 188 Burma . . . ■ • 569 389 42 1,000 ... 1,000 ... ... 999 I 1 432 j 538 30 89 774 137 Central Provinoes and Berar 44a 513 45 993 7 ... 951 45 1 779 216 5 ' 180 788 37 23 836 111 Coorg 551 400 46 999 1 ... 998 2 I 990 10 ... ; 478 489 33 31 806 160 Madras 533 428 39 998 2 ... 991 9 1 962 37 1 378 i 601 1 ^^ 28 810 132 X.-W. F. Province 581 372 17 1,(100 ... ... 99S 2 ... 973 1 1 26 1 424 , 539 87 52 792 156 Pnnjab 528 388 84 999 1 986 13 1 911 84 5 363 : 572 65 73 669 258 United Provinces 449 473 78 993 7 ... 951 47 2 778 214 8 239 j 697 64 65 70G 229 Baroda Stale . . . • 428 496 76 1 959 39 a 8S3 111 6 758 236 11 239 , 698 63 47 727 226 Central India Agency 455 483 62 975 24 1 930 67 756 236 8 ; 247 , 700 53 66 741 193 Cochin State . . . . 562 400 38 1,1 lOO ... 1,000 995 5 ... 377 597 26 22 831 147 Hyderabad State 445 514 41 990 10 960 38 2 839 156 5 222 j 752 26 30 841 129 Kashmir State . . . . 526 420 54 999 1 989 11 918 80 2 323 I 637 40 48 ",1 181 Mysore State .... 544 408 4S 1,000 ... ... 1,000 995 5 ... 431 I 547 22 34 802 164 Eajputana Agency 49t 438 68 998 2 ... 980 19 1 888 108 4 318 j 633 1 49 69 716 215 543 415 42 1,000 ... 1 997 Fen 2 (ties. 1 990 9 1 369 599 32 16 83S 146 INDIA. 344 483 173 985 14 1 890 106 5 656 430 16 64 833 113 IS 401 687 AjmoT-Merwara .... 309 511 180 988 12 ... 917 80 3 559 430 11 27 873 100 c 3s3 611 420 418 162 1,000 ... 978 21 1 716 274 10 70 797 133 6 363 631 Bengal 336 463 201 995 5 897 99 4 877 599 24 19 817 164 4 279 717 Bibar and Orissa 317 505 178 966 32 2 795 194 11 472, 503 25 1 40 838 122 9 405 586 Bombay 314 SU 175 1 965 81 1 835 161 4 455, 527 18 41 848 111 12 394 591 Burma 519 376 105 ; 1,000 ... ... 1.000 ... \ 993 1 7 297 641 62 76 554 370 Central Provinoes and Berar 325 522 158 982 17 1 837 159 4 448 514 13 28 896 76 6 424 570 440 387 173 999 , 1 997 8 987 1 61 2 175 701 181 7 331 659 Madras 373 441 186 991 C ... 916 52 2 740 j 252 8 82 800 118 9 387 601 451 431 112 1,000 ... ... 991 6 S83 114 3 106 838 61 24 531 415 Pnnjab 877 480 14S VaV 1 ... 957 41 2 706 287 7 .58 860 82 9 490 501 United Provinces 806 528 171 989 10 1 895 100 5 465; 521 14 28 872 100 10 431 557 Baroda State .... 281 540 176 915 83 2 807 188 5 4641 1 515 21 30 861 109 4 408 593 316 505 179 974 88 8 859 185 6 481^ 553 16 39 845 118 15 378 cia Cochin State .... 185 107 168 1,000 ... ... 997 3 910 88 2 181 763 106 11 891 595 Hyderabad State .... 295 523 177 971 28 1 776 219 6 326 656 18 36 866 98 ! 19 377 604 Kashmir State .... 388 491 121 998 A 940 49 2 685 357 8 47 879 74 8 522 470 Myrorc State .... 385 420 195 1,000 ... 992 8 ... 778 217 6 74 796 130 1 14 SOU C26 Rajpntana Agency 817 .Wl 182 994 6 ... 984 64 2 568 433 9 28 871 106 1 4 S9» 597 Travancoro State 445 414 141 1.000 ! mm 995 4 1 918 1 84 8 143 767 90 17 443 540 Note.— The proportions for P Travancore. rovince s inch ide th e Xati ve Sta tea atl aclied to th( m, en ept in the ca le ..f & fndn.s, whoro they (oliide Coeliin sod 278 CHAPTER VII. — MARBIAGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE W—contd. Distribution by civil condition of 1,000 ot eacli sex at certain aires in each Province, State • or Agi'm-y—contd. HINDU, PitovxBoi, State oe Agbhcy. INDIA Ajmer-Merwara . Aeeam . • Bengal Bihar and Orissa Bombay Bnrma • Central Provinoes and Berat Coorg . Madras N.-W. F. ProTinoe Punjab United Provinces Baroda State Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State Mysore State Eajpntiina Agency Travancore State INDIA Ajmer-Metwara . Assam . . . Bengal Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Barma Central Provinces and Coorg . Madras N.-W. F. Province Pnnjab Doited Provicces Baroda State Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State Mysore State Rajpntana Agency Travanoore State All ages. 0-5. 5—10. 10—15. a a t3 470 463 542 487 429 450 483 427 560 528 528 501 447 418 451 5(!.'5 434 512 542 491 551 317 299 .394 292 300 296 396 30G 449 3ii6 395 336 299 268 309 423 2g4 301 382 308 4U "O ? a » *r* o u rs £3 6: 3 4 472 462 400 464 516 493 481 526 393 432 403 407 475 504 -186 397 524 409 409 440 403 495 518 418 451 516 522 525 536 371 445 443 496 525 551 508 402 537 491 420 5C6 401 68 990 75 996 58 1,000 49 998 55 57 36 47 980 979 999 993 47 1,"00 40 998 69 1,000 92 998 78 993 78 952 63 974 40 1,000 42 I 989 79 999 49 I.UOO 69 998 46 1,000 188 183 183 257 184 182 79 158 ISO 189 162 168 176 181 183 981 986 1,000 994 961 958 999 979 999 994 1,000 998 989 902 973 175 1,00? 179 I 968 208 I 997 198 l.CUO 186 I 993 158 i 1,0; S 10 4 2 19 20 18 14 5 36 41 1 20 1 6 2 10 96 24 31 3 o •o ■13 TJ a •n a to s 8 9 Males. 960 48 962 36 996 4 989 11 868 126 946 52 995 5 945 63 998 2 990 10 996 4 978 21 947 51 807 126 925 72 1,000 957 41 988 11 1,000 979 20 997 2 Females. 863 907 971 874 769 8C2 983 802 998 941 9f8 934 S90 777 848 997 751 894 992 928 994 132 90 23 120 219 193 17 193 2 57 n 63 105 218 145 3 242 102 8 70 4 ^ 10 i 11 835 863 973 938 2 829 963 2 742 991 958 964 1 874 £ 767 7 725 3 740 996 2 824 1 927 995 1 883 1 993 51 12 I 51 2 : 1 1 5 ! 5 7 '. 4' 495 524 687 295 434 380 848 370 940 723 809 593 .445 405 403 903 270 469 771 530 J27 12 169 128 26 60 290 165 36 252 9 41 33 119 225 263 252 4 170 71 5 113 6 48S 464 301 671 539 599 151 615 58 2£8 168 i 392 I 510 \ 570 580 94 711 j 512 224 460 o 13 6 9 1 2 14 6 1 6 15-40. 40 and over. 9 •c 14 cS 15 o 270 294 i 367 188 237 467 161 489 374 3 j 417 7 330 8 236 12 231 8 243 I 396 6 I 200 I 2 I 392 . I 428 4 ! 320 1 405 17 12 12 34 27 21 1 15 2 9 3 10 15 25 17 3 19 19 5 10 4 17 59 16 32 31 107 20 190 78 53 32 25 22 85 136 30 23 73 19 161 686 643 ' I 579 680 763 723 508 800 479 605 .129 592 j 700 703 703 575 774 556 550 630 5s9 837 881 783 760 843 852 850 902 678 802 839 861 871 860 846 742 869 827 16 44 63 54 I 31 49 40 25 39 32 21 54 72 64 66 51 29 26 52 22 50 36 124 99 158 224 125 117 43 78 132 120 108 107 104 112 119 122 101 150 794 ; 183 873 108 735 104 i 17 S 18 ^ 43 45 I 34 > 30 27 31 232 22, 34| 28 i 99 , 88 69 49 67: 23 I as 101 35 72 18 » 4 4 4 8 12 73 5 6 9 10 6 9 3 14 9 19 6 14 3 19 776 737 789 19 182 218 177 801 ! 169 802 i 171 780 668 832 798 837 700 721 I 737 830 840 I 678 799 711 834 189 100 146 168 135 218 273 LSI 230 1S6 147 132 221 166 217 1J8 384 376 318 240 400 381 536 421 320 385 884 438 426 395 370 375 372 882 357 395 ' 414 > 601 620 678 756 592 607 391 574 674 606 606 556 505 602 616 61fi 609 612 629 603 567. Note. — The proportions fcr Travancoro. Piovincog include the Native States attached to thtm, except in the case of Madras, where they exclude Cochin andiv ^) SUBSIDIARY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE W—contd. 279 Distribution by rivil coiiditum of l.OOO ot eacliscx at rert-.iiii ages in eacb Province, State or Agt'ni-y -concld. MUSALMAN. All ages. 0— ^. :, - 10. lu-i.-,. 10— w. 40 and over. PBOTIBCI, SIAIX OB AOEIOT. INDIA. Ajmer-M erwara Assam .... Bengal Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Bozma Central Proyinces and Berar Coorg .... Madras .... N.-W. F. Province Panjab TTnited ProTinoes . Baroda State Central India Agency . Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State Mysore State Kajpntana Agency Travancore State INDIA. Aj mer-Merwara Assam . Bengal Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Borma . Central Provinces and Berar Coorg . Madras N.-W. F. Province Punjab . United Provinces . Baruda State ■Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State . Kaxhmir State • Mysore State Kajpotana Agency Travancore State . a a 6S7 484 581 531 474 535 52S 493 517 582 584 543 464 466 462 583 499 532 567 491 567 379 846 429 368 328 380 510 363 357 412 458 410 342 320 331 460 357 411 423 346 459 s 487 449 392 445 481 408 434 459 421 388 371 382 461 461 472 391 464 421 399 444 400 473 503 428 475 491 472 397 465 439 413 433 466 513 501 490 407 472 493 420 502 419 ^ 46 67 27 24 45 57 38 43 32 30 45 75 75 73 66 26 37 47 34 65 33 a s O 148 151 143 157 181 148 93 172 204 175 109 124 145 179 176 133 171 96 157 152 999 1.000 999 988 995 1,000 994 997 999 1,000 1,000 995 937 978 1,000 997 999 1,000 998 1,000 995 993 1,000 995 978 991 1,000 930 1,000 998 1,000 999 992 969 961 1,000 996 998 1,000 995 122 j 1.000 I 1 8 30 31 4 2 i Males. 8 984 1 974 997 1 ... 988 12 933 5 985 999 1 6 982 1 3 997 1 1 997 998 1 990 I 5 969 13 957 21 1 ... 951 , 1,000 ! 3 ... 982 1 99a \ 1,300 o ... 979 999 Females, 932 940 981 909 847 955 999 952 989 9S7 995 970 920 914 906 l.OOo 945 962 995 939 996 03 16 24 3 12 65 14 1 17 3 3 2 9 30 41 46 16 10 20 1 65 57 18 7 147 43 1 45 11 12 5 28 76 83 86 o 10 51 4I 37 ll S •• 1 60 ll 3 1 s s 11 899 982 940 776 937 991 934 974 936 839 866 877 998 935 916 996 899 996 596 646 627 419 469 712 971 680 851 855 888 779 578 6V, 596 924 664 672 858 655 930 a 12 75 92 18 1 58 ; I 217 , 61 6 63 I 12 11 ' 25 I 61 154 128 ' 115 2 , 61 82 4 97 31 316 361 I 564 ; 512 , 251 j 29 ' 811 I 141 140 109 I 216 4.8 j 356 388 73 325 ' 9n ]40 337 67 a 13 U 8 12 17 19 7 9 2 5 3 5 9 9 16 8 II 5 2 8 3 I 14 308 320 340 255 203 376 432 306 527 426 418 373 217 298 291 402 358 301 452 316 401 46 49 25 18 28 71 181 44 76 83 110 79 48 45 61 127 75 50 60 46 109 3 S ^ 15 664 62b 629 723 ' 755 ; 581 j 537 I 654 451 551 517 570 691 645 652 577 I 621 663 530 637 569 ' 860 874 866 869 849 844 756 863 784 798 832 856 879 849 835 776 841 899 838 876 806 16 38 57 SI 22 42 43 31 40 22 23 35 57 62 57 57, 21 21 36 18 47 80 •E 17 i3 18 94 77 109 113 123 85 63 93 140 119 58 65 j 78 106 10 IS 4 3 8 14 63 11 6 8 21 12 18 11 32 11 33 774 14 894 10 901 18 837 S3 763 130 755 31 826 34 866 21 872 48 801 53 708 40 741 36 747 50 769 11 886 39 848 26 807 22 855 41 758 10 885 417 441 909 312 8 388 1 14 448 63 513 11 883 6 SOS 8 366 i 21 540 104 26 ' 97 12 84 20 51 7 96 7 78 8 85 14 525 474 I 394 I I 386 425 393 S78 403 457 o 19 167 193 92 86 145 184 115 143 100 107 151 239 219 217 181 103 113 167 123 201 105 573 544 687 685 604 538 424 606 601 626 I 436 468 508 595 588 568 587 420 590 535 S21 Note — The proportions for Truvaijcure. Provinces include the Native States atlaohcd to them, except in the caxo of Madr.iK. whore tho_v ixcliule Cochin and 280 CHAPTER VII. — MARRIAGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I Distribution by lUiiiii a«;e periods and civil condititm ot 10,000 of each sex and religion. Rbligion and Age. ' MiLES. FmiLEs. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 All Religions 4,899 4,557 544 3,440 4,829 1,731 0-10 2,648 60 2 2,t)13 166 7 10—15 1,009 150 6 553 430 15 15—10 1,152 2,697 168 218 3,379 459 40 and over 90 1,650 368 26 855 1.-250 Hindu .... 4,701 4,720 579 3,176 4,947 1.877 0-10 2,549 77 3 2,510 201 9 10—15 961 183 7 487 480 17 15-40 1,089 2,792 178 159 3,416 506 40 and over 102 1,668 391 20 860 1,345 Musalman 5,267 4,269 464 3,794 4,731 1,475 0-10 2,895 27 1 2,984 109 5 10—15 1,114 90 3 605 399 11 15—40 1,194 2,539 147 186 3,434 376 40 and over 64 1,613 313 ' 19 789 1.083 Christian 5,632 4.013 355 4.597 4,221 1.182 0—10 2,658 11 1 2,875 26 2 10-15 1,162 35 O 1,041 134 3 15-40 1,745 2,403 90 630 3,172 275 40 and over 67 1,564 262 51 889 902 Animistic 5,391 4,269 340 4,499 4,356 1,145 0-10 3,200 21 1 3,201 41 4 l'>-15 1,038 60 2 783 172 15—40 1,103 2,613 122 484 3.270 281 40 and over 50 1,575 215 31 873 855 Buddhist 5,741 3.835 424 5,191 3,7 1,057 0—10 2,70J 1 ••1 2,716 ... ... 10-15 1,233 2 ... 1.131 9 ... 15—40 1,624 2,121 116 1,176 2,614 246 40 and over 175 1.711 308 168 1,229 811 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 281 SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. Proportion of sexes l»y civil (-(uidltioii in tlie main provinces. FBOTIIfCB XJTD KELIGIOV. INDIA. Hindu Buddhist Musalman Christian Animlst . ASSAM. Hindu Musalman Animist . BENGAL. Hindu Musalman Baddliist BIHAR AND OBISSA. Hindu Musalman Animist . BOMBAY Hindu ... Musalman Jain ... BUBKA. Buddhist Musalman Animist . • C. P. AND BEBAB. Hindu Musalman Animist MADBAS. Hindu ... Musalman CbrUtian PUNJAB. Hindu Mi'salman Sllih UNITED PROVIN- CES Hindu . Musalman Christian Ali> AgIB. •3 r 670 850 930 662 757 841 712 670 686 8S3 621 558 664 781 874 934 632 781 722 716 729 819 630 488 614 678 549 1.011 1,009 1,006 1.019 976 1.029 1,014 1,029 965 904 1,022 1,024 715 1,045 72S 1,040 743 1,098 885 1,037 927 1,037 503 876 739 1,026 72« I 1,025 689 I 948 834 1,062 1,064 1,063 1,097 1,041 1,016 1,023 1,011 1,022 978 0—10. NLMBEE OFFEMAI.tS PER 1,00U MALES, 10—15. 3,031 S 121 2,563 2,923 3,096 3,398 987 j 3,236 962 ; 3,008 4,882 2,634 953 948 1,031 948 1,003 1,008 1,001 993 1,004 1,014 2,622 2,519 758 3,685 2,177 1.942 2,681 2,536 3,800 4,097 2,221 3,978 6,415 12,411 I 7,424 10,140 6,567 22,333 2,427 13,750 3,442 4,314 3,950 955 970 1,022 1,739 2,146 1,672 625 1,005 2,873 627 j 1,009 3,034 611 ' 904 2,243 575 ; 970 2,727 2,410 2,5.'.2 1,342 2.619 3,459 3,401 3,334 3,954 4,965 4,956 5,914 4,502 920 3,011 921 3,090 904 2,371 969 5,627 1,024 2,115 1,033 069 769 935 2,196 3,233 6.940 2,105 2,245 2,129 683 1,500 1,000 962 946 1,010 1,023 1.002 1,002 997 1,017 3,435 3,096 3,511 ^ 3,033 2,357 2,754 2,305 3,875 5,208 4,927 5.343 4.028 2,613 523 4SS 943 499 831 761 599 581 473 870 .5,402 961 7,897 11,638 314 4,929 948 9,889 12,892 245 6,363 ■ 968 6,817 10,750 350 3,642 968 1,660 5,000 805 3,535 963 1,763 2,274 552 2,728 2,521 4,604 4,060 3,572 2,887 9,967 9,701 14,719 3,989 8,006 8,601 7,609 6,714 2,425 2,337 6,769 3,216 1,722 3,077 8,789 7,154 23,571 5,070 11,926 16,080 9,153 8,400 1,619 1,732 528 497 778 425 374 563 512 1,571 1,671 1,933 2,359 2,521 4.340 2,948 2,959 I 2,948 ! 4,131 I 2,617 2,693 2,248 2,623 923 4,506 7,300 946 8.442 1U,033 6S9 ; 3,616 I 857 I 8,000 I 7,500 477 417 2,114 2,200 2,046 2,190 574 3,900 I 2,304 705 2,823 j 2,125 710 6,194 8,136 8,133 9,846 8,550 4.027 605 6.100 4,800 797 11.623 3,824 887 7.579 684 1,010 1,384 550 , ),004 3,909 4,916 4,678 4,641 6,017 4.301 1,546 1,640 1 ,544 1.313 688 2,325 486 481 501 472 742 326 538 526 527 436 553 «73 473 432 612 588 501 694 2,362 2.141 1,797 Ifoxi; j]ja pioportioni {or Frovincci Include the Xativc States attached to thorn, except In the case of Madnu, wliere (hey exclude Cochin and Trarnucorr. 2 o 282 CHAPTER VII. — MAREIAGE. SUBSIDIARY Distrihiitioii by civil fomlitioii of 1.000 of each mSTElBUTION OF 1,0U0 MALES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL CONDITION. Caste. ASSAM Ahom Jogl Kachari (Hindus Eachari (Jnimief) . Ealita . Kocb (Hindu) Kshattriya (Manipuri) (Hindu) BENGAL. Bagdi BaisUnab Barui Bauri Brahman Dhoba (Hindu) Goala (Hindu) Hari Jogi Jolaha Kaibartta, Chasi Kaibartta, Jaliya Kamar (Hindu) Kavastha Maio Muchi (Hindu). Namasudra Napit (Hindu). Pod Ea bansi (Hindu) Sadgop . Santal (Hindu) Santal (Animist) Sutradliar (Hindu) Tanti and Tatwa (Hindu) Teli and Till . BIHAR AND ORISSA. Bablian . Brahman Chamar . Chasa Dhanuk . Dtiobi (Hindu) Dhuniya Qaura Uoala (Ahir) . Haiinm (>fapit) (Hindu) Hajjam (Mutalman) Jolaha . Kahar Kalwar . Kandh (Hindu) Kandh (Animitl) Kandu , Kayustha Kewat . Khandayat Kolri Kumhar, Eurml Lohar (Hindu). Munda (Hindu) Manda (Animitt) Musahar . Nuniya . Oraon (Hindu) Oraon (Animitl) Pan ( Hindu) . Pan (Animiff) . Baj[Mit (Uiyutu) Santal (Hindu) Mantal (Animift) Tanti and Tatwa (Hindu) Teli and Till (Hindu) ALL AGES. ~?' 606 564 570 553 595 597 586 471 451 507 478 485 487 434 455 512 445 494 497 471 527 500 431 509 487 48« 535 476 514 544 495 448 457 492 I 471 I 379 I 532 283 415 397 501 345 378 439 427 410 4n9 544 568 403 489 479 551 367 385 384 445 526 550 370 387 494 son 610 543 628 468 538 361 364 . 335 382 365 402 357 353 372 478 470 442 474 464 453 503 486 442 517 451 450 467 428 438 629 437 454 480 407 445 450 420 448 494 476 431 456 571 434 650 531 554 460 578 557 4S6 517 525 623 425 402 528 426 485 412 557 561 513 503 436 410 B78 546 470 456 412 430 339 461 403 582 £70 ■o V 0—5. 59 54 65 45 48 50 42 51 79 51 48 51 55 63 59 1 46 38 55 53 62 45 1 62 40 54 59 34 5S 79 36 36 57 58 67 77 73 50 34 67 54 49 39 77 56 65 68 31 86 36 37 76 54 103 52 38 4!) 52 57 36 35 28 27 73 71 29 87 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 998 997 99S 999 998 996 998 998 998 999 999 998 998 999 997 99u 999 998 998 998 999 989 093 964 1,000 948 978 976 1,000 954 966 996 988 985 1,000 1,000 982 993 1,000 973 965 973 988 994 995 968 1,000 1,000 993 997 99» 948 960 •a 10 6 34 60 21 23 44 28 4 16 12 14 18 6 S4 26 12 4 4 80 SO II 4 49 36 5—12. 998 997 998 996 996 998 997 978 978 991 958 986 982 978 980 987 962 933 988 22 21 9 14 17 21 19 13 37 16 11 982 988 991 17 I 12 9 968 977 885 31 22 14 968 991 979 31 1 8 ' 20 989 985 990 11 : 14 10 982 978 17 22, t 952 959 717 1 45 39 273 991 560 806 9 419 187 773 977 684 221 23 300 1 780 926 8J6 228 , 73 ' 168 875 840 990 120 154 1 10 993 825 963 7 168 34 975 992 757 25 8 233 746 812 868 245 180 127 980 ii82 760 18 16 230 756 054 980 282 45 19 988 974 966 12 26 31 889 091/ 97 10 661 720 325 267 12—20. 10 16 12 1 6 5 6 961 924 934 858 952 961 937 596 788 770 739 672 820 650 753 787 755 860 816 633 780 775 665 799 724 744 789 789 723 : 693 I 3 668 2 ; 672 10 j 378 . . 894 21 ' 192 7 546 373 779 363 357 522 400 450 472 892 446 745 io 738 906 405 10 8 448 457 507 2 2 10 754 716 347 13 1 1 438 659 580 's 893 829 728 14 533 698 19 18 433 877 12 138 46 732 I 260 1 i 735 254 792 ' 19S 38.S 203 •221 250 807 175 341 234 206 231 12S 172 350 203 216 329 196 258 247 198 201 261 292 320 310 587 105 753 430 602 218 594 600 458 566 521 495 105 98 522 236 259 618 503 469 238 277 618 513 418 410 106 164 ■2bH 412 294 524 683 18 12 18 35 1 55 24 25 3 43 43 20 35 29 33 3 4 32 19 3 2 31 34 40 24 8 7 35 49 23 10 2 7 14 66 40 AND OVER. 14 2S2 648 268 683 260 663 165 813 293 220 122 155 153 60 199 164 166 1C3 176 155 182 158 236 228 81 167 165 80 244 195 138 147 174 138 168 263, 187 48 189 24 84 62 80 69 59 89 196 221 76 234 68 92 87 161 138 30 64 62 38 151 147 299 108 119 68 61 782 643 655 734 838 781 805 879 762 788 785 835 790 788 731 722 882 786 787 894 700 743 822 813 777 808 787 671 753 £00 785 906 863 46 895 134 831 69 I 848 868 838 881 862 836 770 745 844 693 115 854 216 1 758 84 837 877 771 863 799 803 913 883 899 919 821 817 635 797 843 880 870 872 40 796 : 49 774 44 68 60 52 26 70 53 59 35 83 70 79 75 34 34 80 73 31 26 79 55 137 60 40 59 57 63 40 43 28 36 68 95 38 52 69 17 91 61 16 10 13 17 14 10 19 28 15 17 16 22 27 27 17 72 9 13 21 18 29 27 60 39 13 18 18 12 14 22 18 758 777 743 826 797 796 ,S38 800 709 795 815 776 79U 770 803 793 856 786 78S 775 805 776 859 786 771 855 777 708 863 783 791 745 677 711 83!) 863 826 815 844 845 778 796 784 811 803 785 863 858 790 684 858 837 768 831 724 812 825 827 848 821 872 343 86!) 879 677 790 868 835 799 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 283 TABLE V. sex at certiiiii aoes tor selected castes. DISIRUJLIIO.N' OF 1,UU0 FEMALES OF EACU AGE BY CIVIL CO.NL'ITION. AJU AGI8. C— 5. 5—12. 20 526 357 520 45» 453 264 209 306 32t-. 297 301 247 299 29 « 298 279 310 281 313 292 292 304 285 29J 34« 239 427 450 300 273 246 292 281 280 376 185 303 272 327 233 268 317 3U5 271 281 43-( 471 234 323 349 359 267 297 289 330 416 47« 304 287 439 393 43.-. 4«:> 303 361 485 237 2«3 21 354 407 374 488 I 402 441 I 381 374 3S3 474 409 462 499 452 468 457 501 4S9 523 458 449^ 464 417 , 431 517 438 449 498 422 454 462 426 445 471 4«4 446 459 367 443 625 527 568 489 579 561 509 546 529 529 407 392 530 425 474 416 560 549 519 513 422 395 I 679 547 440 447 417 421 423 468 42S 580 506 I2-l20. o •a 5 22 120 1,000 238 1,000 108 1,000 24 110 178 167 159 262 382 232 175 251 241 296 200 245 179 263 241 235 270 277 191 2S8 286 204 232 807 111 124 255 256 290 2R2 260 153 181 190 16S 160 204 183 171 174 149 200 190 155 1 137 188 252 : 177 223 173 154 192 157 162 ' 127 117 166 121 160 I 148 114 270 , 151 90 183 171 1 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 991 990 996 996 996 992 7 992 8 996 4 ! 989 11 988 , 11 993 6 993 I 6 ! 997 2 I 998 2 990 9 993 6 992 , 7 956 998 991 998 998 997 993 991 , 935 IS 9S7 12 934 63 1,000 893 956 960 1,000 923 943 982 967 978 962 1,000 1,000 969 991 999 1,000 964 921 047 069 936 906 946 950 I 987 990 ' 102 40 88 72 49 18 31 20 35 20 8 1 41 77 47 27 10 3 51 48 11 » 1,000 1,000 979 10 979 994 913 939 43 4 8 2 2 3 7 8 ■a I 25 26 996 896 993 993 970 987 991 767 912 819 , 708 778 963 963 814 741 678 661 902 538 3 I 597 . I 810 685 729 711 976 9S8 708 934 399 95G 611 600 680 lib 028 966 632 2 667 2 922 1 , 972 072 056 8S1 073 517 570 27 4 102 6 7 29 13 8 746 244 740 241 809 185 845 150 1 ! 8411 I 154 1 I 809 ' 185 1 673 313 . I 788 : 207 . 1 794 j 199 . I 723 I 270 1 741 247 1 817 17; 223 83 174 283 211 775 ; 215 643 347 848 145 1 707 281 44 251 309 879 113 812 178 612 368 956 ' 43 334 630 710 277 424 96 436 382 186 300 2S8 277 23 11 280 60 99 42 370 333 297 211 67 31 152 21 27 46 106 158 26 466 40g 28 14 7 7 10 5 7 9 11 10 10 ' 7 1 12 3 2 7 10 20 1 36 13 15 2 26 21 4 9 13 12 1 28 21 a s 29 . I 734 2 I 195 1 721 472 563 534 61 87 59 137 100 81 111 52 104 76 118 90 122 97 95 68 72 42 102 63 370 412 104 121 87 211 142 151 393 42 235 114 280 141 130 190 139 123 141 620 1 I 643 12 143 6 \ 330 302 429 128 30 268 750 265 457 614 418 427 843 802 877 812 829 844 824 832 882 862 815 803 818 809 809 844 779 876 835 830 595 552 815 791 808 733 789 809 591 907 724 833 ; 824 359 I 322 818 626 ; 679 ' 345 828 213 214 226 729 607 728 440 569 130 517 400 1 B3U 184 344 348 770 632 607, 406 65H 277 480 416 661 313 458 502 622 j 1.S6 132 797 813 5 20—40. 31 8 55 14 14 96 111 64 51 71 75 114 57 68 34 109 79 92 61 153 90 82 63- 107 36 36 81 88 105 66 69 40 18 51 41 832 64 695 25 807 I 62 807 63 780 30 828 . 35 39 35 12 35 39 44 19 26 44 50 80 4« 43 31 40 46 24 45 15 20 62 06 20 48 66 82 11 10 10 13 12 12 14 11 9 12 8 6 7 24 32 8 11 11 10 10 13 12 8 16 13 10 12 IS 17 15 12 11 44 85 12 12 12 10 12 23 21 24 70 60 13 16 20 18 23 47 14 26 46 11 12 83 84 865 110 737 263 851 107 877 830 831 824 713 608 732 800 734 719 667 801 727 839 686 720 716 715 811 690 695 742 718 861 848 707 711 676 762 744 877 860 860 859 874 842 883 853 856 880 850 854 830 828 858 771 862 796 857 856 806 862 790 820 891 870 876 844 862 862 742 786 868 868 803 86 150 140 155 278 380 284 101 258 270 323 189 260 149 302 266 273 276 299 181 304 293 250 273 326 115 122 286 278 313 228 246 110 128 132 125 113 143 125 124 128 105 138 135 117 107 132 217 128 194 131 121 173 114 134 111 06 115 104 138 126 01 244 138 88 181 125 40 AKO OTEE. 85 6 4 9 14 4 12 7 7 15 18 7 7 6 4 7 10 18 13 26 86 S 8 88 7 14 12 ■E 3 3 4 2 I 4 6 5 3 3 4 12 3 4 7 4 4 3 2 4 4 4 6 4 4 8 12 4 432 242 500 482 297 320 442 5 277 6 214 5 274 446 291 270 247 334 239 332 272 267 248 239 329 305 229 244 556 483 251 314 271 340 327 464 365 425 417 390 407 375 389 413 333 80 ' 87 440 443 464 i 4.16 409 I 663 565 496 513 701 652 718 730 721 649 708 727 749 664 753 664 721 739 713 749 759 667 730 748 689 767 752 436 505 745 678 726 854 866 630 671 565 461 533 339 657 457 I 634 439 i 547 435 561 465 523 Cash. 88 ASSAM. Ahom. 755 Jogh- Kachari (Hindu). Kachari (.^I'lnitt). KaliU. Kocli (Hindu). Ksliattriya (Maniputi) (Hindu). BENGAL. Ba^di. Baishnab. Barui. Bauri. Brahman. Dtioba (Hindu). Goala (Hindu). Hari. Jogi. Jotalia. Kaibartta, Chasi. Eaibartta, Jaliya. Eamar (Hindu). Kayastha. Malo. Muclii (Hindu). Namasudta. Nspit (Hindu). Pod. Kajbansi (Btmfu). Sadgop. S.«ilal (Hindu). Santal (Animxti). Sntradhar (Hindu). T&nti and Tatna (Hindu). Teli and TUi. BIHAK AND ORISSA. Babtian. BralmmD. Chnmiir. Chosa. Dhauuk. Dliobi (Hindu). Dhuniya. Oauni. Goalu (Ahlr). Hailam (Kapit) (Hindu). Ilnjjam (JfwuVman). Jotaha. 003 Kaliar. 586 Kalwar. 610 Kaiidb (Hi'nifu). 693 Kandh (Animitt). 680 KaDdu. 660 KayasUia. 372 I fl2.'» Kcwat. 314 682 , Khandayat. 449 , 544 Koiri. 632 644 633 630 466 429 458 [ 634 472 496 635 458 385 607 422 582 824 869 517 546 481 434 469 443 663 666 Kiirahar. Kiimil. Lobar (Hindu). ,M inula (Hindu). Miiiida (Animitt). Miii^jthar. Ntinlyn. Onioii (Hindu). Oraon (AnimiM). Tan (Hindu). Pan (AnimitO, ItnJ|tiit (Hindu). Sunlnl (Hindu). 8autal (Animitt). Tanti and Tatwa (Hindu). ToU and Till (Hindu). O 2 284 CHAPTER VII.— MA.RKIAGE. SUBSIDIARY Distribution by tivil condition ot 1,000 ot eatii DISTEIBUTION OF l.UOO MAXES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL CONDITION. CiSIE. BOMBAY. Asri Bfiarvad BhU Brahman KoU Kunbl . Lingayat Lohana . Mahar, HoUya or Dhed Maratha. -4 . BURUA. Arakanesa Chin KachiD . Karen . Shan Tailing . Tauni;thu Wa-Palaung C. p. AND BERAR. Ahir {Hindu) . Aliir (AnimisO Baniya Brahman Chamar Dhimar . Dhobi Gond (Hindu ) Gond (Animitt) Kalar Kunbi , Kurmi . Lodhi . Lobar . MaU Mi-hra . Rijput . Tcli MADRAS. Balija . Brahman (Tamil) Brahman (Telugu) Cticniman ChPtti . KaikolaD Kummalan K:imsala Kal'U Komatl. Mala Paraiyan Shaiian . Tiyan . Wllala . All aoss. 0—5. N.-W F. PROVINCE. \wan .... I'atlian .... PUNJAB. .Vsarwal (Hindu) Ahir .\rain (Mutalman) , 483 404 513 497 444 426 421 548 460 475 499 561 570 590 533 607 575 555 458 498 449 476 411 452 424 463 501 434 351 412 473 456 374 434 434 385 646 437 612 548 521 514 555 472 480 491 524 547 587 572 543 604 502 444 606 476 536 ! 464 427 491 517 496 391 500 469 397 395 389 368 392 360 364 377 500 465 476 452 553 605 535 464 519 584 542 481 499 670 528 512 675 406 503 441 409 435 425 411 434 482 46(1 445 428 378 3,«9 416 368 360 379 419 397 41 60 23 76 05 57 83 61 40 56 104 44 41 42 75 33 61 68 48 54 47 43 44 61 34 44 38 43 31 25 85 39 42 119 97 97 991 976 989 996 933 983 1,000 968 979 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1.000 i 995 993 991 994 976 993 996 990 985 991 990 989 998 fi98 998 1,000 993 998 999 tl97 ■'9!)7 999 999 998 9A9 1,030 'J98 1,000 1,0U0 8 22 11 5 16 30 32 21 5—12. 12—20. 993 7 991 9 984 16 992 8 996 6 996 4 999 1 999 I 1,000 976 885 979 984 1 912 2 900 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 937 962 965 962 885 947 917 969 I 980 I 1,000 991 I 990 I 993 I <.71 \ 953 i 993 980 993 999 999 996 005 997 381 978 962 I -p 20—40. 23 109 20 16 85 97 10 909 987 83 13 927 953 71 ' 46 1,000 1,000 1,000 .. 81 37 43 36 113 61 80 30 19 914 I 85 848 147 850 147 931 68 945 52 866 . 12.0 937 62 894 105 844 154 996 4 994 6 981 19 11 726 561 767 819 618 573 623 809 686 790 703 956 860 961 830 972 863 777 2 613 1 703 646 727 506 657 629 696 782 672 402 466 612 609 406 683 C06 377 947 740 737 926 852 833 945 726 730 12 270 420 229 172 365 412 351 187 306 205 263 41 136 37 121 27 113 208 378 291 338 264 480 327 462 292 211 416 575 524 381 361 676 405 383 612 52 257 269 69 146 163 64 264 266 980 956 925 912 942 802 194 808 1S9 923 76 655 , 32« 683 I SOI 744 I 244 13 40 AHD OTEK. 14 107 87 105 236 133 109 115 283 102 148 34 194 3 255 4 385 10 7 30 18 12 11 11 301 263 268 236 310 98 122 197 64 101 67 123 137 107 62 93 146 106 66 31 163 15 319 121 183 161 226 166 267 139 189 190 128 155 308 242 274 307 329 16 870 815 644 695 565 663 649 700 592 866 829 740 708 899 sei 832 826 860 876 862 814 853 892 887 701 914 657 854 791 784 740 790 707 832 789 783 848 828 674 703 702 859 34 869 44 874 ( 21 710 64 799 I 68 841 60 815 1 70 657 I 60 162 50 60 46 49 63 66 37 38 40 46 38 43 62 45 40 41 62 32 > 46 40 24 25 26 56 S4 44 26 29 22 27 24 17 13 65 24 644 49 640 31 246 639 , 115 209 701 I 90 214 692 94 17 18 20 18 824 796 883 71 689 22 767 31 792 18 67 20 28 71 106 71 67 232 84 10 19 16 19 22, 21 16 19 26 27 14 8 SS 3t 24 33 43 17 13 13 8 42 126 78 41 736 719 839 784 84 I 688 57 813 132 766 781 729 801 768 628 20 845 29 856 69 708 694 879 839 847 847 868 827 817 825 819 839 829 13 I 866 38 793 14 I 96S 65 787 35 786 66 761 851 7Si£ 847 824 820 870 892 613 (136 660 848 13(1 873 I 119 811 t H7 808 811 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 285 TABLE y.-coiitd. sex at cei'taiii ages for selected i-AStes—coutd, DISTEIUUTION OF 1,0U0 FEMALES OF EACH AGK BY CIVII, CONDITION. AU. A0B8. 20 343 243 425 289 302 25 S 404 278 294 310 347 314 348 397 316 221 288 323 351 266 321 296 278 345 258 236 407 364 432 407 Z55 I ?8S 26} ' 369 ! 4a4 I 456 437 408 4«6 458 332 514 569 489 459 545 560 246 377 524 460 278 273 528 490 4-5 937 144 80 42 4 11 9 401 525 610 596 464 381 Arora (Hindu). Awan. BUoch. 316 1 417 1 431 ; 545 476 455 139 107 114 998 999 999 2 1 1 795 937 967 201 61 32 4 2 1 176 396 576 806 594 417 19 11 7 5 20 30 901 908 910 94 72 60 3 5 10 466 537 341 531 468 449 Chamar (Hindu). Chulira. Jat (Iduaalman). 356 394 324 496 4S0 520 148 126 156 999 999 995 S 898 942 884 83 56 114 14 2 2 305 438 363 678 551 626 17 11 19 13 24 34 885 900 878 102 76 88 6 7 17 472 520 479 523 473 504 Jhinwar. Jalahji. Kanet. 3S9 359 o23 457 443 524 154 198 163 999 1.000 993 1 "2 959 943 894 40 49 103 1 8 3 485 403 238 501 676 743 14 21 19 22 8 3 883 £28 893 95 164 102 10 5 3 475 389 466 515 606 632 Kaslimirl (ilutaiman). Khatri (Hindu). Kumhar (Hindu). 415 319 414 463 529 471 122 152 115 1,000 996 1,000 4 960 870 955 39 126 44 1 4 1 479 256 47s 514 720 613 7 24 9 23 20 19 898 882 907 79 98 74 8 10 9 536 468 549 456 522 442 Kumhar (Mutalman). Lobar (Hindu). Lobar (Mumlman) 431 402 416 461 464 467 108 134 117 l.OPO 1,000 "1 974 959 963 26 39 35 "2 2 513 494 478 495 613 8 11 ■J 26 29 24 910 891 904 64 81) 72 10 10 8 570 514 651 420 476 441 Maclilii (Mueaiman). Mira-si (Mufa/man). Moclii (Musaiman). 317 407 413 513 470 453 170 123 134 998 1.000 1,000 2 916 953 971 81 45 28 3 2 1 267 473 543 70S 615 443 25 12 12 5 26 39 870 892 882 126 82 79 4 11 17 447 541 602 ' 549 ; 448 481 Nal (Hindu). Naj (ilutaiman). Pathan. 29-i 4a4 630 Banlvn. Dhll (AnimisO- Brahman. 421 352 367 440 500 447 189 148 186 969 963 S42 89 44 61 2 8 7 810 809 830 178 133 154 12 8 18 384 841 849 666 609 680 61 50 91 77 02 1 71 744 777 732 179 131 197 C2 43 85 546 532 437 , 3P2 425 478 Oond (Hfndu ). Gular. Rajput (fliniu). 288 CHAPTER Vn. — MARRIAGE. SUBSIDIARY Distribution by civil cuiiditiuii of 1,000 of each CASTS. DISIfilBUTION OP 1,000 MALES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL CONDITION. 1 ALU AGES. 0—5. B— 12. 12—20. 20—40: 40 ABO OVEB. 1 l-> 1 o .1 '3 1 ■s 1 13 ■i 1 i •6 1 •a a s a ■a 'E 1 •6 .a It a P 1 (.1 OS S ■g 1 P i 2 1 2 s 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 IS COCHIN STATE. « Uuvan ..... Indian Christian 660 652 406 412 34 36 1,000 1,000 1,000 998 "2 971 911 27 88 I 180 160 788 827 32 23 12 20 854 819 134 161 HYDERABAD STATE. Brahman .... Golla Eapu 410 447 439 642 530 538 48 23 23 988 989 992 11 10 7 1 1 1 912 937 906 85 59 92 3 4 2 445 597 610 648 388 388 7 15 2 129 84 81 851 899 895 20 17 24 25 23 9 800 908 916 176 69 75 KoU Komati . , . . - Lingayat 882 432 380 692 527 666 26 41 64 992 993 985 6 6 14 2 1 1 866 900 851 131 95 138 3 6 11 415 606 420 679 373 665 6 21 16 31 66 24 946 895 904 23 39 72 10 24 19 904 868 852 86 108 129 MadiRa and Mang . Mahar and Mala Uaratha .... 456 436 406 511 624 545 33 40 49 991 986 983 7 13 16 2 1 1 953 905 872 43 91 123 4 4 6 609 609 631 371 375 441 16 28 92 55 109 877 902 837 31 43 64 11 22 37 896 869 646 93 109 117 Munnur ..... Mutrasi ..... 8ale ..... 416 454 454 524 49S 507 60 48 39 976 995 993 23 6 7 1 850 974 935 145 25 64 5 1 1 491 704 624 480 283 354 29 IS 22 70 106 38 884 856 928 46 38 34 70 15 13 884 843 870 46 142 117 Sheikh Telaga 502 461 459 489 39 60 1,000 991 -9 985 966 14 33 1 1 877 698 115 2S1 8 21 205 112 786 844 29 44 26 11 855 844 119 145 KASHMIR STATE. Bat Brahman. .... 519 f 622 430 386 51 92 999 999 1 1 990 983 9 16 1 1 746 771 249 199 5 30 l60 333 791 591 49 78 23 112 796 644 181 244 MYSORE STATE. Beda Bcsta . . . . • Brahman .... 559 537 489 387 419 442 54 44 69 1,000 1,000 1,000 999 999 999 1 1 1 958 943 t.^1 43 56 117 331 247 174 642 726 787 27 27 39 52 29 51 763 821 720 185 150 229 GoUa Holeya Kuruba 551 651 535 396 405 418 53 44 47 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 999 999 1 1 957 95 s 942 42 41 67 354 308 250 620 664 723 26 28 27 41 36 25 789 814 816 170 150 159 Linpayat .... Madig'a 552 559 391 402 67 39 1,000 1,000 :: 1,000 999 "1 959 948 40 51 294 291 675 688 31 21 44 38 758 822 198 140 Sheikh Vakkaliga .... 567 540 398 416 35 44 1,000 1,000 .. 1,000 999 "1 966 951 33 48 291 270 885 704 24 26 21 27 854 825 125 148 RAJPUTANA AGENCY. Brahman .... Jat 493 499 4S3 412 4.11 439 95 70 78 909 998 997 1 2 3 979 960 950 20 38 49 1 2 1 752 734 709 237 255 279 11 11 12 272 223 223 655 710 707 73 67 70 110 65 67 616 730 694 274 215 249 Kurohar .... Mall 461 506 468 477 397 472 62 97 60 998 999 997 2 1 3 959 986 971 40 13 28 1 1 1 704 716 744 282 273 246 14 11 11 150 258 101 791 666 788 69 76 61 24 127 27 782 676 783 194 297 190 Mm Nai ..... .■-,03 .W2 470 431 443 450 66 55 80 1,000 990 999 "l 1 985 978 974 14 22 24 1 "2 760 767 745 230 226 242 10 7 13 150 218 209 783 736 721 67 46 70 34 49 45 762 708 721 214 183 234 Raiput Sheikh 578 480 368 461 63 69 999 999 1 1 989 988 10 30 1 2 895 772 100 216 5 12 407 220 649 721 44 59 156 45 644 761 200 204 Nayur . . . . 571 509 :i84 382 4.'> 49 1,000 1,000 999 999 1 1 900 971 86 25 4 4 242 322 709 624 49 64 13 22 834 833 163 145 Pulayan .... Shnnan .... 497 693 472 305 ' 31 42 1,000 1,0IM) i,oon 999 "1 918 945 77 60 6 5 203 295 771 609 26 36 12 15 888 834 100 151 SLB3IDIAUT TABLES. 289 TABLE M—conchh sex at certain aires for selected castes— coMcZrf. DISTRIBUTION' OF 1,000 FEMALES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL COXDITIOX. Alx ages. 460 459 246 2S0 270 254 294 284 332 324 290 233 295 330 354 336 409 304 411 387 290 419 375 31« 2'i7 2^^ 336 465 443 418 487 ■s ■E § 5 21 391 419 556 571 565 5S5 523 550 53S 543 642 607 571 546 4«5 503 502 458 409 425 447 412 416 430 398 413 422 423 464 534 S31 523 444 520 492 513 512 451 499 379 373 476 367 149 122 193 149 165 161 18S 166 130 133 168 160 134 124 161 161 1,000 1,000 24 238 180 188 263 204 177 199 229 148 159 202 136 152 188 261 165 156 184 106 146 971 982 975 978 980 988 1,000 989 999 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 263 997 158 i 995 169 ' 989 161 902 8 259 998 2 165 994 I 6 1,000 008 996 997 997 1,000 1,000 1.000 1,000 968 31 988 12 985 14 985 14 972 27 976 22 10 3 6 11 6—12. 997 992 633 723 646 596 684 603 1 740 1 713 2 688 385 743 732 932 750 959 821 966 961 903 969 975 959 967 964 985 961 eoi 844 840 869 946 887 957 931 895 044 806 096 096 901 27 3 Si 30f 382 254 273 288 64 243 40 174 96 154 157 42 68 102 53 101 28 353 12 271 347 7 16 8 15 6 12 24 604 11 246 ' 11 263 5 129 \ 2 62 I 2 111 2 12—20. 20—40. 29 680 589 41 18 120 49 221 198 110 223 213 63 112 147 433 253 274 171 441 425 54 463 516 411 434 458 429 439 S 148 2 158 S 180 176 203 186 1 890 1 238 8 176 286 308 710 677 550 760 30 31 305 403 886 950 849 896 726 705 847 726 700 864 819 535 713 702 771 543 334 882 518 468 571 543 325 556 544 800 827 , 799 I 80S 7S4 794 599 747 802 675 673 273 304 428 222 73 32 31 55 53 97 43 51 87 41 24 34 32 34 16 21 64 19 16 18 23 17 15 17 62 15 21 19 48 20 11 15 22 30 10 32 36 41 33 814 875 34 130 84 780 835 830 3 ! 864 14 791 16 1 830 857 872 842 880 881 862 843 772 807 858 827 907 911 884 802 878 776 777 8«S 800 40 A>-D OTER. 35 212 143 148 133 193 134 130 107 137 124 116 106 93 135 789 141 805 151 745 i 253 829 131 803 142 830 150 211 114 122 156 778 218 90S ' 90 894 lOS 900 ! 95 757 1 239 889 104 86 84 110 189 lOo 148 149 69 lit 933 5^ I 10 756 225 11 IS 28 20 36 405 443 S o 3 37 458 503 369 620 547 546 478 483 601 335 365 366 293 338 582 334 304 425 402 337 334 438 433 431 324 431 494 432 402 306 427 413 360 492 360 Caste. 586 541 88 COCBIK STATE. 515 482 507 492 501 497 539 488 421 377 448 432 469 523 545 [ 453 595 396 512 499 HuvaQ. Indiau Christian. HYDERABAD STATE. Br-iliraun. GoUa. Eapu. Koli. Komati. Lingayat. Madiga and Mang. Slahar and Mala. Maratha. Munnur. Mutrasi. Sale. Sheikh. Tclaga. KASHMIR STATE. Bat. Brahman. MYSORE STATE. 580 ! Bedo. 606 ! Besta. 707 I Brahman. 634 GoUa. 596 Holeya. 637 , Eurubs^ I 689 linEayat. 529 I Madiga. 590 6S8 664 560 666 667 674 567 Sheikli. Vakkaliga. RAJPUTANA AGENCY. Briilimair. Gujar. Jat. Kumhar. Blahajan. Slnll. 504 Meo. 5411 Mina. 696 .Nal. 691 Rajput. 562 Sbelkb. 674 611 486 620 TRAVANCOR^ STATE. Ilha villi. Nayar. Vuliyan BlmDAD. C r 490 CHAPTER Til — MARRIAGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI. Pro])ortioii who are iiiarricd and \vid(»wed at ccrtaiii ages. XUMBEB PEB 1,000 AGED 0—10 WHO ARE 5IARUIED. FBonncE, State ob Agency. INDIA Ajmer-Mervrars Assam Beugal Bihar and Orissa Bombay . Burma Central Provinces and Coorg Madras N.-W. F. Province Punjab United Provinces Baroda State Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State . Mysore State . Rajputana Agency Travancore State INDIA. Ajmer-Merwara Assam . , Bengal Bihar and Orissa Bombay . Burma Central Provinces and Coorg Madi-as X.-W. F. Province Punjab United Provinces Haroda State Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State . Mysore State . liajpntana Agency Travancore State Berar Berar Males. 1911. 29 18 2 7 77 35 3 29 1 6 2 12 30 80 47 25 6 11 1 9 12 1 7 41 10 1 12 2 2 1 . 5 18 26 32 10 5 10 1901. 28 25 3 6 80 25 3 28 i 5 32 66 49 26 7 21 1 10 19 3 8 40 11 1 18 6 2 22 87 25 20 7 1 18 1 Females. 1891. : 1881. 1 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 28 30 2 5 67 31 27 4 6 17 25 1 21 9 15 1 7 37 10 9 4 3 15 40 12 30 7 1 5 80 28 2 31 1 8 U 23 73 27 9 9 2 7 43 9 10 13 34 27 74 70 in (111. 70 45 07 73 14 18 16 G4 75 89 132 138 122 1(.9 83 113 8 3 99 84 95 2 3 7 31 27 36 5 32 l. 48 59 61 53 144 108 173 77 86 1 1 12 127 107 126 51 46 4 10 26 35 57 2 2 3 35 29 9 47 86 25 27 5 7 3 14 42 51 55 27 19 2 30 41 13 61 90 28 27 5 11 19 38 68 3 40 Miisalman 39 43 30 12 57 89 26 1 39 3 7 10 43 113 51 1 42 20 5 28 2 9 87 48 8 103 147 103 2 120 43 37, 53 171 134 XrMBEK PEu 1,g0O Ar.ED 15—40 wno aee widowed, Males. Females. 19 34 8 73 106 26 6 14 15 35 72 57 1911. 10 44 63 54 31 49 40 25 39 32 21 54 72 64 66 54 29 26 52 22 50 36 38 57 31 22 42 13 31 4'i 22 23 35 57 62 57 57 21 21 36 18 47 30 1901., 1891. 11 47 80 54 31 41 63 26 61 46 24 50 51 107 82 26 42 41 30 83 41 34 56 29 23 36 48 34 49 22 22 38 46 103 77 23 32 31 26 61 30 12 36 34 40 33 41 33 23 38 32 18 59 48 37 12 27 26 10 33 34 22 22 35 36 28 35 15 13 47 45 36 10 21 18 12 1881. 13 42 35 34 37 38 47 28 42 52 26 50 54 42 39 56 32 35 15 22 33 42 37 38 26 17 36 51 43 35 31 1911. 1901. j 1891. 1881 14 124 99 158 224 125 117 43 78 132 120 108 106 104 112 119 122 101 .150 133 108 104 94 77 1(9 113 123 85 63 94 140 119 58 65 73 106 104 97 81. 51 90 78 85 15 137 135 181 240 120 148 56 125 149 131 102 182 160 110 133 144 142 152 99 98 80 131 120 130 101 69 128 153 119 [ 59 73 172 138 92 106 52 100 113 72 16 123 71 168 257 114 96 61 80 134 128 127 92 80 55 105 154 44 103 64 115 126 126 77 80 96 119 lai 89 69 89 64 98 106 43 17 142 84 141 280 112 136 58 85 183 164 100 96 101 138 238 110 83 100 139 130 105 76 101 174 126 68 78 110 134 174 Note.— The proportions for and Travancore. ProTincoa inclndu tlioeo U,r tho Xativo stales attached to them, except in the caeo of Madras, where they oxcludo Cochin 1 CHAPTER VIM. i'diieatioii. Introductory Remarks. 3-19. In 1891 the population was divided in respect of education into three Tho scope of the categories, viz., learning, literate and illiterate. The instructions issued were "*"'"°' as follows : — Enter against each person, whether grown-up child or infant, either learning, literate ox' illiterate. Enter all those as " learning " who are under instruction, either at home or at school or college. Enter as " literate" those who are able both to read and write any lan- guage, but who are not under instruction as above. Enter as " illiterate ''' those who are not under instruction, and who do not know how to both read and write, or who can read but not write. Of who can sign their own name, but not read. When the results were compiled it was found that the return of the learning was vitiated by the omission at the one end of children who had not been long at school, and at the other of many of the more advanced students, who returned themselves as literate. There were thus marked discrepancies between the number of persons recorded as under instruction and the corre- sponding statistics of the Education Department. In his Report the Census Commissioner, Sir Athelstane Baines, recommended the abandonment of the distinction between those under instruction and those able to read and write but no longer in a state of pupilage. At the next census, therefore, the popula- tion was divided into two broad classes, literate and illiterate. The instruc- tion to the enumerators was as follows : — Enter in this column against all persons of whatever age, whether they can or cannot both read and write anv lauffuage. No orders were issued by the Census Commissioner as to the degree of pro- ficiency in reading and writing which shoitld be held to qualify a person to be entered as literate. In the Central Provinces it was laid down locally that only those persons should be so entered who had passed the Upper Primary school examination, or possessed equivalent educational qualifications ; and in Madras only those who were able to write a letter to a friend and read his reply. Elsewhere the practice seems to have varied, not only from province to pro'- vince, but also from district to district, according to the idiosyncracies of the local census staff. In some parts criteria similar to those mentioned above appear to have been taken, while in others persons were entered as literate who could do little more than write their own name and spell out a few simple printed words. 350. At the present census the information collected was the same as in- 1901, Intt the wording of the instruction was slightly altered : — Enter against all persons who can both read and write any language the word "literate." Against persons who cannot read and write any language make a cross in this column. This rule was supj^lementcd by the explanation given in Madras in 1901, that only those persons should be entered as literate who could write a letter to a friend and read his rejjly. It will appear furtlier on that the ajiplication of this !?taudard luis made it somewhat diHicult to gauge the progress of edu- cation during the decade by a comparison of the results of the present, with those of the preceding, census. It is unfortunate that this should l)e so, but it is obviously desirable that we should be able to say exactly what is meant by our statistics ; and this we arc now able to do for the first time. Moreover, even if the above standard liad not been laid down, there would still have been room for doubt as to the comparability of the present figures Avith those of 1901. The latter, as noted above, depended on the interpretation of the rule h\ individual census officers, and it Avould be very rash to say that those in each district or part of a district would have construed it exactly as their pre- decessors did ten years ago. 2 p 2 292 CHAPTER VIII. — EDi: CATION. A further small difference as compared with the previous enumeration remains to be noted. On that occasion the standard form of schedule provided for the entry of the vernacular languages which literate persons could read and write. The information thus obtained, though important in one or two pro- vinces where there ai'e rival scripts, was not found to be of any general value. On the present occasion, therefore, the question was omitted from the general instructions, but Local Governments were allowed to insert it shovild they wish to do so. This was done only in the United Provinces, the Punjab, Kashmir, Mysore and Travancore. As in 1901, a record was made of the persons able to read and write English. uatila.^"^ *" **'*' 351. The information thvis obtained has been embodied in Imperial Tables Vni and IX. Table VIII shows the number of literate and illiterate persons of each sex and religion classified under the age-i')eriods '0-10,' '10-15,' '15-20,' and '20 and over,' and Table IX their distribution by caste. In both tables figures are given for persons literate in English. The main aspects of the statistics are brought out more clearly by means of proportional fignres in the first six Subsidiary Tables at the end of this Chapter, viz- : — I. Education by age, sex and religion, II. Education by age, sex and locality. III. Education by religion, sex and locality. ** IV. English education by age, sex and locality. V. Progress of education since 1891. VI. Education by caste. Two other tables contain jiarticulars regarding the number of schools and pupils iu the last three census years, and the main results of the University examinations, viz. : — VII. Number of institutions and pupils according to the returns of the Education Department. VIII, Main results of University examinations in 1891, 1901 and 1911. Extent of Ut eracy General Review. 352. Of the total population of India, only 59 persons per mille are literate in the sense of being able to write a letter to a friend and to read his rei:)ly. The number who can decipher the pages of a printed book with more or less difficulty is no doubt much larger. Throughout India there are many Hindus who, though unable to write, can drone out at least the more familiar parts of the Mahdbhdrata or Rdmayana to their neighbours, who feel that it is meritorious to listen to the recital of the sacred texts, even though they, and possibly the reader also, may not always full}^ understand the meaning. Similarly there are many Muliammadans, especially in Northern India, who can read the Koran, though they cannot write a word. Of this minor form of literacy the census takes no count. The number of persons who are literate in the sense in Avhich the term was used at the present census is divided very unequally between the two sexes ; of the total male population, 106 per mille are able to read and write, and of the female, only 10. In other words there is only one literate female to every eleven males. In the last Census Report (paragraphs 273 to 275) I pointed out that the causes of the general illiteracy prevailinof in India are to be found in the history of the country and the social conditions of the people. Prior to the advent of the British, the idea of State-aided education was practically unknown. The country had been for centuries in an unsettled condition, and the common people were sunk in the deepest ignorance. Under the caste system, the learned jnofessions were the monopoly of a few castes, and in the law books the imjjai-ting of knowledge to Sudras was forbidden. The influence of this state of things still survives. The great mass of the people, who live by agriculture and manual labour, are indifferent to the advantages of education, while tiioy need the help of their children in looking after their cattle, etc. Though an improvement is taking place in many parts of India, low caste children are still far from welcome in the village school ; and if admitted, are made to sit in the verandah. Efforts have been made of late years to offer .special facilities for the education of the depressed classes. 353. If we leave out of account childi-en under 15 years of age, the number of literate males per mille is 149, and that of literate females 13. The proportion of literate females is highest, 21 per mille, at the age ' 15-20,' and it falls to 12 per mille at ' 20 and over.' Amongst males, on the other liand, the proportioji rise GENERAL EEVl^:^'.. 203 ■continuously from 12 per mille in the age-period '0-10' to 95 per mille at '10-15,' lil. at '15-20' and ] 50 at ' 20 and over.' The steady rise in the proportion up to the age-period ' 15-20 ' is readily intelligible, ])ut it is not so clear why there sliould be a further rise amongst persons aged ' 20 and over. ' It will be seen further on that education is steadily spreading ; and it would seem, therefore, a pi'iori that the projiortion who are literate between the ages of 15 and 20, /. e., amongst persons who have just passed the ordinary school-going age, should be larger than that amongst older persons, many of whom ]iassed the school-goiug age at a time when the opportunities for learning were far smaller than they are now. Three reasons may be adduced to account for this apparent anomaly. The first is that, even at the age of 15, a boy's (Hlueation is sometimes not sufficiently comjilete to qualify him to be classed as literate in the sense of being able to write a letter and to read manuscript. The second is that, in the case of youths, the enumerators were perhaps apt to be stricter than at the higher ages, when they would more readily accept an affirmative answer to the question " Can you both read and write ? " Thirdly, amongst the trading classes, who generally have a large proportion of literate persons, the knowledge is picked up gradually in the course of business, and a youth may often be 20 years of age, or even older, before he is fully competent to read and write. The fact that amongst females the proportion who are literate at the age-period ' 15-20 ' is much greater than at the higher ages admits of ready explanation. Until recently, very little encouragement was given to females to keep up their previously-acquired knowledge after marriage, and many soon forgot what they had learnt at school. But the main reason no doid^t is that at the present time education is spreading very rapidly amongst them, and the number who are being taught in the schools now is very much larger than it was even a decade ago. Education by Diagram skucinr/ the number of persons per mille in each Province, etc., kJio are literate. 354. Thanks to the free instruction imiDarted in the monasteries and the ab- j^^^m^ sence of the parda system ^vhich hampers the education of females in other parts of India, Burma easily holds the first place in respect of literacy. In the whole population 222 persons per mille are literate, and the proportion rises to 314 amongst persons over 15 years of age. In every thousand persons of each sex, 376 males and 61 females are able to read and write. Of the other main British jn'ovinces, Bengal and j\Iadvas come next with 77 and 75 literate jier- sons per mille respectively.* Bomljay follows closely on their heels. Then, after a long interval, come Assam, Bihar and Orissa and the Punjab. At the bottom of the list are the United Provinces and the Central Provinces and Berar, with 34 and 33 literate persons per mille respectively. Dilfcr- ences similar to those noticed above sometimes have their counterpart within provincial boundaries. Thus, in Bihar and Orissa, the Orissa natural division has 01- literate persons per mille, and the Chota Nagpur plateau only 28. In the Central Provinces and Berar, the jiroportion ranges from only 6 per mille in the Chota Xagpur States to 54 in the Nerbudda valley. Education is more widely diffused in British provinces than in the Native States, which, taken as a whole, have only 79 males and S females per milk- who are literate, as compared with 113 and 11 in British territory. The three Native States of Cochin, Travancore and Baroda, however, take rank above ail British provinces except Burmat; while in respect of female education INDIA -^//'//W/^ AJMEfl-MERWARA m ' -^—^ ASSAM . _! BALUCHISTAN BENOAL 1 , , . , y ' < .y^ * BIHAHIORISSA BOWSAY BURV4 ■■■MMT -~ CP.iatRAR ^^^1 CXRG '";■' ,•:••■, //•/.■I MADRAS rP--' . ' ■•'/-: N-V* r.FPOV-NCE: L--'--'''-^ PUNJAB , !>■ "•■■-■ UMTEO PROVINCES ;■/////.{ BARXA V7 ■;,'"•;'•.. CENTRAL INDIA [;"■■■■ CXH'i II 1 \\<\ .-/y-'/yy- HVCEPA8A0 \r'~ KASHWIP .- w .sont RAJPUT ANA SWIU TRAVANCqSE 1 :z 2 :o 3 CO 330 • These proportions, lilie those taken for the puqmfe of the aliove diagram, inclndc States in politiwl lo- lation with Local Governments, except in the case of Madras, where they cxcliulo Cochin and Travancoiv. t These States have a population comparable with that of districts lathor than provinces. Kven fr.mj this stand i>oint, Cuchin and Travancore have few rivals, but there are many districts in the Bcn^'al, liiimhay and MadraH Presidencies which have a larger proportion of literate persons than liarods. 294 CHaPTEK vni. — EDUCATION. Uales. Females. Cochin divides with Burma the honours of first place. The Kashmir State^ Avliere only 21 persons per mille can read and write, is in this respect the most backward part of India. In connection Avith this comparison of the results in diflferent provinces it is necessary to bear in mind ilie standard on which the statistics collected at the census are based. If it had been a higher one, the relative position of the different provinces would have been materially altered. In Burma, for example, where there is the largest proportion of persons alile to read and write, there are comparatively few who have received a University education or studied in a High or Middle school. 355. Males bulk so largely in the total nmnber of literate persons that the diffusion of education amongst them corresponds very closely to that in the Map shomn; umbtT of iiterato j persuiis per 1.000 of ca.b 1 sex. 1 Prorince State Total or Agency. popolation. Cities. Males Ff Males males Fe- males India ■ 106 10 303 91 Bensral 140 11 ;W9 146 Bihar and Orissa 76 4 252 ■u Bombay 120 U 2'i3 99 Burma 376 61 •179 280 Central Provinces 62 3 260 50 ABerar. Madras 138 13 432 108 Punjab 63 6 214 62 United Provinces 61 5 198 41 Hvderabad State 51 4 239 44 Kashmir State . 38 1 153 22 Mrsore State 112 13 354 118 Rajputana Agency 59 2 190 13 Note. — Places with a population lOU.OOO and upwards, arv treated as cities. Education by llgion. Re- ALL RELIGIONS '////// 3 HINDU \////A 1 SIKH y////// J 1 BUDDHIST ^^/^/ y/////y y////A '////// 1 ZOROASTRIAN ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ '//////, V///\ MUSALMAN '' / / /\ CHRISTIAN '^^^^y// V///A ANIMISTIC IC .s- -H 2C jO bOO 400 500 6C FEMALES 7L )0 800 MALE '/////A HHH 359. Tlie Christians (22 per cent, literate) are almost on a par with the Buddhists, but in their case the inequality between the position of the two sexes is much smaller, the jiroportion of literate females Jieing nearly half that of males. In order to ascertain how far the high position of Cliristians is due to the inclusion of Eurojjcans and Anglo-Indians, the figures for Indian Christians Comparison wltb 1901. 296 CHAPTER VIII. — EDUCATION. have been worked out separately. The result is somewhat surprising ; foi- although the Indian converts to Christianity are recruited mainly from the aboriginal tribes and the lowest Hindu castes, who are almost wholly illiterate, they have, in proportion to their numbers, three times as many literate persons as the Hindus and more than four times as many as the Muhammadans. One Indian Christian in six is able to read and write ; for males the proportion is one in four, and for females one in ten. The influence of Christianity on education is strikingly illustrated by the figures for the province of Bihar and Orissa, where the proportion of Indian Christians who are literate is 76 per mille, comi-)ared with only 5 per mille amongst their Animistic congeners. It has to be remembered, moreover, that many of the Indian Christians had already passed tlie school-going age at the time of their conversion ; the propor- tion who are able to read and write must be far higher amongst those M'ho were brought up as Christians. 360. The Sikhs come next in order of merit, with one literate person in every fifteen ; for males the ratio is one in ten, and for females one in seventy. Here again, while the proportion for males shows only a slight improvement, that for females has doubled during the decade. The Hindus have almost as large a proportion of literate males per mille (101) as the Sikhs, but fewer literate females (8). The Muhammadans, with only 69 and 1 per mille respect- ively, stand at the bottom of the list, except for the Animistic tribes, of whom only 11 males and 1 female in a thousand of each sex are able to read and write. The low ])osition of the Muhammadans is due largely to the fact that they are found chiefly in the north-west of India, Avhere all classes are backward in respect of education, and in Eastern Bengal, where they consist mainly of local converts from a depressed class. In the United Provinces, Madras and the Central Provinces and Berar they stand above or on an equality with the Hindus, and the same is the case in Bombay excluding Sind. In Siud the Muhammadan population is exceptionally illiterate, but in the rest of the Presidency it consists largely of traders, and education is much more widely diifused amongst them than amongst Hindus. The figures for Hindus again are a general average for all castes, high and low. It will be seen further on that some of the higher Hindu castes are better educated than the Buddhists, while others are even less so than the Animists. 361. The general instruction, which was issued for the first time at the present census, that no one should be regarded as literate unless he could WTite a letter to a friend and read his reply, though very necessary for the sake of uniformity and precision, renders it difficult to institute any effective comparison with the results obtained in 1901. In most provinces no general instruction was then given as to the degree of proficiency in reading and writing which should qualify a person to be shown as literate. The decision was left to the local ofiicers, and there is nothing to show what standard was applied ; it probably varied not only from district to district, but also from charge to charge and from block to block. It is, however, tolerably certain that in 1901 the standard was generally a lower one. In the absence of any definite test there can be no doubt that many persons were then entered as literate who would not have been so entered on the present occasion. It is impossible in any other way to explain the large decrease (from 151 to 12? per mille) in the proportion of literate males in Orissa. In that tract, owing to the influence of tlie Vaishuava faith, many persons learn to read the scriptures of the sect Init pay less attention to the art of writing ; and some of these have evidently dropped out of the i-etui'n. Special enquiries made in an Assam district proved conclusively tliat the new standard was much higher tlian that applied ten years ago ; and Mr. Blunt shows that the same was the case in the United Provinces. Further confirmation of this view is afforded by a comparison of the I'csults of the two enumerations in Madras, where the standard now laid down for all India was prescribed in 1901 by the Provincial Superintendent. In the whole of India excluding Madras the number of persons returned as literate "xcecds l)y only 16 per cent, the number so returned in 1901, but in ]\Iadras the increase is no less than 28 per cent. If this comparison can be taken as a guide to the real rate of increase in the number of literate persons througliout India, it follows that it is at least 50 per cent, greater tlian would ai)pear from tlie returns. This should be borne in mind in appraising the figures noted below, which refer to the census returns as they stand. GENERAL REVIETV. 297 The total numhev of literate persons has risen during the decade from 15'7 to IS'6 millions, or by 18 per cent. Tlie number of literate males lias increased by 15, and that ol' literate females by 61, per cent. The pi'oportioii Avho are literate per thousand males has risen from 98 to 106 and the correspond- inu; proportion for females from 7 to 10. If persons under 15 years of age be excluded, the proportions are 138 and 119 for males and 8 and 13 for females. The great improvennmt in the proportion of literate females is most encourag- ing. It is true that too nuich stress should not he laid on this when the actual number is still so small, but, on the other hand, it must be remeudieriHlthat the rate of increase was equally great in the previous decade, so that it has now been continuous for twenty years. 'J'he total number of females over 15 years of age who can read and write is now a million and a quarter compared with less than half a million twenty years ago. 362. In endeavouring to gauge the progress made in the campaiiiii against illiteracy, the age-period ' 15-20 ' is a critical one. It includes those who have just passed the age when the art of reading and writing is usually learnt ; and the proportion who are literate at this time of life may be taken as n measure gf the effectiveness of our schools. In the whole of India the proportion per mille of literate males aged • 15-20 ' ha* risen during the decade from 132 to 144. and that of literate females from 14 to 21. In both cases the rate of increase is much the same as amongst older persons. In view of the greatly increased number of schools and pupils this result is somewhat unexpected. It may be ascribed partly to the fact already alluded to, that the enumerators were more critical when appraising the literary qnaliflcations of adolescents, than they were when dealing with adults, and partly to the circumstance that the rapidly increasing circulation of vernacular newspapers and cheap literature, and the growing recognition of the advantages of a knowledge of reading and ^vl•iting have resulted in more persons keeping up their knowledge of that accomplishment than was formerly the case. Of the main British provinces, Assam, ]\Iadras and Bengal are the only three where there has been a marked improvement since 1901 in the proportion of literate males. In several Native States, especially Cochin, Travancore and Mysore, the improvement is more noticeable, but in others, such as Hyderabad and the Central India Agency, the proportion is lower now than it was ten years ago. In the case of females the progress has been more general. Of the British provinces it is most marked in the Punjab and the United Provinces, where the proportion who can read and write has more than doubled. But if we take into account the actual as well as the propoi'tional figui'es, the best results of all are shown by three Native States. In Baroda thr number of literate females per mille has risen from 8 to 21, in Travancore from 31 to 50, and in Cochin from 45 to 61. 363. It will be interesting to compare briefly the statistics of the census rctu?"o°°Edao*a^ with those of the Education Department. The number of pupils in the different "on Department. classes of educational institutions in the main British provinces in each of tlie last three census years is shown in Subsidiary Table VII. As boys go to school at different ages and remain there for different lengths of time, it is impo.ssible to establish any definite relation Ijetween the attendance on a given date and the proportion of the persons of school-going age who thus become literate. One boy may go, say, at the age of 6 and pursue his studies until he -is 25. while another may go at 13 and give uj) his studies Avithin tlie year, without having acquired any knowledge Avorth mentioning. In order to ascertain Iioav many of the pupils at school at any given time become literate, it would be necessary to . know bow many years it takes to acquire the art, what ])roportion of the pupils attend school for at least this period, and what is the average length of time for Avhich siTch pupils continue their studies. Another dilTiculty lies in tlie fact tliat these statistics exclude children reading in indigenous institutions outside the jurisdiction of the Department of Public Instruction, and also those who learn to read and write in their own homes. Pinally, there arc many who acquire tlie art in tlieir youth but, for Avant of jiractice, forget Avhat tli(>y bave learnt in tlie course of a fcAV years. For all these reasons it Avould be idle to expect a definite relation betAveen tlie number of pu])ils and the number nf literate persons. 364. At the same time it may be of interest to compare tiie tAVo sets of statistics. And the best way of doing so is perhaps by considering, on the one band, («) the proportion Avliich pupils in the various educational institu- tions bear to the total number of persons in the age-period ' 10-15,' Avhich 2q 29S CHAPTER Ttll. — ^EDTTCATIOX. Education by caste Xumber of pupils per Number per 1,(H)0 Province. 1,000 per- sons aged ■ 10-15.' JH I a Oils aged'15-20' who are literate. 1 *> 3 India . "235 91 Assiim 252 69 Bengal 31G 100 Bihar and Orissa- 186 59 Bombay 429 10.5 Burma 312 200 C. P. and Berar . 235 64 M.idras 254 107 X.-W. F. Province. 134 51 Punjab 154 R4 United Provinces . 121 50 corresponds fairly closely to the (primary) school- goin;? niije, and on the other, (b) the proportion which those who were returned at the census as literate at the ensuing age-period, which contains those Avho have just passed the time of life when that art is usually learut, hear to the total number of persons of that age-period. 01 all the provinces, there is a fairly two figures. Note. — The proportions refer only to British territory. Burma is the only one where close coi'respondence between the Elsewhere the proportion of literates to pupils ranges from about two-fifths in Madras aud the United Provinces to one-fourth in Bombay and the Central Provinces and Berar. Apart from the reasons already given for the want of correspon- dence between the two sets of figures, there is of course the further one that many of the children at school are under 10 or over 16 years of age, so that the proportion shown in column 2 is somewhat misleading. But it is to be feared that the chief explanation is that many of the pupils in primary schools never attain the requisite standard of proficiency. The reason why in Burma tht^re is not the same disproj)Ortion as elsewhere is that in that province many persons learn to read aud write in the monasteries, and of these the education depart- ment takes no couut. It must be remembered that the second column of the above statement is calculated on the total number of children under instruction, and not on the number of children who are actually at school for a period of at least five years, which is the minimum necessary for an adequate course of primary instruction. The Hon'ble i\Ir, Sharp informs me that the average duration of school life is rather less than four years ; and he calculates that if a quinary period from the completion of the fifth to the completion of the tenth year be taken, the proportion per mille of children at school for a minimum period of five years would bn 148. This compares much more favourably with the 91 per mille who are literate in the age-period ' .15-20.'' 365. Before leaving these statistics of schools and scholars we may glance briefly at the progress which they show is being made. The total number of scholars in all kinds of educational institutions in 1891 was only 3"7 millions. In 1901 it had risen to 4--1, and in 1911 to 6*3,mi]lions. Mr. Sharp calculates that 17'7 per cent of the population of school-going age were at school in 1912 as compar- ed with 14"8 per cent, in 1907. Between 3 891 and 1911 the number of students in secondary schools and Arts Colleges has doubled, and the number in primary schools has increased by 67 per cent., the proportion ranging from 39 per cent, in Bombay to 204 per cent, in the United Provinces. It will be seen from Sub- sidiary Table VIII, which shows the main results of University examinations, that excluding Madras, where a school final examination has recently taken the place of the Matriculation, or Entrance, examination of the University, the number of persons passing that examination has risen from 4,079 in 1891 to 10,512 in 1911. Including Madras the number who passed the Intermediate examination in Arts or Science has risen during the same period from 2,055 to 5,141, and that of those who obtained a degree in Arts, Science, Medicine or Law from 1,437 to 5,373. The general conclusion appears to be that, while the general rate of progress is far greater than would appear from a comparison of the census returns of 1901 and 1911, it is most marked in respect of secondary education. 366. The main features of Imperial Table IX. — Education by Caste, Tribe or Race — have been reduced to proportional figures for some of the main castes in Subsidiary Table VI. The castes are there arranged in order of merit. In southern India the Brahman leads the v/ay, but elsewhere this is not so. In Bengal he is surpassed by the Baidya, Suliarnabanik and Agarwal ; in the United Provinces by the Kayastha, Agarwal and Saiyid ; in Bihar and Orissa by the same three communities and the Karan ; and in the Punjab by the Khatri, Agarwal and Arora. The castes that compete with him most closely are either writer castes, like the Kayastha and Karan, or trading castes such as Agarwal and Khatri. As a rule, the high, castes stand at the top, and the low castes at the bottom, but a great deal depends on their occupation. The Eajput, or warrior caste, often has a smaller proportion of literate persons than many comuuinitics of much lower social status ; while low castes, such as Teli, Shaha, Kalwar and Pod, often take a much higher position than would be expected from tlieir social rank. In some cases this is Ijecause they have adopted trade as their means of livelihood, for which a knowledge of reading and writing is MAIN RESULTS BY TROTINCES AND STATES. 299 almost essential. In others it is accounted for hy a recent rise in their material position -which has not yet 1 ad time to aflect their social status. The statement that the diffusion of education tends to vary with the social precedence of t'le dill ei eat castes must be qualified by the remark that it refers only to a gi^en locality. Low castes in advanced provinces often have a larger pro'portion of literate persons than high castes in backward ones: many Sudra and even lower castes in Bengal have a larger ]iroportiou of literate per- sons than the Brahmans of the Punjab or tbe United Provinces. It is also worthy of note that some of the depiessed castes are now- makiiiij rapid progress. A notable instance of this is furnished by the Paraiyans of Madras, who have now nearly three times the proportioli of literate persons than they had only ten years ago. In the south of India, as a general rule, the Bnlhmaus have the largest proportion of literate females, but further north various castes excel them in this respect. In Bihar and Orissa and the "United Provinces female education has made most pr< gress amongst the Kfiyasthas, and in Bengal amongst the Baidyas. As a general rule, the trading castes have comparatively few literate females, but an exception must be made in favour of the Khatris in the Punjab and of the Subarnabaniks in Bengal. 367. In the whole of India 17 uiillion persons are literate in English. 01 l^l^j^ every ten thousand persons of each sex, 95 males and 10 females possess this kno\vle<. Tlie early age at which education commences among the Brabraos is shown by the fact tliat nearly one-tbird of their children under 10 years of age are literate. Among Cinistian cliildren at the same age-period tlte proportion is about one-sixth. The relative position of the different religious communities is much the same for both sexes, but while 21 per cent, of the Hindu males are literate as compared with 8 per cent, among the Muliammadins, tlie corresponding pro- portion for Hindu females (2 per cent.) is ten times as large ns that for Muha- madan females. Of the various Hiiidu castes, tin- Baidya is the best educated, 53 percent, of its total strength being literate. It is followed by the Subarua- banik (45 per cent.), Agar wal (42 per cent.), Brahman (40 per cent.) and Kayaatha (35 p. r cent.). The superiority of the Baidya easte is due partly to the exceptionally large number of females (35 per cent.) who are able to read and write. Tbe proportion of literate Subarnabauik females is cnly half as great, and that of Brahman and Kayastha females about a third. The high position of the Subarnabanik caste from an educational standpoint is somewhat surf>ris- ing, in view of its relatively low social status. One reason is that it is a tradin? easte and is resident chiefly in Calcutta and other large centres, but another no doubt is to be found in the fact that it held a much higher social position until its degradation at the bands of Balliil Sen, the great caste maker and caste breaker of East Bengal. Among Musalmans the Saiyids lead the way with about one literate person in five. Next to them, strange to say, come tlie Jolahas with about one-fourth of the above proportion. 371. Two per cent, of the male, and 1 per mille of tbe female, population are literate in English. No less than a quarter of the total number of persons knowing this language are found in the city of Calcutta, where about 20 per cent, of the males and 6 per cent, of the females can read and write it, and one-fifth in the three metropolitan districts already mentioned. The Hrahmos are more advanced than any other indigenous religious community. Ao less than tkree-fifths of them know English. The Indian Christians come next with 1 in II. Of the Hindus 2 per cent, know English, and of the Mubam- madans only 3 per mille. As usual the proportions vary greatly in the different Hindu castes. More than one-fifth of the Subarnabaniks and the Baidyas can read and write English. Tbe Brabmans, with barely half this proportion, come next, and then the Kayasthas. Many of the low castes possess scarcely any English-knowing persons at all. During the decade the number of literate persons has risen by 21 per cent. The increase would have been much greater but for the fact, already more than once alluded to, that a stricter interpretation Avas placed at this census on the meaning of the word "literate." It is worthy of note that, while the number of literate males has risea by less than 20 per cent., that of literate females shows an increase of 56 per cent. Tbe number of persons literate in English has risen by 57 per cent. The rate of increase is here somewhat greater among males than it is among females. Of the various castes, the Subarnabaniks have made the most rapid progress, the number of literate persons per mille having risen during the decade by 40 per cent, 'the Pods and Namasudras have an even larger proportional gain, but with them the number of literate persons is still relatively insignificant. The number of schools and colleges has risen during the decade from 37,732 to 41,447 and that of pupils from 11 to 16 millions. Primary schools for boys are slightly fewer than in 1901, but they contain 26 per cent, more pupils. Girls' schools are three times as numerous as tliey were ten years previously. J'hc niunber of 1)ooks published during the years ]0()1-10 exceeds by 27 per cent, that pidilisbed in tlie preceding decade.* Since ]9()I the total number of newspapers and periodicals has increased from 201 to 29'.), and their circulation from 247 to 385 thoiLsand. 372. Biliar and Orissa is in the main an inland province with a relatively Binar and oriua. large aboriginal element. It is more backward tlian the maritime provinces, but * The figures for books published refer to old Keugal. Statistics for 1901 aru Dot available for Bengal ns now cODiititated. 302 CHAPTEK Till. — EDCCATIOX. less SO than those fiu'ther inland. Of the total population only 15 millions, or 4- per cent., are literate, viz., one male in every 13 and one female in 250. The proportion varies greatly in different parts. It is highest in Orissa on the sea coast, and lowest in Chota Xagpnr, whicli is peopled mainly by the aboriginal tribes. In the former tract 61 per mille can read and Amte compared with 28 in the latter. South and ]N' orth Bihar hold an intermediate position with. IS and 37 respectively. The most advanced districts are Patna and Balasore with 68 literate persons per mille, while Palamau witli only 17 is the most backward. The proportion of literate males rises at each successive age-iieriod, from 9 per mille at ' 0-10 ' to 111 at ' 20 and over. ' For females the proportion is highest (7 per mille) in the a2:e-period ' 15-20,' and falls to 4 per mille at ' 20 and over.' 373. Excluding the numerically unimportant religions, and also Europeans and Anglo-Indians, the Indian Christians have the largest proportion of literate persons, viz., 76 per mille. This, though lower than the corresponding proportion in many other provinces, is very high when it is remembered that the local converts to Christianity are drawn mainly from the ranks of the Animistic tribes, who themselves claim only 5 literate persons per mille. The proportion of Hindus and Muhammadans Avho can read and write is 41 per mille in both cases. The Hindus have 81 literate males and 3 literate females per thousand of each sex ; and the Muhammadans 79 males and 5 females. Of the various Hindu castes, the Kayasthas stand first ; one-thu-d of them are literate, or rather fewer than in Bengal, although in that province they occupj^ only the fifth place. The Karan, or Orissa writing caste, follows with 26 per cent, and the trading Agarwal with 25. Next come the Brahmans with only 17 per cent., or less than half the proportion amongst the Brahmans of Bengal. The Babhans, in spite of their high social position and probable Brahmanical origin, have only 10 literate persons per cent., or about the same as the Kalwars. The Rajputs (9 per cent.) also take a very low place. The Goalas have only 12 literate persons per mille, or about one-seventh the proportion which they claim in Bengal. Many castes are even more backward ; the Chamars and Bauris have only three persons in a thousand who can read and write, and the Musahars only one. Of the Animistic tribes the Hos stand first with seven literate persons per mille, and the Kandhs and Sauria Paharias last with only one. Amongst Muhammadans the Saiyids (18 jjer cent, literate) are the most advanced and the Dhobis (4 per mille) the most backward. The knowledge of English is far less widespread in Bihar and Orissa than in Bengal. Only 41 males and 3 females in ten thousand of each sex can read and write it. Excluding Europeans and Anglo-Indians, less than 74,000 persons are literate in this language. 