THE Condition of Nations, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL. WITH COMPLETE COMPARATIVE TABLES OF UNIVERSAL STATISTICS, By G. Fr. KOLB, TRANSLATED, EDITED, AND COLLATED TO 1880, By Mrs. BREWER; WITH ORIGINAL NOTES AND INFORMATION By EDWIN W. STREETER, f.r.g.s. Gold, Medallist of the Royal Order of Frederic ; Holder of a Gold Medal from H.M. the King of the Belgians. Author of ''PRECIOUS STONES," ''GOLD," "PEARLS," &c. LONDON : GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. s i fRINTED BV HOWLETT AND SON, lo, PRITH STRLET, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON. V s f& J' (^ PREFACE ' I ^HE life-work of the great German Statistician, Baron Kolb, carefully translated into English by Mrs. Brewer, is here presented to the Public with the great additional advantage of the Author's supervision of the proof sheets. Complicated as is the subject matter, and abounding in tables of figures, the work is, nevertheless, as interesting as it is instructive, and I have determined to undertake the risk of producing it. As Gold, Silver, Precious Stones and Gems form no inconsiderable share in the economic condition of nations, I have supplied notes and statistics on these subjects, which have legitimately, and, I beheve, not unprofitably, been added to the work. EDWIN W. STREETER, .' 1 8, New Bond Street, London. 1880. PREFACE. I HAVE before me my Grandmother's Sampler, in which Great Britain is industriously mapped and every county distinguished by a different coloured material, the names laboriously marked in black silk, and the principal towns correctly introduced. I cannot plagiarise so good an idea, but am unwilling to relinquish all imitations of such industrious example, and therefore I occupied my time in collecting the mode of living, conditions, occupations, and stirring incidents of daily toil, and the products and results, not of my own country only, but of all the civilized world, as my research has shown me that the intercourses which Commerce has opened up is of no less extent than of the Globe's circumference. My great teacher has been the eminent statistician, Kolb, whose comparative Statistics have been my earnest study for many years, and whose work, translated, edited, and brought down to the actual present from authentic sources, I have ventured to produce in an English garb. It is no small gratification to obtain from one so eminent in the Science of Statistics that my rendering of the original and continuation have passed muster under the personal review of so acute and experienced a critic* The work has also the advantage of notes on precious stones and metals, by Mr. Streeter, who has readily undertaken, that which was wholly beyond my power, the publication of the work. EMMA BREWER. * Hirr Kolb on March 28th, 1 880, to Mrs. Emma Brewer, George Street, Hanover Square, London. " I have assured myself with satisfaction that you have rendered the original with much intelligence and remarkable fidelity." Again, on May 25 th : — " I gladly authorise you to express in your Preface that I quite agree with you in the manner in which you have treated the whole subject, and in the alteration of the corrfparative tables to suit the English Public, and that I consider the same very desirable in the Engii'sh edition. "G. F, KOLB 18, Gabelsberger Strasse, MUNCHEN." CONTENTS •*i- Introduction Great The Philosopliy of Statistics Britain : Land and People General Survey, area, population, 35-36 ; divisions, counties, 37-38 ; births, deaths, marriages, 38-40 ; proportion of the sexes, 41 ; emigration, 41-43 5 creeds, 43; nationalities, 44; towns, 44-47; territorial changes, 47-48 ; finance, 48-60 ; local taxation, 60-2 ; national debt, 62-5 ; army, 65-71 ; navy, 71-2 ; Social Condi- tion : classes and occui)ations of the people, 73-5; increasing supplies of food from abroad, 76-9 ; savings" banks, 79-81; associations, 81; increase of property, 81; condition of Ireland, 81-83; pauperism, 83-5; education, 85-8 : literature : book trade, 88-90 ; criminal classes, 90-91 ; Material Condition: agri- culture, 92 ; live stock, 93 ; mining industries, 93-7 ; manufactures, 97-9; raw materials, 99-100: trade returns, imports and exports, 100-4; bankruptcies, 104-5; post, 105-6; railways, 106-8: telegraphs, 108; mercantile marine, shipping 108-11 ; banking, national wealth, 1 1 1-12. British Colonies and Foreign Possessions General Survey, 115-16; Possessions in Europe: Malta, 117; Cyprus, 11 7-1 9. British North America: Dominion of Canada, area and ])apulation, 119-20; nationalities, creeds, 120-1 ; Lower and Upper Ccnada, 1 2 1-2; towns, 122; finance, 122-3; military, 124: trade, 124-5; fisheries, timber, 125-6; shipping, 127 ; occupations, 127. Central and South America: West Indies, area and population, 128 ; finance, trade, 128-32 ; British Guiana, 132. Possessions in Africa : general survey, 132-3; CajK Colony, 133-6; Griqua- land West, 136-7 ;^Transvaal, 137-9 J Mauritius, 139-4T. Australasia: area and population, 141-3; immigra- tion, 143 ; births, deaths, education, creeds, 143-4 ; 17—34 35— "3 114—177 Contents. ix British Colonies and Foreign Vos&EssioNs—Contmued towns, 145; finance, 145-7; mining, 147-8; Agricul- ture, live stock, 148-9; wool, timber, 150-51; trade, 15 1-2 ; railways, post, telegraph, 152-3 ; shipping, 153 ; banking, 153; death-rate, 154-5; labor market, 155. India: area and population, 155-6; nationalities, creeds, 157 ; towns, 157-8; finance, 158-61; trade, 161-4; irrigation, railways, 164-6; telegraph, post, 166-7 ; education, 167-8 ; Ceylon, 168-70 ; Hong-kong, 170-1 ; Labuan, 171-3; Straits Settlements, 173-4; Falkland Islands, 174-5 ; Fiji, 175-6. Summary of British Empire, 177. France: Land and People 178 — 260 General Survey: area and population, 178-81; fluctuation of the population, 18 1-3 ; marriages, births, deaths, 183-8; emigration, 188; house-holdings, 188; afflicted classes, 188-9: creeds, nationalities, 189-91; communes, 191-5 ; growth of Paris, 195 ; town popu- lation, 195-6 ; territorial changes, old divisions, 196-8 ; finance, 198-2 11 ; departmental and communal taxa- tion, 211-12; national debt, 212-20; army, 220-2; fortresses, 222-3 ; historical notices, 223-6 ; navy, 227 ; Social Condition: education, 228-33; literature, book trade, 233-4 ; criminal classes, 235 ; suicides, 236 ; Material Condition : occupations, 236-40 ; divisions of the land, 240 ; mining industries, 240-2 ; agriculture, 242-4 ; vineyards and wine, 244-5 5 live stock, 245 ; inalienable property under mortmain, 246 ; manufac- tures, 246-8; trade returns, imports, exports, 248-51 ; bankruptcies, 251; post, telegraph, railways, 252-4; harbour traffic, 254 ; land and water highways, 255 ; mercantile marine, 255 ; fisheries, 256 ; banking, 256-7 ; aid societies, hospitals, asylums, 258-9. French Colonies 260—266 Algeria: area and population, 261-2; trade, shipping, education, 262; vital statistics, 263-4; agriculture, 264-5. Martinique, Cuadalupe, Guiana, 265 ; Senegal, Reunion, Mayotte, Nossi-Be, 265; India, Cochin- China, 266 ; Oceania, 266. Chief colonial products, value of land, 266. German Empire: Land and People 266 — 347 Federal States: area and population, 267-8; popula- tion according to sex, 269 ; houses and households, 270-1; nationalities, creeds, 271-3 ; emigration, 273-4; towns, 274-5 : constitution of the Empire, 275-9 ! historical notices, 279-86 ; finance, 287-303 ; military system, 303-7; fortresses, 307; war notices, 308-13; navy, 314; education, literature, book trade, 314-19; administration of justice, 319-20; the Zollverein, imports and exports, 320-29; beet sugar trade, 330; mining industries, 331-34; agriculture, forests, vine- X Contents. German Empire — Co7itinued yards, tobacco, hops, 334-36; manufactures, 337-8; railways, 338-41 ; telegraph, post, 341-2 ; consulates, 342 ; banking, insurances, 342-4 ; mercantile marine, 344-5 ; river navigation, 346-7 ; fisheries, wrecks, 347. The Separate States of Germany ... ... ... 348 — 472 Prussia : land and people, area and population, 349-50; births, deaths, marriages, 351; emigration, 352-3; infirm, 354 ; creeds, nationalities, 354-5 ; towns, 356-9 ; territorial changes ; 359-60 ; historical summary, 360-1 ; finance, 361-7 ; army, 367-8; social condition, profes- sions and callings, 368-71; incomes, 371-2; moral condition, education, 372-4; criminal classes, 374-6; mining industries, 376-8 ; agriculture, forests, 378-9 ; manufactures, brewing, 380-1 ; railways, 381-2 ; sav- ings' banks, 383. Saxony : area and population, 383-4 ; births, deaths, marriages, 384-5 ; emigration, creeds, 385 ; towns, 385-7 ; division of the land, ter- ritorial changes, 387-8 ; finance, 388-90 ; army, war notes, 390-1 ; occupations, 391-2 ; accidental deaths, suicides, crime, 392; education, income tax, 393-4; live stock, fire insurance, 394 ; mines, foundries, breweries, 394-5 ; railways, banks, 395. Mecklen- burg - Schwerin, 395-7; Mecklenburg -Strelitz, 397-8 ; Brunswick, 398-400 ; Oldenburg, 400-1 ; Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 401-2; Saxe-Meiningen, 402-3 ; Saxe-Coeurg Gotha, 403-4 ; Saxe-Alten- BURG, 404-5 ; Reuss-Greitz, 405 ; Reuss-Schleitz, 405; LiPPE, 406; SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE, 406; WaLDECK, 406 ; Anhalt, 407 ; Schwar^burg-Sonderhausen, 407 ; Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 408 ; " Hamburg, 408-13; Bremen, 413-20; Lubeck, 420-27. Bavaria : area and population, 429-30 ; emigration, creeds, 430-2 ; towns, 432-3 ; territorial changes, 434-5 j finance, 435-9 ; army, fortresses, war notes, 439-40 ; social condition, education, 440-2 ; crime, suicides, 442 ; occupations, 442-3 ; mining and smelt- ing, 443 ; agriculture 443-4 ; live stock, brewing, distill- ing, 444-5 ; insurances, bankruptcies, 445 ; railways, post, telegraphs, river and lake traffic, 445-6. Wurtemburg: area and population, creeds, emigration, 446-8 ; towns, 448 ; territorial changes, 448-9 ; finance, 449-50 ; communal expenditure, railways, 450 ; army, war notes, 451 ; social condition, occupations, 451 ; mining and smelting, wine, 451-2 ; education, justice, 452 ; post, tclegra])h, 452-3 ; banking, insurance, 453. Baden : area, pojuilation, 454-5 ; emigration, towns, 456-7 ; territorial changes, 457 ; finance, 457-8 ; army, social condition, 459-60 ; insurance, crime, 461 ; live stock, 461 ; mining, agriculture, 462 ; railways, 462-3. Hesse: 463-7; Alsace Lorraine, 468-72. Contents. xi AUSTRO-HUNGARY _ 473 — 5'^ Area, population, households, 474-6 ; births, deaths, marriages, 476-7 ; emigration 477 ; nationalities, 477-9 ; creeds, 479-80; gro\Yth of Vienna, 480-1; towns, 481-2; territorial changes, 482-4; finance, 484-94; - debt, 494-7 ; army, 497-500; navy, 500-1 ; nobles and clergy, 501 ; occupations, 501-3 ; education, literature, 503-4; agriculture, live stock, 505-6; mining and smelting, 506-8 ; manufactures, 508-9 ; trade returns, imports, exports, 509-11 ; mercantile marine, 511-12 ; shipping of Trieste, Fiume, Ragusa, 512-14 ; railways, 514; river navigation, 515; post, telegraphs, 515; joint stock companies, banking and bankruptcies, 516 ; benevolent institutions, 516. Russia: Land and People 517—66 General Survey: area, population, 517-21; births, deaths, 522-3; nationalities, 523-4; creeds, 524-5; towns, 525-7; growth of the Empire, 527-8 ; the old Kingdom of Poland, 529 ; finance, 534; communal burdens, 534-5; finances of Finland, 535; national debt, 535-40 ; army, 541-4 ; fortresses, 544 ; war notes, 544-7 ; navy, 547-8 ; social condition, serfdom, eman- cipation, 548-53 ; classes of the population, 553-4 ; communal associations, 554-5 ; officials and nobles, 555; Siberia, 555-6; education, periodical hterature, 556-7; crime, 557; mining and smelting, 557-8; agriculture, 558-60 ; manufactures, 560 ; land and sea produce, 560-1 ; commerce, imports, exports, 561-2 ; inland trade, 562; navigable rivers, 562; railways, 562-3 ; telegraphs, post, banking, 563-5 ; commercial marine, 566-6 ; coinage, 566. Italy: Land and People 5^7 — 600 Area and population, households, 567-70; births, deaths, marriages, 570; emigration, 570-1 ; nationali- ties, creeds, 571 ; communes, towns, 571-9 ; territorial changes, 579-81 ; finance, 581-5 ; debt, 585-6; army, 586-7 ; fortresses, 587-8 ; navy, 588 ; wrecks, 588-9 ; social condition, occupations, 589-90; clergy, education, literature, 590-2 ; crime, 592-3 ; agriculture, live stock, 593-4; mining, 594-5 ; trade, imports, exports, 595-7 ; shipping, 597-8; railways, roads, telegraphs, 598-9; post, banking, 599. San Marino (Republic), Monaco (Principality), 600. Switzerland: Land and People ... ... .- ••• 601 — >i9 Area, population, 601-2; area of lakes, 602; houses, 602 ; births, deaths, marriages, 602-3 ; emigration, 603; nationalities, 604 ; communes, towns, 604-5 '■> historical notes, 605-7 ; finance, 607-9 ; finance of the cantons, 610; communal property, 611-12 ; army, war notes, xii Contents. Switzerland — Continued 612-14; social condition, occupations, 614-15 ; educa- tion. 615; monasteries, 616; agriculture, live stock, 616; industries, trade, 616-18; railways, telegraphs, post, 618-19 ; steamboats, savings' banks, 619 ; Liech- tenstein (Principality), 619. Belgium: Land and People ... ... ... ... ... 620 — 36 Area, po])ulation, nationalities, creeds, 62c ; towns, 621 ; births, deaths, marriages, 622 ; emigration, 623 ; territorial changes, 623-4 ; finance, 624-6 ; army, fort- resses, 626-7; social condition, agriculture, 627-8; mining and smelting, 628-9 ; manufactures, 629 ; trade, imports, exports, 629-34; railways, post, telegi'aph, 634-5 ; mercantile marine, harbour traffic, 635-6 ; education, literature, 636. Holland: Land and People 637 — 48 Area, population, 637; nationalities, creeds, 637-8; births, deaths, marriages, 638 ; towns, 638 ; territorial changes, 639 ; finance, 640-42 ; army, 642-4 ; navy, 644 ; social condition, education, 644-5 j agriculture, live stock, 645 ; trade, imports, exports, 645-7 ; ship- ping, harbour traffic, 647 ; railways, 647 ; telegraph, post, 648. Dutch Colonies: East Indies, Surinam, West Indies ... 648 — 51 LuxEMBURo (Grand Duchy) 652--54 Denmark: Land and People... ... ... 655 — 65 Area, population, 655 ; creeds, 655 ; births, deaths, marriages, 656 ; emigration, 656 ; towns, 656 ; terri- torial changes, 656-7 ; finance, 657-60 ; army, navy, 660-1 social condition, crime, 661 ; trade, imports, exports, 662-3 \ agriculture, live stock, 663-4 ; mercan- tile marine, shipping, 664 ; railways, telegraph, post, 664-5 5 Iceland, 665 ; Greenland, 665. Sweden : Land and People ... ... 666 — 80 Area, population, 666 ; nationalities, creeds, towns, and communes, 667 ; emigration, 667 ; births, deaths, marriages, 667-8 ; territorial changes, constitu- tion, 668; finance, 668-9; army, fortresses, 669-71; navy, 671; lighthouses, wrecks, 672; social condi- tion ; classes of the population, 672-3 ; education, literature, 673-4; agriculture, live-stock, 674-5 ; mining and smelting, 675-6 ; manufactures, 676-7 ; trade, imports, exports, 677-8; railways, telegraphs, 678-9 ; post, mercantile marine, 680. I Contents. xiii Norway: Land and People ... ... ... ... ... 68i — 91 Area, population, 681 ; births, deaths, marriages, 68 1 ; nationalities, creeds, 68 1-2 ; towns, 682 ; territorial changes, 682 ; finance, 682-4 ; army, fortresses, 684-5 5 navy, 685 ; social progress, land tenure, 685-6 ; agri- culture, live-stock, 686-7 j trade, imports, exports, 687-9 j railways, telegraphs, post, 689-91 ; fisheries, shipping, 691. Spain: Land and People ... ... ... ... ... 692 — 712 Area, population, 692-4 ; births, deaths, marriages, 694 ; creeds, races, 694 ^ previous censuses, 694 ; towns, 694-5 ; historical notes, 695 ; finance, 695-9 5 army, fortresses; 699-700 ; navy, 701 ; social condition, classes of the population, 701-2 ; education, 702-3 ; agriculture, 703-4 ; mining and smelting, 704 ; indus- tries, 704-5 ; commerce, imports, exports, 705-6 ; wine trade, 707, means of communication, railways, post, telegraph 707-9 ; mercantile marine, fisheries, 709. Spanish Colonies : Cuba, Porto Rico, Philippines, Palaos, Caroline, and Marianne Islands ... ... ... 709 — 12 Portugal: Land and People... ... ... ... ... 713 — 21 Area, population, 713-14; births, deaths, marriages, towns, 714; finance, 714-15; army, navy, 715-16; social matters, 716 ; wine trade, commerce, imports, exports, 716-19; shipping, mercantile marine, 719-20; railways, telegraph, post, 720. Portuguese Colonies : Cape Verd Islands, Angola, Mozam- bique, Goa, Timor, Macao ... ... 720 — i Greece: Land and People ... ... ... ... ... 722 — 31 Area, population, 722 ; births, deaths, marriages, nationalities, 723; creeds, towns, 723; territorial changes, 724; finance, 724-6; army, navy, fortresses, 726-7 ; social condition, 727 ; agriculture, live-stock, 728; commerce, trade returns, 728-30; mines, 730; mercantile marine, 730 ; railways, post, telegraphs, 730-1. RouMANiA : Land and People... ... ... ... ... 733—9 Area, population, creeds, towns, 733 ; births, deaths, marriages, 734 ; finance, 734-5 ; army, navy, territorial changes, 735-6; occupations, education, 736 ; agricul- ture, live-stock, 737-8 ; trade returns, imports, exports, 738 ; shipping, 739 ; railways, post, telegraph, 739. Servia : Land and People ... ... , ... 740 — 45 Area, population, 740 ; creeds, births, deaths, marriages, 741; finance, 741-2; army, social condi- tion, 743 ; agriculture, imports, exports, 743-4 ; means of communication, telegraph, post, 745. xiv Contents. European Danube Commission 74^ Montenegro: Land and People ... ... 747 — S Turkish Empire: Land and People ... ... 749 — 62 Area, population, 749-51 ; nationalities, creeds, 751-2 ; towns, 752-3; finance, 753-5; a^Y' "^vy, 755-6; social matters, education, 756; commerce, exports, imports, 756-7; shipping, mercantile marine, 757-8; railways, telegraph, post, national bank, 758-9. Bulgaria (Principality) 759—6° Bosnia and Herzegovina 760 — i Samos (Principality) 761 — 2 Egypt : Land and People ... 763 — 9 Area, population, nationalities, 763; towns, births, deaths, marriages, 764 ; emigration, 764 ; finance, 764-6 ; army, 766 ; commerce, imports, exports, 766-7 ; live-stock, 767 ; shipping, 767 ; railways, post, telegraph, 767-8 ; Suez Canal, 768-9. Tunis (Regency) 769—71 Tripoli, Beylik ... r,- 77^ — 3 United States of North America : Land and People ... 774 — 814 Area and population, 774-6 ; growth of population, 776-7 ; immigration, 777-8 ; creeds, nationalities, 778-9 ; Indians, 779; towns, 780-1 ; origin of the names of the States, 781-2 ; increase of territory, 782 ; finance, 783-8; history of the debt, 788-91 ; finance of the separate States, 791-3; army, navy, 793-6; historical notes, 796-7 ; social condition, occupation, 798-9 ; taxable property, 799 : education, literature, 799-802 ; agriculture, live-stock, 802-3 ; industrial produce, 804 ; mining industry, 804-7 j manufactures, 807-9 ; trade, imports, exports, 809-10; post, telegraphs, railways, 810-12 ; mercantile marine, 812 ; banks, bankruptcies, 813 ; fisheries, 814. Mexico (Republic) : Land and People ... ... ... 815 — 19 Central American States : Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica ... ... ... 820 — 2 Columbia (New Granada) (Republic) 823 — 6 Venezuela (Republic) ... 827 — 8 Ecuador (Republic) ... ... ... ... ... ... 829 — 30 Peru (Republic) ... ... ... ... ... .. 831 — 3 Bolivia (Republic) 834 — 5 Contents. xv Chile (Republic) 836—9 Argentine Confederation ... ... ... ... •.• 840 — 4 Paraguay (Republic) 845 — 6 Uruguay (Republic) ... ... ... ... 847 — 8 Brazil (Empire) : Land and People .. . ... ... ... 849 — 54 Area and population, 849-50 ; creeds, nationalities, immigration, 850 ; chief towns, historical notes, finance, 851 ; army, navy, 851-2 ; social condition, education, 852 ; commerce, mineral wealth, shipping, 853 ; railways, telegraphs, post, banking, S53-4. Hayti and San Domingo (Republic) ... ... ... 855—6 Japan: Land and People ... ... ... ... ... 857 — 66 Area and population, 857 ; classes of the people, foreigners, chief towns, 858 ; finance, 858-61 ; aimy, navy, 861 ; education, 862 ; commerce, industries, 862-3 ; mineral wealth, shipping, 863-4 ; railways, tele- graphs, post, 865-6. China: Land and People ... ... ... ... •• 867 — 71 Area and population, 867 ; dependencies, foreigners, 868 ; chiei towns, emigration, 868-9 ; finance, 869 ; army, navy, 869-70 ; trade, imports, exports, 870-1 ; shipping, 871 ; railways, telegraphs, post, 871. SiAM (Kingdom) ... ... ... ... ... ... 872 — 3 Persia (Kingdom) 874 — 5 Orange Free State 876 Liberia (Republic) 877 — 8 Hawaii (Sandwich Islands) 879 — 80 General Survey 881 — 916 States of Europe, area and population, 881-2 ; States of America, 882 ; other continents, 883 ; the world, 883 ; table of religions in Europe, 884 ; religions of the world, 885 ; the European races, 885-6 ; foreign possessions of European States, 886 ; population of the chief European towns, 887-9 5 revenue and expen- diture of the European States, comparative tables, 889-91 ; European State ^ebts, 891-2 ; standing armies and navies of Europe, 893-4 ; present state of com- merce in the world, universal trade returns, 894-6 ; mercantile marines, 896-7 ; railways of the globe, 897-900; telegraphs, postal service, 901-2; mining industries, precious metals, coal, iron, petroleum, 902-6 ; agricultural produce of the world : corn, cotton, wool, silk, sugar, coffee, tea, 906-14 ; paper, wine, hops, beer, 914-16; total annual produce of the whole earth, 916. xvi Contents. General Condition OF Mankind 917—62 Vital statistics, average duration of life, 917-19 ; tables of longevity in England, Belgium, Saxony, 919-24; probable averages, 924-5 ; birth and death rates, 925-7 ; rates of mortality, 927-9 ; mortality of towns, the sexes, children, 929-33 ; mortality as affected by prosperity or poverty, 933-4 ; is life increasing in duration ? 934-6 ; cholera epidemics, 936-9 ; mortality of different classes, 939-41 ; mortality in the military profession, 941-3 5 mortality in the' English mercantile marine, 943-4; suicides, 944-8 ; mortality under special conditions, disease as affected by rank and age, 948-5 1 ; deaths by accidents in various callings, general tables, 9-51-9 ; disease in the schoolroom, 959 ; on the marriage of relatives, 959 ; influence of scarcity and education on crime, 960 ; consumption per head of bread, meat, wine, spirits, beer, water in different towns and countries, 961-2. General Table of Weights, Measures and Monies ... 963—5 Appendix: supplementary data, Great Britain 966—7 , ERRATA. I NTRODU CTION. Page Z5, line 30. — Read '' parish " instead of " province." „ 27, paragraph 6, line 1, read •' 419 '' instead of " 409;" and " 153 " instead of '• 150. „ 29, line 17 from the \>oX.toxn, read " Ouetelet's' instead ot "T reffler'f." ., 3:, line 8, omitted, •' 8 in" (1,000 workmen). ,, 33, line 16 from the bottom, read Kur-Hessen. GREAT BRITAIN. Page 40, line 2 from bottom, " 99 deaths," read"- 99,829 deaths." ,, 71, line 7, read " up to " September. ,, 71, line 10, read '" Chenu," instead of " Cheun." GERMANY, Page 359, line 15 1 in territorial changes) ;«(/'' Windsheim," and " Dinkelsbiihl." „ 384, line 24, read " Schonburg," instead of •' Schoiab, " ITALY. Page 569. — XIII. — Rule omitted in line of figures. INTRODUCTION THE PHILOSOPHY OF STATISTICS. T cannot be the object of a book, specially devoted to the practical use of the public, to investigate and determine the theory of Statistics in their detail, to specify the methods of their compilation, or to dwell upon the difficulties which must be surmounted to obtain a reliable result. The purpose of a book, such as this, is rather to place before the reader the important results of Statistics, critically tested, according to the most approved method. But, while excluding the J^^^rj' of Statistics, this work must still contain a comparative statement of the social condition and relative proportions of nations, as well as a series of observations upon these points. It is a very general belief that Statistics consist exclusively of figures; this view is however erroneous, although it is true that figures are pre- eminently serviceable in Statistics. No doubt figures are at first sight repelling, and we can easily under- stand that the appearance of volumes, occupied with dry tables, is far from attractive. To the generality of people, it is even a matter of indifference whether such tables be arranged in one way or another ; they very rarely produce any impression but of aversion, and they are con- sequently seldom remembered. One is led to consider how it is that Statistics are so little appreciated, or how it comes to pass that they are so frequently misapplied. Too often they appear to have no other object than to minister to the monarch's love of display, or to provide means for official misrepresentations. They have thus not unfrequently been advanced to cast the false lustre of theatrical tinsel over the social relations of a country, veiling its actual misery, or tricking it out with a web of falsehood and deceit. Are these the true functions of Statistics ? Do they exist only to support and serve practices of such a character ? Just as little as the B :i8 INTRODUCTION. true science of astronomy sanctions the monstrous fallacies of astrology. If this — the youngest of all the sciences, in spite of its manifold abuses, and in spite of the incapacity of many entrusted with its direction — still constantly commands ever-increasing recognition ; if it daily enters more and more into all branches of social life ; if it has already so far advanced that scarcely any ordinary situation can be obtained in any department without at least some practical knowledge of its principles, then have we proof positive that it is something more than a showy plaything, and that it contains matter of great general importance. It is often asserted that Statistics must always remain dry and repulsive, a statement, however, which is soon discovered to be erroneous, even by the most superficial labourer in this field. It is only to those who refuse to read the figures aright, that they will prove weary and meaningless. To such men volumes of Statistics may possibly appear like stagnant water, from which, in our ignorance, we turn in disgust, or, at least, indifference ; yet to the naturalist a {ew drops seen through a microscope, will open up a new world. When once we learn to understand figures aright we shall see life and activity developing in all directions ; points of attraction everywhere, and even startling facts and wonders, in the highest sense of the word. Can Statistics be used for other purposes than simply to satisfy curiosity ? Are they of value in our daily life ? And can they be made practically beneficial ? One or two examples will answer these questions. The oldest scientific calculation of the duration of man's life is that of Halley,* formed upon the principle, or basis of the Tables of Births and Deaths, which Breslau attempted as an experiment in 1693. From this source the "Tontine" (an annuity by Survivorship) was developed, as was the whole system of assurances and insurances. Upon this founda- tion were based many of the institutions and unions, Avhich exercise so powerful an influence upon our social life. It was not without practical use that Statisticsf long ago pointed out that certain lands were inappropriate for European colonization, that they were simply graves for the Peoples of North and Central Europe. Statistics shewed that whereas in France, out of 10,000 inhabitants, 246 died; out of a like number settled in Algeria, 527 died; and this excess occurred m a body of colonists, in the prime of manhood, with all the powers of life active and vigorous, and who, in the mother country, would not give an average of more than 100 deaths in 10,000. In the year 1853 a German company, desirous of forming a Swiss colony in the neighbourhood of Setif, induced jjeople by every means in its power to become colonists, and it was to Statistics alone that we were indebted for the arguments and warnings against such a scheme. The failure of the undertaking was calculated beforehand, and made known through a simple little treatise, which had the effect of shaking the reso- lution of thousands who v/ere prepared to start, and who, at length, gave up the plan altogether. Of those however who did go, i4i'< per cent, died the first year, that is to say, 75 out of the 528 individuals. There was soon an end to the Se'tif colony. * The discoverer of the comet called after him, and whosj periodical return he first calculated. •)■ Such as those of Dr. Boudin with relation to Algeria. INTRODUCTION. 19 In en.rlier times a general belief obtained that emigrants acclimatized in foreign lands ; that the humnn body gradually adapted itself to the climate. Thus it was that bodies of troops were sent out to far distant lands, and detained there without being relieved, on the supposition that the mortality would decrease the longer the troops remained in the same place. This principle was altogether shattered by Statistics, which proved that the longer the human frame was exposed to the injurious effects of special climates, the greater was the mortality. Thus it came to pass that the administration of the English army, in opposition to its former princi- ples, directed that, as a rule, no troops should remain stationed in distant colonies more than three years. The immediate result of this change, suggested by Statistics, was that whereas under the former regulation the average mortality of British troops serving abroad was 48-58 in 1000, it is now 24 "2, or reduced to one-half Of all maladies which afflict mankind, lung disorders, or diseases of the respiratory organs, carry off the greatest number of people, but these diseases have not the same potency in all places. If it be asked what countries are to be recommended as most healthy, the question is an intricate one, and would involve us in a very extensive disquisition. Formerly the sufferers were sent to Nice, but experience taught that this place did not possess the qualifications attributed to it, whereas Madeira possessed them in a pre-eminent degree. Statistical enquiries shewed that Palermo, while less distant and less expensive, secured very similar advantages. But of places contiguous to us, the question of the most suitable tor this or that disease, the proportion of the afflicted which could be saved, or the fatal development warded off by change of scene and climate, are enquiries which would involve very complicated Statistical statements. A French author,* himself a physician, touches upon this difficulty in the following passage — " A physician is asked to mentioi) those parts of France in which Phthisis least prevails, and whether an important difference exists between them — whether the neighbourhood of rivers is advantageous or the contrary ? Not one of which can be answered with certainty ; and yet these enquiries have to do with the disease whicli carries off a tenth of mankind, and which claims alike the aged and the young, and which, according to the Registrar-General of 1853, is the cause of half the deaths which occur between the age of 15 and 30 ! An hered; tary disease often ceasing its work only when all the members of a fami!" are rooted out." Simply from prejudice, or it may be accident, we sper,;; of special places and climates as favorable or unfavorable to the suffering. To families dreading the hereditary character of the disease, and desiring to dwell in a neighbourhood in which they may hope to obtain a certain freedom from the enemy, we are unable to give reliable information. And yet no disease is easier to detect than Phthisis in its devastating results, so that one feels justified in asserting that no similar enquiry is at once so important and so easy. What an abundance of leading facts would be produced for the heaUng of mankind, by an intelligent culti- vation of Statistics of every land and of every phase of disease ! If \ye glance only at the data supplied by the yearly recruiting of the army in large kingdoms, we shall perceive that if such materials were arranged and * Dr. Eei-tiilon. 20 INTRODUCTION. studied \vith a certain amount of care and intelligence, by means of Statistics, the results would be startling. It is not accident, but the operation of definite causes which rnust be measured when, for example, in France, out of 100,000 recruits in one department, 118 only, as an average, are exempt from service by reason of Scrofula, while in another immediately contiguous, not less than 2809 is the average so exempted, and yet the first occurs in the Pas-de-Calais, and the other in the adjoining Departement du Nord. The same may be stated of Glandular diseases ; in one department not one case occurs requiring dismissal on this score, while in another the frightful number of 8832 in the 100,000 are returned. In like manner with regard to loss of teeth, in one place 36, and in another 6,700 out of 100,000 are recorded as suffering from this defect. How terrible is the mortality of children in the first year of life ; and how excessive is the difference in different provinces of one and the same country. In Bavaria for example, there died between 1862 and 1869 a yearly average of 197 per cent, in the Palatinate, a frightful number. And yet in other provinces a still larger average succumbed. In Swabia the numbers rose to 41 '5. In Upper Bavaria to 42-4. How many lives would be preserved if by means of enquiry, based on observation of such facts as form the subject matter of Statistics, the peoples were warned in time of the conditions which attended their ventures. What importance does not accurate Statistical enquiry possess in the sense already indicated, not only for the sick but also in relation to the particular countries themselves. Sanitary situations would be discovered, the existence of which had not hitherto been suspected. Lands where the ravages of disease are greatest would be investigated, the reason of the disease sought after, and the means of removing the unhealthy conditions carried out where practicable, and the results tabulated. The character of the occupation of the several classes, and of the conditions of the several communities, together with the influence which they exert upon the health of a population, require strict investigation. It is no indifferent matter, when Statistics indicate that, by enforced regulations, standing armies, in times of peace, lose by death more young men than is the mortality in civil occupations. But the excess is still greater during the shortened period in which the Militia are called out for the necessary drill demanded as a preparation in case of defensive war. Practical reforms are urgently needed to secure young men on entering the barracks from a mortality which is double what it would be in their ordinary homes and occupations It is ascertained, nevertheless, by careful calculation, in countries of which we possess accurate information, as in France, that the average duration of life has increased, as a general rule, whilst we must admit that even before the last wars one period of the life of males formed an exception — viz., that between the ages of 20 and 25 (Certillon). This loss of life is attributable to the increase of the standing army, and the demand of Algeria for fresh troops, which is tantamount to the term " larger sacrifices." This is the plain explanation of the phenomenon. If in certain districts it is ascertained tliat of those employed in the trade of tailoring above 30 per cent, die in the ages between 20 and 30, and that, taking them as class, more than 40 per cent, sink under INTRODUCTION. 21 -consumption, surely in this discovery lies a powerful reason for no longer selecting this occupation for lads having consumptive tendencies no less than for encouraging the freer employment of the sewing machine ; for discovering some plan to obviate the excessive use of the bent position of the body, and for extending the laws which demand a larger supply of pure air in the workshops. An investigation into the business conditions of the various manu- facturing populations is of paramount importance as a social question. " Ladies," we are told by an excellent observer, " who, from their silken couches, glance round their drawing-room, might learn something of the sufferings of the makers of almost every obiect under their view. If this brilliant carte-de-visite could speak it would perhaps tell of the paralyzed hand of its finisher. That beautiful mirror, reflecting all the elegancies of the richly-furnished saloon, has, no doubt, represented the trembling form of the emaciated manufacturer, who is poisoned with the steam of the mercury used daily in his work. Those rich and elegant curtains have contributed to the poor weaver's consuming malady, by forcing him to a constant pressure of the chest against the loom ; so, likewise, the paper on the walls, ornamented with a lustre rivalling the verdure of spring, has covered by its poisonous powder the fingers of the workman with ulcers. These evils and these sufferings, the greater number of which are capable of alleviation, are borne, and often without complaint, till the workman falls out of the ranks ; his place is filled by his comrade, who, in his turn, follows precisely the same course, and shares the same fate." In England it has been ascertained that the cutlers of Sheffield, particularly the dry grinders, are under the most unhealthy conditions amongst manuflicturing labourers. Those who are occupied with the grinding and polishing of forks attain the average age of 29 only. The fine dust of the steel and whetstone destroys them. Their disease is known as the grinders' rot. On opening the bodies, the lungs are found to be black, as though dipped in ink, and the lung-texture, which, in health is like sponge, becomes changed to the consistency and color of a piece of india rubber. To the obvious enquiry, why they do not damp the whetstone to preserve themselves from its dust, the grinders will answer, that there are certain works which cannot be performed with a wetted stone ; for instance, a razor cannot be rounded off at the back except by dry grinding; nor can certain parts of scissors. The reply at once suggests itself. — Why this particular method of rounding off the backs should be persisted in ? Would it make the slightest difference to the shaving if the backs of the razors were angular instead of rounded off? Can ladies, who fill up their idle time with needlework, be incapable of a little consideration, and persist in using such a particular make of -scissors as endangers the life of the workman who supplies this fashion, .able article ? And yet it is really such little trifles which crop up when- ■ever the health and life of a class of workmen come to be considered with the object of being practically dealt with. It is one of the most pleasing tasks of Statistics to bring these facts forward, and give impetus to improved sanitary conditions. Workmen and Masters on their side deceive themselves intentionally or unintentionally as to the consequences of neglecting sanitary to 38 y ears 35 ?5 35 )J 35 J> 34 J> 32 }> 32 JJ 31 )> 29 5) 22 INTRODUCTION. precautions, and this apathy is the more deplorable that in many instances, it is possible to contrive arrangements adequate to the exigencies. Strange to say the first and most difhcult step of all is to overcome the prejudice, or short-sighted policy of the labourer. It has been ascertained that the Dry Grinders in Sheffield on an average reach the following ages — Dry Grinders of Sickles . o . . „ „ „ Saws .... ,, ,, ,, rues .... „ „ ,, Tableknives „ „ ,, Penknives „ „ „ Chisels and Wool Shears . „ „ „ Shears. „ „ „ Razors .... „ „ „ Forks .... The discrepancy depends a good deal, partly on the use of water, partly on the different ages at which the trade is adopted. By some of the more intelligent employers attempts have been made to drive the dust by means of bellows into the stoves, but the labourers themselves oppose the innovation. They have been heard to say that the trade was quite bad enough as it stood ; but if employe's were to live to a more advanced average of life, no one would be able to earn a decent living. Under similar prejudice, they hesitate to protect their faces with masks, although it has been ascertained that even the appendage of a beard is useful in keeping some of the dust from entering the mouth and nostrils. In the meantime the facts are established, and tne exposition of them will lead eventually to the discovery of some means of mitigating the evils, and to their being put in force by moral or legislative pressure. The Miners occupy in England the second position in the lists of mortality. And yet there are in Great Britain more than 300,000 human beings occupied in the mines, and should they abruptly cease their under- ground labors, the whole British and a great part of foreign industries would at once be paralyzed ; distress and want spreading over the whole land. Among miners, those engaged in the coal-pits are the worst off. In many of the pits the seams have only a thickness of 20 to 25 inches. Hence the labourer, having to bring out the smallest quantity of earth possible with the coal, and being compelled to work in a crouching position, and often to lie on his back for tv/clve hours at a stretch, suffers from distortion of frame. When some of these men were brought to Wakefield, and condemned to prison for misdemeanors, their only complaint was that they were to perform the allotted task in an upright instead of a bent jiosition. It has been calculated that in the English coal-mines, of every 10,000 miners injured by accident, the average number of deaths per annum has been 850. But this average at the present time is increased by 150, making a tenth of the whole number. The production of every 89,419 tons of coal costs on an average in England one life, and in Prussia one life is forfeited for every 70,461 tons of coal.* This proportion, which * In 1870 the average loss in England fell to one life in 115,608 tons raised, but in Prussia in the same year, the loss of life rose to one person in every 68,779 ^o\\%. INTRODUCTION. 23 relates only to the direct, and excludes the indirect loss of life, is well- known to admit of a large reduction. In addition to the direct loss of life by violent accidents, Asthma, Bronchitis and Pneumonia, resulting from the unwholesome atmosphere, fire damp, and coal-dust afflict and shorten the precarious duration of the miner's life. It has been calculated that labourers in coal-mines from 20 to 60 years of age, are 95 weeks ill, that is 67 per cent, above the average of labourers in all other employments. The lungs of those who die are found to be blackened with coal-dust. According to Professor Zeuner's comparisons of the duration of life among miners in Freiberg contrasted with that of the general labourer, it appears that in 10,000 there reach the age of 90 years, Of miners, i man and \z women, General labourers lo men and ;d women. But incapacity for further work falls on the miner between 30 and 4a years of age, when as a rule, he becomes permanently invalided. We do not raise the question as to the giving up of a necessary- occupation, in view of the dangers and disadvantages which are so immi- nent as to be said to be inseparable from its prosecution. We contend for the absolute obligation of Statisticians to ascertain and establish the facts, as the results often differ widely from opinions obtained by bare assertion, or local and limited observation. Attention is thereby avrakened ; and hitherto neglected means are discovered and enforced for mitigating the principal evils by a recognition of the true state of things, brought promi- nently before the public. Having shewn the dangers to life, and sacrifice to health and comfort which many useful and necessary employments entail, and further having shewn that the mitigation of these evils is feasible, and therefore impera- tive upon the employers of such labor, it is surely satisfactory to learn that both manual and mental labour is not, as such, detrimental to life, but on the contrary, that it tends to lengthen it, to strengthen and in- vigorate the body ; while conversely, idleness and luxury produce results on the bodily health no less deleterious than the most unwholesome of occupations. Dr. Guy, who has with much labour sought to obtain the average duration of life among the upper classes, has succeeded in establishing the surprising fact, that among the adults of the well-to-do classes, the higher their position in the social scale; the more unlimited their means ofsatisfying every desire, the less is the probability of their enjoying long life ; in other words, the vital intensity of the class is diminished. We have been so accustomed to look upon the possession of riches as. the best security for our well-being that we are astonished at Dr. Guy's statement, that the probability of long life is small among the adults of that class of the population, in which there is no impulse ta active labor. Of course there is here no question of immoderate and unduly protracted labor. Suppose a man, who has long been accustomed to live an active life of labor, suddenly to withdrav/ from all occupation, the chances are ten to one he has adopted the surest means of shortening his life. Idleness is that which we can least endure, and this is especially true with those who have been accustomed to an active life. 24 INTRODUCTION. "Truly," says an English statistician, "there is compensation in this ■world if we but rightly understand it. The poor peasant of 30 years old, who eats his scanty mid-day meal under the shadow of a hedge, has a higher probability of 30 more years of life before him, than the possessor of vast domains, robed in purple and fine linen, of an equal age." We have given various examples, from some of which we can draw conclusions for our future profit. But it may be asked, are not our instances accidental ? Could not the proportions have been made to stand out in very different figures ? To which we answer emphatically no. In accordance with existing conditions the figures must stand in reality as we have shewn, and in no other order. It is only by a change of the conditions we have noticed that the figures can be higher or lower in the future. Statistics prove our position. There can be no accident in authentic figures, nor in the language they speak. We find everywhere causes and corresponding results — regularity, order, agree- ment in complete harmony. That which we call accident, the something out of ordinary observation, standing out as instances of monstrosity, forms only one of the extreme members of the ordinary and the general : it is but a unit in definite, and even regular, phenomena. Indeed it is by the well-ordered course of given proportions apparently inevitable, and under certain relations indispensable, that the most monstrous form repeats itself with a regularity which we can set down in definite figures bTorehand. These extraordinary cases are not to be considered apart, or in too abstract a way, but rather in the proportion they bear to the general or ordinary occurrences. To arrive at a just proportion one must have in view a large number of incidents, or figures at once, and then it will appear how slightly these partial deviations affect the whole mass. They are really almost lost, Avhereas, if regarded only in relation to a very limited number of general instances, they have a most disturbing effect. In making observations upon atmospheric and meteorological phe- nomena in a countr}', it is true that on certain days very large deviations may be perceived ; but if you take monthly or yearly averages you will meet at certain times the same phenomena — that is to say, the same chief results, taking one period with another. Certain periods taken together give almost unvarying averages. This holds good in finding the average of atmospheric pressure — cold, warmth, rain, snow, i)revailing winds, the breaking out of thunderstorms, and a thousand other phenomena. If, in the course of a year, a very perce])tible diminution in atmospheric pressure takes place, there follows forthwith a compensation or balance by a successive rising above the mean. Both conditions however, whether of decrease or excess, belong to the •circle of ordinary phenomena, and form an important and necessary part of the complete natural proportions in their regular recurrence. And how small is generally the influence of the fluctuation from the mean or ■normal figure ujjon the whole ! Observations extending over 115 years have shewn that in a part of ;the Saone provinces rain falls on an average 125 days in the year. The variation in this climate does not exceed five days, the one -e>-:,reme limit givmg 120 and the other 130 rainy days. In other places tlio difference may be greater, but never of such importance that ■observation cannot account for it. INTRODUCTION. 25 The average height of the barometer during many years' calculation in Paris stood at 765 millemetres. And what is really the marked difference in the years, severally — a difference which appears so unaccountable, a former year so unlike its successor, as each passes ? The whole differences, when gathered up, did not exceed 3 millemetres. The variation of single days extends, upon the whole, to no more than the variation observed in years, because of the compensation, which for the most part is rarely long delayed. Quetelet, to whom we are indebted for long and careful enquiries, shews that all these apparent changes and variations are resultants of an organic proportion and must not be reckoned as a sum of factors thrown together accidentally and without method. At the same time the test of these examples lies in the lact that the number of variations from the mean or diameter, so to speak, inclines as much to the one side as to the other. The same holds good with the rise and fall we have already noticed, wherein upon the whole an equilibrium obtains. Nay, at each step the figures which represent this increase are being withdrawn from the extremes, and approach the centre— in short the balance is necessarily redressing itself In the science of Natural Philosophy the proportion of the purely human, the social, and even the moral conditions, is observed. We find everywhere regularity, harmony, and periodicity. Here likewise the task of the statistician is first to ascertain the focts, and then by means of their results to search into the laws which govern them. As long as the social basis experiences no essential alteration, it will be found that a given number of years will give a like average of marriages, births, and deaths. The proportion is however still more constant in relations where we least expect it. A French statistician, Valentine Smith, has made the following calculation extending over a period of 40 years in the province of Chalamont ; that of newly married women in the first year of married life I -7th become mothers : — Taking the first and second years together i-3rd become mothers — and i-3rd become mothers for the first time after a period of five years. Still more astonishing is the striving of nature to adjust or compensate individual transgressions of general laws and to efface what, for want of more accurate knowledge of proportion, we call disturbances. In 1S32 an extraordinary mortality prevailed in France, the cholera raged, and the number of deaths amounted to 933,733 \ which was 63,000 or 15 per cent, above the ordinary average. In the next year however the number of deaths decreased about 15 per cent, that is to say 57,600 less than the usual average, so that the second year almost adjusted the balance. In the year 1847 there was a great famine. It was ascertained that 302 deaths were caused directly by starvation or cold; and the number of deaths were 3 per cent, above those of the preceding year, being 849,054 against 820,918. In the next year 1848 the mortality lessened (in spite of the sanguinary fighting in Paris) to 836,693 thus almost regaining its regular average. The births also increased exactly 3 per cent., 940,156 against 901,861 of the preceding year, so that the compensation was soon arrived at partly by the increased number of births, and partly by the decrease in the number of deaths. 26 INTRODUCTION. In the quinquennial period 1 846-1 850 the average number of deaths in France was 848,348 ; wherein is included the cholera year 1849, when the deaths were not less than 982,008 making 133,660 above the average. In the next year 1850 the mortality sank to 761,610 that is 86,738 less than in a medium year. It appeared as if it were an anticipated compensa- tion which should be placed to the account of the debtor, thus making the balance equal in the end : whilst the number of births were at the same time in excess of the mean of the five years, viz., 1846 to 1850 amounting to 949,594 and giving in 1849 the unusual increase of 36,000 ; the extraordinary loss of 11,000 at the same period formed as it were its compensating balance. In 1858 there were 874,186 deaths; in the next year that of the Italian War 105,147 more ; but in the year following 92,551 less again, so that a compensation in this direction was nearly effected. After the epidemics of 1S32 and 1849 England and Belgium were much alike in their experiences. In England and Wales from 1848 to 1852 there was an average of 402,550 deaths. The cholera year of 1849 exceeded this average by 38,303. Against this came the next year 33,564 deaths below the average ; and in 185 1 an increase of 21,000 births which however must not be attributed to blind chance but to the operation of recognized and invariable laws. The unfavourable years sweep the weak ones avv-ay. Those who remain behind are healthier and it is but reasonable to conclude that the number specially liable to death is lessened. Engel remarks very forcibly " When in any year a high mortality pre- vails, the first to fall victims are the sickly and feeble, children, ailing and old folk so that there remains a healthy and strong population who stead- fastly resist the inroads of disease. If a bad year is followed by better times and improved conditions viz. better weather, cheaper food, increased earnings — a decrease of disease and mortality must result, and these extra- ordinary influences all acting at one and the same time must necessarily reflect upon the entire population." What fears were produced by the Malthusian doctrines as to the increase of population according to geometrical progression ! To what perverted proposals did they lead ! How much did they tend to delay a sound and reasonable development of legislation upon marriage and settlements ! Nay how much they prejudiced the i)rogress already made ! If Statistics had then been sufificiendy perfected, not only would many have been protected from unnecessary fears, but many legislative and police regulations, which have acted injuriously upon the well-being of the people, would have been avoided. The outcry is that food increases according to arithmetical, whilst mankind increases according to geometrical progression. This has tended to revive the system of " paternal government "; official wisdom interfering with marriage, settlements, trades and manufactures, division of property, — instead of leaving to the people that freedom which developes personal responsibility. Police encroachments ujion the most natural rights appeared to be authorized and even necessary for the general good. In opposition to these experiments look at the beneficial results, verified by well-established Statistics, of wide-spread freedom in those lands wherein it prevails. INTRODUCTION. 27 Is it true that mankind increases according to geometrical progression ? The population in three European states has increased according to the following percentage : — Years France England Years Prussia 1821 to 1830 ... 6-89 . .. 15-89 1831 to 1839 . '4-49 1831 ,, 1840 ... 5-°7 • .. I4--7 1840 „ 1846 • 7-93 1841 „ 1850 ... 4-49 . .. 13 1847 ,. 1852 . . S-io 1851 „ i860 ... 2.59 • .. ii-iS '853 „ 1S55 . . 1-57 1861 „ 1870 .. 13.23 1856 „ 1858 . . yi2 1861 „ 1866 '.'.". 1.82 12- 1859 „ 1862 4.26 1867 „ 1872'^ minus I'oi .. 13- 1863 „ 1865 . 1866 „ 1868 1867 ,, 1872 . . 4-13 . 2-32* . i-8i* ■\Ve find nowhere in these tables the much dreaded geometrical ratio ! Nowhere do we trace an unvarying arithmetical progression ! Other data indeed justify the assertion that as a rule prosperity raises a people decidedly more than mere increase of population, but if under such prosperity the increase of the population should be at a stand-still, or even retrograde,_ this will be found to be owing to some instability in its prosperity or deteriora- tion of its condition — some deep convulsion affecting society at large. As a rule the falling off or the increase of the peoples may be explained by the improvement, or deterioration of their condition. Even in those phenomena which are supposed to depart from the general order of nature there is a constancy in the results, a periodica; repetition of similar_ instances which do more than excite our astonish- ment. At the beginning of every new year it is possible beforehand with very slight variation to state how many people in a land or large city will, during the twelve ensuing months, meet with a violent death — some through reverses of fortune, some through so-called accidents, some by transgression of the law, some by suicide. Take for instance the Statistical table of Paris, where before the period of the enlargement of the city, there were over 900 violents deaths yearly ; more than 400 accidental 150 of which were caused by intoxicating drinks. In the year 1850 — 409 deaths by accident 150 of which were caused by drink. In the year 1851 — 409 deaths occurred by accident, 157 caused by drink ; from 200 to 220 suicides by drowning, 50 by hanging. This is the ordinary budget : the variations and fluctuations are less, according to the largeness of the number of cases taken under observation. Marriages collectively contracted in France in the three quinquennial periods from 1836 to 1S50 give the following proportions : — 1836-40. 184T-45. 1S46-50. Bachelors with Spinsters .., Bachelors with Widows ... Widowers with Spinsters... Widowers with Widows ... S339 8386 8355 3S» 354 371 982 937 934 320 223 340 A proof of the correctness of our conclusions lies in the results of coroners' inquests in England and Wales as they appear in the seventh * Owing to the operation of the war in Prussia and more manifestly in France. 227 272 255 282 223 179 6 5 6 ^397 1,360 1.356 "'397 11,262 11,171 222 225 208 2,6S7 2,697 2,702 8,823 8,882 8,770 25,011 24,926 24,648 17,566 17,496 17.304 7-445 7,430 7>344 2^ INTRODUCTION. volume of the Miscellaneous Statistics of Great Britain for the three years 1865 to 1867. We give the table : — 1865. 1866. 1867. Murders Killed Justifiable Homicides , Suicides Accidentally Killed Deaths, cause unknown Found dead Natural deaths Total Of this total — Males „ Females , As a general rule the fluctuations diminish as the sphere of observation is enlarged. In accordance with this view the variations almost vanish when the reckoning is made over a long period. Marriages of men under 30 or even under 45 with women of 60 and over belong certainly to the irregularities. In Belgium such cases occurred as women of 60 and over, marrying men of the ages here given. 1841 to 1845 1846 — 1850 1851 — 1855 1856 — i860 1861 — 1865 And this occurs with perfect regularity in spite of important fluctua- tions in individual years. Murders are perpetrated with such regularity and in such equal proportions that their Jiiean can be prepared with almost as much certainty as that of the ebb and flow of the tide, or the general succession of the years and season. It is a fact that the seasons themselves exercise direct influence on suicides ; they determine their proportion in such a manner that one can point out from month to month how the number of suicidal deaths increases with the lengthening of the days. The investigation of Hippolyte Blanc which extended to the suicides in the whole of France from the year 1854 to 1858 (" Du Suicide en France ") has confirmed our early public assertion in a striking manner. If we reckon for each month the same number of days (thirty) we have out of 1000 suicides dividing them according to sex — Men. Women. Men. Women. In January... 68 63 In July ... 99 106 Februaiy.. 75 70 Auj^ust ... 82 106 March ... 84 78 September 74 7^ April ... 94 93 October 77 99 ]VIay ... 96 92 Novemiier 61 68 Men of 30 Years Between and Under. 30 and 45 Years Twice Six Once Six Once Six Once Six Once Six lune 106 110 December 62 60 Individual fluctuations are not only unimportant but they vanish altogether as soon as you take a group of years for observation. Thus, for INTRODUCTION. 29 example, in the years 1849 to 1853 the months from August to October gave the following average 83, 76, 70, against which there are other trifling fluctuations to be observed but which absolutely disappear in the succeeding period. The facts which establish the rule on the whole are not to be mistaken. If a still longer period be taken, including the times given, every fluctuation vanishes. Murders by special methods repeat themselves with wonderful constancy so long as no new method of destruction steps in. In France there occurred during the years from — Average Percentage. Total Cases. Water. Strangling. Shot. Other Means. 1848 to 1852... 17.752 31-9 35-2 14*7 i8-2 1853 — 1858... 19,018 31-6 37-5 II-6 18-3 1859 — i860... 26,846 31- 38-8 11-5 187 Suicide by hanging (or by the rope) appears the favorite method ; self-destruction by other means includes those by railroads, which of late years has been much more frequently adopted. The regularity of the repetition obtains as much in meditated murders as in sudden homicides. The same holds good in homicides, resulting from anger and quarrelling. Indeed the proportion obtains equally in the selection of the very weapons with which the death or the wounds are inflicted. The number of crimes collectively is liable to less variation than even the number of deaths. We are thus compelled to adopt the opinion of Buckle in his " History of Civilization in England," that the destruction of mankind is less the result of the viciousness of single individuals than of the condition of society into which these single individuals are thrown. And the increase of suicides which crop up in modern times in all Lands and notably amongst certain classes, such as the military, is no more a case of accident than could be predicated of the same phenomenon in different periods of Roman history. We must recognise in these recurrences the symptoms of unfavorable social conditions. If these phenomena stand out prominently in individual classes of society (as occurred after the Italian war in 1859 in the upper circles in Austria) then we perceive an indication of a radical unsoundness in the condition of these particular circles. We may here be permitted to quote a passage from Trefifler's work *'De I'influence du libre arbitre de I'homme sur les faits sociaux." Freedom of will ! This wonderful mocking element of all rules stands out in bold relief as though it could confuse or defy the system of all laws which elsewhere would govern society absolutely. And yet Sta- tistics shew that there is no exercise of will, no act in the compass of men's dealings which fall not within the lines of an absolute regularity. Take the instance which comes under the list of marriages. These of all actions seem to be most arbitrary and out of the region of fixed laws — and yet the civil registers prove that it is specially in the marriages that the greatest steadiness and regularity obtains. This regulated regularity is more con- stant than in those results which less than most actions are under free will viz. births and deaths. Doubtless unfavorable no less than favorable years create disturbances, wiiich make themselves felt in these relations of births, deaths, and marriages. There are some phenomena however still to be noted. In populous countries, as in France or Belgium, for example, definite proportions always 30 INTRODUCTION. present themselves in the anomaUes of marriages as between bachelors and spinsters, and between widowers and widows. And what is more remarkable still, says Quetelet, is that these constant returns repeat them- selves even in the small provinces, although here the operation of the human will might be supposed to disturb the regularity of the Statistical returns. This regularity goes on just as persistently as though, from one end of the land to the other, the people came annually to an agreement to contract the usual number of marriages, and with the precisely similar amount of eccentricities in every province, as in every city and every state; pairing off men and maidens, widowers and widows, minors and adults. Still more, it would appear as if legal authority had been exercised to grant a certain number of marriages between different classes of ages, and under supposed extraordinary circumstances. A young man not yet thirty who marries a woman of sixty is certainly not driven to it by /«/-'4 5,309,494 32,749,167 1876 24,244,010 3.527,811 5,321,618 33,089,237 1877 = 4,547,309 3,560,715 5,338,906 33.446,930 1878 24,854,397 3,593,929 5.350,950 33,881,966 From Increase Increase Decrease Total Increase 1801 of of of Increase of of to Population. Population. Population. Population. Population. 1871 155 per cent. 100 per cent. 34 per cent. 95 per 'ent. 63 per cent. From 1S37 to 1S76 the population of the United Kingdom increased at the rate of 29 per cent. • Note.— This was the first year of really accurate returns from Ireland. + Exclusive of the islands, navy and merchant service abroad which number about 250,356. 36 Great Britain and Ireland— Land and People. a. — England. The Isle of Wight contains 54,042 inhabitants The Isle of Anglesea „ 51,040 „ Orkney Islands „ 3i}274 „ Shetland Islands „ 31,608 „ The number of families in England and Wales in 187 1 was 5,049,016. From i860 to 1870 the density of population in England was 366 persons to a square mile, assuming that England embraces an area of 58,312 square miles ; or taking the area in acres to be 37,319,221, the density of population will be one person to every 1 74 acre. The proximity or nearness of the people in England to each other, is now 93 yards. The proximity of the people to each other has its advantages ; and this is tested by the in- creased price of land as you approach towns. It also has its disadvantages, for, as the density of the population increases, the atmosphere becomes less healthy, lacking much of its ozone, which is so abundant in the country, and thus prejudicially affecting the rate of mortality. The rate of mortality increases as the density of the population increases. Dividing England and Wales into 18 groups we find that, in the 10 years 1861-1870, at one end of the scale the deaths per 1000 of the population are 15, 16, 17 ; At the other end 31, 33, 39 ; The acres to each person in the corresponding districts are 12, 4, 3, and o-i, 0-5, I'oi. The inter- mediate rates of mortality are 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 and 25 ; the acres to each person are 4'o, 3*3, 2*9, 2"i, i*i, "05, '02. Dividing London into 7 groups of districts, the mortality ranges thus — 17, 19, 22, 25, 28, 32 and 39; the number of persons to a square mile being 106, 186, 379, 1,718, 4,499, 12,351 and 63,823. In Liverpool, the densest and the most unhealthy districtin England, there were 63,823 to an acre, of whom 39 per 1000 die annually. Thus, the nearer people live to each other, the shorter their lives are. For example, this proximity of people in 53 districts is 147 yards, the mean duration of life being 51 years ; in 345 districts the proximity is 39 yards and the mean duration of life is 45 years; in 137 districts the proximity is 97 yards and the mean duration of life is 40 years ; in 47 districts the proximity is 46 yards and the mean duration of life is 35 years; in 9 districts the proximity is 28 yards, the mean duration of life is 32 years. In the Manchester district the proximity is 17 yards and the mean duration of life is 29 years. In the Liverpool district the proximity is 7 yards and the mean duration of life is 26 years. In the last three censuses the town population was set down at 8,990, 169 — 10,960,998, and 14,041,404. To England and Wales 2,000,000 of people have been added since the census of 187 1, the greater part of whom will be found in the towns. According to the law of proximities this should imply an increase of mortality, and no doubt such would have been observed, had there not been a countervailing law in operation. The mortality was at the annual rate per 1000, in the last 3 decades, of 22-36 in 1841-50; 22-26 in 1851-60 and 22-51 in 1861-70. In the last 7 years, 1871-77, the mortality was at the rate of 21-64 or -87 per 1000 less than in the previous decade ; that is to say, a reduced mortality in the last 7 years, and that 20,000 lives are saved annually. Thus while the popula- tion has increased the atmosphere has at the same time become purer. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 37 Divisions. England and Wales are divided into 52 Counties, 1 2 of which belong 4 Provinces, which to Wales. Scotland into 33 Counties, and Ireland into are subdivided into 33 Counties. The following table shews the area and population of each county in 1871. a. — E: igland. County Area in Population County Area in Acres Population I Bedford 305,293 .. 151.539 21 Lincoln 1,731,801 ... 428,07s 2 Berkshire 563,968 ... 226,268 22 Middlesex 210,077 .. 2.539.765 3 Buckingham ... 404,040 ... 155.007 23 Monmouth ... 432,906 ... 219,708 4 Cambridgeshire. 573,095 - 192,033 24 Norfolk 1,306,544 •• 430,638 5 Cheshire 691,752 ... 539,785 25 Northampton ., 632,002 .. 248,234 6 Cornwall 885,541 ... 358.356 26 Northumberland 1,290,312 .. 386,646 7 Cumberland ... 970,161 ... 220.253 27 Nottingham ... 600,441 .. 355.404 8 Derbyshire 561,701 ... 324,900 28 Oxford 475.542 .. 178,329 9 Devonshire ... 1,643,343 ... 606,102 29 Rutland 107,352 .. . 23,385 10 Dorsetshire 610,582 ... 189,000 30 Shropshire 924,130 .. . 267,003 II Durham 765,075 ... 693,012 31 Somerset 1,066,290 .. . 482,652 12 Essex 975,038 ... 440,880 32 Stafford 752,99s •• 877-435 13 Gloucester 715,776 ... 488,760 33 Suffolk 929,859 .. • 347.210 14 Hants 1,052,191 .. 526,143 34 Surrey 473.528 .. .1,107,434 15 Hereford 507,647 . 120,723 35 Sussex 948,257 .. . 420,910 16 Hertford 428,143 .. 194,611 36 Warwick 610,587 .. • 630,472 17 Huntingdon ... 204,632 .. 58,046 37 Westmoreland.. 503,073 •• 65,130 18 Kent 1,000,350 .. 854,662 38 Wiltshire 77S,4'4 •• . 244,667 19 Lancashire 1,307,162 .. 2,849,259 39 Worcester 434,325 •• . 336,276 20 Leicestershire .. 534,149 •■• 275.171 b.— l 4c Yorkshire Vales. 3,721,710 . ,2,444,76* County Area in Acres Population County Area in Acres Populatior I Anglesea 123,082 35,127 7 Flintshire ... ... 80,507 43,S'7 2 Brecknock ... - 443.133 56,932 8 Glamorgan 606,356 405,798 3 Cardigan ... 594,883 97,869 g Merioneth ... 432,906 219,708 4 Carmarthen ... 497.617 101,381 10 Montgomery ... 581.552 78,400 5 Carnarvon ... ... 355,632 111,378 II Pembroke ... ... 358.031 83,873 6 Denbigh ... 352.874 105,664 c. — Sc 12 Radnor otland. ... 232,743 21,016 County Population County Popualtion 74,842 I Aberdeen 246,298 10 Dumfries ... 2 Argyle ... 79,661 11 Edinburgh 328,138 3 Ayr 200,908 12 Elgin or Moray 44,549 4 Banff 58,883 13 Fife 160,924 5 Berwick ... 36.382 14 Forfar 240,049 6 Bute 16,966 15 Haddington 37,755 7 Caithness... 41,011 16 Inverness ... 84,258 8 Clackmannan 22,235 17 Kincardine 35.097 7,918 Dumbarton ... ••• 61,116 18 Kinross 38 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. Scotland.- County Population 19 Kircudbright ... 42,087 20 Lanark ... 787,005 21 Linlithgow ••• 41,379 22 Nairn ... 8,372 23 Orkney Sc Shetland ... 62,881 24 Peebles 12,2lS 25 Renfrew ... i95-3"5 (continued. ) County Population 26 Ross jl 27 Cromarty \ ... 82,093 28 Roxburgh ... ... 48,241 29 Selkirk ... 19,651 30 Stirling ... 93-345 31 Sutherland ... 23.298 32 Wigton ... 38.602 33 Perth ... 128,550 d — Ireland. The Four Irish Provinces are 1 Ulster, having 9 Counties. 2 Leinster, 12 Counties. To Province i belong Area in Acres Prpulation | Antrim 674,178 401,448 ' Armagh 372,164 214,379 i Cavan 522.835 155,928 1 Donegal . 1,169,016 207,348 Down . 568,196 249,783 Fermanagh • 378,212 86,257 Londonderry • 565,956 184,100 Monaghan . 34T.209 ! 124,269 Tyrone . 812,635 224,356 To Prov nee 2 belo.ig 1 Area in Acres Population Carlow . .85,854 45.835 Dublin 226,211 408,366 Kildare • 463.709 92.284 Kilkenny • 456,501 97,699 King's County . 548,216 80,841 Longford ■ 344,090 81,961 Louth 299,901 102,409 Meath .. 431,304 72,394 Queen's County .. 358,860 65-473 Westmeath .. 283,176 48,684 Wexford .. 632,427 143,352 Wicklow •• 476,777 76,067 3 Connaught., 5 Counties. 4 Afnnster, 6 Counties. To Province 3 belong Galway . . . Leitrim ... Mayo Roscommon Slig:© Area in Acres 1,500,832 338.539 1,328,435 676,922 366.326 Population 250,437 86,497 244,023 167,902 92,216 To Province 4 belong Clare Cork Kerry Limerick.. Tipperary Waterford I 1 Area in Acres 714,385 ,892,815 ,145,318 609,047 ,068,716 494,012 Population •38,795 527,825 192,292 194.759 214.884 139.522 Births, Deaths and Marriages in England and Wales. Year Births Deaths Marriages i860 684,048 422,721 170,156 ,l86lL 696,406 435,114 163,706 1862 712,684 M^i^ll 163,830 Proportion per looo of the Population Births Deaths w"^°"f Married 34'4 21-2 171 36-6 21-6 16-3 35-0 21-4 i6-i Great Britaifi and Ireland — Land and People. 39 Births, Deaths and Marriages in England and Wales. — {conti?iued.) Proportion per looo of the Population Year Births Deaths Marriages Births Death 1863 727,4'7 473.837 «73,5'0 35-3 23-0 1864 740,275 495, 53^ 180,387 •5'4 23-7 1865 748,069 490.909 185,474 35-4 23-2 1866 753,870 500,689 187,776 35-i 23-4 1867 768,349 471,073 179,154 35-4 21-7 1868 786.858 480,622 176,962 35-8 21-9 1869 773,38' 494,828 176,970 34-8 22-3 1870 792,787 515,329 181,655 35-* 22-9 JJ7I .797,428 514,879 190,112 35-0 22-6 1872 825,907 492,265 201,267 35-8 21-3 ,873 829,778 492,520 205,615 35-5 2I-I 1874 854,956 526,632 202,010 36-1 22-3 1875 850,607 546,453 201,212 35-5 22-8 1876 887.96S 676,909 201,874 39-6 2I-0 1877 887,055 500,348 194,343 ... 1878 ... Scotland. 1861 107,036 62,287 20,828 1862 107,138 67,159 20,544 1863 109,325 71,421 22.0S7 1864 112,445 74,303 22,675 1865 113,126 70,821 23,577 1866 113,639 7',273 23,629 1867 114,115 69,024 22 521 1868 115,673 69.386 21,853 1869 113,395 75,789 20,083 1870 115,413 74,067 23,788 IS71 116,127 74,644 23,966 1872 118,873 75,741 25,580 1873 119.738 76,857 26,730 1874 113,795 80,676 26,247 1875 123,693 81,785 25,921 1876 126,749 74,122 26,563 1877 126,824 73,946 25,7^0 35-10 21-3 35-3 21-2 34-t 22-9 34-6 22'2 34-5 22-2 34-9 22-2 34-9 12-4 357 23-3 35-4 23-4 35'9 21-0 35-6 10-8 Persons Married i6-8 17-3 ■ 17-5 17-5 i6-5 161 15-9 i6-i 167 17-5 1 7'6 17-1 i6-8 16-7 Population in each year 20,883,889 20.145,151 21,409,684 2', 677,525 2i,948,7'3 22,223,299 22,501,316 22,782,812 23,067,835 23,356,414 23,648,609 23,944.459 24,244,010 24,547.309 24,854,397 ... 3,069,404 5,097,009 3,126,879 3,156,021 3,185,437 3,2:5,129 6-9 3,245,098 6-6 3,275,350 6-7 3,305,885 7-1 3,336,707 7-1 3,367,921 7-5 3,399,226 7-8 3,430,913 7-6 3,462,916 7-5 3,495,214 7-5 3,527,811 7-2 3,560,71s 3,593,9»9 1878. In the United Kingdom were registered 1,152,525 births, being at the rate of 34 per 1000 of the estimated population. Deaths registered 716,165 or 21-1 per 1000 of the population. Ireland. Of the 93,509 deaths in 1877—12,861 or 13-8 per cent, were of children under i year old, and 37,823 or 40-4 per cent, were of persons aged 60 years and upwards. Of these 93,509 deaths, 13,636 or 14-6 per cent, occurred in public Institutions. 40 Great Britain and Ireland — Layid and People. Births, Deaths and Marriaqts in Ireland. Births Deaths Marriages 1864 136,414 93. H4 27,406 1865 I45<»27 93,738 30,684 1866 146,237 93,598 3o,'5> 1867 144,318 93.911 29,796 1868 146,108 86,803 27,753 1869 •45,659 89,573 27,277 1870 150,151 90,695 23,835 I87I 151,665 88,720 28,960 1872 149,292 97.577 27,114 1873 144,377 97,537 26,270 1874 141,288 91,961 24,481 1875 138,382 98,243 24,259 1876 140,469 92,324 26,388 1877 139,498 93,5°9 25,078 1878 ... ♦99,839 Proportion per 1000 of Population Births Deaths Marriages Population 5,640,527 5.594,589 5.522,942 26-3 17-0 5-42 5,486,509 26-7 •5-8 5-07 5-465, 9'4 26-7 164 501 5,449,094 277 ,67 ■ 5-29 5,4'8,5i2 i8-i 164 5 37 5. 395.007 278 i8-i 5-02 5-372,199 27-1 i8-3 482 5,337,261 266 17-3 4-61 5.3'4.844 26-1 i8-5 4-53 5.3°9,494 26-4 17-5 4-96 5,321,6.8 26-1 '7-5 470 5,338,906 25-1 187 5.433,640 In 187 1 out of the 190,112 marriages which took place in England and Wales, 144,663 were according to the Rites of the Church of England, and 45,449 not in accordance with these rites. From 1841-45 92 per cent, of all the marriages were according to the Rites of the Church of England. From 1866-1870 the figure sank to 77 per cent, and in 187 1 to 76 per cent. In these three periods marriages were contracted without religious ceremonies, first at the rate of 2-3 per cent., then 8 '9 per cent, and lastly 97 per cent. According to the Rites of the Catholic Church, the number of marriages ro-se in like manner from 5*9 per cent, to 13 "9, and lastly to 14 per cent. Among Quakers and Jews there was no appreciable alteration. In 1872 — 73"9 were in accordance with the Rites of Established Church. Other Rites 24*3 „ 1873—75-2 „ „ „ „ „ 24-8 „ 1874—747 „ „ „ „ „ 25-3 » 1875— 74"4 „ „ " » " 25-6 In 1875 and 1876 the marriage rate was affected by reduced wages. In the year 1871 the number of illegitimate children registered were 44,7,5, about 5-6 per cent. From 185 1 — 1856 the percentage was 6-6. From 1857 — 1862,6-4. From 1863 — 1868,6-2. The proportion per cent. of illegitimate .0 total births in England, declined from 6-4 in the ten years 1856-65 to 5-5, in the ten years 1866-75 ; to 4-8 in the year 1875 5 J^nd to 4-7 in the year 1876, shewing a decided decrease. The lowest rate is London 3-6 ; the highest rates the counties of Salop 8-5, Norfolk 8-5, Cumberland 7-8, Hereford 7-7, Westmoreland 7.6, North Wales 6.9, and Cornwall 6-i. Of the 99, deaths only 13,107 or 3"i per cent, were deaths of infants under i year old and at many as 40,551 or 40-6 per cent, were of persona who had attained the age of 60 y, ;rs and upwards. s GOTLAND Ireland Males Females Males Females '>453.496 1,615,908 2.831,783 2,956,632 1,607,276 1,760,646 2.626,661 2,768,346 1,673,105 1,822,109 2,572,088 2,737,406 1,724,320 1,869,609 2,638.260 2.795,380 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 41 The Popidation according to Sex. England and Walks Year Males Females 1861 9,801,152 10,318,162 1871 11,093,123 11,680,689 1875 11,656,400 12,288,059 1878 12,097.547 12,756,850 Those of our people not dwelling in the country in 187 1 viz. those of the Land Forces, Navy and Commercial Marine are not included ; they numbered 216,080. The disproportion between the sexes has increased during the last 20 years. In 185 1 the figures stood at 13,369,442 niales against 14,074,314 females, a difference of 704,872. In 1 861 the difference was 803,271, and in 187 1 it had risen to 882,611. If the soldiers and absent sailors are included, there is still a disproportion of 687,115. This is doubtless the result in a great measure of the Colonial Possessions together with the Indian and Crimean wars and the enormous migration of the Irish. It is remarkable that the difference is not still greater in Ireland — a sign of universal emigration. The number of Houses in the United Kingdom in 187 1. England and Wales. Yiar Occupied Unoccupied Building 1801^ 1,575,923 57,476 i85i.- 3,278,039 153,494 27,571 1861 3,745,463 182,325 27,580 . 1871 4,259,117 261,345 37,803 Scotland. 1851 370,308 12,146 2,420 1861 993,233 17,167 2,692 1871 412,188 • 19,223 3,165 1878 Ireland. 1841 1,328,839 52,208 3,313 1851 1,046,223 65,263 1,868 -v 1861 993,233 39,984 3,047 1871 959,894 31,494 I. -60 1878 The decrease in the number of houses in Ireland from 1841 to 187 1, deserves special attention. Emigration. In the 52 years from 1815-1866, both inclusive, 6,106,392 persons emigrated. Of these 1,286,020 went to the British colonies in North 42 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. America, 3,758,789 went to the United States, 929,182 went to Australia, 132,401 to other countries. In the several years the amount of emigration was as follows From Period Emigrated Yearly Average 1815-46 32 years 1,672,156 52,254 1847-54 8 „ 2,444,802 305,600 1855-59 5 .. 800,640 160,128 1860-63 4 „ 565'2ii 141,303 1864-66 3 ,. 623,588 207,861 1867-69 3 „ 650,305 216,768 1870-72 3 „ 804,588 268,196 1873-77* 4 „ 863,657 215,918 From Ireland alone in the 21 years from 1 835-1 855, 2,323,312 persons emigrated to the United States, and 729,982 to British North America. The United Kingdom. L-''1rotal number of emigrants from 1843 to 1877. 1843 • ■ 57,212 1844 . . 70,686 1845 • • 93,501 1846 . • 129,851 184? . • • 258,270 1848 . . 248,089 1849 • • • 299,498 1850 . .. 280,849 I85I . • • 335,966 TS52 . • • 368,764 1853 • • • 329,937 1854 . • ■ 323,429 1855 • .. 176,807 1856 . •• 176,554 1857 . .. 212,857 1858 . .. 113,972 1859 . .. 120,432 i860 . .. 128,469 I86I . .. 91,770 T86T . .. 121,214 1863 . •• 223,758 1864 . .. 208,900 1865 . .. 209,801 1866 . .. 204,882 1867 . •• 195,953 1868 . • • 196,325 1869 . .. 258,027 1870 . .. 256,940 1871. . .. 252,435 1872 . •• 295,213 1873 • .. 310,612 1874 .. 241,014 1875 • .. 73,809 1876 . .. 138,222 Emigration from the United Kingdom in 1878, 113,439 persons of British origin, being an increase of 25 per cent, over the unusually small emigration of 1877. The increase was 22 per cent, in English, 34 percent, in Scotch, and 27 per cent, in Irish emigrants. • The total emigration in 187', is the lowest on record during the last 14 years, while the influx o< immigrants was very tjreat, Another peculiarity of the year 1S7G is the comparatively small proportion of Irish who emigrated, the proportion being 24 per cent, against 34 per cent, in 1871-5 and 5b per cent. in ib6i-s. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and Peopte. 43 The following table gives the principal destination of the emigrants from i860 to the present year.* Year United States British Australia Annual N. America Average i860 87,500 9,786 24,302 1861 49,764 12,707 23,738 \ 1862 58,706 15,522 41,843 1863 146,813 18,083 53,054 - 3,535 1864 147,042 12,721 40,942 1865 147,258 12,211 37,283 1866 161,000 13,253 24,097 T867 159,275 15,503 14,466 1 1868 155,532 21,062 12,809 1869 203,001 33,891 14,901 - 4,772 1870 196,075 35,295 17,065 1871 198,843 32,671 12,227 1872 233,747 32,205 15,876 1873 233,073 37,208 26,428 - 8,889 1874 148,161 25,450 53,958 1875 134,823 22,283 28,882 ; 1876 54,554 9,335 32,196 13,384 1877 1878 54,069 10,697 36,057 Creeds. The census of 1 87 1 shewed that in Ireland there wei -e Catholics ... 4,141 933 Baptists ... 4,643 Church of England 683 295 Quakers ... 3,834 Presbyterians 503 461 Other Christian s ... 19,035 Methodists 41, 815 Jews • •■ 258 Independents 4 485 From 1851-1861 a decrease of 43 per cent, occurred among the Catholics, and only 10 per cent, among Protestants. From 1861-1871 a decrease of 8 per cent, of Catholics and -g-per cent, of Protestant Dissenters, while the State Church suffered only a very unimportant loss. The Jews on the contrary appear to have decreased 36 per cent. Taking the numbers of the various sects collectively, we have the foUowins: conditions Church of England Presbyterians Catholics Other Dissente England 17,500,000 Scotland 100,000 Ireland 683,000 1,500,000 503,000 1,100,000 350,000 4,140,000 4,000,000 1,500,000 70,000 Total 18,283,000 2,030,000 5,590,000 5,570,000 * The net loss to the population of the United Kingdom by excess of emigration over immigration was 38,065. 44 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. The number of Jews would not, at the highest figure, exceed 40,000. It is estimated that about a million of inhabitants are not baptized. Nationalities. The census of 187 1 shews the population to belong to three races, viz. — English (Angles) or Saxons, Scandinavians and Celts. Two essentially different languages are spoken — English with its varieties of dialect, and Celtic, Welsh or Irish. Of the inhabitants of Ireland in 1861,163,275 spoke Irish only, and 942,261 Irish and English, making together 1,105,536 Celts. In Scotland the number of Celts is estimated at 400,000, and in Wales 700,000, making in the whole kingdom 2,205,536 Celts. It is difficult to ascertain with perfect accuracy the number of foreigners living in England and Wales. It is supposed that there are 84,090 foreigners in England and Wales, 40,909 of whom reside in London. Of this number of foreigners 28,644 are Germans (16,082 of whom dwell in London), Austrians 1,669 Belgians 2,031 French 12,989 Russians 1,633 Dutch 5,542 Spaniards 1,337 Swedes and Norwegians 5,417 Other European countries 1,577 Poles 3,616 North Americans 7,S6i Italians 4,489 Other parts of America 1,641 Danes 2,534 Africans • 518 Swiss 2,341 Asiatics 358 The number of English dweUing in other parts of Europe are 64,969, of whom In France ... 25,844 Belgium 4,092 „ Germany ... - 7,365 Switzerland 1,124 „ Italy ... 5,467 Outside this number are 125,379 in India, including 85,008 in the army. In 187 1 there were living in Eirgland and Wales, 139,445 persons who were born in foreign lands. In 1841 there were only 36,446 such cases and in 1851 there were 61,708, and in 1861, 101,832. Of the 1871 total, 66,101 lived in London. Towns. No other country possesses so many large towns. In 1851 there lived (exclusive of Ireland) in the 815 towns 10,556,288 persons, in the country 10,403,189 persons, constituting a larger town than country population. Since that period the tendency has been to increase the town population. The latest censuses give the following comparison limited to England and Wales : — 1851 :86i 1871 Number of towns Area in Acres ... Population 580 781 938 1,724,406 1,913,945 2,213,421 8,990,809 10,960,998 14,041,404 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 45 England, alone, possesses 103 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants. The population of London in the year — 1 1 70 was ... ... 40,000 In 1685 about 530,000 „ 1702 „ 674,000 „ 1760 „ 676,000 „ 1811 ,. 1,138,815 „ 1821 „ 1,378,947 „ 1841 „ 1,948,417 In the City of London alone in 1631 lived 111,608 persons „ „ 1801 „ 128,269 1851 „ 127,869 Since this period there has been a steady diminution in the population actually living in the City of London, in consequence of the buildings being more devoted to business, necessitating the dwelling outside the city. In 1 86 1 the population of the city was 112,063 but in 1871 it had decreased to 74,897 while the daily average of people passing in and out was over a million. It is worthy of notice, before proceeding to other cities, that there are moving about daily in London 1,400 omnibuses and cabs, drawn by 25,000 horses ; (in Paris in 1872 there were 719 omnibuses and 9,181 horses) and that beyond this means of traffic or conveyance there are the local steamboats on the Thames, and the Metropolitan Railways running through and around London. It is somewhat difficult to define the exact area of London, (ist) There is the circumference for Parliamentary purposes with 3,022,066 inhabitants, (2nd) That for the Registrar-General's purposes, with 3,254,260 inhabitants (3) That for State Administration and the School Board, 3,266,987. Jhen the Postal District 3,536,129. Magisterial 3,657,078, and Police District 3,385,641 inhabitants. In the Registrar-General's Report for 1874, he gives 4,025,000 as the population of the Police District. The number of dwelling houses in the same, 528,794. The large Towns with their Population. 1801. 1851. 1861. 1871. 1877- London 958,865 2,362,226 2,803,989 3.254,260 Liverpool 82,295 375>955 443.938 493.405 Manchester wath) Salford ) 94,876 401,321 441,171 475.990 CO Birmingham 70,670 232,841 296,076 343.787 .s Leeds 53>i62 172,270 207,165 259,212 t/!J Sheffield 45,755 i35>3io 185,172 239,946 .1 Bristol 61,153 137,328 154,093 182,552 Bradford 13,264 103.778 106,218 145.830 'S Stoke-upon-Trent. 84.027 101,207 130,985 Newcastle-on-Tyne 87,784 109,108 128,443 '.S Hull 84,690 97,661 121,892 Portsmouth ... 72,096 94,799 113.569 London in 1878 had a popul ation of 3,577,304. The labouring classes form about two-thirds of the population. 46 Great Britaifi and Ireland — La7id and People. Scotland. i8.:.. iS6i. 1871. Glasgow . . . Edinburgh. Dundee ... 77,058 81,404 329,097 191,221 78,931 394,864 2ox,749 90,417 547,538 197,581 119,141 555,933 218,729 142,951 Irela?id. 1841. 185 1. 1861. 1871. 1877. Dublin ... Belfast ... 232,276 75,308 258,369 100,301 304,710 120,777 295,841 174,394 333,623 202,641 Towns containing between 100,000 and 10,000 inhabitants:- In England. Sunderland . . . .. 98,242 (Jreat Yarmouth .. 41,819 Leicester .. 95,220 Bury ... •• 41,344 Brighton 90,011 Northampton .. 41,168 Nottingham ... .. 86,621 Burnley • • 40,858 Preston ■ • 85,427 Hanley •• 39,976 Bolton .. 82,853 Middlesborough •• 39,563 Oldham 82,629 Cardiff •• 39,536 Norwich .. 80,386 Wigan .. 39,110 Blackburn •• 76,339 Ashton-under-Line •■ 38,941 Huddersfield •■ 70,253 Macclesfield ... •• 37,670 Plymouth .. 68,833 Chester ■• 35,257 Wolverhampton 68,291 Exeter •• 34,650 Birkenhead . . . •• 65,971 Worcester . . . •• 33,226 Halifax ■■ 65,510 Reading •• 32,324 West Ham ... .. 62,919 Warrington . . . •• 32,144 Croydon ■■ 55,652 Oxford •• 31,404 Southampton ■• 53,741 Carlisle •• 31,049 Stockport ■• 53,014 Cambridge . . . .. 30,078 Bath •• 52,557 Hastings .. 29,291 Merthyr Tydvil ■• 51,949 Aylesbury .. 28,760 Swansea • • 51,702 Dover .. 28,506 Derby 49,810 Wakefield ... 28,069 Devonport ... ■■ 49,449 Stockton-on-Tees •• 27,738 Gateshead ... .. 48,627 Darlington ... .. 27,729 Walsall .. 46,447 Newjiort 27,069 Chatham •• 45,792 Lincoln .. 27,766 South Shields • 43,336 Colchester . . . •• 26,343 St. Helens ... •• 45,134 Maidstone ... .. 26,196 Rochdale •• 44,559 Rothcrham . . . .. 25,087 Cheltenham ... •• 44,519 Dew.sbury .. 24,764 York •• 43,796 Scarborough . . . •• 24,259 Dudley •• 43,782 Shrewsbury . . . • • 23,046 Crichdale • • 43,622 Stratford .. 23,286 Ipswich •• 42,947 Barnsley .. 23,021 Great Britain and Ireland — La?id and People. 47 In England- —(continued. ) (jravesend . 21,265 Bedford 16.S50 Staleybridge . 21,092 Oldbury ' 16,410 Canterbury . 20,962 Winchester 16,366 Batley ... 20,871 Bootle-cum-Linacre . . . 16,247 Great Grimsb y ••• 20,244 King's Lynn 16,166 Keighley 19,975 Tranmere 16,143 Longton 19,748 Enfield 16,054 Kidderminste r ... 19,473 Newcastle-under-Lyne 15,948 Wenlock 19,401 Reigate 15,916 Doncaster 18,768 Willenhall 15,902 Rochester 18,352 Stoke-upon-Trent ... 15,300 Hereford 18,347 Kingston-on- Thames.. 15,263 Gloucester . 18,341 Lowestoft 15,246 Tunbridge W ells ... 18,310 Richmond 15,113 Barrow-in-Fui •ness ... 18,245 Taunton 14,957 J arrow 18,179 Ramsgate 14,640 Newton Heat h ... 18,103 Louth 14,526 Southport 18,086 Stafford 14,455 Crewe 17,810 Durham 14,406 Luton 17,317 Sheerness 13,956 Lancaster 17,245 Pembroke 13,704 Bacup 17,199 Salisbury 12,903 Smethwick . 17,158 Folkstone 12,698 Glossop ^ . 17,046 Bridgewater 12,059 Whitehaven . 17,003 I\Iargate 11,995 Chorley 16,864 Scoti Chesterfield ^and. 11,427 Aberdeen 88,189 Leith... ... 44,280 Greenock 57,821 Perth... 25,585 Paisley 48,240 Ireh Kilmarnock %nd. 22,963 Cork... 7?'382 ! I.ondonderr) ... 25,242 Limerick 5y,828 j ^Vaterford ^ -> ■-» T England has, therefore, beside one city of nearly four millions, eleven towns containing between 150,000 — 500,000 inhabitants; Scotland 3 and Ireland 2.^ And of towns between 50,000 — 100,000 inhabitants, England has 21, Scodand 3. Ireland o. Of towns between 20,000 — 50,000 inhabitants, England has 48, Scotland 4, and Ireland 3. Tcj-ritorial Changes. Great Britain, the name by wh:ch England and Scotland were united in 1707, is the only great kingdom of Europe which, in consequence of its insular position and its maritime strength, has retained for centuries its principal essential parts without any alteration of its borders, if we 48 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. except the incorporation of Ireland in 1801, which had practically been accomplished much earlier. It was necessary therefore that England should extend largely .her colonial possessions. By the loss of the United States these possessions were much diminished. In the great wars, however, Britain, by right of conquest, became possessed of almost all the colonies of France, Holland and Denmark, and many of those belonging to Spain and Portugal. The various Treaties of Peace confirmed to Britain the most important part of these conquests ; for instance the Peace of Amiens in 1802 left it in possession of Ceylon and Trinidad, the first, hitherto Dutch; and the second, Spara.-li. Tr.e Peace of Paris in 1814 secured to it Malta (which up to that time had belonged to the Knights of St. John;) St. Lucia ; the Isle of France (Mauritius) and the Sechelles (French Colony ;) Demerara, Essequibo, Berbice and the Cape, (formerly Dutch) Heligoland, (formerly Danish) and the protectorate of the Ionian Isles, and finally the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 secured to it Cyprus. In consequence of the irregularity of the succession to the throne in England and Hanover, in 1837 the personal union with the last ceased. On the other hand British rule extended rapidly in India. On the ist September 1858 the whole possessions of the East India Company passed directly into the hands of the British Government. In Australia the formation of a new colony commenced, to which, as well as to Canada, was secured a high degree of independence. In 1864 Britain renounced voluntarily the protectorate of the Ionian Isles. Finance. The Budget. — This is brought forward by the Government year by year in the House of Commons. In no other land are there so many yearly alterations in the various imports as in England. The treatment or handling of the Budget is also peculiar. The Chancellor of the Exchequer submits to the House of Commons a balance sheet of income and expen- diture of the preceding year (technically called the " Product of Ways and Means, and Supply ") and builds on that the Budget for the coming year. The financial year commences on the ist of April in each year. The House of Commons is alone responsible for the Ways and Means, and we shall see more clearly the plan adopted if we take one year as an examj^le. Gross Public Revenue. Year Ending March 31, 1878. Customs... Excise ... Stamps*... Land Tax and House Duty Property and Income Tax Post Office Telegraph Service Crown Lands ... ...;^i9,969,ooo 27,464,000 10,956,000 2,670,000 5,820,000 6,150,000 1,310,000 410,000 Interest on Advances and Miscellaneous ... 5,014,298 Total ;^79.763.298 ♦ There is a great increase in this item over the previous year, whicli is a sign of greater commercial activity. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 49 Gross Public Expenditure. Interest and Management of National Debt ...^28,412,750 Civil List and Civil Charges ... ... ... 16,387,139 Army 14,607,445' Repayment to Army Funds^'= ... ... ... 500,000 Army Purchase Commission ... ... ... 504,719 Navy ,10,978,592 Charge of Collection of Revenue ... ... 7,012,850 Total ;^82,403,495 Budget Estimates for 187 8-7 9, based upon the year ending March 31, 1878. Customs... ... ... ... ... ...^20,500,000 Excise ... ... ... ... ... ... 27,600,000 Stamps ... ... ... ... ... ... 10,930,000 Land Tax and House Duty ... ... ... 2,630,000 Property and Income Tax ... ... ... 8,570,000 Post Office ... ... ... ... ... 6,200,000 Telegraph Service ... ... ... ... 1,315,000 Crown Lands ... ... ... ... ... 410,000 Interest on advances for Local Works and on Purchase Money of Suez Canal Shares... 1,075,000 Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... 4,000,000 Revenue ... ... ... ...^83,239,000 Estimated Expenditure for 1878-79. Permanent Charge of Debt ... ... ..^28,000,000 Interest on Temporary Loans for Local Works, on Vote of Credit, Exchequer Bonds, and Interest, &c., on Exchequer Bonds (Suez) 719,000 Other Charges on Consolidated Fund... ... 1,760,000 Supply Services... ... . , ... ... 53,907,571 Estimate ^{,"84,386,5 71 Principal Imposts and Taxes. The small produce of Crown Lands is very remarkable. The net produce from 1840 to 1855 gave an average of only _;^i 50,000 (the maxi- mum being in 1854, ^402,888, and the minimum in 1847, ^77)0°o- It- increased in the next ten years from ^272,572 to ^305,000, and in 1870 to ;^375,ooo, a figure which was repeated in 1873. A sum supplying but ^4 per cent, of the needs of the State out of the immediate possessions of the State, is a sign that now as in the early times of Absolutism the property of the State is mismanaged or wasted. The disproportion is more conspicuous if we regard the small direct State possessions as debit, contrasting them with the enormous amount of the National Debt regarded as credit. The Capital of the Crown Lands (mostly ground rents) was in the Sessions of 1830 valued at ^^20,41 2,500 with a probabiUty of its increasing to ^30,000,000. * For troops in India. 50 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People The only Imperial establishments are the Post Office and the Tele- graph Service, which are worked far more for the practical purposes of the people than with a view to fiscal advantage. In the whole kingdom the postage for a single letter is \d. The introduction of this system in 1840 in place of the enormously high postage of i,d. for any distance under 15 miles and i^. for 230 miles, produced, at first, a serious diminution in the Revenue. The net produce which in 1839 had been ^1,633,764, sank in 1840 to ;^5oo,789. The great increase of correspondence (see under Post) and the cessation of fraud, began gradually to have an effect upon the Revenue, so that at from 20 to 24 years' trial the result equalled its former figure. The gross income in 1845 was ^1,878,594. „ 1855 >. 2,811,247. „ „ „ 1865 „ 4,100,000. „ ), „ 1875 „ 5,670,000. The outlay or expenditure which in 1840 was only ;^858,677 rose in 1866 to ;!^2, 1 29,888, (the increase being largely due to the cost of the Transatlantic mails). In 1874 it was ^3,915,000 being an increase of more than 3 per cent over 1873 which was ^3,793,000. Since 1870 the Telegraph Service appears as a source of revenue. In the ist year (1870) the income was ^roo,ooo ; the 2nd year (1871) it had risen to ,1^500,000 ; in 1872 to ^755, 000 ; in 1873 to ^^1,015,000 ; in 1874 to ;^i, 210,000 ; in 1876 to ;z^i,245,ooo ; in 1877 ^1,305,000; in 1878 ^1,310,000. The Income Tax. The Income tax introduced in the year 1798 by Pitt, as a war tax, was withdrawn on the establishment of peace. A considerable deficit obliged Sir Robert Peel's Ministry to have again recourse to this tax. The law regulating it is somewhat crude. In levying the tax no difference is made between accidental income, real or chattel, and personal inheritance and inelastic income. It does not reach the capital if unproductive, or turned into articles of luxury. Those only are exempted from this tax whose entire annual income is under ;^i5o ; previous to 1852 it was under ;!^i5o, it was then lowered to p^^ioo and in 1878 was again raised to ;;^i5o. In 1865-66 an Income tax of 4^. in the pound resulted in ;^6, 390,000 that is something like ^1,600,000 for each penny. In the previous year when (>d. in the pound was levied the result was only p^ 1, 3 7 0,000 for each penny. -The higher result of 1865-66 had a two- fold origin — an increased prosperity, and an increased sense of moral responsibility with some modifications of fashion. The various kinds of income are, by law, arranged under five heads (previously under six) viz., Schedule A. Comprehends the income from immoveable propcrt}-, such as lands, houses, tithes ; licences were imposed in lieu of other taxes in 1870. Schedule B. The income of the tenant farmer. (Garden grounds, fields) Schedule C. The interest of National Debt (dividends) Schedule 1). The produce of the united industries, trades, manufactures, and commerce. S hedule E. I'rofes.sions, salaries, pensions, etc. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People, 51 As the income tax of each year is determined according to the require- ments of the year, it is necessarily a variable tax. Previous to the year 1854, the tax was yd. in the pound, then the Crimean War of 1854-55, raised it to is., and the following year to is. 4d., when it yielded 6§ per cent, of the revenue. In 1857 it returned to yd., the following year to 5d., and in 1859 again rose to Qd., and in i860 to lod. 1861-63 it remained firm at 9d. ; 1864-65 it was 6d. and in 1865-1867 it fell to 4d. In 1867- 68 it rose to 5d. and in the following year to 6d. In 1869-70 it fell to 5d. and in 1870-71 to 4d. In 1871-72 it rose to 6d. and in 1872-73 it fell to 4d with an abatement of ;!^8o on incomes under ^300. In 1873-74 it was reduced to 3d. The fluctuations are shown in the subjoined table : — In 1861-63 9d. 1871-72* 6d. 1864-65* 6d. i872-73t 4d. 1865-67* 4d. 1 87-1-75 3d. 1867-68* 5d. 1875-76 2d. 1868-69* 6d. 1877 5d. • 1869-70* 5d. 1878 5d. 1870-71* 4d. 1879 5d. The average annu al produce of this tax from 1850-55 was 5-| millior £ » I £ 1856 ... 15,070,95^ ) In 1864 ... 9,084,000 In 1872 .. 9,084,000 1857 ... 16,089,933 1865 ... 7,958,000 1873- 7,500,000 1858 ... 11,586,11c 1866 ... 6,700,000 1874 .. 5,691,000 1859 ... 6,683,58^ 1867 ... 5,700,000 1875 • 4,360,000 i860 ... 9,596,10^ ) 1868 ... 6,177,000 1876 . 5,280,000 1861 ... 10,923,816 ) 1869 ... 8,618,000 1877 . 5,280,000 1862 ... 10,365,90c ) 1870 ... 10,044,000 1878 . 5,820,000 1863 ... 10,567,00c ) 1871 ... 6,350,000 Gross amount of the annual value of property assessed to the income tax in 1876 : — Ireland Total for United Kingdom Schedule A Schedule B Schedule C Schedule I.) Schedule E Total ^134,697,796^17, io6,2o7;^i3,oi2,584;^i64,8i6,587 50,009,851 7,505,178 9,291,066 66,806,095 40,711,762 ... 1,053,240 41,765,002 234>777,769 26,810,379 10,277,168 271,865,316 29,644,642 2,505,148 1,894,557 34,044,347 ^489,84i,82o^53,926,9i2;^35,528,6i5^579,297,347 The number of taxpayers of class I) in 1867 compared with the number in 1871 :— 1867. 1871. Under ^100 70,673 220,621 ;^ioo J) 200 186,493 80,666 200 ), 300 54,252 62,375 300 >> 400 23,293 26,639 400 »> 500 11,721 13.199 * With abatement of £(>o on incomes under ;^Joo. j With abatement of £%o on incomes under ^'300. 52 Great Britain and Ireland — Land atid People. £5°o Under ^600 600 „ 700 700 800 800 „ 900 900 „ 1,000 1,000 „ 2,000 2,000 3>ooo 3,000 „ 4,000 4,000 5.°oo 6,000 „ 10,000 10,000 50,000 1867 1871 9,244 10,276 5>2ii 5,915 3.231 3,607 2,850 3,333 1,119 1,388 8,530 9,414 2,598 2,879 1,281 1,420 564 766 1,373 1,422 852 749 67 55 50,000 & upwards The total taxation of the United Kingdom in 1873-4 gave ^2. i8s. i id. per head of the population. Customs. Since 1840 the gross amount of revenue collected from this source has never been under 20 nor above 25^ miUions of pounds until 1877.* In 1858 ... ^23,382,141 In 1870 ... ^21,499,843 „ i860 24,391,084 „ 1872 20,225,892 „ 1862 23,692,955 „ 1874 20,323,325 „ 1864 23,234,356 „ 1876 20,020,000 „ 1866 21,302,239 „ 1877 19,922,000 „ 1868 22,664,981 „ 1878 19,969,000 The Customs form by far the most important source of revenue and embrace about \ of all the imports. The protective system being given up they now consist simply oi finance duty, extending only to 45 articles instead of as formerly to 1,163 articles. If the adherents of protection refer, how- ever, to the higher produce of that system, they overlook the fact that previous to the treaty with France in i860, scarcely a million was derived from manufactures. In the year 1861 of the total sum of 23^ millions, sugar yielded nearly 6^ millions, tobacco over 5^^, tea over sY^i\ spirits and wine almost 4. These four alone thus yielding nearly 213^ millions while all remaining articles of commerce yielded but little over 2 millions. In the year 1870 the Revenue collected from sugar was ^5,396,561; tea ;^2,643,296 ; spirits, foreign and colonial ^4,191,400; coffee ;^347,755 ; wine ^1,476,404; tobacco ^6,608,716. These articles yielded, ;!^2o,664,i32 while all other articles together yielded only ;>{^784,7ii (^^bout 3f per cent.) In 187 1 the duty on sugar was reduced and since 1874 it is altogether repealed ; the conditions are therefore changed. In the year ending September 30, 1878, the Customs again reached ^20,067,000, being an increase of ^98,000 over the figures of 1877, but this advantage is not a real one if we take into consideration the extra duty • This year there is a falling off from i876 of ^^300, 000. It is true that the tobacco duty shewed ail increase of ;|/^243,ooo and Tea gave an increase of /'j 3,5 79 hut the Foreign and Colonial Spirits imported shewed a decrease of more thanj^45o,ooo. The duty on Coffcs also is short of the previous year by j^450,cco. + 1 he duty on Tea in 1878 was 6./. per lb., in 1857 it was \s. <^J. in the lb. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 53 on tobacco, which should have augmented the Customs considerably. On the whole, the Revenue seems to be losing its elasticity. The Times thinks the change merely temporary. Tobacco. In January, 1879, it was stated that taking the last 15 years under the tariff of 1863 there had been an average annual increase of^ 158, 140. In the last ten of ^155,790. In the last five of ^2 10,645. ^^ the last three of ^226,279, and the increase in the last year was ^236,041 so that the increase had been decidedly progressive. This was before the extra duty had been imposed. With regard to the consumption, the decrease was very great during the year of the increased duty. As an interesting fact it was stated that of 3^. paid for one oz., 2^^. is for the Government and y2,d. only for the tobacco. It is calculated that about y% of the tobacco used in the United Kingdom is consumed by the poorer or working classes, and purchased from day to day. The extraordinary decrease in the consumption of duty-paid-tobacco does not imply a decrease in smoking, but a very large consumption of some article other than tobacco. The treaty with France has in no degree resulted in a diminution of Revenue. Excise. This deals with spirits, malt, licenses, etc. Of drinks, those only produced at home are subject to Excise, those imported being subject to duty. The gross amount of the Excise in 1843 was not quite 13.6 millions. It rose in i860 to ;^20^ millions, and notwithstanding a large diminution of Excise duties ityielded in 1861 £i()\ millions. In 1865 ^19,428,324, 1870 ^21,879,238, 1876^^27, 569,323. For the year ending September 30, 1878, Excise shews a decrease of;^227,ooo when compared with 1877. The Excise forms, therefore, next to the Customs, the most important source of revenue. Subdividing it *brandy (spirits) stands highest : at los. per gallon duty, ityielded in 1873 ^13,749,542, and malt which comes next at 2S. 7d. per bushel (formerly 4s.) yielded 2'7.544>i75t- I^i 1876 brandy produced ;^i5, 154,327 and malt ^7,654,681. In 1877 there were 58,443,252 bushels of malt made, duty charged ;^7, 939,099. The consumption of beer increases enormously. In 1859 — 530 millions of gallons were consumed, causing an annual expense to the popu- lation of;^39,75o,ooo. " Vocke"' remarks that the British public in modern times spend more for drink alone, than 30 years ago sufficed for all articles subject to excise. The duty on railways was levied for the first time in 1832 and yielded only ^634, but in 1870-71 it yielded ^501,188. Up to 1870, 5 per cent, of personal transport was demanded, leaving the 3rd class passengers free upon the condition that the fare should not exceed id. per mile. Since 1870 only i per cent, has been claimed. * The consumption of brandy remained for a long time stationery, that is to say about 0-8 gallon to each individual of the population. In 1854 the consumption was near 26 millions gallons; in i860 it diminished to 19^ million gallons, but since 1864 it has b-jen steadily increasing till in 1875 ^^'^ consumption at home was 30,659:043 gallons t The net produce of the malt duty for 1877 "^^^ ^7,721,54? H*- Sa^- a" ' 'he net Excise duty on distillers and publicans for 1877 was ^{^83 6,049 '48- °^^- 54 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. Licenses in 1873 yielded ^3,934,393- „ 1876 „ i:3,54o,287. The paper tax (the last being ;!^i, 359,000) is now abolished. Stamps. Partly fixed and partly a proportionate duty, are necessary for agreements and contracts, bills of exchange, receipts, licenses, wills, legacies and assurance policies. The total produce from this source in 1865 '^^'^^ ^9,542,645, in 1870 ^"9,288,553; in i875_ ^^10,547,729 ; and in_i876 ;^i 1,023,374. The duties on receipts, assignments and cheques is id. and yielded in 1876 ^781,907. Bills of exchange, bankers' notes, etc. ;^993,59i ; Stamps for probate of wills, etc. ^2,253,842, Marine insurance ;^i 19,259. (Fire insurance duty was abolished June 1869.) The highest return is afforded by the Legacy and Succession stamp duty which yielded in 1874 ^3,912,408 I 1877 ^3>548,558 1875 3>499>756 I 1878 3,584,382 1876 3,514,168 I Legacy and Succession duty is graduated as under : — For Descendants and Ascendants ... ... ... ... i per cent. Brothers and sisters and their successors ... ... ... 3 „ „ Brothers and sisters of the parents and their successors ... 5 ,, „ Brothers and sisters of the grandparents and their successors 6 „ „ Other relatives or strangers ... ... ... ... ... lo „ „ Taxes, particularly assessed taxes, are, with the exception of certificates for hunting in Ireland, only levied in Great Britain. They embrace land and house tax (and formerly servants also) carriage and horse tax, hair- powder, and armorial bearings. House tax took the place of window tax. Principal Expenditure. In the year 1876 the total gross expenditure was ^76,621,773 or net ;^ 69, 923, 380. Of that sum the expense of collecting was ;^6,698,398, the National Debt ^27,400,000 (39II per cent, of the net expenditure) Land and Sea Services ^^26, 842, 556, 38i?per cent, so that for the whole Civil Service of every kind there remain ^15,637,074 only, or 22^, The total expenditure for the year 1877-78 was ^82,403,495. The smallness of the relative ])roportion of tlie requirements for home management has its ground in the development of local self-government. The Counties and the Parishes have themselves to determine and to cover their requirements as well as to administer their revenues. In large towns it sometimes happens that there is not a single resident officer of the Crown. According to Porter's "Progress of the Nation" there were in 1835 only 23,578 civil servants, and their draw upon the public funds ^^2, 786, 2 78 (this does not include the military). Compare this with Prussia which, long before the extension of the kingdom had 51,597 offices, miserably paid, and costing ^^4,500,000. The civil list of the Queen (subject to the Income tax) amounted in 1869 to ^^406,630. In 1873 its amount was .^{^385, 000 (the Prince Consort received during his lifetime ;^ 30,000). Beside this there went Great Britain and Irela}id — Latui and People. 55 into the private purse of the Queen ;;^26, 194 profits from the Duchy of Lancaster. The Prince of Wales has ^""40,000 appanage from the national funds; his income in 1863 from the Duchy of Cornwall was ^52,712. The Princess of Wales receives an appanage of ^25,000. Prince Arthur _^i 5,000. The Crown Princess of Prussia ^8,000, and the Cambridge family ^25,000. On particular occasions extraordinary votes are taken ; for example, ^40,000 as a marriage portion to the Crown Princess of Prussia, and ^^30, 000 to the Princess Helena. The total appanage of 1873 was _;^ 132,000, and the total cost of the Court ;2{^ 600,000, without reckoning the advantages and responsibilities of the Royal Residences. The cost of, 13 Cabinet Ministers is ^64,000 of which the Lord Chancellor has ^6,000, and ^4,000 as President of the House of Lords. The Prime Minister, Home Secretary, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Colonial Secretary, Secretary of State for W\ir, Secretary of State for India, and Chancellor of the Exchequer ^5,000 each. The First Lord of the Admiralty ,^^4, 5 00. The Chief Secretary for Ireland ^4,425. Postmaster- General ;^2,5oo. The Lord President of the Privy Council, the Lord Privy Seal, the President of the Board of Trade, and the President of the Local Government Board ^^2,000 each. Seventeen other Ministers and Under Secretaries receive a total of ;,^27,ooo, i.e.. Chief Commissioner of Works and Public Buildings ^2, 000. Vice-President of the Council ;^2,ooo. The two Secretaries to the Treasury ^^2,000. Five Under Secretaries of State each ^1,500, and three Parliamentary Secretaries, the one for the Admiralty p^2,ooo, the one for the Board of Trade ^1,500, and the one for the Poor Law Board ^1,000. Of other salaries not mentioned the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ^20,000. Lord ChanceUor of Ireland ^8,000. Master of the Horse ^2,500. Lord Chamberlain p/^2,000. The Master of the Buck- hounds 7^1,700. Lord Steward of the Household ^2,000. The Ladies in Waiting ^{^500 each. The Diplomatic Circle and the Consulates cost from ;^38o,ooo to ^400,000. For the education and instruction of the nation ^1,311,620 were expended in 1866. In 1879 ^i,9io>S29 was voted for education alone. Under this head is included the cost of the British Museum, \yhich in the year 1866 was ^110,756. The British Museum was founded in 1752, and for the first hundred and ten years the cost was ;2^3>339.i77) of which ^^87,868 was presented by private individuals. The changes connected with the schools of the country will be found under the head of Social Condition. Interest a?id Management of National Debt. Year Permanent "^Innihle's^ Unfunded Total 1870 ;^22,434,76i ^4,365,848 ^252,951 ;^27,o53,56o 1871 22,255,060 4,378,737 192,640 26,826,437 1872 22,156,952 4,512,706 169,943 26,839,601 1873 22,136,393 4,539,548 128,912 26,804,853 1874 21,986,102 4,586,274 134,350 26,706,726 1875 21,780,029 5,173,654 140,797 27,094,480 1876 21,623,313 5,364,487 132,050 27,400,000 1877 21,588,982 5,374,199 112,039 27,992,834 1878 21,583,444 5>547,5i8 104,213 28,412,750 56 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. Army and Navy, Forces, exclusive of Fortifications. Year Army Navy Total l86l ^14,970,000 £ 13.331,668 ^31.345,564 1862 i5>57o,869 12,598,042 29,452,342 1863 16,264,790 11,370,588 27,635,378 1864 14,638,051 10,821,596 25,545,572 1865 14,382,672 10,898,253 25,280,925 1866 13.804,450 10,259,788 24,829,067 1867 14,675.540 10,676,101 25.351,641 1868 15,418,582 11,168,949 28,587,531 1869 15,000,000 11,366,545 31.366,545 1870 13.565,400 9.737,290 24,622,690 1871 13,430,400 9,456,641 24,237.041 Year Army '^'^^' P^^^hase ' Commission Navy Total 1872 ^15,521,580 ^340,000 ^{^9,900,486 ;^25,863,i63 1873 14,729,700 683,500 9,543,000 24,956,200 1874 14,426,990 713,974 10,279,900 26,220,864 1875 14,519,434 579,115 10,680,404 25,903,953 1876 14,577,469* 501,638 11,063,449 26,342,556 1877 15,251,355 498,362 11,364,383 27,286,117 1878 14,607,445 504.719 10,978,592 30,590,756 Included in the total amount for the " Forces : " — For the Russian War in the years ended 31 March, ] 862 ;2{;43,43i )> „ 1864 85,925 For the Chinese War, 1861 ... ... 3,043,896 j» 1862 ... 1,230,000 For the New Zealand War, 1866 ... 764,829 For the Abyssinian War, 1868 2,000,000 )» 1869 5,000,000 i> 18 70 1,300,000 For the Vote of Credit on account of War in Europe, i 872 101,097 Vote of Credit for Ashantee Expedition, 1874 800,000 )5 ), ,» ., 1875 ". 125,000 Extra expenditure out of loans for fortifications and military barracks for the 10 years 1860-70, amounted to ;^5,755,ooo, and from 1871 to 1876, both included, to _;^2, 178,000. Charges of Collection of Revenue : — 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Percent. 6*9 7-2 6-8 67 7-2 77 7-6 8-5 9- 9- 9- The small amounts at which the Finances are worked are marvellous. 77^1? Requirements of the State in Earlier Times. In the year 1685 the Revenue was about ^1,400,000, the Excise producing ^585,000, Customs ^530,000, Fire Insurance ^200,000, the lemainder being supplied by Crown lands, tithes, the Duchies of Cornwall • ^500,000 Alabama claims. ^^200,000 repayment to Army Funds of charges defrayed on arcojnt of troops in India. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 57 and Lancaster, and fines. Of the requirements, something Hke ;^8o,ooo a year fell to the National Debt, and these were not paid. The cost of the "Forces" was — ;^29o,ooo for the Army, ^380,000 for the Navy, and ^50,000 for the Artillery, making a total of ;^7 30,000. The Civil Administration cost the Treasury but little, most of it being covered by the towns or by fines. The Diplomatic expense demanded the largest propor- tion — viz., p^2o,ooo. The Court favorites devoured enormous sums. The Duke of Ormond drew annually ^^2 2,000. The Duke of Buckingham ^19,000. Monk left to his heirs a year's income of ^15,000, in addition to ;^6o,ooo. The Archbishop Sancroft had ;^5,ooo. In the year 1709 the Expenditure of the State was ^^7, 000,000. The expenses for Court favorites increased enormously. Marlborough had] an annual income of ^54,825, and his wife ;!^9,5oo, exclusive of the income derived from estates which had been presented to him. In the year 1669 the English Ambassadors in France, Spain, and Germany received ;;{^ioo daily, and ^1,500 yearly for equipages. The Ambassadors in Portugal, Holland, Sweden, etc., ;^io daily, and ^i,opo annually for travelling expenses. However, for years together the salaries were left unpaid. In 1784 the Revenue was ^^10,856,967, and in the following year ;^i2,499,926. The war with France demanded enormous sums. In 1797 Pitt succeeded in bringing in the assessed taxes, and thus in 1798 the Revenue ran up to ;^23,ooo,ooo, and in 1799 to ^25,000,000. Pitt, in 1798, required ;,^io millions more, and to that end imposed an income tax, which increased the Revenue, in 1801, to ^34 millions, and in 1802 to ^38 miUions. In 1805, the last year of Pitt's ministry, it was ^^50 millions, and in 1807, by increasing the income tax, ;^59 millions. From this time, up to 1816, the Revenue was never under £(iO millions, nor above ^70 millions. In 1815 the budget rose to ^116,748,258, of which ^89,748,958 were from imposts, and the other ^27 millions met by loans. The English nation, which, in 1801, expended only ;^34 millions, spent, 14 years' later, the enormous sum of ^90 millions. It must not be forgotten also, that at the end of the last-century Great Britain had not half the population it now has, neither did the export trade amount to ^ of its present sum. Taxation on an Average to each Head of the Population. I80I-I8IO .. • ^5 12 I 1867 ... 258 I8II-I820 3 15 6 1871 ... 247 I820-I830 .. 250 1873 ... 282 1857 .. 2 12 I 1876 ... 2 18 II i860 . 2 9 10 1877 ... 2 18 II 1864 . 2 7 7 In 181 7 the Income tax ceased, and a number of changes were made in the various taxations, the result being a deficit. In 1842 Sir Robert Peel again levied the Income tax, by which a surplus was obtained. At length, after abolishing or lessening many other duties, the repeal of the Corn Laws was concluded in 1846, although it did not come into operation until 1849. From this time dates a new basis of taxation. 58 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. From 1840 to the end of 1853 old taxes were repealed to the amount of ;^i8,io4,29i, and new ones levied to the amount of ^^i 1,916,416. Thus the Revenue gradually increased from ^47,567,565 in the year 1840, to ;<^54,43o>344 in the year 1853. The Crimean War occasioned a serious disturbance. The Govern- ment at the commencement were desirous of not resorting to loans to cover the expense, but, on the contrary, to do it exclusively by taxation. The income tax was the first resource. Up to this time it had been 7d. in the £,, it was now doubled. Other duties to the amount of ^3,600,000 were laid on spirits, sugar, and especially malt. The cost of the war was far above all expectation. The expenditure in the last year of peace (1853 and 1854) amounted to ;^5i, 606,218, but in the first year of the war it rose to ^65,833,800, and the estimate for 1855 and 1856 was ;^86, 339,000, a sum which was found to be not wholly sufficient. It was deemed necessary in this stage of heavy taxation to resort to loans. For 1855 and 1856 an extraordinary war contribution of nearly 15I millions was levied; ;^8,557,ooo in direct taxation, and ;^6, 900,000 in indirect taxation, exclusive of an increase of 16 millions in the National Debt. The total cost of the Crimean War was estimated by the Chancellor of the Exchequer in the House of Commons, as follows : — Extra cost of the two war years against the) r. 00 1 ^ r i X.S3)08b,000 two last years of peace \^ ^^joi Costs spread over the first year of peace, 1856-57 ... 24,500,000 /,'77,588,ooo Reckoning the additional indirect expense, it exceeded the total cost by ;^78, 000,000. Conveying the troops home from the Crimea cost almost ^5,000,000. In the year 1856* the taxes began to decrease, and continued to do so until the year i860, when preparations for war again demanded fresh efforts. The growth of the General Income, which was a result of the increased well-being of ^the country, met the demand so efficiently that the increased taxation was necessary for one year only. The following tables shew the increase and decrease of successive years. Year Customs Decrease .^i 1846 ,i5i>79o 1847 Timber 344,886 1848 Sugar .. . 585,968 1849 Sugar .. . 388,798 1850 Stamps.. . I ,310.151 1851 Window Tax .. 2 ,679,864 1852 Duties .. . 95,928 Corn None Licenses ... None Stamps Taxes on Uninhabited ) Houses. ) None ... p{^2,ooo 84 4,300 618,150 • '' The total expenditure of 1 856," says Sir Stafford Northcote, •' came within one million of that of 1878. It must be remembered that the population from the one period to the other hasj^an increase of 5 or 6 millions; that the imports and exports have doubled within the period, and that^the wealth of the country has nearly doubled likewise, therefore if we were to base all taxes on the same footing as they stood in 1856, we should add to our revenue no less a sum than j^ 25, 000, 000." Great Britain and Ireland — Laud and People. 59 Year Decrease ^9,c■2 /Customs, Excise, )^ '^53 I Stamps & Taxes) 3,247,474 o ( Duties, Taxes, ) , ^o, ^^^ ^^54 \ stamps f ^'^^4,io7 tRcc i Newspaper, \ .2^016 '^55 i Stamp, cS«: Excise) 323,910 1856 Excise etc. ... 2,203,475 1857 Excise & Income 10,753,582 1858 Income Tax 2,100,000 1859 None ... ... — I Duties, ) 1861 -j Excise (Paper), V- 2,689,558 ( Income Tax ) „, ( Duties, Excise, ) ^^, /-^^ ^^62 I Stamps ) 353,671 ( Duties, Sugar, \ 1864 < Excise, Stamps, >■ 3,354,384 ( & Income Tax ) ? Duties, Tea, Ex- j ■«^5ts„«ir 5.344,98. y come Tax ) 1866 Customs, Excise 601,462 1867 Stamps, Taxes 315,000 1868 None — ^Customs, Excise, "i 1869 -) Fire Insurance, ^,848,670 ^ ] Taxes, Income f ^ ^ ' ' ( Tax ) { Sugar, Excise, ^ ) Stamps, News- (4,644,691 ' j papers and In- f ^' (^ come Tax J 1 87 1 Customs ... 45 i Customs, Coffee, 1872 "I Excise, Income ^3,895,169 ( Tax. Increase Stamps, Income Tax, 1 Succession Duties, [-3,401,383 Excise, ) Duties, Malt, Spirits,) „ „/-^ ,„, income Tax \ 9,96o,393 Duties, Excise, and) ^ j^^^^ Income ) -^ j^j 1 None ... ... ... — Duties ... ... ... 92 Excise, Stamps, etc. ... 456,780 Income Tax ... ... 4,340,000 Duties, Excise, Stamps, ( -20^0004 Income Tax j <5, 5 ,y ^ Duties, Excise, Stamps 80,000 Excise 252,500 Duties,'Excise 30,811 119,000 Duties ... None ... Income and Excise Income Tax ... Excise ... Excise ... 1,576 1,600,000 1,450,000 1,113,000 145,000 [3,895,' o S Excise and Cus- \ ^ ,^^ ^o^ ^^73 \ toms. \ 3'403,38o ^ (Customs '^ 1 Excise .. 2,282,903 489,000 1875 Excise ... ... 66,000 1876 |Excise,^LandTax| ^^^^^^^ 1877 Stamps 6,000 Customs & Income Tax 3,050,181 Customs 64 Duty on Sugar used in^ 30,000 57,000 Brewing ) Sugar used in Brewing None ... •.. •" Income Tax 1,966,000 None ... ••• ••• 1878 Increase of Duty on Tobacco. 6o Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. Taxes. Taken Off Imposed In the seven years of peace from 1846-52 ... ^^6,557, 835 ^602,000 In 1853 (special year) 3,247,474 3>356»383 In the two years of war 1854-55 1,597,067 15,180,550 In the three years of peace 1856-58 15^057,057 456,872 In the two years of preparation for war 1859-60 3,085,931 7,020,904 In the seven years of peace 1861-66 16,990,375 373,887 In the three years 1867-69 5,163,670 4,163,000 In the three years 1870-72 8,539,895 3,i95'i95 From 1863-77 36,154,944 9,565,034 The repealing and the imposing of taxes for the 34 years previous to 1872 may be thus classified : — Repealed ImijoBed Customs Excise ... Income Tax Other Taxes Stamps ... Post ;^28,o43,o88 7,384,000 25,457,000 3,594,742 3,823,781 1,240,000 ^4,518,753 8,732,804 25,814,000 911,447 2,616,687 118,567 In the mean time the well being of the nation had increased even more than the population, and wuth it the taxing capability had likewise grown ; nor should it be overlooked that those taxes which were repealed were especially on articles of consumption. In the year 1854, when the Gross Income was ^59,096,667, and the expenditure only ^51,606,218, the Crimean War altered the entire con- dition of things, so that even in the very next year the expenditure was ^69,124,808, and rose in 1856 to ^^93,065, 888 ; in 1857 to ^76,147,202 ; but in 1858 it fell to ^68,246,961. In 1859 the lowest figure of modern times was reached — viz., ^64,809,780. Since then it has vacillated between ^65 and ^85 millions. The following results occurred during the last few years in the real financial condition : — 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877-78 ^67,812,292 69,434,568 69,600,218 72,591,992 75,434,252 69,945,220 74,708,314 76,608,770 77,335,657 74,921,873 77,13^693 79,763,298 Expenditure ;^^65,9o7,45o 66,773,489 71,229,335 74,965,909 68,864,752 69,548,539 71,490,020 70,714,448 76,466,510 74,328,040 76,621,773 82,403,495 Local Burdens. Hitherto only Public or National taxation has been noticed, but there are many institutions and arrangements founded and supported by Local taxation alone. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 6 1 The total amount raised by direct and indirect local taxes, for the purpose of Local Expenditure, in the year 1872-3, was — For England and Wales ... ... ^^22, 558,616 For Scotland ... ... ... ... 2,138,462 For Ireland ... ... ... ... 2,814,915 For the United Kingdom... ... ;£^27,5ii,993 This is in the proportion of i6s. 9d. per head of the population of the United Kingdom, and if the amounts raised for public and local purposes be added together, the total taxation of the country would be about ;i^io2,433,866, or ^3 3s. 2d. per head of the population. Amount of Direct and Indirect Taxation, and of other sources of Receipts for the purposes of Local Expenditure. T ' /J h 7? t England & Wales Scotland Ireland Total Direct ^18,619,378 ^1,683,008 ^^2,514,691 ^22,017,677 Indirect, from Dues,) o /-a Tolls, etc. ...| 3>939>238 455)454 300,224 4,694,916 Total of Taxes .. . = , ^27,511,993 Other Sources of Receipts. 'tVny'''"'\!'} 5^3,00. .85,060 30,96. Government contri butions... Loans Various Sources Local Taxes 1,239,032 Total... I 962,895 123,738 1,900,059 2,087,592 6,583,812 145,653 169,995 6,899,460 2,926,984 138,763 187,946 3,253,693 22,558,616 2,138,462 2,814,915 ^33,955,308 ^2,831,676 ^5,103,876 ^40,991,770 Local Expenditure — England and Wales. In the Metropolis. Poor Rehef, and Repaying Workhouse Loans ... ^1,630,886 Other Parochial Expenses, payable out of Poor Rates 149,259 Local Management by Vestries ... ... ... 1,563,804 Metropolitan Board of Works, 1870. Rateable) value, ^23,960,109, on which the rate levied \n> 1,182,626 the ;^ was 5"82d — ... ...) Corporation and Commissioners of Sewers of City> . q ofLondon I ^^-^'^^^ MetropoHtan Police... 959,82o School Boards 444,i53 Burial Boards ... 144,44° Total Expenditure ^7,038,842 62 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. County Districts. Poor Relief and Repaying Loans for Workhouses ... ;2{^6,o6i,283 All other Parochial Expenditure, payable out of) a-'q 682 Poor Rates ) ^^' Total ^^6,700,965 For County Purposes. Police, Prisons, Lunatic Asylums ... ... ... ^2,663,689 Municipal Boroughs, for Local Public Works, etc. ... 3,625,566 Urban Sanitary Authorities ... ... ... ... 6,416,822 Maintainance of Public Roads ... ... ... 2,144,215 School Boards 730)832 Burial Boards 319,384 Other Purposes 408,782 Total Expenditure in County Districts... •••;^23,oio,255 Coast Districts. Erecting, Maintaining, and Repairing Commercial) y-^ q. ^ Harbours ) '^"' ^'"'^^ Lighthouses and Pilotage ... ... ... ... 632,407 Total Expenditure for England and Wales ...^33,550,859 Scotland {partly estimated). Parochial Boards for Relief of the Poor ^876,310 By Town Authorities 1,175,901 County Assessments : Police, Prisons, etc. ... ... 258,854 Turnpike Trusts i79jI7i Other Purposes 291,520 Total Expenditure for Scotland ^2,781,756 Ireland. Poor Relief .;^9S7,348 By Town Authorities 6i8,S6o Grand Jury Cess. : Roads, Bridges, etc 1,133,417 Police 956,143 Harbours and Lights ... ... ... ... 452,763 Other Purposes ... ... ... ... ... i49>748 Total Expenditure for Ireland ^4,268,269 Total Expenditure for the United Kingdom ...^40,600,884 National Debt. On the 31st March, 1876 the Funded Debt was ^7714,797,715- The Estimated Capital of Terminable Annuities £si,Z^^M^', 'i"d the amount of Unfunded Debt ^5,239,000, making a total of ^775,348,386. Besides the Consolidated Debt and the gradually terminating Annuities, there is a Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People, 63 Floating Debt, consisting of certain bonds called " Exchequer Bonds," (issued for short periods and bearing interest), to meet special demands. The History of the National Debt. "Our Revolution," says Macaulay, "was not the cause of the National Debt : its commencement dates from a much earlier period : — that which our Revolution introduced was the custom of paying off the Debt punctually." The Debt originated and increased solely on account of war. In 1689 the period of our last Revolution, its amount of capital was ^664,263, bearing an annual interest of ;^39,855. This debt consists really of sums of money due by the government to the Bank of England, forming partly a permanent debt, and partly a debt payable under certain regulations. AA'illiam of Holland, one of the most vehement enemies of Louis XIV. of France, became William III. of England, and it was in order to supply him with the means of pursuing his plans against Louis that the credit of England was pawned, as all her resources were exhausted. Adam Smith says, "It was in the war of 16S8, concluded by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, that the foundation of the present enormous debt of Great Britain was laid." The first sum lent to Government on interest of 8 per cent, was by a Society of gentlemen in 1693, who subsequently became the Governors and Company of the Bank of England, was only ;2^i, 200,000, and at the Treaty of Ryswick the money lent to Government had accumulated into a debt of ;^2 1, 5 1 5, 74 1 13^. 8^. In 1 7 13 (Queen Anne*) the year of the acquisition of Gibraltar, the Public Debt of the kingdom was ^53,500,000. In 1742 it had risen to ^78,293,313. At length in 1745 the misgovernment at home and the heav}' charge of Foreign Levies for Foreign Wars issued in a discontent so wide-spreading, that Charles Stuart's rising threatened the kingdom with revolution or overthrow. After the battle of CuUoden (1746), ;,^2,ooo,ooo more were found to be added to our Permanent Debt. In 1762, two years after George the Third's accession, the Debt was found to have accumulated 10^^122,603,336 Funded Debt, and ^13,927,589 Unfunded Debt. The year 1764 is memorable for being the commencement of the war with America, which involved this nation in a debt, the redemption of which has hitherto baffled all human foresight. The additional debt incurred in that year had been ;^75, 000,000, and after the Peace of Paris in 1763, England called upon America to pay a tax to assist in defraying the amount. This was resisted, and the American War of Independence was the con- sequence. The debt contracted during the French Wars from 1793 to 1815, was about ;^6o8,932,329, making the Funded and Unfunded Debt ;^848, 282,47 7, and the interest upon it ;^33.854,466 annually. From this period to 1854 the debt was considerably diminished. At the end of 1875 the Funded Debt was ^714,797,715 and the Unfunded Debt was ;^5, 239,000 + ^55,311,671 Ter. Ann. Total amount of National Debt, ^775,348,386. Mr. Childers procured a return relating to the National Debt from 1857 to 1877. It stated that the total National Debt funded * The Spanish Succession cost England ^^69, 000,000. 64 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. (including stock held on account of unclaimed dividends), unfunded (capital value of), Terminable Annuities on the ist of April of each finan- cial year was, for 1857-8,^839,519,326; and in 1877 ;^7,754>873.7i3- The total debt created between April ist, 1857, and March 31, 1877, was ;2^33,3o7,847, including stock created and securities issued for reproductive expenditure — i.e., acquisition of telegraphs, public works, loans, of Suez Canal shares, and for non-productive expenditure — fortifications and army localization. England was the only European Power which in the long years of peace following 1815, attempted to pay off her debt. By January, 1836, it was reduced to ;!^787, 638,816, and the interest payable upon the same to ;^29,i43,5i7. There were two very honorable causes of an increase in the debt. In 1835, that for freeing the slaves in the colonies cost ^20,000,000, and relieving the Irish famine (1847) ;^i 0,000,000. The interest of the ConsoUdated Fund was decreased |ths per cent, by changing the 5 per Cents, to 4 per Cents, in 1822, to 3I in 1830, and lastly to 3 per Cents, in 1844. During the war in the East from 1854-56 the debt was increased by 41 millions. The largest amount of debt in modern times was at the end of 1857, when it was ^839,519,326. Since then there has been a decrease. In 1864 it was ;2^82i, 290,829 „ 1S69 „ 805,480,164 ,, 1870 ,, 801,406,561 » 1871 „ 796,104,155 „ 1872 „ 792,661,132 » 1873 „ 785,761,762 In 1874 it was ^^779,283,245 » 1875 „ 775,348,386 „ 1876) „ i877>- „ 775.873.713 „ 1878) The enormous subsidies and loans 1815, viz. — Russia Russio-Dutch Loan Portugal Germany Prussia Spain ... Sweden Austria Sicily ... Hanover Small States ... Holland Payment of Subsidies. sum of the National Debt has been partly induced by which Great Britain granted to other countries, 1792- ;2^9.6i3.434 4,136,836 9,533,355 7,936,666 5,669,885 5,248,773 4,845,571 4,211,1 II 2,73-1,415 2,480,107 1,733,528 1,529,765 Hesse Cassel ... ..^i ,271,107 German Princes 700,000 Sardinia 592,000 Bavaria 501,017 Hesse Darmstadt 263,581 Prince of Orange 220,000 France (Bourbons) 200,000 Brunswick 125,086 Denmark 121,917 Baden 26,990 Morocco 16,371 Of these ^63,711,524, the ^220,000 advanced to the Prince ot Orange, and the ^'200,000 to France were alone repaid. As a rule the subsidies granted by England in the French war are said to have been ^11 2S. per soldier annually. Included in the above sums is the amount of guarantee of the Greek loans in 1832, i.e., ^ of 60 millions of francs or ^800,000. As Greece failed in its obligation, the British loan amounted Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 6^ in December, 1S67, to ^1,099,806, nearly 27-^ million of francs. The interest of the guaranteed loan to Sardinia during the Crimean war of 50 million of francs (^2,000,000) is now paid by the King of Italy. Military Power. Land Forces. — The army is formed of voluntary recruits of from 1 7 to 35 years of age. The period of service is 12 years, six of which the Infantry pass in the active, and the remainder in the reserve forces. The bounty varies according to the need of men. The English soldier is the best paid and, as a rule, the best fed of any in Europe. The pay of the foot guards is !.$•. \d. per day ; in the infantry, \s. per day ; in the artillery the gunners receive is. .\d., and the drivers is. 2,d. per day ; in the household cavalry IS. <)d. per day; and in the cavalry of the Line is. 2d. is the daily pay. After two years' service the soldiers in the infantry obtain an increase of id. per day, but on passing into the reserve forces the payment is 4^. per day, which is put asiide to accumulate for them. At home the soldier receives a pound of bread and | lb. meat daily, for which he pays ^]4d. In the colonies he receives i lb. of bread and i lb. of meat, for which he pays 3/^^. The former practice of purchasing commissions in the army was abolished in 187 1. An Act of 1869 restricted corporal punishment in the army, and in the Sessions of 1878-79 an Act was passed further re- stricting this practice. Previous to this restriction, men were liable to be flogged and branded. In 1863, 518 men were flogged, and 301 branded „ 1864, 528 „ „ „ „ 1438 „ „ 1865, 441 „ „ „ „ 1592 „ the last being for desertion and very bad conduct. The promotion of the soldier is now much more possible than when such an absolute separation existed between the officers and the men. The number of promotions of subalterns to officers in the five years of peace from 1849-53 was only 104, but in the two years of war, 1854-55 there were 231. In the year 1857 there were 1,888 desertions 1869 3.341 1870 3. 171 I87I 4,553 1872 5,861 1873 5,702 1874 5,572 1875 4,382 1876 7,759 1877 2,621 1878 5,416 Notwithstanding this large number of deserters, who are chiefly from the raw recruits, the soldiers invariably shew themselves to be excessively brave. The whole existence of the standing army depends on the annual resolutions of Parliament, as the so-called Mutiny Bill is passed for one year only. E 66 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. Organization. The effective force of the Army consists first of the Infantry, including the Foot Guards. The Foot Guards consist of Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards, and Scots Guards. The Grenadier Guards consist of 3 battalions of 847 men, giving a total of 2,543, the cost per day being;,^i94 14J. iid., and per year (that of 1879-80) 71,082 12^. 2d. In addition to this, the colonel receives ;^2,2oo, making a total cost of ;!^73,282 12s. 2d. The Coldstream Guards consist of 2 battalions of 847 men, giving a total of 1,696; cost per day, ^^130 ']s. id. ; per year, ^47,579 ^y- '> ^dd the colonels pay of ;^2,ooo, and the total is ;^49,579 13s. The Scots Guards consist of 2 battalions of 853 men, making a total of 1,708; cost per day, ^131 y. 3^.; annual cost ;!^47,874 13^. lod.; colonel, ;^2,ooo; making ^49,874 135. lod. Infantry of the Line. Battalions for Home Sennce, 1879-80. Battalions Rank & File All Ranks Total Men Total Annu al Cost 39 480 562 21,918 ;^588,26i 7 6 6 560 642 3>852 99,261 15 6 640 722 4,332 108,021 15 6 720 802 4,812 116,781 15 6 800 882 5>292 125,541 15 Cost of Pipe Major and Pipers 18 410 12 6 40,224 ;^I, 038,279 Brigade Dep6ts All Ranka Total Men Annual Total Cost 59 104 6 224 6,136 \ 1,344 i ;^26l,I72 14 2 I 236 236 7.'78 6 8 I for Rifle > ^^ Regiments ) ^ 406 14,876 IS 10 Expense of 120 additional men to each 6 depots 13.140 Militia attached to 66 Brigade Depots 186,898 5 Colonels of regiments 112,000 Pay of Supernumerary Officers ... 15,000 8,234 ;^6io,266 I 8 Battalions for Colonial Service, 1879-80. Battalions Rank & File All Ranks 15 600 687 13 800 985 Cost of Pipe Major and Pipers total Men Total Annual Cost 10,305 ;^269,233 2 6 ",635 284,739 10 10 18 410 12 6 21,958 ;^5S4,383 5 1° Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 67 Foot Guards Infantry, Home Battalions „ Brigades „ Colonial Total Infantry. Men -. 5'95o ... 40,224 ... 8,234 ,.. 21,958 Total Annual Cost ;?^i84,352 o o 1,038,289 o o 610,266 I 8 554,383 5 10 76,366 ^2,387,290 7 6 b — Cavalry, 1879-80. Rank & File 3 Regiments of Household Cavalry, "> viz., ist & 2nd Life Guards, and>- 343 Royal Horse Guards ) 9 Regiments of Cavalry of the Line 542 10 Regiments Ditto 444 9 Depots for Regiments in India ... 57 Staff of Cavalry Depot 11 Corps of Mounted Police 67 Supernumerary Officers, Additional Pay Total Numbers and Annual Cost ... All Ranks 627 529 64 22 77 Total Men Total Annual Cost 433 i>299 ^68,570 7 6 5.64 5.29 576 21 77 ^} 395>5oi 7 6 i7>o75 3 I 3,028 14 9 2,289 12 3 28,659 17 II 12,970 ^485,080 5 I The Royal Regiment of Artillery. This regiment comprises the Royal Horse Artillery, the Royal Artillery Field Brigades, and the Garrison Brigades. I St. — The Royal Horse Artillery. 5 Service Batteries 3 Depot Batteries... Staff of Horse Brigades. Riding Establishments . 2 Colonels Commandant. Total Men 2,430 474 44 183 3>i3i Total Cost 1879-80 ... ;^82,763 15 16,137 II 3 11,246 II 3 6,188 5 5 2,164 Total ..;,^Il8,500 2 II 2nd. — Royal Artillery J^ield Brigades. Batteries Total Men Home Colonial 13 I St Army Corps 2,015 \ £ 121,294 I 3 13 2nd Army Corps 155 lo Home Service... 1,450 44,446 7 I 3 Colonial Service 465 £T-zm^ 9 4 6 Depot Batteries 1,230 34,628 10 Staff of Brigades 102 19,618 15 6 Colonels Commandant ... £ 5,964 Total 5,417 22 5.951 13 4 .^^13,995 9 4 68 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 3rd. — Royal Artillery Garrison Brigades. Batteries Total Men Home Colonial 37 For Home Service 5.254 ^151.537 7 I 5 Depot 855 23,671 15 5 15 For Mediterranean 2,250 ;^63,6oi 5 14 For Colonies ... 1,526 46,266 15 10 Staff Brigades ... 104 15,319 7 I Coast Brigades 1,191 42,516 8 4 Remount Establishment 86 2,387 14 2 Detachment at Shoe-) buryness ... . . . ) 76 1,899 10 5 Staff of Eastern and i-\ Western Colonies ) District Staff j 2774 \j 606 70,412 8 6 80 Supernumerary OfBcers. 80 19.376 18 9 Mediterranean Staff ... 3.577 7 Colonels of Regiments.. 6,958 Total 12,028 ;^334.079 9 9 ^116,219 10 Royal Engineers. Total Men Total Pay Royal Engineer Officers ... 391 •• . ^84,486 5 10 Royal Engineer Companies .. . 4,347 •• . "■■\ 135.032 10 2 Ditto Troops • 460 •i Total 5,i( Departmental and Colonial Corps. £2\^,z^\Z 16 o Army Service Corps ... Army Hospital Corps... 2 West India Regiments Royal Malta Fencible Artillery Lascars Total Men ... 2,999 — ... 1,745 ... ... 1,838 ... 369 ... ... 176 ... ... 7,127 ... Total Pay ... ^86,073 I 53.136 7 46,307 19 9,410 18 3.035 II I II 2 4 8 Total •.. ^197,963 18 2 Indian Army — This consists of the 3 armies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, with 19 divisional and 17 district commands. In 1871 and 1872 this army included 9 European and 49 Indian Cavalry regiments, 3 brigades and 1 5 mounted batteries, and 7 1 foot batteries of European Artillery, besides 1 1 batteries of Indian Artillery ; 3 corps of Engineers, and 3 of Sappers and Miners; lastly, 50 European and 142 Indian Regiments of Infantry. The number of men was 13,245 Artillery, 23,164 Cavalry, 3,548 Engineers and Miners, 146,127 Infantry, added to which were 2,460 men on the staff, besides invalids, etc., making in all 189,043 men, 66,675 of. whom belonged to the European corps, and 122,368 to the Indian. The native troops are generally enlisted lor 3 years, and officered by EngHsh and native officers, the latter of whom can only rise to the rank of captain, and, even when holding this rank, are subordinate to European lieutenants. The tributary princes of India arc compelled to furnish 20,000 auxiliary troops. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 69 Militia — These consist of volunteers, but may be completed by con- scription \ its divisions are Artillery Militia, Engineer Militia, and Infantry Militia. Rank & File Artillery 17.619 Engineers ... ... ... •-. ••• i.S^S Infantry 118,662 Total 137,556 Total charge for Militia in 1879-S0, p^i, 239,650. The length of service is 5 years ; the period of preliminary exercise, formerly 14 days, has been extended to 24 days ; this is followed by further instruction in the depot, which is not to exceed 3 months. Yeomanry — In 1879-80 numbered 13,575 men, divided into 46 regi- ments ; annual period of exercise, 8 days ; cost to the State ^74,400, Every Yeoman receives £^i annually for uniform and pay during the term of exercise. Volunteers — The State Treasury bears part of the expenses. This movement developed itself rapidly in England and Scotland. It does not exist in Ireland. Every town of any size has its Volunteer Corps ; the number of members is 194,191; State expenditure for this branch, in 1879-80, ^359,000. , . , T. , J The total strength of the regular military forces which England main- tains amounted in 1868 and 1869 (inclusive of the European troops in the East Indies) to 203,200, In 1869-70 to 191,000 „ 1870-71 „ 171,000 » 1872-73 „ 196,529 „ 1878-79 „ 191,933 In May, 1878, 102,877 Militia, 10,736 Yeomanry, 193,026 Volunteers, giving a total of 306,639, without the regular army, to which must be added 1 15,000 Hindoos, and the above-mentioned colonial troops. The European garrisons in the colonies (with the exception of India) have been con- siderably decreased of late years, so that the independent colonies have learnt the duty of self-defence, and not to rely entirely upon the help of the mother country. The army was increased by 20,000 men in conse- quence of the Franco-German War. By the Act of Parliament passed m accordance with the proposal of the Ministry in March, 187 1, the forces were to be so far increased that the standing army should consist of 136,047 men, the Militia of 139,000, the Yeomanry of 14,000, the ist Army Reserve of 9,000, the 2nd of 30,000, and the Volunteers of 170,000, altogether 498,000 men. Fortresses. Portsmouth, Plymouth, Falmouth, Yarmouth, Tilbury, the Casdes of Dover, Dumbarton, and Edinburgh ; in the North Sea, Heligoland. The coast has been lately considerably fortified at great expense. Historical War Notes. The standing army in 1715 was somewhat more than 16,000 men. 70 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 9,000 of whom were at home; expenditure ;^556,ooo. The seven years' war, the North American, and the later wars demanded an increase of the army. At the beginning of the Great Wars in 1792, there were from 60,000 to 70,000 men, 20,000 of whom were sent to Holland. In 1794 the army was increased by another 30,000. In 1807 the total number of men was 182,876, of whom 60,000 were ordered on foreign expeditions. In 181 1 this (at that time) thinly populated land contained 140000 ... ... ... ••• ••• sailors and seamen 237,000 83,000 288,000 65,000 813,000 ... troops of the line ... regular militia ... common militia ... yeomanry Total land and sea forces. The effective standing army in 1833, exclusive of the Indian troops, consisted of 1 10,700 men. In 1834 of 88,950 men. In the Crimean cam- paign the development was gradual. In 1853-54, 102,283 men. In 1854-55, 112,977, and in 1855-56, 178,645. According to the scheme of the Budget for 1856-57, the land forces were to be increased to 246,716 men. In the meantime, however, the war ended. A report of 1856 estimated The standing army, including the troops in India, at 275,000 men Militia called out 127,000 „ Volunteers 14,000 „ Indian Army 250,000 „ Total Land Force 670,000 According to an official announcement there were during the 22 years war against France, 19,796 men killed (a yearly average of 899, of whom 196 were in the navy), and 79,709 wounded, (yearly average 3,623, of whom 472 were in the navy). The number of missing is not given. The British loss in these sanguinary wars was 1171 388 501 670 killed, 5892 wounded at Waterloo 714 >> at Salamanca 2807 » at Vittoria 3406 M at Talavera On Sea. 449 218 254 killed, 1 2 14 wounded at Trafalgar 677 ,, at the Nile 689 „ at Copenhagen More deadly than the enemy's weapons were the fatigue, want, and privation to which the men were exposed. During the 41 months of the Spanish war 24,930 soldiers died of disease, and only 8,999 M >i of wounds. Of the 39,219 who fell in the Walcheren expedition in 1809, only 217 died of wounds received. In four months from August to December, 4175 died of disease. In the Crimean campaign there was a combination of evils acting against the army — bloody battles, foreign climate, and bad Commissariat. Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. 71 At one time, of 63 regiments 12,000 strong, and with an increase of 300, only 30 fell in battle. In February, 6 only died before the enemy, while 1407 died of disease, and 660 in the hospitals on the Bosphorus. Sub- sequently the Commissariat so improved, that the British soldier was better off than the French, and fewer died on the field than in the barracks at home. The English forces sent to the East numbered originally 55,530 men, with 27,321 sent out September 9th, 1855, making 82,851. On a certain day the effective strength had sunk to 50,271. There had fallen in battle or died of disease 21,682, invalided, 11,374. The French physician, Dr. Cheun, reckoned the total number of land troops sent to the East to be 97,684, of whom 22,182 died of wounds, 4,602 (245 of these were officers), of disease, 17,580 (4513 by cholera, 963 frozen). Beside the number of soldiers, there was the Fleet in the Black Sea, containing 37,000 men, besides those subsequently sent out. In the two years of 1854-55, 2,029 deaths occurred, of which only 227 were in battle, 228 of accidental wounds and suicide, 1547 of disease. On the mortality in modern times see 6th division of this work, " Mortality among Soldiers." It must here be remarked that the climate in India since the beginning of this century has caused the death of 180,000 soldiers. This, in a financial point of view is a very serious loss, for each man up to the point of landing in India costs ;!^ioo. Marine Power. During the last twenty-five years no expense has been spared for the re-organization of the war marine, especially in the formation of an iron fleet. Enormous sums have been expended on a single ship. The Black Prince cost ^^378, 310; the Minotaur, ;^478,885 ; the Achilles, ;i^47o,23o. This last, according to another statement, with the furnishing, cost ;^45o,ooo. The unsui.ability of this new system was soon acknow- ledged, for the Warrior, which was one of the dearest of this class of vessels (it cost ^379,154), was shortly after its completion declared to be useless. Of course such an expenditure received a check, and in 1865 the Fleet was reduced. After a considerable period of doubt as to the relative merits of the broadside and turret ship, the latter was finally adopted as the vessel of the future. The first was built in 1863, and now more than one-fourth of the English war marine is of this build. The type of vessels represented by the Royal Sovereign — the Prince Albert and several others — was also given up in favour of mastless vessels. The Devastation and the Thunderer may serve as examples. They have a strong iron frame, inside of which are raised the two turrets, each with two cannons of 30 tons, carrying projectiles of 600 lbs. weight. The iron sides of the vessels are about 3 feet thick ; the capacity not over 4,400 tons ; whilst that of the Minotaur was 6,000 tons. The cost of each was about ;^29o,ooo, and 250 hands are quite sufficient to man them, whereas in the great broadsides 650 were necessary. In 1873 the British war marine consisted of 11 squadrons of 263 ships, of which 114 were men-of-war. Of these 114, there were 23 iron frigates (that is 12 more than either of the three next largest war marines possess), 31 corvettes, and 60 cutters and gun-boats. To the first reserve belong 9 iron frigates, 43 training-ships, transports and provision vessels. 73 Great Britain and Ireland — Land and People. The Navy List at the end of 1873 gave 54 steamships, of 304,033 tons, and 200,514 horse-power, with 721 guns; 307 wooden steamers, of 468,000 tons, and 318,316 horse-power, and 2,516 guns; and 55 sailing vessels, of 50,000 tons, and 300 guns. In March, 1877, the British War Marine consisted of 123 vessels, of which 4 were ironclad ships of the Line ; 13 ironclad frigates and corvettes ; 30 other frigates and corvettes ; 65 steam sloops ; and 1 1 sailing vessels of the same class. Reckoning the reserve and training ships, the Fleet consists of 248 vessels. 51 were being built of which lo were ironclads, 6 corvettes, 6 sloops, 2 packet boats, and 2 1 gun-boats. Among the iron- clads were 30 broadsides, with 427 guns and 14,499 men ; 13 turrets, with 49 guns and 2,394 men. The production of the 20 largest ironclads cost ^^£'6,157,214. For repairing of the same, up to 1876, another sum of ^i,o']6,42j was spent. The Warrior cost ;^379, 154, and a further sum of ^£^133,104 for repairing. The Black Prince cost ^^378, 3 lo, and ^95,160 for repairing; the Achilles, ^^470, 230, and ^117,028; the Agincourt, ^^483, 076, and ^69,653 ; the Northumberland, ^490,681, and ^45,189 ; the Minotaur cost ^478,885, and ^72,559 for repairing. Comparing the present strength of the British marine with that in the time of Napoleon L, one must not over estimate the reduction in number. In 1809, the year in which the navy^ was greatest — there were 984 cruisers, 77 transport and harbour vessels, with 140,000 sailors. At present the number of the ships is less, but a second-class modern frigate, or an ironclad, has a great advantage over a former " three-decker." The old sailing vessels of 74 guns, which formerly constituted the greater part of ships of the line, were not equal to our frigates of 32 guns, nor was the metal weight of the shot to be compared with that which modern science has put into the hands of our gunners. The average weight of the ball in Napoleon's time was i6-i-lbs., but in 1859 the average weight was 381bs. The Ariadne, a third-class frigate, carries 300 tons more than Nelson's ship. Victory, did. It mounts 26 guns only, but they are 68 and 94-pounders. Towards the end of the great war our largest ship was 1,000 tons, and fired a broadside of 3oolbs. to 4oolbs. of metal against the enemy. Its cost was ^1^36,000. Both ships and guns are now constructed to carry much heavier metal. The number of hands on the old system was — For ships of the line of no guns ... 950 men „ „ „ „ of 80 guns ... 750 men „ ,, ,, ,, of 70 guns ... 620 men ,, frigates ... of 50 guns ... 450 men ,, ,, ... of 30 guns ... 300 men In the battle of Trafalgar, the greatest sea fight on record, the English had 27 ships with 2,196 guns, opposed to which were 18 French ships with 1,352 guns, and 15 Spanish with 1,222, altogether 33 ships and 2,574 guns. Only 14 of these allied vessels escaped without damage, and many of them became complete wrecks. During the Russian war, there were on the ist of January, 1856, in active service 325 vessels, with 6,231 gims, and 63,335 sailors. SOCIAL. PROFESSIONS, COMMERCE AND TRADE. a — General Remarks. HE Census of 185 1, 1861, and 187 1 give the following classification of the population. Endand. Classes 1 Professional 2 Domestics.. 3 Commercial 4 Agricultural 5 Industrial... 6 Indefinite... I85I I86I 376,434 481,957 10,010,343 11,426,720 528,599 623,710 2,084,153 4,143,293 784,787 2,010,454 4,828,399 694,984 1871 684,102 5,905,171 815,424 1,657,138 5,137,725 8,512,706 Ireland. 1 Landed Proprietors 2 Agriculturists 3 Commercial 4 Learned Professions 5 Other Liberal Professions 6 Occupied in Teaching 7 In Civil Service ... 8 Military and Naval Service 9 Various means of livelihood 10 Without definite occupation Scotland. I85I 186 42,001 52, 515 1,731,279 1,734, 295 14,756 84, .338 388,203 378, 609 543,662 694, 074 108,841 118, 463 j86i 8,412 969,636 815,356 11,695 1,066 19,346 20,564 30,328 829,183 3,092,630 Total 5,798,216 [Note — If you take 24,000,000 or § of the population as the labouring classes, 11,509,000 constitutes a good proportion of earners. Divide the earnings among 4,800,000 families each of five persons, the amount per family will be £()\ per annum In no other country are the wages more liberal, and in none other are they more wastefuUy used than in the United Kingdom. — Leoni Levi.] Local Service Colonial Service ... 93>793 ... 42,698 Musicians . 18,861 Actors • 7,324 Teachers . 127,140 Others . 6,192 74 Great Britain a?td Ireland — Social. These classifications are somewhat peculiar. We will first analyze those of 187 1 in England. The 1st or Professional Class. This embraces — Offices and appointments of the Crown from the Queen and Her Court ; members of both Houses of Parliament, down to the mes- sengers and workmen. 106,286 offices and appointments of the Crown 53,874 of whom are in the service of the State 974 » » Army Navy Clergy 44,5^2 Lawyers ... ... 37,327 Doctors, Chemists, &c. 44,214 Authors and Students 139,143 Artists 16,562 The 2nd, or Domestic Class. 4,271,657 women occupied in their households, or helping the men in business. 1,633,514 women in domestic service. The jrd, or Commercial Class. 287,164 occupied in buying and selling 528,260 ,, in transport or conveyance 84,900 ,, on railways 124,786 ,, in street traffic 33,240 „ on rivers and canals 141,403 ,, on sea The 4th, or Agricultural Class. i,559>°37 occupied in cultivation of the land 98,101 ,, in breeding and keeping cattle The sth, or Industrial Class, Occupied in artistic and mechanical production, by which materials ol various kinds are worked up, are 1,444,571, including 74,441 occupied in binding, etc., of books 26,720 ,J makmg watches and scient 15,619 >» „ weapons 174,704 >• „ machines 55,790 ,, „ carriages 45,164 ,» shipbuilding 593,252 J, as bricklayers and carpenters 71,006 », painters, grainers, etc. 29,927 >> in chemicals * Local police included. Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 75 Occupied in textile fabrics and dress material, 2,150,791, including 253-490 82,053 562,015 116,913 1,115-247 21,073 woollen factories silk „ cotton „ mixed stuffs,, clothing ,, factories for working up hemp Occupied with food and drinks, 464,051, including 56,351 „ in fat, bones, feathers, brass, etc. Occupied in vegetable substances, 165,340, including 81,239 ,, wood 39,989 „ paper 1,156,621 workers in minerals, includifig 376,783 68,862 „ as miners coal salesmen 152,673 52,620 occupied ^\ J? ith stone and clay earthenware 20,284 2,861 >> >> glass salt 3,347 j» water 27-139 5> precious metals & precious stones 5-758 26,119 copper tin and quicksilver 1,728 >J zinc 3,727 54,366 lead and antimony brass and other mixed metals 360,356 5» iron and steel The 6th Class, without Defined Occupation. 802,303 occupied in no definite work, including 168,895 persons of rank and profession. Scholars and children without productive occupation 7-541,508. In Class Females Over 20 years of age Males Males Females 486,118 197,984 380.503 100,107 244,728 5.660,443 200,220 4-915,650 758,187 57,237 602,649 48,737 1,470,442 186,696 1.166,534 133-925 3-615-727 1,521,998 2,896,297 1,094,429 4,483,732 4,028,974 619,965 170,797 In all branches of industry freedom is the basis of action. Free trade in all. There are still some very high finance duties upon a few articles not produced at home ; and there is still in operation one of the evil effects of the Norman invasion, acting upon the inheritance of lands in the law of Primogeniture, both in England and Scotland. Agriculture is as a rule, flourishing, yet its results are not nearly so brilliant as those of the industries. 76 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. Great Britain needs enormous supplies of corn every year, and since the repeal of the Corn Laws the supplies have considerably increased. Previous to this (1846), an importation of 2,000,000 quarters was looked upon as very large. In .1835 '■'^^ import of wheat was only 46,530 qrs^and 84,684 cwt. of meal. Since then the imports have increased^To an amount that It "was formerly thought the whole world could not have produced. In 1843 there were imported 1,433,891 quarters. M .1847 ■ „ „ „ 11,912,864 „ . » 1848 „ „ „ 7,528,472 „ According to the present method of charging duty on cwts. (2^4?^ make I qr.). The imports of Corn and Flour have been as follows: ■TW(5 Total worth of Imported Corn and Flour. ;^I7, 508,700 23.039-422 19.380,567 20,164,81 1 18,044,203 31,676,353 34,922,095 37,774,148 25-956,520 19,882,181 20,725,483 30,049,655 41,368,349 39,432,624 37,351,089 34,170,221 42,691,464 51,228,816 51,737,811 51,070,202 53,086,691 51,812,428 Value ;^33,58o,9So 39,171,600 30,156,813 For the last five years the annual average consumption has been 23,681,000 quarters. Taking an annual average of the last 12 years, 11,583,000 quarters has l)cen the home produce available for consumption. 10,842,000 cjuarters has been the quantity imported. 22,425,000 quarters has been the total available for consumption, and 53^. ()d. has been the average price per quarter. Year Cwts. Price I s. er Qr d. 185I ... 23,161,718 38 6 1852 18,092,627 40 9 1853 - 27,077,079 53 3 1854 ... 19,426,781 72 5 1855 - 13,940,322 74 8 1856 ... 22,611,568 69 2 1857 ... 17,620,499 56 4 1858 ... 23,200,941 44 2 1859 ... 21,497,734 43 9 i860 31,841,926 53 4 1861 37,646,705 55 4 1862 ... 50,042,394 55 5 1863 ... 30,887,892 44 9 1864 28,837,203 40 2 1865 .. 25,843,552 41 10 1866 29,371,670 49 II 1867 ... 39,136,780 64 5 1868 ... 36,506,045 63 9 1869 44,447,772 48 2 1870 36,906,115 46 10 J-87X ... 44,362,227 56 8 1872 47,612,896 57 1873 ... 51,631,197 58 8 1874 ... 49,322,693 55 9 1875 ... 59,546,621 45 2 i8x6^ ... 51,904,433 46 2 Corn. From July i to Quarters Price June 30 Imported Per Qi larter 1876-77 12,156,000 55 3 1877-78 14,508,000 54 1878-79 14,417,600 41 10 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 77 It is shewn that Great Britain expends annually from ^^35, 000,000 to ;^5o,ooo,ooo for bread stuffs imported from foreign lands. Yet, strange to say,*the wealth which the industries of the country produce is infinitely greater than if all the working power were expended on producing bread stuffs alone. The principle of self-government tends greatly to the agricultural de- velopment of the country. Notwithstanding the concentration of landed property in the hands of a few noble families (which preponderance is not lessened by constant marriages between nobles and commoners, or by their successors occupying a lower status), the well-being of the English people has risen higher than that of any other nation, and for the most part among the masses where the aristocratic element is lacking. Macaulay has pointed out the direction in which the improvement of the people's condition has taken place, deduced from a survey spread over a certain number of years. It is well known how much better the artisan lives in England than on the Continent. It is specially seen in the increase of the average length of life, the correct estimate of which in individuals may be doubtful, but never when taken in the mass. According to Quetelet, in the year 1700 there was an annual mortality among the artisans in England of i in 43, and in 1840 of i only in every 5 1 of the population. It is seen further in the great consumption of animal food. Even 20 years ago the average yearly consumption of meat for each indi- vidual of the population in England was 136 lbs., while in France at the same time it was 39! lbs., in Prussia 35^, in Baden 5oi. It is seen also in the consumption of the most important articles of colonial produce, the yearly consumption of which may be seen in the following table : — Year Sugar Per Tea Per Coffee Per cwts. Head lbs. Head lbs. Head 1801-IO. 2,465,319 23,508,300 2,270,500 181I-20. 2,552,767 24,424,700 7,518,800 1821-30. 3,350,038 ... 28,497,100 14,163,600 1831-40. 3>788,5i7 36,441,700 24,952,700 1841-50. 5-176,133 44,287,900 32,953,100 1851-60. 7,790,546 65,160,456 35,196,642 1861. 9,180,980 35-49 77,927,750 2.69 35,202,040 I. 21 1862. 9,379,818 35-97 78,793,977 2.70 34.451,766 1. 18 1863. 9,452,681 35-96 85,183,283 2.90 32.762 995 I. II 1864. 9.736,657 41.83 88.599,235 3.00 3i>36o.45o 1.06 1865. 10,603,526 39-78 97,834,600 3-29 30,505»972 1.02 1866. 11,065,239 41.41 102,265,531 3-42 30,630,236 1.02 1867. 12,092,715 43-19 110,988,209 3-68 31,282 023 1.04 1868. 12,219,966 42. I 106,815,262 3-52 30.356,818 1. 00 1869. 12,471,914 42.58 111,796,491 3-63 28,839,100 0.94 1870. 12,855,599 47-23 1^7,551,152 3.81 30,230,572 0.98 1871. 13,745,943 46.80 123,401,889 3-92 30,602,023 0.97 1872. 15,085,384 48.17 227,661,360 4.01 31.173.555 0.98 1873- 15,991,882 51-59 129,963,681 4. 1 1 28,903.391 0.99 1874. 15,964,108 56-37 131,424,315 4-23 26,415,603 0.96 1875- 18,743,518 62.85 165,278,618 4-44 32,776,001 0.98 1876. 18,907,069 64-95 149,104,194 4-50 32,894,400 0.99 1877. 20,349.058 64.96 151,114,886 4-52 32,286,016 0.96 yS Great Britain and Ireland — Social. From the year 1800 to 1844 the quantity of sugar per head of the popu- lation remained ahuost stationary, with now and then a slight decrease, but in the period between 1845 ^'""i ^^54 ^^^ quantity per head was doubled. In the first 14 years of the century (a period of continual warfare) the amount was 18 lbs. 7 ozs. per head, and in the next 30 years (years of peace), it was 17 lbs. 3 ozs. We see in this the exhaustion or poverty caused by the previous war. In the 5 years from 1815-19 it sank to 23- lbs. In 1830-31 the consumption rose to 19 lbs., fell again in the 10 years from 1835-45 to 17 and 18 lbs. (in 1840 to 15 lbs.), caused by the increased price of sugar, and then as a consequence of lowering both the price and the duty, the consumption increased to 19J lbs. per head in 1845. From 1844 to 1854 Sugar was 44 per cent, cheaper, and the consumption rose to 32^ lbs. In 1855, owing to the Crimean war, the duty was increased, and as a consequence the consumption lowered to 29J lbs., and in 1856 to 27;^^ lbs. The duty having been reduced in 1864 on an average to \os. per cwt., the consumption in 1865 went up to 3978 lbs., and in 1866 to 41 "21 lbs. In In 1867, 43'i9 lbs., and in 1868, 42"oi lbs. In 1869, 42-56 lbs. In 1870, 47-23. In 1871 46-80. In 1872 47-37. In 1873 51.59. 1^187456.37. In 1875 62.85. I^ 1S76 58"95 lbs. In New South Wales, in the period of successful gold finding, the consumption of Sugar was 52 lbs., and in Victoria 64 lbs. per head, and in the extravagant period 1852-54, over 1 cwt. per head of the population. The consumption of Coffee reached its culminating point in 1854 with i^ lb. per head, since when it has gradually decreased, till in 1869 it was only 0-94 lb. per head, although the duty remained at 3^. per lb., and the price fell. The consumption of Tea on the contrary rose, although the war had some effect upon it. In 1801 it was ilb. 8 ozs. per head. In 1842 1.22. From this time forward a steady progress took place. In 1869 it was 3.63 lbs., 18703-81, 18713-92, 18724-01, 1873 4-11, 18744-23, 18754-44, 1876 4-50 lbs. In 1862 the duty was \s. t,d. per lb. In 1866 it was only 6d. The effect upon the Custom receipts was a fall from ;2^5,5i6,584 in 1862, to ^2,599,8r7 in 1866, and it was not until 1872 that they again rose to ^3,079,284, in 1873 to ^3,191,981, and in 1876 to ^3.706,831. In the Colony of Victoria the consumption per head was 7^ lbs. From 1846 the imports of the following articles have increased — Year Butter— cwts. Cheese— cwts. Eggs. 1846 257,385 • 341,682 72,252,159 1854 482,514 388,714 121,946,801 i860 840,112 583,283 167,695,400 1865 1,083,717 853,277 364,013,040 1869 1,259,089 979,189 442,172,640 1870 1,159,210 1,041,281 430,842,240 187I 1,334,783 1,216,400 400,473,000 1872 1,138,081 1,057,883 531,591,720 1873 1,279,566 1,356,728 660,474,000 1874 1,619,808 1,485,265 680,552,280 1875 1,467,870 1,627,748 741,223,560 1876 1,659,492 1,531,204 753,026,040 1877 1,637,403 1,653,920 751,185,600 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 79 The consumption of Wine up to the Treaty with France remained stationary, but after this it rose gradually to a much higher figure. For home use there was duty paid in : — Gallons Gallons 1846 on 6,740,316 1868 15,064,575 i860 6,718,585 1S71 16,144,838 I86I 10,693,071 1S73 17,905,129 1864 11,397,764 1875 17,243,942 186=^ 11,993,760 1876 18,536,336 IS66 13,244,864 1877 17,565,475 IS67 on 13,673,793 Subjoined is a table of the consumption of various imported articles per head of the population, the first nine being given in lbs., and the three last in gallons : — Sugar Tea... Coffee Cocoa Butter Corn Potatoes Rice Tobacco Wine Foreign Spirits British Spirits 15-20 I'22 I -08 o-o8 1.05 42-47 O'OI o'9o 0-86 0-25 o'i4 0-83 1850 2479 i860 1867 1870 1872 1874 X875 1877 33"ii 43'i9 47"23 47*37 5577 62-85 64-96 1.86 2-67 3-68 3-8i 4-01 4-23 4 '44 4-52 1-13 1.23 1-04 0-94 0.97 0-96 0-98 096 o"ii O'll 0-14 0-20 0-24 0-27 0-30 0-30 1-30 3-26 4-19 4-15 3'9o 5-51 4-92 5-34 8176 118-86 141-06 122-90 162-86 162-11 197-08 203-26 5-48 2-18 S'lo 2-80 21-06 1377 16-05 2663 1-63 I -41 5-85 6-74 1370 10-18 11-68 12-79 I'OO 1-22 1-35 I '34 1-37 1-44 1-46 1-49 0-23 0-23 0-45 0-49 0-53 0-53 0-53 0-53 0-I7 0-19 0-28 0-27 0-29 0-33 0-36 0-32 0-88 0-74 0.71 0-74 0-86 0-94 0-94 0-9I Year 1861 1865 1870 1875 1876 1877 1878 The Condition of the Old Savings' Banks. Computed Capital at the end of each year. England Wales Scotland Ireland Total ^35,818,199 ;^i, 037,309 ^^2,537,963 ;^2,i53,oo4 ^41,546,475 33,052,171 997,091 2,859,377 1,836.659 38,745,298 31,038,029 1,029,468 3,828,294 2,062,758 37,958,549 33,751,781 1,301,103 5,286,345 2,068,540 42,407,769 33,144,185 1,286,715 5,310,872 2,050,018 43,283,458 34,750,747 1,189,254 6,026,802 2,271,883 44,238,686 34,174,300 1,150,388 6,178,534 2,219,596 43,722,818 The number of depositors in 1830 was only 412,217, but had risen in 1858 to 1,479,723. It decreased in 1867, for reasons mentioned below, to 1,385,782, and in 1870 to 1,098,949. Depositors under £^\ From £\ „ 5 » 5 » 40 „ 40 „ 100 „ 100 „ 200 „ 200 & upwards 1859 IS67 1870 213,473 263,581 224,568 294,739 257,434 192,347 690,551 569,850 430,462 201,992 184,946 152,096 77,316 80,110 73,727 1,652 2,308 2,642 8o Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 1877 — Interest paid and credited to trustees, 1,380,165 13X. The decrease is but an apparent and not a real one. Since i6th September, 1861, a new system of organization has commenced in the principles of savings' banks. All post offices, and these were 4,082 in number at the end of 1870, are authorised to accept savings from \s. to ^30 annually, until the amount reaches ;^2oo. Interest paid on the deposits is 2^2 per cent. The arrangements permit of the return of the deposits on any day a depositor may desire it. The deposits in the Post Office Savings' Banks at the end of each year for the United Kingdom were as under : — 1864 ^4,993,124 1866 8,121,175 1868 11,666,655 1870 ... ... ... ... ... 15,099,104 1872 i9»3i8,339 1874 ... 23,157,469 1875 25,187,345 1876 ... ... ... ... ... 26,996,550 1877 28,740,757 In the year 1877 interest accrued on sureties, standing to the credit of the Post Office Savings' Banks Fund, was ;^9o8,44i, i2i-. Interest paid and credited to depositors, ^^619, 331, loj. id. After expenses, &c., the excess of interest was ^126,2"]^, i^s. iid., making the sum on the other side ^908,441, i2S. The cost of management from 1861 to 1870 was ^^455,389. In the year 1870 alone ^2,135,998 were deposited, and ^787,172 returned, and the cost of management for the year ^67,945. There are special savings' banks for soldiers. In the year 1869 and 1870 ^16,462 were deposited. Capital, ;^3i 7,685. Special savings' banks also for sailors. In 1869 and 1870 sailors of the Royal Navy deposited ... ^£^2,12,6 ,, „ ,, Mercantile Marine deposited 59.139 Besides these savings' banks there are a multitude of other institutions which receive from id. to 2s. dd. There are Friendly Societies and clubs for help in sickness, in old age, and in case of death. In the year 1859 there were in England 28,550, Scotland 700, Ireland 400, such institutions. The number of members was over two millions, and the amount of pro{)erty over nine millions. At the end of 1876 there were in England and Wales 3,404,187 members, and the total amount of funds ^9,336,948. In 1878 an attempt was made to ascertain what classes of persons principally use the Post Office Savings' Banks, and the following is the result : — Out of 11,260 accounts which were examined, it was found that — 1,664 depositors were female servants, with balances averaging yQi^ 1,279 ,, of no occupation „ „ „ 13 1,236 ,, were artisans ,, ,, „ 15 1,186 „ between the age of 7 &: 21, „ „ „ 7 397 ,. under 7 years of age „ „ „ 5 Great Britain and Ireland — Social, 8i 1,136 dt ^positors were .. married women .. . with balances averaging;^ 2 1 405 ...unmarried women.. »> It 16 675 clerks 11 It t 1 1 579 laborers ,, ,, , 21 857 tradesmen n )) 16 297 ... male servants ... 75 5) , 22 227 ... public ofificials ... 5? )» 40 225 soldiers and sailors 5» )) 18 222 . . . professional men . . . )5 )) 20 187 milliners tt »' „ II Associations. W On the 6th of x^pril, 1874, there were, as reported at the ongress of Halifax, 746, with 300,587 members. At the end of 1872 the Funded capital was ;^2, 784,000 Paid out 10,175,000 Received 11,379,000 These figures shew a clear gain of ... ... ... ;j^8o7,748 The increased tvell-bein^ of the people is indicated by the following acts : — Property subject to taxation in Great Britain \ (exclusive of Ireland) was, in the years 1842 [^192^ millions and 1S43 admitted to be '' In the years 1862 and 1863 300 -f^^ ,_, 1868, including Ireland 430 -^^^ ,, 1871 „ „ 465 T% 1874 543 TfKJ 1875 571 f??0 M 1876 579 To% tt 1877 570 TOO tt The increase of property is nearly 300 per cent. The tonnage dues have, since the beginning of the century, tripled — the import was not ^th of its present amount, and the export of home productions (1875) have increased in value from ^33,000,000 to ^223,500,000. The iron produce, which, from 180I to 1810, averaged 258,000 tons, reached, from 1840-1850, 1,700,000 tons, and in 1862 3,943,469 tons. In 1867, 4,761,023 ; in 1S70, 1875 ''ind 1877 the average was 6,294,991 tons. Although these facts shew much, they do not shew all. It is quite true that the well being of the nation, on the whole, is greatly enhanced, and in many directions ; but there are now, as in earlier times, whole classes of the population in a state of abject misery and ignorance, and this, in a land wlicrc the Protestant Church possesses power and wealth, far ex- ceeding that of the Romish Church in Spain. The salaries of the English Bishops range from ;^2,ooo to ^15,000. Condition of Ireland. Ireland forms m a remarkable manner, the dark side of the United F 82 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. Kingdom. She has been much impoverished by the non-residence of her nobles and landowners, by the forced imposition of the Protestant Church, and by her own Catholic clergy keeping the idle, dirty, and beggmg popu- lation in a state of ignorance. She sends out an enormous mass of emigrants. Up to the middle of the year 1840 the population greatly increased ; then, however, began a serious decrease ; for example, — 1841-51 1851-61 In Province of Leinster 15*5 i3'94 „ „ „ Muaster 22.47 '9°^ „ Ulster 15-69 5-04 „ „ „ Connaught 28-81 9-77 1801-71 8-35 per cent, of the population. 0-14 ,j )' " 4'3"^ " " " 7'35 " " " In the whole island 1985 1202 6-83 In the following years the number of families were — 1841, 1,472,787 ; 1851, 1,204,319; 1861, 1,128,3505 1871, 1,07 1,494; showing a decrease- In 1841-51 of 18-23 per cent. 1851-61 1861-71 6*24 5" The number of inhabited houses also decreased in the first of these periods 21-27. In the second 5-06, and in the third 4-05. The decrease, however, occurred mostly in the wretched hovels, while those that remained were much improved (see Commissioners' Report for Ireland, 1868)*. The number of Irish emigrants and the sum of money sent by them to friends left behind to enable them to follow is thus computed- Year Number of Money | Year Number of Money Emigrants remitted Emigrants remitted 1847 220,000 £ i86n 1848 181,000 460,000 1862 1849 219,000 540,000 1863 1850 214,000 957,000 1864 1851 254,000 990,000 1865 ^ Annual No Return 1852 225,000 1,404,000 1866 Average, since 1853 329,937 1,439,000 1867 81,358 i860 1854 150,209 1,730,000 1868 1855 78,854 873,000 1869 1856 90,781 951,000 1870J 1857 95,081 593,165 187I 71,240 1858 68,093 472,610 1872 78,102 1859 84,599 621,176 1873 90,149 i860 60,635 643,645 1874 1875 1876 1877^ 18781 73,^84 51,462 37,587 * 38,503 41,628 • 1874-75. ^'■"= Legislature enabled the 'I'reasury to grant loans for the purpose of improving the dwellings of the labouring classes in Ireland. * Ot rhisnumlier 18,6+8 went to Great Britain. t In 1877 the proportion was 7-1 per loco oi' th.- population, while for the 24 previous years it was i6"0 per 1000, Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 83 Another indication of the poor condition of the population is that, according to the census of 1851, in many small towns, there were more inside the workhouses than outside. In Listowel there were twice as many inside as out. Since the middle of i860 there has been an appearance of better things. The terrible number of ejectments of small householders which occurred in earlier times, and which, in 1850, was 74,1 7 1» fell to 8,989 in 1854, 4,972 in 1862, 311 in 1869, and 444 in 1870.^ In 1877-78 rents were well paid up. Emigration decreased at the same time. In 1856 1800 Irish emigrants returned to their homes in Ireland. The number of poor, which had decreased, began to increase rapidly after i860. It followed upon the removal of the inalienability of the land, and with it the possibility of the builders on the land becoming freeholders. The Landlord and Tenant Act of 1870 secured the tenant against arbitrary ejectment by the landlord. From 1841-50 lands under cultivation rose from 13,464,300 acres to 14,802,581 acres. In 1874, 15,752,000 acres; in 1875 there was a total increase over 1874 in the extent of land under crops of 62,651 acres. Great improvements are taking place in the breeds and value of live stock of every description. The value of the live stock rose from 21 millions in 1841 to 33^ millions in 1865, to 36 millions in 1867, to 38;^ in 1874, and 37f millions in 1875. Wages were higher; often laborers were not to be had, and the prisons, which had hitherto been too small for the prisoners, were now nearly empty. Nevertheless, in consequence of the inferior culti- vation of the land the production decreased. According to Mr. Richard Griffiths, in 1864, 6,290,000 acres were uncultivated, 3,755,000 of which were capable of cultivation. The money value of the produce of the land, from 1856 to 1859, averaged ^^39,437, 000 ; but in i860 and 1 86 1, according to Mr. Whiteside, it fell to ;^34,896,ooo ; in 1S61-62 it fell again to ^^29,077, 000 ; and in the following year, 1862-63, it fell to ^27,327,000. In 1S63 there were 144,719 less acres under corn crops than in the previous year, and 19,358 acres less of root crops. The meadow and flax lands had equally decreased. On the other hand, cattle, sheep, and especially pigs, greatly increased. In 1872 there were 1,800,273 acres of corn and green crops, and in 1873 1,838,248 acres; 1874, 1,906,679 ; in 1875 i,943>923» ^"d in 1877 1,925,168. Increase in cereal crops in 1875 was 14,623 acres. At the same time the fallow land had increased from 10,241,513 acres to 10,420,695; cattle, from 4,057,153 to 4,151,561; and sheep, from 4,262,117 to 4,486,453 ; whereas pigs had decreased ixoxa. 1,385,386 to 1,044,218. In Ireland 955 persons possess 29,743,402 acres, which is 5,703,415 more than one-third of the entire reported extent of the United Kingdom, exclusive of the metropolis. N uiiiher of PoorV Number of paupers in receipt of relief in unions and parishes in England, Wales and Scotland, and in unions in Ireland : — Year England & Wales Scotland Ireland Total 1866 920,344 76,229 65,057 1,061,630 1867 958,824 76,737 68,650 1,104,211 1868 1,034,823 80,032 72,925 1,187,780 84 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. Year England & Wales Scotland Ireland Total 1869 1.039,549 80,334 74,745 1,194,628 1870 1,079,391 79,290 73,921 1,232,602 1871 1,081,926 77,759 74,692 1 234,377 18^2 977,664 74,752 75,343 1,127,759 1873 890,372 71,537 79,649 1,041,558 1874 829,281 68,438 79,633 977,352 1875 815,587 65,661 80,993 962,241 18^6^- 749,593 63,362 77,913 890,868 1877 728,350 62,058 78,528 868,936 1878 742,703 61,156 84,202 888,061 On January i, 1S79, th ire was a total of 805,232 paupers. This gives the proportion of paupers as 1 in 28, or 3*5 per cent, of the population. Money Expend? D FOR THE Relief of the Poor. United Kin gdom. Year England & Wales Scotland Ireland Total 1866 ^^9,989,121 ^1783,127 ^726,340 ^11,498,588 1867 10,905,173 807,631 797,^34 12,509,938 1868 11,380,593 863,202 841,512 13,085,307 1869 11,773,999 931,275 836,553 13,541,827 1870 11,737,613 905,046 814,445 13,457,104 1871 12,029,741 882,107 821,958 13,733,806 1872 12,381,278 862,171 868,820 14,112,269 1873 12,426,566 873,076 930,694 14,230,336 1874 12,851,007 847,682 977,752 14,676,441 1875 12,694,208 845,306 999,616 14,539,130 1876 12,636,942 847,254 i,ooi„36o 14,485,556 1877 12,998,237 858,907 1,018,497 14,875,641 1878 13,615,297 918,789 1,072,569 15,606,655 The Amount of Income or Revenue. 'J'he results of the collection of the Income Tax point to the manner in which the wealth of the nation is divided. Comparing the lists of 181 2 and 1847, we see the following increase in the rateable industries and trades according to Schedule I). From ;;^ 150 to ;^ 500 ... ... ... Increase 196 per cent. „ 500 „ 1000 „ 148 „ „ ,, 1000 ,, 2000 ... ... ... ,, 148 ,, ,, ,, 2000 ,, 5000 ... ... ... ,, 118 ,, ,, ,, 5000 and over ... ... ... ,, 189 ,, ,, The population had increased about 60 per cent., but the well-being of the population had increased three times that ratio. Somewhat later on the conditions are not quite so favorable. 1 858-59 106 "06 per cent. incTease 1 6-32 ,, ,, decrease 5-63 „ „ increase Incomes l84''-49 to 1B5O-57 lictwecn /:5o and X'oo none 1, 100 150 . none M 150 500 . 7'oo Great Britain arid Ireland — Social, 85 Incomes Between 500 and ;^r, 000 1848-49 to 1856-57 9"56 „ 1,000 „ 2,000 16-43 „ 2,000 „ 5,000 ... 25-11 5.000 „ 10,000 3 1 '44 10,000 „ 50,000 ... 42-44 Over 50,000 ... I42'IO From 1859-67 — Under ^100 .. Between ;!£"ioo and 200 ... „ 200 „ 300 ... II 300 „ 400 ... „ 400 „ 500 .. ... II 500 „ 800 ... II 800 „ 1,000 ... 1, 1,000 „ 2,000 ... „ 2,000 „ 3,000 .. .. II 3>ooo „ 4,000 . ,1 4,000 „ 5,000 ... II 5,000 „ 10,000 . „ 10,000 „ 50,000 . . Over 50,000 .. . 1858-59 5-69 per cent. increase 2-45 3-26 0-62 0. II ,, ,, 7-39 ,, ,) 57-6 5er cent. increase 32-1 ,1 ,j 24-0 ,, ,, 37-3 ,, ,, 40-3 46-5 36-7 44.8 ,, ,» 53-4 ,, ,» 557 >, >> 32-2 631 66-4 21-8 These last shew an unmistakeable increase, 1st, in the incomes under ^100 that is those of small means ; 2nd, in the larger incomes between ;^2,ooo and ;j^4,ooo, and 3rd, in incomes between ^5,000 and ;^5o,ooo, three appearances of like doubtful character. Between 1867 and 1871 incomes between ^100 and ^200 sank into the class under ^100. At the same time the number in the two highest classes above ^10,000 have considerably decreased, while those possessing incomes between ;^2oo and ^10,000 in each individual class have considerably increased. Intellectual and Moral Condition. Education of the People. The Schools on the whole are bad, yet very much more is done for them now than formerly. Previous to 1830 the whole education of the people was left to private industry. In 1833 the Government for the first time secured a contribution for erecting some schools, and in 1839 the " Board of Education " was established, with power to spend upon educa- tion ;^3o,ooo. The Government expenditure for schools increased rapidly from the middle of 1840. In Great Britain (Ireland not included) it was in 1844 ^38,702 1864 ;^655,o36 1847 62,122 1866 649,007 1849 109,948 1869 820,755 1852 188,856 1870 912,451 1854 326,436 1871 1,038,624 1857 559,974 1872 . 1,268,350 i860 724,403 Note — In 1856 Government spent about _^4oo,ooo on education and there was no charge on the rates at all. In 1878 the charge for eilucation on the public taxes was nearly two miUions, and the char on the rates ^i, 100,000. — Sir Stafford Northcoxe. 86 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. Schools under insi)eclion in Great Britain (excluding Ireland) have increased as under : — Year Schools AviT;ij,'e number of Scholars Year Schools Average number of Scholars 1850 2,613 225,389 1865 8,438 1,057,745 1854 3,825 461,445 1868 9,894 1,241,780 1858 6,641 761,027 1870 10,949 1,453,531 i860 7,272 884,234 1871 11,465 1,547,195 1862 7,569 964,849 1872 12,713 1,651,425 1863 7,739 1,008,925 Year Schools Scholars Inspected Year Schools Scholars Inspected 1873 13,954 2,144,710 1876 17,787 2,830,523 1874 15,671 2,487,756 1877 18,118 3,050,897 1875 16,957 2,631,389 1878 19,291 3,383,148 In the following classification of Creeds, 645 Inspected schools, but not receiving Government aid, are not included. England and Wales. Church of England . Dissenters Roman Catholics 1867 Schools Scholars • 5,522 ... 837,068 ... .. 1,204 ... 225,570 ... 296 ... 61,968 .. 1870 Sehools Scholars 6,382 ... 1,096,710 1,549 ... 322,489 350 ... 93,485 Total 7,02; 1,124,606 Scotland. 8,281 1,512,684 Scotch Church ... 1,083 •• 109,209 . 1,251 ... 133,232 Free Church ... ... 496 .. • 55,608 .. 527 ... ^Z,Z^^ Episcopal 72 .. 9,176 .. 90 ... 12,004 Roman Catholic 22 5,175 ■ . 65 ... 13,198 Total 1,67' 179,168 1,933 England and Wales, 1876. In schools connected with National Society or Church o{\^ England ... ... ... ... ... ) Dissenting schools Roman Catholic schools School Board schools Total number of scholars Scotland. In schools connected with Church of Scotland Free Church schools Episcopal schools Roman Catholic schools ... Public schools Total number of scholars 221,745 Scholars 1,779,902 467,246 166,234 491,745 2,905,127 64,134 26,625 11,356 29,486 287,313 416,914 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 87 In Ireland, education makes but slow progress. In 1861 out of 803,364 children, only 262,823 attended the free schools regularly (33 per cent). In 1871, of 1,021,700 children, only 363,850 (36 per cent.) attended regularly. Catholic schools conducted by monks and nuns are not taken into consideration. Of the children taken into the Industrial schools, 53 per cent, can neither read nor write. The number of schools in Ireland rose from 6,586 in 1868 to 6,806 in 1870. Included in this number are 151 convent schools, with 35,193 scholars, and 147 workhouse schools with 8,376 scholars. In 1872 education was made compulsory in England. In every 100 persons married there have been, and still are, many who cannot write their names in the register, as the following tables will show. Period M> .» 33 » 27 ,, ., 32 2 ,, ;> 37 )) Inferior Ofificers. Sailors ... Marines ... Ship boys At the commencement of the year 1874 there were among the soldiers who could not read — in the Household Cavalry „ Cavalry of the Line „ Royal Artillery 5 per cent. 450 „ 1,408 „ 182 „ 8,604 » 39 » 1,414 ,, Foot Guards Infantry of the Line Army Service Corps Army Hospital Corps Colonial Troops 12,102 Total A sign of improving intelligence among the people is the increased use oi paper. The Excise received Duty upon the following number of lbs. of Paper m- 1800 29,266,000 lbs. 1842 96,693,000 „ 1855 i55,657>843 » lbs. 2-28 per head of population. 1858 176,298,997 „ lbs. 6-1 per head of population. 1859 197,684,847 „ i860 207,821,013 „ lbs. 7-2 per head of population. The difference is still greater if we take into consideration the improved quality of the paper at the 'latter compared with the former date. There is considerably more paper used now for industrial purposes than formerl)-. Of the quantity consumed in 1858 — 129,929,067 lbs in England and AVales 39,513,235 „ in Scotland 7,856,695 „ in Ireland Total 176,298,997 lbs. Since i860 the duty on paper has been removed, so that it is no longer possible to obtain so accurate an account, still it is believed that the 350 paper manufactories produce over 300 millions of lbs. annually. Liter aiure. In 1851 there wore 563 public journals. In 1S74 there were 1,185 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 89 public journals, viz., in England 1,229, of which 314 are in London. In Wales 58. In Scotland 149. In Ireland 131". In Channel Islands 18. Of this total, 282 are political newspapers, of which 131 are published daily. In 1877 there were 1,744 published in the United Kingdom— England : London, 336 ; Provinces, 1,106; Wales, ^9 ) Scotland, i-jt,; Ireland, 141 ; the isles, 19. Of these, 1 1 2 are daily papers in England, 3 in Wales, 21 in Scotland, 19 in Ireland, and 3 in the Isles, 24 in London, 72 in the English provinces, 2 in Wales, 13 in Scotland, 18 in Ireland, and 2 in the Channel Islands. The number of monthly and quarterly journals amount to 639, of which 242 are of a religious character. The total number of literary productions In 1869 amounted to ... ••• 5)3^6 In 1872 „ 4.814 In 1873 „ 4,991 Of which 242 were original works imported from America. ... Theological Writings ... Philosophical and Scholastic • ... For the Young Romances ... Relating to Law ... Upon Art and its History ... Upon Commerce and Political Economy ... Travels and Geographical Discoveries ... Histories and Biographies Poems and Dramas ... Year Books and Annuals ... Medicine and Surgery ... Fine Arts and Science Treatises Miscellaneous 770 were 413 > 257 > 834 , 142 , 588 , 159 » 283 , 428 , 329 . 243 . 179 . 199 , 185 , 4,976 There was an increase in printed books exported during the six months ending midsummer, 1877. The value was ^401,124, agamst ^397,274 of previous year. The literary trade is carried on by means of — 377 ... ... ... ... Publishers Booksellers and Stationers Lending Libraries ... News- Agents ... Advertisement Offices ... Printers ... Type Founders Stereotype Foundries ... Literary Institutes Steel and Copper Plate Factories The evidence of the Custom House proves that in 1872, 81,422 cwts. of printed books were exported of ;^883,7i4 value, an mcrease of the 830 66 958 124 ,030 27 26 382 81 90 Great Britain atid Ircla^id — Social previous year of 19,212 cwts. and j[^\(i^,Zi2 in value. In 1874, 84,353 cwts. of printed books weie exported, ;;^904,792 value, an increase upon the former of 2,931 cwts. and ^120,878. On the other hand, the quantity of books imported in 1872 was 14,172 cwts., worth ^149,189, a decrease on the previous year of 335 cwts. and ^9,240. England therefore, in this year exported six times as many books as it imported. In 1874 there was an increase again in the quantity imported, viz., 16,399 cwts., in value ;;^i 78,936, making the quantity of books exported only five times as many as the imported. In 1866 the value of books exported was ;^88 1,836. In 1877 the value of books exported was _;^896,3i9. In 1874 there went to Germany... 1,164 < :wts., worth £ 19,894 >i >» „ Holland 1,203 IJ JJ 21,912 •1 II „ Belgium ... 859 JJ JJ 16,953 » 5> „ France 2,522 JJ JJ 41,622 n >l .. Egypt 252 It JJ 3,854 II >l „ China 184 ji JI 4,083 II 1, „ Japan 254 IJ IJ 3,243 II IJ „ United States 27,889 JI IJ 274,373 11 11 „ Granada 321 JJ JI 4,718 II It „ British Possessions) in South Africa...) 3.428 JJ )j 35,986 i> II „ British India 5,317 JJ JJ 58,510 II II „ Ceylon 379 JJ JI 4j759 It IJ „ Hong Kong 166 II II 3.204 II It „ Australia 27,726 JJ ,1 267,658 II It „ British N. America 7,868 J, JJ 69,127 II JJ „ West Indies 1,298 JJ JJ 14,469 II II „ Other Countries ... 3,513 84,353 JJ :wts. JJ 40,438 ^904,792 Of the books imported into England — France sent to the value of ;j^ 5 7,680 Germany ,j 36,494 Holland ,j , 31,837 Belgium J, 16,254 Spain jj 4,177 Italy 11 1,328 United States of America JJ 17,807 Other Countries .. 11 , 13,359 Total .. ... ... ^i78,936 Administration of yusticc to Criminals. The number of those accused in crime in — Year 1849 T854 i860 1862 1865 England 27,816 29,359 15,999 20,001 19,614 Scotland Ireland - 4,357 • ... 41,989 ... 3,994 . ... 11,788 ... 3,287 . . ... 5,386 3,630 6,666 3,117 4,657 Great Britain and Ireland — Social. 91 Year 1870 1872 1874 1875 1876 1877 England 17,578 14,801 15,195 14,714 16,078 15,890 Ireland 3,046 3,042 2,880 2,872 2,716 2,677 Scotland 4,936 4,476 4,130 4,248 4,146 3,87T In 1876 the number of women among the criminals in England was 3,367, in Scotland 600, in Ireland 751. The number of those condemned to death in the 3 years — In England „ Scotland „ Ireland 1865 20 2 7 1866 3 1867 27 2 4 Taking 1876 as an example for other years the prisoners were thus classified : — Criminals Debtors Soldiers, for violation of Mutiny Act England 124,291 10,598 1,852 136,741 Scotland 26,005 26,577 Ireland 28,480 621 29,428 Of these prisoners, those who could neither read nor write were ... Imperfectly read and write Read and write well Had received a high education Not known 42,564 in England 11,570 „ Scotland 12,161 „ Ireland 76,564 10,601 7,706 England Scotland Ireland 3,710 „ England 2,475 ,» Scotland 8,091 „ Ireland 206 „ England 460 „ Scotland 291 „ Ireland 1,007 231 England Ireland In looking at the number in 1866 set down above as criminals it must not be regarded as comprising actual criminals alone, for it includes many akin to this class, such as those known to the police as dangerous, thieves and their allies, prostitutes and vagabonds. MATERIAL CONDITION. AGRICULTURE, 1876. Total Area expressed in Statute Acres. England Wales Scotland Ireland Total* All kinds of ^ Crops, Bare )■ 24,194,091 2,712,097 4,637,893 15,774,718 48,393j45o Fallow, & Grass) Corn Crops, ^ including > 7,278,286 498,968 1,407,515 1,848,487 11,064,946 Beans & Peas ) Green Crops ... 2,754,803 129,446 689,974 1,363,224 4,960,166 Bare Fallow ... 607,905 25,522 17,785 11,652 663,363 Grass, Clover, "i etc., under \ 2,787,103 360,158 1,393,011 1,861,464 6,441,184 rotation ) Pasture j ^°-^'^^'629 1,697,946 1,129,369 10,507,249 24,033,273 The total number of acres of cultivated land returned in 1874 as under crops, bare fallow and grass, for the whole of the United Kingdom, was 47,143,000 acres, divided thus : - - In Great Britain ... In Ireland In the Isle of Man And in the Channel Islands 31,267,000 acres ... 15,752,000 „ 94,000 „ 36,000 „ Besides this, there were 2,187,000 acres occupied by woods and plantation in Great Britain, and 325,000 in Ireland. The total acreage under cultivation in Great Britain shews a gradual increase year by year. * Including Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 93 Live Stock — 1877. Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs England Wales Scotland Ireland 1,070,208 129,638 188,736 496,165 3.979>65o 18,330,377 616,109 2,862,013 1,102,074 6,968,774 3,996,027 3,989,178 2,114.751 230,729 153,257 1,467.999 Total 1,863,410 9,995,028 32,262,579 3,734,429 Alinin g Industries. In the Parliamentary Reports stated to be — , the productions of mines in 1874 were Coal Iron Copper Lead . 125,043.257 tons, worth ;^ 5,991,408 „ „ 4,981 " 58,777 M 45,849,194 16,476,372 447,891 1,298,463 Tin Zinc 9,942 „ 4,470 „ 1,077,712 106,773 Silver Gold Other Metals 509,277 ounces „ 385 n 127,319 1,540 3,000 Total The following are for 1875 • — ' Produce in Tons Coal 131,867,105 Iron Ore 15,821,060 „ „ 1877 12,014,356 „ 1878 10,747,227 Copper 71,528 Tin 13,995 „ 1877 1,813,541 „ 1878 1,625,586 Lead 77,746 Zinc 23,978 Produce of Foundries. Raw Iron* 6,365,462 Tin 9,614 Copper 4,376 Lead 57,435 Zinc 6,713 Silver, Ciold, and other Metals ... — ^65,388,264 Value ,^46,163,486 5,975,410 16,191,236 16,154,992 333,414 735,606 695,162 663,080 1,202,148 75,110 .^15,645,774 866,266 392,191 1,290,373 162,790 119,352 Trade in Pre do us Metals. In the five years, from 1871-75, gold was imported to the value or ^101,921,384, and exported to the value of ^54,669,109 ; silver imported, 2^63,070,663 ; exported, ^54,669,109 ; there remained at home, therefore, • The imports of pig iron into Belgium rose in the lo years, 1867 to 1877, from 3.000,000 to 184,000,000 kilogrammes, and Belgium refused to repeal the duty of 2^ per cent, which the British Iron Trade Association desired. 94 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. _;^i3, 113,041 worth of gold, and ;^8,4oi,554 worth of silver. The gold sent to Germany exceeded the amount received thence by 7,125,977 ozs., while Germany, since 1874, has sent more silver here than it received from England — 14,115,782 ozs., against 859,080 ozs. Hall-Marking. Parliamentary returns have been issued of the sums received at the goldsmiths' halls at London, Birmingham, Chester, Dublin, Edinburgh, Newcastle, Sheffield, and Exeter, for duty and hall-marking in each year from 1867 to 1877 inclusive, showing also what moneys were paid into the Treasury out of the receipts during each year, what the amount of working expenses, and what was the appropriation of the surplus fund, if any. The returns show also the weight of gold and silver respectively that was hall- marked in each of the above years at each of the halls before named. In London the duty on marking amounted to ^535,182, of which the Com- missioners of Inland Revenue received ^452,601. The total weight of metal marked was — gold, 70,317 lbs., and silver, 830,171 lbs. The receipts during the same period were ^77,273, and the disbursements ^74,157. The surplus was carried to an accumulation fund. In Birmingham the sum received for duty amounted to ^171,989; 967,451 ounces of gold wares and 1,355,258 ounces of silver wares were assayed and marked, and £,Z1A^S '^^^ received for hall-marking. Coal. The coal produce demands particular notice ; it forms the basis of tlie industrial and commercial greatness of England. In 1660 the pro- duction was about 2 millions of tons. Year Tuns Worth In 1839 31.502,193 £ » 1855 65,297,794 16,123,200 „ i860 80,706,391 20,908,800 „ 1865 99,662,106 24,537,600 „ 1866 103,069,804 25,407,600 „ 1867 105,982,862 26,125,100 „ 1868 104,600,627 25,785,200 ,, 1869 109,231,448 26,856,800 „ 1870 110,784,572 27,607,700 „ 1872 125,473.273 59.173,010 ., 1875 125,043,257 45,849,194 „ 1876 133.344.766 46,670,668 „ 1877 134,179-968 47,113.767 „ 1878 132,612,063 46,429,210 According to the official report of 1871, there were in the year 1869, 107^ million of tons jiroduced in Great Britain, of which 9^ millions were ex- ported, the remaining 97-|- consumed at home as follows : — In the iron industry* In other industries .. 32-i- million tons 264 „ „ * A tew years ago the consumption of coal by the iron trade was practically a third o the entire production. .Since tlien the iron trade lias greatly limited its demands, owing to the depression of trade, and also the fact of steel taking the place of finished or malleable iron Great Britain and Ireland — Ufaterial Condition. 95 In the mines... .: yi million tons In gas and water works In steam vessels On the railways In households 97f million tons In 1878 15,483,000 tons were exported. The total amount of coal and coke brought by railway, canal, and sea within the London district, during the years 1876-77-78, was — Tons Cwts. 1876 8,451.375 16 1877 8,591,683 6 1878 8,794,576 8 The price of coal was formerly very firm. Latterly there has been a kind of revolution in this direction. In the London markets the best coal per ton. — In 1850 ,, i860 „ 1866 „ 1867 „ 1868 „ 1S69 3. d. 17 I In 1870 20 I „ 1871 17 9 „ 1872 18 3 „ 1873 15 1 1 „ 1874 17 6 s. d. 17 5 19 3 24 II 32 6 45 o 'I'his price rising far beyond the measure of increased wages brought dis- turbance into various industries. The cost to the different railway companies increased enormously. The Great Northern Railway, for example, which consumed weekly 5,000 tons, had an increase of cost in the year of ;^ 1 40, 000. Many of the factories were unable to carry on their works at this increased cost of coal. It was only at the end of 1873 that the price began to lower, and continued in 1874, but it was still at a much higher Note — The quantity of coal raised from the United Kingdom reached joo,ooo,ooo tons in a year for the tirst time in 1866. In 1876 it amounted to 134,000,000. Durham, our o-reatest coal field keeps its lead, its yearly product now approaching 26,000,000. Wales produced together with Monmouthshire, 19,000,000 in 1876. Lancashire, Yorkshire, and StaHbrdshire show a considerable falling off. In Derbyshire, Northumberland and Leicester- shire there is a decline. Note — The countries that have hitherto been our largest and best customers are now learning, to depend upon themselves. Hitherto Germany and France have unitedly taken a full third of our exports of coal. But in both these countries there has been a very consider- able dt;velopment of mining enterprise, tending to limit the demand for English coal. In 1878 we exported to Germany 300,000 tons less coal than in 1876, and our exports to France within the same time declined to the extent of 200.000 tons. If these markets are closing to us, others are opening, for instance, Russia has grown in importance year by year, taking from us in 1878 1,271,000 tons of coal as compared with only 226.000 tons obtained from the coal- fields of Germany. Turkey is increasing her demands, and will in a few years, be a very large consumer. To Malta, British India, Brazil and Egypt, we send coal in increasing quantities. — Times. NoTi;— !t is a curious fact that in the month of September, 1879, the amount of coal shipped at Grimsby docks alone was, to France 3,040 tons; to Germany 5,755 tons; to Russia 13,612 tons; to Norway 3.838 tons; to Sweden 2,451 tons; to Spain 1,812 tons; to India, BF. 1,452 tons; to Denmark 1,332 tonr; to Belgium 578 tons ; to Holland 578 tons-j to the West Coast of Africa 159 tons ; making a total of 35,907 tons. g6 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. price than in previous years. By this increase of price the money worth of the coal exported amounted In 187 1 „.. ... to about ... ... ;^6, 000,000 „ 1872 ,, „ 10,000,000 „ 1873 „ V 13,000,000 and this notwithstanding a decrease in the quantity exported of half a million tons. There is some little and not unreasonable anxiety in England, that the coal may be exhausted. It is a fact worthy of notice, that within the four corners of the United Kingdom, in 1878, a hundred and thirteen million tons of coal were consumed— a consumption exceeding the united production of all the other countries of Europe. In what manner the increased price effected a decrease of sale while producing an increased revenue the following Statistics will shew. Tons Value In 1869 880,110 ;:r7, 238,170 n 1870 1,059,392 8,756,552 „ 1871 ... ... 981,197 ... ... 8,084,619 M 1872 945.420 10,225,492 „ 1873 786,800 10,425,729 Mining Casualties. In the five years from 1865 to 69 the loss of life in Great Britain alone (not Ireland), among the miners was 1865 i866 iSe-- 1S68 1869 Working in the mines ... 891 1,377 ijio4 On the surface, owing ^ to machines, boilers >• 93 107 86 bursting, etc. ... ...) Total loss of life in the) 00 ^ J ..• r 1 r 984 1,484 1,190 I, on 1,116 production of coal ...) ^ ^ ^ ^ '^ Total in iron works ... 69 81 70 69 54 In the five years from 1865 to 1869, each laborer in the coal mines ex- tracted on an average daily in the mines 20*6 cwts. and annually 6, iSo cwts.^ Every 1,788,380 cwts. costs on an average one life through accident, and this happens to one in every 294 miners annually. From 1 85 1 to 1861 (10 years) 605,154,940 tons of coal were produced, in the working of which 8,466 were killed; so that every 71,880 tons demanded a life. For the 5,000,000 of tons which yearly come to London, 70 lives are sacrificed. In 1863 in South Wales it was one life for every 45,390 tons, and m Scotland one life only for a million of tons. --...HOI, In the year 1870, 991 miners lost their lives in the mines, and 55 in the iron works. In each mine there was one violent death to every 354 labourers, and in every 2,312,187 cwts. of coal produced, the value of which was ^28,902. In 1875 there was one death to 1 18,930 tons of coal. It is a very disquieting refiection, that only once during the last 30 years has the mortality from mining accidents been so great as it was during the year * In 1878 the British miner was tiie most industrious in Europe ; he produced an average of 277 tons of coal per annum as compared with sio tons per man in Germany and 225 tons per man in France. Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 97 1878. This unenviable distinction belongs to the year 1866, when 1,484 were killed in our mines as compared with 1,413 in 1878. In other words, there was, during 1878, one death by accident among every 336 persons employed as compared with one death among every 409 persons employed in 1877. Between 1857 and i860 10,018 lives were lost for a total of 2,460,332 persons employed. From 1861-70 10,626 deaths occurred to 3,r92,4o5 persons employed; but between 1871 and 1878, both inclusive, 3,860,000 persons were employed for 9,058 lives lost. Industries. The number of factories working under regulations as to time, and the number of workmen employed in them, were — Factories Workmen In 1850... ... ... ... 4,600 ... ... 596,082 „ 1856 5,117 682,497 „ 1861 6,378 775,534 „ 1868 6,417 857,964 Of this last number, 332,810 were men, and 525,124 were women. The ages of those employed will be seen in the following table : — Males Females Under 13 England 39,955 Scotland 946 Ireland 616 13—18 59.832 7,751 7,475 Over 18 181,109 20,555 14,571 Total 280,896 29,252 22,662 332,810 Under 13 41,193 1,722 44,146 Over 13 351.245 80,693 49,070 Total 392,438 82,415 50,301 Total 41,517 75,058 216,235 181,008 525,154 The returns of 1861 give a far larger number of men, and a smaller number of women laborers than now; the men standing at 467,261, and the women at 308,237 — a change which from no point of view can be re- garded as satisfactory. If we reckon those laborers who are actively occupied in these industries, but doing their work at home (in 1856, 3,008,082), then we have a manufacturing population of 4,800,000. Spindles In 1850 there were stated to be ... ... ... 25,638,716 „ 1856 „ „ „ 33,503,580 „ 1861 „ „ , 36,450,028 „ 1868 „ „ , 41,516,484 The number of power looms increased in this period — Power Looms Steam Power Water Power In 1850 there were 301,445 •• 108,113 26,104 „ 1856 370,195 •• 137,713 23,724 „ 1861 490,866 . 375,311 29,359 „ x868 549,365 •• • 337,851 29,830 In 1870 there were 13 various kinds of manufactories in Great Britain under Government inspection, containing 6,811 factories, with 41,095,079 spindles, 610,010 steam power looms, 478,434 horse power looms and 907,249 artisans. G 98 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. Year Factories In i8so 1,932 „ 1861 2,887 „ 1868 2,549 „ 1870 2,483 n 1875 2,655 In the Cotton trade there were in — Spindles Power Looms Persons occupied 20,977,017 249,627 3305924 30,387,467 399.992 451,569 32,000,014 379,329 401,064 33,995,221 440,676 450,087 35,000,000 775,360 479,515 Comparing 1871 with 1878, Cotton factories have increased from 2,483 to 2,674, being an increase of 191 in the 7 years. The number of spindles from 34,025,221 to 39,500,920, being an increase of 5,475,699. During these seven years the Cotton manufacture increased in England but fell off somewhat in Scotland and Ireland. Power looms increased in these seven years by more than 54,000. In 1S71 the number of operatives employed in the Cotton manufacture was 450,087 \ in 1878 the number was 482,903. In the Woollen Trade there were Year Factories Spindles In 1850 1,497 1,595,278 „ 1861 1,679 2,182,609 „ 1870 1,829 2,531,768 „ 1875 1,925 3,165,569 In the Worsted Trade there were — Year Factories Spindles In 1850 501 875,830 „ 1861 532 1,289,172 „ 1870 630 1,8^1,144 „ 1875 692 2,182,792 In the Silk Trade there were — Year Factories Spindles In 1850 277 1,225,560 „ 1861 771 1,338,544 „ 1870 696 978,168 „ 1875 818 1,114,703 In the Linen Trade there were — Year Factories Spindles In 1850 393 965,031 3,670 68,434 „ 1861 399 1,216,674 14,792 87,429 „ 1870 500 1,483,335 35,301 124,772 „ 1875 449 1,473,800 41,980 28,459 In 1850 there was, on an average, in every cotton manufactory, 14,000 spindles, and to every linen manufactory 2,700 spindles. In 1868 there were 18,300 spindles to every cotton, and 6,430 to every linen factory. In 1875 the total number of spindles for the five classes of Textile Industries was 45,791,971- In J 850 women formed 56 per cent, of the total employed, and children under 13 years, 8 per cent. In 186S women formed 58 per cent., and children under 13, 12 per cent. Power looms Persons employed 9,439 74,443 21,770 86,983 48,140 125,130 57,090 134,607 Power looms Persons employed 32,167 79,737 43,084 86,063 64,654 109,557 81,747 142,097 Power looms Persons employed 6,092 42,544 19,709 52,429 12,378 48,124 10,002 45,559 Power looms Persons employed Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 99 The number of accidents which occurred in these factories, from May I, 1868, to April 3, 1S69, was 14,306, of which number 252 were fatal, and 14 of these last affected the children. The amount of raw material worked, and the value of the produce, was, in 1S56 — lbs. of Raw stuff Value Cotton 877,225,440 /;2o,io3,o83 Wool 199.531.599 10,314,477 Mixed Stuffs... 80,000,000 5,000,000 Linen, etc. ... 528,289,104 7,254,875 Silk 9,290,266 9.754,779 ,. , rn J Of which was Value of Produce Exported " ;^55,298,778 ^38.283,77° 23,942,976 5,985,744 12,715.569 6,415,569 15,100,000 6,262,588 18,900,000 2,966,938 Total 1,694,336,409 ^52,427,214 ^125,957,323 ^^59,914,609 The accidents occurring in the factories demand special attention, as the following tables show. Year Killed Loss of Limb Otherwise Injured 1865 •• 57 466 ... .. 3,722 1867 •. 87 613 ... .. 4,084 1871 -• 434 — . 1,254 ... .. 6,128 1872 •• 382 1,233 ... .. 6,136 1873 •• 321 1,079 ... .. 5.883 1874 •• 367 857 ... 6,029 1875 •• 317 940 ... •• 5,305 1876 .. 260 1,041 ... .. 6,025 The Import of the most Important Raw Material for Manufacturing Purposes. Raw Cotton Sheeps' Wool Raw Silk Hemp— Flax Jute cwts. lbs. lbs. cwts. cwts. 1837 3,665,581 48,379,708 — — 1853 7,993,560 119,396,449 6,480,724 968,162 275.578 1857 8,654,633 129,749,898 12,077,931 804,584 6x8,833 i860 12,419,096 148,396,577 9,178,647 775,964 816,787 I86I 11,223,078 147,172,841 8,710,681 810,264 904,092 1862 4,678,333 171,943,472 10,372,123 963,492 963.774 1863 5.982,894 177,377,664 9,221,145 1,043,612 1.223,033 1864 7,983,057 206,473,045 5,655.401 999,661 2,024,537 1865 8,736,625 212,206,747 7,723,552 1,054,248 2,108,942 1866 12,299,233 239,358,689 5,453,804 996,219 1,625,903 1867 11,275,767 233,703,184 5,849,648 869,571 1,582,61 I 1868 11,863,943 252,744,155 7,036,177 1,046,035 2,182,521 1869 10,906,886 258,461,689 5,573,366 1,022,1 10 2,467,817 1870 11,958,635 263,250,499 6,307,575 1,079,608 2,376,690 Note. — According to Fairbairn, in i860, the metal works and smelting furnace of England employed so many steam-engines as to represent together 450,000 horse-power The steam-engines of the manufactories had together i. 3 50, 000 horse-power, the steamers 850,000, and the locomotives 1,000.000. making together 3,650,000 horse-power. But, inasmuch as this power is continuous, while horses would work only 8 hours a-day, the figure should be increased to 11,000,000. It is reckoned that the power of 7 men is equal to 1 horse-power, so that the steam-engines of England perform a work which it would require 77,000,000 men to perform. lOO Great Britaifi and Ireland — Material Condition. Raw Cotton Shceps' Wool Raw Silk Hemp— Flax Jute cwts. lbs. lbs. cwts. cwts. I87I 15,876,248 323,036,299 8,253,335 1,245,019 3,454,120 1872 12,578,906 306,379,664 7,302,083 1,115,946 4,041,018 1873 i3>639>252 318,036,779 6,445,213 1,252,515 4,624,918 1874 13,989,861 344,470,897 5,911,831 1,236,475 4,270,164 1875 13.324,564 365,065,578 4,487,837 1,321,559 3,416,617 1876 13.284,454 390,055-759 6,016,927 1,140,248 3,825,259 Dr. Rees remarks, in his work on cotton factories, that in 1873, there were 39^ millions of spindles used in cotton spinning in Great Britain, while inlhe whole of the continent only a few more than 19 millions were used. The total amount of raw cotton worked in the whole of Europe was 956,000,000 lbs., while in Great Britain 1,264,000,000 lbs. were used ; and it must be remembered that the English factories produce much finer wares than any place on the continent, except Switzerland. In 1872, out of 1,175,345,000 lbs. of cotton, 1,040,380,000 lbs. of yarn were spun, of which 212,327,972 were exported as yarn, and 698,840,000 as woven goods, while 1 29,600,000 lbs. were required for home use. The worth of the exported yarn was ;i^i6,697,426, and of the exported manufactured goods ^63,446,729; the worth of home consumption, ^15,600,000, making a total of ^95,744,153. Subtract the price of the raw material, ;^53, 380,670, and there remains ^42,363,483 for wages, interest and capital. Trade Returns. Commerce has developed to such an extent as almost to baftle all calculation. A comparison between earlier and later commercial traffic is also difficult from the fact that, according to the tariff of 1694, the Imports were marked by the so-called ^^/'z/w^/'/A only. It was in 1854 that the real value was first stated. It was otherwise with the Exports. The real worth of the British Exports during the first 50 years of this century is thus averaged for every 10 years. 1801-10 iSn 20 1S21-3J 1831-40 1841-50 ^^40,731, 970 p^5i, 484,461 ;^36,6oo,536 ;^45, 144,407 ^57,381,293 The real value of the exported wares which, in 18 15 amounted to ^51,632,971, sank gradually until in 1826 it reached only ^^31, 536,724, and it was not till 1833 that it increased so little as to attain to p^39,33i.4'3. and not until 1841 that it recovered and stood at p{^5 1,634,623. From 1854 we get accurate returns. Imports. BritishProduce Exports. Foreign & Colonial Total 1854 ;^i52,389,o53 ;^97, 184,726 ^18,636,366 ;^II5, 821,092 1855 143,542,850 95,688,085 21,003,215 116,691,300 1856 172,344.154 115,826,948 23,393,405 139.220,353 1857 187,844,441 122,066,107 24,108,194 146,174,301 1858 164,583,832 116,608,756 23,174,023 139,782,779 1859 179,182,355 130,4' 1^529 25,281,446 155,692,975 r86o 210,530,873 135,891,227 28,630,124 164,521,351 1861 217,485,024 I 25, 102,814 34,529,684 159,632.498 1S62 225,716,976 123,992,264 42,175,870 166,168,134 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Canditton. iO) Imports. British Produce Exports. Foreign & Colonial Total 1863 ^248,919,020 ^146,602,342 ^^50,300,067 ^^196,902,409 1864 274,952,172 160,449,053 52,170,561 212,619,614 1865 271,072,285 165,835,725 52,995,851 218,831,576 1866 295,290,274 188,917,536 49,988,146 238,905,682 1867 275,183,137 180,961,923 44,840,606 225,802,529 1868 294,693,608 179,677,812 48,100,642 227,778,454 1869 205,460,214 189,953,957 47,061,095 237,015,052 1870 303,257,493 199,586,332 44,493,755 244,080,577 I87I 331,015,480 223,066,162 60,508,538 283,574,700 1872 354,693,624 256,257,347 58,331,487 314,588,834 1873 371,287,572 255,164,603 55,840,162 311,004,765 1874 370,082,701 239,558,121 58,092,343 297,650,464 1875 373,939,577 223,465,963 58,146,360 281,612,323 1876 375,154,703 200,639,204 56,137,398 256,776,602 1877 394,419,682 198,893,065 53,452,955 252,346,020 Conimerct with Foreign Countries and the British Colonies in 1875, 1876 and 1877. Imports from — Germany ... Austria Russia (Northern Ports) ... Russia (Southern Ports)*... Sweden and Norway Denmark and Iceland Holland Belgium France Portugal Spain West India Islands Philippine Islands... Italy Turkey Wallachia and Moldavia ... Egypt Algeria Azores and Madeira Morocco ... Western Coast of Africa ... China Japan Java and other possessions) in the Indian Seas ...\ United States Mexico Central America ... 1875 ;^2l, 836,401 1,318,889 13,068,883 7,640,018 8,918,638 4,241,671 14,836,648 14,822,240 46,720,101 4,444,071 8,660,953 3,668,776 1,559,500 4,632,619 6,555,714 594,158 10,895.043 500,185 340,360 711,294 1,727,765 13,654,722 377,791 1,442,607 69,590,054 721,907 1,308,889 1876 ^21,115,189 855,798 12,363,568 5,210,920 10,654,311 4,217,934 16,602,154 13,848,293 45,304,854 3,361,071 8,763,146 2,943,385 1,442,556 4,152,201 7,444,323 1,238,091 11,481,519 495,848 443,519 627,453 1,679,760 14,938,641 657,145 1,440,860 75,899,008 662,132 934,772 1S77 ^26,269,993 1,540,980 18,925,959? 3,216,463 1 10,454,475 3,950,229 19,861,254 12,888,774 45,823,324 3,776,795 10,842,097 1,505,245 1,755,934 4,100,812 6,852,108 247,317 11,101,785 562,126 312,138 811,954 1,625,603 13,420,910 734,399 1,955,586 77,825,973 798,857 1,380,661 • Russia in 1878. notwithstanding the war, sent us 10,838,000 cwt. of wheat, valued at j^6,66o,6i6. I02 Greal Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. Commerce with Foreign Countries and the British Colonies in 1875, 1876 and 1877 — continued. Importsfrom- ^ >87_6 1877 Haiti and San Domingo ... 443»837 409>96i 247,376 Venezuela 37,136 54,878 63,739 Ecuador 233,980 244,517 185,791 Brazil 7,418,605 5,178,386 6,344,961 Uruguay 1,208,590 841,314 734,699 Argentine Republic ... 1,359,783 1,604,029 1,699,376 Peru 4,884,181 5,630,670 4,696,502 New Granada 962,205 681,913 472,021 Canary Islands 424,459 276,552 297,201 Other countries 1,674,946 1,613,070 1,808,035 Total ;^283,437,6i9 ;^28s, 313,741 ^299,091,452 Commerce with British Possessions in 1875, 1876 and 1877. Imports from— '^ ^ 'i!I Channel Islands £1^1,3^9 ^676,086 ;^724,i8i Gibraltar 111,965 49,9^8 70,038 Malta 233,569 213,758 286,431 West African Settlements... 139,851 132,328 176,111 Mauritius 824,411 936,73^ 1,891,013 Cape of Good Hope & Natal 4,478,960 4,192,416 4,275,398 British India 30,137,295 30,025,024 31,224,763 Straits Settlements ... 3,149,310 2,641,946 2,721,795 Ceylon 4,380,821 3,134,183 4,498,579 Hong Kong 1,154,910 1,356,850 1,895,310 North American Colonies... 10,212,624 11,023,782 12,035,968 West Indian Colonies and| 7,326,040 6,894,331 6,934,573 Guiana ... ...) British Honduras 203,135 227,896 193,557 Australia 20,559,154 21,961,929 21,732,338 Other Possessions 334,662 3^6,755 301,967 Total ;^83,954,oi6 ^83,783,938 ^^^88,962,022 Commerce 7vith Foreign Countries and the British Possessions in 1S75, 1S76 and 1S77. Exports to- 'Hi 'in '.m Germany ^34,121,624 ^29,734,684 ;^28,95o,333 Austria 1,177,35° 1,1 n, 377 i,397,322 Russia (Northern Ports) ... 9,624,847 7,091,384 5,856,301 Russia (Southern Ports) ... 1,721,469 1.544,271 387,672 Sweden and Norway ... 6,296,995 6,323,606 6,197,099 Denmark and Iceland ... 2,756,145 2,598,707 2,332,911 Holland 20,113,787 18,707,800 16,032,626 Belgium 13,794,770 12,835,641 11,759,867 France 27,292,455 29,000,273 25,663,602 Portugal 3,081,905 2,726,509 2,872,638 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 103 Commerce with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in 1875, 1876 and 1877 — continued. Exports to — ^ ^ ^877 Spain 4,294,490 4,796,498 4,267,214 West Indian Islands .i. 2,997,722 2,572,378 2,715,169 Philippine Islands... ... 939>983 736,630 1,314,169 Italy 8,169,804 8,129,036 7,349.337 Turkey ... ... ... 6,346,888 6,379,962 6,005,268 Wallachia and Moldavia ... 1.163,231 786,838 237,423 Egypt 3,036,284 2,687,402 2,326,968 Algeria ... 163,217 212,975 275,920 Azores and Madeira ... 233,262 207,935 200,205 Morocco ... ... ... 420,832 469,101 465,258 West Coast of Africa ... 1,027,420 1,235,922 1,428,252 China 5,096,770 4,719,449 4,611,231 Japan _ ... 2,593,862 2,191,487 2,460,275 Java and other possessions) . no in Indian Seas ...\ ^'753,51? 1,690,223 2,088,775 United States ... ... 25,062,226 20,226,627 19,885,893 Mexico ... ... ... 980,716 576,814 1,071,715 Central America 875,597 737,943 972,526 Haiti and San Domingo ... 715,883 378,342 397,337 Venezuela ... ... ... 765,419 697,821 633,740 Ecuador 133,5^9 229,242 255,618 Brazil ... ... ... 7,172,406 6,236,366 6,405,971 Uruguay ... 758,094 1,041,818 1,131,536 Argentine Republic ... 2,490,604 1,597,498 2,184,033 Peru ... ... ... 1,817,981 1,169,444 1,421,031 New Granada ... ... 942,097 802,061 927,460 Canary Islands 216,552 159,379 i84,393 Other countries ... ... 885,789 893,893 1,029,773 Total ;^2oi,o35,5i2 ;^i83,237,336 ^^173,696,861 Commerce 7vith British Possessions in 1875, 1876 and iStj. , Exports to — ^ 1876 1877 Channel Islands ;^79i,i78 ^756,115 ;^739,i22 Gibraltar 1,111,203 1,207,541 936,711 Malta 859,970 1,059,669 987,245 West African Settlements... 327,928 249,366 322,429 Mauritius ... 379,668 364,067 598,43° Cape of Good Hope ... 5,350,412 4,683,668 4,502,739 British India 25,595,119 23,676,898 26,618,896 Straits Settlements ... 2,094,177 2,069,463 2,409,828 Ceylon 1,131,514 1,134,257 1,105,784 Hong Kong 3,839,136 3,261,805 3,645,068 North American Colonies... 9,682,189 8,025,919 8,256,071 '''" GmanT ^°'""' ""![ 3,333,534 3,^66,698 3.^04,9x9 British Honduras 138,066 125,308 130,189 I04 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. Commerce with British Possessions in 1875, 1876 and 1?,^]— continued. Exports to- '_!!! 'Hi !!!! Australia ... Other Possessions. Total ... 21,224,620 271,693 19,470,063 244,969 21,503.533 221,421 ^76,130,407 ;^69,595,8o6 ;^75.i82,385 A Table shewing the value of Exports and Imports since 1854. For ign Countries British Possessions Imports 1854 ;^ii8,239,554 1858 125,969,434 i860 167,571,386 1861 164,235,273 1862 160,433,725 1863 164,235.273 1864 181,207,678 1865 198,231,488 1866 223084,552 1867 214,448,592 1868 227,700,061 1869 225,043,723 1870 238,425,080 1871 258 071,062 1872 275,320,771 1873 290.277,250 1874 287,919,862 1875 289,515,606 1876 290,822,127 1877 304,865,684 E^xports ^79,446,217 96,569,856 117,988,399 Ii4,493i377 120,744,247 141,932,067 i56,9°7,926 167,284,822 181,738,126 172.440,391 174,060,626 185,123,305 188,689,245 228,013,406 248,979,616 239.857,058 219,740,436 204,957,312 186,626,713 Imports p{^34, 149,499 38.641,398 42,959,487 52,676,010 65.283,251 84,683,747 93,744,494 72,840,797 72,205,722 60,734,545 66,993,547 70,416,491 64,832,418 72.944,418 79,372.853 81,010,122 82,162,839 84,423.971 84,332,576 89,553,998 Exports ^36,374,875 43,212,923 46.532,952 45,139,121 45,423,887 54,970,342 55,711,688 51,546,754 57,167,556 53,362,138 53,717,828 51,891,747 55,391,332 55,561,294 65,609,218 71,147,707 77,910,028 76,655,011 70,149,889 75,752,150 176,593,870 Since the close of the American Civil War our commercial dealings with America occupies the first position, and with France, which, previous to the commercial treaty in i860, was very unimportant, the second ; while that with Germany stands third. In the traffic with the colonies India stands first and Australia second. in the £ Bankrupts in England. IB65 1866 1867 1868 1869 1.639 1,794 1,649 1,714 1,695 paid something ... in 5'727 5,607 5,876 6,489 7,346 ,, nothing ... 861 943 863 925 953 „ less than 2s. 6d. 381 452 445 418 379 " " 5^. &ovcr 2S. 6d. 200 184 177 198 179 ,» '» 7^- " 5^- 85 73 62 57 70 „ „ lOj. „ ^s. 62 73 36 65 52 „ „ 15^- M lOS. 15 27 16 15 24 „ „ 20J. „ 1 5 J. 35 42 40 36 38 „ 20s. in the £. According to an ofificial report, the number of bankrupt cases at the suit of the creditors decreased from 1351 in 1870 to 1238 in 187 1, and to Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 105 933 in 1872. On the other hand, the number of satisfactory liquidations increased from 3,651 to 5,902 in the same number of years. On an average the cost of Uquidations approaches 30 per cent, of the capital. In 1877 there were 456 bankrupts in London, 81 in Liverpool, 134 in Man- chester, 144 in Lancashire, 324 in Yorkshire, 139 in Scotland, and 33 in Ireland. In 1879 the number of failures announced was 16,637, of which 2,546 were in the financial, wholesale, and manufacturing branches of trade, and 14,019 in retail trade, professional pursuits, builders, publicans, among the working classes, &c. In London there were 215 failures for the six months ending December 31, as compared with 315 for the half-year ended June 30, making a total of 530 for the year, as compared with 566 for 1878, and 456 for 1S77. In Liverpool 29 failures occurred in the December half-year as com- pared with 55 for the June half; Manchester 48, as against 107; Lancashire 82, as against no; Yorkshire (not including I^Iiddlesborough and Hull) 157, against 263; and the Birmingham and Midland iron districts 83, against 120. The total failures in these places amounted, for the December half-year, to 614, as compared with 970 — a decrease of 356 on the six months. The total for the year was, however, only 10 less than that of 1878. Post. In consequence of the high postage which obtained until the end of the year 1839, the number of letters regularly transmitted was, in spite of strict regulations to protect the monopoly, only 82,471,000. The introduction of the penny postage caused a vast increase from the beginning ol its operations, an increase extending yearly. The total number of letters posted in the United Kingdom in — 1840 ... ... was 169,000,000 an increase of 122^ per cent. rruin 1041-45 I ne av t;riigc wu. 5) i;zy,uuu,uuu ,, 1846-50 )» 327,000,000 „ 1851-55 >> 410,000,000 „ 1856-60 >> 523,000,000 „ 1861-65 >) 648,000,000 „ 1866-70 ,, 800,000,000 „ in 187 1 the number was 867,000,000 „ »> 1872 >) 885,000,000 „ )> 1873 >j 907,000,000 „ >» 1874 >» 962,000,000 , >> 1875 5> 1,009,000,000 , )» 1876 )» 1,019,000,000 „ ,, 1877 )) 1,058,000,000 March 1878 to March 1879 ,, 1,097,000,000 The average numb er m 1840 1 each person was )> 1871 )> )» >j 1874 )j >> » 1876 j> » >> 1877 )> >> I) 187S »> 5> >» 1879 )> » 10 t) 5 »» 5l M 4i >> S\ )> 4 >» 2^ •^3 II 2 I! 4 II ^i^ )l 4i >J ^h >> •. 7 .. 27 .. 30 .. 34 .. 34 .. 3H .. 3H io6 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. Year Number of Post Cards Year Book P sckets & Newspapers 1873 ... 72,000,000 1873 . 223,000,000 1874 ... 79,000,000 1874 . 258,000,000 1875 ... 87,000,000 1875 . 280,000,000 1876 ... 93,000,000 1876 . 299,000,000 Marcl T to March March to March 1877-78 ... 102,000,000 1S77-78 .. . 318,000,000 1878- 79 ... 111,000,000 1S7S-79 .. . 328,000,000 The number of Postal Depositories in the United Kingdom in 1873 was 12,529, in 1879 there were over 22,000. Taking one year, that of 1873 as an example, the number of letters in the Returned Letter Offices was 4,020,737. Of these, there were — Re-issued to corrected addresses Returned to the senders ... Returned unopened to foreign countries Letters which could neither be delivered nor returned to senders Post Cards received in the Returned Letter Offices Books „ „ „ „ ,, Newspapers „ „ „ „ „ Total weight of letters, newspapers and book packets conveyed by Post in this selected year of 1873 was 27,089 tons. 95>23i 3,490,630 176,676 258,200 311.49s 2,288,385 556,198 Railways. In 1843 the length of lines worked was 1,952 miles, with an income of ^^4,535,189. Expenses incurred for constructing the same ^65,530,792. Five years later (1848) the length of lines in the United Kingdom was 5,127 miles, in 1852, 7,336 miles, and in 1854, 8,054 miles. The increase since this time will be seen in the followins; table. Year. Miles Paid up Capital Passengers Gross Income Net Income 1855 8,280 297,584,709 118,595,135 21,507,599 11,207,890 1858 9,542 325,375,507 139,193,699 23,956,749 12,288,524 i860 10,433 348,130,127 163,483,572 27,766,622 14.579,254 1862 11,551 385,218,438 180,485,727 29,128,558 14,860,149 1864 12,789 425,719,613 229,348,664 33,911,547 17,911.239 1866 13,854 481,872,184 274,403,895 38,164,354 19,352,681 1869 15,145 518,779,761 312,779,381 41,075,321 21,915,849 187I 1872* 1873 15,376 552,680,107 375,409,146 47,107,558 25,739,920 16,082 588,320,308 455,634,767 55,675,421 29,989,152 1874 16,449 609,895,931 477,840,411 56,890,408 26,643,003 1875 16,664 630,226,942 507,532,187 58.977,518 28,020,298 1876 16,872 658,214,776 538,287,295 59,917.868 28,680,266 1877 17,092 673,759,000 551,533,100 60,642,000 29,135,000 1878 17,335 700,562,299 565,126,000 60,486,000 29,680,762 Of ordinary railway shares ;^33, 000,000 paid no interest. „ „ „ 10,500,000 paid less than i per cent. • In the year 187Z the income was from the 1st class ;{^4,3i9, 1 85, ind class ^^4, 198.201, 3rd class ^^10,318,761. Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 107 I < ind 2 2 )) 3 3 >> 4 4 5» 5 5 5j 6 6 5> 7 7 » 8 9 »» 9l 10 J» 10^ 12 5> I2| Of ordinary railway shares p^8,ooo,ooo paid between i and 2 percent 2,500,000 „ 18,000,000 „ 23,000,000 „ 23,000,000 „ 27,000,000 „ 55,500,000 18,000,000 „ 2,225,000 „ 3,500,000 „ Of Preference Shares there were also ^^9, 000,000 which paid no dividend. . . The income derived from a mile of rail varies ; in England it is ^^3,894, in Scotland ^£"2,142, in Ireland ^1,140. In 1873 the income derived from goods traffic was 55 per cent. jj ,, ,, „ passenger traffic was ... 41 » The cost was 53 per cent, of the income, and the interest of capital was 4.59 per cent. The number of persons killed, (mostly railway officials and those crossing the lines), was as follows — Killed Injured In 1863 184 470 1864 222 795 1865 221 1,132 1866 215 624 1867 209 695 1868 212 600 1869 234 1,232 1870 286 1,239 1871 404 I'26l 1872 i»i45 3»o38 1873 ^'372 3.110 1874 1,424 5'04i 1875 1,347 5^755 1876 1,245 4*724 1868. — 797 deaths occurred in consequence of railway travelling, 714 were men, and 83 were women. Captain Tyler says that in 1870 there was one death to every 4,651,000 passengers, and one injured in every 283,000. In 1871 there were 404 deaths and 1,261 injured, 347 of the deaths, and 365 of the injured were among the railway officials. In 1872 1,145 persons were killed and 3,038 injured, 127 of the deaths and 1,462 of the injured were among the passengers, and 632 and 1,395 among the railway officials and laborers on the lines. The remainder consists of those who carelessly crossed the lines, or of suicides. In 1873, 1,372 were killed and 3,110 injured. 160 deaths and 1,750 injured being among the pas- sengers. Dr. Farr reckons that there is one death to every 8,000,000 pas- sengers, and one injured in every 362,000. The number of accidents has decreased \ since 1840-43, probably the result of the very heavy damages which accidents entail. Captain Tyler says further, that in 1875 there were 200,000,000 tons of goods carried, 280,000 servants employed, io8 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. and 1,200 locomotives, which used 10,000,000 tons of coal, and accidents, by which 1,290 persons were killed. 164 Goods Fortvarded b\ rail. — Revenue. In 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 ;^26,484,978 29.016,559 31,821,529 32,005,883 33,268,072 33.754?3i7 The ship traffic in all British ports, including navigation along the coast in 187 1 was 72,224,534 tons. Supposing all the vessels to have had full cargoes, which was not the case, it would have amounted to 1,444,490,680 cwts., not one half of that carried by the railways. The railways are, there- fore, much more important for the carriage of goods than ships. Telegraphs. In 1868 there were 22,036 miles with 95,637 miles of wire, 4,119 stations, and 4,695 miles submarine cable with 8,147 miles of wire. Since the ist of January, 1870, the telegraphs, which were mostly private institutions, were made over to the Government, since which time they have increased amazingly. In 1 87 1 more than 1,300 new stations were opened, which gave a total of 5,420. The number of telegrams increased (25 per cent.) to 12,000,000, the average price being is. ihd., total receipts, ^800,000. In 1S73 the number of telegrams, exclusive of newspaper telegrams amounted to i7>294»334. and in 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 19,116,634 26,766,277 2i,575'2o7 21,977,084 22.477,921 On an important Parliamentary night in 1877, on which there happened to be an unusual number of interesting occurrences in different parts of the country, 440,000 words were transmitted from the central station in a single night, equal to 220 columns of the "Times'' newspaper. The number of words received for newspapers was nearly 38,000,000. Meteantile Marine. An official report of the years, 1868, 1872 and 1876 gives the following number of registered ships : — 1868 1872 1876 Sailing Vessels Tons 36,864 6,259,624 32,462 24,144 5'573'i9o 4,257,986 Steam Vessels 3.477 4»343 4.335 Tons 977,292 1,640,639 2,005,347 Total Hands 340,516 329.405 The tonnage of sailing and steam vessels, exclusive of river steamers employed in the home and foreign trade, was Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. 109 Sailing Vessels Tons Steam Vessels Tons Total Men 1875 4,044,504 1,847,188 199,667 1876 4,126,058 1,870,094 204,638 1877 4,138,149 1,977,489 196,562 1878 4,076,098 2,160,026 195,585 Great Britain has a superiority in the size of her ships as well as in their number. Even in 1865 she had 1,454 sailing and 250 steam vessels of more than 800 tons ; while France, in 1863, had only 50 of both kinds. Great Britain has 72 sailing and 55 steam vessels of from 1,500 to 3,000 tons, and one steam vessel, " The Great Eastern," with a gross registered tonnage of 18,914. tons. The number of registered sailors in France, in 1S58, was 90,217. In England, in 1865, there were 255,654 in the Mercantile Marine, beside 94,369 in the colonies, and not including those of the Navy. Total Fori Traffic reckoned by tonnage. ENTERED CLEARED British Foreign Tom Tons I86I 7»72I,035 5,458,554 IS63 8,430,146 4,825,917 1865 9,623,432 4,694,454 IS70 12,380,390 5,732,974 1872 14,173,289 6,842,126 1875 15,190,991 7,502,172 1876 16,551,951 8,555,313 1877 17,281,334 8,339,839 I87S 17,327,733 7,965,988 British Foreign Tons Tons 7,699,497 5'7i6,555 8,589,246 4,94 9,735,523 4,843,683 12,691,790 5,835,028 14,545,801 6,939,809 15,753,753 7,829,922 16,930,028 8,787,610 17,484,573 8,425,331 17,963,750 8,337,608 In the year 1866, there were 23 steam packet companies which possessed 370 steam vessels, with a capacity of 560,000 tons, 110,000 horse-power, and worth from ^30,000,000 to ^40,000,000. Of these — sailed from Liverpool Hull „ London Glasgow Total Entering and Clearing Tons 26,595,641 26,738,733 28.897,092 36,640.182 42,501,025 46,276,838 50,784,902 51,531,077 51,595,079 164 40 35 16 15 Hartlepool with the Western 200 trafficked direct with the Eastern and 170 Hemisphere, 80 of this last number entirely with the United States. All these steam vessels together traversed yearly 10,000,000 of miles (a like number of sailing vessels would not do more than a quarter of this) ; consumed 2,000,000 tons of coal, and employed 30,000 seamen. Steam packets plying between the South of England and the continent (200 in number) are not included. The whole of this fleet has been called into existence during the last 30 years. In the II years from 1850-61, the average number of accidents was i to every 201 ships in i voyage. In 1862 it was i to 147, the total number of accidents being 1,827. During the period, 1850-61, the average number no Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. of persons drowned was 79S ; in 1862 the number sank to 690, thanks to the life-boats. With the growth of commercial traffic on the seas, the accidents in some years increased. In 1865, 67 vessels were wrecked on the British Coast or near to it. Through Leakage Collision. Year Lost Seriously Injured Total I,03t Seriously Injured Total Entire Total Saved Loss of Life 1865 470 832 1,302 70 640 710 2,012 4,162 698 1S66 562 876 1,438 108 743 851 2,289 4,936 899 1867 656 1,020 1,676 99 738 837 2,513 5,845 ^^Zll 1868 527 841 1,368 99 280 379 1,747 4-771 824 1869 606 1,047 1,653 90 371 461 2,114 5,121 933 1870 411 730 1,141 73 288 361 1,502 4,654 774 187I 398 826 1,224 89 262 151 1,375 4,336 620 1872 439 1,1 10 1,549 62 347 409 1,958 4,634 590 1873 424 1,044 1,468 88 308 396 1,864 2,301 728 1874 346 1,076 1,422 62 319 381 1,803 3,060 506 1875 411 981 1,392 61 191 252 1,644 3,837 926 1876 425 851 1,276 77 225 102 1,378 4,358 778 According to the Register of Wrecks for 1872, 2,381 vessels of all descriptions were damaged or lost, that is 454 beyond the number of the previous year. Of these 2,381 ships which were either totally wrecked or much injured, 1,878 were English 430 „ Foreign They consisted of 211 ... ... ... ... ••• Steam Vessels 689 357 407 242' 124 Schooners Brigs Barques Brigantines Smacks The remainder being small ships and boats of various descriptions. These wrecks involved the loss of 590 lives, 4S7 of whom belonged to British ships, and 103 to foreign ships. In the middle of the i6th century England possessed 135 sea-going ships, most of them small. The total War and Mercantile Marine loaded, in the year 1602, a tonnage of 45,000, not a quarter of what the small town of Bremen now possesses. The Mercantile Marine Fund. On Aug. 6, 1877, the accounts of the Mercantile Marine Fund, for the year ended the 31st March, 1876, were given in a Parliamentary document. The receipts with the balance in hand, were ^558,548 <)s. id., and of that sum ;>{^55,320 2s. 4^. was in cash at the commcnrcment of the year. In Exche^iuer Bills the vear begun and ended with ^^ 14 1.600. The light dues and lighthouses income was ^336,875 17^. 3d., while the fees recovered under" the Merchant Shipping Act were ;!^95,6i9 M-^- 1 1<^- ^^ ^^e Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. Ill expenditure ^"392,040 17^. 7^. was for light dues and lighthouses, and of that sum ^55,508 lis. lod. for new works. The cost of the Mercantile Marine office was ^106,185 ^^i. 5^., and in the year, "for expenses of life-boats, apparatus for saving life, and gratuities for saving lives," ;!^ 1 4, 74 1 35-. 8^. There were pensions and superannuations and expenses for chain cables, &c., leaving a cash balance on the 31st March, 1876, of p^4o, 127 175. 5^. Particulars are furnished in the accounts of the expen- diture and the payments to be made out of the balance in hand, including ^1,015 145. id. to the Commissioners of Customs, and ^,{^16,201 13J. 3^. to the Royal Naval Volunteers. Circulation of Bank Notes. There is no Government paper money. The Bank of England, founded in 1694, issues notes of a value not lower than £^^. In Scotland and Ireland notes of ^i are permitted. The number of banks and their branches, which, in the middle of the year i860, was 1,255 only, had increased to 1554 at the end of 1867. In 1874-75-76 the number was as follows :- England and Wales Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Banks of England and (1874 Ireland, and theirs 1875 Branches ... ... (1876 Private Banks and their (^^74 Branches \ J\ ( 1876 Joint Stock Banks and (^^^4 their Branches ... ") „75 (1876 I I I I I I 564 570 573 1,196 1,276 1)37° 821 855 878 43 49 53 3 3 3 395 415 413 54 60 60 567 573 576 2,412 2,546 2,661 (1874 Total \ 1875 (1876 1,771 1,857 i>954 821 855 878 441 467 469 3>o33 3,179 3>3oi At the end of 1 87 2 and 1S76 the amount of notes circulating was as follows : — • Notes of the Bank of England... ,, Private Banks „ „ Joint Stock Banks ,, Banks in Scotland Bank of Ireland „ Private & Joint Stock „ „ Banks ...)■ ^25,162,000 2,631,464 2,342,227 5.632,112 3,254,525 4,365,564 iSr6 ;^27, 785,000 2,431,447 2,212,675 6,614,751 3,275,000 4,546,447 ;^43.387,892 ^^46,865,320 112 Great Britain and Ireland — Material Condition. Clearing House, Lombard Street. During the year iS68 ^3,466,045,000 jiassed through the Clearing House ; in 1869, ^3,626,396,000 giving a daily average of p^i i, 660,000. For the year ending April, 1S75, ^6,013,299,000 passed, and the year ending April 30, 1876, ^'5,407,243,000; in 1877, ;i{;s, 061, 533,000. National Wealth. The value of the property insured against fire, in 1863, was ^1,112,380,848, of which ^73,309,898 was for agricultural stock, free of duty. In 1867 the figures stood p/^i, 444, 968,401 and ^76,643,401, the property being thus distributed : — England and Wales, ^i^i, 263,237,604, of which ;2{^ 7 0,648, 6 04 was agricultural property; Scotland, ;^i 24,393,650, of which ^7,544,650 was agricultural property; Ireland, ^^57,337,147, of which ^1,450,147 was agricultural property. The whole national wealth was thus estimated in 1856 — Real property, about Buildings ... Furniture, implements, objects of luxury Stock in trade of all kinds Agricultural stock Ships Together ... Add Scrip in Funds p^" 1, 5 5 5. 000, 000 654,000,000 220,000,000 1 10,000,000 62,000,000 50,000,000 ^2,646,000,000 1,200,000,000 ^3,846,000,000 If we deduct from this the amount of the National Debt, there still remains about ^,^2, 600,000,000. This estimate is, however, undoubtedly far too low. Leoni Levi ventured to estimate the whole of the national property, inclusive of the Funded Stock (viz., the National Debt), at ;^6,ooo,ooo,ooo, in i860. His estimate of it, at the beginning of the present century, was only ^1,800,000,000, and in 1841 ^4,000,000,000. All such estimates as these are, of course, very uncertain. More deserving of notice than all such estimates is the progressive colossal growth of property liable to income-tax. No doubt part of the increase arises from the greater perfection to which the returns made have gradually attained. In 1855 duty was paid o'l ^^308,000,000 only, but in 1871 on ;!^465, 000,000 ; the amount had consecjuently increased by p/!i"i57,ooo,ooo, or 51*12 per cent., or by an average of nearly ^10,000,000 a-year. T/ie latest available returns -unll be found in the Appendix. H ENGLISH COLONIES AND FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. ENGLISH COLONIES AND FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. HESE are scattered over all parts of the world. The following is a list of them, together with the manner and time of their coming into British possession : — I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Colonies Manner of possession Newfoundland By settlement and conquest from France. Prince Edward's Island „ „ „ Nova Scotia ... Settlement Bermuda St. Christopher Barbadoes Nevis ... Bahamas Turk's Island... Gambia Antigua Montserrat Jamaica Gold Coast .., Virgin Islands Honduras St. Helena Gibraltar Canada Dominica Grenada Tobago St. Vincent .., New Brunswick Sierra Leone .. Gambia New South Wales Ceylon Trinidad Malta , Conquest from Spain Settlement Ceded by Spain .., Exchanged Conquest from Spain „ ,, France . Ceded by France ... Separated from Nova Scotia Settlement. Ceded by Holland >i )) )) Settlement Conquest from Holland „ „ Spain „ ,, France 162 175 Date of Acquisition 1608 1654 1609 3 & 1650 1625 1628 1629 1629 1631 1632 1632 165s 1661 1666 1670 1651 1704 9 & 1763 1763 1763 1763 1763 1784 1787 1871 1787 1796 1797 1800 ii6 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Colonies Manner of possession Date of Acquisition 31 Guiana ... Ceded by Holland ... ... 1803 32 St Lucia Conquest from France ... 1803 33 Tasmania Settlement ... 1803 34 Cape of Good Hope... Conquest from Holland ... 1806 35 Mauritius „ „ France 181O 36 Heligoland ... ...Ceded by Denmark ... 1814 37 Ascension Settlement 1827 38 West Australia ,, 1829 39 South Australia ,, ... 1836 40 Natal ,, ... 1838 41 New Zealand .. 5> 1839 42 Falkland Isles Settlement in 1765 and ceded by Spain... 1837 43 Hong Kong .. ... Ceded by China ... ... 1843 44 Labuan „ Sultan of Borneo 1846 45 Victoria Separated from New South Wales ... ... 1850 46 Columbia Settlement ... 1858 India ... -'r^ Settlement and Conquest from \ 1625 & 1849 47 'ransferred from East India Company j ... 1859 48 Queensland .. Separated from New South Wales ... ... 1859 49 Caffreland Separated from the Cape i860 50 Transvaal Annexation April 12 ... 1877 51 Straits Settlements Treaty and Settlement I786& 1824 52 Vancouver's Island ... Settlement 1792 53 Lagos ... Conquest and Treaty ... 1874 54 Fiji Islands ... Ceded in ... 1874 55 Cyprus Convention, June 4th 1878 These possessions embraced, according to the official returns in 1877, 8,078.370 square miles, with a population of 233,930,338. The dealings of the mother country with the various colonies are not uniform. Those which are simply military positions are ruled absolutely, while those colonies with European populations have their parliaments and govern themselves, as far as their internal affairs are concerned, as free and independent countries. Thus act the various colonies in Australia, Canada and the Cape. They have the power of determining their recjuirements, and voting the supplies to meet them. It is only as regards the military that the mother country continues her supervision, and even that she has contracted of late years by withdrawing most of the troops ; nevertheless, there appears in the Army Budget for 1874-75 ;^i, 734,977 for the support of the troops in the colonies, which is ;^2o,ooo more than in the previous year. Of this sum, however, the Cape, Natal, Hong Kong, the Straits Settlements, Ceylon and Mauritius repay ;j^2oo,ooo. I. — Possessions in Europe. Area Scir. Miles Population Inhabitants per sqr. mile. 1S76 Gross Revenue Expenditure Gibraltar .. I| 25,148 ^42,144 ...^42,289 Malta & Gozo ■ 115 149,270 1,266 176,002 ... 167,508 Cyprus* ..4000 200,000 62 * Military population of 6,448 not included, ■\ Exclusive of the Queen's troops. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. \\^ Malta. The most important source of Income to Malta are the Customs, which in 1867 yielded ^105,232, and the most important article of commerce is corn. Since 187 1 we have only information concerning those goods which pay duty. The gross revenue for the year 1876 was ^176,002. The average revenue for the five years preceding 1876, after deducting all exceptional items was ^164,755. The revenue of 1876 exceeded that of 1875 by ^4,686 \s. 2d., and was above the average of the preceding five years by ;^8,533 \s. 2d. The principal difference arose from the increase in the Customs, viz., ^^5,995. There was an increase also under Imports and Exports in 1876. In 1873 the value of the total Imports was ... £ 8,705,985 „ 1874 „ „ „ „ ... 8,384,723 „ 1875 „ „ „ „ ••- 10,324,587 „ 1876 „ „ „ „ ... 11,802,036 In 1873 the value of total Exports was ^^8,010,187 „ 1874 ,, » M 7,671,038 „ 1875 » ,. " 9,500,0" „ 1876 „ „ , 11,018,312 There was an increase also in the number of steamers entering of 270 over 1875, but a small decrease in the number of sailing vessels entering. The total cost of the military establishment for 1876 amounted to ^^317,900 \%s. od., of which the island paid ;^2,5oo. Savings^ Banks. The amount of deposits for 1876 was In Malta ^190,694 2s. ^d. ... by 3,125 depositors. In Gozo ... ... 8,894 OS. 9^. ... by 200 ,, Total ^199,588 3^. od. ... by 3,325 depositors. Education. The number of government schools is 85, with an average daily attendance of 8,828, an increase over previous years of 4 schools and 504 pupils. The increased expenditure of _i876 over 1875 was ^400 5.^. 5^. Cyprus. The estimates of the population vary. We have given the most reliable. The bulk of the population consists of Greeks, who are of a mixed race, having Syrian, Phoenician and Italian blood in their veins. The Austrian consul estimated the population at 250,000 souls, viz., 60,000 Mohammedans, 170,000 Greeks, 10.000 United Greeks and Roman Catholics, 3,000 Maronites, 7,000 Armenians, Jews, etc. Another estimate of 1877 gives Cyprus a population of 144,000, including 44,000 Moham- medans. Consul Watkins states the population at 200,000, of whom | are Greek and the remainder Moslems. ii8 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Agriculture. In 1855 M. Gaudry estimated the cultivated area at 152,180 acres, distributed thus — Acres Wheat Barley ... Oats, vetches, etc. 37,GGG 55,500 14,800 Vineyards Cotton Madder 19,770 9,880 370 Vegetables, pulse Flax, hemp Orchards, mulberries 4,940 1,430 6,180 Tobacco... Various ... 500 860 The average produce he valued at ;^347,6oo inclusive of animals slaughtered, cheese, etc. This included 51,610,000 qrs. ofwheat, 1 20,000 qrs. of barley, 25,800 qrs. of oats, 110,000 gallons of olive oil, 3,080,000 gallons of wine, 49,000 tons of locust beans, 55,000 lbs. of silk cocoons, 770,000 lbs. of cotton, 220,000 lbs. of madder, 308,000 lbs. of wool, and 330 lbs. only of tobacco. In most of these items a very considerable increase has taken place.* Zur HeUe quite recently estimated that there were annually produced 182,000 qrs. ofwheat. 364,000 qrs. of barley. 283,000 gallons of olive oil. 3,036,400 gallons of wine. 42,500 gallons of brandy. 50,000 tons of locust beans 42,500 lbs. of linseed. 992,000 lbs. of sumach. 42,450,000 lbs. of rasins. 283,000 lbs. of nuts. 5,670 lbs. of silk. 127,776 lbs. of cocoons. 2,296,000 lbs. of cotton. 850,000 lbs. of madder. 300 qrs. of sesame. 378,000 lbs. of hides and skins for exportation. Imports afid Exports. The imports include a great variety of articles. In 1876 there were imported into Larnaca anc i Limasol Cotton manufactures ... ;^63,ooo Wax ;^5oo Other manufactures . . . 15,750 Sugar ... 3,925 Oriental stuffs ... 3,500 Coffee 1,700 Hardware, etc.... 1 1,700 Colonial goods... 8, 1 GO Iron (wrought & un-) wrought ... ) 2,950 Rice 4,685 Salt fish i,88g Glass and Pottery 2,915 Butter 2,980 Matches 1,270 Olive oil 1,855 Leather... 17,050 Rum 900 Skins, ox and camel ... 3,550 Tobacco 30,600 Petroleum 4,840 Soap 3,000 Copper ... 1,300 Miscellaneous ... 12,150 Drysalteries 800 The principal articles exported ii 1 1874, 1875 and 1876 from Larnaca and Limasol were — * The above has been obtained from Ravenstein's work upon Cyprus. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 119 1874 1875 1876 Quantity £ Value Quantity £ Value Quantity £ Value Wheat, qrs. 48,000 103,260 69,000 122,000 87,600 Barley, „ 53>333 57,250 75,000 74,600 Locust beans, tons 7,900 32,960 9,000 36,057 8,400 37,250 Wine, gallon 715,000 29,900 43,500 774,000 37,125 Raisins, lbs. ) Fruit, „ I 1,200,000 5,950 524,296 2,015 252,000 815 Cotton, „ 1,191,362 33.500 830,000 21,370 1,225,000 28,940 Silk cocoons, lbs. 275,000 20,000 5,060 8,000 Madder .,. „ 695,000 7,550 3,565 2,000 Oil seed ... „ 687,500 5,000 6,000 Wool ... „ 671,000 14,300 6,345 425,000 8,350 Salt ... tons 13,700 1,650 6,800 Skins & hides „ 4,300 3,230 7,160 Other articles „ 58,680 59,899 34,055 Consul Watkins, in his report, 1878, states that a falling off in the trade and commerce of the island occurred in 1877, owing greatly to the influence of the war, but also to the effect of drought upon some of the crops. The imports fell from ;^i5o,48o in 1876 to ^105,277 in 1877, and the exports from ^^267,795 to ^150,918. The revenue was of course unfavourably affected. The production of wheat fell from 31,485 cwts. in 1876 to 15,742 m 1877, and that of barley from 40,142 cwts. to 29,517 cwts. and it became necessary to import rather than export grain. The cotton crop in 1877 yielded 2,000 bales, of 560 lbs. each bale, the average price being 4^, per lb. About 330,000 lbs. of wool were produced in 1877. The number of sheep 750,000. The manufacture of wine is on the de- crease. The produce of olive oil advanced to 700,000 lbs., the prices ranging from is. 6}(d. to is. g^/(d. for 2f lbs. The oil is rarely exported. When the oil is abundant and cheap, soap is made in large quanties. The quantity of tobacco disposed of in a year is about 280,000 lbs. About ^^ of the quantity is exported to Syria and Caramania. The Salt Lakes of Larnaca can produce salt to the amount of 56,000,000 lbs. per annum. Sponge fishing on the coasts of Cyprus employs 40 boats, each manned by a crew of 8 to 10 Greeks. The quantity taken in 1877 was about 7,000 lbs., mostly of the common kind. There were 1,400 lbs. sold to Syrian buyers at 6s. per lb. Tanning is one of the chief industries. The tanneries of Nicosia turn out from i,5oo| to 2,000 bales of leather per annum. The manufacture of silk stuffs is carried on by women at Nicosia to the extent of about 10,000 pieces yearly for dresses, beside handkerchiefs and sashes. Nothing was done in public works in 1877 ; there are no good roads at present ; there are also no wharves or jetties ; the peasants are very heavily taxed. //. — British North- America. (Canadian Confederation) Dominion of Canada, The earlier provinces of Upper and Lower Canada (which were united in 1839), together with New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward's Island have, since July i, 1867, been formed into a Confederation, under I20 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. the name of the Dominion of Canada. Upper Canada bears the name of Ontario, and Lower Canada of Quebec, the chief town of the Confederation being Ottawa. By an act passed March 9, 1869, the lands of the Hudson's Bay Company were added to the Confederation, and in June of the same year Newfoundland was likewise added. Since 1866 Vancouver's Island and British Columbia have been united to the Dominion of Canada. The total area and population is as under : — Ontario (Upper Canada^ Quebec (Lower Canada) ... New Brunswick Nova Scotia... Newfoundland British Columbia ... Vancouver's Island... Prince Edward's Island Hudson's Bay Territory ... Total Dominion of Canada ... Add Manitoba* „ North West Territory... Total of British North America 3,370,000 3,763,549 Neither the lands of the Hudson's Bay Company nor those of British Columbia have any well-defined frontier lines. Sqr. Miles PopuUtion 'opuiaiion Sqr. Mil 101,736 1,620,851 15-9 187,702 1,191,516 6-3 27,177 285,594 IO-5 20,900 387,800 i8-5 40,200 146,536 200,000 i 10,586 13,000 \ exclusive of Indians 2,173 94,021 605,561 3,720,904 14,340 11,945 2,750,000 28,700 Population. The population of the first four lands consisted in 1871 of 1,764,311 males, and 1,721,450 females. The nationalities were exceedine;ly mixed, of— French origin .. . ... ... ... ... ... 1,082,940 English Welsh Scotch Irish ... German Dutch Swiss ... Scandinavians... Italians 706,369 7,773 549,946 846,414 202,991 29,662 2,962 1,623 1,035 • Manitoba is becoming celebrated for the good quality and quantity of the wheat grown there. The Canadian Minister of Agriculture states in his last report, that in the year 1878 no fewer than 983 farmers from the United States transferred themselves across the boundary into Manitoba, and in this year of 1879 the numbers have been more consider- able. The rate at which this new province is being settled has no parallel excejit in the rapid development of the Western States of America. The generous and easy land system of Manitoba is attracting settlers. The allotments of land by the office which has jurisdiction over the Crown Lands of Manitoba have been, from 1873 to 1878, both included, to the extent of 1,076,418 acres. The aggregate area of land known to be fit for cultivation is estimated at 375 million acres. English Colonics and Foreign Possessions. 121 Spaniards and Portuguese 829 Poles and Russians 607 Jewish... 123 Africans 21,496 Indians 23,035 Still greater is the variety of creeds — Catholics ... 1,492,029 English Church ... ... 494,049 Presbyterians, in 5 categories 544,998 Baptists, in 5 sects ... ^39'343 Community of Brethren, in 3 sects 4,534 Methodists, in 8 sects 567,082 Members of the Christian Conference 15,153 Members of the Evangelical Association 7,701 Congregationalists 21,829 Adventists 6,179 Quakers 7,345 Swedenborgians 854 Unitarians 2,275 Universalists ... 4,896 Deists 409 Irvingites ... ... 1,112 Lutherans ... ... 37,935 Other Protestants 10,146 Mormons 534 Jews 1,115 Mahommedans 13 Heathens 1,886 Atheists 20 Without any creed 5,146 In Prince Edward's Island there are — Catholics 40,442 English Church 7,220 Presbyterians 18,603 Members of the Scotch Church 10,976 Methodists ... 8,361 Baptists 4.371 Lower and Upper Canada. The French possessed Quebec* for 150 years, and during that period the population did not exceed 90,000. In later times it made an unim- portant stride, but did not continue at the same rate. The number of immigrants in 1847 rose to 98,096 persons, of whom 54,329 were Irish ; 32,216 were English; and 7,697 were Germans. Then the number decreased, for example— In 1857, 32,097, exclusive of those who came from the United States; in 1858, 12,810 ; in 1859 the number was 8,778; * In the province of Quebec people of French origin bear a proportion of 780-4 in the 1,000 to 101-7 of those of English, Irish and Scotch origin. 122 English Colonies and Foreign Possessiofis. in i860, 10,150, in 1861, 17,200 ; then in 1865, 21,355 5 i" 1866, 28,648, of whom 3,380 were English, 3,422 were Irish, 2,074 were Scotch, 4,013 were Germans, and 14,968 were Scandinavians ; in 1867, 30,757 ; in 1868, 34,300; in 1869, 43,114; in 1870, 44,475; i" 1871, 37,020, of whom were 17,915 English, 2,980 Irish, 3,426 Scotch, 9,300 Germans, 2,999 Scandinavians. The province of Quebec spent during the year 1872 30,373 dollars for aiding immigrants. The total expenditure for the service of immigration in the whole of the Dominion for the year 1872 was 261,963 dollars. In 1861, among the population of Lower Canada, there were 847,615 persons of Irish origin, while among that of Upper Canada (Ontario) were only 33,287.* To the first belong many of Indian blood, the French often marrying with the Indians, which the English rarely do. In 1871 the population consisted of — 2,900,531 144,999 121,074 64,447 24,162 2,899 588 The Large Toims. The population of Montreal is Quebec „ Toronto „ Halifax (Nova Scotia), St. Johns (New Brunswick), Hamilton St. Johns (Newfoundland), Ottawa The schools of the two Canadas were between 1797 and 1859, en- dowed with 3,613,000 acres of public land. The number of schools in 1862 were in Upper Canada 343,733, and in Lower Canada only 139,474. Born in the land „ England „ Scotland from the United States „ Germany ,, France „ Scandinavia 107,225 59,699 46,092 29,582 28,988 26,716 ... 22,553 21,545 Finance. The gross amount of public revenue of the Dominion of Canada in 1873 ^^'as ;^4,336,i39, in 1875, ^5,i35,i49, and the gross amount of public expenditure, ;!^3,994,7i8 and ^6,382,553. In 1878-9 gross public revenue ^4,475,002, expenditure ;^4,7oo,63i. The special trades of Newfoundland are its seal fishery and cod fishery. In 1876 the number of seals taken was 346,000, of the value of about ^175,000. The deposits in the savings' bank reached the sum of ^1^2 10,808, bs. Sd., an increase of ^3,856 ly. od. over the deposits of 1875. The revenue (which, as a rule, is reckoned according to dollars), consists of Customs and Excise. The rate of Customs for manufactured • In Ontario there are %zz--^ of English-speaking races in 1,000 to 465 of French. It it a fact that where there exists a large French element progress is slow, and that wherever English-speaking races prevail progress is rapid. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 123 goods is about 15 per cent, of the worth. For spirits, i\d. per gallon. Wine 5^. per gallon, and 20 per cent, of its worth. Tobacco, i\d. per lb., and 5 per cent, of the worth. Taking 1873 ^^ an example, we find the following: — Revenue. The revenue derived from spirits was ^598,331 „ „ „ „ tobacco ... „ 261,075 „ „ „ ,, petroleum ... „ 48,749 „ „ ,, „ government railways „ 252,443 „ postage 144,242 „ tonnage 12,601 n fines 10,069 The remainder was made up by new loans. Expenditure. The Government debt ;^I, 265,468 Of which interest upon it was r,o95>256 Sinking fund 98,043 Collecting dues and managing post 551.227 Subsidies for provinces of the Dominion 610,446 and the remainder for management. The Public Debt. According to the Parliamentary Finance Report, of April, 1874, there was a deficit of ;^3,ooo,ooo sterling in prospect, which was covered by taxing iron, tea, coffee, and shipbuilding material, and by increasing the Customs and Excise duties on spirits, wine, tobacco, etc. In reality an important new loan had been resorted to, and Baring's London house lent ^1,000,000 in June, 1874, at 4 per cent. ^22,567,701 24,168,412 25,948,232 27,751,812 34,99i>453 1875 1876 1877 Ontario, Quebec, | New Brunswick, [ ^22,567,701 ^24,168,412 ^25,948,232 ;^27,75i, 812 and Nova Scotia) Prince Edward's\ Island... British Columbia Vancouver's Island... Newfoundland... The public debt in 1874 amounted to... >) 5» 1875 11 >> ), 1876 „ J) 11 1877 „ 11 11 1878 „ 1874 I ^239,396 ^262,232 ^274,872 ^^275,136 British Columbia received in 1868, £,^l,^2\ from duties out of an income of ^96,436, and required ^17,633 for interest of the public debt. The interest was 12 per cent., and \ of the debt was spent in paying it. 124 Ens^lish Colonics and Foreign Possessions. Military. The military power of the mother country has, since 1869, been reduced to about 5,000 men, and the colony has been induced to utilize its own capabilities of defence. Consequently, besides a volunteer corps, there is now an organized militia, in which all capable of bearing arms between 18 and 60 years of age are enrolled. The compulsory time for service in the volunteer corps is three years. At the first summons to serve in the militia two years. The time for exercise in the militia is 16 days in a year. The organized militia amounts to 48,000, and the reserve is believed to be about 700,000. On the Canadian lakes and in the St. Lawrence river, there is a war fleet of 10 small vessels, including 3 sea and 2 river steamers. 1874 1875 1876 1877 Commercial Traffic. Total Imports Total Exports ;^26,7ii,i64 ;j{;i 8,6 14,985 25,639,642 16,226,454 19,418,822 16,868,007 20,693,325 15,807,374 Value of Exports. Gold bearing quartz, dust, nuggets, etc. 1874 1875 Of other bullion and coin. 1874 1875 ^223,734 1876 ^306,675 334,539 1877 247,724 ;^4i5,799 1876 ^258,341 216,633 1877 152,862 The value of the imports amounted in the 8 years from 1841-48 to ^27,534,319 of which ;^6i9,886 were from articles duty free. In the 6 years from 1849-54 to ;^35, 806,420, of which ^2,448,381 were from articles duty free. In the 4 years from 1855-59 to ^37,044,920, of which ;j£, 10,789,705 were from articles duty free. With the year 1859 the reckoning commenced to be made in dollars, but we give it in English money. Year Imports Exports Year Imports Kxports i860 ;^I 1,968,964 ^^10,840,967 1870 ^16,972,965 ;^i6,625,784 1861 13,669,945 10,893,774 1871 21,277,541 16,763,730 1863 15,683,402 12,435,354 1872 24,613,874 18,405,555 1864 17,397,234 13,008,590 1873 28,078,726 20,067,488 1865 16,225,767 13,359,098 1874 28,243,391 20,143,326 1866 18,710,886 15,875,621 1875 27,172,586 17,566,454 1867 14,084,347 1 1,145,101 1876 20,920,052 18,235,109 1868 ,16,200,847 12,881,573 1877 22,227,415 17,232,703 1869 15,764,441 13,869,079 Among articles from Great lirita in we m cntion the value for the year 1874 of the following- — Specie • . • • • • • .. ;^778,6o6 Corn .. .. ^^576,485 Books 161,950 Wheat .. 2,062,912 Flour ... 115,440 Cotton ... .. 1,906,357 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 125 Woollens ;^i,85i,766 Sugar ^777,794 Linen ... ... ... 203,170 Tea ... ... ... 624,588 Silk 359)297 Wine 107,244 Iron wares ... ... 868,609 Among the chief articles of export in 1876 we mention the value of — Agricultural produce , Coin and buUion ... ^3,658,928 401,605 Wood ware ^3)643>59o Animals ... ... 430,194 Animal produce ... 1,788,763 In 1877 the export of live stock from Canada to Great Britain was 7,412 cattle, 6,825 sheep, 373 pigs and 288 horses, shewing an increase over 1876 of 4,645 cattle, and 4,218 sheep. From the year 1869 to 1878, the quantity of cheese exported from the Dominion rose from 4,503,370 lbs. in 1869, to 39v37i)i39 lbs. in 1878, being an increase of 34,867,769 lbs., or not less than 774 per cent, in nine years. The value of the cheese exported in 1869 was ^114,493 13^. od., while in 1878 it was ;^888,52o 10^. od., an increase of 650 per cent. The quantity of butter exported in 1869 was 10,853,268 lbs. ; in 1878 it was 13,504,117 lbs. The value of that exported in 1869 was ^488,181, in 1878, ^505,457, an increase of 5,^ per cent. Of these two articles of dairy produce Great Britain took the bulk. The vast increase in the cheese trade is due to the development of cheese making under the factory system. Canadian Fisheries. The year 1877 shows a continued increase in the productiveness of the various branches of this industry. The total yield in 1876 was valued at 11,147,590 dollars. In 1877 it amounted to 12,029,957 dollars, being an increase of 882,367 dollars in 1877 over 1876. The value offish exported in 1877 exceeded 17,000 000 dollars, being a million and a-half dollars more than the value of 1876. Strange to say, Canada irnported fish in 1877 to the value of 1,320,500 dollars. Next to the United States the West Indian Islands were the largest importers of Canadian fish. Australia took one per cent, of the whole export, and Great Britain received one-seventh of the whole. Taking the principal branches of the industry in the order of the value of their produce, we find the following to be the gross yield of the Dominion for the year 1877 : — Description Cod Fish Mackerel Herrings Lobsters Salmon Haddock Fish Oils White Fish Fish used as manure Pollack Smelts Trout Quantity 814,960 CWt. 163,916 barrels 865,878 „ 8,000,000 lbs. 134,963 CWt. 466,579 gallons 58,746 CWt. 2,266,202 lbs. Value in Dollars 3,661,199 1,667,815 1,705,526 1,213,085 855,686 475,622 303,276 222,758 217,039 205,611 135,972 176,499 126 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Descrip Cod Liver Oil Oysters Shad Alewives Eels Seal Skins ... Halibut Sardines Pickerel Bass ... The fish consumed fresh at the place of capture are not specified in the returns. The fisheries of Nova Scotia are more productive than those of any other province of the Dominion. In 1876 the value of its yield was ... 6,000,000 dollars. In 1877 „ „ „ ... 5.527.858 The following is a return of the vessels, boats and fishing material employed in the province of Nova Scotia during the year 1878 : — Quantity Value in Dollars 255,129 gallons 20,568b arrels 15,313 barrels 112,564 88,704 80,256 67,298 54,473 20,312 8,130 barrels 4,802 43.915 48,732 40,650 33,362 27,317 Vessels... Boats ... Nets and Weirs Number 761 10,303 Tonnage 28,417 Men 7,216 18,643 Total Value Value in Dollars 1,206,675 207,466 682,848 2,186,989 Next in importance come the fisheries of Quebec, the value of which, in 1877, was 2,560,147 dollars, showing an increase of 462,480 dollars over 1876. Timber. The value of the hewn timber imported from British Guiana into the United Kingdom had increased from ^9,739 in 1872 to ^66,179 in 1876. From British Honduras the chief timber exports are mahogany, cedar and logwood. 34,000,000 feet of mahogany were imported from it into the United Kingdom for the ten years ending 1878. In Newfoundland the great indigenous timber trees are the white pine, the white and black spruce, the larch, the white and yellow birch, the aspen poplar and the mountain ash. Most of the forests are owned by Government. In the Dominion of Canada the exports of timber form nearly one-half of the total value of all its exports to the United Kingdom. Dumng the five years ending 1876 we received from Canada between ;^24,ooo,ooo and ;!{^2 5,000,000 worth of timber. In Nova Scotia the approximate amount of timber-producing land in 1875 ^^^ computed at 9,000,000 acres ; in Ontario 30,000 square miles; in the province of Quebec 73,711,114 acres; in New Brunswick 6,000,000 acres, and § of the area of British Columbia, or 110,000,000 acres, are covered with timber. The approach to free trade has proved itself in the Dominion very English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 127 useful, although its development was disturbed. The colony, for example, had been security for the guarantee of the interest of several railways, so that in the middle of the year 1872, more than 3,000 miles were in active working. The lines, however, paid their interest badly, and in order to secure means of payment the tax was increased even as early as the end of 1850. About 1867 the railways were worked with somewhat better results. At the end of this year the total cost Of construction was ;^i54)92i,i9° The year's income had risen to ... ... .•• ii)845)377 The cost of working the rails 8,245,076 so that the net income was only ^3,600,301, (2-32 per cent, upon the outlay). In 1872 the gross income from the railways and 6 canals was ;^i, 21 1,729 The cost of working rose to ... ... ... ••• ••• 1,005,443 So that the net income in this year was only 206,286 a result out of all proportion to the cost of construction. In 1877 there were 5,846 miles in active working in the Dominion of Canada. The length of telegraph wires is about 10,000 miles. Harbour Traffic. Tonnage of vessels entered and cleared — 1873. Canada, 2,191,107, of which 1,844,890 were British vessels. New Brunswick, ... 1,652,052, „ 992,055 „ „ „ Nova Scotia 2,028,416, „ 1,528,674 „ „ „ Newfoundland* ... 412,024, „ 394,890 „ „ „ British Columbia ) ».^«<^ p., -,8-1 Vancouver's Island 3i3.96o „ 57,384 „ „ Total tonnage ... 6,597,557 of which 4,817,893 were British vessels. In 1874 the tonnage of vessels entered and cleared was 6,527,502. In 1875, 5.785.711- Ii^ 1876, 6,449,048. The lake traffic between Ontaiio and Quebec shows a falling off, and this, notwithstanding a large increase of trade, and is only to be explained by the increased facilities for the conveyance of merchandise by railway. The occupation of the people of Canada during three decades were as as follows, the ratio given being that of each class separately to 1,000 of the aggregate of all occupations. ^*^ ^ 1851 1861 1871 Agricultural ... 368-8 ... 450-8 ... 474*9 Commercial ... 40.6 ... 63*7 ... 74'5 Domestic ... 78-6 ... — ... 59'5 Industrial ... 155-8 ... 204-1 ... 210-7 Professional ... 25-3 ... 28*2 ... 38-8 Not classified ... 335'6 ... 244-3 ... 1417 The great predominance of the agricultural classes in Canada is apparent from these figures, and in Nova Scotia the least agricultural of all, that class is in a ratio of 4x9-5. ♦ There were loo ships ol 4,079 tons burden built in the colony of Newfoundland 1876, and 141 ships of 5,384 toni burden in 1877. 128 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. The number of acres owned in Ontario is 19,605,019, and the occupiers number 172,258. In Quebec it is 17,701,589 acres, and 118,086 occupiers. In New Brunswick 5,453,962 acres, and 31,202 occupiers, and in Nova Scotia 6,607,459 acres, and 46,316 occupiers. Out of a total of 367,862 occupiers, 40,281 possess 10 acres and under, 78,877 from 10 to 50 acres, 141,300 from 50 to 100 acres, 82,176 from 100 to 200 acres, and 25,228 over 200 acres. Of those who own the land they occupy, there are 326,160 against 39,583 who are only tenants. The chief field products are wheat, barley, oats, rye, peas, beans, buckwheat, maize, potatoes, turnips, hay and clover seed. ///. — Central and South American. Population — 1874. NORTHERN *Area in Increase in ISLANDS sqr. miles Males Females Total 1876 Bermuda 19 5,402 6,719 12,121 13,418 Bahamas 5,390 19,359 19,813 39,162 Turk's Island 420 2,274 2,449 4,723 Jamaica 4,193 246,573 259,581 506,154 LESSER ANTILLES St. Christopher 68 13,259 14,910 28,169 Decrease Nevis 50 5,482 6,253 11,735 11,680 Antigua 157 16,297 19,345 35,642 Montserrat 32 3,978 4,7 '5 8,693 Dominica 296 12,737 14,441 27,178 St. Lucia 237 15,532 16,078 31,610 St. Vincent 147 16,865 18,823 35,688 Barbadoes 166 73,452 88,590 162,042 Increase Grenada 133 39,941 40,867 Tobago 114 17,686 17,901 Trinidad 1,754 109,638 Honduras 7,562 12,603 12,107 24,710 British Guiana 76,000 108,791 84,700 193,491 Increase Falkland Isles 6,500 643 290 933 1,114 Of the population in Bermuda 7,396 are colored. In the Bahamas 29,287 are colored. In Turk's Island 3,398 are negroes. In Jamaica 100,346 are colored, and in the Virgin Islands 4,565 are negroes. Most of the population of these islands are Protestants divided into many sects ; except in St. Lucia and Dominica, where they are Catholics. In Grenada and Honduras the larger proportion are Catholics. Finance. BERMUDA, f Vear 1874 1875 1876 1877 Revenue ^^36,945 25,722 27,374 30,353 Expenditure ^36,484 28,270 25,788 26,563 Public Debt ^13,334 12,734 11,984 11,484 Commerce. Value of Value of Imports Exports ^252,435 ^81,587 244,486 61,253 244,676 74,514 279,860 74,981 * According to the Statistical abstract for Colonies, 1878. t This colony may be said to depend upon America for its food, and upon England for its luxuries. EiK^lisJi Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 129 Fi nance. BAHAMAS.f Commerce. Year 1874 1875 1876 1877 Revenue ^36,574 38,253 41,645 36,661 Expenditure i:36,628 37,521 42,012 \ 36,413 Public Debt ^54,162 55,162 67,161 61,161 Imports ^183,993 172,183 ^53,614 153,667 Exports ^130,291 108,893 106,836 110,931 Turk's Island. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^7,817 i 8,601 9,557 6.298 ^6,939 7,620 7,599 6,305 ^2,000 1,000 ^23,773 23,340 23,858 21,790 ^24,321 26,364 31,567 22,185 Jamaica. 1874 1875 1S76 1877 ^541,799 590,938 572,686 532,788 ^537,263 586,520 537,359 536,206 ^665,537 678,229 646,706 633,435 ^1,762,817 1,759,942 1,700,254 1,552,539 ^1,442,080 1,410,485 1,517,015 1,458,669 St. Christopher. 1874 1875 • 1876 1877 ^22,442 26,566 31,577 26,271 ^27,765 27,145 32,152 27,230 ^6,700 6,200 5,700 5,200 ^128,811 132,858 139,296 134,224 ^146,144 140,540 156,153 147,162 Virgin Island. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^1,759 1,702 2,049 1,335 ^1,698 1,695 2,039 1,329 — ;^4,377 2,774 3.856 ^6,889 4,773 17,602 Nevis. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^9,786 10,002 11,218 12,664 ^12,070 9,527 11,195 12,364 ^3,000 4,400 3,400 2,400 ^38,101 23,095 37,933 35,277 ^60,341 57,914 54,683 49,567 Antigua. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^33,536 37,818 32,354 34,102 ^35,650 34,159 33,530 35,125 i^55,54o 58,520 58,511 58,510 ^146,758 180,363 140,036 170,693 249,675 143,237 210,365 MONTSERRAT. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^5,106 5,473 6,065 6,949 ^5,497 5,662 5,349 5,918 — ^23,958 26,678 23,989 25,471 ^33,079 33,555 28,357 32,065 t 'The special trades here are salt, sponge and pine-apple. 130 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Dominica. Finance. Commerce. Year 1874 1875 1876 1877 Revenue 22,667 18,809 19,162 Expenditure ;^i7,457 21,967 18,790 19,154 Public Debt ;^4,8i3 9,009 8,205 8,306 Imports ^56,714 62,312 60,918 58,922 Exports ^67,720 71,623 76,948 77,800 St. Lucia. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 ^21,131 25.390 27,850 28,287 28,297 ;^24,268 25,930 29,242 28,054 32,756 ;^i8,ooo 41,400 43,500 44,100 47,300 ^133,006 150,740 106,963 110,588 108,264 ^146,858 159,468 143,718 178,735 151,464 St. Vincent. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 ;^27,74i 27,852 28,858 27,859 33,497 ;^29,788 29,693 27,997 28,754 36,244 ^5,151 ;^i57,303 152,082 154,915 148,198 150,397 ;^2oo,546 207,616 183,301 175,379 161,537 Barbadoes. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^123,868 132,123 117,057 121,433 ;^i23,96i 126,844 123,728 119,611 ^25,506 25,506 25,130 25,130 ;^i,03i,248 1,187,493 1,027,871 1,144,314 ^1,140,767 1,474,910 964,263 1,097,912 Grenada. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ^23,403 26,570 26,286 29,084 >^25,73o 25,017 26,724 29,582 ^8,000 9,000 7,908 7,000 ;^io6,636 118,385 1 14,861 127,205 ^158,866 171,332 178,583 145,905 Tobago. 1874 1875 1876 1877 ;^9,45o 11,592 11,769 13,311 ;^9,597 9,625 11,654 13,373 — ^^46,435 67,772 54,582 58,750 ^45,387 92,015 79,670 69,058 Trinidad. T874 T875 1876 '877 1878 ;^384,672 341,619 346,170 3 '0,338 346,997 ^372,469 352,489 318,363 312,586 331,595 ;'^i47,55o 191,500 184,670 1 78,000 250,000 ;^i,342,993 1,507,794 1,666,268 1,708,45s 1,901,401 ! ^^1,412,261 1,625,082 1,636,619 2,093,650 1,839,067 Honduras. 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 ^43,723 41,906 40,231 41,588 40,361 ^^40,063 40,839 36,615 39,929 51,093 1 ;^i5,39i 13,062 5,041 5,041 4,510 ^178,398 175,321 163,403 ! 165,756 i 191,490 1 ^240,628 202,512 206,420 124,503 131,006 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 131 British Guiana. Finance. Commerce. Year Revenue Expenditure Public Debt ImpertB Exports 1874 £2>(>SAS^ ^{^381, 103 ^412,766 ^1,873,220 ^2,761,838 1875 35^,-^37 355,979 403,537 1,837,158 2,337,122 1876 363,808 343,735 354,821 1,983,165 3,031,069 1877 389,872 380,566 323,563 2,229,908 3,049,157 1878 409,259 417,995 Falkl 250,289 AND Isles. - 1874 ^11,041 p{^io,35i ^28,156 ;^4i,720 1875 10,863 10,587 — 42,460 38,989 1876 9,150 8,608 ;^4.5oo 27,056 37,121 1877 7,464 6,673 — 33,283 59,878 1878 6,812 6,364 none 36,792 51,055 Comparing the present figures with those of ten years ago, the debt is less, and the financial condition good. The West Indian Islands are not in a favorable condition. Negro emancipation has primarily the responsibility of this disorder. It is sup- posed that without emancipation the negro population would have died out, in consequence of the prohibition to import slaves. In eleven of the possessions the number of negroes, in the twelve years preceding the emancipation, had fallen from 558,194 to 497,975, while in the twelve years succeeding the emancipation, it had increased by 54,076. The distress in these West Indian colonies is owing to the decrease in the price of sugar. In the eight years from 1838 to 1846 a cwt. of sugar cost on an average 375. 3^. In the eight years from 1847 to 1855 only 2^s. 6d. The production of sugar in the mean time did not decrease, but rose from 20 to 24^ millions of cwts., and in spite of this increased production, the net proceeds sank ^7,000,000. The total exports together with their value increased, for while in the four years from 1849 to 1853, the amount was ^32,500,000, in the following four years up to 1857 it was ^37,000,000. This method of judging of things was con- firmed in comparing the Statistics of 1871 with those of 1868, both as regards the population and commerce, and this, not only for the West Indies in general, but for Jamaica in particular, where the negroes have increased considerably. The chief export articles of Jamaica in 1868 were Sugar ... 637,478 cwts. ... value ^551,406 Coffee ... 7,855,488 lbs. ... ,, 169,774 Rum ... 2,927,989 gallons ... „ 206,479 The average price in 1867 (the harvest being small), was sugar 3^.- — 45^., coffee 6d. In 1868 the prices sank in consequence of a better harvest. In 1874 the chief productions exported were Sugar ... 28,398 hogsheads ... value ^482,779 Rum ... 19,357 puncheons ... „ 299,267 Coffee ... 92,065 cwts „ 336,958 Logwood ... 62,803 tons ... ... „ 147,564 132 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. In 1876— Sugar Rum Coffee Logwood ... 29,074 hogsheads 36,716 puncheons 77,746 cwts 74,983 tons value ^412,750 332,237 270,066 298,004 In 1877— Sugar Rum Coffee Logwood ... 30,560 hogsheads 20,648 puncheons 88,115 cwts. 47,697 tons value ^^530,024 309>73o 270,960 160,069 The Export of Sugar from Trinidad. In 1868 amounted to 93,039,400 lbs., the value of which was ;^62 2,420 and cocoa 7,614,947 lbs., the value of which was ^167,446. In 1874, sugar, 99,739,550 lbs., value ^668,882, cocoa, 11,191,431 lbs., value ^213,078. In I S75 the quantity wasi, 1 58,939 cwts. In 1876, 1,026,082 cwts. In 1877, 917,080 cwts. Exports fro?n British Guiana. 1868. Sugar Molasses ... Rum 92,322 hogsheads 25,246 gallons ... 27,776 gallons ... 1874. ... value ;^i, 648,544 126,485 277,760 Sugar Molasses ... Rum Rice 99,090 hogsheads 19,103 puncheons 30,474 1,969,787 lbs. 1876. ... value ^1,980,494 115,186 „ 486,849 31,918 Sugar Molasses ... Rum Rice 120,030 hogsheads 14,418 puncheons 36,219 3,292,120 lbs. 1877. ... value ^2,408,122 „ 72,008 392,613 „ 44,069 Sugar Molasses ... 112,699 hogsheads 20,172 casks ... value ^2,412,240 „ 109,139 Rum ... 32,735 puncheons Rice ... 13,029,920 lbs. ... ,, 286,684 93'3i2 Possessions in Afric.\. ('ape of Cood Hope Griqualaml West .. Natal Mauritius ... Ascension Sqr. Miles Area 200,610 17,800 18,750 7'3 34 Population 582,582 289,773 329,754 Population Population 1874 1877 848,685 35,000 45.277 307,241 325,512 345,955 399,371 500 — St. Helena 47 6,241 6,241 Of whom 22,654 wore whites, 290,035 were natives, and 12,823 were coolies. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 133 Possessions in Africa. — (Continued.) Sqr. Miles Area Population 1S71 Population 1S74 468 37,089 ... 6,000 408,070 ... 69 14,190 ... 500 120,000 ... 62,021 60,221 120,000 ... ... Population 1877 Sierra Leone Gold Coast 6,000 408,070 ... 500,000 Gambia Former Dutch Possessions Lagos Island 62,021 60,221 60,221 Transvaal 120,000 ... ... 300,000 Namaqua, Damara and| 200000 1,000,000 Ovampoland . . . j ' The territory of Cape Colony was increased in 1 871— first, by the incorporation of the diamond fields on the Lower Vaal River, and then at the petition of the Griqua chiefs, by the annexation of Griqualand West. The proclamation was issued on the 27th of October, 1871, and possession taken on the 17th November, 187 1. In 1859 the population was 267,096, and consisted of 102,156 white, 129,167 colored, 10,584 strangers, 25,189 Malays and heathen. (In Cape Town dwelt 15,189 persons). Since this period there has been a constant immigration of Kaffirs, Asiatics, and Europeans. 1876 1877 1876 1877 1878 Revenue ^1,864,928 2,931,692 ;^265,552 246,159 369>383 The Cape. Expenditure Public Debt P^L3oo>576 3,428,392 ^4,068,159 5>°28,959 Natal.* ;^68i,7oo 1,231,700 Imports Exports ^5,829,602 ^3.636,807 5,456,848 3,662,955 ^1,022,890 1,167,402 ^657,390 689,817 1876 I i877t| 1876 1877 1878 1876 1877 1878 ^732,106 748,059 ^13,167 12,681 14,197 .;^64,788 93,347 105,091 ^261,934 283,823 387,067 Mauritius. ^719,539 ;^i, 000,000 |;^2,284,2i3 i;^3, 273,822 703,608 , 1,000,000 St. Helena. ^{^13,329 1 18,007 13,414 ;^l2,25o Gold Coast. i^93,994 2,359,449 I 4,261,286 82,742 68,410 none ;^87,544 70,025 60,604 ^446,088 327,274 394,152 ;^2,228 12,653 ^393,457 * Natal is making a large income and spending it. Customs duties sprang from j^i of ,286 in 1877 tOj/;i62,95iin 1878, an advance of more than 50 percent. Excise grew from jT 8, 5 65 in 1877 tOj(;i5,854 in 1878— a leap of all but 100 per cent., representing duty on 79,270 gallons of rum. t The rate of revenue per head of the population in 1877 was £2. is. \o\d., against £i. 25. i\d. in 1876. The rate of expenditure per head of population in 1877 was _^2. OS. i,\d.., against j(]2. if. -jd. in 1876. 134 1876 1876 i877 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Revenue ^83,141 63,125 ^i9>787 26,585 Sierra Leone. Expenditure Public Debt ^87,170 I ^23,235 53,256 I 66,000 Gambia. ;^2i,489 21,381 1,166 Imports Exports ^273,000 |i;297,ooo 414,070 I 128,340 ^89,356 93,088 I ^86,215 125,101 1876 1877 1878 ;^46,488 59,390 50,889 Lagos. ;^45>i7o 42,305 49.735 ^2? none ^476,813 614,359 485,502 ;^6i9,26o 734>7o7 577,336 The foreign trade of the Cape of Good Hope amounted in- 185 1 to 1855 » i860 „ 1865 „ 1870 „ 1874 „ 1876 „ 1877 „ Exports ^^587, 216 958,281 1,547,351 1,968,917 2,123,061 3,951,110 3,360,141 3,300,530 Imports •i^i,493>953 . 1,017,582 . 2,187,207 . 1,700,574 • 1,956,305 • 4,431.145 . 4,866,788 . 4,302,005 This does not give a strictly accurate view, inasmuch as the import and export of precious metals are sometimes introduced and sometimes omitted in the official papers. The export of wool was during the several years as under : — 23,219,689 lbs. 1873... 40,394,326 lbs. 36,413,689 „ 1874 ... 42,620,481 35,231,607 „ 1875 ... 40,339,674 36,489,760 37,283,291 46,609,653 48,841,314 183s . 215,868 lbs. i860 1839 ■ 585,977 „ 1864 1841 1,016,807 ,, 1866 1844 .. 2,233,946 „ 1868 1849 .. 5,024,946 „ 1870 1854 • • 8,567,457 „ 1871 1858 ... 16,997,029 „ 1872 In 1858 the value of the wool was 1868 1870 ,, ,, ,, 1874 „ „ ,1 1875 „ ,. )> 1876 „ „ „ 1877 „ „ „ 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 34,861,339 36,020,571 ^1,014,858 1,806,995 1,669,518 2,948,571 2,855,899 2,278,942 2,232,755 Note. — There is a fallinp; of!" in Imports, hut chiefly in spirits, wine, tobacco and cigars ; iood, boots, shoes and cotton goods and such like are more largely imported. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 135 The export of wine fluctuated very much. In 1859 it amounted to 1,09-1.542 gallons, value £ 153,941 In 1864 it sank to ... 175,604 24,986 In 1866 93.164 24,499 In 1867 it was only ... 71,263 10,646 In 1870 „ „ 88,533 13.887 In 1871 „ „ >» ••• 61,689 10,742 In 1873 „ „ 75,199 14,488 In 1874 „ „ 77,802 15,876 In 1875 ... 55.519 12,817 In 1876 ... 57,981 12,027 In 1877 ... 76,292 14,223 The total quantity of land under cultivation in the Cape of Good Hope in 1S75 was 581,000 acres, 90 per cent, being corn crops. Vines covered 18,000 acres in 1875, against 16,000 in 1865. The export of solid copper ore in — 1852 was 31 tons 1865 4,500 » 1867 5,625 „ 1870 7,300 „ 1872 13,240 „ 1874 13,656 „ 1875 12,418 „ 1876 12,869 >, 1877 15,244 „ worth ;^Il8,297 120,971 146,368 328,458 321,454 248,537 257,155 303,645 Of late years the diamond fields, or Griqualand West, have exercised a very important influence upon this colony. According to a report of the governor in 1872, diamonds were shipped to the value of at least ^2,000,000, although many value them at a much higher figure. The Customs form the most important source of revenue, being about 10 per cent, of the whole. The amount expended out of national funds for military purposes in South Africa, shows that the total expenditure in the Cape Colony amounted to the under-mentioned sums for each of the following years ending March 31 : — 1871 ^128,426 1876 ;^i46,76o 1872 118,370 1877 132,634 1873 113,019 1878 370,157 1874 119,182 1879 556,518 1875 131,395 The contributions received from the Cape Colony towards the national funds amounted tO;^io,ooo for each of the years named, except for 1876 and 1879, when the contributions amounted to ;j^9,8oo and ^^50,000 respectively. The latter sum includes a special contribution of ;^4o,ooo, which will about cover the amount of ^^40,600 advanced for pay of colonial forces during the Transkei war. 136 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. The total expenditure out of national funds in Natal was as follows : 1871 ;^29,i35 1876 ^39,400 1872 33,673 1877 67,513 1873 33.801 1878 ir7>7o7 1874 •33>632 1879 888,357 1875 40,714 The contributions from Natal towards the national funds for each of the years specified was ^{^"4,000, except for 1879, for which year up to September 30, 1878, ^2,000 had been received. The expenditure on behalf of the Transvaal was ^76.780 for the year ending March 31, 1878; while between that day and November 30, the expenditure on the same account reached ^139,527. No contributions in aid of expenditure are credited to the Transvaal. Cape Railways. In 1875 the Cape had 51 miles of railway. In 1877 141I miles were open for public traffic, consisting of 58 miles of the main line from Cape Town to Wellington, 64 miles of the Ceres-road and Worcester Railway, 6 miles of the Wynberg branch line, and 13J miles of loop line, from Durban to Mulder's Valley. During the year 1876 620,513 passengers were carried (irrespective of season-ticket holders), against 581,349 in 1875. A total of 97,206 tons of goods were carried in 1876, against 89,521 tons in 1875, the average price per ton in 1875 being 13^. o^^., and in 1876 12s. ^hd. A total of 279,737 miles were run during the year 1876, at a cost of 5.^. id. per train mile, against 5.^. 7^^/. in 1875, and 6s 2d. in 1874. No fatal accidents occurred to any passengers. The line was completed in 1879 to Beaufort West, making a total of about 300 miles. The report of the Eastern district shows that at the end of 1876 a total of 67 miles of railway were open severally between Port Elizabeth and Sand Flr.ts, and between Zwaartkops Junction and Uitenhage. The working expenses of these lines averaged nearly 6^. T,^d. per train mile, but as yet, owing to the limited lengths open for traffic, the railway has hitherto been unable to compete with the ox waggon. A line is also in process of construction between East London and King William's Town, a distance of 90 miles. A total of from 1,300 to 2,500 men have been employed on this line, of which from 800 to 1,850 were natives; 102 artisans, and 72 navvies were imported from Europe in 1876, making a total of 587 men of these classes engaged since the commencement of the works. A total length of 56 miles is now opened for passenger traffic in this district. In Ca{)e colony it is computed t-hat there are between 500 and 600 square miles of forest, and the timber produced is used principally for the making of agricultural implements, and furniture. Griqualand West. Finance. With the exception of the first year, 1872, there has been a large annual deficit, 1875 for instance, showing a deficit of ^15,826 4^. dd. The revenue amounted to ^78,093 15^. T,d. and the expenditure to ^93,919 i()s. id. This is not to be wondered at in a place 500 miles from the nearest seaport, where the governing powers were thrown entirely English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 137 on their own resources, and left to procure and form everything without external aid. The whole province is almost un-surveyed, and it is very expensive to parcel out into farms. The public debt amounted in December, 1875 to ;^i9,84i 8^. 5^., in addition to which a sum almost equal was incurred, by bringing troops from Cape Town to quell the dis- turbance which occurred during that year. " The chief produce of this province are diamonds. During the year 1875, there passed through the Post Office alone over 700 lbs. weight avoirdupois. As only the best diamonds are thus dealt with, it is estimated that diamonds to the value of ^2,500,000 are exported, and this does not represent the whole amount, as many are sent home by shippers through private sources, and large quantities are sent home clandestinely by illicit diamond dealers. In July, 1875, the Government bought the Vornitzight farm for ^100,000 and thus became possessed of the Diamond mines of New Rush and De Beers. All these, but especially the Kimberley mine, are as remarkable for the quality as they are for the quantity of their produce. Here were found in 1869 the famous ' Star of South Africa,' now known as the ' Dudley ' diamond, weighing originally 83 carats, and reduced by cutting to 46 carats ; the 'Stewart,' (1872), weighing in the rough 288^ carats, and in 1878 at Du Toit's Pan, besides several beautiful stones of 50 carats each, one of 244 carats." Hence " the value of claims in these South African mines has risen enormously. Ground that was originally sold at ;^5o for twenty square feet, is now realizing many thousands of pounds. Private advices from the fields, announce the sale of two quarter claims for ^20,000, and that other claims have also been disposed of for similar sums. It has been estimated that about 20 per cent, of the Cape Diamonds are of the first quality, 15 per cent, of the second, and 20 per cent, of the third, the remainder being 'bort.' These latter possess a fixed market value, the powder which they yield when crushed, being used for grinding diamonds, and in the engraving of gems of exceptional hardness." — Streeter^s " Precious Stones and Gems,'" p. 84, Second Edition. The imports are large, but being an inland province, there is no check in the way of Custom dues, so that it is difficult to be quite accurate. The annual value of imports from abroad, and those from the neighbouring states, such as bread stuffs, corn, Cape wine and spirits, sugar, rum, fruit, cattle, is now estimated at about ;^2, 500,000. The province is entirely dependent upon external sources for its labor and the price of labor is enormous. Take the year 1875 as an example. Carpenters, 20^. to 50^-. per day, masons, 20s. to 4oj-. per day, cooks, ^S> to ^15 per month, with board and lodging, waiters, ;j^8 to ^12 per month with board and lodging, native house servants ^5 to ^10 per month with board and lodging. The area stated above as 17,800 square miles is equal to 1,780 farms, of an average extent of 6,250 acres. Drunkenness and illicit diamond dealing are the root of almost every crime committed here. The Transvaal. The Transvaal became a British possession on the 12th of April, 1877. It was formerly known as the South African Republic, and was founded by the Boers, who left the Cape in 1836. It begins at a line 700 miles 138 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. from Cape Town, and stretches upwards of 400 miles, passing above Capricorn into the tropics. It lies on the eastern side of South Africa, which is re- markable for its fertility and beauty. The Kalahari Desert touches it on its western border, and on the east it approaches within a few days' march of the Indian ocean. The actual limits of the British territory of the Transvaal cannot be stated with perfect accuracy, until all disputes, as to boundaries, shall have been settled. If we assume that it will be much the same as the South African Republic, the Transvaal territory lies between 22° and 28° south latitude, and 26° and 32° east longitude. It is like an egg in shape, with a little chip off each end, more at the bottom than the top. It includes an area of 120,000 square miles. It is more than twice the size of England and Wales, and not quite so large as the area of Great Britain and Ireland, which is 121,300 square miles. It has not an acre which is without productive capacity. *The population of the Transvaal has been] variously stated. The estimates which are considered most reliable, place the number of whites at 40,000, and the natives at 250,000. The white population is, to a large extent, of Dutch origin. There are some English (mostly on the gold fields or in towns), a few Germans and persons of other European nations. Out of the 40,000 whites, 35,000 are Dutch. If this be correct, then there is only one white person to three square miles. Commerce. Much of the produce of the Transvaal is shipped to England through the ordinary agencies. Wools, hides and gold are bought in the province by local export merchants, or are carried down to the markets of the Cape and Natal. For all articles of produce raised for home consumption — meal, tobacco, dried fruits, as well as for horses and cattle, there are regular markets in all the district towns. The money market is an insti- tution common to all South Africa. Roads. All the districts are traversed by wagon tracks, and from Kimberley and Bloemfontein, Maritzburgh and Durban, Port Elizabeth, East London and Cape Town, there are well-marked routes, on which vehicles of all kinds can travel. Forts. Durban is now the lirst port of the Transvaal, though probably Delagoa Bay will occupy that position when its sanitary conditions have been attended to, and the route to it cleared of its serious drawbacks. The Cape ports have the disadvantage of great distance, but they share the increasing trade of the i)rovince. Customs Dues. Arc levied at all ports on all import goods landed, irrespective o destination. Postal Communication. There is postal communication between all parts of South Africa, and the annexation of the Transvaal will increase facilities in this respect. • Silver's Transvaal. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 1 39 Railroads. Both Natal and the Cape are pushing their railways towards the interior, but for the present the plan of a railway between Delagoa Bay and the Transvaal has not been adopted. Schools. There are educational establishments in Potschefstroom and Pretoria, and district schools are being formed. Revenue. The revenue is derived chiefly from land sales, quit rents, licenses, stamps, transfer dues, capitation tax and Kafifir tax. In 1874 it was ;^7 1,846, and the expenditure ^71,841. Newspapers. Weekly papers are published in the Dutch and English languages in Potchefstroom, Pretoria, and on the gold fields. Government.^ The form of government has not as yet been proclaimed. Sir Th. Shepstone is acting as administrator and special commissioner for Her Majesty. At present the Transvaal is in the position of a Crown colony. -J La?id and Land Prices. Owing to the circumstances under which the Transvaal was settled much of the best land has fallen into the hands of individuals rather than to the Crown. The government is, however, still a large owner, even in some of the finest districts, and possesses vast regions in the east, north and west. The influence of annexation, and the destruction of Cetewayo's military despotism in Zululand (1879), ^i^l tend to give increased value to almost every acre. The government will naturally look to land sales as a source of revenue. Land may be obtained from 2s. up to los. an acre, according to its position in relation to markets, natural qualities and climate. Food. The price of food varies greatly. Up to the present time prices have been high, because insufficient attention has been paid to production and supply, but with care and industry, garden and orchard produce should be as abundant and cheap as in any part of the world. Law. The Supreme Court, administering Roman-Dutch law, is presided over by a chief justice, assisted by land-drosts, or magistrates, and a jury of 12 burghers. Mauritius. In earlier times Mauritius, formerly Isle of France, was in a very flourishing condition. In 1799 the population was 65,000, 9,000 being white, 55,230 negro slaves, and 1,300 free blacks. In 1861 the population embraced 100,000 CathoUcs, 7,000 Protestants, 100,000 Mohamedans ; f Silver's book on the Transvaal. 140 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. about the same number of Brahmins ; a few hundred Bhuddists, Parsees and Confucians. In 1859 the population, according to nationalities, included (not reckoning Europeans) 95,526 Creoles, 201,979 Hindoos, and 6,541 Chinese. The Indian population was estimated in 1867 at 246,049. The mortality is very great among these races. In 1867 there were 6,041 births to 27,548 deaths. There were also only 350 Indian immigrants to 3,398 Indian emigrants. Among the whole population there were but 484 marriages, and 9,123 births; the deaths, however, reached the large total of 41,201. The population in 1877 was 348,625, 237,468 being Indian. It is curious to notice in the case of those persons charged with crime in Mauritius how largely the Indians and Africans predominate — thus, in 1875, of 9 murders, 8 were by Indians, and i by an African. 4 cases of manslaughter, all by Indians. 30 offences against the person, 20 by Indians, and 6 by Africans. 23 robbery with violence, 12 by Indians, and 11 by Africans. The following statement shows the quantity and value of sugar (home produce) exported from 1872 to 1876. In consequence of two unfavour- able seasons it will be seen that there is still a decrease. 1872 122,288 tons value ;^2,8i7,22i 1873 111,718 „ „ 2,882,590 1874 93.388 „ „ 2,293,214 1875 87,449 „ „ 1,939,378 Out of ;i£"8i,355 deposited in the savings' banks in 1875, ^40,511 were deposited by Indians. Revenue. 1875 ^634,466 1877 ^748,059 1876 732,106 Expenditure. 1875 ^652,667 I 1877 ^703,608 1876 719,539 I The rate of revenue per head of population in — 1876 eciualled ^2 3^. ■^\d. 1877 „ £2 2s. 10^./. The rate of ex])enditure per head of population in — 1876 equalled ;^2 i.f. jd. lB^^ „ £2 OS. 4id Postal. Number of letters and newspapers received and despatched by mail packets — Letter! Newspapers In 1876 14^^,652 ... ... 153,685 ,,1877 165,602 194,025 By private ships In 1861 28,884 26,424 ,, 1868 3i,7i63 172,075 222,653 126,290 Rate of imports per head of population in 1876 ^6 12 i 1877 6 15 4-^ Exports per head of population, 1876 ^9 9 3 1877 12 10 o The principal articles of home produce exported are — sugar, vanilla, aloe fibre, cocoa nut oil, and rum. The death rate of the Indian population was in 1S75, 237, that of the general population 27-4, and the total death rate 24-9 per 1,000. The deaths of children under 5 years of age form 39-1 per cent, ot the total mortality. The mortality of Indians on the sugar estates in 1875 was 22-10 per 1,000, being about 4 per cent, less than the death rate of the general population. The number of suicides among Indians in Mauritius is very large. Seychelles, which should have a special account, is not included, although a dependency of Mauritius. Timber. In the Mauritius there are about 40,000 acres of really well-wooded land, but the area of production is diminishing rapidly. In the Seychelles Islands there are nine or ten different varieties of trees, the most valuable of which is the " Bois de Fer," (Iron Wood), which is of great utility for general purposes. Australasia.* In a most remarkable manner a whole division of the earth has by colonization attained to civilization. On May 13th, 1787, a ship left England and reached Port Jackson on the 26th January, 1788, having on board the refuse of English society, 565 male and 192 female convicts, together with 208 officers and soldiers, and 65 women and children. These were landed and employed in the construction of rude huts on the spot where now stands the flourishing city of Sydney. This was the first attempt at forming an English colony in Australia. It continued to be little more than a convict settlement, and to a great extent unproductive until 182 1. * Australia was so named by Malte Brun, or rather he called it Austral Asia. 142 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. The discovery of rich gold fields in 1851 acted as a great incentive to a better and more extended development of the colony. At that time there were seven separate independent centres, each under a separate governor. In 1824 Van Diemen's Land was made an independent colony, with a legislative council of its own and a supreme court of legislature; South Australia in 1834; Victoria* in 185 1 ; and Queensland in 1859. The development of Victoria was exceedingly rapid from the year 1834. Previous to this there had been two unsuccessful attempts to form a colony— viz., in 1803 and 1826. From 1834 to 1851 it formed part of New South Wales, but in 1851 it became an independent colony. The following tables give the various colonies with their acreage and population : — Colonies Area in square miles Total cultivation in acres, 1S75 New South Wales Victoria South Australia Queensland W. Australia * ... Tasmaniaf ... New Zealand 3iO'938 88,198 914,730 678,600 1,000,000 26,215 104,900 451.139 1,126,831 1,444,586 77,347 47,571 332,824 607,138 Total 3,123,581 4,087,436 Population Colonies 1865 1S71 1 1873 1 1874 1875 1877 New S. Wales 411,388 503,981 560,275 584,278 606,652 662,212 Victoria 626,639 731,528 790,492 808,437 823,272 860,787 S. Australia .. 156,605 185,626 198,075 204,623 210,442 231,383 Queensland .. 87,775 120,104 146,690 163,517 181,288 195,092 W. Australia. 20,260 24,785 25,761 26,239 26,709 27,838 Tasmania ... 95,201 99,328 104,217 104,176 103,663 107,104 New Zealand. 201,712 256,393 295,946 341,860 375,856 417,622 Total ... 1,599,580 1,921,74s 2,121,456 2,233,100 2,327,882 2,464,560 Most of the inhabitants are of British nationality. In 1866 there were however, 8,119 Germans in S. Australia, and 1,999 ^^ New Zealand, beside 24,732 Chinese. In 187 1 there were throughout the whole of the Australian colonies 34,322 Germans, viz., 9,264 in Victoria, 8,317 in Queensland, 8,309 in S. Australia, 5,467 in New S. Wales, 2,416 in New Zealand ; 506 in Tasmania, and 43 in West Australia. The natives are rapidly disajjpearing. In 1858 there were 1,768, in 1871 there were 1,330. In South Australia in 1855 there were 3,450. In Tasmania in 1866 there were only 14, whereas 57 years previously there were 5,000. The New Zcalanders (Maoris), are somewhat more numerous. In 1844 their number was 109,550, in 1857, 56,049, of whom 53,056, in con- • The origin of Victoria was a hut on the Yarra Yarra, in 1835. t Tasman first discovL-red this island, which lie called Van Diemen's Land, in honor of his employer, but it i( now callrd jfter himself. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 143 sequence of the mildness of the climate went to the northern island, where subsequently war raged, and in 1867 there were in both islands only 38,540, and in 187 1, 37,502, of whom 35,149 dwelt in the northern, and 2,353 ^^ the southern island. The population of the Australian colonies amounted in 1850 to 517,908, and in 1861 to 1,229,518. In the gold fields of Victoria alone, in March, 1863, there were 229,600, and in 187 1 254,209 Europeans. Immigration. 1865 1866 1867 New S.Wales.. I 3,358] 1,8521 2,179 Victoria ...130,976 32,178127,242 South Australia 8,469 6,955! 3,651 Queensland ... West Australia. Tasmania New Zealand ., 12,750 3,597 18,916 9,8461 1,075 4,769 3,559 14,893 11,126 1873 24,022 29,460 4,548 15,141 285 6,787 13,572 1874 29,756 30,732 5,557 20,725 660 6,265 43,965 1875 30,967 32,744 6,566 24,809 733 6,535 31,737 1876 1877 32,942] 7,222 35,79741,196 13,841! 21,8311 409! 8,5711 18,414 9,717 Emigration. New S. Wales.. Victoria South Australia Queensland ... West Australia. Tasmania New Zealand.. 1865 18G6 1867 1873 1S74 1875 1876 18,154 15,093 13,450 16,770 19,279 20,350 21,923 25,292 27,629 25,142 26,294 27,365 29,342 31,977 3,703 4,135 4,046 3,172 3,271 4,019 4,995 Free passage ceased 5,474 7,794 9,640 9,695 639 601 520 650 3,509 4,079 4,025 7,039 7,714 8,075 8,169 6,607 7,294 6,267 4,761 5,859 6,467 6,459 1877 33,943 9,270 Births and Deaths. The preponderance of the first over the second is throughout remarkable. 1865 1867 New S. Wales ... 17,283 18,317 Victoria 25,915 25,608 South Australia... 6,672 7,041 Queensland 3,480 4,476 West Australia... 716 754 Tasmania 3,069 2,971 New Zealand ... 7,490 8,918 Births. 1871 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 20,143 2i,444|22,i78|22,528 23,298123,851 27,382 28,100126,800 26,720 26,769 26,010 7,082 7,107! 7,6961 7,408 8,224 8,640 5,205 5,72oj 6,376 6,706 6,903! 7,169 760 809! 876 760 9181 912 3,053' 3,0481 3,097' 3,105 3,149 3,211 10,592 I 1,222 12,844 14,438 16,168.16,856 144 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Deaths. New S. Wales ... Victoria South Australia... Queensland West Australia ... Tasmania New Zealand ... 1865 1867 1871 1873 1874 1875 1876 6,596 8,631 6,407 7,611 8,652 10,771 11,193 10,461 11,733 9,918 11,501 12,000 11,287 13,561 2,174 2,939 3,378 2,631 2,434 4,036 3,550 1,714 1,745 1,785 2,250 2,789 4,104 3.467 333 360 334 418 487 473 383 1,263 1,418 1,355 1,504 1,689 2,078 1,730 2,757 1 2,702 2,642 3>647 4,161 5,712 4,904 1877 9,869 12,776 3,235 3,373 433 2,038 ^4,685 Education (1871). In Victoria ... 474,877 could read and write out of 73i)528 inhabitants „ New S. Wales 296,741 „ Queensland ... 74,255 „ Tasmania ... 55,939 ,, New Zealand 32,326 „ West Australia 13,326 „ South Australia 115,246 503,981 120,104 99,328 106,259 24,785 185,626 1874 1875 1876 1877 Public and private schools in Victoria from 1874 to 1877. ... 1,712 schools ... 5,225 instructors .. 238,592 scholars „ ... 248,014 „ ... 260,407 I,«56 2,143 2,156 5,225 mstructors 5.337 5,418 5>3i7 262,941 Taking the aggregate of the schools, the scholars are in the proportion of 92 girls to 100 boys. The proportion seems to be i child receiving educa- tion to every 3*23 persons living. Creeds. The number of sects, especially among the English is almost countless. On the whole Protestantism preponderates. In 1871 the number of Catholics was 443,110, of whom 170,620 147,627 36,608 28,668 20,091 6,674 were in Victoria „ New South Wales „ New Zealand ,, South Australia ,, Tasmania West Australia Of Jews 8,243, 3,571 being in Victoria, and 2,395 i" New South Wales. Mohammedans and heathen 31,034, 17,775 being in Victoria, and 7,455 in New South Wales, 3,188 in Queensland, 2,612 in New Zealand, and 4 in Tasmania. In Victoria 2,150 persons have declared themselves as confessing no creed, and very many have renounced their faith. ♦ Onc-thinl under i year, and nearly ^ under 5 years of age. English Colonics mid Foreijrn Possessions. 145 Population of the Tozvns in 187 i. Melbourne and suburbs Sydney and suburbs ... Ballarat Ballarat, west . . Sandhurst Adelaide Ballarat, east ... Auckland and suburbs Geelong (Victoria) Brisbane (Queensland) Hobart Town (Tasmania) 193,698 134,736 74,260 38,236 27,642 27,208 26,024 20,425 22,168 i9»4i3 19,092 Finance. The revenue is derived more from duties and customs than from the sale of the produce of the land. In Victoria (1867), the import duties amounted to -^1,399,854, and in New South Wales to ^^783, 383. In South Australia to ^200,832. In Tasmania to ;j^i 26,444. Ii'i New Zealand to ^858,132, and in Queensland to ;;^283,367. In founding the colonies all the land was declared to be Crown pro- ])erty, available for disposal to settlers at a minimum price^ — 5.^. los. 20s. or 40;. per acre. The rights of the natives or aborigines were quite overlooked except in New Zealand, where they are acknowledged with certain restric- tions, one being, that they can sell their lands only to the government. The finances of the several colonies, including the new loans,* assume the following proportions in the last few years — 1870 1873 1S74 1875 1876 1877 1S70 1873 1S74 1875 1876 1877 1871 1S73 1874 1875 1876 1877 Public Revenue ••• ^2,575,309 3,324,713 3,509,966 4,121,996 5,033,828 5,748,24s ... ^3,261,883 3,644,135 4,106,790 4,236,423 4,325,156 4,723,877 New South Wales. Expenditure ^3,298,853 2,333,166 2,939,227 3,341,324 4,749,013 4,627,979 Victoria. ^3,428,382 3.504,953 4,177,338 4,318,121 4,572,844 4*358,096 South Australia. Debt ^9,681,130 10,842,415 10,516,371 11,470,637 11,759,519 11,724,419 ^11, 994,800 12,445,722 13,990,553 13,995,093 17,011.382 17,018,913 ^1,057,192 ^1,115,752 ^2,167,700 937,648 889,153 2,174,900 1,003,820 1,051,622 2,989,750 1,143,312 1,176,412 3,320,600 1,320,204 1,323,337 3,837,100 1,441,401 1,443,653 4,737,200 * The Colony of Victoria had accepted up to the end of July. 1872, ^([i 0,959,871 loan for railway construction. 146 English Colonies and Foreign Possession^. West Australia. Public Revenue Expenditure Debt 1871 ;^9i,6o6 ;^I07,I48 ... 1873 134,832 \ 114,270 ^35,000 1874 148,073 143,266 119,000 IS75 157,775 1 169,230 135,000 1876 162,189 179,484 135,000 1877 165,413 182,959 Tasmania. 161,000 1869 ^346,467 ^441,528 p^I, 294,400* 1873 293,753 299,995 1,477,600 1874 327,925 318,278 1,476,700 1875 343,676 385,731 1,489,400 IS76 327,349 336,388 1,520,500 1877 361,771 352,564 Queensland. 1,589,111 I87I ... ^823,169 ^787^556 ^^4,047,850 1873 1,120,034 956,335 4,786,850 1874 1,160,947 1,121,710 5,253,286 1S75 1,261,464 1,404,198 6,439,250 1876 1,263,268 1,283,520 6,439,250 1877 1,436,582 1,382,806 New Zealand. 7,685,350 1871 ... ^1,672,301 ^2,657,587 ^8,990,991 1873 2,276,388 s 2,119,524 10,913,936 1874 3,063,811 ' 3,035,711 13,366,936 1875 2,813,928 3,431,973 17,400,031 1876 2,990,969 1 3,382,821 20,618,1 I I 1877 3,916,023 3,822,426 20,691,350 'J'lic most henvily indebted colony ai)i)ear.s to be, according to its population, New Zealand, the next Queensland, then New South Wales, in which colony, however, the debt is slightly decreasing, and the amount per head of the population rapidly diminishing The least indebted of all is West Australia. 'i'he entire ]>roduction of gold, as far as it can be ascertained through the exj^orts, amounted — l'"roin rf<5i-iS59 From 1860-1867 ^93,810,212 ^61,110,452 7,394,718 20,955,883 140,000 ... ... 14,913,697 160,000 ... ... 306,170 In Victoria to ,, New S. Wales ,, ,, New Zealand „ „ S. Australia ,, ,, Tasmania ,, „ Queensland ., „ W. Australia „ Total for 9 years 8,000 2,070 540,863 10,000 /;ioi,5i2,93o For 8 years ^^97,839,135 * Debt of 1871 Eua^lish Colonics and Foreign Possessions. 147 The production did noL vary greatly in these years. The amount for the whole 17 years was ^199,352,065. At the end of 1867 there were in Victoria alone 63,053 persons occupied in seeking gold ; 47'377 being Europeans, and 15,676 Chinese. Since this period the value of the i)ro- duction, not including that coined, amounted to — 1^68 i8;o 1872 1S74 1S76 Victoria ^7,^43-197 ^6,119,782 ^5,197,340 £^,o^z,2ZZ ;^2, 103,591 N.S.Wales 382,616 672,254 73i>i2o 222,194 7M44 N.Zealand 2,492,721 2,163,910 i,730-992 i,505-33i 1,268,559 Queensland 593,516 489,539 660,396 1,356,071 1,427,929 The value of Specie was — iS6S 1870 1872 1874 'f'76 Victoria ^507,662 ^577,840 ^^668,191 ^i,354,75i i."i. 594,343 N.S.Wales 1,771,005 1,206,569 1,656,131 1,719,888 i,575»876 Total 2,278,667 1,784,409 2,324,322 3,074,639 3,170,219 The weight of gold raised in Victoria in 1876 was 963,760 ozs. In 1877 it was 809,653 ozs. Estimated value, ^4 per oz. From the period of the first discovery of gold in Victoria, to the end of the year 1875, it is estimated that 45,509,964 ounces of gold were raised, representing at ^4 per oz., a value of ^182,039,856. Nathaniel Cork,* in a treatise on Australian banks, reckons the value of gold imported into England from Australia, during the 11 years 1861- 1872 to average ;^6,ii5,8i7, while for the year 1873 it amounted to ^9,972,900. It is not, however, on the production of, or raising of gold alone, that the flourishing condition of Australia depends. There exists a great wealth of minerals ; and coal, one of the most valuable, abounds both in New South Wales and in South Australia. Coal. The produce of coal, according to Pechar and Peez, was as follows : Export in Tons Mines Tons \'alue Inland Foreign i860 ... 17 368,862 ^231,250 104,383 179.453 1865 ... 24 585,525 280,063 159^640 302,363 1869 .. 33 919.774 353,415 201,622 503.866 Note— Australia abounds also in diamonds, rubies, sapphires, garnets, and other precious stones Tiie principal diamond fields are those of the Cudgegong river, twenty miles above Mudcree. and Bingera. on the river Norton. 400 miles north ot .Sydney. Since the tirst discovery in if?! "it has been roughly estimated that at least 10,000 diamonds have hitherto lieen found in New .South Wales^ although it must be remembered that the workings have not been vigorously prosecuted."— (Streeter-s " Gems and Precious Stones," p. 90 of .second edition.) The stones however "are for the most part extreTiely small. But it is not improbable that if, instead of searching for diamonds- in the gravel drifts and old river beds, geological re- searches had been instituted in the gorges of the Australian Alps, of the rocky rivers and snowy mountains, it is not unlikely that the matrix would have been discovered whence the diamon494 ,, The highest declared value of the export of wool in New South Wales for any one year was, in 1875, ^5!65i,643. In 1876 there was a decrease of ^86,470, and in 1877 a further decrease of ^309,135, and still the value of the wool exported seaward and overland, was ^5,256,038, and in weight it was greater by more than one and a-half millions of lbs. than the colony ever exported in any one year before. More than ^2,000,000 worth of wool, passing through Melbourne and Adelaide, was on its way to London. In 1868- -189,678,993 lbs. were exported, as follows- Victoria New South Wales New Zealand South Australia . West Australia Tasmania ... Queensland... 68,010,591 lbs. 36,548,442 „ 28,875,163 „ 29,629,525 „ 1,572,068 „ 6,136,426 „ 18,906,778 ,, value ^4,567,182 2,693,105 1,516,548 1,346,323 ,, 100,000 398,521 „ 1,057,211 Total 189,678,993 lbs. „ ;^ii,678,89o Since then the export of wool, together with its value, has been as follows : — Year, New Sou'I'h Wales. Victoria. South Australia. 1869 42,282,236 lbs. ^2,503,704 54.431.367 lbs. ^^3,363,075 30,532,812 lbs. ^ 1 27,568 1871 48,748,092 lbs. ^2,858,360 76,334,480 lbs. ^^,702,164 32,656,427 lbs. ^ ^:i, 350,689 1873 40,462,355 lbs. /,"2,783,742 74,893,882 lbs. ^5.738,638 35>?73<434 lbs. ^,1,808,622 1874 43,520,910 lbs. ^"2,945,723 88,662,284 lbs. -^^6,373,676 39,844,024 lbs. ^:i, 998,989 1876 54,872,771 lbs. ^3,299,738 106,265,877 lbs. ^^6.413,754 43,?68,795 lbs. J^, 1,836,299 1877 107,897,141 lbs. ^5,626,602 98,464,208 lbs. ^^5,670,87 I 50,616,902 lbs. ^2,189,418 * In 1803 the first sample of Australian wool was brought to England. Efizlish Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 151 Year. Tasmania. New Zealand. Queensland. 1869 5,607,083 lbs. -£303.209 27,765,636 lbs. £"1,371,230 22,388,650 lbs. ^1,098,074 1871 5>254,7i9 lbs. ^298,160 37,793,734 lbs. ^1,606,144 22,339,348 lbs. ^1,158,833 1873 4,243>433 lbs. ^314,068 41,587,049 lbs. £^2,705,351 19,763,053 lbs. ^1,374,526 1874 5,050,920 lbs. .^^350,714 46,855,012 lbs. ^2,832,008 20,859,346 lbs. ^1,420,881 1876 6,848,517 lbs. /-439>6o3 59,853,454 lbs. £:3,395,888 22,918,560 lbs. £^1,499,576 1877 8.016,396 lbs. '.£522,885 64,482.324 lbs. £:3,658,938 23,980,485 lbs. ^1,499,682 Timber. 1878. — The chief products of Neiu South IVales are the pine, the cedar, various species of gum tree, the iron bark, the myall and the colonial bark. Queensland abounds in trees of the hard wood and ornamental species. From this colony cedar and pine constitute the bulk of the total timber exports, the value of which, for the ten years ending in 1873, amounted to ^182,096. In Victoria the area occupied by forest trees has within the last few years decreased from 60,000 to 40,000 square miles. In JVest Australia the amount of timber cut for exportation is very large. In Tasmania fully one-half, or 8,000,000 acres, is timbered, and of that extent it is computed that about 1,000,000 acres are in private hands. Alew Zealand. — The area of forest land in 1874 was estimated at 12,000,000 acres. ' Imports. The total commercial traffic of the several colonies amounted in Year. New S. Wales. Yictorla.. 1871 1872 1874 1876 1877 Year. 1871 1872 1874 1876 1877 p{;8,89i,2i9 8,587,030 11,293-739 13,672,776 14,606,594 Tasmania. £"778,087 807,182 1,257,785 1, 133^033 1,308,671 ^12,341,995 13,691,322 16,953,985 15,705,354 16,362,304 S. Australia. ^2,158,023 2,801,572 3,983,290 4,576,183 4,625,511 New Zealand. £^4,078,193 5'i42,95i 8,121,812 6,905,171 6,905,171* W. Australia I £:i98,oii 367,418 386,037 362,706 Queensland. £"1,539,668 2,175090 2,962,439 3.125,559 3,674,180 * Of this sum agricultural implement* are valued at £io,()2(> : apparel and slop'? £176,705; arms and ammunition j^33, 300 ; bag^ and sacks ^71,500: bark /^\(>.')S2: beer £l%.Qoo\ bonus and bone-dust ^11,532; books ;i^i 18,707; boots and shoes j^i8i,30c; brushware and brooms jT 15,254 ; candles _£96,4i I ; canvas j(^ 14,93 : ; carpeting, etc. £3 i.oco : cement and platter of Paris _|{|'5 0,000 : coals ^^^240, 688 (of which to the vakie of ^,^230, 082 152 English Colonies and Foreign Possessio?is. Exports. Year.' New S. Wales. Victoria. S. Australia. W. Australia 1871 1872 1874 1876 1877 ^7.784,766 8,005,591 12,345.603 13.003.941 13.125,819 ^^14,557,820 13.871,195 15.441,109 14,916,487 15.157.687 ^^3.582,397 3.738,623 4-402,855 4,816,170 4,626,531 ^199.281 428,837 397.293 373.351 Year. Tasmania V. New Zealand. Queensland, 1871 1872 1874 1876 1877 ^740,638 910,663 925.325 1. 130.983 1.416,975 5.19 5.2^ 5.67 6,3^ 2,084 »o,665 1,269 3.465 7,472 ;^2,434,486 2,635,026 4,106,462 3.875.581 4,103,468 In earlier years the commerce of the Australian colonies was reported as follows — Imports Exports 1857 ^27,967,282 22,834,032 i860 ^27,780,448 21. ^82,286 1865 ^35.145.035 30,398,558 Railways and Electric Telegraphs 1875, ^876, and 1877. Miles of Rail c .pen Miles of Telegraph Wire Number of Telegrams 1875 1876 1877 1875 1S75 1877 1S75 1S76 Victoria 617 719 950 2,629 2.743 2,885 732,869 801,946 New S. Wales 437 509 643 5.743 6,037 6,073 Queensland .. 265 298 357 3.956 4,633 5.033 S. Australia... 274 328 328 3.147 3.470 4,061 W. Australia.. 38 38 86 766 1,159 ',567 Tasmania ... 150 172 172 396 635 754 ■ New Zealand. 542 — 954 3.156 3.270 3.307 It will be seen that in the construction of railways, Victoria is far in advance of any of the other colonies. The telegraph lines in \'ictoria arc connected with those of South Australia, and by means of them with the Eastern Archipelago, Asia, and Europe. They are also united with a sub- marine cable to Tasmania. came from New .South Wales), cottons ;{;83,oco ; drapery ^858, 345 ; fancy goods £i^,ooo ; flour ;^8-.4X6: fruits, presened and green ;;^95,ooo ; liirniture ^61,000; glass and glass- ware /63.000 : j;rain ^^go.coo. ol whicii j{^i6,coo worth of rice came from Victoria, and /zX, 000 worth ol wheat came from .Soutli Australia ; guano/;!, 195 ; haherdashery. yTjg.occ ; hardware and ironmongery /,"23i,ooo; instruments, musical and scientific ;,{,'6o,ooo ; iron ol various kinds /;320,ooo; jewelry £(>.^1S\ '''^eep ;^i2,23i; machinery ^142,000; oils /;i20,coo; printing paper /,"46.oco; railway plant ^61,5-^3 : seeds ^73.000 : silks ;^34, 987 ; specie £418,150; spirits £236,000; sugar £429,000: tea £213,000: timber £76,000: tobacco £^118,000 ; wine £95000 : woollens £107,000. English Colonics and Foreign Possessions. 153 Post- -1876. ost Offices r.etters Newspapers 570 7,509,500 3,992,100 855 ... 17,134,101 7,552,912 248 2,804,418 1,924,760 146 ... 2,022,720 1,498,662 • • • . .. 5,645,879 3,889,662 82 1,897,779 1,413,447 New S. Wales Victoria South Australia Tasmania New Zealand Queensland ... The number of irregularly posted letters in Victoria in 1875 amounted to 129,824. Of these 1,136 were registered letters, 1,226 contained articles valued in the aggregate at ^13,462. Owners were found for ^12,707 (94 per cent, of the whole). 369 did not bear any names or addresses. Harbour Traffic, Number and tonnage of the vessels, inwards and outwards, in — I s;5 S76 1877 Vessels Tons \'essels Tons Vessels Tons New South Wales... 4,760 2,168,187 4,236 2,127,725 2,237,981 Victoria 4,394 1,673,885 4,578 1,657,088 in C 1,874,985 South Australia .. 1,634 611,381 1,849 874,342 672,776 West Australia 305 134,161 1,771 732,330 152,217 Tasmania . 1,295 262,209 330 154,126 3i9'5i7 New Zealand 1,866 834,547 1,25s 274,484 C 789,177 Queensland 1,699 764,182 1,744 786,514 986,844 Colonial vessels, as a rule, had i man to 19 tons British „ „ ,, „ 24 „ Foreign ,, „ „ „ 6 „ System of Banking. The banking system in the whole of Australia is the same as in Scotland. The number of banks and their branches amount to about 500. At the end of 1874 the condition of these establishments was as follows : — Liabilities. Notes Bills Balances due in in to other Circulation Circulation Bankers New S Wales... ^1,053.108 36,793 231,500 Victoria 2"i,395,502 82,877 188,495 South Australia ^374,325 11,732 90,632 Tasmania ... 2^07,487 3,778 2,613 New Zealand ... 2'834,589 60,397 29,083 Queensland ... No returns Total liabilities for 1874 ... Deposits 11,884,958 12,438,586 2,237,523 1,106,102 5,564,435 Total Liabilities 13,206,359 14,105,460 2,714,212 1,219,980 6,490,5^4 ^37,736,5 '5 154 English Colonics and Foreign Possessions. Assets. New South Wales. ., ^ (, n , Notes & Bills P . „ ,,. Landed ^^° '^ ^r ^h t",. Discounted & Total Coin Bullion property ,,^'"^ ""^ ,/^"^'° , all oth<:r debts Assets P > other Hants other Banks j^e to the Banks ^^2,351,694 255,961 324,171 45,453 3>367J9i 10,685,250 17,030,320 ViCTORLX. ;^2,279,502 466,848 705,598 183,777 302,883 16,518,244 20,456,852 South Australia. ^^465,256 1,708 115,250 32,700 72,077 4.049,684 4,736,675 Tasmanl-v. ^^239,134* — 38,500 — 43,864 1,197-752 1,519,250 New Zealand. ^1,367,907 227,129 160,208 26,749 145,507 8,026,717 9.954,217 Queensland — No returns. Total Assets for 1874 2^63,697,314 In Victoria alone, in 1875, there were 12 banks and 271 branches or agencies within the colony, with a paid-up capital of ^8,503,033 : assets ^20,456,852, and liabilities 14,105,460. Death Hate. From 1865 to 1875 the number of deaths per 1000 of the mean population was : — Year Victoria New South Wales Queensland South Australia West Australia Tasmarua New Zealai-.d 1865 l6'9 16-41 21-42 14-30 — 13-40 15-13 1866 • i9'37 17-47 25-67 17-20 13-79 12-86 1867 i8-o6 19-64 17-80 17-48 14-48 12-78 1868 i5'oo 15-83 17-36 14-41 14-70 11.94 1869 i5"25 14-15 16.20 12-37 13-20 11-73 1870 1468 13-27 14-59 13-94 M-88 11-13 1871 i3"43 12-24 14-83 12-87 1338 10-13 1872 14-23 I4-I I 14-97 15-33 14-02 13-79 1 1 -68 1873 i4"74 13-84 i6-o6 13-48 16-24 14-52 12-67 1874 i5'3o 15-12 17-98 17-05 18-74 1621 I3-or 1875 18-76 18-09 23-80 19-45 17-88 20-00 15-92 1876 i6-oo i8-oo 19-00 i6-oo 14-00 16-00 13-00 .877 15-00 15-00 I 7-00 14-00 16.00 79-00 1 1-00 In all European countries, except Ireland, the death rate is much higher than in any of the Australian colonies. In 1875, deaths of infants of less than a year old were in the propor- tion of 14-3 per 100 births. This is above the average, but lower than that of England and Wales, where 15^ i)er cent, die before the end of the first year Of infants born in the lying-in hosi^itals, 9 per cent, in 1875, ^^'^^ 7 per cent in 1874, died before they left the institutions. ♦ Hiillicii iiicliulcci. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. J55 Violent Deaths. Of violent deaths in Victoria alone, in 1875, there were- Men Women By accidents ... ... 636 ... 167 ,, homicide ... ... 8 ... 5 „ suicide ... ... 75 ,, execution ... ... 4 16 Total 723 Total 803 13 4 911 Rate of Larour in Australian Colonies. Agricultural. Ploughmen Farm labourers Women Mowers Reapers Reapers Threshers Shepherds Hut-keepers Odd men at stations I I 4 per week 17 7 ,, ,, with rations 10 7 >' )> )j )> 5 I per acre I 1 1 1 1 per week 014 1 per acre 007 per bushel Pastoral. ^35 to £^S~ P^'' ^iinum, with rations 25 to 40 15.^. to 20J. per week „ Artisan Labour. Masons, bricklayers, carpenters, etc., lis. to 125. per day, without rations. Servants. Married couples, without families. with ,, Men cooks on farms and stations. ^60 to jQ^o per annum, no rations 40 to 50 „ „ 40 to 50 „ with rations ASIA. — (a) India. This empire is under the government of a Viceroy or Cjovernor-General. It is incorporated or based upon the earlier possessions of the East India Company. Its extent is very large, from Aden to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and embraces almost all the states within that area. In 1877 British India comprised an area of nearly 1,500,000 square miles, and contained about 240 millions of inhabitants. Three-fifths of this area, and nearly four-fifths of the population is placed directly under British administration, the remaining portion being under the rule of native princes, who acknowledge the supremacy of the British Crown. The division of the empire lor the purpose of government is into i 2 presidencies and provinces, of which two are under governors, three under lieutenant-governors, and seven under chief commissioners, including Sindh which is under the governor of Bombay. The present organization is based upon a law of 2nd August, 1858 156 Ensrlish Coloyiies and Foreign Possessions. A General Vino of the toi^ether 7( Territory, Area and Population of British India, 'itJi an estimate of the Feudal States. Presidencies and Provinces under the Administration of Area in square miles Population* Average Popula- tion to sqr.mile Di.s- tricts Inhabited Houses The Governor-General of India. Ajmeref Berar ... 2,711 17,631 396,889 2,226,496 146 126 [ 6 93-464 495,760 Mysore Coorg 29,325 2,000 5,055,412 168,312 172 84 8 6 1,012.738 22.900 Under-Governor. Madras Bombay including Sindh 137,971 124,462 31,672,613 16,349,206 230 131 21 24 5,857-994 3,277.679 Under Lieutenant-Governors . Bengal ... North West Provinces... Punjab 157,989 81,403 104,975 60,502,897 30,781,204 17,611,498 383 378 168 44 35 32 10,481,132 6,359-092 4,124.857 Under Chief Commissioners. Oudh Central Provinces British Burmah Assam ... 23,992 84,963 88,556 53,856 I 1,220,232 8,201,519 2,747,148 4,132,019 46S '.'7 3' 99 12 19 15 13 2,438.006 1,674,291 535,533 670,078 Total British Admini-> stration ...) 909,834 191,065,445 210 236 37,c4:.5-4 Native Feudatory States. Central India and) Bundelcund ...) 88,738 8,360,571 • Rajpootana Hyderabad Earoda... Munnipoor In Bengal „ NortMV'cst Provinces 127,596 80,000 4,399 7,584 38,953 5,125 9,261,607 9,000,000 2,000,225 126,000 2,312,473 657,013 ,, Central Provinces ... „ Madras „ Bombay 28,834 9,818 67,370 1,049,710 3,289,392 6,831,515 458,417 42,888.506 * About rwo-tliirds of the population are agriculturists The rate of wages for labor varies, in Punjaub i v. to (xt a day for ■'i.illccl labor : 61/. to Z(/ a clay for unskilled labor. In Oudh 3'/. a day for skilled, and \)t(i. for unskilled labor In Mysore and Coorg wages are higher, in consequence of greater demands for labor, caused by the proximity of cotfee planta- tions, vii 6 V. a (lay : but the price of rice and a grain called r(i<;!, upon which they live, has kept pace with the increase in wages. f Amalgamated with the North West Provinces in .lanuary, 1877. Englisli Colonics and Foreign Possessions. 157 Nationalities and Creeds. It is next to impossible to get quite accurate Statistics of India. The last census gave 197,880 Christians, of whom 55,568 were Europeans ; about 32,000 Europeans and Hindoos, and about 100,000 natives, 90,351,042 Hindoos, 35,963,184 Mahomedans, 2,319,151 Buddhists and Jains. The census of 1861 gave 125,945 British (including 84,083 military), 100,000 Eurasians or mixed races, 180,000 Parsees, 12,000 Jews. In the Blue Hook for 1875, the population of British India, classified according to religious denominations gave 139,248,568 Hindoos. 1,174,436 .,. ... ... Sikhs. 40,882,537 Mahomedans. 2,832,851 ... ... ... Buddhists and Jains. 896,658 Christians. 5,102,823 Eurasians. 425,175 ... ... ... Not known. Total 190,563,048 The small number of Christians is striking after the earnest and many attempts at conversion. Far more numerous are the Mahomedans, and the Empress of India undoubtedly rules over many more followers of the Prophet than does the Turkish Sultan (nearly 41 millions in India). The Parsees are very decidedly on the decrease. There cannot be more than 80,000 alto":ether. Cities. The largest only are mentioned here. Cities Population .Cities Calcutta ... 447,601 Bombay ... Suburbs 257,149 Madras ... City of North Suburb 27,263 Lucknow City of South Suburb 62,632 Hyderabad Gwalior ... Total for Calcutta ... 794,645 Population 644,405 395,440 284,779 200,000 200,000 Note as to Population of India. — It has been very difficult to get accurate returns of the pojHilation. The English method has been adhered to as closely as possible. The boat popula- tion consists of 30c. 000 persons on 60,000 boats. The census was regarded in many districts with much suspicion by the people, who believed it was the forerunner of a new tax. One man hid his babes, on the ground that they were too young to be taxed. The cost ot the census was ^21,000. It brought cut some interesting facts, for example: half the area of Bengal government consists of hilly and thinly-populated tracts of country, with only 87 and"63 souls to the square mile But the other half is one of the most densely populated countries in the whole world, as many as 573 to the square mile, as against 421 in England. The number of men and women is nearly equal. Mortality is fearfully intensified by the passion of the people for pilgrimages. All ages and sexes traverse vast areas and die by hundreds on the route; and one extraordinary feature of Indian life is the number of human beings destroyed by wild beasts and venomous reptiles. In 1871 the number of such deaths was 18,078. In the year 1877, 19.691; persons were killed by wild beasts and snakes. Tigers head the list. 819 persons were killed by tigers. 564 by wolves, 200 by leopards, 85 by bears, 46 by elephants, 24 by hyenas. 1,180 by other wild beasts; 16,777 were killed by snakes. Besides this loss of hurnan life, 53,197 cattle were likewise victims. The measures adopted for the exterminating wild beasts and venomous snakes resulted in the destruction of 22.851 beasts and 127,295 snakes in the course of 1877, and for this deliverance rewards were paid to the amount of£io,30i. 158 Eufrlhh Colonies and Forcio-n Possessions. Cities.— ( Continued. ) Cities Population Cities Populatioa Benares" ... 175,188 Gya ... 66,843 Patna ... 158,900 Aurungabad 60,000 Delhi ••• 154,417 Bekaunia 60,000 Joudpore 150,000 Bhurtpoor 60,000 Srinagar ... 150,000 Monghyr 59,698 Agra 142,661 Peshawur - 58,555 Bangalore ••• 142,513 My.sore ... 57,765 Baroda ... 140,000 Maradabad 57,304 Umritser... ••• 135,813 Mooltan 56,826 Ahmedabad ... 116,873 Jubbulpore .-. 55,704 Cawnpore ... 113,601 Arcot ... 53,474 Allahabad ... 105,926 Moulmein 53,653 Bareilly ... 105.649 Shola])ur... 52,256 Dhar 100,000 Mutra 51,540 Rangoon 100,000 Vellore ... ... 51-500 Lahore ... 98,000 Kamptee 50,930 Howrah ... 97,784 Cuttack ... ... 50,878 Nagpore ... 85,661 Goruckpore 50,853 Poona ... 80,416 Hubli 50,000 Tanjore ... 80,000 Chicacole 50.000 Meerut ... - 79.378 Pallec 50,000 Farukhabad 73,110 Kathmandu 50,000 Mirzapore 71,849 Coel 48,403 Shahjahanpur 71,719 Durbhunga 47,450 Surat 70,000 Chupra ... ... 46.287 Bhagalpur 69,678 Moorshedabad . . . 46,182 Dacca ... 69,212 Behare ... 44,295 Finance. The finances m former times, were verv unfavourable. In the ten years from- V ear 1839-48 1849-58 Income Expenditure Deficit /;22, 910,393 ^24,204,806 ;^i, 294,413 29,022,371 30,179,804 1,157,433 Then followed a wonderful development, and in the years 1859 and i860 the expenditure reached its highest figure, viz., p^5 1,056,930 and p{^5 1,861,720, while the income was ^36,060,788 and ^39,705,822, giving a deficit of ;,{^ 15,000,000 and ;^' 12,000,000. From this time the deficit became less, in consecjuence of the income increasing. In 1861 the income was ;^42,903,234, and the expenditure ^48,154,087 In 1862 „ „ 43,829,472 „ „ 44,870.232 * Benares is the densest district of all, having 797 souls to the square mile; in Agra, 575 ; and in Allahabad, 501. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 159 Later years shewed tlic ibllowmg results : — Expciiditiiir. Year Gruss Keveuue In India Ill England Total 1863 ^45,i43>752 _;^36,8oo,8o5 ^'7,252,317 ^44,053,^22 1864 44,613,032 38,087,772 6,446,913 44,534,685 1865 45,652,897 39,452,220 6,394,198 45,846,418 1866 48,935,220 41,120,92^. 5,048,228 46,169,152 1867* 42,122,433 37,094,406 7,545,518 44,639,924! 1868 48,534,412 41,646,947 8,497,622 50,144,569 1869 49,262,691 43,225,587 10,181,747 53,407,334 1870 50,901,081 42,791,013 10,591,013 53,382,026 187I 51,413,686 41,015,502 10,083,004 51,098,506 187: 50,110,215 38,763,600 9,850,912 48,614,512 i«73 50,219,489! 40,086,234 10,552,152 50,638,386 1874 49:59^,253 44,637,637 10,321,591 54,959,228 1875 50,570,171 43,895,551 10,604,994 54,500,545 1876 54,310,063 40,486,068 8,179,742 53,911,747 1877 55,422,000 — — 61,382,000 In comparing the financial totals we find the requirements or expen- diture increasing as well as the revenue, indeed, so much so, that we find deficits at the close of most years ; in no less degree has the public debt grown. In comi)aring the two years 1853 and 1866, the income of the former was ^28,609,109, while that of the latter was ^^48,935, 2 20. The expenditure of the first ^27,976,736, and that of the latter ^"47,332,102. The public debt had grown in the same period from ^56,233,686 to ^102,064,815. It should, however, be observed, that a great ex]jense had been incurrred in the outlay on productive and remunerative works, and this was the cause of the great increase of direct and indirect taxation. It was thought possible in 1867 to repeal the income tax, and to supply its place by a license duty, as far as the need should exist. The increased cxi)enditure caused by the famine led to a very serious deficit, and in the three following years the revenue fell far short of the expenditure. In 1869 it became necessary to increase the income tax by i-^^., and in 187 1 to increase it 3!^^., while at the same time, a decrease of grant (;!{^734,55i) for the army was resorted to, together with a decrease in that for agriculture, viz., ^4,000,000 instead of ;^5, 000,000 in 1870, and ^6,954,000 in 1869. The financial year of 1871-72 gave a most favorable result, the expen- diture being considerably less than the revenue, and, accordinp to Grant Duff, the next year was looked forward to as likely to be equally favorable, * Previous to 1867 the financial year began with the 1st of May, subsequently it commenced on the ist of April, making the year 1867 only l\ months. t Only for eleven months. J Of this sum, ;i^2o, 000, 000 was derived from land revenue, ^(^9, coo, 000 from sales of opium, nearly ^6,000,000 fjom tiie salt tax, over jr7, 000, 000 from customs, excise and stamps, and tlie other £8,000,000 from smaller items. It will be seen that the main EOLirce of revenue is derived from the demand on land, and next in impoitance comes tiie salt tax (a l)urden on the people), which, as long as it is moderate, acts simply as a cajiitation grant. The con- sumption of salt in India is greater in proportion to othir articles than in any other part of the world. It is an absolute necessity of life, borh frr iniman beings and for cattle. The average consumption of salt in Bengal is calculated at 9,^ 11,^. pti- head, or 50 lbs. a year for each household, the cost of which is 65. 6(/. A ryot thus jjays for his salt 5 per cent, of his income. i6o English Colonias and Foreign Possessions. when a terrible lamine occurred, which resulted in a deficit in 1873-74 of ^5,642,000, and in 1874-5 of ^5, 951. 000. I'he cost of raising the taxes in 1871 and 1872 was ^6,794,377. The army cost ^15,078,112; the public debt demanded ^5,469,703 ; the guaranteed interest of the railways ^'1,723,218 ; payment to the holders of shares of the East India Company of ^629,970 ; then the expenses of post and telegraph, the military pensions, cost of trans])orting the troops to and from India, etc. Revalue. Under the revenue appears the duty paid on land as ... ... ... ^20,520,337 „ opiu>:i „ ... ... ... 9>253,859 (this last being, :is a rule, very uncertain in its returns.) that of salt as ^5/;66,595 ,, customs „ ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 575,990 ,, excise ,, ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,369,109 >, stamps „ 2,476,333 ,, post ,, .. ... ... ... ... ... 820,894 ,, telegraph,, 228,336 In ordinary commercial traffic the rupee is used. It is a silver coin, ten of which are reckoned to our sovereign, or one for our 2s. piece. According to Grant Duff, England had drawn from India in the period 1861-72, ^569,000,000 against /."5 76,500,000 spent there* For the dilTerence of the ^7,500,000 it had ^^^37, 500, 000 of possessions there, viz. In roads ... ... ... ... ... ^^^7, 500, 000 ,, canals ... ... ... ... ... 8,000,000 „ harbours... ... ... ... ... 1,500,000 „ military stations... ... ... ... 11,000,000 ,, civil ,, ... ... ... ... 6,500,000 „ railways 2,775,000 The following table shews the gradual increase of the public debt. In 1857 it was ... ^59,461,969 : In 1867 it was ... ^101,986,111 ,, 1858 ,, ... 69,473,484 ; „ 1869 ,. ... 102,866,189 ,, 1859 ., ... 81,171,308 ,, 1870 ,, ... 108,186.388 ., i860 ,, ... 98,107.460 ,, 1871 ,, ... 119,000,474 ,, 1861 ,, ... 101,877,081 „ 1872 ,, ... 121,580,024 „ 1862 „ ... 107,514,159 „ 1S73 „ ... 120,696,718 ., 1863 „ ... 104,495,235 I „ 1874 „ ... 122,184,024 V i'"^64 „ ... 98,518,145 : „ 1875 „ ... 123,032,332 ., 1865 „ ... 9''^'477,555 M 1876 „ ... 122,570,014 ,. 1866 „ ... 98,383,651 . „ 1877 „ ... 127,320,159 ., 1868 „ ... 102,064,815 „ 1878 „ ... 134,631,553 In 1871 the amount of interest payable on it was ^,{^5, 840, 145 ; in '872,^5,966,299; in 1873, X5, 857-458 ; in 1874, /;5, 789,82 1 : in 1876, ^^■5, 178,108: 1878, ^5,028,318. ♦ The jfovLTiimjiir ol' India s|U'nils yearly about _;^io,ooo,ooo for the permanent ini- provtment of the country and its jK-ople. English Culonies and Forcii^n Possessions. i6i In April, 1874, a new loan for the relief of the famine, of ;^5,ooo,ooo was granted, ;,^3,ooo,ooo of which was to bear 4 per cent, interest, and the capital repaid in 1888. According to a declaration of the Secretary for India in the House of Commons, on August 3rd, 1874, the deficit of the last three years, was owing to the extraordinary amount of public works which had been undertaken to combat the famine. Co mi II axe. The im'ports by sea, or what is called seaborne trade, in 1839, were 0"b' ^5'24o,677, and the exports ^11,774,769. Since that time the in- crease will be seen in the following table. Imports in 20 years shew an increase of 163 per cent. Year Imports Exports Year Imports Exports 1851 ^i5'370o9S ^,"18.705,439 1868 ^47,481,157 ^52,446,002 1855 14,770,927 20,194,255 1869 51,146,095 54,457.744 1858 31,093,065 28,278,474 1870 46,882,326 53,513,723 i860 40,622,103 28,889,210 187I 38,858,728 57,552,590 1862 37.272,417 37,000,397 1873 35,817,146 56.525.574 1863 43.141,351 48,970,785 1874 38,386,142 56,874,849 1864 50,108,171 66,895,884 1875 44,363,134 57,984,539 1865 49.514,272 69,471,791 1876 44,188,062 60,291,731 1866 56,156,529 67,657,475 1877 48,697,000 62,977,000 1867 42,275,619 44,291,497 1878 58,819,644 67,433,324 While the trade of India has thus increased in volume, it has com- pletely changed in character. Many of the old staple articles of Indian trade continue stationary, or are even declining. This is the case with silk, and silk manufactures, formerly such an important item in Indian exports ; in fact, in the current year there have actually been more silk and silk manufactures imported into India than exported from it. xV like decrease may be observed in the export of Cashmere shawls and other woollen manufactures, and also in saltpetre, another characteristic Indian produce. The export of sugar also has largely decreased, India being beaten by Mauritius and other plantation colonies in international com- petition ; but her internal consumption of sugar is enormous, and its culti- vation still holds the first rank in Indian agriculture as the most valuable crop, the various grain crops alone excepted. The best ground is devoted to it, and the total value of sugar and molasses annually produced in India is probably not less than about ^20,000,000, or considerably more than the value of the cotton crop. On the other hand, a gigantic trade has sprung up in articles which were formerly of very small importance. They belong mainly to three classes. There is, first, the bulky agricultural pro- duce which, in consequence of the improved means of communication, can now be thrown upon the markets of Europe. The trade in grains and seeds of all kinds sprang up about the time of the Crimean War, in consequence of the closing of the Russian ])orts, from which the main supply had been derived. The total trade in grains and seeds increased in value from .;!63>885,ooo in 1857 to ^13,560,000 in 1877, or about 274 per cent., and L i62 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. now constitutes 23 per cent, of the entire exports instead of the 16 per cent, of 1857. The most extraordinary development is shown in the trade in wheat, now approaching two millions sterling. The export of hides and skins also shows considerable progress, and the export of opium has risen from ^^7,057,000 in 1857 to ;^i2,4o5,ooo in 1877, but this last high figure is due not so much to the prime cost of the article as to the duties placed upon it. A second group of articles comprise raw textiles, the vegetable and animal fibres which now form the most important item in Indian exports — namely, cotton, jute, and wool. The exports of these have grown in value from ;^2,o27,ooo in 1857 to ;^i5,46o,ooo in 1^77. Of this last sum raw cotton accounts for nearly 12 millions. In 1865 the Indian exports of cotton shot up to above 37 millions sterling, and, not- withstanding the fall in value after the close of the American Civil War, the quantity has been very fairly maintained, and cotton holds its place as one of the most important articles of Indian trade. The trade in jute has been entirely created within the last 30 years, and has a great future before it. The development of the wool trade is also comparatively recent. The third group of the new gTowth of Indian export trade — namely, exotic pro- ducts recently acclimatized in India by means of European capital and. enterprise — is perhaps the most interesting. The exports of tea show an increase from ^121,000 in 1857 to ^2,607,000 in 1877, and of coffee from _;^i33,ooo to ;j{^i, 346,000. The production of tea in India in the past year is equal to the total quantity consumed in the United Kingdom so late as in the year J840. Another exotic, the cinchona, promises to become important. Introduced by Mr. Clements Markham so late as 1 86 1, there are now nearly three millions of trees in the plantations in India, and the government sales of bark amounted to ;!^29,ooo in the past year. Several other Indian products, such as tobacco and indiarubber, also begin to attract attention, and the trade may attain very considerable dimensions. The returns of imports also during the last 20 years should not fail to attract attention, as showing how greatly the consuming power of India has increased. The principal articles are cotton (the cotton manufactures reaching nearly 16 millions sterling in the last year), woollens, metals, and metal work, machinery and mill work, railway materials, beer, wine, and spirits, the increase ranging from 160 to 533 per cent. In respect to several of these articles considerable progress has been made in establishing manufactures for their indigenous supply. A large and rapidly- increasing number of cotton-mills has been established in India, and successful attempts have been recently made to manufacture iron on the European method. The output of coal in the Indian coal mines has con- siderably increased of late, and already supplies some of the Indian rail- ways with the whole of the fuel required. The total area over which coal rocks may be presumed to extend is above 35,000 s(iuare miles. Dr. Forbes Watson observes that the statements thus made show that India, known usually as the country of caste and immutable tradition, shows her- self possessed, under her present rule, of a remarkable power of cxjiansion as regards trade and commercial development. It must also be remem- bered that the above figures refer to the seaborne trade and that of late years the land trade with Central Asia and Thibet has been acquiring some im])ortance. If once the communication with these countries and with China is improved, we may expect a considerable increase of trade in these directions. En or lis h Colonics and Foreign Possessions. 163 The following imports of precious metals, mostly silver, are included in the above table. 1 85 1 precious metal was imported to the value of 1855 1858 i860 1S62 1863 1864 „ „ 1865 1866 „ „ 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 ^3.768,197 2,028,256 i5.8i5>436 16,356,963 i4>95i>985 20,508,967 22,962,581 2i,363>352 26,557)301 i3»236,904 ii>775'373 15.155-836 13.954,953 5,444,820 11.573,812 4,556,585 5,792,533 8,141,047 5,300,722 11,436,120 17,355,459 The imports of treasure amounted in the 20 years, 1858-77 to ^267,582,677, but the exports of treasure to only ^28,804,567, showing an increase in the precious metals to the amount of nearly ^239,000,000, or about ^i per head of the population in the whole of British and native India. In 20 years, exports increased 133 per cent. The most important articles of export are opium, colored stuffs, cotton and rice, which amounted yearly in value as follows — Year Opium Dyes Cotton Rice 1863 ;^i2,494,i28 ^2,126,870 ^18,779,040 ^3.378,496 1.756,158 35.864,795 3,975,565 1,860,141 37,573,637 5,573,537 1,958,862 35.587,389 4,909,562 1,874,067 15,942,534 3,500,042 1,900,358 19,677,343 3.919,803 ' 3,023,905 19,778,924 4,545.490 3.596.485 19,079,138 3,221,454 3.595.486 19,460,899 4,468,994 3,956,869 21,272,430 4,865,748 3,692,329 14,022,108 5,761,030 3.724.581 13,216,185 5,549,798 2,790,550 15,257,342 4,765,334 3.015.582 13,280,959 5,311,095 3,248,680 11,746,184 5,815,221 The increased cultivation of cotton has had a very powerful influence in developing and increasing the well-being of the peoi)le, in fact, it has produced a sort of internal revolution. From 1846 to 1850 India, on an 1864 10,756,093 1865 9,911,804 1866 11,122,746 1867 10,423,144 1868 12,310,867 1869 10,695,654 1870 11.693,330 I87I 10,783,863 1872 13.365,228 1873 11,426,280 1874 11,341,857 1875 11,956,972 1876 11,148,426 1877 12,404,748 164 English Colonies and Fonign Possessions. average, sent only 83.5 million lbs. of cotton to the European market, and from 1856 to i860, not more than 194*4 million lbs., but from 1861 to 1865, in consequence of the American war, the figure rose to 496-8 million lbs., and from 1866 to 1870 to 576-4 million lbs., and maintained that high figure subsequently, for in 1871 it sent 553-7 million lbs., in 1872, 6io-6 million lbs., and in 1873, 558 million lbs., and it must not be overlooked, that there was no subsequent return to the former low price from the enormously high prices ruling during the war. Of the remaining exported articles we may mention hides, coffee, jute, olives, sugar, tea, spices, and raw wool, calicoes, shawls, raw silk, silk stuffs. Among articles imported are calicoes and thread, woollen goods, and wine. The increased sale of Indian produce, and the higher prices obtained for them, together with the few difficulties in the way of commercial traffic, have for the last ten years created quite a social revolution. Formerly the daily wage was only 2d., now, although it is much increased, there is a difficulty in obtaining labor, in consequence of the increased demand for it. The tonnage of the incoming ships rose in the 20 years 1838-1858 from 1,176,811 to 1,826,486. In the last the coasting traffic is included. Entered. Cleared. Year Vessels Tons Vessels Tons 1865 . . 26,823 . 3>9i3.3io • 26,070 4,007,607 1866 . 24,870 3.695,364 • •• 23,531 ... 3,926,020 1867 16,862 3,142,517 • .. i5>457 ••• 3,225, 244» 1869 15,906 3,037,000 . .. 15,528 ... 3,287,000 1870 . 14,346 3,100,000 .. 14,677 ••• 3,173,000 1871 19,074 3'75o>66i .. 18,593 ... 3,977,445 1872 21,209 4,072,916 . 20,676 4,260,722 1873 • 22,053 4:337,426 . .. 21,582 ... 4,473,413 1874 . 20,435 4,424,524 • .. 19,629 ... 4,588,428 18751 • • 156,780 6,728,488 . .. 156,073 ... 6,451.685 18761 . . 158,460 6,910,067 .. 159,668 ... 6,732,587 18771 . .. i75>i34 • 7,526,439 • .. 266,584 ... 7,333,195 1878! . 167,002 8,062,208 .. 152,622 7,670,038 The trade and shipi)ing returns show a prosperity. The tonnage entered and cleared and rose to 9,887,000 tons in 1875. vast increase in wealth and in 1857 was 4,549,000 tons Irrigation — Canals. Irrigation is a necessity for a large section of British India, and essential to the existence of the people, digantic works have been un- dertaken, and many have been com[)lcled, for the supi)ly of water, thus securing the inhabitants from famine. i'he Hasin of the Indus, the abode of the first civilized race in India, was the region where irrigation was first practised ; it includes an area of 372,700 scjuare miles. Permanent canals which are constructed at great expense, are necessary in those districts where rain scarcely ever falls. By their means the arid land is converted into beautiful gardens. * Eleven months. + Includin204| miles of railway are open for traffic, of which 5,136 were constructed by means of guaranteed capital, and 68-i by the State. There are 2,438 miles in course of construction, 935 of which being by companies and 1,503 by the Government. For the future no more lines will be entrusted to companies, all construction of railways henceforth being in the hands of the Government. Upwards of ;^4,ooo,ooo was expended in the construction of railways during the year 1873, the expense being nearly equally divided between the companies and the Government. The passenger traffic increased from 2o>332,823 to 22,243,220, and produced^2, 194,5 15 instead of^2,o85,942. The goods amounted to 3,266,062 tons, and the minerals to 669,826 tons, and the receipts were ;^4,294,i6o compared with ^3,904,614. * A small canal was in existence here in 1663, for the supply of water for the fountaiat in the gardens of the royal palace. 1 66 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. In the year 1874 there were 6,192 miles of railway open. Number of passengers conveyed, not including season-ticket holders, was 24,280,459, goods and minerals conveyed, 4,696,624 tons ; number of live stock, 474,437. The gross receipts of the Indian railway were ^7,788,768, the gross expenditure ^3,831,039, and the net earnings ^3,957)729- 7^e number of persons killed 221 ; the number wounded, 278. The chief lines are — From Calcutta to Benares, 540 miles long ; from Madras to Beypore, 405 miles long; and from Bombay to Sholapore, 295 miles long. So the principal cotton districts of Central India and Guzerat are in direct com- munication with Bombay, and Delhi is reached from Calcutta in two days. A branch line has been constructed in connection with the East India Railway for the purpose of reaching to the Kurhurbari Coal Fields. The Bombay and Baroda Railway has 406 miles complete, and the Great Southern of India is opened for 168 miles out of the 383 contemplated. Telegraph* The electric telegraph is now in working order along every line of railway, connecting every important place in the country, and there are three lines of telegraph between India and England. On financial grounds none of the lines can be considered successful. The following table gives the number of miles of lines, the total receipts, and the working expenditure of all the telegraphs in India, in each of the ten fiscal years from 1869 to 1878: — Years ended Number of miles Number of miles Working March 31. of wire. of line. expenditure. 1869 20,597 14,014 ^^120,887 ^234,431 1870 21,378 14,489 121,064 235,567 1871 22,834 15,102 126,953 229,562 1872 28,893 15.336 ^53,962 228,997 1873 30,681 15,705 183,2x6 254,610 1874 32,556 15,980 196,820 255,711 1875 33^798 16,649 203,881 266,823 1876 36,193 17,145 213,054 276,943 1877 39,700 17,840 249,646 265,387 1878 42.687 18,210 306,089 279,879 In 1 86 1 the total number of messages was 240,451. In 1874 the number was 788,040, and for the year ending March 31, 1878, 1,431,453. Of this last number, [,230,291 were paid private messages, and on the public service, and the rest unpaid messages on the news and telegraph service. There were 239 telegraph offices on March 31, 1878. rosf. In the year ending March 31, 1878, the number of letters which passed through the post office of British India was i '5,089,336 ; of news- papers, 10,999,758; of parcels 909,962; and of books and patterns Note. — The second great cause of the chanp^c wrought in India during the last 20 years is the improved means of communication, which have transformed the whole face of the country. 'I'he length of rail opened in 1857 was 274 miles; in 1S76, 6,497 miles. The passengers carried in 1857 were 1,825,000; 1875, 26,779,000. * The miles of telegraph increased from 4, «6z miles in 1857 to 1 1,649 '" 1876. EnsiUsh Colonies and Forcis^n Possessmis. 167 1,827,024 ; being a total of 128,826,080. The following table gives the number of letters, newspapers, etc., carried, the number of offices and receiving houses, together with the total revenue and expenditure from 1869 to 1878 :— Years. Number of letters, newspapers, &c. Post Offices, LetterBoxes,&c. Total Revenue. Total Expenditure 1869 75-987,617 3,710 ^707,792 ^693,316 1870 84,534,578 4,051 711,698 688,483 187I 85,689,823 4,340 805,235 752,940 1872 89,561,685 4,769 820,894 657,200 1873 93,157,314 5,174 677,047 704,193 1874 109,235,503 6,805 676,645 725,357 1875 116,119,231 7,344 719,587 729,191 1876 119,470,921 8,108 752,094 745,445 1877 122,541,753 9,306 782,320 744,281 1878 128,826,080 9,681 833,366 768,584 In Bengal and Madras, the number of letters carried during the ten years 1869 to 1878 was nearly doubled. In 1869 the number was 15,511,495 in Bengal, and 12,167,455 in Madras; while in 1878 it was 28,581,038 in Bengal, and 22,415,876 in Madras. The increase was not in anything Uke the same proportion in the other provinces of India. In the year ending March, 1869 the mails travelled over 50,281 miles, of which total 40,586 miles was done by boats and " runners ;" 5,460 miles by carts and on horseback ; and 4,235 miles by railways. Ten years after, in the fiscal year ending March, 1878, the mails travelled over 57,963 miles, of which total 46,844 miles was done by boats and "runners;" 3,781 miles by carts and on horseback ; and 7,338 miles by railways.* Education. Education is under Government inspection and control. It has made great strides since 1858, and reports steady progress. In the 20 years, 1858 to 1878, the gradual progress of education has been one of the causes of the profound transformation India has under- gone in these years. The expenditure by the Government on education has increased fourfold, and now exceeds /^i, 000,600 a-year. The number of pupils has increased from 200,000 in 1857 to about 1,700,000, and is still increasing. This, although i per cent, of the population, is producing a most beneficial effect upon the masses. The number of Educational Institutions and Scholars in the Presi- dences and Provinces in 1874 were: — Colleges Pupils in At a Proportion of and Daily Cost of Scholars to Schools Attendance Population Bengal 18,260 291,313 £ 126,815 I in 229 North- West Provinces.. 8,938 180,898 99,636 I „ 173 Oudh 1,548 37,720 14,185 I „ 298 Punjab 1,873 72,271 54,439 I „ 243 Central Provinces 1,359 49,100 32,395 I „ 184 British Burmah 40 2,456 — I „ 1,014 * Prom the Statesman's Year Book, 1880. i68 English Co lollies and Foreign Possessions. Madras Mysore L"rg Berars... Bombay and Sindh Cblleges and Schools 4,401 2,683 66 344 3.676 Pupils in Daily Attendance i35>i92 44,750 1.938 10.933 150,443 At a Cost of ^95,935 13,217 3,542 32,523 285,650 Proportion of Scholars to Population 231 97 58 204 93 43,188 977.014 ^758,337* In 1878 there were in the 13 provinces of British India 66,202 colleges and schools, and 1,877,942 students — that is 9 to every 1,000 of the population. Total receipts, ^1,664,167 ; total expenditure, ;^i,6i2,775. The number of institutions is i to every 14 square miles — a great improvement upon 1874. The remaining possessions in Asia. The most important of these is the island of Ceylon. It is not reckoned in with India, because it was never in possession of the East India Company. The Portuguese, in 1506, had a firm hold of Ceylon, but were driven from it in 1558 by the Dutch, who were in like manner expelled by the English, and it became a crown colony in 1802. It contains 24,702 square miles — not much smaller than Ireland. The population in 18 14 was ... ... ... 852,940 1832 1852 1866 1871 1873 1876 1,009,008 1,707,194 2,088,027 2,405,287 2,323.760 2,566,717 This number consisted of 18,483 white persons (among whom were 1,084 military), 2,035,373 colored (among whom were 1,326 military), and 38,916 foreigners. 565,829 individuals were occupied in agriculture, 62,275 individuals were occupied in manufactures, 113,228 individuals were occujiied in trade. In 1873 the number of the military was reduced to 456 ; the births were 68,605 ; the marriages, 22,458 ; the deaths, 46,732. There are 124 schools, and 66,424 scholars. The public revenue and ex])enditure of the colony from 1869 to 1878 was as follows : — Years Revenue Expenditure 1009 1870 .;t,y4",4yi 1,091,606 1,026,870 I87I 1,121,679 1,064,184 1872 1,174,698 1,062,994 1873 1,290,918 1,176,258 1874 1,324,328 1,184,192 1875 • •,354,'23 1,241,519 1876 1,375,888 1,276,930 1877 1,596,205 1,437,266 1878 1,642,609 1,545,063 Excluding Burmah. Englisk Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 169 The principal sources of revenue are the customs, licences, including the arrack monopoly, and sales, with rents of public lands. The chief articles of export are coffee, cinnamon, cocoa-nut oil and coir, all the produce of the island. The quantities exported were as follows Year Coffee' cwts. Cinnamon lbs. 1864 ... 671,164 ... 776,675 1865 ... 927,440 ... 850,973 . 1S66 ... 897,624 ... 890,484 1867 — 943,592 ... 1,017,750 . 1868 ... 1,007,338 ... 2,056,509 1869 ••• 919.065 ... 2,684,367 1870 ... 1,054,029 ... 2,191,274 1871 ... 945,851 ." 1,368,174 . 1872 ... 714,168 ... 1,267,953 1873 ••• 951,342 ... 1,160,754 . 1874 ... 733,003 ... 1,132,191 1875 ••• I,245i422 ... 1,407,010 1876 ... 667,165 ... 1,356,901 1877 ... 896,534 ... 1,443,371 ., Total value of imports and exports in the years- '^^■" Imports ^^71 ^4,797,952 1872 5,169,524 ^873 5,574,358 ^^74 5,336,119 ^^75 5,361,240 1876 5,562,884 ^877 5,885,969 'i'he cultivation of tea is widely spreading. It is not exported, as, owing to its excellent quality, it is consumed on the island, realizing a higher price than Chinese tea. Savings' Banks. Beside the proof given by the revenue returns that the colony is in a prosperous state, that of the savings' banks may be adduced, which show that habits of thrift are spreadmg among the lower orders of the natives, for almost all the depositors are natives of a humble class. The number of depositors in December, 1871, was 4,583; the amount of deposits, ^94,341 io.r. od. In December, 1876, the depositors were 7,184, and the deposits ^143,876 8j. od. Railways and Telegraphs. In 1873 the number of miles was 83. The number of passengers con- veyed 644,374. The tonnage of goods carried, 171,193. 26 miles were added during the year 1878, between Columbo and Kalutara. Between Cocoanut oil Twist gallons cwts. 2,249,402 I^.IT^Z 1,176,784 .. 41,378 1,042,853 .. 46,687 i»345>485 •• 49,675 1,423,853 60,804 1,292,065 64,998 1,688,199 . 61,666 2,577,700 .. 65,424 3,462,245 67,919 1,415,961 65,048 145,078! . 44,671 123,854 30,452 212,917 26,382 132,962 20,898 jars — Exports ^3,634,854 ... 3,139,060 .. 5,439,591 .. 4,394,427 5,375,410 .. 4,509,595 .. 5,730,050 * It is estimated that about 250,0:0 acres are planted with coffee in the island. This a few years ago was worth £60 per acre, giving at total o.'' ^15,000,000. In 1879, the value decreased at the rate of /^i per cent, which, reckoning 3 cwt. of coifee only to an acre, would take j^750, 000 from the total value. t The returns of cocoa-nut oil have since 1873 been made in cwts. 170 English Colonics a?id Foreign PossessioJis. the years 187 1 and 1876, 43 miles were completed at a cost of;;^453,335. In 1877, 109 niiles of railway were open for traffic, and at the end of June, 1879, 126 miles, and 12 under construction. In 1872, 601 miles of telegraphic communication were constructed; in 1877 there were 760 miles of wire, and 12 miles voted. In 1878, there were 785 miles of wire. Spirits — A rrack. The drinking of spirits does not diminish, and in order to remedy the evil, 402 taverns have been suppressed in the last five years, leaving still 1,097. Education. Taking government and grant schools together, the total number of schools in 1873 was 769; in 1874 they had increased to 839. In 1873 the number of scholars was 44,192, in 1874, 46,479. The following is an abstract of the schools supported by the various missionary societies. : — Schools Number o Number Pupils Society for the Propogation of the Gospel ... 190 ... 9,423 Church Missionary Society Wesleyan Missionary Society Presbyterians Baptist Missionary Society American Missionary Society Roman Catholic Missionary Society Total 123 ... 5,237 145 ••• 7>243 I ... 108 41 ... 2,171 114 ... 8,126 169 ... 10,217 783 ... 42,525 The number of private schools in 1873 ^^'^^ 393) ^^'i^^"* ^'^ attendance of ^^'935 pupils. In 1874 the pearl fishery rendered a revenue, clear of all expense, of ;^7,ooo, and that of 1877 realized a sum of ^28,000. The sanitary arrangements were so much improved, as to give complete immunity from sickness to the large multitude assembled there. Hong Kong. This is the smallest of all the colonies. It has an area of 32 square miles, and a population of 124,198, of whom 90,435 are males, and 33,763 females. It was ceded by China to England in 1841, as a free port for trade, and a naval station, to protect British interests in Chinese waters. The small peninsula of Kow-loon was added m 1861. The population consists of Europeans and natives, 23,709 of whom live in boats. Of the Euroi)eans, the Portuguese are the most numerous, viz., 1,367, English 869, Germans 170, Americans 133. There are 1,629 Catholics among the population. The revenue rose from ^31,078 in 1847 to In 1866 ... ... ^160,226 the expenditure ;i^i96,oo9 „ 1870 190.674 ,) » 183,596 „ 1871 175.962 ,, „ 186,675 Eno-lisk Colonics and Foreis'n Possessions. 171 In 1872 „ 1873 „ 1874 » 1875 „ 1876 „ 1877 „ 1878 The revenue is very satisfactory, and quite sufificient to cover all ordinary expenditure. The large boat population are inveterate thieves, but the number of offences is gradually diminishing, and assuming a more trivial character. ;^i92,7M the expenditure ^174,681 176,580 165,101 178,108 192,398 184,818 181,337 184,406 178,569 206,954 169,787 189,526 182,104 Trade and Commerce. The commercial intercourse of Hong-Kong is chiefly with Great Britain. The following table gives the value of the total exports to the United Kingdom, and of the imports from Great Britain for the years 1874 to 1878 :— Years Exports Imports 1874 ;2^747,29i ^3>65o,963 1875 1,154,910 3,599,811 1876 1,356,850 3,080,376 1877 1,895,310 3,507,977 1878 ... ... ... 1,174,469 ... ... 2,870,796 Total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared in Year 1866 1867 186S IS69 1870 I871 Tons 1,891,281 2,376,320 1,974,209 2,256,049 2,640,340 3,235,701 Year 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 Tons 3,795,566 3,273,110 3,034,036 3,893,687 4,359,616 no returns The inspector of government schools gives a satisfactory report of education in the island. Labuan.* This colony embraces an area of about 45 square miles, with a popu- lation of 4,898 — 3,027 being males, and 1,871 females, all natives except about 50 whites. The development of the coal mines here was probably the primary object the government had in sanctioning the occupation of this island as a British colony. The trade of this colony is principally with the coast of Borneo and the neighbouring countries. * When the settlement was first formed in 1848 it was for the most part covered by a forest of fir trees, ranging from 60 feet to 100 feet in height ; but almost the whole of those forests were destroyed by the Kadyan immigrants from the neighbouring island of Borneo. Although an approximate estimate of the land still covered puts the area at between 4,000 and 5,000 acres, there is little or no export trade in timber. 1/2 English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Year 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 Revenue Expenditure ^7,370 ^^6,960 5,612 6,823 4,760 7,559 5,529 6,238 7,159 7,302 7,115 8,227 7,080 7,518 6,917 7,090 7,084 7,188 8,758 6,722 9,430 7,578 7,491 7,995 Tonnage of Vessels Entered and Cleared. 1866 37,362 1872 1867 28,567 1873 1868 14,820 1874 1869 — 1875 1870 18,665 1876 I87I 18,314 1877 ... 15,516 ... 14,690 ... 17,501 ... 16,949 ••• 13,933 ... 18,461 The principal articles of import for consumption in the colony and for exportation to Singapore are — beeswax, Bezoar stones, edible birds' nests, camphor, canes, cinnamon, coffee, dammar, gutta-percha, india-rubber, hides, pearls, mother-of-pearl shell, pepper, rattans, rattan mats, rope, sago, sharks' fins, tinder, tortoiseshell, trepang. The exports must be divided into two classes — ist, tlie exports, which are the produce or the manufacture of the island itself; 2ndly, the exports, which are the produce of the coast of Borneo and the neighbouring countries, and which, being obtained there, are forwarded to the Singapore and sometimes to the Hong Kong market. Included in the ist class arc coal, sago-flour, timber, and planks. The total value of coal e: ported or supplied to shipping from 1854 to 1875, both inclusive, was ^103,244, The highest figure was reached in 1865, when ;£i i:,995 worth of coal was exported or supplied to shippers. In 1862 its worth was only ^79 12. In 1870 sago-flour manufactured in Labuan from raw sago brought from Borneo was worth ^14, 162. In 1871 it was worth ^18,082 ; in 1872, p^ 1 9,908. Timber and planks exported represent but a small figure — in 1867, to the value of ^216 ; in 1869, to the value of ;!^i42 ; in 1870, ^■877- Of the second-class of exports, bees' wax is the most important ; the highest value attained in this export was in 1868, when it amounted to ^10,909. In edible birds' nests the highest value attained was in 1866, when it was ,^^9, 200. Gutta-percha and India-rubber. — In 1868 the exports were valued at ;;^i8,5i8 ; in 1873, ^1^14,722. Pearli^. — The largest export of i)earls (seed i)earls and large ones) was in the years 1867 and 1868, when the value amounted to ;^^io,45o and ;^i 1,554. Until 1852 no returns were kept of the trade of imports or exports, with the exception of coal. It was not until 1855 that the coal exports from the colony were ascertained. EjiQ'lish Colonics and Foreis^n Possessions. 173 Trade and Comincrce. The following table gives the value of the exports and imports for the years 1863 to 1877 : — Year Exports Imports 1863 ^22,332 ^71,365 1864 ... 48,000 84,049 1865 58,536 104,190 1866 ... 58,294 109,135 1867 ... 107,977 127,544 1868 • 203,853 229,726 1869 disputed 1870 ... 61,218 122,983 1871 ... 118,962 134,023 1872 134,985 120,269 1873 ... 84,703 79,749 1874 99,104 89,978 1875 ... • 114,334 119,363 1876 ... . 112,997 126,594 1877 . 151,208 152,455 This colony is now left to its own resources, the garris on having been withdraw m by the Imperial government in 187 [, and no help given in military aid or grant. 244 97,111 106 61,797 236 74,433 640 77,756 The Straits Settlements. The district known as the Straits Settlements are four in number, and occupy an area of 1,226 square miles, with a population of 308,097. Square Miles Population Island of Singapore ... Fenang (Prince of Wales's Island) ... Province of Wellesley Malacca There are only 1,730 Europeans and Americans in the whole colony, and of these 1,329 reside in Singapore. The population mainly consists of Malays, Chinese, natives of India and Eurasians. Among the white population of Singapore are — 407 sailors living on board ship, and 596 military, including their families. These possessions were separated from the Indian Government in April, 1867, and placed under the colonial minister. The seat of govern- ment is Singapore. The Value of the Total Imports and Exports. Imports Exports ^8,709,395 I87I 10,161,563 9,416,642 1872 11,456,354 I 1,292,607 1873 .. 12,120,242 11,302,321 1874 .. 12,190,981 10,940,474 1875 .. 11,536,106 11,502,687 1876 .. 11,923,136 11,023,019 1877 .. 13,118,902 12,204,190 174 English Colonics and Foj-eign Possessions. The five staple commodities of Singapore are gutta-percha, gambler, pepper, tea, and opium. Finance. Year Gross amount of Public Revenue Public Expenditure 1870 • ^278,239 ^262,370 I87I 292,855 261,273 1872 320,057 270,065 1873 3i9'9i5 294,964 1874 309,991 356,832 1875 327,007 383,611 1876 352,544 328,130 1877 366,236 34^,447 Shipping. The total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared, exclusive of the coasting trade, from 1870 to 1877 was : — Year 1870 1871 1872 1873 Tons 1,650,897 1,986,655 2,402,838 2,507,273 Year 1874 1875 1876 1877 Tons 2,604,869 3,164,101 4,005.954 3.971.944 Immigration. The Indian Immigration Ordinance came into operation in Penang alone on ist December, 1876, but the act of the Indian government, regu- lating emigration from India did not come into force until Jan. i, 1878. 2,136 males and 140 females with 7 children, arrived in the Straits Settle- ments during the six months ending December 31, 1878. Falkland Islands. These islands were formally taken possession of by the British govern- ment in 1833, for the protection of the whale fishery, although they had, since 17 71, when the dispute with Spain about these islands was adjusted, nominally formed part of Great Britain. Population Area 1871 1877 Males Females 6500 square miles ... 8ii ... 1,320 of whom 835 ... 485 All the land has been leased for some years past, but the number of people employed on the large farms is strikingly small. The islands could support a much larger population if tillage of the land were enforced. Cattle, which are very numerous, suffer greatly from the scarcity of food in winter, while butter, milk and cheese, which should be produced in the island, is imported from England, at a cost in 1877 of ;,{^2,20o for this small population. One of the principal occupations of the inhabitr.nts is killing wild cattle. Year Revenue Expenditure Imports Exports 1870 .. 8,062 8,618 20,596 19,894 1871 12,673 ... 11,843 23.715 24,692 1872 .. 10,249 ... 10,709 24,441 31.435 Rnglisk Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 175 Year Revenue Expenditure Imports Exports 1873 ... 10,741 ... 9,527 36,540 40,586 1874 ... 11,041 ... 10,351 28,156 41,720 1875 ... 10,863 ... 10,587 42,460 38,989 1876 ... 9>i5o 8,608 27,056 37,121 1877 ... 7^464 6,673 33.283 59,878 Of the imports in i 87 7, the greater part was sent from Eng land. Countries whence Imported Value of go 3ds Imported ^ United Kingdom ... ^^ 4,733 Monte Video ... ... ... ... 6,285 Nova Scotia 2,265 Total ^33,283 Exports. The quantity of wool exported in 1876 and 1877 amounted to 814,687 lbs., and 1,193,759 lbs. respectively. The value of the hides exported in 1876 and 1877 was ^4,861 and ^^8,100. In 1876 there were 13,000 sheep boiled down for the export of tallow. In 1877, 10,000. The manufacture of Penguin oil was at one time an important industry in the Falklands ; it has, however, dwindled to almost nothing of late years. In 1876 the export of this oil amounted only to ^160. In 1877 there was a slight revival, the amount being ^1,200. The value of sealskins exported in 1876 amounted to £()S- In 1877 to ^308. Shipping. The number of merchant vessels which entered Stanley harbour during the years 1871 to 1877 was as follows : — Year Number of V essels Tonnage Year Number of Vessels Tonnage 1871 54 ... 20,802 1875 55 22,403 1872 60 ... 26,865 1876 35 18,354 1873 50 ... 23,127 1877 31 ^1,415 1874 47 ... 15,978 Of the total number, 236 were British ships, 47 United States, 17 Germans, 5 Swedish, 5 Italian, i Dutch, i Norwegian, and the remainder of various nationalities. Education. In 1875 the number of children on the school rolls was 141 Average attendance ... ... ... 80 In 1876 enrolled ... Average attendance In 1877 enrolled ... Average attendance 127 71 139 77 Fiji. This group of islands was discovered in 1643 by Abel Tasman. They Were formally ceded to Great Britain in 1874. There are two large islands 176 English Colonics and Foreign Possessions. and about 200 small ones ; they occupy an area of 7,403 square miles, and contained a population in 1877 of 4,585, exclusive of the Fijians. Taking the whole population, the following is the estimate made in 187 1 : — 146,000 natives, 2,040 whites ; total, 148,040. The native population is of a race in transition between Melanesian and Polynesian, and are pro- foundly barbarous and very warlike. Christianity has recently been intro- duced throughout the whole of the islands by Protestant missionaries. The principal articles of export are cocoa-nut fibre and oil ; but coffee and cotton will probably soon be added, as they are being largely cultivated. Revenue Expenditure Imports Exports 1876 ... ... ^87,265 . . ^72,464 .. ■ ^112,812 . . ^82,890 1878 ... 46,688 . 64,590 .. 136,608 . 29,685 The tonnage of British vessels, entered and cleared in 1876, was 18,946 „ „ Foreign „ „ „ „ 8,214 In 1879 the public debt had risen to ^85,000. English Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 177 SUMMARY OF BRITISH EMPIRE, 1875. Great Britain and Ireland Possessions in Europe North America Central & South America Africa ... Australia Asia 8. Native States (India) Total \rea in English Square Miles Population 121,618 33,400,000 148 174,000 3,444,440 3,833,000 113^750 386,968 3,076,611 1,330,000 2,730,000 2,635,000 956,790 194,000,000 573>o52 48,000,000 8,673,378 286,102,000 There has never been a kingdom extending its dominions into all ])arts of the world as England has done. It exceeds the old Roman empire both in area and in population. For industrial and commercial development, and for wealth, the British Dominion has no equal, either now or formerly. M FRANCE-LAND AND PEOPLE. FRANCE. LAND AND PEOPLE General Survey* INCE the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, the French territories in Europe contain 204,031 English square miles, and the census taken in II March, 1872, gave the population at 36,102,921, exclusive of the troops in Algeria and the colonies. The census of December, 1876, gave 36,905,788— the increase in the four years and seven months amounting to 802,867, equal to 2.17 per cent. This increase is partly owing to immi- gration from Alsace-Lorraine. The increase from 1872-76 was not spread over all the departments of France, for in no less than 20 of them, or one quarter, there was a decrease, owing to the rural population flowing towards the industrial centres. The European territory of France is divided into 86 departments, which are sub-divided into 362 arrondissements (districts), 2,873 cantons, and 35,989 communes. Previous to the war of 1870, there were 89 departments, 373 districts, 2,914 cantons, and 37,548 communes. The area and population of the departments, with the number of arrondissements, cantons, and communes are as under : — Districts. English acres. 1872. Ain 1,432,345 363,290 Aisne 1,815,944 552,439 AUier 1,815,167 390,812 Alpes (Basses) ... 1,717,684 139,332 Alpes (Hautes) ... 1,380,633 118,898 Alpes (Maritime)... 948,233 190,037 Ardfeche ... 1,365,082 380,277 Ardenne ... 1,292,523 320,217 1876 365,462 560,427 405,783 136,166 119,094 203,604 384,378 326,782 Districts Cantons 5 36 5 37 4 28 5 30 3 24 3 25 3 31 5 31 452 837 317 251 189 150 339 501 * Chief authorities consulted : — " Statistiqua de la France ;" '■ Bulletin des Lois de la Republique Francjaise ;" "Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris;" "Journal des Economistes and Annuaire de I'Economie Politique et de la Statistique." i8o France — Land and People. Districts. English acres. 1872 1S76. Districts Jantons ( ommunes Ariege 1,208,785 246,298 244,795 3 20 336 Aube 1,482,343 255,687 255.219 5 26 446 Aude i,559>37o 285,927 300,665 4 31 436 Aveyron ... 2,159,602 402,474 413,826 5 32 289 Belfort Territory ... i5o>i5i 56,781 68,600 I 6 106 Bouches du Rhone 1,260,902 554,911 556.379 3 27 108 Calvados ... 1, 363)617 454,012 450,220 6 38 764 Cantal 1,418,143 231,867 281,086 4 23 264 Charente ... 1,467,767 367,520 313,950 5 29 426 Charente Inf. 1,685,945 465,653 465,628 6 40 479 Cher 1,778,233 335,392 145.613 3 29 291 Correze ... 1,448,924 302,746 311.525 3 29 287 Corsica ... 2,160,610 258,507 262,701 5 62 363 Cote-d'Or 2,141,776 374,510 377.663 4 36 717 C6tes-du-Nord ... 1,700,748 622,295 630,957 5 48 389 Creuse 1,375,370 274,663 278,423 4 25 263 Dordogne 2,268,092 480,141 489,848 5 47 582 Doubs 1,291,204 291,251 306,094 4 27 638 Drome 1,610,822 320,417 321,756 4 29 372 Eure 1,471,539 377,874 377,874 5 36 700 Eure-et-Loire 1,450,952 282,622 283,075 4 24 426 Finisterre... 1,660,116 642,963 666,106 5 43 285 Card 1,441,383 420,131 423,804 4 40 347 Garonne (Haute) . . . i,553)6oo 479.362 477,731 4 39 584 Gers 1,551.236 284,717 283,546 5 29 465 Gironde ... 2,405,859 705,149 735.242 6 48 551 He'rault 1,530,906 429,878 445,053 4 36 335 Ill&-et-Vilaine 1,661,280 589.532 602,712 6 43 352 Indre 1,678,439 277,693 281,248 4 23 245 Indre-et-Loire 1,510,083 317,027 314,875 3 24 281 Isere 2,047,466 575.784 581,099 4 45 555 Jura 1,233,520 287,634 288,823 4 32 584 Landes (Haiden)... 2,302,363 300,528 303,508 3 28 331 Loir-et-Cher 1,568,677 268,801 272,634 3 24 297 Loire 1,175,626 550,611 590,613 3 30 328 Loire (Haute) 1,225,675 308,732 313,721 3 28 262 Loire Infe'rieure ... 1,698,016 602,206 612,972 5 45 215 Loiret 1,672,483 353,021 360,903 4 31 349 Lot 1,287,299 281,404 276,512 3 29 321 Lot-et-Garonne . . . 1,322,428 319,289 316,920 4 35 319 Loz^re 1,351,023 135.190 138,319 3 24 194 Maine-et-Loire ... 1,758,869 518,471 517,258 5 34 380 Manche (Channel) 1,464,309 544,776 539,910 6 48 643 Marne 2,020,568 386,157 407,780 5 32 665 Marne (Haute) ... 1,536,260 251,196 252,448 3 28 550 Mayenne 1,277,145 350,637 351,933 3 27 274 Meurthc-ct-Moselle 1,295,263 365,137 404,609 4 29 596 Mcusc (Maas) ... 1,538,283 284,725 294,059 4 28 587 Morbihan 1,679,059 490,352 506,573 4 37 248 Nievrc 1,683,690 339.917 1 346,822 4 25 313 France- — L and and People. I8l Nord Oise Orne Pas-de-Calais Puy-de-D6me Pyrenees (Basses) Pyrene'es (Hautes) Pyrenees Orientales Rhone Saone (Haute) ... Saone-et-Loire Sarthe Savoie Savoie (Haute) ... Seine Seine Infe'rieure ... Seine-et-Marne ... Seine-et-Oise Sevres (Deux) Somme ... Tarn Tarn-et-Garonne ... Var Vaucluse ... Vende'e ... Vienne Vienne (Haute) ... Vosges Yonne English acres. 1,403,174 1,446,199 1,506,030 1,631,590 1,963,775 1,882,797 1,118,774 1,018,161 689,226 1,318,960 2,1 12,279 1,553,049 1,422,522 844,036 117,448 1,490,222 1,416,878 1,384,101 1,481,970 1,521,816 430,313 918,879 1502,562 876,284 I 655,764 I 721,681 876,284 1,451,510 1,836,725 1872. 1,447,764 396,804 398,250 761,158 566,463 426,700 235,156 191,856 670,247 303,088 598,344 446,603 267,958 273,027 2,220,060 790,022 341,490 580,180 331,243 557,015 352,718 221,610 293,757 263,451 401,446 320,598 322,447 392,988 363,608 1876. Districts Cantons Gommnnes 1,519,855 7 61 661 401,618 4 35 701 392,526 4 36 511 793,140 6 44 904 570,207 5 50 456 431,525 5 40 558 238,037 3 26 480 197,940 3 17 231 705,131 2 29 264 304,052 3 28 583 614,309 5 49 588 446,239 4 33 386 268,361 4 29 327 373,801 4 28 317 2,410,849 3 28 72 798,414 5 51 759 347,323 5 29 529 561,990 6 36 685 336,061 4 31 356 556,641 5 41 833 359,232 4 35 317 221,364 3 24 194 255,703 3 28 145 414,781 4 22 150 411,281 3 30 298 320,916 5 31 300 336,061 4 27 302 407,082 5 30 531 359,070 5 37 485 The census of 1872 divided the population in the following manner: Domiciled, normal or municipal, ... ... ... 35-312,945 Specially-counted population — viz., those in hospitals,^ . colleges, convents, refuges, etc. ... ... ...J h 5, 5 Army and navy Total 35,728,210 374,711 36,102,921 The resident population was again divided into 21,865,625 dwelling together in towns, villages, hamlets, etc. (population agglome're'e), and 13,447,320 scattered (population eparse). Fluctuations and Ordinary Movements of the Population. The number of inhabitants in France in the year 1700 (when the State did not possess Lorraine, Corsica and Avignon) was, according to the memoranda of the intendant, 19,669,320. The inexact census of 1762 gives the number as 21,769,163. In 1784, Necker estimated it at 1 82 France — Land and People. 24,800,000, by calculating i birth to every 25^ of the inhabitants, A similar very incorrect enumeration (often a mere calculation) gives (1790) 26,363,000 inhabitants. In the 86 old departments (without Savoy and Nice) there lived* — Year 180I 1806 1821 1831 1836 1841 1846 1851 1856 1861 Population 27>349.902 29,107,425 30,471,875 32,569,223 33,540,910 34,230,178 35,401,761 35,783,170 36,039,364 36,713,166 Yearly Increase. 1.28 per cent. 0.51 „ 0.69 „ 0.60 „ 0.41 0.68 0.21 „ 0.1 1 „ 0.37 „ Including the 3 departments acquired in i860, the population increased in the 5 years (1861-1866) from 37,386,161 to 38,067,064, showing a total of 680,751, equalling 0*36 percent, annually. In each of these census it was shewn that, although the population was increasing in the greater part of the country, it had decreased in many departments. The number of departments shewing increase and those shewing decrease of population in the years 1836 to 1867 were : — Increase Decrease i«36-40 70 16 1841-45 81 5 1S46-50 61 25 32 54 1856-60 58 28 1861-65 58 31 14 72 1873-76 66 20 The increase confirmed by the census of 1866 in the 58 departments amounted to 788,401 ; the decrease in 31 departments to 107,650. Only those cities and towns had gained in numbers where trade and industries flourished. The census of 1872 shewed an increase of population in 14 depart- ments only, which consisted of 231,697, against a decrease in 72 depart- ments of 600,801 ; the total decrease amounted to 369,104. In reality the proportion was still more unfavourable, as in the census of 1S66 about 125,000 French troops, then in Mexico and Rome, had not been included in the reckoning. The increase was considerable only in the following departments : — Seine Nord Seine-et-Oise 69,744 Allier 55,723 Loire 46,453 Pas-de-Calais 14,648 12,210 11,381 * The census of 1801 and 1806 (the first which deserves the name ot census) suffer from primitive inexactitude as well as from some other faults, which are not ahsent from modern official statistics. 'I'he whole population contained in these 86 departments was included without regard to the fact that Communes and even whole Cantons had been surrendered in the Treaties of Peace of 1814 and 18 15. France — Land and People. 183 The greatest decrease was in the departments — Manche 29,123 Var 14,793 Dordogne ... 22,532 Saone (Haute) 14,618 Calvados 20,897 Garonne (Haute) ... 14,415 Finisterre 19,522 Charente Inf. 13,906 C6tes-du-Nord 18,915 Maine-et-Loire 13,854 Mayenne 17,218 Seine-et-Marnc 12,910 Sarthe 17,016 Aisne 12,586 Meuse 16,928 Gers ... 10,975 Eure 16,593 Jura ... 10,843 Oise 16,368 Morbihan ... 10,732 Somme 15,625 Charente 10,698 The increase in population again occurred chiefly in the larger manu- facturing towns. Of 42 communes, with more than 30,000 inhabitants, 30 had an increase of 167,867, and 12 a decrease of 3i,37i,givmg an increase here of 136,496. The most considerable increase w-as in Paris — viz., 26,518 ; Versailles, 17,665 ; St. Etienne, 14,194; Marseilles, 12,733; Havre, 11,925 ; Rheims, 11,260 ; and Roubaix, 10,896. Brest shewed the largest decrease — viz., 13,375. The female population in 1866 exceeded that of the male by 38,906, and in 1872, in consefjuence of the war, this disproportion had risen to 138,410 — males numbering 17,982,000; and females 18,120,410. In former enumerations the preponderance of the female population was a very distinguishing mark between the times of peace and war. Year 1800 1806 1821 1831 1836 1841 1S46 Notwithstanding this increase France has still a comparatively smaller female population than almost all the other states of Europe. The difference between 1806 and 182 1 explains itself by the great wars. After these years we approach a more even balance until a new disturbance was produced by the Crimean campaign. If we take into account that the troops then abroad are not included, we find that before the outbreak of the last war the equilibrium between the two sexes was restored, or rather that there was even a preponderance of males. Preponderance Year Preponderance 725,225 1851 193,242 481,725 1856 299,024 868,325 1861 97,217 669,033 1866 38,906 619,508 1872 138,410 445,382 1876 158,510 318,738 Marriages. Average in each year from — 1836-40 1841-45 ... 1846-50 ... 1851-60 ... 272,965 282,287 277,617 287,750 I in 124.12 inhabitants „ 123-31 » „ 128.20 „ 126.00 „ 1 84 France —Land and People. Since 1861 the following variations have occurred in the diminished territory : — I86I 305.203 1870 223,705 1862 303,214 I87I 262,476 1863 301,376 1872 352,754 1864 299,579 1873 321,238 1865 299,242 1874 303>ii3 1866 303-634 1875 305,427 1867 300,333 1876 291,393 1868 301,225 1877 279,094 1869 303,482 Taking a larger view we can observe the years of high prices, as well as the effort of nature to restore the disturbed equilibrium by an unusual increase of the number of marriages in the period immediately following. From — 1825 to 1828 ... ... ... there was i marriage to 128 1829 to 1833 1834 to 1838 1839 to 1844 „ „ 1847 1848 1849 1850 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 „ 1862 1863 1864 „ „ 1865 „ „ 1866 1867 1868 1869 „ „ 1870 „ „ 1871 ... „ „ 1872 1873 „ 1874 „ 1875 - 1876 1877 » » to 128 inhabitants ,, 126 11 11 123 11 11 125 >> 11 142 11 11 121 11 11 128 » 11 120 11 11 125 11 11 122 11 11 118 11 11 122 11 11 126 11 11 122. 5 11 11 123. 6 11 11 125 11 11 126. 2 11 » 126.8 11 ») 122. 5 11 11 127 11 11 127. 2 11 11 121 ,) 11 165 1) 11 139 >» 11 105. 8 » ,, 114 » ,, 121 >» 11 118 »> 11 123 >» »J 132 >» Births. The number of children born alive — From 1836-40 averaged 959,431 I From 1846-50 averaged 949,594 „ 1841-45 „ 976,030 I „ 1851-55 „ 940,995 France — Lmid and People. 185 In single y ears- - 1856 952,116 1 1867 ... 1,007,755 1857 .. . .. 940,709 1868 ... 984,140 1858 .. . 969,343 1869*... 948,526 1859 .. .. ... 1,017,896 1870 ... 943,515 i860 . 956,875 1871 ... 826,121 1861 . 1,005,078 1872 ... 966,000 1862 .. . 995,167 1873 ... 946,364 1863 .. . ... 1,012,794 1874 ... 954,652 1864 . , 1,005,880 1875 ... 950,975 1865 . ..• 1,005,753 1876 ... 966,682 1866 . . ... 1,006,258 1877 ... 943,576 It is remarkable that twice following, the death ; exceed the births, in 1854 by 69,31s , and in 1S55 by 35,6 06. The yearly average of births fron 1 :— 1817-1854 was one birth to 34.3 inhabitants 1847-1854 ,, ... ... ... ,, „ 37-4 „ 1854-1860 ,, ,, ,, 37-3 " Inhabitants Inhabitants In i860 one birth to 38.70 „ 1869 one birth to 38. 8 „ 1861 ,. 37-3° „ 1870 „ 39-40 „ 1862 » 37-70 „ 1871 V 44- 2 „ 1863 ... „ 37-18 „ 1872 „ 38. 7 „ 1864 ... „ 37-58 „ 1873 .. M 39- 9 „ 1865 ... „ 37-67 „ 1874 „ 39- 2 „ 1866 „ 38-17 „ 1875 „ 39- „ 1867 ... „ 30- 2 „ 1876 .. • „ 40- 5 „ 186 3 „ 38-74 „ 1877 „ 39- The number of births to each 100 of the inhabhants in alfFrance was: — 1859 ... 2.57 I 1870 ... 2.55 ! 1871 ... 2.26 I 1877 ... 2.56 From 1873-76, 26.2 per 1,000; in 1877, 25.6 per 1,000 for all France. In the 39 years from 1817 to 1855, both inclusive, there were born in all France 19,369,397 boys, and 18,262,439 girls ; that is 106 boys to 100 girls (JLj more boys). Afterwards the difference in births diminished in proportion as the former war-times were left behind. This is connected with the increase in the population of towns more especially. In 1 86 1 this numerical proportion was ... ... ... ... 104.98 105.25 104.93 105.40 105.29 105.31 104.30 104.71 105.60 105.02 I86I this numerical proportion was 1862 1863 1864 i86q 1866 1867 1868 Averaging in the 8 years... In 1869 this numerical proportion was ♦ In the diminished territor)'. i86 France — Land and People. „ 1870 this numerical proportion was ... ... ... ... 104.79 » 1871 „ „ „ „ 104.87 „ 1872 „ „ „ „ 105.00 » 1873 „ ,- „ „ 105.3 Of births, for every 100 girls legitimate and 100 illegitimate there were : — Legitimate Illegitimate From 1800 — 1850 ... 106.26 boys ... ... io4-39 boys 1851- 1855- -1855 -i860 105.50 105-31 104.93 105.13 105.65 103.78 102.95 103.14 103.17 102.41 -55 the number of illegitimate children averaged 68,687 ; i860 1861 ... 1864 ... From 1851- but in — 1857 ... ... ... 70,890 1868 ... 74,960 1858 74,633 1869 70,952 1861 76,697 1871 70,415 1864 75>9oo 1872 59,097 1865 77,004 1873 69,653 1866 ... 76,678 1874 ... 70,600 1867 76,745 1876 69,294 From 1825 — 50, we find the proportion of illegitimate births to be 7.27 in every 100, but during the succeeding 10 years the average was 7.40, and from i860 — 1875 ^s follows: — in ... 1864 1865 1866 1868 1873 1874 1875 In the year 1864, there were in Paris (Department of the Seine), 2576 per cent, of illegitimate births, in the other towns 11.42 ; in the country, 4.42. In 1871 the proportion per cent, was in Paris 24.50; in other towns 10.87, ^^^d in the country 4.39. The number of Stillborn (or more correctly speaking, children who died before being entered in the civil register), of whom correct accounts date from 1S51, amounted — In 1851 to » 1852 „ ., 1854 „ „ 1857 „ » 1859 „ „ i860 „ „ 1862 „ M 1863 „ „ 1864 „ „ 1865 „ „ 1866 „ „ 1867 „ 7-54 in i860 7-55 7.63 ,, 1861 7.65 7-43 1862 7.62 7.65 1863 7.62 7.48 ,, 1869 7.21 7.48 1870 7.46 7.46 1871 7.26 7.15 1872 3i>665 In 1868 to ... 46,290 37,901 In the diminished territory. 39,778 „ 1869 „ 45,280 4^905 „ 1870 „ 45,169 46,520 „ 1871 „ ... 40,315 44,298 „ 1872 „ ... 43.967 44,915 „ 1873 M ••• 44,487 45.453 „ 1874 „ 44,613 46,643 „ 1875 „ 44,6x3 46,953 „ 1876 „ 44,680 47,702 „ 1877 „ 44,160 46,573 France — Land and People. 187 *In every 100 births there were from — 1851-55 1856-60 1861-65 1866 1867 1868 Legitimate Illegitimite • 3-07 • 6.02 .. 4-04 .. 4.08 ... 7-36 ... 7.64 . 4-23 . 4-13 ... 7-99 ... 7.80 • 4-19 ... 8.00 Deaths. The total annual number of deaths was- 1836-40 1841-45 1846-50 1851-55 1856.. 1857.. 1858.. 1859.. i860.. 1861.. 1862.. 1863.. 1864.. 1865.. 799,817 785,973 848,348 870,670 837,082 858,785 874,023 979,333 781,635 866,597 812,978 846,917 860,330 921,887 1866 1867 1868 In the diminished 1869 i87ot i87it 1872 1873... 1874 1875 1876 1877 The number of deaths to every 100 inhabitants. From 1800-15 „ 1820-30 „ 1831-35 „ 1836-40 „ 1841-45 „ 1846-50 „ 1851-55 „ 1856-60 . „ 1861-65 1866 2-55 2.43 2.50 2.36 2.26 2.37 2.41 2-39 2.26 2.12 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1874 1875 1876 884,573 866,887 922,038 territory. 864,320 1,046,909 1,271,016 793,064 844,588 781,706 845,062 834,074 801,954 2.36 2,40 2.34 2.83 3-48 2.24 1. 14 2.31 2.27 An analysis of the results of the war upon the mortality shews, for the last three years, that to every 100 of the inhabitants in — Country 2,19 2-58 3-19 Department de Seine Towns 1869 ... 2.55 2.78 1870 3-86 3.28 I87I ... 4.43 4.06 * The birth-rate is lower in France than in any other country. There was an excess of deaths over births in 1870 ol 105,394, and in 1871 of 444,889 1 88 France — Land and People. According to the official accounts, cholera carried off — 102,735 iri 1832 100,110 ,, ... ... ... ... ... ... 1849 i45>54i » 1854 In the Department of Ariege, where it raged most fatally in 1854, there was one death in every 15.12 inhabitants. In the year 1865, 6,626 deaths in Paris were due to cholera, and in 1866 about 5,700 were owing to the same cause. From the i8th September, 1870, till 24th February, 187 1 (the duration of the siege), 60,154 persons died in Paris. In the same period of the previous year only 21,978. In the 23 years, from 1836 to 1858, there were proved ']^,\\o suicides, of which 56,562 were of men, and 18,548 of women. The single year of 1875 shews an increase in this average, as we find the number rise to 5,617, of whom 1,182 only are women. Emigration. The number of emigrants in the 10 years, from 1849 to 1858 (according to the ministerial returns), amounted altogether to less than 200,000 individuals, whereas, during the same period, Germany lost 1,200,000, and Great Britain 2| millions by emigration. The following notes are for single years :— Year Emigrants To Foreign Countries To Algiers 1856 ... 17,997 9,433 8,564 1857 ... 18,809 10,817 7,992 1858 ... 13,813 9,°04 4,809 1859 ... 9,164 6,786 2,378 1861 ... 8,752 6,334 2,418 1862 ... 6,800 1863 ... 5,771 4,285 1,486 In the ten years from 1865 to end of 1874, the number of emigrants was 60,245, or annually somewhat over 6,000, thougli taking individual years, the number since 1870 has been larger. 1871 7,109 I 1873 7.561 T872 9,581 I 1874 7,080 House'holdings. In the year 1856 there were ... ... ... 9,387,561 „ _ » 1866 „ 9,997,360 Diminished territory 1872 ... ... ... ,., ... 9,525,717 equal to 371 persons to a household. The number of dwelling houses in 1872 was 7,704,913, viz., 7,409,614 inhabited, 254,391 uninhabited, and 40,908 in course of building. This is exclusive of 35,867 uninhabited public buildings, as well as workshops, warehouses and sheds. Afflicted. Insane 52,835, (of whom 24,788 are males). In asylums 32,815 : in their own homes, 20,020. There are 35,133 idiots and cretins, (20,456 of whom are males). Of the total 4,149 are in asylums, and 30,984 in their own homes. Cretins with goitre (scrofula) 6,010, (2,794 being males). Persons otherwise afflicted with goitre 29,638 (of whom 10,134 are males). France — Land and People. 189 Blind, 30,214 (17,058 males). Of these 4,173 blind from birth, and 17,514 by accident ; 8,527 cause not stated. Deaf and dmiib, 22,610 (12,723 being males), 14,19? being so from birth, 4,019 by accident, 4,394 the cause not stated. Creeds. According to the official Statistique de la France, the numbers in 1S72 were — Of Roman Catholics 35, 387,703 „ the Reformed Church 467,531 „ Lutherans 80,117 ,, Protestant sects 33>i°9 580,757 „ Jews 49,439 ,, Mohamedans, Buddhists, etc. ... 3,071 Without any creed ... ... ... ••• ••■ •• 81, 95^ The number of Protestants was formerly supposed to be much greater than it really is. Including Alsace-Lorraine, no fewer than 1,300,000 of the Reformed, and 700,000 of Lutherans were mentioned. Others even spoke of 2,500,000 Protestants. But in reality the census of 1866, conse- quently before the loss of territory, gave only 846,619 Protestants. The census of 1872 gives the following numbers as living in Paris. 1,760,168 Roman Catholics 41,672 Protestants, of whom 19,423 were Calvinists 12,634 „ Lutherans 9,615 ,, Anglicans, etc. 23>434 Jews 1,572 Mohamedans, Buddhists, etc. 13,905 who announced themselves of no creed, and 11,014 whose creed is not knowii. Beside Paris, the Protestants numbered largely in the departments. Card 118,483 Ardeche 45,889 The two Sevres ... 37, 93^ Drome 36,290 Doubs 33,064 Nationalities. In France, still less than in other countries, is the written language at all absolutely the common language of the people. We meet with the most varied patois. In four departments Breton only is spoken by the mass of the population. Savoy has its own peculiar Romanic dialect. Nice has a modified Provencal. In the districts of Dunkirk and Hazebruck a Flemish patois predominates. Provencal is spoken almost throughout the south, Basciue in the south-west corner, and in Corsica an Italian dialect. Official statistics know only of "Frenchmen" and "foreigners." In reality about 32^ millions belong to the French race, of whom about 12 i millions are ot the Provencal branch, so that only about 20 millions speak pure French. 190 France — Land and People. According to the census of 1872 there were — French living in their native departments ... ... 30,676,943 „ born in other departments ... ... 4,543,764 from Alsace-Lorraine who chose to live | ^ ■ T- r 126,243 m trance ... ... ... \ ^ „ by naturalization ... ... ... i5)303 35.362,253 Foreigners ... ... ... ... ... ... 730,844 Total 36,093,097 Besides these there were about — Walloons 1,800,000 Cymri (Bretons) 1,100,000 Italians (in Corsica, Nice, etc.) ... ... ... 350,000 Basques ... ... ... ... ••■ •.- 160,000 Spaniards ... ... ••• ... 100,000 Jews 50,000 Several thousand Cagots. Gipsies 5)°°° Of foreigners, not naturalized, there were, in 1872 — Alsace-Lorrainers ... ... ... ... ••• 64,808 Belgians 347,55^ Italians 112,579 Spaniards 52,954 Swiss ... ... ... ... ..- ••• ■•■ 42,834 English 26,003 Germans ... ... ... •.• ••• ••• 39>36i Austro-Hungarians ... ... ... ... ... S'^^^ Dutch i7»o77 Poles 7.328 North and South Americans 6,850 Russians ... ... ... ... •■• ••• 1,982 Scandinavians ... ... ... .-• •.• ••• i>o5^ Greeks, Turks, and Wallachians 1,173 Chinese, Indians, &c. ... ... ... ... ... 311 In 1876 the nationalities were given as follows ; — Frenchmen 36,069,524 Belgians 374,49^ Germans 59,o28 Austro-Hungarians ... ... ... ••• ••• 7)49^ Italians 165,313 Siwniards ... ... ... ••• ••• •■• 62,437 Swiss 50.203 British 30,077 ])utch 18,099 Americans ... ... ... •.- ■•• ••• 9.^55 Portuguese ... ... .•• ••• ••• •■• 1,237 Russians and Poles ... ... ... .• ■•■ 7,992 Scandinavians ... ... ••• ••• ••• 1,622 France — Land and People. 191 Greeks Turks and Egyptians Roumanians and Serbs Chinese, Indians, and other Asiatics Unknown 892 1,174 702 419 4,542 Alsace-Lorrainers, who had chosen for France, mostly lived in the Departments, Seine, 44,782 ; Meurthe and Moselle, 24,444 \ Vosges, 5,966 ; and in the district of Belfort, 3,849. As regards Foreigners, Alsace- Lorrainers as Germans were in number, 34,690 Seine, 7,407 Meurthe and Moselle, 4,890 Vosges, 2,134 in Belfort. Other Germans, 17,498 in the Department of Seine, 2,098 in Meurthe and Moselle, 2,075 ^^ Rhone, 1.85 1 in Lower Seine. Austro-LLungariafis, 1,898 in Seine. English, in the Department of Seine, 9,194 ; Pas-de-Calais, 4,206. Belgians, in Nord, 229,854; Seine, 38,700 ; Ardennes, 24,840. Dutch, in Seine, 8,621. Ltalians, in Bouches du Rhone, 33,500 ; in Alpes-Maritimes, 15,848 ; in Var, 14,968 ; in Corsica, 8,896 ; in Seine, 8,806. Spaniards, in Lower Pyrenees, 11,942 ; in Eastern Pyre'nees, 5,433 ; in Bouches du Rhone, 4,771 \ in Gers, 4,414 ; in Seine, 2,882. Swiss in Seine, 13,424. In Doubs, 6,857. Americans in Seine, 4,414. Poles in Seine, 2,611. Russians in Seine, 1,148. Turks, Greeks, Wallachians in Seine, 741. Chinese, Indians and other Asiatics in Seine, 184. Communes. No legal difference exists between towns and villages, number of communes was — In 1872 the Communes Inhabit 603 with less than 100 3,175 with between 100 & 4,574 201 „ 4,488 301 „ 3,743 401 „ 10,807 501 „ 4,074 1,001 „ 1,957 1,501 >, 800 2,001 ,, 551 2,501 „ 307 3>ooi „ 21 1 3,501 „ 200 300 400 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 Communes 232 with from 281 Inhabitants 4,001 to 5,000 85 31 31 12 8 14 6 2 I 5,001 ,, 10,000 10,001 ,, 15,000 15,001 „ 20,000 20,001 ,, 30,000 30,001 ,, 40,000 40,001 ,, 50,000 50,001 ,, 100,000 100,001 ,, 200,000 300,000 ,, 400,000 over a million. We give here a view of all towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants (according to the census of 1872), arranged in departments. Immediately following the name of the department, which is printed in italics, is that of the chief town {chef-lieii), although it may possess a smaller population than other towns. The number of inhabitants of some of the best known places is given in parenthesis. Ain. Bourg en Bresse 14,280, Sathonay 7,544. Aisne. Laon 10,365, Saint-Quentin 34,811, Soissons 10,404, Coucy-le- Chateau 8,800, Chiteau-Thierry 6,623, Bohain 5,931, Guise 5,659. ig2 France — Land and People. Allier. Moulins 20^385, Montlugon 21,247, Commentry 11,698, Cusset 6,279, Vichy 6,028, Gannat, 5,745, Montvicq 5,462. Alpcs (Basses-). Digne 6,877, Manosque 6,124. A/pes {Hautcs-). Gap 8,927. Alpes-Maritimes. Nice (Nizza) 52,377, Grasse 12,560, Cannes 10,144, Antibes 6,843, Menton 6,644. Ardeche. Privas 7,836, Annonay 17,033, Aubenas 7431, Tournon 5,390. Ardennes. Mezieres 4,312, Sedan i4,345) Charleville 12,676, Rethel 7,086, Nouzon 5,164, Givet 5,104. Ariege. Foix 6,706, Pamiers 8,690. Aube. Troyes 38,113, Romilly-sur-Seine 5,030, (Bar-sur-Aube 4,453)- Aiide. Cassonne 23,644, Narbonne 17,266, Castelnaudary 9,328, Limoux 5,897- Aveyron. Rhodez 12,111, Millau 15,095, Villefranche 9,312, Aubin 8,832, Uecazeville 8,710, Saint- Affrique 7,314- Belfort. Belfort 8,030. Bouches-du-Rhone. Marseille 312,864, (in 6 Cantonen), Aix 29,020, Aries 24,695, Tarascon 11,249, LaCiotat 9,867, Martingues 8,053, Aubagne 7,658, Salon 7,522, Saint-Remy 6,030, Chateaurenard 5,708. Calvados. Caen 41,210, Lisieux 12,520, Honfleur 9,061, Bayeux 8,536, Falaise 8,043, Conde-sur-Noireau 6,871, Vire 6,778, Trouville 5,761, Saint-Jacques 5,564. Cantal. Aurillac 11,098, Saint-Flour 5,037. Chare/Ik. Angouleme 25,928, Cognac 13,677, (Jarnac 4,691). Chareate-Infcrieure. La Rochelle 19,506, Rochefort 28,299, SamLcs 12,347, Saint-Jean-d'Angely 6,812, Saint-Georges d'Oleron 5,255. Cher. Bourges 31,312, Vierzon-Ville 8,296, Saint-Amande-Mont-Rond 8,220, Mehun-sur-Y^vre 6,501, Vierzon-Village 5,716, Dun-le-Roi 5.093- Correze. Tulle 13,681, Brive 10,765. Corse. Ajaccio 16,545, Bastia 17,850, Corte 5,426. Cote-d'Or. Dijon 42,573, Beaune 11,176, Auxonne 5,555, (Chatillon-sur- Seine 4,797)- . , ., • Cotes'de-Nord. Saint-Brieux 15,213, Dinan 7,692, Guingamp 7,045, Lan- nion 6,223, Plerin 6,160, Loudeac 5,993, (Lamballe 4,205). Creuse. Gueret 5,725, Aubusson 6,427. Dordogne. Perigueux 21,864, Bergerac 11,699, Sarlat 6,255. Doubs. Besan9on 49,401, Montbeliard (Mumpelgard) 6,509, (Pontarher 4,975. Drome. Valence 20,668, Romans, 12,674, Monte'hmart 11,122, Crest 5,568 Eure. Evreux 13,350, Louviers 11,360, Vernon, 7,961, Bernay 7,281, Pont-Audemer 6,124, les Andelys 5,379. Eureet-Loir. Chartres 19,580, Dreux 7,418, Nogent-le-Rotrou 7,056, Chateaudun 6,552. „ t 1 - 1, Finistere. Quimi)cr 13,159, I^^'^^^t 66,272, Morlaix i4,358» Lambezellec 11,635, Crozon 8,929, Landernau 7,717, Douarnenez 7,180, Saint- Pol-de-T.eon 6,741, (iuipavas 6,641, Plougastel-Daoulas 6,315, Qiuni- perle 6,253, Plouguerncau 5,788, Briec 5,592. Gard. Nimes 62,394, Alais 19,230, Besscges 8,908, la Grande-Combe 8,872, Beaucaire 8,804, Saint-Gilles 6,21 1, Uzos 5,574, Vauvert, 5,137, le Vigan 5,024. France — L and and People. 193 Garonne {Haute-). Toulouse 124,852, Saint-Gaudens 5,689, Revel 5,629. Gcrs. Auch 13,087, Condom 8,282, Lectoure 5,733, (I'lle-Jourdain 4,864). Gironde. Bordeaux 194,055, Libourne 14,960, Begles 5,547, Cauderan 5,119, (Blaye 4,478)- Heralt. Montpellier 57,727, Beziers 31,468, Cette 25,826, Lodeve 9,464, Agde 8,829, Bedarieux 7,802, Pezenas 7,314, Lunel 7,281, Meze 6,82] Clermont-l'He'rault 5,870, Saint-Pons 5,832. llle-et-Vilaine. Rennes 52,044, Saint-Servan 12,565, Saint-Malo 12,316, Fougeres, 11,201, Vitre 8,752, Cancale 6,654, le Grande-Fougeray 6,310, Redon 6,131, Pleurtuit 5,308, Combourg 5,250. Indre. Chateauroux 18,670, Issoudin 14,230, le Blanc 5,709, Argenton 5,274, (Buzan9aise 4,986, la Chatre 4,928). Indre-et-Loire. Tours 43,368, Chinon 6,553, (Loches 4,964, Amboise 4,216). here. Grenoble 42,660, Vienne, 26,017, Voiron 10,262, (Bourgoin 4,954). Jura. Lons-le-Saulnier 10,701, Dole 1 1,679, Saint-Claude 7)073> Salins 6,045, Arbois 5,273, Morez 5,178, Poligny 5,024. Landes. Mont-de-Marsan 8,615, Dax 9,366. Loit-et-Cher. Blois 19,860, Vendome 9,259, Romorantin 7,602. Loire. Montbrison 6,987, Saint-Etienne 110,814, Roanne 20,037, Rive- de-Gier 13,946, Saint-Chamond 12,585, Firrainy 10,422, le Chambon- FeugeroUes 6,772, Chazelles-sur-Lyon 5,870, Terre-Noire 5,507, Saint Julien-en-Jarret 5,485, la Ricamaire 5,264. Loire {Haute). Le Puy, 19,233, Yssingeaux 8,270, (Tence 4,693). Loire-Infcrieure. Nantes 118,517, Saint-Nazaire 17,066, Chantenay 9,860, Reze 6,946, Blain 6,825, Guerande 6,705, Guemene-Penfao 5,923, Vertou 5,588, Plesse 5,405, Nort 5,386, Chateaubriant 5,111, Vallet 5,091- Loiret. Orleans 48,976, Montargis 8,196, Gien 7,068, (Briare 4,775, Beaugency 4,635 Pithiviers 4,585). Lot. Cahors t4,593, Figeac 7,333, Gourdon 5,374. Lot-et-Garonne. Agen 18,887, Villeneuve 13,681, Marmande, 8,513, Ton- neins 8,275, Nerac 7,919. Lozere. Mende 6,906, (Marvejols 4,734). Maine-et-Loire. Angers 58,464, Cholet 135552, Saumur 12,552, Chalonnes sur-Loire 5,836, Beaufort 5,146. Manche. Saint-Lo 9,287, Cherbourg 35,580, Grandville 14,747, Avranches 8,137, Coutances 8,027, Valognes 5,584, Toulaville 5.543. Marne. Chalons-sur-Marne 16,453, Rheims 71,994, Eperna3j^i 2,927, Vitry- leFrangois 1,\1'], (Sainte-Menehould 4,240, Sezanne 4,197, Ay 4,180). Marne {Haute-). Chaumont 8,600, Saint-Dizier 11,229, Langres 9,632. Mayenne. Laval 26,343, Mayenne 10,127, Chateau-Gontier 7,048, Ernee 5,248, Evron 5,011, (Craon 4,254). Meurt/ie-et-Moselle. Nancy 52,978, Luneville 12,369, Pont-a-Mousson, 8,211, Toul 6,930, Baccarat 5,036, (Saint-Nicolas 3,893). Meuse. Bar-le-Duc 15,175, Verdun-sur-Meuse 10,738, (Saint-Mihiel 4,285, Commercy 4,191). Morhihan. Vannes 14,690, Lorient 34,660, Ploemeur 10,237, Pontivy 7,886, Languidic 6,094, Sarzeau 5,632, Hennebont 5,498, Caudan 5,478, Ploermel 5,472, le Palais 5,456. Nicvre. Nevers 22,276, Cosne 6,210, Fourchambault 6,054, Clamecy 5,381. N ip4 France — Lajid and People. Nord. Lille 158,117, Roubaix 75,987, Tourcoing 43,322, Dunkerque 34,350, Vallenciennes 24,662, Douai 23,840, Cambrai 22,897, Ar- menti^res 19,055, \Vatterlos 14,682, Maubeuge 13,234, Halluin 12,946, Bailleiil 12,828, Demain 12,330, Saint-Amand 10,574, Fourmies 9,989, le Cateau 9.500, Hazebrouck 9,435, Anzin 7,990, Gravelines 7,733. Marq-en-Baroeul 7,548, Estaires 6,915, Merville 6,844, Comines 6,353, la Madeleine 6,348, Looo 6,333, Solesmes 6,202, Bergues 5,774, Fresnes 5,605, Roncq 5,490, Vieux-Conde 5,160, Seclin 5,055, (Conde 4,964). Oise. Beauvais 15,551, Compi^gne 12,281, Noyon 6,268, Senlis 6,092, Clermont 5,774, (Creil 4,998)- Orne. Alengon 16,037, Flers 10,678, la Ferte-Mace 9,732, Argentan 5,725, Laigle 5,285. Pais-de-Calais. Arras 27,329, Boulogne 39,700, Saint-Omer 22,381, Saint- Pierre-l^s-Calais 20,409, Calais 12,843, Bethune 8,410, Aire 8,303, Lens 7,298, Carvin 7,024, Lillers 6,608, Henin-Lietard 5,029, (Ba- paume 3,059). My-dc-Dome. Clermont 37,357, Thiers 16,365, Riom 10,770, Ambert 7,625, Issoire 5,876, Saint-Remy 5,100. Pyrenees {Basses-). Pau 27,300, Bayonne i;2 7,i73, Oloran-Sainte-Mane 8,783, Orthez 6,526, Hasparren 5,144, Salies 5,120, (Biarritz 4,659). Pyrenees {Haiites-). Tarbes 16,565, Bagn^res 9,464, (Lourdes 4,7^4, Cam pan 3,524). Pyr'enees-Oricntales. Perpignan 27,378, Rivesaltes 5,517- Rhone. Lyon 323,417 (in 8 Cantonen), Tarare 13,694, Villefranche 12,170, Givors 9,886, Caluire-et-Cuire 8,440, Villeurbanne 7,474, Amplepuis 6,444, Cours 5,431, OuUins 5,126. Saone {Haute-). Vesoul 7,716, Gray 6,965, Fougerolles 5,256. Saone-et-Loire. Macon 1 7,453, le Creuzot 22,890, Chalons-sur-Saone 20,427, Autun 11,684, Montceau-les-Mines 8,287, Tournus 5,553, (Cluny 4,989, Paray-le-Monial 3,388). Sarthe. Le Mans 46,981, la Fleche 9,341, Sable 5,589, Mamers 5,365. Savoie. Chambery 19,144, (Aix-les-Bains 4,182). Savoie {Haute-). Annecy 1 1,581, Thonon 5,272, (Rmnilly 4,i47)- Seine. Paris 1,851,792 (in 20 Arrondissements), Saint-Denis 31,993, Levallois-Perret 19,158, Boulogne 1 8,965, Vincennes 17,064, Neuilly 16,277, Clichy 14,599' Courbevoie 13,288, Ivry 13,165, Pantin 12,337, Montreuil 12,295, Aubervilliers 12,195, Puteau 9,594, Gentilly 8,796, Saint-Ouen 8,091, Vanves 7,926, Issy 7,775, Saint-Maur 7,438, Charenton-le-Pont 7,141, Suresnes 6,477, Saint-Mande 6,388, Nogent- sur-Marne 6,264, Asnieres 6,236, Maisons-Alfort 5,890, Fontenay- sous-Bois 5,378, Arcueil 5,258, Colombes 5,133, Choissy-le-Roi 5,099, (Montrouge 4,377, Saint-Maurice 4,340. Nanterre 3,944, Clamart 3,163, Sceau 2,287, Champigny 2,190). Seine-Infericure. Rouen 102,470, le Havre 86,825, Elbeuf 22,848, Dieppe 20,160, Fechamj) 13,016, Caudebec-li^s-Elbcuf 10,715, Sotteville-les- Rouen 1:0,592, Bolbcc 10,204, Yvetot 8,282, Darnetal 5,636, (Lille- bonne 4,815, Montivillicrs 4.223, Eu 4,061, le Treport 3,840). Seineet'Marne. Mdun 11,130, Meaux 11,202, Fontainebleau 10,941, Provins 7,277, Montcruau-]""aut-Vunne 6,714, (la Fcrte-sous-Jouarrc 4,499 Coulommiers 4,334, Nemours 4,010). France — Land and People. 195 Sciiie-et-Oise. Versailles 61,686, Saint-Germain en-Laye 22,862, Mendon 12,037, Saint-Cloud 8,956, Argenteuil 8,389, Rueil 8,216, Etampes 7,789, Marnes-la-Coquette 7,728, Sevres 7,096, Pontoise 6,480, Cor- beil 6,016, Mantes 5,697, Poissy 5,047, (Mambouillet 4,725, Essonnes 4,703, Montmorency 3,494, Saint-Cyr-l'Ecole 2,677, Neuilly-sur- Marne 2,560, Gonesse 2,526, Lonjoumeau 2,301, Ecouen 1,259, Marly-le-Roi 1,250). Sevra {Deux-). Niort 21,344, (Partenay 4,778). Somme. Amiens 63,747, Abbeville 18,208, (Villers-Bretonneux 4,959, Doullens 4,749, Albert 4,259, Montdidier 4,238, Pe'ronne 4,174, Corbie 3,643. Tarn. Albi 17,469, Castres 23,461, Mazamet 13,968, Gaillac 7,843, Lavaur 7,331, Graulhet 6,346, Puylaurens 5,511, Rabastens 5,317, Carmaux 5,010. Tarn-et-Garonne. Montauban 25,624, Moissac 9,036, Castelsarrasin 6,514, (Beaumont 4,344). Var. Draguignan 9,446, Toulon 69,127, Hyeres 11,212, la Seyne 10,123, Brignoles 5,593. Vauduse. Avignon 38,196, Carpentras 10,524, Orange 10,064, Cavillon 8,034, risle 6,337, Apt 5,892, BoUene 5,703, Pertuis 5,494. Vendee. La Roche-sur-Yon (fruher Bourbon-Vendee, dann Napoleon- Vendee) 8,841, les Sables d'Olonne 8,292, Fontenay-le-Comte 7,660, Noirmoutier 6,347, Lugon 6,062, Vienne. Poitiers 30,036, Chatellerant 15,606, Montmorillon 5,010, (Lou- dun 4,493). Vienne {Haute-). Limoges 55,134, Saint-Junien 7,442, Saint- Yrieix 7,086, Saint-Leonard 6,011, \Rochechouret 4,159). Vosges. Epinal 11,847, Saint-Die 12,317, la Val d'Ajol 7,011, Remire- mont 6,510, Gerardmer 6,402, Mirecourt 5,480, Rambervillers 5,310. Yonne. Auxerre 15,631, Sens 11,514, Joigny 6,400, Avallon 5,816, Ton- nerre 5,332, Villeneuve-sur- Yonne 5,095, (Chablis 2,300). 552,686 inhabitants 630,636 723,551 ,. 785,483 „ 935,261 „ ^ 1,053,262 „ 1,174,346 1,696,141 ,, 1,825,274 1.851,792 1,988,806 Since the cessiorr of Alsace-Lorraine France possesses, besides Paris, 2 cities of 300,000 inhabitants — Lyons and Marseilles ; 6 have between 100,000 and 200,000 — Bordeaux, Lille, Toulouse, Nantes, St. Etienne, Rouen; 14 between 50,000 and 100,000 — Havre, Roubaix, Rheims, Toulon, Paris had in 1 80 1 1811 1821 1831 1841 1851 1856 1861 1866 1872 1876 * In the time of Julius Cssar, the area of Paris was not more than 37 acres. Under Philip Augustus of France it covered 624 acres ; under Henry IV., 1,402 acres ; under Louis XIV,, 2,726 acres; and under Louis XV., 3,302 acres, in i860 the city had grown to 19,270 acres inclusive— that is, of the bed of the Seine. In 1817 Paris had 714,000 inhabitants, and in 1876 1,938,000, not counting tb'^ numerous faubourgs. 196 France — Land and People. I Brest, Amienes, Ninies, Versailles, Angers, Montpellier, Limoges, Nancy, Nice and Rennes ; 8 between 40,000 and 50,000 — Besan^on, Orleans, Le Mans, Caen, Tours, Tourcoing, Grenoble, Dijon ; 1 1 between 30,000 and 40,000. In 1864 the numbers were — Department of Seine ... ... ... 1,988,824 inhabitants Other town populations ... ... 8,958,078 „ Country populations ... ... ... 26,977,530 „ As no legal difference exists in France between town and country communes, the places have, for statistical purposes, been divided with more, or less, than 2,000 inhabitants — the former specified as towns, the latter as flat country. According to the census of 1872, the whole population living in towns of more than 2,000 inhabitants was 11,214,017, and in places described as flat country 24,888,904. In 1846 the population in cities of more than 2,000 formed 24.72 per cent, of the whole; in 1851, 25.52 per cent. ; in 1856, 27.31 per cent. ; in 1861, 28. 86 per cent. ; in 1866, 30.46 per cent. ; and in 1872, 31.06 per cent. The country population had, therefore, in 26 years, decreased relatively by 6.34 per cent. ; whereby we must not overlook that many country communes, in consequence of the increase of their population, reached the category of 2,000. In the year 1866 there were 186 towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants, in which 7,214,854 people lived. (By the census of 1861 only 6,756,433). In 1872 the number of towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants were decreased by 7 in the diminished territory, having only 184. Territorial Changes.. Before the Great Revolution the kingdom was composed of 35 provinces, which had very different regulations and privileges ; 1 2 bore the title of Duchies, 13 of Counties, the remainder being called Districts or Lordships. For administrative purposes there was a further division with 29 Generalities., which were named after the chief towns. The National Assembly, with a view of destroying all provincial differences, made (22nd December, 1789) the departmental arrangement by which all the old relations were purposely overthrown. The following is a survey of the old provinces, with their area in English acres, and of the departments which were formed out of them : — Old Provinces Chief Towns Sqr. Miles Departments made out of them Alsace Strasbourg 2,965 Haute-Rhin, Bas Rhin Angoumois Angouleme 4,545 Charente Inferieure, Charentc Anjou Angers 3.450 Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne Artois Arras 1,846 Pas-de-Calais Auvcrgne Clermont 5,358 (Cantal, Puy-de-D6me, Haute 1 Loire Beam Pau 1,932 Basses-Pyrenees Berry Bourgcs 5,534 Cher, Indre Bourbonnais Moulins 3,045 Allier, Puy-de-Dome Bourgogne Dijon 10,027 Saonc-ct-Loire, Aisne, Yonnc Franee — Land and People. 197 Old Provinces (continued) Old Provinces Chief Towns Sqr. Miles Departments made out of them ( C6tes-du-Nord, Morbihan, ( Finisterre, etc. Bretagne Rennes 13,115 Champagne Troyes 11,837 Ardennes, Aube, Marne, etc. Comtat Venaissin Avignon 697 Vaucluse Corse Bastia 3,376 Corse Dauphine Grenoble 7,743 Hautes-Alpes, Drome, Tisere Flandres Lille 2,241 Nord Foix Pays-de-Foie 1,618 Ariege Franche-Comte... Besan^on 6,059 Doubs, Jura, Haute-Saone (Haute-Garonne, Hautes- i Pyrenees, etc. Gascogne* 10,236 Guienne Bordeaux 15,795 (Aveyron, Dordogne, Lot, ( Garonne, etc. Isle-de-France ... Paris 7,094 Seine, Oise, Seine-et-Marne, etc. (Ardeche, Aude, Haute- ( Garonne, etc. Languedoc Toulouse 16,071 Limousin Limoges 3,887 Correze, Vienne, Creuse (Meurthe, Meuse, Moselle \ Vosges Lorraine Nancy 6,708 Lyonnais Lyons 3,014 Rhone, Loire Marche Gueret 1,891 Creuse, Haute- Vienne. Maine Le Mans 3,893 Mayenne, Sarthe Navarre Bayonne 569 Basses-Pyr^n^es Nivernais Nevers 2,469 Nierve Normandie Rouen 11,776 Calvados, Eure, Manche, etc. Orleanais Orleans 7,836 (Eure-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, ( Loiret (Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne, ( Oise j Deux-Serves, Vendee, Vienne, 1 etc. Picardie Amiens 4,641 Poitou Poitiers 7,760 Provence Roussillon Aix Perpignan 8,275 1,408 V f Basses-Alpes, Bouches-du- \ Rh6ne Pyrenees Orientales Touraine Tours 2,679 Indre-et-Loire, Vienne The Revolution and the Empire produced great enlargements. First, the possessions of German princes of the empire (Mumpelgard, which belonged to Wlirtemburg, etc.), were, in accordance with the wish of the majority of the inhabitants, treated as French possessions. Next, on September 14, 1791, the incorporation of the papal county of Avignon, and on November 27th, 1792, and January 31st, 1793, that of Savoy and Nice was completed. Swiss territories followed. At the Peace of Campo Formio, October 17th, 1797, Austria ceded Belgium to France. The Peace of Luneville, February 9th, 1801, gave to it the whole German left bank of the Rhine, about 1,200 square miles, with nearly 1,000,000 souls. There were afterwards united to France, September nth, 1802, Piedmont; on 2ist July, 1805, Parma; on 27th October, 1807, Etruria (Tuscany); on 17th May, 1809, Rome; on the 9th July, 1810, Holland; on the 12th 198 France — Land and People. November in the same year, Verlais ; and on the loth December, the mouths of the Ems, the Wiser, and the Elbe, together with the Hanse towns (600 square miles, with more than 1,000,000 inhabitants); then Oldenburg, etc. The number ot departments, which at first were only 83, rose to 130, with a population estimated at 42,365,434 souls. The first Peace of Paris, May 30, 18 14, granted to France, not only the dominions which she possessed before 1789, but also Avignon, Miinpelgard, part of Savoy, and several border cantons of Belgium, etc. By the second Peace of Paris, November 21, 1815, France lost Savoy, the Belgian border cantons, Saarbriick and the right bank of the Queich, as well as the fortresses of Landau (occupied since 17 13), Saarlouis, Marienburg and Philippeville. In 1830 Algiers was conquered. In consequence of a treaty with the Italian government, the union of Savoy and Nice with France took place in June, i860. The newly acquired country (with 669,059 inhabitants), was divided into three departments. Savoy, Upper Savoy, and Alpes Maritimes. The arrondissement of Grasse, which had till then belonged to the department of Var, was assigned to Alpes Mari- times. By a treaty with the Prince of Monaco, Mentone and Roccabruna were also acquired in 1861. The war of 1870 ended with the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. On February 26th, 1871, followed the conclusion of the preliminary treaty, by which a cession of territory, and an indemnity of ^200,000,000 were granted to Germany ; this agreement was sanctioned by the National Assembly at Bordeaux on March ;st, and the final treaty of peace was concluded at Frankfort-on-Maine on the loth May, 187 1. The State lost thereby, territory to the extent of 5,209 English square miles,* in which there dwelt, according to the French census (1866), a civil population of 1,597,238 — altogether 3 departments, 11 districts (arron- dissements), 76 cantons, and 1,559 communes. Finance. It was but natural that a war, which brought nearly two-thirds of the country into the power of the enemy, should disorganize the finances of the State. In the year 1870, the revenues fell far below the estimates, which had been made in time of peace, amounting only to ^64,188,913, whereas the expenditure rose to ;^ 122,75 1,053, making a deficit of ^58,562,140. Two loans provided the means of mobilizing the National Guard ; the alienation of the interest of the Army Endowment Fund, and the sale of the remainder of the victualling of Paris, made together a sum of ^^46,873,013, to which the Bank of France added an advance of ^25, 31 7,949. The surplus of ^{^37,043,076, which remained over and above the requirements was transferred to the credit capital of the Liquidation Fund. In the year 187 1, ^123,992,630 were again expended. The Budget Estimates having fixed the rciiuirements at ^65,574,447, there was of course, a deficit of ^58,418,159. Loans and extraordinary taxation pro- duced ^62,760,726, so that i^3,942,543 was again carried over to the Liquidation Fund. We are here treating only of the internal expenditure, the war indemnity being reckoned apart. * According to the French calculation in the last volume of '' Statistique de France," the official survey in Alsace-Lorraine reckons it at 5,601 .square miles. France — Land and People. 199 1872 1873 1874 Revenue ^99,871.708 ... ^106,750,893 ... /^99>299>85^' Expenditure 103,148,399 ... 108,626,336 ... 101,372,064 Deficit ^3'276,69i ... ;^i,875,443 ••• ^^2,072, 208 It was in this last year of 1874, that the needs which had increased in consequence of the war, were seen to their fullest extent. The estimates of 1874, although drawn up while the impression of far-reaching political schemes and entanglements lasted,* yet form the basis of a new order and re-organization of the financial condition of France. Revenue for the years 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 ^103,556,025 ^103,001,143 ^106,885,621 ^111,735,112 ;^ii9,826,825 Expenditure for the years 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 ^103,378,113 ^102,800,019 ^106,691,870 ;,{;i 1 1,241,404 ^118,450,994 The Budget for 1878 was as follows : — Revenue. DIRECT TAXES. Land tax ^6,920,000 Poll and mobilizing tax ... 2,372,760 Door and window tax ... ... ... 1,644,360 Tax on industries (patent) 4,724,160 Fees for tax-papers .. . ... ... ... 23,280 ^15,684,560 SPECIAL TAXES, f Annual imposts on lands in mortmain ... ^^202, 000 Duty on mines ... ... ... ... 132,000 Verification of weights and measures ... 150,800 Payments for apothecaries' examination ... 9,819 Duty on horses and pleasure carriages ... 438,032 Duty on billiards ... ... ... ... 38,800 Duty on exclusive societies... ... ... 53,220 ^1,024,651 * See the treatise by Paul Boiteau in the "Journal des Economists." Jan. 1874. The writer reproaches the majority of the representatives of the people, with thinkinjf more of the overthrow of the Republic, than ot the re-establishment of the Finances. + Whilst in other countries the taxes on lands in mortmain, especially those belonging to the clergy, have been in many ways lightened ; in France these lands are burdened with a special tax, according to a law passed February 20, i 849. As the possession of this property rarely changes hands it never brings anything to the revenue by change. For this reason a tax was levied which should be an equivalent of the transfer-tax. It was found that other property changed hands, on an average, every 20 years, and that the transfer duty amounted to 5 per cent., or one-twentieth of the money value. The new impost was based on this principle. This tax is levied also upon property in the hands of communities, and of institu- tions for the relief of the poor. 200 France — Land and People. Registration... Stamps Proceeds of crown lands Sale of crown lands Sale of moveables . . . Property without heirs From forests REGISTRATION STAMPS AND CROWN LANDS. ;^i8,777,44o 6,145,360 116,000 128,000 307,600 44,000 ^25,518,400 1,522,904 CUSTOMS AND SALT, including General duties Ll^Z^l^Z^^ Sugarduties 2,475,800 Duty on salt, within the custom's circuit ... 859,840 ^10,723,000 INDIRECT TAXES. Duty on drinks ;^i5,967,ooo „ salt, without the custom's limit ... 363,680 „ *home sugar ... ... ... 4,910,360 Match tax 641,200 Duty on chicory ... ... ... ... 214,440 paper S34,56o „ oil 233,160 „ soap 61,560 „ candles ... ... ... ... 289,000 „ vinegar 79,880 „ express train passengers ... ... 2,932,440 „ passengers by ordinary trains ... 444,280 „ passengers by other means than) 2 --6 76 railway... ... ... ...) ' ' „ the dynamite factories ... ... 8,120 Various dues ... ... ... ... 1,952,640 Proceeds of tobacco ... ... ... 12,859,000 „ gunpowder ... ... ... 547,040 Postal revenue Remaining from the exhibition Duty of 3 per cent, on moveable property „ on private telegrajjhs... Imposts in favor of the universities Revenue from Algeria Proceeds from police fines... Duty on civil pensions ;^4oo,ooo 1,398,880 732,450 202,520 1,035,656 412,115 734,320 ^42,265,130 4,555,040 ;^4,9i5,94i Of thii, ;^i, 149,360 for colonial, and £1,1*6,440 for foreign sugar. France — Land and People. 201 Sundry Revenues, including Revenue from India „ „ Cochin China „ „ consulates and chancery „ „ inventions ... Contribution by Paris towards its police Proceeds from prisons P^45>826 88,000 70,000 57,480 138,073 235,200 ^634,579 Extraordinary Sources. Payments by the Soci^t^ General Algerienne ;^i4o,ooo Extraordinary means for public works ... 2,780,927 Total Revenue ^2,920,227 ^109,865,132 Expenditure. NATIONAL DEBT AND ENDOWMENTS. FINANCE MINISTRY. — \st Division. Consolidated debt Repayable capital under various heads Life annuities, including for members of aged fund ^^384,000 Civil pensions Military pensions National reward pensions Clerical pensions Pensions to dispossessed annuitants ... Maintenance of pensioners on civil list of ) Louis XVIIL and Charles X. ... j" Annuities of the Caisse des Depots et consig- ) nations to soldiers of the Republic and > of the Empire ... ... ... ) 1,695,840 2,622,520 12,600 1,220 28,000 146,720 ^29,889,139 12,641,446 ^4,893,020 ENDOWMENTS AND EXPENDITURE OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Salary of the President of Republic ... Representation fees Contribution to the endowment of the Legion|^ of Honor ... ... ... ... ) Subvention of the Marine Invalid Fund Administrative expenses of the nation... Total for national debt, endowments, and ex-) penditure of National Assembly ... > ^24,000 24,000 474,564 400,000 ^922,564 415,464 ;^48,76i,633 202 France — Land atid People. GENERAL MINISTERIAL EXPENDITURE. MINISTRY OF JUSTICE, including Salaries for the central authorities ;2{^2 2,352 Council of State 34,922 The Treasury 475264 Courts of Appeal 260,740 Courts of First Appeal 405)i7i County Courts (trade tribunals) 7)032 Police Courts 3,576 Courts of Justices of the Peace 335,646 French tribunals in Algeria ... ... 48,369 Criminal Courts 190,000 ^1,355,062 ^{^509,592 MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. Central administration ;^34,568 Salaries of political and consular agents ... 310,400 Cost of administration ... ... ... 10,000 Travelling and couriers' expenses ... ... 26,800 Service expenses 72,941 Diplomatic gifts 1,600 Maintenance 5,220 Secret expenditure 20, 000 Extraordinary missions and unforeseen \ ^^ ^^^ expenditure ... > Rent of residence for Turkish Ambassador 2,080 Subvention of Abd-el-Kader 6,000 MINISTRY OF THE INTERIOR. Central administration ^56,464 General administration 456,480 Telegraph service 685,636 Public security ... ••• ••• •■• 5^3,797 Prisons 982,805 Subventions (4 to departments, and re-) 343,472 mainder to charities) ... ... \ Extraordinary needs ... 296,480 ^3,335,134 Civil government of Algeria ;^i>o39-7i4 MINISTRY OF FINANCE {iud Division.) General service ^^814,737 France — Land and People. 203 WAR DEPARTMENT. Central administration General staff Gendarmerie Pay Rations Forage Hospitals Dress and lamps Beds Justice Remonte (remounts) Artillery material and military wagons Material of Genie Corps Military schools Aid ^128,799 929,050 161,349 7,435=942 3,634,006 2,781,739 509,916 1,279,339 246,058 588,806 588,086 621,540 433,532 163,455 12,449 ^19,413,346 MINISTRY OF MARINE — ADMIRALTY AND COLONIES. Central administration ... ... ... ;^53,o47 Staff and equipages ... Troops Provisions... Wages for shipwrights, etc.... Armaments ... Colonial service 1,680,632 532,154 924,511 792,000 1,782,000 623,731 ^6,388,075 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC EDUCATION — RELIGION AND THE FINE ARTS. Section I. — Education and science ... ^{^2, 145,628 Section II. — Fine arts and museums ... 303,181 Section III. — Religion ... ... ... 2,145,759 Board of Trade and Agriculture ... ^4,594,568 ^1,702,241 PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT. Section I. — Regular works ... ... ... ^^3, 144,363 Section II. — Extraordinary works ... ... 3,459,973 Various grants for construction of railways, ) including guaranteed interest and sub- > 2,780,927 ventions ... ... ... ... .. 1 ^9,385,263 MINISTRY OF FINANCE {-^rd Divisiou). Expenses of levying and collecting taxes,) registration, crown lands and stamps ...(" Administration of customs ... Indirect taxation Monopoly, tobacco and gunpowder Post ^762,788 1,215,749 1,451,843 2,546,174 2,879,085 ^8.855,629 204 France — Lmid and People, FINANCE (4//1 Division). Arrears, bad debts, premiums ;^68o,8oo Total expenditure ^106,835,794 Public debt and endowments ;^48>76i,633 General ministerial expenditure 5^,074,161 Total as above ;^io6,835,794 To this is added a budget for special purposes, in which receipt and expenditure are balanced with the sum of ^15,769,836, for the greater part consisting of [additional percentage on the direct duties for depart- mental and communal necessities, including Fund for departmental expenditure ;^5>^77,648 Fund for communal expenditure ... ... ... ... 5, 796,417 Eventual Revenue of the departments 3,024,000 Lastly, a survey is added to the budget (" Tableau des recettes et des depenses des services speciaux rattaches pour ordre au budget "). Receipt and expenditure being balanced with the sum of ^2,226,165, including Legion of Honor, State annuities, etc., ^91 1,315 ; State printing ;^249,8oo ; marine invalid fund, ^986,600 ; Mint, ^58,786. The year 1878 was a bad one for the public revenue, owing to the failure of the beet-root crop, which resulted in a deficit of ^1,540,000 on the manufacture of indigenous sugar. There was a deficit of ^440,000 on the return of the indirect taxes for the previous year. One source of increase, was the duty on alcoholic drinks, which shews an increase of yield amounting to ^400,000. There was a diminution in the amount of revenue derived from the postal service (notwithstanding the exhibition), owing to the lowering of the tariff. The telegraph service had an increase of ;!^79,52o over 1877. Recent Expenditure. It was believed by many, that on account of the enormous burdens imposed by the war, France would have fallen into a state of financial ruin, similar to that of several other states. The firm resolve of statesmen, how- ever, to restore the balance of the state finance at any price, together with the vast resources in the nation itself have produced most favorable results. The last budget proposed before the war (that for 1870), stated the sum lor the ordinary xc^\\\\xcTacx\\'~, at about ^66,040,000, and for the extraordinary at ^4,940,000. 'I'he war rendered this illusory, nor could a balance be struck between income and expenditure inunediately after the restoration of peace. The scheme for the budget of 1872, dealt with by the National Assembly in 187 1, shewed the enormous sum of ^96,613,401. Li the course of the war, further unavoidable requirements l)ccame evident, and, notwithstanding the universal want and distress, the introduction of new taxes and duties was at once proceeded with. By a decree of the National Assembly, July 9th, 1872, the duty per 100 kilogrammes (2 cwts.), was increased as follows : — sugar £2, coffee ^6. tea ^8, cocoa nibs £a„ spices ^^8. The duty on wine 4^. on 22 imperial France — Land and People. 205 gallons, on spirits 16^. and on liqueurs 285-. Tobacco and cigars 305. per kilogramme, a little over 2 lbs. avoirdupoise (2.264), petroleum and sweet oil 16^. for 2 cwts, refined petroleum 255. 10^., essence 32^. for 2 cwts. In August it was decreed to introduce a second war tax in all branches of registration, raising the stamp duty by two-tenths, duty on strong beer 2s. (yd., on weak beer i^. id., per 22 gallons, on playing cards 5^. per pack. The various new duties may be divided into four different classes. I. — Increasing', and in most cases doubling, the duty on colonial pro- duce. It was hoped that more would thus have been obtained. ^1,320,000 800,000 400,000 600,000 From sugar Coffee ... Petroleum Cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, vanille, chicory foreign wines, brandy and oil Z:\ ^■3, 1 20,000 II.- -Increasing the registration and stamp duty. A second tenth of registration duty ... ... p^i, 260,000 Stamps... ... ... ... ... ... 440,000 Sporting licenses ... ... ... ... 160,000 Stamps on stock exchanges ... Duty on foreign securities on inheritance by( Frenchmen ... ... ... ... ...) Taxes on insurance Registratian of leases of land... Duty on receipts 480,000 280,000 640,000 400,000 III. — Indirect taxes. From the circulation of spirituous liquors The consumption of alcohol ... Increasing the duty on beer ... Doubling the duty on playing cards ... License duty ... Paper duty Postage ;^68o,ooo 2,320,000 160,000 60,000 200,000 400,000 880,000 ^3,880,000 IV. — On the last day of the session, 187 1, of the National Assembly a further increase of duty was made on the con- veyance of transferable goods, on transport by land and water, on clubs and billiards, and, lastly, on pleasure carriages, from which the proceeds were computed at Total ..: X4,7oo,ooo ;^2, 280,000 ^13,980,000 The proceeds of the new duties had undoubtedly been considerably over estimated in more than one instance, the more so because differences arose with several foreign [)0wers who raised objections to the increase of duty on the ground of previously concluded commercial treaties. 2o6 France — Land and People. In 1062 tho duty on patents was raised 60 per cent, promising a profit of ^1,637,000, and the collection of a further percentage on the other direct taxes to the amoinit of ^1,580,640 was arranged. When it became a question of meeting the requirements of 1874 further imposts were deemed necessary, and, although all were united in principle, yet it was very difficult to agree upon the means by which this was to be accomplished. Time pressed, for the financial scheme must be announced before the expiration of the year 1873, if the collection of the imposts was to proceed without interruption. Thus three new decrees of taxation were made in the last three days of December, 1873. The first, that of December 29th, imposed a duty on native mineral oils, the proceeds of which were computed at The second, December 30, imposed a further half-tenth upon certain registrations, com- puted at A further duty on sugar of ... An excise of 4^. per 2 cwt. of soap, computed at A consumption duty of ^i per 2 cwt. Lastly, the third decree of December 31 im- posed an increased duty on drinks of And a tax on vegetable oils of Total But as all this was still far from sufficient to restore the balance the budget was announced with a reservation that a later arrangement would be made to raise a further amount of ;^5,755.o4o by fresh imposts. When the National Assembly resumed the consideration of this matter, in ihe middle of January, 1874, it was seen that the difficulties were increased rather than diminished. Innumerable objects were suggested for taxation, but almost every proposal was rejected. At last the decree of February 19, was passed. By this the registration fees of non-judicial acts were raised by one-half, from which a return of ^^200,000 was expected. The same was done also with the dues on the Stock Exchange, giving a return of ^^5 20,000. Checjues were made subject to a stamp, which was to produce from ;^ 44,000 to ;2<;46,ooo. With all this, little more than _p^7 60,000 were obtained. The National Assembly had once again to .-^.pply themselves to the same task, which became more difficult the longer the negociations lasted. After the rejection of a number of further i)roposed taxes the decree of March 2 1 was brought about by which the railway slow goods trains (the quick goods and passenger trains were already burdened), with few excep- tions, were subjected to a drawback of 5 i)er cent, on the fare, or it was left to the option of the railway companies to pay an increased tax in equal proi)ortion. By this ^686, 000 were to be gained. Next a tax of y. 4^. per cwt. was laid on the importation of salt meat, in addition to the ordinary customs duty, as ccpivalent for the duty on the salt used in it. A tax was likewise laid on those lands which had formerly been considered ^60,000 1,419,760 277,120 280,000 36,000 ^2,072,880 ^484,440 250,000 p^734,44o ;^2,8o7,320 France — Land and People. 207 as waste, but which had been cultivated since the imposition of the land- tax. With all these and some further measures it was hoped to realize altogether (inclusive of railway transport) a sum of ^1,172,000. After all these endeavours and results there was still lacking a sum of ^803,120 to complete the figure required. It was left for the budget of 1875 to restore the balance between revenue and expenditure. The bank declined the proposal to reduce the yearly re-paymcnt of ^8,000,000 to p{^6,ooo,ooo for advances made, in order that the liquida- tion of the debt should extend over a longer period, but it offered a loan of ;;{^3, 200,000. Nearly all the new imposts are designated " temporary " and " extraordinary." General Observations on the Budget. PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF REVENUE. According to our classification the net revenues of the state are derived as follows — Crown lands ;^i, 360,000 or 1.65 Direct taxes ^15,240,000 „ 18.44 Indirect taxes ^^66,040,000 „ 79,91 _;!{^82, 640,000 or 100 As in most large states, so here, the produce of the crown lands is comparatively insignificant. The originally very large state property (out of which the public wants ought before everything to be supplied), has been wasted. The produce seems all the less, if we remember the confis- cation of the numerous ecclesiastical estates, as well as of those of the nobility during the revolution, ind if we compare the colossal amount of the national debt, with the active capital remaining. Throughout the whole of recent periods, the state forests have been wasted.* The value of the crown lands, according to a calculation in 1856, still amounted to over ^51,726,952, but new alienations of them take place every year. There are, as previously stated, /<5i?/r direct taxes, i. land tax ; 2. per- sonal and property tax ; 3. door and window tax ; 4. manufacturing tax, (patent duty ) Only this last forms a so-called quota tax, the amount of which is determined by the number and extent of the manufacturers, whilst the other three are " distribution taxes," the amount of which is already appordoned beforehand to the various departments, communes, estates, etc. The " Indirect Taxes " were already enormously oppressive. The duty on drinks, the hated droits rciinis, which produced nearly ;^ 1,240,000, is especially burdensome ; extremely fiscal is the enregistreinent, (arising out of the so-called " controle " introduced by Louis XIV), the proceeds of which are computed at more than ^17,200,000, exclusive ot ^{^5, 480,000 stamp duty. In the time of the First Republic, the payment of 4 per cent. * In the year 1791, the area or the forests of France was 23,686,976 acre";, of wliich 3,360,413 acres belonged to the state. In 1851. their extent was only 22,148,490 acres, 3,028,210 of wliich were state prop'jity. This had ileclined to 2,660.303 in i860. In order to put a stop to tliis persistent diminution, the sum of j(;40,ooo annually for ten ye;irshas been set aside for re-plantire: the mountain lorests. In 1864 the proceeds o'l the forests sol i under the second empire, amounted to ;^85o,o20, and those from the sale of other crown domains to ^100,000. 2o8 France — Land and People. of the price realized by any sale of real property was compulsory ; and since the time of the first Napoleon, a special war tax has been added, (which is collected also in times of peace), by which this impost was in- creased by one-tenth, and to this first dcciincs de guerre a second has been added. The "Salt tax," formerly 3^. per lb,. 2.204 kilogramme, was reduced to \d. after the February revolution, increased again to 2d. in 1862, and afterwards again reduced to \d. Even in the recent financial need, all pro- posals for the augmentation of this duty, to 2d., or even \\d., were rejected. The '-sale of tobacco" was farmed out previous to 1789, and produced ;^ 1,280,000. From the year 1789 to 1807 it was free; from that year to 181 1, the duty on tobacco produced about ;^6oo,ooo. In 181 1 the state monopoly was again introduced, and realized about ^1,040,000. Five years afterwards the sum rose to ^1,650,000, by a rise or allowance of about 6^ lbs. per inhabitant. In the year 1841 the government obtained ^288,000, and in 1852 ^484,000 by a rise of 14 lbs. per head. In i860 the government suddenly raised the price of tobacco (not cigars) 25 per cent. The gross amount for the year 1870, was computed at ^^9,872, 360, about ^2,680,000 of which were for expenses, leaving a net profit of ;^7 20,000. The gain of the retail dealers is reckoned at 12 per cent. In 1873 the quantity of tobacco sold in the diminished territory amounted to 3,621 tons, I cwt. 3 lbs. for smoking, and 1,206 tons, 14 cwts. 21 lbs. of snuff. The sale prices were again raised in the recent financial distress, and the gi-oss amount of the tobacco monopoly appears in the budget as ;^i 1,489,000, about ;^2, 400,000 of which were paid for the raw material, leaving a net profit of ;i/^9,o89,ooo. In the year 1872 (before the introduction of the new transport duty) the State drew ^4,273,018 directly from railways, of which ^2,451,792 were the duty on passenger and mixed trains; ^116,522 on land and manufacturing taxes ; ^333,054 on registration of the conveyance of landed property; ^597,210 for stamps on bills of freight, etc.; ^32,548 for stamps on receipts, etc. Frhicipal heads of Expenditure. In 1874, of the p^9i, 440,000 necessary expenditure, which the ordinary budget shewed, after subtracting ^9,840,000 for costs of levying and collecting taxes, we find the following amounts absorbed in — National debt and endowments ... ^48,420,000 or 52.95 per cent. Military (land and sea forces) ... 24,780,000 ,, 27.97 „ Totalofthese two unproductive heads ^73,200,000 ,, 80.97 „ With the restoration of the Republic the King's Civil List disappeared. It amounted to ^1,000,000 (under Louis Philippe to ^480,000). The total cost of the court could scarcely be computed at less than ^1,600,000, including the domains and appanages. In place of this the salary of the President of the Republic is fixed at ;^24,ooo, besides;;^ 1 2,000 representation fees. The "Legion of Honor" possesses a special endowment, to which the State pays an annual grant, the amount of which, in 1874, was ^483,829. The total income of the " Legion of Honor" is reckoned at ^^778,240. The number of members of the " Legion" who received annuities in 1865 was 33,497- France — Land and People. 209 The expenditure for religion,* which, in iSiS, wai only ^840,000, and in 1S47, ^1,560,000, was estimated in the budget for 1870 at ^1,960,000, and in 1874 at nearly ^2,140,000. Of this, ^55,300 were for the Pro- testant, and ^6.996 for the Jewish religion. Including the contributions of parishes, and of individual casual believers, the income of the Romish church exceeds ^4,000,000. Revenue and Expenditure of former times. According to a calculation of Clamageran, the direct and indirect taxes produced the following sums : — Taxes 1607 1645 1690 1715 1786 Direct ^640,000 ^{^2, 160,000 ^1,640,000 ^3,840,000 ^9,160,000 Indirect 460,000 1,400,000 2,800,000 2,400,000 12,440,000 Total ^1,100,000 ^3,560,000 ^4,440,000 ^6,240,000 ^21,600,000 An estimate for the year 1707, given by Levasseur shews- Expenditure. Royal household ... .;^935>9oo Military expenses Marine National debt... Home affairs ... Justice Finance Total expenditure Total revenue 5,802,046 748,245 3.236,772 14.225 93.283 2,353.326 ^13.173.799 8,515,661 Deficiency ... ... ^1^4,658, 138 Thus military affairs, marine. Revenue. Regular revenue Poll tax Contributions of \ the clergy f Extraordinary revenue Total revenue ^4,367,210 1,200,000 191,716 2,756,735 ^8,515,661 court, and national debt required ^10,722,963, whilst the whole revenue did not yield more than ^8,515,661. When Turgot was made Comptroller-general of Finance in 1774, the State revenue amounted to ;^ 15,080,000. But the permanent annuities, life annuities, the royal household, and the households of the two princes, (brothers of the head of the realm), together with the remaining privileged expenses swallowed up ^6,480,000 of this, so that only ;;^8, 520,000 re- mained for disposal, whilst at least ^^9, 400,000 were required. Thus it happened that ;^3, 02 0,000 were already spent by anticipation. In the year 1784 the gross revenue, according to Necker, amounted to ^^24,000,000, and the expenditure 10^24,400,000 (in reality the deficiency was greater.) * All religions are tolerated in France, but only three receive support from the State — viz., the Roman Catholic, Protestant and Jewish (the last only since 1831). The Roman Catholic Church numbers ( after subtracting the ceded territory) 84 prelates, 17 archbishops, each of whom receives an income of ^800 ; the archbishop of Paris. jTi.ooc ; and 67 bishops, witli sabries of j(^6oo. Six of these prelates receive an annual addition of jr4oo on account of their rank as cardinals, and as they are at the same time senators, in accordance with the law, they receive a further payment of j^i.zco for this honor. The chapter and the parish clergy ( including those of Alsace-Lorraine) consisted o! 1 8c vicars-general, having for salaries from ^100 to _^i8o; 669 canons, with salaries varying ivom £6J[. to ^^96; 3,426 parish priests, with from ^48 to £Gii. salaries; and 30,243 vicars, with from £^6 to ^40. In 1861 there were 79,584 secular, and 108,119 regular clergy. Among the latter. 17,776 monks (^of whom 1,085 were Jesuits^ and 90,343 nuns. O 2X0 Prance — L&nd and People. The revenues of the ecclesiastics were reckoned at ;!^5, 200,000, on which they paid at most ^420,000 taxes. The nobihty and the ecclesi- astics possessed nearly two-thirds of the landed property. Most of their revenues were farmed out at immense gain to those who farmed them. The National Assembly fixed the net budget for 1791 at ^23,308,000. The gross revenue amounted to about ;^27,64o,ooo. In the year 1799 the gross rerenue of the State amounted to ^29,120,000 ; the net revenue to ^21,200,000 only. The war expenses were, as far as possible, covered by requisitions and contributions from foreign countries. This was done with great success under Napoleon I. Thus the whole amount of sums obtained from North Germany, and which passed through the hands of " 1 )aru," is given by him as ^20,549,776, and munition to the value of ^3,619,340, making altogether about ^24,169,116, beside all that private jiersons had been obliged to give. The State expenditure during the time of Napoleon was generally from ^^28,000, 000 to ^32,000,000. The budget first rose to ^^46, 000,000 in the war year of 18 13, when the Empire had attained its greatest extent — 130 departments. Of this, the land and sea forces re- quired ^30,080,000(^6,680,000 of which were for the marine); the national debt, ;^4,252,ooo ; pensions, ^1,788,000 ; civil list and appanages, ;^i, 132,000 ; justice, ^1,160,000 ; foreign affairs, ^840,000 ; home affairs, ;!^2, 360,000 ; administration of finance, ^840,000; manufactures and' commerce, ^312,400. The Emperor by no means neglected his own finances. He had, according to Thiers, saved ^5,400,000 from the civil list, by the end of 1813, for his own private use. Under Louis XVIII. the expenditure rose to about ^36,000,000. In 1818, on account of the cost of foreign troops and of payments to other countries, it was ;!^56,62o,ooo. The budget averaged ^40,000,000 under Charles X. It was fixed at ;^39,440,ooo gross, or ^32,480,000 net, for 1831. The last budget framed by the National Assembly before the coup-d'elat, for 1852, rose to the figure of ^57,380,000. The actual balance of accounts as o])]iosed to the proposals of the budget, reckoned in English money, was as follows : — from Expenditure Revenue I. nans Years Total Total Of which Restoration ... 1816-29 1^577,120,000 1^526,400,000 1^47,520,000 July Monarchy .... 1S30-47 I 919,320,000 | 829,006,000 73,720,000 Empire & Republic 1848-561 639,480,000! 602,520,000! 104,760,000 The average amount of the yearly expenditure was as follows :— Expenditure. Restoration, 1816-29 ••• ••• ••• ^38,400,000 Louis Phili])pe, 1830-39 ... ... ... 46,800,000 ,, ,, 1840-48 ... ... ... 57,280,000 Revolution, 1848 ... ... ... 71,836,000 ., 1849 ... ... ... 65,840,000 Napoleon 11 1., 1854 ... ... ... 79,520,000 ,, 1855 ••• ••• ••• ()5, 000, 000 „ 1856 ... ... ... 88,468,000 ,, 1^57 ••• ••• ••• 74,900,000 » 1^5^ 74,720,000 France — Land and People. 2 1 1 A somewhat irregular calculation, by Alp/io/nc Cou?'tois, continued to the year 1870, gives the following principal results : — Revenue Per Head Expenditure Per Head ^39,828,521 £1 6 i-i 51,072,534 I 10 o 83,260,050 2 5 1 Restoration ... ^39,777,838 ^i 5 ^ July Monarchy.. 48,856,060 193 Second Empire.. 82,111,820 24 5^ Here the various expenses of war are either not all, or only partially, included, otherwise the deficiency under the Second Empire would be much greater. Expenses reckoned by Courtois may be divided thus — National Debt Per Head Restoration July Monarchy ... Second Empire ... ••• ^10,544,419 ... 13,781,767 ... 20,730,724 ... ... 75. 8.f. \\s. lU 8d. War Marine & Algiers Per Head Restoration July Monarchy ... Second Empire ... ••• ;^io,957,i5o ... 16,223,308 27,479,858 ... IS. ()S. ... 155. 3^- 4hd Other Expenditure Per Head Restoration July Monarchy ... Second Empire ... ... ^19,326,951 ... 21,067,457 ... 35,049,467 — IIS. 12s. ... iSs. \\\d. 6d. 8d Departmetital and Communal Expenditure. The departmental expenditure is covered exclusively by the collection of additional percentages on the direct taxes, the amount of which is fixed by the special budget. There are no indirect taxes for this purpose. The communal expenditure is also covered by the collection of additional percentages on the direct taxes ; in the towns, principally by the oppressive" Octrois " on the consumption of meat, drinks, fuel, brewing stuffs, etc. These " Octrois " were introduced as early as 1850 in 1,436 communes. Two official accounts, based on the calculation for 1862 and 1868, gave for the 37,505 communes, not including Paris 1862 1868 Revenne Expenditure Revenue Expenditure Ordinary ^11,675, 977 .^^10,278,197 ^13,407,098 ^11,950,662 Extraordinary 5,980,702 7,73^,336 5,668,462 7,395,3io Total ;^i6,656,679 ;£'i8,oo9,523 ;^i9,o75,56o ^i9,445>972 The statement of accounts for 187 1 gave for all the communes of the diminished territory, exclusive of Paris, where the calculations were in- terrupted. Revenue Expenditure Ordinary ^12,526,782 ^11,047,487 Extraordinary ... ... 9,056,795 9,772,598 Surplus from previous year 5,422,671 2,281,325 Total ^27,006,248 ^23,101,410 il^ France — Land and People. The city of Paris alone has a budget like a kingdom, but like one in financial ruin. In the year 1847, its amount was limited to -^1,840,000. In 1853 the revenue rose to ^2,600,000, but the ordinary and extraordi- nary expenditure really amounted to ^3,600,000. The actual balance of i860 and 1868 was^ i860 1868 Revenue.! Expenditure Revenue Expenditure Ordinary ^4,858,144 ^1,619,734 ^^6,793,455 ^4,082,049 Extraordinary 1,473,430 1,376,089 1,916,890 4,386,471 Total ^^6,331,574 ;^3.995.^23 ^8,710,345 ^8,468,520 Among the receipts, however, were large sums in loans. The ordinary budget for 1869 closed with the figure of ^5,920,000 ; that of 1870 with ;!{^6, 860,000 ; that of 1872 with 7,760,000. According to the report of the Prefect, Leon Say, to the Paris Chamber of Communes, on the 15th October, 1872, there was a deficiency of ;!^2, 4^0,800 for 1871-73, inas- much as the receipts of the " Octrois " were ^{^480, 000 less than the estimate. The budget for 1873 closed (agreeing in revenue and expendi- ture), with an ordinary estimate of ^8,072,503, and an extraordinary estimate of ^2,540,000, making together ^10,612,503. Under revenue appeared, octrois, ^4,520,000 ; tax on vehicles, ;^io4,ooo ; street tolls, ^^104,000 ; Entrepots, ^88,000 ; supplementary dues, ^360,000. In 1876 the produce of the "'octrois" alone was _^4,968,97o. The budget issued for the city of Paris for 1878 estimated the expenditure at above j^i 0,000,000 sterling, giving to every inhabitant no less a sum than ^5 as his contribution towards local taxation, and this exclusive of large payments by the omnibus company and gas com- pany, and the receipts from the octrois. In 1879 the revenue was if9.139.413. -i"d the expenditure ^9.^39.413- National Debt. A. — The Consolidated Fund, in January, 185 1, had a caj^ital of ;^2i3,825,494, with an expenditure, in 1852, of ;;^9, 260, 000 for interest and payment; but by January ist, 1870, under the Empire of Napoleon, it had increased to the following amount : — P.rincipal Interest ^33'29i,i33 ^^ 4i P^T cent ^1,498,100 446,096 „ 4 „ „ 17.^43 434,701,617 „ 3 „ „ 13,041,048 ^^468,438,846 ;^i4.556,99i This increase during the ])eriod of Napoleon's influence was great, but the figures which marked the decline of the Empire were enormous. On January i, 1874, they stood thus — Principal Interest ;^276,8oi,284 at 5 per cent. ... ... ... _p£^'"i 3,840,064 33.289,312 „ 4^ „ „ 1,498.019 446,096 ,, 4 „ „ i7-''^43 435,26o,62o»„ 3 „ „ ].:, 5X7.818 X.'795.797,3i2 /^'~9,9-\hlV6 France — Lamf and People. 213 The principal of the debt had, therefore, increased by half, and the interest more than doubled. b. — But with all this the amount of debt is still far from complete. There exists beside a lonj^, list of arrears of principal under various titles. This is the floating debt, together with all debts existing in any other than the usual form. '\\\q. floating debt has long existed m France. It arose at first from the accumulation of supplementary credit not covered by the original grant of the budget (decoiiverts), partly with, partly without, tlie assent of the Corps Legislatif. Help was sought from interest-paying bills at short date — that is to say, special bills upon the next receivable income. But soon the money was appropriated from deposit funds, savings' banks, commune funds, reserved securities, loans from the receiver-general, etc. The floating debt often weighs like an incubus upon the finances. The right of giving notice to pay, generally belongs to the creditors, and they generally demand their deposits in a mass at the most critical times. Once, in 1848, the State treasury was unable to fulfil its obligations towards the lenders. The depositors of the savings' banks could only be paid with paper inoney by turning ^11,560,000 of the floating debt into 3 /^r Cent. Rentes. This debt was repeatedly consolidated without being permanently diminished. Within reasonable limits this debt is, however, not very serious. It deserves special mention that, whilst the floating debt fre- quently amounted to 2'40)OoO;0°o» ^'""i sometimes even exceeded that under the Empire, according to the statement of Leon Say, in the National Assembly, of December 24. 1873, it did not amount to more than /.'33, 280,000 in the beginning of 1874. To this may be added another, which is considered an ordinary debt. With the view of concealing the new loans, instead of open 'inscriptions," fresh "annuities" were created under Napoleon III. In order to obtain the means of fulfilling the obliga- tions to the railway companies 300,000 bonds were created in 1861, each paying a yearly interest of i6j. 8^. These were issued at the rate of 2^17. They were to be successively redeemed within 30 years (hence they were called " obligations trentenaires ") each bond for ^20. The State thus i; became burdened with a new debt of ;2^6,ooo,ooo, whilst it received only \ ^5,193,240. In the very next year occurred the manipulation of the "Conversion of Rentes." However, only 70,542 bondholders agreed to ,; the exchange. Besides this the State treasury is also burdened with obliga- |. tions in the form of annuities, both for the redemption of canal dues, and ;' the acquirement of such canals by the State, and as counter-obligations to '. the Societe Generale Algerienne. Among the State liabilities of recent , \ date, referred to in the above list, appears the Morgan Loan of j: ^^10,000,000, at 6 per cent., repayable in 34 years. Next, the advance {. made by the Bank of France to the State treasury. The Bank had been | obliged to help in all extremities ; it had advanced altogether ^269,528,425, !' the greater part of which was, of course, covered by the loans. The Bank [■ also agreed to take an arrear of ^54,000,000 by yearly repayments of at \ least ^8,000,000, bearing only i per cent, interest. The first instalment i' was paid in 1872, and the second in 1873. The advance of the Chemin- i. de-Fer de I'Est was made because the lines, which were the property of a |; private company in Alsace-Lorraine, were obliged to be given up with the i territory. Germany made a deduction for this of ;^i4,ooo,ooo irom the | indemnity of ^200,000,000, but the French Treasury, unable to pay cash, | bound itself to pay' off the company by annuities subject to interest. I; 214 France — Land and Profile. Lastly, the securities of the State, in partial compensation for losses by war. Indemnifications to the amount of ^9,040,000, secured by the State to the departments and communes which had been occupied ; Init the greater part of this article of expenditure is not included in the ordinary budget, but is transferred to the special account, for the liquidation of war expenses. The budget, in 1878, required a sum of ^12,641,446. 1. For various annuities 2. Annuities of the Societe General Algerienne 3. Obligations trentenaires 4. For the Morgan loan of ^10,000,000 (6 per cent.) 5. Repayment of the bank advances ... 6. Interest to Chemin de Fer de I'Est 7. Annuities to departments and communes as arrears — ) payment of part of war indemnity ... ... \ 8. Compensation for damages by the French military^ engineers ... ... ... ... ... \ 9. Annuities on departments and communes for loans 1*^ towards barrack building ... ... ... \ 10. Interest on securities 11. Interest on floating debt ... 12. Short running treasury bonds 13. Annual indemnification to Spain on account of regula-| tion of frontier ... ... ... ... ... J 14. Annuities to railway companies 15. Interest and redemption to Sardinia for improving the^ wells at Aix ... ... ... ... ... f ^■176,598 210,800 98,040 600,000 6,097,500 820,000 697,530 73,160 357,333 360,800 1,217,600 720,000 810 877,833 1,440 The History of the Debt. A treatise on the history of the public debt in France carries us back to the time of Faw. On the 24th February, 1720, it was forbidden, under penalty of ;^8oo, for any one to keep more than ;^2o in cash. All re- maining money was obliged to be exchanged into paper, or Law's notes, as they were called. In March an unconditional prohibition was issued against even " possessing or expending gold or silver coin." Law's notes to the amount of ^122,830,000 were issued in the two years 17 19 and 1720. The shares issued at ^20 were run uj) to £120. At the time of the State bankruptcy there was as much as ^360,000,000 of these notes in circulation. Upon this, new debts were incurred. During the period of the Revolution all payment of interest ceased. From 179010 1795 aisignats for ^1,743, 120,000 (at first only for ;^4,ooo,ooo) were issued, of which only a small number were redeemed. The exchange began to decline in 1792, and by 1795 it had fallen to 18 per cent, on silver money. Who- ever refused the assignats during the reign of terror was threatened with the guillotine. Trade was at a standstill, and prices rose beyond belief Then a maximum was decreed, but in vain. At length the assi\^//(jts were removed from circulation, being redeemed in 1796 by tnaudats, at the rate of 30 for one franc. These maiidats were issued for ^^7 2,000,000. 'i'hese also very soon became worthless. In the meantime, between 1790 and 1801, national estates, to the value of ;//^i 04,360,000 were sold or dissipated, leaving only to the value of ;^2 8,000,000. The money was spent as it came in. A liquidation of the France — Land and People. 2 1 $ old debt followed in 1798. It amounted, setting aside all claims from emigrants, to ^112,000,000, and was reduced to one-third (/^ tiers con- solide). For this the State gave inscriptions in the great book in 5 per cent. Rentes, at first ^1,852,080 of such Rentes, representing a capital of ^27,781,200. In 1799 the 5 per cent. Rentes fell to 5.10, and even when Napoleon was at the height of his power, the exchange was 88.90 (2 per cent, lower than in 1873, after the severe defeats). At the fall of Napoleon I., the consolidated debt amounted to ^29,104,120. The second peace of Paris burdened the state with a war contribution of ^28,000,000 to the allies. Beside this, civil law compensation claims arose almost everywhere, which were met by new inscriptions of ^64 1,600 Rentes (^13,132,000 capital). The maintenance of the allied armies cost the treasury ^17,960,000. This raised the debt to ^84,272,794. The Treasury also paid the private debts of the king in foreign countries with ^60,000 Rentes, or ^1,200,000 capital. The king in return made a loan of ^1,400,000 to the Austrian government in the year 182 1, in order to supply it with means for the expedition against Naples, which was repaid after the Revolution, not to the State, but to the Bourbons. In 1825 the emigrants received ;^4o,ooo,ooo compensation. On this occasion the creation of the 3 per cent. Rentes took place under the Villele ministry. The 4 per cent. Rentes arose in the year 1828, when ^^3, 200,000 were borrowed for the expedition to the Morea. The large treasure found at the conquest of Algiers was soon expended. Under Louis Philippe the exchange of the 5 per cents. rose to 123. Napoleon III. reduced the rate of interest from 5 to \\ in 18^2. The annual expenditure for interest, which on April ist, 18 14, was only ;^2,532,305, was increased by the Spanish war, by compensation to emigrants, etc., so that on August ist, 1830, it was ^7,976,688. It rose still higher under Louis Philippe, viz., to ^9,771,488 on March ist, 1848, ^1,600,000 of which were in the possession of the State itself Notwith- standing the greatness of the latter sum, ^9,260,000 were again required in 1S52. Under Napoleon III., as we have already stated, even from the time of his presidency, debts were accumulated as they had never previously been. On January ist, 1S51, Rentes were inscribed to the amount of ^"213,825,494 in capital ; one year later ^220,647,784. Subsequent to this, the increase was colossal. It amounted on January ist of the following years to Year Principal Interest 1853 ^223,100,184 ;^8,797,i79 1854 226,786,200 8,907,449 185s 243,315,114 9^457,7^0 1856 302,321,632 11,386,740 1857 321,279,698 11,963,969 1858 336,883,870 12,435,238 1859 343,731,526 12,639,745 i860 373,360,480 ., 13,534,263 1861 388,731,076 13,995,486 1862 396,994,968 14.241,774 1863 483,209,407 15,130,699 1864 492,637,871 V 15,308,118 2i6 France — Land and People. Annual Exbenditure for Inter est. — (Continued.) Year Principal Interest 1865 521,061,424 16,158,481 1866 441,160,386 13,742,058 1867 437,288,496 13,623,052 1868 435,866,810 13.614,129 1869 447,120,901 13.917,390 1870 468,438,846 14,556,990 1872 705,175,148 29,493,149 1873 731,481,441 21,671,848 1874 796,797,312 29,943,743 1875 937,584,280 29,936,196 1876 ... ... ... 926,900,000 ... 1878 794,980,143 29,889,139 1879 750,067,425 29,936,198 The decrease which appeared to have taken place from 1866- 1868 was fictitious, because, by means of manipulating the accounts, ^2,416,422 was placed to the special account of a newly-formed "sinking fund." Whilst a diminution was brought about in 1866 in the ordinary calculation of the Rentes to be paid annually, the new sinking fund really had to be endowed with ^3,165,840. It is true that only five loans, amounting to ^94,920,000, were obtained during the second em- pire, until the war of 1870 ; yet the above figures shew how, apart from the floating debt, even the Consolidated Debt was quietly increased by new subscriptions. The result of the 12 years 1853-65, was an increased debt of ;^297, 960,000, and an increased burden of interest of ;^7, 360,000. After the " Conversion of Rentes " passed by law in 1862, the holders of 4-| per cent, bonds were transcribed into 3 per cent, in such a manner, that if they paid in addition 4^. dd. upon ^4 principal, the whole previous amount of interest was secured to them in 3 per cent. Rentes. In this way the State treasury obtained capital to the amount of ^6,-+i 7,251, or, alter deduction of the costs, ^6,305,251 without augmentation of the interest charge, but at the price of increasing the principal of the debt about eight- fold ! The " Amortissement," suspended in the year 1848, was partly re- stored in 1859, and again annulled in the year i860, to be re-established in a different form in 1867. From its foundation (A i)ril 28th, 1816) tothe end of i860, this sinking fund Vzid^ drawn the enormous sum of ;,{^ii6,345,7 10 from the State treasury. The result is not a blotting out, but a colossal increase of the debt. The Crimean war cost France, according to the Report of the Minister of Finance, ^92,840,000. ^60,000,000 of this were raised by loans, and the remainder by increase of taxation. But in reality bonds were issued for ^^84,000,000, and the war expenses thus rose to ^92,840,000. The interest upon the loans for the Crimean war will, together with the "Amor- tissement," absorb ;j<^3, 000,000 annually for generations to come. The costs of the Italian war were given at ^17,880,000, they ought really to be stated at 40 per cent. more. Sardinia contributed no money towards it, but paid only the sum of ^^2,400,000, for necessaries of war supplied to her army. At the transfer of Savoy and Nice, France took upon herself ^6,000,000 of the Sardinian State debt. The cession -of Mentone and Roccabruna was bought for ^160,000. The wars in China France — Land and People. 217 and Cochin-China cost ;^7, 840,000 up to 1864 ; that in Mexico, according to the Ministerial account given in 1S61, was ;!^i4,526,2oo. By a treaty of 25th October, i860, China bound itself to the payment of ;;^2, 100,000, Cochin China agreed in 1864, to the payment of ;,{^4, 000,000. Mexico was to pay off ^8,400,000 in 14 annual instalments; besides this, it sur- rendered to the French government, bo;:ds for ;^ 4, 2 00, 000, at the exchange value of;,^^ 2, 640,000, to defray the costs of the expedition in the first half- year of 1864. But from Berryer's Report to the Corps Lcgislatif on June 21, 1867, only ^560,000 could be liquidated. After the fall of the Mexican empire, all payment of course ceased,, and it was thought desirable to compensate those who had been induced by the government to take the bonds from the State treasury. The financial decree of 2nd August, 1868, assigned ^160,000 Rentes (equal to 5,333,333 francs) principal for this object. By virtue of the treaty of 15th February, 1862, Spain paid p^i, 000,000 additional, as compensation for the expedition of 1823. The occupation of Rome cost ;2^2, 000,000 up to 1864. We come now to the war of 1870. The Bank was compelled to assist in this, and, in order to render this possible, its notes were issued at a forced rate. By the decree of August 12, a loan of ^30,000,000 was granted. In the meantime the government purchased the income of the Army Endowment Fund (over ^3,680,000), for which the State has since then been compelled to make restitution. Defeat followed defeat ; the scarcity of money became inconceivable ; Gambetta concluded a loan of ;^io,ooo,ooo, at the rate of ^'16 31. \\d., for ;;^2o, at 6 per cent., repay- able in 34 years, with the English banking firm of Morgan. The depart- ments raised ^600,000 for the equipment of Gardes Mobiles and the Franc-tireurs, and the credit of the Bank of France was thus stretched to the utmost. Peace was only to be purchased by the surrender of two important provinces, and the payment of the unprecedented sum of ^200,000,000. The raising of this sum, which might have been thought an impossibility, was accomplished with inconceivable rapidity. On June 27th, 1871, in accordance with a decree of the 21st, a capital of ;;^ 20,000,000, in 3 per cent. Rentes, was proposed, and subscribed for, to double the amount, on the same day. A further subscription of ^^30,000,000 was decreed on July 15th, 1872, and the result was a subscription of twelvefold the amount. The rate at which loans were taken up marks the degree of State credit at various periods. The conditions of the war loans were quite different to those which preceded them. The so-called ^30,000,000, but actually ^32,000,000, was proposed in 3 per cent. Rentes, at the rate of 60.60, with 1.55 inte- rest gain, so that the real price amounted to 59.05. The full amount (;^3 2,480,000) was, with difficulty, subscribed. The Morgan Loan, nomi- nally of ^10,000,000, at 6 per cent., was really procured at the rate of 85 f, and (October 2729) subsequently offered to subscribers at 85, and, not- withstanding the investment of Paris, at the time subscriptions were obtained in France to the amount of ^3,756,840. The loan of ^80,000,000, at 5 per cent., j)roposed for public subscription on June 27, 1871, was contracted at 82^, but the nett price realized was only 79.26; nearly ^^ 196,000,000 were subscribed. The 5 per cent. Loan of 2lS France — Land and People. _;^ 1 20,000,000, of July, 1872, contracted at 84I, (nett 80.94), procured 934,276 subscribers, for ^1,752,640,000. The form and date of the lour last-mentioned loans were as follows : — ;^32, 480,000 Second Morgan Loan ^80,000,000 ^120,000,000 Order Date of Subscription Rule of 1 2th August, 1870 I August 23rd, 1870* Decree of 25th October, 1870 October 27th, 1870 Rule of 20th June, 1871 June 27th, 1872 Rule of 15th July, 1872 , July 28th, 1872 We take the following data, as to the results of these four loans, from a report of Finance Minister, (Magne), October 27, 1873 : — Sum Subscribed ^32,490,860 10,000,000 195.902,361 1,752,643,862 Gross Amount ^32,182,887 8,355,990 89,139,771 139,949,785 Costs ^264,934 275,000 3,306,847 3,389,573 Nett Amount ^31,917,952 8,080,990 85,732,913 136,560,211 ;^i,99i.o37,o83 ^^269,628,433 ^7,236,354 ^^250,292,066 In the first case the loan cost the State 4.99 per cent. ; in the second (Morgan), 7.42 percent. ; in the third, 6.29 per cent. ; in the last, 6.06 per cent. Expenses of the J Far, 1870 and 187 1. The Minister of Finance, (Magne), in a report of October 28, 1873, estimated the cost to the State treasury thus : — ••• ^46,920,640 28,008,880 Extraordinary war expenses, 1870 1871 1872 Provisioning of Paris... Maintenance of soldiers' families, etc. Interest on sum due to Germany Maintenance of German troops Arrears of contribution imi)osed by Germans Exchange loss on the four loans Loss on duties and imposts, 1870 .. ^871 Contributions of war... Total 1,552,280 ;^6,78o,720 2,000,000 12,082,600 9,945,000 2,468,320 25,246,720 4,903,560 9,664,000 ^76,481,800 ^149,572,720 ^200,000,000 ^349,572,720 The sacrifices which the war has caused, and here we speak only of those in money, are evidently not nearly all mentioned here. If we over- look the question, whether the Liciuidation Fund will be in a position to fulfil its task— viz., the reconstruction of the war materialf without new * Closed. t The following expenses were assifriud to tlie Liquidation Fund ; those for re-construc- tion of war material ; for the maintenance of the enemy's troops in the year 1872; for iiulemnity to the invaded departments, and payments to the suflerers by the second siege of Piuit. France — Land and Fioplc. 219 loans, there still remnin innumerable losses to the departments, the com- mimes, and to individuals. A ministerial calculation, of October 28, 1872, eslimatcs the damage done by the enemy's troops, in 35 deijortmcnts, at ^32,843,519. We shall not be reckoning too high if we put the total loss of France at ^400,000,000. Re^ros/'c'ct. Only three instances in the whole history of finance, are known to us, that may be compared with the present accumulation of debt in France. I. — Holland. This small state, which in the year 1846 did not con- tain 3,000,000 inhabitants, had a debt of ^^92, 324,999, equal to about ;^34 per head. Holland, indeed, possessed colonies from which she knew better than any State in the world, how to reap profit. This fact has contributed very considerably to the present flourishing condition of her finances. 2. — Great Britain. The struggle with the first Napoleon necessitated the taking up of ^879,289,943 in fresh loans from 1793 to 1816. In spite of the increase of taxation and continual paying off of debt, an increase of ^601,500,343 was found to exist on the conclusion of peace. The total amount (oldand new) of thedebt in the beginning of i8i7was ^840,850,491. The population of the State must have been about 20,000,000 at that time, including Ireland, about the population of which we have no very exact details at that period. This would bring the debt to at least £,^2 per head, more than half as much again as is now the case in France. England was indeed, very rich, but Wales and Ireland offered the opposite picture. 3. — The United States. The civil war cost the treasury of the Union ;^869, 1 66,660. The population at the end of the civil war was about the same as that of France now ; the debt was therefore at about an equal rate. The Union, hov/ever, possessed the great advantage of being able at once to dismiss its whole army. These examples led us to expect, that notwith- standing the greatness of the burden, it would not be, by any means impossible for France to restore order to her financial affairs, and to fulfil her monetary obligations. Departmental and Communal Debts. The departments were free from debt until the time of the Second Empire. The communes also were but moderately burdened. But this all changed in the above- mentioned period. The Bidletin des Lois contains the legal authori- zation for 364 departmental loans to the amount of ;^6, 173,377, and for 545 communal loans to the amount of ^16,371,334, from ist January, 1852 till 31st December, 1866, not including the department of the Seine, or the City of Paris. If we add to this the loan of the department of the Seine, of a capital of ;!^2,ooo,ooo ; that of the City of Paris of ^40,000,000, and lastly those of the smaller communes, which only require the authori- zation of government for the incurring of debts, of about ^10,000,000, we have an accumulation of ^74,640,000 debt. The Socicie du Credit Foncier alone granted communal loans of ^28,460,000, from July loth, i860, to December 31st, 1870. These have been reduced by repayments to ^18,860,666. The City of Paris alone was a debtor to the amount of ^13,320,000. By a more recent official account, 19,890 of the 35,864 communes of the State, not including Paris, were burdened with ^^28,434,189 debt at the end of 187 1 ; in the year 1868 only 13,118 communes had debts, amounting to about j^8, 000,000 less. It is worthy of remark that the communes had ^ 220 France — Land and People. also devoted ;^2, 414,770 to the sinking fund in 1871. Paris, especially, was loaded with debt by the Imperial administration. The Municipal Govern- ment began in 1855 with a loan of _;:^2, 400,000 ; new liabilities were incurred year by year ; in 1861 the total amount of debt was computed at ^11,920,000. On March 31, 1870, it was stated as follows : — Special communal loans ... ... ... ... ... ^{^40, 281, 335 Other debts 7,640,824 Debts of the Treasury for public works ... ... ... 5,966,554 Costs of works already completed, or about to be carried out 5,143,248 Total ^59.031,961 At the capitulation of Paris, February, 187 1, the city was compelled to pay the German troops a war contribution of ^8,000,000. The injuries to the capital by fire during the two sieges were estimated at ^4,880,000, ^3,080,000 of which were allowed. This last sum to be paid to the owners of the injured property. The State treasury, in 9 yearly instalments, not bearing interest, is to receive Irom the State for this purpose ;^5, 600,000, in 26 annual instalments, at 5 per cent., as partial compensation for the _;^8, 000,000 damage by fire. In 1872 the principal of the city debt was reckoned at ^{^65, 200,000, with a yearly expenditure of ^3,528,000. Further debts were afterwards discovered by which the year's expenditure, in interest and payment of debt, rose to ^^3, 840, 000. ^140,000,000 of the war contribution taken, up by the State, are thus deducted in this account. (The actual property of the city was only estimated at ^9,440,000 in 1866). Among other towns, Marseilles borrowed in 1854 ^640,000; in 1861 ^2,160,000, and in 1864 a further ;^36o,ooo. Lyons borrowed in 1854, ;!^48o,ooo ; in i860, ^320,000, aad a further _;z^4oo,ooo in 1861.* Havre, in 1854 borrowed ;2^"38o,ooo ; Toulouse, in i860, ^,240,000; Rouen, in i860, j^i6o,ooo; Lille, in i860, ^^320,000 as a fourth loan in a short time. Military Affairs. Land Forces. — The defeats of the French troops in the war of 1870 and 187 1 produced the same effect on these as, after the battle of Jena (1806), was produced in Prussia. A complete re-organization is being attempted, by re-constructing the army on the basis of making the whole nation their own defenders. f The law of the 27th July, 1872, brought about a radical change. The armed forces are divided into an active and a territorial army. Every youth, when he has completed his 20th year, who is not absolutely physi- cally incapacitated, belongs for five years to the active army, and four years to the reserve force. Only half of these however, are ^kept for five years' • The deputy He>wn shewed that ten years ago Lyons had a debt of j^ 400.000, in 1875 x debt of /1 1.000,000, and since then the whole actual landed property of the city, of the value of j^6oo,ooo has also been sold. t Variou'5 opinions exist about the manner of carrying out this principle. The report of the Acting Commission of the National Assembly did not fail to observe that it was not a question of imitating tiie Prussian system, but rather of carrying out a principle accepted in t le French Revolution, and which was adopted by Prussia after France had renounced it. France — Land and People. 221 service, the remainder being for one year only. Individuals who have received a military education prior to their enrolment, may be dismissed at the end of six months. Besides this, the institution of the one year volun- teers has been adopted. Hence, those who leave the active army, belong for five years to the territorial army, and for six more years to the reserve. The territorial army is formed district-wise. Henceforth, all healthy men from 20 to 40 years of age can be called out. A peace force of 842,000, a field army of 1,475.000, and a territorial force, together with reserves of . 1,200,000 men could be raised, if other circumstances did not hinder it. \ A special order adds : " After the young soldiers have served for one year, > only so many of them will be retained with the army, as the Minister of | War shall decide in each year." | According to the statute of 24th July, 1873, the State is divided into 18 districts, each with an army corps for the active army. Each army I corps embraces 2 divisions of Infantry, i Cavalry, and ; i Artillery brigade, J! I battalion of Engineers, i train squadron. The troops of Algiers form a | separate 19th army corps. " The territorial army must always possess well J ordered ' cadres.' " I A series of decrees of the President of the Republic, of 28th September, ? 1873, arranged the manner of its construction. By this the number of Infantry regiments was raised from 127 to 144, each regiment consists of 3 battalions, of 6 companies, and 3 depot companies. The number of Cavalry regiments was increased to 70 upon European territory, the 56 old ones each of 5, the 14 new ones each of 4 squadrons; so that altogether there are 12 regiments of Cuirassiers, 26 of Dragoons, 20 of Rifles, 12 of Hussars. The Artillery was increased by 8 regiments, making 38 regiments or 19 brigades (with 323 batteries). At the beginning of the war of 1870, France had only 116 Infantry regiments, 63 Cavalry, including the Algerian, and 2 2 regiments of Artillery. The third part of the sub-lieutenancies are filled by non-commissioned officers, whilst the other two-thirds belong to the pupils of the military schools, the Ecok dc St. Cyr and the Ecole Polyiechnique. Whereas formerly, a soldier could only be advanced to the position of a non-commissioned officer after four years' service, promotion to a lance-corporal or corporal can take place at the end of six months, and that to a non-commissioned officer at the end of a year. Advancement to the rank of sub-lieutenant is possible after two years' service, if the aspirants are 1 8 years old, and have passed a fair examination. The equipment and provisioning of the army are good. Corporal punishment is not allowed, although the Military Penal Code is very strict. Advancement is, as we have seen, open to every soldier. Under Napoleon III., the necessary education of advancing officers was much neglected. Finding a substitute and buying off were both permitted, the government fixed the price. The effective forces of the army for 1S75 consisted of 442,014 men, of whom 381,507 were in France, and 60,507 in Algiers; 98,772 horses— viz., 84,807 in France, and 13,965 in Algiers. The Gendarmes and the Republican Guard of Paris (included in the figure of 442,014 men) amount to 27,014 men. The Infantry counts 144 regiments of the Line, each of 3 battaUons of 4 companies, and 2 depot companies, making 225,111 men ; 30 battalions of Chasseurs k Pied, each of 4 companies, with i depot r i, 222 France — Land and People. jj> company, 18,889; 4 regiments of Zouaves, 12,000 men; 3 battalions of Light African Infantry, 3,000 men ; 5 companies of Convicts, 1,000 ; i regiment of Foreigners, 3,000 ; 3 regiments of African Sharpshooters (Tirailleurs), 9,000 men. The Cavalry consists of 77 regiments — viz., 12 regiments of Cuirassiers, 26 regiments of Dragoons, 20 of Chasseurs, and 12 of Hussars, with a total of 47,498 men* ; 4 regiments of African Chasseurs, with 3,813 men ; and 3 regiments of Spahis, with 2,134 men. The Artillery numbers 38 regiments, each with 3 foot and 6 horse- batteries, 42,558 men; a regiment of Pontonniers, 1,877 iiien ; 15 com- panies of gunners, 2,215 men ; 50 train companies, 3,870 men. The Engineers number 3 regiments, with 9,000 men, and the Military Train 64 companies, with 8,000 men. With regard to the formation of the territorial army (Militia), a military paper (^///d? Avenir Militaire) oi May, 1874, informs us that those of the standard age, enrolled from 1855-1860, are only to be registerd in the list, and generally treated as a reserve Militia. The 6 divisions of 1861-1866 are called into camp or garrison towns to receive the necessary training. The territorial army (Militia) was to consist of 144 Infantry, 18 Artillery, 18 cavalry regiments, 1 8 battalions of Engineers, and 1 8 Train squadrons, thus making it possible to supply each of the great Commandos with a complete corps, consisting of 2 divisions of Infantry, i Artillery regiment, i Cavalry regiment, i battalion of Engineers, and i Train squadron. The former National Guard is replaced by the Militia. In 1878 the effective forces of the array consisted of 4,76,636 men, an increase of 34,622 over 1875, ^'""^ 110,754 horses, an increase of 11,982. Beyond these, there are 90,000 men always ready for service in time of need. Count Fircks, a Prussian officer, writing on the present con- dition of the military resources of France, says : — " The standing active army of France is about what it was, as regards numbers, during the peace ])eriods of the empire — viz., a little more than 400,000 ; but the law which obliges universal liability to arms, according to the German estimation, enables France to put on a war-footing the following forces : — Men Horses 677,500 133-400 162,500 ... ... 20,000 179,000 ... ... 11,000 671,000 ... ... 34,000 48,400 ... ... 11,000 Mobile army of Campaign Infantry of the Reserve Territorial Mobile troops Garrisons in France ... Garrisons in Algeria ... Total... ... ... 1,738,400 ... ..* 209,400" The total effective force of the French army was reported to the Chamber of Deputies in 1879 to be 502,697 men, and 120,894 horses. Fortresses. No country in the world possesses so many of these as France. There are altogether 139. 'I'hat of Paris is perhaps the most important in the world. * The formerly existing 8 regiments of Lancers have been transformed into Dragoons Chasseurs and Hussars. France — L mid and People. 223 On the Belgian Fronffer^lAWc, Dunkirk, Calais, Arras, Douai, Cambrai, Valenciennes, and Givet ; St. Omer, Maubeuge, Mezieres, Sedan, Longwy, Latere, and Soissons ; Gravelins, Conde, Landrecies, Rocroi, Montmedv, Peronne. On the. German Frontier— Y>Q\{oxi, Verdun, Besancon, Langres, Toul, Auxonne. On the Italian Frontier — Lyons, Grenoble, Briangon. On the Mediterranean — Toulon, Antibes, and 2 1 others. On the Spanish /rt'/z/zV/-— Perpignan, Bayonne, Montlouis, St. Jean- Pied-de-Port, and 10 others. On the C(7«j/— Rochefort, Lorient, Brest, Oleron, La Rochelle, Belle Isle, Blaye, He Rhe, Fort Louis, and 17 others. On the English 67/^;///^/— Cherbourg, St. INLalo, Havre, and 16 others. There are 22 forts of ist class 15 " 2'^? " 12 ... ... ... ... ••• J) 3rd „ „ 90 ... ... ... ... ••• M 4th „ Total 139 forts The fortifications of Paris cost ^8,000,000 ; those of Cherbourg, ;^6,8oo,ooo. Belfort is to be raised to a fortress of the first rank. In a Bill laid before the National Assembly, June 4th, 1874, a credit of ^3,120,000 was asked to complete the chain of fortresses along the whole eastern frontier of France. According to the first article of this Bill "new works are to be erected at the following fortresses : — Verdun, Toul, Epinal, in the valley of the Upper Moselle, at Belfort, Besangon, Langres, Lyons, Grenoble, in the valley of Isere, near Abbeville, and Chamousset ; and, lastly, at Briancon." A considerable extension of the fortifications of Paris is already arranged. As the above works are added to the fortresses of the first-class, the number of these will be increased to 16. The National Assembly agreed to these proposals. , Great attention is being paid to the Belgian frontier, especially to the fortifications of Dunkirk, Lille, Valenciennes, and Maubeuge, this last having been allowed to fall into decay. The government contemplates spending ^2,000,000 upon Dunkirk alone, ^800,000 of which are to be devoted to the enlargement of the Harbour, and ^/^ 1,2 00,000 on strength- ening the fortifications. Historical Notices. In the year 1783 127,000 men were reckoned as the effective army, though the total number enrolled amounted to 300,000, of whom 70,000 were Militia. The Revolution proceeding from the principle of the duty of universal defence, and striving to make every man bear arms, produced the general conscription. When Carnot organised 14 armies he brought (a, though only for i or 2 months) from 15 to 16 hundred thousand men in to th.e armies, among whom, it is true, there was very much that was worthless as military material, from want of previous organization and drill. But wliilc Carnot endeavoured to produce a people practised in the use of arms, ^,^ll)uleon I. turned the powers gained by the Revolution into a merq militai ■^• status. 224 France — Land and People. Napoleon's army was most numerous in 1812, when it reached 743,000 men, or without the cohorts of the first Arriere-Ban (National Guard) and the Gensdarmes 662,000 men ; including the subject States it amounted to 900,000 men (Rhine Confederacy, 120,000; kingdom of Italy, 40,000; Naples, 50,000; Poland, 50,000). For the Russian campaign Austria brought out an auxiliary army of 30,800, Prussia one of 23,300, Switzerland one of 12,000. The whole force set in motion against the emi)ire of the Czar amounted, according to Thiers, to 420,000 men, and the number was increased to 533,000 by supplementary forces. Of these, there only returned, in regular bodies, about 30,000 Austrians and 15,000 Prussians and Poles. From 30,000 to 40,000 of the disorganised troops were afterwards collected together. According to their own computation, the Russians made about 100,000 prisoners. Many fugitives returned singly (sick) to their own country. Many of the strongest young men of France perished.* The army thus led against Russia consisted, for the greater part, of men who were not Frenchmen. According to Gourgand, the list of the army which crossed the Russian frontier, consisted of 155,400 Frenchmen, and 170,500 Allies (without the re-inforcements). The numbers were as follows : — Infantry, battalions ... 299 French 306 Allied Total 605 Cavalry, squadrons ... 251 ,, 275 ,, „ 526 Horses 34,58° m 40,140 „ „ 74,72o The proportion of French diminishes still further if we deduct the Germans, Italians, and Swiss of the provinces subject to France. The levies during the reign of Napoleon I. amounted, according to the Senatus-Consultus, to nearly 3,000,000 men ; but according to a calculation laid before the Minister of War, in the year 1815, the standards levied between the 18 Fructedor VI. (1798) and 18 14, did not actually bring more than 2,022,201. In the year 1813 alone, no fewer than 1,140,000 men were levied. Beside this, 174,600 soldiers of the National Guard were employed in the service of the fortifications. In order to obtain this enor- mous number of conscripts, the youths, legally not bound to serve till the years 1814 and 18 15, were called out beforehand on the one side, while on the other they went back so far as to take those of the standard of the XI. year of the Republic (1803). At the beginning of the campaign of 18 13 Napoleon possessed the most numerous force. The coalition of Austria with the .Allies first altered this proportion, although not materially. According to Bernharde's calculation in " Toll's Memorable Events ", the strength of the armies at the cliief seat of war in German)-, in August, 1813 was French Allies Infantry ... ... ... 330,000 ... ... ... 364,500 Cavalry ... ... ... 72,500 ... ... ... 76,000 Artillery ... ... ... 33,500 ... ... ... 30,500 Pioneers and Sappers ... 4,000 Cossacks ... ... ... — ... ... ... 22,000 Total ... ... ... 440,000 .. ... ... 493,000 Cannon ... ... ... 1,200 ... ... ... 1,380 * The army had aheady lost 129,000 men. or one-third of its strength, without a single encounter of any importance, six weeks after crossing tlie Nien->en f Thiers). When the grand army reaclv-il Moscow, it had dwindled to 95,000 men, and had ti)us, before the be- ramiiij; oJ tlie cold, lost two- thirds of its numbers, France — L and and People. 225 The })rc[)onderance of the AUies was overpowering at the battle of Leipzig, but when they returned to France in 18 14, their forces scarcely reached 200,000 men. After the Restoration, the army was neglected. As under Napoleon the military had been the chief order, so now it was the ecclesiastics and the nobility. The annual contingent of recruits was fixed at 40,000, but in 1S23 it was raised to 60,000. The troops of the line saw themselves placed after the Guards. But the " Abolition of the Conscription " solemnly promised by the Bourbons did not follow. 80,000 men suffered in the overthrow of the Spanish Cortes (1823), 18,000 in the expedition to the Morea (1828) \ 34,000 in the conquest of Algeria (1830). The July Revo- lution brought about the dismissal of the Guards. But against this, Louis Philippe strengthened the troops of the Line. The annual levy was raised to So,ooo. As many as 100,000 men were repeatedly present in Algeria. An increase of troops immediately took place under Louis Napoleon. Above all, the Liiperial Guard was restored (May ist, 1854). The war in the East then required considerable exertions ; those who had served their time were retained with the army, and the yearly levy among three standards of age was raised from 80,000 to 140,000. According to the account of the Minister of War, rendered to the Emperor in October, 1856, there were altogether Soldiers Horses Materials of War Sent to the East ... 309,268 ... ... 41,974 ... 597,686 tons Returned thence ... 227,135 ... ... 9,000 ... 126,850 „ Loss 82,133 32,974 — 470,836 „ Surgeon-Major Chenu gives in a later detailed report the number who perished as 95,615. Everything allows us to assume that the war in the East cost France the life or the health of at least 150,000 young J'rench- men. Among those who had perished before the 30th March, 1S56, there were, according to the ministerial account, beside those who had disap- peared, and those who had been shipwrecked, 1,284 officers, of whom 14 were generals and 20 staff officers, 4,403 subalterns, and 56,805 soldiers. According to Chenu, 10,240 remained upon the field of battle, 702 were drowned by shipwreck, 8,184 fell victims to cholera and other diseases before the battle of Alma, 4,342 died before they were brought into the ambulances, (the greater number of them were frozen), the others died in hospitals. i3)025 after they were sent back to France. According to Niel, the French lost 46,308 men before Sebastopol alone. On the ist January, 1859, immediately before the outbreak of the Italian war, the army was composed of 401,778 men, of whom only 322,228 were in France, 73,500 in Algeria, and 6,050 in Italy. To this may be added 135,407 on furlough, total 537,185. The entire reserve, except that which existed merely on ])aper, was limited to 13,887 men, of whom only 80 had already served. During the Italian war (from the end of April till July, 1859), the number was increased to 660,000 ; throughout the year the average number was 556,439 (according to the statement of the Finance Minister Fould). The loss in men was moderate, but very considerable in officers. The total deaths on the field and in the ambulances were 5,782, in hospitals 4,360, by suicide 31, altogether (from official accounts) 10,173. The number of wounded is not known. P France — Land and People. ^^^ "^J^tr ^ilxQx^ to Mexico, from 1862 to 1867, cost (according to ''^? '^^'' J soldiers ; of these, 1,255 in the year 1862, and 2,389 in 1863. Jiftie "^ ^^-^ Qf 1870 was rushed into on the side of Napoleon with "^i^f '■,^^'^'jsness which has not its equal. The French possessed formally ^^^ *^.attalions, 252 squadrons, and 164 batteries, with 984 guns ; together, 5 /,ooo men. 230,500 of this number must at once be deducted — viz., tlie gendarmerie, the depots, and the garrisons in the interior and in Algeria. On paper there still remain 36,000. On paper again there were 500,000 of' the Garde Nationale Mobile \ but even the " cadres " only existed for 160,000 to 180,000 men ; and those who presented themselves even in this limited number had only received the benefit of 14 days' instruction in arms, and this not on 14 consecutive days, but on so many separate days, whereby the men often arrived from home at the place of assembly quite tired out. The expectations which this system of Militia oflered were, therefore, by no means fulfilled by these troops. The first volume of the official report (published December, 1872) upon the management of the national defences by government contains, aiTiong other things, a survey by the Napoleonic Minister of War (Leboeuf) of the fighting powers of France at the time of the declaration of war. There were altogether 492,000 men available for service ; but of these 350,000 had first to be equipped. Only 142,000, therefore, were ready for the field, and of these 50,000 were in Algeria, and 6,500 in Civita Vecchia, whereby the number was, for the moment, reduced to 86,000 ; to these were added those of the standard of 1869 to the number of 75,000. When the Minister of War announced from the tribune tliat all was perfectly ready for war, there were in reality 131,000 men, including the troops in Algeria and Rome — at most 200,000 men — available. The strategical arrangements were entirely in keeping with the rashness by which a campaign was commenced against a powerful military force, without any preparation. After the regular troops were everywhere beaten, the government published a decree at Tours, on November 2, 1870, by which all men from 21 to 40 years of age, capable of bearing arms, were compelled to serve. The exertions made were very great, but in the main without success, for the organization and training of the power required had been neglected at the right time, and masses of men, called together at a moment's iiotice, were of little use. According to an official account, 2,194 French officers fell in the war of 1870 — 71 ; the Germans lost 1,539, or, including those who died of disease, 1,855. Among these were 32 generals (Germans, only 9). The loss ol guns amounted, according to a commission employed on the subject, to 7,234 — viz., 1,793 rifle field pieces, 193 rifle hill guns, 230 mitrailleuse, 1,663 light, smooth-bored guns, 1,624 rifles, 729 smooth-bored fortress guns, and 1,002 mortars. The loss of arms was 665,327 chassepots, and 500,000 older rifles. Of the war material formerly belonging to France, . she only retained 3,000 cannon, 350,000 chassepots, and 1,000,000 arms of older kinds. In the first half of 1873 she had, however, procured 4,000 cannon, 700,000 chassepots, and 938,885 other fire arms. Between September 23rd, 1870, and January 28th, 187 1, 64 air balloons were sent up from the besieged city of Paris. These carried away 91 passengers, 354 carrier ])igeons, and 3 million letters; the despatches weighed 117 cwt. : Five of these balloons fell into the hands of the Germans, 2 were lost at sea, \ rem hcd Norway after travelling 993 miles in 15 hours. France — Land and People. 227 Navy. Very many and great exertions have been made to make the French navy equal to that of England. But the war of 1870 and 187 1 shewed that as with the army, so with the navy, the most essential things were wanting, in consequence of evil and dishonest management. The condition of the navy was given as follows at the end of the year 1869 : — 336 steamers of 81,450 horse power, and 80 sailing vessels, total 416 vessels. Among the steamers there were, at the outbreak of the war, 62 ironclads. The total number of men in the war marine was estimated at 72,500, exclusive of \ regiments of MarineTnfantry with 18,000 men. In the year 1873, the fleet consisted of 104 armed vessels, 7 of which were ironclads, and 62 reserve ships, 19 of which were ironclad, and employed as training schools. The effective marine troops numbered 28,441 men. The 94 armed vessels which existed in 1873 ^^'e^e thus divided: — evolutionary squadron — 2 iron- clad frigates, 4 ironclad corvettes, i corvette with battery, 2 advice boats, and 2 instruction brigs, total, 1 1 ships. 36 vessels were further set apart for the marine division of the Antilles, the South Atlantic and' Pacific oceans ; 24 for the stations in Algeria, Egypt, Martinique, Guadaloupe, New Caledonia, Reunion, and Mayotte. Lastly, 1 5 vessels were appointed to serve on special missions, and for supplying New Caledonia with provisions. The manning of the navy was carried out, till recently, on the plan of the marine conscription, introduced in the year 1683, which included all sailors up to the age of 50. The oppressiveness of this has been the reason why France possesses a comparatively small mercantile marine, as the inhabitants of the coasts frequently gave up a seafaring life, in order to escape the consequences connected with it. Therefore the number of sailors enlisted amounted only to about 90,000, of whom but 60,000 were fit for service. By a decree of 22nd October, 1863, the condition was re- arranged into one of liability to serve in a similar way to that of the land force, and now the number of sailors is said to be about 180,000. England can still boast of a great preponderance in the number of her sailors, but a smaller number will suffice on steamers than on sailing vessels. At the end of 1870, there were 50 armed and 10 ironclads building. The number of vessels not iron 170. The manning 28,500, of whom 17,000 in marine infantry regiments, and 4,500 marine artillery. In 1879 the war marine consisted of 59 ironclads ... ... of 170,685 horse power and 461 guns 264 unarmoured screw steamers ., 55,812 „ „ „ 1,547 „ 62 paddle steamers ... ... „ 8,665 » >» >> i54 » 113 sailing vessels , „ „ „ 672 „ The three most powerful of the ironclads are the turret-ships Devas- tation, the Amiral-Duperre and the Foudro3'ante. Historical Notice. In the year 1780, the French war marine was thus enumerated: — ships of the first rank, 60. Of the second, 24. Light vessels, 182. Total 266, with 13,000 guns and 78,000 men. A list of 1785 gives 72 ships of the line, 74 frigates, 28 corvettes, 36 transport ships, 27 cutters, 19 bom- barding galliotes, total 256. 228 France — Land and People. Social, Industrial, and Commercial Conditions. {a) General Observations. The Revolution, begun on the memorable night of the 4th August, 1789, not only destroyed the structure of feudalism, but also restored the universal right of citizenship, and removed all barriers which hindered the free movements of individual members of the State. The form of the Constitution has been frecpently varied since then, but no government has dared to touch these great social advantages. • Since then feudal burdens have been removed, while unconditional liberty of movement, freedom of industry, right of dividing landed property at will, and other institutions connected with it have been established. In^ addition to this all difference between the rights of provinces and communes disappeared ; therefore every Frenchman can now not only marry without official permission, but also accjuire the rights of a citizen in any commune without expense, and by a mere declaration. (Thousands of the best German artisans, to whom a short-sighted legislation at home had rendered it difficult to establish them- selves on an independant footing, rejoiced in the blessings of this French institution.) The principle of free industrial movement is generally carried out m all branches. In consequence of this we see a healthy, naturaPdevelop- ment, and combined with this is the very remarkable fact that, whereas in countries where the principle of limitation existed great complaints were made of over-population, of an over-stocked labour market, etc., in France, where there is no limitation, the increase of pojiulation is less than in any other large State. From 182 1-5 1 (a period of the greatest complaints) the average yearly increase of population was — In France ... ... ... ... ... 0.582 per cent. „ England ... ... ... ... ... 1.646 „ „ Prussia 1.563 „ ,, Austria about ... ... ... ... 0.8 ,, „ Russia „ ... ... ... ... 0.6 „ The unrestricted division of landed property has powerfully assisted in the improvement of agriculture. Those districts in which the division of lands is most practical are the best cultivated, the richest and most pro- ductive in the whole country.* The elasticity of the French nation, which has so nmch surprised everyone after the fearful reverses of the late war, is really the result of the free institutions fought for, and obtained by, the Revolution. The total results would be still more favourable if many other circumstances did not * We take the following comparison from a statement of tlie secretary to the English Embassy in Paris in the year 1865. Of 37,386,313 individuals, constituting- the whole popu- lation of France, no fewer than 19,^73.493 persons live by agriculture, among whom 9, 3 10, 412 are proprietors (this figure is somewhat too high, as those who po^sess land in several tax districts were counted over again); besides these, there are 4,543,673 farmei-, 5,353,199 labourers, and 666,109 persons variously employed. In England itself there are, on the contrary, only 30,766 proprietors, 605,349 farmers, 1,188,786 labourers, and 99,1 v persons otherwise employed in agriculture. If .Scotland and Ireland were included in this cil- culation it would indeed alter the numbers, l)ut not the proportion. In England onl\ : person in ''2 of tliose living by agriculture is a landed pro|irietor. In France tile iiumb i amounts to more than half of the population. 'I'his will satisiactorily explain the start taken by France since the Revolution. France — Land and People. 