374. During the decade preceding the census of 1911 the number of literate persons increased hj S^ per cent., viz., males 7, and females 55, per cent. The rate for females is the same as in Bengal, but that for males is less than half as great, and is in fact lower than in any other British province except the United Provinces. This is due mainly to the circumstance already mentioned that in Orissa the change of definition had more effect than elsewhere in dis- turbing the comparison with the previous census, when it ajipears that many persons were classed as literate on the strength of their being able to read certain religious books. The larger proportional increase at the age-period ' 15-20 ' than at ' 20 and over ' may also be expiaiued in the same way. Of the individual sorial aroups the Saiyids have made thesireatest progress, the number who are literate per mille having risen during the decade from 138 to 178. The Karans of Orissa stand si'Cond in this respect, i'he increase in the number of persons literate in English is 37 per cent. The statistics of the- Education Department show that the total number of pupils at school or college has risen during the decade by 50 per cent, wliile that of female pupils has multiplied nearly three-fold. About 4,000 books were published during the decade, of which more than half were in the Oriya language. The number of newspapers and periodicals has risen from 18 to 44, and their circulation from 9,750 to 21,277. Bombay. 3-75 j^ ^]^g Bombay Presidency* 09 per mille of the total population (120 males and 14 females) are able to read and write. The highest proportion is • Kxcppt for natural divisiong and castes, nhere British territory only is taken into account, the proportions here uiven refer to the whole Presidency. In the Provincial report the proportions throughout refer only to the British districts. MAIN RESULTS BY PKOVINCES A>D STATES. 303 in Bombay city, where 282 males and 123 females are literate per thousand of each sex. Of the natural divisions, Gujarat with its large trading community stands livst with 201 and 20. The Karnatak is second, with 109 and 5, and Sind last with 79 and S. The proportion of literate persons is highest at the age-jieriod ' 15-20,' ». e., amongst those who have just passed the school-going age. Amongst males the proportion at this age-period is not much higher than at ' 20 and over,' but amongst females it is nearly double. Of the different religious communities the Parsis are far ahead, with 718 literate persons per mille. The proportion for Christians and Jains is less than half as great ; for the Hindus it is only 03 and for the Muhammadans only ^9. The Mviliammadans are found chieflv in Sind, where all classes are very backward. As noted elsewbore, the Jains comprise two separate conununities — the Jains of Gujai'at, who are mostly traders, and those of the Karnatak, who are cultiva- tors ; amongst tlie former 7-15 males and 154 females per mille are literate, against only 188 and 7 amongst the latter. Of the different Hindu and Jain castes, the proportion ranges from 411 per mille among the Shrimali Vanis to only 1 among the Hinduized Bhils, the Sindlii Kolis and the Mangs. Next to the Shrimali Vanis, come the Lohanas of Bombay city, and then, in the order named, the Audich Brahmans, the Oswal Vanis, the Konkanasth, Deshastha and Gaud-Saraswat Brahmans, and the Bhatiyas. All these castes boast of over 300 literate persons per mille. Among the Muhammadans in the Presidency proper, tlae most educated classes are Bohoras, Khojas, Memons and Telis with 223 literate persons per mille. 376. Fifteen males and two females per mille are literate in English. Excluding Europeans and Anglo-Indians, the Parsis take first, jjlace with 312 per mille. The proportion for females is high with the Parsis (173) and Indian Christians (59), but in no other religious community does it reach even one jier mille. The proportion of literate males per thousand of the popi;lation now stands at 120 against 116 in 1901, but the real progress is greater than would appear from these fiarures. The new test prescribed at the recent census undoubtedly kejit out of the return many who would otherwise have been included in it. Its effect is clearly seen in the smaller number of persons aged ' 0-10 ' and ' 10-15 ' who have been returned as literate. The proportion of literate females has risen during the decade from 9 to 11 per mille. The improvement is specially marked amongst t he Jains ; of every thousand of their females 02 are now literate against 27 in 1901. The Muhammadans have of late made greater progress than the Hindus, though they still lag far behind them. 377. Thanks to the indigenous system of free instruction given in the Burma. monasteries, of which there is one in practically every village, Burma has an exceptionally large number of persons able to read and write. On the average, of a thousand persons of each sex, 370 males and 61 females claim this accomjilishinent. These proportions far cKceed those obtaining in other parts of India ; but in justice to the latter it should be explained that the teaching of the Buddhist monks or jHmgyis is of a very elementary cliaracter, and that if a higher educational test had been applied, Burma would liave fallen behind many of the other provinces. Within the province the higliest proportions are found in the Deltaic Plains and the Central Basin, where the proportion of Buddhist? is greatest. In several districts of these divisions, and also in the TJpjiei Chindwin, practically half the male population is literate. The Deltaic Plains, though thev have fewer monastic schools than the Central Basin, have been longer under British rub; and j)ossess a more efficient system of aided education. The effect of this is most a]i])arcnt in the figures for females, of whom 111 ))er mille are literate against only 41 in the Central Basin. Contrary to tlie general rule, Rangoon has a smaller proportion of literate males than many rural areas. The reason is that in that city the population consists largely of illiterate immigrants from Madras and Bengal. 378. Of the main religions, the Christians have tlie largest proportion of literate persons ; and even if only Indian Christians be considered, they still stand fii'.st in resj)ect of females, of whom 19.") per mille are literate against only 60 in the case of the Buddhists. Tlie Buddhists, however, liave more literate males (412 per mille against 325). The Animists are almost entirely illiterate. 304. CHAPTER Till. — EDrCATION. Those of tliem "vviio are educated become either Buddhists or Christians. Of the various races, the Chinese have the largest i)roportion of literate persons, but this is because they have comparatively few females ; if males only are taken into account the Burmese stand first. Of the non-Buddhist races, the Karens lead the way, with 191 males and 62 females ])er mille who are able to read and write ; Avhile the Kachius, wlio come last, have only 12 and 6 respectively. The high position of the Karens is accounted for by the activity of tlie missionaries. Owing to the introduction of a definite standard of literacy, the proportion of literate males has remained unchanged since 1901 ; but there has been such an extension in educational facilities for females that, in spite of the new criterion, the proportion in their case has risen from 45 to 61 per mille. The proportion of persons literate in English is 9 per mille for males and 2 per mille for females. In both cases there has been an increase of about 50 per cent, dviring the decade. ^d*^roiT°'*""^^ 3^9. The Central Provinces and Berar has a large aboriginal and low caste population, and only one person in thirty can read and write. For males the proportion is 62, and for females 3, per mille ; it varies in the case of males from 100 per mille in the Xerljudda valley division, where there are many towns, to only 11 in the Chota Nagpur division. Amongst the Jains, who are mostly traders, nearly half the males are literate. With the Christians the proportion is about a quarter, but it is less than one-seventh if Europeans and Anglo- Indians be excluded. The Indian Christians are recruited mainly from the ranks of the aborigines, and the great majority of them are quite recent converts. Their children are being educated in the Missionary schools, and the results will no doubt be very different at the next census. The Muhammadans, many of whom are traders or in the public service, have 167 literate males per mille ; while in the case of the Bohras the proportion rises to more than a half. Of the Hindu males only 64 per mille are literate, and of the Animistic only 4. The low proportion in the case of Hindus is due to the large admixture of low castes. J he figures for the higher castes compare favourably even with those of the Jains ; the Khatris have 663_ literate males per mille, the Parbhns 616, the Kayasthas 575 and the Brahmans 431. Of the trading castes, the Baniya group have 456 literate males per mille and the Komtis 418. In seven of the artisan castes more than a fifth of the males are literate. Among the higher cultivating castes the proportion varies from 146 per mille among the Marathas to 33 among the Malis. The "impure" Mehras have only 17 literate males per mille. In some of the Maratha districts the children of the lowest castes are still not allowed to sit in the same room with the other pupils, but this prejudice is dying out. Female education is most widespread among the Christians, of whose females 18 per cent, are able to read and write. Of the Muhammadan and Hindu females 10 and 2 per mille respectively are literate, and of the Animistic females only 8 per 100,000. Much better results are shown by a few picked communities. Amongst the Parbhus more than one-fifth of the females are literate, and amongst the Bohras about one-twelfth. Fifty -fovir males and five females in every ten thousand of each sex are literate in Ensrlish. The highest proportions for males are returned by the Parbhus (3,573), Khatris (1,919), Kayasthas (1,229) and Brahmans (675). 380. In 1901 instructions were issued in the Central Provinces to enter as literate those who had passed the Cppcr Primary school examination, or who possessed an equivalent amount of kncjwledge. In Berar no criterion was specified. The application of the standard adopted at the present census has pro- Ijably resulted more people being classed as literate in theCentrnl Provinces and iewer in Berar. lu the proportions for the province as a whole the influence of Berar would be comparatively small. The fact that the number of literate jjersons per mille is now only 33 against 31 in 1901 is thus at first sight disappointing. The general population, however, has been growing very rapidly ; and the actual number of literate persons has risen from 423 to 521 thousand. The proportion is higliest in the age-period '15-20', which includes those who have just passed the school-going age ; it has riscui since 1901 by over 20 per cent, in the case of males and by 100 per cent, in that of MAIN KESULTS BY PROVINCES AND STATES. 305 females. 'Jhe number of males who can read and write Enijli.sli shows an increase of 50, and that of females of 31, per cent, as compared witli 1901. The statistics of the Education Department show tliat the number of educational institutions has increased since 1901 by 13 per cent., and that of scholars by 71 per cent. 381. The total number of literate persons in the Madras Presidency (ex- Madras, eluding Cochin and Travancore) is 31 millions or 75 per mille. For males the number per mille is 138, and for females 13. The proportion is highest in Madras city, where -121 males and 129 females per mille are literate. The Tamil-speaking districts are ahead of those whose vernacular is Telugu, and the latter of those where Oriya is spoken. Of tlie five natural divisions, the two in the extreme soutli are the most advanced, the East Coast South taking the lead in respect of literate males (193 per mille) and the West Coast in respect of females (31 per mille). In the latter tnict, as noted elsewhere, women occupy in some respects a much higher position than they do elsewhere. The proportions decline steadily as one; goes north, the lowest of all Ijeiug found amongst the aboriginal tribes of the Agency tracts. The Jains have the largest ])roportiou of persons al)Ie to read and write. Next come the Christians. Excluding Europeans and Anglo-Indians, their proportion of persons who are literate is 204 males and 85 females per mille. The Muhammadans come next with 166 males and 11 females, and then the Hindus with 135 and 11. While the bulk of the Hindus are rural and agricul- tural, the Muhammadans of this province are to a great extent an urban and trading community. Moreover, special efforts have been made to promote education amongst the Musalman Maj)pillas of Malabar. As is everywhere the case, the standard of education varies greatly amongst the various Hindu castes. The Brahmans have more than three times as large a proportion of literate males as the Indian Christians and a slightly larger proportion of literate females. There are marked variations in the various sub-castes ; the Tamil Brahmans liave the largest j^^'oportion (719) of literate males, and the Malayalam (182) of literate females. Next to the Braliman comes the Komati, a trading caste, with half its males literate, and then the Nayar. The remark- able thing about the latter is its high proportion of literate females, viz., 114i per mille. Some of the depressed castes make a very poor show ; the Paraiyans have only 14 persons per mille who are literate and the Holeyas only 2. English education is practically confined to males, and of them only 12 per mille are able to read and write this language. The Christians naturally lead with 71 per mille. As a spoken language English, no doubt, is more widely diffvised, but of this we have no statistical measure. 382. Madras is the only Province in which the instructions as to the degree of proficiency which should qualify a person to be shown as literate were precisely the same at this census and the previous one. The comparison of the results is, therefore, specially interesting. The absolute increase in the number of literate persons is 26 per cent, in the case of males and 58 per cent, in that of females. Tlie number of persons literate in Englisli has increased by 44 per cent. These figures compare most favourably with an increase of only 83 per cent, in the general population. According to the returns of the Education Department the number of educational institutions increased during the decade from 26,926 to 30,635, and that of scholars from 850,224 to 1,215,725. Changes of system make it difficult to institute any comparison between the results of the University examinations in the two census years. 383. In the Agencies and tribal areas of the North- West Frontier Province n.-w. r. provino*. statistics are available only for the British ])osts. The discussion will, therefore, be confined to the figures for tlie liAc British districts Tliere are here oidy 33 literate persons per mille ; and the proportion would have been even lower but for the large immigrant jiopulatioii. The local Muhanunadans, who arc mainly Pathans, though handy enough with the riile or swcml, are by no means addicted to penmanship ; in every thoasand of each sex only 24 males and 1 female can read and write. Amongst Hindus the proportion is 373 for males and 57 for females, and amongst Sikhs 457 and 132. 'Jhe 2)eo])le who profess 2 K Punjab. 300 CHAPTER VIII. — EDUCATION. these religions are mainly traders, clerks or sepoys. Amongst the Christians, who are for the most part Europeans and Anglo-Indians, the corresponding proportions are 897 and 638. The best-educated caste is the Khatri, of whom two males out of five and one female in eleven are able to read and write. Then comes the Arora with the same proportion of literate males but a smaller one of females, and then the Brahman. The Rajput is a bad fourth ; only one male in five is literate and one female in 62. Only 36 Hindu males per mille can read and write English, 25 Sikhs and 2 Muhammadans. The largest proportion of literate persons is found in Dera Ismail Khan, with its considerable Hindu element, its small proportion of Pathans and its relatively larger trading centres. Owing to the fact that so many of the persons able to read and write are immigrants, the proportion of males thus qualified at the age-period ' 20 and over ' is higher than at '15-20.' There has been a slight deai-ease since 1901 in the number of persons able to read and write. This is due to the more stringent definition of literacy adojited at the j^resent census. Literate females are proportionately more numerous than they were ten years ago, but the actual increase is insignificant. 384. In the Punjab 899,000 persons are able to read and write. The proportion for males is 63, and for females 6, per mille, viz., 65 males and 6 females in British territory and 51 and 3 respectively in the Native States. The local differences are comparatively small. Of the British districts, Simla, Lahore, Bawalpiudi, and Delhi have the highest proportion of literate persons, and Gurgaon and Karnal the lowest. The people in cities and large tovrns are much better educated than those in rural areas. In Lahore city more than one-fourth of the males and one-ninth of the females can read and write. The distribution of the literate by age foUows the same lines as in other provinces. Excluding the minor religious communities, the Jains have the largest proportion of literate males, namely, 464 per mille. The Hindus and Sikhs have only one-fifth of this proportion, and the Indian Christians less than one-tenth. The Muhammadans come last with only 27 literate males per mille. The Indian Christians are for the most part recruited from the menial castes ; and low though it is, their jiroportion of literate males is far higher than that in the corresponding stratum of Hindu society, while their proportion of literate females (35 per mille) is half as large again as that of the Jains, three times that of the Sikhs and five times that of the Hindus. Of the Muhammadan females only 2 per mille are literate. The Arya Samaj has been treated in the Punjab as a Hindu sect. Of the males who belong to it 230 per mille are literate, and of the females 80. Table IX shows that education is most widespread amongst three trading castes. The Khatris have 250 Literate persons per mille, the Agarwals 212 and the Aroras 210. The Brahmans, who come next, have only 113. These four castes between them contain nearly half the total number of literate persons in the province. The Bajputs have only 26 persons jjer mille who can read and write. Of the depressed castes the Chamars claim four literate persons per mille, but the Dhanaks, Chuhras and Musallis have one or less. Of the Muhammadan communities, the Saiyids Avith 83 literate persons per mille are the most advanced. As in the case of Christians, so also with the Arya Samaj, a change of religion frequently connotes a higher degree of education. Thus, while the Hindu Aroras and Sunars have only 202 and 83 persons per mille who are literate, those who have joined the Arya Samaj have no less thai! 31-3 and 182 respectively. The Jat Aryas have 33 literate persons per mille, Avhile those who are still Hindus have only 9. 385. In this province less than 118,000 persons, or five per mille, are literate in English. If we leave out of account tlie Europeans and Anglo- Indians, the total number of English-knowing persons is only 86,000, viz., 62 miles and 3 females, for every 10,000 of each sex. Excluding the small com- munities of Jews and Parsis, the knowledge of English is most diffused amongst the Jains, of Avbom 42 males and 1 female per mille possess this accom- plishment. Tlie corresponding proportions for Indian Christians are 20 males ind 10 females. Of tlie Hindus only 10 males per mille know Euglisli, and MAIX JlESrLTS BY PROVINCES AND STATES. 307 of the Sikhs and Muhanunadans only 6 and 4 respectively. Of the Hirdu females only 3 in 10,000 know Enijlish and of the Sikh and Muhamniadan females only 1. The only caste with a fairly larije proportion of Eni,'lish- knowing males is the Khatri (8 per cent.). The Sheikhs come next \\-ith 3 per cent., and tlie Aroras, Saiyids, Agarwals and Brahmans with 2 per cent. About 1 per mille of the females of the Brahman, Khatri, and Agarwal com- munities know English. 386. The numherof literate males has decreased by about 24,000 or 28 per cent, during the decade, but that of literate females ims largely increased, and the proportion of the female population who are literate has risen from 3 to 6 per mille. The decrease amongst males is no doubt due mainly to the rider which was added at this census to the instructions issued in 1901, but plague also is partly responsible. The striking improvement in the case of females is a clear evidence of the interest taken in this subject both by Government and private persons. Not only the progressive Arya Samaj, 'but all com- munities— Hindu, Sikh, and Muhamniadan — are now most anxious to promote female education. The statistics of education by caste show that more prosrress has been made amongst the backward, tlian amongst the advanced, castes. Thus the proportion of Ptajputs who can read and write has risen since 1891 from 12 to 26 per mille. Some of the agricultural castes, such as the Labhana, have also made rapid progress. So have various depressed castes, who are indebted for the improvement to the exertions of the Christian missionaries and the Arya and Dev Samajes. The statistics of the Education Department show that while the number of institutions has declined slightly since 1901 that of pupils has grown from 259 to 347 thousand ; in primary schools it has risen from 117 to 190 thousand. The number of newspapers has risen from 166 to 229, and their circulation from 149 to 3 83 thousand. The total niimber of books published during the decade was 14,122. This, though slightly greater than in the preceding ten years, was a good deal less than in 1881-90. The language most commonly in use for both books and newspapers is Urdu. 387. The United Provinces is comparatively backward in respect of education umted ProTinces. as the term is understood at the census, and only 61 males and 5 females per raille are able to read and write. Since 1901 the proportion of literate females has doubled, but the improvement in the case of males is very slight. Two reasons are assigned for this, one real and the other artificial. Literate persons are found largely in the towns, and it is here that the ravages of plague were most serious. Consequently the mortality amongst literate persons was greater than that in the general population. The artificial reason is the one already alluded to, namely, the greater stringency of the standard of literacy at the present census. Excluding religions of no local numerical importance, the greatest proportion of literate persons is found amongst the Christians (297 per niille), who are closely followed by the Jains, Sikhs and Aryas. The Muhammadans have 33 literate persons per mille and the Hindus 32 ; in both reUgions the proportion for males is the .«ame, hut the Muhammadans have more literate females. The proportion for Christians is far lower than it was in 1901, owing to the large nimiber of illiterate new converts who have since been added to the fold. The general average for Hindus is the resultant of very different proportions in different strata of the community. The Kayasthas lend the way with 544 males and 78 females who are literate per thousand of each sex. Tli'en come Agarwals and Gahois, and then the Briihmans with 217 males and 10 females. Of the 48 Hindu ca.stes dealt with, 16 have fewer than 10 literate males per mille; the Basis and the Bhars have only 3, and the Chamars only 2, per mille. That e(luca,tion is largely a matter of occupation rather than of social position is shown by the contra'^t between the figures for the Kiiyasthas and the trading castes and those for the Pifijputs who, though they rank above them in the scale of social prece- dence, have only 108 literati* males and 7 literate females jier mille. Of the Muhamniadan social groups, it is interesting to note that the Saiyids stand considerably higher than the Bn'ihmans. 8*^8. The proportion of persons literate in I'liglish is 19 males and 7 females per 10,000 asaint 35 and 5 respectively in 19oi. H' Europeans and Anglo- Indians be excluded, the proportions at the present census fall to 38 and 2. Of the 2 u2 308 CHAPTER Tin. — EDrCATION. Bsroda. Central India. different social groups a knowledge of English is most widespread among the Kayasthas, of whom 79 males per mille are thus qualified. Then come the Saiyids (36), Agarwals (34) and Sheikhs (12) ; then the Brahmans (8) and Pathans (7). Thirty-fovir castes have less than one male per mille who is literate in English. Tlie figures for females are too exiguous to be worth discussing. The Kayasthas and Saiyids alone have more than one female per mille who can read and write English. There has been an increase in the number of English- knowing persons at all age periods ; the improvement is greatest at the age ' 15-20 ' and next to that at ' 10-15.' 389. In the Baroda State one person in every ten is able to read and write. Eor males the proportion is one in sis and for females one in fifty. A system of free and compulsory primary education was tentatively introduced in a small area in 1893. In the course of the next thirteen years it was nominally extended to the whole State, but on the date of the recent census it still remained to be in- troduced in a third of the total number of villages. It is said that the system had not been long enough in force to produce any marked effect on the census statistics, and that 1-18,000 children attending school were shown as illiterate because they could not read and write a letter, though they could already read or copy from their books. The standard of literacy was higher than that adopt- ed in 1901, and on this accoimt the proportion of males who have attained it shows only a slight increase, but the proportion of literate females is three times as great as it was ten years ago. In Baroda city two males in every five are literate. The rapid spread of education amongst females is reflected in the age statistics ; of literate males 69 per cent, are over 20 years of age and only 4 per cent, are under 10, but of the literate females only 42 per cent, are over 20, and 12 per cent, are under iO. The number of literate males in the age-period ' 15-20,' which includes those who have recently left school, has risen from 206 per mille in 1901 to 258 in 1911. The Indian Christians have 160 literate i;)ersons jier mille, the Musalmans 128 and the Hindus only 91. The low projiortion among the Hindus is due to the dead weiglit of the lower castes ; it exceeds two- fifths amongst the Nagar and Deshastha Brahmans and the Shrimali Vanis. The two last mentioned communities have a larger proportion of literate males than the Parsis. Nine males in every thousand can read and write Eni^lish and one female in two thousand. 390. In the Central India Agency 26 persons per mille are able to read and write ; one male in 21 can do so and one female in 330. Of the natural divisions, the Plateau takes the lead owing to its large urban population. English is known to only 35 males and 3 females per ten thousand. The new test of literacy has led to the exclusion of a large class consisting of those who, while knowing their letters only, were in 1901 entered as " literate," and there is thus a slight fall in the proportion of the literate persons as compared with 1901. Education is most widespread amongst the Christians ; 78 -per cent, of their males and 47 per cent, of their females are literate, or 46 and 34 per cent, respectively, if only the Indian Christians are taken into account. The Jains, who hold the second jjlace, have 39 males per cent, who are literate, but only 2 females. For Muhammadans the corresponding jjroportions are 11 males and 1 female and for Hindus 4 males per cent, and 1 female per mille. The statistics in Table IX show that the trading castes are ahead of the other communities. Of the Oswal 42 per cent, of the males arc literate and of the Mahesris 34 per cent. The Brahmans claim only 10 per cent, but their Slirigaud sub-caste boasts of 32 per cent., wliich is about the same propor- tion as that for the Marathas. The Gaohis have 19 literate males per cent., the Saiyids 20 and tlie Sheikhs 11 per cent. The Bnjputs have only 6 per cent. Owing to the special efforts which are being made at Gwalior to educate the Marathas, this class take the lead in a knowledge of English which 9 per cent, of their males can read and write. They are followed by the Shrimali Brahmans of whom 5 per cent, can do so. 'J he trading castes seldom know English. Of the Mahesri males only 2 per cent, are literate in English, and of the Oswals only 1 per cent. Educational institutions have doubled in the num- ber since 1901, and their students have increased by 82 per cent. MAIN RESULTS BY PROVINCES AND STATES. 309 391. In the little State of Cochin 243 males and 61 females pex* thousand of cocum. either sex are literate. Although education has not been made compulsory these proportions are far higher than those of the Baroda State. The proportion of literate persons is larger among Christians, who form a quarter of the ])opu- lation, than it is among Hindus or] Muhammadaus, hut several of the higher Hindu castes excel the Indian Christians in this respect. The proportion per 10,000 of each sex who are literate in English is IDS) for males and 31 for females. 392. In respect of education Hyderabad is the most backward part of South- Hyderabad ern India. Only fil males and •! females per thousand of each sex are able to read and write. If Hyderabad city be left out of account, there is very little difference in the figures for the two natm-al divisions. The proportion of literate Christians (about one in four) is far lower than it was in 1901, owing to the large number of illiterate persons who have since then been converted. The Jains, of whom nearly two-fifths of the males (but only 14 per mille of the females) are literate, are far better educated than any other important religious community; and the Muhammadaus with 103 literate males and ] 3 literate females per milJe are far ahead of the Hindus, who have only 43 and 2. The reason is that the latter are in the main rural and agricidtural, while the Mimammadans congregate in the capital. The nvimber of literate males has risen during the decade from 329 to 368 thousand, or 12 per cent., against an increase of 20 per cent, in the gene- ral population ; aud their proportional strength is now only 51 per mille against 55 in 1901. It must be remembered, however, that as a result of the famines of 1897 and 1900 the population of the State in 1901 contained an unusually small j^roportion of old people and children who would for the most part be illiterate. Only 34 males and 5 females per ten tliousand of each sex are able to read and write English. Excluding Europeans and Anglo-Indians, the Indian Christians have the largest proportion of persons literate in this language, viz., 60 males and 33 females per mille. About half the Brahman males are literate. Next to them come the Komatis, a trading caste with one-third, and the Satanis, who are mostly temple servants, with one-fifth. Then come the Moghals and Saiyids. The Eajputs, in spite of their high social position, have only one-eighth, or about the same as the Sunars. In respect of females, the Indian Christians lead the way, with 10 per cent, who are literate. This proportion is more than three times that of the Moghals and Saiyids, nearly four times that of the Brah- mans and eight times that of the Rajputs and Komatis. 393. From the point of view of education Kashmir is the most backward Kashmir, part of India. The total number of literate persons is less than 65,000, and their proportion per mille is only 38 in the case of males and 1 in that of females. The Jammu district on the borders of the Punjab is less backward than the interior of the State. The Sikhs, who are mostly immigrant traders or officials, have the largest proportion of literate persons (94 per mille). There is a remarkable difference between the proportions for Hindus and Muham- madans. Of the former 61 per mille are literate and of the latter only 8. Only 4 males per mille are literate in English, and there are practically no females who know this language. Owing chiefly to the stricter definition adopted at the present census, the statistics disclose very little improvement during the decade. It would seem, however, from the returns of the Education Depart- ment that considerable progress must have been made. The number of educa- tional institutions has increased four-fold and that of pupils three-fold. The total number of pupils, however, is still only 21,000. 394. Mysore, though more advanced than Hyderabad, is much more ])ack- Mygoro. ward than other parts of Southern India ; and only 1 male in 9 aud 1 female in 77 is able to read and write. The Ciiristians, who constitute one per cent, of the total population, are far more advanced than the other religious communities. With them 45 males and 28 females jier cent, are literate, or 3:5 and 16 per cent, respectividy, if Eurojjeans and Anglo-Indians be excluded. The proportion of Muhammadaus wliu are literate is about double that of the Hindus ; but several of the higher Hindu castes are far ahead of 310 CHAPTER VIII. — EDrCATION. the Muhammadaus, while two of them, the Brahman and Vaisya, have a larc^er proportion of literate males than the Indian Christians. Only 12 males and 2 females per mille of each sex are literate in English. For Indian Christians the proportions are 123 and 55 respectively and for Jaius 13 and 1 ; those for Mulmmmadans and Hindns are smaller still. The Brahmans have much the same proportion for both sexes combined as the Indian Christians. The statistics show that education has been spreading steadily in receot years, especially amongst females. The proportion of the latter who are literate is four times as great as it was in 1881. Rajpntana. 395. In Eajputana about 340,000 persons can read and write ; for males the proportion is 59, and for femnles 2, per mille. Though inferior to those of any British province these results are slightly better than those of the Central India Agency. The most advanced State is Sirohi.which contains a large European population, and the most backward are Dholpur and Tonk, where only one per- son in fifty is able to read and write. The Muhammadans are slightly more illiterate than the Hindus, while the Animists are almost wholly so. Of the indigenous castes, the Mahajans are the best educated ; nearly half their males can read and write, while of the Saiyids, only a quarter can do so ; of the Brahmans a sixth, and of the Rajputs one in twenty-five. So far as males are concerned, owing to the higher standard of literacy adopted at the present census there has been veiy Kttle apparent improvement since 1901, but the number of literate females has risen by 47 per cent. TraTanoore. 396. Travancorc is more advanced than any political unit in India except Burma and the adjoining State of Cochin. Of the total population 15 per cent, are literate. Of the males one in every four can read and write, and of the females one in twenty. The State owes its high position partly to its large number of Christians, who form more than a quarter of the total jiopula- tion, and amongst whom 29 per cent, of the males and 8 per cent, of the females are literate. Of the Hindus 24 per cent, of the males and 4 per cent, of the females are literate, and of the Muhammadans 17 and 1 per cent, respectively. Several Hindu castes, especially the Konkanis, Brahmans, Kaniyans, Amba- lavasis and Nayars, are even more advanced than the Christians. In respect of English education also the State holds a high position, 13 males and 2 females per thousand of each sex being literate in this language. The number of literate persons has risen during the decade by 41 per cent., as against a gain of 16 per cent, in the total population. The number who know English has risen dui'ing the same period by 77 per cent. SrBSIDIARY TABLES. 311 b(i a lU « _J "— ffl s < •w 1- « « >- % rr ^ < ^ o !r*^ (0 ' ffl s -) .^ (0 ■*- ^ es •o isi H c (M C5 ■^ (M C3 N •HI •<* CIS 1 H »-i (M s O o tv I H _2 "3 E s o •* CO *-« : s £ ■ o « 1/S f-* o» CO CO g 1— ( CD f-C CO ?s m a "T • 01 CJ a ^H f^ CO •* us US us » e t» <=°. C4 oa C<1_ •^ A K *« ts. us ■* f-T gu £ o"* M M CO »- i-l »» m CO eo ■o r» SJ O M U3 ■>* I— 1 »» C<5 o eii CO C4 *i (4 c ■ CO Q 8^ CQ CO us >« OS o o> o us 00 T31 CO oa CO o M ^ a> o c» CO oa C3 oa CQ o 00 cja Od M "tf to H E S u £ « •4 ■* Oi ^H ■* to CO 00 i-C t~ 0>J o a> a> CO csa o oa f-l 00 o »^ a g 00 cx> CO . Cd ^ "3 3 » S J J a E4 t— 1 as o •»* CO us r-H ca a o» O t^ M O «» t- (N oa t^ 00 » o: o «» M ■ b a e rH "3 n a o > o 1 o o •* (M oa -« i> i-( -a £^ »> a • O ■* CO til CO ■* "« rl s »-< to t» CI CO 00 us CQ 00 rH I-l IM I-l us us e4 Oi o CO i# o f— * 00 1-1 00 0*4 "3 o S a* ^ I ca 1^^ •* GO o ca •>* 00 a» US •<* 00 •o ■^ m o 1— 1 f— * n •-C ca CO I-* 1— t 1— I us CO us ca CO NO •S 9 a n «9 r^ S 'e n s> n «s ■^ t^ CO I-t I-H Ed ID i-H r- us I-H CO o B B ^ [>« TS •J 7 . ^ o US US t» ■* OS OO t^ CO o> US oa M 03 o en m CO us o . ^ t^ »— 1 p-C ca « ^ » us 00 00 *« t- US IH 1—1 1— ( 05 t^ lO C4 (N "? CD •n 64 O lO "3 s !5 o 00 (M 00 ^ o CO t~. •<* us CO ^H o i-t Ci •* I-H ■«5 us CO CO oa "5 a ■• CO o t—i § h 8 CO i-H -« o CO lO ^ Sd Ob CO 00 I-l f 1 o O a> cc o oa o 00 CO oa c« iH « •—1 t-H OS t* •* ^ t» M IS) -« a ■< K o US o •XI t>- IS oa ^^ 00 t» era CO >o lO CO oa CO i^ CQ CO s IB « M ■N CO M N t^ « *H . , , , , , , , 2 3 ■2 % • • • • • • Rh • ' ^ • o oa ■ — ' c 5 3 C3 f-« O 3 • a 35 • .2 I 3 a .2 5 1 ca -a s "£ ^ r3 ■'2 ■s 1-5 o 1 •c 6 312 CHAPTER Till.— EDTJCATIOX. SUBSIDIARY TABLE II. Edm-ation by age, sex and locality. - NCMBBE PEE MILLS WHO ABB LIIEEAIE. All ages. 0—10. 10—15. 15- -20. 20 and over. | PRoviNOB, State or aobnoy. Persons. Males. Females. Males. females. Males. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 INDIA. 59 106 10 12 3 95 17 144 21 150 18 ProTlnoes 62 110 11 12 3 99 17 151 22 157 IS 72 1 124 13 8 3 112 1 23 160 37 171 14 Andamans and Nicobars 160 47 202 86 29 6 13 15 9 2 134 1 38 94 11 178 126 37 12 228 121 36 7 33 56 5 52 39 271 180 287 164 376 152 Bengal 77 140 11 21 3 136 , 18 189 19 199 IS 39 76 4 9 1 66 6 103 7 114 4 Bombay 69 120 14 14 * 123 24 171 28 163 15 222 376 61 28 11 286 74 479 109 644 75 Central Provinces and Berar 33 62 3 4 1 69 6 109 8 87 Coorg 100 157 28 9 4 107 40 167 » 57 214 31 75 138 13 14 3 118 22 184 29 198 14 N.-W. P. Province .... 34 58 6 3 1 37 9 82 12 91 8 37 63 6 3 1 42 9 78 12 95 United Provinces .... 34 61 5 8 2 59 7 83 9 82 6 States and Agencies 16 81 9 8 2 70 17 106 20 115 10 B&ioda State 101 175 21 24 10 275 72 258 40 216 16 3 73 Central India Agency .... Cocliin State .... 26 151 48 243 3 61 5 19 1 11 45 4 197 86 61 303 5 104 69 367 Hyderabad State Kaalimir State 28 21 51 38 4 1 4 2 1 40 23 6 1 69 42 7 2 72 62 2 Mysore State Eajpntana Agency .... Silckim State ..... 63 112 13 19 5 103 20 137 24 152 13 32 41 59 78 2 3 3 2 41 29 2 2 70 73 4 3 88 132 4 Travancote State ' 150 248 50 23 11 169 71 318 97 369 Vote The figures for Provinces are inclusive of the States attached to them, except in the case of Madras, wliere they exclude Cochin and Travancore. This table deals only with persons enumerated by age as well as education. There are 231 literate males and 1 literate female per 10,000 of each sex amongeit 417,41* males and 354,890 females (chiefly in Baluchistan) whose age was not specified. SUBSIDIARY TABLE Education by religion, se.\ and locality. Peotinoe, State or aqenoy. NiTHBES PEE HILLE WHO ABE LITERATE. Hindu. Jain. Musalman. Christian. Animistic. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 INDIA. Provinces Ajmir-Mcnvara Andamnns and NicobaiB ..... Asaiim ......... Baluchistan ........ Bengal Bihar and Orissa Itomhay ........ l;urm:i . - Cut rill Provinces and Berar (■".ir« Mii.lr.is .\.-\V. F. Province l'UIii:ib ........ 1 iiit'-.l Provinces States and Agencies Baroda State Central India Agency ('..eliin State Hv'ierabud State ....... KiiHlimir State Mvsore State Italpulana Agency Sikkim State Travancorc State 2 101 107 91 191 119 460 210 81 115 2:i0 64 169 135 375 95 58 73 165 42 228 43 110 103 48 83 242 3 8 8 6 42 8 30 20 3 9 53 2 23 11 57 7 4 6 17 1 47 2 3 8 2 2 42 4 495 499 641 "729 "765 656 496 450 478 667 463 I.IKMI 464 469 489 698 388 867 375 398 398 503 "375 5 40 53 21 " 51 "1O6 111 62 253 30 115 29 500 24 52 21 88 20 43 14 38 13 "867 6 69 69 95 195 67 18 79 79 85 234 167 183 166 25 27 58 70 232 107 138 103 15 200 44 632 171 7 4 4 6 34 2 T 2 5 7 77 10 16 '\ 2 6 8 17 12 7 13 41 3 13 8 293 286 781 714 253 881 521 139 404 421 305 381 226 897 237 346 306 225 778 314 317 264 445 625 681 288 9 135 162 656 483 124 684 402 68 231 252 184 194 106 640 125 232 101 136 406 114 163 347 280 540 208 78 10 11 12 2 14 13 9 10 9 69 4 1 4 3 13 1 1 11 6 11 1 1 1 } 3 1 1 1 Note.— The flguri-s tor Provinces are Inclusive o( the Slates attached to tlieni, except in the case of Madras, where they exclude Cochin and Travancore. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 313 SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. KnjTlisli ednc-atioii by ajre, sex and locality. LlIXBAIB IN ENOLIBB I'BB 10,000. 1911. 1901. Provisck, STAII OB A0K50Y. 0—10. 10—15. 15—20. 20 and over. AU iges. AD ages. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 S 4 5 • 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 INDIA. 7 3 79 13 179 19 130 12 96 10 68 7 Provinces 7 3 85 14 194 19 141 12 102 10 74 7 Ajmer-Merwara . Assam .... Ba]achistan Bengal .... 11 4 213 18 9 1 191 4 165 88 643 206 36 6 491 18 367 196 616 385 62 8 523 18 316 134 1,290 265 35 6 787 16 232 94 119 1S7 30 4 21 13 165 64 'i36 29 4 9 Bihar and Orissa Bombay .... Banna .... Central Provinces and Bcrar . Coorg .... 3 7 10 2 4 1 5 7 1 6 32 106 65 33 93 3 29 28 7 42 74 275 144 112 177 4 43 34 11 65 59 200 128 79 236 4 24 24 6 35 41 145 91 64 169 3 21 20 5 31 34 112 61 43 141 2 15 13 6 24 Madras .... X.-W. F. Province Pxrnjab .... United Provinces 6 3 3 i 2 2 3 2 93 32 46 36 18 2 12 8 227 129 141 85 28 6 18 11 168 137 115 67 14 12 12 8 121 84 80 49 13 8 10 7 90 72 62 35 11 6 6 5 States and Agencies 3 2 43 u 101 16 72 8 63 7 37 5 Baroda State Central India Agency . Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State . 1 1 6 3 2 1 1 4 2 87 20 207 24 38 9 3 57 7 1 268 54 475 56 84 14 8 81 10 1 101 62 249 48 47 4 3 29 6 2 88 35 199 34 38 5 3 31 5 1 63 33 108 21 10 2 3 12 6 Mysore State Eajputana Agency Sikldm State Travancore State 11 1 "lO 7 1 3 91 15 16 93 25 2 "31 183 34 84 251 37 2 "48 160 29 52 183 25 2 2 20 117 21 36 132 21 2 1 20 83 19 14 87 16 NoTB. — The fleurea for Provinces are inclusive of the States attached to them, except in the case of Madras, where they exclude Cochin and Travancore. Id Baluchistan statistics (or Hteracy were not recorded in 1901. SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Progress of education since 1891. ITOMBEB OF LITEEATE PEE MTTJ.E. PEOVIHOl, SlAIl OB AOBHOT. AU ages. 15—20. Hales. 1911. INDIA Provinces Ajmer-Mi^rwara Assam . Baluchistan . Bengal . Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Burma .... Central Provinces and Berar Coorg .... Mad rkfi N -W. F. Province Punjab . Cnited Provinces States and Agencies Baroda State C'ntral India Agency Cochin Slate . Hvderaba1 . . . . • brahliUQ ..... Rajput Kalar. ..... Kurmi ..... Kunbt ..... l.odhi ...... T.U Lobar ..... Mali Dhobi Mobra Aliir Dbjmar ..... Gond Cbamar ..... UADRAS. Hn.hman. Tamil BrabmaD, Tclugil Komati N'ayar Chetti Vaniyan KamniaiaD Labbai Kamsala VcUala SaiyiJ Kshatriya Kaikolan Balija Tij-an Shanan Sheikh Kalian Xattamaa Kamma Tolaga Mappilla Idaivan Palll . Kapu Pallan Parai>-an (iolla . Mala . Madiga Cheruman Tamil N.W. F. PROVINCE. Pathan .\\van Khatri .\g:irwal .\rt)r.i Hrahman Saiyid Sheikh Patfuin Kat^brairi Bajput Tarklian Kanet Jat Lobar A wan .\ai . Mirasl Araln . Jbinwar Abir . Julaba liiloch T«li . Kumbar Chamar M.«-bi MiU-bbi Cbubru PUNJAB. KUUBEK PEB 1,000. LITBRAII. Pereona. UNITED PBOVINCES. Kaya<i2 943 993 065 9i.7 901 997 9lW (99 972 9.8 975 9il'l 11.5 9!i9 977 0;9 980 l.'oo 981 999 981 10> 9H6 1,000 086 l.OUO 987 999 990 999 913 1.01)0 993 l.lKlll 993 l.miii 995 1,011 1 998 1,000 022 970 964 Olio Pereons. 80 364 33 19 6 7 2 3 6 4 2 2 2 3 1,121 744 75 148 49 56 22 16 27 106 139 128 19 131 51 15 79 13 4 10 65 5 29 10 11 446 117 123 114 118 152 89 77 29 13 5 10 9 10 6 3 IS 6 e 4 6 * 2 2 2 1 429 191 193 Mules. 153 675 65 38 11 14 4 S 12 8 4 4 5 7 1 1 2,227 1,475 149 297 98 112 44 33 54 212 272 249 38 261 30 158 27 8 20 131 9 58 19 22 4 15 17 3 1 801 209 225 198 219 272 154 141 52 23 10 18 17 18 12 8 27 12 10 7 9 7 6 1 3 3 1 702 337 3R1 81 111 Females. 21 7 2 .s2 316 CHAPTEE Vni.— EDUCATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE M\—C0ficld, Edncation by caste— co«c/rf. 2iUM££& PES 1.000. NCXBEK 1 >«K 10,000 LITEKATE IN LIIEKAIE ILLITEBATE. Eholish. Cash. Persons. Males. Femalef. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 UNITED PROVINCES— CO..W. Bajpat Pathan Jat Barhai ....... Julaha ....... 61 49 26 13 12 108 87 41 23 22 7 8 3 2 2 939 961 976 987 988 892 913 958 977 978 993 992 998 998 998 17 40 10 6 3 32 75 17 8 6 1 2 1 Lobar Karmi ....... Teli Nal Gajar 12 12 11 9 8 20 22 21 15 13 3 1 1 1 1 988 988 989 991 993 980 978 979 985 987 997 999 999 999 999 2 2 2 3 1 4 4 3 5 2 Dom Lodha Kahar ....... Miillah Ahir Gadariya 6 6 6 6 6 3 12 10 9 10 8 6 1 994 994 995 995 995 997 988 990 991 990 992 996 1,000 1,000 999 1,00U 1,000 1,000 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3 Kumhar ....... Bliangi Dhobi Pasi Bliar Chamar ....... 3 2 2 1 1 1 5 3 3 3 3 2 997 998 998 999 999 999 995 997 997 997 997 998 1,000 1,000 1.000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1 1 i! .. 1 1 ". BARODA STATE. Bnhman Kunbi Lewa ...... Kunbi Eadwa ...... KoU 333 185 74 22 570 316 136 39 75 27 8 3 667 816 926 978 430 684 864 961 925 973 992 997 316 67 14 1 596 12 122 1 27 1 1 CENTRAL INDIA AGENCY. Baniya Ea put ....... BhU (Animist) 79 61 36 11 1 146 99 69 19 1 1 6 3 6 1 921 949 966 989 999 1,000 854 901 941 981 999 999 994 997 995 999 1,000 1,000 4 19 19 6 7 37 33 9 1 1 Indian Christian Iluvan 391 212 :82 621 312 166 133 111 12 609 788 918 379 688 845 867 889 988 839 116 14 1,615 186 27 80 46 1 Komti ....... Sheikh 262 176 97 49 42 489 332 160 88 82 25 12 27 9 2 738 824 903 951 958 511 668 840 912 918 975 988 973 991 998 116 13 108 37 2 221 I 6 24 1 196 , 12 70 1 3 6 Mannur ....... Sale Telaga 26 16 13 13 12 48 31 26 24 23 1 1 2 1 976 984 987 987 988 952 969 975 976 977 999 999 1,000 998 999 5 5 1 14 3 10 10 i 2 , 26 ' 2 5j .. IColi Mahar, Mala 12 6 6 4 1 22 10 9 6 1 1 1 988 996 996 996 999 978 990 991 994 999 999 1,000 1,000 • 999 1,000 3 6 11 6 .. J •• 1 20 1 1 1 Bat ; ; 68 4 104 7 5 942 996 896 993 995 1,000 28 2 50 1 3 MYSORE STATE. Braliman . Sheikh ; ; Lingivat ..... Oolla * ; 417 118 92 32 18 707 191 177 62 33 119 39 6 1 583 882 908 968 982 293 809 823 938 967 881 961 994 998 999 812 56 11 6 10 1,556 48 105 1 S 22 1 12 20 , Kuniba Madigi ..... i [ 16 14 14 9 3 30 27 26 17 5 1 2 1 1 985 986 986 991 997 070 973 974 983 995 1199 998 91111 990 1,000 3 2 2 10 •• I i :: 3 ; 20 1 : RAJPUTANA AGENCY. Mihijan ..... Brahman ..''"'' K0VINCE8 3EBAS. Mad EAS. N.-W. F. 1 'EOVINOK. PTJHJ AB. Uhitid PKOTIHOBS. Scholars. Ntimber of Institu- tions. Scholars. Number of Institu- tions. Scholars. , Number of Institu- tions. Scholare. Number of Institu- tions. Scholars. Number of Institu- tions. Scholars. 1 2 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ' 22 1 23 24 ABHmlt ■{ 1911 1901 1891 429,992 307,076 168,449 3,865 3,430 3,129 297,620 174,091 161,840 30,635 26,926 22,028 1,215,725 860,224 644,164 976 1,199 684 31,891 27,184 19,891 7,278 7,479 9,640 346,940 259,164 2«,713 15,525 13,920 11,717 645,787 433.499 281.246 Public Inttittaiont ■{ 1911 1901 1891 259,181 169,394 128,390 3,865 3,430 3,129 297,620 174,091 161,840 25,344 21,216 18,839 1,087,562 73i,207 683,137 323 222 736 23,012 i3,92I 7,864 4,343 3,123 2,328 289,618 189,406 140,401 10,834 7,626 6,296 678,407 36.'. 67 8 207,339 Arts Colleges - 1911 1901 1891 278 140 26 3 3 3 514 212 31 41 36 3,741 ! 3,27S 3,206 1 / 22 6- 11 13 7 1 2,270 ! 1,261 \ 468 35 23 16 4,2.fl 1,697 2,309 Professional Colleges .1 I. 1911 1901 1891 3 2 103 it 5 8 S 890 636 618 7 ' 1 1 709 178 124 10 1,136 723 3 econdaiy Schools •{ 1911 1901 1891 78,283 30,000 9,604 444 286 SS6 53,308 14,021 28,781 806 733 816 152,413 100,126 70,616 \ 80 30 20 8,128 4,867 2,370 857 1 406 I 283 1 02,445 68,067 46,424 612 648 499 02,585 70,270 60,238 Primary Schools . r •1 1911 1901 1891 177,668 127,638 118,067 3,395 3,119 2,804 242,813 168,699 131,842 24,326 20,306 17,886 922,911 62i,627 606,280 291 191 116 14,809 9,068 6,484 3,920 1 8,642 1 2.026 ' 100,255 117,42« 1 92,281 10,008 6,982 4,782 460,862 278,398 164,884 Training Schools . r •1 1911 1901 1891 •■ 83 74 70 2,989 1,612 1,427 1 53 12 6 , 6 437 322 1 131 8 1,808 544 Other Special Schools . r 1911 1901 1891 2,932 1,616 704 20 20 38 882 1,07S i,eos 03 67 29 4,618 3,927 2,192 ■• 36 16 7 i 3.502 i 2.167 782 1 80 43 4,195 2,939 PrivaU Ifutitttioiu 1__ 1911 1901 1S91 170,831 147,682 40,069 ■■ 5,201 6,711 3,189 128,163 119,017 61,027 653 (o)977 648 8,870 'a)13,263 (6)12,037 2,085 4,368 1 7,312 57.822 i 89,769 : 106,312 , 4,641 6,309 8,421 72.880 80,931 73,917 Advanced . .1 1911 1901 U»l •• 375 246 131 10,478 6,477 4,074 73 48 168 1,108 Jli 1,812 166 378 794 8,014 8,641 9,408 888 l,2tS 17 16,644 1S.18S 1,318 Elementary . ■{ 1911 1901 1891 164,966 142.966 37.014 4,016 S,466 3,068 117,685 113,640 66,963 39 9 34 938 1 229 374 2.769 3,978 6,618 53,408 63,218 96,904 2,000 3,486 8,404 31,669 46.983 73.699 Teaching the Koi»n only r 1911 1901 1891 4,982 4,078 2,993 •• " 640 43 366 6,824 480 3,888 •■ 1,851 1,688 17,192 16,751 Other Schools not conforming r to the departmental stand- .] ard. 1911 1901 1891 883 839 1 «« • • 1 264 3.720 312 6,875 • Inrludes " other special nchooU " tor wliirh wparate flKuri-n arv ncit n%ailAblo. (a) This Includes 623 Institutions and 8,140 BCholars for which dctalU are not available. (ft) Thl» Include 0,065 .cliolarn lor whom no details are aTaUablc. 318 CHAPTEK VIII. — EDUCAIIOX. e > a hi se _i CD < IX h- .Z >• 1— DC < O *- m^m >« (0 s- m >• 3 1" CO a OS — « *■ ■ 1 •* ea (3 ci-a a oj 1-a = 1 ID e! . 11 3 3 3 "9 o ■M h "3 1? 2 a I". 1^^ -5. a 1 =M M M 11 •< • a .i • s • — t. — ED < tJ •a = o >.:= ca € a. rt AS 111 111 C = O ll ^ III ■ = o a e = a E .5 = S • C ' c • c * O tf- o 1 § - 2 513 i 5£ = g E», a a at >« H 1 i ei M H <- 1 1 a H H i4 H » &;. v: &t, :/: ;4 ^ X £ X >4 n ^ ■a rHOO^ ^0»«3 -*«b» M >3 aD94>n o M * «5 "-tio «e^-^ » a> ^ O ca'***^ O Gl -vao^ r-«j jj CO ■^'*« tf P4 S? GO «0^ cO^ t^ -H 0)*o» t« O ***3 (N ■^^■^ 00 t^-. : : : N I : : U-a •d » :c^ C '•^-i CO ts.C^ N CO 10*0 CO '-■3 CO "^ *3. « "-"S Cl 00 =~? >» C4 OC-j to 2 q,>x_<^ ■fl*;^ .-.•^ n 91 (3 ©4 «"•*» • . . . > . . -» a: £ ^1 s'2 t* W3 Oi r-^K-^ ei^fo ^ CO^Oeo 00 "^n 22 3D OS "*oi;o m 'a;3 CO eo5o O^va-^ in -w '. '- I * • • ii-a •a O u^^O ^ o fficr* CO CD H M ao z u a o z a. t^ 3 » « ■»^(^^ ei CQ . • ^ 01->S >5t r- ©4-^ : : I ; I I • • : : : : : : O-O :?; "O -^t^r; ©j»-it* r-^5co O Old Si ^ ei-*. «a 00 CO i*^ SOfM"^ r- W3»« O ■>» !>n — >».-. (N "^ 00 ■^ ^ tt 1-1 >J^*^ «oo^* in Ci_o* 00 "^f^ »"t ca a •^ iM"e* si -^ f^ A s N=C Oi Cl 0»fN. r--.-^ ■^oia 00 00*3 ao ^ in CO (s. 'O 1--5 -isa ina >». 05^=0 KB CO ^-f a S5 *CiO p^"«^©j ei"*;' " 1 ■g (M Ci^ « f^ -^30 Ol OSOJ ts 00"^ t^ "--5 ^O « S5^ ■5 ^ -fM -»« -».!>2 l.'^ t*!oeo 00 w c -2 M ei_ion ei"^ ; . • . . . . M a > a s S o o-o 1 «t^^ (O eo "O eosa »^ 1 ©1 O ^"* ^ lOQv) rH : : : : : : : : : : : : ;^ ^ / ^ r^ oa-**^ Clt^ao CO-M-^i o J. g! cC^»so 1-. }.e^ ci ^; c ininoi CO«>QC o«,. « ift ^;5 ^ 0^-,a N^ o ml^) -i 'j'^s t^ ^ "-1 *» s S O CJ^CC^ eooj'-i £; -J 1 ej" '-I'-n a tHOj-W 00 50*0 ^eOiO « cao) m •-*»-« Ol'^'-'S i-t>tiO S'-S « o ^«*3 OS eo-*=o 00 W5T-i CQ r-0 CO-1 ^ cs -^-M O)"-^ •^ ^ rt 00 00 =c >?^ C CS « l--3«SJ : : : 04 04 CO-i "-1 ; : : &< "Z < X eo ^ -» — -o Ol '^''S:^ eo;o r^ (ffl t^^3 OOO'J >J« K SO *§ S O^--^ r- "< ^» M<=i^ i^ «^> t>. lO*^ t^ Oi *»o COCM »«1 00 "VOM a co*;^ o'erT©*" «!>» ^ S " 5 as irt »Of^ ei Ci-^ lO-^Oj eo*-io> OSCoOi «*>-, e: O'j Ci 09 04 « H« a IM-^J :o OJ »^ ^ O -^ C^ CO -o ■^ lO 30 ^ in Oi »^ CI O)^ G4 ^ 09 fric-* (a •^ "^ >3 « t^ »1 o^io t-a ©•oo* *--* ** u ^^o; o"«c">o us'^w'-r •-I'*-* W&J'*1 rt J^ Bl ^^^ tHl-H"^ 1-I»H»M 1-«»H»S ^ W rs^ n<5,Oi " .-. C; Ol ^25 ^oo» '-<<=>0» ^ OlOl =o OCi ^-^ Cl 0^ ^ oo*^ o»oj»a 0)0>>D C6 0»^ r- •^— « 1- "-^-l rH-^'^ .H»-»'-1 V— v-^ ^'"t— ' V--y^ — ^^ ■^-v— ' v^_ . V— s-^ ^ - - ^ • ' • • • ^'i "^ s • • • f V 09 a g 1 . s . f 1 ;« ^ fc o s w H 3 < a -a 5 1 1 e9 ? t 5 1 o 3 c5 a s <-< £ g s S S 1 ti tC' er ei ec ^ p>;^ c «. c & CHAPTER IX. Laiii;iiii<;e. 397. The Report for 1901 contained an elaborate account of the lanj^uages introductory of India from the accomplished jien of Sir George Grierson, K.C.I.E., D.Litt., """"^ Ph.D., Director of the Liuguistic Survey of India. The account tliere given has since been revised by the author and incorporated in an abbreviated form in the new edition of the Imperial Gazetteer of India* It would be super- fluous to reproduce this iut'ormatiou here. I shall therefore not attempt to give anything in the nature of a comprehensive review of the various languages spokeu in India, but shall confine myself to dealing with the fresh information which has been obtniued since the last Report was written, in the course of the Linguistic Survey or otherwise. The area covered by the statistics discussed in this Chapter differs from that of the last census chiefly in Burma and Balucliistan. In the former pro- vince a record of language was prepared for the first time in several of the northern districts, the Pakokku, and Chin Hills, Kokang and West Manglun. The aggregate population of these tracts is little more than a third of a million, but their interest from a linguistic point of view is far greater than their numerical strength would suggest. Their enumeration has added, inter alia, two new dialects of the Mon-Khmer sub-famil}^ to the list of Indian languages. 39S. The enumerators were directed to enter in the language column of the The aoonraoy of census schedules " the language which each person ordinarily uses in his ^ " ""* own home." This instruction was sufficiently precise, and it is not probable that its meaning was often misunderstood, though there mav sometimes have been mistakes where people are bilingual, as is the case with many Brahiils in Baluchistan, Gujars in the North- West Frontier Province and Kacharls in Assam. In such cases, as Mr. MacGregor says, the enumerators are prone to enter the language in which a man speaks to them instead of that which he speaks to his family. There was, however, a threefold difficulty in obtaining a correct return. In the first place the Aryan languages of India have no hard and fast boundaries between them. Each one in turn merges imperceptibly into its neighbour ; and it is impossible to say exactly where the one language ends and the other begins. The next difficulty is due to the want of precision of the people themselves in describing tiie dialects spoken by them. Over a large part of Upper India the only general term in use is Hindi — the language of Hind — a comprehensive Avord which includes at least three distinct languages, Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi and Bihari. Western Hindi is more nearly allied to Kajasthani and Gujarat! than it is to the two other languages popularly known by the same name, while Bihari, with its three sub-dialects ^tagahi, Maithili and Bhojpuri, has Bengali, Oriya and Assamese as its closest congeners. In the Central Provinces the Nimari and Malwl dialects of Hajastiiani are locallv regarded as Hindi and were usuallv so described in the census schedules. Of the total number of persons returning Aryan languages as their mother- tongue no fewer than 82 millions, or more than a third, described it simply as Hind!. The language known to philologists as Lahuda, which is spoken by the bulk of the people in the North-West Frontier Province other than those who speak Pashto, is commonly regarded as a form of Panjabi, but it is quite distinct from that language, and belongs to a diiferent linguistic group. Mr. Latimer estimates tliat of the 818,000 persons in his province who were return- ed as speaking Panjabi, only 2.3,000 actually do so. In Burma, Arakanese and Tavoyan are al)out equally removed from ]?urmi^so in the scale of mutual intelli- gibility, but while the former was almost invarial)ly recorded under it*; distinc- tive name, Tavoyan was nearly always entered as Burmese. 399. The above causes of error have always l)cen present. At this census another, having its origin in political considerations, has given more troublo * Volume I, Chapter VII. 320 CHAPTER IX. — LANGUAGE. than heretofore. Amongst raany educated Hindus, there is a tendency to helittle the great differences which actually exist between the different parts of the Empire ; and it is sometimes alleged that there is practically only one language spoken throughout northern India. The Gaekwar of Baroda recently asserted that he had never met a native of India who could not under- stand easy Hindi. He was thinking presumably of northern India, but even there, there are many millions of uneducated villagers to whom Hindi, he it ever so easy, is quite unintelligible.* Even within the limits of a single province the common people often speak dialects which are mutually imintel- Hgible. As the Superintendent of Census in the United Provinces says : — ''An inhabitant of any given tahsil can doubtless understand the dialect of his own and all neighbouring tahsils, and possibly several immediately beyond them ; but a man from the Braj country can certainly not understand a man from the Bihar! country, or a man from the Bundeli country one from the Pahari country. It is a fact with which Government officials, used as they are to long transfers, are well acquainted." On the other hand, Muhammadans often declare that Urdu, the Persianized form of Hindostani, is the language, not only of all their co-religionists, but also of a large number of Hindus in the north of India. Although the great majority of Census Officers honestly did their best to describe accurately the languages of the people enumerated by them, it sometimes happened that the entries in the schedules were vitiated by this political bias. This was especially the case in the Punjab and the United Provinces. 400. In the United Provinces, says Mr. Blunt : — "In 1901 a controversy had raged over the merits and demerits of Hindi {i.e., High Hindi) and Urdu as languages. The immediate cause was certain orders issued by Government in 1900 directing that court documents might be written in either script, and in some cases must be written in both. It was purely a question of script : nothing was said about language. But the question was taken up as a racial one and misinterpreted as applving to language. There was a good deal of excitement, and it is probable that the figures were to some extent vitiated thereby. At this census the controversy broke out again in a fresh form and with far more violence. The cause on this occasion appears to have been a discussion, which aroused a good deal of attention, about the nature of primary school text-books. As early as 1903 Government had decided that only ordinary Hindostani should be used in the textbooks, in whatever script they were written : but when they were revised in 1910, an attempt was made to divorce the text-books in the two different scripts and make the one a vehicle of Persianized Urdu and the other a vehicle of Sanskrit- ized or High Hindi. The obvious course to adopt was the middle one, to choose passages which would bear reproduction in either script by avoiding both extremes. The course of the controversy on this point need not be pursued. It is sufficient to say that, as in 1901, the census schedule was dragged into it, and the question, which was really one of the style of text-books, was misinterpreted as applving to the spoken languages. * * * * " As in 1901, there were undoubtedly steps taken to cause the returns of language to be falsified : complaints were common that on one side the Hindu enumerators were recording Hindi whether the persons enumerated returned Hindi or not, and on the other side that Muhammadan enumerators were acting in the same way with regard to Urdu. I have no doubt whatever that such events did occur, chiefly in cities where the agitation was hottest. Wherever I went on tour I was met by a more or less heated discussion on the subject. The feeling was intense and usually bitter : only in one place (Benares) did leading men show any good temper over it, even jesting over their various estimates of what 1 personally was speaking. And as a consequence, though the total of one language (Hindi) is not much affected, the total of Urdu is less by one-fifth than in 1901, whilst the district returns show in many cases absurd differences. It is not too much to say that the figures as they stand aie evidence only of the strength or weakness of the agitation in particular districts. Simply because they refused to define their terras before they argued, or rather because they would not take the trouble to understand the terms as used by the census authorities, the controversialists, who were really quarrelling about the respective merits of certain styles as vehicles of instruction, succeeded in utterly falsifying a set of important statistics relating to something entirely different." 401. In Assam the l)oundary line between Assamese and Bengali runs through the Goalpara district. Many persons returned by the enumerator as speaking Assamese were afterwards classed as Bengali speakers under the • It is of cnuree admitted th.it large nnmbers of men who speak Magahi, UhojpBri and such like dialects, also know Hindi as a second lar.guage, just as many Englishmen know French or German, and that, with the spread of education and improved nommunications, their numher is rapidly increasing. In (his connection it may be interesting to note that, apart from minor variants from other scripts, such as Miiitliilj, ther.' iire more than twenty scri])ts in use in Indiii, including Persian, Devanagari, K lithi, Bengali, Oriya, MaralKi, Mahajimi, Kashn.iij, Sindtil, GurmukLi, rashto, I'ogri, Tankri, Chainboali, Tanil, Telugu, Kanarese. MalayaUm, Burmese, Shnn, Tibetan. The Roman character is used for various tribal dialects, such as Khasi, wliioh have no character of their own. THE MAIN FEATTTKES OF THE RETURN. 321 orflers of Bengali Cliargo Su})erinteiKlcnts. This camo to light after the census, and a local enquiry was made which showed that the speakers of Assamese were at least 30,000, or 35 per cent., more numerous than would appear from the fiijures in Imjierial Tahle X. Another difliculty exj)erienced in Assam was in respect of the speech of the ex-tea garden coolie-< who have made a permanent home in the pi'ovince. These people, whose own ancestral tongue is u^uilly a Muuda or Dvavidiau dialect, learn in Assam to talk a patois into which Hindi, Bengali and Assamese enter in varying proportions. Hindi is said to predominate in Lakhimpur, and Assamese further west. The Assamese enumerator was generally content to call this jargon Bengali simply because he knew it was not Assamese. The number of persons speaking Oriya in the Madras Presidency has fallen off, owing to an apparent decrease of 316,000 in the Ganjam district. Mr. Molouy thinks that the present figures are more correct tli.-in those of 1901, when the contentions Avhich prevailed between the Telugus and Oriyas led to deliberate misrepresentation by some of the enumerators. It may be thought from what has been said above that the return is of no great valu*'. Tliis is, no doubt, true so far as some of the Aryan languages are concerned. The case, however, is different when we come to consider the tribal dialects, and to compare the figures for them with those returned at previous censuses, in order to ascertain the extent to which they are holding their own or giving w;iy to other forms of speech. 402. The statistics recorded at the census regarding language will be found Tue^ma^^turas in Imperial Table X. The following Subsidiaiy Tables in which the principal features of the return are presented in a more compendious form are given at the end of this Chapter : — I. Distribution of total population by language : {(() according to the census, (b) according to Linguistic Survey. II. Distribution by language of the population of each Province, State or Agency. III. Comparison of tribes and tribal languages. In the first part of Subsidiary Table I the distribution by language is shown according to the entries actually found in the census schedules. In the second part, general terms, such as Hindi, are broken up into their proper constituents, on the basis of the conclusions arrived at in the course of the Linguistic Survey regarding the areas in which each language is spoken. The main features of the return are exhibited in the following summary statement : — Family, Sub-Family, Branch, etc. js amoer oi languages spoken. Number of speakers. INDIA. 313,493,215 A.— VERNACULARS OF INDIA. 220» 812,948,881 Malayo-Polvnesian Family^ ... 6,179 Malay Group . 0,179 Austro-Asiatic Family^ ■ ■ . . . * 4,898,610 Mon-Kliiner Sub-I'"amilj , 555,117 7 Mundfi Sub-Family . , . 3,S*a,223 16 Tibeto-Chinese Family — . < > 12,972,512 Tibeto-Burman Sub-Family . . 10,932,775 121 Siamese-Chinese Sub-Family . . 2,039,737 20 Dravidian Family — • . . • •• 62,71S,9C1 Dravida Group . . 37,094.,393 11 Interraf^diate Languages , 1,527,157 1 Andhra (JrDup . , 24,097,411 ••5 Indo-Europr-an Family (.\ryan Sub-Family) — ... 232,822,511 Eranian Branth 2,006,654 .") Indian Branch 230,755,857 32 Unclassified Languages . • •• • • • 29,6 IS Andamanes!' 1,324 1 Gipsy Languages 28,294 It Language not returned ... ... 400 B.— VERNACULARS OF OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES. ETC. 223,110 C— EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 321, •>24 • Includes 38 minor dialects shown in italioB in Table X. t Treated ai one unit in Table X. 2 V 322 CHAPTER IX. — LANGUAGE. Tbe Bcbeme of classifloatlon. TbeHnnda langnages. Singhalese has been treated as an Indian vernacular partly because it is derived from, and closely allied to, Marathi, and partly because its dialect, Alahl, is spoken in the Maldive Islands, which for administrative purposes are attached to the Madras Presidency. 403. For the purpose of the census, languages have been classified in accord- ance wdth the scheme kindly drawn up by Sir George Grierson. It follows very closely the scheme (also drawn up by him) which was adopted in 1901, but several modifications have been made in consequence of fresh facts discovered in the course of the Linguistic Survey. A considerable number of tribal dialects, chiefly in Burma and Assam, which were not in Sir George Griersou's revised list, were returned at the pre- sent census and classified by the Provincial Superintendents on the basis of in- formation obtained locally. The following is a list of these dialects : — The Palaung-TVa Group of the Salwin and neighbourhood. Miao (Hmeng), Yao. TronominaUzed Jlimalayan Group {Uasiern Sub' Group). Hayu (Vayu). Naga-Bodo Sub-Group. Khoirao. Ndga Kuki Sub- Group. Kwoireng, Maram, Maring, Sopvoma, Tangkhul. Old Kuki Sab- Group. Aimol, Anal, Chiru, Chote, Hiroi-Lamgang, Koireng, Kom, Purum, Vaiphei. I^orthern Chin Suh- Group. Paithe, Ralte, Siyin, Sokte. Central Chin Sub-Grovp. Baungshe. Southern Chin Sub-Group. Chinb6k, Chinb6n, Daingnet, M'hang, Taungtha. Burma Group. Chaungtha, Danu, Hpon, Intha, Kadu, Taungyo, Tavo- yan. Lolo Group. Akha (Kaw), Ako, Kwi (Lahu Hsi), Lahu (Muhso), Lisu (Lisaw), Lolo (Myen). Tai Group. I^ob. ■Eastern Group of the Uranian Branch. Dehwari, Ormuri. Shina Khowar Group. Pashai. 404. The most important alteration in the scheme of classification is in connection with the affiliation of the Munda languages. Those languages are spoken by a collection of tribes, inchiding the Santals, Mundas and Hos, who inhabit a compact block of country in the Chota Nagpur plateau, and by one or two outlying tribes in the south of the Orissa States and the west of the Central Provinces. Though the number of persons using them is now only about three millions, there are signs that they were formerly far more widespread. Sir George Grierson suggests that the numerous Bhil tribes and others who speak various broken dialects, such as Koli in western India, may originally have used a Muuda form of speech. There are several Hinduized tribes in northern India, such as the Cheros, who certainly once spoke some Muuda dialect ; and it is highly probable that Munda principles have intluenced the conjugation of the Bibari verb. Traces of a Munda element are also met with in a line of Tibeto-Burman dialects of the lower Himalayas stretching from the neigh- bourhood of Darjeeliiig to Kanawar in the Punjab. Prom these data it may perhaps be inferred that Munda dialects were current overthe greater part of the Indo-Gangetic plain before the advent of the hordes who brought the Aryan languages to India. The late Sir Herbert Bisley's anthropometric statistics fail to disclose any physical difference between the Munda-speaking tribes and their neighbours, who speak languages of the Dravidian family. The earliest enquirers were of opinion that the two groups of languages either belonged to the same family or were at least closely allied. Max Sliiller was the first to draw a clear dis- tinction between them ; and it was he who first used the term Munda as a designation of the linguistic family of which that language is a typical roprcs- ontative. 'J his family was named Kol by Hodgson and Logan, and Kola- rian by Sir George Campbell. The former term has been objected to because it is \ised also as the designation of certain tribes speaking Dravidian lang- THE MUNDA LANGUAGES. 323 uages, and the latter because it was designed (erroneously) to connote some connection between the tribes in question and Colar in southern India ; it also suggests to the uninitiated th:it it has something to do with Aryan, which of course is far from the truth. Those objections to the term have already been pointed out by Sir George Grierson, but it is necessary to reiterate them because, in spite of what he has said, the word is still frequently used. The name Munda is also not free from objection, but it is perhaps as good as any other. The old theory that the Munda and the Dravidian languages belonged to the same linguistic family was revived by the llev. P. Halin ;* and his views held the tield at the time when the language chapter in the last Census Report was written. The Dravidian and Munda languages were accordingly classed as sub-families of a Dravido-Munda family. Since then the -whole ques- tion has been exhaustively reviewed in Voliune IV of the Linguistic Survey of India, and it has been conclusively proved that the two groups of languages have no real connection. 405. After showing that the words common to Mundari and Kurukh, or Difference OraoS, the chief local Dravidian language, are due to mutual borrowing or, in and DravidSau some cases, to their common use of Aryan loan words, Sir George Grierson proceeds to point out the essential differences in the structui'e and grammar of the two families :t — " Phonology. The most sti'iking feature of Munda phonology is the existence of the so- called semi-consonants. There is nothing corresponding to these in Dravidian languages. On the other hand, the interchange between soft and hard consonants in Dravidian is not a feature of the Munda forms of speech. Formation of wonh. The Munda languages like the Dravidian ones make use of sufBxes. The same is, however, the case in all Indian, and in many other, languages, and it is, moreover, possible, or even probable, that the use of suffixes in Munda is largely due to the influence of Dravidian or Aryan forms of speech. The Dravidian languages have nothing corresponding to the Munda infixes. Nouns. Dravidian nouns are of two kinds, viz., those that denote rational beings, and those that denote irrational beings, respectively. The two classes differ in the formation of the plural, and also in other respects. The state of affairs in Munda is quite different. Here ■we find the difference to be between animate and inanimate nouns, quite another principle of classification, pervading the whole grammatical system. Both classes, moreover, denote their plural in the same way. Further, Dravidian languages often have different forms for the masculine and feminine singular of nouns denoting rational beings, while the Mundas make no difference whatever. Dravidian languages have two numbers, the singular and the plural. The Munda dialects have three. The formation of cases is quite different in the two families. The Dravidian languages have a regular dative and an accusative, while the cases of the direct and indirect object are incorporated in the verb in Munda. The suffix ke, which is used to denote the direct and the indirect object in some mixed dialects of !Mundari, is a foreign element. In the face of such facts the comparison of the Kurukh ablative suffix ti with Mundari te, which is not a real ablative suffix, is of no avail, even if the Kurukh ti, nil, should prove to be different in its origin from Tamil inru, Kanarese itida, Tulu edd. In this connexion it should also be noted that the Munda languages do not possess anything corresponding to the Dravidian oblique base. Adjectives. Adjectives are of the same kind in both families. The same is, however, the case in almost all agglutinative languages. Numerals. No connexion whatever can be traced between the Mmida and Dravidiau numerals. Moreover, the principles prevailing in the formation of higher numbers are different in the two families. The Dravidas count in tens, the Mundas in twenties. Pronouns. The pronoun in, ing, I, in Miinda dialects has been compared by Mr. Hahu with the Kurukh en, oblique eng. It will, however, be shown in the introduction to the Dravidian family that the base of the Dravidian word for " I '•" is probably e, while the essential part of the Munda i)ronoun is il or h. Mr. Hahn further remarks that both families have different forms for the" plural of the personal pronoun of the first person according to whether the party addressed is included or not. It will be pointed out in the introduction to the Dravidian family that it is very questionable whether this is originally a feature of the Dravidian forms of speech. Moreover, the use of two different forms for " we'' occurs in other families which have nothing to do with the Mundas and Dravidas, e.g., in the Nuba languages, the Algon(iuin languages, etc. Mr. Hahn further compares Kurukh eka, who ? with Mundari o/co. But the basa of e-Jca is e or t, as is clearly shown by other Dravidian forms of speech. • Kurujih Grammar, Calcutta, l!»iO, pp. 98 ff. t LinguiHic Hurvig of Iniia, Volumo IV, pp. 3-1. 2 K 2 324 CHAPTKR IX. — LANGUAGE. Their proper affiliation. The race of the Mnnda and Dra- vlda speakers No conclusion whatever can be drawn from the absence of a relative pronoun in both families. The same is, as is well known, the case in numerous languages all over the world. Verbs. Every trace of analogy between the Mnnda and Dravidian families disappears when we proceed to deal with the verljs. Mr. Hahn compares some suffixes in Kurukh and JInndari. It is not necvssary to sho>v in details that his comparisons will not stand a close examination. I shall only take one typical instance. He compares the Mundari suffix of the simple past tense passive _/««, which corresponds to Santali en, with Kurukh Jan, which is the termination of the first person singular feminine of such verbs as end in n. The .; of the Kui-ukh tense is softened from c?i, as is clearly shown by connected dialects. The/ of Mundari Jan, on the other hand, is derived from >/ in ^a/t, equal to Santali en. The final « of Kumkh Jan is the personal termination of the first person singular, and is dropped in other persons; the n of Mundari _;'«?/, is the sign of the passive and runs through all persons. The rest of Mr. Hahn's comparisons are of the same kind, and can safely be left out of consideration. On the other hand, the whole conjugational system is quite different in the Dravidian and in Munda languages. The Dravidian system is ver}' simple, only comprising two or three tenses ; in Munda we find an almost bewildering maze of conjugational forms. The Dravidian verb can be characterized as a noun of agency; the ]\Iunda verb is an indefinite form which may be used at will as a noun, an adjective, or as a verb. The most characteristic feature of the Munda verb, the categorical a and the incorporation of the direct and the indirect object in the verb, are in absolute discord with Dravidian principles. The IMunda languages, on the other hand, do not possess anything corresponding to the Dravidian negative conjugation. It is not necessary to go further into detail. The two families only agree in such points as are common to most agglutinative languages, and there is no philological reason for deriving them from the same original." 406. By their clifPerentiation from the Dravidian, the Munda dialects, within India proper, form an isolated pliilological group. It was shown in Volume IV of the Linguistic Survey that there was some connection hetween them and the MOn- Khmer family of languages, which includes the dialects spoken hy the Mons, Palaungs and Vv'as in Burma, the Kliasis in Assam, the aboriginal inhabi- tants of the Malay peninsula and the Nicobarese. The conclusion wa^ arrived at that the two group- of languages were derived from one and the same base. Since then, with the aid of the new material provided by tlie Linguistic Survey, Pater Schmidt has finally settled tho affiliation of the Munda l.inguages.* He has clearly shown that the basis of the Munda and of the Mon- Khmer languages is identical and he groups them together as a single family of languages, which he names the Austro-Asiatic. There is another family, which he calls the Austronesian, including Indone^an, Melanesian and Polynesian. Finally, he combines the Austro-Asiatic and Austronesian into one great family which he calls the Austric. These striking conckisious, which have been fully accepted by Sir George Grierson so far as India is concerned, result in the most widely spread speech-family of which the existence has yet been proved. It , extends from Easter Island off the coast of South America in the east, to Madagascar in the west, and from New Zealand in the south to the Punjab in the north. As a consequence of this discovery, the Munda languages are no longer shown as a sub-family of a supposed Dravido-Munda family, but as a sub-family of the Austro-Asiatic family. The Mon-Khmcr languages, the Palaung-Wa group of th<- Salwin and ncighbovu-hood, and Khasi have also been grouped as sub-families under tlie same main head, instead of, as previously, under the Indo-Chinese family. 407. As noted above, though there is no connection between the two linguis- tic families, the tribes speaking them were held by llisley to be physically indis- • Die Mo'n-K).mer' Volkcr-ein Biudeglied Zwischen Volkern Zenlralasiens tind Austronesiens, Biuns- wicli, ly06. This impoi-tiint work was reviewed by Sir George Grierson in tlie Juuriial uf the Royal Astatic Soiieli/.JtLuy. 1907, p. 187. THE MUXDA LANGUAGES. o25 tiuEjuishablc. The ethnic type to which they are said to belong is known as tlie " Dravidiau." Their main pliysical characteristics are a broad nose, a long head, plentiful and sometimes curly (but not frizzly or woolly) hair, a black or nearly black skin, and a rather low stature. I here is a Negrito element in the south of India, but it is nuich smaller than has sometimes been supposed. It has been modified by contact with other races and the distinctive frizzly hair of the Andamanese is practically never seen.* There is on the West Coast an intermixture of some short-headed race \»hich may have found its way thither by sea or along the coast. Kisley believed this to be a result of the Scytiiian invasions, but his view has not received general acceptance. According to Dr. Haddon, this element is Alpine, not Mongolian.! Except -where it has been intluenced by immigration from the north-west or north-east in comparatively recent times, the general uniformity of physical type throuuhout India seems to show that the speakers both of the Munda and of the Dravidian languages must have been settled there for countless ages, during which intermarriage and climatic influences and environment gradually destroyed the former" racial distinctions and evolved an uniform type. 408. Sir George Grierson opines that the so-called " Dravidian " ethnic type may be really that of the Mundas and should be called the Munda type. His sug- gestion is that the Dravidian type was dissimilar, that (exactly as hai)pened in the case of the Aryans) they intermarried with Mundas, and their children gradually gained the Munda ethnic tj^e, while they (again exactly like the Aryans) retained their own language. This would account, he says, for the Brtihuis who speak a Dravidian language, having nothing " Dravidian " or " .Munda " in their physical appearance. The Brahuis are a mixed race, mainly Eranian in type, but if the so-called "Dravidian" ethnic type were, really " Dravidian " we should expect some signs of it still to be found among the Brahiiis. But there are none. I venture to think that one difiBculty in the way of the above hypothesis is that there are no traces of the Munda languages anywhere in the south of India. They have been displaced by Aryan languages in the north, but this is because the Aryans had a superior civilization, whereas there is nothing to show that the original Dravidian speakers were sujierior to the Munda speakers. And even if they were, one would have exjx^cted, if there hafl ever been Munda speakers there, to find small islands of Munda speech in the hilly tracts of southern India, which are much more inaccessible than those of Chota Xagpur where Munda languages still hold their oavd, or traces of their influence on the Dravidian languages similar to those left by them on certain Himalayan dialects of the 'i ibeto-Burman family. There are, however, no vestiges of this kind. >.loreover, as no connection has yet been proved between the Dravidiau languages and those of any other family, it would seem more reasonable to suppose that they had their origin in .'^outhern India than that they came in from clsewhei'e. And it seems less improbable that the people who gave their language to the small Brahiii tribe should have left no traces in its physical type, than that they should have left no mark on the great mass of Dravidian speakers in the south of India. ^Vs Haddon says, the significance of the Bralm! language is not understood, but probably it is mendy a case of cultural drift.J It is not unlikely that Dravidian languages were once current in western India ; and it is readily conceivable that at that time Dravidian speakers may have imposed their language on an alien race, just as, at the present day, the Parsis are found speaking Gujarat!, although they have no Indian blood in their veins, and the Jews of Cochin have also adopted an Indian vernacular, though they still use Hebrew for religious ])urposes. 409. An earlier generation of ethnologists was impressed by the fact that ^op- original the Mongolian and Dravidian race-; both differed markedly from the Aryan in certain respects, aiul espi'cially in the shape of their noses, which are broad and bridgeles.s. They inferred from the existence of these common points of difference that the races in question sprang from the same stock, and that the • ThiiTston fays ; I h.-ivc only seen nne indiridiml with woolly Imir, and lie wns of mixod Tamil and African xmrenUvje. — Laitc and 'J rihes nf Southern India Vol. I, piijie XXVIII. t The Wanderhuit nf Peoples, \<, 27. -K well-known nthiii'logist filU me lie lias doubts n» tn ;lu) rarial nnity of tlic Munda and Dravida-8|iOiiking peujiles, and at liia request I have la! in South Canara. It also includes several outlying languages, the chief of which are Kurukh (OS million) in the Chota Nagpur plateau, spoken by the Oraons who have tradi- tions of emigration from the peninsula, and Brahiii (less than 0'2 million) in Baluchistan, whose existence in that distant sjiotis one of the greatest riddles in Indian philology; it has already been referred to in paragraph 408. 430. Of the Tibeto-Chinese family, with 13 million speakers, there are in India two sub-families — the Tibeto-Burman (11 millions) and the Siamese- Chinese (2 millions). The former is spoken throughout Burma, except in the Shan States, a strip to the south of them along the borders of Siam, and several districts in the north of Upper Burma. It is also spoken by all the hill tribes of Assam, except the Khasis and their congeners, and throughout the Himalayan area. It comprises an extensive congeries of languages and dialects which it would be tedious to enumerate in detail. With the exception of Burmese (8 millions), most of them are spoken by very small numbers ; the next to Burmese in numerical importance are Arakanese, Manipuri and Bodo or Kachari (each 0'3 million! and Chin (unspecified), Bhotia, Garo and Kachin (eachO''2 million). The Siamese- Chinese sub-family contains two groups — the Sinitic or Karen and its dialects, with I'l million, and the Tai, of which the chief representative is Shan, with 09 million. It is spoken in the Shan States and some adjoining parts of Burma, and by a few small tribes in the east of the Brahmaputra valley. faS^u""'*^'''"*^ ■^^l- ^^^ 1^^^ family that need be mentioned is the Austro- Asiatic. Claim- ing at the present day only 4-4 million adherents, it is of interest in India from an historical point of view, hecause, as we have seen in paragraph 404, it was probably current at an earlier epoch over a large part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. It has long since been supplanted there by other languages, but vestiges of it are still to be found. It has two local sub-families, the Mon-Khmer (0'6 million) and the Munda (3"8 millions). The principal members of the former are Mon or Talaiug in the neighbourhood of Rangoon, Khasi in the centre of the Assam range, and Palaung and its allied dialects in the neighbourhood of the Salwin— each with about 2 million speakers. Of i the Munda sub-family whose main habitat is the Chota Xagpur plateau, Kherwari (3-4 millions) is the most important language. Santali (2"1 millions), Mundari (0"6 million) and Ho (0'4 million) are among the dialects of this language. There arc a few outlying languages of which Kurku spoken by 0*14 million people in the west of the Central Provinces and Savara spoken by 0'17 million in the north of Madras are the most important. 432. Even within provincial boundaries there is often great linguistic diversity. In the Presidency of Bengal, as now constituted, more than nine- teuths of the inhabitants speak the same language, Bengali, but this is a very exceptional case. In the small province of Assam nearly half the people speak Bengali and one-fifih speak Assamese ; but the languages of the remaining three- tenths are 98 in number, the most important being Hindi (spoken by 6 per cent.), Manipuri and Bodo (each 4 per cent.), Naga dialects and Khasi (each 3 per cent.), Garo (2 per cent.), Mikir (1-5 per cent.) and Mundari and Lushei (each 1 per cent.). In Bihar and Orissa, Hindi and Bihari dialects together are spoken by nearly two-thirds of the inhalutants, andOriyaby one-fifth, Kherwari dialects (^luudari, Santali, Ho, etc.) by G per cent, and the Dravidiaii Kmaikh by 1'5 per cent. The chief languages in Bombay are Marathi, spoken l)y 40, Gujarati by 28, and Sindhibyl3, per cent, of the inhabitants. Other languages are spoken by 19 per cent., including the Dravidian Kanarese (11 per cent.) and Telugu (5 per millc). Two-thirds of the people of Burma talk Burmese, 9 per cent. Karen, and 7 per cent. Shan ; Mon and other dialects of the Austro- Asiatic family are spoken by 3 per cent., Ai-akauesc, Bengali and Chin by 2 per cent, each, and Western Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Kachin and Chinese by 1 per cent. each. In the Central i'rovinces and B era r there is also great heteroge- neity. Some form of Hindi is the language of 55 persons in every hundred, Marathi The languages spoken m each province. THE STATISTICS OF LANGUAGE. 337 of 31, Gond of 7, Oriya of 2 and Eajasthani, Telugu and Kurku of 1 each. So also in Madras, Avhere 41 per cent, speak Tamil, 38 jier cent. Telugu, 7 per cent. Malayalam, 4 per cent. Oriya and the same proportion Kauarese. Only 2 per cent, re^turned some form of Hindi, but it is widely spoken as a second language, and Mr. Molony says that there are few places outside the Agency tracts and Malabar, where a tolerable knowledge of it will not enable a traveller to communicate with those about him unaided by an interpreter. In the Punjab and United Provinces it is less easy to distinguish the various languages, owing to errors in the popular nomenclature, but on the basis of the results of the Linguistic Survey, Mr. Blunt estimates that in the latter piwince, of every hundred persons, 45 speak Western Hindi, 32 Eastern Hindi, 20 Biharl and 3, Central Pahari. 2 X 338 CHAPTEE IX. — LANGUAGE. SUBSIDIARY Distribution of tiie population Language. Vernaculars of India— Malaijo- f'olyiusian Family Malay Group • S.-lung or Scion Malay . Aiislio-A sialic Finnilij TOTil NUMBEB OF SPEAKERS (OOO'S OMITTED). M6n-Khmer languages proper (Mnn, j lal iiii.; ur rii;ii.iii) .... Tho Palaung-Wa Group Talauug \Va Khasi (Khasi) . Nlco1>arese (Nicobarcse) . Munda Sub-Family XhtTUari o Snrddl} or liar . Mandarl . lihumii . Ho . . ■ Kurkri Kiiaria Savari . Gadaba . Tibeto-Chinese Fam ily Tibetan Croup Bllofia . Uhotid of BiJltistan Bhotid of Ladak't ■ Non-pronominalized Group . Himalayan M'liTni Mannar Ilotis: or Lopcha Pronomlnalized Himalayan Group T.imbri Kir.iuti KiKimba KirAnti Jimdar Kanauri or .Mullliaiii Nortli Assam Branch . Abor-.MIri Bodo Group i;,..lo {.M.cli, Ka--hari) Garu Tipura or Mrung Naga Group Taii-klml Ao .Naga unclaascd Kukl Chin Group Maiiipuri 'i'li-ulu or Jangsbcn I.iisbij or Dulien (Jiiiii iunspecifie'J} Jlikir Kiiki (litttipecifie'-l) Kachin Group Kachin or Singpho Burma Group lUirmcrto AiakalK'SC iMthu Lolo Sroup Aklia (Kaw) Slnltic Group (Karrn) Tai Group 1911. Males. Females. 3 3 1 2[ S.ISO 91 84 75 95 4 1,915 1,672 i,orn 299 tf.5 203 08 «4 »i 21 G,404 116 118 2i 50 lit 12 10 56 13 2 2tt 10 30 I 29 j 348 143 lull 70 109 13 20 18 14 9 440 158 13 32 114 53 15 85 84 4,118 3,»»58 199 28 33 17 535 484 24 447 1901. 3. -HO 88 83 74 106 4 1,929 l.iV^O IMS 391 67 217 69 C3 83 111 114 67 27 I 4( 18 8 10 59 11 1 28 28 335 141 93 66 HI 14 19 17 15 8 451 159 14 37 119 50 15 87 87 4,287 [ 4,035 191 Zi 33 16 533 4SS Malce. Females. 1.700 84 1,5S2 1,384 892 218 Si 197 43 52 79 19 5,379 126 121 6« 48 16 10 10 45 12 23 9 300 120 94 se 349 135 2 32 91 43 26 34 33 3,691 3,444 224 3 21 11 446 416 21 373 1.817 86 37 33 4 94 3 1,597 1,400 89S 223 S7 200 45 50 78 13 5,70,7 119 114 es 44 16 8 10 44 11 21 11 19 19 296 119 92 54 40 91 41 28 35 34 3,824 3,578 **23 "3 20 10 442 421 21 3SII NITMBER PER 10,000 OF lOTAl POPUIATION (1911) Males. 137 6 5 5 120 105 67 19 4 13 4 4 5 1 39n 7 7 4 2 27 10 1 2 7 3 1 6 e 257 241 12 2 2 1 33 30 Females. 144 6 5 5 126 110 70 20 4 14 430 7 7 4 2 22 9 6 4 30 10 1 3 8 3 1 6 280 264 12 Where chic-fly spoken. Burma. Ditto. Burma. Ditto. Ditto. Assam. Andamans and Nicobars. Bihar and Orissa, Bengal and Assam. Bihar and Orissa, Assam and Bengal. Bihar and Orissa and Bengal. Bihar and Orissa. C. P. and Ecrar. Bihar and Orissa. Madras. Ditto. Kashmir State. Ditto. Bengal and Sikkim State. Bengal. Bengal and Sikkim State. Bengal and Sikkim State. Assam and Bengal. Bengal and Sikkim State. Punjab. Assam and Bengal. Ditto. Bengal. Assam. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Assam. Ditto. Ditto. Bunna. Assam. Assam and Bengal. Burma. Burma and Bengal. Burma. 2 1 Bunna. 35 Burma. 32 2 Hurma. 30 Ditto. . — Th'- minor languages and dialects have been omittr-d. Hence the details do not work up to the totals of Groups, the figures for In 1901 persons returning Uindi as their language were classified with releronco to SUBSIUIAKY TABLES. 339 TABLE I (a). ot each sex hv hiiii>:ii-a or .Malor Br:.l.i-;i Intermediate languages (Goud. etc.) Andbra Gronp .... Trlucu or .\nilhra Kaiidh or Kui l\oL"tmi .... linlo-Eiiiopean Famili/ . Eastern Gronp (Eranian Branch) Bal..,-h SUna Khowar Group Shini . . . . Kashmiri North-Western Group Western Paiij^bi Sindhi . . . . Southern Group (Marathi) Eastern Group Undiau Branch) Oriva . . ... Bihari Bougali ..... jVssaniese .... Mediate Group HlTUii Easfrn Hindi . Western Group Western Hindi ESjasthSni Gujarat! Panjiibi . . . . Northern Gronp . Central P.ihari Nail'Sli ('"has) Western PahSri Vnclassi/'ied Lanffiiaacs Andaniftnese ..... Gipsy Jjinguag'S .... Vernacalars of other Asiatic countries, etc.— luilo-Kiiropean I'limily . Eranian Gronp (Persian) . >eniitii- rniuily .... Arabic ...... Jf fimltlr Faiiiiif/ .... Etbiopic Group (Somali) Monyoltun t'ltmihj .... Ural-Altaic Gronp (Turki«h PialectB) Japanese Croup ijnpaneae) . Monosyllabic Croup • Chinese) European Languages— I ntltt-r-ni r>l fin I'fiiiiil if Romany* Gronp . Italian French . Portu2n'*»c Toutonic Group G' rrn.it] . 1911. 1901. XCSIBKU ] r.ll 10,000 OF TOTAL 101 CL.ITIO.V (1«11) Where chiefly sjokeD. Males. 2 18,392 8,.S96 3,390 5,230 279 393 735 12,096 1 1 ,820 2(i4 12 130,366 1,131 276 850 650 11 633 4,545 2,361 1,984 9,968 30,521 5,002 198 24,538 786 43,358 42,149 1,209 29,168 7,461 7,349 5,518 8,840 3 126 793 33 31 39 28 B 6 83 1 82 3O0 10 1 1 8 199 197 Females. Males. 31,495 I 18,702 9,23;) 3,402 5.24K 21 283 405 32 792 12,001 11,723 266 12 113,SBS 7lt4 558 10 545 3,905 2,213 1,687 9,8S9 29,938 5,160 201 23,829 748 41,068 39,854 6,719 5,1C4 7,C37 817 1 <<2 734 15 iJ S« 25 1* 13 3 2 33 1 31 113 5 1 4 107 I 1»7 I 4 38.183 16,945 8,100 3,009 5,201 20 264 290 S] 30 550 10,688 10,436 252 113,304 745 85 IHO 569 29 540 I 3,119 1,784 i 1,635 I 9.148 46,423 4,789 18,436 22,512 686 10,528 Females. Males. 1,214 ! 10,528 25,497 40,947 6,577 20,833 5.732 5,103 9.279 1,614 6L'5 85 894 183 1 182 14 14 30 30 < 4 4a 42 174 10 1 1 8 164 Ins 1 38.331 17,253 8,426 3,021 5,1C4 19 271 302 30 19 575 10, 503 10,261 242 107.7U4 632 1)7 565 493 25 468 2,925 1,553 1,372 9,090 46,317 4,899 18,641 22,112 665 10,158 10,458 36,338 18,533 5,186 4,825 7,792 1,511 636 59 816 164 1 103 7 7 14 13 3 2 9 09 S 6 M 00 I 6 J.046 1,146 553 211 I 329 , 1 17 23 16 751 737 1 16 1 I 7,495 70 17 53 41 1 40 284 160 124 621 1,902 312 12 1,529 40 2,702 2,C27 75 1,818 465 458 344 551 57 8 49 13 1 12 79 ,666 430 439 337 4611 54 6 48 7 3,0S8 1,222 603 222 343 1 19 5 52 784 766 17 1 7,3GB 61 15 46 37 i 36 255 145 110 643 1,956 337 13 1,557 49 2,683 2.601. Ma(lra.« and Mysore State. Madra.s. >l>>ore .State, Bombaj-, Hyderabad .State and Madraji. CoorR. Madras, iiihar and Orissa, Bengal and C. P. and Berar. Bihar ana Oris^a. Batuctiistan. C. P. and Berar, C. I. Agency and Hyderabad State. .Madras, Hyjirabad and Mysore States, Madras and liitiar and Orissa. C. P. and Berar. Baluchistan and Bombay. y.-W. F. Province and Baluchistan. Kashmir State. Ditto. Punjab. Bombay. Bombay. C. P. and Berar ^d Hydenibad State. * Bihar and Orissa and Madras. Bihar and Orissa and C. I. Agency. Bengal, Assam and Bibai and Onssa. Assam. I nited Provines, Bihar and Orissa, C.P. and Berar, Punjab, Bengal, and the .\c:encies of Rajpntana and Central India. C. I. Agency and C. P. and Berar. United Provinces, Pun'ab, C. I. Agency, Bombay, Hyderabad State and Madras. Hajputana and C. I. Agencies. Bombay and Baroda State and United Frovintos. Punjab and Kashmir State. Punjab and United Provinces, Bengal. .\.--am and sikkim State. Punjab and Kashmir Stale. Andamans and Xicobars. Bombay. Pun>b and Hyderabad State.' a 2 1 1 i Bombay and Hyderabad State. Bombay, United Provinces, Baluchis- tan aiid X.-W. F. Province. Bomb ly. Domttay. Burma and Bombay. Burma. Bombay and United Prorincet. Madras. Bombay, United Provinces anil b^'ngal. Bombay and M.idratt. Bombay. Bengal, Madras, United Provinces, Punjab anil Burma. Bombay, .Madras, U^'ntral and Burma. which again do not work u|< lo tlioe (or Ftiwilies. tl e did' ntnee Ixing du» to the convenlon nt absolute Bgorei Into thousBD'ls. tbeii birthplace under the I cads Western Hindi, Eaalern Hindi and BihSri, 2x2 340 CHAPTER IX. — LANGUAGE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I (h). Comparison of census fiffures for ceitiiin liinjriiaircs with estimates based on the conclusions of the Linguistic Survey. FioviHCE, State o% Aoehot. Bengal Bibar and Orissa Bombay . Central Provinces and Berar N.-W. F. Province United Provinces Baroda State Central India Agency Hyderabad Slate CLASSIFICATION ACCORDIXQ TO Cbnbcs. LaDgaage. Hindi and Urdu Do. Hindi . Hindostani Hindi . Hindko and its dialects (Lahnda) , Panjabi with Dogri . . Hindi . , . , . Hindostani or Urdu . Rajpntana Agency and Ajmer- Merwaia. Hindi . Hindostani Urda Hindi . , Western Hindi Bastem Hindi . Bihari . . Urda Hinddstaiii Hindi Eastern Hindi . Hindi Braj Bhasha Urdu Western Hindi Bihuri Total number of speakers (OOO's omitted). 1,917-1 24,933 1- I 1,032 8,906 LlHaolSTIO SCITBY. Langoage. Bibari Bhojpuri . lUagahi . Mdithili . Western Hindi Eastern Hindi Western Hindi Rajasthani , 1 73 Hindko and its dialects (Lahnda) 848 Panjabi with Dogri . 43,770 Bihari . '4,096 ! Eastern Hindi Western Hindi Central Pahari Total number of speakera (OOO'a omitted). 24,695* 7,095 6,863 10,737 3 6 ■ 64J 1,061 2,658 ) 1,377 I 7SJ 1,342 o Western Hindi Western Hindi Eastern Hindi Bibari 12 7J 1,239 2(il 178 - 28 5J Western Hindi Eastern Hindi Western Hindi Bili&ri 1,232 5,521 2,342 582 896 25 9,414 15,258 21,798 1,396 73 3,719 1,377 78 1,379 7 1,706 5 Note.— The above figaro< have been taken from the Froriocial Beporta. Thusc in Cnlumo 6 arc raorclv ostiiiiulca. * According to another method o< oalculallon, tha namber of ilibtri apcakers ma; be estimated at 26,132 (bOO)— ruj< lootuote lo page 388 U the Bengal Census Report, lUU, SUBSIDIAKY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE II. 341 Distribution by 1i)ii«:iiiioc ot the po|mlati<»ii of each Province, State or Agency. Number o( Number of >' umber "t Number OS speakers spt-'akers speakers speakera Province and Language. per 10,0011 Province and Language. per lO.oui? Province and Language. per 10,1)00 Province and Language. per 10,000 ot popula- of popula. tlon. of popula- tion. of popula> 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 INDIA. BIHAR AND ORISSA. MADRAS. HYDERABAD STATE. Hindi .... 2.616 Hindi 6.309 Tamil 4,080 Telugu .... 4,761 Bengali .... 1,543 Oriva ..... 2,035 Tclu«u .... 3,769 Marathi .... 2,«1« Tflugu .... 751 Bengali .... 597 Maiavalam .... 740 Kanarese .... 1,25« Maiithi .... 632 Santali or Har 369 Orij-a .... 397 Western Hindi 1,022 Tamil 578 Kurukh or Oraoii 146 Kanarese .... 383 Rsjasthani .... 219 Panjabi .... 506 Mundjiri .... 124 M'estern Hindi 233 Gund 55 Rajasthini .... 449 Ho 108 Tulu 123 Tamil .... 24 Western Hindi 448 Other languages 50 Western Hindi 101 Kandl) or Kui 93 Gujar.itl .... 341 Bihari .... 76 Marathi .... 72 Kanarese .... 336 Other Linguages 135 Savara .... 40 OriyS 324 Other languages 70 Burmese .... 252 , Malavalam .... 216 Western PanJSbi . 152 Sindhi .... 117 Kherwari .... 107 BOMBAY. N -W F. PROVINCE. KASHMIR STATE. Eastern Hindi 77 Pashto 49 Kashmiri .... 3,778 As.^'imese 40 Mara till .... 3,966 Pashto .... 5,562 Panjabi .... 2,352 Gond 49 Gujarati .... 2,816 Panjabi .... 3,838 Western PahJri . 1,770 Sindhi .... 1,291 Western Panjabi . 330 Western Pahari . 49 Kanarese .... 1,112 Rajasthani .... 821 Kashmiri .... 38 Rajasth.ini .... 116 Bhotia .... 801 Karen .... 34 Western Hindi 381 Western Hindi 79 Western Panjabi 598 Other languages . 287 Ka'asthSni .... 93 Other languages . 73 Shina 69 Baloch .... 74 Other languages 41 Western Pan abi . 65 Hindi 61 AJMER-lttERWARA. Telugu .... Other languages . 50 91 PUNJAB. Bajasthini .... 8,202 Hindi .... S82 Pan abi .... 5,834 Western Hindi 630 Western PanjSbi . 1,759 Other languages . 186 Western Hindi Hindi 846 735 MYSORE STATE. BURMA. Eajasthani .... 308 Kanarese .... 7,144 Western Pahgri . 404 Telugu .... .1,683 . ASSAM. Burmese .... Karen .... Shan 6,507 881 741 Other languages . 114 Western Hindi Tamil Marathi .... 529 422 151 Bengali .... 4,568 Arakanese .... 267 Rajasthani .... 77 .\ss;imese .... Hindi Manipuri .... 2,170 610 418 Bengali .... Chin (unspecified) 205 193 UNITED PROVINCES. Other languages . 97 Bodo JJSgS dialects KhSsi 370 Mon. Talaing or Peguan 148 311 284 Kacliin or Singpho Palaung .... 140 123 Hindi Western Hindi 9,115 863 Garo Mikir Mundari . . . ■ 218 146 103 Western Hindi Tamil Telugu .... 119 104 1U2 Other languages 32 RAJPUTANA AGENCY. Lushei or DuUen . 97 Chinese .... 90 Orivi 87 Intha Khun 46 40 Raiasthini .... 7,880 Abor-SIiri .^ . . . 85 Hindi 1,130 Santali or Har 77 Hindi 33 BARODA STATE. Gujarat! .... 478 NaipSli (Khas) . BSbhS .... 67 40 Akha (Kaw) Other languages . 27 234 Gujarat! .... 9,859 Western Hindi Sindhi .... 413 66 ThSdo or Jangshen 38 Western Hindi 51ar.'.thi .... 344 178 Other languages ', 44 Telugu .... 29 28 28 Sindhi .... 79 Kurukh or Orion Kuki (uaipeclfled) Other languages 43 DimJ-sJ .... Paithe .... 23 22 C. p. AND BERAR. IJliing .... 17 Other languages . 164 Hindi .... Mar51hi .... Gf)nd ..... 4,682 3,126 728 C I AGENCY. SIKKIM STATE. Eastern Hindi 644 Naip.nii (Khas) 3,104 BALUCHISTAN. Orlyil Western Hindi R.^Jisthsni .... 189 Rajasthani .... 3,689 Kirflnti (Jimdjr) 1,797 Iiak)Ch .... P:i..hto .... 2,791 2,72>D OKISSA AND SIKKIM. ;Au8tro-Aslatlc Family. Blnimij H" . Juang . Kharia Kora Munda Santal Xuri . Tlbeto-Chlnese Family. Bliotir, Gfirung Jiradiir K6c-li Lepcha Limhii Mangar Mecb Mru!(Murung) MuiTiii J >'cwar Dravldlan Family. Gond . . . ■ Kandh Malto (Sauria Paharij) Orjoii BURMA. Malayo-Polyneslan Family. SaloDllMawkcnj Austro-Aslatlc Family. Miao . I'alauug \Va . Yao Yin (lUang) Tlboto-Chlncso Family. Arakant-ae Strength of tribe. 205,699 58.048 88,825 149.7114 230,295 39,219 250,541 106,259 212,532 79,022 362,976 421,771 12,f*40 149,977 95,480 558,200 2,178,716 65,095 29,350 17,019 59,104 125,046 20,316 25,462 25,572 22,540 12,391 38,346 12,706 235,690 302,883 64,864 750,048 1,9S4 646 144,139 14,674 512 7,928 344,123 7,479,433 Number sjwaking tribal language. 200,802 58,794 3,lll7 153,76'i 184,555 12,187 295,425 10.'i,063 202,577 27,995 127,129 419,986 12,313 113,627 24,035 525,714 2,083,816 6,449 26,417 1,1152 55,061) 6,598 20,606 22,389 16,573 21,726 11,284 35,954 0,880 4,212 136,711 64,875 676.751 1,871 646 144,248 12,548 274 5,004 323,962 7,883,299 Nnme of tribe. Tibeto-Chlnese Family — contd. Danu ....... Iiitha Kachin ...... Kudu ....... Karon {unspecified, Sgaw and Pwo) Karenni ...... Khiin ...... Kuki-Chin I.olo Padauiig ...... Shan Tauuiitlm ...... Taungyo ...... CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR. Austro-Aslatlc Family. KhariA ,,,,.,. Korku ....... Korwa ....... Turi Dravldlan Family. Gond . Kolam Indo-European Family. Halba MADRAS. Austro-Aslatlc Family. Gadaba Savara Dravldlan Family. Badaga Gond . liula . Kliond Koyi . Kuravon Yerukala Kurumbau TodS CENTRAL INDIA AGENCY. Dravldlan Family. Gond . Gond HYDERABAD STATE. Dravldlan Family. Strength of tribe. 70,947 52,885 162,368 11,196 872,825 19,008 42,366 306,436 67,418 8,516 026,879 183,054 19,656 9,180 152,363 34,000 4,053 2,469,583 24,976 100,211 45,115 186,128 38,180 25,596 100,659 354,940 79,422 109,684 8,8,241 144,1195 748 234,672 124,341 Number ^speaking tribal language. CHAPTER X. liitiniiities. General Heniarks. 433. As at all censuses from ISSl onwards, information was collected re- The infirmities garding the existence of four infirmities, viz., unsoundness of mind, deaf- ^^"^ mutism, blindness and leprosy. The instructions issued to the enumerators were as follows : — " If auy person be blind uf both eyes, or insane, or sufferiiiir from oorrosive leprosv, or deaf and dumb from birth, enter the name of the infirmity in this column." " Do not enter those who are blind of one ere only, or who are suffering from white leprosv only, or who have become deaf and dumb after birth.''' * These instructions differ from those issued at the previous census only in one small point of detail ; the item " deaf and dumb from birth " was placed last in order to avoid the risk, in the vernacular versions, of the words " from birth," which there precede instead of following the words which they qualify, being taken as referring to infirmities other than deaf-mutism. Tliere was, however, a somewhat important change in connection with the method of tabu- lation. In 1901, when the slip system was first introduced, the infirmities were in most provinces recorded on the ordinary slip which was prepared for each individual enumerated. The number of persons afflicted being comparatively small and the " infirmities " column being at the very end of the census schedule, there was a danger of this method resulting in the occasional failure to trans- cribe infirmities from the schedules to the slips. At the present census, in order to obviate this danger, a separate slip for infirmities was prescribed, and was prepared by a small special staff doing no other Avork. 434. The statistics of infirmities are embodied in Imperial Tal)les XII and Satutur *" XII- A. In the former the afiiicted are classified by sex and age, and in the latter by sex and caste. At the end of this Chapter proportional statements will be found showing— I. The distribution of the infirm by age, per 10,000 of each sex ; II. The number of persons afflicted per 100.000 of the population of each Province and State at each of the last four censuses ; III. The niunber afflicted per 100,000 persons of certain selected castes, and number of females afflicted per 1,000 mak-s ; IV. The number afflicrted per 100,000 persons at each age-period, and numJier of females afflicted per 1,000 males. 435. It must be admitted at the outset that tlie statistics of infirmities are tho accuracy of very unreliable. The enumerators were not highly educated, and in spite of tlie ""* "*"'"°- care which was taken to supervise them, there must necessarily liave been errors of diagnosis. There is no hard and fast boundary between sanity and insanity ; and many persons whose attacks are periodic, or wliose hallucinations and loss of jiidgment and self-control are not very apparent, miglit l)e rcarded by some observers as sane and by others as insane The word used in the verna- cular translations usually connoted only the actively insane, and wlien entries, such as ddh-pdgal, meaning half-witted, were found in the schedules, they were left out of account in the course of tabulation. As a matter of fact it is very difficult to draw flie line between the two fornis of menial deranirement : and altliough, as will be shown later, the projjortion of imbeciles inehided iu the return is probably very small, it is certain tliat tliey have not been wliolly eliminated. The difficulties in tlie way of a correct diagnosis of leprosy are 344 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. Variation 1881. since also very great. Not only is the popular nomenclature somewhat vague, but there arc various other diseases, such as tertiary syphilis, ■which an untrained observer may easily confound with it. In 1881 leucoderma was often entered as leprosy, but that mistake has since been comparatively rare owing to the special care which has been taken to prevent it. It would seem a comjiaratively simple matter to diagnose deaf-mutism ; but at the earlier censuses many -pev- sons were shown as suffering from it, merely because they had become hard of hearing in their old age. This en'or also has now, to a great extent, been elimi- nated. Finally, the enumerators were at one time apt to show as blind persons whose sight had become dim in their old age, or who had lost the sight of one eye only. In 1891 and subsequently, great care has always been taken to explain things clearly to the census staff, and mistakes of diagnosis have become far less frequent. Wilful concealment has also to be reckoned with. There are numerous omissions of children suffering from insanity or deaf-mutism, owing to the unwillingness of their parents to recognize the existence of the defect so long as there is the slightest hope that it is merely a case of retarded development. In the case of adults, the omissions due to wilful concealment are greatest in respect of leprosy, as no one but a beggar who earns his living by parading his sufferings will willingly admit that he is jifflicted with this loathsome disease. This natural reticence is largely discounted in the case of males, other than those of good social position, by the local knowledge of the enumerators ; but there can be no doubt that many female lepers must have escaped entry as such. It is only in respect of the blind that the number of intentional omis- sions is unimportant. In the case of the other infirmities, the figures cannot be relied on as showing with any degree of exactness the actual number of persons afflicted, but so long as the instructions remain the same, it may be assumed that the degree of error is fairly constant in all pai'ts of India, and at successive enumerations. The varying degree to which women are secluded may to some extent vitiate for them the comparison between the prevalence of the infii'mities in different parts of the country, but for men there is no reason to suppose that there are any marked local differences in the completeness of the return. The omission of females may be more marked at certain ages than at others ; but there is probably no change from one census to another. It follows that, subject to certain limitations, which will be mentioned further on, the statistics, espe- cially those for males, may be relied on to show the secular changes in the prevalence of the infirmities, the localities where they are most common, and the distribution of the aflHicted by age. It is these aspects of the subject to which attention will chiefly be directed in the following paragraphs. 436. The total number of persons suffering from each infirmity at each of the last four censuses is noted in the margin. There was a continuous fall, both in the number and the proportion of persons afflicted, from 1881 to 1901 ; and this has now been followed by a move in the other direction. Though the proportion is smaller, the number of the insane and the deaf-mutes is now about the same as it was thirty years ago. The number of lepers and blind, however, is less by about a sixth than it then was. The reasons for the progressive decrease be- tween 1881 and 1901 were analysed in the last Census Report, where the conclusion was arrived at that it was due, partly to the greater accuracy of each fresh census and the more complete elimination of erroneous entries, and partly to the progressive improvement in sanitation and material conditions and increased provision of medical relief. Apart from these general reasons, two spe- cial causes contributed to the heavy decrease in 1901 . At that time two very severe famines had recently occurred. When the stress of famine comes, the springs of private benevolence dry vip ; and although every effort is made by Govern- ment to supply food to those who are incapable of earning their living, as is the case with a very large proportion of tlu> persons suffering from these infir- mities, thev necessarilv suffer far more than anv otlier class. Moreover, these persons are nearly always of inferior physique, and are thus less able to resist tho Nl'MBER AFFLICTED. Inflrmity. 1911 1901 1891 1881 Insane 81,006 ' ' \ 1 66.205 74,279 81,1321 26 23 27, 35 Deat-matea. 199,891 163,168 196,881 197,215 64' 52 75 «6 Blind 443,653 354,104 458,868 626,748 142 121 167 229 Lepers 109,094 97,340 126,244 131,968 36 33 iS 57 Total 833,644 670,817 856,262 937,063 267 229 315 407 NOTB. — The figures in italics repre^sent the proportion per 100,000 of the population. INSANITY. 34& debilitating effects of famine. The mortality amongst tlioiu must, therefore, have been exceptionally high during the years preceding the census of 1901. The second reason is that in most ])rovinces the method of compilation adopted at that census A\as defective. Thus in Bombay, where all intirmities are far more numerous than in 1001, the figures for the deaf-mute show that this can- not be ascribed solely to famine losses in that year. Deaf-m\itism is from birth, and the mortality amongst ])ersous suffering from it is high. In spite of this, at every age-period, the number noAv returned as deaf-mute is greater than it was in the corresjoonding age-period of the previous census. It may be added that, though the present figures show a large excess over those of 1901, they agree very closely with those of the two previous enumerations. If this explana- tion holds good in the case of deaf-mutes, it must apply in the case of other in- firmities also. 1:37. For comparative purposes it would thus be unsafe to make much use of the figures for 1901 : the number of persons afflicted was then abnor- mally low, and many of them escaped notice in the course of tabulation. The figures for 1881 are also of comparatively little use, as the arrangements then made for training the census staff were necessarily far less effective than they have since become. Erroi's of diagnosis were much more frequent, and the re- tm'ns were swollen by the inclusion of many persons who were not really suffer- ing from the afflictions noted against their names. In 1891 special stej^s Avere taken to guard against the mistakes which the experience of the ^^revious census had shown Avere likely to occur, and a very great improvement in accuracy was effected. This improvement has since been continued. It is difficult to say to Avhat extent the comparison between the result of different enumerations is vitiated by this progressive elimination of erroneous entries ; there can be no doubt that the greatest change took place between 1881 and 1891, but the age curve for the deaf-mutes (paragraph 451) shows that even in 1891 the nimiber of wrong entries at the higher ages was much larger than it was at the recent census. On the whole, however, it would seem that the figures for that year are the ones which can most profitably be taken for comjijartitive purposes. A further reason for taking tlie year 1891 as the basis of comparison is that the decade preceding that census, like the one which has just come to a close, was^ a period of recovery from famine losses. The actual conditions, therefore, were very similar to those existing in 1911. As compared Avith 1891, there has been only a slight decrease in the total number of aflB.icted persons, but the proportion per 100,000 of the population has fallen from 315 to 267. The pre- valence of insanity remains almost unchanged, but there is a considerable diminution in that of all other infirmities, and especially of leprosy. 438. Bather more than half the total number of aflSicted persons are Bciatiro blind. About a quarter are deaf-mute, one-eighth are lepers and one- tenth are ^tJmtty?' "^ ***** insane. The proportions, hoAvever, A'ary in different pnrts of India. In Upjier India blindness accounts for tAvo-thirds of the total number of afflicted persons, but in Bengal for less than one-third. Insanity contributes more largely to the total in Bengal and Burma than it does elsewhere, and leprosy in Assam. Insanity. 439. The statistics of the insane are intended to include only those who insanity - suffer from the more actiA'c forms of mental derangement, or insanity jiroperly so called. But even in Europe it has always been found difficult to distinguish between the insane in the strict sense of the term and the Aveak-minded ; and the difficulty must necessarily bo greater in India. Imbecility, however, is usually a congenital defect; and, as the age statistics shoAv that the ])ro])or- tion of persons returned as insane at the loAver ages is extremely small, it may be concli;ded that the figures do not include very many persons of this category. The Avcak-mindcd again are frequently cretins, and are often also dea^ and dumb ; and if many of them had been shoAvn as insane, we should have found a far larger number of persons recorded as suffering from both infirmities than is actually the case. It maybe added that the s])ecial enquiries made in some of the tracts Avhere deaf-mulism is most prevalent sliow that a very large propor- 346 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. Oomparlson with England and Wales. r^^. tiou of the persons returned as deaf-mute were cretins who liad not been entered as insane. 440. In respect of the prevalence of insanity, India compares very favour- ably with Em'opean countries. According to tlie latest returns, the propor- tion of persons tluis afflicted in England and Wales is 364 per hundred tliousand of the pojHilation, or fourteen times the proj^ortion in India. This may be due partly to the fact that the English statistics include the weak-minded as well as those who are actively insane, and to the greater completeness of the return in a country where the majority of the mentally afflicted are confined in asylums ; but the main reason no doubt is to l)c found in the comparatively tranquil life of the native of India. It is well known that insanity increases Avith the sj^read of civilization, owing to the greater wear and tear of nerve tissues involved in the struggle for existence. comparison with j-41. The total number of insane jocrsons exceeds by 9 per cent, that re- turned in 1891, but their proportion per hundred thousand of the population has fallen from 27 to 20. The decline is fairly general, the chief exceptions being the United Provinces, the North-West Frontier Province and four Native States in the peninsular area. In the United Provinces the number of the insane per hundred thousand of the population has risen from 12 to 18. No satisfactory explanation of this large increase is forthcoming. tooai diBto-ibntioa. 44,2. The amount of insanity varies greatly in different parts of India. It is far more pre- Map showing the prevahiice of insanity in India, Valcnt in Burma* than anywhere else. Next in order comes Baluchistan in the north-west of India, then Assam and Bengal in the north-east, and then Kashmir and the North-West Fron- tier Province in the north-west. Then, at a considerable distance, comes Bombay and then in order the Pun- jab, Mysore, Mad- ras, Hyderabad and the United Pro- vinces. Excluding minor units, the smallest amount of insanity is found in the Central Pro- vinces and Berar, Rajputana, Biliar and Orissa and the Central India Agency. It will be seen that insanity is most prevalent in tlie East, and North-West of India and least so in the more or less elevated tracts which divide the peninsular area from the plains of Northern India. There are often marked variations in the prevalence of insanity in differ- ■ent parts of the same province. Thus in Bengal it is far more common in several tracts in the extreme south-east and north-east of the province than it is elsewhere. In the United Provirces tlie area of maxinuim prevalence is along the foot of the Himalayas, and in Bihar and Orissa in the tract on the sea coast. In the Bombay Presidency, Sind suffers most, and in the Punjab the ^orth-West Dry Area, especially the Muzaffargarh district In Assam the proportion of the insane in the Lushai Hills is eight times that in the province as a wliole. Note. — There was no census of infirmities in the Agency tracts of the North- West Frontier Province, the Frontier Ilaqas in Kashmir and the Pakokkn Hill Tracts in Burma. * NoTB. — I have not mentioned the small convict settlement of Port Blair, where the conditions are wholly •exceptional. In that settlement Vi males per niillo are insane. INSANITY BY CASTE. 3-^7 443. Diagram shotcinq the number of the insane per 100,000 persons of each age-perioii. The proportion of insane persons of both sexes per huuclrcd thousand insanity by ag© 01 the population is shown in the annexed diagram. The very small proportion of young children who are insane is due partly to the fact that the infirmity generally comes on in later life and ])artly to the reluctance of parents to recog- nize the existence of the afflic- tion in their children until it is established beyond all possi- bility of doubt. The proportion of the male insane rises steadily until the prime of life is reached, after which there is a gradual decline, owing no doubt to the fact that if a man has any natural predisposition to insanity, or is likely to bring it on himself by his addiction to injurious drugs or sexual excesses, the malady will have declared itself before he rea- ches his climacteric. In the case of females the proi^or- the period of puberty and early tion rises rapidly till the age of 20. Then, child-bearing age being passed, it increases A^ery slowly until it reaches its maximum between the ages 50 and 60, after the change of life. Of every hundred insane persons 62 arc males and 38 are females. The deficiency of females is due to some extent to reticence on the part of their protectors, but it is also to a large extent genuine. The women of India, or at least those of the upper and middle classes, lead a quiet and secluded life, and are not engaged in the struggle for existence to so large an extent as the males. They are also far less addicted to intemperance and excesses of various kinds. The difference in the sex proportions is least marked at the two extremes of life, before the struggle for existence begins and after it has practically ceased, and is greatest between the ages 25 and 40 ; this is the most active period of life. The difference in the proportions between the sexes is smallest in provinces like Burma, where the women engage freely in out-door occupations. In the Cochin State, where the woman is often the head of the family, the sexes suffer almost equally. Amongst Europeans and Anglo-Indians, female lunatics are more numerous than male. 444. The statistics of insanity by caste are not very illuminating. In ineanity by oast^ Assam the malady is extraordinarily prevalent amongst the Lushai tribe. Then, though at a great distance, come the Rajbausis, another aljoriginal tribe, though now converted to Hinduism. Then come the Kayasthas and then the carpenter caste. At the other extreme are two aboriginal tribes — the Khasis and Miris — and the Kewats, a low fishing caste. In Bengal the Kaibarttas, who correspond to the Assam Kewats, have the largest proportion of insane ; then come the Baniyas, then the Anglo-Indians and then the Rajwars and Dhanuks, low castes of Dravidian origin ; the infirmity is least common amongst several Dravidian tribes. In Bombay the Anglo-Indians head the list, and next to them come the Parsis and the Muhammadan Bolioras of Sind ; the Bhils, Dhodiyas and Ramoshis, on the other hand, have very few insane persons. In Burma the Chins, who are closely allied to the J^ushais of Assam, suffer far more than any other community, while the Talaings and Karens are excoption- ally immune. In the Central Provinces and Berar the list is headed by the weaving Koris, who are closely folloMcd ])y the Brahmans, Baniyas and Nais. In the United Provinces the castes who suffer most are the Sheikh, Kayastha, Baniya and Brahman, while the .Tats, Kewats and Dhobis suffer least. In Madras, excluding Anglo-Indians, the Malayali Brahmans are at the top of the list and are followed by the Kanarcse, Telugu and Tamil J3rahmans; the Oriya 348 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. Brahmans, on the other hand, are exceptionally free from the afiliction. It is unnecessary to pursue the matter further. Enough has heen said to show that it is impossible to establish any clear connection between the prevalence of insanity and social status, though, on the whole, it would seem that high castes have a somewhat larger proportion of insane persons than the geu(;ral average. This, however, may be due, as Mr. Molony suggests, to the difficulty of distin- guishing between sanity and insanity, which is largely a question of degree and environment. There is, he says, no reason to suppose that Brahmans suffer specially in this respect, l)ut in their more cultured environment mental defect is more apparent than in the case of their less sophisticated neighbours. On the other hand, a wider prevalence of insanity would be expected amongst the higher castes as they live, on the whole, more strenuous lives. ca«s«» of Insanity. 445. It wUl bc interesting to consider briefly whether there is any connec- tion between insanity and locality, social practices or race. It is ditHcult to trace any connection between insanity and the local physical conditions. The areas of greatest prevalence include such widely dissimilar tracts as Bengal and Burma, which are damp, and the North-West Frontier Province and North- West Dry Area, Avhich nre dry. Popular opinion connects this infirmity with a high temperature, and the Bengal Superintendent points out that " the medical treatment of the insane is designed with an eye to its cooling effects on the brain and nervous system." Nevertheless insanity is far more prevalent in temperate Europe than it is in tropical India. Though the climate of Bihar and Orissa is hotter than that of Bengal, the proportion of the insane in it is smaller. It is also much smaller in We-^t Bengal than it is in North Bengal, though the latter tract has a cooler climate. With some notable exceptions, such as Bengal and the North-West Dry Area, most of the areas of maximum prevalence are either in the hills or along the foot of the hills. It might perhaps be inferred from this that there is some connection between the forms of mental derangement which predominate there and cretinism. As already stated, however, the age statistics show that comparatively few cretins have been returned as insane. The principal social practices which have been accused of tending to insanity are the consumption of drugs and alcohol, consanguineous marriages and enforced widowhood. There is no reason to suppose that the moderate use of ganja does much harm : in some parts it is smoked habitually by coolies, who find that it refreshes them when fatigued ; and old men frequently drink as a mild stimulant a decoction of the leaves of the wild variety of the plant, mixed with milk and various condiments. The difficulty, however, with ganja, as with all other drugs, is to use it in moderation ; and the almost universal opinion is that when smoked in excess, it tends to produce insanity of a very dangerous type. It is believed to be a common cause of insanity amongst certain classes of religious mendicants who are much addicted to its use. Of 103 male patients admitted in one year to the Bcrhampur Asylum in Bengal, insanity was definitely traced to previous indulgence in ganja in not less than 32 cases, and the Punjab Superintendent points out that the tracts in his pro- vince where insanity is most common are those where this drug is most exten- sively used. There is no evidence that opium ever causes insanity, but excessive drinking is believed sometimes to have this effect. 446. In the I'unjab, insanity is most common in the tracts where Muham- madans preponderate ; and as they are addicted to the practice of cousin- marriage, the local Superintendent is inclined to regard this as a contributing ■cause. Insanity is also most prevalent in that part of the Bombay Presidency where Muhammadans are most numerous, but in both tracts the caste statistics show that Muhammadans suffer less, if anything, than the Hindus in the same locality. Moreover, insanity is less common than elsewhere in the south of the peninsula, where cousin-marriage is the general rule amongst large sections of the community. On the whole, it may be concluded that the statistics lend no colour whatever to the view that there is any connection between consan- guineous marriages and insanity. Such a connection is pojnilarly believed to exist, but the most recent investigations point to the opposite conclusion. Bateson tells us that :— " Nothing in our present knowledge can be taken with any confidence as a reason for regard- ing consanguineous marriages as improper or specially dangerous. All that can be said is that DEAF-MVTISM. 349 ■such marriages give extra chances of the appearance of recessive characteristics amongst the offspring. Manv diseases of the nervous system depend for their appearance on the presence of external stimuli. Forms of insanity which appear when the individual is subjected to various strains may not appear at all if he is not so subjected. The element transmitted is the liabilitv, and not necessarily the developed condition. The descent of such conditions is beyond the range of our analysis.'"* There is nothing in the statistics to suggest that enforced widowhood or the zenana system are prejudicial to the mental equilibrium, Init it nuist be remembered that omissions from the returns are most likely to occur in the case of ladies belonging to respectable families, who arc chiefly affected by these practices, so that the negative evidence of Ihe statistics is not very conclusive. As regards race it may bo noted that most of the areas where insanity is most prevalent, including Burma, Assam, North and East Bengal, and Kaslimir are inhabited by races that are wholly or largely Mongoloid ; and the Lushais, Chins and Maghs, who suffer most, all belong to this stock. So also do the Mech of Xorth Bengal. The people who suffer least from insanity are those of Dravidian origin. 447. Mr. O'Malley refers to the popular belief which attributes insanity p°p^^'»8"«*'8 not only to sexual indulgence, but also to abstinence from sexual intercourse after pul)crty has been reached. Under this mischievous impression the consummation of the marriage of feeble-minded youths is often forced on early, with the result that the already tottering reason is .shattered. Another common belief is that insanity is often caused by philtres which neglected wives administer to their husbands in the hope of regaining their love. Mr. O'Malley proceeds as follows : — " The lower classes have a curious medley of ideas on the subject. Physically, insanity is thouoht to be due to an excess of bile in the system, or to worms in the head. Neglect of the worship of the gods, or the curse of a Yogi, 8adhu or other holy man may produce it ; it is specially liable to attack those who practise Tantric arts but fail to control the spirits they evoke . . . Generally, however, it is attributed to demoniacal possession. The spirit which is most commonly thought to produce madness is Brahmadaitya, the spirit of a Brahman who has died an unnatural death, e.g., by murder or suicide Madness being due to pos- session by an evil spirit, every attempt is made to appease or exorcise it. The exorcists [Ojhas or Gunias) hold smoking chillies to the nostrils of the patient, chant mantras, addressing the spirit in filthy and obscene language, all with the idea of driving it away. When these means prove futile, they prescribe a diet calculated to force the spirit to leave his victim in fear of losing his caste, for Brahmadaitya is the spirit of a high caste Brahman. The unfortunate pa- tient has, therefore, to consume soup made of toads, fsecal matter, etc. When these abominable nostrums fail, the use of medicated oils and of indigenous herbs and drugs is resorted to . . . The iron bracelet {halo) given by the priests at the shrine of the goddess Kali at Tirol in the Arambagh sub-division for the lunatic to wear is popularly believed to be highly etficacious in curing insanity. . . . The medical treatment of the insane prescribed by the Kavirajes some- times takes the following forms. The mud taken from putrid tanks is plastered on the patient's head, or aloe pulp is mixed with water and applied in the form of an emulsion. A favourite remedy is soup made from a particular kind of frog (called sona bang, or golden frog) and soup prepared from a vegetable known as susuiii sak. . . . Insanity is believed to be here- ditary, but it is recognized that it may skip a generation. It is thought that it is more easily transmitted through the mother, there being a saying that madness is due to a mother and ignorance to a father.''' Deaf-mutisni. 448. Bv deaf-mutism is meant the congenital want of the .sense of hearing Dcaf-mntism. which, in the al)sence of s])ecial schools, such as are only just beginning to appear in India, necessarily prevents the sufferer from learning to talk. Clear instructions Avere given to the enumerators to enter only persons who were congcnitally alllicted. Some few, perhaps, may have been included in the return who had lost the power of speech or hearing after birth, l)ut the total number of sv;ch mistakes is now very small. In India as a avIioIc 7 t males and 53 females per lumdred thousand are deaf and dumb from birth. These propor- tions are much the same as those obtaining in Eurojjcan countries. • Mendel's Princip/et of Hcredili/, pages 226, 229. Professor J. Artliiir Thomson has recently emlorscd this opinion. On tho other hand, in a pHpcr read before the Itoval St.itisticil Society in December 1911, Miss Elderton lame to the conclusion that parents of albinos, deaf-mutes and insane are relatively more often cuusins, and that if one parent is so afflicted, the offspring are more likely to be similarly afflicted in the case of ccusia- marriage. 350 CHAPTER X — IXFIKMITIES. IKMial dlatrlbotlon. 449. The local distribution of the deaf-mute shows extraordinary variations. the Pro- Map shotcing the prevalence of deaf-mutism in India. Note. — There was no i-ensus of infirmities in the Agency tracts of the North- West Frontier Province, the Frontier Ilaqas in Kashmir and the Pakokku Hil' Tracts ill Burma. Taking viuce or State as the unit, the affiic- tion is most com- mon in Sikkim, where no fewer than 26C) persons per hundred thou- sand suffer from it. It is also extremely common in Kash- mir and tlie Xorth- West Erontier Province, which, like Sikkim, are Himalayan tracts. Of the main British provinces it is worst in the Funjal) and Balu- chistan ; then follow in order Madras, Assam, Bihar and Orissa, Burma and Bengal. It is less so in the Central prevalent in Bombay and the United Provinces and lenst Provinces and Berar. Except Sikkim, Kashmir and Mysore, the Native States are far more free from this infirmity than any British province. 'Within the major provinces, again, there are great local variations. In the Punjab, the United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa and Bengal, the affliction is invariably most com- mon along the foot of the Himalayas. In the Punjab, the proportion of deaf- mutes in the Himalayan natural division is 257 per hundred thousand, com- pared with "0 in the rest of the province; and in the Champarau district of Bihar and Orissa it is 1G9, against a provincial average of only 72. Nor is it onlv in the neighbourhood of the Himalayas that hilly country jn-esents conditions predisposing to this affliction. In Burma the proportion of deaf-mutes per hundred thousand is 216 and 234 in the Specially Administered Territories and the Northern hill districts respectively, reaching its maxinmm in the ShAvegu Kachin HiUs in Bhamo, Avhere no less than 7 per cent, of the population (ahout 6,000) are thus afflicted ; whereas in the open plains, the pro- portion ranges only from 33 to 45 per hundred thousand. In Assam the infirmity is nearly seven times as prevalent in the Naga Hills as it is in the province as a whole. 450. It is well known that in Europe and the United States deaf-mutism is found in local contact with cretinism and goitre, and it has always been a popular, as well as a scientific, belief that water is the vehicle of the pathogenic oro-anism. The same association of the three infirmities exists in India wlierever deaf-mutism is specially prevalent ; and here also the areas of maximum prcA'a- lence are ordinarily along the course of certain rivers. I showed this clearly for Bengal in the last provincial Census Report, and my conclusions are confirmed by the further enquiries which Mr. O'Malley has now made. In the United Provinces the areas of greatest prevalence are the upper reaches of the Ganges and the Jumna Avith their tribvitaries, along the l^amganga river, and also alon"' the Ghogra and its tributaries. In all these tracts the infirmity is asso- ciated Avith goitre and cretinism. The Punjab Superintendent shoAvs, from the statistics of persons treated at hospitals, that goitre is excefdingly prevalent in the tracts where deaf-mutism is chiefly found. In Burma, in the ar(!as of maximum ])revalence, the persons returned as deaf-umte were mostly cretins. In Myitkyiua " it is rare to see a cretin or deaf-mute avIio is not also suffering from ^oitre," and in the Chin Hills "two out of every three idiots are afflicted COMPARISON WITH 1891. 351 with goitre ." In this province, however, it is less easy to trace a connection between deaf-mutism, with its allied afflictions, and the water supply. It is most common in the lower valleys, and persons living at a higher elevation or in the open plains are comparatively immune. It is popularly believed that deaf-mutism, like insanity, is often the result of consanguineous marriages. Such marriages have been assigned as the reason for the prevalence of the affliction amongst the Nagas, but, if a wider view be taken, it is clear that the statistics lend no support to the theory. The Dravidians of Southern India, Avho practise cousin-marriage extensively, are far less afflicted than the people of many other parts to whom this institution is unknown. iol. In all countries males suffer to a sreater extent than females from pistnbntion Diagram showiiig the numler of deaf-mutes per 100,000 persons of each age-periud. this infirmity, as from all other defects of a congenital nature. The diagram in the margin shows tiiat its ])revalence is greatest between the ages of 10 and 20 and then drops steadily until the age of 50, after which a very slight rise is apparent. Deaf-mutism being a congenital defect, and persons suffering from it being relatively short- lived, the lowest age should be that of maximum prevalence, and there should be a steady fall in the proportions in each succeeding age-period. The reason why the proportions below the age of 10 are smaller than that in ' the next higher age group is obviously that jiarents are reluctant to admit the existence of this defect in their children so long as there is the slightest hope that it is merely a case of retarded development. The slight rise after the age of 50, on the other hand, is due to the fact that, in spite of the <5are which Ava^ taken to eliminate cases of senile deafness from the returns, the enumerators still occasionally entered as deaf-mute persons who had lost the sense of hearing in their old age. The total amount of error due to this cause is, however, now very small. In this respect it will be seen from the •curves in the a*ove diagram that there is a great contrast between the results of the last two censuses and those of the first two. At the census of 1881 there was a steady rise from the age of 30 onwards and a very rapid one at ' 60 and over.' Tlie proportion of persons returned as deaf at this time of life was then about four times as great as in 1911 452. Deaf-mutism bein is impossible to connect it with particular nities that suffer most are those that are relatively most numerous in the locali- ties where the conditions exist which tend to cause this infirmity. There is nothing to show that the infirmity has any predilection for any particular reli- gion or caste. In these circumstances nothing would be gained from a detailed examination of the figures in Subsidiary Table III. 453. The total number of deaf-mutes is slightly larger than in 1891 this is because some of the tracts, since included within the scope of the return, contain an exceptionally large number of persons thus afflicted. In the area enumerated in 1891, the number of deaf-mutes is less by 9,000 than it was in that year. And, even including new areas, the projiortion afflicted per hundred thousand of the population has fallen from 75 to 6-1. A reference to the dia- gram in the margin of paragraph 451 will show that this pro^wrtional diminution has occurred entirely amongst persons over 30 years of age. Up to that period ■of life the curve for males is practically the same at both censuses. It may, by sex and ago- ig determined mainly by local physical conditions,it fcu£^"^d'oaJf with, particular castes or social strata. The commu- oaste. but Comparison wltb 1891. 352 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. therefore, bp assumed that the decrease in the iiroportion of persons afflicted is artificial, and is due to the erroneous inclusion in the returns for 1S91 of jjersons who were not congenital deaf-mutes. The number of persons returned as deaf- mutes at ' 50 and over ' is less by more than 11,000 than it would have been had the number returned at that age-period borne the same proportion to the number returned at ' 30 — 50 ' as it did in 1891. On the figures as tliey stand, most Pro- vinces and States show a diminished prevalence of the afiliction. In Madras, Bombay and Travancore, however, there has been practically no change, Avhile in Mysore there has been a slight, and in Burma a very considerable, increase. In Burma this is due entirely to the inclusion within the area of enumeration of several tracts in which the infirmity is exceptionally rife. Blindness. Local distribution. Blindness. •15i. Of all the infirmities recorded at the census, blindness is the most easy to diagnose. There was a tendency at the earlier enumerations to show as blind persons Avho were merely dim-sighted, or who had lost the sight of one eye only. These mistakes have since been carefully guarded against in the in- structions to the enumerators, and it is highly improbable that any material errors of diagnosis now occur. Blindness, again, is an infirmity of which no one is ashamed, and which there is no desire to conceal. So far, therefore, as this infirmity is concerned the statistics may be accepted Avithout qualifica- tion. In India as a whole, fourteen persons in every ten thousand of the popula- tion are blind, as compared with from eight to nine in most European countries and in the United States of America. It is a matter of common observation that blindness is ordinarily far more common in tropical countries than in those with a temiierate climate. It is, however, less common in India than in parts of eastern Europe ; in Russia, for instance, nineteen persons in every ten thou- sand are blind. 455. The prevalence of this infirmity varies inversely with the rainfall. It occurs most frequently in the Punjab, Baluchistan, the United Provinces and Rajputana, where the climate is dry, and the dust and glare are excessive, and least so in Assam, Bengal and Madras, where a copious rainfall lays the dust and covers the surface of the ground with luxuriant green vegetation. It must be remember- Afape showing the prevalence of blindness in India. gel, howCVer, that in the i)ro\inces Avhere the affliction is most common there are other contributing causes. The winter months are cold, the houses are built with thick mud walls and are veiy badly ventilated ; and much harm is done to the eyes by the bad air and the thick smoke from the fires at which the people cook their food. The im- portance of this factor is shown by the great preva- lence of blindness in several bili tracts in Assam and Burma where there Note. — Tlnrc w.is no census of inlii'mities in tVie Agency tracts of the North- AVest Frontier Province, the Frontier Ilaqas in Kashmir and tlic Pakokku Hill TiaolB in Burma. is no dujst or glare, and especially in certain parts of Kashmir, where during the bitterly cold winter, the people live pent up for montlis in sm^ll, low-roofed, fuggv roojns. BLINDNESS BY CASTE. 353 The local variations within provincial boundaries show, as a rule, the cor- respouclenco noted above between blindness and a scanty rainfall. In the Punjab, ihe infirmity is -worst in the southern part, M'liL're the rainfall is least. In Bombay, Sind sutlVrs most, and in the Burma plains, tlie dry Central Basin. In llajputana, the dry western tract is the part where the aliliction is most Avidcspread. There are, however, a few exceptions, as in the United Pro- vinces, where the infirmity is very common in a comparatively narroir tract stretching from north to south through the centre of the province, where the dust and glare are not much greater than in other parts. Mr. Blunt sug- gests that, in his province, neglect and dirt are the causes which most frequently lead to loss of sight. In Assam the high proportion in the hills is attributed to the want of ventilation in the houses of the hill people. There appears to be no correspondence between the prevalence of blindness and the mortality from small-pox. This disease is much more common in Madras than in the United Provinces, although blindness in the former province is much more rare than in the latter. Diagram shoeing ihe number of the Mind per lOOfiOO persons of each age-perind. 456. Blindness is the only infirmitv from which women suffer more than The proportion of the scxes men. Of every hundred thousand persons of each sex, 138 males are blind as compared with 145 females. At the earlier ages, which inchule congenital blindness, males are relalively more numerous, but in later life females suffer most. The proportions vary in different provinces ; as a general rule, males suffer most in the tracts where blindness is least, and females in those where it is most, prevalent. In the latter tracts, as we have seen, the houses are verv badlv ventilated : and, as the women are more confined to them than the men, it is they who suffer most from the smoke of the fires at which they cook their food and from the general want of ventilation. Another reason for an excess of blind persons amongst females is that they benefit less than men from medical and surgical relief. They resort less freely to the Government hospi- tals, and Avhen they go to them, they are more difficult to treat, especially in the case of operations for cataract. 457. Blindness is essentially a disease of old age. Comparatively Igw Age distnbauon. persons suffer from it in infancy and earlv childhood, but the num- her increases steadily uji to the age of 60. After that age, blindness be- comes far more common, the pro- portion of persons who are afflicted with it being six times as great as it is between the ages of 15 and 60. Of the total number of persons who are blind, half are over 45, and a third are over 60 years of age. These figures support the general view that cataract, which generally comes on late in life, is one of the most common causes of blindness. 458. An examination of the Bundc ess ty caste, statistics in Table Xll-A shows that, on the whole, the high castes suffer much less from blindness than other classes of the com- munity. In only one province docs any section of the Brahmans take a prominent position in the Table. This is in Madras, where the MalaySlam Brahmans suffer more than all other castes save one ; but on the other hand, the Oriya Brahmans of the same Presidency suffer least of all. As a general rule, the castes with the largest proportion of blind persons are of low social status, but the same caste is seldom specially afflicted in more than one province. Thus the Nai and Chamar appear amongst the four castes that suffer most only in the Central Provinces and Bcrar, the Kalu only in 3 A 1400 -1200-^- HOOO-'* - -800-^- .«> S / ! i Males Female Males *? ■> , . . _ 1 i I 1 mi Males 1S91 - J8Si -' -,-.- 1 1 1 / / ■* / /// oOO / F' 400 ^* i 20 ~ 20- 30 30 40 40 Age Per .50 60 l»i 60 to OwJ- 35^5 CHAPTER X — IXFIRMITIES. ComT>arlson with 1891 Bihar and Orissa, and the Kori only iu the United Provinces. The inference is that it is the local conditions and way of living which condnce to blindness rather than any racial predisposition. In sixpport of this conclnsiou, it may be noted that in Assam, three aboriginal tribes resident in the hills have relatively more blind persons than any other section of the community, while anotlier similar tribe living in the plains has the smallest proportion of all. 459. The total number of blind persons is less by about 15,000 than it was in 1891, and the number in every ten thousand of the population has fallen from 17 to 14. The decrease is due largely to (i) the diminished prevalence of small-pox which is reflected in the smaller proportion of blind persons under 20 years of age and (ii) the increasing readiness of the people to seek medical relief. Cataract is perhaps the most common cause of blindness, and it is also the one with which it is most easy to deal. In the Government hospitals and dispensaries of the main British provinces, the total number of successful opera- tions for cataract has risen from 154,560 in the ten years 1891 to 1900 to 174,108 in the past decade. About two-thirds of these operations were per- formed in the Punjab and the United Provinces, where this affection is most prevalent. The reason why this large increase in the number of cures has not effected a more marked reduction iu the number of blind persons is that most of the sufferers when operated on are already well advanced in life, and do not on the average live many years longer. Tbe a4>oarac7or the fignres fitocal dtstribntlon Leprosy. 460. There are many diseases which may be mistaken for leprosy, and the Indian Leprosy Commission of 1891 found that, of the persons supposed to be lepers who were produced before them, about 10 per cent, were suffering from other diseases. Special care was taken to warn the enumerators against the most common mistakes, and particular emphasis was laid on the necessity of excluding cases of leucoderma or skin discoloration. In this way some cases of true leprosy, which in its early stages is hard to distinguish from that complaint, may have been left out of account, but on the whole, it would pro- bably be fairly safe to assume that the margin of error due to wrong diagnosis is within the limit of 10 per cent, mentioned by the Leprosy Commission. On the other hand, the omissions due to concealment were, no doubt, very considerable. It has already been pointed out that no one but a beggar will willingly admit that he is a leper, and it will be seen in paragraph 462 that omissions must have been specially numerous in the case of females. It is impossible to form any idea of the extent to which the disease has been concealed, but it would be rash to assert that the real number of lepers does not exceed by 40 or 50 per cent, that shown in Table XII. There is, however, no reason to suppose that the proportion of omissions or errors of diagnosis has varied materially since 1891, and in that case the figures may be accejited as a correct index of the changes which have occurred in the prevalence of the disease. 461. In India as a whole 51 males and 18 females per hundred thousand persons of each sex are lepers. Of the different provinces, Assam suffers most, then Burma, and then in order Bihar and Orissa, the Central Provinces and Berar, Madras, Bengal, Bombay, the United Provinces, the Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province. In the two last-mentioned provinces there are only 17 male and 8 female lepers per hundred thousand of each sex. Tlie occurrence of leprosy is very local, and its prevalence varies enormously within provincial boundaries. This will be clearly seen, from the map* facing this page which shows the incidence of the disease in individual districts. In the Himalayan natural division of the Punjab the proportion of lepers is thirty times as great as it is in the North-West Dry Area. The map shows further that the districts where lejorosy is most common are widely scattered. They include North Arakan, the Chin Hills and Sagaing in Burma ; Simla, Nahan and Chamba in the Punjab ; Almora in the IJnited Provinces ; JJankura, Bir- bhum and BurdAvan in Bengal ; Drug in the Central Provinces and Berar, and • Maps showing similar details for previous censuses will be fouud in the Report of the Indian Lejirosy Commission of 1891 iind in the India Census Report for 1901. >aste. wu» MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LEPERS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 19U. ki h mE*«(iii COMPARISON WITH 1891. 355 and age Manblium in Bihar and Orissa. In all these districts there are at least 13 lepers in every 10,000 of the population. As pointed out in the last Census Report the physical and climatic characteristics of the tracts where leprosy is most prevalent differ g-reatly. In sonic of these tracts the climate is dry and the rainfall light, while others have a damp climate with a heavy rainfall. Some of them are alluvial river valleys, while others have a lateritc or rocky soil. Some are low-lying plains, others are slightly elevated, and others again are in mountainous country. The races who inhabit these areas also vary greatly, and they subsist on different kinds of food. 462. According to the returns, the proportion of female, is barely one-third Distrtbuuon by i that of male, lepers. The great majority of those who live by begging are males, and in the leper asylums of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa males are twice as numerous as females. It is possible, therefore, that males may be more susceptible to the disease, but it is very improbable that this is the case to the extent indicated by the census figures ; and the great disproportion which they show is no doubt due largely to the fact that the disease is concealed wherever possible, and that women are more successful than men in evading the inquisitiveness of the enumerators. The disproportion between the sexes is much greater in the prime of life than it is in early childhood, when there is not the same special incentive to conceal the existence of the disease in females. 