229 act as obstacles. Thus the division of estates is. in some cases hindered h)- right oi primogeniture, re-introduced by Napoleon I. There are also limits on fiscal grounds — thus, the growth of tobacco is not universally permitted, so that the profit of the monopoly may not be endangered Tobacco may not be cultivated in 13 departments, and every cultivator is subject to certain restrictions. In striking contrast with the freedom of trade in the interior was the strict protection duty, and, to some extent, the prohibitive system which was maintained towards other countries till i860. The " protected " manufacturers were often not in a position to compete with the English, although often superior to them even in the French territory of Algeria. The artificial growth of the great cities, especially Paris, which took place under the Imperial rule, at the expense of the country districts, was very injurious in its effects. By selling bread under the market price in times of dearth, and restoring all kinds of magnificent buildings, in order to provide employment for the workmen, an unnatural de-population of the villages was brought about. ]5ut the real curse of the land was absolutism, the annihilation of self-government^ the unbounded centralization in all political relations. The overwhelming influence of the clergy is also an incalculable evil ; they really hinder the improvement of the people instead of promoting it. We must mention lastly the oppressive weight of the public burdens as well as the high direct taxation, which so often leads to manifold deceptions, none of which can probably be avoided for a long time to come. Intellectual Development and Moral Condition. {b) Popular Education. In the beginning of 1864 there were 20,703 boys', 17,683 mixed and 26,592 girls' schools. Among the two former there were 2,752, and among the latter 2,177 free-schools without school fees. The two first were attended by 2,399,293 children, and were conducted by 35,348 secular teachers, and 3,038 Congregationalists. In the last the number of pupils was 1,014,537 under a staff of 5,998 secular and 8,061 ecclesiastical teachers.* There were in this year 818 communes without schools at all. At the end of 1865 "'^^Y ^94 communes were quite without schools. The boys' and mixed schools had increased in the two last years by 243, the girls* by 662. This number of secular free schools rose from 2,572 to 2,864, or IO-9 per cent. ; that of the ecclesiastical schools from 536 to 646, or 20.5 per cent. With this was found a decrease of 654 in the secular teachers of the girls' free schools whilst the conventional institutions for girls showed an increase of 285 teachers. A similar observation was made with respect to infant schools, which had increased to 3,572. The number of pupils had increased in two years by 135,014, of whom 42,882 were in the free schools. Altogether 1.917,074 children were receiving instruction in these latter schools. f In the year 1855, the amount spent by the State on the public schools was ^240,000 ; by the departments, ^200,000 ; by the communes, * According to another account, there were 13,491 certificated secular female teacher?, and 13,101 nuns, of whom 1^,336 were not certificated in the year 1867. t In the 30 months trom ist January, 1861, till ist .luly, 1863, legal judgments were passed on 99 out of 37,893 public secular teachers (only 19 for crime, So for delinquency!, against 55 out of 3,351 ecclesiastical teachers, of which 23 were for crime, 80 for delinquency (that i.":, scarcely 1 judgment in 390 upon secular, to i in 70 upon ecclesiastical teachers]. 230 France — Land and People. ;a{^46o,ooo, beside the school fees of ^360,000, and lastly, the receipts of the normal schools and the stipends, amounting in all to ^1,300,000. In contrast with the ^240,000 of the State for schools, stood the expenditure of ;^iS,52o,ooo for land and sea forces, and ;,^22, 400,000 for the national debt ; for the whole affairs of the public schools, scarcely as much was expended as was directly and indirectly spent upon the court. The first attempt to classify the population according to the education they had received, was made at the census of 1866. It was then found that there were — Per Cent. 14,847,803 persons who could neither read nor write, equal to 32.84 3,886,324 „ who could only read ... ... „ 11.47 18,878,380 „ who could both read and write... „ 55-69 of 454,557 ,, no return is made. A further investigation shewed the following result — Male Populatio?i. Civil Per Cent. Military Per Cent. Neither read nor write 4,806,376 or 28.96 ... ... 58,948 or 18.73 Readonly ... 1,615,217,, 9.73 29,299,, 9.31 Read and write ... 10,174,689 ,, 61.31 ... ... 226,485 „ 71.96 Fe»ialc Popidation. Neither read nor write 6,266,811 Read only ... ... 2,241,808 Read and write ... 8,477,206 36.89 per cent. 13-21 49.90 The attempt which was begun in 1866 has continued, notwith- standing the difficulty of collecting the information. At the census of 1872, the population was divided into three classes : — I. Under 6 years of age, in which a knowledge of reading and writing cannot be demanded. II. Between 6 and 20 years, the i)roper period for education. III. Above this age, a period at which instruction, as a rule, no longer takes place. The result was : — Neither read nor write Under 6 years ... 3,540,101 Between 6 & 20 years 2,082,338 Above 20 years ... 7,702,362 Only read l Read & write | Not known i Total 292,348 i5i'595j 38,0421 4,022,086 1,1755125 5,458,097 70,7211 8,786,281 2,3o5'i3oii3'07.3,o57 214,005 23,294,554 Together 13,324.801^3,772,603 18,682,7491322,768136,102,921 ^ Tlie proportion is very uncfjual in the different departments. Independently of those i)crsons about whom we have no details, this gives the following percentage : — Under 6 years Between 6— 20 Fully taught Able to read only Able to read and write 88.85 7-33 X&2 23-89 13.48 62.63 Above 20 33-37 9-99 56.64 Mean between 2 latter classes 30-77 10.94 58-29 France — Land and People. 231 From this we find that one-third of the aduUs (above 20) can neither read nor write : — of the men 27.41 ; of the women 33.47 per cent, are entirely untaught. Of the population above 6 years of age, the average number of un- taught persons per cent, in the departments was — I. Doubs ... 6.9 45- Lower Charente ... 32.2 2. Meurthe & Moselle . 8.3 46. Saone et Loire ... ••• 32-3 3. Upper Marne ... 8.4 47- Loiret ... .. 32.4 4- Jura 9-1 48. Maine-et- Loire ... ... 32.4 5. Meuse ... 9-7 49. Mayenne ... 32.7 6. Vosges ... lO.O 50- Card 33-7 7. Seine 11.4 51- Lower Loire 33-7 8. Marne ... II. 8 52- Ille-et-Vilaine ... .. 34.6 9. Upper Saone II. 9 SI- Puy-de-D6me ... •• 35-9 10. Seine-et-Oise ... 12.0 54- Herault .. 36.1 11. Aude 12.4 55- Ardeche .. 36.4 12. District of Belfort 12.7 56. Nord .. 36.6 13. Cote d'Or '^ZZ 57- Sarthe .. 36.7 14. Upper Alps 14-3 58. Deux Sevres •• 37-2 15. Rhone ... 14-5 59- Loir-et-Cher .. 37.6 16. Orne 15-9 60. Vaucluse .. 37.6 17. Ardennes 16.4 6x. Upper Garonne... •■ 37-7 1 8. Calvados 16.5 62. Var •• 37-7 19. Lozere ... 20.3 63- Lot .. 38.7 20. Seine-et-Marne ... 20.4 64. Gers .. 39.6 21. Isere 21.0 65- Tarn .. 40.4 22. Oise 21.8 66. Lot-et-Garonne . . . .. 41.5 23. Aveyron... 22.0 67. Aude .. 41.6 24. Upper Savoy ... 22.4 68. Tarn-et-Garonne 42.0 25. Savoy 23.2 69. Corsica ... .. 42.8 26. Eure-et-Loire ... 23-4 70. C6tes-du-Nord ... .. 43.2 27. Cantal ... 23-5 71- Indre-et-Loire ... •• 43-3 28. Ain 24.1 72. Creuse ... .. 46.6 29. Yonne ... 24.2 73- Nievre ... .. 47.4 30. Manche... 25-9 74- Charente .. 48.4 31. Aisne ... 26.3 75- Vienne ... .. 48.6 32. Upper Pyrene'es 27.2 76. East Pyre'nees ... .. 49.6 11- Bouches de Rhone 27.6 77- Vendee ... .. 50.8 34- Eure 27.8 78. Morbihan .. 52.1 35. Lower Seine 28.7 79- Allier ... •• 52.5 36. Somme ... 28.8 80. Arie'ge ... •• 53-4 37. Lower Pyrene'es 28.9 81. Correze ... •• 55-8 38. Drone 29.1 82. Finisterre •• 56.3 39. Lower Alps 29.2 83- Indre ... .. 56.8 40. Gironde... 29.2 84. Cher •• 57-3 41. Loire 29-5 85- Landes ... .. 57.6 42. Pas-de-Calais ... 29.6 86. Dordogne 60.3 43. Alps Maritimes... 31.8 87. Upper Vienne ... .. 61.8 44. Upper Loire 31.8 General average ... .. 30.8 232 France — Land and People. Since the year 1855 the marriage registers have been made use of to discover the number of newly married persons unable to sign their names The result is per cent. — Year Men Women Average Year Men Women Average 1855 •• 32.20 48.36 39-92 1861 29.27 44.16 36.72 1856 . 31-15 47.01 39.08 1862 • 28.54 43.26 35-90 1857 . 30.88 46.49 38.68 1863 . 27.93 42.50 35-22 1858 ■ 30.78 46.14 38.45 1864 27.88 41.15 34.66 1859 . 30,80 45-95 38-38 1865 . . 25.88 41.02 3.3-45 i860 29.81 44.90 37-56 The improvement in the state of things here shewn is very unsatis- factory. The minister announced emphatically, in his report to the Emperor, February 1867, that there were still districts in which 67 per cent, of the bridegrooms, and even 98 per cent, of the brides could not sign their names. The difference is very marked in the separate depart- ments. Of the individuals married in i860, all could sign the register in the department of Lower Rhine except 2.33 percent.; in Meuse except 3.19; Vosges, 3.27; Meurthe 4.44; Upper Marne, 4.61; Doubs, 5.32; Upper Rhine, 6.22; La Manche, 8.1 1 ; Seine, 8.61 ; Moselle, 9.02 per cent. \ in all other departments, above 10 per cent, belonged to the un- taught class. The greatest number of untaught persons was found in Correge, 75.53 per cent, (only 911 men and 445 women could sign ; 1,866 men and 2,332 women could not). In Upper Vienne 73.40 (823 men and 505 women against 2,224, ^i^d 2,542!) ; Morbihan 72.33 per cent. Ariege, 71.26; Cher, 69.64 ; Finisterre, 69.32 ; Bruyere, 69. 10 ; Dordogne, 68.64 ; Indre, 67.53 ; Eastern Pyrenees, 66.34 ; C6te-du-Nord, 65,33 ; Ardeche, 62.02; Vendee 61.01; Corsica, 60.98 per cent. The condition was therefore best in the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, worst in the Brittany districts. Of the youths enrolled in 1864 and 1867 there could 1864 Neither read nor write Only read Read and write Of whom no return . . Neither read nor write Only read Read and write Of whom no return Neither read nor write Only read Read and write Read, write, and reckon A good education Education not known 1867 1874 86,671 or 26.66 y}tx cent. 8,701 „ 2.68 „ 221,397 „ 68.09 8.358 ,. 2.57 ., 60,188 or 20.56 per cent. 6,997 >, 2.39 218,846 „ 74.76 6,719,. 2.29 45>n7 „ 15-92 5,591 „ 1.98 37.962 „ 13.36 183,233 „ 64.59 1,893,, 0.66 9,912 „ 3.40 Frame — Land and People. 233 Per Cent 1863 27.36 1864 26.66 1866 21.51 1867 20.56 1868 21.04 1869 20.16 Of those who could neither read nor write Per Cent. 1827-29 55.21 1840-44 40.93 1850-54 34.51 1855-59 31-76 i860 ... ... ... 29.96 1861 ... ... ... 29.14 1862 ... ... ... 28.21 During the years 1855-59, ^^e fewest untaught persons were found in Doubs, 3.78 per cent.; Upper Rhine, 5.18 ; Maas, 5.31 ; Upper Marne, 5.53; Meurthe, 6.64; Jura, 7.17; Moselle, 7.62; Vosges, 7.67; Seine, 8 34. The most in Allier, 70.28 ; Upper Vienne, 67.45 ; Correge, 64.94 ; Finisterre, 62.81 ; Cher, 62.57 ; Indre, 62.50; Morbihan, 62.42 per cent. We find from the Criminal Statistics that of persons sentenced, there were in the following years: — Unlettered Only read, or read and r ■vrite imperfectly Per Cent. Per Cent. 1858 2,365 or 44.6 . . 2,081 or 38.79 .. I86I 1,864 M 38.7 • .. 2,111 ,, 49.90 .. 1862 1,983 n 39-8 . .. 2,220 „ 44.50 .. 1868 1,741 „ 38.0 . .. 1,915 „ 42.0 .. I87I 1,878 „ 41.0 . .. 1,874 „ 41.0 .. Read and write well Per Cent. 680 or 12.7 540 „ I 1.2 466 „ 9.3 704 „ 16.0 714 „ 16.0 Education extended Per Cent. ... 249 or 4.6 ... 298 „ 6.2 ... 321 „ 6.4 ... 168 ,, 4.0 ... 94 „ 2.0 Of the 4,413 prisoners in 1877, as many as 2,864 ^^'ere returned as able to read and write, while 177 had received a higher education ; 1,372 were unable to read and write. In every thousand there were badly educated in the years- 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 823 810 811 886 817 822 822 1858 1859 i860 1861 1862 1866 1868 827 829 826 843 810 800 In 1878 in every 10,000 of population 1,500 children attended elementary schools, therefore scarcely a sign of improvement. The year of the war 187 1 was quite abnormal. Literature. Survey of the books which appeared in France in the year 1866, with the exception of journals and periodical publications, from the "Catalogue Annuel," published by G. Runnald. * Theology and books of devotion... Philosophy... Political science and jurisprudence 426 93 232 * Since the war of 1870 this catalogue has not appeared, for which reason we cannot tupply a list of the last year or two. 234 France — Land and People. Political economy, diplomacy, commerce, finance and) . statistics ... ... ... ... ... .••) History and cognate subjects, biographies ... ... 540 Politics 170 Medicinal and veterinary science 390 Natural history ... ... ... ... ... ... 220 Education and instruction — childrens' books ... ... 244 Philology and science of language ... ... ... 164 ■^; Geography— accounts of countries and peoples ... 230 * Mathematics, astronomy, and military science ... ... 266 Technology ... ... ... ... ... ... 287 Literature of art and archaeology... ... ... ... 203 Belles lettres in general ... ... ... ... ... 306 Poetry 97 Drama ••• 195 Romance ... ... ... ••• ••. ••• .•• 412 Various 216 Total 4,851 (In Germany in the same year, 8,699.) In 1863, in France, there were 47^8 publications „ Germany „ 9^889 „ It appears from an account before us that there were 12,269 publica- tions, exclusive of periodicals, in France in the year 1869, against only 8,831 in 1870. The number of periodicals amounted on November i, 1869, to 2,204, 548 of which were political, 88 of these in Paris. In the departments there were 873, in Paris 603 non-political periodicals. In the year 1872 785 periodicals of all kinds appeared in Paris, of which 54 were political newspapers, 99 purely scientific papers, 121 periodicals on jurisprudence, administration, and national economy, and 82 exclusively devoted to literature. In the year 1866 the number of copies of Paris ncwsjxapers amounted daily to about 350,000, 130,000 of which were the Mo/u'leurdu Soir. The non-political press issued daily about 800,000 copies. In the year 1875 there passed through the press 21,006 publication.s, of which 14,195 were books— brochures and edicts — that is 2,278 more than in 1874; of music, 4,195 publications, 304 above the number in 1874; cards and journals, 2,666— viz., 470 in excess of 1874. Export of literary productions in 1875 valued at ^^1,045,659 1876 „ 970,244 „ „ „ 1877 „ 1,043,390 There are now published in Paris alone 836 newspapers and journals, of which 5 1 arc daily political papers. France — Land and People. 235 Criminal Statistics. The average number of persons convicted of crime amounted annually to about — 1826-30 1831-35 1836-40 1841-45 1846-50 1851-55 1856-60 1861 1862 1864 1866 1868 1869 1870 1871 1874 On Person On Property 1,824 ... 5,306 2,371 - 5,095 2,153 - 2,186 2,438 ... — 5,732 ... 4,918 ... 4,992 2,353 ••• - 4,751 2,082 1,944 2,088 ••• 3,301 2,869 2,902 1,919 ... 1,777 1,697 1,658 ... 2,333 ... 1,899 1,916 1,739 1,297 1,561 1,499 1,746 1,731 2,353 Total 7,130 7,466 7,885 7,104 7,430 7,104 5,383 4,813 4,990 4,252 35676 3,613 3,397 2,796 3,307 4,084 In 1877 the total was 4,413, of whom 3,680 were men, and 733 were women. It must be remembered with regard to the two years 1870 and 187 1, that many crimes could not be punished, and further, that various classes of crimes were dealt with by the military, and not the civil courts, in extensive districts throughout the country. The 3,307 convictions in the year 1871 included 4,560 persons accused, viz., 3,792 men and 768 women. Of the accusations, 211 were of assassination, 224 homicide, 189 infanticide, 12 parricide, 125 dangerous wounding, 651 attempts upon chastity. 16 sentences of death were passed, 10 of which were carried out. The number of persons punished for misdemeanour {delfts), amounted in 187 1 to 164,197, in 1870, to 121,759. Here, however, the above remark with respect to the extraordinary circumstances must be equally remembered. The official report of 1877 throws a curious light upon the relations between the single and married state on the one hand, and crime on the other. The result is strikingly in favor of the wedded, as compared with the single condition. Thus it is found that, while the proportion of un- married persons tried for the gravest class of crimes is 33 in every 100,000, there were among the married, the widows and the widowers, only 1 1 in every 100,000. As far as statistics go, the country atmosphere is purer than that of cities in France ; for while the towns furnish 1 7 prisoners from every 100,000 of their population, the country afforded less than one-half, viz., 8 for every 100,000. This may be accounted for by the evil-doer seeking cities for the perpetration of crime. The number of suicides in France in 1877 was 5,922, of whom 21 per cent, were females. Among unmarried people there were 28 suicides to every 100,000, while in the same number of married persons there were only 18 ; but among the widows and widowers, the proportion was 31 to every 100,000. Suicide is more frequent in towns than in the country, the proportion being 23 and 13 in every 100,000 persons respectively. Among men it is remarked that suicide is more common as age increases. 236 France — Land and People. The causes to which suicide is attributable. Of the total 5,922, 1,794 were attributable to lunacy, or disease of Ijrain, 855 to domestic troubles, 837 to physical suffering, 701 10 drink and drunkenness, 688 to poverty, 235 to love, jealousy, or dissi])ation, and 229 10 ihe desire to escape the penal consequences of crime. {c.) — Ala ferial Conditions. OCCUPATIONS OF THE INHABITANTS. Official Statistics give us the following results of the census of the year 1872. Masters and Employers. [.Agriculture... ... 5,970,171 2. Industrial occu|xition: 3,827,26a: 3. Commerce ... 4. Transport, credit,"^ banking affairs, >- and commission .) 5. Various employ- ments (hotels, baths, under- takers, etc.) 6. Clergy of all) religions ...\ 7. Armed force 8. Public administra-| tion ... ...> 9. Free employment .. 10. Annuitants includ i'}g 55.571 con cierges ... Total 1,151.378 338,900 156,220 150,654 432,317 205,008 206,453 970,584 13,408,945 Belonging to i Their psrsonal Total P" the Family j servantj Cenlage 11,311,119,1,232,035 18,513,32552.71 -4,450,038; 174,046 8,451,34424.06 1,603,701; 205,263 2,960,342 8.43 501,168; 42,478 882,546 2.51 204,9171 34,710 395.847: 1-13 24,204 111,887 296,387 233.899 795,423 19,532,743 41,817 216,675 0.62 5,032 549^236 1.56 47,303 548,698 1.56 60,499 300,851! 1.43 337,i2i| 2,103,128 5.99 2,180,304 35,121,992 1 00 People without occupation (G^(f«.f .yfl«.y flz;^?^> ... ... 297,612 Various conditions (foster children, students, attendants^ ^ ^o hospitals, prisons, etc. ... ... ... ...\ 4o^,- J Without exact returns ... ,.. ... ... ... 244,028 Total ... 56,102,921 This list, however, furnishes a very incomplete picture. The following account possesses greater value as regards social conditions, although even this is by no means adequate. p. _„„_ Heads of '-'^^^^* lestablishments Members of 1 ;Family Personal Servants Total Per Centifre Proprietors or mana-) gers S Directing overseers Workmen ipuvricrs) Day laborers, includ-) ing concierges ...\ 6,674,248 362,803 3,472,843 2,316,080 12,858,242 400,146 3.382,435 2,755.829 19.396,652 2,072,036 31.497 28,054 1,868 21,604,526 794,446 6,883,332 5.073-777 62.89 2.31 20.03 14-77 Total 12,825,974 2,133.455 34,356,081 100 France — Land and People. 237 Far more important than the number of members of families and their servants, is an analysis of Heads of Occupations, given in the followinL; list, {Titidaires dcs projessions). We find here virtually carrying on business independently. I . — Asficultu re. 1. Cultivators of their own land ... 2. Colonist, or partly farmers 3. Farmers 4. Permanent agricultural servants 5. 'temporarily employed day labourers... 6. Hewers of wood and charcoal burners 7. Gardeners Total Men Women 2,201,505 487,797 311,649 12,136 682,579 28.581 354,210 197,074 917,514 551,626 85,017 7,231 112,348 20,871 4,664,855 II. — Industries. (a) M.\STER.s, Proprietors, He.vds, iVL\nagers 1. Of mines 2. ,, smelting and foundries 3. „ manufactures 4. Contractors (entrepeneurs de travaux) . . . 5. Yoxemtn, o\&x?,t&c9, {chefs ouvriers) ... (b) Employes. Engineers, stewards, clerks {c) Workmen (Ouvriers) — 1. In mines and quarries... 2. ,, foundries and factories 3. Under-workmen, assistants {d) Day Labourers. Carters 47,649 340,251 Total {a) Masters. Wholesale traders Retail traders ... III.- (/;) Employes. Cashiers, clerks, shopwomen {c) Daily Servants. Messengers, commissionaires Total 1,305,316 Men \\ omen 14,188 529 47,368 4,216 190,154 41,489 75,775 ',973 161,915 34,861 3,246 153,932 10,887 593,964 418,042 950,253 610,191 126,37; 2 ,575,449 1,251,811 Coi/unercc. Men 75,767 486,094 Women 8,258 199,649 ... 159,723 34,631 ... 140,370 46,876 861,954 289,414 238 France — Land and People. IV. — Transport, Credit, Banking and Comtnission Business, (a) Chiefs and Directors — 1. Of railways 2. „ vehicles and steamers 3. ,, credit and assurance company 4. ,, banks and exchanges 5. ,, shipowners, commission merchants, brokers, interpreters {b) Employes. Engineers, managers {c) Work:\ien — On railways, post and telegraphs Men 1,480 io>75i 2,917 3>978 8,202 49,502 In the commercial marine River traffic, harbours, canals. {d) Daily Servants. Carters, &c. Total ... 546 319,560 V. — Various Occupations, (a) Proprietors and Directors — 1. Of Hotels 2. „ baths and gymnastic establishments 3- undertakers establishments (d) Employes in the above. Sick attendants (c) Daily Servants. Corpse bearers (d) Rope-dancers, circus-riders, Mounte-) banks, etc — ... ... ...) Total 5,273 57^912 1,652 98,548 VI. — Free En/p/oynients. (a) Roman Catholic Faith. Women 4 954 45 55 127 i 1,592 76,928 4,804 : 75,431 — 26,521 606 11,15: 19,340 Men Women 31,698 1,767 246 14,601 ■ 599 4 6,708 34-975 785 57,672. Men Women 1. Secular clergy ... 2. Monks and nuns (/>) Protestant clergy (c) Rabbis 52,148 13,102 991 82 84,300 31 (/') Army — 1. On land 2. At sea ... {c) Gendarmerie, police, field-watchers ... 336,569 36,396 59,352 — France — Land and People. 239 {d) Administrative Officials — 1. Of the State 2. „ departments 3. ,, communes ( same ... ... ... .-S Total 63,783 3,196 19,512 961 28,123 1,707 8,967 — 5,906 — Schools — 48,362 24,491 12,058 12.086 3,676 150 18,277 4,33s 28,384 64 20,325 399 6,598 63 12,436 39,396 3,628 30,685 13,890 832,692 161,740 IV. — Persons Living on their Incomes. 1. Landed proprietors ... 2. Annuitants on capital ... 3. Pensioners, refugees supported by the(_ State ) 4. Porters, concierges, without other occu-f_ pation ... ... ... •••S 5. Assistants of the above Men Women 252,851 151,221 200,038 231,976 56,343 11,129 27,485 28,086 8,333 3,122 Total 545,050 VIII. — Persons Witliout Industrial Occupation. Men 1. Beggars, gipsies, vagrants ... ... 25,461 2. Public prostitutes Persons out of work 79,021 Total 104,482 IX — Non- Classified Population. Male 1. Students from their homes — pupils of educational establishments 2. Sucklings placed at nurse by parents... 3. Foundlings and forsaken children 110,443 26,575 21,658 -53, 066 37,327 11,875 143,928 193,130 Female 71,878 24,558 24,810 240 France — Land and People. 4. Dwellers in asylums and charitable) institutions... ... ... ...) 5. Sick in hospitals 6. Insane and idiots in asylums ... 7. Criminals undergoing punishment 8. Of whom no returns made Male l-emale 26,367 3i>383 10,035 9>3'2 17,209 19.75s 36,042 9,264 93,688 150.350 Total 342,017 ... 341.310 Divisions of land in the 86 departments, (not reckoning Savoy and Nice, but including Alsace-Lorraine). Acres Arable land 64,724,435 Forests 19.025,014 Heath, pasture, bog and waste land 16,352,457 Meadow 12,491,362 Vineyards 5.412,173 XRoads, public squares 2,723,027 XState property without profitable returns ... ... ... 2,611,071 Gardens and nurseries ... ... ... ••• ••• i>55^.739 Chestnut plantations ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 1)493.045 X Rivers, brooks, lakes, and ponds ... ... ... ••• 1.53^.135 XUnproductive land ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 393.9^5 Olive, Almond and Mulberry plantations ... 159*850 XDykes and cattle ponds 42,980 Churchyards, etc. ... ... ... ... ... ••• 36.4^4 Canals 30,514 Quarries and mines ... ... ... ... ... ■•• 10,314 The non-taxed parts of the dominion are marked thus X- There are altogether 7,302,198 acres untaxed, and 120,317,487 acres taxed. Accorci ing to an account in the Moiiiteur, there are still in France 458,286 acres of swamps, and not less than 6,685,479 acres of heaths and other un- cultivated lands belonging to the communes. Parcelling out the Land. In the year 1842, the parcels amounted to 126,210,194, the number of projjrietors 11,053,702. It should be observed that adjoining pieces of land which belong to the same proprietor, if they were divided at the time of the survey, are still accounted as separate parcels, although since united in one. The official figure is therefore, not to be relied on. The same landed pro])rietors are also counted as many times as they possess ])ortions of land in different districts of taxation. Mining Industries. The number of mines in the year 1867 was 1,184; of these 598 were coal mines, 249 iron, and 337 other mines. The production of coal, which in 1853 was only 118,759,700 cwts., had increased in the year 1875 to 338,980,630 cwts., and in 1876 to 340,955,226. More than one-third of this comes from the mines ot Valenciennes, viz., 130,665,818 cwts., from Alais mines 32,896,774 cwts.. from the Creu/.ot mines 19,811,752 cwts., and from the Loire mines 69,434,376 cwls. In 1877 the [iroduction of coal was 328,872,700 cwts. France — Land and People. 241 Iron Ore. In 1865 it was calculated that the home produce covered only 65 per cent, of the consumiJtion ; the produce of that year was 3,658,464 tons. In 1866 there was a slight increase, viz., 3,790,167 tons. Every subsequent year has been less than this quantity. In 1 87 5 it was 2,973'975 tons. About one-fourth of this is produced in the departments Meurthe and Moselle; 198,652 tons from C6tes-du-Nord ; 150,892 from Saone-et-Loire. The Smelting works produced in 1868 22,706,000 cwts. hi pig-iron, worth ^4)575)OoOj and 16,436,000 cwts. of bar-iron, worth ;!^7,o5o,coo. In 1875, 15,108,844 cwts., and in 1876, 14,665,432 cwts. The production of steel (puddle, Bessemer, etc.) 1875 5.032,748 cwts., 1876, 5,083,816 cwts. On November ist, i86g, 1,236 mining concessions had been granted, which embraced an area of 4,039 square miles. Of these concessions, 623 were for coal, and 266 for iron mines. Exclusive of coal, the value of the mining produce of 1867 was reckoned at ^1,378,308, that of the smelting furnaces or foundries at ^7,894,509. On the production ot coal, which is generally the most important branch of mining, Pechar and Dr. Peez, in their report of the Vienna Exhibition state : — " The coal districts of France cannot indeed compare with the English, North American, and German mines, in extent and pro- ductiveness, yet France is not so poor in mineral fuel as many believe. The number of coal districts is great, their management very intelligently organized, and the realization of the produce, under the high development of industry, very satisfactory." The production and consumption of coal in France, taking export and import into account, is reckoned as follows, for the various periods, in tons of 20 cwt. Home Produce Consumption 1789 250,000 no returns 1830 ... ... ... 1,800,000 ... ... ... ,, 1851 4,648,000 „ i860 8,309,622 12,897,184 I 1865 11,600,404 17,073,400 I 1870 13,179,780 16,859,034 ? 1872 15,900,000 21,993,362 ;; 1873 ■•• ••• ••■ 16,500,000 ... ... ... 22,700,000 i ^875 17,046,890 24,657,530 i! 1876 16,639,149 \ 1877 ... ... ... 16,877,200 ... ... ... 24,144,500 I. By the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, the annual quantity of coal has been I reduced. The rapidity with which the consumption of coal has increased >' in France during the last 30 years or so, is shewn by a statement made by i Mons. Wuillemin, director of collieries, in which he gives the following \ statistics : — \ Production Imports Total Consumption Tons Tons Tons 1850 4,433>567 2,791,700 7,225,267 i860 8,309,622 5,980,630 14,290,252 1870 13,179,780 5,650,250 18,830,030 1875 17,046,890 5,610,640 22,657,530 1877 16,877,200 7,287,300 24,164,500 242 France — Land and People. The inferiority of the French miners to English colliers, is shewn by the fact that the average output of a miner in the department of Nord or Pas-de-Calais is only 152 tons ])er annum, while that of a Durham collier is 333 tons, or more than double ; also that the cost per ton of coal ]mt on the rail is nearly 95., while in Durham it does not exceed 5^. Agriadtural Produce {in Imperial Bushels.) 17IS9 1815 1848 Wheat ... 93,000,000 ... 121,000,000 ... 152,000,000 bush Rye, etc. ... 126,000,000 ... 121,000,000 ... 110,000,000 ,, Potatoes ... 5,000,000 ... 55,000,000 ... 275,000,000 ,, Wine ... 374,000,000 ... 770,000,000 ... 924,000,000 gallons To every individual of the population, the proportion was : — 1789 1848 Wheat 3^ bushels s\ bushels Rye, etc 4^ „ zf „ Meat 39I lbs. ... 61^- lbs. The cultivation and production of wheat. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1878 1879 Area under cultivation Acres 15^864,521 17,136,667 16,860,071 16,979.239 i7>i58,o43 16,942,861 Crop Imperial Qu.irters ■ 23,824,169 • 41.544.309 . 28,162,888 • 44,783.463 34,608,328 . 31.811,778 ■ 28,375,750 28,252,169 An official estimate gives the value of the land in 1821 as ^1,580,560,000, and in 1851 as ^3,349 760,000. The net profit of landed property in 182 1 was ;!^63,88o,ooo, and in 1851 it was ^105,734,640. The value of the large estates is therefore, scarcely increased by one-third; that of the small divided ones 4 to 5 fold in profit.* France, like England, although not to the same extent, retjuircs foreign corn. The tjuantity imported from- 1816 to 1861 amounted to 29,654,923 Imi)erial (juarters ; the quantity exported to 15,672,669 Imperial quarters ; the annual average deficiency was therefore, 302,632 quarters. The value of the excess imported from 181 6 to 1861 was reckoned at ^55,280,289. The value of the corn imported and exported in subse- (luent years has been computed by the " Journal de la Societt} de Statistique de Paris " as follows : — * In the year 1857, the mortgages in 80 departments over which the Credit Fonder extended its operations, were estimated at ^4X0,220,164, of which ^'46, 389,180 were in the dejiartment of Seine alone. The Societe du Credit Foncier alone had granted £\l,l n<^°^ loans on lauded property, ;^9,737.i7S of which were repaid, so that ;^33, 979,931 were itiU owing. France — Land and People. 243 Exports ... ^3,428,360 3,052,080 8,635,040 2,513,480 2,148,360 3,716,120 1,356,240 1,696,880 9,896,300 7,000,000 5'572,000 8,108,000 5,876,000 7,612,000 A ministerial statement of 1866 assumes the annual average con- sumption of corn to be 31,045,741 Imperial bushels, of which 24,927,047 bushels are used as food for man, 140,864 bushels for beasts, 4,882,617 bushels for seed, and the remainder for other purposes. A fairly moderate harvest produces about 4,390,000 quarters. Imports 1863-64 ... ^,^1,111,280 ... 1864-65 . 746,880 1865-66 . 1,291,480 ... 1866-67 8,058,920 ... 1867-68 . 18,670,560 ... 1868-69 2,352,880 1870 8,238,000 ... I87I 13,401,080 ... 1872 6,703,680 1873 10,200,000 ... 1874 . 13,229,400 1875 5,545,640 1876 9,584,000 1877 8,280,000 ... Cultivation and produce of the soil at the two periods, 1850 and 1875, and also for 1876, from official sources : — Years Wheat ... in 1850 „ 1S75 ,, 1876 Mixed corn in 1850 ,. „ 1875 Rye Barley Oats Maize 1876 in 1850 „ 1875 ,, 1876 in 1850 ,, 1875 „ 1876 in 1850 .> 1875 „ 1876 in 1850 ,. 1875 „ 1876 Acres 17,252,386 17,231,000 16,942,861 1,415,262 1,119,342 5.417,278 4,476,005 2,570,872 2,575>697 8,058,634 7,850,426 1,486,932 1,613,288 Produce in Bushels 237,093,769 279.648,559 27i>33o,i22 21,462,353 18,901,008 18,238,071 70,340,326 75,265,294 74,616,382 47,870,880 50,685,844 49,082,624 169,910,577 189,830,314 168,054,681 22,912,959 28,235,314 26,577,262 Potatoes in 1S50 „ 1875 „ 1876 Beetroot in 1850 „ 1875 „ „ 1876 3,087,228 2,953-.959 175,059 998,665 157,230,100 41 1,818,044 313,164,406 6,469,010 260,496,558 216,739,864 in 1850 349>75i 1,293,772 „ 1875 242,801 1,169,509 „ 1876 — 1.262,933 in 1850 55>623 706,182 „ 1875 194,572 848,296 „ 1876 ... — 1,016,370 244 France — Land and People, Hemp Flax .. Mention may be made here of the cultivation of truffles, which is very extensive in P'rance, so much so that the crop of the winter 1869-70 (for truffles become ripe in the winter) was computed at 3,000,000 lbs. Each pound brings the grower about 8i-., but the price per pound often amounts to t,os. before it reaches the consumer. Truffles are produced in the middle and south of France only. Some departments yield as many as 200,000 lbs. That of Lower Alps produces 150,000 lbs. The inhabi- tants of Montagnac, which lies on a high table land of Les Alpes Maritimes, live almost entirely by the cultivation of truffles. Out of a population of 600 souls 60 to 70 are entirely employed by it. Their average earnings amount to p^45 or ^50. The natural produce began to decline a few years ago, when an intelligent dealer named Ravel tried systematic cultiva- tion, which has succeeded admirably. Plantations of oak are laid out, and young unripe tubers are placed in the loosened soil and then covered up. Truffles grow best in thin, chalky soil, somewhat impregnated with iron. The finest are generally found among oaks of 8 or 10 years old. It seems that the tannin contained in the falling oak leaves has a beneficial effect upon the truffles. They often have a peculiarly piquant aroma when grown under elder trees. Small truffles of less than 2^ ozs. in weight are worth but little, although they are good when they reach this size. The)- are found up to the weight of from i| to 2 lbs. The best are produced in Perigord and Lot. They bear from 5 to 6 degrees of cold, and are dug up after the first frost. Dogs and pigs devour them greedily, and know where to find them by the peculiar perfume emitted. The fine aroma dis- aj)pears after they have been for a time exposed to the air. The export of truffles to Russia, England and America amounted in 1865 to 104,000 lbs. ; in 1866 to 126,000 ; and 1867 to 140,000 lbs. The trade began in 1770, and continues to increase steadily. Truffles dry up in a hot climate, and require a moderate temperature ; they are found high in the Alps. Vineyards and Wine. No other country possesses such extensive vineyards as France. There are only 9 departments in which the vine is not grown, and in 8 others less than 267,000 acres are planted with the vine. In the year 1872 the vine- yards covered 6,455,626 acres, about one-twentieth of the whole area, which is 130,556,975 acres. About 2,000,000 people live by the cultiva- tion of the vine. The average produce, subject to great variations, is estimated at 1,546,667,946 gallons. Acres In the north ,. 309,081 centre ... 2,233,877 ,, south ... 3.869,873 Corsica ... 42,79.S Total ... 6,455,626 S Gallons Gal ons prr Acre 113,272,060 ... 366 576,674,152 ... 258 85o»i 14,474 219 6,607,260 ... 152 1,546,607,946 Aver. ige 247 France — Land and People. 245 The cultivation of the vine is most important ments. The harvest of 1875 was a good one, we the exami)le. Herault Gironde Charente ... Gard Aude Lower Charente Var Lot-et-Garonne Vendee Rhone Lower Loire Saone-et-Loire Meurthe and Moselle Gers 493,286 386,774 359>449 88,018 216,096 260,783 173.394 174,110 157,116 88,860 81,831 99,573 50,449 310,824 in the following depart- take, therefore, 1875 as Gallons 243,447,930 113,546,158 119,674,654 20,767,252 68,419,428 191,275,348 22,962,588 30,663,600 22,351,604 28,421,426 57,980,978 48,859,184 32,645,3^6 26,290,726 The total number of gallons was 1,720,527,842. Formerly the price of wine did not vary much. From 1806 to 1820, the measure of 22 gallons averaged j£,\ 6s. 8d. The next 10 years the same measure averaged ;£i 12s. 6d. From 1831 to 1840 j£j 6s. lod. From 1841 to 1850 -Qi 55. \od. Greater fluctuations then arose. In 1851 the price was £1 y. 3^. ; in 1853^1 135. 4^. ; in 1857 £2 us. 2d. ; in 1859 T^i 165-. 8^. Lately the average retail price has been £1 195. 8^. The number of bottles of champagne sold for home and abroad was in 1870, 17,487,300; 1872, 30,368,661; 1874-75, 52,000,000. From April ist, 1876, to April ist, 1877, 71,398,726. In 1876 ■„ 1877 „ 1878 920,612,000 gallons of wine were produced in France 1,240,910,000 „ ,, ,, „ „ 1,071,862,000 „ „ „ „ „ 1873 1874 1875 1876 1873 1874 1875 1876 Horses 2,742,708 2,747,531 2,754,842 2,852,419 Mules 303,755 295,700 278,404 294,352 Cattle Cows Sheep and Lambs 25,935,114 23,937,336 23,674,216 23,902,077 410,268 411,484 404,042 416,868 5,938,818 7,343,370 7,295,222 7,307,087 Pigs 5,755,656 5,486,694 5,675,617 5,801,002 Other kinds 5,782,641 4,142,967 4,018,919 4,044,133 Goats 1,794,837 1,684,873 1,612,854 1,587,040 The produce of sheeps' wool is estimated at 988,416 cwts. of fine, and 1,061,390 cwts. of ordinary (luality. The cattle slaughtered annually averages i>55 2,000 bullocks. 3,352,800, calves, 5,638,800 sheep, 1,287,000 lambs. 246 France — Land and People. The Inalienable Property under Mortmain. According to the report of the year 1865 (the last official account) the and possessed under mortmain stood thus : — Departments Communes ... Hospitals Seminaries ... Romish church ... Authorised societies Protestant consistoriums Almshouses... Beneficent institutions Anonymous societies Various institutions Acres Value 1,817 ^132,432 1,063,771 73,924,000 388,667 17,124,000 20,256 695,200 9,650,043 2,073,600 42,836 553,000 4,978 290,608 11,784 489,560 68,517 2,673,600 121,704 11,272,000 11,835 693,600 11,386,208 ... ^108,911,500 Manufacturing Industries. An official survey gives the following results :- Number of industrial establishments . . . Number of workmen The value of the produce 123,357 1,782,932 ^390,240,000 The various departments contributed to this total according to the following table : — 9- 10. 1 1. 12. ^3 14. 15 16. 17 18. 19. 20 21 22 23 Seine ... Nord Rhone ... Lower Seine ... Rhone Estuaries Loire ... Eure Upper Rhine ... Aisne ... Somme... Marne ... Lower Loire Ardennes Pas-de-Calais . . Lower Rhine ... Ardcche lUe-et-Vilaine . . . Oise Moselle Gironde Is^re Gard Seine-et-Oise . . . ^79,500,000 32,000,000 24,040,000 17,600,000 10,880,000 8,960,000 8,520,000 7,840,000 7,400,000 6,640,000 6,480,000 6,440,000 6,400,000 6,320,000 5,920,000 5,760,000 5,720,000 5,240,000 4,960,000 4,880,000 4,640,000 4,640,000 4,400,000 24. 25- 26. 27. 28. 29. 30- 31- 32- 33- 34- 35' 36. 37' 38. 39 40. 41 42. 43' 44 45' 46, Vosges ... Vaucluse Upper Garonne. Calvados Herault Seine-ct-Marne.. Orne ... Saone-et-Loire . . Finisterre Cote-d'Or Marnc-et-Loire.. Aube ... Doubs ... Drome ... Tarn Lot-et-Garonne. Ain Puy-de-Dome .. Indre ... Meurthe Loirct ... Dordogne Sarthe ... ;^4, 1 60,000 4,080,000 jl 3,960,000 ■ 3,880,000 3,760,000 3,560,000 3,280,000 3,160,000 3,040,000 3,000,000 2,840,000 2,680,000 2,680,000 2,600,000 2,280,000 2,120,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,960,000 1,960,000 1,960,000 1,960,000 1,960,000 France — Land and People. 247 47. Nievre ... 48. Manche 49. Meuse ... 50. Deux Sevres 51. Upper Vienne... 52. Var 53. Aveyron 54. Charente 55. Eure-et-Loire ... 56. Indre-et-Loire ... 57. Upper Saone ... 58. Vendee... 59. Cher 60. Jura 61. Lower Charente 62. Morbihan 63. Aude ... 64. Allier ... 65. Upper Marne ... 66. Yonne ... 67. Gers 68. Vienne ... ;^i,96o,ooo 69. Mayenne ^1,080,000 1,920,000 70. Loire-et-Cher ... 1, 080,000 1,840,000 71- Landes... 1,040,000 1,840,000 72. Upper Loire ... 1,040,000 1,760,000 73- Tarn-et-Garonne. 1,040,000 1,760,000 74- Cotes-du-Nord... 1,000,000 1,720,000 75- Arie'ge ... 920,000 1,720,000 76. Lot 800,000 1,680,000 77- Lower Pyrenees.. 800,000 1, 680,000 78. Upper Pyrenees.. 760,000 1,640,000 79- East Pyrenees ... 640,000 1,600,000 80. Maritime Alps... 640,000 1,600,000 81. Corsica... 560,000 1,560,000 82. Lower Alps 560,000 1,440,000 83- Creuze ... 560,000 1,400.000 84. Upper Alps 480,000 1,400,000 85- Savoy ... 360,000 1,320,000 86. Upper Savoy ... 280,000 1,280,000 87. Lozere ... 240,00© 1,280,000 88. Correze 24,000 1,240,000 89. Cantal 16,000 1,160,000 The motive power of the industrial establishments (in which railways and steamboat traffic are not taken into account) was 16,520 steam engines 52,737 water mills 1 1,332 wind mills Total horse power with 219,700 horse-power „ 298,300 » 39>5oo n 557,500 Among the distinct branches, textile industry takes an important rank. The produce is estimated in the above-mentioned official report at ;^io5, 200,000. The most important departments in this respect were Nord, ;!^i 5,440,000 ; Lower Seine, _^8, 400,000 ; Rhone, ^8,240,000; Upper Rhine, ^^ 6,000,000 ; Seine, ^5,800,000 ; Loire, ;i^4,68o,ooo ; Somme, ^4,400,000 ; Eure, ^4,360,000. The first rank in textile industry is taken by the cotton manufacture in the following departments : — Lower Seine, 1,491,000 looms ; Upper Rhine, 1,373,000 ; Nord, 950,000 looms. The above totals have of course, decreased, by the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. A new estimate is given in the Moniteur des fils et Tissues, viz., cotton goods, ^22,000,000 ; woollen goods, ^27,160,000 ; flax and hemp goods, ;;^i8, 760,000 ; silk goods, ^^7, 520,000 ; jute goods, ;j^4o,ooo ; giving a total of ^75,480,000. Great complaints came from all the woollen centres in 1879, ^s to the remunerative character of the trade, and its stagnation. The import of manufactured woollen goods continues to increase, while the export shews an opposite tendency. On the other hand, woollen yarns have taken an opposite direction, the exports increasing and the imports decreasing. f 248 France— Land and People. ^ Manufacture of Beetroot Sugar. The production, which in 1857 was but 2,196,089 cwts., and in 1864, 2,659,568 cwts., rose in 1870 to 5,469,456 cwts. In 1873, there were in the various dejjartments 508 factories at work in the manufacture of beet- root sugar. Amount of duty paid ;^3>488,440 I 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Manufactured cwts. 6,616,899 7,391,212 8,180,913 8,499.430 9,397,584 6,469,997 6,823.388 8.392,891 Commerce. 2,351,080 4,116,280 4,217,480 4,698,680 4,951,880 3,613,080 4,500,200 f| The subjoined remarks are made in explanation of the views taken on this subject in the following pages. The calculation of the value of goods was made up to the year 1864, according to a tariff officially made (the •* official value "). But as real prices have all been changed since then, a second calculation, according to the actual value was added, and fixed every year by a Cojumission 375-<-'^o Foreign colo- ) nial sugar j 2,120,000 — 1,883,360 Eggs — 1,425.280 Wine 8,044,000 Fruit — 1,348,000 1,170,048 The value of the Export and Import of the Precious Metals. GOLD. SILVER. Import Export Import Export 1870 ^13,262,760 ;^7, 623,040 ^4,692,280 ;^2,822,920 I87I 5,948,680 14,287.040 6,750,040 5,666,960 1872 6,003,240 7,790,160 9,836,760 5,544,960 1873 7,336,640 11,369,320 17,936,520 8,301,440 1874 21,295,440 3,431,800 18,642,520 2,939,240 France — Land and People. 251 Value of Import and Export of the Precious Metals. — (Continued) GOLD. SILVER. Import Export Import Export 1875 25,823,320 5.507,720 11,908,440 3,245,600 1876 24,486,560 3,786,200 10,921,080 2,551,000 1877 21,930,840 4,540,280 7,976,000 3,804,240 1878 15,185,640 5,736,840 8,765,840 4,012,282 The importance of the separate commercial centres may be seen from the following survey of the whole general and special commerce, import and export reckoned together in English money. General 1 875- ^72,284,000 61,432,000 34,228,000 23,828,000 22,600,000 12,672,000 5,740,000 5,612,000 5,360,000 5,182,000 4,492,000 4.020,000 4,304,000 4,040,000 Imported articles were raw material for the home industries to the amount of ^198,320,000, and articles of consumption ^122,040,000. The export articles were natural products to the amount of ;^i 70,480,000, and manufactured goods to the amount of ;^i 7 2, 7 20,000. Marseilles Havre Paris Boulogne Bordeaux Dunkirk Jeumont Tourcoin Dieppe Cette St. Nazaire Calais Rouen Nantes Special ^^48,896,000 43,960,000 33,956,000 13,204,000 19,560,000 11,876,000 4,836,000 5,540,000 4,996,000 4,680,000 3,004,000 4,136,000 4,508,000 3,680,000 Bankruptcies. Number of Pankruptcies 1850 ... 2,144 1859 ... 3,''^99 1851 ... 2,305 i860 ... 4,041 T852 ... 2,478 1961 ... 4,802 1853 ... 2,671 1862 ... 5,390 1854 ... 3,691 1863 ... 4,450 IS55 - 2,937 1864 ... 4,642 1856 ... 5,773 1865 ... 4,839 1857 ... 6,124 1866 ... 5,198 1858 ... 4,330 1867 ... 5,581 * The total 5,480 was thus appcrtioned ;- _ 1,838 ■ •• 1,017 359 293 29. 237 208 ... '35 .67 -.28 76 308 .. ... ... ... ... 1869 1870 I87I 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877^ 5,895 3,987 3,049 5,244 5,508 5,596 5,361 5,193 5,480 Dealers in food and drink Tailors and milliners Inn and lod}^ing-house keepers Builder.s Jewellers Iron and metal trades Wood-working trades Furniture makers Contractors and carriers Financial agents Chemical manufacturers Sundries 252 France — Land and People. The amount of debt in 227 cases of failure out of 1,783, which had occurred by the end of 187 1, was under _;/^ 200 ; in 337 cases between ;^2oo and;^4oo ; in 806 cases between ^400 and ^2,000; in 213 cases between ^2,000 and ^4,000 ; and in 200 cases 10 per cent, above that amount. The liabilities of these 1,783 failures amounted to ^4,449,981, the assets to ^^1,382,666. The creditors were fully satisfied in 50 cases, while 178 did not receive anything, as the law expenses swallowed up the whole of the assets or available funds. Post. Number of letters and newspapers forwarded- - Letters Newspapers 1847 .. 126,480,000 9,0275,466 1849 •■ 158,268,000 146,528,433 1852 .. i8t, 000,000 94,863,666 : 1854 .. 212,385,000 115,744,433 1856 .. 252,014,800 127,321,445 1857 .. 252,453,800 144,295,200 1858 .. 253,234,000 151,298,000 1859 .. 258,900,000 165,300,000 i860 .. 263,500,000 179,138,000 1861 .. 273,200,000 188.930,000 1862 .. 283,000,000 202,000,000 1863 .. 299,000,000 212,000,000 1864 .. 3oo,543»7oo 264,982,000 1865 .. 3i3>5o6,795 275,285,920 1866 .. 323,525'i95 290,091,680 \ 1867 .. 342,017,470 306,195,880 1868 .. 348,655,000 326,196.800 1869 .. 364,746,650 367,186,800 1870 .. 281,351,580 347.958,640 1871 .. 305,114,570 283,937,730 1872 .. 339>7i2,o96 292,867,799 1873 .. 340,855^289 331,550.962 1874 .. 350,594,735 368,781,945 1875 .. 367,443,837 376,005,934 ; 1876 .. 381,955,353 452,406,978 ; 1877 .. 393,843,000 468,808,000 , The increase of taxation was ])ercei)tible from 1871; letter postage was raised from 2d. to 2\d. ; in the towns, from \d. to \\d. ; and the charge for prospectuses, etc., also received an addition. In 1878 a reduc- tion took place. Taking the year 1868, it was found that 87,411,541 letters, and 238,086,004 printed pa])ers belonged to the city of Paris. In 1847 only 10 per cent, of the letters were i)re-i)aid ; in 1866, 92 per cent. ; in 1868, 94. 18 per cent. ; and in 1871, 95.94 i)cr cent. In 1873, post cards were introduced. i.- France — L and and People. 253 Income and Expenditure of the Post. i6yo 1872 1874 1877 Gross income, ...^2,889,858 ^4,3i5>792 ^4,546,374 ^4,7^0,704 Expenditure,* ... 2,534,465 2,920,524 2,845,060 2,904,916 Net profit ... ;^355>393 ^i>395>268 ^1,701314 ^1,875,788 Electric Telegraph. This was placed at the disposal of the public on and from the loth March, 1851. In 1852 the number of offices was 43'; in 1876 the number was 2,817; in 1877, 2,984. The average price per telegram in 1852 was 95. 11^., in 1872, is. ^d. ; in 1876, i^. dd. The length of line in 1876 was 34,105 miles, and 89,050 miles of wire. In 1877, length of line 35,465 miles ; length of wire 93,464 miles. All Government messages are free. Total number of telegrams despatched, and the value received for them : — Year. Number of Telegrams. Revenue therefrom. 1870 5-663,852 ... ^385>28o 1771 4,962,726 ... 337>373 1872 6,223,343 ... 487,295 1873 6,555,623 ... 546,661 1874 ...' 6,908,319 ... 578,919 1875 7,608,088 ... 624,846 1876 8,518,043 ... 716,739 1877 ... ... ... 12,422,112 ... 800,688 Railways. During a long period, France remained backward in the construction of railways. The number of English miles opened was — In 1830 1848 1855 18G1 18G7 1873 1876 1877 1878 Miles 32 1,373 3,434 6,212 9008 11,512 12,634 14,528 14,775 On January i, 1870, there were 10,528 miles either in course of construction or being planned. Of the former, 4,856 miles were double lines. Of all the departments of the mainland (Corsica is still without) none were quite without railways. By the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, the length of lines was diminished by 455 miles of the principal or main lines, and 229 miles of the local lines ; there remained therefore, 9,073 miles, and 920 miles of local lines, making together 9,993 miles of railroad. In consequence of " fusion," six large companies had swallowed up almost all the small ones. At the end of 1868, | of all the railways working, belonged to those six companies. The prices for the transport of passengers were high, and the carriages mean. The workmg of the lines is in better order than was formerly the case. In consequence of * The subventions granted to the packet boats amounting, in 1872, to£i, included in the expenditure. Miles— Of the old Of the new. Total, 714 291 1,005 320 1,069 1,389 558 988 1,546 1.252 1,325 2,577 2,369 590 2,959 494 706 1,190 254 France — Land and People. a convention of the year, 1868, the interior net-work of railways was to be brought up to 14,165 miles within 10 years, and that at a total expenditure of ^411,471,844. Of this the companies had to provide ^342,921,888 and the State to grant a subsidy of ^68,549,956. For this purpose, a distinction was made between the old and the new net-work. Notwithstanding the untoward condition of things in France since the war of 1870, the making of railways has been considerably pressed forward. On the ist January, 1874, traffic was carried on over 11,587 miles. The six great companies possessed these in the following proportion : — Nord Est Ouest Orleans ... Paris-Lyon-Med. Midi Total miles, 5707 4,969 10,666 On January ist, 1870, the amount already furnished by the com- panies reached ^281,569,472, while the sums provided by the State were ^43>394,42i. The gross receipts of all the French railways were : — Receipts Number of ^passengers In 1870 ^^24,952, 562 no returns 1872 31,191,889 111,505,569 1874 32,283,916 121,117,208 1876 ... ... 34,715,575 137,589.897 1877 25,281,461 1878 27,225,759 According to a recent report of the Minister of Public Works, it was decided in the Parliament of 1879, to proceed with the construction of between 6,831 and 7,600 miles of new lines, which, roughly speaking, will be thus divided : 494 to the Northern ; 1,582 to the East; 1,450 to the West; 1,453 to the Orleans; 1,228 to the Lyons; and 1,301 to the Mid- land lines of Rail. Traffic between France and other countries will be abundantly served by 40 International lines.* Harbour Trade. Reckoning all the vessels whicli entered and cleared the harbours in 1870, there wcxc 6,109, with a tonnage of 1,152,734. In 1S71, 6,447, with a tonnage of 1.222,873,— 902,316 tons of which sailed under the French * It appears that previous to the existence of railways in France, diligences were the meaiTis of travelling. There was one traveller killed to every 350,000 carried, and of every 30,000. one was wounded; whereas, out of 1,781,403,678 passengers who travelled on the railways of France, between .September, 1835, and December, 1875, only one to every 5,178,000 was killed, while the proportion of wounded, during the same period, was one to 5'80,4'so. If we divide this period of 1835 to 1875 into two, in the first, one traveller was killed to 1,955.555 carried; in the second, ending 1875, one passenger out of 6,1 71,1 17, so that there 'is a tendency to diminution of accidents in France.— /4««a/« des Ports de Chausshs, France — Land and People. 255 flag; 143,728 tons under the English flag; 112,273 tons under that of Barbary; 69,990 tons under the Spanish flag; 32,599 tons under the ItaUan flag. In 1875. 7,691 vessels with 1,792,263 tonnage. Among the foreign powers whose vessels entered and cleared the ports, England stands first, tonnage, 303,738 ; Spain second, with a tonnage of 131,141 ; Italy third, tonnage 63,257. Land and Water Higfnvays, 187 1. English miles State roads 23,939 Departmental roads ... ... •.• ••• ••• ••• 29,590 Streets for heavy traffic ... ... ... ••. ••• ••• 52,3°3 Those of merely local importance ... ... ••• ••• 49'223 Adjacent roads 236,093 Canals 2,952 Rivers used as canals ... ... ... ... ••• •■■ 2,063 Navigable rivers not used as canals ... ... ••• ... 1,863 Between the years 1814 and 1870, ^46.928.600 have been expended in the construction and maintenance of canals, etc. In the year 1872, commercial goods were conveyed by river and canal, in the following quantities :— In valleys, 976,693,462 tons ; on the moun- tains, 587,971,735 tons. By floats in the valleys, 222,952,721 tons, on the mountains 1,607,047 tons. In the previous year, 1871, the corresponding nuuibers were 755,701,825 tons; 531,636,727 tons; 196,545,033 tons; 2,086,216 tons. Mercantile Marine. The transformation of sailing vessels into steamers is progressing rapidly. On July ist, 1872, the sailing fleet of France occupied the sixth rank only, amongst those of all countries ; it consisted of 4,799 sailing vessels, with a tonnage of 902,096. On the other hand, it took the third place in the list of commercial steam fleets, having 316 vessels, with a tonnage of 240,273. In comparison with the year 1870, there was a decrease of 169 sailing vessels, as well as a decrease in the tonnage of 10,268 tons, but an increase of 28 steam vessels, and of 27,297 tons. The tonnage in 1827 was 692,000; it then declined to 760,000 in 1847; reached 1,052,000 in 1857, and sank again to 983,996 in 1862. The imposition of the marine conscription after the old manner, caused a fresh i"crease. On January ist, 1868, there were 15,602 large sea-going ships, of 1,048,679 tons, among which were 420 steamers of 133,158 tons, besides 8,892 coasting vessels of 67,077 tons. Among the ships existing in 1862, only 58 were of more than 800 tons, and 37 of from 700 to 800 tons. The number and tonnage of Merchant, Sailing, and Steam Vessels. Year Vessels Tonnage 1868 15,615 1,058,543 1870 15,586 1,072,24.1 1872 15:574 1,089,075 1874 15.524 1,037,272 1876 ... 15,407 1,011,285 1877 15,449 989,128 y^- 256 Franu — Land and People. Fisheries. Year Vessels Tonnage Crews Estimated employed No. of Tons No. of Men Value 1868 18,343 ■ 226,224 . 86,578 .. . ^2,702,557 1871 18,387 . • 142,774 •• 110,480 2,795,688 1872 18,980 . • 152,674 •• 116,007 2,961,409 1874 20,795 • • 155.027 •• 78,772 .. 2,935,370 1875 20,555 • • 153.947 •• 80,451 .. 3,086,661 1876 21,058 . • 152,916 .. 79,676 .. 3.559.623 1877 21,142 . .. 163,160 .. 81,230 .. 3,489,087 1878 21,992 . 164,002 82,431 . 3.578,868 Banks. The Bank of France was founded April, 1803, and its last " privile- gium" was to have extended until the end of 1867. The government of Napoleon, however, took the opportunity as early as May, 1857, of extend- ing it to a further period of 30 years (till the end of 1887), at the same time imposing upon it the obligation of immediately lending to the Treasury ^40,000,000 for 3 per cent. Rentes. In order to obtain the funds for this, the number of shares, which, up to that period was 91,250 at ^^40, was doubled. The bank, at the same time, received permission to issue bank notes of the minimum value of £,2, which has been done since 1864 ; until that time, 100 franc notes were the smallest issued. The amount of notes in circulation fluctuated in 1869 between ;^5 1,791,824 and ^^57.55^.520; i^^ 1866 between ^33,000,000 and ^40,000,000; in 1863 between ^29,000,000 and ^34,000,000; in 1850 the maximum was ;^i 9,000,000. The bank has branches in all the large towns of the State. The total amount of their transactions amounted : — [n 1866 to ^331.000,000 In 1873 to ^668,000,000 ). 1867 „ 294,000,000 11 1874 ., 488,000,000 ») 1868 „ 284,000,000 11 1876 „ 292,000,000 J) 1869 „ 332,000,000 11 1877 .. 380,000,000 ,, 1872 „ 626,000,000 11 1878 „ 391,000,000 During the war the Bank was obliged to furnish the Treasury with ^259,528,425. To accomplish this a forced circulation was given to Bank notes, the number of which was enormously increased, and the sum for which they were issued was lowered to 8^-. 4^., and even \s. 2d. By the 29th December the maximum of the notes newly issued was extended to ^28,000,000, and in Jul)', 1872, to ^32,000,000. A slight, and very Transient, depreciation took place in consequence of this. Under date, June 2ist, 187 1, a statement of accounts was again pubUshed for the first time, after a long interruption. The Bank possessed ^21,993,600 cash, ;i^4,ooo,ooo in Paris bills of exchange, ^32,000,000 in deferred bills, treasury drafts (loans to the State) ^^'47, 000,000, advances to the city of Paris ^8,000,000, and in the books of the branch establishments ^8,000,000 The total assets amounted to ^127,000,000. Among the liabilities, which were etiually high, were ^88,000,000 bank notes, ^4,000,000 advances from the State Treasury, ;;{,' 16,000,000 from Paris, ^7,000,000 Bank capital, France — Land and People. 257 ^1,250,000 reserve, for possible losses; ^880,000 mobile reserve, ^160,000 immobile reserve. The balance-sheet of July, 1874, gave the following: — ASSETS. Cash Book debts Treasury drafts Advances ... Various advances ... LIAUILMIES. Bank notes Ad^■ances from the Treasury From private individuals ... Capital in stocks ... Reserves ... ^47,820,000 32,108,000 34,684,000 7,332,000 7,208,000 ^101,240,000 6,720,000 10,880,000 7,300,000 2,020,000 The Bank directors, urged by tlie desire to recover their normal con- dition as far as possible, have called in the smaller notes of 25 francs (^i) and under, since May, 1874. Savings' Banks. At the commencement of the year 1872 there were 514 authorized savings' banks, but only 49 i in working. The number of savings' bank books issued amounted to 2,021,228. The deposits amounted on January ist, 1872 to ^21,499,561, being 27.29 per cent, less than on January ist, 1870. The average sum of each deposit book diminished from the end of 186910 the end of 1871 Irom ^121 to ^106. In 1875 the amount of deposits was ^26,684,419 ; 1876, ^3i,i33>53i ; 1^77, ^^^32,000,000. Fund Jar the Aged. The Caissc dcs retraitcs pour la Vieillesse had received from its institu- tion, in the year 185 1 till the beginning of 1872, altogether ^7,402,703. Alter deducting the arrear payments the sums paid in amounted to ^6,751,966, placed in National Debt Bonds (Rentes). A terrible con- fusion occurred in the accounts by nearly all the books being burnt in the lime of the Commune, and it became necessary to try and re-construct the accounts of a period of nearly 20 years, during which time 331,894 ac- counts had been opened, and 3,278,565 payments made, which were entered in about 200,000 little books, 26,000 of which were likewise destroyed by fire. We can only wonder that it has been possible to restore order even as far as it has been done. In 1875 a fund was raised amounting to ^,1,026,803 ; number of pensioners, 6,589. The number of depositors in ... 1873 was 2,079,196 >, » >, ,» ••■ 1875 » 2,365,569 „ „ „ „ ... 1877 „ 2,500,000 The average amount of each deposit at the beginning of- - 1870 was 1-^7- „ ^■^73 ') 10 10 1875 1877 7 '^ 5 12 o R 258 France —L and and People. Aid Societies * Mutual aid societies (Sotiitrs de Secoiirs Miituel ), existed, in llic commencement of the year 1870, to the number of 6,139. On January ist, 1871, there were only 5,788, on January ist, 1872, 5,787; and December, 1875, 55807. In J876, there were 5,923. The number of members diminished from 913,633 to 845,935, and then further to 791,901. In 1875, the members numbered 871,621. The projjerty owned decreased in value from ^2,205,342, to ^2,086,839, but rose again to ^2,222,889. These societies are divided into two classes, viz., 4,263 " A]jproved," (under the special supervision of the Government), and 1,524 "Authorized " (under independent management). Of the above named property, ^1,592,126 Ijelong to the former. .Among the participators in these funds, in 1871, were, 107,927 honorary and 683,974 ordinary members, 101,970 of whom were women. These institutions are really nothing more than Rentes-Insurance Funds, as all receipts are merged in tlie Treasury. The number of sick persons assisted in the course of the year 1868, was 199,524, viz., 169,115 men, and 30,409 women: 29.17 per cent, of the shareholders. The support rendered, answered to 3,970,412 days of illness, or 20.70 days for each sick man, and 15.42 for each sick woman. 15,872 deaths ■took place : 2 per cent, of the members. The income of the year was ;^436,278 ; the expenditure (including ,^26,984 for expenses of manage- ment), ^506,733. The number of sick who received aid in 1875, was 165,987 men, and 32,540 women. Death rate of members, 1.64 per cent. In 1876, 151,707 sick members received aid; 126,221 being men, and 25,486 women. In 1877, 141,014 members received aid. Hospitals and Asylums. On January ist, 1869, there were 415 hospitals for the sick, 291 asylums for the aged and infirm, and 851 mixed establishments, making in "^^ i'557 institutions, 1,224 of which existed before the year 1790. The number of beds was 141,576, of which 18,785 are in Paris, 4,176 in Lyons, 2,716 in Nantes, &c. The regular receipts in 1864 amounted to ;,(, 2,478,948 : the regular expenditure to ^2,315,256. These institutions [possessed in 1867, 490,176 acres of landed property, the value of this property was ^598,834 in 1864 ; also income from state rentes (national debt bonds) ^'425,892 ; contribu- tions of the Communes ^568,033 ; comjjensation \y\\(S. by persons nursed ^221,133. In 1871, the number of sick treated was very large, viz., 583,850, but this was an exceptional year, out of 1000 treated in this year 797 were healed, whilst the por])ortion of deaths was as high as 8.5 per cent. In 1873, the number of sick treated in hospitals and wards of hos])ices was 410,341. The number of hosjiitals for sick was 329 ; 407 for old and infirm, and 745 mixed establishments ; number of beds 161,520 ; income ^4,194,508. * Notwithstandiii" this and hiniilar institutions, tacts like the lollovving occur: — ■ 45,860 persons tlied in Paiis in i86S: init of these- only 33,855 died in tiuir homes; against 1 1,555 in the hospitals, 1 18 in the prisons; 321 were found dead. In the year 187^, the numi)ers were: deaths 39,650, of these in tlieir own dwellings 19,503, or 7 per cent. In the hospitals 9,8^7, or 25 ])er cent. ; in the prisons 45 ; found dead 205. France — Land and People. 259 In 1874, there were n^ hospitals, 774 mixed institutions (Asylums and hospitals combined), and 389 hospices, making a total of 1,498 institutions. These establishments contained 163,042 beds of which 70,468 were for the sick, and 53,302 for the infirm, the aged and the incurable. Persons in charge of these establishments numbered 28,224 viz: — 2,739 physicians and surgeons, 3,199 employes, 11,021 religieuses, and 11,345 servants. The total revenue for 1874, was ^4,119,560, of this sum ^644,540 were reimbursements by patients. Total expenditure ^3,572,562, of which ^"1,272, 906 was for food and p{^i 11,933 was for medicines. Foutic ilings. In fan uS cared for during the year 1874 — Boys Girls Infan -s found 1,417 1,505 1^ abandoned ... 21,766 20,982 M orphans 4,896 4,152 >> at home with parents 16,746 16,043 44,825 42,682 '^'ot^'^1 «7,5o7 FOREIGN POSSESSIONS, Jews 10,929 14,111 7,949 Total 909,290 523,848 1,015,553 France — ■Fflreis;;u Possessions;. 2G1 Algeria. The area of this country was fixed in the report of the Minister of War for 1850, at about 15,051 scjuare miles. The boundaries are but ill- defined. The coast line is given in a ministerial survey of 1854, as 250 hours' journey (lieus). A more recent estimate makes the colonized land to extend 50,743 sfjuare miles, of which 12,429 scjuare miles belong to the territory of Algiers, 14,725 to Oran, and 23,569 to Constantine. The total population is given in a report of the (rovernor-General, October, 1875, as 2,448,691, not including the military. Population, 1875. Departments French Other Europeans Mohammedans Algiers ... 59,632 42,535 796, i94 Oran ... 41,191 48.331 420,215 Constantine 43,248 25,645 938,711 Total ... 144,071 116,511 2,155,110 32,989 2,448,691* Among the Europeans there were 71,366 Spaniards, 18,351 Italians, 11,512 Maltese, 4,933 Germans. In the following years there were of Europeans: — 1831 1836 1846 1856 1866 3,228 ... 14,561 ... 99,801 ... 159-282 .. 217,990 The number of immigrants rose in the year 1872 to 1,003 families, with 5,016 individuals, 382 families or 1,230 persons of whom were from Alsace-Lorraine, to whom special advantages were offered. They consisted of 1,202 men, 1,113 women, 2,701 children, who were settled in 24 villages. According to creeds, there were in 1866, among the Europeans, 211,195 Romanists, 5,002 Protestants, 33,952 Jews, 2,652,072 Mohame- dans. 217,098 of the latter lived in the districts subject to civil adminis- tration, and the centres of colonization in the military districts, and 2.434,974 in the uncolonized military districts. Among the 21 7,098 Mo- hamedans, there were 44,498 married men, and 46,841 married women, whence we see how little polygamy prevails. 41,578 equal to 93.50 per cent, then had each only one wife ; 2,571, equal to 5.73 per cent, two wives, and only 344, etjual to 0.77 percent, more than two wives. The town of Algiers had in 1861, 63,484 inhabitants, of whom 9,921 were soldiers, and 18,727 natives. In 1866, not including the military, there were 52,614 ; Oran, 34,058; Constantine, 35,417 inhabitants. For 1871 we find Algiers, 48,908; Oran, 40,674; Constantine, 33,251. In 1875, we find Algiers, 909,290 ; Oran. 523,848 ; Constantine, 1.015,553. The total number of peojile employed in agriculture wns estimated in 1863 as 109,808 ; in 1875 ^^ ^ 18,852 ; 1876 as 123,304. In 1857, the natives were divided into races as follows : — ,, ^ . ,, , , A u Kabyls of the Mountain Kabyls Arabs Plain Division of Algiers ... 280,474 ... 447,752 ... 27,800 „ „ Oran ... 22,819 — 431,485 ••. 45.462 „ „ Constantine 277,135 ... 506,195 ... 305,691 Total 580,428 ... 1,385,432 ... 378,953 The Nomadic Tribes live in tents ; other natives have Gourbis, which * In iSyy the population increased to z,867,626. 262 France — Foreign Possessions. indicate somewhat more of a fixed residence. A small number have houses. In 1857 they were reckoned as follows : — Division Tents Gourbis Houses Algiers 55.S29 ••• 65,837 ... 39,381 Oran 77)389 ••• 6,986 ... 8,772 Constantine ... ... 111,881 ... 63,405 ... 3i>327 Total ... ... 244,799 ••• 136,228 ... 795480 Cojiimerce. The value of the merchandize imported into Algiers in 1875 was ;:^7)694,336, and in 1876, ^8,541,407. The value of the exports in 1875 was ^5,757,296, and in 1876, ^^6,661, 233. From Imports Exports Total 1860-65 ... ;^£'3 2, 336,000 ... ^12,476,000 ... /;44,8i2,ooo 1865-70 ... 36,717,844 ... 20,175.304 ... 56,893,144 1870-77 ... 54,944,868 ... 41,711,712 ... 96,656,570 The general commerce of Algeria was divided in the following man- ner in 1876. With foreign countries and their entre])ots in France, ^4,55o,-332- Commerce with France, ^10,998,575. Harbour Trade. Reckoning all the vessels which entered and cleared the harbours^ In 1870 there were 6,109 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,152,734 tons „ 1871 „ „ 6,447 )» ,, M 1,222,873 „ 902,316 ... tons of which sailed under the French flag 143,728 ... „ „ „ English „ 112,273 ••• n V n Barbary „ 69,990 ... „ „ ,, Spanish ,, 32,599 ... „ „ „ Italian In 1875, 7,697 vessels, with 1,792,263 tonnage. Among the foreign powers, whose vessels entered and cleared the ports, England stands first — tonnage, 303,738 ; S]xain second, with a tonnage of 131,141 ; Italy third ; tonnage, 63,256. Mercantile uMari/ie. On December 31, 1871, there were 159 ships, of 7,583 tonnage j> >, 1875 „ 154 „ 5,405 „ » V 1877 „ 177 ,, 5,681 „ Education. In 1856 there were ... ... ... 3 his^'h schools „ ,, ... ... ... 7 secondary schools „ „ ... ... ... 407 clemcntar\- schools containing 25,980 children in all. 68 infants' schools, with 6.871 scholars, were included in these. Education was, according to this, in a miserable condition. An account of 1857 gave, however, 2,851 schools, with 33,715 children. In 1875 a decree was passed, that the law of France, concerning public instruction, should be applied in Algeria also. The number of scholars frequenting the schools in 1877 was 65,786 out of a European population of 390,504, including naturalized Jews. T 1'ancc- -Foreign Possessions. 263 The Arab colleges have been suppressed, and their scholars distributed amongst French institutions, and mixed schools are organized. The Arabic language is introduced into the examinations for diplomas. The Mussul- men scholars number 210 in the Lyceum and the colleges, and 2.139 in the different mixed schools of the three provinces. Areport of i863states the numberof scholars attending school as35,ooo. The ])ossession of Algeria cost France, according to Picard's report to the Corps Legislatif, 1864, ^120,000,000, and the lives of 150,000 soldiers, only about 5,000 of whom fell by the sword of the enemy, all the rest being carried off by disease. The colonization of the country has been greatly promoted by Government. Tempted by the advantages held out to them, more than 1,000,000 Europeans emigrated by degrees from 1830 to 1S55 to Algeria, but they either perished there or returned to their fatherland. liie climate (hot, but alternating with intense cold at night) is highly destructive to north and central Eurojjeans. Thus, after 46 years of coloni- zation and immense sacrifices, the European population of the whole of Algeria scarcely equals that of a large town. The number of marriages and births is proportionately large, as the immigrants are almost all in the prime of life. 10.04 marriages and 42.83 births were the average in 1,000 Europeans inhabitants in the year 1851. (In France there were only 7.8 marriages, and scarcely 29. births). In 1856 the marriages averaged 10.61. and the births 37.94 per 1,000 ; but the mortality is, as a rule, much higher. From 1842 to 1851 the average deaths in 1,000 Europeans living there was 52.69, exclusive of the military. (In France itself there were only 27.7 in 1,000 during the cholera ej^demic of 1 849, and in ordinary years only 24.6.) Even in the unusually favourable year (1856) a proportion of 28.55 deaths was announced. The disproportion is even greater than these figures shew, because nearly the whole of the European population is at its greatest strength — a condition which, in France itself, would scarcely give 11 deaths ])er 1,000. From 1830 to the end of 1 85 1 there were, among the Eurojiean po])ulation in the Provinces of Birlhs Deaths Algiers 25,411 34,979 Oran ii,755 13,602 Constantine ... ... 7>734 ••• ••• 12,097 44,900 ... ... 60,678 It will be seen from these figures that there were more deaths than births in all the provinces, and subsequently the disproportion has only ceased exceptionally. In the three years (1852, 1853, 1854) there were 17,685 births, against 19,004 deaths. Only in 1856 do we find a pre- ponderance of births. The Swiss and (lerman colonists suffer most severely, for as they belong to a northern country, they are least able to bear field work in so hot a climate.* * In the much-praised Swiss colony, Setif, no fewer than 75 colonists out of 528 who had gone there, died in the first year, 1854, in the proportion, therefore, of" more than 142 in 1.000. There died besides, 22 persons who had been liroiij^ht to Algeria by the .Setit Colonization Society, and who resided at other places in the sub-district of Setif. The Colonization Society has ceased to publish exact statements of more recent results, but it was jbliged, in 1X59. to give up the cultivation of the land by European labor, and to work it hencelorth by natives only. 264 France — Foreign Possessions. Death makes even more havoc among the children of Europeans, than among adults, so that the colonists have not even the hope of ensuring a happy future to their descendants. The Moorish population in the towns is likewise dwindling away. In 1851 there were 3,567 births, and 9,930 deaths among this part of the population. The negroes also diminished by 989 individuals from 1849 to 185 1, that is, by i6| per cent. The Jewish population alone has a preponderance of births, inasmuch as their numbers increased in the two years by 2,020 souls, or more than 10^ per cent.* In addition to the climate, the system of bureaucratic rule, united to to the military regime., has helped not a little, to frustrate all attempts at colonization. After 36 years" rule, the government, in the year 1866, con- ceded 549,014 acres of land to European colonists, and confirmed the possession of 175.817 acres to natives who had long held them as their own. Even in the favorable year 1856, out of 39,239 immigrants, 30,460 re- turned. The area of the colony nominally cultivated by colonists was 195,426 acres. A report, drawn up on the occasion of the Vienna Exhibition, for the General Council, of the progress of the colony since its establishment, and more especially since 1850, presents a most favorable picture. We give the following extracts from it. ''Previous to 1830, (that is, before the French conquest), the export trade of Algeria amounted only to ^200,000 to ^240,000 ; in 1872 it rose to ^6,584,145. Included in this v.'ere iron-ore about _;^8oo,ooo ; cattle, _;,^6oo,ooo ; wool, ;^5 80,000 ; cereals, ^1,480,000. The Alfa plant, from which paper is manufactured, produced ;;^24o,ooo : and in the previous year, ;^i 20,000. Algeria cannot compete with tropical countries in the production of cotton. The export of cotton, which in 1866 amounted to 14,040 cwts., has steadily decreased to only 2,277 cwts. in 1872. The export of tobacco also decreased from 98,392 cwts. in the year i860, to one-half that weight in 1872. The export of corn in 1850 was only 5,630 cwts., but rose in 1855 to more than 2,000,000 cwts. The Algerian corn partly replaced that of Odessa during the Crimean war. A diminution took ]jlace immediatelv after the peace, but a continuous rise has taken place since, so that the export in 1872 amounted to 915,000 cwts. ; in 1875 ^^ 2,000,000 cwts. The exports of wool rose likewise from 40,177 cwts. in 1850, to 66.294 cwts. in 1872. Sheep breeding has also received a great impetus. In 1850, 4,984 shee]> were exported ; in 1872 as many as 655,000 ; and in 1874, 9,699,000. The export of "Hair Grass,'' {Crin Vegetal), at present exceeds 179,071 cwts. ; that of Alfaf 97,000,000 cwts.; that of iron reached almost 8,000,000 cwts. The cultivation of the vine is also in- creasing from year to year; the exports in 1872 amounted to 165,814 gallons, of the value of ;;^6,400. The export of rough cork produced ;^ 1 00,000. A similar increase is seen in the jiroduce of olive oil, fresh vegetables, and pulse. * Dr. Boudin has furnished interesting particulars in his work Historie Statistigue de la Colonization et de la Pof>ulatio7i en Algerie, Paris, 1853. Compare also the treatise on" Emi- gration to Algeria," by G. F. Koi.b, in Part XXI of the 'fraiisacliojis of the Swiss Society of Geitfiiil Usefulness for the year 1854. t In 1874 the production amounted to 58,000 tons, most of which was exported to England. France — Foreign Possessions. 265 Ic will be understood that even this very favourai)le account does not contradict the failure of many branches of agriculture on which great hopes had been founded. An important and favorable change may be ex])ectcte for a loan of ^4,000,000, to be gradually expended on the general improvement of the countrw I Hiring 1 863 only 27 miles of railways existed : in 1876, 318 miles were working; the annual income was ^268,338. There were 78 telegraph offices. 7 telegraph offices were opened in Algeria in 1877. An effort has been made to combine, as much as possible, the two services of post and telegraph. Three telegraph bureaus were united to the post in 1877, making the number of the double bureaus 17. Algiers has 217 post-ofifices. Net income of post in 1876 wasp^54,320. Colonies. Colonies proper are chiefly under the direction of the Admiralty, and are ranged into two principal groups, one of which enjoys most of the privileges of the Mother Country, while the second is governed by extra- ordinary laws. Under the first comes Martinique, Guadaloupe and Reunion, while under the second we have Guiana, Indian possessions. Senegal, Cochin-(?hina, and the various little scattered islands. IX AMERICA. Area in acres Population in 1876 Value of Imports Value Exports Martinique 243^808 164,995 ^1,037,536 ^1,114,602 Guadaloupe and its de-(^ pendencies ...) 654,853 175,5^6 876,158 935,107 French Guiana 1,778,400 22,510 321,712 20,318 St. Pierre and Miquelon 51,840 9,175 344,340 444,234 Barthelemy* ... 560 IN AFF 2'374 UCA. Settlements Area in Acres Population in 1876 Value of Imports Value of Exports Senegal 197,272 £s 06,845 ^539-365 La Reunion ... 620,365 183,786 996,475 1,223.440 -Madagascar — Mayotte 44,460 9,311 25,700 33,324 Nossi-Be 37,050 7,741 59,477 82,486 St. Maria 16,466 6,948 9,339 i»977 * Bartiiflemv belonged to Sweden until 187-7: when it was bought by France at t!ie price of ^3,200 and _;^i 2,800 for pensioning Swedish orticials. 266 France — Foreign Possessions. 1\ ASIA. Dependencies of— Pondicherrv Karikal Yanaon Mahe Corhin China... Art-:i in Acres Population , Value of in 1876 , Imports Value of Exports 47-155 1') I ^-Ylf'\-2^S,022 X337,734' ^773,889 13,472 ) ! 13,585,000 1.528,830 2,681,760 ' 3,520,444 IX OCF.AXIA. Society Islands, Tahiti^ and Moorea ...j New Caledonia Marquesas Islands ... Tuamotu archipelago... Tubuai Islands Area in .Acres Population in 1 8-6 ! Value of ! Imports Value of Exports 289,920 I 16,142 I ;^i53,xoo ! ;>^I38,I35 4,080,400 I 55,078 i 358,305 I 161,364 276,640 : 10,000 1 i 1,352/ 5M-462 : 35,32s I 345 ) The value of the whole land in the various colonies, and estimate of one year's produce : Total Value \"alue of a Veai's Produce Martini(iue ... ^^3, 7 3°, 188 ... ^^5 5 2.3 7 3 (ruadaloupe ... ... ... 3,829,536 ... — Guiana ... ... ... 315,376 ... 19,232 Reunion ... ... ... 6,176,540 ... 314,770 The kingdom of Camboja ajipears as a protected Slate, under the protection of France : it has a population of about a million and a-half. 'I'he king of Siam solemnly recognized the protectorate of l'"rance over Camboja by a treaty concluded in July, 1867. The chief jjroducts of the French colonies are — sugar, syrup, coffee. cotton, cocoa, cloves, vanilla, pepper, tobacco. GERMANY (Empire) LAND AND PEOPLE.* M^i CCORDING to the limitations of the Constitution of i6th April, W^^ 1871, Germany consists of the following individual States and Wi^Jn Dominions, whose sovereignties have be Home merged, by force of conquest, into the Empire : — Population States and Dominions English sqr. miles Population in 1877 to the English 134,503 sqr mile. f Kingdom of Prussia ... 25,742,404 190 ) Dukedom of Lauenburg 451 49,546 109 2. Kingdom of Bavaria 29,399 5,022,390 171 3. Saxony ... 5,783 2.760,586 477 4. Wi-irtemburg 7,526 1,881,505 250 5. Grand Duchy of Baden 5,825 1,507,179 258 6. „ ,, Hesse 2,955 884,218 299 ( „ „ Mechlenburg- { * \ Schwerin ) 5,M5 557,897 loS 8. „ ,, Sax-Weimar ... 1,403 286,183 203 ( „ „ Mechlenburg- ) ^ \ Strelitz ^ f 1,105 96,982 87 10. „ „ Oldenburg 2,466 316,640 T28 II. „ ,, Brunswick 1,424 3111764 218 12. Sax-Meiningen ... 956 187,957 196 13. Sax-Altenburg ... 510 142,122 278 14. Sax-Coburg-Ciotha 760 174,339 229 15. Anhalt (Dukedom) 903 203,437 225 , (Schwarzburg-Rudol])hstadt ) \ (Principality \ 361 75,523 209 17. Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen 329 lany contains a 67,191 264 * ( )f the area and popubtioii, North Gern bout ^, and the So Uth A. 26S G mil any — Laud and People. States and !}n ninions. 1 8. Waldeck (Princi])alit\) 19. Reuss (old line) 20. „ (new) 21. Schaumhurg-LiiJpe 22. Lippe (Princi])ality) 23. Free town ot Liibcck 24. Bremen ... ..^ 25. Hamburg 26. Alsace- Lorraine... English sqr. miles 435 116 318 170 435 108 95 159 5^591 Population in 1S77 56,242 45.094 89,032 32,059 111,135 52,15^ 122,402 338,974 1,531,804 Population to the English sqr. mile 129 388 279 188 255 482 1,288 2,131 273 Total... 210,493 I 42,727,360 I 202 Increase of Population. The number of inhabitants was estimated in 1818 at 30,157,638 (certainly too low a number) ; in 1865 at 46,412,000, an increase, there- fore, of 16,254,400, or almo.st 54 per cent, (more exact, 53.89 per cent.) If we subtract the population separated from the original registered number — viz., that of German, Austrian, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, and Lim- burg as 9,743,451, and the then |)opulation of the Prussian and Posen provinces and Schleswig as about 2,639,300, we shall see that the popu- lation of (rermany now, without Alsace-Lorraine, has increased at the rate of 63.78 ])er cent. The increase, however, is very unequal in the various lands. According to a calculation of 1863, the increase in the territory of the Bund gave a total i)ercentage of 50- 77 ; but, taking each country separately, the increase in each was as follows : — Per cent. Percent. Austria .. 28.44 ."^ax -Weimar 36. c8 Prussia 76.08 Sax-Meiningen 49.04 Bavaria •• 31-73 Sax-Cot)urg-( iolha ... 42.00 Saxony •• 85.43 .Sax-Altenburg 39.E8 Hanover ... .. 44.64 Reuss (old) 80.31 Wiirtemburg •• 23.30 Reuss (new) 59-67 Baden .. 36.92 Lippe 75- J 2 (irand Duchy of Hesse .. 30.03 Schauniburg 28.22 Kur Hesse .. 30.03 Waldeck 1 12.96 Mecklenburg-Schwerin •• 53-^9 Schwerin-Sonderhausen 43-85 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 38. 02 Hesse-Homburg ... 34.08 Holstein-Lauenburg • • 65.15 Lichtenstein 28.93 Luxemburg- Limburg .. 64.73 Hamburg ... 78..S, Nassau .. 50.81 l-Jremen 103.24 Brunswi( k ... •• 34-73 Liibeck 19. 12 Oldenburg ... •• 35-59 l'"rankfort ... 75-:8 Within the present boundaries of the (".cnnan IJnpire, tlierefore, including .Msace- Lorraine, the population in 1865 numbered, as nearly as can be ascertained, 39,890,000 ; the census of 1867 gave 40,093,279, ami Germany — Land and People. 269 that of December i, 187 1, gave 4 1,05 8,641, so that the increase in the two years, 1865 to 1867, was 700,000, a yearly increase, that is to say, of 350,000, or nearly 0.89 per cent. In the 4 years, 1867 to 1871, the increase was less — viz., 965,362, annually 241,340, or less than 0.60 per cent. The war, of course, was instrumental in producing this lesser average. The increase has been largest in the Hanseatic towns of Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck — viz., for the 4 years, 10.9, 10.6, 6.0 per cent. ; next comes Saxony, 5.4 ;ax-Meiningen 3.6 ; in Prussia 2.7 ; m Wurtemburg and Hesse, 2.5; in Baden, 1.8; in Bavaria, something over 1-2 per cent. A decrease of population occurred in these 4 years, 1867-71, in 8 territories — viz., in Alsace-Lorraine, of 3 per cent. ; Reuss (old rule), 2.7; Waldeck, 2.2; Strelitz, 1.8; Sonderhausen, 1.3; Lauenburg, 0.9; Lippe, 0.7 ; and Schwerin, 0.5 percent. Population according to sex. Within the boundaries of the ZoUverein the population, including the troops who were in France in 1871, was thus given : — Inhabitants 1855 1864 1867 1S71 Women ... 16,533,669 18,096,608 18,776,247 21,006,022 Men 16,185,032 17,783,225 18,304,392 20,250,147 Difference 755>875 348,637 313,383 471,855 If we reckon the like amount of territory for each year under notice, and leave out Alsace-Lorraine, then, for 187 1, we should have — Women 20,216,475 Men 19,490,107 Difference 726,368 The difference had become still larger by 158,472 in the three years, 1 864-1 867, and in the four years, 1868-71, by 254,513, or, in the whole seven years, by 412,985 — a difference created, no doubt, by the war in 1870 and 187 1, as well as by an increased emigration. In France the difference in 1855 was ... ... 299,024 ,, „ ,, 1866 was only... ... 38,876 1872 „ 137.899 In individual states, including the troops in France, the population of the sexes, in 187 1, was thus stated : — Men Women Difference Prussia ... ..• ••• ... 12,141,082 12,498,624 357,542 Lauenburg ... 24,958 24,588 370 Bavaria ... 2,368,558 2,494,892 126,334 Saxony ... ... 1,248,799 1,307.445 58,646 Wurtemburg- 876,164 942,375 66,2 11 Baden ... ... ... 711,551 749,011 37,460 Hesse ... ... ... 421, 84Q 431,045 9,196 Mechlenburg -Schwerin ... 272,034 285,863 13,829 Sax-Weimar 139,352 146,831 7,-179 Mechlenburg -Strelitz 47,062 49,920 2,858 Oldenburg ... 156,701 159,939 Ci^^O'^ 270 Gt'nnany — Laud and People. Brunswick Sax-Meiningon ... Sax-Altenburg . . . Sa\-Coburg-( lotha Anhalt ... Schwcrin-Rudolphsladl Sondersheiin Waldeck Keuss (old) Reuss (new) Schaumburg Tvippe Liibeck ... Bremen ... Hamburg Alsace-Lorraine ... Men Women Difference J55»355 156,409 1,054 92,107 95,850 3,743 69,255 72,869 3,612 84,377 ^^9,962 5.585 99,858 103,579 3,721 36,837 38,686 1,849 32,668 34,523 1,855 --6,387 29,837 3-450 22,240 22,854 614 43-443 45^589 2,146 J 5,903 16.156 345 54,637 56,498 1,861 25,104 27,054 1,950 59,275 63,127 3,852 165,306 I 73,668 8,367 760,040 789.547 29,502 With the single e.\cei)tion of Lauenburg, the female i)art of the popu- lations predominates. Households and Dwdlvig Houses. 'l"he census of December ist, 1871, gives the number uf households as 8,668,189, each household, on an average, containing 4.7 persons, and this number of households dwelling in 5,330,000 houses,* viz., Households Uwelliiig Houses In Prussia 5,116,804 2,892,396 „ Lauenburg ... ... 10,706 6,117 ,, Bavaria ... 1,062,374 795.000 ,, Saxony ... 539,304 ••• 339, J 69 „ ^^'urtemburg 397,980 ... 273,928 ,, Baden 300,235 ... 204,772 „ Hesse .. 180,260 126,072 ,, Mechlenburg-Schwerin 1 17,264 60,000 ,, Sax Weimar... 60,848 ... 47,241 ,, Mechlenburg-Sirelil/ 21,047 9,438 „ Oldenburg ... .. 66,689 ... 51,192 ,, l]runswick ... 70,254 ... 34,556 „ Sax-Meiningen 39,799 ••• 27,688 ,, Sax-Altenl)urg 31.940 ... 20,526 „ Sax-Coburg-Cloiha ... 39,085 ... 26,899 „ Anhall .. 43,295 ••• 26,598 „ Schwar/.burg Rudolphsta dt.. 16,328 11,822 „ Schwarzl.iurg Sondershau sen 15,221 ii>337 „ Waldeck .. 11,535 ... 8,503 „ Reuss (old) ... .. 9,969 ... 5,226 „ Reuss (new)... .. 19,161 '1-177 „ Schaumburg .. 6,742 ... 4,678 „ Lipjjc •• 23,721 15,624 * I lie woril " 1h,u-.i1h)U1 "' i i scjircily a convct one, as it ; ijrnitics Ikic not nierely a Umily, hut in many cases a single individual keeping; house on his or her own account. Gcrinaiiy — Land and People. 71 In lAi]:)C(k ,, Bremen „ Hamburg ,, Alsace-Lorraine Hausehoidb 12, OI'^ 24,388 74,904 356,461 Dweiliii^ Houses 6,163 1K.397 26,250 265,590 It must be remenil)ered that the statenient of houses is very inadc- ([uate, upon which to form a comparison, as it rejtresents here e(|ually the mansions in the great towns, and the wooden huts or cottages in the country. There is a great variety in the houses of large cities ; look at London, with its houses arranged for one family, and at Paris, with its houses erected to contain a dozen families. Nationalities. I'he best sign b)- which to judge of these is the mother-tongue. Taking this as the best method, we find that the whole population of the middle and small states, with the exception of some 50,000 Wends in Saxony, si)eak German (the Wends in Altenburg speak (lerman). Further, there are some 240,000-250,000 French in Alsace-Lorraine. Met/, and its suburbs are almost entirely French. Most of the provinces of Prussia contain a pure German population. The other provinces, however, con- tain 2,900,000 who are not Germans. Taking into consideration the increase of the ]jopulation, since the numbering of the nationalities in Prussia in 1 86 1, the following non-German inhabitants must not be lost sight of. Poles ... ... ... 2,500,000 [ Lithuanians ... ... 150,000 Wends... ... ... 150,000 | Danes ... ... ... 150,000 Czechs... ... ... 60,000 i French 250,000 3,260,000 Total Sclavonians ... 2,710,000 Total including \ \ Sclavonians...) In December, 187 1, there were within the empire, 194,202 foreigners from European countries, and 12,553 foreigners from other parts of the world, of whom 83,145 Europeans \ 4,159 others \ 37,373 Europeans f_ 1,496 others \ 23,048 F^uropeans \ 1,350 others ) 12,929 Europeans \ S82 others \ 9,263 Europeans ) 1,393 others \ 12,087 Europeans ^ 104 others \ 6,090 Europeans ^ 1,258 others \ 802 Europeans \ 562 others \ Of these 206,755 foreigners 75,702 ... ... were from .Vustria and Hungar} '•-i.^i8 ... ... ,, ,, Switzerland 22,042 „ , „ Holland were in Prussia were in Bavaria were in Sa.vony were in Baden were in Wlirtemburg were in Alsace-Lorraine were in Hamburg were in Bremen 211 Gerinavy — Laird and People. 14,535 10,698 10,105 4,671 5.094 192 44 15,163 12,346 5,097 4,828 4,019 310 86 1,896 were from Russia (including Poles) United States Great Britian France Turkey and its dependences Greece Portugal Denmark Norway and Sweden Belgium Luxembunj; Italy Spain Lichtenstein without accurate information Cf'Ci'ds. According to the census of 1871 (December), including German troops then in France. = '^ c S = .5 ^ vi .s 5 •0 A.- — States— Northern Germany ocli il •= 5 '■f- I| VI £ « Qi a o'J — ^ U u ■^ s ■^ " 53.882 OQ I Prussia 15,987-927 8,267,862 325.540 85 44.410 ,, Lauenburg ... 49,391 132 9 14 -- 2 Saxony (Kingdom) ... 2.493,556 53-642 4,893 3,357 19 111 3 Mecklenburg -Schwerin 553-492 i 336 98 2,945 I -I 4 ,. Strelitz... 96*329 167 I 485 — — 5 Oldenburg 242-945 71,205 952 1,484 I 53 6 Brunswick 302,989 7,033 574 1,171 — - — 7 Sax- Weimar ... 275,492 9,404 161 1,120 6 2,610 8 Sax-Meiningen 181,964 1,564 176 1,625 18 3 9 Sax-Coburg-Gotha ... 172,786 1.263 76 210 I 3 10 Sax-Altenburg 141,901 150 18 10 — — II Reuss (old) ... 44,898 187 27 10 — — 12 Reuss (new) ... 88,782 2,638 34 20 — 9 13 J^ipp^ 107,462 386 1,035 — 83 '4 Schaumburg Waldeck Anhalt fSchwarzburg- >^ \ Rudolijlistadlj" (Schwar/.burg- ( \ SondcrshauscnJ Hamburg Bremen I.uberk 31,216 54,0551 198,107, 75,294 66,824 306,553 1 1 8, 1 03 5 1,08:; Total Norlhern Gcrnianv.-;2 1,64 1, 1 5 i 1.305 3.378 104 .76 5 00^ ' 834 - 1,896 - 119— 186 — 7,748! 3,i66| 13,796, 3,550! ,84' 465' 400 104 565 7,689 4 8,433,820:64.575 357,247 153(15,663 ' ■ i ■ i Germany — Land and People. 273 Southern Germany c S . C 5j.2 x'5 f •7; « •a es Di « o| '—> u h w 5,453 J3 B X I Bavaria 1,342,592 3,464,364 50,662 15 364 2 Wiirtemburg 1,248,860 553,542 3,857 12,245 2 33 3 Baden *49i,oo8 942,560 2,265 25,703 2 24 4 Hesse 585,399 238,080 3,873 25,373 3 166 5 Alsace-Lorraine 270,699 1,235,097 2,132 4,0928 I 730 Total Southern Germany.. 3,938,558 6,433,643 17,580 154,911 23 1,317 In 1878, there were in the German Empire 25,600,000 Evangelicals, 14,900,000 Roman Catholics, 28,000,000 Orthodox Greeks, 512,000 Jews, and 6,000 of other denominations, or of those not belongin^^ to any. Protestants Roman Catholics Other Christians Jews North Germany South Germany ... 21,641,151 - 3,938,558 8,433,820 6,433,643 64,575 17,580 357,247 154,9" Total - 25,579,709 14,867,463 82,155 512,158 Other Religious Denominations Not Stated North Germany South Germany I 53 23 15,663 1,317 Total 176 16,980 In the North, Protestantism preponderates, and in the South, Roman Catholicism, though not nearly in so overpowering a degree. Taking the per centage of the whole population, we have — Protestants Catholics In the North... ... ... 70.03 ... ... 27.64 per cent. „ „ South 37.35 61.01 „ „ all Germany ... ... 62.30 ... ... 36.21 „ The term " Protestants" includes Lutherans, Members of the Reformed and the United Churches, the Reformers reckoning the smallest number. Under the phrase "other Christians" come Old Lutherans, 32,000; Baptists, 13,500; Mennonites, 22,000; German Catholics and members of the Free Communion 16,000 ; Irvingites, Episcopalians, Greeks, etc. The Jews form 1.25 per cent, of the population. The small Christian com- munities form 0.20 per cent, only ; professors of other religions not more than 0.0004 per cent., while those having none form 0.04. EjMt'gra^t'on. If we put Ireland on one side, no European land has witnessed the amount of emigration that Germany has. The natural disposition of the German race to wander is not the only cause of this colossal exodus. Social and political condition, and dissatisfaction with the compulsory mili- tary service, have been and still are powerfully active causes. S 274 Germany — Land and People. 'J"he first great emigration from Germany to North America, took place in the year 1780, in Wiirtemburg and the Palatinate; the next and still larger, at the time of the famine in 181 7-18. According to the most correct information, the number of emigrants from Germany to the United States between the years 1820-30, was not more than 7,729. From 1831-40 the number rose to 152,454. From 1841-51 to 434,621, and from 1851-60 to 951,667. From the middle of the year 1850, the emigrants from Germany have exceeded those from Ireland. The unfavorable reports from the United States caused an important decrease in 1855 ; indeed 18,000 returned to their fatherland. Since that time an increased emigration has set in. All estimates of the extent of emigration are only ap])roximately correct. As far as we can judge, the total number of (ierman emigTants to the United States alone was in 1845 74,000 I 1854 251,931 1846 94,581 I 1855 81,698 1847 109,531 i 1856 98,573 1848 81,895 I 1857 115,976 1849 ... ... ... 89,102 1858 ... ... ... 53,266 1850 ... 82,404 j 1859 ... ... ... 45,100 1851 ... 112,547 I i860 49,669 1852 162,301 I 1861 35,427* 1853 157,180 ' The following table gives the number of German emigrants, and the ports at which they embarked. 1873 1874 1S75 1876 1877 1878 48,608 17,913 12,620 10,972 9,328 11,329 51,432 24,093 15,826 12,706 10,725 11,827 -^ 1,536 268 202 75 85 3,598 1,576 2,066 4,488 1,836 976 6,776 2,511 1,489 1,258 — — Bremen Hamburg Stettin .A^ntwerp Havre Total ... 110,414 47,629 32,269 29,626 21,964 24,217 It must not be forgotten that emigrants to all other countries are omitted in the calculation, especially those to Australia, California direct, British North America, South America, and to other Europeans lands. From 1819-55, the total number of German emigrants, according to Gabler, amounted to 1,799,853. In the 20 years 1847-66, there landed in New York alone 1,345,619 Germans, which number increased to 2,052,343 by the year 1873. If it be taken into consideration how many Prussians and Austrians are hot included, how many emigrants wend their way to other lands than those named, and that the emigrants are, as a rule, the young and vigorous of the ])opulation, it will then be seen liow great the loss is to the country. Towns. '\ Germany, as regards its possession of large towns, stands far behind * 'I'hose passing by way oi Havre not included in 1861. Germaiit landed at New York passed out of (Jerman li.iil)oiirs alone, t As theie has litt-n no distinctive mark hy wliicli to distingui-h a town, Germany has adopted the example of France, and declared all places with more than i,ooo inhabitants to be towns, and those with a less i).)pulation, ommuncs. Germany — Land and People. 2/5 England and France. According to the returns of 1875, there was only one town of more than half a million of inhabitants, viz., Berlin, with 826,000, and none between 250,000 and 500,000 ; and yet German towns, as a rule, are in a flourishing condition. There are nine towns with a population varying between 100,000 and 250,000, viz. — Hamburg Breslau... Dresden Munich Cologne 240,000 208,000 177,000 170,000 129,000 Magdeburg* Konigsberg Leipzig... Hanoverf 1 14,000 1 12,000 107,000 104,000 Of medium-sized towns, Germany possesses, by means of her conquest of Alsace-Lorraine, a larger number than France. Twenty-two of these towns have a population above 50,000, and are here given. Stuttgart ... Dantzic ... Niirnberg ... Stettin Altona Elberfeld ... Chemnitz ... Crefeld Mainz Halle Metz 92,000 i> ranklort A. M 89,000 Strasburg ... 83,000 Bremen ... 76,000 Aix-la-Chapelle 74,000 Barmen ... 71,000 Diisseldorf 68,000 Brunswick 57,000 Posen 54,000 Miilhausen 53>ooo Essen 51,000 Augsburg ... 91,000 86,000 83,000 74,000 74,000 69,000 58,000 56,000 53>ooo 5 1,000 51,000 Seven towns have a population between 40,000 and 50,000, viz., Cassel, Dortmund, Potsdam, Erfurt, Frankfort on the Oder, Giirlitz and Wurzburg. Twenty-one towns contain a population varying from 25,000 to 40,000. Such are Liibeck, Mannheim, Darmstadt, Carlsruhe, Wiesba- den, Coblenz, Kiel, Elbing, Rostock, Duisburg, Regensburg, Bromberg, Zwickau, Schwerin, Stralsund, Gladbach, Ulm, Bonn, Brandenburg, Bam- berg and Halberstadt. Twenty-one towns contain a population of fronr 20,000 to 25,000. Germany contains 1,985 towns of more than 2,000 inhabitants, making a total of 13,162,864, while 27,847,135 live in communes and villages. Of the first category there are i6g 99 61 For Statistical purposes towns in Germany are divided into two classes, those containing over 2,000 inhabitants, and those containing less than 2,000. The Conditions or Relations of the Conftderacy, CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. After Prussia had declared the "Cierman Confederacy" to be dis- solved, 14th June, 1866, she issued an invitation on July i6th, to the other States of North Germany to join in a new union. An agreement was :n Prussia ... ... 1,056 In Bavaria .. ,, Saxony ... 199 „ Wiirtembur „ Baden ... 117 „ Hesse „ Alsace-Lorraine 98 * Iiv;ludin!r N?w Town. t Includirko; Linden. 2/6 Germany — Land and People. formed, under date August i8th and 21st, between 18 States, which was afterwards subscribed to by 4 others, (the last to do so being Saxony, on October 21st), and it was thus worded: — " To form an offensive and defensive aUiance, for the maintenance of the independence and integrity, as well as of the internal and ex- ternal safety of the said States, and at once to unite in the mutual defence of their possessions, which possessions they mutually guarantee to one another." Upon this was formed the Constitution of the Union, definitely announced at Berlin, June 24th, 1867. In the meantime the Prussian Government had on the very days on which it had concluded peace with Wiirtemburg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, viz: August 13th and 22nd, and September 3rd, 1866, concluded also further treaties of alliance with these same States, which were at first kept secret, but published in the middle of March, 1867. These contained an offensive and defensive agreement, by which the troops of the Southern States, in case of war, were to be subject to the command of the King of Prussia. A further union was contracted by the Zoll Verein, renewed by a treaty, concluded on the 8th of July, 1867, between Prussia and the South (German States, in which the formation of a taxing parliament (ZoU parliament) was determined. In consequence of the war of the Confederate States against France, in 1870, the desire for a more Constitutional Union of the above-named States was felt. With this object the King of Prussia concluded treaties at Versailles, in the name of the North German Confederation, with Baden and Hesse on the 15th November, 1870, with Bavaria on the 23rd, and with Wiirtemburg on the 25th of the same month. The " Constitution of the German Empire " founded on the former " Constitution of the North German Confederacy " and concluded on the 16th April, 187 1, contained the following principal points. Article i. — Dominions of the Empire. — The Confederate Dominions consist of the 26 States previously mentioned. Article 2 — 5. — Legislation of the Empire. — The Empire exercises the right of legislation according to this Constitution ; the imperial laws take precedence of those of the country (article 2.) A common nationality exists for the whole of Germany ; in consequence of which, a member of any one State is treated as a native of every other State in the Confederacy. The following matters are subject to the oversight and legislation of the Empire, ist. The arrangements about the free right of emigration, the conditions of domicile and settlement, citizenship of the Empire, the passport system, foreign police, and ]jursuitof trade. (In Bavaria, however, the condition of domicile and settlement are not included) ; the same with regard to colonization of, and emigration to countries beyond Germany. 2nd. The laws relating to customs and commerce, and the taxes which are to be employed for purposes of the State. 3rd. The systems of coinage, weights and measures and the fundamental rules for the issue of paper money. 4th. Universal rules for banking. 5th. Patents of inventions. 6th. Protection of ecclesiastical property. 7th. Universal protection of German trade in foreign countries, and of German shipping at sea, together with universal consular representation. 8th. The railway system (only to a limited extent in Bavaria), and the maintenance of roads Germany — Land and People. 2yy and canals, in the interest and defence of the country and general traffic. 9th. Systems of navigation and floatage on canals, which are common to several States, together with water dues ; and still further (by subsequent insertion) navigation signals, such as lighthouses, buoys, beaconfires, etc. loth. Postal and telegraphic arrangements (to a limited extent only in Bavaria and Wiirtemburg.) nth. Decisions upon the mutual carrying out of judgments in civil affairs, and the discharge of requisitions. 12th. Attesting public documents. 13th. General legislation of the rights of citizenship, penal and judicial procedure (by virtue of the statute of 20th December, 1873.) 14th. The military system of the Confederacy, and the War Marine. 15th. Proceedings of the medical and veterinary police. 1 6th. Rules for the press and the affairs of the Union. Article 5. — The legislation of the Empire is exercised by the Council of the Confederacy and the Diet ; a simple majority of the two necessary for a decision. When a difference of opinion arises in the Council of the Confederacy, in motions affecting military affairs, the War Marine and the imposts specified in Article 35, the vote of the President is to decide, if it be for the maintenance of the existing order of things. Article 6. — The Council of the Empire consists of the representatives of the members of the Confederacy (the government). Number of votes : Prussia, 1 7 ; Bavaria, 6 ; Saxony, 4 ; Wiirtemburg, 4 ; Baden 3 ; Hesse, 3 ; Schwerin, 2 ; the remaining States each i, making 58 in all. The votes belonging to one State can only be given singly. Article 7. — The Council of the Confederacy, or Federal Council, de- termines — I St. Upon the proposals to the Diet, and the conclusions arrived at by it. 2ndly. Upon the rules of administration required for carrying out the laws of the Empire. 3rdly. Upon the failure in the execution of the Imperial decrees. Only the voters who are present and instructed in the matter are counted. In case of the votes on both sides being equal the President gives the casting vote. Article 8. — Seven standing committees are formed for every session. Bavaria has a fixed place in that for the array, while the other members of this committee, and of that for the affairs of the marine, are named by the Emperor ; and the members of the other committees are elected for one year by the Council of the Confederacy. Beside these, another (an eighth) committee is formed for foreign affairs, in which Bavaria, Saxony and Wiirtemburg are always represented, and in which the former always takes the precedence. Article 11. — The Presidentship of the Council is vested in the King of Prussia, who bears the title of " German Emperor." He represents the empire by the Law of Nations, declares war in the name of the empire, makes peace, and concludes treaties, accredits and receives ambassadors. The consent of the Council of the Confederacy is required before declara- tion of war is made, except in case of attack upon the Imperial dominions. If the treaties concern subjects of Imperial legislation (as by Article 4), the consent of the Council of the Confederacy is necessary to their conclusion, and the sanction of the Diet is required to make them valid. Article 12. — The Emperor summons, prorogues, and dismisses the Council of the Confederacy and the Diet. Article 13. — The assembling to be yearly. The Council of the Con- federacy may be summoned for preparatory work without the Diet, but not the Diet without the Coun( il, 278 Germany — Land and People. Article 14. — The Council of the Confederacy must be summoned as soon as it is demanded by one-third of the votes. Article 15. — The Presidency of the Council, and the conduct of affairs belongs to the Imperial Chancellor named by the Emperor, who may allow himself to be represented by another member of Council. Article 17, — The fpublication of the decrees of the Empire, and the superintendence of their fulfilment belongs to the Emperor. The counter- signature of the Chancellor, who thus undertakes the responsibility of them, is required. Article 18. — 1'hc Imperial officials shall be chosen and dismissed by the Emperor. Article 19. — The members of the Confederacy can be compelled to fulfil their duties as such, the means to be adopted for this purpose to be determined by the Council, and executed by the Emperor. Article 20. — The Diet is to be elected by universal and direct elections by ballot or secret voting (one member to every 100,000 inhabitants). Article 22. — The sittings to be public. Article 23. — The Diet may propose laws. Article 24. — Period of legislature, three years. Article 25. — In case of a dissolution during the term of legislature (for which a resolution of the Council, together with the consent of the Emperor is required), the electors must be assembled within 60 days, and a new Diet within 90 days, and such a prorogation must not be repeated during the session. Article 28. — A majority of the members is necessary for the validity of measures agreed upon. Article 30. — The members are not responsible. Article 32. — They are not allowed to take any salary or indemnification as members. Article 33. — The Empire forms a distinct territory for customs and commerce. Article 34. — Hamburg and Bremen to remain free harbours. Article 2)^. — The Empire exercises the exclusive righfrof legislating on the system of customs, and of taxing the use of home-made sugar, salt, brandy and tobacco. In Bavaria, \\'urtemburg, and Baden, the taxing of home-made brandy and beer is the right of home legislation. On the other hand, these States have no share in the revenue obtained from these objects from the Imperial treasury, according to Article 38. Articles 41, 47. — The Empire may make raihva)s, even in defiance of the Government of any separate country. All railways shall be adminis- tered as one net-work, and endeavours shall be made to carry on the traffic with as great a unity as possible, and at as reduced a tariff as may be. These arrangements are subject to some restrictions with regard to Bavaria. Articles 48, 52. — The j)ostal and telegraph systems are to be established and administered solely as State institutions, 'i'he chief conduct of these, as well as the appointment of the head officials, belongs to the Emperor. The proceeds flow into the general treasury, but for the five subsequent years they are to be credited to the separate States of the new Confederacy, in proportion to their net receipts from these sources, as a part of their contributions towards Imperial objects. These arrangements are somewhat limited as regards Bavaria and Wiirtemburg. Article 53. — The Imperial war-marine is subject to the chief command Germany — Land and People. 279 of the Emperor. He also decides upon its organization. The harbours of Kiel and Jade are Imperial naval stations. The expenses are to be defrayed from the Imperial treasury. The seafaring population of tht Empire is absolved from service in the land forces, but bound, on the othei hand, to serve in the Imperial navy. Article 56. — The consular system is under the supervision of the Emperor ; he a{)points the consuls. The consulates of the separate States are to be removed as soon as the organization of the Imperial consulates is completed. Artide 57-68.— J/////ary system of the Empire. ~Ya\Q.xy German belongs to the standing army for seven years ; as a rule, from the 20th to 28th year of age ; three years of this period with the army, four years in the reserve, and, beside this, five years in the Militia. The present peace footing was fixed till December 31, 187 1, then by a decree of May 2nd, 1874, till the end of 188 1, at i per cent, of the population of 1867. The further strength will be determined by an Imperial decree. The present rule will remain in force till such a decree is made. The Prussian military rules are introduced throughout the whole Empire. ^33. ^S-^- for each man on the peace strength of the army are placed at the disposal of the Emperor till the end of 1871 for the expenses of the whole military arrangements. After 187 1 these sums must be paid by the separate States. The whole land force stands as a single host, both in peace and war, under the command of the Emperor, whose orders the troops are bound implicitly to follow. In Bavaria and Wiirtemburg these special arrange- ments are subject to some modifications. Artide d^'-ji.— Imperial Finance.— T\\t budget is fixed annually. If the above-named receipts are not sufficient to cover the expenditure sums are to be levied by the Chancellor from the Confederate States, in propor- tion to their population. The Empire is also empowered to raise loans. Article 74-77. — Quarrels between the various States of the Confederacy, which are not of a private nature, are to be decided by the Federal Council. Constitutional disputes in States belonging to the Confederacy, whose Government does not possess any proper authority for the settle- ment of such disputes, are to be disposed of by the Federal Council on the appeal of one side, or, if this prove unsuccessful, they ore to be decided in course of Imperial legislation. Article -]%.— General Conclusions.— C^dXi%&^ in the Constitution follow in the course of legislation. They are considered as rejected when 14 votes are given against them in the Council. Those laws of Imperial Constitution, by which certain rights of separate Confederate States are fixed, in relation to the rest, can only be aUered with the consent of the authorized Confederate State. Historical Notices of the Former Statistical Condition of Germany. (a.) — THE GERMAN EMPIRE, I 786. (From the somewhat inexact returns of that date). English square miles Population 1. Austrian circle 45>6o6 4,<82,ooo 2. Burgundian „ 9,97 1 1,880,000 3. Bavarian „ 21,687 1,600,000 28o Germany — Land and People. 4. Franconian 5. Swabian 6. Lower Rhenish 7. Upper Rhenish 8. Westphalian 9. Lower Saxon 10. Upper Saxon 11. Bohemian 12. Moravian 13. Prussian and | Austrian-Silesian j 14. Lausitz Total English square miles 10,290 ••• 15^499 9.737 ... 10,631 ... 26,577 ... 27,215 ... 42,524 ... 20,432 8,419 ... 15,308 3,827 267,731 There were then 289 States : among them 61 free here give a summary of the chief Statistical points, information available — Population 1,000,000 1,800,000 2,100,000 1,000,000 2,300,000 2,100,000 3,700,000 2,266,000 . 1,137,000 1,800,000 400,000 ,. 26,265,000 cities. We shall founded upon the ne-) I. Austria in Germany... 2. Prussia in Germany ... 3. Electoral Palatinate of Bavaria 4. ,, Saxony 5. Electorate of Brunswick Lune- .berg ... ... 6. Electorate of Mainz... 7. „ of Treves (Terra incognita) 8. Electorate of Cologne (not) including the city) . . . ) 9. Dukedom of Saxe-Weimar-> Eisenach ... ... ...) 10. Dukedom of Saxe-Gotha A1-) tenburg ... ... ...j 11. Dukedom of Saxe-Coburg( Saalfeld ._ ...i" 12. Dukedom of Saxe-Hildburg-) hausen ... ... ...\ 13. Dukedom of Saxe-Meiningen 14. Margraviate of Anspach-Bay-) reuth ... ... ...\ 15. Duchy of Brunswick 16. ,, of Mecklenburg-) Schwerin ... ... ...\ 17. Duchy of Mec klenburg-Stre) litz j English sqr. miles 84,537 22,622 15,648 11,396 3.720 3,210 7,441 893 1,169 340 255 467 3,082 1,998 5,102 1,063 Population 10,930,000 46,531 4.110,000 Revenue 2,100,000 1,870,000 892,000 330,000 368,000 550,000 75,000 156,000 25,000 24,000 25,000 385,000 185,000 375,000 70,000 ( ^7,500,000 < to ( 9,583,333 3,300,000 to 4,500,000 833,333 1,020,000 825,000 125,000 65,000 183,333 90,000 120,000 22,500 6,666 22,900 166,666 225,000 105,000 52,500 Germany — Land and People. 281 English sqr. miles Population Revenue 18. Duchy of Vi'iirtemburg 4,252 585,000 166,666 19. „ of Zweibriicken 1,105 96,000 45.833 20. Landgrafshaft of Hesse-Cassel 3,316 440,000 315,000 21. ,, of Hesse-Darm-) stadt j 2,168 260,000 95.833 22. Province of Baden ... 1,382 200,000 100,000 23. Duchy of Oldenburg 956 85,000 30,000 24. Principality of Anhalt-Dessau^ ( 31,000 45,000 25. ,, of Anhalt-Kothen f J 23,000 13,500 26. „ ofAnhalt-Bamberg C 935 j 22,000 21,000 27. „ of Anhalt-Zerbst) ( 20,700 18,000 28. „ of Nassau-Dillen-) burg \ 1,020 130,000 33,333 29. Principality of Nassau-Saar- ^ briicken ... ... ...) 850 9S,ooo 29,166 ^ * Principality of Schwarzburg i 850 100,000 24,900 32. „ „ Waldeck ... 829 76,000 30,000 33. Counties of Lippe and > 34. Schaumberg ... ... ) 35-) ... ) 36. 1 Principality & three counties ( 37. f of Reuss ( 596 88,000 30,000 446 66,000 37,500 38.) ) 3^' j. Principality of HohenzoUern v 425 80,000 33,330 41. '„' „ Isenburg ... 318 35)000 13,833 42. ., „ Oettingen 510 60,000 25,000 43. County of Leiningen 170 25,000 20,000 44. ,, ,, Lowenstein 340 26,000 45- „ „ StoUberg 297 32,000 39,000 46. „ ,, Solms 297 36,000 12,000 47. „ „ Wernigerode 85 12,000 30,000 48. Archbishopric of Salzburg 3.827 250,000 83,000 49. Bishopric of Passau 318 25,000 18,333 50. „ ., Bamberg 1,382 180,000 58.333 51. „ ,, Wurzburg 2,019 200,000 66,666 52. „ „ Spires, not i "-1 eluding the city ... 595 50,000 25,000 53. Bishopric of Hildesheim 1,148 76,000 39,000 54. „ „ Paderborn 1,169 120,000 54,000 55. „ „ Osnabruck 1,190 120,000 27,000 56. ,, „ Kempton 340 42,000 57- » Freising 318 23,000 10,833 58. „ ,, Regensburg 127 9,000 4,160 59- .» M Liege ... 2,232 220,000 100,000 60. Episcopate of Fulda 1,020 80,000 25,000 61. Chapter of Berchtesgarten 212 15,000 5,833 To these add owedish Pomerania) with Wismar and Holstein...) 1,488 106,000 282 Germany — Land and People. Remarks on the foregoing : — No. 6. (i.) Mainz, included the Bishopric of Mainz, (Mainz, Bingen, Hochst, Rudesheim, Hockheim, Frieslar), 2,445 English square miles, and a population of 208,000. (2.) The district of Thuringia (Erfurt), 265 English square miles, and a population of 36,000. (3.) Eichsfeld, 850 square miles, and a population of 74,000. (4.) The bishopric of Worms, 170 square miles, and population of 15,000 (the city not included.) English sqr. miles Population No. 7; Treves contained — ist. the Archbishopric of) Treves ...(" (2.) Bishopric of Augsburg, without the precincts,^ but including Dillingen ... \ (3.) The provostry of EUwangen No. 8, Cologne, consisted of — A. Electoral Princi-'^ pality of Cologne — ist. Archbishopric off Cologne (Bonn, Andernach, and Neuss, but f" ' '^ not the free city of Cologne) ... } 2nd. The county of Recklinghausen 3rd. The Duchy of Westphalia ... B. Bishopric of Munster(Munster,Meppen, Vechte No. 14. Anspach-Bayreuth, included — ist. Princi- ) pality of Anspach, Schwabach, Fiirth, Cun- r zenhausen ... ... ... ... ... ) 2nd. Principality of Bayreuth (Erlangen, Culinbach ^ Hof ) No. 50. Bishopric of Bamberg, included Forcheim and Kronach. No. 51. Bishopric of Wurzburg, included Kissingen and Kitzingen. No. 52. Bishopric of Spires, included Bruchsal, Philii^psburg, Deide- sheim, Rheinzaben, Dahn and Weissenburg (in Alsace), but not the free Imperial City of Spires. No. 59. Bishopric of Liege. — ^To this belonged Verviers, Spa, Dinant, Hui. We give here a summary of the most important free Tmj^erial cities : — • 2,338 724 148 318 1,160 4,677 1,700 1,382 260,000 90,000 18,000 80,000 18,900 100,000 350,000 200,000 185,000 Villages Augsburg ... 1 Ulm — Halle — Reutlingen 4 Nordlingen — Heilbronn... — Rottweil ... — Gmiinden ... — Memmingen — Kempten ... — Kaufbeurn — IN THE SWABIAN CIRCLE. I-;np;lish sqr. miles 36 1 127 21 21 31 63 42 3' Population 32,500 38,000 14,000 10,000 1 1,000 1 1,000 3,000 6,000 7,000 3,600 6,800 Germany — Land and People. 283 Ravensburg Biberach ... Lindau Weil Aalen Dinkelsbiihl IN THE swABiAN CIRCLE. — {Continued). Villages English sqr. miles ... — 53 — 42 Population 3>5oo 4.000 5,000 1,500 2,000 5,000 Ratisbon IN THE BAVARIAN CIRCLE. IN THE CIRCLE OF THE UPPER RHINE. Worms — ... — Spires Frankfort-on-Maine. Metzlar — • •• 42 IN THE CIRCLE OF FRANCONIA. Nurnberg Rothenburg Schweinfurth Windsheim 4 ... ... 637 106 31 IN THE CIRCLE OF WESTPHALIA. Cologne Aix-la-C'hapelle ... — ... 85 .. 31 IN THE CIRCLE OF LOWER SAXONY, Miihlhausen Nordhausen Goslar Bremen Liibeck Hamburg ... — 85 .. 31 63 :: 74 85 .. 2I,OOG 5,000 5,600 40,000 5,000 50,000 8,000 6,000 4,500 13,000 9,000 13,000 9,000 8,000 40,000 30,000 120,000 {b). — The Confederacy of the Rhine as it existed in 18 12. Germany, as such, had disappeared ; all the middle-sized and small States belonged to the Confederacy of the Rhine. France had seized upon the left bank of the Rhine, the estuaries of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe ; Austria and Prussia possessed the remainder of the former empire. Portions of the former German Cotifederacy incorporated into other countries. With France, directly, 37,952 English square miles were incorporated, and, indirectly, 9,504 (under the latter comes Trieste, Swedish Pomerania, and Erfurt, which was under French administration) With Italy- -South Tyrol, 2,296 English square miles. With the Confederacy of the Rhine About 116.941 miles. With the Danish States (Holstein) 3,274 English square miles. 284 Germany — Land and People. Conclusion of the Treaty of the Rheinish Confederacy, at Paris, July 12, 1806. The States which joined it at the beginning are marked thus, X ; the dates of the othi, :s being given. The original members bound themselves to furnish a contingent of 63,000 towards a French army of 200,000 men ; this number was afterwards increased to 119,180 men in consequence of fresh accessions to the Confederacy. In the year 1809, the Confederacy of the Rhine embraced a territory of 127,082 English square miles, with a population of 14,320,000 souls. Even after Napoleon had annexed part of Westphalia and Oldenburg and Aremberg to France, the extent of territory belonging to the Confederacy was 113,404 EngUsh square miles, and the population 13,475,000. States. — Time of entrance into the Confederacy of the Rhine I. — Bavaria, kingdom 2. — Westphalia, kingdom (after the ) battle of Jena ... ... j 3. — Saxony, kingdom, 11 Dec, 1806 ... 4. — Wiirtemburg, kingdom 5. — Frankfort, grand duchy 6. — Berg, grand duchy ... 7. — Baden, grand duchy... 8. — Hesse, grand duchy 9. — Wurzburg, grand duchy Xio. — Nassau-Usingen, duchy ... ) Xii — Nassau-Weilburg, duchy ... j Xi 2. — Hohenzollern-Heckingen, principality X13. — HohenzoUern-Sigmarigen „ X14. — Salm-Talm ... ... „ (^ X15.— Salm-Kyrburg „ J X16. — Isenburg-Birstein ... „ X17. — Lichtenstein ... ... „ X18. — Leyen ... ... ... „ 19. — Sax- Weimar ... duchy 20. — Sax-Gotha ... ,, J I. — Sax-Coburg ... „ 22. — Sax-Meiningen... „ 23. — Sax-Hildburghausen ,, 24-26. — Anhault, 3 duchies, April 18, 1807 27-28. — Lippe, 2 principalities „ ,, 29-31.— Reuss, 3 „ „ „ 32. — Waldeck, principality ,, ,, 33. — Schwarzburg, 2 principalities, ( April 18, 1807 ... ... ... j 34. — Mecklenburg-Strelitz, duchy, i8th \ February, 1808 ... ... ... ( 35. — Mecklenburg-Schwerin, duchy, | 22nd March, 1808 ... ... ... j Approximate result of these estimates. English Sqr. Miles 36,145 17,541 14,670 7.526 2,019 5,953 5,910 3,401 1,658 1,700 106 425 616 318 42 765 956 1,020 382 255 978 595 595 446 701 999 5,187 110,562 Population Contingent 3,700,000 2,200,000 2,100,000 1,350,000 302,000 728,000 980,000 572,000 258,000 280,000 •^14,000 38,000 55,000 46,000 5,000 125,000 160,000 75,000 50,000 25,000 120,000 85,000 72,000 55,000 1 14,000 70,000 350,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 12,000 2,800 5,000 8,000 4,000 2,000 4,000 14,000,000 >- 2,800 800 650 450 400 2,300 120,000 Germany — Land and People. 285 Notfs. 1. Bavaria, included the German Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, the districts of the Inn and Hausruck, but neither Wurzburg, Aschaffenburg, nor the Palatinate. The actual strength of the army was 47,000 men. 2. Westphalia, was formed after the battle of Jena, and consisted of portions of Electorial Hesse, Brunswick, Hanover, Magdeburg (on the left bank of the Elbe), Halberstadt, the Almark, Paderborn, Minden, etc. At the time of its greatest extent, Westphalia contained 23,820 square miles, and 2,500,000 of inhabitants. Its military force exceeded 30,000 men. 3. Frankfort, included Frankfort, Aschaffenbury, Fulda and Hanau, together with Wetzlar. 4. Berg ; Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was originally the Grand Duke of Berg; but in the year 1S08, the French Emperor bestowed the dukedom upon the eldest son of his brother Louis (King of Holland), who governed by a Regent. 5. The former Grand Duke of Tuscany was appointed Grand Duke of Wurzburg. (<:.) — The German Confederacy, 1815-66. English sqr. miles. Popu lation States Accordingjto the According Estimates of the to the centut of Confederacy, 1815 1865 I. Austrian Confederate States 76,351 5,182,277 13,250,000 2. Prussian ,, ,, 71,971 7,923,439 14,716,815 3. Bavaria, kingdom 29,554 3,560,000 4,807,440 4. Saxony, „ 5,772 1,200,000 2,343'994 5. Hanover, „ 14,851 1,305,351 1,924,172 6. Wiirtemburg „ 7,532 1,395,462 1,748,328 7. Baden ... grand due hy 5,910 1,000,000 1,429,199 8. Hesse-Darmstadt, „ ,, 3,253 619,500 853,322 9, Electoral Hesse 3,694 567,268 745,063 10. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, grai id e duchy 5,187 358,000 551,761 11. Mecklenburg-Strelitz, grai id duchy 1,052 71,769 99,060 1 2. Holstein and Lauenburg, due Ky 3,720 360,000 604,214 13. Luxemburg, grand duchy, ai ^d 0,^ Limburg, duchy 1,849 255,628 424,915 14. Nassau, duchy 1,807 302,769 468,311 15. Brunswick, „ 1,435 209,527 293,388 16. Oldenburg, grand duchy 2,423 217,769 301,812 17. Sax- Weimar „ „ 1,403 201,000 280,201 18. Sax-Meiningen, duchy 914 115,000 178,065 19. Sax-Coburg-Gotha, ,, 760 111,600 164,527 20. Sax-Altenburg ... „ 510 98,200 141,891 286 Germany — Land and People. {c)— The German Confederacy, iSiS-66.— (Continued. English sqr. Miles. Population States According to the Estimates of the Condfederacy, 1815 According to the census of 1865 21. Reuss-Greiz, principality 2 2. Reuss-Schleitz-Lobenstein- Ebersdorf, principality 23. Lippe- Detmold, principality ... 24. Schaumburg-Lippe „ 25. Waldeck ... „ 26. Anhalt, duchy... 27. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, principality... 28. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, prin- cipality 29. Hesse- Homburg, Landgraviate 30. Lichtenstein, principality 31. Hamburg, ... free city ... 32. Bremen ... „ 33. Lubeck ... „ 34. Frankfort-on-Main „ 143 318 435 170 425 919 329 372 106 63 127 74 127 37 22,255 52,205 69,062 24,000 51,877 12 2,447 45,117 53,937 20,000 5,546 129,800 48,500 44,650 47,650 43,851 86,472 111,336 31,382 59.143 193,046 66,189 73,752 27,474 7,800 233,090 104,006 50,399 91,180 Together, German Confederacy... [243,556 With Austria, Prussia, Schleswig. — 30,157,638 51,300,000 46,412,536 73,410,767 In the preliminary treaty, concluded after the war between Prussia and Austria, at Nikolsburg, on July 26, and the definite Treaty of Peace agreed upon at Prague, August 23rd, 1866, it was determined that the latter should withdraw from Germany, on the condition that Prussia should enter upon a closer union with the German States which lie north of the Maine ; the four South German States (Hesse only with its South German posses- sions), should have an " International independent existence," and Luxem- burg should entirely withdraw from Germany, A like separation would naturally result for Lichtenstein, without any special arrangement, owing to its geographical position. Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau and the Free City of Frankfort, to become incorporated with Prussia. With regard to the South German States, the Prussian government concluded peace with Wurtemburg, August 13th, 1866 ; with Bavaria and Baden, August Z2nd ; with Hesse, Sei)tember 3rd. Treaties of Alliance were made on these days with the several States, by which they bound themselves to place their troops under the command of the King of Prussia in case of war. Bavaria and especially Hesse, were also compelled to make concessions of territory. The war which broke out in July, i(S7o, and was ended by the preli- minaries of peace at Versailles, on the 26th of February, and the conclusion of peace at Frankfort, on the loth of May, 1871, resulted on the one hand, in an internal change in Germany, and on the other, in the conquest of Alsace-Lorraine. Germany — Land and People. Finance of 1 87 7-7 8. — Expenditure. 287 i^.)- -Permanent. (b.)- -Incidental. I. Imperial Chancellor's Ofifice ^209,523 ^^87,534 2. Parliament (Diet) 15.985 1,500 3- Foreign Affairs 295,412 51,702 4. Imperial Army 16,177,669 2,590,774 5- Marine 1,083,603 1,428,850 6. Justice 39>9io 300 7- Railways 13,637 188,561 8. Imperial Chancellor for Alsace- 1 8,588 Lorraine ... ... j " 9- Interest on National Debt 194,750 10. Court of Accounts ... 20,193 500 II. Pensions, Civil and Military 903,475 12. Other Expenses Total 1,608,455 ".'. 587,669 ^^20,641, 200 ^4,937.390 Revenue. 1. Taxes and duties on provisions 2. Duty on stamps and bills of exchange 3. Post and telegraph Railways Imperial and other banks Miscellaneous receipts Imperial invalid fund Surplus from former years Interest on State investments ... x\lteration of coinage Extraordinary revenue ... Matricular contributions 9- 10. 1 1. 12. Total ^12,652,690 345,700 585,481 497,200 77,500 508,257 1,178,455 576,429 389,086 510,000 5,157,397 4,052,208 ^25,530,403 The year 1874 being very peculiar in its financial interest, we have given it in detail, retaining only an outline of the years 1878-79-S0. Budget Estimates for 1879-80. Permanent expenditure. Extraordinary „ Revenue... Contributions of the various States ... ^20,951,147 6,088,679 ^27,039,826 ^^22,521,257 4,518,569 •7,039,826 288 Germany — Land and People. Finance. IMPERIAL EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT, 1874. /. — Permanent Expenses. CHAP. I. OFFICE OF THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR- ACTUAL EXPENSES OF THE OFFICE. 1. Salaries ^21,720 2. Other " personel " expenses ... ... 1,650 3. Real expenses ... ... ... ••• 3'975 4. Disposition fund ... ... ... 6,000 GENERAL FUNDS. 5. Dispositions fund of the Emperor ... ^45,000 6. Pensions and maintenances ... ... 79,425 7. Compensation in consequence of the) ^ g^c abolition of the Elbe dues ) ■^' ^ 8. Compensation to Prussia ... ... 2,235 IMPERIAL COMMISSARIAT. 9. Control of the dues and excise taxes ... ^^20,820 ro. Superintendence of emigration ... 900 11. Imperial school commission ' ' ... 180 1 2. Superintendence of the examination into^^ matters of navigation and pilotage . . . f ^ CONFEDERATE OFFICE FOR HOME AFFAIRS. 13. Salaries ^^.275 DEFINITE DISCIPLINARY AUTHORITIES. 14. Gifts, charges, travelling expenses, etc. ^45° STATISTICAL OFFICE. 15. Salaries ^2,941 16. Other personal expenses ... ... 510 17. Material expenses ... ... ... 2,398 NORMAL COMMISSION OF MEASURES. 18. Salaries ;^877 19. Remunerations to assistants ... ... 300 20. Real and sundry expenses 360 The total of Chap. I ^^225,721 CHAP. II. — CONFEDERATE COUNCIL AND COMMITTEES. The necessary expenses for these are now included in the fund set apart in chap. i. Germany — Land and People. 289 CHAP, III. — REICHSTAG OR DIET.* For the Bureau of the Diet the shorthand) writers, as well as the repairs of the build- >■ ^10,103 ing, and the residence of the President ...) CHAP. IV. FOREIGN OFFICE CENTRAL OFFICE. 1. Salaries ^22,297 2. Other " personal " expenses ... ... 2,767 3. Reijuirements of the office ... ... 5>95o 4. Expenses of couriers, travelling, posting, ( . . and such like ... ... ••. .■• | ' 5. The keeping up of the official buildings,) . furniture and gardens ... ... ...> EMBASSIES AND CONSULATES. 6. Salaries of the ambassadorial officials ... ^103,002 7. Payment and charges for non-official \ c i 7 r attendants upon embassies ... ... J ''' S. Salaries of consular officials ... ... 49)665 o. Payment of non-official attendants upon ) ■' ■' . ^ ,• 10, 100 consulates ... ... ... ... ) 10. Official expenses, postages and similar ( x --.r outlays f '^"^ 11. Travelling expenses & charges for board 3,660 12. Maintenance of the official residences { gg and offices, together with rents ... | *'' 13. Sundries _ 3,405 14. Assistance to needy citizens of the \ Empire in foreign countries ... ... f '^^ 15. Official expenses of unpaid consulates ... 4,200 16. Special fund for the establishment of I -,7^0 new consulates ... ... ... ... f "^ EXTRAORDINARY. 17. Expenses of commissions ... ... ;^2,25o 18. Indemnifications for loss by exchange ( g and chancery gifts ... ... .■■ \ 19. Assistance to and payment of officials... 600 20. Assistance and pensions to widows and [ orphans of officials ... ... . . . ( 21. Expectant monies (while waiting for I vacancies) ... ... ... ... j 22. Secret service expenses ... ... 2,400 23. Other expenditure ... ... ... 6,900 Total of chapter IV. ^252,023 450 937 * By a decree of February i8th, 1874, there were subsequently added to this head /^jioo as compensation to the private railways for the unpaid travelling of the members of the Diet. The decree of April zoth granted a further supplement to tlie amount ol T 290 Germany — Land and People. CHAP. V. ADMINISTRATION OF THE IMPERIAL ARMY. For the whole expenditure of the administration of the Imperial army, taking into consideration the remissions made to certain Confederate States, according to agreement, ^13,924,981 75. CHAP. VI. MARINE ADMINISTRATION. ADMIRALTY. 1. Salaries ... ... ... ... ... ^21,450 2. Other " personel " expenses ... ... 1,965 3. "Materiel" expenses ... ... ... 2,709 ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES. 4 " Personal " expenses of the superin- \ r c ^ tendents of marine stations ... ... j '^^' ^^ 5. "Materiel" expenses of the same... 225 6. "Personel'' expenses of local authorities 4,006 7. Administrationof justice and cure of souls 2,258 MILITARY. 8. " Personel" and " materiel "expenses... ^£201, ^12 9. Keeping the arms ready for service ( (transferable from one year to another | ' ' 5 ID. General nursing (also transferable) ... 92,914 NURSING THE SICK. 11. " Personel " expenses ... ... ... jQ^^^^o 12. " Materiel" expenses ... ... ... 8,112 I -i. Administrative affairs of service and of I , "" • )- 12,690 garrisons ... ... ... ... j ' ^ EDUCATIONAL M.ATTERS. 14. Travelling expenses ... ... ... ;^ii,85o 15. " Personel " expenses ... ... ... 2,127 16. " Material " expenses ... ... ... i>245 MATERIAL. 17. "Personel" expenses for docks and (^ y „ management of artillery depots ... | '^4°) 35 18. Cost of constructing docks and mainA taining and registering vessels, exclusive ( of artillery, (transferable ; the savings i ^4-)5°° may be used for repairs) ... ... ) 19. Maintenance of building works (trans- \ fcrable) ; the savings may be used for -3,-14 repairs ... ... ... ... ... ) 20. Artillery, fortification of harbours, gun- 1 jiracticc (transferable) ])ilotage, buoys, ^18,000 and lighthouses on the Jade ... ... I 21. " Personel" expenses ... ... ;^3,i8i 22. " Materiel" expenses ... ... ... 1,676 Germany — Land and People. 29 r INVALID LIST. 23. Pensions, money for education, aid ) r afforded f -t^T^QS? TORPEDOES. 24. "Materiel " expenses (transferable) ... ^6,255 25. General expenses (sometimes a little more) 3,600 26. Secret expenses (transferable) 300 Total of chapter VI. ... ... ... ... ^691,733 CHAP. VII, — PAYMENT OF INTEREST ON THE NATIONAL DEBT. 1. Interest upon monies applied to the ) temporary increase of the ordinary .^27,000 stock of the Imperial treasury... ... j 2. Interest on sums employed towards the \ formation of a fund for carrying out a - 337,500 reform in the coinage... ... ... j Total ;^364,5oo CHAP. VIII. COURT OF FINANCE. r. Salaries ... ... ... .;^i3547o 2. Other " personel " expenses 484 3. " Materiel" expenses ... ... ... 757 Total of chap. viii. ... ... ... ... ;^r4,7ii CHAP. IX. IMPERIAL BOARD OF TRADE. I- Salaries £nAZ^ 2. Other " personel " expenses ... ... 727 3. " Materiel " expenses ... ... ... 930 Total of chap. ix.... ... ... ... ... jQ'^Si^9^ CHAP. X. IMPERIAL INVALID FUND ADMINISTRATION. 1. Salaries and " personel " expenses ... .3^2,767 2. •' Materiel " expenses ... ... ... 750 Supplement to the expense of the administration of the Imperial army — 3. The working of the affairs of invalids^ ^. in consequence of the war of 1870-71 ) '^^ 4. Pensions to invalids, and grants to ( relatives of the deceased ... ... } ' ^^^^ Total of chap. X. ... ... ... ... ... ^1,899,843 CHAP. XI. Additional money for dwellings uf civil and military officials ^804,213 292 Germany — Land and People. CHAP. XII. IMPERIAL RAILWAYS. 1. Salaries ... ... ... ... ... ;!^4, i77 2. Other " personel " expenses ... ... 975 3. " Materiel " expenses ... ... ... 900 Total of chaj). xii... Total amount of permanent expenses //. — Occasional Expenditure. 1. Office of the Imperial Chancellor ... 2. The Diet 3. Foreign Office 4. Management of the post 5. Telegraphs 6. Administration of the Imperial army, viz. :- For equipment of Artillery, inclusive ( of buildings ... ... ... ) For completing the fortresses of Stras-) borg, Metz, Bitsch, New Breisach, > and Diedenhofen ... ... ) For garrison buildings ... And for fortress and garrison hospitals.. Marine administration, viz. : — For marine buildings at Wilhelmshaven. „ garrison „ „ _ „ Kiel and ( Fredericksort ... ... ) „ building of war ships „ floating docks at Dantzic ... ,, alteration of docks at Dantzic (2nd [ instalment ... ... j „ harbour and dock service at Wil-'> helmshaven, Kiel and Dantzic - (cost of carrying onj ... ) ,, cost of ships, armaments & gun trials „ observatory at Wilhelmshaven (ist ) instalment ... ... j Addition to clothes stores For two ships on the Jade „ torjjedo "materiel" (2nd instalment) 1 12,500 15,000 195. 94S 2,332 7,no 15,000 ?o,ooo ... ^^6,052 diture. ^18 ,186,01 1 ^7,050 660 4,950 60,081 .. 6,000 ^,675,000 652,725 112,323 9,450 £^ ,449,498 ^8,970 150,996 61,200 887,409 60,000 8. Court of Finance 9. Railway administration 10. For St. (lothard railway (deducting ^16,546 contribution of the Imperial railway), net 1 1. Costs of reform in coinasie ... i^i, 976,725 ... ^^3,000 17.186 Total of occasional expenditure Total of permanent and occasional expenditure 105-253 420,000 .. 4,050,405 ^22,236,416 Germany — Land and People. 293 Revenue. CHAP. I. — TAXES AND DUTIES ON PROVISIONS. From the Zoll-Verein. A. — Receipts in which all the Confederate States share. 1. Import and export dues ^4,697,461 2. Duty on beet-sugar 1,772,565 3. Salt-tax 1,617,523 4. Duty on tobacco ... ... ... ... ... ... 5o»973 On imports of which Bavaria, Wiirtemburg and Baden have no share. 5. Duty on brandy together with tax on transport of the ) /- „ „ same | ^1,538,083 6. Tax on malt and transport duty of the same 584,288 From Confederate territories which do not belong to the Zoll-Verein. 7. " Aversa " for taxes and duties on provisions : — (rt!.) in which all the Confederate States share ;!£^i30,464 (Ip.) in which the three South German States do not I participate j 42,448 Total ;^io,435.8o7 CHAP. II, — DUTY ON STAMPS AND BILLS OF EXCHANGE. After deducting 12 per cent., which equals^35, 202, for the separate States concerned, and ^^9,658 10s. for cost of collecting and managing, we have a Net remainder of ;i£^73,748 CHAP. III. — POSTAL AND NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION. Gross receipts ^^4,686,577 Less expenses of working & ) administration f 3,947>628 Net remainder ... ;^738,949 CHAP. IV. TKI.KORAPH ADMINISTRATION. Gross receipts ... ... ... ... ;^678,i95 Cost of working, etc. ... ... ... 654,596 Net remainder ... ... ^23,599 CHAP. V. — RAILWAYS. Receipts ^1,842,000 Permanent expenses ... ... ... 1,460,101 Net remainder ^1^381, 899 CHAP. VL Various receipts .^^33,543 294 Germany — Land and Fcoplc. CHAP. VII. FROM THE IMPERIAL INVALID FUND. (i.) Interest ... (2.) Additional capital Total ;,r], 092,000 807,843 ;^i, 899,843 CHAP. VIII. — FROM THE FRENCH WAR INDEMNITY. (1.) Expenditure for army (2.) For marine Total ^1,449)498 1,430,245 ^2,879,74; CHAP. IX. Surplus from the supplies of 1872 ••• ;^i,927>6o3 CHAP. X. — FOR ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY. Contributions to the subventions taken up by the Empire ... ^56,131 CHAP. XI. — COINAGE. Gain in stamping coin ;^45,ooo CHAP. XII. — INTEREST UPON STATE MONIES LENT. 1. From Fortress and Railway Making Funds 2. From the Coinage Reform Fund ... Total ;^I20,060 gojooo ;^2IOO,6o CHAP. XIII. — CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT — MATRICULAR CONTRIBUTIONS. 1. Prussia 2. Bavaria Lauenburg ... Saxony Wiirtemburg Baden Hesse Mecklenburg-Schwerin 9. Weimar 10. Mecklenburg-Strelitz 11. Oldenburg ... 12. Brunswick ... 13. Mciningen ... 14. Altenburg ... 15. Coburg-Gotha 16. Anhalt 1 7. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 18. „ Rudolphstadt ... ... ;^i, 644,676 73,581 2,808 154,722 279,599 188,167 69,934 31,886 18,776 6,844 22,141 16,062 13,183 9,351 11,953 13,887 4,257 52,612 I Germany — Land and People. 295 CHAP, xiii {continued). 19. Waldeck ... 20. Reuss (older) 21. „ (younger) 22. Schauniburg 23. Lippe 24. Lubeck 25. Bremen 26. Hamburg ... 27. Alsace-Lorraine Total ... Total adequate to demands 3,810 3,252 5,396 2,OOl 8,382 2,047 6,211 1-3,985 . 82,9 75 • ;^2,732,497 •^22,236,416 Finance of previous years. The budgets for the North German Confederation concluded with the following figures ; — 1868 1869 Receipts ;^io,823,736 ^10,882,831 Expenditure 10,823,736 ... 11,655,170 1870 Receipts ;^i 1,705,662 Expenditure 11,393,774 1871 pTii, 616,943 11,616,943 In the meantime the " North German Confederation " had been transformed into the " German Empire." The financial system of the former was incorporated into the Empire with the addition of ^^83,693 in receipts and expenditure. Since then the following have been the statement of accounts. Receipts. I87I ••• ;^ii.943>434 1876 - ^^23,712,849 1872 17,548,500 1877-78 ... 27,030,408 1873 19,409,632 1878-79 ... 26,824,840 1874 22,236,416 1879-80 ... 27,280,643 1875 25,750,928 Expenditure. I87I ... ;^i 1,943,434 1876 — ^23,712,849 1872 17,548,500 1877-78 ... 27,033,625 1873 20,899,819 1878-79 ... 26,834,840 1874 22,236,416 1879-80 ... 27,294,701 1875 25,750,928 The accounts have, as will be seen, increased considerably from year to year. Supplementary grants of credit followed all these budgets. The receipts generally yielded far larger amounts than the estimates required. 296 Gtrmany — Land and People. The most important items of expenditure were (permanent and occa- sional together). Ytar Army ^9,962,635 Navy Foreign Afiairs and Consulates 1868 ^745.346 ^31,050 1869 io,i75>444 1,292,685 41-347 1870 10,192,626 864,048 181,050 1871 10,271,293 1,526,578 188,134 1872 14,468,873 1,252,080 217,845 1873 13.825,573 2,690,689 382,647 1874 i5'374,479 2,668,459 253,974 1875 17,764,810 1,357.126 361,374 1876 17,604,967 1,291,889 346,587 1877 18,768,441 2,512,453 347,115 1878 14,971,965 1,829,471 268,236 18791 1880/ 18,214,957 2,286,839 335,296 The additional cost for the dwellings of the officers, etc., is not in- cluded in the year 1874. The chief items which appeared in the receipts were Year Taxes on Provisions. Matricular Contributions. 1868 . ;^7,423,302 ^2,975,635 1869 . 7,230,730 3.501,735 1870 . 7,276,042 3,728,808 1871 . 7,441,002 3.566,363 1872 . 9,380,415 4,832,408 ^873 . 9,828,415 3,697,180 1874 . 10,435,807 3^357.212 1875 • 12,329,290 3,448,477 1876 . 12,330,629 3,568,810 1877 . i5»i45,749 4,471,073 1878 . 11,869,990 4,052,208 1879 • 12,516,342 4,357,275 1880 . 12,584,918 4,472,297 1879 and 1880 Array 18,214,957 Navy 2,286,839 Foreign Affairs 331,296 When the North German Confederacy was formed, notwithstanding the transfer of the proceeds of the customs and of other indirect imposts to the Confederacy, and in spite of considerable contributions by the different States, the revenues did not suffice to cover the expenditure, especiallv that of the establishment of a larger sea force. A deficit was the result, and loans had to be raised. In the year 1868 the debt of the Confederacy amounted to In 1869 to... And in 1870 it rose to While in 1871 it was ... .. ^540,000 ■• 1,312,338 • 1,735,743 . 1,988,882 Germany — Lmid and People. 297 The war made the contraction of a further debt unavoidable, both for the States of the North German Confederacy as well as for those of South Germany. The sum immediately expended on the war must have amounted to about ;^5 1,000.000. The result of the war led to a complete revolution in the condition of finance. We extract the following data from the memo- randum, which was laid before the Diet by the Imperial Chancellor on February 13th, 1874, with regard to the appUcation of the French war contribution : — The Receipts amounted to — 1. War contribution by France ... ... ... ... ^200,000,000 2. Interest upon this till the payment of the debt.. ... 12,047,678 Total ^212,047,678 3. Added to this, contribution of the City of Paris. 8,025,879 4. Customs levied in France and local contribuA tions, less cost of collection, so far as these ( , sums were not employed for special military f ■: % ii purposes, about ... ... ... ...) Total receipts ... ... ... ... ... ;,^222,682,69i Of this sum, ;^i 2,999,999 intist be deducted for the acquisition of railways belonging to a private company in Alsace-Lorraine, the re- mainder being, therefore, ^{^209,682, 691. Expenditure. I St. Expenses for which fixed sums were granted by Imperial decrees, viz. : — ■ For the Imperial Invalid Fund ... ;^28,o5o,ooo For the completion of German fortresses 10,800,000 For fortresses in Alsace-Lorraine ... ... 6,037,642 For railroads in the Imperial Dominions, par- \o ^^^ 33- ticularly the Wilhelm-Luxembourg line, / ' ' For Imperial war treasures, to be kept in thel ^ ^^ ^^^ T 1- r ^ r r r- J ( 6,000,000 Julms tower of the fortress of bpandau...) Compensation for the decrease in the revenue \ caused by alterations in the manage- : 2,968,907 ment of the customs and taxes... ... ) Imperial Treasury fund, for the administration \ of the marine, and for unredeemable ad- ( ^ ^ ^^„ vances for the management of the Impe- | rial army ... ... ... ..." For gratuities to generals for distinguished | /-^^ ^^^ ° . ° ( 000,000 services ... ... ... ... ... j For aid to Germans banished from France... 300,000 For exercise ground for the Artillery-trial \ ^ Commission ... ... ... ... j Expenditure for general purposes defrayed \ by the Imperial Treasury in 1870 and 1871, and the additional outlay for troops^ 1,249,500 garrisoned in Alsace-Lorraine till the end of 1872 1 298 Germany — Land and People. Lastly, p^6,i95,t8i granted by an Imperial decree of July 8th, 1873. For marine, ^4,206,783. Buildings for the Diet, 1,200,000. Supplemen- tal expenses of war, including various other grants making total of ^72,116,704. To this must be added those outlays, the amount of which depends on the sum required for the attainment of the object in view. They may be estimated as follows : — 1. Compensation for damages by war and ( y- . for war j '^^' ^^' 2. Compensation to German shipowners... 840,000 3. For war medals ... ... ... 45,000 4. Invalid pensions in consequence of the ( . _ cr war of 1870, 1871, and 1872 ... j ^5i3,400 Additional for payment of invalid pen-^j hat j fund was not perfectly established ...) sions, payable out of the Imperial (^ ^ Invalid Fund during the time that that ' "'' 6. War expenses connected with the French War costs indemnification, which according to Art. 5 of the decree of July 8th, 1872, are to be treated as common charges, viz : — {a) For arming and disarming of fortresses ^1,477,078 (p) For siege material ... ... ... 1,409,223 {c) For marine administration ... ... 1,402,876 (^) For temporary arrangements for coast ( q , defence, etc. ... ... ... | 4 > - (407 5,019.977 1,400,051 917,850 16,289,521 About ;^22,5oo,ooo of the entire war contribution were, in obedience to Imperial decrees, applied to civil objects, the rest for purposes of war. The sums which fell to the separate States in the division, were also mostly expended in defraying the costs of war, and the repayment of loans for war. According to the statute of 2nd July, 1873, ^16,027,021 of the sum to be divided, were set apart for restoring the army to a war-footing, and increasing its general efficiency. We find from a report of the Commission on the State Debt, under date April, 1874, that the Imperial Invalid Fund possessed paper of nomi- nal value in thalers ... ••• ... ... ... ... ;^23,o8l,742 In South German guldens „ Dutch guldens „ English ^ sterling „ Dollars And in banks 933>i87 2i3>333 918,760 3,556,800 393 The fortress building fund possessed at the same time a nominal value of ^5,229,795 in effects, and a capitalof ^2,789,913 in the Prussian bank. Financial Condition of the Separate States. We should add to the accounts of the finance of the Empire a com- parison of the amounts of the receipts, expenditure, and debts of the separate States if these conditions were consolidated. The war and the transformation of Germany into an Empire, and the alteration in the monetary system, everywhere involve important financial changes, which, for the greater part, have not yet attained a definite form, the less so. 300 Germany — Land and People. because the new military law of the Empire must produce further changes.* The following notices for comparison present some historical interest. In 1865, exclusive of Austria, the receipts were: — Gross All the German States, together with Prussia ^46,575>°o° The medium and small States only ... 24,825,000 The clear receipts arose thus — Without Prussia From domains ^6,000,000 From indirect taxes 7»i25,ooo Direct taxes : 3.675>o°° Net ^31,100,000 16,800,000 With Prussia ^8,550,000 14,895,000 7,665,000 The average expenditure of every family in the year was — In Prussia In rest of Germany £^ I o 109 Indirect imposts .. Direct taxes Including Prussia Without Prussia... £1 I 9 Expenditure, Net. o 18 4 £2 13 10 ;^3i, 170,000 16,800,000 The expenditure for the following items was — With Prussia Without Prussia Court ^1,920,000 ;,^i,455,ooo Military ... ... ... ... ... 10,080,000 3,825,000 State debt 6,480,000 4,050,000 Total /■i8,48o,ooo ^^9,330,000 The State debts, inclusive of the debts of the State railways, amounted at that time to ^128,250,000, of which ^42,150,000 belonged to Prussia. The amount of debt has considerably diminished, in consequence of the payment of the French contribution. On the other hand, the outlay has increased for courts (civil lists and ai)panages), for salaries, and, most of all, for the objects of war (land and sea forces). Paper Money. — It was fixed by statute of the North German Con- federacy (Imperial), of the 1 6th June, 1870, that paper money should be issued only " by the regulations of a decree passed by the Confederacy of the Empire at the request of the Government of the country interested." Article 18 of the statute of coinage, under date 9th July, 1873, runs thus ; — " The paper money issued by separate States of the Confederacy is to be called in at the latest by ist January, 1876, and a notice of this calling * These changes result from the following; causes : — a decrease in the State debt, by the receipt of the French war contribution, the increasing; expenditure of the Empire for tlie army and navy estimates ; largely inneased sahuies, and a decline in the proceeds of the railroads. But where a nominal advance seems to result, tlie increase in tlie working expenses, and the construction of linei that pay but a low interest, add .seriously to the tey contra. Germany — Land and People. 301 is to be publicly given at least six months before this date. On the other hand, State paper money will be issued in accordance with our Imperial decree. The Imperial law will determine the issue and circulation of the Slate paper money, as well as the facilities to be given to the separate States of the Confederacy in withdrawing their paper money." The Imperial decree of 30th April, 1874, has further made arrange- ments for the issue of Imperial Treasury notes. Section i orders— The Imperial Chancellor is empowered to manu- facture Imperial Treasury notes to the total value of ^6,000,000, by instal- ments in notes of five, twenty, and fifty shillings, and to distribute them among the Confederate States in proportion to their population, as fixed by the census of December ist, 187 1. The Council of the Confederacy shall decide the division of the sum total into separate instalments. Section 2. Every Confederate State is ordered publicly to announce the withdrawal of the State paper money hitherto issued by it by ist July, 1875, and to call it in as quickly as possible. From the ist of January, 1876, only the Treasury of the State which has issued the paper money is bound to receive it. Section 3. To those States whose paper money exceeds the amount assigned to them in Imperial Treasury notes, two-thirds of the excess shall be advanced from the Imperial Treasury, and that, as far as the condition of the latter allows it, in cash, the remainder in Imperial Treasury notes. The Imperial Chancellor is, for this object, empowered to manufacture Imperial Treasury notes above the sum specified in Section i, up to the amount of the advance made, and to put them in circulation as much as possible. " Arrangements as to the manner of paying off this advance will be made at the same time as those for the ' Zettel' or Scrip Bank. Failing such an arrangement, the repayment of the advance shall take place within fifteen years, reckoned from January ist, 1876, in equal yearly instalments. The repayments paid upon the advance are to be employed in redeeming an equal amount of Imperial Treasury notes." Section 4 obliges the States to call in their paper money in proportion to the amount of State Treasury notes issued to them. According to Section 5, the Imperial Treasury notes are to be accepted by the treasury of every State, according to their nomi- nal value, and to be exchanged for cash at any time upon demand, by the State Treasury, on account of the Empire. " In private transactions, their acceptance is not compulsory." xAmongst the grounds for the decrees just quoted, the following were urged : — In most of the Confederate States, the amount of paper money to be withdrawn by ist January, 1876, so much exceeded the share of Imperial paper money belonging to these States, that the withdrawal of this excess could not occur, without serious injury to the interests of the country. The following preliminary calculation shews that 19 Confederate States had to redeem over ^4,050,000 in the course of one year, out of the national property. The plan, therefore, provided that two-thirds of the sum should be granted to these States in Imperial Treasury notes, as an advance to be paid off in 15 years at the latest, and that the normal value of the Imperial paper money should be temporarily raised by the amount of this advance. According to the preliminary survey, the proportion of the sums in Imperial Treasury notes, due to the separate Confederate States was as follows, all reckoned in English money. 302 Germany — Land and People. o O o o o o o o o O O o o o o o o o o o o o O o o o O o 3. 2 O 00 O CO TfCO lO r^ VO 't lOVO Cn Tt- ID r^O ci ON CO r^ On N TfCO lO -* o 1-1 w — ^^ M M M « " ^ " " ^ 1-1 l-l no -r) v-> 't rfvO CO r^O 0\ ro -+0 o C^ w vo m M On -t CO w CO CO CO ON CO S" « ^ C\ N nC' r^ - CONO NO Cn LO r-- CJ t— ' o\ rCvo" rf M cT r^ ro ro ■H-O lO C^ u-)CO •tCO fO ro lONO NO t^ l^ ON NO NO CO O. fO N ro rtco ro t--CO 't i-> vo lOO O 1-1 ?N M hi CO M 1-1 -+ C4 w '^ — > vo rl- ro T^ ■^ M H-« w ^ r~ CO M " ON °J3 ciS excess n circu over a Impel o O o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O o o s n -^CO " CO o o M CO Tt-CO o o oo •* M 'to C) hH 0)— • >, n o " ■-1 ^ ^ " l-^ " 1 1 '"' .:- = " >. 1 1 r^ l_l „ ri IT) -to o 1 M t^ t^ UO r-~NO fOO w o CO 1 1 1 1 1 lO °go S3 ^ t^co t^ M CO CO -t ^-O ON On lO •+ ro M O " 1^ u-> e*> C ^ -^ X:^<0 •^CO IT) U-) C) LO u-)0 O ON w -to u-)VO CO ON u ^ V.O o lOCO M lO M C) Cn H, -f n LOCO M lOOO CO H^ J. u ^ j:H N loo M O ■+ rO r^ O '-f CO •^ t^ M H^ M CM (J t-» C\ hH M n Advan the p tion i above S^ / ^i: CO oooooooo ooooooooooo o o coco ONOoo ooooooooooo ooiommooo ooooooooooo OOCO'ft^OOO OO'tOOOOOOOiO OOCJwioOOO OOCOOiOioOtoiOONO o o -t t--CO o o o O O 1-1 tONO lo On M CO CO vo to CO 1-1 ►- OOmOcmcjOi-' OnCO i^ toCNt^ON'tM COCOh- 'tCO s^ s^ ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo nOCO O rt-COCO r^i-i lOM lOCO 'l-NO toi-iCO ONr-ON" t^C] rJ-CO tOTf r^ to O i-i CO CO CO CN M On CO O O h^ i-O O O NO C^ to t-~ coco CNCOCi cococoO CNcoo Oscoo -fO OnO Lo-f-i^ONNO COCO M r— CO toi-i OnOnOO cO'+m t^cjcoONOcor^OCOh-ONO'i-t^tot^ooGc^ O^ tC On cTncT CO -^ i-T i-T rJ-NO" lor-^cftocfNONiHOONO cO^fr^i^CTsNO OS O t— NO MNCO'+l-i^'^C^MOlM 1^ 1-1 hHTj-M »j-5 *^ CO N N hi f^ t/3 Tj ri rt-S.2 >. rj '^ a r^ 3 3 .^ O 'X3 d rt rt i— * n PihJ« m x* w to 3 C M^ .i: -5 -^ t: tX) „ O S-^ -^ 3: ."^ 3 rt ID ;^ oj 2 ri <5 c/2 <; X >< X 7: ^ p W x. c)o C/3 < C^ i; T3 ^. zi; p , ^ ° P JSiS *=! =3 A P "^ r S c; ^ '^ CU rt ^ --i C/3 H^ WhC< s^ Germany — Land and People. 303 It must be here observed that Lauenburg, Oldenburg, Lippe, the three Hanseatic cities, and Alsace-Lorraine, have issued no paper money, (that which Oldenburg gave over to the National Banking Fund being treated as bank-notes) This embraces made of them. It following towns. Municipal Finance. very large sums, but no exact calculation has been appears that debts of above ;^i 50,000 exist in the Berlin ... ^2,128,350 Nuremberg ... ^282,900 Munich 838,350 Magdeburg ... 270,000 Breslau 828,600 Dortmund . . . 255,000 Dresden 801,000 Elberfeld ... 247,950 Leipsic 663,000 (jorlitz 240,000 Hof 531.300 Chemnitz ... 240,000 Cologne 510,750 Stettin 225,000 Konigsberg ... 423,450 Stralsund ... 225,000 Hanover 375.000 Augsburg . . . 222,750 Wertheim ... 330,000 Dantzic 210,000 Cassel 315.750 Halle 201,900 Meiningen ... 300,000 Dusseldorf ... 150,000 Military System. The military arrangements connected with the Constitution of the Empire have been already given. Liability to serve in the army is universal without, however, an actual enrolment of all the able-bodied youths. The period of service in the standing army is 7 years, of which, after the age of 20, three years are with the army and 4 years in the reserve. Subsequently five years of service in the militia. The period of active service for these youths who have passed through certain discipline, and undergone a special examination, and who pay the cost of their outfit, is restricted to one year. The " Imperial Military Decree" of 2nd May, 1874, determined, ist, "the peace footing of the army; that from the ist January, 1875, till ist December, 1881, the subalterns and privates shall consist of 401,659 men. The volunteers for one year not included in the number of the peace footing." By Section 2, the Infantry is composed of 469 battalions, the Cavalry of 465 squadrons, the Field Artillery of 300 batteries, of which 2 to 4 form a division, the Foot Artillery of 29 battalions, the Engineers and the Military Train each of 18 battalions. The battalions have, as a rule, 4 companies, those of the Military Train 2 to 3 companies only. As a rule, an Infantry regiment is composed of 3 battalions, a Cavalry regiment of 5 squadrons, one of Artillery of 2 or 3 divisions. Section 3 determines " 2 or 3 regiments shall form a brigade ; 2 or 3 brigades of Infantry or Cavalry a division. An Army Corps shall be com- posed of 2 or 3 divisions, with the corresi)onding proportion of Artillery, Engineer, and Military I'rain, in such a way that the whole army of the German Empire, in time of peace, shall consist of 18 Army Corps; 2 Army Corps from Bavaria, one each from Saxony and Wiirtemburg ; while 304 Germany — Land and People. Prussia, in common with the remaining States, should form 14. An army inspectorship shall exist for every 3 or 4 Army Corps." Section 5.— "The territory of the tierman Empire shall be divided, in a military sense, into 17 Army Cori)s districts. Without prejudice to the sovereign rights of the separate Confederate States the commanding generals shall be the military commandants of the Army Corps districts. As a basis for the organization of the Militia, as well as for the object of completing the army, the Army Corps districts shall be divided into divisions and brigade districts, and these again, according to their extent and population, into Militia-battalion and Militia-company districts." Section 6. — " The formation of the army in time of war, and the general levying of troops throughout the country, is determined by the Emperor. All the requisite preparations for the transfer of the army to a war footing are to be made in time of peace at the command of the Emperor. The conditions of service of those liable to be enrolled in the ' Landsturm ' are regulated by law." Section 8. — " The instructions with regard to the maintenance of discipline in the army are issued b)- the Emi)eror. The 2nd section of the decree contains the regulations with regard to tlie completion of the army. Section 11, directs that " persons who have left the dominions of the Empire, who have lost their rights of citizenship, but have not acquired, or having acquired, have again lost their rights elsewhere, are subject to the laws of the country if they again make a lengthened sojourn in Germany, and may be again called upon to serve, but cannot be retained in service in time of peace after they have attained the age of 31. The case is the same with the sons of persons who have left the German Empire and returned to it, in so far as the sons may not have obtained rights of citizenship in any other State. The above regulations aj^ply also to emi- grants who had obtained the rights of citizenship in other nations, but who again became citizens of the Empire before the completion of their thirty- hrst year." According to Section 13, "the order in which those of the same age are chosen for military service shall be decided by lot in each levying dis- trict. Those persons who escape the military service in the first year of their liability, by drawing a high number, may be taken in the two following years, but only in case the number of recruits required in these years cannot be supplied by any other means in the district where the soldiers are being levied. Those liable to serve, being still unchosen in the third year, are assigned to the supi)lementary reserve." Section 24 decides that "the first-class of the supplementary reserve shall serve for the completion of the army in mobilization, and for the for- mation of bodies of troops, whence vacancies in the army shall be filled up. A sufficient number of men shall be annually assigned to these to cover the number re(iuired for the mobilization of the whole army in five years." Section 3 treats of the active army. According to section 39, "the special jurisdiction over military persons is limited to courts-martial." By the following, section 40, " all military persons on the peace footing require the consent of their superiors to their marriage." Section 42 removes the restrictions which have hitherto existed among certain classes of military persons with regard to the actjuirement, selling and mortgaging of landed Germany — Land and People. 305 property ; but for the pursuit ot commerce, even by members of their famihes residing in the barracks, permission must be obtained of the superior ofhcer. In accordance with section 49, the right of voting for representatives in State affairs is denied to persons belonging to the active army (the mihtary officials excepted). Participation in jjolitical unions and assemblies is also refused to them. The 4th section treats of discharge from active service ; section 5 of furlough and the supplementary reserve first-class. In section 60 we find the regulation—" Emigration of officers and military surgeons on furlough shall be punished by fine of not more than ;i^i5o, or imprisonment of not more than 6 months." The number of officers, surgeons and officials in the army in time of peace is as follows : — Generals ... Major-Generals ... Regimental commandants Staff officers Captains — Infantry and Cavalry. l.ieutenants Surgeons ... Regimental judges Chaplains... .'Vdministrative officers ... ^'eterinary surgeons Civil teachers Prussia Saxony VViirtemburg Total* 70 6 5 81 158 ID 9 177 309 24 21 354 1,143 83 72 1,298 2,901 213 159 3,273 10,432 823 639 11,894 1,316 100 77 1,493 125 I I 9 145 217 I I — 228 3,404 239 191 3,834 525 38 26 589 lOl 20 — 121 No statement of this kind is given with regard to Bavaria in the docu- ment from which we have (quoted. But if we take corresponding approxi- mate figures, the total number of officers would be estimated at 19,200, that of the remaining officials at about 7,200; the result would be, in round numbers — Officers ... Officials... Volunteers for i year Common soldiers 19,200 7,200 4,000 401,659 432,059 The tactical units fixed by section 2 of the statute are as follows : — Under Prussian Administration Bavaria Saxony Wiirtemburg Total Infantry battalions... Squadrons ... Batteries ... Foot battalions ... 358 - 365 ... 234 22 58 50 34 4 29 30 18 2 24 20 14 I 469 465 300 29 Engineer battalions 14 2 I I 18 Train battalions 14 2 I I 18 * This total does not include Bavaria. 3o6 Germany — Land and People. With regard to the formation of the army, we may here observe that a battalion embraces 4 companies ; every regiment numbers 1,601 men in time of peace, 3,029 in war (a battalion, in round numbers, is 1,000, a conpany 250) ; beside this, each army corps has at least one independent rifle battalion. Each Cavalry regiment is divided into 5 squadrons (4 field squadrons and I depot scjuadron), of an average strength of 700 men. The Artillery regiments contain in peace 15, and in war 16 batteries. The Bavarian troops, which form a special army corps, are mainly formed on the same plan. The troops in time of peace are thus divided (without officers) : — Infantry, inclusive of 26 battalions of rifles with 16,621 men, 274,711; Cavalry, 65,513 men, with 69,326 horses ; Artillery, 45,439 men, 16,379 horses (field Artillery, 30,459; foot Artillery, 14,980 men) ; Engineers and railway battalions, 9,568 men ; Military Train, 5,049 men, 2,406 horses ; special corps (Palace Guards, etc.), 1,375 men. The war strength is fixed as follows : — 1877 Field Army Reserve Troops Officers Men Horses Officers Men Horses Infantry Cavalry Artillery Engineers Military Train.. Administration. 10,762 2,144 i>932 555 484 216 482,296 59,814 73>4i7 20,181 32,762 2,826 18,954 65,608 71,451 8,243 40,352 10,864 2,916 465 345 90 240 187,532 23,994 16,233 4,950 11,248 1,060 19,717 6,723 8 3,903 Total, with staff 1878 16,980 17,340 676,500 687,594 220,600 233,592 4,400 245,800 31,750 Garrison Troops Officers Men Horses 6,528 257,000 2,070 828 23,000 ... 25,350 1,200 56,000 6,200 192 8,000 9,600 354,000 35,000 JOUt 947 ,000 Infantrv ,, ... ... ... 1 10 000 Cavalry , , ... ... ... 150 000 Artillery ... I, 317, 000 men Infantry ... Cavalry Artillery ... Engineers... Total with staff... This gives altogether about 5> ,J And a total exccedini In Prussia, and in the States which are in si)ecial military connection with it, the officers consist of the nobility ; this is not the case in Bavaria and Wiirtemburg. The Prussian ([uarter-master's roll of November, 1871, shews that among 275 generals there were only 10 not of noble birth. In the year 1869, out of 208 generals, there were nine not of noble birth, three of Germany — Land and People. 307 whom were ennobled in 187 1. The whole war of 1870-71 raised only three officers who were not of noble birth to the rank of generals ; besides these, three major-generals were received in the contingent of Baden who did not belong to the nobility. In November, 187 1, there only remained 3 Prussian generals, not ot noble birth, who had acquired that rank previously to the war. Among all the colonels commanding Infantry regiments, there were only 12 who were not nobles. In the Cavalr)', not one colonel was a commoner ; on the other hand, commoners predominated in the Artillery, and in the Engineers there were 1 7 colonels commoners against 6 nobles. The Cavalry of the Guard, and the ist Regiment of Infantry Guards were kept free of officers who were not of noble birth, even during the war. The condition of things in the Marine is quite otherwise ; there, all the admirals and captains are commoners with the exception of one prince. In the sitting of the Diet of June 19th, 1873, the member, Von Hoverbeck, pointed out among the details, that there was not one officer who was not noble in 16 Prussian regiments ; in 12 other regiments there was but one in each ; and in nine other regiments there were only two officers who were not nobles. Fortresses. There are 31 : 20 being in Prussia, i in Saxony, 5 in South Germany and 5 in Alsace-Lorraine. The Prussian fortresses are Saarlouis, Coblentz, with Ehrenbreitstein, Cologne with Deutz, Magdeburg, Torgau, Spandau, Ciistrin, Diippel, Glogau, Glatz, Schweidnitz, Neisse, Posen, Thorn, Swine- miinde, Marienburg, Dantzic, Pillau, Konigsberg, and Lotzen (Boyen). In Saxony, Konigstein ; in Hesse, Mainz ; in Baden, Rastatt ; in Wiirtemburg and Bavaria, Ulm, Germersheim and Ingolstadt. In Alsace-Lorraine are the two principal fortresses, Metz and Strasburg, then follow Diedenhofen, Bitsch, and New Breisach. Marsal, Schlettstadt, Lichtenberg, Lutzelstein, and Pfalzburg no longer rank as fortresses. In Prussia itself, Minden, Erfurt, Wittenberg, Stettin, Kosel, Graudenz, Kolberg, and Stralsund are no longer fortresses (except the coast ports of the two latter), and in Bavaria, Landau has lost its place as a fortress. In the Imperial decrees of ist February, and 27th March, 1873, a proposal was entertained of adding 23 fortresses to the above number ; ;^Ij526,552 to be expended at Wilhelmshaven, ;^i, 373,850 at Cologne, ;^i> 1 75.550 at Konigsberg. At Posen ^1,053,450 ,, Thorn ... ... 792,000 On the Lower Weser. 759,150 At Ciistrin ... ... 711,150 „ Spandau 665,100 On the Lower Elbe .. 655,950 At Sonderburg Diippel „ Friedrichsort „ Swinemunde „ Ulm „ Mainz „ Dantzic ... ^334,050 273,300 213,900 181,500 138,300 ii5>95o Smaller sums being expended on Coblenz, Glogau, Stralsund, Neisse, Colberg, Memel, Pillau, and Rastatt. Very large sums had already been granted for the fortresses of Alsace-Lorraine, especially for Strasburg. Considerable grants were also made for Ingolstadt. 3o8 Gerviany — Land and People. Historical War Notices. The former General Confederacy had fixed the contingent throughout its dominions at i per cent, of the population given in the return for the year 1816. f]y this the war strength of the Confederate army amounted to 301,576 men. Later on, the percentage was raised to i^, then to i|, and even to 2, but always according to the much too low old estimate of the l)opulation (the number of inhabitants had increased from 30,000,000 to 46,500,000.) The last estimate with which we are acquainted gave the total of the contingent as 553,028 men but the actual number as much higher. The survey of the lists for the year 1865 showed the actual fighting forces of the Confederacy to be Men Horses Austria ., 222,107 Prussia .. 238,706 Bavaria 67,012 Wiirtemburg Baden Grand Duchy of Hesse • • 30.343 19,767 12,944 Saxony Nassau 28,574 Limburg Luxemburg 22,457 Hanover Brunswick ... 27,541 Mecklenburg-Schwerin Mecklenburg-Strelitz Oldenburg Liibeck 23,054 Bremen Hamburg ... 30,740 54,089 8,388 3,195 2,344 1,260 3,507 2,135 3,699 1,897 The remaining States which formed the reserve division of Infantr), 19,845 men, and 92 horses. Total strength of the Confederate army, therefore, was 712,346 men and 111,400 horses. The Confederate army was divided into 10 army corps. Austria furnished the first 3 ; Prussia the next 3 ; Bavaria the 7th ; Wiirtemburg, Baden, and the Grand Duchy of Hesse the 8th ; the kingdom of Saxony, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and Luxemburg-Limbourg the 9th ; Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg, Holstein-Lauenburg, the three Hanse cities, and l)oth the Mecklenburgs the loth army corps. The remaining 15 States, viz., the four Grand Ducal and Ducal Saxon Houses, the two Principalities of Reuss, Waldeck, Lip])e, Schaumburg, Anhalt, the two Schwarzburg Principalities, Homburg, Lichtenstcin and Frankfort had to supply a reserve division, destined to strengthen the garrisons of the Confederate fortresses in case of war. The Confederate Fortresses were five in number (i) Mainz, with Austrian and Prussian garrisons; (2) Luxemburg, garrisoned by Prussia and Luxemburg; (3) Landau, garrisoned by Bavaria; (4) Rastatt or Rastadt, garrisoned by Baden, Austria and Prussia ; (5) Uhn, with garri- bon of NViirlemburgers, Bavarians, and Austrians in lime of peace. Gcriiiaiiy — Land ami People. 309 The Campaign of 1866. The history of the New Empire begins with the war of 1866. We give a few notices of the same, founded upon a dissertation in the Journal of the Royal Prussian Statistical Bureau, together with subsequent accounts. According to the order of battle of 1866, the active forces of Prussia, together with the contingents of the smaller States numbered 437,262 men, with the staff. 320,017 Infantry 44,003 ... ... ... ... Cavalry 38,545 Artillery 8,038 ... ... ... ... ... ... Engineers 10,919 ... ... ... ... ... ... Military Train Of these— 107,140... ... ... ... belonged to the first army 144,795 " " second army 53,159... ... ... ... „ „ army of the Elbe The first reserve army corps was composed of 35,321 men ; the main army 74,613 ; and the second reserve army corps 21,319 men. Losses : 16,177 wounded, 4,450 killed, of whom 2,931 died at once, 1,519 died more than 48 hours after being wounded ; 6,427 died of cholera, typhus fever, and other diseases. Lastly, the number of those missing was 785. Among the wounded were 669 officers and 15,508 soldiers. There perished— Officers Men On the field of battle 178 2,753 Afterwards of their wounds ... 84 ... ... i,435 From illness ... ... ... 53 ••• ... 6,374 Total 315 10,562 Total number of horses lost 6,490. 73 officers and 36 soldiers were wounded out of every 1,000 of the effective strength. Died: 34 officers, 24 soldiers out of every 1000. Proijortion of recoveries in every 1,000 wounded : officers, 890 ; soldiers, 915. Altogether the proportion of officers wounded was double that of soldiers, and three times as many in proportion died on the field and elsewhere of their wounds. On the other hand, the loss by illness was about 15 per 1,000 among the soldiers, and only six per 1,000 among the officers. These figures are, however incomplete, and rose considerably in both categories, as will be seen below from returns obtained subsequently. The losses in the separate and most important engagements were — Officers Men Wounded Killed Missing Wounded Killed Missing At Nachod 46 12 904 230 149 ,, Trautenau ... 9 "- 876 186 I So „ Skalitz 34 6 857 191 132 ,, Gitschin 39 16 I 860 159 66 ,, Kciniggratz... 260 100 6,698 1,840 278 „ Langensalza 24 7 524 92 75 „ Kissingen ... 18 8 i 644 122 74 „ Uettingen ... 26 6 566 103 75 3IO Gerfnany — Land aiid People. As there were altogether 151 battles, skirmishes and encounters, accompanied by loss of men, during the campaign of 1866, the total number of losses is by no means represented in the above list, which treats solely of the chief engagements. For the details of the campaign of 1870-71 we are greatly indebted to the director of the Royal Prussian Statistical Bureau, Dr. Engel. The strength of the German army in the different months was in 1870, August ... „ September „ October... „ November 780,723 813,280 840,857 827,271 1871, January... „ February 913,967 936,915 „ December 841,196 The Milit'dr Wochenblatt has published a statement, founded upon the materials laid before the Imperial Commission, for enquiring into the resources of the various States, and declares that the effective force (as it is always and everywhere), was less than it ought to have been. At the com- mencement of the month of August, the collective, active and non-active German forces were estimated at 1,183,389 men and 250,373 horses. After the great losses in August and the beginning of September, the figure sank to 1,163,518, although the army actually in the field was by no means weakened, but rather increased, as can be seen from the figures for the different months as given above. The reinforcements became larger, the non-mobilized forces were also increased, so that the total in February amounted to 1,350,787 men, of whom 936,915 were active troops. We give a statment of the effective force and the total force of the separate States in August, 1870, compared with the highest numbers in a later month ; at the same time observing once for all, that the contingents of the 1 7 small North German States arc included in the number of Prussian troops. * Of these, 21,369 were officer*. The numbers were ready for ictive service Active Army by the end of January, 187 1, Garrison Troops Staff Infantry Cavalry Artillery Engineers Military Train Railway and Telegi -aph dt ipots 7,241 538,030 67,494 72,751 14,753 33,300 733,469* 120 122,800 5,889 i 19,609 3,690 2,199 Total ... 154,407 Together ... . 887,876 Germany — Land and People. 311 In August 1870. Subsequent Maximum. Effective Total Effective Total in the Month. Prussia 564,300 888,254 ! 718,726 1,028,126 Feb. Saxony 43.471 59,423 43,911 66,942 „ Mecklenburg 9,170 12,109 ■ 8,625 13,689 March Bavaria 97.572 128,964 105,413 151,028 Jan. Wiirteniburg 26,812 37,180 29,337 41,920 March Baden 24,291 35,181 24,742 38,818 Feb. Hesse 15,104 22,278 16,408 24,908 March This amounts to the following per centage of the population according to the census of 1867. Prussia 3.870; Bavaria 3.130; Hesse 3.026; Saxony 2.762 ; Baden 2.707 ; Wiirteniburg 2.356 ; Mecklenburg 2.076. The losses in killed, wounded and missing were — Strength Total losses 1 Killed Rate of losses Prussia 690,288 1 97,113 i 21,906 14. 1 per cent. Saxony 46,749 6,859 1,492 14-7 „ Hesse 15,485 2,214 554 14.8 „ Bavaria ... 82,016 15,666 3,062 19-1 „ Wiirtemburg 26,096 2,631 1 790 lo.i „ Baden 27,232 3,385 792 12.4 „ „ 887,876 127,867 j 28,596 14.4 „ „ Taken according to the kind of troops the losses were : — Strength Total losses Killed Rate of losses Infantry 660,830 116,487 26,105 17.6 per cent. Cavalry ... 73,383 4,639 1,074 6.3 „ „ Artillery 92,360 6,019 1,282 6.5 „ „ Engineers 20,642 581 III 2.8 „ „ Military Train 33,300 1 12 44 0.3 „ „ To these add staff.. 7,361 29 6 0.4 „ „ In the 127,867 total losses there are 5,254 officers. 17 generals, and 247 staff officers were wounded. The total number of wounded is fixed at 113,759, which, as several persons were many times wounded, fixes the number of individuals wounded at 112,336. The number of persons stated above to have died of their wounds is increased by those who died of disease to 40,881 — 30,124 of these were soldiers among the Prussians, 2,490 were Saxons, 1,070 were Hessians, 4.836 were Bavarians, 1,153 were Wiirtembergers, 1,070 were from Baden. This gives a loss by death per thousand among the Prussians of 48.01, Saxons 57.50, Hessians 70.28, Bavarians 48.01, Wiirtembergers 41.87, Badeners 4i-73; average, 47.90. In the official account given by Dr. Engel, it is stated that the actual fighting forces of the Germans at no period of the war, reached to 1,000,000 312 Germany — Land atui People. soldiers ; the actual strength remained considerably below the proposed figure. If, however, the repeated reinforcements are added to the original numbers, the 1,000,000 would be exceeded. The campaign was begun on the side of (lermany with 450,000 men ; 112,000 followed before the 22nd August, while 400,000 remained in Germany. The losses in the open field (without taking disease into account), were 71,436 up to the battle of Sedan. The siege of Paris was begun with 122,661 Infantry, 24,325 Cavalry, and 622 guns. The Guards at that time only numbered 14,219, and the 6th corps, which had not then been in the field at all, only 21,309 (instead of more than 30,000). The besieging army was increased by reinforcements to 202,030 Infantry and 33,794 Cavalry, making in all 235,824 men by October 21st. The ist German army (ist and 8th army corps), numbered, after the taking of Metz, only 36,244 Infantry and 4,433 Cavalry (out of more than 60,000). The 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles (3rd, 9th and loth army corps and ist and 2nd divisions of Cavalry), entered the field for the re-con([uest of Orleans, with 49,607 Infantry and 10,766 Cavalry only, (out of far more than 100,000 men). The sick list of the moveable army was highest in the months of November and December, that is to say, 83,430 and 84,272, equal to 10.08 and 10.02 per cent. In September the number had been 61,115, 7.5 per cent, and in March we find only 56,809, 6.13 per cent., but it must not be overlooked that a considerable number of those who were unfit for service, had been removed from the active army. Several corps lost more than half of their original strength. According to an official account, the sick rate was highest in the ist Bavarian army corps, viz., 52 per cent, of the strength; in the nth army corps it was 42.7 ; in the 3rd, 39. ; in the 7th, 33.7 ; in the loth, 33.5 ; in the Baden division, 32 ; the same in the 5th army corps. It was lowest in the 3rd division of Cavalry, viz., only 9, and in the Military Guard division 1 1 per cent. During the whole war there were 1,599 encounters in which lives were lost ; in the field, 78 battles, actions and important combats, and 870 smaller fights. In the sieges, 33 sallies and 486 other actions. To these must be added 121 staff encounters, and 1 1 railway accidents caused by the enemy. T/ie following were the most sanguinary battles. (a.) — DECISIVE BATTLES. 1870 Loss Died Total Officers Officers Men Aug. 4 Weissenburg ... 1,528 59 1 19 128 „ 6 Saarbriick 4,866 195 61 801 6 Wiirih 10,530 439 132 1,496 „ 16 Vionville 14,820 58' 198 3>o9i „ 18 Gravelotte 20,577 819 292 4,^57 Sept. I Sedan 9,032 422 118 1.519 Dec. 8-io Before Orleans... 3,405 127 27 350 Germany — Land and People. 313 {b.) — SIEGES. 1870-71 Aug. 27 to Sept. 29, Strasburg ... ,, 19 ,, Oct. 27, Metz Sept. ' "^ ■ 19 19 „ Jan I, Paris .scpi. 19 ,, juii. 1, runs Oct. 3 „ Feb. 13, Belfort Loss Total Officers 5>483 11.563 1,500 39 193 480 52 Died Officers 12 55 140 12 Men 974 1,860 244 Compared with the sanguinary results of the year 1866, Dr. Engel found that the rate of deaths per 1,000 of the effective strength amounted then to 31.83, 1870-71, 45.89 ; in detail — officers, 41.81 and 76.09 ; men, 31.60 and 45.01. The numbers who died of their wounds were- In 1866 In 1870-71 Officers Per 1,000 34-21 67.84 Men Per i.ooo 13.67 3i-i7 The proportion of those carried off by illness were— Officers Men 7.60 and 5.87 respectively 17.93 and 12.69 „ The above formidable numbers are, however, very far from giving all the victims of this fearful war. For this we must include the invalids, of whom, according to a declaration made by the commissioner of the Con- federacy, in the sitting of the Diet of June 7, 1871, the late war produced 50,000 ; and very many, beside the recognised invaUds, have their bodies enfeebled for the rest of their days as the result of the war ; and many of those who returned home from the field of battle in apparent health have since died of illness, the seeds of which were undoubtedly sown in their constitutions by the hardships of war. Many civilians, too, have lost the bread-winner, the husband and father, and many parents the support ot their old age. In the war of 1870-71, the German troops made, accordmg to a pre- liminary account, altogether 445,769 prisoners, and took 5,871 guns, 17 1 mitrailleuse, 59 eagles, and 20 standards. 383,741 of the prisoners were sent into Germany, of whom 11,860 were officers. According to an estimate given in the Prussian Militar- IVochenblatt, the strength of the opposing forces in the three most sanguinary battles was : At Kbniggratz, 215,000 Prussians, against 220,000 Austrians and Saxons; at Gravelotte, 200,000 Germans, against 120,000 French ; at Sedan, 200,000 (xermans, against 130,000 French. 'Die battle of Koniggratz was the greatest of the century in point of the number of combatants ; there were present at it 30,000 more than at the battle of Leipsic, 314 Geifftany — Laud and People. Navy. According to a memorandum supplied to the Imperial Diet, the number of ships of war at the end of April, 1873, "'^"^'^ — 3 ... ... ... ... ... ... Iron-clad frigates 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... Monitors 10 .. ... ... ... ... ... Corvettes 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... Advice boats 18 ... ... ... ... ... ... Gun-boats I ... ... ... ... ... ... Artillery ship 3 ... ... ... ... ... ... Sailing brigs 16 ... ... ... ... ... ... Small torpedo boats The fleet is, however, to be brought to the following standard before the year 1882 : — Iron-clad frigates 6 ... 7 2 20 6 8 large and 2 3 Iron-clad corvettes Monitors ... Iron-clad batteries ... Corvettes ... Advice boats 10 small ... ... ... Gun-boats Artillery ships Sailing brigs 10 large and 10 small ... ... ' ... Torpedo boats A sum of ;/{^io,92i,875 will be absorbed for this increase. In 1879 the German navy was manned by 5,500 sailors, and com- manded by six admirals, 62 captains, and 367 lieutenants. In addition to these the 10 companies of Marines numbered 1,600 men. Of the total seafaring population (80,000), 6,000 are serving in foreign navies. There are three ports of war — viz., two on the Baltic, Kiel and Dantzic, and the third, Wilhelmshaven, on the North Sea. Social, Industrial, and Comnercial Affairs. ( a ) Intellectual Development and Moral Conditions. Unfortunately the available materials are so very incomplete, or at least disposed under such different categories that it is impossible to group together the data connected with this subject. We must therefore refer the reader to the notes under the separate States, confining ourselves here to a few general particulars. Universities. — There are 20 princi])al schools or universities, viz : — nine in Prussia (Berlin, Bonn, Breslau, Halle, Greifswalde and Konigsberg, G'ittingen, Marburg and Kiel, besides the academy at Munster) ; three in Bavaria (Munich, Wurzburg, Erlangen) ; two in liaden (Heidelberg and Freiburg) ; one in Saxony (Leipsic) ; one in Wiirtemburg (Tubingen) ; one in the Saxon Duchies (Jena) ; one in the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Giessen) ; one in Mecklenberg (Rostock) ; and lastly one in Alsace-Lorraine (Strasburg.) ^ Germany — Land and People. 315 The German professors at these universities, in the year 1870, num- bered 1,505; in 1879, 1,914; the number of students in the year 1870, numbered 13,765 ; in 1879, 18,629. Ihe universities most frequented in the summer of 1873, were Leipsic, 2,720 students; Berlin, 1,590: and Munich, 1,128. In 1879, Leipsic, 2,861 (2,038 were foreigners) ; BerUn, 2,569 ; and Munich, 1,364. There are 318 Gymnasia^ of which 213 are in Prussia, 28 in Bavaria, 1 2 in Saxony, seven in Wiirtemburg, nine in Baden, six in Hesse, six in Schwerin, 4 in Oldenburg, three in Weimar, four in Anhalt, six in Brunswick, four in Alsace-Lorraine, two each in Coburg-Gotha, Meiningen, Lippe, Reuss (the younger branch,) and Sondershausen ; lastly one each in Schaumburg, Rudolstadt, Waldeck, and in each of the three Hanse Cities, With respect to religion, these gymnasia are divided into 173 Protestant, 53 Roman Catholic, and 92 which are equally divided between the two faiths; in Prussia 150 Evangelical, 47 Roman Catholic, and 16 in which both faiths are professed ; in Bavaria four Protestant, three Roman Catholic, 21 mixed. There are 214 Preparatory and Latin Schools. Polytechnic Schools. — These are a rapid growth ot modern times, and there are many schools bearing this or a similar name, but the seven here given are the only ones considered as really perfect polytechnic schools ; Munich (with 1,335 students in the beginning of 1874), Hanover, Dresden, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Stuttgard, and Aix-la-Chapelle. There are on an average 36 teachers and 450 students in every polytechnic school. Commercial gymnasia 14, grammar schools 167. The middle-class schools number about 180,000 scholars. There are about 60,000 public schools with a total of 6,000,000 pupils. The mining academy of Freiburg deserves special mention. Literature. The number of printed publications issued in Germany exclusive of newspapers and circulars was as follows (according to the book catalogue of Heinrich.) Publications Year Publications 1851 1852 1853 1854 185s 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 8,326 1865 8,857 1866 8,750 1867 8,705 1868 8,794 1869 8,540 1870 8.699 1871 8,672 1872 8,666 187.3 9,496 1874 9,566 1875 9,779 1876 9,889 1877 9,564 9,661 8,699 9,855 10,563 11,305 10,108 10,669 11,127 11,315 12,070 12,516 13,356 13,925 3i6 Ccniinfiy — Land atul People. Every outburst of war made itself felt even in literature ; the number of publications decreasing considerably both in 1866 and in 1870.* The total number of new literary publications in 1873 ^^^^ 25S Literary Science. I, 239 Theology.f 1,051 Jurisprudence, Politics and Statistics. 514 Medical Science. 600 Natural History and Chemistry. 157 Philosophy. 387 Childrens' Books. 1,314 Instruction and School Books. 438 Ancient and Oriental Languages, History of Antic|uities. 346 Modern Languages and old German Literature. 690 History. 339 Geography and Travels. 162 Mathematics. 314 Art of War, Treatment of Horses. | 402 Commercial and Trade Matters. 331 Architecture, Railway, Mining, and Naval Affairs. 90 Woods and the Chase. 310 Agriculture. 948 Belles Lettres.ll 391 Fine Arts. 205 Popular Books. 19 Freemasonry. 590 Various Writings. 220 Cards. The following German towns were those in which the largest number of periodicals appeared in 1873 — Berlin 343 Leipsic 300 Vienna 203 Dresden ... 68 Stuttgard ^^4 i Munich 53 Breslau 44 Hamburg ... 34 Prague Z2> Frankfort-on-the- Maine ... 26 Halle 22 Hanover ... 21 Erlangen ... 2: Berne ... 1 ■■ ) Basle ] ;, Konigsberg 17 (Jottingen ... ... 17 Wurzburg ... 17 Bremen 16 Zurich 16 Darmstadt... ir * In the Exchange List of the German book trade, all the new publications, including- continuations, separate parts, etc., of works are regularly announced. In consequence of thib tact, tile number of sintjle parts considuialily exceeds that of the ])ublications which appeal . The number of these separate parts was in 1S64, 11,505; in 1X65, 11,719; in 1866, (year of war\ 10,756 the ist quarter of the year, which was previous to the outbreak of war, h.-d shewn an increase of 5 per cent; the 2nd ciiiarter. a falling oti of 13: the 3rd quarter, a decline of even 26 per cent., whilst the 4th i42,25o ... ^1,336,350 Books, music and pictures to the value of ^77,664 were exported from Leijisic to the United States alone in the year 1S73. ^^ 1869-70 the value of the same exports was ;!^3o,839, and in 1870-71 ^^58,075. The export of books, etc., from Berlin amounted, in 1869, to ^^24,566, and in 1870 ^^256,396. The number of retail booksellers ( Sortimentshandlungen) who keep an assortment of books in all departments of science, in Germany, was reckoned, in 1867, to be 1,839, i" 7o8 towns, for example — In 279 towns in Prussia ... ,,225 „ „ small German states ,, 108 „ „ Austria ... 702 shops 623 >! 253 J) 612 1,578 Among the towns which had the largest number of retail shops were — Leipsic (including agencies), 85 ; Berlin 80 ; Vienna 41 ; Hamburg 37 ; Dresden and Prague each 23 ; Breslau, Frankfort O.M., and vStuttgard each 20; Munich 17; Copenhagen 15; Cologne and Halle each 14; Mainz, Nurenburg, Zurich each 13; Augsburg, Posen 11 ; Cassel, Hanover each 10. In 1877, 14,000 independent works, containing over 20,000 volumes were published, independently of anonymous publications. These books were written by 10,000 authors, and may be thus classified :— 372 Encyclopedias, Bibliography, and Scientific Literature. 1,253 Theology. 1,329 Law, Politics, and Statistics. 755 Medicine. 740 Natural Science, Chemistry, and Pharmacy. 163 Philoso{)hy. 347 Military Works. 525 Commerce and Industry. 378 Architecture, Mining, Engineering, and Navigation 520 Classics, Oriental Languages, and Antiquities. 739 History. 445 Modern Languages. 3 1 1 Cicography. 166 Mathematics and Astronomy. 525 Coaunercc and Industry 1 Germany — L and and People. 3 1 9 133 Shooting, Hunting, Fishinq, and Management of Forests. 392 Agriculture and Horticulture. 540 Popular Works. 1,126 Belles Lettres. 17 Masonic Books. 507 Miscellaneous. 336 Maps. 13,925 Total. The number of copies of the works, 2,400,000. If all these copies had been sold, and each to a different individual, every twentieth person out of the 42,000,000 Germans would have had a book. It is however true, that only one-half of what is published is sold, and that to a class including only two per cent, of the population. 8,000,000 almanacks, not included in the above computation, are annually bought by 98 per cent, of the population. The press has assumed gigantic proportions in this country. 40 political papers appear twice or thrice daily. 520 „ „ „ once a day. 500 „ ,, ,, three or four times daily. 780 ,, ,, „ twice a week. 500 „ ,, „ once „ The total of 2,350 political papers have 4,000,000 subscribers. To each 1000 inhabitants there arc 103 subscribers in all Germany. The pro- portion is much larger in the south than in the north. The total of the sheets printed by the periodicals is put down at 1,600,000,000, or 3,200,000 reams annually. If we reckon Zs. per ream, the cost of the paper alone would be ;^ 1,2 80,000, and the remaining expenses of printing and compositors' work bring it up to ^^2, 100,000, and adding the sum paid to editors, contributors, correspondents, and telegraph agencies, we have the sum of ^4, 250,000 expended in the getting up of the German journals. Placing this ^4,250,000 side by side with the 42,000,000 German subjects, it gives two shillings per head per annum. From 1868 to 1878 the total number of new books registered in Leipsic was 114,155, giving an annual average of 14,145. Administration of Justice. The variety existing in the mode of procedure and of legislation in the different States, makes it difficult to compare results. But we may mention one particular point, that of Capital Punishment. In connection with the composition of the General Penal Code, for the North German Confederacy, (now the German Empire), which was completed in 1870, the following information was obtained as to the number of death sentences passed and executed within the territory of the Confederacy, from January ist, i860, to January ist, 1865. In Prussia 161 sentences ... 26 carried out „ Hanover ... ... ... 30 „ ••• 6 „ ,, Saxony 15 „ ••• - »> „ Grand Duchy of Hesse ... 2 „ ••• o m 320 Germany — Land and People. In Mecklenburg-Schwerin ... 5 sentences ... 2 carried out „ Grand Duchy of Saxony ... 4 >> „ Brunswick ... ... ... 1 >, „ Sax-Meiningen 3 ,, ,, Altenburg ... ... ... i >> ,, Coburg ... ••• ••• 2 „ (the remaining i committed suicide while under sentence). In Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.. i sentence „ Reuss (elder) i „ ,, Hamburg ... ... ... 2 ,, 228 sentences of death were therefore passed in this period, 44 of which were executed. 176 out of the 228 sentences were for murder, and 41 of which only were carried out. {b^ — Material Relations. The German ZoUverein {Customs' Union). — The basis of this Union was formed by the Clrand Duchy of Hesse uniting with Prussia, to which, by agreement, Wiirtemburg and Bavaria entered, thereby constituting a ZoUverein or Mercantile Union. This Customs'-AUiance-Compact dates thus— 1828, Jan. 18 — Union of Bavaria and Wiirtemburg. „ Feb. 14. — Union of Prussia and the Cirand Duchy of Hesse. „ July 17. — Union of Anhalt with the latter. 1829, July 3 and 4. — Sax-Meiningen and Coburg Gotha. 1 83 1, April 16. — Waldeck. „ Aug. 25. — Electoral Hesse. 1833, March 22. — Bavaria and Wiirtemburg together, with both the HohenzoUerns. „ March 30. — Kingdom of Saxony. „ May 10. — Thuringia (8 states). 1835, Feb. 20. — Hesse-Homburg. „ May 12. — Baden. ,, Dec, 10. — Nassau. J 836, Jan. 20, — Frankfort. 1 84 1, Oct. 18. — Lippe-Detmold. „ Oct. 19. — Brunswick. 1842, Feb. 8. — Luxemburg. 185 1, Sept. 7. — Hanover, Oldenburg, Schaumburg-Lippe. 1867. — Nov. 15. — Schleswig-Holstein. ]868. — Feb. 10. — Both Mechlenburgs, Lauenburg, Lubeck. 187T. — Alsace Lorraine. The increase of territory and population is as follows — Year English Square Miles Population 1828 iii,5'9 i3'295'254 183J 112,539 13-936,547 1834 164,397 23,478.120 1837 171,294 26,04542,467 34,670,277 35,788,352 38,302,103 40,677,950 42,727,360 The ZoUverein includes all German countries ; still Hamburg, Altona, Bremen, Brake, and Gestemiinde maintain their positions as Free Harbours. Some districts of Baden also lie beyond the Customs' Une, in all, equal i6t English square miles. On the other hand, the Grand Duchy of Luxem- burg, with 197,528 inhabitants, belongs to the Union, without, however, possessing a vote in the Council of tlie Confederation or in the Diet ; the Austrian community of Jungholz, with 217 inhabitants, belongs in the same way to the Union. The total revenue of the ZoUverein in 1830 ... was only ^,^1, 771, 282 1S35 ■•■ » 2,532,027 " . . " 1841 ... „ 3,333,780 (this without the tax on beet sugar) And in 1873, ^6,735,963 without the tax, and ^9,176,438 with the tax. It should be here remarked that the duty on foreign sugar, which amounted in the year 1846 to p{^i, 018,983 thus constituting about a quarter of the whole receipts, sank, in i860 and the following years, to about :^6o,ooo, in consequence of the manufacture of beet-sugar ; it rose again, however, in 187 1 to ^135,767 (on raw and refined sugar), and in 1872 10^572,043. In consequence of tlie arrangements for the renewal of the ZoUverein in 1867, the salt tax was introduced as a general impost throughout the Union ; and as a result of the changes made in 1869 ^"^ 1870 a duty on tobacco was levied. The annual receipts are in ^. Year Customs Beet Sugar Tax Salt Tax Tobacco Duty Total £ £ £ £ £ 1868 4,097,928 1,549,210 1,530,159 — 7,177,296 1869 3,986,312 1,772,373 1,485,095 — 7,243,780 1870 4,283,247 1,831,291 1,552,529 42,265 7,709,334 1872 6,125,386 2,115,653 1,657,488 92,733 9,991,261 1873 ... 6,735,963 2,440,475 1,682,818 68,796 10,928,053 1875 ... 5,224,819 2,033,484 1,649,754 57,142 8,965,200 1876 5,420,573 2,273,156 1,667,123 59,440 9,420,293 1877 ... 5.340,926 2,544,424 1,721,089 53,183 8,659,622 1878 5,739,107 2,684,675 1,687,518 53,795 10,155,096 The exclusive manner in which the Customs' accounts of the German Empire were formerly kept, made any very exact estimate almost an im- possibility. The following official accounts, embracing the years 1872 to 1878, are of more than ordinary value. Alsace-Lorraine is included in the Customs' Union for the Hrst time in 1S72. V 322 Germany — Lafid and PeopU. Of the principal imi)orts we jiive tlic following in cwts., and the value in English money. Imports. 187a 1873 cwts. cwts. Coals... 45-356,975 ^'2,715,000 29,129,944 /:i, 755, 000 Coffee 1,855,367 6,825,000 1,965,261 8,850,000 Copper 335,018 1,422,000 312,020 1,423,000 Cotton, raw ... 2,830,000 9,765,000 3,460,000 1 1,900,000 „ manufactured 47,701 777,900 53,279 870,000 Flax 786,000 1,890,000 975,000 2,340,000 Grain and Flour 28,800,000 13,965,000 39,000,000 20,700,000 Grease 578,000 1,213,500 871,000 1,800,000 Guano 1,400,000 945,000 1,860,000 1,1 16,000 Herrings . . . tons 691,286 1,036,500 . 778,123 1,401,000 Hides, raw ... 1,181,441 4,689,800 1,059,520 4,817,300 Indigo 28,000 1,057,500 1 32,860 1,230,000 Pig Iron 12,395,118 4,095,000 13,809,780 4,560,000 Linseed 1, 100,000 916,500 1,120,000 840,000 Linseed Oil ... 365,000 657,000 I 397,000 714,000 Machinery ... 563,169 1,015,400 ; 900,397 1,850,400 Metal Wares... 2,633,000 2,941,500 4,485,000 5,259,000 Petroleum 3,320,000 2,745,000 4,830,000 3,630,000 Silk Cocoons, raw ... 61,300 5,520,000 58,400 4,815,000 Sugar... 878,610 1,455,900 491,313 781,300 Tobacco, leaf and^ manufactured ...) 1,128,073 4,275,000 1,281,590 2,995,000 Yarns 1,088,000 9,735,000 1,121,000 9,675,000 Wine 816,851 2,208,000 ; 1,393,146 3,321,000 Wool 1,070,000 9,630,000 1,060,000 9,510,000 Woollen Cloth 163,526 4,548,000 147,420 4,082,250 Imports — continued. — 1874 1875 • cwts. cwts. Coals... 36,178,700 ;?^2, 1 75,000 37,526,000 ^1,875,000 Coffee 1,800,830 8,370,000 1 2,015,000 9,550,000 Copper 317,482 1,575,000 295,881 1,405,000 Cotton, raw ... 3,350,000 11,205,000 i 3,070,000 10,150,000 „ manufactured 51,127 846,000 1 50,200 881,500 Flax 1,100,000 2,235,000 962,000 2,165,000 Grain and Flour 47,100,000 24,120,000 43,100,000 20,900,000 Grease 663,000 1,995,000 ! 487,000 1,460,000 Ciuano 1,950,000 1,170,000 , 2,070,000 1,240.000 Herrings ... io!n 776,721 1,281,000 654,000 1,175,000 Hidfs, raw ... 1,123,404 5,490,000 964,840 4,297,700 Indigfj 36,100 1,354,500 29,000 1,015,000 Pig Iron 10,629,484 2,715,000 12,127,000 2,730.000 r,insoed 1,190,000 892,800 882,000 615,000 Germany — Land and People. 323 Imports- -continued. : 1874 1875 cwts. cwts. Linseed Oil ... 487,000 804,000 567,000 850,000 Locomotives and^ Boilers ... \ Machinery ... 201,100 269,250 29,900 65,400 9630OO 630,640 600,300 1,051,700 Metal Wares... 2,007,000 2,925,000 1,790,000 2,368,000 Petroleum 5,560,000 2,660,000 5,560,000 3v335'00o Silk Cocoons, raw ... 57,600 4,320,000 1 72,800 5,450,000 Sugar... 424,484 649,900 428,343 652,050 Tobacco, leal" and \ manufactured ...\ S43149O 3,585,000 ' 899,068 3,765,000 Yarns 1,177,000 10,050,000 [ 1,120,000 9,600,000 Wine 1,110,620 2,853,000 1,180,000 3,030,000 Wool 1,090,000 9,810,000 1 1,130,000 10,150,000 Woollen Cloth 143.467 2,930,000 1 140,657 4,017,700 Imports — continued. Coals... Coffee .... Copper Cotton, raw ... „ manufactured Flax Grain and Flour Grease Guano Herrings ... tons Hides, raw ... Indigo Pig Iron Linseed Linseed Oil ... Locomotives and ) Boilers ... ) Machinery ... Metal Wares ... Petroleum Silk Cocoons, raw ... Sugar... Tobacco Leaf and^ manufactured . . . ) Yarns... Wine... Wool Woollen Cloth 1876 1877 42,100,000 2,128,000 271,000 3,380,000 46,600 659,000 60,500,000 668,000 2,770,000 704,227 970,800 35>3oo 1 1,423,000 1,150,000 662,000 14,900 529,100 1,371,200 5,770,000 72,700 268,255 1,004,000 1,072,000 II 1,000 1,300,000 134,599 ^1,685,000 9,600,000 1,200,000 10,170,000 732,500 1,650,000 29,750,000 1,905,000 1,669,000 1,410,000 3,850,200 1,235,000 2,140,000 805,000 999,000 22,400 782,800 1,808,500 5,200,000 6,550,000 466,205 4,095,000 8,525,000 2,895,000 10,400,000 3'72i,5oo cwts. 40,524,000 1,916,300 256,709 3,130,000 44,900 1,380,000 173,070,000 I 725,000 i 2,440,000 ! 666,726 i 857,100 26,000 10,536,000 1,1 10,000 536,000 54,200 729,900 1,121,500 6,810,000 63,500 154,691 1,043,000 892,000 1,182,000 1,370,000 144,474 ^1,620,000 8,600,000 990,000 9,100,000 666,500 3,105,000 35,800,000 1,815,000 1,220,000 1,335,000 3,326,450 845,000 1,740,000 720,000 805,000 126,660 1,000,950 1,545,030 4,765,000 5,700,000 294,000 3.925.350 6,908,801 3,010,000 10,601,000 3,017,600 324 Germany — Land and People. Imports — continued. cwts. Coals 38,617,000 Coffee 1,987,300 Copper ... ... ... 282,000 Cotton, raw 3,160,000 Cotton, manufactured ... 40)58? Flax 1,170,000 Grain and Flour ... ... 66,700,000 Grease 926,000 Guano ... ... ... 2,450,000 Herrings tons 722,089 Hides, raw 1,004,791 Indigo 28,406 Pig Iron 9,159,800 Linseed ... ... ••• 1,060,000 Linseed Oil 612,000 Locomotives and Boilers ... 80,800 Machinery... ... ... 773»8o9 Metal Wares ... ... 955,000 Petroleum ... ... ... 6,680,000 Silk Cocoons, raw ... ... 65,400 Sugar ... 102,913 Tobacco, leaf & manufactured 1,507,000 Yarns ... ... ... 952,000 Wine ... ... ... 968,000 Wool ... ... ... 1,360,000 Woollen Cloth ... ... 100,110 1878. 1,350.0°° 8,450,000 990,000 8,700,000 594,900 2,340,000 30,600,000 1,350,000 1,225,000 1,870,000 3,976,260 945,000 ',375,000 635,000 920,000 170,150 984,650 1,260,000 3,675,000 5,250,000 180,330 5,330,000 7,085,000 2,510,000 io,55o,oco 2,486,350 The following table gives a return of some of the principal Exports. No value of exports is given in the German trade returns. Weight in cwts. Exports. 1872 T873 1874 1875 cwts. cwts. cwts. . , cwts. Beer 590,000 580,000 642,000 775,000 Butter 258,000 238,000 264,000 248,000 Coal 76,395,800 80,416,200 83,932,000 90,460,000 Cotton, raw 614,000 1,1 10,000 814,000 789,000 Cotton, manufac tured ... j 166,000 131,000 174,000 176,000 Flax / 667,000 495,000 602,000 625,000 Glass and glass ware ... 626,900 698,400 710,300 798,800 Grain and Flour . . 21,860,000 23,980,000 23,200,000 26,900,000 Hemp 248,000 356,000 399,000 364,000 Hops 142,000 180,000 I 59,000 2 I 1.000 Musical Instru mcnts ... I s 53-500 58,600 53-900 57,900 Pig Iron ... 2,486,400 2.708,300 4, 142,100 6,444.500 Unwroughl Iron... 1,130,000 946,000 1, 190,000 1,370,000 Germany — Land and People, 325 Exports — contifiued. 1872 1 J873 1874 1875 Leather, dressed) and dyed ...) cwts. 123,300 cwts. 98,706 cwts. 106,000 cwts. 118,000 Leather wares 34,700 32,400 33,700 39,500 Pahii and Linseed) Oil i" 293,500 362,400 358,900 402,000 Paper 409,000 ' 425,000 492,000 468,000 Petroleum 907,000 1,390,000 1,420,000 1,540,000 Railway Bars 1,414,000 1,413,700 1,697,300 2,445,500 Sugar Tobacco, leaf and) manufactured \ 263,700 186,000 262,100 164,700 398,500 253,000 403,400 264,00c Wool 357,000 237,000 432,000 399,000 Wool, manufac-) tured j 285,000 281,000 303,000 248,000 Yarns 243,000 207,300 282,000 291,000 Exports — continued. — 1876 1877 1878 cwts. cwts. cwts. Beer 1,143,000 1,280,000 1,380,000 Butter 238,000 244,000 225,000 Coal 105,733,300 100,184,100 116,506,807 Cotton, raw 677,000 798,000 936,000 Cotton, manufactured 215,000 216,000 241,000 Flax 470,000 i,oro,ooo 722,000 Glass and glass-wares. 813,600 852,800 1,119,730 Grain and Flour... 22,650,000 39,600,000 43,500,000 Hemp 364,000 469,000 392,000 Hops 130,000 162,000 179,000 Musical Instruments. 61,900 69,100 65,809 Pig Iron *.7.' 5,788,300 6,878,700 7,534,000 .... Unwrought Iron... 1,630,000 2,280,000 2,420,000 Leather, dressed) and dyed ...\ 123,900 I 22,200 130,250 Leather wares 39,800 43,800 43»3oo Palm and Linseed Oil 359,000 393,900 .454,650 Paper 454,000 551,000 602,000 Petroleum 1,530,000 1,810,000 1,670,000 Railway Bars 2,669,700 4,496,700 4,144,200 Sugar 1,327,500 1,081,700 2,363,000 Tobacco, leaf and) manufactured ... (" 200,000 156,400 123,200 Wool 308,000 445,000 426,000 Wool, manufac-) tured ) 214,000 228,600 243,600 Yarns 294,000 334,000 .397,000 . -T.-, . 3^6 Germany — Land and People. According to an official account, the following 15 articles yielded the following ])ercentage to the customs' revenue in the years 1871-72 : — Coffee... Unmanufactured tobacco Sugar ... Wine ... Salt Tropical fruits Unprinted stuffs Pig iron Unprinted woollen goods Cotton yarn ... Herrings Pigs Brandy Rice ... Spices... Together these 15 articles 78.23 ... ... 76.19 Of all other articles not one yielded even i per cent. 31.62 26.34 10.38 10.70 2.84 9.30 5-43 6.14 5.28 . 3.68 3-7° 3.12 3.60 2.90 2.30 2.68 2.45 2.21 2.54 2.08 1.74 1.68 1.30 1.39 1.56 . 1.34 1.90 1.24 1-59 1.22 International Commerce. Up to 1872 it was most difficult to obtain accurate estimates of inter- national commerce. The Council of the Confederation have now made arrangements by which an accurate account is to be kept ; the first of these appeared officially with respect to the international trade of 1872. Imports. Kind of goods grouped systematically Under Free Trade Quantity Value in £". cwts. Total Quantity cwts. Total Value in £. I. Corn, Bread"^ Stuffs. ...) 28,880,000 131965,000 29,810,000 14,520,000 2. Fermented | Liquors, Wines ,■ etc ) 3. Sugar, Coffee, | Spices, Sweet- meats ... I 1,014,000 3,462,000 2.493,000 9,630,000 1,842,000 5,579,000 4,095,000 17,310,000 4. Tobacco 5. Seeds, Fruits,) Plants ...| 1,128,000 5,025,000 4,425,000 4,582,500 1,712,000 5,266,000 7,395,000 4,906,500 6. Live Stock (per | head) and ani- - mal food (tons) ) Animals 1,564,000 1 691,000 I 1,825,000 ; 1 1.535,000 -: ( 1,717,000 / 1,108,000)- 2,372,000) 14,175,000 Germany — Land and People. zv Imports — con tin ued. Kinds of goods grouped systematically Under Free Trade Quantity Cwts Value in £. 7. Manure 8. Fuel 9. Earths, Ores,) Stones ...j 10. Stone - ware, ) Pottery, Glass- > ware ... ) 11. Rough Metal... 12. Raw, wrought, ] half manufac- » tared Metal ... I 13. Metal wares ... 14. Drugs, Chemi- ) cals and Dyes j 15. Resins, Fat, j Oils, ^ther, V Soaps. ... ) 16. Felt, Hair, i Feathers, Hides, I \ Leather ... ) j 17. Leather goods, \ \ Furs and Felt >- ! goods ••• ) 18. Spinning mate-| | rials ) j 19. Yarns ... j 20. Rope and| j Weavers' goods) 1 21. India-rubber ( | and Wax goods f : 22. Timber and ) 140,348,000 J materials for >- 1 7,843,000 3,920,000 76,399,000 22,020,000 4,190,000 14,046,000 1,421,000 1,212,000 7,990,000 6,770.000 1,846,000 25,000 2,152,500 3,915,000 3,456,000 892,500 7,005,000 1,264,500 1,677,000 8,634,000 8,940,000 9,675,000 695,000 Total Quantity Cwts. Total Value in { . 4,170,000 76,403,000 2,314,500 3,915,000 22,130,000 3,484,500 5,660,000 129,445,000 1,088,000 I 9,690,000 476 000 23,000 carvmg ... ) 23. Wooden, carved ] and Basket • goods ... I 24. Machines, \ Vehicles, Appa- \ ratus ... ... ) 25. Objects of or- )^ nament and art j 26. Manuscripts, \ Printed matter, |- Engravings ... ) 27. Coins and ( Precious Metals } (pieces 625,000 665,000 9,390,000 239,850 14.850.000 - ,000 ^ ,000 > ces) ) 2 (pieces 12,000 43,000 20,000 513,000 2.452,500 705,000 450,000 10.320,000 4,500,000 16,229,000 4,035,000 2,380,000 10,500,000 7,180,000 2,264,000 46,000 6,230,000 1,61 1,000 1,138,000 37,000 40,660,000 7,843,000 (pieces) ' 720,000 1,350,000 ' 6,000 (pieces) 97,000 51,000 20,000 1,590,000 8,010,000 3,477,000 3,679,500 9,847,500 9,930,000 11.410,000 1,702,500 33,405,000 M,565>ooo 25.305,000 333-000 15,015,000 879,000 5,142,000 2,031,000 10,530,000 10,320,000 328 Germany — Land and People. Total cwts. ... 230,255,000 ;j^i 72,994,350 ,, pieces ... 9,409,000 ,, tons ... 691,000 Tne total value of the imports — In 1875 ^"^^^ „ 1876 „ » 1877 „ ^413,900,000 435>4oo,ooo 429,776,000 403,625,000 Export and Transit. The goods classified according to the number above. No Exported under Free Trade Total Exports cwts cwts I ... 21,860,000 ^10,755,000 22,860,000 ^11,370,000 2 i,337>ooo 2,026,500 1,904,000 3,094,500 3 825,000 2,047,500 2,933,000 9,420,000 4 186,000 1,129,500 710,000 3,900,000 5 3,149,000 2,682,000 3,399,000 3,024,000 6 1,150,000 j ( 1,681,000 \ 1,901,000 y 277,000 j Pieces 1,748,000 V 8,670,000 11,220,000 Tons . 4,000 ) 7 ■•• 1,820,000 997,500 2,067,000 1,132,500 8 .. 83,229,000 4,860,000 83,233,000 4,860,000 9 26 000,000 4,380,000 26,100,000 4,410,000 10 10,202,000 2,577,000 10,513,000 3,273,000 1 1 4,357,000 2,889,000 5,996,000 6,714,000 12 .. 2,514,000 2,335,500 4,891,000 4,350,000 13 1,370,000 2,667,000 2,630,000 4,714,500 14 .. 3,206,000 4,020,000 5,340,000 5,170,500 15 .. 2,116,000 3,128,500 2,515,000 4,086,000 16 .. 634,000 4,885,500 1,043,000 6,508,500 ^7 .. 43,000 2,690,000 64,000 3,150,000 18 .. 2,159,000 9,945,000 2,726,000 13,905,000 ^9 243,000 3,075,000 742,000 7,800,000 20 902,000 22,515,000 1,566,000 38,325,000 21 .. 1 53,00^ 939,000 65,000 1,098,000 22 •• i 535>ooo 880,500 579,000 973,500 23 Pieces 26,619,000 ( 79,000 j 5,790,000 \ 26,931,000 ( 79,000 J 5,955,000 24 1,553,000 1,597,500 827,000 1.966,500 25 Pieces 821,000 ( 1,000 1 4,099,500 j 500,000 )^ 6,000 j 6,816,000 26 .. i 3i5>ooo 3,720,000 400,000 4,950,000 27 .. 1 110,000 1,129,500 1 18,000 1,231,500 28 9,000 8,700,000 10,000 8,910,000 Germany — Land and People. 329 Exported under Free Trade. Cwts. ... 196,528,000 I Pieces ... 1,828,000 -^^124,731, 000 Tons ... 4,000 j Total Exports. ( 213,430,000] > P. 1,986,000 w:i79> I T. 277,000 ) 449,500 I ... 2 ... 3 ... 4 ... 5 6 ... 7 8 ... 9 ... 10 ... II ... 12 13 ... 14 ... 15 16 17 18 r** 19 ... 20 ... 21 ... 22 ... 23 ... 24 ... 25 a«* 26 ... 27 28 ... Cwts. Pieces Tons Transit cwts 998,000 ;^6i9,500 567,000 1,066,500 ... 2,108,000 7,380,000 53i'OOo 1,275,000 ... 250,000 330,300 ... 531,000 j 153,000 , Pieces 2,404,500 Tons 273,000 ) 246,000 164,700 4,000 450 115,000 29,100 311,000 697,500 ... 1,640,000 825,000 ... 2,377,000 2,022,000 1,267,000 2,052,000 2,130,000 1,153,500 400,000 967,500 410,000 1,617,000 20,000 1,005,500 567,000 3,975.000 ... 499,000 4,740,000 665,000 15,810,000 11,000 160,000 44,000 94)000 312,000 179,600 95>ooo 367,650 ... 679,000 ■;■ } 2,713,500 Pieces 5,000 85,000 1,228,500 8,000 87,900 ... 1,000 147,600 16,921,000] 158,000 ' ... ;^54,765.900 273,000 ) T/ie manufacture of Beet Sugar * m the districts embraced in the Zollverein, which amounted only to 506,923 cwts. m 1836-7, has smce been computed as follows : — * The first sugar known to be imported into Europe was brought to Venice in the year 996. The Patricifn Roth founded the first sugar boiling .-^^^^''^'^-^Lma^ufa™ o Auesburg in 15-3 : this was followed by a second at Dresden in 1597. The manulacture o beefsuga^r'owes^itVorigin to Marggraf, the chemist, born at Berhn m ,709, and Us practical development to Achard, a chemist, born in 1764, of a Genoese fam.ly. 330 Germany — Land and People. Number of Quantity on which Factories duty was paid 227 cwts. 18,469,890 222 >> 19,188,403 216 5> 21,839,799 233 55 27,551,208 249 5> 28,915,134 257 5> 36,668,557 256 J» 34,399>3i7 247 5) 295354503I 247 55 31,692,394 247 55 36,138,863 253 55 3959ii>52o 270 55 41,641,204 295 55 435452,773 296 55 50,712,709 294 55 40,593,391 295 55 495953,656 296 55 51,691,738 304 55 61,021,912 311 55 45,018,363 326 55 63,630,977 338 ... 55 70,509,191 337 5> 55,072,412 335 55 83,140,307 328 .. 55 71,000,731 329 ... 1853-54 1854-55 1855-56 1856-57 1857-58 1858-59 1859-60 1860-61 1861-62 1862-63 1863-64 1864-65 1865-66 1866-67 1867-68 1868-69 1869-70 1870-71 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 It was at first assumed that 20 cwt. of green-beet were required to pro- duce I cwt. of raw sugar, but it has been ascertained recently that 11^ cwt. of beet yield i cwt. of raw sugar, or 82 lbs. of refined sugar. The total consumption of home-made and foreign sugar jier head of the ])opulation was as follows : — \ •on 1 1841-45 annually 5.12 lbs 1846-50 5, 5-8o „ 1851-55 „ 6.76 „ 1856-60 5. 8.35 „ 1861-65 5, 9.15 55 1866-70 5, 9-38 5, 1871-75-76 .5 13.30 „ Collective Industries. Dr. Engel says : — " We still want reliable information about the per- sonal and machine forces emi)loyed in agriculture and industry, in trade and traffic." For this reason we arc limited to a few branches only. Germany — Land and People. 331 Mining Industries according to Von Decken. MINERALS AND STONES IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. This branch of industry shows the following degree of development in its various departments during the last 25 or 30 years : — I — Mines. Year cwts. Value Number of Workmen Number af Mines 1850, Best Coal 103,365,682 ;^I,520,5I3 38,514 i860 „ „ 246,956,560 3,956,879 83,154 1870 „ „ 527,955.390 8,176,854 124,961 1875 » » 748,717,369 14,874,231 183,823 573 1876 „ „ — 13,183,900 1877 „ „ 608,475,480 j 10,848,600 1878 „ „ 788,586,160 io,395'8oo I45.9I5 496 1850, Lignite 30,438,365 202,789 8,788 i860 „ 87,653,287 661,213 18,935 1870 „ 152,104,684 1,102,655 20,821 826 1875 „ 207,353'7r6 1,844,258 25,289 826 1850, Iron Ore 16,768,513 200,263 15,984 i860 „ 28,015,637 391,319 18,481 1870 „ 76,784,449 205,669 27,289 1875 ,, 73,558.952 1,191,179 26,361 913 1850, Lead Ore 3,406,878 269,218 7»546 i860 2,968,490 567,059 13,640 1870 „ „ 2,111,810 826,685 18,057 1875 » 2,276,164 1,052,104 18,231 94 1850, Zinc Ore 3,061,084 133,822 5,167 i860 „ „ 6,203,268 242,552 8,283 1870 „ 7,335-603 347,314 9,797 1875 „ 9,359,062 634,249 8,354 67 1850, Copper Ore ... 927,445 54,901 3,933 i860 1,858,948 159,672 4,988 1870 „ „ ... ! 4,147,627 242,990 6,156 1875 ! 5,582,449 34T.736 6,745 21 1850, Silver Ore 307,610 171,396 8,853 i860 „ 694,494 177,008 10,940 1870 „ 512,108 198.491 9,365 1875, Silver & Gold Ore 422,016 229,063 7,135 39 1850, Vitriol Ore ... 126,168 1 2,853 87 i860 „ „ 537,772 ' 12,010 612 1870 2,054,836 i 60,913 707 1875 3,373.242 i35>67i 1,222 25 332 Germany — Land and People. II. — Foundries or Smelting Works. cwts. Value No. of workmen No. of works 1850, Raw Iron 4,160,233 ;^I, 1 16,344 12,643 i860 „ 10,581,734 2,614,337 18,232 1870 27,822,431 5,302,923 19,427 1875 40,431,170 7,529,035 22,760 199 1850, Lead ... 253^409 193,746 490 i860 „ 517,792 485,378 661 1870 „ 1,092,545 951,633 1,437 1875 .. 1,403,609 1,514.853 2,977 18 1850, Zinc 582,639 361,011 3,099 i860 „ 1,107,191 963,886 6,045 1870 „ 1,279,598 1,070,991 5,715 1875 » 1,486,740 1,544,245 6,575 33 1850, Copper 33,625 141,264 1,154 i860 „ 48,477 245,587 1,422 1870 „ 95,938 349,939 1,345 1875 " 147,062 648,968 1,355 8 1850, Silver 1,014 446,809 1,414 i860 „ 1,241 552,736 2,429 1870 „ 1,858 832,491 1,601 1875, Silver and Gold 3,151 1,363,429 1,282 5 1850, Nickel 740 14,002 23 i860 „ 8,007 79,483 212 1870 „ 10,798 100,836 701 1875 » 6,512 142,767 402 5 1850, Brass 21,650 108,936 109 i860 „ 35,120 138,154 650 1870 „ 88,230 373,199 1,333 1875 , — — — — We add a supplementary note to the above calculation of Von Decken. The value of the produce of the smelting works in Germany, without including Alsace-Lorraine amounted in 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 ^^5,656,513 6,247,476 6,705,684 7,059,863 7,304,766 7,432,392 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872^ 1873' ^7,965,843 8,605,807 8,462,895 9,946,855 15,740,700 17,986,300 and regular, except that The increase, therefore, has been continuous in the year of war, 1870, there was a slight decrease. The increase in value from 1862 to 187 1 amounts to 76 per cent. * Including Alsace-Lorraine. Germany — Land and People. 333 The (luantity of ra7v iron produced in the German Empire from 1862 to 1871 increased by 108 per cent. ; in Prussia, by 125 per cent., and the value by 93 and 114 per cent, respectively. III.— 5a// Works. Year Mineral Salt cwts. Kitchen Salt cwts. Total cwts. 1867 5,426,585 5-670,336 11,096,921 1870 8,096,438 6,111,786 14,208,224 1875 i3>996,i5i 8,068,952 22,065,103 1876 15,021,128 8,155.209 23,176,337 1877 19,667.063 8,146,195 27,823,258 1878 15,469,643 8,522,321 23,991,964 The value of Mineral Salt in 1876 was ... „ „ Kitchen Salt „ „ Total The number of workmen in 1876 was 2,053. The value of Mineral Salt in 1877 was ... „ ,, Kitchen Salt „ „ ^295,188 552,724 ^847, 912 ;^38o,46l 407,309 The produce of salt mines, salt works, etc., in 1875, ^^^^ 73,131 cwts, of salt crystals, 2,949,044 cwt. of rock salt, 8,048,798 cwt. of prepared salt, 25,515 cwt. of salt stone for cattle, 47,161 cwt. of sediment, 70,754 cwt, of other salt refuse ; 1,396,079 cwt. of brine, and 46,718 cwt. of lye. There was 5,626,405 cwt. of German salt used for cooking purposes, 5,756,481 cwt. of liquid, and 1,555,519 cwts. exported, giving a total of 12,938,405 cwts. Of this weight there remained 11,495,975 cwt. of solid salt after withdrawing the liquid. From 1872 to 1875 the home sales increased at the rate of 9 per cent., and the sale abroad at 64 per cent. Russia is the largest buyer, in 1875 she bought 529,849 cwts.; in 1879, 775,258 cwts. Austria is the next largest buyer ; the Netherlands the next. The importation of foreign salt also increased in these four years from 886,520 cwt. to 1,088,938 cwts. In 1875 the salt used for food amounted to 15.5 lbs. per head of the population. North Germany uses less salt than Southern Germany ; the difference between the two being 1.8 lb. per head. For technical purposes in 1875, -2,114,988 cwt. were used; for cattle 1,895,704 cwt.; and 78,134 cwt. were used for manure. In 1876 the average use of salt per head of the population was 17 lbs. The average annual produce amounts to 19 lbs. per head of the population. The applications of salt to the various industries during the year 1879 were: — ^in the preparation and preservation of fodder, 1,815,251 cwts.; artificial manure, 59,227 cwts. ; soda and glauber salt manufactories^ 1,783,816 cwts. ; chemical and dyeing works, 208,660 cwts. ; soap and candle works, 104,870 cwts.; leather and tanning trades, 103,381 cwts.; Metal trades, 64,254 cwts.; glass and pottery, 50,616 cwts.: sundry technical uses, 31,256 cwts., making a total of 4,221,333 cwts. The total exports of German salt in 1878-79 were 2,089,785 cwts. 334 Germany — Land and People, In T879 the number of salt mines or salt works in the several-States of Germany, and the amount of their annual production was as follows : — State Prussia Bavaria Wiirtemburg Baden Hesse Thuringia ... Brunswick ... Mecklenburg-Lippe Alsace-Lorraine Works Workmen Annual Production 31 181O 4,551.222 cwts 5 ' 400 908,778 S 200 500,000 M 2 240 540,000 „ 2 140 250,000 5t 7 300 600,000 ,, 1 42 100,000 ,, 2 66 50,000 )1 6 1 3.440 1 8,250,000 " This gives an average annual production of about 19 lbs. of salt per head of the population. Cultivation of the Soil. Although very exact calculations exist concerning some of the States, yet in others they are incomplete, we must therefore restrict ourselves to a few remarks. I'orests. — According to the calculation made by the Prussian chief inspector of forests (previously to the enlargement of territory) 49,157 English square miles, out of the 103,562 square miles forming the territory of the ZoUverein, are covered with forests. Average 3 -^^ roods per head of the population. South and South-Western Germany are richer in forests than the North and North-Eastern parts. The countries in which forests most abound are Nassau, Electoral-Hesse, Meiningen, Schwarzburg- Rudolstadt, where 40.20, 40.5^, 40 and 35 per cent, of the whole area are covered with forests, and the figures, i ^ acre, i ^ acre, and i -^^^ acre is reckoned per head, whilst in the older territories of Prussia 26 percent, of the total area is wooded, and the average is i -^ per head of the population. The smallest proportion of forest is in Mecklenburg, Hanover, and Oldenburg. Of the whole area, forests occupy 34,962,850 acres, or about 26^ per cent. Otto von Hagen's statement is that the extent of forest i)er head of the population is — In Mecklenburg-Strelitz ... „ Saxe-Meiningen „ Bavaria „ P^lectoral Hesse „ Nassau „ Saxe-Gotha „ Baden ... „ Prussia Acre. Rood. I ^ ^ ^ I T^l ^ T^ XT, 3 in 3 10 Germany — Land and People. 335 In Wiirtemburg ... Brunswick Mecklenburg-Schwerin Hanover Kingdom of Saxony ... Oldenburg „ Holstein Concerning Alsace Lorraine, we find in the French official documents upon forests and waste-lands, that in the department of the — Upper-Rhine 379,404 acres Lower-Rhine ... 41 7,575 „ Moselle 395,679 „ 3 17» 3 ^ 2 t'o 2 1% 2 c I f cr I Total of acres 1,192 ,658 Vineyards. Acres. Prussia 47,250 Bavaria ... 54,537 Wiirtemburg ... 58,401 Baden ... 49.234 Grand Duchy of Hesse ... 22,780 Saxony and Thuringia, Electoral Hesse, &c. 8,820 Total acres ... ... 241,022 acres Yielding about 55,464,444 Imperial gallons To this must be added the wine produce of Alsace-Lorraine, which in 1875 contained — • Acres of Vineyards. Produce in Gallons. Value. 81,551 50,732,856 ^2,089,723 Both Austria and France exceed the ZoUverein in the production of wine. Cultivation of Tobacco. As the tobacco plant only remains in the ground for one summer, the ground occupied by the growth of this plant is changed from year to year. The cultivation of tobacco in the ZoUverein reached its greatest extent in the year 1858 ; the area then occupied by it amounted to 70,488 acres. After this there was a decline ; the number of acres — Weight in Dried Learat In 186 1 was 35,207 „ 1862 „ 38,324 „ 1863 „ 53,119 „ 1864 „ 58,535 „ 1865 „ 57,930 354,335 cwts. 435,193 „ 682,051 „ 676,140 „ 767,139 „ Of this last, 251,081 166,249 8,450 300,282 41,077 cwts. were produced ,, J, ,, ,, ,, ,, in North Germany. Bavaria. Wiirtemburg. Baden. The Grand Duchy of Hesse. 767,139 cwts. 336 Germany — Land and People, The yield specially decreased after the year 1868, when the tobacco duty was extended to South Germany. The total area of land engaged in growing the plant was — Year Acres Produce cwts. Value. Cwts. per Acre Average Price per cwt. 1869 42,207 444,976 10 1870 40,703 476,849 II 1871 47,791 596,283 ^968,000 I2i £^ 5 6 1872 56,390 760,886 1,500,000 13 I 14 9 1873 ... 65,257 905.329 1,178,550 13 I 2 9 1874 ... 46,500 676,061 1,084,900 12 146 1875 ... 50,029 586,970 819,750 I I I I 6 1876 44,618 513,297 683,300 ^5 I 6 1878 44,520 596,776* 18 The production of individual States in 1876 was as follows Acres Cwts. Cwt. per Acre. Price per cwt Baden 16,981 ... 190,427 . . equal II .. '£^ 2 Prussia 12,876 ... 165,710 . 12 . I Bavaria 11,645 ... 128,165 .. II .. . 19 Alsace-Lorraine 8,684 -. 114,824 . 13 •• I 6 Hesse 2,099 •.• 18,625 •• S 9 I I 6 Wiirtemburg ... 465 ... 5,621 .. 12 I I Mecklenburg... 385 - S.912 . 15 •• I I Thiiringia 350 ... 3,005 . 8 .. I I Anhalt 119 ... 1,106 .. 9 •• . 17 Brunswick . . . 74 ••• 600 .. 8 .. ■ 15 6 Saxony 2.47 38 . 16 .. 16 6 Two-thirds of the quantity produced in 1878, was grown in Rhenish Bavaria, Baden, South Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine. The value of the tobacco consumed in Germany in 1878 is estimated at ^17,650,000, the total returns to the revenue being ^1,319,198. The quantity consumed in the Empire during 1878 is stated at 100,000 tons. Of this quantity above 29,000 tons were consumed in the form of cigars- Reckoning 100 cigars to a pound weight, the number of cigars consumed in Germany in 1878 would be 7,000,000,000, which would give two cigars a day to 10,000,000 persons all the year round. Tobacco can hardly be called a luxury in Germany ; it is a necessary of life for one out of every five inhabitants, and is regarded as much an article of daily expense as bread, meat, or any other indispensable commodity. In addition to cigars and 60,000 tons of tobacco, more or less manu- factured, 8,000 tons of snuff were consumed during the year 1S78. Hops. '93,860 acres are cultivated with the hop, and produced in 1875 48o;ooo cwt., the home consumption being 330,000 cwt. This would give an average of about 5 cwt. per acre. * About one-thirtl of the quantity consumed. Germany — La}id and People. 337 Manufacturing Industries. Cotton Manufactures. — At the period when the Zoll-Verein was instituted there were 600,000 spindles within the districts which belonged to it; and in 1862, 900,000; in 1867, 2,000,000; and in 1872 after the incorporation of Alsace, 5,000,000, two of which 5,000,000 were in Alsace. The annual consumption of raw cotton was — In 1836-40 stated at 185,971 cwts. 275,955 „ 328,792 „ 561,106 „ 969.358 „ 975,651 „ 1,402,513 „ 2,336,518 „ 2,324,723 „ 2,473,426 „ 2,642,984 „ 2,290,000 ,, 2,812,000 ,, 3,074,107 „ „ 1878 „ ,... 3,103,575 „ \Vhile the increase of spindles in Germany amounted to 122 per cent, from 1852-67, it rose in England to 88 per cent. ; in Switzerland to 78 per cent. ; in Belgium to 56 per cent. ; in France to 51 per cent. ; in Austria to only 7 per cent. ; in North America to 27 per cent. Each spindle in Germany worked up only 24.3 lbs. in 1836 ; in 1852 it worked up 50.6 lbs. ; but in 1867 almost 70 lbs. The chief seats of cotton spinning are Upper Germany, Saxony, the Lower Rhine, Hanover, and Alsace, The development of this branch of industry may be seen from the following comparison supplied by Dr. Peez, of the share taken on the one hand by home factories, and on the other by foreign factories in supplying the home yarn market. 1836-40 stated at 1841-45 it was 1846-50 J, 1851-55 ,, 1856-60 ,, 1861-65 ,t 1866-70 ,, 1871 ,, 1872 ,, 1873 ,, 1874 ,, 1875 ,, 1876 ,, 1877 ,, Home Spun Yani cwts. Foreign Yarn cwts. Per Ceuta 1836-40 1841-45 1846-50 148,617 220,764 262,943 357,743 456,936 477,498 70.7 67.4 64.5 1851-56 1857-60 1861-66 440,689 775'483 780,521 497,747 518,573 241,178 53-0 40.1 23.6 1867-70 1,122,010 285,614 20.3 1871 1,869,215 405.542 ... 17.8 The higher and more valuable quantities are obtained from England and Switzerland. The exports of raw cotton, in 1872, was 614,000 cwts. ; in 1873, 1,110,000 cwts. ; in 1874, 814,600 cwts. ; in 1875. 789,000 cwts. ; in 1876, 677,000 cwts.; in 1877, 798,000 cwts. 101,000 power looms are employed in weaving, more than half of which are, howc\cr, in Alsace. X 338 Germany — Land and People. Silk Manufactures. In 1840 and the succeeding years the consumption of silk was 6,325 cwts., of the value of about ;^i, 320,000; in 1871-72 the consumption rose to 19,017 cwts., of the value of ^4,125,000. One of the chief seats of the silk manufacture is in Rhenish Prussia, Crefeld, where more than four-fifths of the above sum is realized. As a compensation the consump- tion of silk, in the town of Lyons alone, was in the year 1872, 25,385 cwts., an excess of 6,368 cwt. over the whole consumption of Germany. The Crefeld Chamber of Commerce states that England and her Colonies remain the chief customers. In 1878, the value of the goods taken by England was ^1,200,000, while Germany took goods to the amount of only ;^i, 000,000. Paper. In 1877 there were in Bavaria ,, Saxony ,, Wiirtemburg. „ Baden „ Prussia ,, Alsace-Lorraine „ Hesse the other States of the ZoUverein In the whole of Germany ... Raihvays. A comparison of the position of the German Railway Union (includ- ing the Austro-Hungarian lines), in the years 1850 and 1869, gives the following increase during these 20 years. 1850, 41 lines, 637 miles in length ... Expense of making ^3 1,1 22,934 1869, 98 „ 3,590 „ ,, ... „ „ 286,099,246 The Rolling Stock rose in 1869, froi^i 752 locomotives to 7,072, con- suming 40,000,000 cwts. of coals, valued at ^1,425,000 ; from 2,029 passenger carriages to 13,419 with accomodation for 577,668 passengers; from 9,147 goods vans, capable of carrying 1,053,702 cwts., to 147,878, capable carrying of 26,769,725. The number of persons and amount of goods conveyed were as follows — Year Persons cwts. of goods 1850 13,271,872 58.585.592 1869 134,098,825 1,895,380,168 Receipts. 50 factories and .. 64 iiachines 50 ,, ... 84 25 .. ••• 34 20 „ •> ... 25 55 >) ... 369 7 J) II 10 ,, ). 12 29 ). ••• 39 46 factories ... 638 iiachines Year Total For Passengers For Goods Per Mile 1850 1869 ^2,680,313 38,167,631 ^132,294 10,246,323 ^1,228,303 25.967.040 ^4,761 10,892 Year 1850 1869 EXPENDITURE. Total ;^I, 480,080 27.099,490 Per Mile ^2758^ 4,882 Total SlTRPI.US. ;^i,o55,884 21,069,009 Per mile ;^i.875 6,012 Germany — Land and People, 339 The enlargement of the railway system was — Y»«r Miles 1850 637 1862 I85I 909 1863 1852 r.059 1864 1856 ... 1,409 1865 1857 - 1,667 1866 1859 ... 1,882 1867 i860 2,076 1868 I86I 2,219 1869 Year 2,292 2,418 2,707 2,825 3,052 3,271 3'59o The expense of making and opening lines, which averaged ^59,264 per mile in 1850, rose to ^^82,954 in 1869, in consequence of the rise in prices of the numerous improvements in the carriages, etc., and of the construction of double lines. The locomotives traversed i,8"57,3i6 miles in 1850, and 20,627,181 in 1869. The receipts were contributed thus — 1850 1855 i860 1865 1869 Passengers 49.26 per cent 32.83 ,, 32.75 ,, 29.43 ,» 26.84 J, Goods 45.83 per cent. 62.86 „ 63.66 65-81 „ 68.05 This table shows how, notwithstanding the increase in the passenger traffic, nevertheless the goods' traffic far exceeded it, and produced much higher receipts, and this, in spite of the reduction in the charges for the conveyance of goods. The following was the length of the railways in the German Empire, exclusive of those in Alsace-Lorraine : — Miles Mile 15.058 17,061 18,080 18,918 20,060 20,239 The financial traffic results at the beginning and at the end of the period specified may be thus stated : — 1867 9,045 1874 1868 9,686 1875 1869 10,189 1876 1870 11,457 1877 1871 12,118 1878 1872 13,456 1879 1873 ... 14,222 Receipts Expeaditure Excels of Receipts i860 .. 10,871,085 5,716,087 52.6 per cent. 1871 .. 30,092,000 15,176,000 55-8 „ 1872 33,530,000 18,627,000 — 1873 .. 37,284,000 22,837,000 — 1874 .. 39,617,000 25,151,000 — 1875 .. 42,151,000 26,558,637 37i 1876 .. 42,862,279 26,534,000 — 1877 .. 42,594,868 26,029,374 — 340 Germany — Land and People. The receipts were contributed thus- 1 860. Passenger traffic Goods" traffic 1871 F\is.senger traffic Goods' traffic ^3' 7 5 7, 1 5 3' or 34.6 percent. 6,57i>6i8 „ 60.5 - „ ^^8,952,355, or 29.5 per cent. 19,209,943 „ 63.3 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 The Expenditure Absorbed of the Receipts 44.01 per cent. 44-23 44-32 45-55 47.10 57-29 61.81 63.84 „ 58.33 The Invested Capital paid Interest about 7.5 per cent. 7-7 7-3 6.8 6.7 6.0 5-26 4.82 „ 5-10 '. Average Dividend 474 per cent. 180 664 358 914 40 94 25 37 Accidents on the railways. — The number of these has greatly increased of late years. According to the German railway statistics, there were 152 accidents in 18 70-1, to trains in motion, by which 51 persons were killed and 261 injured. In addition to these, 391 were killed and 289 in- jured through their own fault. (2). — There were 78 accidents in railway stations, or on the line, to trains not in motion, by which 22 persons were killed, and 39 injured, not by their own fault ; while 290 were killed and 465 were injured by their own fault. This gives a total of 754 killed, and 1,054 wounded. (3). — In the 402 accidents, some of which were not attended with any injury to persons, 130 locomotives, 32 tenders, 100 passenger carriages, 702 goods' vans, i mail van, and i carriage on rollers, were destroyed, or considerably damaged. (4-) — The axle-trees broke of 25 locomotives, 33 tenders, 6 passenger carriages, and 44 goods' vans. (5)- — Sixty-four instances occurred in which the rails were destroyed on the narrow-guage, and 554 on the broad-guage. The number of accidents rose still higher in 1871. There were, ac- cording to the same authentic source, the following accidents, — I. — To trains in motion, inclusive of their stay in railway stations, II. — In the stations and on the lines, to trains not in motion. I. II. Number of Accident* 121 Not their fault Killed 72 49 Injured 253 79 Bj- their own fault. Killed Injured 332 513 472 Total 275 121 810 84s Germany — Land and People. 341 1876. Germany F.nglaud .. 456 1,197 1,379 4r724 2,366,090 in (lermany 266,215 in England 1877. Scials Workmen Strangers Total 181 70 160 ... 427 638 ... 372 120 ... 1,234 Killed Injured ... I Passenger killed in Passengers Officials Killed 16 Injured 104 Of those who were injured 82 died. Out of every 10,870,523 passengers one was killed. 1,673,484 „ „ injured. Telegraphs. English Miles 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 r!i76 8177 Length of line 15,600 17,689 19,029 20,646 22,175 24,088 27,243 „ wire 52,512 60,913 64,859 75,004 81,978 88,730 97,828 No. of officers 2,615 3,058 3,325 3,913 4,388 5,109 5,950 No of employes 4,596 5,569 5,944 6.827 4,610 3,599 2,771 Nun- ber of Messages sent 1872 1873 1874 Home service . 6,783,533 7,511,767 7,306,193 International . 3,019,769 ... 3,173,746 3,194,826 In transit 354,739 331,714 294,139 1875 1876 1877 Home service . 7,478,308 ... 7,172,124 7,694,760 International . 3,258,266 3,102,501 3,347,763 In transit 307,852 Receipts 375,651 349,323 Expenses 1872 ;^482,2il ... ^521,314 . 1873 506,451 650,250 1874 ... 484,876 ... 781,243 1875 529,726 ... 747,927 1876 608,766 ::: :::l' ■"Jo official returns 1877 ... 672,022 Imperial Post. The Imperial Post and Telegraph Districts embrace an area of 171,549.9 scjuare miles (not including 1,675 of water), and a population of 35,823,465. In 1 87 1 the number of postal establishments was 4,927, against 4,645 in 1870; 713 of these were also telegraph stations. This gave one postal establishment to every 34 square miles. 24,703 letter boxes were set up for the convenience of correspondents in 20,310 ])laces : the total number of persons emj^iloyed was 15.567 officials, 20,174 sub-officials, 1,278 post masters, 5,717 postillions. 342 Germany — Land and People. The postal establishments had 10,268 post horses, 13,779 post car- riages ; 2,007 railway trains were daily employed in the service of the post. The total length of the postal traffic by rail was 44,996 miles. There were 3'393 postal lines on country roads ; 100 private steamboats were made use of for postal communication by water, 332,861,352 letters were despatched from post offices in the North German districts and in Alsace-Lorraine; of these 26,304,570 were local letters. 1,203,401 copies of newspapers were forwarded by means of the post The number of letters not delivered amounted to 951,716, out of which 170,968, or 0.05 per cent, were not delivered from an absolute inability of finding out how to deliver them. 41,309,028 packets, the value of which was not stated, and packets and letters of which the value was stated, were posted to addresses within the postal districts of Alsace-Lorraine. The The declared value of these amounted to ^452,374,985. ;!^i, 684,314 were paid on 1,723,320 post office orders. 374,556,505 postage stamps and stamped envelopes were furnished, of the nominal value of ;^2, 02 1,091. The total profit of the postal administration amounted to ;i^5 20,387, against ;!^320,387 in the previous year of 1870. The development of the postal system in Germany, as measured by the sale of postage stamps of the various descriptions, has been marvellous. In 1855 it was the more general custom not to prepay letters or to affix stamps to them ; the number of stamps sold that year was only 1,535,000, besides 3,757,000 stamped envelopes, the total value being ;^40,o83. Ten years afterwards, 1865, the value of the stamps sold, which were 61,240,000 in number, and 11,348,100 stamped envelopes, was ;!^42i,i58. In 1873, under the new Imperial Government, the total value had risen to ;^2,999,oo3, which was the sum paid for 507,886,000 postage stamps, 11,533,000 stamped envelopes, 27,319,000 post cards, 694,500 post cards with prepaid answers, and 5,089,000 stamped wrappers. In 1878, only five years later, the progress was no less astonishing — the post office sold 646,750,000 postage stamps, 5,251,000 stamped envelopes, 92,018,000 post cards, 963,500 post cards with answers prepaid, 6,525,000 stamped wrappers, 90,000 stamped envelopes and cards for the tube post, and 2,245,000 foreign post cards ; the total value being ^4,187,198, being a hundred and four fold the receipts of 25 years ago. Consulates 0/ the Empire. In 1874 there were 597, of which 71 were in Great Britain, 60 in the British Colonies, 61 in Sweden and Norway, 46 in Turkey, 37 in Russia, 35 in Italy, 31 in Spain, 25 in the United States, 22 in Brazil, 19 in Den- mark, 17 in Mexico, 15 in France, 14 in Holland, &c. Banks. An Imperial decree of the 30th January, 1875, systematised the issuing of notes up to the year 1891. In consequence of this the Prussian Bank was to be considered henceforth an Imperial Bank, and invested with the power of issuing notes to the value of ^12,500,000, without a tax and without money to cover it. To the remaining 32 banks was left the power of issuing notes to the value of ;^6, 7 50,000, but hedged about with such great restrictions, that in the beginning of the year 1878, 15 of these banks renounced the privilege of issuing notes ; whereby the power of the Imperial Bank was extended, and its issue of notes further increased by ^1,193,750. Germany — Land and People. 343 The following banks retained their privilege : — To the Amount of 1. The Imperial Bank ^^13^693, 750 2. Bavarian Bank... ... ... ... 1,600,000 3. Saxon Bank of 1 )resden ... ... 838,550 4. Frankfort Bank ... ... ... ... 500,000 5. Hanover Bank ... ... .. ... 500,000 6. Wiirtemburg ... 500,000 7. Baden Bank 500,000 8. Darmstadt Bank 500,000 9. Brunswick Bank ... ... ... 141,450 10. Bremer Bank ... ... ... ... 225,000 11. Leipsic Verein Bank ... ... ... 72,000 12. The City Bank, in Breslau ... ... 64,150 13. The Credit Bank, in Dantzic ... ... 63,600 14. Cologne Bank ... ... ... ... 62,550 15. Provincial Credit Bank, Posen ... 60,300 16. Private Bank, Magdeburg ... ... 58,650 17. Commercial Bank, Liibeck ... ... 47,950 18. City Bank, Chemnitz 22,050 The issue of uncovered notes beyond the specified amount is per- mitted, but an interest of 5 per cent, on the sum so issued is charged in favor of the Treasury. At the beginning of 1877, the Imperial Bank had 204 branches in various parts of Germany; the 16 principal ones being in Bremen, Breslau, Cologne, Dortmund, Frankfort-on-Main, Hamburg, Hanover, Konigsburg, Leipsic, Magdeburg, Mannheim, Munich, Posen, Stettin, Strasburg, and Stuttgart. On the 31st of December, 1877, the above note-issuing banks had a working capital of ^13,416,600, and a reserve capital of ;^i,426,3oo. The notes in circulation were of the value ^of _;,£"45,905,ioo, covered by ^30,639,800, viz., p{^27, 1 12,350 in cash, and the rest in notes of other banks, leaving therefore, uncovered, ^15,265,300: deposits, ^12,105,450; former debts, ^494,150; exchange, ^{^34,27 1, 150 ; Lombard, or value empowered, ^{^4,607, 700 ; effects, ^1,353,150; other assets, ^2,607,150; reserve notes, ^3,984,950. The Imperial Bank alone had, in the year 1877, an exchange of ;^2, 377, 300,000 The Treasury received as its portion, ^,^107, 414. Credit Banks. — Of these banks which had sprung up like muslirooms during the years 1870 to 1873, a large number have disappeared, and of those remaining, many have reduced their stock, partly from loss and partly for lack of profitable employment for it. Of those remaining in 1876, 14 paid no dividend, eight paid 3 per cent. ; six 4 per cent. ; five 5 per cent. ; nineteen 7 per cent. ; seven 9 per cent. ; and six over that rate. Hypothec Banks. — At the end of 1876, there were 32 with ;,^ 12, 132, 500 capital and a reserve fund of ^1,300,250. In this year ^10,661,116 was lent over and above the sum returned. Life Insurances. Although burial funds and widows' funds had already long existed in Oermany, the first Ufe insurance company was started by Arnoldi, at Gotha, in 1827, on the principle of reciprocity. A similar institution in shares was founded almost at the same time (1828) in Lijbeck. (A law suit is said In 1852 12 societies „ 1856 .. 18 „ i860 .. 24 „ 1864 . .. 27 „ 1869 ■ 39 „ 1876 . .. 38 344 Germany — Larni and People. to have been carried on in England, on account of a disputed life insurance, as early as 1697.) Since that time the number of these societies has increased almost every year, and a powerful impulse has been given to life insurance. 46,980 insurances for ... ;^8,635,336 71,169 „ „ ... 12,061,861 , 129,589 „ „ ... 20,631,341 • 230,394 „ „ ... 35,240,961 . 456,144 ,, „ ... 64,005,474 .555,128 „ „ ... 88,002,656 In the year 1876 these institutions or societies received ^3,751,795, paid out ^^^3,199,732, shewing a nett profit of ;^552,o63. Fire Insurance Companies. At the end of 1870 these numbered 72. The total sum insured amounted to _;^86 1,265,369, one half of which belonged to Prussia, the other half to the remaining (ierman Empire. The most important of these insurance companies are those of Rhenish Prussia, with ;^53,t92,859 on real property, and _;^8,528,oi3 on moveable property ; of those of Berlin with ^44,790,471 on real property : of those of the Province of Westphalia with ^34, 105,1 17 on real property, and ^5,653,343 on furniture. The next in importance are those of Rhenish Bavaria, of Saxony, and of WiJrtemburg, Insurance against Accidents. In 1876 there were 327,760 persons insured in the Accident Insurance Company, in Leipsic, and its branches. Out of 5,353 cases of injury announced, 1,415 were acknowledged, ^^32,061 were paid by the company, of which sum ^5,326 were compensation in case of death, ^14,683 com- pensation to those invalided, and ;^i 2,051 compensation to those rendered incapable of work. The total reserve fund of the institution was;^39,o66. Provident Institutions or Associations Depending on Self-help. In the year 1872 3,600 of these associations were known by name, 807 of which were loan societies, having 872,000 members, and a total business of ^56,100,000 ; 170 were co-operative stores, and in the account of the remaining associations the working classes were largely represented. In 1876 the number of associations had increased to 4,800. with nearly 1,400,000 members, and a capital of between ^8,500,000 and ;!^9, 000,000 ; the year's business exceeded ;!^i32, 500,000. The deposits amounted to between ^18,000,000 and ^18,500,000. Mercantile Marine. On the ist of January, 1S76. there were 4.745 ships, of 1.084,882 tons, and 42,362 men. Sailin ' Horse Vessels Tonnage Crews Steamers Tonnage Crews Power 1871 4,372 900,361 34,739 147 81,994 4.736 23,287 1872 4,354 891,660 34,273 175 97,030 5,636 27,164 1873 4,311 869,637 33^6.8 216 129.521 6,621 33.330 1874 4,242 866,092 33,103 253 167,633 8.293 41,755 1875 4,303 878,385 33,085 299 189,998 9,339 48,422 1876 4,426 901,313 33,215 319 183.569 9,147 50-756 1877 4,809 1,103,650 44,844 348 180,946 8,589 49,875 1878 4,805 1.117,935 40,832 336 183,379 — 50,603 Germany — Land and People. 345 Of these, in 1876, 2,462 sailing vessels, and 182 steamers, with 463,931 ^'vncl 150,083 registered tons; 16,603 and 7,439 men belonged to the North Sea district, BALTIC DIVISION. — Sailing Vessels 1 j Steamers Tonnage of the two Crews Horse- power Province of Prussia, . . . ,, ,, 1876 1877 232 217 ; 22 ' 22 95,662 91,235 3.059 2,875 2,117 Province of Pomerania, ,, 5) 1876 1877 990 995 49 : 55 202,878 202,035 8,386 2,286 3.554 Province of Mecklenburg 1876 1877 402 413 i 9 i ^ 1155320 116,733 4,212 4,237 1.383 Liibeck ,j ••• 1876 1877 16 20 22 20 8,581 8,909 438 429 1,314 Schleswig-Holstein ... ,5 ,, 1876 1877 324 319 35 : 36 48,427 51.595 2,225 2,278 1,894 Total of the Baltic ... „ ,, •, 1876 1877 1,964 1,971 137 134 470,868 470,507 18,320 18,108 NORTH SEA. Sailing Vessels SteaiTiers Tonnage of the two 49,340 48,086 217,360 214,898 41.301 45,228 182,1 12 196,011 57,364 63,032 66,537 65,888 Crews Horse- power Schleswig Holstein, ... 1876 ... 1877 Hamburg 1876 1877 Hanover, Elbe and | 1876 Weser Division ... I 1877 Bremen ... ... 1876 1877 Oldenburg ... ... 1876 1877 Ems, East Friesland ... 1876 Hanover „ 1877 452 460 335 343 414 244 190 197 359 370 712 713 12 10 lOI 96 9 9 55 58 2 2 3 2 2,364 2,293 8,208 7-569 1,684 1,766 6,085 6,385 2 022 2,138 3,679 3,588 997 20,678 1. 155 17,529 55 80 Total of North Sea ( 1876 2,462 Division ... ... ) 1877 1 2,527 182 177 470,868 470,507 18,320 18,108 346 Germany — Land and People, River Navigation. The Rhine is the most important of all the rivers in its navigation. The total goods trafific at all the Rhenish ports, including those not German, amounted in 1866 to 110,756,515 cwts. \ in 1867 to 121,821,780 cwts. ; in 1868 to 123,169,708 cwts., among which were 62,000,000 and 67.000,000 cwts. of coal in the first two years. In 1869 the goods traffic was 124,301,627 cwts; in 1870, 113,787,349 cwts., and in 1871, 121,100,000 cwts. In the latter year the traffic was hindered by the deficiency of water. The trade of 187 1 was participated in by various places, as follows: — Mannheim, 8,036,121 cwts., Ludwigshaven, 3,129,823, Mainz, 2,900,933, Oberlahnstein, 5,479,337, Coblentz, 1,085,551, Cologne, 4,855,814, Diissel- dorf, 3,607,433, Duisburg, 15,795,487, Dordrecht, 2,664,898, Rotterdam, 16,119,396, Amsterdam, 1,458,226 cwts. The extent to which railways have affected the water traffic of certain ports is seen among others, in Cologne, the harbour trade of which amounted in 1856 to 7,599,453 cwts. A great diminution occurred in the local traffic in 187 1 ; 3,862,346 cwts. less of Ruhr coal, (coal found in the valley of the Ruhr), were shipped than in 1870. The navigation dues were taken off in 1867. From 1831 up to that date, these had brought ;^36o,ooo to the treasury, but on the other hand, more than ;^5, 000,000 had been expended on water-works, improve- ments of the channel, etc. By means of cuttings, the length of the river between Bale and Mannheim was reduced from 80 to 60 hours journey. Navigation of the Elbe. The traffic between Hamburg and Altona and the Upper Elbe in 1871 and 1872, was as follows : — (a.) — DOWN STREAM. - Sailing Vessels Steam Boats Tugs Wood Rafts Total Tonnage in cwts. Crews Goods arrived cwts. I87I I laden 2,597 20 ! 549 «3 3,248 8,229,356 9,540 6,572,498 empty 1,^31 i 517 164 — 2.512 5-286,551 9,100 1872 : ■ 1 laden 2,618 ' 994 401 76 4.089 9.058,404 14,343 5,608,350 empty 1,475 i 228 256 — 1.959 4,838.481 6,992 {b.) UP STR EAM. Despatched 1871 cwts. laden 4,271 21 658 — 4,950 12,099,761 16,204 11,147,630 empty 264 515 6 7«5 1,085,278 4,004 1872 laden ' 2'^^2 992 646 — 5,250 12,008,501 18,625 9,610,954 empty 232 222 13 467 891,100 2,696 Germany — Land and People. 347 Bretnen Weser Ports. ON THE UPPER WESER, 1 87 2. 1872 1S73 — Vessels Tonnage Crews Vessels Tonnage Arrived laden ... „ empty ... ,, rafts 1,046 128 733 55,499 ' 4,150 8,435 348 15,943 ! 1,503 1,028 57,135 48 2,669 87S 19,003 Together 1,907 79,877 6,001 2,035 2,401 1,954 78.807 Sailed laden „ empty ... 504 669 31,167 32,939 352 22,929 738 38,229 Together 1,173 64,106 4,436 . 1,090 61,158 Sea and Coast Fishfries. The sea and coast fisheries in the whole of Germany employ only 17,195 people and 8,130 boats, while — In England there are 134,000 fishers and 36,000 boats. ,, France „ Italy „ Austria 78,772 60,000 7,196 1873 .. 1874 .. 1875 .. 1876 .. 1877 .. U^recks. GERMAN VESSELS. Of which No in Foreign Seas I-iyf s Lost 175 • . 78 .. 297 164 . 68 .. 282 174 . 64 ... 580 . 209 . 152 .. 530 181 . . 128 .. 430 20,795 „ 18,000 „ 2,852 „ ON GERMAN COASTS. Vessels 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 100 156 170 98 Lives Last •■ 57 .. 17 •• 59 ,. 48 9 THE SEPARATE STATES OF GERMANY NORTH GERMANY. PRUSSIA (KINGDOM)— Za//^/ and People. I THE SEPARATE STATES OF GERMANY {(J. ) N O R r H ( ; 1. R M A N V. PRUSSIA (R1NGD0M)^Z^7//^ a/id People. ^ Population, December, 1875 Government Districts and Provinces l-n^iish Sq. Miles. Male Female Total* I. Konigsburg 8,124 528,716 572,931 1,101,647 2. Gumbinnen ... 6,108 361,349 393,425 754,774 I. Province East Prussia 14,232 890,065 966,356 1,856,421 3. Dantzic 3,061 264,698 277,618 542,316 4. Marienwerder 6,747 393,565 406,869 800,434 11. West Prussia 9,809 658,263 684,487 1,342,750 5. City of Berlin 22 485,655 481,203 966,858 6. Potsdam 7,947 555,854 544,307 1,100,161 7. Frankfort 7,388 517,539 541,853 1,059,392 III. Brandenburg 15,358 1,559,048 1,567,363 3,126,411 8. Stettin 4,661 345,699 350,035 695,734 9. Bioslin 5,421 272,224 285,607 557,831 lo. Stralsund 1,547 100,828 107,897 208,725 IV. Pomerania ... 10,780 718,751 743,539 1,462,290 II. Posen 6,758 494,317 539,430 1,033,747 12 Bromberg ... 4,388 279,928 292,409 572,337 V. Posen 11,179 774,245 831,839 1,606,084 13. Breslau 5,202 703,908 . 768,346 1,472,254 14. Liegnitz 5,251 471,113 523,970 995,083 15. Oppelu 5,100 661,301 715,061 1,376,362 VI. Silesia 15,556 1,836,322 2,007,377 3,843,699 16. Magdeburg ... 4,440 439,625 439,933 879,558 17. Merseburg ... , 3,942 445,552 458,379 903,931 18. Erfurt 1-363 187,268 198,231 385,499 In 1877 the population was 26.357,196 350 Separatf States of Germany — Prussia English Population December 1875 GovcrnmcQt Districts s.iid Provinces Sq. Miles Male Female Total • VII. Saxony 9,746 1,072,445 1,196,543 2,168,988 19 & VIII. Schleswig ... 7,041 536,776 537,150 1,073,926 20. Hanover 2,221 215,364 214,695 430,059 21. Hildesheim ... 1,969 204,010 209,587 413,597 22. Liineburg 4:445 194,586 192,128 386,714 23. Stade 2>557 154,694 153,515 308,209 24. Osnabriick ... 2,397 139,761 138,000 277,761 25. Aurich 1,181 99,310 101,743 201,053 IX. Hanover 14,772 1,007,725 1,009,668 2,017,393 26. Miinster 2,779 223,147 220,197 443,344 27. Minden 2,028 238,032 242,580 480,612 28. Arnsberg 2,972 511,563 470,178 981,741 X. Westphalia ... 7.799 972,742 932,955 1,905,697 29. Cassel 3,985 382,177 406,709 788,886 30. Wiesbaden ... 2,066 336,009 343,003 679,012 XI. Hesse Nassau 6,052 718,186 749,712 1,467,898 31. Coblentz 2,393 285,311 286,248 571,550 32. Dusseldorf ... 2,111 742,467 717,900 1,460,376 33. Cologne 1,534 327,673 327,118 654,791 34. Triers 2,773 308,871 306,240 615,111 35. Aix-la-Chapelle 1,603 251,657 250,887 502,544 XII. Rhine-].and... 10,407 1,915,979 1,888,402 3,804,381 36. Sigmaringen... 440 31.823 34,643 66,466 Total 134,187 12,692,370 13.050,034 25,742,404 These Provinces form in many cases smaller departments, the number of which is 454, viz. — 59 in Prussia, 33 in Brandenburg, 30 in Pomerania, 28 in Posen, 64 in Silesia, 42 in Saxony, 21 in Schleswig-Holstein, 37 in Hanover, 36 in Westphalia, 35 in Hesse Nassau, and 69 in Rhenish Provinces. Dwelling-houses number 3,063,567, exclusive of 14,028 other dwellings on boats, in tents, i,798 75,962 651,53s 37,327 222,466 38.8 28.14 22.81 1868 9-'5o29 76,169 696,447 37,719 212,958 38.6 29.05 17-77 1869 9 5. S, 264 76,503 671,367 39,189 216,914 39-7 27-«3 17-99 1S70 97^,598 79,033 706,05 I 40,109 1^1,539 40.2 29.01 14.92 187 I 867,056 78,746 743,395 34,926 195,974 35-3 30.26 15-95 1872 1,023,005 73,527 765,360 40,480 255,421 41-5 31-05 20.44 i«73 1,028,276 739,250 40,884 252.872 41.4 29.79 20.38 1874 1, 053,479 693,250 42,342 244,773 42.0 28.31 19-55 i«75 1,086,809 725,713 47,046 230,860 42.5 28.54 r8.o6 1876 1,098,593 74,377 705,060 45,523 221,712 40.5 25.14 17.10 1877 1,092,209 716,486 44,457 210,357 39-S 25-05 16.00 The mean number of births is very different in the various provinces, the tigure always being larger in the eastern than in the western. Details as to place of Birth. — The census of 1871 furnished the means of discovering the number of persons born in the place where they were then residing, and the number of those born elsewhere than in their place of residence. Dr. Bramer found by it, that out of the 12,144,941 males and 12,498,682 females existing at the taking of the census, there were born In the parish were the census was taken 6,949,628 ... 7,048,906 The newly accjuired territory being the province of Hesse-Nassau, the province of Hanover, the Duchy of Lauenburg, and the province of Schleswig-Holstein. Males Females In other places within the same circle ... 2,135,100 ... 2,663,999 In the circle of the place of present residence 9,004,728 ... 9,712,905 In other circles of the Province ... ... 1,992,613 ... 2,005,686 In the same Province ... ... ... 11,077,341 ... 11,718,591 In other Provinces of Prussia 736,134 ... 494,154 Consequently born in Prussia ... ... 11,813,475 ... 12,212,745 In other States of Germany ... ... 213,451 ... 199,214 Together in Germany and ZoUverein ... i2,o26;926 ... 12,411,959 In other States of Europe ... ... ... 104.720 ... 77,442 Out of Europe or unknown ... ... 3,507 ••• 3*547 Not stated 9,799 ••• 5-734 Total ... ... ... ... 12,144,941 ... 12,498.682 • Only the old Provinces. 352 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. Emigration and Immigration. The following were the ofificial returns (the old Provinces down to 1866 inclusive, and from 1866 the new Provinces), in connection with which we must mention that, down to 1853, only those persons are included who emigrated with leave, while subsequent to that date those are included who left without such permission. The table from 1844 to 1853 embraces periods from October ist to the following 30th September; but from October ist, 1853, the period extends to the end of 1854 (in this case, therefore, one year and a quarter), after which the term is a calendar year. OLD PROVINCES. Year 1844-5 1845-6 1846-7 1847-8 1848-9 1849-50 1850-1 1851-2 i»52-3 1853-4 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 I S70 187 1 1872 1873 1874 1875 1S76 .877 1878 Emigrants Immigrants 9,239 3,534 16,662 3,074 14,906 3,092 8,297 2,783 8,780 2,221 7,516 2,481 8,922 2,733 21,372 2,859 18,194 2,752 32,765 3,254 19,124 2,644 25,026 3,027 33,924 3,296 17.486 3,469 13,310 3,606 15,498 4,179 14,214 4,253 18,801 4.728 19,130 4 444 18,861 4,626 25,943 5'309 26,042 4,023 ENL.\RGlil» IKRKllOKV. 56,201 5.715 58,884 6,188 53,380 6,862 40,643 10,022 38,537 3,086 64,905 2,7.13 48,580 4,668 27.560 7,858 23,551 13,648 20,764 6,070 22r^2(, — ■ 18,660 — Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 353 Taking the year 1872 as an example, the immigrants numbered — 766 ... ... from the German Confederaic States. 1,505 ... ... from abroad. 442 ... ... persons returned from abroad. Total, 2,713 Emigrants to German Confederate States ... ... 