463. It will be seen from the diagram in the margin that the age distribu- tion follows very closely that at Diagram showing '^'' ^f^l'[ fjf/^^^"" ^^^'^'^ ^"''""" the ccusus of 1891. Under the age of 10 the proportion of lepers is exceedingly small, but it soon begins to grow. There is a considerable increase between 10 and 20 up to 50 age and from that the rise is uniform and fairly rapid. Between 50 and 60 the jDroportion continues to increase slightly, and then declines. Bearing in mind the fact that a leper's life is a com- paratively short one, it would seem that the greatest liability to the disease occurs between the ages of 20 and 50. 464. The low castes suffer more from leprosy than the high. In the leprosy by caste. Central Provinces and Eerar, the largest proportion is found amongst the Kewats, Telis, Dhobis and Pankas ; in the United Provinces, the Doms suffer most ; in Bengal, the Eajwars, and Bauris and in Bihar and Orissa, the Bagdis, Bauris and Ajats. This greater liability of the loMer castes may be ascribed to their poverty, and to the small, insanitary, and often dirty, houses in which they live. But it must be remembered that successful attempts at concealment were probably more frequent in the case of the higher castes. The proportion of Christians amongst lepers is exceptionally high, but this is simply because most of the asylums are managed by missionary bodies, who make many converts amongst the unfortunate inmates. 405. The number of lepers has fallen since 1891 from 126 to 109 thousand, a comparison uu» drop of move than 13 per cent. "\V hen it is remembered that the number ot persons suffering from the other three infirmities taken togellier has remained almost stationary, it may be concluded that tlie decrease in the rejiortcd num- ber of lepers is genuine and indicates a real diminution in the prevalence of the disease. It is possible that this is partly the result of the improved material condition of the lower castes, amongst whom le])rosy is most common, and of a higher standard of cleanliness. The greater efforts whicli have been made in recent years to house the lepers in asylums may also have helped t,o prevent the disease from spreading. The total luunber of asylums in India is noAv 73, and tliey contain some live thousand inmates, or ahout 4'7 percent, of the total number of lepers. This may not seem much, hut it has to he 3 A a 356 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. remembered that the movement is still in. its infancy and that progress has been very rapid in recent years. Complete statistics for 1901 are not readily available, but it is kuoMn that in the two provinces of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa, the number of lepers in asylums was then only about half what it is now. The greater part of the credit for the provision of asylums for these unfortunate persons belongs to the Mission for Lepers in India and the East, which receives liberal help from Government. Its latest report shows that there are 3,537 lepers in the forty asylums maintained by the Society. The belief is growing that leprosy is com- municated from one human being to another by some insect, and two South African doctors have recently published papers* implicating the bed bug {acauthiu lectularia). If this theory be correct it is obvious that the segregation of lepers in asylums must reduce the number of foci of the disease, and to that extent prevent it from spreading. It is worthy of note that in many of the districts where the disease was most prevalent in 1S91, there has since been a remarkable improvement. Chamba, which in 1891 had 34i lepers in every ten thousand of its population, now has only 15 ; in Birbhum the corresponding proportion has fallen from 35 to 16, in Bankura from 36 to 23, in Simla from 29 to 18, in Dehra Dun from 20 to 11, in Garhwal from 17 to 10, in Burdwan from 22 to 14 and in North Arakan from 28 to 20. NnuBiB or 1 Province. Leper asylums. Inmates. Total Bengnl Bihar and Orissa . Bombay Burma .... C. P. and Berar Madras Punjab United Provinces . Central Tn-iia Agency . Kashmir State Mysore State Ti-avancore State . 73 4 8 U 4 6 6 7 18 3 1 1 1 5,116 450 8A7 843 500 756 U2 339 533 No ]53 25 138 * .Messrs. Sandes and Lo ig in the British Medical Journal for 1911, pages 270 and 469. by Cutrie (Hiiwaii) in the Lancet for 1911, page 141, See also Article SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 357 SUBSIDIARY TABLE Distrihutioii of the Infirm by age per 10,000 ot e.icli sex. Insane, I)k.if-mu ies AGE. Males. Femalea. Males. Females. 1911. 1901. 1691. 1881. i 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 19)1. 1891. 1881. 1 a 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Total 10,000 j 10,000 10.000 10.000 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 0-5 . 102 150 170 181 1S9 196 183 218 4113 410 453 424 469 486 332 513 5-10 . 547 582 588 669 568 633 567 652 1,453 1,484 1,420 1,2^9 1,446 1,548 1,439 1,274 10-15 . 833 921 820 888 876 954 820 883 1,.529 1,621 1.310 1,295 1,454 1,525 1.152 1,183 15—20 . 940 928 945 990 1,028 1,013 967 1,007 1.217 1,270 1,078 963 1,223 1,211 1,029 881 •20—25 . 25-30 . 1,118 1,270 l,0-'7 1,217 1,051 1,232 I 2,204 [ 1,095 1.013 1,012 963 1,011 990 I 1.867- 1,142 1,019 999 982 969 899 • 1,753] 1,143 975 976 888 953 862 1 1,580 00-35 . 35-40 . 1,316 976 1,232 989 1,263 953 [ 2,065] 1,126 790 1,103 798 1.103 863 1 'H 877 570 85S 545 824 605 } H 861 629 870 501 303 548 ■ 1,288 40-45 . 45—50 . 9C0 574 96i 572 986 560 1 1,433] 996 571 1,001 537 971 m 1 1500. 576 309 580 317 623 379 1 1,079] 611 302 590 313 630 366 [ 1,069 50—55 . f5— 60 . 558 2^.9 576 246 563 278 [ 833J 706 297 665 274 719 317 I 1,031 1 333 136 347 13J 456 246 1 ''i 369 140 397 149 483 250 1 893 60 and ovsr , CG- 598 5S8 737 795 846 697 1051 401 448 738 1,015 478 546 951 1,316 Blind. Lepers. AGE. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. I'Jll. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Total 10,000 10.000 10,000 1 1 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10.000 10000 10.000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 0—5 . 317 303 411 307 226 211 278 206 so 46 45 47 67 100 92 98 5-10 . 557 535 618 618 360 385 415 394 70 108 89 129 150 206 196 247 10-15 599 692 648 654 366 418 411 394 209 271 240 273 408 456 421 432 15—20 SU 575 588 552 376 410 409 374 381 418 406 451 647 662 625 647 20—25 25-30 604 646 601 665 607 632 } 1.156{ 457 510 458 520 449 517 [ 880 j 587 886 581 911 586 877 1 -f 835 916 781 926 735 926 ) ■ 1,620 30-35 35-40 687 516 i 696 541 662 ; 560 } ^--i 646 507 641 506 620 535 • 1,040 1,176 1,206 1,220 1.159 1.202 1,209 • 2379 1,186 980 1,146 980 1.188 998 [ 2,012 40-45 45--50 775 538 754 698 519 564 ;1 '-^^l 831 549 822 523 753 584 1 1.252! 1561 1,050 1,5U 930 1,322 998 1 2.294 1,268 603 1,291 752 1,296 776 1,937 50 — 55 55—00 91o 866 453 749 623 ■ 1,375 1,075 487 1,027 487 888 6J7 } 1,569| 1,189 491 1.187 483 1.163 493 • 1,630 j 1,079 449 1,081 420 991 457 ' 1,498 CO and over 2:833 4.750 2.610 3,011 3.610 3,.'63 3.4i4 3,882 1.164 1.122 1,170 1,253 1,182 1,249 1,299 1,509 NuTE. — In thin tabic Ihost: itiOrm-t who c ng>: wa-t not .-itociflcj have been I' ft out of account. 358 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. SUBSIDIARY Number of persons afflicted per 100,000 of the PBonsOS, SlAII OB AOBNOT. INSANB. Deaf- Males. Females. Males. 1911. 1001. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1 2 3 4 5 « 7 8 e 10 11 12 IS IMDIA. 31 28 33 43 20 17 21 38 74 63 86 103 Provinces. 33 30 3. 41 21 19 22 28 80 67 94 107 1. Aimer-Merwara 25 24 22 69 12 4 9 42 23 29 39 80 2. Assam 51 47 62 37 37 35 48 25 87 87 95 65 3. Balachistan , 57 ... 28 ... 103 ... ... 4. Bengal 50 50 58 74 36 35 41 53 81 72 102 126 5. Bihar and Oiissa 16 17 20 29 8 9 10 16 90 95 139 192 6. Bombay . 37 24 38 64 20 13 23 30 73 43 72 83 7. Burma 85 61 98 114 74 45 83 84 77 33 55 72 8. C. P. and Berar 19 18 20 29 11 9 12 17 54 54 51 70 9. Coorg . . 11 16 26 23 10 20 25 18 42 59 80 109 10. Madras . 24 23 25 37 17 15 18 28 87 74 87 11. N.-W. F. Province . 54 37 41 70 25 21 24 38 113 100 109 104 12. Punjab 31 43 36 68 20 26 21 36 95 91 116 145 13. United Provinces i3 19 16 19 12 10 8 9 67 46 88 78 States aud Agencies. 22 14 26 31 14 9 16 18 45 33 62 59 14. Baroda State 30 15 43 61 21 9 27 34 29 41 45 93 15. Central India Agency . 10 5 ... 6 2 27 19 16. Cochin State 34 27 32 21 30 23 27 13 39 77 66 41 17. Hyderabad State 23 4 18 30 15 2 10 16 37 7 46 49 18. Kashmir State . 48 60 ... 30 37 ... ... 107 136 19. Mysore State . £6 21 23 22 20 16 19 14 86 62 78 68 20. Eajputana Agency , 18 12 32 ... 9 8 19 36 22 21. Sikkim State . 13 46 7 32 ... ... 297 355 ... ■22. Travancore State 20 20 19 ... 16 14 11 34 31 34 KOXE.— Th': flgutei for provinces Inotade those (or the StaUss attached to them, except In the N.-W. P. Province, where they arc ' Jn the canes where the colomos h»ve been left blank, either the Inflnnitles were not SUBSIDIAHY TABLES. 359 TABLE population at each of the last fonr censuses. HCIES. J Blind. LEPEES. 6 1 1 Pemaks. Halea. Females. Males. Females. 1911. 14 1901. 1891. 1 ISSl. 1911. 1901. 1891 1881. 1911. 1901. 1891. 1881. 1911. 1 1001. 1801. ISSl. 1911. 1901. 1»91. 1 1 1881. IS 18 17 1 18 10 20 21 22 23 Zi 25 2flj 27 28 29 30 31 32 SS 53 43 t 57 67 138 121 I 1 164 316 145 120 171 240 51 48 68 84 18 17 23 29 56 45 1 69 140 133 164 223 145 133 168 250 55 54 78 88 20 19 "0 1 80 . if 16 34 61 248 120 181 355 301 125 209 588 3 8 7 9 2 3 1 ' 3 1 3 1 66 62 75 39 94 97 107 74 87 91 105 57 90 125 182 96 32 39 60 38 2 60 ... 235 ... 260 ... ... 11 ... ... ... 5 ... ... ••• 3 58 49 68 84 78 80 84 119 63 67 75 113 56 69 101 141 19 23 36 61 4 6S 56 78 109 111 112 122 160 101 104 123 181 71 76 83 103 23 24 26 29 5 49 29 49 59 136 84 149 234 153 87 156 300 52 38 69 75 23 15 24 29 6 65 22 47 48 131 105 172 152 150 117 229 162 79 56 117 101 37 25 52 33 7 39 40 37 53 173 155 166 220 239 201 192 288 58 78 91 103 33 38 39 39 8 59 56 64 85 47 45 49 93 45 63 51 90 6 6 13 25 •■ 4 14 23 9 68 55 65 48 83 91 101 150 79 88 104 167 62 54 53 67 20 : 17 18 25 10 76 75 69 61 161 128 198 295 151 132 215 311 17 18 16 23 8 1 10 7 11 11 70 66 77 95 249 298 343 506 261 314 361 556 17 26 37 65 8 11 i 13 22 12 45 28 52 48 208 168 229 270 234 178 211 323 18 36 58 63 11 11 i 13 16 13 33 83 37 41 128 55 166 134 143 50 193 137 29 17 31 35 11 8 12 16 13 28 30 62 129 75 161 248 201 95 235 351 31 18 2 39 12 10 15 17 14 19 13 ... 109 41 ... 128 35 19' 6 9 4 ... 15 33 60 43 87 133 113 133 50 125 107 105 43 73 57 66 27 28 25 31 « "1 29 4 30 29 122 15 100 128 121 9 81 110 1 11 4 39 42 15 2 13 18 : 17 87 92 ... 154 115 ... 152 97 59 72 ... ... 1 26 : 36 s 68 48 62 56 101 79 108 89 94 1 67 105 98 18 17 22 16 8 8 11 19 21 15 185 78 272 242 : 79 372 ••• 9 6 21 ... 3 3 7 ... ; 20 233 385 ■ 36 71 1 1 21 57 16 55 ... ... 401 25 ... ... 1 21 24 23 24 42 42 48 226 41 23 242 16: 159 178 133 (-.2 6li7 718 1,151 487 Jogi (Jugi) 23 45 124 125 158 307 119 6 2,000 1,000 3,929 48 Jr.laha iMutttlman) . 14 10 119 79 144 131 61 16 800 748 1.023 295 Kaliar ..... 18 11 105 64 201 209 103 20 7(i9 689 1.183 218 Kalwar 24 10 117 62 95 70 47 6 429 548 753 119 Kandb ..... 12 5 33 21 49 61 85 39 444 623 1,288 4S4 Kandu ..... 14 7 125 74 144 140 63 8 600 630 3,040 130 Kayastha ..... 42 16 107 43 139 76 40 6 365 3^2 514 127 Kcwnt 22 8 78 60 123 106 89 89 318 890 891 462 Khandayat .... 22 7 77 23 09 78 130 39 354 40J 810 331 Koiri 15 7 166 ICO 132 129 47 8 484 814 999 175 11 9 99 72 105 144 62 23 786 728 1.375 373 Kunnl ..... 15 8 96 63 143 150 61 17 412 616 1,061 2-i7 43 26 188 96 179 278 384 304 600 600 1,524 422 32 34 OS 74 147 138 58 33 1,12:. 812 942 690 23 17 91 79 137 187 74 108 750 S75 1,375 1,481 Nunlya 11 3 79 5S 122 105 60 9 613 815 982 187 Oraon 18 13 63 47 139 148 18 11 825 813 1,165 703 P«.n ..... 11 6 1 68 31 82 79 94 33 462 474 995 369 Rajput (Hindu) .... 20 4 99 43 lOt 73 82 7 214 421 650 113 67 28 328 113 300 480 349 113 400 333 1.172 308 Subarnabanlk .... 61 41 12) 104 172 218 212 62 600 833 1.235 238 24 7 81 .'.7 123 113 89 20 309 700 962 295 SUB8IDIAEY TABLES. 361 SUBSIDIARY TABLE \\\—€OntcL jVumber afflicted per 1(M),«0(> persons of eertiiin tastes and number of females afflicted per 1,00« males— <;oji^. ifUMBER AFFLICTED PEa 100,000. 1 CiSTB. A NUMBEB OF FEMALES AFFLICTED P££ 1,000 MALES. IHSAHB. DEAr.]ICTSS. Blisd. w LBPEB8. Hftles. Iiemales. Uales. ^ Females. Hales. Females. Hales. i Females. Insane. Deaf- mates. Blind. Lepers. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 BOMBAY. Agri Anglo-Indian .... Bharrad BJul 18 637 25 16 16 290 13 IS 69 25 61 35 35 26 49 32 98 " 97 89 119 26 124 111 105 51 36 44 81 ** 13 14 1,000 440 494 895 600 1,000 782 900 1,191 l',25l 1,212 748 "363 304 Brahman Xoli Kunbi ..... Lingayat «2 23 22 32 21 18 10 15 72 48 69 54 63 ' 38 74 52 1 127 102 143 85 106 151 169 65 28 69 114 31 12 29 41 7 291 741 449 443 686 728 697 678 728 1,369 1,114 741 388 461 365 225 Lohana ..... Mahar, Holiya or Dhed Maratha Sonar , , . . . 83 23 21 65 27 17 13 24 91 63 64 62 37 41 37 50 205 144 107 125 188 166 108 66 13 98 101 44 8 47 37 17 279 724 699 341 345 760 654 762 762 1,151 963 494 615 484 363 367 BURMA. Arakanese .... Cliin Kachin . . . • • Karen 71 663 218 54 50 619 249 39 32 '< 27 287 218 1,039 988 50 29 38 90 280 42 20 87 190 45 3 183 43 62 8 67 29 IS 672 967 1,153 718 804 787 950 586 600 1,000 68«i 1,067 2,888 881 888 815 Shan Talaing Taongtha Wa-Palanng .... 137 47 35 106 120 21 133 129 169 48 27 196 141 21 91 234 308 45 52 184 303 24 142 209 88 42 36 27 74 11 11 23 895 463 3,812 1,240 903 447 3,320 1,212 1,008 549 2,708 1,153 863 286 803 1,060 C. P. AND BERAR. Ahir Baniya (Hindu) Baniya (Join) .... Barai 17 25 40 34 9 8 12 34 46 69 77 . 77 33 41 52 64 147 192 295 161 261 205 296 216 47 36 52 141 43 6 6 34 508 236 286 1,000 729 653 63l) 826 1,791 992 942 1,333 908 125 111 238 Brahman Chadar Chamar ..... Dhimar . . . . - 43 21 10 18 14 14 'I 66 72 39 74 39 42 23 67 199 315 234 169 244 503 370 259 26 14 61 49 13 14 28 25 291 667 1,111 462 618 600 607 913 1,076 1,636 1,641 1,555 462 1,000 478 622 Dhobi Gond Kachhi Kalar H 16 17 28 6 10 13 63 51 63 78 39 38 39 63 143 138 247 168 242 240 354 232 90 42 23 62 48 27 19 36 444 687 800 407 647 778 605 827 1,769 1,822 1,409 1,420 634 676 786 720 Kori Kunbi Kormi ..... Lodhi 54 19 20 19 10 11 7 11 59 50 81 64 52 36 43 41 216 199 234 188 354 228 367 279 5 80 81 29 16 25 41 12 182 569 367 686 833 701 541 660 1,515 1,129 1,593 1,502 3.000 305 621 422 Lobar MaU Maratha Mehra 20 16 32 18 10 12 15 11 70 56 34 43 65 33 49 37 167 189 220 158 209 230 233 215 62 96 66 66 38 42 23 29 600 717 467 619 922 614 1,438 883 1,322 1,228 1,068 1,393 723 447 423 629 Nai Bajpnt Sun.ir Teli 40 22 38 17 13 8 14 1 14 88 67 86 69 51 41 54 45 286 159 215 192 368 195 194 297 67 41 34 107 35 17 17 63 333 360 375 824 694 604 618 793 1,297 1,197 890 1,603 620 402 600 606 MADRAS. Brahman (Tamil) Brahman (Telogn) Brahman (Malayalam) (^eroman .... 40 49 209 12 15 14 79 9 78 103 47 44 66 74 79 46 90 68 199 220 102 63 159 190 63 28 38 103 22 11 11 65 386 296 318 867 850 726 1,400 1,148 1,154 936 667 961 347 406 260 684 Chetti Idaiyan Kamma ..... Kammalan .... 23 41 17 21 16 21 11 13 44 15X 83 88 49 114 flO 59 64 126 64 84 39 128 53 70 33 106 21 42 8 34 6 13 718 620 612 662 1,173 751 720 690 742 1,062 824 862 260 330 265 309 Kamsala .... Kapa Komatl Koniba ..... 28 18 37 18 17 12 14 13 82 U 92 53 70 63 53 62 78 62 104 77 66 63 68 70 44 31 62 12 30 12 16 7 610 765 380 714 866 768 674 1,111 728 1,022 646 859 892 389 310 571 Madiga Mala Ma«alman .... Sayar 20 17 43 38 21 S3 28 28 89 77 82 79 77 62 67 68 86 68 88 135 86 69 73 163 60 76 67 64 23 21 13 23 1,038 1,346 621 787 861 819 719 910 974 907 870 1,220 376 278 231 464 Pallan paraiyan Tiyan VeUaU 15 14 34 17 17 14 27 11 77 80 66 90 70 63 49 68 92 80 101 69 103 79 101 74 61 77 62 60 17 24 20 15 1,262 1,024 815 678 991 827 757 775 1.215 1.031 1,025 1.120 299 327 402 320 N W. F. PROVINCE. Arora Awan Brahman .... Jolaha 98 61 78 70 32 2B 19 23 129 191 115 165 11.-. «9 19 63 187 164 229 170 160 162 1«8 1.38 6 16 13 25 3 10 8 270 S6S 187 286 735 305 111 333 7M 833 600 706 600 622 "200 Pathan Sonar ..... 51 119 22 21 98 flu ,'.3 171 1«« 107 12-* 14 n S77 167 478 1.6IW) 560 545 375 3b 3G2 CHAPIEE X— INriBMITIES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE IW—contd, \umber afllicted piT 100,000 persons ut certain castes and number of females aiSk-ted per 1.000 niAles—contd. Caste. PUNJAB. Ahir Arain .\rora Awan Biloch Brahman Chamar CliUhra Dhobi Fakir Ghiiath Gajar Indian Chri Jat . Jhinwar Julnha Kanet Khatri Kumhar Lobar Maohhi Mirasi Hoc hi Nai Pathan Rajput Rawat Saivid Sheikh Tar khan TcU UNITED PROVINCES. Ahir Baniya Barhai Bhangi Brahman Chamar Dhnbi Dhuuiya Dom Fakir Gadariya Jat Jolaha Kachhi Kahar Eayastha Klsftn Korl Eumhar Eurmi Led ha Lohar Mali Murao Nai P»»i 1'abhan Raj put Sheikh BARODA STATE. «hil '. Brahman (Audicb) I>h.d Iiubia Kuh . Kunbi CEMTRAI. INDIA AOENCY. Aearwal Bhil Bhilala Bratiman Chamar Oond (nindu) f!u)nr Mahcftrl T'athan B»)t)Ut SlKlkh NUMBE& A£]?UCI£D PER 100,000. INBANB. Ualea. 1» 18 84 27 27 14 24 24 23 32 21 41 23 24 35 35 35 28 41 28 35 31 42 23 22 18 34 18 19 29 17 9 14 20 19 le IS 23 17 24 49 14 27 20 21 16 18 22 28 21 16 28 25 49 46 43 26 282 13 26 7 80 67 18 6 7 7 10 20 12 37 Females. 4 21 26 21 31 12 15 13 IT 35 12 8 25 18 25 27 16 19 20 16 24 27 21 15 21 15 17 SO 16 DBAF 410188. Blind. Hales. 10 16 10 14 12 9 8 10 16 12 12 5 10 11 13 16 6 18 12 11 10 8 17 15 12 12 IB 36 41 18 677 9 10 3 4» 40 6 A 5 55 77 73 131 95 100 107 41 168 86 335 76 36 66 81 126 197 61 121 126 85 147 114 101 65 100 182 105 91 90 94 72 77 64 66 79 60 66 68 240 86 39 42 83 46 72 76 47 72 88 66 66 67 108 62 49 49 64 82 112 35 24 24 1,184 25 IS 43 263 147 42 21 22 Females. Males. 29 60 46 98 63 72 90 24 108 256 51 16 46 60 92 167 68 80 105 76 89 67 63 50 73 103 75 63 70 67 48 49 38 46 44 36 43 S6 192 42 84 81 66 SO 45 28 29 46 41 37 37 42 73 46 45 44 46 55 88 24 10 « 246 14 10 72 239 178 22 15 12 21 9 23 10 87 222 194 257 238 253 262 296 406 327 521 97 177 165 237 258 272 143 228 297 254 244 419 283 802 198 226 231 233 228 288 253 214 219 242 280 203 208 207 160 233 240 217 196 222 223 232 220 245 303 197 222 209 213 328 230 278 208 200 175 314 811 172 166 8,213 97 117 148 394 3K5 127 115 98 118 160 136 93 178 Females. 319 217 253 176 312 278 390 484 331 334 104 157 175 241 317 265 172 202 306 224 366 284 324 225 207 103 306 255 260 265 259 189 219 279 185 288 263 191 198 227 269 207 246 308 307 157 245 394 206 253 263 198 370 366 293 274 196 154 343 548 152 345 7,188 190 189 134 593 327 121 141 104 131 79 106 112 182 Lepbbb. Males. 11 7 3 7 6 28 13 4 4 21 104 12 46 7 18 11 161 8 11 25 10 27 7 10 10 22 12 11 10 16 Females. 9 47 43 66 38 189 65 37 16 40 45 62 37 42 69 47 fiO 33 41 60 63 49 62 40 68 47 69 14 69 2,142 « 11 11 358 190 13 17 7 12 16 18 22 12 6 6 6 10 12 11 8 87 8S NUMBER OF FEMALES AFl'UCTED PER 1,000 MAJ.ES. 20 1,354 3 4 3 167 62 10 8 3 « 10 Insane. 10 308 581 465 488 5S5 327 6B4 584 414 90a 417 468 818 567 911 716 721 371 739 671 463 581 630 611 276 614 333 488 682 518 972 499 414 458 658 372 629 829 667 743 677 70» 304 453 603 504 283 370 659 672 534 641 400 695 511 525 704 621 310 476 750 889 692 2,200 640 352 500 645 638 275 1,130 800 429 "400 6(10 429 Deal- mutes. Blind. 422 633 638 657 656 585 711 476 542 671 707 547 384 628 696 608 804 745 655 706 752 522 492 613 678 ( 594 60O 626 656 632 692 613 654 624 641 603 692 711 687 751 443 798 669 638 694 673 330 622 613 672 624 659 673 698 716 833 848 664 580 707 667 4,000 250 100 490 667 1,833 808 1,292 616 692 688 810 333 833 283 667 12 1,140 802 846 643 1,033 868 1,107 926 852 461 1,000 710 853 780 818 1,142 719 861 738 1,146 763 838 884 860 761 350 1,146 904 789 861 I 1,103 763 791 004 820 1,334 1,191 1,161 796 834 1,122 807 1,048 1,210 1,235 ' 836 863 1,239 982 1,051 1,125 846 1,003 1,429 970 1,267 904 782 978 1,704 H33 2,152 2,035 1,782 1,443 1,000 1,333 906 948 1.193 1,200 840 663 680 988 948 Lepers. 13 410 455 750 429 326 346 227 667 283 268 962 421 188 432 473 250 .i6S 500 333 :i94 438 260 529 289 1,000 286 388 268 308 210 167 121 196 196 272 184 203 43 4 138 124 132 162 189 193 73 87 226 180 167 140 119 306 IZl 164 211 128 268 128 1,167 "333 57» 500 232 333 388 290 757 600 308 'l67 412 412 SUBSIDfART TABLES. 363 SUBSIDIARY TABLE U\—conf;l^- dumber afflitted per 100,000 persons «f < ertaiii eastes and nunilier of females afflicted per 1,000 males— co«cW Caste. COCHIN STATE. Iluvan . . . . Indian Christian Jonakan Kammalan . . . Nayar . . . • Fnlayan . , . . HYDERABAD STATE. Brahman Dhangar . OoUa Kapa Eomatl LiDRayat . Hadiga and Mang Mahai and Mala Mutraai Fathan Sole Sheikh Telaga KASHMIR STATE. Balti Bratunan . Dom Gajar Kashmiri Uosalman Megh Mnghal Bajpnt Salyid Sheikh Sndban Tbakkai . MYSORE STATE. Banajiga .... Beda .... Brahman .... GoUa .... Holeya Kaniba Llngayat Madi^ Fanchala , Vadda Vakkaliga . Sheikh RAJPtTTANA AGENCY. Bhangi . Bhil Brahman . Chamar Gajar Jnt . Koll . Kumhar Mahajan . Mali . ^. Mco or Mewail Mina . Nai Fathan Raiput ShcUiIi TRAVANCORE STATE. Indian Christian Illmvan , . . . . Ktiravan . . . . Nayar Fnlayan Shanan . . . . NIMBEB AFFIICTED FEB 100,000. IBBANE. Hales. 50 9 26 37 67 15 23 17 30 34 22 34 23 112 66 28 61 27 29 48 23 16 14 26 21 Females. 11 26 12 10 10 11 14 47 13 8 12 27 35 17 35 26 19 3 22 6 28 17 7 21 24 25 9 19 17 19 16 21 14 26 36 35 24 19 39 25 14 30 41 21 22 12 4 13 7 9 7 1 12 I 6 I 12 I 10 I 9 S 8 14 e 24 24 10 s 11 14 a Blind. 414 88 165 42 127 82 60 108 82 120 53 125 21 91 24 83 25 111 24 85 13 83 IS 85 17 88 20 88 14 123 23 107 19 89 33 63 28 46 29 25 31 26 48 60 29 30 60 38 36 61 33 31 20 S4 24 4rt 34 32 52 57 30 29 35 19 29 33 48 26 27 28 38 20 27 22 31 471 60 129 34 99 142 69 65 79 130 35 78 68 76 57 66 66 75 75 86 87 74 34 I Males. 134 122 133 123 191 85 152 128 146 116 264 83 109 121 104 74 103 94 130 470 162 180 82 173 204 114 142 162 168 78 212 100 111 126 112 76 126 115 91 103 80 116 84 Females. 13 26 22 43 28 33 62 49 4<\ 108 96 75 97 232 96 123 132 160 91 202 78 108 126 134 84 87 86 127 1.166 123 170 88 161 231 69 152 163 137 66 144 106 96 107 98 103 119 79 IBFEBS. Males. 39 307 293 17 66 80 22 266 355 I« 161 245 19 in 172 19 136 206 24 189 322 28 152 263 33 369 364 24 130 202 19 167 338 14 108 126 27 265 363 16 174 206 IH 162 186 25 187 206 22 SO 36 SO 46 37 79 77 69 64 64 32 42 139 77 66 110 32 93 52 49 206 117 30 24 13 22 12 10 7 4 6 14 5 64 44 46 67 62 37 Females. 25 16 161 22 32 47 23 18 25 34 63 54 NtJMBEB OP FEMALES AFFLICTED FEB 1,000 UAItES. I>ea^ mutes. 931 1,0«1 2,200 2,000 810 667 328 783 768 621 415 686 787 1,032 585 417 897 406 1,074 458 561 760 571 567 818 429 917 222 474 760 393 778 800 611 1,000 776 964 649 909 663 889 844 638 6,000 346 471 678 269 727 1,000 361 261 350 202 647 «01 1.077 1,000 51A 2,000 773 11 867 632 867 1,260 1,462 2,200 918 818 647 766 875 782 735 994 842 813 652 690 661 893 657 727 628 748 1,694 929 611 848 826 667 721 820 806 670 646 779 778 851 839 679 782 836 600 941 669 469 632 BUnd. (62 I 780 I 677 I 434 I 600 364 403 428 675 714 667 760 1109 513 12 82il 775 543 810 1,295 1,200 778 1,02« 1,079 765 734 912 951 1,023 1,262 1,019 807 887 953 1,927 621 875 847 887 1,038 406 909 831 632 864 621 1,046 848 831 849 1,140 816 1,031 845 882 810 841 712 903 1,375 1,266 1,440 741 667 1.105 669 629 1.301 1,000 867 1.614 :iii4 •■ies 1,624 990 1,434 1,816 1,022 1,263 1.040 904 967 486 1.092 l.IOO 684 913 7110 Lepers. IS 272 222 333 727 631 571 422 303 427 324 263 372 396 321 260 313 293 333 491 615 291 108 227 542 395 566 165 429 536 310 422 400 486 769 471 321 600 607 432 22Z 20O 495 160 148 213 500 417 370 667 80 37.1 760 236 273 667 167 260 300 286 928 208 663 129 3 B 364 CHAPTER X — INFIRMITIES. OVi SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. i\imiber aflBicted per 100,000 persons of eatii uge-period and number of females afflicted per 1,000 males. Age-Febiod. NDMBES AIFLIOIED PEE 100,000. NDMBBE OP FBMALBS AFTUCIED PBB 1,000 UALBS. IHBANB. DEAF-IItrTES. BLIND. Lepebs. I-^^- mS^. BUnd. Lepers. Mades. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 i 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 AUAges 31 20 74 63 138 US 51 18 621 677 1.000 347 0— 5 . 2 2 23 17 33 23 1 1 841 790 713 767 5-10 12 8 78 55 56 ?8 3 2 645 672 646 738 10—15 32 18 97 77 71 53 9 8 653 644 613 676 15-20 34 25 107 78 88 66 23 14 679 681 695 570 20-25 42 24 103 65 101 71 36 17 608 678 756 493 25-30 . 44 22 87 56 99 81 50 19 495 629 789 370 30-35 19 27 79. 54 115 112 72 26 531 665 940 350 35-40 49 29 68 50 121 132 98 32 602 629 928 2S2 40—45 47 32 68 51 169 191 124 37 644 718 1,071 284 45—50 47 34 60 47 195 235 140 44 617 6G1 1,019 265 50-55 . 40 32 57 44 292 351 139 45 786 750 1,175 315 55-60 42 37 57 46 345 430 141 50 771 699 1,102 317 60 and over 1 36 29 61 45 806 940 121 39 871 808 1,274 352 Note .—In this t tblc those In firms wbosc age was Dot Jipcciflcd h ivc been Icf t out of ace 3UDt. CHAPTER XI, Caste, Tribe aud Race. 466. The first question that arises is what is meant by a caste ; what are the introdnotory social groups whose numerical strength is shown in Table XIII ? The segment- "™" ation of Hindu society is much more complicated tlian appears at first sight, and it has taken place in more directions than one. The difficulty of dealing with it on a statistical basis is accentuated by the somewhat vague ideas of the sulijeet on the part of the people themselves and their indifference to social distinctions with which they are not directly concerned. The Bengali is content to designate all persons belonging to Rajputana trading castes as Marwari, regardless of the fact that this term, even when correctly used, merely connotes nativity, and that the people of Rajpixtana, like those of Bengal, are sub-divided into many different castes. To the peasant every money-lender is a Baniya, every artisan a Mistri or (in Madras) a Panchala. In the eyes of the average Hindu, Kol is a sufficient designation for the various aboriginal tribes of Chota Nagpur. In Assam Naga is the generic name given by the plains people to a miscellany of hill tribes who have little or nothing in common. Consequently when a man is asked the name of his caste his first impulse is to give the answer which experience tells him will satisfy the ordinary questioner. When one goes further and makes it clear that enqmry is being made as to his social group, and not the country in which he was born or the occupation which he follows, he is still in some doubt as to the information which is required of him, whether it is his general social status, or his caste j)i'operly so-called, or the group to which intermarriage is restricted, or his family group or gotra. Apart from general terms indicating occupation or locality, such as Baniya or Marwari, there are thus amongst Hindus, four different kinds of social distinctions, viz. — (*) The four classes {varna) mentioned in the Shastras, viz., Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra, with a fifth division for the large and miscellaneous group of untouchables ( asprishya Sudra ). This is an elaboration of the still earlier division into Arya, noble or twice-born, and Anarya or Sudra. (ii) The modern castes {jclti), or social groujos bearing a common name and having a common tratlitional occupation. {Hi) The sub-castes, or endogamous groups into which each main caste is usually divided. iiv) The minor sub-divisions, or exogamous groups {goira, got, kul, illam, phaid, etc.), within each sub-caste, composed of persons reputed to he descended from a common ancestor and between whom marriage is prohibited. 467. The theory of the Hindu Law ])ooks is that all the existing castes are Relation or oussea descended from the four classes by an elal)orate series of crosses, first between the ° ""***■ members of different classes, and then between the descendants of these initial unions. This theory influenced the earlier European writers on the subject, who, without fully endorsing tlie manner in which they are said to have arisen, looked on the existing castes as descended from the four classes by a gradual pro- cess of fission. They accepted the view that the classes had gradually develo])ed into castes. It has, however, been shown bySenartand others that the division into castes has no direct relation with the division into classes. Tlie castes came into existence independently, without any regard to the chisses. The individual castes no doubt claimed to belong to one or other of the classes, but this they still do. The social precedence of a caste depeiuls on tlie class to which it belongs ; and at every census numerous castes come forward claiming to be ranked in one or other of the four main classes. Such claims are not meant in any way to disturb or alter the existing restrictions as to marriage, commeusality, etc., by 366 CHAPTER XI — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. whicli the communities concerned are fenced in, but merely to raise their status in the hierarchy of caste. The spirit of exckisiveness which holds the different communities aloof from each other centres in the caste. Castes in the same class feel no special affinity for each other, except in very special circumstances, e.g., amongst the ex-con- victs at Port Blair, where the number of persons of each caste is so small that it is impossible for them to confine their social relations and matrimonial arrange- ments within the customary limits. They are thus driven to enlarge them ; and so they extend the jus connubii to the whole class. This, however, is probably only a temporary expedient. The children of these mixed marriages take the caste of the father ; and as soon as the number of members of a given community is sufficiently large, it will probably close its ranks to fm-ther admissions from outside. Social distinctions based on the fouifold division of Manu are said to be observed also bv the Indian Christians in Mangalore, and to a less extent in Goa. There is no bar on inter-dining or on taking girls in marriage, but no one will give his daughter in marriage to a , man of a lower class than his own. 468. Class and caste stand to each other in the relation, not of parent to child, but of family to species. The general classification is by classes, the detailed one by castes. The former represents the external, the latter the internal, vicAV of the social organization. The actual caste to which he belongs is a matter of the greatest importance to the individual, but it is of comparatively small interest to the general public. To the Brahman, for instance, it is immaterial whether a man is a Teli, a Kahar or a Nai ; the important question for him is Avhether water can be taken from him or not, whether his touch does or does not cause pollution. In the one case he is a clean, and in the other an unclean, Sudra. The division of the Aryas into three classes, while all the non-Aryas except the untouchables are lumped together in one, is explained by the fact that the classification was made by members of the former community and that differences amongst themselves naturally loomed more largely in theii- eyes than those amongst the Anaryas. The division into classes is a broad grouping of the population as a whole, corresponding to our own upper, middle and lower classes and to numerous similar divisions elsewhere, such as that of the Hovas of Madagascar into nobles, freemen and slaves. "We probably owe it to the writers of the ancient lawbooks, who made it the basis of discrimination for the purpose of the civil and criminal law. They may possibly have borrowed it from Persia, where also the population was formerly divided into four classes — priests, warriors, cultivators and artisans. But although iu Manu the primary distinction is by classes, more than fifty castes are named. It is true that the latter are said to be derived from the former, but they are always carefully distinguished. It is probable that when the above work was comi^iled, though the number of castes was smaller, the general state of affairs was not so very different from that which still exists. Hiuen Tsiang who visited India early in the seventh century found both classes and castes in existence. In the fovir classes " purity or impurity of caste assigns to every one his place."* The two forms of cleavage still exist side by side. Every clean caste claims to belong to one or other of the four classes. As an illustration of the fact that these class distinctions are stUl recognized it may be noted that a Brahman, when acknowledging a salutation {prandm) from per- sons of other classes, says to the Kshatriya jaiya ho (may victory attend you), to the Vaisya kalydn ho (may prosperity attend you), and to the Sudra jiyo (may you live long). Doflnition of caste. 469. Tlic sccoud kind of social division, that of castes properly so-called, is not easy to define. The system has grown up gradually and without any set design or purpose. Tlic spirit of exclusiveness which underlies it is universal, but it has manifested itself in different ways in different places and amongst different communities, Tlie character and scope of the restrictions which have arisen from it are not everywhere the same. There is scarcely any general state- ment on the subject which is universally true, but generally speaking, it may be said that the most prominent characteristics of a caste are endogamy and commensality. Xo nieml)er of a caste may intermarry, or eat, or even share a • Ueal'a Sinuki I, »:', DEFINITION OF CASIE. 367 hiikkd ■nith persons of other castes.* The right of intermarriaije, however, seldom extends to a ^yhole caste ; it is usually confined to smaller groups, or suh- castes. As regards eating and smoking the practice varies. Sometimes all the members of a caste will eat and smoke together. Sometimes they will do so only with members of their own, or possibly other specified svib-castes, and some- times again they will do so only with members of their own family. These tests by themselves will not suffice to enable us to decide what constitutas a caste. We must go further and endeavour to see what the various endogamous groups have in common which leads to their being classed together as members of the same caste. The most obvious links are the possession of the same designation and traditional occupation. But here we are faced with the difficulty that the designation is usually that of an occupation ; and although occupations are often hereditary, they are not always so. Some functional terms are the names of social groups which have been welded together into castes, but others indicate function only and connote no social agglomeration. Some terms again are used sometimes in the one sense and sometimes in the other. The Jews of Kolaba monopolize the local oil industry to such an extent that they are generally known as Telis, but no one would dream of affiliating them to the ordinarv Teli caste. still, the mere fact of being known by the same name constitutes a sort of bond, which, in the absence of any marked difference of status, social practices and the like, gradixally strengthens as time goes on ; and there is often some difficulty in deciding whether the persons known by a given term form a " caste " or not. If, in addition to the common designation and traditional occupation, they have other common ties, such as the same reputed origin, the same tutelary deity, the same social status and ceremonial observances, the same family priests, etc., they will regard themselves, and be regarded by others, as forming a " caste." A caste may, therefore, be defined as an endogamous group or collection of such groups bearing a common name and having the same tradi- tional occupation, who are so linked together by these and other ties, such as the tradition of a common origin and the possession of the same tutelary deity, and the same social status, ceremonial observances and family priests, that they regard themselves, and are regarded by others, as forming a single homogeneous community. 470. It will be seen that thedecisionasto what does, and what does not, con- stitute a caste is largely a matter of degree. lu practice cases will arise where it is difficult to come to a decision. The word Brahman is a case in point. There are numerous communities claiming this designation who not only do not intermarry, but are widely separated from each other in respect of race, status and social customs. But they all have the same traditional occupation and the same repvited origin ; and there can be no doubt that both in their own eyes and in those of the public these links constitute a bond which, when a broad view is taken, overshadows the secondary distinctions that actually exist. For this reason Brahman has been taken for census purposes as the designation of a caste. In Madras Udaiyan is the common designation of three groups, Malaiman, Nattamau and Sudarman. These have often been treated as sepai-ate castes but Thurston holds that they arc merely sub-castes of Udaiyan. Though they do not intermarry they eat together and recognize the bond of common descent. There are many groups in the process of detaching themselves from, or joining themselves to, a given caste, in respect of which it is difficult to say whether they should be regarded as a sub-caste or as a separate caste. In some parts such a group may be looketl on as a sub-caste, while elsewhere it is treated as an independent caste, or even as a sub-caste of some other caste. In Bengal Dhimar is regarded as a sub-caste of Kahar, but elsewhere it is held to be a distinct caste. The difficulty is heightened by the looseness of the i)opu- lar ideas on the subject and the' general indifference of the Hindu ])ublic to social distinctions tliat do not directly conccr)i themselves to which refer- ence has already been made. Thus, there are in certain Bengal districts a number of persons descended from coolies imported by indigo planters, from Chota Nagpur who are commonly diibbed Bunas and were returned accordingly at the census of 1891. In 1901, enquiries showed that they belonged to a numlier of different castes and tribes, and that amongst themselves they maintained their old social dLstinctions intact. With a little care in * The rfBtriction on commenaality is not always enforced in the case of children. In Benpil youni; children of hii;h caste IlindaH may cat with children of any clean CAat4-, and amon^ the Maithil Urihni:ini of Tirhut a hoy ou the eve of the upanat/an ceremony takes rice cooked by scrTanls of the 1 >h5iiiik or Kahar caste. 368 CHAPTER XI — CASTE, TKIBE AKD RACE. training the enumerators it was found possible to get them returned under their proper caste designations. The term Baniya again is a purely functional designation applicable to a number of castes of diverse origin, customs and social status, including not only Agarwals, Oswals, Mahesris, etc., who admit- tedly rank as Vaisyas, but also Subarnabaniks, Telis, Shahas and others who rank, some of them as Sudras and some even lower. Here also, only care was needed to get the proper caste recorded in the schedules. Sometimes, however, depressed communities have been so long and so persistently classed together imder a common designation, and their own nomenclature and mutual relations are so uncertain and confused, that it is impossible to separate them ; and in their case it has to be confessed that the names under which they have been tabulated refer to genera rather than to species, to groups of castes of similar status and occupation, rather than to castes in the proper sense of the term. To this category belong the Bhangis and Mehtars, the sweeper castes of the United Provinces and Bengal, the Kolis of Bombay and the Paraiyans, Holeyas and Vellalas of Southern India. 471. It must also be remembered that although communities in different parts of India may have the same name and traditional occujmtion, and are therefore grouped together in the caste table for the whole of India, it does not neces- sarily follow that they belong to the same caste. According to Risley* the Kayasthas of Bihar pique themselves on being wholly distinct from those of Bengal proper ; both are writer castes and occupy about the same social status, but they have different customs and different traditions of origin. The Banjaras or Labhanas of the Central Provinces are a recognized Hindu caste, but those of Mysore are a tribe which is only now emerging from Animism ; they have nothing in common beyond the fact that both communities are carriers and di'ivers of pack bullocks. When there is a slight difference in the name [e.g., Vaidu and Vaidya, or Nayar and Naik) the communities have been tabulated separately, even though the occupation is the same. Caste and snb- 472. It has sometimcs been said that what is commonly known as the sub- caste, or smallest endogamous group, ought really to be regarded as the caste, and that the caste, as defined above, is merely a general term including a number of true castes following the same j)rofession. The word " Baniya " has been given as a case in point. So far as that particular term is concerned — and there are others of the same kind, such as Vellala, the general appellation of a number of communities which have little or no connection with each other beyond the fact that they are all cultivators ; Yakkal, the common designation of all culti- vating castes in Cauara ; Samantan, the collective name of a group of castes forming the aristocracy of Malabar, and Ambalavasi, that of fifteen castes of temple servants in the same tract of country — it has already been stated that it is simply a functional designation. It includes all kinds of trading communities, many of which not only have no connection with one another, but are often of very different social status. The case is otherwise when we come to terms like Barhi, Chamar, Dhobi, KamJir, Khati'i, Sonar and the like. Each of these groups is split up into a number of smaller ones, or sub-castes, but it would be contrary to all hitherto-accepted ideas on the subject to treat the latter as separate castes. In S2:)ite of the restrictions on marriage, all minor sub-divisions of the above and similar main groups regard themselves as forming a single community, bound together l)y their possession of the same traditional occupation as well as, in many cases, their belief in a common origin. They also have other ties of the kind already referred to ; and they often combine to take joint action where their common interests are affected. The restrictions on marriage between members of different sub-castes in the same localit}^ are often comparatively lax ; and while in some places marriage between two such groups is forbidden, in other places, not far distant, it may be allowed. Even where it is forbidden, the penalty for a breach of the rule is far less severe than it is in the case of marriage beyond the limits of the major group or main caste ; the irregularity is often condoned on payment of a small tine. Sometimes, in the case of sub-castes, the restriction on marriage applies only to the giving, and not to the taking, of wives ; and it often happens, in places Mhere the niiml)er of members of a particular sub-caste is small, that they amalgamate with some other section of the same main caste. There is far less rigidity about a sub-caste than there is about a caste. • ilore roccntly tlio tendency is for all Ksyasthas to acknowledge a common origin. CASTE AND SUB-CASTE. 369 In the Bengal Report for 1901*Igave numerous instances showing how in that Provinoe the barriers dividing sub-castes are much weaker than those which separate castes. The same is the case everywhere. In ^ladnis it is said that amongst the Niiyars the prejudice against the intermarriage of persons l)elonging to different sub-castes is dying out. When the BhonsUi family were rulers of Nagpur, there were seven leading llariltha clans who did not intermarry with the rest, i^., they formed an endogamous sub-caste, but this restriction has now been relaxed. In the United Provinces, Mr. Blunt says that even Brahmans some- times marry outside their sub-caste. " Sarasvat occasionally marries Gaur, for instance; Sauadh and Jujliotia are both said to give their girls to Kanaujia, and the former also tc Ganr. " Similarly with the Dhanuks : — "Taking a single sub-caste, the Laungbarsa, we find that within the boundaries of a single district it is (1) exogamous as regards one sub- caste but endogamous as regards all other?, (2) strictly endogamous and (3) strictly exogam- ous. •" The Rajputs of Garhwal were formerly divided into three sub-castes, high, middle and low class, or Khasia; but these distinctions are breaking down and the poorer members of the highest group have taken to intermarrying with the other two groups. Mr. Blunt goes on to show how the restrictions in respect of sub-castes vary from time to time and quotes as a concrete instance the case of the Lucknow Khatiks which he examines in some detaiL The Smarta Brahmans of Madras are divided into eight sub-classes which, again, are further sub-divided. All these divisions were formerly endogamous, but at the present day intermarriage between the s-ub-divisions of the same sub-class sometimes occur. The Palshikar Brahmans of Bombay city intermarry with the Deshasth Brahmans of the Central Provinces, but they have not yet been able to do so with the members of this sub-caste in the Deccan, In the Punjab the Superintendent notices a general tendency towards the amalgamation of sub-castes, the number of which has largely decreased since 1891. It may be added that it is often very difiicult for a superior sub-caste to protect itself from the ingress of inferior ones. In Orissa, low class Pande Brahmans can get themselves recognized as Samantas. Hindu social reformers, all over the country, are urging people to break down the minor endogamous restrictions and to allow marriage freely within the limits of the main caste. In the United Provinces, amongst the trading castes there is a movement in favour of making the connubial limit as wide as the commensal. The success hitherto attained has not been very great, but some of the minor restrictions based on locality have already been swept away.t There is perhaps no part of India where the Brahmans are subdivided into so many endogamous groups as in Bombay. In that Presidency they belong mainly to four principal groups each of which is further subdivided, the number of such subdivisions in one case be- ing very nearly a hundred. Yet theoretically these major and minor subdivisions are of no importance ; marriages can take place between any Brahmans who follow the same Veda and belong to the same shdl'hd and different gotras. At any given moment the theoretical unity seems to count for very little iu view of the practical diversity, but its influence never- theless is constantly making itself felt. Changes in the sub-castes are constantly going on ; and while new groups are being formed, old ones are being absorbed. Education, it is said, is now becoming an important factor, and there are signs that the desire for literate brides may lead to the gradual disregard of sub-caste distinctions. Mr. Jlead points out that the re- amalgamation of sub-castes which have a common origin, is exemplified in the attempt of the Gaud Sarasvat Brahmans to coalesce : — " About 4-00 years ago, tradition relates, .the Sarasvats broke away from the parent stock. The latter itself is divided into several local groups. They have also divided on sectarian lines into Vaishnavas and Smartas. Between these groups intermarriage was practically unknown. About three years ago some of the more progressive leaders of the Sarasvat community broke adrift from the spiritual control of their Swami, and have attempted to reunite the scattered fragments into one compact Gaud Sarasvat caste. Several conferences have been held, but the vital test of permanence, intermarriage, has not yet taken place. It may come, but it is equally likely that the ultimate result will be the formation of double the number of sub-castes, each caste splitting into two according as its constituents favour or disfavour the amalgamation. Two factions in the Sarasvat groups have already appeared — the " Londonvalas ■'■' and " non-Londonvalas ■" — the former being those who have been excommunicated by the Swami for dining with Europe- returned and excommunicated members. The further developments of this group of sub- castes, who have been collectively classified as Gaud Sarasvats at this census, will bo interesting." 473, A tribe in its original form is distiuguislied from a caste by the fact Deflmuoa ox tribe. that its basis is political rather than economic or social. The members believe that they all have a common origin, but what hokis them together is community of interest and the need of mutual defence ; and alieiis who are willing to throA\' in their lot with the tribe are usually freely admitted. Especially is this the case ■with women obtained by purchase or captiu'C. The tribe is not associated with any specific occupation, and there are no functional restrictions. It is also not necessarily endogamous, though in practice it is largely so, owing to its • Page 356. t Baijnath, Ilinduism, Meerut 1905, p»go 69. * :? p 370 CHAPTER XI— CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. own and its neighbours' unwillingness to give girls to outsiders. Its members usually speak the same language, which is often peculiar to the tribe. Trilies that have long been in contact with Hinduism have modified their original type, and have come to conform more or less closely to the pattern of an ordinary caste, and to adojDt the restrictions associated with the caste system. Sometimes tliis process has proceeded so far that the tribe has been transformed into a caste. Among the Animistic tribes of Chota Nagjuir, though there is no common traditional occupation, the restrictions on marriage and social intercourse are almost as rigid as in tlie case of castes. It is only on the confines of the Empire — on the North-West Frontier and in Assam and Burma — that the tribes are still free from these trammels. The restrictions amongst certain aboriginal tribes are so great as to suggest that they always ■existed and have not been borrowed from the Hindus. There is a proverb, Jata Kliaria fata Haria, whioh means that no Kharia will eat food cooked bv anyone except himself. When a Munda returns home after a long absence he may not enter his house until his wife comes out and bathes his feet in token of her belief that he has done nothing during his absence to make him impure. « It is sometimes thought that the constitution of a tribe is more homogeneous than that of a caste, but this is not necessarily the case. A tribe, like a caste, is often formed from many different sources. The late Sir Alfred Lyall has shown [Asiatic Studies I, Vol VI, pages 1^0-182) that the Mina, Meo, ]Mer and Grassia tribes of Rajputana are formed of accretions from various sources, and his remarks on the subject are so apposite that they are well worth quoting : — " Let any cause drive together a number of stray families, the law of attraction collects them into a tribe, while the law of exogamj^ immediately begins to work each family into an inner circle of prohibited degrees, and strings together all these circles upon the tribal bond of union like rings upon a curtain rod." Mr. Bray's account of the expansion of the Brahuis may also be quoted in this connection : — " According to my vague view, the Brahui nucleus in the early days was a fairly compact body in which the Mirwari, an offshoot from the Kambrari, gradually took the lead. Issuing successfully under Mirwari leadership from the conflicts with the aborigines (whoever they may have been) and the Balooh and the Jatt and any others that stood in their way, they must have found little difficulty in attracting recruits from all quarters, even from the ranks of their late enemies. Not the least striking proof of the fullness of their success is the very large Pathan element among them ; for Pathans are ever chary of sinking their own race except to join a vigorous and rising power. Once settled in Kalat and the neighbourhood, the Brahuis seem to have spread themselves over the country, and in consequence to have undergone a certain amount of disintegration, the Brahui nucleus drifting apart into their clans, and their new-found allies into communities of their own. And from these clans and communities were in course of time developed what we now call tribes. Though it is im|irobable enough that the tribes at their birth were either as numerous or as heterogeneous as the tribes of to-day, it is hardly likelv that they were truly homogeneous even then ; 'in any case the original tribal stock must soon have become crossed by malcontents from other tribes and by fugitives or adventurous spirits from outside. But coincident with this partial disintegration there was a gradual organization of the several tribes into a Confederacy under the leadership of the Ahmadzai, who, though apparently a junior branch of the Mirwari, soon forced their way to the front." At the present day the tribal system in Burma is rapidly breaking down. Most of the tribes of the Burmese group are being absorbed by the Burniese, those of the Lolo group by the Chinese, and the northern tribes bv the Kachins. Mr. Webb shows clearly how unstable is the tribal unit in many parts of Burma : — " There is no insuperable boundary between the members of separate races, and still less between the members of separate tribes. These are changed and transformed, separated and amalgamated, and the members transfer themselves from one to another with the greatest facility. In the past the subjugation of one community by another has generally been followed by a fusion of the two, or by the absorption of the con- quered by the concjuerors. Although the possibility of racial transformation by this means has now been greatly curtailed, it has been in active operation np till comparatively recent times. After the evacuation of Pegu by the British in 1S2G, the Talaing language was rigorously suppressed, its teaching in the Buddhist monasteries was forbidden, and the absorp- tion of the Talaings by the Burmans rendered inevitable. More recent instances of this process can be studied in the Chin Hills, where, until administrative control was established quite recently, tribal fusion as a result of conquest was in constant operation. Even at the present time the existence of unadministered territory within the limits of the province permits the possibility of racial transformation by the means of force. But aggression is by no means the only method possible. Intermarriage affords innumerable opportunities for effecting a transfer from one race to another and produces a vague border land of hybrid tribes and individuals in which no clear determinate lino of demarcation between separate communities exists. Religion, with its corollary of education, is another potent factor in the diffusion of DEFINITION OF 'JKIUE. 371 the superior languages resulting in the ultimate assimilation of the members of less advanced tribes. Thi" monastery schools of the province can claim an equal share with its travelling dramatic companies iu producing the remarkable uniformity of the Burmese language throughout its limits, auJ a superior share in extending the language to the neighbouring ti-ibes and races. The use of a fresh language is generally followed by the assumption of the dress, customs and race of the people by whom the extending language is spoken. Migration, bv tn'inging primitive tribes into a new environment, and into contact with, civilized races, operates to produce both racial fissure, and racial amalgamation. It may result in the multiplication of tribes asserting a separate tribal existence, or it may result in the extinction of smaller tribes by absorption with their more ])owerful neighbours. Race in Burma is not a fixed definite phenomenon capable of presentation iu a set of tabular state- ments. It is vague and indeterminate, and in a stage of constant fluctuation. Its method of record is liable to vary from district to district, and sometimes from enumerator to enu- merator. The census figures are but a presentation of a momentary phase of racial distribu- tion. They do not necessarily represent a distribution of the population into separate and mutually exclusive racial groups. While the main racial divisions are based on distinct and separate" migrations into the province, centuries of contact with one another have resulted in numerous actions and reactions of widely diverse character. The superior races, instead of using their superiority to maintain a state of exclusiveness, have utilised it to absorb and include all outside elements. The figures for the larger racial groups therefore represent the present resultant of a series of amalgamations extending through many centuries of time. The smaller groups consist of tribes which, owing to various causes, have escaped the assimila- tive activities of their more powerful neighbours. Wherever the surface of the country has been somewhat uniform, in the plains and the broader valleys, the tendency towards amalgamation has operated strongly. But wherever the surface of the country has been highly diversified, rendering communication difficult and central control impossible, the tendency towards amalgamation has operated slightly, and in many instances the contrary process of dispersion has been at work. At present improved communications and control are assisting the forces making for amalgamation, and opposing those making for dispersion. But which- ever tendency may be in operation the facility of transition from race to race and from tribe to tribe remains as a permanent source of racial instability.' 474. Viewed at any given moment caste appears fixed and immutable, but tbis The^ermanenoe is by no means tbe case. The process of cbange is slow and imperceptible, like the movement of tbe hour baud of a watch, but it is nevertheless always going on. From the dynamical point of view the most important features of the caste system are the opposing forces of repulsion and attraction. When one section of a caste develops peculiarities of any kind — a different occupation, habitat or social practice, or more rarely, a different religious cult— the tendency is for it to regard itself and to be regarded by the rest of the caste, as something different. This feeling grows stronger with time, until at last it, or the main body of the caste, withdraws from the marriage league. The result is a new sub-caste, and often, in the end, a new caste. On the other hand, when a section of one caste adoi^ts the occupation characteristic of another, the tendency is for it to become absorbed in the latter. To begin with, it will still be known by its original name, with the addition of its new functional designation. Outsiders wiU soon look on it as a section of the caste which commonly follows tbe occupation in question. In course of time it will itself come to take the same view. It Avill begin to adopt the same ceremonial ol)servances, to be served by the same family priests, and to worship the same tutelary deity. Later on, the fact that it has all these things in common with the caste in question will create the belief that it sprang from the same source, and it will end by being regarded as a genuine sub -caste. These changes have always been in progress. New castes have come into existence to meet new needs and old ones have been dissolved when the necessity for them no longer existed. The Baidya or physician caste of the United Provinces has disappeared because its function was usurped by the Hakim or Muhammadan doctor. Tbe sub-caste, or endogamous group, is even more unstable. It has been aptly compared to a circle whose centre can change its point and whose radius' may at any time be lengthened or contracted. The way in which these changes take place will be more clearly understood if we consider briefly the different types of caste and sub-caste. 475. Although all castes are hemmed in by similar restrictions against inter- tvpob of marriage and commensality with pci-soiis l)elonging to other communities, it does not follow that they were all shaped in the same mould. As a matter of fact, this is very far from l)cing tlie case. The spirit of exclusiveness is every- where the same, but the couunuuities whicli we call castes have been welded 3 n 2 372 CHAPTER XI — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. together iu different ways. All that is needed to form a caste is some mutual attraction or bond of union. Usually this is a common occupation; persons belonging to the same pursuit find it necessary to combine in the furtherance of their common interests and the regulation of their business affairs. This constant intercourse with each other draws them closer and closer together. At the same time the various groups thus brought into contact Avith each other gradually lose touch with the counnunities to which they previously belonged, until the process of severance is completed by the discontinuance of marriage relations. After that they form a genuine sub-caste of the new group. A typical instance of the formation of a caste on these lines is afforded by the Banjaras, or carriers on pack bullocks. In the days when India was overrun by the conteudino- armies of the Moghals and Marathas, the supply of provisions for the troops on both sides became a •matter of paramount importance. Persons of various castes took to the new occupation. For the purpose of mutual defence it was necessary for them to travel together in large parties. The Brahmans, Rajputs, Charans and others who engaged in this pursuit gradually became separated from their original social groups and fell under the influence of the law of attraction ■which binds together persons who live and work in close association ; and althouo-h in some <;ases their former origin can still be traced, they are all alike regarded by themselves and by everyone else as members of the Banjara caste. They worship the same tutelarv deitv BaQiari Devi, as well as an old fi-ee-booter named Mithu Bhukia. It may be added that in Berar a section of this caste has settled down to regular cultivation and become somewhat prosiierous. It has on this account severed its connection with the Banjaras and taken to calling itself Wanjari. It is now practically a distinct caste. The Darzi caste of the Central Provinces is another functional group of this type. It has a Baman sub-caste, evidently of Briihmanical origin, a Raj (Rajput), a Kaithia (Kayastha) and a Chamarna (Chamar), as well as others of a territorial character. 476. But although function has been the most potent influence in the formation of the existing castes, it has not been by any means the only one. -Risley has distinguished seven types of caste, viz. : — (i) tribal castes, where a whole tribe like the Bhumij of Chota Nagpur the Koch of North Bengal, the Jat of the Punjab and the Koliof Bombay has insensibly been transformed into a caste by the oradual acceptance of Hinduism and the social ordinances which are connected with it. {ii) fimctional castes composed of persons following the same occupation. Usually, as in the case of Barhi, Dhobi and Nai, these castes are an aggregation of fragments of various tribes or pre-existino- castes who have been drawn together by the attraction of a common occupation. Many military castes have been formed in this way The Nayars of Malabar were a military body holding lands and serv- ing as a uiilitia and were composed of different elements. So also were the Khandaits of Orissa. Ruling families of many different stocks have obtained recognition as Rajputs. (m) sectarian castes comprising persons, like the Jati Baishnab of Beno-al the Lingayat of Bombay, and the Sarak of Orissa, who were at first merely the adherents of a sect, but in time came to recoo-nize the bond thus created between them as stronger than any other, and so formed a new marriage union. In southern India most of the converts to Jainism have forgotten their old social divisions and now intermarry only amongst themselves, so that what was once a religion has now become a caste. In Assam at tlie present time the Mataks, or followers of the Moamaria Gosain who Ijelono- to various castes, are beginning to intermarry amongst themselves instead of with persons of their original caste belonging to other sects. This type also includes castes, such as the Gharbari Atith of Bihar, the iiavalia of Baroda and the Gosain of the United Provinces, formed of the descendants of meml^ers of religious orders originally celibate, by their wives or concubines. The Khalsa is an instance of a new sectarian caste. Pandit Ilari Kishan Kaul writes .- " Khalsa is an old term, which denotes the true followers of Guru Gobind Singh, but in the past, it has been used merely to signify the persuasion of the members of various castes who belong to the orthodox Sikh religion. It has been returned for the first time as a caste i.e. as the name of a social group. The advocates of the Khalsa or Tat Khalsa movement dis- TYPES OF CASTE. 373 regard the restrictions of caste and iuter-diiiiiig and aim at establishing an universal lirother- hood amongst the Sikhs. Thev have preferred to call themselves by the common title KhaUa, instead of stating the caste to which they belonged. The result is that in discarding their old caste, they have adopted a new one much in the same way as several other castes, which were formed similarly in the old days, owing to the adoption of a set of doctrines." (it?) castes formed by crossing like the Sliagirdpcsha of Orissa, the Sudra of East Bengal, the Bidiir of the Central rrovinccs, the Chakkiyar of Malabar, the Bhilala of Bombay, the Gola of Baroda and the Boria of Assam. Even outside the caste system we find various communities of mixed races. The Anglo- Indians are a case in point. So also are the Zerbadis, or offspring of Muhammadan men by women of the country, in Burma, whose mimber is now nearly 00,000 or about thi-ee times what it was at the previous census. It should be noted, however, that half-breeds do not always form a special class. When a Chinaman marries a Burmese woman his sons call themselves Chine.se, because that is regarded as the superior race, while his daughters claim to be Burmese, because the Burmese woman enjoys a better status and more independence than a Chinawoman. {v) castes of the national type like the Maratha and tlic Newar. {vi) castes formed by migration like the Ladi'ani of Bombay, and the Siyalgir of Miduapore. There are comparatively ^evr castes of this type. Migration usually produces a new sub-caste rather than a new caste. {vii) castes formed by change of custom or occupation like the Babhan of the United Provinces and Bihar, the Wanjari of Berar, the Yalluvau and Jatapu of Madras, the Chitari of the Central Pro- vinces, the Xador of the Bomljay Presidency and the Sadgop and Chasadhoba of Bengal. The Tapodhans of Baroda are said to have been originally Audich Brahmans who Avere outcasted, because they practised widow marriage and served as priests in the temples of Siva. 477. Starting with the proposition that caste originated in community of function, Nes- Extent to whioh field has given an interesting analysis of the way in which, in his opinion, castes have been ^e^of'^cSJmai formed in the United Provinces, and has endeavoured to show how the same tribe has sup- o^'Kin- plied fragments to many different castes.* The Gaurs were once a widely dominant tribe who have given their name, not only to many villages in Northern India, but also to the large dis- trict of Gonda. There are sub-castes called Gaur of many castes, including not only fishing and other humble castes, such as Barhi, Halwai and Darzi, but also high castes, such as Kayastha, Taga, Rajput and even Brahman ; and this, he concludes, proves that these castes have all received accretions from the Gaur tribe. Numerous similar instances are to be found in all parts of the country. The tribe which gave its name to Gujarat is no longer found there, but there are Gujar sub- castes of Vani, Sutar, Lobar, Kunbi, Kumbhar and Salat. The argument, however, may easily be pushed too far. Nesfield himself admits that part of the Gaur sub-caste of Brahmans may be descended from Brahmans who had no blood relationship with the Gaurs, but who were so called because they were domiciled in the country ruled by the Gaur kings and under their protection. It will be seen further on that there are numerous sub-castes named after past political divisions, and it would be very unsafe in such cases to assume without any other evidence that the name of the sub-caste connotes any blood connection with the dominant tribe. But of the general conclusion that tribes have been absorbed in castes, there can be no doubt whatever. The process is still going on before our eyes. In Khandesh numerous castes, such as Darzi, Shimpi, Sonar and Sutar have what is called an Ahir sub-caste. These, however, are only sub-castes in the making; for though they do not intermarry with the functional group to which they are commonly supposed to belong, they sometimes do so with the corresponding division of some other functional group. Thus the Ahir Sutars still intermarry with the Ahir Shimpis and Lobars. It is also obvious that where a once numerous tribe has disapjjeared, this must l>edue, not to its having died out, but to itsjhaving been absorbed in other communities. The descendants of the Gaurs must still exist under other names ; and it is almost certain that they are to be found in part in some of the sub-castes which are named alter them, but it would be "^xtremely unsafe to assert that such sub-castes are invariably, or solely, composed of the descendants of the Gaur tribe. Nesfield says that, of a hundred castes in the United Provinces, the names of seventy- seven are based on function and those of only seventeen on tribe, while three are named after locality, two are sectarian and one is of unknown etymology. Of the tribal names again, practically all belong to hunting, fishing and labouring castes, whose functions have not yet become specialized. In making a classification of this kind, however, it has to be remembered that the mere fact that the name of a group is functional does not necessarily imply that it is an aggregation of heterogeneous elements drawn together by the attraction of a common • Brief Vieu! of the Catte Syitem of the Sorih-Wetlern PiotinctM and Oudh, Allaliabiul, 18S5. 374 CHAPTER XI — CASTE, TKIBE AND RACE. occupation. It froquentlj- liappens that a tribe on becoming Hinduized assumes a new name,, which often has a functional connotation, in order to conceal the origin of the group and tO' improve its social status. The cultivating section of the Kaibarttas have recenth' taken to des- cribing themselves as Mahishya, the designation of an extinct agricultural caste ; but it would obviously be wrong to class them on the ground of their new designation as a caste- owing their origin to function. The Koch of North Bengal have changed their name to Raj- bansi and claim Kshatriya affinities. But here again there has been no real change in the social grouping, or in the restrictions connected with it, and they are as much a race caste as they were when they were known as Koch. Frequently again a community is given a new name from outside. This happens even with casteless tribes, such as the Hero of Chota Nagpur who are now commonly called JMundas, though amongst themselves the previous designation is still in vogue. In such cases the new name is given, sometimes with reference to some peculiarity of the tribe, as with !Musahar, rat-eater, and sometimes with reference to its characteristic occupation, such as Dhanuk, archer. There is no more reason in such cases for assuming that the functional designation connotes a new grouping than there is for assuming that the Musahars are a heterogeueous group who came together because of a common fondness for the flesh of rodents. The identification of a caste name with function may sometimes be due to fault V etvmolog-y. The derivation of Pasi from pds, a snare is, at least, doubtful; nor is it at all certain that the original meaning of Kewat, which in Bengal has been Sanskritized as Kail^artta, was " one engaged on water,-" or that Gujar is a variant of gochar, cattle grazier.* Lastlv, a tribe has sometimes concentrated its energies on a single occupation to such an extent that its name has come to be used as a synonym for that occupation. In Sind, Korl and weaver are svnonymous terms, but the trade is called after the tribe, not the tribe after the trade. Sweepers in the Punjab are known as Chuhra and in the United Provinces as Bhangi. Although a plausible Sanskrit derivation can be found for both of these words, it seems more probable that the occupation was named after the tribe which chiefly followed it, than that it was the name of an occupation which drew together people from various different groups. It is clear that it is impossible, on the uncertain basis of caste nomenclature, to say which castes are functional and which are tribal in their origin ; it is necessarj' to go further and ex- amine each caste in detail, with special reference to its internal structure and the practices and character of the different endogamous groups. It would be impossible to undertake so tedious a task in a census report. It may be mentioned, however, before leaving the subject, that the relative strength of the different types of caste varies greatly in different parts. Nesfield was no doubt correct in holding that the functional type of caste predominates in the United Provinces. But, as a general rule, it would seem that elsewhere the tribal type still includes a larn-e proportion of the population. In old Bengal, we find amongst the castes which can still lie identified as of this type, three with an aggregate strength of about sis millions, and seven more with four millions. In Assam two-thirds of the Hindus of the Brahmaputra valley lielono-to castes of the tribal type. In Bombay three such castes contain more than one-third of the local Hindus ; while in the Punjab one alone ( Jat) contributes a fifth of the total popu- lation. 478. Just as there are different types of caste, so also there are different snboaates oi tvpcs of sub-castc. These may be divided primarily into t^yo main classes ; sub- castes of fusion, and sub-castes of fission. The former head includes groups drawn together from divers sources. In former days, when India was sj)lit up into a numl)er of separate States, each State developed its own caste system independently. There was no necessary racial connection between the people who took to a particular occupation and formed a caste named after it in one tract and those pursuing the same occupation elsewhere. Take, for example, the Dhobi caste. Tiie persons whose business it is to wash clothes would be known as Dliobis all over Northern India, but this would not imply any social relations, or other affinity except that of a common occupation, between the- Dhobis of dilfereut States. Amongst themselves they would emphasize the differeiice l)ct\veen one such group and another by prefixing to their common functional designation the name of the territorial unit to wliich they belonged or the lai\guagc which they speak. Tlius we find Kanaujia Dhobis, or Dhobis of Kanauj ; Magahiya Dhobis, or Dliobis of Magadha ; Tirhutia Dholjis, or Dhobis of Tirhiit ; Awadhiya Dhobis, or Dhobis of Oudh. In the Central Provinces and Berar, in the tract where Oriya and Chhattisgarhi Hindi, otherwise known as I>aria, meet, there are numerous castes, such as Sonar, Sundi, Koshta, Kewat, Tanti, etc., with Oriya and Laria sub -castes. Even the Brahmans are not free from these territorial distinctions. All the Brahmans of India are divided into two main groups according to locality — the Pancha Gaura, and the Pancha Dravira. In eacli province again, there are fm-thcr territorial sul)-divisions. In Bombay we liave Gujarati Brahmans, Konkanasth Brahmans, Deccani • Many iiistancos could ho (|UOtcd where a wonl has been given u Sanskritizeil form on the basis of its supposed derivation. The Kosi river in liengiil is so eallcd Ironi Khu-isi, the Newjr word for river ; but it is kn-iwn iu Pmranil; literature as Kausiki, on the assumption that it is named after the daughtsr of Kusik, Itaja of Gadhi. Types of snb-castc. TYPES OF SUB-CASTE. 375 Brahmans, Desbasth Brabmans, etc.; and in Madras, Telu2:u Brahmans, Tamil Brahmans, Canarese Brfilimans and so ou. In a sense tliese various groups, Avliich have nothing necessarily in common and are often found speaking a different language, should be regarded as separate castes. The reason for not treating them as such has already been explained in paragraph 1.72. 479. In places Avhere the demand for a particular service is greater tlian the members of the caste ordinarily associated with it are able to meet, or the profits are unusually high, it often happens that persons Ijclongintr to some other cominujiity adopt the occupation. At fii-st the regular members of the ■caste refuse to have anytliing to do witb them, but in time their attitude luider- goesa change. Community of occupation involves community of interest. The new-comers lose touch with tlicir former associates and withdraw, or are ejected, from their old marriage union; and they gradually come to ])e regavdetl by the general public as a section of the caste whose occupation they have appro- priated and to be called by the same name. Later ou the meml)ers' of that caste -come to look on them as belonging to their community, though of a separate sub- caste, and they themselves take the same view. They tend more and more to model their social and religious observances on those of tlie caste to which they now consider themselves to belong. The differences which originally existed are obliterated, and the reason for their differentiation from the main body of the caste is lost sight of. They have now become an undoubted sub- caste of the new caste, and may at any time in suitable conditions be amal- gamated with some other sub-caste. Accretions of this kind general] v occur for functional reasons, but they sometimes also take place when a grou]) which lias risen in the world detaches itself from its original caste, pretends to belon" to a higher one and calls itjelf by the same name. Sometimes also a group of immigrants takes the name of a local caste, and is eventually recognized as •belonging to it. It may be interesting to mention a few typical instances of accretions to caste. The v may be classified, as a rale, under three beads — functional, parvenu, foreign. The foUowin'j' are functional accretions :-7- The Tanti caste has in the Purnea district of Bihar and Orissa a sub-caste, known as Jogi, consisting of persons formerly Hme-burners who now earn their living bv wea\ in"-. In the United Provinces the Mochi caste has a ' Kavastha ' sub-caste consisting of persons of that caste who now earn their living by making saddlery. In the Punjab and Bombaj- manv Sunars are shown by the designation of their sub-caste names to have come from a laro-e number of different castes including, Agarwal, Aliir, Brahman, Jat, Rajput, Khatri, Gujar, Kori, .Mali, etc. The case of the Banjaras is very similar. In the Punjab members of various castes (including Chopra, Arora, Arain, Bhat, etc.) who take to cultivation o-et recocr- nized as Jats, though they often retain, as a sub-caste, the designation of their original caste. Parvenu accretions to castes are numerous, but it is not always easy to trace them as the new-comers sedulously conceal their real origin. In the Tamil' country- there are manv groups, calling themselves Vellala, who in their origin havo no connection with (hat caste. Nominally, they cannot intermarry with genuine Vellalas, but the caste is so widelv diffused that its mem!)ers cannot ]irotect themselves from these invasions. The KapecWar! caste of Tclingana has been invaded by various low castes ; thus about 4,000 perso'ns in the Bastar State who were classified as Balijas at the last census have now been returned under this head. In West Bengal and Chota Xagpur, various aboriginal groups of iron workers have gained recognition as members of the Lobar caste. Tlie priests of aboriginal tribes have often suc- ce?ded, on their conversion to Hin 376 CHAPTER XI — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. It is often difficult to sav whether a particular group is in process of fusion or fission. In the popular view it is generallv the latter, but this is by no means always the case. For instance there are numerous groups, now regarded as Brahmans, who are supposed to have been ileoraded because of certain impure practices or forms of worship, but in reality are the promoted descendants of aboriginal priests, sorcerers and soothsayers. sub-««»tes of 480. The limits of a sub-caste are susceptible of contraction as well as of expansion. Here again considerations of locality play an important part. Where the consequences of an unsuitable marriage are serious, as they are in most nindu social groups, parents are -very chary about giving their daughters in marriage to any one with whose antecedents they are imperfectly acquainted. Persons who emigrate to a distance from their original home, if they do not often return thither, lose touch with their social group and are thus deprived of the jus coniivML In former times the same result often ensued from a reshuffling of political boundaries. But migration is not the only cause which may cause a discontinuance of marriage relations. Xot only are parents loath to give their duughters to those with whom they are insufficiently acquainted, but they are also unwilling to o-ive them to persons whom they regard as in any way inferior to them- selves. Consequently, when one section of a caste abandons an occupation which is regarded as degrading, or purges itself of some heterodox social practice, such as the remarriage of widows, or when it becomes wealthier and more pro- sperous, it objects to contract matrimonial alliances with those members of the caste who have failed to advance along the same lines. Sometimes again, a section of a caste may have fallen in public estimation owing to some real or imagined pollution, and may on that account have been ejected from the mar- riage union. Occasionally, a quarrel between the members of a caste, or be- tween their landlords, is sufficient to cause them to cease from intermarrying. As a rule, the Hindus are very tolerant in the matter of religion, and so long as their caste fellows conform to the prescribed social observances, they do not concern themselves with their religious belief s. Though there are a few excep- tions, sectarian differences seldom affect the marriage relations. There are various trading castes in Rajputana, some of whose members are Hindus and others Jains, but they freely intermarry. In the Punjab, again, the distinction between a Sikh and a Hindu is a purely religious one and has little or no effect ou the social relations of a caste. I have already pointed out in the last paragraph that it is often hard to say whether a o-iven sub-caste is one of fusion or of fission. The following, however, are instances of sub- castes which are believed to be disruptive : — (1) Residence in a different locality. — The members of Bihar castes long resident in Bengal can no longer intermarry with their caste fellows in Bihar, nor can the Baidyas east of the old course of the Brahmaputra intermarry with those living west of that river. In Madras the Koirapara and Kodayar rivers also operate as a matrimonial line of cleavage. Sub-castes based on locality are extremely common in Gujarat, especially amongst the Brahmans and Vanis. [p] Change in social I'ractiees. — The sections of the Kurmi, Kalwar, Teli, Konga Yellala, Lewa Kunbi, Ambalakaran and various other castes who have given up widow marriage will not intermarry with those sections who still allow it. A similar restriction is observed by the Cosadhs who refrain from eating fowls against those who still eat them, by the Dhanuks who will not eat the leavings of other castes against those who do so, and by th& Tantis of ^lidnapore against a sub-caate who bury their dead. Various castes, such as the Navinda of Mysore, have vegetarian or teetotal sub-castes. In Madras the members of the Krishnavakkakar caste who trace descent through the male are cutting themselves off from those who follow the older system of tracing it through the female. The Bansphor Doms of Bengal who will not toiich dead bodies have, on that account, split off from the main body of their caste ; and the Ekadasi Jugis who mourn for eleven days will not intermarry with those who mourn for thirty days. An instance of what seems to be a very trivial cause of scission is afforded by the Baruis of Beuoal. There are two groups who will not intermarry because the women of one group wear nose rings and those of the other do not. (3) Change in occupation. — The Panikkans of Madras who have taken to weaving will not : intermarry with those who serve as barbers to the Shanans. The Bestas of Mysore who live br at^riculture, fishing and palanquin-bearing, respectively, form separate endogamous groups. In Bombay the Chandlagar, Chitara and Kasania sub-castes of Mochi, who have given up leather work and t.aken to making spangles, painting and electro-plating, are treated as repu- table artisans and do not touch their brother Mochis. The Sukli Tauti of Bengal has become a separate endogamous group, because it only sells cloth and docs not weave it. The Paridhas of the Orissa States are Chasas who were outcasted for working as syces. The Dhokra sub-caste of Kamar in Bankura has separated from the Lobaria sub-caste, because it now works in brass and not iron. The Brittiyal Baniyas of the Brahmaputra valley are Haris who have tak<.-n ADMISSION or OUTSIDERS TO CASTE. 377 to trade. Certain Slivimali Vfinis in Baioda have lost the Jus connuhii with the main body of the caste by becoming sweetmeat n.akers. (■i) Polliilion. — In Backertfunge many castes have sub-castes with whom the main body will not associate because the ^laghsin the course of their raids, which were so frequent before the establishment of the Pax Brilaniiica, are said to have entered their ancestors' houses. In various parts of the country there are sub-castes that arc held to be degraded because, as with tlie Piralis, their ancestors were compelled by the Muhammadans to smell roast beef, or, as in the case of the Chelikuria Namputiris, were circumcised and made to eat beef. (5) Sectarian differences. — As already stated, differences of religious belief or practice do not often affect the question of marriage. There are, however, a few exci ptions. In Madras the Brahmans of the Saiva and Vaishnava sects do not intermarry. In the South of Borabav the Vaishnavs are considered stricter Brahmans and are hyperfjamous to the Smartas. The Gandas of Orissa do not intermarry with their Kabria sub-caste because the latter belong to the Kabirpanthi sect. In the United Provinces the Telis and llalwais have sectarian sub-castes, known as !Mahabiria and Panchpiriya, and the Barhais and Bhangis have a Nanakshahi sub-caste. The Devangas of Bombay have a sub-caste consisting of persons raeoaverted from Muhammadauism, who are known as Santa salis because they keep up the practice of circumcision. (6) A Quarrel. — Owing to some dispute the Visha Lad Vanis of Dabhoi are prohibited bv their leaders from intermarrying with those of Baroda. A split in the governing body has caused a similar rupture between two factions of Dhobis in the Hooghly district of Bengal. The Chief of a Native State in Bihar and Orissa has prohibited his people from intermarrying with their caste fellows residing in the estates of certain tenure holders. 481. The chans:es referred to above, by which whole erroups are affected, Admission or • 1 ii iiiii individuals to though the most important, are not by any means the only ones that take place, other castes. The spirit of excliisiveness which forbids the admission of outsiders is a thing of gradual growth, and has not always developed on the same lines or to the same extent ; nor has it always been equally efficacious in preventing an admixture of foreign elements. This spirit is strongest amongst the functional castes, l)ut it is precisely these castes that are most liable to be affected by the intrusion of alien groups following the same occupation. Such changes are comiiaratively rare amongst the castes that are not based primarily on community of occupa- tion. Non -functional castes, however, owing to their Jess strongly developed spirit of exclusiveness, are less strict in their rules against the admission of outsiders. The dividing line between Jats and Eajpuis in the Punjab is a very uncertain one. There are many groups who in some districts are classed as Jats and in others as Rajputs ; and a well-to-do Jat seldom finds much difficulty in forming matrimonial alliances with Eajput families and getting himself recog- nized as a member of that community. In Orissa we find the great mass of the population divided off into three castes, Chasa, Khandait and Karan — cultivators, soldiers and writers. A well-to-do Chasa family can still, with patience and perseverance, gain recognition, first as Khandait and afterwards as Karan. In East Bengal a Sudra in similar circumstances can become a Kayastha, and in Bombay a wealthy Maratha Kunbi a Kshatriya ; it was only at his installation that Shivaji was recognized by the Brahmans as a full-blooded Ilajj)ut. In Assam a Kachari on conversion to Hinduism becomes in turn a Madalii, a low class, and finally a high class, Koch. In Madras there is a Tamil proverb that a Kalian may come to be a Maravan, and if prosperous may develop into a Agamudaiyan and then by slow degrees, become a Vellala. The Niiyars still assimilate outsiders, such as Chettis and GoUas. Such changes were even more frequent in ancient times. In the Mahdblidrata it is said that the Vahikas of the Punjab had no fixity of ca.ste. A man might become first a Brahman, tlien a Kshatriya, then a Vaisya, then a Sudra and then a barber; after that ho might again become in turn a Brahman and a slave ; one person in a family became a Brahman, and the others what they liked.* Even now somewhat similar changes still occur in the Iliinalayan border land between Tibet and India proper. •182. Under Hindti rulers persons were sometimes promoted l)y tlie Raja from one caste to another. Tliis power was exercised I)y tlie Rajas of Cochin, who often raised men of lower caste to the rank of Nayar. A former Raja of Talclier in Orissa compelled his Cha.sa subjeels to admit certain Goalfis to their community. In the Piinjal) Sir James Lyall lieard old men (iiiole instances within their memory in which a Raja promoted a Ghirath to I)e a Katlii and a Thakur to be a Rajput. • Kama Parta. XLIV, XLV. 3 C 378 CHAPTER XI — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. The changes are not always in an upward direction. Ibbetson says that in the Punjab the process of degradation from Piaji)ut to lower rank is too com- mon to require proof of its existence. It is not uncommon to find low castes admitting to their community per- sons of higher castes who have been excommunicated. Namputiri Brahman women who have been outcasted for adultery are admitted to the Tiyan caste. The Muclii, Bagdi, Dhobi and other low castes of Bengal, the ^ddar of Bom- bay and tlie Ahir, Arora, Awan, etc., of the Punjab have been known to take in persons of higher castes ; and there are instances of persons of the barber, weaving and fishing castes ^.eing admitted l)ythc Yfinadis of Madras. Members of any Hindu caste except the Dom, Dhobi and Chamar may gain admission into the Dosadh community by giving a feast to the heads of the caste and eating pork and drinking liquor in token of their adoption of Dosadh usage. In the Central Provinces many of the losver castes will admit men of other castes of a similar social standing who wish to marry a girl of their community. Mr. Marten says that the same practice was formerly common even in the higher •castes, and that the alien origin of a family can often be detected by its gotra name. ^f'^enSo'°am *° '°^^ ^^^' -'^^thougli cudogamy has been mentioned as the most strikiiig charac- teristic of caste, there are some local exceptions to the rule jiroliibitiiig inter- marriage with other communities. In the Punjab hills tlie Kanet and Khas castes intermarry, and in Assam and parts of East Bengal the Baidya and Kayas- tha. In the north of India castes of the tril)al t^'^ie are comparatively indifferent regarding the origin of their women ; and if a man marries a wife of an alien group, he can often get her admitted to his caste without much ado. Even where the woman herself is not formally admitted to the caste, or is merely a concubine, the children are often permitted to take their father's rank. In the Kangra hills the son of a Brahman father and Rajput mother is reckoned a Brahman. In the south of India, the communities tracing descent through the female allow a woman to form a sambandh am union with a man of another caste, provided that it is not lower than the one to which she herself belongs, and the children born to her are usually held to l)elong to her caste. The children of Nayar and Ambalavasi Avomen by Brahmans and other men of higher caste rank as Nayars, and those of Kudan women by Pulaya men as Kudans. Throughout the Punjab the .Tats and Gujars and certain classes of Rajputs who have not enough women of their own, sometimes buy as wives Chamar and other low caste women, accepting wdthoat enquiry the allegation that they belong to their own caste. So long as they themselves are satisfied no |one else seems to mind. This state of things is very different from that existing, say in Bengal, where a man's caste fellows take a lively interest in his selection of a wife and would promptly turn him out of caste if he married a woman whom he could not prove to 1)e of the proper class. Practices similar to those in the Punjab described above are common also in the west of the United Provinces and in Sind. The Banjaras admit on marriage women of all l)ut the lowest castes. In the Punjab hills the Sonars and Nais marry Kanet women. The Salais of Assam marry girls of the Kewat caste. In Cawnpore a Kanaujia Bharbhunja who follows the trade of a Halwai may marry, a girl of that caste. Though they are more rare, cases sometimes occur of men procuring as their wives women of a higher caste with a view to raising their own status. In Kumaon a Dom may, for a sufficient consideration, obtain as wife the daughter of a Rajput Khasiya. In Bombay a Kunlii who ha-s got on in the world niay by sufficient payment marry into Maratha families. Similarly in Assam, a Halwa Das may get a Kayastha or a Baidya bride. oiBcontinnouj 481. Wc havc hithcrto been considering those gradual changes which take place unperceived even by the persons most concerned, or which result from local exceptions to the ordinary caste ordinances. It remains to consider changes made of set purpose. In the days of Hindu rule the Rajas, under the advice of their Brillimans, considered it f heir first duty to uphold the cZ/*rtn««, which in Iheir vieAV included the social order. As a general rule, no caste obangos. CASTE CHANGES . 379 changes of any kind were wittingly allowed, nor was any community permitted 1o prefer claims to a higher status than that already assigned to it. An exception occurred when a man of low caste ol)tained political power. The Bralimans of his kingdom would then discover that his community was origi- nally of the Ksliatriya class, and wovdd invoke some legend to cx])]ain how it had lost its status. The legend most frequently quoted was that relating to the extirpation of the Kshatriyas hy Parasm-am. It woiild be alleged that, in order to escape his vengeance, the ancestors of the commvinity in question concealed their true designation and assumed that by which it was subsequently known. A purification ceremony would then be performed, after which the community would be admitted to Kshatriya rank. It would retain this rank so long as it continued to be dominant ; Imt when it lost its political power, it would again sink to something near its original status. There are many tribes, such as the Tod, Koch and 13har, whose claim to be entered as Bhanga Kshatriya in the census schedules is a reminiscence of the time when they held sway in the country. Sometimes, Init more rarely, the status of a caste other than that of the Eaja himself was altered by a royal edict. Several changes of this kind are attril)uted to Ballal Sen, who is said to have degraded the Sul)ariiabanik and raised the Kaibartta to the status of a clean caste, but it must be remembered that he ruled in a part of the country where at the time the caste system had not fully developed. A similar change has recently been made in Nepal, where the Maharaja has declared the Telis to be a clean caste. 485. There is no official control of the caste system in British India, and communities desirous of imjiroving their social status are no longer prevented from endeavouring to do so. When a low caste grows more prosperous and abandons the degrading occupation which formerly "characterized it, its mem- bers naturally become dissatisfied with the position hitherto accorded to them, and endeavour to acquire a better status. Tiie first, half unconscious, step to which they are urged by the degraded Brahmans who now minister to them, is to give up their impure or heterodox practices and to model their conduct of life on that of the higher castes. They frequently assume the sacred thread and change their period of mourning to that observed by some higher caste. Their efforts towards social aggrandizement are greatly facilitated, if they can succeed in sloughing off their old caste designation ; and a long step is made in this direction, if they can induce Government to recognize them by a new name. For this there is no better opportunity than that afforded by the census, when a record is made of the caste of each individual. At each succeeding census the Provincial Superintendents are overwhelmed with petitions from various vipstart communities praying to be entered in the schedules under some new name, which is usually designed to connote a higher status. The practice iu dealing with such applications has not always heon uniform, but as a general rule, it may be said that the new name is recognized if its adoption causes no risk of confusion, i.e., if it is not already in use as the designation of some other body, and is not a mere class name such as Kshatriya or Vaisya. Thus the community formerly known as Chandal has been allowed to change its name to Namasudra, theChasi Kaibartta to Mahishya, and the Hari of Assam to Brittiyfd Baniya. On the other hand, the Pods and Kajhansis of Bengal were not allowed to be entered as Brfttya Kshatriyas, nor the Bhuiiijiars, the Ganaks of Assam and the Panchalas of Madras as Briihmans, uor the Sudras of East Bengal as Kayasthas, because these changes would have obliterated distinctions which actually exist. The claim to a new name and status is almost in\ ariabiy accompanied by copious quota- tions from the Shfistras and by commentaries full of fanciful statements and false analogies, backed up by vicious syllogisms, such as : — The Vaisyas are traders ; we are traders ; therefore we are Vaisyas. For the desired deduction the major premise should be " all traders are ^'aisyas," but this of course is not the case. There are many trading castes that are admittedly not of Vaisya rank. These claims to higher status are generally bolstered up by a vyavast/ia, declaration, or obtained from certain pandits whose good others have been secured, in some such terms as the following : — " The have the same social obseivauces as the Vaisyas, their occupa- tion is that of the Vaisyas ; they say their real name is which is mentioned by Manu as a Vaisya caste. Therefore they may be regarded as Vaisyas." No attemi)t is made to investig.-ite the actual facts, or the past history and associations of the community. An interesbut the patches nre frequently found in the spinal region, and occasionally at the upper portions of the back. Their shape and size are as varied as their colour. One case is mentioned as being similar to the eifeet produced by the child sitting on wet paint. Other cases occurred in which the patches were as large as two hands, and they vary from this size down to the size of a four anna bit or a small pea. There is no uniformity to be found as to their shape, the most fr' quent shape takes the form of an irregular patch extending on both sides of the sacral region, sometimes joined together, and sometimes separated into two pcttions. Occa- sionally they break up into several small patches, as many as seven or eight being mentioned in some cases. The age of disappearance varies with the intensity of the colouring. The patches of faintly marked colour disappear in a few months. The majority have disappeared at about the end of i 2 months. They then gradually grow fainter, hut persist in some in- stances till the child is .3, 4- cr 5 years of age. A few instances of persistence until adult age is reached have been noticed. It is ditficult to assign a percentage to a phenomenon so generally Known, and yet so inadequately observed and recorded. Tlie absence of the marks is the exception rather than the rule. Between SO and 90 per cent, would represent the number of babies born with the marks. If anything, this percentage is an understatement.'' In Bengal, Bihar and Orissa the blue spots are found with extreme frequency in the Chitfagong Hill Tracts. Elsewhere, though they are still fairly common, the proportion of cases in which they are found is much smaller j. • Inter-Racial Problemp, page 101. t Zeitschriftfiir Eihnulogie, 1901, page 188.. X For further details, see Atsam Report, paragraph 12S. § Burma Repoit, paragrai'h 325. BLUE riG MENTATION. 385 they are not confined to any particular caste or tribe. In the Eden Hospital in Calcutta, where oljservations were made by tlie Re.'^ident Surgeon, 61 out of 192 babies born in the hospital had blue patclies at birth. Of the former numl)or, eleven were Anglo-Indians, ten were Kayastlias and one was a Jew. The remainder belonged to various castes and races, including Brahmans, Tantis, Bagdis, Indian Christians and Muhammadans. Mr. O'Malley says that blue patches often run in families, and quotes a Barendra Brahman who told him that in his famOy almost all the infants liad them. In Biliar and Orissa this peculiar pigmentation is less common, and in Singhbhum out of two thousaiul children examined only four were found to have traces of it. But here also the variations indicated by the local re jrarts must sometimes have been due to the personal equation. In one district of Orissa only eleven children out of more than three thousand examined had the marks, whereas in an adjoining district they were found on 21 children out of 29. In the United Provinces the pigmentation is known to occur, and is most common in the Himalayan area and amongst the Mongoloid tribe of Tharus. It is also said to be common amongst some aboriginal tribes in Mirzapur. The reports, however, are far from complete and the proportions ' quoted are vitiated by the inclusion of advilts.* 493. The Punjab Superintendent f was informed that the pigmentation is extremely common in those parts of Kulu where the people are chiefly Tibetans and Lahulis, but is almost unknowTi in a vaJley where they are of the ordinary Indian type. On the other hand, his own enquiries showed that it is a very common phenomenon throughout the province, particularly among the lower classes. Of about ten thousand children examined by vaccinators, 17 per cent, were found to have one or more blue patches. The Health Officer of Lahore expressed the opinion that their occurrence is due to " the method of Indian women tying their skirts about the level of the umbilicus. There is usually a knot in front, and this may at times change its position. This presses against the back of the child in ute7'o and is liable to make the part pressed on unduly congested and pigmented. In Europeans the pigmentation does not occur simply because European women wear corsets which distribute the pressure, or a loose gown which is kept up from the shoulder. " In Baluchistan J none of the doctors whom Mr. Bray consulted had ever noticed this pigmentation amongst the Hazaras or any other peoples of Jialuchistan, but enquiries from indigenous midwives led to the conclusion that it is to be found on all Hazara babies at birth, generally on the lower sacral region, the size varying from a four-anna to an eight-anna bit. The patches tend to disappear early in life and rarely last after the second year. But his enquiries also showed that the pigmentation is found not only amongst the Hazara, who are believed to be of Mongolian origin, but also amongst the Brahtil babies, who, like other races in Baluchistan, are classed on anthropometrical ground as Turko-Iranians by race. It also occurs amongst Pathans, but with less regularity ; in some villages it is common, but in others it appears never to have been heard of. The same is the case with the Baloch and Jatt. Even amongst domiciled Hindus it is, if not universal, at any rate far from uncommon. In Bombay § the enquiries were limited to observations for a couple of months in several maternity hospitals. It was there found that out of 155 cases examined the blue spots occurred in -1(3. Nine Parsis and two Jews were free from them, but it was reported from the Parsi maternity hospital in Bombay that they occurred in about four cases a year among the people of that conununity. The subject is not referred to in the reports for the Central Provinces and Berar and Madras. Mr. Marten, however, informs me that a large proportion of infants in the ,Tubl)ulpore district have the l)lue marks, and he thinks that the pigmentation is common throughout the Central Provinces, but has been uual)le to obtain definite information. Mr. Mol'jny could not nrouse any interest on the sul)j(H-t in Madras and failed to obtain any information, hut a lady born in Soutlicrn India who saw this pig- mentation in the Mirzapur district of the United Provinces informed Mr. Blunt that.'ihe had noticed similar spots on Tamil and Telugu children. Owing to the perfunctory nature of the rinquiries in many provinces, especially in Madras, it is impossible to formulate any very definite conclusion. • United Provinces lieport, paragraph 361. t Punjab Koport, parngmph 591. X Baluchistan Report, paragraph 307. § Bombay Report, paragraph 246. * .'1 E 38G CHAPTER Xr. — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. Description of individual castes and tribes. The origin and fiencral character- sties of the casto systom. It is establislied, however, that the pigmentation is extremely common, not only in Assam and Burma and the Himalayan area of the United Provinces and Punjal), where the peoi)le are admittedly in the main Mongolian, but also in Baluchistan, where most of the tribes are thought to belong to an entirely different race. It is fairly common in Bengal and the Punjab, less so in the intervening area and in Bombay and, if the negative results can be trusted, least so in the peninsular area. But there is apparently no part of India where it does not sometimes occur.* 494. The discussion of the subject of Caste falls naturally into two parts : — (1) a description of the individual castes and tribes, their oeeupation, status, internal structure, origin, and peculiar religious and social observances, and (2) an examination of the caste system including (a) its origin, (S) its general characteristics and the respects in Avhich it differs from the social organization of other countries, and (c) the rules and restrictions which hem in the members of each caste, the constitu- tion of the governing body which enforces them, and the sanctions at its disposal. Sporadic descriptions of individual castes and tribes are to be found in the writings of early travellers in India, but it was not until the last half century that anything in the nature of a general description of the castes and tribes of a Province was attempted. Amongst the earliest books on the subject are Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal and Sherring's Jlindu Tribes and Castes.f The local castes have been described more or less fully in various Census Reports and Gazetteers, notably in Ibbetson's ileport on the Census of the Punjab in 1881 and in Campbell's Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. A more systematic treatment was recommended by Sir William Plowden, the Census Commissioner of 1881, to the Government of India, who commended the proposal to Local Governments. This led to the late Sir Herbert Risley being placed on sjjecial duty for two years in 1885 to deal with the subject in iBengal. The results of his investigations were published in the Tribes and Castes of Bengal.X This was followed a few years later by Mr. Crooke's Tribes and Castes of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh.% Nothing was done at the time in the other provinces, but in 1901 the question was again taken up at the instance of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and a scheme for a general ethnographic survey was drawn up by Sir Herl)ert Eisley and sanctioned by the Government of India. In pursuance of this scheme an elaborate account of the Castes and Tribes of Souther)!, India has been published by Mr. Thurston. H Some excellent monographs have been written ou individual tribes in Assam, and briefer accounts have been given of the more imj^ortant local communities in B urma and Central India. Accounts of the castes and tribes in Bombay, tlie Central Provinces and the Punjab are still under preparation; while in Bengal and the United Provinces materials have been collected for a second edition of tlie books by Risley and Crooke. The scheme of the Government of India did not aj)ply to Native States, but sevei-al Darbars have themselves taken up the question, and some excellent contrilmtioDS to Indian ethnography have been made, notably in the States of Cochin and Mysore. There is still ample room for elaborate monographs, similar to the Assam ones, on the more important castes and tribes, but so far as a general description of them is concerned, comparatively little remains to be done. Here and there it may be found that a new caste has been formed, or that an old one has escaped attention, or that something new in connection with it has been discovered, Init such cases are exceptional. The present series of Provincial Census Reports, therefore, contain comparatively little fresh information of this kind. For convenience of reference, however, a brief caste glossary has been given in most of them. 495. The origin of the caste system, i.e., of the regulated spirit of exclusiveness which divides Hindu society into a number of water-tight compartments, has ♦ It is found also ;vmon<;st the Ta^als of the Philippine-;. IX'niker, Raeen of Man, pii<;e 51. + London, Triilmei- & Co., 1872. J Cali-utta Governmunt Press, 1890. § Calcutta Government Press, 1896. 11 Madras Govenimcnt Press, 1900. CASTE BESTRICTIONS. 387 frequently been discussed of late years, not only in Indian official publications regardini^ census and ethnography, hut also by European uriters, such as Senart, Oldenberg, Dahlmann and Bougie. The question has passed beyond the stage at which any direct contribution to it could usefully be made in the pages of a census report, Avhere attention should be directed jiriniarily to the presentation of facts i-ather than the elaboration of theories. I do not, therefore, propose to attempt any further examination of it here.* As regards the general characteristics of the caste system, it is of course well known that it involves numerous restrictions on occupation, marriage, eating and general social intercourse. A man must not marry a woman belonging to another caste or to certain defined sections of his own caste. He must not eat or drink with p(>.rsons of inferior caste, or in some cases with any persons outside the limits of his own community. He must abstain from food regarded by his caste fellows as impure, from acts (such as the marriage of widows) regarded as improper, and from occupations considered to be degrad- ing. He must observe the customary ceremonies in connection with marriage, or on the occurrence of a birth or death. He must respect the rights of his caste fellows, and in particular he must not filch their regular customers • from them. It is also c-enevallv recos^nized that the difference between the restrictions imposed in India under the caste system and the corresponding social distinctions which exist in other ccAintries is that elsewhere these dis- tinctions are largely a matter of personal prejudice, which it is at the option of the individual to observe or ignore at his own pleasure, whereas in India they are enforced by rigid rules, laid down 1iy the community as a whole, the breach of which is visited with severe penalties. 496. But while these general features of the caste system are well known, casto restrictions comparatively little has been placed on record regarding the details — the sovernment. precise nature of the rules and restrictions which are enforced in different parts of India and amongst different communities, the agency by which breaches of them are dealt with, and the penalties which arc imposed. The author of the article on Caste in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica writes on this subject as follows : — " How far intermarriage is permitted, what are the effects of a marriage permitted but looketl on as irregular, what are the penalties for a marriage forbidden, whether the rules protecting trades and occiipafions are in effect more than a kind of unionism grown inveterate through custom, by wtat means caste is lost, and in what|circumstances it can be regained — these are subjects regarding which very little real or definite knowledge exists." The Provincial Superintendents were accordingly asked to pay special attention to this subject. ]\Iost of them have dealt with it very fully in their Eeports, but the information collected is so voluminous, and conditions vaiy so greatly in different parts of India, that it would be impossible to give a complete presentation of the facts for the whole of India Avithout unduly expanding the limits of this chapter. I shall accordingly content myself with giving a few typical extracts from some of the Eeports. f But in doing so, at the risk of repetition, I must caution the rcailer against assuming tliat wbat is stated in respect of a particular State or Province is of general ai)plicatiou. The customs vary greatly, not only in different parts of the country, but also amongst different sections of the community. Tbings wliich in one locality are regarded as matters of primary importance often receive very little attention elsewhere. Thus in the south of India the ideas regarding pollution are far more developed than in tbe north. In parts of Matlrns a man of high caste is regarded as polluted if any person belonging to certain low castes comes within a stated distance from him, which may sometimes be as much as ten or twelve yards; whereas in northern India pollution is caused by touch only, and at tbe present day, a man of high caste seldom thinks it necessary to cliange his clothes or bathe merely because he has come into contact with a sweeper or cobljler or other " untouchaljle." In Baroda marriage beyond the limits of the sub-caste would ordinarily result in excommunication, but in the I'uujab, so long as the parties belong to the same main caste, it would merely cause the • I have already put forward briefly my own vievTS on the subject in the article on Caste in Vol. Ill of the Enci/clopndia of Reltqion and Ethics. t The most comj>lete account is, perhaps, that of Mr. O'Malley for Bengal and Bihar and Orissa, vide para- graphs 852 to 958 of his Ueport. 3 E 2 388 • CHAPTER XI. — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. children to be looked down upon. Sometimes in fact, as noted elsewhere, men who cannot afford the luxury of a suitable local bride often marry imported women of whose antecedents nothing whatever is known. This occurs not only in the Punjab, but also in other parts of northern India. Such a state of things would be quite impossil)le in Bengal, where the higher castes, at least, take the utmost interest in the matrimonial alliances of their neighbours. In the west of India, where Jain influences are strong, many castes would excom- municate any of tlieir members who ate flesh, but in Bengal vegetarianism or the reverse is largely a matter of personal inclination. In that P.rovince, on the other hand, the Hindus are much more particular about the people from whose hands they take water than they are in the Punjab, Avhere in some parts they do not even hesitate to take it from a Muhammadan's leather water-bag. In some parts a man may take food cooked with water only from a member of his own caste, or some times only from one of his own sub-caste. Elsewhere, however, he may also take such food from a Brahman, and elsewhere again from any member of a superior caste. In some parts the higher castes abstain from wine, while in others they do not. In some parts only the highest castes . refrain from eating fowls ; in others only the lowest castes «ill eat them. In most parts of India the restrictions on occupation are much weaker than they were formerly. Brahmans, for instance, are found following all sorts of callings, including not only professions, but also trade, and even the sale of liquor and leather goods. "But there are exceptions, e.g., on the Malabar coast, where the Namputiri Brahman is still very particular as to the way in which he earns his living, and proscribes numerous occupations, of which teaching is one. In some parts a man is brought to book if he neglects certain socio-religious observances, such as giving his daughter in marriage before she attains the age of puberty, investing his son with the sacred thread, or performing the srddh ceremony'. But in others these matters are not regarded as concerning any one but himself. It is in Bengal that the progress has been greatest in sweeping away the vexatious restrictions on eating and drinking imposed by the caste system. Many of the leading Indian gentlemen in Calcutta dine without hesitation with Europeans at the Calcutta Club and in private houses, and are served on such occasions by Muhammadan table servants. The refreshment rooms at Railway stations are being increasingly resorted to by Indians. It is _ only in the villages that the old restrictions maintain their full force. Rapid progress is also beino- made amongst the Hindus of Bengal with the abolition of the parda system which they'^adopted from the Muhammadans. This is notably the case in Darjeeling, where there is now practically no parda. The home of orthodoxy and conservatism is in the south of India, ' where all classes hold much more strongly to the old restrictions than they do in the north. The most unchanging of all are the Namputiri Brahmans. A case has recently occurred in which that community was much exercised at the ' outrageous ' conduct of one of their number in taking his female relations on a journey by rail, and a movement was set on foot to excom- municate him. 497. The manner in which the restrictions, Avhatever they may be, are enforced is equally variable. Most castes have a permanent governing body, but some, chiefly those of the highest rank, have not, and when a case crops up for decision, a special meeting has to be convened for the purpose. It might be supposed that the control of the caste over the individual is less complete in the latter case than in the former, and this no doubt is true so far as petty breaches of caste discipline are concerned, but the control is probably equally effective; in really serious matters. In such cases says Mr. Blunt : — " The offender is invariably sent to Coventry, or informally outcasted first : and unless the council's decision is likely to be a confirmation of the informal excommuuieation,he will be fairlv certain to call it together, if only to get his sentence mitigated to a fine or other minor punishment. In serious matters, therefore, the control of both kinds of council is probably equally real, though the impermanent council's control is possibly rather less continuous, and doubtless it is seldom called on to decide trivial matters. But when all is said and done, the offenders in castes which have no councils at all suffer most severely, in serious matters at all events. They are automaticallv excommunicated, without inquiry or trial, and once excom- municated, there is no hope of re-instatement since there is no council to whom they can appeal." Caste panohayats 498. Tlic general systcm of caste government amongst communities possess- pro^n*ie8 and i,^g permanent panchayats is described as follows by Mr. Marten in his Report for the Central Provinces and Berar:— " The panchayat or ' Council of five •" is perhaps a development of the patriarchal system, when the patriarch, confronted with difficult problems, sought aid of the more intelligent SYSTEM OF CASl'E GOVERNMENT. 389 persons of tbe community wliich he headed .... With the growth of democratic views, this limitation of members was made elastic, so as to include all the members of the community, which recognized a certain panchayat as the leading authority over it. "With the multiplication of castes, the panehayats also multiplied, but although the memiiers' voiee grew stronger, a certain respect was still shown to that of the representative of the old patriarch. In some castes, e.g., the Gadarias, the headman or mahton, even though a child, is formally asked to give his sanction to any decision arrived at by the panchayat. In some of the lower castes the co!itinuity of the old panchayat has been jireserved, t'.y., among the Basors of Damoh, who recognize the descendants of the old panch as hereditary caste panches and adjudicators on all caste matters. Even they have, however, to submit their decisions to the caste people, as a whole, for acceptance . . . .In the remoter tracts and in the Maratlia Plain Division the aboriginal form of village panchayat is still retained in several castes, and it is notable that caste panehayats are found chieflv among the lower castes. Brahmans, for instance, have no caste panehayats. " The constitution and procedure of the panehayats are the same in most of the castes. As a rale, the panehayats are not permanent bodies, but are called together when reijuired. It is the business of the man who, for any reason, requires a decision of the panch, after consulting the headman of the caste, to collect the members of the caste at the appointed place, his own house, a temple, a pipal tree, a specially-built meeting place or the headman's house. The headman is in most cases a hereditary ofKce-bearer, but has usually no indepen- dent powers, unless he is far superior in wealth and power to his caste fellows. In the latter case he may have the absolute position of dictator The persons who form a panchayat are usuallj' adult males, not le^s than five in number, and men held in respect in the caste, but men of wealth and social position have a stronger voice than others. In some castes aged females may also be heard, and their suggestions and advices may be followed. Some castes possess besides the sar-panch, a diwan in imitation of a minister of State, and a l-otwal or messenger to convene the meetings, and these otTice-bearers are paid from the fines inflicted on offenders. Panches, as a rule, do not allow persons of other castes to take part in their deliberations, but in a case of difficulty they sometimes refer tiie matter to some outsider of local dignity or experience, whether he be a Brahman or belong "to some other caste of good status . " Each sub-caste has its own separate panchayat, and there is no general caste panchayat ■with controlling or appellate jurisdiction over their decisions. The Bhoyars of Chhindwara are reported to have a central panchayat and to have met in large numbers on two occasions during the last decade. A single sub-caste may, for the sake of convenience, have several local panehayats, but even in such cases there is usually no controlling panchayat common to the whole sub-caste. Occasionally, however, the more influential members of different panehayats may call in a general panchayat should anv grave question be brought forward for decision In the more densely-populaied tracts of Berar, where a sufficient number of caste people can be easily collected, each village has its panchayat, and in large towns they may even be one for each Mahalla, or ward, but elsewhere the jurisdiction of a panchayat is much wider, and may even overstep the limits of a district. Again the territorial jurisdiction is wider in castes that are vagrant or scattered, e.g., the Bedars of Berar have a central panchayat at Hyderabad to which those that have been locally formed are subordinate " The ordinary mode of transacting business is to require the aggrieved person to collect the members of the caste by personally visiting their houses, but where post offices are open, summonses by post have begun to be used. Among the aboriginal tribes, such as the Kawars, a twig of the nim or guava tree is circulated as a notice to attend the caste conference. On the appointed day the members meet at a fixed place, and the headman or one of the elders explains the nature of the offence committed, and calls upon the offender to admit it or to make his defence. If he admits the offence, the panch have simply to consider what penaltv they should inflict. If he denies it, the witnesses against him are produced, and he is asked to rebut their evidence. If he has a good defence, he ]>roduces his owti witnesses, and a good deal of wrangling ensues. The witnesses of both parties are asked to swear by the Ganges, lifting up a pot of water, or by the cow, holdinn' the tail of a cow, or by their son, catching hold of his arm. Many are afraid to take oaths of this sort, and the truth generally comes out ; otherwise the last resort is a trial by ordeal. In the Nerbudda Valley districts the most usual form of ordeal is what is known as ' Rama Hiimayan ki chilthi.' Two slips, on one of which the name of Rama is written and on the other that of Ravana, are folded and placed on the image of some god. The offender is then asked to pick up one sliji. If he takes up that with the name of Rama, he is declared innocent, if the other one, he has lost, as did Ravana the King of Ceylon in his fight with Rama, which is the theme of the popular religi- ous work, the Ramayan. Among the lower castes more primitive forms of ordeals are resorted to in case of grave offences, e.g., the Sonjharas require a woman accused of adultery to put her hand into boiling oil. If she is not hurt she is innocent, otherwise she is held to be guilty. "Persons hiding offences are visited with enhanced penalties, such as doubling the number of feasts or making them costly by requiring them to provide /ja/'/jt or liquor. Offenders, there- fore, usually confess ; and in certain cases, such as getting maggots in a wound, killing n cow, etc., they are prompted to confess at once, under the belief that if they are not purified, they will suffer verj- seriously in the next world." 390 CHAPTER XI. — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. S* ?Sd^"®" ^^^' -^"lOJiaSt the lower castes the ordinary punishment for a breach of the panoiiaya^ social code is either a fine or a feast to the brotherhood, and excommunication is resorted to only in extreme cases or where the offender proves contumacious. Amongst the higher castes fines are sometimes imposed, but more often the offender is required to undergo a ceremony of purification and atonement. In the Central Provinces and Berar, says Mr. Marten: — " The peualties inflicted by caste panchayats usually take the form of feasts or fines, but never corporal punishmetit. lu some castes, (?.^., the ('hamars, the offender is put to some form of humiliation, e.g., he has to collect the shoes of all his caste fellows and carry them on his head, or shave one side of his moustaches, or in low castes, permit the others to wipe their bands after dinner on his head. Korkus put the grinding stone round the neck of a woman who has gone wrong and make her go round the village with it on. In the Maratlia districts shaving the head and moustaches, in the case of a man who goes wrong, and cutting off a lock of hair, in the case of the woman, is a fashionable punishment. This is accompaiiitd by two or three feasts (or rotis), the first being usually held on the banks of a stream, the next at the house of the offender in his absence, and the third again at his house but in his company. In the case of religious offences, such as the killing of a cow, homicide, sacrilege, etc., the offender is usually required to go on a pilgrimage before he can be purified and taken into caste. Minor offences such as being beaten with a shoe, or touched by ^ low caste man, are purified by a bath or by drinking water in which a Brahman has dipped his toe, called tirtJia. Fines are usually utilized for the purchase of drink, sweetmeats or utensils used as common property at festivals, marriages, etc. Some castes, such as Banias, give a portion to a Brahman or temple. Among the Bhunjias of Raipur the fine is distributed among the panches, and a portion is reserved for meeting the rasad expenses of Government officials on tour. In several castes there is an agita or leader who eats the first morsel of food at a penitentiary feast, and is paid from Ee. ('-4-0 to Rs. 3 as it is understood that he takes the sin of the offender on his own shoulders " Caste rules are relaxed in the case of certain minor offences which are beyond the control of the offender, e.g., a Government servant required to handle a low caste man is not punished in the same way as an ordinary person would be, or if a Government chajjrassi beat with a shoe a man of a caste higher than his own the beaten man would not be treated harshly by his caste. A person going to prison is outcasted, if he has to eat food cooked by another caste man, but otherwise not, e.g., in the case of civil prisoners who are allowed to cook fir them- selves. But a man is generally outcasted if handcuffs have been put upon him. The panchayats do not, as a rule, modify their decisions according to the subsequent findings of the courts, but levy the penalty even if the accused is acquitted in the original or appellate court. The decision of the panchayat is invested with a sanctity which has taken a deep root in the minds of the people. It is said panch men Parmeshwar holta //«/',*the voice of the panch is the voice of God,'and hence all other decisions are ignored. " Panchayats, as a rule, do not record their decision on paper ; all matters are orally settled. But as questions of maintenance in divorce cases often arise which have to be proved in court, some castes, e.g., the Dhanuks and Bhoyars, now have recourse to stamped agreements " The control of the caste panchayat whether permanent or otherwise is, as a rule, very efficient, and the outside corarnunity responds to its decisions and wishes. An offender usually finds himself unable to elude them, as the caste can make his life a burden to him. By out- casting him, they stop not only all intercourse with bis caste fellows, but can prevent him from enjoying the usual necessities and amenities of life. They can order the barber not to shave him,' the dhobi not to wash his clothes, and the Dhimar not to wash his pots or supply water to him.'' 500. The following is an extract from Pandit Hari Kishan Kaul's notes regarding the practice in the Punjab : — " The commonest form of punishment is a fine, the amount of which generally varies inversely with the status of the caste. Among the castes given to smolcing, the oft'ender is often subjected to the disgrace of preparing the smoking bowl {Jiukka) for the Chaudhris. The punishment of requiring the person condemned to place the Chaudhri's shoes on his own head, or in less serious cases to carry the shoes and place them before the Chaudhri to wear, is resorted to in most castes. It amounts to an unqualified apology. Where fines are not imposed, the offender is required to feed the panchayat or sometimes the whole community. It is only for very grave offences that the person accused is excommunicated from the society, and certain penances ordained by the Shiistras or the Shara have to be performed before he can claint re-admission into the comniunity. In the eastern Punjab specific punishments are prescribed for various offences in almost, all castes having panchayats. In the llohtak district, the fine varies from Ro. 1 to Rs. 100, but when the penalty is heavy, an abatement is allowed at the time of p.ayment " Among the low caste Purbias of Amritsar [i.e., Chamars, etc.) a per.^on enticing away another man's wife may retain her on payment of Rs. 36 to her husband. If she consents PENALTIES IMPOSED BY PANCHAYATS. 391 to go back to her husbaud, the offender pays onlv Rs. 12. If tlie man is unable (o pay the fine and the woman is not willing to s^o to iier hn-band, tin- nfTonder i-; niadf^ fo suck at her breasts (whioh amounts to recognizing; her thjuci'forward as his niollicr) and the woman is then made over to her husband. It is saiil that among lln" Bliatiaras, flic line of a Dhela (half a ])iee) is tiiken as most humiliating. A man fined a Dhela for abducting a womaa would much rather pay a hundred rupees instead. In the IJahawalpur State the maximum limit of lino for enticing away a woman is Rs. 1^0 among the Kan jars and lis. 200 among the Chamars. The Chamars insist on the seducer sucking the abducted woman's breasts, and vigorously enforce excommunication, if cue or both of the ])arties insist on illicit relation- ship. Ou the other hand, they are equally strict about the enforcement of contracts of marriage. If a man refuses, without sullicient cause, to give the hand of a girl to the man to whom she hns been betrothed, he is made to pay doui)le the expenses incidental to the aggrieved party marrying in another family, and none of the community accepts the hand of that girl. Abduction is always punished with a maximum penalty. Among the Bhangis of the Bahawalpur State a man who abducts a virgin lia.s to give his daughter or sister in marriage to the person to whom she had been betrothed, or to some one of her male relatives, by way of atonement, and is made to eat nightsoil. For abducting a married woman, the offender has to pay a fine of Rs. 25 to Rs. .uO, with 25 strokes of a broom, and to receive a shoe-beating to the same extent. If the woman's husband is unwilling to take her back, her head is shaved and she is excommunicated. If the parents claim such a rejected woman, or if some one else wishes to marry her, a fine of Rs. 1 1 has to be paid by the party concerned, and the brotherhood has to be fed at a cost of Rs. 50 to Rs. 200. The only condition on which the lovers can be pardoned and allowed to live as man and wife is that they shall own to be beneath all sense of honour, and disgrace themselves by appearing in absolute nudity before the assemblage and preparing a smoking pipe for the panches. Such a course is, however, seldom resorted to, and the offenders prefer to be excommunicated or suffer any other punishment whatsoever. " These are some of the types of punishment awarded by the low caste panchayat.=. The higher castes are seldom subject to governing bodies, and where they are, the control is not very effective. The punishment generally awarded is the performance of a prayashc/tif (penance) according to the Shastras, and excommunication from the brotherhood until the need- ful has been done. This form is most prevalent in the central districts, where the usual form of panchayat is democratic. Bui, when a fine is imposed, the trivialness of the amount is the measure of the disgrace to which an offender is put. In the Bahawalpur State, the scale among the Brahmans is from 1 anna and 3 pies to 2 annas and 6 pies. In the same way the fine among the Bhatias varies from 5 annas to Rs. 1-4-0. A Jogi offender besides doing puHdcharan (bathing in the Ganges and giving a feast to the Sadhus) has to pay a fine of lis. 5. " In properly-organized panchayats, any of the parties to a case ponding before the tribunal may be summarily excommunicated for deliberate failure to attend the meeting, and remain so until he calls a panchayat, pays the penalty for his default, and stands his trial on the original charge. A parson failing to cai-ry out the orders of the panchayat is treated as an outcaste. Among the Purbias an offender ex]H-essing his inability to pay the fine imposed on him is literally kicked out of the gathering by four members of the panchavat. Such expulsion indicates excommunication. The defaulter can be re-admitted only if he carries out the orders of the panchayat to the letter and pavs an additional fine for his contumacious behaviour. Inter-dining and inter-marriage with the excommunicated members is stopped, and none of the brotherhood will take water from their hands or smoke with them from the same hubble-bubble. They are vigorously boycotted by the community and even by their priests, but sometimes crawl back into the society after the lapse of time, when the incidents have slipped out of the people's memory. But the hold of the governing bodies, though strong in certain localities and castes, is not half so effective as it used to be; and owing to the facilities for travel and the wide field of employment for the labouring classes, contumacious persons do not feel the pinch of expulsion so acutely as their ancestors did." 501. It will be seen that iu the Punjab tlic consequences of excommunica- tion at the present day are not always very serious. They are much more so in most other parts of India, at least in rural areas, but nowlierc perhaps are they qixite so insupportable as they were a century ago, when, according to Abb6 Dubois : — " Expulsion from the caste, which is the penalty inflicted on those who are guiltv of infringing the accustomed rules, or of any other offences which wo\ild bring disgrace on the tribe, if it remained unavenged, is in truth an insupp.irtable punishment. It is a kind of civil excoinmunieati h» . 392 CHAPTER XI. — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. The power of the iDanchayat to deal with an offence against caste rules- often depends on the position of the offender. A rich man ATith influence is often able to defy the pancliayat where a poor man would have no chance of do- ing so. Thus Mr. Molony mentions a case of a man who was excommunicated for having crossed the sea, but who " hj sagacious bribeiy formed a society which excommunicated the excommunicators and reconciliation followed a drawn battle." 502. But although in recent times the control of the caste i:)anchayat has weakened, a new form of communal activity has come into existence in the shape of the caste sabhd or general assembly. The object of this new develop- ment, says Mr. O'Malley, is to improve the social position of the caste, and its- organization is modelled ujjon European associations and conferences. In jiig Province some of the sabkds have even formed themselves into limited liability companies. The members of a caste in a large area, such as a district, hold mass meetings at irregular intervals, when they pass a number of resolutions, which they bind themselves to observe and to enforce on their caste fellows, with the object of improving the social or material condition of the community. Thas the Goalas of Bihar have resolved infer alia to give up infant marriage and to prevent their women from selling milk or going to market, and the Dosadhs to excommunicate any caste fellow found to be a thief. The Shaha sabhd raises a fund to send students of that caste to Japan. The Punjab Superintendent Avrites on this -«ubject as follows : — " But uo society can exist without some kind of organization, and while caste panchayats are losing their hold on the various social groups ; on the one hand education and the influence of Western civilization are awakening people to the necessity of ridding their social system of aliuses, and modifying their rules to suit the requirements of the times, and on the other the orrowing prosperity and the levelling effects of distribution of wealth are creating a desire among the castes who have hitherto had a comparatively low status to raise themselves in the social scale. With this view, Sabhas, Associations and Conferences have been established by different castes. Although supposed to satisfy the craving for a voice in social administra- tion, they confine their energies mainly to economic problems, such as the reduction of expenses on ceremonies connected with marriage and death ; acquiescence in the breach of rules committed by individuals, which the committees are powerless to prevent ; adoption of measures for the spread of education in the social group ; and, except in the case of the highest castes, the discussion of means of finding an exalted origin for the caste and raising the bodv in the estimation of Government and the public. The latter tendency is a conse- quence of the distinction between the traditional status and the position acquired by wealth, which is still very strong in this country. In the society a poor man of high birth still commands more respect than a wealthy member of a low caste, although the intensity of the- feeling is gradually disappearing. We see that in the past, castes acquiring wealth and power have managed to achieve a high origin in order to maintain the dignity of their position. It is not surprising that history should repeat itself. The number of such organizations is so far not very large, but they are multiplying rapidly ... .By way of illustration of the remarks made above, it may be mentioned that the Mehra Rajput Sabha which, as the name will signify, is a committee of the leading members of the ]\Iehra (Jhinwar) caste, is concerned chiefly with the acquisition of the status of Rajput. In the same way Kakkezais, who have in the past been treated as Muhammadan Kalals, are trying to prove that they are really Pathans, while the Mair and Tank Sunars want to be recognized as Rajputs. The Jangira Committee- of a sub-caste of Tarkhans and Lobars is trying to establish that they are Brahmans and style themselves as Maithal or Vishvakarraa Vansh Maithal Brahmans. The Qaum Sudhar Sabha- is an association of Nais (barbers) who -nish to pass as Kshatriyas, and so on.-" ^th "SJ^^SSioS?" 503. In the Central Provinces, says Mr. Marten— '• The panchayats deal chiefly with social and domestic questions, occasionally professional, and industrial, but rarely criminal, matters. Adultery is the most common subject with which the panchayats concern themselves. The least whisper against anybody's conjupal morality sets the caste in motion, the first procedure usually taken being the refusal to accept water from the offender (Iota pdni hand) in token of the breaking off of all social intercourse until the ease has been fully discussed in a caste meeting and the offender declared innocent. The other chief offences of which a panchayat takes cognizance are : — (1) Eating, drinking or smoking with a person of another sub-caste or caste. (2) Killing sacred animals, such as the cow, squirrel, cat, etc. (8) Homicide or murder. (4) Getting maggots in a wound. (5) Having the car or nose torn. (6) Being beaten by a man of a low or untouchable caste. (7) Abusing relatives held in reverence, or beating parents. over casto mat* tars. THE raja's powers IN CASTE MATTERS. 393 (8) Following prohibited occupations, e.g., a Mang sweeping the road, a Darji stitch- ing leather, a Kirar selling shoes, a Kurmi serving as a syce, an Abir cleaning pots, a Maiatha wasliiug clothes, and so on. (9) Breach of caste etiquette, e.g., leaving a dinner party before others have finished. (10) Naming or touching reh-itives who should not be so named or touched, i?.//., a wife should not name her husband, an elder brother may not touch his younger brother's wife. Other matters which a panchayat may deal with are : — (1) Finding a suitable pair for a marriageable boy or girl. (2) Widow re-marriage. (3) Partition of property, the decision of minor quarrels and, occasionally, the adjudica- tion on thefts. (4) Industrial questions rarely. It is rarely that industrial qU':'stions are brought before a panchayat, but offeuces against the community tending to lower its corporate chiiraeter are duly considered. lu a conference of Kunbis held at Nagpur in 1907, it was resolved to punish those who cleaned the pots and dhotk of other castes, did groom's work or repaired old latrines. The Dhimars of the Jubbulpore district taboo brushing and polishing the shoes of others but not touching or taking them off the feet. The Kahar.s of Jhansi are said to outcaste those who steal from their master. The Sunars of Hoshangabad have a guild panchayat on the night before the Dasahra, when they hold a feast, and are said to take an oath that none of them, on pain of outcasting, will disclose the amount of the alloy which a fellow craftsman has mixed with the precious metals. The Koshtis of Chanda in 1907 proscribed a certain cloth and yarn seller of the city who had offended some of their number and resolved to outcaste any Koshti who dealt with him. In Madras, says Mr. Molony, the caste tribunal is concerned rather with the interests of a society than with the delinquencies of an individual. Persons assaulted by men of lower caste are punished, bvit an exception is made in favour of those who are assaulted by the police. oOi. In the days of Native rule the Raja was the final authority in all caste The Raja-s control matters. In East Bengal Raja Ballal Sen gave an elaborate internal organiza tion to some castes and changed the status of others. In Muhammadan times this jurisdiction was largely exercised by the local Chiefs and zamindars, such as the Maharaja of Krishnagar. At the present day the rulers in Native States, and various zamindars of ancient descent in British territory, often exercise a great deal of control in caste matters. This is notably the case in Nepal, where neglect or breach of caste customs not only entails communal punishment, but is also subject to the law courts, which treat such offences as offences against the State ; the Prime Minister is the final court of appeal. In the Marwar and Kushalgarh States of Rajputana, the Durbar appoints the president of various caste panchayats, and in Buudi these appointments require its sanction. In 1904i the Durbar of the Rajpipli State, in the Cential Provinces settled a dispute amongst the Lewa Kuabis of that State, and passed orders regarding the villages within Avhich brides should be given. In Manipur the Raja alone is competent to pass final orders on questions affecting social matters. Amongst the Namputiri Brahmans of parts of South .Malabar the Raja of Cochin is the final authority in caste questions. Mr. O'Malley men- tions numerous instances of the control exercised in caste matters by the Chiefs in the Orissa States. Thus : — " In one State there is a powerful and highly oi-ganized caste, which not very lono- a"0 was seriously exercised by a charge that a certain young man of the caste had been cohabi- ting with a woman of very low caste. The charge attracted very considerable interest, and the caste was greatly perturbed and unsettled. A criminal prosecution for defamation failed, and the matter was finally brought to the stage of a Caste Council. Powerful influences were at work within the caste, which is an extremely wealthy one, and the Caste Councillors split into two factions supported by various members of the caste: the one faction were of opinion that the charge was true and that the offender should be excommunicated. The case was then laid Ijcfore the Chief for his decision. A mass meeting was convened, and the ca^^e was heard in the princi]ial temple of the State: the finding of the meeting was that the charge was not proved and the alleged culprit was declared innocent. This finding the Chief confirmed. The case, however, did not end here. The caste had split into two hostile camps over the case. The party who were for condemning the culprit wore composed of somewhat the more influential members; they decided to refuse to accept the decision of th" Chief and to treat the culprit as excommunicated. The Chief thereupon excommunicated the nvalcitraut section of the caste, with the result that they were deprived of the services of the barbers, wash- ermen and priests. So effectual and iiiiuling was this order, that not only did the liarbers, washermen and priests of the State, who had hitherto served them, refu^^e to work for them, but the services could not be obtained even of liarbers, washermen and priests residing outside 3f 391 CHAPTER XI. — CASTE, TRIBE AND RACE. the State. This order was strictly enforced for some time. The men of this caste are clean shaven and very well groomed and dressed, but when the dispute was eventually settled, the persons affected by the order had long dirt-matted beards, the hair of their heads was in long strands and filthy in the extreme, and their clothes were beyond description for uncleanliness. " In another State, the Chief appointed a Brahman as Brahma, or head of the Brahmans of the State. This Brahma presides at ceremonies, such as marriages, deaths, sacred thread ceremonies, etc., amongst the Brahman community. The State is a large one, and the one Brahma cannot attend to all the duties of his office. He is accordingly allowed to appoint agents, one for each local area. The present Brahma was apparently inclined to levy too heavy a bonus from his agents, with the result that one of them resigned. The head Brahma wished to appoint another agent, but the local Brahmans objected ; a deadlock ensued, with the result that the Brahmans laid the matter before the Durbar, and it was held that the Brahma must accept reduced fees from this agent, which he did. If he had refused, another Brahma would have been appointed. This decision was fully accepted by the Brahman community. " The Chief of a State has the power to place even a Brahman out of caste ; and it is credibly stated that the late Chief of one State delegated this power to an European Police Officer. In the States under direct management, the Brahman community distinctly recog- nize the officer in charge as representing the Chief, and acknowledge his right, as such, to be an arbiter on caste questions. The Political Chief is accordingly received, on arrival in such a State by a deputation of Brahmans, who oifer him the regular benediction, put the iika mark of powdered sandal-wood and water on his forehead, place the cocoanut on his head, and offer him the thread. In no caste is any adoption valid, even if it be in accordance with caste custom, unless it has received the sanction of the Chief, or of the Political Agent when the State is under direct administration. The sanction of the Chief can, moreover, regularize an irregular adoption, i.e., one not in accordance with law and cxistom. It is hardly necessary to state, in view of what has already been written, that adjudication on the caste disputes of less important castes would be absolutely accepted/' The Caste cutoher- 505. Mr. O'Malley also has some interesting notes regarding the Caste Cut- Sdto'co. **** ^*^' cherry, which was instituted in the early days ol: the East India Company for hearing and deciding cases relating to caste|matters, and was presided over hy an officer appointed by the English Governor: — " The functions of this court are described as follows by Verelst, Governor of Bengal, from 1767 to 1709 : — ^'AU nations have their courts of ecclesiastical jurisdiction distinct from the administration of civil justice, in some with a more limited, in others with a more extensive authority. The followers of Brama in Bengal have their caste cutcherries, or courts, to take cognizance of all matters relative to the several castes or tribes of the Hindu religion. Their religious purity depends on the constant observance of sucii numberless precepts, that the authority of these courts enters into the concerns of common life, and is, consequently, very extensive. A degradation from the caste by their sentence is a species of excommunication attended with the most dreadful effects, rendering the offender an outcaste from society. But as the weight of the punishment depends mereh- upon the opinion of the people, it is unnecessary to say that it cannot be inflicted by the English Governor (as Mr. Bolts asserts), unless the mandate of a Governor could instantly change the religious sentiments of a nation. Neither can a man once degraded be restored, but by the general suffrage of his own tribe, the sanction of the Brahmans (who are the head tribe) and the superadded concurrence of the Supreme Civil Power.