390 „ to Foreign countries ... ... ... ... 22,408 „ secretly ... ... ... ... ••• 42,107 Total ... ... ... 64,905 The amount of emigration from the Western Provinces, whence for a long time it was by far the greatest, has on the whole decreased ; but an increase is visible in the Eastern Provinces. This is most observable in the following, out of every 10,000 inhabitants the number who emigrated annually being — From Stralsund Stettin... Bromburg Aurich Osnabruck Stade ... Schleswig Cassel... Treves... Cologne Dusseldorf Coblentz Arnsburg Erfurt ... Neuenburg Twelve years ago not a fourth part of the emigranls left their country without "permits," which are now scarcely asked for by one-half of them. This fact has become still more marked in the last few years. The number of those liable to military service, and who had absconded, and, therefore, incurred judicial sentence of punishment, was — In S44-S9 i*6o-56 1867-71 10.5 32.1 76.0 12.6 33-7 59-8 4.7 28.0 43.8 — 31.1 III. 8 — ■ 55-1 84.4 — 28.2 75-4 — — 57-7 — — 49-5 37.6 . 25.3 26.6 9.8 3- 5- 6. 5- 4. 34-3 13.1 20.4 6.7 5-3 4.9 19.4 14.9 12.6 14-3 14.8 7.9 1862 . .. 1,648 In 1867 . •• 3,297 In 1872 ... 10,690 1863 . .. 1,782 „ 1868 . .. 3,946 „ 1873 ... 9,840 1864 . .. 2,764 „ 1869 •• 6,225 „ 1874 ... 9.549 1865 . .. 2,666 ,, 1870 .. 7,464 „ 1875 ... 10,265 1866 . .. 2,694 „ 1871 •• 7,424 „ 1876 ... 7,640 In every 10,000 inhabitants, in 1862, 0.67 of the emigrants were liable to military service ; in 1871, 3.01 ; and in 1872, 4.34 per cent. According to official lists, about 406,000 men capable of bearing arms left the Prussian States in the period from 1S45-71, but the immigration in America shows that this figure is far below the reality. The amount of property in money belonging to the emigrants is omitted, as the figures were quite unreliable. 354 Separate States of Gcrviany — Prussia. Infirm. There were m the year 1867 14,081 of the inhabitants blind of both eyes (7,148 males and 6,933 females) ; 17,724 deaf and dumb (9,726 males and 7,998 females) ; 21,031 idiots (11,501 males and 9,530 females) ; and 16,929 insane (8,407 males and 8,522 females). In 187 1 there were 33,740 idiots 21,303 insane Total Blind Deaf and dumb Total number of infirm in 1S69 187 I 55^043 22,978 21,435 69.765 99,486 Creeds. According to Official Calculations, December, 1871. Provinces Prussia Brandenburg. Pomerania ... Posen Silesia Saxony Schleswig- ) Holstein ... j Hanover Westphalia ... Hesse -Nassau Rhenish Fro- | vinces ... | HohenzoUern Total With troops in ( France ... j Christians Protestants Roman Catholics j Members of other Sects 3,202,913 2,720.242 1,397,467 511,292 1,760,441 1,966,696 984,972 1,711,728 806.464 988,041 906,867 1,766 15-958,889 i5>987,927 874,579 86,047 16,858 1,009,491 1,896,136 126,735 6,144 233.631 949,118 371,736 2,628,173 63.051 8,261,699 8,267,862 18,952 5,541 4,266 1,065 3,860 3,813 1,015 3-273 2,334 3,892 5,834 30 Members Jews of other 41.057 47,484 6 39 13.036 , — 61,982 I — 46,629 4 5.917 8 2 1 1 53.875 53,882 3.729 12,790 17.245 36,390 38,423 4 711 I — 325.393 ' 85 325,540 , 85 Not stated 38 3,876 6 13 97 10 5 7 12 300 46 4,410 4,410 A calculation in 1875 gave a total of 16,712,700 Protestants, viz. : — Unitarians ... 13,226,620 Unknown ... 4.674 Lutherans 2,905,250 Moravian Brothers 3.710 Reformers 465,120 Irvingites 2,620 Old Lutherans 40,630 Baptists ... I2,2)0 Other I'roleslant Sects 35, 080 Mennonites 14,650 Koinan Catholics 241,306 Anglicans ... 2,080 Jews ... 339.790 Greeks... 4,800 .\ccording to an official notice issued by the Evangelical Churcli, 16,474 persons went over to the Evangelical Church in the old provinces Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 355 during the year 1872, among whom 15,455 ^vere Catholics, 964 Dissenters, and 85 were Jews. The greatest number of converts from the Roman CathoUc Church was in Silesia — viz., 5,378, and in Rhenish Prussia and HohenzoUern 2,898 ; in Brandenburg, 1,966 : in Prussia, 1,934 ; and in Westphalia, 1,337. Nationalities. No account of nationalities has been taken since 1861. Classifying according to the language the census gave 15,716,656 Germans, and 2.504,192 who were not Germans, among the civil population of the old provinces. Among the non-Germans were 2,214,888 Poles, Mazurians, and Kassubians, 82.232 Wends, 58,880 Bohemians and Moravians, 136,990 Lithuanians, 414 Krivinians, and 10,788 Walloons. In this category all the Tews are reckoned as Germans, although they belong to the Semitic race, because they speak German as their mother tongue. The descendants of the French refugees are also reckoned as Germans for the same reason, although they form in part separate communities. Information is wanting with regard to the military. Those other than Germans were mainly divided as follows : — • (442 ... 26,040 19,681 Neisse Gross-Glogau Ratibor ... Hirschberg - 19.533 ... 18,041 ... 17,213 ... 12,954 PROVINCE OF SAXONY.* Magdeburg Halle Erfurt Halberstadt 87,925 60,503 48,030 27,757 Miihlhausen Aschersleben Quedlinburg Weissenfels ... 20,926 ... 17,391 ■ •■ 17,035 16,921 PROVINCE OF SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. Altona Kiel Flensburg... 84,097 37.246 26,474 Schleswig ... Wandsbeck Ottensen ... ... 14,546 ... 13,528 12,406 PROVINCE OF HANOVER, Hanover . . . Miinster ... Osnabriick Hildesheim Linden Celle ... 106,677 35.705 29,850 22,581 20,899 18,163 Liineburg... Harburg ... Gottingen... Einden Wilhelmshaven . . . Goslar ••• 17,532 ... 17,131 ... 17,038 ... 12,866 ... 10,158 ... 9,823 PROVINCE OF WESTPHALIA, Dortmund Bockum . . . Bielefeld ... Hagen Hamm 57,743 28,368 26,567 24,335 18,877 Witten Minden ... Iserlohn ... Paderborn Soest ... 18,106 ... 17,075 ... 16,838 ... 13,701 ... 13,099 » Including Newstadt and Backau, 17.2,089. 358 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. PROVINCE OF HESSE NASSAU. Frankfort-on the -Maine ... 103,136 Bornheim.,. ... 10,085 Cassel 53,043 Marburg ... 9,600 Wiesbaden 43,674 Homburg... 8,290 Hanan 22,409 Biebrich-Mosbach 7,690 Bockenheim 13,043 Ems ... 6,077 Fulda 10,749 PROVINCK OF Oberlahnstein THE RHINE.* ... 4,857 Cologne 135,371 Essen ... 54,790 Barmen 86,504 Coblentz ... 29,282 Dusseldorf 80,695 Bonn ... 28,075 Elberfeld ... 80,589 Remscheid 26,066 Aix-la-Chapelle 79,606 Altendorf ... 21,663 Crefeld ... 62,905 IN HOHENZOIXERN. Sigmaringen 3,729 1 Hechingen 3,469 As in the above lists the military are included, in all the towns of more than 5,000, we would here observe that the military population amounted In Berlin to ... 18,603 In Erfurt to ■• 3,167 „ Konigsberg ,, 5,699 „ (jorlitz 2,119 „ Dantzic „ ... 5,383 ,, Hildesheim 1,195 „ Aix-la-Chapelle „ 1,033 ,, Cologne 5-240 „ Potsdam „ •• 5,475 ,, Frankfort, 0.0 1,775 „ Frankfort, o.M.„ 2,521 „ Stettin 4,061 „ Coblentz „ ... 4,653 ,, Posen 5,523 „ Breslau „ 4,702 ,, Cassel 2,788 „ Hanover ,, ... 6,368 ,, Wiesbaden 1,143 „ Magdeburg „ • •• 6,377 „ Glogan •• 3,635 „ Uusseldorf „ • .. 3,048 1 Berlin.^hX. the end of the 17th century, when London and Paris each contained considerably more than 100,000 inhabitants, Berlin was an unimportant town, with a population of a little over 10,000. It was en- larged under the Great Elector, and the two first Prussian kings ; and in the time of Frederick the Great, at the beginning of the present century, its population had risen to about 150,000. It increased still further after the close of the war with Napoleon, and during the peace which followed, but still, at the end of i860, it only contained a little above 500,000 in- habitants. During the subsequent 16 years, however, the population was almost doubled. Since 1877 the population of Berlin has been over 1,000,000, and it is now the largest city in Europe, ne.xt to London and Paris. The number of inhabitants to every house in Berlin in 1872 was, on .an average, 55.63. In 171 dwellings which consisted of one or two rooms, there were 10 persons to a room; in 57 dwellings 11 to a room ; in 19 dwellings 13 to 20 persons in one room : that is to say, in every apartment * Including DeuCi, 149,878. Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 359 serving for a sleeping place, whether capable of being warmed or not. The number of persons living in lodgings has diminished by about 1,000 since 1867, while that of persons hiring a bed has increased from 23,000 to 67,000. The number of dwellings in cellars is far larger in Berlin than in any other large town. Out of 178,561 dwellings existing in 1871, 19,208 or 10.8 per cent, were in cellars. The average number of persons per cellar was 4.4 in 1868. Territorial Changes. At the accession of Frederick II. in 1740, Prussia contained 45,925 English square miles, and a population of nearly 3,000,000. At his death in 1786, it contained 75,267 square miles, and a population of 5,500,000. This increase was the result of the conquest of Silesia, and the annexation of a part of Poland. The principalities of Anspach and Bayreuth were acquired in 1791, by the abdication of the childless Margrave, and added 2,445 Er^glish square miles of territory, and nearly 420,000 to the population. By the Peace of Basle, Prussia lost her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, Guelderland, Moeurs and Cleves, 893 square miles, and a popu- lation of 122,000. She received in return, (Compensation compact of 1802), Hildesheim with Goslar, Paderborn, part of Miinster, Eichsfeld, Erfurt, Miihlhausen, Nordhausen, ( luedlinburg, Essen, Werden and Her- ford. Then in 1803, from Bavaria, in return for the cession of Neustadt and Culmbach, she received the Archbishopric of Eichstadt, Weissenburg- on-the-Tauber, Windsheun and Minkelsbiihl, amounting to about 3,678 square miles, and a population of 600,000. In December, 1805, the government ceded Anspach, the part of Cleves on the right bank of the Rhine, and Neuenburg to France, in exchange for Hanover, which had been conquered by France. After the battle of Jena (October 14th, 1806), Prussia was compelled, by the Peace of Tilsit, (July 9th, 1807), to yield half of her territory, viz., part of New East Prussia (Bialystock), to her former ally, Russia ; the district of Kotbus to Saxony ; parts of West Prussia and New East Prussia, together with the Netze district, to form the Duchy of Warsund ; East Friesland to Holland ; Miinster, Mark, Singen, and Tecklenburg to Berg ; the remaining posses- sions in Westphalia and Lower Saxony to the new kingdom of Westphalia ; Bayreuth and Erfurt to France ; and Dantzic again became a free city with enlarged territories. The total loss was estimated at 60,703 square miles, and 5,736,500 of inhabitants, The Prussian States had dwindled to 61,021 square miles, and a population of 4,560,000. The first Peace of Paris and the Vienna Congress restored the loss or gave full compensation. Poland, Hildesheim, East Friesland, Anspach and Bayreuth were not recovered, but in place of these Prussia received half the kingdom of Saxony, the Rhine Provinces and Swedish Pomerania. In 1842 the State purchased the Principality of Lichtenberg, on the left bank of the Rhine, 222^ square miles, with a population of 35,256, which had been assigned by the Congress of Vienna to the Duke of Coburg, and the State acquired in the same way the two Principalities of Hohenzollern in 1849. On the other hand, the king lost the sovereignty over Neuchatel, in Switzerland, in 1847 ; the final renunciation of it, however, did not take place until 1857. A small district on the Jade bay, intended for a naval sea-port, was sold to Oldenburg for ,^^7 5,000 at the end of 1854, 360 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. Prussia has obtained considerable accjuisitions of territory as a result of the recent wars. After Denmark had ceded the Duchies of Schleswig- Holstein and Lauenburgto Austria and Prussia, according to the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna, of October 30. 1864 — the Emperor of Austria, by the subseciuent Treaty of (lastein, August 14th. 1865, made over the Duchy of I,auenburg to Prussia for a sum of ^138,888. 'Fhe following States were incorporated with Prussia, in consequence of the war of 1866 ; Hanover, Nassau, Electoral Hesse, Frankfort, and Schleswig-Holstein. By Treaties of Peace concluded with Bavaria, August 22, and with the Grand Duchy of Hesse, September 3, 1866, these States also were compelled to yield up certain districts ; the former about 21 2 square miles, with 32,976 inhabitants : the latter 318 square miles, with 47,728 inhabitants, together with the Land-Graviate of Hesse-Homburg. containing 106 square miles, and 27,374 inhabitants. A Sionmary of Historical Facts in relation tc these Incorporated States. Hanover, formerly the electorate of '' Brunswick-Liineburg,'' had, at fhe period of the French Revolution, an area of 13,225 square miles, and a population of nearly a million. French troops occupied the country in 1803. It was acquired by Prussia in 1805. In 1807 and 18 10 Napoleon incorporated the Hanoverian territory (with the exception of Lauenburg) with the new "kingdom of Westphalia." Bremen, Verden, Hoya, Diepholz, Nienburg, and Liineburg, belonged to the French department of the Elbe and Weser estuaries, whilst Hanover and Zell (Celle) fell to the department of AUer, Gottingen to that of the Peine, and Grubenhagen and the Hartz were allotted to the Hartz. The electorate of Brunswick was reinstated as "kingdom of Hanover." under the king of England, by the congress of Vienna. Lauenburg and the domains of Klotze and Elbingerode were indeed ceded, but East Friesland, Hildesheim, Goslar, Singen, Aremburg-Meppen, the Eichsfeld and several districts of Westphalia were acquired in place of them. The actual union with Great Britain ceased at the death of William IV., 1837. Electoral Hesse.— The extent of the Land-gravate in 1786 was esti- mated at 5,528 s(iuare miles, and the population at 450,000. The date of the assumption of the title of elector was May 15th, 1803. After the battle of Jena electoral Hesse (with the exception of Hanau and Katzenellen- bogen) composed the centre of the "kingdom of Westphalia." It was con- stituted by Napoleon in 1807, and embraced at the period of its greatest extent 23,813 square miles, with a population of 2,500,000. Its king was lerome Napoleon, youngest brother of the emperor, and its chief town was Cassel. In 181 3 the restoration of the elector took place ; he was com- pelled to give up Katzenellenbogen to Nassau, and some small districts to Hanover, Darmstadt and Weimar, but received in return the greater part of the archbishopric of Fulda, several enclaves and part of Isenburg. N^as.<;au, at the commencement of this century, was divided between two dynasties - the Walrain and the Otton. or Orange. To the first of these belonged Usinge, which embraced Wiesbaden, Idstein, Lahr (now belonging to Baden and Saarbruck now part of Rhenish Prussia), and Weilburg, which included \\'(.'ilburg, Kerchheimbolanden, Stauf, and (ioUheim (now belonging to Rhenish iJavarin). The dynasty, or house of Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 361 Oran, or Orange, possessed Diez, Dillenburg, Siegen, Herborn, and the district of Spiegelburg, 1,020 square miles, and a population of 130,000. The possessions on the left bank of the Rhine were lost by the peace ot Luneville ; Uscnge lost 425 square miles and 60,200 inhabitants ; Weilburg lost 170 square miles and 18,000 inhabitants. The compensation awardeil to the former, in 1803, was as follows : — The districts of Konigstein. Hochst, Kronhcrg, Rudesheim, Oberlahnstein, Eltville, the Chapter of Marny, on the right bank of the Rhine, and the palatine district of Kaub. portions of Cologne, Hesse, and Treves, and the countv of Sayn, 7,664 square miles and 292,000 inhabitants. Weilburg obtained, from the Electorate of Treves, Ehrenbreitstein, Montabour, Eimburg, and several Abbacies, 340 square miles, and 37,000 inhabitants. The two princes united their possessions at the time of the Rhenish Confederation, (Rhine Bund), the line of Usinge, however, died out in 1816. The possessions of the House of Orange were incorporated partly with the Grand Duchy of Berg, and partly with the Duchy of Nassau. By a Treaty with Prussia, October 31, 181 5, Nassau ceded Ehrenbreitstein, and received in return Hadamar, and subsequently Diez and Dillenburg. The territory of Nassau thus contained parts of 23 former States. FranktPrt. — This free, imperial, and ancient city was declared by Napoleon in 1806, to belong to the Confederacy of the Rhine, and in jSio to be the capital of the Grand Duchy of Frankfort (under the Arch- Chancellor Dalberg). The new State embraced 2,o'i8 square miles, and a population of 302,000 in the four departments of Frankfort, Aschaffenburg, Hanau, and Fulda. Frankfort recovered its independence in 1813, after the battle of Leipzic, and became a German Confederate city. Schleswig-Holstein. — In 1848 the Duchies rebelled against the arrange- ment made at Copenhagen, that Schleswig should be incorporated with Denmark. The male line of succession to the throne oi Denmark, and the sovereignty of the Duchies expired with Frederick VH., November 15, 1863. Occupation of Holstein by the German Confederacy, and war between the Great Powers of Germany and Denmark. Separation of the three Duchies from the Danish Monarchy, declared by the preliminaries of peace August i, 1864. Schleswig united to Prussia by the Peace of Nikolsburg. Finance {Anmml Budget). Since 1877 the financial year has commenced on April ist. The Budget Estimates for 1879-80 were as follows : — Revenue. I. — MINISTRY OF FINANCE DIRECT TAXES. Land tax ^2,009,550 House tax 1,048,850 Income tax ... ... ... ... ... 1,567,450 Class tax ... ... ... ... ... 2,074,250 Tax on Trades ... ... ... ... 937,400 Railway duty... . . ... ... ... 150,700 Taxes in HohenzoUern ... ... ... ^S^i^S Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ^^A^S ^7,812,800 362 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. ini)IKh;ct taxes. Share of Imperial taxes ... ^816,176 On Bills of Exchange ... 3>995 Stamps 1,000,000 Succession duty ... ... 250,000 Tolls and dues on bridges, canals & harbours 105,000 Miscellaneous i075379 ^2,282,550 Lottery ^702,705 Naval Commerce ... ... ... ... 150,000 The Mint i7,5o5 Administration of Finance ... ... ... 4,105,709 '^4^975.919 Total revenue from Ministry of Finance ... ... ... ^i5'07^>*69 II.— MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS. General Administration ;^56,704 Mines 2,798,789 Porcelain factories in Berlin .. . ... ... 26,127 Furnaces and forges ... ... ... ... 1,046,358 Saltworks 236,457 Railways 9,069,194 Miscellaneous... ... ... ... ... 308,616 Total revenue from Ministry of Public Works ;^i3.542,245 III. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, DOMAINS, AND FORESTS. Domains and forests... ... ... ... ^3,690,040 Sale of domains and forests .. . ... ... 210,000 Administration ... ... ... ... 124,900 Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... S5.757 Total revenue from Ministry of Agriculture, etc. ■ p{^4» 1 1 0,697 IV. — Ministry of Commerce and Industries ;j{^i4,i2i V. — Ministry of State 26,421 VI. — Ministry of Justice ... ... ... 2,005,245 VII. — Ministry of the Interior 185,094 VIII. — Ministry of Ecclesiastical and Edu-) cational Affairs* \ ^^9,7^1 IX. — Ministry of Foreign Affairs... ... 225 X. — Ministry of War ... ... ... 50,000 ^2,400,823 Total gross estimated revenue for 1879-80... ... ... ;^35>i25,034 * The various bishoprics were endowed in 1866 as follows: — Breslau ... ... ^1 z.i 1 2 of which ^8,061 was from the .State Fund Ciuesen-Posen ... 12,689 ,, 9-704 .» »• v Ermland ... ... 6,484 ,, 5,262 „ „ ,, t-'ologne 11,170 ., 7-9S° » >. » Kulm ... ... 6,564 „ 5,001 „ „ „ Miinster ... ... ^-S^^g „ 55453 »• " » Paderborn ... ... 6.882 ,, 5,5 >> ,, », >■> Treves ... ... 8,180 .. 4,^76 „ ,, .• m According to an account of 1874. the yearly incomes of tlie 12 Pru!..sian bi hoprics, v.ud I j^ the institutions belonging to them, amounted to ^87,688, of which sum ;^6c,^c8 were con- Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 363 Expenditure. CURRENT EXPENDITURE. Ministry of Public Works and Railways ... ^^9,821,126 ,, Public Instruction ... ... 29.400 „ Agritulture Domains and Forests t. 773, 766 ,, State ... ... ... ... 24,710 „ Finance ... ... ... ... 1,580,898 ENDOWMENTS. Addition to Crown Endowment ... ... 225,000 Public Debt (of which the interest absorbs _^2,738,990 and sinking fund (^^920. 126) 4,043,206 House of Lords ... ... ... ... 8,230 Chamber of Deputies ... ... ... 59^97^ ADMINISTRATION. Ministry of State 114,300 .5 Foreign affairs ... ... ... 20,520 „ Finance... ... ... ... 5,968,122 „ Public Works 814,703 „ Commerce and Intlustries ... 71,880 „ Justice... ... ... ... 3,486,171 „ interior 1,958,510 „ Agricuhure 524,165 „ Public Education and Eccle- I siastical matters ... j „ War ... 652 Total ordinary expenditure ... ... ... ^32,922,804 Extraordinary expenditure ... ... ... ... ... 2,943,934 ^35,866,738 State Finance of earlier periods. At the beginning of the last century, the revenues were divided into war-taxes, and taxes on the domains, the former being intended solely for the maintenance of the troops. The receipts of the war fund in 1724, were ;,<^5 70,000, those of the domain fund only ^^442, 500. The total State revenues at the accession of Frederick II. in 1740, were ^1,1 1 1,000. Frederick raised the receipts, (often in a very oppressive manner), to more than ^1,800,000 in 1752 ; to _;^3, 150,000 in 1780 ; and to ^5,400,000 in 1786. At the commencement of the 19th century, they were estimated at ^^4,650,000 to ^4,950,000 ; the principal sources being tributed by the State. The bishops draw ;^ 13.779 of this in .salaries ; the suffragan bishops. ^■946; the vicars-general jf 1.115 : ^^*^ council £l,^l^''< the cathedral provosts ^^2, 232 : the deans ^2,608: the canons and vicars ^18,145. In addition to this, the cathedrals cost /i2,i35; the seminaries ^^16,021. The salaries of the archbishops, prince bishops and •imple bishops are fixed thus. In Guesen-Posen, Breslau. and Cologne, each/" 1.800 (the same as a Prussian minister\ In Ermland ^1,350 : in Kulm, Miinster. Paderborn, and Treves, /i,2oo; in Hildesheim £'&^o: in Limburg ;^'643 ; in O.snaburg ;^6i6: in Fulda £S^^- Several of these dignitaries receive considerable sums in addition. A sum 01 ^^1,800 it aUo granted from the State Treasury for the " Old Catholic Bishop." ;97>469 364 Separate States of Germauy — Prussia. domain lands, ;^r, 119,900, forests ;!^i84,95o, contributions and land tax ^,'840,000, excise and customs ^^i, 425, 000 (gross ;^i, 593, 000, of which p£,'i, 183,350 were from excise) ; salt monopoly ^^675, 000. stamps ^90,000, lottery ^105,000. The loss of territory in 1807 reduced the revenues to ;^2, 700,000 (net). In 181 2 the amounts produced were, by domains and forests ^{^654, 000; land tax ;2{^447, 607; excise ^^700.378; duty on land ^202,662; customs only ;2^ii4,o37; salt ^^251,828 : stamps ;^io5,i8o; tax upon industries ^102,156. From 1821-48, the public budgets were remarkable for their brevity, and were, moreover, accompanied by secret returns. The published state- ments contained only the net amounts. In the year 1841, the published account gave the figures, ^8,380,050; the secret one gave the sum as ^9,438,898. The actual receipts, however, were ^10,506,141 net, while the gross amount (according to Reden), rose to ;^i3, 584,250. In 1844 the official statement was ;!^8,6i5,579, the secret statement was ^9,785,870. The actual revenue (net), was ^11,059,731 ; the gross, ;^i4,58o,ooo. _ After the introduction of the Constitution regular returns were drawn up and published. In consequence, however, of disagreements between the government and the parliament no budget was drawn up in complete form from 1862-66. After the victorious wars of 1866 the parliament granted a bill of indemnity to the government. Heavy taxation has always been the result of the development of Prussia into a military State, and of late the burden has been greatly augmented. The expenditure for the land forces in the 11 years, 1849 to the end of i860, amounted to ^67,795,748; that for the navy, ;^2, 400,285 ; making together, ;i{^7o, 196,033. The net expenditure for these, as lately as 1847, was only ^960,000. The expenditure, exclusive of additional items, was — For Debt For the Army and Navy 1850 ^1,128,300 ^4,054,509 1859 ... ... 2,017,087 ... ... 5,023,284 i860 ... ... 2,292,789 ... ... 6,097,049 1861 2,332,155 6,371,254 1864 2,341,027 6,256,155 1867 ... ... 2,448,150 ... ... 8,294,100 Both items had, therefore, been doubled within the space of 18 vears. As regards the distribution of taxes, the exemption from the land tax, enjoyed by the owners of 20,780,176 acres of land, was withdrawn in 1861. The actual taxation, however, did not begin till 1865, and conditions then obtained, on the withdrawal of this exemption, perhaps unexampled in social history. 'I'he privilege was resigned in exchange for comj^ensation to this hitherto privileged class, to meet which a loan of ^{^i, 500,000 was negociated by a decree of March 13, 1867. The number of civil officials in 1818 was only 27,775. In 1856 the number had increased to 51,597 ; in 1866 (in the old i)rovinccs only) to 71,766. There were among these, and prior to the augmentation of salaries — Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 36s 35,724 officials with salaries less than 4,500 salaries from ... ^60 90 ... 105 ^105 to 120 120 M 135 135 „ 150 2,400 3>ioo 798 » 824 „ ,, This term civil officials does not include the officials of parishes and districts, ecclesiastics or school teachers, nor indeed any of those not receiving their salaries from the State treasury. The number of govern- ment servants in the whole of Great Britain, during the year 1856, was only 2,790, with salaries amounting to ;^9i,io6. The budgets of recent years can by no means compare with the amount of those in the years immediately preceding. Apart from the augmentation of the State by the conquests made in 1866 very consider- able revenue fell to the North German Confederacy and the German Empire, while, on the other hand, the whole of the outlay for arniy and navy was included in the special State budget of Prussia. The French war indemnity likewise made the payment of a large portion of the State debt possible, and thus greatly reducing the yearly expenditure for interest and liquidation. The amount of expenditure has, however, by no means diminished, on the contrary, it has very considerably augmented. In 1868 the expenditure was ... ... ... £,'2'h-^^^l^S^9 „ 1870 » 1873 1876 1877-78 1879-80 25.215,205 31,506,520 32,571.470 32,581,920 35,866,738 State Debt. According to the list of 1872 this included the following items {a) — Debts subject to interest. I. OLD PROVINCES. ^53>256,799 235,213 (a) General debt ... {b) Provincial debt Total I... ^53,492,012 II. — NEW PROVINCES. 1. Hanover 2. Electoral Hesse 3. Nassau 4. Hesse-Homburg 5. Frankfort 6. Schleswig-Holstein 7. Hohenzollern... Total II ^2,855,592 2,235,585 2,901,128 12,085 1,123,397 45.3" 9.300 III. — FLOATING DEBT. Treasury bills Total debt subject to interest (A) Debt in Rentes (c.) Debt not subject to interest (assignments) ^^9,182,398 1,620,000 ^{^64, 2 94,4 10 ;^I, I 29,050 3.139,560 366 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. The share of the war indemnity received by Prussia, and the surpluses of the revenues suppUed the means for a considerable diminution of this debt. According to a statement made by the Minister of Finance, in the Chamber of De])uties, No\ember 17th, 1873, nearly ^12,000,000 had been devoted this year from these sources to the payment of the debt. By another statement of the same minister in the same place, made April 28th, 1874, Prussia had received ^14, 8 2 8, 180 of the French indemnity, up to that date, and a few more payments were yet in prospect. ^^3, 001, 668 of this were applied to the litjuidation of extraordinary debts, and ^4,440,757 were employed for the construction of railroads. On the ist of January, 1876, the debt was at its lowest point, viz., ^47j355,477- In 1877 it had increased again to ^54.312.702. In December of this year a loan was raised of ^^2, 500, 000 Consols, at 934, 4 per cent, by means of public subscription. The Railway Debt. — Tlie State has parth- made railways at its own cost, and partly guaranteed the interest on private railways, on the condi- tion of a return. The State really made the stipulation that the companies should pay a fixed share of the profits to the State, over and above the interest customary in the country ; that is to say, that they should pledge themselves to pay over a full third, or even half of the total net profit to the State Treasury. The wliole railway debt of ^5,980,314 is borne thus : — The old Provinces .. ... ... ... ... ... ;^2, 344,081 Hanover ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,156,525 Nassau... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,024,303 Frankfort 455.405 Total ^^5,980,314 The total amount ot the Prussian National Debt in 1879, was ^69,769.454, including the charges to be made up to the close of the fiscal year, March ist, 1880. Of this sum the railway debt amounts to ^41,475,990- Former Condition of the State Debt. When Frederick II. ascended the throne in 1740, he found a State treasure of ;!^i,3o5,ooo. The conquest of Silesia only cost about ^,1,200,000, but the Seven ^'ears' ^Var nearly ^^18,750,000. 'i'he king used not only English subsidies, and the revenues of heavily burdened Saxony, but he also adopted the expedient of debasing the coinage by making a mark of fine silver serve for 45 thalers instead of 14, and thus 3] thalers contained only as much silver as should have served for one of full value. Silesia was encumbered at the time of its conquest by a debt of ^255,000. Nevertheless, Frederick left behind him (he died 1786), no State debt, but a State treasure of between ^{^9, 000,000 and ^^10,000,000. 'I'his treasure vanished during the 11 years' reign of Frederick William II., and a debt of at least, ^^4,500, 000 accumulated. An effort was made during the reign of Frederick William 111. to reduce this burden. Then came the campaign of Jena. The paper money issued only eight months before, fell to a quarter of its nominal value. In tHo8 it fell 27 per cent: in July, 1813, 24^ per cent., and not until January, 18 16, did it again reach par. Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 367 The charge laid on the State Treasury by the victors' demands, amounted in the years 1806-1813 to ^'21,671,043, and the charge on the people directly, as far as it could be ascertained, to a further ^34,500,000. Atter Napoleon had exhausted the country, enormous sacrifices were demanded by the wars of 1813-15. Prussia received ;^5,8o3,95o of the war indemnity, paid by France at the conclusion of the war. Nevertheless, a permanent deficit existed throughout the first year of peace. A loan of ^5,000,000, at 5 per cent., negociated in London, 181 7, had to be taken at the rate of 72. In 18 18 a loan was obtained from Rothschild at 70, bearing interest at 5 per cent. A deception was permitted in the statement of the debt for 1820. About ;!{^9, 000,000 more bonds were entered than were really in circula- tion, in order that new bonds might be issued under old titles without appealing to the people. By the end of 1848 the debt (inclusive of paper money) was reduced 10^19,713,283. From this time to 1866 the sum (in the old territory) rose till it reached to more than double the amount. The rate of debt on every head of the population — In 1847 was £\ 4 7^ „ 1867 236 And by the end of 1869 it was c. ... ... 2 15 6 As a matter of course, the debts of the countries conquered in 1866 were undertaken as soon as the annexation occurred. The favourable course of the wars has rendered possible the imposition of heavy contribu- tions on the vanquished, exclusive of the c[uantity of produce seized upon. The following amounts were paid to Prussia in cash, according to the treaties of peace concluded by — Austria ... ... ... ... ... ... ^^3, 000,000 Bavaria ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,571,428 Wiirtemburg ... ... ... ... ... ... 685,714 Baden ... ... ... ... ... ... 514,285 Grand Duchy of Hesse ... ... ... ... 257,142 Saxony ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,500,000 Frankfort ... ... ... ... ... ... 492,603 Total, inclusive of some other contributions ... ;i^9,o73,o50 The Army {^Military System). The Prussian military system having been introduced into the whole of Germany it will not be necessary here to reiterate. Military Retrospect. On the accession of Frederick II. to the throne he found an army of 76,000 men, and this in a country which did not contain 3,000,000 souls. His invasion of Silesia (1740) was, it is true, made at the head of only 28,000 men, but he had, at the beginning of the second Silesian war, in 1744, nominally 100,000. The king began the "Seven Years' War" (1756) by the invasion of Saxony with 60,000 men. During this war the Prussian troops fought in 16 important battles : three of their corps were annihilated 368 Separate States of Gerviaiiy — Prussia. 4 by the enemy, and they lost also five garrisons. Frederick himself esti- mated his total losses in killed and prisoners at 180,000 men. In addition to this 33,000 of the inhabitants tell victims to the barbarity of the Russians ; the losses of the Prussian allies (British, &c.) amounted to 160,000, making the total loss on the Prussian side 373,000. The king computed the losses of his opponents thus — Austrians (who fought in 10 important battles and lost three garrisons), 140,000 ; Russians (in four battles, by losses on the march, &c.), 120,000: French (mostly as prisoners), 200,000; Swedes, 25,000; total loss, 485,000; total loss on both sides, 858,000. Prussia was bound by the peace of Tilsit never to maintain above 42,000 soldiers during the next ten years. The formation of Militia or forces of citizens was likewise forbidden by a secret treaty. But this very restriction urged the necessity of making the whole nation fit to bear arms. Hence the new organization of the military upon the so-called Kriimper system. Prussia aided the French with an auxilliary force of 20,000 men under York. When this general rose against Napoleon, at the end of 181 2, and the king was at length compelled to declare war, (in 181 3), he soon had more than 120,000 men in the active army. The four army corps of Biilow, Tauentzien, York and Kleist included 44^ battalions of the (iuard, and of the line, besides 171 battalions of Landwehr and of the Reserve. The campaign against Denmark in 1864, cost only 405 killed, 1,628 wounded, 54 missing, in all 2,087 nien. Social and Industrial Conditions. (a.) GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The old military state of Prussia, which maintained an exclusive favoritism for the upper or noble class, for which alone the rank of " officer '' was reserved, and on whose behoof the rewards, whether of rank or money, were appropriated, collapsed at the battle of Jena. Up to this epoch, from that of Frederick II., nothing had been done to deliver the peasant class from the yoke of the nobles. True, the invalided soldier was held to have the preference claim to the post of schoolmaster, and beaurocracy was able to lift up its head ; but these apparent exceptions to an universal system of exclusive class preference, did not weaken the convictions of Stein and his contemporary reformers, that the time had come for recognising in a measure the principles of freedom and qualified e(iualitv, upon which the social and military institutions of France had been consolidated ; although their appli- cation to the actual condition of Prussia was but faintly acknowledged. The good effected by the launching of the idea of a more liberal policy, based on an extension, at any rate, of the object of a nation's appreciation of the services rendered to it, was immediately felt, and was the more valued, the less the people had been accustomed to it. Hereditary sub- jection was abolished ; every person acqun-ed the right to possess land, a privilege which excited the greatest possible astonishment in northern Germany. The power to divide landed property, and freedom of industry were recognised, although by no means to the same extent as in France. The right of local self-government was restored to the towns, but not to all the communes. The embarrassments of the State finances led to free trade, the object being to obtain a larger amount of duty on industry. Separate States of Gerinany — Prussia. 369 Lastly, an endeavour was made to train the whole nation to the use of arms. The services rendered by Prussia in the year 1813-15, were among the first fruits of this endeavour. In spite of numberless defects in administering and carrying out the details, based on these principles, a greater economy resulted than obtained in those parts of Germany where feudalism had sway, and where the indivisibility of landed property, and the rights of guilds were maintained. Social Coniition oj the newly-acquired Provinces. Hanover. — The former hereditary privileges of the nobility were abrogated in 1848, and not re-established when, in 1855, new privileges were granted. The right of manorial possession remains intact. There are 13,000 estates and farms of more than 75 acres. It was not until the year 1S31 that feudal obligations were declared redeemable, and then only for the value of 25 years. Notwithstanding this restriction redemptions have advanced rapidly. The fund for the redemption of domains alone had received ^2,634,792 up to the ist of July, 1863, by which about half of the rights of the domains had been redeemed. Manufacturing industry has only obtained any important impulse since about the year 1850. Schleswig-Holstein and Laucnburg. — A nobility exists in Schleswig- Holstein ; the number of families belonging to this class can only be increased by voluntary reception. This nobility possesses three convents, in which provision is made for their daughters. The estates of the nobility are about 300 in number, and still possess many privileges, but the nobles have lost their patrimonial right of administering justice. It is the peasantry of the marshes, who have never known bondage, who form the strength of the population. Education in Schleswig-Holstein is good ; scarcely any one is to be found unable to read and write. In Laucnburg, out of the 21 nobles' estates, 15 are still feudal. Both agriculture and the education of the people are here in a very low state of development. Professions and Callings. The population was divided into the following classes, 1867 : — Actually Employed Males Females a. Agriculture ... b. Forestry c. Fisheries d. Mining and ) Smelting... j e. Wholesale & j Retail In- j- dustries ... ) / Commerce ... 2,781,886 34,044 13,350 195,675 1,792,153 253,871 1,323,476 1,054 1,161 5,804 197,750 36,879 Belonging to those Actually Employed Males Females 2,829,748 14,592,330 30,983 13,626 148,469 62,784 25,106 278,336 1,172,596 2,275,744 176,289 I 363,455 Total Number 11,527,440 128,865 53,243 628,284 5,438,243 830,494 370 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. Actually Employed Belonging to those Actually Employed Total Number Males Females Males Females g. Traffic, in- \ eluding hotel- , 93>058 20,178 \ 99,649 186,366 399,251 keeping, etc... j //. Personal^ service ... | 440,304 642,100 351,737 663,051 2,097,192 . In care of the ) sick j 19,874 16,942 16,763 33,807 87,386 k. Education ... 57,755 14,649 53,410 100,657 226,471 /. Arts, literature 21,837 2,667 12,090 24,064 60,658 ni. Church affairs 1 & burials... j 28,844 1,489 18,670 46,441 95»444 n. The court ... 1,287 244 700 1,943 4,174 0. State affairs ... 38,223 144 29,097 67,693 135,157 p. Justice 29,023 19 19,106 43,996 92,144 q. Army 247,153 17 13,034 31,512 291,716 r. Navy 2,490 2 287 703 3,482 s. Administra- \ tion of com- ( munes and / corporations ) 37,673 333 36,322 73,112 147,440 t. Persons not j exercising V their calling ) 229,764 237,818 104,438 230,648 802,668 u. Persons not | stating their \ calling ... j 33,891 88,998 75,683 127,976 326,548 Total 6,528,941 2,596,652 5,341,492 9,503,856 23,970,941 The following table simplifies the above : — UNDER THE LETTER E COME— Actually Employed Belonging to those Actually Employed Total Number Males Females Males Females Owners of works) and masters \ of workmen ..) Foremen, assist- \ ants and ap- • prentices ... j 765,609 1,026,544 55,979 141,771 782,645 389,951 1,522,675 753,069 1 3,126,908 2,311,335 LNDER LETTER T— PERSONS NOT KXERCISINO THKIR CALl.INi;, VIZ. : Living on their \ r ■. 115,862 means j •^' Living on charity | • c II'?, 902 prisoners, &:c. j "^'-^ 119.413 118,405 78,094 I 190,292 26,344 I 40,354 503,663 299,005 Separate States of Germany — Prussia 37 1 The number of noble families in the old provinces about the year 1850 was estimated by Ledebur at 7,093 ; the number of persons of noble rank, by Dieterici, at 177,525. The number of monastic institutions has greatly increased. In 1855 the number was given as 69. In 1864 it had risen to 243, and in 1866 there were as many as 481 in the old provinces. The number of monks and nuns in 1855 was 976, and 5,259 in 1864. After the extension of territory in 1869 there existed 97 monasteries, with 740 monks and 236 novices and lay-brethren, altogether 976 persons, belonging to 14 different orders — viz., 30 Franciscan monasteries, with 182 monks and 113 novices; 14 Jesuit monasteries, with 123 brethren and 10 dependants ; 4 monasteries of Redemptionists, with 63 monks; 4 Dominican buildings, with 21 occu- pants, etc. Besides these there were 736 convents, with 5,086 nuns and 861 novices and lay-sisters, altogether 5,947 persons in 31 different orders, including the Franciscans or Sisters of Mercy, with their 95 convents, 715 sisters, and 53 novices; the Borromeans, with 94 establishments, 511 sisters of the order, 137 novices ; the Sisters of St. Vincent, with 84 con- vents, 447 sisters, and 21 novices, etc. Most of these institutions are in the diocese of Breslau. The annual income or returns of the Prussian nation has been esti- mated by the banker Samter, in Konigsberg, at ^395,070,000. The fol- lowing calculation was issued with regard to the several sources of it : — In 1872 the number of persons contributing towards this income was 8,900,000. The sums earned by them were in the following proportions : — Persons Per cent. Their Property or Earnings Per Head 7,251,927 ... equal 81.48 ... ^209,535,000 ... equal ^28 i,i97>399 — » 13-45 — 75>6i5,ooo ••• » 63 291,436 ... „ 3.27 ... 38,460,000 ... „ 132 159,238 ... „ 1.80 ... 71,460,000 ... „ 450 ^395>o70,ooo The united incomes of the 205 richest persons were stated to be ^3,750,000. The income in the first of the above category is rightly designated a poor one, the second as tolerable, the third as good, the fourth as ample. From the returns of the income-tax in this same year, 1872, it will be seen how the number of persons rated in the first class diminishes to rise very suddenly in the last class. The decline takes place almost regularly to the 1 8th degree (income ^3,600 — ^4,800). We find 17 persons who have ^36,000 income and upwards; of these 17, 4 lived in Berlin, 4 in the Government of Breslau, 3 in the Government of Liegnitz, 2 in Cologne, 2 in Wiesbaden, and i each in Miinster and Diisseldorf 111,129 persons altogether were chargeable with income-tax. Dr. Engel, in 1875, on the subject of income, states that — "The number of those whose yearly income is less than ^21, amounted,_in 1875, to 6,049,699, and if to this number the least wealthy of the arniy is added, the total of those who are exempt from the income-tax is 6,582,066 (including their families and households, the total would be 13,818,174)," " The number of those persons whose annual incomes vary from ^2 1 372 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. to ^150 are 4,850,791 ; their contribution towards the income tax being ;i^6oo,ooo. Of those whose income was above ^150 there were 139,556, contributing ;^i,433,937. Those subject to the income tax are grouped thus : — Income Persons Total Income Per Head From ^150 to ^240 79,464 ^14,745.795 £^^s II 240 „ 480 41,366 13,471, 380 325 13 480 ,, 960 12,305 7,898,100 641 17 960 „ 1,800 4,030 5,067,660 1,257 9 1,800 „ 3,600 i'655 4,102,950 2,479 I 3,600 „ 7,200 513 2,495,400 4,864 7 7,200 „ 15,000 163 1,603,800 9,888 19 15,000 „ 33,000 39 805,500 20,653 16 33>ooo „ 255,000 21 1,345,500 64,071 9 139,556 ^^51,536,085 Divide the total into three great categories thus : — Income Total Income ^^369 6 o Income Tax Under ^2 1 Up to 150 A higher income 6,582,066 4,850,791 I ^118,477,488 ... Free 198,821,410 ... ^2,100,000 ^39,556 ... 51,536,085 ... 1,433,937 87.86 per cent, therefore, are in needy circumstances; 11.62 per cent, belong to the class just above the needy ; 0.52 per cent, are those in pros- perous or affluent circumstances. The Income was Per Household Per Head In 1875 ;^367, 550,000 ... ^44 5 o ... ^14 19 o „ 1876 372,625,000 ... 44 o o ... 15 o o „ ^877-78 390,455,000 ... 45 2 o ... 15 8 o The number of those who are wealthy is small. In 1877-78 there were but 8,107 persons with an income exceeding ;^i,ooo. In Great Britain 10 years ago, there were 60,000, and in France 31,000. (b.) — Education and Moral Condition of the People. \\\ the year 1869 there were 595 situations for teachers, and 474 assistant teachers vacant, and in 940 cases, teachers who occupied situations were incom])etent. Teachers were badly jjaid ; even as lately as 1872, there were in the old provinces more than 20,000 with salaries less than ^30. For example, 1,926 had between ^7 lo^-. and ^15 ; 3,673 between ^15 and ^20 ; 4,680 between ^20 and ^22 \qs. ; 6,536 below ^'^.d los.., and 3,754 teachers with a salary less than -^30. I'he minimum salary in Jiavaria was formerly for a long time ^{^30, and has of late years been con- siderably augmented. It was not umil 1873 that /.'30 formed the minimum in Prussia. Out of 88,382 recruits enrolled in 1871-72, 3,oj9. or 3.4J had received no instruction, in fact, had not attended any school. Out ot' 12,708 from the province of Prussia, 1,180, ecjual to 9.22 per cent. Out of 14.632 from the province of Silesia, 489, equal to 3.43 ])cr cent. Out of 5,951 from the ],rovince of Posen, 928, etjual to 15.59 per cent, had attended school. ()ut of 7,230 from the province of Westphalia, 96, ecjual to 1.33 per cent. Out of 5,182 from the province of Pomerania, 60, equal to i.i6 per cent. Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 373 Far more favorable is the proportion shewn in Hanover, viz., 0.40 ; Hcsse- Nassnu, 0.53: Saxony, 0.55; I'randenburg, 0.65 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 0.72 ; the Rhine rrovinces, o.So ; The men from the Plains of Hohenzollern and those from Lauenburg had all attended school. Popular education was, therefore, far less satisfactory in the old provinces than the new. There were 212 Gymnasia in the State in 1873, ^^'^'^ of 2,664 of the scholars who presented themselves for final examination, 2,541 passed it. Of these 232 devoted themselves to Protestant theology, 279 to the Catholic, 600 to the study of law, 47 to affairs of the State, 467 to medi- cine, 314 to philology. II to mathematics and natural science, and 488 entered no university. Of these last, 107 joined the army, 139 devoted themselves to architecture, 13 to mining, 158 to the postal and forest ser- vice, and 71 to agriculture and industries. In 1879 there were 60 Prussian cities and towns with a population over 20,000. In 16 only of these is instruction given, in the public elementary schools, free of charge to the children ; these are Berlin, Breslau, Konigsberg, Dantzic, Altona, Elber- feld, Crefeld, Posen, Erfurt, Kiel, Flensburg, Miinchen-Gladbach, Rem- scheid, Konigshiitte, Hagen, and Nordhausen. There are 4,495,040 children attending school. Of 2,938,679 attending the elementary schools, 2,509,482 are instructed in the German language, 384,475 in the Polish, 17,156 in the Lithuanian, 1,344 in the Wendish, 9,917 in the Moravian, 1,895 in the Walloon, 1,745 in the Bohe- mian, and 568 in the Dutch language. The recruits for land and sea service in 1877 numbered 84,675. Of these 76,714 had been educated in the German language, and 5,475 i" their own foreign mother tongue, while 2,506, equal 2.96 per cent., were wholly uneducated. Of this last number, 1,048 individuals were from the Province of Prussia, 790 from Posen, 353 from Silesia, 71 from Pomerania, 59 from the Rhine Provinces, 54 from Brandenburg, 41 from Westphalia, 32 from Hanover, 26 from Saxony, 16 from Schleswig, and 16 from Hesse- Nassau, from Hohenzollern none. Education of Prussian Soldiers. The number of men drafted into the army and navy in the years 1878 and 1879 ^vas 86,489. Of this number there were only 2,265 who had not received a common school education, while 78,611 had been educated in elementary German schools, and 5,613 in schools for Polish or other non-German speaking children. The largest proportion of uneducated recruits came from the old Polish province of Posen, where 11. 18 per cent, were illiterate. West Prussia furnished 10.2, and East Prussia 7.54 per cent, of uneducated recruits. Excluding the small province of Hohenzollern, the best educated province was Schleswig-Holstein, where only 0.25 per cent, were without elementary education. The per centages of uneducated soldiers in the other provinces were — In Hesse-Nassau, 0.30 ; Rhine-Land, 0.35 ; Saxony, 0.40; Brandenburg, 0.44 ; Hanover 0.53; Westphalia, 0.58; Pomerania, 0.85 ; Silesia, 2.1. In the 66 towns which have established grammar schools and higher middle-class schools, the cost of maintenance amounts to ;;/^263,400, about 54 per cent, of which is met by the school money. In the 52 cities and towns which have Gymnasia, the cost of their maintenance amounts to ;!^2iS,8oo, only 51 per cent, of which is covered by school money. 374 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 31 •• • 3>799 • • 75,959 34 • 281 4,154 80 .. 1,420 31,680 17 • 325 • 6,898 92 844 . 17,086 The middle-class schools stood thus in the winter session of 1875-76 — Institutions Teachers Scholars Gymnasia... Pro-gymnasia Grammar schools, ist class „ „ 2nd „ Higher middle schools ... Another step has recently been taken by the Government in the direc- tion of multiplying and improving the means of technical education. In addition to other high schools of industry lately established, like the School of Textile Manufactures at Crefeld, and the School of Metallic Manufactures and Industry at Iserlohn, it has been resolved to add to the existing technical school in Aix-la-Chapelle a new department, constituting in itself a complete high school of mines, and in the Budget for 1880 a vote of money has been included for the purpose of carrying out the scheme, which will include a complete staff of teachers, and a metallurgical laboratory, which, when finished, will be one of the most perfect in Europe. The proportion of members of various creeds — In gymnasia ... Pro-gymnasia Grammar schools, ist class.. _ „ „ 2nd „ .. Higher middle schools There are nine universities, viz. — Berlin, Bonn, Breslau, Gottingen Greifswald, Halle, Kiel, Konigsberg, and Marburg ; one Catholic theolo- gical college in Miinster, and a lyceum in Brunswick. rotestants Catholics Jews Per cent. Per cent. Per cent 69-73 .. 20.15 . 10.12 49.11 •• 39.31 . . 11.58 79.76 .. 11.44 . .. 8.80 75-84 . 6.71 . •• 17-45 80.74 ... 14.18 . .. 5.08 I Criminal Statistics. 988 sentences of death were passed in the 37 years from 1818-54, giving an average of 26.49. I'^e smallest number was in 1841, viz. 14 ; the largest in 1851, viz., 60. These 988 may be classified as follows :- — equal to 40.89 per cent. 13-87 „ 13.16 12.55 9.72 • „ 5.26 „ y, 3-24 M 1. 21 „ „ O.IO „ 286 i:)crsons condemned were really executed. In the three years 1855-57, when capital punishment was considered to be based upon Holy Writ, 158 sentences of death were passed, and 73 executions were carried out. In the years 1858-60, there were loi sentences and 11 executions. The number of trials in — ^01 • murder 404 . manslaughter 137 - murder with robbery . 130 . child murder 124 . incendiarism 96 . robbery 52 - false coining 32 . high treason 12 duelling I Separate States of Germany— Prussia. 375 1859 i860 1861 For crime 10,116 ... 10,581 ... 11,512 „ misdemeanor ... 110,069 ... 115,719 ... 1135277 Transgressing the laws... 203,384 ... 186,425 ... 174,151 Breaking the forest laws 472,266 ... 464,437 ... 436,5^4 During the six years 1854-59, the number of persons accused belonged to the various provinces in the following proportion — In Silesia one in 1,759 of the population „ Prussia ... ... ... ... ,, 1,876 „ Posen „ 2,121 „ Brandenburg ... ... ... ,, 2,521 „ Saxony „ 3,380 „ Pomerania „ 3,487 „ Westphalia „ 4,041 „ Rhine Provinces ... ... ... „ 4,294 The proportion according to creeds was one accused in so many of the population. 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 Protestants, one in ... 2,183 ••• 2,058 ... 2,878 ... 3,465 ... 3,521 Catholics, „ ... 1,949 ... 1,828 ... 2,752 ... 3,430 ... 3,268 Dissenters, „ ... 2,710 ... 1,551 ... 3,879 ... 2,586 ... 5,132 Jews „ ... 2,700 ... 2,692 ... 2,232 ... 2,891 ... 2,956 A new enquiry instituted for the following years gave the following results : — iS6g 1870 1871 1872 Felony and misdemeanor 128,031 ... 112,841 ... 88,233 ••• 102,077 Transgressions 188,079 ••• 168,869 ••• i77,402 ... 204,877 Wood stealing ... ••• 402,532 ... 396,414 ... 442,081 ... 386,883 718,642 ... 678,124 ... 707,716 ... 693,837 1873 1874 1S75 1876 Felony and misdemeanor 104,878 ... 120,400 ... 120,900 ... 133,734 Transgressions ... ... 220,445 ... 258,691 ... 264,613 ... 296,788 Wood stealing 327,079 ... 358,020 ... 355,405 ... 403>5i3 652,402 ... 737,111 ... 740,918 ... 834,035 The increase in all punishable offences has been steadily advancing. Among those accused of felony there were : — 1873 1874 1875 1876 Of men 10,912 .. 11,903 . .. IT, 341 . .. 12,184 „ women ... 4,447 • 2,711 . 2,600 2,770 „ individuals under ( 18 years ... { 903 • 1,025 . 952 . 1,059 Accused of misdemeanors — Of men 106,458 . .. 118,926 . •• 125,537 . .. 126,652 „ women ... 22,241 .. 25,002 . .. 25,927 . .. 26,930 „ individuals under ) 18 years ... j 7>3ii • 9,627 . .. 8,626 . .. 9,780 n^ Separate States vi Germany — Prussia. The proportion according to creeds was one accused in so many of the population in 1873. Protestants ... ... ... ... ... ... ... one in 4,475 Catholics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... „ 3,926 Dissenters ... ... ... ... ... .-. ... no return.s Jews 3.391 {c.) — Condition of the Mining and Smelting Industries The number of mines in the years 1872-76 was as follows ;- Mines 1872 1873 18-4 1875 1876 Coal 476 ... 506 .. 501 .. 474 •• 448 Lignite ... 544 ••• 577 •• • 549 •• 536 .. 553 Iron ore ... ... 1,559 ... 1,539 •• . 1,121 .. 912 .. 737 Zinc ore . . . ... 8. y 130 ' 39 1 Lead 262 .. 262 ... 240 ... 232 Copper ... Gold and silver ... I ... I .. I ... I ... I Cobalt ... I ... I .. I ... I ... I Manganese 46 ) Sulphur ... ... 1 7. ">- 79 •• 92 ... 80 ... 74 Vitriol ore ... 5 ) Total 2,896 ... 2,965 ... 2,527 ... 2,244 2,046 THE TOTAL PRODUCTION AND WORTH OF THE ^fINES. Number C->vts Value of Workmen In 1872 832,401,776 ■ ^17,323,528 . 225,936* )! 1873 902,989,420 22,958,301 )J 1^74 887.955,999 •• 21,480,126 239,841 JJ i'^75 912,713,350 17,449,542 • 235,511 ,, 1876 948.211,648 16.018.964 236.335 SALT MINES. Mines Product in r-vts. Value In 1872 there were 3 ' 9,429.636 ... ^390.242 ,, 1873 32 3,822,574 257,300 ', 1874 31 4,315,664 292,117 11 1875 30 4,308,511 280,198 ?' 1876 3 = ... 4,487,858 281,010 The estimated rcceii)ts for the produce of the coal, metallic, and salt inmes for 1880 are ;j^2, 400,000. Considerable com])laints were made in 1879 that the salt mines, on which ^225,000 had been expended during the past ten years, produced this year only ;;^4,9oo, the capitalized value of the salt mines being Together with their families they number — 1S72 1874 18-5 396,854 416,686 424,673 434,204 separate States of Germany — Prussia. ^77 estimated at ^(£'750,000. In the coal mines of Upper Silesia women are still largely employed ; the number at the last enumeration being about 5,500 most of whom were young Polish women and girls. SMELTING WORKS. The number of furnaces in— 1872 1873 1874 Was... 332 ... 346 ... 348 1875 338 1S75 338 PRODUCE OF THE IRON AND STEEL WORKS, Unwrought iron Cast iron wares Rod iron Steel ... •ii-3 j" cwts. 3i,.f"8.o'!i \ £ 9,^-.:8S ( cwts. 7,184,583 ) £ 4,355>4r8 cwts. 19,541,724 ^12,610,215 cwts. 6,078,778 1874 1875 25,605,370 - 27,966,730 .^5,75o>294 ;a^5>374,S24 ■1 6,644,889 i^3>495>79i 21,840,485 1876 26,486,773 £4,367,898 6,593>39i 5>953,457 ;^3'5i6,5o9 £2,848,172 ^9.905. 214 i7!975»379 £10,685,512 ;^7,844,3oi £6,232,394 7,435>7o4 I 7,022,094 7,388,91. ( £ 4.87i,755 i;^4,623,533 U;3,64i,92i £3,424,481 TOTAL ANNUAL PRODUCE AND VALUE OF THE SMELTING WORKS. Produce Number of cwts. Value Workmen 1873 64,253,126 - £Z^.9'^Z^']1 122,445 1874 61,526,448 ••• ' 24,555,132 121,792 1875 61,487,429 20,377,256 117,514 1876 57,804,523 16,872,947 103,644 Iron and steel manufactured for railways — Iron Steel Total cwts. cwts. cwts. In 1872 4,241,414 2.980,218 7,221,632 „ 1873 5,136,279 3'396,927 8,533,206 ,' 1374 5,072,754 4,513,855 9,586,60c; „ 1875 2,815,623 4,566,045 . 7,381,66? ., 1876 1,254,025 4,790,522 6,044,547 The number of miners employed, and the number of those whc perished in their occupation was in — Number of workmen •,. . ' — Of these were killed ... 19^ Of the above numbers were — Coal miners ... ... 68,734 Of whom were kiliel ... 11^ The average number of workmen killed annually throughout the 12 years, 1853-64 was 1.9 per i, 000. IS59 107,749 207 108,901 211 1861 115,899 228 64,454 154 64,185 150 67,720 167 37 S Separate States of Germany — Prussia. The numbers in the six years, 1865-70, were — 1865 18C6 1867 1868 1869 1870 Workmen 149,130 148,155 181,503 186,907 192,290 183,532 Of these were killed 344 346 420 490 450 469 Of the above numbers were — Coal miners ... 88,514 90,085 103,. 76 i 5,959 1115179 107,687 Of these were killed 246 251 23 372 319 339 The average weight of coal produced by each miner during the five years, 1865-69, was 13.93 ^^wts. daily, or 4,179 cwts. annually, and every 1,409,214 cwts. produced, cost one human life, and one accidental death occurred among every 337 men. In proportion to the number of miners this was more favourable than in England, but in proportion to the number of cwts. it was far less favourable than in England. In 1870 the average throughout all the mining in Prussia was one man killed in 391, and for every 1,418,444 cwts. of the value of ^21,805. Taking the pit-coal miners separately there were 45 1 deaths out of 159,600 employed, equal to i in 354 ; in the lignite mines there were 48 deaths out of 19,322 employed, equal to i in 403 ; in the iron mines 91 out of 53,657 employed, equal to i in 590 ; in the mining of other metals 10 out of 8,226, equal to i in 823. In 1874 every 1,319,780 cwts. of coal of the value of;2^34,855 cost one human life. In England one life was lost for every 2,665,020 cwts. produced. In 1876 the loss of life among miners generally was 2.491 out of every 1,000. One death occurred in the produce of — Cwts. Value Pit coal ... ... 1,532,221 ... ... ^25,140 Lignite -3,743,801 32,740 Iron... ... ... 808,681 33-'87 Agriadiure. English Sqr. Miles Of arable land and gardens there arc... ... ... 68,338 ,, meadow and pasture land ... ... ... ... 24,902 „ forest 315514 „ water ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,707 „ waste land ... ... ... ... ... ... 130 126,591 About 66^ square miles are planted with the vine, of which 465- square miles are in the eight old ])rovinces, 39^- in the government of Coblentz, 15^- in Treves, five in Liegnitz, in Nassau 11 square miles, and the remainder in the former electorate of Hesse, and in Meisenheim, (Homburg). The number of landed proprietors in the State, in the year 1861 (that is, in the old territory) was divided into five classes, according to the amount of their acreage. ■ Number of Aggregate Proprietors Acreage 1. Those possessing 379 acres and upwards 18,289 ••• 25,271,442 2. „ between '^ 189 „ 379 iS^o?^ ... 3.S35.456 3. „ » 18 „ 189 SQi'S*'^^ ... 22,100,908 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. 379 Number of Aggregate Proprietors Average 4. Those between 3 acres and 18 617,374 ... 5)338,7°° 5. „ under 3 „ 1,099,161 ... 1,403,494 2,141,486 ... 57,950,000 The State is included among the landed proprietors. The domains embrace (according to the calculation of that period, which differs but slightly from the present one), 723,520 acres. The State forests 5,112,914 acres. The separate possessions of the same landowner are always reckoned together, when they are in one commune. The least populous provinces contain the largest estates. More than half of the small estates are in the Rhine Province, which is by far the most densely peopled. The sum total of the produce, therefore, is com- paratively highest where there is no obstruction to the divisibihty of the land. If the large estate sometimes has the advantage of more scientific management, of being worked with superior implements, and of having a larger amount of capital expended upon it ; yet these advantages are practically counterbalanced by the capital of work, which the smaller proprietor possesses, not only in his own strength, but in that also of his family, whose services he can control. The great advantages which, undoubtedly, result from pecuniary capital, applied to large estates, are rarely realized ; for example, the lien on 80 per cent, of all the estates of the nobility in the province of Prussia, during even the prosperous years 1820-30, were so heavy, as practically to constitute a sequestration of them. Out of 1,600 estates of large landed proprietors, in old East and West Pomerania, 1,300 were set up for public sale. There is abundant proof that not the divisibility, but the aggregation of large parcels of land constitutes a serious drawback to the wealth ot nations. Prussia ... ... ... contains 19.3 per Bi-centum of the whole Posen Brandenburg... Pomerania ... Silesia Saxony Westphalia ... Rhine Provinces 200.3 The extent of forest has by no means diminished where the population is densest, except in Brandenburg and Saxony, where the converse obtains. Tobacco. In 1873, 21,076 acres were planted with tobacco. In 1876, only 12,876 acres, of which 4,737 acres were in Brandenburg, 2,507 in Pome- rania, 1,170 in the Rhine Provinces, 995 in West Prussia, 884 in Hanover, 884 in Saxony, and 675 in Silesia. Forest Lands contains 19-3 21.6 32-3 18.8 29.7 20.0 27.9 30-7 38o Separate States of Germany — Prussia. The nuiT lier of horses )) mules asses horned cattle 5) sheep )5 5) 51 pigs goats bee-hives ... dogs Uve Stock in iSy,'?. includini: the military were The number of households possessing cattle in 1873 was Those occupied in agriculture Those not so occupied 2,278,724 934 8,774 8,612,150 19,624,758 4,728,531 1,477,335 1,453,764 1,622,738 1,491,301. 1,479,195 The State of Industry. The financial need of the State after the ])attle of Jena, rendered necessary the introduction of a tax on industry, and in order that the pro- ceeds might be the larger, free trade in manufactured goods was introduced at the same time. It was a double blow to the privileged classes, who had now to meet the competition which thus arose, and to pay besides a special tax. The alteration was, nevertheless, beneficial to the State, and all partial limitations which the reaction produced, have proved to be injurious. The manufacturing population in the old provinces, has increased less than might have been expected, if we compare the census of 1841 with that of 1861. In the list of artisans there is, however, absolutely an increase, but relatively a decrease. The number of actual artisans and skilled mechanics 1S45 I54'> «S55 1858 384,783 4o7'T4i 447,542 454,088 507,198 542,044 Masters or persons working on their |- 457,315 535,232 553,107 548,296 545^034 55^,324 own account ... ) Assistants and aj)- prentices This shews a greater increase in the number of assistants than in that of the masters. The returns of 1875 shew different results. The number of persons employed in business is 3,625,918 ; 2,2^.6,959 in a small way of business, equal to 61.97 per cent., and 1,378,958 in large way of business, eijual to 38.03 per cent. They may be thus divided : — In a small way of business. Proprietors and directors Assistants and ai)i)rentices ... In large concerns. Proprietors and directors Emj)loyed in mercantile and technical business Workmen over 16 years of age „ under 16 ., 1,301,412 males 550,515 >> 48,633 males 66,923 „ 1,007,295 „ 61,552 ,. 329,067 females 65,956 1,576 females 1,814 „ 167,931 23,235 '> Separate States oj Gennany —Prussia 381 Steam Etigities. 423 of 7,513 horse-power 2,832 „ 92,462 8,685 .> 365.631 28,370 „ 645,559 Power in 1875. Horse Power In 1837 there were only )) 1852 5? )> >) i860 ,, )) )> 1875 " )) Machines and thi ,7> Motive Motive Power In Use I. Animal 5.337 2. Wind : {a.) windmills 13,499 ip.) Dutch windmills 3,714 3' Water 21,802 4- Steam : (a.) stationary ... 25,998 (1^.) locomotive ... 3,080 5- Gas ... 579 6. Hot air ... 170 53,996 29,712 191.677 ... 628,849 27,314 805 290 932,643 Within the last 1 1 years there has been an increase of 20,476 machines, equal to 259 per cent., and 477,766 horse-power, equal to 285 per cent. Breweries. The number of breweries in the year 187 1 was — trade breweries, 8,326, of which 7,598 were at work; other than trade breweries, 2,727. The quantity of beer produced was in (imperial gallons) — 1870 18-1 1872 1877-78 166,997,319 188,472,517 213,881,866 312,381,251 Railways. In the year 1844 there existed only 530 miles, of which 83^ were double lines ; the proceeds, 5-.oi per cent. In 1847 the length of line was 1,106 miles ; at the end of 1855 it had increased to 2,357 miles ; average expense per mile in 1847 was ^52,108, but in 1855, when there were 658 miles of double line, the average expense per mile was jQ62,']']2. At the end of 1864 there were 4,737 miles at work. At the end of — Miles. 1873 1874 1S75 I 76 1877 1878 1879 Length of State 1 3 ^^^^^ ^^S^,^ 8 3,067 3,533 railways... ... j ' ^ Comimnies' railways I 8 ^^^g^ ^^g.. ^^^^^ ,^^4, ,^,^5 worked by the .State J Companies' railways 4,591 4,835 5,584 6,013 5,837 5,856 *6,o77 Total length 8,557 8,823 9,868 10,672 11,017 11,065 11,785 * And 21 miles on Prussian soil, though not belonging to Prussian railway 382 Separate States of Germany — Prussia. LENGTH OF DOUBLE LINES- —MILES. 1873 1S74 1875 1876 1877 State railways 1,282 1,290 1,500 1,617 1,622 Companies' railways { worked by the State | 507 565 585 588 613 Companies' railways... 1,530 1,502 1,756 1,763 1,768 Total lenooo 45,522,000 120,656,000 1877 ;j^62,66i,ooo 52,629,000 120,179,000 ^225,722,000 ^235,469,000 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 J878 1879' Total Revenue ^24,451,888 25,780,617 27,541,688 27,660,524 27,204,296 27,564,300 27,500,000 Total Expenditure ;^i5.994,305 17,977,571 16,767,849 16,167,713 15,876,432 15,876,435 15,500,000 Year 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 Total number of Passengers carried. 99,629,719 100,570,671 115,293,065 116,452,115 114,804,613 Weight of Goods carried — Tons. 87,386,180 85,979,467 80,277,856 91,354,247 92,557,541 During the year 1872, there were- First class passengers Second ,, ,, 'i'liird „ „ Fourth „ „ 1,433,755 i3'593,622 43^096,477 25,025,280 * This givLS j(^ 12,000,000 for tlistrihution ainon^ the sliaivlioklLTs, and is, equivalent to an average dividend of 4.9 per cent, on tiie capital invested. Separate States of Germany — Saxony. 383 Accidents. To PassenRers T 3 Empl oyes To others Killed Wounded Killed Wounded Killed Wounded 1873 ••• ... II ... 127 ••• 314 988 .. 176 ... 81 1874... ... 7 - 55 ... 320 1,076 .. 191 ... 84 1875 .. 13 41 ... 266 1,089 180 ... 74 IS76.. 8 - 45 220 794 ... 170 ... 93 1877.. ... 14 62 ... 178 659 ... 163 ... 67 1878.. ... 12 ... 46 Total No . of Passengers Killed Wounded Carrie d for one Accident 1873 501 I 196 58,709 1874 518 I 215 63,226 1875 462 I 223 68,523 1876 398 932 73,938 1877 363 I ^15 75,629 The cause in 8 of the fatal cases, and in 1 6 of those not fatal, was im- prudence or want of caution in entering or alighting from the carriages. The deaths were only one in every 9,500.000 passengers, and the cases of injury one in every 2,500,000 passengers. This is an improvement as regards travelling on the Prussian railways. The average of the five previous years gave one passenger killed in every 5,750,000 conveyed, and one injured in 1,250,000 passengers. Of railway servants and officials there was an accident in 1879 (last year) to one in every 171, and one in every 120 among the railway labourers. 93 persons attempted suicide by laying themselves on the line, and 86 of these cases ended fatally. Savings' Banks. At the end of 1869 there were 458 savings' banks in the towns and 350 in the circuits, with deposits amounting to ;!^2 3,558,684. In 1875 there were 1,004 savings' banks, 2,209,101 deposit books, and deposits amounting to ^166,811, 661. The amount of individual deposits shows that the savings' banks are made use of by those in good circumstances as well as by the poorer classes. SAXONY, (Kingdom) 1. 2. 3- 4- Circles Dresden Leipzic Zwickau Bautzen Total Area in English square miles, ... 1,674 ... ... 1,377 — ... 1,782 ... 951 ... — 5,784 ... Population Males 368,701 ... 316,462 ... 504,493 ... 162,653 ... in IJ79. Females. 380,802 323-513 527,412 176550 1,352,309 - 1,408,277 Total. 749,503 639,975 1,031,905 339,203 2,760,586 384 Separate States of Geruiatiy — Saxony. Prefedships of the Four Circles, and their population, 1875. Dresden Pirna Dippoldiswalde Freiberg Meissen Grossenhain... add City of Dresden Leipzic Borna Grimma / Oschatz p5beln Rochlitz l^add Town of Leipzic Chemnitz 'Fl5ha Marienberg ... Annaberg Schwarzenberg •I Zwickau t Plauen Auerbach Oelsnitz Schoub Wd Town of Chemnitz 'Zittau Lobau 4- " Bautzen Ivamenz Among the population of 1875 there 333 pla-<^£S ; there were 130,759 members 35,230 foreigners. The preponderance of females over and in 1875 55,968. 140,816 107,367 50,497 105,133 86,668 61,727 197,295 132,643 66,428 76,467 50,600 96,842 89,608 127,387 138,578 73,708 55,667 82,346 77,977 169,741 99,023 68,644 50,479 137,711 78,209 94,368 92,632 97,188 55,015 were 50,737 Wends scattered in of other Confederate States, and the males, in 1871, was 58,646, POPULATION OF FORMER YEARS. In 1834 1,595,668 In 1861 2,225,240 „ 1840 1,706,276 „ 1864 2,337,192 „ 1849 1,894,431 „ 1867 ... 2,423,586 „ 1852 ... 1,988,078 „ 1871 2,556,244 „ 1855 ... 2,039,176 „ 1875 ... 2,760,586 „ 1858 ... 2,122,902 MOVEMENT OF THE POPULATION. Year Births Illegitimate Still Births Deaths Marriages 1865 1866 1867 100,785 104,156 98,180 15,925 16,459 M,399 1 4,4'3 ' 74,939 4,5''^3 78,110 4,166 , 71,015 22,087 18,888 22,077 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. 385 Year Births Illegitimate Still Births Deaths Marriages 1868 102,687 14,437 4,469 72,718 23,939 1869 105,107 14,409 4,595 73,287 23,778 1870 108,735 15,126 4,820 72,804 21,035 1871 100,319 13,610 4,463 83,116 21,547 1872 114,899 15,060 4,955 81,968 26,140 1873 119.125 i6,6oi 4,858 81,891 27,807 1874 123,749 16,254 5,206 81,011 27,190 1875 125,188 ■5,865 5,150 87,555 29,086 1876 126,361 5,456 78,121 26,606 1877 124,907 4,969 81,890 24,919 1878 123,045 5,140 81,891 24,797 Immigration and Emigration. As all information, respecting the number of secret emigrations, is wanting, the following gives but an incomplete summary. The number of those officially received and discharged, were as under — Received Discharged Received Dischana;ed 1865 2,367 649 1871 730 239 ib66 1,768 503 1872 1,337 217 1867 1,495 593 1873 1,538 268 186S 814 562 1874 2,221 225 1869 471 451 1875 1,670 231 1870 399 330 1876 1,461 184 Lutherans Reformed Church Anglicans Roman Catholics German Catholics Members of various Creeds in 1875 ... 2,664,341 9,851 713 73,349 1,876 Greek Catholics Jews Others No returns 588 5,360 4,077 431 Infirm. In 1871 there were 2,064 Wind persons, 1,684 deaf mutes, 3,781 idiots and 2,344 insane. Notes on To7vn and Country Population. In 1871 the towns (142) were inhabited by 1,013,094 persons — that is rather more than 39.66 per cent. In the country there were 1,542,340 persons — not quite 60.33 per cent. The increase in the towns was but little more than that in the country from 1855-58, whilst it was even less from 1852-55 ; but from 1858-61 the increase in the towns was at the rate of 6.27 per cent, and in the country at the rate of 4.06. From 1861-64 it was 8.33 in the towns, and only 3.10 in the country; from 1864-67, 5.38 in the towns, 2.67 in the country ; from 1867-71 it was 8.09 in the towns, and 3.63 in the country ; the increase in the military force in the towns contributed somewhat to this. Out of an increase of 89,108 persons 2 B 386 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. between 1864-67, 29,472 belonged to the three towns of Dresden, Leipsic, and Chemnitz, and only 18,276 to all the other towns put together. The population of the three towns just mentioned was increased by no fewer than 45,690 persons during the four years, 1867 and 1871 ; that of the other towns by 32,572 ; and that of the open country by 54,396 persons. The 142 towns in Saxony in 1875 contained a population of 1,109, 175. The following are the principal towns in the four circles : — I. — DRESDEN. 1. Dresden 197,295 9- Riesa 5,747 2. Freiburg 23,559 10. Deuben 5,259 3. Meissen 13,002 II. Konigstein ... 3,750 4. Grossenhain 10,686 12. Neustadt 3,252 5. Pirna 10,581 13- Dippoldiswalde 3,172 6. Lobtau 6.248 14. Schandau ... 3,111 7. Sebnitz 5,908 15- Lommalzsch 3,081 8. Radeberg ... 5,894 16. Tharandt 2,554 2. — LEIPZIC. I. Leipzic 127,387 II. Schonefeld ... 7,220 2. Reudnitz ",64s 12. Waldheim ... 7,151 3. Dobeln 10,969 13- Leisnig 7,045 4. Lindenau ... 9,823 14. Gohlis 7,013 5. Mittweida ... 9,093 15- Rosswein ... 6,968 6. Hainichen ... 8,468 16. Borna 6,081 7. Volkmarsdorf 8,384 17- Penig 5,950 8. Wurzen 8,165 18. Rochlitz 5,761 9. Grimma 7,273 19. Connewitz ... 5,353 10. Oschatz 7,243 20. Neuschonefeld 5,292 3.— zw ICKAU. I. Chemnitz .. 78,209 18. Marienberg ... • 5,956 2. Zwickau .. 31,491 19. Oederan . 5,836 3. Plauen .. 28,756 20. Kirchberg • 5,761 4. Glauchau ... 21,743 21. Hobenstein ... . 5,726 5. Meerane ... 21,277 22. Lossnitz 5,725 6. Crimmitzschau ... 17,649 23- Oelsnitz . 5,685 7. Reichenbach... 14,620 24. Buchholz • 5,655 8. Annaberg .. 11,725 25- Treuen . 5,409 9. Werdau 11,689 26. Niederplanitz . 5,288 10. Frankenberg . . . 10,462 27. Gelenau . 5,284 II. Schneeburg ... ... 8,074 28. Auerbach • 5,277 12. Zschopau 8,045 29. Schcdewitz ... 5,201 13. Schlosscheninitz 7,125 30. Falkenstein ... 5,146 14. T.imbach 6,879 31- Schonheide ... • 5'072 15. Gablenz 6,820 32. Lengenfeld ... 4,894 16. Eibenstock ... - 6,553 3j- Lichtcnslein ... 4,862 17. StoUbcrg .. 6,326 34- Markneukirchen 4,621 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. 38/ 4. — BAUTZEN. I. Zittau ... 20,417 5. Lobau 6,226 2, Bautzen ... 14,709 6. Grosshonau ... ... 5,877 3- Kamenz ... 6,784 7. Bischofswerda 4,022 4- Seifhennersdorf ... 6,366 The population of Dresden ... in 1813 ... was 41,218 M Leipzic ... in 1819 , 36,093 » Chemnitz ... „ ... . , Division of the Land. , 10,835 English sq. miles State Domains ... ... 37 State Forests .. 592 Church and school property 122 Communal property .. 158 Land within the towns 18 Private property* ... .. 919 Remaining land .. 3.938 Total 5,784 Territorial Changes. Electoral Saxony in 1786 Electoral Circle (Wittenberg, etc.) ... Circle of Ihuringia (Wassenfels, Langensal Circle of Meissen (Dresden, Torgan) Circle of Leipzic Circle Erzgebing (Freiberg, (Chemnitz) Circle of Voigtland (Plauen, Ruchenbach) Circle of Neustadt ... Bishoprics of Merseburg, Namenburg, and Principality of Querfurt Part of the County of Henneberg (Suhla) . „ „ Mansfeld (Eisleben), Counties of Barby and Gourmem ... Lausitz (with Gorlitz, Lamban, etc.) Total za) Zeitz ng. sq. miles Population 1.360 .. 130,000 765 •• 165,000 1,467 .. 300,000 978 .. 210,000 1,786 .. 308,000 446 ) 276/- 95,000 467 ... 66,000 172 ... 20,000 172 ... — 86 .. — 3,847 •.. 400,000 11,822 ... 1,694,000 Saxony withdrew from the Prussian Confederation after the Battle of Jena. In accordance with the Treaty of Posen, concluded December ii, 1806, the Elector joined the Confederacy of the Rhine, declared himself King, and received the Circle of Cotbas from Prussia ; in return for which he gave up Mansfeld, Goumern, and Barby to Westphalia. He was also made Duke of Warsaw, which, however, formed a separate State. The Congress of Vienna was several times on the point of leaving Saxony entirely to Prussia, but at length arranged a division. Saxony was obliged, by the Treaty of May i8th, 1815, to give up to Prussia, Lower and part of Belonging to the nobility (941 estates). 388 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. Upper Lausitz, the Circles of Wittenberg and Thuringia, part of the Circles of Neustadt, Leipzic, and Meissen, the greater part of the Bishoprics of Merseburg, Naumberg, and Zeitz, and the districts of Voigtland and Henneberg. Weimar obtained the greater part of the Circle of Neustadt. The total loss amounted to 7,768 scjuare miles of territory, with a popula- tion of 875,600 souls. By the peace concluded at Berlin, October 21, 1866, after the war of that year, Saxony was secured from any direct cession of territory, though she was compelled to pay a war contribution amount- ing to ;^i,5oo,ooo. Of this sum ^150,000 was defrayed by the cession of that i)art of the Silesian Railway which runs through Prussian territory. She had also to consent to the giving up of the fortress of Konigstein to a Prussian garrison, and to an unconditional entrance into the North German Confederation. The present Constitution dates from September 4, 1831. Finance. (Biennial, formerly triennial Budget.) Those of recent years are as follows : — Annual For 1858-60 ^1,404,786 „ 1861-63 1,853^452 „ 1864-66 2,048,847 „ 1867-69 2,005,658 „ 1870-71 1,897,789 „ 1872-73 2,062,937 „ 1874-75 2,374,645 „ 1876-77 2,692,848 Extraordinary ;£"i,i84,o32 for the 3 years 786,398 1,128,390 „ 1,052,601 „ 1,194,000 for the 2 years 2,674,617 „ 4,174,617 „ 8,252,390 „ We give the details of one financial year — viz., that of 1874-75: — Revenue. A. — EMPLOYMENT OF STATE PROPERTY. (i.) Domains and other possessions, including forests and the chase (2.) Royalties and institutions for communication, including State railroads ... (3.) Interest and revenue from administrations, including inte- rest of capital, surplus from lottery, deductions from pay for the pension fund ... ... ... ^394,571 939,432 318,319 ^1,652,322 B. — TAXES AND DUES. Land tax, ^^254,139; industrial and personal taxes, ^,264,900; slaughter duly and dues on receipts for imperial taxes, ;^86,838; stamp tax, ^"67,275 miscellaneous, ^49'i7i == 722,323 'iotal revenue •;^2,374,645 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. 389 Expenditure. A. — GENERAL STATE EXPENDITURE. (1.) Hoyal Household: Civil list, ^106,500 ; Queen's privy purse, ^4,500 ; appanages, ^28,674 ; maintenance of the public collections belonging to the State, ^9,571 = £'^A%'^A^ (2.) Debt: Interest, ^^65 3,61 7 ; paymentof debt, ^227,209= 880,826 (3.) Interest on unredeemable capital ... 18,588 (4.) Redemption of debts not belonging to the domains, and compensations ... ... ... .•• ••• ••• Ij5°° (5.) Expense of Diet 7>702 (6.) General affairs of the Government 2,925 B. Ministers and officials .., ... 6,909 c. Department of Justice i53»462 D. Home Department ... ... ... ... ••• 284,465 E. Finance Department ... ... ••• 87,667 F. Religion and public education 209,853 G. Foreign Office _ 8,319 H, Contribution to Imperial expenditure 220,802 I. Pension list ... ... ••• ••• 46,447 K. Buildings i97)8i7 L. Reserve fund 11,243 Total expenditure £2,2Zi,iio In the extraordinary expenditure for this year there occur the fol- lowing sums : — ^60,000 for completing the State Theatre in Dresden £zi,ooo for the completion of the draining of the deep moat of Freiberg into the Elbe ; ^363,000 for barracks in and near Dresden. Of the share of Saxony in the French contribution of war, ;^37,65i were expended in assisting members of the Saxon Landwehr (similar to our Militia) and Reserve and those dependent on them ; ^^450,000 were set aside as the nucleus of a property for new administrative districts ; ;^25,o95 for the completion of the interior of the Albrechtsburg near Meissen ; ;^52,5oo for the rebuilding of certain royal castles; ^15,000 for the sup- port of art; and ;^22,5oo for increasing the reserve fund for the royal collections. The remainder was paid into the Treasury to add to the balance for the partial covering of the extraordinary expenditure. _ The Civil List for 1831 was fixed at ;^75,ooo In 1854 it was in- creased to ^85,500 ; in 1864 by a further sum of ^22,500, on account of the proposed increase in the salaries of the officials in all departments being extended also to those paid from the Civil List. £a,S°o were also added to this sum for the Queen's privy purse. In 1874 the Civil List was raised to ^142,500, exclusive of the allowance paid to the Queen. The pensions, which were ^78,401 in 1845, rose, in 1852 and 1854, to ^95,310. The increase in expenditure led, among others, to the introduction of an income-tax (1851), and to the extension of the lottery system (multipli- cation of increase in the price of tickets). On the other hand, increase of revenue, especially from railways and forests, made it possible gradually to abolish the extraordinary embargoes introduced in 1850 and the following years ; to moderate the regular imposts^ such as slaughter-duty and salt 3go Separate States of Germafty — Saxony. tax ; and the sooner to carry out the proposal of augmentation of salaries and sacrifices for the public good in the working of institutions, the making of mountain roads, &c. An increase diametrically opposed to this system of reduction, has of late been necessitated by the augmentation of expen- diture. A beginning appears to have been made by making the assessment of agriculturists as high as is possible within the limit allowed by law. The next step was the raising of the slaughter duty (the other indirect taxes having become Imperial taxes). Natio7ial Debt. The public debt of Saxony at the close of 1869 amounted to ;^i6,936,363. In 1879 it amounted to ^29,667,631. Financial History. The elevation of the electors of Saxony to the throne of the Kingdom of Poland cost enormous sacrifices. "The seven years' war" led to a fearful drain on the finances of Saxony. Frederick II drew nearly ;i£"7, 500,000 from her; the State was burdened with ;;^4,35o,ooo of fresh debts. Meantime the extravagance at Court was continued. The State expenditure for 1778 was computed at ^997,685, of which ;^302,567 were for the army and politics; ^101,973 for the Court; ^^62,102 for appanages ; ^286,634 for debts ; ;^245,409 for salaries. The computa- tion was exceeded by ;^52,462 for pensions. Saxony received ^500,000 from Bavaria at the peace of Teschen as compensation for hereditary claims foregone. The Prussian alliance against France in 1806 cost ^1,000,000 war tax, exclusive of the special burden laid on the City of Leipzic. Saxony received ;^2 72,205 of the money paid as indemnity by France after the overthrow of Napoleon. The war of 1866 cost the Treasury ^2,560,380 absolutely (including ;;^i, 500,000 war indemnity to Prussia), and ^343,875 given as compensa- tion to the inhabitants. Besides these sums, there were the damage and loss to the State Property, and the costs of her own army. The actual State debt, ;^4,354,263 in 1764, was reduced by one-half in 1806, but rose again to ^3,428,643 in 181 7. Of this, Prussia undertook ;!^7795528, leaving the remainder to Saxony. An issue of paper money was made in 1772. ;^75o,ooo were issued when the division of territory took place, ^487,500 of which had to be paid by Saxony. In 1819, paper money worth ^375,000 was in circulation. In 1843 ^450,000 was circulating. Further issues were made in June, 1846, for ^450,000. The sum total of the whole State debt increased with the increase of the State railways. In — 1819 ^3,772,243 1847 ... ... 5,066,700 1853 6,417,228 1858 9,109,432 1861 ;^io,i72,89i 1869 16,936,363 1879 29,667,631 Army. Since 1867, the organization is on the same footing as that of Prussia. The Saxon royal troops form a separate corps d'Armce (the XII.). The constitution of the young men has much degenerated in recent times. Separate States of Germany — Saxony. 391 Whereas in 1 834, nearly 40 per cent, of the recruits were fit for service, the percentage had sunk to 22 by the year 1856. In 1865, out of 24,275 con- scrips only 6,502, equal to 26.8 per cent, were fit for service. (In the official district of Freiberg, only 315 out of 1,300 ; in Chemnitz only 678 out of 2,662 ; in Dresden, only 511 out of 2,546). It is however, possible that the increased requirements made upon the men, may have contributed greatly to this result. Among the officers in 1859, there were no fewer than 363 nobles as against 350 of the burgher class. Infantry. — Line : 2 divisions, of 2 brigades, 2 regiments, of 3 battahons, (distinguished in the Imperial army by the numbers 100 to 107). I regimentof Rifles, (No. 108), 2 battalions of Jagers (Rifles) (No. 12 and 13). Cavalry. — i division, consisting of 2 brigades, 3 regiments, and 5 squadrons. Artillery. — 2 regiments of field artillery, 16 foot batteries, 2 mounted field batteries. 8 companies of garrison artillery, i battalion of pioneers, and I battalion train. Fortress. — Konigstein. The fortifications erected around Dresden in 1866, are being partially removed. War Notes. In 1783, the army numbered 24,992 men. In 1806, Saxony brought a contingent of 22,000 men against Napoleon, 6,000 of whom were taken prisoners at Jena. The contingent of the Rhenish Confederacy amounted to 20,000. The Saxon troops fought in 1809 against Austria; in 1812, 21,500 men, against Russia, where the greater number of the men were destroyed. At the battle of Leipzic, the greater part of the newly-formed little army went over to the allies. The country was obliged to bring an army of 28,000 men into the field against Napoleon, by the spring of 1S14 ; in 18 1 5 one of 10,000 men. The Saxon army corps lost, during the war of 1870-71, 115 officers and 1,978 subalterns and men killed; 202 officers and 4,180 men wounded. The total loss amounted to 9,349 naen killed, wounded, and missing. Social Conditions. AN OFFICIAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE POPULATION INTO GROUPS ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION IN 1 87 1 Engaged in Independent Owners , and Masters. Independent Assistants Male 56,661 144,877 34,051 866 20,665 12,872 32,169 Female Male Female Agriculture, forests, fisheries ... Various industries Commerce and trade ... Personal service, daily labour... Army ... Other occupations Without occupation 3,969 18,194 10,315 2,701 3,119 43,762 80,447 287,146 40,530 82,167 26,604 99,209 165,282 9,940 40,744 3,405 302,169 384 82,060 229 514,894 833. 318,580 474 392 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. Social Conditions — continued. Engaged in Servants of all kinds Other Members of Household Male Female Male Female Agriculture, forests, fisheries ... Various industries Commerce and trade ... Personal service, daily labour ... Army ... Other occupations Without occupation 1,513 1,968 3,483 1,689 76 460 757 7,056 18,509 16,206 1,665 442 7,472 7,181 58,998 1 229,969 45,747 60,095 968 15,385 10,628 106,600 458,924 98,620 112,190 2,395 38,710 30,835 9,946 58,531 421,790 848,274 68, 477 1,270,064 Social Conditions — Total. Agriculture, forests, fisheries.. Various industries Commerce and trade... Personal service, daily labour Army ... Other occupations Without occupation ... 414,453 1,324,869 258,892 302,117 24,546 106,027 125,340 In 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Accidental Deaths Males 555 535 672 710 721 722 Females 112 117 108 138 125 151 Total 667 652 780 848 855 881 Suicides. 1871 1872 1873 1874 IS75 1876 653 • . 687 . • 723 . • 723 • • 745 • 981 Crime, The Statistics of crime shew very unfavorable results. The number of criminals in the prisons during the years 1S40-49, wavered between 1,093 and 1,271. In 1850 the number rose to 1,382 ; the following year 10 1,623, ^"iJ iri 1857 it reached 2,315, but fell in 1858 to 2,253, and in 1859 to 2,071. In 1861 it fell to 1,986. The maximum of political criminals was 137 in 185 i. 8 were still in confinement in 1859. Accord- ing to sex, the average is 4.5 males to i female criminal. The proportion Separate States of Germany — Saxony. 393 of criminals is on the whole, below the average in the manufacturing districts. Official returns from 1866-71 give the following. Year 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 187I Condemned 12,371 13,879 14,252 13,150 12,189 11,477 Sentenced Of these Females 10,828 ... 3,025 12,157 12,585 - 3,853 ... 3,863 11,435 10,651 9,883 ... 3,275 .,. 3,056 2,580 year 186 9, but re-introduced Capital punishment was abolished in the year 1869 by the Penal Code of Germany. Education. In 1876-77 there was i university, (Leipzic) ; i polytechnic (Dresden); I School of Mines (Freiberg) ; i school for the Science and Management of Woods and Forests (Tharand) ; 2 Schools of Art (Leipzic and Dresden); 13 Gymnasium; 11 Grammar Schools of high class, and 21 of second class; 18 Seminaries; 11 schools for Technical Education; 2,099 National Schools, of which 19 are of very high class, and 100 middle class. These schools contain 455,003 scholars and 5,181 teachers. There are also 1,753 adult schools. In the whole of Saxony there are 4,014 establishments for education, 6,927 teachers, 530,151 scholars. Total expenditure, ^853,090, of which sum ^616,694 are for salaries. Income Tax. Only those with less than ;,^i5 income are free. In 1875, 97^,886 persons were subject to the tax, of whom 382,302 paid upon an income less than ^"25. 304,473 between ;!^25 and ;^4o on an income under ... ... ;!^8o 187,629 53,639 27,614 10,547 4,195 i»257 224 6 Persons with incomes less than ;^ioo ;^420 ^1,300 ;^2,7oo ^5,000 above ^5,000 £^Ao £SAo ;^i,3oo ^5>ooo ^50,000 on an income over that sum form 82.64 per cent „ 11.00 „ M 5-50 ,, „ 0.71 „ >, o-io „ >, 0.03 „ ,. 0.02 100.00 The total incomes subject to the tax in 1875, were estimated at ^50,879,039, and the tax paid upon it ^55,139, of which ^36,021 came 394 Separate States of Germany — Saxony. from the towns, and ^£"19,118 from the country. In 1877, the number of the population subject to the tax was 919,651. The total income taxed, in round numbers, was ^^^5 1,6 15,000. Of this sum, income from land was ^10,540,000 ; from funded property, ^5,540,000 ; from salaries and wages, ^15,860,000 ; from trades and manufactures, ;^i9,675,ooo. Horses ... Asses Head of cattle Sheep Pigs Goats Bee-hives Live Stock, 1873. (those of the army not included) 115,667 86 647,074 206,830 301,091 105,401 64,283 Fire Insurance. The value of the property insured in the National Insurance Company in 1876, was ;^ 119,600,000, and the amount paid in compensation, for losses by fire during the year, was ;^ 156,500. Minerals- -Mines and Foundries. I. COAL. PRODUCTION. Mines Cwts. Value in £ Labourers Pit coal ... 78 61,225,504 1,648,648 17,272 Brown coal 161 11,927,646 101,642 3,243 II. ORE. Iron ... 26 504,304 16,663 550 Silver and gold 38 416,330 220,624 7,1^5 Together with other Dres 71 1,068,913 262,690 8,009 III. PRODUCING METAL FROM THE ORE. Works Cwts. Value in £ Labourers Raw iron 5 78,894 20,901 169 Zinc I 4,384 4,950 20 Lead — 78,544 85,042 Silver and Gold 3 868 384,124 928 Nickel combination 1,103 58,807 Other metallic products 10 27,042 104,773 219 Sulphur, sulphur-iro and vitriol "I 2 21 270,217 70,724 141 Total. 461,052 729,321 1,477 IV. SMELTING WORKS. Cwts. Value in £ Labourers Pig Iron ... 109 896,050 480,656 4,619 Rod iron & metal plates 13 462,580 226,712 892 Steel 5 127 234,115 163,821 469 1.592,745 871,189 5,480 Separate States of Germany — Mecklenburg- Schwerin. 395 Bre^aertes. In 1875 t-here were 693 ; the quantity of beer brewed was 48,421,340 imperial gallons. Railways in 1877. English Miles Length of State railways ... ... 1,101) , private railways 252; ^^^^^^ ^'^53 NUMBER OF PASSENGERS CONVEYED, AND THE AMOUNT OF FARES. 1875 1876 1877 Conveyed 18,468,129 18,979,202 19,782,802 Fares ^885,579 ^879,599 ^865,679 Total receipts from all source ^3,324,053 ^3.237,822 £z,^^9,n2> Total expenditure ;^'2,o52,58i ^2,112,945 ^2,026,728 Total accidents — Killed ... 57 50 50 Wounded... 99 63 76 Savings Banks. In 1878 168 In 1875 the deposits amounted to ... ... ^12,600,000 Number of books ... ... ... ... ... 770,000 Which gives one to every four inhabitants, and the money is as jQ^ iis. to every inhabitant. MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN (Grand Duchy). Area, 5,137 English' square miles, of which about 255 are covered with water. The population in 1867 was ... ... ... ... 560,618 1871 „ 557,897 „ _ 1875 n only 553,785 a decrease of 4,112 individuals since 187 1. As the feudal system of the middle ages is still kept up here, a very small portion only of the land is directly subject to the power of the State. By far the greater part is under the dominion of quasi-sovereign nobles. It is divided as follows : — English square Population miles in 1875 Ducal domains ... ... ... ... ... 2,121 ... 201,829 Lands belonging to the three monasteries ... 168 ... 8,826 995 noblemen's estates* 2,199 ... 133,835 40 townships and estates of the exchequer ... 562 ... 213,407 The inhabitants are descended from a mixture of the German with the Slavonic race, but the former now predominates almost exclusively, (the reigning dynasty is of Slavonic origin). * 628 of these are fiefs, and 367 allodial estates. 396 Separate States of Germany — Mecklenburg- Schwerin. Towns in 1875 and their Inhabitants. Schwerin ... Rostock ... Wismar ... Giistrow ... Parchim ... 27,989 Biitzow .. 34,980 Grabow .. 14,462 Ribnitz .. 10,923 Dobesan .. 8,264 Hagenow .. 6,005 Boizenburg 5,852 Malchow .. 5>247 Sternberg .. 5.350 4,877 4,207 4,074 3,827 3,748 Ludwigslust 6,005 ; Boizenburg 3,553 Waren 5,852 Malchow ... 3,368 Teterow 5,247 ] Sternberg 2,465 Malchin Territorial Changes. The conditions of feudalism have been preserved longer in the two Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg than in any other State of Germany. The last of these undesirable divisions of patrimony took place in Mecklenburg, in 1 701, when Strelitz was separated from the other part of the Duchy, for a younger son of the Prince. The town of Rostock first acknowledged the full supremacy of Mecklenburg in 1788. Wismar, which had been separated from it for 155 years, was obtained as a pledge from Sweden for 100 years, for the sum of ;2^2 74,2oo (redeemable in 1903 for a sum between ;^4, 200,000 and ;^4,5oo,ooo). The duke was the first German prince to leave the Confederation of the Rhine (March 25th, 1813) ; he, however, required no increase of territory, but only the title of Grand Duke, which he obtained June 17th, 18 15. Finance. The light of publicity has not yet penetrated into the feudal conditions of this State. The whole condition of things is very different from that which obtains in all modern States. There is no such thing as State budget, State railways, and so forth. The whole of the domains are treated as the private property of the Grand Duke. The sovereign has to pay the expenses of the government out of the proceeds of the domains ; the remainder is regarded as his private income. There is no trace of any regular system of taxation. The imposts are very different in various localities, according to the period or the manner in which they were in- troduced. The domain lands are estimated at the value of ;j^ 15,000,000. The expenditure for administration of the court is higher than that for the civil administration. Debt. "The Sovereign List," reached about ;^i,275,ooo towards the end of the decade 1860-70. The debt rose to ^2,175,000, by the purchase by the Duchy of the Mecklenburg railway for ^652,500 in 1870. But after this railway had again been sold to a private company in 1873, and the share of the French contribution of war, due to Mecklenburg, had been received, a considerable reduction was made in the debt. In July, 1877, the debt amounted to ^1,069,175, and the railway debt ^1,079,466. Army. By treaty made with Prussia, both the States of Mecklenburg have become incorporated into the Prussian military system, since January, 1873. Sepxrate States of Germany — Mccklenburg-Slrclitz. ^g^ The forces consist of 2 Infantry regiments ; i Rifle battalion ; 2 regiments of Dragoons, and 4 batteries, and form part of the 9th army corps. Social Condition. The nobility is united by an Act of Union, dated 1789, into a corpo- ration for the maintenance of their class. The monastic estate forms a very real band for this corporation. Three estates, secularized at the time of the Reformation, worth at the ])resent time ^^2, 500,000, yielding an annual income of ^100,000, serve as a provision for the daughters of the nobility. The condition of the peasantry is most miserable. Beside the lands belonging to the towns, there are 654 holders of noblemen's estates, 1,302 hereditary copyholders, and 6,163 peasants, who have no real right to the soil, share the property with them ; and lastly, about 7,288 members of the Confederacy, who possess but a few fields, yet with a distinct right thereto. Education. The state of education in this country, which is under a strict Protestant church government is such, that in the years 1858-61, only 322 per 1,000 of the recruits could read printing, and only 171 per 1,000 could read writing. Out of 3,744, only 131 could write well and 58 could reckon. Navigation. In 1873 Rostock owned, at the beginning of the year, 358 vessels, 348 of which were registered at 49,656 tons burthen. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ (Grand Duchy). Square miles Population Duchy of Strelitz 978 79>33o Principality of Ratzeburg ... 148 16,343 Total 1,126 95.673 Towns and their Population in 1875. New Strelitz 8,525 New Brandenburg ... 7,495 Friedland... ... ... S>°^6 Old Strelitz 3,070 Finance.. The same here as in Schwerin. Debt about ;!^3oo,ooo. Social Condition. A worse state of things exists here even than in Schwerin. During the years 1851-71, the population diminished by 6,246, although the births 398 Separate States of Germany — Brunswick. exceeded the deaths by 14,000. In the four years 1871-75, the population of this little country decreased by 1,309, although the births exceeded the deaths by 3,714. Evidently a consequence of emigration, on account of the bad social condition of the country. BRUNSWICK (Duchy). Year Population Year Population 1760 ... 1814 1834 1846 1852 158,980 209,527 ... 253,232 269,228 271,208 1858 1861 1867 1871 1875 274,069 282,400 303,401 312,170 ... 327,490 Towns, with their Inhabitants. Brunswick Wolfenbiittel Helmstadt ... 65,938 11,105 7,783 Holzminden Schoningen Blankenburg 6,887 6,116 4,519 The possessions of the Duke of Brunswick embrace an area of about 850 English square miles. The Constitution dates from October 12, 1832 ; modified November 28, 1851. Finance. The financial period lasts three years. The budget gives the figures for the three years together, therefore not for separate years. The State expenditure and the chancellor's treasury are treated differently. I. — State Administration for 1876-78, Revenue. 1. Balance from domains ;^54,58i 2. Direct Taxes: Land tax, ;,£"5 7,266 ; personal tax, ^20,375 77,641 3. Indirect taxes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22,324 4. Interest 46,265 5. Annuities from the railways ... ... ... 131,250 6. Pawn tickets ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30,000 7. Lotteries ... 22,500 8. Miscellaneous ... ... 444 Total ;^385.oo5 Expenditure. 1. General obligations of the country ... ... ... ... ;^25,o33 2. Ministry of the State and archives ... ... ... ... 6,515 3. Costs of legislation ... ... ... ... ... ... 975 4. The Diet 1,256 5. Justice 37.580 Separate States of Germany — Brunswick. 399 6. Administration of finance ... 7. Gendarmerie... 8. Police 9. Buildings 10. Pensions 11. State debt, of which £2^,11% was for paying off debt 12. Extraordinary expenditure ... 33.525 7,585 25,423 45,246 25,255 151,133 25.479 Total ;^385.oo5 II. — Chancellor's Treasury List. Revenue. The surplus made over to the State as above, the produce of the domain, lands, forests, mines, and the interest on the Bevern capital, give ^175,000 revenue ; the State treasury draws ;^4 2,000, without reckoning ^5,000 for interest or Chancery debt. The monastic capital fund amounted to ;!^242,5oo in 1878. Debt. . On January i, 1873, this amounted to ;^3, 596,2 11, of which ^^1,897,140 were ordinary railway debt, and ;^ 1,500,000 premium loan for railway purposes. The debt on the domains was at the same time ^53,859. In the year 1870 the State railway was, however, sold to a company for 64 years, at the price of ^1,650,000 cash, and an annuity of ;!^i3i,25o. ;j^3oo,ooo of the cash were paid to the provinces for public objects, and ^150,000 for the redemption of the ^/^/'///V446 34,085 „ Birkenfeld 194 18,195 18,898 37,093 2,471 158,319 160,995 319,314 Population of Earlier Years. I8I5 217,769 1834 1855 1861 1864 255,765 287,163 295,242 314,416* Towns and the Number of their Inhabitants. 1871 314,591 Oldenburg Vasel ... Oberstein 15,701 Brake 4,853 Eutin 4,482 Jever 4,360 4,114 4,054 Territorial Changes. The county of Oldenburg was elevated into " Duchy " by Joseph II., in 1777, and included Oldenburg, Delmenhorst, and the bishopric of Eutin. In 1803 Oldenburg acquired the secularized bishopric of Lubeck, by decision of the Imperial deputation. It received the Hanoverian district of Wildeshausen and the provinces of Vechta and Kloppenburg in Miinster, in return for some concessions made to the Imperial city of LUbeck, and for the abolition of the Elsfleth dues. Although the duke had joined the Rhenish Confederation, October 14, 1808, Napoleon took possession of the country December loth, 18 10, and it was incorporated with the French departments of the estuaries of the Elbe and Weser. It was restored, however, in 181 3. The duke (a relative of the Emperor of Russia), was raised by the Congress of Vienna, to the rank of Grand Duke, and the territory was assigned to him on the left bank of the Rhine, in the former French de- partment of Saar (the remote district of Birkenfeld). Russia ceded the province of Jever, and in 1854 the districts of Knyphausen and Varel were re-accjuired after 200 years of separation. In 1854 a district on the Jade Bay was sold to Prussia for ^75,000. In accordance with a treaty con- cluded between the Grand Duke and Prussia, Sejjtember 27th, 1866, the * Including Ahrensbock. Separate States of Germany — Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach. 40 1 former received, in return for the renunciation of his hereditary claims on Holstein, the province of Ahrensbock and its dependencies, which now form part of the principaUty of LUbeck, and besides that he received ^150,000 in money. The fundamental law of the State of February i8th, 1849, was revised November 22nd, 1852. Finance. The expenditure of the State collectively is chiefly met by separate payments, made by the different provinces. The distribution of the taxes is fixed every six years for this special object. In 1870 it was made, so that the Duchy of Oldenburg bore 77.4; the Principality of Liibeck 15. and that of Birkenfeld 7.6 per cent. The expenditure of the whole State in 1877 was estimated at ^43,255, to which the three provinces together contributed ^33,280, the remainder was covered by interest of State capital. Out of this sum the " matricular " contributions were paid, amounting to ^26,250, as well as the costs of the public officials and institutions, ;^i 7,005. The budgets of the separate provinces were as follows in the year 1877:— Oldenburg Liibeck Birkenfeld Total Revenue ... ^^237,290 ... ^^32,200 ... ;^27,494 ... ;,^296,984 Expenditure ... 263,700 ... 34,868 ... 29,493 ... 328 ,061 Deficit ' ... ^26,410 ... p{;2,668 ... ^^1,999 ... £1^,011 The civil list amounts to ^12,750. The Grand Duke is also the owner of land in Holstein, which adds to his revenue about £,Z^^^°'^- The Public Debt. Oldenburg was, for a long time, the only country in Germany which was quite free from State debt. The acquirement of the Bentinck property required ^375,000 ; then the first State railway of Oldenburg cost ;!{^675,ooo, a second about the same amount, while :^ 187,500 was ex- pended upon road-making. The total debt in 1873 was ^1,753,318, exclusive of ^300,000 in notes of the National Bank, for which the State Treasury is security. In 1877 the total debt was ^^i, 854,5 18, divided among the provinces thus: — Oldenburg ^1,837,716; Liibeck, ;^i6,6i8j Birkenfeld 2" 1 84. Army. I regiment of Infantry (No. 91) ; i regiment of Dragoons (No. 19) j 2 batteries. SAXE-WEI MAR-EISENACH (Grand Duchy). Circles Area in square miles Population 1871 1875 Weimar 683 ... 151, 379 Eisenach ... ... 471 ... 84,298 Neustadt 248 ... 50,506 1,402 ... 286,183 ... ... 292,933 2 c 402 Separate States of Germany — Saxe-Memingen. Weimar ... Eisenach Apolda ... Jena Towns (1870). 17.522 Weida 16,163 Neustadt, on the Orla 12,427 Dmenau ... 9,020 5.404 4.784 3.760 Finance — Triennial Budgets — Statement for 1878-80. REVENUE. Absolute State property Privileges Old land tax Indirect taxes... Income tax Miscellaneous EXPENDITURE. Court ... Diet Objects of Confederacy State debt Working expenses Administration of State Security (public safety) Roads ... Public institutions Churches and education Reserve fund and miscellaneous ;^i32,587 38,270 26,070 5^.951 89.367 93 ^338,338 ^45.000 1,428 69.385 21,787 15.424 116,239 8,959 6,015 10,380 40,707 1,560 ^336,884 The condition of the domains is not regulated in Weimar. Until 184 8 the grand duke took the net proceeds of the so-called exchequer property. This being acknowledged to be State property a civil list was fixed at ;^37.5oo. This was raised to ^45,000 in 1878. The debt on the ist of January, 1877, was;^4i7,024 ; the assets, however, exceeded the liabilities. Army. I Infantry regiment (the 5th Thuringia, No. 94.) SAX-MEININGEN (Duchy). .Area, 956 English square miles. Population in — 1861 ... ' 172,341 1855 165.530 1871 187,957 1875 194,494 Separate States of Germany — Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 403 Towns. Meiningen 9)524 | Possneck 6,212 Sonneberg 7,322 | Hildburghausen 5,162 Saalfeld 6,784 | Salzungen 3)724 Finance. Domains. — In July, 1S71, a law was made by which the duke is to receive ^19,000, the sum remaining to be divided. A division of the domains will take place at the extinction of the reigning family. The House of Gotha will receive three-fifths as interest-paying private property in entail, while two-fifths will fall to the country as a provincial fund. The balance for the years 1875-78 calculated the receipts of the domains at ^92,764. The receipts of the national treasury, including the half of the remainder of domain revenue, amounted to ^i 18,418. Included in this sum are the direct taxes, ^52,807, and the indirect ;!^i 7,770. Under expenditure appears ;!^29,2 58 debt. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Duchy). Area Population sqr. miles ib75 Duchy of Coburg 216 54j5o7 Duchy of Gotha .... 543 128,092 759 282,599 Towns and Inhabitants. Gotha, 22,928 ; Coburg, 14,567 ; Ohrdruf, 5,626 ; Wallershausen, 4,482 ; Neustadt, 3,434- Territorial Changes. Coburg. — The Duchy was occupied by French troops in 1806, and re- instated as one of the States of the Rhenish Confederacy in 1808. The Congress of Vienna increased it 20,000 souls, by the so-called Principality of Lichtenberg (St. Wendel, on the left bank of the Rhine). The Duke sold Lichtenberg to Prussia in 1834, for an annuity of ^12,000. Gotha. — In 1825 the male Hne of the ducal family became extinct, and in the following year, 1826, division was made of the country among the other Saxon ducal houses. The Duke of Coburg obtained nearly all, however, except Kranichfeld, by giving in exchange for it, the Principality of Saalfeld and some other small districts. In 1852 a United Constitution for both Duchies was declared. In 1873 it was decided that the two separate Assemblies should form a common Diet, and administer justice in common for the two Duchies. * Finance. Even in the altered Constitution, the domains were recognized as State property. Prince Albert protested against this. After lengthy 404 Separate States of Germany — Saxe-Altenburg. negociations, an agreement was approved, by which the Duke should receive ^15,000 fixed annuity, from the net proceeds of the " Entailed Domain-Estates of the ducal house in the Duchy of Gotha." Thus ^5,400 from the net proceeds flow into the State Treasury as an annual income. Any further profits from the domain estates are divided equally between the Duke and the State. Budget for Coburg, i2>-]y](); for Gotha, 1877-8. REVENUE. Coburg Gotha Total Domain Treasury State .. ^19,224 ... ^115,111 46,889 ... 121,660 EXPENDITURE. - ^^124,335 168^549 Domain Treasury State „ ... ^11,460 ... ^62,935 46,889 ... 121,660 — ^74,395 168,549 DEBT. Coburg, June i, 1876 ; Gotha, June i, 1 87 7. Coburg - Gotha Total Liabilities ;^i87,492 ... ^348,460 ... ;^535,903 Assets 105,659 ... 348,243 ... 453^902 The great military demands made u])on the country have rendered new imposts necessary, both in Coburg and in Gotha since 1866. As a reward for tlie part taken by the Duke in the war of 1866, and in compen- sation to the country for the injuries which it suffered thereby, the King of Prussia ceded, September 14th, 1866, to the Duke, the remote forests situate in the province of Schmalkalden, as an inalienable private estate of his family. The Duke thereupon gave up half of the net profits to the State Treasuries of Gotha and Coburg in equal parts. The total produce of these forests is estimated at between ;^6,ooo and jC'i,So°- SAXE-ALTENBURG (Duchy). Circle Area Sqare Miles 1871 Population x\ltenburg Saalfeld-Eisenberg ... 254 256 94,502 47,620 ... 1875 510 ... 142,122 ... 145.844 Towns and Inhabitants. Altcnburg ... ... 22,263 I Eisenberg ... ... 5,509 Rouneburg ... ... 5,706 | Schmollen ... ... 5,172 Nationality. The inhabitants of the Altcnburg circle are mostly the descendants of Wends (Slavs) ; the VVendish dress and manners are retained, although the Separate States of Germany — Reuss-Greiz, 405 language has fallen into disuse since the i6th century. Altenburg formed part of Gotha until 1826. It was then handed over (except a small part of it) to the Duke of Hildburghausen, who ceded his little patrimony to Meiningen, Finance. The triennial statement for 1875-77 gives the revenue) y- r, and expenditure at ... ... ... ... ) A ? 7 Under revenue the domains appear for ... ... _p!^30,249 Land tax ... ... ... ... ... ... 11,062 Income tax ... ... ... ... ... 19,791 Aid taxes at ... ... ... ... ... ^9,999 Under expenditure the State debt appears ... 3,678 And the matricular contribution at ... ... 13,123 Social Condition. The Altenburg peasant farmers are very prosperous ; the excellent soil is well tilled ; as a rule, the youngest son inherits the land ; should there be only daughters the eldest acquires the property. A foolish " aristocracy of money " prevails among the peasantry in their marriages. An estate is seldom divided. The children thus passed over often find themselves in very distressed circumstances. REUSS-GREIZ (Principality— Elder Branch). In 1875 there was a population of 49,985 living within an area of 123 English square miles. Toiuns and Inhabitants. Greiz, 12,657; Zeulenroda, 6,900. The Constitution dates from 28th March, 1867. Finance — Triennial Budgets. There is no civil list, but the property of the exchequer is given over to the prince as private family property. The statement for 1877 gave revenue and expenditure at jQ2'],\']g. More than half of the revenue goes into the exchequer fund. The debt in 1877 W'^s ^4^,435- In accordance with the treaty of peace, concluded with Prussia Sep- tember 28th, 1866, ^15,000 were paid to Prussia as a contribution to the fund for widows and invalids. The Princess Regent undertook half of this from her own private purse. REUSS-SCHLEIZ-LOBENSTEIN-EBERSDORF, (Principality). Reuss — Tounger Branch — 1875. Area, 318 square miles, and a population of 92,375. Toivns. — Gera, 20,810, and Schleiz, 4,652. Budget for 1875-77. Revenue;,{j45,i2o. Expenditure ^50,498. Debt ;^'j 2,662. 406 Separate States of Germatiy — Lippe, — Waldeck. LIPPE, (Principality). Area, 648 square miles. Population, (1875), 1^^2,452. Towns. — Detmold, 6,917. Lemgo, 5,108. Constitution. — Established 6th July, 1836 ; altered, January i6th, 1849, and the former re-introduced 15th March, 1853. In 1807 the Count, who had joined the Confederacy of the Rhine, assumed the title of Prince. Since 1872, no budget has appeared in proper form. The Octroi dues, which were forced upon the people by State necessities, produced ^43,084 in 1876. Here also, the Court has possession of all the domains, including the forests, (nearly two-sevenths of the whole area), salt-works, the so-called sovereign dues, taxes on industry, perquisites and fines. These receipts are estimated at ^30,000, out of which the cost of main- taining the Court (about ;^ 15,000), the working expenses of the domains, and the greater part of the salaries, including those of the higher clerg}', are defrayed. All insight into these accounts is forbidden to the Assembly. Debt of the National Fund in 1876 was ;:^56,644. The domains are said to have become burdened with a debt of between ;^4o,ooo and ;^45,ooo without the consent of the Assembly. Jrmy. — i battalion of the 6th Westphalian Infantry regiment, No. 55, SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE, (Principality). Area, 170 square miles, with a population in 1875 of 33,133, of which number 4,382 are in the town of Biickeburg. Constitution dates from November 17th, 1868. Statement of Accounts for 1877. Revenue and expenditure together ;^27,944. The domains' contri- bution to the revenue ^8,297. Debt, ^^18,000. Although the Deed of Constitution has been established, the whole system of government is quite patriarchal. The Prince owns the domains, together with the forests and game, and has a monopoly of Brandy distilling. WALDECK, (Principality.) It occupies an area of 420 English square miles, and a population of 54,743, (1875). By the so-called Treaty of Accession, concluded with Prussia, July 1 8th, 1867, the whole administration was given into the hands of Prussia from January ist, 1868. This was done because the little State was unable to raise the means for the increased expenditure. Prussia is, therefore, answerable for the finance. The debt in 1878 amounted to ^126,780. The Toivns. — Arolsen, 2,460. Korbach, 2,442. /Irmy, — A part of the 3rd Hessian Infantry regiment, No. 83. &i Separate States of Germany — Anhalt, — Schwarzburg. 407 ANHALT, (Duchy). Area, 914 square miles, and a population in 1875, of 213,565. The Duke has large possessions in Prussia, Saxony, East Prussia, and the Crimea. Towns. — Dessau, 19,643; Bernburg, 16,935; Kbthen, 14,4035 Zerbst, 12,877; Ballenstedt, 4,613 ; Coswig, 4,880, and Rasslau, 4,729. Anhalt was divided into four States in 1603. After the extinction of the line of Zerbst in 1793 the three others divided the territory which had belonged to it ; but the Russian Empress, Katharine II., received the province of Jever, on the North Sea, as a princess of the House of Zerbst. The line of Kothen became extinct in 1849, and that of Bernburg in 1863. After the Constitutional Act of Dessau, dated October 29th, 1848, and that of Kothen of the same date, had been abolished by ducal patent, in 185 1, the two duchies were united into one State by a new patent of 1853. The union of Bernburg with it took place in 1864. Revenue for 1877 was ... ... ... ... j[,l°2,^^S'^ Expenditure „ ... ... ... ... ... 700,850 Debt in 1877 291,108 A survey taken of the area of land belonging to the entailed property of the ducal house, published in 1872. states it to be 159 square miles of arable land, pastures and forests, and contains 17 castles, 22 domain estates, and 3 noblemens' estates. Mines and Foundries in 1875. Works Produce in cwts. Value in £ Labourers 17 lignite 10,484,583 ;^ii5,4i9 1,093 5 mineral ore ... 52,275 8,307 351 I rock salt 7,787,049 161,708 743 14 salt works ... 1,155,108 281,774 920 2 smelting furnaces 16,640 17,422 65 1 1 for working the iron I 83,423 71,235 558 SCHWARZBURG-SONDER-HAUSEN (Principality). Area, 329 square miles, and a population, in 1875, of 67,480. Towns. — Sonder-hausen, 5,723; Arnstadt, 9,243. Finance. The statement for 1876-79, gave the revenue at ;;^io8,237 And the expenditure at 107,567 Towards the revenue the Domains contributed ;^25,436 Forests 46,945 Under expenditure, the Court appears for ... 23,268 And the debt 10,288 The last Prince, who made large sums by the monopoly of brandy- distilling and brewing of beer, acquired large estates in Slavonia, Bohemia, and Mecklenburg. 4o8 Separate States of Germany — Hamburg. SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT (Principality.) Area, 361 square miles, with a population, in 1875, °^ 76,676. Towns.- — Rudolstadt, 7,638 inhabitants; Frankenhausen, 4,725 in- habitants. The triennial Budget for 1876-78 gives a revenue of And an expenditure of ... The capital of the debt ... ;^89,703 88,856 225,000 HAMBURG (Free City). Area, 158 English square miles, not including the sands at the estuary of the Elbe, part of which are in the territory of the Zollverein, and part is free harbour. Finance. SUMMARY OF THE FINANCE OF HAMBURG IN 1878. — EXPENDITURE. Interest and payment of State debt Commerce, shipping, and general traffic Buildings General administration ... Education Justice ... Police, prisons, and other home affairs Public charitaJDle institutions ... Diplomatic expenditure... Army and other public objects... Total expenditure ... REVENUE. Public property, domains, and royalties Direct taxes Indirect taxes ... Tolls Extraordinary receipts Total revenue ... Total expenditure .. . „ revenue Deficit Position of the Current Public Debt (1875). Former public debt ... Four per Cent.'State Obligations Fire Fund Loan, 1842 Premium Loan of 1846 Three per Cent. Premium Loan, 1866 Four-and-a-Half per Cent. Railway Loan of 1868 Five per Cent. Public Loan, 1870 ... ^355.835 120,432 167,503 138,309 94,491 49,122 193,157 139,219 1,900 162,203 ;^I,422,I7I 373,45s 473,650 330,180 147,706 5,550 ••• i,33o»544 1,422,171 1,330,544 91,627 ^1,219,819 61,742 1,330,200 366,000 7 12,500 1,492,200 600,000 Separate States of Germany — Hamburg, 409 Four-and-a-Halt per Cent. Public Loan, 1873 Four per Cent. Public Loan, 1875 Total 300,000 511,560 ;^6,494,02i Historical Notes. The cost of the French occupation from 19th November, 1806, until October 31, 1807, amounted to ^1,775,252. The seizure of English goods was avoided in 1807 by the payment of ^640,000. In 1810 Napoleon incorporated Hamburg into the French Empire as chief town of the depart- ment of the estuary of the Elbe. The city suffered greatly under Davonst in 1813. 1,207 houses were said to have been destroyed. The total loss of Hamburg by the rule of France, which did not end until 18 14, is estimated at ^13,350. The damage caused by the great fire, which raged from May 5th to May 8th, 1842, is estimated at ^13,500,000. 4,219 buildings, in 75 streets, were burnt to ashes. Commerce. The increase in this direction may be seen in the following table. It is necessary to notice, that from 1857 to 187 1 the amount of weight and value is only given for the imports, whilst for the exports only the gross weight of goods carried by rail and by the Upper Elbe has been ascertained. Since 1872 the gross amount of the exports by sea has been stated — an endeavour has been made to estimate approximately the value of the exports by sea. Total value ;^52,28o,85o 77,340,450 85,618,650 85,268,850 84,325,900 85,055,700 85,219,650 88,852,650 85,563,550 Accurate estimates of the exports have only been obtained since 1874. TOTAL IMPORTS. cwts. By Sea— cwts. 1870 .. 52,872,000 29,245,000 I87I .. 68,175,000 43,706,000 1872 .. 73,072,000 47,154,000 1873 •• 68,556,000 40,875,000 . ... 1874 .. 72,055,000 40,430,000. 1875 .. 76,814,000 42,388,000 1876 .. • 85,373,000 46,547,000 1877 .. — 1878 .. — EXPORTS, By Sea cwts. Value By Land cwts. Value 1874 .. 1875 .. 1876 . • 11,607, . 12,966, • 14.521, 966 ...^^24,923,900 ... 072 ... 27,565,900 ... 121 ... 29,385,550 ... 19,893,000 20,568,450 ...;^44,556,5oo ... 43,177,000 EXPORTS OF BULLION AND SPECIE. 1872... 1873... 1874... 1875... ... ;^5,o7o,ooo 5,103,000 4,763,000 5,438,000 1876. 1877. 1878. .. ^12,023,000 25,613,000 12,330,000 4IO Separate States of Germany — Hamburg. The Principal Imports Were from the following countries in 1875-76 : — 1875 1876 Cwts. Cwts. Australia ... 368,885 ^215,669 635,067 ^325,826 Asia 659,405 604,245 817,508 741,024 Africa 268,423 356,35^ 296,331 353,897 South America... 2,616,504 5,974,381 5,544,756 6,990,629 West Indies ... 565,317 868,747 456,443 656,789 North America.. 2,614,125 4,819,454 2,986,053 4,510,754 North Europe... 2,794,655 3,5oo,955 3,069,955 3,847,017 Great Britain ... 28,085,241 25,001,139 28,171,871 22,343,651 South Europe .. . 2,180,140 3,323,614 2,215,562 3,109,348 By way of Altona 2,235,750 3,9", 573 2,353,418 3,584,482 By land and river 34,425,978 36,489,083 38,826,037 38,755,735 Total ... 76,814,423 ^85, 065,211 85,373,001 ^85,219,152 Exports by Sea 1875. 1876. cwts. cwts. Countries in Germany ... 743,353 •• 698,499 Great Britain ...\ .. 8,680,544 France ... 831,755 Sweden and Norway ... ... .. 769,044 Belgium ... 305,230 Holland Denmark ... ... ) 10,027,483 ■• 347,291 253,115 Spain ... ... 177,379 Russia ... ... 167,016 Italy ... .. 145,016 Portugal ... .../ .. 102,057 The East Coast of ) Central and N. J- America j ... 852,489 .. 907.640 West Indies ... ... 282,033 .. 178,712 East Coast of South America ... 971,773 •• 910,726 West Coast of America ... ... 540,559 •• 523,554 Africa ... 352,806 . 361,130 Asia ... 437,690 . 483,252 Australia ... 57,432 . 48,743 14,265,618 ... 7,453,827 15,890,703 6,523,812 By Rail and Upper Elbe It was in 1778 that the first ship direct from America sailed into the Hamburg Harbour. The trade of the single city of Hamburg with Great Britain until 1861 exceeded that carried on by tlie whole of France with Great Britain by half; it was often even double, although the trade with England occupied l)y far the foremost i)lacc in the " Frencli Conmiercial List." More goods even now are sent from England to Hamburg than the same country sends to the whole of France. Separate States of Germany — Hamburg. 411 Shipping {Mercantile Marine). Number and Tonnage of Merchant Sailing and Steam Vessels belong- ing to Hamburg. Sailing Vessels Tonnage 1870 402 152,046 I87I 366 138,725 1872 340 125,427 1873 335 123,099 1874 339 127,486 1875 341 129,837 1876 352 135.015 1877 366 i39>775 1878 368 144,721 Steam Vessels 37 40 62 82 103 102 98 102 lOI Tonnage 32,450 34,252 54,132 78,413 88,258 89,730 84,683 84,135 75>o4o Vessels 439 406 402 417 442 443 450 468 469 Total Tonnage 184,496 172,967 179,559 201,512 215,744 219,567 219,698 223,910 219,861 Total tonnage of Steam Vessels (Home and Foreign) engaged in Foreign trade, entered and cleared. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Home 204,119 3i3>oii 389,853 458,960 525,590 486,131 45i>i74 472,708 520,788 Foreign 821,135 1,001,731 1,105,377 941,946 1,115,894 1,197,308 1,272,251 i.259>752 1,247,079 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 JS?nigration. Emigrants Of whom to United States 32,566 24,874 ... 42,224 ... .. 38,662 74,496 67,823 69,176 ... ... 60,970 24,598 18,818 12,706 (Including indirect Emigra- 10,7251 tion through Liverpool 11,827 Sent Direct 27,442 35.143 53,223 44,578 30,625 21,938 21,179 Insurance against Dan^et at Sea. Sums Insured. Average Premium. 1870 ... ^^63,445, 500 1. 1 2 per Cent I87I ... 84,926,700 0.99 1872 ... 102,816,750 0.93 1873 ... 90,133,521 1. 01 „ 1874 ... 86,184,290 1.05 1875 ... 88,817,941 1.4 1876 ... 91,724,790 I. II „ 412 Separate States of Germany — Hamburg. Property and Taxation. The Income Tax, which was introduced in 1866, in place of the former combined personal tax, showed the following gradations ; the assessments are, with few exceptions, grounded on estimates made by persons them- selves : — Class. I. II. HI. IV, V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. 1874 Tax Payers Per Cent, 39,086, equal to 54.18 I3»477 17.41 17,155 22.16 3,195 4-13 2,290 2.96 1,432 1-85 469 0.60 207 0.27 108 0.14 77,419 1875- Tax Payers. 39,776 14,612 17,638 3,552 2,463 1,480 480 193 87 80,281 Amount. Per Cen^ ^1,407,096 equal to 13.59 729,246 1,826,088 782,394 986,400 1,388,316 983,568 861,330 1,389,264 ;^io,353,702 7.04 17,64 7-55 9-53 13-41 9-50 8.32 13.12 Amount. ;^i,43i,936 785,808 1,861,710 861,942 1,060,032 1,426,410 i,oi2,c8o 799,955 1,139,725 ^10,379,598 Actual Population in 1875. Inner town, 169,376; District of St. George, 43,91 1 ; District) of St. Paul, 49,206; harbour, 2,182... ... efjual) Suburbs ... ... Geestelande... Marshland ... Bergedorf (including town of Bergedorf, 3,899) Ritzebiittel (including Cuxhaven, 2,234,& town of Ritzebiittel, 1868. 264,675 83,772 5,264 14,262 13,688 6,957 388,618 The inquiries instituted every year into the condition of the people inhabiting town, suburbs, and districts, for the purposes of Government, proved that, between 1875 and the end of 1877, the population had in- creased 17,396, thus bringing the number up to 406,014. In 1875 the population consisted of 255,088 natives of Hamburg, 124,194 of other Germans, and 9,336 foreigners. Separate States of Germany — Hamburg. 413 1811 1834 1861 Population of Earlier Years. 119,118 1865 ... 177,783 I 1867 ... 252,355 I 1871 Taking the annual average — 280,946 306,507 338,971 Marriages Births Deaths Total Per 1 0,000 Total Per 1 0, 000 Still born lUe- Percent gitimate of births Total J In 1 0000 of Pop. 1821-30... i,3.S8 84 5,132 319 301 628 12.2 4,428 275 1831-40... 1,626 91 i 6.077 340 359 819 13-5 5,380 301 I84I-SO... 1,835 91 6,779 336 432 791 II. 7 5,734 285 1851-60... 1,946 84 i 7,158 308 430 833 II. 6 5,795 249 1861-65... 2,346 90 8,365 322 520 1,088 13.0 6,366 245 1866 ... 2,794 99 9,195 327 469 1, 210 13.2 7,537 268 1867 ... 3,051 105 9,669 334 454 1.314 13-6 6,277 217 1868 ... 3,919 132 10,437 351 484 1,237 II. 9 7,045 237 1869 ... 3,562 116 11,048 361 506 1,044 9.4 7,716 252 1870 ... 3,247 100 12,262 377 564 1,228 lO.O 8,105 249 I87I ... 3,274 100 11,846 362 537 1,201 ! 10. 1 12,833* 393 1872 ... 3,949 116 13,416 396 635 1,286 9.6 9,049 267 1873 ... 4,256 122 13,835 397 639 1,397 10. 1 io,576t 309 1876 ... 4,617 132 16,247 458 — 1,491 8.9 9,705 252 1877 ... 4,462 127 16,655 428 — 1,510 8.7 10,189 262 Lutherans Reformed Church United Catholics Population divided according to Creeds. \ 300,968 I Dissenters 5,543 42 7,771 Jews Not known 3,783 13,796 7,071 Army. Conjointly vvith the Gotha contingent i Infantry regiment (6th Thurin- gian, No. 95), belonging to the nth army corps. BREMEN (Free City), Area, 63,499 acres; population, 1875, 142,553 ; number of buildings, 23,912, of which 17,420 are dwelling-houses. * Epidemic of Small-pox. • ■ t Cholera t-pidemic. J Last census. 414 Separate States of Germany — Bremen. Town of Bremen Country district Vegesack Bremerhaven ... Of these : Males Females Population 102,409 23>797 3.789 12,468 62,258 79.295 1812 1823 1842 Former Population — Resident Inhabitants. 47,797 1855 54,334 1862 72,820 1872 88,877 98,467 123,090 Lutherans Other Protestants Catholics Other Christians Jews According to Creeds. 74,568 44,849 44,849 17,628 659 1870 187I 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Births 4,616 4,611 4,977 5,447 5,932 6,128 6,198 Movement of the Population. Of which were Illegitimate 247 291 298 324 314 302 307 5.35 per cent. 6.31 5-9° 5-95 5-29 4-93 4-95 Historical Note, Deaths 3^143 3,281 3'479 3,209 3,451 3,650 3,409 Marriages 1,074 1,214 1,406 i>633 1,620 1,528 1,387 After Bremen had acquired an increase of territory in 1S03 it was incorporated by Napoleon in 1810 — first, with the kingdom of \Vesti)halia, then directly with France, as chief town of the department of the Weser. In 1813 it again became a free city. In the year 1827 a parcel of land was bought from Hanover for ^11,580, the result of which transaction was the annexation of Bremerhaven (about 392 acres). Fmance. The statement for 1876 is as follows : — Ordinary Revenue ... Extraordinary ^"623,808 15,770 I. — UlRKCT TAXES. Land and House Tax Income Tax ;^49,704 82,889 Separate States of Germany — Bremen. 415 Property Tax On Trade Other sources II. — INDIRECT TAXES. Custom's Dues, &c. On Articles of Consumption, &c. Judicial Affairs ... Other Indirect Taxes III. — Commercial, including Railways IV. — Gas and Water Works, &c. V. — Receipts from other sources VI. — Income from Capital Total Revenue 44,699 3i>432 ;^2II,840 ^^28,372 64,879 59r932 199 ^i53>382 ^^125,068 107,010 26,647 ^{^639,717 -ys,j. ^73^969 24,651 266,666 55>227 17,695 10,648 295>935 17,962 - ^762,753 Expenditure. 1, — Legislation, Administration, Police II. — Administration of Justice (Prisons, &c.) III. — Material development, including Railways, Navigation, &c. ... IV. — Intellectual development (Education, etc.) v. — Sanitary Matters and Burial of the Dead . . . VI. — Defences VII. — Administration of Finance, including ( National Debt ) VIII. — Increase of Capital Stock (extraordinary) Total Expenditure For comparmg the Nett with the Gross Revenue and Expenditure, the following is given : — EXPENDITURE. ordinary gross nett gross nett gross nett gross nett gross nett Of individual taxes one or two deserve special notice. I St.— 27/6' Land, House, and Inheritance Tax is raised according to an estimate made of the capital. In 1876 the worth of the property taxed was ^26,091,333 ; the tax itself produced ;^49»704- REVENUE. Ordinary Extraordinary 1872 ^441,933 ^37,774 291,053 37,774 1873 552,807 13,822 357,832 13,822 1874 629,018 2,653 361,720 2,653 1875 572,185 1,572 349,321 1,572 1876 643,808 15,770 401,987 15,770 Ordinary Extraordinar ^531,136 • ■ ;^5i7,i99 380,256 . 517,199 569,386 . 545,934 374,412 . 545'934 698,791 . 414,610 43r'493 • 414,610 665,774 • 232,843 442,914 . 232,843 617,848 . 134,905 376,027 . 134,905 4i6 Separate States of Germany — Bremen. 2nd. — The Income Tax is raised upon the basis of the previous year's income. Incomes under ^<)o are free ; those between ^^90 and ^120 pay a tax of is. 6d. ; those between ;^i2o and ^135 pay a tax of 2s., and so the tax gradually increases according to the increase of the incomes. Incomes between ^735 and ^750 pay 30^-. .• between ^1,485 and ^^1,500 pay 99J'. ; and incomes above ;^i,5oo pay i per cent. The manner of collecting this tax is peculiar. Formerly the first three shillings only were openly paid in the presence of the official deputed to receive it ; all that the taxpayer owed above that sum was thrown by him into a large chest with a slit in it (like a child's large money-box). In doing this he was bound only by his oath of citizenship, and no one exercised any control over him. The following change was introduced for the year 187 1 : the whole was to be paid openly by some of the classes and not by others. It was, however, thought expedient in 1874 to change this system, and adopt the Hamburg plan of self-taxation under control. The actual re- ceipts since the adoption of this plan have mostly exceeded the estimate. They amounted in 1874 and 1875 : — 1874. Incomes Number of Per Cent Produce of between Taxpayers the Tax ^90 and 180 ... 21,048 = 62-47 - ^12,732 180 ,, 360 ... ... 6,175 , 18.33 ••• 11,776 360 „ 390 ... 2,226 6.61 ... 10,207 390 „ 900 ... 1,777 5-27 ••• 15,759 900 ,, 1800 1,312 , 3.89 ... 30,030 Above this 1,157 3-43 ••• 137,524 33,695 ;^2l8,028 1875- Incomes Number of Per Cent Produce of bet A'een Taxpayers the Tax ;!^9o and 180 ... ••• 20,575 = 64.23 ^17,829 180 „ 360 ... ... 5,796 18.09 16,370 360 „ 390 ... 2,103 6.57 14,182 390 „ 900 ... ••■ 1,635 5.10 21,148 900 „ I800 ... 1,077 3-36 36,144 Above this 848 2.65 134,854 32,034 ;6 240,527 3rd. — The Property Tax is collected as often as it is required, and in every case according to 71 fixed proportion percent. Incomes under ^150 are free of this tax, and those between ^150 and ^450 are burdened one- third less than larger ones. By the decision of the Corporation on June 3rd, 1874, the system of ])ayment by the oath of citizenship without any control was retained for this tax. The propery tax was levied 15 tunes 22 „ between the years 1730 and 1759 „ „ 1760 „ 1779 Separate States of Germany — Bremen. 417 27 times 7 . " Twice It was lev between the years 1800 and 1809 „ „ 1810 „ 1829 1830 „ 1849 1850 „ 1863 /ied in 1863 (the first time for nine years), at the rate of \ per cent on all property above the value of ^450 ; and of J^ per cent, on property between ^100 and ^450. In 1866 this tax produced a revenue of ^24,549, representing property to the value of nearly ^20,250,000. No levy has been made since the year 1876. From a comparison with former years, we find that between the years 1730 and 1800, property liable to the property tax, rose only from ^1,605,000 to _^3, 960,000, while the number of those who paid on property, scarcely doubled in this period, viz., 665 persons to 1,295. Between 1849 '^'^^ 1866, property in Bremen increased in value from -?^9.53i>345 to ^i9>935>645' and the number of persons paying the property tax from 1849 to i860, increased from 14,534 to 19,981, and in 1866 the number was 20,614. 4th, — Tax on Trade. — (Articles of Consumption). On January ist, 1863, this tax took the place of the Export and Import dues. The sum produced by it represented a commerce or exchange of ^^12,500,000 ... ... in 1863 ^^19,250,000 ... ... in 1868 13,250,000 ... „ 1864 20,050,000 ... „ 1869 13,850,000 ... ... „ 1865 16,100,000 ... „ 1870 i3.959>ooo ... ... „ 1866 22,200,000 ... „ 1871 17,300,000 ... ... „ 1867 23,600,000 ... „ 1872 In 1876 it produced ;!^38,472. Debt. On January ist, 1877, the capital consisted of ^4,160,351 ; Interest, ^179,808. There was spent of the capital — For railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ;2^2,257,330 „ harbours ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 615,202 „ purchase of land for Bremenhaven gas and water-works .. 408,587 „ roads, bridges, and lakes... ... ... ... ... 235,490 On works bearing interest ... ... ... ... ... 3,440,367 The debt amounted to ^495,272 in 181 1. The burden was the greater, because the capital paying property tax amounted only to ;^i 2,000,000, and from that to ^15,000,000 in the first 10 years of this century. The occupation by the French injured the prosperity of the city so much, that the value of property rose but very gradually from ;2^2, 900,000 to y!^3, 650,000. The tax in 1854, however, represented a capital of more than ^13,900,000, and in 1863 a capital of ;^2 1,1 80,000. In 1828 about ;^45 0,000 of the old debt remained as an arrear. New loans had already been contracted in 1827, for profitable objects. The Bremenhaven loan of ^{^ 180,000 began the series ; in 1845, r-'iibvay loans of ^410,550; in 1847, a new Bremenhaven loan of ^150,000. The con version of the 4^ per cent, debt into one at 3^ followed in February, 1863 2 D 4i8 Separate States of Gcrmnny — Bremen. Payment in cash, or acceptance of the new paper money at 92, was offered to the creditors. The interest on the debt rose from ^34,134 in 1847 to ^,^114,431 in the year 1872. In August, 1872, a new loan of ;!^ 900,000 was contracted at 4^ per cent. Trade. IMPORTS. Weight in Cwts. 1872 26,133,189 1873 30,237,768 1874 30,777,460 1875 28,330,393 1876 28,185,707 1877 28,203,953 1876. Arrived by sea ... 17,090,914 Sent by sea 6,103,677 Arrived by land 1 and rivers ... j ii>o94,793 Sent by land and) rivers . . . ) 12,161,977 EXPORTS Weight in Cwts. 1872 i3>778,8o3 1873 15,961,643 1874 16,217,501 1875 i5»i87,59i 1876 18,265,654 1877 20,153,009 1877. Arrived by sea . . . i7.o45>87i Sent by sea 7»255>646 Arrived by land ( and rivers ... { 11,158,082 Sent by land and) rivers . . . ) 12,897,363 Value ^24,809,860 26,533,186 24,944,398 21,956,144 22,110,851 22,160,448 15,659,321 6,45i'573 6,451,529 14,639,660 Value ^23,558,409 25,085,689 22,554,590 20,782,435 21,091,234 21,548,639 15-892,590 7,095,669 6,267,858 14,452,970 The trade with individual countries in 1877 was as follows : — IMl'ORTS EXPORTS Zollverein Prussia Saxony Bavaria Oldenburg Value ^5-275,583 3,438,285 848,346 368,635 173,339 Vftlue ^11,665,478 7,510,746 1,835,873 662,709 492,734 Separate States of Germany — Bremen. 419 Hamburg . . . Austria Switzerland ... European Russia Sweden Norway Great Britain Holland Belgium France Spain Portugal Italy Greece European Turkej' United States Mexico South America West Indies.. Africa Asia ... Australia EXPORTS Value 327,435 84,649 687,699 17,151 39,129 2,790,154 303,875 73,178 193,595 29,689 30,818 37,648 19,129 49,213 7,706,156 156-395 1,304,449 621,640 176,388 1,468,559 42,399 Emigration through this port as under :- In 1870 140 ships ... 1871 ... ... 203 1872 ... ... 210 1873 ... ... 208 1874 152 1875 96 1876 107 1877 ... ... 109 IMPORTS Value ^1,066,919 1,798,800 322,390 671,026 240,099 212,685 942,259 241,012 139,582 27,330 6,436 51,647 373,035 10,028 2,703,954 81,078 314,245 78,463 24,965 39,109 63*562 46,781 emigrants 60,516 „ 80,418 „ 63,241 „ 30,633 24,503 21,665 „ 19,179 „ The following are the sums which were insured in marine navigation In 1850 „ i860 „ 1870 „ 1871 „ 1872 ^4,505,985 11,378,208 13,886,560 20,196,247 21,537,299 In 1873 „ 1874 » 1875 „ 1876 „ 1877 ;^2I, 263,412 20,047,250 18,937,873 18,318,375 15,859,700 Shipping. In December, 1877, there were 274 sea-going vessels of 216,032 tonnage. Of these, 60 were steamers of 57,380 tonnage. The crews numbered 4,823 men. Harbour Traffic. 1877. Of these Vessels. were Empty. Tonnage. Entered 2,694 267 946,623 Cleared 2,836 978 916,625 4^0 Separate States of Germany — L fibeck. Savings' Ba/iks. In 1831 there were ... ... 379)635 Depositors. 1841 ,, ... ... 1,002,800 ,, 1851 „ 2,313,819 1861 „ 5)833>263 In 1876 ^1,418,664 were deposited; in 1863 only ;^996, 120. LUBECK (Free City). Area 69,831 acres; 46,589 of which belong to the quarter incorporated with the City of Llibeck, and 23,242 acres to eleven divisions of the State lying in Oldenburg (Principality of Liibeck), Lauenburg and Mecklenburg- Strelitz (Principality of Ratzeburg). In 1872 the population numbered 52,158, and was thus divided : — Population. In the town and suburbs ... 39,009 equal 74.8 per cent. Travemiinde ... ... ... 1,596 >, 3-i ,, 49 country communes ... io,454 >, 20.0 „ The Military 555 „ i.i On board ship ... ... 544 „ 1.0 ,, Total in 1872 ... 52,158 ,, 100.0 „ „ 1875 ... 56,912 Taking the total for 1872 as an example, there were 25,104 males, equal to 48.0 ; and 27,054 females, equal to 52.0 per cent. Of those belonging to the State ... 42,867 equal to 82.2 per cent. Not belonging to the State ... 9,291 „ 17.8 ,, Of these last-mentioned 8,165, equal to 15.6 per cent, are members of other Confederate States ; 1,126, equal to 2.2 per cent, are foreigners. Creeds. In the year 1872, there were of Lutherans ... ... ... 49,822 equal to 95.52 i)er cent. Reformed Church United Church Anglican Church Baptists Roman Catholics Dissenters Free Church ... Jews ... Not specified ... Dividing tlie Population According to Age. There were, under 15 Years ... 16,151 ecjual to 30.9 per cent. ,, above 60 „ ... 4,880 ,, 9.4 ,, 579 I. II 484 I-3I 4 O.OI 51 0. lo 408 0.78 14 0.03 27 0.05 565 1.08 4 O.OI Non-produciive ... 21,031 „ 40.3 Separate States of Germany — Liibeck. 421 Between 15 and 30 „ 30 and 60 13,743 equal to 26.4 per cent. 17,384 », 33-3 .. Productive 31,127 59-7 Movement of the Population Year Population. 1815* 36,464 1845* 44,162 1851 42,685 1857 43>225 1862 44,357 1867 49,183 1872 52,158 1875 56,912 Annual Average [ncrease. per Cent. 5,698 0.5 523 0.2 540 0.2 1,132 0.5 4,826 2.2 2,975 1-5 4,000 2.0 The increase occurred during all these years in the Town population exclusively; thus in 1845 the town population being 29,234 increased 9,775, or 33-4 per cent, by 1872 ; while in the country districts, in spite of the greater frequency of birth, there was a steady decrease. For example, in 1845 there were 11,293 inhabitants with a decrease of 839, equal to 7.4 per cent. Births. Years 1846-50 1861-55 1856-60 1861-65 1866-70 1871 1872 1873 1873-75 Annual Average 1,083 1,228 ^295 1,417 1,622 1,616 1,761 1,779 1,829 Per 1,000 Inhabitants .. 25 . .. 28 . ,.. 29 . .. 31 . •• 32 . .. 31 . •• 34 . •• 34 . ... 38 Legitimate 931 • 1,050 . 1,126 1,244 • 1,482 . 1,477 • 1,634 . 1,628 . Married women from Tom 16 to 45 gave birth to Illegitimate . 23.6 per cent. . 26.0 „ . 26.1 „ ... 152 ... 178 169 . 26.3 „ ... 173 . 26.2 „ 140 . 26.2 „ ... 139 • 31-2 „ . 28.8 ... 127 ... 151 Deaths. Year 1846-50 1851-55 1856-60 1861-65 1866-70 I87I 1872 1873 1872-75 Annual Average 1,158 1,028 1,191 1,087 1,156 1,339 1,370 1,355 1,380 Per 1,000 Under i year of the Population old 27 167 23 176 27 236 23 259 23 257 25 272 26 302 26 290 26 — * During this period several Cholera epidemics occurred. 422 Separate States of Germany — Lilbeck. Marriages. Years Annual Average 1846-50 325 1851-55 370 1856-60 376 1861-65 399 1866-70 496 1871 390 1872 467 1873 497 1874-5 507 1,000 Of these were second marriages 7 •• 69 8 78 8 82 8 70 10 86 7 .. 84 9 97 9 88 9 — Historical Note. In 1803, the territory was enlarged. In 18 10, Napoleon I. united it with France, under the name of Department of the Estuaries of the Elbe. In 181 3 independence was restored. 1866, Liibeck participated with the small States of Germany, in the Treaty of Union with Prussia. In 1868 it became part of the Zollverein. Finance. Returns of the Liibeck State Budget fi om 1856 — ' n- Year Revenue Expenditure Year Revenue Expenditure 1856 .. ;^65,69i - ^67,559 ... 1868 ... ;^9i.269 .. ^107,066 1857 .. 66,452 66,504 ... 1869 ... 98,291 98,771 1858 .. 64,568 ... 65,109 ... 1870 ... 97,399 100,716 1859 .. 69.433 67,164 ... 1871 ... 102,807 148,834 i860 .. 67,865 .. 64,728 ... 1872 ... 113,931 103,299 1861 .. 81,918 79,408 ... 1873 - 1.05,781 99,761 1862 .. . 82,438 78,150 ... 1874 - 111,499 •• 113,547 1863 .. 84,852 .. 79,718 ... 1875 - 123,630 123,630 1864 .. 92,715 .. 82,388 ... 1876 ... 128,837 .. 128,837 1865 .. 97,808 84,148 ... 1877 ... 132,622 132,622 1866 .. 106,777 . 106,962 1878 ... i3i>932 131,932 1867 .. 98,934 ■ 105,143 ... Budget for 1879 ... 1877. 129,981 129,981 REVENUE. Domains and royalties Interest and dividends Direct taxes (income and succession taxes) Indirect taxes Fees, fines, and sundries EXPENDITURE. Senate and Corporation State affairs Justice Police and prisons ;^3o,445 44,679 26,163 21,639 9,696 -^132,622 ^7,825 5.635 6,464 7,437 , . I Separate States of Germany — Lilheck. 423 EXPENDITURE {conttnucd). 5. Administration 6. Guarantee of interest for Eutin railway 7. Public buildings and pilotage 8. Churches and schools ... 9. Benevolent objects 10. Pensions and allowances 11. Interest and reduction of State debt 12. Unforeseen expenses ... 13,760 2,750 20,021 7,2X1 1,012 3.662 54,165 2,628 -^132,622 The chief tax is that introduced in 1870— viz., the income-tax, which varies from i to 3 per cent., on eight different degrees of income from ;^i8 to ^180. The tax is levied upon fixed incomes according tothe full amount of the receipts of the previous year, upon all other incomes according to the average of the three previous years, excluding any year of no profit. Those with an income of ^120 or less, having to support a family of more than five children, are not compelled to pay the income-tax on more than three-fourths of their income. Returns of the ^Income-tax. Number Amount Amount of ncorae Amount Amount In the of of per Head of the of of Year Contributors Income Taxed taxpay ers lax Paid Tax per Head 1871 14,761 £9^S^S9° £^ 3 ^^17,870 £ 142 1872 15,553 971 ,618 6 2 18,762 I 4 4 In 1872 the tax yielded the following sums, divided in the following manner : — Number of Per Contributors Cent. Incomes under ;^3o ... 8,869 ... 57-02 Between ^^30 and 60 ... 3,790 ... 24-37 ,1 60 „ 120 1,575 ... 10.13 „ 120 „ 180 ... 567 3-65 180 „ 300 371 2.38 M 300 » 600 239 1.54 „ 600 „ 3,000 136 ... 0.87 3,000 „ 6,000 5 0.03 Above 6,000 I O.OI Total ... 15,553 100.00 Amount of Income Taxed Per Cent. Tax Paid Percent. Incomes under ^30 ••■ ^212,851 .. 21.9 ••• ^1,596 •• ■ 8.5 Between ;^3o and 60 ... 161,268 ... 16.6 ... 1,736 •• . 9-3 „ 60 „ 120 ... 139,650 ... 14.4 2,159 .. . II. 5 „ 120 „ 180 ... 86,256 ... 8.9 2,120 .. . II. 3 „ 180 „ 300 ... 86,808 ... 8.9 2,604 .. . 139 » 300 „ 600 ... 101,970 .. 10.5 3,059 •• . 16.3 600 „ 3,000 ... 153,750 .. 15-8 4,612 .. . 24.6 3,000 „ 6,000 ... 22,500 .. 2-3 675 •• . 3.6 Above 6,000 ... 6,600 ... 0.7 ... 198 .. I.O Total ;^97i,653 ... loo.o ... ;^i8,759 ... loo.o 424 Separates States of Germany — Lvbeck. Thus more than half those who pay this tax are of the poorest class, whilst their incomes form only the fifth part, and the tax collected from them, not even the tenth part of the total amount. No land tax, or tax on general industry is levied. Taxes, however, are levied on itinerant trading, and on the retail sale of spirits ; on banking, on apothecaries' shops, and on the press (advertisement duty), estimated in 1874 at ^1,946. The most important indirect taxes are the Harbour dues, payable on vessels entering and clearing the harbour, according to their tonnage and estimated horse-power. The gross estimate for this in 1874 was ;!^6,45o. The Stamp Duty, the gross estimate for which, in 1874 was ^4,142. The duty of i per cent, on the sale of real property, in 1874, amounted to ^3.741- Poor rates, church rates, and school dues are only collected m the country as communal taxes. The large revenues of the public charitable institutions of the city, the funded property of which in 1873 was ^182,815, and the still larger funds of the numerous private charitable institutions, obviate the necessity of any additional burden on the revenue for these purposes. State Debt. Year Old Debt New Debt Total 1868 ^238,517 ^949,110 ;^i, 287,627 1872 229,147 912,645 1,141,782 1874 223,025 892,440 1,115,465 1876 207,353 859,065 1,066,418 1878 ... 1,207,000 History. Liibeck suffered very much during the French invasion. The losses resulting from the Battle of Liibeck on November 6th, 1806, and the storming of the neutral city are estimated at ^460,000 : (^264,000 in plunder; ^70,684 for quartering of troops; ^22,090 for hospitals; ^7,680 for appanages ; ^34,334 in subsidies formed part of the losses.) _ Forced Loans proportioned to the rank and property of every inhabi- tant were also made in 1806 to the amount of ;^5o,i72; in 1807, ;^25,432 ; in 1808, ^41,995 ; and in 1810 to the amount of ^^47,681. The amount of the Old Debt in 1810 was ... ^({^601, 524 In 18 1 3, after the Liberation „ ... 562,024 Of this were previous Voluntary 3 per cent. Loans 229,582 Forced Loans 159,882 Bank Loans and Bills of Exchange 102,059 Amid the general financial confusion, left behind by foreign rule, the State was compelled in 1S14 to reduce the interest on the Voluntary Loans to 2 per cent, (it was raised in 1816 to 2A and in 1817 again to 3 percent.) The loss which accrued to the creditors by this means, and by the non- payment of interest in the years 1811 — 1813 was made good to them by the payment of so-called deferred interest until the year 1834. On the other hand, only i per cent, interest was granted on the forced loans, which were looked upon as a sort of contribution. Separate States of Germany — Liibeck. 425 A fund was instituted for paying-off the debt, and ;^io8,939 were paid-off by purchases up to 1820 ; and by 1834 ^^229,098. The figure of the old debt was therefore in 1835 £2,2>2,9l6; of which only ^33,169 were forced loans; and these, in many instances, were exchanged for Bonds of the Voluntary Loan. From 1837 to 1845 a fixed sum, amounting to ^2,400, and from 1845 to 1855 a fixed sum of ^2,220, and since then a sum of ^1,980 have been set aside annually for the redemption of the old debt. The creditors renounced their right of giving notice, which had been suspended since 18 14, by giving up their Bonds to be marked with a Lottery Number. The ^182,815 in the hands of Churches and Charitable Institutions have no part in this Lottery. Up to the end of 1873 a further sum of ^109,901 was paid off on the old debt by purchase and by lotteries. Ne-co Loans were contracted in 1834 of ^9,210 for deepening the River Trave ; in 1839 of ^27,000 for Road-making; in 1842 a so-called " interim " Loan of ^36,000 for the payment of current obligations— all of which were paid-off by the year 1864. In the year 1850 a loan was contracted of ^480,000 for the purpose of constructing the Liibeck-BUchener Railway and for additional works on the Trave. In the year 1863 a loan of ^525,000 was contracted for making the direct Railway to Hamburg. Of the " 1850 Loan," ;!^85,6io was paid-off by the end of 1873, as well as ;^46,95o o" the " 1863 Loan." The Liibeck-BUchener and the Lubeck-Hamburg Railways, although nominally belonging to a company of shareholders, are really State Railways, as the State owns nine-tenths of the whole capital, and naturally influences the management. Education. In 1 87 1 it was found, that after deducting those persons mentally affected, there were 1,806 persons above 15 years of age unable to read or write ; equal to 5 per cent, of all the Adults ; 615 or 34 per cent, of these were Males; 1,191 or 66 per cent, were females. They mostly belonged to those advanced in life ; i per cent, being between 20 and 30 years of age ; while 24 per cent, were above 70 years of age. Commerce. Until the year 1850 the development of the Trade of Lubeck was very much hindered by the want of railway communication with the interior of Germany. As early as the year 1831 a plan existed for a direct railroad to Hamburg, through Holstein. The cost was guaranteed, but the consent of the Danish Government could not be obtained. Neither would the Danish Government give its consent to a subsequent plan for indirect communication through Lauenburg. The mediation of the Confederation was obliged to be called into requisition. Permission to construct the indirect line to Biichen, which was to form a junction with the Berlin and Hamburg Line was not, however, obtained until the year 1847. This line was opened in 1851. A direct line to Hamburg was afterwards opened in 1865. Communication was established with Mecklenburg and Pomerania, 426 Separate States of Germany — Lilbeck. by the opening of the Liibeck-Kleissen (Schwerin) Line in 1870. This was followed by the opening in 1874 of the Eutin-Liibeck Railway, efiecting by its junction with the East Holstein Lines a communication with Kiel. The River Trave was deepened in the year 1834, in order to improve the water-communication between Liibeck and the Baltic. In consequence of these works, ships of 1,200 cubic metres stowage can discharge their cargoes at Liibeck. A second channel, which cuts through a still larger curve of the Trave, is being made. The Imports and Exports in the years 1869 and 1872 divided among the different countries were : — 1872. ;^202,836 5,387 3>637 1,031,505 403,219 200,919 67,610 1,913 1,422 64,962 1,986 46,318 IMPORTS. 1869. Prussia ^76,012 Mecklenburg .. 16,219 Oldenburg . ■ 246 Bremen 2,722 Russia 788,026 Sweden 255,526 Denmark 88,057 Great Britain ... 48,129 Belgium 555 Holland 2,511 France 37,245 Portugal — N. America .. 15,731 S. America ... — By Sea ;^i,330,979 By Land 3,223,860 Total ;^4,554,839 EXPORTS 1869. Prussia ;^32,o34 Mecklenburg .. 9,543 Oldenburg — Bremen 681 Russia 1,063,279 Sweden 407,568 Denmark 582,760 Great Britain .. 600 Belgium — Holland — France — Portugal — N. America . — S. America 858 By Sea •■ ;^2,o97,323 By Land 1,631,408 Total ;^3,728,73i ;^^2,o3i,7i4 5,908,027 ^7,939,741 1872. ;^I56,II4 22,117 1,148 1,650,400 1,559,737 389,158 750 885 ^^3.780,309 2,530,373 ^^6,310,692 Separate States of Germany — Lilbeck. 427 Navigation. In 1876 there entered i,6oi sailing vessels, and 936 steamers. Total There cleared 2,537 with 926,691 cubic metres tonnage. 1,591 sailing vessels. 929 steamers. Total 2,520 with 921,974 cubic metres tonnage. In respect of the number of steamers which it owns, Lubeck takes the third place among German Ports,* and the first among the ports of the Baltic. River Traffic. a. TRAFFIC ON THE LOWER TRAVE. ENTERED Tonnage Vessels. (Cubic Metres). Vessels CLEARED Tonnage. (Cubic Metres.) 871 . 872 873 • .. 517 ... 48,522 676 ... 59,271 668 ... 62,989 539 683 689 50,926 60,632 65,169 Light Vessels are not here included. 1872 1873 1873 TRAFFIC ON THE UPPER TRAVE AND STECKNITZ. ENTERED CLEARED Tonnage. Tonnage. Vessels. (Cubic Metres). Vessels (Cubic Metres.) 482 555 Vessels. 194 28,461 35^355 463 545 C. ON THE WAKENITZ. ENTERED Tonnage. (Cubic Metres). 8,807 Vessels. 194 27,231 34,664 Tonnage (Cubic Metres 8,807 The traffic on the Upper Trave and Stecknitz (the canal communica- tion with the Elbe) has very considerably decreased since the introduction of rail-roads. At the beginning of 1874 there were entered on the Trade Register 854 Firms ; 25 Companies of Shareholders, and 99 Agencies of Foreign Companies. Savings Baulks. The amount of Deposits in i860 was .p^io5'335 1870 „ 130,745 1873 ,, ^63,089 The number of depositors was 16,037 at the end of 1873. This gives one Savings' Bank Book to every 3.3 nhabitants, and £z- 2s. 2^d. of the capital of the deposits to each inhabita nt. * Hamburg and Bremen stand ist and 2nd. THE SEPARATE STATES OF GERMANY- SOUTHEKN GERMANY. BAVARIA (KINGDOM)— Z^r;/^ and People THE SEPARATE STATES OF GERMANY. (d.) — SOUTHERN GERMANY. BAVARIA (KINGDOM). It is divided into 8 circles (Government districts), which are sub divided for administration into 34 town and 51 district offices. For Justice, there are 6 Courts of Appeal, 38 district and 287 Town and County Tribunals. Population in 1871 was 4,852,026. Government Districts Upper Bavaria Lower Bavaria The Palatinate Upper Palatinate and Regensburg . Upper Franconia .. Middle Franconia . Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg . Swabia and Neuburg Area in English square miles .. 6,589 . ■• 4,156 • 2.184 •• 3>556 • •• 2,575 . .. 2,781 . 3,090 . 3>492 • Male 446,121 3045903 313,165 241,772 269,911 294,622 288,688 292,430 Population in 1876 Female 448,039 317,454 328,089 261,989 285,024 312,462 308,421 309,482 Total 894,160 622,357 641,254 503,761 554,935 607,084 596,929 601,910 ♦Total 28,423 2,451,612 2,570,960 5,022,390 Movement of the Population. Marriage was formerly made very difficult in Bavaria ; it was, however, much facilitated towards the end of the decade, 1850 to i860. All hindrances to marriage were not completely set aside until the decree respecting birth, marriage, and residence came into operation on October ist, 1868. While the number of marriages contracted from 1850 — 1854 averaged only 28,296, it rose from 1855— 1859 to 30,113, and in i860 and 1861 it rose to 32,264 and 35,257 In 1869 there were no fewer than 59,726 marriages; in the next year a year of war, the number fell to 43,232; and in 187 1 it fell still more, even to 40,707, but rose again in 1872 to 52,045. Note — In 1878 it is stated as Z9,i07 English square miles. 430 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. Tlic average number of births from 1835 to i860 was 156,228 ; from i860 to 1868 the number was 179,551, but in 1868 and 1869 it amounted to 192,030; in 1869 and 1870 to 201,540 ; then in 1871 (time of war) it was only 183,465 ; in 1872 it was again 201,476. Among the children born alive the following numbers were illegitimate : 31,886; 38,413; 33,123; 31,924; 26,815; and 27,857; or 21. 1 ; 22,2; 17.9 ; 16.4; 15.2 ; and 14.4 per cent. The diminution is doubtless to be ascribed to the new legislation. The annual average number of deaths (including still-births) amounted, from 1835 to i860, to 129,815; from i860 to 1868 the average was 146,307 ; in 1868 and 1869 to 159,186; in 1869 and 1870 to 158,629; in 1871 (time of war) it was 171,530, not including 40,612, which occurred in the last c|uarter of 1870 ; in 1872 the number was 159,364. Movement of the Population Tabulated. Year Births Ofi vhich illegitimate I 'er cent. Deaths Marriages Divorces 1868-9 .. . 192,030 .. 34,392 equals 17.9 .. . 159,186 . .. 59,726 .. 295 1869-70.. . 201,540 ... 33,150 16.4 .. . 158,629 . .. 43,232 .. 259 1871 .. 183,465 .. 27,883 15.2 .. 171,530 • .. 40.707 .. 211 1872 .. . 201,476 .. 28,924 14.4 .. 159,364 • .. 52,045 .. 215 1873 .. . 208,711 .. 29,088 13.9 .. . 162,749 . .. 48,924 •• 204 1874 .. . 211,207 .. 27,554 13.0 .. . 161,074 . .. 45,886 .. . 288 1875 •• 216,176 ... 27,315 12.6 .. . 164,847 . • • 45,014 •• . 1876 .. • 223,192 .. 28,738 12.9 .. 162,059 . .. 4^,012 .. 1877 .. . 220,560 .. • .. 154,621 . • 39,369 - —^ Emigration. Until 1830, the number of Immigrants was about equal to the number of Emigrants; but from 1S34 to 1864 the Emigrants numbered 254,557, while the Immigrants counted only 27,854 ; the loss of population, theefore, over the whole, was 226,703. If, however, you take the small district of the Palatinate you have the enormous loss of 93,691 persons, the number of Emigrants being 102,189, and that of Immigrants 8,498. The Average from Immigrants. Emigrants. Difference. 1830-35 278 2,107 1835-43 1,080 5,356 1843-51 933 11,282 1851-55 695 17,330 1855-60 866 6,715 Total from 1835-60 was Immigrants 24, 1 76 Emigrants 2 44,232 1860-61 1,056 5,026 1861-62 1,084 2,933 1862-63 1,241 2,796 1863-64 1,278 4,234 1864-65 1,209 5,154 1865-66 1,238 6,358 1866-67 1,679 6,934 1867-68 1,422 5,889 ^ Gcrviany — Bavaria. 431 mmigrauLs Emigrants Difference i'985 1,684 1,491 . 6,597 8,582 5,966 5,965 5^838 .. 12,148 .. 10,870 .. • 4,347 loss - 5,551 loss . 2,288 loss 10,263 11,389 7,713 •• 7,905 ■• . 2,550 gain . 3,484 gain The Average from 1868-69 1869-70 1871 1872 187^ 1874 1875 The attempts formerly made to discover the property of the Emigrants and Immigrants failed utterly ; but for the period of 25 years, from 1835-60, a sum of ^5,166,660 was returned as belonging to those who had left the country, against ;^2j 166,666 belonging to those who had come into it. Of those Emigrants who left secretly, the proportion was most unfavor- able in the Palatinate. More than half of those who emigrated have done so secretly, urged for the greater part by the reaction in 1850 and the following years, and on account of the conscription. The Property imported from 1852 — 1864 was estimated at ^266,164 ; that carried away, as far as can be discovered, at ^827,688. The great disturbance in the condition of this small district can therefore be easily understood. The number of soldiers who deserted is not included. Creeds. 1871 There were of Roman Catholics 3,455,326 Protestants 1,340,218 Of whom were (Lutherans 1,003,841 - United Church in the Palatinate 333,062 (Reformed Church 3,315 Mennonites ... 3,819 Anabaptists 72 Irvingites 360 Anglicans (^l Episcopalians Methodists German Catholics 217 Greek Church 246 Free Religionists 623 Jews 50,648 Of no stated Religion... 351 Others 80 1875 3,573^142 1,392,120 1,040,657 \ 348,413 f 3,050) 3,760 118 303 61 56 107 so 149 846 5i'335 1,116 57 Most of the Lutherans live in Mid-Franconia (443,462) and in Upper Franconia (307,845). There are fewest Protestants in Lower Bavaria (4,084). In Upper Bavaria, where, in 1852, there were but 11,959, there are now 28,420 ; — 17,437 of whom are in Munich. Jews are most numerous in Lower Franconia (14,573), in the Palati- nate (12,466), and in Swabia (4,369). They are the least numerous in Lower Bavaria (iii), the Upper Palatinate (1,221), and in Upper Bavaria (3,033), of whom 2,903 are in Munich. 432 Separate States of Germajiy — Bavaria. The greatest number of Mennonites are in the Palatinate, where the greatest variety of reUgions exists. The increase of mixed marriages (various creeds), mentioned by Dr. George Mayr, deserves notice here. From 1835 to 1855 the number of these marriages was only a little more than 2| per cent, of all marriages which took place during that period with the slight variation of 2.76 and 2.98 per cent. Since that period they were, from 1855-60, 3.53; 1860-61, 3.91; 1861-62, 4.18; 1862-63, 4.39 ; then from 1863-66 the proportion varied between 4.17 and 4.27 per cent, of all the marriages contracted. In 1869-70 5-14 per cent, of the total marriages. Towns. There are 8,042 communities, of which 170 are towns and 68 market places, with the constitution of towns. The communities in the Palatinate have the same constitution. Towns with a Population above 3,000, their Situation and Population^ which includes the Military. Population 193,024 91,018 57.213 44,975 31.504 26,951 27,360 22,668 19,180 18,268 14,780 14,752 14,485 14,321 13,299 13.597 13,380 12,682 12,093 11,590 11,233 10,222 10,843 10,136 9,220 9,248 8,253 7,223 7,907 7,579 Munich, in Upper Bavaria Nurenburg, in Mid-Franconia... Augsburg, in Swabia ... Wurzburg, in Lower Franconia Ratisbon Bamberg, in Upper Franconia Fiirth, in Mid-Franconia Kaiserlautern, in the Palatinate Bayreuth, in Upper Franconia Hof ... ,, „ Landshut, in Lower Bavaria ... Passau „ „ Ingolstadt, in Upper Bavaria ... Spires, in the Palatinate Ausbach, in Mid-Franconia ... Erlangen „ Amberg, in the Upper Palatinate Kempten, in Swabia ... Ludwigshafen, in the Palatinate Straubing, in Lower Bavaria ... Schweinfurt, in Lower Franconia Neustadt-on-the-Haardt, in the Palatinate Aschaffenburg, in Lower Franconia ... Pirmasens, in the Palatinate ... St. Ingbert „ Zweibrlicken ,, Freising, in Upper Bavaria Nordlingcn, in Swabia... Frankenthal, in the Palatinate Landau, „ Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 433 Eichstadt, in Mid-Franconia Rosenheim, in Upper Bavaria Schwabach, in Mid-Franconia Germersheim, in the Palatinate Kitzingen, in Lower Franconia Lechhausen, in Upper Bavaria Durkheim, in the Palatinate ... Deggendorf, in Lower Bavaria Neuhausen, in Upper Bavaria... Rothenburg, in Mid-Franconia, on the T. Dinkelsbiihl, in Mid-Franconia Kaufbeuren, in Swabia Weissenburg, in Mid-Franconia Hassloch, in the Palatinate Kulmbach, in Upper Franconia Dillingen, in Swabia ... Edenkoben, in the Palatinate ... Neumarkt, in the Upper Palatinate ... Landsberg, in Upper Bavaria Lindau, in Swabia Sulzbach, in the Upper Palatinate Selb, in Upper Franconia Lohr, in Lower Franconia Kronach, in Upper Franconia Traunstein, in Upper Bavaria Furth, in the Upper Palatinate Schwabing, in Upper Bavaria Gunsburg, in Swabia ... Neustadt (the Aisch), in Mid-Franconia Weiden, in the Upper Palatinate Wunsiedel, in Upper Franconia Forchheim, in Upper Franconia Lauingen, in Swabia ... Homburg, in the Palatinate Miinchberg, in Upper Franconia Donauwcirth, in Swabia Heidingsfield, in Lower Franconia ... Kandel, in the Palatinate Schwarzenbach, in Upper Franconia . . . Wasserburg, in Upper Bavaria Windsheim, in Mid-Franconia Griinstadt, in the Palatinate Weilheim, in Upper Bavaria Gunzenhausen, in Mid-Franconia Reichenhall, in Upper Bavaria Hersbouck, in Mid-Franconia Schwandorf, in Upper Palatinate Kissingen, in Lower Franconia Oggersheim, in the Palatinate Dingolfing, in Lower Bavaria Kirchheimbolanden, in the Palatinate Population 7.136 7,501 7,024 6,455 6,393 6,724 5,841 6,763 6,591 5^773 5»24o 5,553 5,203 5,069 5,216 5,029 4,889 4,600 4,956 5,124 4,379 4,760 4,353 3,685 4,466 4,336 6,373 3,808 3,841 4,172 3,877 3,848 3,784 3,612 3,525 3>758 3,720 3,445 3,984 3,633 3,658 3,531 3,858 3,313 3,303 3,556 3,523 3,471 3,472 3,169 3,128 2 E 434 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. The Military Population {included above). Was, 6,645 i^ Munich ; 2,579 in Nurenburg ; 2,386 in Augsburg ; 2,235 in Wiirzburg ; 1,644 it^ Bamberg ; 1,163 i^ Landshut ; 1,129 i^ Bayreuth ; 945 in Amberg ; 855 in Laudau ; 841 in Ausbach ; 825 in Neuburg ; 697 in Ratisbon. In the Fortresses^ 4,526 in Ingolstadt ; 2,482 in Gemersheim ; 2,081 in New Ulm. The Population of Munich in the year 1580 was estimated at 20,000; in 1688 at 26,000. Even in 1783 there were only 37,840 inhabitants; in 1801, 40,500; in 1818, 53,672; in 1834, 88,905; in 1852, 106,715. The addition to it of some Communities has partially caused the increase since then. The once Imperial City of Niirenberg contained only 26,854 inhabi- tants in 1818, and in 1840 the number had but increased to 44,863. Territorial Changes. After the death of the Electoral Prince, Max Joseph III., December 30, 1777, the Palatinate of the Rhine was united to Bavaria ; and immediately subsequent to the Peace of Teschen, May 13, 1779, and prior to the Revolution, the component parts of the Electoral State of Bavaria and the Palatinate were as follows : — I. Bavaria. a. Duchy of Bavaria b. Upper Palatinate c. Principality of Neuburg... d. Principality of Sulzbach . . . II. Lower or Rhine Palatinate III. Duchy of Jiilich and Berg IV. Duchy of Zweibriicken English sqr. miles 12,247 2,551 1,106 552 Population 990,000 ... 175,000 92,000 ... 43,000 English sqr. miles 16,456 .. 2,764 .. 2,764 .. 1,105 .. Population . 1,300,000 298,800 . 398,200 96,000 ... Total ... 23,089 2,093,000 To the Palatinate of the Rhine belonged Manheim, Heidelberg, and considerable portions of the present District of the Palatinate. To the Duchy of Jiilich and Berg belonged Dusseldorf, Elberfeld, Tolingen, Kaiserswerth and Diiren. The Population in 1801 was estimated at 2,328,294. Bavaria lost by the Peace of Luneville, in 1801, the Palatinate of the Rhine, Jiilich and the Duchy of Zweibriicken ; it received as com- pensation (by decree of an Imperial deputation, on February 25, 1803) the Bishoprics of Bamberg, Freising and Augsburg, portions of the Bishoprics of Wiirzburg and Passau, 1 2 Abbacies and 1 5 Imperial Towns, among which were Ulm, Kcmpten, Memmingen, Nordlingcn and Schwein- furt. Bavaria thus gained about 1,275 English Sc^uare INIiles, and 1 10.000 souls. The Peace of Presburg, December 26, 1805, cost indeed the City of Wurzburg, which had been elevated into a separate State, but at the same time gave to Bavaria the remainder of the District of Passau, the Tyrol, the Vorarlberg, the Margraviate of Burgau, the Principality of Eichstadt and the Imperial Cities of Augsburg and Lindau ; the gain being 10,631 square miles, and 620,000 souls. The Duchy of Berg was Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 435 exchanged in 1806 for Ausbach, which was ceded by Prussia. Bavaria received the Imperial City of Niirnberg, in accordance with the terms of the Confederation of the Rhine. On January i, 1806, the Elector assumed the title of King. In 1809, December 26th, by the peace of Vienna, Bavaria acquired Salzburg, Berchtesgaden, the district of the Inn, and the greater part of the circle or district of Hansruck, in exchange for some cessions in favour of Wiirtemburg and Wiirzburg. In 18 10 the South Tyrol was given up to the kingdom of Italy, the principalities of Bayreuth and Ratisbon serving as compensation. Bavaria now embraced an area of 36,145 square miles, with a population of 3,800,000, In consequence of the Treaty of Ried, October 8th, 181 3, and of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, Bavaria was reconstructed ; she was obliged to restore to Austria the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, and the circles of the Inn and of Hanseuck, and received in return the unequal compensa- tion of Wurzburg, Asschaffenburg, and the Rhine province. So long as the contiguity of this latter with the mother country did not exist, Austria was to pay annually ^8,333. Bavaria was compelled by the Peace of Berlin, August 22nd, 1866, to cede to Prussia the district of Gersfeld, the jurisdic- tion of Orbe, and the village of Kaulsdorf, together 2 1 3 square miles, and a population of 32,976. Finance. Budget. — Previous to 1868 the periods of Finance were six years, since that year it is biennial. The chief heads of the Budget for 1878 and 1879 (the 14th Financial period) were as follows : — REVENUE. I. Brought forward from the 1 2th Financial period ... ;^352,7i2 XL Direct Taxes, viz., land tax, ^^57 1,916; house tax, | ^164,544; interest on capital, ;^ 100, 223 ; tax /- 1,082,025 on industry, ^^^183, 218 ; income tax, ;^62,i23 I III. Indirect Taves, — Rates and fines, ^1,020,522 ) stamps, ^87,451, - .- 1 i'i°7,973 IV. Malt surplus, 1,127,486; administration of customs, | ^64,030; dog duty, ^53000; card duty, ■ 1,158,226 ^11,000; miscellaneous, ^2,710 ... ) V. Mines, ;^4o6,30o; smelting works, ^79>929; salt| ^c8 8qi works, ^120,404 ;miscellaneous,;^52, 217 j ^0 ' VI. The mint 9.279 VII. From the bank in Niirnberg ... ... ... ... i7)5°° VIII. State railways 4,277,665 IX. Post office 486,987 X. Telegraph 68,123 XI. From steamers on Lake Constance ... ... ... 20,400 XII. The Ludwig-Danube-Main canal 8,276 XIII. Franconia Valley canal ... ... ... ... 307 XIV. Law and institution gazette ... ... ... ••• 3)674 XV. Forests, hunting, pasture ... ... ... ... i,498j9°9 436 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. Trade Savings : the estate of Schleissheim, ^19,883 n court brewhouse in Munich, ;!^43,79i ; vineyards ( in Lower Franconia, ;^4,69i ; fishing in Chiemsee, T ^^229; farming and letting, ;^ 2 1,623 ... ...} Land dues Interest, rents, chance revenues Revenue for the purpose of maintaining relatives of deceased servants of the State 90,287 380,230 41,660 23,526 Gross total ;^io,986,6io EXPENDITURE. (3.) Expenditure for collecting, administration, etc. ... I. Nett State Expenditure — The Court — Civil list ;^2ii,55i; appanages, ^43,286; widows' fund ;^ii,66i; pensions, ;!^6 2 7 II. State debt, .;^337)493 ; railways, ^^ 1,649,808 ; ground rent, ^38,078 III. Council of State IV. The Diet and the archives V. Ministry of foreign affairs VI, Administration of justice VII. Home department, including ;^325,9ii ; sanitary purposes, lent purposes, ^13,448; security, ^180,123 industry and agriculture, ^45,131 ; aid to the communities, ^50,830 VIII. Churches and schools ... IX. Administration of finance X. Imperial purposes XL Pensions to servants of the State XII. Pensions to widows and orphans XIII. Support of officials XIV. Reserve for necessary, yet unforeseen, expenses public buildings. ^43,121 ; benevo P^4,59i»594 267,126 2,025,380 4,827 20,523 28,155 593>i6o - 885,069 979,438 168,732 987,509 330,021 110,374 32,739 157,017 Total nett expenditure ... ... ... ... -^6,590,070 Total gross expenditure ... ... ... ... ^^ii, 181, 664 The expense of the military is not included in this sum. For 1877-78 it was fixed at ^^2, 138,6 12. The kingdom of Bavaria enjoys the possession of large domains. The State forests produced in the least favourable year (1868) the nett amount of ^485,177 ; in 1872 it produced ^763,768. Pensions are nowhere so numerous and so large as in Bavaria. In what degree the requirements of the State have grown in modern times, the following comparison will show : — Gross Nett In 1870-71 ... ... ^7,262,050 ■■■ ^4,875,715 „ 1872-73 ... 9,182,355 6,247,469 „ 1874-75 ... 10,308,076 6,652,265 „ 1876-77 ... 12,510,592 7,973,200 „ 1878-79 ... 12,853,049 8,388,999 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 437 Local Burdens. Besides those expenses directly defrayed by the State treasury, there are many others for administration, justice, education, benevolence, etc., which must be defrayed by the individual* provincial circles, communes, and districts by means of special local imposts. It sometimes occurs that these are supplemented by grants from the central State treasury when any special object is required. The following is a statement of 1872 : — Requirements Provinces or of the various _ State Local Per Cent. Government Districts Government Districts Advances Imposts of Imposts Upper Bavaria •■• ^53,798 ... ^20,204 . .. ;^26,05I ... 12^^ Lower Bavaria 41,199 — 20,658 . 19,208 ... i6i The Palatinate 64,143 ... 23,688 . .. 38,583 ••■ 44i Upper Palatinate ... 31,297 ... 17,601 12,812 ... i6f Upper Franconia ... 34,549 - 19,386 14,738 ... i8i Mid-Franconia ... 42,057 ... 23,635 • 16,305 ... I4t'2 Lower Franconia 40,480 25,176 15,417 ... i3i Swabia 44,003 ... 21,900 20,919 ... i6f Upper Bavaria Lower Bavaria The Palatinate Upper Palatinate Upper Franconia Mid Franconia Lower Franconia Swabia The claims made upon the provincial districts have steadily increased of late years, the consequence of which has been to augment the direct taxes in order to supply larger advances. These grants take the form of a certain per centage on the State taxes. In 1876 the imposts produced ^273,970, viz., in:— Per Cent, of Contribution Amount 21.4 ... ... ^51,804 26.2 32,952 46.5 48,872 22.3 ... ... 20,790 22.9 20,594 30-6 39-537 20.6 25,739 24.0 33,678 Communal imposts include also taxes on articles of consumption, the malt tax occupying a prominent position. Debt. This mainly originated from the practice of charging upon the State treasury the private debts of the electors, a practice always resisted, but always allowed by the Parliament which, durirg the 17th and i8th centuries, had degenerated into a mere sham institution. To cover this the " malt-tax " was introduced, at first only to a small amount. Debts were inherited with some of the acquired territory, and the real property which accompanied the new territory, (including the lands of the suppressed monasteries) was for the greater part wasted. Loan was added to loan between 181 1 and 1813. The amount of debt acknowledged on ist of October, 181 1 was ^9,352,550,-^254,166 to be paid annually in interest and ;,^i 29,500 in reducing the debt. Something was actually paid * Beyond this an extraordinary grant former extraordinary grant. made of £137,980, being an extension of a 43 8 Separate States of Germajiy — Bavaria. off even during the Prussian War; great efforts were made in 1815, when Bavaria was desirous of ranking among the higher powers. After the Treaty of Paris the State of Bavaria received ;^6oo,ooo of the French Defence money, and ;^i, 020,000 from the contribution fund; but the purposes for which this money was employed is only partially known, as the Government subsequently refused to give any account of the expen- diture prior to the constitutional period. It IS a fact that King Maximilian I. gave;^2oo,ooo of it to the queen and his daughters by a deed of the 24th January, 18 16. The Chambers also charged the State treasury with ;?^79, 166 of the private debts of the same king as late as 1822, a sum which he had once borrowed from Louis XVI. The employment of the State monies in the so-called " Greek loans" never appeared in the State accounts before 1849. At the commencement of the constitutional era, 18 18, the State debt, together with the arrears of interest, was estimated at ;^8,97 1,888. Beyond the interest f per cent, was to be paid off annually. In the meantime there were constant introductions of older claims, among which was ;^7o8,333 for the satisfaction of the claims of Prince Charles to a dotation in ria;ht of " secondo-geniture." The State Debt In 1820 was ^g, 166,666 In" 1834 was ;j^io,9i6,666 » 1825 „ 9,291,666 „ 1839 „ 10,458,333 „ 1826 „ 10,208,333 „ 1840 „ .. . 10,666,666 1830 M 10,666,666 " 1847 „ 10,500,000 „ 1832 „ 11,000,000 A new debt arose in 1847, chiefly to cover deficiencies. The loans for extraordinary military expenditure, for railways, and the compensation for ground rents were treated separately. The sum of the various categories of debt was as follows : — On Oct. 1st, 1865. On Jan ist, iSGS. On Jan ist, 1874. On Jan. ist, 1878. 1. Old debt ^6,213,274 ^6,199,743 j 2. New debt ... 892,408 3,129,227 , p{^9>059>905 ^§064,055 3. Military loan 2,587,158 5,476,608 ) 4. Railway debt 12,181,202 12,297,735 i9;53i>45o 37,148,585 5- ^Vg^t^'debt } 8,240,664 8,059,612 7,908,754 8,697,478 6. Paper money — 1,250,000 1,750,000 — Total ... ^30,114,706 ^36,4f2,925 ;^38,25o, 109 ^54,410,118 The great increase in the " new debt," and the military loan was the result of the war of 1866. This war cost ^1,986,698 in direct expenditure for the army, without reckoning the subsequent expenditure on super- numary officers, and a war contribution to Prussia of ^2^2,500,000, to procure which further sacrifices were necessary. It must be remembered that the ground rent debt is fictitious to the amount of ;;^4io,876 ; and that the railway debt is covered by real property. Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 439 The New Contribution of War. The war of 1870 and 187 1 caused directly and indirectly an expendi- ture of ^"6,65 1,740 from the State Exchequer (inclusive of an increase of ;^ I GO, 000 paper money). What remained of the French war contribution after the immediate outlay for purposes of the Empire, belonged to the separate States and was thus divided, % according to the proportion of war service rendered, and % according to the rate of population in 1871. . . Bavaria received, according to a statement of the Finance Minister, in November, 1873, ^^13,1 10,826. Out of this were paid off not only the loans contracted for special war purposes, but also the previous loans of 1855 and 1859, to the amount of ^3,125,000, leaving a remainder of ^2,249,916. Of this sum the Ministry proposed to employ ^750,000 in calling in Exchequer Bills not bearing interest ; ;2^4i6,666 in repaying the remainder of the loan of 1857 ; and the remainder as a war credit for the 1 2th Financial Period. In 1877 it was communicated to Bavaria that she had received too large a portion, and that the sum of ^61,242 must be refunded. Debts of the Government Districts. (Generally for the Building of Insane Asylums) :— Upper Bavaria ^^20,833 and ^85,833 Lower Bavaria ... ••• i3'75o Upper Franconia ... ... ... ••• ••• 49)9^" Mid Franconia 35>85o and 83,333 Lower Franconia i8,333 and 50,000 Communal or Parish Debts. At the close of 1875 these amounted to ^4,oi7,723- _;^ioi.6o6 were required for annual interest and ;^i5i,o8o annually for paying off_ the debt. Of the entire debt, ^^2, 816,666 came upon the large towns in a proportion equal to £\ 4^. 10^. per head of the population. The debt of Munich alone on the ist of Jan., 1878, was ^i,335>962. The Army. Although the Bavarian army, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, forms in many respects an independant body in the_ Imperial army, yet the Prussian Military regulations prevail in all_ important matters. Bavaria has to supply 2 army corps, each corps being divided into 2 brigades. The tactical divisions are as follows : — Infantry. Cavalry. 1 6 Reo-iments 2 Regiments of Cuirassiers 10 Rifle Battalions 2 „ Uhlans 6 „ Light Cavalry Artillery. 4 Artillery Regiments with 4 Mounted Batteries Engineers. 28 Wagon Batteries i Corps of Engineers 20 Foot Batteries. 440 Separate States of Gennany — Bavaria. The Landwehr (Militia) numbers 32 Battalions. In 1870, out of 2,350 Officers, 1,708 were not nobles. One of the two Commandants of the Army Corps was not of noble descent ; of the 16 Lieutenant-Gencrals, 7 were not nobles ; of the 24 Major-Generals, 9 were not nobles ; of the 32 Officers of the General Staff, 19 were not nobles. In the Infantry there were of the Officers 367 nobles and 1,250 commoners ; in the Cavalry, 161 nobles and only 96 commoners; In the Artillery, 75 nobles and 221 commoners; in the Corps of Engineers, 7 nobles and 106 commoners. Fortresses. Ingolstadt and Germersheim, both built in modern times, the former at an original outlay of about ^1,500,000, and the latter at an expenditure of ;^i,o83,333. On the first, large sums have since been spent. The fortress of New Ulm, is also new. All other fortresses are abolished. Historical War Notes. Prior to 1789 the Forces of Bavaria and the Palatinate were estimated at 24,000 men ; of these, however, only 7,000 were under arms. The sacrifice of life was very great in the battles which were fought in the time of the Rhenish Confederation, and although no Bavarian troops_ were sent into Spain, yet 30,000 of them were almost cut to pieces in the Russian Campaign. The highest number reached by the Bavarian Army, during the time of the first Napoleon, was only 47,000; in 1815 it was increased to 86,000. The losses in the war of 1866 were : — 47 Officers killed III „ wounded 282 Subalterns and Soldiers killed 1858 „ ,, wounded 567 „ „ missing [Together 158 Together 2707 Total 2,865 The Prussian troops opposed to them lost 2,694 Officers and Men. A further calculation, made by B. Fdrster (Campaign of i866 in South West Germany), gives the following as the strength of the troops : — 4th July Prussian ...51,000 Bavarian ...41,000 8th Army Corps... 50,000 Social Conditions. The impediments which existed in the seven districts on the right bank of the Rhine, with respect to settlement, marriage, and the pursuit of industry, have been mostly removed by the new social legislation of 1868. The French system, founded on the principle of freedom, already existed in the Palatinate. This principle has maintained itself throughout in antagonism to that of restriction. Of the births in the Palatinate, during 25th July 27th July Killed & Wounded Officers Soldiers Missing ! Officers Soldiers • 53,542 . . 46,489 • . 47,865 . . 54,900 • 44,841 • 46,395 ... 167 ...3,467 .. 172 ...2,224 .. 88 ...1,753 ... 2 ... 282 ...21 ...1,407 ...32 •••2,530 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 441 the 22 years, 1836-60, 8 per cent, were illegitimate; the average in those districts where the restrictive hindrances existed being 23.2 per cent. One divorce took place in the following proportion of marriages : — In the Palatinate In the other Districts Of Roman Catholics ... ... 871 ... ... 164 Of Protestants ... ... ... 285 ... ... 102 Of mixed religions ... ... 367 ... ... 84 Education. The number of schools for the people in 1877 ^^as 6,991 — viz. : Catholics 4,855 Protestant 1,908 Jewish ... ... ... 105 Mixed ... ... ... 123 Schools Teachers 943 1,720 769 1,224 1,017 1,587 672 1,014 808 1,146 811 1,282 998 1,487 973 1,391 Teaching potver., 10,852 — viz., 9,764 masters and 1,088 mistresses, of whom 772 belong to conventional institutions. The number of schools and teachers in the various government districts are as follows : — Upper Bavaria ... Lower Bavaria ... Palatinate Upper Palatinate Upper Franconia Mid-Franconia... Lower Franconia Swabia ... Since 1S73, 1,252 schools have been free. The minimum salary of the teachers is ^^37 \os. The total expenditure for tjie Bavarian schools is estimated at ^666,666. The total number of scholars in the day schools in 1874 was 632,599 ; of this number, 438,945 were Roman CathoUcs, 187,387 were Protestants, and 5,883 were Jews; 384 did not belong to either of these creeds. Of lower industrial schools, there were 1,730 as early as the year 1869, with 71,831 scholars. Of infant schools, there were 178, with 13,576 children Middle Schools in 1877. — 40 commercial schools, with 5,375 scholars ; 4 industrial schools, with 391 scholars; 6 grammar schools, 77 Latin schools, 30 gymnasia schools, 36 agricultural and 3 scientific schools. For higher instruction, in 1878, there existed 3 universities viz., Munich, with 1,364 students ; Wurzburg and Erlangen ; 6 Lyceums, 9 clerical schools, i polytechnic, and 2 schools for music. At the end of 1873 there were 96 monasteries and 524 nunneries, with 1,094 monks and 5,054 nuns. While dealing with the education of the people, it should be noticed that during the 9 years, 1860-68, 9.6 per cent, of the conscripts had had but a very deficient education. What the per-centage was then, and subse- quently in the various government districts, maybe seen from the following summary : — 1860-68 1872 1873 1874 1876 Upper Bavaria ... 8.6 ... 7.3 ... 6.1 ... 4.5 Lower Bavaria ... 18.5 ... 13.2 ... 9.6 ... 8.2 442 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 1860-68 1872 1873 1874 1876 Palatinate II. I . 18.3 .. . 13.6 .. II. 8 Upper Palatinate .. 13.6 .. . 13.9 . . II. 8 .. 15-5 .. 1.9 Upper Franconia ... 7-3 •• . 6.8 .. . 6.2 .. 6.7 Mid Franconia 5-4 ■■ 5-7 •• . 2.6 .. 2.6 Lower Franconia ... 6.6 .. 7.2 .. 5-3 •■ 5-8 Swabia 5-3 •• . 2.7 . • 3-0 •• 3-0 0.1 Criminal Statistics. From the introduction of public verbal proceedings, January xst, 1849, till the introduction of the new penal code, June 30th, 1S62, 327 sentences of death were passed and 65 executed, 50 upon murderers, and 15 upon robbers. A list of persons condemned for crimes or misdemeanours in the 7 districts on the right bank of the Rhine during the 7 years, from 1854 to i860, classed according to the two principal creeds, gives the following results. Sentenced for crimes „ misdemeanours Total Roman Catholics 285 ■ 4,745 5>o3o Roman Catholics Protestants 50 equals 9.7 1,171 162.6 172.3 Protestants 5.6 per 100,000 128.5 „ 134-1 The number of persons sentenced during the years 1S72-76 was — 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 258,210 ... 293,468 ... 316,863 ... 307,728 ... 347,070 Poachers are not included in the above. In 1875-76, they numbered respectively, 167,315 and 182,056. Amid great variations in the different Government districts we find, on the whole, the proportion of crime less among the Protestants than among the Roman Catholics. This coincides with the results obtained in Prussia, but is contrary to those found in Baden. Another fact to be noticed in connection with the distinction according to religion is that the number of suicidts is far greater among Protestants than among the Roman Catholics. The number of insane persons also is much larger among Protestants than among Roman Catholics. Among Roman Catholics ... „ Protestants » Jews „ Creeds not known... Suicides. 1857-61 1866 Per 100,000 in 1866 ... 189 .. . 195 .. . ... 5-67 ... 288 . . 203 .. ... 15.27 5 •• 7 .• ... 14.05 5 •• 5 •• — 387 410 8.49 Occupations. According to Hermann the proportion per i,ooo of persons employed and living by — Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 44J ,840 185a Agriculture 657 679 Manufacturers and trade 257 227 Annuities, service of the State and art ... 54 55 The army 14 ^9 Conscripts ... ••• ••• 18 20 1,000 1,000 The number of the clergy among the Roman Catholics was i in 464 ; among the Protestants i in 1,013 In 187 1 the number of those engaged in Agriculture and Forest labour was ... ... ••. 1,982,024 lindustries, including Mining and Smelting Works ... 1,450,545 Trade and Commerce sSijS'^S Domestic Service ... ... 5^9,944 The Army " 58,616 Occupations unclassified ... ... ... ••• .•• 184,522 Without occupation... ... ... ... ... ••• 261,260 Not known 24,971 Mainienafice of the Poor. The number of persons supported by public means in the year 1870 was 118,769 ; 78,026 of these are given as permanently maintained. The accounts of the general poor fund showed ^245,188 income and ^220,749 expenditure. The number of Charitable Institutions was 1,770, with property producing ^4,019,948. Working in 1876 Mines Smelting Works Salt Works Mining and Smelting. Works Produce Value Workmen 315 ... 13,298,331 cwts. .. 96 ... 2,576,195 „ 7 ••• 963,254 » • . ^281,247 • 1,166,759 98,708 ... 5,120 •• 4,340 - 525 Total ... 418 ... 16,837,780 ...;^i, 546,714 ... 9,985 The most important mining produce of 1876 was 9,474,218 cwts. of pit coal, produced from 49 mines, and worth ^207,408; 494,746 cwt. of Lignite, and 2,270,828 cwts. of iron ore from 44 mines. The most important produce of the smelting works was 1,225,420 cwts. of pig-iron, of the value of ^456,156, and 1,171,253 cwts. of rod-iron, worth i^597,339- Cultivation of the Soil. The 18,514,386 acres which the State possessed at the last census may be thus divided : — Acres. Buildings and Court Yards occupied 82,735 Gardens 253,822 Vineyards ... ... ... 54,745 *Hop Gardens... 43^513 « Chiefly in Mid-Franconia. 444 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. Acres Arable Land 7»536,76o Meadows 2,938,010 Forests ... Waste and Pasture Land Ponds ... Churches and Churchyards Rivers and Seas Bogs Total cultivated land ... 10,909,585 6,201,515 1,040,418 28,565 2,954 314,636 16,709 Total ... 18,514,382 Land devoted to agriculture, in private possession, is divided into 1,032,123 estates, of which 241,217 are in the smaller Palatinate. The number of parcels or holdings is 14,250,239, of which 2,126,135 are in the Palatinate, and 4,025,074 in Lower Franconia. Tobacco. The cultivation of tobacco deserves special mention under the head of agriculture. In the year 1857 — 4981.99 acres were planted with tobacco ; in 1872 the number of acres planted was 11,630; in 1873 the acres numbered 14,135. In this same year of 1873 there were 21,786 tobacco planters, who paid duty in 282 communities or parishes. The yield of dried tobacco leaves was estimated at 179,656 cwts. In 1876 the number of acres planted was 12,851, and the yield of dried leaves 128,165 cwts., valued at ^121,750 ; 9,986 of these acres were in the Palatinate, and the remainder in Mid-Franconia. Cultivation of the Vine. The 54,745 acres give an average yield of 14,343,215 imperial gallons. 25,893 acres, producing 8,966,436 gallons, are in the Palatinate, the remainder in Lower Franconia. Forests. In 1874 the area was 5,201,515 acres, of which 2,313,407 was in the possession of the State : 958,468 belonged to the communities, corporations, and charitable institutions, and the remainder to private individuals. Live Stock. In 1873 there were — 350,867, horses... ... \ 3,066,263 head of cattle... 1,342,190 sheep ... ... The value computed at ^18,663,715. 193,887 goats 872,098 pigs ... Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. 445 Breweries. Among industrial occupations, breweries deserve special mention. In the districts on the right bank of the Rhine there existed in 1872-5, 117 breweries, consuming 1,529,858 imperial quarters of malt which yielded 217.932,543 gallons of beer of the approximate value of -,^7,603,962. In 1876 the eighteen breweries in Munich paid duty on 1,295,556 gallons. Brafidy Distilleries. In 1876 there were 8,301 distilleries (in i860 there were only 2,600), which produced 2,895,530 gallons. Dwellings. In the seven Government circles on the right bank of the Rhine there were in 1872 1,315,390 buildings insured against fire, to the value of ^103,760,704. In the Palatinate 102,182 principal, and 115,629 sub- ordinate buildings were insured to the value of ^16,005,922. Comtnereial Bafikruptcies. In 1872 there were 72 ; in 1874, 115; in 1875, ^35 ; in 1876, 173. There were in Munich alone, 32 ; in Upper Bavaria, 49 ; Lower Bavaria, 19; Palatinate, 3; Upper Palatinate, 8; Upper Franconia, 15; Mid Franconia, 26; Lower Franconia_, 8 : Swabia, 17. The liabilities were on an average ^2,645. I"^ o^ie case the liability was over ^50,000. Railways. In 1875 there were at work 1,420 miles of State single lines, and 156 miles of State double lines — the cost of construction, ^24,344,909. The companies single and double lines in working order having a length of 888 miles; the cost of construction being ;^X4,788,558. In 1877 the state lines measured 2,413 miles ; the Palatinate, 368 miles : the Nurenberg- Fiirth line, 5 ; making together 2,786 miles. The receipts from passengers in 1875 was ^1,231,738 ; in 1876, ^1,314,018. The number of passen- gers conveyed in 1875 was 11,139,516; in 1876, 22,762,961; in 1877, 18,885,837. The weight of goods carried in 1876 was 127,565,076 cwts. ; the revenue therefrom was ^2,813,827 ; the average from passengers being 31.27 per cent. ; and from goods 63.32 per cent. Accidents. In 1875 the number of killed ,, ,, „ wounded In 1876 the number of killed „ ,, „ wounded In 1877 the number of killed ,, ,, „ wounded In 1878 the number of killed „ ,, „ wounded 61 60 77 50 84 137 88 i,7i8 i873 X874 1875 4,292 4,438 4,718 14,289 15,060 17,357 ^190,858 .. ^220,636 ... ^241,048 776 772 867 1,765)625 •• 1,774,883 • •• 1,835,451 1876 1877 187S 4,825 4,935 5,026 19,678 20,782 21,230 ^261,166 ... ^279.245 ... ^291,280 926 985 1,017 1,900,216 .. 1,976,458 •.. 1,837,436 446 Separate States of Germany — Bavaria. Telegraphs. Length of line, (miles) Length of wire, (miles) Cost of construction Offices open Number of messages Length of line, (miles) Length of wire, (miles) Cost of construction Offices open Number of messages Post. In 1872 there were dispatched 56,433,990 letters, and 63,252,652 newspapers. There were also 1,219,936 post bills or orders received, and 1,151,282 sent out, of the total value of ^5,336,703. The average num- ber of letters and newspapers per head of the population was 11.63 letters and 13.04 newspapers. The receipts of this year were ^332,068 ; the expenditure, ;^305,73o; net profit, ^^26,338. In 1876 the receipts were ;^425,5oo; expenditure, ^398,389; net profit, ^^ 2 7,1 11 Danube Main Canal (^Lud'wig's Canal). In 1872 ... ... traversed by 2,630 vessels and 1,169 ^^^'^'^ „ 1876 „ 2,532 „ 2,037 „ In 1872, revenue, ^7,100 ; expenditure, ^^15,839; deficiency, ^^8,739 „ 1876 „ 8,210 „ 16,358 „ 8,148 The cost of constructing the canal was ;!^i, 500,000. Steam Trajflc on Lake Constance. The State establishment in — 1872, was worked by 6 steamers, 7 tugs, 3 ferry-boats. persons conveyed, 144,6472. Goods conveyed 760,808 cwts. 1876, worked by 5 steamers, 4 tu^s, 3 ferry-boats, persons conveyed, 96,713. Goods conveyed, 3,916,987 cwts. 1S72, Receipts ^19,110; expenditure, ^22,130; deficiency, ^3,020 1876, „ 21,576 „ 16,218 profit 4,258 WURTEMBURG (Kingdom). Area Population, 1877 Square Miles Males Females Total Circle of the Neckar ... 1,284 286,268 301,566 587,834 ,, Black Forest ... 1,843 215,561 239,376 454,937 Separate States of Germany — Wurtemburg. 447 Jaxt ... Danube Area Square Miles 1,984 2,418 Population, 1S77 Males Females 155,052 217,433 202,651 230,598 Total 390,703 448,031 7,529 907,314 974,191 1,881,505 The preponderance of the female over the male population was, in the year 1867, 57,002 \ in 1871, 66,211 ; in 1875, 66,877. Evangelical ... Catholics Other Christians 1815 1832 1841 1843 1846 1849 Creeds. 1,296,650 Jews 567,578 Holding no creed 4,167 Former Population. 1,395,462 1852 1,578,147 ^855 1,646,871 1858 1,680,798 1861 1,726,716 1864 1,744,595 1867 12,881 229 1,733,263 1,669,720 1,690,898 1,720,708 1,748,328 1,778,396 The census of 1852 shewed a diminution of 11,332 upon the figures of the three previous years, that of 1855, a further decrease of 63,545 in the same period of time. The latest returns have only shewn a moderate increase. The circles are divided into 64 superior jurisdictions, with 1,911 com- munities or parishes. The number of householdings 398,386, averaging 4.56 persons to each. Moveinent of the Population. Year. Births. Still born. Deaths. Marriages. Suicides 1870 . . 87,221=^ .. • 71,355* ••• — 246 1871 .. . 74,389 .. . 3,082 . . 58,803 .. 20,763 .. 236 1872 .. . 79,845 .. . 3,186 . . 57,225 .. ^9,533 .. 213 1873 .. . 81,790 .. . 3,138 . . 58,453 •• 18,211 •• 304 1874 . . 81,620 • 3,253 • . 57,851 .. 16,759 .. 282 1875 . . 85,132 .. • 3,264 . 61,216 16,421 •• 330 1876 . . 85,894 . • 3,330 . . 60,178 .. • 15,321 1877 . . 81,187 . • 3,215 . .. 58,650 .. • 14,387 .. Emigration and Imtnigration. The number of emigrations which took place in the 10 years from December, 1842-52 amounted to 54,285 ; or an average of 5,428 per annum. Emigrations were most numerous in 1853 and 1854; in the latter year alone they amounted to 21,144. The number of immigrants was 9,629 in the 10 years, 1842-1852, or an annual average of 963. During the years 1852-1861, 66,709 persons emigrated, and 11,870 settled in the country ; preponderance of emigrants, 54,839. In the years 1861- * Contains 15 months. 448 Separate States of Germany — Wttrtemhurg. 1870 there were 47,680 emigrants, 1 1,094 immigrants, majority of emigrants, 6,586. From 1812 to 1870 emigrants numbered 237,813, and immigrants, 54,244. These figures include only those whose emigration was officially returned. The figures tabulated stand thus : — Years. 1842-52 1852 61 1854 1861-70 1873 Emigrants. 54,285 66,709 21,144 47,680 4,651 Immigrants. 9,629 11,870 485 11,094 From 1873 to 1877, 10,039. Towns and their Population. IN THE NECKAR CIRCLE OR DISTRICT. Stuttgart Heilbronn Esslingen Reutlingen Tiibingen Wildbad Gmiind Hall Aalen IN THE BLACK FOREST CIRCLE. IN THE JAXT OR JAGT CIRCLE. IN THE DANUBE CIRCLE. Ulm Ravensburg Goppingen... Friedrichshafen Majority of Emigrants. 44,656 54,839 20,659 36,586 Population 107,273 21,208 19,602 15,246 10,471 3,236 12,838 8,430 6,087 30,222 10,034 9,532 2,908 Territorial Changes. Prior to the French Revolution the Duchy of Wiirtemburg embraced about 3,295 square miles, and a population of 585,000 (included in this were nine Lordships in Alsace-Lorraine and Franche-Comt4). The posses- sions on the left bank of the Rhine were lost to France, who gave in com- l)ensation Ellwangen, many abbeys, convents, and Imperial towns. Wiirtemburg was declared an Electorate, and in 1805 ac(iuired additional territory by the Peace of Prcsburg. The Elector dissolved the Constitution, December 30, 1805, and assumed the title of King, Jan. i, 1806. In 1809 Wurtemburg received further additions including Ulm. The Con- frress of Vienna left the territory unchanged. The Constitution dates from September, 1819, but has undergone some little alteration since. It joined the North German Confederation, and German Empire under certain reservations on the 25th November, 1870. By the terms of the Separate States of Germany — Wurtemburg. 449 Constitution the Budget is triennial ; on account of the war, however, the grant of taxes for the financial year, 1870-71 was simply prolonged by a decree : and for the two years 1871-73 as well as later on, for 1873-75, a financial edict was made. The financial year began April i, 1878 (previously on July ist), this reduced the year 1878-79 to nine months. Revenue. a. DOMAINS AND OTHER STATE PROPERTY : — 1. Administration of Finance ... 2. „ Forests ... 3. From Mines and Foundries ... 4. From Salt Works 5. Bleaching Establishment (Weissenau) b. TRAFFIC : 1. Railways 2. Post 3. Telegraphs 4. Navigation on Lake Constance 5. Mint and Miscellaneous Year ending June 30, 1878 ^^36,351 269,360 15,600 25,000 650,000 i5>oi7 820 150 51.705 Total Domains and State Property ... 1,064,262 TAXES : — a. Direct .. b. Indirect c. Balance 610,685 519.977 222,011 1,352,673 Ending March 31, 1879 ■ ^28,595 290,130 11,250 18,750 194 502,000 12,213 6,275 100 34,293 , 903,800 , 458,014 389,983 128,205 976,202 Total Revenue ... ^^2, 416,935 ^^i, 880,002 Expenditure. 1. Civil List ... ... ... 92,559 2. Appanage Doweries... ... ... ... 16,595 3. Public Debt 874,129 4. Salaries and Pensions ... ... ... 117,340 5. Foreign Affairs ... ... ... ... 8,326 6. Justice ... ... ... ... ... 172,156 7. Home Affairs ... ... ... ... 234,759 8. Education and Church Matters ... ... 394,885 9. Finance ... ... ... ... ... 148,926 10. Parliamentary Expenses ... ... ... 18,515 Reserve Fund ... ... ... ... 5,250 Contribution to Imperial Expenditure ... 333,499 69,419 12,525 727,191 87,709 6,251 169,522 175,310 299,367 129,808 14,059 3,937 225,154 Total ...^2,416,939 ^1,920,252 The civil list during the reign of the present king amounted to ;i^64,788 in cash, and the natural products estimated at ;,^i 1,344, making together ;^76,i32. But by a decree of February 7th, 1874, the amount 2 F ! 450 Separate States of Germany— Wurtemburg. was fixed at ;^8o,ooo. The sum required by the Court is further increased by ;^2 5,000 for the State Domains. In 1840, the cost of the public debt was only ^112,351. By the ist of July, 1872, however, a sum of ^^14,203, 123 had been expended on railways and plant, which was obtained partly out of the original stock, partly out of surpluses in the administration of finance, and partly by loans (^12,044,581). Of the sum borrowed, ^1,369)803 was paid off by the middle of 1873. The public debt is, therefore, divided into the general debt and the railway debt, the latter amounted in 1878 to ^17,500,000. By the constitution of the Empire, military expenditure no longer appears in the Wurtemburg Budget List in that of the Empire. The War Indemnity of ^4,275,130 was used to defray the cost of the war (^2,869,952), extinguishing the old debt ;!^565.o8^ for purposes of the State, su.ch as buildings, ;i^ 7 7 1,1 15. Communal Expenditure. Communal or local expenditure is defrayed partly by the proceeds of the landed property belonging to the communes, and their sheep pastures, as well as by the fees paid for admission to the rights of citizenship and other privileges, which in many communities amount to a sum which ren- ders the imposition of commune taxes unnecessary. The " Octrois " or dues on articles of consumption were formerly levied at Stuttgart only, but were abolished as long ago as the year 1845. The official corporations have the same right of self-taxation as the communities. Railroads. With the exception of two short distances, they are all under the man- agement of the State. Double and Single 1874 1876 1S78 Total length of line ...miles 761 818 864 Total annual cost of) ^16,187,090 ^17,103,515 ;^i8.576,895 construction ) ^ ■> n ^ ^ /, o>j j ^ j/ > ^j Distance travelled ... miles 4,098,381 _ 4,315,750 4)537, 671 '^"'"seng^s" °' "'" j - '•«'''^'^ '■•^°*5°5 -.748,355 '^""'crrrlfd' °' ^°°^'\ ""''■ ■■ 56.563 56,897 58,098 '^'"lengt^"'"'"'""} - ^«5,66. ;6473,846 ^453,o55 "'""goods"'"'' "'°"} - -^"4,456 ^839,758 ^889,4.7 Total working expenses ... ;^69i,89o ^^704,070 ;3^7o9,687 Total accidents, killed ... 17 41 26 „ wounded ... 31 46 36 Army. The Wurtemburg troops form the 13th German Army Corps, com- prising 2 divisions ; 8 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each ; 4 cavalry Separate States of Germany-^ Wurtemburg. 45 i regiments of 5 squadrons each ; i regiment of field artillery and i battalion of fortress artillery ; 1 7 battalions of Landwehr (militia). Forty-ess, Ulm, with a mixed garrison of Wurtembergers and Bavarians. Historical. The old dukes of Wiirtemburg mostly maintained a considerable num- ber of troops ; during the " Seven Years' War " about 14,000 men. Wiir- temburg was made to furnish 12,000 men to the Rhenish Confederation, who were obliged to go to Russia. In 18 13 the devastated army was re-organized. In 18 14-15 great exertions were made against Napoleon. In the campaign of 1866 Wiirtemburg brought 15,532 men into the field. The loss at Tauberbischofsheim, July 21st, amounted to 60 killed, 452 wounded, 178 missing. In the campaign 0(1870-71, 477 remained on the field of battle, 1,898 more were wounded, of whom 276 died after more than 24 hours. The total number who perished in this campaign was : by wounds, 753; of other injuries, 37; of sickness, 363; total, 1,153. Beyond these 256 were missing, of whom 96 were discovered to have been taken prisoners and 108 returned to their corps. Social Conditions. In 1875 the population was classed according to occupation. Proportion Occupied in Males Females Total in 10,000 1. Land, forests, and fisheries... 298,266 312,322 610,588 3,358 2. Manufactures, mining, etc. ... 366,341 357,242 723,583 3.976 3. Commerce and trade ... 7^,439 82,453 153,892 846 4. Servants of all kinds ... 59,5i8 7i»7ii 131,229 722 5. Military 10,634 1,385 12,019 66 6. Other professions 46,94° 55>302 102,242 562 7. Without any profession ... 17,34° 55,64° 72,98o> .5- 8. Living in institutions ... 6,606 6,002 12,608) 877,084 942,057 1,819,141 It is worthy of notice that new industrial establishments arise every- where on the lines of railroad, whereas a decline takes place in almost all manufactures at a distance from the same. Mining and Smelting. The mines employed 501 labourers in the year 1871, the smelting works 2,252. In 1875 there were — Production Mines and Foundries. cwts. Value Laborers 19 mines (minerals) 49i,357 2 of mineral salt 1,281,830 6 kitchen salt and alum ... 519,816 5 producing metal from ore ... 210,779 47 foundries 640,530 ^1^10,360 ... 286 28,865 ••• ^80 40,766 ... 208 79,972 ... 502 327,017 ... 1,854 452 Separate States of Germany — Wtirtembtirg, Wine. In 1876 there were 58,316 acres of vineyards, 45,077 of which were under cultivation (the greater part being in the valley of the Neckar), and produced 8,438,584 Imperial gallons of wine, the worth of which was ;^75i.8i8. In 1875 the produce was 20,008,802 Imperial gallons, the value bemg In 1877 the produce was 7,192,878 Imperial gallons, and the value £^6s,ooo. Taking the 50 years, from 1827 to 1877, the annual average of produce and worth has been 7,192,878 Imperial gallons and ^,^265, 223. The cultivation of fruit is also very important, but, unfortunately, there are no returns with regard to it. Education. Education is compulsory in Wiirtemburg, and it is universal and most satisfactory; 98.9 per cent, of the children attend school. There is i university, that of Tubingen, having 88 professors and teachers, and 1,137 students ; i polytechnic at Stuttgart, with 577 students ; i academy for the study of agriculture and forestry at Hohenheim, with 106 students ; i school of art at Stuttgart, i conservatorium of music, 4 colleges for evan- gelical theology, and 2 Roman Catholic training colleges. There are 4 training schools for masters and mistresses. Altogether there are nearly .2,500 schools and 350,000 scholars. Every community with more than 30 families is compelled, by law, to have a public school. Included in these numbers are many industrial schools for teaching women's work specially. Justice. A considerable decrease in the number of civil and criminal pro- ceedings went hand in hand with the increase of prosperity from 1856 to 1863. The increase in the number of criminal cases in 1872 may be regarded as one of the results of the war. The number who fell into the hands of the law was : — 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 35>575 37,499 40,709 43>767 47»935 49»i59 53,936 Post. This has not been ceded to the Empire. The establishment was very much improved in the year 1851, when taken over by the State of Wiirtem- burg from Taxis for an indemnity of ^{^2 08. 33 3. In 1855-56 the receipts were j£9T,^2t,, and the expenditure ^84,283 ; but in 1871-72 the receipts were £2']o,'jSg, and the expenditure ^250,747. The number of passengers who travelled with it in 1852 was 127,825 ; in 1860-61, 332,323,. .In 1871-72, 20,526,660 letters and post-cards, and 251,244 patterns of goods were forwarded. In 1876 and 1877 the receipts were ;i^239,03i, and the expenditure ;^2i7,40.4, Separate States of Germany — Wurtemburg. 45 3 Telegraph. 1870 1872' 1876 1878 Miles of Line ... 1,340 . 1,379 • 1,571 .. 1,635 Miles of Wire . . . .. 2,738 . 3,003 • 4,149 .. 4,366 Cost of Construction •• ^9,983 • •• ^7,514 ■ .. ^6,500 .. • ;^i,40o Number of Offices 198 . 220 . 345 •• 363 Number erf Employe's 490 . 536 . 794 •• 822 Number of Messages ... 464,086 . .. 626,014 . .. 784,578 .. . 769,895 Receipts ... ..•;^I4,326 . ••^15,250 . ..^19,962 .. — Expenses ... ••.^13,996 • ••^15,054 • • •^19,474 •• — The Telegraph Station at Stuttgart yields 4i-5 per cent, of the receipts. Banking and Insurance Institutions. In 1872 there were 108 credit or people's banks; they numbered 32,303 members and yearly returns ^11,791,666. Most of them are for artizans ; a few are for agriculturalists, and a few mixed ones for agricul- ture and commerce. The Wiirtemburg Transport Insurance Company deserves especial mention ; the amount of its insurances in 1872 was ;i^ 13, 5 5 9,9 77- The State Fire Insurance Company of Wurtemburg estimated the value of its insurance on buildings at the end of 1872 at ^66,875,345 ; and the insurances in the private property insurance companies in Wiirtem- burg amounted to ^53,700,786; 489,844 buildings were insured in the office for the insurance of real property, against fire, on January i, 1872. The capital put out to interest by the Wurtemburg National Savings' Bank was as follows, in the year : — i860 1862 1864 i86g 1870 ;^395.847 • ••• 442,242 ... 832,738 ... 887,949 920,825 1871 1872 1873 1875 ^995,340 ... 1,053,298 ... 1,142,095 ... 1,436,420 In July 1877 the assets of the National Savings' Bank were ;^i, 722, 462; the liabilities ^1,654,732, of which ^1,576,666 were deposits. In 1876 there were 105 provident institutions, and 4,311 charities with a capital of ^3,075,000, and a current income of ^314,664, thus divided: ^494,561 for church purposes, ^84,298 for school purposes, _;;r437,46o for the poor, the remainder indiscriminately for church and education — education and poor Traffic on lake Const ajice /« 1876. 133,117 persons and 64,659 tons of goods were conveyed — Receipts ;^i4,og3 ; working expenses ;^i 2,068. * In 1872 there was one telegraph station to 21^ English square miles, and to 6,227 inhabitants. There were 460 telegrams per 1,000 souls in Wurtemburg 454 Separate States of Germany — Baden. BADEN (Grand Duchy). Circles. Constance Villingen Waldshut Freiburg Lorrach Offenburg Baden . . . Carlsruhe Mannheim Heidelberg Mosbach Total* English Square Miles. 719.6 411. 6 477.2 843.8 374-1 614.9 403-7 589-5 180.6 373-8 836.1 5,824.9 Males 62,483 32,784 39,107 95.630 44,934 72,414 64,223 127,163 55,529 65,881 74,609 734,757 Population, December 1st, Females. 1875. 65,062 35,615 41,401 104,000 46.555 77,960 65,234 131,053 56,809 70,767 77,966 772,422 127,545 68,399 80,508 199,630 91,489 150,374 129,457 258,216 112,338 136,648 152,575 1,507,179 Population according to Creeds. Romanists Protestants Other Christians Jews Year. 181I 1815 1823 1830 1S34 1840 1843 1846 Former Population. 958,907 517,851 3,929 26,492 1.507,179 Population. 990,663 993,414 1,109,430 1,200,471 1,230,791 1,296,967 1,335.354 1,367,486 Forvier Population. — ( Continued. ) Year. 1849 1852 1855 1858 I86I 1864 1867 I87I Between the Years Increase of 136,695 4,712 8,282 42,105 21,115 ,. 34,339 „ 59,908 .. 9,673 „ 22,690 (formerly 73) Annual Average. Population. •■• 1,364,774 ••• 1834-46 1,356,492 ... 1846-49 ... Decrease of • -. 1,314,837 ••• 1849-52 ... — — 1,335.952 — 1852-55 ... — 1,369,291 ... 1855-58 ... Increase of ... 1,429,199 ... 1858-61 ... — „ ... 1,438,872 ... 1861-64 •-• — „ ... 1,461,562 ... 1864-67 ... — — — 1867-71 ... — Baden is divided into 54 jurisdictions administration of justice; and into 52 circles for government. The number of parishes or communities is 1,584, besides 32 independent ir.391 1,571 2,761 14,035 7,038 14,779 19,969 3.224 5,672 for the including that portion of the Lake of Constance belonging to Baden. Separate States of Germany — Baden. 455 "colonies." 113 of the former are qualified as towns. Of the whole population, 483,029 inhabit the places with more than 2,000 inhabitants, the remainder dwell in the smaller places. Movement of the Population. During the 26 years 1830-55, both inclusive, there were 1,278,242 births, or about as man}- as the whole amount of the population. The proportion of those which were illegitimate was, from 1833 to 1842, 14.3 per cent. ; 1843 to 1853, 15. oS ; 1853 to 1855 more than 18 per cent. The number of children born in the three years 185 6- 185 8, was 45,531 ; 46,632 ; 46,833. The number of deaths was 33,107 ; 36,312 ; 37,274 ; the births thus exceeding the deaths by 32,303. In the two years 1859 and i860 the births were 49,766 and 48,297 ; and the deaths 37,359 and 31,961. In 1862 and 1863 births were 49,316 and 52,520 ; and deaths 35,907 and 37,848; but in 1864 and 1865 the births were 54,896 and 55,472; while the deaths were 39,365 and 43,925. The proportion of illegitimate births during the latter years of the old legislation, limiting domiciliation to the legitimate was as i to 5 An improvement has taken place since then. Curious variations were seen with regard to marriages. In the year 1829 more than 8,000 took place; in 1832 above 9,000. In 1834, with only 1,230,000 inhabitants, the number of marriages exceeded 10,000. A time of reaction followed, and the figures declined thus : — In 1852, 7,005 ; in 1853, 6,851 ; in 1854, 6,515 ; in 1855, 7,267. Afterwards an increase occurred — viz., in 1856, 8,262 ; in 1857, 8,621 ; in 1858, 8,853 j in 1859, 9,045 ; in i860, 9,711 ; in 1861, 9,761 ; in 1862, 10,571. The returns from 1864 are as follows : — 1864 1865 18G6 1867 1868 Marriages 13,116 11,937 11,306 11,677 12,378 Births* 54,986 55,567 57,352 55,060 54,956 No. of illegitimate births 8,525 8,435 8,616 7,770 7,016 Deaths 38>903 43,330 41,580 39,395 39,889 Suicides 167 213 189 198 — Killed by accident — 570 578t 561 — 1S69 1870 1S71 1872 1873 Marriages 13,611 10,607 13,234 14,599 13,459 Births* ... 57,280 58,913 54,577 60,600 60,640 No. of illegitimate births 6,966 6,847 6,025 5,695 5,587 Deaths ... 41,592 46,045 47,092 39,264 40,561 Suicides 221 195 — — — Killed by accident 610 558 — — — Violent deaths by crime 59 38 — — — 1874 1875 1S76 1877 1878 Marriages 13,020 12,797 12,320 11,400 10,854 Births* 61,058 62,897 61,041 59,940 58,026 No. of illegitimate births 5,138 4.803 — — — Deaths ... 43.947 44,959 40,323 41,857 40,293 Suicides 244 226 — — — Violent deaths by crime 52 56 — — — * Including those still-born. \ Beside 220 soldiers who died from wounds received in the war. 456 Separate States of Germany — Baden. Emigration (not including secret emigration). From Emigrants 1840-49 .. 23,966 1850-55 . 62,444 1856 .. 1,969 1857 ... 3>477 1858 1,970 1859 - 1,241 i860 2,608 1861 1,330 1862 938 1863 .. 913 1864 1,407 1865 .. 2,735 1866 3,030 1867 3,386 1868 2,816 1869 2,659 1870 1,830 I871 2,203 1872 3,085 1873 .. 1,733 1874 .. 1,257 1875 .. 818 Property ^420,073 627,451 Immigrants Property 22,949 50,605 68,156 96,786 61,343 62,937 57,325 54,861 71,180 74,996 55,110 29,174 345 410 257 308 264 295 253 201 228 lOI 160 194 ^59,379 51,221 34,781 46,265 63,923 20,710 23,693 From the year 1840 to 1873 the property of the emigrants exceeded ;^2,000,000. It must be taken into account that not only is no note taken of the secret emigrations, but also that up to 1865 none of the persons who went to European countries, exclusive of Russia and Hungary, are in the list. It is repeatedly observed in the "statistical communications," not only that the small number of immigrants has no effect upon the general state of the population, but more especially that the real number of emigrants is far larger than the number of those who have gone forth with permission. Thus the number of those who landed at New York from Baden in the year 1872 was 6,722 ; in the year 1873, 5,520, or in this one place alone, more than double the number of those who left the State, " having officially resigned their connection with the Empire and State." The most important towtis, and the number of their inhabitants in 1875. 6,782 6,723 6,587 6,249 5,578 5,288 4,277 4,260 3,864 3,624 Mannheim 46,453 Durlach Carlsruhe .. • 42,895 Weinheim Freiburg .. 30,595 Offenburg Pforzheim 23,692 Lorrach Heidelberg .. 22,334 Villingen Rastatt . . . 22,219 Ettlingen Constance 12,003 Schwelzingen Baden ... . . . 10,958 Eberbach Bruchsal .. . 10,811 Ueberlingen Lahr 8,491 Siickingcn Separate States of Germany — Baden. 457 Bretten 3,606 j Breisach ... ... 3,212 Wertheim ... ... 3,447 Donaueschingen ... 3,366 Lichtenthal ... ... 3,293 Eppingen 3,274 Weislach ... ... 3,187 Mosbach ... ... 3, 097 Waldshut '... ... 2,347 Territorial Changes. In 1 77 1 the union of the CathoHc Baden-Baden territory with the Protestant Baden- Durlach took place, and together formed a Margraviate containing 2 1 6,000 inhabitants, and extending over a surface of between 1,382 and 1,488 English square miles. It was divided into districts, viz., Carlsruhe, Durlach, Pforzheim, Rastatt, Baden, some districts on the left bank of the Rhine, (parts of the Duchy of Sponheim in what we now call Rhenish Hesse, the village of Rhodt and lordship of Grafenstein, near Pir- maseus, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, and the lordships of Rodemachern and Hespringer in Luxemburg). The possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, 170 English square miles, with 38,500 population, were lost to France, ample compensation being made by the Empire in 1803. The new union of 1771 contained also the bishopric of Constance, portions of the bishoprics of Basle, Strasburg, and Spires, on the right bank of the Rhine ; the Governments also of Ladenburg, Bretten, Heidelberg, and Mannheim ; the lordship of Lahr in Nassau-Usingen, the districts of Lich- tenau and Willstatt ; 1 1 abbacies (Lichtenthal, Ettenheim, Rechenan, etc.); and lastly, 7 imperial towns, . Offenburg, Zell, Gengenbach, Ueberlingen, Biberach, Pfullendorf, and Wimpfen, with a population of 248,000, and embracing an area of 1,275 square miles. On May ist, 1803, the Margrave assumed the tide of Elector, and on July 12th. 1806, that of Grand Duke. Biberach was given up to Wiirtemburg in 1806, and the compensation received consisted of Villengen and Braunlingen, the greater part of the Breisgau (formerly belonging to Austria), the Principality of Heitersheim and the Province ot Bonndorf ; the Ortenau, the town of Constance and the sovereignty over the districts of Fiirstenberg, Seiningen, Lowenstein, and Salm. Baden now contained a population of 925,000 and an area of 5,613 square miles. In 1809 Baden received from Wiirtemburg, as reward for help in the war against Austria, and as compensation for the cession to Darmstadt of the sovereignty over the Leiningen districts of Amorbach and Miltenberg, the upper district of Stockach, and parts of Hornberg, Rottweil, Tuttlingen, Maulbronn, and Mergentheim, forming together an area of 3 18 square miles, with a population of 45,000, (the ceded property covered a surface of only 106 square miles, with 25,000 inhabitants). Lastly, Baden received back from France, in 18 14, Kehl, which had been given up to France in 1805, Finance. The Budgets are biennial, and the mode of statement differs somewhat from that practised in other countries. The ordinary statement for 1878 and 1879 ^s as follows : — 1878 1879 Total Revenue ordinary p^i, 7 10,651 ... 1,709,443 ... 3,420,094 „ extraordinary for the two years '' 18,029 Total ;^3,438,i23 458 Separate States of Germany — Baden. Expenditure ordinary ^1,724,592 ... i,737)5o6 ••• 3)462,098 „ extraordinary for the two years 291,803 TotAl ^3>753.90i The Revenue for 1878 is thus classified : — a. Ministry of the Grand Ducal Household of Justice and Foreign Atfairs ... ... ... ... ... ... ^^64,426 b. Home Department (including Hospitals and Asylums of Pforzheim and Illenau ... ... ... ... ... 59)882 c. Ministry of Commerce (including water-works and road- making) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 61,619 d. Ministry of Finance (including ;^37,733 from domains; ;;^i,035,597 from taxes ; from custom dues ;!^54,i87) ... 1,524,724 Expenditure. a. Ministry of State — Grand Ducal Household ^{^89,4 17; Country Assemblies ^5,245 ; Privy Councils ^1,037 ; State Mini- sters ;^3,665 ; Ambassadors ;^i,535 ; Matricular Contri- butions to the Imperial Treasury ;^267,425 ; Miscel- laneous ^1,946 ;!^376,264 b. Ministry of Justice 248,860 c. Home Department (including Religion, Education, Arts and Science, Poor Houses and Hospitals ... ... ... 349,698 d. Ministry of Commerce (including Aid to Agriculture, Water- works and Road-making^ ... ... ... ... ... 228,284 e. Ministry of Finance (including Management of Domains ^190,331 ; Collecting of Taxes ;^i26,694; Management of Salt VVorks ;^35,023 ; Management of Customs ;!^73)9°9 j the Mint ;^i, 911 ; Treasury ^4,663 ; Pensions ^75.956) 508,496 Extraordinary ^200 ; Interest of the Debt ^^52,750 ... 12,990 Total ... ^1,724,592 Extraordinary Expenditure : — a. Road-making ^89,406 ; Water-works ^68,011 ; Miscel- laneous ^7,350 164,767 Special Lists. Of these there still exist five with the following statement of accounts for 1878:— 1. Railway management 2. Steamboats on Lake Constance ... 3. Share of Main-Ncckar Railway (nett) 4. Construction of Railways ... 5. Fund for the interest of debt of railways... 1,970,862 The Civil List increased in 1858 by jQ^,Z2)Zy ^"d in 1874 by a Revenue. Expenditure. 3,092,181 .. • 2,456,519 27,535 • 26,765 23,532 •• — — 750,000 1,970,862 . . 1,970,861 Separate States of Germany — Baden. 459 further sum of ^3,000, making the full amount ^65,707 ; this together with the appanages, &c., was ^72,833, exclusive of the proceeds of the castles, the chase, &c. In 1876 the Civil List was revised, and the figure increased, so that the total amounted to ^79,499 \ beyond this the appanages were ;!^9,9i8. The expenditure for the military, which was only ^^i 24,566 in 1833, was ^287,032 in 1849. In 1859 (under preparation for war) the figure of ;^2 10,243 which appeared in the Budget for this item was exceeded by ;^245,338. In 1S63 the figure was ;^24o,338 ; and before the outbreak of the war 1870 it was fixed at £>Z^^^^'^'^ for the next year. The entrance of Baden into the Imperial Union removed this item from the lists. The total property of the country in 1876 was ;3^i3o,29i,o45, viz., land and income capital, ;^46,625,9i8 : house property, ^^20, 094,454 ; in- dustry capital, ;^24,347,837 ; funded capital, ^^33, 492, 008 ; capital belong- ing to the State, not taxable, was ^^2,824, 197. The land possessed by the State contains 264,981 acres, the value of which in arable land, meadow land, and forests was ^2,624,806. Historical Notes. The nett Revenues of former years are thus estimated : — 1825 1835 1845 1848 1851 1857 •• ^602,583 1863 701,583 1866 822,000 1868 892,866 1775 788,750 1877 873,133 Nation 7/ Debt. ^994,530 1,017,478 1,203,158 1,468,090 1,639,868 This is divided into the general debt and the railway debt. On the ist Jan. 1877, the former was ;^2, 544,083. Of this sum ^1,156,882 was subject to pay interest, and ;,^i,487,2oi was free of that liability. The railway debt on the ist January, 1877, was ^1,379,914. At the com- mencement of 1878 a new loan of ;^6oo,ooo was contracted at 94.90 at 4 per cent. Baden owns, like the other States of Southern Germany, a consider- able amount of absolute public property. The domain lands embraced in January, 1872, 186,750 acres, including 144,018 acres of forest, which, inclusive of the buildings, furnished a nett yield of ^^2 3 1,536. Communal Property. The amount of property owned by all the Communes on the ist of January, 1875, was valued at ;^7, 7 18,633. The total amount of com- munal debt is ;^i, 546,501. It is to be remarked that since 1872 the property has decreased to the value of ^^635, 967, and the debt increased ;^452,2o6. Military. In accordance with the Military Convention of November 25, 1870, the entire military system of Baden was united with that of Prussia, 460 - Separate States of Germany — Baden. July ist, 187 1. It consists of 6 regiments of infantry (i grenadiers and 5 regiments of the line), 3 regiments of dragoons, i regiment of field artillery, &c. These troops form part of the 14th German Army Corps, the main part of which is composed of them. Baden had to furnish 8,000 to the Rhenish Confederation. Baden troops fought beside the French in Prussia in 1806 and 1807 ; the same in Spain in 1808; against Austria in 1809; in Russia in 1812; in North Germany in 1813 ; but against France in 1814 and 1815. Baden brought 10,475 ^^''S" ^^to the field in the campaign of 1866. 31 officers and 413 soldiers fell in 1870 and 187 1. The numbers wounded were 147 and 2,584; missing, 4 and 259 ; total, 3,438. The special costs of the war of 1870 and 187 1 were estimated by the government at ;^i, 594,374, or, after deducting of the receipts of the war administration, net ^1,446,754. To this must be added ^554,166 for re-establishment, ^2i,'j^j aid to members of the Reserve and Landwehr, ;^84,467 assistance to Badeners driven from France, ^157,148 compensation to the inhabitants of Kehl and Breisach, total ^2,264,291. On the other hand, Baden had already drawn ^^3, 788,97 7 of the French War indemnity when the last budget was issued, and there remained beside this a credit of about ;^5 8,333, which was applied to the amortisement of the debt. Social Condition. In 187 1 243,800 persons were occupied in agriculture, 308,443 in manufacturing industries, 92,595 in trade and commerce. The number of artisans and day labourers, who cannot with certainty be placed in the above groups, is 113,669. Education. In the nine years, 1868-69 to 1876-77, out of 25,833 recruits, there were only loi — or 0.39 per cent. — without education. Beside the two universities of Heidelberg and Freiburg, there were, in 187 1, 7 gymnasia, with 1,786 scholars; 5 commercial schools and training colleges, 43 industrial schools, and the polytechnic in Carlsruhe. In 1877 i university, 6 grammar schools, and 10 commercial schools. Hospitals, Exclusive of the mere poor-houses of the communes, numbered 131 in 1872. These institutions owned property of the value of ^^i, 130,671. 24,296 individuals were taken care of in them. The annual income of these institutions amounted to ^'99,361, and the annual expenditure to ^88,601. Savings' Banks. At the end of 187 1 there were 98 banks, 114,285 depositors, and ;^2, 725,470 cash. In 1875 there were 39 banks, 94,116 books given out ; deposits, j{^2, 308,907 ; reserve, 187,029. Insurance Companies. At the end of 1871 there were 70 companies, with 26,155 members ; 1,528,577 business shares, and ^4,416,666 exchange. In 1877, provident Separate States of Germany — Badm. '461 and loan companies, 59 ; agricultural companies or clubs, 60, with more than 6,000 members ; agricultural loan banks, 30. Fire Insurance. Immovable property was insured in the office of the countiy in 1871 to the value of ^45,987,234, and in private companies ;^5, 833,333 Movable property was insured to the value of ;z{^38,o2 1,560. The number of buildings insured in October, 1870, was 494,946. Sales by Auction. The number of these was as follows : — 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 :859 i860 1861 1,347 1,047 ^Zl 69° 4°9 268 232 241 260 240 The year 1866 brought heavy reverses. The number of sales by auction, which was 323 in 1865, rose to 498 in 1866, and even to 708 in 1867 ; in 1868 there were 681. Since that year the number has been in — 1869 1870 1871 580 505 503 Trials. — The number of civil trials or actions rose from about 1 7,000 in the year 1861 to 27,307 in 1865 ; 30,727 in 1866 ; 33,822 in 1867, and 33,901 in 1868 ; then in 1869 it fell to 32,245 ; in 1870, 30,944 ; and in 187 I it was 31,064. The number of prisoners in the central institutions in the 6 years, 1865 — 70, was 597, — 627, — 668, — 700, — 710, — and 705. The number of sentences passed for murder and assassination in these years was 4, 2, 4, 12, 7, 13 ; sentences for manslaughter and bodily injury, 18, 17, 9, 19, 27, 16 ; for poisoning and causing death by other means, 3, 7, 3, 7, 21,14; for doing other bodily harm, 1,144 ; 1,277 ; 1,123 ; 1,349 ; i)6ii; 1,517; for theft; 1,794; 1,995 ; 2,360; 2,247; 2,036; 2,046; for breaking police regulations, 86,041, 139,851, 148,588, 142,059, 132,417, 121,765, and in 187 1, 116,271 ; for breaking forest laws in — 1869 1870 1871 13,397 109,922 116,271 These figures point to a degeneration in the conditions of economy and morality. Classified according to creeds, the following is the propor- tion in 100,000 of those who suffered the penalty of the law for crime in i year, that of 1865 — Romanists ... 389 per 100,000 Protestants 410 per 100,000 Live Stock in December 1871-75. Sheep Horses Pigs Goats Head of Cattle 71,320 ... 308,910 ... 579,608 ... 65,066 ... 157,403 44,153 ... i33>987 ••• 284,049 ... 78,670 ... 130,410 The total worth of the live stock in .1875 was ;^3,92 2,7o8. 462 Separate States of Germany — Baden. Mines and Foundries in \'^1^. Produce Works c-.vts. Worth Workmen 40 Mines 3,534,456 ... ^63,869 1,118 2 Salt Works 272,707 ... 15,236 144 4 For separating the Metal) from Ore ... \ 649,119 ... 144,710 455 10 For working the Raw-iron 41.433 7,133 182 In 1871 there were produced 227,971 cwts. of Coal ; 88,513 cwts. of Zinc-ore; 812,854 cwts. of Salt; 10,685 cwts. of Raw Iron; 194, 127 cwts. of Raw and Old Iron wrought. The area of the productive surface of the land consisted of 1,811,510 acres in 1S75 5 ^i^- • 945,^99 acres of Arable land and Gardens; 248,563 acres of Meadow and Pasture land ; 24,963 acres of Vineyards; 592,770 acres of Forest. The largest portion of Forest land is in Starkenburg, which contains 353,870 acres. The large Rivers (Rhine, Main, Neckar Lahn and Nahe) occupy 74,495 acres. Cultivation of Tobacco. In this industry Baden is, not only relatively, but absolutely the most important country in the " Zollverein." In 1871-72 there were 17,576 acres planted, and fn 1872-73 19,661 planted with tobacco. In the latter, the number of places where it was grown was 435 and the number of plants 37,427, all of which were taxed. The yield of dried leaves was 253,553 cwts., averaging 13 cwts. per acre, at an average price of ;^i 16^. per cwt. In 1876 2,179 ^cres planted in 57 places yielded 18,625 cwts., at f\,\ \s. per cwt. ; in 1877 1,407 acres in 35 places. A great decrease has taken place in the last few years. Breweries. In 1876 there were 338 which produced 15,372,522 imperial gallons. Vineyards — Area in Acres — Wine in Gallons. 1870 1871 Area ... 23,215 ... 23,739 1872 1873 24,381 ... 23,794 792,132 ... 2,137,190 1876 Produce ... 4,920,696 ... 1,854,468 ... 1874 1875 Area ... 25,292 ... 26,102 ... — ... — Produce ... 7,303,582 ... 12,034,554 ... 6,424,836 ... — The value of the wine in 1875 was ;^926,03i ; and in 1876, ;^5S3,994- Railways. All belonging to the State, 1873 1874 1S75 Length of line (miles) ... ... 687 ... 700 ... '715 Total receipts ... ... ;^i,327,6oo ;!^i, 494,200 ;j^i,485,8oo Total expenses ... ... ... ;^744,8oo ... ;^869,5oo ... ;i^923,9oo Separate States of Germany — Baden. 463 Length of line (miles) Total receipts Total expenses 1876 733 ^1,531,000 •• ;^959>40o 1877 733 ^1,476,200 ,.. ;^928,8oo Accidents : — Persons killed „ wounded ... 1873 21 21 1874 17 28 1875 25 45 1876 32 57 1877 24 49 Passengers carried Weight of goods carried (tons) Passengers carried Weight of goods carried (tons) 1S73 ii>539>552 3,261,060 1876 10,994,946 3,623,204 1874 12,177,362 3,482,899 1875 10,732,202 3,409,882 1877 10,883,152 3>564,379 Provinces Starkenburg Upper Hesse Rhine Hesse HESSE (Grand Duchy). Area in English square miles • 1,165 •• . 1,258 ... 530 •• 2,953 Population in 1879 Males Females 188,180 129,449 129,517 181,990 124,587 130,495 437,072 447,146 Total 370,170 254,036 260,012 884,218 Hesse was formerly divided into 24 circuits, but now into 18, of which 7 are in Starkenburg, 6 in Upper Hesse, and 5 in Rhine Hesse. Population according to Creeds. Protestants 602,850 Catholics 251,172 German Catholics 2,958 Baptists 705 Other Christians 881 Jews 25,652 884,218 Population of 1 larlier Years. 1817 629,935 1834 ... 760,765 1852 854,314 1855 836,424 1867 823,138 1871 852,894 464 Separate States of Germany — Hess'e. Ocaipations of the People. In 187 1 — 213,800 persons lived by agriculture. „ 308,443 ,, industries. „ 92,595 „ commerce. The number of persons occupied in personal service, together with artisans, day labourers, etc., who could not well be included in any of the above groups, amounted to 213,669, and the military population was 17,750. Emigration. From 1822 to 187 1 185,763 more persons emigrated than came into the country. Of these emigrations, 81,706 of them occurred in the 9 years, 1845-55 \ '^ the 3 years, 1865-67, 19,755 I'tiore persons left the country than came into it; in the 4 years, 1868-71, 7,192 left the country. In 1872 the number of immigrants with papers of admission was 175 ; the number of emigrants to other European countries with papers of dismissal was 272 ; that of emigrants assisted to Trans-Atlantic countries, by way of Bremen, Hamburg, and Antwerp, was 3,673. Movement of the Population. Year Births Of which were i llegitimate Deaths Marriages 1867 ... 29,828 4,284 20,629 6,864 1868 ... 30,031 3,758 ... 21,625 8,627 1869 ... 32,131 3,347 23,123 8,660 1870 ... 33,152 3,326 24,907 6,560 1873 ... 33,081 2,649 23,012 7,916 1874 ... 34,587 2,533 23,047 7,785 1875 ... 35.548 2,483 23,999 7,666 1876 ... 35,251 2,422 22,707 6,982 The diminution in the number of illegitimate children is, no doubt, owing to the removal of many legal hindrances to marriage. Principal totuns and the number of their Inhabitants (18' 75). Mainz ... • •• 56,421 New Isenburg ... 4,432 Darmstadt 36,993 Friedberg 4,356 Offenbach 25,911 Heppenheim ... 4,258 Worms . . . 16,575 Langen...- 4,005 Giessen... .. 13,858 Dieburg 3,881 Bessungen • 6,702 Lorsch ... 3,766 Bingen ... 6,380 Alsfeld ... ... 3,643 Castel 5,795 Seligenstadt ... 3,385 Bensheim 5,325 Vilbel ... ... 3,379 Lampertheim 5,128 Oppenheim ... 3,228 Alzei ... 5,000 Gernshcim 3,210 Pfungstadt 4,853 Michelstadt 3,162 In the year 1816 Mainz only had 25,251 inhabitants, and Darmstadt 15,391 ; Offenbach had only 6,214, and Worms 6,259. In the middle ages, this last had 60,000 inhabitants. Separate States of Geruiaiiy — Hesse. 465 Territorial Changes. The title of Grand Duke was assumed in the place of the former title of Landgrave, August 13, 1806. By the death of the childless Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, which occured March 24th, 1866, this territory of 106 square miles, English, and a po])ulation of 27,374 inhabitants became united with the Grand Duchy of Hesse. \\\ accordance with the Treaty of Peace, concluded with Prussia September 3rd, 1866, Hesse-Homburg was again separated from Hesse, and the Grand Duchy was reduced to its present size. The constitution dates from December 17th, 1820; it was altered in 1848 ; and in September 1856, and November 8th, 1872 an Elective Legislation was instituted. Finance. TRIENNIAL PERIODS OF FINANCE. The estimate for 1876 to 1878 shows the following statement for one year of the period : — REVENUE. 1. Domains 2. Royalties 3. Direct Taxes* 4. Indirect Taxes — On Wine ^"23,400 ; Toll on Bridges ^6,370; on Sporting Licenses jT^xz^doo; Stamps ^56,000; Collateral Taxes ^13,000; on Dogs and Nightingales ^6,003 ; share of the Imperial Taxes ^10,446 127,819 5. Revenue from Miscellaneous Sources ... ... ... 84,002 ^288,933 3,633 367,936 Total Revenue ... ;^87 2,323 I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. EXPENDITURE. Charges and Debts Interest and Payment of Public Debt Pensions Grand Ducal Establishment Matricular Contribution to Imperial Trea: Country Assemblies Ministers of State ... Ministry of Home Affairs ... Ministry of Justice ... Ministry of Finance Guaranteed Public Advances for Railway: WW Total Expenditure .€57,095 34,095 37,362 65,742 62,712 2,173 6,946 139,002 80,506 216,843 120,000 ^^822,476 The domains of the Grand Duchy formerly contained 420,127 paying acres, and 16,722,097 acres of forest ; but in 1866, with the loss of territory the domain acres were diminished by 6,708 acres, and the forest by 391,964 * Including Land Tax, Income Tax, and Tax on Industry. 466 Separate States of Germany — Hesse. acres. The State railway (Upper Hesse Railway) extended over 109 miles in February, 1878. The Hesse jjortion of the main Weser Railroad pro- duced, from 1872 to 1874, an annual average of ^^9 1,900, and the portion of the Main-Neckar-Railway, belonging to Hesse, in 1876, produced ^81,385. Dehf. The management of the public debt is divisible into four — viz., ordinary State debt, the railway debt, the provincial roads' debt, and the public annuity debt. The ordinary State debt, in 1874, was ^314,083 ; the railway debt was ^665,000, at 4 per cent ; debt on the construction of provincial roads, ^92,500, at 3^ per cent. ; and the public annuity debt, ^123,333, at 4 per cent. The public debt, in January, 1877, was ^229,859. The amount of State paper money was fixed, at the end of 1866, at the very large sum, for so small a country, of ^^358,333. ♦Hesse was enabled to make extraordinary payments by means of her share in the French war indemnity. A ministerial calculation of November, 1873, estimated this share at ;£ 1,453,518. Notes on Finanaal History. The actual civil list was formerly fixed at ^48,083. In the year 1855 the Diet announced the intention of carrying over ^91,666 of the debts of the civil list to the public treasury, to meet which, in addition to the paper money already existing, a further issue thereof should be made to the amount of ^83,333 ; this increased issue was to be gradually withdrawn by deductions made from the civil list. After prolonged discussions the Chambers agreed to it. But the decision about deduction from the civil list was of so little practical meaning that the civil list was actually increased by ;£^,\66 in the year 1857. In addition to this, two nephews of the Grand Duke, who had no claim to appanages, each possessed them to the value of ;^i,5oo annually ; and in the year 1861 one of them obtained a further sum of ^1,816 on account of his marriage. A third nephew obtained an appanage of ^1,000 in 1867. The financial condition was much injured by the War of 1866, for Hesse was obliged to pay ^,'250,000 to Prussia, in addition to cession of territory. The military expenditure was also greatly augmented. Communal Property. The sum total of the Communal property, in 1872, was ^8,299,397. The debt thereon was ;/^i, 063,898. In 1875 the total of the Communal property was ^7,718,633, and the debt ^1,546,501. It is to be observed that since 1872 the property is decreasing, while the debt is increasing. Military. In consequence of the military convention with Prussia, July 13, 187 1, the Hessian contingent forms one division, the 25th (])art of the eleventh army corps), of 4 regiments of infantry, three of which consist of 3 battalions each, one of 2 battalions ; 2 regiments of cavalry, and 6 batteries of artillery. Separate States of Germany — Hesse. 46/ Educational. In the nine years 1868-69 to 1876-77, out of 25,833 recruits, there were only loi — or 0.39 ])er cent. — without education. There is one university, 6 gymnasiums, and 10 grammar schools. Cultivation of the Soil. In 1875 the area of productive land embraced 1,811,510 acres ; viz. : 945,199 acres of arable land and orchards; 248,563 meadow and pasture land ; 24,984 of vineyards, and 592,770 acres of forest. I'ield of Wine. THE AREA IN ACRES, THE YIELD IN IMPERIAL GALLONS. 1870 1871 1872 1873 Area Yield ... 23,385 ... ...4,920,696 23,739 - 24,391 1,854,468 ... 792,132 24,094 ... 2,137,190 Area Yield 1874 25,292 6,303,582 1S75 26,102 12,034,594 1876 24,984 6,424,836 The worth of the wine in 1875 was ^923,081, and in 1876 ;^553>994- Cultivation of Tobacco. This has greatly diminished of late years. Produce Year Acres Places in Cwts. Per Cwt. 1873 ••• 3,729 in 78 ... 37,973 — £^ ^S^- 1876 ... 2,099 „ 57 — 18,625 — I I 1877 ... 1,407 „ 35 Breiveries. In 1874 there were 370; in 1876, 338; production 15,372,522 imperial gallons. Mining Industry in 1875. Works Production 40 Mines 3,534,456 cwts. 2 Salt works 272,707 „ Value Workmen ^63,869 . .. i,iiS ^15^236 . 144 144,210 . 455 7,133 • 182 4 For extracting the metal ( ^ ^ ^ from the ore ... j ^^' ^ " 10 For working iron ... 4i!433 ,, Live Stock 1873. 44,153 horses ; 280,049 l^ead of cattle ; 130,410 sheep ; 133,987 pigs ^ 78,670 goats. The total value being ^2,353,625. Savings Baulks. In 1875 numbered 39 ; depositors' books 94, 116 ; deposits ^ 2,308,907. Post. In 1873. Number of letters conveyed, 12,124,262 ; number of news- papers, 4,659,211. 468 Separate States. of Germany — Alsace-Lorraine, ALSACE-LORRAINE (Province of the Empire). Population^ 1 8 7 1 and 1875. Area in 1S71 1875. Districts. Eng. Sq. Miles Males. Females. Total. Lower Alsace ... 1,842 ... 600,406 288,917 .. • 309.263 . .. 598,180 Upper Alsace ... 1,352 ... 458,873 218,431 .. • 234,943 . •• 453,374 Lorraine ... 2,405 ... 490,459 237,530 •• . 242,720 . .. 480,250 Total ... 5,599 1,549,738 744,878 ... 786,926 1,531,804 In article I. of the Preliminaries of Peace signed at Versailles, February 26th, 187 1, France renounced, in favour of the German Emperor, a district which in reality embraces the three former French Departments of Moselle, Lower Rhine, and Upper Rhine (except the Fortress of Belfort, and a great part of the district of Briez), two arron- dissements of the Department of Meurthe, and parts of two cantons in the department of the Vosges. According to the French Census of 1866 the territory yielded to Prussia had a population of 1,597,238 souls. As the military population counted in December, 187 1, belonged almost entirely to Germany, the Statistique-de-la-France inferred there must be a loss of 87,779 individuals 5^ per cent, (more exactly 79,744, about 5 per cent). The inhabitants of the territory ceded to Germany were enabled by the Treaty of Peace to choose their nationality, to be either French or German. The choice, however, of those who declared for France was considered nugatory unless it was followed by actual emigration. The following was the result according to official returns : — In Upper Alsace... ... 92,662 chose France ... ] In Lower Alsace... ... 42,394 „ ... > 164,623 In Lorraine ... ... 29,567 „ ... j 110,000 of these had their choice annulled. Of those who made the choice about 38,800 were stated to have emigrated. According to a state- ment of the French Minister of Justice, no fewer than 379,890 announce- ments of choice had been sent to him by October 21, 1872, exclusive of Alsace-Lorrainers living in Germany. The former divisions have been retained in the main, with the alteration of the term " Districts " for " Departments ;" and the replacing by a larger number of circles the old Arrondissements : — Movement of the Population. In the four years from December i, 187 1 to December i, 1875, the number of births, deaths, and marriages were as follows : — Marriages. Births. Deaths. Lower Alsace ... ... 21,071 ... 92,747 ... 70,741 Upper Alsace 15-984 ••• 70,079 ... 55,319 Lorraine ... ... 16,105 ... 62,701 ... 48,052 Total 53,160 ... 225,527 ... 174,112 Separate States of Germany — Alsace-Lorraine. 469 Selecting one out of the four years, viz., 1872, there were 56,217 births (28,905 boys and 27,312 girls). Of these 2,340 were still-born. 7.7 per cent, of those born alive, and 14.2 per cent, of those still-born were illegitimate. So that about 8 per cent, of all the births belonged to this class. Deaths, including those still-born, 40,861. Infirm. In 1871 there were 1,724 deaf mutes ; 1,374 blind ; 2,214 idiots; 1,330 insane. Inhabitants. •• 5>497 \ 4,739 .. 4,691 .. 4,042 .. 3.176 .. 2,862 5,785 5,518 5,148 4,277 2,772 3,857 3,273 2,715 2,659 2,238 Creeds {see Germany). Principal io7vns in Lower Alsace. Inhabitants. Strasburg ... 94,306 Brumath ... Hagenau ... 11,786 lUkirchen... Schlettstadt 9,088 Grafenstaden Bischweiler 7,102 Oberehnleim Zabern ... 6,201 Wasslenheim Weissenburg 6,152 Niederbronn Barr 5,945 Reichshofen Schiltigheim - 5,653 Principal towns in Upper Alsace. Miilhausen 58,463 Rappoltsweiler Colmar 23,990 Sulz Markirch 11,661 MiJnster Gebweiler 11,622 Sennheim Thann 7,544 Neubreisach Principal fo7v ns in Lorraine. Metz 45,856 Pfalzburg Saargemiind 8,466 Saarburg Diedenhofen ... 7,168 St. Avoid Forbach 6,173 Dieuze ... Ars on the Moselle 5,708 Bitsch ... Hayingen 4,691 Political position of the Country. It was determined by a decree of the Empire, June 9, 187 1, that "The territories given up by France shall be for ever united with the German Empire. The Constitution of the German Empire shall come into force there on the ist of January, 1873, (deferred, however, until January ist, 1874). Certain portions of the Constitutional system may, by order of the Confederate Council, be introduced before that time. The necessary alter- ations in and completion of the Imperial Constitution shaU be carried out in a manner conformable with the system of the Constitution. Until such time as the working of the Imperial Constitution shall come into force, the right of legislation shall rest entirely with the Emperor, subject to the con- sent of the Confederate Council." I 470 Separate States of Germany — Ahace-Lorraim. " After the introduction of the Constitution, and until further regula- tion by Imperial law, the right of legislation in the Confederate States, not subject to Imperial legislation, shall belong to the Empire. The Emperor shall exercise all other rights of State supremacy." No separate Constitutional Government of the country exists at present; the Government has exercised extensive authority ever since the introduc- tion of the Imperial Constitution. Finance. — Budget for 1878. REVENUE. {a) Administration: (i) Forests, ;;^276,644; (2) Direct taxes, ^^420,604 (including among others ground tax, ;^96,8oo ; personal tax, and tax on moveables, ;j^62,476 ; tax on industry, ;^7o,o24 ; from lands in Mort- main, ^13,520). (3) Indirect taxes, p^54,8i6; (4) Excise, ^^531, 620 (including wine, ^60,359 ; beer tax, ^56,570 ; regis- tration, ^319,867 ; stamps, 2*5 4<4oo : (5) Profit on tobacco. ^102,230; (p) State administration ... Total Revenue ;^i,385,9i4 188,209 ;^i,574,i23 PERMANENT EXPENDITURE. (a) Administration: (1) Forests, ;^i38,3i2; (2) direct taxes, ;^90,4i6; (3) Customs, in- direct taxes and registration, ;^230,693 : (4) Manufacture of tobacco in Strasburg, ^102,756 {h) State Administration: (i) Expenditure in common with the Em]:)ire, ^8.062 ; Presi- dency, ;^2I,362. ... (3) Administration of justice (4) Administration of home affairs (5) Expenditure for religion (6) Education and science {7) Trade, industry, and agriculture (8) Waterworks, canals, &c. (9) Roads ... (10) Administration of finance 79,961 185,087 i29>734 193,860 32,770 77,353 66,878 288,336 ^562,178 ^^29,424 Extraordinary expenditure, including building of universities, ^ canals, roads, fulfilment of the obligation of the contract .- of the Treaty of Peace and railway subvention ) ;^i,o53»979 322,0? Total .. — ^1,967.669 As France was obliged to cede Alsace-Lorraine free from debt, no national debt exists. The compensation paid to the French Eastern Railway Company of ^13,000,000, in return for the cession of the line Separate States of Germany — Alsace-Lorraine, 471 constructed by it, was deducted from the ;!^2oo,ooo,ooo which were paid by France to the German Empire. In consequence of this, however, the line has not l)econie the property of the community of Alsace-Lorraine, but that of the C German Empire ; and this is the case with the new railway which has been constructed at the cost of the Empire. Social Affairs — Education of the People. At the time of the taking of the last census about 10.5 per cent, of the population, above 10 years of age, had received no education ; in Lower Alsace only about 5 per cent. ; but in Upper Alsace 10.8 per cent. ; and in Lorraine about 1 7 per cent. Middle- Class Schools. There are 3 lyceums, 2 1 colleges, and i industrial school. For higher education the University of Strasburg. There are 5 monasteries with 418 monks ; and 29 convents with 2,650 nuns. Cultivation of the Soil. There are 1,653,352 acres, or 46.14 per cent, of arable 4r9>037 ,, 11.69 meadow 74,947 5, 2.09 vineyards 1,132,855 ,, 31.20 forest 43,642 ,, 1.22 orchards 117,925 ,, 3.20 heath 46,700 ,, 1.30 water 71,894 ,, 2.00 roads 18,394 (houses, burial "1 grounds, etc. >, 0.51 6,091 acres „ 0.15 100. other land 3.584,837 3,100,069 acres are subject to taxation. Rather more than one-half of the forests belong to the Communes, the remaining part to the State. In 1874 the vineyards yielded 12,402,346 imperial gallons 1875 „ .' „ 50,819,539 „ „ There are 85,893 labourers in the vineyards, 566 wine merchants, and 12,749 retail dealers in wine. The export in 1875 was 4,703,336 Imperial gallons. The Cultivation of Tobacco This deserves special notice. In the year 1872-73 8,543 acres were planted with tobacco in 423 Communes, by 12,562 farmers. The yield was 133,732 cwts. of dried leaves, of the average value of ;^i. 13^. 6d. per cwt. In 1876 8,684 acres were planted, in 362 Communes, by 12,908 farmers. The yield was 114,824 cwts. of dried leaves, the average price ^i. OJ-. bd. per cwt. 472 Separate States of Gerynany — Alsace-Lorraine. Live Stock. In January 1873 there were 130,172 horses (not including those of the military); 418,184 head of cattle ; 266,505 pigs; 191,142 sheep; 56,579 go^'its ; 1,391 asses ; 393 mules. Mining and Smelting Industry. The total value of this in 1872 was ^3,741,252, and the number of persons employed in it was 13,139. Of these figures ;^2 72,o55 were from mining ; the number of miners being 3,563. The smelting works produced ;^3,469, 197, and employed 13,139 workmen. The produce was 5,804,110 cwts of pit coal 44,478 inferior coal 235,260 alum and vitriol ore 3'97o , asphalte 10,178 „ rectified oil for burning 162,996 ,, oil for greasing 279,878 „ pitch The 6 salt works employed 186 labourers, and yielded 560,734 cwts. of kitchen salt, worth jQt)T,o-^^. In 1875 the figures stood thus : — Workmen Mines and Works. Produce, in Cwts. Value Employed 5 Coal 7,868,244 • ;^2o5,354 2,104 30 Various minerals ... 15,380,239 112,343 1,886 6 Salt 767,589 .. 45,915 336 17 Foundries 4,758,520 631,439 1,080 52 For smelting iron 2,554,838 1,444,622 .. 9,067 Manufacturing Industry This is in a very high state of development, especially is this the case with the cotton industry. In the year 1873 there were in the district of Colmar alone 5,670 looms, 257,654 spindles, 75 large establishments employing 8,677 hands (3,761 men, 3,754 women, and 1,162 children). Roads and Ways. In 1874 there were 535 miles of railway at work; 726 miles of high road ; 4 navigable rivers, 726 miles, and 6 canals 213 miles. In 1878 the length of railway at work, canals and rivers the same as in 1874. The raihvays are not the possession of Alsace-Lorraine, but of the Empire. In 1876 the gross revenue from the railways was ^^i, 795, 404 ; of this sum ^456,458 was from passengers, and ^1,338,946 from goods. AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY- » AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.* Austria, previous to 1848, was a conglomerate of various states. After many attempts to construct a constitution, it was transformed into an absolute indivisible monarchy. The Imperial Diploma of i860 and the Patent of 1861 laid the basis of a charter which, after a suspension of two years, came into full force in December 1867, though with important modifications, rendered necessary by the independence of Hungar)'. Since the year 1867, Austria and Hungary form a dual state — Austria the Cis-Leithania, and Hungary, the Magyar or Trans-Leithania; these both have a common head, a common re])resentation in foreign affairs, and a common military system, so far as the army in active service is concerned, whilst the Landwehr and Honveds are distinct in the two divisions of the Empire. The monarchy thus embraces, on the one hand, the countries repre- sented in the Imperial Council (Cis-Leithania), and on the other, the dominions of the Hungarian Crown, making an area of 240,462 English square miles, and according to the last census, with a population of above 38 millions. A. Cojiutries represented in the Imperial Council. Austria below the Enns Austria above the Enns Salzburg Styria... Carinthia Carniola Trieste Gorz... Istria ... Tyrol Vorarlberg Area in English Square Miles 7,654 4,632 2,767 8,670 4,005 3,856 36 1,140 1,908 10,319 1,004 Population Population to 1876 the Square Mile 2,143,928 280 746,097 ... 158 154,184 55 1,178,067 •■• 135 338,705 84 469,996 127 136,138 ... 3,780 215,755 189 271,006 142 792,023 76 103,630 103 * Thisis the official title since November 14th 1 868, It is also called the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Ausfro-Hnngarian Monarchy A7S Area in English Population Population to Square Miles 1876 the Square Mile Bohemia ... 20,062 5,361,506 267 Moravia 8,583 2,079,826 242 Silesia 1,987 558,196 281 Galicia ... 30,310 6,000,326 197 Buckowina ... 4,035 548,518 133 Dalmatia ... 4,939 467,534 94 Total ... 115,907 21,565,435 185 With the Military 21,743,000 B. Countries belonging to the Hu7tgarian Crown. Square Miles Population Popu ation to 1870 Squ ars Mile Hungary Transylvania ... 108,269 •■• 13,561,245 Fiume ... ... ... 7 •■• 17,884 Croatia and Sclavonia ... 8,852 ... 1,138,970 Military District 7,303 ••• 699,228 Military 92,128 124,431 15,509,455 124 A division of the inhabitants into sexes and households (parties dwelling together), give the following results in the countries represented in the Im- perial Council, including 177,449 of the military. Males Females Households Lower Austria 1,003,544 987,164 404,597 Upper Austria 363,095 373,462 163,419 Salzburg 75,217 77,942 31,894 Styria 561,970 576,020 213,589 Carinthia 162,813 174,881 65,559 Carniola 223,070 243,264 92,996 The coast lands ... 306,739 293,786 "5,259 Tyrol-Vorarlberg ... 