^ " ^Maharaja Naba Kishen, the Kayasth Diwan of Clive, held charge of this tribunal under the Governorship of Verelst, while Warren Hastings appointed his Banians, Krishto Kanto Das (" Cantoo Babu "), a Teli by caste, and Ganga Gobind Singh. Against these two Burke fulminated in his Impeachment of Warren Hastings. ' He has put his own menial domestic servant — he has enthroned him, I say, on the first seat of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, which was to decide upon the castes of all those people, including their rank, their family, their honour and their happiness here, and, in their judgment, their salvation hereafter. Under the awe of this power, no man dared to breathe a murmur against his tyranny. Fortified in this security, he says, who complains of me ? No, none of us dare complain of you, says the trembling Gentoo. No; your menial servant has my caste in his power. I shall not trouble your lordships with mentioning others ; it was enough that Cantoo Babu and Ganga (iobind Singh, names to which your lordshijis are to be familiarized hereafter, it is enough that those persons had the caste and character of all the people of Bengal in their hands.' " Farther light is thrown upon the Caste Cutcherry by the Select Secret Proceedings of 1775, in which year it was presided over by Krishto Kanto Das. In IMarch Warren Hastings, protesting against a proposal made by Clavering to put Cantoo Babu in the stocks, com- plained of a previous attack ' on the subject of the Jautrnalla Cutcherry, which was represent- ed as arbitrary and oppressive, although this has existed from the first establishment ot the Company.' In May tne subject of the Caste Cutcherry again came up in connection with the question of the food to be given to Nundcoinar while he was in jail. Clavering, supported bv Francis, jiroposed that Cantoo Babu should be called and examined, on the ground that being President of this tribunal he passed judgments on all points relative to GUILDS AND VILLAGE PAKCHAYATS. 395 loss of caste. Warren Hastings at onoe replied : — " I understand the Cutcherry over which Cantoo Bahu, my servant, presides, has coijnizanoe only of disputes amonj^ the lower kinds of the people, and that he presides in his Court, in viitue of the immemorial usao-e of the settlement, in the same manner that every other Chief ^lutseedv or B;invan of the Governors of Calcutta has formerly done. I know not that ho is qualified to pid'je of the question proposed. At all events, his oj)inion can bo no authority, as he is neither versed in the laws of his reliijion nor of that sect which could entitle him to crive a iudicial opinion on any point respecting it. I myself am President of that Court, but I conceive myself merely a name to authenticate the acts of others, and I verv franklv acknowledo-e my own incompetency to judge of points relating to the Gentoo relio-ion.^' 50G. The paiichayats with, which we have hitherto been dealing are the ^o\- oniids and nuage erning bodies of the individual castes. 'Ihey take no cognizance of the affairs'""**""'^'"* of other residents in tlie village or of persons following the .same occupation but belonging to different castes. These caste panchayats are found all over India. In addition to them, the old records make mention of guild and village panchayats. Guilds appear to have flourished in Buddhist times*, but they have almost disappeared from inodern India and, with a few local exceptions, survive only amongst certain trading castes in Gujarat. f The village panchayat or parishad is described by Manu. According to him its function was to decide on all questions concerning which the law was silent or doubtful. The ' law,' as the term was then understood, was concerned, not merely with legal matters in the modern European sense, but also with all social, religious, economical and administrative questions. The parisliad might consist of three to ten persons and included at least three men belong- ing to the three superior orders, namely, Brahman, Ksbatriya and Vaisya.J Whatever may have been the case in the past, the village panchayat is rarely found at the present day. The Punjab Superintendent, however, says that in his province the whole population of a village is still knit togetlier by a strong communal tie : the various caste panchayats deal with mattei's affecting themselves only, but in matters affecting the wliole village the panchayats of the smaller groups merge into that representing the predominant caste of the village to form a tribunal whose decision is binding on the whole community. This constitution, he says, is now disappearing, but it still survives in some villages in the east and central part of the Punjab. In the hills of the United Provinces, and in Nepal, the only panchayats are village panchayats, who exercise the functions which elsewhere are assigned to caste panchayats. In Bundelkhaud similar panchayats act as a committee of arbitration in disputes regarding loans and similar matters. They are also found in some parts of Chota Nagpur. But as a general rule, the village panchayat has disappeared, like that of the guild. The Bombay Superintendent goes so far as to say that in his Presidency there is no evidence that such an organization ever existed ; all permanent panchayats, except the big trading guilds of Gujarat have, he says, been caste panchayats and the myth (sic) of the village panchayat has probably arisen from the fact that a village is generally, if not invariably, formed by several families of some one caste settling in one spot. * For a brief sui-vey of them see a paper bviMiss Rhys Davis in the Journal nf llie lioyal Asiatic Society for 19iil. page 859. A more detailed account is given by Fick, Die Sociale G liedei-nng im Nordost- lichen Indien Zu Buddhas Zeit. t An account of the guilds as they exist in this part of India is given by Hopkins in India Old and New, page 169. J Manu Samhita, XII, 108-113. « 3f2 396 CHAPTER XI. — CASIE, TEIBE AND RACE. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. Variation in certiiin main castes since 1891. Caste. Brahman Bunnpse Cbamai . Chulira . Dhobi Dosadh . Fakir Gadariya GoUa Gond Gujar Hajjam Jat Jolaba Kachh' . Kahar . Kaibartta Xamma . Kapu KareD Mahar Mai Mali Mappilla Maratlia . Mochi . NainaBudra >'ayar PaUi Paraiyan pasi I'atlinn . Raj basal Korh Ba]rut . Saijld Santal Sheikh Slnilhl Sonar Agarwal Ahir A rain Babhan Bagdi Balija Baluch Baoiya fiaojars i:arhai BhU Ivayastba t-J Kewat . Koiri Koli Kori Kumhar. Kunbi Kunni . LiDgayat Lodha Lobar Kamar . Madiga . rcli and Till \;ikk'allga VcUala . 1911. 1,019,6»8 9,508,488 1,001,593 1,265,982 1,041,892 1,046,419 1,335,',174 1,125,517 1,084,955 1,067,093 1,635,988 14,598,708 7,644,310 11,493,733 1,269,250 2,074,405 1,316,388 979,293 1,363,990 1,538,021 2,917,950 2,199,198 3,013,393 6,964,286 2,858,399 1,304,296 1,838,698 2,711,960 1,126,531 1,047,752 3,361,621 1,102,695 2,178,390 1,215,616 1,760,796 3,171,978 918,820 3,424,815 4,512,737 3,735,651 2,976,293 1,732,230 2,070,372 314,105 1,931,017 3,342,680 2,135,329 2,035,843 1,04(1,834 6,087,438 1,018,366 2,087,162 1,129,468 2,828,792 2,448,296 1,499,825 3,706.816 2,0.19,454 370,480 9,430,096 1,655,625 2,138,310 32,131,342 1,701.158 1,262,978 ^,233,260 1,507,093 2,803,080 1901. 14,893,253 6,511,703 11,137,362 1,329,418 567,596 9,806,475 1,026,505 1,353,291 1,042,560 1,036,502 1,122,895 2,898,126 785,861 1,133,128 1,198,843 2,016,914 1,258,185 1.212,648 1,272,419 1,387,472 2,286,913 2.103,023 2,958,722 7,086,098 2,P07,887 1,260,191 1,970,825 2,894,329 976,374 1,263,861 3,070,203 727,288 2,149,331 1,110,767 1,784,041 2,574,213 1,204,678 3,378.318 3,704,576 3,873,580 354,177 10,392.542' 918,964 1.222,874 804,980 804,307 971,335 3,186,666 889,392 932,718 1,885,474 14,821,732 5,408,984 11,258,105 1,243,370 2,039,743 1,284,128 830,431 1.294,830 t 3,061,880 2,171,627 3,132,788 6,688,733 2,660,159 1,384,222 1.943,155 2,2n8.824 851,851 Not available 2,865,399 540,876 2,239,810 989,352 1,735,431 3,058,186 1,187,613 3,346,488 } 10,531,300 I 2,612,340 1,663,354 2,342,267 1,281,262 2,928,666 1,863,903 1,915,792 925,178 6,009,024 1,007,812 2,031,725 1,040,748 2,572,269 2,258,611 1,408,392 3,404,701 2,408,654 9,712,156 1,339,734 1,907,871 28,708,706 697,52S 1,253,070 4,02.^,600 1,302,375 2,484,908 Percenxaqe of variation. 1901—1911. 757,178 1,674,098 2,536,160 927,339 2,950,568 1,365,520 1,876,211 916,436 3,324,095 961.133 1,948.668 980,860 2,212,499 2,210,988 1,378,344 3,225,521 2,304,365 10,424,346 1,430,329 1,494,046 27,644,993 1,178,795 4,117,803 ' 1,300,558 I 2,264,073 I 82-9 _- 30 _ 2-4 — 6-5 — •1 + 1-0 + 190 ~ 61-2 + 41-7 — 5-8 + 36-5 2-0 + 17-4 + 3-2 — 4-5 + 2-9 + 4-8 19-2 + 7-6 + 10-9 + 27-6 + 4-6 + 1-8 — 1-7 ~ 1-7 + 3-5 — 6-7 + •7 + 15-5 ~ 17-1 + n-5 + 51-6 + 9-4 1-0 + 23-2 23-7 1-4 21-8 3-6 13-9 4-1 1-8 50-7 14-1 14-8 13-1 1-6 1-0 2-7 7-9 10-0 8-4 + 6-5 + 11-5 + -5 - 2-9 + 23-8 + 12-1 + 11'9 + 143-9 + -8 5-2 8-2 5 -8 1891—1901. 1891—1911. 67-4 5-6 11-6 10-7 29-5 28-9 16-6 91 lS-9 21-5 280 + -5 + 20-4 - 1-1 + 6-9 - 1-1 - 20 + 460 - 1-7 _ 253 — 3-2 — 5-6 + 6-9 + 9-3 9-0 + 1-4 + 17-2 + 14-5 15-2 34-5 - 4-0 12-3 I 2-8 ■ 15-8 + 1'4 + I - 28-0 24S-0 ■8 7-6 S8-2 •7 36-5 2-1 1-0 60-7 «-9 4-3 6-7 14-7 2-2 + 2-2 + 6'6 + 1-9 - 6'8 6-8 27-7 S'8 6-3 2-9 2-3 9-4 + 187-9 8-6 90 3-6 29-4 301 37-5 64-7 220 14-4 1-8 - 1-5 + 41'3 + 2-1 + 2-1 + 1-7 + 2-5 + 17-9 •*• 6-7 4-7 1-S 8-8 4-1 7-5 5-8 5-4 18-0 32-2 + 261 + 103-9 - 2-7 22-9 1-8 3-7 22-6 2-3 21-7 + 293-1 + 3-6 - 6-0 + 108-2 13-3 50-4 8-6 14-2 63-0 0-0 7-1 15-2 26-1 10-7 + 8-8 + 17-7 + 2-4 9-5 15-7 43-1 ie-2 7-1 2-1 10-8 16-5 R RMiagH Many Agarwals wer« returned at previous censuses under the general head Bauiya. Bani>-a is a general designa- tiou, and the decrease is due to greater accuracy in rotuxo- ing the real castes. Fancbala now shown separate- ly w.-is included in Kammalan in 1901. ;a IJ-:.. ,£;.■_, The 1911 figures inclode Taungthus and other small tribes. In 1891 Sudras and Karans were often shown as Kayas- thas. In Hydeiabad Hadiga was very incompletely returned at previous censuses. In Bombay Saiyids were not shown separately in 1901. • Includes figures forGoUa. t Included in Ahir. 1?0T£.— Id this Table only those castes have been shown whirb have a ftrcrgth of about a million and upwards. CHAPTER XII, Oociipiitioii. Introductory lieniarks. u07. Of all the suhiects dealt Avitli at the census, that of occupations is un- ■">? '"'ormiuioB ■questionably the most complicated and troublesome, rvotluiig' is more difficult '''*°"«^ than the preparation of an accurate record of the occupations of the people, except perhaps the tahulation and classification of the same. In India, as in most other countries, there have been great cliaui;es at suc- cessive enumerations in the character of the information collected and in the manner of tabulating it. In 18S1 occupation was recorded, for actual Avorkers only, in a single column headed " Occupation of men, also of boys and females who may do work. A.B. — Boys at school, girls, small children and women Avho jierform no regular work, shovild not be shown at all in this column." The instructions to the eniimerators were as follows : — " Only such persons are to be shown in this column as aetually do work contributing to the family income. Mere ■employment in such dome.stic occupations as spinning- will not entitle women to l^e shown in this column, unless the produce of their labour is leo-ularly brought to market. When a person has two or more occupations, he should be entered as following the o.cupation whence his income is chiefly derived, but if he combines agriculture with any other profession or trade, such as that of vakil,, mouey-lender, carpenter, or smith, both occupations should be shown. " General terms, such as servant, workman, dealer, must not be emploved. In each case the specific service or trade in which the person is engaged must be named, e.ff., watchman, ofEce-messenger, digger, ploughman, cloth-seller. General expressions [such as jjes/ia-i-k/iud] must not be employed. In every case the occupation must be indicated bv the common vernacular term by which it is known [and not by the Persian name ; thus Kumhdr for potter, not Kasgar?\" 508. At a conference Avhich Avas held to consider the arrangements <">'"""• for the census of 1891 it was unanimously resolved that — " A return of persons living hy an occupation will be both more accurate and more useful in this country than that of the number exercising an occupation. In this latter respect the voluminous returns of 1881 appear lamentably deficient. The attention of the Conference was especially directed to the paramount importance of a complete return of the agricultural population.''' It was, therefore, decided to record, not the occupations of actual workers, but the means of subsistence of the Avhole popidation, Avhether workers or dependants. The column in the schedule was superscribed " Occupa- tion or Means of Subsistence," and the folloAving instructions were laid down for the guidance of the enumerators : — " Enter here the exact occupation or means of livelihood of all males and females who do work or live on private property, such as house rent, pension, etc. In the case of children aud women who do no work, enter the occupation of the head of their family, or of the person wbo supports them, adding the word ' dependant, ' but do not leave this column unfilled for any one, even an infant. If a person have two or more occupations, enter only the chief one, except when a person owns or cultivates land in addition to another occupation, when both should be entered. " No vague terms should be used, such as service, Government service, shopkeeping, writing and labour, etc., but the exact service, the goods sold, the class of writing or of labour must be stated. When a person's occupation is connected with agriculture, it should be stated whether the land is cultivated in person or let to tenants; if he be an agricultural labourer, it should be stated whether he be engaged by the month or year, or is a dailv field laliourer. Women who earn money by occupations independent of their husbands, such as spinning, selling Jireirood, corn-dung calces, or grass, or by rice-pounding, weaving or doini' house-work for wages, should be shown under those occupations. If a person makes the articles he sells he should be entered as ' maker and seller ' of them. If a person lives on alms, it should be ^tated whether he is a religious mendicant or an ordinary beggar. When a person is in Government, railway, or municipal service, the ppecial service should be entered first, and the word Government, railway, or municipal, etc., after it : as — clerk. Government ; sweeper, municipal ; labourer, railway. If a person be temporarily out of employ, enter the last or ordinary occupation." OCCCPATION OR MEIHS OP SUBSISTENCE OF ACTUAL WOEKERS. Means of subsistence of dependants on actual workers. principal. Subsidiarj-. 9 10 11 398 CHAPTEK XII.— OCCUPATION. (lui in X901 luid 509. The procedure thus adopted of recording simply the means of subsis- tence and ignoring the distinction between workers and dependants was also not entirely satisfactory. It is important to know how many persons are suj^ported by each occupation ; but it is equally important to know the number who actually work at it. It may not always be easy to decide whether a particular person should be classed -as a worker or as a dependant, but when very large numbers are dealt with, the errors on each side probably balance one another. A minor difficulty in connection with the system followed in 1891 was that it was found iueonyenient to record the subsidiary occupations of agri- culturists in the same column with the main occu- pation. In 1901, therefore, three columns, as noted in the margin, were i)roTided for the record of occupations— two for the principal and subsidi- ary occupations of actual workers, and the third for the means of subsistence of dependants, or persons supported by the labour of others. The same columns have been retained at the present census, when the following instructions, which to a great extent reprodvice those of 1901, were given to the enumerators : — " Column 9. — Enter the principal means of livelihood of all persons who actually do work or carry on business, whether personally or by means of servants, or who live on house-rent, pension, etc. Enter the exact occupation, and avoid vague terms, such as ' service ' or ' writing ' or ' labour.^ For example, in the case of labour, say whether in the fields, or in a coal mine, or jute factory, or cotton mill, or lac factory, or earth work, etc. In the case of agriculture, distinguish between persons who receive rent and those who pay rent. If a person makes the articles he sells, he should be entered as ' maker and seller ' of them. Women and children who work at anv occupation which helps to augment the family income must be entered in column 9 under that occupation and not in column 11. Column 9 will be blank for dependants. " Column 10. — Enter here any occupation which actual workers pursue at any time of the year in addition to their principal occupation. Thus if a person lives principally by his earnings as a boatman, but partly also by fishing, the word ' boatman ' will be entered in column 9 and ' fisherman ' in column 10. If an actual worker has no additional occupation, enter in column 10 the word ' none.' This column will be blank for dependants. " Column 11. — For children and women and old or infirm persons who do not work, either personally or by means of servants, enter the principal occupation of the person who supports them. This column will be blank for actual workers." 510. In the instructions to the superior census s-i;aff, these rules were thus amplified : — " The entry of occupation in columns 9 to 11 is another matter requiring special care. Only those women and children will be shown as workers who help to augment the family income. A woman who looks after her house and cooks the food is not a worker but a dependant. But a woman who collects and sells fire-wood or cowdung is thereby adding to the family income, and should be shown as a \vorker. So also a woman who regularly assists her husband in his work (e.g., the wife of a potter who fetches the clay from which he makes his pots), but not one who merely renders a little occasional help. A boy who sometimes looks after his father's cattle is a dependant, but one who is a regular cowherd should be recorded as such in column 9. Boys at school or college should lie entered as dependants. Dependants on a joint family, the members of which follow different avoca- tions, should be entered in column 11 under the occupation of the member who contributes most largely to the family income. " Domestic servants must be entered in cjlumn 9, as cook, bhisti, etc., and not in column 11 as dependent on their master's occupation. Persons temporarily out of employ should be shown as following their previous occupation. " Whenever large gangs of coolies are employed on earthwork of any kind, special instruc- tions should be given to the census staff to enter not only the word 'earthwork' but al-io the nature of the undertaking (railway, road, canal, etc.; in connection with which it is being done. " "Where a man has two occupations, the principal one is that on which he relies mainly for his support and from which he gets the major part of his income. A subsidiary occui)a- tion should be awi^KiS. ij followed at any time of the year. Only one subsidiary occupation (the most important one) should be entered in column 10. NoTB. — In cases where a person with private means followa some occupation, that occupation should be entered in column 9 and the source of his priyate income in column 10. "Stress must be laid on the importance of avoiding vague words like ' labour' or ' service ' or ' shopkeejjing.' The Enumerator must enter the exact kind of labour or serrice, and the nature of the goods sold. In the case of service it is necessary, not merely to distinguisji THE SYSTEM OF CLASSrFICATION. 399 Oovernmeut service, railway service, municipal service, villai^e service, service in a shop or office, and domestic service, etc., but also to show the exact occupation followed, e.g., in the case of Government service, whether Collector, or Army Officer, or Civil Court clerk, or Police Inspector, etc. In the ease of clerks, the occupation of their employer must be shown, e.g., lawyer's clerk. Persons living on agriculture must be distinguished as landlords or rent receivers, and actual cultivators or rent payers. Where a person cultivates part of his land and sublets part, he should be shown in column 9 as a cultivator and in column 10 as a landlord, if he gets the greater part of his income from the land which he cultivates himself, and rice versa. Gardeners and growers of special products, such as betel, cocoanut, etc., must be shown as such. Persons whose income is derived from tlie rent of houses or land in towns should be distinguished from those who derive it from agri.-ultural land." Apart, from tlie arrangement of columns, the main difference between the method of collecting the information adopted in 1891 and that .since followed is that in 1891 dual occupations were entered only where one of them was connected with agriculture, whereas subsequently the entry of all dual occupa- tions has been prescribed. 511. The system of classifying the occupations recorded in the scliedules has varied greatly. In 18S1 the English classification was adopted with a few minor changes, but actual experience showed that it was unsuited to Indian conditions. In 1891 an entirely new scheme was devised. U nder it all occupations were divided into seven main classes as follows : — A. — Government. B. — Pasture and agriculture. C. — Personal services. D.^The preparation and supply of material substances. E. — Commerce, transport and storage. F. — Professions. G. — Indefinite occupations and means of subsistence independent of occupation. Subordinate to the seven classes were 24; orders as shown in the margin bracketted according to their respective main heads. These orders were further subdivid- ed into 77 sub -orders and 4i78 groups. In the ensuing census the main division into classes, orders and sub- orders described above remained practically unchanged. In the case of groups, however, the Tbe c'.asslfloatlon of oooupatlons prior to 1911. ORDERS. s c. I. Administration. II. Defence. III. Foreign and feuda- tory State service. IV. Cattle-breeding, etc. V. Agriculture. VI. Personal services. VII. Food and drink. VIII. Light, firing, and forage. IX. Buildings. X. Vt-hii-les and vessels. XI. Supplementary require- ' ments. XII. Textile fabrics and dress. r D- H F. XIII. Metals and precious stones. XIV. Glass. pottery and stoneware. XV. Wood, cane and leaves. XVI. Druiis, gums, etc. XVII. Leather. XVIII. Commerce. XIX. Transport and storage. XX. Learned and artistic professions. XXI. Sports and amuse- ments. G. ( XXII. General labour. 1 XXIII. Indclinitu or disreput- j able occupations. (. XXIV. Independent of worli. although general ari-angement was main-* tained, there were many alterations in detail. Some of the old groups were amalgamated or transferred to other sub-orders, while certain new groups were created with the object ot^distinguishing, (a) makers from sellers, and {b) workers in factories from those engaged in hand industries. The net result was to raise the number of detailed heads, or groups, to 520. 512. It had already been pointed out by various Superintendents of the '^ov^l^oVt'o^n*. census of 1891 that a scheme of classification which distinguishes sucli a large number of detailed heads is entirely unsuited to a country like India, where most of the inhabitants are supported by a few simple avocations, and the sub- division of labour so characteristic of modern industrial developments in AVestern countries is almost entirely unknown. The only result of an elaborate system of classification is to cause the sime occupation to be classilied under different heads in the scheme according to the view taken of it by the local census oflBcer, or the words in whicli it happens to be described by the enumerator. The same objections were urged even more forcibly after the census of 1901; when 4)00 CHAPTER XII. — OCCrPATION. it was further shown that the attempt then made to distinguish hetweeit workers in factories and those engaged in hand industries had failed, owing to the impossibility of inducing the enumerators to enter the necessary particulars. On the other hand, it seems obvious that industry should be distiugiiished from trade, the maker or manufacturer from the distributing agent or middleman. It was thus clear, when the arrangements for the present census were taken in hand, that some change would have to be made in the scheme of classification. The question was whether it should take the form of amalgamating a large number of the detailed heads in the old scheme, or of a wholesale revision of it. If the statistics for India had stood alone, the former course would no doubt have been preferable, although, in the absence of detailed rules for applying the scheme of classification, the procedure adopted Avas often far from uniform, and the data already on I'ecord cannot therefore be accepted implicitly as furnishing a very reliable basis for comparison. It happened, however, that the question of classifying occupations had for some years been engaging the attention of European statisticians, partly because no country was entirely satisfied with its existing system, and partly because the schemes adopted in different coun- tries varied from each other in such a way as to make the international com- parison of the occupation statistics an almost impossible task. The well known French statistician. Dr. Jacques Bertillon, Chef des Travaux Statistiques de la Ville de Paris, after a careful study of the schemes in actual use in different countries, drew up one suitable for general adoption and laid it before the International Statistical Institute, who referred it to a committee of experts. After they had reported, M. Bertillon consulted twenty Directors of statistical bureaux. He revised his scheme in accordance with their opinions, and again laid it before the International Statistical Institute, by whom it was approved and commended for general adoption. M. Bertillon claims for his scheme that its arrangement is extremely logical, and that it is so elastic as to be adapt- able to the requirements alike of the most advanced and of the most backward countries. He divides all occupations into four classes and twelve sub-classes with three series of minor subdivisions, numbering repectively 66, 206 and 499 , but points out that all that is necessary for the purpose of international com- parison is that the princijJal heads should be adhered to. The minor heads can be increased or reduced in mimber according to local requirements, without affecting the comparability of the figures, so long as all the occupations are classified, with or without further subdivision, under the main heads shown in his scheme. Detoita of the 513. As a basis for a full discussion of the subject, I prepared in the rough, and circulated for the opinion of Provincial Superintendents, two alternative schemes, one based on that of M. Bertillon, and the other an abbreviation of the scheme used in India at the two previous enumerations. The great majority of the officers consulted were strongly in favoiu- of the adoi)ticn of M. Bertillon's scheme. This also was my own opinion. That scheme has stood the test of criti- cism by the hest European experts. It has already been adopted in Egypt, Bulgaria, Spain, Brazil, Chili, Venezuela and Mexico ; and it has been taken as the basis of the revised scheme of the United States of .America. Other countries wiU probably in time follow suit. If any change is to be made in the Indian scheme it is clearly desirable to take the opportunity to adopt one which has received such strong commendation, and which will facilitate the comj)arison of statistics with those 'of other nations. The rough adaptation of the scheme already prepared was, therefore, carefully revised and prescribed for general adop- tion. The detailed heads or groups, 169 in number, were formed with reference to local conditions, but the classes, sub-classes and orders as noted below, were practically those of M. Bertillon. Class A. — Prodvction of raw xiau.eui.s. Stib-class J.— Exploitation of the surface of the earth. 1. Piibtuie and Agriculture— (a) Ordinal y cultiviition, [h) Growers of special products and market gardening, [c] Forestry, [d) Raising of farm s-tock, (e) Raising of small animals. 2. Fishing and bunting. aolMine* THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 40l Sub-clais II. — Extraction of minerals. 3. Mines. 4. Quarries. 5. Salf, etc. Class B. — Preparation and supply of material subsiances. Sub-class III. — Industry. 6. Textiles. 7. Hides, skins, etc. 8. Wood. 9. Metals. 10. Ceramics 11, Chemical products. 12. Food industries. 13. Industries of dress and the toilet. U. Furniture industries. 15. Building industries. 16. Construction of means of transport. 17. Production and transmission of phjsical forces. IS. Industries of luxury and those pertaining to literature and the arts and sciences. 19. Industries concerned with refuse matter. Sub-class I F. — Transport. 20. Transport by water. 21. Transport by road. 22. Transport by rail. 23. Post Office, telegraph and telephone services. Sub-class F. — Trade. SI. Banks, establishments of credit, exchange and insurance. 2.5, Brokerage, commission and export. 26. Trade in textiles. 27. Trade in skins, leather and furs. 28. Trade in wood. 29. Trade in metals. 30. Trade in pottery. 31. Trade in chemical products. 32. Hotels, cafes, restaurants, etc. 3o. Other trade in foodstuffs, ai. Trade in clothing and toilet articles! 35. 'trade in furniture. 36. Trade in building materials. 37. Trade in means of transport. 38. Trade in fuel. 39. Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters and the arts and sciences. 40. Trade in refuse matter. 4.1. Tra'de of other sorts. Class C. — Pdblic administration and liberal arts. Sub-class FI. — Public force. 42. Army. 43. Navy. 41. Police. Sub-class FII. — Public administration. 45. Public atlministration. Sub-class T III. — Professions and liberal arts. 46. Religion. 47. Law. 48. Medicine. 49. Instruction. 50. Letters and arts and scienoos. Sub-class IX. — Persons living on their income. 51. Persons living principally on their income. Class D. — Miscellaneous. Sub-class X. — Domestic service. 52. Domestic service. Sub-class XL — Insupcientli/ described occupations. 53. General terms which do not indicate a definite occupation. Sub-class XII. — Unproductive. 54. Inmates of jails, asylums and hospitals. 55. Beggars, vagrants, prostitutes. The chief objection to the adoption of a new scheme was that it would hinder comparison with the returns of the])revious census. This objection, however, was more apparent than real. Although they have been allocated in some cases to different parts of the scheme, the detailed heads adopted at the present census generally correspond to one or more of the detailed heads of the previous census, so that with a little trouble the old returns can be re-arranged according to the new heads. Difficulty occurred only in the comparatively small number of cases where the old groups had to be sub-divided, e. g., where they did not distinguish between makers and sellers. It may be added that in the absence of detailed instructions as to the principles to be followed in classifying the entries found in the schedules, the figures for past cen.suses would not in any case afford a very reliable basis for comparison. 514. The changes made in order to adapt the scheme to India, Avhich were communicated to, and approved hy, M. JiertilJou, v ere described as I'olhiws in the letter prescribing the scheme : ~ " It will be seen that this scheme, as now revised for India, contains 4 classes, 12 sub- classes, 55 orders and 16'J groups. The reduction of six in the number of orders is duo to the amalgamation of two of those given by M. Bertillon, v/r., ' maritime ' and 'freshwater transport' (Orders 22 and 23 in his scheme) and the omission of five others, vi'.?,, those for 'nomads' (Order 3), 'other industries' (Order 21), 'persons temponuily unemploved ' (Order 57), 'persons without any occupation' (Order 58), and 'occupation unknown' ((Jrder 61). It would be impossible from the entries likely to be found in the schedules to diftinguish betweer. ' maritime ' and ' fresh water transpoi t.' No special jilacc in the scheme ia needed for 'nomads': 'pastoral iiomads ' will ordinarily be classed imder Oroup 9 or 30 402 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. Group 11 as the case may be, ami 'taungja or jbum cultivators' under Group 2. Bertillon's Order 'other iudustries' was iuserted to 'allow for any omission ^Monsieur ly omission which may orcur' aud tiiere seems to be no reason for retaining this in our scheme. Persons tem- porarily unemployed will be entered in the schedules under the occupations previously followed by them, and those without occupation, as dependent on the occupations of the persons who support them. There should be no persons with occupation unknown. In the rare eases where, contrary to rule, the occupation column is left blank, the occui)ation will be assumed to be that of the head of the family. " The groups in the annexed scheme are classified under the same orders as those given by Monsieur Bertillon in almost all cases. The only notable exception is in the case of non-culti- vating agricultural land-owners, whom he shows in Order 51, but whom I have included in Order 1. There are two reasons for this difference of treatment. In the first place, in India, there is no hard-and-fast distinction between land-owners who cultivate themselves and those who sublet to others. Many do both ; and it is often a matter of chance which occupation is entered in column 'J of the schedule. In the second place, it is a "matter of primary importance to know how many persons are dependent, directly or indirectly, on agriculture for their support ; and it is, therefore, better to include all such persons under the general head Agriculture. It will be easy to make the necessary re-arrangement for the purpose of inter- national comparison. The next most important change is in respect of carpenters, who ai-e classed by M. Bertillon under his Order 16 (building industries), while sawyers, boxmakers, Mood turners, and modellers, etc., are classed by him on Order 'J (wood). In India the heredi- tary carpenters engage in all these occupations, and it would be impossible to separate them. They have, therefore, all been classed together under wood. Another, though less important, difference in the primary classitication is in respect of dealers in cattle. These are included by M. Bertillon in Order '66 (other trade in food-stuffs), but in India Order lU (trade in means of transport) is obviously a more appropriate head. Lastly, magistiatesof all kinds are shown by M. Bertillon in Order 50 of his scheme, but in India it seems preferable to include them in Order 4b, corresponding to Order 45 of the scheme as adapted for India : it is rarely the case that a Government servant is merely a magistrate and nothing else. " Several Superintendents, while approving generally of the reduction in the number of detailed heads, have suggested that separate heads should bo opened for certain specified occupations. But the whole scheme, as adapted for India, is based on the axiom that a census does not supply data which are suitable for minute classification ; and once this principle is departed from, it becomes very difficult to keep down the number of detailed heads. In this connection, moreover, it may be mentioned that the groups here prescribed are intended only for the occupations returned in the general schedule. Those returned in the industrial schedule will be set out in detail under the appropriate orders of the scheme. There is, however, no objection to a few occupations of special local importance, not exceeding ten in all, being shown separately in the local Table XV." The application cf 615. Experience at previous censuses had abundantly shown that it is by no means sufficient merely to draw up a scheme for the classification of occupa- tions. If uniformity is to be secuiTd, it is also necessary to give detailed instructions as to the manner in which the entries actually found in the schedules should be dealt with. On the present occasion full instructions were drawn up. It is unnecessary to reproduce them all, but the following points deserve mention : — (1) Where a person bo<;h makes and sells, he is classed under the Indus* trial head ; the commercial one is reserved for persons engaged in trade pure and simple. On the same principle, Avlien a person extracts some substance, such as saltpetre, from the ground, and also refines it, he is shown under the mining and not under the industrial head. (2) Industrial and trading occupations are divided into two main cate- gories : — (a) those where the occupation is classified according to the material of which the articles are made, and (i) those where it is classified according to the use which they serve. As a general rule, the first category is reserved for tlie manufacture or sale of articles the use of which is not finally determined, but it also includes that of specified articles for Avhich there is no sepa- rate head, and also the occupations, so common in India, which are characterized by the material used rather than the particular articles made. The ordinary village mochi, for instaiice, makes not only slices, l)ut also water-bags aud all other articles of leather, which he tans himself. (3) As a general rule, when a man's personal occupation is one wliich involves special training, e.ff., that of a doctor, eugineer, surveyor, THE SYSTEM OP CLASSIFICATION. 403 etc., he is classed under the head reserved for that occupation, irrespective of the agency by which he is employed. A ship's doctor, for instance, is shown as a doctor and not as a ship's officer. An exception is made in cases where the work in which an indi- vidual is employed involves further specialization, e.g., that of a marine or sanitary engineer. Only those Government servants are shown in Sul)-class VII who are engaged in the general administration. Officers of the medical, irrigation, opium, post office and other similar services are classed under the special heads provided for these occupations. As a further means of facilitating the classification of the entries recorded in the schedules and of maintaining uniformity of procedure, an elaborate alphabetical index of occupations was prepared and circulated to all Provin- cial Superintendents for the guidance of their staff. These measures, coupled with the greater simplicity of the scheme, have made the tabulation of occupations far simpler than it has hitherto been. Mr. Blunt quotes two of his Deputy Superintendents, who worked in the census of 1901, as saying that the classification of occupations on the present occasion Avas the merest child's play compared to what it was then. The result is that there has been greater accuracy in the tabulation work, and a reduction in the striking differences between the returns for neighbouring provinces which were sometimes ajjparent at previous enumerations. 516. As already stated, in 1891 the enumerators were asked to enter dual Duaioecnpations. occupations only where one of them was connected with agriculture. In such cases, the non-agricultural pursuit, whether principal or subsidiary, was taken for the general return, and a note was made of the number of persons shown under each head w"ho were partially agriculturists. At the subsequent enumerations, the enumerators were told to enter the subsidiary occupation, if any, of all actual workers ; and each jierson was tabulated accord- ing to his principal occupation, whatever it might be. In 1901 statistics were compiled of the number of persons, primarily agriculturists, who had some secondary means of subsistence, but no use was made of the record of subsidiary occupations in cases where the principal means of subsistence was non-agricul- tural. At the present census, statistics have been compiled for all occupations connected with agricultm-e, both when agriculture was the principal, and also when it was the subsidiary, occupation. We have thus for the first time com- plete information as to the extent to which the population is dependent on agriculture. Another table, which might be compiled or not at the discretion of Local Governments, was designed to show particulars of certain non-agricultural occupations which are commonly combined, such as fishermen and boatmen, grain dealers and money-lenders, and shepherds and blanket weavers. 517. With the introduction into India of cotton mills, jute mills, iron and J^^J^*^"^""'*', steel works and other large industries, it has become increasingly important to knoiv the number of persons employed in these and similar undertakings. It has already been mentioned (paragraph oil) that an attempt was made in 1901 to obtain the desired information in the ordinary census schedules by a direction to the enumerators to distinguish between workers in factories and those engaged in hand industries. The attempt failed, owing to the want of sufficient precision in the entries. Moreover, in the genera] schedule, the occu- pation entered is that of the particular individual and r.ot the industry in connection with which he is employed ; a carpenter or mechanic in a jute mill, for instance, is sho\\n merely as a carpenter or mechanic as the case may be, and not as an employe of the jute mill. It is now generally recognized that it is impossible to procure accurate information as to industrial developments by the machinery of the general census. In Germany, the United States, and several other countries, the desired statistics are obtained by means of a separate form, or series of forms, which the employers of labour are required to fill in ; and a similar procedure has now been adopted in India. A special schedule was prescribed to show for factories, mines, tea gardens and other similar concerns in which not less than twenty persons were employed, ii) the name and caste or nationality of the owner and mana ger, {ii) the nuudjcr of j)ersoiis engaged in direction, supervision, and clerical work, Europeans and Anglo-Indians 3 Q 2 404 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. and Indians being shown separately, (iii) the number of skilled workmen, simi- larly distinguished, (iv) the number of unskilled labourers of each sex, over and under 14 years of age, {v) the mechanical power (if any) employed, and (t7») the state of business on the date of the census. The information asked for is less elaborate than that collected at the industrial census iu other coun- tries, but it was thought desirable at the first attempt to confine the enquiry to the more important points, and to avoid the risk of confusion or failure which might result from over-elaboration. The information thus obtained represents a material addition to the census statistics of occupation, but its full value will not be apparent until 1921, when it will be possible, by a comparison with the statistics then collected, to ascertain with accuracy the industrial pro- gress made vmder each head during the intervening period. Separate returns were also prei)ared showing in some detail the number of persons directly or indirectly employed on the date of the census on railways and irrigation works and in the post office and telegraph departments. These data were collected by the departmental ofiicers concerned. Reference to 518. The statistics of occupation will be found in Table XV. Part A shows the general functional distribution of the peojile. Part B the subsidiary occupations of agriculturists. Part C (Optional) certain dual occu])ations, Part D (Optional) the functional distribution by religion, and Part E the statistics of the Industrial Census. A second table, XVI, shows the occupations followed by certain selected castes. Proportional figui'es illustrating the main features of the statistics are given in the following Subsidiary Tables at the end of the Chapter, where also will be found the figures referred to in the last para- graph regarding persons employed in railways, irrigation works, telegraphs and the post office : — I.— General distribution by occujoation. II. — Number per ten thousand supported by each Order of occupation. III. — Distribution of the agricultural, industrial, commercial and profes- sional population by locality. IV. — Number per thousand actual workers whose main occupation is not agricultural but who have a subsidiary agricultural occupation. V. — Occupations combined with agriculture, Avhcre agriculture is tlie principal occujmtion. VI.— Selected occupations, 1901 and 1911. VII. — Occupations of females. VIII. — Occupations in cities. IX. — Occupations by religion. X. — Main results of Industrial Census. XI. — Number per million of the poj)ulation employed in factories of each kind. XII. — Particulars as to the ownership and management of factories. XIII. — Special statistics relating to the railways and the irrigation, post office and telegraph repartments. The above tables give a clearer presentation of the statistical material than it would be possible to do in writing witliout unduly expanding the limits of this Chajjter. In the following paragraphs, therefore, I propose merely to draw attention to the more important facts, and to leave the reader to iill iu the details for himself by reference to the tal)ular statements. On the otlier hand, the reader of the whole Chapter will notice a certain amount of repetition. The object of this is to guard against misconcejitions which miglit occur, when particular paragraphs only are referred to, if the figures in them were not fully explained. The umitationii of 519. Bcforc dealing with the statistics thus presented, it is necessary to ttae return. draw attention to certain limitations to which the return of occupations is subject. In the first place, it merely sliows the occupations folloAved on a particular date ; and as many occupations are seasonal in their character, the number returned under some heads, such as the milling of rice in llangoon or the grazing of herds iu the North-WestProntier Province, wasmucli larger than would have been the case, had the census been taken at some other time of the year, while others, such as indigo manufacture and jute pressing, were to a great extent obliterated. MAIN FEATrRES OP THE STATISTICS. 405 Except in the case of persons partly dependent on agriculture, the main occupation Table XV. — A, shows only the principal means of subsistence, hut in India, the same individual often supports himself by two or more occupations, which may appear iu dilferent parts of the classified scheme. The shepherd, for instance, is often blanket-weaver, the money-lender, a cloth and grain dealer, the fisherman, a palki-bearer and the village policeman, a day labourer and so on. The particular head under which an individual is shown is largely a matter of chance, though no doubt ordinarily the occupation which is regarded as the more respectable of the two, or that which forms the traditional occupation of a man's caste will be the one shown. The statistics of subsidiary occupations in Parts B and C of Table XV, to some extent, rectify this defect iu the main occupation table. A third cause of inaccuracy lies in the confusion which often exists in the rustic mind between a man's actual, and his traditional, occupation. A man of the Chuhra caste in the Punjab, for instance, is very apt to be shown as a scavenger, although his real business may be that of a day labourer. The vagueness of the entries in the schedules has also to be reckoned with. Great stress was laid in the instructions (see paragraphs 509 and olOj on the necessity for precision, and the supervising staff were specially warned to be careful to see that all necessary particulars were given. The number of persons n-hose actual means of livelihood could not be ascertaiiu'd from the entries in the schedviles was far smaller than at any previous enumeration, but in spite of this, the occupations of about 3 per cent, of the population were still described so vaguely that tlicy had to be classed under the head '" insufficiently de- scribed." Finally, there are the errors which must always occur to a greater or less extent in the course of compilation. Some striking instances of incongruities due to differences in the system of classificat^'on adopted by the Provincial Superintendents were noted in paragraph 816 of the last Report. At the present census these have to a great extent been obviated by tlie pre- paration of the Index of occupations referred to in paragraph 515. Main Features of the Statistics. 520. It will be convenient to commence the review of the statistics with uoS'b^o^i^pltioii. an examination of the general distribution of the population by occupation as disclosed by Table XV — A. Nowhere are the many points of difference in the local conditions of India, as compared with those of wes- Diagram showing the general distribution of the population by occupation. tern countries, more marked than iu respect of the func- tional distribution of the people. In England, ac- cording to the returns for 1901, of every hundred actual workers, 58 are enga- ged in industrial pursuits, 14 in domestic service, 13 in trade and only 8 in agri- culture ; whereas in India 71 per cent, are engaged in pasture and agriculture and only 29 per cent, in all other occupations combined. The preparation and supply of material substances afford a means of livelihood to 19 per cent, of the pojmlation (actual workers), of whom 12 |ier cent, are employed in industries, 2 in transport and 5 in trade. Tlie extraction of minerals supports only 2 per- sons p(>r millo ; the civil and military services support 14, the professions and liberal arts 15, and SUBCLASSES NUMBER PER CENT OF POPULATION iO £jO 50 ilO 30 60 7( ) L EXPLOITATION OF THE SuTi?-ACEOF THE EARTH ^^ ■■■^ ^^ w I AGRICULTURE <^/. "] ^^ "^ ^^ *** II.PASTURE: ....FISHING SHUNTING ivOTHERS ILEXTRACTION OF MINERALS HUNDUSTRY ^^S 1 my/M '///////A LTErriLE INDUSTRIES ^U^i .i.WOOO >» 1 111 METAL " I^.FOOD " TOTAL POPULATION ■■ ciTirs l,-,;i vJNDUSTRIES OF CRESS {.TOILET vi.OTHER INDUSTRIES fmi nCTRANSPORT K.TRADE W/A I.TRAOENR»OSTUFrS ti » "TEXTILES IU.OTHER TRADES %///A HPUBLIC FORCE SIPUBUC AOMirETRATION SttPRiPessiONs ANb LIBERAL ARTS W^ K PERSONS LIVING ON THEIR INCOME X.DOMEST1C SERVICE auNSdmciENTiY DES-ia CRiaEDOCajFfcTICNS ^!ff}!f 1 BLUNPROOUCTIVE f^ 406 CHAPTER XII. — OCCtJPATIOjf. DUtrlbatton locolUy, by domestic service IS, persons per mille. The uifferencc is clue to the extraordinary- expansion of trade and industry which lias taken place in western Europe durin» the last century, in consequence of the discovery of the steam engine, and to the great improvement in means of transport and the use of mechanical poAver in factories of all kinds which have resulted therefrom. In Germany, sixty years ago, the agricultural population was very little less than it is at the present time in India. There are, as we shall sec further on, indications that in (he latter country also great changes are impending ; aiid it is not unlikely that, as time goes on, the functional distribution of the people will become less dissimilar from that now existing in Europe. 521. Of the eight provinces dealt with in the marginal diagram, the proportion of persons supported by agriculture is smallest in the Punjab (58 per cent.) and largest in Bihar and Orissa (78 per cent.). In Assam, which is not shown in the Diagram shomng the distribution of the "population by occupation {Classes) in certain Protirices, acriculture:- industry--- REFERENCES H COMMERCE--- " PROFESSIONS- OTHERS ^ Note. — The base of each rectangle is proportional to tlie total popu- lation of the ProTince. The height shows the percentage of the popula- tion which is employed]on each class of occupatiou. diagram, it reaches 85 per cent. The propor- tion in Bengal and the Central Provinces and Berar approaches very nearly to that in Bihar and Orissa, while in Bombay and Burma it is but slightly in excess of the Punjab propor- tion. Industry supports most persons in the Punjab (20 per cent.) ; in Bombay, Madras aud the United Provinces, it supports from 12 to 13 percent., and in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and the Central Provinces and Berar from 8 to 10 per cent. The term ' in- dustry is used in a wider sense in Table XV— E, AA hich includes within its scope not only manufac- turing, but also mining and the growing of special products. The proportion of j^ersons included in this table is largest in Assam where, thanks to the tea gardens, it is no less than 16 per cent. In the small province of Coorg, with its coffee plantations, it is 9 per cent. In Ajmer-Merwara and Bengal it is 4, in Mysore 3 and in Bombay 2, per cent. In all other Provinces and States the propor- tion is 1 per cent, or less. The variations within provincial boundaries are some- times very marked. In Bengal the industrial population ranges from less than 5 per cent, in North, to 13 in Central, Bengal, and in the United Provinces from 4 per cent, in the Sub-Himalaya East to 17 in the Sub-Himalaya West. Burma contains the largest proportion of persons supported by trade (upwards of 13 per cent.) ; the proportion lies between 7 and 9 per cent, in IJengal, Bombay, Madras and the Punjab, while in Bihar and Orissa, the Central Provinces and Berar and the United Provinces it nowhere exceeds 6 per cent. The proportion of persons who live by the professions is lowest in Bihar and Orissa and the United Provinces, where it is 10 and 11 per mille respec- tively ; it ranges elsewhere from 15 per mille in the Central Provinces and Berar to 25 per mille in the Punjab. It is unnecessary to dwell longer on these local variat ions, as they are fully set out in tabular form in Subsidiary Tables JI and III at the end of this Chapter. URBAN OCCUPATIONS. 407 522. The functional distribution by religion is shown in Subsidiary Table outribution br IX. The proportion of Hindus and Muhammadans who are engaged in agricul- tural pursuits does not differ greatly from that in the population as a whole. That of Christians, on the other hand, is much below, and that of Animists much above, the general average. Of the latter indeed, the proportion who follow non-agricultural pursuits is only lOG per mille, or 69, if we omit persons whose occupation was " insufficiently described." Of these 69, 42 are engaged in the [)veparation and supply of material substances, 10 in domestic service and 7 in the extraction of minerals. The deficiency of cultivators amongst Christians, of whom only 54 per cent, are supported by agriculture, is made np for by an exc-ess under the other main heads, but especially in Class C — Public administration and the liberal arts and Class D — Miscellaneous, both of which contain 10 per cent, of the Christian, as compared with only 4 and 6 per cent, respectively of the general, population ; thirty-three Christians per mille are in Sub-class VI — Public Force, 14 in Sub-class VII — Public administration and 48 in Sub-class VIII — Professions and the liberal arts. Class B — Preparation and suj^ply of material substances contains 24 per cent, of the Christians, as compared with only IS per cent of the Hindus and Muhammadans ; the excess is here most marked in Sub-class IV — Transport, which includes the railway, post and telegraph services. The peculiar functional distribution of Christians is accounted for partly by the Eui'opean element, who are employed mainly in the public services and in industrial and commercial undertakings, and partly by the fact that in many parts the Indian Christians are recruited from the labouring classes rather than the peasantry. The differences in the means of livelihood of Hindus and Muhammadans are not very great. Muhammadans take rather more freely to industry, transport, and military and domestic service, and Hindus to trade and the professions and liberal arts. 523. The contrast between the functional distribution in town and country trrban oecnp*- wiU be clearly seen from the diagram in the margin of paragraph 520 and the °°'' proportional statistics in Subsidiary Table VIII. Of every hundred inhabitants of cities, 30 are supported by industrial pursuits, as compared with only 11 in the general population, 17 by'trade and 14 by the public services and liberal arts, as compared with 6 and 3 respectively, while, on the other hand, only about 6 depend for their living on agricultural pursuits, or less than one-tenth of the general average. The proportion who are dependent on agriculture is even smaller in some of the larger cities, such as Rangoon and Bombay, where it is 3 and 2 per cent, respectively. The industrial population is largest (53 per cent.) in Ahmadabad with its numerous cotton miUs; it excet.'ds 32 per cent, in Delhi, Agra, Bombay and Howrah, and 25 per cent, in Eangoon, Madras, Cawnpore and Karachi ; in Calcutta it is 21 per cent. In some cities a single industry predominates, as in Ahmadabad and Bombay, where a quarter and a sixth of the population respectively are dependent on work on cotton mills, and in Howrah, where one-seventh derive their livelihood from the jute mills. Elsewhere the industries are more varied, as in Delhi, where the lace, crape, and embroidery industries support 8 per cent., and workers in precious stones and metals 5 per cent., of the population. Trade supports about a fifth of tho population of Bangoon, Delhi, Calcutta and Alimadabad. More than a quarter of the inhabitants of Karachi depend on occupations connected ■with transport; in Howrah, Bombay and Calcutta, which come next in this respect, the corresponding proportion is only about one-eighth. Persons of independent means are relatively twelve times, and those engaged in domestic service seven times, as numerous in cities as they are in the general jjopulatiun. It is perhaps a natural corollary of the greater C(jmplexity of occupations in cities, with their numerous coolies who are employed indifferently on all kinds of manual laljour, that the proportion of jiersons whose moans of subsistence was too vaguely described to l)e ca2)abie of ])eing assigned to any definite head is more than three times as great there as it is in the general ])opulation. In Ca^^'npo^e more than a fifth of the jiopidation were returned as lal)ourcrs without any further specification, although no doubt the great nuijority of them were employed in the woollen mills, leather factories, etc., for wliich the city is famous. Allowance .should be made for this leakage to the general iiead 408 CHAPTER Xn. — OCCTTPATION. showing the number of persons Vlllace ooenpa- ttons. No. per 10,000 OCOUFAIIOB. Groups of total included. popula- tion. Landlords and tenants 1, 2, 6 5,606 Agricultural labourers 4 1,316 General laboureis 98, 104, lfi7 287 Stock-owners, miUauen and 9, 10, 12 164 henismen. Cotton workers 21,22 207 Blacksmiths . 41 44 Brass, copper and bell- 42 9 metal workers. Carpenters and woodcutters 8, 38 99 Fishennen, boatmen and 14,60,97, 113 pailki bearers. 100,116 Oil-pressers 63 37 Barbers .... 72 68 Washermen 71 68 Toddy drawers 65 20 Grain buskers and parchers 56,58 68 Leather workers 32, 33, 69 90 Basket makers, scavengers 37, 93, 107 and drummers. 160 Priests .... 148, 151 64 Potters .... 47 63 Mendicants 149, 169 128 Oartmen and pack animal 99, 101 47 drivers. Village quacks and mid- 155 « wives. Goldsmiths 89 57 Grocers and confectioners . 63, 117 119 119 Grain dealers and money- 106, 121 109 lenders. o.licials. 143,147 64 Vegetable and fruit sellers. 120 51 Makers and sellers of 90, 132 18 bangles. TOTAI 9,029 when considering the figures quoted above employed in trade, transport and industry. 524. The extremely primitive character of the general functional distri- bution of occupations in India will be clearly seen from the figures given in the margin, showing the number per 10,000 of the population who are support- ed by the simple occupations commonly followed in every village which, taken together, meet all the requirements of ordinarj^ village life. The figures are not quite accurate, as in the case of some occupations, such as cotton spinning, they include workers in factories of the modern type. The entries in the schedules afforded no means of excluding the latter. On the other hand, there are some omissions from the list of village occupa- tions, and the number of persons thvis left out of account may be taken roughly as balancing the number wrongly included. It will be seen that no less than nine-tenths of the total population are supported by these primitive pursuits. In the Report for 1901 attention was drawn to a peculiar feature of Indian life. Until tlie recent introduction of western commodities, such as ma- chine-made cloth, kerosine oil, umbrellas and the like, each village was provided with a complete equipment of artisans and menials, and was thus almost wholly self-supporting and independent. Its Chamars skinned the dead cattle, cured their hides and made the villagers' sandals and thongs. Local carpenters made their ploughs, local black- smiths their shares, local jjotters their utensils for cooking and carrying water, and local weavers their cotton clothing. Each village had its own oil-pressers, its own washermen and its own barbers and scavengers, Where this system was fully developed, the duties and remuneration of each group of artisans were fixed by custom, and the caste rules strictly pro- hibited a man from entering into competition with another of the same caste. The barber, the washerman, the blacksmith, etc., all had their own definite circle within which they worked ; and they received a regular yearly payment for their services, which often took the form of a prescriptive share of the harvest, apportioned to them when the crop had been reaped and brought to the threshing floor. These conditions exist only in those parts where the ancient Hindu polity was fully developed, and are not found in the outlying parts of India, as the term is now understood. Mr. Webb quotes the following interesting extract from a note by Mr. Furnival, Settle- ment Officer, Myingyan, which shows the great difference between the econo- mic structure of Mongol society in Burma and that of the typical Indian village community — ■ " In both cases the fundamental interest is agriculture, and between the purely agricul- tural classes the contrast is not immediately visible. It is otherwise, however, with the organization of the non-agrioultural interests ; here the difference lies on the surface. And closer scrutiny of the agricultural community shows that in this also the difference is reflected. The resemblance is superficial, merely the result of analogous conditions. " The absence of watermen and washermen from a Burman village seems but a trivial matter : they may not have differentiated out from the primitive self-sufficing individual : their absence may be due to some accident of correlated variation in development. It is possible, however, that this apparent triviality may be of deep significance. Some chance- heard scrap of intimate conversation at the well side, a glimpse of silk flashing in the sun and a complexion delicately powdered suggest a solution of the problem. The waterman is not wanted because the women fetch the water; wives and daughters, and particularly daughters, find at the village well or tank an opportunity for social reunion, for gossip and for other things, while in a country where open air bathing is a mle, and mixed bathing not prohibited, the absence of the washerman could without rashness be proguosticated. Whether the absence of the barber can thus be accounted for is one of the mysteries of the zenana ; certainly in Burma, if the husband has a fancy to go bald headed, you may see his wife bending over him anxiously as she scrapes away at a half-shorn pate. WORKERS AND DEPENDANTS. 409 " The women, however, cannot perform the duties of smith, carpenter and potter ; and thesejire necessary, ;is in India, But they are not restricted to the village. In one village there will be a colour of blacksmiths, in another of carpenters, in another of cavfmukers, in another of wheelwrights— all these are different occupations — in another of potters, and in another of basket-makers. Each trade will serve the surrounding country over a distance varying with the nature of their occupation and the reputation of their wares. Portability and demand are the most important factors; villages where pottery is carried on are comparati\ely numerous, pots are bulky and do not travel well, while some clay, more or less suitable, is every- where to be obtained ; one man can carry a load of knives for forty miles, and a single village may supply the greater part of the district. " One or two examples will explain the organization better than pages of description. Kuywa is a village near the high road, eight miles from the trading centre of Nyaungn on the Irrawaddy river ; here jiottery is carried on. Chaukkan is a village two miles to the south-east, and lying further both from the high road and from Nyanngu ; here they carry on the work of blacksmiths. Knbvu is ]C< milts due cast of Chaukkan, but oyrr twenty by the tortuous jungle cart-tract. Chaukkan obtains its pots from Kuywa audits cart-wheels from Kabvu, wheels of inferior quality, however, are obtained from Nyaungu, while the bodies of the carits are made in Chaukkan and sold to Kuywa, as are the heavy knives and other metal implements of agriculture. Kuywa also obtains its cart-wheels from Kabyn, while both village,^! go some ten miles to the east for the plaited trays which are used in win- nowing, and for one particular variety both villages travel nearly twenty miles. Between Kabyu and these two villages the cart-wheels are the only bond of trade, but at Kabyu there is a similar variety in the source of their domestic implements. Pots and coarse iron work are obtained from' a village ten miles off on the north-east, knives from a village forty miles away, near the centre where they sell their agricultural produce ; the bodies of the carts come from a village seven or eight miles to the south-west. " In other occupations the same localization exists ; in one village there are carpenters, in another scribes, in another a considerable income is earned by dyeing the yellow garments of the priesthood. "Where the occu] ation is complex, the different stages may be divided amongst different villages; this is the case with the lacquer work of Pagan, the baskets being made in one village, rough lacquered elsewhere, then the design traced in another village, and only the final stage conducted in Pagan itself.'^* 525. Even in India proper the village i,s no longer llie se]f-coDtaiiied^f«w»/^°i,2,^ industrial unit which it formerlywas, and many disintegrafing- influences are "«>°- at work to break down the solidarity of village life. The rising spirit of individualism, which is the result of modern education and western influences, is impelling the classes who perform the humbler functions in the economy of village life to aspire to higher and more dignified pursuits. There is also a tendency to replace the prescriptive yearly remuneration by payment for actual work done. In many parts, for instance, the village Chamar is no longer allowed the hides of dead cattle as his perquisite, but receives instead a payment for removing the cattle and for skinning them ; and the hides are then sold to a dealer by" the owner of the animal. Improved means of com- munication have greatly stimulated migration and the consequent disruption of the village community, and by facilitating and lowering the cost of trans- port of commodities, have created a tendency^ for industries to become localized. The extensive importation of cheap European piece goods and utensils, and the establishment in India itself of numerous factories of the western type, have more or less destroyed many village iiuUistries. The high prices of agricultural produce have also led many village artisans to abandon their hereditary craft in favour of agriculture. As Pandit Hari Kishan Kaul puts it, " the old days when each village was a self-sufficient unit replete with the indivstries, trades and professions necessary for its modest requirements are over ". The extent to which tliis disintegration of the old village organization is proceeding varies considerably in different parts. The change is most notice- able in the more advanced provinces, whereas in comparatively backward tracts, like Central India and Rajputana, the old organization remains almost intact. 52G. The instructions which were given for distinguishing between workers woriu^rs^^ and and dependants have been reproduced in paragraphs 509 and 510. It was laid down that only those persons should be shown as workers who helped to augment the family income. \^^omen who merely looked after the household and cooked the food and boys at school were to be shown as dependent on the • It would seem tiom ancient Indimi literntuiv that in very oarl.y times the economic coiiditi..n-, in northern Inilia at least, were lll' tons. It rose to 220,000 tons in 1S5S and to six million tons in 1901. Since then the growth has been vevy rapid. The output in 1911 from the coal mines of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa exceeded eleven million tons. In the same year the total yield for all India was twelve million tons. Of the latter quantity nearly one million tons were exported, and four million were used by the railways. The total output, liowcver, is still trivial compared with that of the 'United Kingdom, which amounted in 1911 to 272 million tons. Most of the persons employed in the mines of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa are aboriginal or quasi-aboriginal ; about half are Bauris and Santals, and many of tlie remainder belong to the Bhuiya, Chamiu" or Mochi, Kora, Kajwar, Dosadh and Musahar castes. The great majority are recruited locally. The coal mines of Hyderabad, Assam, the Central Provinces and Berar, and the Punjab support between them only al)out 27,000 persons. Ihe number of workers in collieries according to the industrial census is less by about 16 per cent, tban the number shown iu the general occupation table. Work in the collieries was much slac! S.I tj. f^ 5 «i ov — •< ^ o 3> c3 Textiles . 8,306 4,449 558 Hides and skins 699 295 14 ^Vood . 3,81 »0 1,731 29 -Metals . 1,861 737 71 Ceramics 'J,240 1,159 49 Chemical pro- ducts . 1,242 6:<0 46 Food 3,712 2134 74 Dress and the toilet . 7,751 3,778 10 Buildinjj . 2,062 962 22 Luxury . 2,1J2 823 46 Kofuse matter . 1,3S9 796 llisrellaneous 120 50 "ir, Note — The d> UiU in rolomn 4 do no* work up lo tlio total Riven in Jnhb' XV-K aa iralua- trloH in ronnection witli traui(|«>rt, lliu growluK of special i>roduct«, etc., have not been Bliown In thid Btatemuut. Order 6— Textiles, 418 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. elsewhere iu the general return of occupations, either because of the ra'j:uenes8 of the entries in tlie ordinary schedules, or because, in the case of mechanics, carpenters and the like, they have been classified according to their personal occupation aud not according to the industry in wbich they happened to be employed at the time of tbe census. The number of hand workers cannot, therefore, be ascertained by deducting from the total number of workers shown in Table XV-A the number of factory employes shown in Table XV-E. 539. Of the 35'3 million persons dependent on industrial occupations, nearly one-fourth, or 2'6 per cent, of the total population, are supported by textile industries. Of these, the most important, from a numerical point of view, are industries connected with cotton. The number of persons supported by cotton spinning, sizing and weaving is close on 6 millions, and another half milhon are employed in ginning, cleaning and pressing the raw material. The proportion of the population supported by cotton spinning, sizing and weaving is 37 per mille in the Punjab, 29 in Boml)ay and Rajputana, 27 in Madras, 22 in the Central Provinces and Berar and 18 in the United Provinces. In Burma, Bihar and Orissa, Bengal and Assam it is much smaller, ranging only from 8 to 11 per mille. Nearly two-fifths of a million persons are supported by rope, twine and string making, and more than a third of a million by jute spinning, pressing and weaving. Other important textile industries are wool spinning and weaving, silk spinning aud weaving, and dyeing, printing, etc., each of which supports from a quarter to a third of a million persons. In the case of jute, the number of factory workers according to the special industrial return (Table XV-E) is 217,000 compared with 231,000 actual workers shown in Table XV-A. Many persons who earn their living in jute mills, aud were entered accordingly in the general schedules, were not actually at work on the date of the census, and thus escaped inclusion in the special industrial schedules, in the great majority of which it was noted that work was slacker than usual on the date of the census. In the case of cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing, the number of factory employes is more than a quarter of tlie number of actual workers shown in the general occupation table, but the number of persons employed in factories for cotton spinning, weaving, etc., is only 237,000 or about one-thirteenth of the number of actual Avorkers shown in Table XV-A. It is clear, therefore, that, so far as India is concerned, in spite of the growing number of cotton mills in the Bombay Presidency and elsewhere, the hand industry still, to a great extent, holds its own. Table XV-E shows that only 13,000 persons are employed in silk spinning and weaving factories, 7,000 in woollen factories including those for the making of carpets, and even smaller numbers in other factories of this class. Some of these textile industries are very local. Those connected with jute are practically confined to Bengal, in which province nine-tenths of the persons supported by them wore enumerated. More than half the persons dependent on rope, twine and string making and on working in ' other fibres,' chiefly coir aud palmyra fibre, were enumerated in ^Madras and its Native States, and a quarter of those sup- ported by wool industries in Hyderabad. Half the silk spinners aud weavers arc found in two provinces — Bengal and Madras. The dyeing, bleaching and printing of textiles and lace, crape and similar industries are almost unknown in Assam, Bengal, Burma and the Central Provinces and Berar. As compared with 1901 there has been a decreaise of 6*1 per cent, in the number of persons supported by textile industries. This is due mainly to the almost complete extinction of cotton spinning by hand. Weaving by hand has also suffered severely from the competition of goods made by machi- nery both in Europe and in this country. There has been a large increase in the number of Indian cotton mills, but as the output per head in factories is far greater than that from hand-looms, the addition of a given number of factory hands involves the displacement of a far larger number of hand workers. Where land is available, the rise in the price of agricultural produce tends to make the weaver, like other artisans, take to the plough as his principal means of subsistence. In spite of these adverse influences, Mr. Chattei-ton, who has examined the question in some detail in his valuable contribution to the Madras Census Report, does not think that the number of hand-loom weavers in that Province has decreased materially in the course of the last forty years. He 1 INDUSTRIES. 419 considers, however, that the weavers have to work harder than formerly in order to make a living, and suggests that tlicir lot miglit l)e greatly improved if tliov could be induced to recognize the advantaLrcs of a subdivision of labour and to work together in small hand-loom weaving factories. 540. In considering the number of persons included in Order 7 — Hides, skins "'^or 7^ Hides, etc., it is necessary to bear in mind the fact that only those persons are shown here who were returned, either as working in skins, or as making leather articles generally. Shoe makers are classed under a separate head, in Order 13— Indus- tries of dress ; and harness makers, whoso number is very small, in Order 16 — Construction of means of transport. Tlie distinction between these occupations is to a great extent artificial. The village shoe maker is ordinarily a general worker in hides, Avhich he cures himself ; and it was a matter of chance whether he was returned at the census under the general or the specific occupation. Possibly also, in tabulation, the word mochi was some- times interpreted in the narrow sense of shoe maker, slioes being the articles most commonly made. The distinction between the above occupations is main- tained, not because it is suitable to Indian conditions, but in the interests of international statistics. Adding the three occupations together, we get 2"8 millions, or nearly one per cent, of the population, as the number of persons dependent on industries connected with hides. Very few of these are workers in factories; tanneries employ about 9,000, leather factories 3,000, and l)one mills 1,000. In proportion to their population, the Punjab, the Central India and Rajputana Agencies and Hyderabad have the largest number of leather workers. As compared with 1901, a large decline in the number returned as general workers in hides is partly compensated for l)y an increase in Group 69 — Shoe, boot and sandal makers. In the two heads taken together there has been a drop of about 6 per cent. During the same period the number of hide dealers has more than doubled. Owing to the growing demand for hides in Europe and America and the resulting high prices, the export trade in hides has been greatly stimulated. The local cobbler, on the other band, having to pay more for his raw material and feeling the increasing competition of machine-made goods, has been tempted to abandon his hereditary craft for some other means of livelihood, such as agriculture or work in factories of various kinds. 