436,123 449,666 194,811 Bohemia ... 2,468,104 2,672,440 1,210,656 Moravia 967,583 1,049,601 466,326 Silesia 244,345 269,007 122,057 Galicia 2.687,191 2,757,498 1,178,957 Buckowina 257,359 256,045 113,275 Dalmatia ... 234,334 222,627 81,772 Total ... 9,991,487 10,403,403 4,455,167 In countries belonging to the Hungarian Crown, there were numbered 7,653,560 males, and 7,763,767 females. In Cis-Leithania the female exceeded male population by 412,006, and In Hungary „ „ „ „ 110,207 Making a total of 522,213 476 Aiistro-Htingarian Monarchy, In Cis-Leithania ... „ Hungary Total The number of Infirm. Blind Deaf and Dumb 19,701 . 19,504 . 11,329 18,180 29,509 39,205 Lunatics 19,782 13,175 32,957 Cretins 10,551 18,251 28,802 Foreigners dtueUing in the Land. In Austria In Hungary TottI Germans ••• 64,438 4,708 69,146 Italians ... 29,496 4,267 31,763 Turks and Rou-) manians | 5,116 1,863 6,979 Swiss ... 4,543 575 5,118 Russians . .. 4,105 198 4,303 French ... ... 2,269 373 2,642 British ... 1,528 460 5,988 Others ... ... 2,378 260 2,638 Total 113,873 12,704 128,577 yiustrians and Hungarians dwelling in Foreign Lands. Germany Italy Russia Turkey America Roumania Servia Cis-Leithanians 41,500 17,300 11,400 10,600 9,900 — — Hungarians 2,000 — — 1,700 — 17,1003,100 Movement of the Population. IN AUSTRIA. 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Births ... 810,147 828,030 820,709 842,303 875,519 830,776 854,752 Still-births 19,103 20,176 19,969 20,525 21,187 20,971 — Deaths ... 677,022 811,150 662,919 634,088 636,519 677,748 705,162 Marriages 192,406 194,815 189,017 180,349 176,674 161,337 164,233 IN HUNGARY. Births ... 623,021 652.999 651,126 692,885 623,846 — — Deaths ... 668,910 969,788 659,753 573,755 478,684 — — Marriages 159,669 165,393 162,578 169,642 135,011 — — Of those born alive in 1876, the number of the legitimate and illegiti- mate in the various countries of Austria was as follows :— Legitimate Illegitimate Lower Austria 64,913 .. 21,563 Upper Austria 19,885 4,330 Salzburg 3,887 1,471 Styria 29,345 9,639 Carinthia 6,072 5,036 Carniola 16,252 1,321 Coast lands 23,350 1,410 Anstro- Hungarian Monarchy. 477 Legitimate Illegitimate Tyrol, Vorarlberg ... 26,344 ... 1,114 Bohemia 186,496 24,555 Moravia 76,240 •.. 7,208 Silesia 19,933 1,631 Galicia ... 233,788 ... 22,960 Buckowina ... 23,933 . ... 2,616 Dalmatia 17,427 657 Military 875 .. . 2 In 1873-74 cholera was raging as well as small-p OX and ot epidemics. In Hungary alone they carried off 200,000 of the population. Emigration Is not of frequent occurrence. From 1850 to 1S68 there were from Cis-Leithania only 57,726 emigrants (this does not include the secret ones). The number from 1861-66 was only io,S86, but rose from 1867 to 1870 to 27,333, of which number 22,765 were from Bohemia; and from 1871-75 the number was 35,080, 21,887 being from Bohemia. Nationalities, The people comprehended in the Austrian Empire differ very much in race, development, language, customs and religion. The Empire, from its admixture of races, is not unlike Europe on a small scale, for just as it includes a variety of countries and parts of countries, so does it embrace a number of races or branches of races. At the same time no particular nationality preponderates. The Slavs are relatively the most numerous, but they are too backward in education and culture to exercise the influence which their numbers might be supposed to give. The Germans form but ^ of the population. The numbers of those belonging to the various races were estimated as follows by Adolph Ficker : — 9,180,000 Germans, of whom about 7,370,000 were in the provinces which formerly belonged to the German Confedera- tion, 1,765,000 in Hungary', and 45,000 in the military frontier. 16,446,000 Slavs — viz., 6,730,000 Czechs, Moravians and Slovaks 2,380,000 Poles 3,104,000 Ruthenians, or Little Russians 1,260,000 Slovenians 1,424,000 Croatians 1,520,000 Serbs 26,000 Bulgarians 5,506,000 Magyars 3,503,000 belonging to the Latin race, of whom 600,000 to the western branches, including 530,000 Italians 51,200 Friulese, in Gorz, and 18,000 Ladins in Tyrol 3,903,000 to the eastern branch, of whom 2,895,700 Dako-Roumanians, besides 3,500 Albanians 3,200 Greeks and Zingari 478 Aiistro-Hnngarian Monarchy. 18,000 Armenians 156,000 gipsies 1,167,500 Jews '26,000 French, British, Turks, &c. Brachelli reckons the proportions of the different nationaUties in Cis- Leithania thus : — The German preponderates, and is as 36.2 percent, of the whole ; next follow the Czechs with the kindred races of Moravians, and Slovaks, 22.5 Ruthenians and Poles are about equal in number and I o „^ . ^ V 12.8 per cent, form ... ... ... ... ... ... j * and ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12.6 ,, The next place is occupied by the Slovenians ... ... 5.6 ,, Next follow the Jews, who form ... ... ... ... 8.1 ,, The Italian Race ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.9 „ The Serbo-Croatian... ... ... ... ... ... 2.7 „ Roumanian (Moldavians and Wallachians) ... ... .9 „ Magyars, Armenian.s, Greeks, &c. ... ... ... ... .52 ,, Keleti gives the following table for Hungary and Transylvania :— Hungary. Per cent. TranByUania. Per cent. Total. Magyars ... 5,541,123 = 49.84 ... 666,557 = 31.71 ... 6,207,580 Germans ... 1,592,043=14.32 ... 224,044=10.66 ... 1,816,087 Roumanians ... 1,114,044=10.92 ...1,207,862 = 57.47 ... 2,321,906 Slovaks ... 1,825,513=16.42 ... 210 — ... 1,825,723 Serbs 286,834= 2.58 .. — _ ... 286,834 Croats ... ... 207,889= 1.87 ... — — ... 207,899 Ruthenians ... 448,040= 4.08 ... — — ... 448,040 Others... ... 102,127= o-°2 ... 2,524 = 0.15 ... 104,651 11,117,613 2,141,197 13,218,720 Keleti remarks tliat " according to the last Census which dealt with the nationalities there were 62,200 gipsies in Hungary; 79,310 in Translvania; in all, 141,5 10 who could not here be given separately, and who })robably unduly increase the number of the Roumanians in this table." We would here observe that the Jews are generally and jjroperly mentioned as a separate nationality in Austria on account of their Semitic origin ; but inasmuch as they all speak German as their mother tongue in Cis- Leilhania they must in this respect be considered as Germans. In the Hungarian districts they can in part only be included among the Magyars, though Keleti seems invariably to have so grouped them.. Von Czornig reckons fifteen different nationalities, exclusive of those living mixed up with the Tews and gipsies. 'I'hese fifteen nationalities ])resuppose 120 different boundaries on an ethnographical chart; the number of dialects e.xceeds 2,000. According to Dr. Ficker, who divides the country according to language, we find German spoken over 53,150 English square miles; Slavonic languages over 65,034 square miles ; the Roumanian over 37,888 sfjuare miles, and the Magyar languages over 22,750 miles. In those German Provinces containing the more mixed population there lived according to a special survey : — A ustro-Hiuigarian Monarchy. 479 Czechs Jews In Bohemia* „ Moravia ,, Silesia „ Styria ,, Carinthia „ Tyrol 1,766,372 ... 483,518 ... 234,843 ... 640,806 29,783 ... 525,092 ... Creeds. 2,925,982 ... 86,339 1,351,982 ... 41,529 92,326 ... 131,602 Poles. 369,246 Slovenians. 421,398 ... — 325,416 Italians. COUNTRIES REPRESKXTED IN THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL. C.VrHOLIC. ORIENTAL. Roman Greek Armenian Lower Austria Upper Austria Salzburg ... Styria Carinthia ... Carniola ... Coast lands Tyrol-Arlberg Bohemia ... Moravia ... Silesia Galicia Buckowina Dalmatia ... Lower Austria.. Upper Austria.. Salzburg Styria ... Carinthia Carniola Coast lands .. Tyrol-Arlberg ., Bohemia Moravia Silesia ... C alicia B ackowina Dalmatia Greek Armenian L 903, 5 95 719,918 1 52,662 1,128,836 320,171 464,490 5^9,501 884,089 4,940,898 1,914,065 434,750 2,5o9,°i5 56,564 377,121 2^323 1 1 4 105 95 515 209 29 2,997 2,526 1 1 2,315,782 16,901 660 94 I 43 2,102 882 1,745 14 4 145 6 311 2,609 38 441 400 6 1,369 376,118 78,305 7 4 1.^0 126 828 16,395,675 2,342,168 3,146 461,511 1.208 18,740,989 462,719 EVANGELICAL. Lutherans Reformed Other Unitarians Christians 25,586 15,699 409 7,080 16,982 289 1,762 691 46,415 20,355 72,318 33,992 10,479 270 4,386 168 25 954 395 667 i»233 544 59,700 36,880 101 5-711 914 275 252,327 111,953 364,280 63 4 4 4 I 20 7 14 87 43 I 336 10 44 8 4 45 31 1 09 27 9 585 2,928 36 Jews 52,350 724 47 778 30 51 4,939 358 89,933 42,899 6,142 575,918 47,772 279 Not Christians 156 7 8 33 3 2 34 I 27 6 15 46 17 15 248 4,172 822,220 370 4,420 822,590 * According to another estimate, 36 per cent, of the soil of Bohemia belongs to the German race ; 64 per cent, to the race of the Czechs ; 36.94 per cent, of the inhabitants are Germans ; 61.23 per cent, are Czechs ; and 1.81 per cent, are Jews. 48o Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. COUNTRIES BELONGING TO THE HUNGARIAN CROWN. Hungary... Transylvania Croatia-Sclavonia . Military ... Roman 5.933.813 263,769 1,304,418 56,558 7.558,558 CATHOLIC. Greek 981,537 596,502 9.546 12,043 Armenian 853 4,1 20 131 29 5.133 ORIENTAL. Greek Armenian 1,414,282 308 652,945 224 511.821 73 10,271 41 1.599 ,628 2,589,319 646 9,163,319 2,589,965 EVANGELICAL. Hungary... Transylvania Croatia-Sclavonia . Military ... Lutherans 887,063 209,080 13,011 4,354 Reformed 1,720,920 296,460 6,952 6,911 Other Unitarians Christians 2,420 223 71 20 806 ;3,539 93 384 Jews 517,338 24,848 9.947 1,508 Not Christians 178 17 19 9 1,113,508 2,031,243 54,822 2,734 553,641 223 3,144,751 Catholics Total in Austria) and Hungary) 9 4,3 Orientals 8 3,052,684 57,556 Evangelicals 3,509,013 Unitarians and other Christians 553,864 Jews and those not Christians 61,976 1,376,454 Inhabited Places. There are in Cis-Leithania 738 towns, 1,270 market-places, and 52,919 villages ; the number of inhabited houses, 2,766,314 : of houses unoccupied, 121,045 ; the number of flats or floors for families, 4,455,167. The Military frontier contained 13 towns, 18 market places, and 1,756 villages, and 140,129 households. The Large Cities and Communes. VIKNNA. In 1869 the population of Vienna was stated at 834,284; 632,494 dwelling in the city itself, and 201,790 in the 18 suburbs. In 1875 the new Census gave the total of Vienna and the suburbs as 1,020,770, of whom 673,865 dwelt within the City, and 346,906 without. In 1637 the population of Vienna was estimated at 60,000 only. In 1754 at 175,609; in 1780 at 202,044; i" 1816 at 245,080; in 1820 at 262,226 ; in 1837 at 333,582 ; in 1843 at 375,834- The number of persons living inside the line of the Octroi dues in 1869, inclusive of 24,980 military, was as we have just seen, 632,494 ; but that line is not the natural limit of the city ; separated from it only by a narrow moat, and partially connected with it in administration are 18 suburbs, which form an important part of Vienna, and have a population of nearly 350,000. There are only two other cities in Cis-Leithania with A iisU'o-Hiaigarian Monarchy. 481 more than 100,000 inhabitants, viz. : Prague with 189,949 (it was once relatively the most {populous in the whole Empire), and Trieste with its 109,324 inhabitants (70,274 only dwell in the town). Besides these, there are two towns with between 80,000 and 90,000 inhabitants, viz. : Lemberg in Galicia and Gratz in Styria ; Briinn in Moravia has between 70,000 and 80,000 ; one between 40,000 and 50,000, Cracow. There are two with a population of between 30,000 and 40,000, viz. : Lenz in Upper Austria and Czernowitz in Buckowina ; and with between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants, Pilsen, Laibach, Innspruck, Sign, Knin, Reichenberg. A few of the most important are here given :- IN LOWER AU STRIA. COAST LANDS. Vienna .. I, 020,779 Trieste ... 109,324 Vienna (new town) .. 19,173 Gorz ... ... 16,659 Krems ... ., 8,155 Pola ... ... 16,324 St. Polten ... 7.779 Castua... 13,043 Penzing 7,683 Inzersdorf 7,504 DALMATIA. Neunkerchen ... .. 5,946 Sign ... 29,827 Knin ... 23,721 IN UPPER AUSTRIA. Zara ... ... 20,840 Linz . . . 33,384 Dernis... 19,183 Steyer ... 13,392 Spalato 18,261 Ischl ... 6,842 BOHEMIA. Wels ... Urfahr... 6,827 6,275 Prague 189,949 Gmunden ' 1 -J 6,062 Pilsen ... 23,681 Sierning 6,047 Reichenburg 22,394 Budweis ... 17,413 SALZBURG. Karolinenthal... 13,384 Salzburg 20,336 Warnsdorf 13,180 Hallein 3,614 Teplitz MORAVIA. 10,155 TYROL AND VORARLBERG. Innspruck Trent ... Botzen Roveredo STVRIA. 23,000 17.073 9'355 9,063 Briinn... Iglau ... Rossnitz Olmutz SILESIA. 73.771 20,049 15,787 15,229 Gratz ... 81,119 Troppau Bielitz ... ... 20,265 10,721 Marburg 12,828 GALICIA. CARINTHIA. Lemberg 87,109 Klagenfurt 15,285 Cracow 49,835 Ebendorf CARNIOLA. 7,621 Tarnow BUCKOWINA. 21,779 Laibach ... 22,593 Czernowitz 33,884 St. Michael Stopic . 6,955 Sadagora 10,151 2 H •482 Austro-Htingarian Monarchy. Large Communes in Hungary. The population of all places have equal political rights, but differences exist in the kind of local self government. In Hungary, as in Italy, many communes have a very extensive area, and on the other hand many have a very large population. The union of the towns of Pesth, Ofen, and Altofen together with Margarite Island formed in 1872 is now known as the city of Buda-Pesth, and has a population of 300,000. A few of the most populous towns are here given ; — Buda-Pesth... ... ... ... ... ... 300,000 Szegedin ... ... ... ... ... ... 70,000 Szabadka ... ... ... ... ... ... 56,323 Kecskemet ... ... ... ... ... ... 41,195 Pressburg ... ... ... ... ... ... 46,540 Debreezen ... ... ... ... ... ... 46,111 Temesvar ... ... ... ... ... ... 32,223 Brasso ... ... ... ... ... ... 27,766 Mako ... ... ... ... ... ... 27,449 Kolozsvar ... ... ... ... ... ... 26,382 Zombor ... ... ... ... ... ... 24,300 7 err'ttor'tal Changes. The Empire contained 1 14,814 English square miles under Ferdinand I- Lusatia was lost to Saxony in 1635 by the Peace of Prague; Alsace to France by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Then followed the trans- formation of Hungary into an hereditary kingdom under the Hapsburgs 1687, and at the same time the sovereignty of Transylvania was secured. Servia, parts of Wallachia, Croatia, and Bosnia were subjected by the Peace of Carlowitz in 1699, and of Passarowitz in 17 18. Austria, there- fore, obtained only a comparatively small part of the " Spanish Inheritance" by the Peace of Rastadt and Baden, 17 14, viz., the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia ; this last was exchanged for Sicily in 1720. Naples, Sicily, and part of Milan were lost again in 1735, ^^^ 1738, and only Parma, and Piacenza obtained in place of them. The Peace of Belgrade, 1739, cost Servia; and Frederick II. took the greater part of Silesia in 1740. In 1772 Austria acquired Galicia and Lodomeria, by the first division of Poland. The Buckowina was ceded by the Porte in 1777. By the Peace of Teschen the state acquired the district of the Inn from Bavaria, beside some Swabian Provinces ; and \\'est Galicia was obtained at the 3rd partition of Poland in 1795. Austria embraced in 1795 • — [A) Hereditary Possessions of German Empire. English square miles. Population. Hereditary Duchy of Austria ... ... 12,119 ••• 1,639,800 Inner Austria (Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Friuli, and Trieste) ... ... ... 18,326 ... 1,561,800 Upper Austria (Tyrol and the Vorarlberg) ... 10,971 ... 520,300 Further Austria (Breisgau, Ortenau, Burgau Ilohenburg, (Constance, Frickthal in Switzerland, Falkenstein on Rhine) ... 2,849 ••• 428,800 Kingdom of IJohemia, with Eger and Asch... 20,262 ... 2,916,400 Austro-Hiingarian Monarchy. 483 English square miles: Population. Margraviate of Moravia and rest of Silesia ... 10,227 ... 1,611,500 Netherlands, with Luxemburg and Limburg, but not Liege 9,780 ... 2,251,200 84.534 10,929,800 {K) Countries beyond Germany. Austrian Italy (Lombardy, with Pavia, Cre- mona, Lodi, Como, and Casale ; Mantua, Castiglione, Solferino) 5,613 ... 1,203,840 Hungary, with adjoining countries, and mili- tary frontier 101,823 ••• 7,710,000 Transylvania, with military frontier... ... 23,579 ... 1,260,000 Galicia and Lodomeria, with Buckowina ... 51,645 ... 4,792,600 182,660 14,966,440 Total 25,896,240 The peace of Campo Formio, October 17th, 1797, robbed the State of the Netherlands, Lombardy, and Falkenstein. It received in exchange the territory of Venice together with the city of Venice, lying east of the Adige, and Dalmatia. The peace of Luneville, (after the campaigns of Marengo and Hohenlinden) February 9th, 1801, further cost Austria the Breisgau and Frickthal, and procured for it the archbishoprics of Trent and Brixen. On August nth, 1804 the Sovereign declared himself " Hereditary Emperor of Austria." x^fter the campaigns of Ulm and Austerlitz, the peace of Press - burg, December 26th, 1805, compelled Austria to cede Venice with all her other Italian possessions to the kingdom of Italy ; to Bavaria she had to give up Burgau, Eichstadt,her share in Passau, the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Hoh en- embs, Rothenfels, Tetnang, Argen, and Lindau ; to Wiirtemburg she was compelled to cede the five towns on the Upper Danube, the county of Hohenberg, the landgraviate of Nellenburg, the bailiwick of Altorf, and part of Breisgau. To Baden she had to cede the remainder of the Breisgau, the Ortenau, and Constance: total loss, 25,429 English square miles. Austria obtained in exchange Salzburg, Buchtisgader, the Gillerthal, etc., 3,954 English square miles. The losses sustained by the peace of Vienna, October 14th, 1809, (after the battle of Wagram) were the circle of Villach, Carinthia, Trieste, the six military frontier districts, and the greater part of the district of Agram, out of which Napoleon formed the "Illyrian Provinces." Austria further ceded to the duchy of Warsaw West Galicia, the circle of Jamos, and_ a district near Cracow ; to Russia, part of East Galicia, and the Tarnopel circle, with 400,000 inhabitants; to Bavaria, Salzburg, the district of the Inn, the greater part of the district of Hansruch, and Berchtesgaden. The total loss was estimated at 42,278 English square miles, and 3,304,272 of population. The peace of Paris, 1814, and the Vienna congress, 181 5, gave_ to Austria her present constituent parts, together with Lombardy and Venice.^ Cracow, being a " free city," was not incorporated until after the meeting of the protesting Powers (Austria, Russia, and Prussia) 1846. The ten weeks' campaign of 1859 against Fr-^nce and Sardinia, ending with the preliminaries of peace at Villafranca, July nth, and the peace of Zurich, November loth, 1859, cost the principal part of Lombardy about 484 A ustro-Htmgcirian Monarchy. 7,845 English square miles, and a population of 2,726,000. In 1866 Aus tria lost Venice, together with the remainder of Lombardy, in spite of the victories of Custozza and Lissa over the Italians, as a consequence of the defeat of Koniggratz and the peace of Vienna with Italy, concluded October 3rd, 1866. Austria was further compelled by the peace of Prague, con- cluded with Prussia, August 23rd, 1866, to recognise her exclusion from Germany and to pay a war indemnity of ^1,200,000. These external changes were soon followed by internal alterations of the Empire, a division of the united State into two parts followed, on the basis of a representative- constitutional system. Finance. — Budgets. Each of the two divisions of the empire brings forward its own annual general budget, but there is in addition to these a general budget for the affairs common to both. The countries represented in the Imperial Council have to furnish 70 per cent, and Hungary 30 per cent, of the expenditure, after deduction of the common custom dues. A slight alteration took place inconsequence of the re-union of the military frontier with Hungary. As a result of this incorporation, Hungary has to pay 2 per cent, of the total ex- penditure, after which the remainder is divided in the proportion of 70 to 30. The figure of the contingent, therefore, to be paid by the countries represented in the Imperial Council thus becomes 68.6, and that payable by Hungary 31.4 per cent. Estimate of Revenue and Ex})enditure common to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, 1878 and 1879.* EXPENDITURE. Ministry of Foreign Affairs ... Army ... Navy ... Ministry of Finance ... Court of Accounts (Board of Control) 1878. ^^500,800 9,689,800 984,500 185,600 12,400 1,669,900 1879, ^500,818 9^689,734 845.264 185,570 12,467 - 11,373,100 ii>233,853 REVENUE. War Ministry ... 418,400 . .. ^^418,429 Surplus from Customs .. 1,200,000 1,109,000 Ministry of Foreign Affairs . . 51,200 . 51,160 Ministry of Finance ... ; 300 . 340 1,578,929 There remains, therefore, a deficiency of ;^9, 703, 200, borne by Austria and Hungary, in the proportion given above. * 'I'he Estimates for 1880 are within a fiactioii of the same amount as those voted for 1879, viz., ^^400,000 for Foreign Affairs; j^^g. 300,000 for the Army; ^800,000 for the Navy; in all togcthei' with punnions, the Ministry of Finance, and the Court of .Accounts, ;^io, 850,000. For the ^\rmy of Occujiation in Bosnia, ^1^800,000 are asked, instead ot ^3, 00c, 000 ol 1879, a very acceptable reduction. Austro-Hungarian Mouiirchy. 4^5 State Budget jo r the Countries represented tn the Imperial Couneil, 1878. DIRECT TAXES. Land tax, ^,{,'3,690,000; tax on buildings, ^^2, 350,000 ; tax on Industty, ^^900,000; income tax, ;^2, 000,000; dues from the imposition of extraordinary taxes, taxes, ;^2i,ooo; delayed interest on taxes in arrear, ^39,000 = ^9,000,000 INDIRECT TAXES. Customs, _;i^i, 863,400 ; duty on articles of consumption, ^6,148,100 (this includes brandy, ^900,000; wine and cider, ^393,000; beer, ^222,000; meat and cattle, ;!^46o,ooo ; sugar, ;^ 1,400, 000 ; provisions and articles of consumption, ^1,870,000 ; farming out, ;!£,""346,ooo ; other receipts, ^2,400; '■'■ Dazio constwid' in Dalmatia, ^\ 1,700 ; extraordinary farming out of taxes, ^228,000); salt, ;i^i,929,20o ; tobacco, ^5,969,000; stamps, ;^i, 7 20,000 ; taxes and imposts on law business, ^3,250,000; lotteries, ^2,011,770; tolls (bridge- dues, &c.), ^257,200 ; hall marking, ;^ 14,500 = ... ^23,163,170 STATE PROPERTY. Courts of justice and prisons, ^9,750 ; fiscal and lapsed property, ^15,500; railways, ^140,964; telegraph, ^£^314,000; State printing press at Vienna, ^119,640; mines, ^571,523 ; forests, ;^44i,7 10= 1,613,087 MISCELLANEOUS REVENUE OF THE MINISTRIES. Other receipts of finance minister, ^258,330 ; ministerial council, ;!^58,3oo ; ministry of the interior, ^^107, 190 ; ministry for defence of the country, ^3,066 ; ministry for religion and education, ^607,374 ; ministry of com- merce, ;£i, 563,130 (of which ;,?i, 480,000 from the post) ; from agriculture, ^34,891 ; ministry of justice, ^56,340; pensions estate, ^4,270; subventions, ^2,657 = 2,705,598 STATE DEBT. Total revenue therefrom 3>529>76o I k Total revenue ^^40,011, 615 Of which ^36.179,571 is ordinary, and ;^3,832,o44 is extraordinary. 4^ A iistro-Hungarian Monarchy. Expendiiute. Of which are Extraordinary Imperial Court Expenditure. — Half of total expenditure Cabinet chancelery ... Imperial Council, — Of which for the Chamber of Deputies, ^50,719... 4. Imperial court of justice ... 5. Council OF Ministry, — Including^56, 600 for establishment of official newspapers ... 6. Contribution towards general affairs 7. Ministry of the Interior, — Including administration of the country, ^547,500 ; public safety, ;^355'2oo ; roads, ^455,880 : waterworks, ;^i67,82o 8. Ministry for Defence of the Country, Including ^{^463,500 for Landwehr, and ;^38i,ooo for Gendarmerie 9. Ministry of Religion and Education, Including religion ^497. o55' £'^°^^S'^ being spent onthe Evangelicals,and ^7,075 on Greeks; education,^i,o7o,565, including ;^298,576 to the high schools; ^5,77° to theological colleges, ^^86,233 to technical high schools, ;^i 1, 1 50 to the acadamy in Vienna, ;^266,274 to middle schools ; ;^i 83,386 to the public schools ... 10. Ministry of Finance, — Administration, ^1,751,290, including financial directions in the separate provinces, ^2 78,000 ; finance guard, ;^424,ooo ; tax offices, ^388,800 : management of customs, ;^i35,25o ; regula- tion of land tax, ^388,800 ; cost of administration of the States revenue, ^^4,331,7 10; direct taxes,^2i,25o;customs ^965,600 ; duties on articles of consump- tion, ^412,100 ; salt,. ^31 0,060 ; tobacco, ;^2,i94,63o; stamps, ^^,'35-870: taxes, ;^42,45o; lotteries, ^{^i, 303, 600 ; tolls, ^26,200 ; stamping precious metals, ^6,800; State buildings, ^13^649; State printing, ;^i 09,840; mint, ^^22, 500 11. Ministry of Commerce, — ^282,460, in- cluding harbourand sanitar\ works^ 106,370 working expenses ;£,"2.oi9,82o, post ^1,467,000, telegaapli ^^"364,020, state railway management ^188,620, construction of state railways ^180,000 ;^465,ooo 72,514 147,748 2,100 88,925 7,675,314 1,720,600 824,910 ^80,000 ,655 140,5 40,000 1.686,965 240.770 7,224,159 44,119 3,478,210 324,390 A usiro-Himgarian Monarchy 487 12, Ministry of Agriculture, — Including breeding of horses ;^i 23,800, forests ^342,080, mines ^465,981 1,086,640 ... ;^98,484 13. Ministry of Justice, — Including ;,^230,ooo for prisons ... ... ... ... ... 2,108,852 ... 144,342 14. Superior Court of Account... ... ... 15,800 ... 100 15. Pension fund ... ... ... ... 1,396,200 16. Subventions and endowments ... ... 2,456,703 ... 2,395,803 17. State Debt, — a. Interest ^11,328,978 less ^3.oi7,37ofromHungaryleaves^8,3ii,6o8 add loss by cash ;£20-^,2>2(). b. Paid off ^1,028,418, less share of Hungary ;i^ii5,ooo, leaving (each ;^2,o7i loss by cash) ^T. 3 2 6,45 3. c. Regulation of the Danube ^60, 1 60. d. Payment of annuities ^80,014. e. Rentes bonds of separate lands (including^iii,i36 loss by cash);^666,8i9 12,845,261 ... 2,828,186 iS. Management of the state debt ... ... 77j46o Total expenditure 42,373,361 ... 6,338,353 Hungarian State Budget for the year 1878. I. ORDINARY expenditure. 1. Expenditure of royal court... ... ... ... ... ;^465,ooo 2. Cabinet chancellery... ... ... ... ... ... 7>25i 3. Expenditure of Upper House and House of Deputies ... 140,867 4. Share in the common expenditure of the monarchy for 1877 2,906,346 5. Pensions of the members of the central government, existing from 1849 to 1867 ••• ••• ••• ••• i5545° 6. Pensions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 382,449 7. state debt. a. Undertaken in accordance with law of 1867, interest, in current value, ^1,739,770; in coin p<|"i, 1 77,600 ; cost of negociation ^54,624 j annual share of amortisement, in current value, ;^ 1 00, 000 ; in silver _;,^i 5,000 = b. Freeing land from burden and for redemptions c. Redemption of wine tithes d. CON.SOLID.\TED DEBT. Railway loan of 1867 ,, ,, ... ... ... ... ... Paying off loan of 1870 ... ... ... ... ».. 3,088,044 1,650,203 232,66 ^^561,655 7,146,403 14S1III 488 A itsfro-Httngcirian Monarchy. Silver loan of 187 1 ;^228,275 5,400,000 silver loan of 1872 ... ... ... ••• 4i9'374 7,650,000 treasury bonds, ist series of 1873 ... ... 552,202 1874, 2nd series 552,202 1875, gold rentes loan 433'io° 1876 loan ... i75>ooo Loan to cover deficits 1878 ... ... ... ... 90,000 Last railway loan for undertaking the East Railway ... 998,930 Bonds ' '. ... 55,593 Floating debt 54,357 8. Administration in Croatia and Slavonia ... ... ... 1,500,000 9. Subvention on the Croatian Government ... ... ... 539,36° 10. Government of Fiume .. ... ... ... ... 8,409 11. State Court of accounts ... ... ... ... ... 13,^°° 12. Presidency of Ministry (including ;i^2o,ooo Dispositions fund) 30,926 13. Ministry of Royal Residence ... ... ... ... 5,°34 14. Ministry for Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia (together with Suite) ^ 3,588 15- Ministry of the interior, — Central administration, ^^31,820; archives, ^3,200; administration of the counties, ^1^482, 358 ; salaries of the county lieutenants, ^24,500 ; sanitary oversiglit, ;!^i8o; general administra- tion, ^202,626* = 744,684 16. Ministry of finance. — Central administration, ^^75,454 ; central State Treasury, ^6062 ; direction of finance, ^89,770; State Treasury inAgram, ;,ri. 398 ; tax inspection, ^^70,145; tax offices, £^io(),^i\\ guard of finance, customs and taxes, ;^ 2 20, 085: public accuser (fiscal), ^3,471 ; finance courts of justice in Croatia and Slavonia, ^607 ; public permanent registers of taxes, land, etc., ^36,990 : schools of mines and forests in Schemnitz ^10,500 ; collection of direct taxes, >/^35,6oo ; collection of duty on articles of consumption, ^'22,184; ditto of customs, ;^3i,6i2; stamps, ^17,033; miscellaneous judicial fees, ^37,969 ; stamping precious metals, ;^7i3 ; road and bridge tolls, ;^''5o ; tobacco duty, ^1,146,548 ; lotteries, ;i^i46,25i ; salt, ;^ 190, 764 ; direction of State property, jQ2T,o()^ ; working of the same, ^^148,949 ; forests, ;!^3 93,005 ; mines and mint, ^900,927 ; state printing, ^52,500; public buildings, ^£"1,192; mis- cellaneous, ;^ii, 639 ; = 3,787,893 • Nursing the sick, foundlings, insane, and police are included in this term, general ad- ministration. Austro-Hungaria?t Monarchy. 489 17- 18. ^9 Ministry of Public Works and Means of communication, — Central administration, ^25,263 ; general inspection of rail- ways and steamships, ^12,557 ; state ^building office, p^4i,66i ; construction and maintenance of roads, ^268,968 ; construction and maintenance of canals, 56,776; stipends, travelling salaries to scientific men, course of instruction to engineers, &c., ^732,463 ; state machine factories, ^"81,250 = ;^i)2i8,938 Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, — Central administration, ^27,806; for objects of industry and commerce, ;^3,5 17 ; agricultural improvements, ;^5,ooo School of agriculture, ^23,575 ; state establishments for for rearing and breeding of horses, ;^232,687 ; quarantine establishments, ^5,310; for cattle plague, ^3^900; veterinary school at Pesth, ^3,901 ; surveyorships_ of mines, ^^6,200 ; geological institution, ^2,800 ; statistical bureau, ^5,270 ; post, ^^468,900 ; telegraph, ^196,461 ; navigation, ^14,372; pawn establishment at Pesth, ;^28,2oo ; standard or stamping establishments, ^1,235 = ^1,028,184 Ministry of Religion and Education, — Central administration, ;2^2o, 205 ; direction of studies, ^19,610; educational institutions, ^309,262; (including university in Buda-Pest, ;,<;4i,2 7i, university in Klausenburg, ^17,763; Polytechnic, ^^19,000; 7 state gymnasia, /^i 3,439 ; grammar schools, ^40,922 ; male and female training schools, ^51,500); support to public schools, 67,000; salaries, ^7,390; general purposes of education, ^23,759 (including Hungarian national museum ^9,000 ; music academy, ^3,000) ; ecclesiastical purposes, 29,450== ;^476,676 Ministry of JusTiCE....Central administration, ^21,224 ; Court of Cassation, ^i4»579; superior Court of Justice, ^32,129; Royal table in Buda-Pesth, ^55>78i ; ditto inVasarhelz, ^^9,92 7 ; State attorneys, ^4,899; Courts of Justice and provincial courts, ^564,012; attorney- general, ^205,686; prisons, ^^57,128; system of registry of lands, ^8,730 ; carrying out of the laws, ^1,000 = /-975'095 21. Ministry for Defence of Country Honved troops ... Total ordinary expenditure Current expenditure Including the ^532.040 ;^26,i93,492 579,885 II. ordinary revenue. 1. From administration of debt, ^352,614. 2. Fiume, ;j^57 ; state court of accounts, ;^i8o = 3. Revenue from the ministry of interior = ... ^352,851 83,014 490 A rtstt'fl- Hungarian Monarchy. Ministry of Finance. — Direct taxes, ^8,360,630, (viz.: land tax, ^3,922,530; house tax, ;^89o,ooo ; tax on industry, ;^i, 760,000 ; tax upon public moneys of undertakings and companies, ;^2 25, 00c; taxes on mines, p^8,77o; tax upon interest of capital and rentes, ^300,000; income tax, jQi2,()oo \ mill tax, ^4,500; tax on trade, ;^35,55o; transport tax, ^225,000; tax on luxuries, ^29,500 ; hunting arms tax, ^^26,820 ; general income tax assessment, ,^920,000; (deferred in- terest on taxes, ^150,000 : impost on collection of taxes, ^20,800; arrears of taxes, ^300,000; duties on articles of consumption, ;^i,3i5,ooo, (viz., on spirits, ;^59o.ooo ; on wine, ;^3oo,ooo ; meat, _;!^2 2 5,ooo ; beer, ^100,000 ; sugar, p^ioo,ooo); stamps, ^780,000 ; taxes on justice, ^1,388,100; duties, ;^5 1,340 ; stamping precious metals, ^1,473; roads, bridges, and harbour tolls, ^^2,177 ; tobacco duty, ;^489,667 ; forests, ;!^628,897 ; lotteries, ^425,300; salt, ^1,325,354; state property, ^489,667 ; mines and mint, ;^888,5o2 ; state printing, ^56,500 ; public buildings, _;^3. 198 ; net profits on state railways, ^286,537; moveable state property, ^51.457; miscel- laneous, ^{^40,6 2 7 19,363,120 Ministry of Communication ... ... 819,870 7- 6. Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. Including revenue from agricultural institute, ^^, establishment for breeding of horses, ;^i,688, 117 ; ^568,900 ; telegraph, ^162,450; mines, ^10, pawn establishment at Buda-Pesth, ^28,200 = ... Ministry of Religion and Education ... Ministry OF Justice Ministry for Defence of the Country Total of ordinary revenue Current revenue 553; post. 000 : ... 956,633 ... 39,5^8 28,002 ... 10,208 21,653.586 331,015 General Survey. — Explanatory remarks. — {Revenue.) In Hungary, as in England and France, the small proceeds of the State domains is remarkable ; much was formerly wasted, and of late years much was sold from the pressure of necessity. To this must be added the unskilful management of the property.* * The following is extracted from a statement laid before the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, October, 1869: ''The State domains under the management of the Hungarian Ministry of Finance, and that of Agriculture contain, without including the Crown district of Theiss, altogetlit-r i4,"37,382 English acres, if we atid to this the forests of the military fron- tier, 8,723,693 acres, the area of the State lands under the dominion of the Crown of Hungai-y amounts to 22,880,785 acres, eqnals 35,688 Engli>h square miles. The net proceeds of these enormous possessions amounted only to _^i46,497. The area of the Transylvanian State Domains has not yet been ascertained, but they consi,,t chiefly of forests. '' According to tlie official document, " Hungar)'," at the Great International Exhibition, the extent of the Hun- garian Stua- forests in 1873 was 23,567 English sijuire miles, and the revenues thereot ^1,445.107; the expenditure, J^i,o-]i,^STi the net proilt, ;iC373.i5o. Austro-Htingarian Monarchy. 491 The system of taxation is bad in many ways. Many imposts are laid on the chief necessaries of life, such as meat, beer and salt ; the latter as well as tobacco being a monopoly. The tobacco monopoly has existed in Austria since 1670, but the management of it by the State only from the year 1783. It was not introduced, however, into Dalmatia until 1812 ; nor into the Tyrol until 1828; nor into Hungary or its dependent provinces until 185 1. The net proceeds of the tobacco monopoly in 1784 was ^350,000 ; in 1800, ;^44o,ooo ; in 1830, ^570,000; in 1840, ^920,000; in 1850, ;i^i, 650,000 : in i860, ^2,330,000; in 1871, ^3,700,000. It fell, how- ever, from 187 1 to 1874 to ^^3,338,000, and rose again in 1875 to ;^3)533)9i7j a"d in the estimates for Cis-Leithania, 1878, ;^3, 774,370 net; gross, however, ^5,969,000. For Hungary, in this last year, the gross estimate was ^2,752,513 ; net ;^i,6o5,965. The number of cigars sold was : — 1857 1859 1867 1875 I0335900j000 ... 797,200,000 ... 979,800,000 ... 1062,560,000 The sale of tobacco for smoking in 1841 was 279,564 cwts. ; in 1856, 622,714 cwts. ; in 1859, 564,470 cwts. ; in 1861, 446,330 cwts. ; in 1863, 531,453 cwts. ; in 1867, 512,860 cwts. Snuff— 1841, 54,670 cwts.; 1854, 72,816 cwts. ; 1859, 62,794 cwts. ; 1861,53,741 cwts.; 1863, 51,338 cwts.; in 1866,34,570 cwts. In the year 1872 there were 26 factories, employing 26,315 hands. 131,713 cwts. of foreign and 547,253 of home grown tobacco were manufactured (the produce of tobacco in Hungary is estimated at 800,000 cwts.) From this quantity were manufactured : 1033,770,150 cigars ; 25,000,500 cigarettes; 436,255 cwts. of tobacco for smoking; 36,235 cwts. of twisted tobacco, and 47,061 cwts. of snuff In 1873, there were sold, i,'i3 1,034,823 cigars made in factories at home, and 6,983,572 made in foreign factories ; besides 4,123,583 lbs. of snuff, and 213,791,675 lbs. of smoking tobacco, for which ^5.959.^04 were paid. In this year, 1873, there were 89,152,971 more home made cigars, and 280,868 fewer foreign ones sold than in 1872. In 1874 there were 28 factories with 26,580 work-people, of whom 22,698 were women, and 888 were children. In 1875 there were sold in Cis- Leithania 466,270 cwts. of tobacco for smoking, and 14,962 cwts. of snuff. NOTES TO EXPENDITURE, The military and state debt, in spite of the reduction of interest on the last, increase here, as . in all the great states of Europe, to enormous proportions. The expenditure for officials in Cis-Leithania for 1873 was estimated thus :— 23,455 offidals ^2,649,390 1,379 assistants 61,740 15,507 beadles, servants, public accusers, &c. ... 675,829 ^3^386,959 The state of finance in Austria, and yet more so in Hungary, is very unsatisfactory, A deficit in the finance of Austria is nothing new. Von Czorning has published a list of the balance of accounts since 1781, from 492 A ustro-Hiingnrian Monarchy, which it will be seen that tlic ordinary receipts during the 78 years (till 1858) were, only twice, greater than the expenditure; all the other 76 years showed a deficit. This result was indeed partly brought about by the outlay for objects which were to yield profit — viz, the construction of railways. (Sold in the mean time). From 18 16 to 1835 the receipts generally amounted to between ;^i 2,000,000 and ^13,000,000, and the expenditure to between ;^i3,2oo,ooo and ;^i8, 000,000. After the loss of Lomhardy, and the introduction of the new standard of coinage, the official deficit was — In 1859 ;^28,093,92i In 1864 ^4o7i>272 „ i860 ... ... 6,506,281 ,, 1865 ... ... 798,769 „ 1861 ... ... 10,950,000 „ 1866 ... ... 4,013,914 „ 1862 9,412,288 „ 1867 2,559,900 „ 1863 6,250,265 The deficit stated in the budgets since the separation in the adminis- tration of finance are — Cis-Leithania Hungary Total 1868 ^555,589 ■•• ^531,700 ... ^1,087,289 1869 361,853 ... 949,319 ••• 1,311.172 1870 354,422 ... 766,083 ... 1,120,505 1871 1,172,703 ... 3,798,998 ... 4,971,701 The budget for Cis-Leithania showed a small surplus of ;^6, 269 for the first time in 1872 ; it even rose to ^374,840 in 1873 ; but the closing figures for 1874 again showed a deficit, and one of no less than ;^i, 566,633. The condition of Hungary was still worse — here the budget showed regular deficit in 1872, 1873, and 1874. The Taxable Value of Cis-Leithania compared with that of Hungary. It must be remembered that the extent of the two countries are not at all the same, Austria having an area of 115,907 English square miles, and a population of 21,743,000, while Hungary embraces an area of 124,431 square miles, and a population of only 15,500,000, although the following figures of 1874 furnish material for comparison : — Cis-Leithania Hungary Land tax ^3,685,000 ... ^3.642,979 Duty on buildings ... ... ... 2.106,000 ... 756,825 Duty on manufactures ... ... 833,000 ... 906,834 Income tax 2,100,000 ... 1,235,927 Dues on levying of taxes ... ... 15,000 ... 20,800 Deferred interest on arrears of taxes... 23,000 ... 150,000 The two latter items appear specially deserving of notice. Among the indirect taxes and duties on articles of consumption we have- Hungary Brandy.. Wine .. Beer .. Meat . . Sugar .. Cis-Leithania ^^803,000 420,000 2,343,000 430,000 1,200,000 ;:^6oo,ooo 273,500 182,000 202,000 132,000 A ustro-Hungarian Monarchy. 493 Among the monopolies and sources of revenue — Cis-Leilhania Salt Tobacco Stamps Judicial Fees Lottery ... ;^i,907>50° 5>970.5oo 1,450,000 3,550,000 1,626,900 The taxing power in the various (1875)- Lower Austria Upper Austria Salzburg ... Tyrol and Vorarlberg Styria Carinthia ... Carniola ... Coast lands Dalmatia ... Bohemia ... Moravia ... Silesia Galacia Buckowina Total Hungary ;^I, 430,278 2,923,734 649,630 1,302,500 303,870 parts of the country deserves notice Tax on Industries. Income Tax. ••^55,499 •• ^808,246 1,018 .. 5,595 17 ■• 1,307 186 .. 2,496 1,979 •• 9,428 710 4,520 287 .. 2,016 524 .. 37,606 706 2,826 .. 24,306 .. 105,471 .. 8,489 .. 23,363 1,499 •• 3,904 ... 2,763 .. 9,756 67 .. 400 97,950 1,016,934 The expenditure of the City of Vienna in 1852 was ^272,683 ; it had grown in 1861 to ;^7oi,285. Li 1874 the revenue was ... Expenditure ... The property of the city is estimated at Against a debt of ... The City of Trieste in 1874. Revenue Expenditure Value of property Debt ^3,157,940 2,696,679 6,962,216 4,292,613 ^338,928 373,222 932,230 487,276 Revenue Expenditure Property. Assets ... Liabilities Buda-Pesth. 621,909 652,398 4,234,177 1,285,429 494 A ustro-Hiingarian Monarchy. Notes on the Financial History. In the year 1855 the Ciovernment sold the Hungarian and Bohemian State Railways, together with lands and mines to a French Company ; and in 1856 the Lombardo-Venetian line, except that portion between Verona and the Southern Tyrol, was sold to the Vienna Credit Bank for ;^ 1 0,000,000 ; and, lastly, in 1838, the Southern State Railway was sold to the same Company for ^10,000,000, 7 of which was to be paid up, and the remaining ;;^3, 000,000 to pay 7 per cent, interest. In addition to these sales the iron mines of Transylvania were sold ; the amount of contributions which had been imposed on the Italians was spent, as well as the war indemnity amounting to ;!^3, 000,000 paid by Sardinia in 1849. The compensation of ^4,230,000 to establish the new silver standard paid by Lombardy was also employed for the current expenditure. After the conclusion of peace between Austria and Italy in 1866, the latter was forced to pay ;^3, 500,000 for the share of debt incurred by Venice in the loan of' 1854, and for the value of the non-transferable material of war. ;^3, 000,000 of this was at once paid as contribution of war to Prussia. The rest was swallowed up in the maintenance of the Prussian troops. Lower Austria • ^729,820 Tyrol ... Upper Austria 204,042 Vorarlberg Salzburg 55'787 Bohemia Styria 443,201 Moravia Carinthia 84,443 Silesia ... Cariola 53.110 Galicia... Gorz and Gradisca .. 24,618 Buckowina Istria... 31.679 Dalmatia State Debt. The Finance of ihe separate Kini:;dovis and Provinces represented in the Imperial Council. (The accounts are for the year 1874, and include the extraordinary revenues and expenditure). ^39,368 4,852 718,770 307,979 64,348 410,323 10,911 29,644 The arrangement of the debt offered special difficulties when the settlement was made between Cis-Leithania and Hungary. An agreement was at length come to on the following basis : — In accordance with the treaty of December, 1867, Hungar)' undertook to furnish a permanent annual sum of jQ2,c)\2>,?>oo, of which ^1,177,600 were to be in ready money, to commence from the year 1868 ; which sum was to be for the liquidation of the interest ])ayable on the general state debt hitherto existing, and not to be subject to any further alteration ; Hungary was beside to pay ^100,000 and a further sum of ^15,000 cash as a fixed contribution to the amortisation and for the transformation of the lottery loan into an annuity debt ; any saving of interest, even by paymg off debt was to be to the advantage of Cis-Lethania, except the above mentioned ^^^ 15,000 which was to be discontinued when paid-off. The floating debt existing in state notes was to be entirely guaranteed by both divisions of the Empire. According to the evidence of the Control Commi.ssion of the Imperial Council, the amount of the debt at the end of December, 1877, with all Austro-Hun^arian MoimrcJiy. 495 the original obligations reduced to a 5 per cent, capital (Austrian standard), in accordance \viih a decree of June 20, t86S, after deduction of the per- centage dues stood thus : — ■ a. CONSOLIDATED DEBT. Annual Interest Amount In Notes In Gold & Silver 1. Old paying interest in Vienna \ /"i. 1,628 ... 2,817 •• value ... ... •■• ) 2, New; c?. in convention coinage 5?255'55° ••• 143^613... 2,143 b. in Austrian value ... 278,617,068 ... 6,340,085 ... 5,043,125 Sum ... ^284,004,246 ... 6,486,515 ... 5,045,268 b. FLOATING DEBT. Of provinces represented in the j^ ^n 560,453 ... 406,224 ... - council f -^^'^ ^^^ .. Capital set aside for the in-) 1,255,586 ... 51,432 - - demnification of rentes ... \ ' ^^'^ ^ '^^ ^. Capital appropriated to pay- I 175,000... — ... 8,750 ments to Bavaria j '^' '^ Total ... ^294,995,285 ... 6,944,171 ... 5,054,018 Add to this sum : — Debt incurred for discharge of j.^ g g ... 858,356 ... - debt on land of Cis-Leithania ( -^ ^' ^''♦'^ ^ '^^ RemainderofGalician famine loan 10 ... — — Debt to National Bank 8,000,000 ... ■ — — Special State Debt of Hungary. This has increased very rapidly and consists of the following loans : — 1867 ... 5 per cent, railway loan, repayable in 50 years ... ^8,518,000 '1870 ... Lottery loan, not paying interest, repayable in 50 years... ... ... ... ••• •■• 3,000,000 187 1 ... 5 per cent. Gomorer bonds, repayable in 40^ years 662,430 1872 ... 5 per cent, loan, repayable in 30 years, from 1872 5,400,000 1873 •■• 6 P^'' ^^"^- treasury bills, repayable December, 1878 7,650,000 1874 ... 6 per cent. „ „ 7,650,000 ^32,880,430 To this should be added : — 1 The debt for redemption of the land 23,802,978 2 That for redemption of wine tithes ... ... ... 2,080,436 3 Redemption of bridge tolls ... ... 39>°66 4 Redemption of waste lands 32,143 58'835,o53 496 A ustro-Hinigiirian Monarchy. 5 Gold rentes 6 per cent. ... ... ... ... ... 7,195,580 6 Interest bearing treasury assignments ... ... ... 521,550 Total ^66,552,183 We have no precise information as to the value of the property existing to meet this mass of debt. It was stated in 1875 to amount to ^69,687,000, after the following; table : — State lands and \ forests ... . . . j Mines and mint Salt works ... State railways Chain Bridge at Pesth Public buildings ^7,885,900 3,185,200 17,717,700 7,550,000 870,900 3>573.7oo Arrears of assets Stores and plants State claims Treasury papers ^14,902,900 6,772,900 3,423,900 3»794,ioo ^28,893,800 Total of immovables.. ^40,783,400 Total of immovables.. ^40,783,400 Total ^69,677,200 History of the Debt. At the conclusion of the "Seven Years' War," in 1763, Austria found herself burdened with a debt estimated at ^15,000,000, and which had increased to ^28,000,000 by 1781 ; and at the commencement of the French Revolution in 1789 it was ;£'2,^,gQo,Qoo. From this time forward the increase became colossal. The amount of debt in 1790 was almost ^37,200,000, and in 1793 it was ;^42, 000,000 ; in 1795 '^^ ^'^^ ^49,600,000; in the year following it was ;;{^5 6, 400,000 ; in 1799 the debt had reached ^63,300,000; in 1802, ^68,000,000; in 1810, ^72,700,000; and in 181 1 it w^as ^81,200,000. A succession of the most unusual financial measures followed this accumulation of the consolidated debt. After the Government had unfairly reduced the interest on the debt to half its original per centage it forced the creditors to contract a further loan under threat of the loss of their previous claim. A similar course was pursued with the paper money by which the metal coinage was almost replaced. Paper money is an old evil in Austria, At first it was called bank bills, and stood at par. In the year 1781 it was limited to ^772,500 ; in 1788 it amounted to more than ^2,000,000 ; in 1794 to ^3,200,000 ; in 1796 to ^4,700,000 ; in 1797 to 2r7j4oOjOoo. From 1799 the exchange of the bank bills fell lower and lower. In 1799 1800 1801 1802 1809 ^14,000,000 ^^20,000,000 ^26,200,000 ^"23,700,000 ;^73, 000,000 The worth of the paper sank gradually to one-seventeenth of its normal value, although most positive assurances had been given that no decline in the value should take place. An imperial mandate of February, 181 1, contained these words : — " I give my imperial word that the bank bills shall never be reduced in value." On March 26, 181 1 (six weeks after this declaration), the government reduced the value of the paper money, which had increased to ;2^ 106,000,000, to one-fifth — that is to say, the old paper money was exchanged for new, which was called redemption and anticipatory notes. As the cjuantity of paper money was continually increased in spite of all promises, and the amount, which had been A ustro-Hungarian Monarchy. 497 reduced to ^21,200,000 in the year 181 1 was again augmented to ;,£"63,9oo,ooo in 1816 ; the new paper money soon fell to a quarter of its nominal value, thereby making the total loss nineteen-twentieths, and the owner of what had originally been ^ i o really possessed but the value of \os. The wars of 1813-15 required fresh sacrifices accompanied by extravagance. In order to get rid of a burdensome floating debt, new financial operations were begun in 1816, which were nearly equal to a second bankruptcy. The owners of the paper money had the choice given them of either exchanging it for two sevenths of its value in bank-notes, and accepting state paper at i per cent, for the remaining five-sevenths, or of exchanging the paper money for shares in the newly established " National Bank." The paper money certainly was diminished. In 181 7 the amount was ^52,000,000; in 1821, ^33,000,000; in 1827 it w^as reduced to rather less than ^10,000,000 ; and in 1839 to ;^2, 000,000. But at the the same time the condition of the national debt had become much worse, although the nominal amount of it w^as reduced by exchanging the old debt reduced to 2I per cent interest for new 5 per cent, bonds payable in silver. Loans, re-payable in cash, followed rapidly one after another from 18 18 to 1 841. The first lottery loan was issued in 1820 followed by others in 1834 and 1839. The Metternich system adopted from 181 1-1840 brought the debt so far that the yearly public burden for interest rose from ^770,000 to ^4,070,000. After the pressing financial embarassments in 1846 and 1847 the revolution followed in Vienna, Hungary, and Italy in 1848. Paper money was again issued to an unlimited extent ; the export of money was forbidden, and a decree of June 2nd, 1848, ordered the forced circulation of bank notes. From 1848 to 1866 the amount of paper money issued was ^174,755,990. The condition of the National Debt together with the interest paid thereon is as follows : — ■ CAPITAL. INTEREST End of Consolidated. Floating. On the Two. *0f which in Cash 1870^ 2^265.315,602 ^^35,211,351 ;^io,599,273 ^4,406,817 1871 ' 262,874,288 37,560,089 10,499.578 ... 4,406,132 1872 264,487,527 37,599,188 10,595,321 4,478,782 1873 267,556,518 34,403,327 10,757,746 4,477,490 1874 273,570,864 34,528,219 10,954,321 4,476,024 1875 278,969,105 34,650,103 11,210,975 4,527,892 1876 283,792,592 35,544.416 11,457,677 4,686,327 1877 294,995,287 34,595,116 12,846,549 5,054,019 1878 300,042,915 44,180,841 Am ny. Land Force. Compc )SrnON OF THE Armv. The field-forces are common to both divisions of the Empire, but the Landwehr is separate and peculiar to each. Levy, after the age of 20 (92,000 men annually). Since 1868 the former system of levy, with substitution and a term of 8 years' service, has been abolished, and, in imitation of the Prussian arrangement, universal liability to serve for a * The interest of the remainder is paid on paper. 2 I 49^ Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. period of 3 years in the standing army, 7 years in the reserve, and 2 years in the Landwehr, has been introduced. The actual term of service in the infantry scarcely amounts to 2 years. The institution of " volunteers " has also been adopted. In accordance with the laws of defence of Dec. 5th, 1868, the war-footing of the regular army and of the naval marine is fixed at 800,000 men. After the remaining military frontier had passed into the Civil Administration of Hungary, it was decided in 1874 that Cis-Leithania should furnish 457,012 men and Hungary 342,988 towards the grand total. The promotion of common soldiers to the rank of officers has not hitherto frequently occurred, but it is a possibility for every soldier who passes a good examination, and against whose conduct no complaint has been made. Each of these aspirants to the rank of officer receives the title of " cadet " after he has passed the examination, and is relieved from the performance of menial service. In 1874 the number of the nobility among the officers was 4,961 (103 princes, 590 counts, 898 barons, 570 knights, and 2.800 of the ordinary nobility). Eleven languages are spoken in the army : German, Bohemian, Slovak, Polish, Ruthenian, Croatian, Slovenian, Hungarian, Italian, and Dalmatian. The pay is smaller than in other armies. Until 1848 the sanitary condition of the army was very ill cared for. The commissariat was shown to be extremely deficient in the campaigns of 1859 and 1866. In peace the army contains 3 infantry divisions, with 65 infantry brigades and 19 cavalry brigades. In war it is divided into 13 army corps, each consisting of 3 divisions of infantry and i corps of artillery reserve, and 5 divisions of cavalrj'. Of these the Hungarian Landwehr supplies 6 divisions of infantry and I of cavalry. FORMATION, 1 879. 80 regiments of infantry of the line of 5 battalions of 4 companies, and I depot battalion. 1 Tyrolese Rifle Regiment of 7 battallions of 4 companies, and 7 reserve companies. 33 battalions of Field Jiigers (Rifles) of 4 field and i reserve company. 41 cavalry regiments (14 Dragoons, 16 Hussars, 11 Uhlans), all composed of 6 field squadrons and i depot squadron. 13 regiments of field artillery and 12 battalions of fortress artillery, the former of 14 batteries of 8 guns. 2 regiments of Engineers, and i regiment of Pioneers of 5 battalions and 10 Field Railway divisions (Feld-Eisenbahnabtheil). The register at the end of December, 1876, showed the following : — 15,702 officers and 828,320 men, of which last 277,525 were in the line and 550,795 in the reserve. Officers. Rank and File. War footing Infantry ... 9,151 162,476 476,560 Jager 1,175 21,436 57,608 Cavalry 2,024 44,097 56,908 Field Artillery 1,230 21,320 58,261 Fortress Artillery 410 7>759 18,388 Technical Artiller) 215 1,468 3'274 Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. 499 Officers. Rank and File. War footing Engineers 651 .. 5,856 16,071 Pioneers 183 2,916 7,856 Sanitary troops 94 3,772 14,289 Military train corps 299 2,690 31,296 Military instruction 211 786 1,013 Military stores ... 59 412 967 Army hospital corps — 2.537 9,240 Total ... 15,702 277,525 751,731 The number of horses (not reckoning the ofificers' horses), is in time of peace, 47,987 ; in time of war, 156,242: and those of the Landwehr, 179,054. In 1876 the number of sick treated out of the 27,752 of the effective force was 145,737, of whom 1,891 died, and 13,521 were cured. It appeared from the report of this year that 90 became dumb, 58 attempted suicide, 330 committed suicide, 91 became insane, and 130 met with fatal accidents. Taking the line and reserve together of 1876, there were 8,275 deaths, 408 suicides, 309 fatal accidents, and 2,548 deserters. Lmidwehr — (Militia.) A period of 8 weeks is fixed for instruction in Cis-Leithania, after which the periods of exercise in arms are of 14 days duration. The war footing of the Landwehr is as follows : — Cis-Leithania Hungary . . . Battalions lOI . .. 92 Squadrons Officers .. 27 ... 2,916 .. .. 40 ... 3,028 .. 67 5,944 Fortresses. Soldiers . 118,626 . • 127,234 • Horses .. 6,070 .. 1.6,742 Total 193 245,860 22,812 For encampment : Olmiitz and Cracow, Simple Depot, Fortresses : — Theresienstadt, Josephstadt, Koniggratz Komorn, Peterwardein, Arad, Esseg, Karlsburg, Karlstadt, Brod, and Gradiska. Citadels : Limberg and Kuin. Castles : Klausenburg, Kronstadt, Marvs Vasdrhelz, Csik-Szereda, Postlingberg, and Clissa. Fortresses commanding roads : Gomagoi, Nau- ders, Strino-Nago, and Lueg. Fortresses commanding valleys : Franzens- feste, Trent (with Buco-de-Vela and Civezzano), Kiifstein. Ladaro and Malborghetto. Fortress commanding a pass : Predil. Principal Naval Ports. Bola, with the fortified harbour of Fasana. Military ports : Cattaro and Ragusa. Fortified harbours : Trieste, Lissa, and Lussinpiccolo. Coast battery and road commanding fort : Nicolo. Alilitary History. At the time of Maria Theresa's accession to the throne, there were but 30,000 soldiers in all German Austria, of whom there were not more than 3 battalions and 2 companies in Silesia, and i battalion and 2 companies in Bohemia. This roused the King of Prussia to attack. The force actually mobilized in the campaign of 1S05 did not reach 220,000 men, and even in 5oo Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 1809 it did not exceed 280,000 (although on paper it was stated at 320,000). Until the period of this campaign officers' commissions were sold. The campaign of 182 1 against Naples and Sardinia was of no military import- ance. In 1848 there were about 80,000 men in Italy, but they quickly dwindled by the insurrection to 45,000 in active service. The army was soon filled up, and now began Radetsky's victorious campaigns against Charles Albert. But the siege of Venice alone cost 20,000 men, the greater part of whom fell victims to sickness. According to the work entitled, " The Italian War," by the Austrian general staff, — the strength of the Austrian army on entering the Sardinian territory was loi battalions, 14 special companies, 35^ squadrons, 364 guns — together, 144,703 men and 20,285 horses, but only 106,641 men, with 6,086 horses, ready for battle. The strength of the allied troops (organised in smaller tactical bodies) was as follows : — • Battalions Squadrons Guns Men Horses French ... ... 198 ... 80 ... 312 ... 107,656 ... 9,008 Piedmontese ... 96 ... 37 ... 90 ... 55,648 ... 3,984 Together ... 294 ... 117 ... 402 ... 163,304 ... 12,992 The Austrian army lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners 1,164 officers and 48,500 subalterns and common soldiers, exclusive of those who perished by illness or privation. The losses were greatest at Magenta and Solferino. At the outbreak of the war of 1866 the army contained 646,636 individuals, 19,538 of whom were officers. The number actually in the field was 407,223 men, 10,932 of whom were officers. The fighting force, therefore, was far inferior, in point of numbers, to tlie armies of Prussia and Italy. The losses were — Land Forces — Killed Wounded Missing Officers • 587 . . 1,505 483 • 2,575 • Soldiers 10,407 .. 27,805 ... 43,264 Officers 53-7 137-7 44-2 Loss per looo Men 26.3 70.2 109.2 War Maj'hic — 81,476 Officers 235-6 205.7 Men Killed ... ... ... 3 36 Wounded ... ... ... ... 13 ... ... 136 According to a Prussian return the Austrian army also lost 486 guns and 31 colors and standards. Koniggriitz was the most disastrous battle in this campaign ; and even at Custozza the Austrians, though victorious, lost in killed, wounded, and missing 7,389. Total loss at Koniggratz 38,000. Na7'y — War Marine. In August, 1879, ^^""^ condition was as stated below : — Iron-clad Vessels Tons Horsc-povvcr Guns Men 8 Casemates... ... 42.930 ... 6,750 ... 108 • 3.974 2 Frigates, steam ... •■• 13.390 2,100 50 .. • 1,350 3 Frigates „ 6,860 1,200 30 .. 688 A ustro-Hnngatiau MonarcJiy. SOI Iroii-clad Vessels Tons Horse-power Guns Men 9 Corvettes ... 13.520 . .. 2,350 ... 63 -. 1,568 9 Gunboats ... 5w40 . 495 ••• 24 ... 983 1 1 other vessels 12,320 . .. 2,570 ... 27 ... 1,102 2 Monitors on the Danube... 620 . 95^380 . 160 .. 15,625 ... 4 ... 98 306 ... 9.763 Tons Horse -power 1 8 School ships and hulks ... 19,020 ... - — 6 Pilot ships ... 1,240 ••• 3 = I Social, Mannfacturhig, and Comjnerc'ial Conditions. — {a) General Remarks. The nobility and the Romish clergy are both numerous and powerful. The nobility is said to number 250,000 males, of whom 163,000 are in Hungary, 24,000 in Galicia, 2,476 in Bohemia. The secular clergy numbered 55,370 individuals in 1858. In 1865, without including Venice, there were 35,540 secular clergy, 8,782 monks, and 5,658 nuns. Beside the nobility and the ecclesiastics, the officials form a special class. Those who occupy inferior positions are very poorly paid, a fact productive of very bad results. The Population classed according to Occupations. Cis-Leithania. (A.) Ecclesiastics, 3 1,398 ; officials and others holding public appointments, 72,147; military in active service, 185,150; teachers, 40,503; students, 75,643; authors, 1,352; artists, 14,536; attorneys and notaries, 7,230= 427,958 (B.) Persons connected with sanitary matters : — Physicians, 4,664 ; surgeons, 3,376 ; accoucheurs, 11,759 j chemists, 2,248 ; others engaged in caring for the sick, 6,095 = 28,142 (C) Occupied in cultivating land and forests : — Proprietors, 1,784,752; farmers, 59,243; offixials, 29,570; per- manent servants, 3,646,286 ; day labourers, 1,977,649,= 7,497,500 (D) Persons employed in the chase and fisheries = ... 8)895 E) Employed in mining and smelting works : — Proprietors, 878; tenants or farmers of the estates, 118; officials, 3,580; servants and day labourers, 99,776= ... ... 104,342 (F) Employed in manufacturing industries : — {a.) in building and artistic industries : — Masters, 17,688; officials, 4,172 ; labourers, 213,650= ... 235,510 {I)) In metal, stone, and wood working industries : — Independent workers, 118,686; officials, 4,102; work people, 382,984= 5o5>772 (939 (/) In monetary affairs and credit institutions ... h^^Z (G) Owners of houses and annuities ... ... ... 435'285 (H) Personal servants ... ... ... ... ••• 817,835 (I) Persons without definite means of living, above 14 years of age, males ... ... ... •■• •■• ••• 192,061 Females 2,006,456 Under 14 years of age, males ... ... ... ... 3>°67,302 „ „ Females 3.137.644 In lands belonging to the Hungarian Crotvn. 5,009,678 persons occupied in agriculture, wuth live stock and in forests. 4,932 „ „ fisheries and the chase. 50,143 „ „ mining industries. 646,964 „ „ manufacturing industries. 105,027 „ „ trade. 28,555 „ „ transport. 80,680 „ ,, on their own property. 1,143,075 „ „ personal service. 145,467 „ „ the army and navy. 35,540 „ „ public offices. 19,858 ,, „ religious matters. 4,884 „ „ jurists. 14,283 „ „ matters of health. 27,221 „ „ education. 11,303 „ „ the fine arts. 717 „ ., literature and .science. 8,181,130 maintained by others, or without any definite occupation. The countries included in the Austrian Empire possess great natural wealth. This is, however, in many respects, but little developed, a result mainly due to innumerable impediments which have, till lately, existed both to the intellectual and material progress of the people. The condition of the peasantry has decidedly improved since the political movements of 1848 ; the former state of bond service peculiar to Austria (Robot), and other conditions of serfdom have been abolished, and the old feudal burdens declared redeemable. The upward impulse is still greatly impeded by the debts of redemption wliich continue to encumber the country people. Another drawback to improvement is that the best estates are in " mortmain," or in possession of the clergy and nobility, whose indivisible Anstro- Hungarian Monarchy. 503 properties are often as large as small states. A very serious evil also is the enormous amount of the taxes in proportion to the limited develop- ment of power to pay them. Nevertheless the beneficial effects of the new legislation are already seen in many directions. In Hungary the improved means of communication are resulting in great economic changes. b, INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND MORAL CONDITION. Educational Listitutions. There are 10 universities, viz., Vienna, Prague, Gratz, Innspruch Lemberg, Cracow, Gernonitz, Klausenberg,Agram and Pesth. The 7 first named are in Cis-Leithania, and have 1,527 teachers and 9,066 students. That of Vienna has 3,975 students; that of Prague 1,885 ' Lemberg 918; Gratz 878; Innspruck 614; Cracow 587; Czernowitz 209. Number of students according to their native tongue, 327 Germans, 1,540 Czech-Slavs, 1,338 Poles, 454 Ruthenians, 194 Slovaks, 233 Croats and Serbs, 303 Italians, Friulese, etc., 129 Roumanians, 396 Magyars. The new university at Klausenberg is principally a medical college. The Hungarian university at Pesth has 141 teachers and 2,375 students. There also exist in Cis-Leithania 7 high technical schools with 290 teachers and 3,515 students; 3 high schools for the study of agriculture, mines and forests, 4 high-class commercial schools, i school for high art, and 44 theological colleges. Middle Schools. These are numerous and good, including training colleges for male and female teachers. Hungary has besides her 3 univer- sities, — I polytechnic, 80 upper and 70 lower gymnasia. Of the scholars the proportions are, Magyars 75.12 per cent., Germans 9.12 per cent., Roumanians 8.4 per cent, Slavs 5.2 per cent. Public or People's Schools.^ — In Cis-Leithania 15,166 schools, 31,196 teachers (6,281 female teachers), 2,134,683 scholars (1,092,644 boys and 1,042,039 girls); of the scholars, 6,864 were German, 3,820 Greek, 1,141 Polish, 1,038 Ruthenians, 483 Slovak, 222 Serbo-Croatian, 1,080 Italian ; the remainder being mixed, 404 Polish- Ruthenian and 192 German- Slovak. The average salaries of the teachers ;£?4i los. ; in Lower Austria it is jP^ix ; Upper Austria ;^6i ; Bohemia ^^49 ; in Galicia ^27 only ; in Vorarlberg ;^25, and in Tyrol only ;^i6 per annum. Hungary has 16,574 peoples' schools with 22,298 teachers and 1,527,600 scholars (832,700 boys and 694,900 girls). The scholars according' to creed were 1,430,959 Roman Catholics ; 45,698 Protestants; 5o>943 Jews. In Hungary, taking the whole population over 6 years, 3,990,519 = 31.3 per cent, can read and write; 1,344,292 = 10.5 per cent, can readonly; 7,416,503 = 58.2 per cent, can neither read nor write. The proportion of recruits in Cis-Leithania from 1872 to 1874 who could read and write was — 94.2 per cent, in Lower Austria ; 91.2 in Silesia; 88.5 in Salzburg; 85.7 in Upper Austria ; 84.7 in Bohemia; 73.7 in Styria ; 71.4 in Moravia; 59.9 in Hungary-Transylvania; 53.4 in Tyrol; 52.6 in Carinthia ; 42.3 in Croatia-Slavonia; 29.5 in the Coast Lands ; 15.5 in Galicia; 7.3 in Carniola; 6.2 in Buckowina ; 1.6 in Dalmatia. 504 A tistro-Hmigarian Monarchy. Literature. Printed books which passed throi. gh the trade in the years German. Slavonic. Italian. Hungarian. Total. 1870 1,271 .. 865 II 407 .. 2,554 1871 ... 1,584 . .. 781 16 . 412 2,793 1872 1,491 962 10 619 3,082 1873 1,679 •• 835 8 • 590 , 3,112 1874 1,614 763 8 . 412 2,797 1875 1,704 720 12 • 522 2,958 1876 1,902 692 19 747 •• 3,360 Whilst the number of political newspapers as lately as 1864 was only 134, and that of the periodicals 330, there appeared at the end of 1873 866 newspapers and periodicals, of which 413 were in book form, 267 were political, 143 were entertaining, and 43 advertising sheets. The increase in the riumber of newspapers published from i860 to 1870 was 100 per cent. This is a proof of the degree in which the desire for newspaper reading has grown. The increase is greatest in Bohemia. A hundred years ago only two newspapers were published in Hungary, both of them in the German language. The first newspaper in the Hungarian language was established at Presburg in 1780. The periodicals, including daily papers, published in Hungary in 1872 were as follows : — Hungarian German Slavonic Roumanian Italian Croatian ... Serb Ruthenian ... 223 88 15 II 3 18 13 3 Total 374 Whereas but 3 political papers appeared in 1S50; there were in i860 — 6 daily and weekly political papers ; in 1870 10 daily and 28 weekly : in 187 1 14 daily and 37 weekly political papers. Libraries in Cis-Leithania, beside those of the Universities — 8 Court, 9 of reference, 6 State, 14 Country, 7 commercial, and 463 monastic. (107 of the last have over i-| millions of books). Arable Vineyards Meadow and Gar- ( den Land | Pasture land Forests Rush and Willow ) Land j {c) — Material Condition. Cultivation of the Land. Cis-Leithania. Acres. 25,095,926 506,277 ... Hungary. Acres. 26,947,892 999.423 Total Acres. 52,043,818 1,505,700 8,816,301 ... 10,221,694 19.037.995 11,376,264 23.503.929 11.595.732 23,034,407 22,972,996 •• 46,538,336 79.963 389.983 . 73.189,131 469,946 69,378,660 142,568,791 Aiistro-Himgarian Monarchy. 5o5 A few words on the proprietorship of land in Bohemia. In Bohemia the landed and feudal landed property contains i,o86 estates with a total area of 4,342,484 acres, which is thus divided : 36.05 per cent, is entailed ; 2.33 per cent, belongs to the Crown, State, and Nation ; 11.71 per cent, is in mortmain; 19.16 per cent, is private allodial property; 0.75 per cent, is feudal property. The average extent of a property is 3,998 acres. 75 per cent, of the estates are below this average, and 25 per cent, are above it. 66 estates contain more than 14,200 acres, among which are Krumau 116,480, and Frittingau with 40,320 acres, both of which estates belong to Prince Johan Adolph Schwarzenberg, who owns 33 estates in Bohemia. One of the peculiarities of Hungary is the concentration of the country populations into enormous villages, some of which contain from 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, and in which only those agricultural operations which are to assist in manufactures are carried on. A middle class is greatly wanting in Hungary. Ten families alone own one-sixth of the soil. Description of crops in Cis-Leithania, and the produce of the same. Corn crops In bushe's 1874 1875 1876 1877 Wheat ... 40,020,868 29,934,149 33.96s>97o 36,252,560 Barley ... 47,988,996 36,230,378 49,868,929 38,051,840 Oats ... 77'i6i,357 70,301,204 90,974,373 83,534,680 Rye ... 78,151,297 63,522,860 58,834,306 76,087,184 Pulse ... 5,426,599 4,187,989 6,111,176 — Buckwheat ... 7,530,232 6,036,434 7,547,152 — Maize ... 15,919,578 16,700,956 16,275,377 13,885,304 Mixed corn ... 891,397 807,375 9^7,15° — Other kinds ... 3,815,025 3,198,008 3,422,651 — Total ... 276,905,349 230,919,353 267,917,084 Green and other crops Potatoes ...bush. 258,580,687 257,014,051 251,029,341 — Beetroot ... cwts. 33,199,302 49,920,272 84,943,710 — Vineyards... galls. 78,681,229 141,377,478 52,563,148 63,894,207 In Hungary the annual average (quantity of cereal crops is about 120,913,672 bushels. The amount of the bread stuffs has of late years gradually diminished. The average value of the produce of the land in Cis-Leithania is p/^9 1, 600,000; in Hungary,;,^ 7 8,000, 000 = ;i^i 69,000,000. The cultivation of the vine ought to be specially noticed among the products. Austro-Hungary is, next to France, the most important wine- producing country. In Cis-Leithania alone 392,559 acres are simply vine- yards, while 102,718 acres of fields and meadows are also planted with the vine. The value of the produce in a moderately good year is ^410,069. Hungary is richer far than Cis-Leithania in her vineyards, but, unfor- tunately, rational treatment of the vine and its produce is often lacking here. The quantity of the produce varies between 88,000,000 and 374,000,000 gallons. In 1877 the produce was only 56,987,876 gallons. Several sorts of Hungarian wine are particularly distinguished for their excellence. 5o6 A iistro-Hungnrian Mojiarchy. Tobacco. In the return for Hungar>', given in at the International Exhibition, we find that in 187 1 there were 107,168 acres planted with tobacco in five tobacco-growing districts, by 41,176 agriculturists. 722,4i9cwts. of leaves were gathered, the value of which amounted to ^534,028. Cis-Leithania Hungary She •• 5 •• 15 Live Horses 1,384,623 2,158,820 Stock. Caul Mules 11,723 3,266 oats 104 951 Asses 31,351 30,480 Total Empire . 3,543,443 14,989 e 61.831 Cis-Leithania Hungary Cows 3,829,136 2,052,488 Pig 2,551, 4,443, Other kinds 3,592,779 3,153,462 Total 7'42i,9i5 5,205,950 Total Empire . Cis-Leithania Hungary 5,881,624 ep & Lambs 026,392 ... 076,997 ... 6,746,241 s G 973 ••• 979 279 ••• 572 12,627,865 Buffaloes ... 847 ••• 73,243 Total Empire . .. 20 103,389 ... 6,995, 252 ... 1,552 055 ... 74,090 I. Mining and Smelting Industries. CIS-LEITHANIA, 1 876. Mines Produce in Cwts. Value Work. people Pit coal . 210 ... 98,686,668 ^1,844,862 •• 36,383 Lignite . 409 .. 138,667,636 .. 1,972.660 .. 26,270 Asphalte and Petroleum . 9 •• 23,822 5,704 191 Plumbago... . 29 .. 254.342 51,334 796 Iron-ore ... . 91 .. 11,099,312 ... 202,385 .. 5,071 Zinc-ore ... 20 .. 529,154 44,791 .. 1,950 Lead-ore ... . 42 .. 153,250 •• 109,937 •• 3.405 Copper-ore . 18 .. 91,224 25,222 1,015 Silver and gold ore . 18 .. 172,354 ... 249,224 •• 5,097 Mercurial- ore 4 .. 638,908 109,858 812 Cobalt and nickel ore 4 •• 1,946 2,085 53 Manganese . 8 .. 135,634 7,422 94 Other ore'... • 15 •• 30,775 5,751 246 Sulphur, vitriol, &c. 22 .. 2,466,116 18,499 979 Rock salt ... . — .. 1,129,364 60,000 1,000 254,080,505 ... 4,709,734 ... 83.362 Among the work-people 76,210 are men ; 5,987 are women. Austro-Hungarian Mojiarchy. 507 II. Smelting Furnaces. Work ] "urnaces Cwts. Value People Unwrought iron 73 — 5,460,916 . •• ^1,515,961 ... 7,691 Zinc ... 6 ... 79,582 . 94,910 .. 493 Lead... 14 ... 150,574 • 186,286 .. 132 Copper 5 - 8,838 . 42,752 .. 149 Silver and gold II 503 • 237,266 .. 433 Mercury or quicksilver 3 — 7,507 • 109,202 186 Nickel 2 442 . 3,434 •• 5 Other metals 14 ... 325,191 180,392 .. 82 Sulphur 2 6,940 3,432 .. 23 Green vitrol and alum II 141 ... 67,904 . 20,869 •• 124 6,108,397 .. ;!^2,394,504 .. • 9,318 Among the work people 8,745 are men, 304 are women, and 269 are children. Evaporated salt- Bay salt ... Rough salt III. Salt Works. Cwts. -first boiling ... 2,935,860 689,724 234,354 Valu 1 ^1,551.807 Work People } 3,859-938 7,712 Produce of tJie Mines and Foundries in Hungary. Weight Value Gold 2,784 lbs. - ^187,940 Silver 40,254 ,, 181,146 Copper 22,762 cwts. 107,077 Lead ... 28,884 ,, 36,073 Zinc 8,262 ,, 8,592 Nickel, cobalt... 7,896 ,, 29,437 Quicksilver ... 323 ,, 4,867 Antimony 2,533 ,, ... 4,189 Pig iron 2,184,129 ,, ... 639,322 Cast-iron 189,111 ,, ... 107,133 Litharge 7,723 ,, ... 11,145 Alum ... 8,350 ,, ... 5,909 Lignite .. 15,280,379 ,, ... 321,893 Coal 11,020,004 ,, ... 276,389 Steel 454,128 ,, 17,431 Asphalte and mineral oil 744,886 ,, ... 18,945 The very important produce of coal has greatly increased throughout the whole monarchy. 5o8 A iistro- Hungarian Monarchy. Trade and Manufacture. We have but very scant information with regard to the spread of the various branches of industry. The number of factories subject to taxation iu 1872 was 616,776; in 1874, 630,000; in 1875, 644,000. The manufacture of cotton has reached a high state of development in Austria. According to Dr. Peez, there were in 1871, 155 cotton factories west of the Leitha. The chief seat of the cotton-spinning trade is in Bohe- mia, where there are 86 factories ; there are also 32 in Lower Austria, and 18 in Feldkirch (Tyrol). The home consumption of cotton stood as follows from 1858 to 1876 in lbs. avoirdupois. Import Export 1858 88,081,180 894,080 87,187,100 i860 98,861,620 517,000 1867 88,785,620 8,0(2,840 Consunption 98,344,620 80,773,780 Import Export 1870 i32,459>58o 5,111,480 '875 118,518,840 4,355'i2o 1876 130,520,720 7,050,780 Consumption 127,348,100 ... 114,163,720 123,469,940 Steam E, i^ines. In Cis-Leithania in the year 1876 therewere 11,378 in 6,363 industrial establishments; 607 on 366 ships, and 2,758 on the railways = 14,743 in active use. Those in the industrial establishments were distributed thus: — Establishments Machines Lower Austria 667 1,282 Upper Austria 143 202 Salzburg ... 30 36 Styriti 272 704 Carinthia 91 146 Carniola ... 52 83 Coast lands 102 195 Tyrol ... 185 ... 216 Bohemia ... ... 2,413 4,574 Moravia ... 848 1,709 Silesia 411 800 Galicia .. 1,067 ^>339 Buckowina 82 92 6,363 11.378 Production of Beer. The produce of beer has greatly increased. The number of smoll breweries, however, is continually decreasing, yet the quantity produced by the large ones increases immensely. In i860 there were 3,314 breweries. A ustro-Hungarian Monarchy. 509 but in 1873 only 2,636 ; yet the quantity of beer i)roduced had risen from 57)530)15° gallons in i860 to 253,827,400 gallons in 1S73, '^^'i^ '•1'"^ ^^^Y on it rose from ^i, 47 7,955 to £2,306,136. In 1876 the number of breweries in Austria was 2,272 ; in Hungary, 232. The largest number of breweries are in Bohemia, but not the largest breweries. The total production in this year was 248,600,000 gallons. 15 breweries alone produced over 2,200,000 gallons. The largest brewery in the monarchy is that of Pilsen, called the Citizen's Brewery. Beet Si/s^ar Faciojies. The number of these factories in the whole Empire was in 1862 130 ; in 1867, 143 ; in 1868, 140 ; in 1870, 190 ; in 1871, 215 ; in 1877, 247 ; of which 159 were in Bohemia, 49 in Moravia, 19 in Hungary, 9 in Silesia, 5 in Lower Austria, and the same number in Galicia, i in Styria. The total production in 1876 was 2,105,714 cwts. Coi/iinerce. There are two custom districts, the general one and the Dalmatian, which is separated from the first on account of its geographical position. On the 30th September, 1850, ttie customs' line between Hungary and the other provinces was abolished. Austria, in 1851, gave up the prohibitive system, and likewise that of protection in 1853, when she con- cluded her treaty with the ZoUverein. Great facilities, in the matter of customs, were introduced in 1865. The treaty of commerce, concluded with the German ZoUverein in March 1868, also tendered greatly to facilitate trade; as a consequence, the value of the imports and exports which, in 1831, amounted only to ^6,855, 019 and ^7,982,953, had risen in i860 to ^23,122,670 and ^^30,519,749. In looking at the figures, which follow, it must be born in mind that Austria and Hungary, although forming a j'bint customs' territory, have each a separate administration ; and, further, that Austrian statistics merely state the results of trade in the united customs territory and Dalmatia, and that the value is estimated at the rate of figures fixed upon by the Imperial Commission. There has never been any separate statements of separate districts or cities, except in the case of seaports and free emporiums, which are in a position to issue statements of their own local traffic ; such are Trieste, Fiume and Ragusa, and as they are among the most important harbours, statements of their trade will be noticed. Austrian statistics give no clue as to the place of origin or destination of goods, but merely state at which place on the frontier goods were entered or cleared. WARES. PRECIOUS METALS. Exports Imports Exports •;^39>54o,ooo ...^4,100,000 ...^3,410,000 . 46,760,000 ... 5,940,000 ... 5,550,000 38,800,000 ... 3,650,000 ... 6,610,000 42,360,000 ... 4,090,000 ... 3,110,000 44,930,000 ... 1,990,000 ... 1,890,000 • 49,728,449 — 1,382,378 ... 1,382,716 50,956,082 ... 3,376,146 ... 3,049,093 55,060,000 ... 2,836,000 ... 1,510,000 , 69,830,251 ... 5,272,447 ... 1,528,056 Imports 1870 — ^43'i90,ooo I87I ... 54,080,000 1872 ... 61,370,000 1873 ... 58,310,000 1874 ... 56,870,000 1875 ... 52,247,790 1876 ... 51,888,332 1877 54,670,000 1878 ... 57,954,782 510 Austro-Hutigarian Monarchy, DALMATIA. PRECIOUS METALS. Imports Exports 1870 ^920,000 ^660,000 I87I 860,000 780,000 1872 920,000 690,000 1873 970,000 610,000 1874 1,030,000 650,000 1875 1,324,233 1,036,271 1876 1,289,770 782,953 1877 1,390,000 860,000 1878 1,266,894 500,451 The Value of the most Important Articles of Commerce. Colonial goods and tropical fruits Tobacco and articles made therefrom Garden and field fruits Animals Animal products ... Grease and oils Eatables and beverages . . . Building materials and fuel Chemicals & their compound;: Metals Woven and worsted stuffs... Yarns Woven and worked goods Straw and paper goods Leather and leather goods Articles made of bone, glass, wood, and clay ... Hardware... Vehicles ... Instruments and machines Chemical products Objects of art and vertu . . . Waste materials J ... IMPORTS. ! ^^3,313,297 3,315,060 3,723,450 2,093,532 1,649,952 1,725,759 405,128 2,037,202 4,735,879 1,304,312 9,558,358 3,112,354 6,164,254 381,028 1,615,460 1,722,089 1,077,119 9,377 1,677,910 573,555 1,417,262 75,983 1877. ^4,797,686 2,133,645 6,986,009 4,564,079 2,313,033 2,112,895 452,846 1,944,472 3,953,703 976,118 9,453,938 3,369,679 4,882,372 430,102 1,731,205 1,057,574 689,548 12,256 1,776,112 617,599 1,145,855 121,973 ;^5, 683,005 2,472,164 6,791 873 12,912,641 2,329,959 2,012,949 566,804 2,052,256 4,135,540 1,127,027 9,213,528 3,679,994 6,028,646 530,620 2,228,233 1,313,582 832,730 1 1,986 2,076,121 690,009 1,1 14,040 116,654 51,688,320 55,522699, 57,950,361 t The decrease here is accounted for by the Cattle phgue in Russia and Austria, + Waste matcriaU ore oil cake, rags, and bones. Austro-Hiingarian Monarchy. 511 Colonial goods and tropical| fruits ... ... ...\ Tobacco and articles made ( therefrom ... ... ( Garden and field fruits ... Animals Animal products ... Grease and oils Eatables and beverages . . . Building materials and fuel Chemicals and their com- | pounds ... ... ... I Metals Woven and worsted stuffs... Yarns Woven and worked goods . . . Straw and paper goods Leather and leather goods. . . Articles made of bone, glass, ( wood, and clay ... ... f Hardware ... Vehicles ... Instruments and machines.. Chemical products Objects of art and vertu ... Waste materials .. EXPORTS. 1S76 1S77 1S7S ^3,693.938 ^4,797,686 ^5,683,005 711,480 2,138,645 2,472,164 6,573,289 6,986,009 6,791,874 1,968,679 4,564,079 2,912,641 1,949,603 2,313,033 2,329,959 549,634 2,112,895 2,012,949 1,003,323 452,846 566,804 4,892,877 1,944,472 2,052,256 722,322 3,953,703 4,135.540 1,074,421 976,118 1,127,027 3,846,998 9'453'938 9.213.528 1,758,503 3.369,679 3.679.994 5,651,628 4,882,372 6,028,646 1,417,015 430,102 530,620 1,416,162 1,731,205 2,228,233 4,236,409 1,057,570 1,313.582 2,515.849 689,548 832,730 448,609 12,256 11,986 4,653,057 1,776,112 2,076,121 800,782 617,599 690,009 870,223 1,145,855 1,144,040 201,572 121,973 116,065 ^5o,955'873 ^555,227,048 ^579,547,828 The new customs tariff, which came in force on January ist, 1879, stipulates that all dues, besides being materially raised, are to be paid in gold. Mercantile Marine. The number and tonnage of merchant sailing and steam vessels* belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire :— 1870 1871 1872 1873 Vessels Tons Vessels Tons Vessels Tons Vessels Tons Sailing 702 279,400 ... 699 292,184 ... 696 261,106 ... 659 246,612 Steam 91 49^977 — 92 48,562 ... 97 52,144 ... 102- 56,087 Total 793 329.377 791 340,746 793 313.250 710 302,699 t Excluding small coasting vessels and fishing boats. 512 A 7(stro- Hungarian Monarchy. 1874 Vessels. Tons Sailing ... 630 235,273 Steam ... 103 58'443 733 293,716 1875 Vessels. Tons 609 707 234,179 56,271 290,450 1876 Vessels Tons 574 233,043 98 56,959 290,002 672 1870* 1878 No. Tons. Crew. No. Tons. Crew. Sea going steamers 573 282,096 7,252 ... 558 276,660 7,070 Coasting vessels ... 1,958 34,5^3 6,109 ••■ i,94o 34,4^8 6,025 Small boats, fishing [ 13,68914,289 ...5,110 i3,75oi4,549 smacks, etc. ) ^ Total 7,538 330,298 27,650 ... 7,608 324,898 27,644 In 1879 the mercantile marine consisted of 70 steamers, of 565,381 tons and 486 sailing vessels, of 222,508 tons, besides 25 steamers and 1,909 sailing vessels engaged as coasters. The harbour traffic in the 93 Austrian ports during the years 1874 Entered Cleared Entered ... Cleared ... Vessels 42,114 41,721 83,835 T871 Tons Value 3,801,409 ;^i8,483,65o 3,891,802 13,087,050 Vessels 46,135 42,224 Tons 4,311,545 4,318,770 7,693,211 1875 31,570,700 Vessels 50,853 50,687 Tons 68,359 8,630,315 1876 4,764,948 4,776,808 101,540 9,545,856 Vessels 49,536 49,804 Tons 3,658,038 4,662,266 99,340 8,320,304 TRIESTE. In the navigation centering here, the most prominent part is taken by the " Austro-Hungarian Lloyds'," who have for some time past monopolised the trade with the Levant. The Company posse.ssed in 1878, 69 steamers, representing 56,138 tons ; of these 25 were built in their own arsenal, 39 in England and Scotland, 4 in Stettin, and i in Hamburg. The shipping and na\-igation movements were more active in 1877-78 than in 1876, particularly as recrards British vessels, of which a gi-eat number arrived from the Black Sea laden with grain for the Trieste mills, which are constantly grinding for local consumption as well as for exportation, the flour trade having greatly increased of late years. The number of vessels entered and cleared in 1876, 1877, and 1878 were as follows :— * Includes small coasting vessels and fishing boats. A ustro-Httngarian Monarchy. 5 1 3 Entercti Cleared Vessels Tonnage Vcss^li Tonnage 1876 3,167 ... 787,307 2,912 ... 786,270 1877 3,722 ... 884,365 3,433 ... 880,061 1878 3,240 ... 870,766 3,231 ... 864,545 Value of cargoes imported and exported in these years : — Imported Cargoes Exported Cargoes 1876 ... ^13,919,481 ... ^9,789,638 1877 ... 14,027,746 ... 10,588,058 The Austrian beet-root sugar lias completely succeeded in driving tbreign sugar out of the home market ; and large quantities are being exported to Egypt, Syria and Persia from Trieste. In 1878, 293,461 cwts. were exported. FIUME. The shipping entered and cleared at this port in 1877 ^.nd 1878, with cargoes and in ballast : — Entered. C ^learec . V'essels. Tonnage. \'essels. Tonnage. 1877 ... ... 2,717 ... 167,036 ... ... 2,724 ... 163,502 1878 ... 2,721 ... 211,793 ••• ... 2,742 ... 215,720 There is now a bi-monthly service of direct Cunard steamers between this Port and Liverpool, and a similar service is carried on with Glasgow. The indirect trade carried on by British shipping consists in grain from the Black Sea to Fiume, and grain thence to P^rance and Belgium. Fiume is assuming an important position as an exporting port of Hungarian produce, a position she is entitled to by reason of the facility with which steamers can make her ports, and the accommodation afforded by her excellent harbour. The value of the exports and imports by sea in 1877. 1878. Imports ^651,869 ... ^647,183 Exports 1,007,967 ... 1,237,558 Total 1,659,836 ... 1,884,741 Beside the local consumption of Fiume, there is the import trade to the interior of Hungary which will be much increased by the regular direct steamers which call here, and the increased railway communication with the interior of Hungary. Vessels entered and cleared at the port of Fiume. 18-6. Vessels with Cargoes. Tonnage. N'alue of Cargoes. Entered ... 1,77° 124,034 ^946.678 Cleared ... 1,952 129,608 1,097,472 With Cargo 1877 Vessels Tonnage Value of Cargo Entered ... 1,723 ... 120,143 ... ^^651, 869 Cleared ... 1,959 ••• i38,743 — 1,007,967 111 B Vessels. allast. Tonnage. 489 583 34,139 29,661 With Ballast Vessels Tonnage 994 •• 765 •• 2 . 46,899 24,753 K 514 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. With Cargo 1877 Vessels Tonnage Value of Ccrgo With Ballast Vessels Tonnage Entered . Cleared .. .. 1,695 •" 139,373 — ^647,183 . 2,266 ... 189,882 ... 1,237,558 RAGUSA. .. 1,026 ... 72,420 .. 476 ... 25,838 It was believed that the occupation of the Turkish provinces by Austria would lead to a larger development of the trade with Ragusa, but this has proved otherwise. Ragusa is an easy distance from the Turkish frontier, and formerly plentifully supplied Herzegovina with all manner of foreign produce ; since the occupation the trade has passed into the hands of Austrian speculators, who have established themselves in the provinces and received their goods direct from Trieste. The chief British products consumed at Ragusa are coals, which come direct from the United King- dom, and amounted in 1878 to 7,400 tons ; nearly all used for steamboat purposes. During the same year 2,060 tons of coal were imported from the mines of Albona in Istria, which are said to be servicable. Cotton goods — English made articles are preferred to the cheaper native cotton goods, on account of their durability ; earthenwares are imported chiefly from the United Kingdom on account of superior quality and cheapness. Export trade with Great Britain does not exist. The most important trade of Ragusa is oil. The welfare and prosperity of Southern Dalmatia depends on the growth of this commodity. The oil is all sent to the Trieste market. Railways:. The construction of railways remained in a backvi-ard state in Hungary longer than in any other country, but it has of late made rapid strides. RAILWAYS IN THE WHOLE EMPIRE. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Length of Line, Miles. 5,906 7,233 8,548 9,553 • 9,852 10,217 • 10,725 11,214 Cost of Construction. ^120,160,000 148,656,835 179,747,502 204,096,890 221,281,292 229,191,393 235,799,625 242,549,815 256,650,357 Number of Passengers Forwarded. 21,478,229 28,109,135 37,080,477 43,606,882 41,955,532 41,348,208 40,756,514 Weight of goods Carried, Tons. 24,440,868 30,777,697 32,869,944 41,022,806 39,950,804 42,143,286 45,055,606 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 IS77 Receipts. ^'13,234,090 15,909,485 16.390,875 19,080,254 1 7,989.21 1 18,343,898 1 9,232, 9cS4 21,657,313 Expenses. i^7,6i9,535 8,001,674 9,228,660 10,898,980 10,792,961 10,591,837 11,015.542 10,408,085 Killed. Wounded 220 255 3O1 321 253 259 271 324 343 419 367 39' 390 A ustro-Hiins;ariau MonarrJiy 5t5 Rii'er Nai'igafion. The navigable length of the rivers in Cis-Leithania is 6,931 miles, and in Hungary 12,076 miles. On the Danube, and other rivers there vvereni 1876 — 196 steamers, 696 towing-boats which, during the year, made 12,700 journeys. They carried 2,554,700 passengers, and 26,921,000 cwts. Post Office. PACKET POST. No. of Post Offices No. of Letters Ordinary Packets Registered Packet 1870 - 3,215 ... 148,499,102 ... 17,463 ,417 268,479,121 I87I ••• 3,512 ■•• 169,105,359 ... 21,144 743 260,700,934 1872 ... 3,990 ... 205,176,140 ... 27,219 ,046 ... 331,800,967 1873 ... 4,020 266,698,524 ■•• 23,734,543 ... 427,063,284 1874 ... 4,120 ••• 245,935,879 26,921 ,484 ... 306,253,749 1875 ... 4,139 ... 242,330,698 •■• 33,882 ,362 ... 400,443,824 1876 ... 4,115 256,919,900 ... 25,641 ,880 ... 341,079,070 1877 4,006 ... 263,007,919 ... 25,523 Receipts. ,454 ... 389,929,290 Expenditure. 1870 ^1 ,065,847 ^892,500 1871 ,183,813 933,827 1872 ,297,941 1,086,285 1873 ••• ,400,966 1,246,512 1874 ,427,849 1,453,383 1875 I ,465,829 1,494,670 1876 ,474,214 1,499,088 1877 ... ,484,519 1,427,762 In the year 1872 there were in Cis-Leithania 10.05 letters and 2.24 newspapers per head of the population. The postal intercourse of the city of Vienna rose to 55,766,871 letters in 1873 = 66.8 letters per head. Telegraphs of the whole Empire. Length of line, Length of wire, No. of offices No. of Miles Miles open Telegrams 1870 17,415 52,825 1,697 5,073,093 I87I ^9,335 60,853 2,162 6,427,050 1872 25,432 69,207 2,423 7,411,075 1873 27,383 77,614 2,711 7,566,584 1874 28,410 80,858 2,923 6,616.610 1875 29,292 82,595 3,099 6.965,736 1876 29,743 84,111 3,240 7,531,882 1877 34,171 84,822 3,329 7,846,542 yoitit Stock Companies. Liability Companies developed in a most extraordinary manner. Many of these companies, and there were such for ever)- imaginable circumstance, were destroyed by the first storm. In the year 1872 alone 151 large Share Companies were founded with nominal capital of ^86,150,000, and the paper of 1 14 of these institutions, amounting to ,^45,700,000, were actually issued in Vienna. In 1874 there were 827 such. The so-called "Exchange Crash," which came to light on May 9th, 1873, injured most of the 5i6 A tistro- Hungarian Monarchy. companies very severely, swept some away entirel\\ and was the means of forcing many of them to reduce their capital. The shares of 40 banks which represented a market value of ^10,500,000 in April, 1873 were worthless one year afterwards. National Bank 17 banks in Vienna 32 in Upper Cis-Leithania... 15 in Buda-Pesth ... 98 in Upper Hungary 7 in Croatia and Slavonia... Banks, 1876. Capital .Annual Profit Dividends ;!<^9, 000,000 •• ^700,991 • ■■ ^675,000 13,850,000 . . 319,876 . 247,228 4,183,515 • 271,776 . 204,993 3,443,792 • 71,221 . 62,473 1,194,574 • 128,685 . 98,841 169,750 . 16,944 . 12,492 The Condition of the National Bank in 1878. Notes in circulation. ^27,441,936; treasure in cash, ^13,745,363 ; State notes, ^190,756 ; discount, ^10,667,009 ; loans, ^2,535,640 ; loans to the State, ^8,000,000 ; bank fund, ^9,000,000 ; reserve fund, ^1,810,118; mortgage deeds, etc., ;^46o,466. From July 1878, it has been called the Austro-Hungarian Bank. Savings' Banks. At the end of 1876 there were, in Cis-Leithania, 304. The deposits amounted to ^61,002,745 ; the number of depositors' books, 1,386,200, giving an average of ^2 16s. per head of the population. In Hungary there were 298 savings' banks. Deposits, ^17,363,133. Benevolent Institutions. In Cis-Leithania there were, in 1874, 484 hospitals, with 25,997 beds, of which 154 were public, with 17,546 beds; the rest were private. 23 insane asylums, with 7,541 patients; 14 public lying-in hospitals; 9 found- ling hos})itals, with 13,606 children in the institutions, and 37,244 out of them (5,872 deaths during the year) ; 15 deaf-and-dumb asylums ; 6 institu- tions for the blind; 17 for cripples; 294 institutions for taking care o! children; 27 kinder gartcn ; and 1087 almshouses, with 290,093 patient^^ (3,130 deaths in the year). Bankrupts. In 1875 there were 1,431, of which 517 were in Hungary, there were in Cis-Leithania alone 1775. In 1S76 I RUSSIA (Empire). LAND AND PEOPLE. General Survey. N spite of its autocratic rule, the Russian Government is not in a position to ascertain the extent and population of the various parts of its enormous empire. The statements concerning its area are based upon the calculations of maps of tlie country, in which considerable discrepancies appear. Fixed " census " or " revisions " of the population occur at long intervals, the chief object of which is to dis- cover the number of men liable to taxation, and as little heed is paid to those not liable incorrect returns are the result. The local census made annually by the police authorities are even of less value. The following table is founded on the calculations of the " Central Committee of Statistics of the Ministry of the Interior." In order to render the survey easier, we add the names of the governments and districts as well as the countries which form them. (The Governments are marked in the following table with figures, the provinces with Roman characters, and the districts with Italics).* The area is estimated without the great inland lakes, and the population according to the census of 187 1 and local census of 1872, 1873, and 1877. * The provinces are organised somewhat differently from the governments, but the difference is not important. The districts, however, inchide the countries of the Cossacks and of other races, and have a military organisation and furnish irregular troops. 5i8 Rns.t/(i — Laud and People. 19 (Governments, containing 24,457,534 inhabitants. 1. GREAT RUSSIA (Original Empire.) 837,552 English square miles, and Governments 1 Archangel ... Yaroslav Kaluga Kostroma ... Kursk u Moscow 7 Nischni Novgorod... 8 Novgorod ... 9 Olonetz 10 Orel 11 Pskov 12 Riasan 13 Smolensk ... 14 Tambov 15 Tula 16 Tver 17 Vladimir ... 18 Vologda 19 Voronetz ... English Square Miles Inhabitants 293,288 281,112 13,756 1,001,748 11,949 996,252 32,700 1,176,097 18,901 1,954,807 12,863 1,913,699 19,794 1,271,564 47,244 1,011,445 52,517 296,392 18,051 1,596,881 16,882 775,701 16,244 1,477,433 21,559 1,440,015 25,684 2,150,997 11,949 1,167,878 25,216 1,528,881 18,859 1,259,923 155.510 1,003,039 25,450 . 2,153,696 II. LITTLE RUSSIA. 4 governments, containing 80,242 English square miles and 7,635. inhabitants. 561 Governments Charkov Kiev Pultava Tchemigov English Square Miles 21,240 19,688 19,263 20,24 ' Inhabitants 1,698,015 2,175,132 2,102,614 2,659,600 III. SOUTH RUSSIA. (Mostly conquest from Turkey since the iSth century) 3 governments: I province and i district, 153,192 English square miles, 5,500,174 inhabitants. Governments Bessarabia . . . Kherson ... Jekatarinosslav Tauria Country of the Don-Cossacks a. I 2 3 a. En Dssacks glish Square Milts 13,947 27,491 26,152 23,600 61,914 Inhabitants .. 1,078,932 .. 1,596,809 .. 1,352,309 704,997 1,086,264 WESTERN RUSSL\. (The country won by the three partitions of Poland, with the e.xception of the so-called "Kingdom of Poland) 8 governments: 162,314 English square miles ; 9,838,131 inhabitants, Russia — Land (rnd People. 519 Governments Grodno Kovno Minsk Mohilev ... Podolia Wilna Vitegestr ... Volhynia ... English Square Miles Population 14,968 1,008,521 15,691 1,156,041 35>273 1,182,230 18,561 947.625 16,220 1,933,188 16,464 1,001,909 17,434 888,727 27,746 1,719,890 V. BALTIC PROVINCES .4ND PETERSBURG. (Taken from Germany and Sweden) 4 governments, 63,367 English square miles, 3,270,866 inhabitants. Governments Esthonia . . . Courland ... Livonia St. Petersburg* English Square Miles 7,611 10,545 17,838 33,771 Population 323,961 619,154 1,000,876 1,326,875 Five governments inhabitants. VI. CZARDOM OF KASAN. 246,086 English square miles ; 8,688,381 English Square Miles. Population. 1. Kasan 24,600 1,704,624 2. Pensa 14,989 1,173,186 3- Permt 128,252 2,198,666 4- Ssinbirsk 19,114 1,205,881 5- Vyatka 59,129 2,406,024 VII. CZARDOM OF ASTRACHAN. Five governments inhabitants. 300,432 English square miles ; 6,455,335 AstrachanJ Orenburg§ Ufa ... Samara Saratov English Square Miles. 86,685 73-905 47,031 60,213 32,615 Population. 601,514 900,547 1,364,925 1,837,081 1,751,268 * The Government of St. Petersburg is officially not included in the Baltic Provinces, but can scarcely here be introJuced alone. f 48,668 English square miles of the area are reckoned as belonging to Asia. t With the districts of the Calmucks and Kirghises of the interior. S With the districts of the Cossacks of Orenburg and of the Ural. 47,456 square miles of this area and the next mentioned Government are reckoned as belonging to Asia. English Square Miles I, Warsaw 5,612 2. Piotrkov 4,720 3. Kalish 4,401 4. Kyeletz 3,890 5. Plotzk ... 4,209 6. Suvalki ... 4,847 7. Radom ... 4,762 8. Lublin ... 6,506 9. Lomsha... 4,677 0. Siedletz . . . 5,528 520 R Hssia — 'L a nd and People. Vin, KINGDOM OF POLAND. {Acquired in 1814 and 1815.) Ten governments now, but formerly only five ; 49,157 English square miles, 6,026,421 inhabitants. Population 925,639 682,495 669,261 518,730 471,938 524,489 532,466 707,098 449,699 504,066 IX. GRAND DUCHY OF FINLAND. {Taken Jrom Sweden, 1809) Eight governments, 141,137 English square miles, 1,773,612 inhabi- tants, English Square Miles Population 293,633 217,948 168,215 i55'i69 185,900 179,161 297,059 276,527 X. CAUCASUS (Stadtholdership). Six governments, 3 provinces, 3 districts, 172,860 English square miles, and 4,893,332 inhabitants. English Square Miles Population 437,138 606,584 605,691 529,412 513,560 452,001 672,224 448,299 485,237 56,802 70,701 15,703 I. Abo-Bjorneburg 9,334 2. Knopio ... 16,509 3. Nyland ... 4,592 4. St. Michel 8,823 5. Tavastehus 8,334 6. Uleaborg ... 63,956 7. Vasa 16,074 8. Viborg 13,532 1. Stavropol 26,641 2. Tiflis 15,606 3- Kutais... 7,994 4- Elizabethpol ... T7,ii5 5- Baku 15,169 6. Erivan 10,673 a. Kuban 37,165 b. Dagestan 11,524 c. Region of Terek 23,260 a. District of Sakatal ... 1,615 b. Sukhum-Kale ... 3,338 7- Black Sea district 2,732 i Russia — Land and People. 521 XI. SIBERIA. 4 governments and 4 provinces ; 4,810,888 English square miles 3,428,867 inhabitants. 1. Tobolsk 2. Tomsk ... 3. Jenisseisk 4. Irkutsk ... a. Transbackal b. Takutsk... c. Province of the Amour... d. Maritime province, or East Siberia English Square Miles 53^^464 328,327 992,935 303.004 233,520 • 1,417,313 173,560 730,880 Population 1,086,848 838,756 372,862 378,244 430,780 231,977 44,400 45,000 XII. CENTRAL ASIA. One general government and the Kirghise Steppes; 1,107,707 English square miles, and 3,191,291 inhabitants. The following approximate calculation may be made on the basis of the above uncertain though apparently correct figures. English 1. European Russia with Poland (i. to viii.) including the inland lakes, and Nova Zembla* 2. Grand Duchy of Finland 3. Country of the Caucasus 4. Siberia ... 5. Central Asia Square Miles. 1,920,589 144,156 172,222 4,826,474 1,233,196 Popula+ion. 71,900,000 1,800,000 4,900,000 3,300,000 3,200,000 In the statistical abstract presented to the English Houses of Parlia- ment in 1877, the area and population of Russia are thus given : — Russia in Europe ... Poland Finland Total English Square Miles. .. 1,894,949 .. 49,144 ., 144,181 2,088,274 Population. 65.704,559 6,528,017 1,912,647 74,145,223 Russia in Asia Siberia Central Asia Total Total, Russian Empire 172,790 4,825,032 1,276,874 6,274,696 8,362,970 4,893,332 3,428,867 3,800,628 12,122,827 86,268,050 * The area of the Island of Nova Zembla was formerly estimated at 89,300 English square miles, but modern calculation states it as not exce-ding 35,443. The area of the Lakes is divided thus— the Sea of Azof, 13,565 English square miles: Lake Ladoga, 7,058 ; Lake of Onega, 3,401 ; and Lake Peipus, 1,403. 522 R?tssia — Land and People. The power of the State lies in the European territory. The posses- sions in Asia may be regarded much in the same light as India is by the English, or as Algeria is regarded by France. If Archangel, Vologda and Finland are excluded, there are about 40,000,000 of souls living within an area of 691,015 English square miles. The last general census gave the number of inhabitants according to sex thus : — 35- 2 7 5^904 females 33>655>824 males Making the enormous difference of 1,630,080 In Poland, which is not included in the calculation, the numbers, with- out the fluctuating population, were — 2,750,193 females 2,586,017 males Making a difference of 164,176 In these figures we see a result of the system of maintaining a standing army with lengthened service, and also of the destructiveness of war among the male population. Movejuent of the Population. The number of births stated to have taken place in European Russia in 1856 w^as 2,706,869 ; that of deaths, 2,146,892 ; and (in the European territories alone) there were 557,123 marriages. In 1863 the number of marriages were 577,285 ; births, 3,044,991, of which 3^ per cent, were ille- gitimate ; and deaths, 2,308,415. It appears that Russia is in a condition similar to that of France prior to the Revolution, in which a disproportionate number of births occurred as well as a fearful rate of mortality. Von Semenov states the average for the five years 1861-1865 to be 3,089,450 births, of which 92,600 were illegitimate, 2,243,621 deaths, and 635,527 marriages, or to every 100 inhabitants 5.07 births, 3.68 deaths, 1.02 marriages. The year of the war (1855) was particularly destructive to the population. According to a report made by the Minister of the Interior, 849,700 persons sickened with epidemics and 163,000 of the same died, exclusive of the people living in the Caucasus and of the Don- Cossacks. This return seems too low, for another official report states that 324,156 inhabitants were attacked by the cholera alone in that year, 124,504 of whom succumbed to it. The following fact testifies to the devastation committed by an epidemic in Russia, viz., that 1,686,849 persons were attacked by cholera in 1848, of whom 668,012 died. The Crimean War cost Russia directly and indirectly more than half a million of men. To this was added a considerable cession of territory and an enormous emigration of Nogai Tatars from the Crimea, of whom 85,000 are said to have withdrawn into Turkish territory. This loss was only partly made u]) by the immigration of about 10,000 Bulgarians into Russia by the beginning of 1861. Added to this was the exodus of many Caucasian races, amounting to 400,000 souls.* • It was stated in the Rimsian Invalidf of October. 1864. that between the winter and spring of 1864 until July the loth of the same year the numbers who emigrated were as follows. — From 'I'aman, 17.337 souls; from Anapa, 16,452; from Novorossiska, 61,995: from Tuapse, 63,449 ; from the ports of Kuban and Sotscha, 46,754 ; from Adler and Hosti, 20,731. 21,350 emigrated in Turkish vessels at their own cost. I Russia — LiiJid and People. 523 According to Russian official returns, 33,800 persons were buried on the field of battle, and 1,468 were executed during the Polish insurrection in 1863 and 1864. The number of fugitives is estimated at 7,060. Some immigrations took place in 1865 on the Chinese frontier, amounting to 13,861 individuals, 10,166 of whom were Nomads. On the other hand a considerable number of German colonists in South Russia, mostly Ana- baptists, emigrated to America in the years 1873 and 1874, chiefly on account of the withdrawal of the privilege of freedom from military service. Nationalities. We are limited to very uncertain estimates : Buschen reckons Slavs or Slavonian race— Russians 53,470,000 = 71 percent, of the whole'population; Poles, 4,860,000 ; Bulgarians, 41,000 ; Servians, 30,000, making a total of 58,400,000 = 76 per cent. Other races— Pinns, 4,630,000 ; Tartars (Turki stock), 4,780,000 ; Lithuanians, 2,420,000 ; Roumanians, 780,000 ; Arme- nians, 800,000 ; Circassians, 540,000 ; Mongols, 500,000 ; Americans, 50,000; Germans, 830,000; Swedes, 150,000; Jews, 2,290,000; Greeks, 50,000; altogether, 18,620,000 who are not Slavs. The population of Russia is divided by Arsenjjew into 10 principal races, viz. : — I, Slavonic Race— a. Russians ; b. Cossacks (of the Don) Tscher- nomorian, (of the Black Sea) Uralean and Siberian ; c. Poles. II. Teutonic Race — a. Germans ; b. Swedes ; c. Danes. III. Lettish — a. Letts (in Courland and Livonia) ; b. Samogitians (in the Government of Wilna. IV. Finnish — a. Finns; b. I-apps ; c. Esthonians ; d. Livonians ; e. Permians ; /. Sirvanians (Government of Vologda) ; g. Vogules (in Perm and Tobolsk) ; //. Votiaks (Vialka, Simbirsk, Orenburg) ; /. Cheremisses (both there and in Kassan and Perm) ; k. Chu- vashes ; /. Mordwins : ///. Ostiaks (on the Obe) ; ?/. Tepyaks (Orenburg), V. T.-vtar Race — a. Tatars proper (of Astrakhan, the Crimea and Orenburg) ; b. Siberian (in 9 tribes) ; c. Nogayan (on the Volga) : d. Metsheryaks ; e. Kumuks (Causcasus) ; / Truchmens (on the Caspian Sea) ; g. Bashkirs (Orenburg, Perm, Viatka) ; h. Kirghis- Cossacks (on the further bank of the River Ural). VI. Caucasians (on the Caucasus) — a. Kabardins ; b. Abkhasians : c. Ossetes ; d. Kisti (in 3 tribes) ; e. Lesghians ; /. Georgians : VII. Mongolian Race — «. Mongols proper; ^. Buriates (on the Selenga) : c. Calmucks (Astrakhan, Saratov, etc.) VIII. Manchurians — a. Tungiis ; b. Lamuts. IX. Samoyedes (in 12 tribes). X. East Siberian (in 6 tribes). Beside these principal races, there are also Western Europeans, Greeks, Jews, Armenians, Bulgarians, Persians, Indians, Khivans, Tajiks, Usbegs and other natives of Turkestan, Gipsies, etc. The population of the three Baltic provinces was reckoned between the years i860 and 1870, thus: — 704,680 Finns; 832,854 Letts; 83,147 524 Russia — hand and People. Slavs ; 136,752 Germans ; 29,841 Jews. Of these, there were in Courland 2,313 Livonians; 474 Letts; 28,000 Slavs; 47>o°° Germans, and 28,000 Jews. In Livonia 497,000 Finns ; 368,000 Letts ; 45'°°° Slavs, and 63,000 Germans. In Esthonia 274,000 Esthonians ; 8,945 Slavs; 23,000 (Germans. The population of Finland was estimated at 1.550,000 Finns ; 250,000 Swedes ; 6 to 8,000 Russians (chiefly in the (Government of Viborg) : 1,200 (Germans (chiefly in Viborg and Helsingfors) : 1.000 gipsies, and 600 Lapps. According to the census of 1864, the population of Poland was divided into 4,066,000 Poles; 759,768 Jews (including 40,656 floating population); 250,000 Ruthenians : 250,000 Germans; against 50,000 Lithuanians. A notice in the Golos of April, 1874, states that 88 per cent, of the whole population belong to the Aryan races, 4^ per cent, to the Turanians, 4 per cent, to the Ural-Altaic race, 3^ per cent, to tlie Semitic. Of the Aryans, 8ii per cent, are Slavs, i\ Lithuanians and Letts, i;^ Germans, and I per cent. Greco-Romans. Of^the Slavs, 74! per cent, are of Russian, and 6f per cent, of Polish descent ; and among the former 49! are Great Russians. The proportion of Tatars in European Russia is i| per cent. ; of Bashkirs, i J^ ; of Finns, if. 1 1 2 various peoples are said to exist in the Russian dominions who speak at least 40 diff'erent languages or dialects. That such a mixture of races should afl"ord but little strength and power to the State is undeniable ; but Russia has the great advantage over Austria— for example, that its chief race greatly preponderates in numbers. Religion or Creeds. As among the nationalities so among the churches, one has an indisputable preponderance, although some few of the governments form exceptions. Nearly half the inhabitants of Orenburg, for exnmple, are Mohammedans (912,000); more than one-third (170,000) in Astrakhan: whilst in Tauria the number decreased by emigration to 96,000. Inde- pendently of the kingdom of Poland, which is essentially Roman Catholic, the Roman Catholics preponderate only in the two Lithuanian governments of Kovno (875,000) and Wilna (595,000). Finland, whh 1,750.000 ; Esthonia, with 295,000; Livonia, with 746,000 ; and Courland, with 472,000 Pro- testants, belong almost entirely to the Protestant faith. There are 1 60,000 Protestants in Petersburg, nearly 100,000 in Saratov, 85,000 in Samara (61,000 Mennonites), 65,000 in Turia, 32,000 in Kherson, and 30,000 in Bessarabia. Neither the compulsory measures of the Polish Government, during its dominion of 400 years, nor the endeavours of the Papal nuncios and Jesuits, ever succeeded in turning the white Russians and LittleRussians from their early faith. The Greek church is really the prevailing one ; but while unity seems to reign in the church as well as in the temporal power, the peoiile are really divided into innumerable sects. The southern part of the Empire especially is filled with Dissenters ; the greater portion of the inhabitants of 1 -ittle Russia and the Cossacks belong to them. The most important Dissenters, who are both numerous and energetic enough to be feared, are the old believers (Starowerzee, or, as they are commonly called, Raskolnicks or unbelievers), number, according to a report furnished to Rjissia — LaiK^ and People. 525 Hcpworih Dixon, 17,000,000. iJoic'ks these there are cU)zens of ])e(. uliar sects, some of which hold the most fanatical doctrines. To the compara- tively least mischievous belong the Duchobortzee, or " combatants in spirit." There are also the Molokane, or milk-drinkers, who will have nothing to do with pope or priest, and who deny the identity of Christ wdth the Father. Of these, 16,000 are said to have been tortured under the Emperor Nicholas, and driven into the Caucasus. Jews congregate in the districts that were formerly Poland : in the old kingdom of Poland there are 760,000 ; in Podolia 260,000; in Volhynia, 195,000; Mohilev, 123,000; Kovno, 112,000; then in Kiev, 250,000; Kherson, 115,000. More than half of the European Jews (2,621,000) re- sided in Russia in 1878. Heathen are most numerous in the government of Astrakhan, where there are above 76,000, and in Orenburg, where they number 67,000. We compose the following table according to Buschen :— European -Russia Greco-Prussians 52,485.000 Armenians ... 35,000 Reman Catholics 2,840,000 Protestants ... 2,080,000 Jews ... ... 1,631,000 Mohammedans... 2,090,000 Heathens ... 200,000 Poland Finland Cauca-^ia Siberia 250,000 41,000 1,653,000 '^ ,732,000 500,000 ,915,000 14,000 11,000 285.000 i,757>ooo 6,000 4,000 645,000 1,000 13,000 8,000 2.000 — 1,970,000 I 600,000 — 1,000 280,000 This gives altogether Greeks Armenians ... Roman Catholics Protestants . . . 57,161,000 6,780,000 4,132,000 Jews ... Mohammedans Heathens 2,298,000 5,662,000 481,000 The native population of Central Asia is Mohammedan. Towns. In i860 there were 599 towns and 47 large market places, with 6,087,070 inhabitants in European Russia ; 34 towns, with 98,000 inhabi- tants in Finland ; in Poland 452 towns, with 1,276,285 inhabitants; in Caucasia 38 towns, 349,912 inhabitants ; and in Siberia 56 towns, with 252,514 inhabitants, making in all 1,226 towns, with 8,064,000 inhabitants. The returns before us are in many respects contradictory. According to the latest, however, 6 have more than 100,000 inhabitants, 11 have from 50 to 100,000, 29 have between 15 and 20,000, 95 between 10 and 15,000. The population of St. Petersburg in 1869 was 667,963. (It was founded in 1706.) In 1770 the population numbered 170,000 ; in 1814, 335>7i3;in 1840—470,202. The population of Moscow in 1871 is given at 611,970; in 1812, before the great fire, 252,609 ; but subsequent to the fire in 1816 only 166,515. The population of Warsaw is given as 251,584 ; the actual town, how- ever, only 180,657. 526 Russia— Lajid and People. Odessa 184,819. In 1803 the population was only 8,000; and in 1850, 71,392 ; Kishenau, (in Bessarabia), 102,427 ; Riga (Livonia), 99,892, or, according to a later return, 102,043. In the following list arc all towns with a population of 15,000 and upwards, but only the most important of those with a population under 15,000. Kasan ... 86,262 Jaroslav ... ... 26,429 Tashkent ... 86,233 Tambov ... ... 26,403 Saratov ... ... 85,220 Jeisk 26,276 Nicolajev... ... 82,805 Tomsk ... 25,605 Charkov ... ... 82,133 Koslov ... 25,522 Tiflis ■• 70,591 Jekaterinburg ■■• 25,133 Wilna .. 64,217 Nucha ... 24,944 Tula ■• 57,374 Bendery ... ... 24,625 Berditshev ..• 52,563 Shemakha .. 24,502 Samara ... •• 51,947 Smolensk... ■■ 24,332 Astrakhan 48,220 Jekaterinoslav .. 24,267 Taganrog... .. 48,186 Stavropol ... .. 23.612 Cronstadt... ... 47,166 Kamenez-Podolsk 22,611 Kherson ... ... 46,320 Kertch-Jenikale ... .. 22,449 Rostov • • 44,453 Perm .. 22,288 Orel .. 44,281 Mitan .. 22,185 Nischni-Novgorod .. 44,190 Nieshin ... .. 21,590 Shitomir ... 43,047 Vyatka .. 21,240 Voronesh ... .. 42,142 Ulfa .. 20,917 Mohilev ... ... 40,431 Alexandropol ■20,600 Akerman ... .. 39,201 Dorpat ... .. 20,540 Lodsi ■ • 39,078 Khodchent 20,000 Kaluga .. 38,608 Ryasan .. 19,990 Tver .. 38,248 Shusha .. 19,945 Orenburg ... 35,623 Abo •• 10,793 Minsk •• 35,563 Morshansk .. 19,504 Jelissavetgrad •• 25,179 Sysran .. i9'443 Poltava - 33,979 Bolvichov 19,224 Novo-Cherkask ... 33,397 Plotzk .. 19,189 Kovno •• 33,050 Balta .. 18,842 Irkutsk ... •• 32,321 Calomna ... .. iS,8o8 Helsingfors .. 32,113 Vinitza 18,780 Cursk •■ 31,754 Rshev .. .8,732 Revel .. 31,269 Pskov •• 18,331 Volihsk .. 31,269 Archangel .. 18,268 Vitebsk .. 31,182 Kholin .. 18,148 Omsk ■■ 30,559 Mohilev .. 18,129 Jelez • • 30,540 Bakhmut ... •• 17,999 Krcmcntshug .. 30,472 Akhtyrka ... .. 17,820 Diinaburg ,. 29,462 Pinsk .. 17,718 Sergijevski .. 27,471 Bielostok ... .. 17,658 Costroma... .. 27,178 Tobolsk ... .. 17,427 Bobruissk .. 26,872 Ural .. 17,590 Simbirsk ... .. 26,822 Vrischnii-Volotschok • • 17,408 Ljublin .. 26,708 Vologda .. 17,223 Russia — Land an if People 527 Semicropul ... i;,ijy Kybuisk ... ... ... i 5-0 17 Novgorod... • ■• 17,093 Erivan ... ... ... i 5.040 Kalish ... 16,957 Vladikavkas ... ... i 5,000 Piotrkov ... ... 16,949 Busuluk ... ... ... ] 4,876 Serpukhov 16,720 Chenstokhov ... ... i 4.830 Tiraspol ... 16,692 Staraja-Russa 4,756 Slatoust ... 16,629 Briansk ... ... ... i [4,657 Asov ... 16,791 Zarskoje-Selo ... ... i [4,465 Vasilkov ... ... 16,597 Lipesk [4,213 Vladimir ... 16,422 Kusnezk ... [4,185 Nachitschevan ... 16,358 Mzensk ... [4,159 Tschevnigov ... 16,174 Sumy ... ... ... ] 4,126 Jelisavetpol 16,167 Kasimov ... ... ... \ 4,102 Bielgorod ... 16,097 Cherkassy ... ... 1 3,914 Ananjev ... ... 15,983 Akhalzyk'h ] 3,755 Kamyshin ... 15,698 Barnaul ... '3,527 Khvalynsk ... 15,628 Viborg [3,466 Staroconstantin ... ... 15,605 Glukhov ... '3,398 Baku ... 15,604 Lomsha ... '3,335 Suvalki - 15,585 Sebastopol 13.259 Tinmen ... ... 15,512 Uglitsh 13,069 Uman ••• 15,393 Kuba 13,062 Atkarsk ... • •• 15,199 Homel 13,030 Dervent ... ... 15,191 Tshistopol 13.030 Growth of Russia. The colossal growth of the Empire began in 1581, in which year the Cossack, Hetman Jermak Temogefew, surrendered to the Czar, Ivan 11. , Siberia, which he had conquered ; but it was not until the time of Peter I. that Russia was held in any regard by the more civilised nations. In 1707 Peter took possession of the newly-discovered Kamchatka, and what was of more importance Russia obtained from Sweden (by the Peace of Nystadt, 1721) Ingria Carelia, parts of Finland, Esthonia, and Livonia. Azov, which was taken from the Turks in 1699, Avas lost again in 171 1. On the other hand, the Czar took from the Persians Da^hestan, Shirwan, Khilan, and Derbent, large portions of which were, however, lost in 1732 and 1736. The Kirghiz Kassaks were subdued in 1731, and the Ossetes in 1742 ; the most easterly part of Siberia, the Aleutian Islands and Behring's Islands, were also incorporated with Russia in the same year. The Finnish province of Kymenegard was gained by the Treaty of Abo, August 1 2th, 1743. The three partitions of Poland took place under Katherine II. in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Russia acquired nearly two-thirds of this once powerful State. By the Peace of Kuchuk-Kainardshi, July 22, 1774, the Turks gave up Azov, part of the Crimea (the other part was taken possession of in 1783), and Kabardah ; and by the Peace of Jassy, January 9th, 1792, Oczakov ; Georgia also came under the protection of Russia in 1783, and Courland and Leni in 1793. In 1793 followed the conquest of Persian territory as far as the Kur ; in 1 80 1 the formal annexation of Georgia was effected. Although con- (^uered in the war of 1807, Russia nevertheless acquired by the Peace of Tilsit, July 7th, the Province of Bjalystok, which had been taken from her 528 Russia — Land and People. ally, Prussia. The Peace of Vienna, October 14th, 1809, assured to Prussia the circle of Turnopole from Austria and a part of Eastern Galicia with 400,000 souls. The Peace of Friederichshaven, November 17th, 1809, robbed Sweden of the whole of Finland ; the Peace of Bucharest, May 28th, 1812, took Bessarabia from the Turks; that of 'I'iflis in 1813 deprived the Persians of parts of the Caucasus, and then the Vienna Congress of 1S15 gave Poland to Russia. After fresh wars the Persians lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan (now called New Armenia), by the Peace of Turkmansheir, February 22, 1S2S, and the Turks lost Anapa, Poti, Akhalzirk and Akhalkalaka by the Peace of Adrianople, September 2, 1829. The desire to possess lurther dominions of the Sultan (the " Sick Man ") led to a war in 1853, in which England and France joined in 1854, in which Sardinia also took part, and which ended in the Peace of Paris March 31st, 1856. The Russians were compelled, for the first time for more than a century, to agree to a cession of territory ; that is to say, to restore to Moldavia the left bank of the Danube in Bessarabia, including the fortresses of Ismail and Kiala. This district, however, was again restored to her by the Congress of Berlin, July, 1878. Russia has lately acquired by agreement with China the sparsely populated but widely extended district of the x'Vmoor; the subjection of Caucasia was accom- plished in 1859 and 1864, and considerable conquests have followed since 1866 both in Turkestan and the rest of Central Asia. A Ukase of February 29 (or 1 2th March), 1868, annihilated the last remains of the independence of Poland by incorporating it completely in the Czardom. On the other hand, Russian America was sold to the United States. This region, however, was not actually the possession of the State, but rather the property of a trading company. Its area was estimated at 516,666 Enghsh square miles and a population of 54,000 souls. The extent of the Russian territory — Under Year Ivan Vasilivitch I. ... ... 1462 Vasili Ivanovitch ... ... 1505 Ivan Vasilivitch II 1584 Alexi Michaelovitch ... ... 1650 Peter 1 1689 Anna 1730 Katharine II i775 Alexander II 1868 The population was estimated thus : — In English Square Mileb was about 382,716 510,288 1,530-864 5'039,o94 5-953,360 6,888,888 7,122,770 7,866,940 1722 1742 1762 1782 1793 1803 1811 14,000,000 16,000,000 19,000,000 27,500,000 34,000,000 36,000,000 42,000,000 1815 ... ... 45,000,000 1829 ... ... 50,500,000 1838 ... ... 59,000,000 1851 ... ... 65,000,000 1870 ... ... 78,000,000 1877 86,250,000 1878 87,722,500 the last two centuries com])rise an According to a Russian reign of Alexander II., The countries acc^uired during the last two extent of territory ten times as large as Germany . calculation, the area, in the first 20 years of the increased 751,547 English square miles, and the population increased by 22,546,000. A constant advance has been made also towards the civilized countries of the west. Russia — Land and People. 529 The Old Kingdom of Poland. The State embraced in 1773, 295,541 English square miles and 16,000,000 inhabitants, according to some authorities even as mnny as 20,000,000. It had a revenue of ^1,227,900. The duchy of Warsaw, established by Napoleon I., included an area of 59,533 English square miles in 1812, and about 4,000,000 inhabitants. Old Poland is now divided thus Russian Austrian Prussian Together English square miles 244,513 30,234 2 1 ,4 1 296,157 Population 16,000,000 5,200,000 2,800,000 24,000,000 Of whom were National Poles 4,900,000 2,400,000 2,500,000 9,800,000 Finance. —Budget for 1877. I. ORDINARY REVENUE, TAXES, AND DUTIES. Direct Taxes {a.) Personal tax ^18,789,6641 ••• ^21,156,114 Trade licenses 2,366,450^ Indirect Taxes Duties on liquors... 33,695,217 salt 1,262,658 „ tobacco 1,682,450 „ beet sugar 918,729 Customs duties 9,106,700 Stamps 1,520,000 Registration and transfer of property ... 1,220,666 49,406,420 Other duties, including : — Passports... 431,141 Navigation 116,396 Turnpikes 25,353 Various ... 391,404 964,294 ;^7I, 526,828 {b.) Crown Revenue : — Mines 392,929 Coinage ... 592,070 Post 1,730,803 Telegraphs 853,575 r ^3,569,377 (^•) Crown Dominions : — Tribute of Crown tenants 113,316 Lands leased 931,081 2 L I 53^ Russia — Land and People Lands sold, and substitu- \ tion fines for military • ^740,216 service ) Forests 1,658,478 Mining and Metal Works ... 670,273 Railways 624,240 (^/) Other sources of revenue ... 6,852,901 (o76,5iS PENDITURE. ^17,141,937 303,843 1,606,366 1,433,799 471,473 28,742,646 I 3.937,557 10,463,138 2,918,811 8.424,927 2.490,466 K! 2,939,265 2,341,049 353,fj62 126,847 1,135,524 ^84,830,710 Russia — Land ami People. 53' (b) Deficit in collection of taxes 316,666 U) Police budget 3,629,099 Id) Temporary extraordinary ex- penses for railways and harbours ... ... 1,594,825 5.540.590 Entire total expenditure ... ^9o.37i.30o Excess of revenue over ex- penditure ^3.705.218 Separate Heads of Revenue. There are only two direct taxes, the personal or poll-tax and the trade licenses. The first of these furnishes a large sum. I'eter I. introduced it, in order to defray the expenses of the standing army. In the year 1852 it yielded ;^2, 929,166. The diminution of the population by reason of the Crimean War reduced the sum yielded by this tax to less than ^2,375,000. In 1862 it increased to ^4,512,500, and in 1867 to ;^6,4i2,5oo, while now it amounts to ^^18,789,664. Indirect Taxes Are numerous, and that which forms the richest source of revenue is the duty on liquors, or, in reality, the brandy duty. For 40 years past it has furnished one-third of the whole revenue of the State. Brandy was formerly treated as a monopoly in 29 governments, and in others the tax was farmed. In the middle of 1S58 a general farming of this tax took place. In order that the revenue from this item should not diminish, the government, under the Czar Nicholas, forbade " temperance unions." But in the midst of their struggle for emancipation the peasants themselves recognized the evil consequences of drunkenness, and here and there made a vow only to drink brandy in case of illness, and at family rejoicings, under the penalty of punishment to those who should transgress. The farmers sought to revive the love of drink by cheap prices, and even by making presents of brandy, bnt only with partial success. They, therefore, sought the assistance of government as they were unable to pay the rents. A ministerial decree actually forbade the carrying out of the agreements made by the peasants among themselves, under the pretext that such agreements were unauthorised. According to the statement of Prince Uolgorukov, the local police authorities, won over by the farmers of the brandy tax, frequently employed active violence — sticks and staves— to force the peasants to drink brandy. This had its effect, and brandy-drinking became more prevalent than ever. A few years afterwards a duty similar to the Prussian malt tax was introduced in place of this farming, and the yield, which in 1853 was only ;^i 2,508,333, increased in 1865 to ^21,035,353. In 1869 the duty was raised ?>s. id. per vedro.* In 1871 the gross receipts from this tax were estimated at about ^23,750,000; the colossal figure of ^33,695,217 is now given as the estimate. ♦ Nearly three imperial gallons (27,049). 3J' Russia — Land and People. The salt monopoly of former times has been abolished, and a salt tax imposed in place of it. The tobacco duty was introduced in 1838, and the beet (sugar) tax in 1848. The sum yielded by the customs is strikingly small. In the year 1845 they produced ^"5,452,050, but subsequently they fell considerably. In the years of war, 1S54-55, they sank as low as ^^3, 103,587, and ^2,728,050. A considerable increase naturally took place on the restoration of peace. But even in the budget lor 187 1 the receipts were only estimated at ^6,428,750, though such an improvement occurred during the year that the actual amount was ;^7, 689,987. For 1875 the yield from the customs was ^10,137,255, but in 1877 they produced only ^9,106,700. The revenue derived from crown domains in Russia is but small. The figure is out of proportion to the possessions, although items are introduced under this head which do not properly belong to it. Railway and Harbour Works. In the year 1867 a separate fund was established for the construction of railroads. This fund consisted of a sum of ,^^7, 294, 293 derived from preference shares, with ^{^ 1,7 2 6, 244 resulting from the sale of Russian possessions in America, and, lastly, from the profits on the Petersburg- Moscow Railway, sold to a private company for the sum of ^14,000,000, and to these a sum was added from the sale of bonds of the Kursk-Kiev Railway, amounting to ;^3, 000,000. In January, 1870, a further sum ot pTg, 500,000 was acquired by a loan from the Rothschilds, at 5 per cent., contracted at 80. Items of Expenditure. The national expenditure has greatly increased. In 1859 it was estimated at ^42,282,694, and in i860 at ;^48,475,ooo. Two items of expenditure are especially prominent — the national debt and the army. The debt which required £SAAZ^1S° in i853> absorbed £l,^Zl^S°° i" 1859. In 1862, ^,^9,262,500. The figure has risen much higher since then. In 1868 it rose to ^12,453,820; in 1874 to ^I5>i54,405 J i" 1875 to pTi 7,017,360 ; in 1877 to 2^17,141,937 ; and thus we have nearly a doubling of the expenditure merely for interest and payment of the debt during the period of peace after the Crimean war. Expenditure for War Purposes Has also increased enormously. Reden estimated the expenditure for the land forces in 1853 at something less than ^11,537,500 ; and that for the navy, ;^4,3o6,25o. By 1864 f^^e army appeared in the ordinary and extraordinary list with an expenditure of ^^25, 5 12,500 ; the navy with an expenditure of ^3,412.500, or both together above ^28,925,000. Financial difficulties rendered retrenchments necessary/ but the amount required for the army in 1865 was still ^15,756,696, and for the navy, ^3,627,404; in 1871 the figures amounted to ;^24,326,35o, and ^2,864,669 respectively; in 1874, the amount was ^27,643,689 for the army, and ;^3,537,748 for the navy. The army thus demanding 38.48 per cent, of the whole ordinary expenditure. In 1877 the admitted outlay ui)on the army, every penny of wh.ich was spent months before the decla- ration of war, waS;/^33,i79,ooo. Russia — Land and People. 533 Fost and Telegraph. Have hitherto yielded no net profit in Russia. The slight education of the mass of the people causes these institutions to be but little used, and the immense distances from place to place greatly increase the cost. The supply for the Ministry of the system of communication or office of locomotion has risen from ;!^538,2oo in the year 1S32, to ^2,939,265, not including the special credit for railroad and harbour trafihc. Sfafe Expenditure for Education In 1832 did not reach to more than ^222,462, and even in 1863 the sum did not exceed ;^65o,ooo. Since that date, however, each year has seen an increased effort in that direction ; but the present figure, if some- thing above ^2,490,466 is evidently quite insufficient, and forms a striking contrast to the sum expended on the army. Development of Russian Finance. The revenues of Peter I. were very small ; but he increased them five-fold by farming the taxes, raising the old ones and introducing new ones. They amounted in 1725 to ^1,612,783, that is according to the present value of money equal to about ^^ 9,750,000 : the principal sources being the poll or personal tax ; the customs, the brandy tax and the salt tax. Tengoborski states that the revenue never exceeded the sum of ^^26,109,537, until the year 1839. In 1877 it amounted to £92>^o']6,'-^i2,. For many years there was an average annual deficit of about ^4,375,000; and notwithstanding increased taxation, the deficit has become considerably larger during the last 15 years. An article written with a clear understanding of the subject appeared in the St. Petersburg edition of the North German Press, and ran thus : — "The State revenue amounted really to ^53,950,000 in 1861 ; the expenditure to ;^56,o62,5oo ; the direct taxes had yielded ;^9,245,6oo, and the indirect taxes ;^29,688, 162 ; the royalties ^2,442,380; and the Crown property ^1,831,375." In the year 1868 the receipts from these 4 sources amounted to, ^15,066,430, ^33,419^065, ^3.o55'72o, ^^4,7 77,730. The revenue from the taxes and domains had, therefore, increased by ;^i 3,000,000. This was partly owing to the fact that the recei]:)ts in Poland and in the newly acquired Province of Turkestan were included iu the Budget. The former amounted in the year 1867 to above ,£■5,366,250; the latter to ^212,550. During these seven years there flowed into the State Treasury from new loans ^18,000,000, ;,<^54,92 5,ooo, and ^54,925,000 equal to ^90,675,000 if valued at the mean rate of exchange ; ^1 1,700,000 of this amount was expended on making rail-roads. Notes of credit for _;^i 15,700,000 were in circulation on the ist of January, 1862, p^i3, 162,500 of which was covered by gold and silver. On January ist, 1869, the amount of bills in circulation was /^i 17,650,000 ; they had, therefore, increased by ^1,787,500 in the course of seven years; but the exchange had risen to ^8,287,500 more ; lastly, the National^ Bank owed on January ist, 1862, on deposits, at 2 per cent, interest, ^'30,225,000; and" on deposits at from 3 to 4A- per cent interest, ^21,612,500. Seven years later the amount of interest bearing deposits in the bank was only ^36,725,000; ^ii,862;soo had, therefore, been carried off in advances 534 Russia — Land and People. to the State treasury. From this, it follows, that in the course of 7 years the State treasury, after the deduction of the ^11,000,000, which was employed in the payment of bank debts, of ^^8, 2 8 7, 5 00 which flowed into the reserve of the bank and of ;^i 1,700,000 which were spent on railroads, required the assistance of ;^58, 000,000 to cover the current expenditure (;^8, 125,000 annually). The sum expresses, therefore, the average deficit, which the State treasury has not been able to avoid, in spite of the con- tinually increasing revenue. A special fund for the construction of rail- roads has been in existence since 1867, independent of that for current expenditure." It is said with commendable frankness in Sarauw's work, composed from "official sources," that "a surplus was only found to exist five limes between 181 5 and and 1872, whereas a deficit existed every other year. This deficit amounted in 1834 to ^3,478,725, which sum was again reached in 1840. Six years later the deficit rose to ^5,033,875, and in 1848 it reached the sum of ;?^io, 163,725, or more than a fourth part of the State revenues. It declined somewhat during the next three years, but in the war years, 1854, 1855, and 1856 it amounted to ;^2o,022,925, ^42.550,625, and ;,^43,288,925. The deficiency was only slightly less than the total revenue in 1855, and in the following year it was actually ;^i4,2oo,ooo lower ; but this was effected by the fearfully strained taxation laid on the people, for in itself the deficit was ^633,333 greater than in the previous year. Three times again, viz., in i860 (Italian Revolution), 1864 (Polish Rebellion), and 1866 (Bohemian War), there was a deficit of between _;^8, 125,000 and ;!^g, 700,000. Since the last named year the deficit has been : — :867 1868 1869 18-0 J871 ^^823,225 ^3,460,800 ;^I, 836,412 ^1.476,866 ^712.075 "According to the statement of accounts, there was a surplus of revenue in 1872 to the amount of ^57,435. Leaving out the three years of v.-ar, the total deficit in the period since the Crimean war has amounted to ;;^2 1,786,537, or on an average in each of the twelve years, ;^i,8i5,45o. Coffu/n/nal Burdens. These taxes, which are levied under various designations, are by no means exclusively set apart for communal objects : on the contrary, a large portion of them is employed to defray general State expenses. These so- called communal burdens were long ago laid upon the people, partly being for special State purposes, partly for the payment of Governmental ex- penses, and for the actual expenses of the commune. As the communal system is not fully develojjcd, the outlay for such purposes is comparatively small. The revenues of all the towns of Russia put together did not amount to more than ;,<^2,6i8.687 in 1869, ^^.e expen- diture to ^£^2,610,562. In 16 towns only, and these the chief places of commerce, did the figure rise to ;;^i6,25o. St. Petersburg stood first with revenue and expenditure ... ^524,062 Moscow followed, with ... ... ... ... ... ... 461,825 Riga next, with receipts ... ... .- ... ... ... 158,275 ^8,125 of which remained as a surplus Odessa ... ... ... ... ... ••• ... ... 98,800 Russia — Land and People. 535 Kiev 46,475 (;^63,25o above the expenditure) Charkov 39.48? Saratov 38.162 (A deficit of ^2,600) Astrakhan 35;9i2 Warsaw headed the Polish towns with receipts and expenditure amounting to ^305,012. Finances of Finland. This principaUty enjoys a remarkable position as regards its finances. The revenue is obtained fi-om a land tax, a tax on manufactures, and a poll or personal tax, and from some indirect taxes, especially the duty on brandy ; and, lastly from the redemption of burdens formerly laid upon a number of farms to maintain soldiers. The budget is divided into a civil list and a military list, which are kept separate, the revenue obtained from the " redemption " being put into the military list, and the expenditure for the battalions of troops quartered there were paid out of it. Since these battalions have been abolished the sum has been chiefly employed to defray the debt. In 1877 the revenue of Finland amounted to ;^i, 266,646, and the expenditure to ^^i, 124,409. The chief sources of revenue were : — Land tax Income tax Poll tax Duty on brandy Military substitution The chief items of expenditure were Railways Military and marine ("ivil administration Public debt ... Religion and Science Public schools Sanitary purposes Prisons ;^io7,oS2 35.623 55.891 194,700 124,363 ^249,850 88,573 186,495 126,650 99,441 24,442 40,087 60,837 National Debt.— I. No fixed time for payment A. FOREIGN DEBT. The actual consolidated debt amounted in January, 1872, to- Fixed time for payment Dutch debt ^8,188,333 ... — English money 13.730.00° ••• ^^20,950,000 Russian paper 3.747.75° — 10,122,250 Russian silver ... ... ... ... — ••• 13.561,250 Russian paper Russian silver B. INLAND DEBT. ;^34,7i9.333 8,413,833 ^32,245.750 Total debt ^145,678,499 536 Russirr — Land and People. In 1877 the total debt was ... ... ... £,^G\,']']i,2,A9 To this were added (II.,) Debts not entered in the Great Book : — 1. Floating debt, imperial treasury notes ... ... ... ^{^34, 200,000 2. Polish treasury notes ... ... ... ... ... 63,333 3. Four per cent, bonds of kingdom of Poland ... ... 4,3I7j375 4. Advance from the Polish Landed Property Credit Bank 1,556,172 5. Five per cent, railway bonds ... ... ... ... 23.917,597 6. Liquidation certificates ... ... ... ... ... 99,727 7. Liquidation bills of kingdom of Poland... ... ... 9,260,528 Total of figure II = ;^73,4i4.732 Total of figures I. and II. ... ... ... ... ^219,093,231 These divisions of the debt increased greatly during the year 1873. In the budget for 1874 the amount required for the debt was estimated at ^14,765,830 as against ^14,418,088 of the previous year. This indicates an increase of ;i^347,742 for interest, and an increased capital of nearly ^3,800,000. A new Russian consolidated loan of ^15,000,000 at 5 per cent was issued in London in November, 1873, for railway pur- poses, part only of which paid interest in 1874. This sum added to the above raised the actual consolidated debt to above ^164,000,000, and the total debt to more than ^237,925,231. An enormous floating and secret debt exists beside the public one. It even exceeds the latter to an extent that does not occur in any other State. If the Russian Government had difficulties in former times in taking up loans in the ordinary way, it got over its difficulties with a total disregard of the future. Hence arose first the treasury notes, the different series of which in circulation at the end of 1859 amounted to a sum of ^^14,725.000 ; at the end of 1865 to ^32,775,000 ; at the end of 1868 to ;^34,20o,ooo ; to which were added in September, 1869, three more series of ;j{^475,ooo each, amounting altogether to ;^i,425,ooo. which was further increased bv ;2£"i, 900,000 in November, 1869, although these notes were called in to be cancelled they were actually once more put into circulation, so that the total amount of the treasury bonds reached the sum of ;^37. 5 25,000. This paper bears interest at 4.32 per cent, and was received in payment of customs dues on imported goods. The above figures furnish, however, but a very imperfect representation of the obligations under which the Russian Government labours. In accordance with the absolute bureau- cratic system by which all general operations are conducted, even those of industry and charity, the Government took all the credit establishments in the empire under its management and guarnnteeshi]>, and made them entirely state institutions : for example, the pawnshops of St. Petersburg and Moscow, the loan and commercial banks in St. Petersburg, Moscow. Riga, Odessa, Charkov, and other towns. The Government considered itself justified in disposing of the monies invested in them, so far as the estab- lishments did not actually require them, because it had given ils " guarantee " in favour of those institutions. These sums were to be re- payable at any time according to promise. Under pressing embarrassment, further paper-money was issued to cover them, or rather assignats, called bills of credit. Of course a system of compulsion was required for these Russia — Land and People. 53/^ bills of credit. On June 24th, 1874, they were in circulation for ^124,835,952, ^34,416,055 of which were covered by coin, ^297,165 by Russian state paper (payment of which could easily be deferred), leaving ^90,122,832 without guarantee. This paper money has not been at par since the Crimean war; in 1864 it stood at 78, rose in 1865 to 83, but fell in 1866 to 68; thus losing 32 per cent. In 1867 and 1868 the average loss was 18; in 1870 almost 19 per cent. In the year 1870 the rate of exchange at Berlin, for 90 rouble paper, wavered between 70 and 791^ Prussian thalers. In 1873 the average for the year at Berlin was Siy'^g thalers for 90 roubles. In Frankfort the exchange during the same year averaged i florin 34 kreuzers, making thus a loss of over 16 per cent. After fruitless attempts to obtain a new loan, there appeared on August 20, 1859, a new decree of the Council of State, confirmed by the Emperor, by which all monies belonging to the Church and to charities of all kinds in the public banks, as well as all the deposits in the same, should henceforth be formally placed at the disposal of the Minister of Finance. These sums were divided into four classes ; State Treasury notes at 4 per cent, were given to the most favoured, with the injunction that if the institutions were no longer able to carry on their arrangements the number of persons maintained by them must be reduced. For a second division of charity monies bank-bills at 3 per cent, only were given. Sums of a third class received only i^ per cent. ; those of a fourth class no interest at all, and among these were all the legal deposits. A Ukase was further published on September 23, 1859, by which the notes of loan, commercial, bank, and savings' funds and the 4 per cent, rentes were ex- changed for 5 per cent, bank-bills, to be paid off in 37 years from 1861. It was further determined that all the owners of bank deposits who did not present themselves in order to make this exchange should hereafter receive but 2 instead of 3 per cent, as heretofore. (It was intended to compel the capitalists to invest their monies in new 5 per cent, bank notes.) All these regulations were made with the object of getting rid of the in- convenience of a debt which might be called in at any time, and exchanging it for one not so liable. In consequence of this it was necessary to take over the payment of interest on these sums and to burden the State Budget with many more millions (hence the sudden increase in the expen- diture). The abolition of all the " credit establishments " which had previously existed in the State and the formation of a State bank was the result. The whole system of paper money was to be regulated by this institution. This was a new fiction ; obligations of many hundred millions were thus imposed upon the bank, which was established with only a capital of p^2,375,ooo, afterwards raised to ;^3, 250,000. Imperial bank notes for ^35,762,124 at 5 percent, were in circulation at the end of June, 1874, issued to replace the deposits of the old credit banks which had been abolished.* The remaining liabilities of~ the Imperial Bank arising out of the old credit banks, at the expenditure of the State, amounted on the 24th June, 1874, to ^31,755,238. The actual floating debt in 1875 may be thus classified : — Treasury notes ... ... ... ... •• ... ;j^34,2oo,ooo * The frequent occurrence of forged papers forms a special evil in connection with this. In the year 1869 no fewer than 19,071 notes were confiscated, ol" the value of jr34.923. whilst the total number of false'notes issued since the discovery wa-; first made was 138,355. valued at j(;a25,966. b 53^ Russia — Layjd and People. Credit bills not covered ... ... ... ... ... 89,631,340 Imperial bank notes 35.845,457 Other obligations of the bank, incurred by the operations of the state credit ... ... ... ... ... 31,765,238 Total ^191,442,035 " The loans contracted during 1877 amount to more than ;!^5 2,000,000 and the issue of incontrovertible paper, by depreciating the currency, and so diminishing the real return of taxation, imposes a burden of something like three millions sterling a year." Even in a rich country like France a floating debt of ^,{^40, 000, 000 before the last war was considered destructive to the security of the financial administration, and here in such a poor country as Russia we have a floating debt of ^193,320,000. There are, it is true, very considerable assets in the balance-sheet of the bank; mortgages to the amount of ;^i5.337,586, remaining from the former credit institutions, and repayable in 15 to 37 years annuities ; and ^49,533,195 which the serfs have to pay in annuities for their en mancipation. These £^(i^,Zio,i%\ are no doubt worthy of consideration, but are as nothing in comparison with the floating debt, and it is a disadvantage that they cannot be made available as quickly as might be needed by the requirements of the bank. The extremely unsound and unsatisfactory condition of the bank is seen in the fact, that, against the obligations of the state to the bank, which have grown to so many hundred millions, we find a balance of only six or eight (sometimes even of four only) million roubles. The amount of property discounted on June 24, 1874, was ^1,134,015. If we add to this property ;!^672,5i3 cash in the treasury, and all the advances on goods, state-paper, stocks and bonds, the whole of the realizable assets of the bank on 24th June, 1874 did not amount to more than ^3,589,071. This is obviously an unsound financial state. State Debt of Fiftland. This was principally, though not entirely, incurred for making railroads, 4,000,000 marks being negociated for the redemption of the fiefs in the Government of Viborg, (4 Finnish marks are equal to i rouble). The whole debt on January ist, 1873, amounted to ;!^i, 909,969. To this was subsequently added a new railway loan of ;;^8io,ooo, and in the middle of 1874 a further one of ^825,000, which raises the total to about ;^6,o93,75o. If we put together all the details, we find the following to be the total amount of debt of the Russian Empire up to 1875 : — (a.) Direct State Debt. 1. Actual consolidated debt ... ... ... ... ^^163,800,000 2. Debt not included in great book ... ... ... 75,318,750 ;^239,i 18,750 ip.) Indirect (secret) State debt ... ... ... ... 191,345,833 Finland debt ... ... ... ... ... ... 6,093,750 Total ^^436,558333 In this statement the lowest figures have been taken Russia — Lnnd and People. 5 39 While it must be admitted that the Russian State Debt has increased in a most serious manner for many years past, and that the repetition of enormous deficits is becoming a permanent evil, yet Russia has never failed to fulfil her obligations to foreign creditors, a circumstance which has not only greatly assisted in cashing the State paper, but which procures her important advantages in the money market. History of the Debt. The system of paper money is an old evil in Russia. As early as the reign of Katharine II. (manifesto of December 29th, 176S), an endeavour was made to reUeve the finance by this means, the pretext being the un- suitability of the copper money in circulation. The total amount of the " assignats " was not to exceed ^3,250,000 (Ukase of loth January, 1774), yet, by a manifesto of June 28th. 1786, an increase to ^16,250,000 as a new maximum ioUowed. At the death of the Empress, assignats for ^25,634,375 had been issued ; they lost 47 per cent, in exchange for coin. Further issues were made during the wars with France and Turkey : the amount of paper money in the year 1800 was ^34,612,500 ; in i8to it had reached the sum of ;^'"93,762,5oo. Alexander i. declared the whole pro- perty of the State to be a security for it, and gave the promise (manifesto of February 2nd, 1810), that no further increase should take place; but the three years of war, 181 2-15, required ^52,000,000 over the ordinary ex- penditure. In 1 81 5 the exchange of the assignats was 418, that is to say, I silver rouble was worth 4 roubles and 18 kopecks in assignats. An improvement in the condition of finance was attempted after the first war. The actual amount of the State debt acknowledged was not much above p/^20,312,500 j but paper money for ^^135, 850,000 was in circulation. Loans were contracted, first at home in 1817; 6 per cent bonds were issued at 83^ per cent., and the payment was only required to be in paper; then in 18 18 loans were contracted abroad, 6 per cent, at 85, likewise payable in paper. In 1820 there followed a loan of silver abroad at 72 (5 per cent.), so that the Government actually received only ;;^4,7i2,5oo for _;^6,5oo,ooo Further loans were contracted at 77 and 77^. In the year 1823, when Count Cancrin undertook the management of the finances, the amount of assignats in circulation was ^96,850,000, and the exchange stood at 3 roubles, 60 kopecks for silver. An attempt was made to restore the silver standard in the year 1839 ; the Government determined that the silver rouble at its then value and in its divisions should form the basis of unity for circulation. The exchange of the assignats was fixed at 350, that is to say, 3^ paper roubles (115, 3-^^.) for 2, or to equal i silver rouble (3^ .2d.) The former bank assignats were entirely withdrawn from circulation by the creation of Imperial bills of credit, which, with a forced exchange, were to circulate equally with the silver rouble in the year 1843. They came into existence with a sum of ;,^26, 95 1,650, with which the ;^94,83i,2oo assignats, which were still current in 1843, had been redeemed. A State bankruptcy was thus carried through. The whole of the State property was then to form a security for the newly- created Imperial credit notes, and so to form sufficient ca{)ital for redemp- tion. This State property was estimated by J. A. Mikschewitsch at 540 Russia — Land and People. ;^629,59o,753,* but the redemption fund was not sufficient. Meanwhile, the deficits in the State finance continued to exist. Some slight diminution of the paper-money was only occasionally obtained. It was reduced to ^48,804,166 in the year 1849. But the issue was much increased during the Crimean war. The Ukase of January 10, 1855, instructed the Minister of Finance to cover " all the extraordinary ex- penditure of war " by the temporary issue of bills of credit, so as to enable the Treasury to satisfy all present demands without introducing any new taxes, or increasing the existing ones." This was necessary as the taxes had already been strained to the utmost ; for instance the price of salt had been raised from 25 kopecks to 44. At the same time it was not only forbidden to export gold, but also to re-introduce paper money of the country. The mass of paper money issued in so extraordinary a manner was to be called in within three years after the restoration of Peace. In reality the amount in circulation was ^27,661,047 49)Oo6,452 54,184,488 57,904,765 82,754,477 111,519,987 119,485,763 110,480,151 115,959,378 105,550,907 106,838,347 117.716,109 117,290,580 116,319,106 117,684,781 127,607,946 The amount, therefore, was not diminished till long after the restoration of Peace, but was even increased again after a slight diminution had begun. The silver loan of 1862 was at length to furnish the means of restoring the metal standard. The paper money was to be exchanged from ist May, 1862, with a loss of 10^ per cent. ; afterwards at a righer rate, so that they should be at par by January ist, 1864. A commencement was made, but just when the end seemed to be nearly reached by means of enormous sacrifices, it was clearly seen that the available means were insufficient. A decree of 19th November, 1863, again deferred the payment of the paper, the forced rate of exchange returned, and with it the variation of the standards. ♦ A statement in the Northfin Post of 1865 estimated the Imperial domains in European Russia as 253 million acres worth ^,^367.250,000. 1 60 million acres of land given over to the service of the Imperial serfs, /"i 04,000,000 ; of ])ublic land 27 million of acres, the ownership of which was in dispute, valued at ^16,250,000: for some other possessions not defined. /•11,375,00c; altogether, ^498,8-5,000, as the amount of imperial domains in European Russia. t The confiscations of property after the rebellion of 1830 fell upon 2,372 persons in Western Guterina; those in the kingdom of Poland on 2.340 persons. The gifts which were bestowed within the kingdom alone up to the year 1837 exceeded ^'^-^HIH From a paper on the Russian Amnesty by l.ubliner (Brussels, 18561. it appears that the confiscations amounted to the enormous sum oi £rz^^()i6fiii. 182 8 to 1839 New ^ ^ear 1850 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 i860 1862 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 ►liddl'e of 1874 Russia — Layid and People. 541 Military System. LAND FORCES. — FORMATION OF THE AR]\IY. Until the end of the year 1870 the nobihty, large merchants, and some persons of other classes were exempted from military service. Among those not exempted substituiio)i was permitted, but very rarely. Exemption from service might be purchased by payment of ;!^i58. In 1868, it was purchasable for jQt^i ; but in and from 1869, j[^<)o was demanded for the same ui Russia Proper, and ^158 in Poland. An Ukase of November 16, 1871, adopted the principle of universal obligation to bear arms, and commanded the introduction of the system,* but only 25 per cent, of those persons who are 21 years old are to be regularly called out. Exemption by payment is abolished. Members of the educated classes may enter the army as volunteers at the age of 17 ; they serve for a shorter time, and obtain the rank of oihcers after passing an examination. The levies are so arranged by an Imperial Ukase, that a certain number are taken out of every 1,000 inhabitants, males only being counted, but these are reckoned from earliest infancy to old age. The principle of universal liability to serve, although proclaimed in theory, was not practically carried out until 1874. An Imperial manifesto, a special edict, and a rescript to the President of the Imperial Council, (the Grand Duke ConstantineJ, all three being Judicial Acts of January, 1874, command its execution. A number of exceptions to the universal decree, partly temporary and partly permanent were at once made.f Other exceptions were made subsequently. Every Russian who has passed his 20th year is liable to serve, that is to say, he must draw lots to decide who is to enter upon active service and who is to remain free. The period of service in the army is fixed at * By this measure (says the Golos,') 3,433,100 young men, until then free from military service, became liable to serve; viz., 941,700 belonging to tlie privileged classes (nobles merchants, hereditary honorary citizens, and clergy); 582,700 inhabitants of Bessarabia; zoi.goo inhabitants of Siberia; 146,600 inhabitants of the Government of Archangel; 445,500 Bashkirs, Mestyaks, Tepyaks and Bobyles of the Government of Orenburg; 194,700 Colonists ; 35,000 Tartars, Gipsies, Armenians and other inhabitants of the Crimea; and 30,000 Armenians and Georgians of the Government of Stavropol; Armenians and Tartars of Astrakhan, mechanics and citizens of Kiev and Narwa. t Permanent exception is made in favor of the Cossacks, vvfho render military service of a peculiar kind ; the inhabitants of Transcaucasia, Turkestan, the district of the Amour, and other Siberian countries. Exempted from military servicey^r life are: — {a.) — The Russnaks, who settled in Russia in the year 1854; foreign immigrmts who have entered the union of Russian subjects on the basis of approval expressed by the Imperial Council, December 18, 1861. The Czechs, settled in the south-western provinces; foreigners settled in the kingdom of Poland by January i, 1872, ar.d lastly, Russians from the Governments of the interior who have established themselves on State lands in the vicinity of the fortress af Novogeorgievsk for the period of 20 years from the time of removal. The Mennonites who have settled in new colonies ot the Empire, in accordance with the decisions of November 19, i85i,as well as the Mennonites who have settled on manorial lands with the approval of the Imperial Council, confirmed on December 18, 1861. (J>.) — For the term of lo years, reckoned from 31st March, i860, the Kleinbiirger of three small towns ; and (c.) — ^For the term of six yrars from the day of the publication of this edict, all the Men- nonites settled in the Empire, who are excluded from the privilege granted under head (^.) Further, three members of each of those families shall be exempt •' whose fathers fell victims to their devotion to the throne and to the law during the last rebellion in the kimi-dom of Poland, and the western provinces." Also the officials of certain railways, to whom it was formerly promised. Lastly, certain persons in the ranks of merchants and artisans shall have their entrance into the army postponed for four years, during the time of the first five levies. 542 Russia — Land and Pfople. 15 years, 6 with the army, and 9 in the reserve. It is, however, possible to obtain leave to retire before the expiration of 6 years, on the condition of again entering in case of extraordinary need. Certain scholastic honours carry the privilege of shortened service. Until lately the Empire was divided into Eastern and Western, for the purpose of recruiting, and the levies were made in them alternately. In future there will be about 250 recruiting districts. When Peter I. arranged the first recruiting, he fixed it at i man per 1,000 male inhabitants ; even in the first quarter of this century the usual number was 2 men per 1,000. Subsequently the proportion increased enormously. During the Crimean War, by Imperial decrees following in rapid succession, repeated orders, up to 10, once even to 12, and in the Imperial Militia as many as 13 to the 1,000. The levy for 187 1 was fixed at 6 and 7.75 per 1000 ; for 1872, 1873 and 1874 at 6. Beside this, it was necessary to make several additional levies to compensate for previous indulgence. The Jews were called out in es- pecially strong numbers, scarcely less so the Poles, whose country was well nigh exhausted of those capable of bearing arms. Terror reigned throughout the empire (particularly in former times,) when recruiting began, as in many parts it was neither more nor less than an unexpected seizure by night of all the young men (Branka). A bounty of about jQ<^ was given to each person drawn in the recruiting till recent times, an amount which the owners of the serfs were formerly obliged to contribute for the equipment of their own guard. This expense was afterwards transferred to the communes which had become free. Period of Service. Previous to 1859 it was 22 years in the guards and 25 years among the other troops ; subsequent to 1859 the term of service was reduced to 15 years. During the three last years the soldier was attached to the reserve and not to the main army. The term of active service really amounted to 10 years in 1871. The rations of the troops are bad, m consequence of the numerous frauds practised on them. Advancement was formerly impossible among the common soldiers. As the need, how- ever, for efficient non-commissioned officers became felt in recent times, a better position has been afforded them. After a period of 1 2 years' service they can at once become officers, if able and willing to pass a certain examination ; should they not desire the examination, an annual pension oi ;£\6 to J^,2^ is given to them. Flogging has been abolished (at least in name) since 1863. The Cossacks have always been allowed to choose part of their officers. A peculiar circumstance was connected with the formerly existing serfdom. As the serf was withdrawn from the membership of his Commune, to enter the army, he was declared free. But nothing but evil resulted from this so-called freedom. If he outlived the term of military service (and this was next to impossible amid the enormous mortality of the Russian army) he found himself excluded from the benefits connected with his former Commune when he most needed il.cm, with a broken constitution and advancing years. An Imi)erial order of August, 1867, therefore commanded that a sum of money should be paid to the discharged soldier from the Treasury. This sum is decided upon yearly, and was fixed at Rjissia — Land mid People. 543 ;^3 for 1867. Those who are unable to work receive a monthly pension of 105. If the retired soldiers return to their former communes they receive, if it be obtainable, some land on which to settle, and wood is given them for building their houses either from the Imperial or Communal forests. The land given to these soldiers belongs subsequently to their families. The Czar, Alexander II, announced at his coronation, that no levy should take place in 1856 and the three following years. None took place, however, for a much longer period than this, from motives of economy and also because resistance was feared among the peasants who had given themselves up to the belief that emancipation also included freedom from conscription. The decrease of the army at last necessitated the making of fresh levies, which was facilitated by the Rebellion in Poland in 1862, which endangered the integrity of the Empire and wounded the national pride of Russia. The forf/iation of the Russiafi Army. The Russian army is composed of regular troops, Cossacks or irregular troops, and the Imperial Militia. The regular troops of the grand army are divided into field troops, and troops actively employed for local purposes in the Caucasus, in Finland, Orenburg and Siberia. The grand army consists of 188 regiments of Infantry, numbering 580 battalions and 30 rifle battalions. Each battalion contain 4 companies of the Line and 1 rifle company. Strength of the battalion : war footing, 900 men ; peace footing, 500. General divisions of the Infantry — 3 divisions of Guards, 4 divisions of Grenadiers, and 40 Infantry divisions (i division of Grenadiers and 5 of Infantry in the Caucasus). Cavalry — viz., 56 regiments: 10 regiments of body Guards, 18 of Dragoons, 14 of Uhlans, 14 of Hussars. Each regiment contains 4 actives quadrons and i reserve squadron. Strength of the squadron — 148 horses in the Guards, 132 in the Line, 137 in the Caucasus. The first rank carry lances except in the Dragoon regiments. Artillery — 48 rifled 9 lb. breech-loading foot batteries, 103 rifled 4 lb. breech-loading foot batteries, i mountain battery, 18 rifled mounted 41b. breech-loading batteries. Total, 170 batteries of 8 pieces = 1,360 guns. Formation : — Three brigades of foot artillery guards (the artillery alone is divided into brigades), 4 brigades of foot artillery grenadiers, 10 army brigades of foot artillery, i Trans-Backalian artillery brigade, i Turkestanish, i brigade of guards, and 7 mounted battery brigades, &c. Engineers, &c. : — Eleven battalions of sappers, 6 half-battalions of pioneers, &c., divided into 5 brigades of sappers; the battalion of 4 companies, 600 men ; 900 in war. Each half-battalion of pioneers has charge of 52 iron pontoons. 544 Russia — Land and People. War Strength of the Field Force. 591,804 ... ... ... Infantry. 52,044 ... ... ... Cavalry with 35,296 horses. 70,821 ... Artillery „ 52,269 „ 16,855 ... ... ... Engineers, &c. 4,672 „ 731.524 92,237 One regiment of Don Cossacks with 884 horses is attached to each division of infantry and cavalry in time of war, besides a battery of Don Cossacks* The Local or Stationary troops consist of reserves for filling up vacancies, and troops for home servive, etc., (including 25 fortress bat- talions and 24 Caucasian battalions), making a total of 75,000 men and 56 guns. The total number of local troops is to be raised to 120 bat- talions of 60,000 men in time of peace, and 423,000 men in time of war, divided into i 20 regiments, equal to 30 reserve divisions. The reserve troops form 72 battalions of infantry and 10 rifle battalions, 56 squadrons of cavalry, 16 batteries of artillery, and 4 battalions of sappers. The Cossack troops form a special part of the army's 39 battalions of foot Cossacks; 154 polks of mounted Cossacks (of 6 squadrons and 884 riders), and 31 mounted batteries with 8 guns — together 40,200 infantry, 139,656 cavalry, 7,770 artillery, with 248 guns and 8,340 horses. The total peace strength of the Russian army is 793,537 men and 65,896 horses ; the total available war strength is 1,800,000 men, 174,172 horses, and 1,888 guns Fortresses number thirty-two ; beside the coast fortresses cf Kronstadt, Hel- singfors, Sveaburg, etc., (Sebastopol has not been re-forlified since its destruction in 1856), only the following fortresses in Poland are at all im- portant : Zamosk, Modlinor, Novo Gregorievski, Brzesk, Liteuski and the Citadel of Warsaw. The defences at St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Smolensk aie of httle significance Pctropolovski in Kamchatka is fortified. The strong places on the Caucasian boundary, destroyed during the war, are mostly rebuilt. Historical War Notes. The Russian army is said to have numbered ioS,ooo men in 17 12, under Peter I., and at his death in 1725, 196,000 men. At the time of the 7 years' war, when the Russians fought for the first time in Central Europe, their strength was reckoned at 162,750 men; 30 regiments of cavalry (6 cuirassiers, 6 grenadier, 18 dragoon regiments), 31,950 men; and 50 regiments of infantry (4 grenadier, 46 musquetcer), 130,800 men. To these were added a {qw regiments of militia. Catherine II. increased the army to 130 regiments of regular \.xoo\')'a, numbering 312,800 men, to which were added 69,200 irregular troops, and, nominally, 60,000 garrison troops. * The Don Cossacks are so skilful that they are available for every kind of service in the cavalry. Russia — Land and People. 545 During the campaigns of 1805 and 1807 the Russians never numbered more than So, 000 to 90,000 men in Germany. The real strength of the allies at Austerlitz did not quite reach 80,000; 15,700 of whom were Austrians (the French reckoned about an equal number). Formidable numbers were opposed to Napoleon in 18 12. The regular troops (among whom there were certainly 98,000 garrison troops and invalids) were said to amount to 539,400 men; the irregular troops to 100,000, and the national militia to 851,100. But the army at the beginning of the cam- paign really comprised in i\\Q first line only (according to the details given in 'Toll's Denkwurdigkeiten') the First army of the West, under Barclay de Tolly, on the Niemen: 6 infantry and 2 cavalry corps, numbering 76,800 men infantry, 17,450 cavalry, 10,000 artillery (558 guns), exclusive of from 6 to 7,000 Cossacks = 111,250 men. Second army of the West, under Bagration, at Slonym : 4 infantry and 2 cavalry corps (216 guns), exclusive of 4,000 Cossacks — 35,000 men. Reserve Army under Tormassov in Wolhynia with 164 guns and a large number of Cossacks, 36,000 men; total regular troops at most, 175,000 men, and 938 guns. Against these troops Napoleon advanced with more than 400,000 men. In the 2nd line there were 42,500 men under Sacken. From the 3rd line the active army was strengthened by degrees with 46,000 infantry and 9,300 cavalry recruits. Beside these there were 30,000 men in Finland under Steinheil, and 53,000 men on the Danube. Thus we see that Russia was never able to bring 300,000 in the field at one time in 1812. 121,118 men fought at Smolensk, of whom 113,000 at most were troops of the line. At Borodino there were Russians French Infantry ... ... ... 72,000 ... ... ... 82,000 Cavalry ... ... ... 17,500 ... ... ... 26,000 Artillery ... ... ... 14,500 iSjOoo Total ... ... ... 104,000* ... ... ... 123,000 Guns 640 587 The losses in this battle were immense; those of the French 28,000, and 34 to 35,000 slightly wounded, those of the Russians 52,000, half of the army, 1,000 only of whom were taken prisoners. The French strength was only 95.000 men when they reached Moscow. This campaign very nearly broke up the Russian army ; the 120,000 composing the main army under Kutusow, dwindled away to 35,000 ; the 50,000 under Wittgenstein to 15,000 ; out of a reinforcement of 10,000 sent from the interior of Russia, only 1,700 reached the scene of war at Wilna. Toll reckons thus : — The two armies of the west amounted (exclusive of the Wittgenstein's corps of 21,000) — First Army of the West to 83,000 83,000 The second to ... ... ... ... ... ... 35,000 118,000 Then received by re-inforcements ... ... ... ... 91,800 Together 209,800 There remained with the colors at Wilna, in the middle of Dec. 40,290 Consequent decrease from end of June to middle of Dec. ... 169,510 • Beside 7,000 Cossacks who were but little available, and militia not at all so. 2 M 546 Russia — Lmid and People. 48,335 men lay in the hospitals. Even if the greater number of these had recovered, which was clearly not the case, the loss still remained greater than the original number of the troops. A diminution of \'L of the whole number is unprecedented. At the beginning of the year 1813 the Russians still had altogether from 70,000 to 80,000 men in the field, 35,000 of whom, at most, were rallied at one point. (According to Bernhardi, however, the Russian army, which pursued Napoleon in January, 181 3, amounted only to 15000 men which is evidently an under estimate.) During the two campaigns of 1813-14 the number of the Russian troops never rose to 150,000. At Bautzen there were only 82,852 Russians opposed to nearly 100,000 French. In the campaign of 1828, against the Turks, the Russians appeared on the Pruth with 80,000 men, who were re-inforced in the next year by about 40,000 more. When the main body reached Adrianople it scarcely numbered 15,000 capable of fighting; it would have been utterly lost had not timid diplomatists hastily negociated peace. " Of 115,000 Russians who invaded European-Turkey in 1828-29, scarcely more than 15,000 returned across the Pruth." Jomini calculates that the Russian army lost 115,000 men in these two campaigns, 100,000 of whom died of sickness. The first campaign alone carried off 40,000 soldiers ; 201,108 men came into the hospitals and am- bulances between May, 1828, and February, 1829. The actual pest raged with extreme violence the latter part of the time, (Bondin Geographic et statistique Medicales). I'he utmost exertions, as well as the support of Austria and Russia, were required to overthrow the little host which offered such heroic resistance in the Polish struggle of 1831. In the Hungarian campaign of 1849 a Russian auxiliary army of about 120,000 men appeared. The Crimean war shewed afresh the unconquerable endurance of the soldiers, and also the deceptions with respect to the strength of the army, and the cheating practised in everything, especially in the matter of pro- visions. In the official accounts before the war, 1,200,000 persons were given as belonging to the military, (including 200,000 soldiers' children) ; but 200,000 men never came into the chief field of battle at one time. 8 levies were made in 20 months, from February loth, 1S54, to December 15th, 1855—29 men per 1,000 for the line in the Eastern half of the Empire, 41 per 1,000 in the Western half, besides 13 per cent, in both for the Imperial militia. This last brought 372,000 men under arms. (A previous estimate had spoken of 700,000.) The old troops incorporated in the reserve battalions, and the new levies produced together only 367,000 men. The number of troops in the Crimea at the beginning of 1855 was given in the official returns at 250,000, with 100,000 horses. The total number of troops in the whole Empire for which the Administration had to provide in 1855 was 845,900 men with 187,360 horses, but in 1856 the figures were 796,955 men and 183,570 horses. It was therefore no longer possible to keep up the same strength in the latter as in the former year. The losses increased enormously. According to an official statement, the Russian army, not including the irregular troops, had already lost at the end of 1854, 111,132 men, of whom 29,204 were killed, 55,304 wounded, 6,460 missing, and 16,156 died of disease. It Kcems, however, that these numbers, especially tlie last, are below the mark. In Simferopol, the chief hospital for Sebastopol, more than 40,000 Russia — Land and People. 547 men died between April, 1S55, and July, 1856. A proof of how bad the nourishment was, may be seen in the fact that out of 400 recruits who left the neighbourhood of Sacnodia for the Dnieper only 78 arrived at Kiev. In Niolaiev and other places storehouses were set on fire in order to pre- vent the discovery of the frauds that were practised. The reserve battalion of the 14th division left Odessa one December night, and lost 200 men from exhaustion during a two hours' march over marshy land. Official returns state that in the Russo-Turkish war just ended (1878), the losses in killed and wounded amounted to 89,304 officers and men. Among these were 10 generals killed and 11 wounded ; one prmce of the Imperial family, and 34 members of the higher nobility of Russia fell on the field of battle. Of the wounded, 36,824 recovered perfectly. 121 men were prisoners in the hands of the Turks when the armistice was concluded. The proportion of killed and wounded to the total engaged was very large ; one out of every six men who went into action, being either injured or left dead on the field of battle. The return further shews that one out of every eleven wounded men, received into the Russian hospitals, died from the effects of the injuries received. During the whole of this last campaign it is stated that only two men were punished with death, one for the crime of desertion, the other for robbery with violence. 20,000 rewards were given in the form of decorations, promotions, or awards of money ; the 8th corps, which so long held the Shipka Pass, receiving the greatest proportion. Navy. Before the Crimean war the navy was divided into the Baltic and the Black Sea Fleets, the former consisting of three, the latter of two divisions, containing together 45 ships of the line, 30 frigates, 20 brigs, etc. The number of sailors was computed at 42,000. The vessels were mostly bad, the manning of them equally so; the Jews among the crews were the best sailors. The Black Sea Fleet was considered by far the best division. This was destroyed by the Russians themselves in the harbour of Sebas- topol. The strength of the fleet destroyed was stated in the military journal Wojenny Listok, to be 18 ships of the line, with 1,628 guns, 4 with no to 120; 12 with 80 to 100 ; and 2 reserve ships of the line with 80 guns. J 2 frigates with 52-56 guns; 40 sailing vessels of the second class with 10 guns each ; lastly, 15 war steamers, about half of them of the rank of a frigate and armed with bombs. The whole Black Sea fleet carried 3,800 guns. In accordance with the Peace of Paris, 1856, no fleet of war was to be allowed to exist on the Black Sea ; by a special arrangement between Russia and the Porte, each of these two States ought hitherto to have maintained but 6 small ships of war on the Black sea. England, France, and Austria, on the other hand, were each to have 2 such vessels at the mouth of the Danube. After Russia had for a long time far exceeded her proportion, she took advantage of the perpl'exity of the other great Powers during the Franco-German war to declare that she would no longer be restricted to these limits. The Conference afterwards held in London formally sanctioned the abrogation of the above-mentioned agreement by a treaty on March 13, 187 1. In 1 8 70 the fleet in the Baltic generally included 15 ordinary armour- clad ships, and 10 monitors, carrying together 180 guns, 9,210 horse 548 Russia — Land and People. power, and of 74,310 tonnage; and 98 steamers, not armour-clad, with 1,200 guns. Besides these, there are only flotillas. In the Black Sea, 32 vessels with 87 guns; on the Caspian, 27, and on the Sea of Aral 6 vessels ; the Siberian fleet numbered 38. To these are added a number of small vessels of war on the rivers (the Vistula), and for the coast service. The new Black Sea fleet numbered 2 ironclad corvettes, 5 screw- corvettes, 2 yachts, and a few gunboats. In 1876 the fleet in the Baltic consisted of 27 ironclads of 184 guns, 44 war and 66 transport steamers, together 143,004 tonnage, and 23,280 horse-power. In the Black Sea, 2 ironclads, 25 war and 4 transport steamers, together 31,336 tonnage, and 4,380 horse-power. In the Caspian, 11 war and 8 unarmed steamers, 3,586 tonnage, and 1,400 horse-power. Social. Manufacturing, and Commercial Condition, {a.) General Observations. Russia is in one of the most important periods of social transformation. The measure of its importance will be seen by looking at the condition of things which existed until the close of the Crimean war. About ^&j of all the arable land belonged either to the Crown, the nobility, or charitable institutions, and almost the whole population were serfs, or at all events not free. According to a statement in the "Journal of the Ministry of the Interior," there belonged : — Men Women 437)326 ... 436,828 to the hereditary or personal nobility. 9,074 ... 7,764 „ class of honorary citizens. 223,514 ... 208,320 „ to the merchant class. 281,501 ... 315,027 „ clergy of the orthodox faith. 3,043,987 ... 3,104,758 were tax-free. 9,803,201 ... 10,370,957 „ entirely bond servants. The following results are based on the last census by Troinitzki, a member of the Central Committee of Statistics. The number of serfs 23,069,631, viz., 11,244,913 males and 11,824,718 females, or 34.39 per cent, of the population. But the so-called Crown and Appanage peasants who are nominally free were not included in this. Of the serfs (according to Troinitzki) 22,558,748 were in European Russia, 506,545 in Transcaucasia, and 4,338 in Siberia. The number of serfs was largest in the Governments of Kiev, 1,121,062, and Podolia 1,041,621 ; in each of six others above 750,000; in 16 more above 600,000 (in the Government of Moscow 621,312, St. Petersburg 260,292.) In Smolensk and Tula 69 per cent, of the inhabitants were serfs ; in Mohilev, Kaluga, Minsk, Kutais, and Podolia above 60 per cent. ; in 10 others above 50 per cent., always exclusive of the Crown serfs and Appanage serfs. The number was least in Bessarabia, about 2 per cent. ; 103,194 nobles, whose estates contained 286,817,403 English acres, of which 68,029,928 were uncultivated land and 218,787,075 acres were arable land, possessed 10,683,853 male serfs, who cultivated about 88 million acres of the above arable land for their own profit, and 129 million acres for their owners' benefit. In 1859 44,166 of these estates, together with 7,107,184 males, were pledged for the sum of ^^69,141,747, or above two-fifths of the estates and two-thirds of the serfs. Even as lately as from 1856-59 something like Accordiui J to Jourdier. According to Sarauw. Owners. Male Serfs. Owners. 47,465 357,946 .. 42,959 41.7 per cent. 35,441 1,628,644 •• 36,179 35-2 19,500 3,858,085 ., 20,162 19.4 ,, 2,433 1.591,631 ., 2,462 2.4 I 457 3,265,842 .. 1,396 1.3 y 5,50s 15,390 •• Russia — Land and People. 549 60,000 souls were pledged. 12,288 males belonged to 3,703 nobles who possessed no estates at all ; these were household serfs. According to the returns of Jourdier, which differ somewhat from those given above, and which we place side by side with Von Sarauw's, the division was as follows : — With less than 21 serfs From 21 to 100 serfs From 10 1 to 500 serfs From 501 to 1,000 serfs Above 1,000 serfs Without landed property 5,508 111,804 10,717,538 103,158 One single nobleman owned about 150,000 serfs ; six noblemen who owned above 20,000 serfs; 23 who owned from 10,000 to 20,000. Originally it was only the numerous house and farm servants, de- scendants of prisoners taken in war, who were slaves ; the peasants were free farmers or servants. It was decided in 1497 not to restrict personal liberty, but in order to regulate the time for changing service, St. George's Day, November 26, in each year, was the one appointed for such change of service to take place. This was the first blow to the independence of the peasants. A Ukase of November 21st, 1601 abolished the liberty to re- move at will, and bound the peasant to that spot which he had occupied on the previous St. George's day, but even this did not make him a serf. Serfdom does not appear to have arisen out of an express law, but from the abuse of power since the time of Peter I. The lot of the unfor- tunate people became worse as factories were erected. For then the system was adopted of allowing the poor creatures to find employment for them- selves, and to pay a certain sum annually to their owners. As the Russians are not fond of agriculture, many became shopkeepers, artisans, waggoners, boatmen, etc. Many thus acquired considerable property, for the security of which, however, they had no adequate guarantee. At last, as it appeared to foreigners, with unexpected rapidity, the question of emancipation reached Russia. The Government was forced to acknowledge that the vast empire, notwithstanding its immense size, and its endless natural resources, was wanting in the first condition of a powerful State, viz., a free and numerous peasant and citizen class. The Crimean war revealed un- heard of failings and weaknesses. The bitterness caused by the oppressions of the nobles, had for a long time led to periodical local outbreaks, generally accompanied by the most horrible barbarities. According to official state- ments, between 66 and 80 (on an average 73), cases occurred annually, in which nobles were murdered by their serfs, and their castles burnt down.* * Incendiary fires occur very frequently in Russia. The exasperation of uncultivated dispositions are particularly seen in this direction. The number of incendiary fires which occurred in European -Russia during the 23 years, 1842-1865, is stated to be no less than 202,953, var)'ing annually betw^een 6,024 •" 1842, and 13.713 in 1864. This increase is partly explained by the larger number of houses, and partly by the greater exactness in the record kept, but certainly also in the multiplication of the number of the incendiary fires. The losses by fire in i860 we.-e /;4,4oi,496; in 1 862. j(;5,783,i55 ; in 1864, ;^5,4i9,io5. The amount of loss in the course of these five years being ;t*4'345i^5S» ' i,ooo fires occur, as a 5 so Russia — Land and People. In 1877 there occurred 25,724 fires, with a loss of nearly ;^8,ooo,ooo. The report of the Minister of the Interior stated that all the prisons were overfull in 1855 ; the number of persons undergoing punishment (doubled in the last ten years) amounted to 324,391. The emancipation of the serfs became an urgent necessity upon the accession of Alexander II. and the conclusion of peace. But the ame- lioration of the condition of the citizens was really first commenced by a Ukase of December 29, 1857. The leading principles being: — That the landlord should retain his right over his whole estate ; that the peasants should keep their fenced-in dwellings and enjoy the right of acquiring them as their absolute property, by the payment of a sum within a fixed term. They were further to have the usufruct of as much land as was necessary, according to the local conditions, to secure their maintenance, and to pay a ground rent, either in money or labour for the same to the lord of the manor. Great anxiety was felt with regard to the change, and it was especially feared that the Russian love of wandering, and the naturally unfavorable situation of the northern districts, might lead to the desertion and conse- quent desolation of many lands, and as the whole commune had to be security for the taxes, it would be impossible to raise them should this occur. The minister of the interior, therefore, gave instructions that, the abolition of serfdom should only take place gradually. The peasants must at first remain more or less attached to the soil, and only when the Government permitted them under certain conditions to exchange their place of residence would they become free. After many negotiations with the nobles and commissioners of inquiry an Imperial manifesto was -issued February 19, 1861, by which the peasants became personally free, and the nobles granted them portions of land to secure their maintenance in exchange for a ground-rent which is redeemable." But as the new organization cannot at once be put into execution on account of unavoidable complications, the condition of owner- ship belonging to the nobility shall be maintained till a new legal arrange- ment can be introduced at the termination of the preparatory measures." In the meantime the serfs remained "temporarily bound by oath." All that they received in house or land they had to pay for. The right to inflict corporal punishment was transferred from the nobles to the authorities The peasants, however, obtained the right to marry without the permission of their masters ; to inherit property ; to make a will ; to buy and sell ; bui they were not allowed to bequeath their land till after the expiration of nine years, or from February 19, 1870. The redemption took place in the following way : — The amount hitherto yielded by the serfs was considered as a 6 per cent, interest, and capitalized; the person entitled to it therefore received a capital of ^15, for a capital of ^19 annually. The peasants had to pay 20 per cent, of this rule, annually in European-Russia, by which 60,0 do residences are reduced to ashes, and injur)' caused to the amount of about j^ 4, 1 70,000. As time goes on the evil increases rather than decreases. According to a report of the French consul at iVIoscow, February 18, 1874. the number of fires which occurred in the year from November, 1, 1872, to December 31, 1873, was 22,476, and the loss occasioned by them amounted to _,{^7, 117,65 i. Finland and t lie territory of the Don Cossacks is not included in this account; 864 of these tires were attributed to lightning, 5,911 to carelessness, 3,141 to inceniiiarism, 12,560 cause unknown . It must be stated that the year 1872 and 1873 is by no means unusual in the number oi firet which occurred, but is quite in accordance with other years. Russia — L aud and People. 5 5 1 directly to their masters ; for the remaining 80 per cent, the Government gave partly treasury notes, partly guaranteed certificates, both bearing in- terest at 5 per cent. Every 5 years one-third of the guaranteed certificates are exchanged for treasury notes, so that these certificates will all be with- drawn in the course of 15 years. The peasants on their side have to pay the Government, for the advance made by it, 6 per cent, of these sums annually for 49 years, by which means the interest and amortissement are covered. Serfdom was abolished on similar principles in the districts of the Caucasus in November, 1864, and in Mingrelia in February, 1867. The result of the transactions connected with the redemption of the serfs, from their commencement on November 24th, 1866, to January ist, 1873, ^v^^T-S as follows : — 79,371 petitions for ransoms sent in, and 76,416 of them ratified. The number of those who had bought their freedom amounted to 8,835,553 ; the area of land redeemed was 64,863,907 acres, or 101,349 square miles. The advances made to the ])easants amounted to ^102,122,568. The peasants belonging to the Crown lands and appanages formerly occupied a sort of intermediate position between free people and serfs, and numbered, according to Von Sarauw, 9,257,092. It was decreed by a Ukase of 8th July, 1863, that these should join the peasant landowners within two years, and pay a suitable purchase-money, together with an annuity to their former Obruk for the space of 49 years. The number ef colonies founded in Russia with the help of the State was 421, with 287,836 individuals in 1869. The position of the peasants in the German Provinces on the Baltic, (Courland, Livonia, and Esthoma), is very unsatisfactory Feudalism was here developed in its roughest form during the middle ages, and the period immediately succeeding, and so little have modern improvments been brought to bear, that the condition of the peasants of these provinces is decidedly worse than in Old Russia. Serfdom, it is true, has long been nominally abolished there. By Ukase of 6th June, 18 16, and 6th January, 1820, the peasants became personally free, but could not inherit lands, and thus became very dependent on the mercy of their landlords. Slight modifications have been made since i860, but how thoroughly unsatisfactory these are, may be seen from the remarks of Von Sarauw, who concludes with the observation very modestly expressed : " There still appears to be much in the condition of the Baltic Provinces which urgently demand removal. The division of land is significant ; 5,924 nobles own 16,693,698 acres of land, but out of the 603,686 peasants of the male sex, only 4,342 have attained to the possession of land. In Livonia and Esthonia, only to the extent of 582,325 acres. In Courland there are only 80 peasants with landed property. In addition to the nobles, the State possesses 3,928,351 acres, or 6,138 square miles, and the Church 245,673 acres, and to the towns belong 414,839 acres. It must therefore be the interest of the nobles themselves to lend a helping hand towards a radical alteration on the basis of freedom. Serfdom has been nominally abolished in the kingdom of Poland since 1807 ; that is to say, since the foundation of the Duchy of Warsaw, and the introduction of the modified Code Napoleon.'''' The peasants were bound to render forced service in return for the cession of lands. When this was done away with, October ist, 1861, the peasants did not possess the land as their absolute right, but 552 Russia — L and and People. only as copyhold, liable to a ground rent in perpetuity. The last Polish rebellion ultimately incited the Russian Government to thorough measures, ostensibly as a reward to the peasants for good conduct, but really to break the power of the nobility and clergy. The decrees of March 2nd, 1864, declared that the peasants should become owners of all the lands they occupied ; that they should be released from rendering any of the services which they had hitherto rendered ; and that they could redemand within the space of three years all the lands which they had ever had in their possession since 26th May, 1846; that, in becoming owners of the soil, they should receive also all the buildings, cattle, implements, and crops upon it ; that the hunting and fishing over the lands of the peasants should belong to the communes, as also the licenses for retail trade (the profits of these last belong, however, in the first instance to the State as partial compensation to the landlords). Instead of the imposts hitherto paid by the peasants to the landowners a land-tax w\is imposed, payable to the State, which amounted only to | of the imposts formerly paid. The landowners were to be compensated in proportion to an estimate made ; \ was taken off the soccage ; \ from the profits, and the whole capitalized ; for this they were to receive bonds which should pay 4 per cent, interest. By these manipulations, first deduction, then realization, only to the amount of i6f ; lastly, by reimbursement in 4 per cent, paper, an income of ^162 fell to exactly ;^8i. It was decreed that the towns as well as the peasants were to be relieved from oppressive burdens. With the exception of Warsaw, which rejoiced in its municipal independence, the land in 231 towns or boroughs was the property of private owners ; in 71 it was the property of certain institutions; in 213 it belonged to the State. All these lands were loaded with oppressive feudal burdens. A ukase of October 27, 1866, removed all such obligations; the state renounced its right of pro- perty in the communes which directly belonged to it, and declared that henceforth the land should belong to the towns built upon it. Another Ukase followed this on May ist, 1869, in the execution of which 248 small county towns were transformed into hamlets, thereby losing certain privileges. The feudal system existed in a less oppressive form in Finland than in the Baltic provinces. In April, 1864, by the ready consent of the nobles. an Edict was issued giving to every Finn the right to acquire property of every kind, and to enjoy the privileges connected with the same. Retrospect. It is easy to see that in the great work of emancipating the serfs many modifications in detail were unavoidable both on account of the enormous extent of the State and the variety of circumstances and conditions to be dealt with. Of course such a colossal transformation of social conditions could not be carried out without much individual hardship and injustice, nor without making many and serious mistakes. The i>easants frequently complained that the burdens laid upon them were too heavy, and in many instances they were justified in their comi)laints. But still taking mistakes, injustice and hardships all into consideration, together with the knowledge that there is much yet to be desired, the remark of Von Sarauw is just, viz., that there is no country the legislation of which has produced any work during the last 50 years to be com])ared with the Russian emancipation of Russia — Land and People. 53 the serfs. The effects of this emancipation will prove in a high degree beneficial ; the great improvement which has taken place in Russian finance since 1870 may be regarded as a direct result of the mighty change wrought by the emancipation of the serfs. Different classes of Fopulation. The following return for European Russia, by Wilhelm von Lendheim, was printed in 1873. Individuals Per Cent. Hereditary nobility 591,266 ... 0.87 Personal nobility Clergy Town population Peasants ... Military ... Foreigners Various ... 327,764 ... 0.4 633,185 ... 0.9 6,907,071 ... 9.9 56,290,541 ... 82.0* 3.943-358 ••• 5-3 148,125 ... 0.2 523,231 ... 0.6 Total 69,364,541 Differing, somewhat, from this, and entering more into detail, is the account given two or three years earHer by Von Buschen. He gives nobility, 485,487 males, 488,605 females in European Russia (not including the former Kingdom of Poland). They are least numerous in the East ; most so in the districts which were formerly Polish ; in Kiev 2.85 per cent., Vitepsk 3.80, Mohilev 4.19, Grodno 4.49, Volhynia 4.72, Minsk 6.03, Wilna 6.04, and Kovno 9.16 of the population. In the Kingdom of Poland there are 450,000 nobles of both sexes ; in the Caucasus 98,000; in Siberia 17,484. Ecclesiastics — 294,465 males, 316,589 females; in the Caucasus 25,984 males and 22,883 females ; in Siberia 8,085 males and 8,543 females. Returns are wanting with regard to Poland. The Russian clerg)' are allowed to marry ; all the servants of the Church are included in the title of clergy, hence the high figures. Tradespeople — 235,173 males, 230,823 females. Artisans and Artists — Registered, 133,118 men, 127,228 females. In the Baltic Provinces the system of guilds still exists ; in the rest of Russia all trades are free. Peasants owning Land — 7.3 million males, 8.3 million females, including the free proprietors in Kursk and the Crimean Tatars, &c. Emancipation has increased these numbers by about 5 A million men and i\\ million women. They are most numerous in the West, where the purchase was declared obligatory in 1863 ; in 1864 they received the addition of 940,000 Appanage peasants with i million females. Part of the peasants in Finland belong to the same class, and all those in Poland since 1864. In the Caucasus there are said to be 140,000 peasants who own land. Crown Peasants — \o\ million men and 22 million women. They are especially numerous in the North and North-east; scarcely any in Finland ; about 240,000 in Poland. * As a great number of the peasantry are among' the militdry it should be, strictly speaking 87. instead of 82, 554 Russia — Land and People. Peasants who had not in 1867 accomplished their ransom (therefore serfs) 5^ million men and \\\ million women : these are most numei ;us in the Baltic Provinces. This class is, however, gradually diminishing. Persons connectkd with the Military are reckoned at 4^ million : of whom 830,000 are in active service and the reserve; \\ million are discharged soldiers with their families; then there are 1.7 million of the population on the banks of the Volga, Cossacks of the Ural and of Oren- burg, and, until quite recently, the Bashkiers in the Government of Orenburg; these latter, consisting of 900,000 individuals, do not now belong to the irregular troops. In the Caucasus there are also about 800,000 Cossacks (of both sexes) ; and in Siberia above 400,000. Communal Association. The commune includes all its members in a very peculiar socialistic body. The Russian system excludes the autonomy of the separate indi- vidual. The community owns its lands under a mutual obligation of the persons belonging to the place, to pay the taxes and furnish recruits. Every male living — (females do not count in this case) — has a claim to the same share in the land. This right belongs to every boy from the time of his birth, his father occupying for him. On the other hand, the share of every person who dies returns to the community. The forests, pasture-lands, hunting and fishing, are, like the air and water never divided. In addition to the arable land, the meadows are also divided among the male members of the commune, generally by lot, and for 3 years ; reserve land is usually held in trust for posterity. This system, (combined, of course, with a pro- portionate return,) has been in existence from time immemorial, whether the community were the free proprietor, (as in all the Cossack communities,) or only the usufructuary, (as in all the Crown lands), or only occupier, (as in the communities of serfs). The serfs generally had to pay a fixed rent- charge. Very often they were not able to raise the amounts ; then came a division of the landed property. The lord of the manor took ^ ox \ oi the land for himself, and left the remainder to the Commune for its mainten- ance, for which the commune was obliged to cultivate, and even to manure and sow it, free of charge. The emancipation of the serfs has not altered these conditions. Such a village commune is very like a republic. Every man who has attained his majority has equal rights. The presidents are each chosen for three years ; the local magistrates the same. The Com- munes determine punishments, for they have judicial authority over all their members, rich and poor. They exercise a free right of assembly, and can depose their elders or ])residents. Flogging is forbidden in Russia. The Starost, however, generally one of the richest peasants, has no need to trou])le himself about the Emperor and his code of laws ; he orders flogging without hesitation whenever he is sure of the consent of the majority of the peasants. The Communes may expel certain members ; they are taken over the boundary and are then homeless : they are mostly, under these circumstances, taken into the army, or are driven to the mines of Siberia. The system extends beyond the limits of a single village, 8 to 10 C"om- munes often uniting to form a canton; 10 or 12 cantons form a volost or district. 'I'he existence of such peasant-republics is the first and surest sign of Russian nationality. They are found from Smolensk to Viatka ; from the Onegabai to the Cossack settlements on the Don ; but they are unknown in Finland, the Baltic provinces, Astrakhan, Kasan, Siberia, Kiev Russia — Land and People. , 555 Podolia, and Ukrania. Since the emancipation of the peasants, however, the idea, which is the natural consequence of it — viz., of turning the pro- perty of the Commune into private property (the first condition of a thorough cuhivation of the soil), meets with constandy-increasing approba- tion. A communal system, founded on the principle of self-government, was granted to the Poles by a Ukase of 2nd March, 1864, the object being to break the power of the nobility and clergy, and, at the same time, to destroy their nationality. Abolition 0/ Monasteries in Poland. 71 of the 155 existing in Poland were secularized in 1864 ; 4 of the 42 convents for nuns altogether, because each institution had fewer than 8 members. 39 convents, with 674 monks and nuns, were secularized on account of the sympathy they shewed with the rebellion. Officials and Nobility. The officials have formed themselves into quite a separate caste, as they do not generally belong to the provinces in which they hold their appointments. On account of their supposed higher education, the people among whom they are placed hold quite aloof from them. The officials are often intensely hated on account of the work of their office, but quite as often because of their venality and corruption. Hence it arises that all regulations which emanate from the authorities meet with a peculiar passive resistance from the peoj^le, and are never forwarded by them. The official hierarchy and the nobility have allied themselves closely. In no country do we find greater contrasts of refinement and want of culture — a refine- ment which has produced little besides the art of laying heavier burdens, and inflicting greater extortions on the nation. SIBERIA. The population of this country has hitherto led a life of its own, troubling itself little about St. Petersburg and Moscow. A Polish exile wrote some thirty years ago ; "This country will soon cease to be a region of terror and captivity, for it possesses all the means (with the exception of its being a very cold region), of becoming in time a land of prosperity and freedom. Siberia has no nobility, no peculiarly privileged class, very few officials, and a population which has never been in bondage, and knows how to govern itself." An additionnl circumstance has since been added, viz , the powerful, ever-increasing influence of the neighbouring country of North America, and its republican institutions, which reach as far as Behring's Straits, since the sale of the Russo- American colony. Among the admirers and advocates of these institutions, are those Poles who were sent to Siberia by tens of thousands after the last insurrection, and who find here more freedom and liberty than in any other part of Europe. The communication between Novo-Nikolajevsk and the rapidly growing town of San Francisco constantly increases. Professor Dr. Katchenousky, of Charkov remarked : " that the further we advance towards the east the freer and more independent do we find life and opinions among us. The principle of independence is infinitely further advanced in Moscow than in St, Petersburg, but most of all in ill-fated Siberia. 556 Russia — Land ayid People. Several kinds of precious stones occur in Siberia. The amethysts, topazes, emeralds, and red tourmalines are of great beauty ; zircons of extraordinary size have been found near Miask, south of Ekatarinburg. Several precious stones are brought from the Altai mountains, the most valuable of which are jasper and porphyry of great beauty. The mountains of Da-uria contain beryls, topazes, emeralds, and some other stones of less value. In the Baikal mountains, especially towards the western extremity of the lake, lapis-lazuli of a very fine quality is found. Alexandrite also occurs, and " new varieties of garnet have recently come into the market from Siberia ; in colour a beautiful green, very brilliant, and unlike any stone already known." Streeter's Precious Stones, 2nd edit., p. 81 of 2nd part. Intellectual Daielopment. The education of the people was formerly more retarded than advanced. It was a principle that the serf must not learn too much. We find from the report of the Minister of Popular Education for 1872 that the number of schools for the people was 19,658, the number of pupils 761,129, 625,784 being boys and 135,345 girls The number of colleges in which teachers were trained, 42 ; the number of people in training, 2,374. The report ran thus : — " Miserable in respect of numbers, our national schools offer little that is consolatory in point of quality. An immense number of sc'iools are fain to rest satisfied with teachers who are only half able to read and write. In 352 schools there is no teacher at all ; in 3,138 schools the office of teacher is filled by persons who have had no sort of training, but are peasants who are only able partly to read and write, or inferior officials who have been dismissed from office." In 1873 in the whole of European Russia (excluding Finland) there were but 20,376 national schools, that is, one school for ever}- 3,568 inhabi- tants. There are eight universities : St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kasan, Charkov, Odessa, Kiev, Warsaw, and Dorpat. Siberia possesses no high class college or university, though one is now being built. The expenditure for education has gradually increased of late years, but it is still excessively small for so enormous an Empire. In 1866 ^1,845,599 = 2.82 per cent, of the State expended. „ 1867 2,031,804 3.02 „ „ „ 1868 2,292,086 3.29 „ „ „ 1869 2,515,292 3.38 „ „ „ 1870 2,613,804 3.40 „ „ „ 1871 2,773,588 3.50 Russia has the smallest proportionate number in elementary schools about 150 per 10,000 inhabitants. In 1872, 88 per cent, of the recruits were unable to read. The Press. According to official returns, there were at the end of 1872 in 197 towns — 360 printing establishments. 286 lithographic establishments. Russia — L and and People. 557 366 booksellers (11 in Baltic Provinces.) 261 lending libraries. The Baltic Provinces take an honourable precedure in this subject, the weakest being the Government of Orenburg, with only one bookseller, the coast region of Eastern Siberia only one printing establishment, and the town district of Kertch-Yenikale but one. In the Western Provinces and in Odessa the book traffic consists chiefly of those in the Hebrew tongue. A large number of the printing establishments are carried on at the expense of the State. There were 328 periodicals published as long ago as 1865. Of these 143 were in St. Petersburg, 31 in Moscow, 13 in Kiev, 11 in Riga, 11 in Dorpat, 10 in Tiflis, 9 in Odessa, 6 each in Charkov and Vilner, &c. The number of newspapers in 1868 was 219. Of these 117 were Russian, 30 (ierman, 20 Finnish, 4 Hebrew, 3 Scottish, 3 French, i Esthonian, and I Armenian. Some of them have a very large number of readers ; thus in 1873, independently of the Government Advertiser, which has 13,650 subscribers, and which all the officials must take, the Sohn des Vaterlandes ("Son of the Fatherland") had 11,320 subscribers; the Exchmige Neivi- p ape r Sihovt 10,000; the Russian Journal of St. Petersburg about 7,000. The number of original works printed in the year 1855 was 1,240 ; in 1857, 1,425 ; and in 185S, 1,577, besides 284 translations, and 556 books and pamphlets in Poland. The number of volumes introduced into the country in these three years was 1,191,745 — 1,613,862 — 1,614,874, besides, 173,857 into Poland. After the appearance in St. Petersburg of the "Advertiser for matters connected with the Press," no new writings, which appeared in Russia between September ist and December ist m in 1872, were submitted to the censorship; 285 writings published in the German language were submitted to the Censorship of foreign writings in November of this year, of these 114 had parts struck out, and 17 were altogether prohibited. In 1873, 2,637 books were printed of which 2,490 were in the Russian language. In 1875 (scarcely credible) there were only34 periodicals, 1 8 of which were newspapers. Criminal Statistics. The Russian Review has been able to furnish accurate statistics from six governments only, viz., St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Kasan, Charkov, and Ssaratov, containing together a population of nearly 9,500,000 souls. The number of crimes committed in these amounted to 63,042, of which 38,742 were against property (28,688 thefts, 3,811 incendiaries, &:c.), 9,118 against persons, and the rest against the State, religion, &:c. Among the committed against persons were 3,700 acts of murder and manslaughter, 1,113 suicides, 1,976 severe woundings, and 109 cases of rape and assassination. Mining and Smelting, The Russian Review gives the following return of produce during the last few decades, in puds or poods, which we have reduced to c^vts. : — 558 Russia — Land and People. 1830 1840 1850 i860 1871 Cwts. Gold 122 146 467 479 771 Platinum ...... 34 34 72 19 40 Silver 412 637 343 343 259 Copper 75'855 9o>295 125,626 101,472 100,218 Cast iron 3,590,141 3,541,805 4,453,247 5,847,906 7,072,880 Iron — 2,248,396 3,219,139 3,602,456 4,950,267 Salt 6,724,412 8,741,414 ■j,9So,j^s 8,392,372 9,081,646 Cwts. In 1872 the coal produce was ... ... ... ... 2,064,473 ,, 1873 ,. >, i5>956,768 „ 1874 „ » 17,592,218 „ 1875 ,, " 33>5i7>6o9 In 1876, 91,320,054 puds were imported. In the Russian Statistics prepared for the Vienna Exhibition, we find there were 979 gold mines, 6 platina, 21 silver and lead, 76 copper, 1,174 iron, 6 zinc, i cobalt, i tin, 327 coal, i quartz, 6 chrome-ironstone, and 4 rock-salt mines at work in 187 1, besides 697 naptha springs. In 1875 production of salt was ... 12,211,521 cwts. „ „ „ petroleum 2,724,813 It was a long time before the yield of coal reached even 964,299 cwts. The opinion of Roderick Murchison was " that he did not believe in a great future for Russia, on account of her want of coal." ViWd of Corn. In this country, so rich in corn, there were, until quite lately no good roads ; the means of communication were so few as to cause scarcity and even famine in a number of provinces, while others enjoyed a superfluity The fluctuation in the price of corn was as great as in the middle ages. The Russian Minister of Domains expressed himself strongly upon this point in 1847. He stated that at a distance of 85 miles, in the same Government, a measure of rye was worth 315. ^d. in one part, and only 4J. 9'pt 1,081,875 quarters — even Turkey is The produce of gold was at first the monopoly of the Government; from 1826 private persons were also allowed to have shares as a si)ecial privilege; since 1838 this 1 rivilege is enjoyed by the nobility, ciuzeiM holding honours, and merchants of the two upper guilds. Russia — Land and People, 55^ beginning to export fruit ; but North America threatens us with the most dangerous competition. In ordinary years the freightage and insurance to London amount to from 5 to 7 shillings per quarter from the Baltic Ports; 10/- to 12/- from Odessa; 7/- to 8/- from North America, so that very little advantage is now obtained from the shorter distance." A later statement gives the yield at 180,312,500 quarters, 43,275,000 quarters (of which, however, only ^ is wheat) of this are required for sowing, 108,181,500 quarters for home consumption, 7,212,500 quarters for distilling brandy, and the export about 7,933,750 quarters. A com- mission, appointed to enquire into agricultural matters, gave the following estimate of the total cereal produce at different periods. Seed Corn Harvest In English Quarters 1800-13 ... 35,197,600 qrs. 111,793,750 1834-40 ... ~ 1840-47 ... 40,258,091 1857-63 ... 45,863,566 1870-73 ... 47,097,688 129,103,750 151,269,205 158.675,000 178,870,000 The construction of rail-roads has greatly facilitated the export of corn. Instead of the 1,493,315 quarters exported in 1847 there were in 1868, 8,821,035 quarters exported. An official pajjcr of September 1877 gives the average production as 224,308,750 quarters, of which 51,978,750 quarters are used for seed. , Of the nett production 167,330,000 quarters were from European Russia ; 10,458,125 quarters from the Caucasus ; and the remainder from Siberia and the Central Asiatic Possessions. Of the total produce, 15,506,875 quarters are exported: and of the total exports 42 per cent, was wheat ; 25 per cent, rye ; 17 per cent, oats ; 7 per cent, barley ; 9 per cent, other grain. The exports were conveyed in the following manner : — By the White Sea 360,625 quarters „ Baltic 4,500,000 „ „ Black Sea and Sea of Azof ... ... ... 7,225,000 „ By Land 3,421,250 The value of the exports in 1871 was, ... ... ... ^28,963,916 „ „ 1872 „ 21,306,916 „ „ 1873 „ 26,000,000 1874 „ 33,500,000 As a rule, flax takes the second place in the exports. Buschen estimates the value of the annual produce at ^5,700,000 ; that oi hemp at P^3, 245,833, to which must be added ^2,612,500 worth of linseed, and ;!{^92i,5oo worth of hempseed. The yield oiwool'va. 1858 was estimated at 1,250,000 cwts. The produce of wine in Bessarabia, the Crimea, Karson, and Podolia rose to more than 8,884,268 imperial gallons in 1853. Buschen reckons the worth of the wine produce at ^1,838,250. One half of the wine was produced in Trans-Caucasia. 447,120 acres of land were used for the cultivation of the sugar-beet in 1864, the yield being 23,500,000 cwts. In 1865, 88,630 acres of land in the European territory were planted with tobacco. The yield amounted to 66,124,800 lbs. ; worth about ^290,826; to this must be added 612,000 lbs. in the Caucasus, and ^72,000 lbs. in Siberia. 560 Russia — Land and People. Tea deserves special mention. In 1874 the import over Kiachta amounted to 166,066 cwt. ; the value of which was ;^i, 714,788. Besides this, there came over the Baikal to Irkutsk, &:c., 18,710 cwts., the value of which was ;j^243,o7o. While this direct means of import over Siberia has increased the indirect import over the western boundary has correspondingly declined. Of the total export of tea from Hong-Kong in 1872, which amounted to nearly 61,000,000 of lbs. or 902,903 chests, 142,706 chests were over Kiachta, Odessa, and London. The live stock in 1872 stood thus : — Horses ... 16,354,000 ... Horned cattle ... 23,976,000 Sheep ... 48,823,000 ... Pigs ... ... 10,544,000 Man uf actor ies. The number of these in 1864 was 15,453, with 464,610 workmen, and yielding ^51,594,000 worth of goods. In 1875 *^"S half of the workmen were unable to read. The following figures show the state of the most important branches of trade : — Manufactories No. Workmen Value Wool 536 92,060 •• ^5>874,27S Cotton 423 58,118 6,130,165 Linen 599 44,420 5>307,65o Silk 326 8,957 868,291 Paper mills and writing materials } 188 11,829 972.297 Tobacco 263 6,002 1,224,748 Machinery ... 103' 14,692 1,930,095 Sugar 432 54,980 4,921,237 Tallow 1,254 6,716 2,051,688 Stearine 13 1,761 4,069,411 Wooden goods 2,508 12,169 2,622,699 Brandy distilleries 1,446 30,990 8,281,162 According to Timirjasey ^,^14, 250,000 worth of the whole manufac- turing produce is furnished by the Government of Moscow ; between ^6,000,000 and ;^9, 000,000 by Vladimir and St. Petersburg ; between ;;^i, 250,000 and ^3,000,000 by Kostroma, Tver, Kiev, and Perm ; be- tween ^475,000 and ^1,266,660 by Livonia, Esthonia, Clrodno, Jarvslan, Pyasan, Kaluga, Tula, Orel, Tschernigov, Simbirsk, and Kasan ; between ;j^i58,333 and ^475,1 10 by Novgorod, Viatka, Ufa, Nison, Pensa, Sara- tov, Tambov, Voronesh, Kursk, Charkov, Volhynia, Podolia, Charson, and lastly, between ;^"79,oooand ^158,000 by Archangel, Vologda, Smolensk, Minsk, Pultava, Ekaterinosslav, Tauria, Tamara, and Orenburg. The total produce, as esTimated by Buschen, was : — Land and Sea Produce. Fisheries ;^3.72o,833 Game 158,333 Forests ... ... ... ... ... ... 23,750,000 * In 1875 there wore 167 manufactories of machinery. Russia — Land and People. 561 Mines Stock-breeding Silk, honey wax ... Corn Textile and oil-yielding plants Sugar — beet Tobacco ... Wine Industrial produce Manufacturing Industry. Potash, turpentine, etc. Metal manufactures Earthenwares Tallow Leather Wool Furs Silk Wax Brandy and Beer ... Oil Linen manufactures Hemp Cotton manufactures Paper Sugar Tobacco Chemical produce... Carriage manufactures ^6,780,625 30,194,166 1,298,333 167,833,333 12,959^583 870,833 475,000 1,979,166 ^250,020,205 ;^i36,322,455 ^386,342,669 ^482,916 10,766,666 2,216,666 3,166,660 8,866,666 7,125,000 237,500 2,325,000 475,000 51,933,333 1,781,250 18,208,333 6,333,333 15,833,300 950,000 3,483,333 2,295,833 1,266,666 870,833 Loiiiiiierce. A stricdy prohibitive system existed from the year 1822. A ukase of 28th May, 1857, introduced a high protective tax in i)lace of it ; it reduced also the number of articles liable to import duty from 472 to 367, and increased the number of articles, which were duty free, to 300. A new tariff of duty with reduced rates of taxes followed in 1869. and the beneficial effect of this soon shewed itself. The total amount of inter- national commerce (import and export together), in the period from 1824 to 1828 was ^16,941,666. That between 1844-48, was ^^26,916, 161, and and this inclusive of Poland. The following table includes Poland. Year 1851 1852 1854 1855 1856 Exports & Imports Year Exports i: Imports ^31,845,910 1863 ... ^48,952,097 34,142,664 1864 54,159,069 21,485,245 1865 59,145,857 19,351,075 1866 60,494,416 44,778,616 1867 72,358,394 2 N 562 Russia — Land and People. Exports & Imports Year Exports & Imports ^50,884,364 1868 - ^81,571,750 47,588,602 1869 91,929,748 51,458,149 1870* 104,715,808 53,942,058 1871* 112,883,111 54,512,760 1872* 120,697,500 52,772,468 Year 1857 1858 1859 i86o 1861 1862 Since the year 1872, the customs' department has reckoned the whole of the value upon an entirely different plan from that formerly adopted. The supposition of a fixed price has been abandoned, and the current value taken as the basis of the returns. The result has been, imports and exports together : — Europe. Finland. Asia. Total. 1873 ••• ^120,080,000 ^2,897,500 ^4,876,666 ;^I27, 854,166 1874 ... 134,805,000 3,425,000 4,876,666 143,106,666 1875 ... 136,087,506 3>657,5oo 4,813,333 144,558,333 1876. — The value of the exports to Europe was ;^6o,o49,o25 thus distributed — England ^20,900,000, France ^4,750,000, Germany ^4,295,833, and Turkey ^1,108,333 ; to Asia, ^1,490,383. In 1877 the bad exchange reduced the value of the imports to ;^53,625,ooo, and increased that of the exports ;^74,262,5oo ; total for 1877, ^127,887,500. The inland trade is of very great importance, and is chiefly carried on by means of the annual and other fairs. Taking the average value of three years of the goods brought into 6,050 fairs in the Empire was computed at ;2^6i, 655, 791, of which were sold ^39,208,7 16. The seven most impor- tant fairs are those of Nishni-Novgorod, Trbit, Pultava, Charkov, Urinpinsk, Elizabeth Grad, and Kursk. Nishni-Novgorod stands first in importance. The value of the goods brought thither for sale in — Goods sold. 1855 was ;^9,9oi,396 ••• ;^9,o25,748 1865 „ 17,647,358 ... 14,673,720 1874 „ 28,531,825 ... 26,094,125 1876 „ 26,315,175 ... 23,769,633 Navigable Riven. The length of the rivers which are navigable in Russia was stated in the Russian Revieiv at 21,450 miles. Of these 3,087 miles (14.4 per cent.) flow westward, 8,867 miles (41.4 per cent.) to the Caspian, 2,071 miles (9.7 per cent.) to the Sea of Azof, 3,797 miles (17.7 per cent.) to the Black Sea, and 3,233 miles (15 per cent,) to the Baltic. Kursk has no navigable river. Railroads. The disastrous experiences of the Crimean war showed the political and military need for railways, and brought about an improvement. In this vast empire, from 1837 to 1843, there were but 25 versts of railway * In 1870 watches were imported to the value of /■28i,466; 1871, ;i^3i9,966; 1872, ^902,500. t 'l"he export uiici ijuport of gold and bilver in 1872 amounted to ;!^3,^7i,s66. Russia — Land and People. 563 (from St. Petersburg to Zarskoje-Selo). In 1844 the number rose to 938 versts ; until 1857 the work remained stationary ; during this year 113 versts were opened ; in 1858, another 157 versts; in i860, 240 versts; in i86x, 462 versts; in 1862, 1,221 versts; in 1868 another 1,771 versts were added. On Januar7 ist, 1869, 6,569 versts were in working order; and at the beginning of 1873, 13,623 versts. At the beginning of of 1874 (includ- ing 590 versts in Finland), there were 15,794 versts, of which only 1,527 versts were double lines. In July, 1874, there 16,283 versts open, and 4,324 in course of construction. At the end of 1877 there were 20,132 versts open. The annual increase of railroads has lately averaged 1,780 versts. Of the 11,108 versts open in 1871, 1,1 11 were made at the cost of the Government. At the end of 1877 there were 20,132 versts, and 3,442 locomotives in use, 2,885 of which were made out of Russia. The amount of traffic on the Russian lines was in — 1870... 14,373,308 passengers, and 459,235,000 poods of goods 1873... 22,809,111 passengers, and 1,204,128,337 „ The Russian railway system could only be brought into existence by the State guaranteeing the interest (after the Government had met with very unsatisfactory results in making them itself). But great frauds were practised in the construction of the private lines. The amount of interest guaranteed in i860 was ;^99,o2o, and it was obliged to be paid in full ; in 1863, 92 per cent, of the sum guaranteed; and in 1866, 63 1 per cent, of the sum had to be paid, or made good, by the Government. In 1869 the State had taken over an interest guarantee of the total amount of ;!^2,9 53,581, and had actually to cover an amount equal to ^725,019 ; in 1872, over 50 per cent, of the sum guaranteed by the State had to be paid by it. The number of accidents to persons on the Russian lines of railway is less than in any other country in Europe. Telegraph. These were first laid down in 1853, and by the end of 1868 there were 382 stations, 24,820 miles of Unes, and 47,317 miles of wire. Since then a line has been established through Siberia, from Sretensk to Charbarowka, 1,333 miles in length; this was a most difficult work, as the line passes through a wild mountainous district, covered with forests, for the length of 641 miles, and for 132 miles has no inhabitants. The total length, on January ist, 1873, amounted to 47,967 miles of State telegraph lines, and 98,706 miles of wire, with 649 stations ; 7,119 miles of railway tele- graph, with 681 stations; 2,595 iriiles of Anglo-Indian, with 53 stations, and 1,882 miles of private telegraph lines with 23 stations, making together 59,563 miles of telegraph lines, and 1,406 stations. The receipts in 1873 were ^680,758 ; the expenditure, ;!^66 1,066. The number of despatches forwarded was 3,264,245 — 2,718,196 of which were inland. On the ist January, 1877, there were 56,571 miles of State line and 112,659 miles of wires, 884 stations. Receipts, ;^896,349; expenditure, ;^7i2,57o. 564 Russia — Land and People. STATE TELEGRAPH. Number of Messages Total Receipts Total Expenditure 1874 ... 3,800,425 ... ^763,587 ••■ ^'616,193 1875 ... 4.179,316 ... 800,660 ... 665,383 1876 ... 4,597,904 ... 896,349 ... 712,580 1878 ... 4,710,120 ... 1,099,148 ... 823,956 Number of stations, 2,516 Post. In the year 1868 there were only 1,607 post offices; in the middle of 1872 the number had risen to 2,129; in 1876, to 3,571 post offices and 6,181 letter boxes. The number of letters passing through the post in 1825 were estimated at 1835 1840 1850 1855 5,000,000 6,000,000 8,000,000 12,000,000 16,000,000 The number of postage stamps sold in 1871 ... 27,448,963 1872 ... 35,626,115 In 1876 the number of letters were 67,800,056; averaging barely i per head of the population. Banking System. The connection between the Imperial Bank and the State has been already given. This bank had 26 branches in 1871. The amount of business done in the course of this year was altogether 12,970,560,678 roubles = ;^2,io7,7 16,1 10 in money and effects, thus: — Receipts Expenditure Commercial operations ... ... ;^i, 028,865, 953 ... ;£|'i, 028, 280,065 Liquidation of the office of credit 10,504,585 ... 10,674,439 Current expenses of the Crown ... 11,171,315 ... 11,588,601 Issue of credit notes and payment of the same by exchange ... 3,316,299 ... 3,316,299 1,053,858,152 1,053,859,404 One of the great evils is the persistent issue of forged bank notes. From the establishment of the Imperial Bank up to January, 1874, no less than 177,304 false notes, to the value of ^343,327, were paid into the Bank. In recent times a number of credit banks have been established : 2 in 1868 ; 3 in 1869 ; 5 in 1870 ; 12 in 1871, and 12 in 1872; so that there were altogether 35 large private banks, including the 2 which existed pre- viously. There is now established in St. Petersburg a central bank, called The Russian Land-Credit Bank, which has monetary correspondence with England, France, and Germany. There are also communal banks, the oldest of which is at Vologda, and dates from the year 1788. l\venty of these were already in existence when the Government published a normal statute for these institutions in 1862. I Russia — Land and People. 565 215 new communal banks were established during the 10 years, from 1862 to 1872, so that by the end of 1S72 there were 235. These establishments are founded by the communal councils with a capital of at least 10,000 roubles, = ^1,625. In founding these banks, the communes generally set apart tlie profits beforehand for charitable purposes, hospitals, schools, and such like; but curious exceptions to this are sometimes found. Thus, the profit of the Bank of Borowsk, in the Government of Kaluga, is to be spent on fetching a miraculous image of the Madonna from a neighbouring convent every year to the above-named place. The Imperial statute of 1862 lays down the following general rule for the application of the funds : — 10 — 20 per cent, in the reserve fund, \ of the remainder to go into the communal fund, to be spent on public works, local improvements, &:c. ; the second third to be for the benefit of the schools and benevolent institutions \ the remaining third to go towards increasing its capital. Many complaints are made because all the citizens of the place are obliged to give security for the obligations of these banks with the whole of their private property. The control of it certainly belongs to them, but naturally few are in a position to exercise it. Some of these institutions have extended their range of business far beyond what is right. One of them, for example, had employed 68 times as much capital as it possessed, using for this purpose that of other people. In con- sequence of this a decree was made in 1870 by which the employment of other money than that belonging to the bank was limited to ten times the amount of its own capital. ^Vhere this was exceeded half of the profit was to be applied to the increase of the capital. In 1870 the communal banks discounted bills for ;^i 1,777,344 ; they advanced on securities ^2,368,214; they lent on goods ^67,114 ; on valuables, ^67,373 ; on houses, ^462,607 and ^452,207. The profits of the above 185 establishments were appHedas follows:— For charitable purposes ... ... ... ... ... ... ;^63,o55 „ public works ... ... ... ... ... 62,642 Increase of capital ... ... ... ... ... ... 167,877 „ of reserve fund ... ... ... ... ... ... 44,460 Total profit ;^338,034 Commercial Marine. The number of sea-going vessels in 1872 was given at 2,514, including 185 steamers. In 1876, 1,936 sea-going vessels, among which were 151 steamers. According to a statement in the Russian Review, the whole commercial fleet of Russia and Finland is stated at 2,662 sea-going ships, of which 1,267 were in the Baltic, 923 in the Black Sea and Sea of Azof, 1S5 in the White Sea, 267 in the Caspian, and 15 in the Pacific Ocean. In 1877, the Russian commercial marine consisted of 3,296 sailing vessels and 248 steamers. Of these Odessa owned 305 sailing vessels and 124 steamers; Miolajev owned 366 sailing vessels, mostly coasting ones, and 5 steamers; Riga owned 191 sailing vessels and 30 steamers; St. Petersburg owned 77 sailing vessels and 24 steamers. The traffic of the ports in 1875 was as follows : — 566 Russia — Land and People. ENTERED CLEARED Laden Empty Laden Empty In ports of the Baltic The White Sea Black Sea and Sea of 1 Azov ... ... j 4,177 345 2,250 ... 2,085 543 - 3,354 5,753 845 4-143 307 II ... 1,432 The Caspian Sea ... 723 7,495 50 ... 6,032 528 98 Total 11,269 ... 1,848 Tonnage of outgoing vessels ... „ „ entering „ ::: ::: *•• 2,480,135 2,206,579 Coinage, c^c. Money standard, the silver rouble ; its equivalent in English is 3^. 2d- The silver rouble is subdivided into 100 kopeks. What is now called a silver rouble (in contradistinction to the former paper money) is again nothing but paper, which loses considerably in exchange for silver, and has been com])letely driven out of ordinary traffic by metal coin. The arshine, or Russian elle. 100 „ „ =77.78 English yards. 100 ,, „ 71-14 German metres. The Russian foot is exactly the same as the English. The versf, or Russian mile, is equal to .663 of an English mile. Dessjatine=2 acres, 2 roods, 32 poles. Chetwert =$.']'] Imperial English bushels. Vedro= 12.2989 litres. Food=2)(> lbs. avoirdupois English, and contains 40 Russian bs. 1 to^k' ^^^a ITALY (Kingdom), TALY, which was formerly divided into 7 States, has become an entirely united State since 1870; if we exclude the two semi- ^M sovereign dominions of San-Marino and Monaco. The kingdom is divided into 69 provinces, with a sub-division into 197 circuits (circondarii) and 97 districts (Distretti). These altogether contain 1,811 cantons (Mandamenti), and (in 1875) 8,307 parishes. In the following survey the present administrative provinces are marked with ordinary figures (i, 2, 3, &c.), and the former political divisions, embracing these provinces, are written in italics, and with Roman figures : — 1S76 No. of No. of Jvinces and Countries English sq. miles Population Parishes Cantons I Piedmont ... • ■• 11,333 ••• 3,027,596 .. 715,069 .. • 1,487 344 • .. 263 I Alessandria... ... 1,951 ... .. 67 2 Cuneo ... 2,784 ... 645.693 ■• 263 .. 64 3 Novara ... 2,532 ... 658,201 .. . 438 . 51 4 Turin 4,066 ... 1,008,633 •• 442 . .. 81 5 Genoa ... 1,588 ... 744,037 .. 210 . .. 47 6 Port Maurice 467 ... 130,579 •• 107 . 317 • 306 . 14 II Liguria ... 2,055 ••• 1,087 - 874,616 .. .. 61 7 Bergamo ... 381,258 .. 19 8 Brescia 1,643 ••• 465,380 .. 285 . .. 29 9 Como 1,049 ••• 500,890 .. 518 . 27 10 Cremona 631 ... 310,238 .. 135 • 14 II Mantua 961 ... 297,166 .. 67 . 15 12 Milan 1,154 ... 1,048,446 .. l^l ■ 39 13 Pavia 1,291 ... 469,656 .. 263 . •• 34 568 Italy — Land and People 1876 No. of No. of Provinces and Counties English sq. miles Population Parishes Cantons 14 Sondrio Lomhardy ... 1,261 ... 116,493 •• . 78 . . 1,965 . 8 III • 9,077 ••• 3-589,527 .. . 185 15 Belluno 1,270 ... 186,356 .. . 69 . 9 16 Padua 755 - 383,985 •• 103 . 10 17 Rovigo 650 ... 212,649 •• . 63 . 9 18 Treviso 941 ... 375,005 .. . 96 . II 19 Udine 2,514 ... 500,335 •• 180 . .. 18 20 Venice 848 ... 344,838 .. 51 • II 21 Verona 1,060 ... 383,174 •• • 113 • 13 22 Vicenza Venetia 1,015 ••• 385,252 •• 123 . • 795 • 14 IV .. 9,053 ■•• 2,769,594 •• •• 95 23 Bologna 1,390 ... 451,053 •• • 58 . 19 24 Ferrara 1,010 ... 226,225 .. 16 . 10 25 Forli 718 ... 248,538 .. 40 . 13 26 Modena 965 ... 279,185 .. 45 • 21 27 Parma 1,250 ... 269,267 .. 50 . 21 28 Piacenza 965 ... 228,630 . . 48 . 18 29 Ravenna 741 ... 228,279 •• 21 . 12 30 Reggio d'Emilia Emilia Perugia 776 ... 248,403 .. 45 • • 323 • 173 • .. 19 V • 7,815 ... .. 3,718 ... 2,174,579 ■ •• 133 31 567,131 • • 31 VI Umbria Ancona • 3,718 ... • 7,361 .-. 567,131 •• • 173 • 51 • • 31 32 268,338 .. 14 33 Ascoli Piceno 809 ... 206,731 . 71 . 13 34 Macerata ... .. 1,056 ... 241,426 . 54 • 15 35 Pesaro and Urbin Marches Arezzo 1,144 ••• 219,540 . 936,035 . 73 • 249 . 41 . 14 VII . 3,745 ••• .. 1,277 ... .. 56 36 226,003 .. 12 37 Florence ... 2,267 — 787,992 .. 78 . • 31 38 Grosseto ... .. 1,706 ... 107,493 .. 20 . II 39 Leghorn (Livorno) 125 ... 119,894 .. 5 • 5 40 Lucca 576 ... 288,377 .. 22 . 13 41 Massa-Carrara 687 ... 168,444 •• 35 • 14 42 Pisa 1,179 ••• 276,200 . 40 . .. 15 43 Sienna Tuscany Lazio (Rome) 1,464 ... 207,889 .. 37 • 278 . . 227 . 14 an 9,284 ... . 4,599 ••• 2,192,292 . .. 115 44 841,140 .. .. 52 Italy — Land and People. 569 Provinces and Counties IX Lazia {Latium) 45 Aquila 46 Campobasso 47 Chieti 48 Teramo X Abruzzi Molise 49 Avellino 50 Benevento ... 51 Caserta 52 Naples 53 Salerno XI Campania . . . 54 Bari 55 Foggia 56 Lecco XII Piiglia {Apulia) 57 Potenza XIII Basilicata ... 58 Catanzaro ... 59 Cosenza 60 Reggio-Calabria XIV Calabria ... 61 Caltanisetta 62 Catania 63 Girgenti 64 Messina 65 Palermo 66 Siracusa 67 Trapani XV Sicily 68 Cagliari 69 Sassari XVI Sardinia English sq. miles 4,599 ••• 1876 Population 841,140 2,509 ... 347,448 .. 127 .. 32 1,777 •■• 371,814 .. 134 •• 30 1,104 ••■ 345>224 .. 121 ... 26 1,283 ■•• 250,711 .. 74 •• 18 6,673 - i»3i5,i97 •• 456 .. 128 .. 106 1,408 ... 383,662 .. 34 687 ... 239,278 .. 73 •■ 20 2,306 ... 722,524 .. 185 ... 41 411 ... 929,382 .. 69 ... 42 2,163 — 560.136 .. 159 •• 42 6,975 — 2,834,982 .. 614 .. 179 2,292 ... 641,604 .. 53 .- 37 2,952 ... 329,637 •• 53 - 28 3,292 ... 516,977 .. 130 ... 236 .. . 124 .. 42 8,536 ... 1,488,218 .. 107 4,120 ... 522,772 .. 45 4,120 ... 522,772 ... 124 ... 45 2,306 ... 420,872 .. 152 ... 37 2,840 ... 453,618 .. 151 .. 43 1,514 ... 366,282 .. 107 ... 410 ... 28 ... 28 6,660 ... 1,240,772 .. 108 1,454 ... 245,130 •• 19 1,969 ... 524,305 - 64 ... 34 1,490 ... 308,435 - 41 ... 24 1,767 ... 438,930 ... 99 - 29 1,963 ... 655.729 .. 76 ... 35 1,427 ... 311,786 .. 32 ... 22 1,213 ••• 252,190 .. 20 ... 15 11,287 ••• 2,736,505 ••• 360 ... 258 ... 178 5>255 - 405,544 ••• 58 4,140 ... 252,935 - no ... 33 9,395 658,479 No. of Parishes 227 No. of Cantons • 52 ;68 91 /households. The number of families or households amounted at the last census to 5,675,151- There were 5,063,943 houses, of which 4,139,481 only 570 Italy — Land and People. were occupied. The population according to sex in 1876, was 13,980,158 males and 13,789,317 females; the preponderance of males therefore, 190,841, a rare occurrence in Europe. Movement of the Population. Since the year 1866, the keeping of the civil register has been en- trusted to civil officials, throughout all parts of the State, and the results are, consequently, much more satisfactory. We commence the tables with the year 1867. Year Marriages Per 1000 Births Per 1000 Born dead Deaths Per 1000 1867 170,456 13-4 927,396 36.6 — 866,855 34-2 1868 182,743 14-3 900,416 35-3 — • 777,224 30-5 1869 205,287 15-9 952,134 37-0 — 713,832 27.7 1870 188,986 14.6 95i>495 36.7 773,169 29.8 187I 192,839 14.9 960,020 37-0 — 778,669 30.0 1872 202,361 15.0 1,020,686 37-8 29,546 827,498 30-7 1873 214,906 15.8 985,188 36.3 28,351 813,973 30.0 1874 207,997 15.2 951.658 34.9 26,991 827,253 30-3 1875 230,486 16.8 i>o35>377 37-7 29,830 843,161 30-7 1876 225,453 16.2 1,083,721 390 33,069 796,420 28.7 1877 214,972 153 1,029,037 36.7 787,817 28.1 Abnormal Marriages in 1876. There occurred 2 marriages between males of from 15 to 20 years of age and females of from 50 to 55 years ; and 20 males of the age of 20 to 25 married women between 50 and 55 ; 12 between 55 and 60 years ; 4 between 60 and 65, and 4 over 70, and on the other hand, men over 70 married, in 9 instances girls of from 15 to 20, and in 18 instances young women of from 20 to 25. Of children born alive in 1876, 558,308 were boys and 525.413 were girls, that is, 106 boys to 100 girls. Of the number born alive, 47,253 were illegitimate, and 28,981 were foundlings, equal together to 7.03 per cent. ; in Lombardy only 2.85 per cent. ; in the Marches 15.52 ; in Rome 18.61 per cent. The number of children who died the first year of their lives was 220,070. Of the number of deaths 87 were returned in the register as 100 years old, 49 being women. Of violent deaths there were 9,463, (2,242 being women). Of these 1,024 were suicides, (170 women) ; 6,935 ^^'^^^ from fatal accidents. 1,504 were murders, and 7 executions. Emigration. According to "Carpi," the number of those who left the country secretly in 1870 was 110,458; in 1871, 122,478; in 1872, 146,265; and in 1873 151,151. Many of these remain in France, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, in the hope of winning a fortune and then returning to their country. Those who went to Trans- Atlantic lands in 1870, amounted, according to " Ellena," to 25,000 : in 1871 to 30.000 : in 1872 to ?5.ooo ; and in 1873 to 45,000. In 1876 the number of tliose who emigrated, not including those who did so secretly, was estimated at 108,771, the total number of Italians in foreign lands being 477,000. About 115,000 are Italy — Land and People. 571 from Liguria and 104,000 from Piedmont. There are about 118,500 settled in France; 18,000 in Switzerland; 11,000 in European Turkey; 6,400 in Austrian-Hungary ; 4,000 in Germany ; 4,400 in Egypt and Barbary ; 147,600 in South and Central America (68, 000 being in the Argentine Republic) ; 70,000 in the United States. Nationalities. Italy enjoys more than most other nations the very important advantage of possessing a population which entirely belongs to the same nationality. Of other than Italian origin there are 134,435 French, 20,392 Germans, 5,546 English, and 113,383 individuals speaking other languages. In the districts of Aosta, Pinerolo, and Susa, there are 119,369 speaking a French dialect, and. in the provinces of Novara and Turin, 3,649 speaking a Burgundian dialect. The number of Albanians in the south of Italy, and in Sicily is 55,453 ; Greeks, 20,268 ; Slavs, 27,000. The Albanians or Arnauts are descendants of those who in the years 1461, 1532, and 1744, took refuge in Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. They are generally but erroneously called Greeks. The Albanian language is not a modern Greek dialect as some supppose, but a distinct Aryan tongue, probably represent- ing the old Illyrian of the Balkan peninsula. Creeds. The inhabitants are almost entirely Roman Catholics. The census of 1 86 1 for the kingdom of Italy, exclusive of the States of the Church, returned only 64,005 who were not Roman Catholics. Of these 32,932 were Evangelical, many of whom were the Waldenses so cruelly oppressed in former times; 29,233 Jews, and 1,840 members of other religious sects. In 1S71 there were 26,662,580 Roman Catholics, 58,651 Protestants, 35,356 Jews, and 44,567 either members of other religious sects or no religion at all. Communes or Farislies and their Population. There are altogether 8,382 communes; of these 10 have more than 100,000 inhabitants ; 12 have from 50,000 to 100,000; 25 from 30,000 to 50,000; 52 from 20,000 to 30,000; 261 from 10,000 to 20,000; 729 between 5,000 and 10,000; 442 between 4,000 and 5,000; 858 between 3,000, and 4,000 ; 1,399 between 2,000 and 3,000; 2,351 between 1,000 and 2,000; 1,410 between 500 and 1,000; 515 between 300 and 500, and 242 have a less number. The meaning expressed by the word community or parish is very varied. In many parts of the kingdom it comprises extensive districts of several square miles,* involving figures which can only mislead. Thus the Commune Capaunori, near Lucca, has 43,313 inhabitants, but they are scattered over a district of 64 English square miles; in the district itself there were in 1861 only 482 souls. There are 8 cities with a resident population of more than 100,000 and 6 with from 50,000 * The average area in Apulia is 36 English square miles, in Tuscany 33.3, in the Basilicata 33.2, in Sicily 31.3, in Sardinia 25.5, in Piedmont it is 7.5,10 Lombardy 4.6, while the average throughout the kingdom is 13.6 572 Italy — Land and People. to 100,000; 25 with 25,000 to 50,000, and 157 with 10,000 to 25,000. The following gives the resident population of the towns and that of the parishes. The towns are grouped according to the old political divisions in which they are situate. PIEDMONT. Parish or Commune Town Population Population Turin 192,443 ... • . 212,644 Alessandria 29,102 57,079 Asti 19,466 31,725 No vara 14,827 29,516 Casale Monferrata 20,456 27,514 Verulli 20,623 27,349 Cuneo 11,423 21,447 Pinerolo 11,832 16,730 Fossana 7,272 16,544 Moudoir 11,958 16,643 Savigliano ... 9,544 16,150 Saluzzo 9,796 15,446 Chieri 8,986 15,033 Tortona 8,620 13,504 Bra 9.150 13,500 Carmagnola 3,830 12,799 Novi Ligure 8,903 12,162 Beilla 9,611 11,935 Alba 6,555 10,296 Acqui 8,331 LIGURIA. 10,083 Genoa 130,269 161,669 Savona 19,664 24,851 Spezzia 15,636 24,127 San Pier d' Arena 15,568 16,756 Voltri 5>943 13,255 Chiavari 8,414 11,521 San Remo ... 9,017 10,691 Rapallo 5>352 LOMBARDY, 10,406 Milan 199,009 261,985 Brescia 38,906 38,906 Bergamo . . . 34.555 37,363 Cremona ... 30,508 30,508 Pavia 29,520 29,618 Mantua 26,687 26,687 Lodi 18,537 25,685 Monza 17,431 25,228 Como 24,350 24,350 Vigevano . . . 14,096 18,436 Viadana ... 5,985 15.343 I Italy — Land and People. 573 Town Population Voghera ii,9°3 Rusto Arsizio 9,448 Varese 8,404 Treviglio ... 8,575 Codogno ... 8,775 Abbiategrasso 4,826 VENETIA. Venice 128,094 Verona 65,876 Padua 52,011 Vicenza 26,944 Udine 22,004 Treviso 18,547 Chioggia 19,841 Vittorio 10,533 Belluno 5,770 Adria 9,834 Legnago 3,514 Bassano 7,769 Feltre 6,570 Rovigo 7,974 Castelfranco Veneto 4,883 Este 5'743 EMILIA. Bologna ... 89,104 Ferrara 33,327 Ravenna ... 21,774 Modena ... 30,854 Reggio in Emilia ... 19,131 Parma 44,915 Faenza 23,752 Cesena 17,594 Piacenza ... 34,908 Rimini 9,747 Imola 18,189 Lugo 8,664 Cento 5,223 Carpi 5,110 Argenta 3,805 Budrio 7,036 San Giovanni 4,678 Bagnacavallo 3,885 Mirandola... 3,059 Finale in Emilia ... 4,456 Castel Franco 6,616 Brisighella... 5,285 Castel San Pietro ... 4,876 Medicina ... 3,757 Borgo San Donnino 4,359 Parish or Commune Population 15,089 12,909 12,605 11,883 11,368 10,039 128,901 67,080 66,107 37,686 29,630 28,291 26,336 16,029 15,509 14,138 13,355 13,254 12,435 10,749 10,607 10,007 115,957 72,447 58,901 56,690 50,657 45,511 36,299 35,870 34,908 33,886 28,398 24,895 19,180 17,724 16,242 16,219 15,295 14,865 13,170 12,984 12,460 12,281 13,330 1^,355 10,855 574 Italy — Land and People. UMBRIA. Town Population Perugia 16,708 Citta di Castello ... 6,588 Gubbio 8,353 Foligno 8,471 Spoleto 7,493 Rieti 12,905 Arisi 6,225 Ferni 12,419 Todi 4,747 Orvietto 7,423 Narni 4,453 Pariah or Commune Population 49,503 24,088 22,757 21,686 20,748 15,968 15,159 15,037 14,934 14,455 10,759 MARCHES. Ancona 35,111 Ascoli Piceno 11,373 Senigaglia ... 11,173 Macerata ... 11,195 Fano 8,591 Pesaro 12,375 Recanati ... 6,408 Fesi 13,472 Fermo 15,862 Osimo 4,853 Urbino 10,194 San Severino 4,666 Camerino . . . 5,422 Tolentino... 4,289 TUSCANY Florence 166,463 Leghorn 89,462 Lucca 21,286 Pisa 41,796 Prato 15,924 Arezzo 11,154 Cortona 3,973 Siena 22,965 Carrara 10,848 Cascina 2,774 Massa 4,786 Camajore ... 6,755 Emjjoli 5,949 San Miniato 2,785 (ialluzzo ... 2,901 Scsto Fiorcntino ... 4,868 Volterra 5,796 Pietrasanta 4,656 45,741 22,937 22,197 19,831 19.734 19,691 19,572 18,912 17,886 17,086 16,194 14,182 11,880 11,229 167,093 97,096 68,204 50,341 39,594 38,907 26,263 24,425 23,827 19,604 18,031 16,914 16,439 16,187 14,133 13,437 13,402 13.227 Italy — Land and People. 575 Town Population Fiesole 3,879 Montepulciano 2,813 Massa Marittima ... 5,766 Pistoja 12,966 Pescia 6,122 Poutremoli 4,473 San Casciano 6,862 Borgo San Lorenzo 4,193 Viarreggio ... 9,983 Pontassieva 5,^41 Fucecchoi 5,755 LATIUM. Rome 229,356 Viterbo 16,326 Velletri 14,798 Civitavecchia 10,484 Veroli 3.419 Frosinone .. 7,714 \BRUZZO AND MOLESE. Chieti 14,321 Teramo 9,635 Lanciano ... 15,432 Aquila degli Abruzzi 13,513 Salmona 12,583 Campobasso 13,345 Ortona 7,126 Agnone 7.377 CAMPANIA. Naples 421,803 Caserta 14,583 Salerno 20,611 Castelamare 22,437 Torre del Greco ... 18,950 Aversa 19,734 Sessa Aurunca 6,130 Cava de Tirenni . . . 6,397 Avellino 18,260 Benevento ... 17,370 Maddaloni 17,587 Gaeta 18,385 Torre Annunziata ... 15,321 Santa Maria Capua 16,785 Afragola ... 17,541 Ottajano ... 4,111 Pozzuoli 11,751 Parish or Commune Population 13,180 13,160 13,052 12,966 12,700 12,628 12,388 12,086 11,374 10,951 10,746 244,484 20,637 16,310 1 1,640 1 1,036 10, 16 1 23,602 19,721 17,340 16,607 15,019 14,090 11,884 11,073 448,335 29,451 27,759 26,385 23,611 21,176 20,708 20,612 20,492 20,153 18,767 18,385 17,970 17,896 17,889 17,776 i5'736 576 Italy — Land ancf People. Town Population Sarno 10,923 Ariano di Puglia ... 12,742 Acerra 12,858 Nocera inferiore ... 3,519 Capua 12,174 Teano 6,540 Cassino 9,882 Pagani 12,208 Gragnano ... 7,814 Resina 11,132 Sora 5,ico Portici 9»777 Giuliano in Campagnia 10,751 Arpino 5,836 Nola 10,771 San Giovanni a Tedui 10,898 Pontecorvo 10,020 Caivano 10,081 Frattamaggiore 10,486 Scafati 8,123 Augri 7,264 Marigliano... 5,182 Pomigliano d'Arco 8,758 Parish or Commune Population 15,382 14,347 13,633 13,149 i3»i45 12,993 12,639 12,492 12,278 12,175 12,074 11,792 11,772 11,535 11,395 11,116 10,759 10,682 10,486 10,462 10,332 10,215 10,045 \ PUGLIA (aPULIa). Bari delle Puglie ... 49,421 Foggia Andria 34,181 32,676 Barletta 27,444 Taranta 27,546 Molfetta 26,516 Corato 26,018 Brintonto 23,087 Trani 24,026 Lecce 21,083 Monopoli ... Franca Villa Fontana 13,800 17,457 Terlizzi 18,175 Martina Franca 13,440 Monte San Angelo . 14,902 San Severe 16,545 Altamura ... 17,004 Ostuni 14,422 Ruvo di Puglia ... 15,055 Canosa di Puglia ... 14,458 Fasano 1 2, 190 S. Marco in Lamis... 14.540 (jravina 14,194 Lucera 13,064 50,524 38,138 34,034 28,163 27,546 26,829 26,220 24,978 24,388 23,247 19,993 19,052 18,261 18,102 17,242 17,124 17,108 16,295 15,083 14,905 14,809 14,540 14,443 14,014 Italy — Land and People. 577 Town Population Minervino Murge ... 13.630 Brindisi 13.194 Celie Messapico ... 12,582 Gioja del Colle ... 12,442 Mola di Bari 11,775 Palo del Cole 11,887 Conversano 10,012 Galatina 9.377 Nardo 8,171 Spinazzola ... 9,900 Putignano ... 9.293 BASILICATA. Potenza 18,513 Avigliano ... 11.336 Matera 14,262 Melfi 11,225 Rionero in Volture. . . 11,520 Luria 10,696 San Fele ... 9.965 CALABRIA. Reggio di Calabria 29,854 Catanzaro ... 18,781 Cosenza 14,522 Rossano 14,818 Nicastro 10,418 Cittanova 12,137 Acri 9,486 Corigliano ... 10,481 Caulonia ... 6,491 Palme 8,699 SICILY. Palermo 186,406 Messina 71,921 Catania 83,496 Acireale ... 26,692 Marsala 17,666 Trapani 28,052 Siracuse 20,035 Caltagirone 22,639 Caltanissetta 21,464 Ragusa Superiore ... 21,495 Canicatti ... 20,908 Alcamo 20,890 Parish or Commune Population 13,844 13,755 13,096 13,094 11,976 11,960 10,656 10,344 10,220 10,078 10,074 18,513 15,982 14,312 11,648 11,520 10,696 10,536 35,235 24,901 15,962 14,881 13,181 12,177 10,717 10,572 10,125 10,025 219,398 111,854 84,397 35,787 34,202 33.034 22,179 25,978 26,156 21,546 20,908 20,890 2 O 578 Italy — Land and People. Parish or Commune Towu Population Population Girgenti 19,603 20,646 BarcellonaPozzo del 1 Golfo / 14,471 20,464 Castel Vetrano 19,499 20,420 Partinico ... 20,098 20,154 Sciacca 18,896 19,209 Piazza Amerina ... 15,923 18,252 Vittoria 17,528 17,921 Monte San Guiliano 6,143 17.496 Giarri 9,990 17.414 Comiso 16,694 16,694 Noto 14,767 16,590 Corleone ... 16,150 16,304 Monreale ... 13,496 16,211 Licata 15,867 15,968 Paterno 14,790 15,778 Fa vara 15,197 15,233 Terranova ... 14,686 14,911 Nicosia 14,544 14,789 Aderno 14,613 14,673 Bronte 14,567 14,589 Castrogiovanni 14,148 14,511 Saleme 11,631 14,096 Palma de Montechiaro 13,458 12,497 Gangi 12,921 13,057 San Cataldo 12,727 12,899 Biancavilla... 12,494 12,631 Partanna ... 12,467 12,467 Milazzo 7,744 12,060 Lipari 6.047 12,020 Leonforte 11,913 12,010 Mazzarino 11,599 11,951 Avola 11,842 ■ 11,912 Augusta 11,382 11,897 Agira 11,438 11,876 Bageria 11,061 11,651 Ricsi 11,525 11,548 Aragona 8,892 14,424 Castelamare del Golfo ir,i6o 11,280 Mistretta 11.003 11,218 Racalmuto ... 10,903 11,012 Sicily 10,724 10,887 Niscemi 10,633 10,750 Lentini 10,221 10,578 Naro 9,947 10,366 Ceialfi 10,017 10,194 Troina 10,033 10,193 Grammichele 10,058 10,192 Pietrapezzia 9,909 10,149 Palazzo Acreida ... 9,954 10,132 Italy — Land and People. $70 Cagliari Sassari Tempo Pausania SARDINIA. 33.039 30,542 5,003 33,039 32,674 10,096 The City of Rome includes an area of 5;^ square miles. There are 347 Catholic and 8 Protestant churches. In the year 1198, under Pope Innocent III., there were only 35,000 inhabitants. In 1377, when the pope returned from Avignon, there were only 17,000 ; in 15 13, under Leo X., there were 40,000 inhabitants ; in 152 1 the number increased to 90,000. Under Clement VII. there were 165,047 ; and in 1793, 166,948. In 1809 and 1813 a great dimmution occurred — viz., to 136,268 and 117,882. The number rose again in 1823 to 136,269, and in 1830 to 147,235. At the accession of Pope Pius IX. (1S46) there were 180, 199, In 1869, 6,400 of the inhabitants of Rome belonged to the religious orders, exclusive of 5,210 nuns; 4,682 were Jews, and 637 belonged to other than Catholic bodies. Territorial Changes. 1. Sardinia ... 2. Lombardo-Venezia 3. Duchy of Parma... 4. ,, Modena. 5. Grand Duchy of Tuscany 6. Statesjof the Church, including San Marino 7. The two Sicihes ... English Square miles 29.235 17.562 2,402 2,338 —Italy at the end of 1858. State Population Expenditure Debt 5,167,542 ^5,760,000 ^26,000,000 5,T73'054 3,480,000 6,240,000 500,000 400,000 520,000 605,000 400,000 480,000 8,568 1,807,000 1,600,000 4,720,000 15,499 42,883 3,130,000 9,117,000 3,240,000 5,520,000 14,640,000 21,200,000 'I'otal 118,487 25,499,596 ;^20,4oo,ooo ^^3,800,000 The union of the former States into one *' Kingdom of Italy," began in 1859. By the Peace of Zurich, November i6th, 1859, Austria was com- pelled to cede the greater part of Lombardy to Napoleon III., who made over the ceded territory to the King of Sardinia. Popular rebellions in various parts of the country led to the following annexations : — Emilia, Parma, Modena, and Romagna), on March iSth, i860; Tuscany, March 22nd ; the Marches, Umbria, and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, on December 17th in the same year. The King was obliged by the Treaty of March 24th, i860, to cede his inheritance of Savoy, as well as Nice, to France. The tide " Kingdom of Italy " was first used March 17th, 1861. The war of 1866 which brought nothing but defeat to the land and sea forces of Italy, yet led to the acquisition of Venice by the Treaty of Peace concluded October 3rd, 1866. The war between France and Germany in 1870, and the fall of Napoleon released the French Government from the obligations which it had undertaken for the maintenance of the temporal power of the Pope, and on September 20, 1870, the Italian troops occupied Rome, after a short struggle with the Papal Troops. On October 2nd, the people of the Papal Dominions declared unanimously in favour of Union with the King of Italy. 5 So Italy — Land and People. Historical Notes. SARDINIA. The French took Savoy and Nice at the beginning of the great Revolution; 1798, occupation of Piedmont; 9th December, formal renunciation of it by the King. The country hitherto provisionally administered was incorporated with France September 11, 1802. The island of Sardinia alone remained to the King. The republic of Genoa, at first transformed into a Ligurian republic, was incorporated with France in May, 1805. The Congress of Vienna re- instated the King in Piedmont, and also gave him Genoa and the neigh- bouring Fiefs; the second Peace of Paris restored to him the part of Savoy which had at first been withheld. The hereditary Prince, made King of Etruria in 1805, ceded Parma, which Napoleon united with France. Parma was assigned, by a Treaty of the Great Powers, made April 10, 1814, to Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife, but without right of succession. After her decease in 1847 the little State returned into the possession of the former Duke's family, to whom Lucca, previously a Republic, had been given since 181 5. MODENA. Subsequent to 1796 this country was united with the Cis-Alpine Republic, but restored in 18 14. TUSCANY. The Grand Duke (of the House of Austria) ceded his claims upon Tuscany to France in exchange for Salzburg and Wurzburg. Napoleon turned Tuscany into the Kingdom of Etruria, and imposed upon it the hereditary Prince of Parma as ruler, until he incorporated it with France in October, 1807, when the Emjieror's sister Eliza (the wife of Bacciochi, who had been made Prince of Piombino) was Governor General, with the title of Grand Duchess. Its restoration took place in 18 14. STATES OF THE CHURCH. Previous to the French Revolution these contained about 16,792 English square miles with 2,200,000 population. The counties of Avignon and Venaissin, in France, formed part of them. The population, however, of these two counties rebelled against Papal rule, and union with France was the result. By the Peace of Tolentino, February 19, 1797, the Pope was also obliged to yield Romagna to the Cis-Alpine Republic. In consequence of the assassination of the French ambassador, Duphot, at Rome, French troops entered the capital on the nth February, 1798, and the rebellion of the people ended by the proclamation of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of the year the Papal rule was re-established, by means of Neapolitan, Russian and Turkish troops. In 1809 Napoleon incor- l)0rated the Marches with his " Kingdom of Italy," and on May 17th, four days before the Battle of Aspcrn, he further decreed the incori)oration of Rome itself with the French Empire. The Pope was mrried by force into Italy — Land and People. 