541. Wood cutting and working and basket making support 2*5 and order s wood- 1'3 million persons respectively, or 3'8 million in all. The ordinary carpenter is included \inder this head, but cabinet makers, ship and boat builders, and cart, carriage and palki makers have their place in other parts of the lablc. Their numbers, however, are so small as to have very little effect on the total. In proportion to their population the Punjab, Bm-ma, Eajputana, Bombay and Madras have most wood workers, and the Central Provinces and Berar and Madras the largest number of basket makers. The number of factories devoted to these industries is still inconsiderable. Saw mills and timber yards each employ some 12,000 persons, and cari^cntry works about 5,000. There is only one cane factory, with 4G employes. Since 1901 the number of persons supported by these occupations has risen by 14 per cent. On the other hand, according to the returns, trade in wood supports many fewer persons than in 1901, and it is probable that some who were then .'^hown under ' trade ' have now been entered under the corresjionding industrial head. Thus in Central India a gain of 30,000 under the latter, is counterlialanccd by a loss of 28,000 undt^r the former, head. If the two occupa- tions be taken together, the net gain during the decade is 11 per cent. 542. The workers in metals are only about half as nvunerous as those in order 9 Motau wood and cane. About tliree-quartcrs of tlie persons in tbi>> order are general workers in iron, and one-seventh are workers in bra.ss, copper and bell-metal. The remaining one-tenth include persons who are engaged in the forging and rolling of iron, tbo.se who specialize in making i)loughs and other agi-ieul- tural implements, makers of firearms, workers in tin, lead, zinc, etc., workers in mints and die sinkers. The forging and rolling of iron is entirely a factory industry, and Table XV-E shows that 10,000 i)ersons are thus employed, or 32 per cent, more than the nunil)er of actual workers according to Table XV-A. The making of firearms and other weapons is another industry 3 I 2 420 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. Order 10 — Ceramics and 15— Building Industries- Order 11— Chemloal products. Tvhich is, to a great extent, monopolized, by factories, which employ 12,000 persons, or 25 per cent, more than the number of actual workers sho^vn in the general occupation table. It should be noted, however, that a good many axes, spears and similar weapons are made by persons who do not specialize in these articles, and wore thus returned simjily as blacksmiths. Amongst other factories of this category may be mentioned machinery and engineering works, witli 23,000 employes, iron and steel works with 12,000, tin works with 6,000 and mints with 2,100. The total number of persons dependent on metal industries shows a decline of 6'6 per cent, as compared with 1901. Dealers in metals, on the other band, are six times as numerous. It is possible that here, as elsewhere, there may have been some confusion between those who make and those who only sell ; but even now the total number of the latter is only 57,000, and in the two orders taken together there is a drop of 41 per cent. Ihe decrease in the number of metal workers and. the concomitant increase in tliat of metal dealers is probably genuine, and is due largely to the substitution, for the indigenous brass and copper utensils, of enamelled ware and aluminium articles imported from Em'ope. 543. The manufacture of glass, bricks and earthenware supports in all 2"2 million persons. Seven-eighths of these are the ordinary village potters who make the various earthenware utensils for cooking and storing water which are required by the poorer classes, as well as tiles, rings for wells and the like. In most parts of India the potter, like the carpenter, oil-presser, blacksmith and cobbler, is fovmd in practically every village. In Burma, on the other hand, the industry is concentrated at certain centres ; and nothing strikes the visitor from Inclia more forcibly, as evidence of the difference in local conditions, than the huge rafts of earthen pots which are floated down the Irrawaddy, from the villages where they are made, to the various markets along its banks. Persons who live principally by brick and tile making with their dependants aggregate only 210,000. The number of those engaged in the making of glass and porcelain ware and in the working of talc, mica, etc., is insignificant. About 46,000 persons are employed in brick and tile factories, but there are very few factories for the manufacture of glass and earthenware, and the total number of workers in them is only 3,300. There has been an increase, as compared with 1901, of more than 8 per cent, in the number of persons in Order 10 — Ceramics, but if we combine with it those returned under the corresponding trading head, Avhere there is a large apparent decrease (from 254 to 102 thou.sand), the gain becomes purely nominal, being in fact only 1 per cent. The reason is that earthenware is being supplanted, so far as domestic utensils are concerned, by vessels made of metal. With the growing prosperity of the people, houses with brick walls and tiled roofs are gradually replacing the older buildings made of more flimsy materials, and there has in consequence been an increase of IS per cent, in the number of persons supported by Order 15— Building industries. These now number over two millions, inclusive of 1"3 million stone and marble workers, masons and bricklayers. This form of employment supports many more persons in tracts like Bombay and Hyderabad than it does in the damper climate of Bengal, Assam, and Burma, where the walls of the houses are usually made of inud, wattle or wood, and the roofs of tliateh. 544. In a country like India, whose economic development is still back- ward, it is not to be expected that a large number of persons should be engaged in industries connected with chemical products. The total number returned as supported by these industries exceeds a million, but it shrinks to less than 100,000 if we exclude Group 53 — Manufacture and refining of vegetable and mineral oils. The 11 million persons included in this group are almost entirely village artisans, who extract oil from nmstard, linseed, etc., groMU by their fellow villagers. This industry supports more than seven persons per mille in the United IProvinces and Central India, and only one, or even less, in Madras, Mysore, Burma and Assam. The difference is du(! to the fact that in some provinces oil-pressing is a special occupation, whereas in others it is not. In Madras, for instance, the work is generally done by the cultivators them- selves, many of whom liaAC oil mills, which they Avoi-k when their cattle are not wanted for agricultural purposes. INDUSTRIES. 421 There has hecn a slight decrease in (he course of tlie decade in the number of persons supported by these industries, owing to the extended use of mechanical power for oil-pressing. On the other hand, there are signs of an imjiending industrial development, and numerous factories have been establisbed in recent years for the manuracture of matches, soap, perfumes, and drugs. Most of these new factories are financed by Indian capital and managed by Indians, who have usually received their training in America and Japan. They are still in their initial stage, and the number of workmen is generally very small. ' The six match factories have between them only G37 employes, the seven perfumery factories, 200, and the seven soap and candle factories, '1-73. Over 5,000 persons aVe employed in paper mills, 11,000 in petroh'um retineries, 10,000 in oil mills and 5,000 in lac and cutch factories ; with the exception of tlie last mentioned, however, these are for the most part tinanced by European capital. The Government ammunition factories employ 6,000 persons. 5-15. Of the 3"7 million persons supported by food industries the great STdus^trfss'*"*** majority follow occu]);itious of a very primitive type, llice pounders and buskers and flour grinders number 1'6 million, grain parchers, etc., O'G million, and toddy di-awers about the same. There are 352,000 butchers, 281,000 sweetmeat makers, etc., and 97,000 bakers and biscuit makers. Ihe other live heads of the scheme contain l)etweeu them only 227,000 persons. The principal factories in connection -with food industries are flour and rice mills, which employ 42,000 persons, sugar factories 8,000, opium, ganja and tobacco facto- ries 7,000, and breweries 5,000. The number of persons supported by these industries has fallen somewhat since 1901, owing chiefly to the introduction of flour-grinding and rice-husking machinery. The number of grain parchers has declined considerably, though it is hard to say why. This industry flourishes chieily in Bihar and Orissa and the United Provinces, which contain three-quarters of the total number of persons supported hy it. Nearly a third of the butchers are found in the United Provinces, where there are 2Ji in every ten thousand of the population, as compared with only 2 in Bengal and less than 1 in Assam. Considerably more than half the makers of sugar and molasses are found in Madras and the United Provinces, while Madras, with its States, and Hyderabad contain six-sevenths of the total number of toddy drawers. 546. In all, 7"8 million persons are supported by industries of dress and the JJ^^o^J^^^Jj^^^ toilet. Of these 1"3 million are grouped under the head tailors, milliners, dress- *•"> *<>'i®t' makers, etc., and 2*1 million under each of the heads (a) shoe, boot and sandal makers, (6) washermen, cleaners and dyers, and (c) barbers, hair-dressers and wig-makers. There are some curious variations in the local distribution of some of these industries. Throughout northern India and in Bombay, Hyderabad and Burma, the number of tailors, milliners and dress makers ranges from o to 6 per mille ; in tiie Central Provinces and Berar it is 4, and in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and Madras 2, per mille. The corresponding proportion of shoe, boot, and sandal makers exceeds 20 in the Punjab, Central India and Hyderabad; it is 12 in llajputaaa, 8 in the Central Provinces and Berar and Bomljay, 7 in Madras, and from 1 to 4 in the United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa, Bengal and Burma. In every thousand of the jiopulation tbcre arc fnmi 14 to IG washermen, cleaners, and dyers in ^Madras and Hyderabad, from 7 to 8 in the Punjab, United Provinces, 6 in Central Iiulia and Bihar and Oris.sa, 5 in the Central Provinces and Berar, 4 in Rajputana and Bombay, 3 in Bengal and 2 in Burma. Amongst the Burmese the professional washerman is non-existent. In the Punjab, United Provinces, llajputana and Central India there are from 9 to 11 barbers per mille, about G in Bihar and Orissa, J'ombay, tlie Central Provinces and Berar, Madras and Hyderabad, and 5 in Bengal. In Burma the barber, like the w^ashcrman, is practically unknot n, except in towns where he ministers to the needs of the immigrant community. There arc still very few factories in connection with dress industries. The most important are those for the making of Ijoots and shoes with 5,000 hands, dress factories with 2,700, and hosiery factories with 1,300. At present only 800 jiersons are employed in umbrella factories. According to the returns there is a slight increase of 3"3 per cent, in the number of persons suj)ported by industries of this category. Large gains in Assam, Burnui, the Central Provinces and l?erar, the Punjab, luid several Native States are to some extent counteracted by losses elsewhere, chiefly in the United 422 CHAPTEE XII. — OCCTTPATION. Order 18 -Indus- tries of iDxury, etc. Order 19— Indus- tries conaected with refuse matter. Snb-C lass Transport. IV- Provinces. The corresjwucling trading head shows a gain of 73 per cent., and the dealers iu clothing and toilet articles now numhcr 4U per cent, of the makers of these tilings as compared with only 24 per cent, in 1901. 547. Building industries have already heen dealt with; and the numher of persons in Order 14— Furniture industries, Order 16 — Construction of means of transport, and Order 17— Production and transmission of physical forces, is too small to deserve detailed mention. We thus come to Order 18 — Industries of luxury and those pertaining to literature and ihe arts and sciences, which includes 2-1 million persons. Of these 1"8 million are in Group 89 — Workers in precious stones and metals, enamellers, imitation jewellery makers, gilders, etc. These occupations are most extensively followed in Mysore, where they support about 9 persons per mille. The proportion exceeds 6 per mille in the Punjab, Madras, Bombay, Hyderabad and Piajputana, aiul is 4 or less in Burma, Bihar and Orissa and Assam. Table XV- H shows that only 1,600 persons were employed in jewellery workshojis and 1,000 in factories for the manufacture of scientific, optical and musical instruments. Very few employers of this class liave as many as twenty workmen. The number of persons in this Order has increased by 9 per cent, since 1901. 548. Order 19 — Industries connected with refuse matter, provides a liveli- hood for 1'4 million persons. These are mostly municipal sweepers and scavengers and sAveeping contractors; jirivate sweepers are shown iu Order 52 — Domestic service. Two-thirds of the total number were enumerated in the United Provinces and Punjab, where it is possible that some persons belonging to the so-called sweeper castes were thus classed because their tradi- tional, and not their actual, occupation was returned by tlie enumerators. The decrease of 16 per cent, which has taken place under this head as compared Avith the return for 1901 is no doubt duo to the errors of this kind having been less common at the present census than they were at the one preceding it- 549. Transport supports about five million persons, or 10 per mille of the population, viz., transport by water one million, transjiort by road 2'8 million, transport by rail one million, and the post, telegraph and telephone services 0-2 million. Of the persons in Order 20— Transport by water, about threc- tifths are owners of country boats and their boatmen ; nearly one-sixth are employed on inland steamers and ocean-going vessels of all kinds, one-sixth are engaged in the construction and maintenance of canals, and cue- twentieth in the management and upkeep of harbours. Transport by road includes one million carters and cart-owners, more than half a million porters and messengers, and considerably less than that number of owners and drivers of pack animals. Palki OAvners and bearers number 202,000 and persons engaged on road construction and maintenance 563,000. As compared with 1901, the population supported by occupations connected with transport shows an increase of 29 per cent. The gain under tlie head transport by road amounts to 25 per cent., and under transport by water to 16 per cent ; in the Punjab, owing to work on the great Triple Canal Project the number of persons employed on the construction and maintenance of canals, etc., has risen from 32 to 86 thousand. The employes of the post office and telegraph departments and their dependants have grown in number by 30 per cent. But the greatest increase of all is under transport by rail, where it amounts to no less than 62 per cent, ^ As already noted (paragraph 94), the expansion of railway communication in India has been very rapid in recent years. The special returns showing the number of persons employed on the date of the census, whicli were compiled through departmental agency (Subsidiary Taljlc XIII), show that the numher of persons employed on canals and railways and in the post ofl&cc and telegraph departments Avas far greater than would appear from the figures in the general occupation table. These special returns, Avliich Avere compiled very care- fully, include not only persons directly employed by Government, but also those Avorking iiiuler contractors. They thus bring into account m;iny persons who Avere recorded in the -ordinary census schedules simjily as coolies or mechanics witliout any further specification, or as Ijrick-makers, masons and the like. NUMltKR llF WuKKKKsj (IIIIU'S OMITTED) AOCOKDINO TO General censos. Special return. Canals ttailwaya . IVjrtt rice and tr-le- graplis. 81 474 77 376 804 96 Total 632 1,276 No. support^ Torm ol trade. ei (UOO's omitted). Bankers and money lenders 1,S20 Brokors, commission agcnU »41 Trailo in textiles 1,277 Trade in skina , . . 297 Trade in wood 225 Trade in motal3 60 Trade in pottery . . • 102 Trade in chemical products 172 Hotel keepers and liquor sel- lers. Trade in food stuffs . 719 »,479 Trade in clotlung and toilet 307 articles. Trade in furniture . 173 Trade in building m.iteriaU ss Trade in means ol transport • 239 Trade in fuel .... 525 Trade in articles of luxury 522 Miscellaneous and unspcciQcd . 2,ioa TRADE. 423 Undev the three heads taken together tlie number of workers is shown by the special r.-turn to be about double tbe number according to the ordinary census. The dilferencc between the two sets of statistics is least niarked'in the case of the post office and telegraph employes. The number of temporary men engaged on construction work is here comparatively small ; but, on the other hand, many of the smaller post offices arc in charge of school pandits and others who arc 'only part-time postmasters and Avere thus not returned as such in the ordinary census schedules. 550. The number of persons dependent on trade for their livelihood is 17-8 subOMBV.. millions, or G per cent, of the population. Of these, more than half are sup- ported by trade in food stufFs, including 29 million grocers and sellers of vegetable oil, salt and other condiments, who arc for the most jmrt the petty village shop-keepers, commonly known as • salt and oil sellers ;' 2-2 million grain and iiul.se dealers ; I'G million betel-leaf, vegetables and fruit sellers, and nearly a million fish vendors. Trade in textiles is the next most important item, sup- porting 4 per mille of the population. In con- nection with these figures, and those noted in the margin, it is necessary to draw attention to the great difference which exists between the economic conditions of India and those of Europe. In Europe the seller is almost invariably a middleman, whereas in In lia, he is usually the maker of the article, and is thus classified under the industrial, and not the commercial, liead. This explains, for instance, how it is that although earthenware vessels arc found in almost every house in India, and nearly two million persons are engaged in their manufacture, only 102,000 have been shown as traders in pottery. It is also necessary to remember that, in the smaller towns at least, the shop-keepers do not specialize to any great extent in any particular commodity. The salt and oilseller is nearly always also a vendor of grain. So is the money-lender, who is frequently a pi'ece goods dealer as well. There are also the dealers in all sorts of miscellaneous articles, whose shops are known in Bengal as manohari dokdn, vide paragraph 311 of the last Report. In Burma the kun zun saing, or general store, contains an even greater variety of goods, including earthenware, hard- ware, glass, furniture, clothing, food stuffs, aerated waters, chemical products, bangles, fans, toys, books, stationery, etc. It is thus often a matter of chance under which head a particular shop is shown, and it is this perhaps Mhich accounts largely for the fact that aI)out one-ninth of the total number of persons supported by trade have been recorded under the heading ' shop-keepers other- wise unspecified.' In view of this uncertainty, the local distribution of trading occupations will he dealt with very briefly. The proportion of traders to the total pojaila- tionis greater ill Burma (10 per cent.) than in any of the other main provinces. As stated in paragraph 521, the industries in that province are localized to a much greater extent than in other parts of India, and the natural result is tiiat a larger distributing agency is needed. In Bombay, Madras, and the Punjab the proportion of traders slightly exceeds G percent.; in Bengal it is 5 per cent., in Bihar and Urissa and the United Provinces 4 per cent., and in Assam and the Central Provinces and Berar about SJ- per cent. Trade in food stuff's supports 30 per mille in India as a whole, over 10 in Burma and Madras, and 25 or less in Assam, Bihar and Orissa, the Central Provinces and Berar and the Punjab. Bankers and money-lenders, who number 1 per mille in the total pojiulation, are twice as plentiful in the Punjab ; llieir number exceeds the general average in Bombay and the Central Provinces and JJerar, and is somewliat below it in Bengal, Madras and the United Provinces, while in Assam it is only 1 jier mille. Trade in textiles, which supports t per mille in the general popula't ion, supports over per mille in Bombay and Burma, and 3 or less iu tiie United Provinces, Ass;im, Bihar and Urissa, Madras and the Central Provinces and Berar. 424 CHAPTER. XII. — OCCUrATION. Relative progress 551. It woiild he interesting, if it were possible, to compare the relalive pro- tradef"'"^^ *° grcss of industrial and trading occupations iu the course of the last decade. Tliis, however, cannot he done in detail. In 1901 makers and sellers were still some- times grouped under the same head in the scheme,* while even where separate heads were provided, no general instructions were given as to the principle to be followed in drawing the line between makers and sellers. On the present occasion it Avas laid down that all persons who make the articles they sell should be shown under the industrial head. This is clearly the only logical course. An artisan is no less an artisan because he sells the things he makes to the consumer direct, instead of through a middleman ; bu.t in 1901, in the absence of definite instruc- tions, the point was often lost sight of, and it was largely a matter of chance whether a person who retailed the articles made by him was classed as a maker or as a seller. One would, therefore, naturally expect, at the present census, to find a large shrinkage in the trading head, accompanied by a large gain iu the corre- sponding industrial one. Tliis is what has actually happened in many cases. Thus traders in pottery show a loss of 60, and makers of ]iottery a gain of 9, per cent. Furniture dealers are far fewer, while furniture makers are much more numer- ous ; and similar results are found in the case of builders and dealers in building materials, makers and sellers of articles of luxury, and makers and sellers of wooden articles. On the other hand, the trading head has gained at the expense of the industrial one in the case of textiles, hides and metals. The reason here is that the articles manufactured at home by the village artisan are being dis- placed by machine-made goods. Most of these are still imported from Europe, but even when made in India, as is largely the case with cotton goods, the substitution of machinery for the hand loom means the employment of much less labour for a given quantity of finished articles, while as they are produced at a limited number of centres, numerous middlemen are needed for their distribution, for whom there was no place iu the days when the village weaver made all the clothing of his fellow villagers. Class CPnMio administration and the liberal arts. Class C — Public Administration and the Liberal Arts. 552. The public administration and the liberal arts support 10"9 million persons, or 35 per mille; namely, public force 2'1 million, public ad- ministration 2"7 million, the professions and liberal arts 5"3 million, and persons of independent means about half a million. The liead Public force includes the Army (0'7 million), the Navy (lejs than 5,000) and the Police (IT) million). India has practically no navy, and her army is exceptionally small, as compared with those of European countries. 1 he number of persons actually employed in it is only 38 4,000t, or 1 per mille of the population, as compared with 4 per mille in England and 10 in Germany. The figures for Police include village watchmen and their families. The real number in this group is greater than that shown in the census tables ; many of these village officials have other means of subsistence, and the latter were sometimes shown as their principal occupation. Under the head Public administration are classed only those persons who are directly engaged in the Executive and Judicial administration and their establishments, whether employed directly under Government or imder a municipality or other local body. Em])loyes of Government and local bodies Avho have a specific occupation of their own, such as doctors, printers, school- masters, land surveyors, etc., are shown under the special heads provided for these occupations. Of the 5"3 million persons supported by the professions and liberal arts, Eeligion accounts for rather more than half, Letters and the arts and sciences for more than a sixth. Instruction and Medicine for one-eighth, and Law for one-eighteenth. The main head Eeligion contains I'G million priests, ministers, etc., 0'7 million religious mendicants, 0"4 million pilgrim conductors, circumcisers and persons engaged iu temple.'^, burial or Ijurning ground service, and O'OG million catechists and other persons in church and mission service. Of the actual workers in Order 47 — Law, more than half are lawyers, laAV agents and mukhtiars, and the remainder lawyers' clerks * eg. in Groups 99, 115, 203, 231, 373, 374. & 375. In Binh caecB for fho purpose of Subsidiary Tiiblo VI it has bei'ii a.ssumi-d th:it (bo distiibiitioii between umkers anl nellois was the same in 11)01 as it is now. To thin extent the changes which have actually occurred have been obliterated. t This includes the troops maintained by Native Staten. Table XV-A shows that the Imperial Array numbers l!41,00li or about ti.lluO nuio thau its strciiKth according to the deparimentol rolurns. Tlie difference is due to the inclusion in the census figures of certain non-com bntants who do not sppear in the Army List. rUBLTC ADMINISTRATION AND THE LIBERAL ARTS. 426 and petition writers. More than two-tliirds of the persons under tlie Medical head are medical practitioners of various kinds, including dentists ; the remainder arc midwivcs, vaccinators, compounders, nurses, etc. The real number of persons wlio act as midwives must exceed considerably that shown in the return. Tliis service is usually performed by the wife of the village scavenger or other person of low caste ; and she must often have been returnied under her husband's occupation. Nearly thre(>-fourths of the persons classed under Letters and the arts and sciences are found in Group lf;0 — IMusic com- posers and masters, players on musical instruments, singers, actors and dancers. The bulk of these are village drummers, whose services arc invariably requisi- tioned on the occasion of marriages and religious festivals. 553. In British territory, the largest propoi-tion of persons in Sub-class VI — Public force, is found in the North-West frontier Province and Paluchi- stan, where it exceeds 2-l< per mille, as compared with 11 in the Punjab and Central Provinces and IBerar, 9 in Bombay, 7 in the United Provinces and Burma, 5 in Madras and Bihar and Orissa, 4 in Bengal, and less than 3 in Assam. In the province last mentioned, village police are employed only in three districts. The average proportion of persons who are supporfed by the public administration (8 per mille) is exceeded in Bombay, the North- West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, while considerably less than the average is found in Bengal, Assam and Bihar and Orissa, Avhere it ranges from 2 to 3 per mille. There is no local revenue agency in the permanently settled areas, which include almost the whole of Bengal, the greater part of Bihar and Orissa and a tract containing more than a third of the population of Assam. Religion is the means of livelihood of 18 persons per mille in the North-West Frontier Province, 14 in the Punjab, 12 in Burma and 11 in Bombay, but only of 6 in Madras and even fewer in Bihar and Orissa and the United Provinces. The Law supports most persons per ten thousand in Bengal (16) and Madras il2), and fewest in Burma (7) Assam (7), Bihar and Orissa (6), the North- West Frontier Province (5), and Baluchistan (2). Medical practitioners are most numerous in Burma, Bengal and Madras and least so in the Central Provinces and Berar, Baluchi- stan, the United Provinces and the North-West Frontier Province. The laro-cst proportion of persons returned under the head ' Instruction ' is found in Madras, including its Native States, and Baroda. Of the British provinces, Madras has most teachers, but is followed closely by Bombay. Persons of independent means are relatively most numerous in various Native States, such asEajputana, Baroda, Mysore and Central India, where they exceed 3 per mille of the popu- lation. In British territory, the above proportion is reached only in Bombav and the North-West Frontier Province. The proportion is 2 per mille in Madras and the Punjab, and 1 per mille in the United Provinces and Bengal. In Bihar and Orissa only 3 persons in every 10,000 are possessed of independ- ent means. 554. The total number of persons supported by Class C shows a sliglit decrease as compared with 1901. This, however, is due entirely to the system, described above, which was followed at the recent censixs, of classiiying under the head Public administration only those persons, with their establislitnents, who are directly engaged in the work of administration, and of showing other servants of the State, such as doctors, surveyors and the like, under the special heads provided for these occupations. The number of persons supported hy Public force has increased by 8 per cent., or at about the same rate as tlie general population. The whole of this increase has occurred in Order 44 — Police; the number supported by the Army and Navy is practically the same as it was at the previous census. Throughout British India the police force has recently been reorganized on the basis of the recommendations made by the Police Commission of 1903. The increase in Sub-class VIII — I'rofessions and the liberal arts amoimls to 13 per cent. It is most marked in (Jrder 49 — Instruc- tion, where it amounts to 33 per cent., and least so in Order 4G— Beligion, where it is only 6 per cent, 'i'lie heads Law, Medicine ami Letters, and the Arts and Sciences show increases of from 17 to 18 per cent. A fall of 18 per cent, in the number of persons returned as living principally on their income is probably only nominal. Greater precision in the entries in the schedules may have caused some of the persons shown under this head in 19U1 to be classilied on 42G CHAPTER XII.— OCCUPATION. tl)c present occasion under other heads, such as Group 1 — Income from rent of agricultural land. Class D^Miscellaneoiis, ne^. °""**°°"* 55"- Class D includes a variety of occuj^ations which could not be assigned to other jxarts of the scheme. Its total strength of 173 millions, or 5'5 per cent, of the population, is distributed over three Sub-classes X. — Domestic ser- vice (4i'6 millions), XI. — Insufficiently described occupations (9'2 millions), and XII,— Unproductive (3-5 millions). In the whole of India only 15 persons ' per mille are supported by domestic service. It may be noted that nearly two-thirds of the actual workers returned under this head are males. Where a family can afford only one servant, he is almost invariably a man, who can do the marketing and perform other outdoor duties better than a woman. The proportion of domestic servants in the main provinces is highest (18 per mille and upwards) in the Punjab, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa and the North-West Prontier Province, and lowest (7 per mille or less) in Burma, Assam and Madras. Beggars, vagrants and prostitutes, who form the bulk of the ' unproductive ' head, number 11 per mille in India as a whole. Of the main British provinces, they are far more numerous than anywhere else in the Punjab, where they form 24 per mille of the population. In Bombay, the proportion is only 14 per mille ; in Macbas and the Central Provinces and Berar it is 6, in Bihar and Orissa 5, and in Burma only 2 per' mille. As compared with 1901, there has been a large decrease in Class D — Mis- cellaneous occupations, chiefly because the number of persons whose occupations were not described with sufficient precision to enable them to be allocated to a definite head has fallen from 17"8 to 9 millions. Thei*e has been also a welcome decrease in the ' unprodvictive ' head ; the inmates of jails, asylums, hospitals are less by 14, and beggars, vagrants and prostitutes by 28, per cent, than they were in 1901. These figures are a reflex of the economic condition of the people, which was far more satisfactory in 1911 than it was ten years IDreviously, when the census followed hard on the heels of two disastrous famines. The number of persons supported by domestic service shows a decline of about 3 per cent. This is perhaps attributable to the recent rise in the price of food grains, which has hit hard the large class of respectable persons on small fixed salaries, who are no longer able to spend as. much as formerly on servants, wMle, on the other hand, the wages of servants have risen. The Industrial Census. of fact^drfe'?"^""^ ^^^' ^^^ information provided by Table XV- E. — Statistics of Industries has aheady been utilized in the discussion of the general statistics of occujiation, in order to show the extent to which the different industries are carried on in factories. It is now proposed to consider them from a somewhat different standpoint. But before doing so, it is necessary to repeat that these statistics refer only to factories in which twenty or more per- sons were employed on the date of the census. The dividing line is an arbitrary one, but it is necessary to draw it at some definite point, and the number twenty has been taken because that is the number which l)rings a concern within the operation of the Indian Factories Act. It must be also noted that in this part of the table the word " industry " is used in a wider sense than in Table XV- A, and includes the growing of special products and the extrac- tion of minerals. According to Table XV-E., there are in the whole of India 7,113 factories employing 2*1 million persons, or 7 per mille of the population. Of these persons, 810,000, or two-fifths of the total number, are employed in the growing of special products, 558,000 in textile industries, 224,000 in mines, 125,000 in transport, 74,000 in food industries, 71,000 in metal indus- tries, 49,000 in glass and earthenware indu.stries, the same number in industries connected with chemical products, and 45,000 in industries of luxury. Of the special products, tea (703,000 employes) is by far the most important. The number of tea gardens is not mucli more than doul)lo that of coffee plantations, but twelve times as many persons are employed THE INBTTSTRIAL CENStS. 427 on them. The coffee plantations are four times as numerous as indigo concerns and employ twice as many labourers. Of the labourers on tea i^ardens, 70 per cent, are returned by Assam and 27 per cent, by Bengal. Madras, Mysore and Coorg contain between them practically all the coffee plantations, and Bihar and Orissa all the indigo factories. Of the persons working in mines, 143,000, or 64 per cent., are found in collieries, eight-ninths of tiieni being in the two provinces of Bihar and Orissa and Bengal. The number of persons engaged in gold mines is about one-fifth of the number in the coal mines: nine-tenths of them were returned from Mysore. Of the 558,000 workers in textile industries, cotton mills contribute 308,000 and jute, hemp, etc., 222,000. About two-thirds of the persons employed in cotton mills are found in the Bombay Presidency, from 8 to 9 per cent, in the Central Provinces and Berar and Madras, and about half this proportion in the United Provinces and Bengal. Jute mills are a monopoly of Bengal. Of the industries connected Avith transport, railway workshops are by far the most important, and afford employment to 99,000 persons, or 79 per cent, of the total number of persons engaged in these industries : about one- fourth of them are found in Bengal and one-sixth in Bombay. Of the factories connected with food industries, the most jiromineut are rice and flour mills. These employ 42,000 persons, of whom nearly three-fourths are engaged in the rice mills of Rangoon and other places in Burma. Similar particulars regarding other industries will be found in Subsidiary Table X. 557. Mechanical joower is used in 64 per cent, of the total number of ^he use of mochan- factories, but the proportion rises to 67 per cent., if we consider only industries "* p*""""- in the sense in which the term is used in the general occupation table, and ex- clude from consideration tea, coffee and other plantations and mines of all kinds. In some of these latter undertakings, the use of mechanical power is exceptional. Thus of 50 stone and marble quarries, such power is used only in 4, of 93 mica mines only in 18, and of 482 coffee plantations only in 93. In most industrial concerns, on the other hand, mechanical power is employed far more frequently. It is used, for instance, in every one of the cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing mills and in more than three-fourths of the cotton spinning and weaving mills. The kind of power used is shown in the foot-notes to Table XV-E. In the great majority of cases it is steam, but in some of the smaller factories internal com- bustion engines are employed, and occasionally, where it is available, electricity. Factories with mechanical power have on the average 395 employes, while those without it have only 119. The use of mechanical power is spreading rapidly, even amongst the smaller concerns, including some of those with less than twenty employes which do not come under the pm-view of Table XV-E. In the course of his interesting contribution to the Occupation Chapter of the Madras Census Report Mr. Chatterton writes on this subject as follows : — " During the past ten years the industrial tendencies in the Madras Presidency have mainlv exhibited themselves in the supersession of hand labour by machinery driven by power derived from steam or internal combustion engines. The main factor has been the development of the use of the internal combustion engine, which enables small quantities of power to be generated both cheaply, and by methods which require no great amount of technical skill to supervise. In the deltaic districts of Godavari, Kistna and the Cauverv, which are almost wholly given up to the cultivation of paddy, the primitive methods of husking by hand have to a large extent been superseded by modern machinery. As the result of measures deliberately taken by Government, there has been a similar application of motive power on a small scale to the raising of water for irrigation ; and finally as the result, partly of direct Government assistance, and partly of progressive private effort, a number of what may be termed rural factories have come into existence, which use machine processes usually on the smallest scale that it is practicable to employ them. Such factories employ machinery for ginning cotton, crushing sugarcane, extracting palmyra fibre, pressing oil seeds, and cutting timber. In the towns power is similarly being employed in an even more varied manner. Under the conditions prevailing in the Madras Presidency, where fuel of any kind is expensive, the internal combustion engine, on account of its very high eliiciency, especially in engines of small power, is already very largely employed, and is likely to become in time almost the sole source of power. It is not improbable that the development will bo chielly in the direction of gas plants using wood as fuel. It is certainly desirable that it should be so, as the forests can probably be made to yield about ten times as much fuel as they now do, whilst any other fuel must be obtained either from other provinces of India, or from other parts of the world. Coal comes chiefly from Ikngal, either by rail or sea, although the Xingareni coal-field is now much more favourably situated for supplying Madras; but unfortunately most of its output goes west to serve the demands of Hyderabad and Bombay. (.)wing to the necessity 3 Ki 428 CHAPTER XII.— OCCUPATION. for storing it in bulkj the supply of liquid fuel is at present a monopoly of the Asiatic Petro- leum Company. Away from Madras, and especially in the neighbourhood of the forest tracts suction gas plants, worked either with wood or charcoal, are undoubtedly the cheapest method of generating power, and the tendency at the present day is to use oil engines for small units of power and gas-engines for large. But very little use is made of water power. There are two large installations, one at Ambasamudram in the Tinnevelly district, where water power is employed to drive a cotton mill, and the other in the Nilgiris, whore a hydro-electric station has been put up to supply power to the Government Cordite Factory at Aruvankad." Tbe Personnel. 558. Of the 2"1 million persons employed in factories, 70,000, or 3 per cent., are engaged in direction, supervision and clerical work, 555,000, or 27 per cent., are skilled, and l,-i8l,000, or 70 per cent., are unskilled, workmen. The words skilled and unskilled are here used with reference to the kind of work done, and not the degree of proficiency of the individual workman. By skilled workmen are meant those whose work is of such a character as to require a special course of training before it can be undertaken. I'hose who are employed on work which can be picked up in a few days are classed as unskilled. Of the 70,000 persons employed on direction, supervision and clerical work, 13 per cent are Europeans (including Anglo-Indians who are not shown sepai'ately) and 87 per cent. Indians. The proportion of Indians to Europeans varies considerably in different classes of factories. The great majority of the larger concerns are financed by European capital, and in such cases the management or direction is generally European, and the Indians shown under this head are engaged for the most part on supervision and clerical work. This will be clearly seen on a reference to Subsidiary Tal)le XII which contains some highly interesting statistics regarding the ownership and management of factories by Europeans and Indians respectively.* In Assam, Avhere 549 tea gardens are owned by Europeans and 60 by Indians, there are 536 European and 73 Indian managers. In the coffee plantations of Madras and Mysore the same principle is apparent. The jute mills of Bengal are financed by Euroiiean capital and the managers are all Euro2)eans ; while in Bombay where Indians own 110 of the cotton spinning and weaving mills, and share 25 with Europeans, and the latter own exclusively only 12, all but 43 of the managers are Indians. Sometimes the proportion of Europeans employed in supervision etc,, varies with the character of the work. In the gold mines, where the planning and control of the deep underground workings require a high degree of skill, Europeans outnumber Indians in the ratio of nearly 4 to 1, whereas in the collieries Indians are twelve times as numerous as Europeans. Oeonpatton caste. Occupation by Caste. by 569. The local variations are so great and the castes so numerous that it is impossiI)le in a report for the whole of India to discuss in detail the statistics of occupation by caste ; it must sutfice to draw attention to some of the more salient features of the return. f The most noticeable of all is the great differ- ence which often exists between the traditional, and the actual, occupation. Commencing with the highest and best known caste of all— the Brahman— we find that, as a rule, less than one-fifth of its members follow religious callings. Tlie proportion exceeds a quarter in Sind, Hyderabad, Assam and parts of Ben- gal, and amongst the Malayalam Brahmans of Madras and certain Bavoda sub- castes, ])ut it is less than one-twelfth in the United Provinces and is smaller still in the case of the Oriya and Canarese Brahmans of Madras. The Baidya is by tradition a physician, but in North and East Bengal only one in six is so in actual practice. In the same tract only one Kilyastha in sixteen is a writer. In connection with the allegations which are being made to the effect that the people of this country are becoming more intemperate, it is interesting to note (hat, as a group, no castes have deserted their traditional occupation to the same extent as those who are reputed to be Avine sellers and toddy drawers. Of the Sunris, 118 per mille are wine sellers in Bengal, while in Bihar the proijoition falls to 51, and in Chota Nagi)ur to 10, per mille. The Shanan.Tiyan and Billava ca.stes of Madras h-iveonly 139, 72 and 53 per mille, respectively, • Siinilnr statistics for railways and the postal, tilcgraph and irrigation departments will be found in Subsidiary Table XIII. t In several Provinces tlic Value of the statistics of occupation by caste has beoii giently reduced bv the specitio caste occupation haviuf^ been merged in tlio " Order " to whicli it belongs. Thus for Kuiiiliars, the number who aro potters has not been distinguished from the number engaged in industries of all kindK. 0CCtJPA.TlON BY CASTIC. 429 who follow tht-ir traditional occupation of toddy drawinc;, and the Izbavan of Travancorc 110 ; while the Pasis of the United Provinces have only 5 permillc. There are givat variations in the extent to whieli the fishing and boating castes follow their traditional occupation. About tbree-quarters of the Pods and Malos of Bengal do so, and more tlian half the Jaliya Kaibarttas of that province and tlie Kewats of Orissa ; but amongst the Maliahs of the United Provinces the proportion is only 11 per cent., and it is even lower amongst the Kewats of Bibar. The Doms are in theory scavengers and basket makers, and in Bengal and Bihar 4-1 and 81 per cent., respectively, are so in practice also, hut in the United Provinces only 14j jier cent, live by these pursuits. In Bengal about a third of the Chamfirs and Mochis are tanners and cobblei-s and in Baroda about one-half, but in Bihar the proportion falls to one in ten and in the United Provinces to one in 27. 560, As a rule the weavers are fairly faithful to their traditional occupation. In Madra.« three castes of this group have from 54 to 74 per cent, who are actually weavers. The proportion lies between much the same limits in the case of the Jolabas of the United Provinces, the Tantis of Oris.sa, the Koshtis of the Central Provinces and Berar and the Kapalis of Bengal. It is about 40 per cent, in the case of the Jogis, Jolahns and Tantis of Bengal ; but amongst the Pans cf Orissa and the Chota Nagpur plateau it is only 15, and amongst the Tantis of Bihar only 7, per cent. Of the Dhobis, as a rule, from 50 to 60 per cent, are washermen. In Bihar and Orissa and the United Pro- vinces from one-third to two-tifths per cent, of the Telis live by pressing oil, but in Bengal only 9 per cent, do so ; oil-pressing is there done chiefly by two other castes — the Hindu Kalu and the Mubammadan Kulu. The proportion of Kum- hars who are potters ranges from tbree-quartei's in Bengal to three-sevenths in the United Provinces. About half the members of the barber castes practice hair cutting and shaving. In Madras about three-fifths of the metal and wood workers live by their traditional occupation ; elsewhere the proportion is some- times much lower, falling to a quarter in the case of the Barhis (carpenters) of Bihar and Orissa. The Jain trading castes seldom seek other avocations, and three-quarters or more of the Agarwals and Baranwals of the United Provinces were returned as traders. In Madras, on the other hand, although the Balijas are reputed to be traders, only one in nine actually lives by trade, and with the Chettis of Travaucore the proportion is only one in five. 561. The castes whose traditional occupation is agriculture seldom desert it for other means of livelihood. Thus nine-tenths of the Kalians of Madras, Eajbansis of Bengal, Dogras and Kanets of the Punjab and Rajputs of Bihar claim it as their principal means of subsistence. It may be noted here that agriculture, in- cluding field labour is the occupation which has drawn away most of those who have deserted their traditional callings. In Bengal more than one-half of the Telis, one-third of the Brahmans, Dhobis, Napits and Mochis, and one-fourth of the fishing Kaibarttas and Tantis are dependent on agricvdture ; and in ^Madras two-thirds of the Billavas and Brahmans. The proportion of cultivating Brahmans is even higher in Bihar and Orissa. In the same province nearly three-fifths of the Barhis, or carpenters, and three-quarters of the Dhuuias, or cotton carders, are either cultivators or field labourers, l^he reason why in practice the pursuit of agriculture is so much more widespread than it is in theory has already been explained in paragraphs 530 and 539. With the rise in the price of food grains agriculture has become more profitable, while most of the industrial occupations have become less so, owing to the competition of machine-made goods. It is comparatively rare to find persons taking to a non- agricultural occupation that is already the badge of a particular caste ; ordinarily no one but a Dhobi takes to washing clothes, and no one but a member of a weaving caste to weaving. There are, however, vai'ious occupations which arc not specially earmarked, such as service under Government, the learned ])rofes- sions, etc., which persons of all castes seek to follow ; and with the spread of education, the competition for employment in these directions will become increasingly severe. 562. Some interesting statistics have been collected in several provinces costoBosoover regarding the castes of Government ollicers of gazetted rank. In ]?ongal, °""" ^"'"""' Bihar and Orissa and Assam tiiken together, of 2,305 gazetted apj)ointnients 430 CHAPTER XII.— OCCtJPATlON. held by natives of the country, four-fifths are held by Hindus and less than one-fifth by Muhammadans, although in the aggregate population of these three provinces the Hindus are less than twice as numerous as the Muhammadans. Of the 1,823 appointments held by Hindus, about eight-ninths are held by members of the Brahman, Baidya and Kayastha castes, although these castes contribute less than one-twelfth of the total Hindu population. The remaining eleven-twelfths hold between them only 217 appointments. In the Provincial Services of the United Provinces (Judicial and Executive), of 420 appoint- ments, the Muhammadans hold 150, the Jains 1, and the Christians 23. Of the remaining 248 appointments 91 are held by Brahmans, 81 by Kayasthas, 36 by Baniyas and 15 by Rajputs, leaving only 23 for all the other castes taken together. In tlie Punjab, of the 443 gazetted oflBcers (excluding Chris- tians), 113 are Muhammadans, 93 Khatris, 44 Brahmans, 42 Aroras, 25 Baniyas, 22 Rajputs, 20 Kayasthas and 2 Parsis. The other castes, which constitute 93 per cent, of the Hindu population, enjoy only [82 appointments between them. In the Central Provinces and Berar, of the 471 gazetted apiioint- ments held by Indians, 78 are held by Muhammadans, 22 by Parsis and other minor religions and 271 by Hindus. Of the latter again, more than half are held by Brahmans M'ho form only 3 per cent, of the Hindu population. The Kayasthas and Prabhus claim between them 30 appointments and the Rajputs 13, leaving only 134 for all the other castes put together. Castes of income- 563_ Xhc Superintendents of the same provinces give some useful informa- tion regarding the classes assessed undei: Part IV of the Income Tax Act, thaD is to say, on sources of income other than salaries, pension, the profits of com- panies and interest on securities. In Bengal of 23,000 such assessees : — " over one-eighth are Kayasthas, who derive their income mainly from commercial and professional pursuits. Their aggregate number is only a little less than that of the Musalmans, of whom only 3,177 (out of 24 millions) derive sufficient wealth from trade, manufactures, professions and property to be assessed to income-tax. The next most numerous caste consist of the Brahmans, of whom half obtain their income from commerce and trade. They only slightly outnumber, however, those enterprising traders, the Shahas. Only one other caste has over 1,000 assessees, viz., the Telis and Tilis, who also make their money by wholesale and retail trade. It is somewhat surprising that two of the chief mercantile castes indigenous to Bengal, the Gandhabaniks and Subarnabaniks, should each have under 500 assessees. The great majority of the assessees have been assessed on income obtained from commerce and trade, and among them the Shahas, Musalmans, Kayasthas and Brahmans have the most representa- tives. Two-thirds of those assessed on the income derived from professional pursuits are Brahmans and Kayasthas : the Kayasthas also account for over a sixth of the owners of property ". In Bihar and Orissa most of these assessees are engaged in trade. One-seventh of them are Agarwals, while Brahmans, Babhans, Kalwars, Sunris and Telis each contribute about one-fourteenth. The Brahmans and Kavasthas form three-filths of the professional men paying income tax, while the Babhans, Brahmans and Rajputs are the most important castes amongst the owners of property. In the United Provinces, of 32,000 assessees only 3,000 are Muhammadans and 1,000 Christi;ins. Of the Hindu assessees, more than half are Baniyas, one-sixth Brahmans, one-fourteenth Rajputs, and one-thirtieth Khatris. Only one assessee in every 36 is a Kayastha, but in spite of this, the Kayasthas have more persons assessed on account of their income from a learned profession than any other caste. Of the total number of assessees, more than half are traders, one-twelfth are raanufacturex's and the same proportion belongs to the learned professions. In the Punjab, the Baniyas, Mahajans, Khatris, Aroras, Sheikhs and Brahmans contribute between them about five-sixths of the tax. The Khatris pay more than one-tliird of the total assessment under the head 'professions' ; they also take the lead under 'industrial occupations,' but in ' trade,* the profits of the Baniyas are by far the largest, being more than one- third of the total. The Sheikhs and Khatris are the largest property owners. In the Central Provinces and Berai', more than three-fourths of the income-tax payers of the class under consideration are traders, and nearly half the remainder are owners of property. Less than one-fourteenth of the total number of assessees are Muhammadans. Of the Hindu assessees, half are Baniyas, one- seventh are Brahmans and nearly one-seventh Kunbis. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE I. 431 liit'iUTiil iljstribiitioii by ocdipatum. •2 o Class, Sde-oIiAss .t.vD Order. TOr.lL. A.—PIiODVCTlny OF ItAW MAmitl.lI.S !•— Exploitation of tho surface of tbe earth 1 Pasture and agriculture ........ ((?) Ordinnry cuiiivtUton ......,,. (b) OroiKrs ol tpeciai projuctt and market gardtning . . '. . (<•) Forrttry CO Raising ol farm ttork ........ ie) Raising of smali animais ........ - Fishing and hiintini; ...,.,,,. II. Extraction of minerals S Mines . 4 Quarries of hard rocks ....... 5 Salt, etc. B.—FREPAKATIOy AXD SUPPLY OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES. III.— Industry 2 Textiles " Hides, skins and hard materials from the animal kingdom . 8 Wood 9 McUls 10 Ceramics ........ 11 Chemical products properly so called, and analogous . 12 Food industries ......... 13 Industries ol dress and the toilet It Furniture industries .... . . 15 Building industries .... .... 16 Construction ol means of transport ...... 17 Production and tnnsmission of physical forces .... 18 Industries of luxury and those pertaining to literature and the arts and sciences. 19 I Industries concerned with refuse matter ..... IV.— Transport 20 Transport by water ......... 21 Transi»ort by road ......... , Trans|K>rt by rail ......... Post Office, telegraph and telephone services .... v.— Trade 24 Banks, establishments of credit, exchange and insorance 25 Brokerage, commission and export ...... Trade in textiles ......... 27 Trade in skins, leather and furs ...... 28 j Trade in wood ......... 20 I Trade in metals 30 ' Trade in pottery ... 31 Trade in chemical products 32 Hotels, ca(6s, restaurants, etc. ....... 33 Other trade in food stuffs 34 Trade in clothing and toilet articles ...... 3'» Trade in furniture ......... 3ft Tragic in building materials ....... 87 Trade in m>-ans of transport ....... 38 Trade in fuel Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters and the arts and sciences. 40 Trade in refuse mitter . , 41 Trade of other lorta C— PUBLIC AliMiyiBTRATION AKD LIBERAL ARTS ' VI.— Public Force 42 ' Army 43 Navy 44 Police 45 vn.— (Order 46) Pnbllo administration .... VIII.— Professions and liberal arts 4H Religion 47 ; Law 48 ' Medicine 49 Instruction .......... 50 I I/;tter« and art/i and sciences IX.— (Order 51) Persons living principally on their J Income . D.—MISCELLA yEOUS 62 Z.— (Order 62) Domestic service 53 XI. -(Order 53 Insnfllclontly described occupations XII.— Unproductive 54 Tnmites of )al|s, asylums and hospitalt 55 Beggars, vagrants, pro«tltute«, etc. • • . Nl liBER P£R 1{I,UU0 QP TOTAL POPULATIO.f. Persons supported. 10,000 7, '.'J-* 7.227 7,1(18 6,916 64 21 165 2 69 17 12 2 3 l,Hr,G 1,127 265 22 121 59 72 40 119 247 1 66 69 44 160 31 89 34 6 2 3 6 22 302 10 e S 8 17 17 70 348 77 22 55 I M 170 89 10 20 21 30 17 Bsa w 298 110 4 IDA Actual workers. 4,7.JO 3,3'JH 3,388 3,3ll0 3,19i 3S 12 IN 1 28 10 7 1 803 669 142 9 55 24 37 20 68 1211 1 31 1 2G 25 76 15 44 15 2 258 13 3 16 4 3 3 11 143 4 2 1 3 11 31 144 34 12 22 81 72 3« 3 » 8 14 7 S7 162 PKROKNTAOB in liAOH CLASS, riDB.CLASS AMU OUDiR or Actual workers. 47 41 47 47 46 60 66 69 64 47 68 61 61 64 48 60 54 42 46 40 62 61 67 48 46 47 38 60 38 48 4» 49 45 38 46 35 37 40 39 49 38 53 44 49 47 40 42 47 41 64 46 44 44 41 4S 68 48 40 Depen- dants. 3« B7 60 65 60 04 60 53 S3 63 63 64 40 44 31 46 53 42 39 4il 46 SJ 60 46 58 54 60 48 49 43 62 54 63 66 .19 65 42 62 All 87 63 4a 68 43 67 27 7S 43 67 4U 60 46 ,'.( 43 il 46 40 n 41 I'tRCESTAOE or ACTIAL WOKKKKD ■MrioTao In cities. 8 4 4 7 2 2 6 6 2« 17 61 12 8 15 22 11 19 20 U 21 17 « 9 7 6 1« 8 O 14 • 6 SO 4 Elsewhere. •132 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. SUBSIDIARY l^'iiiiiber per 10,000 of population 6 S5 >^Cl[BIiR PXS 10,000 or ToiAi o 1 OOOtTPATIOS. India. A'mer. Merwara. Assam. Baluchis- tan. Bengal. Bihar and Orissa. Bombay. Bunna. C. P. and Berar. Coorg. Hsdras. 2 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 TOrVL P0I»ILITI0>. 10.000 10,000 10,000 lo.ono 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 .1.— I'BODrmo.v OF ra w .MATEKIALS. I.— Exploitation of the surface ot the earth. 7,344 7,227 s.aii 5,497 s,7ai 8,752 7,98 7 7,967 7,791 7,766 8,093 8,053 6,813 6,797 7,176 7,163 7.973 7,953 8,363 8,261 7,071 7.066 1 Pasture and agriculture (a) Ordi-iary cultivation (b) Growers ot special products and market gardening. (c> Forestry ..... (ort by ro.id. Transjiort by rail. Post Office, telegraph and tcleiihone services. 648 652 448 639 549 1.119 818 378 406 787 832 V.-Trade. 14 9 59 9 28 1 80 11 47 12 7 2 30 7 28 2 8 3 86 6 65 8 5 S 39 6 29 2 2 > 48 3 61 6 14 3 16 3 61 11 « 1 32 ■' 19 4 S 12 3 40 8 6 2 177 14 70 17 3 1 28 2 132 1 26 Banks, establishments of credit, exchange and iasurance. Brokerage, commission and export. Trade in textiles. Trade in shins, leather and ture. Trade in wood. Trade in metals. 1 2 28 222 15 " 18 4 lis IS 5 7 297 12 1 1 16 269 7 7 26 814 10 2 9 106 649 4 8 2 181 293 12 1 260 4 1 3 20 22S 7 1 15 376 9 7 68 492 Trade in potter\*. Trade in chemical produ- te. Hotels, cafes, r»taurants, etc. Other trade m food stufls. Trade in clotliing and toilet articles. 3 7 5 5 "240 4 1 20 10 12 "294 3 10 19 11 11 3 2 9 8 18 145 1 6 14 19 " 72 17 17 9 22 12 1 168 e 1 12 19 36 "l81 1 2 U 10 1 29 4 7 2 12 16 39 2 2 8 36 15 41 1(1 16 3 12 4 "' 32 Trade in funiiture. Trade in buildine materials. Trade in nn ans of transiort. Trade in fu( 1. Trade In articles of luxury- and those pertaininK to lettem and the arts and seienc'-s. Trade in refuse matter. Trade ot other sorts. egB MO aea 739 S3B 474 BS9 331 ,539 701 434 c.—runi.ic .1 DMisjsTR.iTioy .I.V/> l.lIiKliM. .IIIT.S. 363 11* 3» 132 195 19 123 65 121 112 27 VI.- Public Force. 183 57 13 57 96 « 61 34 38 82 17 Army- Navy. Police. 70 ■■ 53 ■■ 57 75 " 99 ■■ IS " 72 ■ 31 " 86 ■■ 60 10 111 S3 66 188 119 110 259 91 229 116 06 VII.— (Order 45) Public ndmlnlatra- tion. VIII. - Profoaalons and liberal nrts. 235 219 Ul 367 148 333 166 167 110 369 285 1711 5 12 11 31 142 9 20 17 61 56 8 12 14 21 256 8 IS 4A 42 101 4 6 8 29 llfl 24 63 Kl 69 7« 6 23 17 35 122 "5 9 9 22 60 5 13 38 24 2114 6 14 8 77 11- 25 SO 77 66 K. liuion. Law. Medicine. Intt ruction. I^'tters and arl.-i and felrnc.'S. 26 24 16 42 33 12 1 21 8 36 44 17 IX. Order 61' Persons Uving prin- cipally on their Inoomo. 013 \ r,e7 040 70.1 l.iSi SOU 800 318 84r, 449 1,300 It.— .MIX 1 II. I\l III .s. 178 210 192 ' 17 229 60 316 1 120 66 213 46 X. — (Order 621 Domoatio iorTtce. 333 109 1 ; 346 700 806 721 281 73 690 ' 88 1.239 XI. Order 531 Inaonclcntly des- cribed occupations. 103 1 248 109 46 249 28 907 126 89 ! 148 22 XII. UnproduotlTc. « « 5 i 4 5 2 3 2 2 5 5 Inmnirs of Jiill.'i, ««ylums and hospitaLi. 99 242 \ 101 ! *' 244 26 204 1 Its 87 143 17 Di«aan, TaRranla, ptoatltutoa, etc. •-' I. 431 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. SUBSIDIARY Distrilnitioii of the aoTicuItiiral, iixiiistrhil, Province, State or Aoenct. AGRICULTURE. INDUSTRY. COM Population supported by agriculture. Propor- tion of agricul- tural popii. lation j»er l.OOU of Province, State or Agency. Percentaoe on agricultitral population of Population supportid by industry. Proportion of industri- al popu- lation iUT l.uuo of Province, State or Agency. PERCENTAGE ON IND. STKIAL POPILATION OF Population supported by commerce. Proportion of com- 1 nicrcinl 1 po|iulation ' per l,0(Hi of Pro- vince, State or Agenc... Actual Workers. Depend- ants. Actual Worliere. Depena- ants. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 S 9 10 11 INDIA. 218,799,610 698 16 51 35,852,650 111 50 50 22,863,080 78 Ajmet-Merwara 269.48S 538 65 35 85,396 170 56 44 77,094 ■ 154 Andamans and Nicobaro .... 9,471 383 49 51 406 10 57 43 533 21 Assam >...•., 6,026,173 854 44 56 223,147 32 60 40 321,158 45 Baluchistan 663,363 675 33 67 38,907 47 44 56 5S,019 69 Bengal 34,937,017 754 32 68 3,556,527 77 49 51 3,283.826 71 ) 1 Bihar and Orissa 30,083,572 783 46 54 2,060,338 77 66 44 2,011,218 1 52 I Bombay ...... 17,428,326 643 47 53 3,442,882 127 47 53 2,487,010 92 Bunna 8,322,223 691 55 45 821.724 68 58 42 1,597.373 133 C. P. and Bcrar 12.104,760 755 61 39 1,643,788 102 55 45 813,353 61 Coorg ....... 142,693 816 67 33 11.015 66 62 38 10,200 1 58 Madras 28,777,710 687 52 48 5,609,394 134 4S 52 3,336,057 80 ^J.-W. F. Province 1,475,252 667 30 70 253,842 115 34 66 191,015 80 Punjab 14,036,970 580 37 63 4,951,429 205 41 69 2,284,672 94 34,383,677 716 50 50 5,843,192 122 63 47 2,590,005 54 Baroda State 1,286,901 633 47 53 250,175 123 47 63 146,638 72 Central India Agency .... 5,675,281 607 57 43 1,149,140 123 53 47 566,344 00 Cochin State 463,074 504 39 61 192,057 209 47 63 124.357 13S Hyderabad State 7,642.309 571 64 46 1,891,207 141 63 t 47 1,268,319 95 Eaahmlt State 2,479,398 785 47 53 280,430 89 47 63 153,024 48 Mysore State 4,206,095 724 27 73 490,119 86 36 64 267,200 46 Eiiputana Agency 6,580,084 625 61 39 1,560,387 148 67 43 988,963 89 SIkklmSUte 88,039 944 66 34 426 5 74 26 1,627 18 TraTancoro State 1,822,793 531 35 65 690,148 172 49 51 340,275 99 XiiTK. — The aerlculturni population is nprescnti'd by Groups 1 to 6 of the classified scheme, the indiistria SUBSIDIARY TABLES. (l35 TABLE III. c'uiii]iii>r4'i.il anil protession.il popnliition by lociilify. MERCU. PROFESSIONS. Ollllilis. Frotirob, State or FBRCBKTAQB Oil COMMERCIAL FOPDLAIIOS OF Fiipulation sup',iorted by prufessious. Proportion of proft's- tiional poimlnllon per 1,000 of Pro- vince, SUte or Agency. Fercentage on I'ROrESSIONAL rOi'l'LATION OP Population 1 supported by other occupa- tions. Proportion of persons following otlicr occupa- tions per 1,000 of Pro- vince, State or Agency. Peroentaoe on PERSONS roLLOWIHO OTHER OOCDI'ATIONS 0» AOENOV Actual Workcts. Depend- ants. Actual Workers. I>cp«'nd- aata. Actual Workers. Depend- anta. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 46 51 5,335.357 17 42 58 30,621,287 98 65 15 INDIA. 43 67 19,n05 33 63 47 60,412 100 56 44 Ajmor-Mcrwnra. 65 45 214 9 36 61 14,143 671 05 6 Andamans and Nicobars. 51 49 92,915 13 37 63 396,464 66 5S 42 Assam. 41 63 11,109 13 41 69 163,245 106 46 55 Baluchistan. 45 55 811,939 18 36 64 3,716,333 80 62 48 Bengal. 53 47 395,107 10 47 63 2,985,058 78 62 38 Bihar anl Orissa. 41 59 559,010 21 41 59 3,167,089 117 63 47 Bombay. 57 43 256,276 21 66 44 1,041,4.^7 87 57 43 Burma. 61 49 234,704 15 40 51 1,236,705 77 58 42 C. P. and Btiar. 65 35 2,081 12 48 62 8,3S7 48 69 31 Coorg. 43 57 030,806 16 37 63 3,466,103 83 54 46 Maaras. 34 63 51,795 24 38 62 233,667 IDS 51 49 N.-W. F. Province. 37 63 602,576 25 40 \ 60 2,312,097 96 61 49 Punjab. 47 53 534,027 11 46 53 4,663,179 97 59 41 United Provinces. 38 82 74,692 87 46 54 274,492 136 43 62 Baroda State. 50 50 13S,390 IS 42 68 1,827,825 105 62 38 Cenimi India Agency. 37 63 30,504 33 36 61 10S,fl5t 118 46 64 Cochin State. 62 43 209,039 M 47 63 2,363,802 177 63 47 Hyderabad State. 43 57 52,81*9 17 38 62 192,346 01 60 60 Kashmir State. 37 63 81,077 14 32 6i 755,702 130 49 61 Mysore State. 44 5t> 3«8,*i99 37 62 4H 1,1162,110 101 56 44 IUiput.>n!i Agency. 70 ^1 3'i4 4 M. 1 1 2.505 20 81 16 Sikkim Stale. 49 SI 97.720 20 34 (16 678,07" MO 4U 60 Tr.tr«ncore Stat*. •• by ^ub-cLvws 11 and 111, rnmmnr'Ml by aut'-i li^c i ^ -in I \ m i |imiI' Mi'inil by SubM^la'H VIII. a L 2 436 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. SUBSIDIARY INuinber per 1,000 actual workers whose main occupation is not OCCOPAIION. TOTAL, A.—F ROnVCTIOS MAXEllIALS. OF RAir I.— 'Exploitation of the surface 01 tbc eartb. 1 Pasture and agriculture {- Fistiing and liunting . I I II. — Extraction of minerals . Mines ..... Quarries of bard rocks Salt, etc B.— PR EPA RATIOS AND SUPPLY Of MAXEKIAL sunsTAycES. III.— Industry .... Textiles Hides, sliins and hard materials from the animal lungdom. Wood Metals Ceramics ..... Chemical products properly so cilled and analogous. Food industries Industries of dress and the toilet. Furmture industries . Building industries Construction or" means of transport Production and transmission of pliysical forces (lieat, light, electricity, motive powor, etc.). Industries of luxury and those pei- taining to literature and the arts and sciences. Industries concerned with refuse matter. rv.— Transport . 27 2S 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 3fi 37 ■n 39 NCMBBR PEE 1,000 WHO AKE India. 20 Transport hv water 21 Transport by road 22 Transport bv rail 23 Poit Offlcs, telegraph phone services. v.— Trade . and tele- Banks, e=itablisliment( s . I X.— (Order 52) Domestic sorvlco. XI.~(Ordor 53) Insufficiently described occupations XII.— Unproductive ! 54 i Inmates of jails, asvlunn and ; Ito^pitah . 5B I Beftaars, vagranU, pro*lilutes, etr. ' 53 18 18 15 116 71 RO 45 123 S9 97 73 131 115 13S 130 147 50 136 35 70 94 15 36 68 74 60 41 76 77 129 48 71 121 73 69 102 81 87 77 63 62 74 85 68 68 13i 168 141 17 183 116 113 132 17(1 S3 94 81 89 34 38 30 39 6 41 AJmer- Merwara. 91 13 la 12 231 36 36 lOS 121 78 314 293 132 287 320 9 126 16 47 16 148 51 5 12 118 176 18 29 197 70 58 118 84 143 19 140 411 509 64 97 125 126 53 30 34 159 100 32 9 80 103 lOS 102 88 280 19 21 14 2 113 x09 41 145 144 265 127 175 S3 231 41 143 78 147 17 100 lis 107 47 123 123 260 75 151 142 28 135 68 40 134 45 171 90 69 119 83 93 SS9 190 269 160 251 239 26S 311 141 218 210 158 J4 43 67 17 57 15 Baluchis- tan. 187 iss 164 159 62 285 303 " 25 117 100 135 152 78 163 385 144 108 24 106 80 Bengal. 196 265 143 291 305 69 92 86 2S 18 200 500 193 62 47 71 62 62 113 22 35 400 469 460 "b70 464 138 121 375 201 116 144 187 80 78 97 68 3X 22 29 3 12 80 72 104 105 143 19 136 19 57 113 85 17 88 111 79 71 120 00 92 83 70 65 91 40 68 97 116 31 64 77 16S 232 141 "243 143 153 152 308 133 un 117 89 S3^ 25 49 14 II 14 "oris""'>""'»y- B"™»- 45 13 10 8 174 124 115 18 189 101 114 136 144 104 129 123 124 65 144 61 98 62 49 108 52 90 131 92 61 97 82 147 65 101 147 102 04 136 96 75 91 72 107 90 61 81 29 76 194 277 64 "'280 172 168 226 245 89 98 121 111 30 31 21 34 7 36 30 8 8 7 67 48 19 38 96 CI 68 35 112 94 75 81 110 SI S& 25 35 36 62 23 30 65 25 11 30 43 74 13 32 110 28 27 258 39 27 43 17 36 45 63 69 88 19 17 115 150 61 76 25 55 46 80 19 17 12 30 6 31 10 34 16 14 43 16 6 24 41 4S 48 53 7 55 37 27 16 62 31 61 18 67 14 27 64 36 70 16 19 46 77 69 31 30 74 78 29 84 47 44 39 40 60 56 65 39 S4 66 104 ' 35 135 29 16 16 76 39 20 30 30 19 84 18 26 C. F. and Berar. 45 13 12 6 281 36 24 63 31 110 138 121 191 133 142 118 143 75 210 10 77 70 34 149 35 35 49 45 19 32 114 82 128 286 45 114 46 78 100 77 95 IBO 90 102 51 50 113 147 207 51 "230 106 123 112 132 131 41 19B 84 69 16 Coorg. 12 13 12 12 Madras, 13 45 37 64 63 90 211 23 42 73 24 500 14 111 198 49 43 90 107 167 50 50 250 12 304 567 "58O 376 209 274 237 195 312 40 172 31 24 48 2 OZ 6 73 80 70 HI 121 104 112 87 77 100 119 151 138 83 163 119 93 95 119 69 32 64 49 109 93 138 93 91 77 42 151 90 104 90 108 69 X9 91 111 102 21 SO 1B7 149 52 161 219 137 1-^5 172 03 117 93 101 43 37 37 76 13 80 NoTK. — In calcul/iling tli.' pmportionK (or • Total," t lata A, Sub-class I and Order 1 the numlut »( actual workers in (iroups 1 and 2 ha-s bevlio have a snbsidiary agricultural occupatiou. Tartiailv AORICrLTCRISI. OOOnPATIOH. N.-W. F. Province. Punjab. United Provinces. Baroda. Central India. Cochin. Hyderabad £a8hinlr. Mysore. Rajpntana Travancore 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 43 5S 70 33 54 37 CI «;> 68 •J6 7 TOTAL c IS 31 3 31 IB 37 30 13 34 1 A.—risoT)i criON or ha ii MATiiti.ij,;;. 6 12 31 3 31 16 3 29 6 23 1 I.— Exploitation of the snrfaco of the earth. 6 11 31 3 31 15 34 27 6 23 1 Pasture and aericulture. 63 133 5 107 17 161 58 98 185 1 Fishing and hunting. 16 29 154 .. 29 U 69 72 II.— Extraction of minerals. 58 138 7 35 200 .. Mines. 23 116 " 70 83 Quarries of hard rocks. 17 25 170 129 "186 62 • • Salt, etc. 37 69 106 67 110 33 85 73 106 134 to B.—VIti:r A RATION AXD sri'VI.Y or SIATKJtIAL SVItSTASCi:S. 1 25 71 116 76 U7 89 86 76 125 160 10 UI.— Industry. 22 60 71 92 80 11 64 42 99 127 2 Textiles. 18 51 142 107 113 40 44 92 87 277 Hides, skins and hard materials from the animal kingdom. 37 112 183 72 95 38 90 113 95 299 8 Wood. 43 124 254 69 127 20 110 171 150 204 11 Metals. IS 67 192 70 136 12 115 116 202 199 7 Ceramics. 44 122 159 87 164 12 167 139 282 267 15 Chemical products properly so called and analosous. 17 24 48 44 41 54 99 36 38 64 22 Food industries. 27 SO 159 72 136 27 93 111 161 188 12 Indu.'itries of dress and the toilet. 63 13 21 64 54 37 36 Furniture industries. 5 44 67 54 " 48 27 ■■ 62 " 52 S5 71 ■■ K Euildint' industries. 9 49 92 83 21 41 130 75 14 S 12 44 17 Construction of means of transport. Production and transmission of phy- sical forces (heat, light, electricity, motive power, etc.). 22 42 114 34 72 27 99 61 193 69 14 Industrie.? of luxury and those pertain- ing to literature and the arts and sciences. 3 57 15 16 4 19 85 63 13 26 4 Industries concerned with refuse mitter. 21 51 76 41 72 33 61 47 57 65 4 IV.— Transport. 16 51 117 163 164 44 172 24 170 142 2 Transport by water. 19 58 82 50 84 30 67 74 42 77 5 Transport by road. 41 43 51 14 15 4 1 115 64 sn 4 Traciiiort by rail. 33 58 83 16 40 22 39 83 122 37 S Post Office, telegraph and telephone senices. 30 73 80 64 98 39 86 74 81 84 10 V.-Trade. 61 1^1 156 114 141 68 f6 166 153 75 17 Hanks, estabhshments of credit, ex- change and insumnee. 12 32 79 15 20 .. 30 85 20 18 Brokerage, commission and export. Gl 56 88 37 42 71 92 48 109 43 7 Trade in textiles. 2:i 46 85 190 121 35 2ni) 77 60 335 6 Trade in skins, leather and furf. 3 4S 60 35 10 C2 IIIO 23 53 31 9 Tr.>de in wood. • . 149 90 73 122 19 109 11 Trade in m tals. 10 15 « 17 119 137 8 10 Trade in pottery. ,, 42 06 ,, " 40 11) 47 71 23 , . Trade in clifmieal products. 10 48 88 '" 71 IIH 18 93 "l02 85 137 11 Hotels, cafos, restaurants, etc. 27 46 79 60 liin 40 87 68 76 86 8 Other trade in food stuffs. 29 19 39 14 61 6 103 271 96 40 34 Tmde in clothing and toilet articles. 54 33 59 20 6 ?.2 60 145 114 44 21 Trade in furniture. 76 38 26 32 80 lis 40 11 Trade in building materials. ".12 J92 82 18 96 32 " 85 13 39 155 3 Trade in me.ins of transport. 4 6t 48 100 112 29 113 81 22 69 1 Trade in luel. 11 28 81 35 72 37 70 37 94 60 88 Trade in articles of luxury and those p4-rtaining to letters and the arts and sciences. 118 43 1« 30 .. Trade in refuse matter. " 33 " 73 68 55 . "l09 40 " 06 53 90 61 40 Trade of other sorts. 13S 110 ISO BB 04 40 107 04 Siiii li4 30 C.—rvni.ir A njuixi.sTitATioif AK1> I.I HE 1! A 1. A iris. kl93 165 233 80 76 9 74 114 146 160 124 VI.— FuWlc Force. 221 195 239 57 44 4 26 112 98 82 12s Arm\'. • • ,, ., , , ., Kavy. 65 118 231 ■■ 90 109 11 103 IH "lil 289 "no Police. 61 U« 164 58 68 43 133 64 437 99 41 VII.-(Order 45) Fnblic admlnte- tration. 42 79 118 51 166 47 99 98 187 128 26 VIII.- Professions and liberal arts. 42 no I4» 61 236 43 115 11.1 ■'.-,•' 14!) 29 Ileligion. 02 102 111) 36 16 111] 112 72 279 42 35 I.nw. 5.H Ah 42 22 36 57 66 B7 611 68 42 Medicine. 40 71 1(K1 23 52 47 (■6 66 153 25 16 Inst rue Hon. 31 20 70 30 67 30 OK 52 136 85 2<) letters and arts and science*. 37 137 142 9 26 94 80 170 114 52 25 IX. lOrdrr 51) PersonR living principally on their Inrome. Jl :i7 44 37 14 33 as 41 JO .»*•* .■( /(_ V i.si 1 ; ; |> iiii s. n7 44 SI 26 47 10 so 25 12 45 S X. (Order 52> Domestic service. 8 32 1 36 28 7 38 60 49 8 21 3 XI. fOrdor 63) Insufficiently described occnpatlons. 6 1 34 54 5 18 'l 55 53 23 1 80 XII.— Unproductive. 1 .. n 1 13 » 1 .. 1 2 ; Inmates of jails, asjiiims and hospM ils • 35 .')H r 12 7 •('. "1 ■' llfVi'ar*. v.'iemnls. prni-titule^. etr. 438 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE V. Oceupations coiiibiiied with agriculture (where a«;rieulture is the piiiicipai uec-U|»aiioii). Province, State or AoENcy. Landlords. Cultivators. FAKM servants and FIKLD LABOCBERS. Number per 10,000 actual workers who returned a subsidiary occupation. Total. With agricultural subsidiary oc^;upatiou. With non- ngricultural subsidiary occupation. Total. With agricultural subsidiary occupation. With non- agricultural subsidiary occupation. Total. With agricultural subsidiary occupation. With non- airricultur.il 2ub.-iili;iiy ociui>;itiorj. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 s 10 INDIA. 2.386 1,092 1,294 1,313 402 917 453 134 319 Ajraer-Mcrwara 3,373 1,339 2,034 688 115 573 328 82 246 Assam 4,963 1,980 2,983 1,451 109 1,342 704 150 614 Baluchistan ....... 4,190 454 3,736 3,048 89 2,959 91 25 66 Bengal 2,748 1.036 1,712 1,372 328 1,044 677 211 466 Bihar and Orissa 2,530 1,942 688 1,799 552 1,247 614 144 370 Bombay 2,428 1,084 1,344 1,226 462 764 389 69 330 Burma ......> 1,077 380 697 804 304 500 799 127 072 Central Provinces and Bcrat 3,587 2,091 1,490 1,230 408 822 356 CO 296 Coorg 3,154 662 2,492 819 195 624 103 38 125 Madras 2,670 689 1,931 1,223 446 777 318 84 234 North- West Frontier Province 1,564 130 1,434 784 38 746 387 85 302 Punjab 2,214 294 1,920 775 138 637 671 93 578 United Provinces ..•••• 3,331 2,253 1,078 1,878 674 1,204 623 405 218 Ilaroda State 913 442 471 367 85 282 130 32 98 Ci^ntral India Agency 4,726 3,012 1,714 648 173 476 688 91 497 Cocliin State 2,120 47 2,073 1,268 68 1,200 507 17 490 Hyderabad State 876 513 362 334 161 173 224 67 157 Kashmir State ...... 