5S1 France, In 18 14 restoration took place with the loss of Avignon and a tract of land on the right bank of the Po. The risings of 1848 caused the Pope to fly to Gaeta (November 24th). On the 8th of February, 1849, the National Assembly decreed the restoration of the " Roman Republic." After a glorious struggle, Rome was taken on July 3rd by the French troops, sent for the purpose of re-establishing the Pope. The States of the Church embraced about 15,903 English square miles, inhabited according to the census of 1853 by about 3,124,668 souls. NAPLES AND SICILY. In January, 1799, after the entrance of the French troops into Naples, the Repubblica Parte iiopea was proclaimed, but it was overthrown by force of arms in June. On December 27, 1805, Napoleon's order of the day, issued from Schonbrunn, was, — "The Bourbon ; House of Naples has ceased to reign." The Emperor first nominated his brother Joseph, King of Naples ; then in July, 1808, his brother-in-law, Murat (Joachim I.) The old King maintained his position in Sicily with the aid of the English. Murat joined the Allies at the end of 18 13, and upon Napoleon's return to France from Elba in 181 5, he endeavoured to conquer a larger State for himself, but was defeated by Austria. I'he restoration of the Bourbons took place in May, 181 5. Finance. A State newly-formed by means of force cannot at once restore the balance between revenue and expenditure, unless ample contributions of war flow in from foreign countries, This is more especially the case when the State, with whom the change originated, is already hampered by ruined finances, and when the population of the country in general is poor, like that of Lower Italy and the Islands. If to this be added the outlay for a very large standing army, much extravagance, a not unfrequent want of honour in the administration, and lastly internal disturbances — the results cannot but be unfavourable. The statements of the Budget, therefore, lose a great part of their value ; they serve, at best, to indicate starting points for the future administration. In order to, somewhat, conceal the bad state of financial affairs, the Budget has been divided into an ordinary and an extraordinary. The results from 1861-70 are as follows: — REVENUE. Ordinary Extraordinary Total 1861' ;^i8,332,9o7 ... ;^i9,886,205 ... ;^38,2i9,ii2 1864 22,612,424 ... 18,352,068 ... 40,964,492 1868 29,059,460 ... 14,964,159 ... 44,023,619 1872 46,334,858 ... 5.529.097 — 51.863,955 1861 1864 1868 1872 EXPENDITURE. Ordinary Extraordinary Total ^24,206,930 ... ^8,283,968 ... ;,^32,49o,898 33.384,119 ••• 8,003,724 ... 41,387,843 38,812,076 ... 8,889,589 ... 47,701,665 48,372,632 .., 8,306,603 ... 54.679>236 582 Italy — Land and People. The permanent increase in the ordinary revenue is not of a satisfactory nature. 'I'he growth is for the greater part not caused by a larger yield from the old taxes, but by new imposts, and from the enlargement of the territory. In no year have the ordinary receipts covered the ordinary expenditure, and many items mentioned as " extraordinary " belong to the ordinary budget. -The extraordinary receipts were produced mainly by the sale of State property, and by contracting new debts. Affairs have some- what imj)roved of late, but the figures are still excessively high. Increased taxation has only tended to increase the arrears of taxes. Endeavours have been made again and again to help by the sale of State lands, by antici- pating the taxes in return for reduction of them, and by fresh issues of treasury bonds. There has been, in addition to all this, an increase of duty on salt and tobacco, on postage, and the imposts on colonial goods, on petroleum, and even on corn. The grist tax is found particularly oppres- sive. The produce of the tobacco monopoly was pledged for sums advanced under very oppressive conditions. The notes of the Italian Bank received a forced exchange at the outbreak of the war in 1866. Notes were issued of the miserable value of \od. and even 5^. One very unsatis- factory source of revenue increased considerably, viz., lotteries. It rose from -,{^1,409,968 in the year 1862 to ^2,412,262 in 1868, and to ^3,231,676 in 1869. The whole circumstance is the more striking because all the States which were incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy, except Piedmont, had enjoyed a well ordered system of Finance. The account for the year 1876 gave the revenue and expenditure under three heads : — Revenue , Expenditure Current administration ... ^46,684,335 ... ^,{^47, 832, 742 Capital from taxation ... 3^396,070 ... 3,413,396 Post 4,707,936 ... 4,717,936 Total ^54,788.341 ^55,964,074 54,788,341 Deficit ... ... ^i,i75'733 Under the revenue we have the following part detail : — Ground tax Income tax Grist tax ... Succession duty Registration duty Stamps Railway tax Customs Food tax ... Tobacco tax Salt tax Post Telegraph ... Lottery 6,93i»452 3,298,167 994,426 2,033,471 1,507.332 511,608 4,035,240 2,780,592 3,410,754 3,197,322 979,227 329-599 2,850,543 Italy — Land and People. 583 Of the expenditure the intangible (Spesa intangibile) absorbed ... ■•- ... ..- ^3i)993i538 Civil administration ... ... ... ... 14)735)398 Military ... . 9)235.138 The budget for the year 1878 estimated the revenue thus : — Ordinary revenue at ... ... ... ... ... ;^47,54i,6i4 Extraordinary revenue ... ... ... ... ... 661,049 Special loans, etc.... ... ... ... ... ... 8,820,693 Total ..._ ;^57. 023,356 Total expenditure as ;^56,5o7,2 9o REMARKS ON THE REVENUE. The actual land tax increased by about 30 per cent, between the com- mencement of the State as a Union and 1868. It was not an equal tax, being much higher in many parts of the country than it had been under former governments. This tax yields most in Lombardy, where it averages 9^. 8^. per 2% acres ; 55. \d. in Parma and Piacenza; 45-. w^d. in Modena; 4^-. 9^. in the Romagna ; 3^. ']\d. in Naples ; 35'. if\d. in the Marches ; ■^s. \d. in Piedmont and Liguria ; only i.f. \\\d. in Sicily; 2s. \\d. and 25. \\d. in Tuscany and Umbria, and is. \\d. in Sardinia. The net proceeds of the house tax in 1866 were ;;^ 10,096, 383, but had increased to ^12,608,394 in 1873. Farm buildings are free of this tax. The duty on moveable property (imposta sulla richezza mobile) is, in a strict sense, an income tax. The farmers, as such, are exempt from it, in so far as they do not manufacture their produce and carry on trade. All who deal in commerce are subject to it. On the other hand, the manu- facturing duty (patent duty), in Piedmont, the family tax in Tuscany, the manufacturing and trade taxes in the provinces, which used to belong to Austria, and the poll tax in Modena, are all abolished. This " imposta sulla richezza mobile," introduced in the year 1864, is an imitation of the English income tax, though with many and considerable modifications. At first, only a small fixed sum was obtained from the lowest incomes. The minimum of the normal liability to the tax was fixed at ;^i6. It was at first a so-called contingent duty, then a repartition tax, and at last it be- came a capitation tax. Originally the coupons of the State debt were left free ; subsequently they were included in the taxation. A comparison of results has therefore, been very difficult amid these continual changes. The following are the different categories from the decree of August, 1870, according to which the tax is levied. A. includes the produce from outstanding capital. Upon this the tax is levied. B. Those incomes which are obtained by the union of capital and labour, such as silk, and the proceeds of herds. Six-eighths of these are liable to the tax. C. Incomes derived from manual labour alone. Five-eighths of these pay the tax. D. Stipends, pensions, and such like, rated at half. 584 Italy — Land arid People. The results under these heads were in 1872 as under :- Per cent. Category A. Category B. Category C. Category D. Total. ^7,211,390 ^7.992,838 ^3,008,805 ^731.993 ^18,945,026 42.2 15.8 3-9 The Grist Tax (la Tassa sulla Macinazione dei Cereali) was introduced at the beginning of the year 1869. It is calculated by means of the "Contatore" — a machine which counts the revolutions of the mill wheels. Few other taxes have excited so much bitterness from the first, and this bitterness has been increased by the defects in the counting machine. The gross yield, which was only ;^7o3,296 in 1869, rose in the following year to ;^i, 078,291 ; in 187 1 to ;^i,783,428 ; in 1872 to ^^2, 364,399 ; and in 1876 to ^3,298,167. This gave a tax of ^Id. per head of the population in 1869, 11^. per head in 1870, \s. lod. per head in 1872, and 2s. ^J. per head of the population in 1876. Lands in Mortmain. As in France, these lands are burdened in Italy with a special tax, as an equivalent for the loss sustained by the Treasury in the transfer duty. The list of expenditure requires no special explanation except on one point, viz., that since 1871 there occurs the item '• Permanent annuity to the Papal See," ^129,000, free of all duty ; but the Pope having refused his sanction to the levying of this tax, it was merely noted in the budgets for the 3 years, 1871-3. Provincial Budgets. The provinces of Italy possess a very considerable power of self-ad- ministration, and with this privilege a corresponding amount of obligations entailing great expenditure. Thus it happened that the expenditure rose from ;^844,559 in 1862, to ^3,517-345 in 1872, and has since increased four-fold. This increase undoubtedly arises in a great measure from the addition of Venice and Rome .0 the State, and still further from the internal develop- ment which is going on. In 1876 the financial statement was as follows : — Revenue Expenditure Ordinary ^^247,254 ... ^2.017,818 Extraordinary 563,487 1,247,308 Special 148,471 176,003 Contributions of taxes 2,476,624 — ;^3.435.836 ^^3.441.129 Under expenditure appear — Ord inary Extraordinary The Provincial debt ■ • ;£>73 432 ... ... ;,^270,523 Administration ••• 317. 063 ... 39,764 Public education ... 156,716 ... 37,904 Charity ■• 597, 673 - 46,854 Sanitary works 1 1 972 ... 1,221 Public security ••> 135 988 ... 10,776 Public works ... ... 640,665 ... 649,791 Italy — Land and People. 585 The insignificance of the sum expended for education is especially striking. The item charity includes about ^320,000 for Foundlings. The public works consist above all in road making, bridge-building, harbour, and water works. Cominu7ial Budgets. The expenditure of the communes has increased no less than in the provinces. The revenue in 1863 (without Venice or Rome, of course) was ^9,000,000. In 1S76 the figures stood thus : — Town communes Country communes Total Revenue ;^ii,682,4io 7,858,040 Expenditure ;^ii,683,o67 7.899>36i ;^i9,583,428 ;^i9>54o,45o Notes 071 the History of Finance. The ordinary receipts in Piedmont were long ago insufficient, whilst the other then existing States arranged their finances on a satisfactory footing, after the fluctuations caused by internal disturbances. The two Sicilies. — Great exertions were made to cover the extra- vagancies of Queen Caroline at the end of the last and the commencement of the present century. At the beginning of the Napoleonic dominion the finances were in a state of utter ruin. A land tax was resorted to for aid. After the Restoration in 1815, fresh confusion arose, which was increased by the Revolution suppressed in 1822, and by subsequent repeated rebellions. States of the Church. The Papal Finances were ruined from the time when the regular contributions from other Catholic countries began to fail. The amounts yielded by the " Peter's Pence" have been given from i86i to 1868. The official papers give no fixed amount for the subsequent years, but make a general statement only. 1861 ^567,360 1865 ^257,400 1862 376,080 1866 237,560 1863 281,880 1867 452:480 1864 233,280 1868 ... 440,000 Public Debt. From the foundation of the present kingdom to the present year, the capital of the debt, and the sum required for the payment of the interest due on it, have gone on steadily increasing year by year as may be seen in the following table : — Capital of Debt. Interest. 1870 ^352,611,280 ... ^^16,550,000 j 1871 358,028,960 ... 16,418,600 I 1872 384,887,840 ... 17.551.360 1873 390.304,520 ... 17,838,880 1874 391,509,720 ... 17,817,446 1875 397,392,680 ... 17,934,600 1876 430,767,960 ... 19,687,960 1877 451,719,600 ... 19,621,712 In order to obtain money, debts have been incurred in every possible 586 Italy — Land and People. direction. Consolidated loans, annuities, and ordinary loans of longer or shorter duration, with and without special security, with payments of simple interest, and with premiums, have been resorted to. Recourse has even been had to a forced paper currency. The " corso Forzoso," or notes having a forced currency, ran up from ^22,000,000 in 1870, to ;£^35, 000,000 in 1874, and to ^37,600,000 in 1877. In Tulv, 1874, the Italian Government had sold annuities for ^2,400,000 to the "houses of Rothschild in London and Paris, representing capital to the amount of ^48,000,000. Many valuable national estates have been alienated, and the price of them likewise dissipated. Crown lands to the value of ^11,080,000, and church lands, ^16,740,000, by the end of 1872. Immediately after the foundation of the State the Italian Government regarded it as a political duty to obliterate every difference between the debts of the various parts of the new kingdom, and, before all things, to facilitate the taking up of new loans. Thus, in July, 1861, there appeared a decree by which the alteration of all former bonds into new 5 per cent, bonds was ordered for the purpose of the " unification " of all the State debts. This regulation affected the creditors of the former states iri very unequal degrees, though generally very seriously. The market price of the older bonds had formerly been very various, but all had been higher than the exchange of the new paper. The amount of debt which the kingdom took as belonging to the former Roman territories, and after agreement with the Pope in December, 1866, amounted annually to ^293,333 in annuities, and ^530,411 in unredeemable debt, thus representing a capital debt of ^16,474,888, at 5 per cent. To this was added, after the complete abolition of the states of the church, the debt which remained upon the rest of the Papal dominions. As a remedy for these burdens, there were the old domains and eccle- siastical lands. The yearly value of the latter was estimated at ^3,050,648, though afterwards the estimate was reduced tO;^2,697,786. \\ith the proceeds of the sale of these lands the State undertook the burden of maintaining the clergy. The value of the lands now remaining to the State is about ;^45,8oo,ooo. Of these lands a considerable part is inalienable. Anny. The basis of the present military organization of Italy is that which obtains in Germany — viz., universal liability to serve. When the system shall have been carried out in all its details, which will not be effected until 1882, it is expected that the army will amount to 500,000 men of the first-class, and 140.000 of the reserve. There is an annual lexy ot from 70,000 to 80,000 of the youths of Italy of 18 to 21 years of age for the standing army. The time of service is three years in the Infantry and five in the Cavalry. The original supernumaries, who are not enrolled in the regular army, are numbered in the second-class, forming the reserve, after which follows the obligation to service in the provincial militia. In the Reserve the time of service is nine years. Every* native of the * The number ot those who avoided the fulfilment of their military duties amounted in the six yeatrs ( 1867-72) to 63.860, or 4.13 per cent, of all levied. In November. 1870, Ricotti, the then Minister of War, issued a circular to all the authorities chargtd with the levy, and to all the military surgeons, from which we tinJ that in one single circle (" Circondario") more than 20 conscripts had cut oH'a toe to avoid the levy; and in another circle 48 conscripts had cut oti "fingers for the same object. Italy — Land and People. 587 kingdom is liable to military service either in the standing army or in the Reserve. But if young men are able to pass a good examination, their time of service is reduced to one year upon the payment of ;^6o, and ^1^80 placed in the Military Fund. The Formation of the Anny. Infantry : 80 regiments of the Line, and 10 of reigments of Rifles each regiment consisting of 3 battalions of 4 companies. Cavalry : 20 regiments of 6 squadrons each. Artillery: 10 regiments each with 10 batteries of 8 guns and 3 com- panies, beside 25 companies of fortress Artillery. Engineers : 2 regiments each having 4 companies of Pioneers, and and 16 companies of sappers. In case of mobilization the army is formed into 10 army corps, each of 2 divisions, 30,000 combatants strong. The national militia is composed of 232 battalions of infantry, each of 4 companies; 15 battalions of cavalry; 60 batteries of artillery, and lo companies of engineers. STANDING ARMY, (Esercito permanente), September, 1877. Infantry, including 42,557 Bersaglieri (Rifles) and 7,551 m \ „ Alpine companies ... ... ... ... ) -> -" Cavalry 28,218 Artillery, 59,932. Engineers, 11,228 ... ... ... = 71,160 Carabinieri (Gendarmes) ... ... ... ... ••• 18,983 Military schools 3,723 ; sanitary companies 3,909 ... = 7'632 Invalids and veterans ... ... ... ... ^i7S Reserve depots ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 232 Discipline companies, 1,395. Houses of Correction, 1,905... 3,300 Officers in active service ... ... ... ... ... 11,423 Pensioned officers ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,054 659.615 STRENGTH OF THE RANK AND FILE OF THE ARMY IN DECEMBER, 1878. Description of Troops Peace Footing War Footing Infantry of the Hne ... ... 118,850 303,122 Bersaglieri (sharpshooters) ... 14,727 36,175 Cavalry 16,165 25,769 Artillery 17,202 35.364 Engineers 3,104 3,667 Military train... ... 2,454 9,605 Carabinieri ... 19,628 19,628 Administrative troops 4,463 8,215 Military students 2,964 2,964 199.557 444,509 These are exclusive of 15,110 officers. Fortresses. In the old provinces of the mainland, Alessandria, Casale, Genoa and smaller ones. In Lombardy, Pizzighettone, Pavia and three forts. 588 Italy — Land and People. Mantua- Venezia : The quadrilateral of Verona, Mantua, Peschiera and Legnago ; Venice, Chioggia, Palmanova and Osopo. In Central Italy, Civita-Vecchia, Ancona, Ferrara, Piacenza, Bologna, Reggio ; Castelle at Leghorn, Sienna, Volterra, Pistoja, Florence, Rome, (Castle of St. Angelo), and four smaller ones, and the island of Elba ; Porto Ferrago and Porto Longone. In Lower Italy, Gaeta, Capua, Civitella dell Tronto, Pescara, Citadelle of Naples. In Sicily, Messina, Syracuse and the forts of Palermo. In the island of Sardinia, Cagliari and Sassari. By enactment of March, 1874, the sum of ;^3, 196,000 extra were ordered to be spent in fortifying the country ; viz., ;^644,ooo for the forti- fication of the frontier, ^800.000 for works within the peninsula, ;^944,ooo for coast defences, ^400,000 for magazines and other military buildings, and ^^400,000 for the arming of fortified places. Navy in 1876 and 1879. The navy of Italy consisted of 18 ironclads carrying 32 guns, 58,881 horse-power, and 97,542 tonnage, (including 3 turret ships, 4 frigates of ist, and 6 of 2nd class, i battering ram, 2 corvettes, i gunboat and i torpedo- vessel. 19 sea and station vessels, carrying 132 guns, 11,409 horse-power. 22,779 tonnage; 10 advice boats of 31 guns, 12,847 horse-power, and 13,042 tonnage; 11 steam tugs of 14 guns, 3,338 horse-power, and 3,875 tonnage ; 2 screw steamers of 360 horse-power and 484 tonnage. Total, 66 vessels, 339 guns, 93,063 horse-power, and 147,345 tonnage. The navy was manned in 1876 by 1080 officers, 8,213 sailors in service, and 21,311 on unlimited furlough. The marines consisted of 1,532 soldiers. There are three seaboard departments : Spezia, Venice and Taranto. The principal harbour of war is La Spezia, on which more than ;^2, 000,000 have already been spent, and yet the works are far from complete. In 1879 the Italian Navy consisted of :- 16 Ironclads with 9 Frigates 20 Corvettes 12 Gunboats 29 Transports ... 86 vessels 124 guns 280 „ 167 „ 47 .» 58 „ 676 guns The navy was manned by 11,200 sailors, 660 engineers and working men, 1,271 officers. The marines consisted of two regiments, comprising 205 officers and 2,700 soldiers. Wrecks. ITALIAN VESSELS. Of which in Foreign Seas Total Year No . Vessels Tons 1870 165 . 23.957 1871 173 . 23.318 1872 197 . . 23,681 1873 176 • 35.195 1874 178 . 31.437 Of wl ich under Foreign Flags Total Lires Tons Lost 59 ... 16,877 ... 210 60 ... 15,722 ... 98 47 ... 13,886 ... 72 83 ... 28,678 ... 75 82 ... 25,070 ... 1S9 Italy — Land and People. 589 Year 1875 1876 1877 1878 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Of which in Foreign Seas Total No. Vessels Tons 150 ••• 32,558 117 ... 20,936 166 ... 29,663 , 138 ... 28,839 ON ITALIAN COASTS. , 135 ... 12,762 . 140 ... 15,505 168 ... 19,633 127 ... 11,330 113 ... 8,236 92 ... 9,264 83 ... 6,736 128 ... 14,457 89 ... 8,140 Of which under Foreign Flags Total Tons No. 77 45 58 64 29 24 18 34 17 19 1 1 20 15 28,151 16,568 22,1509 23,878 5,682 7,909 9,838 4,813 1,869 4,857 2,368 7,303 3,179 Lives Lost 178 115 75 47 43 21 55 53 72 52 37 51 44 Social Condition. a. GENERAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION (LaSt CenSUs). In agriculture and stock breeding ... 8,565,547 Woods and forests ... ... ... ... ... ... 86,272 Fishing and hunting ... ... ... ... ... ... 48,568 Mining industries ... ... ... ... ... ... 38,178 Trade i99»9oi Transports 271,052 Moveable and immoveable property ... ... ... ... 765,099 Service 473>834 Army and navy ... ... ... ... ... ... 145,304 Public offices 136,929 Religion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 148,883 The Law 25,986 Sanitary works... ... ... ... ••• ... ... 54, 409 Education ... .. ... ... ... 52,577 Fine arts 41,151 Literature and science ... ... ... ... ... 14,1 45 Acrobats, strolling minstrels, hawkers, etc. ... ... ... 22,782 Without permanent occupation, such as road-sweepers, water-carriers, grave-diggers ... ... ... ... 650,141 Without definite employment... ... ... ... ... 11,773,208 The degree of wealth or poverty of the population may be seen in the list of those subject to the income tax. In 187 1, out of 631,582 inhabi- tants subject to the tax, no fewer than 548,210 are returned with incomes of less than ^40, and only 83,372 with incomes of larger amounts. The total incomes of the 548,210 amounted only to ^^6,828,941; while the incomes of the 83,372 amounted to ^'12,116,086. In 1875 there were 559,374 persons with incomes of less than ^40, and 78,246 with larger incomes. There were of this last class 48,990 with incomes varying between ^40 and ^80; 121 with incomes varying between ^1,600 590 Italy — Land and People. and ^2,000 ; ji with incomes between ^4,000 and ^5,000, and 31 with incomes over ^^40,000. The wealth is unequally distributed over the whole of Italy — the poorest portion being Lower Italy : — No. subject to Amount of incomes Inhabitants the income tax subject to the tax Upper Italy 9,847,007 ... 263,675 ... ^8,312,142 Central Italy 6,558,077 ... 163,539 ... 6,681,395 Lower Italy ... ... 10,396,070 ... 204,368 ... 3,951,490 26,801,154 631,582 ;^i8,945,o27 Clergy. There are no fewer than 45 archbishops and 185 bishops, the number of the clergy being 7 per 1,000 of the population. According to a law of 28th June, 1866, the monastic establishments were suppressed. Indepen- dently of the secular clergy, there were at that time 82 different orders, and 2,382 monastic estates, 658 of which belonged to the mendicant orders. The detail is as follows : — {a.) Orders with property, 63, and 1,162 religious houses, wherein were 5,687 monks and 12,481 nuns and lay sisters. ip.) Mendicant Orders, 10 male orders, with 1,209 religious houses and 18,856 monks; 3 female orders, with 43 convents and 1,372 nuns. To these must be added those of the incorporated province of Rome — 311 monasteries, with 2,375 monks; and 163 convents, with 2,183 nuns. The number of the suppressed clerical corporations was 2,169. Under the new Italian Government a great part of the property confiscated from the monasteries has been devoted to education. Education. By a decree of November 15th, 1859, primary education was made compulsory and free : the carrving out of this decree was, however, very deficient through the want of suitable teachers. It was shewn in 1861-62 that the proportion in every 1,000 inhabitants who could neither read nor write was as follows : — Males l-'emalcs In the old provinces and Lombardy ... 461 ... 574 „ Central Italy ... ... ... ... 641 ... 750 „ Naples and Sicily* ... ... ... 835 ... 938 When these results of the census became kncwn, when it was found that there were 17,000,000 of Italians (7,889,238 males and 9,110,463 females) uneducated, a cry of indignation and shame was heard throughout all the educated classes of the Peninsula. The census of 1871 shewed that the number of the so-called " analphabetists '" (unlettered) was 19,500,000, but the population had increased at the same time both by annexation and natural causes. * Even in Palermo, capital of Sicily out of the 191,415 inhabitants, tiieie were 142,313 wlio were unable to read ox write; and among die 57,177 children under 15 years of age, no fewer than 52,950 could neither read nor write. From this it may easily be understood how few in the interior of the island liad received any instruction. Italy — Land and People. 591 The following comparative statement will shew the })er centage of the analphabetists in the various districts : — Piedmont Liguria Lombard)' Emilia Umbria Marches Tuscany 1861. i8-[. 57-43 50-09 percent. 69.79 62.17 ,, 58.68 53.32 80.37 75.08 85.90 82.65 85.14 81.56 77.78 72.44 „ Abru/;zo Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicily Sardinia Average 1861. 1S71. 89.15 85.87 per cent. «5-33 72.44 88.61 86.56 91. 89. ;8 90.46 87.05 90.13 87.22 91.04 87.98 78.29 73.27 per cent. Of the male population in both periods who could not read, 72.63 and 67.75 pel" ce^^t. ; of the female population, 83.97 and 78.89 per cent. Of the young people between 12 and iS who were unlettered the percen- tage was 72.02 in 1861 and 64.80 in 1871 — the boys 67.79 and 61. 11, while the proportion of girls was 76.07 and 68.42 per cent. In 1872 there were 30,975 elementary schools, with 30,663 male and female teachers, of whom, however, 6, 1 90 had not yet passed the exami- nation ; the maximum number of pupils was stated to be 1,378,666, the minimum number 976,289. There were also mixed public schools, with 174,723 scholars and 3,266 teachers, of whom 1,094 were uncertificated. Also 7,874 private schools, number of teachers 8,203, of whom 4,700 were uncertificated; number of pupils, 132,626 boys and 161,001 girls. There ■were 1,293 mixed private schools, with 25,212 boy pupils and 31,077 girl pupils. There were 9,809 evening schools, with 375,947 scholars, also 4,743 Sunday schools. In 1877 the infant schools were attended by 147,978 children. students. ,, . elementary schools ,, 1,934,069 ,, gymnasia and lyceums „ 44,868 In normal and town schools 6,775 „ technical schools 19,876 „ technical special schools 11,969 ,, universities 8,748 ,, other high schools 2,024 „ clerical schools ... 3,459 „ academy of fine arts 4,096 „ conservatoire of music ... 898 Total 2,184,760 There are 21 universities — 8 belonging to the first class, and the remainder to the second class. First Class. — Naples with 2,453 students. Turin „ 1,234 Padua ,, 974 Pavia „ 652 Rome ,, 559 Bologna ,, 511 Pisa 470 Palermo „ 333 592 Italy — Land and People. 388 223 184 152 141 79 70 54 52 The free universities of the provinces are Ferrara, with 67 ; Perugia. 67 ; Urbino, 60 ; and Camerino, with 25 students. The marriage register has shown very Httle improvement in education since 1866, notwithstanding all that this Government has done for it. The proportion in every 100 persons married who were not able to sign the marriage papers were as follows : — Second Class. —Genoa Modena .. Parma Catania Siena Messina .. Sassari .. Cagliari .. Macerata.. 1866 1868 1870 1872 1874 1875 1876 Bridegrooms ■ 59-06 58.91 58.54 56.22 54-48 54.32 52-35 Brides ... • 78.97 78.43 77.48 75-28 74-37 74.76 72.95 In the levying of the troops the proportion appears rather more favour- able. Out of the youths of 2 1 years of age, drawn for military service, the following percentage could neither read nor write in the years — 1863 65.46 1866 64.27 1870 60.49 1872 56.74 187a 51.80 1877 51-99 Literature. In 1863, 4,243 works were published independently of periodicals: 685 were on literature, 608 on education, 460 on theology, 286 on political economy, statistics, etc., 251 on history, 239 on jurisprudence, 232 on poli- tics, 228 on medicine, and 226 on arts and science. In 1872 there were 1,116 newspapers and periodicals published, of Vhich 396 were political, 100 agricultural, 71 religious (63 Romani<5t, 7 Protestant, i Jewish), 58 educational, 55 on fine arts, etc. Of the total 1,116, 1,087 ^ippeared in the Italian language, 14 in French, 6 in English, 2 in German, i in Armenian, 6 in Italian dialects. The number of subscribers to the periodicals was 1,089,105. In 1877, 5»743 books were published. The value of the export and import of books and papers was as follows in 1876 and 1877 : — Export Import ^204,064 3oi>556 ^505.620 IS77 ^271,682 298,244 >^"569.926 Criminal Statistics. In the year 1867, 2,626 murders, or ii in every 10,000 inhabitants. The number of murders increases as we go from north to south — thus, in Venetia, there were 1.59 per 10,000 inliabitants ; in Calabria, 30.78 per 10,000. Italy — Land and People. 593 In 1872, 67,868 arrests took place, 2,019 of which were for murder or manslaughter, 873 for attempted murder or assassination, 2,482 for highway robbery, 10,389 for wounding, 15,341 for theft, 406 for incendiarism, 1,577 for resistance to the laws, 197 for absconding, and 34,584 for other crimes. The greatest number of arrests was furnished by the circle of Florence — viz., 13,873 ; the smallest, Cagliari — viz., 2,307. In 1874 there were 3,438 murders, 31,474 wounded, 3,954 robberies. In the first nine months of 1879 there were no fewer than 2,900 murders, or attempts at murder, committed in the kingdom, being an average of io| a-day. During the same period there occurred 1,900 cases of highway robbery, the perpetrators of which entirely escaped justice to the number of 800. An interesting report has just been issued (1880) by the Statistical department of Italy sliowing the social status of the prisoners in the penal establishments, 'f ht- number in confinement is as follows : — Male Female Total • •• 3>543 ••• 177 Agricultural Commercial Sedentary trades Active trades Domestic servants Fishermen and boatmen Vagabonds and prostitutes Soldiers and sailors Ecclesiastical Students Liberal professions Living on their means Officials Total 620 508 994 876 63 48 57 12 6 170 115 7>i45 1 1 113 16 87 16 33 453 3>72o 631 621 1,010 963 63 64 57 12 6 170 148 133 7,598 ^ Material Condition — Agriculture. 56,852,227 acres of land are subject to taxation, and 9,872,730 are tax free. Of the former — Arable land... Vineyards ... Olive groves Chestnut woods Woods and forests ... Rice ground Cotton Tobacco Corn Crops... The produce is estimated thus : — Wheat Maize Rice Barley ... ... ..- ••• bush. 20,662,399 4,619,168 2,223,768 1,224,611 9>o3i»3io 574,692 85,388 8,202 19,389,289 142,422,513 85,520,420 26,999,9^5 18,417,542 2 p 594 Italy — Land and People. Oats Lentils, beans, etc. Peas and vetches ... Potatoes Hemp Flax Wine Oil Chestnuts Olives Cotton Tobacco The corn grown is insufficient for the consumption : an average amount of 14,676,480 bushels is required after deducting the exports, In Tuscany a better quality of corn, " grano gentile," is regularly exported, and an in- ferior corn is imported. Live Stock, 1876 (No later returns issued). bush. 19,369,809 J' 5>267,52o J5 8,619,768 V i9>3S7,i67 lbs. 105,509,470 II 25,667,070 galls. 5,970,037 tt 734,830 cwts. 5,129,626 bush. 9,310,375 cwts. 354,827 )) 90,300 1874. 1876.. 1874 1876 Horses 477,906 657,544 Mules 219,456 293,868 Asses 498,766 501,580 Cattle ?,I25 Sheep and lambs 6,977,104 1,688,478 Pigs 1,553,582 Mining Industries. The average yield throughout the years 1867 to 1870 was worth ^^4,382, 800, and employed 106,580 workmen. The most important were those of; — /ield in Cwts. Iron 1,675,535 Copper ... ... 260,000 Lead ■ 645,000 Zinc 600,000 Gold — Sulphur 2,200,000 Lignite and petroleum 1,725,000 Salt 3,500,000 Marble* 900,000 Value ;^820,000 64,800 332,000 176,000 49,200 1,040,000 126,000 80,000 420,000 Workmen 820,000 2,500 4,900 4,700 750 19,000 3,450 4,500 5,500 In 1873 the value of the mining industries was ^2,245,214 : — Exported Tons Value Workmen Tons Value Sulphur... 280,211 ...;^i, 381,398 ••• 22,817 ••• 202,376 ...£i,2i^,2s6 Lead ... 33,283 ... 293,345 ... 5,100 ... 21,411 ... 256,988 Zinc ... 79,047 ••• 2j6,i44 ... 3,657 ... 56,593 ... 180,097 Iron ... 260,199 ... 132,729 ••■ 1,814 ... 161,949 ... 97,169 The exports of minerals were valued at ^{^i, 870,720 ; the imports at ^5,216. Total number of workmen 36,643. Fatal accidents 62, 36 of • Besides what is used in the country Italy — Land and People. 595 which occurred in the sulphur mines. Sicily yields large cjuantities of sulphur. In 4 months, from January ist to April 30th, 171,698,875 lbs. were sent from the Sicilian Ports, of which 40,128,715 lbs. were for places in Italy; 43,972,244 lbs. for France; 28,323,568 for Great Britain; and 11,623,441 lbs. for America. CoDtmerce. Some of the princi years 1875, 1S76, 1877, Coal £ Coffee... Coral (rough).. Cotton, raw ... Cotton yarn ... Cotton tissues un- bleached... Cotton tissues bleached Cotton tissues colored Cotton tissues printed Fish of all sorts Fresh Fruit ... Grain, wheat ... Hides ... Horses Indigo... Olive oil Mineral refined oil Silk Silk manufactured Sugar refined ... Sugar raw Tobacco leaf ... Wool Yarn, linen and hemp. . . Gold and silver and ( Precious stones ... j pal articles imported and the value of them for the 1878 :— 1,610,560 • 1,357,960 • .. 1,279,040 ,. 1,375,640 .. 1,661,840 , 153,240 485,040 675.600 1,300,080 833,080 105,000 3,111,240 1,472,200 284,280 366,440 438,440 542,360 1,388,200 1,069,960 1,617,120 757,040 1,270,160 1,1 18,080 766,960 18/6 ^1,861,400 ... 1,308,840 . 702,920 , ••• 1,373,640 ... 1,787,160 146,800 461,600 ... 575,600 ... 1,204,320 824,480 ... 115,720 — 3,683,320 ... 1,390,520 ... 336,880 354,640 98,160 700,680 4,878,040 1,238,040 1,695,360 1,045,520 1,282,480 1,387,240 597^640 187- ^1,595,440 .. 1,173,160 . ... 542,880 . ■• 1,643,360 . ... 1,665,160 , 126,920 ... 443'08o ... 450,440 ••• 1,073,840 812,080 ... 123,640 ... 2,524,400 ... 1,346,800 ... 133,200 , 260,080 250,640 . ... 898,560 ... 1,552,760 ... 897,880 ... 1,494,440 , ... 1,422,120 ... 1,055,120 ••• 1,3375800 606,240 . 1,843,680 1878 ^1,590,280 ... 1,091,920 ... 316,920 ... 1,619,320 ... 1,081,640 ... 132,520 519,120 347,080 910,160 732,440 105,040 3,663,280 1,063,560 219,000 240,560 65,200 566,440 2,306,080 563,520 915,080 1,338,920 755,120 1,124,640 817,800 Some of the Cattle Swine ... Cotton Drugs ... Dyeing stuffs ... Eggs ..._ Fresh fruit Almonds Barley and Malt Wheat Oats Hemp and Flax. Principal A? 1875 ^649,040 69,640 147,280 251,160 637,480 344,680 1,319,320 288,200 1,004,480 579,360 44,320 1,151,920 tides of Export and their Value. 1876 ^1,067,080 288,120 73,440 261,440 690,400 988,280 1,248,960 559'04o 1,076,880 807,280 87,36c 1,104,320 1877 ;^i, 873,720 310,880 54,320 297,200 167,560 841,360 1,357,600 158,880 727,400 842,920 48,240 823,320 £ 2,051,440 229,680 267,960 232,120 465,760 1,095,920 960,280 549,240 642,680 591,720 94,480 1,341,880 596 Italy — Land and People. 1875 1876 1877 1878 Horses ^i9>96o ^23,000 ^^30,960 ^68,960 Lead ore 221,600 269,880 286,320 280,080 Meat ... 306,800 319,040 467,160 417,640 Olive oil 5^930,720 4,877,400 1,175,200 3,496,080 Rags 166,280 116,640 161,680 90,640 Rice 1,018,760 747,560 872,040 865,920 Silk 9,941,480 14,430,000 7,113,880 9,018,440 Silk waste 1,013,360 989,360 846,800 828,560 Silk manufactured 467,000 615,400 416,600 447,640 Sulphur 801,760 1,129,480 1,001,400 1,047,960 Wine in casks... 704,400 996,440 425,640 420,040 Zinc ore 206,400 226,600 254,600 149,640 Gold silver and ( 1,858,228 . precious stones / Total Value of Imports and Exports. 1875 1876 1877 1878 Imports ^^99,845, 000 ^108 ,876,000 ^'94 704,000 ^87,963,000 Exports 84,936, 000 100 ,750,000 78, 255,000 78,121,000 Total ^184,781,000 ^209,626,000 ^172,959,000 ^166,084,000 The trade returns for 1879 show a general and satisfactory increase of about 8 per cent, over 1878. Under the heading of hemp and flax, there is a considerable increase in the import of rope and cordage from Scotland and Germany ; the export of raw and hackled hemp and flax has increased by 102,328 cwts., princi- pally to France. The import of raw cotton has increased by 1,279,107 cwts., but the import of cotton goods has considerably decreased ; this is due partly to the high tariff, but principally to the satisfactory development of manulacturing power, which is on the increase. The import of raw- wool has increased, though that of woollen goods has decreased, again showing the increased power of Italians to help themselves. In consequence of the bad silk harvest, there has been an increase in the import of raw silk from China and Japan (59,035 cwts.), and 39,357 cwts. ot cocoons. The thrown silk trade of Italy has not been flourishing of late, partly arising from the changes of fashion, and partly from the in- creased competition of China and Japan. Value of Trade with Foreign Countries. Russia Germany ... Holland ... Belgium ... Great Britain France and Algeria Spain and Portugal Austria Switzerland Greece Imports ;^I, 855,840 1,492,480 790,200 514,680 1 1,909,080 14,794,000 96,240 9,385,600 1,441,1 20 385.840 1875 Exports ^987,200 945,360 463,800 249,000 5,603,360 15,702,280 348,400 7,664,400 4,351,680 495,600 1876 Imports Exports ^1,395,000 ^1,383,760 1,603,560 823,960 733,520 262,720 12,376,840 17,127,640 288,360 10,610,920 1,324,680 206,640 509,280 422,800 5,356,480 21,892,680 393,640 7,403,200 6,058,880 400,640 Italy — Land and PeopL 'e. 597 c^- 1878. Imports Exports Imports Exports Turkey ;^I, 218,440 ^528,640 ^2,496,640 ^244,160 Egypt 486,600 546,600 464,400 351,160 Tunis and Tripoli... 274,160 107,520 222,520 135,680 United States 1,719,720 1,163,400 1,979,360 822,040 America, Central . . . 661,720 96,080 232,840 525,120 America, South ... 1,202,400 1,868,920 1,512,600 1,706,800 Imports 1S77 Exports Imports 878 Exports Russia ^1,136,280 ;^798,o8o ^{^2, 140,040 ^708,440 Germany 1,008,080 664,600 1,579,240 833,960 Holland 685,560 375,440 502,880 400,000 Belgium ... 481,120 336,880 610,720 260,200 Great Britain I 1,860,840 5,027,720 9,483,400 3,875,520 France and Algeria 13,282,880 16,755,600 10,915,560 19,571,680 Spain and Portugal 211,640 487,400 174,160 562,880 Austria 9,500,920 6,198,840 7,862,480 6,934,680 SAvitzerland 1,120,280 6,058,880 1,340,760 3,957,040 Greece 251,120 325,520 225,560 550,160 Turkey ... 2,225,480 340,760 1,616,440 593,720 Egypt ... ... 471,560 396,200 368,040 310,400 Tunis and Tripoli .. 170,640 119,360 283,640 119,800 United States 1,594,520 1,087,160 2,169,440 1,459,840 America, Central... 381,520 106,720 ) 1,739,840 / 1,119,600 America, South ... 2,031,120 1,109,360 Shipping. In 1876 there were 208,631 individuals engaged in a seafaring life, including 30,788 coast fishermen, and 16,189 shipwrights. The number of sailing vessels was 10,903 with a tonnage of 1,020,488. The vessels are mostly small. There were 142 steamers of 57,881 tons. Liguria alone had 1,824 sailing vessels, and 81 steamers. The Ligurians are considered in Italy as the Phoenicians of the Mediterranean. The harbour traffic in 1876 was {a.) VESSELS WHICH MAKE LONG VOYAGES. Including Vessels Tonnage Sailing Vessels Tonnage Entered 15,920 ... 3,534,455 ••• 12,588 ... 1,372,356 Cleared 16,493 ••• 3,819,85s ... 12,896 ... 1,497,623 Total Entered . . . Cleared ... Total 32,413 7,354,310 25,484 \b.) COASTING VESSELS, " CABOTAGIO." 84,822 ... 8,826,703 ... 68,487 84,510 ... 8,554,353 ... 68,485 169,332 17,381,056 136,972 1877. Sailing vessels, ... 10,742 ... Tonnage ... 1,010,130 58,319 2,869,979 2,287,435 2,202,212 4,489,647 Steam Total 151 10,893 1,068,449 598 Italy — Land and People. Sailing vessels Steam ., 8,438 152 Tonnage Total 8,590 The most important harbours are : — 1. Genoa. ... 4. Palermo. 2. Naples. ... 5. Venice. 6. Ancona. 966,137 63,020 1,029,157 7. Brindisi. 8. Catania. 3. Leghorn Railways. These embrace the upper Italian lines, the Roman, the Southern, (including the Sicilian), the Sardinian, the Turin-Cirie, and others. 1S75 1876 1877- Totallength of State Lines — miles 951 ... 2,208 ... 3,292 „ Companies „ 3,820 ... 2,638 ... 2,704 Cost of Construction ^91,833,000 ;;r95,685,ooo ^97,989,036 Total number of passengers ... 27,951,146 28,076,067 28,055,467 Weight of goods carried — Tons 7,228,000 7,150,500 ' 7,486,200 Receipts from passengers ... ^^2,731, 000 ^^2,725, 000 ^2,748,573 „ Goods ... 3,058,000 3,306,000 3,355,058 Total expenses Accidents — Passengers Employes Others Total f killed ( wounded ... I killed ( wounded ... I killed I wounded ... j killed (wounded ... ^3,905.640 ^4,051 ,000 ;^4,ii6,76o 10 I ... 56 ... 76 ... 436 ... 90 ... 38 84 435 85 — 79 ... 57 — ... 176 ... 389 170 530 152 408 Special mention should be made of the Mont Cenis and St. Gothard tunnels. The former was constructed in concert with France, and is 40,081 feet long. The St. Michael's eiiirance lies 3,964 feet above the sea ; there is a difference of 435 feet in elevation between the two ends, the rise being on the French side. The middle of the tunnel reaches an absolute elevation of 4,213 feet — the heat here reaches 21/3" Reaumir. A still greater engineering triumph is the St. Gothard tunnel constructed in concert with Italy and Switzerland, and completed March, 1880. Its length is 1 12 feet over 9^ miles ; breadth, 2\\ feet ; yet it was finished in ♦ None later. Even 1877 are not quite complete. Italy — Land and People. 599 seven years and five months — a,\ years less than the time taken to make the Mont Cenis tunnel. The average daily progress was i8 feet ; number of borings, 320,000; dynamite used in blasting, 9,642 cwts ; drills consumed 1,650,000 ; debris removed, 1,450,000 cartloads. The temperature during construction, 80 <^ to 85° F., which with defective ventilation, foul air, caused by the perpetual explosions of dynamite, and other causes, produced a species of disorder known as ''Tunnel trichinosis affecting 70 to 80 per cent, of men engaged on the works and very fatal to boys. It also attacked the horses, who died off at the rate of 25 per cent per month. Road Making. During the year 1878, 8,514 miles of parish roads were constructed by the State at a cost of upwards of ^963,588. The following provinces have participated in this improvement :— Piedmont, 381 miles; Liguria, 315 miles; Lombardy, 177 miles; Venice, 146 miles; Emilia, 694 miles; Marches, 481 miles; Tuscany, 468 miles; Umbria, 411 miles; Latium, 339 miles; Abruzzi, 1,171 miles; Campania, 970 miles; Apulia, 347 miles; Basilicata, 191 miles; Calabria, 1,148 miles; Sicily, 840 miles; Sardinia, 369 miles. In addition to these Government roads, 19,510 miles have been made, or are in course of construction, by the various communes at a cost of ^4,666,059. A good deal of this money has been paid by provincial grants and extra taxes, and the remainder will be met by a loan. The whole scheme of provincial roadmaking amounts to a total of ;^i6,592,8o6, so that there still remains an outlay to come of ;^i 1,926,747. Telegraph. In January, i §78, the length of the line was 15,918 miles, and the length of wire, 50,050 miles. The length of the submarine cable is no miles ; this is the property of the State. The number of offices open to the public was 2,223. The number of messages forwarded was — home service, 4,577,685 ; international service, 369,290 ; in transit, 210,524. Total receipts, ^302,820; total expenses, ^268,668. Post. There passed through the post in the year — Letters Post Cards Newspapers Other Packages Post Offices 1875 ... 115,489,027 ... 8,888,888 ■•• 64,979,37o •■■ 48,870,168 ... 3,010 1876 ... 119,658,500 ... 6,666,660 ... 65,282,000 ... 54,789,000 ... 3,120 Banks. Banks which issue notes are the National Bank (Banca Nazionale), ^8,000,000 capital; National Bank of Tuscany, ^1,200,000 capital; Credit Bank of Tuscany, ^,{^400,000 ; Roman Bank, ^600,000 capital, the Bank of Naples ^1,560,000, and the Bank of Sicily, _ ^^368,000. A new law concerning the issue of paper money was decreed in 1879. Savings' Banks. At the end of 1877 there were 354 savings' banks. 880,022 deposit books, and deposits amounting to ^22,962,192. To these must be added 3,090 post office savings banks, with 144,294 books and ^258,558 deposits. 6cx) Italy — Land and People. Semi-Independent States. San Marino (Republu.) The area of this State is Uttle more than 2 1 English square miles, and a population of 7,816. Revenue and expenditure, ^^4,800. Debt none. The militia consists of about 1,000 men. Monaco (Principality.) Since the cession of territory to France in 1861, it is limited to the town district of Monaco and Monte Carlo, and contains 5,741 inhabitants, of whom 2,667 dwell in the town. SWITZERLAND (Free State) { LAND AND PEOPLE. RE A, 15,977 English square miles, and population, according to the census of 1870, 2,669,147. A calculation in the middle of 1876 gives it as 2,759,854. The country is divided into 22 Cantons, three of which, however, are sub-divided, making in all 25, which are united into one Confederate State, Population According to Creeds Area Of which are in Other Cantons Sqr. miles productive 1876 Protestants Catholics Christians Jew Zurich 665 623 294,994 263,730 17,942 2,610 504 Berne 2,659 2.078 528,670 436,304 66,015 2,747 1,400 Lucerne 579 528 133,316 3,823 128,328 79 98 Uri 415 184 16,900 80 16,018 I 8 Schwytz 373 254 49,216 647 47,047 4 7 Unterwalde, { 183 358 Upper 154 15.009 14,055 2 Unterwalde, Lower -; 112 84 11,983 66 11,632 — 3 Glarus 266 173 36,179 28,238 6,888 7 17 Zug 92 74 21,775 878 20,082 17 16 Freiburg 644 567 "3,952 16,819 93,951 15 47 Solothurn ... 302 277 77,803 12,448 62,072 lOI 92 Basle (city)... 13 1 1 51,515 34,457 12,301 496 506 ,, country 162 156 55,548 43,523 10,245 228 131 Schaffhausen. 113 108 38,925 31,466 3.051 180 24 Appenzell out- side Rhode 100 97 48,879 46,175 2,35« 171 82 Appenzell within Rhode 61 54 11,907 J 88 11,720 1 — 602 Sivitzerland — Land and People. Population According to Creeds Area Of which are in Other Cantons Sqr- miles productive 1876 Protestants Catholics ^haistians Jew* St. Gall ... 779 661 196,834 74,573 I 16,060 190 192 Graubiinden, or Orisons.. 2,773 517 92,906 51,887 39,843 35 17 Aargau 541 517 201,567 107,703 80,180 449 1,541 Thurgau 381 322 95,074 69,231 23,454 531 84 T e s s i n, or Ticino 1,087 726 121,768 194 119,350 40 36 Waadt,orVaud 1,244 i'053 242,439 211,686 17,592 1,812 610 Neuenburg . . . 311 220 102,843 84,234 11,345 931 671 Geneva 107 89 90,352 43,639 47,868 771 964 Valais 2,025 930 100,490 900 95,963 20 4 Of foreigners dwelling in Switzerland, there were in 1870, 150,907, of whom 62,228 were French; 57,245 Germans; 18,073 Italians; 5,872 Aus- trians ; 36 Hungarians ; 2,297 English ; 1,599 Russians ; 1,404 Americans ; 492 Belgians; 349 Spaniards ; 260 Dutch ; 216 Scandinavians. Area of the Principal Lakes. Lakes English sq. mile English sq. milts Geneva ... 221 of w hich only f3i belong to Switzerland Constance 206 ,» 70 ,, j> Neuchatel 91 ,, 16 ,, 5, Lago Maggiore. 82 ,» ,, )> Lucerne 40 ,, ?> , Zurich ... 34 j> ,5 J» Lugano ... 19 ,> ,5 ,, Thun ... 18 ), ,» ,> Bienne ... 16 >> 5, ,, Zug 14 >, ,, ,» Brienz .... 10 ,, ', ,, Morat ... 10 ,5 ,> 5, Wallensee 8 ,, 5, ,» Number of Houses Occupied. In 1870 there were 387,148, with 2,395,902 habitable apartments ; number of households, 557,018; population: — 1,304,833 males; 1,364.314 females. According to civil position : — husbands and wives living together, 799,346 ; actually divorced, 40,892 ; separated, 8.546 ; widowed, 172,297 ; single, 1,648,066. 1,442,301 of the population have the right of domicile in their native place, 781,263 in other places than their own native com- mune, yet within the same canton. 294,036 foreigners have right of domicile or are naturalized in the canton in which they live. Persons without a home number 640. Movement of the Population. In 1871 there were 19,514 marriages, 77,998 deaths, 81,629 births. Of these 4,643 = 5.69 per cent, were illet;itiniate. If Basle and Geneva are excluded, owing to the peculiar circumstances existing there, the largest number of illegitimate (hildren are born in Lucerne, viz., 10. 11 per cent., and the smallest number in Tessin, only = 0.82 per cent. S%vitzcrland — Land and People. 603 The average number of illegitimate births in the years 1867-71 in the various Cantons was as follows : — Per Cent. p :rCent. Zurich .. (5-5)* 50 Appenzell ex. Rhodes (3-5> 4.0 Berne ... •• (5-8) 6.6 Appenzell within Rhodes (1.6^ 1-7 Lucerne •• (5-4) II-5 St. Ciall ... (3-2^ 4.0 Uri .. (2.8) 2.0 Grison . . . (4.0) 3.8 Schwytz .. (2.5) 3-5 Aargau (4.L 6.4 Upper Walden .. (2.1) 3-9 Thurgau ... (4.2: 4.1 Lower Walden .. (2.8) 3-3 Tessin . . . (4.7 ) 0.6 Glarus ... •■ (1-5) 1-3 Vaud . . . ... (5-4 6.2 Zug .. (2.1) 3-8 Valais ... (4.6 ) 3-8 Freiburg •• (5.9) 3-1 Neuchatel (3-8 ) 4.8 Soleure ■• (5-6) 7-4 Geneva (10.4 ) 12.2 Basle (city) .. (II. 9) 9.0 In the whole of Swit- ( 5-8 Basle (district) ■• (3-9) 6.0 zerland ... i Schaffhausen ... •• (4.3) 5-9 By a law of the Confederacy passed on Dec. 24, 1874, the custody of the civil register was put unconditionally into the hands of the government. Up to that time it had been principally managed by the clergy, this was exclusively so in the outlying Cantons. In 1876, there were 22,376 marriages; 90,786 births, 46,744 male, 44,042 female (born alive); 3,809 stillborn, viz., 2180 male, and 1,629 female; 66,819 deaths, 35,120 male, 31,699 female; 1,775 were violent deaths, of which 540 were suicides, murders, 109. The number of divorces was 1,102, The percentage of illegitimate births in 1876 is somewhat less than in 1871. Emigration. The number of emigrants to countries beyond the sea, with the excep- tion of those from the Cantons of Uri, Soleur, Vaud, and Geneva (of which the returns are wanting) was 22,358 from 1868 to 1872. Of this total it seems that 21,269 went to North America ; 3,933 to South America; 550 to Central America ; 600 to Africa ; 70 to Asia, and the remainder to Australia. Men. Women. Children. Total. 1868 2,810 ... 1,085 1,112 5,007 1869 2,898 ... 1,100 1,208 5,206 1870 1,964 ... 778 752 3>494 I87I 2,078 ... 930 844 3,852 1872 2,633 ••• 1,094 1,172 4,899 1873 4,957 1874 2,672 1875 1,772 1876 1,741 In this year the returns of Freiburg are i ilso wanting. * Figures within bracket.s are for 1876. 6o4 Switzerland — Land and People. Nationalities (Classified in households, according to language.) 384,538 of German. i33>575 of French. 30,079 of Italians. 8,778 of Romanic. French is the language almost universally spoken by the inhabitants ofVaud, Geneva, and Neuchatel; in this last, however, there are only 17,045 French households, against 2,628 German; in Valais there are 13,459 French households, against 6,378 German; in B'reiburg 16,682, against 6,056 Germans ; in Berne 16,643, against 83,688 Germans. The canton of Tessin or Ticino is chiefly Italian. It contains 26,320 Italian households, against 108 Germans and 16 French. In the Grisons 9,347 households are German, 8,740 are Romanic, 3,024 are Italian, and 291 French. Switzerland reckons among her 3,052 communes 1,695 German households in 19 cantons ; 945 French in 6 cantons ; 291 Italian in 2 cantons; and 118 Romanic in i Canton. German is exclusively spoken in 17I Cantons, containing 509 communes. French is exclusively spoken in 3 cantons with 509 communes (Vaud, Neuchatel, Geneva.) Mixed languages are spoken in 5 Cantons, containing 1,447 communes (Berne, Freiburg, Valais, Grisons, Tessin, or Ticino. Communes. At the census of 1870, out of the 3,052 communes four had a popula- tion of more than 25,000; 8 had between 10,000 and 25,000; 31 had between 5,000 and 10,000. There were also 251 communes, with more than 2,000 inhabitants each. {a.) Chief towns of the cantons : — Geneva, 46,783 inhabitants (with the outlying communes equivalent to suburbs, 68,165); Basle, 44,834; Berne 36,001; Lausanne, 26,520; Zurich, 21,199 (with the outlying communes 56,695); St. Galle, 16,675; Lucerne, 14,524; Neuchatel, 13,321; Freiburg, 10,904; Schaffhausen, 10,303; Herisau (outer Rhodes), 9,729; Chur, 7,552 ; Soleur, 7,054; Schywtz, 6,154; Lugano or Lauis in Tessin, 6,024; Glaru.s, 5,516; Aarau, 5,449 ; Sion in Valais, 4,895 ; Zug, 4,227 ; Liestal (Basle district), 3,873 ; Sarnen (Upper Walden), 3,720: Appenzell, 3,686 ; Frauenfeld (Thurgau), 2,936 ; Altorf (Uri), 2,724; Stanz, 2,070. b. Other towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants, and a few besides of importance : — La Chaux de Fonds ■■ 19,930 St. Imier... 5,714 Locle • • TO,334 Sumiswald 5,550 Wi'nterthur 9,404 Wattwyl ... 5,494 Plaini)alais .. 8,828 Puntrut ... 5,341 Bid 8,113 Wahlern ... 5*290 Vevey .. 7,887 Horgen ... 5,199 Einsiedeln 7,633 Burgdorf... 5^078 Altstadten 7,575 Wald 5,055 Aussersihl 7,510 Teufen ... 4,765 Riesbach... 6,844 Thun 4,623 Tablat .. 6,578 Zofingen ... Z,9^(> Switzerland — L and and Peop Koniz 6,386 Merges ... Langnau . . . 6,214 Bex Wadensweil 6,049 Rorschach Yverdon ... 5,889 Nyon Eaux-Vives 5>875 Baaden . . . Carouge ... 5,871 Payerne ... Uster 5,808 Romanshorn 605 3,877 3,864 3,493 3,417 3,412 3.259 3>Hi Historical Notes. The various Cantons became united at the dates which follow : — I. The Cantons, Urie, Schwytz and Unterwalden in 1308; the latter subsequently was sub-divided into Upper and Lower Walden. 2. The Cantons which first joined the Confederacy were Lucerne in 1332, Zurich 1351, Glarus in 1352, Berne in 1353, and Zug 1362. This formed the basis of the confederacy. 3. Freiburg and Soleure joined in 1481, Schaff- hausen in 1501, Basle in 1501 (divided subsequently into town and district), Appenzell in 15 13 (divided in 1597 into inner and outer Rhodes); this forms the league of 13 old Cantons. The new Cantons, St. Gall, Thurgau, Aargau, Vaud, Orisons and Tessin all joined either in 1798 or 1803. The newest Cantons, Valais, Geneva and Neuchatel in 181 5. Before the time of the French Revolution the 13 places scarcely occupied 9,567 English square miles, with a population of 970,000, and formed little more than a nominal Confederacy. Various small States attached themselves, while retaining a condition of semi-independence, either to the Confederacy or to separate Cantons. There were the asso- ciated places, many of which again separated themselves from the Con- federacy. Others were called " Associates of the Confederacy," with the privilege of sending delegates to the Diet ; such Avere the Abbey of St. Gall and the towns of St. Gall and Bienne ; others were considered as con- federates or co-allies ; such were the Orisons, Valais, the town of Mul- hausen (in Alsace), the Principality of Neuchatel, the town of Geneva, and part of the Bishopric of Basle ; still lower were reckoned the mere " Pro- tected Associates " such as the Abbey of Engelberg, the Parish or Commune of Gersan, and the other part of the Bishopric of Basle. To these were added the " united subjects," or districts which were subjected by war, and which belonged to one or more of the 13 Confederate States. Of the 13 districts, 7 had an aristocratic, 6 a democratic form of government ; in 4 of the former, viz., Berne, Soleure, Freiburg and Lucerne an aristocracy of race or patriciate governed ; in 3, viz., Zurich, Basle and Schaffhausen an aristocracy of citizens or townsmen. The democratic Cantons of Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, Glarus and Appenzell had subjects outside their own immediate circuit, and who lived in the united governments ; for ex. Uri possessed the Levine Thai ; Schwytz possessed the March, Klissnacht and Einsiedeln; to Zug belonged the Bailiwicks of Hiinenberg, Cham, Steinhausen, Risch and Walchwyl ; to Glarus belonged the Lordship of Werdenberg. Unterwalden and Ap- penzell had no possessions. The most important united lordships were the Thurgau (the present Canton of Tessin(, the Valley of the Rhine, which was in the possession of the eight old districts, and Appenzel ; Vaud, and part of the Aargau, which was subject to the Bernese; and the independent allies again owned 6o6 Switzerland — Land and People. subject districts ; Valtclinc, Bormio, and Chiavenna. The Frickthal belonged to Austria. The French Revolution effected an entire change. The inhabitants of the Bishopric of Basle proclaimed a separate Republic in 1702. In 1793 France seized upon Pruntrut (in Bern), and in 1797 it took possession of Erguel. The inhabitants of the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio to whom equality of rights was refused by the League united themselves with the " Cisapline Republic " (Italy). Vaud separated itself from Berne in January, 1798, and became the Canton of Leman. After the Bernese had been overcome by the French troops the Confederation was dissolved, and a united State, called the Helvetian Republic, was formed; this was divided into 18 Cantons, but not independent ones. Berne was sub-divided into four, viz,. : — Berne, Oberland, Aargau, and Leman. Baden, Thurgau, Lugano, Bellinzona and Valais were changed into Cantons ; while on the other hand Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug were united into one Canton called Waldsttitten. Appenzell, St. Gall, and the Rhine Valley formed the Canton of Santis. Geneva and Miihlhouse were incorporated with France. This centralization was unwelcome to the Swiss. Disunion was encouraged on the part of France. In February, 1803 the "Act of Mediation" was proclaimed by Buonaparte. The Cantons were again established with about their former area (Vaud, and Aargau were, however, still separated from Berne). They were again permitted to manage their own internal affairs, whilst the general affairs were referred to a diet to which each of the larger Cantons sent two members or deputies, and the smaller cantons one. Neuchatel and A^alais were united by Napoleon to France, thus there were 19 Cantons. The Congress of Vienna endeavoured to restore the old state of things ; the constitution of 18 15 decreed the sovereignty of the Cantons, the number of which was increased by three, Geneva, Valais, and Neuchatel. The former Bishopric of Basle was united with the Canton of Berne. Sardinia ceded the small district of Carouge to Geneva on account of its proximity. Austria gave the dominion of Razuns to the Grisons, and the Frickthal, Laufenburg, and Rheinfelden to Aargau. Miihlhouse was retained by France ; and the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio by Lombardy. The establishment of an aristocratic oligarchical Government could not be acceptable to the Swiss. The movement which passed over Europe in 1830 was made use of to transform the Constitution of most of the Cantons in a democratic sense. The district of Basle was then separated from the town. A perpetual struggle was carried on between the two opposing elements. Seven Cantons at length formed a " special con- federacy," viz.. Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Zug, Vallais, and Freiburg. This was destroyed by force of arms, November, 1847. The Swiss wisely took advantage of the disturbances of the year 1848 to recon- stitute their country. Neuchatel shook off the Prussian yoke, and a new confederate consti- tution was formed, September 12th, 184S, by which, without injuring the autonomy of the Cantons in their internal affairs, the national strength was united in all essential matters. The organs through which the nation an- nuunces its will are the National Council and the Council of the States, which together choose 7 men, the " Bundesrath " (Confederate Council), as the highest executive authority. Each Canton sends 2 representatives to the Council of the Slates, without respect to its size ; each half Canton sends one representative. The National Council, on the other hand, is composed Switzerland — Land and People. 607 of representative^^ chosen at the rate of i for every 20,000 of the ])o])u1a- tion. After a quarter of a century, the gradual changes in their condition led the Swiss to desire a modification in the constitution of their confederacy ; and as a simple majority of the citizens is sufficient in Switzerland to carry a resolution, a new constitution of the confederacy was proposed by a decree of January 31st, 1874, with regard to the representation of the people. This being sanctioned by the voice of the people on the 19th of April, the new constitution was announced on May 29th, 1874. This rests upon the same democratic basis as the former constitution, the public organs are also unchanged, but the power of the confederacy over the separate Cantons is moderately increased, and the principles of freedom are more extended and developed in various directions. Finance. BUDGET OF THE CONSTITUTION. The Constitution of 1848 provided special revenues for the Con- federacy, instead of the uncertain payments in proportion to the number of inhabitants. The customs form the chief source of revenue. The postal administration was given over to the Confederate authorities, but the com- pensation which the Cantons receive for giving up this source of revenue is generally equal to the net proceeds ; in like manner the Cantons draw nearly ^^^ 100, 000 from the customs, in compensation for their former special custom dues. To this must be added the yield of the sale of gun- powder (a monopoly). The Constitution of 1874 has retained these sources of income, and has expressly added to them the proceeds of the telegraphs, and half the gross yield of the tax paid by the Cantons for exemption from military service. The Confederacy levies no direct taxes. Under '• extraordinary circumstances " contributions are made by the cantons in proportion to their power of taxation. When this new system of 1874 began to work, it was found necessary to increase the tariff imposts which had hitherto been the smallest in all Europe. 1877 was an unfavorable year ; the expenditure greatly increasing, and the revenue diminishing. The finance of 1877 stood thus : — Revenue. 1. Proceeds of real estate .. . ... ... ... ^4,218 Invested capital, interest on working capital, and loans ... ... ... ... ... 16,019 = ^20,237 2, Royalties and Administrations — Military Department : — Including ;^56,875 for laboratories and cart- ridge manufacture, also ;2£"i 0,626 for build- ings; ;^{^5,8o4for horse breeding institutions \ ^15,012 for cavalry horses, and half the amount of the military redemption money; ^26,000 and ^35,376 from the regimental clothing works ... ... ... ... == 149,684 Finance and Customs : — Including powder factories, ^29,963 : the Mint, ^121,412 ; customs, ^650, 128. ... =« 801,303 6o8 Sxvitzerland — L and and People. Post and Telegraph Administration : — Including post, jCsTgjigT, and telegraph, ^79,419 3. Miscellaneous receipts and indemnities Total 659,216 1,127 ^1,631,567 Expenditure. Debt- -Sinking fund Interest... 2. Cost of general administration :— National Council Council of the States ... Confederate Council ... Confederate Chancellorship ... Confederate Tribunal... (3) The Departments — {a) Political Department : Including the Embassy in Paris, ^2,000 ; those of Rome, Vienna, and Berlm, each ^1,200 ; consulates, ^3,013 {b) Home Department: — Including statistical bureau, ^^1,955 ; public works, ^68,635; polytechnic, ^'i 7,656; contribution towards horse-breeding, ^^960 ; contribution to Swiss societies, ^2,754 {c) Justice and police department... {d) Military department : — Including administrative officials, ^14,831 ; education, etc.,^275, 337*; clothing,2;82,i94; arms, ^42,072; cavalry horses, ^45,268; contributions for officers' equipment, ^7>557 ; support to volunteer shooting unions, ^5,669 ; war material, ^39,530 ; staff bureau, ;^4,88o ; stables, ^^530 ; construc- tive works, ji^io,566 ; laboratory and cartridge manufacture, ^59,936 ; manufacture of arms, ;^33,265 (o96 ^7,130 509 3,420 13,494 5,847 i:? 1,896 30,400 11,083 91,960 1,648 621,555 212,069 13.643 * This was for the instriicrion of the Eiij^inecrs, Artilk'iy and Uavah-y ; for rifle corps and for Infantry, as well as for a special course of instruction to olficors, and lor the central school, Switzerland — Land and People. 609 {g) Post and telegraph department : — Including post, ^^557, 776 ; telegraph, £1^,1^0 636,926 Total ordinary expenditure ... ... ;!^i,69i,i8o Unforeseen expenditure... ... ... 924 Total ;^i, 692,104 Deficit ;^6o,537 This is a very small amount for the administration of a State with more than 2\ million inhabitants. At the same time it must not be over- looked that on the one hand many expenses are left to the Cantons, and on the other that the gross sums are here entered with a completeness such as is nowhere else the case ; even the mere current profits (revenues of the post, &c., in the Cantons) are here given. If we consider only the net amounts by way of comparing this country with others the accounts will stand as follows : — Net Revenue ^645,852 Net expenditure... ... ... ... ... 7i9»3i7 The highest salary paid until recently was that of the President of the Confederacy ainounting to ^400. Each of the other six members of the Confederate Council received ^340. In 1874 the salaries of the six members was raised to ^480 each, and the annually changing President received an addition of ^60. In the political department ^120 are set apart for representation. Nothing is expended for orders. Debt. This has been, as a rule, contracted by Switzerland, either for real acquisitions, or for the actual defence of the country. For example, the loan of 1857 (which has been already repaid) was for extraordinary outlay for new arms retiuired on account of the dispute about Neuchatel and the loan of 1870 and '71 was required for the maintenance of neutrality. At the end of 1866 the liabilities only amounted to ;^i52,40o; ;^4o,ooo of which was for the reserve fund of the mint, while the assets reached the sum of ^568,166. In February, 1867, however, a loan of ^480,000 was contracted for defraying the expenditure for arms, and re-establishing the cash balance of the treasury for the Confederacy. The outlay for arms was thus divided ; three-quarters of the cost of alteration of weapons, and the purchase of new breach-loaders was borne by the Confederacy, one quarter only being paid by the Cantons. The maintenance of considerable masses of troops for the preservation of neutrality during the Franco-German war caused an expenditure of nearly ^360,000. On December 31, 1877, the debt was ^1,306,800. The interest of the debt, and mint r^erve fund ^55,758 ; the sinking fund ;^6t.2oo, making the liabilities ;^i,423,758. The assets being ^ 1,460,564. 2 Q 6io Stvitzcrland — Land and People. Finance of the Cantons. According to a calculation of Max Wirth the gross revenue of all the Cantons in 1868 was ^1,724,649; the net Revenue, p{;i, 228,462 ; towards which the direct taxes contributed ;^499>S93 ; the indirect P^i 79,675 ; and the State property, ;!^i 26,444. The gross expenditure was ^1,788,684 ; the net ^1,295,487 ; of this ;^i87,5o2 was expended for education; ;^i8o,356 for the army, and £,22,2^121 for public works. Max Wirth classifies the revenue and expenditure of the Cantons for the year 1869, thus : — REVENUE. 3- 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. Interest on capital From forests Other domains State industry Royalties and monopolies Direct taxes Indirect taxes Fees and imposts... Fines Sundries ... Gross ^189,166 65'934 26,848 118,986 266,722 525>36o 193.938 172,575 39.746 125,370 Total ^:i.787.67« Nett ^65,430 41,406 19,607 17.520 194,856 499.893 179.675 166,282 9.949 33.837 Total .. ^I ,724.645 ... ^i 228,455 EXPENDITURE. Gross Nett I. Debt ... ^335.219 ... L "160,610 2. Central administration 111,094 109,430 3- Military 207,015 180,356 4- Justice 78,070 76,721 5- Prisons 65.626 39,207 6. Police 86,010 77,159 7- Sanitary affairs 6,235 6,1 14 8. Forests, agriculture 77.294 21,522 9- Administration of Finance 162,629 30,379 10. Public buildings ... 256,807 232,727 II. Education 213,402 187,502 12. Religion ... 94,019 91,896 13- Charity ... 82,370 71,410 14. Miscellaneous 11,888 10,447 ^1,295,480 If we compare the above figures with the corrcsj)onding results of 1850 and the succeeding years, we at once perceive great changes. The debt has largely increased in consequence of the construction of railroads in many oi the Cantons, There were still 6 Cantons in the year 1862 in which no direct taxes were levied, though in 1S68 not onecr^nton was free from such. The indirect taxes had been considerably reduced in accordance with democratic Switzerland — L and and People. 6 1 1 demands. The only direct taxes* in most of the Cantons is a property tax and a small income or personal tax ; only in a few districts of French Switzerland (Geneva, Vaud, Freiburg, and the Bernese Jura,) is there a separate land tax. The salt royalty furnishes the chief part of the indirect ta.xes ; it serves as a monopoly of the Cantons, and the clear revenue obtained from this source in 1869 was ^150,000. The sale price of it is generally from \d. to \d. per lb., only \\d. in a few of the Cantons. The consumption of salt throughout the Cantons in 1869 was 733,700 cwts. Various Cantons levy duties on wine and spirituous drinks, as well as on other articles of consumption besides salt. These imposts must, in accord- ance with the new confederate constitution, cease with the year 1890 at the latest. A considerable part of the revenues of the Cantons has hitherto been furnished by the payments made by the confederation for the redemp- tion of the postal and customs systems. Both items will be wanting in the future. The cantons also levy stamp duty, transfer duty, inheritance duty, duty on men-servants (only in Geneva), and here and there a duty on horses and dogs kept for pleasure. The industry-tax is only an impost levied on farms. The sum expended for education is greater than appears in the above figures, because the amounts belonging to special foundations must be added to it. In the year 187 1 the outlay for education made by the Cantons alone, exclusive of the communes, foundations, and polytecnics, was ;^ 1 95, 1 94, of which _;^83,244 was for primary, ^45,446 was for secondary, and ^"66,504 for higher education. The sum expended by the State and the communes for education was ^272,000 ; school money and voluntary contributions yielded ^28,000, making the total expenditure for educational purposes ^^495, 194. The salaries of ofticials are still very small, although not so small as formerly. Previous to i860 the President of the Council of Zurich received p^i6o, now ^220 ; each member of the Council received ;^i4o, now ;!^2oo. This stands highest, and serves as an example. Communal Property. This amounts to nearly ^^24,000, 000, including the capital for educa- tion, charity, and religion. The receipts are computed at ;,{, 1,680,000 and the expenses at ^1,600,000. The city of Geneva has unexpectedly acquired considerable property by becoming heir to the exiled Duke Charles of Brunswick. The total net amount of the inheritance, after deducting ^149,590 for costs, &:c., was ;^758,586. It was applied as follows : — For the hospital, ^^i 16,000 ; * Dr. Steiger, in his report for i860, says that Zurich levied direct taxes first in 1832 Schwytz and Zug in 1848 ; Giarus since the last century (this land tax was fixed after the great fire at 3 per cent.); Freibuig levied direct taxes rrst in 1848. The town of Basle has long collected income tax ; the Basle district the same, but not every year ; Appenzell wi thin Rhodes since 181 1 at 5 per cent., of which z per cent, has been for the maintenance of the poor; Appenzell without Rhodes since old times ; Sciiafthausen since 1834 ; Argau levied no taxes until 1855. ThOrgan has levied taxes since the establishment of the canton, even when the budget showed a revenue exceeding the expenditure. Orisons formerly covered its ex- penses by the so-called "representatives' portion," v^'hich means that each district paid a fixed sum for every representative chosen ; this yielded tlie canton sums varying from j^2,40o to j{^2,8oo. Tliis tax was changed in recent times to the present ;orm. Vaud has levied taxes from the time of the formation ot the canton ; Tessin since 1856 ; Geneva has levied a land tax from remote times ; Neuchatel since 1850. 6l2 Switzerland — J. and and People interest of State debt, ^^277,550 ; Hypothec Fund, ;^4o,ooo ; Bank of Geneva, ^20,000 ; slaughter-houses, ^54,200 ; theatre, ^48,000 ; Clock- makers' School, ^35.400 ; various purchases of land, ^29.804 ; buildings, ^76,890, &c. Debt of the Cantons and of the Communes. According to a representation of Kaufman in Basle, August, 1876, the debt of the cantons is above ^16,000.000; that of the communes, ;^2, 744,960. The Canton loans are borne in the following i)roportions by the various cantons : — Zurich, ^,^560,000 j Berne, ^1,752,000; Lucerne. ^192,000; Uri, ;^6oo ; Schwytz, _;2^44,8oo ; Glarus, ^50,400 ; Freiburg, ^1.740,400 : Soleure. ;;^98,40o ; Basle town, ;^47o,8oo ; Basle district. ^^48,800 : Aargau, ^80,000 ; Thurgau, ^146,800 : St. Galle, ^653,200 ; Grisons, ^40,000 : Tessin, ^^336,000 ; Vaud, ^^^382, 000 : Valais, ^350,400 ; Neuchatel, ;;£" 106,800 ; Creneva _;^664,4oo. The communal loans are borne by Zurich, Berne, Lucerne, Schwytz. Glarus, Freiburg, Basle-town, Schaffhausen, Aargau, Thurgau, St. Galle. Vaud, and Neuchatel. Geneva discharged its debt from the Brunswick inheritance. Military System. The defensive system of Switzerland has been from time immemorial founded on the basis upon which all other States have endeavoured lately to establish theirs, viz., by making the whole nation capable of bearing arms. This principle has not been carried out to its full extent, although it is more perfect than in any other State except Prussia. The new Confederate Constitution has afforded the means of completing what is wanting. The constitution, whether old or new, tolerates no standing army. The period allowed for the instruction of recruits was undoubtedly too limited. It extended only to 28 days for the infantry, to 35 days for Jiigers and sharp-shooters, for artillerymen and engineers to 42 days, and, lastly, for dragoons 60 days. The time now is 45 days for the infantry, 60 for the cavalry, 55 for the artillery, and 50 for the engineers. The extension of a preliminar) military education for youths has also been attained under the new Con- federate Constitution. In 1873 there were 83 middle schools, the cadets in which numbered 7,869. The new Confederate Constitution has also determined that " the disposal of the Confederate army shall belong to the Confederacy. The Cantons shall control the defensive forces of their own districts, in so far as they are not restricted by constitutional or legal regulations of the Confederacy. Military instruction and the arming of the troops are entirely the affairs of the Confederacy. 'ITie choice of dress and their equipment and maintenance belong to the Cantons ; the cost of these is, however, repaid to the Cantons by the Confederacy, according to a scale fixed by the latter. No orders shall be worn in the Swiss army (nor in the civil service), nor shall any titles bestowed by foreign govern- ments be considered valid," Switzerland — Land and People. 613 187. The following was the state of the Confederate army in December, Under Arms Reserve Militia Landwehr Total Engineers ... 1,285 • 1,062 890 • 3,147 Artillery 8,716 . 5,653 4,586 • 18,955 Cavalry 1,940 1,019 1,734 4,693 Sharp-shooters 6,239 3,577 4,269 . 14,085 Infantry of the line... 65-573 .. 39,188 53,996 . ■ 158,767 Hygienic dept. 441 123 .. 104 668 Staif ... ... 89s Total ... . . . 201,210 The formation of the army is as follows : — Active army, 99 battalions of Infantry of the Line. Sharp-shooters, 8 battalions of 4 companies of 185 men. Engineers, 8 battalions of 393 men in 3 companies. Artillery, 48 horse batteries with 160 men ; 2 mountain batteries with 1 70 men ; 1 2 parks with 160 men ; 8 train battalions with 2 14 men; 10 companies siege artillery of 122 men; 2 artillery companies of 160 men. Cavalry, 24 squadrons of dragoons of 124 men, 12 companies, guides 43 men. LANDWEHR (MILITIA). The infantry, cavalry, and engineers are formed in the same way as the active army. The Landwehr artillery has 8 horse batteries, with 160 men ; 15 siege companies of 122 men; 8 park columns of 160 men; 8 train battalions of 214 men, and 2 companies of 160 men. Out of these troops 8 army divisions are formed, each with 2 infantry brigades comprised of 2 regiments of 3 battalions each ; i battalion of sharp-shooters ; i cavalry regiment of 3 squadrons ; i artillery brigade consisting of 3 regiments of 2 field battalions and 2 park columns ; i train and I engineer battalion. The strength of the organized troops on the ist of January, 1878, was — Active Staff ... ... ... 597 Infantry Cavalry Artiller}- Engineers Sanitary troops' Administrative 97,198 2,693 15,515 2,596 1,007 481 120,087 Military Landwehr 133 76,668 2,500 7,642 1,661 IIO 5 88,719 The active and reserve can both be mobilized at anv moment. War Notes. Towards the end of the last century there were about 50,000 Swiss in 29 regiments of mercenaries in the service of France, Spain, Sardinia, 6 14 Sxvitserland — Land a ltd People. Rome, Naples, and Holland ; 20,500 of these were in the pay of France alone. Nearly 700,000 Swiss were enlisted in the service of France between 1474 and 1774.* In 1830 there were two regiments of Guards and four regiments of the Line in this position. Military compacts with foreign powers have been forbidden by the Constitution since 1848. The last to be set aside was that'with the king of Naples (i860). Switzerland was obliged to supply her " Mediator" with an auxiliary force of 16,000 men for the Russian campaign of 1812— a body which, though composed of Militia, shewed itself no less useful in war than the standing armies of other nations. Although the Swiss forces were by no means so well organised at the time of the "war of the " Sonderbund " {1847) as they are at present, yet there were, within a tew weeks, brought into the field by the 13A- Confede- rate cantons 98,861 men and 172 guns, and by the 7 "Sonderbund" cantons 39,580 men and 74 guns, making together 138,441 men and 246 guns. In addition to this number the " Sonderbund " had then 46,976 men in the "Landsturm." Neuchatel and Inner Rhodes took no part whatever in the struggle. The cost of this war, not including private losses, was estimated at ^^620,000. Social Condition. Switzerland presents the rare picture of a State which, possessing only a population of something over two and a half million, and divided in parts by high mountain chains, yet contains members of three great civilised nations. They are not chained together by a despotic power, but united by the firm conviction that this relation is more to their ad\antage than would be a union with their great parent nations. As each Canton regulates it own internal affairs, according to its own judgment, every variety of condition is met with. Nothwithstanding, the principle is everywhere recognised, that the nation shall govern itself according to its own judgment and requirements. All officials, even the judges, are chosen from among the people, and this only for a fixed period, generally of three years. There are, therefore, no official castes, no high salaries, no pensions ; and yet peace and order rule here in a higher degree than in any other country. The Confederate Ccnstitution of 1848 has had a very beneficial effect in many ways ; among others in the restriction of the clannishness of the cantons ; it has created a universal right of State citizenship, by which the Swiss enjoy equal rights in all the cantons, as well as the right of free settlement ; it abolished inland tolls ; it instituted equality of coinage, measures, etc. In 1874 the Confederate Constitution issued, among others, the following regulations: — " The Cantons are to provide sufficient primary education, which shall be entirely under State direction. The same shall be compulsory and free in the public schools. No one shall be compelled . . to partici])ate .... in religious instruction. The parents or guardians shall control the religious education of every child until the * Switzerland is .said to have drawn about j^24,ooo in military pay between the year* 1740 and 1750. Tbe Swiss now regard their manufacturing industry as tlie most important source of gain. Switzerland — Lmid and People. 6'I5 completion of its i6th year. Capital punishment is abolished. Laws and decisions of the Confederacy, which are not of an urgent nature, shall be laid before the people for their acceptance or refusal." Occupations of the Populafiun. The results of the census of 1870 are classified according to the scheme adopted in Italy. 1. Those occupied in farming and breeding of cattle ... 543,208 ,, ,, the forests ... ... ... ... 4)So3 „ ,, fishing and hunting ... ... ... 1,176 „ „ mining and smelting ... ... ... 3j4S4 2. ,, „ *industries ... ... ... ... 489,059 3. „ „ commerce ... ... ... ... 48,990 4. „ „ transport and conveyance ... ... 42,240 5. „ ,, on their own estates ... ... •■- 26,447 6. „ ,, in personal service ..- ... ... 114,452 7. „ „ offices (officials) ... ... ... 10,743 8. „ „ religion 5,423 9. „ „ jurisprudence ... ... ... ... 2,137 10. „ „ sanitary matters 5>740 11. „ „ education i3)085 12. „ „ fine arts 6,990 13. ,, „ literature and science ... ... ... 544 14. Those maintained by others and those without any definite occupation ... ... ... ... ... ••• Ij35°>65° There are above 7,000 elementary schools, and about 400,000 scholars, which gives one school to 380 inhabitants, each school averaging 57 children. Previous to the new Confederate institution primary or elementary education had been introduced into most of the cantons. In a few of the smaller cantons, specially in Freiburg and Valais, education is very deficient. In 1873 there were 275 secondary or middle schools, 60 being in the canton of Zurich alone. There are 13 normal schools for the education of masters, and 3 for the education of mistresses. The number of gymnasia and industrial schools belonging to the cantons is 47, with about 500 teachers and 7,000 pupils. For higher education there are the three universities of Zurich, Berne, and Basle in German-Switzerland ; and the three academies of Geneva, Lausanne, and Neuchatel in French-Switzerland. There is also the Confederate technical high school, the polytechnic at Zurich. In the year 1870 there were no fewer than 2,004 public libraries ; 241 printers, with 230 steam-presses, and 207 hand-printing presses; 412 newspapers and periodicals appeared in 1872, and in 1875, 434. Of the 412, 266 were in the German language, 118 in French, 16 in Italian, 5 in Romanian, i in English, and 6 in German and French. In 1875 the number of political journals was 375. * Of these 35,000 men and girls are occupied in the manufacture of watches ; half of these working in their own homes and half in the factories ; the number of the factories being 17. 6i6 Switzerland — Land and People. Monasteries. In the year 1871 there were 33 niuiiabterie.s and 55 convents, with 546 monks and 2,020 nuns. Those containing the largest number of inhabitants were m Schwytz, Zug, St. dall, Freiburg, Valais, Appenzell (Inner Rhodes), and Lucerne. The erection of new monastic buildings is forbidden by the new constitution, so also is the revival of those already dissolved. Agriadfu?'e. Like England, so rich in manufacturmg industry, Switzerland also regularly draws a considerable part of her food from abroad. According to an official calculation, the excess value of the provisions imported over those exported was in— Per Head of Population 1868 ^'3,900,000 ^i 12 4i 1869 3,008,000 ... ... I 4 iii 1870 3,712,000 I 9 3i 1871 4,468,000 1 14 104 1872 .■ 6,884,000 2 13 8i This summary embraces the following articles : — Kitchen salt, corn, flour, potatoes, fruit, rice, butter, cheese, coffee, chicory, sugar, meat, bacon (salted and smoked), wine, brandy, beer, delicacies and tropical fruits. Only in one article — viz., cheese — does the export exceed the miport (by about ;^i, 100,000). Cidtivation oj the Vine This is very important — 99,908 acres are planted with vines, 20,800 of these acres being in Tessin or Ticino, 16,250 in Vaud ; 15,000 m Zurich, 10,000 in Valais, 7,500 in St. Gall, 6,600 in Aargau, 5,600 in Thurgau. 3,600 in Neuchatel, and 3,500 in Schaffliausen. There are only six Cantons in which the vine is not cultivated. The value of the total produce is estimated at ^1,200,000. The forests embrace an area of 1,917,656 acres. Live Stock. In 1876 there were — 100,935 Horses. ^^258 ... ••• ••• ••• Mules and asses. 1^035,930 ••• ••• Head of cattle. '334,515 Pp 367,549 Sheep. 396,055 ^oats. Industries. The system of free trade prevails in mercantile affairs ; thus causing harmony between the trade, and the political condition of the country. It must be remembered that the Confederacy is most unfavoural)ly situated ; it is far from the sea, it is distant from tlie most important marts of com- merce, it is surrounded by States protected by high rates of customs, and necessarily more or less excluded from its luarkcls, ;ind added to all these Switzerland — Land and People. 617 drawbacks the rate of wages is very high, and coals, which are so important in manufactures, are wanting. Notwithstanding all this the Confederacy has outstripped all the States, by which she is surrounded, in her manu- facturing industry. The chief branches of industry are, ist. Cotton, which in Switzerland forms a fully developed system from spinning to weaving, yarn making, finishing, and dyeing. The number of spindles in 1873 was 2,059,000. Out of 57,500,000 lbs. of cotton chiefly American and some Egyptian, 52,500,000 lbs. of yarn are produced, mostly of fine quality, some being as fine as No. 500. The average number of fineness is 45. This manufacture extends over the whole north of Switzerland : the Cantons of St. Gall, Zurich, Aargau, and Zug are especially occupied in this manufacture. 2nd. Silk ; piece goods being manufactured principally in the Canton of Zurich, and ribbons in Basle. 3rd. Watches* in Neuchatel, Eerne, Geneva, and Vaud ; the average number of watches made annually being 350,000 gold watches ... ... ... ^^840,000 800,000 silver „ ... ... ... 640,000 500,000 metal „ ... ... ... 280,000 4,000 complicated watches ... ... 80,000 Total 1,654,000 ^1,840,000 4th. Straw-plait in Aargau. 5th. Embroideries in St. Gall and Appenzell. 6th. Cheese in the centre of Switzerland. Although a mountainous country, Switzerland im])orts more cattle tlian she exports. The import of butter is also larger than the export. The need of money caused a revision of the Customs tariff in 1873 bv which the import duties were increased. The tariff was, 1st, according to the number of head of cattle ; 2nd, According to the value of the goods taxed : and, 3rd, according to the weight. In 1876 and 1S77, the trade stood thus :- - Imported Exported. 1876 iS;7 1876 1877 Head of cattle 289,696 360,595 105,782 169,192 Taxed according to value ^103,436 ^^35,823 i:247,332 ^215,159 double cwts. cwts. cwts. cvvts. According to weight ... 21,650,544 19,679,494 2,226,990 2,222^849 The transit trade in 1876 amounted to 24,382 head of cattle, = 1,620,469 cwts. In 1877, 20.S45 head of cattle, = 1,860,233 cwts. .A. survey of the transit trade of 1877 gives in cwts : — 1 Articles duty free ... 2 Articles of consumption, drinks and tobacco 3 Constituent parts of animals, leather and leather ware 4 Ore, metals, and metal wares 5 Textile fabrics 6 Paper, books and writing material ... * I'he manufacture has suffered lately from the ri-se of American competition. Imports Exports 7,082,982 .. • 1,313,708 10,611,956 .. • 706,652 205,016 .. 108,904 1,726,252 .. • 494,874 794,020 .. 526,266 80,518 .. 66,8 iS 6i8 Switzerland — Land and People. 7 DrUj^6 and (J}es 8 Wood and wood wares 9 Glass and pottery wares 10 Clay, chalk, slate, and stone 1 1 Asphalte, plants, and bark . . . 12 Miscellaneous articles 3,861,994 i,oo3>582 1,733.360 11,137,160 83,894 172,172 140,250 222,148 293,770 376,288 23,848 The trade with the United States is very important, exports was in The value of the 1864 1868 1870 1872 1876 1877 ^-1,490,265 1,652,199 2,767,609 3,i79>244 2,139,357 2,070,415 Of the figures for 1876, ;^i, 064,438 was for silk and silk wares ; ^583,220 for embroideries ; ^^192,392 for watches : ;2^29,62i for cotton and woollen fabrics ; ^99,113 for straw and horsehair plaits ; ^73,934 for cheese. In 1877 the export of watches sank to ^119,072. Railways. Notwithstanding the difficulties of the ground, S63 miles of single line and 141 of double line were being worked in 1874, exclusive of 3^ miles of tram, As far back as the year 1861, when there were only 629 miles at work, there were 49 tunnels open, the length of which was io-| miles, there- fore, 7J7T of the lines was subterranean. Length of railway Accidents Goods carried miles Passengers carried Total receipts Killed Wounded tons 17,509,395 ;!^2,086,000 58 64 68 23 68 84 4,408,416 5.052,259 5,669,364 In 1874 ... 1,004 „ 1875 ... 1,257 21,318,988 2,331,000 „ 1876 ... 1,456 23,815,207 2,428.000 „ 1578 ... 1,592 - — The St. Gothard Tunnel, 9^ miles in lengtli, was finished March ist, 1880. Telegraphs. Switzerland possessed 3,628 miles of telegraph lines and 8,800 miles of wire in 1873, the cost of which was jQ6(),Zc^Z, the number of offices, 834. Switzerland began by charging at the low rate of 10^. for a simple inland message, and even this was reduced to 5^/. on January ist, 1868. The returns of 1869 and 1873 as compared with 1866 were as follows : — . Inland Internation.-.l Transmitted Total 1866 1869 1873 The receipts in the year 1873 amounted to jQGS^^Gt,, the expense."; to ;^7o,o24, the deficit was therefore /"i,56i. At the end of 1877 there were 4,294 miles of line and 11,682 miles of 383,159 • 223,618 62,140 668,917 951^337 • . 308,905 .. 109,182 . 1,369,424 1,641,075 . .. 550,880 . . 230,048 .. 2,422,009 Switzerland — Land and People. 619 wire ; the number of offices, 1,150 ; the number of messages,2,722,4o8, (m 1876, 2,918,858); revenue, /'79'4T 8 ; expenditure, ;^79, 150 : net surplus, ^268. Post. At the end of 1873 there were 734 offices and 1,862 receiving houses, besides 21 agencies in foreign countries. Letter postage is \d. ; unpaid letters, \\d. ; local postage, \d. ; newspapers, |./. The number of letters in 1872 was 55,925,334= 2or9 per head of the population; newspapers, 35.971,44?- At the end of 1877 there were 799 offices. Steandwats. In 1869 there were 70 steamboats on 9 lakes, viz., 22 on Lake Constance (15 of which, however, were foreign); 13 on the Lake of Geneva; 13 on Lake Zurich ; 11 on the Lake of Lucerne ; 6 on the Lake of Thun and Brienz ; 2 on Lake Neuchatel ; 2 on the T>ake of Zug ; and I on Lake Lugano. In 1872 there were 86 steamboats on these lakes. Savings' Banks. 1835 i8b2 1872 Number of depositors ... 60,008 _ 355,291 542,162 Amount of deposits ... ^^671, 572 ^'5,276,065 ^n, 553,457 Average for each depositor ... ^11 Ji.'^A ^2\ At the end of 1 87 2 there were 22 scrip-banks which had on an average notes of the value of ^1,670,474 annually in circulation. In 1878 there were 34, with a note circulation of ^3,342,000. By the regulation of the new constitution no monopoly can be granted for the issue of bank-notes, nor can the acceptance of notes be enforced by law. LIECHTENSTEIN (PRINCIPALITY.) This Principality lies between Switzerland and the Vor Arlberg. It was separated from Germany in consequence of the events of the year 1866. It embraces an area of 68 English square miles, with a population of 8,320. The actual property of the Prince in Silesia and Moravia is said to extend over 2,211 English square miles, inhabited by over 350,000 persons, and producing a revenue of p{^ 140, 000. Finance. In consequence of the treaty existing with Austria with respect to customs and monopolies, the administration of finance is conducted by Austria, which pays annually about ^1,700 for the produce thereof. The taxes yield iTsoo. There is no State debt. Instead of a civil list, the proceeds of the domains belong to the Prince. The expenditure for the army has ceased since 1866. BELGIUM, (Kingdom), LAND AND PEOrLE. English Provinces Sqr. Miles Antwerp ... 1,094 Brabant 1,269 West Flanders 1,250 East Flanders 1,158 Hainault ... 1,437 I-iege 1,118 1-imburg 933 Luxemburg 1,707 Namur 1,413 Total 11,379 In 1878 .. Nationalities. Population 1876 538,381 936,062 684,468 863,468 956,354 632,228 205,237 204,201 315,796 5^339,185 5,476,668 Of" the total population in 1876, 2,256,860 spoke French, 2,659,890 Flemish, 38,070 German, 340,770 French and Flemish, 22,700 French and German, 1,790 Flemish and German, 5,490 spoke the three languages. 7,650 only foreign languages, 2,070 were deaf and dumb. Creeds. The population is almost entirely Roman Catholic. There are only 12,000 Protestants, and about 3,000 Jews, and these mostly in the ])rovinces of Antwerp and Brabant. These 9 provinces contain 41 arrondissements, 303 administrative cantons, and 2,572 communes or parishes. In 1876 there were 4 com- munes with more than 100,000 inhabitants; 13 between 25,000 and 100,000 ; 15 between 15,000 and 25,000 ; 25 between 10,000 and 15,000 ; 102 between 5,00c and 10,000; 205 above 3,000; 245 over 2,000; 731 over 1,000 : 775 above 500, and 460 communes with less than 400 inhabitants. Belgium — Land and People. 621 Towns with tnore tha?i 10,000 In/iabitants in 1876.* ANTWERP, (Province). Antwerp,! 150,650; Malines, 39,020; Borgerhaut, 18,637: Lierre. 16,103; Turnhout, 15,743; Boom, 12,078; Gheel 10.265. BRABANT. (Province). Brussels, 161,816, with 8 suburbs, 308,420; Molenbeek-St.-Jean, 37,294; Schaerbeek, 34,177; Louvain, 33,917; IxcUes. 31,992; St. Gilles, 27,782; St. Josse-ten-Noode, 26,492; Anderlecht. 18.615; l>aeken, 16,147; Tirlemont, 13,296; Etterbeek, 10,014. WEST FLANDERS, (Province). Bruges, 45,097 ; Courtrai, 26,389 ; Ostend, 16.S23 ; Roulers, 16,133; Ypern, 15,515; Menin, 11,337; Poperingue, 11,300: Thiclt. 10,209. EAST FLANDERS, (PrOvinCC). Ghent, 127,653; St. Nicholas, 25,165; Alost, 20,982; Lockeren, 17,400; Renaix, 14,089, Zele, 12.578; Hamme, 10,778. Halnault, (Province). Mons, 24,310; Tournay, 32,145: Jumet, 20,102; Gilly, 17,136; Charlcroi. 15.943: Nfonti^ny-sur-Sambre, 12.653; Quaregnon, 12.138. likgf:, (Province), Liege, 115,851; Verviers, 37,828; Seraing. 24,315 ; Huy, 11,774; Dison, 11,439; Herstal, 11,126. LiMHURc;, (Province). Hasselt, 11,361 : Sf Trond. 11,253. LUXK.MHi Rc;, (Province). Arlon, 6,690. Namur, (Province). Namur, 25,066. Population of the Kingdom in former years. 1831 3,785,814 1846 4,337.196 1856 4,529,560 1866 ... ... ... ... ... ... 4.829,320 1876 5,336,185 Annual increase in the 1st period ... ... 0.42 per cent. „ „ „ 2nd , 0.64 „ » M ,> 3rd „ 0.62 „ * Chief town of the province always mentioned first, t Including fortifications 182,000. 622 Belgium — Land and People. Movejjtent of the Population. Year Births Still Births IDegitimate Tot 1 Births 1870 .. 164,572 7,577 — 17-M49 187I .. 158,760 7,250 .. 166,010 1872 .. 167,377 ... 7,558 .. 174.935 1873 .. 170,708 ... 7.783 .. 178,491 1874 .. 173.97S 7,750 12,096* 181,728 1S75 .. 175-552 7,749 12,204 183,301 1876 .. 176,915 7,930 .. 12,567 184,845 1877 .. 175.077 8,045 ~ 183,122 Births Proport ion per I 000 of Year Deaths Marriages Divorces to a the Po ■'Illation. Marriage Persons Births Deaths 1870 118 359 - 35.263 . ., ... ... 13.9 ... 3 2-3 ••• 23.3 1871 145 746 .- 37,538 .. ... ... 14.7 ... 3 [.0 ... 28.5 1872 120 129 ... 40,084 .. ... ... 15.5 ... 3 2-3 ... 23.2 1873 112 873 •■ 40,598 .. ... ... 15.5 ... 3 2-5 ... 21.5 1874 109.505 ... 40,328 .. 120 ... - — ... 15. I ... 32.6 ... 20.5 1875 122 480 ... 39,050 .. 126 ... — ... 14.5 ... 3 2-5 ... 22.7 1876 116 787 ... 38,228 .. 135 ... 4.48 ... 14.3 ... 3 J. 6 ... 21.9 1877 114 2( 39 ... 36,964 .. ... — ... 13.7 ... 3 2.3 ... 21. I Emigration and Immigration. From 1 84 1 to 1866 the number of emigrants exceeded the immigrants by 49,953. From 1867 to 1876 the immigrants exceed the emigrants by 44.703- 1871 I872 1873 1874 18:5 iS-6 1877 Immigrants ... 16,708 15,789 15,792 16,762 15,372 14,446 15,075 Emigrants ... 13,171 11,040 7,981 8.217 10,157 13.124 11,847 The number of emigrants from the Port of Antwerp alone 1870 1871 1S72 1S73 •''-4 1S75 iS; Emigrants 1877 126 — 1,408 6,294 5,316 4,735 7.374 5.o5 Territorial Changes. The formerly Spanish, afterwards Austrian Netherlands, embraced at the end of the last century, an area of about 8,632 English square miles, with a population of 2,250,000. The Bishopric of liege formed a separate State with 220,000 inhabitants. The country fell into the hands of France by the Peace of Luneville ; it was divided into 9 departments, viz., Lys, Scheld, Jemappes, Dyle Nethen, Sambre, Ourthe, Lower Maas, and Forets. This district was united with Holland, uuder the title of Kingdom of the Netherlands, by 13.4, 13.4 and 13.1 per cent. Belgium — Land and People. 623 the " Congress of Vienna." The struggles at Brussels from September 2 1 St to 27 th 1830, led to the separation of the two countries. November the 30th 1S30. the independence of Belgium was proclaimed by the National Congress. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen King, June 4th, 1 83 1. Finance — Budget for 1879. REVENUE. Direct Taxes- Land tax;^89i,52o ; personal tax;^625,ooo ; patents _;^240,ooo ; tax on mines^2o,ooo pTi, 776,520 Indirect Taxes — a. Customs ... ... ... ... .-• ••• 736,000 b. Excise — On foreign wine ^117,000; on home- made brandies ^604,500; beer and vinegar ;^393,i20 ; sugar p{;i3o,8oo 1,245,420 c. Registration dues ... ... ... ... ... 2,118,600 d. Stamping and miscellaneous receipts ^,^9,400 ... 9>400 Rivers and canals _;^68,ooo ; railway ^3,720,000; telegraphs ^88,000 ; post office ^248,904 ; packet boats between Dover and Ostend^32,ooo 4, 1 56,904 Capital and revenue from domains, forests, prisons, pilotage, etc. ... ... ... ... ... 404,040 Miscellaneous receipts ... ... ... ... 130,526 Gross total ... ;^io,577,4io expenditure. Interest on public debt Endowments Ministry of Justice... „ Foreign Affairs „ Home Affairs ... „ Public Education „ Public Works . . . War Military affairs Financial affairs Arrears and losses ... "otal expenditure ^3,119,609 187,979 636,046 82,924 372,250 570,183 3,369,614 1,761,600 136,400 609,684 47.483 /^ro.893.772 The Budget brought into the Second Chamber, on November 27, 1879, for 1880, estimated the expenditure at ^11,055,003, and the revenue at ;^io,939,6o2. A conversion of rentes (of the whole 4-^ per cent, into 4 per cent.) will reduce the expenditure by ;!{^94,o44, but this will still leave a deficit of ;^2o,357. 624 Belgium — Land and People. Revenue and Expe?iditure from 1870. ORDINARY REVENUE. 1870 1871 Taxes direct and indirect ... Post ofifice, tolls, &c. Railways, telegraphs, Oo\vn| lands, &c. ... ... ...\ Repayments ... Sale of Crown lands ... Extraordinary revenue : — (Sums raised by loans &c.) Total Taxes direct and indirect Post ofifice, tolls, &c. Railways, telegraphs, Crown ) lands, &c. ... ... ... > Repayments ... Sale of Crown lands... Extraordinary revenue : — (Sums raised by loans. &:c.) ;^5, 195,630 ;^5, 193,371 358,732 346,405 2,068,740 2,695,140 78,475 73,402 ^7,701,577 ^"8,308,318 596,204 1,957,519 ^8.297,781 ^10,265,837 1873 1874 ^5,709,537 ^5,783,923 303,847 318,931 2.98S.620 3.546,610 79,137 38,928 87,452 68,300 ^9,120,069 ^,9.805.216 4,523,377 2,830,077 1872 ^^5,426,374 315,214 2,718,138 74,376 ^8,534,102 1,063.509 i^9,597,6)i 18-5 ^5^855,984 320,754 3.527,545 134,818 102,089 ^9,941.190 1.207,272 Total ^13,643,446 ^12,635. 293 ^11,148,462 1S76 1S77 187S Taxes direct and indirect ... ^6.040,934 ^5.676.320 ^5,345,480 Post ofifice, tolls, &c 323-798 233,256 223,240 Railways Telegraphs Crown lands, &c. 3,714,717 397,080 3,606,000 48,000 3,645.200 Repayments ... Sale of Crown lands, &c. r 24,698 76,329 7T.774 ^9.984,430 899,880 ^10,280.476 _;^10,l6l,S00 Extraordinary revenue :- (Sums raised by loans, &c. ) . . . 2,784,355 Total ^13,064,831 Ordinary : — Public Debt Civil list MinisLcr ul' Justice and rublic> Worship ... ... ...) EXPENDITURE. 1870 1871 • ^^1,707,235 i?!, 905, 138 174.715 17--275 584,828 580,621 1872 ^1,950,630 171.544 578.945 Belgium — Land and People. 625 1870 1871 1872 Minister of Foreign Affairs ... 152,760 171,082 '^'i^-,91'1 Minister of Home Affairs ... 527,188 562,257 588,574 Minister of Public Works, &c. 1,592,178 2,041,292 2,373,655 Minister of War 2,364,665 1,760,223 1,583,638 Minister of Finance Sl^^Z^l 541,809 557,447 Remitted taxes 37,863 33,584 56,115 ^7,673,755 ^7,768,281 ^8,035,525 Extraordinary expenditure : — Railways, telegraphs, &c. ... 1,002,554 1,758,967 2,043,455 ^fotal ^8,676,309 ^^9,527,248 ^10,078,980 State of the Public Debt, 1870 l8;i 187.; Total Consolidated Debt ... ^27,315,236 ^29,879,000 ^"29,487,000 Floating Debt, Treasury Bonds ^27,315,236 ^29,879,000 ^29,487,000 1873 1874 Total Consolidated Debt ^£^38,677, 000 ;^39,254,629 Floating Debt, Treasury Bonds 583,400 ^38,677,000 ^39,838,029 1875 1876 Total Consolidated Debt ^1^39,243,685 ^41,099,473 Floating Debt, Treasury Bonds 1,000,000 778,000 ^40,243,685 ^41,877,473 Public Debt. Included in the ordinary debt is the sum of ;j^8,798,385, at 2% per cent., which Belgium was obliged to take over from Holland when she attained to independence. The remainder includes the sums required for productive purposes— construction of railroads, roads, and canals. The Franco-German War cost Belgium a considerable sum for the maintenance of her neutrality. In August, 1870, the Chambers granted an extraordinary credit of ^608,800 for the maintenance of the army, ^89,000 for the further fortification of Antwerp and Dendermonde ; and, lastly, ^20,000 for the equipment of the Civil Guard. A further credit of ^398,274 was granted in September, and again in January, 1871, one more of ^139,000. Financial affairs suffer under the system of supplementary credits. While under Dutch Government Belgium was obliged to furnish half the general expenditure, averaging rather over ^3,520,000. The country is certainly in a better condition now than formerly under Dutch rule. Between 1830 and 1861 Belgium expended ^"1,680,000 for learning and art, ^400,000 for the erection of religious edifices, ^2,160,000 for public education, ^160,000 for tlie military school, ^560,000 for prisons, ^"3,080,000 for roads, ^480,000 for bye-roads, ;i^5, 140,000 for rivers and canals, ^7,640,000 for State railroads. In 1S69 the State expended ^21,332,951 for railroads, canals, and high roads. 3 E 626 Belgium — Land and People. The military system involves great expense. The cost of building the fortifications of Antwerp, originally estimated at ^1,957,080, rose to ;^3, 200,000, \ of which was born by Antwerp alone. One great step towards progress was made in the abolition of local dues (octrois). These octrois existed in 78 towns, and the net proceeds thereof amounted in ^^59 to ^435,042. In order to render the abolition of these dues possible the State granted to the communes concerned therein 42 per cent, (sub- sequently 40 per cent.) of the gross yield of the post, 75 per cent, of the duty on coffee, and 36 per cent, (subsequently 34 per cent.) of the excise on spirituous liquors. On the other hand, the excise on these liquors and on sugar was increased. The salt tax was abolished in January, 187 1. Provincial Finance. In 1875 the revenue amounted to ^473,254, the expenditure to ^422,438. Under the first appeared proceeds of provincial property, ^2,402 ; assessments, ^285,377 ; State subsidies, ^8,723 ; and from other sources, ^176,752. The provincial debt of 1875 was ^590,259. The expenditure of the separate provinces in 1875 was as follows : — Antwerp . . . Brabant West Flanders East Flanders Hainault ... Liege Limburg . . . Luxemburg Namur ^32,566 77,788 40,368 30>674 125,258 48,365 11,279 19,596 36,544 'I'otal ^422,438 Finances of the Communes. There has been no returns since i860 except of the Commune of Brussels. In 1876 this Commune had a revenue of _;^2, 050,498 ; and an expenditure of ^2,044,402. Army. The Belgian .\rmy is destined only for the defence of the territory, and the neutrality of the State. Since 1869 there has been an annual levy of 12^000; of these 11,000 belong to the active army and 1,000 to the reserve. The standing army is formed by conscription to which all are liable after nineteen years of age, but substitution is permitted by law ; the price of such substitution is fixed every year by a decree. The law of 1873 established recruiting by voluntary enlistment. I'he legal period of service is eight years ; two thirds of this period are as a rule allowed on furlough. 'I'he " Garde Nationale " is not included in the standing army ; it is bound to supply in time of war 30,000 men to defend the independence of the country. The formation of the army was as follow in 1876 : — Infantry. 19 regiments (i carbineers, 3 chasseurs, 1 officers. • Men. grenadier, 14 regiments of the line) ... 1,820 ... 70,737 i Belgium — Lmid and People. 627 Cavalry. — 8 regiments (2 chasseurs, 2 pioneers, 4 lancers of 4 sc^uadrons each (active), and I reserve ... Artillery.— 7 regiments (with 36 mounted batteries, 4 horse batteries, and 48 fortress batteries) Engineers. — i regiment of 3 battalions of 4 com- panies Other Corps. — Gendarmerie, staff, train, administra- tive Total Officers Men 364 ... 7.924 376 .. 15.234 75 ••• 2,685 597 .- 6,544 3232 103,124 Of this total, 40,590 soldiers are under arms ; 62,534 are unpaid ; the normal strength in time of peace being 45,970 men, with 10,107 horses, and 204 cannon. The effective force of the "Garde Nationale" in 1877 was 29,833 men. In 1879 the number of soldiers under arms amounted to 40,590 rank and file. Fortresses : The principal one is Antwerp, greatly strengthened and enlarged ; those next in importance are Charleroi, Tournay, Ypres, Ghent, and Namur. Social Conditions. Agriculture is excellent. More than a million persons, or about one fourth of the population, are maintained by it. Unfortunately the Govern- ment has not caused any agricultural returns to be taken since 1866, they propose to do so, however, this year (1880). We give the year 1866 as a guide. :806 1866 Crops produced Acres. Bushels, Total area, 7,280,362 Woods and forests 1,073,452 Wheat 700,348 11,203,189 Spelt 158,930 5,370,130 Barley 107,734 3,665,643 Oats 567,465 23,363,805 Rye 713,741 17,561,936 Beans and peas 93,632 2,169,820 Buckwheat 52,944 1,276,797 Mixed corn ... 87,652 1,972,327 Total 2,482,446 66,583,647 1866 1S66 G reen and other crops. cwts. Potatoes ... 423,351 33,868,741 Beetroot 44,136 — Flax 140,901 466,796 Bare Fallow 133,111 — Grass under rotation 438,581 ... Meadows and permanent pasture 903,538 — 62$ Bel£^ium — Land and People. The Live Stock in 1866. Horses Cows Other cattle Sheep and lambs Pigs Goats 283,163 738,732 503.713 586,097 632,301 197,138 Mining and Smelting Industries. Next to England, Belgium is the oldest coal-producing country. The extent of the layers of coal, the density of the population, the importance of its manufactures, the number of its lands, and, lastly, the high develop- ment of its railway system, have united in placing Belgium in the 5th rank of coal-producing countries. Notwithstanding this, the conditions are not all favourable, as the coal lies very deep, and is difficult to obtain. In 1866 155 coal mines were being worked ; they extended over more than 212,545 acres, and employed 86,721 persons, of whom 741 per 1,000 were men, 76 women, 128 boys, and 55 girls under 16 years of age in the subterranean workings, while those who worked above ground were 674 men in every 1,000, 138 women, 95 boys, and 93 girls ; there were 857 steam engines, with 61,254 horse power. The quantity of coal produced in 1866 was 12,774,662 tons, of the value of ^6,041,262. Of the number of tons 8,987,136 were consumed in Belgium. The mines in Hainault supplied 9,851,424 tons of the total, and those in the province of Lie'ge only 2,564,55 i tons. The cost of producing was estimated at ^^5, 115,148, of which ^3,091,183 was paid in wages. The remaining mines employed 10,686 persons. The number of accidents which occurred in 1866 was 259, by which 220 persons were killed and 78 injured. The number of smelting works was 431, 335 of which were for the production of iron ; they employed 20,799 workmen. COAL MINES. Year No. of Mines Produce in Tons 1866 155 12,774,662 1870 — 13,697,110 1871 166 13,733.000 1872 15,658,948 1875 — 15,011,331 1876 278 .. 14,329,578 Value ^6,041,262 5,945,392 8,342,360 8,833,604 7,764,746 PRODUCTION .^ND V.VLUE OF THK VARIOUS MINES OTHER TH.^N COAL, 1870 Tons Value Iron ore 654,332 ^232,218 Sulphur 28,665 24,820 Zinc ... 57,099 97,o8S J. cad... 13,380 98,904 ■ 875 Tons Value 365.044 ^136,924 30,747 32,286 42,504 115,096 10,567 80,194 1876 Tons Value 269,206 ^98,319 23,588 22,626 37,713 102,200 12,422 68,083 Belgium — Land and People. 629 FOUNDRIES, IRON WORKS, ETC. — PRODUCE AND VALUE IN 1876. Works Tons Value Steel • ... 3 75,258 • ^625,651 Copper ... 5 2,592 246,900 Lead ... 6 7,375 155.550 Zinc- 21 70,369 1,605,566 Alum 1 2,640 14,977 Glass ... 76 — 1,575,410 Furnaces ... 31 490,508 1,325,274 Casting 175 80,759 630,977 Rod-iron factories... 55 399.138 2,854,745 Tin plates and wire ... 56 . 17,076 229,544 NUMBER OF WORKMEN EMPLOYED. Coal mines Iron mines Quarries Foundries 108,543 4,248 25,643 37,705 176,139 Manufaduriug Industries. Manufactures have reached a high degree of perfection. The abundance of coal and the numerous railroads and canals have done much to promote manufactures and commerce. So far back as between 1835 and i860 the exports increased five-fold. The yield of coals, too, between 1830 and i860 increased from 2,513,000 tons to 9,610,895, and in value from ^1,266,000 to ^4,285,000. The produce of the smelting works represented a value of ;^2, 080,000 in 1838 and ^5,184,000 in i860. The horse-power of the steam engmes was 25,312 in 1838, but in i860 it was 161,809 'y i^ 1876, 539,864. The glass manufacture in Hainault is very important ; there are here 57 glass works, occupying 7,370 workmen. About 250,000 persons live by the manufacture of linen. There are 320,000 spindles and 5,000 looms ; the annual consumi)tion of raw flax amounts on an average to 1,571,429 cwts. The number of beet-sugar factories is above 150, with 33,000 persons employed, and 45 steam-engines. An annual consumption of 300,000 tons of coal, and 2,500 tons of coke, are required for its manufac- ture, and 109,915 acres are cultivated with the beet. The large yield of beet-root sugar during the last two years in Belgium has had a great effect upon the import of cane sugar. Commerce. IMPORTS. . The value of the principal articles imported since 1870 — 1870 1871 1872 Animals ^1,459,320 ^1,513,400 ^2,027,640 Coffee ... 1,246,960 1,533,440 1,705,680 630 Belgiuni- -Land and People. Cotton Grain of all kinds Iron ores and pig iron ... Manure ... Meat Metals and minerals Petroleum, etc. ... Oleaginous seeds . Tallow ... Vegetable filaments, flax, \^ hemp, etc. ... ... ^ Wine Wood for building* 1870 1,444,960 3,590,240 877,480 1,038,960 67,520 1,338,680 i,5o7'56o 1,010,040 652,160 2,595.520 605,120 750,840 1871 2,529,160 9,464,760 911,720 557,960 261,320 1,228,240 1,665,480 1,659,160 1,165,680 2,458,960 866,360 1,027,960 The total amount of imports (general and special) was — ^107,240,000 ^148,652,000 Animals ... Coffee Cotton Grain of all kinds Iron ores and pig iron ... Manure ... Meat Metals and mmerals Petroleum, etc. ... Oleaginous seeds Tallow ... Vegetable filaments, flax, ( hemp, etc. ... ... } Wme Wood for building 1873 ;^2, 160,480 2,168,560 1,441,520 8,863,160 1,553,840 249,160 1,868,520 1,836,320 1,966,240 1,072,160 1,297,800 2,582,040 857,600 1,905,040 1874 ^^1,771,320 1,807,320 I,6t2,I20 9,460,520 1,287,500 975,000 631,240 1,514,840 1,470,960 884,560 1,082,160 2,396,480 762,880 1,953,680 1872 2,289,640 5,064,640 '1,429,280 1,070,240 769,280 1,889,960 1,956,520 1,160,920 1, 505*640 2,702,880 863,920 1,657,320 ^^143,929,000 1875 P^I, 997,440 2,147,240 i>335,72o 7 306,640 1,289,800 1,307,960 291,160 1,659,000 1,510,880 1,221,800 848,880 2,974,120 1,041,600 1,836,120 The total amount of imports, general and special, was — >^i53,902,ooo ^142,042,000 /;i45, 035,000 Animals ... Coffee Cotton (jrain of all kinds Iron ores and pig iron Manure ... Meat Metals and minerals Petroleum, etc. ... 1S76 p^i, 984,560 2,460,640 1,304,000 10,138,500 1,448,880 1,606,200 773,920 1,674,280 1,796,360 1877 ^2,743,600 1.953^400 1,11 1.760 9,989,400 1,437,160 1,406,280 1,055,080 1,817,920 2,018,920 ^2,533,920 1,925,720 1,381,800 1 1,554,200 1,578,730 1,719,280 1,^23,960 2,253,120 1,656,000 ♦ 1'he receipt of wood for 1878 may be thus su.Timed up. — 201,354 planks, 6,696,033 oak and deal planks and battens, 122,974 American planks and battens, 9,032 pin« beams, 51,773 beams, square and round. Belgium — Land and People. 631 1875 ,877 n/ 1S78 Oleaginous seeds 1,446,840 1,134,280 1,205,160 Tallow 1,1 19,840 1,102,600 1,034,480 Vegetable filaments, flax, ) hemp, etc. ... ...\ 2,645,800 3,088,440 2,830,080 Wine 960,480 836,760 812,120 Wood for building 1,756,160 id special, were — i,555>32o 1,665,000 'i\\Q total imports, general ai £ 156,359.000 £1 51,312,000^ ^154,269,000 EXPORTS. Value of the principal articles— T <;->» tC-^ Arms ^562,720 1071 ^502,960 IO/2 ^527,920 Butter 568,040 469,160 580,040 Candles ... 478,920 796,680 639,400 Coal 905,480 2,206,800 3,409,920 Glass & glass wares ... 629,040 505,000 681,120 Iron, wrought, wire and rails 1,448,400 1,412,600 2,087,040 l.inen and hempen goods . . . 1,298,640 1,331,400 1,246,720 Machinery ... 925,520 996,160 1,5^1,320 Paper and paper hangings... 770,400 647,120 860,720 Stone, rough and hewn ... 524,080 general and spec 431,080 647,840 The total amount of exports. ial, was — ^250,316,000 ^246,019,000 ^340,728,000 ■873 1874 IS75 Arms ;^57o.-64o ^669,200 ^702,920 Butter 607,480 628,480 584,360 Candles 569,800 594,320 473>36o Coal 4,007,360 3,278,000 3,251,160 Glass and glass wares 1,259,440 1,566,780 1,601,960 Iron, wrought, wire and rails 2,266,280 2,419,120 1,974,960 Linen and hempen goods... 1,123,120 1,447,240 2,255,760 Machinery 1,937,400 1,882,120 1,900,560 Paper and paper hangings... 703,200 643,480 715,960 Stone, rough and hewn 1,660,320 1,565,840 1, 61 1,080 The total amount of exports, general and special, was — ^^344,384.000 . ;^336, 1 28,000 ;^347, 184,000 1876 :877 1878 Arms ^619,400 ^^540,600 ^557,240 Butter 605,800 555,120 636,800 Candles 355,5^0 5^3,440 578,680 Coal 2,756,520 2,109,000 2,555,840 Glass and glass wares ... 1,540,520 1,511,280 1,582,520 Iron, wrought, wire and rails 1,811,200 1,903,480 2,144,440 63: Belgium — Land ami People. Linen and hem))en goods.., Machinery ... Paper and ])aper hangings.., Stone, rough and hewn 1876 1,807,280 1.764,800 803,280 2,025,640 1877 1,800,800 2,624.800 843^520 2,158,600 1878 1,700.1 20 ii579.320 839,-60 1.944.280 The total amount of exports, general and special, was — ^^324,924,000 ;^3 1 2, 284,000 ;^29I,660,000 The principal countries with which Belgium traded, and the value of the imports and merchandise therefrom : — Russia Sweden and Norway Denmark Hanse towns ... Other parts of (iermany Holland Great Britain... France Spain Italy , Switzerland ... British India ... United States Brazil Uruguay Rio de la Plata Chili and Peru Russia Sweden and Norw-ay Denmark Hanse 'I 'owns Other parts of (jcrmanv Holland ' Great Britain France Spain Italy Switzerland ... British India... United Stales P,razil Uruguay Kio de la Plata Chili and Peru IMPORTS. 1870 ;^I, 734,840 481,360 229,800 534,760 4,332,760 5,657,840 6,352,480 9,325,680 358,000 213,680 106,169 297,680 1,676,880 344,120 1,209,080 1,988,280 917,840 ;^3,ooi,64o 976,400 256,760 546,440 6,314,760 7,161,520 10,530,120 13,425,560 887,520 234,720 62,040 490,440 5,535,280 843,840 1,593,080 2,854,760 771,760 1871 ^2,546,680 850,080 841,120 672,440 8,537,320 6,828,800 9>3i5>36o 9,895,120 381,040 239,680 46,200 662,600 3,495,600 244,560 1,636,480 2,532,720 427.000 1874 /;3,686,2oo ',035,560 207,880 325,960 6,348.120 6,847,720 8,165,960 13,043,920 503,760 303,520 88,320 226.240 4,933,760 587,480 1,317,120 2,010,160 670,960 1872 ^^2, 5 19,040 936,720 316,960 405,160 6,337,000 6,578,960 9,213,600 12,622,080 580,000 210,440 63,520 720,040 3,239,680 962,760 1,403,200 3,084.640 714,920 ^3,245,160 1,102,800 124,360 361,040 6,502,840 6,781,440 9,970,920 14,253,480 453,'6o 366,840 7 1.600 406,000 2,826,760 820,320 1,066,680 1,909,600 755,320 Belgium — Land and People. 633 Russia Sweden and Noi-\va\- Denmark Hanse Towns Other parts of (icrmany Holland Great Britain France Spain Italy Switzerland .,. British India United States Brazil Uruguay Rio de la Plata Chili and Peru Russia Sweden and Norway ... Denmark Hanse Towns Other parts of Germany Holland Great Britain ... France Spain ... Italy Switzerland ... British India ... United States Brazil... Rio de la Plata Chili and Peru Russia Sweden and Norway ... Denmark Hanse Towns Other parts of Germany Holland Great Britain ... France Spain ... Italy Switzerland ... British India 1876 ;^4,59o,28o 1,172,200 109,320 458,120 7,372,400 7,400,640 9.955-920 14,101,720 479.520 465,760 69 160 780,000 T876 4,436,160 516,720 966,440 2,300,640 i,o37;88o EXPORTS. 1870 ^^883, 200 133.400 51,200 410,440 5,130,960 3,288,560 5,864,480 9.235.280 168,080 435.920 368,280 1,400 426,280 163,400 102,680 168,680 1873 ^502.320 337,800 76,520 690,040 9,952,520 5,276,640 9,678,000 15,202,480 443,640 518,600 691,840 40 T877 ^3,280,000 1,056,040 57.440 692,920 7,897,760 7,871,560 8,502,880 14,161,680 945.320 457.400 55.160 783,240 1877 • 4.893.840 689,440 637,920 2,540,000 I, or 7,800 1871 ^470,200 138,120 61,040 521,360 7,842,040 4,1 19,320 7,738,600 1 1,880,040 248,880 284,480 367,920 7,720 364,800 277.320 199,760 180,640 187;! ;^58o,6oo 341,240 109,960 570,680 9,134,120 6,266,320 8,893,480 13.336,080 347.360 89^,920 876,680 J2,I20 1878 ^4,826,400 1. 153.440 89,640 580,240 8,884,320 7,477,480 7.770,080 I 2,926,440 900,560 249,880 39,960 429,880 1878 7,034,680 838,760 634,880 2,159,560 1,537,200 1874 ^471.040 262,520 77,000 680,480 8,930,600 4,836,240 9,503,880 12,824,200 323.400 480,160 753,360 40 576,120 353.400 315.400 365,040 1875 ^736,800 352,520 159,720 601,880 9,169,000 6,006,200 8,345,680 13,760,680 374,120 629,080 25I'720 59,640 634 Belgium — Land and People. United States Brazil ... Rio de la Plata Chili and Peru Russia Sweden and Norway Denmark Hanse Towns Other parts of Germany Holland Great Britain ... France Spain ... Italy Switzerland ... British India ... United States Brazil Rio de la Plata Chili and Peru Railways. Belgium preceded all other countries in constructing railways at the expense of the State. Private railways have also been con.structed in addition to those of the State. The State has, however, been obliged to purchase some of the private ones. Railways form a large portion of the revenue, as will be seen below. 1874 1S75 1S76 Total length of rail (miles) ... 2,145 2,233 2,262 Cost of construction for State| ^57,655 ^51,021.393 ^53,632,148 and private rails ) ^^^' ^" ^^ -^'^ ' -^-^-^ ■^'^^' -^ ' ^ Number of passengers carried... 45,364,693 49,056,143 51,429,894 Weight of goods carried (tons) 27,561,846 26,063,901 27.004,883 Receipts : — From passengers ;^i, 55 1,632 ^1,654,332 ^1,673,656 From goods and other sources 3,338,912 3,443,911 3,499,465 Total receipts ^4,890,544 ^5,098,243 ;^5,i73,i2i Total expenditure 3,227,740 3,282,001 3,215,604 1873 1874 IS75 651,640 744,640 662,160 304,360 406,040 353/500 294,840 193,600 172,840 283,360 235,640 253,640 1876 .877 1878 ^770,880 ^^1,009, 1 20 ^917,400 414,680 377,640^ 274,000 158,080 162,040' 88,120 654,120 884,080 816,160 9,118,760 8,026,600 8,001,040 6,613,640 6,626,000 5,845,880 7,666,480 9,108,560 9,983,920 12,565,480 11,838,880 13,174,200 1876 1877 1878 739,480 603,680 752,160 462,640 929,560 524,360 1,213,480 695,760 766,080 59,880 117,920 157,040 577,320 428,200 372,280 313,160 531,840 944,400 165,280 291,360 277,560 276,880 403,120 454,800 Accidents : — Killed Wounded 115 230 122 189 13^ 255 In 1877 the Total length of rail (miles) . . . Total receipts Total expenditure ... 3. 2,322 137.080 230,107 Belgium — Land and People. 635 Accidents : — Killed Wounded In 187S ihe total length of rail was 2,639 miles Letters Ne\vspai)ers Printed papers Samples Circulars ... Post cards ... Post office orders ... Letters Newspapers Printed papers Samples Circulars ... Post cards ... Post office orders . . . The number of Post Office. 1870 45>o82,53i 46,871,539 18,125,198 756,964 53,469 792,090 1875 60,523,771 65,480,000 33.385.000 1,210,000 116,600 7,848,000 1,134,169 post offices 567. 1873 55,654,859 52,771,524 25,697,383 1,066,312 72,774 4,673,461 920,616 1876 61,846,576 68,969,000 31,753,000 1,636,000 181,000 9,984,320 1,265,250 109 196 1874 58,036,628 58,825,598 30,094,207 1,087,190 75,465 6,035,861 1,035,830 1877 63,641,094 72,058,000 31,473,000 1,572,000 210,800 10,031,658 1,408,557 Telegraphs. In 1 87 1 there were 478 offices ; the number of despatches, 2,380,266; in 1876 the number of despatches, 2,910,687 ; in 1877 the number of offices was 613 ; the length of line was 3,158 miles, and the length of wire, 13,712 miles; the number of despatches, 2,900,079. In 1878 number of offices, 638. Mercantile Marine. Sail ing vessels Steam vessels No. Tonnage No. Tonnage Total vessels 1870 •• 55 ... 20,648 12 9,501 ... 67 I87I .. 48 17,262 12 8,742 .. 60 1872 .. 40 16,205 19 16,141 •• 59 1873 .. 41 16,434 28 30,005 .. 69 1874 •• iZ 14,925 24 30,397 •• 57 1875 .. 32 14,756 27 35,430 •• 59 1876 .. 25 15,130 23 29,850 .. 48 1877 22 10,547 28 •• 37,858 •• 50 1878 .. 24 10,319 34 •. 50,389 .. 68 In 1875 the large fishing boa ts numbere d 255, tonnage 8,388, Harbour Traffic. ENTERED. CLEARED. Vessels Tonnage Ves sels Tonnage 1870 5,6c8 .. 1,575,293 ... 5,0 46 1,575,293 1871 7,778 ... 2,123,041 7,9 52 2,182,706 1872 — •• 1,822,140 ... 901,637 636 Belgium — Land and People. Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage 1873 2,274,516 — 1,067,192 1874 6,363 2,389,137 • • 6,457 2,431,6^2 1875 6,066 2,440,681 6,052 2,429,135 I87C 6.324 2,739,769 6,324 2,182,297 1877 6,327 2,740,717 6,324 2,189,782 1878 6.177 3,130,772 6, I 2 2 2,414,468 Education. The ecclesiastics and the nobiUty still possess the preponderance of power and wealth. I'.ven the rudiments of ordinary education, with the control of the schools in the power of the clergy, are but little extended. Of the conscripts in the following years, there could — 1851 1856 1861 Neither read nor write ... 14,233 ... 13,343 ■•• 14,158 Only read 4,213 ... 3,778 ... 3,092 Read and write ... ... 9,843 ... 9,718 ... 12,036 Advanced education ... 10,653 ••• 12,961 ... 15,026 In the year 1864, out of 10,453 recruits who were drawn, only 5,339, = 51 per cent., were able to testify by their signature that the articles of war had been read to them ; and in 1866, out of 10,106 only 5,782, = 57 per cent., were able to do so, The following statistics have just appeared, and show more favourable results during the last years. The statistics of the degree of education among those who were drawn for service stand thus : — - 1847 1876 16,000 ... 8,246 3,254 ... 2,015 12,297 ... 19,288 8,241 ... 15,222 72 ... 538 39,864 Neither read nor write Read only Read and write Advanced education Degree of education not known Total number drawn 1878 8,822 1,957 20.936 15,669 573 45,309 Per cent. 47,957 Per cent. Able to read and write ... 51-40 ... 76.17 ... 76.23 Able to read only 7.93 ... 4.45 ... 4.03 In 1875 the number of teachers, including ecclesiastics, in ])rimary schools was 10,750; the number of schools, 5,856, and scholars, 669,192. The total sum expended for public education in 1875 ^^'^^ ^994,256, of which the State gave ^424,252, the communes ^354,861, and the i)ro- vinces ^115,143. There were 198 middle schools, 4 universities (2 supported by the State, (rhent and Liege, 2 free; Brussels, liberal : and I, on vain. Catholic.) Literature, 1880. There are published in Belgium 54 daily newspapers : 19 appear in Brussels alone ; 398 are weekly or bi-weekly publications. Very few of these pnpers existed before the middle of this century ; 2, however, are ex- ceptions, the youruid de Liege, which dates from 1764, and the Ga'^ette of Bruges, t'ron\ 1793. Of the periodicals published in Belgium. 143 appear in Flemish and 269 in French. '^'■- ■ ' ' '"^ " ^"^^^Mi^^i^iM M^mm>m^:-^:-.-^.-7^.-^ HOLLAND, (Kingdom.) LAND AND PEOPLE. Provinces North Holland South Holland Utrecht Zeeland North Brabant Limburg Gelderland Over Yssel ... Drenthe Groningen Friesland 1829 2,613,487 1839 2,860,450 1879 Area in English Population in Sqr. Miles, 1877 1,056 642,073 1,166 .. 763,636 514 .. ... 186,164 687 .. 187,046 i>979 .. ... 456,709 856 .. • 235,135 1,964 453,624 1,291 267,826 1,027 .. ... ii3>773 886 242,065 1,281 ... • 317,405 12,707 . 3,865,456* fmi oj Earlier Years 1849 1859 1869 3,056,879 .. • 3,2 93.577 • •• 3.574,529 Nationalities. \ Dutch (Batavians), about 2,400,000 in Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Gelderland ; their language is a cultivated low German ; 3. Parisians, nearly 500,000 in Friesland, Groningen, Drenthe, Over-Ys.sel, and several other islands speaking a low German dialect, akin to the Dutch. 3. Flem- ings, about 400,000 in North Brabant, and Limburg. 4. Low Germans, about 50,000 in Limburg. It was found by the last censu.s, that 3,139 of the population were born in Dutch colonies, 36,961 in Germany, 19,683 in Belgium, 1,218 in Great Britain, and 5,234 in other foreign countries. 1,913,486 males and 1,951,970 females. 638 Holland — Land and People. Creeds. Trotestants, 2,193,281, including 1,808,311 low German Reformers, 9,689 French Reformers, 5,270 Remonstrants, 65,470 Separatists, 41,865 Anabaptists, 54,318 Lutherans, 9,822 Old Lutherans, 334 Moravian Brothers, 576 Anglicans, 96 Episcopalians, 424 Presbyterians. Roman Catholics, 1,313,084. Monasteries 38, with 820 members; nunneries 137, with 2,187 nuns. Jews, 68,003, includmg 60,409 low German, and 7,594 Portuguese. Other sects 291,088, including Jansenists 5,337, and 37 Greek Catholics. Year 1870 187I 1872 1873 1874 1876 1877 1878 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 Births 129,997 128,305 131,664 133,796 136,072 138,469 142,210 142,632 142,646 Proportion per looo of Population ••• 35-9 - 35-3 ••• 35-8 36.0 36.1 36.3 ... 36.8 ... 36.3 ... 36.3 Deaths 93,066 106,978 94,594 89,287 85,069 96,834 90,187 86,278 98,486 Proportion per lOOO of Population 25.7 294 25-7 24.0 22.6 25.4 23.3 22.0 26.2 Stillbirths 7,010 7,304 7,309 7,358 7,606 7,643 7,610 7,472 7,747 Marriages 28,632 28,991 30,189 31.671 31.353 31,553 31,699 31,461 30,710 Total 137,007 135,609 138,973 141,154 143,678 146,112 149,820 150,104 150,493 Proportion per 1000 of population Persons married 159 16.4 17.0 16.6 16.6 16.4 16.0 16.0 In Towns of more than 10,000 Inhabitants in iSj"]. North Holland — Amsterdam, 296,200; Haarlem 34,797 J Helder, 22,030; Zaandam, 12,772; Alkmaar, 12,245 ; Haarlemermeer, 13,171. South Holland — Rotterdam, 136,000; Tlaggle, 104,095 Leiden, Gonda, 41,298; Dortrecln, 26,567 ; Delft, 24,511; Schiedam, 21,880; 17,070. „ Utrecht — Utrecht, 66,106 ; Amersford, 13,578. „ Zkeland — Middleburg, 15,954; ''^lushing, 10,004. „ North Brakant— Hertogenbusch, 24,538; Tilburg, 26,103; Breda, 16,085. ,, LiMBURc; — Maestricht. 29,083. „ GELDEKLAND—Arnheim, 38,017 ; Nymegcn, 23,509; Zutphen, 14,513. „ OvER-YssEL — Zwolle, 21,593; Deventer, 18,575; Kampen, 16,802. „ Drenthe — Hoogcveen, 11,103. ,, Groningen— 40,589. „ Friksland — T>ecuwardcn, 27,085; Wcslslellingwerf, 13,969; Opster- land, 13,753; Tietjcrkslcradal, 13,050; Schoterland, 13,892. Holland — Land and People. 639 Territorial Changes. Previous to the French Revolution, the RepubUc of the United Netherlands consisted of, ist, the seven united provinces, Holland, Gelder- land, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland, Over- Vessel, and Groningen ; 2nd, the little district of Drenthe, and, 3rd, the land in which all these communes had a share, viz., Hertogenbusch, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, Maastricht, Venloo, Sluys, and Hulst. The population was estimated at 2% millions. After the conquest of the country by the French in 1795 the State was transformed into the Batavian Republic, formed on the plan of the French Republic and divided into 8 departments, Flanders, Maastricht, and Venloo, containing 122,000 inhabitants, being ceded to France by com- pulsion. The colonies, which had been lost in war, with the exception of Ceylon, were restored to the State by the Peace of Amiens, but not so the districts which had been ceded to France. Again the colonies were lost in the newly-begun war. Napoleon dictated changes in the constitution, and at length (May 2^, 1806) the Republic was made into a kingdom under his brother Louis (nominal father of Louis Napoleon IIL) The Emperor incorporated the district lying between the Empire and the Maas w'th his dominions as early as 1807, also part of Zeeland and the fortresses of Bergen-op-Zoom, Hertogenbusch, Gertrudenburg, Middleburg, and Flushing, in return for which East Friesland, Jever, Kinphausen, and Varel were given to Holland. The kingdom, divided into 1 1 departments now contained but 12,281 English square miles, and 2,001,416 inhabi- tants. In 1810 the Emperor further took possession of the States of Brabant, Zeeland, and part of Gelderland, and formed out of them the French departments of the Rhine and '• Bouches de 1' Escaut " (mouths of the Scheldt.) When the nominal king afterwards laid down the Crown, Napoleon incorporated the rest of Holland with the French dominions, July 9th, 1 810. The oppressed people rose at the end of 1 813 to shake off the foreign yoke. In July, 1814, the Vienna Congress framed a "kingdom of the Netherlands " out of the former Republic, the Austrian Netherlands, and the greater part of the bishopric of Liege. Luxemburg, elevated into a Grand Duchy, was to serve the new king as a compensation for the posses- sions which he had been obliged to give up to Nassau. Marienburg and Philippeville were also united to the State by the second Peace of Paris. The Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice were lost as colonies by Holland. Belgium was torn from it by the revolution of 1830. In order to compensate the German Confederacy for the partial loss of Luxemburg, Limburg was nominally incorporated with Germany. In consequence of the events of 1866, this duchy was again completely separated from Germany. Holland knew not only how to extend her East Indian colonies, but also to make them useful in a high degree; and the exchange of her possessions in Malacca for Bencoolen, by treaty with England in 1824, greatly facilitated this. The Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast (Africa) were ceded to Great Britain in 187 1 and 1872. 640 Holland — Land and People. Finance. BUDGET ESTIMATES OK REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR 1879. 1. Direct Taxes — Land tax, ^884,471 ; personal tax, ^812,500; patents, ;^328,533 2. Excise — Wines and spirits, ^1,866,667 ; other articles of consumption, /i, 319,583 3. Indirect Taxes — Stamps, registration, mortgage, succession duties 4. Customs and navigation dues 5. Guaranteeing works of gold and silver... 6. Domains ... 7. Post, ^350,000 ; telegraph, ^66,666 8. Lottery 9. Hunting and fishuig dues ID. Pilot and lighthouse dues 11. Mining dues, ^188; railways, ^135,500 12. Miscellaneous receipts, ... 13. Interest on loans ... ^2,025,504 3,216,250 1,955.000 3^4,253 30,516 141,250 416,666 37,500 11,916 75,000 135,688 332,5ii 608,333 Total revenue - ^9^370,387 expenditure. 1. Civil list ^^62,500 2. Legislative body and Council of State 51.290 3- Foreign aff;\irs 52,999 4- Justice 374,064 5- Home affairs 574,301 6. Marine 1,096,555 7- War 1,803,491 8. Public debt 2,369,660 9- Finance ... 1,491.054 10. Central administration of the colonies 141,340 1 I. Water-works, comnierce and public works 1,878,699 1 2. Unforeseen expenditure ... 4,166 Total expenditure ^9,900,116 Communal taxes were abolished in Holland in 1865. It was originally intended that the loss caused by this should be covered by an increase of the duty on spirits, and by the transfer of part of the personal and house tax to the Communes, but the favourable state of the finances of the country, at that period, allowed the State Treasury to forego any compen- sation. 'l"he prosperous condition of the fniances may be ascribed partly lu the extraordinary profit obtained from the East Indian Colonies. Holland — Laud and People. 641 Provincial and Communal Revenues. The former, arising from additional per centage on the land-tax and personal tax, and from the dues payable for the use of roads, bridges and canals made by the provinces, amount to between ^250,000 and ;:^35o,ooo ; of the latter, nothing accurately is known. PUBLIC DEBT IN 1879. Specification Public debt Redeemable National debt Debt of 1H78 Life annuities, etc... to pay P( interest 2r cent. 4 • 3 3i • 4 4 Capital. •■ .;^52,674,4o8 .. 7,610,220 .. 929,750 .. 14,702,616 .. 3,750,000 ., Interest. . ^1,316,861 228,306 31,885 588,104 143.334 4,869 Debt not liable Amortissement ^79,666,994 .. ^33^333 • • ;^2,3i3,359 56,300 ^80,500,327 ^2,369,659 The credit of the State of Hollanti was so firmly established in the middle of the last century that the 2\ per cent, paper money was paid with 10 per cent. "Agio," nothwithstanding the large amount of the debt ; butthe rate of exchange declined in consequence of the war between England and North America. In 1795 the Republic was obliged to pay ^1^8,333,333 to France as war indemnity, beside the ceding of certain territory. When Louis Napoleon ascended the throne of Holland, the old debts amounted to ^83,258,568, and the amount of interest required upon it was ^2,400,000. With the addition of the new debt this made a sum of ^100,000,000, the annual interest upon which was ;:^3,ooo,ooo, the regular receipts at this time being only ^4,833,333, (hence arose a forced loan at 7 per cent, in the year 1807). In 18 10 Napoleon upon his own responsi- bility declared the interest upon the debt to be reduced to -|. The f which were thus forcibly set aside were again recognised under William I., but they were declared not liable to interest until the first third and the new debt were paid off. In 1836 it became necessary to declare the colonies a legal mortgage for the State debt. Again, in 1838 there was a deficit of ^916,666; but some considerable relief was obtained by Belgium being compelled to undertake the payment of an annuity of ^416,666, in accord- ance with the treaty of April 19th, 1839. Great exertions were needed, however, to restore the equilibrium in the State finance, notwithstanding rich contributions from the East Indies. The payment of the debt was effectually begun in 1850, and the result is a very considerable diminution of the debt, together with an annual saving of ^750,000 for interest. Former State Expenditure. The expenditure of Holland was much increased in the last century by its military system and by debt ; but the payment of it was made possible by the wealth of its inhabitants, and the gain from the colonies and navi- gation. The revenue was estimated at ;^2,i66,666 in 1770, and at 2 s 642 Holland — Land and People. :^3,333,333 in 1786. In 1805, under the pressure of the demands made by France, the budget rose to ;!^5, 750,000, and in 1806 to ^6,416,666. The deficit of this latter year was estimated at ^916,666, but it really amounted to ^4,666,666, and in 1807 a further sum of ;2^3,333,333 was added. Again, in 180S a deficit of ;^2,5oo,ooo was foreseen and estimated, and in 1809 one of ^166,666. In 181 1 Napoleon fixed the payments to be made by the Dutch depart- ments united to France at ^2,460,000. The budget for 1817 showed an expenditure of ;^6, 116,666, of which sum ^2,062,500 was for the financial departments, including debts and ^2,333,333 for war preparations (^1,916,660 on land, and ;^4i6,667 on water). For these two items, therefore, above 70 per cent, of the total was required. The King of Holland made extraordinary military exertions after the Belgian revolution, and involved the State in almost financial ruin, which was only warded off by exercising rigid economy aided by the rapidly in- creasing revenue from the East Indies. This last soon turned the deficits into surpluses. The statement of accounts for the 11 years, 1845 — 1857, showed the following results : — Total revenue, ^77,976,162, viz. : From the colonies ... ... ... ... ^18,483,758 F'rom the mother country ... ... ... 58,492,407 Total expenditure, ^72,721,572 Of which sum... ... .... ^31,991,082 were for interest on the debt. No State has known so well how to draw enormous sums from the colonies into the State treasury. In 1832 this amount was only ... ... ... ^63,875 „ 1834 it was .. ... ... ... ... ... 166,666 „ 1841 ,, ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,000,000 From this date until 1854 the net amount varied between ^645,888 and p^^i, 729,166 In 1856 the amount was ... ... ... ... ^2,520,888 „ 1867 „ „ 1,237,500 Since when the net profits of the colonies, after deducting the expen- diture for the central administration of the same, have appeared in the State budgets with the following figures: — 1868, ;^774, 119; 1869, ^1,083,584; 1870, /:937.6o5; 1871, ^716,189 ; 1872, ^^728.510; 1873, ^747,966; 1876,^831,239; 1877, ^^831, 239. Army* The army is formed jiartly by conscription and parti)- by enlistment ; the system of providing substitutes obtains here. The term of service of * It has been sugg;esteil by M. de Beer Portugal, in a pamphlet just published, and which is creating great attention, that tin- Dutch military forces should he reorganized. He urges the necessity of introducing the principle of pLMsonal si-rvice. and abolishing the practice of permitting men drawn ior the army to be represented by substitutes. He urges that the Dutch land forces must be divided into an army of 35,000 to 4.0,000 under the colors, andi Holland — Laiid and People. 643 conscripts chosen by lot begins at the age of 20, and lasts for five years nominally, for at the end of twelve months they are discharged on furlough and only ret[uire to meet for drill six weeks in each year. The annual contingent is not to exceed 11,000 men. These troops are only liable to serve in Europe. Volunteer corps have also been formed, which are under the direction of the State, and which receive supplies from the State. Formation of the Army, 1879. Infantry : 1 regiment of Guards and Rifles, each of two companies ; 8 regiments of the Line, of 4 battalions, each of 5 field and i depot company. Cavalry : 4 regiments of Hussars, of 4 field squadrons, i reserve squadron, and i depot company. Artillery : 6 regiments — viz., 2 regiments of field Artillery, with train ; 3 of heavy Artillery, and i Light Horse Artillery. Engineers : i battalion of Sappers and Miners, 2 companies pioneers, etc. According to the organization of 1867 the following troops are always to be held ready for service : — 36 battalions of infantry, together 11,000 men; 16 squadrons of cavalry, witli 2,000 horses; 14 batteries of field artillery, and 4 batteries of mounted artillery ; i battalion of sappers and miners, about 500 men men, and i corps of volunteer rifles of about 200 men. The infantry battalions can be brought up to 20,000 men at any time, in a fortnight, by calling out the militia, and the sappers can be strengthened by 250 militia. In a further six weeks 8 reserve battalions of infantry, numbering about 6,600 ; 3 squadrons of cavalry, 300 horses, and 36 cannon can be brought into the field, besides 20,000 men of the militia on service. By this means there will always be ready for the field a mobile army of 15,000 men, bearing arms ; within a fortnight 35,000 men, and after about two months 62,000, inclusive of the militia, with 2,300 horses, and 108 guns, and at the same time 6,500 of the garrison artillery in the fortresses, 30,000 men of the non-active militia can be added to these. The following are the numbers according to the arrangement shown above : — Infantry 1,041 officers ... 43,703 soldiers Cavalry ... ... 187 „ ... 5,316 „ Artiflery and Engineers 494 ,, ... 11,648 „ Total ... ... 1,722 60,667 Militia. — There is a landwehr or militia (called Schutters chiitzen) independent of the regular army. These are divided into two great classes, and the first class is subdivided. These contain all those men capable of bearing arms between the ages of 25 and 35, and are divided well-drilled army for garrison and fortress service of at kast 40,000 men. The Militia should be " localized," and the Burgher Guard so re-modelled that the old soldiers should belong to the same corps to which they were attached in the army. With these changes he beliereg that the Dutch War budget would not exceed /; 1,400,000 annually. 644 Holland— Land and People. into 22 battalions of infantry, and 104 companies of artillery. The first class or active militia is drawn from all the communes having a population of more than 2,500. The smaller villages and communes supply the second great class, the non-active (rustende) militia, which is but little trained. The first class is subdivided into two bands, the first containing the unmarried men and widowers without children, and the second band, married men, most of whom have served in the standing army. In time ot peace the State only supplies the militia with equipments. An amalgamation of the militia with the standing army eventually takes place. In war the militia are to be raised to 100,000 men. Fortresses. — Hertogenbusch, Breda, and Grave. Smaller ones : Sluys, Briel, Helvetsluys, Coevorden, Sas- van-Ghent, Nieuve-Schanz, Schoon-hoven, Bourlanger- Schanz, and Ter-Neuve, (Maestricht Venlo, Bergen-op- Zoom, and Flushing have ceased to be fortresses.) The colonial army in the East Indies is formed by levies : 28 battalions of infantry, i regiment of cavalry, 18 companies of artillery, and 6 companies of Europeans and Africans. Three battalions of the cavalry are exclusively formed of Europeans, so also is half of the artillery and the engineers. The total strength of the troops in the East Indies in 1879 was 39,413 including 1,482 officers ; of the rank and file, 15,513 ^vt;ie Europeans, 22,120 natives, and 398 Africans. Navy. Holland has long renounced the idea of taking a high position as a naval power. In 1879 she possessed 86 steamers, with 376 guns, and 19 sailing vessels, with 94 guns. The 86 steamers, included 17 ironclads. Sailors and marines are recruited by enlistment. Social Conditio II. Holland still possesses great riches, which have lately increased, but which are very unecpally divided. The comfort of life is greatly embittered to the mass of the population, by a host of oppressive indirect taxes. This cannot fail to have a bad effect upon the character of the people. It is wrong to regard the Dutch merely as mean traders. It is still the same nation which, after winning its land from the sea, set the example to modern Europe, of intersecting it with canals in every direction. It has never, even under great financial pressure, shrunk from great undertakings, as the construction of the great canal, from the Helder to Amsterdam, the making of railroads, and the drying up of lake Haarlem, bear witness. With liberal intellectual development, extending also into ecclesiastical matters, the nation has carried out the principle of the separation between Church and State, and conse([uently between Church and School, further than any other European State. As a proof of the intellectual activity of the Dutch, more than 1,800 publications apjiear annually in this small country, exclusive of 150 newspapers and 60 other i)eriodicals. Public Schools. In 1877 there were 3,821 public schools, of which 134 were greatly supported by the State; the number of teachers 12,703, and the number Holland — Land and People. 645 of children 522,987. In 1876 the State expended ;^6i,i66, and the com- munes ^480,000. There are 4 universities, Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, and the Athenceum in Amsterdam. Of those levied for miHtary service at various periods, there were From 1846-58 1859-62 1863-67 1876 Read and Write Per Cent. 74-94 77.98 79-95 87.05 Only Read Per Cent. 2.24 2.23 2.31 0.96 Neither Read nor Write Per Cent. 22.82 19.78 17-74 11.99 The most favorable conditions are in North Holland, where the un- lettered recruits formed 6.62 per cent. ; South Holland, 7.64. The most unfavorable being, in North Brabant, where they formed 21.04 percent., and in Zeeland 15.47. Agriculture. Total acreage under all kinds of crops, fallow and grass in 1873, 4,992,648 acres, and in 1874, 5,022,399. CORN CROPS — PRODUCE. 1873 Bushels 1874 Bushels 1876 Bushels Wheat Spelt Barley ... Oats Rye Beans and Peas . Buck Wheat ... 6,573,193 56,356 4,567,458 11,257,543 10,326,599 2,734»7o4 2,771,706 6,189,546 56,287 5,415,338 12,647,712 9,819,108 2,851,450 3,898,469 ** 5>255,594 34,221 4,692,077 12,408,707 9,406,919 3,384,494 2,357,753 Green crops ... Potatoes Beetroot Flax Tobacco 35,920,027 210,388 54,481,014 9,793,391 166,382 cv 5 rts. 52,326,831 6,150,334 215,463 64,704 Live Stock. Year Horses Cows ^ofcat'tif^ Sheep & Lambs Pigs Goats 1872 247,888 1874 258,823 1876 267,859 896,870 926,788 914,840 480,132 855,265 542,289 936,429 524,385 891,090 Commerce. 320,129 352,369 352,297 151,450 149,509 Total value of the imports and exports, from 1872 Imports Exports 1872 1S73 ;^5o,o88,ooo ... ^55,293,000 38,782,000 ... 41,583,000 1874 ... ^54,284,000 42,248,000 1875 1876 1877 Imports ... Exports ,.. ,,, ^57,337,000 ... ^57,999,000 44,676,000 ... 44,100,000 ... /,6i, 333,000 44,151,000 646 Holland — Land and People. The most important import and export trade was carried on betweeo Holland and the following countries ; — IMPORTS. Great Britain ... Prussia ... Belgium... Sweden ... Norway ... Russia ... France ... United States ... British India Java and Madura Great Britain ... Prussia ... Belgium... Sweden ... Norway ... Russia ... France ... United States ... British India Java and Madura Great Britain ... Prussia ... Belgium... Sweden ... Norway... Russia ... France ... United States ... Java and Madura Great Britain ... Prussia ... Belgium ... Sweden ... Norway ... Russia ... France ... United States ... Java and Madura 1872 ^19,166,660 9,416,666 8,000,000 250,000 416,660 1,916,666 1,166,666 1,500,000 1,583.333 5>583>333 1875 ;^20,i66,666 12,916,666 8,750,000 250,000 333>333 3,083,333 1,416,666 1,750,000 2,083,333 6,416,666 1873 ^20,583,333 10,916,666 8,416,666 250,000 333,333 2,250,000 1,000,000 2,500,000 1,833,333 6,833,333 1876 ^18,916,666 12,833,333 8,500,000 333,333 ^ '7 ^ -7 '» -7 3,750,000 1,416,666 2,500,000 2,083,333 6,083,333 EXPORTS. 1872 >^9,o83,333 ••• 16,750,000 ... 6,083,333 ... 59,000 ... 166,666 ... 500,000 ... 500,000 ... 416,666 2,916,666 1875 10,416,666 18,916,666 6,666,666 ... 166,666 ... 250,000 1,750,000 ... 583,333 - 333'333 3,416,666 ... 1873 ;^95583»333 19,166,666 6,333,333 166,666 166,666 250,000 583.333 333'333 3,750,000 1S76 TO,333,333 t8,333>333 7,083,333 250,000 250,000 1,250,000 583.333 403,916 3,530,666 1874 ^19,000,000 1 1,416,666 7,250,000 250,000 333,333 3,250,000 1,000,000 2,500,000 1,583,533 6,416,666 1877 ;^I7, 148,166 15,508,500 8,892,583 4,666,666 3,257,416 6,180,750 1874 ^9,750,000 18,500,000 6,416,660 250,000 166,666 666,666 500,000 416,666 3,083,333 1877 10,916,666 18,056,000 7,524,333 627,166 33i'333 3,976,666 Giving one year — viz., 1875 — as an example, the trade was extended to the various parts of the world in the following proportion : — Holland — Land and People. 647 Colonies Europe America Asia Africa Australia (Dutch) Import ^48,336,166 2,692,250 2,127,166 271,666 6,333 6,470,416 Export ^'40,796,166 608,083 7,000 67.583 250 3,435.083 Navigation. The number of sea-going vessels at the end of each of the following years was — Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage 1870 . . 1,984 . 389,526 1875 • .. 1,835 • 410,689 I87I 1,901 384,465 1876 . .. 1,786 . 419.775 1872 • 1,855 • 384,958 1877 . .. T,247 . 338,978 1873 . 1,804 386,322 1878 . .. 1,179 • 341,482 1874 . . 1,827 . • 399,345 Harbour Traffic. The tonnage of vessels entering and clearing the various Dutch ports under the Dutch flag and under foreign flags was as follows : — 1870 iS-i 18-2 1873 1874 Foreign ... 1,287,751 1,620,806 1,539,768 i, 733,77° 1,731,387 Dutch ... 518,206 568,308 605,960 581,585 607,480 1875 i87rD 1877 1878 Dutch ... 600,052 663,608 799,300 899,258 Foreign... 1,726,228 2,026,007 2,145,215 2,211,069 Railways. State and companies lines : — 1873 1874 1875 Total length of line (miles) ... 826 856 874 Cost of construction ^14,773,372 ^15,332,563 ^i5,359,8oi Number of passengers carried 9,329,541 9,981,567 10,713,509 Weight of goods carried (tons) 1,667,424 1,794,297 2,025,073 Total receipts ... — ;^i, 136,308 ^1,249,927 ^1,306,642 Total expenditure ... ■•• 884,30 2 912,826 966,882 Accidents : — Killed 12 12 18 Wounded — M i9 7 State and companies lines : — 1S76 1877 1878 Total length of line (miles) ... 902 917 993 Cost of construction ... ... ^16,667,313^18,294998 ^8,850,324 Number of passengers carried 11,524,050 11,922,915 17,530,998 Weight of goods carried (tons) 2,266,317 2,275,006 2,605,441 Total receipts ^i,39i,4o8 ^1,460,705 ^1,502,378 Total expenditure 1,011,132 ^fi^^^} ^^o5,354 Accidents : — Killed 14 24 26 Wounded ... — -- i? M ai 648 Holland — Land and People, Length of line (miles) Length of wire (miles) Number of offices open Receipts Expenditure ... Total number of messages Length of line (miles) Length of wire (miles) Number of offices open Receipts Expenditure ... Total number of messages egraphs. 1873 1874 1875 2,035 7,289 149 2,131 7,678 158 ^59,683 96,022 2,136 7,658 159 ^59,363 92,011 ;^62,000 100,730 2,064,238 2,085,480 2,196,959 1876 1877 1878 2,155 7,865 162 2,185 8,000 168 2,190 7,968 345 ^65,730 101,780 ^65,620 104,775 2,358,000 2,985,000 2,405,240 Post. The following letters, &c. were sent through the post in the years — Postal Cards Written Documents Inland Letters Foreign Letters 1848 ... 4,324,032 ... 1,833,824 1854 ... 11,158,515 ... 3,025,208 1869 ... 23,719,305 ... 6,590,544 1876 ... 37,904,459 ... 10,639,120 1877 - 39,457>o97 •■• 10,624,842 The number of offices in 1877 was 1 ,488 Newspapers and periodicals sent — 1869 ... 1876 ... • ■ • • 9,816,319 58,350,898 14,709,719 37,408,368 DUTCH COLONIES. Area, square miles Inhabitants In the East Indies In America... 614,471 46,138 23,989,600 I 10,000 The possessions may be thus divided : — In the East Indies : — English square miles Population. Java and Madura Western Sumatra Bencoolen 51,324 46,200 9>57<^ 18,125,269 939,663 129,045 Holland — Land and People. 649 English square miles. Population. Lampongs 9,975 110,906 Palembang 61,152 481,081 Eilliton 2,500 24,999 Banca 4,977 61,269 Rivuo 17,325 39>6o4 Borneo, West ... 58,926 361,603 Borneo, South and East 137,928 851.519 Celebes 45,150 345,912 Molucca Islands 42,420 330,737 Menado 26,600 228,051 Timor 21,840 900,000 Bali and Lombok 3,990 860,000 New Guinea ... 67,410 200,000 In America — West Indies :— - Curagao 160 23,972 Aruba 69 ... 5,670 St. Martin 13 3,101 Bonaire 95 4,470 St. Eustace 12 1,809 Saba ... 7 2,002 Surinam 59,051 69,329 The natives of the East Indian colonies are mostly Mohammedans. The natives of the Molucca Islands have become Christians. Behm reckoned the non-native population of the East Indian colonies thus : 34,212 Europeans, exclusive of 14,310 military persons Europeans; 962 descendants of Europeans, 305,897 Chinese, 13,083 Arabs, 19,518 Hindoos. Of these numbers, there are in Java and Madura 27,571 Europeans, 191,821 Chinese, 8,753 Arabs, 14,728 Hindoos. Principal town, Batavia, with a poi)ulation of 99,109 ; Surabaja, 100,000. The West Indian population contains 7,800 Protestants, 25,620 Catholics, 906 Jews. In Surinam there are about 12,000 Catholics, 23,400 Moravian brothers, 7,000 Reformers, 3,000 Lutherans, 664 Dutch and Portuguese Jews. Slavery has been abolished in the Dutch-American colonies since July, 1863. The amount fixed for the indemnification of the slave owners was £2^2 for each slave, without respect to age. The emancipated slaves at once entered upon an apprenticeship of three years ; half of their wages were paid by the State during this period. The number of slaves thus dealt with was 46,000. According to a law passed April 23, 1864, the States-General are empowered to decide upon the colonial budgets. The revenue and expenditure for the various colonies in 1879 was : — East Indies Surinam West Indies Revenue ^11,786,597 102,883 30,658 Expenditure ;^I2, 512,146 140,101 53,335 Deficit ^755,531 37,307 22,677 650 Holland — Land and People. The revenue of the East Indian possessions was obtained by — In Holland In India Total Sale of coffee ^3,742,063 ^938,533 ^4,680,596 Sale of Peruvian bark ... 12,215 — 12,215 Sale of tin 253,263 — 253,263 Farming out of opium ... — 1,466,225 1,466,225 Customs — 708,675 708,675 Land Tax — 1,401,666 1,401,666 Salt tax — 556,714 556,714 Miscellaneous 120,777 2,586,466 2,707,243 ^4,128,318 ^7,658,279 ;^ii>786,597 Expenditure. Central administration in India ^10,276,902 Expenses in Holland 2,235,244 ^12,512,146 Produce of Java and Madura. In 1872 there were in Java 29,416,800 cocoa-nut trees, and 300,743,433 coffee plants. The quantity of rice produced amounted to 54,793,965 cwts. ; sugar, 2,788,222 cwts. ; tobacco, 1,785,714 cwts. ; indigo, 6,026 cwts, ; and tea, 9,487 cwts. Live Stock. Buffaloes Ponies Oxen Cows 466,400 ... 88,800 ... 533,000 ... 721,300 Value of the total imports and exports. Imports Exports 1875 ^10,472,666 ... ;^i4,756,25o 1876 10,125,916 ... i7,793»25o Post Office. Passed through the post — Ordinary letters... Government letters Foreign letters ... Postal cards Receipts ;^6o,23i ... ;^59,33o Telegraphs. In 1877 there were 51 offices in Java and 16 at Sumatra; total 67 Telegrams despatched in 1876, 312,900; in 1877, 338,449 ; receipts in 1876, ^38,854 i in 1877, ;^42,o77. 1876 1877 ,208,204 .. 2,320,947 715,709 729,337 432,984 500,117 269,935 295,263 Holland — Land and People, 65 1 Harbour Traffic. JAVA AND MADURA. Entered 874 875 Vessels Tonnage Vessels ... 4,680 ... 808,419 ... 4,461 ... 2,645 ••• 816,176 ... 2,656 Tonnage 854,797 826,706 The Colo7iial Mercantile Fleet in 1875-76 Vessels Entered Ton: nage 1874 1875 1876 1,197 1,270 1,384 712, 117: 130 ,440 ,982 ,266 Railway s- There were above 200 miles of line in 1878, and in 1879 ^ State rail- way ftom Soerabaja to Pasoersean and to Malay was opened, a length of 68 miles; others are also in course of construction. LUXEMBURG (Grand Duchy) LAND AND PEOPLE. UXEMBURG has an area of 999 English square miles, with a population in 1875 of 205,158, of whom 103,109 were males, and 102,049 were females. 203,623 of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics, 874 were Protestants, and 661 were Jews. The chief town Luxemburg contains 15,930 inhabitants. The other towns of im]jortance are Esch on the Alzetta, 6,203. Eich, 5,462, and Echternach, 3,940 inhabitants. 1840 1849 1862 1867 1871 Populatioti in Earlier Years. 169,730 189,783 202,313 i99>958 197,528 The decrease mainly caused by the vast amount of emigration. In the year 1872, 1,139 Luxemburgers landed in New York alone. Although the inhabitants are chiefly of German descent, yet all business is transacted in the French language. Luxemburg formerly belonged, as a separate duchy, to the Austrian Netherlands. It was assigned to France by the Peace of Luneville, and was called the Depart- ment des Forets. In the year 1814, the King of the Netherlands received Luxemburg, which had in the meantime been enlarged, by a part of the Duchy of Bouillon, and elevated into a Grand Duchy, in exchange for the relincjuishmenl of his claims on the hereditary land of Nassau. It was to form a portion of the German Confederation, and was entered on the register of the Confederacy as containing 255,628 inhabitants. The L tixemburg — L and and People. 653 Belgian revolution of 1830 rent assunder the territory of Luxemburg. Part of it was given to Belgium by tlie treaties of 1839. Prussia was to have the right of garrisoning the citadel of Luxemburg, but this privilege was lost by the Treaty of London, May nth, 1867. Luxemburg, com- pletely separated from Germany, was then declared a neutral state. The fortifications of Luxemburg were ordered to be destroyed. The union of Luxemburg with Holland is a personal one, and nothing beyond that. The Grand Duchy is at the present time, a member of the German Zollverein. Finance. Revenue Expenditure Deficit 1876 ... ^221,755 ... ^238,876 ... ^17,121 1877 ... 214,250 ... 227,288 ... i3)038 The Budget for 1879 concluded with a gross revenue of ^288,859, and a gross expenditure of ^275,546. The details of the revenue being REVENUE. 1 Presumable balance from 1878 ^24,000 2 Direct taxes and excise ... ... ... ••• 68,900 3 Customs 41,440 4 Registration and domains ... ... ... ... 68,500 5 Post 14,600 6 Telegraph 1,520 7 Prisons, central hospice, etc. ... ... ... 8,040 8 Miscellaneous 8,659 9 Receipts for orders 53>2oo Total revenue ... ... ... ... ^^288, 859 EXPENDITURE, 1 Civil List ^8,000 2 Chamber of Deputies ... ... ... ... 1,320 3 Council of State ... ... ... ... ••. 680 4 Administration, superior ... ... ... ... 6,014 5 Foreign affairs ... ... ... ... ••• 964 6 Religion 16,230 7 Army 19,39^ 8 Court of accounts ... ... ... ... ... i>45o 9 Pensions ... ... ... ... ... ... 17,200 10 Public works ... ... ... ... ... 29,467 11 Railways, canals, etc. ... ... ... ... 2,486 12 Agriculture, commerce and industries ... ... 3,076 13 Public instruction and sciences ... ... ... 16,810 14 Prisons ... ... ... ... ... ... 8,606 15 Home affairs ... ... ... ... ... 14,640 16 Public debt 24,464 17 Cost of administration ... ... ... ... 38,551 18 Other expenses ... ... ... ... ... 1,060 19 Expenses for orders ... ... ... ... 53,200 20 Justice ... ... ... ... ... ... 11,131 • Total expenditure ^^274,745 654 L uxcm burg — L and and People. The amount of the debt is ^480,000 contracted principally for the construction of railways, and in the following manner : — A loan of ^156,000 was negotiated in 1859 ; and a further one of ^^370,800 in 1863 both at 4 per cent. ; the latter was negociated at 91. These with the subsequent amortissement reached the sum of ^480,000. Army. The regulations are similar to those of Holland : — i battalion of rifles of 4 companies, composed of volunteers 500 men, besides militia, and a gensdarmerie of 120 men. Railways. At the end of 1877 there were 169 miles of line in working order. Mines and Smelting Furnaces — 1875. Works Production, cwts. Value Workmen. 21 Iron mines ... ... _;^2i,o4.8, 100 ... 146,493 ... 1,777 6 For separating the metal | , „ , c 4U 'i>4o6,74o ... 896,170 ... i,-;66 from the ore ... ... | ^^ "^ J 1 1^ o"" 5 For working raw iron ... 101,820 ... 52,809 ... 265 DENMARK (Kingdom) LAND AND PEOPLE. (a) Kingdom of Denmark :- Zeeland, Moen, Samsoe P'unen, Langland, Aroe Lalland, Falster Bornholm Jutland . (^) Total Subject Lands :— Faroe, 17 inhabited islands Iceland- (Greenland, colonised ... Danish Antilles Total (3) Total of (a) rca in Eiig. Sq. miles, Population in 1878 2,839 693,000 1,317 253,000 648 94,000 226 34,000 9,754 866,000 14,784 514 39,553 386 40,572 14,784 Gross total ... 1,940,000 1 1,000 72,000 9,8oof 37,500 130,300 1,940,000 55,356 ... 2,070,300 The population has more than doubled since iSoi, when it was only 929,001. Creeds. In 1870 there were only 14,142 persons who did not belong to the Lutheran State Church. Of these 4,290 were Jews; 1,857 were Roman Catholics; 1,433 of the Reformed Church, 3,223 _ Baptists, 2,128 Mennonites, and 1,211 Sectarians and persons of no religion. * 16,159 English square miles are uncolojiised, + 236 are Europeans; the remainder are natives. 656 Denmark — Land and People. Movement of the Population. Proportion per 1,000 of th e population. Still Persons Births* Births Total Deaths Marriages Births Deaths Married 1870 .. • 54,420 2,052 56,472 34,091 13,134 30-5 I9-I 30.5 I87I .. • 54,396 2,011 56,407 35,075 13,207 30.2 19.5 30.2 1872 • 55,221 2,053 57,274 33,433 13,627 30-3 18.3 30-3 1873 .. • 56,571 2,045 58,616 34,250 14,903 30-7 18.6 30.7 1874 .. • 57,27^ 2,046 59,324 37,046 15,260 30.8 19.9 30.8 1875 .. • 59,749 2,042 61,791 39,423 i5,9'5 31.8 21.0 31.8 1876 .. . 61,788 2,179 63,967 37,365 16,180 32-5 19-7 32.5 1877 .. . 60,850 35,«o6 15,428 31-7 18.7 31.7 In 1876 the number of births to a marriage was 4.24. In 1877 the death rate in Denmark was the lowest of the European States, and the marriage rate among the highest. Next to Norway, Denmark is reputed to be the healthiest country in Europe. Emigration. Emigration was formerly very unimportant, but has been gradually assuming larger proportions. 1870 1S71 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Emigrants 3,525 3,906 6,893 7,200 3,322 2,088 1,581 Destination : — United States ... 3,264 3,249 5,941 5,926 2,261 1,678 1,336 Canada... 54 22 43 246 98 47 23 Central & South } America 2 49 45 23 13 34 1 1 Australia 205 579 862 1,003 950 329 198 Other countries — 7 2 2 — • — 13 Total 3,525 3,906 Principal Population. 6,893 7,200 ' Towns. 3,322 2,088 p 1,581 opulation. Copenhagen 181,291 Randers ... 11.354 with Erederiksborg ... 250,000 Horsens ... 10,501 Odense ... ... 16,970 Elsinore . . . 8,891 Aarhuus... ... i5'025 Fredericia 7,186 Aalborg ... ... 11,354 Viborg ... 6,422 Iceland possesses its own administration, but complaints are made that its independence is restricted. Territorial Changes. At the beginning of the 19th century, Norway and Schleswig-Holstein were still subject to the Danish King. The former was ceded to Sweden on January 14th, 1814, in accordance with the resolve arrived at, at the £)uring the last 10 years tlie dcLieast of illegitimate hirths lias hecn a marktcl feature. Dcnviark — Land and People. 657 Peace of Kiel. The King received Swedish Pomerania as ostensible compensation, but subsequently resigned it to Prussia for Lauenburg and ^150,000. The attempt to incorporate completely the Elbe Duchies with Denmark led to the war with Prussia and Austria in 1864, which ended with the Peace of Vienna, October 30th, 1864. By this, Denmark finally lost the three Duchies, with the exce})tion of the little Island of Arroe, in place of which, domains in Jutland had to be given up. The treaties of Micolasburg and Vienna in 1866 oi)ened out a prospect of the re-acquirement of part of Northern Schleswig, but this is of slight imjiortance at present. Finance. REVENUE. 1S72 1873 1874 Crown lands* ^86,025 ... ^105,859 ••• ^io6,iir Interest from loans 222,980 ... 211,243 ... 200,796 Railways of Funen and ) Jutland- ... 1 63,097 ... 59,491 — 76,115 Direct Taxes :— Tax on Land 337,386 ... 336,291 ... 337,316 Tax on house property 98,380 ... 99,902 ... 100,305 Other direct taxes ... 16,212 ... 15,438 ... 15,718 Indirect Taxes — Stamps 115,245 ••• 128,142 ... 143,288 Succession duty ... 36,594 ••• 38,428 ... 46,291 Duty on transmission ... 29,854 ... 35,592 ... 38,678 Judicial fees 90,062 ... 87,845 ... 99,532 Taxes on municipal acts ... 7,583 ... 7,879 .- 8,953 Customs 857,529 -. 912,833 ... 1,004,808 Excise 189,146 ... 19,462 ... 205,506 Navigation dues ... 37,398 ... 38,131 ... 38,875 Other indirect taxes ... 6,578 ... 7,692 ... 8,256 Miscellaneous : — Post and telegraph- ... 28,593 ... 34,131 ••• 29,583 State lottery 45,071 ... 39,148 ... 41,582 Faroe islands 2,086 ... 2,330 ... 2,333 Miscellaneous .. £'• 501,836 ... 332,629 ... 1,085,207 Total revenue .. 2»77i,655 ... ^2,512,466 ... ^3,589,253 1875 1876 1877 Crown lands- ... ^101,228 ... ^100,543 ... ^^81,649 Interest from loans ... 182,076 ... 158,345 - Railways of Funen"] Jutland'' and| 78,027 ... 85,774 ... * Those sources of revenue marked with a * are net 2 T 658 Denmark — Land and P cople. Direct Taxes : — Tax on land 337,308 ... 35c, 046 ... Tax on house property 103,758 ... 108,444 ••• ... Other direct taxes ... 15,281 15,190 ... ... Indirect Taxes : — Stamps 143,657 135,111 ... 130,052 Succession duty 48,653 56,027 ... 98,521 Duty on transmission 38,922 ... 37,521 ••• Judicial fees 94.739 ... 95,417 ... 101,371 Taxes on municipal acts ... 9,172 9,735 — ... Customs ... ... ... I ,108,582 ] ,095,202 ... 1,253,468 Excise 208,990 ... 194,854 ... Navigation dues 4^,128 44,186 ... Other indirect taxes 9,296 9,688 ... Miscellaneous : — Post and telegraph- 11,073 2,852 ... State lottery 45,375 ... 47,440 ... 42,159 Farve Islands 2,895 2,835 ■•• ... The Antilles 1,388 1,388 ... Miscellaneous revenue 274,254 ... £2 92,139 .. ... Total revenue ... £,2 ,860,802 ,634,737 EXPENDITURE. iS72 1873 1S74 Civil list ;^55,555 ^55,555 .;^55,555 Royal Household 23,696 23,696 23,696 The Rigsdag, or Parliament 13,750 18,603 18,368 The Council 5,817 6,007 6,090 Interest on Public Debt 5 33,363 513,374 483,024 Pensions... .. I 64.614 160,481 159,436 Military pensioners 32,460 32,401 31,944 Ministry for Foreign Affairs 1,949 20,069 22,686 Ministry for the Interior 77,889 86,621 88,553 Ministry of Justice 111,263 1 11,904 1 1 2,104 Ministry of Public Instruction 37.755 41,251 41,667 Ministry of A\' ar ... 5 07,195 530,954 507,205 Ministry of Marine 203,680 237,049 235,054 Ministry of Finance I 52,378 160,177 160,635 Iceland ... 5,555 5,555 5>555 Reducing National Debt 586,569 266,203 1,323.607 Public ^Vorks :— Railways ... 64,778 301,592 306,336 Other works 9,944 10,621 8,570 Advances made .. ^2,6 25,124 13,334 22,610 17^587 Total expenditure ... ^^2,604,723 ^^3.607,672 * Those sources of ifvenuc marked witli a * arc net. Denmark — ha) id and People. 659 Civil list Royal Household The Rigsdag, or Parliament The Cotincil Interest on Public Debt... Pensions... Military pensioners Ministry for Foreign Affairs Ministry for the Interior Ministry of Justice Ministry of Public Instruction Ministry of War Ministry of Marine Ministry of Finance Iceland ... Reducing National Debt Public Works :— Railways Other works Advances made Total expenditure ... 1875 1876 1877 ^55.555 ^55,555 24,585 23J45 16,610 20,521 5,364 5,256 437,481 421,123 ^408,713 158,673 154,719 35,536 36,627 20,001 19,534 20,491 105,636 121,370 110,786 114,994 121,370 126,425 55>903 53,760 52,452 529,786 625,312 559,324 281,881 312,858 327-979 213,660 220,573 215,286 6,122 6,133 265,138 267,222 223,448 140,851 12,154 27,907 34,278 72,869 ^2,596,805 ;^2,707,305 The speedy re-organisation of the finances after the overthrow in 1864 is very worthy of recognition. As a rule, since 1870 the yearly accounts have shown a surplus. The amount of Public Debt in 1872 was ^6,370,043, viz., ^^4,604,231 home and ^1,765,812 foreign debt. The moveable property of the State amounted to ^2,571,272. which rendered the actual debt only ^3,798,771. In 1875 the debt amounted to ^5,600,329. In March, 1876, ^1^359,473 was spent on the railroads. Communal Finance. In 1874 the revenue and expenditure of Copenhagen amounted to ^427,120. The revenue and expenditure of the other 66 towns amounted to ;2{^3o6,i46, while the amount of revenue and expenditure of the country communes was ^598,902. History of Finance. The Royal decree of 1660, which endowed the sovereign with un- bounded power, showed its iniurious effects upon the financial system. 1st, by increasing the debt, which rose in 1771 to ;!^i, 790,538, payment of part of which was declared "over due." 2nd, A formal State bankruptcy was the result, in which it was necessary to be satisfied with the royal promise, made in 1813, that a yearly budget should henceforth be published. This promise, however, was not fulfilled until 22 years subsequently (1835). In 1813 the State debt paper money realized only \ of its nominal value in silver. Several new loans quickly increased the amount of debt, and it was not until after 1841 that any decrease took place. In 184S there was still a debt of ^1 1,81 2,500. Then began the war with Schleswig-Holstein, which led to the following financial results. 66o Denmark — Land and People Year Revenue Expenditure Deficiency Mode of Payment o r r r ooo/- of English loan ^787,500 IM9 ^1,243,561 ^2,398,388 ^1,154,827 [ ^^^^^..^^ ^^^ 562,500 ,, , , I New English loan 675,000 1850 1,460,516 2,57^,007 1,X12,4QI< , ° ^'-^ 5t o )o/o> / ; )ti/ ( and war tax 593)325 1851 1,504,513 1,697,640 193)127 War tax ... 123,975 I New loan and | 1852 1,918,905 2,149,463 230,558 diminution of the ,152,775 I civil list ... ... I The State escaped from this financial ruin by the composition for the abrogation of the Sound dues in 1856, to which foreign sea-faring States contributed ^3,590,107, and in the following proportions. Prussia ^499.503 Russia - ^'1 ,101,824 Austria 3.311 Sweden 178,931 Belgium 33)913 United States 155)25° Bremen 24,795 Hamburg 12,038 France 137)137 Hanover 13,881 Great Britain 1,139,267 Lubeck 11,588 Oldenburg . . . 3)i64 Mecklenburg 42,037 Netherlands ... 158,406 N orway 75,062 The receipt of these sums made the reduction of the State Debt a possibility. A compensation of ^193,187 was paid from the State Treasury for the emancipation of the negroes in the West Indies, in conformity with the decree of July 23, 1853. The war of 1864 made serious havoc with the finances of the country. New taxes and repeated loans became necessary. _;^2 8i,2 5o had to be raised by taxation during the financial year of 1864 and 1865 ; larger sums were of course procured by loans. Thus, in the year 1864, the nominal sum of ^1,200,000 at 5 per cent, was borrowed in London at 93; then in November of the same year _;!^7 28,000 at 94 was borrowed on the security of the arrears due by Russia for the abrogation of the sound dues. In accordance with the treaty of peace with Prussia and Austria, ;^3,262,5oo of the public debt was transferred to the countries ceded. According to the statements laid before the representatives of the people, June 27th, 1864, the land and sea forces had, from December ist, 1863 to May 31st, 1864, swallowed up ;^i, 597,500 ; and before ])eace was concluded a further sum of between ^^"3, 000,000 and ^^4,000, 000 was incurred. Besides this, the whole of Jutland was in the hands of the Allies, so that the revenue from this district was not forthcoming. The amount of the State Debt on the 31st of March, 1866 was ^14,750,588. In August, 1870 followed a new loan of ^750,000, which was rendered necessary by the Franco-German war. Military Sysh'/ii. 'I'he system of universal liability to bear arms is strictly enforced in accordance with a decree of July 6, 1867. The term of service, which begins at 22 years of age, lasts 16 years, that is 8 years in the regular and Denmark — Land and People. 66 1 8 years in the reserve army. The drilling is divided into two periods : in the infantry it is 6 months, and in the artillery and engineers 5 months ; in the cavalry 9^ months. A great deal of hard drilling goes on in this first period, before the men are allowed to return to their homes. Every corps has to drill a certain number of days in each year, varying from 30 to 45 days. The 2nd period of drill is for those recruits in each branch of the service, who acquit themselves least satisfactorily in the ist period. According to the law of 1867 the kingdom is divided into five territorial brigades, and each brigade into two territorial battalions. Every man who passes above six months in active service during the first period of service will have four-fold that period deducted from the time which he has to serve in tlie reserve. The active army is divided into the line and the reserve. The line numbers 21 battalions of infantry, i of which is the body-guard : 10 squad- rons of cavalry ; 9 field batteries ; 2 battalions of garrison artillery : and 2 battalions of engineers. The reserve contains 10 battalions of infantry ; 5 squadrons of cavalry ; 3 batteries of artillery"; i battalion of engineers. Army (war footing), 1879. Line Reserve Totil Infantry ... 27,766 ... 11,170 ... 38,936 Cavalry ... 2,308 ... — ... 2,308 Artillery ... 4,900 ... 2,109 ••• 7,oo9 Engineers ... 683 ... — ... 683 Total 35.657 ■■■ 13.279 — 48,936 In addition to these are the local troops : — the Copenhagen guard ; 2 battalions of infantry ; 2 companies of artillery ; and, lastly, the troops of the Island of Bornholm ; i battalion of infantry ; i sciuadron of cavalry ; i battery of artillery ; and i company of garrison nf artillery. Distinctive regimental badges are discontinued as undesirable. Fortresses. The only really important one is that of Copenhagen. Navy. The Danish navy is very much diminished. In 1879 it consisted of 7 ironclad steamers of 12,850 horse-power, and 63 guns; 27 other steamers of 13,200 horse-power, and 180 other vessels of various kinds. It is officered by i admiral, 15 commanders, 34 captains of frigates, 47 lieutenant and 20 sub-lieutenants, and manned by 2,830 men. Social and Itidustrial CondiUon. In 1872 there were 127 printing presses in Denmark, 43 of which were in Copenhagen. Criminal classes. — These have sensibly diminished during the last ten years. From 1868 to 1872 the number of persons sentenced for the first time for theft, varied between 1,200 and 1,500 annually; from 1873 to 1875 the number averaged 1,200 662 Denmark — Lavd and People. Suicides are extremely frequent. For the last eight years the annual average has fluctuated between 400 and 500, the mode in nearly all cases is by hanging. Among the items of Danish progress is the rapidly developing industry of ship-building. From 1873 to 1876, 69 steamers were built. and 454 sailing vessels. Commerce. Value of the general imports and exports : — 1872 1873 1874 Imports ... ^10,777,000 ^10,955,000 ^12,955,000 Exports ... 8,122,000 9,687,000 9,983,000 Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports 1S75 1876 1877 ^,'12,650,000 _;^i2,7i6,ooo ^12,521,000 9,561,000 10,037,000 SPECIAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 1872 1875 11,655,000 8,539,000 1873 1876 11,566,000 8,888,000 9,127,000 1874 1 1,627,000 8,694,000 1877 11,377,000 7,988,000 VALUE OF THE TRADE WITH THE VARIOUS COUNTRIES. IMPORTS. ' 1S74 1S75 1876 1877 Russia • ^549,000 ;^397,i66 ^528,444 ;^637,i66 Norway ... 541,722 419,722 342,888 302,166 Sweden ... 1,458,888 1,438,388 1,493,833 1,355,277 Germany... 4,621.611 4,656,500 4,892,611 4,716,000 Great Britain 3,226,222 3,532,111 3,281,777 2,975,500 Holland 385,611 406,277 417,722 291,1 1 1 Belgium ... 156,888 197,222 171,888 261,555 France 247,111 268,111 240,888 186,166 Iceland ... 158,611 148,000 153,944 200,277 United States 248,833 117,611 214,111 447,555 Brazil 530.444 201,500 1x4,444 194,11 1 F.X PORTS. 1874 ■875 1876 187; Russia ^48,444 ;^7o,553 ^64,166 ^51,000 Norway ... 821,944 986,888 892,722 664,500 Sweden ... 1,349,000 1,269,333 1,448,777 1,452,777 (iermany .. 3,303,200 2,750,000 2,934,500 2,960,000 Great Britain 3,949,222 4,034,500 4,226,833 3.538,333 Holland ... 72,333 58,111 56,277 31,888 Belgium ... 64,277 67,355 59,888 20,055 France 6,944 2,500 9,777 6>,555 Iceland ... 164,777 127,055 167,233 154,944 United States 21,166 7,388 833 888 Brazil 4,166 888 — 55 Denmark — Land and People. 663 EXPORTS WHICH SHOW AN INCREASE. 1876 1877 Horses (number) 92 395 Bones lbs. i,59i>509 4,026,715 Flour and gi-ain ... ,, 60,483,688 • • 67,310,326 Skins and hides ,, 1,951,869 2,151,503 Train oil ... ,, 41,600 209,230 Wood work ,, 41,066 472,247 Yeast 22,511 31^380 EXPORTS WHICH SHOW A DECREASE. 1876 1877 Cattle, sheep, and lamb s (head) 120,412 9i»333 Butter lbs. 123,609 99,609 Corn . barrels 742,701 605,028 Oilcake lbs. 1,809,335 362,183 Wheat Barley Oats Rye Beans and peas Buckwheat . . . Mixed corn Potatoes Beet, turnip, &c. PRODUCE OF THE LAND. J 875 — Bushels 4,460,466 22,080,580 28,952,143 15.907,311 1,747,350 692,705 2,385,325 11,560,732 7,468.459 1S76— Bushels 3,803,738 17,997,560 24,266,743 13,791,089 1,847,845 467,879 3,365,496 10,356,998 Agriculture. *" There are upwards of 200,000 estates in Denmark, and of these 170,000 are independent freeholds. There are about 280,000 families in the country districts, of whom 170,000 own the above freeholds; 30,000 families farm hired lands, and 26,000 families are without land ; but living with farmers, and taking part in farm labour. Denmark has but few native industries, and depends chiefly for subsistence upon the produce of the land and cattle stocks." The Danes dispose of much of their farm produce and live stock to the English markets. There are about 2,693,566 acres of land under cultivation, distributed as follows : — Wheat Barley Oats Rye Beans and peas 140,350 698,946 864,254 574,841 82,225 Buckwheat . . . Mixed corn ... Potatoes Beet, turnip, &c. Colza 49,625 165,000 95,772 21,281 1,272 * Consul's report. 664 Dejimark — Land and People. Live Stock. Average Annual 1866 1871 1876 Exportation Horses 352,603 ... 316,570 ... 352,272 9,200 Cattle 1,193,861 ... 1,238,898 ... 1,348,321 96,000 Sheep & lambs 1,875,052 ... 1,842,481 ... 1,719,249 ... 45,000 Swine 381,512 ... 442,421 ... 503.567 ... 220,000 Total ... 3,803,028 3,840,370 3,923,409 370,200 Besides which about 4,600 tons of pork and 1,500 tons of meat are exported to foreign ports. Mercantile Marine, Vessels Tonnage 2,957 225,545 3,076 244,100 3,144 254,313 3,153 252,062 1874 1875 1876 1877 In addition to this last number of vessels, there were 126 belonging to Danish dependencies, and 11,000 craft of 4 registered tons and under Danish ships are, as a rule, well built and kept in good repair, and the masters have a good reputation for seamanship, yet the wrecks and casualties are very high, as the following table will shew : — Abandoned Disappeared Stranded Open Sea without trace Total Capital Lives Ships Tonnage Ships Tonnage Ships Tonnage Ships Tonnage Lost Lost 1873 32 3'733 6 621 II 1,360 49 5,714 ;^66,67o 80 1874 48 4,562 6 881 12 1,496 66 6,939 77,780 80 1875 40 4,480 7 1,166 14 2,493 61 8,139 61,120 105 1876 52 5,918 6 799 15 1,460 73 8,177 111,120 89 1877 46 6,296 16 2,371 34 4.279 96 12.946 116,670 214 SHIPS ENTERED AND CLEARED. 1876 1877 No. of fesseU Tonnage Vessels Tonnage Cleared 24 125 345,056 25,196 320, 762 Inland. ,j 21 ,897 417,533 21,576 388, 099 Foreign. Enterec ... 23 165 367,138 24,543 337, 202 Inland. » 22 ,823 1,141,375 21,268 1,173, 098 Foreign. Railways. 1874 1S75 1876 Length of line 696 777 777 Number of passengers ... 4,767,815 5,648,776 6,215,998 Weight of goods carried (cwts.)... 16,967,600 17,349,387 17,423,620 Total revenue -;^465,9io ^^561,993 ^598,531 Total expenditure 271,862 338,725 376,270 Accidents : — Total killed 9 6 16 „ wounded 14 19 29 Denmark — Land and People. 665 Telegraph. 1876 1877 Length of line (miles) 897 2,002 Length of wire (miles) 1,040 5,549 Number of stations ... 224 242 „ messages ... 940,655 •• 958,377 Revenue — •• ;^33,555 Expenditure — 33.566 Poii. There passed through the post in — 1876 Letters 20,088,138 Journals 19,318,353 Printed matter... ... — Letters containing money 513,285 Packages ... ... 1.367,834 Revenue ... ... — Expenditure ... ... — 1877 No. of Offices. 24,208,803 — 23,925,798 153 1,589,453 — ^211,950 189,955 Iceland. From this distant Danish dependency fish, and fish products, wool, down, horses and sheep continue to be exported. The whole sulphur trade of the island is in the hands of a Scotchman from Edinburgh. The emigration movement to the United States is very detrimental to this sparsely populated island, where the annual loss of able-bodied labourers is felt, and this is especially so in the north and east. As many as 1,500 persons have left in one year for New Iceland colony.* The Iceland fisheries are the chief source of revenue to these poor islanders. In 1878 one or two vessels belonging to Iceland trading stations obtained during five months' fishing an average return of 20,000 to 40,000 cod, 70 to 140 lbs. of clip fish, and 100 to 200 barrels of train oil (shark). It is computed that a vessel of 60 tons and a crew of 1 2 men can earn ;^445 during the season in codfishing alone. Greenland. The chief exports are blubber and liver, of which 12,000 and 3,000 barrels were exported in 1877. * Consul's Report. SWEDEN (Kingdom.) LAND AND PEOPLE HE area is estimated at 170,928 English square miles, of which 13,926 square miles are covered with lakes, and the population in December, 1877, numbered 4,484,542.* It is difficult to obtain quite accurate information in such a wide- spread and scantily-peopled country as Sweden, but the following seems to be the division of land and people. Sqr. Miles Population In SwEA RiKK, i.e., Sweden Proper, including the^ city of Stockholm and its suburbs, Upsala, (_ v.,iL^ wx >jLv-^.x..v^LWi cvwv. .... ^v.^- — , -, , V. - . ^-.r Sodermanland, Westmanland, Orebro, Werm-f '^'^' -"-^ land and Kopparborg ... ... ... * In C'tOTa Rik.\, /.744 68,756 Upsala 13,049 33,292 Lund ... 12,794 26,787 Orebro 10,496 17,617 Helsingborg ... 10,066 17,290 Calmar... 10,009 Emigration. 1870 187 1 1872 1873 1874 1875 1S76 1877 1878 20,003 17,450 15,915 13,580 7,791 9,727 7,610 7,610 9,032 Move)iient of the Population. BIRTHS. Proportion of Year Births Stillbirths Total Births per 1000 of Population i87ot 119,838 4,006 123,844 28.3 1871 127,333 4,382 131,715 30.4 1872 126,983 4,145 131,128 30.0 1873 ^31,643 4,289 i35>932 30.8 1874 133.249 4,589 137,838 30.9 1875 135,958 4,359 140,317 31.0 1876 135,890 4,346 140,236 30.7 1877 138,475 4,198 142,673 30-9 1878 134,402 3,983 138,3851: •• 29-5 * In 1870 there were of the population 4,266 deaf and dumb, 3,359 blind, and 8,990 insane. t Not including stillbirths. % 9-^4 o* ^^^ entire number were illegitimate. 668 Siveden — Land and People. DEATHS MARRIAGES Proportion Proportion per 1000 per 1000 Population Year Deaths of the Marriages of population on Dec. 31 in Population Persons married each year 1870 .. 82,449 • .. 19.8 .. 25,072 ... I3.I . . 4,168,525 1871 .. 72,046 . .. 17.2 .. 27,187 ... 13.0 . ■ 4,204,177 1872 .. 68,802 . .. 16.3 ... 29,470 ... 13.9 . • 4,250,412 1873 ■• 73-525 • .. 17.2 .. 31.257 14.6 . 4,297,972 1874 .. 87,760 . 20.3 31.422 ... 14.5 . • 4,341,559 1875 .. 88,439 • 20.2 30,762 14.0 • 4,383-291 1876 •■ 86,334 . .. 19.5 ... 31.184 ... I4.I . • 4,429,713 1877 ■• 83,175 . .. 18.5 ... 30.674 ... 13.7 . . 4,484,542 1878 .. 81,418 . .. 18.I ... 29,15^ • 4,551.863 Territorial Changes. At the commencement of the present century Finland, Rugen, Vor- Pomerania, and the town of Wismar belonged to Sweden ; in 1803 Wismar was sold or rather pledged to Mecklenburg. The particij^ation of Sweden in the war of 1806 against Napoleon entailed the loss of Pomerania. By the peace of September 17th, 1809, Finland was ceded to Russia, and Pomerania regained in 18 10. Participation in the war of 1813 a.?;ainst Napoleon led to the acc^uisition of Norway by the peace of Kiel, January 14th, 1 8 14; it is, however, recognised as an independent state, and Pomerania had to be given in exchange for it. The only foreign possession of Sweden, the little Island of St. Bar- thelemy, in the West Indies, was ceded to France in 1877. Constitution. The basis of the constitution dates from the 6th of June, 1809 • it has been repeatedly modified. The diet consists of two chambers, both of which are elected by the jjeople. Finance. The budgets are somewhat peculiarly composed, besides which, they only furnish an imperfect survey of the State economy, as the greater part of the army, and a number of civil and ecclesiastical offices are supported by certain State lands, the proceeds of which do not appear in the general acccounts. The expenditure for education is almost entirely paid by the communes and the provinces. Budget for 1880. («) Ordinary Revenue : — Land tax. Tithes Rents from Crown Beacons Poll tax Tonnage dues Railways 'J'elegraph . . . Forests Miscellaneous Total . lands ^248,333 91.555 138,888 66,666 35.555 55,555 (net) 222,227 73,888 55,555 11,778 ^1,000,000 Sivedcn — Land and People. 669 {b) Extraordinary Revenue: — Customs ... ... ... ... ... ;^I,372,222 Post 2^^,'j^^ Stamps ... ... ... ... ... 172,222 Distilleries (brandy) ... ... ... 833»333 Tax on beet sugar ... ... ... ... 1,666 Income tax 305^555 ^2,962,775 Net revenue from the Swedish Bank ... ... 72,222 Total revenue ^4,o34,997 Expenditure. (a) Ordinary Expenditure : — Royal household ... ... ... ... ^^67,666 Justice ... ... ... ... ... 207,777 Foreign affairs ... ... ... ... 34,100 Army ... ... ... ... ... 960,563 Navy 287,333 Home affairs ... ... ... ... 232,343 Religion and education ... ... ... 528,540 Pensions ... ... ... ... ... 124,500 Finance 721,718 ^3>i64,54o (d) Extraordinary Expenditure : — ArmyandNavy ... ... ... ... .^^71,936 Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... 193,019 264,955 (^.) Interest cs^c. of Slate Debt : — ... ... ... 605,555 Sinking fund and interest on loans ... ... ... 57o,733 Expenses of " Diet " &c.... ... ... ... ... 34j7ii Total expenditure ... ^^4, 640,494 Public Debt. In 18 1 9 the foreign debt, and at the commencement of the decade, 1840-50, the ordinary home debt, was paid off; but at that time paper money to the value of ^1,222,222 was in circulation. Two loans were contracted in 1852 and 1853, the first of^45o,ooo at 4 per cent, for j)rovincial improvements of the land ; the second of ;^t 50,000. The great monetary crisis of 1857 necessitated a loan of ^666,666 at 6 per cent, for the support of the commercial position in January, 1858. Loans of con- siderable amount for railroad construction followed this and again in 1870 for purposes of defence. In 1876 the home debt amounted to ^2,245,955 ; the foreign debt to ^7,541,252, making the consolidated debt ^9,787,207. The floating debt is estimated at ^222,222. Army. The basis of the military system dates back from the time of Charles IX. The army is composed of 5 classes, but the two first com- pose the standing army. I. The enlisted troops, " Varfvade," whose term of service is generally 6 years, never less than 3 years, and never more than 12. 6/0 Sweden — Land and People. II. Distributed troops, " Indelta Arm^en": The owners of certairi farms are obliged to place at the disposal of the State a man and a horse, or a man without a horse, in time of peace or war, and to supply the man with a dwelling, and employ him as a labourer during his time of furlough. These men who number from 26,800 to 27,000 receive, in addition to their dwelling house, a yearly wage in money or kind, partly from the land owner, and partly from certain State lands. They assemble for drill four weeks of every year. Liability to serve ceases only with incapacity for work. III. Conscript troops, " Bevaring," or landwehr, a sort of militia. These troops are instructed in bearing arms, and then dismissed to their homes until they are needed. Since 1812 every Swede is liable to bear arms from his 20th to his 25th year. Only two battaUons are formally organised, the remainder being distributed among the various divisions of the army for exercise in arms, as well as for service in war. In time of peace only the conscripts of the last two years are called out for the annual drill of 15 days. IV. Gothland Militia : 30 companies, and two foot batteries reckoned to the standing army, but only obliged to serve at home. The men are called out for drill six days annually. V. Rifle Unions : An entrance into these volunteer corps, on the attainment of sufficient degree of military efficiency, affords exemption from the Beviirings exercises. In 1871 there were 301 unions, with about 42,000 members. SWEDISH ARMY IN 1879 — FIRST TROOPS OF THE LINE. Lieutenants Employes and Soldiers Officers Civilians Corporals Musicians of the Line Cienerals Corps d'etat — Mayor Fortifications.. Artillery Cavalry Infantry Total of I. ... Total of 1 1 ... Total of III... 39 2 — — 62 16 150 14 261 144 766 158 219 115 519 144 1,144 212 3,976 1,250 20,627 f the Line Total Guns Horses 9 — 37 41 - 78 730 972 - 36 3>4i9 4,748 234 1,197 3.960 4,957 — 5,100 0,627 27,209 — 190 1,734 489 5,411 1,566 28,736 37,936 234 6,638 424 — — — 125,000 125,424 — — 105 10 200 76 19,852 20,243 24 — General total... 2,263 499 5,611 1,642 173,588 183,603 258 6,638 II. RESERVIO TROOPS (BEVARINC; OR LANDWEHR). Officers Soldiers of the Line a. Reserve troops b. Second Reserve Total of reserve troops {11. ) Artillery Cavalry Infantry Engineers Artillery 352 72 424 5,000 4,000 1 16,000 125,000 Total 5,000 4-352 1 16,000 72 125,424 Szuedcii — Laud and People. 671 Ready for service- Gothland militia Volunteers . . . in. MILITIA. Lieutenants and Soldiers Officers Employes Corporals Musicians of the Line Total 105 10 200 76 7,604 20,243 24 12,248 Total of militia (ill.) 105 10 200 76 19,852 20,24; 24 Fortresses. On the coast : Marstrand and Karlstcn. Inland : the most important is Karlborg. A^avy, 1879. Horse-pouer Guns 800 ... 66 1,400 ... 16 5,860 ... 21 1,570 ••• 8 ... Z^oO 1,191 ... 10 ... 411 6,820 ... 18 ... 641 1,300 ... 10 ... 390 1,960 ... I ... 71 140 ... ... 48 230 ... 5 ... 141 Steamers I Ship of the line I Frigate 4 Corvettes 4 Monitors 10 Small monitors 9 Gunboats 10 Gunboats I Torpedo-boat... 1 Transport 2 Despatch boats 20,271 S.\ILING VE.SSELS. 5 Corvettes 5 Brigs Total . Guns 95 10 105 5 155 Men. 735 316 -^6; 3,648 Men 1,298 249 i>549 GALLEYS. 5 Mortar boats 34 Gun boats 48 Floating batteries Total Guns 5 60 48 112 A reorganization of the navy took place in August, 1875, dividing it into Royal Navy, Royal Naval Reserve, and the Naval " Bevaring," or Militia. The Royal Navy is composed of i vice-admiral, 3 rear-admirals, 5 colonels or commanders, 10 lieutenant-colonels, and 10 majors, 43 captains, 43 lieutenants, and 26 sub-lieutenants. Sub-officers : 35 of 1st class, 220 of 2nd, and 95 of 3rd class. Men: 600 sailors, 150 mechanics and artisans, and 5,051 marines. Engineers: 13 officers and 24 doctors. The reserve is composed of 76 officers, 30 sub-officers, and 15 engineers. 6/2 Sweden — Latid and People. The Naval " Beviiring " contains about 40,000 men (masters, second masters, sailors, fishers, &c.) Lighthouses. The number of lighthouses on the Swedish Coast is 86, and are thus distributed : — 39 6 on the Bothnian Coast on the Baltic on the Sound 1 i 17 I on the Kattegat on Lake Wener on Lake Wetter There are also 14 light ships. At the commencement of this century there were but 12 lights, g of which were lighted with coal fires, and 3 with oil. The two lighthouses of Paternoster, on the west coast, outside Marstrand, are of the first-class, the tower being no feet high. Another first-class lighthouse is that of Haradsskar, on the east coast, between Norrk^ping and Vestervik. Wrecks. In consequence of the dangerous nature of the coast the Swedish wreck-chart is a very heavy one. Steamers 15 24 1870 187I 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Sailing Vessels 90 193 136 142 120 149 17 30 34 40 40 Total Total Lost 105 22 198 74 210 114 166 39 176 .. 49 160 . 46 189 39 Social Condition. There exist four distinct orders in Sweden, (i) The much-privileged Nobility. — A few years ago it was calcu- lated that out of the 2,805 nobles, who had arrived at manhood, 340 held civil offices, 870 appointments as ofticers, and 90 appointments in the navy. There were only 7 1 o officers not of the nobility. In addition to these appointments all the offices at court were filled by nobles. The whole property of the 2,400 noble families is estimated at ^^3,944,444, and V of the area of Sweden is owned by them. Notwithstanding this the nobifity are becoming poorer, and are being outstripped by the citizens. (2) 'I'he Protestant Clergy is likewise a very powerful class. (") Citizens. -Until the change in the constitution 83 towns sent delegates to the Diet. (4) Peasants. — Tliese have to bear the greater part of the State burdens, to maintain the provincial army {Indelta-Armccn\ and to make the roads. Many feudal burdens exist. Dr. Frisch, of Stockholm, says that these burdens have rested from old times upon the estates which are not entirely freehold, but not upon the proprietors ; he goes on to say that " if the peasant buys a nobleman's estate he enjoys the same freedom as the nobleman before him, whereas the latter, should lieaciiuire an i)idinary I Sweden — Land and People. 673 farm, has to bear the burdens which rest upon it." The peasant class appears to have risen considerably ; but the existence of so many estates, oppressed by such burdens as that of the maintenance of soldiers, is an irremediable misfortune. So also is the fact that the nobility occupy all the higher offices in the State. The census of 1855 compared with that of 1805 and that of 1830, showed the following unnatural conditions : — Heads of Tola number of each Class, Families 1835 1830 1805 Representatives Nobility 1,666 .. 11,742 .. 10,458 9,503 - 50 Ecclesiastics 2,232 . 15,362 .. 14,153 15,145 ... 60 Citizens 13,366 . 81,408 .. 66,693 65,411 ... 60 Peasants 394,610 .. . 2,378,267 .. • 2,168,915 .. 1,759,028 ... 100 People of j Quality... j 11,361 . 79,441 .. 70,091 69,348 ... — Foreigners | and Jewsj 298 . 1,866 . 1,972 — — All others ... 168,770 . . 1,071,246 . • 555,800 .. 494,327 ••• — Total ... 592,303 3,639,332 2,888,082 2,412,762 There was thus one representative in 33 heads of families among the nobility ; i in 37 among the clergy ; 1 in 222 among the citizens, and i in 3,946 among the peasants. Each of the four orders formed a chamber distinct in its councils and its decisions or resolutions. This incongruity, however, came to an end, In consequence of the strong excitement which prevailed, the nobility and the clergy were compelled to give up the resist- ance which they had maintained to any alteration in the constitution. From November, 1865, there have been but two chambers. The first chamber is composed of 125 member.s, chiefly possessors of large estates; the second chamber consists of 190 members. The towns send one member for every 10,000 persons, and the country one member for every 40,000 inhabitants. The privileges of the nobility are secured to them, and a right of veto upon all the decisions of the diet concerning ecclesiastical matters is reserved to the Church Synod. The number of physicians in this extensive country in i860 was only 477, or I to every 7,813 inhabitants, and most of them occupied some civil or military function. The number of ])Oor receiving maintenance was 3.9 per cent, of the population, a small increase as compared with former times. I'he number of grave crimes decreased more than 40 per cent, from 1852 to 1857, and that of convicts 30 per cent. This result is connected with the abolition of disgraceful corporal punishment. Education and hitelledual Progress. In this thinly-populated wide-spread country education is very satisfac- tory, notwithstanding the many obstacles which have to be encountered. Public education is free and likewise compulsory. In 1859, 71 percent, of the children between the ages of 8 and 15 attended school ; in 1879, 9^ per cent. There are fixed or permanent teachers and itinerant teachers ; in 1856 there were 2,065 <^f ^^'^ fi^^t and 8S9 of the second. In 1877 there were 4,820 male and 4,479 female teachers, = 9,299, for the elementary 3 U 674 Sweden — Land and People. scliools. There are two universities. Upsala, attended by i,6ii students, and Lund, by 563 students. Literature. The last full returns for one year were as follows: — 1,165 writings appeared in Sweden and Finland, which last is partly inhabited by a Swedish population, although in the Russian empire. They were divided thus : — philology 85; theology and church history 159; philosophy 23; educa- tional works 20; books for children 92 ; popular writings 22 ; belles lettres 234 (including poetry 33 ; the drama 41 ; romances, novels and tales 107 ; miscellaneous writings and calendars 53) ; history 94 ; geography 67 ; political science 97; natural science 49 ; medicine 37; technology 64; mathematics 42; art of war and navigation 16; jurisprudence 23; fine arts 16 ; miscellaneous works 43. In this same year Swedish publications were exported to the value of ^7,972 ; and on the other hand, the value of the books imported was ^13,643. The imported books were chiefly from Germany, Denmark, England and Norway. The number of newspapers in 1877 was 296. There are 57 paper mills with 1,928 workmen, and the value of the annual produce;,^ 258,081. About 3,602,432 lbs. is annually exported, 2,909,353 lbs. to England. The acreage under years 1875, 1876 and 187 Agriculture. cultivation, together with the produce for the 7 will be seen from the following table : Com Crops 1875 acres 1876 acres 1877 acres Wheat and rye Barley, oats and mixed 1 corn ... ... 1 ',018,635 2,242,815 1,031,198 2,254,451 1,036,464 2,301,509 Beans and peas Other kinds ... 137,134 ••• 6,138 ... i35>S62 6,280 139,010 6, 1 1 Total 3,404,722 3,427,491 3,483,084 Green Crops Potatoes Turnips and other roots Max seed, hemp fibre . Bare fallow ... (jrass under rotation .. Meadows and perma- ( nent pasture ... | 373,264 ••• 28,440 34,57° ••■ 998,112 1,883,504 4,770,023 373,602 28,437 34.919 1,004,811 1,902,213 4,706,063 379,550 28,245 34,263 1,014,149 1,909,739 4,705,081 Corn Crops 1875 Bushels 1876 Bushels ii>77 Bushels Wheat Rye 2,892,032 . 16,445.446 . 2,716,357 . •6,138,532 • 2,301,581 •• '3.636,537 Barley ... Oats Mixed corn . 12,992,543 . • 38,543,262 . 4.743.612 . 11,822,322 •• 35,637,9^3 • 4.330.916 . 10,115.320 •• 37.152,779 4,022,935 Beans and peas... Other kinds 2,529,241 . 37,664 . 2,199,197 . 36,554 • 1,186,290 Total 78,183,800 .. . 72,881,791 .. . 68,928,755 Sweden — Land and People. 67 s Green Crops Potatoes... 44,834,552 ... 46,040,731 ... 39,364,556 Turnips and other roots .. — — Flax seed ... 202,580 ... 188,309 ... 167,818 cwts. cwts. cwts. Hemp, fibre 72,710 ... 57,981 ... 45,300 Bare fallow — — — Clrass under rotation — Meadow and j^ernia- i nent pasture ... 1 ... *** Woods and forests occupy 41,107,447 acres. Live Stock. 1875 1876 IS77 Horses... 459,297 460,757 458,977 Cows ... ... r ,36 1,184 I ,369,881 1,356,576 Other cattle ... 82 4,516 819,335 806,081 Sheep and lambs i ,6c 8,687 I ,588,541 i>534,46i Pigs 41 5,416 431,671 425,718 Goats ... 12 5,908 120,234 116,813 Agricultural Education. This branch of education is under the direction of the minister of the interior, although its immediate supervision is carried on b)' the Royal Academy of Agriculture, at Stockholm. This institution combines the researches of a scientific society with a teaching staff, and has at its disposal a model farm and every facility for making physiological and chemical experiments. In addition to the experimental farm, there were established in 1876 four agricultural-chemical schools in the towns of Skara, Halmstad, Kalmar and Vesteriis, the expenses of which are partly defrayed by the State and partly by the societe's economiques. There are 26 of these societies in Sweden, and their object is to encourage agriculture and to furnish reports to the Academy and to the Central Statistical Bureau. The State also maintains 14 agricultural engineers, whose duty it is to assist in drainage and agricultural works generally. Theoretical and practical agriculture is taught in two higher-grade agricultural institutes at Ultuna, near Upsala and at Alnarp near Lund, as well as in 27 school-farms. In 1876 the number of students in the institutions and in the school-farms was 565. There are in addition to this system, special establishments for j)articular branches : dairy farming is one of these, and is taught in two schools, maintained by the State, one at Ultuna, the othei at Berggvara ; there are also 1 2 model dairies in different parts of the country, in which gratuitous instruction is given under the direction of the Academy. Instruction as to the best ways of managing live stock is given by two travelling professors, who go about the country at the expense of the State The State also assists in the maintenance of model sheep-folds. Mi/ii/ig and Sine/ting Jndiistries. In 1870 the mining mdustry employed 25,906 workmen In 1874 „ „ 38,557 6'/6 Sweden — Land and People. In 1870—4,531 were employed in the iron-ore works 14,873 ,, iron smelting 627 in the gold, silver and load works 2,866 in the copper works, and 3,009 in the remaining works. Seventy-four steam engines were employed ; the produce was : — Iron ore ... ... ... ... 14,508,278 cwts., from 463 mines Raw iron V.". ... ... ... 7,065,510 ,, Cast-iron goods ... ... ... 267,328 ,, (213 furnaces) Bar iron ... 4,559)331 ,, Steel and manufactured iron ... ... 776,237 ,, Gold ... ... ... ... ... 2,398 lbs. Silver ... ... ... ... ... 2,800 „ Copper... ... ... ... ... 43,853 cwts. Brass ... ... ... ... ... 2,616 „ Wrought copper ... ... ... 6,422 „ Lead ... ... ... ... ... 8,802 ,. Zinc-ore ... ... ... ... 662,138 „ Sulphur ... ... ... ... 11,121 „ Coal ... ... ... ... ... 1,754,083 cubic feet Several new coal pits were opened in 187 1. Iron was formerly the chief article of export. Industries. Brandy distilling is, unfortunately, still one of the most important branches of industry. This was formerly a privilege of the land owners. The legislation of 1855 and 1857 abolished this privilege, but raised the duty on brandy- The result was that the number of distilleries fell between the years 1852 and 1859 from 35,842 to 4,376, and the quantity produced from 30 or 40 million quarts to 13,705,000 quarts. In 1866 the number of distilleries was only 565, but the produce had not diminished. The quantity of brandy produced, in quarts, was as follow^s : — In 1861 1863 1865 ig7i 1872 14,007,107 ... 16,215,103 ... 16,753,891 ... 15^794,187 ... 16,678,565 The number of factories and works and the value of their produce: — Year Factories Value of Produce 1830 1,857 ^730,816 1840 2,176 1,177,754 1850 ... ... 2,513 ... ... 2,060,640 i860 2,509 3,839,400 1864 2,411 ... ... 3,948,837 1865 2,315 4,211,701 1876 2,825 9.616,331 In 1865 the value of the most important manufactures was estimated as follows :- - Cloth ^^+79,637 Other stuffs M5'345 Silk ^0,778 Sweden — Land and People. 677 Cotton goods Leather ... Tobacco ... Sugar refining Metal goods Paper 484,701 269,929 354>45o 727,282 440,358 158027 Of the factories then existing there were 102 cloth factories, 15 cotton factories, 3 Unen and 3 sail-cloth "factories, 5 silk, 9 cotton print works, 10 sugar refineries, 696 leather factories, 22 glass works, 88 paper mills, 4 plaving-card factories, 104 mechanical workshops, and 38 chemical and technical manufactories, etc. In 1876, 651 of the factories were worked by animals; 637 by water power, and 684 by steam (28,003 horse power). Besides this there were in use 284,455 machines and apparatus, and 53.354 workpeople employed Comtnerce. Imports Exports 1870 ,. ;^96.ooo 55,000 1871 ... ^326,000 115,000 1872 • ;^54i,ooo 5,000 187$ ... j^602,000 171,000 Imports Exports 1874 ••;^53o,ooo 461,000 1875 ... ^419,000 155,000 1876 . ;^4o6,ooo 194,000 1877 ... ;«^i9o.ooo 40,000 The principal articles of export are 1870 1871 ,872 187s Cattle, number 13*506 14,276 16,884 26,245 Sheep „ ... 8,930 17.137 18,208 14,728 Pigs 16,832 11,537 24,527 19,987 Butter cwts. ... 54,670 68,321 85,004 69,815 Lucifer matches ,, ... 48,461 75,222 101,359 128,209 Paper ,, ... 32,973 38,714 37,906 50,022 Masts and spars. number 401,837 524,292 675,643 578,364 Pit-props ,) 6,461,113 8,092,678 9,418,086 15 ,261,363 Staves of beech, », 12,235,008 17.221,230 17,306,286 21 ,695.488 Staves of oak ,) 1,981,996 2,136,958 1,921,543 2 ,313.223 1874 '875 1876 1877 Cattle, number ... 22,865 20,363 20,525 20,528 Sheep „ 21,689 16,708 18,521 19,068 Pigs „ 1 1,116 13,113 13.285 12,762 Butter cwts ... 71,295 76,583 82,734 87,776 Lucifer matches ,, 144,578 173,923 180,223 129,673 Paper ,, 58,151 66,931 92,153 78,673 .Vlasts and spars, number 607,720 406,069 504,308 518,308 Pit-props ,, 13,242.693 7,410,169 10,268,921 10 ,458,077 Staves of beech ,, 27,243,358 23.303.856 27,102,187 28 ,370,897 Staves of oak >i 1,636,548 1,288,397 1,058,631 1 ,920,417 6/8 S^vedcn — Land and People. The trade with the tbllowin g countries was of the greatest import- ance :- iS 75 if -(. Imports Exports Imports Exports Russia and Finland 1,012,333 • 313.277 ••< 1,261,111 . 259,777 Norway 834,777 • •• 394,055 •• 930,277 . •• 365.333 Denmark ... 2,715,666 . .. 1,369,888 .. 2,81 1,61 I. . •• 1.310,555 Oermany ... 3,066,944 . 718,727 .. 3,214,722 . .. 911,277 Holland 509.444 • .. 273,000 .. 607,555 • 648,0^-; Belgium ... 450,666 . 532,222 .. 506,888 . •• 534,388 Great Britain 5,107,666 . .. 6,069,433 .. 5,461,1 I I . .. 6,681,000 France 562,722 . .. 1,371,500 .. 6t I.I 1 I . .. 1,296,388 Spain 68,555 ■ 92,555 •• 63.777 • •• 137.777 Jtaly 65,000 . 20,055 .. 70,055 . 17,944 United States .37,888 . 61,000 .. 309.777 • 45.055 Other countries ... 360,388 . .. 259,388 . 222,222 227,888 Imports 1877 Exports Russia and Finland ... 2,142,277 246,944 Norway 827,888 37 1,500 Denmark ••• 2,745,777 ... 1,23 5.777 Germany ... 3,741,611 75 6,000 Holland .. ... 672,166 588,444 Belgium 519.944 448,944 Great Britain ... 4,848.944 ... 6,47 8,500 France ... 515.944 • ■■ 1.385.722 Spain 68,277 178,666 Italy ... 62,000 I 7,666 United States > ••■ 583,388 3 9,166 Other countries 327,888 30 3-2 7 7 I Canals, and rivers used as canals, exclusive of the large lakes, have a length of 365 miles. Navigation is, as a rule interrupted for five months in the year by the frost. Between 1840-60 the State expended ;6i 54,339 in the construction of canals, and ;£^Ji^,(i2,o in utilizing rivers as canals : also ^172,599 in the construction of harbours. Railways. Total I.engtli of Line 1874 — State railways 902 Companies' do. 982 Cost of Construction ^7,502,448 3,657,018 Passengers 3.152.603 Goods cavrifd lens 1,257,807 181,424 2,208.673 1,884 ^11,159,466 5,334,027 3,466,480 1875— Stale railways 937 /;8,2o6,37i 3,283,933 i,693>9i3 Com|);uues' do. 1,238 5,601,879 3,254,671 3,391,765 2.175 ;^i3,8o8,25o 6,538,604 5.085,678 Sivedrn — Laud and People. 679 Raihi'd vs — (con tin tied. ) Total Leng^th of I.iilt; 1876— State railways 988 Companies' do. 1,320 Cost of Construction ^8.808.472 8,785,419 Passengers 3,272,176 3.492,325 Goods carried. Tons 1.843,716 2,846,951 2,308 ^17,593.891 6,764,501 4,690,667 1877 — State railways 1,055 Companies' do. 1,848 ^9,096,140 10,528,000 3,284,618 4,034,961 1.749,140 3,200,308 2^853 ^19,624,140 7.3T9^579 4-949.448 1874 — State railways Companies' do. 1 87 5 — State railways ("ompanies' do. 1 87 6— State railways Companies' do. 1877 — State railways Companies' do. Receipts from Passengers and Goods .. ^783,808 409,162 ;^I, 192,970 ^839,452 546,185 Kxnenditurc ^454,091 210,416 ^664,507 ^^540,586 330.523 .Occidents killed ... 18 wounded.. 8 ;^i,385,637 ^871,109 ^922,724 603,969 /:i, 526,693 ^908,130 749>295 ^1,652,425 ^580, 170 346,359 ^926,529 ^636,692 440.685 ^1,086,377 killed .. wounded. killed .. wounded. killed .. wounded. 26 28 18 46 19 16 35 26 4 30 In 1879 an important line of railway, known as the Gothenburg-Falun Railway, was opened from end to end. This railway is direct between the Baltic and the North Sea. It is upwards of 350 miles in length, and the construction of it has cost nearly -^3,000,000. The companies' lines have had to contend with so many serious diffi- culties, that a question of handing some of them over to the State is to come immediately before the Diet. A grant has been made by the State of ^..2,3y333 towards the comple- ion of the gseat line of railway through the mining districts (1879). Tg/egrap/is. The use of the telegraph has shown a very considerable development within the last decade, '["here are now 5,146 miles of lines against 3,965 in 1868, and 12,611 miles of wire against 7,801 in 1868. The stations which then numbered 93 are now 179, and the Morse instruments in use are now 484 against 285. In 1868 the number of telegrams forwarded was 490,082 ; in 1878, 1,015,592; the receipts then were ^36,857; in 1878 they amounted to ;^99,956 ; the expenditure for 1868 was ^'34.242 ; in 187S ^68,113. The number of employes in 1868 was 375 ; m 1878, 621. 68o S^veden — Land and People. Post. Offices Letters Newspapers 1870 540 12,220,961 6,432,870 I87I 550 12,220,962 6,432,800 1875 T.844 24,441,453 1876 1.883 27.044,869 rS77 — 38.363,393 Mercantile Marine. Sailing Tonnage Steam Tonnage \essels Tonnafje 1874 . •• 3,585 411,334 627 81,508 4,2 12 ^192, 842 1375 •• 3,573 424,042 664 83,007 4,237 507-049 1876 .. • 3,700 443,323 681 81,659 4,381 524,982 1877 .. • 3,701 446,799 691 83,146 4,392 529,945 i NORWAY (Kingdom.) LAND AND PEOPLE. HE extent of area, incl iding the lakes, is about 122,823 English square miles A census is taken e) ery 10 years. The population f^sSsm in 1875 ^^^s 11807,555. nd 865,809 females. In 1865 it numbered 1.701,478, 835,947 males a Miwement of the Population. Year Births Stillbirths Total Deaths Marriage* Emigrant* 1870 50,437* 1,861 52,295 28,120 11,176 15^762 1871 51,080 2,000 53,080 29,567 I 1,619 12,300 1872 52,271 2,064 54,335 29,172 12,302 14,400 i«73 52,981 2,051 54,932 29 828 12,822 10,352 1874 54,928 2,063 56,991 32,452 13,713 4,601 1875 56,287t 2,089 58,376 33,949t 14,163 4,048 1876 58,229 2,176 60,405 34,608 14,607 4,355 1877 58,624 2,028 60,652 31,449 14,095 3,229 1878 58,019 2,044 60,061 29,541 13,825 4,876 Nationalities. Ej elusive of the Norwegians (Germanic race), there are 7,637 Quaens, (Fins) : 15,601 domiciled, and 1,577 Nomadic Lapps, called in Non\'ay, • 4,580 of these illegitimate. + 4.910 ol these births were illegirim-te. X 1,248 ol these were violent deaths, 682 Norway — Lavrl and People. Fins; also from 700 to 800 gipsies. Of mixed races there are 1,913 Nor- wegians and Quaens ; 1,048 Norwegians and Finns ; 909 Quaens .and Finns. The number of the yjopulation, not born in Norway, was 21.260 of whom 15,784 were Swedes, 1,791 Danes, 1,257 Germans. Creeds. The inhabitants are, with the exception of 5,105 persons, all Lutherans. Of the 5,105, 1,038 are Mormons, 331 Catholics, 25 Jews, and the re- mainder are colonists or English sects. Principal Towns, 1875. Christiania 76,327, with the incorporated suburbs in 1878, ... 99,000 Bergen 33,885 Trondheim (Drontheim) ... ... ... ... ... ... 22,167 Stavanger 19,029 Drammen ... ... ... ... ••• ... ••• ••• 18,608 Christiansand ... ... ... ... ... -.■ ••. 11.7 ^4 Territorial Changes. Norway, formerly independent, became a Danish possession in 1387. When Denmark ceded the country to Sweden, at the Peace of Kiel, January 14th, 1814, the Norwegians did not allow themselves to be thus bartered. They adopted a free constitution for themselves at Eidswold, May 17th, 1 8 1 4. After a few encounters with the Swedish troops, a treaty was agreed to, the principal article of which is the Modified Constitution of November 14th, 1 814; in accordance with which Norway is a free and independent State under the King of Sweden, (personal union). Finance. The following is a view of the income and expenditure for the last three years, calculated from June to June in each year. An income tax was imposed from the 1st July, 1879. in consequence of a falling off in the State revenue. 1. (Customs receij)ts ... Brandy duty and excise Malt tax Stamp duties II. Sur});us from Slate domain^. III. Interest oncajjital of State f assets ... ... s W. Receipts from public oftices and departments Postal Telegraph Railways \'. Sundry receipts VI. State grants i REVENUE. 18-7 ,/^i,oo5.555 160,000 £^ 1S78 . 1 20,055 '74i444 1879 y:988,88o ^ 188.888 "7,777 69,944 •34,944 75-722 102,222 60,055 63,136 59,25^ 91,466 9 '-737 88.07 80,666 89.722 87,222 s^^ni 58,333 55,555 156,888 196,368 223,43<> 49,655 13,866 30,169 194,066 701,837 313,783 Norway — Land and People. 683 Communal and private sub- ) scriptions for railways | 1114'^^ 99,272 78,053 VII. Cash in Treasury ^"^4,844 20,555 — '^'"^•'^' ;^2,235.i8i /:2,839,99i ^2,343,318 EXPEND ITU RK. 'S77 1878 1879 1. Royal household 27,180 24,632 26,168 II. Parliament 19,334 20,094 2i,'i27 Ministers of State and ( public departments | 57.'3i 58.577 59i746 III. Department — Of religion 115,666 125,526 135,587 " justice roo,559 109,672 185,723 " '^o'""^ 352,276 367,669 314,857 „ customs 481,102 520,502 563,310 " ''^'■"^y 349>443 402,144 446,033 „ marme and postal ... 388,379 370,246 381,041 „ diplomatic and consular... 24,865 24,722 25 4-'8 „ railway extension ... 305-555 8oi,'iii 38o,'726 IV. Expenses unforeseen ... 13,727 15,101 14,016 ^^^^^ "' ••• ^^2,235,217 ^2.839,996 ^'2,553,772 National Debt. Debt Assets ^"!!7i -^415,177 ... .^436,333 1876 3,913, ^^77 4,055,555 1878 5.632.666* 3»555,555 3,055,555 History of Finance. At the time when Norway .separated herself from Denmark, her finances were almost exhausted ; specie was scarcely to be found, and the country was overrun with worthless paper even to the extent of ^i 389 222 The War of Independence made the further issue of ^777,777' ntxessary. It was also determmed by the Treaty of Kiel that Norway should take over i:533o32 of the Danish debt. The rate of exchange of the paper money sank gradually lower. T he peasantry (peasant order) were the actual rulers alter the introduction of the new constitution, and although they were onlv plain, simple people, yet there were among them many practical common sense men. In order to ensure the redemption of the paper money at all times, these people imposed upon themselves a forced loan of ^'Aa A a This sum formed the basis of a new bank, which issued bank-notes to the amount of ^222,222, redeemable at any time. The finances were so well managed, that by 1823 the State debt had declined to ^293,332, and * The increase is clue to a loan contracted in the sprino- oJ' iStX for Vr.^ ... • to complete the unfinished railways. ' A 94, 444, m order 684 Norway — Land and People. towards the end of the decade, 1840 — 1850, it was all but paid off. The State revenues increased, in spite of a diminution in the rate of taxation, from less than ^333,332 in 1 815 to ^777,776 in the year 1842 ; to ^1,022,220 in 1858, and ;^i,222,220 in 1873. The "Storthing" (Par- liament), took advantage of the favourable condition of the State Treasury, which had been brought about by democratic good management, partly to introduce improvements and partly to reduce the burdens resting on the people. Notwithstanding a good deal of resistance on the part of the Government, all the direct taxes were by degrees taken off; the land-tax was abolished in 1836. Loans were contracted in subsequent years, but chiefly for productive services, i.e. ; for the establishment of a service of steamers which should connect the whole of Norway ; the construction of harbours and high-roads ; the erection of lighthouses ; the construction of railways; the establishment of a mortgage bank, and works of like character. The increase in the proceeds of the customs, by which the greater part of the State expenditure is defrayed, is specially worthy of notice. Army. Every Norwegian is liable to bear arms for his country. The infantry recruits are instructed in the recruiting school for 42 days, those for the artillery 70 days, those for the cavalry 90 days, after which they are drilled 24 days in every year. Their term of service lasts, in accordance with the decree of January ist, 1867, 7 years in the cavalry, 10 years in the other branches of service, of which, however, only 5 are in the line, 2 in the re- serve, and 3 in the militia (Landwehr). Those who have served their time belong afterwards to the Landsturm till the 45th vear of their age. 12,000 men are to be in the active force, including the cadres and the recruits who are to be instructed. The king is allowed to have a guard of Norwegian volunteers, and to bring 3,000 men yearly from the one State to the other, for the sake of exercising them in the use of arms. With this exception no Swedish soldier can be stationed in Norway, and no Norwegian soldier in Sweden. The formation of the Army and 0/ the Militia. Infantry : 5 brigades each of 4 battalions of 4 companies, among which is I light battalion and 2 battalions of rifles.* In time of peace they consist of 336 officers. 48 surgeons, 936 subalterns, and 9.744 men. In war the men number about 12,300. Cavalry : consists of 3 regiments of mounted rifles, numbering 1,300 men. Only 100 horses are permanently kept by the State, the remainder are brought up for the period of exercise, and then taken back to be used by the country people at their homes. Artillery: 11 batteries, 88 guns, 1,765 men, and 1,031 horses. The troops of the line number 750 ofiicers and 18,000 men. Fortresses. These are unimportant. Their names are Frederiksstad, Aggershuns (near Christiania) and Forts at Christianssand, Bergen, Drontheim. • The light battalion forms the so-called " Skirlobere," or skateis. They are armed with light guns and an iron-shod pole, 7 feet in length, to assist them in skating. Norway — Land and People. 685 Navy. This is formed in the first instance of volunteers, and when they fail, of conscripts. Term of service 10 years ; 2 of which are in the reserve and 3 in the coast defence. The marine troops number 2,000 in time of peace ; 3,500 in time of war. The war navy in 1879 consisted of: — STEAM VESSELS. Ironclad Horse Power Tonnage 4 Monitors ... 650 8 2 Frigates ... 900 78 I Corvette ... 250 16 I Sloop 80 14 I Gunboat of ist class 180 2 6 Gunboats of 2nd class ... 360 10 14 Gunboats of 3rd class ... 234 14 I Tugboat ... 80 2 30 Total 2,734 114 SAILING VESSELS. Above 100 saiUng vessels with 480 guns. The Navy contains 104 ofi&cers and employes and 305 sub-ofificers. Social and Intellectual Progress. All Norwegians are equal in the eye of the law ; constitutionally there is no longer any nobility in existence. The decree of August ist, 182 1, decided that exemption from taxation should cease at the death of the then existing feudal owners. Norway shews what a country, very scantily endowed by nature, may become by means of advantageous national arrangements. It is well known how barren the soil is, and that the yield of corn is far from sufficient for home consumption. Manufacturing industries are very few, there are neither labourers nor capital for it. Roads are few in this difficult and thinly populated country. Thus, the Norwegians are princi- pally confined to navigation and fishing. Poverty of living has produced the terrible disease of leprosy, and in the North scurvy also. \Vhen Norway attained independence in 1814, her condition was most lamentable. A favourable picture presents itself now, so far as the natural poverty of tlie country allows. The " peasant rulers " of the " Storthing " have promoted not only the material well-being, but art and science likewise. The divisibility of the large estates was introduced into Norway in 1821 with beneficial results. It was also determined that the undivided common lands should become private freehold property. In 1814 there were only 45,000 land owners; in 1835 there were 105,000. The value of the land has likewise increased. In 1802 it was estimated at ;^5, 000,000 ; in 1839 at ^12,800,000. As far as the steam- ship traffic is concerned, Norway is left far behind by all its neighbours. Bergen is, at present, the only town having great interests in this branch of trade and employing steamers in the over-sea transport. The sailing fleet 6S6 Norway — Land and People. is being increased with new vessels. On the ist of January, 1879, there were 115 vessels in course of construction, having an average tonnage of 3,665 tons, or a total tonnage of 42,150 tons. The multiplication of printing presses indicates the intellectual progress of the country. In the year 1807 there were but 4 ; in 1845 there were 37. In 1807 there were but 4 very poor weekly journals published ; in 1845 there were 23 newspapers and 13 periodicals. In 1876, 178 newsi)apers were ])ublished. The printing press has found its way to the extreme points of Finmark. Middle schools and good parish schools, in which the education is free, exist in most of the towns of Norway. The condition of Norway both as regards sim])licity, and solid practical tendencies is very similar to that of Switzerland. The occupations of the jjopulation were as given below according to the census of 1865 : — Of thcNC occupied in Agriculture, breeding of cattle, forests, ( and fisheries ... ... ... / Mining and other industries ... Commerce and shipping Various mechanical occupations Mental work ... Unoccupied classes ... Of these there There were lived in the countf)-. 1,035,207 1,028,676 241,446 137,954 148,590 60,886 101,848 77,110 50,418 24,094 124,247 106,744 1,701,756 '1,435,464 According to these returns 266,292 persons lived in the towns 103,492 of whom lived by manufactures and 87,704 by trade and navigation. Agriculture. The woods and forests occupy 18,920,509 acres. Corn Crops Acres Produce— bushels Wheat 111,666 254,000 Barley ... 121,771 ... 4,324,400 Oats ... 219,744 8,846,000 Rye ... 32,325 ... 877,800 Beans and peas 9,477 231,800 Mixed corn ... 47,878 1,710,000 Total corn crops ... 542,861 16,244,000 Potatoes 76,802 Live stock ill 18,825,200 1S45 1805 1S75 Horses 154,447 ••• 149, 167 ... 151,903 Cows — 690, 777 ••• 741,594 Other kind of cattle — 262, 259 ... 275,001 Sheep and lambs ... 1,596,199 ... 1,705 392 ... 1,686,806 Pigs 113,320 ... 96 166 ... 101.351 Goats 357,102 ... 29c 9'\5 •■• 323,364 Norzvay — Land and People. 687 Commerce. The development of Norwegian trade seems to have reached its highest point in 1874, and since then to have gradually decreased. IMPORTS. Provisiuns 1876 187,- 1878 Wheat barre Is 47,000 44,000 — Rye ,, 1,400,000 . 1,800,000 ... 1,600,000 Barley ,, 500,000 650,000 520,000 Meal cwts. 38,000 43,600 — Bacon ') 84,200 .. 126,500 — Butter ,, 59,800 . 91,000 .... 55,000 Eggs ,, 7,000 . 10,000 — Brandy ... gallons 913,320 . ■• 700,725 ... 531,000 Wine ,, 382,320 . •• 382,320 ••• 339,840 Coftee cwts. 145,000 . 150,000 120,000 Sugar ,, 180,000 220,000 170.000 Tobacco leaves . . . It 44,000 45,000 39,000 Cigars 11 1,580 . 1,700 — Textile Fabrics Silk stuffs lbs. 51,000 53,000 Woollen stuffs ... )? 1,923,000 . .. 2,489,000 ^ Cotton stuffs )1 2,603,000 •• 3,497,000 3 Linen stuffs J> 387,000 . .. 371,000 OJ Sail cloth ,, 381,000 401,000 Hides cwts 22,OGO 30,000 ^^ ,, tanned ,, 14,900 14,100 A CROUPING OF THE IMPORTS, TOGETHER WITH THEIR V.VLUE. 1871 1872 r8-3. Provisions ^2,755,555 .;^3,3Ti,iii ^3,994,444 Textile fabrics... 816,666 1,183,333 1,383,333 Household requisites 408,333 483,333 666,666 Works of art, books, and oaper 66,666 83,333 88,888 Raw material ... ... 1,224,999 1,627,777 1,766,666 Ships' requirements ... i33'332 138,888 200,000 Ships 183,333 538,888 866,666 Machinery and tools ^5,722,216 205,555 ^^7,572,218 311,116 Total .£'9,277,779 Notes on the Imports of Provisions. — From 1844 to 1847 the annual average con- sumption of wheat was 8 lbs. per head of the population. Between i8"4 and 1876 it increased three-fold — 24 lbs. — The import of meat has increased ten-fold, of bacon twelve-fold, and butter four-fold in the last 20 years. — The increase in the consumption of malt and spirituous iiquors was ver)' marked in the years of prosperity. According to Dr. Brock, each individual in 1855 consumed annually about 2.655 gallons of ale; in 1871 it reached 3. i 86 gallons; and in 1876 5.980 gallons. Ardent spirits corisumed per head was 3.508 gallons in 1833 ; it fell from 1801 to 1865 to 0.9640 gallons; it increased to 1.468 in 1874, and in 1876 to somewhat more. — The consumption of wine has doubled during the present genera tion — I'he individual consumption of sugar : 4 lbs. between 1844-47, ^ Ihs. between 1864-67, and 9^ lbs. between 1874-76. Notes on the Import of Textile Fabrics. — 'I'he annual average iniHvidual consumption has l)een — Of cotton goods, 2.4 in the years ,864-67; 3,8 in the years 1874-77; woollen goods, 09 and 1.5 ; silk stuffs, 0.024 ^"<^ 0.032. During the last 20 years the demand for woollen goods has trebled, and the consumption of «ilk goods ha-;, in the ?ame period, doubled. 63S Norway — Land and People. Provisions Textile fabrics Household requisites Works of art, books, and paper Raw material Ships' requirements Ships Machinery and tools Provisions Textile fabrics Household requisites Works of art, books, and paper Raw material Ships' requirements Ships Machiner)^ and tools Imports continued. 1874 ^4,327,777 1,788,888 761,111 105.555 2,050,000 233>333 561,111 422,222 ^10,249,997 1876 ^4,622,222 1,322,222 772,222 1 1 1, III 1,655,555 161,111 316,666 333>333 1875 ^4,438,666 i>6o5,555 750,000 105,55s 1,894,444 200,000 408,333 433,333 ^9,835.886 1877 ^5,31 1, m 1,488,888 800,000 122,222 1,922,222 r66,666 372,222 361,111 ^9,294,442 ^10,544,442 RXPORrS. The chief Norwegian exports are dried fish and timber. They repre- sent four-fifths of the entire commerce. The value of the dried fish exported was in— .1871 ^'r, 888,888 '872 2,333,333 '873 2,333,333 1874 2,444,444 1875 2,555,555 ^876 2,833,333 1877 ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,611,111 A new industry has sprung up in connection with timber, viz., the manufacture of paper from the pulp of wood. From 1866 to 1870 the annual average amount of wood pulp used for paper was no tons; from 1871 to 1875 about 4,600 tons; in 1876, 1,200 tons ; in 1877, 14,900 tons, and in 1878, 19,000 tons, this last representing a value of ^66,666. There are 20 mills at work in Norway for the prepa- ration (jf the material, aiid 1 4 mills where the prepared pulp is made into paper. A considerable cjuantity of wood is used in the manufacture of matches. Between 1866-70 about 13 tons of matches were shipped annually. Between 1871-75, 315 tons ; in 1876, 850 tons ; in 1877, I1I00 tons, and in 1878, 1,200 tons. The value of the tinil)cr cxporlcd in : — ;^2,lll,irf .87. 1872 1873 1871 /.''777,777 ! 1875 2,385.555 I '876 3,166,666 I 1877 3-055,555 ! 2,555.555 2,444.444 Xorivay — Laud and People. 689 Norwegian ale is finding good markets in the West Indies, S. America, India and China. The quantity exported was in : — 380,853 gallons 45i>235 503>876 605,072 1875 1876 1877 1878 England take Germany ... „ Denmark and colonies ,, Sweden Russia and F inland „ France Holland Of the general trade of Norway Per Cent. 30.0 21.8 10.0 9.0 7.2 6.5 Spain Belgium Italy and Austria Portugal Europe S. America ... takes 4.8 I N. America only Per Cent. 3-4 2.1 1.6 0.7 97.0 1.8 0-5 LENGTH OK LINE. State railways ... Companies' railways . Total lenuth Railways, i3;2 Miles, 214 42 256 1873 Miles 263 42 305 187+ Miles 268 42 1875 Miles 305 42 547 1876 Miles 318 42 ^60 1S77 Miles 464 42 500 COST OF CONSTRUCTION. 1875 State railways ^i,493»572 Companies' railways ... 466,680 Total cost ... ^1,960,252 MMlJLK OF PASSENGERS. iSt State railways . . . Companies' railways State railways . . . Companies' railways 591,768 248,756 840,524 I.S75. i, 345. 602 330,288 1,675,890 1876 /^f, 589,040 466,720 1877 ^2,416,640 473.360 ^2,055,760 ^2,890,000 1873 1,416,221 281,364 1.697,585 1S76 1,268,303 312,466 1,580,769 1,778,322 i, 223,055 301,370 1,524,425 WEIGHT OF GOODS CARRIED. lS-2 Tons .','73 Tonb .874 Tons 1875 Tons 187(1 Tons J877 Tons State railways ... 245,332 333,692 378,133 412,719 488,920 493,626 Companies' railways 296,133 329,352 336,798 329,19^ 349,156 399,360 'iotalwcight ... 541,465 663,044 714,931 741, 9'3 838,076 892,986 2 V 690 Norway — Land and People. State railways . . . Companies' railways State railways ... Companies' railways RECEIPTS. 1 871 ^67,775 60,891 ^128,666 •875 71,764 ^209.312 ■873 i^i 18,792 66,646 ^185,438 1S76 ^153.348 78,080 1S74 ^^127,652 72,188 ^199,840 I 77 ^164,354 80,799 ^231.428 Z245.155 State railways . . . Companies' railways State railways . . . Companies' railways EXPENDITURE. 1872 ^51,875 33.288 i:85,i63 1875 45'748 1S73 ^^89.891 36,172 ^126,063 187S .^117,53^ 50,816 1874 ^105.720 42,688 ^148,408 1877 ^^132,028 43' 105 ^'160,848 ^168,352 ^i75'i33 Killed Wounded ACCIDENTS. In 1879 the only line opened for general trank was that between Christiana and Frederikshald, but there are several in course of construction. Telcgra[>lis. The Norwegian telegraphic system has been completed to the utmost extent ; it stretches as far as the " Wadso and Warno," on the Varanger Fjord, that is to say to the far point, in the Arctic Ocean nearest to Russia. A Norwegian journal remarked — " We can now converse from hour to hour with Finmark, which lies opposite to Spitzbergen, that for-lying northerly district, to stay in which was formerly regarded as banishment." Sixteen years were required to complete the tclegTaphic network of the country. The last lines which have been established in the extreme north, are chiefly for the advantage of the great national industry, the sea-fisheries, by rapidly announcing tlio arrival of the herring shoals. The length ot line in 1878 was 4,708 miles. Length of wire, 8,483 miles. Cost of con- struction, ;^i 1,818. Number of oflices opened no permanently and 17 temporarily. Rec:eipts in 1877 were X54oo8. Expenses in 1S77 were ;^55,o2i. Number of messages sent 793,883. I S'orivay—Laiid aiiii Peofile. 691 Post. In 1876 there were 824 offices. 11,204,120 letters passed through the post, and 8,798,387 journals. In 1877, 12.548,690 letters and 8,984,996 journals passed "through tiie iK)-,t. In 1878. the number of ofiices was 867. Fisheries. The number of lives which are lost in the fisheries is very similar to the per-centage in coal mines. For every ^27,220 worth offish exported, one life is sacrificed. From 1871-76, 84 lives were lost annually. In 1875, 1 13 were lost. Mercantile Marine. In 1876 the mercantile marine numbered 7,814 vessels, of 1,394)363 tons and 9,980 horse-power. The crews numbered 56,147 men, of whom 10,635 ^'^'■G occupied in the coasting trade, 43)7 '7 ""> f'""^- sea-going vessels, and 1,795 '" ^''•'^ fisheries. At the end of 1875 there were : — Sailin:-; vessels T. linage Making long voyages r,744 ojO^Q^s Coasting ... ... 1,926 88,364 3,670 439.346 Steamers Tonnage Horse power 175 63,868 11,895 512 23,628 11,862 687 87,496 23,757 Harbour Traffic, 1877. Entered Cleared ti,6i7 vessels, of 1,943,323 tons ... 12,277 vessels, of 2.010,956 tons SPAIN (Kingdom) LAND AND PEOPLE. PAIN embraces an area of 195,716 square miles. The jiopulalion in 1879 numbered 16,809,913 ; of whom 8,342,564 arc males, and 8467,349 arc females. The proportion of the unmarried is 56.7 per cent. ; the married, 36.5 per cent. ; and widowed 6.8 per cent. 57 men and 168 women were stated to be above loo years old. The country is divided into 49 provinces. The old provinces, with their area and population will be placed first, in italics and parenthesis. The number of judicial circles is 505, the number of the Communes, 9,355. {New Castile) 20,177 1 Madrid 2 Toledo 3 Guadalajara ... 4 Cuen^a {Mancha) ... 7,824 5 Ciudad Real ... PROVINCES. Eng. sq. miles. 2,997 5>594 4,868 6,718 7,824 {Old Castile) ... 6 Burgos 7 Logrono S Santander 9 Soria 10 Segovia 1 1 Avila 1 2 Palencia J 3 Valladolid 25,386 247,254 247,991 1,629,759 Population in 1R77 593>775 334)744 201,288 237,497 247,991 5,655 332,461 1,934 174,425 2,104 235,299 3,827 153.654 2,724 149,961 2,976 180,457 3,125 180,785 3.041 247,453 Spain — Land and People. 693 (Leon) 14 Leon ... 15 Zamora 16 Salamanca (Astur'ias) 17 Oviedo {Galicia) 18 Corunna 19 Lugo 20 Orense 2 1 Pontevedra 15.233 4,082 ".353 16,699 {E stre?nadurd) 22 Badajos 23 Caceres {Andalusia) ... 33,636 24 Seville 25 Cadiz 26 Huelva 27 Cordova 28 Jaen 29 Granada 30 Almeria 31 Malaga (Mitrcia) ... io,445 32 Murcia 33 Albacete { Valencia) ... 8,887 34 Valencia 35 Alicante 36 Castellon (Aragon) ... 17,966 37 Saragossa 38 Huesca 39 Teruel ( Catalonia) ... 12,459 40 Barcelona 41 Tarragona 42 Lerida 43 Gerona {Ntt/varre and Basque) 6,825 44 Navarre 45 Biscay 46 Guipuscoa 47 Alava... Eng. sq. Miles 6,165 4,124 4,934 4,082 3.083 3.784 2,742 1,743 8,674 8,025 5.294 2,806 4,124 5.187 5,166 4,935 3.302 2,822 4,476 5.969 4,337 2,104 2,445 6,612 5,868 5.485 2,976 2,445 4,762 2,275 4,039 850 722 1,211 851,129 540,586 1,799,224 697,407 2,980,001 Population in 1877 350,210 250,004 285,500 540,586 588,911 1,275,676 891,057 1,673,842 728,840 595.585 410,387 388,835 451.946 432,809 306,564 505,291 430,158 210,641 385.58a. 422,972 477.719 349.854 500,231 451,611 219,122 679,030 408,154 283,961 400,266 252,165 242,296 835.306 330,105 285,297 299,002 304,184 168,705 167,207 93.191 S/>/f///— -/. /r//i/ and P •Opl' 656 F ^%. aq. Miles 1,849 2,806 506 854 Population 289. 280 in 1871 035 388 694 {Islands) 48 Balearic 49 Canary Total 195,610 16,625,860 There are of this total 6,346 males deaf and dumb, and 4,559 females, 39,020 males and 25,141 females blind. Movement of the Populiitiori. ., Pruportion per 1000 of Population Year Births- Deaths Marriages Births Deaths, Marriages 1868 579,563 548,690 111,687 34.4 326 13.3 1869 602,287 550,660 137.120 35.7 32.6 16.2 1870 599,786 509,669 105,543 35.4 jo-i ^ '2.5 No figures have been received for the years subsequent to 1870, owing to the disturbed state of the country. Creeds. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, 60,000 only acknowledge other creeds. Rares. The actual Spaniards are a mixture of the nations who formerly dwelt there, (Celts, Romans, Alans, Goths, Suevi, Vandals. Moors, Arabs ; the Moorish-Arabian element prevails especially in Andalusia). In addition to these there are about 500,000 Basques and 60,000 Medejares, (de- scendants of the Moors), in the valleys of the Sierra Nevada, and in the Apuliares. Also about 1,000 descendants of German colonists in the Sierra Morena, 45,000 gipsies, and a small number of Jews. At the census of i860, 20,917 foreigners were stated to be domiciled in .Spain, and 13,995 to be temporarily staying in the country. Prmious Censuses. In the vear 1594 there were about 8,250,000 inhabitants. ' Year Year 1723 ... ... 7,625,000 ; 1822 ... ... 11,661,815 1768 9,309,814 j 1832 ... 11,158,264 1787 ... ... 10,409,879 I 1846 ... ... 12,162,872 1797 10,541,221 ) 1857 15,464.340 In the year 1855-56 the cholera attacked 829,189 persons, of wiioai 236,744 died. The first census was taken in 1787 ; the returns for 1797 and 1823 depend upon calculation. The first exact census was in 1857. Tenons and their Populations, (1877). Inhabitant: Madrid ... ... 367,264 I Bilbao... ... ... 26,357 [Barcelona Valencia Seville Inhabitants 367,264 215.965 153.457 118,888 Tow ns Bilbao... Burgos Pamplona Castellon 24,426 22,654 21,929 • Of these 33,734 were illegitimate Spain — Land mid People. 695 Inhabitant!. Towns Inhabitants 97,943 Lugo 21,699 82,620 Jaen ... 20,998 67,539 Tarragona 19,002 60,500 Pontevedra 18,997 57,020 Vittoria 18,684 54,421 Gerona 18,606 44,871 Lerida... 18,421 44,418 Badajos 17,960 39,0 r I San bebasiian... 17,992 34,315 Toledo 17,273 31,880 Albacette 16,626 29,823 Salamanca 16,292 28,909 Tovnw Malaga Murcia Saragossa Granada Cadiz ... Palma* Valladolid Cordova Santander Almeria Oveido Corunna Alicante Spain possesses, therefore, fewer large towns than other countries ; 4 only, including the suburbs, have more than ioo,coo inhabitants ; 6 have between 50,000 and 100,000 ; 8 between 25,000 and 50,000 inhabitants. In the time of the Moors, Seville and Granada are said to have had 400,000 ; Cordova, 300,000 ; Toledo, 200,000 inhabitants. Historical Notes. It is not probable that the Pyrenean Peninsula contained 40 million inhabitants at the time of the Romans, as has been asserted ; but on the other hand it may be assumed that there were 20 millions at the time of the Arabs. Then followed quickly one after the other the expulsion of two million Moors, 800,000 Jews, and at least 600,000 Moriscoes. The all-depressing influence of spiritual and temporal despotism con- tributed more to the depopulation of the country than did the colonisation of America or than war. The Spanish Government purchased the Peace of Basle, 1795, from the French Republic with the price of her share in St. Domingo ; and the Peace of Amiens was obtained in 1802 by the surrender of Trinidad. In 1801 Spain acquired the fortress of Olivenca from Portugal. In leturn lor the elevation of the Heir apparent of Parma, a Spanish Intanta, to the throne of Etruria, the Royal family ceded Louisiana to France ; it was, however, immediately sold by Napoleon to the United States for ^2,400,000. During the sanguinary War of Independence all the Spanish posses- sions on the Continent of America shook off the foreign yoke. The Spanish colonies up to i8c8 had extended over more than 6.591,220 square miles, with about 18 million inhabitants. These colonies were Mexico, with Texas and California; the whole of Central Ameiica; New Granada, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chili, and the Argentine Republic. Finance. The chronic disturbances in the political and social condition of Spain have rendered a perfectly reliable exposition of its financial affairs very difficult. Neither are the Budget estimates of much value. They are often purely illusory, and no explanation is demanded or required as to why or wherefore they are so. * In the Balearic Isles, 696 Sf>nii! — Jjarui and People. For many years past the ordinary receipts have been insufficient to pay the expenses of the State ; this insufficiency has been partially made good by the constant sale of national estates. In the meantime these estates are gradually decreasing. In February of this year (1880), when the Finance Minister presented the Budget for 1880-81, great satisfaction was expressed that the jjresumable deficit was only ^1,480,000 instead of, as in the previous year, ^2,880,000. We give the detail for 1878 and 1879 (Budget estimates.) (A.) EXPENDITURE. appanage. 1. Court — Civil list,* ^280,000 ;^I00,000 2. Diet 3. Public Debt 4. Current and past obligations 5. Pensions ... Total of A ^380.000 61,981 9»953>474 119.500 1,647,904 ... ^12,162,859 Ministerial Departments (B) : — 1. Presidency of the Council ... ... ... ^43,168 2. Ministry of Foreif^n Affairs ... ... ... 124,718 3. Ministry of Justice ... ... ... ... 2,087,436 4. Ministry of War ... ... ... ... 4,737,908 5. Ministry of Marine ... ... ... ... 1,005,131 6. Ministry of Police (which includes health. persons, post, telegraph, gendarmerie, &c.) ... 1,656,063 7. Ministry of the Interior (education, commerce, harbours, &c.) ... ... ... ... ... 2,884,382 8. Ministry of Finance ... ... ... ... 728,820 9. Levying and collecting taxes, customs, and dues 4,596,722 Total of B /;i7,864,348 (A & B.) Total Expenditure ... /:3o,o2 7,207 REVENUE. 1 Direct taxes ... ... ... ... ... ;^9,424,7i6 2 Indirect taxes ... ... ... ... ... 5,976,400 3 Customs ... ... ... ... ... ... 4,002,480 4 Monopolies (stamped paper, tobacco, salt, lotteries) 8,505,192 5 Domains ... ... ... ... ... ... 568,038 6 Miscellaneous Revenue ... ... ... ... 1,548,380 Total Revenue ^30,025,206 * The Spanish Civil List bears as large a proportion to the Spanish Budget, where the ordinary expenditure is estimated at ;^3i,263,637, as the Italian Civil List to the Italian Expenditure: Offence is taken hy the people to the fact that the Civil List is exempt from the reduction of 15 per cent., which falls on all other civil salaries of the State. Spain — Land ivid People. 697 Financial condition of the Country. Notwithstanding the national wealth of the country, and in spite of her having possessed the gold and silver mines of Peru and Mexico for three hundred years, the finances of Spain were in a state of ruin even a century ago. Every kind of order in the administration ceased during the War of Independence, nor was it restored for years afterwards. The receipts in 181 7, including the proceeds of the colonies, were ;^6, 200,000 ; but at the same time there was a deficit of ;^2,ooo,ooo. The disproportion increased, till at length payment of interest on the State debt, which had remained quite unnoticed since 1808, was thought of. In the meantime the American possessions made themselves free. The Cortes ventured on no thorough reform between 1820 and 1823 ; they considered it too bold a step to deliver the country from the payment of the tithes. Only half was taken off, estimated at about ^4,000,000. By this they were precluded from introducing a land tax which should prove sufficient. The statements of the budgets were, therefore, as follows : — Years Expenditure Deficit. 1820 ;^7,o28,o23 ... ^1,720,000 1821 7,562,142 ... 870,000 1822 ... ... ... 6,648,133 ... 1,000.000 The war which broke out in the following year increased the expenditure to ^8,615,916, while the receipts were estimated at only ^5,500,000. If the constitutionalism of the period showed itself incapable of restoring order to the finances, absolutism showed itself still more so. With it returned boundless extravagance and all the old abuses.* Even the full tithe was reintroduced for the benefit of the clergy. Necessity subsequently led to the seizure of the property of the clergy. Possession was also taken of the landed property of the communes for the benefit of the State treasury. An improvement in the industrial life of Spain has taken place in many ways, and this has resulted in the increase of the ordinary receipts of the State in time of peace ; but order and economy are still wanting. Civil war raised the disorder to the highest pitch, and the very ease with which means were acquired by the sale of all the estates in mortmain led to extravagance and profusion of every kind, so that the finances are now in a greater state of disorder than ever, and even the possibility of the restoration of a balance cannot be seen. Debt. Whilst the amount was officially estimated on 31st March, 1870, at ^263,935,170 capital, and the interest ^6,913,329, the figures at the end of 1 87 1, only 21 months after, were as follows : — Capital Interest Consohdated debt ;^24o,337,6oi ... ;,£"6,6i4,637 Non-convertible Rentes 26,879,367 ... 378,088 English "reclamations" ... ... 100 ... Redeemable debt 3,463,179 ... 88,007 Railway bonds 17,004,660 ... 1,020,279 Deferred debt 9,660,953 ... — ^^297345,860 ... ^8,101,011 * No means was despised to obtain money. It is known that when Ferdinaud VII. wanted money an intimation reached the management of the lottery, that the highest lot should fall to the King. 698 Spain — Land and People. To this must be added the floating debt, the amount of which was given at ^26,740,000 in the middle of May, 1874. The governmeni has since then endeavoured to procure money in every possible way. Thus, \\\ September, 1873, it was decided to contract a national loan of ^7,000,000, and payment to be made in lapsed coupons of the Slate debt. The opera- tion, however, failed, as did a second — at least, in the main points — under- taken in December, 1873, for ^7,200,000, in mortgage bills on the State treasury, which were to be taken at their nominal value. An endeavour was made in 1874 to obtain money from foreign countries, but the means of satisfying them were wanting. A reduction of the interest payable on the debt was announced as unavoidable (another State bankruptcy). In July 1878, the nominal capital stood at ^515,000,296. History of the Debt. The greater part of the debt dates from the time of the conquest of Granada. The war of succession increased the debt which had already been augmented in the reign of Charles V. and Philip II. At the death of Philip V. Spain was burdened with a debt of ^^8,000,000. Ferdinand VI. asked his advisers whether he was obliged to recognize this debt, and they, in accordance with his wishes, answered in the negative. Charles III. considered himself bound to recognize the debt ; payments on account were made from 1762 to 1779. The American War caused delay in the arrival of the silver fleet, and from 1780 the country was also overrun with a further ^8,000,000 of pajjer money. When Joseph Bonaparte ascended the Spanish throne in 1808 a debt of ;^7 2,000,000 existed. The paper money, which had already fallen to 51 per cent, of its nominal value in 1806, sank in 1808 to 28, in 1809 to 20, and in 181 1 to 4 per cent. From 1808 to 1819 no heed was paid to the debt. At the restoration it had increased to ;^i 17,350,000. Thus the War of Independence had cost ^'45.000,000. The paper money again rose to 44 per cent. Ferdinand VII. refused to recognize any fresh debt, although the Cortes of 18 10 and iSii had taken possession even of private monies in the time of greatest need, and had employed them to save his throne. The Cortes of 1820 contracted a debt of ;^ 14,361,000. Two-thirds of the acceptances belonged to ecclesiastical corporati(jas, the abolition of which was determined as well as that of " mortmain," in the celebrated sittings of August 17 and October 6, 1820. By this means the burden was diminished to ^,^48, 330,000, or, according to other calculations, to ^52,730.000. To cover this there existed national lands of the value of ^86,330,000. After tlie restoration of absolutism, king Ferdinand refused to recognize the loans contracted by the Cortes with his own approval, and the proceeds of which had been partly applied to his civil list. The four loans contracted by the Cortes amounted to ;^8o. 000,000, scarcely a quarter of which had, however, found its way into the Stale treasury. The king also declared the sale of the monastic lands ////, without, however, refunding to the purchasers the sums they had paid for them. 25,177 estates had been sold for ^10,450,000, whilst the taxable value had only amounted to ^4,500,000. Spain was now compelled to pay a war indemnity to France ^2,780,000 in 3 per cent, inscriptions in the '' Cireat Book." England also demanded an indemnity, and in order to satisfy the latter, Spain borrowed /^4, 000,000 at 5 per cent, in Paris. In spite of his repudiation of the loans com meted by the Cortes, Ferdinand augmented the debt by ;]^2 1,810,000. Phe new S/>ai/f — Land and People. 699 war of succession for Isabella, cost about ^160,000,000. After the revo- lution of July, the government was obliged to acknowledge the old debts in order to obtain fresh loans. In 1835 a storm broke over the monasteries in every province of the peninsula. Financial needs again compelled the sale of ecclesiastical lands. Therefore, between 1836 and October, 1839, sales took place to the amount of more than ^13,000,000, which sum did not suffice. A reaction took place in 1 843, bui did not restore the lands to the clergy. Financial difficulties still increased. A decree of 1851 re- duced the debt which paid higher interest to 3 per cent., the interest long in arrears was "consolidated " as a deferred debt, and made to pay i| per cent, interest. Another revolution occurred in 1854. Treasury notes were issued by a forced circulation. Necessity led to the Dis-Amortisation Act of 1855. The State again ordered the confiscation of the lands in " mortmain," not only of those belonging to the clergy, but of those also belonging to the communes, and to educational and benevolent institutions. For the capital thus obtained small annuities were given. The lands alienated from May ist, 1855, to the same period in 1856, yielded ^10,000,000. In 1859, the pressure of the need was so irresistible, that a treaty was made in August of that year, between the Pope and the State, by which the alienation of church lands was agreed to. These were all, with the exception of the churches and parsonages to be sold, the clergy receiving in payment untransferable 3 per cent, annuity inscriptions. There flowed therefore into the State Treasury ^^30, 156,684, viz.. From State establishments... ... ... ... ^2,753,173 „ Communal lands ... ... ... ... 14,378,323 „ Ecclesiastical establishments ... ... 6,296,463 „ Lands of benevolent institutions ... ... 5,372,422 „ Provincial lands ... ... ... ... 3^*992 „ Educational institutions ... ... ... 1,325,310 In 1866, 35,987 national estates were sold, and in 1867, 28,139 Pro- ducing togeth.^r ^9,533,381. A third part of the State and communal forests were destined to be sold, nor was any hesitation shewn in taking possession of the money be- longing to savings' banks during the war with Morocco. Morocco pur- chased peace in i860 by a cession of territory, and the promise to pay a war indemnity of ^1,560,000. In the years immediately following, Spain cleared off some old claims which foreign Powers had against her, viz., ^^470,000 to England, which the latter claimed from the time of the war of succession (Isabella). Next by agreement with France as to the demand made since 1823, by which she received ;^''i,909,i25 in 3 per cent, bonds ; beside which Spain renounced a counter claim of ^640,000 for the confis- cation of prizes taken. In 1868, an attempt was made to obtain a national loan for ^20,000,000, to satisfy the most pressing demands, without success. In 1869 attempts were made again to obtain money, with partial success, from some bankers at 28 per cent. Army. The Spanish army does not exceed a force of 100,000 men, but it is much larger than would be required by a country at peace with the whole world, and likewise safe from foreign invasion. The Spanish war budget amounts to ^4,917,729. The reason why 100,000 Spanish soldiers, who 700 Spa hi — hand and People. are wretchedly paid, cost so much, lies in the fact that Spain boasts, 8 captain-gcnenils, 86 lieutenant-generals, 127 generals of division, and 5G brigadiers on half-pay. The general officers are thus, 619, and the officers under them cannot be reckoned at less that 20,000, or about i for every 5 soldiers. It is the multitude of these officers which forms one of the heavy burdens of the Spanish people. The State is unfortunately militarily organized ; the captain-general of a military district now has a salary of _;^i,ooo and a large allowance for expenses — exercises great influence in large towns ; an influence which often eclipses the authority of the civil governor and municiiial officials. The army is formed by the enlistment of volunteers, between the ages of 19 and 40, who receive about 8d. a day, and who are bound to serve at least 2 years ; by later agreements one year at least. At the same time universal liability to serve exists, but it is limited to service in the reserve. Should the number of those who have volunteered be insufficient to make up the necessary strength of the active army the government ma\ order mobilization. Formation of the Army. Infantry : 40 regiments of the line, 20 rifle battalions, i garrison regiment in Ceuta, and 40 reserve battalions. Cavalry: 24 regiments, of whom 12 regiments are lancers, 10 are rifles, and 2 regiments of hussars. Artillery : 14 regiments, of whom 4 regiments are foot artillery, 5 mounted, and 2 mountain artillery. Engineers : 2 regiments of 2 battalions ; to these must be added 40 battalions of second reserve, making a total of 218,000 men. The peace strength of the army consists of 100,000, of whom 70,000 are in the infantry, 16,000 cavalry, 10,000 artillery, and 4,000 engineers. In Cuba there are 8 regiments of infantry, 50 battalions of cazadores (rifles), and 4 battalions of volunteers ; 7 regiments of cavalry, i foot and I foot mountain artillery regiment, besides several special corps, most of them militia. In Porto Rico there are 4 battalions of infantry and i brigade of artillery, beside militia. In the Phillipine Islands, 7 regiments of infantry, and 2 brigades of artillery. Fortresses. Spain has very many, but the most important are : — 1. On the Bay of Biscay: Fuentarabia, Santona, Santander los Passages, Ferrol, Corunna, Vigo and Toro (San Sebastian is no longer a fortress. 2. On the Portuguese Frontier : Ciudad-Rodrigo, Badajos and Olivenca. 3. /n Andalusia and on the Mediterranean : Cadiz, Tarifa, San Roque (by Gibraltar), Malaga, Velez-Malaga, Almeria, Cartagena, Alicante, Castell-de-Valencia, Murviedro, Tarragona, Barcelona, Rosas. On the French frontier: Figueras, Urgel. Puycerda, Pamplona, Gerona, Hostalrich, Manrcsa, Lerida, Tortosa, Mequinenza, Saragossa. In the Islands and in Ajrica : Palma, Port Mahon, Ceuta. Spain — Land and People. ;oi Navy in 1876-79. In 1876 ... 6 armour-clad vessels, of 105 guns, and 5,100 horse power. In 1879 ... 10 „ „ 195 „ lu 1876 screw steamers, 10 frigates, of 387 guns, and 5,000 horse power. In 1879 „ ., 19 „ „ 413 » — paddle ., 10 ,, „ 68 „ 3>5oo n Reckoning the smaller vessels, there are 135, with 750 guns, and 25,000 horse power. The navy is manned by 14,000 sailors and 5,500 marines, and com- manded by I captain-general of the fleet, 20 admirals, and 378 commissioned officers. Social Condition. The wealth of Spain was for centuries the i)roperty of the nobility and the ecclesiastics. In 1787 there were 419^^52, nobles in Spain, (the male sex only is taken account of,) of whom nearly \ were in Asturias ; 77,665 monks and 59,396 secular priests, besides 2,666 officials of the inquisition, and 4,103 ecclesiastical officers. Even after the year 1820 there were still 3,005 monasteries, | of the soil of Galicia were in the posse.ssion of the priesthood, and fully ^ part of all Spain. Even after the suppression of the Jesuit convents and many of the monasteries in 1855, there still reniained above 1,000, which were, however, subsequently abolished. The nobility still own enormous undivided and badly-managed landed property. The number of the titled nobility has at all times been very formidable, and now that it has been greatly added to during the last four years, it numbers (i8yg) ; — 89 dukes, all grandees of the first rank, 831 marquises, 632 counts, 92 viscounts, and 25 barons, making altogether a host of 1,659 heads of noble families, besides 585 general officers. Good schools are still wanting. Numerous obstacles retard the development of industry ; among others the system of protection in customs. Great changes have taken place since the commencement of the present century, one of which, the transfer of the lands in Mortmain into freeholds, has been of great advantage. A regeneration has set in, which coincides with the overthrow of Monkish dominion, viz., the restriction of absolution. The number of poor kept at the expense of the communes in 1879 is very great, viz., 83,657 males and 178,934 females. The monastic bodies know, however, how to utilise every political crisis. In 1859 there were 41 monasteries and 719 monks only; in 1869 there were 62 monasteries and 1,506 monks, 900 convents, and 14,725 nuns. A calculation made on the basis of the last census gives tlie followinff : — Ecclesiastics Church servants Inhabitants of nionas- ( teries ... ... j Inhabitants of convents Officials in active service Pensioners 42,765 19,320 1,683 t8,Si9 65,897 7>2i5 Private teachers School teachers, males... „ females Students, boys ... ,, girls ... Secondary teachers „ scholars Number 1,396 15,537 7,789 667,107 434,479 9,783 36,149 '02 Spain — Land and People. Class Number Class Number Army in war ... 147,145 Pupils of higher institutes ",375 „ peace ... 71,192 Students 7,029 War marine, active 10,280 Advocates 11,991 „ enrolled ... 41,444 Employed in industries:- ' Mercantile marine 5,009 Males 278,829 Commanders and sailors 39,437 females 54,455 Servants and professors 2,595 Railway servants 5,066 \\''riters and notaries . . . 5,061 Artisans : — Males 551,093 Procurators 2,545 „ Females 114,558 Physicians and surgeons '3,994 Miners ... 23.358 Apothecaries ... 3,9«9 Workers in factories : — Veterinary surgeons ^,132 Males 99,728 Artists ... 5,853 Females 54,472 .\rchitect3 1,834 .\gricultural labourers ... 2,354,110 Surveyors, &c. ... 2,320 Servants: — Males 401,833 Proprietors 1,466,061 „ Females . . . 416,560 Annuitants 510,521 Poor males 83.657 Tradespeople ... 71,556 „ females 178,934 Manufacturers ... 13,457 • Schools. In the year 1867 there were 26,332 people's schools with 1,425,339 children — 850,762 boys; 574,577 girls. The year's expenditure for the common or people's schools was ^615,894 : — viz. ^'14,666 from founda- tions, ;^543,3o6 from the communes and ^'57,922 Irom school fees. To this must be added an extraordinary outlay of ^2.15,295 m the five years 1856-60, or an annual average of ^43,059. The salaries of the teachers are fixed as follows : — They have free dwellings, and the school fees and besides a salary of ^^25 in places of less than 1,000 inhabitants, and J^Z'^ in communes of 3,000 inhabitants. With 10,000 inliahitants, the salary is ^44 ; 20,000 inhabitants, ^'55 ; with 40,000 inhabitants, ^66 ; in larger towns, J^'60 ; in Madrid, ^90. There were only 14,890 pupils in the middle schools in 1858, but in 1861 there were 21,478; and in 1868, 25,288. The 10 universities, Barcelona, Granada, Oviedo, Madrid, Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa had in 1865,9,704 students. In 1868 the number of students was 12,269. ^^ these must be added a series o< special schools. The toUowing fact stands out, however, tliat the proportion of the in- habitants who could read and write, &c., as shewn in the census of i860, Able to read and write ... 2,414,015 „ but not write 3^6,557 Not able to do either* ... 5,034,545 Pemiilc 715,906 389,22 I 6,802,846 Tota 3,729,921 705. 77S 11,837,391 * In the years following 1X5011 happened that the children in wiiole district* had no other book from which to learn to read than th.- •' Bull for the Crusade." Ferdinand VII. re- cognised the great danger ol educating the pe >plc. but founded a school for instruction in the urt of bulUtighting, Spain — Land and People. 703 In 1876 the Spanish Protestants had 53 places of worshi-p and 90 schools, with 2,500 children. There were in 1879 ••• 22,884 public or peoples' schools, „ „ „ ... 6, 1 54 private schools, Giving a total of ... 29,038 schools. Number of scholars in the public schools ... ... ... 1,371,000 ,, ,, private schools ... ... ... 1,633,288 The expenditure for the elementary schools, which is shared between the provinces, the communes, and the scholars, amounted to ;!^76o,ooo ; that of the higher schools, ^^238,000, giving a total annual expenditure ol ;^998,ooo. In the secondary schools, (" de se,^U7ida etiscnanza") the fol- lowing table will give a good view of the 61 institutes in the 3 years, 1877, 1878 and 1879 : — i87o.;7 '877-78 1878-79 Number of scholars Students in science Commerce and industries 28,746 1,926 29,842 2,188 31,512 1,956 Total 30,666 32,030 33,468 Receipts ... Expenditure Deficit ^^36,840 106,754 69-713 ••• ^44,890 108,320 63,430 • ^^45-469 108,320 62,851 Universities in 1877. The number of professor^ was 380 ; vacant seats, 30 ; number of stu- dents, 15.5 14- The revenue amounted to ^97,394; expenditure, ;^io4,o32 ; deficit, ;£,6,638. The number of periodicals which appeared in the middle of 1868 was 468. (In iSo8 there were only 4 newspapers.) 130 of these were official, only 48 political, 31 for "material interests," 4 only for industries, and 11 religious. Of dramatic works in i86t, 315 were examined by the censor, and 32 of them rejected. The number of theatres in 1864 was 298, with seats for 146,047 spectators ; there were 98 theatres for bull-fights, with seat^ for 509,283 persons. These numbers had increased in 1867 to 335 theatres and 169,376 seats, and 99 theatres for bull-fights, with 533,915 seats. Agrkulture. The yield of corn has more than doubled, and the yield of wine is nearly double what it was at the commencement of the century. Of the 123,458,405 acres which the country contains, 25,159,531 acres are forest- land ; of this, 8,466,078 acres are to be sold. The following is the per centage of the various uses to which the land is put- Arable crops .. ... ... ... ... ... 31.9 (Ireen crops ... ... ... ... ... ... r.y Vineyards ... ... ... ... ... ... 3.0 Qliveyards ... ... «•• ... 1.6 704 Spain — Land and People. Meadow and pasture ... ... ... ... 16.0 Forests ... ... ... ... ... ... lo.o Unfruitful land and land built upon ... ... 22.0 Land capable of cultivation but lying fallow ... 14.5 Above a seventh of the land yet remains to be cultivated, and the produce of the whole could be much increased by attention and care. The last returns of the live stock give: 680,373 horses, 1,021,512 mules, 1,298,334 asses, 2,967,303 head of cattle, 22,468,969 sheep, 4.53i>736 goats, 4,531,228 pigs, and 3,104 camels. Alining and Smelting Works. Spain is one of the richest countries of Europe in minerals and ores. Mines were worked in Spain in the earliest historic times. Spain possesses a large amount of coal also ; and that coal mining is here so little developed must be ascribed to the political disturbances and the delay in constructing railways. Nevertheless, we see in this large store of coal an important element of the future development of the country's wealth ; at present a very large quantity is imported from other lands. The [production is, according to the last account, 706,814 tons, the consumption 1,481,584 tons; this gives \\ cwt. per head of the population ; while in England the quantity per head of population is 71^ cwt. In the year 1853 there were 2,336 mining and smelting works of every kind at work ; in 1859 the number ol works was 3,581, and in i860 they had increased to 6,795. The yield of the lead mines in Alpujarras has brought about an entire revolution in the lead trade. All private working of such mines was forbidden until the year 1820. Previously to this date the Royal mines yielded annually only 30,000 cwts. of lead. Alter 1826 3,500 mines were opened in the .Sierras of Gador and Lujar, and the yield rose rapidly to 900,000 cwts., and subsequently to 5,000,000 cwts. The kingdom of Granada seems as if transformed. Peo])le who had lived since the expulsion of the Moors in the deepest misery found their lot suddenly improved and their labour richly paid. The Spanish mines yield more than a fourth of the \\hole total produce of lead. The mines of Almaden j:iroduce 20,000 cwts. of quicksilver. These riiines were known to the Romans, who, however, used but small quantities of (juicksilver. The Arabs understood better how to make use of them. It was from them that the mines received their name — Almaden or Quick- silver Mines. Sj^ain contributes ^"11,000 out of the ^'38,100 worth of silver that is produced in the whole of Europe. There are also rich copper and zinc mines in the country. The Romans worked the copper mines of Rio Tinto, which have now been purchased by an English company. In June, J 874, there were 1,067 labourers em])loyed in the mines and 3,600 in the construction of the railway in connection with them. These mines under the Spaniards produced 1 1 tons of copi)er a month : they now yield 40 tons per month. Industries. Industry and rommcvre both suffer from ihc uncertain rendition of the country and the disordered state of its finances. High ta.xaiiou and Spain — Land and People. /05 the antiquated method of nianutacturiiig reiider trade with foreign countries very unremunerative. Work is badly paid, and the profit on work is also very small. 'llie most imijurtant branches of industry are — ' Woollen factories ... Silk factories Linen and hempen factories Cotton factories Mixed lioods Number of Looms 7,451 25,181 Mills Soap works ... Brandy distilleries ... Cork factories Paper mills ... Tanneries Iron, steel, and copper works Oil mills Minina: and smeltinti works . . . Value of a Year's Produce. ^4,273,951 2,723 8,709 2,756,404 5,120 6,401 1,066,076 32,886 52,886 12,375,864 2,381 5,936 743,200 Number Laborers 12,922 ... 22.107 1,259 — 2.745 1,702 ... 4,377 488 ... 4,727 355 ■■■ 5,824 1,240 .., 7,060 429 ... 11,092 7,429 ... 19,738 600 ... 41,639 The capital employed in these branches of industry is estimated at ^20,293,066 ; the annual gross profit at ^63,477,930. 563 steam-engines, of 16,822 horse-power, were employed therein. Cotnmeru. A system of protected duty was introduced in 1849 i" place of the former prohibitive system \ the number of prohibited articles which had been 93 up to that time was reduced to 25. Commerce received by this a very considerable impetus ; but the amelioration proved quite insufficient for the progress which the country was making. A new tariff in August, 1 869 J abolished all prohibition, and moderated the rates of customs. The amount consumed by the population, although of late considerably increased, is yet very small. 'Fhe annual consumption of sugar was only 4^ lbs. per head of the population during the years 1858-64, but rose to 5^ lbs. in 1865-68. Coffee also rose from 0.13 to 0.23 per head. The consumption of wine has not increased. Value of the imports and exports of merchandise : — Year 1870 I87I 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878' 1879 Imports ^15,442,000 18,457,000 16,804,000 17,068,000 20,350,000 19,123,000 17,775,000 16,341,000 15,910,000 22,880,000 E.xports ;^i5,72i,ooo 17,352,000 19,955,000 23,272,000 18,400,000 I 7,908,000 15,592,000 18,175,000 17,253,000 18,640,000 • Including bullion, which together gives £\ los. per head of population. 2 X 7o6 Spain — Land and People. The principal articles imported and exported are as follows, together with their value : — IMPORT.S 1S70 1871 1872 Coal • ^717.400 ... ^702,160 ^756,600 Cocoa 275^440 ••• 286,960 . 279,280 Cod fish ... .. 581,480 ... 632,400 . 674,160 Raw cotton .. 2,570,880 ... 3,368,480 . • 2,693,760 Sugar • 1,310,640 ... 1,198,240 .. . 1,059,280 Woollen \ Manufactures J 602,520 ... 637,800 .. 457,160 1S73 15/4 1875 Coal . ^728,080 ... ;^6i3,56o .. ;^662,040 Cocoa 339,080 ... 322,960 . 206,880 Cod fish . . . 695,640 ... 787,040 .. 698,200 Raw cotton . 2,558,760 ... 3,556,080 .. • 3,177,360 Sugar . 1,255,080 ... 1,070,720 .. 890,480 Woollen ) Manufactures I ' 311,960 ... 407,720 .. 397,920 EXPORTS 1870 i3;i 1S72 Esparto grass ^605,680 ... ;^3i5'48o .. • ^377,680 Almonds... 53,320 ... 278,600 .. 177,680 Number of orange; 5 228,640,000 445,220,000 .. • 465,320.000 Raisins ... 1,073,880 ... 963,440 .. 1,431,680 Nuts i8s,72o ... 141,200 180,920 Copper ... 63,680 ... 85,760 26,560 Lead 715,760 ... 1,931,840 .. 1,952,960 Olive oil ... 244,560 ... 486,440 578,680 Quicksilver 417,120 ... 91,680 412,200 Salt 200,280 329,600 .. 352,080 Esparto grass Almonds ... Number of oranges Raisins Nuts Copper ... Lead Olive oil ... Quicksilver Salt 1873 438,720 204.360 506,969,000 951,760 178,560 73,920 1,518,280 1,466,760 554,480 350,640 1874 421,520 107,960 589,805,000 1,086,680 86,960 4,320 1,887,760 738,440 750,520 147,800 1875 399,560 183,240 44o,345'Ooo 907,560 151,520 2,412 1,988,440 155,560 976,160 161,920 Spain — Land ami People. 707 Export of Wine. 1870 Gallons 187 1 Gallons 1872 Gallons Common wine Catalonian ... Sherry and port Other kind.s ... 20,336,140 3,459,060 7,423,900 1,666,981 ... 22,837,980 . 3,923,260 . 8,091,820 2,295,040 . ... 37,148,100 . 23,408,220 7,374,620 10,300,180 2,071,960 Total .. 32,886,081 •• 43,154,980 Value ^,■5,044,240 - ^5,526,280 . .. ^6,796,320 1873 Gallons 1S74 Gallons 18-5 Gallons Common wine Catalonian 38,357,880 6,679,860 ... 25,167,780 . 11,800,360 1,076,940 2,299,960 Sherry and port Other kinds ... 11,019,360 2,103,480 7,253,400 . 1,467,620 . 6,154,500 2,215.820 Total 58,160,580 45,689,160 11,747,220 Value ... ^"7,224,160 ... ^5,669,000 ... ^{^6,074, 040 Full returns for later years have not yet been given. Means of Coinniunication. The great lack of means of communication was, until quite recently, the chief hindrance to economical and intellectual progress. The greatest abundance often exists in one province, while in the next, which lies 10, 1 5 or 20 miles distant, the other side of a mountain range, famine may ])revail. In 1808 there were only 1863 miles of high roads throughout the whole country, and these were in a lamentable condition. All the remaining roads were at best but bridle paths. The State was compelled lo do something for the benefit of traffic in return for the sequestration of the church lands. _;!^i 1,146,430 were therefore expended for this purpose between 1S46 and 1858, viz.: for main and provincial roads, ;^7, 01 7,620; for railroads, ^2,321,540; for other public works, ;:^725,36o; for harbour works about ;^i,o8i,9io. All this expenditure notwithstanding, there were at the end of 1869 not more than 9,976 miles completed, 1,822 miles in course of construction, and 4,123 miles projected. Of late years works have been vigorously pushed on, and in this year of 18S0 there are— 12,420 English miles of good roads well kept by the State. 621 „ „ provinces. 931 „ „ communes 13,972 miles total. Raihvaxs. The first railroad in Spain, from Barcelona to Mataro, wa.^ opened in 1848, and was 17 miles long. The second, from Madrid to Aranjuez. followed in February, 1851 ; and at the beginning of 1864 there were 7o8 Spain — Laud and People. 2,323 miles of railway at work. These were shared by 37 different (com- panies. The great difficulties arising from the mountainous character of the country made the construction of railways slower in Spain than in most FAiropean countries. As good roads are still wanting by which persons and goods may be conveyed to the railways, and as Spain is altogether deficient in real industry, the financird results of the railways is in a very unsatisfactory state. There were in — Miles of railway Number of passengers Weight of goods' carried ... (cwts.) Receipts from passengers ... Total receipts Expenditure. — No returns. Accidents : Killed Wounded Total There were in — Miles of railway.. . Number of passengers ... Weight of goods carried ... (cwts.) Receipts from passengers Total receipts ... Expenditure. — No return. Accidents : Killed ' Wounded ... Total 1873 1874 3.31 1 33476 10,834,249 10,639,884 12 78,247 62,738 Xi, 156,200 ^1,259,360 £1 3,531,000 3,828,000 4 3.678 ,248,115 87,544 ,440,880 ,378,000 74 121 195 1876 3,806 13,969,964 107,578 ^1,782,160 4,927,000 T02 254 79 265 344 84 132 216 [879 5,859 356 Telegraph. The telegraph system develops but slowly in Spain. In 1876 The length of line ...(miles) 8,456 Length of wire ... Number of dispatches Number of offices Receipts ... Expenditure 20,491 1,560,897 2 So ^^117,972 791,026 187S 9,223 23,689 1,926,907 ^156,949 Post. In 1875 t;ht;i'e passed through the post above 87,000,000 letters, cards, journals, and packets. The offices only 2,370. In 1876, 20,088,138 letters, 19,3(8,353 journals, 2,390 post-offices; 1877, 7!^, 226,797 letters and cards; 2,559 post offices. Receipts, ^325,208; expenditure, <;^279,992. 1 Spain— Land and People. 709 Water Communication. Spain possesses a magnificent stretch of coast on the Mediterranean, as well as on the Atlantic. On the former she has 61 harbours, and on the latter 56 ; but all artificial works, until cjuite recently, have been neglected. The canals are 430 miles in length, but only 131 miles are navigable. 332 boats are in use on these canals. The navigable rivers are 793 miles m length, but only 298 miles are navigable during the whole year. 26 steamers, 12,° tow-boats, and 1,157 rowing boats traversed them in 1869. Mercantile Marine. In 1877 it contained 2,915 sea-going vessels of 557,320 tons, of which 230 were steamers of 176,250 tons. Fisheries. The last returns of these gave 37,558 men, with 10,216 vessels, who obtained 973,506 cwts. offish, worth ^51,468. Foreign Possessions. Spain, once the mistress of more than the half of America, still owns the following countries. A — In America English Sqr. Miles Population in 1877 Cuba 43,669 1,394,5^6 Porto Rico 3,595 661,494 B — In Oceania — '^78 Phillipine Islands ... 66,845 6,163,632 1862 Palaos Islands 346 i°'°°° Caroline Island ... 534 18,800 Marian Islands... ... 416 ... 8,000 C — Africa — Fernando-Po, etc. ... S50 35, 0° ° Total Possessions... 116,255 8,291,442 Slavery was abolished in accordance with a law of iS7o,but under certain conditions. The law was not well carried out, and the inhabitants of Cuba were dissatisfied, the consequence of which was that the rebellion which had begun in October, 1868, was not put down until 187S. To avoid a like state of things in Porto Rico a decree was passed, March 22nd, 1873, by the Spanish Cortes, the main item of which was, "Slavery is abolished for ever in the Island of Porto Rico." • Cuba occupies the most important place among the foreign possessions, its chief port and town being Havanna, with a population of 250,000. The registering of births and deaths in Cuba is entirely in the hands of the clergy, there being no Government officials employed or statistics compiled in this respect. The only data obtainable with regard to births is derived from the baptismal registers of the different parishes. According to this source of information, there were in Havanna 4.975 births in 187S. which are thus classified. 10 Spaifi — Land and People. Males Females Total Whites 1,852 I A' 3 3,665 Mulattoes 366 380 746 279 285 564 Total 2,497 4,975 Giving a proportion of 25.4 per 1,000 on the total population, or 27.5 on the coloured people, and 24.7 on the whites. The cemetery returns give a much more accurate account of the deaths which occur. The following table shows the deaths for 1877 and 1878 : — WHITES Male Adults I'emale ( Male Ihildren Female Total 1877 1878 ... 5,610 ... 5,906 ... 961 ... 940 811 1,048 BLACKS. ... 682 ... 1,015 ... 8,064 8,909 Male Adults Female Male Children Female Total 1877 1878 622 775 ... 808 .:. 847 407 492 ... 316 ... 484 ... 2,153 2,598 Grand total :- -1877 - 10,217 1878 ... I I 507 * The working population of Havanna and the neighbouring districts of the island are almost entirely occupied in growing and preparing tobacco and sugar for exportation. The number of Awy of sugar exported in 1S76. 1877 and 187S is as follows : — Destination 1876 1S77 .878 United States 135,055 127,063 131,774 .Spain 21,251 i5>432 15,012 England 26,054 13,523 12,046 Other countries 6,522 1,483 2,413 Total ... 188,882 ... 157,501 ... 161,245 It will be seen that the island is becoming more and more dependent on the United States as a market for its sugars. The amount of tobacco exported in 1878, was: — Tobacco Cigars Cigarette* Destination Bales Numb r Bundlci United States 93,603 75,212,268 .. 203.581 England 6,169 66,795-33° •• 5,034,774 Spain ... . 32,582 ... 9.541. 49S .. 133-008 North Euro])e 582 ... 3,861,700 8.206 France 5,671 18,327,025 797,513 Other countries 41 ... 900,850 .. 5,709,442 Total for 1878 138,648 ... 174,638.671 11,886,524 1877 148,494 ... 164,581.574 •• 10,534,691 ♦ Consul's report. Spain — /. and an, I People. 7 1 1 The monetan- system in Cuba is very difficult for strangers to under- stand ; there are three separate currencies, by which the imposts are cal- culated, the peseta or franc is used for stamps of all kinds, the escudo or florin for custom-house tariffs, and the dollar for the direct taxes. There are in Cuba 397 miles of rail-road. The revenue (budget estimates) of the island for 1879 was ^2,405,305 ; the expenditure £2,210,^^1. PUERTO RICO. It is 387 years since this beautiful island, called Borinquen by the Aborigines, was discovered by Columbus on the 19th November, 1493. It is the smallest of the larger Antilles. A survey of the island was first made by the Spanish Captain Ponce de Leon, who subsequently established himself there, and in 1509 was appointed governor. The name of " Ponce " is given to the important port on the south coast of Porto Rico. The soil is, -with rare exceptions, most fertile. Sugar, molasses, coffee, tobacco, cattle, and a little cotton form the principal exports. Gold was formerly found here in considerable quantity. On the 28th of August, 1870, Porto Rico was declared to be a province of Spain, and sends 1 5 deputies and 2 senators to the Spanish Cortes. The budget of the island for 1878 and 1879 was as follows : — REVENUE. Taxes and imposts ;^i43)8o8 Customs ■ ••• 494,333 Licenses, stamps, etc... ... ... ... ••• 5^,875 State property 14,766 Miscellaneous receipts ... ... ... ... 29,114 Total ^^740,896 EXPENDITURE. Current expenses ... ... ... ^^82,439 Law and justice 76,982 Army 299,694 Finance ... ... 43,54S Navy 13,566 Government 191,301 Public works 52,905 Total ;^76o,435 The principal taxes are the agricultural tax of 5 per cent ; the house and town property tax of 6 per cent., and the commercial and industrial , on a varied scale. There are also taxes on horses, carriages, octroi dues, and residence permits. The military force consists of 3,871 men, and is composed of 3 battalions of infantry of 6 companies each, the battalion numbering 730 men ; i battalion of artillery, composed of 4 companies of foot, and i of horse and numbering 640 men ; i company of engineers of 120 men ; 500 mounted troops of the civil guards, and the local volunteers. 7 1 2 Spatfi — Laud and People. The uaz'a/ force conshts of i sloop of war and 3 gunboats, i of 130 horse power and 3 guns, and 2 of 40 horse power and i gun each. According to the census of 1878, the population consisted of 729,445 inhabitants, of whom 367,833 were males, and 361,613 were females. Of the males 209,538 were whiles, 118,833 were colored, and 39,461 were blacks; of the females 201,323 were whites, 121.007 were colored, and 38.283 were blacks : 8.094 foreigners are included in this census, of whom about 800 are British subjects. There are also manv (iermans, Frenchmen and Danes amongst the number. The latest returns of im])orts and exports, viz., for 1877, were as. follow :— Imports ... ... ^2,875,629 I Exports ... ... ^^2, 080, 626 The principal ports are — San Juan (the capital). Ponce Mazaquez, Aguadilla, Axrozo, and Naguabo. Shipping in 1877. Number Tons Vessels entered with cargo ... ... 1,064 ••• ••• 332,600 cleared „ 915 ^57>320 „ entered in ballast ... ... 256 ... ... 82,388 „ cleared „ ... ... 326 ... ... 121,217 2,561 793.525 PORTUGAL (Kingdom).* LAND AND PEOPLE. INCE the year 1S35 the mainland has been divided into 17 districts, and tlie islands into 4 districts, making together 21. As, however the division into ])rovinces is the only one recognised by Central Europe, and is also thnt which best agrees with the history of the country, we shall adhere to it, though at the same time giving the names of the districts in each province. A subdivision gives 295 smaller districts. Provinces and D/s/?-!cfs.'\ ARF.A AND POPULATION (1878.) {a) Mainland : — Population F.ng. sq. miles Masculine Feminine Total Minho (Vianna do Castello, ) „ ^ ^ r, Braga, and Porto I -'S°^ ^67,819 547,575 ••O'S.m Tras-os-montes (Braganza, Villa I r, , ^ Real) ... j 4,294 204,826 205,635 410,461 * Portugal is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy for male and feniaif heirs. The fundamental law is the charter accorded by Don Pedro IV. in 1826, and revised by the "Cortes." The Representative Assembly (" Corte.s") is composed of two Chambers, viz.. that of the Peers nominated for life by the Sovereign (about loo in number\ and that of the Deputies, whose members are chosen by popular election since 1869 (107 in number.) t The districts are placed in parenthesis. o T I A Portugal — L and and People. Beira (Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, \ 669,206 721,541 i,39o>747 Guarda, Castello-Branc-o .. I Estremadura (Leiria, Samarcm, I ^.^g^g 486,892 464-653 95i»545 Lisbon) ... ••• ■•• t Alemteio (Portalegre, Evora, Beja) 9,419 197,169 177, 334 374-503 Algabia (Faro) i,874 io4,399 ioi,5°2 2 05,901 Total of mainland 34,5o7 2,130,310 2,218,240 4,348,551 {b) Islands : — The Azores (Angra, Horta, J ^^0,420 143,932 264,352 Ponta-del-Garda J Madeira and Porto Santo ... 3^8 63,892 68,32 9 i32>22i Islands 1,232 184,312 212,261 396,573 Total 35,739 2,314,623 2,430,501 4,745,124 Movement of the Population. 1873 1874 1875 Emigration. In the 11 years, 1855-65, the number of emigrants was 81,324; of these 70,978 emigrated to Brazil. The annual average for the years 1870- 1874 was 9,365- Important Toivns (1878). Births Deaths Marriage! 147,933 116,061 32,146 152,715 117,431 33,323 153,597 106,673 33,095 Population. Lisbon 265,032 Oporto ••• 108,346 Population. Setuval 15,598 Funchal... ... ... 20,606 Brac^a 20,258 I Ponta del Garda ... 17, 949 Historical Notes. The participation of Portugal in the war against France and Spain ended in 1801 with the loss of the frontier fortress of Olivenca. French troops entered the country in 1807, and the Royal family fled to Brazil. The claims of Portugal upon Olivenca were recognised after the Peninsular war, bv the Congress of Vienna, but Spain did not restore it. The Court did not return from Brazil till after the Revolution of 1820, when this colony asserted its independence. Finance. For many years past the revenue has not been sufficient to cover the e.xpenditure. The Portuguese Minister of Finance in the preface to his budget in 1879 and '80 states that in the financial year of 1876 and '77, the difference between the receipts aud exijenditure of the State amounted to the enormous sum of ^1,582,000. This, he continues, was the year of the financial crisis in which many calamities concurred to diminish the Portugal — Land and People. 71S public revenue which for five years had been steadily decreasing. The deficit in 1S78 still reached the large sum of ^1,1 1 1,000. The Portuguese e.xpenditure has been considerably increased of late years by the large sums spent on roads and railways, and the Finance Ministers endeavouring to meet the expenses have in the last ten years increased the yield of taxation from ^3,218,874 to /;4.923,242. Budget Estimate /or 1879-80. REVENUE. Direct taxes Registration Stamps Indirect taxes ... National property Miscellaneous Deficit ^1,307,571 395,820 240,100 3,334,491 565,962 316,848 ;^6,i6o,792 ;^ir662,i55 expenditure Public Debt — Internal debt ... ... ... ••• , External debt Ministry of Finance Ministry of War Ministry of the Interior Ministry of Religion and Justice ... Ministry of Foreign Affairs. . . Ministry of the Marine and Colonies Ministry of Public Works ... Total extraordinary expenses Total 1,558,167 I-I75-7. 55 = = ^2,733,922 1,282,228 1,011,762 513,658 140,409 67,090 379,718 821,646 872,514 ^7,822.947 DEBT. *The total funded debt of Portugal internal and external amounted on 30th June, 1878 to ^83,138,222. Of this ^48,947,556 was internal, and ^34,190,666 was external debt. Taking the funded and unfunded debt together as ;^9o, 000,000, the quota of debt for each inhabitant will be ^22 10s. od.. and his annual share of the interest at 3 per cent., 13J. 6d. The commencement of the State debt dates from the time of Don Emanuel, that is, from the end of the 1 5th century. Army. The ordinary complement of the army is made up by volunteers, but should these be insufficient, a le\7 is made. Term of service, 3 years in * Consul's Report. yi6 Portugal— Land and People. the active army, and 5 in the reserve. The peace-footing (on paper), is 1,609 officers, and 32,394 men ; war-footing, 2,649 officers and 74,141 men. The real strength, however, is between 18,000 and 20.000 men. FORMATION. Infantry ~\2> regiments of 8 comijanics each in peace. 12 in war, and 12 rifle battalions of 6 and 8 companies. Cavdirv- 2 regiments of Lancers and 6 Rifle regiments of 6 squad- rons each in peace and 8 in war. Artillery — 4 regiments, i battalion of Engineers. In addition to these there are 9,000 men of the colonial troops. Fortresses, (mostly decayed). — Elvas, Jerumenha, Campo Mayor, Mavao, Peniche, Nonsando, Almeida, and the forts of Lisbon, which is the only naval harbour. The Navy in i&ig. 28 steam vessels of 4,441 horse-power, and 118 guns ; 9 sailing vessels, with 31 guns ; 4 gunboats are in course of construction. The navy officered by I vice-admiral, 12 rear-admirals, 18 captains of vessels, 26 captains of frigates, 40 captain- lieutenants, 51 lieutenants of the ist class, 71 of 2nd class, 21 doctors, 7 engineers, 7 paymasters, — to'al officers, 254. The number of men in 1879 was 3,195. Social Matters. In this country also the land was the property of the nobility and the clergy ; two-thirds of it even now is not under cultivation. High taxes, monopolies, and the suppression of popular education, by rule of the priesthood in the schools, hindered the development of industry ; manu- facturing industry scarcely existed at all. In 1822 there were 29,00c ecclesiastics, but only 873 elementary schools. The clergy possessed an income of ;;/^ 1,6 8 1,3 18. The Patriarch of Lisbon alone received;^ 11,200. As recently as 1854, there were only 1,349 public schools, that was i to every 3,000 inhabitants, while there was 1 soldier to every 84 inhabitants. Education is now making great progress. In the last five years 1,500 new schools have been built, so that there are now 4,524 schools with 200,000 scholars, that is 5 scholars to every 100 inhabitants. The landed property is still but little divided, notwithstanding the abolition of the right of primo- geniture ; the average extent of these estates is 144 acres. Portugal to a great extent is an agricultural country, and, so far as she is agricultural, she has been fairly ]jrosj)crous ; but, as a manufacturing country under a system of [)rotective duties she has not flourished. There is a central college in iJsbon for the higher education of agricultural students. arid the first model farm was established some years ago 5 miles from Cintra. JF!?/rs.* The annual average production in ihc main-land of Portugal is esti- mated at 88,038,800 imperial gallons : :i little less than 66,000,000 gallons of this being consumed at home, at the rate of 15^ gallons per inhabitant. * The Director-General of Commerce and Industry jn Portugal in his notice on the winet of Portugal, ^Portugal — Land and PcopU. 7A7- 1 1,004,850 gallons are on an average exported, and the remainder is turned into vinegar or disVilled. "Of the total 88,000,000 gallons, 34,100,000 are pro- duced in the provinces of Estremadura, Alcmtejo, and Algarve. 466,835 acres of land are planted with the vine. I'he export of wine and the value of it in 1870 was 5,378,696 gallons, value ^1,920.000 ; in 1876,4,237,930 gallons, 428,000, being from Lisbon alone. EXPORTS OF WINK TO THE VARIOUS COUNTRIP:S IN PIPES. Great Britain Brazil Other countries Total pipes Gallons IS70 •• 31,654 8,463 2,579 42,696 5,378,696 1871 .. 31,956 8,177 3,368 43'5of 5,481,126 IS72 . • • 38,489 7,931 3,762 50,182 6,322,932 IS73 • • • 35,611 9,956 4,082 49,649 6,255,774 1874 •• 35,753 15,668 5,110 56.53' 7,122,906 1875 • .. 40,103 15,632 5,031 60,766 7,656,516 1876 . .. 38,438 '5,593 4,833 48,864 6,156,864 1877 .. 38,898 19,710 2,670 61,278 7,721,028 1878 . 26,004 '5,^57 4,090 47,251 5,953*626 TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. Imports Exports 1870 /^5, 702,000 ^4,565,000 I87I 6,112,000 4,828,000 1872 6,553,000 5,229,000 1873 7,660,000 5.313,000 1874 6,376,000 5,180,000 T875 8,414,933 5,689,133 1876 ■ ... 8,061,200 5,150,600 THE CLASS OF GOODS IMPORTED AND EXPORTED AT THE PORT OF LISBON IN 1876. Imports Value Imports Value Butter ;^io5,555 Cotton tissues ^393,555 Salt codfish 74,222 Woollen ,, 237,110 Sugar 202,222 Silk 95,110 Coffee 106,666 Linen ,, 46,666 Tea • 27,333 Mixed „ 16,332 Tobacco ... 102,888 Pig iron 72,888 Wool, raw ... 65,555 Coal • 81,332 Cotton 43,333 Machinery 98,444 Flax 32,000 EX PC )RTS. Salt ... • . • ... ... ... . .. ^48,222 Meat, salt and fresh ... ... 37,555 Fish ... ... ... 33,332 Potatoes ... ... 44,444 Onions ... ... ... 48,888 Fruit, fresh an d preserved 119,110 7i3 Portugal — Land and People. Olive oil Stone and marble S3,55S 8,888 Iron and copper ore, etc. Cork, in the rough Cork, manufactured ... 27,776 155,110 32,888 Wine 428,000 The quantity of oranges and other fruits forwarded to Great Britain from Azores, St. Michaels, in 1878 was as follows : — Chests of oranges Chests of Tangerines Pine apples Bunches of bananas 410,101 4,577 35,207 1,829 In Madeira the sugar cane is largely cultivated, wherever irrigation is possible. The crop for 1S78 yielded about 1,320 tons of sugar, and 595,000 gall6ns of spirits. 1 iiule nvJh Principal Countries. IMPORTS. iS;o iSyt 1872 England • ^2 ,919,466 •• ^3.760,700 • i^3,575,233 France 691,650 487,570 855,900 Spain ... 409,725 459,000 618,750 Brazil... 715,050 543,375 675,675 United States 7 ,609,500 339,095 272,250 Portuguese Colonies .. 49,800 25,700 169,425 Germany 90,000 74,250 105,750 Russia 270,000 184,500 108,000 Sweden and Norway.. 107,500 99,450 . 115,425 Holland 89,775 93,375 98,550 Belgium 450 450 8,775 Other lands ... '7,325 27,225 2,475 ■t'73 1S74 1876 England • ^4,399,966 - £: ,,102,633 • ^4,076,233 France 924,975 990,900 1,274,000 Spam 560,925 731,700 499,100 Brazil... 717,750 717,525 451,266 United States 211,725 289,350 .. 662,900 Portuguese Colonies.. 58,725 42,000 186,900 Germany 235,350 126,000 149,100 Russia 202,275 155,200 127,166 Sweden and Norway.. '55,425 '73,925 215,700 Holland 85,950 162,675 •• 68,366 Belgium 3', 725 14,625 130,666 Other lands 233,550 10,125 206,366 Portugal — Land and People. 7t^ EXPORTS. 1870 1871 1872 England ■ ^2 ,805,525 ^,2,676,375 - £2 ,969,100 P'rance 138,825 ... 89,392 ... 186,300 Spain ... 415,350 351,945 393,700 Brazil I ,221,800 784,575 793,125 United Stales... 41,850 ... 83,700 44,475 Portuguese colonies .. 40,300 36,800 140,175 Germany 39,150 ... 94,950 ... 155,125 Russia 49,725 121,050 169,870 Sweden and Norway .. 34,200 29,475 47,250 Holland 47,250 169,025 106,425 Belgium 20,475 43,200 40,950 Other lands ... 70,425 101,025 ... 99,900 .3-3 1S74 1875 England • £i .075.975 ^2.690,325 ... ^^ ,662,875 France 234,900 222,300 ... 488,200 Spain ... . 409,950 315,000 ... 297,225 Brazil ... . 805,600 960,975 840,600 United States... 41,400 60,075 90,000 Portuguese colonics . 38,725 •• 43,100 230,400 Germany 108.450 200,475 206,775 Russia 101,025 81,000 38,475 Sweden and Norway . .. 68,400 105,525 34,200 Holland .. 109,850 69,300 42,975 Belgium .. 50,850 90,000 29,975 Other lands ... .. 165,875 126,450 ... 139,500 Harbour Traffic. — Port of Lisbon. BRITISH VESSELS ONLY. ENTERED, Vessels Sailing Tons Crews Vessels Steam Tons CrcNvs 1^11 ... I87S ... 343 306 65,781 59,674 2,561 2,265 . Vessels 693 663 Tons 683,557 681,806 27,641 23,365 Crews Total Total 1877 1878 1,036 969 749,338 691,480 ... 30,202 27,620 Vessels Sailing Tons CLEARED. Crews Vessels Steam Tons Crews 1877 ... 1878 ... 339 317 65,239 61,969 2,529 2,339 Vessels 698 658 Tons 689,028 629,022 27,797 25,264 Crew? Total Total 1877 1S7S ... 1,037 975 754,267 690,991 ... 30,326 27.603 ;?20 Portugal — hand and People. TOTAL V1':S«;F.I,S OT' ALL NATIONS KNTERRD AND CLEARKD. Sailing Steum Tota. Vessels Tonnage Vessels ToniKHJc Vessels Tonna^'e Cubic metres Cubic metres Cubic metrss 1^56 4,579 488,979 ... 595 210.102 ... 5,174 699,081 1866 4,024 516,198 ... 1,260 554»8oi ... 5,284 1,071,000 1876 3,585 546.070 ... 2,173 2,064,966 ... 5,757 2,611,036 Rail-roads. Tlie first railway, that from Lisbon to Carregado, was not open for trafific until 1854 ; its length was only 22 miles — nor was it until i860 that a further length of 19 miles was completed. By an agreement made by the government with a French company in the year i860, the latter engaged to construct the lines from Lisbon to the Spanish frontier, and from Lisbon to Oporto, together with three smaller ones. At the end of 187 1 Portugal possessed about 492 miles of railways, including those in course of con- struction In September, 1879, the length of the lines open for traffic was 713 miles, and in course of construction 282 miles. Telegraph. In 1878 the length of line was 2,304 miles, and the length of wire 4,994 miles ; number of offices 187 ; messages forwarded 686,518. The revenue, in 1^77. amounted to ^54,043. Post. In 1878 the number of letters which passed through the post, including Madura and the Azores was 12,342,133 ; the number of journals 7oi5'9J5 = printed matter, packets and post cards inland 1,415,646, beside 3,372,456 international ; revenue ;^'io3,8o6 ; number of i)ost offices 648 in the main land and 38 in the islands. Mercantile Marine. In 1878, contained 588 vessels making long voyages. FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. (A.) IN AFRICA. Cape Vcrd Islands ■ ... In Sencgambia Islands of St. Thomas and Prince ... Angola, with Ambriz, Benguela, and Mossamedes Mozambique and dependencies (r..) IN INDIA. Goa, Salcete, liaide/-, iS>;i. ... Damao and Diu English iquare milc» Population 1,658 2li 425 90,704 9,282 31,692 212,260 700,000 276,406 300,000 1,403 42i 392,234 53.283 * Nine inhabited and tivc uninhahitcd. Portugal — Land and People. 721 IN OCEANIA AND CHINA. Macao ... ... ... ... ... about Islands of Timor (northern part), Flores, and> Kambing (now ceded to Holland) about) Total 4 5,527 71,834 300,000 497,726! 1,949,029 BUDGETS OF FOREIGN POSSESSIONS 1 87 5 and 1876. Revenue. Expenditure Cape Verd Islands Islands of St. Thomas 49,247 23,749 . 49,584 24,662 Angola Mozambique Indian Possessions 125,124 56,239 • 107,317 127,344 55,735 118,946 Timor and Macao 72,607 79,836 ^434,283 ^456,107 a Y GREECE (Kingdom) LAND AND PEOPLE. Nomachies Attica and Boetia Phthiotis and Phocis .. Acarnania and ^tolia Argolis and Corinth . . Achaia and Elis Arcadia Messenia Laconia Euboea Cyclades Corfu Cephalonia Zante ... Land and sea troops . . . Sailors who engage in | foreign service j Total of /^ Total of a. and i>. Greece proper. English Square Miles Males . 2,466 . • 99,640 2,062 .. • 65,381 • 3.019 •• • 71.647 1,445 • . 68,679 • 1,913 • • 95,90s 2,019 • ■ 78,130 • i'233 • • 8^,855 . 1,679 •• . 60,842 ■ 1,573 . • 49,543 935 • 65,112 TOMAN [SI .ANDS. 4-^5 • ■ 55,126 297 . • 39,579 276 . • -3,935 • • -0,523 . 5.180 998 Population in li Females 85,724 63.059 66,797 67,402 85,724 70,775 73.905 60,274 45,593 66,908 50,983 40,964 20,5^^7 Total 185,364 128,440 138,444 136,081 181,632 ^48,905 155,760 121,116 95,136 132,020 106,109 80,543 44,522 3220 5,iSo 19,342 SSi.oSo 798.695 1,679.775 Greece — L and and People. 723 Movement of the Population. The annual average from 1864 to 1873, was 41,044 births; 30,728 deaths ; and 8,923 marriages. Births Deaths Marriages 1874 ... 45»2I2 ... 29,863 ... 9,529 1875 — 44,386 1876 ... 47,248 1877 ••• 46,355 30,936 ... 10,250 31,083 ... 9,753 31,280 ... 9,472 Nationalities. There were only 67,941 of the inhabitants of Greece at the Census of 1870 who did not speak Greek, viz. : 37,598 Albanians (Arnauts*), 1,217 Macedo-Wallachians, and 29,126 of other nations. The number of strangers residing in Greece in 1870 was 19,958; of whom there were 5,0511 Turks, 2,099 English, 1,539 Italian.s, 526 Germans, 415 French, 141 Russians, and the remaining few from other countries. Creeds. The orthodo.v Greek is the prevailing one; there are only 12,585 Christians belonging to other creeds ; 2,582 Jews (in the Ionian Islands), and 917 persons of whom no returns are given. The Roman Catholics, whose numbers formerly were over-estimated, live in Syra, Athens, and in the Ionian Islands. Protestants are only found here and there. The Mohammedans are fairly driven out of Greece ; a very few only are to be met with in Chalkis. The population divided according to creed was thus given in 1870 : — Orthodox Greeks ... ... ... 1,441,810 Other Christians 12,585 Jews ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,582 Individuals holding other creeds or none ... ... 917 Total 1,457,894 Towns. The most important are — Inhabitants Athens ... ... ... 44,510 Hermopolis ... ... 20,996 Patras ... ... ... 19,641 Inhabitants Zante i7»5i6 Corfu 15,452 Piraeus ... ... ... 10,963 NOTES ON THE TOWNS. In Patras, there are now working 4 cotton spinning mills ; three being worked by steam ; 2 steam saw mills ; 2 steam mills for crushing sulphur ; 3 lucifer match manufactories ; 4 steam flour mills ; 2 maccaroni manufactories ; i soap factory ; 2 wine and spirit making establishments. In 1876 there were 991 births, and 854 deaths; in 1877, 832 birth*; and 763 deaths ; in 1878, 548 births and 608 deaths. * A mixed race of Albanians and Sclavonians. 724 Greece — Land and People. Te7-ntonal Changes. Modern Greece owes its existence to the popular rebellion of 182 1, but it was not until 1832 that it was recognised by the Great Powers as a kingdom. The Greeks did not succeed in obtaining a constitution until the Revolution of September 3rd, 1843. The rebellion of October, 1862, led to the overthrow of King Otto. In accordance with a protocol con- cluded by the three "protecting powers," June 5th, 1863, Prince William of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-GliJcksburg was placed on the throne under the title of George I. In a treaty of November 14 of the same year (1863) England renounced her supremacy over the Ionian Islands, which were declared an integral part of Greece with the advantage of perpetual neutrality; the union with Greece took place May 28th, 1864, and the present constitution adopted in 1864. The Congress of Berlin, at the sitting of July 5th, 1878, decided upon a " readjustment of boundaries," or rather an extension of the frontier in the north of Cireece, and declared " the Porte is invited by the Congress to conclude a compact with Greece for the regulation of boundaries. The Congress is of opinion that the basis of this rectification should be a line extending from the river Salambria in Thessaly to the river Kalana in Epirus, opposite to Corfu. The Powers offer their services in makmg the agreement, in case any difficulties should arise in the negotiation between the Porte and Greece." Although no exact division has been arrived at, we may assume that Greece will obtain an accession of territory which may be estimated at least at 4,252 English square miles, with about 300,000 inhabitants, which will bring the population to 1,979,775. The Ionian islands had formed a possession of the Republic of Venice, from the 14th century. The Peace of Campo Formio brought them under the dominion of France ; in 1799 they fell into the hands of the Russians and Turks. A treaty of 21st March, 1800, changed the Ionian islands into a " Federal Republic," (the Republic of the Seven Islands) which was to be under Turkish protection. By the Peace of Tilsit, the islands again fell into the hands of France, which nominally gave them a special constitution. The English, however, occupied the most important of the islands in 1810. By a treaty of November 5th, 181 5, made by the Great Powers, they were to form an independent State, under British " protection," but were treated by the English as a concjuered country, and did not even enjoy the rights which belong to the inhabitants of English colonies. Hence arose a constant desire for union with Greece. Finance. This has been in a state of utter disorder ever since the existence of the State, and the financial aflairs of the Ionian islands have from very early times been unsatisfactory. The budgets are mostly founded on a fiction. Revenue and Expenditure of iS"]"]. KKVKNUK. Direct Taxks — These include tithes ... ... ... .^({^303. 570 Tax on cattle and bees ... ... ... 7,213 Tax on pasturage ... ... ... ... 2,142 Greece — Lmid and People. 725 Licenses Tax on buildings ... Tax on anonymous societies 44,644 32,625 7^144 ^397,338 Indirect Taxes — These include customs Stamps Miscellaneous 565,000 214,285 27,143 ;^8o6,428 Public establishments : — • Post office Telegraphs State printing Domains Sale of State lands Miscellaneous receipts... Ecclesiastical revenues Arrears... ;^23,2i4 17,858 178 Total revenue 41,250 85,000 996,785 76,562 10,571 50,000 ;^2,463,934 EXPENDITURE Foreign debt ... Internal Debt ... Pensions Civil List Legislative body Finance department . . . Foreign Office ... Home Department Justice „ Religion and instruction War department Marine ,, Cost of administration Miscellaneous ... ;>^44,75o 574,136 137,693 40,178 17,142 52,812 56,651 182,806 10,869 83,800 475,285 133,880 94,106 143,689 i^2,o47,797 The Budget for 1879 estimated the revenue as ^1,636,016, and the expenditure as ^2,145,670, a deficit, therefore, of ^^509,654. Public Debt. The amount of the foreign and home debts at the end of 1878, was ^19,431,260 ; the detail being as follows :-- 726 Greece — Laytd and People, Foreign Debt : — Loans of 1824 and 1825... Arrears of 5 percent, interest on these loans from 1825 to 1874 Loan of 1832, guaranteed by Great Britain, France and Russia Indemnity to the heirs of King Otho Foreign loan Total Home Debt :- Indemnity to the Islands of Hydra, Spezia, etc Old claims... Loan of 1862 at 6 per cent. Exchequer bills Debt of the Ionian Isles, 1864 ... Loan of January, 5th 1866, at 10 per cent. Loan of April 12th, 1867, at 9 per cent. Loan of 1870, 9 per cent. Loan of 187 1, 8 per cent. Temporary loans since 1870 Miscellaneous debts, arrears, etc. Loan of 1874, after reserving sum to cover loan Exchequer bills 8 per cent. Loan of 1876, at 7 per cent. Loan of 1877, at 5^ per cent. Total Home and Foreign Debt Army. ;^2, 300,000 5,774,642 146,941 2,15^,857 ;^i4,i25,62o .;^642,857 250,000 178,021 214,285 i35'7i4 59^178 900,902 236,000 154,700 291,071 i55>357 194,107 107,738 357»i42 1,428,568 5)305>64o ^19,431,260 Formerly the army was raised by conscription, but since 1878 universal liability to serve after the German model obtains. No substitute is allowed. The term of active service in the regular army is three years ; then follow 7 years in the reserve; and 10 in the landwehr or militia. Every Greek from his 20th to his 50th year is obliged to take part in the defence of his country. P^ORMATION OF THE .\RMV. Since 1877 the active army consists of 8 regiments of infantry, each of 2 battalions of 4 companies ; 4 battalions of rifles of 4 companies ; 1 regiment of cavalry of 5 squadrons ; i regiment of artillery of 5 squadrons, with 8 land batteries, and 4 mountain batteries ; i regiment of sappers and miners of 6 companies, and 2 companies of engineers. These troops form 2 divisions each, of 2 brigades. The active army in time of peace is calculated thus — Infantry 1,636 Rifles 4,032 Cavalry ... ... ... •• ... ••• S45 Artillery i,9S9 Greece — Land and People. 727 Engineers Ambulance 24.376 men. 1,376 horses and 288 mules. The war minister hopes by the new organisation to be able to raise the war footing of the army to 200,000 (2,044 horses, and 3,323 mules in time of war). Fortresses. Missolunghi, Nauplia, Navarino, Tripolitza, Acrocorinth, the Acropolis of Athens, Chalcis Lamia, Vonitza, Rhion, Monembasia. Navy. All the young men belonging to the sea-board, who are capable of bearing arms are liable to serve in the navy, and are drawn by lot when the number of volunteers is not sufficient. Peace footing, 650 men ; war footing, 2,500 men. In 1879, the navy consisted of 14 vessels, of which two were iron-clad, each of 1 2-ton guns. It is officered by 7 1 officers, and manned by 581 sailors Social Condition. In no part of the world do we find such great differences in the degree of cultivation, existing among the people in so small a space as here. The greatest refinement exists side by side with an almost utter want of education. In Russia only do we occasionally find similar conditions. The ecclesiastics possessed nearly one fourth of the soil under the Turkish dominion. In 1829, however, 320 of the monastic buildings, containing fewer than six occupants were abolished, leaving 82 with from 1,500 to 2,000 monks and nuns. The convents for women were reduced in 1833 to 30. There were in Greece in the year 1853, 30 bishops and arch- bishops, 5,114 priests, 12,549 officials, but only 674 teachers. Something more has been done for education since then. In 1858, there were in the Ionian islands 180 schools, with 6,732 boys and 1,076 girls. Prior to the incorporation of the Ionian isles, there were in Greece 10 gymnasia and i university at Athens, with 600 students ; there is now a second at Corfu. I'hat in Athens is evidently the high school for all Hellenists in Europe and Asia Minor. In 1877 there were 1,509 students, a third of whom were from Turkey. The influence of the clergy upon the mass of the people is, however, still too great. In 1876 there were, in spite of those abolished, 138 monasteries, with 1,729 monks, and 7 convents with 168 nuns. The value of monastic property is estimated at from ;^i, 250,000 10 ^1,750,000, and the annual produce ;^57,755- The mass of the people live in extreme poverty, but they are a very energetic, sober, hard-working, economical, and intelligent race. Agricul- ture is in a very unsatisfactory state. Of the whole area, 9,648 square miles are occupied by mountains and rocks, 3,087 by forests, and scarcely \ of the remainder is really cultivated. But the unsatisfactory condition of agriculture originates chiefly in the fact that there is very little freehold property Enormous estates are possessed in Mortmain, or appertaining 728 Greece — Land and People. to churches and monasteries ; others are compelled to pay to the State a tithe, sometimes a double, or even a two-and-a-half-fold tithe, in con- sequence of which the cultivation of many articles is rendered quite im- possible. I'he Government did harm also when it demanded from every land-owner, after the revolution, the proof of his title of right, and when such could not be produced, claimed the lands as State property. Manufacturing industry scarcely exists at all in Greece. A bad regulation is in force, viz., that toll be paid again on all produce which is shipped from one Greek port to another. Notwithstanding this. an increase has at length taken place in the produce, especially of currants, figs, oil, and silk. The produce of the land in 1875. Wheat Barley Maize Legumes Potatoes Quarters 529.715 222.780 327.811 20,446 12,450 Total value, about ^2,142,857 414,710 acres are planted with the oil plant ; the produce in the five years, 1870 to 1874, varied between 74,028 cwts. and 233,620 cwts. \n 1875 26,122 acres were planted with the cotton plant, the produce being 138,252 cwts. and the value ^116,981. 15,677 acres were planted with fig trees, the produce of which in 1875 was 218,718 cwts. and the value ^107,178. 13,091 acres are planted with mulberry trees, the value of the silk being ;;,^35,7i4. 83,066 acres are employed as vineyards for currants, the value ot the produce in 1875 being _;^904,467. 215,154 acres are employed for grapes, the value of the wine being only ^697,467. Live Stock. 97,176 279'445 45,440 97.355 2,291,917 1,836,663 Horses. Heads of cattle. Mules. Asses. Sheep. Goats. Commerce. The principal articles imported are animals, coal, coffee, cotton manufactures, grain, sugar, timber for building, and woollen manufactures, while the articles exported are tigs, currants, lead, olive oil, silk in cocoons, and wines. The value of the various imports and exports from 1S70 to 1S75. Greece — Land and People. 729 IMPORTS. l8;o 1871 1872 Animals ... ^67,867 ... ^98,487 ^97,138 Coal ... 109,21 I 141,004 95,870 Coffee ... 5(^,277 65,324 69,146 Cotton manufactures 375,471 332,114 323,224 Grain 645,428 908,211 952,356 Sugar ... 159030 174,519 162,515 Timber foi building ... 89,702 87,147 104,644 Woollen manufactures 172,807 204,322 154,075 1873 1874 1875 Animals .^^95,407 68,145 105,665 Coal ... 126,851 109,675 94,966 Coffee ■ 71,890 71,714 86,135 Cotton manufactures 331,088 340,816 366,434 Grain 800,51 I 843,367 • • 1,011,597 Sugar ... 170,936 163,322 198,081 Timber for building.... 88,194 99,906 128,011 Woollen n lanufactures 119,335 156,753 198,675 EXPORTS. 1870 1871 1872 Figs ... ... ^60,811 ... ;^III,24I .. ^127,143 Currants ... 6iS,6i2 ... 1,083,069 909,728 Lead . . . ... 173,603 127,646 195,160 Olive oil ... 165,272 381,940 106,092 Silk in cocoons 1,579 17,462 11,784 Wine ... 75,609 78,110 78,900 Figs ... />97,7o9 1S74 ... ^"92,076 1875 .. ^146,393 Currants .. 1,273,091 ... 1,329.465 .. 1.350.466 Lead ... 179,707 122,417 150,512 Olive oil ... 239,664 103,155 461,899 Silk in cocoons 1,820 3,847 2,330 Wine ... 78,789 138,871 103,089 The above are onl) the princiiDal articles of commerce, but the entire totals for these years are as follows : — IMPORTS. 1S70 1871 iS7e General XjJ^ 465,000 ^3,876,000 ^4,576,000 Special... 3, 353,000 3,484,000 ^7,360,000 3,538,000 £^,. 518,000 ^'8,114,000 t873 1S74 1S75 General ... £a, 203,000 ^4,290,000 p/^5, 196.000 Special... 3, 292,000 3,528,000 4,088,000 £j, 495,000 ^7,818,000 . ... ;^9, 284,000 730 Greece — Laud and People EXPORTS. 1870 1871 1872 General Special... ^1,889,000 1,355,000 ... ^2,728,000 2,223,000 /^2, 406, 000 2,007,000 ^3,244.000 ... ^4,951,000 ••• £aA^Z-,ooo General Special . . . 1873 ... ;^2,745,ooo 2,303,000 1874 ^2,696,000 2.327,000 1875 ... £i,\ii,ooo 2,706,000 ;^5,048,ooo ... ^5,023,000 — i^5. 883,000 No returns have been made since those of 1875, which were not given out until 1878. Mines. The French Laurium Company possess rich and extensive mines of lead, calamine, etc., at Ergasteria (Laurium), and employ about 1,500 work- men. 7,130 tons of Argentiferous lead were extracted from these ancient silver and lead mines in 1S76 ; 7,587 tons in 1877, and 6,367 tons in 1878. The quantity of calcined zinc-ore extracted from the mines of this com- pany in 1878 was 24,629 tons ; estimated value £']. i8s. per ton, making, therefore, ^194,570. 'J'hese mines, together with the smelting works, give a good deal of employment to British vessels. I I Mercantile Marine. In 1876 there were 5,440 vessels of 262,032 tons, and 26,760 men ; 4,000 of these are simply coasting vessels of less than 60 tons. The closing of the Russian ports in the Black Sea for many months during the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, had a very depressing influence upon the mercantile marine. Harbour Traffic in 1875. ENTERED Ve»$el» Tonnage 73.554 ••• 3,994,148 CLEARED Vessels Tonaage 76,595 ... 4,132.291 Railways. There is but one Railway, viz., between Athens and Piraeus, a length of 7 miles. It was originally constructed by an English company at a cost of about ^"65,000, and was sold to the present Greek proprietors for ^105,000. It pays a dividend of 9 per cent, upon this capital. The company has the right of monopoly cf tlie conveyance of passengers by railway between Athens and the Pineus, this right having been conceded to them by the Government for 79 years, at the end of which time the line will revert to the State. Greece — Layid and People, 731 The passenger traffic on this line during 1878 was between Piraeus .md Athens. First class passengers Second „ Third On the Phalcerum branch First class passengers Second „ 64,443 •• 295,238 ... 671,441 Total number of passengers 1,031,122 72,590 132,156 204,746 1,235,868 RECEIPTS. Piraeus and Athens Phalcerum Branch Post. 1870 123 Number of offices Number of employes ... ... ... — Number of letters and cards dispatched 1,782,870 Journals and printed matter ... ... 1,101,854 Receipts X'20,797 Expenditure ... ... ... ... — 1868 1869 1870 1873 1875 1877 Telegrams tor\vardt;d 101,837 112,808 127,588 194,820 249,673 354,123 Telegraphs. Length of ;s Line (miles) 36 60 77 1.592 1,812 Length ol Wire (miles) 1,965 2,182 ;^i9,i30 3.159 ;^22,289 1874 1876 136 140 — 481 2,573.481 1,066.630 1,300,019 1,995,939 ^12,980 ;^23,408 — ^^16,703 Receipts Expeni*« ;^2o,23o ;^24,93 THE NEW SOVEREIGN STATES IN SOUTH EASTERN EUROPE. LANDS AND PEOPLE. Y the resolutions of the BerUn Congress a group of Sovereign States, and semi-self-governing territories have arisen out of lands which were before either wholly or partially subject to Turkey. Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro, over which the Porte iormerly claimed sovereignty, have declared themselves independent. Another new creation is the tributary Principality of P)ulgaria. Bosnia and Herzegovina are freed from the Turkish sway, and have been placed under the administration of Austro-Hungary. South of the Balkans the province of Eastern Roumelia has been called into existence, nominally under the rule of the Porte, but actually possessing a limited form of self- government. The island of Candia is likewise to obtain a certain form of self-government. Toleration of every creed is enforced throughout those States which have become Sovereign States, and in all of which Jews were formerly precluded from the higher rights of citizenship, and were frequently subjected to severe persecutions. The tribute money which these Provinces were formerly compelled to furnish will be now capitalized. Servia and Montenegro are obliged to undertake a part of the Turkish State debt corresponding with the amount of territory newly acquired. Whilst these alterations were being made with regard to European terri- tories, England assumed to herself the right of occuj)ation in Asia, includ- ing the actual possession of Cyprus, nominally under Turkish rule. All these States and territories are really withdrawn from Osman sway. They no longer gravitate towards Constantinople, but in various other directions. Those States only will be noticed here that have declared themselves entirely independent, 'i'he tributary State of Bulgaria, and the remaining districts mentioned above, still appear politically as comjionent parts of the Osman empire, even those which have been transferred to England and Austro-Hungary. ROUMANIA (Principality), LAND AND PEOPLE. HE new principality is divided into three districts, Tulcha, Kustendji, and Silistria. The total area of the principality is 49,247 English square mile ; and the population, 5,376,000. The population of Roumania is very mixed. There are 772,700 foreigners, viz. : Jews, 400,000 ; Gipsies, 200,000 ; Slavs, 85,000 ; Germans, 39,000 ; Hungarians, 29,500 ; Armenians, S,ooo ; Greeks, 5,000; French, 2,000; English, 1,000; Italians, 500; and 2,700 of Turks, Poles, Tatars, and others. Creeds. The Greek faith predominates in Roumania. There are, however, as nearly as can be estimated, 114,200 Catholics ; 13,860 Protestants ; 8,000 Armenians ; 6,000 Ligowaners (an order of monks similar to the Jesuits), 400,000 Jews, and 2,000 Mahommedans. Principal Toivns. Bucharest has a population of 177,646 of whom 82,632 are males, and 95,014 are females. 132,997 are orthodox Greeks ; 16,990 are Catholics ; 5,854 are Protestants ; 20,749 are Jews ; and 1,056 are members of other creeds, or having none. Jassy, 90,020; Galatz, 80,000; Botochani 39,941; Ploesti, 33,000; Braila, 28,272; Berlad, 26,568; Crajova, 22,764; Ismail, 21,000; Giurgevo, 20,868 ; Focsani, 20,323 ; Piatra, 20,000. 734 Roumania — Land and People. Year Mozietnent of the Fopidation Stillborn I87I 148,419 3,409 1872 144,172 5,088 1873 145,804 4.049 1874 '5^7M3 2,701 1875 172,586 2.015 1876 166,337 1,790 1877 158,790 2,005 Deaths* Marriages 117,985 28,010 137,596 35,872 146,031 29,257 '54,948 30,962 142,724 32,971 127,647 3^565 ■33,381 29,312 Finance. This is in a state of great confusion. A budget has been nominally brought forward since the year i860, but in reality no estimates were con- stitutionally drawn up from i860 to 1864 — mere orders took their place. The receipts have never sutficed to cover the expenditure ; there have been constant arrears of customs and rents, many of which were altogether irrecoverable. The definite accounts for 1874 and 1875 were as follows : — Revenue Expenditure Deficit 1874 ,-^3,304,714 — ^3,<^o2,48i ... ^297,767 1875 3,459,604 ••• 3,952,503 — 492,899 Tlie budget estimates for 1876 3,915,776 ■• 3,915,776 ••• — 1877 3,217,486 ... 3,451,664 ... 234,178 1878 ... ... 4,066,932 ... 4,066,826 ... — 1879 4,366,587 ... 4,366,587 ... — The trains necessary for the transport of Russian and home troops during the war, caused an increase in the railway, telegraph, and postal receipts of ;^i, 080,000 gross, as compared with the budget estimates for 1877 ; the customs and salt tax also yielded ^3,000,000 more, but far less was obtained from other sources. The budget commission basing their estimates for 1878 upon the actual condition of 1877, and in face of great territorial changes, was of course highly illusory. The budget for 1880 set down the revenue at ^4,840,000, and the expenditure at ^3,720,000. Debt. This was very nearly paid off both in Moldavia and Wallachia in 1853. The account on January ist, 1877, however, showed 11 categories of debt, originally amounting to ^24,828,995, but of which ^4,207,527 had been amortised, leaving the actual amount of the debt at ;^2o,62 1,468. An annual sum of^2, 194,361 was thert;forc required for the interest on and payment of the debt. At this period, however, came the war which would have ruined even well-ordered finances. The government, being unable to obtain new loans, resolved in March, 1877, to issue ^^^i, 250,000 of paper money, which could be withdrawn in proi)ortion to the sale of State lands, but wliirh was not, however, to have a forced circulation. In June, 1878, a further issue was determined on, and a forced circulation introduced. * Including stillborn. Roumania — Land and People. 735 The tribute hitherto payable to the Porte amounted to 8,000 purses equal to about ;^36,ooo. If this were capitalized at 4 per cent it would make a sum of ;^9oo,ooo which Roumania had to pay to the Porte ; but nothing was decided about this in the decrees of the Congress of Berlin, nor upon the question whether Roumania might bring costs of war as com- pensation. Thus Roumania, as she cannot in any way demand compen- sation from Russia, and as any claims made upon Turkey are useless, finds herself burdened with a debt of ^24,399,689, The loans which constitute the debt have sinking funds attached, to provide for their extinction betw^een the years 1880 and 1961. Army. The army consists of, ist, the standing army with its reserve; 2nd, the territorial army and its reserve ; 3rd, the militia, including men not above 36 years, both who have and who have not served ; 4th, the National Guard, citizens from 36 to 50 years of age ; 5th, the Landsturm, the country population from 36 to 50 years of age. All Roumanians between the age of 20 and 46 are liable to serve, and whether the service shall be in the regular army or in the militia is decided by lot. Term of service : 4 years in the army and the same in the reserve ; 6 years in the territorial army and 2 in the reserve ; in the cavalry, however, 5 years and 3 ; in the militia 2 years, and 4 in the reserve. The army consisted, at the outbreak of the war, of 36 battalions of infantry (18 regiments and 4 battalions of rifles), 33,284 men ; 10 squadrons (2 regiments) of hussars, 2,144 iiien ; 2 regiments of, 16 batteries, 2,508 men artillery; i battalion of sappers, and i company of pontooners 1,561 men ; 1,250 Gendarmerie beside the Medical Staff, and the commissariat, in all 42,449 men. The effective force of the territorial army in 1877 was, infantry 22,463 ; cavalry 12,184 ^"^d 12,192 horses. Navy. Three steamers and 6 gunboats, 20 officers and 246 men. Formerly a small war flotilla was stationed on the Danube. By an act of the Congress of Berlin, no vessel of war is, henceforth, permitted to sail this river below the iron gateway. Territorial Changes. The province of Bessarabia, ceded by Russia to Moldavia, in 1856, has been restored to Russia, by order of the Berlin Congress, and Roumania has received, as compensation, the islands in the delta of the Danube, the Dobruja and a district south of this, beginning eastward of Silistria and ending at the Black Sea, south of Mangalia. The Roumanian authorities, in accordance with the stipulations of the Berlin Treaty, took possession of the province of Dobruja on the 28th of November, 1878, arriving at the town of Tulcha on the 29th, and at Sulim on the 5 th December. The town of Tulcha, with its sulurbs contains a population of about 43,000 souls. The surrounding district is very fertile, and produces excellent corn, but owing to the little cultivation of the land and the meagre popula- tion, the produce is not in large quantities. Its other products consist of 736 Roninania — Land and People. wool, cheese, caviare, skins, and wine. Its principal imports are rice, coffee, sugar, oil, spirits, cotton goods, glass, iron, and tobacco, mostly im- ported from France and Austria, but only in sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of its poi)ulation. The town of Babadagh and its surrounding district contains a popula- tion of 41,000 souls, and possesses an excellent climate and rich soil. It is said to be rich in mineral wealth. Kustendji is divided into three districts, viz., Kustendji, Mangalia, and Hirsova. The population of the three districts is estimated at 23,320, composed of Greeks, Tatars, Bulgarians, Roumanians and Turks, all of whom are engaged in agriculture. Kustendji possesses a good harbour, and is the depot of the Rustchuk and Dama Railway. The town of Matchin and its suburbs has a population of about 8,000, and IS also a grain-producing district. Medjidie and Cernavoda have a population ot about 8,000, and are likewise grain-producing districts. Sulina is situate at the mouth of the Danube, and derives its chief importance from the establishment of the offices of the European Commis- sion of the Danube. It is a depot for large quantities of grain, which is brought from the up-river ports for trans-shipment on board the large steamers freciuenting the port. It has no produce of its own, and its im- ports are contined to the strict necessaries of life for the population, consist- ing principally of the labouring classes, who gain a living by loading and unloading ships. The whole of the Dobruja is fertile, and would with good admini*ra- tion amply repay Roumania for the loss of Bessarabia. The only article of import of which, at Sulina, a reliable record is kept is coal. In 1878 it amounted to 167,956 tons, the largest quantity which up to that time had been received. Of this there came from — Tons Circat Britaui i50)359 France i7)457 Russia ... ... ... ... ... ••• 140 'Jotal 167,956 Social CoiidHioii. OCCUPATION OF THE INHABITANTS. It is estimated that 700,000 families are employed in agriculture ; 60,000 families as artisans and tradespeople ; 24,000 families as assistants ; 23,000 officials; 6,500 teachers; 450 advocates, and only 300 physicians, 170 surgeons, 250 mid-wives ; 9,800 secular clergy, 8,750 monks and nuns. Lands in " Mortmain " are hampered with many restrictions,^' and, therefore, the sale of them yields only a partial value. Education. There is one university and one agricultural college in the chief town, Bucharest. In 1873 t'lcre were 246 town schools, containing 26,160 scholars; and 1,975 schools in the country districts with 55,985 scholars. In 1870 there were published, throughout the whole country, 22 journals, of which 7 were official, 10 political, 3 humorous, and 2 scientific. * For example, that the lands of one Coninumc may only l>c ac■ 13,862 467,601 250,749 7 18. 35° Tirchala)... ... ) ^/V^//a; Monastir(Goritche, Uskup, i — 305,805 '397,993 703.798 Presrend, Dibre) ... ,- Scutari: Scutari ... ... ) 20,156 112,000 88,000 200,000 Bosna : Bosnia (Serai Zvornik, i Travnik, Novi - Bazar, Banaluca, Behacz ... ) Herzegovina: (Herzegovina again?_ _ , S united) ... \ ^ '^^' ^^^^ ^ ^ Total 136.627 2,433.356 1,862,447 4,291,503 23,388 264,250 270,050 534,000 750 Turkish Empire — Land and People. If we assume the female population to be only equal to that of the male we have 8,591,606 inhabitants. The Sainanuh (Ottoman imperial year book) for the year 1294 of the Hegira (1877 and 187S) publishes official statistics of the empire, from which Ubicini gave a French extract. The empire was divided in 1870 into 29 "vilayets," or governments, and these again into sanjaks or provinces, a further sub-division was into cazas or circles. Turkey in Europe contained 11 vilayets, 44 sanjaks, and 276 cazas; Turkey in Asia and Tripoli numbers 18 vilayets, 79 sanjaks, and 72 cazas, and this exclusive of Constantinople and the Island of Samos. The total population of the 29 vilayets is reckoned at 13,679,648 males, which allows us to assume a total of 27,359,296 individuals, of whom Samos contains 34,141 inhabitants. Constantinople and its suburbs contain 65,262 houses, which, reckoning 8 inhabitants to a house, allows us to estimate the population at 522,096. To these must be added the people in the Khans and magazines, the monks of different creeds, softas, etc., from 100,000 to 120,000, and lastly, 80,000 of fluctuating population, making a total of 722,000 at Constantinople. ROUMKLIA. Vilayets Sanjaks Circles or Cazas Male Population I Edirneh (Adrianople) 5 40 652,676 2 Tuna (Donau) 5 32 907,774 3 Sofia ... 2 14 350,180 4 Bosnia 6 43 .. 1,023,568 5 Ersek (Herzegovina)'.. 2 13 120,075 6 Selanik (Salonica) 3 19 393.029 7 Monastir 4 31 539,054 8 Yania (Janina) 5 25 187,513 9 Ushkudra (Scodra) . . I 13 135,000 10 Jezair (Archipelago) .. 6 23 178,582 II Kryt (Crete) 5 ANATOLIA. 21 232,831 12 Kudavendikiar (Brussa, etc.)... 4 26 267,985 13 Aidin (Smyrna, etc.) .. 4 24 772,022 14 Angora 4 22 301,878 15 Konia ... 5 25 410,393 16 Kastamuni 4 21 422,900 17 Sivas ... 3 22 406,388 18 Trapezun (Trapezunt) 4 25 469,070 19 Erzeroum 6 ro 782,833 20 Van I 14 233,629 21 Diarbekr 5 24 332,300 22 Cham (Syria) ... 9 ... ^z 562,000 23 Adana... 4 16 204,372 24 Haleb (Alei)po) 4 ... 36 296,760 25 Bagdad 7 37 .. 1,604,476 26 Basra ... 3 13 395,5^4 27 Yemen 4 23 266,000 28 Hejaz (Mecca and Me dina) ... 2 7 240,000 29 Tharabuluci (Tripoli) 5 26 1,010,000 Turkish Empire — Laud and People. 751 Add to these 1,400,000 Nomads ; 560,000 men in the army and police, and 300,000 foreigners, we have a total 0530,175,533. • In consequence ofthe decisions of the Congress of Berlin, which sanctioned, in addition to the loss of territory in Europe, the cession of about 12,757 English square miles in Asia, (the districts of Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum). with a population of about 800,000 souls, to Russia, and a small concession to Persia (the town and district of Khotur), the posses- sions remaining to the Osman Empire are In Europe „ Asia Total Direct Possessions. IN EUROPE AND ASIA. English square miles 69,001 712,908 781,909 Population. 5,500,000 16,000,000 21,500,000 Bulgaria East Roumelia Bosnia, Herzegovina Crete " Total Indirect Possessions. A. IN EUROPE. English Sqr. Miles 24,451 I3.3S5 20,180 ... 3>4oi 61,417 Population. 1,700,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 200,000 3,900,000 Cyprus Samos Total B. IN ASIA. Eng. sq. Miles 4,000 ^12 4,312 Population 200,000 36,000 236,000 Egypt Nubia, Soudan, Darfur Tripoli, with Fezan Tunis Total C. IN AFRICA. English Sqr. Miles 180,727 744,176 340,192 46,776 1,311,871 Population 5,200,000 10,000,000 1,200,000 1, 800,000 18,200,000 This gives a total of more than 2,000,000 s juare miles, and a popula- tion of nearly 44,000,000. Nationalities and Creeds. Where a population is so numerous as in Turkey it would be difficult, even in a highly-civilized country, to distinguish between the various nationalities and creeds, so as to give accurate statistics of one or the other. 752 Turkish Empire — Land and People. According to a Greek estimate, there were in European-Turkey, not including tlrc protected States previous to the war, 4,200,000 Moslems, 3,550,000 Heleno-Pelasgians, 250,000 Roumanians, 2,676,000 Slavs, 150,000 of various other nationalities, making a total of 11,120,000. The Turks are much more numerous in the Slavonic provinces than in the Greek provinces ; in Epirus and Thessaly the proportion of Turks to Greeks is as one to three. On the islands there are 150,000 Turks to 700,000 Greeks. On the otiier hand, in Bosnia, Bulgaria, and Herzegovina the Mohammed population is almost as numerous as the Slavonic. In 1876 a statement appeared in London which gave the number of Christians as 6,225,000, of whom 5,600,000 were Greek Catholics, 280,000 Roman Catholics, 300,000 Gregorian Armenians, 45,000 Protestants ; then 3,000,000 Mohammedans, 75,000 Jews, and 150,000 gipsies. A statement in the North German Journal^ concerning Macedonia, gave the number of Turks, or rather Mohammedans, living there as 2,022,081, the Greeks as 1,076,676, and Bulgarians as 401,042. In Thrace there were 1,149,626 Mohammedans, 253,302 (jreeks^ 1,697,763 Bulga- rians. In Epirus 415,965 Greeks, 318,955 xMohammedans, 2,300 Jews. In Thessaly 341,850 Greeks, including many Albanians and Kutz-Vlacks ; 38,730 Mohammedans, and 3,650 Jews. In Asiatic-Turkey the statistics are somewhat fuller and more reliable. There is a great variety in the inhabitants of Asia Minor in respect to race and religion. Thus we find among the professed Moslems the following distinct races, or off-shoots of races : — Osmanli Turks, Arabs, Turcomans, Kurds, Circassians and Tatars. It is impossible to make an absolutely reliable estimate of the whole number of Moslems in Asiatic-Turkey; including Syria, the best authorities place the number at about 12,000,000. The majority of this Moslem population exhibit little or no desire for intel- lectual improvement ; they are absorbed in the struggle for existence. There are also 1,000.000 Greeks, 2,000,000 Armenians, 1,000,000 Kurds, and 1,000,000 Arabs. Of individual provinces, there are dwelling in Erzeroum 272,000 Turks, 357,000 Kurds, 411,000 Christians, 1,200 Jews, 2.000 Yezides, 158,000 Persians, 29,000 Turkomans. Among the 41 1,000 Christians are — 287,000 Armenians, 111,000 Nestorians, 8,000 Roman Catholics, 4,000 Greeks, and 1,300 Protestants. Syria. — Population, 2,250,000, of whom 1,400,000 are Mohammedans, 100 Ansariyeh, 260,000 Maronites, 180,000 Oriental Greeks, 50,000 Catholic (irceks, 3,000 Roman Catholics, 40,000 Jews, 30,000 gipsies, 7,000 Armenians, 15,000 Jacobites, 5,000 Protestants, 90,000 Druses, 70,000 Arabs and Bedouins. Turkish Arabia. — Population, 5,502,150, of whom 3,250,000 are in Hejaz, and 2,252,150 are in Yemen. Principal Towns. In Europe Population In Asia Population Smyrna ... ... ... 155,000 Damascus ... ... 120,000 Aleppo ... 70,000 to 100,000 Constantinople* ... 855,000 Salonica ... 60,000 to 80,000 Adrianople 50,000 ,, 70,000 With the tloatiiig population, 1,073,000. Turkish Empire — Land and People. 753 In Europe Population In Asia Population Gallipoli 30.000 ,, 40,000 Magnesia 60,000 Beyrout 60,000 ,, 80,000 Bagdad ... 40,000 to 60,000 Brussa 60,000 ,, 80,000 Diarbekr ... 40,000 Erzeroum ... . • • 60,000 Mossul ... 40,000 Kaisaria ... 50,000 Aidin 35>ooo Trapezunt 40,000 to 50,000 Jerusalem 25,000 to 30,000 Finance. A Budget has been introduced since 1863 ; the early ones, as a rule, closed with a surplus ; the accounts, however, were completely fictitious. The receipts have never been sufficient in any year to cover the expenditure A report of the Budget Commission* for the year of the Hegira 1291 (a.d. 1875-76) showed a deficit of ;^5,227,222, on account of which economies were introduced on the one hand and new taxes on the other. At the commencement of October, 1879, the budget closed with a deficit of ;^2,375,ooo, which in reality is much greater, and which the Government is doing all in its power to cover. One after the other of its sources of revenue is being mortgaged for this purpose, viz., the duty on sheep, the tithe on corn, the beacon dues, the bridge tolls, and even the customs for 1880. By a decree signed at Constantinople in November, 1879, the Galata bankers, to whom the Customs' revenue was mortgaged, have given up their lien on the Custom-house and have accepted in its place a lien on other branches of the indirect taxes, such as the duties on tobacco, salt, wines, spirits, and other exciseable articles, together with the surplus revenues of Cyprus and Eastern Roumelia, and sums which may be received from Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro in payment of their respective shares of the Imperial Public Debt, and the third part of any revenue which may be derived from the imposition of new taxes which it is proposed to introduce. The sums which the bankers will thus obtain are estimated at ^2,227,254, of which ^1,000,000 are to be retained by the bankers as payment of their advances. Heretofore these custom-house revenues have only been nominally hypothecated to secure foreign loans, but have never been actually alienated from the Treasury ; for, as the British Consul at Constantinople says, " these revenues being received in gold and silver, and producing day by day between ;^ 2,000 and ;^3,ooo, the income of the Stamboul Custom-house constituted the daily bread of the Imperial Treasury, and the Porte had always kept it clear except in theory." It is doubted whether the Government will respect these hypothecations ; it will probably depend upon the negociations which are pending for a new loan. Debt. In order to understand the debt, the origin of which dates from 1854, it is necessary to state that the first issue of paper money was for the purpose of creating funds for the Crimean War, the total issue being /^ 1 2,000,000 ; the circulation was confined to the capital and its suburbs; this paper money was withdrawn in 1865, together with other forms of recognition of indebtedness then extant, and together constituted the capital of the general debt represented by the first issue of 5 per cents. * Composed of nine members, of whom four are Europeans. 754 Turkish Empire — Land and People, The financial decree of October 6tli, 1875, which, to all intents and purposes, declared the bankruptcy of the Ottoman Empire, closed the European money markets to the Porte, and greatly restricted its resources for local accommodation ; and when a few weeks later, the political crisis resulted in a war with Servia, the Ottoman exchequer found itself destitute of cash and credit, and deprived of the means it was wont to employ, for the supply of its daily wants. In these straits the Porte appealed to national and religious sentiment, which appeal was responded to very generously, but the amount was totally inadequate to supply the need. A forced loan was proposed and accepted, it produced but little, and the Porte decided for the second time upon an issue of paper money. The is.sue was to be absolutely limited to ;^2,72 7,2 72, and the population was informed that payment of all taxes would be received, both in the capital and in the provinces in paper at par, neither of which promises was kept Paper currency has since deluged the State far in excess of the means of its employment ; the supply has far exceeded the demand. The popula- tion of Turkey could not, under existing circumstances, absorb of paper money more than ^^4,500,000, and that, no matter to what figure the issue might be extended, the purchasing power could not be increased. In February of this year, 1880, the issue was excessive to the extent of nearly ;j^ 1 0,000, 000, and this excess the finance minister is trying to reduce, by the very inadequate and vexatious measure of a flour and bread tax ; the poor therefore, are having the price of bread heavily increased, at a time when the means of earning it are abnormally low. The population of many districts in Asia Minor are almost driven to rebellion and ruin ; they had received the paper money with confidence, and relying on the pledges of the government, had adopted it as their sole means of exchange, and their little savings were in paper money ; they are all at once called upon to pay four-fifths of their taxes in other money, of which they have not a farthing. Not only is their capital annihilated, but they are driven to the usurer to escape imprisonment. The first actual State loan was contracted in 1854, since which period the Porte has outstripped every country in the world, in the number of its loans and debts. The Public Debt. The public debt in 1878 amounted to ^245,200,000 ; the year's interests to ;,^i4,20o,ooo. In 1879 the year's expense of the debt was ^12,237,599. and was stated in the budget as follows : — 1. Foreign debt: — . a. Debtsof 1854, i87i,andi877guaranteed ) j-. j. by Eg}'ptian tribute ... ... j -^ 3 j33 b. Debt of 1855 guaranteed by England and [ France ... ... ... ... ) ^ '' ^^ <-. Other debts 5,421,854-^6,145.487 2. Consolidated debt ... ... ... ... ... 3,330,882 3. Roumclian railway obligations ... ... ... 933^983 4. Smyrna and Aidin railway guarantees ... ... 71,450 5. Current account in the Ottoman Bank ... ... 540,603 6. Service of " Eshami Dchedide " ... ... ... 98,680 I I Turkish Empire — Land and People. 755 7. Service Sehim, Moukata, Timar, Ziamet ... ... 385,764 8. Interest of capital borrowed from the Orphans' Fund. 53,820 9. Interest of forced loans ... ... ... ... 100,000 10. Withdrawal of paper money ... ... ... ... 576,923 ;^i2,237,592 Military Awaits. Universal liability to bear arms exists in theory, but it exists in reality only for the Mohammedans, as the Christians may, or must, buy them- selves off for ^23. In order, however, to maintain the principle to some extent a brigade of Cossacks, consisting of 2 regmients, is formed of Christian volunteers. The inhabitants of Constantinople, of the island of Crete, and of a few other districts are exempted from service in accordance with some old established privileges. The Turkish army consists of regular troops (Nizam) and irregular. The regulars are divided into the standing army (Moassaf ), the landwehr (Redif ), and the landsturm (Mustehafiz). According to the plan of organization made in 1869 the army was to consist of 720,000; of whom 220,000 were to belong to the active army, and 80,000 to the reserve. During the last war the regular troops shov/ed themselves remarkably brave, enduring, temperate, and orderly ; but on the other hand there was a great want of capable officers as well of the necessary watchfulness in the field. The commissariat and hospital arrangements were also very defective. The irregular troops proved a real evil ; they caused much ill- feeling, and were next to useless in the field. The number of men engaged in the war with Russia was about 752,000 men ; 665,000 infantry, 31,000 cavalry, 41,000 artillery, and 4,000 engineers, &c. This number was reduced by death in the field, epidemics, wounds, and desertions to 120,000. It was increased in 1879 to i5o?ooo, of whom 120,000 are in Europe, and 30,000 in i\sia. Each army corps in time of peace is to consist of 6 infantry regiments of 3 battalions of 800 men ; 4 cavalry regiments of 800 horse ; i artillery regiment of 12 batteries with 6 cannon, and 100 men ; i pioneer battalion of 400 men, and several battalions of gendarmes. This will give 210,000: 134,400 infantry, 22,400 cavalry, 9,600 in the artillery, 3,600 pioneers, 40,000 gendarmes, and 576 guns. In time of war these numbers are to be increased by 100,000 men in the reserve and landwehr with 192 and 120 guns respectively. JVavy. This is drawn from the population of the islands, and the coast on a basis similar to that of the land troops. Christians are not, however, excluded from the navy, and this is the only body of troops, except the Cossack brigade in which Rayas and Moslems are enrolled side by side. Previous to the war the number of ironclads was 6 frigates, 9 corvettes, 2 monitors, and 9 gunboats. The number of wooden vessels was 4 ships of the line, 4 frigates, 7 corvettes, 15 watch boats, 5 schooners, 4 gunboats, 2 yachts, 10 avisos, 43 transport ships, making together 116 vessels of 101,102 tons ; 2,570 horse-power ; 75 guns, and manned b)- 16,038 men. The Turkish Fleet in the Black Sea was considerably larger than that of the Russians ; but it did not by any means fulfil the expectations 756 Turkish Empire — Land and People. formed of it. In the Danube several of the vessels fitted out with so much care, and at so much cost were blown up by Russian torpedoes. After the war there were but 5 ironclads, 14 steamers and 8 sailing vessels, and of these i frigate and i corvette, both ironclad, were sold to England : a further sale of the vessels is in contemplation. Social. The power of acquiring landed property was granted to those not Moslems by a law of February, 1876. The Greek population is especially active in the education of the people. There are in Macedonia alone, 34 schools of a high class, beside 183 elementary schools and 22 girls' schools; in Thrace there are 32 high-class schools and 159 elementary; in Constantinople there are 114. Cominerce. It is difficult, even to obtain approximate estimates. A calculation gives the value of the imports for 1875 ^s ;,^i 4,486,400, and the exports as ^1,933,600. In this last is included ^^694,400 for corn ; ^606,800 for tobacco ; J[^t^2'] ,(yoo for wool, and ^^306, 800 for opium. Of individual parts or districts of the Empire the statistics are more reliable. In Crete the chief articles of export are olive oil, soap, locust beans, Valonea nuts, oranges and lemons. In 1877-8 English vessels carried 2,377 tons of olive oil to Great Britain, at prices varying between £^T^(i and j£,£f2 per ton. Damascus. — Of the many thousands who left as conscripts during the war, only a few sick and invalided have returned, leaving the land to a great extent without labor power. The occupations of the people are principally agriculture and silk weaving. A silk-loom weaver earns from I OS. to I2S. a week. Two of the principal sources of the prosperity of Damascus, in former times, are dried-up since the opening of the Suez Canal, viz., the overland route to Bagdad, and the Haj caravan to Mecca, with the commercial advantages attending it. A railway is in contempla- tion with its terminus at Beyrout. Aleppo. — The trade of Aleppo has suffered greatly from the opening of the Suez Canal, but the greater part of the import trade of North Mesopotamia and Kurdistan passes through Aleppo. The export trade, however, has been diverted to Bagdad, owing to the facilities of floating heavy loads down the Tigris on rafts, and the quick and safe means of transit by the regular steamers, which leave Bagdad and Bussorah for Europe, via. the Suez Canal. The value of the manufactured goods imported from England during 1878 amounted to ... _;;^i, 265,000 The value of those imported from France ... 220,000 n „ It''^b' 8,400 „ „ Austria ... 39, 600 ,, ,, Turkey ... 84,000 „ ,, Egypt... ... 1 2,600 The total value of manufactured goods from countries other than England amounted to ^365,000. The trade of England in manufactured goods was, therefore, 5 A times greater than that of Franco ; 15 times greater Turkish Empire — Land and People. 7S7 than that of Turkey; 32 times greater than that of Austria; 100 times greater than that of Egypt, and 150 times greater than that of Italy; or 3! times greater than that of all other countries together. The total value of the imports amounted to ;^2,25o,374, of which sum ;^i35,994 was the value of specie and jewelry. The value of the imports from Great Britain p^i,39°j°5° „ „ France 368,980 Italy 27,270 „ „ Austria 84,430 „ „ Turkey 290,614 Egypt 72,830 The total value of the exports amounted to ;,^i,o98,97i. The exports to Great Britain ^78,934 „ „ France 326,419 „ Italy 175.298 „ „ Austria 21,862 ,, ,, Greece... ... ... ... .•• ••• 4,7iS „ Turkey 347,559 „ Egypt 144,184 THE VALUE OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF EXPORT. Native Manufactured Year Goods Wheat Wool Cotton Butter 1873 ;^i8o,56o ^^^'70,000 ^257,568 ;^78,840 ;^54,378 1874 50,700 124,000 169,320 40,000 16,000 1875 36,800 53,620 164,280 59,200 44,800 1876 53>24o 90,600 75,640 43,500 3,320 1878 M9>i45 196,470 234,680 57,980 57,000 The various trades of Aleppo consist in the manufacture and sale of coarse carpets, felt rugs, woollen, cotton and silk stuffs, cloaks and girdles ; traffic in planks and beams from the Taurus Mountains ; trade in soda, potash, and soap. HARBOUR TRAFFIC IN THE PORT OF ALEXANDRETTA, WHICH IS THE PORT OF ALEPPO. ENTERED. Steam-ships Sailing-ships Total No. Tons Crews No. Tons Crews No. Tons Crew British . . . 99 48,156 1,926 — 99 48,156 1,926 French . . . 64 82,216 3,643 — 64 82,216 3,643 Italian ... 6 3,643 168 10 2,591 113 16 6,234 281 Austrian.. 33 32,845 1,279 I 305 II 34 33,150 1,290 Swedish.. 3 1,269 51 — 3 1,269 51 Greeks . . . — 12 1,035 77 12 1,035 77 Turkish.. 10 2,380 200 280 11,047 1,696 290 13.427 1,896 Total ... 215 170,509 7,267 303 14,978 1,897 518 185,487 9,164 758 Turkish Empire — Land and People. Beyrout. — The revenue collected by the Custom-house of Beyrout in 1878 amounted to £\i2,\2\, of which ^118,324 was the amount on the imports and exports, the remainder being contributed by stamjjs, tobacco, and spirit duties, etc. The revenue derived from all the Syrian custom houses amounted in 1878 to £212,21^, of which ^157, ^39 ^^"'^^ collected on the imports and exports. There are 60 silk factories in the Lebilnon. I o of which belong to Frenchmen, and are worked by machinery. The silk crop in 1877 was 50,705 cwts. : rather less in 1878 — 38,029 cwts. SHlPriNG AT THE PORT OF RKVROUT IN 1 878. Steam Vessels Sailing Vessels Total No. Tons Crews No. Tons Crews No. Tons Crews 368 275,107 T2,086 3,167 63,274 T 1,074 3,535 328.381 26,160 Constantinople. — The import of coals during 1877 was 260,000 tons. The numberless abuses existing in the customs' house, act prejudicially upon native industries and foreign trade. According to the present treaty of commerce, duty has to be paid in kind, at the custom-house, on such goods as are not included in the tariff, and the way this is carried out is a standing grievance. For example, the custom house takes 8 pieces out of every 100, thus leaving 92 pieces to the merchant. The customs levy 8 per cent, therefore, not only on the 92 pieces, but on the 8 pieces also, which never come into the possession of the merchant at all. Previous to the war, Bulgaria obtained her supply of cotton and woollen goods from Constantinople, and a full third of the Constantinople trade was with that province. Since the war, all goods brought to Con- stantinople for Bulgaria, have to ]iay the 8 per cent, at Constantinople, and another 8 per cent, at the Bulgarian ports, and the usual drawback of \ of the duty, allowed by the Turkish government, on transliipments to other countries is not allowed ; conse(|uently, Bulgarian merchants, in order to save double duty, buy direct in Euro]:)e, and Constantino]ile is robbed of one-third of its trade. The clip of vwhair in 1878 was very large, being 48,000 bags of \l cwt. each, but even this trade is threatened, by the introduction into the market of Cape, Californian and Australian mohair. Mrrcantik Marifir. This is given as 220 sailing vessels of 34,50° tons, making long voyages, and 1 1 steamers of 3.350 tons. The total tonnage of the marine being 181,500 tons. Railways. The Compagnie Gdnerale pour Vc\i)loilation dcs Chcmins de fer de la Turquie d'Eurojie had in 1877, 866 miles of railway in working, beside which there were in Asia Minor 245 miles at work. The various lines of railway are from Constantinople to Adrianople, from Adriaiioi)lc to Sarem- bey, from Turnova to Jamboli, from Koulleli to 1 )odeaghatch, from Salonica to Uskub, from Uskvib to Mitrovitza, and from 15anialouka to Novi. In Asia Minor there are three lines in the environs of Smyrna, Turkish Empire — Land and People. 759 Telegraph in 1878. Length of line ... Length of wire ... Number of offices Receipts ... Expenditure Number of telegrams 17,075 miles 32.380 „ 417 ;^22i,444 1,344,702 Post. Since 1874 we have no returns. In that year there were 334 post offices. The number of letters and post-cards, 2,439,000 ; of printed matter and patterns, 75,000; of journals, 1,250,000; total, 3,764,000. The receipts for 1874 were ;^i39,i29 ; expenditure, ;^92,8i9. The Turkish National Bank. A national bank ought to help through the most pressing financial embarrassments in Turkey, even as it does in the many Christian countries of Europe. From this idea arose the Banque Imperiale Ottomane, estab- lished in 1863. As its funds proved insufficient, it was re-organised as a National Bank in the second half of the year 1874; it retained the appear- ance of independence, but became in reality a State institution. The paid-up capital was increased from ^4,050,000 to ^10,000,000 ; the institution is of course used in every possible manner by the State. Indirect Possessions of the Porte. Bulgaria (Principality.) The extent of the boundaries given by the Berlin Congress to this new " autonomous and tributary Principality, subject to the sovereignty of the Sultan," amounts to about 24,451 English square miles, and its popula- tion to 1,700,000. Of this population only about 250,000 live in the towns, not much above a sixth therefore. The preponderance of the country population who live by agriculture and looking after their flocks over that of the town population living by commerce and industries is for the future of Bulgaria no unimportant sign. The principal towns are, according to an estimate of July, 1879 — Inhabitants Inhabitants Rustchuk ... 25,000 to 30,000 Sophia (the ( Tirnova (ancient capital) 25,000 ,, 30,000 capital) ... 1 Lovtcha Widdin 25,000 „ 30.000 Lorn Shumla 18,000 ,, 20,000 Rasgrad Gabrovo 15,000 ,. 20,000 Dishuma ... Sistova ... 18,000 Radomir Varna 16,000 to 18,000 Osman Bazar Silistria ... 12,000 10 000 to 12,000 8 000 J, 10,000 8,000 5 000 to 6,000 6,000 4,000 4,000 In addition to these, there are from 15 to 20 smaller towns, with popula- tions varying between 2,000 and 3,000. Bulgaria is to have a " Christian Government and a national militia." An assembly who are to meet at Tirnova is entrusted with the preparation 760 Turk is /t Evipire — Land ana People. of a plan of constitutional government. The Prince is to be " freely chosen by the people and confirmed by the Sultan, with the consent of the Powers in Congress." Equal rights are to be enjoyed by adherents of every creed. The tribute payable to the Sultan is to be fixed by the Powers concerned in the Treaty according to the average revenues of the territory at the end of the first official year. The amount of the Turkish debt to be taken over will be determined at the same time. All fortresses are to be razed to the ground. The militia is to be raised to 80,000 men in case of war. Educat'lon. Every child must attend the free elementary school during 6 years in the country and 8 in the towns. Every country district must build a school- house, and supply a teacher at the cost of the district ; the towns, in like manner, have to supply high middle-class schools, gymnasia, and industrial schools. Many of the more wealthy youths go to Petersburg for education. As early as 1832-33 petitions were presented for liberation from the Phanariote clergy, and permission to found Bulgarian schools, In 1835 the first Bulgarian school on the European model was founded in Gabrovo ; from that time education increased. In 1845 there were already 53 Bul- garian schools in a flourishing condition — 31 to the north of the Balkans, 18 in Thrace, and 4 in Northern Macedonia ; and at the outbreak of the last war there was not a town or large village without at least one school. EASTERN ROUMELiA (Province). This province lies south of the Balkans, and has an area of about 13,480 square miles, the population being about 1,000,000, among whom, previous to the war, were 270,000 Mohammedans, ; the number is less now. The principal towns are Philippopolis, with about 40,000, and the sea- port, Burgas, with 5,000 inhabitants. The province remains under the immediate military and political rule of the Sultan, but is to have a self- governing administration under certain conditions. The Sultan has a right to erect fortresses on the frontiers, both inland and on the coast, and to maintain regular troops in them ; internal order is, however, maintained by a native Gendarmerie and a local militia. Turkish troops, passing through, are not allowed to sto]) anywhere. BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVIN.\ (Provinces). These two provinces, after deducting the districts ceded to Montenegro and those remaining under the Turkish Administration, contain about 21,000 ILnglish scpiare miles, with a population between* 1,100,000 and * A census completed of Bosnia and Herzegovina at the end of 1879 declares the popula- tion as only amounting to 800,000. This is a great falling off as estimated previous to 1875. It must be remembered that the census was taken by houses and families, and that all was de- pendent upon the good will of the head of the family, who gave his answer with the fear that jt would in s 'me way inrnasf the taxation. Turkish Empire — Land and People. 761 1,200,000. The latter belong almost entirely to the Servian race. Pre- vious to the war there were 400,000 Moliamniedans, 130,000 Catholics, and the remaining part of the population were Greek Catholics. The Mohammedans prefer, as a rule, to dwell in the north-west of the province of Bihatch and in the province of Zvornik : the smallest number is to be found in Southern Herzegovina. The orthodox Creeks are most numerous along the Croatian-Dalmatian borders. Dividing the province into 7 governments, Klaic gives the following table of residence, according to creed : — Jews Per cent 1-3 Greek Catholics Mohammedans Catholics Sanjaks Per cent. Percent. Per cent. Serajevo... 25.5 • 57-6 15.6 ... Zvornik ... 39-3 45.0 15-7 . .- Banjaluka 71.5 71. 1 ... I 1.4 Bihatsch... 51.7 44. 4-3 Travnik ... 32.6 34-4 32.8 Novi-Bazar 56.4 43.6 Mostar ... 48.9 27.5 Toivns. 23.6 Serajevo, 28,000 • Moslar, 22,000 ; Banja uka, 20,000; Fotcha between 10,000 and 12,000. No alteration has been decreed in the deeds of Congress, but it was decided that both provinces should be occupied and administered by Austro-Hungary ; the sanjak or government of Novi-Bazar alone forming an exception, as it is still to remain under Turkish rule. Both provinces are, therefore, (except Novi-Bazar), ])ractically withdrawn from the Turkish dominion, and made sul)ject to that of Austro-Hungary. Public Works. The Austrian authorities have been endeavouring, since their occupa- tion, to improve the principal highways, and keep open communication. Contracts have been entered into for metaling the Serajevo-Brood, Serajevo- Mostar, and Serajevo-Visegrad roads. A railroad is in course of construction from Brood, on the Save, to Serajevo. It is completed and in operation as far as Deboj, a distance of 51 miles ; the whole length of the line, when finished, will be 173 miles. Agriculture. There are about 203 square miles of arable land in Bosnia, 120 square miles of pasturage, and 395 square miles of forest. There are about 43 square miles of arable land in Herzegovina, 46 square miles of pasturage, and 48 square miles of forest. ^L,^ IV SAMOS (Principality). Constituted on December nth, 1832, by a firman of the Sultan, subject to the consent of England, 1^'rance and Russia, a tributary princj- 762 Turkish Empire — Laud and People. pality. It has an area of 212 English square miles, and a population in 1879 of 37,080 souls. Creeds. The dominant religion is that of the Orthodox Greek ; viz., 37,062 Orthodox Greeks, 15 Catholics, 2 Armenians, and i Protestant. The number of .strangers dwelling in Samos in 1879 was 548 Greeks, 9 French, 9 Russians, 8 Germans, 6 English, 5 Italians, 3 Austrians, i Dutch. The Samians are of Greek origin. 13,000 Samians are said to live on the coast of Asia Minor. Movement of the Population, Year Births Deaths Marriages 1874 ... 1,119 482 236 1875 ••• 1,263 572 282 1876 ... 1,291 699 218 1877 ... 1,237 727 235 1878 ... 1,275 727 191 Finance. The revenue and expenditure both average about ^23,076. The island has no debt. There are about 67,762 acres af arable land ; 29,274 acres are planted with the vine ; 521,930 acres with olive trees; 32,409 acres with currant trees \ 39,331 acres with fruit trees. The rocky soil does not produce any- thing like sufficient bread-stuff for the population. Every year about 5,000 of the inhabitants hire themselves out as reapers on the adjoining continent of Asia Minor, and by their labour, buy corn to the amount of nearly 2,000 cwts. EGYPT (Semi-Independent Vice-Kingdom), LAND AND PEOPLE. T the head of this State is a hereditary Pasha, under the title of Viceroy (Chidive or Khedive). The extent of Egypt proper is il about 180,727 English square miles; including Nubia, Sudan and Kordofan it would be 956,790 square miles, and if the newer, but by no means confirmed conquests, be taken into account^ the figure would reach even to 1,339,506 English square miles. The narrow strip of cultivated land in Egypt contains, however, only 11,268 square miles; an area scarcely equal to that of Belgium. The population of EgyiJt in 1872 was officially given at 5,250,757, of whom 1,242,263 inhabited the towns, and the remainder the country. It was officially stated again in December, 1877, at 5,602,627 inhabitants, of whom 85,000 were foreigners. Without the 85,000 foreigners, there were : — In Lower Egyi)t Upper Middle „ The town districts 2,823,995 1,471,398 653,119 569.115 The foreigners included 34,000 Greeks, 17,000 French, 13,906 Italians, 6,300 Austrians, 6,000 English, 1,000 Germans, 1,003 Spaniards, 752 Persians, 358 Russians, 139 Americans, 127 Belgians, 119 Dutch, and 3,202 of other nationalities. 764 Egypt — Land and People. The most important towns in 1877 : — Inhabitants Cairo 327.462 Alexandria Damietta Rosetta Suez... Port Said 165,75: 32,730 16,243 11,327 3,854 The number of Europeans in 1872 19,120 47;3i6 50 10 2,400 1872 ... 197,452 1873 - 184,742 1874 ... 177,732 1875 ... 182,820 1876 ... 186,687 1877 ... 173,529 1846-77... 4,685,988 Movement of the Population. Births exceeded Births Deaths the Deaths by 128,166 ... 69,286 133,720 ... 51,022 144,924 ... 32,808 119,912 ... 62,908 132,008 ... 54j679 138,668 ... 34,861 . 3,631,605 ... 1,054,383 Immigration and Emigration. From 1873 to 1877, 2,134,865 arrived by sea and 36,045 by land; total 2,170,910. From 1873 to 1877, 2,116,284 departed by sea and 35,385 by land; total 2,151,669. Finance. The government of Egypt is likewise in the habit of bringing forward annual budgets, which represent the reality just as little as those of Turkey. Although the revenues are not nearly sufficient to cover the expenses, the budgets generally shew a surplus. The deficit, for example, in 187S was ^3,440,566. The following figures were published in A])ril. 1879 : — i8;7 1878 Revenue ^^9,589,9°° ••• ^^7,432,982 Expenditure ... 10,972,100 ... 10,873,548 Deficit ^1,382,200 ... ^3,440,566 An analysis of the budget for 1878 shews that the administration cost ^^3,260,000; tribute ^682,000 ; consolidated debt ^5,783,000; floating debt ^420.000. Debt. The Khedive, like llie Sultan, accumulated debt upon debt, burdening both the State and the Civil List, 'llic l95o ^12,756,010 ^9,056,550 1878 ... 4,845,000 8,099,000 4,920,000 1879 ... 5,ooo,ooo'- 14,000,000 1877 1878 The principal articles of export were — Cotton Seed Beans Sugar Wheat ... ^5,048,310 ^1,512,500 ^820,750 ^308,380 ^924,750 3,160,000 960,000 220,000 210,000 90,000 Decrease in I /- 000 r rr r c. o /-o 1878 ... jX. 1, 888.310 X55-O00 ^^600,750 ^98,380^834,750 The value of the imports from CJreat Dritain was — In 1877 ^2,581,300 „ 1878 2,525,000 the princcipal articles lieing manufactures, coal, and machinery. Value of the commerce with the principal countries for the year 1878. America Austria France Great Britain Imports ;^87,000 539,000 882,000 2,525,000 Exports ^27,000 290,000 938,000 4,920,000 • Of the imports Alexandria rereived five-sixths. Egypt — Land and People. 767 Imports Expoits Greece 19,600 54,000 Italy 198,700 426,700 India, China, and Jajjan . 341,200 Russia 74,100 920,000 Sweden and Norway 20,000 — Turkey 121,800 365,000 Other countries 36,600 ... £^ 158,300 Total ... . ^4,845,000 ,099,000 Live Stock. The estimated value of the live stock, in 18S0, ;^4,5oo,ooo. At the end of 1878 there were — Head of cattle Horses Goats. Asses and mules Sheep 228,326 8,741 26,871 87,882 320,047 Harbour Traffic (1879) VESSELS ENTERED. Mail Sailing Total Ships of Ports Steamers Steamers Vessels Vessels Tonnage War Alexandria 389 513 1,518 2,420 1,157.817 32 Port Said 500 1,296 363 2,159 2,121,545 86 Suez 237 825 106 1,168 1,048,555 59 Other ports 95 39 1,333 1,467 214,702 40 1,221 2,673 3,320 7,214 4,542,619 217 Railways. On an average the railways have produced ^750,000 a-year. In 1S79 there were above 920 miles in active working, the greater part being in the Delta. In Upper Egypt the construction of lines is being forwarded, and part are already completed, but not included in the list below. New stations are being erected in all directions. The principal lines are as follows : — Length of Miles 129 7 8 46 Alexandria to Cairo Calioub to Barrage ... Benha to Mit Berrah Alexandria to Rossetta Mellaha to Sidi Gaber Teh-el-Baroud to Siout Boulag to Dacrour and Embabe Branch line to Fayoum Calioub to Suez Nefiche to Ismailia ... Benha to Zagazig ... Zagazig to Mansoura 4 38 144 3 22 44 76^ Egypt — Land and People. Mahallet-Roh to Dessouk Mahallet-Roh to Zifta Galline to Kafr-el-Sheikh Tanta to Damietta . . . Tanta to Chibin-el-Com Abon-el-Kebir to Salieh Length of Miles 19 I I 71 16 Fast. There [massed through the post in the years- 1876 1877 Letters 2,670,067 2,069,533 Post-cards 2,267 2,091 1878 — Number of post-offices, 80. Journals 728,479 844,896 Samples and Circulars 50.017 46,726 Telegraph. 1876, the length of line was 4,067 miles; length of wire, 8,631 miles 1878 „ „ „ 5,321 „ „ „ 8,690 ,, 1878 — Number of offices, 174. Suez Canal. This canal (the construction of which was commenced in April, 1859) has been open since November 17, 1869; its length is 100 miles. The cost of constructing and establishing it amounted by the end of 1872 to ^18,274,519. The funds were raised thus: ^{,'8, 000,000 in shares, ^3,360,000 the share of the Khedive, ^4,000,000 Preference Loan, ^1,200,000 in various ways, and subsequently by a loan of ^480,000, at 8 per cent. In the year 1870 there was a deficit of ^383,560, and in 1S71 a deficit of ^105,700. The year 1872 was the first which produced a surplus, and every) ear has had a steadily increasing one. The gross receipts were — Year Year 1870 ^206,372 1875 1871 359,749 ] 1876 1872 656,303 1 1877 1873 915,892 1878 1874 994,375 1 The number of vessels which traversed the canal in— ^''. 155,452 1,198,999 1,310.455 1,296,144 Vessels Tonnage .. 1S70 • . 489 • 435.911 1871 763 761,467 1872 1,082 1,439,169 1S73 1,173 1,586,187 1874 1,264 2,439,708 1875 157G tt>77 1878 Vessels . Tonnage . "> ^494 ,940,708 1,457 3,093.708 1,663 3,418,949 1.550 2,178,316 Tunis — Land and People. 769 The nationality of the vessels which traversed the canal in 1878: — Tonnage 1,726,946 165,464 103,800 44,922 45-528 22,622 38,371 4,873 2,321 2,002 7,090 608 2,840 2,987 780 7,072 British French Dutch Italian... Austrian German Spanish Swedish and Norwegian Egyptian Belgian Danish Turkish American Portuguese Zanzibar Japanese Vessels 1,227 89 71 44 38 22 21 5 1,550 2,178,316 The year 1878 is the first that shews an actual falling off in the amount of tonnage. ■ Suez. — It is scarcely possible for the laboring classes to live here. The Greeks only, who are painstaking and frugal, seem to manage to live. Everything is taxed at Suez. All edible produce, whether of sea or land is taxed. Houses are taxed 8| per cent, on the rent they produce ; the natives pay a personal tax, the very poorest of them having to pay lod. in every pound that they earn. TUNIS (Beylik or Regency). This district has been under the supremacy of Turkey since 1575; the family of the present Bey has governed since 1691. The area extends to about 46,776 English square miles, and the population is estimated at about 2.000,000, of whom 45,000 are Jews; 25.100 are Catholics; 400 Greek Catholics, and 100 Protestants, the remainder of the population are Mohammedans. Chief town is Tunis, with a population varying between 100,000 and 150,000 Fifiaiice. Tunis had no national debt until 1858. From that date loan after loan was raised, till the debt reached about ^^7, 200,000. As the limited revenues of the Regency yielded at most ;^44o,ooo, both interest and pay- ment of the debt came to a standstill. At the demand of the European 3 c 770 Tunis — Land and PeopU. creditors, a " European Finance Commission " was established by the Foreign Powers, and to it the whole of the financial administration of Tunis was confided. By its efforts an agreement was made with the creditors, March 23rd, 1870, by which the amount of the debt was reduced to ^5,000,000, bearing 5 per cent, interest, and for which certain of the revenues were applied, especially the customs revenue, others being left to the Bey for the conduct of the general administration. Army. This is described as highly unsatisfactory. It consists of about 4,000 men in the regular, and 10,000 in the irregular army. Two small steamboats are kept at sea. Coi/imeire. The chief resources of this country are its trade in grain, oil, and esparto grass. This last is only ten years' growth, and has been most satisfactory as an article of commerce. Unfortunately, the export duty upon it has been increased by two-thirds, and the Arabs carry it to other markets. Dates, date wine not forbidden by the Koran, excellent tobacco, and a few manufactured goods of cotton and silk, are the other articles of export. The value of the imports and exports was — Year Imports Exports In 1875 ^^681,760 ^902,800 „ 1876 473,631 687,719 1877 316,516 43i»733 Harbour Traffic in 1877. Port of Golctta „ Susa Sfak ENTERED Vessels 447 260 492 CLEARED Vessels 441 487 Harbour Traffic at the Fort of Susa, 1878. Vessels British 21 Italian 214 French 5 Tunisian 7 Austrian I Jerusalem flag _5 Total ^S.S ENTERED. Tons 6,141 7,726 570 290 15.789 Crews 202 1,248 34 80 10 1,615 Total value of Cargo ^2,300 32,412 2,197 38,909 Tripoli — Land and People. 771 Vessels British 20 Italian French 214 5 Tunisian Austrian Jerusalem flag 7 I 5 Total 2.S2 CLEARED. Tons 5^75° 5.726 570 512 290 550 I3>398 292 1,248 34 80 10 41 1,705 Total value of Cargo ^21,552 96,952 2,700 932 1,520 2,150 125,806 Raihvay, Telegraph., and Post Offiee. Length of railway in 1877' was 37 miles. Telegraph, established by the French, is about 621 miles in length. There is an Italian post-office, and also a trench one. TRIPOLI (Beylik or Vilayet). The extent of area is about 318,930 Englisli square miles, of which, at most, 63,000 are regularly inhabited. Population between 800,000 and 1,200,000. Principal towns are Tripoli with 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants ; Mourzouk 11,000; Ghadames 8,000; Bengazi 6,000. The Province of Bengazi has a population of 250,000. The Arabs who dwell here do not follow any occupation or industry. The few skilled artisans are either Greeks, Maltese or Jews. Fi)ianee. The revenue, which averages between ^280,000 and ^^3 20,000, is mostly derived from the tithe on the date and olive trees and from the customs. About 2,500 men. Army. Coini/terce. The value of the imports and exports in the Province of Bengazi in 1878 was as follows : — Cotton goods . . . Woollen goods Coffee... Sugar ... Tea ... IMPORTS. ^60,000 From England and Malta 18,000 ,, », >, 3,000 ,, Malta 5,400 „ ,, and Crete 240 jj ,, 7/2 Tripoli — Land and People. Potatoes ^500 Erom Malta Rice 1,800 „ and Crete Rum 1,200 J, Wine 10,800 „ and Crete Raki 850 Crete Tobacco 15,000 Greece and Turkey Petroleum ... 850 Malta Drugs 5,000 „ and Tripoli Glass ware 1,200 Austria Timber 5,000 ■)■) Oil 10,000 Crete Soap ... 2,000 J, Leather 10,000 Egypt _ Gold and silver work.. 18,000 Tripoli and Tunis Silk 3,000 „ and Egypt Iron ... 280 England EXPORTS. Wheat ^26 ,052 ... To Malta and Levant Barley 58 324 ... Crete >j Salt* 30 000 Turkey Wool 7,500 ... Tripoli Butter 8 400 Crete anc I Egypt Oxen 4, 850 ... Malta Sheep II, 000 ,) Camels 10,000 Tripoli Skins 4 000 Malta Dyewoodf 3,990 ... Egypt Ostrich feathers 35 000 England, France and Germany Ivory 5> 000 England Sponges 15 000 England and France \ The same class of goods are exported from Tripoli, and amounted in 1878 to ;^477,o34, while the imports amounted to ^,{^358,220. IMPORTS. British cloth manufactures Foreign cloth manufactures Colonial produce Tobacco ... Brass and copper Iron Wines and spirits • The salt is produced l)y solar evaporations and is a government monopoly; the introduc- tion of it into 'J'urkey from European countries is strictly forbidden. The collection and transport of the salt gives occupation to a large numher of poor people in October and November. The total yield of the lagoons in 1878 was about 26,000,000 of lbs., and worth about j(|3o,ooo. t '1 his IS the dried bark of the mot of the junijx-r tree, which grows in great abundance in this province. Egypt uses it very largely for dyeing purpofes. In 1878 the yield was 430,000 lbs. ^122,100 33.500 21,700 9,000 3.500 7,840 5,000 iii Tripoli — Land and People. 771 Earthenware and glass ware Planks and timber Combustibles Rice Provisions Baracans Hides Bohemian and Venetian beads.. Silver Agate Raw silk ... Gunpowder Guns, revolvers and swords Paper Gold lace and thread Amber beads Sundries ... Ostrich feathers... Ivory Esparto grass Butter Dates Mats Gold dust Woollen manufactures Oranges and lemons Salt Oxen Wheat Barley Goatskins Wool Sundries... Total EXPORTS. Total 3,000 7,500 4,500 3,000 10,000 8,000 3,000 18,000 30,000 5,260 7,000 1,500 2,720 2,000 3,500 1,600 45,000 ;^358>22o ;^i87,ooo 30,800 139,998 5,000 500 2,000 1,500 16,000 500 7,000 6,000 23»476 2,760 3,500 6,000 45,000 ;^477,o34 A large trade is carried on with the interior of Africa. FOURTH DIVISION. AMERICA. United States of North America. — Federal Republic. LAND AND PEOPLE. |HE extent of area cannot be given with exactitude as the surveying is far from complete. It is about 3,603,884 English square miles, exclusive of the lakes and other waters. The population in 1880 is estimated at 48,141,800.* Estimated English Population Of whom were Population STATES square miles in 18-0 coloured in 1880 A. — New England States : — - I Maini ... 35,000 626,915 1,606 650,000 2 New Hampshire 9,280 318,300 580 330,000 3 Vermont 10,212 330,551 924 347.000 4 Massachusetts ... 7,800 '<457,35i 13,947 1.846,500 5 Rhode Lsland ... 1,306 217,353 4,980 299,000 6 Connecticut 4,750 537,454 9,668 628,000 B. — C'KN'rRAL States :— 7 New York 47,000 4,382,759 52,081 5,015,000 8 New Jersey 8,320 906,096 30,658 1,132,700 9 Pennsylvania ... 46,000 3,521,95' 65,294 4,268,000 10 Delaware 2,120 125,015 22,794 140,000 IT Marvland 11,124 780,894 175,391 888,000 ' In tlie ve;ir i8co the po.iuiation was 9,600,783, of whom 7,839,551 were white; 1,761,231 were black. and A 7ft erica — Lani and People in C. — Southern States 12 Virginia ... 13 West Virginia ... 14 North Carolina ... 15 South Carolina ... 16 Georgia ... 17 Florida ... 38,34s 23,000 50.704 34,000 58,000 59,268 D. — South-Mississippi Staiks : — 18 Alabama ... ... 50,722 19 Mississippi ... ... 47,156 20 Tennessee ... ... 45,600 21 Kentucky ... ... 57,680 E. — North-Mississippi States : — 22 Ohio 39,964 23 Indiana ... ... ... 33,809 24 Michigan ... ... 56,451 25 Illinois 55,410 26 Wisconsin ... ... 53,924 27 Minnesota ... ... 83,531 F. — Trans-Mississippi States : — 28 Iowa 55,045 29 Missouri... 30 Arkansas 31 Louisiana 32 Kansas*... 33 Nebraska 34 Colorado 65,350 52,198 41,346 81,318 75'995 104,500 i>225,i63 442,014 1,071,361 750,606 1,184,109 187,748 996,992 827,922 1,258,520 1,321,011 2,665,260 1,680,637 1,184,059 2,539,891 1,054,670 439,706 1,194,020 1,721,295 484,471 726,915 364,399 122,993 39,864 512,841 17,980 391,650 4i5'8i4 545>U2 91,689 470,510 444,201 322,331 222,210 63*213 24,560 11,849 28,762 2,113 759 5.762 1 18,071 122,169 364,210 17,108 789 456 1,250,000 470,000 1,089,000 1,141,000 1,326,000 250,000 1,031,000 858,000 1,427,000 1,510,000 3,036,000 2,092,000 1,559,000 3,768,000 1,418,000 755>ooo 1,507,000 2,328,000 539,000 987,000 692,000 540,000 • 100,000 G. — West of Gulf of Mexico :- 35 Texas H. — On the Pacific; 36 California 37 Oregon ... 38 Nevada ... Territories : — 1 District Columbia 2 Territory of Arizona 3 „ Dakota' . 4 „ Idaho* 5 „ Montana' . 274,356 818,579 253,475 1,300,000 188,981 95^274 104,125 64 113.916 150,932 86,294 i43>776 560,247 90,923 42.491 131,700 9,658 14,181 14,999 2c,595 4,272 346 357 43,404 26 94 60 157 826,000 120,000 65,000 160,000 20,000 50,000 25,000 30,000 * Kansas dates its entiy into the Union from 1861, when it possessed but 135,807 inhabitants, and at which date Leavenworth and Lawrence were but small villages. In 1865 the amount of land in cultivation was only 272,903 acres; it is now 7,769,926 acres. In 1865 the yield of wheat was 191,500 bushels ; maize, 6,700,000 bushels ; in 1879 the yield of wheat was 32,000,000 ; maize, 90,000,000 bushels. Kansas still possesses 44,000.000 acres untouched by the plough. In 1865 the length of railway was 130 miles ; in 1880 the length of railway is 2,600 miles. Kansas possesses 6,000 schools besides a normal training school, an university, an agricultural college, a penitentiary, a school tor the blind, a school for deaf and dumb, 2 lunatic asylums, and a reformatory just opened. . , « J '' , 17^ America — Land and People. 6 New Mexico 121,201 91,874 172 95,000 7 Utah ... 84,476 86,786 118 160,000 .8 Washington 69,994 23>955 207 50,000 -9 Wyoming ... 97,883 9,118 183 15,000 lO Indiana ... 68,991 68,152 68,152 68,152 II Alaska* ... 577>39o 70,461 — 9>o5o 12 Indian territory 546,232 228,614 228,614 228,614 Total 3,603,884 38,925,598 5,176,749 48,141,800 The increase of the population has been very steady in its growth. At the beginning of this century the population numbered a little over 5,250,000; at the census of 1870 it had run to 38,500,000, and in 1880 it is above 48,000,000. These figures, large as they are, might have been still larger but for the great civil war which caused the population, in 1876, to be 4,000,000 below the estimate formed. Since then immigration has slackened, otherwise the number in 1880 might, according to American statisticians, have been 58,000,000 instead of 48,000,000 in this year of 1880. The rate of increase is not identical in all the States ; the Western States are outstripping the Southern and Eastern. Increase of Population. The population of the British colonies, which subsequently formed the United States, was estmiated in 1680 at 80,000 ; in 170 1 at 260,000 ; in 1753 at 1,051,000. In 1775 the United States, according to an official estimate, had 2,383,300 inhabitants. Since 1790 the following table will show the increase in every ten years. Year Population Increase Per Cent. Extent of Territory Year English sqr. miles 1790 3,929,827 .. — 1793 805,461 1800 -•• 5>305>925 •• • 1,376,098 35-02 1810 7,239,814 .. • 1,933.889 36.45 1820 9,638,131 .. • 2,398,317 33-13 1830 12,866,020 • 3.227,889 33-49 1830 2,150,000 1840 • •• ^7, 069,453 .. • 4,203,433 32.67 1840 2,308,262 1850 ... 23,191,876 .. • 6,122,423 35-87 1850 ... 2,743,300 i860 ... 31,443,321 .. • 8,251,455 35-53 1870 ... 38,925,598! .. ■ 7.482,277 23-79 1870 ... 3,603,884 1880 48,141 8co 9,216,222 — — Of the total population in 1790, 17.8 per cent, were slaves. In i860, 12.6 per cent, were slaves. At the time of the taking of the first census, (1790), the following was the number of inhabitants in individual States. • It is proposed to set up a territorial government in Alaska, with all the machinery necessary for a populous region. The total white population is about 150; In addition to these tliero were in October, 1S79, 2,000 half-breeds, 1,500 Aleuts, and 4.300 Indians. Most of the savage and semi-civilized residents of Alaska are scattered along a line of 2,000 miles long on barren islands and a rocky coast, where fish and oil are almost the sole articles of food. In the southL-rn portion of Ala' ka are two settlements, Sitka and Wrangel, where dwell nearly all the white people. t Including Indiana and .Maska. America — Land and People. 777 Inhabitants Inhabitants Virginia ... ... 747,610 Connecticut .. 237,946 Massachusetts ... ... 475^327 New Jersey .. 184,139 Pennsylvania ... 434,373 New Hampshire .. 141,885 North Carolina ... — 393.951 Georgia ... .. 82,548 New York 340,120 Rhode Island ... .. 68,825 Maryland ... 319,728 Delaware •• 59,094 South Carolina ... ••• 249,073 III! migration. The number of immigrants during the first ten years of independence amounted annually to about 4,000 individuals only. In the year 1794, (the French revolution), about 6,000. In 181 7, (the famine in Europe), the then unprecedented number of 22,240. A regular register of immigra- tions that have taken place since 1819 has been kept with care. The following table is the result. Year 1820 182I 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 184I 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 mmigrants Year 8,353 1850 9,130 185I 6,911 1852 6,350 1853 7,612 1854 10,199 1855 10,837 1856 18,815 1857 27,382 1858 22,520 1859 23,322 i860 32,633 1861 60,482 1862 58,640 1863 65,365 1864 4S>374 1865 76,242 1866 79,330 1867 38,914 1868 68,072 1869 84,006 1870 80,289 187I 104,565 1872 52,196 1873 78,615 1874 1 14^371 1875 154,416 1876 234,968 1877 226,537 187S 297,011 1879 Immigrants 361,863 379.466 371,603 368,645 427,833 200,877 200,436 251,306 123,126 121,282 153,640 91,920 91,987 176,222 193,418 248,020 348,554 298,358 297,205 385,287 361,238 367-789 449,040 437,004 277,511 209,036 224,860 130,503 153,207 177,826 In one month only, viz., April, 1880, 34,000 arrived in New York, 3,342 landing in one day. Of the 153,207 immigrants in 1878 94,651 were males and 58,556 were females. Of this total there came from the following countries — 77^ AvKTi'cu — Land and People. Canada Germany England Ireland Scotland Austria According to a calculation, there were between the years 1820 and 1876 among the immigrants — 24,533 Scandinavia 3i,95« Russia 19,892 France 17,113 Italy 3,700 Other couiuries .. 4,881 4,527,892 2,889,235 77,299 49,793 263,993 41,417 300,259 56,874 34,717 21,498 42,201 English and Irish. Germans. ' Swiss. Austrians. Swedes and Norwegians. Danes and Icelanders. French. Italians. Spaniards and Portuguese. Belgians. Dutch. Also 469,450 individuals from British America ; 59,569 from the AVest Indies ; 196,891 Chinese and 337 Japanese. The amount of j^roperty brought by the immigrants, together with that forwarded to them subsequently by their friends in the mother countries is very difficult to determine. Inspector Kennedy estimated the money brought into the United States by the immigrants in the 10 years, i85o-'6o, at ^83,333,333. If we reckon that each of the 8,333,334 immigrants possessed ^20, this gives more than ^166,000,000. But large as this sum appears, the amount of working i)ower gained was of infinitely more value, especially when we remember that at least | of the immigrants were of the most vigorous age. Creeds. Reliable information on this point is wanting. About 100 religious sects may be enumerated, 20 of which are prominent sects. According to an estimate made, there are 36,221 churches and chapels, and a proi)erty worth ^^^ 18,000,000, more than half of which is in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. The division is as follows : — Number of Amount of Sects Churches Property Roman Catholic 1,112 ^1,864,549 Methodist ... 12,467 .. 3,034,306 Baptist 8,791 .. 2,277,371 Presbyterian ... 4,584 .. 2,993,726 Ej^iscopalian (Hig li cnnirch) 1,422 2,346,227 Lutheran 1,203 •■ 597,476 Unitarian 243 •• 680,650 Univcrsalist ... 494 •• 366,222 Quakers 414 .. 354,347 Swedenbnrgian 15 •• 22.520 Ai/icrica — Land and PeopL\ 79 The Jews possess only 31 Synagogues, and a property of ;^7 7,416. The proportion of Roman Catholics is worthy of notice. The number was given in 1830, as 450,000 : in 1840, as 900,000; in 1850, as 1,233,000; and in i860, as 4,500,000. The first Roman Catholic Bishopric was created at Baltimore in 1799. In 1877 there were in the Romish Church in the Union 11 archbishops. 48 bishops, 5,067 priests, and 614 high and middle schools. There are said to be 63,700 Mormons in the United States, 38,000 being in Utah ; 5,000 in New York ; and 4,000 in California, the remainder being in less numbers in other states. Nationalities. The division of white and coloured is already given. An exact distinction between the different branches of the Caucasian race is impossible. The number of Jews is computed at 250,000. There are said to be 383,712 Indians, of whom 70,000 dwell in the newly-won territory of Alaska. The number of these unhappy people has greatly diminished. The most numerous of the tribes are the Sioux (about 52,000), the Cheyennes (7,324), the Utes (6,153), the Chippewas (5,352), the Kiowas and Comanches (4,976), the Choctaws (15,000), and the Cherokees (14,000). It is computed that about 100,000 are more or less civilized; 80,000 quite savage, and the remainder half civilized. 54,117 are said to possess permanent dwellings, and 104,818 dress in European clothing. They have 117 places of worship; 344 schools with 11,328 scholars. Ttiey cultivate 318,194 acres of land, and possess 301,033 horses ; 311,308 cattle ; 447,295 sheep ; and 214,078 pigs. In the year 1879 there was a steady advance in Indian civilization such as has had no parallel in any previous year. In this the Sioux take the lead. The Indians are willing and ready to work. The following shows the year's work, comparing the tribes outside with those inside the Indian territory. By Indians exclusive of the five civilized tribes of the Indian territory : — ■ Number of acres broken .. . ,> „ cultivated „ bushels of wheat raised » - corn • ,, 5> „ oats and barley „ ,1 » vegetables „ „ tons of hav cut 27.131 i57»o56 238,637 643,286 189,054 390,698 48,333 By the Five Civilizkd Tribes. Number of acres cultivated „ bushels of wheat raised » ,, corn ,) „ oats and barley ,, „ „ vegetables „ „ Hay cut „ 273,000 565,400 2,015,000 200,000 336,700 176,500 jSo America — Land and People. Education of the Indians in 1879. Outside the Indian territory there are 7,100 children taught at the Agency schools, while the five tribes within the territory have 6,250 children at school. The Sioux, during the year 1879, hauled 2,000 tons of freight 150 miles to their new reservation. The department has bought enough transportation material, to enable all the tribes to haul their supplies, excepting those in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. To7vns and the number of tiieir inhabitants. iSio 1S20 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 New York*.. 96,377 123,706 203,007 312,710 515,507 814,277 942,292 Philadelphia 96,691 108,116 167,188 258,037 408,762 568,034 674,022 Brooklyn ... 4,402 7,175 13,662 41^913 96,838 273,425 396,099 St. Louis ... — 4-598 5,852 16,469 77,S6o 162,179 310,864 Chicago ... — - - — 4,479 29,963 109,429 298,977 Baltimore... 46,555 62,738 80,625 102,313 169,054 214,037 267,354 Boston ... 32,250 43-298 61,392 93,383 136,881 177,902 250,526 Cincinnati... 2,540 9,644 24,831 46,338 114.436 160,060 216,239 New Orleans 17,212 27,167 46,310 102,193 116,375 170,766 191,418 i860 1870 San Francisco 66,000 ... i49'473 Buffalo (N.Y.) 84,132 ... 117,714 Jersey City 59^256 — 82,546 Washingtonf 61,400 ... 109,199 Newark (N.J.) 72,055 ... 105,059 Louisville (Ky.) 75»i96 — 100,753 Cleveland (Oh.) 43>55o — 92,829 Pittsburg (Penn) 49'2i7 ••• 86,076 Detroit (Mich.) 46,834 ... 79,5^9 Albany (N.Y.) 62,367 ... 76,216 Milwaukee (Wise.) 45.323 ••• 7i,440 Providence (Rh. Is.) 50,689 ... 68,870 Rochester (N.Y.) 48,096 ... 62,434 Alleghany City (Penn.) 28,702 ... 53,i85 Richmond (Virg.) 37>958 ■•• 5^038 New Haven (Con.) 39,277 ••• 50,886 Charleston (S. Car.) 40,1 94 ••• 48,956 Indianopolis (Ind.) 18,611 ... 48,244 Troy (N.Y.) 89,653 ... 46,465 Syracuse (N.Y.) 28,119 ... 43.051 Worcester (Mass.) 24,963 ... 41,168 Lowell (Mass.) 37,069 ... 40,928 Memphis (Ten.) 22,623 ••• 40,226 Cambridge (Mass.) 26,074 ... 39-634 Hartford (Con.) 20,152 ... 37,183 Scranton (Pen.) — ••■ 35.092 Reading ... 23,171 ... 33.940 Paterson (N. J.) — ••• 33.579 Kansas City — •■• 32,260 • New York, with its suburbs of Brooklyn, Jurscy City, and Hoboken, has 1,441,184 inhabitants. t The Central Government has its seat in Washington. America — Land and People. 781 IS60 iS/i'i 29,258 321034 18,758 31,584 26,341 31,413 18,554 3i>274 27,258 30,904 20,132 30,473 17,639 28,921 22,529 28,804 35,120 28,330 22,292 28,235 Mobile Toledo Portland Columbus (Oh.) Wilmington Dagton (Oh.) Lawrence ... Utica (N. Y.) Charleston Savannah ... Origin of the Names of the Different Countries. i^/a/V/^ was so named in the year 1623 after the province of Maine in France ; the inheritance of Henrietta Maria, queen of England. Ntiu Hampshire — the district which was granted by the Plymouth Com- pany to Captain John Mason by a patent dated November 7, 1629, and this with reference to the owner of the patent, the governor of Hampshire, in England. Vermont first received this name from its inhabitants, when they declared their independence January 16, 1777, from the French Vertmont (Green Mountains.) Massachusetts, from Massachusetts Bay, which obtained its name from the tribe of Massachusett Indians in the neighbourhood of Boston. The tribe is believed to have derived its name from its first place of resi- dence, the blue hills of Milton. Rhode Island, named thus in 1664 after the island of or Rhodes. Connecticut, from the Indian name of its chief river; a Mohican word signifying " long stream." Neio York, 1664, named after the Duke of York and Albany, to whom the district was presented by the King of England. Nezu Jersey, 1664, after the island of Jersey (one of the Channel islands), the residence of the family of Sir George Cartaret, to whom this territory was lent. Pennsylvania, 1681, after William Penn. Delaware received its name from the bay, which obtained the name from Lord de la Warr, who died in this bay. Maryland, in honour of Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. Virginia, named (1604) after Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen of England. Carolina, in honour of Charles II. Georgia in honour of George II. Alabama, 18 14, from the river Alibama. Mississippi, 1672, from the Mississippi River, signifying in the Indian language, "The Father of Waters." Illinois. — Both State and river obtained the name from the Indian tribe cf Illinois which means, "We are men." Minnesota, from its river which signifies in the Dacotah language, " Troubled VVater." Arkansas, from the Indian tribe of Quappas who are called by the Algonquin Indians, "Arkansas" or " Alkansas." -Kentucky, from the river; the word, in the language of the Algonquins, signifies the " Long River." y82 America — Land ami People. Texas, truni a number of Indian tribes, who bore this name signifying, " Friends in Common." Indiana, 1806, named after the Indians. O/ilo, so called at the end of the last century from the river, which means, in the Iroi[Uois language, " Beautiful Stream." Missouri, i'j2i, irom the river, signifying in the Indian language, " A Boat." Michigan, 1805, from the lake, which means in the language of the Ojibbe- way Indians, '' (ireat Lake." Florida, so called by Juan Bonce dc Leon, in 1572, because it was dis- covered on Easter Sunday, which is exiled in Spanish, "Bascua Florida." Columbia, named after Christopher Columbus. Wisconsin, after the principal river of the same name. Iowa and Oregon likewise derive their names from their principal streams. Increase of Territory. The United States, after their acknowledgment by England in 1783 contained 815,615 square miles. It received an increase in 1803 by the acquirement of Louisiana from France, which made the area 930,000 ; then again in 18 19, an addition of 59,268 square miles by the acquisition of Florida from Spain. The annexation of Texas (formerly Spanish, then Mexican, and last of all independent), in 1845, g^"^'^ ^ further addition of 274,356 scjuare miles. In 1846 Oregon was secured by treaty with England, adding a further 95,274 square miles. New Mexico and Upper. California were obtained from Mexico m 1848, and supplied an increase of 310,182 miles. In 1854 a district of 113,916 square miles called Arizona was obtained by the Treaty of Gadsden ; and, lastly, the ac(}uire- ment in 1867 of Russian America, called Alaskn, added 577,390 miles. The sanguinary rebellion which began in eleven States, viz. : — Virginia, North and South Carolina. Tenessee, Arkansas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and I'exas in 1861, was com- pletely subdued in 1865. Nanus of the Presidents of the United States. The term of office commences on the ist of March, and lasts 4 years. 1789 George Washington (twice elected). 1797 John Adams. 1801 Thomas Jefferson (twice elected). 1809 John Maddison (twice elected). 1817 James Munroe (twice elected). 1825 John Quincy Adams. 1829 Andrew Jackson. 1837 Martin \'an Buren. 1 84 1 ^Villiam Harrison (died). 1 84 1 John Tyler. 1845 James Knox Bolk. 1849 Zachary Taylor (died in 1850.) 1850 Millard Fillimore. 1853 Franklin Fierce. 1857 James Buchanan. 1861 Abraham Lincoln, nmrdered April 15, 1S65 (twice elected). 18^15 Andrew Johnson. 1869 Ulysses S. Grant (twice elected.) 1877 Rutherford Birchard Hayes. I l%o\ c. A iiierica — Land and People. J 8 5 Fina/nr. Unlil the great commercial crisis of 1857 the finances remained in a very flourishing condition. The customs yielded the largest revenue, and next to them the sale of State lands (Congress land) which were sold at Ss. 2%d. per acre. The receipts in the financial year 1855-6, begmning July 1, were ^19,342,091, of which the customs yielded ^i3>338»o96 and the sale of land ^1,857,842, the total expenditure of this same year being only ^15,197,665. In the following year, viz., 1856-7, the receipts were ^18,444,341 and the expenditure ^^13, 5 16,421. But the Budget for 1857-8 gave the receipts at ^9>699'493 and the expenditure at ^16,997,013, leaving a deficit of ^7»"97.520. In the following year there was also a deficit. The actual account of 1859-60 was as follows : — Receipts Expenditure Customs p{;ii,o8i,o4i \ Foreign affairs ... ^5,827,083 Sale of land ... 370,625 ' Home department ... 824,166 Miscellaneous receipts 210,416 War department ... 3,418,750 Marine department 2,398,541 ... ^11,662,082 Debt 3>669,375 From loans ... 4,327,916 ' \ Total ... ^16,137,915 Total ... ^i5s989>998 In 1 860-1 the balance seemed to be nearly restored, but the rebellion broke out in the Southern States in the spring of 1861, and the Minister of Finance demanded new credits on July 4 of the same year, viz., ^37,546,875 for the army, ^6,354,166 for the navy, and ^4,479,166 for the debt. The total expenditure for the year rose to ^66,358,246. Loans were contracted and new taxes levied simultaneously; the customs'^ dues were very greatly increased. The increased taxation, however, yielded 5^^ millions less than the estimated amount, the total receipts from that source being only ^11,365,136- The Minister of Finance subsequently produced his calculation thus — Year Revenue Expenditure 1861-2 ^11,835,235 ... ^113,209,672 1862-3 19.958033 •■• 99,°-7,342 1863-4 33,666,354 ... 156,194,158 1864-5 88,814,123 ... 394,848,796 The increase in the receipts was obtained by the introduction of fresh taxes ; the deficit was obliged to be covered every year by an increase in the debt. All the estimates of the expenditure remained far below the real amount, because the value of paper money became depreciated in propor- tion as the quantity of it increased, and as a result of this the price of everything gradually rose. The taxes were, of course, all paid in paper- money. But the necessaries of life imported from abroad could only be paid in metal coin ; therefore loans of gold were obtained upon the condi- tion that the interest on them should be paid in like manner.and that they should subsequently be jiaid off in the same coin In order to procure the precious metal needful' for this object, a legal order was issued that the customs should be paid in gold. 784 A inerica — Land and People. The actual accounts for the years immediately subsequent to the close of the Civil War were as follows : — Year ending in Revenue Expenditure Surplus 1866 .. ^^265,408,378 . .. ^237,723,472 .. ^27,684,906 1867 263,322,597 . 227,724,928 35,597,669 1868 250,337,152 222,893,743 27,443,408 1869 154,262,153 121,828,749 32,433,404 1870 118,111,628 86,974,989 31,136,634 187I 123,495,794 88,106,736 . 22,889,057 1872 100,842,202 78,641,295 23,200,907 1873 69,528,793 60,488,592 9,040,199 Under revenue appeared : — Transferred Accounts Customs Lands Inland Taxes 1866 . .. ;^i48,5io,74o ;^37,3oi,385 ;^i38,548 ^64,422,252 1867 . 133,422,272 36,753,710 242,411 55,422,403 1868 . 130,231,548 34,263,458 280,982 39,809,914 1869 . 49,724,600 37,510,088 837,571 32,990,929 1870 . 32,433,404 40,528,827 698,017 38,568,512 1871 . 26,136,639 42,973,001 497,634 29,812,115 1872 . 22,889,057 45,077,142 536,607 27,217,120 Under expenditure appeared Civil Service Pensions and Indians War 1866 ... ^8,553,533 ••• ;^{^3,865,336 ;^59,26o,359 1867 ... 10,647,923 5,328,975 19,838,420 1868 ... 11,043,722 5,808,922 25,676,385 1869 .. 11.765,429 7,399,905 16,354,581 1870 3,964,850 6,614,195 12,016,607 I87I 3,908,495 8,723,102 7,458,331 1872 3,372,303 7,415,652 6,952,532 Navy Payment of Debt Interest on Debt 1866 .. ;^9,o25,857 ... ;^I29,242,026 P^27, 722,446 1867 .. 6,415,418 155-489,692 29,954,498 1868 5,369,896 144,114,527 30,713,582 1869 4,166,824 52,754,732 29,387,275 1870 4,537,547 22,463,831 26,924,062 I87I 4,^47,630 27,236,488 26,161,784 1872 4,426,993 22,274,691 24,449,549 If during the Civil War nothing was spared for the conducting or prosecuting of it, so at its close, no exertions were shirked, however colossal, which would bring about a reduction of the State debt, so greatly increased by the war. And no other State has done so much in this respect. It was America — Land and People. 7S5 not until considerable amounts of the debt had been paid off in 1870 and again in 1873 that large reduction;^ ot taxes Avere ])ernntted. The total amount paid off the debt from March ist 1869 to ist of November 1873 ^^'^^ estimated at ^'79,922,871, making a yearly saving of ^5.715.194- The taxes imposed to defray the costs of the war are manifold, and extend to many of the necessaries of life A land tax of very small amount (1 cent per acre,) existed from the commencement of the Union till 1818 ; from that year all direct taxes for jiurposes of the whole Union ceased, until it was necessary to impose them again in 1861, and that at a much higher rate, and in addition an income tax, a manufacturing tax, and a stamp duty were imposed. The former was at first progressive up to 10 per cent, but was definitely fixed at 5 per cent, in 1865, with the regulation that incomes under ^125 should be free of duly, and that this amount might be deducted from higher incomes. The other new taxes belonged_| partly to the category of excise, partly to that of the customs, with which many other imposts were ranked (on sugar, coffee, tea, distilled lic^uors, carriages, trinkets ; on bank-notes, legacies, etc., abolished since July 1st, 1872). The customs are levied partly according to weight and measure, and partly according to value ; sometimes both systems are combined, as, for example, with cigars, from M. to 10^. per lb,, according to the quality ; and 10 per cent, on the value. Annual taxes were fixed on all ordinar)- industry as is done in France, by the patent duty. All persons carrying on any trade or profession are compelled to pay this tax ; the heads of manufacturing trades are obliged to state the amount of goods produced by them every month, and by this the tax is proportioned. The whole system of inland taxation, w^hich is altogether new in America, took some time to develop. The State treasury did not receive more than ^8,125,000 from this source in the financial year of 1862 and 1863 ; but in the following year it increased to ^"22,910,666, and by 1865 ^'"^d 1866 it had reached ^'64,422,252. In 1865 the largest amount of duty from one source was that from manufactures which paid more than ^21,500,000; cotton and woollen manufactures each paid ^"1,666,666; distilled liquors, ^3,333,333; tobacco, ^i)455>ii=f; licenses, ^2,500,000; the mcome tax yielded ^""4,166,666 ; dividends ^2,910,222 ; and stamp duty, ^2,291,667. As regards the distribution of the inland taxes, the sum yielded by the various articles in 1868, was much less than in the previous years in conse- quence of successive reductions or partial abolition. In 1870 a most im- ! portant change resulted from a decree of July 14th, which was a reduction i of the tax on industry, a reduction of income tax from 5 to 2-^ per cent, and a declaration that incomes under ^'416 were free of duty. The inherit- ance duty was entirely done away with ; the same with mercantile stamps on all bills below ^,^20. The ordinary stamp duty was reduced together with several other taxes. The inland taxes are thus simplified and are only imposed as federal taxes on incomes, spirituous liquors, and tobacco ; besides which the stamp duty exists. A further relief came into effect on July ist, 1872. The I duty on tea and coffee was entirely abolished, and the customs tarift' re- duced in a variety of items. 'l"he yield of the niland taxes (internal revenue, federal taxes) was as follows : — : 786 A vicrica — hand and People. Tax on i«t70 1^72 Spirits ;^i 1,592,936 ••• ^10,307,399 Tobacco 6,531,397 ... 7,028,368 Fermented drinks 1,316,484 ... 1,720,520 Duty on banks 629,184 ... 964,214 Income tax 5,880,119 ... 1,814,843 Net receipts of banks 744,43i ••• 450'534 „ railway companies 603,917 ... 3^5,5^6 „ insurance „ 193,024 ... 56,360 7 Railway bonds 389,451 ••• 268,963 8 Incomes from other sources ... 58,878 ... • 32,290 9 Gas 481,961 ... 589,941 10 Stamp duty 3,446,675 ... 4,370,275 11 Fines 172,480 ... 92,126 1 2 Altered taxes 7,183,045 ... 37i,755 Total ^39,223,982 ^28,453,174 Ta.\ on 1 Spirits 2 Tobacco* 3 Fermented drinks 4 Duty on banks ... 5 Fines Total 1877 ^'11,972,797 8,563,863 1,975,164 797,860 1,480,976 ^{^24,790,660 10,504,271 8,350,943 2,070,319 714,381 1,490,666 ^22,880,580 One of the early sources of revenue, that of land, is very much diminished, in consequence of the law of domicile {see social condition). Lands irranted were as follows : — For cash payments As prizes to the militai) ... For schools and agricultural purposes . . For railways By the law of domicile or settlement Swamps to States Total According to the " Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office," in the year 187 1 the United States embrace an area of 1,902,000,000 acres ; 1,284,119,331 of which were not then surveyed. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1871, the Ciovernment dis- posed of 10,765,705 acres. Of these, 4,600,326 acres were granted to free settlers, and 2,911,938 to railway comjianies. These companies had received 216,000,000 acres in gift.s, whereas only 163,136,644 acres had been bought by them. ♦ In 1X78 the iuiml)i-r of cigiirs made was 1,905,063,743; of ligarett.'s 165,189,594: the weight of tobacco was 15,342|933 lbs- I!)(j4 1 860 acres acres 432,773 338,294 519,900 403,180 214,418 651,066 857,180 94,557 1,261,592 1,892,516 1,199,658 3,285,863 4,579.271 America — Land and People. 7^7 Expenditure of the State. The highest salary, that of the President of the Union, did not until recently amount to more than ^5,200, nor that of the Vice-President to more than ^1,600. Now, however, the President receives ^10,400, the members of the Cabinet ^2,000, and the Members of Congress ^1,500. The military invalids and veterans of the war are well cared for ; they have pensions and grants of land. The widows and orphans of those who lost their lives in the war are likewise provided for, as will be seen in the item "pensions." The pension list of the United States is exclusively military and naval, and the Commissioner of Pensions reported that there were 242,755 names on the pension rolls on June 30, 1879. Of these 125,150 were army invalids ; 81,174 army widows, children, or deijendant relatives; 1,844 were navy invalids ; 1,772 navy widows or children; 11,621 were surviving soldiers of the war of 181 2, and 21,194 widows of deceased soldiers of that war. There were 37,346 new pensioners added during the year 1S79, owing to the enlargement of the lists by Congress. The annual pension charge is ^5,311,196, but the cost for 1879 ^'^s heavier, owing to the arrears due to the new pensioners. The Post. The post is not regarded as a source of revenue, but from the stand- point of accommodation and comfort to the nation. In 1875, foJ" example, the receipts from the post were ^5,717,000 ; and the cost of it ^"7,002,356, The Union lacks that admirable administration of finance which exists, for example, in Switzerland. Historical Notice. It became needful as early as 1781 for the central government to raise ^1,666,660. This sum was divided in the following manner, accord- ing to the supposed value of the cultivated lands (as a land-tax therefore). We shall also see how far behind most of the other provinces stood the present chief State of New York (the empire State) : — Virginia Massachusetts Pennsylvania Maryland Connecticut ... New Jersey ... North Carolina ^272,415 272,395 233>49y 194,582 151-499 147,078 129,724 South Carolina New York Rhode Island New Hampshire Delaware Georgia ^177,834 77,832 45,142 36,124 23.351 5,188 The following table will show the state of the finances since 1873 • — Customs ... Inland revenue Direct tax ... REVENUE. 1874 1S76 i8;8 i^33>979,825 ^30.848,315 ^27,118,894 21,335.371 24.312,652 19,522 23.037,838 788 Sale of public lands Miscflhineous Preuiiums ... Total revenue America — Land and People. 1874 18-6 3«5'943 6.786,567 1,049.544 235,305 5,014,875 839,433 187S 224,946 3,253'06S 66,062 ■•• ^63.537,250 ^61,270,102 ^53,700,808 Receipts from loans and \ r ro q / /-o c, „- / /,9i,Si5,i 12 /,82,8o^,i6^ y>4,2b7,75o treasury notes j ^^i ,0 O' -^^ ' O' a ^^ -+> /,yo Total receipts /:i55,o52,362 ^144,073,265 ^'i37-9'^8.55S War Department ... Marine Department Indian affairs Pensions ... Miscellaneous Premiums... Interest Total expenditure EXPENDITURE. 1874 ^8.815,401 6.444,288 1,394,262 6,049,169 17,737,^31 292,406 22,316,628 IS76 /J, 931.435 3,950,689 1,243,032 5,886,957 ' 5'v50>5'-"0 1S7; ^6,699,614 3,617,771 964.433 5»653-545 11,078,688 20,884,014 21,354,348 ^^63,049,985 ^55,229,390 ^49,368,309 T//f State Debt. This stood as follows in the years 1805 Debt, bearing interest ... ... ^496,152,144 Debt, the interest of which has ceased 313,129 Debt, bearing no interest (paper money) 96,170,024 ^592,635,297 18,362,094 ••• ^574,273,203 3i-453'686 Less gold in the Treasury Total debt Annual interest KS78 /^"3 7 3, 903, 2 60 r, 165,520 94,974,100 ^470,042,880 53,504^^ ^416,537,961 19,249,681 In 1880 the actual debt is ^413,815,573. 'i'he 5] per cent, interest is, for the future to be reduced to 4-|, thus reducing the interest i)ayable annually by ^^ 2,250,000. History of t/ie Debt. At the end of the War of lnde])endence, the amount of foreign and home debt was ^8,750,000 ; this soon shewed c:onsiderable increase. On the ist of January, 1791, it was ^,15,660,411, of which ^2,669,339 was foreign debt, (France ^1,575,302 ; Spain ^^52,162 ; Holland ^1,041,875). The figure rose in 1804 to ;j^ 17,782,008, but declined in 1808 to ^13,487,984, and in 1812 to ^9,382,417. 'I'he war again raised it, and by 1816 it had reached ;^22, 628, 41 j. Reductions were made in time of peace, so th.u in 1833 it was oily ^,'994,652, and in 1834, the debt was entirely paid off, and in 1835, even a surplus which w;i . divided among the separate Slates. America — Land and People. 7^9 The Mexican War, and the ac(]uinng of new territory, necessitated considerable loans. The following events materially affected the state of the debt at various periods. On April 30, 1803, the Union bought Louisiana from Napoleon for ;^2, 500,000, and on February 22nd, 1819, Florida was bought from Spain for ^1,041,666. A debt of about ^2,250,000 was undertaken with Texas. About ;^4, 2 50,000 were paid to Mexico (| of it in cash) for the cession of California, etc. Russian America was purchased for ^2.250,000, paper money, = ;^ 1.562,500 in gold. ^4,250,000 were set apart in 1834 for the construction of high roads and canals. In 1853 the Union received ^i ,000,000 from France as compensa- tion for losses caused by the violent measures of Napoleon in the great wars. Up to the year 1840 the Union had bought 442,866,370 acres of land from the various Indian tribes, for which it had paid ^17,726,843. On the other hand, it sold between the years 1833 — 57, 114,271,800 acres for ^27,641,238. As most of the lands were not bought, but merely taken possession of as lands without an owner, the Union really owns a far larger extent of country. In 1873 the Union received an indemnity of^3,2 5o,ooo from England as adjudicated to her by the Geneva Conference, in compen- sation for the injury inflicted on her trade by the southern pirate vessel, Alabama, which had been allowed to run out of British ports. The State debt was reduced by the close of the fiscal year 1857 to ^5,234,407. In consequence of the decline in the customs, and the expenditure for military purposes, it rose in 1860-61 to ^18,930,797. The Minister of Finance, in his report to the Congress in December, 1864, as to the state of the debt after the outbreak of the Civil War said that it was of no importance, and in his returns estimated his expenses at ;2^66,358,295, a sum which he hoped to cover fully by the ordinary receipts and a loan; — ^4,166,666 from direct taxes, and a tax of 3 per cent, on all incomes over ^166 were ordered by a decree of Congress in August of 1861, and the Finance Minister was obliged to apply to Congress in December of the same year for means to cover a deficit of ^44,459, 255. Increased taxation proved itself inevitable, and thus the general customs regulation was issued in July, 1862, followed 14 days after, by the increase of the import dues. But the needs increased so rapidly that it was not thought possible to await the result of the nego- ciation of a loan. ' Congress, therefore, resolved upon the issue of ^62,500,000 of paper money, an issue of ;^i2, 500. 0000 having already taken place. It was issued and the exchange forced. In May, 1863, Congress authorised a loan of ^62,500,000 for the current year, and one of ^125.000,000 for the following fiscal year. Two- thirds of this were to be issued in 6 per cent. Treasury notes, and 31 millions in ])aper money ; ^1,041,666 of the latter sum to be reserved for the repayment of temporary deposits. For the payment of temporary outlays needful during the course of the year. Congress ordered (March i . 1863) the issue of 6 per cent, certificates, payable at the expiration of one \ear, and also approved of the receipt of deposits for not less than 30 days, to be withdrawn at 10 days' notice. Of the same character was the issue of a limited amount of ])a])er mnnev in notes of less than 45'., 2d., ordered March 3, 1863. 790 America — Land and People. The needs ceased not to increase, and new loans followed the old ones. Such a mass of debt accumulated as had never been known within so short a space. The following is a calculation by Kiihne of the debt existing in 1865 : — I. — Loans, thf, interest payable in gold. (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (12) ^1,961,510 of 28th Jan., 1847, at d J° to expire 1,855,904 „ 31st March, 1848, „ 6,,/° „ 14th June, 1858, „ 5 / 22nd June, i860, „ 5 „/° 8th Feb. 1861, „ 6 / 4,166,666 1,512,916 3,836,458 10,416,666 29,072,177 „ 107,245,937 „ 19,122,708 „ 35>993»77o v 211,666 ,, 15,625,000 „ Feb. 25th, 1862, „ 6 / 30th June, 1864, „ 6 ^1" 3rd March, 1864, „ 5 X 2nd March, 1 86 1, ., 6 „/" 3rd March, 1861, ,, 6 p/' Dec. 31, 1867. July I, 186S. Jan. I, 1874. Jan. I, 1871. Dec. 31, t88o. June 30, 1881. June 30, 1881. May I, 1882 Nov. I, 1884. March i. 1904, July I, 1881 June 30, i88i* ^231,651,378 Of these loans those numbered 8, 9, 10, can be paid off at the end of 5 or 10 years, but they must be paid off at the expiration of 20 or 40 years — for this reason, these bonds are called the 5-20 and 10-40 loans. II. — Loans, the interest on which is payable in government MONEY. (i) ^262,083 of istjuly, 1862, and 2nd July, 1864, at 6 per cent., to expire January 16, 1895. (2) ^134,378 of I ith July, 1862, at 4 per per cent., to expire at 30 days' notice. (3) £,Ai^l9-:°'^2> ^* I'tl"" .T'^il)'' 1862, at 5 ])er cent., to expire at 30 days' notice (4) ^i5'535»55i ntl^ .Uily, 1862. at 6 per cent., to expire at 30 days notice. (5) ^22,230,416 of 1st March, 1862, at 5 per cent., to expire after one year on jtayment of tlie capital. (6) .;^8,3i8,797 of 3rd March, 1863, at 5 per cent., to expire after two years on ])ayment of capital. (7) ^44,200,084 of 3rd March, 1863, and 201I1 June, 1S64, at 6 per ceni., to expire at the end of three years on payment of principal. (8) ^62,500,000 of 30th June, 1864, and 3rd March, 1^65, at 7^3^ per cent., to expire in three years. (9) ^62,500,000 of 3rd March, 1865, „ •'^t 7to Per cent., to ex])ire in three years. (10) ^47,916,666 of 3rd March, 1865, „ at 7 ,'^j per cent., to expire in three years. Total amount of loans payable in Ciovernment money, ;!^268,5 76,928. America — Land and People. 791 The loans numbered 8, 9, 10, are called the ^ f-^ notes ; they are to be be exchanged into 6 per cent, bonds on the day they expire ; the interest on these latter is payable in gold. III. — STATE IJKBT NOT LIABLE TO iNi'KRKST (Treasury notes, certificates.) Issue authorized on 17th July, August 5th, ^•™™''' outstanding 1861, and February 12th, 1862 ... ^12,500.000 ;£()^,^^^ Issue in Feb. and July, 1862, and Jan.. 1863 83,333,333 83,234,874 „ July, 1862 10.208,333 6,912,618 ,, small notes for use as change ... 6,250.000 5,364,590 ^95i6ro,540 The amount of paper money in circulation was ;^2 1,285,618. Thus there was a list of debts, the highest amount of which was in August 31st, 1865, when it reached /^574,256,577. The endeavour of the Ciovernmment has been to accomplish both a diminution of the amount of the principal, and a reduction of the interest by means of conversion, A very considerable part of the 6 per cent, certi- ficates have in reality been converted into 5 per cents. Expanse of Ihe Civil War. Setting aside the increase of the State debt, there is the principal of the pensions which must be paid as a result of the war, and which at present amounts to about ^^41,666,666 ; there is an increase of the debts of the separate States, ;^25,625,ooo : increase of country, town, and district debts, ^'41,500,000. Current expenses of the States, counties, towns, and dis- tricts, incurred for the war, and not furnished by loans, nearly ^125,000,000 ; loss of the loyal States in consequence of damage and interruption of industry, of the diminution of the American navy and trade, ^250,000,000 ; direct expenditure and loss of property in the Con- federate States in consequence of the war, ^562,530,000. These sums together make, in round numbers, p<^ 1,87 5, 000,000, which was really the cost of the abolition of slavery. This is three times as much as the slave property was ever worth — a sum which costs twice as much for interest alone as was ever produced by slave labor in the south at its most flourish- ing period. Financial Condition of the Separate States. While the Government are reducing their debt, and either reducing or abolishing taxes, the individual States are going in quite another direc tion. Many of the States are practically bankrupt, and a like fate seems to threaten others. In the year 1878 the United States population paid direct and indirect taxes to the amount of ;^i 37,500,000 — that is, ;j^2 i8.y. per head. The following table will show at a glance the acknowledged debt and the revenue of the separate States for the year 1878, together with the length of railway in each. A great part of the debts have been incurred for security for interest on railways, etc. Some States have partially or wholly repudiated their financial obligations at various times. Louisiana, in January, 1874 voluntarily reduced 40 per cent, of its debt. 792 America — Land and People. «. New England States :— Exports Length of of Home Railway. States Debt Revenue Productions Miles 1. Maine ... _ ... ^1,223,729 ^251,612 ^1,227,284 996 2. New Hampshire ... 739,480 103,430 1,210 962 3. Vermont 7,916 81,423 3oi,i73 875 4. Massachusetts ... 6,879,263 382,047 10,017,697 1,861 5. Rhode Island ... 507,187 173,545 4,3i6 203 6. Connecticut ... 984,416 344,285 759,973 921 Total of ^7. ...^10,341,991 ^1,336,342 ;,{^i 2,31 1.653 5.818 b. Central States : — 7. New York ... ^1,907,094 ^2,584,273 ^74,437,786 5,720 8. New Jersey ... 457,5^1 362,756 i53.o35 1,659 9. Pennsylvania ... 4,581,146 824,558 9,293,655 5,922 10. Delaware ... 198,541 40,625 5,833 271 11. Maryland ... 2,241,391 1,509.354 9,506,983 943 Total of /^ ... ^9,385,733 ^5,321,566 ^93.397,29214,515 c. Southern States: — 12. Virginia ... • ^6,114,755 ^629,195 ^^2,320,67 1 1,620 13- West Virginia — 144,432 637 14. North Carolina .. 3,533,342 111,141 1,055,022 1,425 15- South Carolina .. 1,362,020 169,154 3,971,243 1,628 16. Georgia ... 4,217,604 416,322 4,102,042 2,337 17- Florida ... 283,301 65,726 642,108 484 Total of r. ...^15.511.022 ^1.53.^,970 ^12,091,086 8,131 d. S. Mlssissippi States : — 18. Alabama ... 19,693.060 149,630 1,976,619 1.800 19. Mississippi ... 615,512 179,443 82,101 1.0S7 20. Tennessee ... 5,088.146 130,526 — 1,654 21. Kentucky ... 386.008 233,379 — ■.5C7 Total of d. ... ^25.782,726 ^692,978 ^:2,o58,72o 6,048 e. N. Mississippi States: — 22. Ohio ^^1,349,355 ^1.162,820 /:632,i25 5,074 23. Indiana ... ... 1,041,287 387,662 787,895 4,054 24. Michigan... ... 199,822 382,047 2.235,346 3.465 25. Illinois ,,s.,,4 693,776 ' y:^^:'^ \ 7,387 J J . T J CI 1 1 ^ Indiana \ '^o 1 26. Wisconsin ... 459,178 233,507 470.359 2,700 27. Minnesota ... 108,750 307,692 195,512 2,192 Total of ^. ... ^3,273,546 ^"3,167,484 ^:4,32i, 237 24.874 Airterica — Land ayid People. 793 / Trans-Mississippi States 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Iowa ^103,632 ^222,675 — 4,13^ Missouri... ... 3,491,250 730,626 — 3)i96 Arkansas 2,735,543 133,204 — 666 Louisiana ... 2,640,773 542,99^ ^i7'832,26i 503 Kansas 246,244 251,390 — 2,350 Nel)raska ... 124,847 198,785 — 1,284 Colorado... ... 25,812 32,072 — 1,044 Total of/. ... ^9,368,101 ^2,111,743 ;/;i7,832,26i 13,174 g. West of the Gulf of Mexico — 35. Texas ^1,057,054 ^408,940 ^3,264,013 2,208 //. On the Pacific — 36. California ... ^728,958 ^815,311 p/^8,222,606 2,099 37. Oregon i35,749 86,308 1,298.240 247 38. Nevada 138,675 149,95^ — 630 Total of//. ... ^1,003,382 ^1,051,575 ;;{:9,520,846 2,976 Territories — Columbia ... ... — — 2,095 — Territories — — 118,673 1,732 The Army. LAND force. Congress determines the number of troops every two years in time of peace. They are recruited and receive from jQd to ;^4i " bounty money." The term for which they enlist is usually five years, except in time of war, when it is for a less period. 'J'hose who re-enter the service at the expira- tion of the term receive, in addition to a fresh bounty, a claim to an increase of pay, and 180 acres of land on leaving the army. The recruits receive rations, clothing, and 3ojr. a month for the first two months, and subsequently ^,2 2.?. There are manv foreigners among the soldiers. In 1879 the army was officered by i general, i lieutenant-general, 3 major-generals, 15 generals of brigades, 66 colonels, 85 lieutenant-colonels, and 242 majors. A general's pay is from ^1,140 to ^,^3,312 ; a colonel's, from ^729 to ^1,000; lieutenant's from ^375 to ^580: a sub-lieu- tenant's from ^291 to ;^43o. The effective force of the army is reduced to 25,000 men, exclusive of all detachments for special services which now amount to 3,463 men.'^ It is composed of 25 regiments of infantry (of which the 24th and 25th are black) of 10 companies each, and each company numbers 37 men. Ten regiments of cavalry, of which the 9th and loth are black ; each regiment having 12 companies of 91 men each. Five regiments of artillery, each of 12 companies of 41 men. * The deaths among the white soldiers average I2 per i,ooo. and among tht- negro soldiers 14 per 1,000. 794 America — Land and People. One battalion of engineers including 109 officers and 200 men. The army of the Union in 1879 numbered 25,000 men and 2,155 officers and military employes. The ])ay of the soldiers varies from £\ \os to ^4 per month. The regular army is divided into three military divisions, 9 military departments, and one independent. 1. The division of the Missouri, with the 4 departments of Dakota, the Platte, the Missouri, and Texas. 2. Division of the Atlantic, containing the two departments of east and south. 3. The division of the Pacific with the three departments of California, Columbia, and Arizona. Fortresses.. None really existed until the beginning of the civil war. The great ports were protected by forts ; for example, New York, Boston, New Orleans, and Charleston. Forts were also erected at certain points as a defence against the Indians. The Southern States fortified a number of places immediately after the commencement of the rebellion, the most important of the fortifications being at Richmond. Historical Notice {Army.) The people of North America, although never organizing their troops well in time of peace, yet have always produce an effective military force, whenever danger arose. Heavy loss of life, however, has always marked the commencement of a war. Thus it was in the \\ ar of Independence. The following account of the strength of the opposing forces is given by one who served under l.ord Cornwallis (Stedman). Britons 24,000 26,900 27,700 27,000 30.000 The fighting power of the Americans in 17181 is thus giver Infantry, 49 regiments, earh of 9 comjjanies of 64 men Artillery, 4 » - 9 '• •' '''5 >• Pioneers, i „ ,, 8 scjuadrons of 60 ., Cavalry, 4 „ „ ^> ,. ', ^>4 m Year August, T776. November ., December )» March, 1777. June It Americans 16,000 4.500 3' 300 4>5oo 8,000 Men 28,224 2,340 480 ^536 32,580 At the conclusion of the second war with England in 18 15, there were 32,000 soldiers, but their number was quickly reduced to 6,000. 90,067 were brought into the field in the Mexican \Var : 4,443 of these were offi- cers. 121 officers and 1,399 ])rivate soldiers died of their wounds 86 „ 6,063 „ .. disease „ 108 „ ,, by accidents Total deaths (officers and men), 7,777. 3,743 inuic were wounded, of whom 300 were officers ; the number of deserters was 4,966 America — Land and People. 795 Previous to the outbreak of the Civil War the standing army was said to contain 17,984 men, the actual number, however, was only 15,764 men. It was seen at the first outbreak of the rebellion, independently of the small number of the standing army, how entire was the want of all military organization. It is true that every citizen between the ages of 18 and 45 was declared liable to aid in the defence of his country, and thus there were 3,070,987 privates and 51,460 officers in i860 gn paper. But the whole thing was mere play, entirely different from the military arrangements of Switzerland. Organization, exercise, and discipline were entirely wanting. Whilst the Federal Assembly of a small estate like Switzerland can at once order out 188 battalions of the line belonging to the reserve alone the Union did not possess one single company ready to be sent into the field out of those nominal 3,000,000 of soldiers. It is marvellous how a real army could be formed under such circumstances, yet it was done, although accompanied by great sacrifices, which might have been avoided. In March. 1862, there were 39,373 men, then followed the enrolment of the so-called " volunteers " for a short period, and subsequently an enrolment for a longer period, and in July, 1 863, the first real levy by conscription took place, with the privilege of immunity by payment. This privilege con- duced greatly to the prevention of a sufficient number of men being obtained, only 50,000 recruits instead of 300,000 being the result. This right was set aside in 1864, but permission given to supply sub- stitutes where it was desired. It is stated that between the commencement of the Civil War and the end of 1864 the States which remained faithful to the Union supplied 1,258,761. Of these, however, 497,875 were enrolled as militia for 3 or 9 months only, so that there remained but 760,886 men for longer service. On May i, 1864, the nominal strength of the army was 960,710; the effective force in the field was, however, 662,346. On March i, 1865, the nominal force was 965,591 ; the effective force 602.598. On May i of the same year the former are said to have numbered 1,000,516 men, 800,000 of whom were discharged by December, 1865. It is plain such rapid demobilisation is only possible with an army of militia, and never with standing troops. The total number of negroes enrolled was given as 178,975, and of those who fell as 68, 178. In the year 1864 there were 39,392 deserters, from the army of the Union. The average number of those who enlisted and proved unfit for service was 314 per 1,000. 98,302 prisoners of war fell into the hands of the Union between January i and October 20 of the year 1865. The strength of the rebel army at the time of its cai)itulation was given at 174,223 men, but this figure only includes those who were present by name : thousands went straight to their homes as soon as they heard of the capitulation, so that Lee, for example, could surrender with 27,805 men only (scarcely two-thirds.) Johnson's army numbered 31,243 men at the capitulation. The losses in the field were enormous. From 1861 to the end of 1863 they are stated as follows : — Killed Wounded Pritoners Unionists ... 43>573 ••• 132,265 ... 87,481 Southerners ... 26,720 ... 101,843 ... 78,731 70,293 ... 234,108 ... 166,212 79^ America — Laud and People. Another account for the period between June i, 1863, to April i, 1865, gives the numbers thus : — Killed ... ... ... 5)221 officers and 90,868 men. Died of illness ... ... 2,321 „ 182,329 ,, exclusive of those who succumbed to their wounds after having left the service. The average number of deaths was 6.08 per 1,000. The ordnance department, between the i.st of January, 1S61, and June 30, 1866, supplied — 7,892 cannon. 4,022,130 rifles. 2,362,546 complete leathern equipments for infantry and cavalry. 1,022,176,474 gun cartridges. 1,220,555,435 caps. 26,440,045 pounds of gunpowder. 90,416,295 pounds of lead, not including artillery ammunition. In conclusion, as historical notice, we give a summary of the German troops who were sold by German princes for the struggle of the indepen- dence of America. Of whom perished Sold for 6,500 ... ;^ 2,600,000 3,015 ... 780,000 981 ... 335.150 461 ... 3o5'4oo 720 ... 122,670 176 ... 535.400 Total ... 29,166 ... 11,843 ••• .^^5,126,620* Navy. The war marine as it at present exists is scarcely worthy of the Union. Of the number of ships which were built during the Civil war, very few are seaworthy, and very few new ships have taken the place of the old ones. There are 4 classes of ships of war ; the tonnage of the first 3,000 and upwards ; the 2nd of 2,000 and over ; the 3rd, between 800 and 2,000 ; the 4th less than 800. The total of the navy in 1878 consisted of 9 large iron-clads of 38 guns ; 15 monitors of 32 guns ; 68 steamers of 790 guns ; 22 sailing vessels of 285 guns ; 2 torpedo-boats and 26 slooi)s. The navy is olticered by 1,081 officers on active service, and manned by 7,500 men. The navy yards are ten in number. The sailors" pay is from ;^,43 to ^^53 a year, and instead of the rum formally dealt out. a compensation of \s. 3^. a day is granted. Historical Notice {Navy.) During the War of Independence the American sea forces consisted only of cruisers and privateers. When peace was made, the vessels of war were sold on account of their inutility, and also bec:ause money was wanted. Afterwards 20 real ships of war were to l)e built, but this was not set about till 1801. At the o'Ubrcak of the war in 18 r 2, the whole sea force consisted of 4 frigates * Inclu'iive of £ i.;.8,ooo, which the King of England drew in hi« capacity of Sovereign of Hanover (Brunswick-Lun' burg.) Men Hesse 16,992 Brunswick . . . 5>723 Hanau 2,422 Anspach ... 1,1544 Waldeck ... 1,225 Zerbst 1,160 America — Land ami People. j-)^ and 8 sloops with 6,000 men. This notwithstanding, the Americans obtained more advantage over tlie English than did the French during the whole war. The war marine was increased by vessels of commerce. The Americans always avoided a sea-fight where it was possible, but when they did engage in one, they often had the advantage. Commodore Rodgers took 218 vessels with 547 guns and 5,106 men from the English, by the end of 1813. According to a parliamentary statement, the English lost altogether 382 vessels between October ist, 181 2, and May ist, 1813. At the outbreak of the Civil war, there were indeed 10 old ships of the line, but not one of them fit for service ; also 10 sailing frigates, scarcely three of which were fit for use, and so on. The steam fleet which alone is of any importance in modern times, consisted of 6 frigates with altogether, 222 guns ; 27 smaller vessels with 224 guns, and a floating battery of 8 guns A new fleet was, however, quickly constructed. The following account of its strength and the ser\'ice performed by it, will be seen from the following message of the President to Congress. " It is an object of just pride for our nation, that so large a fleet should have been organized in so short a time, and managed with such successful results. The fleet consists, inclusive of the vessels in course of construction on December ist, 1864, of 671 vessels, of 510,396 tons burden, armed with 4,610 guns. This shews, in spite of the loss by shipwreck and in battle, an increase of 88 vessels, 167 guns, and 42,427 tons, as compared with the previous year; 51,000 men, including officers, are serving in the fleet. 324 of the enemy's vessels were captured during the year, and 1,374, including 267 steamers since the beginning of hostilities ; the sum realized by the sale of these piizes was ^2,999,218. The total expenditure of the whole naval department, including the enormous squadrons which have been created between March 4th and November ist, 1864, amounts to A report of the Secretary for Naval Affairs, in 1865, contained the following : — " At the outbreak of the rebeUion there were 7,600 men in the naval service ; at the end of the war 15,500; this number was after- wards increased to 16,880. To these must be added the thousands who were em])loyed in private ship-yards. During the years that the war lasted 208 vessels were begun, and most of them completed for service. All of them were steamers or steam-propellers with sails. 418 vessels were bought after March 4th, 1861. 313 of these were steamers. These vessels •'<^J^t ;^3»826,392 ; 340 of these vessels were re-sold, and the Government received ^1,171,191. Be.sides those taken as prizes, the following vessels belonging to the enemy were destroyed 1—85 steamers, 114 schooners, 32 shallops, 2 brigs, 4 barques, 96 small boats, 5 rams, 4 ironclads, 11 gun- boats; in all 355. The value of the prizes taken w^as ;^4,583,333 ; the costs, ^^364,666; the prize-money which remained for distribution was therefore ^4,218,667. Including the value of the vessels de.stroyed, the property, mostly English, which was destroyed during the war was worth ^6,560,833. The outlay for the fleet from March 4, 1861, to July i, 1865, was ;^65,366,666. The navy was reduced to the peace footing just as rapidly as the army when the war was over. Most of the ships were sold to merchants for commercial use. Out of 471 vessels of war with 2,455 gi-^"^ which had been employed on the Coast, only 20, with 210 guns were left to the service a few months after the rebellion had ceased. 798 America — Land and People. Social Condition. a. GENERAL REMARKS. Negro slavery formerly constituted the darkest spot in the social condition of the United States. It had come down from the time of the monarchy, but had been fearfully extended under the Republic, although the Union, first among transatlantic countries, forbade the importation of slaves January i, 1808. It is true that the number of free persons increased on the whole more than did the slaves. But the proportion was otherwise if we take into account the slave States only. The slave holders also succeeded in extending the dominion of slavery. According to Scherzer's statement there were among the slave-holders " no fewer than 1,600 clergy who possessed more than 600,000 slaves, or a fifth part of the whole slave population." The terrible civil war has happily ended with the world-famed event of the complete abolition of slavery. A first great step was made towards this after some preliminary wavering by the pro- clamation of President Lincoln on September 22, 1862, by which all slaves in the rebel States were unconditionally freed from January i, 1863, whilst a provision was held out for compensation to be paid to those States which adhered to the Union, and which should voluntarily abolish slavery. Slavery was declared to be abolished throughout the entire territory of the Union by a decision of Congress carried by | of all the votes, February i, 1865. This decision finally received the assent off of all the separate States, and was declared a part of the Constitution, December 18, 1865. There is no distinction of special classes in North America ; especially is there no official class as such. Public oftices are conferred by means of the President, and only for fixed and limited periods. The number of those who live by callings which pre-sup])ose a so-called higher education is only about 200,000. 24,900 persons only are employed in the civil service. Occupation, of tiie J'opulation. The number of persons in the Union cmi)lo)ed on industrial occupa- tions on July I, 1872 was 12,505,923. Of these 9,802,038 were born in the United States. 836,502 949,164 301.779 7i>933 109,681 58.197 189,307 46,300 (iermany, Ireland, England, Scotland, Scandinavia, France, British America, China and Japan. Of this number 5,922,471 were employed in agriculture, cattle breeding and in forests 2,885,996 being agricultural laborers 2,977,71 1 farmers and planters 27,106 were eniploy^-d in the fisheries and in ihc chase 152,107 in mining and smelting 2,528,208 ,, industry 1,191,238 ,, commerce and trade America — Land and People. 799 2,007,400 ,, domestic service 25,147 „ the land and sea forces 67,822 ,, public otiices 43,874 ,, religious matters 40.736 „ jurisprudence 126,822 ,, education 2,948 ,, the fine arts 63.549 physicians, surgeons and veterinary surgeons 306,495 members of i)rofessions 26,052.448 in other occupations or without definite employment. Of those occupied in domestic service 42,066 are Germans. The Taxable Proper pro|)erty per head of the New York Massachusetts Connecticut Rhode Island California Pennsylvania New Jersey Ohio' Kentucky Tennessee South Carolina Florida Texas ^308 304 300 284 ^37 -25 216 174 95 82 61 4« 40 ty is very unequal population in 1870 Illinois Maryland New Hampshire Delaware Indiana Missouri Nevada Vermont Louisiana Virginia Mississippi Georcria in the different states being as follows : — The ^173 171 '65 160 157 155 152 148 92 69 52 47 AVisconsm ^, Michigan Iowa Oregon Nebraska Maine Minnesota Kansas AVest Virginia Arkansas North Carolin Alabama '38 126 125 118 117 115 108 107 89 67 42 It will be seen trom this list that the former slave states are the least prosperous. b. INTKLLECTUAL CONDITION. CHURCHES. In 1854 tlie number of churches was 38,061, and the aggregate value of the church property /; 18, 193,500. In 1875 the church property, which is not subject to taxation, was estimated at ^208,333,333. SCHOOLS. A special bureau of education has existed in the central government since 1870, and the head of it Mr. John Eaton, published the following facts in his third annual report. In the year 1870 it was estimated tha^t there were 28,238,945 persons above 10 years of age in the United States. 18.26 per cent, of the males and 21.87 per cent, of the females had received no education. The case was similar with the class between the ages of 10 and 21, containing 9,642,945 persons, of whom 20.05 per cent., taking the two sexes together, were unable to read; 17 per cent, of the whole male population and 23.05 per cent, of the whole female population having received no education. The census shows 141,629 educational institutions, with an income of ^i9»375»563 from foundations, taxes, etc. Included in these are 124,939 national schools with ^:i 3,225,683 income; ^12,198.859 of which' are obtained from taxes. There are 14,025 private schools, having incomes amounting 10^2,853,363. These schools were attended bv 3,621, 9r6 8oo America — Land and People. male and 3,587,942 female scholars ; the number of teachers employed being 93,329 male teachers and 127,713 female teachers. The outlay for school purposes of every kind in all the States and terri- tories which furnished the Bureau with returns on this point amounted to ;;^ 1 4, 960, 150. The expenditure of the various States for school purposes is of course very unequal. It amounts to ^4 per head of the so-called population of Massachusetts j jQt^ \os. in Nevada; ^2 \os. in California: ^£2 t^s. in Connecticut; £^i i-js. in New Jersey: ^i jos. 6d. in Pennsyl- vania; ^i los. in Iowa ; £1 los. in Illinois ; £1 gs. in Michigan ; ^i ■]s. in Rhode Island ; ^i 4s. dd. in New York, etc. The expenditure is strikingl)- less in the Southern States ; for example, it is only 8.f. bd. per head in Louisiana ; in Alabama it is only 6jr. 2d. ; and in Georgia 2s. 2d. per head. One cause of this great variation in the amount of expenditure must be sought for in the very unequal salaries paid to the teachers. Thus the average monthly salary of male teachers in Massachusetts is ^17 105., that of female teachers ^6 \os. : in Nevada, ;z^24 and ;^i8 \^s. ; in Cali- fornia ^15 io.*\and^i2 1 2^-. The monthly pay of male teachers averages generally from ^10 \os. to ^12 12.V. : that of female teachers from ^6 to ^8 Zs. The district territories of Idaho and Arizona naturally form an ex- ception ; there the salaries amount to ^20 monthlv pay for male teachers, and ^14 iojt. for female teachers. Among those who are ignorant of reading and writing, immigrants form a large proportion,, especially the Irish, Scandinavian, and Bohemian immi- grants. Some regard has been paid to the education of the negroes, who were formerly systematically prevented from receiving any instruction. In 1869 there were as many as 3,314 negro schools in the South. Most of the States possess their own " School iiind." It proceeds from that part of the State landed property which is obliged to be retained for the maintenance of the educational Institutions. The i6th part of the lands intended for sale are devoted to this object. There are 368 colleges in the Northern States, 99 of which admit both male and female students ; 136 higher educational establishments are intended for girls exclusively. In 1877 there were of special schools and institutions: — Theological seminaries ... Colleges and universities Medical schools Schools for study of the law Deaf and dumb schools lilind schools Idiot asylums Reformatories ... Orphanages Orjjhanages for soldiers' children Industrial schools Literature. Late returns are WcUitiiig. In 1869 2,165 new books, including new editions, were published in the United States. Of these 1,680 were original American works ; 367 umber Teachers Students 124 562 3-965 351 3,998 54-979 106 1,278 11,225 43 175 2,811 42 312 5,209 29 580 2,083 II 318 .. 1,560 5^ 800 12,087 188 1,530 18,759 20 306 4.146 36 425 13,662 A merica — Land and People. 80 1 reprints of English books, and 1 18 reprints or translations of literary works belonging to the Euro[)ean Continent. I'he total number may be thus divided : — Theology Juvenile works Romanees J urisprudence Arts and science Trade, manufactures, and political economy History and biography Poetry and the drama Almanacs Medical books School books ... The number of publishing lirms in 1869 was 179 ; 80 of whom were m New York, 31 in Philadelphia, and 25 in Boston. 271 327 469 124 80 193 123 123 93 55 Newspapers and Periodicals The number published : — 1775 37 In i860 1801 ... ... 203 „ 1870 1850 ... ... 2,536 „ 1876 In 177'^ ... ... '?7 In i860 ... ... 4,051 5>7Si 8,129 No fewer than 6,432 periodicals appeared altogether in the year 1872, 507 of which were published daily; 105 three days a week; no twice a week; 172 twice a month ; 685 monthly ; 4 every two months, and 55 quarterly. Florida alone possesses no daily paper ; 663 newspapers number more than 5,000 subscribers. There are 302 religious periodicals; 105 agricultural ; scholastic, 95 ; trade and finance, 36. Of the newspapers 283 were German, 23 French, 12 Scandinavian, 8 Spanish, 6 Dutch, 5 Italian, 6 Bohemian, i Portuguese, and i Indian, The following are the States in which the largest number of periodicals was published in 1870; — In New York, 835 ; in Pennsylvania, 540; in Illinois, 505; in Ohio, 395; in Indiana, 293; in Missouri, 270; in Massachusetts, 259 ; in Iowa, 233 ; in Michigan, 211 ; in California, 201 : in Wisconsin, 190, etc. Newspapers in 1870 Number Circulation Average Pohtical 4,328 ... 8,778,320 2,028 Agricultural ... 93 770,752 8,072 Guilds 81 257,080 3,173 Finance 122 690,220 5,657 Literary 502 ... 4,421,935 8,808 National 20 45>i5o 2,257 Scientific 207 744,530 3,596 Religious 407 ... 4.764,358 II 706 Sports 6 73,500 12,250 Public Libraries. In 1876 there were 3,682 public libraries with 12,276,964 volumes and \\ million of pamphlets. Most of these libraries have been estaLlishcd since 1850. In 1776 there were only 29 public libraries with 45,623 volumes. 3 ^ So5 America — La?id and People. Agriadture. Many millions of acres of land in the far West are almost entirely without value, unless they can be irrigated by water, supplied by artificial means. The arid region of the United States eml^races 900,000,000 acres, lying in the territories of Arizona, Dakota, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming ; the States of Colorado, Nevada, California, Kansas, Nebraska, Oregon and Texas, and the Indian territory. Not i per cent, of this vast area has been sold. The Neiv York Times states, that it has been ascertained that about 200,000,000 acres are mountainous land, upon which agriculture cannot successfully be carried on, even with abundance of water ; 200,000,000 acres are lava lands, covered with cinders, etc. ; lands without soil or vegetation and desert plains of drifting sand. On 500,000,000 acres valuable crops could be raised by the aid of water. Water is all that is needed to make these lands fertile. The government is asked to provide for the sinking of two artesian wells east of the Rocky Mountains, and three west of them, as an experiment in reclamation of the great American desert. It is stated, however, that only one half of the area, which is fitted for agricultural purposes, is as yet brought under cultivation. The progress made, however, in agriculture during the last 10 years is gigantic. It is estimated that the United States grow annually 100,000,000 acres of grain ; half this area produces maize ; above one-fourth is under wheat ; an eighth yields oats and about 5,000,000 are divided among barley, rye and potatoes. The annual value of these crops is about ;:/^ 2 25,000,000. Beside these bread stuffs, 25,000,000 acres are estimated to grow hay, the produce being nearly 40,000,000 tons ; more than 12,000,000 acres are devoted to cotton, which yield above 5,000,000 bales. These enormous figures bear testimony to the ability of the United States, not only to support her rapidly growing population, but largely to contribute to the supply of food in Europe. The States vary greatly in the produce of bread-stuffs ; the Western States produce considerably more than half; for exami)le : — New England States Middle States Southern States Western States Pacific States Territories ... Aggregate Produce Average Bushels Bushels 1,174,000 69,867 40,960,000 2,834,427 41,870,000 4,408,611 245,814,346 15,999.547 28,875,000 2,659,539 5,500,000 305,555 The ofificial statistics give the yield per acre and price per bushel of the bread-stuffs, thus : — Yield per Acre Price per Yield per Acre Per in Bushels Bushel in Bushels Bushel Maize ... 26.6 1/6 r.arlcy 21.3 2/8 Wheat ... 13.9 4- Due kwhcat 15.9 2y 10 Rye ... 14.9 2,6 Potatoes 94.9 I/II Oats ... 31.6 1/3 M. America — Land and People. 803 The following tabic will shew at a glance the acreage and produce : — 1877 187J ? Corn Crops Acres Vield in Bushels Acres Yield in Bushels Wheat ... 26,277,546 364,194,146 ... 32,108,560 420,122,400 Barley ... 1,614,654 34,441,400 ... 1,790,400 42,245,630 Oats 12,826,148 406,394,000 ... 13,176,500 413,578,560 Rye ... ... 1,412,902 21,170,100 1,622,700 25,842,790 Buckwheat ... 649,923 10,177,000 673,100 12,246,820 xMaize ... 50,369,113 i,342,55^>ooo ••• 51,585,000 1,388,218,750 Total 93,150,286 2,178,934,646 ... 100,956,260 2,302,254,950 Green and other Crops Acres Acres Potatoes, bushels 1,792,2 87 170,092,000 . 1,776,800 124,126,650 Sugar ... lbs. — 147,101,941 152,000 257,000,000 Tobacco ... 720,1 44 489,000,000 . 542,850 392,546,700 Cotton Bales 12,600,000 4,750,000 . .. 12,266,800 5,216,008 Grass and per- j manent pas- V 25,367,708 31,629,300 . •• 26,931,300 39,608,296 turage tons ) According to the "bill of settlement," of May 20th 1862, every citizen and every immigrant, who has declared his intention to become .a citizen, can take possession of 160 acres of surveyed State land in any part of the Union, on payment of a registration fee of £2. 2s. The definitive title of possession is completed at the expiration of 5 years, during which the owner must not be absent for more than 6 months. In case of death, his right descends to his heirs. Earlier completion of the title to the land can be obtained at the price of 2/2 per acre. INCREASE IN THE VALUE OF LAND. The ground on which the City of Chicago stands, and the sale price of which was estimated at more than ^208,333 in 1852, was sold for jQd \os. in 1815. The area occupied by the town of Cincinnati was sold about 80 years ago for a horse. The site of the City of New York and its suburbs was sold in the year 1624 for ^5, whilst it represented, even as long ago as 1852, a value of more than ^62,500,000. The Number of Live Stock. Horses Cows Other cattle. Sheep and lambs Pigs 1874 . .. 9,504,200 10,906,800 16,313,400 33,782,600 28,062,200 1875 • •• 9.733,300 10,085,400 16,785,300 35,935,300 25,726,800 1876 . •■ 10,155,400 I 1,260,800 17,956,100 35,804,200 28,077,100 1877 . .. 10,329,700 11,300,100 19,223,300 35,740,500 32,262,500 1878 . .. 10,938,700 11,826,400 21,408,100 38,123,800 34,766,100 In 1878 the number of mules was 1,637,500. The average value of the American pigs in 1878 was only 15^. 9^. ; but in Colorado and other territories they reach 30f., and in Massachusetts even 45^. 9^/. The farmers' capital in pigs represents a total aggregate of 8o4 America — Land and People. ^22,000,000. The pigs yield annually about 5,000,000 cwts. of lard. In 1878 the 11,826,400 cows yielded 950,000,000 lbs. of butter, and 310,000,000 lbs. of cheese. Industrial Produce. Cotton goods, deducting cost of raw material... ^14,895,833 Woollen goods 17,916,666 Iron, raw iron 24,791,666 Leather goods, deducting cost of raw material... 12,083,333 Shoes and boots in addition to the above ... 14,166,666 Paper goods* ... ... ... ... ... 15,000,000 Railways, net receipts ... ... ... ... ^75,000,000 Fisheries, sea and coast ... ... ... 2,083,333 Agricultural produce ... ... ... ... ^683,947,916 Industrial produce ... ... ... ... 547,187,500 Total ^"1,407,072,913 This makes about ^36 as the average per head of the population. Wine. A not inconsiderable growth of the vine has been developed during the last 10 years. The yield is estimated at from 18,000,000 to 20,000,000 gallons, of the approximate value of from ^2,500,000 to ^2,966,666. C:ilifornia stands first among the wine producing districts with more than 4,000,000 gallonsf ; Ohio yields 3,500,000 ; New York, 3,000,000 ; Missouri, 2,500,000; Illinois, 2,500,000; and Pennsylvania 2,000,000 gallons. Mining Industry. The United States possess mineral wealth such as formerly no one dreamed of We need only mention here gold, coal, iron, and petroleum. The whole of the mining industry has greatly increased of late years. a. PRECIOUS METALS. Gold is found in 13 of the States. The value of the produce between 1848, and the end of 1873 was ;^297, 250,000 ; of which Californial gold amounted to ^205,875,009. The value of silver produced in this period was ^38,893,750- The years in which the ])roduce of gold was largest were between 1852 and 1857 ; and 1873 was the year in which the largest silver produce occurred. The produce of gold has been gradually decreasing since 1856, and that of silver gradually increasing, so that in 1873 ^^ value was very * The numljer of paper collars manufactured in the year is about 150,000,000. Two factories in Springheld tuin out ico.ooo daily. •f California owes its cultivation originally to the discovei^ of gold. But this precious metal no longer constitutes the sole staple produce. Agriculture, and above all the growth of the vine, have been laigely developed in California. The [jroduce of wine iu 1873 was 4,106,301 gallons, the average price per gallon being being 3/ii. Nearly 40. coo acres of land Were vineyards; the number of vines was 2X. 4X1. 514. Only 4 counties had no vine- yards. Six of the vine-growing counties lie in the .Siuria Nevada, where but a few years ago mining was the only employment. 'I'here were 6.ooc,eoo vines in this mountainous district in 1869. \ America— Land and People. 805 nearly equal. In 1878 the vaiue of the gold produce was ;z^9,938,772, and that of the silver ^9,734,648. The most productive gold district is now Gross Valley, in Nevada. Within a radius of four English miles, between the years 1872 and 1874, there were annually produced ^729,166 worth of gold — to each miner an average of ^354. The richest silver district in the world is Washoe, also in Nevada. The Comstock Gang, 600 yards wide and three miles long, produced as follows : — Silver Gold Silver Gold 1S71 ^,^1,291,666 833*333 1874 p{^2, 479,166 2,583-333 1872 ^1,375,000 1,312,500 1875 ;^3,02o,833 2,416,666 1873 ;^2,29i,666 ^^2,187,500 1876 ^3,750.000 3,750,000 {b.) — COAL. Five large coal districts exist embracing an area of not less than 218,998 English square miles ; only one of these, however — viz., that in the Apalachian basin — has begun to be worked. The commencement of the mining in the territory of the Union dates back only to 1808 at Mauch Chunk. No yield worthy of mention occurred before 1820. The amount is in tons — Year Tons Year Tont 1820 1830 1840 1850 i860 1865 365 232,870 1,027,251 3,736,186 9,388,758 17,385,021 1866 1867 1871 1872 1876 1877 21,856,000 25,800,000 34,037,486 41,491,135 48,273,447 54,398,250 Pennsylvania is the only state in which anthracite is produced. In 1869 the number of individuals occupied in the coal mines was 93.895, of whom 64,440 worked underground. The capital invested in coal mines is estimated at ^17,934,791. One individual perished in the working of these mines to every 36,550 tons of coal produced, and one was injured to every 18,350 tons. Out of 30,500 workmen, 535 = 1.7 per cent., met with accidents ; 129 of them = I in 236, died in consequence. This is a very large proportion compared with England and Prussia. (C.) — IRON. The iron industry which consumes about \ of the whole coal produce, or about 10,000,000 tons, is rapidly increasing. The number of furnaces is multiplying enormously, especially in Pennsylvania and in Missouri. 109 new ones were erected in the year 1872 alone. In 1876 there were in the Union 713 blast-furnaces, 332 rolling mills, with 4,475 puddling furnaces. On March i, 1880, there were 697 blast-furnaces, with an annual capacity of 6,500,000 tons if they were all worked during the whole year. 8o6 America — Land and People. The produce of raw iron is stated thus in tons : — Year Tons Year Tons i860 919,770 1868 1,603,000 I861 73i>544 1869 1,916,641 1862 787,682 1S70 1,865,000 1863 947,604 1871 1,912,608 1864 1,135:996 1872 2,830,070 1865 931,582 1873 2,695,434 1866 1,350,343 1877 2,351,618 1867 1.461,626 According to the calculation of the American Iron and Steel Associa- tion there were produced between October ist, 1872, and October ist, 1873... ... ... 942,000 tons of railway metal 1, 000,00c „ rolled and wrought iron 58,000 „ refined iron 32,000 „ cast iron 110,000 „ Bessemer steel 3,000 „ Martin steel The production of the American iron and steel industries in 1879 ^^'^s the largest ever known. The following gives the product of the leading articles in tons of 2,000 lbs. for 1877, 1878, and 1879 •"" Pig iron Rolled iron Rolled iron, excluding rails Bessemer rails Open-hearth rails Iron rails Rails, all kinds Nails and spikes, by kegs Crucible-cast steel Open-hearth steel All other steel, except Bessemer Bessemer steel ingots ... Bloom from ore and pig iron... Spiegeleisen, included in pig iron In 1879 the smelting of the pit coal, 1,438,978 tons by bituminous The smelting by bituminous coal an 1877 2,314,585 1,476,759 1,144,219 432,169 332,540 764,709 4,828,918 40,430 25,031 11,924 560,587 47,300 8,845 1878 2,577,361 1,555,576 1,232,686 550,398 9,397 322,890 882,685 4,396,130 42,906 36,126 8,556 732,226 50,045 10,674 iron was 1,273,024 tons by coal, and 358,873 tons by d coke is steadily increasing. 1879 3,070, 875 2,047 484 1,627 324 683,964 9,149 420,460 1,113,273 5,011,021 56,780 56,290 5,464 928,972 62.352 13,931 anthracite charcoal. (258,54i 5,167,375 Oil-cake 1,069,916 1,211,208 Petroleum 5,924,166 9,637,229 Iron and iron-ware . . . 3,338,338 8,300,888 Sewing machines . . . 374,573 332,343 VAT.UE OF THE COMMERCE WITH THE VARIOUS COUNTRIES. (Merchandize and Precious Metals.) Imports 1070 Exports Great Britain ... ^24,967,541 ;^8l, 925,625 British N. America... 6,327,291 7,445,833 British W. Indies ... 4,161,250 1,942,500 British E. Indies ... 2,763,958 1,545,416 Russia 139,791 2,314,325 Germany 7,251,666 11,273,125 Holland 578,125 1,744,583 Belgium 829,791 4.664,166 France 9,173,541 11,687,916 Italy 1,398,125 1,820,208 Spain 680,416 1,708,541 Cuba and Porto Rico 15,005,416 2,727,916 Brazil 8,902,500 1,793,958 Mexico 2,842,916 1,217,500 China and Japan ... 5,347,916 4,704,583 Post. There are only eight States in which the expense is covered by the income. There are only 87 towns in which the letters are delivered at the houses ; in smaller places the letters must be fetched from the post office, and even then a payment is required of a halfpenny. If the letters are delivered at the house, \\d. is the tax ; for a post card delivered, \d. ; for a newspaper, \d. The present j^jostmaster-general is striving to introduce several improvements into the administralicni of the post. I Post Post roads Year Offices (miles) Letters deposited Revenue Expenditure 1790 . 75 1,875 265,455 — — 1851 . . 21,551 1 96,290 1856 . • 25,565 219,935 119,634,418 1859 . • 28,539 260,052 Stamps sold 1872 . • 31.863 ' 655,380.820 1876 . . 36,383 — 1878 . • 39,258 1,160,596,653 ^6,099,416 ^,7,207,636 I Telegraphs. The telegraph is in the hands of two companies, the Western Union and the Atlantic and Pacific Comiianics. A few lines were in the hands of private individuals and railway companies, returns of which are not at hand. America — La7td and People. 8ii Leng-th of wire The length of line (miles) Offices Despatches In 1848 was 10,339 miles — — Ji 1852 „ 16,000 J, — 5> 1873 „ 76,000 j> .. 270,000 6,200 14,000,000 )> 1877 „ 94,655 ,, .. 8,829 .. 23,920,000 J» 1878 „ 97,561 ), .. 9,726 .. 26,965,014 The gross revenue for 1878 was ^2,275,558, and the net revenue, ^7S7,ii6. Railways. The whole railway system of the Union commenced in 1830 with 23 miles. Length No. of Passengers Cost of Total Total in Miles Conveyed Construction Receipts Expenditure I87I 60,522 125,000,000 ^555,208,000 ;^84,i67,ooo ;^68, 7 50,000 1872 66,242 150,000,000 658,333,000 98,541,000 69,796,000 1873 70.311 170,000,000 788,541,000 109,791,000 71,458,000 1874 72,616 190,000,000 879-583,000 101,875,000 68,958,000 1875 74,374 191,000,000 920,000,000 104,791,000 66,041,000 IS76 77,031 — 931,100,000 103,541,000 64,791,000 1877 77,470 ^ 870,833,000 98,541,000 62,916,000 1878 79,208 ■ — • — 1879 86,263* — 1875 1876 1877 ACCIDENTS. Killed 234 328 214 Wounded 1,107 1,097 1,047 The miles of railways in 1S78 were divided among the Union in the following propcjrtion ; — ■ New England States Central States ... ' Southern States ... Central and North-West States. Pacific States Western Pacific ... Miles 5,750 14,459 13,744 40,743 2,266 2,246 79,208 During the year 1879 the increase of mileage of new railways was greater than in any year since 1873. In 1878 — 2,916 miles were con- structed, but in 1879, 4,777 miles, bringing the number of miles of railway up to 86,263. The tide of railway activity is almost entirely turning west of the Mississippi. The Eastern States have already covered their districts * Nearly one-half the mileage of the world. 8 1 2 A merica — Land and People. with networks of lines. There were 1,243 miles built in the States east of the Mississippi in the year 1879, against 3,187 west. Among the prmcipal lines now in course of construction are the Sioux City and Nebraska, making a through route between Omaha and St. Paul ; the Vicksburg, Shreve^ort and^Tacific, in the State of Louisiana, and the Atchison (Kansas) and Nebraska line. Mercantile Marine. The tonnage was as follows : — Years "Xoxn. Years Tons 179I 502,146 1 1852 4,138,439 1822 1,344,692 i860 5.219,181 1842 2,092,390 1861 5'539>8i3 1847 2,839,045 1 In consequence of the uncertainty caused by cruisers and pirates the mercantile marine sank in 1864, 1,664,516 tons. A not inconsiderable number of vessels were destroyed by the seceders (no fewer than 452, of the estimatad value of ^^4, 2 70,833. in the year 1863). Many more were sold and sailed under a neutral flag. After the restoration of security the mercantile marine rose again, but has never reached its former standing. In the middle of 1876, the number of sailing vessels was 18,257, of 2,608,691 tons; steamers, 4,320, of 1,172,372 tons; dismantled vessels, 3,357, of 498,000 tons, making a total of 25,934 vessels of 4,279,000 tons. Of this total, 19,584 vessels of 3,012.000 tons traversed the Atlantic ; 1,865 vessels of 400,000 tons navigated the Mississippi and its tributaries. 3,193 vessels, of 614,000 tons navigated the inland seas, and 1,292, of 253,000 tons the Pacific Ocean. The first steamer appeared in 181 1. In 1852 the Union possessed 1,450 steamers, of about 450,000 tons, of which 125 were sea-going. The number of sailors in 1845 was about 100,000; 52,000 of whom were em- ployed in the foreign trade, 26,000 in the coasting trade, 10,000 in the cod-fishery, 5,500 in whaling, and 6,500 in navigation of the inland seas. The steam communication, between the Union and Europe, was carried on in 1871 by 8 steamship companies, with 106 vessels. These completed 555 journeys backward and forward in 187 1 and conveyed 302,148 passengers and 1,700,000 tons of goods. Harbour Traffic. In 1832 ... 17,000 vessels of 2,705,030 tons entered and cleared „ 1849 ... 40,513 ,. 8,798,269 „ 1857 ... 44,432 „ 12,141,432 „ „ „ 1858 ... 52.051 ,. 13,407,837 „ ENTKRRD CLEARED Vessels Tons Vessels Tons 1861 21,960 ... 7,441,471 ... 21,564 ... 7.151.355 1871 ... ... 30,121 ... 9,109,184 ... 29,861 ... 9,898,482 1876 30,941 ■•■ 16,930,314 ... 31,357 ... 17,032,295 A merica — Land and People. 813 In this year only 12,217 of the vessels of 4,71 1,949 tons which entered, and 12,338 of the vessels, of 4,832,677 tons of those that cleared, bore the American flag. Beacons. In the middle of 1872 there were 573 light-houses ; 22 beacon ships, and T^i fog-signal stations ; 534 daylight signal stations, and 2,762 floating buoys. Banks. The following are the most important regulations of the Bank Act of 1864:— (i.) At least \ of the capital of every bank must consist of bonds of the United States debt, and be deposited in the Treasury of the United States. (2.) Every bank intending to issue bank notes (paper money) shall deposit the corresponding sum in United States debt bonds in the Treasury office, and receive in return 90 per cent, of the amount in bank notes. (3.) The amount of bank notes allowed to be issued by all the banks of the country is fixed at ^62,500,000. These 62,500,000 are divided among the various States, according to the number of their inhabitants, and according to the amount of their commercial intercourse. (4.) Each bank is obliged to change the notes issued by it on presentation for Treasury notes of the Union (State paper money not liable to interest). As soon, therefore, as the United States again take up cash payments, the notes of the national banks will be equal to coined money, whereas they now — like the Government paper money — are at a discount. (5.) Every bank is legally compelled always to hold 25 per cent, of its bank notes, and 25 per cent, of its other liabilities in Government Treasury notes or metal. (6.) The business and finance of every bank to be submitted quarterly to a Government Commissioner. In 1875 there were 2,087 banks with a capital of ^105,172,818, and a reserve fund of ^27,990,832. In 1878 there were altogether in the United States 6,456 banks with a capital of ^140,786,756, and deposits amounting to ;^399,990,458, as the following table shows : — National banks States banks ... Private banks Savings' banks Total 1870 1871 1872 Number Capital Deposits 2,056 ... £^im^Mi ... ^141,074,853 853 ••• 25,906,250 47,808,333 2,856 ... 16,208,966 38,298,938 691 ... 672,923 172,808,334 6,456 ^140,786,756 ;^399,990,458 Bankrupts. Number Liabilities 3,551 ^£"'8,383,770 2,915 17,760,833 4,069 25,220,000 8i4 America — Land and People. Number 1873 5.183 1874 5.830 1875 7.740 1876 9,092 1877 8,872 1878 10,096 1879 5.728 The middle Stales have been the Pacific States the least. most pre lific Liabilities 47,603,958 32,341,458 41.887,573 39,816,205 39.583-333 35,927.220 10,647,560 in failures, and the Fisheries. Products of American Fisheries which passed the Customs Districts of the United States : — Produce of Whale Fisheries Sperm oil Other whale oil Whale bone Ambergris ^alls. lbs. 1877 Quantity 1,337.074 802,973 105,949 Quantity 1,300.950 977,671 266,293 1877 \ alue ^362,462 85.055 42,5 62 Value ;^277,i38 95.385 84,263 4m4i Total ... ^490,079 ^461,127 Produce of other Fisheries Mackerel „ cwts. 401,694 Ti8,595 ^422,111 ;^i38,i8i Herrings „ 161,269 79.535 64,430 32,305 Other fish „ 169,316 112,594 126,272 45,382 Oysters ... bushels 7,750 31,600 '.197 5,176 Other shell fish .. — — 49,487 63,446 Codfish cured .. . cwts. 721,013 300,064 751.761 253,042 Fresh fish lbs. 47,562,041 51.819.004 346,056 193,263 Oils . golls. 2,968,562 1,145,461 234.733 90,661 Sjjonge lbs. 12,995 — 1,050 — Teeth 26,934 74,752 1.893 4,091 Skins . No. 7,613 4,185 15.548 2,868 Manure ... . tons 46,378 34,446 88,896 89,773 Other products . - — — 12,794 12,470 Total ^2,116,228 ;^93o,658 MEXICO (Republic), LAND AND PEOPLE. I HE area includes about 743,948 square miles and contains, according to a calculation made in 1876, a population of 9,389,461. The division into 50 departments made under the Empire has been set aside, and at length, after many arrangements, the division into 27 Confederate States has been determined, and these, together with the federal district of Mexico and the territory of Lower California, form the Mexican Republic. States Sq. miles Population Chief towns nhabitants I Sonora... ... 79,021 . 110,809 . .. Ures 8,000 2 Chihuahua ... 83,746 . . 180,758 . . Chihuahua 12,000 3 Coahuila .. 50,890 . • 104,131 • .. Saltillo 8,000 4 Nuevo-Leon — 23,635 . .. 189,722 . . Monterey... 14,000 Northern States ... 237,292 . •• 585,420 5 Tamaulipas .. 30,225 .. 140,000 .. . Ciudad "Victoria... 6,000 6 "Vera Cruz .. 26,232 .. • 504,950 •• . Vera Cruz 10,000 7 Tabasco .. 11,851 .. . 83,707 .. San Juan Baptista" 8,000 8 Campeche .. 25,832 .. 86,170 .. Campeche 14,000 9 Yucatan .. 29,567 .. . 282,934 .. Merida ... 30,000 The Gulf States . .. 123,707 . • 1,097,761 10 Sinaloa .. 36,198 . . 189,348 . . Culiaran ... 0,0001 II Jalisco... .. 39,i6S . • 953,274 ■ . (lUadaiajara 68,000 12 Colima •• 3.743 • . 65,828 .. . Colima ... 23»599 8i6 Mexico — Land and People. States So. miles Population Chief towns Inhabitants 13 Michoacan 25.689 .. 061,947 .. Morelia ... ... 25,000 14 Guerrero 24,550 301,242 . .. Tixtla 4,000 15 Oaxaca 33,591 • 718,194 . .. Oaxaca ... ... 26,366 16 Chiapas 16,048 . .. 208,215 . .. San Christobal ... 10,500 Pacific States 178,987 . .. 3,098,047 17 Durango 42,510 . 190,846 . . Durango ... ... 12,000 18 Zacatecas 22,998 . • 413,603 . . Zacatecas . . . ... 16,000 19 Aguascalientes 2,895 .. • 89,715 .. . Aguascalientes ... 31,842 20 San Luis Potosi 27,500 .. ■ 525,110 •• . San Luis Potosi ... 34,000 21 Guanajuato ... 11,411 .. . 768,208 .. . Guanajuato .. 56,012 22 Querctaro 3-207 .. • 173,576 .. . Queretaro ... 27,570 23 Hidalgo 8,163 . • 427,340 ■ . Pachuca . . . ... 8,410 24 Mexico 7,838 . ■ 683,323 . . Toluca ... 12,000 25 Morelos 1,776 .. • 154,519 •• . Cuernavaca . .. 12,000 26 Puebla 12,021 .. • 697,788 . . Puebla ... ... 65,000 27 Tlaxcala 1,620 .. • 133,498 .. . Tlaxcala ... ... 4,000 Central States 141,939 • • 4,257,526 Federal district . . . 461 . 61,562 . . 327.512 . . Mexico ...230,000 Lower California \ territory... j 23,195 Total 743,948 . ..9,389,461 Nationality. The inhabitants are either of European origin (white), or colored. The 1st are divided into real European:,, about 40,000 ; Creoles, about 300,000, and Chapetones of mixed Euro[jean and Lidian blood, about 8co,ooo. Wapi^aus gives the numbers thus : — White Mixed 1,004,000 1,190,000 Lidians Negroes 4,800,000 6,000 The Indians have either submitted themselves {Indies fideles), or are still free and unbaptized {/ndios bravos). All religions are tolerated, but nearly all are Roman Catholics. Finance. The finances have long been in a state of utter disorder. Already in 1836, with a revenue estimated at ^2,395,833, there was a deficit of ^1,666,666. The money paid by the United States for the cession of New Mexico and Upper California, scarcely afforded even temporary relief The budget for 1856 estimated a State expenditure of ^2,953,403, and against it a revenue of only ^1,912,500. The debt was at that time staled to be ^27,812,500, ^i^^ 10,989,5 83 of which was foreign debt. Half of the revenue was derived from the customs ; there existed also monopolies of tobacco, salt, pulijue (the drink of the Indians), and gunpowder. The Slate also maintained a lottery. No interest has been paid on the foreign Mexico — L and and People. 8 1 7 debt since 185 1. In order, if possible, to improve the stale of the finances, President Juarez ordered the confiscation of the church lands in July, 1859, by which it was hoped ;^8,25o,ooo would, at least, be realized. But the whole arrangement of the State was overthrown by French intervention. I'he Archduke Maximilian of Austria was made Emperor by Napoleon in 1864. President Juarez was strongly opposed to this step. The position assumed by the United States obliged Napoleon to evacuate Mexico. Maximilian fought on, was taken prisoner, and shot as a prisoner of war, June 19th, 1867, and the Republic arose anew. Any order in the finances was evidently an impossibility under such circumstances. Even in the most favorable times, the Imperial government had not been able to approach the formal proposal of a budget. Estimates have been made since, but they are deceptive. That for 1875-76 gave the receipts at ^^3, 648,274, and the expenditure at ;^5,i85,733. Under revenue appear customs, ;^2, 128,676 ; stamp duty, ;^3i 1,653; other indirect taxes ^260,988. Direct taxes, ^i 10,656 ; yield of State property, p{^44,8oi ; mint, ^194,594; post, ^114,545. Of the expenditure, the army absorbed ;^2, 198,905. The Emperor Maximilian was bound by a treaty of April 10, 1864, to pay to France ^4,200,000 compensation for service rendered in loan bills; he further bound himself to the payment of _;j^8,40o,ooo in annuities of ^1,000,000, by which the cost of the French expedition should be defrayed until July i, 1864; in addition to all this, the cost of maintaining the French* auxiliary troops was to be entirely paid by Mexico. July 30, 1866, Maximilian pledged half of the naval dues to France in order to cover her demands. The French Commission on the budget reckoned the total amount of the credit given by France to Mexico at ^12,047,000. The latter, it will be easily understood, repudiates the whole of this demand. According to a declaration made by Romero, the Minister of Finance in i868, the republic recognised only the following claims : — ^10,668,468 London Debt 3 per cent.; ;j^868,i25 6 per cent. English loan; further English claims for unpaid interest, &c., ^3,032,514; Spanish 3 per cent, loan of ^1,382,171, and ^250,000 for the loan con- tracted with Codies & Co., thus making a total of ^16,201,278. Not one word, however, of this is stated in the budget. Including the French claims, the total debt was reckoned on August i, 1865, at ^66,116,083. In reality the whole debt is repudiated. The revenue and expenditure for 1877 and 1878 are given thus : — REVENUE. Customs : — Entering, ^2,512,488 ; clearing, ^^229,362 ; transit, ^82 ^2,741,932 Customs and excise ... ... ... ... 246,861 Stamps ... ... ... ... ... ... 607,055 Direct taxes ... ... ... ... ... 113,346 Sale of national property ... ... ... ... 9,890 Mint ... ... ... 75,358 Receipts from ancient funds for public instruction 14,942 * According to compact, 25,000 French troops were to remain in the country, in return for which Mexico was to pay ^40 per man per year. These troops were withdrawn at the beginning oi 1867. 3 F 8i8 Mexico — Land and People. Post Lottery Arrears Miscellaneous Total EXPENDITURE. Legislation ... Administration Supreme Court of Justice Foreign Affairs Interior Justice, public instruction Public works Finance War, marine Expenses not specified Total Foreign Home Total Fublk Debt. Army. Infantry CaV'alry Artillery Coast guards Supernumeraries Total ... ... ... 1,251 The Navy consists of four gun-boats. ... ^122,988 ... 11,109 54,683 48,614 ^4,046,778 ^^173-657 ... 8,875 ... 58,633 31,576 ... 403,515 ... 188,385 ... 289,218 ... 680,993 ... 2,101,846 196,364 ^4,133,062 ^16,336.826 8,078,365 ^24,415,191 765 otificen ;, 14,642 men. 297 4,843 „ 148 „ 1,315 „ 22 „ 71 „ 19 », 265 „ 21,136 Soa'aL The cultivated soil is general))- in the hands of the ruling whites. The clergy possessed enormous wealth; it was cstmiated at ;;^83, 250,000. Financial necessity compelled a partial confiscation of the ecclesiastical l)roperty. Only a very few years ago this jjroj^erty was valued at between ;^5o,ooo,ooo and ;,{^6o, 000,000. The rebellion of Mexico against Spain began in 1810, and did not cease until the end of 1821. 'i'here have been as many as 260 different " risings" since 1856. Great progress has been made in the social and material condition of the Republic, under President Diaz, ; the land yields a greater j)roduce. the (luicksilver mines are more successfully worked, and the cotton industry is developing rapidly. MexLo — Land and People. 819 Commerce and Industry. Previous to 1870 the only articles of trade worth mentioning were vanilla and cochineal ; of other productions they had not even sufificient for home use. Now the Mexicans are successful in producing coffee, sugar, and tobacco. In two States only, Vera-cruz and Oaxaca, the produce of the land sold in the markets in 1877 for the value of ^2,000,000. In 1873 there was no sugar at all exported, but in 1877 the export of sugar alone reached the value of _;!^ 190,000. In 1878 there were 63 cotton factories, 10 woollen factories, and 9 for printing cotton goods. The first produce annually 4 million pieces of ^t^ yards ; the 2nd 4,000,000 pieces, and the last 2,000,000 yards. The centres of these industries are Puebla and Guadalajara. Water power is that which preponderates, though lately steam power has been largely introduced. The yield of gold and silver has been gradually diminishing. Tejada states that from the year 1690 to 1852, both inclusive, Mexico has furnished precious metals to the value of ^569,726,853 for coin, of which gold was only ^17,608,158. California and Australia together furnish more gold now in one year than Mexico in 330 years, according to the same authority. The value of agricultural produce exported in the year 1876 and 77 : — Coffee • ^306,974 l^^Sar 139,913 \'inil|'i 100,640 Cochineal ... ... ... ... ... S9>769 Tobacco and cigars ... ... ... ... 32,144 ^619,440 Railways, Telegraphs and Post. The only long line of railway is that constructed bv an English Com- pany in the years 1865 and 1872, between the Capital and Vera-Cruz, a length of 291 miles. I'he total number of miles of railway in 1878 was 476, Since 1873 there has been a telegraph in Mexico, and in 1878 it was very widely extended over the country ; there are now 600 telegraph offices and 7,452 miles of wire. The number of offices in 1876 was 855, The number of letters received in Mexico in 1874 was 1,565,000. MercantUe Mai-ine. 357 ves.sels for long voyages and 672 coasting vessels, with total tonnage of about 1,000,000 tons. The principal harbour on the Atlantic, Tampico, was connected in 1878 with San Luis Potosi, by means of a good high road. STATES OF CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA. {FIVE REPUBLICS.) LAND AND PEOPLE. STATES. Square miles Population. Chief Towns Inhabitants Guatemala .. 40,397 •• i,i90'754 ... Guatemala ... 30—45,000 San Salvador •• 7,441 .. 600,000 . .. San Salvador... 20 40,000 Honduras .. 46,776 .. 300,000 ... Comayagua i.. 8 — iS,ooo Nicaragua* .. 58,470 .. 250,000 ... Leon 20 — 30,000 Costa-Rica .. 21,262 .. 120,000 . .. San Jose 18 — 25,000 Total 174,346 2,460,754 Nixtionalities. Whites about 150,000 ; a number of mixed races and from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 Indians. The latter are divided into Ladinos or Quiche (that' is to say dependent converted Catholics), and Bravos or Barbaros, independent and free. RAILWAY TELEGRAPH Miles Miles Offices Guatemala ... — 1,125 53 Honduras 37 150 ~ Finance and Trade ANNUAL AVERAGE. Revenue Debt Imports Exports Guatemala .. /-"S 4 1,666 ^^937,500 ^^625, 000 ^760,832 San Salvador 354,166 1,041,666 520,333 729,166 Honduras 62,500 7,291,662 375>o°o 375»ooo Nicaragua 125,000 2,083,332 125,000 145-833 Costa-Rica 416,666 3,124,998 583033 937,500 ♦ Including Gicytown and the Mosquito tenitor)'. States of Central North America — Land and People. 82 1 NATIONAL PRODUCTS EXPORTED Aniseed ... Coffee Hides Deerskins Cocoa Cigars Horns Cochineal Cattle Oil Superior sugar Indian corn Woollen goods Sarsaparilla Specie Various ... FROM Guatemala IN 187S. Quantity in lbs. \'alue 1,650 ^275 2o,935>877 697,862 558,581 13,964 10,285 385 2,355 488 441 137 36,844 76 45,368 4,728 — 473 11,004 320 3,161,000 23,065 24,444 1,018 25,257 6,564 13,694 377 — 66,706 39,581 — 24,866,381 ^816,438 During the last five years the total quantity and value were : — lbs. 1874 18,851,488 ;^687,629 1875 18,318,461 670,280 1876 ... ... ... 22,045,800 ... ... 781,629 1877 23,005,016 786,081 1878 24,866,381 816,438 Public Works of Guatemala. Good roads have been made within the last year or twp. During 1877 and 1878 the telegraph was extended 250 miles, so that there are now in operation 1,125 miles of wire, and 53 offices. Communication is estabUshed with Sakados, Honduras, and Nicaragua. COSTA RICA. The class of exports will be seen by the following, together with the value in 1878 : — Cedar boards, cedar planks, cedar log ^1,326 Coffee 677,445 Hides 16,870 India-rubber 6,520 Minerals 63 Mother-of-pearl shell ... 140 Tropical plants... 296 Tortoiseshell ... 50 Re-shipments ... 3,761 822 States of Central North America — Land and People. Mines. There are mines of gold, silver and other metals, which are reported very rich, but little is done with them for lack of capital, skilled labour and good roads. Hisiorical Data. Declaration of independence, September 182 1; separation from the Mexican Confederacy, July xst 1823 ; Treaty of Union between the five States, October 7th 1842; secession of Guatemala, March 21, 1847. UNITED STATES OF COLUMBIA. (Federal Republic, formery called New Granada.) LAND AND PEOPLE. RE A about 318,930 English square miles. The government estimates the area at 513,775 English square miles ; but states at the same time that only 114,106 are inhabited. The population in 1870 was estimated at 2,951,984, The Nine Confederate States and their Population. Panama Bolivar Magdalena Santander Antioquia Boyaca* Cundinamana Cauca ... Tolima In addition 6 territories Total 224,032 241,704 88,928 433,178 365,974 498,541 433,658 435,078 230,891 2,951,984 53,466 2,985,450 * The President of the State of Boyaca has lately given some very interesting criminal statistics of the population over which he presides. Independently of deaths, caused by war, earthquakes, floods and accidents, 123 citizens have been assassinated within the last 4 years. There were 28 murders in 1876 ; 31 in 1877 ; 38 in 1878 ; and 26 in 1879. 824 United States of Cohinibia — Land and People. Chief towns are Bogota with between 40,000 and 50,000 inhabitants ; Medellin 30.000, and Panama with 18,000. About one half of the whole population are whites and half-castes; 900,000 Africans; 126,000 indepen- dent Indians ; and 466 half-caste Indians and Negroes. Finance. An account of the revenue and expenditure :- 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 Revenue 648,878 1,249,717 1,262,315 Expenditure /^595-525 579,043 2,004,731 1, 514.985 Surplus ^185,617 79>835 The customs form the chief source of revenue, as will be seen in the following table : — Revemiefor 1878-79. Customs Salt monopoly Railway of Panama and Bolivar Post Telegraph Mint National property Lands in mortmain Miscellaneous Less expense of collecting Total Interior Justice Finance War and Marine Public debt ... Public works Foreign Affairs Treasury Public instruction Pensions Post... Total ... Expenditure. ^838,565 302,401 80,192 17,609 6,054 2,419 1,979 5.724 176,783 ^1,431,726 169,411 i^i, 262,315 ^50,005 5.798 239,672 237,116 286,040 483,631 13,270 16,107 68,983 24,212 60,413 The President of the Republic receives a salary of ;^i,979 ; ^li^^ three Ministers each ^520 ; and the generals in active service ^416. The debt amounted in 1861 to ^1,760,000 ; in 1874 to ^2,200,000 ; in 1878 to ^3,333,188. A great part of the debt is owing to English creditors. IlaH'of the customs, and 15 per cent, of the sail montjpoly are ]^ledged to English creditors. United States of Coliniibia — Laud and People. 825 Anny. The federal army reckons 2,000 men ; but practically there are but 500. In war each state is bound to place i per cent of its population under arms. The navy has been entirely abolished. Commerce. Some of the principal articles of export and their value in 1879-78 Gold and silver ... ... ... ... ^768,384 524,633 Quinine Coffee Skins Tobacco Straw hats India rubber Cotton 313,348 168,774 112,520 26,133 41,510 18,981 COMMERCE FROM 1 874 TO 1 878. Imports Exports 1874-75 ^1,447,505 ••• ^2,680,005 1875-76 1,526,875 ... 3,016,227 1876-77 i>397,73i ••• 2,093,556 1877-78 ... ... 1,814,332 ... 2,315,017 Mines. These are for the most part carelessly worked, yet there were in 1874 561 mines in working with 17,000 workmen employed, and the value of the yield was ^479,166, of which ^376,990 was gold. Harbour traffic. ENTERED CLEARED Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage 1873-74 ... 1877-78 ... 1,101 409,308 1,189 479,800 1,094 409>3o8 Railways and Telegraph. The Panama railway is 47 miles in length, and enormous charges are made both for passengers and merchandise. This railway runs between Colon and Panama, and passengers are conveyed its entire length in four hours. The ticket for the journey is ;^5 ; and there is only one class for all passengers. It was constructed by an American 14 years ago at an outlay of ^2,500,000. The number of passengers who crossed the Isthmus in 1878 was 24,893. There is also a railway line of 17 miles in Bolivar. Telegraph : 1,366 miles of line. The number of despatches in 1875 was 98,375. Historical. The revolution in the Spanish kingdom of New Granada began in 181 1. Independence was established by the Battle of Calobozo. The districts of Caracas and New Granada united in 1819 under the name of 826 United States of Columbia — Land and People. Columbia, and which was joined by Quito in 182 1, and Panama in 1823. They were again divided into three States in 1831, viz. : New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador. In 1S64 the old name of the State was resumed, and a federal constitution on the model of that of the North American Union was established, allowing each of the nine States almost absolute and complete self-government. VENEZUELA (Republic), LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area embraces about 212,620 English square miles, and is divided into three regions, viz. : the Tierra Caliente or hot region, which extends to about 700 metres above the sea, the average temperature is 25° c. ;. the Tierra Templada, or temperate region, extends to 2,000 metres above the sea, of which the mean temperature is 18°; and the Tierra Fria, or cold region : snow line, 4,100 to 4,500. The popula- tion, 1,784,194, among whom, at the former census, were 298,000 whites ; 500,000 mixed races ; of whom the largest numbers are Mulattoes, about 180,000 Creoles, 48,000 who were formerly slaves — (slavery has been abolished here since 1854) — 160,000 converted Indians, 14,000 subject Indians, and 52,000 independent Indians. The principal towns are : — Towns Caracas Valencia Barquisimeto Maracaibo ... Maturin San Carlos ... Inhabitants Towns Inhabitants 48,897 Merida ... 9,727 28,594 Cumana ... 9,427 25,664 Ciudad Bolivar 8,486 21,954 Coro 8,172 12,944 Barcelona 7,674 10,420 La Guaira 6,793 After very many changes the Republic is divided into 20 States, one district, and three territories. i 828 Vetiezuela — Land and People. The statement of accounts for 1852-53 shewed the expenditure to be _^i,7 18,339, and the revenue only /;563, 553. As the RepubHc has lost ali credit through non-fulfilment of its liabilities, the receipts are obliged to suffice for the expenditure. No interest has been paid on the debt for a long time, and eventually the salaries of the officials were stopped. The receipts in 1873-74 were given at ^738,325) and the expenditure at ^755,655, the deficit to be covered by economies. In 1874-75 the receipts were stated at ;^i, 396,266, and the expenditure, ;^i,279,8i9, the surplus to be applied to paying the interest of the debt. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs ; no taxes exist except a very small one on salt and one on stamps. The foreign debt (capital and interest) at the end of June, 1877, was ;^io,o92,oi5, and the home debt ^2,961,368. Army, — 5,500 men and about 2,000 officers. Navy. — 6 old steamers. Cotmnerce. — The principal articles of commerce are coffee, cotton, cocoa, indigo, and hides. The value of the imports and exports in 1875, which are the last returns we have, was, imports, ^3,008,674; exports, ;^3,i9i,326, Railways.— \ line from Tucacas to the mines of Aroa was opened in February, 1877 a length of 70 miles. The Republic is in communication with Europe by means of 1 1 regular lines of steamers. ECUADOR (Republic), LAND AND PEOPLE. HE extent of area (which includes Quito, Guayaquil, and Assuy,) is about 244,513 English square miles, and contained a popula- tion (according to the Minister, Leon, in 1875,) o^ 866, 37, not including about 200,000 wild Indians. The town of Quito, which is the capital, contains between 70,000 and 80,000 inhabitants. The principal port is that of Guayaquil. In [876 the revenue was ^463,400 ; the ex- [i^enditure, ^672,000. ^234,811 of the revenue was obtained from customs. The public debt in 1875 ixnrounted to p/^3,274,ooo, of which ^1,824,000 was foreign debt. Coniuicne. The value of the exports which passed out of the Port of Guayaquil, was distributed among the various countries in 1878 as United Kingdom Europe, including P>ance, Spain, and (iermany United States of North America Central America and West Indies \Vest Coast of South America includint: Panama Total In 1877 the value was follows :— 260,804 118,582 43,987 126,310 .^90,823 ^745,589 The decrease in 1878 was owing to the severe rains which seriously damaged the cocoa crops and coffee plantations. 830 Ecuador — Land and People. ARTICLES OF EXPORT AND THEIR VALUE. 1S77 Bark ^29,646 Canes... 1,580 Cocoa 457,045 Coffee 33.387 Cotton 6,233 Hammocks ... 379 Raw liides ... 13,404 Tanned hides 7,748 India-rubber ... 24,707 Ivory nuts 19,360 Lumber 10,771 Orchilla 4,144 Sarsaparilla ... 336 Straw ... 755 Straw hats 25,269 Tobacco 600 Tamarinds ... 730 P'ruit 4,500 Specie 80,000 Sundries 25,000 (Tannin Bark) Total ^745,594 ;^59,4oo 2,940 320,694 3,758 355 232 17,133 8,752 22,963 62,764 10,440 1,107 556 1,630 15,369 935 81 3,000 142,214 6,500 ^680,823 The gross receipts of the Guayaquil custom-house alone have been as follows during the last six years : — 1873 ^232.313 194,865 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 149,705 167,723 182,510 19^317 The value of the exports i)assing out of the ports of Manta and Bahia- de-Caraques in 1878 was ^^134,440. Railway and Tclcgrapli. At the end of 1877 there were 26 miles of railway : a few miles were added in 187S along the level plains towards the foot of the Andes. In 1877 the length of telegraph line was 208 miles; the number of offices, 10. Army, 1000 men; Nai'y, three small steamers. PERU (Republic) LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area embraces about 510,288 English square miles; the population in 1876 was 2,699,945, of whom 1,365,895 were males and 1,334,050 were females. The number of wild Indians (not included in the figures above) is estimated at 350,000. The capital of the Republic is Lima, which contains 101,488 inhabitants ; and Callao, the next largest town 35,502. There were, it is said, between 15,000 and 20,000 Chinese in these two cities, and about 60,000 in the whole of Peru, but their number is now reduced to about 35,000. Creeds. Catholics Protestants Jews Members of other creeds Creed not stated ATatiouality. 18,082 Europeans, of whom 1,672 arc Cermans 1,699 .Spanish 2,647 French 6,990 Italians 373 Portuguese 160 Swedes 91 Swiss 50,032 Asiatics 20 Africans 2,625,758 Americans 30 Australians 5,184 Nationality not know n 2,644,055 5.087 498 27,073 23.393 832 Fern — Land mid People. Finance. The budget estimates for 1875 ''^"d 1876 estimated the revenue at ;!^i3,ii3,228, and the expenditure at ^15,480,000. The Congress struck off ^720,000, thereby reducing the deiicit to ^1,606,700. The financial condition is much worse than even here appears, as the ordinary revenue does not exceed ;j^5, 550,228, and this against an ordinary expenditure of ^ 1 2,040,000. The financial department issued in March of this year (1880) states the revenue of 1877 to have been only ^5,400,000, of which sum Guano contributed ;^i 18,600. All the estimates published by the Peruvian Government hold out, says the Times special correspondent, hopes of a surplus, but the practical result is that at the end of the year there is invariably a deficit. The accumula- tion of these deficits has burdened the Republic with a national debt, which in i860 was only ^4,600,000, but which in 1876 had reached the sum of ^42,776,000 (a tenfold increase). It was as a guarantee for the payment of the interest of this debt that the income arising from the sale of Guano was originally destined. Commerce. In 1877 Peru imported foreign goods to the amount of ;^4,ooo,ooo, of which ^2,000,000 worth were supplied by England. The exports in this same year amounted to _^6, 200,000, exclusive of guano and nitrate of soda; of which I found their way to England. Mines. In the year 1791 tliere were (in the territory which now forms Peru) 70 gold, 834 silver, 40 (juicksilver and 12 lead mines, out of which, during 50 years, the Spanish Government obtained annually ;^i, 250,000. The following interesting histor}' of guano and nitrate of soda is taken from a report of the Times special correspondent in South America; — Guano, the deposit of sea fowl, accumulating for centuries along shore, and kept dry throughout all time by this rainless climate, was well known to the native Indians, who used it as manure ; l)Ut it was suffered to be unproductive by the Spaniards, and its very existence forgotten till its fertilizing properties were made known to Europe by Alexander Von Hum- boldt in the early part of this century, when it became one of the most important articles in the tiading intercourse between the Old World and the New. Its exportation l)egan in 1840. Tile richest guano beds, wliich were tlio'^e of the Chincha Islands, lying near tlie coast between Callao and Pisco, seem to have yielded all they have to give. Other beds are numerous, but said to be of inferior quality, mixed u]i with sand and stone and deficient in ammonia, so that the demand for guano is already abating, and the sale which in 1869 amounted to 574,790 tons, diminished gradually till it sunk to 378,663 tons in 1876; 310,042 tons in 1877, and if piivate reports may be relied upon, 338,000 tons in 1878. Two years ago it was estimated that there was still about 1.800,000 tons, but that within a few years it would be totally exhausted. Mitrate of soda is expected, by the Peruvian financiers, to take the place of guano, which is evidently on the decline, to enable them to balance accounts. But the circumstances are widely diHerent. Guano lay on the ground, as ready made manure, and the labour of shovelling it and delivering it to the consignees devolved upon a few negroes and Chinese immigrants. Nitrate of soda, however, which is used for a variety of purposes, cannot l)e exported in its natural state, but requires manipulation and preparation which involve great labour and expense. 'I'b.e government jiarcelled out the nitrate land among a number of commercial houses, chiefly foreign, upon wliich it levied export duty, at first only 2d, on a certain measure (a quintal), but which it has graihudly increased till it is now 4s. duty on the same measure. The government then determined to buy back the giouuds and to work and export on its own account; the result has been that the sale which had gradually risen from 90,440 tons in 1869 to ^86,869 '°"* '" '^7^ ^^"^1 '° 213,000 tons in 1877. Peru — Land and People. 833 In 1877 there were in working 10 gold, 34 gold quartz, 4S2 silver, 25 copper ; 217 coal mines, and 49 petroleum springs. Peru is, therefore, still a wealthy country, but the development of her wealth recjuires, peace, a good provident government and active cheap and abundant labour. Raihvays and Telegraph. There are 1,401 miles of railway constructed and mostly open. Two of the lines of rail, known as the Trans-Andean railways are bold, gigantic undertakings. One is the Oroya Railway, starting from Callao and Lima, and reaching a height of 15,641 feet above the sea level. Telegraph. — The length of line is 1,574 miles ; number of stations 53. 3 G BOLIVIA (Republic), LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area extends over 500,740 English square miles. The popula- tion was estimated in 1877 at 2,325,000 ; about one-fourth are Indians, many of whom have become Roman Catholics, though the larger portion adhere to the worship of their gods. The language spoken in Bolivia is Spanish. The principal towns are :— Inhabitants 76,372 ... Potosi ... 40,678 ... Santa Cruz 23,976 Inhabitants 22,850 9,780 La Paz Cochabamba Sucre The insurrection which began here in 1809 did not end until 1825. Finance. This is in a very unsatisfactory state. No budget was published in 1868-69, and except one in 1873-74 none have been published since. The revenue in 1873-74 was estimated at ^^585, 884, and the expenditure at ^901,100; a deficit, therefore, of ^3 15,226. The principal sources of income are the silver mines at Potosi and the customs. The annual value of the silver produced is about ^30,000, two-thirds of which is exported. Most of the imports into Bolivia come by way of Arica in Peru, but lately ihe new route up the Amazon and its tributaries, through Brazil, has been used greatly for commerce. The exports consist principally of silver, copper, Peruvian bark, Alpaca wool, and tin ; and in 1^77 the exports of these articles were valued thus ; — ^80,896 11,504 Beside these, chinchilla skins, coffee, cocoa, and saltpetre are exported. Copper ... Alpaca wool ^^139-655 38.117 I'eruvian bark Tin Bolivia — Land and People. 83s Means of Communication. These are very meagre; there is one good road between La Paz (the capital) and ChiUlaga, and a railway between Autofagasta, Sala and, CaracoUs, a length of 80 miles, and one is in course of construction between Mejillones and Caracolls. Telegraph. The length of telegraph line in 1877 wss 471 miles, with 15 stations. Mercantile Marine. 38 vessels of 7,000 tons burden. Army. 2,000 men, of whom 31 are generals. CHILE (Republic), LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area is about 127, i] 2,136,724. Provinxes. Atacama ... Coquimbo (Serena) Aconcagua Valparaiso... Santiago ... Colchagua... Curico Talca Linares Maule Nuble Concepcion Biobio Angol territory Arauco Valdivia . . . Llanquihue Chiloc Magelhaens territory Total estimated (the boundaries are very 572 English square miles, and the Population in 1878. 41,524 79,880 65,894 89,902 183.657 75.265 46,890 55.703 61,873 58,307 70,593 77.659 41,329 1 1,650 28,172 16,834 26,307 32,994 737 indefinite), at population at I"emales Total 31,881 73.405 82,090 161,970 69,296 135.190 89,956 179,858 '93,453 377.110 78,392 153.657 49,312 96,202 57,154 112,857 59,059 120,932 6i,66i 119,968 71,631 142,224 78,976 •■ 156,635 38,293 79,622 10,032 21,682 25,241 53-413 15.744 32,578 24,461 50,758 34,446 67,440 477 1,214 1,071,555 •• 2,136,725 Chile— Land and People. 837 Among the population are 23.579 foreigners, including 4,678 Germans, 4,267 English, 3,314 French, 1,983 Italians, 1,223 Spaniards, 931 North Americans, 7,183 Argentines. There are about 250,000 Negroes, and many baptized and unbaptized Indians. Inhabitants 18,277 17,496 12,293 Declaration of Independence, September i8th, 1810, but the struggle lasted till 1820. Principal towu8 Inhabitants Principal towns Santiago ... .. 129,807 Concepcion Including suburbs •• 150,367 Talca Valparaiso •• 97,737 Serena . . . Chilian 19,044 Movement of the Population. Year Births Deaths Marriages 1874 1875 1876 1877 90,371 87,303 84,407 82,295 Finance. 55.897 57,973 62,817 62,349 16,670 16,928 14,876 13,576 Ordinary Revenue Ordinary Expenditure Extraordinary Revenue Extraordinary Expenditure 1875 • 1877 . 1878 . . ;^3, 268,023 . 3,361,166 . 2,806,373 . • ^3,421,582 . 3,328,562 . 3,218.796 ... ^^1,897,569 . 893,234 . 282,421 . •• ;^i, 725,136 1,123,119 1,056,349 Debt. 1876 ... total debt ^10,135,520 of which ^8,033,600 was foreign debt 1877 ... „ 10,609,364 „ 7,406,900 „ „ 1878 ... „ 10,966,664 „ 7,102,900 „ „ Army. Standing army, 3,200 men ; national guard, 24,000 men. In conse- quence of the war with Peru and Bolivia, the army has been mobilized, and formed into 3 divisions; these contain ist division, 10,000 men; the 2nd, 8,000 men, and the 3rd 2,000, = 20,000 men. The National Guard has been increased to 30,000, giving a total of 50,000 men. There are 10 generals, 29 lieutenant-colonels, 57 majors, 134 captains, and 248 lieutenants = 489 officers. Navy in 1879. 8 steamers, (of which 2 are iron-clad frigates with 1 2 guns), of 44 guns and 3,340 horse-power, and 2 pontoons ; total tonnage, 10,222 tons; crews, 963 men. There has been an increase in consequence of the war, but how large an increase is not known. 838 Chile — Land and People. Social. Chile was for many years an agricultural rountry. In 1S65 there were 113,681 men engaged in agriculture, against 23,625 labouring in the mines In 1875 there were 173,476 agriculturists to 29,003 miners, although the mining produce was worth ^3,301,287, and the agricultural produce only ^3,186,693. In 1878 the mineral produce exported was valued at ;^3,405,i73, and the agricultural exports had diminislied to ^{^1,734,712. The special trade of the country, taking imports and exports together, of the real produce of the land has risen within 30 years (1844-74) from ^2,800,000 to ;2{^ 1 4, 800,000. Yield of corn in 1870 and 71 was 9,071,821 cwts. ; of the vine 14,447,202 gallons. Commerce. One of the princijjal articles of export is grain. Previous to 1848 the exportation of wheat and flour was very unimportant, and it was not until the discovery of gold in California that it made any great stride. Chile supplied grain to the swarms of people at the diggings, the annual value of which was between ^400,000 and ^800,000. When California began to grow grain of its own, Chile found a market in Australia, where she exported to the value of ^400,000 annually ; and when Australia began to supply its wants from other sources, Chile sold her corn to Peru, but now that the war has broken out she must turn to England for a market for her agri- cultural produce. The imports of 1875 were valued at ^7,627,500; the exports ;^7,i85,5i8. Among the articles of import are cotton goods, sugar, woollen goods, machinery, wine. The articles of export are corn, oil and metals. The yield of copper is gradually assuming importance. I Mercantile Marine In 1877 consisted of 136 vessels of 39,755" tons; 28 of the vessels were steamers of 9,022 tons. 1871 '875 1877 ENTERED Vessels 5,462 5,756 Harbour Traffic. Tonnage Vessels 3,261,000 ... 3,447,296 ... — 3,761,062 ... 5<55i CLEARRIi Tonnage 3,743,577 Education. The National Institution had in 1879—943 students The high schools ,, 2,596 ,, The elementary schools ,, 74,990 ,, The National Lii)rary contains 56,564 volumes 24 provinc ial libraries ,, 59.360 ,, 1'^ '877 ^144,705 were spent by the government on public education. Chile — Land and People. 839 Hospitals. All vessels leaving Chilian ports pay id. per registered ton, once in each year, which is collected as Hospital dues. With this sum, which is added to by the government and by the private firms, there is a good hospital established, free to all ; it contains 30 beds. Railways and Telegraph. In 1879 the length of railway was 1,052 miles, of which 590 miles belong to the State ; the remainder to companies. Telegraph line measures 4,447 miles. The number of stations is 89 ; 73 of which belong to the State. The number of telegrams despatched was 138,179, and the receipts amounted to ^18,296. Post in 1878. There passed through the post 6,632,110 letters; 14,993 patterns or sample packets; 8,639,544 journals and circulars. The number of post oflfices 343 ; receipts ^^67,577 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION (Republic.) LAND AND PEOPLE. HIS Republic, one of the few districts in South America in which settled conditions have begun to be established, contains 14 States (incorrectly called provinces, the most important of which is Buenos Ayres), 3 territories, and Patagonia, which last is inhabited only by independent Indians. Its area, including Patagonia, is 1,619,470 English scjuare miles, and its population 1,877,490 (of whom 495,107 dwell in Buenos Ayres), including 93,137 Indians. Nationalities. At the taking of the census in 1869 there were found to be 211,993 foreigners, viz., 71,442 Italians, 34,080 Spaniards, 32,383 French, 1,966 Portuguese, 10,709 English, 5,860 Swiss, 4,997 Germans, i5,2o60rientalists. 10,911 Chilians, 6,200 Bolivians, 6,065 Brazilians, 1,095 North Americans. and 7,073 whose nationality is not stated. Principal Towns. Buenos Ayresf Cordova ... Rosario*... Tucuman Salta Corrientes Santa Fe... Parana ... Declaration of Independence, July 9, 181 6. Inhabitants, iSfig. 177,787 28,523 17,438 11,716 11,218 10,670 10,098 * The number of British in Rusario in 1878 was 238 adults and 186 children, + In 1878, the population ncreased to 200.000. Argent I )ie Cuufcderation- -Land and People, 841 Of the population in 1S69 897,780 were males and 845,572 were females. Of the whole population 360,683 could read, and 312,01 1 of this number could also write. 729,287 were under tlie age of 14, and of this number 153,882 wree illegitimate, The otiicial language is Spanish, but the natives speak three different languages. The population is almost entirely Roman Catholic. Every form of religion is tolerated, and there are two Protestant colonist com- munities. Imniigrat'ion. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1877 1S78 Immigrants 39,667 31,614 37.037 79,712 68,277 42,066 28,708 35,876 In January, 1879, '^^ many as 10,724 persons immigrated. Among the immigrants who landed at Buenos Ayres in 1876 were 6,950 Italians, 3,463 Spaniards, 2,064 French, 834 English, 373 Swiss, 231 (iermans, 118 Austrians, loi Portuguese. 74 Belgians, 18 Danes, 3 Dutch, I Russian, 6 Greeks and Turks, 65 North Americans, and 231 of other nationalities. Eiins'yation. Emigrants 1872 1873 1874 1875 I 876 9,153 18,236 21,340 21,578 13,487 Finance. The revenue which in 1863 was only ^1,290,057 had risen in 1875 to ^3,441,349 and to an expenditure of ^3,478,963, of which ^2,234,708 was extraordinary expenditure. The gross revenue in 1877 was ^2,965,619, the cost of collection ;^25i,754, giving a net revenue, therefore, of ^2,713,865. The gross revenue in 1878 was ^3)710,379. The gross expenditure „ 4,235,460. There is invariably a deficit, and the paper money is greatly depreciated. The individual States levy special imposts to cover their deficits. The State debt at the end of 1875 was ^10,696,145, of which ;^8,88i,8i6 was foreign debt. The account of the finances for the whole Confederation in 1877 was as follows :— R EVEN UF.. Import dues... Export dues... Storing dues Stamps Post Telegraph ... Watch towers Railways Miscellaneous receipts Accidental ... Total ^^2,168,674 464,898 61,743 67,489 55,722 16,410 5,904 28,780 79,550 16,449 ^2,965,619 I 842 Argetitine Confederation — Land and People. EXPENDITURE. Pensions and salaries... ... ... ... ;^3oo, 166 Post 72,363 Bridges and roads ... ... ... ... 3,605 Subventions to the provinces ^0,497 Telegraphs 41,784 Immigration ... ... ... .•■ ••• 53,224 Diplomatic service ... ... ... ... 12,786 Justice 27,012 Legislative body ... ... .•■ ... 84,829 Public instruction 161,902 Religion 26,990 Army and navy ... ... ... ... S49.426 War in Entre Rios 13,266 Agriculture 3,67° Railways 45,364 National observatory ... ... ..• ... 4,^^42 Revolution of 1874 61,962 Public works , 16,934 Other expenses * ... ... 1,080,628 ^2,871,250 Extraordinary expenditure ... ... ... 1,363,211 Total ;^4,234,46i The Ar))iy. The army (not including the national guard) consists of 7,506 men, viz. : 2,941 in the infantry ; 3,880 in the cavalry, and 685 in the artillery. There are six generals of brigades, 12 major-generals, 51 colonels, 121 lieutenant-colonels, 185 sergeant-majors, and 637 other officers. The national guard consists of 236,000 and a reserve of 68,000. Navy. Guns Tonnage Horse power 2 Ironclads 12 3,400 1,500 6 Gunboats 16 2,400 1,950 2 Torpedoes ~ 700 440 12 Steamers 50 3,700 3,020 3 Transports 1,500 600 2 Sailing vessels 10 300 Total ... 88 12,000 ... 7,510 Agricultural Colonies. According to Ford, there were 10 of these in 1866, containing 1,394 families, and 7,550 persons. The settlements forrfied by the Swiss and Germans are the most important ; the Welsh colony in distant Patagonia seems to have but little chance of prosperity. In 1877 there were agricultural colonies founded by Germans, Swiss, Italians, and French ; 25 in Sante Fe ; 7 in Cordova ; 3 in Entre-Rios. The principal articles cultivated are wheat, maize, sugar, cotton, tobacco, nuts, Hax, and madder. The most important colonies are Esperanzo, Villa Urquiza, Bernstadt, Humboldt, and Guadaloupe. Argentine Confederatio7i — Land and People. 843 Live Stock. The Argentine Republic is especially wealthy in herds of cattle. An official statement in 1877 gave 4,000,000 horses; 57,501,261 sheep; 3435156 pigs; and 13,437,862 head of cattle. Mineral Wealth. This appears to be very great. Both gold and silver are obtained, but the yield of copper is most important. The total wealth of the mineral production is estimated by Moussy at between ^280,000 and ^^320,000 per annum. According to Rickard there were in 1863, 2,687 men em- ployed in the mines ; ^286,264 capital employed; and the yield in this same year was : — Gold ... ... 336 lbs. Silver 241 cwts. Copper 13,829 „ Lead... 2o,coo „ In 1875 the yield was — Gold, 4,000 ozs. ... valued at Silver, 450,000 „ ... „ The export of minerals was in — Gold ore to the value of ... Silver, and silver ore ,, Copper „ 1876 ^400 942 33^772 ^15.000 115,000 1877 2,376 41-252 Commerce. THE VALUE OF THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Imports Exports 1874 ... ^11,192,200 ;!^8,62 1,000 1875 11,149,000 10,466,200 1876 6,982,000 9,307,800 1877 7,827,600 6,865,000 1878 8,469,400 7,262,600 THE VALUE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF EXPORT IN 1878. Wool ^2,944,800 2,249,200 780,000 Cowhides Sheep skins Hides Tallow Hair Salt meat Animals Ostrich feathers Minerals Bones 247,800 635,800 133,800 472,800 477,200 21,000 7,800 78,200 844 A rgetitine Confederation — Land and People. COMMERCE WITH ENGLAND IN 1 878. Imports Exports Railways. In 1 87 7 there were 1,438 miles open. ^2,303,000 699,800 TRAFFIC. Number of Value of Value of Passengers Goods' Traffic Total Traffic I87I 44,707 >^99>729 • ^149,391 1872 64,900 110,637 164,400 1873 68,407 115,642 165,583 1874 72,180 112,868 231,304 1875 88,349 136,035 252,294 1876 77,146 95,041 145,204 1877 56,689 113,818 144,237 1878 64,449 124,649 156,751 Fast. Number of Packets and Letters Printed Matter 1876 ... 4,956,000 ... 2,457,000 1877 4,785,710 ... 1,975,780 1878 5,c 45,563 ... 2,166,078 Telegraph. Length of line Length of wire Number of telegrams milei 4,817 9,824 248,321 Harbour Traffic. Sailing Vessels ENTERED Tonnage Steamers Tonnage 1875 Ij579 395,765 975 510,758 1876 963 221,589 851 502,681 1877 1,482 297,399 1,353 632,347 Sailing Vessels 845 1,051 6,557 214,714 CLEARED Tonnage Steamers Tonnage 348,438 955 510,758 247,682 851 502,681 293,580 1,198 534,368 PARAGUAY (Republic). l.ANl) AND PEOl'LE REA, about 56,769 English square miles. At the census taken in 1876 there were 293,844 inhabitants. In 1873 the population was 221,079, of whom 86,079 were children, 106,254 were women, and only 28,746 males over 15 years of age ; so destructive to Hfe had been the war from 1805 to 1870 with Brazil and the neighbouring countries. In 1S57 the population had numbered 1,337,431. The number of foreigners dwelling in Paraguay in 1876, after the departure of the foreign troops, was as follows :— 1,500 Brazilians, 2,500 Italians, 600 Portuguese, 400 Argentines, 250 Spaniards, 150 Austrians, 1 20 Erench, 90 Germans, So English, 80 Uruguayans, and 230 of other nationalities. Finance. The finances are in most complete disorder. 'I'he chief source of revenue now is the customs, which, in 1877, yielded ^59,1 13, the expendi- ture being ^39,128 ; 1878 the customs yielded ^36,144. Export dues are entirely abolished. By the treaty of peace, signed June 20, 1870, between Paraguay and Brazil, and the Argentine Republic, the former is to pay ^^40,000,000 to Brazil, ^7,000,000 and ^,^200,000 to Uruguay. In 187 1 and 1872 two 8 per cent, loans, of ;^3,ooo,ooo (together) were obtained from Robinson, Fleming & Co., payable within 21 years, on the special security of the public lands, proceeds of the mines, and the tea plantations. The money was to be chiefly employed in construction of railroads and roads. Payment ceased in 1874. The (lovernment sold the railway in 1877 to a company. The only railway is tliat from Ascension to Paraguay, a distance of 44^, English miles. The only telegraph line runs along this'railwa}-. 846 Paraguay — Land and People. f I The Post. Dispatched in 1878, Received Within the Republic. Receipts 22,532 letters and packets 3IJ584 » .5 » 6,966 ,, „ „ ^348 Coinincrce, Imports Exports 1876 ^i3i>4oo ^78.600 1877 159)400 179,800 1878 154,000 — The principal articles of exports being Paraguay tea, tobacco and cigars, cow hides, essence of orange flower, bark, eau-de-vie, maize, and leather. Army. The troops are disbanded for want of money. ,'■1 URUGUAY (Republic), LAND AND PEOPLE. HE Republica Oriental del Uruguay, also called Montevideo from its capital, contains about 72,151 English square miles within its area, and has a population of 440,000 individuals, 91,167 of whom dwell in the capital, Montevideo. Immigration. Between the years 1866 — 71 the number of immigrants amounted to 103,682; in 1872 they numbered 15,516; in 1873, 34,439; i" ^874, 13,757 ; in 1875, 5,298 ; in 1876, 5,570 ; in 1877, 6,168. Distribution of Property. CEconomiste Francais published in 1879 an interesting statement, shewing how very large a proportion of the property is in the hands of foreign nationalities. The total value of the property is estimated at ^44,650,887, divided among the following : — Uruguayans.. ... £ 18,669,245 Portuguese .,. . ^581,468 Brazilians ... 7,180,237 Swiss 88,443 Spanish ... 6,266,960 Americans ... 42,171 Italians ... 5.532,695 Danes J5>729 French — 2,834,691 Austrians 8^550 English ... 1,655,646 Africans 5.95S Argentines .. ... 1,040,784 Other Countries 153.962 Germans . 663,443 848 Uruguay — Land and Peopie. Finance. The revenue was estimated in the budget of 1876 at ^1,694,120, of which sum customs yielded ^1,122,423; the expenditure, ^910,514, of which nearly one-half was for war and marine. The debt in 1877 ^'^s X9,ooi,634 ; in 1879, ;^9,537,4o8. The paper money in circulation on January ist, 1877, was ^1,211, 012. Army. The troops in 1878 numbered 2,200 men and 1,153 officers; the national guard numbered 20,000. Education. for rich and poor is free alike. There were in 1S75 227 free public schools, with 15,564 scholars; and 142 private elementary schools, with 7,144 scholars. Li've Stock, According to a somewhat uncertain statement: — 437,502 horses; 12,698 asses; 6,000,000 head of cattle ; 12,000,000 sheep : 12,701 pigs; 5,084 goats. Coin/nerde. Precious metalt ib74 1S75 i8;6 1877 1877 Imports ^'3.579015 ^2,800,416 /:2,75o,ooo ^3,229,166 ^893,244 Exports 3. '75-996 2,644,481 2,809,791 3,644,203 750'7o6 Although these are official statements, they may be considered one- third too low. The exports consisted principally of animal produce ; in J.874 smoked meat, 78,104,101 lbs.; raw w^ool, 37,352,743 lbs.; fat, 3.587)793 lbs. ; hides, 2,517,984 ; sheep skins, 3,166,147. I'he whole of the commerce passes through Montevideo, where, in 1877, 1,616 ships entered, of 1,032,941 tons, (334 of them being English, 232 German); and 1,599 vessels, of 1,012,723 tons, cleared. Railways. 