2,023 777 1,246 1,134 110 1,015 729 100 669 Mysore State 2,262 64 2,198 1,169 31 1,138 241 35 200 llajputani Agency 2,019 1.107 912 551 115 436 429 163 260 Sikkim State 1,304 152 1,212 228 1 227 •• •• •• I'r.iv.incore Stale ...... 1,126 440 086 688 165 K33 373 98 275 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 439 SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI. Seleited ociiipatioiis. UHi and 1001. OconrATioHa. ■a o 7 8 y ; 10 i 11 I 12 ' 13 14 15 : 16 17 20 21 22 23 26 27 28 29 80 31 32 33 34 35 j 36 i 37 38 , 39 ' 40 1 41 ! TOTAL POPrLATION. A pnoDVCTioy of saw maiebials I.— Exploitation of the surface of the earth P.'i^t^lrl■ and agriculture' ..... Fishing aoi] huntlDf: ..... II.— Extraction of minerals Mines Quarries of bard rocks Salt, etc. B.—l-IllCPAItATIOX AUD SUPrLT OF MATERIAL SUBSTAIfCES III.— Industry 46 47 48 49 50 63 54 Textiles Hides, skins and hard materials from the auimal liiDgdoin Wood Metals Ceramics ....... Chemical products properly so called, and analogous Food industries ...... Industries of dress and the toilet Furniture industries ............ Building iiulustrics ............ Construction of means of transport ......... Production and traiismission of pbj'sical forces (heat. light, electricity, motive power, etc.) Industries of luxury and those pertaining to literature and tbe arts and sciences. Industries concerned with refuse matter ........ IV.— Transport Transport by water ..... Transport by road ..... Transport by rail ..... Post Office, telegrapli and telephone services v.— Trade Banks, establishments of credit, exchange and insurance Brokerage, commission and exjwrt .... Trade in t94 1,201,698 289,121 117.861 56,822 101,676 169,156 708,371 9,161.997 299,925 167,828 82,575 231,718 609,364 608,310 3,681 2,127,874 10.3S9,a8S 2,264,868 635,907 3,914 1,615,047 3.459,520 5,114,999 J.63'<.296 294,486 613,794 t4«,911 •18,611 6S3JW1 j«,»4T,osa 4,609,083 9,045,804 3,203,071 1IN,(I44 3,17.'..nfT 19U1. percentage of variation. 2S5.398,11T 193,144.940 191,910,U3 190,6»7,678 1,302,435 134,827 126,807 ! 34,075 73,045 SS.800.44G 34,296,316 8,565,585 973,767 3,205,217 1,921,804 1,985.422 1.287.661 3,734.795 7,304,355 22,949 ; 1,689.533 S2.367 4,992 1,893,297 1,624,573 3,769,307 820.099 2,161,732 638,516 148,930 17,824.823 1,12.8,630 337,,S14 1,059,357 130,759 282,505 ;/ ' 9.383 254,234 174,271 i 560,981 10,035,176 173,700 330.919 111,061 243.011 327,387 603,808 2,062,027 io,4is,s»e 2.096,238 633,908 4,032 1,458,298 3,161,341 4,625,068 1,«82,06 Manufacturers of tobacco, opium and 12 Herdsmen, snepherds, goatherds, etc.. 2,490,405 413,255 166 ganja 23.867 16,634 697 33 (e) Raising ol small animals— 13.— Industries of dress and the [Birds, bees, silkworms, eto.] . 10,960 14,944 1,364 toilet 2,676,445 1,071,310 400 67 Hat, cap and turban makers 7.004 5,968 852 2.— Fishing and hunting 659,400 205,653 312 68 Tailors, milliners, dress makers and darners, embroiderers on linen 425,667 211,440 497 14 Fishing ...... 6311.014 201,682 320 69 Shoe, boot and sandal makers 767,921 161,180 210 15 Hunting 29.336 3,971 135 70 Other industries pertaining to dress- gloves, socks, gait.-rs, belts, buttons, umbrellas, can- s, etc. 11,578 5,130 443 71 Washing, cleaning and dyeing . 676,329 524,425 775 II.— EXTRACTION OF MINE- 72 Barbers, hairdressers and wig makers . 783,508 153,906 196 RALS sio.osa 97.804 465 73 Other industries connected with the toilet (tattooers, shampooers, bath 3.— Mines 153,785 74,139 482 houses, etc.) ..... 4,438 9.261 2.087 16 Coal mines and petroleum wells . 115,210 62,433 542 17 Mines and m •tallic minerals (gold, iron, manganese, etc.) .... 38,575 11,706 303 14.— Furniture ladustrles . 13,723 4,440 324 75 Upholstt-rers, t-nt m ikers, etc. . 705 2,548 3,614 18 4.— Quarries of hard rocks— [Other minerals (jade, diamonds, limestone, 15.— Building industries 752,342 209,773 279 etc.)] 29,972 8,209 274 76 Lime burners, cement workers 15,804 9.434 594 77 Excavators, pUnth builders and well 5.— Salt, etc 26,798 15,546 580 78 sinkers ...... Stone and mtrble workers, masons and 127,365 85,666 673 19 Rock, sea and mar-sh salt . 10,595 4.079 385 bricklayers 478,885 90,698 189 2.0 Extraction of saltpetre, alum and 79 Others (thatchers. building contractors. other substances soluble in water . 16,203 11,467 708 housG paiuters.tiUers, plumbers, lock- smiths, etc.) 130.193 23.975 134 B. -PREPARATION AND SUP- PLY OF MATERIAL SUB 16. — Construction of means of STANCES .... 19,124.551 8,S86,9S7 465 s:i transport .... 17.— Production and transmis- sion of physical forces 24,467 471 19 III.—ISnUSTRT .... 11,303,4(17 6,011,763 S3 3 (heat, light, electricity, motive power, etc )— [Uas works, electric light and ice 6.— Textiles 2,685,256 1,764,193 657 factories] 7,026 231 33 21 Cotton ginning, cleaniu? and pressing?. 163,572 104,542 631 18.— Industries of luxury and 22 Cotton spinning, sizing and weaving . 1,921,977 1,215,714 633 those pertaining to litera- 23 Jute spinning, pressing and weaving . 180.130 42,217 223 ture and the arts and 24 Rope, twine and string 82 ■•.'>8 167,197 2,023 sciences .... 741,425 81,675 110 26 Other fibres (cocoanut, aloes, flax, hemp, straw, etc.) 2-!,S98 43,269 1,497 90 Makers of bangles, rosaries, b._-ad and 26 Wool carders and spinners, weavers of otlier necklaces, spangles, lingami woollen blanl^ets, carpets, etc. 103,204 67,237 6-.2 and sacred threads 56,503 37,460 063 27 Sill; spinners and weavers . 77,'^05 64,010 8:;3 30 Dyeing, bleiching, printing, prepara- tion and sponging of textiles . 77,533 37,880 489 93 19.— Industries concerned with 31 Other (lace, crape, embroideries, frin- ges, etc.) and insufilcicntly described refuse matter— (Sweepers, scavengers, dust and sweeping textile industries .... 33,984 20,522 555 contractors) .... 430,326 365,814 850 7.— Hides, skins and hard mate- IV.—TRAXSPORT 9,1S6,943 337,939 110 rials from the animal kingdom .... 252,445 42,349 168 20.— Transport by water 451,404 30,201 67 32 Tanners, curriers, leather dressers and 96 Persons employed on the maintenance dyers, etc .... . 171,303 31.165 182 of streams, rivers and canals (includ- 33 Maker, of leather articles, such as trunks, water bags, etc. . 8.— Wood 75,112 1,297,527 9.G35 433,393 128 334 98 ing construction) .... 21.— Transport by road . . Persons employed on the construction 70.098 1,181,167 11,313 181,337 162 153 37 Ba.*ket makers and other industries and maintenance of roads and of wo;jdy materials, Including leaves 30'<,4fl2 334,251 1,1113 bridges 248,857 C8,297 395 SUBSIDIARY TABLES. SUBSIDIARY TABLE yh-convld. Ul Occupations ol Iciiiaies by Orders and sclcc ted {irou])%—concld. Occupation. 102 Porters and messengers 22.— Transport by rail . 104 I Labourprs employed on railway con- I structlon I 106 23.— Post Office, tclegrapli, and telephone services r.—TSADE loe 24.— Banks, establishments of i credit, exchange and Insur- ance. (Bank maiKtijirs. money ItMid-cs, exch.tnxe and insurance agents, money chancers and bro- I kers and their employes.) 107 108 109 i 110 ; 111 25.— Brokerage, commission and export. (Brokers. commUsion agents, eolnracrcial travellffs, warehouse owners and their employ^-;. ) 26.— Trade In textiles. (Trade in piere-goods. wool, cotton, silk, hair and other textiles.) . . . . 1 27.— Trade In skins, leather and fnrs. (Trade in skins, leather, furs, feathers, boms, etc.) .... 28. — Trade in wood. [Trade in wood (OOt firewood), cork, bark, etc.] . 29.— Trade in metals. m'^-tals. machinery, knife seller?.) 112 ! 30.— Trade In pottery (Trade In tool, etc.. 113 I 31.— Trade In chemical prodncta. I [Trade in chemical products (drugs, I dyes, painta, petroleum, explosives, etc.)] 32.— Hotels, cafes, restaurants, I etc. 11* I Vendors of wine, liquors, serated water, etc. ...... 115 ■ Owners and managers of hotels, cook- shops, sarais, etc., and their employ^ \ 33.— Other trade In food stnfflB 116 1 Fish dealers 117 Grocers and sellers of vesetable oil, salt and other condiments 118 j Sellers of milk, butter, ghee, poultry, i eggs, etc lis I Sellers of sweetmeats, sugar, gur and molasses ..... 120 I Cardamom, bctel-leif, vegetables, fruit and areca nut sellers 121 Grain and pul:-e dealers 122 Tobacco, oi'ium, zanja, etc., sellers 123 t Dealers in sheep, goats and pigs . 124 I Dealers in hay, grass and fodder 12S ! 31.— Trade In clothing and toilet articles. [Tmde and ready-made clothing find other articles of dress and the toilet (hats, umbietlas. socks, ready-made shoes, perfumes, etc.). 36.— Trade In furniture . Trade in funiiture, carpets, curtains and bedding ..... 127 Hardware, cooking utensils, porcelain, crockery, glassware, bottles, arti- cles lor gardening, the cellar, etc. 28 36.— Trade In building materials. (Ston'-s, bricks, jiIiL-t'T, c-m'nt. sand, tiles, thatch, etc.) .... 129 37.— Trade In means of transport. [Dealers and hirers of elf-phantj*, camf-ls, horses, cattl*', asses, mules, etc., sellers (not makers) of carriages, saddlery, etc.] 130 38.~Trade In fuel. (Dealers In flre- wood, charcoal, coal, cowdung, etc.) 30.- Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters and the arts and sciences . Dealers In precious stone.^. Jewellery (real and Imitation), clacks, optical instrum'nfs, elc. . . . . Dealers in common bangles, beads, necklaces, fan., small Rrticlcs, toys, hunting and fishing tackle, flowers, etc Nl UBKK OP ACTCAL W0UKER8. Males. 218,608 448,992 75,798 75,380 356,625 82,388 426,139 103,517 70,529 19,972 29,198 58,028 226,427 191,915 84,512 2,808,320 215,653 925,467 173,375 149,158 426,2'S4 709,.'il7 1«2,79S 40,917 65,156 101,088 25,875 87,229 119,366 162,864 33,089 114,732 Females. 4 44,034 25,192 le.sii 1,209 64,839 6,761 86,891 11,010 38,869 2.551 24,961 18,472 125,462 114,487 10,975 1,668,793 260,273 322,442 158,8S8 110,798 414,089 271,530 38,776 9,661 82,3:i0 21,775 Number of i females per 1,I)0U : males. 13,866 10,581 71,862 5,221 6,'>,072 202 56 222 160 4S3 182 82 204 107 551 128 855 318 554 597 318 594 1,207 343 916 743 971 383 377 236 1,264 215 134 56,878 15,570 274 17,639 10,601 001 39,239 4,969 , 127 155 160 536 215,634 1,806 441 ir.N 567 •JOOOPATIOR. Ndmbgr op actual WOKKIKg. Males. I4S 149 150 1 40.— Trade In refhse matter. (Dealers in rags, stable refuse, etc . 1,270 Females. .Number or fern lies licrl.otX) males. I 41.— Trade of other sorts Shopkeepers otherwise unspecified Itinerant traders, pedlars, tiawkcxs, etc. ...... Conjurers, acrobats, fortune tellers, re- citirrs, exhibitors of curiosities, and wild animals . ... C— PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LIBERAIi ARTS Vf.— PUBLIC FOliCE 42.— Army 141 43.— Navy 44.— Police rii.~(0Ri>En 43) PUBZIC AJ>- JlIMSXRAXIOy riii.—pROFKssioifs Ann li- BMUAL ARTS . . . . 16 —Religion Priests, ministers, etc. Beiigious mendicants, Inmates of mo- nast.0 63 662 a H 442 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. -831«iJo.n irnpT W > 111 _J < l- >- DC < a CO m D CO *snut)cdii030 nv S -onpoadnfl— • lix OR I3C B 9 •noi^Bdnooo ajnig -ap B aiBOipni ioa op TioiifA sau^ I « 1 aa a— "IX •30TAJ9S 31} s a mo d — X •snoairan'^'siK — 'O -aoxooai jtpq^ ao 3ui -All Boosiaa — "XI SDBSIUiAKY TABLES. 443 SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX. Occupations by icli 3S ^4 40 19 11 11 63 62 CV 61 99 14 129 76 4S 45 23 106 40 16 3 65 ?,\ 68 35 UlSIlU;UIluN BV ilCOLIATIuS 0» 1,000 I'EBSOiiS OF EICH KILIOIOS. 6■ f.hlr trier U. the dUtrlbaUon by ocropaUm of . lopulMUon »K";i»»''»« ^!.5.J?'"JS^ ■.m, baluchl-tin. Bengal,.BU.ar and OrlMi, Burma, C. P. and Berar. Punlab. Cnited Irovlnce., B.rod.. C«^nti»l India. Co.hln. H>Tlrtabad. Kaahmlr »n-o 5 OXB. Table XV-D was not prepared everywhere in A.^- •' " ' "' 3m2 444. CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATION. SUBSIDIARY TABLE X. .^lain resnlts oi iudustrial Census. NTJMBEB OF PKBSONS EMPLOYED. Desoripiion op Faotoet, etc. Number of Factories. Total 1 1 DZKEOTION, SUPEBVISIOB AND OLBEUOAI, WOKE. WOKKMBH. dumber of females ■mploycd per 100 males. Province, or State, where chiefly found, with percentage of number of persons there employed to total number in India. Europeans and Anglo- Indians. Indians. Skilled. UnskiUed. 1 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 INDIA. 7,113 2,105,824 9,437 60,794 554,778 1,480,815 33 I. — Growing of special prodncts . 1.687 810,107 1,627 10,346 18,446 779.988 31 Coffee plantations .... 482 67,623 1 249 1.300 1,997 54,077 79 Madras (3?) ; Mysore (43) ; Coorg (19). Indigo plantations .... 121 30,795 98 2,076 2,486 26,135 16 Bihar and Orissa (100). lea plantations .... 1,002 \ 703,585 1,150 6,643 12,074 683,818 91 Assam (70) ; Bengal (27). II.— nines 662' i 221,087 1,164 4,911 71.695 146,317 38 Collieries 353 j 142,877 326 3,846 57.068 81,637 43 Bengal (26) ; Bihar and Orissa (61). Gold mines 12 28.592 577 157 6.381 21.477 8 Mysore (88). ni.— Quarries of bard rooks 53 13,273 22 289 1,218 10.744 29 Stone and marble quarries 50 11,866 21 257 1,147 10.441 29 Bombay (32). 17.— Textile Industries . l.«87 657,589 1,426 18,597 250.580 286.986 26 v/Otton 1,127 303,190 573 12,585 167,191 127,841 29 Bombay (62). Jate, hemp, etc. .... 223 222,319 734 4.744 66,065 150,776 21 Bengal (97). v.— Leatber Industries 158 13,612 106 829 6,742 6.936 9 Tanneries 122 9,399 41 589 3,814 4.955 7 Madras (47) ; Bombay (17). VI.— Wood, etc., industries 168 29,067 186 1,955 11.606 15,121 3 Saw mills 106 12,490 120 1,535 2,869 7,966 6 Burma (79). Timber yards 27 11.445 17 227 6,650 5,551 •• Bihar and Orissa (83). VII.— Metal Industries . 372 71.045 1,243 3,886 34.116 31.801 i Machinery and engineering workshops . 93 23.147 413 1.375 12,661 8,698 2 Bengal (51) ; Bombay (23). VIII.— Glass and eartbenware industries. 453 49,466 67 1,423 10,532 37.144 24 Brick and tile factories 411 46,156 56 1,197 9,120 35,783 23 Bengal (48). IX.— Industries connected with cbemlcal products. 455 49,368 586 2,747 12,023 34.002 13 Oil mills 208 9.745 45 978 1,959 6,763 20 Bengal (44); Madras (21). Petroleum reflneries .... 9 10,858 212 240 2,942 7,464 •• Burma (99). X.— Food industries 730 74,401 486 4,869 11,243 57.803 16 Flour and rice mills .... 403 42,374 201 2,757 5,690 33,726 12 Burma (70). ; XI. — Industries of dress 90 10,189 09 663 7,263 2.051 4 Boot and shoe factories 23 5,163 *70 240 4,054 799 s United Provinces (64) ; Bombay (16). XII.— Furniture industries 50 3.372 30 235 2,102 1.005 2 Furniture factories .... 48 3,110 27 219 1.897 967 2 Bengal (29) ; Bombay (16). XIII.— Industries connected with buildings. 163 22,168 82 638 3,292 18.166 30 Lime works and kilns 53 7,630 17 230 359 7,024 39 Bombay (51) ; C. P. and Berar (23). Stone, marble and cement works 57 7,605 55 214 1.445 6,891 34 Bihar and Orissa (37) ; United Pmvinccs (31). XIV. -Industries connected with transport. 212 126.117 1.302 4,155 80,805 38,855 1 118 98.723 834 3,064 65,460 29,365 1 Bengal (28) ; Bombay (16). XV.— Production and trnnnmlsslon of physical forces. M 8.169 262 414 4,351 3,112 16 Qaa works . . . . . 14 4,880 122 176 3,166 1,217 Bengal (73) ; Bombay (28). XVI.— Industries of luxury . 389 45.501 641 4,837 29.865 10.161 1 Printing prcss"^ • . . . 341 41,598 600 4,416 27,588 9,094 1 Bengal (30) : Bombay (21) ; Madras (16). Factories In which mechanical power Is used. 4,569 1,803.992 8.369 50,597 492,576 1.252,150 38 FactorloB In which mocbanlca power is not used. 1 2.514 301.832 1.06S 10,197 62,202 228,365 41 NOTH. — The details under racli nmiri hfad do not work up to the total, as flguns for minor factoriea havo nut been given. SrBSrDIAIlT TABLES. 446 IK 9J X - UJ ■s 1 Ol OQ ^ < s >- 4) QC s < -M id a CO ?■ CQ s. CO «« V a s 3 r» \a to o ^ « ^ 00 J5 o Ol « ^ ** lO »^ « a g ^ %> '^ CO n rt M a « ? t tH o rt CO *-* '-' ^ •-• 01 *H M ^ 3 11 0» : ; |c 5 8i« 1 s 1 s •• s O 00 § s S § s 1 5 eo oo 8 r4 a s ^•oS. Ill a • J ■ l-« §•* " § $ at s s i 3 s s; s S to Ol S S 3 3 S a s a 1-t w4 «i4 •<" «0 M r4 #4 «! cf Is •H , • t^ £€ _c Mm. S 00 s 5 s s o 00 1 *4 s 3 s oo vl g Sg 1 ir-o — -a _ * « « S|S5cS^2 O : : ■S^ests^£ "lH-ro 5i2 S o 3 s *4 CO r4 04 5 ?? 1 00 s g s 5 ?».= = n M »H M C4 ^ Ol 04 ■0 r4 «• — *^.Q £?=_ .' » St".!? : I : ?ss:- "g»l H o CO 1 r- « r4 A 00 OD rt rf r* % O s ^ ■o s ^ 9 S S OO ^ *• lO ^ « flO 2? 00 . , a€ * a SS 8 o t- e* «0 t* 00 o -* a» >o o »• e o Ol o t* TO -»■ t» w* 25 ©4 t- Ol fO s fn ^ M N C4 1^ ? 00 o CJ SO D) o 00 o CO •& CS iSi S «i eo_ 1 t- ■* q^ 04 lO ®_ ■* CO as 1H « lO' r-' •^ m" ^^ '"' •^ ?' lO . . — •o 2 * ^ 2 s S3 -4 g s ? lO s S •o . s M lO 09 X t-^ ca ffl M 00 t* ^_ CO a » M* V §.s II ■* ' ^ = • • a- 3 s 9 e « o d *•< « 04 lO P 2 r- 9 00 lO CO o» ■* o r- *: 2 o °l V 00 CO ^ oo •^ 1^ ^ tc9 o o H3. 00 . . . • * • • • • t- • " " ■ ' * e-i OS a. m 40 « o « 04 « w lO ^ »-l ■^ s o» « ^ o 00 00 la 2 t ^4 s. o 8 0i s ^ GO M 5 S *•• of o H 3 «*^ H" o to 00 N «• iH ^ • o K ■ O -4 cC o 2 H •^ p •4 z QO M .^ « "i K g 1 2 i i OC 1 s s. 5 o 09 a < •< a s i 1 ■3 o m m JO s i a 1 1 31 p 1 1 1 5 i CO e i 1 1 00 I a I 00 1 446 CHAPTER XII. — OCCUPATIOX. SUBSIDIARY TABLE XII. Piirtunlars as to owiieisliip and management of the more im|ioitant indnstiial concerns KAirEB OF FAOIOBY.lEIO. Nnmber ot tactoiies. NCMI;ER OWKED BY NCMBKK PRIVATELY KCMBEK VANAQKD BT Oovemment. COHFASIES 07 WHICH THE DIKEOTOBS i j Europeans 1 andAnglo- ' Indians. Indians. Europeans and Anglo- , Indians. 1 Indiana. Europeans and Anglo- Indians. Indians. Of both races. 1 2 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 AJHEB-MERWAKA. Cotton 9 2 4 .. .. 3 1 8 ASSAM. Tea rl-ir.t,ltiODS .... 609 .. 494 12 .. 55 48 538 73 BENGAL. Tea plantations ...... Collieries ....... Jnte presses Jute mills ....... 240 129 109 50 168 S3 50 49 18 6 16 21 46 7(o) 7 1 18 43 36 193 66(6) 64 SO 47 63 45 Machinery and engineering uorksliops Brick and tile factories .... Oil mills Printing presses 37 161 118 lOS 4 1 7 22 7 4 11 3 4 4 4 1 10(e1 ■■l7(* hei'n treated as two factories. SUBSIDIARY TABLES. M7 UJ _l < I- >- < 9 CO m D CO s V '-H ^ T-l t: «5 -5? s^ «s 4^ «^ e * & ^ -« •*i h bB »-H ^ %> %> "40 •«d 5* B 55 ■•o a V S € 8 ■^ a. ■tas - « bl as I i^ ^ ^ ^ !n ;^ ^ ►o ■*^ -^ a 3 ^ as ^— ^ as ■JaquiQK I«p9e - w rt ' o to r* ca lO a 95 •a CO U3 ® U X s *4 CO [^ = 5 © 1 S s c s ri ? « 1- T Ol a M *rt 1- X CI x_ a S _ I.-. 01 "37" «o c t-l ii CO i X ^ c .. ^ ^_ ^ OD rs iO t* t* Cft o> (C § 5 ■» o » e» r* s X aO ■» m ec_ *i « ^ ei M r-. 1 -; t^ ■* CO t«." © rC (D* C-l* iC CO < S C-. M e» CO still 2 § "^ OC M 2 M 00 « r- « " * '-' a s .^ CO ^ (O w « « O (O ea CO .. eo s ^ iO _ U3 a o o r- % c«. g CO iC eo M C4 3 r*. > ■A .s a 1 (C « r- ® (D C4 ^ « •* 09 « 00 t- o b 9 a sis to A 2- f-i O « O oi tC n : rt s t* - M cs •^ «0 o eo Ha S ^ X KM 3 "■*■ z s - • H g N c ^ CO ■« O «9 ea t» » t* r? t* ei w ■X. « f- C4 ^- 00 o 00 oo c p: CO ^5 a r^ ?i o oo o> ci (D .2 s "2 ^H tD H4 2 CO - s c o M »* ^ r«- C) - - 6 M ; W- ^a 9 t; X ■^ ^ -f- "37" c cs N ,, t» ^ .- J^ - ^ x> 3 a 00 rj X o « CN cs •! CO £ r- «- s« kO o_ 00 ■V «rs_ *-\ r^ 94 •1 Cl o ■* _aa » C3 cT U3 «" 00 cT N cT <£ CO •-< ca _ . " • - IS S -« la o (<• M ^ ■V ^ » O iS ^ „ - 04 sS-i| glill 5 o C5 ® cs 04 » t* «■! oo cs r- x O e ^ c^_ cf r^ ^ X la 00 ^ " *~ iH ^ = m X CB w t* o o at ■* ttj r- CO ffi O CO ^ ■* © ^ tt X cs X C4 M CO t» eo co 00 o d to © X to <'ii a t^ c_ ■^ r- cc^ *o cs x_ « © to cs lu t t^ e-5 kO eo" «r r^ W s" aO ci" o ca CO i •5 X o CO a •^ .-1 M ~. z sis M o 1 Ifl ^^ „ >-4 C9 CJ ^ « t- ,_, CO r z a: S M la rt CO « CO si — » a a a CX> « : o M ^ ■< ^ S 3 M lO ?i M » C4 9 ■* « o » 1^ © a} C4 o M ■>«■ o t> to C4 to CI a V4 C3 ^> >a^ 5J ^_ o M 1.0 ■* e^ s §=>§ eS r* » cT ■^" N tC «" a CO M Ocl s 1 s cj ^H >< KM* h4 HS5a SaS t« ?1 o "~- _ ^ eo ^ eo r» CO t- to t" (D r- r- lis go J 5 g 9 M-1 o O § CO X »-« 00 ■*j" § co ^ 00 s 03 CO " • la o »" 'b!' t- M ■^ C4 a 1 eo r* X) « M «= eo eo r- kO en PS ia. a •a ^ « C9 S § o X C] ^ eo &< is5 P3 a CO t» CO « a o W j^ kA g « O ^ &1 uO ?i ~^ « III A ® ^ £ 00 O » t^ CO * eo ro t- o •* es "- "^ M o ' • " o » lO eo ^ (D ,1 :; :i a ^ OD « cl ■" s CQ « ? 3 M o S lO ^^ OD :i »• »4 O Ok »H M t* 1 « o =2 ^ •« -« i E 05 ?J O t= o X CO fO o ti • * O H e < 5 M 00 o • 1 5 a 1 s 1 1 S • •< 3 1 1 1 8 S < be •o 1 1 '-1 B I e 1 1 1 1 aa 3 1 > I 1. 1 1 'r. 3 t 1 "a 1 2 a e 1 00 « d 1 1 < It 5 en e H p* » >a e r- CO » e ^ M m ^ to e r- CO j..f)uin«w iciws ~ " "* ■" ■* " ~ c #1 a: = 1« 4.48 CHAPTEK XII. — OCCUPATION. O UJ _l GO < H >- < Q CO m D CO to a ST "3 oe s lii SS ^ H^ a» u e •S »H X> ^ w f^ !iR a e o CJj cS ■-"I &n -i 00 a o 00 •pv flS h a, (^ s^ e O ■*i« ^ oa ^ w ^<5 C s: oc «* 15 !^ •«d ^.— ^ as " CO rt> 3 z O CO ^ 01 cT I-T rH 09 CO 00 04 0O~ 04 U3 »H 04~ f^ S o 5 6 M s *"* CO ■^ •^ CO t* CO S Si-' II S : :::::::::::::::::: : s e> o iO 04 CO t^ o t^ CO r«. CS ^ OD 1-1 s- • M 00 04 ■^ « -* gp-cii s •«f - a IN C4 1^ '^^' ■* s; c: •^_ u r-_ .-1 OJ CO •^ "= * s 1^ ^^ 5 "lilfi « s d rH : •-» : : 04 fO 04 f< ■^ : : : CO a g n a> _^ ^ ^ 5 <» lO o «5 on t* 00 •— 00 "" 1-< Cl T* iSi •-' •^ U3 t* l-» 00 CO 03 0» t- tt 1^ 1 H s O ■^ CD o C4 CO r* 63 6S ■* C4 CO IS 09 S 04 s S CD s : •^ TH Ck CO Co 04 i a a -* < □9 a 04 ij M (a S S 4S iS w CO eo : s : : 04 04 : ^ m 01 05 o a> r* o «H •H fD CO la ■* O to ^ eo «D 04 00 eo C» CO Ol 04 S| M •a CO inl o Ol : i t* ■* O CO • t<- Ob o O) o a If! CO o CO o 04 a o .2 t-* (M w -a »H " OS K SS }S ■* 09 T^ T-l fi ■H t-l po •* • ■ S >9 01 1-4 «D iH •-*■ S 04 00 t-t ■d 09 . . . w o ^ i ^ ^ ^ O « ^ IH i-l : CO IH Wu ^a V. a P3 • o e 1 1 1 M IS ' 1 i U H H - < •a I s o a o 1 a 2 CO 1 ^ ^1 5 CD s S A S H 5 a .3 aa § U M K 1 0. w S ^ p e 1 1 & 1 i n i 1 1 g to s 3 5-S ?& il ■«« S-05 " rt * - ae4 gl-ICO ►3 "a "iff go 2 S5^ HOO -J SUBSIDIARY TABLES. 449 X LU _J m < H >■ < Q CO m D CO S ;« ») V S mm I ^ tg to %> O ^ vr 'tS M <;j h =^^ P« O » a <5 ^^ •joqnmjj rB!»S rt«»^«.et-«<»o-«33«»» « « »- 00 o o 00 9 ta O O (O 1-4 -f GO 04 ao O CO o r- t* M o ^ « SM 04 « I- 04 flO O O •-• .-i* 01 9 g 2 Q W 4 5j 5 ^ O OS «4 r4 fi^ m M ^C4iaeOC4rH rHF^^ s S ^ •suinpni •§25- . h- a :; 99 ^ g « 9 t •euwipai smi»1ojn3 CO u3 ■» CI 00 •STTBipni -oiSay pQB savodoJng o •-• oc ■* ** "^ w « M « ■* O <-• r- M ,.* O <; >-• •-< •SOOTpUI I -0|8av pn9 •sn^rpni -oi8a V pa« eacadojns tc--ca CO*- a k;= = B c ^ © •—' 3 C o o "t^ C3 -oi3av"pu« •* S • Ms an a M « 1 i-« ^ C4 lO a> OO U) •gnHrpni -oiSav pa» «TraaiIojng a a to 2* If o-a 52 ^ 00 t« ^ •rampni -oiSaV pa» SI- 9 SgSJ ■:atioii, post office and telegraph departments. — concld. (iv) Number of fersons employed in the Telegraph Department on the lOth March 1911. PHOTINOE, STATE OElAOENOT. INDIA. Balnchiatan Bengal, Bihar and Orlasa Bombay Banna Central ProTlnces and Berar Madias Hcrth-West Frontier ProTince Punjab United Provinces Baroda State Central India Agency Cochin State Hyderabad State Kashmir State Mysore State lln'putBna Agency Including A:mcr- Mcmara. Travancore State administkatite sianalunq clerks op ah Establishment. Establishment. kinds. Euro- Enropeansj ' peans and Anglo- Indians, and Indians. Indians. Anglo- -Indians. I 140 40 18 11 13 14 21 2,689 31 30 637 620 311 87 208 61 864 387 891 63 134 178 20 17 238 81 70 27 10 33 36 40 44 10 Euro- p»ana and Anglo- Indians. Indians. 8B 26 37 20 3S3 146 78 23 103 76 SKILLED La BODE. USSKILLED Laboub. MESSENiiBBS AND OTBEE SERVANTS. Oband Total, Euro- Euro- Euro- Euro- peans and Anglo- Indians. Indians. peans and Anglo- Indians. Indians. peans and Anglo- Indians. Indians. 13 peans and Anglo- Indians. Indians. 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 12 3,368 3 6,767 •• 3,890 2,929 14,666 108 •• 40n •• 91 38 873 52 7 •• 63 34 li6 10 1,132 1 1,610 •• 858 614 3,996 •• 337 •• 603 •• 662 573 1,925 364 •• 1,049 466 336 1,971 •• 169 85 •• 83 104 S78 1 266 2 423 •• 373 227 1,406 •• 63 •• 89 •• 86 52 263 •• 317 •• 694 •• 362 377 1,4-21 1 309 683 •• 306 3 404 2 1,463 3 •• 39 •• 1 63 16 36 28 3 33 107 26 38 •• 74 84 •• 72 17 279 •• 46 •• 89 •• 29 38 ,72 92 149 •• 64 44 312 1 1 10 6 18 Note — This table Is exclusive o( the eitabllsbmcnt at Pondlcberry. nblrh consists of 9 Flimallprs (6 Europeans and Anglo-Indians and 4 Indlacs), 11 Indian messengers and one Indian unskilled labourer. APPENDIX. Snniiiiary Tables. Table I. — General Statement. „ II. — Variation' in Population. ,) III — Population- distributed by Provinces, States and Ageiicies. „ IV. — Towvs AND Villages classified bt Populatio.v. „ V. — TowKs classified by Population. „ VI. — Variation in Population of chief Towns, „ VII. — Religion. „ VIIL— Age. „ IX. — Civil Condition. „ X. — Education. „ XI. — Language. „ XII.^Birthplace. „ XIII.— Infirmities. „ XIV. — Statistics op main Castes. „ XV. — Occupation or ]Means of Livelihood. u APPENDIX. TABLE I. — General Statement. Area in square miles Number of Towns and Villages (a) Towns (b) Villages . Number of Occupied Houses {a) In Towns , (6) In Villages Total Population . (a) In Towns . [b) In Villages Males , (a) In Toions . (b) In Villages Females {a) In Towns . (b) In Villages IHPIA. 2 1,802,657 722,495 2,153 720,342 63,710,179 6,037,456 57,672,723 315,156,396 29,748,228 285,408,168 161,338,935 16,108,304 145,230,631 153,817,461 13,639,924 140, 177,537 BBIIISH FSOVI1I0E3. Natitb States. 1,093,074 538,809 1,452 537,357 49,140,947 4,409,121 44,731,826 244,267,542 22,817,715 221,449,827 124,873,691 12,525,830 112,347,861 119,393,851 10,291,885 109,101,966 TABLE II. — Variation in Population. 4 709,583 183,686 701 182,985 14,569,232 1,628,335 12,940,897 70,888,854 6,930,513 63,958,341 36,465,241 3,582,474 32,882,770 34,423,610 3,348,039 31,075,571 INDU. BRITISH PKOVniOES. Native States. 1 '1911 2 315,156,396 3 244,267,542 4 70,888,854 1901 294,361,056 231,605,940 62,755,116 1 Total population ■{ 1891 287,314,671 221,240,836 66,073,835 1881 .1872 253,896,330 198,882,817 55,013,513 206,162,360 185,163,435 20,998,925 '1911 161,338,935 124,873,691 36,465,244 1901 149,951,824 117,653,127 32,298,697 Males - 1891 146,769,629 112,574,217 34,195.412 1881 129,949.290 101,339,222 28,610,068 L1872 106,055,545 95,297,739 10,757,806 '1911 153,817,461 119,393,851 34,423,610 1901 144,409,232 113,952,813 30,456,419 Females ...... • 1891 140,545,042 108,666,619 31,878,423 1881 123,947,040 97.543,595 26,403,445 .1872 100,106,815 89,865,696 10,241,119 The above figures arj inclusii ^e of the pop ulation of areas newly enumer ated at succes- sive censuses as follows : — Total population of new areas in 1881 189L . 1901 . . 1911 . . . 33,139,081 5,713.902* 2,67-A077t 1,793,365 14,628 3,112,994 1,654,377 94,495 33,124,453 2.600,90S 1,017,700 1,698,870 Male „ ,. 1881 . 1891 . 1901 . 1911 . • • • 17,492,340 2,872,513 1,36 -^,651 945,346 13.640 1,507,013 837.440 47,581 17,479,700 1,365,470 525,211 897,765 Female „ „ 1881 1891 . 1901 . 1911 . . 15.646,741 2,793,074 1,283,2117 848,019 1.988 1,605,951 790.808 46,914 1 15,644,753 1,187,123 492,480 801,105 Note. — Thi- new areas at each eensua have been detailed In Uie Title page to Imperial Table II. * Sex details ot 48,315 pcrtona are not availabie. f Su datalli o< 26,129 perioni are not available. SUMMARY TABLES. iii TABLE III. — Population distributed by Provinces, States and Agencies. PHOTIHOE, SlAIB OR AOHKOT. Aim In Bqnan nUlM. POPLL.\TIO\. 1011. ISOl. Fereons. llalcH. FemalM. 1 (Both text*.) 1 2 S « » « INDIA 1,803,657 315,156,396 161,338,935 153,817,461 294,.36 1,056 Provinces .... 1,093,071 244,267,512 124.873.691 1 19,393,851 231,605,910 1. Ajmer-Merwara 2,711 501,395 266,198 235,197 476,912 2. Andamang and Nioobars .... 3,143 26,469 19,570 (i,889 24,649 3. Assam ....... 53,015 6,713,635 3,467,621 3,246,014 5,&41,878 4. Baluchistan . .... 54..228 414,412 239,181 175,231 382,106 5. Bengal 78,699 45,483,077 23,365,226 22,117,852 42,141,477 6. Bihav and Orissa ..... Bihar Orissa ...... Chota Sagpur .... 83,181 42,361 13,743 27,077 34,490,084 23,752,969 5,131.753 5,605,362 16,859,929 11,606,432 2,476.284 2,777,213 17,630,155 12,146,537 2.655,469 2,828,149 33.242.783 23 360,212 4,982.142 4,900,429 7. Bombay ( Presidency) .... Bombay ... Sind Aden ...... • 123,059 75,993 46,986 80 19,672,642 16,113,042 3,513,435 46,165 10,245.847 8,275,233 l,939r324 81,290 9,426,795 7,837,809 1,574,111 14,875 18,559,650 15,304,766 3,210,910 43.974 8. Burma ... ... 230,839 12,115,217 6,183,494 5,931,723 10,490,624 9. Central Provinces and Berar Central Provinces .... Berar ...... 99,823 82,057 17,766 13,916,308 10,859,146 3,057,162 6,930,392 5,379,778 1,550,614 6,985,916 5,479,368 1,506,548 11,971,452 9,217,436 2,754,016 10. Coorg 1,582 174,976 97,279 77,697 180,607 11. Madras 142,330 41,405,404 20,382,955 21,022,449 38,229,654 12. N.-W. F. Pro^•ince (Districts and Administered Terntories). 13. Punjab 13,418 99,779 2,196,933 19,974,956 1.182.102 10,992,067 1,014,831 8,982,889 2,041,534 20,330.337 14. United Frovinces of Agra and Oudh . Agra ...... Oudh 107,267 83,109 24,158 47,182,044 34.624,040 12,558,004 24,641,831 18,157,131 6,484,700 22,540,213 16,466,909 6,07.3,304 47,692,277 34.859.109 12,833,168 States and Agencies . 709,583 70,888,854 36,465,244 34,423,610 62,765,118 15. Assam State (Manipur) .... 8,456 346,222 170,666 175,556 284,466 16. Baluchistan States ..... 80,410 420,291 227,238 193,053 428,640 17. Baroda State 8,182 2,032,798 1,055,935 976,863 1.952,692 18. Bengal SUtes 5,393 822,565 438,368 384.197 740,299 19. Bihar and Orissa States . 28,648 3,945,209 1,955,125 1,990,084 3,314,474 20. Bombay States 63,864 7,411,675 ' 3,765,401 3,646,274 6,908,559 21. Central India Agency .... 77,367 9,356,980 4,801,459 4,555,521 8,497,805 22. Central Provinces States .... 31,174 2,117,002 1,053,630 1,063,372 1,631,140 23. Hyderabad State 82,698 13,374,676 6,797,118 6,577,558 11,141,112 24. Kashmir SUte S4,432 3,158,126 1,674,367 1,483,759 2,905,578 25. Madras States Cochin Stale ..... Travancore State .... 10,549 1,361 7,594 4,811,841 91S.110 3,428,975 2,411.758 457,.U2 1,731,363 2,400.083 460,76S 1,697,612 4,188.086 8l202ry 2.952.157 26. Mysore State 29,475 6,806,193 2,934,621 2,871.672 6,539.399 27. North-West Frontier Province {Agencies and Tribal areas). 28. Punjab SUtes 25,500 36,551 1.622,094 4,212,794 864,876 2,322,908 757,218 1,889,886 ^3,962 4,424,398 29. Rajpntana Agency ..... 128,987 10,530,432 5,616,275 5,015,157 9,853,.S66 80. Sikkim State 2.818 87.820 45,059 42,861 69,014 31. United Provinces States .... 6,079 832,036 481,410 400,696 802,097 ly APPENDIX. TABLE IV. — Towns anb Villages classified by Population. CliMiflcation of Towns and Villages. India. Beiiish Pkovihobs. Naiitb States. Knmber. Population. Number. Population. Knmber. Fopniation. 1 2 3 ^ 6 6 r IMDIi. 733,495 315,156,396 538,809 244.367,543 183,686 70,888,854 Under 500 inhabitants . 652,109 102,030,197 403,983 75,756,865 148,126 26,273,332 500—1,000 .... 107,545 74,644,948 84,444 58,671,877 23,101 15,973,071 1,000-2,000 . . . . 45,843 62,262,892 36,726 49,901,649 9,117 12,361,243 2,000-5,000 .... 14,643 41,282,411 11,829 33,377,494 2,814 7,904,917 5,000—10,000 1,616 10,652,043 1.250 8,171,755 366 2,480,288 10,000-20,000 .... 485 6,651,606 376 5,205,034 109 1.446,572 20,000—50,000 .... 179 0,463,259 140 4,253,919 39 1,209,340 50,000—100,000 . 45 2,978,075 35 2,275,627 10 702,448 100,000 and over . . . . 30 7,045,292 26 6,185,555 4 859,737 Encampments, Boat and Eailway population unclassed. ... 523.579 467,767 55,812 Areas in which village statistics were not recorded. ... 1,622,094 ... ... 1,622,094 TABLE V. — Towns classified by Population. Town* containing a population of India. Beiiish Pkovinoes. Native States. Number. Population. Number. Population. Number. Population. 1 2 8 4 6 6 7 Total Urban Population. 3,153 29,748,338 1,453 33,817,715 701 6,930,513 I 100,000 and over . 30 7,075,782 26 6,210,883 4 864,899 11 50,000 to 100,000 . 45 3,010,281 35 2,306,466 10 703,815 ni 20,000 to 50,000 . 181 5,545,820 142 4,334,292 39 1,211,528 IV 10,000 to 20,000 . 442 6,163,954 343 4,816,758 99 1,347,196 V 5,000 to 10,000 . 848 6,944,503 668 3,982,242 280 1,962,261 VI Under 6,000 607 3,007,888 338 1,167,074 269 840,814 SUMMARY TABLES. f TABLE VI. — Variation in Popi'lation of chief Towns. Town. FOPITLATIOH. Variation. Town. FOPCLATIOR. Variation, Increase (.|.), Decrease ( — ). IBll. 1901. Dccrease(— ). 1911. - 1901. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1. Calcutta with Suburbs 1,222,313 1,106,738 + 115,575 35. MoradabaJ. 81.168 75,128 -f 6,0 to and Howiah. Calcutta and Fort 896,067 847,796 + 48,271 36. Ambala and Canton- ment, t>0,131 78,638 ■»- i,i;)3 Costipore Chitpur 48,178 40,750 + 7,428 37. Calicut and Canton- ment. 3S. Hyderabad and Canton- 78,417 76,931 + 1,436 Manichtola 53,767 32,387 + 31,380 75,952 69,378 + 6,574 ment, {Bind). Garden Reach 45,295 28,211 + 1T,0S1 39. Imphal . 74,650 72.234 + 2,416 Sowrah 179,006 157,594 + 31,412 40, Bhagalpur 74,349 76,760 — 1,411 2. Bombay 979,445 776,006 + 203,439 41. Rampur and Canton- 74,316 78,758 4,442 ment. 3. Madras and Canton- ment. 4. Hyderabad and Can- 518,660 509,346 + 9,314 42. Shahjahanpur 71,778 76,458 — 4,C80 500,623 448,466 + 52,157 43. Mysore City 71,306 ■68,111 + 3,195 tonmeut. 5. Rangoun and Canton- ment. 6- Lucknow and Canton- 298,316 245,430 + 47,886 44. Jhansi and Cantonment 70,208 65,724 + 14,484 259,798 264,049 — 4,251 45. JuUundur and Canton- 69,318 67.735 -1- 1,583 ment. ment, 7. Delhi and Cantonment 232,837 208,575 + 24,262 46. Sialkot and Cantonment 64,869 57,956 + 6,913 8. Lahore and Canton- 228,687 202,964 + 25,723 ment. 47. Koil-Aligarh 64,825 70,434 — 5,609 9. Ahmadabad and Can- 216,777 185,889 + 30,883 tonment. 48. Kumbakonam 64,647 59,673 + 4,974 10. Benares and Canton- 203,804 :j 13,079 — 9,275 ment. 49. Trivandrum and Can- 63.561 57,882 + 5,679 11. Agra and Cantonment. 185,449 188,032 — 2,573 tonment. 12. Cawnpore and (Canton- 178,557 202,797 — 24,240 50. Saharanpur 62,850 66,254 3,404 ment 13. Allahabad and Can- 171,697 172,032 — 335 51. Darbhanga 62,628 66,244 — 3,616 tonment. 14. Poona and Canton- 158,856 153,320 + 5,536 62. Hubli 61,440 60,214 + 1,226 ment. 15. Amritsar and Canton- 152,756 162,429 — 9,673 53. Sbolapur . 61,345 75,288 — 13,94J ment. 16. Karachi and Canton- 151,903 116,663 -1- 35,240 54. Bbavnagar 60,694 66,442 + 4,252 ment. 17. Mandalay and Canton- 138,299 183,816 — 45,517 55, Tanjore 60,341 57,870 -f- 2,471 ment. 18. Jaipur 137,098 160,107 — 23,069 56. Negapatam 60,168 57,190 ■»- 2,978 19. Patna 136,153 134,785 + 1,368 57. Farrukbabad-CMm-Fate- garh and Canton- 59,647 67.338 - 7,691 20. Madura 134,130 105,984 + 28,146 ment. .58. Jodhpur 59,262 60,437 — 1,175 21. Bareily and Canton- 129,462 133,167 — 3,7' 5 ment. 59. Salem 59,153 70,621 — 11,468 22. Srinagar and Canton- 126,344 122,618 + 3,72fi ment. 60. Muttra and Canton- 58,183 60,042 — 1,859 23. Trichinopoly and Can- 123,512 104,721 4- ls,791 ment. tonment. 24. Meerut and Canton- 116,227 118,129 — 1.902 61. Moulmeiii . 57,582 58,446 — 86 i ment. 25. Surat and Cantonment 114,868 119,306 — 4,438 62. Uorakhpur 56,892 64,148 — 7,256 26. Dacca 108,551 89,733 -h 18,M8 63. Cuddalore . 56,574 52,216 -1- 4,358 27. Nagpur 101,415 127,734 — 26,319 64. Bhopal 56,204 77,023 — 20,819 28. Bangalore City includ- 189,485 159,046 + 30,439 65. Bikaner 55,826 53,075 + 2,751 insr Civil and Mili- tary Station. 66. Fyzabad-cum-Ajodhya 54,655 71,179 16,524 Bangalore Civil and Militarj/ Station. 100,834 89,599 + 11.235 and Cantonment. Bangalore City. 88,651 69,447 -1- 19 SOI 67. Cocanada . 54,110 48,096 + 6,014 29. Jubbulpore and Can- 1">0,651 9(1,533 + 10,118 t'lnment. 68. Shikarpar . 63,9U 49,491 + 4,453 SO. Buroda and Canton- 99.345 103.790 — 4,445 ment. e9. Conjeeveram 63,864 46.164 ^^- 7,700 31. Multan and Canton- 99,243 h7,394 + 11,849 ment. 70. Cuttack . 62,.528 61,364 + 1,164 32. Peshawar and Canton- 97,935 95,1 17 -1- 2,78S ment. 71. Fcroiopore and Canton- 50,836 49,341 + 1,495 33. Rawalpindi and Can- 86,483 87.688 — 1,205 ment. t nment 34. Ajmer 86,222 73,839 + 12,383 72. Bhatpara . 50.414 21,540 -t- 28.874 n APPENDIX. TABLE VII.— Religion. KEIIOION. India. BRITISH Provinces. Native States. 1 ixniA 2 315,156,.39G 3 344,267,.542 4 70,888,854 Hindu ...... 217,586,892 163,621,431 53,965,161 Brahmanic .... 217,337,943 163,381,380. 53,956,563 Arya 243,445 234,841 8,604 B rah mo .... 5,504 5,210 294 Sikh 3,014,466 2,171,908 842,558 Jain ... ... 1,248,182 45S,578 789,604 Buddhist 10,721.453 10,644,409 77,044 Zovoastiian (Parst) 100,096 86,155 13,941 Musalman .... 66,84,317 12,115,217 16,033,310 174,976 4l,^70.1t;l) 3,819,027 24,187,750 48,014,060 2,032,7'.'8 9,356,980 918,110 13,374, i;7r, 3,158,126 6,806,193 10.5:io,.l32 87,920 3,428,975 Immigrants (per- sons born else- where but enumerated in Province or State). Persons bom in Province or State but enumerated in other parts of India. 650,503 9H,578 14,41 12 882.068 58,500 1,970,778 449,712 1,021,224 590,965 749,985 45,535 253,877 135,345 660,219 660,1 185 222,957 474,255 47,266 260,713 7-;,773 312,908 303.553 :!9,835 61,165 Persona bom in Province or State bat enumerated in other parts of the British Empire. Natural population (persons born in a Province or State irrespective of the place of enumeration). 84,110 967 73,739 76,031 552,587 1,901,033 602,966 12.653 314,515 3,858 824,723 66,717 604,173 1,408,656 23.i,523 535,847 20,381 30ii,272 8I,9:U 131,257 85">,i'.25 3,445 28,270 5 6 1,023,50.5* 315,529.399 488,927 13,027 6,252,083 852.476 3 555 ai2 32,170 15,773 19,865 1,513 718 ■i 693,456 661 l!l,312 20,654 5 286 2,887 116 87 8,350 322 6.873 44.919,ti21 39,902,387 26,t^i 85.924 i 1,538,418 15.598.5.i8 133,3it3 4:<,l 34,462 3,751,060 24,04.1,016 48,783,3"5 2,045,3t!9 9,H'^.8:.s 894,li2 13,420,351 3,lti3,321 5.632.8;i2 ll,0'>2,826 f. ,5M0 3,400,963 ^OIK. — The flsurcd for the PtoTiricoa are Inclu&ive ol the htttcH ultichwl to tlioin, c.\v;c^'t in Hm •-.^'>o ul Madraa. wtioto tltcy exclude Cocliil: und Travancor«. * lodudM 20S,70S cmlgtsDl* who falltd to ipedfy tlieir provlnco of blrtli. a o 2 / APPENDIX. TABLE XIII.— Infikmities. ASE. A.-INDIA. 1 iBSA BB. Deai-Mutes. Bliits. LsriiB. 1 Males. Females. Hales. Females. Hales. Females. Hales. Females. 1 2 ^ 4 5 6 7 8 9 IKDIA. 50,043 30,963 119,251 80,fi40 231,916 231,737 81,034 28,070 0—6 5-10 10-16 15—20 508 2.715 4,131 4,663 427 1.750 2,696 3,165 4,78o 17,318 18.1ti6 14,455 H,779 11,6M3 11,697 y,837 6,999 12,296 13,218 11,944 4,990 7,1)47 8,1197 8,296 245 568 1,692 3,185 188 419 1.144 1,814 20— -25 25—30 30-35 35_-40 ..... 5,543 6,298 6.528 4,S39 r',372 3,120 3.466 2,431 13,564 l:i,45(i 10,415 6,767 9,194 7,841 6,929 4,25S 13,344 14,260 15,182 12,069 10,083 11,256 14,276 11,195 4,752 7,174 9,517 9,761 2,344 2,663 3,327 2,754 40-45 45-50 50-55 55—60 . . . .■ . 4,760 2,849 2.765 1,187 3,067 1,759 2.174 915 6,847 3,675 3,H60 1,609 4,916 2,430 2,971 1,125 17,126 11,890 20,198 9,753 18,342 12,118 23,730 10,750 12,542 8, .503 9,617 3,974 3,558 2,252 3.025 1,260 60—65 .... 65-70 . . . . . 70 and over .... Age unspecified 1.478 480 853 4l<> 1,325 371 751 174 2,307 768 l.f.85 473 l,9fi6 552 1.329 183 £3,807 8,646 3(1,106 l.n79 32,680 9,898 37,135 944 5,553 1,437 2,438 t^6 1,951 472 892 17 Note. — ^The persons returned as suffering from more than one infirmity are entered under each. females) does not therefore correspond with the aggregate of the several infljmities. Inflrmities were not recorded for 933,106 ra ties :ind 821,439 females. The total population afflicted (170,887 males and 360,5S7 Aes. E .— BEiriSH PEOVIXCES. 1 IkSahe. Deap-MuteS. BUHS. Lepess. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Hales. * Females. 1 2 S 4 6 6 1 8 9 Provinces. 0—5 5—10 10-15 15-20 42,064 380 2,204 3,351 3,867 26,091 336 1,418 2,172 2,614 100,838 4.108 14,826 15,580 12,243 68,084 3,220 9.815 9,892 B,332 175.214 5,30s 9,654 10.283 9,216 173,133 3,740 6,037 6,206 6,353 69,190 1>S6 469 1,386 2,695 23.243 137 320 921 1,503 20—25 25—30 30-35 35-40 4,675 5,381 5,579 4,185 2,857 2,675 2,939 2,111 11,418 10.574 8,797 5,727 7.804 6,6s5 5,945 3,605 10,339 11,305 11.989 9,704 7,6S2 8,745 10,953 S,8l0 4,014 6,139 8,175 8,479 1.919 2.204 2,716 2,332 40—45 45—50 60—55 56-60 4,014 2,435 2,301 1,017 2,682 1,514 1,849 822 5,721 3,115 3,248 1.344 4,099 2,048 2,413 975 13,556 9622 15,,s41 7,890 14,079 9,685 18,216 8,871 10,613 7,421 8,102 3,437 2.856 1,936 2,480 1.108 60—65 65—70 70 and over .... Age nhspecified .... 1,232 423 ! 734 286 1,128 330 651 96 1.K76 050 1,397 214 1..590 489 1,099 73 18,606 7,018 24,603 3»1 25,139 M23 30,205 i 279 4,730 2.0ti2 17 1,627 411 767 6 ;Asi:. C— NATIVE STATES. 1 IbBabx. DEiv-HnrBS. Blibs. IiSrSBS. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Hales. Females. 1 2 S 4 6 6 7 8 W States. 0-6 .... 5—10 10—16 15—20 7,979 128 611 780 796 4,869 91 332 524 551 18,4IS 678 2,492 2,586 2,212 12.556 559 1,818 l,8u5 1,505 46,702 1,691 2,642 2,936 2,728 48,604 1,250 1,910 1,891 1,943 11,834 59 99 306 490 4,827 51 99 223 311 20—36 25-30 .... 3()— 35 . . 35—40 868 917 949 654 515 445 527 320 2,146 l,8s2 1,618 1,040 . 1,390 1.156 984 653 3,005 2,955 3,193 2,365 2.401 2.611 3.323 2,385 738 1,035 1,342 1,282 425 449 611 422 40—43 46 — .50 ..... 50-55 55-60 746 414 464 170 485 245 326 93 1,126 560 712 266 817 S82 S58 J 50 3,571 2,268 4,357 1,863 4,263 2.433 6,514 1.879 1,929 1,082 1,515 637 702 316 545 152 60-65 65-70 70 and over .... Age unspecified .... 246 67 119 160 197 41 100 78 431 118 288 259 376 63 230 110 5.301 l,6:i8 5,602 698 7,541 1,765 6,930 (J65 823 192 356 19 324 61 125 11 SUMMARY T.VBLES. XI TABLE XIV.— Statistics of main Castes. ClBTM. A^a'nadAlyan Asanval Ahar Ahif Anin AiakanoM Arora Awan Babhan Bagdi Baliagi Balai BaUJa BalQch Banlys BaDjan Banl Barhai Baari Bada Bend Bhangi IBhar i Bharbhnnja I Bharvad 'Bhat iBhU t Bboi I Bhniya ■ lEhiiml] . Bind iBoya ; Br&bman I Bannne I Chakala ChakklUTan Cbamar . Chasa Cbennnan Cbettl Chblmba Chin Chahn Dai* Deranga Dbangar ■ Dbsnnk . Dhimar . Dbobi Dhuniya 1 Dom Sosadh . Fakir Gadaiiya. Oanda Gania OoUa Gond Goeain Goundla Gnjar naijam Halwal narl Ho . Holey* Idalyan Tdiga IlDvan Jat .'hinwar ■logi 'olaha Kachbl Kahat KaibartU, Chaal Kalbartla, J»Uy» Kaikolan Kalian Ealvar . Eamar Kamma KammaUn Kandh Eanda . Kanct Kapa Karan Karrn Kaaal Strensth. When chiefly found. Casti. S49,»l« Madras. 1,019 liOS Most Provinces. 2i>9,Sii9 United Provinces. 9,50S.+S6 I Most Provinces. 1,001.693 Punjab, Kashmir. 344,127 Burma. 740,838 X.-\V. F. Province. Punjab. 702,452 ' N.-\V. F. Province. Punjab. 1,265,9,«2 : Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces. 1,041,892 Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 762.125 Most Provinces. 413.483 rcntral India, Bajputana. 1,04(1.419 Madras. 1,335,974 Baluchistan. Bombay, Punjab. 1,125,517 Most Provinces. 1,084.955 Most Provinces 547,853 Bengal, I ihar and Orissa, I'nited Provinces. 1,067,093 ! iliar and Orissa, C. P. and B., United Prov. 760,010 Bengal. Bihar and Orissa, Madras. 318,444 Madras, Mysore. 396,790 Bombay, Hyderabad. 740. 4S I r.ombay, United Provinces, 'iajpntana. 454,427 United Provinces. 321,833 Punjab. United Provinces, Central India. 896,402 Bombay, Central India. 364.862 United Provinces. 1,635,988 Bombay, Central India, Bajputana. 305,421 Bombay, Central Ifldia. Hyderabad. 854,449 As.^am, Bengal. Bihar and Orissa. 410,701 Bengal, Biliar and Orissa. Eayastha Kewat Kbaudayat Khati Ebatik Khatrl Klson Koch Koiri Kol Koli Komati Kori Kshatriya Kumhar Kunbi Kunjra Kurrai Kurumban Labbai Lingayat Lodha" Lohana Lobar Machhi (Madiga j Mahar Mai jMali 1 Mallah 237,365 Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces. Malo 427,908 Madias. Mang 14.598.708 Most Provinces. J Mangala 7,644.310 Burma. [MappiUa 562,735 Madras, Hyderabad. [Maratlia 528.8.^9 Madras. ( Maravan 11,493,733 Most Provinces. iMeo 851,894 Bihar .and Orissa. Mina 256,473 Madras. ilirasi 390,450 Madras, Travancore. Mochi 251,6.'>0 Punjab. United Provinces, Kajpntana. Moghal 306,+S6 Barn a. Munda 1,269,250 N.-W. F. Province, Punjab, Kashmir. Murao 705,733 Most Provinces. Musahar 451,355 Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad. Mutrasi 673,439 859,767 384,504 2,074.405 719,265 925.820 1,316.388 979.293 1,368.990 364,826 900.192 1,538.021 2,917.9.-.0 262.054 306,071 2,199,198 3,013,399 254.844 454,174 420.571 771.613 744.372 324.957 875,856 6,064,286 375,694 814.365 2,858.399 1,304.296 1,838,6^ 2,231,218 375,936 373,297 536.629 954.241 314,105 1.126,531 1.047.752 673.346 664.423 403.815 3.361.621 255.689 1,102.695 963,123 C. P. and Berar, Hyderabad. B^bar and Orissa, United Provinces. C. P. and Berar, Central India, Most Provinces. BUiar and Orissa, United Provinces. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces. Bini.al. Biliar and Orissa, United Provinces. Punjab. United Provinces, liiliar and OrLssa, U. P., Central India. Bihar and Orissa, C. V. and Berar. Bihar and Orissa, Coorg, Madras. [ Paraiyan Madra.*, Hyderabad, Mysore. » Pasi Biliar and Orissa, C. P. and B., Central India. Fathan Most Provinces, Hyderabad. Namasudra ^'ayar Ji'uniya . Od . Oraon j Oswal ; Pa Han ' PaUi \ Panchala ' Panilia . Pod Pulaiyan . Most Provinces. Most Provinces. Bihar and Orissa. United Provinces. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bihar and Orissa. Madias, Mysore. Ma Iras. Madras, Mysore. Bfadras, Cochin, Travancoie. Most Provinces. Punjab. Most Provinces. Most Provinces. C. P. and Berar, U. P.. Central India. Bihar and Orissa, 1 nited PtOTinces. Ajwam, B<-ngaI. Assam, Bengal. Madras- Madras. Bihar and Oriasa, C. P. and Berar, 1 Assam, Bengal. Madras. Mailras, Travanoore. Bihar and Orissa, Madras. Bihar and Orissa, Unlt«d Provinces. Punjab. Madras, Hyderabad. Bengal. Bihar and Orlaaa, Madras. Burma. Punjab, United Provinces. Rabari Bajbansi , Ra put . Sadgop . Saiyid Sale Santa! Savar Shaha Shan Shanan Sheikh SindhI Sonar Siidra Sutradhar TalaIng . Tanti and Tstwa Tarklian . Telaga . Tell and Till Tlyan Tljur Uppara . Vadda Vakkaliga \ alaiyan Vannan . Velama . Villain . Strength. I Where chiefly foand. 2,178,300 Most Provinces. 1,215,616 I Bihar and Orissa, C. P. and Benr, U. P. 807.108 Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 250,596 Central India, Rajpntana. 299,357 United Provinces, Rajputana. 599.159 Punjab. United Provinces. 893,436 Bihar and Oris.'ia, United Ptovtoecs. 370,490 Assam. Brngal. 1,766.796 Bihar and Orissa. United Provinces. 344 790 C. P. and liirar, U. P., Central India. 8,171,978 I Most Provinces. 765.535 ! Madras. Hyderabad. 918,820 I C. P. and Berar. United Provinoei. 468,456 ; Assam. Sladras, Mysore. 3,424,815 Most Provinces. 4,512.737 ! Bombay, C. P. and Berar, Baroda. 279,257 Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces 3,735.651 Biliar and Orissa, C. P. and Berar, U. P. 947.619 424,724 Madras, Hyderabad, M>-sore. Madras, Travancore. 2,976.203 Bombay, Madras. Hyderabad Mysore. 1,732 i:in C. P. and Berar, U. i',. Central India. 605.482 Bombay. 2,070,372 i Most Provinces. 325,814 I Bombay, Pun.ab. 1,931,017 , M,idr.as. ilvdrrabad. Mvsore. 3,342,680 I Bombay, c. P. and i:( far, Hyderabad. 2,135.329 ; Bengal, Madras, Hyderabad. 2,035,843 I Most Provinces. 738,780 Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces. 268,014 Assam, Bengal. 700.069 Bombay, C. P. and Berar, Hyderabad. 260,514 Madras, Hyderabad. 1,046,834 I Madras. 6,087,436 j 1 ombay, C. P. and Berar, Hyderabad. 375,042 I Madras. 403,868 ' Punjab. United Provinces, Rajputana. 639.908 Central India. Rajputana. 270,664 Punjab, Rajputana. 1,018,366 j Most Provinces. 358,022 ! 5'ost Provinces. 574,434 Assam. BenRal, Bihar and Orissa. 674,346 United Prov.nces, 699.207 Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces. 414,674 Madras, Hyderabad. 2,087.162 Assam, Bengal. 1,129,466 Madras, Cochin. Travancore. 799,880 Bihar and Orissa, I nited Provinces. 610,162 Madras, Punjab. 751,983 Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, C. P. and Berar. 427,778 Bombay, Rajputana. 877,354 Madras. 2,828,792 Madras. 892.327 l^ombay, Madras, Mysore. Hyderabad. 798,973 Bihar and Orissa, C. P. and ■ erar. Madias. 2,448.295 Madras, Travancore. 1.499.825 Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces. 3,796,818 Most Provinces. 536,591 , Bengal 262i416 I Cochin, Travancore. 310,566 Bombay, Baroda, Rajputana. 2,049,454 Assam. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 8,430,095 Most Provinces. 675.931 I li'Dgal. 1,655,5^5 I Most Provinces. 786.408 j Bombay. Madras. Hyderabad. 2,138.310 , Bengal. Bihar and Oriss.a. 582,342 i iiharand Orissa. .Madras, Central India, 800.849 Asiuim. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. 996,946 I Burma. 808,264 32,131,342 1,701,158 1,262.978 295,437 Madras. Travancore, Most l*rovinces. Bombay, Rajputana. .M(»st Provinces. Assam, IVugal. I 640,446 Bengal, Bembay, Central India, Hydenbsd. 320,629 Burma. 980.071 ANUim. Bengal. Bihar and Orissa. 716.9.59 N.-W. P. I'ruvino-, Punjab, Kaalunlr. 967,218 .Madras, Hyderabad. 4.233,2,50 Most Provinces. 641,6110 Madras. 280,510 Bengal, Blluir and Orliaa. 326,109 Madras, Hyderabad. Mysore. 390,119 Bombay, lij-derabod, Mysore. 1,607,093 Madras, Mysore. 3H3.948 Madras. 2*h..'>44 Madras. 571. *-2- Mailras. Hyderabad. 2.603.1119 Madra«, Travancorr. NoTi:. — In this Table C. P. and 1; . -t.ii.l. (■ r Central : • s and Berar and D. P. ("t United l'ty>\ iik«;». xu APPENDIX. TABLE XV.— OccrPATiON or ]\Ieans of Livelihood. ■s o OCCl'PATION. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 46 47 48 40 60 INDIA. A.— Prodnctlon of raw materials I.~E.\PLOITATIOy OF THK SURFACE OF THE EAJITH Pasture and agriculture (fl) Ordivnry cultivation ........-• (6) Ormving of special products and market gardening .... (e) Forestry (a) Rainng of farm stock ......■•• («) Raising of small ammals .....-■•• Fishing and imnting .... II.—EXTRACTloy OF MINEBALS Number op peesoss supported bv e.ioh Ciass, Sub-class AND Obdek. Mines Quarries of hard rocks Salt, etc. . B.— Preparation and supply of material snbstances III.— IN D USTIt -£ 51 62 63 54 65 Textiles Hides, sliins and hard materials from the animal kingdom Wood Metals . . ■ Ceramics ......... Clieniic*tl products properly so called, and analogous Food industries ....... Industries of dress and the toilet Furnitur* industries ...... Building industries ...... Construction of means of transport ....... Production and transmission of physical forces (heat, light, electricity, motive po^er. etc.). Industries of luxury and those pertaining to literature and to arts and sciences. Industries concerned with refuse matter ..:..• ir.— TRANSPORT . Transport by water .... Transport by road . . . . . Transport by rail . . . . . Post Office, telegraph and telephone services r.— TRADE Banks, establishments of credit, exchange and insurance Brokerage, commission and export .... Trade in textiles ....... Trade in skins, leather and furs ..... Trade in wood ........ Trade in metals Trade in pottery Trade in chemical products Hotels, cafi^s. restaurants, etc. Other trade in food stufls . Trade in clothing'and toilet articles Trade m furniture Trade in building materials Trade in means of transport Trade in fuel .... Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters and the arts and sciences. Trade in refuse matter ......... Trade of other sorts C. — Fnbllc administration and liberal arts ri.— PUBLIC FORCE Army N.ivy Police I'll— PUBLIC ADSIiyiSTBATIOy . rill.—PBOFESSIOyB AlfD LIBERAL ARTS R'ligion .... Law .... Medicine .... Instruction Letters and arts and sciences IX.— PERSONS LIVING PRINCIPALLY INCOaiE. O.V THEIR D. — Hlscellaneons X.—D03IESXIC 8BB VICE XI.—INSUITICIENTLT DESCRIBED OCCUPATIONS XII.— UNPRODUCTIVE Inmates of Jails, asylums and hospitals fi<-ggars, vaKraiits and prostitutes India. 313,470,014 227,030,092 S36,330AS3 224,695,900 216,7li7.137 2.012.503 672.093 s.irs.ioi iS,063 1,854,583 SS9,609 375,927 75,424 78,258 58.191,121 35,333,041 8,306,501 898,741 3,799,892 1,861,445 2,240,210 1,241,587 3,711,675 7,750,609 39,268 2,062,493 66,056 14,384 2,141,665 1,388,515 5,028,978 982.766 2,781,938 1,062,493 201,781 17,839,103 1,220,187 240,858 1,277,469 296,712 224,838 59,766 101,981 171,927 719,052 9,478,888 306,701 173,413 84,613 239,396 524,962 522,130 3,695 2,192,534 BBITIBB PEOVINCES. ITAHVB States. 10,912,123 244,189,716 179,948,129 l79.S-i!).3:i3 177,985,894 n2.321MS Lese.iii 47S.362 3,423.49.} 46.244 1,593,458 418,777 298,764 aS,897 61,116 44,537,228 36,791,864 6,196,671 473,041 2,893.498 1,378,833 1,646,043 938,326 3,033,723 5,652,131 3i,677 1,821,852 56,775 11,537 1,674,609 1,129,143 4,330,054 885,128 2,343,722 936,851 170.553 13,400,310 803,561 203,702 901,365 238,014 179,555 44,273 82,304 149,552 368.569 7,420,566 231,856 14.5,022 65,115 192,143 391,165 401,988 3,141 1,567,619 7,306,043 3,398,586 1,553,589 665,278 4,640 1,728,668 320,456 4,511 1,210,622 3,648,005 1,503,819 5,335,357 3.881,670 2,780.489 303,408 626,9011 674,393 951,167 1,897,173 255,683 523,131 530,579 673,124 540,175 366,973 17,286,678 12,398,316 4,599,080 \ 3.416,999 9.330,317 6,G75,606 3,451,381 3.405.71S 132,810 8.318,771 108,743 2,296,973 69,280.298 47,131,963 47, Oil. J 31 46,760,006 44,46 5. 4S9 3.y,.3-:S 193731 l,742.e0!i 1.S19 261.125 110,833 77.183 16,527 17,142 18,653,893 8,531,177 2,109,830 225,700 906,304 482,012 594,167 258,261 677,947 2,098,478 3,591 440,641 9,281 2,847 407,056 259,372 693,934 97.638 438,216 12.3.842 31,228 4,439,793 416,626 37,156 378,104 58,698 4,3,288 15,493 111,877 22,375 350,483 2,038,302 .55,045 28,391 19,498 47,2.3;i 133,797 120,142 554 624,915 3,606,080 844,997 335,822 129 509,040 1,144,193 1.443,687 872,316 47,743 l'll,789 143,814 278,043 173,303 4,888,362 1,183,088 8,600,611 1,045,003 23,865 1,021,798 INDKX (The reiert'iues tliroiiglioiit are to paragraplis.) XUl Subject. Aborigines and infant marriage Actuarial report on age statistics Age Age, aocuracy of the return . Age and blindness Age and diaf-niutism . Age and insanity Age and leprosy . Age distribution by religion and caste Age distribution of the literate Age distribution, periodic variations in — Age distribution, Sundbarg'a theory re^ ^ gardinir — .... Age statistics, actuarial examination of the— Age statistics, utility of — Agricultural occupations Agriculture and density Ajmer-JIerwara, variation in population Anglican communion Anglo Indians, distribution . Anglo Indians, sects Animism, deBnition Animists, conversion of — to Hinduism Animists, distribution Animists, restrictions on marriage . Animists. variation since 1901 Anthropometry .... Area, population and density Army ..... Arya Samaj .... Aryas. distribution Aryan, use of the word — Aryan languages Aryan languages gaining ground Aryans and Infant marriage Assam Assam, Christians Assam, density Assam, education Assam, immigiation Assam, sex proportions Assam, towns and vills^es . Assam, variation in population Assam-Bunnese languages Austro- Asiatic linguistic family Baluchistan Baluchistan, density Baluchistan, towns and villages Baluchistan, variation in population Baptists .... Baroda, density . Baroda, education Baroda, to»-ns and villages . Baroda, variation in population Basket makers Bengal, Christians Bengal, density Bengal, education Bengal, immigration Bengal, sex proportions Bengal, towns and villages Bengal, variation in population Bertillon'a scheme of occupations Bihar and Orissa, Christiana . Bihar and Orissa, density Bihnr and Orissa, education . Bihar and ( >rissa, emigration Bihar and Orissa, sex proi>ortjons Bihar and (Jrissa, towns and villages Bihar and Oris^a, variation in population Bihar and the I'nited Provinces, Katt Chap- ter. VII V V V X X X X V VIII V V XII I II IV IV IV rv IV rv VII IV XI I XII IV IV IX IX IX VII I IV I VIII III VI I II IX IX I I I II IV I VIII 1 II XII IV I VIII III VI I II XII IV I VIII III VI 1 II I Para. 328, 3^2 214fE 203ff 203 457 451 443 463 212 353, 362 209£E 206ff 205, 214fE 204 529ff 36fE 95 179 202 202 174 162 175 307 176 489ff l2fE 552ff 165, 166 165 410 419,420. 427 422fE 328, 341 11 187 15 368 139 254 47 96, 97 417 406,431 11 16 48 98 180 28 389 62 121 641 188 17, lt< 3G9£E 138 255 49, 50 99 ft 512 189 19 372fr 141 256 61, 52 I02ff 11 Subject. Birthplace .... Blacksmiths Blindness .... Bluepatches as a test of race Boatmen .... Bombay, Christians Bombay city Bombay, density Bombay, education Bombay, migration to and from Bombay, sex proportions Itoniljay, tomis and villages Bombay, variation in population Brabmos, distribution . Brahui language Brick-makers Bride-price British territory, migration between- and Xative States . Buddhists . Buddliists, restrictions on marriage , Buddhists Society in South India Burma, Christians Bunna, density . Burma, education Burma, immigration Burma, sex proportions Burma, towns aud villages Burma, variation in population Calcutta city Canals .... Caste, admission of outsiders to — Caste and blindness Caste and classes Caste and dtaf-mutism . Caste and education Caste and English cducarion Caste and infant marriage Caste and insanity Caste and language Caste and leprosy Caste aud occupation Caste and race, age distribution by Caste and sub-caste Caste and widow marriage Caste bibliogi-aphy Caste changes Caste cutcherry of East India Company Caste, detinition Caste, expulsion from — Caste go\ ernment Caste of Government servants Caste of income tax payers Caste, relation of — to race Caste restrictions Caste tabhas Caste system, origin of — Caste, trilie and race Caste, types of — Cataract operations . C'atechista Cattle breeders Census, comparison of — with vital statistics Census of Roman Catholic Missions Central India, density . Central India, education Central India, towns and villages Central Ipilia, variation in population C. P. and llerar C. P. and Hirar, Christians . C. P. and lierar, education . C P. and I'erar, *'cx proi>ortion9 Cbap- ter. Pars. Ill XII X XI XII IV I 1 VIII III VI I II rv IX XII VII III rv VII IV IV I VIII III VI I II I XII XI X XI X VIII VIII VII X IX X XII V XI VII XI XI XI XI XI XI XII XII XI XI XI XI XI XI X XII XII II IV I VIII I II I IV VIII VI I i33fl: I 542 I 454ff I 492fE I 519 ' 190 ' 77, 78 ; 20, 21 ' 375£f 143 i 257 63 'l05, 106 164 408, 425 543 286,313 339, 341 146 108 307 168 191 I 22 377fe 140 258 54. 65 l07fE 75, 76 549 481 458 467,468 452 366 367 338 444 426 464 659ff 212 472 S4S 494 484,485 605 4ti9ff 501 495fE 562 563 486fe 496,497 602 495 466fe 475, 476 469 552 532 132 196 29 390 63 122 23 192 379ff 259 XIV INDEX Subject. Chap- ter. Para. C. P. and Beiar, towns and \'illages C. P. and Berar, variation in population Chastity and civilization Child birth, effect of — on sex propor- tions .... Chin dialects Christian Missions, their influence Christian propaganda . Christians, accuracy of the return Christians, distribution Christians in Assam Christians in Bengal Christians in Bihar and Orissa Christians in Bombay . Christians in Burma Christians in Central Provinces and Berar Christians in Madras Christians in the Punjab Christians in United Pro\ince3 Christians, variation siiice 1901 Christianity and education . Christianity, nationalism in — Circumcision Cities .... Cities, education . Classes and castes Classification of languages Classification of occupations . Climate and blindness Climate and deislty Climate of India Coal mines .... Cochin, density . Cochin, education Cochin, towns and villages . Cochin, \ ariation in population Coffee plantations Commnniani . ; Compounders Concubines Configuration of surface and density Consanguineous marriages and deaf' mutism ..'... Consanguineous marriages and insanity Consummation deferred on certain oc- casions ..... Conversion, effect of — to Christianity Conversions to and from Hinduism Cotton mills .... Cousin marriage . Couvade .... Cretinism .... Crops and density Crops, Their effect on population Cultivators Deaf-mutism . . . . . Death rate, effect of — On sex proportions Decadent languages Defloration Density by natural divisions . Density liy political divisions Density of population Density of population correlated with variation in population Dependants, how- shown in Occupation Table . Dependants, workers and- Diagnosis of intirmitiea Distribiition of population Divorce Doctors Domestic ser\ ice Dominant languages Dormitories for bachelors Dravidian languages Dravidian languages. See also Mnnda Dravidian speakers, races of — Dravidians and infant marriage I I 56 II ; 110,111 VII I 301 Dress industries VI IX rv IV rv IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV VIII IV VII I VIII XI IX XII X I I XII I VIII I II XII VII xn VII I X X VII IV IV XII VII VII X I II XII Subject. Chap- j ter. Dual occupations Dying languages £ 281 417 19S ; Earthenware makers 197 ; Economic conditions and density . 19S Economic structure of Mongol society 177 Education . 187 Education by age 188 Education by caste 189 Education by locality 190 f^lucation by religion 191 I Education, comparison with returns of 192 : Education Department 193 I Education in Assam . . [ 194 Education in Baroda 195 I Education in Bengal . 17S j Education in Bihar and Orissa 359 I Education in Bombay 200 Education in Burma 318,319 Education in Central India 74a Education in C. P. and Berar 357 Education in cities 4e7 Education in Cochin 403 Education in Hyderabad 511fl Education in Kashmir . [ 455 Education in Madras . 41 Education in Mysore . . ', 7 Education in X.-W. Frontier Province 536,556 Education in Rajputana 30 Education in the Punjab 391 Education in United Provinces '. 64, Education in Travancore 123 Education, variation since 1901 '. 531,556 Emigration from Bihar and Orissa 295,291 I Emigration from Madras 552 I Emigration from Rajputana 299,301 I Emigration from United Provinces 40 i Emigration to British Colonies Emigration to other coftutries ', Endogamy Endogamy and caste . En^jlisb education Epidemics, effect of— oh age distribu tion ... Ethnic. See Physical Ethnic types of India ... 5 Europeans, distribution Europeans, natioicility and sex Examinations, statistics of — Expulsion from caste , Exogamy 450 416 321 198 161,162 539,556 286,287 295,296 311,312 316,317 439,450 44 90 S29S X VI IX VII I I I II XII XII X I VII XII XII IX VII IX IX VII XII 418ff 270 413,422ff 320 36 14 12 131 509 526 4i5 1 ff 297 552,553 5.-)5 413,422ff 295,321 418,427, 429 407,108 312 5.I6 XII IX XII I XII VIII I VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII VIII iVIII VIII 1 VIII I VIII : VIII I VIII i VIII i VIII VIII VIII VIII , VIII III ! Ill I III : III III III VII XI VIII I IV IV VIII XI VII Para. 516 413,422 64» 37 524 349fE 353,362 36& 354ff 358,''8 363,'ff 368 389 369fE 372ff 375ff 377fB 390 379ff 357 391 392 393 381ff 394 383 395 384ff 387ff 396 361 141 142 142 142 149 149 302 469, 483 367 209 3 201 201 365 601 302ff 81 209 I V II X VI XII I VIII VI VII '288,289 436 270* 532 2 356 276ff Families ..... Famine, effect of —on age distribution Famine, effect of— on the growth of population .... Famine, effect of—on infirmities . Famini', effect of — on sex proportions Farm stock, raising of Fauna of India Female, education Female infanticide Female, inheritance through- Female occupations . . '. J XII 528 Females, circumcision of— . .' ' j VII 319 Females. See Sex proportions Fibres, workers in— . . 'XII 539 i'lsliiug XII 535 Fission of castes . .XI 478 Flora of India . . . ' I Flour grinders . . ' [ ! j XII 545,556 Fratirnal polyandry . . J VII 290ff Function and caste . . 1 XI 476ff Fusion of sub-castes . ... XI 478 Ganja and insanity . . . I X 445 Gipsy languages . . . . t IX 421 See also .\ppenilix to Chapter VI. INDEX XV Sabject. *^j^*'" Para. Goitre X 450 Gold mines XII 537, 556 Goldsmiths XII 517 Gotra VII 286, TO: Government servants, castes of — . . XII 5(5 Grierson's classified scheme of languages . 1 X 403 Guilds XI 506 Gujarat ...... I 11 Gnjari IX 420 Sabject. .lains, boundary line between Hindus and — . .Tains, distribution Jati and I'arna .latki. See Lahnda Jus pritnae noctia ■Tuto mills . H Herdsmen XII 532 Herr Baelz and blue pigmentation . XI 492ff Hides, workers in — . • • .XII 540 Hindi IX 398ff. 428 Hindi-Urdn controversy ... IX 400 Hindu, comprehensiveness of the term — IV 155 Hindu-Muhammadans ... IV 156 Hindu sects IV 163 Hindu social system .... XI 466ff Hindus, boundary line between — and .Jains ... I IV 158 Hindus, boundary line between— and Muhanimadans . . . • j IV 156 Hindus, boundary line between — and Sikhs IV 157 Hindus, distribution .... IV 159 Hindus, partly assimilated ... IV 155 Hindus, restrictions on marriage . VII 302 Hindus, variation since 1901 . . IV 16(i Hinduism, conversions to and from — IV 161,162 Hlndnism, definition . . . • j IV 152ft' Hinduism, tests of- . . . _ . 1 IV 154il' Historical considerations and population . I 42 House, inhabitants per — ... I 82 Houses and families .... I 8 Iff Houses, types of — I 84 Hyderabad city ,1 80 Hyderabad, density . . . .1 31 Hyderabad, education . . . ■VlII 392 Hyderabad, to«iis and villagta . . I ; 65 Hyderabad, variation in iwpulation II 124 Hypergamy . . . . . VII 309,310 Hypergamy and infant marriage VII 339 Chap- ter. IV IV XI VII xn Para. 158 169- 466 320 539 Immigraliou from other Asiatic countries HI Immigration from outside Asia . . Ill Immigration to Assam . . . . Ill Immigration to liengal . . • ^ III Immigration to Burma . . . Ill Income tax payers . . . .XII Index of languages . . . . ' IX Index of occupations .... XII Indigo concerns XII Indo-Chinese linguistic family . . IX Industrial census . . . . XII Industries ...... XII Industries. See also Industrial census Infant njarriage . . . . . ' VII Infant marriage by locality . . . VII Infant marriage, origin of — . . .1 VII Infant marriage, penalization of — . . VII Infant marriage, present day tendencies regarding — j VII Infanticide and fraternal jwlyandry . VII Infantile morlnlity, corresiiondencc be- tween and death rate . . V Infimiitifs ...... X Insanity X Intelligibility, njutual of languages. : IX Irrigation and density . . . I I Inigalion, its effect on population . .II 147 148 139 138 140 563 403 515 531,556 412 517, 531ff. 556ff 538ff 328, 329, 337fr 310 341ff 345 344 291 Kacbchhi language Kashmir .... Kashmir, density Kashmir, education Kashmir, towns and villages . Kasbuiir, variation in population K.ishmiri language Kliasi language . Kherwari. See JIunda Khonds and female infanticide Kinship, systems of — , Kol. See llunda Kullnism .... Lahnda . . , , , Landlords ..... Language ..... Language, distribution by locality . Lawyers ..... Leper asyluii:s .... Leprosy ..... Levirate ..... Linguistic changes Linguistic families Liter.acy among females Literacy among males . Literacy, comparison with returns of Education Department Literacy, definition Literacy, e-xtent of — . Literacy, statistics of — Literacy, variation in — since 1901 Literacy. See also Education Lower linrma .... Lustration of wedding garment Lutherans ..... Luxury, industries of — . IX 419 I 11 I 32 VIII 393 I 66 TI 125 IX 419 IX 406 VI 277 VII 285ff,304 VII 309, 310 IX XII I, IX IX XII X X VII IX IX VIII VIII VIII VIII VlII VIII VIII I I VII IV XII 398,419, 425, 428 529ff 4,397ff 432 552, 553 465 460fE 300 413,414, 422ff 402 ! 356 i 355 363ff 350 352, 353 351 361 11 320 181 547 M Madras, Christians Madras city Madras, density . > Madras, education Madriis, emigration Madras, sex proixjrtions Ma«lras, South-East Madras, towns and villages . Jlodras, variation in population JIakers and sellers ^lalabar and Konkan Malkanas .... Males, circumcision of — JIales. See Sex proportiona . Manganese mines Marriage, binding part of — ceremony Marriage, bride-prico . Marriage by capture Marriage by purchase Marriage by service JIarriago, cousin — 213 433ff 4;i9ft 398 39 Marriage, curious — customs 92 I JIarriiige, early — IV 193 I 574 I 24 VlII 381fE III 142 VI 260 I 11 I 57 11 112,113 XII 515 I 11 IV 156 VII 318 '. XII 537 ny VII 314 . VII 28''>, :fi3. 320, 339. 341 VII 290,313 VII 290,313 VII 286,313 VII 286,287, 295, 296, 311.312 VII 320 (T VII 3-7 3 1- ■XVI INDEX Subject. ■Marriage, effect of early— on sex proper tions ..... "Marriage, forms of — . ^larriage, freedom after — Marriage in ahscnce of bridegroom Marriage in India and Europe JIarriage, l-ali/anam — . Marriage, mock — MaiTi^e of bachelor with widow Marriage, order of children's — Marriage, prol.iationary Marriage restrictions marriage, sambandham — Marriage seasons Marriage statistics — . . Marriage, universality of — . Mamage, variation by locality Marriage, variation by religion Marriage, vidaram Marriage, widow — Matriarchal polyandry Matriarchal system . . . . Metals, workers in — . . . . Meteorology . . . . . Methodists ...... Midwives ...... Migration between adjoining Provinces and States ..... Migration between British territory and Xative States ..... Tlligration, castes formed by^ Migration, casual ; its causes . Migration, causes of the small volume of — Migration, effect of — on age distribution . Migration, Intra provincial . Migration, its effect on the growth of population ..... Migration, main currents of — 3Iigration to and from Bombay Migration, total amount of — Migration, types of — .... milliners ...... Minerals, extraction of — Mission for lepers in India and the East Missions, Arya ..... Missions, Christian .... Mock marriage. See Marriage, mock — . Mon-Khmer languages .... Money lending ..... Monsoons ...... Mother-kin ..... Muhsramadan education Muliammadans, boundary line between Hindus and — ■ .... Muhammadans, distribution . Muhamma'lans, reasons for rapid growth Muhammadans, restrictions on marriage Muhammadans, variation since 1901 Muuda and Dravidian languages compared Munda languages Munda speakers, races of — . Mysore, density . Mysore, education Mysore, towns and villages Mysore, variation in population N Xative States, migration between — and British territory . . . . Xalural divisions . . . . Natural population, sex proportions in — Xavy Xayar. See Polyandry Chap, ter. VI VII VII Vll VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII VII Para. VII VII XII I IV XII III III XI III III V III 280 313 296 320 327 286 286, 294, 299, 300, 315,320, ,322 300 I 322 29.5 302ff 294, 297, 309, 324 315 324 325 326 336, 337 331£f 286 299, 300, 315, 320, 339, 346 ff 290, 294 2s5 Subject. II III III III III XII XII X IV IV 542 182 552 144 146 476 136 135 209 145 87 137 143 135 134 546 536, 556 465 165 197 Xorth-AVest dry area . . X.-W. P. Province, density . N.-W. F. Province, education X.-W. F. Province, sex proportions X.-W. F. Province, towns and villages X.-\V. F. Province, variation in population Occupations Occupations by caste . Occupations by locality Occupations by religion Occupations, classification of — Occupations in India and Europe Occupations in towns . Occupations of females Occupations, record of — Occupations, village — . Oil-pressers Origins. See Race Orissa and Madras Coast, Xorth Outsiders, admission of — to castes Chap- ter. I I VIII VI I II IX 406,412, 431 XII I VII VIII IV IV IV VII IV IX IX IX I VIII I II III I VI XII 550 7 285 ff 360 156 171 172, 173 I 308 I 172 405 404ff, 411, 427, 431 407,403 33 394 67 126 146 9£f 253 552 Palaung-Wa languages Palki-bearers Panchayats Panchpiriyas Panjabi Panjabi and Lahnda . Parda system and education Parsis and education . Parsis, distribution physical features of India Physical type of Munda speakers physical types pigmentation, Hhelz' blue — . Police .... Political bias and language return Political conditions in India Political divisions Polyandry .... Polygyny . . . Population. See Density, Variation, etc. Population at previous censuses Population, classification of — by religion Population, factors determining the growth of — Population, real increase in the — at each census .... Post Office department Potters .... Power, use of mechanical Pregnancy customs Premarital communism Presbyterians Prohibited degrees of relationship Public administration . Public health, its effect Punjab, Christians Punjab, density . Punjab, education Punjab, se.t proportions Punjab, towns and villages . Punjab, variation in population XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII I XI Q Quarries R liace — . . Race and caste, etc. IX XII XI IV IX IX VIII VIII IV I IX xr XI XII IX I I VII VII 11 IV II II XII XII XII VII VII IV VII XII II IV I VIII VI I II XII XI XI Para. 11 35 383 261 58 114 507ff 559ff 521 522 511ff 5i0 523 528 509,510 524ff 544 U '481 403, 412, 431 519 49Sff 156 419 398, 419, 428 354, 356 358 170 1 407, 408 489, 492 492 552 ffi 399 11 290ff, 321 298 86 151 • 87ff 86 549 543 557 316, 317, 321 295 183 304 552ff 91 194 26 384£f 262 59 115ff 537 4S;ilT 466ff INDEX XVll Subject. Chap- ter. Para. Subject. Chap- ter. Para. Kace and insanity .... X 446 Sikkim, variation in population n 128 Race and languagfl .... IX 413 Sifaiki langimgo IX 419 Race and large industries XII B58 Siuallpux and blindness X 455,459 Race of speakers of Munda and Dravi- Soil and density I 43 dian languages .... IX 407fE Soils of India I 2 Railways, employes of — XII 549 Sons, measures to procure — VI 275 Railway couimuuicationfl, improvement South India United Church IV 199 in — ...... II 94 Spicial products, growing of — XII 531, B5«; Rainfall and density .... I 38 Statistics of occupations XII 518 Rainfall divisions .... I 9 Sub-caste .... VII 302 Rainfall of India .... I 7 Sub-caste and caste XI 472 Rajasthaiii ..... IX 393, 428 Sub-caste, types of — . XI 4785 Rajputftua. density .... I 34 Subsidiary occupations XII 5ie, 533, Rajputaiia, Kast and Central India West I 11 534 Raiputana, education .... VIII 395 Sundbarg's theory regarding age dis- Rajputana, emigration III 142 tribution ..... V 206fE Rajputana, \aiiation in population 11 127 Sweepers ...... XII 548 Rajputana, towns and villages I tiS Syrians ...... IV 180 Religion . . . IV ISOff Religion, age distribution by — V 212 Religion and education VIII ^ 358£E T Religion and occupations XII 522 Religion, classitication of population by — IV 151 Tailors XII 546 Religion, dilBcultics in classification by— IV 156 Talaing language .... IX 412, 431 Religion in towns .... I 71 Tea gardens ..... XII 531, 550 Rice huskors and pounders . XII 545, 556 Telegraph department XII 549 Roman Catholic Missions, census of — IV 196 Textile industries .... XII 539, 560 Roman Catholics .... IV 184 Tibeto-Burman languages IX 410,417 Rulers, control over caste XI 482, 504 Tibeto-Chinese linguistic family IX 413,415ff 4:^0 537 Tin mines ...... XII Toda. See Polyandry s Toponymy ..... IX 422, 424 Totemism ...... VII 303. 808 Sabhaf, caste — ..... XI 502 Town, definition .... I 45 Towns and villages .... I 45fE VMshnava IV 153 Towns, general distiibution of popula- Salvationists ..... IV 185 tion ...... I TO Sankar Deb IV 163 Towns, progressive and decadent . I 73 School masters XII 552 Towns, sex and religion I 71 Schools and scholars .... VIII 364, 365 Towns, variation since 1901 . I 72 Scope of Census Report I 6 Trade XII 550, 551 Sectarian castes XI 476 Trade and industry, progress of — during Sept. See Exogamy .... 1901-10 ... II 93 Sex VI 252£E Transport ...... XII 549, 556 Sex, accuracy of the return . VI 264 Travancore, density .... I 35 Sex and blindness .... X 4.-,G Tiavaucore, education VIII 390 Sex and deaf-mutssm .... X 451 Travancore, towns and villages I 09 Sex and insanity .... X 413 Travancore, variation in population II 129 Sex and leprosy .... X 462 Treatment of women and its effect on Sex in towns ..... I 71 sex proportions .... VI 282 Sex proportions amongst animistic tribes VI 267 Tribe, definition .... XI 473,474 406fE Sex proportions at cUfEerent age-periods . VI 268 Tribe and caste, etc. .... XI Sex proportions, causes of deficiency of females ..... VI 282ff Sex proportions, comparison with vital statistics ..... VI 272,273 u Sex proportions, how far affected by omission of females .... VI 266 United Provinces, Christians . IV 195 Sex proportions in actual and natural United Pyinccs, density United TOvinces, education . I 27 population VI 253 VIII 387ff Sex proportions in Assam VI 254 United Provinces, emigration HI 142 Sex proportions in Bengal . VI 255 United Provinces, sex proportions VI 263 Sex proportions in Bihar and Orissa VI 256 United Provinces, towns and villages I 60,01 Sex proportions in Bombay . VI .257 United Provinces, variation in population n ll8ff Sex proportions in Burma VI 258 United Provinces, West, and Punjab East Sex proportions in Central Provinces and and Xorth ..... I 11 Bemr VI 259 Upper Hurma ..... I 11 Sex proportions in India and other Urban occupations .... XII 523 countries VI 265 Sex proportions in Indian Civil Service . VI 274 Sex proportions in Madras . VI 260 Sex projjorfions in North-West Frontier V Province ..... VI 261 Sex proportions in the Punjab VI 262 Vaccinators ..... XII 552 Sex proportions in Unitcopulation, Kajputana II Variation in population, Sikkim . . I II Variation in population, Travancore . II Variation in population. United Pro- vinces ...... II Variation in pro\alence of infirmities X Variation in towns .... I Farna and Jati .... XI Villages, l-ee Towns Village industrial organization . XII Village occupations .... XII Village Panchayats .... XI Vital statistics, comparison of — with census tignres . . . . II Para. 123 V2i 130 131 125 112,113 126 114 115ff 127 128 129 ll8fB 436,437 72.73 466 524ff 524fE 506 132 w Wa. See Palanng Walchcr and Anthropometry Water-supply and daif-mutism Wcstermarek's views criticized Western Pahari . Widows, large proportion of — ^\'idow marriage Widow marriage, present day tcndenicts regarding — . . . . . Widowed, by religion and locality . Widowed, variation since 1881 Wife, rights of elder — Wood workers . . . . . Women, treatment of — and its effect on sex proportions . . . . Workers and dependants Para. Yuyomayam Sect Zeibadis Zoroastrians, distribution IV IV IV 490 450 301 420,428 330 299,300, 315,320, 339,346ff 348 346 347 298 541 282 526,527 200 173 170 /• CALCtTTTA : PRINTED BY SUPDT. GOVT. FEINTING, INDIA, 8, HASTINGS STREET. f DATE DUE ta hOM 1 8 IS m un V29 )9ft? ■ . . piTEtrT 3 1991 GAYLOBD PRINTED IS U S *,