233 miles in length. Telegraph, The length of line in 1877 was 757 miles, including 99 miles of submarme cable: there were 20 stations, and 40,361 telegrams were despatched. Post. Newspapers Post Omccs Lcucis and Circulars Receipts .S72 . — . » 740,422 818,081 ■■^75 • — 1.367,290 1,492,087 )S77 . Ml 1,032,876 831.429 • ^19-356 1878 . -34 1,023,004 1,185,012 26,960 BRAZIL* (Empire). LAND AND PEOPLE In extent and elements of strength, Brazil occupies the first place among the States of South America. The area is estimated at 3,218,166 English square miles, and the population at 11,108,291, including 1,000,000 wild Indians. The Empire is divided into 2 1 provinces, viz. : — .\rea in English Population in 1876 Provinces+ Square Miles ?"ree Slaves Total I Amazonas 732,249 56,631 979 57.610 2 Para ... 443'7^S 247,779 27,458 275.237 3 Maranhao 177,515 284,101 74>939 359,040 4 Piauhi ... 116,493 178,427 23,795 202,222 5 Ceara ... 40,240 689,773 31,913 721,686 6 Rio Grande do Norte.. 22,289 220,959 13,020 233,979 7 Parhiba 28,846 354,700 21,526 376,226 8 Pernambuco 49,560 732,511 89,028 841,539 1 A 1- • 1 !,^/7^ ^nA fVi» r tropical vegetation. f Each of tiiese provinces has its government confided to an officer who is styled President. He is the highest authority in his district, and the immediate agent or representa- tive oi the Emperor. There is also in each province a legislative assembly, competent to frame laws on matters purely provincial. 'I he principal attributes of the assembly are to fix the provincial and municipal expenditure ; to determine the provincial imposts and taxation, in such a manner iiowever, as not to interfere with the general impositions of the central government ; to regulate public works and to provide police. Each town in the Empire has a municipality, which provides for paving, cleaning and lighting the towns. — Reaoit of the British Consul in Rio Grande do Sid. 3 H 850 Brazil — Land and People. Area in F,ngli< h Population in 1876 Provinces Square Miles Free Slaves Total 9 Alagoas ■• 22,577 312,268 35,741 348,009 lo Sergipe... .. 15,088 153,620 22,623 176,243 1 1 Bahia ... •• 164,590 211,792 167,824 1,379,616 12 Espirito Santo... 17,707 59,478 22,659 82,137 13 Rio de Janeiro 26,627 490,087 292,637 782,724 14 Santa Catharina . 28,624 144,818 14,984 159,802 15 Rio Grande do Sul 91,329 367,022 67,791 434,813 16 Minas Geraes ... 221,894 1,669,276 370,459 2,039,735 17 Matto Grosso ... • 532,345 53,750 6,667 60,417 18 Goyaz . 288,462 149,743 10,652 160,395 19 San Paulo 112,078 680,742 156,612 837,354 20 Parana. .- 85,429 I 16.162 10,560 126,722 21 Municipality neutral . 536 226,033 8,419,672 48,939 1,510,806 274,972 Total... . 3,218,166 9,930,478 Add wild Indians ... ... • .. 1,000,000 Communes not enumerate d 177,813 Grand total ... 11,108,291 According to sex ... ma es 4,318,699 805,170 (Provinces only) fem ales 4,100,973 705,636 Total 8,419,672 1,510,806 Creed. The predominant creed is Roman Catholic, to which all the slaves belong. There are only 27,766 not Catholics. Nationalities. There are 8,176,191 free Brazilians and 243,481 foreigners, among whom are 121.246 Portuguese, 45,829 Germans, 44,580 Africans, 6,108 French. Of the slaves, 138,560 were born in Africa. Of the 9,930,478 inhabitants, 3,787,289 belong to the Caucasian Race; 386,955 to the American Race, and 3,801,782 are mulattoes and negroes. Immigration. In the 10 years, 1864-73, the number of immigrants was 103,754, of whom, however, 56,240 left Brazil; of the 47,514 who remained, were 34, 126 l^ortuguese ; 5,049 Italians; 2,266 British; 1,682 French; 1,504 Spanish ; 1,382 North Americans ; 1,162 Germans, &c. In 1S77 there landed in Rio de Janiero 29,029 persons; in 1878,* 24,205 ; of whom 1 1,836 were Italians ; 6,236 Portuguese ; 2,185 Austrians ; 1,904 German Russians; 1,535 Germans. The number of houses in Brazil, 1,330,210. The nuiuber of house- holds, 1,332,274 * 'rh(.' English consul, Gollan, stati-s in his report that the class of immigrants is very unsatisfactory ; he e cepts the Germans, whom he speaks of as hanl working, iniliistrious, quiet people, and likely to tiirive. Brazil — Land and People. 851 Rio de Janeiro ... ,, with suburbs Bahia (S. Salvador) Recife (Pernambuco) Belem Frinc'ipal Toivns in 1S72. Inhabitants. 228,743 Maranhao 274,972 I San Paulo 128,929 i Para 1 16,671 Porto Alegre San Pedro Inhabitants. 3i>6o4 25,000 25,000 25,000 18,000 Historical Notice. The Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil in 1808 : and in 18 15 this colony was declared a kingdom. The meeting of the National Assembly took place in 1822, after the court had returned to Europe. The declara- tion of a separation from Portugal took place August ist, and was followed, October 1 2, by the elevation of the Crown Prince of Portugal to the dignity of Emperor of the independent sovereignty of Brazil. Constitution of December nth, 1823. Finance:'- The budget for 1874-75 concluded with ;^io,8oo,ooo revenue, of which the customs were estimated to yield ^7,600,000, and direct taxation only ^'250,000. The expenditure was estimated at ^10,148,479, of which sum ^"100,000 was for the court; ^1,603,386 for the army; ^1,225,209 for the navy. The debt absorbed ^2,850,000. The budgets, as a rule, state a surplus, but the practical result of each years finance is a deficit, almost without exception. 1875-76 1878-79 1879-80 i88o-8it Revenue ^^10,349,959 10,330,000 10, 100,000 10,190,000 Expenditure ^12,678,001 10,773,206 16,888,359 12,1 I 1,900 Deficit ^2,328,042 443,206 6,788,359 1,921,900 Debt. According to an official statement it was in 1867 ;^i6,ooo,ooo ; in 1869 it had risen to ^72,475,395 ; in 1878 it was ;i^56,5oo,ooo ; in 1879, ;2^78,6ii,683. Anew issue of paper-money was ordered by the govern- ment in April, 1878, of ;^i 5,000,000 to meet the requirements of the provinces, whose revenues fell far short in consequence of the famine, caused by the drought. Army. Recruiting, by means of bounty-money and the loan of land to men who had served their time failed to obtain a suflicient number of soldiers : and in great need impressment was resorted to ; this was not successful. In 1875 universal liabihty to serve was proclaimed, allowing substitution or exemption by payment. The term of active service is 6 years and 3 years in the reserve. * I'he figures here given are at the rate of exchange of tht- paper money 2s. and not 4s. 6d., the full valuL- of the silver milr-.i-. t In order to cover this deficit an income tax is to be introduced. The Emperor ard Empress wiil give 10 per cent, of theii income. 852 Brazil — L and and People. The strength of the army in time of peace is fixed at 19,251 men, and the war footing at 32,000. Formation. — 21 battalions of infantry; 5 regiments of cavalry; and 3 regiments of artiller)'. The national guard are disbanded for the present, to be subsequently re-organised. The war with Paraguay cost many lives. The War Minister announced that 83,000 men had been sent into the field of whom 37,000 perished or disappeared, and 23,200 were found to be incapable. A'avy. The navy in 1877 consisted of 56 armed vessels with 197 guns, of which 53 were steamers (11 ironclad). The crew (on paper), 6,184 men. There are arsenals at Rio de Janeiro, Para, Pernambuco, Bahia, and Ladario. Social Condition. According to an imperial edict of May, 1867, "Slavery is to be gradually abolished and the measure shall be completed by the year 1890." A law of 28th Sept., 187 1, determines that no one shall hereafter be born a slave in Brazil. The slaves belonging to the State were set free, but they were to remain for 5 years under the supervision of government. An emancipation fund was formed for those who were the property of private owners, with the view of emancipating a certain number of slaves every year, according to fixed rules. ^177,671 were set apart for this object in the financial year 1871-72 ; ^120,400 in 1872-73 ; ^96,930 in 1873-74 ; and in 1878-79, ^100,000. To these sums must be added the provincial funds for the same object. The slaves were mostly the property of 40,000 owners. Education. In 1856 there were 2,460 peoples' schools with 82,500 scholars (i to every 100 inhabitants !) In 1873 there were 5,641 peoples' schools, with 176,000 scholars, and an expenditure of ^^473, 400. In 1877 the number of children attending the peoples' schools was 187,915 ; the expenditure, ^262,630. In 1872 the numbers of those who could read and write were — Free Slaves Males 1,012,097 ••• 958 Females 550,981 ... 445 In Rio, in 1871, only 22 per cent. ; in the province of Espirito Santo 81 per cent. In the same year the number of those who could not read and write were — Free Slaves Males 3,306,602 ... 804,212 Females 3,549.992 ... 705,191 Among the educated, French is the language most used. There are 75 libraries containing 350,903 volumes. Brazil — Land and People. 853 Commerce. Imports Exports 1840 ;^5.772,7i2 ;^4,i67,i79 1856-56 9>i23,38i 9,643,131 1870-71 16,230,000 16,790,000 1871-72 15.570,000 17,700,000 1872-73 15*846,700 21,492,400 1873-74 . 15*274,100 18,969,800 1874-75 • 16,754*920 20,849,430 1875-76 . 17,214,900 18,360,150 1876-77 i5'493>2oo 19,677,900 1877-78 . 17,825,920 18,647,200 The principal articles of export are coffee, cotton, sugar, hides, tobacco, indiarubber, Paraguay tea, and diamonds. The Mineral Wealth of Brazil The diamond washings give an annual average yield of ;^ 1,000, 000. The gold works in 1876 yielded ^^2 13,600. The silver, iron, and copper works are gradually producing less. Tin and zinc have been found lately in Minas Geraes and Ceara. Coal is also found in various parts of the Province of Rio Grande do Sul ; but it is not worked owing to the great expense of conveying to the coast. In 1877, 345,524 tons were imported from England. Harbour Traffic. 1875-76 1876-77 There were in of general interest. Railway Recife and San ( Francisco ... } Baliia and San Francisco . . . San Paulo W. of San Paulo Don Pedro Se- gundo State Railway S. Paulo & Rio ( de Janeiro ... j Mogyana Great Western of ( Brazil ... ( ENTERED Vessels Tonnage 12,710 195,534 8,689 3,943,724 CLEARED Vessels Tonnage 12,256 218,225 7,731 3.864,522 Railways. 1879, 1,711 miles of rails, but only 971 miles of lines Length in Miles Capital Where Raised 78^1,857,000 England 77 i,8oo,coo „ 87 2,750,000 „ 95 1,687,500 England & Brazil 366 8,110,237 Brazil ... Receipts Working per Mile Expenses in 1877 per Mile ;^i,374 ;^643 580 601^ 4,236 1,316 1,832 674 2,865 i>664 142 1,200,000 England & Brazil 513 310 66 337,500 Brazil 830 482 60 618,000 England ... In construction 971 854 Brazil— Land and People. Telegraphs* In 187S the length of telegraph line was 4,224 miles, stations 106. Telegrams in 1875-76, 119,358. Post. In 1878 the number of post-offices was 1,061 : letters dispatched, 14,762,144. Bank of Brazil. Gross profits for the year 1S78, ;!£"i,629,705 ; expenditure, ^^637, 882, leaving ;^99 1,823 "^^^ profit, out of which dividends of 9 per cent, per annum were paid, to the amount of ^570,916, leaving ^420,907 to pass to the reserve fund. • The telegraph is connected with the European cable in Pernambuco, and the North American cable in Para. HAYTI AND SAN DOMINGO (Republic). LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area of the whole island is estimated at 29,766 English square miles ; its population at about 800,000, of whom 400,000 are negroes, 30,000 whites, and the remainder mulattoes. Hayti, or the western division, was formerly French ; its chief town is Port-au-Prince, with 30,000 inhabitants. San Domingo is the eastern division of the island, and was formerly Spanish : its chief town is San Domingo, with 15,000 inhabitants. The Finance in both parts of the island alike is in a ruinous condition ; the revenue is dependent almost entirely on the Customs. A fictitious budget of 1877 for Hayti estimated the revenue at ^^85 7,929, and the ex- penditure at only ^788,938 ; the interest of the debt was not even men- tioned in it. Hayti had (by treaty of 1825) to pay a war indenmity of ^6,000,000 to France. But, although this sum was reduced to ;i^2,4oo,ooo in 1838, the State was unable regularly to fulfil its obligations. A loan of ^^508,000 was obtained In Paris in 1825, which it was also unable to repay. Help was sought in the issue of a mass of paper money, and thus the ruin was complete. It was determined by law of 19th September, 1876, to pay off gradually the old debts, and ;^2o8,359 was voted for that purpose in that year. The French part of the island made itself independent in 1791. The Spanish part, ceded to France in 1795, did the same subsequently. After many changes, union and re-separation of the two parts, the Spaniards succeeded in bringing San Domingo under their dominion in 1861 by an apparently voluntary submission. But the people rebelled with such force and persistence in 1863 that Spain was compelled to remove all claims to the sovereignty in 1865. 856 Hayti and Domingo— Land and People. Education. In 1875 there were 368 public schools (among them a school of medicine and an academy of music) with 736 teachers and attended by 19,250 students. In addition to these, there is a Roman Catholic semmary with 9 professors and 318 students, 6 cloister schools, and 7 Protestant misssion schools. A university was founded in 1876. There are six weekly newspapers published in Hayti. The value of the imi)orts and exports of Hayti have been estimated as follows : — Imports 1872 ... ;^I,429,25I 1876 ... 2,100,000 Principal articles of exports in 1876 were — Coffee Cocoa Sugar Cotton Logwood Mahogany and other woods. Exports ;^i, 563,465 2,200,000 55,000,000 lbs. 2,000,000 ,, 1,000,000 ,, 1,500,000 ,, 113,000,000 ,, San Do7ningo Exports. In the year 1878 there were exported from San Domingo- Mahogany ... Lignum vitae Logwood Sugar Coffee Honey Cocoa Turtle shell ... Extract of logwood Beeswax Cattle 250,740 feet. 2,008,000 lbs. 2,514,000 ,, 3,234,000 „ 1 18,400 ,, 38,000 gallons. 29,000 lbs. 60 „ 662,000 182,890 ,, 1^42 head. Notwithstanding the unsettled political condition of San Domingo and the continual revolutions resulting therefrom, there has been (says the British Consul) an undeniable ])rogress in agriculture during the last three years. Ten years ago sugar and coffee had to be imported, and it will be seen in the Hulc table below what has been done in the cultivation of sugar. Export of sugar in 1875 1876 1877 T878 2,152,000 lbs. 2,339,000 1,846,000 ., 3,234,000 „ ASIA.— JAPAN. LAND AND PEOPLE. N an incredibly short time, viz., from 1872, when the first census was taken, tha Japanese Government have succeeded in estab- lishing a regular system of statistics. In 1875 the southern part of the Island of Saghalien was given over to Russia, but the area of Japan was increased in 1876 by the possession of the "Bonin Islands." In 1877 the Japanese Minister published in the journal, Logoshaban, the area of Japan m the following manner : — Principal Islands English sq. miles Population of 1S74 Niphon ... ... ... 86,746 25,478,834 Kiou vSiou ... ... ^4,95 1 4,986,613 Mikodu... ... ... 7,033 2,434,528 Oki and other small islands 1,001 362,177 Yeso and Kouriie ... 35j999 144,069 Loo-choo ... ... 803 167,073 Bonin Islands ... ... 32 75 Total 146,565 33^623,279 858 Japan — Lajid and People. The census of 1876 gave the population of the whole kingdom as 34.338,504- of whom 16,918,619 were females, and the classification was as follows : — Imperial family ... Upper nobility ... Lower nobility ... Commoners Priests of Sinto ... Priests of Bhudda Bhuddist nuns ... 37 2.965 1,894,484 32.372,759 116 66,430 1.713 The census of 1878 gave the population of Jeddo or Tokio alone as 1,036,771. The number of foreigners living in Japan in 1879 was 5,503 ; of whom Chinese -•• 3.028 Germans ... 300 English ... 1,106 French ... 230 Americans ... 479 Russians 209 The remaining 151 being Dutch, Italians, Austrians, Danes, and Swiss. The^ number of English firms was 155 in 1874, but fell to 92 in 1879. Those ^)i other countries have fallen from 215 to 151. The English clement is very powerful in Japan, and the English language is used in speaking and negociatingwith foreigners. Of the 5,503 foreigners, 500 are teachers, missionaries and high-class mechanics. Tokio (formerly Yeddo), the chief town of the Kioto (Miako), chief town of the West Koumamotou ... Osaka East. • 1-036,771 • 238,663 300,000 281,119 Kogosima Yokohama ::: ::: ::: ::: :; 200,000 61,553 Kanagawa Nagasaki ... 600,000 47,412 In 1878 the number of foreigners residing in Yokohama was 3,220. viz., 1,850 Chinese, 515 English, 300 Americans, 120 French, 175 Germans, 59 Dutch, 73 Portuguese, 21 Russians, 31 Spaniards, 22 Swiss, 15 Italians, 16 Swedes and Norwegians, 7 Danes, 5 Austrians, 5 Belgians, 6 Hawaiians, Finance. The first estimates, according to European custom, were made in 1873 for 1874, and the first detailed account was published for 1875 i" 1876. Financial administration is making great progress under the present finance minister, Okuma SIngcnobu. Japan — Land and People. 859 The revenue and expenditure for the 4 years, 1875-76 to 1878-79 were as follows : — Revenue Expenditure 1875-76 ... ... ^14,289,222 ... ^14,270,522 1876-77 ... 13,124,092 13,123,718 1877-78 ... 10,678,426 10,678,424 1878-79 - 11,099,651 11,099,151 The budget for the year ending June 30, 1880, was presented by the finance minister, in his annual report to the prime minister. He states his fears, in the report, that his communication may not meet with universal approval, because many alterations are in progress, and also because great difficulty is still experienced in checking and auditing the accounts of receipts and disbursements in the various departments. He thinks that now, the country being tranquil, is the opportunity for gradually establishing the system of national finance upon a satisfactory basis ; and that if it be desirable to forecast the future, the ordinary revenue and expenditure should be compared, and the increase or decrease of one with the other carefully noted. The estimated revenue, ordinary and contingent, is set down at ^11,594,037, being an increase of about 4 per cent, on the receipts of last year. The expenditure is set down at the same figure as the receipts, involving the same increase upon the last year's outgoings. Any excess, however, is applied to extinguish paper currency, and diminish the floating debt. The report states tliat the paper-money in circulation has been diminished during the past year (by withdrawal) to the extent of ^1,492,955. The expenses of the Imperial household are given as only ^182,708, while the charges and reduction of the domestic and foreign debt absorb over ^'4,416,720. By the arrangements at present in force, it is hoped that the whole of the debt will be cleared off in 27 years. The detail of the budget estimates are as follows :■ — 1 Taxes of the I st class, cust^hc national university at Tokio had 40 professors (19 foreigners), and 324 students, and costs annually ;z(,36,236. There is a medical college with 29 pro- fessors, 16 of whom are Germans, and 488 students, and costs ^23,429 The students receive board and clothing free. There are beside, 3 other medical schools, an agricultural school, a law school and a polytechnic. There are also 103 schools for foreign languages, mostly for English, having 411 teachers (341 native), and 6,765 schoL-irs. At the cost of the tiovernment, in 1876, 9 Japanese youths were sent to America, i to Oennany, and i to France. In the middle of 1879 ^ geographical society was founded in Tokio. Commerce and Industries. After having been almost shut out from intercourse with foreign nations for two centuries,* Japan concluded the first treaty of commerce with America in 1854. Similar treaties now exist with 16' States; 7 ports are open. The most important productions are now, as ever, tea and silk. The worth of the annual average production of silk is given by the Japanese Minister as follows : — R'l^^'silk ;^i, 270,833 Cocoons 1,020,833 Silkworms ... ... ... ... -j^nS ... ... .. nj,u JJ Since 1871 a large spinning factory has been erected in Tomioka at an expense of ;:{;4 16,666, and fitted up with the newest French machinery. The next important production is tea, most of which goes to America VALUE OF THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Imports Exports ^^^^ ^2,227,723 ... ^3,240,306 ^^75 6,244,927 ... 3,877,314 ^^76 5>ii8,23o ... 5,764,472 '877 5'395>946 ... 4,763,897 '878 6,784,138 ... 5,317,618 ^879 ••• 6,274,756 ... 5,137,17s * Two Dutch vessels, anti 1 Chinese only were allowed to enter the harbour of Nagasaki once a year. Japan — Land and People. Z6- THE TRADE WITH THE PRINCIPAL COUMK IN t;il year 1S78. Imports Exports England - ^3.372,965 ^729,029 China ... 972,382 1,194,567 United States ... 716,246 1,549,088 France ... 686,606 1,250,049 Germany 230,658 17,575 India and Siam 208,019 90,397 Belgium 37,311 Australia 19,509 37,014 Italy 13,720 146,523 The Principal Imports were cotton yarn, cotton goods, woollen goods, petroleum, sugar, dyes, glass, chemicals, and beer. The Exports were silk, cocoons, tea, copper, tobacco, vegetable wax, camphor, oil, dried fish, rice and precious metals. In 1879 there was an exhibition of teas, held in Yokohama, in which 807 exhibitors took part ; at which 1,129 various teas were exhibited, 114 being black teas. Mineral Wealth— 1879.* The coal fields of Western Japan contain about 620,000,000 tons ; and if one third be deducted for the working, there will remain 400,000,000 tons, representing a value of ^208,000,000. The value of the iron amounts to at least ^52,083,333,333, or 250 times more than that of the coal. The relative importance of the mineral products of Japan (excluding Yeso and the small local fields of Kiu, Ise and Iwaki) may be represented by the following numbers, — iron 1,000 ; coal 4 ; copper 3 ; all other metals, chiefly gold and silver i. Harbour Traffic. Number and tonnage of the vessels which entered the various ports of Japan. In 1870 1,563 vessels of 1,161,175 tons „ 1871 909 901,170 „ » 1875 831 951,523 „ „ 1876 701 680,557 „ » 1877 752 626,657 „ „ 1878 664 661,520 ,, Mr. Lyman's interesting report on his geological survey of Japan. 864 Japan — Land and People. o o u § ^. < H vo CO o < 2; c > 0\ 1) 'a c C rt • * 4> =^"5b c tu c o .22 "C rt o .£ o "t/j rt 'to o C c 'c 'IT) t/5 c E 792 26,042,838 10,037,456 9,715,082 400,515 169,537 165,103 Post office savings' banks were opened in 1875. In the year ending June 30th, 1879, the number of letters and newspapers transmitted was 55>775)2o6, being an increase of 18 per cent, on the previous year ; the number being : — Ordinary letters ... ... ... ... ... 27,763,243 Registered letters ... ... ... ... .. 928,597 Post cards ... ' 13,510,238 Newspapers 11,203,339 Books and samples ... ... ... ... ... 560,812 Letters overweight ... ... ... ... ... 141,485 Dead letters* ... ... ... ... ... 9»539 Letters stolen ... ... ... ... ... 211 Letters lost ... ... ... ... ... ... 135 Letters destroyed by fire or shipwreck of mail ... 118 In the year 1879, 135 new post offices were established, making 3,927, and 187 street pillar boxes, making 1,433. * Owners found, 1,093. 3« S66 Japan — Land and People. Revenue — Derived from sale of stamps and post cards ...^16,353,276 Post office envelopes ... ... ... 2,848,589 Post office boxes 4,848 Transport of mails between Shanghai and Yokohama ... ... ... ... 45)758 Post office orders ... ... ... ... 469,600 Savings' banks ... ... ... ... 29,709 Sundries ... ... ... ... ... 28,490 Expenditure for the year = 19,780,270 ^17,132,893 • ^ ^3 ^^^ CHINA (Empire). LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area of China Proper is estimated at 1,556,277 English square miles, and the Dependent States at 2,418,715. The last have but a scanty population, while the former are more densely populated than any country in the world, and nearly double the population of the States of Europe together.* According to Behm and Wagner, the area and population are as follows : — Area in Eng. sq. miles Population Pe-Chih Li 57,265 36,879,838 Chantung 53,762 29,529,877 Shansi 65,949 17.056,925 Honan ... 66,913 29,069,771 Kiang-tsu 40,138 39,646,924 Nganhoei 53981 36,596,988 Kiangsi ... 68,875 26,513,889 Fohkien ... 45,747 22,799,556 Tchkiang 35,659 8,100,000 Houpe ... 69,459 28,584,564 Hoonan ... 83,204 20,048,969 Shensi 81,192 10,309,769 Kansuh ... 259,520 19,512,716 Setchuen... 184,997 35,000,000 Quangtong 90,219 20,152,603 Kwangse 81,207 . 8,121,327 Yunnan ... 122,524 5,823,670 Kweichow 66,738 5,679,128 Island of Hainan 13,971 2,500,000 Island of Formosa 14,957 3,020,000 Total of China Proper ••• 1,556,277 404,946,514 * Against this calculation, the Times Special Correspondent at Shanp;liai states that China Proper is scarcely larger than India, and that since the depopulation and famine which have lately occurred the population will not be gieatly in excess of that of Hindustan. 868 China— Land and People. Dependencies : — Mantchuria Mongolia Thibet ... Corea Neutral land Corea and between^ Lia-tongJ Grand total 366,700 1,303,621 651,528 91,408 5,358 3,974,892 12,000,000 2,000,000 1,687,898 236,784 Uninhabited 420,871,196 The Foreign Population of China. A census of the foreign residents taken in 1879 gives the following particulars :- Firms Persons English Americans 220 35 1,953 420 Germans ... 49 384 French 9 224 Dutch I 24 Danish 2 69 Swedes and Norwegians . . . Spanish Russians I I 17 35 163 55 Austrians ... I 38 Belgians ... Italians 10 17 Japanese Others uncertain ... 9 6 81 341 Total 351 3,814 The population of the Treaty Ports is estimated at 4,990,000. Principal Towns Pekin 1,648,814 Shanghai 278,000 Canton 1,500,000 Takao and Taiwan . . 335,000 Tientsin 930,000 Chinkiang 140,000 Hankow 700,000 Ningpo 120,000 Futchen 600,000 Amoi ... 88,000 EmigratioJi. The Chinese are almost ubiquitous. Previous to 1852, there Avere only a few thousand Chinese in America ; but during that year, thirst for gold took 19,000 there. In 1870 the Chinese in America numbered 63,254; the number of Chinese emigrants who, in this year alone, landed in North American harbours, was 10,311. In 1871 „ 1872 „ 1873 „ 1874 4,964 In 1875 9,377 „ 1876 17,127 „ 1877 16,050 „ 1878 18,418 22,781 9,438 7,249 'I'he New York Journal jnits down the number of Chinese immigrants between the years 1S20 and 1878 at 216,791, spread over the 59 years, it gives an average of only 3,674 a year. China — Land and People. 869 In 1879 the United States Congress passed a law forbidding any captain of a North American ship to take more than 15 Chinese passengers on board for the home voyage, on pain of ^5 for every Chinese over that number. The Chinese emigrated to Peru between i860 and 1874 to the number of 86,692. In Singapore, out of a population of only 105,000; 100,000 are Chinese. In the Dutch Indies in 1876, there were 319,137 Chinese. Finance. It is most difificult to obtain reliable information. According to an estimate made in 1875 the revenue amounted to ;j^25, 175,000, viz. : A certain tax on provisions ... ... ... ... ... ^6,333,333 Land tax ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5,703,001 Customs* 4,752,001 Salt 1,583,333 Sale of titles and privileges ... ... ... ... ... 2,256,666 Miscellaneous... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4,546,666 ;^25,i75,ooo Debt. There was no foreign debt in China until 1874, when the government mortgaged the customs dues for a loan of ^627,675 at 8 per cent. In 187B a second 8 per cent, loan of ;;^ 1,604, 2 7 6, was contracted on the same security, viz., that of the customs. Army. The effective force of the army is estimated (on paper) at 271,000 Mantchurians, and 800,000 Chinese soldiers ; these last are a sort of militia who, in time of peace, carry on civil occupations in their own homes. The imperial guard is appointed for the protection of the dynasty and the capital. The Chinese army is called the Banner army, and is so-called because it is arranged under eight banners. It numbers about 230,000 non-commissioned officers and privates ; 40,000 eleves (paid expectants to the higher ranks), and 5,000 artificers and followers. Of these 86,000 are in Pekin ; 50,000 are distributed through the province of Pe-Chih-Li ; 40,000 are in Mantchuria, and the remainder furnish the Tatar garrisons of the chief cities throughout the empire. The most important of all the Banner forces is that known as the Hian-Ki-Ying, and which, according to Sir Thomas Wade, is the only corps which has any claim to be considered as an army. Military exercises are almost always carried on in the imperial hunting park, which is an immense tract of country, surrounded by a wall, access to which is jealously forbidden to foreigners. The force of the Green Banner or standard called Luh-Ying is the real constitutional army of China. The duties of the Luh-Ying are not confined to those of a European army ; the duties of a police force are also imposed on them, the occupation of the larger portion of the land force being to prevent robbery, contrabandism, and other crimes. In addition to the land force of the Green Banner the Luh-Ying mans the navy of the sea-board provinces, and has a distinct * In 1878 this item was j{^3, 953,261 870 China- -Land and People. organization of divisions and garrisons, each und^ its general. The strength of tliese provincial armies varies with the size of the province, and with the duties they liave to perform. Taking all the provinces, the average for each is about 34,600, and 640 officers— one officer to 52 men. Captain W Gill to whose interesting paper at the Royal United Service Institu- tion we are indebted for this information, also stated that the Chinese. especially of the north, are hardy, enduring, frugal, and temperate ; that they can endure great fatigue on a small amount of food, and support great privations without complaint ; that they are docile and obedient to authority, and he believes that the Chinese, well trained, armed, and led would make admirable soldiers. Navy. This consists of 40 vessels of very unequal size, and includes 8 iron clads ; the chief purpose of these vessels being defence of the coast. Commerce. It is only possible to give the value of the foreign trade by sea, and this is but imperfectly known. Year Importt Txports 868 ^21,995,700 ^^20,234,500 869 22,341,000 20,143,200 870 21,946,500 18,597,000 871 24,124,500 22,458,300 872 ... ... ... 23,419,800 ... ... ... 25,116,000 873 23,040,300 23,262,300 874 22,381,200 22,348,500 875 20,340,900 20,673,900 876 21,080,872 24,255,153 877 22,052,116 20,233.506 878 ... ... ... 21,241,208 ... PER CRNT.\GR OF THK W^HOLE FOREIGN TR.^DE. I'-f.g 1870 1871 1872 18-3 Imports from England and the colonies... 92.28 94.96 95.21 92.77 92.42 Exports from „ „ ... 75 57 74-i8 74.12 71.59 72.00 Exports from United States 13.59 13.74 i5-49 ^S-^^^ 10.S3 One of the most important articles of import is opium. Both its importation into China, and ilic cultivation of it there have of late years been steadily on the increase. The importation in the following years amounted to : — 1871 ... ... ... ... ... ... 70,860 cwts. 1872 70,134 „ 1874 80,812 „ 1875 79,906 „ 1876 80,790 ., 1877 81,106 ,, 1878 84,890 „ The largest portion of opium is grown in Mahva ; the remainder comes from Patna, Benares, and the other j^avts of India. A large quantity (about 11,000 chests), is annually exported to America for the use of the Chinese residing there, nnd valued at ;j^io9,ooo annually. China — Lmid and People. 87 1 THE VALUE OF SOME OF THE ARTICLES IMPORTED AND EXPORTED. IMPORTS. ,872 1873 ^ '874 ^ J877 '878 Opium ... — — i:9,5o2,5oo ;^9»o77>4oo ^,9,678,900 Cotton and l^. 3^^ 6,841,520 5,443,200 5,640,000 4,808,700 cotton goods j , Woollen goods i,434,40o 1,902,720 — i,439>ioo 1,402,500 Other textile ( _ _ 1,354,800 38,400 49,800 fabrics j Metal 1,155,520 993,280 1,155,900 1,304,400 1,253.400 Raw cotton ... 745,280 687,040 657,000 — ^ Wood ... 437,620 424,000 471,000 — Matches ... - - - 86,100 120,900 Coal 393,280 289,600 — — ^ Rice 349,760 460800 — — Window glass — ^ — 44,400 35,400 Sundries ...2,349,760 2,743,360 — 4,336,^92 ARTICLES OF EXPORT. 187a 1873 '874 ^ 1877 J878 Raw silk ... ;^9,io4,64o ^9,280,000 ^6,851,700 ;^5,i77,4oo ^5,825,700 Silktextures 884,800 778,880 862,200 1,279,600 1,370,100 Tea 14,334,400 12,575,680 12,356,100 9,973,200 9,572,700 Sugar ... 481,600 582,080 429,600 1,116,000 — Harbotirs. Of all the harbours Shanghai takes the first rank. The number of vessels which entered and cleared the various Chinese ports was as follows : — ^ ^ ^ 1877 1878 Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage British 9,042 6,497,352 9,972 7,439,800 German 1,376 496,908 1,982 743,457 American i,447 S56,ii2 1,017 34i,54» French 167 163,389 ^74 160,012 Japanese 106 115,263 126 123,707 Chinese 6,032 3,974,544 6,860 4,378,146 Others 638 180,023 797 ^59,634 18,807 11,983,591 20,928 13,446,394 Railways. The first and only railway in China was constructed by English firms; its length was 9 miles, and it was opened in June, 1876. It was purchased by the Government, but only for the purpose of destroying it, which was done in 1877. . , , , • , j • It has been ascertained that China is very rich both in coal and iron. Telegraphs. There are only two small lines in this enormous territory. Foreigners have laid a submarine cable along the coast. Post. Postal duties are mostly carried on by " couriers ;" the number of couriers' offices being about 2,040. The expenses of the post are defrayed by the provinces, which contribute annually about ;^ 598, 7 36. SIAM* TNCE the transfer of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1510, and from them to the Dutch in 1651, Upper and Lower Siam, 'M together with Luang-Phrabang, cover an area of 309,043 Enghsh square miles. The population is not easy to determine as the Siamese have a great dislike to a census ; but Dr. Bashan estimates it at 6,300,000, of whom 2,000,000 are Siamese ; 1,000,000 are Chinese ; 1,000,000 Malays; and Laoshians, 2,000,000. Of foreigners, there are only a few hundreds in Siam which is rather to be wondered at, seeing that the greatest freedom of conscience and and person is enjoyed there. Buddhism is the prevailing form of worship. The chief town is Bangkok with 500,000 inhabitants of whom one half are Chinese. The revenue is estimated at ;^8oo,ooo ; ^ of which is obtained by a poll-tax. In 1878 the expenditure was _;,^3, 150,000. The country has no debt of any kind. Paper money and circulating notes are quite unknown, Cofnmerce. The centre of the foreign trade is at Bangkok. The Siamese occupy themselves but little in commerce ; it is therefore almost entirely in tlic hands of the Chinese. The chief articles of export are rice, sugar, and pepper, stag and buffalo hides and horns, teak and cardimums, and a valuable species of rosewood known as Sajwn. On an average, the exports of Siam surpass the imports, which is not to be wondered at, when we remember that Siamese resources arc manifold, and their requirements very trifling. * Siam owes iti foreign name to the Portuguese and Malays, the Siamese themselves calling it the i:intl of "Tai" (of the free) or in poetic diction the land visited by the Gods, Slant— Land and People. 873 The quantity of Articles exported in cwts. Year 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 Rice 2,223,220 2.470,608 3,220,728 3,043,920 2,210,061 2,364,607 1,004,510 2,336,411 4,635,715 4,859.155 3,661,559 Sugar 156,275 1^4-754 126,483 132,069 96,318 120,897 102,01 1 62,510 67,032 24,206 46,284 Pepper 22,332 23,jo8 26,068 30,324 24,206 22,211 16,226 22,078 19,953 19,285 19,812 Sesame* Sapan 25^935 7I>022 44,422 84,854 65,835 100,947 73,150 104,671 67,963 46,018 25.935 50.141 58,653 69,268 39,722 83,923 15,561 100,415 36,176 118,769 42,826 83,391 Buffalo Cardi- hides & horns mums 25,004 6,783 19,368 — 22,545 16,368 22,876 — ■ 17,290 7.049 15.249 3.535 16,226 4,522 35.112 4,123 21,812 8,778 Other articles of export are various kinds of wood, cocoa-nut oil, salt fish, peas, edible birds nests, and ivory. The exports of 1878 were esti- mated at ;^7,395,ooo ; little reliance can, however, be placed on these figures. Army.^ In the European conception of a standing army, Siam has really none. In time of peace the Siamese forces are drafted by way of feudal conscrip- tion, while in time of war, recourse is had to universal compulsory service, for all males capable of bearing arms, priests excepted. Naiy. 14 steamships, of 5,815 tons and 51 guns. Mercantile Marine.. 58 vessels built according to European pattern, with a carrying capacity of nearly 40.000 tons, including 3 steamers of 996 tons. Harbour Traffic in the Port of Bangkok. ENTERED CLEARED Vessel* Tonnage Value of Cargo Vessels Tonnage Value of Cargo 1876 631 224,911 ^^1,472,927 625 225,366 ^1,732,433 1877 583 184,239 1,235.551 526 182,246 1,907,001 Telegraph. Since 1875 a small telegraph line exists between Bangkok and Paknam. * An oily grain. I The Times. PERSIA (Kincrdom). . LAND AND PEOPLE. HE area is about 595,336 English square miles. Behm and Wagner reckon 635,988, while Polak estimates the area at only 467,766 English square miles. The population is at most 5,000,000, according to Mounsay's estimate, which is too high rather than too low; he states the town inhabitants at 1,000,000 ; settled country people at 2,500,000, (the number of whom is steadily decreasing), and 1,500,000 nomads of about 150 different tribes. Races. TRANIANS. Tajiks and Persians proper, including the surviving Ghebes or fire- worshippers of Yezd, mostly settled. Kurds, including the Bakhtiar, Feili and otliers, mostly nomadic. MONGOLO- TATARS. Including Turki, Turkoman, Kizl-bash, Hazarah, and other branches, all nomadic. ARMENIANS. Of Aryan stock, allied to the Iranians, all settled and traders. ARABS. Of Semitic stock, all nomadic. CHALD.EANS. Of Semitic stock, including 25,000 Nestorians. About 76,000. JEWS. r.iPSiES. Of Indie stock. The State reHgion is Mahommedan — Shiah sect, but there are many Sunnites.l t Sunnitcs are Orthodov Mahommedaiis, who consider the " Sunna " or Oral law binding. The Schiitei are heterodox Moslems. — Brewe'ys Phrase and Fahlf. Persia — Land and People. 875 Principal Towns. Ispahan, the capital, contains between 60,000 and 80,000 inhabitants ; Tabriz, between 100,000 and 160,000 ; Teheran, 80.000 to 100,000 ; Meshed, between 60,000 and 70.000 ; Yezd, 40,000 ; Kernian, 30,000 ; Shiraz. between 25,000 and 30,000. Finance. The revenue is estimated at ^2,250,000. All that is required for provincial expenditure is first taken and then the remainder is put into the State treasury The revenue of 1876 was ;^i, 388,800 in gold and ;^254,4oo in kind,* making a total of ^1,643,200. The expenditure of 1876 was ;j^i, 600,000, of which _;^307,2oo was for the court and ^678,400 for the army. State debt, there is none. Army. The troops were formerly liable to life long service ; the time of service is now reduced to 1 2 years. The army (Nizam) is organized by European officers, and consists of about 70,000 men. Commerce. The imports are valued at about ^2,560,000 ; the exports at about ;^i, 5 20,000. The principal articles of import are printed cotton, linen and sugar. Chief articles of export being tobacco, skins, silk, silk refuse, cotton and opium. The chief seat of commerce is at Tabriz. Post. The first regular postal service was established in 1877. There are 40 post offices. 366,000 letters passed through the post, and the revenue was about ;!^3,6oo. 7 elegrnph. In 1878 there were 66 offices Length of lines 322 miles. Length of wire 5,510 miles. Number of messages 500,000. Receipts ^^14,000, * In corn, rice, straw, peas and silk. AFRICA. ORANGE (Free State). LAND AND PEOPLE. HE republic on the Orange River (Batavian- African-Union) was founded by the Dutch Boers, who withdrew from the Cape of (jood Hope in 1835-36, and whose independence was recognised by lingland in a treaty concluded 23rd February, 1854. Its area is about 52,524 English sq. mile in extent. The white population numbers about 65,000, and that of the native, 10,000, exclusive of the wandering bushmen. Most of the white population are members of the Reformed Church. The chief town is Bloemfontein, with from 2,000 to 2.500 inhabitants. Finance. Financial Year Revenue Kxpenditure 1872-73 .. ;^II2,040 ... ^102,142 1874-7.S 103,091 95,682 1878-79 125,114 115,045 1879-80 107,074 104,719 Debt ^130,000 paper 32,923 17,400 10,712 28,112 Conitnerce. The exportation consists principally of wool, though quite lately dia- monds have been found.* The trade is confined almost entirely to the Ca]:)e Colonies, VALUE OF IMI'ORTS. VALUK OF EXPORTS Merchandise I'recious metals Merchandise Wool ! 1874 1875 .. ^694,522 . 677,732 . •■ ^25,958 . 19,293 .. . ^588,852 ... ^637,828 743,604 ... 787.279 Telegraph. A line from lilocmfontein to Faurcsmith, a length of 73 miles. ♦ In 1871 to the value of ;^i 50,000; in 187301117 for ^7,400. + Includeb alto ostrici) feathers and hides. LIBERIA. LAND AND PEOPLE. A negro colony, founded by the North x-lmericans in 1821 (under Monroe's presidentship), on the west coast of Africa. It was recognised as an independent republic in 1847. Its area embraces 9,567 English square miles. The sea-board of the State stretches over 600 miles; its population given by the Consul General in 1879 was 1,500,000. The chief town is Monrovia, with about 8,547 Inhabitants. At the close of 1879 the vast and important country adjoining the interior frontier of Liberia, and known as the kingdom of Medina, was anne.xed to the republic on mutual and peaceful terms. By this new acquisition Liberia has opened still wider the door into the interior of Central Africa. The Medina-Bopora country, with its 700,000 souls, will, with the exception of the coffee plantations on the St. Paul's River, form the richest and most populous portion of the repubhc. The Liberian coffee plant grows spontaneously in Medina to the height of 30 and 40 feet. This annexed territory abounds in Africa's richest productions. Great impetus has been given to agricultural pursuits in Liberia owing to the great demand from all coffee-growing countries for Liberian coffee seeds and plants. The coffee is so good that even Ceylon and Brazil send for seed from Liberia. Finance. The financial year closes on the 30th of September in each year. Sj8 Liberia — Land and People. Revenue Expenditure. 1868 ,£'22.561 ^"22,238 1875 ... ... 23,220 23,220 In 1871 the republic contracted a loan in England of ^104,166 at 7 per cent., repayable in 15 years. Commerce. The principal e.xports are palm oil, palm nuts, ivory, arrowroot, coffee, sugar and juniper berries. The principal part of the commerce is carried on with England, Holland, Hamburg and America. Army. There is no standing army, but every man between 16 and 50 years of age is bound to serve in the militia. AUSTRALASIA. HAWAIIN or SANDWICH ISLANDS (Kingdom). LAND AND PEOPLE. The area of these islands is officially stated as follows : Hawaii . . . 2,500,000 acres Maui 400,000 „ Ohau ... 350,000 „ Kauai 350,000 „ Molokai... 200,000 „ Lanai 100,000 „ Nichau ... 70,000 „ Kahuliu ... 30,000 „ 4,000,000 acres = 6,250 English square miles The census taken at the end of 1878 shows a total population of 57,985, being 1,088 in excess of that of 1872. The natives and half-castes decreased from 51,531 in 1872 to 47,508 in 1878; but the number of foreigners increased from 5,366 to 10.477. This last number includes 883 Britons; 1,276 Americans; 272 Germans; 5,916 Chinese, whose numbers here are increasing rapidly. The chief town is Honolulu, and contains 14,852 inhabitants. Commerce. Sugar Rice Coftee Grease Wool Skins of Oxen lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. and G'jats 1873 .. 2,313,000 941,000 262,000 610,000 330,000 87,579 1874 .. . 24,567,000 1,188,000 75,000 126,000 400,000 1875 ■■ 25,080,000 1,574,000 166,000 852,000 465.000 93,375 1876 .. 26,072,000 3,802,000 152,000 372,000 314-000 — 1877 .. • 25,575,965 5-263,357 131,000 369,829 3y5'7o3 — 1878 .. . 38,431,000 5,553.000 128,000 240,000 523,000 89,^^34 S8o Sandwich Islands — Land and People. THE VALUE OF THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Imports Exports 1876 ^350,416 ^435,416 1877 532,157 557,542 1878 426,326 649,578 The British Consul states that the reciprocity treaty with the United States has resulted in increased English trade with these islands ; some important articles, however, cotton for example, are excluded by the 10 per cent, differential duty. JFinance. The financial period extends over two years, commencing on the ist of April. Financial year Revenue Expenditure Debt Ending 1872 ... ^201,032 ^202,038 ^33,333 „ 1874 ... 210,039 197,782 — „ 1878 ... 239,940 231,848 92,666 Harbmcr Traffic. The most important of the ports is Honolulu. The vessels of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company anchor here on their way to San Francisco from Sydney. The number of vessels which entered and cleared the port of Honolulu : — ENTERED CLBARED Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage 1876 ... 132 107,762 ... 1877 ... 181 120,907 ... 1878 ... 216 — ... 197 156,934 Mercantile Marine Consists of 35 vessels (5 of which are steamers) of 8,000 tons. Railway and Telegraph. In 1S78 a line of railway was opened between Punalu and Keaiwa, a distance of 4 miles. The first telegraph line was opened also in 1878, in the Isle of Maui, a length of 40 miles. I GENERAL SURVEY I. COUNTRIES AND PEOPLE. a. States of Europe in Round Numbers. Great Britain and Ireland France ... Oermany Austro-Hungary Russia (European) Italy Switzerland Lichtenstein Belgium ... Holland Luxemburg Denmark ) Iceland ) Sweden ... Norway ... Spain Area in English Pot ulation to square miles Population sq uare mile 121,305 . 33>8Si,966 . • 279 204,031 . • 36,905.788 - . 180 210,493 • 42,727,360 . 202 240,462 . 38,000,000 . T85 2,088,274 . 74,145,223 . 35 114,3-^5 ■ 28,209,620 . 246 i5'977 • 2.759,854 . 172 68 . 8,664 • T27 11.379 • 5,476,668 . 481 13,707 . 3,865,456 . ■ 304 999 • 205,158 . • 205 55^356 • 2,070,300 • 37 170,928 . 4,484,542 . 26 122,825 . ',807,555 . 14 195,716 . 16,809,913 . • 76 Area in English square miles Population Population to I sq. mile 35>739 - 19342 .. 4,745>i24 1,679,775 132 86 49,247 ■■ 19,135 •• 5,376,000 1,860,824 109 97 3.400 .. 136,620 243,329 ^,477,214 313,740.333 71 62 3,828,328 ... 148 882 General Survey — Countries and People. Portugal Greece ... Roumania Servia Montenegro Turkey in Europe Total Russia extends over considerably more than half (five-ninths) of the whole area of Europe. It is 9 times as great as Austro-Hungary, which ranks ne.xt in dimensions. It possesses nearly one quarter (23 per cent.) of the total i)opulation of Europe. In comparing the relative densities of the population of whole countries, regard must be had to the conditions which obtain in the several divisions or districts of these countries, for great inequality will be found to prevail in the density, even of the same country, owing to natural or even artificial causes. b. St.\tes of America. Area in square miles Population United States of North America ... ... 3,603,884 ... 38,925,598 ^Y"'^° -. 743,948 ... 9-389,46] Central America (five States) ... ... 174,346 ... 2,460,7^4 Columbia 318,930 ... 2,951,984 Venezuela and Ecuador ... 457,133 •■• 2,650,331 Peru, Bolivia, and Chile 1,138,600 ... 7,160,669 Argentine States, with Paraguay and Uruguay 1,748,390 ... 2,610,834 I^razil 3,218,166 ... ii,io8,2(.;i Hayti and San Domingo 29,766 ... 800,000 European Possessions 3,691,073 ... 7,750,000 Greenland, and land at North Pole ... 808,556 ... 11,000 Terra del Kuego and Falkland Islands ... 382,716 ... 30,000 Canadian Seas, &c. ... ... ... ... 93,552 ... 'lotal 16,409,060 ... 85,848,922 The Great Western Division of the Globe, known as America, is not partitioned out into dominions of well-nigh equal strength and populous- ness, as obtains in Europe. Tlie United States possess pre-eminently supremacy, both in extent and numbers of inhabitants. Even Brazil, which yields but little in territorial area, is far below the Union in importance. The United States occupy nearly one-fourth (24.32) per cent, of the territory, and claim clo.se upon one half (47.74) per cent, of the peoples, of the Great VVe.stern c:ontinent; and not only do these proportions exceed tho.sc ot the other countries of this division of the Globe numerically, but thev tiansrend them still more conspicuously in education, enterprise, and physical and moral conditions. General Survey — Countries and People. 883 c. The other Divisions of the Globe. The English colonies in Australasia range over about 3,076,61 1 English square miles, and the population is estimated at about 2,635.000. The other islands of Oceanica and the vast continents of Asia and Africa have not yet been accurately computed. Two countries in Asia are admitted to be extremely populous, viz., China, alleged to contain 537,000,000, exclusive of the protected States, which are computed at from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 ; and India, including the Indo-Chinese Peninsula and islands, numbering a population alleged to be about 300,000,000. Japan is credited with upwards of 33^ million inhabitants ; Asiatic Turkey with 16,000,000; and Persia with between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000. All the other countries are but sparsely inhabited. Russia in Asia with its 6,274,696 English square miles, barely numbers 12,122,827 souls; Arabia and Afghanistan about 10,000,000. Africa has no census of any kind, but modern travellers represent the interior of this continent as undoubtedly more populous than it was formerly believed. The computation which assigns to it 200,000,000 is evidently too high. Where culture is at so low an ebb, the means of life are too limited for any conspicuous increase of the population, and a supply only adequate for the barest subsistence is not conducive either to the value or to the relative intensity of life. All the States of Africa, about which we possess any reliable informa tion, are very sparsely inhabited, and in the exact proportion to the reliability of the evidence, is this paucity of population conspicuous. All Africa may be computed to contain 120,000,000 inhabitants, and the general area and population of the earth will be best seen in the annexed table : — d. General Survey of the Size and Population of the Earth. English sq. miles Population Europe 3,828,328 ... 3i3,74o,333 America 16.402,934 ... 85,848,922 Asia 18,838,630 ... 780,000,000 Africa 11,587,790 ... 120,000,000 Australia and Oceania 3,401,920 ... 3,500,000 Total about ... 54,o59>6o2 ... i,303>o89,255 It has been calculated that the annual number of deaths throughout the world is 35,693,350, or 97,790 per day. On the other hand, the num- ber of births per day is 104,800. 70 new lives are ushered in every minute of the 24 hours. 1)390)500,000 are thus arrived at as the best proximate estimate of the human beings now peopling this globe. For all practical purposes the population of the three out of the five divisions of the globe does not admit of dispute or doubt. As regards Asia, a doubt exists in relation to one country only — viz., China. That this is densely populated no one will dispute, the difference in the compu- tation of its millions of souls is practically unimportant. There remains one continent only, and that is Africa, which baffles the statistician in his estimates. 884 General Survey — Religious Denomifiafiofts . •_ fo «- o o o o o o o <) o o o u-- M lO o o o o o o n o n n O o O O o o o o o o o () o <) o o O '-'^ o o o o O u-> o o o fO oc o o o o r-- lO r^ ro o Tt - CO u-> lO 'i- 1^. 1- 00 U-) 't i"i t*^ -9 o o o o n O n o o o o o o o 1 ° o o o o.E o o o o o o o o o to o o o o o o o CO 1 u E n o o o o »o o lo ^ •+ ' '-' ■* ^'^ n oc rO o VO •* '-' l-< *^ -o lO oa o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o C) o o C) o o lO n 00 o o CO w n o o u^ Ul N o ON "H ■^ H< vo fO n o o o o n n o o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o n o lo c; o o o (J o o o o o o o o o CO o o o lO o n o U-) o n o o M o o o o 1 1 '^ fO u- o o 00 () o o o M o 00 N o ' •"• ■* \o o u-1 I^ o o rr> Tf o rO o "* - (S - ^ - .^c o - o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 o n n 8 o n o n n n () () LO \^ o o o o to i o o o o O o o o o o vO to o o o o o ^ ^ t-~ o o o o o n o o -i- M o o Tf rO to o o t: vO ") o o n o o o o o M *-• N 00 o\ ; 00 f^ ro to o to ro -t- M " M o "+ 00 o to t^ r^ _ lO _ \Z ■=J- 00 • c<^ N . , . . . ■* pa C ti) 5 U — r-> n "u ir -r: •- — 'C < '-^ C '-^ <^ n 73 J2 rt fl> rt' c5 a; X V Z -a C c C/5 3 O <- "^ -^ - ^ > •= i^ O >- O -3 General Survey — Principal Races of Europe. S85 The " United Greeks " are here grouped with the Cathohcs in pursu- ance of the admission that the CathoHc Church contains a united Greek and Armenian rite. Buchsen reckons the heathens of European Russia at about 200,000. There remain about five milUons of whom we have no certain returns, and who therefore have no place in the above hst By this table about one half (48.60) of the inhabitants of Europe are grouped as Catholics ; nearly one fourth (23.13) belong to the Greek Church, and 21.85 to the Protestant denominations; 2.19 per cent, are Mohammedans, and 1.58 are Jews.* The remainmg denominations, among whom are reckoned the majority of the English sects, amount to a little over 2 per cent., whilst the heathen constitute a rapidly diminishing number, now scarcely exceeding 0.06 per cent. In America an estimate is given of about 45,000,000 Catholics, and a similar number of Protestants, but many of the Indians classed as Christians are not baptised. The total number of the inhabitants of the globe may be thus classed according to their religious creed :— Catholics Protestants Greek Church Other Christians... Total about ... Grand total 200,000,000 1 12,750,000 80,000,000 8,000,000 Mohammedans Jews Heathen, and of no known creed 100 000,000 6,000,000 I796, 339.255 400,750,000 \ Total about... 902,339,255 1,303,089,255 By this estimate it appears that less than a third of the entire popula- tion of the globe profess Christianity. Those grouped as Catholics compose half of this third, constituting somewhat less than a sixth of the whole. Bhuddism is the religion of the largest proportion of the non- Christian world, estimated at about 500.000,000, a number much in excess of all who profess Christianity. TEUTON. a. — Germans in Germany... 39,400,000 9,600,000 2,000,000 The Three Principal Races of Europe. LATIN. a. — French in Austria . . . Switzerland. Russia &| Poland J 1,500,000 France Belgium ... Switzerland. Scattered . . . 33,000,000 2,300,000 700,000 800,000 SLAVS. a. — Russians a. Russians 60,000,000 b. Poles & ) Lithuanians -5,700,000 in Russia I Austria ... 18,000,000 * The following interesting statistics of the Jewish race were published a short time since in Berlin : " The total number of the Hebrew race to-day is about what it was in the days of King David, nearly 7,000,000. There are in Europe nearly 5,000,000 ; in Asia. 200,000; in Africa, over 80,000; in America, from i, 000,000 to 1,500,000 More than half of the European Jews reside in Russia. The majority of the African Jews live in the province of Algiers ; but they are to be found in Abyssinia, and all along the coa.st. and even in the Sahara Oasis, frequently acting as intermediaries between the Mahommedans and Christians 15.000 of the Asiatic Jews live in Palestine. The population of Jerusalem is given as 7,000 Mahommedans, 5,000 Christians, and 13,500 Jews." 886 General Survey— Foreign Possessions of European States. a. Germans in | a. French in Holland ... 3,800,000 | Total French 36,800,000 Belgium ... 2,800,000 b. Italians... 27,500,000 Scattered... 600,000 ^Spanish& ( ^0,000,000 Portuguese j !: } 59. 700,000 Total Ger mans b. Britons .. 27,500,000 e. Scandi- ( 8,200,000! navians J ^tt''":}«,40o,cco I T->I-"} 84,300,000 a. Russians Prussia & ) Saxony ) On the Danube V & Turkey I 2,800,000 6,000,000 Total Slavs 92,500,000 The three principal races are thus represented in nearly equal num- bers. Language is accepted as the usual test of nationality, and, as a general rule it answers well ; but there are exceptions to the rule. Indi- viduals who arc placed for a long time in any other country than their own, frequently fall into the language of that country, and their descendants almost unavoidably adopt it. In many cases language indicates rather education and surroundings, than origin. It certainly is no mark of nationality, when it has been introduced among a people by wide-spread conquest. Among the languages of civilized nations, English is the most widely spread ; it is the mother tongue of about 80,000,000 of people ; German of between 50,000,000 and 60,000,000; French between 40,000,000 and 50,000,000 ; Spanish 40,000,000, and Italian 28,000,000 of people. Russian is the language of between 55,000,000 and 60,000,000. Foreign Fossessiotis of European States. Area EngHsh Sq. Miles Population Great Britain . 8,551,760 . 252,702,000 Russia ... 5,251,028 12,000,000 Turkey... Holland 2,019,890 660,609 30,000,000 24,000,000 Spain ... France ... 116,255 3^8,930 8,291,442 6,000,000 Portugal Denmark 497,726 42,524 2,000,000 48,000 Total . 17,458,722 • 335,041,442 THE LARGE CITIES OF EUROPE According to the latest returns, in round numbers. INHABITANTS. Class I— With more than 1,000,000 inhabitants (4 cities) : — London ••• 3,254,000 Paris 2,000,000 Vienna 1,050,000 Berlin ... 1,044,000 Class II — With more than 500,000 (6 cities) :— - St. Petersburg .. . 680,000 Constantinople 650,000 Moscow 600,000 Glasgow 548,000 Liverpool ... 525,000 Manchester 500,000 Class III — With between 200,000 and 500,000 (25 cities) : — Naples 425,000 Hamburg 406,000 Birmingham ... 375,000 Madrid 367,000 Lyons 345.000 Marseilles ... 320,000 Warsaw 320,000 Dublin 315,000 Brussels 310,000 888 Tlie Large Cities of Europe — Inhabitants, Buda-Pesth Amsterdam Leeds Sheffield Breslau Rome Lisbon Bucharest Munich Palermo Bordeaux Edinburgh Barcelona Copenhagen Milan ... Dresden 300,000 296,000 292,000 275,900 240,000 230,000 224,000 224,000 220,000 220,000 215,000 215,000 215,000 206,000 200,000 200,000 Class IV — With between 100,000 and 200,000 (41 cities) : — Turin Prague... Belfast Odessa Bristol Antwerp Bradford Florence Genoa ... Lille Stockholm Valencia Adrianople Hull Rotterdam Leipsic Cologne Toulouse Stoke-upon-Trent Venice Newcastle-on-Tyne Ghent Kiev St. Etienne Portsmouth Konigsberg Magdeburg Nantes Erankfort Seville Dundee Lieee 93,000 90,000 85,000 84,000 83,000 82,000 73,000 67,000 62,000 62,000 57,000 53.000 40,000 37,000 36,000 35>ooo 35»ooo 31,000 31,000 29,000 28,000 28,000 27,000 26,000 25,000 23,000 23,000 22,000 20,000 20,000 19,000 16,000 The L arge C iiiei, of R 'nrope — Inhabitants Oldham 113,000 Stuttgart ,, 107,000 Hanover 106,000 Rouen ., 105,000 Hague 104,000 Kishmiev .. 103,000 Bremen 102,000 Trieste .. 102,000 Riga ... ... .. 100,000 889 If to these be added the middle sized towns, those with between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants as Class V., and those with between 40,000 and 50,000 as Class VI., and between 25,000 and 40,000 as Class VII,, the following comparison will be arrived at. Large Cities. Class I. II. III. IV. Total Germany I 4 8 13 Austria I 1 2 4 France I 3 5 9 Great Britain I 3 5 9 18 Russia 2 1 4 7 Italy... 4 4 8 Switzerland . Belgium I 3 4 Holland I 2 3 Denmark I I Sweden I I Norway Spain 2 2 4 Portugal I I Greece Roumania . I I Servia Turkey I I 2 iddle -sized Towns V. VI. VII. Total 21 10 31 62 4 S 8 20 16 9 26 51 24 18 35 77 II 10 57 78 12 4 43 59 I I 2 4 1 12 13 I 2 6 9 I 2 3 I I 2 5 2 5 12 X I I 1 2 I 3 6 I 1 2 I 3 Total 'S 41 76 102 67 233 402 J^inance. In striving to get a general view of the revenue and expenditure of the European States, it must be borne in mind that the figures cannot be abso- lutely exact., and can only be approximate. The whole survey is beset with difficulties : — War and its consequences disturb the balance of finance ; the reduction of the various monies into that of our own, together with the paper money, and its shifting value in the various countries where it is used, all add to the difficulty. Conditions obtain in one country which have no place in another. All these things form obstacles to perfect exactness in drawing comparisons between the various countries. 890 Annual Revenue and Expenditure of the States of Europe. o o o o' CO s^ o o o 10 On o O O q d oc 10 C\ Tt « o o o o" 10 u-5 o O O 10 o o M 00 "I- 10 U-) CO t^ O 00 cj vn tF 00" vo~ cn s? n n VO 10 VO M 00 CN •H o) t^ Cn ^ hH N VO uo i-O "J^ 1- : : : : : i : • : : as i^ ^ n n n <-5 ° 2 u n « 1 6 0" 0" 0^ 1 q d q d q^ q n 1 q^ 10 q^ to 10 Op 6 t LO •— ' lO CO ON OJ r^ ro 00 t^ Tf- N LT 3 VO C<) CN CO 10 ^^ OJ u S^ M - H : • • \ : : ^ C\ n n n N (I4 ^ n C) u u n n c; ^ X n c; u n .■V. H 00 C) u n f) f1 f) n n u „ N U-) ^n 10 u \n U-) C) lU U-) 01 On CJ n ro VO CO '^ CO M CO 10 fo On u "^ t-~ VO C<) l/i 00 N r^ r^ M N ^i^ '^ M- H4 ■+ u VO CO 10 »o t-^ '^ ro f^ S^ "^ . . . . , . . . « \ • ; ■ • • • • • <3 ,^ "^ n n Si (-( C) C) n C) u n C) 5: 00 f) C) C) n u u St s "^ o' n n" n ^ 10 V.O 10 u 10 10 10 LO M M (1 10 ro XI ^ CO N fj r^ J^ m ■^ CO CO Csi CO ^ r^ r^ ^^ >— 1 ^ -~ M *-■ ;s W ^ CO LO in r-^ to 04 ^ ^ w > : : : '' : i ; : ^ OoOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oooooooooooooooooc Oqo q^ 00000 q^qqqq^ 00 q^o K i-^" d o" d" o" o' d o" o" o o o d o" o" o" o 6 ONQOOOOiOinoOiOioOiOioOOo qOn^ u-)Oqo O •^M T^t^i-i fOO N CO'^O o 'f 00" "^ *^ "" oT cxT co" f^ '^ '"' f^ ^^ '-^ CO i-i o" r^ONCoooO'i- f^ M • :::• c :•:::::;:: : ::•■•. o • 1^ i fciD C pq o U X3 C c .s ^ to o « " E 3 O ^ oj Ph O P< CJ 3 Suj'vej' of the European State Debt. 891 Of the net revenue therefore the Court absorbs The army and navy ... The State debt Leaving only for all other requirements 1.49 per . 28.63 ce • 31-43 '> 61-55 • 38.45 >> loo. SURVEY OF THE EUROPEAN STATE DEBT IN 1878. Per head of Debt Po pulation Great Britain — ^775>873>7i3 • • ^22 IS. oa France 794,980,143 . 24 19 Russia 409,700,000 1 5 9 Austro- Hungary ... 344,750'000 • I Spain 515,900,000 .. 22 18 Italy 453'85o>ooo .. 14 10 Turkey 245,200,000 9 I 2 Germany ... 17,200,000 9 Portugal ... 90,650,000 18 2 Holland 78,350,000 . 19 19 Belgium 60,850,000 II 8 Roumania... 24,400,000 4 10 Greece 19,390,000 II 18 Sweden 10,250,000 — Denmark .. 9,900,000 . 2 10 5 Norway 5,675,000 . II I Switzerland 1,445,000 . — Servia 1,500,000 17 The mere knowledge of the actual amount of the State debts per head of the population is not a sufficient criterion whereby to judge of the great- ness of the individual burden. There are two points of equal importance to be considered, viz., the amount of national property and the purposes to which the sums borrowed are applied. In so far as new loans serve for useful purposes, or are used in reproductive woiTcs, the increase of the debt ought to prove an alleviation of the burdens of the peoples, but it is far otherwise when debt is contracted to cover current expenses, or, still worse, to maintain enormous standing armies or to defray the outlay in wars which have no reference to reproductiveness. National property has very greatly increased of late years, and it is the result of reproductive industry. The value of precious metals forming the currency has diminished by reason of the great discoveries of gold and silver ; but the solvency of States has not, therefore, become limitless. The financial history of the past reveals many known, and lifts the veil off many hidden, State bankruptcies. The repudiation of financial obligations are not_ at all infrequent. How long it will be possible to cover an ever increasing expenditure required to meet the State debts in some European countries we know not. If England be brought into review, we know that the increase of debt caused by the efforts she made in her contest with Napoleon produced a financial exhaustion among her people, evidenced by her power of consumption remaining stagnant for 30 years after the restoration of peace. 892 Increasing GroivtJi of National Debts. '^ r^ o o O C O o o o o o o o o o -t o o O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o q_ o o c Q. o q_ o o o o ■o 6 o" 6 ,2~ q' 6 o" 6 o" o" ro o" d 6 d" — CO o to Q lO U-) lO o o 3 rO to rO o o C\ r^ r^ ej ro 00 CO Cs o o o^ N •^ M t h 4- o\ -+ r^ od~ o <-o to Q Cn to o On to •f -, CN o -t ^ r^ o u-i ^ CN — ►- -t c^ ^ 1^ -t m -+ to cs ^ ^ O ~ ;^ 2 vO o c O o o o o o o NO c *. o o 5 CO o o c c o o o o c l^^ o o c 00 o o o o o o c o c ^ Q o o ^ Q. ■^ 2 G o ^ o" o o c 6 NO -^ :^ o ^ o o ^ to o c c o 1 — f^ 5 to ^o o NO o o o NO On N lO c c to nC to ^ to ^ o 0' o 00 to ro r^ o to o CO <-o NO r^ CO -t ro o o ^ m r^ o •* ro "^ •^ rO »- ^ N XnstDJsg V o o o c o o o o o o o o o o o "*: o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ■Vi o o o o o o o o c o o o o o r^ .ft o" o" o" o o o o o~ o o 6 6 o" o o *9- o c o o o o o to o o o o to o o ^ co o o c to o o o o o o to r^ to o Vi ^ ■^ tTj 6 ■3 o o o o o o o o o o o o o O 6 o" o o o o o o o o o o o ' ^ o o o o o o o 1 o o o o to o s: oo to o o o o o q_ 1 q^ to q_ •Ti- M o o =0 o^ o q^ o o ^ o o • ^ 00 o o 'o t ix q_ o_ V o" to h rj- t-~ ,s; N s^ •o •^s ■s. ?2 k ' I * * o o o o o o o o c o o o o o o o o o c o o o c o o o o o o o o o o o O^ 1 o o o" d o o o o o o o o o to o o to V-) to 9. q_ o o c< On d ■* Tl- t~» to N d CO M CQ c/: c O ^ ^ o U^!^<^^:/:XcQ^ — -^ ^ ;z; c^ c H 3 O states of Europe — Standivg Annies. S93 III. Standmg Armies of the States of Extrope. Independently of special efforts in case of war, the standing armies, in time of peace, amount to about the following numbers : — Germany Austro-Hungary France with Algeria ... Great Britain with India Russia Italy . . . Switzerland Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden Norway Spain ... Portugal Greece Turkey Roumania and Servia Total 432,000 280,000 475,000 220,000 793,000 199,500 46,000 35,000 18,000 36,000 12,000 100,000 32,000 24,000 210,000 48,000 2,960,500 If we add to this the navy, of about 250,000 men, we reach the amount of 3,210,000 in Europe whose vocation is war. One State alone in Europe maintains no standing army ; this is Switzerland, which, notwithstanding her small population, is able in case of need to bring out a practised militia of 200,000 men at the shortest notice. Servia and Montenegro likewise maintain the militia system, and are thereby enabled to produce 115,000 men in their defence. The following concise comparison will suffice to shew the large increase of troops during the quarter of a century immediately preceding 1874. ^859 1874 Total Strength Standing Army Total Strength Standing Arm}' Germany ... 836,800 483,700 1,261,160 710,130 Austro-Hungary .. 634,400 443,800 856,980 452,450 European Russia. . 1,134,200 604,100 1,401,510 665,890 Asiatic Russia 89,950 75,650 I 18,300 87,550 France 640,500 428,000 977,600 525,700 Italy 317,650 156,450 605,200 322,000 Belgium ... 80,250 53,800 93,590 59,140 Netherlands 58>55o 42,200 64,320 32,430 Great Britain 245,800 77,300 478,820 71,860 Denmark ... 57,550 38,450 48,700 30,500 Norway &: Swede n 134,900 46,300 2,459,750 204,510 6,1X0,690 54,9'o Total .. 4,230,550 3,012,560 894 States of Europe —Standing Annies The cost of the military forces of the whole of Europe in time of peace averages ^^157, 500,000. If to this be added the sacrifice of industrial prosperity, assuming that each of these 3,000,000 of strong men could earn 2s. a day (the lowest estimate which could be allowed), the produce of the daily earnings would reach ^300,000. This sacrifice is enhanced by the loss sustained in labour of the 400,000 horses now employed for cavalry and artillery. The total for 300 working days must exceed ;^io5, 000,000. The maintenance of standing armies in Europe results in the continual emigration of young men of the most promise and enterprise, and a great increase of mortality among soldiers living in barracks. Navies. Amid the changes which have taken place and are still occurring in the war marine it is very difficult to make comparisons between the navies of the various States. The following was published in April, 1878, and seems, as a whole, a careful and good representation. Ve ssels Active Reserve Sailors Marines Officers England 162 350 60,000 15,000 3>326 France 115* 78 48,000 16,000 1,800 Germany 61 48 8,oco 500 Russia J5« 6,000 2,000"|" Austria 68 7,000 500 Italy 65t 12,000 3,000 540 Turkey 57 28 36,000 1,000 Spain 128 21,000 Greece 21 7,000 Denmark 33 10,000 Holland 87 ,, 12,000 In 1S75 the number of war ships in the whole of Europe was 2,039, of which 209 were ironclads, with 280,000 men and 15,000 guns. Ala/iu/dcfi/ring and Commercial Condition. PRESENT STATE OF COMMERCE IN THE WORLD. To what extent the official statistics of commerce are untrustworthy, comparative tables of estimates may furnish a clue. A general impression prevails that no department of statistics can be so reliable as that which deals with imports and exports, at least so far as their cjuantities are con- cerned. The published tables of various countries, however, dispel the illusion, and force the conviction that however comprehensive may be the measures of control taken in the customs, however firmly it may be asserted that not an ounce of goods is entered Avhich does not actually pass the frontier, inasmuch as no one would surely pay custom-dues without being char'^ed with them lawfully ; yet undeniable facts testify that there is scant reliability to be placed on the official tables, prepared without stint of * Among these three monster ironclads. t One-thiid of whom were in active work on board ship. t Two very large ironclads with 8 guns of lOo tons. States of Europe — Alaiiufactur'uig & Couinio-cial Condition 895 expense in the offices, and printed in any number of thick foUos. No department of statistics is so deceptive as that which deals with inter- national commerce, nor can the discrepancies be laid to the charge of illicit or contraband trade, for the defects are equally observed where there is no reason to suspect smuggling. The untrustworthiness is confined to no locality, nor is it limited to any special period. It has been pointed out that " the export of silk from France to Belgium stood in the French customs-accounts at 36,862 kilogrammes, but in the Belgium accounts for the same year we find the number of kilogrammes stated as introduced from France 25,947. Again, the export of coals from Belgium to France in the same year figures as 21,121,520 cwts., whereas the French registry certifies the importation as 19,655,869 cwts. What, then, has become of the missing i miUion and a half of coals?" Take an example of an inverse of the above. The export of wool from Belgium to France amounted in 1853 to 371,260 kilogrammes, against which the custom accounts state an arrival of wool in France of not less than 3,301,500 kilogrammes. The wool increases tenfold in the short transit from Belgium to the French custom-house. Take now a comparison of the French with the English customs register. In one of the above-mentioned years the value of wool imported into Great Britain from France is stated in the French books to be 11,750,000 francs, or ^470,000, but in the books of the former it occurs as of the value of ;j^i, 280,280. We stumble on the converse in the article of cotton. France exports to England cotton to the value of ;^345,76o ; the latter states the sum as not more than ^"180,000, little more than half. The succeeding year France sends 952.035 kilogrammes of silken goods to Great Britain, but only 233,739 are stated to have been received. According to the I3ritish accounts the import of silk into France amounted to 245,925 kilogrammes, but the French accounts are more than double the amount, stating it at 597.354- In like manner the English ex- port of wool figures as 2,207,741 kilogrammes, whilst the French state the same at 3,940,496 as having arrived. Corn has the like mode of progres- sion ; 87,716 hectolitres become 312,768. Coals, on the contrary, decrease from 7,292,411 to 5,631,829 cwts. Comparing the English with the Belgian customs tables, and taking one of the above-mentioned years, 1,015,173 kilogrammes of coffee are dispatched from Great Britain for Belgium, and the arrival is entered as 572,613 kilogrammes. Again, 4,036,049 kilogrammes of wool are exported, sand n import of 1,643,766 entered. Again, 1,676,701 kilogrammes of hops are sent from Belgium to England, the amount entered, as arrived, is 861,466. On the other hand, glass goods from Belgium to the British Isles are entered at 3,776,544 kilogrammes, but on arrival they increase into the following, 5,645,826, as they appear in the British entries. The mere accidents of shipment or loss on the sea passage, or the differences in keeping the accounts in the ports of either country, according as the transmission took place under the flag of the importing or exporting country, are no adequate explanations of the discrepancies to which only a passing allusion has been made. These instances are recorded, as the errors have by no means disappeared in more recent times. The subjoined return of the value of international commerce (imports and exports together) are based on official tables. S96 spates of Eiu'o/^e— Manufacturing & Covnnercial Condition. CTreat Britain Germany... France ... United States Belgium ... Russia and Finland .\ustria ... Holland ... British India Italy Australia... P>razil Switzerland Scandinavia Chile, Peru, Vene- ( zuela, etc. f China ^590,000,000 400,000,000 370,000,000 212,500,000 i77>5oO'Ooo 1 14,000,000 105,000,000 100,000,000 100,000,000 91,600,000 91,500,000 80,000,000 55,000,000 53,500,000 29,000,000 42,500,000 British N, America Spain Argentine States . Egypt Antilles Turkey Portugal Japan Dutch E. Indies . Roumania ... Mexico Greece Persia Columbia States Servia Central America . Tunis ^4 5, 000. 000 28,500,000 21,250,000 20,500,030 I 7,500,000 16,500,000 1 1,500,000 10,000,000 9,000,000 9,000,000 8,750,000 7,500,000 5,600,000 5,600,000 3,000,000 1,150,000 1,150,000 This reuresents a sum of ^2,833,600,000. Dr. Fr. Xav. Neiunann ;ave the sum for 1875 at ^2,739,920,000, and divided it thus :-- IMPORTS EXPORTS TOTAL Europe ... ^i ,087,095,000 .. ^888,965,000 . . £^ ,976,060.000 America... 195,120,000 212,220,000 407,340,000 Asia 95.o5o>ooo 116,415,000 211,465,000 Australia 44,290,000 39,510,000 . 83,800,000 Africa Z^ 28,735't^o" ,450,290,000 32,520,000 61,255,000 :: jT ,289,630,000 . . £2 ,739,920,000 Mercantile Marine (sea-goim; vessels only). The following is a statement from the Company, with which our notices in the compared : — Globe Marine Insurance individual States must be England United States Norway Italy ( lermany . . . 1^'rance Spain Greece Holland ... Sweden Russia Austria SAILING VESSELS Vessels Tonn;i!;e 20.265 5.807.365 7,288 2,390.521 4,749 1.410,903 4,601 1,292,076 3,456 875,995 3,858 725,048 2,915 557,320 2.1 2 1 426,905 1,432 399'093 2,121 399,128 1.785 391,952 983 338,684 STEAMERS 'essels Tonnage v2 99 3,362,992 605 789,728 122 55,874 114 97,582 226 226,688 314 334,334 230 176,250 IT 7,133 126 1 -54.600 219 88,660 151 105,960 78 81,269 States of Europe — Railways. 897 SAILING VESSELS STEAMERS Vessels Tonnage Vessels Tonnage Denmark 1,348 188,953 87 60,697 Portugal 456 107,016 26 22,277 South America 273 95,459 81 59,623 Central America ... 153 57,944 6 3,132 Turkey 305 48,289 30 28,264 Belgium 54 23.344 35 40,700 Asia 42 16,019 II 10,877 Liberia 3 454 — 58,208 15,553,368 5.771 5,686,640 The importance of this list is not so much in the number of vessels as in the amount of tonnage. Dr. Neumann has furnished the following table of the number of vessels of both kinds at different periods : — Steam Vessels Sailing Vessels Total Tons Burden End of i860 2,974 92,272 95,246 10,800,647 „ 1865 . 4,021 95,993 100,014 12,436,208 1868-69 ... 4,289 96,009 100,298 12,761,875 1870-71 ... 4,824 92,053 96,877 12,607,627 The average number of ships lost annually in the ten years, 1850-59, was 2,066; in i860 it was 2,148 ; in 1861 it was 2,171. Transatlantic steam navigation began in 1838. In the 34 years, from 1841 to 1873, 44 large steamers were lost, 7 of which left no trace behind; many small steamers suffering a similar fate are here omitted. According to a report furnished by the Veritas Insurance Society, 2,628 sailing vessels were lost in the year 1872, of which 1,310 were English, 239 French, 222 German, 211 American, 194 Norwegian, 103 Dutch, 78 Italian, 71 Swedish, 56 Danish, 44 Greek, 42 Russian, 33 Spanish, 16 Portuguese, 10 Austrian, 4 Turkish, 4 BraziHan, and i Belgian. Concerning 135 of these vessels all information is wanting. In the same year 244 steam vessels were lost, of which 142 were English, 56 American, 11 Spanish, 8 German, 6 French, 4 Brazilian, 3 Dutch, 3 Norwegian, 2 Russian, 2 Belgian, 2 Swedish, and i Portuguese. Those not specially indicated belonged to the less important American States. In the year 1873 the various lines of steam vessels, running between Europe and New York, made 1,368 passages. Their receipts for the conveyance of passengers amounted to ^^3, 980,000, and for the conveyance of goods ;^ 7,954.600. Railways. The following table is based upon Stiirmer's calculation at the end of 1877, referring our readers at the same time to the statistics given in indivi- dual countries, which bring up the information to sojnewhat later dates : — 3 I" I 898 States of Europe— Railways. vp) O ^ CC O --^ t^ 10 vo Cn VO N C O O f< "+00 q_ O f^ r-; t4 O N 10 »~0 N I O On I CO 00 I <^. jn o 1-1 0\ rO"^<-r)0'0>0'NCst^CCOo 0-1- *t f^i - N MD fO U-) M IT) CN 10 ^ ON N ON l^ t^ VO q_ ^ s? OsQCO-l-Ct^O"* u->\0 O NO \0 to ^ r-r^r^Ooc N u-)r^M roONCNio NiOM -^K i-~t~00 O irji-i 0^0>MO 500 crt--->-<^NO"'^ONO cTnO '^f^rTrC ■ >-i OCO 'tr^^' lOM O '-'^ Cnm -^ •NO ONMOO <^N t^tON fNN 00^ M rC ocT 00 f>r c^ r~- o a > » O'-'ONOO'^roO^iOOwvDNr^OO't VO u-> 10 10 vn -^nO IOM3 NO "+ rONO 00 t^ NO 00 T 00 N N NO *-* 't M fO r^ 00 L -1 fC 00 4 00 c irjvo OmO'-'^^coooi-i^-ooo OnO Noo m u-jt-^-r^ONr^Tj-r^T^r^ LOu-)fOcNr-»CTN>-iNO 11 O t^ r^oo r^ ^0 XD\0 o^NcT •^00 NO vo" i- fO On l-^ cT VO 10 w ^l^ i^vO Cn>-i O fJOsONrOi- toONt^r^io^ON ^00 O rO«_^vo M NMi-THTfO OO^^iOrf- >-< \0 ■^ tT) >-' N N i-H 10 w 10 to N M vO On On '-' M ^ ON u^ i». r- o "l*^ noOOOOnooO ONioioioO 100 »^-*0 M O N N 10 C) 1-- t~~ (M-> o OnvO fOoO O O O^ O N i-^ rOvorOt^O'^"»^vo"N"o"N£ro r^oi'-i i^ONO ON'^NOO OncOO O OvO OnOn r^NO 00 10 lONO TfOoo O O^^^ONf;;; fOO"'d-t^io>ovo'^p^oo"No"oo tCJ'ON ■^ N 10 w O M "- OnOO On i_r I- NO f') "* M "" On NO J^ N r^ r>- •V Cvj t^ M NO •* 00^ NO 00" M to ro On n" s^ jCm fON NOO^OONO •^ 1000 ON iM O 1000 ■^ ttJi OOONWM'NlOOtHr^ON-^O'-'NOCNlO - ro'-' VOOO w vo^^^^ OnQCOnO i^r^.rj-ON S I^ N «^ 00 « -* w N 10 <^ M r^ HI w ro 10 t^ On r^ o OS vo" r>. ?< i-i On O O ii O N ON 10 t^ N I- N ON On Epq pq O bX3 C S 1-1 G ■^ aj c n ^3 2 P ^ - o o a c^^^ft. -i fii :z; H o 2i .2 c« 1> ^— CI, rt ;-! TO 3 o7o 59,863 91,249 „ Asia — — — 867 4,949 7,132 „ Africa — — — 276 1,101 2,021 „ Australia — — — 164 1,125 2,970 Total miles 206 5,335 23,611 66,385 131,463 198,389 These railways represented, even in 1870, a weight of 660,000,000 of cwts. of iron in the extent of their lines, and a total of 410,000,000 sleepers. Df this amount of iron 40,000 cwts. are daily destroyed, and of the sleepers, the daily destruction is 137,000. In 1870, 48,000 locomotives, 96,000 passenger carriages, and 1,280,000 goods vans were employed upon the railways. ;!6399»999, ^^ least, are required daily, in order to make up the average interest at 5 per cent. Railways furnish employment to about 1,900,000 men, representing families amounting to 5,000,000 individuals. According to a paper just published on the rate of velocity at which the trains run in various coun- tries, the swiftest is in England, where the average velocity of the express trains reaches 50 miles an hour ; in Belgium the rate at which some of the trains travel is 41-^ miles in the hour. The express train from Paris to Bordeaux goes at the rate of 39I miles ; the express between Berlin and Cologne travels at the same speed. Between Bologna and Brindisi the average is 31^ miles; the Austrian express 25 to 30 miles. In Russia 27 miles an hour ; the same in Switzerland, between Geneva and Lausanne, and between Zurich and Romanshorn. In other parts c; Switzerland the rate per hour is only 15I miles. Some very interesting statistics were issued in September, 1878, shewing the proportion of accidents to railway travellers in various European countries. There is no comparison between diligences and railways in the matter of safety. In France, previous to the existence of railways, there was one passenger killed to every 335,000 carried, and out of every 30,000 carried, one was wounded; whereas, out of 1,781,403,678 passengers who travelled on the railways in France, between September, 1835, and December, 1875, o^^^Y o'^^ to every 5,178,890 was killed, while the proportion of wounded during the same period was one to 580,450. 'I'he tendency of railway accidents in France is towards diminution, as an analysis of those of 1872, 1873, 1874 and 1875 plainly indicates. On the railways of Belgium, the proportion between 1872 and 1875 of killed to those carried was one in 20,000,000, and of wounded one in every 368,000. In Switzerland the proportion of killed and wounded to every million travellers was 0.63 in 1874, 0.66 in 1875, and 0.88 in 1876. Railway travelling in England, if judged of by statistics, is attended with greater risk than in almost any other country of Europe. I 900 States of Europe — Rathvays. A French statistician, after a very laborious examination of the deaths occurring from railway accidents, in all parts of the world, states the result of his investigation thus — " that if a person were to live continually in a railway carriage, and spend all his time in railway travelling, the chances in favor of his dying from railway accident would not occur until he was 960 years old. The cost at which the various railway tunnels were constructed is given thus : — The most expensive was the Kilsby in England, viz:, ^£14^ per yard ; the Bletchingly tunnel in England at ^75 per yard ; the cost of the French tunnels varied between ^30 and ^1^95 per yard; the cost oft the very difficult Hauenstein tunnel in Switzerland was ;^8o per yard. States of Europe — Electric Telegraph. 061 J3 u 1^ OONvoO'+OOOOf^OOCNfOOOOON lO '^ N Ov ■^w'^-OOOOOOCNOOir^riOOioO \o ■^ wMCOOCAOOOOioOOOi-iOO'^t^ v£fpri-ror^er(Diooiocro"o"-^d~d"vo-^ to lO w VO M N On lO O i-i ONOO CO M 00 00 O lO^ LO l^ rj- vo j^ ^ f<-) i-i lovO t~ OnOO O OnvO On ro On O 0\ fO O^ •^ •^ hT rT m"oo" 't iJ^ o N N OvvO Ov O ON O O CO 00 T O ^ O O tv< o o t}- CO O vo ON toco tT vO~ ■^cfv^O'^tO'^vO lOO voONfOOv M CN O r—vo "^ t^ tooo 00 N t— i-i lo to ■<;j-00 to M M s^ o N o t^ ■rf 00 00 M o lO <) vo On ON o M M to U-) t^ s^ J3 O O M M <» H ►*? < ^" 1 H en es ^ ;!- K^ < ,c (d t>^ a. o ai P u '^ ,n 0~ vO Tj-O voO N OvOVOvO N Mvo t^tototor^ w oQ lyi '^h t^ OnoO ■^0\t^"+0 tOt^l^ >-O00 >-< tOONOvtoONW O tO»-ivO t^ invO Hi to Ov ■"^ lo (^ to to 11 n M r-^ -rt-CO Tf O On o O to u-i Oo lO -< "^ 1-c M M M to to I vo LO in to t^ O ui to O 1-1 CO O "J^OO lO tJ M to t^ "^ «vO '*'-' r^^^'tOO O too. 1-1 M w r^^ ..»- N tJ-N OnioOnq m r^M O lOM t^iOiOONO QQ^i/^r^trvO^'^Tftr'rl-iot) t-^fO»-<"t4 H^Tft^ : c :=i ON lO o to M M ON o 00 o o PI in 00 CO M -o ri vo ^ ON On -73 to 3 O ^ »^ , <]> • cs o o CJ 00 a NO ct, to o N =3 w pq C 3 >nW c5 6 S O : Pi >^ C rt rt d t-1 !5 - -^-"^ o ^ Ot^ o<(5^>:^K^c^;=i c^m o p< c3 I) • * a-y ci C rt ^-, II =3 m •-I o o 4-* bO C ^ ►S <1 902 States of Europe — Postal Affairs. The number of telegraph dispatches sent in 1877, amounted for the whole Globe to nearly 130,000,000, or an average of 353,000 daily. More than one third of these dispatches are private, dealing with private concerns only. Postal Affairs. It has been ascertained that about 3,300 millions of letters are sent annually through the post. That gives 9I millions daily, or 100 letters per second, averaging 3 letters per head for the whole world. Of this total 2,355 millions belong to Europe ; 750 millions to America; 150 millions to Asia ; 25 millions to Africa ; and 20 millions to Australia. The postal traffic is relatively largest in Great Britain, where, in the year ending March 31, 1878, 1,058 millions of letters passed through the post, which gave a proportion of 3,163 letters to each 100 of the population in the United Kingdom, or 31 per head, and 102 millions of post cards, or 304 to each 100 of the population. Next comes Switzerland, averaging 20 letters per head; the German Empire, 14 per head; France and Belgium, 12 per head. In Austro-Hungary the number of letters averages only from 4 to 5 per head ; in Russia only 0.6 per head. It is estimated that i out of every 46 inhabitants of Europe writes a letter every day. It has been ascertained that to every inhabitant the following number of newspapers per head annually are sent : — per head In Switzerland 14.33 per head In Bavaria 13.01 ,, Wurtemberg ... 10.67 „ Belgium 10.07 „ German Empire 7.58 „ Denmark 7.41 „ Holland 6.34 „ France 3-67 „ Italy 3-57 „ United King-'| domof Great f „ Austria and ) Hungary . . . / 1-55 Britain and f 3-1^ „ Sweden 1. 61 Ireland ...} ,, Roumania 0.54 „ Greece 0.75 Switzerland, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg are no doubt indebted to the existence of a great number of small and cheap newspapers for the high percentage observed in the table. The active exchange of newspapers which has prevailed for the last ten years must be regarded as an important indication of the degree of civilisation and education no less than of the political activity of a country and its people. Mining Profits. (a). — PRECIOUS METALS, The average annual value of the produce of precious metals has been thus estimated : — Years From 1500 — 1550 ;6i5°'°°° „ 1550 — 1600 600,000 „ 1600— 1650 3,525,000 „ 1650 — 1700 4,575'°°° „ 1700 — 1750 ... ... ■■■ ••■ 6,000,000 „ 1750 — 1800 11,400,000 „ 1800 — 1850 26,256,000 States of Europe — Mining Profits— Coal. 903 The value of the produce hi these three and a half centuries is divided thus : — Gold Sih r To-al ^405,150,000 ^'1,096,050,000 ^,1.501,200,000 45,000,000 13,200,000 58,200,000 21,000,000 79,500,000 100,500,000 102,000,000 In America „ Russia . ,, Europe'' „ Africa and Isles of Sunda les) 102,000,000 Total Reserve from ( Middle Ages j Grand total . . . ^573,150,000 ^"1,18^,750,000 ^[,761,900,000 12,000,000 30,000,000 42,000,000 ^,'585, 150,000 ^1,218,750,000 ;^i, 803,900,000 33 per cent. 67 per cent. The value of the produce of gold in the whole world in the 20 years 1848 — 1868 has been estimated at ^670,410,000, and the produce of silver ^183,015,000. From 1868 the produce in the whole world has, according to Del Mar, been as follows : — SILVER ^9,854,166 10,750,000 12,708,333 14,625,000 14,895,833 i4,5S3>333 16,020,833 GOLD 1869 ... ^22,125,000 •. 1870 22,270,833 I87I 37,479,166 1872 20,750,000 1873 20,250,000 1874 18,916,666 1875 20,312,500 1876 18,750,000 (/'.) — YIELD OF BASE METALS AND MINERALS. Coal. It has been computed that the area of the coalfields is as follows : — English Sq. Miles In North America, including British colonies 180,000 „ Great Britain ... „ France ... ,, Belgium... „ Spain „ All other countries Giving an area of 9,000 1,800 900 900 28,800 221,400 ♦ Exclusive of Russia. 904 States of Europe — Yield of Iron. The yield of coal in the two periods iS66 and 1876 has been computed by Pechar thus in tons : — Great Britain ... Germany France... Belgium Austro-Hungary Russia ... Spain ... Italy Sweden Other parts of Europe... United States ... Canada Other parts of America Asia Africa ... Australia Total tons Great Britain ... Germany France ... Belgium Russia ... Austro-Hungary Sweden Luxemburg Spain ... Italy Other parts of Europe United States ... Other parts of America Asia ... Africa ... Australia Total tons Great Britain United States Germany... France ... Austro-Hungary Belgium ... Sweden . . . Russia Total 1866 103,069,804 28,162,805 12,234,455 12,774,662 4^893,933 271,533 432,664 70,000 36,467 21,856,844 558,519 774,000 • 185,135,686 Yield of Iron. 4;596,279 1,000,492 1,260,348 482,494 314,850 284,638 230,670 44,460 39,254 22,200 1,225,031 9,500,716 Bessemer Steel Works. Works 25 II 18 7 13 2 19 97 1876 134,000,000 48,296,367 16,889,201 14,329,578 13,362,586 1,709,269 706,814 102,140 92,352 80,000 48,273,447 709,646 400,000 4,120,000 100,000 1,380,000 284,551,400 6,660,893 1,614,687 1,453,112 490,508 426,896 400,426 351,718 231,658 42,825 20,278 60,000 2,351,618 115,000 60,000 30,000 15,000 14,324,619 Produce— Tons 762,000 534,412 390,434 218,000 97,470 75,258 22,138 8,636 2,108,348 States of Etirope — Petroleum. 905 The total capacity of the steel mills throughout the world is estimated at about 3,000,000 tons, for the year's production. AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCE IN EUROPE. Of lead „ zinc ,, copper „ salt Cwts. 4,510,000 2,515,000 916,000 100,000,000 The number of miners in Europe is estimated at 1,275,000, and divided thus : — In England, 363,000 ; in France, 206,500 ; in Prussia, 184,000; in Austria, 125,900; in Belgium, 111,500; in Russia, 80,000; in Spain, 73,600; in Italy, 36,000; in Sweden and Norway, 29,000; in Saxony, 23,300 ; in Bavaria, 11,200; in Switzerland, 5,100 ; in Portugal, 4,200 ; in Wiirtemburg, 2,200 ; in Baden, 2,100 ; in Greece, 800; and in Denmark, 300. Employment of Iron. — To every head of the population we find annually employed— In Great Britain, 100 lbs. ; in Belgium, 65 lbs. ; in France, 53 lbs. ; in the German ZoUverein, 38 lbs. ; in Austria, 19 lbs. ; in Sweden and Norway, 12 lbs. ; in Spain, 10 lbs. ; in Russia, 8 lbs. ; and in Italy, 8 lbs. (c.) Petroleum. This occupies one of the most important positions among natural pro- ductions, and yet, as an article of commerce, it is quite of recent growth. Dr. Hildreth had his attention drawn to the existence of rich sprino-s of petroleum, in a valley of Virginia, by some Indians as early as 1836, but the discovery was unheeded by speculators. In 1859, however, while a well was being dug 70 feet deep, in Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, a sprint was found which yielded daily 1,000 gallons of oil for several successive weeks. This encouraged a search for similar springs, and within a year 2 000 oil springs were tapped. In 1868 380 companies were at work for the purpose of procuring petroleum, with a capital rapidly increasino- from ;^i, 000,000 to _;2^5,000,000. In May, of 1861, the first instalment was announced as ready for export, and the sale of 10,000 gallons to Europe was regarded as an important transaction; and before the close of the year 1861 1,112476 gallons were exported from New York to foreign countries. The export from all the ports of the United States amounted to — 1,500,000 gallons in 10,887,701 28,250,721 31,872,972 295805,523 67.430,451 I86I 67)052,020 gallons in 1862 99,281,750 1863 102,748,604 1864 107,857,571 1865 142,069,771 1865 261,432,348 1867 1868 IS69 1870 I87I 1876 "The gain of iron and copper vitriol (green and blue) from the sulphuric acid used in the purification of raw petroleum (wliich was formerly 9o6 States of Europe — Corn. deemed refuse), the production of ammonia from the offensive tar water of gas works, the utilization of all the intermediate substances obtained in preparing phosphorus from bones illustrate the development of science in more recent times. One of the wonders of the age is that what we cast away to day as rags, comes perhaps into our hands again as paper." The numerous valuable products which have been derived from refuse, which was actually expensive to get rid of, now prove a source of wealth to those who have skill and patience enough to put them to their right uses. Agricullural and Industrial Productions. I. CORN. The total yield in average harvests is tlius reckoned by Dr. Neumann Russia Germany Austro-Hungary France Great Britain Italy Spain European Turkey ... Roumania ... Norway and Sweden Denmark Belgium Portugal Holland Switzerland ... Servia Greece Total Europe United States Canada Quarters 192,584,000 89,414.000 68,436,100 67^748,300 ■ 45>738.7oo 23)747>ioo 17,882,800 16,163,300 16,507,200 10,326,000 10,326,000 9,285,300 3,882,900 3>439.-ooo 2,407,300 1,721,000 1,032,600 580,641,600 196,023,000 T3, 412, 100 The harvests of 1878 and 1879, throughout Europe and America, are thus estimated in the Borsen Zeitung, the average being represented by the Mumber 100. 187S .Austro-Hungary Germany . . . France Switzerland Italy England Russia Roumania ... America 1S79 1 09 104 80 78 85 78 80 . 80 102 82 1U5 . 76 100 79 I 12 \ 10 90 108 States of Europe — Cotton. 907 II, COTTON.* Of all agricultural produce cotton is that which, after corn, is the most extensively used. Its consumption in India and China — those countries which embrace at least half the population of the world, and whose inhabitants, to a great extent, clothe themselves exclusively in cotton — is scarcely to be, even approximately, reckoned. It^ on the one hand, cotton clothing has been used in the East from time immemorial, on the other it was long before it obtained a footing in Europe. Our ancestors clothed themselves in flax and wool — the two fabrics of the North. Silk was only used as a costly adornment. Cotton first appeared among us in the sixteenth century, brought from Italy, Venice being the chief emporium of the raw material, whilst the towns of Upper Italy were the seats of the chief factories. Nevertheless, the present colossal consumption of cotton in Europe owes its magnitude, not to i\sia, but to America. The entire produce of cotton in the whole world (United States, India, China, Egypt, Central Asia, the Levant, Brazil, the West Indies, etc..) is reckoned in round numbers at 45,000,000 cwts. for average years. About 20,000,000 of this are spun by hand by the native inhabitants of the countries where it is produced, whilst about 25,000,000 cwts. pass into the machine- spinning mills of Europe and North America. The United States consume about 5,000,000 cwts. in hand and machine spinning. Previous to the American Civil War, at least two-thirds of the raw cotton then used in European commerce came from North America. f This civil war pro- duced an extraordinary disturbance not only in the cotton-growing countries, but also in all those countries where the manufacture of cotton was important, England perhaps prominently. The cultivation of cotton was now commenced in many districts to an extent not previously thought of, especially in theEast Indies and Egypt. An influx of money thereby resulted to these countries which induced a sort of social revolution. The cotton, which was sold in the different periods by the various countries producing it, is estimated in the following manner in lbs. : — 1846101850 1851101855 1856401860 1861101865 749,400,000 1,003,000,000 1,254,900,000 347,300,000 126,700,000 23.000,000 United States India Brazil Egypt and the Levant West Indies Total 83,500,000 21,000,000 60,600,000 6,300,000 920,800,000 1866 to 1S70 United States 724,000,000 India ... 576,400,000 Brazil ... 98,000,000 Egypt and ) the Levant I -^05,900,000 West Indies 36,800,000 Total 1,641,100,000 100,600,000 6,300,000 1,259,600,000 1871 1,363)900)000 553;7oo,ooo 108,800,000 209,200,000 50,400,000 2,286,000,000 194,400,000 496,800,000 24,500,000 32,200,000 76,100,000 196,500,000 7,400,000 15,300,000 1,557,300,000 1,088,100,000 1872 1S-3 891,800,000 1,080,100,000 610,600,000 558,000,000 161,000,000 121,600,000 241,100,000 263,200,000 49,800,000 50,400,000 1,954,300,000 2,073,300,000 * The information about cotton is extracted from the writings of Dr. Alexander Peez. t The value of the North American cotton crop in the favourable year 1859 was estimated at _^43, 500,000. 'I'his is as much as the amount of gold produced by California and Australia put together. 9o8 States of Europe — Cotton. America yielded in lbs. : — 1874 1S75 1,358,600,000 ... 1,260,400,000 1877 1873 1,843,300,000 ... 1,977,400,000 1876 1,491,400,000 1879 2,085,400,000 Great Britain manufactures at least as much cotton as all other coun- tries together. From 1735 to 1749 only 1,000,000 lbs. were consumed annually, but by i860 at least 1,000,000,000, that is more in one workhig day than in three years of the former period. One workman can manufacture as much with one machine as 100 Indian hand-workers. Although an Indian spinner formerly received but %d. per week, and an English workman, or even a woman or child, earned on an average i6d. per day as far back as i860, nevertheless the Indians are unable to compete with the much more expensive English hands. The number of hands employed in all the cotton-mills of Europe and America, including the children, is 1,250,000; their wages, taken at an average, of ^22 10^., amount annually to ^28,200,000. But there are perhaps four times this number actually dependent on this branch of industry for their living. The number of spindles at work in the mills was reckoned at 32,600,000 in 1852. In 1870 there were 56,584,000, and in 1873 the number had risen to 66,890,000. The following table for the last named year is given by Otto Triimpler : — England ... United States* ... France Germany ... Switzerland Russia Austria ... Spain Belgium ... Italy 3 Scandinavian States Holland Spindles 39,500,000 8,350,000 5,200,000 5,100,000 2,060,000 2,000,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 650,000 500,000 300,000 230,000 Consumption Total per Spindle Consumption in lbs. 32 1,264,000,000 57 476,000,000 38 197,600,000 45 228,000,000 27 56,600,000 60 120,000.000 67 106,900,000 48 67,200,000 43 27,900,000 48 24,000,000 60 18,000,000 43 9,800,000 The finer the yarn, the less of course is the consumption per spindle. It requires no explanation that the consumption of cotton goods increases with the growing prosperity and higher civilization of nations. While in England the consumption per head of the population is 24 to 26 lbs; in Turkey, and other equally little advanced countries, it amounts only to between 2 and 3 lbs. * In 1877 there were i 2,000,000 acres of land under cotton cultivation in the West and North-west States of America; which produced 4,485,423 bales ot cotton, averaging 468,128 lbs. each. 'I'here were in 1875, 875 cotton factories in the United States; viz., 694 containing 9,057,543 spindles in the north ; ;ind 181 in the south, wilh 481,821 spindles. Since then, 415,000 new spindles have been put up in the north, and 100,000 in the south. So that there are now in 1878 a total of 10,054,364 spindles in the United States. States of Europe — Wool. 909 In 1878 there were in the United States... 10,054,364 spindles „ ,, Great Britain ... 39,500,000 „ „ in other European countries ... 19,500,000 „ „ in India ... ... ... ... 1,231,000 „ Wool. The yield of wool in Europe is not nearly equal to the demand. It is estimated by the number of sheep in existence at about 570,000,000 lbs. Of this, Russia contributes 112,000,000 lbs. ; England 86,ooo,coo ; France 76,000,000; Germany 75,000,000; Austria 72,000,000 ; Spain 55,000,000; Italy 27,500,000 ; Roumania 12,500,000 ; Sweden and Norway 8,333,333; Portugal 6,500,000; Denmark 4,666,666; and Greece 4,500,000 lbs. It is a very moderate estimate to state that 950,000,000 lbs. are required for manufacturing purposes in Europe ; nearly 400,000,000 lbs. are, therefore, required to be imported. The imports from other countries, which at first served only to make the supply sufificient, have latterly created immense competition. The imports to Europe in 1864 were 458,000 bales ; in 1865, 567,000; in 1866, 609,000; in 1867, 739,000 bales. The imports into Great Britain (considerable quantities of which were from European countries) in the beginning of the last century were estimated at 7,000 lbs. ; in the beginning of this century at 7,000,000 lbs. ; in 1837 the imports of wool had increased to 48,333.333 lbs.; in 1853 to 119,338,333; in 1861 to 147,000,000; in 1864 t02o6,5oo,ooo; in 1869 to 258,500,000; in 1S72 to 306,3333 lbs. ; in 1873 to 318,250,000: in 1874 to 344,250,000 lbs. ; and in 1875 to 365,225,000 lbs. Belgium imported in 1S40 and the following years about 9,000,000 lbs. ; in 1867 above 66,000,000 lbs. ; in 1870, 83,675,000 lbs. ; in 1876, 104,000,000 lbs. The French imports of wool rose in the 40 years ending 1874, from 17.500,000 to 160,000,000 lbs. In 1875 the imports of wool were 256,000,000; in 1876, 246,000,000 lbs. The gi-eater part of these imports come from other parts of the world. The exports from the Cape colony in 1835 were only 215,000 lbs. ; but rose in 1849 to 5,000,000 lbs.; in i860 to more than 23,000,000, and in 1868 to 36,500,000. In 1871 the quantity exported was 46,500,000 lbs.; in 1872, 48,750,000. In 1876, however, it returned to 34,750,000 lbs. The increase is still greater in Australia. An English colonist, Mr. Arthur, who went to Sydney in 1790, sent for three merino rams and five sheep from the Cape ; a few more were imported from England in 1803 '> these formed the basis of their im- proved stock, and in 1S68, there were 47,000,000 head. The export of wool amounted in 1807, to 245 lbs. ; in 1820 to 100.000 lbs. ; in 1868 to nearly 190,000,000 lbs., and in 1876 to 298,750,000 lbs. A similar increase is found to have taken place in the wool exports of the La Plata territories. According to De Mousses, the wool exported from South America already amounts to more than 200,000,000 lbs. The English Economist estimated the total produce of wool in all the world for 1871 at 1,121,519,000 lbs. weight, divided among the various countries as follows : — lbs. England 159,969,000 Australia ... ... 152,500,000 Tasmania ... ... 6,136,000 Denmark 7,034,000 Germany 52,080,000 Holland 6,130,000 910 States of Europe — Silk. New Zealand Cape Colony La Plata .. East Indies .. Russia Sweden Norway Greece lbs. 28,875,000 38,000,000 138,070,000 18,797,000 90,760,000 6,082,000 7,618,000 Belgium France Spain Italy... Austria Switzerland United States lbs. 3,500,000 91,108,000 74,432,000 24,840,000 31,075,000 1,336,000 177,000,000 Silk. The syndicate of the Lyons silk merchants reckons that the total production of raw silk in 1876 was as follows : — CwtB. France, with Corsica and Algiers .... ... Italy Spain... Portugal Turkey, Anatolia „ European ... „ Syrian Greece ... ... ... ... ... Georgia, Persia, Korassan ... China, exported from Shanghai ,, from Canton... Japan, exported from Yokohama ... India, exported from Calcutta Total 81,404 The same Syndicate gave the produce of these lands in 1872 as. 1873 „ . ,, ,» », )> >5 )5 '<^74 ■>■> • 89,478 84,948 100,738 China The east of Asia produced more than | of the total of 1876 and Japan need for their own use over 60,000 cwts. Of the raw silk production in Europe and the Levant the following is another estimate. 1875 iS7f> 1877 cwts. cwts. cwts. France 7.31° ••• i'55o • •• 5.470 Italy 26,060 ... 9,930 ... 15,060 Spain 1,150 ••• 850 ... 660 Brussa 1,520 ... 1,050 ... 590 Syria 1,360 ... 1,170 ... 1,400 Total. 37,400 14,550 The east Asiatic exports for the same years : — Shanghai 30,375 ••• 32,400 Canton 5-7^5 ••• 7, 200 Japan 9,460 ... 9,450 Bengal 4.060 ... 3,500 Total... 49,610 52,550 13,180 23,400 5,850 9,000 2,800 41,050 States of Europe — Sugar. 911 The value of the raw silk produced is estimated at ;,^44, 800,000 Italy claims of this total ;^i 1,400,000 ; France ;^4,320; China, ;!{^i 7,000,000 ; India and Japan ^8,000,000 ; other countries ^{^4, 000, 000. England consumes more than haif of the silk used in Europe. An Englishman consumes five times as much as a Frenchman, although his country produces no silk. Sugar. It is said that sugar became known throughout the whole of central Euro])e by means of the Crusaders. If so, it is remarkable that even in the last century the consumption of it scarcely reached 1,000,000 cwts, on the Continent, whilst in Great Britain alone twelve times as much was consumed. The imports of sugar into Europe for the year 1730 was estimated at more than 2,000,000 cwts.; in 1800 at 6,000,000 cwts.; in 1830 at above 10,000,000 cwts. The consumption rose in 1852 to 17,000,000 cwts. 3,500,000 of which were beet sugar. In 1870 it amounted to 40,000,000 cwts., nearly half of which was made from beet root. With regard to cane sugar, the total yield a few years back, including the quantities produced and consumed in the countries of Eastern Asia, Australia, and America, has been computed at from 33,000,000 cwts. to 38,000,000 cwts., supplied by — Spanish Possessions : — Cuba and Puerto Rico Manilla Cwts I 1,800,000 1,200,000 2 English Possessions West Indies ... Guyana Mauritius 3,600,000 1,600,000 2,400,000 3 French Possessions West Indies ... Reunion 2,000,000 1,000,000 4 Dutch Possessions : — Java . . . Antilles 5 China 6 Brazil 7 Mexico 8 Hawaian Islands 9 Natal 2,600,000 300,000 2,800,000 2,600,000 700,000 180,000 120,000 Add to these that the United States, Canada, and Australia produced between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 cwts. of maple sugar, and about the same quantity of palm sugar, 912 States of Europe — Beet Sugar Factories. Far more important than these latter sources of supply is that derived from the red beet. The whole quantity of sugar manufactured from this root has been estimated in cwts. : — cwts. Cwts. 1859 7,600,000 1872 ... 17,465,594 1866 . 13,784,000 1873 • ••• 22,847,935 1867 • 13,847,500 1874 24,300,000 1868 ■ 13,391,197 1875 23,400,000 1869 . 13,098,000 1876 26,870,000 1870 • 16,844,591 1877 ... 25,486,000 I87I . 18,851,770 The production of the year 1877 was thus divided Germany ... ... ... 5,800,000 France ... 9,286,000 Austro-Hungary ... ... .. 3,500,000 Russia ... .. 4,500,000 Belgium ... 1,500,000 Holland 600,000 Other lands Total ... ... 300,000 ... 25,486,000 From the actual average weight of the beet devoted to the manu- facture, the per centage of sugar obtained is in the — Zollverein ... ... ... ... ... ... 8.6 Austria ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8.3 France ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7.5 In some samples of beet these proportions are far exceeded. Beet Sugar Factories. The number of these is constantly increasing, especially so in Central Europe. In 1870 there were 1,663, and thus divided. In England and in Italy i each; in Sweden 4; in Holland 20; in Belgium 135; in Austria 228; in Germany 310; in Russia 481; in France 483. The following countries do not manufacture beet-sugar : — Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Greece, Turkey, and Roumania. In America it is only in the early stage of development. It appears from a statement published in 1877 in Bohemia that the total sugar production of tlie whole earth was : — cwts. Raw sugar ... ... ... ... ... 40,000,000 Beet sugar ... ... ... ... ... 24,000,000 Palm sugar ... ... ... ... ... 2,000,000 Maple, and other sorts of sugar ... ... 800,000 Giving a total of 66,800,000 cwts. This gives an annual average consumption of 5.2 lbs. per head of the population in the whole world. States of Europe — Coffee—Tea. 913 Takinii' special countries, tlie consuinpiion in Austro-Hungaiy is 6.3 lbs. per annum ; in Belgium 29.3 ; in France 26.7 ; in Holland 16.5 ; in Germany 13.7 ; in Russia 6.8 ; in Great Britain 93.9 lbs. per head per annum. Coffee. The earliest use of cotfee that we hear of was in Venice, 1615 ; and the first writer who published an}- accurate account of it, was the celebrated Anthony de Jussieu in 17 13. We read that tea and coffee were offered to the guests of Richelieu, and he died in 1642. The first public coffee houses were erected in Change Alley, London, in 1667, and in the Rue des Fosses, Paris, in 1672. The estimate of the amount annually produced wavers between 6,000,000 and 1 2,000,000 cwts. (depending on good or bad crops) ; 6,500,000 cwts. are valued at ^22,500,000. Production in good years in cwts. : — Cwts. Brazil... ... ... ... ... 4,500,000 to 5,000,000 Java ... ... ... ... ... 1,500,000 „ 2,000,000 Central America 300,000 „ 1,420,000 Ceylon , 1,050,000 British India 400,000 San Domingo 750,000 Sumatra 300,000 Cuba, Puerto Rico 800,000 Venezuela 300,000 Arabia* 180,000 English West Indies ll.ooo Other parts of West Indies 30,000 Manilla 85,000 The consumption per head of the population is estimated by Dr. Neumann for 1868-1871 thus :— Belgiimi 8.82 lbs.; Holland 7.03; Switzerland 6.76; Sweden 3.60: France 3.20; Austro- Hungary 1.46; Italy 0.94 ; Great Britain 0.83 ; Portugal 0.69 ; Spain 0.23 ; Russia o. 18. It is estimated that 1,000 lbs. of coffee berries are produced froui' 100 bushels of seed. Tea. Some species of camelia was used in very early times to give a flavour to the insipid water in various districts in China and Japan ; it may be doubted whether any authentic accounts of the special cultivation of the tea plant dates earlier than the fifth century. It appears, however, that an impost or duty was levied on it in the year 800. Europe did not affect its use till the middle of the 17th century, when coffee was in demand pretty generally. In the year 1868 174,000,000 lbs. was exported ; in 1876 237,800,000 lbs. The import into the English * The produce of coffee in the celebrated town of Mocha amounts only to 7,400 cwts., or in very good years to 9,000 cwts. annually. 3M 914 States of Europe — Paper. market alone in 1870 was 148,000,000 lbs., value ;^io,o97,6i9 ; it rose in 1875 to 177,200,000 lbs., value ;!<^i3, 766,961 ; in 1876 to 186,000,000 lbs., and in 1877 to 186,300,000 lbs. Japanese tea goes mostly to North America. The various countries imported tea to the following amount :— 1870 1S75 lbs. Value lbs. Value Holland Denmark Russia... Newfoundland Canada* Australia 4,036,728 — 1,319,039 — 19,550,196 — 711,918 ^29,722 10,021,559 758,192 13,835,454 941,120 4,435,268 1,572,740 28,588,356 775,229 13,474,888 21,689,024 ^32,301 715,913 1,448,557 The consumption per head of th e populatior 1 in 1868 was — In Great Britain ... 3.19 lbs. In France and BelG;ium 0.018 lbs. „ Holland ... 0.80 „ „ Sweden and Norway 0.006 „ ,, Denmark ... ,, Russia The Zollverein ... ... 0.40 „ ... 0.16 „ ... 0.035,, „ Spain „ Italy and Portugal 0.004 „ 0.002 ,, ^.— Paper. The production of this article increases continuously. The number of paper-mills and the weight of paper manufactured in 1874 are stated to be in : — Manufactories Making cwts. of paper Germany... •• 423 3,600,000 Great Britain 274 3,600,000 United States .. 467 ... 3,230,000 France ... 404 2,960,000 Austria ... 130 1,440,000 Italy ... 67 960,000 Russia 66 670,000 Belgium ... 19 450,000 Norway and Sweden 20 270,000 Spain 17 260,000 Holland 10 144,000 Portugal ... 16 120,000 Denmark... 5 72,000 Switzerland 30 20,000 Canada ... 2 10,000 Brazil I 8,000 Africa T 5,000 We find from this statement that the United States possess the largest numl er of manufactories, although ("rermany and (ireat Britain produce the largesL (quantity of paper I'he avernge weight manufactured per mill in (jermany is 9,000 cwts. ; in England 15,000. As it is impossible to pro- cure rags for so large a quantity of paper as this, it became necessary to seek 1874. States of Europe. — Wine — Hops. 915 for substitutes. A great quantity of straw is used for this purpose, and especially the Espartero grass, which grows very luxuriantly in Spain and in North Africa. In 1862 878 tons only of this grass were brought into England ; in 1866 the quantity had increased to 69,832 tons. A further substitute has been found — wood reduced to pulp. Wine. There are in round numbers 16,815,360 acres in Europe planted with the vine, the yearly average yield being 3,288,208,000 gallons, and may be thus divided : — Acres Imperial gallons 5,928,000 France Italy ... Spain... Austria Portugal Germany Greece Switzerland Roumania Russia 4,446,000 3,458,000 1,729,000 494,000 419,900 123,500 83,980 83,980 49,000 Total 16,815,360 1,320,000,000 660,000,000 594,000,000 418,000,000 1 10,000,000 96,800,000 25,300,000 24,200,000 22,000,000 17,908,000 3,288,208,000 Bops. The following is the latest estimate of the area, average production, and consumption in the countries where they are grown : — Germany Great Britain Austro-Hungary Belgium ... France ... Other parts of Europe Total of Europe in round numbers North America ... Australia Area in Average yield Consumption acres cwts. c.vts. 93,860 480,000 330,000 69,232 380,000 550,000 19,760 90,000 I 10,000 16,055 90,000 16,000 9,880 86,000 80,000 1,482 8,000 40,000 210,269 1,134,000 1,126,000 41,990 250,000 250,000 1,235 6,000 Beer and Breweries. Homann makes the following estimate for 1875 North Germany Bavaria Wurtemberg Baden Alsace Lorraine Beer Production Imperial Gallons Number of Breweries 461,648,000 278,850,000 87,890,000 ,5,177 2 510 25,102,000 19,558,000 ■ gi6 States of Enrppe — Produce of the Earth. Austro-Hungary ... France Russia and Scandinavia . . . Total ... Beer Production Number of Imperial Gallons Breweries 307,692,000 2,636 154,000,000 61,006,000 ,395.746,000 10,323 Add to the above. Great Britain ... ... ... 385,017,002 ... 2,671 Belgium ... ... ... ... 154,000,000 ... 2,060 United States ... ... ... 219,603,956 ... 2,785 Relatively the largest consumption of beer is in Bavaria. Value of the Average Annual Produce of the Earth. The following calculation is based principally on estimates, and, there- fore uncertain. We give it because, in some respects, it may serve as data — I. II. Mineral Kingdom Animal Kingdom I. Metals ^57,672,000 ... I. Wool ^,^50,600,000 2. Fuel 37,968,000 ... 2. Raw silk 23,250,000 3- Salt 21,879,600 ... ^' Cattle, hides, milk &■ cheese \ 540,000,000 4. Earths &: stone 3o,ooo,oo( 3 ... 4. Gained fisheries Total ... 36,000,000 Total ... ^i47,Si9,6o< ^649,850,000 III. Vegetable Kingdom I. Corn ... ... ^656,752,500 2. Pulse ... ... ... 27,900,000 3. Rice ... ... 3,600,000 4. Potatoes 47,190,000 5. Wine and Raisins 96,810,000 6. Olive oil . . . 37,725,000 7. Tobacco 7,995,000 8. Hops... ... 6,000,000 9. Other plants and fruits .. ... 192,000,000 10. Hay, clover and straw ... 320,000,000 II. Wood 48,000,000 Total X'l, 443.972,500 Total Produce of the ichole Earth. 1. Mineral kingdom 2. Animal 3. Vegetable ^"147,519,600 649,650,000 1,443.972,500 Total ^2,241,142,100 GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE HUMAN RACE. ITHERTO the affairs of the States, in their economic aspects alone, have been considered, something must now be offered on the general condition of the people themselves. Sufficient materials for the solution of great social questions have nowhere yet been collected, far less sifted, and systematically arranged. Political arithmetic has only just begun to recognize her task in this direction. A bare begin- ning has been made in feeble efforts to classify these problems, and the results so obtained deal with but a few points of important investigations into the well-being of the human race. The science is yet in its infancy, and can lay claim only to a bare approximation to the truth where absolute correctness might have been expected ; the results are, nevertheless, calculated to arrest attention from their ])ractical importance. It is a remark of Dr. Engel that "the capital represented by the individuals composing the population is by far the most considerable in the State, and its well-being ought to be the paramount object of the State's solicitude. The reproductive capital existing in the living generation far exceeds the value of all other capital. Every needless impediment to the physical development, and everything which tends to deteriorate the bodily condition of the population, is a waste of its intelligence and its strength, and is identical with a ruinous squandering of a nation's wealth.'' Wapp'dus adds — " How many hopes, how much energy and happiness lie buried in an early death ! A gradual approach to the ideal (the greatest 91 8 General Conditions oj the Htmian Race. natural tenure of life) is not outside the limit of reasonable human aspira- tion, or of human attainment : every advance made by a people in morality profitable and healthy employment, and in useful knowledge brings it nearer to this ideal. How many preventible and, so to si)eak, unnatural causes of human decay are the effects of negative condititjns of civiliza- tion ! How many arise from a ruinous policy — a real or supposed State exigency !" Vital Statistics. (i.) In the seventeenth century some earlier calculations, relative to the value of life called also the intensity of life, were commenced ; a glance at these tables, derived from the lists of births and deaths in the town of Breslau, led the astronomer Halley, in 1693, to a more methodical calcula- tion of the duration of human life. His object, as may be gathered from his treatise was to obtain only a new field " for speculation," m which, subsequently, Deparcieux was a not-inapt follower. The success aimed at depended on the exactness of their calculations for safely floating life annuities and tontines. Suszmilch had a higher aim, and was the first to lift this study out of the region of money chances into one of social science. The earlier attempts were confined to such rude material as came readily to hand, but soon the propriety of sifting and extending the range of these observations became apparent, for differences in results were traceable to ranks, conditions, classes and sexes, and the proportions of these existing in the total had, therefore, to be carefully investigated. Perfect exactness for certain districts and for definite past periods of time may be obtained, but as two contiguous countries present us with varied results, according as the town or rural population preponderates, or as the manufacturing or agricultural interest predominates, there remain averages which have about them something short of absolutelv exact calcu- lation when an extended range is taken. This dubitation will recur when changes in the mode of life, and the nourishment and dwellings of a people take place, either partially or for a more or less extended period. The numbers of the classes forming the whole population relatively change, and this within very limited periods, so that it may be safely predicated that a standstill is never found in nature, neither in life nor in death, where mutability seems to be the law paramount. The finance minister of Gotha {G. Hopf) has made the following communication for this work on the Tables of Mortality. " It has long been accepted that the mortality of the earth's inhabitants, although in cases the result of accident, and ajiparently following no rule, yet, as a whole, obeys a law definite and invariable. The human being appears to undergo the greatest danger of death immediately after birth ; this danger decreases daily, and has become very ajjpreciably less as the first year of existence is attained, and it continues to decline till the child arrives at its tenth year, from which period to its fourteenth year a lull or pause takes place. From this turning point the danger is renewed, and increases uninterruptedly till the term of life is reached, at first slowly, but in rapid progression after the 55th year of life. In order to determine the operation of this law whole populations of the largest districts must be taken, the exact proportion of deaths, occurring under different circumstances, noted, and the number of those who enter a fixed period of life, and who die in the course of it, recorded with fidelity. General Conditions of the Human Race. 919 The quotient of mortality for a definite number of years supplies the tables of the vital statistician with the only information he can rely on for computing the intensity of life at any age. The first year of life should be computed in weeks or months, but subsequent periods may be safely reckoned by yearly intervals." It is true such observations show only what proportions of deaths occurred within the stated periods, and a definite space — if indeed the time and the space were sufficiently extended to include all the influences which affect mortality — and in their due pro[)ortion these observations on the past would constitute an average, according to which we might calculate pretty accurately the mortality of the future. A thousand chance circumstances appear to produce deviations from this standard average, first in one direc- tion and then, perhaps, in an opposite ; but although the distinct paths and directions of human mortality may not be calculated and traced out, as the orbits of heavenly bodies are tracked, yet the deviations from the given standard are restricted to within very narrow limits, and, from the careful observations of the past, the events of the future can be predicated, at least, so long as no unforeseen and violent upheavings, resulting in a mighty social transition, take place. Halley's rude method of calculating the tables of mortality simply from the deaths which take place in any particular country, (as in his estimate made at Breslau from 1687 to 1691,) is obviously fallacious : he did not really know the number of persons living among whom those deaths had occurred. To take for granted that a state of quiescence is maintained not only during the time a census of the population is taken, but for an adequate time previous, and for many years subsequently, is to ignore the effects pro- duced by emigration and immigration, and takes for granted, therefore, a condition of things which exists nowhere, and never has existed. Nor is this quantity a fixed qnantity, and dependent on certain conditions recog- nisable by the statistician ; yet this system is the basis of many English life assurance societies, and it is the main reason why the tables of Duvillard and those of many Belgian actuaries are unreliable. A reliable table of mortality, which shall state over a lengthened period of time and an extended area, what is j^recisely the rate of mortality at each age is still wanting. The great improvement in taking the census which is now obtained, will lay the basis of more reliable returns. Three samples are appended which are worthy of serious attention. ENGLAND BY DR. FARR 1838— 1845 MEN WOMEN Age Living Deaths Average Duration of Life Living Deaths Average Duration of Life 5i>i75 8372 39-91 48,825 6577 41.85 I 42,803 2752 46.65 42,248 2616 47-31 2 40,051 1422 48.83 39,632 1402 49.40 3 38,629 921 49.61 38,230 924 50.20 4 37,708 672 49.81 37,306 660 50-43 5 37,026 504 49.71 36,646 487 50-33 6 36,532 395 49-39 36,159 381 50.00 7 36,137 331 48.92 35,778 325 49-53 920 General Conditiofts of the Hmnan Race. ENGLA N D — Continued, MEN WOMEN Age Living 1 Deaths Average Duration Living Deaths ! Average ' Duration _ of Life j of Life 8 35,806 273 48.37 ' 35,453 272 48.98 9 35,533 230 47-74 35,181 233 48.35 lO 35-303 198 47-05 34,948 205 47.67 II 35,105 I 78 46.31 34,743 186 46.95 12 34,927 166 45-54 34,557 176 46.20 13 34,761 164 44.76 34,381 T75 45-44 14 34,597 r68 43-97 34,206 179 44.66 15 34,429 178 43-18 34,027 189 43-90 16 34-251 193 42.40 33,838 202 43-14 17 34,058 21 1 41.64 33,636 221 42.40 18 33,847 232 40.90 33-4^5 240 41.67 19 33,615 ^ 254 40.17 33,175 261 40.97 20 33,361 277 39-48 32,914 282 40.29 21 33,084 280 38.80 32,632 286 39-63 22 32,804 283 38.13 32,346 292 38.98 23 32,521 287 37-46 32,054 295 38.33 24 32,234 290 36.79 31,759 299 37-68 25 31,944 292 36.12 31,460 302 37-04 26 31,652 296 35-44 31,158 306 36.39 27 31,356 298 34-77 30,825 308 35-75 28 31,058 301 34.10 30,544 3^1 35-10 29 30,757 3Q4 33-43 30,233 314 34-46 30 30,453 306 32.76 29,919 316 33-81 31 30,147 310 32.09 29,603 319 33-17 32 29-837 314 3^-42 29,284 321 32.53 33 29,523 317 30.74 28,963 323 31.88 34 29,206 321 30.07 28,640 326 31-23 35 28,885 325 29.40 28,314 328 .30.59 36 28,560 330 28.73 27,986 330 29.94 37 28,230 336 28.06 27,656 332 29.29 38 27,894 340 27-39 27,324 335 28.64 39 27,554 347 26.72 26,989 338 27.99 40 27,207 353 26.06 26,651 340 27-34 41 26,854 359 25-39 26,311 343 26.69 42 26,495 367 24-73 25,968 346 26.03 43 26,128 375 24.07 25,622 349 25-38 44 25-753 382 23-41 25,273 352 24.72 45 25,371 391 22.76 24,921 356- E4.06 46 24,980 401 22.1 1 24,565 359 23-40 47 24,579 : 409 21.46 24,206 363 22.74 48 24,170 419 i 20.82 23,843 366 22.08 49 23,751 429 20.17 23,477 371 21.42 50 23,322 440 19-54 23,106 374 20.75 51 22,882 463 18.00 22,732 379 20.09 52 22,419 475 \ 18.28 22,353 383 '• 19.42 53 21,944 489 i 17.67 21,970 388 18.75 54 2T.455 50T i T7.06 ' 21.582 424 ' 18.08 General Conditions of the Human Race. 921 ENGLAND — contimied. 1 VIEN WOMEN Age Living Deaths Average 1 Duration ! of Life 1 Living Deaths | 1 55 20,954 515 16.45 21,158 444 1 56 20,439 528 15.86 20,714 463 57 19,911 542 15.26 20,251 482 58 19^369 559 14.68 19,769 501 59 18,810 575 14.10 19,268 520 60 18,235 593 13-53 18,748 541 61 17,642 612 12.96 18,207 562 62 17,030 631 12.41 17,645 584 63 16,399 652 11.87 17,061 605 64 15,747 672 11-34 16,456 629 65 15,075 692 io.Sj 15,827 650 66 14,383 711 10.32 15,177 674 67 13,672 730 9-83 : 14,503 694 68 12,942 746 9-36 : 13,809 715 69 12,196 759 8.90 ' 13,094 753 70 11,437 770 8.45 ; 12,361 749 71 10,667 775 8.03 I 1,612 762 72 9,892 777 7.62 10,850 769 73 9,1^5 773 7.22 10,081 774 74 8,342 764 6.85 9,307 772 75 7,578 749 6.49 8,535 766 76 6.829 726 6.1^ 7,769 752 77 6,103 699 5-82 , 7,017 733 78 5,404 666 5-5' ! 6,284 707 79 4,738 627 5-2> 5,577 675 80 4,111 583 4-93 4,902 638 81 3,528 536 4.66 4,264 596 82 2.992 486 4.41 3,668 550 ! 83 2,506 435 4.17 3,118 ■500 ! 84 2,071 383 3-95 2,618 449 85 T,688 333 3-7.> 2,169 397 86 1,355 284 3-53 1 1,772 346 87 1,071 239 3-34 1,426 296 88 832 196 3.16 1,^30 250 89 636 . 159 3.00 880 206 90 477 126 2.84 674 167 1 91 351 98 2.60 507 ■ 134 j 92 253 74 2-55 373 1 103 1 93 179 56 2.41 270 1 79 94 123 40 2.29 191 : 59 i 95 83 28 2.17 132 ; 43 96 55 20 2.06 89 \ 30 \ 97 35 13 1-95 59 21 98 22 9 1.85 38 14 99 13 5 1.76 24 9 100 8 3 1.68 15 6 Average Duration of Life 17-43 16.79 16.17 15-55 14.94 14-34 13-75 13-17 12.60 12.05 II. 81 10.98 10.47 9-97 9.48 9.02 8.57 8.13 7.71 7-31 6.93 6.56 6.21 5.88 5-56 5.26 4.98 4.71 4-45 4.21 398 3-76 3-56 3.18 3.01 2.85 2.70 2-55 2.42 2.29 2.17 2.06 1.96 1.86 1.76 922 General Conditions of the Human Race. ENGLAND — Continued. MEN WOMEN Age Living Deaths Average Duration of Life Living Deaths Average Duration of Life lOI I02 103 104 5 3 2 2 I 2 9 5 3 2 4 2 I 2 BELGIUM BY QUETELET 1856 SAXONY BY HEYM 1840-49 MEN WOMEN Age Living Deaths Average Duration of Life Living Deaths Average Duration of Life Living Deaths Average Duration of Life 1,000 162 37-42 1000 136 38.95 1 1 I 8^8 56 43-56 861 56 44.01 2 782 30 44-63 808 31 46.02 1 3 752 18 46.44 777 21 46.84 4 734 14 46.57 756 15 47-J3 j 5 720 10 46.47 741 II 47.07 6 710 8 46.12 730 10 46.77 7 702 7 45-63 720 8 46.41 8 695 6 45-09 712 7 45-93 9 689. 5 44.48 705 6 45-38 1 10 684 5 43-80 699 5 44-77 II 679 4 43-12 694 4 44.09 1 1 12 675 3 42.37 690 3 4354 ! 13 672 3 41.56 687 3 42.52 1 M 669 3 40.74 684 3 41.71 i 15 666 ^ J 39-92 681 3 40.89 i 16 663 '4 39.10 678 4 40.07 1 17 659 5 38.33 674 5 39-30 18 654 7 37-62 669 9 38.59 19 647 7 37-03 660 10 38.11 20 640 7 36.43 650 9 37-69 6415 47 39-308 21 633 7 35-82 641 10 37-21 6368 47 38-594 22 626 8 35-22 631 9 36.80 6321 47 37-877 23 618 7 34-67 622 8 36.32 6274 46 37-157 24 611 7 34.06 614 7 35-78 6228 46 36.428 25 604 7 33-45 607 7 35-20 6182 48 35-696 26 597 8 32.84 600 6 34.60 6134 49 34-971 27 5«9 8 32.28 594 6 33-94 6085 50 34-289 28 581 7 31-71 ■^88 6 33-29 6035 50 33-528 29 574 8 31.09 582 6 32.62 5985 52 32.804 30 566 8 30.53 576 6 31.96 5933 52 32.087 3" 558 8 29.96 570 8 31.29 5881 55 31-367 32 550 9 29.20 562 7 30.55 5826 56 3O.65S General Conditions of the Human Race, 923 BELGIUM BY QUETELET 1856 SAXONY BY HEYM 1840-49 MEN WOMEN Age, Living Deaths Average Duration of Life Living 555 Deaths Average Duration of Life Living Deaths Average Duration of Life 33 145 8 28.87 8 30.11 5770 57 29-951 34 533 8 28.29 547 8 29-54 5713 58 29.244 35 525 8 27.72 539 8 28.97 5655 60 28.539 36 517 8 27.14 531 8 28.40 5595 59 27.840 37 509 8 26.56 523 8 27.83 5536 60 27.131 38 501 8 25-97 515 8 27.24 5476 61 26.423 39 493 9 25-38 507 8 26.68 5415 61 25-715 40 484 9 24.85 499 8 26.10 5354 62 25.002 41 475 8 24-31 491 8 25-51 5292 63 24.289 42 467 8 23.72 483 8 24.82 5229 66 23-576 42 459 8 23.12 475 8 24-33 5163 67 22.871 44 451 8 22.52 467 8 23-74 5096 71 22.165 45 443 8 21.92 459 8 23-15 5025 73 21.471 46 435 9 21.31 451 9 22.55 4952 75 20.780 17 426 8 20.75 442 9 22.00 4877 76 20.092 48 418 8 20.14 438 9 21.44 4801 77 19.403 49 410 7 19-52 424 9 20.89 4724 81 18.71I 50 403 7 18.85 415 9 20.33 4643 83 18028 51 396 7 18.18 406 Q 19.77 4,560 87 17-347 52 389 7 T7-50 397 8 1 9. 2 1 4,473 92 16.675 53 382 8 16.S1 389 8 18.59 ! 4,381 98 16.015 54 374 8 16.16 381 8 17.97 [ 4,283 103 15-370 55 366 9 15-50 373 8 17-35 4,180 no 14-736 56 358 9 14.83 365 7 16.72 4,070 114 I4.II9 57 349 9 14.20 358 7 16.04 3,956 118 13-513 58 340 10 13-57 351 7 15-34 3,838 122 12.913 59 330 II 12.96 344 7 14.65 3,716 128 12.321 60 319 12 12.39 337 8 13-94 3,588 135 11.742 61 307 13 11.86 329 iri 13.27 3,453 138 II. 182 62 294 14 11.36 321 lO 12.59 3,315 146 10.627 63 280 15 10.90 311 10 11.97 3,169 152 10.094 64 265 15 10.49 301 II 11-35 3,017 159 9-577 65 150 15 10.09 290 1 1 10.77 2,85s 166 9.082 66 235 15 9.70 279 12 10.17 2,692 169 8.611 67 220 15 9-33 267 14 9.61 2,523 172 8.154 68 205 13 8.98 253 15 9.11 2,351 173 7.714 69 192 13 8-55 238 17 8.65 2,178 175 7.287 70 179 13 8.05 221 17 8.28 2,003 174 6.880 71 166 13 7-74 204 17 7-93 1,829 178 6.487 72 153 14 7-55 187 17 7.60 1,651 174 6.133 73 139 14 7.04 170 16 7-32 1,477 169 5-797 74 125 14 6.77 154 17 7.02 1,308 163 5.481 75 III 12 6.56 137 14 6.83 1,145 154 5.190 76 99 II 6.30 123 13 6.55 901 142 4.919 77 88 10 6.02 no 12 6.27 1 849 129 4.658 924 General Conditions of ihe Human Race. BELGIUM BY QUETELET SAXONY BY HEYM I 856 1840-49 MEN WOMEN Age Living Deaths Average Duration Living Deaths Average Duration Living Deaths Average Duration of Life 5-74 ~98" of Life of Life 78 78 9 II 5-98 720 116 4-403 79 69 9 5-41 87 II 5-67 604 104 4152 80 60 8 5.16 76 10 5-42 500 93 3.912 81 5-' 7 4.87 66 9 5. 1 6 407 77 3.692 82 45 7 4-55 57 9 4.90 330 68 3.436 83 38 6 4-30 48 7 4.72 262 58 3.T98 84 X2 6 4.01 41 6 4.44 2 04 49 2.966 85 26 5 3.82 35 6 4. 12 155 41 2.745 86 21 4 3.61 29 5 3-87 114 32 2.553 87 17 4 3-34 24 5 3-57 82 25 2.354 88 13 3 3.22 19 4 3-37 57 19 2.167 89 10 3 3.18 15 4 3-14 38 14 2.000 90 " 7 2 313 II 3 3- 10 24 9 1.875 91 5 I 3-04 8 2 3-07 15 6 1.700 92 4 I 2.85 6 I 2-93 9 4 1.500 93 3 0,6 2.63 5 1,3 2.42 5 2 1.300 94 2,4 0,7 2.17 3,7 1,3 2.07 3 2 0.833 95 1,7 0,6 1.85 2,4 0,9 1.96 I I 0.500 96 1,1 0,5 1-59 1,5 0,5 1.83 97 0,6 0,2 i-So r,o 0,4 1.50 98 0,4 0,2 1. 00 0,6 0,2 1. 17 99 0,2 0,2 0-50 0,4 0,1 0.50 00 lOI 102 103 104 The Probable Average Duration of Life. Belgian tables show that out of i.ooo boys born alive 501 are still living after the age of 38, and 493 after the age of 39 ; half have died, therefore, between the ages of 38 and 39, The probable duration for the new-born boy is, therefore, between these two dates, and may be fixed at 38|- years. To' find the probable duration of life of the youth at 20, it is calculated that out of 640 persons of that age 320 will be dead between the 59th and 60th vear ; but as ii of tlie 330 living at 59 died in their 60th year, the probable duration of youth at 20 will be 5"9 Yl-20 = 39 Yl- And the probable dura- tion of life of a man of 40, at which age 484 were alive, half of these (242) die after the 65th year, which gives 65^*1-40 = 25 j«^. r,ut differing from the ])robable duration, and of far higher importance, is the fiiean duration of life by which is understood, according to Deparcieux, the number of years which a person, living after a fixed age, has in pros- pect as an average. According to Erune, only one person in the 1,000 born lives beyond 94, and he dies in the 95th year, which, according to the laws of probability, is valued at h a year ; 4 persons live to 93, of whom 3 die in the succeeding year. The probability of life at 93 is, therefore, ^^-\^ = 0.75, or ^7^-^ of a year. irs 38-95 years » 38.26 ,, , 40.95 j> 1 41-45 )) 38' 72 J 35-70 )) General Conditions of the Human Race. 925 This mean mortality is to be found only by extensive observation and great exactness. The attem])ts to infer the mean duration of life at the period of birth from the number of births and deaths in a country, or by the arith- metical means, or from the average age of the living and the dead, is falla- cious. If a question arise about the mean expectation of life, either of a nation or of any calling, the " data " must be carefully observed ; if of a "calling," much of its reliability will depend on the age at which it was undertaken. The mean expectation of life at the time of birth, according to the most experienced statistician, may be epitomized thus : — Year Males Females Belgium ... 1856 (Quetelet) 37-42 years Holland ... 1840-1851 (Von Baumhauer) 35.44 France ... 1817-1831 (Demonferrand) 39.29 England ... 1 838-1 854 (Dr. Farr, No. 3) 39.91 Town of Carlisle 1779-1787 (Milne) Sweden ... 1 755-1763 (Wargentine Price) 33.20 The mean expectation of life in modern times oscillates (for men) between 35 and 40 years, and for females between 38 and 42 years. In former times, and before the introduction of vaccination the evidence is that the mean expectation was not so high, but the difference is difficult to verify as the exactitude of the older tables of mortality is defective. IVappdus and others desire to mix up with this term the consideration of the average age at which persons die in any country, and therefore to sub- stitute the term •' Vitality " or " Vital intensity," for the common term of the " mean duration of life," but this would imply a different thought, as the average age of the deceased of a nation does not express with accuracy the average mean duration of life of those newly born. Birth-rate and Death-rate. The birth-rate expresses the proportion of those annually born in any country to its population ; and the death rate the proportion of those who die. Each proportion is so tabulated as to show how many there are livino- to one birth, and how many to one death. In recent times it has become usual to determine the proportion by stating how many births and deaths occur annually in every 100 or 1,000 of the population. Thus the per centage of births and deaths are found, but the number of persons living among whom the births and deaths occur is liable to important fluctuations. To attain a reliable estimate the census should be taken at a fixed and specified period of the year — within the most limited time practicable, and if this be not done every year — which is very rarely done, the two censuses nearest to a definite period should be taken, and the differences in the number of births and deaths, and of immigrants and emigrants during the intervening period calculated ; and although this method can lay claim to no mathematical precision, yet the error would not be great where considerable populations are taken, the numbers of whom are not subject to great and unwonted variations. Births, per cent. Deaths, per cent (I847-I856) .. 24.82 . • 34-12 (I843-I852) .. 24.85 . .. 31.99 (I844-I853) -• 25.47 . . 33-85 (IS42-1S51) .. 25.80 . . 29.72 (I828-I837) .. 27.52 . • 33-34 (I842-I85I) - 28.33 • ■• 34-65 (I845-I854) 29.12 - 36.25 (I845-I854) .. 30.06 . • 43-79 (I846-I855) •■ 30-35 - - 51-77 (I845-I854) •• 30.83 . .. 45.00 (I846-I855) .. 31.36 . 40.09 (I84I-I850) •• 3^-3^ ■ 46.69 (I847-I856) .. 32.83 . 40.08 (I844-I853) .. 35-82 . - 41.73 Q26 General Conditions of the Hnnian Raee. According to Wappiius the annual average was in : — Saxony . . . Wurtemberg Prussia Austria . . . Sardinia ... Bavaria ... Holland... England... Norway ... Denmark Hanover Sweden Belgium France In the arrangement of these proportions the," still-born " are reckoned both with the births, and with the deaths in all countries, except in England where still-born babes are not registered, although in a late Parliament the medical members pressed the registration of this class on the Legislature. The proportion of total births to the population in the countries enume- rated ranges from i : 24.82; and 1 : 35.82. The proportion of the total deaths from i : 29.72 and i : 51.77. A general average gives a mean proportion of births to the persons living, or a mean fertility of i : 29.53, ^^'^^ ^ mean mortality of i : 36.21 A high {proportion of births is, as a rule, the result of numerous marriages, and these are regulated by the amount of toil requisite to obtain the means of founding a household ; or the difficulty or facility with which a provision may be obtained or anticipated for actual wants. Where the labour market is in a prosperous state the conditions of increasing pros- perity exist also, and a higher rate of marriages obtains, and in this case the increase of the population is a hopeful sign, and an indication of at least material prosperity ; and when the converse to this state of things prevails, when heedlessness and a low state of moral responsibility multiply improvident marriages or illegitimate births, there is something at fault in the tone of society. Some supposed Stale necessity, by some arbitrary prohibition or tax expediency, has broken down or vitiated the force of social opinion, and the result is found in a fearful increase of mortality accompanying the increase of an illegitimate progeny. All enhancements of the difficulties of settling and raising up a family are mischievous to the moral no less than to tlie material condition of a people ; the inferior training and education of illegitimate children is a direct conse- quence of the conditions under which they were born and reared. Engel has endeavoured to show by research among the people of one kingdom, viz., Saxony, that the proportion of births to the population is independent of the prevailing kind of employment oi a people ; but whilst it is admitted in Saxony that the highest proportion of births among the artisan class is 23.72, the lowest among the agricultural is 25.80. But the opposite prevails in Prussia. The town population of Rhenish Prussia and General Conditions of the Hnman Race. 927 Westphalia average births ofay to 28, whilst the agricultural has the pro- portion of 22.36 in the three eastern provinces (specially rural.) Guillard has attempted to revive the exploded theory that the fecundity of a population is in the inverse proportion to its density. But Saxony in its densely populated districts has a high birth rate, and Hanover with a sparse population has a very low birth rate. The rate of mortality only indicates the proportion of deaths to a population. If the liability to death were the same at all ages the rate would depend solely on the registered number of deaths, and be subject to the same fluctuations ; but as the liabihty to death differs at various stages of human life, the rate of mortality may change and yet the proportion remain the same in these separate stages. From all the facts recorded it may be gathered that the rate of mortality does not express accurately the mean duration of Ufe, as General Hoffman and other notable statisticians have assumed ; and just as little is it expressed by the birth rate, as other authorities maintain, or by an arithmetical mean between the two, although this last approximates to the true "mean." The only true basis must be found in a more extended and more reliable collection of facts in relation to this subject. The average age of the living is more nearly approached by modern , censuses, wherein the age, or, what is better, the date of birth, is stated by the person himself, or those connected with him. The average age of the living is deduced with fair exactitude. The method consists in dividing the amount of the total ages of the population by the number of the population. This average age amounted, according to Wappaus 1 85 1 — France* ... 31.06 years 1846 — Belgium ... 28.63 » 1853— States of the ) „ . Church ... j -^-^^ " 1850 — Sweden ... 27.66 ,, 1855— Norway ... 27.53 m 1838 — Sardinia ... 27.22 ,, 1851 — Great Britain ... 26.56 „ 1 84 1 — Ireland ... 25.32 years 1845 — Denmark ... 27.85 1850 — Holland ... 27.76 1855 — Scheswig ... 27.74 1845 — Holstein ... 26.52 1850 — -United States... 23.10 1852 — Lower Canada 21.86 1852 — Upper Canada 21.23 Engel computes the average age of persons living in Saxony in 1852 at 27.25 years, and for Prussia he gives the approximate at 27.50. The difference observable between the average age of France and Upper Canada in 1852, giving to the latter only 21-23 years and to the former 31 years, is well worthy attention. It amounts to nearly one-half the average age of Canada and one-third that of France. This difference is accounted for by the difference in the number of births. In countries like America reproduction is well nigh unchecked, and therefore the average age is less. In France the increase of the population is relatively small — remarkably so — and the average age is higher. According to Wappaus, in the 16 countries given, there are, out of every 10,000 inhabitants living — * The official statistics of France give a various average for iS^i, 928 General Conditions of tJie Human Race. Age 0-5 5-IO 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 Overgo Age 0-5 5-20 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30.40 40-50 5q-6o 60-70 70-80 80-90 Overgo I'raiice Holland States of the Church 929 1,127 922 880 881 1,113 1,078 928 832 802 900 843 1,475 1,247 1,344 1,062 1,017 646 815 495 301 63 221 51 5 3 burg Schlfsuifj 1,271 1,280 1,125 986 1,048 1,103 : 993 915 ! 975 839 1,263 904 821 1,275 1,030 1,103 i 729 791 1 500 513 193 244 39 54 2 4 ! Sardinia Denmark Sweden Ireland 1,306 1,168 1,072 988 935 817 1,308 982 690 451 222 56 5 V'orway HoUtLin 1,353 1,376 1,140 1,188 1,000 1,024 , 855 943 891 91 2 851 790 1,356 1,267 876 1,074 781 720 1 569 465 246 200 73 38 9 3 1,249 1,257 1,075 1,066 952 964 947 977 955 892 851 S78 1,299 1,353 j,o88 999 746 832 529 513 244 223 61 44 4 2 United States 1,482 1,384 1,229 1,089 |i,856 1,237 813 490 267 115 34 4 Upper Canada 1,782 1,462 1,257 1,160 1,759 1,096 733 439 215 76 18 3 1,260 1,318 1,247 1,084 962 748 1,166 920 648 423 157 58 9 Lower Canada 1,889 1,429 1,186 1,162 1,628 1,028 745 495 273 126 34 5 These statistics exhibit the relation which the productive part of the population bears to the unproductive, and the relation between those cap- able of bearing arms and those incapable. Wapj/aus thus arrives at his general conclusions : " In Germany one third (33.66 per cent.) of the whole population consists of persons below 15 years of age, that is to say, one-third are incay)able of maintaining themselves by their own labour ; further, about a tenth (9.72 per cent.) are between the ages of 15 and 20 years of age — a period of maturing growth and, for an important portion, a time of training and prei)aration for some calling demanding a special education. Not c[uite half the poj^ulation (48.88 per cent.) belong to the period of full strength of ages, between 20 and 60, both inclubivc. From 60 to 70 the period of decline sets in, constituting about a twentieth part (4.92 per cent.) of the population ; and lasdy we come to the proportion of great age, who are as a rule unproductive— or more or less helpless, consti- tutin^f a 40th or 2.81 per cent, of the whole. This forms a very small i)roportion, compared with those in infancy, although resembling these in uni)rodu(tiveness, and demanding only sacrifices from society. Hoffmann remarks, that the exercise of grateful reverence towards decrepit age is a less difficult task for a nation, than the hopes for the future, General Conditions of the Human Race. 929 which infant life awakens : and the number of the aged, those above 70, are to those below 15 as one to 12. The average age of those who are deceased within a given period, is obtained by adding together the united ages of those, who have died within that period, and dividing the total by the number of persons deceased in that time. Although the result, may in a measure, depend on the proportion of mortality which has predominated during the period, yet will the general rule prevail which gives to the infant [)opulation the excess over the older division. In France in 1853 the average age of those who died, exclusive of still-born infants, was 37.68; in Bavaria from 1854 to 1856 it was only 29.28 years; in Prussia from 1816 to i860, taken in quinquennial periods, it averaged for males 26.47, ^^id for females 28.64 ; united it only amounted to 27.53 years. If a population were stationary for a century, so that those who were born and those that died were the same year by year, and the death tables were all divided in the same way in relation to the different ages ; if, more- over, this relation was not varied by emigration and by immigration, then, indeed, the mean expectation of life of the new born, and the birth and death-rate, and the average age of the deceased would be expressed by the same figure ; but as these conditions do not obtain the numerical propor- tions change, and by no means in equal ratio, so that these rates cannot be substituted one for the other. Whether the average age of the living agrees with the average age of the dead within any given period will depend on the proportions of deaths in the several divisions of age. If it be desired to compare the mortality of different nations, or of the same nation at different periods, we can do so only on the basis above indicated. Exact lists of mortality of each nation, at each period proposed, must be regarded as the one indispensable requisite for determining the laws of mortality, and the mean expectation of life. The mortaJity of towns is higher than, and differs from, the average mortality of a whole people taken collectively. It is admitted that the real proportions are difficult to obtain as migrations of population disturb the calculations, and those who remain for a less or greater term without settlement are rarely included. Pregnant women are attracted by hospitals to large towns and new-born children, at the age of the highest mortality, move into the country. Public schools, and prospects of earning money, serve as inducements to migrate to towns, and the prosperous dwellers in towns settle in the rural districts. The parts of town, severally inhabited by the poor and by the rich, exhibit an unequal average of mortality, pure air, and cleanliness conducing to longer life than confined or vitiated air, and sordid squalor. In the census of 185 1, of 1,394,963 individuals, above 20 years of age, there were 749,853 who were not born in the place where the census was taken. In the census of 187 1, of 3,254,260 inhabitants of all ages, 1,198,684 were not native-born. Of 1,851,792 who constituted the population of the arrondiseraent of Paris only 642,718 were born in the Department of the Seine ; 1,209,074 beyond it, of whom 1,072,873 were of other departments of France ; 136,201 were born in foreign lands. More than half the inhabitants of Berlin, in 1864, were born elsewhere, 51.2 per cent, elsewhere, and but 48.8 in Berlin. Difference in tlie proportion of the sexes. — The laws of nature are not impartial in this respect any more than in their average mortality. 3 N 930 GeiieruL Conditions of the Human Race. The following rules prevail — more boys than girls are born. The female population is, on the whole, more numerous. This apparent anomaly is explained by the greater mortality in the males, especially during the first year of life. Wappcius compared the results in 1 5 countries for a long series of years and found that on an average 106.31 births of boys occur to 100 of girls. The variations in these several countries were very slight, the maximum 107.18 in Hanover; the minimum 105.22 in Sardinia, but if those only born-alive are taken into account, the mean is 105.83 boys to 100 girls ; or if the still-born be added, the excess of males over females is as 140.33 of the former to 100 of the latter. No theories put forward in explanation of this phenomenon have proved reliable. The dogma of Ho/acker, which threw the burden on the relative age of father to the mother, would not stand the test of enlarged and protracted examination. Where the father was the older an excess of male offspring was predicated, and where the contrary obtained an excess of girls resulted. Professor Breslatt of Zurich, by elaborate censuses, arrives at the result that, " whilst an excess of males are born throughout all countries, there is an excess of female population living no matter when the census of a country is taken." He shews that the births in 1862 were 4,389 boys to 4,019 girls; which gives an excess of 92 boys in every thousand over the number of girls born. In 5,965 cases in which the father was older than the mother the same proportion obtained. In 616 cases the father and mother were of the same age, when the excess of boys was 124 per thousand, and in 1,827 cases where the father was younger than the mother it was 80 in excess in the 1,000. In the United States it is asserted that the number of girls born of colored parents exceeds that of boys — but this allegation requires confirma- tion. It is quite credible that in the negro, as in the white population, there is an excess of girls over boys in any State when the census of a whole population is taken. The tendency to emigrate, and other physical and moral considerations thin the male population, beside the increased mortality to which reference has been made. The arduous lives of the male population and the frequent excesses which their lives exhibit, their exposure to accidents unitedly account for not a little of the excess of females over males. In the census of 1S56 the male population was greater than the female by 14,105, and in 1866 by 11,445. But during both periods and for years prior to either, there was no loss of the people, either by war or by emigra- tion : but after great wars, Belgium, in common with all European countries, owned an excess of female population. In 1829 the excess was 37,340 in every million, and in 1846 this excess was reduced 2,341 to the million; since 1856 the male inhabitants have preponderated. The increased mortality of males over females, especially in the earlier years of life may be further enforced. In England, in 1859, there were 7,325 deaths of boys to 6,363 of girls in every million children under 5 years of age. According to Alarc d'Espine there died from 1838 to 1845 '^i the Canton of Geneva : — Rovs Gills Covs Girls On the ist day of life .. • 7« • • 63 .. . In the ist half year 536 . . 420 In the 1st week „ . 168 .. . 152 .. ,, 2nd , T56 . • 144 „ 2nd „ „ .. . 68 .. • 53 •• ,, 2nd year 223 . . 201 „ 3rd „ „ .. . 56 .. • 39 •• ,, 3rd „ 113 .. . 108 n 4tb „ „ .. . 29 .. . 20 General Conditions of tJie Hit man Race. 931 The original excess of males born is thus balanced at the end of the first year, and consequently the succeeding periods yield a preponderance of females in the whole population. In Bavaria, during the 33 years from 1836 to 1869 there died during the first year of life 33 per cent, of boys and 28.5 per cent, of girls. In Baden during the 6 years, 1864 to 1869, there died of boys 30 per cent., to 25.5 ])er cent, of girls. In Hohenzollern from 1863 to 1869 the percentage of boys was 31.5, to 26.7 of girls. Quetelet found in Belgiimi, not only as a general average, but as a several average in each province that the balance between boys and girls was redressed at the expiration of one year. In England in 1841 the excess of boys had disappeared before the end of the first year. Engel proves that in Prussia the mortality among females from the loth to the 14th, from the 25th to the 40th year and above 60 years of age is greater, but that at all other periods it is less than that of males. A census taken in Austria, not including Vienna, Dalmatia, Servia, Croatia and Slavonia, shews the deaths to be— (1851) : — From birth to the end of ist month ,, I to 2 months old... 2 to 3 3 to 6 „ 5, 6 to 9 „ „ 9 to 12 „ ,, 12 to 18 ,, ,, i-l years to 2 years ... ,, 2 ,, to 3 )) .. 3 M to 4 „ M 4 ,, to 5 „ Total in 5 years 196,193 166,343 23,384 21,819 In 1870, in Bavaria, out of 1,000 children born alive there died within the first year : — Males Females Difference per cent. Legitimate children ... 248 ... 212 ... 3.6 Illegitimate... ... ... 361 ... 342 ... 1.9 In France of 10,000 born alive of each sex there died in the first year, 1,844 boys and 1,507 girls ; a difference of 337. In the next three years death took off 1,078 from the remaining 8,156 boys ; but only 1,046 of the remaining 8,493 girls, which leads to the correct inference that the average life of females exceeds that of the males. The minimum of deaths among both sexes occurs when puberty is reached. Then an increased mortality obtains first among women when a first birth claims its victims, and the excess of deaths for a short period is found amongst females. From the 2ist to the 25th year the loss in the male population is greater, and this mortality is observably increased by a military calling, and its direct and LEGITIMATE ILLKGIMATE Male Female Male Female 61,980 46,806 8,705 7,567 13.407 10,825 2,566 2,292 10,336 8,281 1,896 1,761 18,656 14.859 2,927 2,617 13,243 11,197 1,486 1,431 15.036 13.903 ^^ZZl 1,401 17,299 16,071 1,591 1.593 13,346 13,200 975 1,028 15,512 14,448 984 1,055 9.325 9,007 516 58s «,o53 7,346 405 489 93 2 General Conditions of the Human Race. indirect incidents. From thirty to forty is found a minimum mortality among men, but after this period there is an increase in the number in both sexes. The excess of value of life in females over males in England is com- puted at an average of 2 years. Milnes found it to be 3.2 in Sweden. Marc (TEspine, at Geneva, found it to be 3.5. Legoyt discovered it in France from 1851-53 to be still greater, both in regard to the mean age, and the probability of life. The probability being 36 years and 3 months ... \ ^ The mean age „ 35 „ ,, ... j" ^"• The probability being 40 years ... ... ... \ ,,, The mean age ,, 42 „ and ten months ... j Hopf observed among the insured lives at Gotha that among women from the age of 26 to 40 the mortality was double that of men at the same period of life. From 40 to 60 the mortality was equal. From 60 to 70 the loss of women was one fourth less than that of men, and after 70 years the deaths of women again exceeded those of the other sex. The Mortality of Children. — is under all circumstances found to be great during the first year of life, but Dr. Geors^e Mayr records these deaths to vary in various countries. The proportion in every 100 born alive who die in the first year in Norway, from 1856 to 1865, was 10.4 per cent.; in Scotland {1855-64) 11.9; In Oldenburg, 12.3; Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, 12.4 (1855-59); in Sweden, 13.5 (1861-67) '> ii"' Denmark, 13.6 (1850-54), and in 1856-60 it rose to 14.4 ; in England (1838-54), 14.9, and in 1851-60 it rose to 15.4; in Belgium, 15.5 (1851-60) ; in France, 16.6 (1840-59) and in 1851-60 it rose to 17.3 ; in Spain, 18.6 (1858-68) ; in Transylvania, 19. (1863-65) ; in the Nether- lands, 19.6 (1850-59) ; in Prussia, 20.4 (1859-64) ; in Italy, 22.8 (1863-68) ; in Hungary, 24.7 (1864-65) ;■ in Austria (Cis-Leithania), 25 (1856-65) ; in Croatia and Slavonia, 25.3 (1863-67), and on the Military Frontier from 1860-67 i^ ^ose to 26.2 ; in Saxony, 26.3 (1859-65). The per centage was still higher in Baden from 1864-69, being 27.9 ; in Hohenzollern, from 1863-69 it was 29.2. In Bavaria, from 1827-69 above |- of the children died within the first year, a mortality given as 30.7. In Wurtemburg the number reached between 1858-66 was 35.4, and from 1862-68 it rose to 36 per cent. There is still a difference in different parts of the same country. In Bavaria the general average mortality among children within the period, from 1836-69, was 28.5 per cent., but in Swabia it was 40.9 ; in Upper Bavaria, 40.6; in Lower Bavaria, 34.7; in the Upper Palatinate, 33; in Mid-Franconia, 31.5 ; Lower Franconia, 24.1 ; Upper Franconia, 21.5 ; the Palatinate, 18.7, The variety of race, together with the density of the population, has much to do with the difference in the average mortality of localities. Out of 100 children suckled by their mothers, 18.2 died during the first year ; of those nursed by wet-nurses, 29.33 died ; of those artificial!)- fed, 60 died ; of those brought up in institutions, 80 died in the 100. The effect of plentiful or scanty years tells much on infant morlalily. In France the number of marriages year by year depends on the price of General Cofidittous of the Hunian Race. 933 corn : the cheaper the corn, the larger the number of marriages, and the reverse holds good. The same is observed in recruiting. The conscripts in years of scarcity are not only below the average in numbers, but also in strength and size, and the standard is lowered accordingly. Qiietdet observes that " it appears that years of dearth leave a deep impress on the human species, even as severe winters leave their traces upon the wood-growth of our forests," but the effects of scarcity are more visible in the increase of mortality, The official returns of births and deaths in 1846-50 in Russia showed an excess of 435,836 births above the average ; but in the year of famine, 1848, the mortality was 295,943 above the number of births, making a difference of 730,000 in excess of the normal number. The total number of deaths in Paris from 1694 to 1784, a period of 90 years, gave the average mortality in the dearest years, 21,174 ; in the cheapest years, 17,524. Price of Corn Deaths In London (1802) ... 58.?. 10^. „ „ (1800) ... 103X. id. In Counties (1801) ... 1185. 3^. >; „ (1804) ... 6oi-. \d. In Turin, 5 cheap years* 20,508 25,670 55.965 44,794 4,638 5 scarce yearsf .. . — ... 5.231 Nicander found that the number of deaths in Sweden during the scarce years was, in 1762, increased by ^; in 1763 by 4; in 1772 by |; in 1773 by ^; in 1799 by -1 ; and in 1809 by |. All classes and ages do not contribute equally to this increased mortality; the weight resting well-nigh exclusively on the more indigent, who feel the privation well-nigh in every direction. The Influence of Prosperity or Poverty on Mortality. The researches of Caspar result in the comparative mortality in 9 epochs of life on 1,000 well-to-do, and 1,000 destitute or poor persons born at the same time. There remained of the two thousand individuals — Prosperous Poor Epochs Prosperous Poor After 5 y ears 943 655 50 years 557 283 „ 10 ,, • 938 598 60 „ 398 172 „ 20 ), 866 566 70 „ 235 65 „ 30 ,, • 796 486 80 „ 57 9 „ 40 ,, 695 396 — Caspar obtained these results by adding together the deaths which occurred in the families of the upper section of the community, and from the lists of the paupers in Berlin during a series of years. The average length of life among the wealthy was 50 years, and among the poor was 32 years. The child born in easy circumstances had a gift of life 18 years ♦ 1828-30, and trom 1834.36, f 1829-31101833-37. 934 General Conditions of the Human Race. greater than the child born in indigence, and the disparity would have been greater if indulgence had not superinduced disease in the more favoured class. . . Villermes found that in the first arrondissement of Paris, which is princi- pally occupied by the well-to-do, only ^^ of the total population died annually ; whereas in the twelfth arrondissement, occupied principally by the poor, 5»5 of the population perished. From 1822 to 1826 there died annually — Deaths In the 2nd arrondissement, with a mean rent for dwelling at £zi„ i in 7 1 1st „ „ f 6, I in 66 „ 9th „ „ 7. I »n 50 „ 1 2th „ „ 5, I in 44 In the prosperous departments throughout France ^^ of the people died, whilst in the poorer J3 was the average yearly. Lord Ehrington some years since found the average mortality of London to be 25 per 1,000, but in some quarters it rose as high as 40 per 1,000 ; in others it stood at 13 per 1,000. The mean expectation of life among artisans in unfavourable localities was from 19 to 20 years, but among com- mercial men and gentlemen it stood from 40 to 45 years. According to Chadwick, in 1844 of 100 children born of well-to-do parents 20 died before the age of 5 years, but of the working classes 50 died before the age of 5 years. The average duration of life among the gentry was 44 years, and among the labouring classes was 22 years. Whatever objections be taken to the method adopted in arriving at the precise figures, the results on the whole are incontestable. Villermes took the average ages of 5,419 persons who died at Mulhausen between 1823 and 1834 first in the rank of merchants and manufacturers and then in that of the workers in mills and people in a similar condition, and he estimated the probable duration of life at the time of birth of each of the two classes. The mean expectation of life at the time of birth and the expectation at the age of 20 stood in relation to each other as nine-fold in favour of the latter at birth, and at the beginning of the 2oth year more than one-half. Dr. Schivabe, of the statistical office at Berlin, has discovered that of every 1,000 births the proportion of still-born on the ist storey of the houseis2o.5; on the 2nd floor, 21.2; on the 3rd floor, 22.2 5 on the ground floor, 22.3 ; in underground habitations, 24.5 ; on fourth floors, 27.8. The comparatively low proportion of still births in underground dwellings is accounted for by a great number of publicans, wine sellers, and well-to-do purveyors of delicacies and keepers of refreshments living in these localities. The decrease or increase of the length of life is a contested point. Of the duration of life in times beyond record little can be safely predicated. Of the increase of life's duration there are doubts, as the bases upon whicli the assertion rests are not adequate to supj)ort the assertion. The mean duration of life in Prussia, according to Dr. Engcl, from 18 16 to i860 was — Gene 'ral Conditions of // ^ic Huntaji Race Males Females Together i8i6— 20 26.41 years 28.80 years 27.57 years 1S21 — 30 27.19 „ 29.66 „ 28.39 ,, 1831—40 17.41 „ 29-33 » 28.34 „ 1841—50 26.21 „ 28.30 „ 27-23 ,. 1851 — 60 25.24 „ 27-63 n 26.40 „ 935 As children are most liable to death in the first year of existence, lists had been prepared for those who had survived the first year. Males Females Together Years Years Years 1816-20 ... - 36.65 . 37-67 37-14 1821-30 ... 38-01 38.76 . 38.37 1831-40 ... 36-83 37-64 37-^3 1841-50 ... 35.85 36.89 36-37 IS5X-60 ... 35-M 36.69 35-91 This table, says E/igel, may be sad to those whom it undeceives, and proves that the more glowing estimates are fallacious. He himself tried to weaken the proofs he had discovered, and produced tables to shew the ages of the living population when classified, and the rate per cent, of each. Male Population of the Age 1816 1840 1S58 Of 14 years and under 17-87 17.44 17.46 Above 14 years to 20 y ears. 6.23 5.10 )) 20 „ 25 )5 2.56 4-64 4-38 „ 25 „ 32 >) 3-43 5.20 6.07 32 „ 39 J> 3.67 4-33 4.90 » 39 ,, 60 >> — 9.07 923 „ 60 „ 3-33 2.99 2.73 Female Population Of 14 years and under 17.41 17.08 17-15 Above 14 years to 60 29.86 29.91 29.96 60 „ . 3.14 3.11 3.oe The unfavourable results of these figures induced Efigel to doubt the correctness of the methods employed. The small per-centage of men above 60 years of age is ascribed to the wars waged at the beginning of the 19th century, which left gaps in the ranks of those who, at the census of 1858, might have survived beyond 60 years, and this is more probable, as the men were chosen from the robust and healthy portion of the population, who had safely arrived at puberty. It will be seen that the number of women over 60 years decreased only by decimal .10 per cent., whereas that of men is six-fold greater, represented by a decrease of decimal .60 per cent. The excess of births over deaths, when unusually great, requires a very careful filling up of the tables of classified ages, as thereby a decline in the average age of a population may surprise beyond warranty. Marc d'Espinc plumes himself on the increased duration of life in Geneva since 1561, and says that in 1847 the mean duration of life appears to have reached its climax and is not capable of further rise. The Q36 General Conditions of the Human Race. expectation of life from 1838-45, in the united Cantons, was 43.62 years, according to d'Espine (" town and suburb ") ; but, according to Heyer, it was 47.21 years in 1814-30; and, according to Ma/kt (lovrn only),' it was 45.08 years (1814-33), which would indicate a retrogression in more recent times. Legoyt undertook to collect figures to ascertain the mean duration of life in France in different periods of the present century. The result is that the duration is increasing ; but that in one division of epoch, that between 20 and 40 years of age, a decline is very noticeable, especially in the period between 1855-59, attributable to the wars in which the French were engaged. It is indubitable that no steady well-marked progress in the extension of human life has taken place within the last 20 years. The emigration of young men, especially in Germany, tells seriously upon that country. That the duration of life is greater than it was three or four centuries ago is highly probable : that the greatest age reached by old men has remained much the same for centuries, is fairly to be gathered from various data. In the year 1853 the number of those who lived to 100 years of age was 143 ; in 1854 it was 115 ; in 1855 the number was 128; in 1856 it was 114 ; in 1857 it was 106 ; in 1858 it was 103; in 1859 it was 99 ; and in i860 it fell to 84. The number of those who outlive the more dangerous years of child- hood has decidedly increased. The conditions of life are relatively better, and the moral application of this follows, as we reflect upon the effect that a single year of plenty or of scarcity has on the duration of life. A return has been made, according to which it would appear that only 45 per cent, of the boys born in France, between 1800 and 1807 reached the age at which they became liable to the conscription ; but that 61 per cent, of those born between 1822 and 1825 reached that period of life. It must be acknowledged that in the latter period returns were more carefully prepared than in the former. Nevertheless, the decline of the epidemics of small- pox, which carried off formerly the strong and the weakly alike, must not be lost sight of in accounting for part of the disparity related. In London the number of deaths of children up to 2 years, amounted in the first half of the last century to between 9,000 and 10,000, but towards the end of the century and in the first decade of the i)resent century it reached only from 5,000 to 6,000, whilst the population had increased from 674,350 in 1700 to 1,050,000 in the year 1810. Cholera Epidemics.— 'P.\\)i:nQr\ce confirms that epidemics no longer raise the total per centage of the deaths of the populntion as formerly. Thus, whereas, 15,356 deaths occurred in London in 1663 (about the normal rate) it rose to 97,306 in the year following, of which 68,596 were occasioned by the plague yFarr), which would be equivalent to a loss of 600,000 at the actual rate of the population of the British Capital. Compare with this the devastation of the worst of modern epidemics, the cholera. There died of this disease in London (in 1S32-33) 6,729; in 1848-49 the number rose to 14,601 ; in 1854 if cholera and cognate diseases were taken together the deaths were i7i9^9' o* which r 1,661 were designated cholera. The same disease swept off in all France (in 1832) 102,735 ; i" ^849, 100,1 10 ; and in 1854 the number rose to i45'54i- In Italy this disease broke out in 3,120 communities, and carried ofi" 147,682 persons in 1866-67: of whom 74,49^^ ^^'^rc males .and 73,184 General Conditions of the Human Race 937 females. In Palermo 3,821; in Messina 3,787; in Catania 3,066,01' relatively to the populations 2.00, 3.66 and 4.46 per cent. Dr. Engel gives for the whole of Year 183I 1832 1837 1848 1849 1850 1852 1853 1855 1857 1859 1866 1867 Total Sick 5i'5i7 17,713 22,655 48,810 85,078 32,115 68,436 15,610 57.252 6,378 5,304 224,382 11,505 646,755 Prussia : — Deaths Per Cent 31,912 5750 8,364 47-25 11,650 51-54 26,337 54-92 45,202 56,01 13,126 36.69 40,342 61.21 8,268 54-67 30,535 52.80 3,471 55-35 2,307 43. 1 2 114,683 51.10 6,031 52.40 342,228 53-83 In the year 1873, from May 22nd to December 6th, 44,959 persons were attacked by the epidemic in 9 provinces (exclusive of Westphalia and Rhenish-Prussia), of whom 23,242 died. In Russia 849,700 individuals sickened of epidemic disease in 1855, of whom 163,000 died. An official return states that only 324,156 persons were attacked by cholera, of whom r 24,504 died. In Austria the cholera swept off 234,920 persons in 1866, causing the general mortality to exceed the average directly and indirectly by 252,597. In 1855 the average death rate was exceeded by 218,149, through the ravages of cholera. In 1873 cholera attacked in Galicia between the 15th of May and the 6th of July 51,577, of whom 19,007 died. The number of deaths in Hungary was 15,855, out of 41,673 attacked, within the short period froni the iSth of July to the ist of August, In Vienna the mortality from cholera is given Year I83I . . 2,188 1832 . • 1,970 1836 . • 2,316 Year 1849 1850 1854 1,117 954 2,122 Year 1855 1866 1873 1,943 2,928 2,854 In Breslau, in 1866, out of 6,306 who sickened, 4,442 died in 11 months and 16 days. In Leipsic during the 146 days, wherein the epidemic prevailed, 1,658 deaths occurred, equal to 1.94 per cent, of the entire population, whilst in Stothritz, a village appropriated to artizans, there died out of 4,000 inhabitants, 240, equal to ^^ per cent., between the 26th of July, and 20th of October, 1866. In six dwellings let out to 56 families, amount ing in all to 300 individuals, 39 died, equal to 14 per cent. 938 General Conditions of the Hi (in an Race. From the statistical figures collected officially at Munich we gather : — 1. From 23 Oct., 1836 to 18 Jan., 1837 2. „ 27 July, 1854 to 5 April, 1855 3- Days 87 2 •3 2 284 119 165 Sickened 2,047 6,334 3,040 1,008 2,032 Died 945 3,066 1,466 455 1,042 45-2 48.4 48.2 45-1 49-7 95,000 127,000 170,000 16 July, 1873 to 28 April, 1873 The summer epidemic to 11 Nov., 1873 The winter ,, from 15th Nov. 1873 The population of Munich was in:- 1836 1854 1871 In Spires out of 418 attacked 262 died within 67 days (from the 26th August, to the end of October, 1873). The epidemic raged in seven little streets, simply sparing one house in one of the streets, whilst in a neigh- bouring street, no house escaped. Three fourths of the deaths occurred in this quarter of the town, peopled by 2,000 persons ; a fifteenth of the whole population were attacked, and a 7th of the population died of the disease. These compared with earlier records of the epidemic are excessive, and it is unquestioned that greater cleanliness, better food, more suitable dwellings and clothing tend to limit these epidemics, and that a neglect of these prime considerations tends to multiply the attacks, and increase the fatality among those who sicken. According to Wapp'dui onl of 12,000 deaths occurring in the course of the year, taking the months as of equal length, there were per month : — Sardinia Bavaria Saxony Belgium Holland Holstein Denmark Norway Sweden 1828-37 1844-51 1847-59 1841-50 1S40-49 1845- 54 1845-54 1S46-55 1S51-55 Jan. ... 1,140 1,143 1,153 1,253 1,191 1,170 1,084 1,181 994 Feb. ... 1,162 1,234 1,030 1,215 1,094 1,155 1,114 1,140 1,151 March 1,067 1,278 1,051 1,208 1,097 1,231 1,179 1,143 1,211 April ... 1,045 1,186 1,066 1,137 1,020 1,149 1,179 1,183 1,178 May ... 860 978 1,041 1,076 974 1,044 1,108 1,127 1,072 June ... 834 876 918 956 941 925 965 944 844 July ... 910 828 876 853 917 815 971 844 760 August 1,084 855 975 839 954 878 8S2 839 821 Sept. ... 1,021 880 976 866 992 935 801 884 1,019 Oct. ... 910 879 924 830 908 846 S2S 880 950 Nov. ... 984 919 985 845 918 900 909 916 1,008 Dec. ... 983 935 1,005 972 1,020 951 980 919 992 Difference \ between V ^ maximum (■->^ &. minimum 450 277 423 283 416 37S 344 451 It is everywhere during the cold months that the most deaths occur. The hot season also increases the mortality, but very slightly, up to the average of the i 2 months ; but whilst heat takes time to sap the powers of life, cold injuriously affects the system directly as well as eventually. It also disables the wage-earning classes sooner. The keen clear frosty days of January and February, called healthy bracing weather will often General Conditions of the Human Race. 939 in the course of a week in such a city as London, raise the death- rate a hundred above the average mortality. Many heaUhy persons suddenly become ill, whilst delicate people, and especially those suffering from privations, or age, or chronic weakness succumb altogether. Among those subject to any form of tubercular disorder, cold will turn the balance against the life which milder weather would have prolonged. Thus Moser {Laws of the Duration of Life) found with a mean tem- perature of the year of 45' Fahr. there was a mean mortality of 1,877 deaths (1818 and 1825). The lowest mortality occurred in 1823, amount- ing to 1,628 deaths only, when the mean temperature for the year was 48° Fahr., and the highest mortality occurred in 1826, which was the coldest of the 28 consecutive periods. The Mortality of Different Classes. De Neufirth, in 1853, published his account of all the deaths in the City of Frankfort during the 33 years, from 1820 to 1852 ; the length of life, and the causes of death in 22 different trades, and the comparative statistics of the Jewish and Christian population. The total deaths amounted to 6,867, among which he discovered the disease which had occasioned death in 1,782. He found the mean age of the persons deceased : — Years months. Years months Clergymen ... ... ... ... ... ... 65 11 Teachers, gardeners, and butchers ... ... ... 56 10 Shopkeepers, and curriers ... ... 56 9 & 56 7 Fishermen and boatmen ... ... ... ... 55 9 Lawyers and Financiers ... ... ... ... 54 3 Physicians and surgeons, ist class ... ... ... 52 3 Bakers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51 6 Brewers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 6 Carpenters... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49 2 Bricklayers ... ... 48 8 Coopers, painters, and varnishers ... ... ... 47 6 Shoemakers and printers ... ... ... 47 3 & 47 o Joiners, smiths, and locksmiths ... ... 46 4 & 46 3 Tailors ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 4 Stonemasons and sculptors ... ... ... ... 43 10 Compositors, type founders, and tin men ... ... 41 9 Lithographers and copper engravers ... ... ... 40 10 The average age among 17,625 persons, who died from 1855 to i860 in Berlin : — Years months Years months Bakers Sculptors Brewers Printers Fishermen Gardeners Curriers Shopkeepers Fellmongers Painters Masons 41 41 34 48 47 48 47 47 28 45 47 Metal founders Boatmen Butchers Smiths Tailors Compositors . . . Shoemakers ... Lithographers Joiners Carpenters . . . 42 41 43 41 46 34 49 33 47 46 940 General Conditions of the Human Race. In the year 1865 a return of the mortality among printers was given by the Berlin Journeymen Printers' Union, which indicates that, in 9 years, 196 printers died out ol" about 1,000, amounting to a mortality of 2\ per cent, annually; of these there died of consumption 135, whilst, from other diseases, died only 61. More than one-third of the total deaths were of ages ranging from 19 to 30 years. Only two reached the age of 80. The so-called lead-palsy carried off only two persons. According to Eschetich, the members of all learned professions have a shorter average length of life than the rest of the male population of the same period in Bavaria. The forest officials enjoy a lower rate of morta- lity than any other of the six classes, and this, at all ages. The Protestant clergy have amongst them the greatest number of old men, but a high rate of mortality is found in their ranks between the ages of 60 and 70. The Catholic clergy show the same ratio between the ages of 45 and 65. The mortality among physicians is the highest of all the classes, and at an early age. Three-fourths of them die before reaching 50 years, and ten out of eleven before 60. In estimating the relative healthiness of trades it must be borne in mind that in certain callings strong boys are principally employed, whilst the more weakly are kept back for tailoring and the like occupations. In England the duration of life has been found most unfavourable among the steel workers, polishers, and grinders at Sheffield. The next in this category is occupied by colliers, partly owing to preventible accidents in mines. Taking the expectation of life at the age of 20 throughout England, its average is 39.42 years. In the healthiest localities it rises to 43.46, as against 30.57 in the worst of the mining districts (Merthyr Tydvil.) Expectation of life in out-door and indoor employments : — OUTDOOR INDOOR Age Slight Exertion Violent Exertion Slight Exertion Violent Exertion 20 30 40 50 ... 41.88 years ... 35-70 „ ... 27.90 „ ... 20.50 „ 42.01 y 34-50 27.80 21.18 ears - 37-80 -■ 30-14 .. 23.03 -• 17-27 years 43-41 36-58 29.12 21.97 years 60 70 ... 14.04 ... 8.64 15-14 10.44 II. 01 4.56 15-56 9-33 There are causes of death which may work slowly but very potently ; among these are, ist, anxieties about providing a bare living; 2nd, an actual want of a sufficient supply of the necessaries of life ; 3rd, a con- strained and continued unnatural posture of body; and 4th, a lack of sanitary conditions. Starvation by degrees seizes hold of its victim very surely, although rarely suddenly. The average age of female workers in London is 36.4 years. Out of 1,000 seamstresses who die 438 fall a prey to consumption arising from the causes mentioned, to which must be added the effects of prostitution. Of the shopwomen only 127 in the 1,000 die of phthisis, but not until a considerably greater age than the former attained. Likewise there are, in every 1,000, 106 seamstresses to 37 shopwomen who die of inflammatory fevers. In 1867 there were 127,131 seamstresses in London, 21,000 of whom were under 2 1 years of age. General Conditions of the Unman Race. 941 Mortality in the Military Profession. — It was a very general belief formerly that among the troops in time of peace the mortality was far lower than among civilians, because the soldiers were supplied with wholesome food, good clothing, and clean dwellings, and freed from the care which harrasses the ordinary citizen in daily life. Statistics tell a different tale. The change from his former mode of living, and the temptations to irregularity of life ; the crowding together of the men in the sleeping-rooms, and the want of every kind of ordinary civil occupation, powerfully predispose to unfavourable results. In Lord Dalhousie's Commission it appeared in evidence that the majority of the soldiers who went into hospitals were brought there through the result of their own excesses. It is worthy of notice that whilst on the Continent places without a garrison petitioned for one, many places in England where it became known that garrisons were to be stationed sent in petitions to spare the inhabitants from the danger of such an affliction for the sake of morality. The documents in 1872 in the Herald of Peace have been quoted in confirmation of this assertion. French Army. — Whilst the mortality among the civil population be- tween the ages of 20 and 30 amounted to 10 per 1,000, the death-rate among the soldiers during the time of the older Bourbons was :— For the whole army Privates of the infantry Infantry guard 19.0 22.3 16.7 Subalterns of line (infantry) 10.8 Subalterns of infantry guard 9.0 which raised the death-rate of the military to nearly as much again as that of the civil population. ' Dr. Bertillon, hospital-surgeon of Montmorency, in his " Statistique des causes de deces," observes that he had pointed out that the general mor- tality had decreased smce the previous century among all classes and all ages; and he compares the two periods, 181 7-31 and 1840-49, but there remained, no doubt, but that mortality among youths between 20 and 25 years of age had increased frightfully, whilst the young females had escaped the same high death-rate. Mr. Boudin, on " I'etat sanitaire et de la mortalite' des armees de terre et de mer," (Paris, 1846), shews that the mortality of the services is nearly twice that of the civilians under ordinary circumstances. In the English army the expenditure is far greater, and the provisioning much better. The uniform is hardly so convenient as in the French army. In many respects the quartering is not yet unexceptionable, although very greatly improved since 1872-73. The average number of deaths among the population per 1,000 at 19 years of age is 9.2 ; in the agricultural districts it is only 7.7 ; in the worst manufacturing towns it varies frem 11.9 to 12.4. Healthy youths only are selected for the army, but the mortality was : — Cavalry (Life Guards) Cavalry of the line ... Infantry of the line Foot guards 18.7 20.4 The police, with their night duty and long hours, have a mortality as low as 8.92. 942 General Conditiotis of the Hnvian Race. The death-rate among the guards as compared with that prevalent in the regiments of the line retains its excess for years after the guards have obtained their discharge. The British auxiliary forces on their native soil obtain a very varied mortality. The Fencibles (Maltese serving in Malta) ... 9.0 deaths per 1,000 „ Hottentots (serving in the Cape of Good Hope) 12.5 ,, „ Hindoos ( » 11 Bengal army) 13.0 Hindoos ( )) ?j Madras ,, ) ... 15.0 Lascars ( fi J) Ceylon ,, ) ... 25.8 The Russian Ariny. — The defective commissariat and the distance at which the troops are kept from home and the habits and enjoyments of home raises the death rate to 38 per 1000, which has caused great anxiety to the government. Although recent tabulated statistics shew a very general abatement in the death and sick rates, the inference must not be too hastily arrived at. ist. The choice of recruits depends more on selection; and 2ndly. When any soldier is subjected to threatening and apparently disabling malady he is not unfrequently discharged and does not figure on the death list of the army, but on that of the civil population. Typhus fever has been named the disease of barracks and casemates. Dr. Seela/id, of Warsaw, observes, "The rate of mortality remains in our regiments at 10 per looo annually, but the ■' incapables," of whom one half suffer from tubercular disease to above 40, per *iooo. The incapables mean those who for the time or altogether must be discharged from service. The doctor refers to the Russian soldiers levied in Poland, principally, and adds, " Medical men have long been aware that a continued mental depression prejudicially affects the digestion and the^circulation, through its tendency to diminish nervous vigour." No very eminent commander has ever disregarded this phenomenon. If the soldier's calling be a forced one, he is apt to deem it, at least under unfavorable circumstance, to be some- thing between that of citizen and convict — not unfrequently he deems his service a sheer loss both to himself and his family, or to his hopes and settlement in life. Where the service is compulsory, the proportion of crimes committed by soldiers is as 2.58 to i in the civil population. Field Marshall Von Moltke appears to have thought that there was something in the truth " that the abnormal state of mind which a soldier experiences from the general abnormal circumstances which surround him, displays itself in some almormal way," when he commented on the. above fact — a •rommcnt which gave much offence at the time. Le (^onseil de Sante instituted comparisons in 1S66 between the Prussian, French, and I<>nglish armies. The average daily number of sick per 1000 in the Fnglish army (where those nursed in ordinary hospitals were alone taken) was 49. In the T'Yench, 19 in ordinary, and 7 in the regimental infirmaries; add 11 nursed in barracks ; total, 37. In Prussia, 42. The deaths per i.ooo men: In Prussia, 6.70; Cireat Britain, 8.86; France, 9.22; Russia, 15.50. The Prussian Ministry of War shews a different calculation. General Conditions of the Human Race. 943 Amount of sickness per 1,000 men: In France (daily), 50; in England, 42.47 ; in Prussia, 40.5. The duration of illness: In England, 17.81 days; France, 8.6; Prussia, 12.7. Deaths in the Prussian army from 1846-63 equal to 9.49. In 1S67 only 6.19. In the French army, in 1867, the deaths were 11.74 per 1,000 „ English „ „ „ 9-40 ?j „ Austrian ,, ,, ,, 12.0 ,, Discharged on account of illness per 1,000 : Among the French troops, 7.0; Prussian, 15.0; English, 32.6. The loss per 1,000 among these compared with the other deaths diminishing the effective strength of the armies. French Prussian English Dead 9.22 ... 6.70 ... 8.86 Discharged 7-oo ••■ ^S-oo ••• 32-60 Together ... 16.22 ... 21.70 ... 41.46 In favor of Prussia the calculation is based on the returns of 1863. It will be found that had the year 1867 been taken the results would not appear so favorable. With a total strength in 1867 of 253,230 there were 1,657 deaths, or 6.54 per 1,000. There were 13,607 discharged, of whom 6,425 were unfit for service, 121 partially, and 5,971 wholly invalided. The deaths includ- ing the effective force are diminished by 34.82 per 1,000. Perhaps the effects of the campaign in 1866 may ha\e contributed to this total, but it does not explain it, especially when the suicides among the troops are con- sidered. In the Prussian army in 1861 there were 103; in 1867 the number rose to 155; in 1868 to 160; in 1869 to 182. But in the Austrian army the number of suicides is put down at 300 a year. In Mr. A. M. Tulloclis comparison of the sickness and mortality, together with the prevailing diseases of seamen and soldiers the proportions on an effective list per 1,000 men are : — OK THE TOTAL FORCE. IN THE MEDITERRANEAN. Land force Sea force -—'' Land force Sea force 929 1,204.4 Sick T,o88 1,304- 14 26 19.7 38. Dead Discharged ... 20 95 I I. 25-7 Sick ... Dead... Discharged .. The mortality in the English mercantile marine amounted on an average to 18.7 per 1,000 of seamen throughout the ten years 1851-1859 both inclusive. It fell the lowest in 1852, being 13.8, but it rose in 1856 to 20.4. Again in 1867 it stood at 29.9, and in 1868 to 26.6 per 1,000 men. The actual number in 1867 was 5,283; in 1868 it was 5,237. Of these 1,785 perished in shipwreck, 1,141 were otherwise drowned. Of fever there died 340 ; of dysentry 216 ; of cholera 175 ; of consumption 171 j of yellow fever 155 ; of scurvy 26 ; by murder 16 ; and by suicide 23. 944 General Conditions of the Human Race. The numbers in the war marine of the Netherlands in 1863 and 1864 were respectively 7,510 and 10,131 ; sickness 14,866 and 14,112 making a total for the two years of 28,978 on the sick list ; making an average of 1,686.25 of sicknesses treated in the 10.000 yearly. The deaths from sick- ness in 1863 were 102 ; and in 1864 were 108, averaging 13.6 and 10.7 per 1,000. Deaths by accident 26 and 15 ; equal to 3.5 and 1.5. Taken together 128 and 123 respectively.- equal to 17.0 and 12.0 per 1,000. The mortality was highest in the East India squadron, being 28.3 and 22.4 among the European, and 26.0 decreasing to 19.5 among the natives. In the Japanese waters 18.9 and 8.8 of Europeans died to 29.0 and 23 6 of Indian natives. Dr. Stc'inburg's survey of the German imperial marine of 187 i gives an average of 1,711 men stationed in Kiel among whom the cases of sick- ness were 1,910, giving to each man i.ii times on sick list. Of the total II died. But with an average of 1,620 men in an East-Asiatic station there were 2,552 sick persons on the lists during three years so that each man was ill 1.57 times, of whom 15 died annually. This gives an increase of sickness of 45.55 per cent., and of 0.26 per cent, of deaths. Compare these figures with those stated for the English navy and the result is, that although the sickness varies little, the mortality does vary notably being less by 2.21 per cent. In the Prussian army from 1846 to 1863 there was estimated by the medical department in the 1,000 soldiers 0.46 suicides. In 1867 the estimate was 0.61 per 1,000. In 1868 it rose to 0.63. In the French army in 1876 the estimate is 0.46, but in the English army from i860 to 1865 suicides stand at 0.28 per 1,000 men. Accord ing to Scht miner, out of every 1,000 who come to a violent end in Austria there are 1 20.9 suicides among civilians and 558.3 among the" soldiers. According to Adolph Warner, for every 100 suicides among the male civilian population, the military statistics give in — Saxony* (1847- Wurtemberg ( 1 846- France (1856- Suicides. According to Dr. Striker's computation, the annual number of suicides in 100,000 — 1858) 17: Prussia (1849) 293 1858) 192 Sweden (1851-1855) 423 i860) 253 Austria (1851-1857) 643 In Saxony 1856-60 24.15 Nassau 1860-62 10.2 >> 1860-63 26.87 VViirtemburg 1856-60 8.5 >) 1864-67 27.48 Bavaria 1856-60 7.2 Mecklenburg 1856-60 16.2 (lerman-Austria 1860-61 6.4 Hesse i8s6-6o 13-4 l]elgium 1860-61 4-54 Hanover 1856-58 13-7 England 1860-61 4.25 Prussia 1856-60 12.2 Italy 1865-66 2.62 France 1856-60 11.9 Spain 1865-66 1.50 Baden 1856-60 10.8 * More recent statistics afford ample evidence that these proportions are even more unfavourable in subsi;quent years. In Saxony in i86S, when the Saxon military system, mfrgcd into a mmf or loss absolute Prussian appendage- or lontingent, made a radical change in the status and condition of the army a sensible lact. as many as thirty suicides were reported ; andy/zr occurred in the regiment of the Rifles alone. General Conditions of the Human Race. 945 Whilst the returns from Spain and Italy are acknowledged not to be perfect, those from England are to be trusted, and show a pre-eminence in abstention from suicide. The rate per million over all Germany was 1,300 in the years from 1862-70. In 1862 it was „ 1863 „ „ 1864 „ „ 1865 „ 66 In 1866 it was 64 „ 1867 „ 70 „ 1868 „ 68 „ 1860 „ 65 66 64 67 The mode of suicide was mostly by hanging. Out of 67 cases it was employed in 28. Next in frequency was throat-cutting, next stabbing, then drowning, poison, and powder and shot. In Lower Austria, from 1860-65, the average number was i in 9,882 inhabitants. In Transylvania , Moravia ... , Upper Austria , Silesia ... , Hungary , Salzburg... , Styria , Bukowina , Carinthia I m I I I HI I in I in I in I in 12,546 13,884 14,628 15.930 19,072 i9>S84 19,668 21,078 22,344 186465 In Galicia ... ... i in The military frontier i in In Croatia & Slavonia i in The Litoral ... i in In Venezia ... ... i in „ Carniola... ... i in „ Dalmatia ... i in „ Tyrol ... ... I in 23,202 32,220 32,610 32,664 34.015 42,576 69,996 194,270 1 5 per cent, of the whole. 12 The suicides of women compared with those of men were : In Lower Austria „ Upper Austria „ Salzburg „ Styria „ Carinthia „ Carniola The Litoral In the Tyrol ,, Bohemia ,> Hungary ,, Moravia „ Silesia „ Galicia „ Bukowina ... „ Dalmatia „ Military frontier „ Venezia „ Croatia and Slavonia „ Transylvania The average of all these countries- 21 20 14 15 18 25 25 34 14 12 22 17 17 29 29 30 35 -22 per cent. In P'rance, hanging is the most frequent mode of suicide in young men ; but fire-arms, later on in life, to which Paris alone seems to form an exception, 30 94<5 General Conditions of the Unman Race. The frequency of suicide does not diminish as has been supposed, but steadily increases with growing years till the period of extreme old age. Out of every 1 00,000 persons classified by age, men and women between 5 and 80 years of age in the years 1849-58, in France were : — Age from Men Women 5 to 30 years of age 12. 1 54 30 .» 40 35-7 10.7 40 „ 50 50.9 14-15 50 „ 60 67.10 175 60 „ 70 73-4 22.0 70 „ 80 78.3 23.S 80 and upwards ... 69.3 23.5 The decrease is very slight in men at 80 and upwards, but in women it is still stationary. From the returns of the French Minister of Justice there appeared in 1865 in the towns (communes of above 2,000 inhabitants), i suicide in 4,553 inhabitants, but in the country, i only in 10,617. The total suicides for the 5 years, 1S61 to 1865, may be classified as — Age Under 16 years From 16 to 21 „ 21 to 30 „ 30 to 40 „ 40 to 50 „ 50 to 60 Men 102 530 2,II2 2,801 3.699 31839 39 306 643 681 927 922 Age From 60 to 70 „ 70 to 80 Above 80 Men Women 2,486 803 1,290 435 279 105 Age not ascertained 219 32 Grand total 18,411 4,893 01 the youthful suicides, 141 under 15 years of age are included. Of 1 5 years of age Of 14 Of 13 Of 12 Of II Of 10 Of 8 63 29 28 II 6 3 I Women constitute about 20 per cent, of the total suicides (210 per 1,000), and with respect to the relative age, the analog}' is nearly equal, except during the period from 16 to 21 years, when the figure dispropor- tionally increases. ere : — The occupations of the 23,304 suicides given w Of agriculturalists ... ... ... ... 8,057 Industrially employed ... ... ■•• 5>74i Trades 1,406 Liberal professions ... ... ... ••• 3,860 Servants ... ... ... ... .•• 9^7 Without settled employment 3>323 General Conditions oj the Hinnan Race. 947 In the time mentioned (1861 to 1865) the modes of death were: — By hanging ,, drowning ,, charcoal „ gun shot „ pistol shot „ cutting or stabbing „ poison ... „ precipitation from a height 9.097 6,746 1)753 of whom in Paris 1,035 i>335 1,114 934 487 793 The alleged cause of the suicide : — From loss of ])roperty and consequent poverty Family troubles and misfortune Love, jealousy, and debauchery Bodily suffering Disease of the brain Perpetration of murder and arson. Motives unknown... 2.577 2,715 3.598 4,865 7.045 206 2.295 The returns in the Prussian dominions give for the year 1869, 3,187 from the civil officials, but 3,554 from the ecclesiastical statistics, which would equal 15 per 100,000 inhabitants. Of these 279 from the civil authorities, and 282, according to the Church authorities, were in Breslau, or 20 in 100,000 inhabitants. In Magdeburg the numbers are variously estimated as 196 and 214 suicides, or 26 in 100,000. SUICIDES CLASSED ACCORDING TO AGE. Under lo years 10-14 15"19 «o-24 25-29 30-34 Males Females 5 28 140 60 299 71 370 204 54 258 182 55 237 35-39 40-44 197 260 42 ^9 239 299 Males Females Age 45-49 50-5 » 272 75 ^53 49 547 302 55-59 219 50 269 60-64 167 ^6 203 65-69 141 31 172 18 106 75-8t OverSo 18 10 41 10 51 28 It must not be forgotten that out of every i,ooo persons born, 484 are still alive in their 40th year, but only 60 in their 80th year. It is in towns that the larger number of suicides, proportionate to the number of inhabitants, are to be found, being 1,2 13 males and 269 females, total, 1,482 in 8,500,000 of inhabitants ; and in the country, 1,222 males and 331 females, total, 1,553 in 16,500,000. 948 General Conditions of the Human Race. The dates of suicides, according to the months of the year, and their relative number : — Males Females Total Males Females Total January 221 44 265 July... 242 65 307 February .. i8i 52 233 August .. 221 44 265 March 227 59 286 September 196 50 246 April 261 65 326 October 212 45 257 May 246 51 297 November •■ 154 44 198 June 222 59 281 December 160 31 191 It appears that the suicides increase as the hours of the day increase, and decrease as the days shorten. The numbers for the four quarters of the year were — First Quarter Second Quarter Third Quarter Fourth Quarter 784 ... 904 ... 818 ... 646 Calculated according to the phases of the moon, the numbers are — New Moon Males .. Females 614 151 First Quarter 644 149 Full Moon 604 134 Last Quarter 640 162 802 Total ... 765 ... 793 ... 738 The religious persuasions of suicides are classed in every 100,000 as 18.71 Protestants, 6.93 Roman Catholics, and 9.6 Jewish. The Jewish race has a monopoly of Cosmopolitanism. The mortality among them is especially low, and their tenacity of life is greater than that of any Europeans. Sub-section. — General mortality under special conditions. In Algeria the rate of deaths in the six years, 1844 to 1849, per 1,000 was 57.7 among the Europeans, but only 33.9 among the Jews. In 1856 the returns of births were — -- Europeans Moslem Jews Births ... ... 1,234 . 331 211 Deaths ... I.S53 514 ... 187 De Neufv'i lie gives the lists of mortality in 1846 to 1848 in Frankfort — Age Christians Jews Age Christians Jews I to 4 years 24-1 0/° 12.9 0/° 50 to 54 > ears 4-6 j; 380/ 5 .. 9 M 2.3 ,. 0.4 „ 55 M 59 5-7 M 6.1 „ 10 „ 14 „ I.I „ 1-5 ,> 60 „ 64 5-4 ,, 9-5 » 15 .» 19 » 3-4 „ 3-On 65 » 69 6.0 „ 7-2 „ 20 „ 24 „ 6.2 „ 4.2 „ 70 „ 74 5-4 „ II. 4 „ 25 „ 29 „ 6.2 „ 4.6 „ 75 ,- 79 4.3 n 91 ., 30 .. 34 n 4.8 „ 3-4 „ 80 „ 84 2.6 „ 5-0 „ 35 .' 39 ', 58 „ 6.1 „ 85 „ 89 0-9 n 1-5 „ 40 >, 44 „ 5-4 » 4.6 „ 90 >, 94 o.i6„ o-4„ 45 " 49 M 5-6 „ 5-3 „ 95 .. 100 0.04 „• >i General Conditions of the Human Race. 949 The avoidance of hard work and the temperate habits, which may be deemed a peculiarity of the race, are not sufificient to account for the superior intensity of Hfe, which characterises the Jewish people. It cannot be said that this is a speciality of the Semitic Races, as the Phoenicians and Carthagenians have entirely disappeared from off the earth. In 1834 to 1869 the number of Jews in Cis-Leithania had risen from 355,234 to 820,200, having shewn an increase exceeding that of all the other people. Disease Considered in Connection with Rank and Age. It is a great part of statistics to tabulate disease accordmg to the occupation and age of those attacked. The friendly societies of England have supplied some important information on this topic ; the subjoined table gives the number of days that the persons belonging to the friendly societies were ill. OCCUPIED IN OCCUPIED IN OCCUPIED IN ORDINARY WORK LIGHT WORK HARD WORK Age Per 1,000 Per Year Per 1,000 Per Year Per 1,000 Per Year 15 to 16 6.21 61 days 5-13 5 days 6.99 7 days 16 „ 21 •• 33-77 6f >> 30.72 6 „ 35-34 7 » 21 „ 26 •• 3432 6| » 30-55 6 „ 36.33 7i » 26 „ 31 ... 34.54 7 ji 30.14 6 „ 37-45 7h „ 31 >» 36 ... 34.61 7 » 29.28 6 „ 38.40 7h „ 36 ,, 41 ... 39.08 7l » 34-33 6| „ 42.96 7i „ 41 „ 46 ... 44.14 8| j> 37-50 71 „ 49.82 10 „ 46 „ 51 ... 54.67 10^ »? 46.44 9i ') 58.25 11^ „ 51 » 56 ... 64.83 I2| » 60.57 12 „ 68.92 'if " 56 „ 61 ... 82.16 i6i M 73-13 i4i » 91.57 i8i „ 61 „ 66 118.26 23^ >> 103.86 20f „ 133-63 26f „ 66 „ 71 ... 180.28 36 )> 167.37 ZZh n 194-13 38f „ From the 15th to the 85th year of Hfe, including 80 years of the working period, the laborer is subjected to 5 years of illness, but only 78 weeks of this illness overtakes him from the age of 16 to 66, a period of 51 years. If therefore, the period be divided into equal halves, the result is : — In the 1st 26 years, from 15 to 41, less 182.52 days, there is just ^ year „ 2nd 25 years, from 41 to 66, „ 362.17 „ nearly r year „ 3rd II years, from 66 to 77, „ 543-° .. ^ and ^ years „ 4th 8 years from 77 to 85, „ 763.68 „ above 2 years This is an universal average. The proportion for those occupied in light work and hard work is: — Light Work Sickne»« In 29 years work, from 15 to 44 182.37= 6 months 24 „ 44 to 68 356.49=12 „ ji „ 68 to 79 567.86=18 „ 6 „ 79 to 85 577.35 = 18 „ 1,684.07 = 4^ years 950 General Conditions af the lluinan Race. In 24 year's work, from 15 to 39 25 » 39 to 64 12 „ 64 to 76 6 „ 76 to 82 3 » 82 to 85 Sickness 179.61 = 6 months 361.32 = 12 „ 582.27 = 19 576.69=19 „ 319.67 = 10 „ 2,019.56^ 52 years With hard work a whole year's illness is the excess over the working period of the life of one who is occupied in light work. In his 39th year the man of hard work has lost half a year by illness, which the man of light work does not experience till his 44th year Yet in both cases the second period of 25 years doubles the time of sickness of the ist period : and later on in life the difference is still more visible in favor of those employed in light work. According to tables published in 1859, by the late Mr. Tidd Pratt sickness is distributed thus : — MEN EMPLOYED IN LIGHT WORK. Age Large Towns Smaller Townt Country 30 years 4.91 days 6.22 days .. 6.2 2 days 50 » 10.41 „ 11-59 >. •• • 9-37 ,. 70 » 26.74 „ 46.44 „ . 42.71 „ MEN EMPLOYED IN HARD WORK. Age Large Towns Smaller Townt Country 30 years 8.41 days 7.60 days .. 7.65 days 50 „ 12.92 „ 13.19 „ .. . 12.34 „ 70 „ • 52.29 ,, 36.62 „ .. • 47-98 „ The varied proportions in which trades furnish men fit for military service, according to the statistics of Saxony, 1852 to 1854, are seen by the unfit : — Fishing trade Stonemasons Brewers Carjienters Bricklayers Joiners Farm servants & day laborers Miners Smelters Shoemakers 42.86 per cent, unfit 46-39 52-97 52-28 54-87 69.91 62.37 67.41 „ 61-23 70-51 Tailors Weavers Spinners of all ( kinds ( 79.94 per cent, r/nfit 72-77 79.07 Compositors ^ „ and printers i ^' Lithographers 85. 1 9 Watchmakers 88.23 Teachers 87.38 Gymnasts 88.60 Apothecaries 92.54 The results of examinations were Able-bodied From towns ... 19- 73 per cent. „ villages ... 26.58 Not so favourable 9.31 per cent. 8.17 Unfit 70.96 per cent. 65.26 General Conditions of the Human Race. 951 Of the 18,873 conscripts examined for the levy of troops in Saxony in March 1867, 36.251 per cent, were pronounced fit; 4.969 unfit at the time ; 43.353 quite unfit to which number were subsequently added 15.42 per cent, below the standard. The brewers furnished the highest number of able bodied men, viz., 64.948 per cent, next to them came the butchers 60.107 ; coopers 57.943 \ stone-cutters 57.377 ; millers 56.686 per cent. The most unfavourable results appeared in the class of teachers who supplied only 19.565 per cent., and the copyists who furnished 22.228 per cent. For the levy of October (1868), 18,924 young men were examined. Of these 9,397 were pronounced quite fit for service-that is 39.832 per cent. 986 were less adapted for service, viz., 4-677 per cent., 2,245 unfit at the time, being 10.650 per cent., and 7,296 or 34-609 per cent, permanently unfit. 2,052 or 9,734 per cent, rejected as being below the standard ; in addition to whom 105 were refused. Of the permanently unfit the largest numbers were cigar makers, who constituted 60.8 per cent, of their class. Teachers were 58.4 per cent.; clerks 58.1; shopkeepers 57.8 ; composi:ors_ 53.2 ; gymnasts 52.2; printers of books, stuffs, and lithographers, 52.1; girdlers, goldsmiths, and watchmakers 51.3; stocking makers 48.6; instrument makers 47.3 ; tailors 46.8 ; musicians 46.0 ; factory hands 45,5 ; weavers and lace makers 42.3; artists (painters and sculptors) 41.3; dyers 47.7; tilers and slaters only 14.3 ; brewers 22.2 ; butchers 22.8 ; boatmen 23.9 ; millers and stuff" weavers 26.1 ; carpenters 28.3; and potters 28.8 per cent. Deaths caused by Accidents. According to Dr. EngeVs statistics the rate of fatal accidents per 1,000 persons in the course of a year were : — In Prussia, from 1861— In the large towns In Hanover, from 1855 In Saxony, 1864 In Bavaria In Austria In Belgium In England In France 1864 1851— 1863 1859 — 1864 1851 ... 1851— 1863 1858— 1859 1854 — i860 Men Women 0.634 0.163 0.644 0.129 0.649 0.157 0.418 0.094 0-397 0.124 0.444 0.143 0.514 0.152 1.032 0.349 0-443 0.103 Mean 0.397 0.386 0.403 0-253 0.261 0.294 0-333 0.691 0-277 The loss of life in the mines of Prussia afford more unfavourable results than England, and are scarcely less than in Austria. Railway accidents aff'ord some important variations. In 1870 there occurred in Austro-Germany 754 fatal accidents, and 1,054 were inore or less severely wounded. In 187 1 the killed rose to 931, and the injured to 1,177- , • , • r Dr. En^^el presented to the German Diet, on the introduction 01 a " Bill to provide compensation to those who suff"ered from railway com- panies' negligence, the subjoined tables of the number of persons killed or injured in their several occupations in 1869, separating the employers from the employed : — 952 General Conditions of the Human Race. FATAL. NOT FATAL Employers 107 3 25 Employed 455 67 22 523 Total 562 70 47 523 Employers 25 5 Employed 86 12 132 Total III 12 137 3 36 39 I 10 II — 27 26 23 27 26 23 I 27 15 46 27 16 46 2 21 23 — 13 13 — 23 23 I 9 10 1 9 91 100 2 SI 53 — 2 2 i I I — 31 31 j> 42 42 17 328 345 7 219 2 226 2 6 18 24 4 16 20 2 198 220 4 97 lOl 6 93 99 — 4 4 3 I 4 2 2 4 — 28 28 — 16 16 183 2,013 2,216 52 800 852 Employed. a In Agriculture ^ Forest cultivation c Fisheries d Mining and smelting... e Manufactures and Works of Art : — 1 Workers of ores and^ stone ... i 2 Workers of metals ... 3 Chemical works 4 Textile industry 5 Manufactures in paper and leather 6 Ditto wood & carving 7 Food, distillers, T brewers, sugar facto- :- ries, and milling ) 8 Manufactures of cloth- [ ing material ... ) 9 Manufactures of ma-1 chines and implements ' 10 In building ... 1 1 Polygraphic trades . . . f In commerce ... g Traffic by land (rail- I ways, &c. ... j 2 By water, including sea 3 Lodging and enter- ( taining other persons j n Rendering personal help Accidents. Of the 61,949,816 passengers who travelled on the Prussian railways, in the year 1869, over 301,261,210 miles, 4 were killed and 17 injured. Of the 45,849 officials employed in 1869, in working and tending the lines of rail, 78 officials and 96 persons employed, i.e., 174 persons were killed ; and 171 officials and 207 workmen, /.0 Tj- IT) N N M l-l cOvO Os 1--.00 O ON lO "-I 00 OnvO O OsiorCiOOsrO OONio COO t^ l^ u-j 0^^0 M 1-- ■^ ■^ O r^oo N r~f>) OOO mONiOM m o ^i^ XI U-) to lO^O t~t--" J^t-- -^00 O lOOO OO r^OO r<^0O TtvO-^r-t^i-itnuoi-iONiHOOOrOM TtMOOinO On TtrOwNOMNi-i i~>.i-h m N 00 <0 ON M N N ro t^ vrjNO HH ror^roONmO •^ONO\r^ mO 00 vo t^ "^CO lOVO \0 On On On M ^00 rO M m -^ oo w ii tn bO c g cS o C cS 0) (U 3 : rt c o • o ■ no P c u . hfl C - (D -" ; .S -3 "rt -43 o t/3 U O «J - p S ^ i£ bfl o .S2 4-. o ^ ,0 J-' ^- rt o H P^ Ph O c3 > o rt O 5 M O 1^ >- r- OJ -' N ^^ tfl « '-S G 01 p; Z ti O 958 General Conditions of the Human Race. From 1873 to 1876 the total number of killed was- Totals 1873 1874 1875 1876 5i5i3j of these 2,769 were in active employment 5,761 „ 2,807 „ „ 6,181 „ 2,812 „ „ 6,141 .» 2,745 „ „ Of the difference of the proportion of accidents between boys and girls there is little observable under 5 years of age, but from 5 to 15 years of age the boys suffer from 70 to 80 percent, of the whole list of accidents. About 15 years of age and upwards the females meet with only 12 per cent., and the males 88 per cent, of the accidents. Again, 89 per cent, of the accidents which happen to men occur to unmarried youths and 8 1 to the married, and 70 per cent, to widowers. The widows fatally injured form 30 per cent. Men, who are denominated the employed, do not place their lives more in jeopardy than their employers. The number, 10,598 of the em- ployed, and 5,959 of employers who met with accidents, to which must be added 906 who were directors, overseers, and accountants, in the 4 years, from 1869 — 72, illustrate this statement. Those who pay income tax furnish only 100 to the contingent of sufferers, whilst of the rate-paying class 9,481 fell victims to a violent death in the above period. 1,138 of those who met with a violent death in Prussia within the years i860 to 1872 were notorious drunkards. These causes of disaster are both of a special and a general kind, and from 1869 — 72 were : — 1 By chance or providential 2 Their own fault or carelessness 3 Culpable carelessness ... 4 Suspected suicide 5 By the carelessness or fault of others 6 Suspected intent to kill... 7 Unknown motives Fatal Not fatal 5>i59 1,226 16,303 4,649 189 26 146 19 3>Mo 300 434 21 753 33 The classes 2 and 5 are steadily on the increase. In the four years 1869-72 fatal accidents occurred thus : — 1,927 ... ... ... ... ... ... in January 1,873 - 1,794 ... 1,694 ... 2,000 ... 2,460 ... 3,240 ... 2,403 ••• 2,004 ••• 1,803 - 2,076 ... 2,130 ... „ February „ March „ April „ May „ June ,, July „ August ,, September „ October ,, November „ December General Conditions of the Human Race. 959 Most of the fatal accidents by drowning occur during the bathing season from May to August. Most deaths from suffocation happen in the cold months. Disease Caused or Spread by Faulty School Arrangements. Precise details from Breslau and its vicinity of a great increase in defective sight was afforded in 1867 by the examination of the eyes of 10,060 school children, of whom 1,072 were found to be short-sighted. The village schools showed only 1.4 per cent., but the town schools rose as high as 11.4. In the elementary town schools it was 6.7 ; in the higher girls schools 7.7, and in the several town schools it ascended from 6.7, in elementary, to 10.3, and in the middle-class schools up to 19.7, and in the high schools to 29.2 per cent. Among the ist class pupils at the gymnasium there were found to be somewhat above one half short- sighted and incurable ; changes in the tissue of the eye had occurred in 20 per cent, of the pupils. The insufficient supply of fresh air in schools, barracks, hospitals, prisons, and in the very large proportion of the humbler dwellings may be charged with most of the mischief, and one tenth of the mortality from diseases of the respiratory organs can fairly be attributed to the same cause. The Swedish surgeon-in-chief. Dr. Lilgewalch ascribes the enormous mortality in standing armies to the defective supply of fresh air in barracks. Each man requires 48 cubic metres ; but the Swedish barracks allow space for only 8 metres per head. The renewal of the air is also of primal importance. The number of cubic metres required per hour to be introduced into any building was fixed by Roscoe at 30 cubic metres, Leon Duvoir demands 40, and Pettenkofer says 60 are necessary. The quantity of air which an adult daily consumes with an average of 16 respirations per minute is 9,000 litres, or 360 cubic feet, and 4 litres of food and fluid are required in the same period. The 9,000 litres weigh 25^ lbs. 60 cubic metres are on an average required for each person per hour for the ventilation of his dwelling. On the Marriage of Relatives. It is found that the marriages between blood relations supply a large proportion of the number of deaf-mutes. Thus while the number of such unions in France scarcely amounts to 2 per cent., Dr. Perrin found that 25 per cent, of the deaf mutes of Lyons were the issue of such marriages. Dr. Baudin discovered the proportion in Paris to be 28.35 per cent., and Chazaim found that in Bordeaux the number rose to 30.33 per cent. ; and at Landes to 30.36 per cent. The argument of Boudin, '■'■ sur les dangers des unions consanguines " has been vehemently disputed. Dr. Karl Mayer finds that the number of deaf-mutes among the Protestants of Bavaria is twice as large in proportion as that among the Roman Catholics, and it has been found that the consanguineous marriages among the former greatly exceed those contracted between Catholics. The reason of this restraint is too well known to be alluded to. The same observation applies to the Jewish population. Dr. Mitchell in 1865 {Medical Journal, Edinburgh), stated that he had traced many cases of idiotcy to the near relationship of the parents. 960 General Conditions of the Human Race. The influence of Scarcity upon the Amount of Crime. In 1846 the number of persons in France arrested for theft was... 31,768 In 1847 (the year of famine) the number rose to ... ... 41,626 In 1848 the number fell to 30,000 In 1834 the number of imprisonments for crime in England was 22,451 In 1835 ^"^ ^^3^ ^ marked decrease was experienced. The price of corn fell and work and wages became at the same periods more plentiful. Ini837, price of corn rose, and the numberof prisoners amounted to 25,051 From 1837 to 1841 high prices continued and trade depressed; when the number rose to ... ... ... ... 31,309 1842 — 1846 — Peel's reform in taxation. Wheat at 54/- a quarter, ) ^^^ imprisonments oscillate J between ... 24,000 and / In 1847 a commercial crisis was accompanied by a rise to ... 28,838 In 1848 the commercial crisis c-iatinued and was accompanied | by a further rise to „, ... ... ... ••• / ' By the abolition of the corn laws and cheapnesss of pro- vision the number was, stationary, notwithstanding the increase of population, but in : — 1853 wheat at 53/- per quarter ; the number of prisoners fell to ... 27,057 1854 „ 72/- „ ; „ rose to... 29,359 Dr. Mayer found that in Bavaria during 25 years, that for about every rise by twopence of the price of a bushel of rye there was one more theft per 100,000 inhabitants ; and on the other hand that for every fall by two pence there was one theft less, in the same number of people. In Cis-Leithania (Austria) the criminal statistics shew that in 1S71 the number of persons convicted were 21,620, of whom the number utterly without means were 18,820 ; of those in possession of small means, 2,637 ; of those well-to-do, only 163. Although the possession of means alone may not make men better morally, yet, without doubt, want leads to the commission of acts which society ranks as criminal, and must punish. The Influefice of Education on the Amount of Crime. It appears, by overwhelming evidence, that a number of criminals, quite disproportionate to the average taken over the whole, are wanting in the simplest elements of education. The mere fact is undeniable, but the inference drawn from the fact, that education of itself improves mankind, is far more debateable. People are not worse, as a rule, because they cannot read or write, but it is the want of such knowledge which, in certain states of society, renders it difficult for them to " get on," and the want and distress which this failure occasions is the commonest cause of crime. M. Courcdie Seneuil says—" From the time the assistance from the public purse — that miglity exception to the system of voluntary distribu- tion — is accepted, we must admit, as a correlative exception, that the cost of a definite amount of instruction must form a part of the necessary expenses of government. In fact, this instruction tends to the same object as government aid, and it tends in a far more direct manner towards this end. It attacks pauperism itself, and not the mere signs and outcome of it ; but its root and cause, which is, without doubt, ignorance." General Conditions of the Human Race. 961 The Consumption of Chiej Articles of Food in Different Toiuns and Countries. Admitting the still imperfect retm-ns on this head, the following data of the consumption per head, in lbs., are given ; — Bread. — The consumption of this article of food is greater in the south than in the north — and notably in Germany. It is larger in the country districts than in towns generally. Statistics taken in the year 1850 and continued to the present time give the following rate per head for the places named : — In Prussia ,, Baden ,, England ... „ France Meat. — -In the kingdom of Prussia the consumption of meat by the returns of the slaughter-tax was least in the Province of Prussia. In Elbing it ranged 45 lbs. yearly; in Cologne, 91 lbs.: in Breslau, 94 lbs. ; in Berlin, 99 lbs. ; Madgeburg, 102 lbs. ; Coblenz and Dusseldorf, 104 lbs. ; Gotha, 134 lbs ; Frankfort-on-Main, 171 lbs. In the provinces the rates were — in East Prussia, 64 lbs. per head ; West Prussia and Pomerania, 69 lbs. ; Saxony, 82 lbs. ; Silesia, 85 lbs, ; Rhenish Prussia, 92 lbs. 345 lbs. Darmstadt ... . 321.4 lbs 471 „ Frankfort-on-Main .. • 322.45 » 450 n „ Paris •• 365- M 495 .» ,, Bremen .. 123.7 '. Consuviption of Meat per Head per Annum. — In Pounds Pounds i860 — Prussia 35-5 1859-60 — \'ienna (Mayr) .. • 135-6 i860- -Baden 50.8 1859-60 — Berlin „ . 81.8 1867 — Spain (country) 16.10 1867-69 — Hamberg 92.0 1867 — „ (towns) 39-58 1863 — Barcelona ... 60.06 1864 — France 46.3 1863— Madrid 95.18 1864 — ,, (towns) 106.9 i860 — Magdeburg 97.0 1864 — „ (country) ... 12 1 860— Frankfort-on-Maine 152.32 1858— England (of beef ( 78.67 1871— „ 164.0 only) ... j i860 — Darmstadt 101.7 1858 — „ (of all meat) 136.0 1867 — Augsburg ... 132.6 i875- » 1 14.0* 1867 — Nuremburg 131-2 1866— London 218.0 1868 — Bamburg ... 205.0 i860 — Belgium 84.46 1864 — Paris 165.0 1867 — Brussels 75-2 1864— Basle I53-0 1867-69 — Bremen I [2.7 1864 — Geneva 235-0 1874— „ 124.32 1865 — Turin 48.0 1867 — Dresden 86.9 1865— New York 164.0 1859-60 — xMunich (Mayr)... 166.4 Kingdom of Saxony : — i860 1865 1 866 lbs. lbs. lbs. Dresden 70.9 ... 85.9 86.7 Leipsic ... 113.6 ...< 138.7 136.9 ♦ Not includin I hsh or poultry. 3 P s. lbs. Ibi. 1865 1866 60.8 82.7 84.1 57-' 58.8 56.9 37-8 . 42.6 41.6 44-5 51.3 60.5 35-6 — • — ijdi General Cunditions of the Human Race. Chamnitz Other towns of above 8,000 persons Small towns and open country Average of the whole country In 1873 ^i^'y In Palermo one animal is killed for every 7 A inhabitants per year, and one bullock to every 18^ inhabitants. The consumption per head of the population in Paris in 1789 and in 1869 was — PER ANNUM DAILY 1789 1869 1789 i86g Wnie ... 25 gallons 43 j^allons Meat ... 5^ ozs. 6| ozs- Alcohol... 5 pints i gall, i qt. Bread ... 12 „ 13 „ Beer ... 2 gallons 4 gallons The average annual consumption of beer by each person in England is estimated at 26 gallons ; in Bavaria, 22 ; in Belgium, \2\ ; in Wurtem- burg, 10 : in Austria, 4 ; in France 3I ; in Prussia, 2\ gallons. The produce of beer in Rhenish Bavaria amounted to 64 gallons per head, 10^ gallons of which formed a sweet wort. The consumption in i')armsta(lt is 17 gallons. In Switzerland the consumption is only 12 gallons of sweet wort. Husson reckoned that the daily consumption in Paris per head was bread, i lb. ; meat, 5 ozs. ; and of wine per year, 28 gallons ; beer, 3 gallons ; milk, 23 gallons; butter, loA lbs. The total annual outlay for provisions amounted to ^19 per head, or \s. \\d. daily. He, therefore, estimated that the consumption of the population of Paris cost yearly ^20,958,685. . The octroi of Paris in 1864 showed a consumption per head of 44-5 gallons of spirituous drinks, 35 gallons of which were wine made of grapes, rather more than 4 J, gallons of beer, and the remainder cider and alcohol. In Spain the consumption of wine amounted in i860 to 1865 to an average of 7 gallons in the country, and 7?, in the towns. In Belgium the wine consumed amounted in 1866 and 1869 to scarcely I gallon per head. Water Consumption. The average retjuired per head is half-a-gallon for drinking and for the preparation of food, and 4 gallons for washing per day. A family of 5 person.s may find 9 gallons ])er day sufficient. The Paris average is 4^ gallons per head per day- Arrangements are adequate to a supply of twice that quan- tity. Ahorse requires i6i gallons ; a two-wheeled carriage 8i, and a four- wheeled one 1 6i gallons. For charging a high-pressure engine, i-horse power, 45 gallons hourly; one of medium pressure, 90 gallons, and of low pressure 180 gallons hourly. A square metre for garden, in gallons ; a bath, 67 gallons; a watering hydrant, from i,iii to 1,333 g-iHons. These figures will easily indicate what (|uantity of water is required for a town, and de- termine the water sup^jly where artificial means must be mainly relied on. WeigJUs, Measures, and Money. 9^3 Weights and Measures I Kilometre I Stj. Kilometre I Hectare I Metre I Kilogramme I Hectolitre •> 11 I Litre ]V't:ii^lits, Measures, and Money .* FRANCE. linglish Equivalent .621 of a mile .386 of a sq. mile 2.47 of an acre 3.28 feet 2.204 I'-'S- 2.75 imp. bushels 22.0,097 gallons. .22 of an imp. gall. Money English Equivalent 9JL^or25to^ GERMANY. (ieo. scj. miles 21.262 s(]. miles Mark I/O Kilometre .621 of a mile Krone 1 0/0 Sq. Kilometre .386 of a sq. mile Das Tagwerk .8 of an acre Ar .0247 of an acre Hektar 2.47 ,. ' l^russian Morgen 2.4 Centner 110.232 lbs. Schiffslast 4,409.28 lbs. avoir. Tonne 20 Cwts, Pfund I.I lbs. avoir. Loth 8 oz. 13 drams Gramme 14 drams RUSSIA. Sq. Kilometre .386 of a sq. mile Silver rouble 3/2 Verst .663 of a mile Dessjatine 2.6 acres Chetwert 5.77 bushels Pood 36 lbs. avoir. AUSrRlA. Sq. kilometre .386 of a sq. mile Florin 2/0 Kilometre .621 of a mile Metre 3.28 feet Hectare 2.47 acres Litre .22 of an imp. gall. Hectolitre 2.75 imp. bushels " In reducing the Foreig^n to English weights, measurr.s, and money, I have adopted the tfijuivalents issued by the Board of Trade. — Ed. 964 Weights, Measures, and Money. Weights and Measures Nijl Pond Vas Ton. sailg. vessels Ton. steam „ HOLLAND. English Equivalent Money .621 of a mile Gulden 2.204 lbs. - 22.0097 imp. galls. I registered ton 1.06 „ English Equivalent 1/8 To tide for corn) and coal j For fish Pott Last NORWAY. 3.8 imp. bushels 3.186 „ .212 of a gallon 179.85 cubic feet Rix dollar I, \\do\ iS to^ Mil Tunland Skalpund Tunnor Skeppund SWEDEN. 6.64 miles j Rix dollar 1.22 acres , •937 of I lb. avoir. I 4.03 bushels I 374.68 lbs. avoir. 1 T/iWori8to^ SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Fanep;ada 1.58 acres Real ^^^d. M or gen 1.44 M Pesata ^T^dQXZ^'iO £ Escudo 2/0 Milreis 4/6 GREECE. 10 Streraa Ocque Quintal Livre Drachme 2.47 acres 2.84 lbs. 123.2 lbs. I.I lbs. \ an oz. Drachme 8W.,or 28 to £, Juchart Pfund SWITZERLAND. .8 of an acre 1,102 lbs. Money same as lin France. ITALY. The same as in France ; the franc is called Lira. TURKEY. Oka Fortin 2.84 lbs. S.81 lbs. } Piaster 130 ^o the £ ' Beutelorpurse ' Equal 10^75 Weights, Measures, and Money. 965 UNITED STATES. Wcghts and measures. English Equivalent. | Money. English Equivalent. Same as English. Dollar Centner Picul CHILE — ARGENTINE — URUGUAY. I Peso Fuerte Cwt. BRAZIL, JAPAN. Milreis Yen CHINA. I 133 lbs. j Tael 4/2 4/2 4/6 4/2 6/ APPENDIX. GREAT ^g.— Vear 1878. BRITAIN. England and Wales. Scotland. Births ... 891,418 Deaths ... 539,574 •Marriages ... 189,657 126,707 76,775 24,333 Ireland. 134,370 25-363 Page 78. — 1878 — Imports. Butter — cwts. Cheese— cwts. T, 796,517 ••• 1,968,859 Eggs 783,714,720 Page 79. — 1878. — Imports. Wine Gallons 16,171,892 Page 80. — Post Office Sav'tngs' Bonks. 1878 ... Deposits. ^30,411,563 Page 85. — Government Expenditure for Education. 1873 ^1,3x3.078 1874 1,424,878 '875 1,566,271 1876 1,881,776 1877 2,127,518 1878 2,463,283 1879 2,733,404 Appendix. 967 Appendix — Continued — jge 100. Raw cotton, cwts. Sheep's wool, lbs. Raw silk. 1877 ... 1878 ... ... 12,100,725 .. ... 11,967,679 .. • 409,949,198 . • 399,449,435 • • 4,44i»89i . 4,170,606 Hemp and flax, cwts. Jute, cwts. 1877 ... 1878 ... 1,188,079 •• 1,219,642 3,649,877 • 4,242,382 . Page loi. Imports 1878 ;^368,77o,742 Exports „ ... ... ... — British produce ... ... ... ... ;;^i92, 848,914 Foreign and Colonial ... ... ... ... 52,634,944 Total 245,483,858 Page 139. — Transvaal. The estimated revenue for 18S0 was ^139,658 ; and the expenditure, .;^i54,757- Page 104. — 187S Imports Exports 173,491,150 ... 71,992,708 Foreign Countries British Possessions I"^Ports ^^290,834,632 ... p{;77,o36,iio INDEX Accidents, Great Britain general tables ot Africa, area and population imports and exports railways ... precious metals, coal, iron Age, comparative tables of Agriculture, Great Britain Canada Australia ... France Gtrmany Prussia Bavaria Austro-Hurgary Italy Switzerland Belgium Holland Denmark ... Sweden Norway Spain Greece Roumania ... Servia Bosnia — United States Chili Russia Agricultural Class, Great Britain France Agricultural Colonies, La Plata ,,, Algeria population trade, education ... products ... railways, post, &c. Alsace-Lorraine .. Anibriz America, area and population ... States of Imports and exports ... Railways Precious metals Coal, iron, petroleum .,, PAGE 99 951-8 883 896 898-9 903-4 927-8 r~ 127-8 148 242-5 334 378-9 443-4 504-6 593 616 627 64s 663 674 686 703-4 728 737-8 743-4 760 802-4 838 558-60 74 -37 842 26.-5 261 262 264 264-5 468-72 720 896 898-9 903 903-i PAGF Angola ... ... ... ... 7-° Anhalt ... 407 Animal produce of the world ... 916 Antigua ... ... ... ... 129 Apulia, see under Italy ... Area of German Empire 267-8 France ... ... ... 179-81 the Continents 883 American States... ... 882 European States 88i-z Hawaii ... ... ..• 879 Liberia ... ... ... 877 Orange Free State ... 876 Persia ... ... ... 875 Siam 872 China 866 Great Britain 35-7 British India ... ... 156 Prussia ... ... ... 349-5° Saxony ... ... ... 384 Bavaria 4*9 Wiirtemburg ... ... 44^-7 Baden 454 Hesse ... ... ... 4^4 ■ Alsace-Lorraine ... 4^^ Austro-Hungary ... 474-5 Russia ... ... ... 518-22 Italy 567-9 Switzerland ... ... 60 1-2 Belgium ... ... ... 621 Holland ... ... ... 637 Luxemburg ... ... 648 Denmark ... ... 655 Sweden ... ... ... 666-7 Norway ... ... ... 681 Spain ... ... ... 692-4 Portugal... ... ... 713-14 Greece ... ... ... 722 Roumania ... ... 733 Servia ... ... ... 740 Montenegro ... ... 747 Turkey ... ... ... 749-5' Egypt 763 United States ... ... 774-6 Mexico ... ... ... 815-16 Central American States... 820 970 Index. Area of ColumlMn Vene7Ufla — — — Ecuador ... Pmi Bolivia ... Chile Argentine Republic _ Paraguay __ Uruguay . Brazil Japan I'Ac'.r. X27 Xi9 — Hayti and San Domingo Australia . Dominion of Canada European States . Persia Argentine Republic Army of Great Britain ... France ... Germany Saxony Prussia... Bavaria Austro-Hnngary Russia ... Italy Switzerland _ Belgium Holland Luxemburg Denmark Sweden Norway Spain ... Portugal Greece ... Roumania Servia .. Turkey ■ Egypt United States ,,. Mexico Columbia Venezuela Ecuador Bolivia ... Chile Argentine Republic Uruguay Brazil ... Japan ... China ,,, Siam Liberia ... Persia ... European States Artillery, see under army. Asia, area and population imports and exports railways ... coal, iron Astociations, Great Britain Asylums, France ... 834 836 840 S45 847 X49-50 856 142 1 19-20 893-4 »75 840-4 65-71 220-24 307 390-1 439-40 497-500 54,-8 586-7 612-13 626-7 642 650 660 669 684 699-700 715-16 726-7 735 743 755 766 793-6 818 825 828 830 83s 837 842 848 851-2 861 869 X73 878 •^75 893-4 883 896 898-9 904 80 107-8 AusTalasia. area and population... imports and exports railways ... telegraphs wool .S>^ also Australia. Australia, British colonies in area, population ... nationalities emigration, births, deaths education, creeds... chief towns finance ... gold and coal, yield of ... wine, live stock, wool, timber ... imports, exports ... railways, telegraphs, post shipping, banking death rate, labour market Austro Hungary area, population, emigration nationalities, creeds towns, territorial changes finance ... army and navy ... occupations, education ... agriculture, industries trade, shipping ... railways, postal and tele- grai^h sen'ices ... Austro-Prus^ian War of 1866 Azori-s Baden — area and populatior, emigration, finance social condition ... industries Bahamas Islands ... Balearic Islands ... Bali, see Dutch Colonies * Banca, see Dutch Colonies Bangkok, shijjping of Banking, Australia France ... Germany Austro-Hungary Russia ... United States Brazil ... Bank notes, r^v paper money Bankrupts, Great Britain ._ France United States Basilicata, see under Italy Bavaria ... ... area and population religion ... towns finance ... army, education, crime ... occupations railways, post, telegraphs 14 XS3 896 898-9 901 909 155 142 142-3 143-4 144 145 145-6 ,47-8 148-51 151-2 152-3 '53-4 '54-5 474-516 474-7 477-80 480-4 484-96 497-501 501.4 504-9 509-14 514-.5 3=9 714 454-63 454-5 456-9 460-1 462 129 694 873 •53 256 341-3 5-6 564-5 8,3 854 104-5 =5' 813.14 429-46 429-3. 43' 43--5 435-9 439-42 442-5 445-6 Index. 971 Beer, amount produced in the world Beetroot sugar manufactories : — France ... Germany... factoriei in the world ... Belgium ... area and population religion, nationalities ... emigration territorial changes finance ... army social condition ... agriculture mining, manufactures ... imports, exports. .. railways, post, telegraphs shipping... education, litenitiire Benguela ... Berlin, growth of... Bermuda ... Bessemer steel works in the world Billiton, see Dutch Colonies Births, Prussia Austro-Hungary - — — — Russia Great Britain Australia... France ... Switzerland Belgium ... Holland Denmark Sweden ... Norway ... Spain Portugal ... Greece Roumania — Chile Italy Birth-rate, general table of Germany Italy Bolivia, repuhlic ... Book trade, Great Britain Borneo, see Dutch Colonies Bosnia Brazil Area and population creeds, nationalities Immigration — chief towns, finance army, navy — - — - education, trade... mineral wealth ... — shipping, railways, telegraph, post, banking.. Bread, general consumption of .. Bremen Bieweries. Prussia Saxony ... 915-16 329-30 912 620-36 620-2 620 622 622-3 623-6 626-7 627-34 617-8 628-9 629-34 634-5 635-6 636 720 358-9 128 904-5 55' 476-7 5^2-3 38-40 '43 184-6 6C2 622 I 638 656 667 682 I 694 I 7'4 7^3 734 ^37 57c 926 315-17 592 834-5 89-90 760-1 849-34 849 853 850 851 851-2 852-3 853 ^^53-4 854 960 410-20 38, 395 PAOF. Breweries, Bavaria ... ... 445 in the world ... ... 915-16 British Colonies, see Colonies British Empire ... ... ... 177 British India ... ... ... 155-68 its trade ... ... 161-3 shipping ... ... 164 canals ... ... 164-5 • railways ... ... 165-6 telegraphs ... ... 166 post ... ... ... 166-7 education ... ... 167 Bntnswick ... ... ... 398-9 Bulgaria ... ... ... ... 759-60 Butter, import of, Great Britain... 78 Calabria, see under Italy Canada 119-128 Canals, India 164-5 Canary Islands ... ... ... 694 Cape Colony ,,, ... ... '32-36 Cape Verd Islands ... ... 720 Capital sentences. Great Britain ... 91 France ... ... 235 Germany ... 320 Caroline Islands ,. ... ... 709 Caucasus, see Russia Cavalry, see under Army Celebes, xre Dutch Colonies Ceylon population revenue ... trade savings' banks railways ... education... ... ,,, Cheese, import of. Great Britain... Chile, republic China — — area, population ... dependencies — emigration finance ... army, navy I trade returns I shipping, railways ' telegraph, post ... I Cholera, general statistics of \ Cities, see towns I Civil list oPGreat Britain... ! Classes of the population. : — Great Britain ... I Canada... France ... I Prussia ... — ■ Saxony ... Russia ... Italy Switzerland Spain ... United States ... See also under Occupations. Clearing-house, London ... ... Clergy, Italy 168-70 168 168 169 169 169 170 78 836-9 867-71 867 868 868-9 869 869.70 870-1 87. 871 936-8 54-5 73-6 127 236-40 369-70 39'-3 553-4 589 615 701-2 798.9 112 590 97 Index. Clergy Spain 70 1-; Coal industry, Great Britain ... 94-8 Australia .. ... 147-8 FrancL- ... ... 241-1 Belgium ... ... 629 United States ... 805 the world 903-4 See also under Mining. Cochin-China 265 Coffee, consumption of in Great Britain 77 ; Coflee trade, West Indies 131-2 ' . Ceylon ... ... 169 ; produce of in the world... 913 , Colonial produce, consumption of in Great Britain 77 i Colonies, British 115 ; Canada 119-128 \ Europe 116-19 | Central and South America i 28 West Indies ... ... 129-32 j Guiana ... ... 'S* 1 Africa 132-141 Australia i4«-5S Colonies, Dutch 648-51 Spanish 709-12 1 Portuguese ... ... 720-1 1 French... ... ... 261-6 European ... ... 886 Columbia, republic ... ... 823-6 | Commerce, see under exports and imports ■ — - ■ of the world ... ... 894-6 1 Commercial class, Great Britain ... 74 France... ... 237 Commercial marine, see shipping Communal system, Russia ... 554-5 Communes, France ... ... >9^"5 Italy 57» Switzerland... ... 604-611 Consanguineous marriages ... 95^-9 Constantinople ... ... ... 75 8 Constitution of German Empire... 17^-9 Consulates, German ... ... 34- Copper produced in Europe .. 905 See also under Mining. Copper trade, South Africa ... 135 Corea .. 868 Corn trade, Great Britain ... 7^ Russia ... "... 558-9 the world ... ... 906 Costa Rica, republic ... ... 820-2 Cotton industry, Great Britain ... 99 Germany ... 337 United States ... 808 the world ... 907-9 India 163 Counties of Great Britain, area and population of ... .. 37"^ Creeds, see Religions Crime as ariected by education ... 959 Crimean War, cost of ... ... 58; 117 Criminal Classes, Great Britain .. 90-1 France ... 235 Criminal Classses, Prussia Bavaria Russia Italy Denmark Crown lands of Great Britain ... Cuba Curasao ... Customs of Great Britain France untrustworthy estimates of See also under Revenue. Cyprus ... ... ... : Danubian Commission ... Deaths in Great Britain ... Australia France . Switzerland Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden Norway Spain ... Portugal Greece ... Roumania Chili 1 Prussia Russia ... I* • Italy I 5^^ also under Mortality. Death-rate, European States Debt of Holland I Denmark I Great Britain Canada ... British India i Fiji I France ... — ■ Paris ' Prussia ... Bremen ... , Bavaria ... Austro-Hun-9 579-81 581-6 586-8 589 590-2 592 592-3 593-5 595-7 598-9 129-131 857-66 857 858 858 858-61 861 862 862 862-3 863 863-4 865-6 648-51 43-4 89 See also under Literature and Education. Karikal 265 Labour market, Australia .. 155 Labuan ... ... ... ... '7i-3 Lagos 134 Lakes, Swiss, area of ... ... 602 Land, divisions of, France ... 240 See abo under Area. Land forces. Great Britain .., 65-17 Land forces, France See also under Army. Languages, the chief European ... Lead, produced in Europe See also under Mining. Liberia Liechtenstein, prii.cipality Life, mean duration of ... Prussian tables of Geneva „ France, London ... See also under Mortality Lighthouses, Sweden United States Linen trade, Great Britain Lippe Literature, GreatBritain ... France Germany Russia Italy ... Belgium Sweden United States Live Stock, Great Britain Australia France Prussia Bavaria Baden Hcs^e Austro-Hungai-y Russia Italy Switzerland ... Belgium Holland Java ... Denmark Sweden Norway Spain... Greece Roumania Egypt — United States Argentine republic Uruguay Lombardy, see under Italy Lombok, see Dutch Colonies. London, area, population of local expenditure of Liibeck Luxemburg, Grand Duchy Macao Madeira ... Madura, Dutch Colony ... Mahe Malta Manchuria Manitoba Manufactures, France Austro-Hungary PAGE 222-4 886 905 877-8 6.9 9 24- 5 934-5 935-6 936 668 813 98 406 88-90 233-4 315-16 557 592 629 674 800-1 93 148-9 *45 380 ■444 461 467 506 560 594 616 628 64s 650 664 67s 686 704 728 738 767 803-4 843 45 61 420-27 652-4 721 7>4 648-51 265 117 868 120 246-8 508 3 Q 978 Index. Manufactures, Russia Switzerland Belgium . . . Sweden Spain United States Mexico Great Britain — German Empire Prussia . . Russia Italy Japan Maple sugar, see sugar Marian Islands Marquesas Islands Marriages, Italy ... Great Britain France .;. Switzerland Belgium ... Holland Denmark Sweden ... Norway ... Spain Portugal ... Greece Roumania Chile Prussia ... Saxony ... Austro-Hungary... Russia Marriages of relatives Martinique Mauritius ... ... ... 132 Mayotte Island Measures, general tables of Meat, general cousumption of .. Mecklenburg-Schwerin ... Strelitz Mercantile Marine, Great Britain Germany Belgium Sweden See also under Shipping area and population nationalities finance ... arrhy, navy trade, industries railways, shipping Military statistics, Great Britain Canada ... See also under Army Military retrospect, Prussia Military system, Germany See also Army. Militia of (ireat Britain ... Mineral produce cf the world Mining industries. Great Britain. Mexico 3; PAGE 560-1 617 628-9 676-7 70s 807-9 S19 97-9 337-8 380-1 560-1 589-90 863 709 166 570 38-40 .83-4 602 622 638 656 668 682 694 714 723 734 837 35' 384 476 5*^-3 958-9 265 139-41 265 962-4 960-1 395-7 397-8 108-11 344-6 636 680 814-19 8.4-15 8.5 815-18 818 819 819 65-72 124 367 303-7 69 916 93-6 Mining industries, France Germany Prussia... Saxony... Austro - Hungary Russia ... Italy Belgium Luxemburg Sweden... Spain Greece ... United States ... Mexico... Japan Brazil Argentine republic Chile Peru Columbia Costa Rica the world Mining casualties, Great Britain... Prussia Modena, see under Italy Moluccas, see Dutch Colonies Monaco Monasteries, Switzerland... Mongolia ... ... Montenegro Montreal Montserrat islands Mortality, rate of, in Great Britain Algeria tables of, England ... Belgium, Saxony European States towns proportion of, in sexes of children ... in years of scarcity ... influenced by prosperity or poverty... affected by the seasons of different classes in military profe«sion in mercantile marine under special conditions See also under Deaths. Mortmain, lands under, France ... Mossamedes Mount Cenis tunnel Mozambique Naples, see under Italy Napoleonic wars ... Natal National debt, see debt National wealth of Great Britain Nationalities in Great Britain British India France ■ Germany ... PAGE 240-2 331-2 376-8 394 506-7 557-8 594-5 629-30 654 675-6 704 730 804-7 819 863 853 843 838 832 825 822 902-6 96 377-8 600 616 868 747-8 122 1 29 36 263 919-22 922-4 926 929 929-32 932 932-3 933-4 938 939-40 94>-3 943-4 948-9 246 720 598-9 720 224 132-3 112 44 '57 189-90 271-2 Index. 979 Nationalities in Prussia ... Austro-Hungary .. Russia Italy Switzerland Belgium ... Holland Sweden Norway ... Spain Greece Turkey Egypt United States Mexico Central American States Peru ... Chile Argentine Republic Paraguay ... Brazil Japan China Persia Hawaii Europe Navigation, see shipping Navy of Siam China Japan Brazil Venezuela Mexico ... Great Britain France ... Germany Austro-Hungary Russia Italy Holland Denmark Sweden ... Norway ... Spain Portugal... Greece ... Roumania Turkey ... United States Chile Argentine Republic — European States PAGE 355 477-9 523-9 571 604 621 637 667 682 694 723 752 763 779 816 820 831 837 850 858 868 874 879 885-6 873 870 861 852 828 818 71-2 227 314 500-1 588 644 66i 671 685 701 716 727 735 755-6 796-7 837 Nevis Islands Newloundland ... ... ... 122 New Caledonia 266 New South Wales i42-'55 New Zealand H^-ISS Newspapers, Germany ... ... 3'9 See also under literature Nicaragua, Republic 820-1 Norway 681-91 area, population ... ... 681 nationalities, religions ... 68i-z Norway, towns, Finance army, navy social progress agriculture, trade railways ... telegraph, post ... fisheries, shipping Nossi-Be island ... Nova Scotia, fisheries ot ... Occupations, Great Britain Canada France Austro-Hungary ... Italy Prussia Saxony Bavaria Wurtemburg Switzerland Sweden Spain Roumania ... United States Japan Octrois, French, receipts of Oldenburg Ontario Opium Trade, India China Orange Free State Ottawa Palaos (Pelew) Islands ... Palm Sugar, see Sugar Paper, consumption of. Great Britain Germany... amount produced in the World Paper Money, Great Britain Germany... Paraguay, Republic Paris, growth of . . . debt of Parma, see under Italy Paupers, Great Britain ... Pearl fishery, Ceylon Pelew Islands, see Palao ... Persia Peru, republic Petroleum, United States Philippine Islands piedmont, see Italy Poland, see Russia Pondicherry Population of Great Britain American States ... the Continents European States Hawaii Siam China Hayti & San Domingo Japan — -■ — ^ Brazil PAGE 682-2 683-4 685 686-9 689-90 690 961 265 126 73-5 127 235-40 501-2 589 368-71 391-2 44^-3 451 614-15 672-3 701-2 736 798-9 858 212 400-1 122 163 870-1 876 120-2 709 338 914 1 1 1 300-2 845-6 •93 219-20 83-4 170 874-5 851-3 806-905 709 26s 35-6 88z 883 881-2 878 872 866 855 S58 849-50 98o Index. Population of Uruguay Paraguay Argentine Republic Chile Bolivia Australian towns ... British India Indian cities Liberia France Algeria Germany ... , Prussia Saxony Mecklenburg-Schwerin „ Strelitz Oldenburg... • Brunswick. ... Wurtemburg Bavaria Baden Hesse Alsace-Lorraine ... Austro-Hungary . . . Russia Italy Switzerland ■ Belgium Holland Luxemburg . Denmark ... Sweden Norway Spain ... Portugal Greece Roumania ... Servia Montenegro Turkey Egypf United States Mexico Central American States Columbia ... Venezuela ... Ecuador Peru Persia Orange Free States... Porto Rico Portugal ... area and population emigration, towns finance... army, navy social condition trade shipping railways, post ... colonies... Post Office, Great Britain Australia 50 PAGE 847 845 840 836 '45 ,156 157-8 877 179-82 261 267-8 349-S' 383-4 395-6 397 400 398 446-7 429 454-5 463-4 468-9 474-6 518-22 567-70 601-3 621 637-8 652 655 666 681 692-4 7'3-'4 722 733 740-1 747 747-52 763 774-6 815-16 820 823 827 829 831 874 876 711 713-21 713-14 714 714-15 715-16 716-19 716-19 719 720 720 ; 105-6 ■S3 Post Office, India France Germany Austro-Hungary Russia Italy Switzerland ... Belgium Holland Japan China Persia The World Denmark Sweden Norway Spain... Portugal Greece Roumania Servia Turkey Egypt United States Mexico Brazil Power-looms, Great Britain See also under manufactures. Precious metals, Great Britain ... India France ... Russia ... the world See also under mining. Presidents of United States Prince Island Produce of the world, yearly value of Professional classes, Great Britain.. See also under occupation. Property, rateable, in Great Britain Prussia, population emigration — ■ ■ creeds and nationalities... towns territorial changes finance ... Public debt, see debt. Quebec Quicksilver, United States Queensland Races, the chief European See also under nationalities. Railways of the World ... Hawaii China .lapaii Brazil Great Britain Canada South Africa Australia India Ceylon PAGE 166-7 252 341-2 515 564 599 61 9 635 648 865 87. 875 902 665 680 690-1 708-9 720 73' 739 745 759 768 Sio 819 854 97 93-4 .63 250 558 902-3 782-3 720 916 74 81 349-51 352-3 354-6 356-9 359-60 360-7 807 142-55 885-6 i^--9oo 880 871 865 853 106-8 127 136 152 165-6 169 Index. 981 Railways ot France Germany ... Prussia Saxony Bavaria Wiirtemburg Austro-Hungary Russia Italy Switzerland Belgium Holland ... Luxemburg... Denmark Sweden Norway Spain Portugal Greece Roumania ... Turkey Egypt United States Mexico Central American Columbia ... Venezuela ... Ecuador Peru Chile Argentine RepuhV Paraguay UiTJguay ■ Bolivia Raw material, Great Britain Receipts, ZoUverein See also under Reveni Religions in Great Britain — Australia British India... France Germany . Prussia Saxony Liibeck Bavaria Austro-Hiingary Russia Italy Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden Norway Spain Greece Roumania Servia Turkey United States Peru ... Brazil Europe 253-4 I 338-40 I 381-3 i 395 ! 445 I 450 ; 514-15 56^-3 61S 635 647 ^ 650 664 678-9 689-90 707-8 720 730-1 739 758 767 811-12 819 States 810 825 828 830 83. 839 c. 844 845 848 835 99 32T les. 43 ■44 157 189 272 354 385 420 431 479-80 524-5 571 621 638 655 66^ 683 694 723 733 741 75i 778 83' 850 Religions in America The World ... Reunion, island ... Reuss-Greiz Reuss-Schleiz Revenue of Great Britain Canada Australia British India Ceylon Hong Kong ... — Labuan Straits Settlements Falkland Islands Fiji France Germany Prussia Saxony Austro-Hungary Russia Italy Switzerland ... Belgium Holland . Denmark Sweden Norway Spain Portugal Greece Roumania Servia Egypt United States European States See also under finances. Rhine Confederacy Rice trade, India ... ... .... River navigation, Germany Austro-Hungary Russia ... Roads, France Italy Spain Rome Rum trade, West Indies ... Roumania... Area, population, creeds Finance, army, navy ... Territorial changes Social condition, education Agriculture Trade, shipping, post ... Russia area and population nationalities, religions ... towns growth ... finance ... army and navy ... social state, serfdom classes, commercial system PAGR 885 885 265 405 405-6 8-9 ; 60 122-3 145-6 158-160 168 170 172 174 •75 176 199-201 293-5 361-2 388 489-90 529-31 58T-4 607-8 623-4 640-1 657 668-9 682 696 715 724-5 734 741 764 783-6 890 283-5 163 346 515 562 599 707 579 131-2 733-9 733 734-5 735-6 736 737-8 738-9 517-66 518-22 523-5 525-7 527-28 529-40 541-8 548-53 553-4 982 Index. Russia education, literature industries, agriculture manufactures trade railways, post, telegraphs banking, shipping coinage, measures Sailing vessels, G'-eat Britain France Salt produced in Europe ... Salt works, Germany Prussia See also under mining Samos, principality S. Christopher's, island ... San Domingo, Republic ... S. Gothard tunnel S. Helena ... S. Lucia, island ... S. Marino San Salvador, Republic ... S. 'Thomas, island S. Vincent, island... Sandwich Islands... Sardinia, see under Italy Savings' banks. Great Britain Canada ... Ceylon ... France ... Prussia ... Saxony ... Italy Switzerland Saxe-Altenburg ... Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Saxe-Meiningen ... Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach ... Saxony, area and population finance, ... social condition ... Industries... Schaumburg-Lippe Schleswig-Holstein, social condition Schools, Great Britain Algeria ... Germany See also under education Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . . . Schwarzburg-Soi'clerhausen Senegal Senegambia Serfdom in Russia Sex, proportion of. Great Britain Germany Servia area, population, finance... army, education, agriculture trade, post, telegrai^li Shipping, Great Britain ... Canada... Australia India Hong-Kong PAGE 556-7 557-8 560-1 561-2 562-4 564-6 665 109 255 905 333-4 376 761-2 129 855-6 598-9 133 119 600 820-1 720 129 879-80 79-80 122 169 257 383 395 599 619 404-5 403-4 402-3 401-2 383-6 388-90 391-3 394-5 406 369 86 262 3'5 408 407 265 720 548-53 41 269 740-5 740-2 74^-3 743-4 108-9 127 »53 164 171 Shipping, Labuan Straits Settlements Falkland Islands France ... Germany Prussia ... Bremen... Austro-Hungary Russia ... — . Italy ■ Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden ... Norway Spain ... Portugal Greece ... Roumania Turkey... Egypt United States Mexico '■ — Columbia Chile Argentine Republic Brazil ... ..., Japan china ... Siam Hawaii ... the world Siam, Kingdom ... Siberia, see Russia Sicily, see under Italy Sierra Leone Silk trade. Great Britain Germany the world Silver, see under Mining and Precious Metals. Slavery in Cuba ... Smelting works, Germany Prussia ... See also under mining industries Social Condition of Russia Holland Sweden Norway Portugal Greece Roumania ... Great Britain France Prussia Bavaria Wurtemburg Austro-Hungary Russia Italy Switzerland... Belgium Denmark ... PAOE 172 ■74 17s 255-6 419 511-14 565-6 597-98 636 647 664 680 691 709 719-20 730 739 757-8 767 812 819 825 838 844 853 863-4 871 873 880 896-7 872-3 134 98 338 91C-1 1 709 332 376-7 548-57 640 668 685 7-6 727 736 73-5 228-33 368-71 440-2 45' 501 548-53 589-90 614-15 627-8 661-2 Index. 983 Social Conditions of Spain Servia Society Islands South Australia Spain Turkey United States Brazil Sweden Holland area and population religion, races, towns finance ... army, navy social condition, education agriculture, mining, industries 703-5 PAGE 70J-2 743 798-9 852 672 644 266 142-4 692.712 692-4 694-S 69S-9 699-701 701-3 trade, railways, post shipping, hsheries colonies ... Spindles, number of. Great Britain See also under manufactures States of the Church, see under Italy States of United States, origin of names of Stamp duty, Great Britain Steam-power, Great Britain See also under Manufactures. Steamships, Great Britain Switzei-land ... See also under Shipping. Steel, Bessemer ... Straits Settlements Subsidies paid by England to Foreign States ... General tables of Suez Canal Sugar, consumption of, Great Britain trade, West Indies the world ... Suicides, France ... Sumatra, see Dutch Colonies Surinam, see Dutch colonies Sweden area, population ... finance ... army, navy social condition ... agriculture mining, industries trade railways, post shipping 705-9 702 709-12 97 781 54 99 169 619 904 173-4 64 768-9 77 131-2 911-12 235-6 Switzerland Tasmania area and population... emigration, nationalities communes, towns historical notes finance communal property, army 6 1 1 - 1 3 occupa lions, industries 614-18 railways, post, telegraph 618-19 steamboats, savings banks 619 Hi-'55 666-80 666-7 668-9 669-71 672-4 674-5 675-6 677-8 678-80 680 601-19 601-3 603-4 604-5 605-7 607-10 PAGE Taxation per head. Great Britain 57 France ... 199-205 see also under finance Tea, consumption of, in Great Britain 77 in the world 9>3-i4 50 Telegraphy, the world Hawaii Orange Free State ... Persia Great Britain Canada Australia India... Ceylon France Germany Bavaria Wurtemburg... Austro-Hungary Russia Italy Switzerland ... Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden Norway Spain... Portugal Greece Roumania Servia Turkey Egypt United States Mexico Columbia Ecuador Peru ... Bolivia Chile ■ — Argentine Republic . . . Paraguay Uruguay Brazil Japan... China Siam ... Territorial changes, Great Britain. Prussia Saxony ... Mecklenburg-Schwerin Oldenburg Bavaria ... ...■ Wurtemburg Baden Bavaria Austro - Hungary . . . Russia Italy Belgium ... Holland Denmark... 901-2 880 876 875 ; loS 127 152 166 169 ^53 341 . 446 453 515 563-4 599 bi8 636 648 665 679 690 708 720 731 739 745 759 768 810-1 1 8 19 825 830 833 835 839 844 845 845 854 865 871 873 47-8 359-60 3S7 396 400 434 448 457 482-4 622-3 639 656-7 984 Index. Territorial changes, S wede ii Norway ... Roumania United States Tibet Timber trade, Canada and Honduras Australia ... Timor, island Tobacco duty, Great Britain Tobacco trade, Germany Pru-sia ... Russia Tobago Island Tonnage, Great Britain Canada ... Australia... India Hong Kong Labuan ... Straits' Settlement- Belgium ... . Holland See also under Shipping Toronto Towns, populations of Europe ... Persia China Japan . Brazil Bolivia ... Argentine Republic Chile Venezuela United States Egypt Turkey ... Roumania Greece ... Portugal ... Spain Great Britain Germany... Prussia ... France ... Saxony ... Meci^lenburg-Schwerin. Meckltnburg-Strelitz . Brunsw-ick Oldenburg Bavaria ... Wurtcmberg Baden Hesse Alsace-Lorraine ... Austro-Hungary... Russia Italy Switzerland — ^ Belgium ... Holland Denmark . Sweden ... ... PAGE 668 682 735 782 868 iz6-7 721 53 335-6 379 559 129 109 127 153 164 171 162 174 636 641 887-9 »7S 868 858 851 834 840 837 827 780 764 75^-3 733 923 714 694-5 43-7 275 356-8 386 396 397 398 400 43^-3 448 456 464 469 480-2 5^5-7 57--9 604-:; 621 638 65' 66- Towns, Norway ... Trade of the world Trade, see under exports and imports Transit trade, Germany ... Switzerland Greece Transvaal ... Trinidad, island ... Tripoli, vilayet Truffles, cultivation of, France ... Tuamotu Islands ... Tubuai Islands Tunis, Regency ... Tunnels, railway ... Mont Cenis and St. Gothard Turk's isle Turkey area, population... nationalities, creeds towns, finance ... army, navy — — — trade, shipping ... railways, post Tuscany, 5;V under Italy ... Umbria, see under Italy United States PAGE 683 894-6 328-9 617 724 137-9 129-32 791-3 244 266 266 769-71 900 598-9 129 749-62 749-5 i 75^ 753-5 755-6 756-8 758-9 area and population immigration creeds, nationalities Indians towns names of States growth of territory presidents ... finance army, navy occupations education ... agriculture mining manufactures, trade post, telegraph, railways 8 10- 1 : 774-8 > 4 774-6 777-8 778-9 879-80 780 78.-2 782 782-3 783-93 793-8 798 799-801 802-4 804-7 807-10 shipping, banking X12-13 fisheries ... ... 814 Universities, Germany ... ... 314 Italy 591-* See also under education. Uruguay, republic ... ... 847-8 Vegetable produce of the world ... 916 Venezuela, re])ublic ... ... 827-8 Venice, see under Italy ... Victoria, Australia ... ... 14^-55 Vienna 480-1 Vineyards, Australia ... ... 148 Germany 335 Switzerland ... ... 616 Europe ... ... 915 See also under wine. Virgin isles ... ... ... > ^9 Volunteers, Great Britain ... 69 Wages, rate ol, Australia... ... 155 Waldeck 4°5 Index. 985 War expenditure, Great Britain ... Sec also under army and military stati War notes, historical, (Jreat Britain France... Germany Prussia Saxony See also under Army Water in highways, Spain Water, general consumption of , West Australia ... West India Islands, British Weights, general tables of Wine, general consumption ot . Wine trade, Great Britain South Africa Australia • ... France Germany Austio-Hungary — Russia Spain Portugal PAGE -tics. 69-71 223-6 308-13 391 709 961 41- '55 29-132 962-4 961 79 13s 148 244-5 335 505 559 707 716-17 PAGE Wine trade. United States ... 804-5 Europe ... ... 915 Wool trade, South Africa ... 134 Australia .. ... 150-1 Russia ... ... 559 The World 909-10 ^ Woollen trade, Great Britain ... 98 World, yearly produce of. .. ... 916 Worsted trade, Great Britain ... 98 Wrecks, Great Britain ... ... no Italy 5?8-9 Denmark... ... ... 664 Sweden ... ... ... 672 See also under Shipping. Wurtemburg ... ... ... 44^^53 population, religion ... 44^-7 finance ... ... 449"S° railways, army ... 45°-! industries, trade ... 451-3 Zinc produced in Europe 905 .S"*'^ also under Mining. Zollverein 320-29 HoXVLKTT & Son, Old Stvk Printers, 10, Frith-STeit. Soho, London, W 14 DAY USE RJBTURN TO DESK FROM WIUCH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due oo the last date stamped below, or oti the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewab may be made 4 days jirior to date due. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. ^TAi^ QRO H4 TFR-HBRARt LOAN jC'JGle 1973 m LD21A-10Tn-8,'73 (R1902S10)476 — A?.\ General Library University of Califortiia Berkeley ll/UO«J*wt?- 4S^^^ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY