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 Form L I 

 
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 MAR 2 7 1925 
 
 Form L-9-15m-8,'24
 
 CHAPTERS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 AIMS AND PRACTICE 
 
 OF 
 
 TEACHING
 
 ItonDon: C. J. CLAY and SONS, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 
 
 AVE MARIA LANE. 
 
 (Slasgoto: 263, ARGYLE STREET. 
 
 1Lcip>ig: F. A. KROCKHAUS. 
 
 i^cto ?gork: THE MACMILLAN CO. 
 
 ISombau: GEORGE BELL AND SONS.
 
 CHAPTERS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 AIMS AND PRACTICE 
 
 OF 
 
 TEACHING 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 FREDERIC SPENCER, M.A., Phil.Doc, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES ; 
 FORMERLY CHIEF MASTER ON THE MODERN SIDE 
 , , IN THE LEYS SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE: 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 1897 
 
 [Al/ Rights reserzvd] 
 
 iViAY 1908
 
 (JTatnbrtlige : 
 
 PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 3 03
 
 sii 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The publication of these Chapters has been suggested by 
 that widespread interest in education which characterises the 
 Wales of to-day and promises so well for the Wales of the 
 future. But the degree in which they may prove helpfully 
 suggestive to the teachers of Wales is also the measure of their 
 claim to the attention of teachers generally. Contributed, in 
 response to the Editor's invitation, by writers whose knowledge 
 and experience entitle them to speak with authority on the 
 teaching of the several subjects of which they treat, and 
 whose sphere of educational activity lies for the most part 
 outside the Principality, they include few, if any, details of 
 purely local interest. Both in England, where so much is 
 said about the organisation of secondary education and so 
 little done, and in America where so much is said a>fd done in 
 the matter of education generally, the issue of an inexpensive 
 volume dealing with the efficient teaching of most of the 
 respective subjects of an ordinary school curriculum will, there 
 is reason to believe, be welcomed as an endeavour to meet a 
 want which is increasingly felt. No attempt is here made to 
 appraise the relative claims of conflicting subjects to a place in 
 the curricula of the schools. We should probably never have 
 witnessed the more acute phases of the dispute between the 
 'Ancients' and ' Moderns,' if due attention had been paid, on
 
 vi Preface. 
 
 either side, to the problem how best to teach whatever is 
 taught. For, to quote the words of the Royal Commission on 
 Secondary Education, " the true worth of instruction — that is 
 to say, its vitalizing influence on the scholar's mind — depends 
 less than is commonly supposed upon the particular subject 
 through which the mind is approached, and more upon the 
 stimulative method in which the mind is roused. School 
 curricula, no doubt, need to be in some cases extended as 
 regards the whole range of a school's work, and in others 
 restricted as regards the number of subjects to be taught to the 
 particular scholar at the same time. But it is, after all, not so 
 much in the remodelling of curricula as in the improvement of 
 methods, and, above all, in the supply of more highly educated 
 and skilful teachers that educational progress must in future 
 consist." 
 
 The cordial thanks of the Editor are due to the Syndics of 
 the Cambridge University Press, who, while not necessarily 
 endorsing all or any of the views expressed in these Chapters, 
 have generously undertaken their publication. 
 
 The Editor's own task has been a pleasant and an easy 
 one ; and for its performance he aspires to no higher meed 
 than that bestowed by good Roger Ascham upon the quondam 
 Master of his College, whom he describes indeed as "meanelie 
 learned himselfc ", but also as " not meanelie affectioned to set 
 forward learning in others." 
 
 University College of North Wales, 
 February, 1897.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Greek, by W. Rhys Roberts, M.A., Professor of Greek in 
 the University College of North Wales ; late Fellow of 
 King's College, Cambridge; author of "The Ancient 
 Boeotians " i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Latin, by J. L. Paton, M.A., Assistant Master in Rugby 
 
 School ; late Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge . 40 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 French ; German, by the Editor 75 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 English, by A. S. Way, M.A., late Headmaster of Wesley 
 College, Melbourne ; Translator of Homer, and of the 
 Tragedies of Euripides ....... 121 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 History, by J. E. Lloyd, M.A., late Professor of History in 
 the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth ; Registrar 
 and Lecturer in Welsh History in the University College 
 of North Wales ........ 1 4 1 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Geography, by H. Yule Oldham, M,A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer 
 
 in Geography in the University of Cambridge ... 156
 
 viii Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Algebra, by G. B. Matukws, M.A., formerly Fellow of Si 
 John's College, Cambridge ; late Professor of Mathematics 
 in the University College of North Wales ; author of 
 "The Theory of Numbers" . . . . i8i 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Geometry, by W. P. Workman, M.A., B.Sc, Headmaster 
 of Kingswood School, Bath ; late Fellow of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge ....... 193 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Physical Science, by R. W. Stewart, D.Sc, Principal and 
 Professor of Physics at the Hartley Institution, South- 
 ampton .......... 208 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Chemistry, by II. E. Armstrong, Phil. Doc, F.R.S. , Pro- 
 fessor of Chemistry in the Central Technical College, 
 London ; late President of the Chemical Society . . i^i 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Botany, by R. W. Phillips, M.A., B.Sc, Professorof Botany 
 
 in the University College of North Wales . . 260 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Physiology, by Alexander Hill, M.A., M.D., Master 
 of Downing College, Cambridge ; President of the 
 Neurological Society of Great Britain; author of "The 
 Physiologist's Note-Book," <!vc. ..... 273
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 No profit grows where is no pleasure ta'eii : 
 In brief, sir, study what you most affect. 
 
 Shakespeare, Taming of the Shreio, Act I. Sc. i. 
 
 ^uX'g ^iaiov ovd^u ifj-ixovov /xadrifMa. Plato, Republic, vii. 536 E. 
 
 When Lucentio finds himself in Padua, the nursery of arts, 
 whither he has come in order to pursue a course of learning 
 and ingenious studies, he turns for counsel to his trusty man 
 Tranio. The advice given by Tranio culminates in the well- 
 known lines which head this chapter. ' The mathematics and 
 the metaphysics ' were uppermost in Tranio's mind when he 
 thus delivered himself; and it is arithmetic, and geometry, and 
 !^ the studies generally which lead up to dialectic, that are present 
 . to the thoughts of the Platonic Socrates when he enunciates the 
 ^^ closely parallel principle that 'forced growths of knowledge 
 cj take no abiding root in the mind.' It is not intended here to 
 estimate with greater exactitude, and with fuller reference to 
 the context in the two cases, the position assumed in these 
 passages, nor to discuss on its merits the question of freedom 
 of choice in the earlier and the later years of study. It is 
 enough that all will allow, first, that a time conies sooner or 
 
 s. T. I
 
 2 TJie Aims and Practice of Teac/ujig. [Chap. 
 
 later when the learner should follow his own bent, and, 
 secondly, that in the years which precede the granting of this 
 option, it is better to allure, than to drive, into the paths of 
 study. 
 
 Nor again — to deal still further in negations— is it intended 
 to estimate the comparative advantages of beginning Greek at 
 an early or at a somewhat later age. If the remarks which 
 follow may seem sometimes to apply better to older than to 
 younger students, it is because the writer's experience has lain 
 chiefly among the former. The late beginners have always 
 been a large body in the Scottish Universities ; they are to be 
 found, too, in considerable numbers in our Provincial Colleges 
 and our newer Boys' Schools, and among the girls trained in 
 High Schools. As far as Greek represents with them a deliberate 
 choice made at a time when they are of age to judge, the results 
 attained should be good, provided always (i) that they have 
 previously received a thorough training in English, and in the 
 elements of Latin and of one or more of the continental 
 languages, and (2) that they are allowed to devote an adequate 
 amount of time to the study when once they begin it. 
 
 We will, accordingly, premise that the beginner is of any 
 age from 14 onward : that he is able to give a large share 
 of his time to the subject : that he has been well grounded 
 in his own language, in Latin, and in one or more of the languages 
 of the Continent. Such a learner, if he is in earnest and possesses 
 fair abilities, may be expected to make rapid progress. Consider- 
 able difficulty will no doubt be presented by the grammar, 
 especially by the accidence, and in the accidence especially by 
 the irregular verbs. But the teacher, starting with a Greek- 
 English and English-Greek Exercise Book, in which the simpler 
 grammatical forms and rules are given, will push forward as 
 quickly as possible to the reading of authors. He will feel that 
 translation is the best guide to translation, and that grammar 
 is best studied theoretically after it has been learnt practically.
 
 I.] Greek. 3 
 
 The wise saws quoted at the commencement may now be 
 reinforced by a modern instance. Not long ago a striking ad- 
 dress was deUvered at St Andrews by the Marquis of Dufferin as 
 Lord Rector of the University. In drawing from his own long 
 and varied experience hints for the guidance of the students 
 who were his hearers, Lord Dufferin was led to look back upon 
 the classical training which he had received at school and at 
 the University. ' I myself was introduced to the Latin grammar 
 when I was six years old, and to the Greek grammar a couple 
 of years later ; and when I left Oxford, after 14 years of 
 uninterrupted application at these two tongues, the most that 
 I could do was to translate with some sort of decency a few 
 Greek plays, some books of Herodotus, a little of Cicero, and 
 some Virgil and Horace, that had already been carefully 
 conned'.' This disproportion between labour and acquisition 
 was to be noticed, we are further told, not only in the speaker 
 but in the great majority of his contemporaries. The instance 
 seems, therefore, to be 'modern' in Shakespeare's sense no 
 less than in our own. 
 
 Fortunately Lord Dufferin, who thus indicts from his own 
 experience the system under which he was educated, also 
 appeals to his own experience in support of what he regards as 
 a better method. ' Later in life I reflected with shame on the 
 paucity of my classical acquirements, and I set myself down to 
 learn Greek in the same way as I would set about learning a 
 modern language (viz. by devoting more attention to translation 
 than to grammar). The result was that, although I had only spare 
 moments of time to give to the business, I soon found myself 
 able to take up any ordinary Greek poet or prose writer, and 
 read what was written as easily as I could French — always, of 
 course, excepting a corrupt chorus or some of the more difficult 
 
 ^ Rectorial Addresses delivered at the University of St Andrews, edited 
 by William Knight, p. 339.
 
 4 TJie Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 authors'.' The comparative failure of the old system is 
 attributed by its assailant to the fact that, instead of 
 encouraging wide reading with a view to the acquisition of 
 a vocabulary, it killed interest by its excessive devotion to 
 grammatical analysis. Classical authors were to be read, it 
 seemed, not because they had stories to tell or beauties to 
 unfold, but because they had grammatical rules to illustrate. 
 
 Now the force of this criticism might, it is true, be 
 questioned to some extent by a defender of the system 
 attacked. It might be urged that boys are not men, and that 
 consequently the methods of later life may not be suitable for 
 them. Or stress might be laid on the difficulties which would 
 attend the teaching of a large class, consisting of lazy and dull 
 as well as of bright and industrious boys, if discursive reading 
 were substituted for strict verbal analysis. But there is less 
 reason to dwell on these considerations, forgotten though they 
 often are by critics of their schooldays, because this paper, as 
 already stated, is intended more especially to deal with learners 
 who are not very young, who have had some previous training 
 in the grammar of other languages, and who are supposed to 
 begin Greek of deliberate choice and because they like it. In 
 the case of such students the observations of Lord Dufiferin 
 are, in the judgment of the present writer at any rate, of great 
 importance, even when all due allowance has been made for 
 what may on any ground seem exceptional in the personal 
 experiences which prompted them. In particular, as small a 
 portion as possible of the best Greek literature should be 
 subjected to mere grammatical dissection. 
 
 Let us suppose, then, that a learner of the type indi- 
 cated is beginning Greek. What in broad outline will be his 
 course ? 
 
 ' Rectorial Addresses delivei'cd at the University of St Attdre7vs, edited 
 by William Knight, p. 340.
 
 I.] Greek. 5 
 
 He would, as we have said, begin with Exercises, Greek 
 into English and English into Greek. He would 
 
 £^xcrciscs< 
 
 thus be practised, from the start, in double 
 translation. The choice of exercise-book would be a matter 
 for the teacher's taste. But attention may be called to one or 
 two features of importance not always found in books for 
 beginners. It seems desirable that the simpler verbal forms 
 should be given as soon as possible, so that there may be 
 greater variety in the structure of the sentences set. Rarer 
 forms, such as the dual in nouns and verbs, may be reserved 
 for separate treatment at a later stage. Great pains should be 
 taken to keep the learner on the alert by the repetition, at 
 frequent intervals and under different guises, of any points (the 
 construction of neuter plural nominative with singular verb, for 
 example) which are apt to find him nodding. New words 
 should be shown, wherever possible, to be related to the words 
 the learner already knows in English or in other languages. 
 The connexion is often far too remote in appearance to attract 
 the beginner's attention, and unless pointed out at first, it is 
 perhaps never noticed at all. Many men of good abilities who 
 have done some amount of Greek would be at a loss if asked 
 to give the etymology of anecdote, hermit, acrobat, dropsy ; and 
 yet the original Greek words are, in these cases, familiar enough. 
 The results would probably be still more disappointing were 
 the derivation required in the case of such words as diphtheria, 
 proboscis, intoxicate, anodyne, iconoclast. 
 
 Though he should postpone the systematic study of Greek 
 grammar to a later period when he is more . . . 
 
 o r ... Accidence 
 
 amply furnished with the materials for it, it and Easy 
 will be well for the learner, almost from the 
 beginning, to become accustomed to the use of some Primer 
 of Greek Accidence which gives the principal Attic forms, and 
 which contains nothing that it will afterwards be necessary to 
 unlearn. Even the most retentive memory is helped by the
 
 6 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 appearance of a familiar page, and the exercise-book, which 
 can only present the grammar in a fragmentary form, is likely to 
 be discarded when it has served its immediate purpose. An 
 early beginning will also be made with simple passages of 
 continuous prose for translation into English. The fullest 
 help may be given in the preparation of the translation ; there 
 is no fear that the learner will not at a later time find difiicul- 
 ties enough and mental training enough, and the chief object at 
 the moment is to quicken interest and to increase the stock of 
 words. Short texts with vocabularies appended will be found 
 useful, and the learner should see to it that every fresh bit of 
 reading undertaken contributes towards that coJ>ia verborum 
 which it must be his aim to attain. At the same time he 
 should not be too anxious to carry everything away with him. 
 A difficult word, though it may not easily be committed to 
 memory when first encountered, will gradually fix itself in the 
 mind, since it will present itself, time after time, in fresh 
 contexts if sufficient ground be covered. 
 
 The passages first read may happen to be portions of 
 Xenophon's Anabasis. But even if this is not 
 so, it will not be long before the learner will 
 enter upon the time-honoured marches which successive 
 generations of schoolboys have shared, parasang upon parasang, 
 chapter upon chapter, with the soldiers of Xenophon. Only, 
 let him not start with the fear that he will faint on the way, 
 and that he can never hope to catch a glimpse of the distant 
 sea and hail it with delight. The teacher will use his best 
 endeavours to stimulate him by making the life and writings of 
 Xenophon real to him. He will sketch the youth spent in the 
 eager search for truth under the guidance of Socrates, the man- 
 hood of military adventure, the later years passed in retirement 
 by a country gentleman, fond alike of field-sports and of the 
 writing of books. He will just hint at the character of some of 
 the books written then or earlier : the Memorabilia., those
 
 I.] Greek. 7 
 
 unpretending but invaluable records of the everyday life and 
 conversation of Socrates ; the Cyropacdia, that account of the 
 boyhood of Cyrus the Elder which, owing to the somewhat 
 imaginary nature of its framework, may be regarded perhaps as 
 the earliest of European romances ; and the Hellenica, our 
 principal authority for long and important periods of Greek 
 history. 
 
 With regard to the Afiabasis itself fuller details may be 
 given. A specially enlarged map, kept always 
 before the pupil's eyes, will show in one colour Anabasis.^ 
 the route of the march inland (the Anabasis 
 proper), and in another the route taken from the interior to the 
 coast. Inserted plans will also illustrate such points as the 
 disposition of the forces on both sides at the battle of Cunaxa, 
 the forcing of the Carduchian Pass, and the crossing of the 
 Centrites. A table may further be prepared indicating briefly 
 the contents of the various books and the precise months which 
 they cover in the years 401 — 399 B.C., and containing some esti- 
 mate of the distances traversed by the troops. Points to be dealt 
 with orally will be such as the contrast between the Greek and 
 the Persian character, the striking description given at the end 
 of Book II of the characteristics of the Greek generals seized 
 by Tissaphernes, and the historical importance of the expedition 
 as an episode in the long-enduring strife of East and West, and 
 as a proof (afterwards to be still further confirmed) that the 
 Great King could with impunity be mocked 'at his very palace- 
 gates.' Some notice too will be claimed by minor matters, for 
 example by the names of places or rivers passed (two of them 
 destined to leave their mark on modern speech in the words 
 'solecism' and 'meander'), and by the fortunes of the two 
 deserted cities, Larissa and Mespila, which are supposed to be 
 identical with the ancient Calah and Nineveh, in which case 
 their history is better known to us than it could be to Xeno- 
 phon himself. Reference might also be made to modern
 
 8 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 descriptions of the country of the Anabasis by travellers or 
 exi)lorers such as Ainsworth, Curzon, Chesney, or Mrs Bishop ; 
 to the estimates of Xenophon and his Anabasis by judges so 
 various as Roger Ascham and Heine, Francis Bacon and 
 Taine ; and to the curious fate wliich has made the Anabasis 
 of Xenophon and the Gallic War of Caesar play so large a part 
 in the education of the modern schoolboy. In any way and in 
 every way the interest of the learner should be sufficiently 
 excited to carry him at least to the end of the Fourth Book. 
 It was for the 700 miles or so from the River Zab to Trapezus 
 (Trebizond) that the endurance of the Ten Thousand Greeks 
 was put to the severest test : they had to fight their way through 
 an enemy's country in the winter. It is in Book IV that the 
 interest of the narrative reaches its climax. When the Book 
 opens the prospects of the Greeks are at their gloomiest, but 
 when it closes they have crossed the Centrites, have passed 
 safely through the snows of Armenia, have ascended the 
 heights from which they gain their first welcome view of the 
 sea, and are feasting, offering sacrifice, and making merry on 
 the shores of the Euxine'. 
 
 If the narrative has been read with real zest and attention, 
 
 much linguistic knowledge will have been un- 
 TransiaUorTs"'^ consciously absorbed, more especially if the 
 
 ground has been covered not once only but 
 twice or thrice. And here a word may fitly be said as to 
 editions and as to the use of translations. It is well that, 
 whatever he may be reading, the student should possess not 
 only an edition containing grammatical and other illustrative 
 matter, but also a plain text. In the former he may underline 
 
 ^ The Anabasis, as a book for beginners, has been aihnirably treated 
 in the United States. We may specially mention White and Morgan's 
 Illustrated Dictionary to Xenophon' s Anabasis, and two editions of Books 
 I— IV, the one by Goodwin and White, and the other by Kelsey and 
 Zenos. The latter contains plans .such as those named above.
 
 I.] Greek. 9 
 
 his difficulties if he pleases; the latter he should reserve for the 
 rapid and pleasurable reading, as a co)mected echoic, of portions 
 already prepared. Upon the question of the use of translations 
 opinions are sure to differ widely, but the teacher will do well 
 to express his own view, whatever it may be, with the utmost 
 frankness. The whole tone of work is apt to suffer if know- 
 ledge is approached by secret and half-forbidden avenues. 
 The evil must be recognised, regulated, and minimised; 
 stamped out altogether it can hardly be. And indeed is it 
 wholly an evil? Is it not rather the case that, given the 
 earnest students here presupposed, translations ought not to 
 be put entirely under a ban? The traditional objections 
 seem, if analysed, to resolve themselves into two, and to refer 
 to the use of bad translations and the abuse of good transla- 
 tions. With regard to the first point, it is well known that there 
 exist to-day translations of quite a different order from the 
 ' cribs ' of a generation ago. Bald word-for-word versions, 
 containing many slips and blunders, have been largely replaced 
 by accurate renderings possessing a high degree of literary 
 excellence. A more serious point is the second, that of the 
 risk of good translations being abused. But that is a risk to 
 which all good things are exposed ; and it seems best to face it 
 from the first. The learner may be told of the best translation 
 available (one which will be found, perhaps, in the School or 
 College Library), but he should be warned, if he uses it at all, 
 not to use it simply in order to save labour and thought. He 
 must be given distinctly to understand that if he never puzzles 
 out his author's meaning without extraneous aid, he will never 
 be able to translate with accuracy at sight. In the long run 
 you cannot save a youth from himself, if he does not use a 
 translation, he will get help from a class-mate or from an 
 edition which gives a large amount of translation in the form 
 of notes. He must, therefore, be made to feel that he has 
 reached the age at which he has his fate in his own hands ; and
 
 lO TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching: [Chap. 
 
 if only he does his best to make out the meaning of the passage 
 for himself with no other aid than that of the grammar and the 
 dictionary, it seems a matter for his own choice whether he 
 learns the right rendering from his teacher's lips or from a 
 printed translation, supposing that the latter is used without 
 dishonesty or concealment '. On the final revision of his work, 
 at all events, he may find that difficulties have been left 
 unsolved, and as it is of the utmost importance that he should 
 be perfectly sure of the exact rendering, why should not he 
 consult Jebb's Sophocles or Butcher and Lang's Odyssey 1 In 
 the case of the private student the argument is, of course, of 
 double force ; but in the case of students whose need is not so 
 great, a vigilant teacher will be able to detect abuse and to 
 guard against it. Frequent questioning, the request for parsing 
 or a literal version, composition exercises, practice in transla- 
 tion at sight, will all show whether honest work is being done. 
 On these points, and others, a word or two may now be said. 
 A few general remarks of a somewhat obvious nature may 
 
 first be offered with regard to lessons in transla- 
 L^ssonl''""" '^'o"- '^'"'^ ^^"''^ ground should, to recur to a 
 
 point already raised, be traversed repeatedly. 
 Wearisome though the repetition may sometimes be to the 
 teacher, it is most salutary to the average learner. The pre- 
 pared translation may with advantage be done twice over, and 
 also revised rapidly, as a whole, in texts free from underlining 
 and from footnotes. It will be well for the student to read 
 aloud the Greek when construing it, and for the teacher 
 similarly to read it, and to deliver his own translation with 
 
 ^ A really serious objection, however, from the schoolmaster's point of 
 view, is that much of the freshness of the class-lesson may be impaired by the 
 use of translations. The objection applies, in almost equal measure, to 
 those annotated editions which, with misplaced zeal, leave hardly a single 
 point unexplained. Why do not school editors sometimes suggest ques- 
 tions instead of always forestalling them ?
 
 I.] Greek. 1 1 
 
 care and effect, couching his version in the best language 
 he can command. At the later stages time may not allow 
 of all this, but the value of the intelligent and expressive 
 recitation of passages of poetry and oratory can hardly be 
 over-estimated, and its neglect is one of the chief defects of 
 English schools. The teacher will set his face against all 
 mechanical reading, and will constantly be asking individual 
 members of his class the old question : apa ye ytvwo-Kets a 
 avayivojCTKets ; 
 
 But although it is important in the highest degree, it is 
 not enough that a small amount should be most 
 minutely done. If sufficient leisure for indepen- Reading! 
 dent work is allowed, wider and more discur- 
 sive private reading should also be encouraged, particularly 
 perhaps the study of some one author as a whole, with special 
 attention to the pervading spirit and the permanent value of 
 his writings. Such reading may not always win marks in an 
 examination, but the student who estimates examinations at 
 their real worth as a means and not as an end will not heed 
 that. He will read, and read, and read. And after he has 
 become well versed in the Attic forms, he will be in a position 
 to enjoy writers in other dialects ; and if here again his reading 
 is wide, his teacher will be able to help him to take a more or 
 less comprehensive survey of the Greek Dialects, and to do 
 this (let us hope) without spoiling his pure and unsophisticated 
 delight in the stirring tales of Homer and Herodotus. Let 
 Homer and Herodotus be imbibed not sip by sip but in copious 
 draughts, and at the same time let no narrow bounds, illiberally 
 drawn, exclude later writers, such as the less-known Attic 
 Orators or Polybius, Plutarch or Lucian, from the cathohc 
 sympathies of the young lover of Greek literature. 
 
 We pass to another point. To help the industrious and to 
 convict the lazy, 'unseen' translation should be required 
 almost from the beginning. This translation may be done in
 
 12 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 class, either orally or in writing, either without or (in the case 
 of young students) with a dictionary. An oral 
 g JsTgh^t!""^'"" lesson in translation at sight will be of great value 
 if the teacher does his best to put himself in the 
 learner's place. If he has taught him from the beginning, he 
 will know pretty well what his stock of knowledge is, and he 
 will encourage him to call every particle of it into play. He 
 will lead the members of his class on from point to point, and 
 will show how i/iey with their knowledge can grapple with the 
 passage, if only they will attend carefully to the order and 
 construction of the words, and keep an open mind instead of 
 hurrying precipitately to conclusions. Progress will be slow at 
 first, but speed will come with practice and increased know- 
 ledge on the pupil's part. And practice will be plentiful where 
 the pupil is wise enough to treat his daily preparation as 
 ' unseen,' and to mistrust all short cuts and royal roads to 
 knowledge. 
 
 The next question is that of the teaching of systematic 
 grammar. Grammar, treated in a broad and 
 
 Grammar. , ., , . ... , , ■ , 
 
 philosophic spirit, is a study which must neces- 
 sarily come late, since it deserves in some degree the title 
 of ' the coping-stone of the house of learning ' which an old 
 scholar borrows from Plato in order to describe it'. Goodwin's 
 larger work on the Greek Moods and Tenses is a fine example 
 of the contributions made by modern scholarship to the higher 
 grammar, contributions in which America has the distinction 
 of being represented by Gildersleeve as well as by Goodwin. 
 The study of comparative grammar may be aided by the use of 
 Sonnenschein's Parallel Grammar Series, of Victor Henry's 
 Precis de grammaire comparee du grec et dn latin, of pioneer work 
 such as the Gj'cek Syntax by Clyde and that by Farrar, and of 
 broadsheets such as Smith and Blackwell's Parallel Syntax 
 Chart. Comparative philology will furnish help in many 
 ^ I'lato, Kep.., 534 E, wliere tlie reference is to Dialectic.
 
 I.] Greek. 1 3 
 
 directions, and students of Greek will have had the advantage 
 of a sound grammatical discipline when learning Latin". One 
 thing in grammar is absolutely indispensable, and that is con- 
 tinual examination, both oral and written. That learner is 
 well advised who acts as his own chief questioner, and who 
 prepares lists of difficult forms as they occur in his reading and 
 collects for himself illustrations of the chief laws of syntax. 
 But his teacher can also help him, and the grammar paper 
 may, if drafted on broad lines, be as interesting as any, 
 especially if the framer of it is at liberty to assume a good 
 basis not only of Latin, but of English, French, and possibly 
 German. Critical and miscellaneous questions will also form 
 a useful adjunct to the grammar paper. 
 
 We come now to the practice of translation into Greek, 
 which in various ways will have been proceeding 
 all the time. We will assume that some sort of vo^cXSry? ""^ 
 vocabulary has been already gained in the 
 ordinary course of reading authors and writing exercises. 
 Something more systematic might now be attempted. A book 
 of vocabularies (words arranged in groups according to meaning) 
 might be used for class repetition, the whole being gone over 
 in one year and revised in the next. The words may be asked 
 for occasionally in the shape of complete sentences devised by 
 the teacher at the time after the manner of the Extemporalia of 
 the German schools. Any interesting associations which may 
 help to fix the meaning of a new word, and to make the act of 
 remembering it as little mechanical as possible, will be men- 
 tioned. The word kuttvos happens to meet the eye and may 
 serve as an example. Its etymological connexion with the 
 Latin vapor may be traced ; or a literary illustration will help 
 to the same end. The learner will probably have read Charles 
 Kingsley's Weshvard Ho ! and he may be reminded of the 
 
 ^ Latin has been, by the Germans, well termed der graiiiniatische 
 Knecht,
 
 14 The Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 reference there made to that 'misocapnic' monarch King 
 James the First of England and his Coufiierblast to Tobacco. 
 Or he may know something of the times of Erasmus, and may 
 remember frequent mention of the Hebrew scholar Reuchlin 
 under the designation Capnio, fancifully suggested by the 
 German word Ranch, just as the Enghsh Bullock and Fisher 
 were Bovillus and Piscator to their learned friends, and just as 
 Desiderius Erasmus himself carried about with him throughout 
 life somewhat unhappy Latin and Greek equivalents for his 
 Dutch name, Gerard. In the same way let the teacher make 
 the most of any traces in other languages of such words as pt^a, 
 pa';^ts, tt\o.kov% ; of the nice distinctions in which Greek abounds, 
 e.g. between (fnXio), ipdw, arepyu), dyaTrdw, or between the 
 active voice and the middle in so many words ; of the some- 
 what rare descriptive words, such as SacrvVous, <ji€piOLKo<;, dv$€- 
 /Aoupyo's, ■n-evTo^o<;; of Other names, for bird or beast or creeping 
 thing, which might be rooted in the memory by reference to 
 lines taken not from Hesiod or ^schylus but from Homer, 
 who draws his similes from creatures as far apart as the wolf 
 and the fly, the lion and the vulture, the horse and the bat, the 
 swan and the grasshopper, the dog and the wasp, the locust 
 and the crane, the falcon and the ass, the sea-mew and the 
 serpent, the dolphin and the nightingale ; of proverbs such as 
 
 yXavK CIS 'A67]va<;, TrXweiv ttXivOov, and rjXi^i 6 r;Xo9 ; of WOrds 
 
 with historical or geographical associations, e.g. KoOopvo^, kottl?, 
 Kao-o-tTcpo? ; of terms specially affected by writers on law or 
 philosophy or rhetoric ; of the verbal outfit demanded by the 
 calling of the builder, tlie farmer, or the skipper; of familiar 
 passages from the New Testament (a knowledge of which should 
 be assumed by classical teachers more frequently than it is) 
 
 such as o vofxos TratSaycoyos tJ/xmv yiyovcv eis Xpicrrov ; and of any 
 
 parallel words or expressions occurring in English authors, for 
 example ^injOrfq might be illustrated by ' the seely children lying 
 in their beds ' (used by Holinshed of the Princes in the Tower),
 
 I.] Greek. 15 
 
 iSiwrr;? by 'humility is a duty in great ones as well as in idiots ' 
 (Jeremy Taylor), aKoveu' KUKuis by 'what more national corruption 
 for which England hears ill abroad than household gluttony?' 
 (Milton). No doubt there is danger, in all this, of undue 
 discursiveness. But some latitude may be allowed where 
 thorough home preparation is the order of the day, and the 
 teacher must solve for himself the problem of interest without 
 laxity, of drill without dulness. For the acquisition of a 
 vocabulary, in particular, his watchwords will be interest, 
 associatioti, repetition. The more modern the associations the 
 better, for in small ways as well as great we must seek to 
 emphasize the continuity of human hfe and study. The 
 suggested Extemporalia will be found especially valuable as 
 teaching quickness, the power of turning all one's knowledge 
 to account, and the habit of class-cooperation. Our desire 
 throughout will be to make our pupils feel in regard to each 
 single word that it is a living organism, and that they should 
 aim at following its life-history and that of its congeners with 
 all the zeal of biologists. 
 
 Each teacher will have views of his own as to the best way 
 of teaching Greek Prose Composition, but all 
 
 .,, , , . ^ . Prose Com- 
 
 wiU be agreed as to its paramount importance position, 
 as a mental training, and particularly as a means dialogues. 
 
 ■^ ' "^ . Pronunciation. 
 
 of imparting accuracy and developing taste. 
 Perhaps no very novel suggestion as to method can be offered 
 here, except that retranslation might be practised more ex- 
 tensively than at present, and retranslation not only from 
 English, but from Latin, French, German, and Welsh (with 
 special attention in each case to differences of order, emphasis, 
 and idiom), as far as these languages are known to the learner. 
 One great advantage of retranslation is that a piece of authentic 
 Greek can in the end be put into the hands of the student for 
 him to learn by heart. In this way attention to minute points 
 of scholarship will be stimulated, and translation will become
 
 1 6 TJic Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 more exact and appreciative. Passages of dialogue will be 
 specially useful, for they will suggest in a lively way that Greek 
 was in very deed a spoken language, and that the relation 
 between the spoken and the written language was unusually 
 close. Anything will be a great gain which helps the student 
 to feel the language, especially on its more delicate sides — the 
 particles for example, and the prepositions ; or to put the 
 same thing in other words, the habit, once formed, of reading 
 by the inward ear as well as by the eye will make a wonderful 
 difference in the pupil's appreciation and progress. With the 
 same end in view some attention should be given to the vexed 
 question of pronunciation, in which reasonable reforms of the 
 prevailing English practice might be introduced, with great 
 advantage everywhere and not least in Wales, where boys are 
 often taught to mispronounce Greek after the English fashion, 
 when in many cases their Welsh instincts would have led them 
 right. A habit of Greek dictation, at first of familiar and after- 
 wards of unfamiliar passages, will test the knowledge of the 
 revised pronunciation, and can also be made (though here the 
 modern voice will scarcely help) an exercise in accentuation, 
 the chief rules of which should previously be explained. 
 Similarly, in the case of prepared translation, advanced students 
 may occasionally read over the (ireek instead of rendering it 
 into English. Provided only that expressive reading is in- 
 sisted upon, the teacher will soon see whether his pupil 'under- 
 stands what he reads'; and if a faltering tone suggests a 
 doubt, a question or two will make the matter clear. Con- 
 tinuous passages of original English for translation into Greek 
 will also be prescribed, as well as occasional essays, in Greek 
 or English, on topics with which the pupil is known to be 
 familiar ; the constructive as well as the more analytical treat- 
 ment of words will be encouraged. A demonstrative lesson in 
 Greek Prose Composition (as the term is commonly under- 
 stood) will, now and again, be useful. The teacher will take
 
 I,] Greek. 1 7 
 
 the English passage in hand, strike beneath the surface of its 
 wording, clear away ambiguities and excrescences, simplify it, 
 re-cast it, show where mistakes in syntax or in idiom are likely 
 to be made, give hints upon the order of words and clauses 
 and upon the choice of appropriate language, and reproduce 
 (as far as he is able) the whole tone and effect in Greek. He 
 will counsel his pupil to pay attention to the individual charac- 
 teristics of authors, so that he may read with increased ap- 
 preciation ; and he will himself help by framing exercises on 
 the model of work lately done. He will urge upon him the 
 importance of such points of detail as the use of the Greek- 
 Enghsh rather than the English-Greek lexicon, reminding him 
 once more that the shortest paths are not always the best. 
 He will also advise him to cultivate the power of doing his 
 exercises, when necessary, without external help of any kind, 
 whether derived from books or from any other source. 
 
 Verse composition (in iambic, trochaic, dactylic, anapaestic, 
 and other rhythms) will probably in the future be verse Com 
 more and more confined to those who show position and 
 special aptitude for it. At the same time it ^^^ ' '°"' 
 seems desirable that elementary exercises in metre (in iambics 
 and hexameters, at any rate) should be given to all, if only to 
 promote accuracy and enjoyment in the reading of the tragic 
 and epic poets \ while of finished scholarship sound metrical 
 knowledge will always be a prime essential. Translations from 
 Greek into EngHsh verse may occasionally be invited, but (as 
 already hinted) the best course of all will be to allow time for 
 the learning by heart of jiassages likely to strike the imagina- 
 tion of boys and to dwell permanently in their memory. In 
 the classical schools of Germany the latter part of the Sixth 
 Book of the Iliad is commonly learnt ; and other passages 
 (such as the Swallow Song of Rhodes, the Scolion on Harmodius 
 and Aristogeiton, Simonides' Danae, the monody of the youth 
 Ion in Euripides) will either occur at once to the mind, or will 
 
 s. T. 2
 
 1 8 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap, 
 
 be suggested by books like E. H. C. Smith's Select Passages 
 frotn Greek and Latin Poets for Repetition, or ^Vright and 
 Abbott's Golden Treasury of Ancient Greek Poetry. However 
 true it may be that the average boy is a better subject for philo- 
 logical than for literary instruction, there is reason to think that 
 the love of good literature is more frequently dormant than 
 absent, and might often be evoked if only the teacher were not 
 so loth to evince his own enjoyment of the great books he 
 reads with his class. It is true that schoolboys entertain a well- 
 founded objection to any unnecessary display of emotion ; it is 
 true also that the deeper meaning of Thucydides, and even of 
 Homer and Herodotus, is beyond them at their years. But 
 for all that, some interest can be awakened in others, however 
 young, if only the teacher does not entirely dissemble his own 
 interest, and is not ashamed of showing a little generous ardour 
 now and then as occasion prompts him. 
 
 In some sense all the work so far indicated may be regarded 
 as propaedeutic, — as introductory to a systematic 
 cfedf Life. study of Greek life and thought ; and the training 
 
 imparted will in a great degree have missed its 
 mark unless it leaves the pupil possessed by the desire of 
 going further. Not that the formal discipline is not of value 
 in and for itself; but we cannot help feeling that this may to 
 a large extent be obtained by means of other subjects accurately 
 and methodically taught, and that the real distinction of Greek 
 lies in the life and literature which it embalms. Greek should 
 thus be regarded primarily as a j^rivilege and a delight, and 
 only secondarily as a discipline. It is with the more important 
 aspect of the study that we shall be occupied during the 
 remainder of this paper, though it must be admitted that the 
 two aspects have not been in what has preceded, and will not 
 be in what follows, kept absolutely apart ; neither in theory nor 
 in practice is this separation desirable or possible. Broadly
 
 I.] Greek. 19 
 
 speaking, however, we have been deaUng with method, and 
 we shall now deal with matter ; we have been dealing with 
 language, and we shall now deal with life. The great object of 
 our teaching will be to make some faint semblance of the old 
 Greek life rise before our pupils' eyes and thoughts. To 
 approach this ideal, however remotely, will, we need not say, be 
 the work of years both for them and us ; but there is no reason 
 why a glimpse should not early be given of fuller and fairer 
 visions to come, nor why stress should not from the first be laid 
 on the intense vitality and the lasting influence of the Greek 
 language, literature, and history. 
 
 We will first speak of the history (understanding the term in 
 the widest sense) and of the illustrative aids 
 which may be employed in teaching it, and we 
 shall not shrink from detail where it may seem necessary. At 
 every point we shall endeavour to suggest methods of appeal to 
 the eye no less than to the ear. Happy is the pupil who makes 
 full use both of ear and eye in his reading and in his efforts to 
 form an image of the past. 
 
 Geography and topography will be our natural starting- 
 point. Kiepert's wall-maps — Graecia Antiqiia, 
 Italia Antigua (including Siciiia), Orbis Ter- gra'!]hy^°" 
 rarum Antiquus — will be hung round the class- 
 room, together with a general view of Athens from the 
 monument of Philopappus, one or more views or models of the 
 Acropolis and the Theseum, Burn's plan of Athens and the 
 Piraeus, an alto-relievo model of Sicily, and Jordan and Haver- 
 field's plan of Syracuse. Large maps showing the campaigns 
 of Alexander and the missionary journeys of St Paul should 
 always be within view'; and if we are reading the later books of 
 
 ^ Bossuet {Pattegyrique de FApotre Saint Paul) will supply an appro- 
 priate motto for the map of St Paul's Journeys : ' II ira, cet ignorant dans 
 I'art de bien dire, avec celte locution rude, avec cette phrase qui sent 
 I'etranger, il ira en cette Grece polie, la mere des philosophes et des
 
 20 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Herodotus, we may have a map and plans prepared to indicate 
 the routes of the army and the fleet of Xerxes and to illustrate 
 the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea'. Photo- 
 graphs of famous sites and buildings will also be welcome, 
 e.g. Delphi, Eleusis, the Theatre of Dionysus, the Syracusan 
 Latomiae, the Temples at Segesta and Agrigentum*. Interest 
 in geography and history combined will be greatly quickened if 
 the teacher will, from time to time, take some one country or 
 place in which he happens himself to be specially interested, 
 and trace out some few of its associations in ancient and in 
 later times. Sicily, to choose a striking example, was for ages in 
 the full current of universal history ; and it is no wonder that 
 Goethe could not, until he had visited it, understand its larger 
 neighbour Italy ^ The teacher will rapidly review the cycles 
 of Sicilian history ; he will single out spots, such as Palermo 
 
 orateurs, et nialgre la resistance du monde, il y etablira plus d'Eglises, 
 que Platon n'y a gagne de disciples par cette eloquence qu'on a crue 
 divine.' 
 
 ^ Similarly if Thucydides is being read, it might be well Ui enlarge the 
 map given in the second volume of the later German editions of Ernst 
 Curtius' History of Greece (' Uebersichtskarte des attischen Kiistenreiches 
 bei dem Beginne des peloponnesischen Krieges '), or the similar map to 
 be found in Forbes' edition of the First Book of Thucydides. Duruy and 
 (jrote will provide other aids of this kind, while Percy Gardner's New 
 Chapters in Greek History will furnish an excellent plan of Olympia. 
 
 - Mottos might be added here again: e.g. Delphi, oi) SvvaixaL -iru Kara 
 rb AfXipiKov ypdfj./j.a yvwvai e/iavTov, Plato Phaedr. 229 E; e caelo de- 
 scendit yvGidi aeavTov, Juv. Sat. xi. 27. — The fine photographs issued by 
 the Hellenic Society are on sale at the gallery of the Autotype Company, 
 74, New Oxford Street, London. Some of Holzel's Historical Pictures 
 (issued in England by Hachette & Co.) may also be found useful, as well 
 as Launitz' Wandtafeln zitr Veraiischaulichung antikcn Lcbcns und antiker 
 Kunst ; but it will be well to see specimens of both sets before an order is 
 given. 
 
 ^ Italien oJme Sicilien macht gar kein Bild in der Seek : hier ist erst der 
 Schliissel zu Allan. (Written at Palermo, 13 April, 1787. Goethe visited 
 Italy and Sicily, but not Greece.)
 
 I.] Greek. 2 1 
 
 and Marsala, which seem to link the present to the past. If 
 he fail to excite interest, it will be from superabundance, not 
 from lack, of matter. To make his remarks the more con- 
 crete, he will take any specimens he may have of the coins of 
 the Greek Period, and will mark on an outline-map of the 
 island the towns to which they belong. Or instead of a very 
 large he may take a very small island (Melos, let us say), and 
 prove that it too is not without enduring interest. He might 
 even take dull Boeotia ; and Leuctra and Chaeroneia, Thebes 
 and Plataea, Mycalessus and Ascra, Aulis and Delium, Tanagra 
 and Orchomenus, may be shown to possess most various and 
 attractive Boeotian and extra-Boeotian associations. 
 
 Historical facts may also be grouped, in occasional lessons, 
 around me^i as well as around places. In our ,,, ^ 
 
 ^ (b) Great 
 
 class-room we may have a small gallery of casts Men and Great 
 and photographs, including (say) Themistocles, 
 Pericles, Alexander, Homer, Sophocles, Euripides, Thucydides, 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes. Our pupils will be 
 warned not to believe too implicitly in the authenticity of these 
 likenesses ; but anything short of deception which makes the 
 great men of antiquity more real to them will be so much gained. 
 Towards this end mottos, the value of which for young learners 
 is very great, will once more contribute'. Some of those whose 
 
 ^ The following references will suggest a possible motto in each case. 
 'rhemistocle&. Thucyd. i. 138. (Use may also be made of the 'Adrjvaioiv 
 lloXtreia.) — Pericles. Thucyd. 11. 40. — Alexander. Arthur Penrhyn 
 Stanley's Jeivish Church iii. 203 (including quotation from Hegel). — 
 Homer. Keats' sonnet On First Looking into Chapman^s Hot?ier. — 
 Sophocles. Aristoph. Kanae 82. Matthew Arnold, Sonnets, ' But be his 
 My special thanks,' etc. — Euripides. Aristot. Poetics xiii. Elizabeth Barrett 
 Browning, Wine of Cyprus. — Thucydides. Thucyd. I. 22. Trevelyan, Life 
 and Letters of Lord Jl/acaiilay, vol. ii. (various extracts from Macaulay's 
 diary). Lord Rosebery's Pitt p. 4. John Stuart Mill, Lnaitgural Address 
 at St Andreivs (People's Edition) p. 19, "In a single paragraph," etc. 
 Special mottos may be added with reference to the Age of Pericles and 
 the Sicilian Expedition. ^.S't'tvato. Plato's Apology xxviii., Sympositwi
 
 22 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 names have just been given are eminent rather as narrators or 
 deUneators of Greek Hfe than as leading actors in it. With 
 the aid of the Dialogues of Plato and the Private Orations of 
 1 )emosthenes, the Comedies of Aristophanes, and the Characters 
 of 'I'heophrastus, vivid pictures of the social life of the Greeks 
 may be drawn. For the political and military history, Hero- 
 dotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon, are the three great names 
 in classical times, and the pupil must early be taught the limits 
 of the periods for which each is the principal authority. Hero- 
 dotus will form the best introduction to history, as Homer to 
 poetry. Herodotus will kindle the historical imagination and 
 show the charm of quaint simplicity, while Thucydides will 
 afford an unrivalled verbal and logical discipline, and at tlie 
 same time give to those who can apprehend them no obscure 
 hints of a profound philosophy of human life. It is through 
 Thucydides (since Aristotle belongs rather to the university 
 than to the school) that an attempt will be made to teach 
 that most difficult of lessons, the habit of active and indepen- 
 dent thought. — As additional illustrative aids, to be hung on 
 the walls of the room, may be mentioned a chart (with dates) 
 of Greek History and Literature, and a similar chart of Uni- 
 versal History together with a short series of historical- 
 geographical maps. The fact that Greek history has wider 
 bearings in connexion with Sicily, Alexandria, Rome, and 
 with Christianity, should be kept constantly in mind, while 
 suggestive comparisons (such as that drawn by the late Dean 
 
 215 A. Cic. Tusi. Disp. v. iv. 10. Plutarch, De Gcnio Socratis, 582 B. 
 John Stuart Mill, Liberty, p. 14 (People's Edition). Stanley, Je7vis/i 
 Church, iii. 200, 201. The significance of the unique succession of teacher 
 and pupil in Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander, is well brought out in 
 J. B. Mayor's Sketch of Ancient Philosophy, pp. 84, 85. — Plato. Rep. vi. 
 486 A. deuipia. iravrbs fi^v XP°^°^ irdcrrjs 8i ovcrias. Epitaph on the Spirit 
 of Plato (in the Atitholog}') translated by Shelley. — Aristotle. vov% t^s 5ta- 
 rpt^Tji (attributed to Plato). Dante, Inferno, iv. 130 — 133. — Demosthenes. 
 De Corona, § 95 koX yap dv8pa Idlg. Kal ttoXiv KOivrj, k.t.X.
 
 I.] Greek. 23 
 
 Church I)et\veen Venice and Florence on the one hand and 
 Rome and Athens on the other) will be neither neglected nor 
 overvalued. Nor will the pupil be allowed to forget that 
 Modern Greece has had a fascinating history of her own, 
 clouded no doubt in these latter days by political and financial 
 uncertainties, but still not without rays of its pristine brightness. 
 No survey of Greek life can be complete which does not in- 
 clude some account of Greek art. Photographs, / \ a t 
 obtained from Athens and Rome, will be needed, 
 and casts will be added whenever possible. One or two speci- 
 mens of ancient sculpture from the older Acropolis series will 
 illustrate the historical development of Greek art; and others 
 of various dates and orders may be added, e.g. groups from the 
 frieze of the Parthenon, from the balustrade of the temple of 
 Nice Apteros, and from the Phigalian Marbles ; the Hermes of 
 Praxiteles (discovered at Olympia in 1877); the '■ OtricoW 
 Zeus \ the Laocoon group ; the Apoxyomenos (after Lysippus) ; 
 the Apollo Belvedere ; the Dying Gaul ; the Discobolos (after 
 Myron) ; and some examples of Graeco-Roman art. Apposite 
 quotations (to serve as mottos) might be given, e.g. from 
 Virgil ^71. II and Lessing's Laocoon in connexion with the 
 Laocoon group, or from Childe Harold in connexion with the 
 Dying Gaul and the Apollo Belvedere, or from Diodorus 
 Siculus in connexion with the Hermes of Praxiteles'. At 
 present, unfortunately, teachers at distant centres are driven to 
 form, with imperfect knowledge and imperfect resources, such 
 collections for themselves. The Council of the Hellenic 
 Society would be adding to the great services it has already 
 rendered to those who teach and study Greek, if it were to 
 issue a small selection of photographs of works of Greek art, 
 
 ^ Diod. Sic, Bibl. Hist., xxvi. i, ITpa^ireXTys 6 Kara/Ml^as a/cpws roh 
 Xidivoi^ ?pyois TO. T^s ypvxv^ wadrj. — The description of "The Belvedere 
 Apollo" in Milman's Newdigate prize poem of that name is well-known. 
 " For mild he seemed as in Elysian bowers," etc.
 
 24 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 with brief notes on date, subject, place of preservation, etc. 
 It should be added here that any senior boy who shows a 
 decided taste for art and archaeology may be introduced to 
 Adolf Michaelis' Partlienon (with Plates), and to the same 
 author's revision of Otto Jahn's edition of a portion of Pau- 
 sanias\ Some day perhaps he may see the Acropolis itself; 
 the Elgin Marbles he will certainly visit when in London. 
 Teachers who use the lantern when giving general lectures on 
 (keek art and history will have been glad to hear of the 
 ' Catalogue of Lantern Slides to illustrate Fyffe's History of 
 Greece,' lately compiled by the Rev. T. Field, Headmaster of 
 the King's School, Canterbury. And neither teacher nor pupil 
 will willingly miss any opportunity that may occur of seeing a 
 good modern representation of a Greek Play, at Oxford or at 
 Cambridge, or under the open sky in the Bradfield chalk-pit. 
 The unbroken continuity of Greek influence is not simply 
 a question of history; it is also a question of 
 English Lite- literature and language. The intimate con- 
 rature. nexion between Greek and English literature 
 
 will best be made manifest if, in the higher forms of schools, 
 the teaching of Greek and English is entrusted to one person, 
 just as Greek and German are largely taught together in the 
 highest classes of the German Gynmasiuvr. By such a teacher 
 classical themes or classical influence will be found, to an em- 
 barrassing extent, in Milton, in Shelley and Keats, in Byron, 
 in Tennyson and Browning, in Matthew Arnold, William 
 
 1 Pausaniae Descriplio Anis Athcnariini. In usuni scholarum edidit 
 Otto lahn. Editio altera recognita ab Adolfo Michaelis. Aucta cum aliis 
 tabulis turn forma arcis ab J. A. Kaupert descripta. Bonnae : apud A. 
 Marcum : mdccclxxx. 
 
 2 Is there not much to be said also in favour of assigning Latin and 
 French (and Italian, if taught in the school) to a single teacher? The 
 lessons given by such a teacher might have a specially philological, or 
 linguistic, cast. By his Greek-and-English colleague prominence would 
 rather be given to the literary side of his dual subject.
 
 I.] Greek. 25 
 
 Morris, and Swinburne. Imitations of classical metres will be 
 pointed out in Tennyson, Arthur Hugh Clough, Kingsley, 
 Longfellow'; and the student will be introduced to verse 
 translations (themselves classical, in some instances) of the 
 Greek poets. Chapman, Pope, Cowper, Worsley, Milman, 
 Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Frere and Rogers, Calverley, are 
 names which will readily occur to the mind. Short passages 
 will be given for repetition together with an English or a 
 foreign version : for example, Iliad viii. 542 — 565 and xviii. 
 202 — 331 with Tennyson's translations, Ajax 646 — 692 with 
 Calverley's, Iphig. in Aul. 12 11 — 1252 with Schiller's. In the 
 same way a common theme treated briefly by two or more 
 great writers might be committed to memory. If a youth were 
 to learn by heart the description of the Sacrifice of Iphigenia 
 
 ^ Hexameters. Longfellow's Evangeline, and Clough's Bothie of Tober- 
 na-viwlich. Cp. also Hawtrey, 'Clearly the rest I behold of the dark-eyed 
 sons of Achaia ' etc. (quoted in Matthew Arnold's lectures On Trans- 
 lating Homer, Popular Edition, 1896, p. 79). 
 
 Elegiacs. From thy far sources, 'mid mountains airily climbing, 
 Pass to the rich lowland, thou busy sunny river. 
 
 Clough. 
 Sea that breakest for ever, that breakest and never art broken, 
 Like unto thine, from of old, springeth the spirit of man. 
 
 William Watson, Hymn to the Sea. 
 
 Alcaics. O mighty-mouth'd inventor of harmonies, 
 O skill'd to sing of Time or Eternity, 
 God-gifted organ-voice of England, 
 Milton, a name to resound for ages. 
 
 Tennyson. 
 Sapphics. Faded every violet, all the roses ; 
 
 Gone the glorious promise, and the victim 
 Broken in this anger of Aphrodite 
 Yields to the victor. 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 Hendecasyllabics. O you chorus of indolent reviewers. 
 
 Tennyson.
 
 26 The Aims and Practice of Teaching: [Chap. 
 
 given by Aeschylus (Agam. 224 — 247), by Lucretius (De 
 Rerum Natura, i. 83 — loi), and by Tennyson {Dream of Fair 
 Women, lines 99 — 116), he would be storing splendid material 
 for an exercise in literary appreciation when his judgment 
 ripens. With the same object of promoting taste as well as 
 knowledge, short papers might occasionally be set on Tennyson 
 and the Classics, or Milton and the Classics, with reference 
 both to verbal and to larger points ^ In the hands of a judi- 
 cious teacher the aim of all this would be anything rather than 
 the encouragement of an undue dependence on the past — 
 anything rather than the stifling of such originality as he might 
 be fortunate enough to discover in a gifted pupil. The master- 
 pieces of the past supply to the moderns a standard rather 
 than a pattern, and English literature, happily, has no reason 
 to feel abashed even in the presence of that of Greece. 
 Abundant reading of Shakespeare, and of the great writers 
 before and after his time, will, when English receives its right- 
 ful place in the school curriculum, provide any corrective that 
 may be needed for a mischievous classicism. British literature 
 and British art will, it is to be hoped, more and more find their 
 inspiration in British history, when that history is more widely 
 known and the best type of patriotic pride is more generally 
 awakened. It is most incontrovertibly true that ' les anciens 
 
 ^ In a similar spirit the teachers of ancient Greek and those of the 
 modern continental languages might act together, to some extent, in 
 arranging their programme of school work. The reading of the Greek 
 tragedians might then be accompanied (for illustration or contrast) by that 
 of Goethe, Racine, Alfieri. The Greek and the Latin reading might be 
 coordinated in the same way. Especially might great works of literaiy 
 criticism, like Aristotle's /'Rhetoric and Poetics, be read in conjunction with 
 any books of similar purpose in Latin, French, German and English. 
 [Jahn's edition of the Treatise on the Sublime is in use in some German 
 schools.] The more systematic study of these subjects, as well as of 
 philosophy, philology and history, would be reserved for the University, 
 where the harder poets such as Pindar will also be read.
 
 1.] Greek. 27 
 
 sont les anciens ; nous sommes les gens d'aujourd'hui.' Eut 
 it does not follow that good classical teaching is incompatible 
 with a deep interest in the present. On the contrary, the more 
 truly the teacher himself lives in the world of to-day, the more 
 living \vill the ancient world be to him. Let him only be alive 
 at many points, and classical study is safe in his keeping. 
 The present will vivify the past, and the past will illumine the 
 present, in the mind of the man who fully feels that it is his 
 privilege to teach the ffufjianities. 
 
 In order to make still more patent the close connexion 
 of Greece with modern times, it will be well to 
 
 . Later Greek. 
 
 keep before the learner s eyes and mmd two 
 additional points : first, the long and chequered career of the 
 Greek language itself, and second, the important part which 
 prose translations from that language have played in the 
 development of the vernacular in the British Isles and else- 
 where. As illustrating the former point, typical extracts from 
 post-classical authors will be found of service, and may be 
 formed into a little anthology for the use of senior boys. This 
 anthology will include specimens of such writings as those of 
 Polybius, Plutarch, the Septuagint, Josephus, Euclid (the Pons 
 Asinorum might be given), Galen, Epictetus, Marcus Aure- 
 lius, Plotinus, Longinus, the Christian Fathers, the Greek 
 Romances. In Wales we might find room for any passages 
 from Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pausanias, or Dion Cassius, 
 which seem to refer to Celtic Britain. A prefatory note would 
 call attention to the chief characteristics of the 'Common' 
 Dialect and the ' Hellenistic' Dialect. Examples of Byzantine 
 and Modern Greek might be given (with translations) from 
 Vincent and Dickson's Haftdbook to Modern Greek, Geldart's 
 Guide to Modern Greek, and Constant inides' Neo-Hellenica. 
 Scraps of familiar conversation in modern Greek, invitations to 
 dinner and replies, a review of (say) Samuel Smiles' Self-Help 
 in a modern Greek newspaper, a quotation from Edmond
 
 28 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 About's La Grcce Conteviporaitie to show how that author 
 learnt (or thinks he learnt) Modern Greek : these things, and 
 things like these, will bring home to all the fact that Greek is 
 still a spoken language. The relation between the old and the 
 modern language may be shown by means of extracts from 
 Constantinides' Modern Greek Version of Xenophon's Ana- 
 basis III and IV (as edited by Professor Jebb), or from a 
 Modern Greek commentary on the Antigone, the actual lan- 
 guage of Xenophon and Sophocles being given along with the 
 modern translation and the modern notes. Care will at the same 
 time be taken, by means of passages of prose and poetry drawn 
 from original writers of Modern Greek, to avoid the danger of 
 seeming to minimise the inevitable differences between the 
 earlier and the later stages of a language. No purism, not the 
 most strenuous of artificial efforts, can turn back the tide of 
 language'. 
 
 A few specimen translations may also serve to bring forcibly 
 
 before the mind the great part which the Greek 
 from^he Greek. k^Hguagc has played in the history of the world. 
 
 The vernacular translations from the New Testa- 
 ment are of most importance for the purpose. Some specially 
 familiar passage, such as the Parable of the Prodigal Son, 
 might be given in the original Greek ; in Modern Greek ; in 
 Latin (from the Vulgate) ; in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 French, Rouman ; in English, German, Dutch, Flemish, Dano- 
 Norwegian ; and in Welsh. Examples might be added of ver- 
 sions earlier than the 'authorised' or standard ones — of the 
 pre-Lutheran translations in German, of John Wycliffe's and 
 Miles Coverdale's and William Tyndale's in English, of Wil- 
 
 ^ In the matter of vocabulary no better guide will be found than the 
 Modern Greet: Dictionary recently edited by Dr A. N. Jannaris, who has 
 devised a convenient method' of distinguishing words which are (i) col- 
 lofiuial only, (2) both literary and colloquial, (3) preserved from classical 
 times, (4) too learned or archaistic.
 
 I.] Greek. 29 
 
 liam Salesbury's and Bishop Morgan's in Welsh. In the same 
 way a few excerpts might be made from early translators of 
 Greek authors generally (e.g. Barnaby Rich's version of part of 
 Herodotus), and from the renderings of Plutarch by Sir Thomas 
 North (after Amyot) and by Philemon Holland. Any method 
 which increases interest in the earher phases of the English 
 speech will more than justify itself, quite apart from the tes- 
 timony thereby given to the universality of Greek influences 
 and associations. — The Welsh boy may also be stimulated by 
 reading verse translations from ' Anacreon' by Goronwy Owen, 
 from the Iliad by Lewis Edwards, and from the Alcestis by 
 Dewi Mon and D. E. Edwardes. The translations of the Al- 
 cestis here referred to are those which have been published, 
 thanks to the liberality of the Marquis of Bute, in a separate 
 volume by the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. The 
 motto of that Society — cared doeth yr encilion — might 
 well be inscribed over the entrance to our Greek class-room, 
 together with a Greek iambic line to serve as an attempted ren- 
 dering of it'. If the class-room overlooks the Menai Straits, we 
 shall feel the present brought near to the past when we remem- 
 ber how vividly Tacitus has described the reception which 
 Suetonius Paulinus met with on their banks. And as we look 
 forward to the future we shall think of Ruskin's admiration for 
 'your Snowdon, and your Menai Straits, and that mighty 
 granite rock beyond the moors of Anglesey, splendid in its 
 heathery crest, and foot planted in the deep sea, once thought 
 of as sacred — a divine promontory looking westward; the Holy 
 Head or Headland, still not without awe when its red light 
 glares first through storm'; and we shall hope that, as in Greece 
 
 ^ For example: toyc r^^P CO(})OYC TOl taS^thAa AeT (t>lAeTN, or 
 noGeiNA TOTc cotjjoTci TAMAypOYMeNA. The precise meaning of the 
 word encilion is not easily determined, Ijut the general drift of the maxim 
 is clear.
 
 30 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 so in Wales, ' these hills, these bays and blue inlets, may be 
 always fateful in influence on the national mind.' 
 
 A few observations may, in conclusion, be made upon the 
 
 aims which should inspire both the teacher and 
 
 Aims and Me- the Student of Greek. We live, happily, at a 
 
 thods of Greek xw^^ when Hellenic studies are distinguished by 
 
 Study. ... . a J 
 
 their activity and their freshness. Every year 
 which passes seems to have its record of discovery in the fields 
 of literature, history, and archaeology. Egypt sends us manu- 
 scripts, Asia Minor inscriptions and ancient remains, Crete 
 mysterious characters ; while art and music receive new light 
 from Athens, and Olympia, and Delphi. 
 
 The materials are more abundant than ever ; what is the 
 spirit in which they are to be studied, especially by the young? 
 Some would answer that our method should be literary, others 
 that it should be scientific ; the true ideal seems to consist in 
 uniting the two, so far as that may lie within our power. The 
 literary method may be said to be specially characteristic of 
 France, the scientific of Germany. The most sensible critics in 
 each country are naturally the most alive to the danger of 
 a one-sided development. In France we are told that the 
 classical teaching is apt to be slipshod ; literary criticism and 
 literary style are everything, while strict verbal accuracy is held 
 of no account; every writer appears to think that he is address- 
 ing the general public, and is afraid that he may be accused of 
 pedantry when he is simply proving that he possesses the scien- 
 tific equipment necessary for his task. It has been said, by a 
 scholar of eminence, that 'there is a superficiality about the 
 products of the French genius which marks the clever but 
 second-rate mind. Clever writers, incomparable talkers, their 
 assertion never carries with it the weight which is derived from 
 known hal)its of patient and exhaustive investigation'.' This 
 statement is not, we are glad to think, as true now as it was a 
 
 1 Mark Pattison, Sug:j;cstions on Academical Organisation, p. 151.
 
 I.] Greek. 31 
 
 generation ago ; expert observers tell us that in France to-day 
 the love of genuine learning of all kinds is rapidly spreading. 
 Iiut still the fact remains that the French genius has a specially 
 literary cast. On the other hand, the complaint in Germany 
 (especially with reference to the schools) is that the teachers are 
 wofully narrow ; they have neglected wide and liberal reading 
 in order to devote special attention to some minute, and often 
 very trivial, point on which they wished to write a dissertation 
 for their degree. The work they produce is, in consequence, 
 too often little better than an unsightly storehouse filled with 
 the lumber of learning. And they are (so the critics tell us) no 
 less unsuccessful with their pupils. They fail to make them 
 feel that a great classical book — a play of Sophocles or a dia- 
 logue of Plato — is an artistic whole full of living interest, and 
 the reason is that they do not know and feel it themselves. It 
 is the natural tendency of the human mind to run to extremes ; 
 but our great aim and ambition ought to be to combine, as far 
 as may be, German with French tendencies — specialism with 
 generalising minute verbal criticism with large esthetic pleasure, 
 philological and scientific method with literary and artistic 
 tastes, the love of truth with the love of beauty. It follows, 
 therefore, that in our school-teaching the two guiding thoughts 
 will be precision and enjoyment ; scientific method on the one 
 hand, and literary and historical and artistic appreciation on 
 the other. Which of the two aspects of study should receive 
 the greater share of emphasis, will depend largely upon the 
 nature and the needs of the pupil taught. Some boys are of a 
 more exact turn of mind than others ; and some too will have 
 previously received a more exact training than others — not 
 necessarily in the classics but in other branches of science and 
 learning. Similarly, one will have more need of sesthetic train- 
 ing than another ; but to all some foretaste of pleasures to 
 come may occasionally be given, without any suspicion of that 
 habit of 'holding forth' which boys usually and rightly dislike.
 
 32 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 It is reasonable that such a foretaste should be given. We may 
 all know that walking is good exercise for us ; but we also like 
 to know beforehand that the place to which we are to walk is 
 interesting, for unless that be so we should prefer to turn our 
 steps elsewhere. And as for the suspicion of ' holding forth.' 
 that reproach is little likely to be incurred by the teacher who 
 does not indulge in vague effusions, but provides preliminary 
 surveys of the ground which have cost him time and labour. 
 Experience proves that pupils obtain too little rather than too 
 much of such assistance and stimulus. 
 
 Notwithstanding the gloomy predictions of cloistered pessi- 
 mists, there are not wanting indications that the study of Greek 
 will occupy an even more honoured position in the future than 
 in the past. Its freshness is inexhaustible; and its significance 
 is becoming more evident daily. The place of Greece in the 
 general framework of human history appears only the more 
 striking the more we know of the ancient Oriental world, the 
 more deeply we study English and other modern literatures, 
 the more comprehensively we survey the march onward of 
 humanity. No doubt the Greek language will not in the future 
 be forced upon the dull and unwilling to the same extent as in 
 the past. But this is hardly a matter for unmixed regret. Even 
 though the number of those who are taught the subject should 
 be diminished, there will yet be compensations. There will be 
 more of the well-equipped and earnest workers who travel far ; 
 there will be fewer of the smatterers who in the past have 
 abandoned the study early, and have done their best to give it 
 a bad name. The learners will be willing learners ; and the 
 pleasure of the teacher's task will be enhanced by the freedom 
 of the pupil's choice. On his own i)art, the teacher will do all 
 he can to encourage and direct a habit of good and systematic 
 reading instead of deadening the love of reading by an exces- 
 sive and unseasonable devotion to verbal analysis. Though he 
 will be the last to undervalue that rigorous verbal training
 
 1.] Greek. 33 
 
 which is the foundation of all true scholarship, he will think 
 more of the substance than the form, of the thought than the 
 language, of the spirit than the letter. 
 
 And let him take heed, now that liberal education is being 
 more and more extended to the nation at large, not to make 
 the tacit assumption that all his pupils come from circles in 
 which there is a family tradition of polite knowledge. Many a 
 graduate fresh from a cultivated home and from one of the 
 great universities has failed as a teacher at the more popular 
 centres because he has not realised this fact. If, therefore, the 
 present paper should appear to any reader to run into exces- 
 sive detail, he should at least remember that it is specific with 
 a purpose. The writer of it has often, in reading essays of the 
 kind, thought, whether rightly or wrongly, that for the needs of 
 our own day they dealt too much in generalities, and that by 
 the omission of cumbersome particulars they lost in practical 
 helpfulness what they gained in literary form. It seems better 
 that detailed suggestions should be offered, even at the risk of 
 giving rise to more dissent than concurrence. They will have 
 served a useful purpose if they do no more than stimulate 
 thought in matters in which the deadening influence of mere 
 routine is too often felt. 
 
 But though it is true that traditions of learning do not exist 
 in ordinary English homes, our pupils must not be allowed to 
 forget that in the history of the English people there may be 
 traced, outside the limited class of professed scholars, a long 
 and inspiring tradition of the study of Greek, both among men 
 and women. Among women we need only refer to George 
 Eliot and Mrs Browning in our own times, and then carry our 
 minds back to the days when Roger Ascham found the ill-fated 
 Lady Jane Grey "in her chamber reading ' Phaedo Platonis' 
 in Greek, and that with as much delight as some gentlemen 
 would read a merry tale in Boccace'"; or when Erasmus gave 
 
 ^ Roger Ascham, Schoolmaster, Book i. 
 S. T. X
 
 34 Tiie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 weighty counsel to Margaret Roper. " You are an elegant 
 Latinist, Margaret," Erasmus was pleased to say; "but if you 
 would drink deeply of the wellsprings of wisdom, apply to 
 Greek. The Latins have only shallow rivulets; the Greeks 
 copious rivers, running over sands of gold'." For the benefit 
 of the youths. Lord Dufferin's example already mentioned may 
 be again called to mind, and we may couple with it that of the 
 Bayard of the Civil War, Lord Falkland, remembering as we 
 refer once more to a titled name that a noble study which 
 once was largely confined to men of noble birth is now within 
 the reach of the poorest commoner in the realm. " He was 
 constant and pertinacious in whatsoever he resolved to do, 
 and not to be wearied by any pains that were necessary to that 
 end. And therefore having once resolved not to see London, 
 which he loved above all places, till he had perfectly learned 
 the Greek tongue, he went to his own house in the country, 
 and pursued it with that indefatigable industry, that it will 
 not be believed in how short a time he was master of it, and 
 accurately read all the Greek historians"." Such industry and 
 determination are invincible ; wherever they are found, in rich 
 or poor, in young or old, they are the learner's strongest stay 
 and the teacher's best ally. 
 
 ^ The Household of Sir Thomas More, p. 91 (W. H. Hutton's edition, 
 1896). It is permissible, perhaps, to quote from this attractive narrative 
 as though it were historical. 
 
 ^ Clarendon, History of the Rebellion, ii. 3:,i. It will be remembered 
 that Hobbes of Malmesbury translated Thucydides early in the seventeenth 
 century. The shadow of the coming \Var may have lent a mournful in- 
 terest to the records of intestine strife which fill the ]5ages of the Greek 
 historians.
 
 I.] Greek. 35 
 
 NOTES WITH SPECIAL REFERENXE TO WALES. 
 
 A few supplementary notes, too detailed for previous presenta- 
 tion, may be added here. It seems eminently de- 
 sirable that schools everywhere (and not least in Museum^"'^ 
 those remote districts of Wales in which many of 
 the writer's former pupils are now teaching) should have a small 
 library and museum of their own in order to provide illustration, 
 however slight, under the following heads : (a) Local antiquities, 
 local romance, local history ; of all these there is in Wales a rich 
 mine, (b) English history, (c) European history and literature 
 (tables of dates ; historical-geographical maps, etc.). (d) Pales- 
 tine, (e) Greece and Rome, (f) Art of the world (architecture, 
 sculpture, painting). Similar collections, on the side of physical 
 science, will no doubt be suggested by other contributors to this 
 volume. It would be a great advantage if all students of language 
 and literature had, when young, cultivated their powers of observa- 
 tion by practical work in connexion with one or more of the natural 
 sciences. 
 
 With regard to the elements of a Greek Museum something has 
 been already said ; and such additions will readily occur to the 
 mind as facsimiles of manuscripts and inscriptions, copies of the 
 newly-discovered Hymns to Apollo, adumbrations of pictures or 
 cartoons by Turner or Raphael, outline-drawings of Flaxman's de- 
 signs, photographs of Tanagra statuettes, etc. Other additions 
 still will be suggested not only by foreign travel, but by a visit to 
 the British Museum, or to the collection of casts from the antique at 
 South Kensington, or to the Teachers' Guild Educational Museum 
 in Gower Street. — Small but important points of detail, to be con- 
 
 3—2
 
 36 TJie Aims and Pi^actice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 siclered in the planning of new schools, are the amount of wall-space 
 available for hanging pictures, etc., and the provision of a continuous 
 ' blackboard' running round the room from end to end. For the 
 latter purpose slate would naturally be used in Wales. 
 
 In the library of small schools it may not be possible to obtain 
 elaborate editions and works of reference, but illustrated books such 
 as Anderson's editions of Schreiber's Atlas of Classical Antiqtdties 
 and of Schreiber's Homeric Atlas will be of great service as bring- 
 ing vividly home to the youthful mind the Rcalicn of antiquity — 
 ships, houses, weapons, etc. A valuable summary of the results of 
 recent research in political and other antiquities will be found in 
 Gow's Companion to School Classics, a volume which should always 
 be within the young student's reach. The boys and girls to whom 
 reference has been made as coming from non-literary homes may 
 need to be introduced also to such books as Charles Kingsley's 
 Heroes and A. J. Church's various Stories from the Greek, to the 
 best translations of Homer and of Plutarch's Lives, and to the 
 passages in which Milton and Macaulay describe the glories of life 
 in Ancient Athens. And they may some day, if they show a turn 
 for classical learning, form some estimate of the e.xtent of this field 
 of mental activity by a perusal of Salomon Reinach's Manuel de 
 PJiilologie Classique, or of Hiibner's Bibliographic der classiche7i 
 Alterthnmswissenschaft. At the same time their taste for fine and 
 finished scholarship will be whetted by the study of such transla- 
 tions into Greek as those of Tyrrell (e.g. the rendering of ' Scots 
 wha hae' into Alcaics), of Jebb (e.g. the Pindaric imitations), and 
 of Arthur Sidgwick (e.g. the Greek Prose Versions given in ' Lec- 
 tures on Greek Prose Composition'). 
 
 The teacher will also recommend texts and editions for use in 
 Foreign texts cl''^ss, especially such as are published abroad and 
 and editions, may therefore not be known to the learner, who may 
 ^^"^' nevertheless possess enough French or German to 
 
 profit by any annotations they contain and may obtain stimulus 
 and freshness of view from the use of non-English commentaries. 
 Such are those published by Teubner, Weidmann, Freytag, and 
 Hachette. Of those brought out by the last-named firm good 
 examples are Ch. Thurot's Epictcte {Manuel) and H. Weil's Detno- 
 stlienc and Euripide. — As to dialogues, original passages of ancient
 
 I.] Greek. 37 
 
 Greek will be used by preference, but occasional reference may be 
 made to Blackie's Greek and English Dialogues and to foreign books 
 such as Joannides' Sprechen Sie Attisch? — As a guide \.<:) pronun- 
 ciation., the pamphlet published by E. V. Arnold and R. S. Conway 
 (under the title of The Restored Pro7iunciation of Greek and Latin) 
 for the use of the students of the Welsh University may be con- 
 sulted with advantage. In this matter the United States of Ame- 
 rica are understood to be considerably in advance of Great Britain. 
 Indeed, the extent to which Greek studies generally are pursued 
 and honoured by the best American universities is a pleasant sign 
 of the times, the more so that modern languages, and physical and 
 economic science, are not kept by them in the background, but are 
 studied with the greatest zeal and success. American experience 
 provides yet another proof of the fact that academical subjects act 
 and react upon one another in the most invigorating way. 
 
 A teacher in a Welsh school or college is not likely to forget 
 that in the case of a large proportion of his pupils 
 Welsh, not English, is the mother-tongue. He will ^^'^^ ^^"- 
 
 JO) .-3 guage. 
 
 do his best to take advantage of the fact. He will 
 point to Welsh words formed from the Greek (e.g. esgob = eiri- 
 (TKOTTos, cp. French eveque; eglwys = eKKXrja-ia, cp. eglise. Ysgol as 
 equivalent to both schola \<jx'°^% ^"^^ scala may suggest a homily 
 for the benefit of those whose flagging industry needs so rude a 
 spur). He will show how far go- and gor- and cyd- and dad- and 
 rliag- and llivyr- at the beginning of words correspond to v-no- and 
 vTTfp- and (Tvv- and eK- and npo- and Sm-, and how far yvvaiKapia 
 corresponds to gwi'ageddos and naidiov or iraibapiov to bachgennyn; 
 how far wTaKov(TTi\v (a word peculiarly appropriate to Hieron's 
 eavesdroppers at Syracuse) finds its equivalent in clustymwrandaw, 
 and how far clywed {in the sense of 'perceive' as well as of 'hear') 
 is to be compared with kKvuv, and gwr){dyn with dvrjp){nvOpcoTros. 
 He will point out that some Greek words have, as far as meaning 
 goes, nearer counterparts in Welsh than any which English can 
 supply (e.g. oyj/ov = en/lyny Scotch, kitchen^) ; he will show that 
 
 ^ " What is eat by way of relish to dry bread is called kitchen in 
 Scotland, as cheese, dried fish, or the like relishing morsels." Sir Walter 
 Scott, Pirate, c. xi. (foot-note at end).
 
 38 TJie Aims ajid Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 this is true of some forms also (e.g. athronyddu = (f>iKo(ro(Pf'Lv , 
 bugeilio = Troi/jiaiveiv, piydyddji = ivoifiv — not to speak of quasi- 
 dual forms such as deuliii and diuyfron) ; he will illustrate, as far 
 as it can be done, the Middle Voice by means of _yw-, and the use 
 of OX) and /xr/ by ni and na ; he will try to find Welsh examples 
 of * accusative of respect' and of ' impersonal construction' ; and he 
 will indicate any parallelism in proverbs (e.g. ties penelin nag 
 nrddwrn = dTTarepa) rj ywu kptjiii], Theocr. xvi. 18 ; and fiz'd twyll 
 twyllo twyllwr = the Byzantine proverb airo KkitrTov Kki^ov Km 
 Kpina ovic exfis)^- He might also give instances in which Welsh 
 translates the Greek more closely than English does, e.g. Ac aniryw 
 rai a lefent ainryw beth yti y dyffa (Acts xxi. 34, a'XXoi Se a'AAo n 
 f7recl)aivovv ev rw o;^Xa)) ; or in which a single word in Welsh, as 
 against a number in English, is used to render a Greek expression 
 (e.g. 'EKpiCmdrjTi, St Luke xvii. 6. Welsh, Yviddadiur-ciddia. A. V. 
 seven words, ' Be thou plucked up by the root.' Rev. V. four 
 words, 'Be thou rooted up'); or in which the convenient _y«/<z«^, 
 hithaii, niimau, etc., can give a shade of emphasis or contrast, such 
 as that o( piv and 8(. 
 
 Welsh can often keep quite close to the order of the Greek. Two 
 illustrations may be offered, the original Greek being taken in the 
 one case from the New Testament, in the other from Plato. In St 
 John xvii. 9, where the Greek has ov nepl rov Koapov epwro), dXXa 
 TTfpX u>v SeSoj/car poi, on aoi etcnv, the Welsh gives Ni'd dros y byd 
 yr wyf yii gweddio, ond dros y rhai a roddaist i mi; canys eiddot ti 
 ydyfjt. Towards the end of the Apology we have the words Km idv 
 
 ravra TroifJTe, SiKOia imrovdcos eyai ecropai v(f)^ iipav, avTos re Koi ol 
 vUis. Here again we can, when translating into Welsh, keep much 
 nearer to the Greek order, than would be possible in English with- 
 out baldness and ambiguity : Ac os hyn a wtu'wch, yr hyn sydd 
 gyfiawn fyddaf fi v>edi ei dderbyn oddiar eich Haw., myfi din 
 vieibion. 
 
 1 The list miglit easily be extended, e.g. eV TV<p\Qiv -rrljKei yXafxvpbs 
 §acCK(.vii. = itnlly;rcidiog fydd f renin yug ngwlad y deillion ; K€pafj.evs Kepa- 
 pu KOTiii.-= Dial dau eurych ; /j.rjSii' dyai' = iitd da rhy o ddiiii ; dpxri ijfj.icrv 
 i:a.vTb'i = deuparth gtuaith ei ddcchreu ; Tovixbv 6vHpov ifxol = ac yna tni a 
 ddcffroais.
 
 I.] Greek. 39 
 
 Few things would be more likely to give additional lite to the 
 study of Greek in Wales than that there should be 
 offered, in connexion with the Welsh University, vvelsh Univer- 
 scholarships which should provide for the best gra- ships '^ ° ^ " 
 duates in classics a course of instruction at the 
 British School of Archjeology at Athens for a year or two, after 
 which they would return to Wales, as teachers, with their zeal 
 rekindled at the old altars of the Hellenic race. Some provision of 
 the kind is already made in the case of the German Stipendiaten 
 and of the students of the French Ecole Normale. Athens would 
 thus once more become, in some sort, a University for the West, a 
 Celtic West whose dim and shadowy outline first rises above the 
 horizon of the recorded centuries in the shape of those Cassitcrides 
 which to the early Greek historian seemed to lie in a region distant 
 and unknown.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 The contest between the Modern and Classical systems of 
 
 Education has issued in a compromise. A modus 
 
 mon to both vivcndi has been arrived at, whereby the two 
 
 Classical and exist sidc by sidc in most English secondary 
 
 Modern side. ■' , ^ •' 
 
 schools. There has been give and take on both 
 sides. The realists learn something of the humanities, the 
 humanists learn something about the world of Nature, and the 
 boys of England nourish their youth sublime on 'the fairy 
 tales of Science' as well as 'the long results of time.' This 
 result was indeed inevitable from the first. A curriculum 
 which was fixed in the days of Erasmus had to be remodelled 
 in the days of Darwin. Latin is one of the connecting links 
 between the Classical and Modern side. Let it not therefore 
 be assumed that in anything I say in praise of Latin or its 
 educational value, I am advocating any exclusively classical 
 system or a return to the old system of Sturm and Roger 
 Ascham, when Latin was the be-all and the end-all here of 
 school education. Each man, as Emerson says, is like a bit 
 of Labrador spar. You turn it over in your hand and it seems 
 dull, opaque and gross, until you strike a certain angle in the 
 spar, and then your eye catches its lustre. So is it with the
 
 Chap, ii.] Latin. 41 
 
 schoolboy. It is the teacher's duty to turn him over until he 
 catches his lustre, to discover his special aptitude, to find out 
 what subject he can work at with most interest, to get at him 
 where he is most get-at-able. 
 
 Latin has a professional value for the Clergyman, Lawyer, 
 Doctor, Apothecary, Schoolmaster, and all stu- usefulness 
 dents of history or archaeology. It has a value °f Latin for 
 
 . ^^ 1 1 understanding 
 
 also for the Commercial man. Once he has Modem Lan- 
 mastered Latin, he will master French, Italian, e^^g^^ 
 Portuguese, Spanish, or any Modern Language of the Romance 
 family, in a quarter of the time he would otherwise require. 
 His grasp of these languages will be surer, his insight deeper, 
 his power of expression far more extensive than if he had no 
 knowledge of the language from which they are all descended. 
 
 But more important than French or Spanish is one's 
 mother tongue. It is impossible to thoroughly 
 understand English, not only literary English, wol-c^"^^'^^ 
 but the ordinary English of everyday life, without 
 a knowledge of Latin. Thousands of derivatives come to us 
 from Latin through Norman French, and every year the 
 language is being replenished with new words drawn to a large 
 extent from Latin. All these later words, which have been 
 taken from Latin since the Revival of Learning, at once and 
 without further consultation of the Dictionary yield up their 
 meaning, — -their full meaning with its exact shade and conno- 
 tations and all its metaphorical colour — to the mind which has 
 once acquired a fair knowledge of Latin ; while to the mind 
 which has no knowledge of Latin, however much the Dictionary 
 be plied, they remain to the end dull and comparatively in- 
 expressive instruments of speech. 
 
 But it may be urged that the same purpose would be served 
 if children were taught a certain number of . . , 
 
 ° Learning of 
 
 Latin roots. Such was the method adopted in Roots no sub- 
 the Young Ladies' Academies of a past genera-
 
 42 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 tion, and a more lifeless, barren process could not be imagined. 
 The economy of time, if economy it be, is dearly bought when 
 the study of a living organism, such as the Latin language, is 
 re])laced by long and arid lists of Latin roots, ' set in a note- 
 book, conned and learned by rote.' There is as much difference 
 between the two systems as between learning plant-life in the 
 open field or garden and learning Botany from dried specimens 
 and S. Kensington diagrams. The one trains the mind as a 
 whole, the other merely overburdens one particular faculty, viz. 
 memory, which will find otherwise quite as much work as it 
 can manage. And when all is done, what learning of lists can 
 teach you to recognise a root under all the many diverse forms 
 which it assumes in such a string of words as agcfit, actioti, 
 exigency, agile, enact: fraction, infringe, fragment, frail : treat, 
 abstract, train, tracery, trait, portray ? The power of seeing 
 order in seeming disorder, of tracing one strand of meaning 
 through a series of cognate words, is a power which makes easy 
 the effort of memory, and economises the mind's energy, and 
 it is a power which no learning of root-lists can infuse. 
 
 Again, there is nothing more important in the ordinary 
 business of life than accuracy of statement and 
 
 Accuracy. . . , 
 
 of definition. No small fraction of the evils of 
 life can be traced to inaccuracy, usually unintentional. It is 
 the fruitful source of misunderstandings, misrepresentations 
 and 'all those direful words which begin with the prefix inis-.^ 
 There is no training which is so well calculated to produce in 
 a boy precision of thought and strict accuracy of statement as 
 Latin. In every Latin word that he writes he can make, as a 
 rule, three or more mistakes. Mistakes are our best teachers. 
 And if a boy learns by his Latin mistakes to write accurate 
 Latin sentences, he will have acquired a habit of accuracy 
 which will stand him in good stead for anything else he has to 
 do in life. 
 
 So much for the utilitarian value of Latin. But it is a very
 
 11.] Latin. 43 
 
 narrow view of education which measures the value of an 
 educational instrument only by such standards. 
 
 It is true that we must learn how to earn a living element of 
 
 before we can live to learn. But to every Eng- Liberal Edu- 
 
 . " cation. 
 
 lishman who can afford a secondary education 
 there is more than one calling in life. There is what is called, in 
 the narrower sense, his calling or vocation, to be a clerk, trades- 
 man, merchant, engineer, or whatever it may be. But there is 
 also the call to fulfil the duties of a man and citizen. And his 
 education must fit him, not only for those hours he will spend 
 in the shop or office, but just as much for the hours when he 
 will be his own master, for the wise and public-spirited use of 
 his leisure. Indeed it is more important to train a boy for his 
 recreation than his business. In the shop or counting-house 
 there is not much scope for individuality ; all must conform 
 more or less to type : in the hours when a man is free his 
 personal tastes and inclinations find free scope. In business 
 there is every incentive for him to acquire for himself the 
 knowledge necessary for his trade, whereas for the right use of 
 leisure careful previous training of taste is required. And the 
 necessary training does not consist in the mere acquisition of 
 knowledge, in the abundance of things which a man knows. 
 The object of liberal education is to develope an instrument 
 able to acquire knowledge for itself, to think and form correct 
 opinions, to discriminate the good from the bad, the l)eautiful 
 from the ugly. ' The best education,' says Mazzini, ' will ever 
 be that which imparts the greatest capacity for thought ' — and, 
 one may add, 'for action.' 
 
 A system which proposes to itself this end must concern 
 itself not primarily with the study of external compared 
 nature, but with the study of man, his qualities, with French 
 
 ■' . and German as 
 
 his history, his modes of thought. Language is a study of 
 
 the instrument of thought. Therefore the study '^nguage 
 
 of language holds the foremost place in the scheme of Liberal
 
 44 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Education. Of all languages that can be studied with a view 
 to the formal discipline of the mind, Latin is recognised as 
 the best. Many argue that French and German would be just 
 as efficient, but their contention has never been practically 
 demonstrated. The grammar and vocabulary, the spirit and ex- 
 pression of these languages are too like our own. Translation 
 from, or composition in, a modern language does not compel 
 the same effort of thought as Latin Translation or Composition. 
 Take for example such expressions as solidarity, autonomy, 
 objectivity, materialistic, feelings of humanity, pleasures of sense. 
 To do these into French or German is easy. The English- 
 French or English-German Dictionary lies close at hand and 
 quickly furnishes correct equivalents. But the boy who has 
 in this way produced a passable piece of French or German 
 Composition may have at the end no more idea of what the 
 passage means than he had to start with. Not so with Latin. 
 '• Prudentiae voluptates' or '■ hominiim sensus' soon bewray him. 
 He cannot possibly translate the passage into passable Latin 
 without mastering the real meaning of each word and sentence, 
 and the logical connexion of the piece as a whole. He is 
 brought face to face with all the difficulties, whether of ter- 
 minology or reasoning. And there is no educational exercise 
 which is so well fitted to brace and strengthen the mental fibre, 
 prevent mental flabbiness, and make solid the foundations of 
 knowledge. 
 
 Again, no methodical teaching of language, no knowledge 
 of the laws and principles which underlie and 
 Grammar account for the speech we use, is possil-yle without 
 
 studying grammar. The first elements of gram- 
 mar can and ought to be learned from the mother tongue, — 
 the different parts of speech, numbers, genders, persons and 
 the simple classification of sentences. But of formal grammar 
 English has next to none; Dr Johnson was able to dismiss it 
 in ten lines. Other modern languages have more, but the part
 
 II.] Latin. 45 
 
 which entails most labour, viz. gender, is just the most irrational 
 survival of the synthetic grammar of the past. Latin has a 
 definite form to mark the function of each substantive in the 
 sentence, a different mood to distinguish that which is thought 
 from that which is stated as fact, a different construction to 
 distinguish what is reported on the authority of another from 
 what is stated on one's own authority. No other language 
 marks these distinctions so clearly and visibly. It has more- 
 over a plastic order by which it maintains the historical order 
 of events^ and marks the emphasis of a sentence without 
 periphrases or italics. It is in fact unequalled as an instrument 
 for the formal discipline of the mind. It is clear where English 
 is obscure, direct where English is circumlocutory, restrained 
 and simple where English is redundant, precise where English 
 is vague, concrete where English is abstract. The very 
 contrast of the two languages rouses attention and stimulates 
 thought. 
 
 Moreover, what biologists tell us of our physical develop- 
 ment is true also of our mental development; suited to 
 the history of each individual is in itself an boys' char- 
 epitome of the history of the whole species. 
 The schoolboy between the ages of ii and 17 is just about in 
 the same relative stage of development as the Romans repre- 
 sent in the history of mankind. The Roman qualities are in 
 many respects the best qualities of the schoolboy, a strong 
 sense of discipline and patriotism, admiration for strength and 
 all-round manliness, a shrewd, practical common sense intolerant 
 of theorising, a strong feeling for the real and concrete, just 
 awaking to the truths of generalisation and abstraction under 
 the influence of their schoolmasters, the Greeks. And just as 
 
 ^ English "I shall go (3) to see him (4) because he came (i) to see 
 me (2)." Latin "cum venerit (i) me visum (2), ego ibo (3) eum quoque 
 visum (4)." I owe the example to Mr E. V. Arnold.
 
 4-6 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 these characteristics are reflected in the Latin language, so the 
 study of the Latin language will react upon the mind. 
 
 So much for the intrinsic merits of the language as tending 
 to liberalise the mind. But not less important 
 
 LuJrature. ^^ ^^ ^o learn Latin as a preparation for the study 
 of Literature in general and of English literature 
 in particular. A knowledge of Latin is even more necessary 
 for the reading of good English than for the writing of good 
 English. The standard classical authors may, it is true, be 
 read and enjoyed by one who knows nothing of Latin; but 
 they cannot be fully appreciated, much less can they be 
 scientifically studied by such a person, any more than modern 
 political institutions and state-systems can be understood 
 without a knowledge of the Roman Empire, out of which our 
 modern systems grew. It is hard to realise how large a portion 
 of such authors as Milton, Sir Thomas Browne, Gray, Pope, 
 Dryden, Burke, Johnson, Addison must remain egregiously 
 misunderstood by, or wholly unintelligible to, those who read 
 them without any previous knowledge of the Latin authors 
 whose writings were the staple diet and highest model of these 
 English writers. It is not only that such a reader will be 
 arrested at every turn by Latin phrases and quotations which 
 he cannot comprehend, — for these possibly some Vade-mecum 
 might be constructed, — but the allusions, the ideas or, if not 
 the thought itself, at any rate the form in which it is cast, — 
 in a word, the atmosphere of their writings is something quite 
 alien and incomprehensible to the man who has no knowledge 
 of Latin Classics. 
 
 Teachers cannot too carefully bear in mind that the object 
 
 of teacliing Latin is not to produce Latin 
 
 Tas'te'"'"^ "'^ specialists or adepts in technical scholarship, 
 
 but to form taste, to teach boys to admire 
 
 rightly. The teaching of Latin, as of the classics generally, 
 
 has been hitherto too exclusively philological. Teachers have
 
 II.] Latin. 47 
 
 treated the classical authors as a sort of parade-ground for the 
 practice of perpetual grammatical drill. Such treatment, with 
 99 boys out of 100, rather repels than attracts. Even from the 
 earliest days of Caesar construe, it is the teacher's duty to see 
 not only that his pupils understand the meaning of the great 
 authors he has to teach, but also why and wherein they are 
 great. Never was it more needful than in this age of sensa- 
 tionalism and literary dram-drinking that children should be 
 trained to healthy taste in literature. And it is only by 
 constant and direct association with the best models from 
 earliest youth that correct taste can be formed. It must be 
 mainly by the unconscious influence of environment. ' We 
 ought,' says Plato, ' to seek out artists who by the power of 
 their genius can trace out the nature of the fair and graceful, 
 that our young men, dwelling, as it were, in a healthful region, 
 may drink in good from every quarter whence any emanation 
 from noble works may strike upon their eye or their ear, and 
 win them imperceptibly from their earliest years into resem- 
 blance, love and harmony with the true beauty of reason.' 
 
 But Roman greatness does not adequately express itself in 
 Roman poetry or belles lettfes of any kind. It 
 is a greatness not of intellect, nor of art, but of Histor"^" 
 character. It is seen best in Roman deeds and 
 Roman sayings. De Quincey calls attention to the grandeur of 
 their anecdotes and serious bons mots, and finds in these the 
 revelation of the Roman mind under its highest aspect, 'great 
 in the presence of man, though mean in the presence of nature.' 
 But more striking still are the simple clear-cut outlines of 
 heroic figures in Roman history, supreme types of that virtue 
 of patriotism which appeals perhaps more than any other to 
 the boyish imagination. In no people as a whole do we find 
 such firmness, courage, and above all such a strong sense of 
 social obligation, as among the Romans. To the English- 
 speaking boy especially, Roman history should be familiar from
 
 48 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 earliest years, for nowhere else can he learn so well the sense 
 of dignity and of command which befits an imperial people, or 
 that subordination of the individual to the community which 
 we call public spirit. ' Moral education,' it has been said, 
 'consists in making the creature practically serviceable to 
 other creatures according to the nature of its own capacities.' 
 Who can tell how far we are indebted to Horatius Codes, 
 Quintus Curtius and Decius Mus for the high tone and unselfish 
 devotion which characterises English public men ? 
 
 I make no apology for discussing at length the aims of 
 Latin teaching, for the method of teaching must largely be 
 conditioned by the objects aimed at : the how must depend 
 largely on the tvliy. Many may think that the very multiplicity 
 of the objects to be attained must be fatal to the successful 
 attainment of any one of them'. But many-sidedness, so far from 
 being a drawback, is a necessity in any system of education 
 for the young. The powers of memory, observation, reasoning, 
 concentration, the faculties of taste and expression, all need 
 to be trained together; and Latin is a splendid educational 
 instrument just because it forms a sort of focus in which all 
 the scattered forces of the mind converge, without any loss 
 of intensity or of beauty in their convergence. 
 
 AVhat is worth doing at all is worth doing well. This 
 proverb, true of most things, is true of nothing 
 
 Method. ^ r . 1 ,- , f 
 
 so much as of the learnmg of languages. A 
 smattering of chemistry, of geology, of botany, is always so 
 much to the good, so much added to one's store of know- 
 ledge, so much increase in one's power of observation. But 
 to learn the grammar of a language and to stop short of the 
 literature is like paying up all one's insurance policies except 
 the last, and so missing the benefit of the whole. That 
 method therefore will, ceteris paribus, be the best, which most 
 quickly introduces the learner to the Latin Literature. It is 
 ' Bain, Science of Education, p. 382.
 
 II.] Latin. 49 
 
 a great mistake to so exhaust the mind with the laborious 
 rudiments of language that it has but little time or inclination 
 to imbibe the lessons of Literature. It was the fashion in old 
 days to drill boys for a year or longer in the 
 
 I- • r 1 /- 1 1 Grammar. 
 
 forms of Latin Grammar before they were al- 
 lowed to do the simplest exercises or translate the simplest 
 sentences. That was a great mistake. It is like teaching 
 people to draw by the rules of perspective, and light and 
 shade, without allowing them to handle a pencil or giving 
 them designs in which to study the effects. Hence the Latin 
 Grammar in the minds of our fathers is indissolubly associated 
 with memories of the birch. 
 
 Qui, quae, quod, 
 fetch me the rod, 
 
 says the old rhyme. ' The parts of speech are a boy's pillory,' 
 said Martin Luther. And various schemes have been sug- 
 gested by which the grammatical desert shall be made to 
 blossom as the rose, and the spirit of heaviness be exchanged 
 for the garment of praise. 
 
 But, disguise it how we will, there must always remain a 
 certain amount of drudgery to be performed, 
 a certain number of forms and rules to be y^,^^^ 
 memorised which seem at first useless and 
 arbitrary. The only choice is whether it shall be done sooner 
 or later, and any one who has seen the pain and effort which 
 it costs a person of mature years to learn the grammar Pa- 
 radigms which a boy in Eton jacket picks up with almost 
 as much ease as he picks up the jingle of a nursery rhyme, 
 need have no hesitation about the answer to be given. The 
 fact is that, whatever study one takes up in life, there will be 
 'grammar' in some shape to be learned, — and to be learned 
 in no other way but by drudgery. What anatomy is to the 
 surgeon, what multiplication tables and formulae are to the 
 
 s. T. 4
 
 50 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching: [Chap. 
 
 mathematician, what the tables of specific gravity are to the 
 chemist, that grammar is to the student of language, — the 
 strait gate, the narrow path through which he must enter the 
 promised land of literature. Probably boys who complain of 
 the drudgery of Latin Grammar, if sent to do ditch work in- 
 stead, like the President of the United States in the story-books, 
 would come back again in a day or two, as he did, and ask 
 to return to mensa, amo and the gerunds. 
 
 At the same time there is a great deal of truth in what 
 Shakespeare says, 
 
 Interest to 
 be roused. ' JiJq profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en.' 
 
 It is not right that Latin Grammar should be unmixed 
 drudgery, that all the disagreeable should be found in study, 
 all the pleasure in amusements. If Latin is a good educational 
 instrument because it is hard, that is no reason why the difficulty 
 should be increased by bad method. 'l"he difficulty of the 
 subject-matter is educational : Latin will never be play either 
 to the boy in the lowest form or to the boy at the top of the 
 school ; but to learn it in a difficult way cannot be educational. 
 Climbing is good exercise for the muscles, but to climb with 
 pebbles in one's boots does not make it better exercise. And 
 though one cannot accept at once the new deductive methods 
 in their entirety, one may get a great deal from them that will 
 make one's teaching more interesting. The new ideas of the 
 doctrinaire reformer often prove most practically useful in the 
 hands of the conservative, — they stimulate thought, enliven 
 the deadness of routine by salutary change. But after all, the 
 inductive method, which works from the grammar to com- 
 position and translation, must be the normal method of 
 instruction. 
 
 Only let the grammar, composition and translation proceed 
 hand in hand. Let the learner at once see the usefulness of 
 what he has learned by at once turning it to account and
 
 II.] Latin. 51 
 
 doing something with it which he could not do before. If this 
 is done, it will be necessary after the first declen- 
 
 . Translation 
 
 sion to supply certain lorms ot the verb, to learn and Composi- 
 perhaps the Paradigm of the indicative present of *'assu w'ith 
 the ist and 3rd conjugations, and some of the Grammar, 
 elementary rules of syntax. It will be necessary also to learn 
 a small vocabulary of simple words, which go like mensa. 
 This may seem to the theorist an unscientific confusion of 
 different provinces, but in reality it is the only scientific 
 method; for the child not only learns that there is an Accusa- 
 tive case in Latin, but also why it exists, that it is just as wrong 
 to say in Latin Mater amat filia as it is wrong in English to 
 say ' Mother loves I.' The learning of vocabu- 
 
 , . , , 111 1 • Vocabularies. 
 
 lanes has been pooh-poohed as cram, because it 
 is merely learning a list of words by rote. But, in the first 
 place, only those words should be learned as vocabulary 
 which have been already met with in the sentences construed, 
 and are to be used again. Next, there is nothing about which 
 a child is so curious when beginning a new language, as 
 knowing what this or that thing ' is called ' in Latin or French. 
 Thirdly, the vocabulary furnishes the teacher with matter for 
 exercising the class viva voce in the newly-learned forms ; there 
 is a certain pleasure in the Uveliness of such drill when the 
 teacher knows how to handle a class. Let him insist above all 
 on smartness, making no allowance for the boy who is not 
 thoroughly alert ; on articulate speaking, making no allowance 
 for the mumbler; and above all on accuracy, — a teacher should 
 no more think of allowing a boy to slur the pronunciation of the 
 inflexion than a music-master would allow a pupil to play e for 
 f, or strike between the two notes, not definitely either one or 
 the other. Again, the vocabulary affords the teacher an oppor- 
 tunity of explaining the derivations of English words, such words 
 for example as terrestrial, Mediterratiean on the ist declen- 
 sion ; domineer, dominant, puerile, reign, interregnum on the 
 
 4—2
 
 52 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 2nd; getting at these words as much as possible by a process of 
 questioning, so that the pupils may think out for themselves 
 similar derivations in other words they come across. If the 
 class is learning French, this tracing of derivations may be still 
 further extended. In any case such admixture of etymology is 
 helpful to the memory and conduces to the accuracy of English 
 spelling. The sentences for translation should be as interesting 
 as possible, that is they should be within the range of the boy's 
 comprehension, connected with such things as he sees or thinks 
 about in everyday life. Every now and again the monotony 
 of detached sentences should be broken with a short story, 
 narrating some Greek myth or legend of early Rome. Care- 
 fully avoid any petty subject which the boy will despise. He 
 will very soon be able to read the fables of Phaedrus and the 
 simpler myths, or short accounts of Agricola and the Romans 
 in Britain. A visit to the local museum, if it contains any 
 Roman remains, or to any Roman camp there may be in the 
 neighbourhood, will make the whole thing more real to the 
 youthful imagination. Let the class-room be hung with maps 
 and what Germans call Realia, pictures of Roman soldiers, siege- 
 machines and testiido, Roman houses and domestic life, Roman 
 triumph processions, going under the yoke, ships, etc. Let these 
 be frequently changed, lest the sameness pall. I should like 
 to see more use made in schools of the Colloquies of Erasmus, 
 and of Latin Hymns and Latin songs like ' Gaudeamus igitur ' 
 (with music). Mr Cooke' has set an excellent example in 
 translating the stories of Joseph and his Brethren, David and 
 Goliath, from the Latin of the Vulgate into the Latin of the 
 Classics : the same thing should be done with the Gospels and 
 all the more familiar parts of the Bible. It would be a great 
 boon if some competent scholar would undertake the Arabian 
 Nights or Stevenson's Treasure Island. Lord Dufferin tells us 
 how much the accjuisition of Persian was facilitated for him by 
 ^ Macmillan's Latin Course.
 
 II-] Latin. 53 
 
 Talbot's translation of the Arabian iVig/Us into that language, 
 and aptly asks ' How few of us would have ever acquired French, 
 if we had been confined to Bossuet's Sermons or Montesquieu's 
 History, unaided by the blessed stimulus of Dumas' novels? ' 
 
 We live in a decade of attenuated Grammars. And it is 
 well. The grammars of our childhood were 
 
 . Grammar. 
 
 overloaded with much useless matter which 
 was only learned /;/ futuram oblivionem. How many even of 
 those who have kept up their classics have discovered yet any 
 use for the gender of papilio, curadio, cicer, vof?iis, nwgilis, 
 vermis, cuaimis, or for the declension of Greek nouns in Latin ? 
 What advantage has it been to know that no form of the 
 singular of prex was found except the ablative prece, or that 
 socer had a collateral form socerus} The very completeness of 
 the old Grammars is their great drawback for a beginner. In 
 a more advanced stage, the study of exceptions may be valuable 
 as illustrating philological principles. But at first let there be as 
 little learning of exceptions as possible. The accidence must 
 be revised from the beginning, at least once a term, until it 
 is well driven in. This gives the teacher a chance of weaving 
 in any exceptional usages which have occurred in the reading, 
 and thus gradually expanding the range of grammatical know- 
 ledge. In revision, as in all accidence lessons, one must insist 
 on the class knowing the meaning of the word they are de- 
 clining or conjugating. 
 
 It is not advisable to teach the beginner by stems, making 
 him learn such forms as domino-, miiit-, ama-, mane-, reg-, audi- 
 instead of the forms which he will actually meet, dominus, 
 miles, amo, moneo, rego, audio. The ' Crude-form ' system, as 
 it is called, may be useful at a later stage when the pupil is 
 more advanced, and interested in the form of the language in 
 and for itself. But to the beginner such forms are embarrassing. 
 He should be familiarised only with the actual forms of Latin 
 words as they are used in the Latin language.
 
 54 ^^^^ Aivis and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 The syntax of the verb should be learned before the syntax of 
 the cases, since it is of more importance both for translation and 
 composition. Many of the simpler constructions, — such as 
 those of final sentences with ut, indirect statement and ques- 
 tion, the construction with the gerunds and supines — may best 
 be learned by deducing them from Latin sentences. In nearly 
 all text-books the rule is first given in abstract terms, is then 
 learned by heart, and afterwards applied in a long series of sen- 
 tences. It is a good thing to take first selected Latin sentences, 
 to go through these with the class, giving them sufficient clue 
 to discover the proper meaning, and then making them deduce 
 the rule for themselves by judicious questioning. What they 
 have thus found out and formulated for themselves is far more 
 likely to impress itself upon the memory than if they are told 
 ' This is the rule, here is an example, now apply it to the 
 sentences given.' 
 
 To come now to the language as such, very much depends 
 ^ ^. on the first beginning, on the way and the siiirit 
 
 Teaching . . 
 
 mostly oral at in which a child is first introduced to the 
 language. Let the first principle be that as 
 much as possible of the early work be oral. Too often a 
 child is set down with an exercise book to plod his own weary- 
 way in silence. To the young mind such a method is repul- 
 sive. It stands to reason that what enters by ear-gate as well 
 as by eye-gate will make twice as much impression. It is also 
 a principle of psychology that the attention is keenest where 
 pleasure is felt. That feeling of pleasure is roused by the 
 liveliness of a class which is conducted with the living voice. 
 Let us take an exercise from Latin into English, which contains 
 some six or seven words hitherto unknown. Do not ask them 
 to read the sentence off directly, but pronounce clearly before 
 the class one of these unknown words and let them say it after 
 you from the vocabulary and give you the English meaning. 
 Then let books be closed. Read the whole sentence and
 
 II.] Latin. 55 
 
 let the class translate it into English without looking into 
 the book, putting in the newly-learned word. Then let the 
 class read the sentence from the book and translate. When 
 this is done, make them point out the predicate, subject, 
 object, attributes, adverb, etc. After a short exercise has been 
 worked through in this way, the teacher may test their 
 remembrance of the new words which they have learned, 
 going over them again and again till they have been driven 
 home. At the next lesson he will hear the old lesson over 
 again ; this should be done without opening the books at 
 all. First ask them the vocabulary, English into Latin, Latin 
 into English, then read the sentences in Latin and make 
 them translate into English, and then reverse the process, 
 giving them the English and making them give you back 
 the Latin ; this will give occasion for a few elementary hints 
 as to the order of words in the Latin sentence, and the position 
 of emphatic words such as 71071^ nemo, etc., and of quasi-enclitic 
 words like ciii/ii, aiiiem, gnoqiie. Of course, such a process 
 does not exclude a written exercise being required from time to 
 time, and for exactitude there are few things so good\ But the 
 teaching of young boys should be mainly by ear and by 
 sentences, and always so at first. Nothing does so much 
 to keep a class together and to give a boy confidence in 
 the handling of strange words and sounds. And it is also 
 important that boys should be accustomed as soon as possible 
 to translate sentences and not disconnected words. 
 
 With such a system the question of pronunciation becomes 
 one of the first importance. The hybrid and 
 
 , . ..... . Pronunciation. 
 
 chaotic state which exists in many of our 
 
 present schools makes good oral teaching impossible. It is 
 
 not of so much importance which system is adopted, as that 
 
 ^ It is well to set verbs for writing out as evening work, and to have 
 l^rinted forms that show by cross divisions which forms are to be formed 
 from the perfect stem, which from the supine, etc.
 
 56 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 some definite system be adopted and adhered to in all classes, 
 so that a boy does not get hopelessly bewildered as he goes 
 from master to master up the school. If the school sends on 
 to the University boys who may possibly afterwards take up 
 seriously some branch of philological science, it is best to 
 adopt the scheme formulated by the Cambridge Committee in 
 the year 18S7, and approved by the Headmasters' Conference'. 
 But in any case, stress should be laid on accurate pronunciation 
 of quantity ; no such monstrosities as " eeshiam " and " ecgo " and 
 '^ medior" should be tolerated. And it will be well to insist on 
 the hard pronunciation of c, g, and / before all vowels, other- 
 wise one will have citus mixed up with situs, cerium with 
 scrtiim, concessiim with consessum, and nouns in -tio with nouns 
 in -sio. 
 
 To come now to the Construing Lesson. The object is 
 two-fold, — to develope powers of application and 
 
 Construing. ' . , ' • , , , 
 
 versatility of mind; and to give the scholar 
 some idea of Roman life and thought. It is an exercise 
 which requires a constructive effort of the mind. The boy 
 finds himself face to face with words, inflexions, constructions 
 with which he is already familiar. He is required to discover 
 the sense of the passage as a whole. Care should be taken 
 that one does not require the impossible. Too many boys have 
 an idea that, if they look out all the words, that is all that the 
 teacher has a right to expect. And that is all the teacher has 
 a right to expect, if the author set is far above the boy's 
 capacity to grasp, and if the boy has not already been taught 
 in class how to set about unravelling the sense. Two things 
 are necessary, careful gradation of the reading, and a few 
 introductory lessons im^a voce in class showing how a sentence 
 is to be tackled. With an author like Ovid it will be necessary 
 
 ^ Compare also Tlie Restored Protiunciation of Greetz and Latin 
 (Arnold and Conway, Cambridge University Press).
 
 II.] Latin. 57 
 
 to give, in almost every case, elucidatory hints for the next 
 lesson. For the first two years, the matter for translation will 
 be in the same book as the Grammar and Exercises. This will 
 take the learner through the accidence and acquaint him with 
 the elementary rules of syntax. He will be then ready to 
 start with the lives of Cornelius Nepos. Among these the 
 lives of Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Hannibal are to 
 be preferred. For this and all early reading, editions are 
 to be preferred which give special vocabularies at the 
 end. The manipulation of the larger lexicon entails much 
 useless labour, and the multiplicity of meanings perplexes the 
 beginner. 
 
 Next may come Caesar, de Bello GalHco, especially 
 Book V, which deals with the invasion of Britain, and gives an 
 account of the island. The personality of Caesar, the strength, 
 energy and generosity of his character, the straightforwardness 
 and simplicity of his style, make a great impression on the 
 mind of the boy who is still in the Red-Indian stage of culture. 
 Then Livy Book XXI will give some idea of the Sturm iind 
 Drang period of Roman history, when both people and Senate 
 showed what was best in them. Cicero may be introduced 
 with the speech pro Lege Mauilia, or the Catilinarian Orations. 
 The reading of the poets should come late, not till the 4th or 
 5th year : if it comes earlier, the labour of extracting the sense 
 will prevent all enjoyment of the poetry for both pupil and 
 teacher. Selections from Ovid's Metamorphoses, e.g. the 
 stories of Proserpina, Daedalus and Icarus, Philemon and 
 Baucis, Orpheus and Eurydice, will be the best to begin with. 
 Vergil's Aeneid may follow on this ; Horace should come late 
 when both scholarship and thought are fairly mature. Much 
 better as an introduction to lyric poetry will be selections from 
 Catullus. This author, if read at all in schools, is as a rule 
 read only by the more advanced boys who are just going up to 
 the University ; but there are lyric poems of his so simple in
 
 58 TJic Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 their phrasing and their thought that they are well within the 
 grasp of a boy of 14 or 15, and yet at the same time so true in 
 their poetic feeling that I know no Latin reading so likely to 
 stir a boy's interest and even enthusiasm. With the first 
 reading of Latin poetry it will be necessary to give a few 
 simple lessons in Prosody, so that the pupil may be able to 
 scan a hexameter or pentameter verse and the simpler forms 
 of lyric structure. 
 
 To set a boy down without any preparatory help to trans- 
 late an author like Caesar is like expecting him 
 in^Tast'^^*'°" ^° grope his way through an unknown town in 
 the dark, without giving him any clue as to the 
 main streets. If a boy is set to prepare a passage from Caesar 
 or Nepos by himself, his first idea as a rule is to make a list of 
 the words he does not know, to look them out one by one in 
 the dictionary, taking that meaning which happens to strike 
 him first, to enter all these on his list and then by the help of 
 this list to try to puzzle out the meaning. No conceivable 
 course could be more fatal to success. The first thing to im- 
 press on the beginner is that he must tackle a passage sen- 
 tence by sentence, otherwise it will be hopeless. And in order 
 to make sure of each sentence as it comes, it will be necessary, 
 for the first year of such work at least, for the preparation to be 
 done in class under the teacher's supervision. 
 
 One must not expect a beginner to see by instinct the 
 framework of a Latin period and to be able to distinguish the 
 main sentence from the dependent clauses. Do not therefore 
 be angry with a boy who fails, after honest effort, to make out 
 the sense. If he does not find friendly aid from the teacher, 
 he will be only too prone to seek friendly aid from other 
 sources, which will do him harm. Neither, on the other hand, 
 be too ready to help him over his difficulties. That encourages 
 a sort of slip-shod, half-and-half preparation. The best help is 
 that which teaches a young mind to help itself, which trains it
 
 II.] Latin. 59 
 
 to independence and self-reliance. Never allow yourself or 
 any member of the class to prompt a pupil by telling him the 
 meaning of any word, much less a whole sentence bodily; this 
 is usually repeated in a mechanical way without any real 
 insight into the build of the sentence. Content yourself with 
 directing, and direct chiefly by means of question and answer. 
 A favourite question to ask by way of beginning is ' Which is 
 the subject?' The boy immediately looks for a nominative 
 case. Frequently the nominative case is not there, the subject 
 being understood from the previous sentence, or embedded in 
 the verb; frequently, again, there are only too many nominatives, 
 in apposition, or in dependent sentences. It is much better to 
 ask first 'Which are the dependent sentences?' These the 
 pupil will have been taught to discriminate by their conjunc- 
 tion, or interrogative or relative pronoun at the beginning, and 
 the finite verb at the end. Having eliminated the subordinate 
 sentences, the main sentence is taken first. Ask first for the 
 predicate; then the subject, if expressed, will probably be clear 
 enough. If there is no nominative case, the subject must be 
 in the predicate. In any case the predicate will give a definite 
 clue to the number and person, possibly also the gender of 
 the subject, and therefore gives a better foothold for mastering 
 the rest of the sentence. If there are several predicates in the 
 same mood and person, it shows that the sentences are parallel 
 to each other, whether dependent on a conjunction or not. 
 If the predicate is in the subjunctive mood, the main sentence 
 is either a conditional statement, or a prayer or exhortation, 
 or a dubitative question. 
 
 Care must be taken to turn the participial constructions 
 rightly, — shorter constructions, such as certior faciiis, miniio 
 adlafo, becoming prepositional clauses in English, ' on receipt of 
 the news' etc. ; many again that are passive in Latin becoming 
 active in English, such as ^ capta urbe rediit... ' 'having taken 
 the city he returned ' ; longer ablative absolutes requiring to
 
 6o TJic Aims and Practice of TcacJmig. [Chap, 
 
 be introduced by conjunctions when, tuhile, after, since, al- 
 though, if. The pupil must be ready to choose rapidly whichever 
 of these constructions is most appropriate to the sense and 
 most effective in English. He must also be shown that the 
 present participle in a Latin absolute construction, or the 
 present infinitive in the accusative and infinitive, or the present 
 indicative after diim, where the main verb is historic, will be 
 represented in English by the imperfect. 
 
 Above all, before translating, it must be made perfectly clear 
 whether dependent clauses are relative and belong to some 
 substantive, or whether they are adverbial and belong to the 
 main predicate or to some dependent predicate, and, if to a 
 predicate, in what precise relation they stand to the same. 
 ' So and so happened, after what had happened ? because 
 what had happened? with what motive? in order that what 
 might happen ? so that what happened as a consequence ? 
 under what conditions ? ' and so on. 
 
 To take an example from Caesar D. B. G. ii. 24. 4. 
 
 Quibiis rebus permoti cquites Treviri, quorum inter Gallos 
 virtutis opinio est singularis, qui auxilii causa ab civitate ad 
 Caesareni missi venerant, cjini niultitudine hostiuin castra 
 compkri nostra, legiones prend et pacnc circumvcntas teneri, 
 calottes, equilcs, funditores, Numidas diversos dissipatosque in 
 onines partes fugere vidisseni, desperatis nostris rebus doinum 
 contenderunt. 
 
 First eliminate the subordinate sentences (a) quorum... 
 singularis, relative sentence qualifying equites, (b) qui...ve/ierant, 
 another sentence of the same kind and function, (c) cum... 
 vidisscnt, temporal and causal sentence, giving the reason for 
 the main predicate which now stands out clearly '■ domnm con- 
 tenderunt^ The framework of the sentence will be equites, 
 cum... vidisseni, donuwi contenderunt. First get at the meaning 
 of this skeleton sentence. '•The horsemen, ivhen they saiv..., 
 hastened ho7ne.' Then develope the full meaning of the cwn-
 
 II.] Latin. 6i 
 
 clause. What was it they saw? Put this then first, as an 
 introductory clause, and point out that, if we are to be idiomatic, 
 we must absorb the main subject in it and say 'When the 
 horsemen of the Treviri saw..., they hastened homewards.' 
 Now the adjuncts of the sentence " Qicibus rebus permoti — 
 desperatis fiostris rebus" with the relative clauses, fall into their 
 proper places. 
 
 Above all, insist on English. If the above sentence were 
 set to a class, many boys would show up a translation some- 
 thing like the following : ' The horsemen of the Treviri, having 
 seen...///^' hastened home.' This repetition of the subject is 
 very common. It is fatal to pass it by without censure because 
 the boy has made out the Latin. Write up the sentence 
 on the board. Make the class tell you the mistake. If it, 
 or any similar mistake, occurs frequently, make an iudex ex- 
 purgatorius of such typical errors. Print up the most glaring 
 examples on the wall of the class-room as a terror to evil-doers. 
 Every lesson in Latin may be and should be also a lesson in 
 English. To get at the sense is the first thing, to express that 
 sense in English with equal force and clearness, while preserv- 
 ing the same emphasis, is the second. And no 
 writer of classical Latin can be turned into Eng- .k^^^^"V°k*° 
 
 o the h/ngusn. 
 
 lish without testing and exercising the powers of 
 English expression. Construing, in the narrow sense of the 
 word, is injurious to a boy's knowledge and use of English. 
 The simplest sentence of Livy, Caesar or Cicero, as construed 
 in Giles' Key, or on the Hamilto7iian System, will be proof suffi- 
 cient, e.g. 
 
 ' With which things being moved the Treviran knights, of 
 whose valour there is among the Gauls a unique reputation, 
 who had come for the sake of help being sent by their state to 
 Caesar... ' To rest content with a mere construe of this kind 
 is to do what in one's power lies to kill out of the pupils' 
 minds any latent sense there may be of literary form, any
 
 62 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 latent power of English writing \ Even in the earliest stages, 
 the class should be called on to put these sentences into clear, 
 readable, idiomatic English, — to translate what they have con- 
 strued. If this be carried out, the Latin lesson will become a 
 most valuable training in the choice of English words and the 
 ready formation of English sentences. 
 
 Later on, the pupil may be encouraged to adapt the style 
 of his translations to the style of some particular author, to 
 follow Milton in translating Vergil, Burke in Cicero, Gibbon in 
 Tacitus, Pope in Horace, Ben Jonson in Flaiitus, and so be 
 induced to study more closely and appreciatively the Classics 
 of his own tongue. And the teacher can do much by the way 
 to stimulate boys to read their own literature, particularly when 
 translating a Latin poet. Mr Page has given a good example 
 of what may be done in this direction in his school editions 
 of Vergil and Horace. 
 
 Right method in the construing lesson is all-important not 
 only for that lesson in itself, but also for the 
 
 Editions. ,. . , i i > i i ■ 
 
 effect It has on the boy s own method m pre- 
 paring his work. Sidney Smith has drawn a harrowing picture 
 of the English schoolboy " full of animal spirits, set down on 
 a bright sunny day, with a heap of unknown words before him, 
 to be turned into English before supper by the help of a 
 ponderous dictionary alone." Things have improved since 
 then ; the ponderous dictionary has given way to the special 
 vocabulary, and the danger nowadays is rather from ponderous 
 annotations than from ponderous dictionaries. The mistake 
 of our ancestors was in leaving the young unfurnished mind to 
 
 1 The following is taken from a boy's translation of Livy, Siege of 
 Syracuse. " By laying aside the guardianship which was with several 
 things in common, he concentrated to himself alone the strengths of all 
 men. Scarcely was popularity in the eyes of the Syracusans easy to 
 any good and moderate king succeeding so great an affection as of 
 Hiero."
 
 II.] Latin. 6 
 
 J 
 
 struggle on alone through its own difficulties. The risk in our 
 generation is that the young mind may suffer from too much 
 help, may never learn how to tackle a difficulty because it has 
 always had all difficulties smoothed away, before even they 
 were really felt. The seedling may be killed by too copious 
 watering as easily as by drought. For this evil there are two 
 remedies. 
 
 a. The weekly Unseen Translation. There are several 
 carefully prepared books of selections which 
 may be used for this purpose'. A stock of these tr^sfation. 
 should be kept, and one hour a week, if 
 possible, should be reserved, when one of these pieces should 
 be given to be done under examination conditions. Any words 
 the class cannot be expected to know of themselves should 
 be written on the board by the teacher. The written transla- 
 tions should be corrected and given back to the form as soon 
 as possible, the teacher going carefully through the piece, 
 commenting on the mistakes that have been made, and giving 
 in conclusion a model rendering of his own. Here at any rate 
 he will be able to test how far his pupils are able to master 
 the difficulties of the language, and hammer out the sense 
 of an author without the aid of notes. The written trans- 
 lation is a good discipline not only in exactitude but also in 
 power of English expression and style ; and, in marking, both 
 these aspects should be considered. 
 
 /;. Still more useful in its reflex action on the preparation 
 would be the adoption in English Schools of 
 
 ^ ° Extemporale. 
 
 what is called in Germany the Extemporale. 
 The teacher chooses some passage as far as possible complete 
 in itself, which has not been read by the form and which is in 
 point of difficulty one grade lower than the work on which the 
 
 1 J. H. Fowler, Sportella, F, D. Morice, Spratt and Pretor, Wilkins 
 and Strachan, J. S. Reid. The two first mentioned are the easiest.
 
 64 The Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap, 
 
 form is engaged at the time, and may thus be regarded as the 
 standard of the form's work. Sometimes an easier part of the 
 book they are reading at the time fits in very well. For 
 instance, a form reading the third book of Livy might very 
 well use any section of the first 32 chapters for the purpose. 
 Caesar, again, has large sections which run on smoothly and 
 present no special difficulty. If the passage is a strange one, 
 the teacher will need to supply as briefly and clearly as 
 possible the connexion in which it occurs. This done, he asks 
 some member of the class to read aloud a few lines till he 
 comes to a convenient stop. If in this passage there occur 
 any words which are not generally known, the teacher will 
 write them on the board. He then asks those who see the 
 sense, and are prepared to translate, to hold up their hand ; 
 and when a sufficient number have notified their readiness, he 
 calls upon one of them to translate, careful neither to allow any 
 other member of the class to interrupt, nor to interrupt himself, 
 except where direction is imperatively called for. So long as 
 the sense is rendered, he will not be too fastidious as to the 
 quality of the English in which it is expressed. It is a good 
 plan to set the passage thus rendered, or part thereof, to be 
 written out in good English for the next lesson, or to revise 
 the passage at the next Latin hour, and insist then upon some- 
 thing more idiomatic. No note-taking should be allowed. 
 Occasionally a boy is put on who does not hold up his 
 hand, for many of the slower, plodding boys will feel at a 
 disadvantage compared with their less industrious, more quick- 
 witted class-mates, who now find themselves probably not for 
 the first time called on to translate unseen, and who have 
 been taught by the force of circumstances to help them- 
 selves out more rapidly. It is just for these slower, plodding 
 boys, who are rather inclined to dawdle over their work, that 
 the extemporalc is most useful. When a boy of this kind is 
 put on, he should receive plenty of encouragement and of
 
 II.] Latin. 65 
 
 direction, without being actually told anything'. Concentra- 
 tion of faculty, readiness in seizing the essentials of a sentence, 
 is what he wants ; and he will learn to feel that if he launches 
 boldly on a sentence, after grasping clearly the main obvious 
 features, many points of difficulty will be found to solve them 
 selves as he goes on. Many well-meaning, hard-working 
 boys get the notion that their business is to look out so 
 many words in the dictionary and get up the notes ; they 
 get lost in the masses of illustrative matter and erudition 
 supplied by the editor ; they are overwhelmed with the 
 detail ; they look backwards and forwards and lose all power 
 of self-direction. For such, it is of the highest importance 
 that they should prepare each translation lesson as an ^.v- 
 temporale. Let them be taught to take it section by section, 
 reading through each section first as though there were no 
 notes, no grammar, no dictionary, — or looking up at most such 
 words as are vital to the main sense, — and then, when they 
 have built up the framework out of their own stock-in-trade, 
 proceed to fill in the details. 
 
 It is only by such method of preparation that we can 
 develope that tact which can grasp at the first glance the main 
 drift not only of a single sentence but of a section, and that 
 self-reliance which, as Dr Kennedy used to say, can ' construe 
 through a brick wall.' Nothing will do so much to discourage 
 a boy from the use of illicit cribs as the consciousness that his 
 own powers, properly directed, are quite equal to discovering 
 the sense. 
 
 Of translations there is a right use and a wrong. Of late 
 there has been a good deal said in their favour. 
 
 . . . . Translations. 
 
 Various authorities have tried to convince us 
 
 that by their means a boy can be trained to read classics with 
 
 1 A little brochure on the Art of Reading Latin, by Prof. Hale, of Cornell 
 University, U.S.A., maybe helpful to the teacher in this connexion. (Ginn 
 and Co., Boston.) 
 
 S. T. C
 
 66 TJie Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 ease and get his mind stored with a copious vocabulary. 
 Experience teaches otherwise. The boy that has once learned 
 to lean on translations will always lean on them. He loses just 
 that sense of effort which forms the main value of any education, 
 whether classical or modern. He becomes a mere reproducing 
 machine. He is perpetually acting a lie. Moreover, the 
 teaching is crippled. The boy who has already had all his 
 difficulties solved, or thinks he has, pays no attention in form; 
 he has never been conscious of the difficulties, he feels no 
 interest in working out with the rest the sense of the original 
 and putting it into good English. But when a book, say of 
 Vergil, has been read in form, and the boy comes to get it up 
 for an examination, it will give new freshness to his work, and 
 raise his whole standard of appreciation and taste, to use a 
 really poetic translation, such as that by the late Lord Bowen or 
 Mr Rhoades. No translation, poetic or otherwise, should ever 
 be used to get the sense of a passage on the first reading. 
 
 To turn to Composition. This, as has been said, should 
 
 \)XOQ.Q.Q.di pari passu with the learning of grammar 
 
 Composition and translation. With each advance in know- 
 
 tion ^ "^^"^ ^ ledge, whether of grammar or vocabulary, the 
 
 pupil should feel that he acquires fresh power of 
 expression in Latin. A new faculty is called into play. Keii- 
 neii wird Komien, as the Germans say. Experience proves 
 that if translation, composition and grammar-learning proceed 
 pari passu from the first, they strengthen each other. Gram- 
 mar, when it is continually practised in converting short sen- 
 tences, becomes interesting because it becomes useful. Trans- 
 lation is more accurate and more observant when the pupil 
 knows that, after the passage is translated, the teacher will bid 
 him close his book and give him certain words and sentences 
 out of the lesson to put back into Latin ; nor should the 
 teacher be content to ask for mere retranslation, — he should 
 ask his class to manipulate the words they have learned in all
 
 11.] Latin. 67 
 
 kinds of permutations and combinations, calling on them to 
 aj^ply any principle of syntax which he may have had to ex- 
 plain, and bringing in as much as possible of the earlier work 
 in accidence and syntax. Such a method, especially if the 
 teacher knows how to make it interesting by weaving his 
 heterogeneous materials into some connected story or descrip- 
 tion, is a far more thorough method of driving home the 
 grammar, and testing the preparation of a lesson, than if every 
 word in the lesson were parsed. It tries a boy's knowledge, it 
 makes him apt and ready in the use of it, it throws him on his 
 resources, it stimulates his interest, it teaches him to use his 
 tools, it is to the apprentice in language what manual training 
 is to the craftsman. Moreover it saves time, for one gets as 
 much composition out of a boy in twenty minutes by this 
 method as would take him two hours, if set down to a formal 
 exercise where all the words are strange. This is 
 not meant to exclude, but rather to supplement, ^^ ^'^. formal 
 
 ' _ i 1 ' Exercise. 
 
 such formal exercises as those in Dean Bradley's 
 edition of Arnold. When such exercises are done in class and 
 under supervision, it is a good plan for the teacher to go round 
 the class as the sentences are being done, and mark with a 
 pencil the more obvious mistakes that are being made, leaving 
 the boy to find out what the mistake is and to correct it. In 
 any case, it will not be sufficient simply to return the corrected 
 copies. Your corrections will receive scant attention, unless 
 you demand a fair copy, or — still better — make the class read 
 off the exercise into Latin from the English, and let them take 
 each other up while so doing. 
 
 For the first three or four years, until the pupil has reached 
 what may be termed Fifth Form Standard, the 
 main thing to be enforced in Composition is ac- 
 curacy in accidence and syntax. To know an indirect question 
 when he sees it, and to turn it accurately, to turn a speech into 
 Oratio Obliqua, to know what case is used to express instru-
 
 68 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 ment, duration or point of time, price, goal of motion, &c., that 
 is all one expects. It is chiefly a matter of correct thinking. 
 Afterwards, when these difficulties are mastered, it becomes a 
 matter of taste, of correct choosing. Idiom, rhythm, balance, 
 correctness of phrase, force, directness, simplicity of expression, 
 are the things to be aimed at. And now it is that one should 
 begin to set pieces of continuous English prose. Take care 
 always to set from a good author, to select a passage that has 
 some inherent interest to sting your best pupils into writing 
 Latin worthy of the English. In short, let the piece be worth 
 translating ; it is not fair to require minute and prolonged study 
 of a passage which is carelessly written, ill put together and dull. 
 Let it also bear as much as possible upon what is being read in 
 form. It will of course be necessary at first to give some general 
 hints as to how the piece is to be turned, and even to paraphrase 
 whole sentences ; but, in doing so, always give the reason. 
 
 In looking over, it will be necessary to distinguish sharply 
 between two kinds of mistakes. Offences against accidence 
 and syntax will still occur. These call for severe repression. 
 Offences against idiom, melody or clearness, are different. 
 These are not so evidently wrong, and the boy will fail to see 
 they are mistakes at all, until he is shown how they offend 
 against the canons of usage and taste, and how the sentence 
 may be turned without so offending. This means that each 
 copy must be looked over with each boy individually ; his 
 mistakes will be individual and must be individually corrected. 
 This takes time, but literary composition cannot be taught 
 without it. When correcting copies in this way there is a great 
 temptation to the teacher to write his own version over the 
 boy's. But this he should never do, unless he is first satisfied 
 that he cannot use his pupil's own version, and, l)y re-shaping 
 and amending it, make bad prose into good. Above all be 
 quick to commend any indications you may see of real eff"ort 
 or merit. Be as careful to encourage any germ of real literary
 
 II-] L at it I. 6g 
 
 expression, as to stamp out all barbarism. Then, when each copy 
 has been thus given back, the teacher should dictate his own 
 version to the form, commenting on those mistakes which were 
 common to the whole set, or typical in other ways, and carefully 
 explaining the zv/iy and, if possible, the /lozv of his own render- 
 ing. This should be as nearly as possible what might have been 
 written by the boys themselves, had they been all they should be. 
 These fair copies the class should be taught to keep in a fair- 
 copy book, with the English written on one side of the page, the 
 Latin on the other, and such general notes on idiom or style 
 at the bottom as the teacher has found occasion to enforce. 
 
 There is no royal road for learning Latin Prose. It is 
 learned by doing it. But some things are essential. First, 
 before attempting to put a passage into Latin, the pupil must 
 read the whole piece through carefully and grasp the general 
 sense. Next, he must weigh and analyse each sentence, con- 
 sidering its relation both to what precedes and what follows, 
 determining thereby what words are the most emphatic, and 
 where it will be necessary to group several shorter sentences 
 together round some general idea which dominates them all. 
 Then he will read through some passage in Cicero, Caesar, 
 Livy or Tacitus, which resembles the English passage he has to 
 translate, whether narrative, oratorical, epistolary or philo- 
 sophical. The teacher may do well from time to time to 
 suggest such a passage, if possible, in a book which has been 
 read by all. Then, and not till then, the pupil will proceed to 
 translate sentence by sentence. He will test carefully, as he pro- 
 ceeds, all phrases whether metaphorical or idiomatic, and never 
 translate them literally unless there is authority for the usage in 
 Latin. He will use the Latin-English Dictionary a good deal, 
 the English-Latin as little as possible. All phrase-books, or 
 purple patches of whatever sort, are to be avoided. Latin Prose 
 must be written, as Wordsworth would say, "with one's eye on 
 the object." On the other hand one must beware of the com-
 
 70 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 monplace. It is a common vice of the schoolboy to reduce 
 everything to its lowest terms and then put it into Latin. This, 
 it must be pointed out to him, is mere evasion. The result is 
 mere baldness. 
 
 Occasionally it will be well to set some original subject, but 
 in that case be careful to sketch out the lines on 
 
 Latin Essay. • i , , . , i r„, 
 
 which you wish the subject to be treated, ihe 
 form of dialogue is the best. There is no better way of 
 teaching boys to think in Latin, but they are apt to write out 
 what they want to say first in English, and then put poor 
 English into worse Latin ; or else they read a lot of Cicero, and 
 tag together bits of sentences into an unintelligible compound. 
 For the few a Latin Essay is a good exercise ; for a form it is 
 better as a rule to have a definite piece set them to translate. 
 
 Rightly handled, Latin Prose is perhaps the most effective 
 instrument of education a teacher can use. Here at any rate 
 no cramming is possible, no cribs or subterfuges of any kind 
 can do a boy's thinking for him. He is forced to bring 
 himself face to face with each sentence, to strip the thought of 
 its verbal wrappings, to distinguish metaphor from fact, the 
 main idea from its accessories, and then to express the whole 
 in logical sequence and in the most compact, concrete form of 
 which it is capable, with due regard to emphasis, balance and 
 rhythm. Nor is it sufficient to grapple with the sentences one 
 by one. He must master the piece as a whole and the 
 sequence of the thought, marking by appropriate particles the 
 interdependence of the sentences. Such an exercise trains all 
 the powers of the mind, both synthetic and analytic. The very 
 slowness and deliberateness of the process (impossible except 
 in translating into another language unlike our own) instils, as 
 nothing else can, that consciousness of language and plastic 
 power of expression which we call style. Cardinal Newman 
 tells us that he was accustomed every day to translate two or 
 three sentences into Latin, and to this practice he attributed
 
 II.] Latin. y\ 
 
 his command of English style. Lastly, however successful the 
 result may be, it always falls short of the model, it is always 
 improvable ; and hence is inbred that humble love of perfection 
 which marks the scholar, as it marks every artist. 
 
 If Latin Prose is a valuable instrument to train the sense 
 of linguistic form, Latin Verse is valuable to 
 
 r 1- •• 1 r 1 Latin Verse. 
 
 tram the sense of hnguistic colour and of rhythm. 
 There is no part of the Classical system which has been more 
 bitterly assailed. But no small portion of such criticism falls 
 to the ground as irrelevant, because it criticises Latin Verse- 
 making as though it were an end in itself, instead of being a 
 means to an end. And the end is not the production of poets 
 or even versifiers, but the development of appreciation in the 
 young scholar for that which is poetic in the authors whom 
 he reads. It is perfectly true that at the Public Schools a 
 great deal of time is wasted on Latin verses; it is true that 
 many boys, perhaps the majority, would never be able to 
 write a respectable copy of Latin Verse, even though they 
 spent their whole time at verses. But an education which 
 professes to be literary must make some attempt to train the 
 ear to appreciate euphony and cadence, and the taste to 
 appreciate the picturesqueness, imagery and all the subtler 
 effects and excellences of poetry. The value of Latin Verse 
 should be judged not so much by the actual verses written, as 
 by the reflex influence which it has on the way a boy reads 
 poetry, whether English or Latin. It should make him read 
 with a mind more open to poetic impression, images, beauty 
 and power of every kind, — in short, think the poet's thoughts 
 after him. If this object is not attained, the study is useless. 
 And there is no other method of study which can take its place. 
 Certainly for boys the demonstrative method of lecturing is 
 useless, as is every other method of analytic interpretation. But 
 where these methods fail, imitation may succeed. In order that 
 it may succeed, it is important to begin at the right time. To
 
 72 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 set boys of lo or ii down to exercises of hybrid Anglo-Latin, 
 and expect them to fit together words, of which they hardly 
 know the meaning, into hexameters and pentameters, before 
 they have read more than a few lines of Ovid or Vergil, is a 
 worse than futile waste of time. To 99 boys out of 100 it is a 
 slow, mechanical drudgery of the most deadening kind. Yet 
 the abuse dies hard, for the simple reason that it entails the 
 maximum of work on the boy and the minimum of work on 
 the master. If we begin at 14 or 15, when boys have read a 
 book of Vergil and about the same amount of Ovid, and if 
 then the teacher will give the first lessons in class, using the 
 Vergil and Ovid as a sample-book, if he will then show on the 
 board how to build up verses by way of example, getting as 
 much as possible by way of suggestion from the class itself, it 
 becomes a most stimulating exercise of the literary faculty. As 
 to how this may be done, I must refer to the lecture by Dr 
 Abbott, late Headmaster of the City of London School, pub- 
 lished by the Cambridge University Press. 
 
 For Verse-writing it is necessary that a large amount of 
 
 Ovid and Vergil should be known by heart. 
 
 The pieces for repetition will be chosen 
 naturally from whatever book the form is reading at the time. 
 Let them be in themselves worth remembering ; a great deal 
 of the Ovid learned by heart at schools is not worth the effort 
 of memorising, and boys are as sensible of the fact as anyone. 
 If the lines are worth learning, you will have less compunction 
 and less difticulty in requiring that they be learned thoroughly 
 and well enunciated. There is as much difterence in the way 
 boys say repetition, as in the way actors render their parts. It 
 is a real pleasure to hear a boy who says his lines intelligently, 
 who, so to speak, feels the Latin in his mouth. Do not omit 
 to commend him. Do not attempt to cover too much ground, 
 but take the old pieces over again until they are thoroughly 
 well ingrained, and then you will be able to draw on them
 
 II.] Latin. J}, 
 
 confidently for purposes of illustration and composition 
 teaching. 
 
 So much for method. But, after all, the main factor in 
 teaching must be the personality of the teacher. 
 If the man himself be dull, any method, how- „f T^eachel!*^ 
 ever good, must become stagnant and petrifying. 
 Habe Geist mid wisse Geist zu geben. Let the class feel 
 that they are under the influence of a man, not a machine. 
 When you see that look of apathy and indifference which 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes so well described as the ' ginger-bread 
 rabbit expression,' stealing over the faces of your class, you 
 will know that the method is beginning to pall, and, however 
 theoretically perfect it may be, you will have to change it. 
 Beware of becoming a slave to any text-book, — your business 
 is not merely to hear lessons but to teach, and the great secret 
 of teaching is preparation. ' All men prepare themselves for 
 great occasions,' said Bacon, ' wise men prepare themselves for 
 small.' The schoolmaster who would be worthy of his craft 
 must study beforehand not only what he is to teach but how he 
 is going to teach it. He must prepare, because he will want his 
 mind and his eyes as free as possible for the class. His great 
 object will be to keep in touch with them, to start from what 
 they already know, and to take them with him from point to 
 point, with strides no longer than their own. The hours that 
 can be spared for Latin in the Modern Curriculum are fewer 
 by far than they were in the days of our fathers ; all the more 
 reason that we should make the best use of them.
 
 74 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. ii. 
 
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 U U U J P-, H U
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FRENCH. GERMAN. 
 
 The aim of the teacher of a living foreign language should 
 be to secure to his pupils, with regard to the new Aim of the 
 language, all the utilitarian and educational ad- Teacher, 
 vantages which are placed within their reach by the command 
 of their own. Where a due proportion of school time is 
 allotted to his subject, a thoroughly qualified teacher may 
 reasonably hope to set his pupils so far on their way that they 
 are able at the end of their school course, 
 
 (a) to understand readily the spoken foreign idiom, 
 
 {/>) to express thought unhesitatingly and correctly 
 therein, 
 
 {c) to read with ease and intelligence prose or verse of 
 ordinary difficulty written in the foreign language, 
 
 (d) to express themselves correctly, in writing, in the 
 foreign idiom. 
 
 If the understanding of the foreign speech and ability to 
 use it as a direct instrument of thought are given the first place 
 in this list, it is not therefore intended to minimise the im- 
 portance of that aspect of language study on which its highest 
 educational value must ever depend. Dwellers in a land 
 where two languages are everywhere spoken side by side do 
 not need to be reminded that language is primarily and 
 essentially speech, and that it is impossible to acquire an
 
 j^ The Aims and Pj-actice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 intimate knowledge of a nation and its literature without first 
 acquiring a knowledge of the spoken idiom. 
 
 Pessimists will not be wanting to exaggerate the dis- 
 Existing advantages under which the newly established 
 
 Traditions. Intermediate schools of Wales must labour, for a 
 
 time at least, in comparison with those schools which represent 
 what is best in the traditions of Secondary Education in 
 England. But, if those responsible for the new schools prove 
 true to their trust, this very freedom from the prescription of 
 tradition will be found to constitute an element of strength 
 rather than of weakness. It is the obvious duty of the 
 authorities to ascertain, in the case of each subject in which 
 instruction is given in the schools, where, under what condi- 
 tions, and by what means the best educational results have 
 hitherto been obtained. And in the attempt to establish a 
 sound tradition of modern language teaching, it is to Belgium, 
 and to the best schools of Germany and Switzerland, that Wales 
 will naturally look for guidance and encouragement. 
 
 The methods of teaching Modern Languages adopted in 
 the schools of Belgium have recently been so 
 admirably described by Professor H. A. Strong 
 in his Report' to the Scotch Education Department, that it 
 would be superfluous to refer to them in any detail here. I 
 cannot refrain, however, from quoting at length the section in 
 which he records the normal attainment of the Belgian boy at 
 the termination of the school course. 
 
 " The Belgian boy on leaving school has learnt, if his 
 study has been English, to read something of Milton and 
 Shakespeare, Pitt and Burke; he can understand a speech, 
 a lecture, or a lesson given in English, provided that the 
 speaker utters his words distinctly and deliberately; he 
 can express his own ideas in English, not indeed always 
 very correctly or elegantly, but at least intelligibly, and 
 ^ Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1893: price sixpence.
 
 III.] French. German. yj 
 
 so as to convey his thoughts with fair accuracy. He does 
 not possess all our idioms, nor all our pecuHar turns of 
 expression, but he possesses the material out of which 
 these are formed. English, as learnt by him, has con- 
 tributed to enrich his intellect with new ideas, new forms 
 of thought, new figures of speech, and to open a new 
 chapter in the history of language. He has learnt the 
 best way to master the rest for himself. The system of 
 grammar which he has learnt has not encumbered his 
 mind with superfluous technicalities, nor led him to 
 suppose that there are as many systems of grammar as 
 there are languages; but rather that there are certain 
 principles common to all languages, and common in a 
 higher degree to the languages which he is learning. He 
 has not been told that a foreign tongue can be learnt as a 
 child learns it from his cradle; but that reflection and 
 strict attention to orderly methods of progression are the 
 proper substitutes for the power of imitation, which grows 
 less as childhood passes away. The conversational 
 lessons which he has received have taught him to be 
 prompt in the expression of his ideas, and his ear has 
 been trained to catch foreign sounds by methodical 
 practice in dictation; he has learnt something of the ways 
 of thought of other modern nations by perusing works of 
 their best authors. He has left school with the idea, 
 gathered from a long and systematic training, that the 
 study of modern languages is a serious and dignified 
 study, tending to exercise the intellect; and that it offers 
 as a reward the possibility of receiving orally or by means 
 of books the best ideas of the masters of a great literature." 
 At a Conference of the Teachers' Guild, held at Cheltenham 
 in 1890, Mr Stuart MacGowan called the atten- 
 tion of English teachers of Modern Languages 
 to some of the principles adopted by the most successful
 
 y8 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 teachers of French and English in the schools of Germany. 
 Mr MacGowan has also done good service to the cause of 
 education by introducing many of his English colleagues to the 
 extensive and interesting German literature bearing upon 
 the so-called " Reform Movement " in modern language 
 teaching. It was no difficult task for the reformers to show 
 that the results obtained under the traditional system were 
 eminently unsatisfactory, and to demonstrate, theoretically, the 
 radical unsoundness of traditional teaching methods. Hardly 
 more difficult was it for them to establish the general principles 
 upon which instruction in a living foreign language might be 
 conducted with reasonable hope of securing such results as 
 they claimed the right to demand from the schools. But the 
 most valuable part of the literature of the subject was that 
 which recorded step by step the excellent results actually 
 obtained by teachers who had adopted in practice the 
 principles thus theoretically established'. 
 
 Interesting and convincing as these records are, I have 
 sought to supplement them by careful personal observation. 
 Authorised by the Prussian Minister of Education to observe 
 for myself the methods adopted and the results obtained in 
 some of the larger schools of Berlin, I found an upper form 
 discussing Shakespeare's Othello in fluent and correct English. 
 In another school, all the upper forms conversed readily and 
 correctly in French. It must be borne in mind that these 
 were specially selected schools; but it was in a Hanoverian 
 school ranking with an English Higher Grade Board School, 
 and chosen at random, that a still more interesting experience 
 fell to my lot. Here I found a junior form, consisting of some 
 thirty boys, able, within a vocabulary of a few hundred words, 
 to understand instantly, and answer unhesitatingly and fluently, 
 
 ' Cf. Klinghardt, Ein Jahr Erfahriuigen mit dcr netien Alethode, Mar- 
 burg, 1888, and Walter, Dei- franzosischc Klassenunta-richt. I. Unterstufe. 
 Entwtirf eines Lehrplans, Marburg, 1888.
 
 HI.] Freud I. German. 79 
 
 a succession of random questions put to them in French. 
 The average age of these boys was 11^ years, and they had 
 been learning French for less than six months. It is in view 
 of such results as these that I ask the attention of the teachers 
 of Wales to the principles and method of the new school of 
 modern language teaching in Germany. 
 
 The fact that the method is often described as the 
 "Natural" method has given rise to serious 
 misapprehension, which it may be well to remove " Natural " 
 from the outset. The reformer recognises as ^^^^od. 
 fully as any of his critics the many and fundamental differences 
 which exist between the conditions under which the child 
 acquires his native tongue and those under which he proceeds, 
 at a later stage, to the acquirement of a second language. 
 However successful the teacher may be in reproducing the 
 foreign atmosphere in the modern language class-room, the 
 schoolboy breathes this atmosphere during but a small propor- 
 tion of the time in which his mind is actively occupied, 
 whereas the child, hearing the native speech every day and 
 all day, acquires it with the exercise of but little conscious 
 effort. In the schoolboy, however, intellectual faculties have 
 been developed which were only latent in the child. He is 
 capable of that sustained effort and concentration of thought 
 which are essential to the proper performance of his task. 
 And his progress is, further, facilitated by all such previous 
 systematic instruction in the elements of his own language as 
 may have tended to give him correct notions of the nature and 
 structure of language in general. The " Natural " method is 
 not then a method which claims to reproduce the natural 
 conditions under which the child acquires the power of speak- 
 ing and understanding his own language. Its claim to the 
 epithet is based on the contention that it is essential to the 
 soundness of a teaching method that it should be carefully 
 adapted to the nature of the subject taught. And, since
 
 8o TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 language is essentially and primarily speech, it is on the spoken 
 idiom that all systematic instruction in living languages must 
 be based. 
 
 The imjnediate aim of the teaching is, then, to enable the 
 learner to understand speech in the foreign idiom and to use it 
 himself as a direct instrument of thought. The greatest stress 
 is accordingly laid on exercises in speaking. The class must 
 hear and use the new language as much as possible from the 
 first, and the native speech must only be employed in so far as 
 it is absolutely indispensable for the clear comprehension of 
 what is taught. 
 
 Grammar too is taught according to its essential nature. 
 Itself but a convenient abstract of the facts of language, it 
 must only be studied with reference to language-material which 
 is already familiar to the learner. In the preliminary stages of 
 language- teaching it thus assumes a very subordinate place, 
 and its function remains a subsidiary one throughout the whole 
 course. 
 
 Since a foreign language should present itself to the learner's 
 mind rather as the expression of thought in new words than as 
 the mechanical substitution of foreign words for native words, it 
 is no function of the language teacher to train his pupils in the 
 art of synonyms commonly known as translation'. He who has 
 acquired the power of expressing thought readily and accurately 
 in two distinct idioms will have no difficulty in reproducing in 
 the one what he has seen or heard expressed in the other. 
 
 From the necessary preliminary exercises in pronunciation 
 the teacher should proceed to the treatment not of isolated 
 sentences but of continuous passages. The reading material 
 should form the basis of the whole system of teaching, and, in 
 particular, of the study of grammar, and of all written exercises, 
 
 ^ Cf. Undlay, Preparations for Instriictioti in Englisli on a direct 
 method, Marburg, 1893.
 
 III.] French. German. 8i 
 
 which should mainly consist of variously modified reproduc- 
 tions of what has already been read by the class. 
 
 The principles thus briefly indicated are those on which it 
 is claimed that the teaching of all living languages should be 
 based. But, in proceeding to deal with their practical appli- 
 cation, it will be convenient to describe, in the first instance, a 
 typical course in French, and to supplement this description 
 by a detailed record of a personal experiment in the teaching 
 of German. In the case of both these languages, the limited 
 space at my disposal precludes the treatment of more than a 
 very small portion of a complete school course. But, while 
 the problems which attend the teaching of language are not 
 confined to the initial stages, it is obvious that the greatest 
 difficulties are met with at the outset. And those readers who 
 wish to pursue the subject further will find an abundant 
 literature at their disposal'. 
 
 The first lessons are of course devoted to the treatment of 
 the sounds of the new language, and, particu- 
 larly, of those which are not found in the native ^^ "EiTnTent- 
 speech. This treatment must, it is true, be ^^y course in 
 
 , French. 
 
 systematic, but no attempt must be made to 
 introduce the elementary language class to the scientific study 
 of phonetics. The teacher should indeed be himself inti- 
 mately acquainted with phonetic principles, and his knowledge 
 will enable him to assist, by useful practical hints, the repro- 
 duction by the class of the more difficult among the new 
 sounds. The pronunciation of the vowels o and ii, and of the 
 four nasal vowels, may thus be materially facilitated by the 
 
 1 Walter's experiment (pp. cit.), and v. Roden, In wiefern muss der 
 Sprachiinterricht uvikehren? Marburg, 1890, have supplied the material for 
 this description of a typical course in French. A useful bibliography will 
 be found in v. Roden, as in Stiehler, Zur Methodik des nettsprachlichen 
 Untei-rickts, Marburg, 1891, and in the valuable and suggestive essay of 
 Widgery, The Teaching 0/ Languages in Schools, London, Nutt, 1888. 
 
 S. T. 6
 
 82 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 use of the diagram known as the "vowel pyramid." But it is 
 upon the strong imitative faculty of the child that the teacher 
 must chiefly rely ; and this faculty will not, in general, be 
 found unequal to the demand made upon it. 
 
 The next step is the committing to memory of very simple 
 poems of content appropriate to the age of the learner, which 
 serve to establish the pronunciation of individual sounds, and, 
 further, to give the learner some practice in sentence-intona- 
 tion, to which, especially in the case of French, it is necessary 
 to attach great importance. It should be superfluous to add 
 that nothing must thus be committed to memory until its 
 meaning is fully and accurately understood by the class. In 
 this preliminary work, as indeed throughout the elementary 
 course, the books of the class should remain shut as long as 
 possible, the teacher supplying the material orally, so that 
 inconsistent orthography may not aggravate the already suffici- 
 ently great difficulty of acquiring a new set of sounds. 
 
 It may now be found convenient to describe in French the 
 common objects of the class-room, to predicate simple facts 
 about them, and to frame simple questions, the answers to 
 which will be readily elicited from the class. The early intro- 
 duction of the numerals provides a plentiful variety of short 
 sentences which will do much to establish correct pronun- 
 ciation and sentence intonation. The French method of 
 reckoning time may be similarly treated, and it will be found 
 advantageous to utilise at this stage such wall-pictures as those 
 referred to by Strong {op. cit., j). 7) or Holzel's pictorial 
 representations of the seasons, which are largely used in the 
 schools of Germany. 
 
 It soon becomes possible to proceed to the first passage of 
 continuous prose. All books remain closed while the teacher 
 clearly enunciates the first sentence, accurately interpreting its 
 meaning with the cooperation of the class. Though it may at 
 first often prove necessary to concentrate attention upon the
 
 Ill] Fraich. German. 83 
 
 pronunciation of a word isolated from its context, every effort 
 must be made to secure correct sentence-intonation by insist- 
 ing upon the reproduction of the sentence not as a succession 
 of individual words but as a succession of related word-groups. 
 When the individual word-groups have been successively 
 mastered, the complete sentence is practised in its turn until 
 the class is able to reproduce it with accurate pronunciation 
 and correct intonation. 
 
 The sentence thus orally acquired may now be placed 
 before the class in its printed form, or written upon the black- 
 board. That no doubt may exist as to the learner's accurate 
 comprehension of each individual word, it is recommended 
 that the English meaning be once more supplied by members 
 of the class, in such a way however that no individual is called 
 upon to give the foreign word immediately followed by its 
 English equivalent, a precaution the neglect of which would 
 impose the additional difficulty of adapting the organs of 
 speech in rapid succession to the requirements of two widely 
 differing sound-systems. 
 
 To secure the identification of the spoken word with that 
 for which it stands, to establish still further an easy and 
 correct pronunciation, and to ensure as far as possible a 
 complete mastery of the speech-material already acquired, the 
 teacher makes each successive sentence the basis of a series of 
 simple questions in the foreign idiom. Every new word the 
 introduction of which is necessary for the framing of such 
 questions must be orally mastered by the class, and its 
 meaning supplied unless it is sufficiently obvious from the con- 
 text. If the questions are systematically arranged so that the 
 answers will in turn emphasise the subject, predicate, object 
 and adverbial adjuncts of the original sentence, the learner 
 will have the additional advantage of acquiring almost imper- 
 ceptibly from the first the main principles of sentence con- 
 struction. Every answer must of course be in the form of a
 
 84 TJie Aims and Practice of Teachiiig. [Chap. 
 
 complete sentence, and, though the several answers to a series 
 of questions may actually consist of the same words arranged 
 in the same order, the varying emphasis and intonation give to 
 each answer an individuality of its own which the learner will 
 not be slow to recognise. In Walter's record {op. cit.) the 
 first passage of continuous prose begins with the sentence : 
 Un paysan avait remarque qjie beaiicoup de personties portefit des 
 lunettes en lisant. In the framing of questions the subordinate 
 clause is first utilised, as follows: (a) Qui parte des lunettes i 
 (b) Que font beauamp de pcrsonnes? (c) Que portent beaucoup de 
 personnes? (d) Quand portent- elles des lunettesl The principal 
 clause is then similarly treated in conjunction with the 
 subordinate clause, thus : Qui avait reviarquc que beaucoup de 
 personnes portent des lunettes en lisant? and so on as before. 
 
 At the next lesson the sentence must again be read with 
 correct emphasis and enunciation, and the class tested as to their 
 accurate comprehension of its meaning. And here it may be 
 found necessary to correct new mistakes in pronunciation due 
 to the contemplation of the written or printed symbols. When 
 the class in general has been orally questioned as above, it may 
 be called ui)on to correct mistakes in spelling made by 
 selected boys who have meanwhile been writing their answers 
 on the blackboard. The frequent reappearance of the same 
 word on the board will make the acquisition of correct ortho- 
 graphy a comparatively easy task. Questions may also be put 
 orally and answered in writing by all the members of the 
 class. 
 
 Each successive sentence is similarly handled, and, when 
 the whole ])assage has been subjected to thorough revision, the 
 class should be able to read it fluently and correctly, repeat it 
 from memory, explain the precise meaning of every word in it, 
 and answer unhesitatingly any of the questions which have 
 been framed upon it during the course of preceding lessons. 
 
 In the earlier stages of language teaching conducted on
 
 iH.] French. German. 85 
 
 such a system, progress must necessarily seem slow. But the 
 learner's consciousness that he is acquiring, in some degree at 
 least, the control of a new instrument of thought, will constitute 
 from the first a strong element of interest. And it should not 
 be difficult, on the other hand, for a teacher whose heart is in 
 his work to obviate, by freshness and variety of treatment, 
 every danger of monotony. And with increase of acquired 
 material comes increased variety of treatment. A story in 
 which two or more characters are introduced may be related 
 successively from the standpoint of each of them. Indirect 
 narration may be substituted for direct ; a narrative passage 
 may lend itself to reproduction in dialogue form ; or, again, 
 the substance of a historical passage may be reproduced in a 
 condensed form in the learner's own words. Interesting 
 specimens of this form of exercise, worked by a class of 
 German boys after a year's instruction in English, may be 
 seen in Klinghardt's appendix {pp. cit.). The alternation of 
 written with oral work in the case of all these exercises will do 
 much to secure accurate orthography, which may be further 
 established by periodical exercises in dictation. 
 
 Grammar is gradually and inductively acquired from the 
 language-material already assimilated. The most 
 
 ° " ^ Introduction 
 
 elementary and common phenomena are taken to the study of 
 first, and, in particular, the verb-tenses of dammar, 
 most frequent occurrence, the inflexion of the article, the 
 personal pronoun, the commoner forms of the relative, the 
 numerals, and the normal inflexion of adjectives and substan- 
 tives. Everything abnormal is reserved, and such " excep- 
 tions " as the schoolboy never meets outside his grammar are 
 deliberately and consistently ignored. Care must be taken to 
 gather a sufficient number of particular facts before proceeding 
 to establish the general principles which underlie them. Thus 
 the material acquired will soon be found to include a consider- 
 able number of substantives accompanied by their appropriate
 
 86 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 articles. A tabular arrangement of these reveals to the class 
 the inflexions which the article undergoes for gender and 
 number. And it will gradually be found possible to establish 
 all the more important facts of elementary grammar in a 
 similar way\ 
 
 Meanwhile every effort must be made to restrict as much 
 as possible the use of the native idiom, with the 
 
 Use of . ^ . ' 
 
 the Foreign view of conducting the whole work of the class 
 '°'"' at the earliest possible moment entirely in the 
 
 foreign speech. When the ear has been trained from the first 
 to distinguish the sounds of the new idiom, and the organs of 
 speech to reproduce them, and when each successive passage 
 has been made in its turn the basis of systematic speech- 
 exercises, it will prove feasible, at a comparatively early stage, 
 to give a large proportion of the necessary explanations in the 
 foreign language itself And when a fairly large vocabulary 
 has been acquired, a carefully graduated Reader will rarely 
 present a strange word whose meaning cannot be clearly ex- 
 plained by the aid of words already known. 
 
 When the work of the class can thus be conducted with 
 „, . , comparative ease without the use of English, the 
 
 Choice of ^ . . . 
 
 Reading Ma- Satisfaction of the first two requirements laid 
 *^"^ ■ down at the beginning of this chapter becomes 
 
 merely a matter of time. It must not however be forgotten 
 that the highest educational value of the language course will 
 depend on the wise choice of reading-material. The prepara- 
 tory reading-book must have regard to the age and capacity of 
 the learner, but it must also have regard to the higher purposes 
 of language instruction. For young children the most suitable 
 French Reader is that of Dr Karl Kiihn^ an English edition of 
 
 ^ Mr H. Courthorpe Bovven thus treats grammar inductively in his First 
 Lessons in French (Macmillan), which have, for the rest, very little in 
 common with the method here described. 
 
 2 Franzosisches Lesebiich, Unterstttfe, Leipzig, Velhagen und Klasing,
 
 III.] FreiicJi. German. 87 
 
 which is greatly to be desired. The author claims in his 
 preface that tlie contents of the Reader should be adapted to 
 the age of the learner, that the language should be simple, as 
 the language of children naturally is, but, above all, that the 
 subject-matter should be essentially French and supply an 
 unpretentious outline of modern French life'. Subsequent 
 reading-material must be chosen with the view of bringing the 
 learner into touch with contemporary foreign life and thought. 
 A generous interpretation of this condition will not preclude 
 the introduction of material bearing upon manners, customs, 
 history, geographical configuration and political organisation of 
 the country whose language is the medium of instruction. 
 Such a course of reading will not only be valuable in itself, but 
 will facilitate in a high degree the appreciative study of the 
 great masterpieces of the foreign literature at a later stage. 
 
 When the class is fairly sure of its French orthography, 
 exercises in dictation may be less frequently written 
 given, and further experiments may be made in Exercises, 
 the direction of free composition. The teacher may call for 
 the reproduction, in writing, of the substance of a French 
 passage read aloud by him to the class, or may require a 
 written description of a historical event the main facts of 
 which are familiar to all. Other devices will suggest them- 
 selves to every teacher, whereby facility of expression in 
 written French may be surely, if gradually, attained. 
 
 It remains to make clear the place of Grammar in the 
 method of language teaching here set forth. It p. 
 
 is contended that the teaching of grammar assigned to 
 should be based upon the language-material dammar. 
 
 5th ed., 1895. Most valuable supplements are the same author's Uebungen 
 zutn franzdsischen Lesebiich, and Der franzosische Anfangsunterricht (ibid., 
 1887). Dr Kiihn has also published a Fi-anzbsisches Lesebtuh fm- An/anger 
 (2nd ed., ibid., 1895). 
 
 ^ Cf. Findlay, op. cit., p. 5.
 
 88 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 already acquired, and that the learner should regard grammar, 
 from the first, as but a convenient abstract of the facts of 
 language. The reformer claims to find the real value of the 
 study of grammar in the logical training which attends the 
 process of arguing from the particular to the general, and 
 subsequently from the general to the particular. He does not 
 therefore necessarily assume that the whole body of grammar 
 should be constructed inductively by each individual learner. 
 When the boy has discovered for himself that grammatical 
 " rules " are not the arbitrary tyrants of language, but represent 
 a handy summary of observed language phenomena, he will 
 be in a position to make intelligent use of a small and concise 
 grammar, which thus, in the form of a reference-book, becomes 
 his companion from a comparatively early stage. Nor is the 
 systematic study of grammar precluded by the principles here 
 advocated. For the purpose of checking and revising what is 
 already acquired, a grammar is indeed indispensable. But the 
 teacher should not insist on the acquirement of any group of 
 grammatical facts which have not, for the most part, been 
 copiously illustrated by the language-material already acquired. 
 Teachers will find it convenient to frame for their own guidance 
 an elementary course of grammar corresponding to the curricu- 
 lum of each of the first two years. Within this period it will 
 be found possible to establish, with the cooperation of the 
 class, all the most essential grammatical facts. This process 
 will be greatly facilitated if the class has previously acquired 
 an intelligent grasp of the principles which underlie the 
 grammar of the native language'. In view of the system of 
 teaching here advocated, the most convenient Grammar 
 would be one written in the foreign language with special 
 reference to the needs of English learners, in which a clear 
 
 ' The recognition of the fact that the fundamental principles of gram- 
 mar are common to all languages constitutes a conspicuous merit of 
 Sonnenschein's Parallel Gratnmar Series.
 
 III.] French. German. 89 
 
 statement of the essentials should not be obscured by the 
 superfluous matter with which many existing grammars are so 
 plentifully supplied. 
 
 It may be well to notice here some of the chief objections 
 which have been raised to the system of language- g^^ q. 
 teaching thus briefly and imperfectly outlined, jections con- 
 Some of its opponents tell us of a subtle and 
 valuable form of mental training which must be sacrificed if 
 the formal study of French and German grammar is subor- 
 dinated to other amis. It would not be easy of demonstration 
 that there exists any important kind of mental training which 
 cannot be gained apart from the study of formal grammar^ 
 But it may console these critics to be reminded that its hypo- 
 thetical existence will not be seriously imperilled as long as the 
 accepted methods of teaching Latin and Greek are such as 
 they have hitherto been. The reformers are also accused of 
 wishing to annihilate at one blow the valuable work of long 
 centuries of grannnarians, and to substitute therefor an in- 
 ductive process which it is utterly beyond the strength of the 
 immature youthful mind to undertake. The first of these 
 objections has been incidentally answered in an earlier part of 
 this chapter. The second depends for its validity upon an 
 obsolete conception of the function of the teacher. It may 
 surely be assumed that our school teachers are teachers in fact 
 and not only in name, and that the scope of their activity is 
 not limited to the mere testing of acquirement and visitation of 
 failure. 
 
 Others again naively object that a foreign language can 
 only be perfectly acquired in the foreign atmosphere. That 
 
 ^ "Die Fabel von der formalen 15ildung muss aufgegeben werden. 
 Eine solche giebt es im allgemeinen gar nicht, sondern es bestehen so viele 
 Arten derselben, als wesentlich verschiedene Gebiete geistiger Beschaft- 
 igung bestehen." Rein, Pddagogik i/n Gruadriss, Stuttgart, 1893. Cf. 
 also Widgery, op. cit., p. 32.
 
 90 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 French or German can best be acquired in France or Germany, 
 even the most ardent reformer will not deny ; but it must not 
 be forgotten that many, to whom a practical acquaintance with 
 foreign idiom may at any moment become of the utmost im- 
 portance, cannot hope to spend any substantial period of time 
 abroad, but must pass direct from school to a life of un- 
 remitting activity in the sphere in which they mean to secure 
 a position and a livelihood. 
 
 A favourite attitude of those who would not judge, but 
 prejudge, the whole question is expressed in a scornful protest 
 against what they term "courier French" or "nursery German." 
 The reformer has no desire to substitute facility of speech for 
 any of the aims which school-teaching in Modern Languages 
 has hitherto held prominently in view. His appeal is not for 
 substitution but for superaddition. He maintains that the 
 acquirement of a living language as a direct instrument of 
 thought will secure that everything which is now learnt will be 
 learnt the more thoroughly, and that boys on leaving school 
 will have the additional advantage of being able to converse 
 easily and correctly in the foreign idiom. And in support of 
 this he adduces the results of experience which show that boys 
 who have passed through the English curriculum of the best 
 Belgian or German schools have been brought more into touch 
 with English life and thought, and have a more thorough 
 accjuaintance with our literature than is the case, mntatis 
 mutandis, with our own students who have completed the 
 traditional school course of French or German. He claims 
 that the studies of the philologist, and of him who wishes to 
 acc^uire a language solely for the sake of its literature, must 
 remain incomplete as long as due importance is not attached 
 to an intimate acquaintance with the phenomena of living 
 speech. And indeed, it would seem indisputable that the 
 literature of a living language cannot be fully appreciated 
 while the reader's acquaintance therewith is restricted to the
 
 III.] FreiicJi. German. 91 
 
 mere symbols which serve as the more or less arbitrary re- 
 presentation of sounds. 
 
 Other opponents have criticised the subordinate place 
 assigned by the reformer to the process of translation. We 
 might here expect opposition to be based upon the not un- 
 reasonable allegation that translation is a most valuable aid to 
 the acquirement of a thorough and accurate acquaintance with 
 the foreign language. But the loudest objections come from 
 another and unexpected quarter. We are seriously assured 
 that the chief aim of the teacher of French or German should 
 be to improve the learner's knowledge of his native English, 
 and that, if translation is to take a subordinate place in the 
 Modern Language curriculum, the interests of English will be 
 seriously imperilled. It is indeed time that our schools should 
 recognise the paramount importance of imparting to English- 
 speaking boys a sound knowledge of English, and of inspiring 
 them with a love for English literature. But the modern 
 language class-room has another, if less important, function. 
 And it is a matter of surprise to me that teachers of English, 
 and of those subjects which are, and must be, entirely taught 
 through the medium of English, do not indignantly protest 
 against the implied assumption of their inability to instil into 
 their classes the habit of correct and idiomatic English style. 
 I would not have it thought that I do not recognise the 
 excellent kind of mental training which careful and accurate 
 translation supplies. But it seems to me that, if English is 
 properly taught in our schools, it should be possible even for 
 the student who knows no language but his own to attain 
 full command of a correct and cultivated style. The form 
 of mental training whose possible loss is deplored will still 
 be assured by the school curriculum in Latin or Greek, in 
 which translation must continue to occupy a prominent place. 
 Translation in the Modern Language class-room is only in- 
 dispensable in so far as it is impossible to ascertain without it
 
 92 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 whether the student fully grasps the meaning of the foreign 
 text. If a teacher finds it possible to conduct successfully a 
 course of French or German without the medium of English, 
 he may well afford to regard with equanimity the sacrifice of 
 the mental training involved in the process of translation, 
 which, valuable though it is in itself, will sink into insig- 
 nificance by the side of the immense compensating advantages 
 which he will have secured in other directions. 
 
 To facilitate the rapid acquirement of a correct pro- 
 nunciation by tlie avoidance of the confusion caused by the 
 inconsistencies of French orthography, many 
 Phonetic German teachers make use of phonetic tran- 
 
 Transcnption. i 
 
 scription until constant practice has given the 
 class a firm grasp of the new sound-system. And it has been 
 argued by Mr Widgery that the confused idea which English 
 orthography affords of the connexion between sounds and 
 their symbols renders such a device particularly desiral)le 
 during the early stages of French instruction in English schools. 
 It is perhaps premature to pass final judgment on a point 
 with regard to which there still exists much difference of 
 opinion among the reformers themselves. But it seems un- 
 fortunate that the opponents a outrance of this item of the 
 reform programme ignore both the specific advantage which 
 the pupil gains when revising by himself the work which has 
 been done orally in the class-room, and the mass of apparently 
 unimpeachable testimony to the practical success of the method 
 wherever it has been given a fair trial. When phonographs 
 are to be had at a price which will place them within the reach 
 of the average school-boy, he will be able to reproduce ad 
 libitum the sounds which have been uttered for his imitation 
 in the Modern Language class-room. Until then, the method 
 of phonetic transcription will continue to have advantages 
 which cannot be altogether nullified by the inconsistency and 
 complexity of many of the phonetic schemes upon which past
 
 III.] French. German. 93 
 
 experiments have been based. The universal adoption of 
 identical symbols to represent identical sounds would do much 
 to disarm even the legitimate opposition which the advocates 
 of the new departure have hitherto had to encounter. 
 
 The most serious difficulties in the way of the adoption of 
 what is best in the reform programme are not those which are 
 usually propounded in discussion. First and foremost I would 
 place the fact that a very considerable proportion of those to 
 whose lot it falls to teach French and German 
 do not know the foreign language as a living cuules^'*^' 
 tongue {lifigua), and cannot therefore teach it as 
 such. Those again who are fortunate enough to possess a 
 sufficient command of the living language do not always realise 
 that successful teaching of language, as of all else that is 
 taught, must be the outcome of a well thought out plan, in 
 which the means are carefully adapted to the end. And 
 thirdly, the preparation which such systematic teaching requires 
 from the teacher would exact the sacrifice of a large proportion 
 of his too scanty leisure. Personally I cannot hope that even 
 those more general teaching reforms which we all acknowledge 
 to be desirable will be carried out in English schools until a 
 substantial reduction is made in the number of hours of class- 
 teaching demanded of the individual teacher. I have never 
 heard it suggested that the teachers of the French Lyce'es 
 are underworked. And yet the staff of the average English 
 secondary school would have to be doubled at least, before 
 the English teacher could command for the preparation of his 
 lessons the same amount of time as is normally at the disposal 
 of his French colleague. 
 
 Other difficulties which hamper the teaching of modern 
 languages in many of the English schools will not, it is hoped, 
 be found to exist in the new secondary schools of Wales. It 
 must be fully recognised that, during the first two years of 
 instruction in a foreign modern language, a daily lesson — not
 
 94 The Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 necessarily extending over a full hour — is essential to the 
 attainment of the best educational results. The size of the 
 class, too, is an important consideration where so much de- 
 pends on the amount of attention which the teacher is able to 
 give to the individual learner. An energetic and fully qualified 
 teacher will find no difticulty in dealing adequately with a class 
 of from fifteen to twenty boys. But while any further increase 
 assuredly tends to bring about a proportionate retardation of 
 progress, it is encouraging to observe that the junior classes 
 of those German schools which are most distinguished for 
 proficiency in French and English are not smaller than the 
 corresponding classes in the schools of this country. 
 
 It would be a boon to the modern language teacher, and 
 indeed to all his colleagues, if the school authorities would 
 refuse to admit scholars at any other time than the commence- 
 ment of the school year. Such interim admissions are unfair 
 to the teacher, prejudicial to the work of the class, and not 
 without grave disadvantage to the scholar thus irregularly 
 admitted. It is interesting to note, in this connexion, that 
 " the success attending the teaching of modern languages in 
 Belgium depends on the rule which forbids the admission of 
 new pupils at other times than at the beginning of the atmee 
 scolaire'" (Strong, op. cit.). 
 
 As far as England is concerned, it is obvious that some of 
 the most serious difticulties can only very gradually be sur- 
 mounted. If headmasters should forthwith unanimously and 
 rigidly insist on thorough mastery of the spoken language as 
 an indispensable qualification for teachers of French and 
 German, the relatively small supply would necessitate the 
 omission of modern languages from the curriculum of a large 
 proportion of existing schools. And, for similar reasons, it 
 would at i)resent be quite impracticable for headmasters 
 generally to refuse to place untrained teachers upon their 
 teaching-statfs. Nor would it be fair to expect headmasters to
 
 The Outlook 
 in Wales. 
 
 III.] French. German. 95 
 
 diminish substantially the number of hours of class teaching 
 required from their assistants, until experience has shown that 
 assistants are forthcoming whose general training and special 
 qualifications guarantee that such reduction of teaching hours 
 shall involve no diminution in the sum total of what is effici- 
 ently taught. 
 
 But the educational conditions of the Principality render 
 the outlook more hopeful. No dull resistance of leaden 
 tradition hampers the schools of Wales in their 
 attempts to proceed by the best educational 
 means to the highest educational ends. And, 
 as the success which attends the teaching of modern lan- 
 guages in Belgian schools is doubtless in some degree due to 
 the fact that not a few Belgians are bi-lingual from their 
 childhood, so in Wales the task of acquiring a new language 
 will be materially facilitated by that practical acquaintance 
 with two idioms which a large proportion of the scholars 
 already possess. 
 
 In Wales too the schools are not, and need never be, 
 haunted by the grim Examination phantom which terrorises to 
 such an extent the educational conscience of England. The 
 function of the Central Welsh Board will not be to stereotype 
 secondary education by establishing a rigid system of exami- 
 nation which shall determine the nature and scope of the 
 curricula of the schools ; but rather, having regard to the 
 conditions of individual schools, to test their efficiency by the 
 spirit in which the curriculum has been conceived, and by the 
 degree in which it has been successfully carried out. The 
 Welsh University has given its recognition to the principles on 
 which alone school instruction in French and German can be 
 logically based, by including in its entrance examination a test 
 of oral proficiency in each of these languages. 
 
 It would be futile to insist on the adoption by the schools 
 of the principles hereinbefore set forth without providing a
 
 g6 TJie Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 supply of teachers whose training and quaUfications may 
 enable them to satisfy the demands made upon 
 thi Teac'ifer°^ them. With a department of Education in each 
 of the three national Colleges, it will surely not 
 be possible to say of Welsh schools — as was recently asserted 
 of English schools — that the teacher of French "generally 
 starts with a hazy notion of how he was taught at school as his 
 whole stock in trade." The Senates of the respective Colleges 
 have already recognised the need of providing for the schools 
 modern language teachers who, by residence in France or 
 Germany, have acquired that mastery of the spoken language 
 which is essential to efficient teaching ; and one College has 
 already taken active measures to supply this demand. It is to 
 be hoped that the County Authorities will also take steps to 
 provide qualified teachers for the schools whose interests are 
 committed to their care. County Councils should be em- 
 powered to apply, in the interests of secondary education 
 generally, the funds at present reserved for the purposes of 
 technical instruction. It would then be feasible for them to 
 supply accepted candidates for masterships with the means of 
 mastering the spoken language by passing a substantial period 
 of time in the foreign country. In the case of teachers who, 
 though lacking this qualification, have already done valuable 
 service as members of the staff" of a County School, it would be 
 desirable and politic to grant them leave of absence for the 
 same purpose, and to assist them by making good the whole or 
 part of the salary which they would have earned during the 
 period of their residence abroad. It would obviously be 
 necessary to safeguard the interests of the county by imposing 
 conditions which should secure, for a minimum term of years, 
 the subsequent services of the teachers thus assisted ; or, 
 alternatively, the repayment of the whole or part of the outlay. 
 The framing of such conditions should, however, present no 
 difficulty.
 
 III.] French. Geniian. 97 
 
 While the principles here more particularly applied to the 
 teaching of French are equally applicable to the 
 
 ... ,. . ^ . , -111 German. 
 
 teaching of any living foreign language, it should 
 be noted that instruction in German may be greatly facilitated 
 from the first by the judicious' introduction of words which 
 bear the same meaning as English words of identical or similar 
 sound. Translation may thus be dispensed with at an earlier 
 stage than in the case of French. Indeed the remarkable 
 success of the elementary German classes conducted by Rektor 
 Scholz", in connexion with the Jena Modern Language Holiday 
 Course for Teachers, has shown that a skilled teacher need 
 scarcely have recourse to the medium of English at all. 
 
 In the conviction that all teachers will attach greater im- 
 portance to the record of a practical experiment, 
 
 1 ■ r 1 111 1 A" Experi- 
 
 however imperfectly conducted, than to the ment in the 
 fullest exposition and discussion of abstract Qerml'n^ °^ 
 principles, I have ventured to conclude this 
 chapter with a partial account of an experiment recently un- 
 dertaken by myself with a view to ascertain how far it is 
 actually feasible to restrict the use of English during the early 
 stages of class instruction in German. While having primarily 
 in view the conditions of school teaching, I was obliged, in the 
 absence of facilities for experimenting upon a class of boys or 
 girls, to form a class of students of maturer age desirous of 
 taking up the study of German from the beginning. It was 
 therefore necessary to introduce a certain proportion of material* 
 
 1 "Words are not to be taught simply because they are similar, but 
 because they are this, and are also ivantedh-^ us for our present purpose." 
 Findlay {op. cit.). 
 
 - It is a matter of great regret to me that the excessive modesty of Dr. 
 Scholz led him to decline my request that he would contribute to this work 
 a chapter on the Teaching of German. 
 
 •* E.g. the letter from an English student at a German University. In 
 a class of boys a letter from an English boy in a German school might have 
 been substituted. 
 
 S. T. 7
 
 98 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 little suited to the age and interests of the lower forms of 
 a secondary school. And the conditions of the experiment — 
 not, in my opinion, rendered more favourable by the com- 
 paratively advanced age of the learners — were specially advan- 
 tageous in so far that the class was a small one, consisting 
 of but seven members. Modification of subject-matter in- 
 volves, however, no modification of the method in which it is 
 treated. And, while much depends on the size of the modern 
 language class, experience would seem to indicate that the 
 German classes in Welsh secondary schools are not likely, 
 wathin the near future, to assume unwieldy proportions. It is 
 therefore hoped that the subjoined record will prove usefully 
 suggestive to school teachers, notwithstanding the different 
 conditions under which their own work is conducted. The 
 practice, so frequent among the teachers of Germany, of com- 
 paring notes as to their class-room experiences, has done 
 much to advance the cause of education in that country ; and 
 its adoption among ourselves could not fail to be productive 
 of great good. Every honest experiment in the art of teaching 
 has its lesson of encouragement or of warning — perhaps of 
 both — the communication of which must tend to lessen, in 
 some degree at least, the deplorable waste of educational force 
 which is a necessary outcome of the systematic isolation of 
 the individual teacher. 
 
 The class whose work is here partially recorded met five 
 times weekly during a term of ten weeks' duration, at the end 
 of which it was incorporated with an ordinary College class. 
 The limits of space at my disposal make it impossible to give 
 a detailed account of more than a portion of the term's work ; 
 and 1 have elected to report the progress of the class up to the 
 point where it jiroved able to vmderstand and appreciate a 
 simple piece of genuine literature with the sole aid of such ex- 
 planations as might be supjjlied in German. The difficulties of 
 the undertaking did not of course end here, but their number
 
 III.] French. Gerinan, 99 
 
 and importance decreased rapidly at every subsequent stage. 
 It was my original intention to banish English entirely from the 
 lecture-room during the hours allotted to the class. But the 
 necessary absence of some members of the class from the first 
 lesson of each week suggested the discussion, in English, with 
 those who were present, of the grammatical facts deducible 
 from the language material treated during the previous week. 
 The absentees were thus able to obtain reliable notes of the 
 work from those who had been present. The arrangement thus 
 suggested by fortuitous circumstances proved to have its advan- 
 tages ; and I am not sure that I should not adopt it from 
 deliberate choice, if it fell to my lot to conduct a school class 
 in the elements of a foreign language. The most real danger 
 connected with the " direct " system of modern language 
 instruction is undoubtedly to be found in the tendency to 
 neglect, in a greater or less degree, the systematic study of the 
 grammatical phenomena supplied by the language material 
 already acquired. And this danger is effectively obviated by a 
 weekly revision in which the most detailed explanations can be 
 supplied without any possibility of obscurity or misunderstand- 
 ing. With this exception I can hardly recall a single occasion 
 on which I found it necessary to have recourse to the medium 
 of English. The results of the term's work were gratifying in 
 every way ; and the keen interest taken by the members of the 
 class in their own progress was, in itself, sufficient reward for 
 the not inconsiderable expenditure of time which the experiment 
 demanded from myself. 
 
 The record here supplied is, for the most part, an accurate 
 transcription of the work actually done from day to day during 
 the first twenty-eight meetings of the class. And, in the interests 
 of accuracy, I have forborne to incorporate many modifications 
 which the revision of such an experiment inevitably suggests. 
 The only alterations which have been made consist in the 
 correction of a few German expressions which I have since 
 
 7—2
 
 lOO TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 found to be unidiomatic, and the reproduction of which in print 
 could serve no good purpose'. Considerations of space have 
 necessitated the presentation of the record in a very concise 
 form, but it is hoped that every step will be sufficiently eluci- 
 dated by the indications contained in the earlier portion of this 
 chapter. It only remains for me to acknowledge my great 
 indebtedness to Dr Scholz, of the Jena Holiday Course, but for 
 whom this experiment would never have been undertaken, and 
 to Ur J. J. Findlay, from whose Preparations for Instruction in 
 English I have borrowed so largely that the fullest acknowledg- 
 ment must remain but a poor restitution. 
 
 AN EXPERIMENT IN THE TEACHING OF GERMAN 
 FROM THE BEGINNING ON A DIRECT SYSTEM. 
 
 (No. 1.) Apparatus : a map of Europe : photographs of a 
 German officer, and of an Englishman and a Welshman known 
 to the class. 
 
 Was ist das? Das ist England (Deutschland, Wales). 1st das 
 England .'' ja, das ist England (&c.) : nein, das ist Deutschland 
 (&c.). England (&c.) ist ein Land. Ist England (&c.) ein Land? 
 ja, England {Sec.) ist ein Land. Dieses Land ist England (&c.). 
 Ist dieses Land England (&c.) ? ja, dieses Land ist England (&c.): 
 nein, dieses Land ist Deutschland (&c.). 
 
 Was ist das? Das ist ein Mann, ein deutscher Mann, ein 
 Deutscher. Und das ist ein englischer Mann, ein Englander: — ein 
 wallisischer Mann, ein Walliser. 
 
 Ist dieser Mann ein Englander (ein Deutscher, ein Walliser)? 
 Nein, er ist ein Deutscher (&c.). Ich bin ein Englander. Sie sind 
 (er ist) ein Walliser. Was bin ich? was sind Sie? was ist er? 
 
 ^ The necessity of the corrections here referred to was pointetl out by 
 Dr Karl Breul of Cambridge, who kindly read the record both in manu- 
 script and in proof, and made many welcome and valuable suggestions, 
 some of which are indicated in their place.
 
 III. J French. German. lOi 
 
 was ist dieser Mann ? Sie sind ein Engliinder ; ich bin ein Walliser 
 (&c.). Sind Sie ein Englander? Bin ich ein Deutscher? Nein, 
 ich bin ein WaUiser; Sie sind ein Englander (&c.)- 
 
 The above, and similar short sentences (formed of the same 
 materials) were practised until the members of the class understood 
 each when spoken, and readily gave correctly pronounced answers 
 to questions put. A complete sentence was required by way of 
 answer. The whole instruction was oral, but, at the end, a small 
 portion of grammar was abstracted, and written on the blackboard, 
 thus : 
 
 Pronomen (Fiirwort) Verbmn (Zeitwort) 
 ich ich bin 
 
 Sie Sie sind 
 
 er er ist 
 
 Vocabulary. England, Deutschland, Land, Mann, Englander, 
 Deutscher, Walliser. — ein (Land, Mann, Englander «S:c.), dieser 
 (Mann), diescj- (Land), (ein) deutscher, englisch^'r, wallisisch^r 
 (Mann). —was? das, ich, Sie, er. — bin, ist, sind. — ja, nein. — und. 
 
 N.B. Frequent use was made from the first of such expressions 
 as : "Haben Sie verstanden ?" "Noch mdl!" ("Noch einmal!") 
 "Sagen Sie..." &c. 
 
 (No. 2.) Apparatus as before. The first lesson was carefully 
 revised, the sentences being further varied by the addition of the 
 word iiicht. 
 
 Ich heisse Spencer: Sie heissen Evans : er heisst F. (&c.) [this 
 was practised in all possible combinations with the foregoing : 
 e.g. heisst dieser Mann Evans? Nein, dieser Mann heisst nicht 
 Evans, er heisst Phillips (&c.)]. 
 
 Ein englischer Mann heisst ein Englander: ein deutscher Mann 
 heisst ein Deutscher: ein wallisischer Mann heisst ein Walliser. 
 (These with all possible negative and interrogative combinations.) 
 
 Sentences containing all words used during the first two lessons 
 were then written on the board, and the words were arranged 
 according to their place among "parts of speech." 
 
 Vocabulary : heisst, heisst;/, heiss/ — nicht.
 
 I02 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 (No. 3.) Apparatus as before. Work: the repetition of what 
 had been previously acquired, and of the subjoined material in all 
 possible combinations. 
 
 Ich bin in Wales : wir sind in Wales : wir sind alia in W. 
 
 Ich bin der Professor : Sie sind ein Student : Sie sind alle 
 Studenten : wir sind nicht alle Professoren (interrogation &c.). 
 
 Sie sind alle Walliser: Sie lernen alle Deutsch : lerne ich 
 Ueutsch .•' er lernt Deutsch &c. (combinations as before). 
 
 Vocabulary. Student, Studenten : Professor, Professoren. — der 
 (Art.), alle — wir — lern^, lern^v/, lern/ — in. 
 
 The following was also written on the board : 
 
 Ve7-bu7ii 
 
 ich heiss-t' 
 lern-t' 
 
 pi. 
 wir heiss-tv/ 
 lern-^« 
 
 Sie heiss-^";; 
 lern-tvi 
 er (heiss-i'Z) heiss-/ I 
 (lern-f/) lern-/ I 
 
 The following was then taken as Reading Lesson i. 
 
 England ist ein Land und Deutschland ist ein Land. 
 
 Was ist dieses Land .'' dieses Land ist Wales. 
 
 Wir sind in Wales, und wir lernen Deutsch. 
 
 Der Professor ist kein Deutscher (i.e. nicht ein Deutscher) ; er 
 ist ein Englander. 
 
 Wir Studenten sind keine Engliindcr; wir sind Walliser. 
 
 Dieser Mann heisst Phillips: er ist kein Englander, er ist ein 
 Walliser. 
 
 Questions were dictated in German, and the students wrote 
 opposite each question a suitable German reply. 
 
 (No. 4.) Apparatus : the hands and fingers of the teacher. 
 
 Das ist eine Hand: das sind zwei Hande. 
 
 Ich habe zwei Hiinde: Sic haben, er hat zwei Hiinde (these 
 in combination with words already learnt, and in question and 
 answer).
 
 III.] French. German. 103 
 
 Wir haben alle zwei Hiinde. 
 
 Wie vicle Hiinde habe ich ? haben Sie? hat ein walHsischer 
 Student? (&c.) Wie viele Studenten sind hier? 
 
 Das ist ein Finger (pronunciation!): ich habe einen Finger: 
 das sind zwei Finger (&c.)- 
 
 Wie viele Finger sind das? das sind drei, vier, fiinf, sechs, 
 sieben, acht, neun, zehn Finger. Eine Hand hat fiinf Finger: 
 zwei Hiinde haben zehn Finger. Wie viele Finger hat eine 
 Hand (&c.)? 
 
 Wie viel ist zweimal zwei ? Zweimal zwei ist vier. (So 2x3, 
 4> 5 ; 3 X 2, 3 ; 4 X 2 ; 5 X 2.) Wie viele Hande haben zwei Engliinder? 
 dreiWalliser? vier Professoren ? fiinf Studenten ? (&c.) Wie viele 
 Studenten sind Sie ? 
 
 After much practice and repetition of the above in all possible 
 combinations, the new vocabulary was written on the board : the 
 students were requested to write for next time a series of German 
 sentences containing the words already learnt. 
 
 Vocabulary. Hand, Hiinde, Finger (s. and pi.), — ein (Finger, 
 nom.), Qincn (Finger, ace), eint' (Hand), kein (Deutscher &c.), (wie) 
 viele, zwei, drei, vier, fiinf, sechs, sieben, acht, neun, zehn. — habe, 
 haben, hat, haben — hier, wie viel ? 
 
 (No. 5.) (Conducted in English for reasons explained.) 
 
 The class was guided to the conscious observation of various 
 
 points of pronunciation already assimilated by imitation. The 
 
 following grammatical facts were also noted. 
 
 Substantive. Gender : masc, fem., neut. Grammatical Gender. 
 
 Number, Declension: some nouns (hitherto in -er) the same in 
 plural, e.g. Finger, Engliinder, Walliser. 
 
 Some add -en, e.g. Student-d'«, Professor-^;/. 
 
 Some add -f, e.g. Hiinde: some change root vowel (cf. Eng.), 
 e.g. Hande. 
 
 Def. Article. Masc. sg. nom. der Professor. 
 
 Demonstrative. T>'\tser Mann, dies^i" Land. 
 
 Indef. Article. Ein Mann, Finger: ein^? Hand: ein Land. 
 Ein^« Finger.
 
 104 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Adjective. Ein wallisischtv Student, ein englischtv Professor, 
 &c. 
 
 Verb, {a) Auxiliary: ich habe &c., ich bin &c. 
 
 (The use of the capital in ^ie was explained : and attention 
 called to the identity of the plural forms of verb tenses, e.g. wir, 
 Sie, sie haben.) 
 
 {b) Present tense of lernen, heissen. 
 
 General. We have found both -e and -en as plural endings 
 (see above). 
 
 -er as a masc. sg. nom. ending, e.g. der, dies^r, ein deutsch^r 
 Mann. 
 
 -e also as a feminine singular ending: ein-6' Hand. 
 
 -es as a neuter singular ending, dies^J-, a.\\es &c. 
 
 (No. 6.) Apparatus : that of Lesson 4, and sketch of human 
 face. 
 
 Was ist das? das ist ein Auge. Der Mann hat zwei Augen. 
 Ein Cyklop hat nicht zwei Augen, er hat ein Auge. Wie viele 
 Augen habe ich? haben Sie? hat ein englischer Student? haben 
 drei Professoren ? &c. &c. 
 
 Das ist das Auge : das ist die Hand : das sind die Finger. 
 
 Das ist der Mund (ein Mund) : dieser Mann hat t'lnen Mund: 
 ich habe (&c.) einen Mund. 
 
 Ich spreche mit dem Munde (Sie sprechen, wir sprechen... with 
 questions and variations). Womit spreche ich ? (&c.) 
 
 Was mache ich (machen Sie, Sec.) mit dem Munde? 
 
 Was machen wir mit dem Auge ? mit den Augen ? 
 
 Wir sehen, Sie sehen, ich sehe mit dem Auge, den .^ugen. 
 
 Womit sehen Sie? (&c.) 
 
 Was mache ich mit der Hand ? ich schreibe (wir schreiben, er 
 schreibt) mit der Hand. 
 
 The above were practised in all possible combinations together 
 with the foregoing words and groups of words. 
 
 Vocabulary. Auge, Augen ; Mund (dat. Munde) — das (neut. 
 sg.), die (f. sg.), die (pi.), dem (dat. masc. and neut.), der (dat. fern, 
 sg.), den (dat. pi.) — sprech-^?, sprech-^« ; seh-^, seh-^« ; mach^, 
 mach/, mach6';/ ; schreibe, schreib/, schrQxhen - womit ?
 
 III.] Fj'LiicJi. German. 105 
 
 (No. 7.) Apparatus : photograph of the German Imperial 
 Family. 
 
 The work of Lesson 6 was carefully revised with as much re- 
 petition and variation as possible. 
 
 Victoria ist die Konigin von England : Wilhelm ist der Konig 
 von Preussen : er ist auch der Kaiser von Deutschland. Hier ist 
 ein Bild von Kaiser Wilhelm : das Bild ist gut : es ist ein gutes 
 Bild. Dieses Bild ist ein Bild des Kaisers (von dem Kaiser^) von 
 Deutschland (des Konigs von Preussen). Das ist die Konigin von 
 Preussen, die Kaiserin von Deutschland, ein Bild der Kaiserin &c. 
 Die Kaiserin (Konigin) ist die Frau (Gemahlin) des Kaisers 
 (Konigs) von Deutschland (Preussen) iS:c. 
 
 Sie ist eine Prinzessin von Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 Wer ist das ? Was sehen Sie auf dem Bilde ? 
 
 The above were practised with all possible variations and 
 combinations. 
 
 Vocabulary. Konig (Konigs), Konigin, Kaiser (Kaisers), Kaiserin, 
 Prinz, Prinzessin, Preussen, Bild, Frau, Gemahlin — gut, (ein) g\xX.es 
 (Bild) — des (gen. masc. sg.), der (gen. fern, sg.) — es, sie, wer? — auch 
 — von. 
 
 (No. 8.) Apparatus : as in Lesson 7. 
 
 This and the following lesson were devoted to the framing of 
 sentences designed to familiarise the students with the declension 
 of the definite and indefinite articles, both alone and in combination 
 with adjectives. The sentences here recorded must serve as 
 samples of a large number actually used. (Questions with wo? 
 wer ? wie viele ? &c.) 
 
 Der Kaiser ist der Gemahl (von) der Kaiserin. 
 
 Der (deutsche) Kaiser steht auf dem Bilde neben der (deutschen) 
 Kaiserin : die (deutsche) Kaiserin steht auf dem Bilde neben dem 
 (deutschen) Kaiser : Hier ist der Kronprinz von Deutschland 
 (Preussen) — ein deutsch^r Prinz — der deutsche Kronprinz. Er 
 steht vor dem Kaiser, vor der Kaiserin. 
 
 ' Such clumsy periphrases were used, perhaps too frequently, with the 
 purpose of establishing the declension of adjectives by repeated illustration 
 of the several cases.
 
 io6 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Der Kronprinz ist ein Leutnant in der deutschen Armee (im 
 deutschen Heere). (cin deutschfr Prinz, cin jung^'r deutschfr 
 Leutnant). 
 
 Der deutsche Kaiser ist der Herr dcs deutschen Heeres^. 
 Der Kronprinz ist ein Sohn des Kaisers und der Kaiserin 
 &c. (S:c. 
 
 Vocabulary. Kronprinz, Leutnant, Gemahl, Herr, Sohn, Armee, 
 Heer. Various new forms and combinations of article and adjective 
 — ^jung — steht', steh^'w, steh/- — auf, neben, vor. 
 
 (No. 9.) (See remarks prefixed to Lesson 8.) 
 
 T^. -, , ,^ • • feine deutsche Konitjin.l 
 
 Die Mutter des Kronprmzen ist -^ ,. , , ,^ . . \ 
 
 (die deutsche Kaisenn. J 
 
 Wir haben hier ein deutsches Bild. Wir sehen darauf 
 feinen deutschen Konig] feine deutsche Konigin. 1 
 
 \den deutschen Kaiser) (die deutsche Kaiserin.j 
 
 Dieser junge Prinz ist der Sohn eines deutschen Konigs, des 
 deutschen Kaisers (von einem deutschen Konig, von dem deutschen 
 Kaiser). 
 
 Er heisst Eitel Fritz und ist auch ein Leutnant in der deutschen 
 Armee. 
 
 Fritz ist der zweite Sohn einer deutschen Konigin (&c.). Sie 
 
 , ^ , ,,.., . ■ ^ ,- TV T ... fdcr jungen Sohne. 1 
 
 hat sechs Sohne ; sie ist die Mutter v , , t^ • . 
 
 (von sechs deutschen Prinzen.J 
 
 „. . ,, . ■ , ,• r-.i fdes Konigs eines deutschen 
 
 Die ungen Prinzen sind die Sohne \ . -.^ ■ , , , 
 
 (des Kaisers des deutschen 
 
 Landes. ) 
 
 Reiches./ 
 
 T^ ... „ . . , ,^ . fdes deutschen Reiches. 1 
 
 Der alteste Prinz ist der Kronprinz { . , , t j f 
 
 '^ (eines deutschen Landes.J 
 
 Sehen Sie das kleine Kind? Das kleinc Kind ist kein Prinz, 
 
 sondern eine Prinzessin. Hier sehen wir die sechs deutschen 
 
 Prinzen und eine kleine Prinzessin. 
 
 Vocabitlary. All combinations of definite and indefinite article 
 ^ der oberste Kriegsherr, der Oberbefehlshaber.
 
 III.] FrcncJi. German. 107 
 
 with the adjective had been exemplified. New words were : 
 Mutter, Sohne, Kind, Reich — zwei-t-e, altest-e, klein-e (-es) — 
 darduf — sondern. 
 
 (No. 10.) (See remarks prefixed to Lesson 5.) 
 
 After the elucidation of further questions of pronunciation, the 
 full declension of the definite and indefinite articles (with adjective) 
 was deduced from sentences already acquired, and set on the board 
 in tabular form (see next page). 
 
 The few differences between declension oi def. ari. + adj. and of 
 indef. art. + adj. were pointed out, and the underlying principle 
 explained. 
 
 The term " strong adjective declension " was also explained. 
 
 Students added to plurals in -(^)«, Augen, Prinzen, and to 
 plurals in -e (with vowel-change) Sohne. The following points 
 were also noted. 
 
 {(i) feminine nouns unchanged in the singular (Hand, Kaiserin, 
 
 &€.). 
 
 {b) there are two declensions, strong and weak. 
 
 (i) the weak takes -{e)n throughout : Prinz, Student &c. 
 
 (2) the strong normally takes -{e)s in gen., -{e) in dat. Its 
 plural ending is most commonly -e, vowel-change often occurring 
 (Landes, Munde, Sohne). 
 
 (3) Auge is strong in singular, weak in pi. (ich sehe mit dem 
 Auge : ich habe zwei Augen). 
 
 (4) Some strong nouns (hitherto dissyllables in -er) drop -e in 
 gen. and dat. sing., and in pi,, e.g. Kaiser <S:c. 
 
 (5) The dative pi. of declinable words ends in -{e)n. 
 
 (6) Change of vowel for plural always indicates strong plural, 
 and is incompatible with weak ending -{e)n (but cf. 5). 
 
 Verb 
 
 ich stehe, spreche, mache, schreibe, sehe. 
 
 wir] 
 
 Sie - stehen, sprechen, machen, schreiben, sehen. 
 
 sie ] 
 
 er 1 
 . \ steht, macht, schreibt. 
 
 siej 
 
 Prepositions with dat. : in, mit, von, auf, neben, vor.
 
 io8 
 
 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Gh^ 
 
 bfi- 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 M M 
 
 (/) 3 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 t/2 ^
 
 III.] French. German. 109 
 
 (No. 11.) Reading Lesson 2. 
 
 England hat ein kleines Heer, und Deutschland hat ein grosses 
 Heer. Der deutsche Kaiser ist der Oberbefehlshaber des deutschen 
 Heeres, und der alteste Sohn des Kaisers ist ein junger Leutnant. 
 Der Kaiser heisst Wilhelm, und der Kronprinz heisst Friedrich 
 Wilhelm. Der zweite Sohn, Eitel Fritz, ist auch ein Leutnant. 
 Der Kaiser hat noch vier Sohne und eine kleine Tochter. 
 
 Hier ist ein gutes Bild (von) der deutschen kaiserlichen Familie. 
 Der Kaiser Wilhehn steht darauf neben der deutschen Kaiserin. 
 Die Mutter hat ein kleines Kind auf dem Arm. Das Kind ist kein 
 Prinz, sondern eine kleine Prinzessin. Der junge Kronprinz steht 
 vor seinen Eltern und hat ein Schvvert in der Hand. Fritz sitzt 
 auf einem Stuhle. Eiii kleiner Prinz hat eine TrommeU. 
 
 Der Kaiser ist auch der Kdnig von Preussen. Er wohnt mit 
 seiner Familie in Berlin. Berlin ist eine grosse Stadt, die Haupt- 
 stadt von Preussen und auch von Deutschland. 
 
 The above reading lesson was carefully taken vi^ith each member 
 of the class individually. Questions in German were then dictated, 
 and the class wrote suitable answers in German opposite each 
 question. 
 
 Vocabulary. Tochter, Familie (pronunciation !), Arm, Eltern, 
 Schwert, Stuhl, Trommel, Stadt, Hauptstadt. — gross, kaiserlich, 
 sein — ich sitze, &c., ich wohne, &c. — noch. 
 
 (No. 12.) Apparatus : as before. 
 
 (i) Es sind drei Soldaten auf diesem Bilde. 
 
 (2) Der alteste Soldat ist der Vater der zwei jungen Soldaten. 
 
 (3) Die beiden jungen Soldaten sind Briider. 
 
 (4) Wie viele Schwestern haben die sechs deutschen Prinzen ? 
 
 (5) Sie haben nur eine kleine Schwester. 
 
 Deri 
 
 „. }■ Satz, zwei Satzc.fiinf Satze. 
 
 EmJ 
 
 Der erste Satz, der zweite... der fiinfte Satz. 
 
 ^ i.e. in the picture before the Class.
 
 I lO TJic Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 Dasl 
 
 ^. \ Wort, zwei Worter...zehn Worter. 
 
 Em J 
 
 Wie viele Worter sind in dem ersten Satze ? &c. 
 
 (Lesen Sie) das dritte Wort in dem fiinften Satze, &c. 
 
 „. \ Buchstabe, zwei Buchstaben, &c. &c. 
 Em J 
 
 Wie viele Buchstaben sind in dem sieb(en)ten Worte des vierten 
 
 Satzes?(&c.) 
 
 Numerous similar sentences were practised in combination with 
 haben, and in negative and interrogative form. 
 
 Vocabulary. Soldat (-en), Vater, Bruder (Briider), Schwester 
 (Schwestern), Wort (Worter), Satz (Satze), Buchstabe (Buch- 
 staben) — (die) beid-tv/, erst, dritt, viert, ... zehnt, — nur. 
 
 The class was required to bring a series of written German 
 sentences for the next time. 
 
 (No. 13.) (This lesson formed an introduction to the use of 
 Verb-tenses.) 
 
 3 x6 = achtzehn, 4X5=zwanzig, 3 x 7 = einundzwanzig, 5x5 = 
 fiinfundzwanzig, 5 x S^^vierzig, lox 9 = neunzig, lox io = hundert. 
 
 Prdteritum 
 25 Oktober 1893 
 
 der fiinfundzwanzigste< 
 
 gestern 
 Miltwoch 
 ich ?ca/- gestern in Ban- 
 gor 
 er war, wir waren 
 wir hatteti gestern eine 
 deutsche Slunde 
 
 Prdsens 
 
 26 Oktober 1893 
 
 der sechsundzwanzigste 
 
 Oktober, achlzelin hun- 
 
 dert drei und neunzig 
 
 -«- HKUTK -*- 
 
 Donnerstag 
 ich bin heute in IJangor 
 
 wir haben heute eine 
 deutsche Stunde 
 
 Ftititrtim 
 27 Oktober 1893 
 
 der siebenundzwan- 
 zigste 
 
 morgen 
 Freitag 
 ich werde morgen in B 
 
 r.ein 
 
 er wird, wir werden 
 
 wir 7verdcn morgen eine 
 
 deutsche 'i\.\x\\A& haben 
 
 Vocabulary. Jahr, Monat, Tag, Stunde, Mittwoch, Donnerstag, 
 Freitag, — achtzehn, zwanzig, zwanzigst-, vierzig, neunzig, hundert — 
 ich war, er war, wir waren, &c. : ich hatte, er hatte, wir hatten, &c. 
 ich werde haben, er wird sein, wir werden schreiben, &c. : — gestern, 
 heute, morgen. 
 
 (No. 14.) This lesson was devoted to practising the matter of
 
 1 1 1. J French. German. 1 1 1 
 
 the last lesson, and extending its scope over a whole week. For 
 example, 
 
 sechs mal flinf ist dreissig. 
 
 Dienstag 24 Oktober, vorvorgestern.j 
 
 Mittwoch 25 Oktober, vorgestern. V priiteritum. 
 
 Donnerstag 26 Oktober, gestern. I 
 
 Frcitag 21 Oktober, heitte prasens. 
 
 Sonnabend 28 Oktober, morgen. | 
 
 Sonntag 29 Oktober, iibermorgen. l futurum. 
 Montag 30 Oktober, iiberiibermorgen.) 
 
 Wie viele Tage hat eine Woche ? — Es wird in zwei Tagen 
 Sonntag sein — Wir hatten in der letzten Woche fiinf deutsche 
 Stunden — Wie viele deutsche Stunden werden wir in der nachsten 
 Woche haben? — Wir werden in diesem Jahre eine wallisische 
 Universitat haben — Morgen wird ein grosses Fussballspiel sein 
 zwischen der Stadt Flint und der Stadt Bangor — Ich werde die 
 neuen Worter schreiben — Schreiben Sie alle fiir nachstes Mal 
 zwanzig deutsche Siitze. (These sentences are a selection from 
 those actually used.) 
 
 Vocabulary. Sonnabend, Sonntag, Montag, Dienstag, Spiel, 
 Universitat — neu dreissig, dreissigst-, letzt-, nachst-, — vorgestern, 
 vorvorgestern, iibermorgen, iiberiibermorgen. 
 
 (No. 15.) (See remarks prefixed to Lessons 5, 10.) 
 The weekly review of grammatical facts included the fol- 
 owing : — 
 
 A. The full declension of many nouns, e.g. 
 (i) der Monat (Monate), der Tag (Tage), das Jahr (Jahre) ; 
 der Satz (Satze: so Sohn), die Stadt (Stadte: so Hand). 
 
 (2) der Soldat (Soldaten : so Prinz, Student), der Buchstabe, 
 die Schwester (Schwestern), die Stunde (Stunden). 
 
 (3) Der Bruder (Briider: so der Vater ; cf. die Mutter, 
 Tochter). 
 
 (4) Das Wort (Worter: these modify where possible. Land, 
 Mann, Kind, &c.) 
 
 B. 
 
 (i) sein like ein.
 
 112 Tlie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 (2) the termination -lich in kaiserlich (kindlich, koniglich). 
 
 (3) a\\.er, aXicst. 
 
 (4) the further formation of cardinals; elf, zw6lf...drei^<?//«... 
 2sih\zehn: zwanzig^, dreissig, vier-zig,...neun-zig, also ein U7id 
 zwanzig, neun und zwanzig, drei und neunzig, iS:c. 
 
 (5) the formation of ordinals from cardinals, e.g. zwei-t, vier-t, 
 zehn-t, zwanzig-st, dreissig-st, drei und z\vanzig-st, &c. 
 
 C. Verds. The formation of the future : 
 
 ich werde einen Satz schreiben | wir werden zwei Worter schreiben. 
 Sie werden... schreiben 
 er wird schreiben | sie werden schreiben. 
 
 The past tense indicative has (practically) only one sing, and 
 one pi. form. 
 
 D. While the indiscreet intrusion of any pretence of compara- 
 tive philology was studiously avoided, there was sufficient material 
 to illustrate the fact that English and German spring from a common 
 stock, e.g. Stuhl, Schwert, Wort, Land: Konig, Mann, Vater, Mutter, 
 Eltern, Sohn, Tochter, Bruder, Schwester; Arm, Hand, Finger; 
 Jahr, Monat, Woche, Tag (Mittwoch, &c.) ; gut, alle, letzt, nachst — 
 the numerals — haben, lernen, machen, sehen, sitzen, &c. — gestern, 
 morgen, hier, &.c. &.c. 
 
 (No. 16.) The following was spoken to the class, every new 
 word (italicized) being explained as reached. 
 
 Ich werde heute von einem vormaligcii Studenten dieses "Uni- 
 versity College" sprechen. Er heisst Z — , und sein Vater ist ein 
 Deutscher und wohnt in London. Dieser Student war ein junger 
 Fretmd von mir^ und kam im April 1889 mit mir 7iach Bangor. 
 Er lernte bei mir Alffrattzosisck, und Latcinisch bei dem Herrn 
 Professor A — . Im Oktober ging er nach Cambridge und trat 
 als Student in C — College ein. Er stitdicrte dort Deutsch, 
 Italienisch und Franzosisch, und machte im Mai des letzten Jahres 
 sein Baccalaureatsexavien. Imfolgenden Oktober (1892) besuchte 
 er die deutsche Universitat Halle. Die Stadt Halle ist in dem 
 Konigreich Preussen und liegt an der Saale. Ich war in diesem 
 Sommcr dort, aher er war damals in England. Jetzt ist er wieder 
 
 ' Insist on the proper pronunciation tsvz.wtsx'g : not suuansig!
 
 III.] 
 
 French. German. 
 
 113 
 
 in Halle, und wird in diesem Winter sein Doitorexamen machen. 
 Er wild dann Herr Doktor Z — heissen. 
 
 (The new vocabulary written on the board in the usual way.) 
 
 (No. 17.) Students had been required to bring a written 
 (German) summary of the statement made to them last time. 
 Several were read aloud and the necessary corrections made. 
 
 After further oral practice of the material, the distinction 
 between strong and weak verbs was made clear. 
 
 
 in/. 
 
 prlit. 
 
 part. 
 
 ind. prds. 
 
 
 ( kommen 
 1 gehen 
 
 eintreten 
 
 liegen 
 
 kam 
 
 ^Aommen 
 
 komme 
 
 Starke Verba 
 
 trat...ein 
 
 ^,?gangen 
 ein^^reten 
 
 gehe 
 liege 
 
 
 besuchen 
 
 besuch-^^ 
 
 -besuch^ 
 
 besuche, &c 
 
 Schwache 
 
 studieren 
 
 studier-/^ 
 
 -studier^ 
 
 studiere, &c 
 
 Verba 
 
 machen 
 
 mach-/^ 
 
 geva^xoSxt 
 
 mache, &c. 
 
 
 lemen 
 
 lern-i"^ 
 
 ge\&rwt 
 
 leme, &c. 
 
 The general characteristics of strong and weak verbs were 
 pointed out, and the fact that infinitives which have not the chief 
 accent on the first syllable omit^^- in the past participle. 
 
 The form trat...ei?i was noted, but its full explanation reserved 
 until it could be compared with similar forms. 
 
 An exercise on tenses was given to be written for next time. 
 
 Vocabulary as before. 
 
 (No. 18.) 
 
 Reading Lesson 3. 
 
 Wir werden heute von der deutschen Universitat Halle sprechen. 
 Sie ist 200 Jahre alt. Im Jahre 1693 waren 765 Studenten dort. 
 In der ersten Halfte des 18""" Jahrhunderts war Halle die grosste 
 protestantische Universitat Deutschlands und hatte 1500 Studenten. 
 Das Hauptstudium war damals Theologie. Napoleon der Erste 
 suspendierte die Universitat zweimal ; vom ig""" Oktober bis zum 
 2Qsten Dezember 1806, und wieder vom 19'*-" Juli bis zum 23*'^" 
 November 1813. 
 
 S. T. 8
 
 114 
 
 The Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 Die alte Universitat Wittenberg ist seit dem Anfange dieses 
 Jahihunderts mit Halle vereint. Sie war der Mittelpunkt der 
 deutschen Reformation. Luther trat im Jahre 1508 als Professor 
 in Wittenberg ein und schlug neun Jahre spater seine 95 Satze 
 (Thesen) an die dortige Schlosskirche an. 
 
 Halle hat jetzt 1522 Studenten. Studentinnen aber sind noch 
 ausgeschlossen^ 
 
 The above Reading Lesson was taken carefully with each 
 member of the class individually, all new words being explained 
 when first occurring^. The piece read suggested the following 
 points : 
 
 (I) 
 
 Stark 
 
 Schwach 
 
 inf. 
 anschlagen 
 ausschliessen 
 suspendieren 
 vereinen 
 
 priit. 
 schlug... an 
 schlos.s...aus 
 suspendier/^ 
 verein/t? 
 
 part. 
 
 an^i?schlagen 
 aus^t'schlossen 
 -suspendiert 
 -vereint 
 
 (2) the respective 
 diagram^) : 
 
 uses of vor and seit (with Colbeck's 
 
 vor fiinf Jahren war ich noch in Cambridge. 
 seit vier Jahren bin ich in Bangor. 
 
 1 DrBreul points out that a more idiomatic expression is: werden noch 
 nicht zugelassen. 
 
 " After the statement that English was (with a definite and specified 
 exception) practically excluded during the whole course, it would seem 
 superfluous to detail to experienced teachers the familiar devices adopted. 
 An in.stance or two of " Anschauungsunterricht " will suffice. At the first 
 occurrence of " ausgeschlossen " the class looked perplexed of course. 
 Calling the one woman-student from her place, and (somewhat un- 
 chivalrously !) shutting the door upon her, I pronounced meanwhile the 
 words: ich schliesse die Studentin aus...ich habe die Studentin ausge- 
 schlossen... die Studentin ist ausgeschlossen. So, after an illustration of 
 "Tritt " and " treten," the picture " ich trete ein "..." ich bin eingetretcn" 
 was supplied by my passage through the class-room door. Similarly 
 with "anschlagen" by the help of a piece of paper and the black- 
 board. 
 
 * Colbeck, On the Teaching of Modern Languages (Pitt Press), p. 42.
 
 III.] FrencJi. German. 115 
 
 vor drei Wochen begannen wir Ueutsch. 
 seit drei Wochen lernen wir Deutsch. 
 heute vor zwei Tagen war Dienstag &c. &c. 
 
 (3) zum = zu dem, im = in dem : an governs two cases, e.g. die 
 95 Thesen waren an der Thiir. L. schlug sie an die Thiir an. 
 
 (4) Rule for gender of compound nouns : Mittelpunkt, Haupt- 
 stadt, Schlosskirche. 
 
 (5) adjectival ending -ig : dortig ; hie^ig, jetzig (not jetz^ig). 
 
 Vocabulary. Halfte, Jahrhundert, Haupt, Studium (and H-s-), 
 Theologie, Dezember, Juli, November, Anfang, Punkt, Mittel, 
 Mittelpunkt, Reformation, Kirche, Schloss (and Schlossk-), prote- 
 stdntisch, spat, dortig — suspendierte, vereint, schlug.. .an, ausge- 
 schlossen — spat (spater), damals, bis — seit (dat.), zu (dat.), an (ace. 
 and dat.). 
 
 (No. 19.) The subject-matter of Lesson 18 was revised, with 
 supplemental explanations, and much oral practice. Some impor- 
 tant new points in 18 made it advisable not to push on too rapidly, 
 
 (No. 20.) 
 
 An 
 Herrn Prof Dr F. Spencer, 
 in Bangor, Wales, 
 
 Grossbritannien. 
 
 Halle a/S, 
 de7t iiten November 1892. 
 
 LlEBER HeRR DOKTOR! 
 
 Ich hore, Sie waren diesen Sommer in Halle und 
 waren so gut nach mir zu fragen. Ich wohne hier in der Karl- 
 strasse. Meine Wirtin ist alt, aber durchaus gutmiitig. " Ein 
 Freund meines Bruders," sagte sie mir, " kennt einen Englander." 
 " Dann konnen Sie mir vielleicht," sagte ich, "ein Bett auf 
 englische Weise machen." " O ja, das kann ich wohl," war die 
 Antwort. Ich wollte, ich konnte das Resultat photographieren !
 
 ii6 The Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 Die Studenten hier trinkcn viel Bier. Es ist besser fiir den 
 Magen als Thee ; und die wallisischen Studenten tranken vor drei 
 Jahren viel zu viel Thee. Trinken sie noch so viel ? 
 
 Letzten Freitag besuchte ich zum ersten Mai einen Studenten- 
 verein, wo die Neuphilologen einmal in der Woche zusammen- 
 konimen. Wir tranken Bier, sangen, rauchten, und sprachen auch 
 von unseren Studien. Die Professoren waren auch dabei. Ich 
 trank zehn Glas Bier^, und ging erst um halb zwei nach Haus. 
 
 Dieser Brief aber, lieber Herr Doktor, muss einmal zu Ende 
 kommen. 
 
 Mit freundlichstem Gruss, 
 Ihr 
 
 Z. 
 
 The first paragraph of the above letter was read to the class — 
 as far a.s photographicreti — with explanations. 
 
 New points were the use of the past subj. as conditional {ich 
 wollte, ich kdnnte), and the respective forms and uses of kennen 
 and k'dnnen [both these verbs having vowel-change and weak 
 endings]. 
 
 Vocabulary. Strasse, Wirt (-in), Mut, Bett, Antwort, Ohr (pi. 
 Ohren), Frage— lieb, gutmiitig— hore, fragen, kennt, sagte, konnen, 
 konnte, kann, antworten, wollte (Kond.), photographieren — so, 
 durchaus, denn, vielldicht, wohl— durch (ace), aus (dat.). 
 
 (No. 21.) The remainder of the letter was read, and new words 
 explained as they occurred. The whole letter was then read 
 through again, and, only when every part was thoroughly grasped 
 by all, was a copy supplied to members of the class. 
 
 Each new verb was referred to its place among strong or weak 
 verbs. The chief tenses of new verbs were also indicated and 
 illustrated by short sentences. 
 
 The class was requested to work up the letter thoroughly for 
 next lesson, for the purpose of being able to sustain a conversation 
 arising out of the subject-matter of it, or to answer on paper 
 questions bearing upon it. 
 
 1 N.15. zchn Biergldser, but zehn Glas Bier.
 
 III.] French. German. 1 1 7 
 
 Vocabulary. Bier, Magen, Thee, Verein, Philolog, Glas (Glaser), 
 Brief, Ende, Gruss — besser, unser, Ihr, freundlich — trinken (trank 
 &c.), zusammenkommen, sangen (&c.), rauchten (&c.), muss (&c.), 
 sprachen (&c.) — wie, zusammen, dabei, erst — fiir (ace), um (ace). 
 
 (No. 22.) This lesson was chiefly devoted to questioning the 
 class in German on the subject-matter of the last two lessons (i.e. 
 the letter from Z — in Halle). The sentence : ging um halb zwei 
 nach Hans naturally suggested a detailed explanation of the German 
 system of reckoning the time of day^ A written exercise on this 
 was set for next time. 
 
 Vocabulary. Uhr, Viertel, Minute, halb. 
 
 (No. 23.) The German method of reckoning time was further 
 illustrated, and some of the exercises discussed with the class. As 
 a preparation for the treatment of Heine's Lorelei, the subjoined 
 partial paraphrase was then read to the class, carefully explained, 
 and questioned upon. The vocabulary having been given in the 
 usual way, the class was required to write the substance of the 
 paraphrase for next time. 
 
 Das Marchen von der Lorelei: — Die Lorelei ist ein schones 
 Madchen mit goldenem Haare: sie sitzt oben auf dem Gipfel 
 einer Klippe am Rhein, wo der Strom sehr stark zwischen 
 hohen Felsen fliesst. Sie tragt blitzendes Geschmeide und hat 
 einen goldenen Kamm in der Hand, womit sie ihr goldenes Haar 
 kammt. 
 
 (No. 24.) The remainder of the paraphrase (see below) was 
 treated in the same way as the part already given, with vocabulary, 
 and a table of new verbs. The manuscript of the whole paraphrase 
 was then distributed for the first time, and the class read it in the 
 past tense. (The word sass had to be supplied.) The class was 
 directed to work up the whole paraphrase thoroughly for next 
 time. 
 
 Dabei singt sie ein wundersames Lied mit gewaltiger Melodei 
 (note the usual form Melodie !). Der Schiffer in seinem kleinen 
 
 ^ The blackboard was found very useful at this point.
 
 Ill 
 
 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Schifife hort das Lied und sieht nur nach der schonen Lorelei 
 
 hinauf. Er sieht sie so lange an bis sein Schiff an die Felsen 
 
 stosst. Dann verschlingen die Wellen den Schififer mit seinem 
 Schiffe. 
 
 Starke Verba ■< 
 
 /fliessen 
 tragen 
 
 ansehen 
 
 floss 
 trug 
 
 sah...an 
 
 stossen 
 
 stiess 
 
 verschlingen verschlang 
 Schwache Verba 
 
 geflossen 
 getragen 
 
 angesehen 
 
 gestossen 
 verschlungen 
 
 \trage 
 itragt 
 Jsehe.-.an 
 /sieht... an 
 j stosse 
 1 stosst 
 
 ^blitzen 
 I kammen. 
 
 (No. 25.) The attention of the class was called to the gram- 
 matical facts of the past fortnight's work, somewhat as follows. 
 
 Substantive. 
 
 {a) Feminines : sing, uninflected, pi. weak. [Halfte, Refor- 
 mation, Kirche, Strasse, Wirtin, Antwort, Frage, Klippe, Welle, 
 Alelodei.] 
 
 {b) Fels (t Felse) : Philolog (cf. Studdnt). 
 ( (c) Neuters: [e.g. Geschmeide, Schiff, Jahr, Jahrhundert, 
 Bier, Resultdt, Haar.] 
 
 (d) Masculines: [e.g. Punkt, Verein, Brief: — Mut, Thee.] 
 
 {e) Strong nouns with gen. -s, dat. — , pi. — except dat.) 
 Mittel, Lehrer, Finger, Vater, Br«der, Magen, Miirchen, Mad- 
 chen, Gipfel, Schiffer, Kaiser. N.B. -et, -en, -tr.] 
 
 (/) Masc. monosyllables with Umlaut : [Sohn, Kamm, 
 Gruss, Strom : BUT Punkt, Tag.] 
 
 {g) Dissyllables in -el, -en, -er often have Umlaut, [e.g. 
 Vater, Bruder, Magen.] 
 
 {Ji) Strong nouns with pi. in -er (dat. -cm) take Umlaut, 
 where possible: [Mann, Bild, Glas, Haupt, Haus, Kind, Land, 
 ^ Lied, Schloss, Schwert, Wort, &c.] 
 
 (/) Strong in sg., weak in pi. [Bett, Auge, Ende, Ohr]. 
 
 (/) Note Stud/tv?: and the function oi -chcn.
 
 III.] French. German, 119 
 
 Adjective, {a) \\€oer Herr Doktor: mit gewaltig^r M. : blit- 
 zend^j- Geschmeide. {b) as adverbs, {c) participles as adjectives. 
 {d) mein, unser, sein, ihr, Ihr, ihr. {e) bess^r, st«rk^r, freundlichj/. 
 (_/) declension of ho6"h. 
 
 Pronoun, (i) ich, mir, mich. (2) Sie, Ihnen, Sie. (3) er, ihm, 
 ihn : sie, ihr, sie : sie, ihnen, sie. 
 
 Verb, {a) Strong: kommen, kam, gekommen [sprechen, be- 
 ginnen]. treten, trat, getreten [sehen, lesen, liegen, sitzen (sass, 
 gesessen)]. fliessen, floss, geflossen [schliessen]. tragen, trug, ge- 
 tragen [schlagen]. stossen, stiess, gestossen : gehen, ging, gegangen : 
 schreiben, schrieb, geschrieben : trinken, trank, getrunken, [singen, 
 verschlfngen]. 
 
 {b) Weak, numerous examples. 
 
 {c) mtissen, kennen, konnen, wissen. 
 
 {d) note past participles of verefnen, studieren, &c., and of 
 verschlingen. 
 
 (f) the anomalous presents : will, muss, kann. 
 
 (/) tragt, schlagt, stosst, tritt, sieht, spricht. 
 
 {g) conditional or past subjunctive = past indicative in weak 
 verbs : in strong verbs add -c and change root-vowel (numerous 
 examples). 
 
 {h) separable prefixes bearing accent [eintreten, ausschliessen, 
 dnsehen, dnschlagen]. 
 
 (/) formation of perfect \bin eingetreten, habe gesprochen]. 
 
 Prepositions and their government : mit, von, bei, seit, nach, 
 aus, zu. — fiir, durch, um. — an, in, vor, auf. 
 
 (No. 26.) This lesson was devoted to thorough oral practice of 
 the material contained in the Lorelei paraphrase. It was also read 
 in the past, future, perfect. 
 
 (No. 27.) "Heinrich Heine war ein beriihmter deutscher Dich- 
 ter und Prosaiker. Er wurde im Jahre 1799 geboren, und starb im 
 Jahre 1856. In einem seiner bekanntesten Gedichte besingt Heine 
 die Lorelei." 
 
 This brief exordium understood, the first verse of Heine's 
 Lorelei was read, and the new words carefully explained.
 
 120 TJie Aims and Practice of Teac/iin£: [Chap. lu. 
 
 Vocabulary : Dichter, Prosdiker, Gedicht, Zeit, Sinn— traurig, 
 beriihmt — geboren, bekannt, besingt, soil, staib {c, a, o, stzrbt) — 
 dass. A written exercise was set for next time. 
 
 (No. 28.) The rest of Heine's Lorelei was communicated and 
 explained. A copy of the whole poem was then for the first time 
 supplied to each member of the class. 
 
 Vocabulary: Luft, Abend, Schein, Sonne, Jungfrau, Weh, Riff, 
 Hohe, Kahn — kiihl, ruhig, wunderbar, wild, — dunkelt, funkelt, 
 ergreift, schaut, glaube, gethan.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 The problem of teaching English, as a language, to English 
 boys and girls, arises out of (i) its phonetic 
 peculiarities, (2) its grammatical structure, (3) the ^^ ^e taught^ 
 origin and development of its vocabulary. 
 
 (i) If each elementary sound were represented by one 
 distinct letter, the spelling-book would be superfluous ; if the 
 incidence of the accent were fixed and uniform, practice in 
 reading would be required only as a department of elocution 
 and rhetoric. 
 
 (2) If the process of inflexional disintegration which our 
 tongue underwent through some thousand years had gone on 
 without being arrested or interrupted, accidence would occupy 
 very little space in our grammars. The steady process of 
 casting off inflexions and simplifying diversity, which continued 
 till about the 14th century, has ceased indeed in the literary 
 language, but there are indications that in the speech of the 
 people the tendency still prevails, if the actual process be to 
 a great extent arrested. The tendency of the uneducated 
 appears to be always to reject or confuse inflexions of conju- 
 gation, — to say ^ I be,^ ^ he do,' ^ he done it,' */ seen him,' — 
 thus disregarding formal distinction between persons, and be- 
 tween the past tense and past participle. Hence the teaching 
 of Grammar operates to save us from having two dialects, 
 one colloquial, the other literary.
 
 122 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 (3) While the intricacies, trifling as they are, of our 
 grammar tend to make English to a certain extent a dead 
 language to the uneducated, the highly composite structure of 
 our vocabulary tends to make it in some respects a foreign 
 language even to some who are not in the ordinary sense 
 uneducated. Such an expression will hardly appear too strong, 
 when we think of the enormous disparity between the few 
 hundred words which a farm-labourer has at command, and 
 the tens of thousands employed in a library which is fairly 
 representative of the culture and scientific research of the age, 
 and when we bear in mind the many gradations between 
 these extremes, and reflect that all gains to what might be 
 called each person's every-day stock of expressions must be 
 acquired by the same process as if they belonged to the 
 vocabulary of a foreign tongue. A discourse on philosophy is 
 unintelligible to many, one on science to still more ; and so of 
 the various other branches of specialized knowledge. We have, 
 in fact, hosts of departmental words, e.g. in Philosophy, sub- 
 jective, etiology, enthymeme ; in Science, coefficient, polarized, 
 alloiropic, and so forth. Nay more, elevated prose, and, still 
 more, poetry, have a language of their own, which must also 
 be acquired before the first step towards their appreciation can 
 be taken. Indeed, it may be questioned whether any living 
 Englishman knows the meaning of every term which is familiar 
 to some section or other of his countrymen. 
 
 Now it is manifest that this vast array of English nomen- 
 
 Withinwhat c'^'^^^s Cannot be taught at school by any 
 limits it may mcthod like that of the spelling-book or dic- 
 
 etaug t. tionary. It would indeed be absurd to attempt 
 
 to burden the memory with much that could only be of use if 
 learned for use, and learned at the time when it was wanted. 
 Practically, the teaching of English, as a language, must be 
 limited to (i) the English of cultured social intercourse, 
 (2) literary English, that which opens the treasure-house of
 
 IV.] Eng-Iish. 123 
 
 books. It is, of course, obvious that the teaching of the latter 
 is to some extent incUided in that of the former, which, in its 
 turn, is ideally best acquired by social intercourse in cultured 
 surroundings. But in the case of many pupils, the conditions 
 for this are not perfect, and, at best, they are rarely adequate 
 to the needs of persons who are still of school-age. Hence, to 
 economize time, and to eliminate the errors incident to the 
 tentative and imitative process, the English of expression (i.e. 
 of conveying one's thoughts to others by speech or writing) is 
 largely taught by the inculcation of principles rather than by 
 practice, whence arises the necessity for Grammar. 
 
 Grammar is badly, is unprofitably taught, when principles 
 are drilled into the pupil before practice. De- ^j^^ xeach- 
 finitions, classifications, rules, should be the ing of Gram- 
 crystallization of results to which he has been "^^ ' 
 guided by methods every step of which has been made plain 
 to him. It is a good plan for the teacher to lead his pupils on, 
 in a sort of fraternity of investigation, to the independent 
 framing of definitions and rules. So they will learn that 
 thought and speech are the masters of Grammar, not Grammar 
 of thought and speech. Hence, in the teaching of English, 
 the early stages should consist mainly of Reading, and of such 
 inculcation of principles as can be simply and naturally con- 
 nected with it. Young pupils who learn the powers of words 
 and their modification and arrangement in the expression of 
 thought from observing them in actual operation, and that too 
 in connection with what in itself excites interest, as a story or 
 a poem, who see them, in fact, in the act of performing their 
 functions, will be more likely to understand and remember, 
 and to regard them as living things, than if they learn by 
 committing to memory definitions, illustrated by examples 
 having no interest in themselves and no connection with each 
 other. It is the difference between learning Botany in fields 
 and woods, and learning it from a text-book and specimens
 
 124 T^^^^ Aims ami Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 dissected on the desk. In the latter case the pupils seem to 
 cover more ground and to learn more methodically, but in the 
 former they comprehend, and they do not forget. 
 
 Moreover Reading, that is, reading aloud, is in itself a 
 most valuable training, which is still too much 
 
 Reading. . ° 
 
 neglected in secondary schools, and by no 
 means always well taught in primary schools. The atrocious 
 fashion in which too many educated men — even those with 
 whose professions bad reading should be incompatible — read, 
 is a standing reproach to our system of higher education. It 
 is to be feared that the disuse of a good old practice almost 
 universal a century ago, that of reading aloud in the family 
 circle, which has been crowded out in this leisureless age, has 
 contributed to this deplorable result. In reading, as taught 
 (if it be not gross flattery to apply the term to such a process) 
 at schools, little beyond correctness of pronunciation and 
 distinctness of articulation is insisted upon, whence results 
 that wearisome monotony of enunciation which we now in- 
 stinctively associate with the delivery of sermons. 
 
 Provincialisms, and, still more, cockneyisms of pronun- 
 ciation and intonation must be sleeplessly watched for, and 
 promptly and unweariedly corrected. Alas ! too often primary 
 teachers themselves are steei)ed in cockneyism, and are un- 
 conscious that the pronunciation is not as unexceptionable as 
 the sentiment, when to ' the hungry sheej)' they dictate 
 
 ' Soon as the evenin' shides previle, 
 The moon tikes up the wondrous tile.' 
 
 The choice of reading-matter is by no means unimportant. 
 If the teaching of English is to contribute (as it certainly 
 should do) to a process of steady development and continuous 
 education, the early stages should have reference to the later, 
 and lead up to ,them. It would be well, therefore, that the 
 text-books placed in the hands of the pupils should contain
 
 IV.] English. 125 
 
 nothing that is not worthy to be called 'literature.' Pupils 
 must be young and dull indeed if they cannot be inter- 
 ested in episodes in the lives of the * smiths of their mother- 
 tongue,' and in passages from their writings. In any case 
 it would seem better that the reading-matter should be 
 continuous in scope and interest, than that it should consist 
 of short disconnected fragments of anecdote and description. 
 Picturesque and graphic readings from history, rather in 
 the ' historical-novel ' style than that of the conventional 
 history-book, geographical readings, narratives of discovery 
 and adventure, of travel and commerce, the fairy tales of 
 science, systematized into a series, — some such courses as 
 these might not only have the advantage of connectedness, 
 but would also go far to justify the giving up of more time 
 than has been usual to this threshold-stage of English teaching. 
 Moreover, of disconnected reading there is only too much 
 always accessible; and a great pity it is that so many thousands 
 of government-educated people appear to have learnt to read 
 only to devour scraps of sensational trash, columns of jokes, 
 fragments of disconnected 'useful information,' whilst others 
 limit their reading to newspapers. A school-course should, so 
 far as possible, provide an antidote to a habit of mind which 
 there will be no lack of outside influences to foster. On the 
 other hand, reading-books should be no mere compilations in 
 which the presentment of information is made the paramount 
 object. They should be such as to awaken a taste for 
 reading, should be interesting, nay, fascinating; they should 
 be in their style a not inadequate introduction to English 
 Literature. 
 
 I should not recommend the reading-lesson being broken 
 up at every few minutes' interval by grammatical exercises in 
 accidence and syntax. There is something irritating and 
 adverse to sustained attention in continually breaking off an 
 interesting description. Let such exercises come for an allotted
 
 126 Tlie Aims and Practice of TcacJdng. [Chap. 
 
 and understood period at the end of each (or every other) 
 reading-lesson. 
 
 Having thus begun by introducing our pupils to the 
 Technicaii- ^usterities of grammar in pleasant company, 
 ties of Gram- we may hope to find in them both more readi- 
 ™^'^' ness and more aptitude for grappling with the 
 
 subject as a substantive science. For we must not forget that 
 grammar is a science, and by no means the easiest. Its very 
 definitions, which encounter us on the threshold, enunciate 
 general principles expressed in technical and abstract terms. 
 It is, in fact, quite as much a study for older pupils as Algebra 
 and Euclid (and, I might add. Logic) are. Indeed, as it is, 
 advanced pupils are, as a rule, constrained to begin it ab initio 
 in the higher forms, where they discard the elementary 
 grammars on which they were suckled, and begin again at 
 the beginning with larger text-books, sometimes having actually 
 to unlearn definitions given in the discarded work, in favour 
 of more scientific or more comprehensive ones. 
 
 It is part of the hard lot of the latter-day schoolboy, that 
 while the number of subjects demanding attention is larger 
 than it was in his father's day, each subject, as a rule, claims 
 for itself more time than of old — if, that is to say, the victim is 
 to be 'up to examination standard.' Grammar is no excep- 
 tion. The text-books are bigger than they were ; definitions 
 are made longer and more involved by a hopeless striving after 
 exact precision and comprehensiveness ; classification-lists are 
 portentous in their length and minute distinctions ; matter is 
 introduced which properly belongs to a history of the language 
 or even of its literature, and which can be but fragmentary in 
 its new connection. The Grammar has in fact become a 
 reference-book, which many teachers nevertheless, slaves to the 
 system of putting new wine into old bottles, labour to make 
 their pupils absorb in painful gobbets on the old by-rote plan. 
 Considering how much ought to be included under the head of
 
 IV.] English. 127 
 
 * English teaching,' the object of teachers and writers of school- 
 grammars should be rather to minimise the strain on the 
 memory, seeing that the aim of a cultured English scholar is 
 not so much to name his tools as to use them. 
 
 That special department called ' Analysis of Sentences ' 
 has been elevated into a sort of fetish by the labours of 
 grammarians and the exactions of examiners : its distinctions 
 have been elaborated and refined, till, from being an aid to 
 clear thinking and lucid expression, it tends to become a 
 bewilderment to the intellect and a weariness to the soul. 
 The practice of analysis of sentences is invaluable as a critical 
 instrument for testing a writer's clearness in thinking and 
 lucidity of expression, but, to serve this end, it must not be 
 cumbrous. Pupils should by its aid be taught to dissect 
 sentences, to detect the causes of obscurity, ambiguity, and 
 other faults of style due to looseness of thinking. Hence 
 it would be well for the teacher to make a practice of noting 
 any examples of such faults which he may come across in 
 his reading, with a view to anatomizing them in co-operation 
 with his class. Pupils would then be led to discern some use 
 and object in a department of their grammar which at present 
 they are prone to detest as purposeless hair-splitting, and might 
 become more alive to errors of speech, after helping to pillory 
 popular or pretentious writers for such offences. 
 
 The function of EngUsh Grammar, so far considered, has 
 been, in connection with reading, that of a chart, 
 
 . , , , ,. n , ■, Composition. 
 
 m connection with speech, that of a flywheel. 
 But it must also discharge a nobler office, that of a handmaid 
 to the expression of thought. Just as no one can be said to 
 have acquired a foreign tongue till he can speak and write it, 
 so we are but half masters of our own tongue if we cannot use 
 it for the expression of our ideas with clearness, logical 
 precision, and grace. Hence the practice of Composition 
 should be begun early, and never discontinued. It is a pity
 
 128 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 that it should so often be dropped from the curriculum of the 
 higher forms, partly because crowded out by subjects assumed 
 to be of more importance (especially for examination purposes), 
 partly from a vague impression that the large amount of written 
 answers rendered by upper students is in itself a substitute for 
 composition. But, unhappily, the form in which these answers 
 are couched, so as to pay best, so as to convey the greatest 
 number of ' points ' in the briefest space, is directly opposed 
 to the formation of anything worthy of the name of style. 
 Indeed, if the average examiner finds a candidate indulging in 
 anything like style, he immediately suspects that it is a cloak 
 for his ignorance. A third reason may be that the practice of 
 translating the masterpieces of classical literature is supposed 
 to develope a taste and discrimination in the use of our 
 tongue which is more than an equivalent for essay-writing. 
 This is, under the best conditions, true only so far as relates 
 to the choice of words ; but that is only one part of Composi- 
 tion, and scarcely the chief part. 
 
 Beginners should not be expected to make bricks with- 
 out straw — to write without preparation on such themes as 
 'courage,' 'patriotism,' nor, till we know that they have cul- 
 tivated the faculty of observation, on ' a walk in the country,' 
 and the like. ^We must not expect them to do two things 
 at once, to quarry ideas out of their minds, and to erect a 
 building with them at the same time. Supply them fully 
 with something to say, that at this stage their one study may 
 be how fitly to say it. A short story, a poem, to be reproduced 
 in their own words, is an easy and natural first step. They 
 may be shown how the same event may be differently described 
 by reading to them a description of it by different hands, e.g. 
 of the fight at Sedgemoor, by Hume, Macaulay, and Conan 
 Doyle {Micah Clarke). An easy step in advance would be 
 that they should write down their own reflections on a piece of 
 description calculated to excite strongly tlieir imagination.
 
 IV.] English. 129 
 
 For instance, read them a graphic account of a shipwreck, and 
 tell them to describe the scene of consternation and grief in 
 the home of the relatives of one of the victims, on the arrival 
 of the news. As a further step, a subject might be given, and 
 its treatment sketched out co-operatively, viva voce suggestions 
 being received from pupils, written on the blackboard as 
 received, and then arranged in the most logical order for 
 working up into the essay. 
 
 Should 'flowery' writing be discouraged? Well, some 
 discrimination, sympathy, and tact, are needed in this con- 
 nection. We ought to distinguish between honest attempts 
 at vivid or high-wrought description, and mere verbiage, such 
 as the broadcast sprinkling of adjectives amongst the nouns. 
 We should strongly encourage every effort to use the imagi- 
 nation, or to give play to the emotions. Above all, never be 
 sarcastic upon a young essayist's early endeavours to soar 
 above the prosaic, even if his attempts take what seems to 
 you a very hackneyed form. It is probably not hackneyed 
 to him. It is easy to make cheap fun of juvenile 'gush'; 
 but there is something unchivalrous, something contemptible, 
 in abusing the trust of a boy who has, in effect, put himself at 
 your mercy. He has a right to something more than cold 
 justice. If there seems to be a danger of the acquisition of 
 a vicious style, certain flourishes, exordiums, perorations, or 
 quotations might be tabooed, fair notice being given that 
 their employment will entail loss of marks. It might be of 
 advantage, so as to lead pupils to draw upon all the resources 
 of their vocabulary, to give them occasionally an opportunity 
 of writing in their most elevated style, having at hand at the 
 same time the antidote to extravagance. Take a passage of 
 high-wrought description, or of impassioned emotion, from a 
 first-class writer; give the pupils simply the ideas and their 
 general arrangement, and require them to express them in 
 the most glowing language at their command. Then, when 
 
 S. T.
 
 130 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 the result is before them, turgid, no doubt, and meretricious 
 enough, set before them the original : go through it with them 
 sentence by sentence, explaining how grace is consistent with 
 simplicity, and beauty with self-restraint, showing the exact 
 appropriateness of individual words, the art concealing art in 
 the balance of clauses. Such a method will do more towards 
 teaching them to avoid false sentiment and tawdry ornament 
 than any amount of ridicule, which makes the average boy 
 shrink into his shell, and scares him from attempting anything 
 outside the safe dulness of matter-of-fact. 
 
 The practice of composition might well include Corre- 
 spondence, social and even commercial. Specimen letters 
 in the conversational style of description might be given as 
 models. Swift, Pope, Gray, Cowper, Byron, and many later 
 writers supply examples in abundance. The father who com- 
 plains, ' My son has been receiving a high-class education all 
 these years, and now can't write a decent letter,' has right and 
 reason on his side. 
 
 Faults of style — ambiguity, tautology, misuse of meta- 
 phor, jingling assonances, and so on — should be watchfully 
 corrected. 'Awful examples' might be recorded in a note- 
 book, for quotation as warnings. So obtained they will serve 
 the desired purpose more effectually than if culled from books. 
 
 Not the least singular of the anomalies in modern grammar- 
 school education — survivals from a time when 
 
 Prosody. j ,.• t ■ ■ ,. 
 
 education, if narrower in its scope> was m some 
 respects more logical in its methods — is to be found in the 
 assiduous practice of Latin, and even of Greek, verse-making, 
 by pupils who not only never attempt, nor are advised or 
 guided to attempt, a line of English verse, but whose know- 
 ledge of the technique of Englisli verse, and appreciation of 
 its niceties, is absurdly out of proportion to their mastery 
 of classical prosody. One consequence is that these stu- 
 dents can read Horace or Euripides better than they can
 
 IV.] English. 131 
 
 read Tennyson or Shakspere. To read English poetry, espe- 
 cially lyrical, so as to give the metrical effect, without turning 
 the music into a sing-song of monotonous cadences, undis- 
 tinguishable from doggerel, is probably a far less common 
 accomplishment among University scholars, than to do the 
 same for the classical poets. Among the non-classical public 
 who have not even received the modicum of instruction which 
 enables a reader to recognise the metrical form employed by 
 a poet, it may fairly be said that there obtains a general 
 ignorance of the very alphabet of poetry. Yet a moderate 
 amount of attention to this department of education would 
 qualify pupils to comprehend and appreciate the fundamental 
 characteristics of verse. Surely it might well be the care of 
 those who profess to impart an education in English, that 
 their pupils should gain at least such an insight into the 
 technique of poetry as might save them from stumbling on 
 its threshold through blank ignorance of the essentials of 
 metre, of rhyme, of harmonious cadence, of what differen- 
 tiates correct verse from doggerel. Such terms as caesura, 
 alliteration, and assonance should not be as strange to English 
 boys and girls as if they were part of the nomenclature of 
 some recently developed science. The confession, not un- 
 commonly heard from respectably educated persons, that they 
 ' have no taste for poetry,' proceeds in many cases not from 
 a deficiency in ideality, nor from a lack of that power of sus- 
 tained attention which poetry demands, but oftener perhaps 
 from the fact that the distinctive for7n of poetry, by which it 
 first arrests the cultured reader, is for them simply an initial 
 difficulty : it is a distracting element which tends to worry such 
 readers in their endeavour to take in the author's meaning. 
 They are somewhat in the position of a man with no ear for 
 music, who would rather dispense with the accompaniment to a 
 song in the sentiment and expression of which he is interested. 
 For such readers — and our schools are indirectly increasing
 
 132 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 their numbers yearly — Milton, Wordsworth, Tennyson exist 
 only as thinkers ; as poets, as artists, they have lived in vain. 
 
 The foregoing pleas for attention to somewhat neglected 
 features in Education presuppose a relaxation of the present 
 bondage to examination-trammels, and to the authority of the 
 inspector, as it has been too often exercised. The examiner 
 cannot, it may at once be granted, so readily, and with such 
 machine-like rapidity, gauge the progress of pupils so trained. 
 It is easy to examine in formal rote-work, in parsing, analysis 
 — in engine-turned acquirements ; less easy to appraise cul- 
 ture. Yet the object of a country in giving such education to 
 its youth is not that examinations may be passed, and reports 
 filled up, and averages attained, but that the rising generation 
 may learn to speak and write as cultured people, and may 
 appreciate the treasures of our literature, so that their great 
 heritage may be to them something more than a name. The 
 present result is that pupils glibly define, classify, and quote 
 rules which they disregard in their own persons, because they 
 get too much principle and too little practice. Smart board- 
 school pupils grow up under this system with the vicious pro- 
 nunciation and the uncultured daily speech of their social en- 
 vironment, and become teachers themselves ; and, as London 
 turns out the largest supply of the finished article, the country 
 is sown broadcast with cockneyisms. 
 
 But however familiar the learner may be made with the 
 J. capabilities of English speech, and however expert 
 the English in its manipulation he may become, he has but 
 anguage. gained a half-acquaintance with our tongue if he 
 knows nothing of its history and development. A knowledge 
 of the past of our language is indispensable to the right under- 
 standing of its present. To the latter the school grammar 
 must necessarily be almost limited ; but there is no lack of 
 excellent works which treat the ^subject with that fulness which 
 is requisite for interest, without erring on the side of philologi-
 
 IV.] English. 133 
 
 cal abstruseness. Trench's works on The Study of Words and 
 English Past and Present were almost the pioneers in this 
 department, and still (supplemented by the teacher's own 
 gleanings in more recent research) may serve as admirable 
 reading-books for higher forms. By progressively arranged 
 specimens of EngUsh, illustrating the changes and development 
 of the language, pupils will readily learn that between their 
 own speech and that of Layamon and Robert of Gloucester 
 there is no great gulf fixed ; and a little practice will make 
 Piers Plowman and Chaucer not only readable but interesting. 
 The past of English will gain a more vivid interest for them if 
 they learn that that past is not dead, that there still linger on 
 the lips of some of their countrymen survivals of the old 
 dialects ; and what they have been wont to smile at as Yankee 
 slang will wear a new aspect for them when they know that 
 many of its quaintest and raciest expressions passed over with 
 the Mayflower nearly 300 years ago to the land that cherished 
 them long after their birth-land had forgotten them. 
 
 While Composition is necessary to the student that he may 
 acquire practice in handling his native tongue, and 
 Grammar, that he may avoid errors in its use, he Authors^, 
 will be like an art-student who neglects the works 
 of the Old Masters, if he does not make a careful and detailed 
 study of some portion of the work of those great writers who 
 have attained perfection, or something approaching it. Such a 
 work will be an object-lesson without which precept and practice 
 will be futile. It was, therefore, a great step in advance when 
 this became a permanent feature of the English curriculum in 
 secondary schools. It is not easy to overrate the gain in 
 mental culture to a pupil who minutely and intelligently studies, 
 say, a play of Shakspere. By committing to memory choice 
 passages, he stores his mind with what is worthy to be a 
 possession for ever : by learning from what sources the poet 
 obtained the plot of his drama, he may in some degree
 
 134 T^^^^ Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 appreciate the alchemy which transmuted dross to fine gold : he 
 may hear what great critics have written concerning the 
 character-painting which gives such marvellous life and indivi- 
 duality to Shakspere's dratnatis personcs : he may be told 
 something of the poet's contemporaries and of that mighty 
 awakening of English Literature, when the young Titan first 
 felt his strength, and was flushed with the life of a new-dawned 
 faith. Attention to the peculiarities of Shaksperian grammar 
 will give him some insight into the history of the language. So, 
 from the intelligent reading of one play, he will learn how to 
 read an English author profitably. But it is not necessary that, 
 in order to reap very substantial benefit, he should undertake 
 anything so ambitious. How much may be got from one short 
 poem, how instructive, how suggestive, how quickening it may 
 be made, is shown by Hales' treatment of the ballad of 
 Rosabelle, in his preface to Longer English Poems. 
 
 The grand principle, in the choice of authors, in the 
 selection or recommendation of text-books, in the method of 
 teaching — and, therefore, in the method of examination 
 (since the examiner to a large extent prescribes to the teachers 
 the lines on which they must teach) — is to foster a liking for 
 the work of great writers. Hence those who have the choice 
 of books, or the power to impose their preference on others, 
 should be careful not to repel young students on the threshold 
 of their acquaintance with English classics. 'You may,' Mr 
 Goschen has observed, ' drive peojile into working harder, but 
 the results will disappoint you unless you make them fond of 
 work. Greater knowledge is good, but there is a higher ideal — 
 greater love of knowledge.' 
 
 It is to be feared that this principle has not always been 
 kept in view by those who have prescribed the English author 
 subjects for thousands of boys and girls during the last quarter 
 of a century. Those chosen by examining syndicates have 
 been sometimes lacking in interest for young readers (e.g.
 
 IV.] English. 135 
 
 Vatiity of Human Wishes)^ or have been vicious models (e.g. 
 Annus Mirabilis), or in conception and treatment over the 
 heads of boys (e.g. Adonais). Seldom, to conjecture from the 
 choice made, has the thought been present to the mind of the 
 examiner : — ' This may prove for some thousands of boys their 
 first introduction to an Enghsh classic; it ought therefore to 
 possess for them something of charm, of fascination : they 
 should be led to think of the writer not merely as a consummate 
 literary artist (a character which they can at this stage but half 
 appreciate), but as a great Englishman who loved England, as 
 one who saw in nature the light that never was on sea or land, 
 who felt in humanity that touch of nature which makes the 
 whole world kin.' So for one year there might be set a series 
 of great patriotic ballads, as (Drayton's) Agincourt, Hosier's 
 Ghost, T/ie Rei'enge, cs^c. ; for another, a collection of idyllic 
 poems, as The Deserted Village, Dora, Evangelijte ; for another, 
 one or more of the Romantic school, as Marmion, The Giaour, 
 or a selection from The Ea?'thly Paradise ; or, again, a repre- 
 sentative collection from Tennyson's shorter poems, or one of 
 the Idylls. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the particular editions of Shakspere's 
 plays most authoritatively recommended for middle-class ex- 
 aminations are rather adapted for students (who need also to 
 be discriminating students) than for beginners. It is some- 
 thing like giving a stone to one who asks bread, when a reader 
 who wants to understand something of the spell of Shakspere's 
 influence, something of the life and thought of his time, some- 
 thing of the truth and beauty of the characters which he 
 portrays, something of his revelation of the workings of the 
 human heart, something of the magic of his music, of the 
 cunning of his art, finds in these editions no guidance whatever 
 to the artistic, literary, and ethical significance of the dramatist's 
 work, but a wilderness of philology, a lumber-room of cross- 
 references, a jungle of quarto- and folio-readings and commen-
 
 136 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 tators' emendations, a mingled mass in which he has to grope, 
 without even the help of an index, for the small fragments 
 which can be of any use to him in interpreting the text and 
 understanding the allusions. In this unmethodical jumble of 
 the essential and the superfluous, of elementary explanation 
 and advanced textual criticism, he knows not what to omit, 
 and what to lay, a heavy load, upon his memory. Surely, some 
 method, some distinctive clearness of arrangement, is not too 
 much to require in a book which pupils have to ' get up ' under 
 pressure, and in a limited time. 
 
 As it is too bad that gems of literature should be degraded 
 into puzzle-quarries, I would suggest that examiners be pre- 
 cluded from setting, for parsing or analysis, passages taken from 
 the authors. The present practice leads to hours and hours 
 being spent in picking harps to pieces, not even to find where 
 the music comes from, but to see how the materials are fastened 
 together. Let these works be studied as literature — to educate 
 appreciation, to foster taste, to quicken the instinct of ideality, 
 and to stimulate that imitative tendency by virtue of which the 
 literature of each successive generation enters into the labours 
 of the past. 
 
 No writer, however great, stands alone ; he is the child 
 of his age ; he has many younger brothers : therefore some 
 knowledge of the author's personal environment, of his 
 other works, of his age and his contemporaries, should be 
 required as part of the intelligent study of the special work 
 prescribed. 
 
 Hand in hand with the minute study of a portion of one 
 History of English classic, should be taken the History of 
 English Lite- English Literature. This also, in choice of text- 
 book, in method of study, in selection of illustrative 
 extracts, should, for beginners especially, be before all things 
 interesting. It should be connected with the history and social 
 life of England. Merely to mention such names as Brunafiburh,
 
 IV.] English. 137 
 
 Caedmon, Piers Plotvman, Chaticer, is to summon up a series 
 of visions of the spirit of age succeeding age, of the deep 
 heavings of that great sea upon whose wave-crests flashed for a 
 moment Alfred, Dunstan, Wyclif, and Wat Tyler. The more 
 we can show how on every period of our history its literature 
 throws a living light, the more nearly shall we realize our ideal — 
 to create a taste and desire for further reading, without which 
 our teaching is nugatory, since little ground can be actually 
 covered at school, and that little will be lost if not extended 
 afterwards. The Literature chapters in Green's Short History 
 are good examples of the interesting method of treating a 
 period. Epitomized histories of literature, loaded with dates 
 and lists of works, are worthless : writers and their works must 
 not be ttai?ies, but living men and vivid pictures. Hence a 
 first course of literature should comprise few names, but those 
 the greatest, that scope may be given for adequate handling 
 and abundant illustration by extracts. Admirably as Stopford 
 Brooke's primer is written, it would, as a primer, be better if it 
 were fuller in its treatment of the chief writers, even to the 
 omission of minor ones. Moreover, a beginner's book on 
 English Literature is not complete without some detailed 
 account of the works mentioned, and specimen extracts. 
 There is a -Biographical History of English Literature in 
 Dr Morell's English Series, which, as a teacher's handbook, 
 seems to be less known than it deserves to be. Each chapter is 
 followed by a set of exercises on the illustrative passages which 
 have been quoted, exercises admirably adapted to stimulate 
 and guide the critical and aesthetic faculty of young readers. 
 But no handbook of reasonable size can adequately illustrate 
 literature by specimens, since even good ones must needs be 
 short. It devolves upon the teacher to supply longer, and, it 
 may be, more characteristic ones. 
 
 I am not sure that the chronological method of ' beginning 
 at the beginning' is the best in this study. It does seem
 
 138 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 reasonable that boys should be first introduced to the writers 
 who are now ' makins; history ' in Literature. 
 
 Contempo- '-' ■' 
 
 rary Litera- The arguments urged for commencing the study 
 *"'^^' of Geography by familiarizing the learner with 
 
 the topography of his own neighbourhood apply with yet more 
 force to Literature. It is a curious thing tliat many of that 
 large class of people whose education practically ended when 
 they left school, know more — little though that be — of the 
 writers of Shakspere's and Addison's days than of the makers 
 of modern English. They have learnt in school-books (e.g. in 
 the literary appendices to history-periods) the titles at least of 
 Chaucer's and Jeremy Taylor's writings, but could not name 
 a work of William Morris or Ruskin. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that the study of our 
 literature, not only as a story of individual achievement, but also 
 from the point of view of its development in epochs and 
 ' schools,' cannot be left out of a reasonably complete school- 
 course. 
 
 It may be objected that attention to all the above-mentioned 
 points in the teaching of English must absorb too much of the 
 time available for the entire curriculum. Not so very much, if 
 drudgery-drill be shortened, with its rote-work of definitions, 
 lists, and so forth, details which are crammed for examination 
 purposes, and will not abide in the memory, which is indeed 
 better disburdened of them. In fact, this bondage to examina- 
 tions, which has sometimes meant bondage to the indolence of 
 examiners who find it easier, in setting questions, to stick to 
 the old ruts than to move with the times, is the real lion in the 
 path of reform. Besides, the question is really one of appraise- 
 ment of values. As matters are now, pupils leave the highest 
 forms of schools, and young men leave the University, with a 
 little Classics, Modern Languages, Mathematics, and Science, 
 but probably less of English, in the true sense, than of any. 
 Besides the disgrace which should attach to ignorance of so
 
 IV.] English. 1 39 
 
 great a heritage, there is also the risk that, just as it seldom 
 happens that people continue the study of a subject begun at 
 school unless it has been carried far enough to arouse intelligent 
 interest and surmount initial difficulties, so our English stu- 
 dents, not having obtained a master-key to the treasure-house 
 of our literature, may become undiscriminating readers of 
 ephemeral productions, of what is read without an effort and 
 forgotten as soon as read ; that, having no cultivated perception 
 of the characteristics of really good literature, no high standard 
 permanently set up in their minds, they may be swayed by 
 each new fashion, and be captivated by each new craze, in 
 literature. It will be little to the credit of the educational 
 system of the future if it furnishes no corrective to such 
 tendencies, if it does nothing to create true students, who will 
 regard their education as having only commenced when the 
 school-course ends. Yet those whose study of English is con- 
 fined within the narrow limits of the traditional school-course 
 are most unlikely to extend their reading in what has awakened 
 in them so little interest, has given them so little capacity to 
 understand and appreciate. About the classics, even about 
 ' the hard-grained Muses of the cube and square,' there lingers 
 sometimes a curious fascination, even when it is based on 
 nothing higher than the pride of pedantry in the one case, 
 on the pleasure of intellectual gymnastics in the other, but 
 what adult ever amused himself with practice in parsing or 
 analysis, or desired to recall his subtle appreciation of the 
 distinction between the gerund and the verbal noun? We 
 have long since, in theory, left to fashionable mammas the 
 notion of young people ' finishing their education ' at school, 
 but we have advanced little further in practice, if we feed them 
 on dry husks of knowledge to which they will never again turn 
 of their own accord ; and if we convey to them no inkling of 
 the beauty, of the glory of that legacy of thought and eloquence 
 and song which is theirs. In the words of the statesman
 
 140 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. iv. 
 
 already quoted, 'It is little enough that our schools and 
 colleges, even of the highest order, can teach directly. But 
 they can develope in their scholars a capacity, and inspire 
 an interest, which will cause them to go on through life 
 teaching themselves.' The educators of the future can cherish 
 no nobler ambition, can propose to themselves no higher 
 ideal.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 The determination of the true place of history in a sound 
 system of education is a matter which has given 
 writers upon education considerable trouble, tory be taught? 
 According to one writer, history is 'the most Opposite 
 
 . . , , views. 
 
 difficult subject with which the educator has to 
 deal',' a conclusion which is certainly suggested by the con- 
 flicting views of those who have sought to appraise its educa- 
 tional value. The futility of teaching history has been pointed 
 out in most emphatic terms, in terms, in fact, only less 
 emphatic than those which have been employed to describe 
 its charm and its value as a subject of study. Systems of 
 education which have had as their object the training of men 
 in obedience to an external authority have shunned history as 
 a dangerous solvent of received opinions : there was no room 
 for history in the schools of the Middle Ages, and it found no 
 place in the curriculum of the earlier schools of the Jesuits. 
 A saying is indeed recorded of a Jesuit father — ' History is the 
 destruction of him who studies it^.' On the other hand, several 
 modern writers of great weight and influence have condemned 
 history, not as pernicious, but as useless, devoid of educational 
 value. Bain would, on the whole, relegate it to the University^, 
 
 ^ Cyclopuniia of Edtication, Kiddle and Schem (1883), p. 423. 
 
 2 Compayre, Histoire des doctrines de Pcducation en France (1885), i, 188. 
 
 ^ Education as a Science, London, 1892, pp. 286 — 7.
 
 142 Tlic Aims and Practice of TeacJnng. [Chap. 
 
 and Herbert Spencer complains, in well-known words, that 
 
 'Scarcely any of the facts set down in our school histories 
 
 illustrate the right principles of political action.' They are 
 ' unorganizable facts.' 'Read them, if you like, for amusement; 
 but do not flatter yourself they are instructive ^' 
 
 In sharp opposition to these views are the commendation 
 bestowed by Montaigne upon history as a means of moral 
 training^, and Locke's opinion that 'as nothing teaches, so 
 nothing delights more than history ^' Just as the study of 
 history has been discouraged by those who have had an eye 
 to the stability of ecclesiastical institutions, so it has been 
 fostered by the men of new ideas. The Renaissance patronised 
 it in the person of ^neas Sylvius* and the Reformation in that 
 of Lutherl True, Rousseau had no respect for history, no 
 belief in its power to teach anything save the power of human 
 craft and selfishness", but he was the intolerant preacher of a 
 new dogmatic system, not the apostle of free enquiry. Modern 
 educational reformers have for the most part been quick to 
 recognize the value of the stored-up treasures of the past as a 
 means of enriching the mind, and the idea of excluding history 
 from the list of school subjects is nowhere, I take it, now 
 seriously entertained. 
 
 While much of the difficulty some have felt in allowing to 
 
 history any educational value no doubt arises 
 
 astoThefunc- from the prevalent mechanical and irrational 
 
 tion of histori- nicthods of teaching it — a subject on which it 
 
 cal teaching. .... ... , , . . 
 
 is unhaj^pily possible to say a great deal — it is 
 also due to a narrow conception of what history should do for 
 those who study it. If one were asked what part history 
 
 ^ Education, by Herbert Spencer (London, 1893), pp. 29 — 30. 
 
 2 Essais, i. 2c. 
 
 ^ Thoughts on Education, § 184. 
 
 * Compayre's History of Pedagogy (Ir. Payne), 80. 
 
 5 Ibid. 116. 6 Ibid. 298.
 
 v.] History. 143 
 
 should play in that equipment of the child for the business 
 of living which is the great purpose of education, the obvious, 
 unconsidered reply would be that it should train him to 
 discharge the duties of a citizen. This was a great point of 
 Dr Arnold's' : he held it to be of capital importance that, 
 with the wide extension of civic responsibilities involved in 
 the Reform Act of 1832, there should be a new era of 
 historical instruction to fit the citizens of the coming genera- 
 tion for their task. The point of view is an attractive one, and 
 one which should certainly l)e kept in mind ; but at the same 
 time it is clear that, if history is to be taught only that the 
 future elector may know how to vote, we expose ourselves, in 
 teaching history as we do, to Herbert Spencer's artillery ; and 
 to his contention that the facts we offer our pupil are useless 
 for the purpose in hand and should be replaced by the outlines 
 of civic or political philosophy, there is really no reply. A less 
 superficial and yet far from complete account of the purpose of 
 history as a subject of study is that it should train the judgment. 
 ' I regard,' says Bishop Stubbs in his essay on ' Methods of 
 Historical Study,' 'the judicial faculty, "judgment," as in 
 vulgar unphilosophical language we call it, as that on which 
 historical study produces the most valuable results-.' But, 
 though to my mind this is a much wider and nobler view of 
 the office of history than the other, it nevertheless puts us in 
 this difficulty, that it is somewhat early to train the judicial 
 faculty, in the sense here intended, at the age of twelve or 
 fourteen, and the view of Bain, that history is after all a proper 
 subject of study only for the university student, begins to 
 appear very reasonable. Unless we can find a larger and 
 more practical sphere for the subject, it must inevitably, in 
 an age which is putting all educational conventions to the 
 
 - Quick, Educational Reformers (1894), p. 447. 
 ^ Lectures on Medieval and Modern History y p. 94.
 
 144 '^^^^ Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 severest of tests, yield its place to competitors which can give a 
 better account of themselves. 
 
 If I here attempt to mark out for history a somewhat wider 
 
 domain, I trust it will be recognized that I do 
 essay''^ °^ ^^^ ^° ^^ ^ Student of history, conscious of his 
 
 obligations to the study and anxious lest it 
 should miss its due recognition, rather than as one who has 
 carefully considered the question in its relation to other parts 
 of the pedagogic art. As a subject which, in my view, can be 
 profitably studied in the elementary, the secondary and the 
 academic stages of education, history will clearly have a dif- 
 ferent value, that is to say, the valuable elements in it will 
 be differently proportioned, according to the age and level of 
 progress of the pupil. This part of the subject, however, I 
 pass by, leaving it to professed students of education to say 
 what bearing it has upon the organization of historical teaching, 
 and only expressing this opinion, that no university teaching of 
 history is adequate which does not, in the first place, deal 
 largely in general principles, the main currents of life and 
 thought on which the events of history are but the flecks and 
 ripples, and does not, in the second place, bring the student 
 into contact with the sources of our historical knowledge, and 
 show him how history books are made. 
 
 It appears to me, then, that one of the most valuable 
 
 functions which history can perform is to give us, 
 
 Historygives •' ' o > 
 
 a knowledge of in the bcst scnse of the phrase, a knowledge of 
 the world. ^j^^ world. What physical science does for the 
 
 world of nature as opposed to man, history does for the world 
 of human nature. Mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, 
 teach us our way about among the immutable laws of the 
 universe : history shows us what we may expect to find among 
 men and human institutions. Several writers have impressively 
 set forth the way in which history may free the student who 
 enters into its spirit from the limitations of the untutored mind.
 
 v.] History. 145 
 
 ' The study of history,' says Quick ', ' like travelling, widens the 
 student's mental vision, frees him from the bondage of the 
 present, prevents his mistaking conventionalities for laws of 
 nature.' The man with no knowledge of history, remarks 
 Fouille'e", ' will lack the sense of human and national solidarity, 
 will lack the sense of time, and will be the dupe of every 
 abstract Utopia.' One more quotation, from the writings of 
 Bishop Stubbs^ may perhaps be pardoned: 'We learn (i.e. 
 from history) patience, tolerance, respect for conflicting views, 
 equitable consideration for conscientious opposition ; we see 
 how very differently the men of the particular time seem to 
 have read the course of events, which seem to us to have only 
 one reasonable bearing ; we see how good and evil mingle in 
 the best of men and in the best of causes ; we learn to see with 
 patience the men whom we like best often in the wrong, and the 
 repulsive men often in the right ; we learn to bear with patience 
 the knowledge that the cause which we love best has suffered, 
 from the awkwardness of its defenders, so great disparagement 
 as in strict equity to justify the men who were assaulting it.' 
 
 It is no reply to such an estimate of the worth of history 
 that the facts with which it has mainly to do are great political 
 and social facts, of large significance, such as few men and 
 women are required to deal with in the experience of a 
 commonplace life. For the careful student of history is well 
 aware that human nature, which is the living force at the root 
 of all historical events, is the same force everywhere, whatever 
 the scale of the theatre upon which it displays its energies. 
 The lives of statesmen, warriors, and kings are but large type 
 editions of our own. He who has rightly learnt the lessons of 
 the reigns of Edward II. and of Charles I. will have learnt 
 
 ^ Educational Reformers (1894), p. 449. 
 
 * Education from a National Standpoint, by A. Fouillee, tr. Greenstreet 
 (London, 1892), p. 218. 
 •* Lectures, p. 95. 
 
 S. T. 10
 
 146 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 how the private citizen may ruin his aftaiis by self-indulgence 
 or by lack of candour. 
 
 The last remark may serve to remind us that history has, in 
 T^.u- , J addition to the intellectual l)readth of view it 
 
 Ethical side 
 
 of historical encourages, a very important moral value. It 
 ^ " ^' is the business of the historian to show us men 
 
 in action, acting for moral or immoral ends, and the story of 
 their deeds will be a far better vehicle of moral instruction 
 than any set of ethical rules. Unfortunately, history has not 
 always been written in that judicial temper which alone gives 
 value to any moral lessons one may draw from the past : the 
 study of the partisan author will give the i)upil no real grasp of 
 the great ethical truths of life, but will only teach him tlie 
 lesson, which comes to most of us without a tutor, of partisan- 
 ship. Within the last few years there has been, no doubt, a 
 great change in this respect : a historian's first duty, it is now 
 recognized, is to be impartial. But there is some danger 
 nowadays lest, steering clear of the Scylla of prejudice, we 
 fall into the Charybdis of indififerentism. Some writers are 
 so jealous of the historian's reputation for impartiality that 
 they decline to pass moral judgments at all, as though the 
 historian, whose duty it is to record human actions, could 
 afford to ignore that which is most human about them. One 
 feels instinctively that, whatever the practical difficulties of the 
 application of ethical tests, there is the genuine ring of truth 
 about Lord Acton's dictum, 'that it is the office of historical 
 science to maintain morality as the sole impartial criticism of 
 men and things, and the only one on which honest minds can 
 be made to agree'." 
 
 I have already remarked that one view of the function of 
 
 history is that it should train men for citizcnshij). 
 pau-'iotism ^"^ Undoubtedly we have here a very important 
 
 truth, provided it is understood that a training 
 
 ' Eii'rlish Historical Kevirw, iii. 578.
 
 v.] History. 147 
 
 for citizenshii) involves something far more than that cultivation 
 of the mind which is necessary to the giving of an intelligent 
 vote. Those who talk as if all that was needed to make a 
 good citizen was that he should understand the consequences 
 of his electoral acts ignore the stimulus which is necessary to 
 make a disinterested and public spirited, as well as an intelligent 
 voter. That stimulus, of course, is love of country. The 
 cultivation of an enlightened, yet earnest, patriotism is one 
 great service, perhaps the greatest, which history can render 
 to the state. It is worth noting that in two countries at least, 
 namely Germany and the United States, this power of history, 
 when rightly taught, to create a genuine love of country in the 
 rising generation, has been fully comprehended, and historical 
 teaching has assumed corresponding importance. Not only in 
 the High Schools of America, answering in the main to our 
 secondary schools, is the history of the United States a subject 
 of instruction, but it is a part of the curriculum of every 
 grammar (or elementary) school. Some study of history is 
 required from every pupil of the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology, though the rest of the teaching is almost entirely 
 scientific and technical'. The account which I shall shortly 
 give of the teaching in a school in Rhenish Prussia will show 
 how in Germany, too, the value of this study as the nurse of 
 patriotism is fully recognized. 
 
 Nor will it be denied that history can and should do much 
 to foster local as well as imperial patriotism, the love of one's 
 native city or province as well as an honourable pride in the 
 great state which encircles all. In the United States children 
 are encouraged to write the history of their own town, and the 
 more advanced pupils are assisted in preparing monographs, 
 the material for which is drawn from individual reading, upon 
 
 1 Miss '}d>\\x%X.'i\\'i, Education of Girls in the United States (London, 1894), 
 p. 89.
 
 14^^ The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 local institutions'. In a country like Wales, again, where 
 national feeling is strong without being anti-imperial, the study 
 of the national history gives the readiest access to the scholar's 
 enthusiasm and imagination, and, on the familiar principle of 
 ' working from the known to the unknown,' it should be a 
 preliminary to that study of the history of the Empire which is 
 needed to make us realise our responsibilities as heirs of a vast 
 inheritance. 
 
 Fragmentary though this account of the functions of history 
 as a subject of study may be-, it will suffice, I 
 
 Prevalent ... 
 
 methods of trust, to show that It IS a subject important 
 teaching, (i) enough to demand a large place in our educa- 
 
 The epitome ; . " . 
 
 tional system, and I turn accordingly to the 
 question of method. Here one has at once to confess that, 
 however exalted the mission of history may ideally be, its 
 practical utility has been in the past reduced, by false methods 
 of teaching, to a very low point indeed. Of the considerations 
 I have advanced above in favour of the teaching of history, 
 there is hardly one that holds good for history as commonly 
 taught. Neither knowledge of the world, nor moral insight, 
 nor yet patriotism, national or local, is likely to be imbibed 
 from the careful learning by heart of the battles of the Wars of 
 the Roses or the names of the English kings from Egbert to 
 the Conqueror. The methods chiefly in vogue may be briefly 
 characterised as the epitome method, the reading-book metliod, 
 and the recitation method. I take the epitome method first, 
 as the most widely prevalent, at any rate in secondary schools. 
 
 ^ Miss Burstall's Education of Girls in the United States, pp. 94-5. 
 
 * A friend has kindly pointed out to me that I have omitted to notice 
 the very important part which the study of history may play, in early years, 
 in the training of the imagination. I recognize the omission, and will only 
 say, in explanation, that in writing I have thought almost entirely of the 
 secondary school, and hardly at all of the elementary school, or of the 
 University.
 
 v.] History. 149 
 
 and undoubtedly the worst. It consists in placing in the hands 
 of the pupil one of those cunningly devised summaries of all 
 English history, thickly seasoned with dates and tables, in 
 which an amazing amount of information is compressed within 
 the narrowest limits, and then expecting the hapless youth or 
 maiden to commit assigned portions to memory. I well 
 remember the surprise which a pupil of mine, newly arrived 
 at college from a school where this was the plan, expressed on 
 getting, in a history examination paper, questions which involved 
 a certain amount of thinking : ' I thought,' was the naive 
 remark, ' we should have been asked to write out a reign.^ 
 Indeed, I have a lively recollection of the compendium to 
 which I devoted many hours of my own schooldays, the most 
 compendious and systematic of its kind, a history with all the 
 life crushed out of it. Such books resemble nothing so much 
 as the pemmican of x-^merican hunters — they are an exceedingly 
 compact, but at the same time a highly unpalatable form of 
 intellectual sustenance. No one who has followed me in the 
 account I have tried to give of the function of history will need 
 to be told that the epitome system is radically vicious. There 
 is a well known maxim in education — ' the concise is the 
 opposite of the elementary,' and in no field of study is this 
 truer than in history. The compiler who rigidly strips his 
 narrative of all ornamental and illustrative detail may suppose 
 he is giving the pupil the very pith and marrow of history : he 
 is, in fact, robbing the story not only of all its interest, but of 
 all its value. For history is only worth studying in so far as it 
 vivifies the past, lights up the dim spaces of the bygone world 
 and fills them with figures which move and feel and live. That 
 Henry VIII, was six times wedded is of small importance to 
 us, even though we know the names and the parentage of the 
 ladies : what is vital is that we should have a clear conception 
 what manner of man he was. 
 
 I have, of course, no quarrel with the epitome as a
 
 150 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 convenient book of reference for the student. It is in its own 
 sphere as useful as the table of contents usually prefixed to any 
 substantial volume, but, as Quick' remarks, to treat the epitome 
 as a thing to be got up by rote is as though one were to learn 
 such a table of contents by heart. I cannot say that I attach 
 much importance myself to the storing of the memory even with 
 dates and genealogical tables. No doubt it is convenient to 
 the historian to have such matters at his fingers' ends, but the 
 power of getting them up by heart is something very different 
 from an aptitude for history, and the energies devoted to the 
 task might in most cases, I think, be more profitably employed 
 in other directions. A few leading dates, which serve to 
 articulate the field of study, may be learnt with advantage, 
 but even here I am inclined to believe that more may be done 
 by means of chronological charts, in which each century 
 occupies an equal space, than by simple tables of dates. 
 The reading-book method is not in itself so inept, but there 
 is reason to fear that in practice it often turns 
 JJ!?-!!" h u out to be little better. The historical reader is 
 
 reaaing-Dook ; 
 
 the basis of this method : the book is read aloud 
 in turn by the members of the class, who are then, with or 
 without an interval for mental digestion, questioned upon the 
 day's reading. Of the Readers themselves there is no occasion 
 nowadays to complain : the reading-books of twenty years ago 
 were no doubt somewhat stolid productions, written for the 
 most part by men without historical enthusiasm or insight, but 
 since Green's ' Short History ' has become a school text-book, 
 and historians of the eminence of Dr Gardiner have been 
 pressed into this service, there has been no want of colour 
 and life in the presentation to the scholar of the history of 
 his native land. Nor can it be said, if the scholar is not asked 
 to get up the text-book by heart, but only to answer intelligently 
 questions based upon the reading of tlie day, that the method 
 
 ^ Educational Kef or liters, p. 485.
 
 v.] History. 1 5 1 
 
 is an unsound one. But it appears to me to be incomplete, 
 and, for this reason, liable to become most perfunctory. It 
 makes no proper provision for revision of, or reference to, past 
 lessons, it gives the pupil no adequate opportunity of cultivating 
 his own power of historical statement, and, worst fault of all, 
 it demands nothing from the teacher, but leaves the pupil with 
 what he has been able to extract unaided from the text-book 
 and nothing more. 
 
 The recitation method is an improvement upon that just 
 described in one respect, and in one respect 
 only. It certainly does cultivate in the pupil recitation^ 
 the power of expression. The method is the 
 one chiefly followed in America, and consists in directing the 
 scholar to read a certain amount of historical matter, and then 
 to restate the whole in words of his own to the teacher. It is 
 easy to see that such a method, in the hands of a skilful 
 teacher, might produce excellent results, but in practice it 
 appears to be carried out almost as mechanically as the two 
 already dealt with. The great aim of American teachers, we 
 are told, is to teach their pupils to read for themselves, and 
 this, laudable enough as one object of a system of instruction, 
 leads to a great neglect of the active part of a teacher's work, 
 the exercise of influence over young minds. Few teachers of 
 history attempt to kindle the interest of their pupils : no ethical 
 lessons are drawn : difficulties are not explained, and all new 
 work is done first by the pupil himself ^ While the system is 
 truly American in encouraging self-reliance and independence 
 of thought, it nevertheless attenuates and impoverishes historical 
 teaching and substitutes for the despotism of the teacher that 
 of the text-book. 
 
 It is no easy task to follow up this criticism of the methods 
 in use with some indication of a more excellent way. There 
 
 1 Miss Burstall's Education of Girls in the United States, pp. 93-4.
 
 152 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 is, after all, no ideal method : the teacher must have an eye 
 to the subject in hand, the previous knowledge 
 essenUar ^"*^ ^^^ homc life of his pupils, and his own 
 
 power of treatment. Still, some points have been 
 made sufficiently clear. First and foremost, it is safe to assert 
 that no system of teaching history can be good which does not 
 excite the interest of the pupil. ' Why do children dislike 
 history?' asks one writer on the subject^: if it be the case 
 that they do dislike it, it is certain they can learn nothing from 
 it. Lessons of prudence, of self-restraint, of patriotic devotion, 
 can never be conveyed by the mere force of dinning them into 
 the ears of unsympathetic listeners : they must be received in 
 a friendly and open spirit. Interest may be kindled in many 
 ways, but let it be clearly understood from the start that the 
 responsibility for maintaining it depends upon the teacher. 
 He must himself be interested, or he can communicate nothing 
 to his scholars. It is the business of the teacher, by his 
 vigorous and individual treatment of the subject, to conquer 
 that fatal tendency to routine which is the ruin of history 
 teaching. For this reason I hold that he should open up each 
 topic himself, should introduce the pupil to it, pointing out, 
 first its salient features, and afterwards its difficulties : the 
 scholar should not be left to plough what is for him virgin soil 
 without assistance. The inclination to mechanical work may 
 be with advantage corrected by teaching through the eye as 
 well as the ear : the blackboard should be brought into con- 
 stant requisition for illustrative diagrams : the geography 
 incident to the history lesson should be elucidated with the 
 aid of wall maps, both flat and moulded to represent physical 
 features : photographs, prints, coins, and archaeological relics 
 from the school museum should all be brought into use. 
 
 But, while much is required of the teacher, it is equally 
 
 ^ Methods of Teaching History, Boston, U.S.A., 1889.
 
 v.] History. 153 
 
 necessary that the pupil should not be merely receptive. 
 
 The history lesson should not be, what I have 
 
 known the science lesson to be in some cases, ^"^^^ teacher s 
 
 an entertainment kindly provided by the teacher, 
 
 which relieved the tedium of severer studies, and only asked 
 
 from the pupil that he should act as spectator. There should 
 
 be much questioning, the power of making valid comparisons 
 
 should be developed, and the scholar should be taught to give 
 
 clear and accurate expression to his opinions. 
 
 Having said thus much in general terms, I think I cannot 
 do better than set before my readers, as a con- ^ .,, ^ 
 
 _ •' ' An illustra- 
 
 crete instance of the way in which these ideas tion from 
 may be worked out, an account of the methods ermany. 
 pursued in a school in Rhenish Prussia which w^as visited by 
 Dr Klemm'. The history lesson was usually the life of some 
 great historical character, and was opened by a narrative from 
 the teacher, who told the story chosen for the day in simple 
 yet earnest language, using the map and blackboard from 
 time to time, and quoting from the national poets fragments 
 appropriate to his topic. Throughout the narrative there 
 was breathless attention. The next step was to ask the 
 children themselves to repeat the story ; and this gave an 
 opportunity for questions bearing upon the causes and effects 
 of the narrated incidents and upon their moral significance. 
 Next, the children were asked to give, from their recollection 
 of previous lessons, cases analogous to those which were that 
 day being discussed, and Dr Klemm was surprised at the ready 
 and appropriate answers given at this point. Last of all, the 
 story was set as an exercise in composition, training being 
 thus imparted in the giving of written, as well as oral expression 
 to thought, while the w^hole lesson was finally imprinted upon 
 the mind. 
 
 ^ European Schools, by L. R. Klemm (New York, 1893), pp. 24-5.
 
 154 ^^'^ Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 All this means careful preparation on the part of the 
 teacher, and we realise that there is one powerful 
 the Teacher °^ argument for the present system — it is the easiest. 
 It requires no intellectual effort to check the 
 learning by heart of a text-book, or to ask commonplace questions 
 out of a chapter in a Reader. Some Readers, indeed, are 
 obliging enough to provide the questions at the end of each 
 chapter. In a word, inertia tells for the existing methods : an 
 effort is needed to improve upon them. There is, therefore, 
 this difficulty in the way of reform — that some teachers are 
 without energy, and, more important still, a vast number are 
 overworked. History cannot be well taught when it is but one 
 of a number of subjects which must be crowded into the 
 teacher's day : the rough and ready method becomes the 
 only possible one. Without pronouncing an opinion upon 
 the general question of teachers for subjects as against teachers 
 for classes, I venture to assert that we shall never get satis- 
 factory historical teaching in our schools until the task is 
 undertaken by men of special aptitude for it. As long as 
 it is supposed that anyone can teach history, just as in 
 olden time in Wales it was thought that any disabled soldier 
 or artisan was fit to keep school, so long shall w^e be without 
 any true teaching of the subject at all. Thus my last word 
 has reference to the necessity of training teachers of history. 
 A thorough training in the subject to be taught is recognized 
 as essential to the teacher of classics, of mathematics, and of 
 science : it does not need further demonstration, I trust, that a 
 like training is indispensable in the case of history. What the 
 teacher does not see himself, he cannot make others see : if he 
 has no historical knowledge, no grasp of historical principles, 
 no sense of historical perspective, he cannot use these as 
 instruments of education. He becomes the preacher of an 
 evangel he does not understand. I attach the greatest value, 
 therefore, to history as a necessary feature of every general
 
 v.] History. 1 5 5 
 
 scheme of University studies, and I believe, moreover, that 
 every one who looks forward to teaching history in a secondary 
 school should strive to equip himself for that duty by studying 
 history, for a part of his course at least, under the guidance of 
 a University teacher. The older Universities offer ample 
 encouragement to the honours student who desires to specialise 
 in history, and the University of London, which, until very 
 recently, treated history with strange disparagement as merely 
 the humble handmaiden of literature, has now given it a place 
 in the arts degree course which is more worthy of its position 
 in the circle of European studies. 
 
 Not only teachers, but the great public which employs and 
 controls them, must have the truth impressed upon them that 
 history has ceased to be the agreeable pastime of men's leisure 
 hours, and has become a science, a science which it is as 
 necessary to teach, to train men to teach, to pay for, as 
 chemistry or botany. It is the science of the past, with a 
 fuller and deeper message for man than even the physical 
 sciences which have in our day done so much to increase his 
 material well-being and to widen his mental horizon.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GEOGRAl'IIV. 
 
 No subject is more universally recognised as a necessary 
 branch of education, but few are more generally neglected. 
 Geography, as the science of the surface of the earth, and of 
 the things and phenomena in causal connection therewith, 
 offers a wide field for study, but the very vastness of the 
 subject makes the adequate handling of it difficult. Hence, 
 though acknowledged to be a weapon indispensable to a well- 
 equipped educational armoury, it is too often left to rust on 
 the shelves, or placed in inexperienced hands. 
 
 Touching geology on the one hand and history on the 
 
 other, it forms the connecting link between the natural 
 
 sciences and the humanities. Dealing with what is the scene 
 
 of our existence as well as the theatre of history, 
 
 Scope. ^ 
 
 it has no less interest for the student of the present 
 than for the student of the past. For the statesman there are 
 the questions which relate to the political partition of the earth, 
 for the soldier those dealing with the relief of its surface ; the 
 merchant must know the distribution of its re- 
 sources, the doctor its climatic conditions. To 
 the historian geography offers the key to many problems. The 
 migrations of races, the sites of settlements, the boundaries of 
 nations, are largely governed by geographical factors. In Europe, 
 of the races that came from the East, the more civilised advanced 
 by sea along the Mediterranean, the less civilised, travelling by
 
 VI.] Geography. 157 
 
 land, passed along the nordiern plains. The rocky bays and 
 islands of Norway, as those of Dalmada, could not fail to breed 
 hardy sailors of a piratical turn. The mountain-masses of 
 Montenegro and Switzerland were predestined by Nature to 
 be the homes of independent peoples. The Pyrenees and Alps 
 inevitably split the Latin races into three. 
 
 In the Middle Ages, when the Mediterranean was the 
 centre of civilisation and of commerce, the position of Italy 
 gave predominance to Venice and Genoa. Portugal, by its 
 position, was the natural pioneer of exploration in the Ocean 
 beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, and found at first its only rival 
 in its neighbour Spain. As long as the Atlantic formed an 
 impassable barrier towards the West, the expansion of England 
 was impossible. When once the ocean had been crossed, our 
 position as an outpost of Europe gave us a positive advantage 
 in the race for Empire. 
 
 General interest in the geography of some region is 
 frequently aroused by the outbreak of war, a frontier dispute, 
 or the exploits of some intrepid explorer. For a short time 
 every one is a student ; books are read, maps consulted, and 
 no detail seems too small. But the fit soon passes by, and 
 all is forgotten. The shoot has withered up and died for want 
 of a well-rooted trunk to graft it on. That this is so in the 
 majority of cases must be accounted for by the 
 
 . •' ■' . ■' lU-taught. 
 
 failure to teach geography properly m schools. 
 
 The committal to memory of a long catalogue of names may 
 
 be an exercise in mnemonics, but for teaching geography it is 
 
 as useful as the learning of the index would be in studying a 
 
 book. 
 
 It is not very long since a text-book advertised as meri- 
 torious the fact that it contained 20,000 names ! Nothing 
 could more completely condemn it. A dictionary may show 
 that a language contains thousands of words, but only a few 
 hundreds are needed in ordinary circumstances. To become
 
 158 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 proficient in the use of the language, it is more important 
 to be closely familiar with these selected words than to be 
 even distantly acquainted with the rest of the 
 dictionary. Similarly, in teaching Geography, the 
 main point to strive for is the elimination of the unnecessary 
 and emphasising of the important features. In any one 
 European country there are not, as a rule, more than 20 
 towns that a boy need know ; but he should possess an accu- 
 rate acquaintance with their relative size and position, their 
 requirements and products, their historical associations and 
 present importance. The aims of geographical teaching will, 
 however, perhaps best be shown by a description of methods. 
 There are two methods that can be adopted in beginning 
 the teaching of Geography. The s:eneraL which 
 
 Methods. . , f , , , , , • , 
 
 considers the world as a whole, the particular, 
 which takes the parish or local district as a starting-point. The 
 weight of opinion undoubtedly favours the latter course. As 
 the function of education is to stimulate and not to stupefy, to 
 prove awakening rather than wearisome, it is better to begin 
 with the known than with the unknown, to take what is at 
 hand and familiar rather than what is far off and hard to com- 
 prehend. 
 
 Hence, in Germany and other continental countries, the 
 
 first stage, both in primary schools and in the 
 kundlT'^*^' preparatory classes of higher schools, is Heimats- 
 
 kundc. 
 The first aim should be the inslilling of clear ideas as to 
 
 position. Such terms as left and right, in front 
 
 First prin- -' . 
 
 cipies: and behind, are relative to one's temporary 
 
 point of view, and can be reversed by simply 
 turning round ; it is important therefore at the outset to deter- 
 mine the cardinal points of tl:e compass. This should be 
 (lone not by a compass, whose usefulness and variations 
 can be better explained at a later stage, but by the daily
 
 VI.] GeograpJiy. 1 59 
 
 movement of the sun, a method which permits of an early 
 lesson in training the important faculty of observation. Sun- 
 rise and sunset give, approximately, east and west ; the south 
 should be found by experiment. As the sun is at its highest 
 point when due south, the shadow which it casts will then 
 be shortest. To find when this is the case, set a stick 
 upright in some accessible level ground. At nine or ten or 
 some convenient hour before noon, mark on the ground the 
 end of the shadow. Then, with the help of a piece of string 
 of the same length as this shadow, draw a circle with the 
 stick as centre. In the afternoon, observe where the shadow, 
 which will have been getting shorter towards noon and 
 then longer again, once more reaches the circumference of 
 the circle. Mark this point, and draw a straight line joining 
 it to the first mark. Take the middle point of the line, and 
 join it by a straight line to the stick. This line will give the 
 direction of the shadow when shortest, and thus indicate the 
 position of north and south, while the other line will give 
 east and west. 
 
 In the case of some schools such an experiment may be 
 difficult and even impossible, but in the majority of cases, with 
 a little thought and management, all difticulties might be over- 
 come, while the value of such an object lesson can hardly be 
 over-estimated. In many schools abroad, the chief points of 
 the compass are marked on the floor of the class-room, or on 
 the ground in the school-yard, and the pupils exercised in 
 marching in different directions, with excellent results. The 
 value of the Pole star in determining the direction of the north 
 at night should not be overlooked, but a direct observation is 
 not generally possible during the usual school hours. At a 
 later stage a simple and useful, but little known, method of 
 readily determining one's position as regards the points of the 
 compass might with advantage be taught to older pupils. If at 
 any time of day a watch be held so that the hour-hand points
 
 l6o Tlic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 towards the sun, then that point on the dial which is midway 
 between the hour-hand and the figure 12, reckoning, before 
 noon, in tlie direction in which the hands move, and in the 
 reverse direction after noon, will indicate the south. For 
 instance, on a watch held in this way, at lo.o a.m. the figure 
 II, and at 4.0 p.m. the figure 2, will give the required 
 direction. 
 
 After imparting clear ideas as to position, the next aim 
 
 should be the development of equally clear 
 
 ideas as to distance. The distance from wall 
 
 to wall in a room can be used to give an idea of the meaning 
 
 of feel, the length of a street for yards, and the road to some 
 
 well-known point in the neigbourhood for miles. 
 
 Following close upon distance comes naturally area, and 
 
 again the class-room, the playing-field, the town 
 
 can be impressed into service to give clear ideas, 
 
 from familiar places, of the comparative sizes of different 
 
 areas. 
 
 A plan of the school might with advantage be made; a map 
 of the town in which it stands should certainly be obtained, 
 and pupils taught to trace on it the routes to different points, 
 until familiar with the bird's-eye view which a map presents, 
 care being taken to keep the north always at the top in order 
 to accustom the eye to the arrangement now almost universally 
 adopted. 
 
 Insistance on such apparently elementary matters as relative 
 position, distance, and area, might seem unnecessary, but 
 experience soon shows the hopeless confusion that follows 
 from lack of clearness on these points. In those countries 
 where the teaching of Geography has been carefully studied 
 and systematised in a way that we have not yet learnt to 
 adopt, the Heimatskunde stage is often prolonged, in primary 
 schools at least, for a i)eriod measured by years rather than 
 months.
 
 VI.] Geography, i6i 
 
 From the Geography of the parish or local district the teacher 
 may at once proceed to the world as a whole. 
 
 _, 111 1 r 1 Second stage. 
 
 To attempt to work steadily outwards, from the 
 parish to the neighbourhood, from the neighbourhood to the 
 county, from the county to the country, adding knowledge by 
 a series of concentric accretions gathered round the original 
 unit of the parish, is to adopt an unsound method productive of 
 difficulties similar to those which would arise if, in the teaching 
 of the history of political institutions, after rightly making use of 
 existing forms to explain the meaning of ordinary terms, we 
 should proceed to work steadily backwards, to find the way 
 blocked by incidents only explicable, like the French Revolution, 
 through a knowledge of the events that preceded them. The 
 reason for beginning with one's immediate neighbourhood is to 
 make use of what is at hand and familiar. When once this is 
 left, it matters not whether the next step is to regions ten miles 
 or ten thousand miles away, both being equally unknown. 
 
 In the second stage, then, comes the consideration of the 
 world as a whole. For this purpose a Globe 
 should be used, as being both more convenient Qi^^e °*^ ^^^ 
 and more readily understood than a map. Its 
 shape at once impresses the form of the Earth upon the mind ; 
 with its aid we can demonstrate the movements which give 
 us day and night and the ever changing seasons, while its 
 surface shows the main features of the distribution of land 
 and water. With a globe and a lantern the varying lengths 
 of day and night, the phenomenon of the midnight sun, the 
 long summer day and long winter night at the poles, and 
 similar matters otherwise difficult of explanation, can at once 
 be made clear. By it, too, the method of dividing up the 
 surface of the earth by lines of latitude and longitude, the 
 meaning of the Equator, the Tropics, the Arctic and Antarctic 
 circles, can more readily be explained than by any map, one 
 of its most important functions being indeed to serve as 
 
 S. T. II
 
 1 62 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 an introduction to cartography. Many of the principal pheno- 
 mena of physical geography, such as the movements of the 
 air and the currents of the sea, are also simplified by the use 
 of a globe. 
 
 A globe, indeed, is indispensable, and should be intro- 
 duced immediately after the first stage already described, 
 thus taking precedence of all maps save the plan of the parish 
 or town. 
 
 The basis of all geographical teaching should be physical ; 
 _ familiarity with the meaning of the ordinary 
 
 Importance ■' . 
 
 of Physical tcrms employed, as well as with the commoner 
 eograp y. phenomena to be met with, should therefore 
 be striven after at an early stage. 
 
 There are few neighbourhoods which do not offer illustra- 
 tions of some of the simpler terms in use, such as hills and 
 valleys, and rivers with their right and left banks ; but the 
 favours of nature are unequally distributed. A 
 
 niustration ^ ^ 
 
 of terms by boy livmg by the sea will understand such 
 im^ies^" terms as capes, bays and tides as readily as a 
 
 Swiss child will understand glaciers, moraines 
 and the snow line; but to the former a moraine is likely to 
 prove as great a stumbling-block as a tide to the latter. 
 
 All terms which cannot be illustrated from nature should 
 be made clear by pictures or models. Clay and sand are readily 
 obtainable, and are easily moulded to show what is meant by 
 a ravine or a canon, a river-basin or a watershed; and the small 
 amount of trouble involved is amply repaid by the clearness 
 of conception to be gained from a model even when rudely 
 made. The answers in examination papers but 
 
 or by Models. . . ,, , , , ... 
 
 too pamfully show that much teaching is con- 
 fined to the dictation of definitions. A definition in clear 
 words is an excellent thing, and necessary for young minds 
 incapable of precise expression ; but no definition should be 
 given until the meaning of the term defined has been made
 
 VI.] Geography. 163 
 
 familiar to the eye as well as to the ear. For example it is 
 well to define the Equator as " an imaginary line, which &c.," 
 but, if the definition has been preceded by a clear demon- 
 stration on a globe, such an answer as " the Equator is a 
 menagerie lion running round the hottest parts of the earth " 
 becomes impossible. Especially important is this in the case of 
 terms like "watershed," where the name, by its resemblance to 
 other words, invites confusion. More than once have I met with 
 such explanations as " watershed is a covering over the top of 
 the river" or "something like the roof of a house." A simple 
 model in clay, on which water could be poured, would prevent 
 any such confusion as is implied in these answers. 
 
 With a little thought, the resources of many districts for 
 furnishing illustrative examples can be increased beyond their 
 apparent capacity. For example, the well-known demonstra- 
 tion of the rotundity of the earth, supplied by the gradual 
 sinking of a ship below the horizon as it sails away over the 
 sea, can be replaced in an inland district by an observation 
 of the steadily increasing distance of the horizon as one 
 ascends a hill or tower. In this respect it is useful to re- 
 member a simple formula: — the square root of li times the 
 height in feet is equal to the distance of the horizon in 
 Jiiiles. For instance, at a height of 6 feet we should be able 
 to see to a distance of 3 miles, at a height of 24 feet to 
 a distance of 6 miles, while at the top of Ben Nevis, 4400 
 feet high, the horizon will be a little more than 80 miles 
 away. Again, many of the phenomena connected with running 
 water, the winding of streams, the erosion of valleys, even 
 the formation of deltas, can often be seen by the roadside after 
 a heavy shower. 
 
 As climate is one of the most important factors which 
 influence life, it is necessary that the condi- _. . 
 tions which affect it should be known. In the sphere, its 
 first place, the heat of the sun varies with the ^'"p^"'* "■■^-
 
 164 The Aims and Practice of Teaching: [Chap. 
 
 inclination of its rays. This can be simply shown by means 
 of a strip of paper with parallel edges, representing a portion 
 of the sun's rays, and a straight line drawn on a board, in- 
 dicating a part of the earth's surface. By moving the paper, 
 it is readily seen that when the strip meets the line vertically 
 it covers a smaller portion of it than when it is inclined at a 
 lesser angle ; that is, when the sun is low in the sky, the same 
 amount of rays will spread over a larger surface of the earth 
 than when it is overhead ; consequently, the warmth given by 
 the sun's rays is less, the lower it stands in the sky. The 
 altitude of the sun varies with the latitude ; as a general rule, 
 therefore, the higher the latitude, the colder is the climate. 
 There are, however, modifying agents, the chief of which is 
 the Atmosphere. Among the principal features to be considered 
 with regard to the Atmosphere are its movements, which 
 constitute what we call winds. 
 
 Winds are of three classes, Permanent, Periodic, and Occa- 
 sional. The first class includes the steady Trade- 
 its move- winds, which owe their name to their customary 
 
 ments. ' ■' 
 
 regularity, and the more violent but less regular 
 Anti-trades; the second, such seasonal winds as the Monsoons; 
 the third, irregular varieties like Hurricanes. The first of these 
 classes is the most important, involving as it does the main 
 features of the circulation of the air. Though a full expla- 
 nation presents many difficulties, a fair understanding can be 
 arrived at by simple means. There are two belts of high 
 pressure about 30" north and south of the Equator, while the 
 equatorial and polar regions are areas of low pressure. The 
 probable reasons for these facts can be explained at a more 
 advanced stage. Air tends to flow from regions of high to 
 regions of low pressure, just as water tends to flow from 
 higher to lower levels. Hence air flows from these belts of 
 high pressure towards the Equator and the Poles. Were the 
 earth stationary, the result would be winds blowing due north
 
 VI.] Geography. 165 
 
 and south ; but the earth rotates on its axis with a velocity 
 which increases from nothing at the poles to more than a 
 thousand miles an hour at the Equator.- The currents of air, 
 then, which move towards the Equator, approach regions 
 that are moving faster than those they came from ; they 
 get, as it were, left behind, and acquire a direction opposite 
 to that in which the earth rotates. The earth spins from 
 west to east ; they therefore tend to move from east to west 
 as they approach the Equator. Hence the Trade-winds are 
 not N. and S., but N.E. and S.E. winds. This deflection 
 can readily be shown by letting a drop of water run down a 
 rotating globe, or by drawing a line from the centre to the 
 circumference of a rotating disc of cardboard. 
 
 On the other hand, those currents of air which move 
 towards the Poles pass from fast-moving regions to slower 
 ones ; hence they get, as it were, thrown forward, giving them 
 a tendency from west to east. The Anti-trades accordingly 
 become S.W. and N.W. winds. An illustration, which should 
 appeal to most boys, would be that of a lad throwing a ball 
 at an object running past him ; and, on the other hand, when 
 himself running, throwing at something stationary, which he 
 is rapidly passing. In each case the object, if aimed at straight, 
 will be missed, the ball in the one case passing behind, in the 
 other in front of, the target of his aim. 
 
 From the movements to the moisture of the Atmosphere 
 is the next step. The Sun draws up moisture into the air as 
 a fire does from damp clothes. Winds passing over the sea 
 take up moisture as they do from things hung out to dry on 
 a windy day. The examples are familiar, but apt. Hence 
 in tropical parts there is usually much mois- 
 
 . . . . Its moisture. 
 
 ture m the Atmosphere, while wmds passmg 
 over the ocean become more heavily charged with aqueous 
 vapour than those which cross land. Cold condenses this 
 vapour in the air and precipitates it as rain, just as the
 
 1 66 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 moisture in a room is condensed on the cold surface of a 
 glass. Consequently a mountain range tends to drain a 
 wind of the moisture which it bears. With a knowledge of 
 a few facts such as have been dwelt upon, the climate of 
 many parts of the world can at once be guessed. 
 
 In South America, for example, in the tropical parts the 
 winds come from the east heavily charged with moisture. The 
 great barrier of the Andes drains these winds. Result, on the 
 one side, tlie mighty Amazon with its dense forests ; on the 
 other, the rainless region of Peru. Further south, in the 
 region of the Anti-trades, the winds come from the west ; 
 consequently Chile is fertile, while much of Patagonia remains 
 a desert. 
 
 With a knowledge of the permanent winds, an explanation 
 
 can be given of the chief surface currents of 
 
 o«an cur- j.|^g ^^^^ which, in many cases, such as the 
 
 warm Gulf Stream or cold Labrador current, 
 
 by reacting on the atmosphere, have an important influence 
 
 in modifying climate. 
 
 The great circulation of the water of the Ocean, which 
 leads to the presence of ice-cold water at the bottom of the 
 sea even in the Tropics, can be illustrated by an experiment 
 that only requires two glass dishes, one slightly larger than 
 the other, a lump of ice, some hot water, and a little aniline 
 dye or other colouring matter. Place one dish in the other, 
 fill the smaller with water, and suspend the ice in its centre. 
 Then, if hot water be poured into the space between the two 
 dishes, the conditions of polar cold and equatorial warmth will 
 be obtained. Currents of cold water will sink from round the 
 ice to the bottom, and radiate in all directions to the sides, 
 while warm currents set in along the surface towards the 
 centre. A little of the dye dropped in round the ice will 
 make them visible. 
 
 Such an experiment is, however, more suited for advanced
 
 VI.] GeograpJiy. 167 
 
 pupils ; at the outset, only the essentials of physical geography 
 should be emphasised. For instance, vegetation, in contrast 
 with sand, has the interesting property of inducing the pre- 
 cipitation of moisture ; but it is unnecessary to dwell upon this 
 in contrasting the tropical forests of the Amazon with the Desert 
 of Sahara. In fact, to do so, without emphasising the differ- 
 ence between the rain-laden winds of the former region and 
 those which prevail in the latter, is to play Hamlet without the 
 Prince of Denmark. 
 
 Having mastered the main essentials of physical geo- 
 graphy, the way is clear to that detailed study 
 of the surface of the globe as partitioned out tailed study of 
 among the nations of the earth, which, under the earth's 
 
 ° . surface. 
 
 the name of political geography^ forms the chief 
 branch of geography as usually taught. Beginning but too 
 commonly with a catalogue of capes, and ending with one of 
 counties and chief towns, nothing could well be more 
 dreary and unprofitable. As an exercise for the memory 
 such teaching may have a small value ; for an intelligent 
 appreciation of the earth's surface it has none whatever. 
 
 In choosing a starting-point from which to begin the de- 
 tailed study of the surface of the globe, we 
 naturally turn to our own country, for the same potnt"^*^'"^ 
 reason of familiarity that led, in the earliest stage, 
 to the selection of the local parish. 
 
 It will be desirable to have at the outset three good wall- 
 maps : (i) The British Isles, (2) Europe, (3) The World. 
 With these can be graphically shown the first two points 
 to be dealt with — relative position and relative 
 size. With regard to the latter point it will sideraYion ^°" 
 be well to be particularly clear, and the area ^- Position 
 
 . and size. 
 
 of the British Islands might with advantage 
 
 be committed to memory as a standard unit of comparison 
 
 for use when studying other countries. The true importance
 
 1 68 The Aims afid Practice of Teaching: [Chap. 
 
 of the position of the British Isles as an outpost of Europe 
 towards the New World and the centre of the land hemi- 
 sphere, as also the protective value of our insularity, will 
 probably be realised only at a much later stage, but the 
 facts should be dwelt upon. 
 
 After position and size, come naturally outline and relief. 
 
 These should be dealt with first on broad lines, 
 and relief'"^ '^^^ names of a number of capes and bays have 
 
 no value until the general sweep of our much- 
 indented coast, which allows the sea to approach within a 
 hundred miles of any part of the interior, is known. The 
 heights of a few isolated peaks are meaningless until the posi- 
 tion and general elevation of the mountain chains or masses 
 to which they belong have been considered. The conditions 
 of a coast line largely determine the position of a country's 
 ports ; the relief of its surface influences the direction and 
 character of its streams and of its lines of communication. 
 
 From relief the next step is to climate. Compare our mild 
 
 insular climate with the severer extremities of 
 
 3. Climate. , . ^, ..... . 
 
 the contment. Contrast it with the rigours of 
 Labrador, and of places in the same latitudes in the southern 
 hemisphere. Note how the S.W. Anti-trades, coming across 
 the ocean, arrive rain-laden at our western shores, to be largely 
 robbed of tlieir moisture by tlie mountains of Cornwall, Wales, 
 Cumberland, and the Pennine range, leaving the East of Eng- 
 land much drier than the West. 
 
 Rainfall leads ai)propriately to rivers, and with the rivers — 
 
 the natural arteries of a country — the more de- 
 
 syttem!^ tailed study of a body, whose skeleton, as it were, 
 
 lias already been considered, may best be begun. 
 
 In the confusion of most maps, the course of a river can 
 often only with difficulty be discerned. It should be dissected 
 out from its surroundings, as an anatomist separates a nerve or 
 blood-vessel whose path he wislies to trace,
 
 VI.] Geography. 1 69 
 
 For this purpose let the black-board be used. Draw an 
 outline map of the country under consideration, and insert 
 the chief rivers one by one, tracing them from source to mouth, 
 with explanations of their courses, and some details of the 
 districts they pass through, and of the towns upon their 
 banks. 
 
 An example will best illustrate the method. Let us take 
 for instance the Severn. 
 
 The Severn rises in Wales. Starting from the slopes of 
 Plinlimmon, it flows in a N.E. direction, following the general 
 trend of the ranges of mountains in Wales, which run from 
 S.W. to N.E. At the English border it is joined by the 
 Vyrnwy. It then enters, with an easterly course, the county of 
 Shropshire in England. On a fine natural site for defensive 
 purposes — a piece of rising ground in the middle of a great 
 horse-shoe shaped bend of the river — the town of Shrewsbury 
 has grown up. With a southerly trend the Severn passes out 
 of Shropshire and through Worcestershire. Where the Stour 
 joins it, lies Stourport ; in the middle of its course through the 
 county, the city of Worcester ; and, on the borders of Gloucester- 
 shire, Tewkesbury, where it is joined by the Warwickshire 
 Avon, on whose bank stands Warwick. In Gloucestershire 
 the Cotswold Hills turn its direction towards the S.W., and 
 after again passing the capital of a county, Gloucester, it enters 
 the great estuary which bears its name, and which conditioned 
 the growth of Bristol, the south-western port of England, just 
 as the great estuary of the Thames conditioned the growth of 
 London on the east. Each of these points should be mentioned, 
 a slight pause being made for emphasis as the chalk reaches the 
 appropriate position in the course traced upon the board. 
 
 In a similar way the Thames and the other chief rivers should 
 in turn be inserted, and, by the time the map is finished, the 
 position of most of the principal towns as well as the courses 
 of the chief rivers will have been learnt.
 
 I/O The Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 With regard to marking the position of towns, it is advisable 
 to adopt some definite method to indicate their 
 of^pomTiaUon relative sizes as approximately determined by the 
 number of their inhabitants. It is absurd to in- 
 dicate by a dot London which covers an area almost as large as 
 the county of Rutland, or to use the same pin-point for Man- 
 chester and Milford. Leaving aside London, which stands in a 
 class by itself, a convenient method will be to draw a circle to 
 mark towns with 1 00,000 inhabitants, adding a larger concentric 
 circle for each additional 100,000 ; to take a square for those 
 which have from 50,000 to 100,000; and to reserve a dot for 
 the smaller places. In this way the great industrial centres like 
 Manchester and Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds and Sheffield, 
 will receive that prominence which their size and import- 
 ance warrant, while the map will roughly indicate at a 
 glance the general distribution of the population of the 
 land. 
 
 When this stage has been reached, the position of many of 
 
 the chief centres of population will already have been learnt. 
 
 The more detailed study of the other centres may well be 
 
 preceded by a general survey of the natural 
 
 6. Natural resourccs of the country, and especially of its 
 
 resources. .' ' i J 
 
 mineral wealth. One of the most striking 
 features to be noticed is the shifting northwards of the centre 
 of gravity of the population of England, a consequence of the 
 development of the great coal-fields for industrial purposes. 
 After the last census, a striking map was published in Peter- 
 mann's Mitiheihmgcn, showing the centres of increasing popula- 
 tion. With the exception of the London district, these were 
 almost entirely confined to the great coal-fields of the North, 
 the Midlands, and Wales. Nothing could be more eloquent 
 of the change which has been going on during the last hundred 
 years. 
 
 Such terms as " the north" and "the midlands " are rather
 
 VI.] Geography. 171 
 
 vague. An effort to be more precise leads naturally to 
 the partition of the country into counties. In Adminis- 
 
 studying the boundaries of these, the advantage trative divi- 
 of a knowledge of the physical features, of the 
 rivers and mountain ranges, will at once be apparent. In 
 learning their positions, some advantage may be derived from 
 beginning with one's own particular county, and working 
 outwards through those that border on it. The greater number 
 of the counties are shires, that is " shares " or portions cut off 
 from the whole, and may perhaps best be learnt from the 
 capitals whose names they bear, as Warwick, Northampton, 
 Cambridge. Others recall the districts formerly occupied by 
 particular tribes or divisions of races : such are Middlesex and 
 Sussex, Norfolk and Suffolk, Kent and Devon, Cornwall and 
 Cumberland. 
 
 Simple explanations of the meaning of these names serve, 
 by stimulating interest, considerably to lighten 
 the labour of learning. This is equally true of the ex1,'ana°tkfns.^^ 
 names of towns, which should also be explained 
 as far as possible. London and Dundee recall each an early 
 Celtic dim or elevated fort, just as Aberdeen and Aberdovey 
 indicate Celtic settlements at the mouth {aber) of the rivers 
 Dee and Dovey. Manchester, Lancaster, Leicester, similarly 
 denote the position of Roman castra or camps. Harwich 
 and Berwick on the other hand are Norse names, formed 
 from the word vik, a creek, best known to us in "viking." 
 The innumerable "tons" and "hams," such as Wellington 
 and Nottingham, recall the wide-spread nature of the 
 Anglo-Saxon invasion, while "burghs" or "boroughs" like 
 Edinburgh and Peterborough indicate the more important 
 towns of the same period. Naturally the same terminations 
 are to be met with in Germany, as in Hamburg, Magdeburg, 
 Hildesheim. On the other hand -by, as in Derby and 
 Grimsby, is a Danish termination, whose more limited
 
 1/2 The Aims mid Practice of Teachitig. [Chap. 
 
 distribution recalls the more limited effect of the Danish 
 invasion. Some care must be always exercised in etymological 
 explanations. Names not unfrequently become considerably 
 changed in course of time, and the apparent meaning of a 
 word often differs from the real. Barmouth and Yarmouth, 
 for example, closely resemble each other ; but while the latter 
 derives its name from its position at the mouth of the Yare, in 
 the case of the former it is the first half of the word which 
 indicates the position at the mouth, and the last half the name 
 of the river on which it stands, the name being a corruption of 
 Aber-mawddach. 
 
 A systematic survey of a country on the lines just sketched, 
 beginning with its position and size, passing on to its outline 
 and relief, and then to its river systems, resources, centres of 
 population and administrative divisions, cannot fail to stimulate 
 and interest by the logical sequence and consequently easy 
 comprehension of the points successively presented, 
 
 The framework once complete, the details can be added 
 to any desired degree. The minor mountain ranges, the 
 tributary streams, the less important towns, will all fall naturally 
 into their places without confusing the main features, which it 
 is of the first importance to accentuate. 
 
 After the British Isles, will naturally follow the study of 
 Europe, and, after Europe, that of the other continents. It is 
 unnecessary to deal with each individually ; the system in all 
 cases should be similar to that already described. The only 
 difference will be one of degree. In larger or less important 
 districts the lines must be bolder, but the method to be pursued 
 is in all the same. The only caution needed is to urge the 
 advisability of not essaying too much at once. It is better to 
 study one continent well than half the world indifferently. 
 
 The value of etymological exi)lanations is probably even 
 greater in the case of places abroad than when dealing with the 
 more familiar names in our own islands. To take only a few
 
 VI.] Geography. 173 
 
 examples, Coblenz will always be the historic instance of a 
 town built at the confluence of two rivers. The origin of the 
 word once known, its site can never be forgotten. Provence 
 recalls the position of part of the first Roman province in 
 Gaul ; Zaragoza the Roman town of Cassaraugusta in Spain. 
 Similarly Guadiana and Guadalquivir, compounds of the Arabic 
 word for a stream [wadi) often met with in Egypt, remind us 
 of the long dominion of the Moors in southern Spain. 
 
 To invoke the aid of etymology is merely to adopt a 
 principle which, consciously or unconsciously, is found by 
 all an aid in learning ancient or modern tongues ; and, just 
 as the committal to memory of a vocabulary of words would 
 be of but temporary effect without the famiharity to be 
 gained from their frequent use in reading or composition, 
 so the permanent retention of the names of a number of 
 towns and rivers, and of their positions, can only be expected 
 when means are adopted to render these familiar. The 
 processes corresponding to reading and composition are, in 
 Geography, Map-study and Map-drawing. 
 
 A map, as a complex expression of an infinite number of 
 geographical data, requires careful study. A complete and well- 
 drawn map will tell not only the size and outline of a country, 
 but the relief of the surface, the character of the coast, the 
 courses and navigabihty of the rivers, the size as well as the 
 position of the towns, the administrative divisions, ., „ ^. 
 
 ' Map-Reading. 
 
 the roads, canals, and railways; thus supplying an 
 immense variety of information, which can no more be grasped 
 at a glance than the complex contents of a l)ook can be ade- 
 quately comprehended by the cursory perusal of a single sheet. 
 The effect, too, produced upon the inexperienced by such a map 
 is as repellent as if all the courses of a dinner were set before 
 one at the same moment. It is well therefore, for educational 
 purposes, to have different maps dealing with different points. 
 Two at least there should be, one emphasising the physical
 
 1/4 '^J^^ Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chai*. 
 
 features, the other the poUtical. A good school atlas will add to 
 these others showing the distribution of rainfall and of popu- 
 lation, and possil)ly the isotherms and artificial lines of com- 
 munication, at least for the more important countries. By the 
 study of individual points on separate maps, the eye becomes 
 able to distinguish them when combined on a single sheet. 
 
 Map-reading has its natural corollary in map-drawing. A 
 
 teacher of languages knows the value of composition, as of 
 
 analysis ; a teacher of science makes his pupils 
 
 '^^Dr win vcpeat the experiments which they have seen. 
 
 Map-drawing, besides impressing geographical 
 
 facts on the memory, has the additional value of being a form 
 
 of manual training, and of ministering to the desire, innate in 
 
 most boys, to use their fingers in making marks. 
 
 By map-drawing, however, map-tracing is by no means 
 meant. To set a number of boys to trace laboriously a map 
 from an atlas, and to reward the one who inserts the largest 
 number of names in copper-plate handwriting and paints the 
 boundaries in the brightest colours, may afford employment for 
 idle hands, but will in no wise advance geographical knowledge. 
 Nor can any of the systems of " memory-maps " be recom- 
 mended, requiring as they do the construction of an elaborate 
 system of squares and angles, arcs and triangles, remotely 
 resembling the outline of the country to be drawn. A map is 
 not like a building, whose scaffolding, needed for its con- 
 struction, is removed at a subsequent stage : it is laid out 
 on a network of lines of latitude and longitude which must 
 remain permanently for the identification of positions. No 
 system of map-drawing which is not based on the use of these 
 lines is satisfactory, just as no symbol (such as a black line for 
 a range of mountains) which is not used in ordinary maps 
 should be permitted. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter into the (]uestion of different 
 projections. For practical purposes the simplest is the best.
 
 VI.] Geograpliy. 175 
 
 The lines must be straight, for the instruments for curved lines 
 are not usually available. Lines of latitude will be equidistant 
 and parallel, lines of longitude will converge towards the poles. 
 This presents the only element of difficulty. To determine the 
 distance between the meridians of longitude on any parallel of 
 latitude is within the power of any boy with an elementary 
 knowledge of geometrical drawing. It is only necessary to 
 draw a quadrant of a circle with a radius equal to the distance 
 between the parallels of latitude, to divide, with the help of a 
 protractor, the arc of the quadrant at an angle equal to the 
 degree of latitude in question, and to drop a perpendicular 
 from this point to the upright arm of the quadrant ; this line 
 will give the required distance. For general purposes it is 
 only necessary to determine these distances for the top and 
 bottom parallels, to set off, on either side of a central meridian, as 
 many spaces as meridians are needed, and to join the successive 
 pairs of corresponding points. An example will best show the 
 stages to be followed. Suppose a map of England to be required. 
 First draw a line down the middle of the paper, as a central 
 meridian. As England lies between the parallels 50° N. and 
 56° N., set off along this line six equal spaces of the length of, 
 say, if inches (see below). Draw, through the points thus 
 obtained, lines across the paper at right angles to the central 
 meridian. This will give the seven parallels of latitude, which 
 should be numbered from 50° to 56\ Take a pair of compasses, 
 and with centre the point where the lowest parallel cuts the 
 central line, and with radius the distance (i| inches) to the next 
 parallel, describe a quadrant. Divide this arc at 50° and 56° 
 and drop perpendiculars to the central line. These will give 
 the distances between the meridians on the top and bottom 
 parallels. Along the lowest parallel set off, on each side of the 
 central line, four spaces equal to the longer perpendicular, 
 and, on the top parallel, a similar number each equal to 
 the shorter perpendicular. Join the points by straight lines.
 
 176 TJic Aims ami Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 and a network will be obtained composed of seven parallel and 
 equidistant lines across the paper and nine converging towards 
 the top. The central one of these latter is the meridian 2° W. of 
 Greenwich, and both it and the others should be numbered 
 accordingly. For the distance between the parallels, if" has 
 been suggested above, but we may take any distance which 
 the size of the paper permits. With if" as the distance 
 between two parallels, the scale of the map is o-soq o ocT' '^^'^ 
 the spaces to be marked off on the parallels 50° and 56° will 
 be i|-" and i" respectively. 
 
 The framework having been drawn, the outline can soon be 
 added. Note, by comparison with an atlas, where the coast 
 cuts the network of lines. Mark these points and draw the 
 outline in sections from mark to mark. It is astonishing how 
 frequently the coast cuts a line halfway, or a third of the way, 
 between its points of intersection with two other lines, or even 
 at one of the j)oints of intersection. The points 
 ^^"""mh s ^'^^ easily learnt, and, w-ith a little practice, a com- 
 plete map can be accurately drawn from memory. 
 After the outline is finished, the rivers, mountains and chief 
 towns can be added. It is quite possible in the limited time 
 usually devoted to' Geography to teach even a form of junior 
 boys how to make such a map so that five-sixths of them 
 will be able to reproduce it accurately from memory at the end 
 of term. 
 
 The same principle can be adopted for a map of any 
 country. For larger areas, like France and Spain, it is better 
 to draw the lines at intervals of 2°, and for continents like 
 Africa at 10° or 20°, so as not to have too many lines. The 
 distortion ])roduced by drawing all the lines straight is insig- 
 nificant in the case of small areas, such as the countries of 
 Europe, and even in that of large areas when, like Africa, they 
 are near the equator. 
 
 It is a useful exercise to draw the chief countries of
 
 VI.] Geography. lyy 
 
 Europe, for purposes of comparison, on the same scale. If 
 2" of latitude be made equal to if inches, the scale will be 
 TyW^\wiT<5- On this scale most countries can be drawn on an 
 ordinary-sized sheet of paper'. If such a series be drawn, 
 astonishing results will follow when one map is compared 
 with another. Map-drawing on this method is not only an 
 excellent discipline and a stimulating exercise, but it has 
 the additional value of teaching the latitudes and longitudes 
 of important points. It is instructive to quote in this con- 
 nexion a remark made late in life by a great geographer, who 
 was both scholar and administrator : — " I wish I had been 
 forced as a boy to learn latitudes and longitudes ; they would 
 have been invaluable to me all my life." 
 
 As the map of England is by no means one of the easiest 
 to draw, it might be well to begin with something simpler, as, 
 for instance, the map of South America. In this case the 
 construction of the network of lines of latitude and longitude 
 presents but few difficulties. The lines of latitude will be 
 first drawn, at intervals of ten degrees. One of them will 
 be the Equator. As a degree of longitude on the Equator 
 is equal to a degree of latitude, mark off along the Equator, 
 on either side of a central meridian, spaces equal to the dis- 
 tance between the parallels. From these points the meridians 
 will converge towards the top and bottom of the map. The 
 lowest parallel needed is 60° S. On the 60th parallel the 
 length of a degree of longitude is just half what it is on the 
 Equator. Set off therefore, on the lowest parallel, spaces just 
 half the length of those on the Equator. Join these points 
 to those on the Equator: then, on parallel 20° S., the distance 
 between any two consecutive meridians will give the length 
 of the spaces to be set off on the topmost parallel, which 
 
 ^ For comparison, England will have to be drawn just half the size of 
 the map described on p. 175, which was on double this scale. 
 
 S. T. 12
 
 1/8 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 will be 20° N. It will be found that the coast of South America 
 frequently cuts the point of intersection of two lines, and can 
 readily be drawn. 
 
 The economic aspects of Geography, which have been ably 
 handled in several well-known books under the 
 Ge^^raphy!" ^'^^^ ^^ Commercial or applied geography, pre- 
 sent, when properly taught, many features of 
 great interest. The varied products of the diverse regions of 
 the world, the great lines of communication by land and sea, 
 the marts and factories of the nations, the growth and develop- 
 ment of commerce, are all subjects of high importance ; but, if 
 reduced to mere catalogues of imports and exports, they easily 
 become repulsive. 
 
 Economic geography, for the adequate study of which a 
 knowledge of physical and political geography is indispensable, 
 is best taught at a later stage. It affords indeed a valuable 
 field for the correlation of facts already learnt. 
 
 A detailed discussion of methods to be followed would be 
 impossible here. A single instance must suffice by way of sug- 
 gestion. In considering the economic geography of England, 
 cotton will naturally claim a foremost place. A picture of a 
 cotton plant, specimens of raw cotton, of cotton yarn and of 
 cotton cloth should be obtained as illustrations to appeal to the 
 eye. The eastern and early origin of the manufacture of cotton 
 should be pointed out. The name itself is of Oriental origin, 
 and "calico" is derived from Calicut, the former Indian centre 
 of export. In England the manufacture of cotton dates from 
 comparatively modern times, probably from about the middle of 
 the seventeenth century, though, curiously enough, the word cot- 
 ton was already connected with Lancashire at an earlier period. 
 Camden, a sixteenth century writer, speaks of " woollen clothes 
 which they call Manchester cottons," whence we conclude 
 that imitations of cotton cloths were then made of wool, just 
 as now the process is reversed. The inventions of Hargreaves,
 
 vi.J Geography. 1 79 
 
 Crompton, and Arkwright in the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century led to an immense development of the cotton industry 
 in Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Lancashire, where rapid 
 streams supplied good water-power. The invention of steam- 
 engines made the proximity of a coal-field of more importance, 
 while, for an industry dependent on foreign lands both for 
 supplies of raw material and markets for the manufactured 
 product, an adjacent seaport was found a prime necessity. 
 Hence the industry became concentrated in Lancashire, where 
 the damp climate proved an additional advantage for the 
 spinning of fine yarns, and Liverpool rapidly developed into a 
 leading port. 
 
 The demand for raw material has led to interesting develop- 
 ments in the cultivation of the cotton plant. A hundred years 
 ago, nearly all our cotton came from the West Indies or from 
 Asia Minor. The United States are now our chief source of 
 supply, while Egypt and India have been lately drawn upon to 
 an increasing extent. 
 
 The history of geographical discovery is another branch 
 of geography which should not be overlooked, nisto of 
 forming as it does an admirable introduction geographical 
 to the study of many parts of the globe. In 'scovery. 
 Africa, Australia and the New World is this especially the case. 
 All down the west coast of Africa the early Portuguese ex- 
 plorers have left traces of their progress in names that are still 
 used. The Cape of Good Hope recalls the turning point in 
 their long struggle to penetrate round Africa to India, the point 
 at which the end of the continent seemed at length to have 
 been reached. Natal was named by Vasco da Gama as the 
 spot where he spent Christmas day on his first great voyage to 
 the East. 
 
 In the New World, along the eastern coast of S. America, 
 the stages of exploration are recalled by many names : such are 
 Cape St Augustine, so called because discovered on that saint's
 
 I So TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. vi. 
 
 day ; Bahia, that is the Bay, whose full name is the Bay of All 
 Saints, reached on Nov. ist; and Rio de Janeiro, similarly 
 reached on the first of January. The term West Indies recalls 
 the great but natural mistake of their famous discoverer 
 Columbus, who fancied he had reached the east by sailing west, 
 while America perpetuates the name of Americus Vespucius, who 
 first realised that a new world had been unveiled. The straits 
 of Magellan in the south and those of Davis in the north received 
 their names in commemoration of their first explorers, just as 
 Nova Scotia and New England are called after the homes of 
 their early settlers. 
 
 In conclusion, it is only necessary to point out that, while 
 soundness of method is essential, success in the teaching of 
 Geography, as in that of other subjects, depends chiefly on 
 the enthusiasm and knowledge of the teacher. In hardly 
 any branch of education is the tyranny of the text-book more 
 despotic ; in none can it with greater advantage be abolished. 
 This, however, cannot be accomplished without adequate 
 training of the teacher, for the efficient performance of whose 
 task the vague reminiscences of his own school education in 
 no wise suffice. An important step has just been taken by the 
 University of Cambridge in the constitution of an independent 
 "group" of geographical subjects as part of the syllabus of its 
 Higher Local Examination, a new departure which will doubt- 
 less supply a valuable incentive to study, while placing a 
 recognised certificate of competency within the reach of students 
 who desire to qualify as teachers of Geography.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ALGEBRA. 
 
 When Mr Isaac Newton published what would now be 
 called a treatise on elementary algebra, he gave it the title 
 Arithmetica Universalis ; that is to say universal, or generalised 
 arithmetic. Now although algebra, in its widest sense, includes 
 much more than this, and is not so much a generalised 
 arithmetic as a specialised logic, it remains true that the 
 natural approach to the study of it is by the way of ordinary 
 arithmetic. 
 
 Let us suppose, for instance, that the scholar has become 
 acquainted with the ordinary notation for integers, and the 
 symbols of operation required to indicate the processes of 
 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Let us 
 further suppose that he is able to perform the four operations, 
 and fully understands the meaning of them. Then he will 
 discover by reflection, or at least perceive when it is pointed 
 out to him, that there are certain general truths connected 
 with these operations which are independent of the particular 
 numbers upon which the operations are performed. These 
 laws may, of course, be stated in general terms, without the 
 use of any new symbols : but algebra provides us with the 
 means of expressing them in a concise and convenient form, 
 which is more easily taken in by the eye, and therefore by the 
 mind, than the longer verbal statement.
 
 1 82 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Take, for example, the commutative law of multiplication. 
 If I make on the blackboard a row of six 
 Aigebm™^*"^*' crosses, and below it four other similar rows 
 of six, I obtain five rows each containing six 
 crosses, and the total number is therefore five times six. But 
 it is clear that I have, in the same diagram, six columns each 
 containing five crosses, so that the total number is also six 
 times five. Therefore five times six is equal to six times five. 
 The argument is perfectly general, and we conclude that, if 
 any two whole numbers are taken, the product of the first by 
 the second is equal to the product of the second by the first. 
 This is a complete statement of the arithmetical law inj question, 
 and does not involve any algebra : we express it in the notation 
 of algebra by the formula 
 
 a x b = l> y-a, 
 
 where a, b denote any two whole numbers. 
 
 In the same way an arithmetical proof should be given of 
 the other fundamental formulae such as 
 
 a-vb = b-^a, 
 a + {b + c)^ (a + b) + c, 
 a {b + c) = ab + ac, 
 a™ . a'' = a"^+", 
 
 and so on : it being expressly stated that all the letters stand 
 for whole numbers. 
 
 There is no reason whatever why all study of algebra 
 should be postponed until the whole of arithmetic has been 
 mastered : of course it cannot be begun until the scholar has 
 acquired a certain power of abstract reasoning. 
 
 The solution of simple ctiuations, and of problems which 
 lead to them, may also be done at a very early stage. The 
 advantage of this is that the pupil's interest in the applications 
 of algebra is aroused, and he is compelled to work in an 
 intelligent way. The problems cannot be too easy at first,
 
 VII.] Algebra. 183 
 
 and they should be carefully graduated ; every step of the 
 analysis should be explained, and justified by reference to 
 an axiom or otherwise. There are two points which require 
 special attention. The first of these is that an algebraical 
 symbol, such as x, always denotes a number and never a 
 concrete quantity; the second is that the symbol = means 
 " is equal to " and never means anything else. For some 
 mysterious reason a large proportion of students persist in 
 writing such nonsense as " Let a' = a pound of tea," or 
 " Therefore sin ^ = ^ = 30°" ; it is absolutely necessary to make 
 them see that statements of this kind are mere gibberish. 
 
 The crucial difficulty of elementary algebra is the introduc- 
 tion of negative numbers and the rules of sign. 
 
 , , , , , * Rules of Sign. 
 
 It cannot be asserted too strongly that such an 
 expression as 2-5 has no arithmetical meaning whatever : 
 from a purely arithmetical point of view it is as unintelligible 
 as ^- I. But we can give a meaning to the statement that 
 
 +2-5=-3 
 namely that " an addition of two followed by a subtraction of 
 five is equivalent to a subtraction of three." This gives us a 
 kind of interpretation of - 3, but it does not tell us how to 
 interpret such expressions as « + (- 3) or ^'-(-3): to do so, 
 we may have recourse to the formula 
 
 a - (b - c) ^ a - b -V c. 
 
 This we suppose to have been proved in the case when all 
 the operations involved are arithmetically possible. If, now, 
 we put b-o, r=3, or ^=1, ^ = 4, or ^ = 2, ^=5 and so on, 
 we obtain in each case « - (- 3) on the left-hand side, and on 
 the right-hand side 
 
 ^-o-t-3, r?-i-i-4, rt'-2-f5, etc., 
 
 that is, in every case, « + 3. Thus analogy leads us to
 
 184 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chav. 
 
 and since no restriction has been placed upon a, we write 
 -(-3) = + 3- 
 In the same way by generalising 
 
 a + {b — c)-a + b~c 
 we are led to 
 
 + (-3)=-3- 
 The rules of sign for multiphcation and division may be 
 derived in a similar way from 
 
 {a — b){c — d) — ac + bd — be — ad, 
 
 assumed to be perfectly general. The formula should, of 
 course, be first proved with the help of a diagram when 
 a, b, c, d are positive integers and a>b, o d. Then by 
 putting a^o, c-o we are led to infer that, if the formula 
 is to hold universally, 
 
 (— /.»)(- ^) ^ o . o + bd-b . o - o. d 
 
 = + bd, 
 
 and so for the other cases. 
 
 The reasoning here employed pervades the whole of 
 algebra. A certain formula is shown to be true under certain 
 restrictions as to the meaning of the symbols employed. If, 
 by an extension of the meaning of these symbols, the formula 
 can be made to retain its validity, and if the extended inter- 
 pretation does not involve any logical inconsistency, we are 
 justified in making the extension, and, in a manner, compelled 
 to make it by the demands of the calculus itself. That a 
 formal science like algebra, the creation of our abstract 
 thought, should thus, in a sense, dictate the laws of its own 
 being, is very remarkable. It has required the experience 
 of centuries for us to realise the full force of this appeal ; 
 and it is therefore unreasonable for a teacher to expect his 
 pupils to appreciate it all at once. A certain amount of
 
 VII.] Algebra. 185 
 
 compromise appears to be inevitable. Just as practical 
 geometry may fitly precede the systematic study of the science; 
 just as experimental demonstration of physical laws helps to 
 the comprehension of abstract dynamics : so the practical 
 application of the laws of algebra, before their logical necessity 
 is fully reahsed, is not only harmless, but even helpful towards 
 the complete understanding of the very abstract considerations 
 upon which their general validity is based. 
 
 The proper course would therefore seem to be to exercise 
 the student as soon as possible in the practice of the funda- 
 mental rules by applying them to rational integral functions of 
 a single variable : the process (without the theory) of finding 
 the highest common factor of two polynomials is particularly 
 valuable for this purpose. 
 
 Incidentally the notion of degree should be explained, and 
 the analogy with the decimal system of notation pointed out : 
 something may be said, too, about scales of notation. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of rules of sign, it is desirable to 
 call attention to the distinction between negative 
 numbers^ and negative quantities. Negative num- QuanfftVe^s^ 
 bers are introduced in order to render rational 
 algebra formally complete ; negative quantities appear in the 
 application of algebra to concrete problems. This is best 
 shown by means of an example. Thus : "A man 36 years old 
 has a son aged 4 : when will he be three times as old as his 
 son ? " If we suppose that it will be in x years, then 
 
 36 + .T = 3 {x + 4), 
 leading to :j;= 12; and the answer is that it will be after 12 
 years. But if we say " A man is 36 years old and his son is 
 16 years old : when will he be three times as old as his son?" 
 the corresponding equation is 
 
 36+x = 3(.Y+ 16), 
 leading to 
 
 X = —(i.
 
 1 86 The Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 Now there is no sense in saying " It will be after - 6 years " 
 and, if we consider the problem, it soon appears tliat it does not 
 admit of an answer, because as time goes on the ratio of the 
 father's age to that of his son grows smaller, and it is less than 
 that of 3 to I at the start. Thus the negative answer is, in 
 the first place, an indication that the problem, as put, is 
 insoluble. But the definite value of x invites consideration : 
 and if we reckon back six years we find that the father was 
 then 30 years old and his son 10 years old, one being three 
 times as old as the other. Thus the negative value of x 
 suggests an amended form of the question, which does admit 
 of an intelligible answer: namely, "A man is 36 years old, 
 and his son 16 years : when was he three times as old as his 
 son?" If we suppose it was x years ago, our equation is 
 
 36-^= 3 (16 -.v) 
 whence 
 
 ^ = 6, 
 
 and the answer is "six years ago." Now, if we look at the 
 two equations relating to the two last problems, we see that 
 one is derived from the other by changing x into —x\ conse- 
 <iuently the answer to the one is obtained from the answer to 
 the other by a change of sign. This change of sign is 
 accompanied by a change of interpretation; "—6 years 
 ahead," which is (strictly) unintelligible, becomes " 6 years 
 ago," which is quite intelligible. In order to obtain an 
 intelligible result, we have recast the problem : btit this 
 recasting has been suggested by the negative a?iS7ver and the 
 working out of the new equation has been really superfluous. 
 Now this is typical of all (questions of a similar kind : it 
 constantly happens that a negative (unintelligible) answer 
 with a particular interpretation becomes a positive (intelligible) 
 answer with a different interj)retation. Debt and credit, past 
 and future, forward and backward are in this connection 
 correlative terms ; and a negative quantity of the one is
 
 VII.] Algebra. 187 
 
 interpretable as a positive quantity of the other. This fact, 
 as De Morgan pointed out very clearly (article " Negative 
 and Impossible Quantities" in the Peujiy Cydop(zdta), sim- 
 plifies the applications of algebra very considerably. In 
 questions which may involve a difference of quality in the 
 answer we may assume the quality, and solve our equation 
 or equations : a positive answer is immediately interpretable, 
 a negative answer is not : but we may make use of the negative 
 answer by changing its interpretation, and thus spare ourselves 
 the trouble of starting afresh. The result is that the signs + 
 and — have a double capacity ; they are symbols of operation 
 and also symbols of quality ; and it is owing to the fact that 
 this double function does not lead to any ambiguity that the 
 applications of algebra to concrete problems are comparatively 
 simple in character. 
 
 It will be seen that the course sketched out involves, so far, 
 rational operations only ; it excludes all questions of roots, 
 and also that of algebraical fractions. So far as relates to the 
 operation of division, it should be pointed out that the process 
 can be carried out until the degree of the remainder is less 
 than that of the divisor ; and it should be verified that if the 
 division of A by B leads to a quotient Q and a remainder R, 
 then 
 
 A = QB + R. 
 
 A very important subject that may be taken up now is that 
 of factors. Even the best of the elementary text- 
 
 , , ^ , . . . Factors. 
 
 books treat of this m a more or less unsatis- 
 factory way ; and their want of method is encouraged by the 
 type of question set in elementary examinations. To say 
 " factorise so-and-so " is perfectly indefinite : any algebraical 
 expression may be factorised in any number of ways. The 
 proper course to take is first of all to consider the resolution 
 of whole numbers into their prime factors ; then to consider 
 the resolution of rational integral functions of one variable
 
 1 88 The Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 with rational integral coefficients into the product of irreducible 
 factors of the same kind; then the resolution of binary forms 
 such as oip' — 3^^+ 2)^-, then that of simple ternary forms such 
 as 
 
 x^ {y - s) +/ (s - X) + z" {x -y), 
 
 and so on. Quadratic, and even cubic or biquadratic equa- 
 tions with rational roots may be solved at this stage, and also 
 problems leading to them. Equations should always be 
 reduced to the form X=o, X being a polynomial in x, and 
 the solution shown to be equivalent to the factorising of 
 X. Attention should be drawn to algebraic symmetry and 
 to the importance of degree and homogeneity. 
 
 After this naturally comes the discussion of G. c. m. and 
 L.c.M. and the theory of rational fractions; based, of course, 
 upon the corresponding parts of arithmetic. I do not see 
 why the elements of the theory of partial fractions should 
 not be included. The general proof of the rule for G. c. M. 
 may be postponed, but its principle may be illustrated by 
 particular examples. 
 
 When a class is able to perform all the rational operations 
 of algebra with ease and accuracy, the teacher may follow the 
 subsequent order of any good text-book or vary it at his own 
 discretion. It is not my intention to try to discuss in detail 
 all the subjects included in an ordinary school course of 
 algebra : I have tried to indicate what 1 think is the proper 
 way of dealing with the rudimentary part, which is after all the 
 most difficult: I will merely add a few remarks upon particular 
 points. 
 
 One great difficulty is the summation of the convergent 
 geometrical progression 
 
 Progression. 
 
 1 + r + r"^ + r^ + ... ad inf.
 
 VII.] Algebra. 189 
 
 After proving that the sum of the first ;/ terms is 
 
 I r" 
 
 it is usually said that " when r is a proper fraction ?'" can be 
 made as small as we please by taking 71 large enough." This, 
 of course, is true, but it is not obvious without proof; and the 
 proof is so easy that it ought, I think, to be given. Thus, 
 suppose a is positive and greater than i : then we may put 
 
 whereby is positive. Then 
 
 rt" = I + 2j +_>'" > I + 27, 
 a? = a} (i -\-y) > (i +y) (i + 2_>')> i + 3ji^+ 2^ 
 > I +37 
 a fortiori. 
 
 Proceeding thus, we prove by induction that, if n is any 
 positive integer, 
 
 «" > I + 7iy, 
 
 and therefore a" may be made as large as we please by taking 
 n large enough. 
 
 Now if r is positive and less than i, - is positive and 
 
 greater than i : hence 
 
 (^) . that is, ^^ 
 
 increases without limit as 11 does, and therefore r'^ decreases 
 without limit. If r is a negative proper fraction, say r= — j, 
 then r"=(— )".f", and this decreases numerically without limit 
 as n increases. 
 
 It is very important that the student should see that the 
 series does not converge merely on account of the terms
 
 190 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 becoming infinitesimal : it is advisable to give the example of 
 such a divergent series as 
 
 II I 
 
 I +-+-+... + -+ ... 
 23 n 
 
 in order to make this perfectly clear. 
 
 Another hard subject is that of surds. Here again the 
 treatment of the text-books is generally incom- 
 
 Surds. ° ■' 
 
 plete and unmethodical. It is best, I think, to 
 show how quadratic surds present themselves in the factorising 
 of quadratic forms, and to give some idea of the arithmetical 
 properties of surds as the limits of rational approximations : 
 thus, for instance, ^2 is the limit of either of the series 
 
 I, 1-4, 1-41, 1-414, ••• 
 
 T 3 7 17 
 ' - ' 5 ' 12' ■ ■ ■ 
 
 the first of which is derived from the ordinary process of 
 extracting the square roof, and the other from the continued 
 
 fraction i + . After this, some kind of satisfactory 
 
 2 + 2 + ... •' 
 
 proof can be given of such statements as ^2 . ^3 = ^6. 
 It may also be shown how rational functions of quantities 
 of the form p + ^ >Jr, where /, </, r are rational numbers, may 
 be reduced to the form a + />Jr, where a, b are rational. 
 Without going very deeply into the subject, it is thus possible 
 to give an introduction to it which is sound and methodical so 
 far as it goes, and not a chaotic mass of more or less empirical 
 rules. The same remarks apply to the treatment of indices and 
 logarithms. 
 
 How far a school course should extend depends upon 
 circumstances. The capacity for appreciating algebra varies 
 very widely ; and what is hopelessly difficult to one is easy 
 enough to another. One thing ought to be said ; the science 
 of algebra, properly so called, is a consistent whole, and such
 
 VII.] Algebra. 191 
 
 phrases as "algebra up to simple equations" or "algebra up to 
 the binomial theorem," although convenient, are misleading if 
 they are taken to imply distinct divisions of the subject. And 
 it is important that the subject itself should not be obscured 
 by the multiplicity of its applications. It is true that, for 
 the learner, these applications are invaluable ; but it is a pity 
 when a really capable boy spends all his time in solving 
 "catchy" problems and summing fantastic series, when he 
 might be going on with the study of things of vastly higher 
 importance, such, for instance, as the theory of determinants, 
 the theory of equations, and the convergence of infinite 
 series. 
 
 As regards the average boy, it is much better that he should 
 do a little well and accurately than that he should be forced to 
 try too much and degenerate into an inferior calculating- 
 machine. It is impossible to pay too much attention to the 
 rudiments ; and accuracy must be insisted upon at the outset. 
 The habit of careless and slovenly work, once acquired, is very 
 difificult to cure ; and it leads to a state of mind which is very 
 hurtful in things other than mathematical. 
 
 Above all, the work should be intelligent, and not merely 
 mechanical. It is quite true that algebra is in 
 itself a purely formal science, governed by a bare R^e^^°" '"' 
 half-dozen of fundamental laws ; it is true also 
 that familiarity with these laws can be best acquired by the 
 practice of purely formal operations. But it is the teacher's 
 duty to see that all these mechanical calculations are only 
 means to an end : and he must shun the temptation, that so 
 often presents itself, to encourage the merely imitative instincts 
 of his pupils at the expense of their reasoning faculties. It 
 is comparatively easy to teach algebra in a way which earns 
 marks in an examination, but is almost, if not quite, worthless 
 from an educational point of view. It involves no more 
 training of the mind than the doing of ''sums" by means
 
 192 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. vii. 
 
 of rules which have been learnt by rote : and it has not even 
 that practical use which may be urged in defence of mechanical 
 arithmetic. 
 
 In conclusion it may be remarked that, other things being 
 
 equal, that teacher will best instil the elements 
 
 Importance of q{ thg subject w^ho knows most about it as a 
 
 sound Rudi- . , - , . 
 
 ments. wholc. His knowledge of what is to come will 
 
 guide him in laying a soHd foundation, and 
 secure his pupils from having anything to unlearn. One of 
 the most trying of a University teacher's experiences is to 
 be asked to give instruction in comparatively advanced 
 mathematics to a student whose elementary training has 
 been deficient or erroneous. To correct his mistaken notions, 
 and to fill up the gaps in his knowledge, is harder than it 
 would have been to teach him from the very beginning. It 
 is often quite impossible to repair the mischief that has 
 been done, because the ill effects of his earlier training have 
 become inveterate. 
 
 It is a very good thing, with this end in view, to refresh 
 and improve one's knowledge by the occasional study of a 
 really scientific treatise, such as Chrystal's Algebra, or the 
 perusal of philosophical discussions on particular points, for 
 instance De Morgan's articles in the Penny Cyclopcedia, one of 
 which has been already referred to. As to elementary text- 
 books, there are so many good ones available that it would be 
 invidious to make a selection : unfortunately there are still 
 some which are not all that could be desired, but their defects 
 are usually obvious to the competent observer. Speaking 
 generally, it may be said that small text-books drawn up to 
 meet the requirements of particular examinations should be 
 avoided.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GEOMETRY^ 
 
 In order to decide upon the proper method of teaching 
 any subject whatever, it is obvious that we ought to have 
 definite notions as to our reason for teaching it at all, and that 
 we ought to keep these notions clearly before us during our 
 teaching, so that every stage of it may tend to their perfect 
 realisation. 
 
 Why, then, do we teach geometry ? 
 
 The objects of Mental Education are, I take it, in the main 
 three : — 
 
 Firstly — The opening of the mental eye to all the 
 mystery of the world around, or, to put the 
 matter otherwise, the awakening of the faculty Education 
 of wonder, it being as true now as it was when 
 those remarkable words were first uttered, that 'He that 
 wonders shall reign, and he that reigns shall rest.' 
 
 Secondly — The due training of the mental eye, the aboli- 
 tion of mental colour-blindness and mental astigmatism, and 
 the acquisition of mental perspective. 
 
 ^ This chapter is an abridgment of a paper read before the Bath Branch 
 of the Teachers' Guild in May 189 1, and published, during the same year, 
 in the July and August numbers of The Practical Teacher. It is reprinted 
 here by the kind permission of Mr Joseph Hughes, the late Editor of that 
 Magazine. 
 
 S. T. 13
 
 194 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Thirdly — The gathering, classification, and orderly arrange- 
 ment of useful knowledge — knowledge, I mean, which is to 
 prove itself useful in the acquisition of other knowledge, not in 
 any sense knowledge which has its monetary market value, for 
 I cannot admit that a subject like Book-keeping, to take one 
 example of several that present themselves, which has but a 
 paltry bread-and-butter utility, has any true place or part in a 
 rightly planned Scheme of Education, and am, indeed, inclined 
 to believe that the very utility, as distinguished from the useful- 
 ness, of a suggested subject of Education is in part its condem- 
 nation also. 
 
 Now Mathematics in the elementary stages can do but 
 little towards the realisation of the first aim. 
 in EduraTion" '^^'^^ Wonderland exists, it is true, but it comes 
 only after long and toilsome marches, which 
 cannot be avoided by any short cuts whatever. ' There is no 
 royal road to Geometry,' as Euclid himself told the great 
 Ptolemy Soter, when in search of a short cut thither for kings. 
 
 But the Wonderland exists, I repeat, and its wonders repay 
 the march. I venture to assert that the feelings one has when 
 the beautiful symbolism of the Infinitesimal Calculus first gets 
 a meaning, or when the delicate analysis of Fourier has been 
 mastered, or while one follows Clerk Maxwell or Thomson 
 into the strange world of Electricity, now growing so rapidly 
 into form and being, or can almost feel with Stokes the pulsa- 
 tions of the light that gives nature to our eyes, or track with 
 Clausius the courses of molecules we can measure, even if we 
 know with certainty that we can never see them — I venture to 
 assert that these feelings are altogether comparable to those 
 aroused in us by an exquisite poem or a lofty thought. 
 
 For the average schoolboy, however, these considerations 
 are beside the mark. The Wonderland of Geometry, at all 
 events, lies far beyond most of our pupils. You may tell them 
 if you like that the same two points are common to every
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 1 95 
 
 circle in a given plane, that, draw your circle where you like, 
 you cannot get away from them, that these two points have 
 many wonderful properties, as, for instance, that any tangent 
 from them to an ellipse passes through a focus of that ellipse ; 
 you may hint at the possibility of Geometry of Four Dimen- 
 sions, in which spheres can be turned inside out, and knots 
 tied on endless cords ; but, for all your trouble, your pupils will 
 stolidly disbelieve you, nor will you have rendered their mental 
 horizon one degree the wider. 
 
 For much the same reason we are debarred from pleading 
 the third of our Educational objects. Geometry is not of 
 much use — save to the mathematician — as a basis for build- 
 ing other knowledge upon. Yet this motive should not 
 be altogether lost sight of. It will serve us in good 
 stead with that awkward youth who is always sulkily asking 
 us the wherefore of all these triangles, parallelograms, and 
 circles. It is no use to tell him that they are whetstones for 
 his wits. He is not aware that his wits need sharpening, 
 nor would he greatly relish the prospect if he were. Indeed, 
 he regards his discovery of the uselessness of Euclid as a proof 
 of his already superior sharpness. So we may lawfully use 
 lower motives with him. We may tell him that there is a 
 Science of Trigonometry which is merely the Algebraical state- 
 ment and expansion of Euclid i., 47. That it is this science 
 which enables ships to sail in straight course, or St Gothard 
 Tunnels to be pierced so exactly, that engineers from Switzer- 
 land and engineers from Italy meet, within an inch or 
 two, in the centre of the mountain after five miles of inde- 
 pendent burrowing from opposite sides, and we can thus, 
 experto crede, inspire thf. dullest with a kind of interest in his 
 work. 
 
 But the teacher must regard the main function of Geometry 
 as being Intellectual Discipline. And, just because Geometry 
 is the most perfect discipline ever invented by man, Plato's 
 
 13—2
 
 196 The Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 motto fjLrjhils ayew/AeVpr/Tos cio-tVo) should be Over the porch 
 which leads to all higher learning, that no undisciplined foot 
 may profane it by devious illogicality. 
 
 Let us now descend from the high ground of theory to 
 the practical questions — what shall we teach, and how shall we 
 teach it? 
 
 I. Shall Geometry mean Euclid, or shall it mean Euclid's 
 ' Modern Rivals ' ? 
 
 I am sufficiently conservative to believe that, for the teachers 
 Euclid's ^^ ^^^^ young, it ought to mean Euclid and not 
 Modern the Association Syllabus. Euclid has great and 
 grave defects, some of which are easily removed, 
 some of which are inherent in his method. These have been 
 stated once for all by De Morgan^ in his masterly article on 
 Euclid's life and works. He 'never condescends to hint at 
 the reason why he finds himself obliged to adopt any particular 
 course. Be the difficulty ever so great, he removes it without 
 mention of its existence.' But the teacher can condescend, 
 and the teacher can give himself the pleasure of mentioning 
 the difficulty, as a preface to the still more exquisite pleasure of 
 removing it. ' He has not the smallest notion of admitting 
 any generalised meaning of a word, or of parting with any 
 ordinary notion attached to it. Setting out with the conception 
 of an angle rather as the sharp corner made by the meeting 
 of two lines than as the magnitude which he afterwards shows 
 how to measure, he never gets rid of that corner, never 
 admits two right angles to make one angle, and still less is 
 able to arrive at the idea of an angle greater than two right 
 angles.' Yet, after all, 'these objections refer to matters 
 which can be easily mended. No one has ever given so easy 
 and natural a chain of geometrical consequences. There is a 
 never erring truth in the results The strong inclination 
 
 ^ Smith's Dictionary of Greek atid Roman Biography, Article ' Eucleides,' 
 vol. ii., p. 65. The quotations are from thence.
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 197 
 
 of editors to consider Euclid as perfect, and all negligences 
 as the work of unskilful commentators or interpolators, is 
 in itself a proof of the approximate truth of the character 
 they give the work ; to which it may be added that editors in 
 general prefer Euclid as he stands to the alterations of other 
 editors.' 
 
 We ought to adopt the Elements of Euclid, I say, partly 
 because they are themselves exquisitely adapted to our purpose 
 of mental discipline, partly because there is no hope whatever 
 of any general consensus as to a suitable substitute, and partly 
 because the book which was used 2,000 years ago in the 
 schools of Alexandria has gathered round it a halo of associ- 
 ations not in themselves devoid of educational value. 
 
 II. Whose Edition shall we use? 
 
 Need I say that no edition is perfect ? We teachers under- 
 stand each other, and we know that each one of 
 us is firmly convinced in his secret soul that on Edition. ^^ 
 his own particular hobby the perfect book will 
 not have been written until he writes Finis at the end of his 
 viagnum opus. But, on the whole, the edition of Hall and 
 Stevens (Macmillan) best realises my wishes. To this, how- 
 ever, the teacher ought to add, for his own private use, at 
 least three other editions, namely, Mackay's' (W. and R. 
 Chambers), which will supply him with a large assortment 
 of the easy Riders to which I shall subsequently refer. The 
 Harpur Euclid (Rivington), and The Elements of Plane 
 Geometry (Sonnenschein). If he cares to add more, and in 
 this subject there is eminent wisdom in a multitude of coun- 
 sellors, the next three should be The Pitt Press Euclid 
 
 ^ This is in' many respects the best school edition in existence, but the 
 typography is disagreeable, and it seems to me a grave mistake to turn 
 Book II. into Algebra by the use of miims and indices. There can be no 
 doubt that AB'^ had no meaning whatever for Euclid, and has only a 
 wrong and ungeometrical meaning for the average schoolboy.
 
 1 98 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 (Cambridge Press), Deighton's (Deighton, Bell), and Casey's 
 (Dublin Press). 
 
 For Junior Forms the edition of Layng (Blackie) is 
 admirable. A First Step in Eticlid by Bradshaw (Macmillan) 
 contains many valuable hints for the teacher. 
 
 III. I proceed now to make some unmethodical remarks 
 upon Method. 
 
 The Definitions. It is wrong to treat these as a mere 
 Practical repetition lesson. Have your class round your 
 
 Hints: Defini- blackboard, and try to make them up for your- 
 selves. At least half the definitions lend them- 
 selves to this. You will have difficulty with the fundamental 
 notions of point, line, and surface — but the difficulty is meta- 
 physical and must be slurred over. Euclid's definition of a 
 straight line as 'that which lies evenly between its extreme 
 points ' is bad, a wordy periphrasis which states that all which 
 he can tell us of a straight line is that it is straight. But it is 
 dangerous to tell your pupils that P^uclid ever nods, and 
 perhaps you had better leave it. If you wish to emend, you 
 may substitute the A. I. G. T. Syllal)us definition : — 
 
 ' A straight line is such that any part will, however placed, 
 lie wholly on any other part, if its extremities are made to fall 
 on that part.' 
 
 But when once the preliminary terms are mastered, the rest 
 is easy. You i)ut a triangle on the board, and by judicious 
 questions you can elicit the whole definition. The boys will 
 probably all know what to call it. 
 
 'Jones, what is that?' 'A triangle, sir.' 'Well, let us find 
 out all we can about this triangle. Is it flat, or is it curved 
 like a ball?' 'Flat, sir.' So you enter on the board — 
 Triangle, flat figure. ' Well, what else?' 'Three corners, sir.' 
 You enter — Triangle, flat figure with three corners. ' Are all 
 flat figures with three corners triangles ? ' The boy will 
 probably answer ' Yes.' So you draw a triangle with curved
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 199 
 
 sides. 'Is that a triangle?' 'No, sir, they're not straight.' 
 'What are not straight?' 'The sides, sir.' 'Oh, has a tri- 
 angle sides as well? How many?' 'Three, sir.' Your board 
 now reads — Triangle, flat figure, three corners, three sides, 
 sides all straight. 'Is this all?' 'Yes, sir.' A little more 
 cross-questioning, and you show him that he has stated more 
 than he need, and reduce your definition to ' A flat figure with 
 three straight sides,' which you have only to translate into 
 Euclid's dialect, and you have done. 
 
 There are ioyn more valuable exercises than for the teacher 
 thus to get his class to state in their own words their idea of 
 an object, whether it be a triangle, or a noun, or a chemical 
 experiment, and then by close and lively questioning to render 
 this popular idea correct by eliciting where it is defective or 
 where it is redundant. 
 
 The extended non-Euclidian definition of an angle should 
 be introduced from the first, as also should the system of 
 measuring by degrees, so that you may refer to a right angle 
 as an angle of 90°, and give definiteness to your terminology 
 and teaching. You should accustom the pupil early to angles 
 greater than 180", and to the angle of 180°, for which you 
 will find the term flat-angle or straight-angle useful. The 
 motion of clock-hands will render you good service here, but, 
 unfortunately, the makers thereof have wickedly contrived that 
 clock-hands shall revolve negatively. A good deal of judicious 
 cross-questioning will be required before the definitions are 
 mastered. Mackay has five pages of masterly questions full of 
 suggestiveness'. You will be surprised at the answers you 
 obtain to 'Is a rectangle a square?' 'Is a square a rect- 
 angle?' 'If I double the arms of an angle, do I double the 
 angle ? ' 
 
 ^ The Progressive Euclid, by A. T. Richardson (Macmillan and Co.), 
 will also be found useful in this connection.
 
 200 Tlie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 You will point out that the Postulates are merely demands 
 
 for a straight edge and a pair of compasses. If 
 
 Postulates -^ were not for that bugbear of an examiner, I 
 
 and Axioms. ^ ' 
 
 am not sure that I should not advise the almost 
 total omission of the axioms. It is not as if they were complete. 
 They are simply an early attempt to formulate the laws of 
 thought. Euclid assumes several which he does not specifi- 
 cally mention — as, for instance, that the two circles which he 
 draws in his First Proposition will intersect somewhere^ But 
 if you must have axioms, you ought not to admit 'Two right 
 angles are equal,' which can be validly proved without the use 
 of any proposition whatever^, and which has really been 
 implicitly assumed when you were discussing the question of 
 degrees. Moreover, the so-called ' Twelfth Axiom ' must be 
 deferred until after Prop, xvii., unless you would have trouble. 
 At that stage, a few words upon this axiom will render the 
 whole theory of parallels as easy as it ever can be in a world 
 where it is unfortunately impossible for us to go to infinity to 
 look after the intersections of our parallels. 
 
 Now as to the Propositions. It is my custom to go care- 
 fully, on the blackboard, over the ground of each 
 Pro^osirions*^ "^^^' Proposition with the class. We treat it as 
 a problem, or a puzzle if you will, of which we 
 do not know the solution. We endeavour to find out before- 
 hand how we should do it. It will often happen that a 
 solution different from Euclid's is suggested. We analyse 
 this carefully, and point out what reasons Euclid may have had 
 for preferring his own. For, of course, we assume that Euclid 
 was fully aware of ours, since in dealing with young pupils it is 
 bad to doubt the omniscience of your author. Then we send 
 
 1 On this whole topic of Axioms and Postulates, see the Pitt Press 
 Euclid. 
 
 2 See the A. I. G. T. Euclid, p. 20 [fi). The book which is thus 
 referred to is Sonnenschein's edition previously mentioned.
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 201 
 
 the class to their seats. We ask them to go over the propo- 
 sition in their books. We draw the figure for them, topsy- 
 turvy, and with different letters. We insist on their applying 
 Euclid's reasoning to our figures. On no account whatever 
 must they be allowed to learn any portion of their work by 
 heart, not even, at first at all events, the Enunciations'. Our 
 aim is Mental Discipline, not Mnemonics. Then in the next 
 Euclid period, and never on the same day or in the same 
 lesson, their knowledge is tested. Again we draw the figure 
 for them, in some other state of topsy-turvydom, with other 
 letters, and we ask them to write the proposition out, and 
 mark their work accordingly. Here I may note that it is a 
 good plan to draw that portion of the figure which is among 
 the data in thicker Hnes, or with coloured chalk, reserving thin 
 lines, or some different colour, for those portions which are 
 given by the constniction. It seems to me essential that this 
 should be done in the Text-Book adopted for class use, as it 
 is in most of the editions named here. But, in asking for the 
 proposition, we endeavour to depolarise it, if I may borrow a 
 striking phrase from Wendell Holmes. We do not ask for an 
 equilateral triangle, we ask for a triangle with three equal 
 sides, or for a triangle each side of which shall be i inch 
 long; we do not ask our pupils to describe a parallelogram 
 equal to a given figure and having an angle equal to a given 
 angle, we ask for a rectangle equal to the given figure, and so 
 forth. 
 
 The proposition known, the first step is taken, but only 
 the first. The notion that the First Book of 
 Euclid is known if we know some 48 proposi- of^fders"^ 
 tions is one which has done immense harm to 
 
 ^ But the substance of the Enunciation should be learnt, and the pupil 
 should, in writing out a Proposition, ' put in his references,' except to 
 Axioms. This practice is a great help to orderly and systematic geometrical 
 thinking.
 
 202 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 mathematical teaching. We must remember that in this subject 
 we are teachers of method., not of results. The proposition 
 is not known as it ought to be, unless its principles can be 
 applied to the solution of little problems upon it, and it is 
 my firm belief, the result of experience, that the dullest may 
 be taught to solve these. Herein lies, from the teacher's point 
 of view, the supreme merit of Mackay's book ; for to every 
 proposition this editor adds a number of easy Riders or 
 problems. These are often such as the teacher may readily 
 make for himself, and the teacher ought indeed to keep a 
 collection of such home-made problems. I will take a few 
 instances. 
 
 After Proposition i. we should ask as follows' : — 
 
 Examples: I- Draw an equilateral triangle whose sides 
 
 P^'op- >• are each i inch long. 
 
 A word here on behalf of so-called Geometrical Drawing. 
 I believe that it adds definiteness to the ideas without any loss 
 of logical power, and that its almost universal neglect by 
 teachers of Euclid has been a great loss of power to them. 
 
 2. Show how to find a point equidistant from two given 
 points. 
 
 This widens the conception of the meaning of the proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 3. How many equilateral triangles can be described on 
 the given line? Draw them all. 
 
 When his problem has two solutions, the pupil must never 
 be allowed to miss the fact. 
 
 4. Draw a straight line which is twice as long as a given 
 line. 
 
 5. Given a straight line i inch long, show how to draw a 
 
 ^ I liere borrow freely from Mackay, and from the Pitt Press Euclid.
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 203 
 
 straight line 3 inches long. How many ways are there of 
 doing this? 
 
 If the principles involved in these last two problems are not 
 fully grasped, you will extend them and ask for straight lines 
 4, 5, 6... inches long, as the case may require. 
 
 6. Construct an isosceles triangle whose sides are i, 2, 2 
 inches respectively; i, 3, 3, &c. 
 
 Be careful here that you do not allow the transference of 
 length by simple movement of the compass, for, if you do, you 
 will destroy the Second Proposition, which is of supreme 
 mental benefit. 
 
 7. If both points of intersection be joined with both 
 centres, the figure is a rhombus. 
 
 8. Construct a rhombus having one of its diagonals equal 
 to a given line. 
 
 9. Keeping (6) before you, show that there is an infinite 
 number of solutions to (8), as also to (2). 
 
 10. Show how to make a rhombus having each of its sides 
 equal to a given straight line. 
 
 11. Given a line, length one inch, construct a triangle 
 whose sides are 3, 4, 5 inches respectively. 
 
 You thus solve i. 22 for the case when the sides are com- 
 mensurate. But you must on no account point out at this 
 stage that the angle of this triangle is right, or your pupils 
 will assume an angle to be right when it looks so. 
 
 12. Lastly, if you ask them to draw a triangle whose sides 
 are i, 3, and 5 inches, and if you point out that the problem is 
 impossible, and why, you pave the way for Euclid i. 20 : and 
 you will do yourself service in another direction, for most of 
 your pupils will not see that the problem is impossible until 
 they draw their circles; and you can remind them of this when 
 they tell you, as they probably will when you come to i. 20, 
 that the theorem is obvious, and no proof necessary.
 
 204 TJie Ai7)is and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 I must pass over the Second and Third Propositions with- 
 out comment, save that I think it is a mistake to 
 otTiit the second, as Nixon' does. There is no 
 better training than the construction of the figure in the varying 
 cases here. There are eight cases, and to these may most 
 usefully be added the cases when the given point is : — 
 
 I St. Within the given line. 
 
 2nd. At the middle point of the given line. 
 
 3rd. On the given line produced. 
 
 With the Fourth Proposition comes your first real difficulty. 
 You can surmount this easily and satisfactorily 
 if, instead of drawing a figure on the blackboard, 
 you pin up to it two paper triangles, which you can take, when 
 occasion requires, and place one on the top of the other. You 
 must not allow the triangles to be equilateral, nor, generally 
 speaking, to be right-angled — just as when a parallelogram is 
 in question you should strictly discountenance a rhombus or a 
 rectangle, while you must rule a parallelogram out of court 
 when your question refers to a quadrilateral — otherwise you 
 will have false inferences made. 
 
 Euclid's proof of the Fifth and Sixth Propositions should 
 be left until after the Twenty-sixth, by which 
 
 Prop. V. J ■! J 
 
 time the pupils will have got accustomed to 
 the equality of triangles in various positions. Meanwhile, but 
 only as a temporary expedient, the Fifth Proposition must be 
 proved by super-position. Again you have a paper diagram, 
 but this time it is double. You reveal that the triangle ABC 
 has left its mark behind it, as it were, to show its size, and 
 has changed its place. You then turn it over, and it would 
 be as well to have it of a different colour at the back ; you call 
 your reversed triangle abc, and you proceed to put it back 
 again and go through the argument of i. 4 with it. You must 
 ^ Euclid Revised, Clarendon Press.
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 205 
 
 be careful, however, to show that b and c correspond to C and 
 B respectively. Moreover you ought not merely to say that 
 the result you desire follows by i. 4. Go through the proof of 
 i. 4 with your two triangles once more, just as if i. 4 were not 
 in existence. So again for i. 6. 
 
 Proposition vii. should be read. I cannot see any force in 
 the objection to impossible figures. The pupil 
 will often draw such figures without meaning to 
 do so, and it seems to be of the utmost importance that he 
 should learn to argue out all the consequences of a figure and 
 thus to test for himself whether the figure he has drawn is or is 
 not a possible one. 
 
 In Props, ix., x., xi. and xii., encourage above everything 
 accurate figures. Show also other methods of 
 attaining the same ends, such as those adopted g^^^ f ^ °" 
 by carpenters and in books on Geometrical 
 Drawing. Explain why these serve their purpose better than 
 Euclid's would. But let Euclid be the letter of your law 
 throughout. 
 
 Prop. xiii. will present no difficulty if the flat-angle be 
 introduced ; otherwise there are few propositions to which the 
 schoolboy so strenuously objects. 
 
 After Prop. xvii. you will introduce the old Twelfth Axiom 
 and a short disquisition on the meaning of parallels. 
 
 After Prop. xxvi. you will summarise the cases in which 
 Euclid has proved two triangles to be equal, and add the 
 missing case which Euclid appears to notice for the first time in 
 vi., 7. You can always lead your class to discover this missing 
 case, and most of them will discover its ambiguity also. 
 
 After Propositions xxxv., xxxvi., and xlvii., it is very useful, 
 indeed almost essential, to show that the figures concerned 
 may be divided into congruent figures, i.e., figures which will 
 fit together. This should be done by dissected cardboard 
 models.
 
 2o6 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 In the Second Book, tlie abbreviation AB' for the square 
 on AB ought not to be allowed until the Eighth 
 Proposition is passed. After this (except in xi.), 
 Euclid never actually draws the square represented by AB'., 
 and there is less harm in the abbreviation. I do not think it 
 wise to direct attention to the Algebraical meaning of the pro- 
 positions until the first eight are mastered ; and the use of the 
 sign nwius is always dangerous for a weak pupil. The almost 
 universal ostracism of the Eighth Proposition ap])ears causeless. 
 The proof by congruency of these eight propositions should 
 always be exhibited by dissected cardboard models. 
 
 I must omit all the many questions raised by the Third and 
 
 Fourth Books in order that I may find space for 
 
 ^^'!°P°''^'°"- a word or two on Proportion before I conclude. 
 
 De Morgan. ^ 
 
 Our first task is to render the definition com- 
 prehensible. It is not hard to make a class understand the 
 immense logical difficulty involved in the ratio of incom- 
 mensurable quantities. It was this, and the undeveloped state 
 of Arithmetic, the absence of any good notation for vulgar 
 fractions, which placed Euclid in the dilemma from which he 
 escaped by his brilliant definition of the equality of ratios, one 
 of the most original and ingenious devices in the whole range 
 of Mathematics. The definition however is difficult, and we 
 shall do well to bring forward De Morgan's masterly presenta- 
 tion of it. But De Morgan wishes us to imagine columns and 
 colonnades and railings, and, as these things are not met with 
 in an ordinary schoolroom, I will alter the phraseology a 
 little, and present the matter thus : We have our pupils round 
 the blackboard, and draw a ground plan of the schoolroom for 
 them, indicating in the plan the boards of the flooring and 
 the positions of the desks. Then we note that Euclid's idea 
 of the proportionality between width of board, width of desk, 
 width of board in plan, width of desk in plan, is that if we 
 fix our eye on, say, the eleventh board and the fifth desk, we
 
 VIII.] Geometry. 207 
 
 shall find the desk beyond the board in the plan if we find it 
 beyond in the schoolroom, at the same place in the plan if it is 
 at the same place in the schoolroom, behind if it is behind. 
 This sounds complicated, but is really simplicity itself. I 
 happen to have had the opportunity of trying the illustration 
 recently with a class, and was much interested to note how a 
 boy whom I always regard as the barometer of the class 
 indicated at once " Set Fair," and subsequently gave me an 
 intelligible account of this difficult subject.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 The necessity for an organized system of Instruction is 
 
 a settled question. Experience has shown that 
 
 Science as a Systematic education is a most important factor 
 
 subject of In- -^^ ^^^ causes which lead to individual and na- 
 
 struction. Its 
 
 place in School tional development. Although any discussion 
 ^""^ ■ of this question lies outside the scope of this 
 
 chapter, it is necessary for our purpose to emphasize the fact 
 that, in the general case, the ultimate object of education is 
 to prepare men and women to carry on the work of their 
 lives with the greatest possible advantage to themselves and 
 the community. 
 
 Viewed in this light, Physical Science has an indis- 
 putable claim on teachers as one of the most important 
 subjects of instruction. In no other subject is mental 
 training so naturally the outcome of a careful study of 
 science for its own sake. The facts of a science have to be 
 obtained by careful observation and experiment ; they have 
 to be sought, one after the other, for definite reasons and by 
 definite methods ; they ultimately lead, step by step, to 
 the broad generalisations which constitute the laws of the 
 science, and every step demands the full exercise of all the 
 mental faculties. Mental Discipline of the highest order is 
 the result, but not the object, of work of this kind. Moreover,
 
 Chap, ix.] Physical Science. 209 
 
 the knowledge acquired by a course of study in Physical 
 Science is in many cases of the greatest importance for the 
 practical applications of Science to the industries and com- 
 merce of the world, and it is by no means unimportant 
 for the training of a student that he should constantly have 
 to consider the practical bearings of acquired theoretical 
 knowledge. Further, the experimental work inseparable from 
 such a course exacts a rational and systematic training of 
 both hand and eye, the value of which can hardly be over- 
 estimated. 
 
 Although Physical Science is thus pre-eminently a subject 
 for the student, it is a somewhat difficult question to decide 
 how far it should be taken up in schools. My own experience 
 goes to show that Science can be seriously and successfully 
 taught only to properly prepared scholars, and that the 
 teaching of Science properly so called should be confined to 
 the upper forms of schools. The preparatory teaching in the 
 lower forms would, indeed, necessarily involve a good deal 
 of what usually passes for Science, but I feel more and more 
 convinced that the general education of a scholar who intends 
 to take up Science cannot be too liberal, and that no loss 
 of time whatever is involved in delaying the teaching of 
 Science until a good foundation of general education has 
 been laid. It is perhaps too much to expect the reahza- 
 tion of knowledge to keep pace with its acquisition, and in 
 many cases it is sufficient for the scholar to realize the full 
 import of his knowledge long after he has acquired it, but 
 in Science the student must have a clear, though necessarily 
 incomplete, conception of the import of his work as he 
 acquires it, and with young and untrained minds this is im- 
 possible. 
 
 Another point, which at least shows the expediency of 
 confining Science teaching to the upper classes in a school, 
 is the difficulty of arranging for satisfactory laboratory work 
 
 s. T. 14
 
 210 TJie Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 when the number of scholars to be taught is very large. 
 Under exceptionally favourable circumstances it is possible 
 to cope with this difficulty, but in most cases the difficulty 
 is a Very serious one. Another practical difficulty pointing in 
 the same direction is that, if Science is taught in all the 
 classes, and anything like the necessary time given to it, 
 the arrangement of a satisfactory time-table is almost an 
 impossibility. 
 
 It seems therefore desirable to Hmit the teaching of 
 
 Physical Science in schools to suitable pre- 
 
 instrurtion"'^^ paratory instruction in the lower classes, and 
 
 careful thorough teaching of one, or at most 
 
 two, fundamental subjects in the upper classes. 
 
 In addition to the usual routine of school work, the Pre- 
 paratory work in the lower forms should include : — 
 
 {a) An easy course of object lessons in general Elementary 
 Science, which may train the scholars in the habit of careful 
 observation, classification, and generalization. This course 
 should be exceedingly simple and clear ; it should really be a 
 continuation and extension of Kindergarten work. 
 
 (/;) Drawing, Manual Work, and Simple Measurements. 
 The manual work — preferably wood-work — should be dealt 
 with as an application of drawing. All the work should be 
 done from drawings carefully prepared to scale, thus aftbrding 
 very valuable training in accuracy of drawing, manual work, 
 and measurements. 
 
 {c) A very careful training in the ground-work of Mathe- 
 matics, and the elements of Mechanics. The work in Me- 
 chanics should include only the simplest fundamental facts 
 and principles of Kinetics and Statics. 
 
 Of the three stages here indicated, {a) and (/;) are the 
 simplest, and might very well be taught simultaneou.sly in 
 the lower forms. Stage {b) must necessarily be associated 
 with a good deal of exercise in simple measurements, and it
 
 IX.] Physical Science. 211 
 
 would, in most cases, be desirable to include in this stage 
 instruction in simple practical geometry, mensuration, and 
 direct measurements of area, volume and mass. Stage {c) is of 
 a more advanced nature, and need not necessarily precede 
 the simpler elementary instruction in any branch of Physics 
 or Chemistry ; but if the scholars are to take up work which 
 requires a clear conception of the fundamental units of 
 length, mass and time, and of the simpler derived units, 
 the work of this stage becomes of the highest importance. 
 The mechanics taught in this stage should be simple but 
 fundamental, and the mechanical principles dealt with should 
 be illustrated, wherever possible, by carefully arranged ex- 
 periments'. 
 
 A preparatory course of this kind leads naturally and 
 easily to a more detailed experimental study introductory 
 of Physical Science. The first stage of this Course to more 
 
 ■' ° advanced v/ork 
 
 study should undoubtedly be a careful course in Physics or 
 in Theoretical Mechanics, combined with a Theore^ticai 
 practical course of exact measurements, and Mechanics 
 with simple experimental work in Hydrostatics physical Mea- 
 and Pneumatics. surement. 
 
 The course on measurements should be of a more exact 
 and detailed character than that associated with stage {b) 
 above. It might commence with measurements of length 
 involving the use of the vernier, callipers, screw gauge, and 
 other instruments of exact measurement. Measurement of area 
 and volume should be followed by the adjustment and use 
 of the balance in the estimation of mass. Determinations 
 of density and specific gravity should then be made, the 
 
 ^ The course of measurements indicated in Sections i to 5 (Elementary 
 Physics) of the Syllabus issued by the Science Committee of the Head- 
 masters' Association might well be taken with stage (b), and some parts of 
 Sections 11 to 18 might, with advantage, be associated with the mechanics 
 of stage (c). 
 
 14 — 2
 
 212 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 hydrostatic method of measuring volume practised, and a 
 number of carefully selected experiments attempted, with a 
 view to the verification of the more important mechanical 
 principles. The theory and use of hydrometers, the pressure 
 due to liquid columns and the verification of Boyle's law, 
 all supply suitable experimental work, and the determination, 
 by means of the pendulum, of the acceleration due to gravity 
 may serve to introduce some of the more accurate methods 
 of measuring time. Wherever possible, the scholars should 
 be taught how to exhibit their results graphically. A number 
 of experiments specially arranged to illustrate the application 
 and advantages of ' curves ' would also be of great value. 
 
 The initial course here sketched out is a practical course, 
 involving a number of experiments, in which it is possible 
 to obtain, with simple inexpensive apparatus, fairly accurate 
 results. In many experiments it is difficult, even with the 
 greatest care, to obtain anything like an accurate result ; and 
 it is in every way desirable to avoid, in a first course, experi- 
 ments which may tend to discourage the student and give 
 him a wrong estimate of the possibilities of experimental 
 work. 
 
 A practical course of this kind should be conducted by 
 means of demonstration lectures, in which the 
 
 Instruction ' 
 
 in Practical methods of work are exi)lained and illustrated 
 ^""^ ■ by the teacher, and should be combined with 
 
 individual Laboratory work on the part of the scholars. In 
 the Laboratory the scholars should, as far as possible, work 
 separately, and all work should be carefully and thoroughly 
 done ; if careless and slovenly, it is worse than useless. Each 
 scholar should keep a Laboratory Note-book, in which the 
 details and results of his practical work should be regularly 
 written up, and as regularly revised and corrected by the 
 teacher. 
 
 After a practical course of this kind, the scholar will be
 
 IX.] Physical Science. 213 
 
 prepared to take up the study of Physics or Chemistry or 
 both. It is not desirable here to enter into 
 
 General 
 
 any detail as to the scope of the courses in methods of 
 these subjects, but something must be said on 
 the general methods of instruction. 
 
 A great deal has been written in favour of the Research 
 attitude on the part of the learner. But, despite the force 
 of some of the arguments adduced, it may be doubted 
 whether this attitude is the proper one for a beginner. 
 At the commencement of a science course the teaching 
 cannot be too simple, and it must be very clear and 
 definite. Each step taken should logically follow from 
 the work already done, and every experiment should be 
 undertaken with a definite object, which should be fully 
 understood and appreciated by the class. In Avorking out 
 a course of this kind, the teacher might, with advantage, follow 
 an imaginary research path into the subject, but the scholars 
 may not become conscious of this, and it is quite unneces- 
 sary that they should. If scholars are taught to observe the 
 progress of an experiment in a vague sort of way, and asked 
 to deduce results from their observations, without being told 
 definitely what to look for and how to look for it, the 
 only result of the work is waste of time. In fact, until the 
 scholars have acquired a little knowledge of the subject, it 
 is useless to expect them to reason for themselves in the 
 way necessary to follow out even the simplest research. Rea- 
 soning of this kind involves a knowledge of the facts and 
 principles of the subject, and a beginner's time is best em- 
 ployed in acquiring this knowledge under the guidance of a 
 competent teacher. 
 
 At this stage, too, it is possible now-a-days to have too 
 much experimenting and too little theory. Experimental 
 work is of no value whatever unless the theoretical knowledge 
 of the scholar is full enough to enable him to understand
 
 214 ^/''^ Aims a fid Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 clearly the object and the details of the experiment. The 
 scholars should be carefully prepared for every experiment 
 shown them — they should know why the experiment is 
 undertaken and what they are to look for, and they should 
 understand every detail of the apparatus. In the same way 
 the Laboratory work of the individual scholars should be 
 associated with lessons on the theory of the work, and these 
 lessons should be in advance of the practical work. There 
 is probably no class of teaching which is more valueless 
 than that in which theory is neglected for the sake of ex- 
 periment — the Laboratory work degenerates into mere me- 
 chanical routine, and the student acquires no real knowledge 
 of the subject. 
 
 There seems to be a growing tendency on the part of 
 incompetent teachers to think that if their Science teaching 
 includes ' experiments ' and Laboratory work, it is therefore 
 all that it should be. They regard experiment, combined 
 with the ' inductive method,' as the essence of good teaching. 
 A class commences Chemistry by seeing Hydrogen prepared 
 in the usual way, and is thereupon invited to ' observe,' make 
 notes and 'draw inferences' — possibly also, in the person of 
 a single one of its members, to repeat the experiment. All 
 are then supposed to be learning Chemistry by the most 
 approved methods, whereas probably not one scholar in the 
 class has any real conception of what is going on. 
 
 When, however, a scholar has made some progress with 
 a Science, and possesses some knowledge to work with, it is 
 in every way desirable to encourage him to experiment for 
 himself, and to think for himself. Part of his Laboratory 
 work should now consist of very simple researches after 
 facts. For example, as soon as he thoroughly understands 
 density determination, he might experiment to see how far 
 hammering a piece of lead alters its density, how the 
 density of an alloy of known composition is related to the
 
 IX.] Physical Science. 215 
 
 densities of its constituents, how the density of a solution 
 depends upon its concentration. In all work of this kind, 
 it is above all things essential that the methods employed 
 and the results obtained should be intelligible to the student 
 in the light of his previous knowledge. He should, as far 
 as possible, adopt his own method of attacking the question 
 set before him by the teacher. By work of this kind, the 
 scholar will not only be greatly interested in the subject, 
 but obtain valuable training in methods of research. If, 
 however, the scholar adopts too early, and with insufficient 
 knowledge, the role of discoverer, he can neither fully realize 
 the problem to be attacked, nor invent for himself the 
 method of attack, nor have any real appreciation of the result 
 obtained. 
 
 It will be seen that the method of teaching here advocated 
 involves : — 
 
 1. The teaching of the Theory of the subject. 
 
 2. Demonstrations. 
 
 3. Individual Laboratory Work. 
 
 The Demonstrations and Laboratory Work go hand in 
 hand, as indicated above, and both are based , , 
 
 ' ' Instruction 
 
 on the theoretical knowledge possessed by the in Theoretical 
 scholar. Enough has perhaps been said on the ^°^ 
 conduct of experimental work, and it may be desirable to deal 
 a little more fully with the theoretical teaching. 
 
 So long as the teacher is competent and knows his sub- 
 ject, he may safely adopt his own method of teaching; but 
 my own experience leads me to think that simple lectures, 
 illustrated by a few really essential experiments and dia- 
 grams, give the best results. For school purposes, the scholars' 
 notes, revised by the teacher, supply the most satisfactory of 
 text-books. The illustrative experiments should be simple 
 and well chosen, and — most important of all for school work — 
 the lectures should not be continuous discourses perfunctorily
 
 2i6 The Aims and Practice of Teaching, [Chap. 
 
 followed and more or less fragmentarily transcribed, but oral 
 lessons, in which the teacher takes care that every word goes 
 home to each scholar, constant attention being secured by 
 frequent questioning, by the working of examples and repro- 
 duction of sketches. The essential parts of the lesson should 
 be dictated as notes, and the scholars allowed to amplify their 
 notes as much as they like when writing them up after the 
 lesson. This writing up of lectures from the rough notes taken 
 during the lesson is a very important part of the process of 
 instruction, and supplies a very beneficial kind of home work. 
 These notes should in all cases be carefully and regularly 
 revised by the teacher ; otherwise they are liable to be neg- 
 lected, and become useless for revision work. It will be 
 noticed that very httle importance is here attached to elabo- 
 rate lecture-experiments. Every lesson should, of course, be 
 fully illustrated with diagrams and experiments ; but the large 
 number of show experiments which are often dragged into 
 lectures have little or no educative value, and serve only to 
 ornament the lecture and distract the attention of the scholars 
 from the work of the lesson. The greater part of the real 
 experimental work of the scholars must be done in the labora- 
 tory, and for that reason there should be, as already suggested, 
 a close connection between theoretical teaching and labora- 
 tory work. 
 
 Although it is not desirable for young students to work 
 
 from a text-book, it must be remembered that 
 books °^ ^^'''' ^^""^y '^''■''^ ultimately have to do the bulk of 
 
 their reading from text-books, and it therefore 
 becomes necessary to teach them how to study for them- 
 selves. For this purpose a special class should be ar- 
 ranged, in which a good elementary text-book in Chemistry 
 or Physics is carefully worked through under the guidance 
 of the teacher. The object of the teaching should be to guide 
 the scholars in the use of the book and in the methods of
 
 IX.] Physical Science. 217 
 
 private reading. School-boys will learn by heart anything that 
 is definitely set them, but they are slow and unwilling to 
 acquire the habit of reading for themselves ; and must be 
 carefully taught how to extract information from the pages of 
 a Text-book on Science. 
 
 It will be seen that one of the aims of the scheme of 
 work here outlined is to secure continuity in the 
 work of the scholar. But, in order to attain onnsl'rucSn. 
 this continuity to its fullest extent, some- 
 thing more is necessary than logical sequence of matter and 
 method, and a close association between theoretical and ex- 
 perimental work. There must be continuity in the teaching — 
 the same teacher should teach the same subject in all the 
 classes, and should teach both theoretical and practical work. 
 The system of form masters, who take their respective forms 
 in all form work, is perhaps the only practicable one in the 
 lower forms ; but for, say, the two upper forms, a departmental 
 system, in which each master teaches his own subject or sub- 
 jects, is undoubtedly the best. In Science teaching, at all 
 events, this is the only satisfactory method. 
 
 Teaching of this kind lays a very heavy responsibility 
 upon the teacher, and imposes on him a very work and 
 great deal of work. Lessons and experiments Responsibility 
 have to be prepared, laboratory work has to be 
 arranged and superintended, and note-books have to be revised 
 and corrected. 
 
 All this involves a much greater amount of labour than 
 can well be appreciated by the uninitiated ; and, if the classes 
 are too large, the work becomes unmanageable. In all schools 
 in which Physical Science is seriously taught, there should be 
 at least one special teacher for the work, and he should have 
 a good laboratory and the assistance of a lecture attendant, 
 whose duty should be to keep the laboratory in order, and to 
 help in the preparation of lecture experiments and in the
 
 2i8 TIic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 arrangement and conduct of laboratory work. These arrange- 
 ment.s may seem to verge on the lu.xurious, but it is certain 
 that, for good orderly experimental work, a laboratory at- 
 tendant is as essential as a teacher, and any attempt to 
 combine the two must deservedly fail. 
 
 The qualifications of the teacher must obviously constitute 
 a most important factor in the successful carrying 
 thlTerchfr.°^ o^^ o^ ^^^ method of instruction here sug- 
 gested. It may not indeed be primarily essential 
 that the school teacher of science should have a highly 
 specialized knowledge of his subject. What is of vital im- 
 portance, however, is that he should not only possess those 
 general qualifications which are indispensable in the case of all 
 teachers alike, but have undergone, in addition, a systematic 
 course of training both in science generally and, to some 
 degree at least, in the special branch or branches which he 
 elects to teach. This course of training, too, should be 
 associated with, and to some extent preceded by, a sound 
 general education of a liberal type. Superfluous though it 
 may seem to emphasise points of such obvious importance, it 
 is nevertheless unfortunately true that, in many secondary 
 schools, the teaching of science is entrusted to men who, 
 though possessing approved qualifications in some other de- 
 partment of study, have no special knowledge of science. 
 Other teachers, again, who lay claim to such knowledge, 
 are deficient in general education, or entirely lack the sys- 
 tematic training essential to the efficient performance of their 
 work. 
 
 The Commiitee on Science Teaching appointed by the 
 Incorporated Association of Headmasters, working on the lines 
 suggested by Prof. Armstrong, have issued an excellent Syllabus ' 
 
 1 To be obtained from WhiUakor and Co., White Hart Street, Pater- 
 noster Square. Price },d.
 
 IX.] Physical Science. 219 
 
 of practical work in Elementary Physics and Chemistry. In 
 the preparation of the Syllabus "the Committee 
 have been actuated by a wish to indicate both gu^^est^d^by 
 to teacher and to examiner what experiments Committee of 
 
 , , , - J 1 i_ ■ !) --nu Headmasters' 
 
 can suitably be performed by begmners. 1 he Association. 
 Courses indicated in the Syllabus are intended 
 for scholars commencing the study of Science, and may be 
 associated, as indicated in a foot-note, with stages {b) and {c) 
 of the Preparatory Course referred to above. 
 
 The replies given some years ago to enquiries made by 
 the Committee of the British Association on „ 
 
 Present 
 
 the teaching of Physical Science suggest that position of 
 even now the position given to Science in the curricula of 
 curricula of many schools is not a satisfactory Secondary 
 one. 
 
 The time given to Science teaching is in many cases far 
 too little, and the only scholars who are allowed to take up 
 Science are too often those who, from want of ability or apti- 
 tude, are not likely to do well in Classics or Mathematics. 
 The increasing number and value of university scholarships 
 in Science, and the growing supply of teachers who have 
 graduated in Science must ultimately lead to reform in this 
 direction. Science will continue to make increasing demands 
 on the time and work of the teacher, and on the equipment 
 and staff of the schools. We are, even now, beginning to 
 realize that scholars in the upper forms of our secondary 
 schools cannot possibly give the necessary time to each of 
 the many subjects that have to be taught, and we are face 
 to face with the difficulties of specialization and over-work. 
 There can be but little doubt that, in spite of the dangers 
 of premature specialization, the solution of the difficulty must 
 involve exclusion of the subjects least necessary for any par- 
 ticular course of study. In these circumstances the duty of 
 the science teacher is to take care that science is not only
 
 220 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 properly taught under the best possible conditions, but that 
 it is also associated with that amount of literary and mathe- 
 matical instruction which is most essential to its fullest de- 
 velopment. 
 
 In the case of Physical Science the essential basis of 
 study is a knowledge of mathematics and mechanics, and a 
 boy had far better spend his time in the study of these sub- 
 jects than in acquiring a smattering of physics and chemistry 
 at the expense of his mathematics. In the case of scholars 
 who intend to continue their studies at a University or Tech- 
 nical College, it is of far more importance, in the department 
 of Physical Science, that they should be properly prepared 
 to take up their special subject from the beginning than that 
 they should possess a general knowledge of that subject based 
 on insufficient and inaccurate preparatory w'ork. 
 
 Hence, in deciding on a curriculum, it is essential, even at 
 the expense of more specific scientific instruction, to make 
 complete arrangements for teaching the fundamental prepara- 
 tory subjects. The subjects that may be classified as prepara- 
 tory will depend upon the scope and plan of the curriculum, 
 and must be settled by every teacher for himself 
 
 The influence of examinations on teaching is an im- 
 portant and difficult question, the solution of 
 Influence of ^yhjch is indicated by the educational common- 
 
 txaminations. J 
 
 place that it is their abuse rather than their use 
 which has led to most of the evils ascribed to the examination 
 system. When examination results are used as a means of 
 advertising a school, and as a test of the work of the school 
 staff, the inevitable result must be a lowering of the teacher's 
 standard of work. The object of teaching will be to obtain 
 good examination results, and the scholars will naturally think 
 that the one object of learning is to pass examinations. 
 In their proper place, however, examinations by competent 
 examiners are of great help to a teacher. In many cases they
 
 IX.] Physical Science. 221 
 
 give definiteness to a year's work, and they supply a wholesome 
 stimulus to the general work of the school. Detail-drudgery 
 is more thoroughly learnt than it otherwise would be, and both 
 scholars and teachers are able to test at least the effectiveness, 
 if not the full value, of their work. 
 
 To serve a good purpose, however, the examinations 
 must be good and thorough. In all subjects, but especially 
 in Science, the value of an examination depends upon the 
 standing and experience of the examiners. With well quali- 
 fied examiners, the value of an examination, as a test of 
 both scholar's and teacher's work, is often much greater than 
 it appears to be on paper ; and although such examiners can 
 seldom control the Syllabus of examination, there is always, 
 in their case, some guarantee of a sensible interpretation 
 of the Syllabus, and of an accurate estimate of the work sent 
 in. The examination of practical laboratory work in Schools 
 is a difficulty which can only be met by personal inspection 
 or examination on the part of the examiner, and here again 
 it is in the highest degree essential for the examiner to 
 be a specialist in the department in which he examines. 
 Hence, if teachers are free to concern themselves exclusively 
 with those examinations which are adapted to the work of 
 the school, and are conducted by really competent men, they 
 will no doubt find the examination system an important factor 
 in the advancement of their work. In Science, the influence 
 of examiners would perhaps be greater if they were allowed to 
 remodel many of the Syllabuses prescribed for public exami- 
 nations. A fixity of Syllabus requirements is, however, an 
 essential of examination work, and their gradual adaptation 
 to existing educational conditions is perhaps more satisfactory 
 than any alternative involving sudden and far-reaching modifi- 
 cations.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 ' The development of habits is necessary for the individual, and hence 
 for the race, but it stops development along new lines.' (Prof. C F. 
 F"iTZGERALD, P\R.S., Helmholtz Memorial Lecture, Chem. Soc. Jonni., 
 
 Probably no other subject can be taught in school with 
 greater advantage — if it be properly taught ; but probably no 
 subject is more difficult to teacli properly than is chemistry. 
 Hitherto, however, it has suffered greatly from the failure of 
 teachers generally — -especially heads of schools — to appreciate 
 its value as an educational instrument, in consequence of their 
 own want of familiarity with the subject as well as our failure 
 to make its merits known ; moreover, and not least, because 
 entirely contorted views of its aims and objects have been 
 gradually introduced, chiefly through the misdirected efforts 
 of examining bodies, who have done irreparable injury by 
 fostering a mechanical system — itself an outgrowth, a neces- 
 sary outgrowth — of uncontrolled and narrow specialism : for 
 if the proceedings of examining boards in general be studied, 
 it will be found, I believe, that with the rarest exceptions 
 they consist of individuals acting individually, meeting per- 
 haps to consider a class-list together, but seldom seriously 
 acting collectively on any question of educational import.
 
 Conventional 
 
 Chap, x.] Chemistry. 223 
 
 At the outset, I desire to affirm that the conventional 
 chemistry of school primers and the various ex- 
 amining bodies is worthless — nay worse, posi- ^h^^j^try 
 tively detrimental from any sound educational worthless, 
 point of view; and for this chemists themselves examinations, 
 must be held to be mainly responsible. 
 
 What can be the value of a subject which it is possible 
 to ' get up ' in the course of a few weeks or even months ? 
 That hundreds and thousands of scholars should be annually 
 presented for examinations, and should be allowed to pass 
 and obtain certificates after such preparation, is in itself proof 
 of the lowness of the moral standard we are willing to accept 
 in affairs educational — owing to the prevalence of the com- 
 mercial spirit and our method of advertising ' passes ' as a 
 means of advertising schools. The discovery has, in fact, 
 been made that examinations not only afford remunerative 
 occupation, but also that, if carried out on a sufficiently 
 large scale, they can be made remunerative — indeed we may 
 class examining among the new industries discovered in 
 modern times. Like some other modern industries — for ex- 
 ample, the conversion of china clay into calico, the weighting 
 of silk, the production of spirits for export to Africa — it 
 brings considerable advantage to those concerned in carrying 
 it out, although not always to those on whose behalf it is 
 instituted. 
 
 However valuable examinations may be as a means of 
 ' putting on the screw ' on both teachers and taught, it is 
 impossible to overrate the injury done under our present 
 system by unduly ' forcing the pace ' and neglecting the 
 apparently unpromising material on behalf of those whose 
 work is more likely to afford ' results.' The undue en- 
 couragement given to 'literary' methods, owing to the 
 extreme difficulty of properly examining practically, is one of 
 the greatest evils the system entails ; the interference with
 
 224 ^■^^^' Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 freedom of action in schools, and the consequent check on 
 the development of methods of training, is another; and 
 further confusion is introduced in consequence of an entire 
 absence of coordination in the requirements of the different 
 examining bodies. It is necessary to raise all these ques- 
 tions, because teachers for the most part consider themselves 
 tied hand and foot by the requirements of examiners. 
 
 To make the teaching of chemistry in schools of any 
 value whatsoever, two things are necessary: the requirements 
 of examiners must be such as to encourage rational teaching — 
 indeed, to make it essential ; and the character of the e.xami- 
 nations must be such as to enforce a real standard. Instead 
 of being allowed to nibble at a few questions and to pass if 
 they gain the requisite minimum number of marks, students 
 must be rec|uired to give proof of some useful knowledge of 
 the subject, and especially of training. All who have any ex- 
 perience as examiners know that, tested by any such standard, 
 the percentage of passes would not reach two figures. 
 
 When we reflect that no nation prides itself more than 
 ,, . ours on its individualism, and probably with 
 
 Neglect to . . ' l j 
 
 encourage rcasou, it is most remarkable that our educa- 
 
 individuahty. ^j^^^ should be carried out in so mechanical 
 a manner, without reference to the necessity of cultivating 
 and expanding what are generally recognised to be innate 
 tendencies. 
 
 We are proud of our great public schools and talk of our 
 victories having been won on the playing fields of Eton — 
 yet all who seriously study the problem must recognise 
 that our public school system is good in consequence of 
 what is done out of school rather than in consequence of 
 what is done in school ; that the social influences which are 
 brought to bear in them, and the discipline of the playing- 
 fields, are the real elements of importance in the system : 
 the school-work being of the same kind as, and in no way
 
 X.] Chemistry. 225 
 
 superior to, that done in numbers of ordinary schools of no 
 special repute. 
 
 Why then do we not seek to apply the methods which 
 afford such good results out of school to the studies in 
 school? Why do we not devote more attention in school to 
 the development of methods of forming character ? Why 
 should the whole ' civilised ' world be engaged in forcing its 
 children into one mould — in subjecting them to the tyranny 
 of perpetual lesson-learning — in seeking to deprive them of 
 their individuality and of the power of self-helpfulness ? 
 
 It is time indeed that we paid chief attention to the 
 discussion of methods of teaching and to the 
 
 ^ Necessity of 
 
 selection and training of teachers ; when some considering 
 advance in this direction is made, it will be '"^ ° • 
 possible to consider how examinations shall be conducted. 
 At present we live in an ever vicious circle of badly ex- 
 amining those who have been badly taught — because both 
 examiners and teachers have a false standard before them. 
 Examiners' reports, when honestly given by competent men, 
 are in consequence almost always tales of woe. 
 
 New elements of disturbance are now being introduced, 
 as a dissatisfied public, unable to diagnose the true nature 
 of the disease, is beginning to favour the teaching of tech- 
 nical subjects in schools. Examinations for scholarships 
 are being held all over the country under the auspices of 
 County Councils, and will — unless carefully controlled — not 
 only interfere with the regular course of education, but have 
 the effect of selecting scholars who may be good lesson- 
 learners, but are not necessarily the most capable in other 
 respects. 
 
 Before any improvement in our school system can take 
 place, we must arrive at some clearer under- _,, . , . 
 
 r 1 _ Objects to 
 
 Standing as to the objects to be attained in be attained in 
 schools ; it must be recognised that we do not 
 
 s. T. 15
 
 226 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 so much require to impart knowledge as to teach knowingness. 
 We must then consider what constitutes knowingness — 
 what are the directions in which the human mind needs 
 cultivation in order to best fit it to perform the work of 
 life. 
 
 And this is especially necessary at the present time when 
 — owing to the imperfect understanding of the issues involved, 
 of the methods available, of what might and should be done 
 if only it were possible to really grasp the situation in which 
 we are placed — the desire is being expressed to revert to 
 literary methods. 
 
 Reading, writing and arithmetic — giving to these terms their 
 broadest meaning — are universally recognised to be three neces- 
 sary branches of education, but unfortunately they are almost 
 invariably regarded as sufficient. Exception is made in the 
 comparatively limited number of cases of those taking up 
 careers in which the knowledge of some branch of natural 
 science is necessary. ' Science,' in fact, is almost always 
 taught in schools in response to outside pressure, not be- 
 cause it is believed that it affords an important means of 
 training faculties which otherwise remain uncultivated. But 
 this cannot be allowed much longer. We are, in fact, forced 
 to recognise that if we are to fulfil human responsibilities in 
 any satisfactory manner in the future, a fourth branch of 
 study imist be included in the general curriculum : it cannot 
 be defined as science, for all exact knowledge is science, but 
 it may be termed, for want of a shorter expression, the study 
 of Scientific method treated experimentally — having direct refe- 
 rence to practical needs. 
 
 ^V'l1at we all require is to be able to utilise the opportunities 
 we have — to be able, not merely to read, but in every way to 
 mark, learn and inwardly digest the daily lessons of life, what- 
 ever their nature. It is essential that every possible effort 
 be made to develop all the elements constituting character.
 
 X.] Chemistry. 227 
 
 But so long as we merely teach children what is, and do 
 not equip them to be — in however humble a manner — dis- 
 coverers in their turn, we manifestly fail to educate them to 
 the best advantage. Assume that it is sufficient for technical 
 purposes to train, let us say, the bank clerk to write a good 
 hand, to add up long rows of figures correctly, to be honest 
 and to attend to his technical duties — yet, to properly fulfil 
 his duties as a citizen and as a potential or actual parent, 
 he must have received a far broader and more liberal training 
 than will merely enable him to meet the technical requirements 
 of his position. It is this disregard of the human side which 
 is so fatal a flaw in the modern technical education move- 
 ment ; but after all it is but the swing of the pendulum to 
 the opposite side, technical requirements having been too long 
 overlooked in our schools. 
 
 That we must steer a middle course is only too clear to 
 all unprejudiced students of such questions. Our present 
 school system neither confers technical qualifications nor 
 lays a proper foundation for the subsequent successful study 
 of technical subjects : those who are subsequently successful, 
 with rare exceptions, succeed in spite of, and not in conse- 
 quence of, their school studies. In the future we must before 
 all things seek to form the characters of our scholars, and 
 to send them away from school anxious to continue their 
 studies — not sick to death of them — and trained to work 
 properly. The formula of modern education must be — read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic and scientific method, so that all human 
 faculties may be exercised and developed. 
 
 Teachers in technical schools and colleges can do no- 
 thing with boys and girls from school so long as they are 
 mechanically taught. My own life, I know, has been a 
 burden to me of late years in consequence of the bitter 
 disappointment I have year after year experienced in dealing 
 with junior students — who, for the most part, have not had 
 
 15—2
 
 228 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 the faintest desire to learn, let alone any power of helping 
 themselves. Brought up on spoon-food at school ; incapable 
 of thinking, because they have never been called on to think 
 in any general manner ; without the slightest power of ob- 
 serving ; absolutely destitute of experimental skill : in all but 
 exceptional cases they have been incapable of availing them- 
 selves of the opportunities one was only too anxious to give 
 them and even to force upon them ; and their failure has in 
 the great majority of instances been due to faulty training, not 
 to want of intelligence. 
 
 What is the remedy for this state of affairs? No slight 
 alteration in our school system will suffice ; there must be 
 a radical change in method. We must recognise that the 
 present system is a patchwork, mainly constructed of expe- 
 riences gained generations ago, and we must awake to the fact 
 that we have no longer to minister to the needs of the mere 
 contemplative student, but to those of the practical every-day 
 w^orker. 
 
 We have especially to bear in mind — as M. Berthelot, the 
 eminent French chemist, has recently insisted — the difference 
 between the modern era of applied science, extending over 
 the last three-quarters of a century, and the whole develop- 
 ment of the human race during the last 6000 years : a dif- 
 ference so marked (he points out) that a new man is being 
 created on a new earth, and the entire social organisation is 
 being transformed amid conditions for the comprehension of 
 which the past offers no suggestive precedents or data. 
 
 Some preparation is required to meet this change. 
 
 Mere lesson-learning must be abandoned. As Prof. 
 Nature of Mciklejohn has said {Froc. hit. Conf. on Edti- 
 
 the change to catio)l, 1 884, IV. I08), 'it is USClcSS tO forCC 
 
 abolition of this or that idea, this or that piece of know- 
 the learning ledgc, ou the minds of our pu]:)ils: all we do 
 
 of lessons by o ' i i ' 
 
 rote. must be tried by the ultimate test — the test
 
 X.] Chemistry. 229 
 
 of life. That test is contained in the plain questions : — Are 
 the pursuits and the exercises followed and employed in my 
 school likely to be carried on by my pupils after they have 
 bid me good-bye ? Will the habits I have given them re- 
 main? Are the ideas I have given them seeds that will 
 grow and produce fruit for them in their adult life? Have 
 I, above all, given them " the expansive joy of soul over 
 work" that is the source of all fine art?' All must agree 
 with him that ' It would be good work, and work enough, 
 for a professor of education if he could show us, in each 
 subject, how the Didactic (tellitig instead of teaching) could 
 be kept out of the teaching of it, and how learning might be 
 made a vigorous excursion, with fresh woods and pastures new 
 for the dawn of every morning.' 
 
 The main object of all teaching in schools must be to train 
 young people to be generally observant, thought- 
 
 /■ , , ,r, , r , 1 , J ■ Essential to 
 
 ful, exact and self-helpful — to make them desirous introduce the 
 of extending their knowledge by applying what m^g^hod^"^ 
 they already possess — to train them to pass from 
 the known to the unknown; 'to substitute' in short, as Lord 
 Reay has said, ' rational for mechanical methods of teaching, 
 in order to rouse the inquisitive tendencies which in many 
 cases now are deadened ; to make the school, not the early 
 grave of individuality, but an attractive spot ' 
 
 In seeking to impart a knowledge of scientific method, it 
 is to be remembered that children are from the outset born 
 enquirers, and that all we have to do is to develop and prac- 
 tically train faculties which all possess to some extent. True 
 Kindergarten teaching proceeds on these lines, but at school 
 set lessons too often entirely usurp the place of exercises calcu- 
 lated to develop the individuality of the pupil. 
 
 Again, to quote Prof Meiklejohn, ' the permanent and 
 universal condition of all method is that it be heuristic. Man 
 is by nature a seeking, inquiring, hunting animal ; and the
 
 230 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 passion for hunting is the strongest passion in him.' When 
 this doctrine is grasped, when this spirit actuates the work, but 
 not before, the teaching in schools will be satisfactory. 
 
 It was necessary, before discussing the teaching of chemistry 
 „, . , in schools, thus to consider generally the object 
 
 Chemistry ' . . 
 
 alone insuffi- to be attained, in order that the point of view 
 cient; a gene- ^^^^^ which the subject shall be taught and the 
 
 ral experi- _ ." o 
 
 mental course manner in which it shall be taught may be pro- 
 require . perly taken into account. Another necessary 
 preliminary consideration is that chemistry alone cannot be 
 taught with advantage in schools — a general preparation must 
 be secured by means of a course in which chemistry occupies 
 a prominent place, but does not exclusively occupy attention. 
 
 This question is one of the very greatest importance 
 from an educational point of view, and merits before all 
 others the most serious attention of examining boards and 
 scholastic legislators. To permit of subjects such as botany, 
 chemistry and physics as alternative subjects, whilst making 
 mechanics an obligatory subject, is probably entirely sub- 
 versive of the true interests of education — such action arises 
 from the mistaken notion that the discipline afforded by each 
 of the subjects is equivalent, from the complete disregard of 
 practical human requirements, and from the worship of a 
 schoolmaster's standard of an altogether antique type. It is 
 to be hoped that it will ere long be possible to provide a 
 single mixed subject comprising the necessary minimum of 
 each branch, and in which no part is treated technically. 
 
 In the case of an examination wliich is preliminary to 
 others, the re(iuirements are necessarily different from ordi- 
 nary school requirements, which again may vary with 
 circumstances — according to the class and age of the 
 scholars and local needs : but in all cases the great object in 
 view should be to satisfy human requirements primarily and 
 to consider local reipiirements only in the second instance.
 
 X.] Chemistry. 231 
 
 As regards the extent to which chemistry and physics 
 should be taught, I believe that these subjects, when discussed 
 from a proper point of view, will not give rise to any great 
 difference of opinion — that there will not be much difficulty 
 in agreeing as to an irreducible minimum ; but in the case 
 of mechanics and botany there will, I fear, be greater diffi- 
 culty. In the case of these latter, the question of the needs 
 of the two sexes comes into consideration : frankly, I am 
 one of those who cannot admit that boys and girls may 
 and should be treated alike \ and in the case of girls, as 
 the teaching of mechanics does not offer any special edu- 
 cational opportunities subservient to their requirements, I 
 should not be inclined to press the subject on their attention 
 except to a very limited extent. In the case of botany, on 
 the other hand, the requirements in agricultural districts are 
 totally different from those in towns : in the former it is all- 
 important that children — boys especially — should be taught 
 to study plants in Nature: to watch their growth and their 
 different habits ; but in towns the study of living plants — not 
 of plant-forms — is all-important as affording the opportunity 
 of studying life, and thus constituting an introduction to 
 physiology. It is impossible for children to make experi- 
 ments on the growth of animals ; it is easy to make experi- 
 ments on the growth of plants. To women especially a 
 knowledge of the fundamental principles of physiology is 
 of primary importance, and instruction in botany — and 
 particularly in the department of vegetable physiology — is 
 generally of more value to girls than to boys. From the 
 point of view here advocated, botany would come late in 
 the course, as some knowledge of chemical principles is neces- 
 sary for the comprehension of vital changes ^ 
 
 ' For a most valuable series of suggestions for such work, drafted by 
 Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., see the Major Scholarships Regulations and
 
 232 The Aijiis and Practice of TeacJiuig. [Chap. 
 
 Obviously there is a great field for research open to 
 teachers who will be at the pains to endeavour to devise 
 carefully graded courses of instruction suited to the require- 
 ments of boys and girls of different ages and classes and in 
 different environments. The work done by the Committees 
 appointed by the British Association and by the Incorporated 
 Association of Headmasters may be referred to in illustration 
 of what is required ; but it should at once be pointed out that 
 it will be necessary in the future, in order to aid teachers, to 
 elaborate schemes somewhat minutely, so that those without 
 special experience may derive assistance. 
 
 Although much experience must be gained ere it is de- 
 „ ^ ^ termined what are the best modes of proceed- 
 
 Mode of pro- ... 
 
 ceeding at the ing — for, except in principle, there can be no 
 sonrhi^hy- ^^^ mode— it can scarcely be doubted that 
 sicai measure- children should from the outset be led to take 
 note, as far as possible, of what is and of what 
 is going on in the world about them, whilst at the same time 
 they are being prepared for the scientific study of materials 
 and changes. 
 
 Such preparation will involve instruction in the methods 
 of physical measurement, and such instruction should in future 
 form part of the instruction in elementary mathematics — a sub- 
 ject which, it is to be hoped, will ere long be largely taught 
 by practical methods and with reference to ordinary daily 
 needs. 
 
 The measurement of lengths, of areas and of volumes 
 must be thoroughly mastered, and the measurement of mass 
 — weighing — ^must be taught at the earliest possible moment, 
 every opportunity being subsequently taken of making obser- 
 vations with the aid of the balance. 
 
 Examinations Syllabus, April 1895, published for the I. A. H. M. by the 
 Educational .Supi^ly Association, 42, Ilolborn Viaduct, E.C.
 
 X. ] C J Lent is try. 233 
 
 The use of the balance as an instrument of moral cul- 
 ture has yet to be appreciated by teachers. The exercise 
 of weighing exactly with a well constructed balance is, I 
 am satisfied, of all others the most important to introduce 
 into schools at a very early period as a means of forming 
 character. But to this end it is necessary to make use of 
 a balance which will command respect, and yet is not so 
 delicate that it cannot withstand ordinary fair usage. 
 
 Before commencing any chemical experiments, it is de- 
 sirable also that familiarity should be acquired with the use 
 of the thermometer in measuring temperature and quantity 
 of heat. 
 
 To discuss the teaching of chemistry properly, it is 
 necessary first to enquire : — What is chemis- 
 try? Why should boys and girls at school the instruction 
 be taught chemistry, and how should they be to be given in 
 
 ° ■" ^ chemistry. 
 
 taught ? 
 
 Among school-boys chemistry commonly goes under 
 the name of ' stinks ' — yet a rational course, such as is 
 suitable for school purposes, may be carried out without 
 any smells being produced, although, since it is necessary 
 to use acids, irritating acid fumes must occasionally be dealt 
 with. It is also often supposed that it involves a succession 
 of brilliant experiments, such as the firework displays wit- 
 nessed on burning substances in oxygen, the explosion of 
 mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen, &c. But this again is in- 
 correct : experiments, and indeed nothing but experiments, do 
 in fact constitute a rational course — and herein lies the great 
 charm of the subject as well as its educational value — but 
 the experiments, as a rule, are of a most ordinary and 
 humdrum character. 
 
 All changes involving alteration in composition are chemical 
 changes; such changes are ever going on even in the inani- 
 mate world, and affect all the materials with which we have
 
 234 T^^'-^ Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 to deal, whilst life, whether animal or vegetable, is but a 
 succession of such changes. 
 
 It should not be necessary to argue in favour of the study 
 of a subject a knowledge of which enables us to appreciate 
 the nature of the material changes going on throughout the 
 universe, especially if we are assured that the study can be 
 so conducted as to afford mental discipUne of a high order 
 such as cannot well be imparted in any other ways. 
 
 But to attain this end, the chemistry taught in schools 
 must not be the chemistry of the professional student and 
 technical chemist, but must be carefully based on scholastic 
 requirements. The cookery-book receipt style of teaching 
 must be abandoned in favour of the heuristic method ; it 
 matters not for all ordinary purposes how oxygen, for example, 
 may be prepared, but it is important that everyone should 
 have some understanding of the use of the oxygen in the 
 air and of the manner in which it performs its functions. 
 
 For purposes of illustration, I will now discuss the 
 ' syllabus ' put forward last year by a Committee of the In- 
 corporated Association of Headmasters, of which I was a 
 member. It is in effect an adaptation of that previously 
 proposed by the Committee specially appointed by the British 
 Association in 1889 to consider the teaching of Chemistry in 
 Schools. 
 
 The following explanation is ])laced at the head of the 
 syllabus : — 
 
 Whilst the main object of the course should be to train students 
 to solve simple problems by experiment — to work accurately and 
 with a clearly defined purpose — and to reason from observation — the 
 instruction givefi should eventually lead thevi to cojnprehend the 
 natJire of air^ water, ^fire" earth, and food. 
 
 It will be noted that students are not to be told about 
 things, or even to be shown things, but are to be trained to
 
 X.] Chemistry. 235 
 
 solve problems by experiment — that is to say, they are to be 
 trained to discover; and their discoveries are to have reference 
 to common objects and phenomena. Moreover, they are to 
 be taught to work accurately; whatever they do is to be done 
 with a clearly defined object in view; and every observation 
 is to be utilised and reasoned upon. It is not expressly 
 stated, but it will appear from the context, that with the 
 object of encouraging accurate work, quantitative methods 
 are to be adopted whenever possible. In short, the chief 
 object of the course laid down in the syllabus is to impart 
 knowledge and full understanding of method, not information 
 alone, although much information is incidentally gained in the 
 course of the work. 
 
 According to the first paragraph : — 
 
 1. Candidates should be familiar with most of the common 
 substances occurring naturally (such as sand, flint and quartz, 
 chalk, limestone and calc spar, clay and slate, gypsum, galena, 
 haematite and clay iron ore, iron pyrites, tin stone) and with the 
 various metals and other substances in common use (such as the 
 common acids, soda, salt, alum, whitening, lime, sulphur, sugar, 
 starch, fats, oils, bone, different woods, charcoal, coal, coke, alcohol, 
 turpentine, etc.). 
 
 Indications of the kind of familiarity they would be ex- 
 pected to show are given in the following paragraphs : — 
 
 2. They should be able to describe the appearance and other 
 obvious properties of such substances, and, in the case of many, to 
 state what they are principally used for, and to give some account 
 of their origin ; they should know if anything, and what obviously, 
 happens to those with which they are most familiar under ordinary 
 conditions, in contact with air or water or when burnt, and be able 
 to describe what happens in ordinary language without, however, 
 attempting to give any chemical explanation. 
 
 3. They should have determined the relative density of most 
 of the substances mentioned.
 
 236 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 4. They should have examined their behaviour with water and 
 other liquids, including acids, and have learnt how substances such 
 as salt, soda, and alum can be crystallised from water. 
 
 It has been objected that the list of substances given is 
 too long, and that to carry out their examination in the 
 manner proposed is impossible. I believe the very reverse 
 to be the case. If the instruction last but a short time — 
 which is too frequently the case — no doubt the list is too 
 long ; but the syllabus is not intended to meet such cases. 
 It is intended for those who desire to make the teaching of 
 scientific method a part of the ordinary school course from 
 the very earliest years onwards. The work contemplated in 
 these paragraphs should, in fact, be begun at the outset, 
 and be gradually completed as the students became able 
 to execute the experiments : the determinations of relative 
 density, for example, obviously cannot be carried out until 
 some progress has been made and the student has at least 
 learnt to weigh, nor until he understands simple division in 
 arithmetic. 
 
 Much may be done, however, by children even before 
 they are able to read and write. They may collect, for 
 example, stones of various kinds, bits of metal, different 
 woods, &c., and note not only their appearance, but also 
 whether they are soft or hard, their use, where they occur, 
 &c. — everything, in fact, that can be learnt about them, with- 
 out the aid of books or teacher, by direct observation and 
 trial. It is astonishing how much may be found out by 
 merely scratching with a nail or knife, by cutting, by beating 
 out, by powdering — and the apparatus for such trials is always 
 at hand : an ordinary polished fiat-iron affords a most con- 
 venient anvil on which metals may be beaten out and brittle 
 substances reduced to fine powder by means of a hammer. 
 Whatever be done, the great object must be to lead children 
 to notice and compare — to connect definite properties with
 
 X.] Cheviistry. 237 
 
 definite objects — to describe in such a manner that it becomes 
 possible to gain from their descriptions some clear idea of 
 the character of the object under examination. 
 
 The exercises should be repeated over and over again, so 
 that the habit of characterising objects may become a fixed 
 one. The principle involved in the determination of rela- 
 tive density by either the hydrostatic or the bottle method is 
 easily learnt in the course of a few trials ; but in order to 
 cultivate manipulative skill, and especially to emphasize the 
 importance of being able to state, not merely that particular 
 substances are heavy, but exactly how heavy they are rela- 
 tively, it should be insisted that the density of every substance 
 brought under examination be determined. 
 
 In studying solubihties, watch-glasses should be used in 
 order to encourage both economy and neatness of manipu- 
 lation. A minute quantity of the very finely powdered sub- 
 stance being placed in the watch-glass, a iQ.vf drops of liquid 
 are added; in the case of acids, a dropping tube should be 
 used for this purpose. If necessary, the watch-glass can be 
 warmed on a hot plate. 
 
 The use of acids as well as of water and other liquids 
 should be led iip to., so that it may be discovered that they 
 often behave in a special manner. Thus it may be suggested 
 that, as some things dissolve easily, and others apparently not 
 at all, in water, the behaviour with water of the various sub- 
 stances at disposal should be tested ; and as soon as this is done, 
 that other common liquids should be tried — such as vinegar, 
 spirits, &c. When it is observed that some i^^i substances, 
 such as soda and whitening, are affected in a peculiar way 
 by vinegar, which is sour or acid, attention may be called to 
 the existence and common use of other acids, such as spirits 
 of salt or muriatic acid, aquafortis and vitriolic acid, and 
 these may be placed at the disposal of the student. The 
 competent teacher will be able to induce his or her students
 
 238 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 to carry out a great variety of experiments, leading to the 
 discovery, among other things, that acids usually altogether 
 change the character of a substance in dissolving it. It is 
 perhaps not superfluous to insist here that no word of ex- 
 planation should be given at this stage — such discoveries 
 should be specially noted down for future discussion, and it 
 should be as impossible for the young investigator to learn 
 in advance what will ultimately be found out as it is for the 
 traveller in an unknown region to be told in advance what he 
 will light upon at his journey's end. 
 
 If at the earliest possible moment students are led to 
 write out careful descriptions of the things they have col- 
 lected and examined, of what they have done and seen, and 
 if attention be paid to the way in which such accounts are 
 written, both as regards writing and style, most valuable 
 literary training will have been given. No point in connection 
 with the scheme under discussion is of greater importance 
 than this. 
 
 5. Different natural waters should have been evaporated and 
 the presence of dissolved solid matter ascertained, and its amount. 
 Purified water should have been prepared by distillation. The 
 appearance of air bubbles on heating water should have been 
 noted and the amount of "air" dissolved in water approximately 
 determined. 
 
 The study of water may well come next, and may be 
 led Jip to in various ways. The above paragraph relating to 
 water has been inserted in the I. A. H. M. syllabus in order 
 to mark the importance of certain experiments with water 
 being carried out at an early stage in the course ; but it is 
 not necessary to introduce such experiments exactly at this 
 point, nor to restrict the examination of water in the manner 
 indicated. It is, on the contrary, undesirable in a school- 
 course to draw any marked distinction between chemistry and
 
 X.] Chemistry. 239 
 
 physics, and the order in which the exercises are introduced 
 should be allowed within limits to depend on circumstances. 
 
 Probably the most desirable plan of commencing the ex- 
 amination of water, in the case of those already familiar with 
 the hydrostatic metliod of determining relative density, will 
 be to make them determine the density of water by weighing 
 a heavy cube of known dimensions in air and water, and thus 
 discover approximately the relation between the gramme and 
 the cubic centimetre. By then determining the density of 
 ice^ of cold water and of boiling-hot water", they would dis- 
 cover why ice floats on water, and note the expansion of water 
 on freezing as well as on heating. The effect of heat on water 
 might then be more fully studied, and at the same time the 
 use and theory of the thermometer made clear. 
 
 All are accustomed to see water heated, but usually in 
 such a way that it is difficult to notice what happens. By 
 heating water in a glass flask over a gas flame, opportunity 
 is given for all sorts of observations to be made : thus if the 
 water be at all cold, liquid at first collects on the outside of 
 the flask above the flame, but disappears as the water in the 
 flask is warmed ; air-like bubbles, too, often collect on the 
 inner surface of the flask, become detached and rise at intervals 
 to the surface. Notes of observations such as these serve later 
 on to suggest other experiments. 
 
 The water gradually becomes hot — and the question arises: 
 how hot? This leads to the introduction of the thermometer, 
 and a variety of exercises involving its use may well follow. 
 
 Attention is drawn to these points because the great object 
 
 ^ By taring a measuring cylinder containing cold turpentine or petro- 
 leum, then — after noting the height of the liquid — dropping in a lump of 
 dried ice, at once noticing the height of the liquid, and finally weighing, 
 to ascertain the weight of the ice. 
 
 ^ By means of a bulb filled with water and provided with a tube drawn 
 out to a fine point; the bulb is heated in steam.
 
 240 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 of the teacher should be to train students to help themselves 
 — not always to require telling what to do and how to do it 
 — to observe everything that happens, and, sooner or later, 
 to make use of every observation for the devising of a new 
 experiment or the deduction of conclusions. 
 
 The discovery and determination of the amount of solid 
 matter dissolved in ordinary waters may be led up to in 
 several ways. Solid matter is deposited on the surface of the 
 flask when many ordinary waters are boiled — not, however, 
 from rain or distilled water ; the kitchen kettle and boiler 
 usually become coated with 'fur.' In such cases, the sugges- 
 tion to see what is left when the water is all boiled away (and 
 later on to find out how much is left when a known quantity 
 of water is evaporated, say, in a weighed glass dish) follows 
 naturally. Again, the taste of sea water serves to suggest 
 that it may contain salt. In whatever way it be arrived at, 
 the determination of the actual amount of matter dissolved 
 in different waters is an exercise of great importance as con- 
 ducing later on to the appreciation of the difference between 
 hard and soft waters. 
 
 6. They should have made simple qiiantitatii'c experiments 
 on the behaviour of typical organic, mineral and metallic substances 
 when burnt or strongly heated. 
 
 The next set of exercises prescribed in the syllabus, in- 
 volving quantitative observations on the behaviour of different 
 substances under the influence of heat, are of great importance ; 
 they are an expansion of the qualitative experiments prescribed 
 in art. 2, and may, if it be thought more desirable, be incorpo- 
 rated with those prescribed in art. 7, especially in the case of 
 students sufficiently advanced to reason from observation. 
 
 In any case, qualitative observations on the effect of heating 
 common solids should precede the detailed study of such 
 changes : exercises of this kind are of a most instructive 
 character and are very easily carried out.
 
 X.] Chemistry. 241 
 
 To burn organic substances, the method adopted in the 
 laboratory in burning filter papers may be followed — in fact a 
 good exercise to commence with is to roll up a filter paper, to 
 wind one end of a piece of platinum wire two or three times 
 around it, and, while holding the other end of the wire steadily, 
 to set fire to the paper and allow it to burn away, taking care 
 that the charred matter does not fall out from within the coil. 
 If this charred matter is then carefully burnt away by means 
 of a small non-luminous 'Bunsen' flame, alternately held under 
 it and then removed (in order to allow access of air), only 
 a minute amount of ashes remains. But when wood — a bit 
 of an ordinary match — dried leaves, shreds of dried meat, a 
 splinter of bone, &c., are burnt, the quantity of ashes left is 
 larger ; the difference in the amounts serves to suggest that 
 the experiments should be made quantitatively in order to 
 obtain definite information as to the amounts, so that it may 
 be possible, for example, instead of stating vaguely that bone 
 gives a good deal of ashes, to say what percentage it yields. 
 The value of definite statements in such cases cannot be too 
 soon or too strongly insisted on. 
 
 Much opportunity is given in the course of such exercises 
 for the cultivation of exact habits of observation. Thus when 
 sugar is heated — best in a small shallow platinum dish — it 
 (}uickly melts, turns brown, boils up, catches fire and burns, 
 a puflfed-up charred mass ultimately remaining, which slowly 
 burns away on continued heating. Fat also melts, but soon 
 catches fire, and, without passing through such a series of 
 changes, quietly and entirely burns away. Starch does not 
 melt, but soon chars ; dried lean meat behaves much like 
 starch, but emits a horrible smell. The differences thus 
 observed serve to suggest that the substances themselves 
 are very different. But a careful observer can see much 
 more than a careless one. In the case of sugar, for ex- 
 ample, it is found that, when very cautiously heated, it at first 
 
 s. T. 16
 
 242 TJie Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 affords a colourless liquid, which then rapidly becomes brown, 
 and afterwards black ; when fizzing begins, at first a ' steam ' 
 which will not take fire is given off, then something which 
 burns with an almost non-luminous flame, then something 
 which burns with a highly luminous flame — so that it would 
 seem that many successive changes occur as the heating is 
 continued. It is clear also that there are two stages — the 
 baking stage, during which apparently something is being 
 driven off, and the burning stage. 
 
 The results obtained on heating metals are also most in- 
 structive. Thus, when a piece of thin bright copper wire is 
 held in a flame, it soon blackens; on tapping the wire lightly 
 with a hammer, a scale peels off, which is very brittle. A 
 bright iron wire or nail behaves similarly ; but magnesium 
 and zinc take fire and are reduced to white ashes. In all 
 cases, however, the metal yields an earthy substance when 
 burnt. When the amount of ' ashes ' given by the metal is 
 ascertained, the striking result is arrived at that the ashes 
 weigh more than the metal which was burnt — surely this gives 
 food for reflection. 
 
 Earthy sul)Stances such as sand, clay, chalk, limestone, 
 &c. apparently undergo little change when burnt — yet every 
 bricklayer knows that chalk and limestone are both profoundly 
 changed, as their ashes behave in an altogether peculiar man- 
 ner when wetted, becoming very hot, and slaking or falling to 
 pieces if originally in lumps. 
 
 The study of chemistry proper, which is led up to by these 
 preliminary studies, begins with the study of the nature of the 
 changes which attend burning, &c. It has, unfortunately, 
 been our practice to fling facts at our pupils, and to expect 
 them to assimilate them for subsequent use. We sometimes 
 also demonstrate by experiments the facts we wish to make 
 them acfjuainted with ; but we practically never put them in 
 the position of the original discoverers, and therefore do little
 
 X.] Chemistry. 243 
 
 towards enabling them to be discoverers in their turn. If 
 we do not feed them entirely on uncooked food, the food is 
 so ill prepared, so rich in quality, and so excessive in amount, 
 that their digestive powers are all but ruined. In future, we 
 desire to adopt a more considerate attitude ; our syllabus 
 therefore provides as follows : — 
 
 7. The study of changes such as attend the rusting of iron and 
 the burning of ordinary combustibles should then have been 
 entered on, and a series of experiments made whereby they have 
 been led to discover that the air is concerned in such changes, but 
 not as a whole — that, in fact, it contains an active constituent ; 
 the extent to which this constituent is present should have been 
 determined, and they should have been led to appreciate the 
 general nature of the changes which attend its withdrawal. Atten- 
 tion should have been directed to the character of the products, to 
 the resemblance which many of them bear to earths, and to their 
 behaviour towards water, acids, etc. In some cases, e.g.^ copper 
 and lead, they should have ascertained the extent to which the 
 active constituent of air is fixed when the substance is burnt, 
 thus becoming familiar with the existence of compoioid substances 
 formed from definite proportions of substances differing altogether 
 from them in properties. 
 
 There is no case of change with which students generally 
 are better acquainted — no case which lends itself more readily 
 to experimental investigation — no case which affords more im- 
 portant results — than that involved in the rusting of iron ; I 
 always prefer therefore to lead students to investigate this in 
 the first instance. I have elsewhere described the mode of 
 proceeding in the following terms : 
 
 At the beginning of a course I would give no definitions 
 whatever — would say nothing about the differences between 
 changes ; but having directed attention to the constant occur- 
 rence of change, would suggest that changes should be studied 
 in order, if possible, to discover their nature : for the study of 
 
 16 — 2
 
 244 '^^^^ Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 change is the business of the chemist, and no wider nor simpler 
 definition of chemistry can be given. The method is in no way- 
 novel : it is the historical method — that used in days when 
 examinations and text-books were not, and used in principle by 
 every explorer. For instance, I would call attention to the rusting 
 of iron — a crime against Nature done by Nature's hands which 
 man has constantly to deplore. Students who have already 
 enlisted in that new force of science detectives which in the 
 future is to render such service to our country, well read m 
 Edgar Allen Poe and other writers of works on scientific method, 
 will naturally in the first instance study the victim — the rust ; 
 moreover, finding themselves placed in a better position than 
 their colleagues in the police force, inasmuch as they can have 
 before them at the same time, if not the actually victimised iron, 
 at least what they know to be the twin sample, as well as the 
 rust, they will carefully contrast the unaltered with the altered 
 substance. Having previously been well drilled in the practice 
 of elementary physical measurements, they will require little 
 telling to determine among other things the relative density of 
 each in order that they may be able to insert indisputable 
 numerical data in place of vague statements in the report they 
 ultimately draw up^following the practice of the ordinary police 
 detective, who is not content to describe the victim as tall or short, 
 but takes his photograph nowadays and measures him and states 
 the actual height in his report to headquarters. It is then ascer- 
 tained that the rust is specifically much lighter than the iron, 
 whence arises the idea that perhaps something is given up by 
 the iron in rusting. How is the clue thus opened out to be 
 followed.'' Surely by contrasting the weight of the rusted with 
 that of the unrusted iron. Iron nails or tacks, or borings or 
 turnings free from grease, are therefore weighed out in a saucer, 
 for instance, and — as it is well known that iron rusts only when 
 wet — are then wetted ; after some time, when rusting has taken 
 place, any water adherent to the rusting iron is removed by baking 
 it. On again weighing, a considerable increase is noted. Thus it 
 is discovered that so})iethiiig from sontciohere becomes added to 
 the iron during rusting. A very definite clue to the mystery is 
 thereby gained. As water is so necessary to rusting, is not perhaps
 
 X.] Chemistry. 245 
 
 the water the active agent in rusting? How can this be tested? 
 Surely by shutting up iron, say in a bottle, along with water. 
 When this is clone little alteration is noticed, so that water alone 
 cannot be the cause of rusting. What other associates has iron 
 during rusting? Surely air. A little consideration suggests that 
 iron should be shut up along with air over water. This is done, 
 and it is observed that as the iron rusts the air disappears, but 
 never to a greater extent than about one-fifth. 
 
 In this way not only is it discovered what happens to iron in 
 rusting, but students find out that the air plays a part, and an 
 interest is awakened /;/ air. They then at least easily appreciate, 
 if they do not naturally ask, the question — Is it perhaps concerned 
 in other common changes which take place under such conditions 
 that air may take part in them ? In cases of burning, for example? 
 Such are then studied, and it is soon discovered that the air is 
 concerned ; but again only to the extent of at most one-fifth. 
 Ultimately, on investigation, all changes which go on in air are 
 found to be changes in which one particular constituent of the air 
 is concerned, and students sooner or later learn to know this active 
 substance as oxygen. Working in such a manner, nothing is 
 stated or taken for granted ; step by step everything is discovered, 
 and the discoveries made are obviously of a most important cha- 
 racter. Thus it is not only ascertained how iron rusts, but the 
 nature of air is disclosed and the purpose it serves made clear ; 
 and the nature of fire — that it is the outcome of the union of 
 certain substances — is also in a measure displayed. 
 
 The following list of experiments is given in the I. A. 
 H. M. syllabus as appropriate for the purpose of carrying 
 out the provisions of Art. 7. 
 
 (Discovery that air is concerned in common changes, such as 
 the rusting of iron, combustion, etc., and that its activity is due to 
 one constituent.) The proposal having been made to study the 
 rusting of iron as an instance of a change of very common occur- 
 rence, a careful comparison should be made between iron and 
 iron-rust, including the determination of their relative densities, 
 as it is noteworthy that rust is apparently a light substance in 
 comparison with iron. It being found that rust is considerably
 
 246 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 less dense than iron, in answer to the question, What does this 
 suggest ? it may be said that perhaps the iron loses something in 
 rusting. The following are then appropriate experiments : — 
 
 A. A weighed quantity of iron borings, or turnings, or small 
 French nails, is wetted, allowed to rust, dried and weighed ; 
 the mass is then broken up, wetted, exposed, dried, and 
 again weighed, this being done several times. 
 
 B. Clean French nails are corked up in a medicine bottle 
 full of recently boiled distilled water. 
 
 C. A muslin bag full of iron borings is exposed in air over 
 water, this experiment being made several times. 
 
 D. Iron (coarse powder or bright fine wire) is strongly heated 
 in a tube through which air is passed, and any alteration in 
 weight ascertained. 
 
 E. Fine copper-wire is similarly treated, an experiment being 
 made, for comparison, in which the copper is heated inside 
 a sealed tube. 
 
 F. A candle is burnt in air over water, then a jet of gas, a 
 spirit or petroleum lamp, sulphur, and phosphorus. 
 
 G. Phosphorus is burnt on a tile under a shade. 
 
 H. A small piece of carefully dried phosphorus is burnt 
 inside a dry Florence flask full of air shut in by a rubber 
 stopper ; the flask is subsequently opened under water, and 
 the amount of water which enters is measured and compared 
 with that which the flask will hold. The results of several 
 such experiments are compared. By weighing the flask both 
 before and after burning the phosphorus, proof is obtained 
 that the heat which escapes is immaterial. 
 
 /. A small stick of phosphorus is exposed in air over water. 
 Iron turnings are subsequently exposed in the residual air 
 from this experiment, and phosphorus in like manner in the 
 residual air from experiment E. 
 
 K. Phosphorus is placed near to the end of a short tube 
 packed with asbestos, and the tube having been weighed, 
 air is slowly drawn through the tube, and the phosphorus 
 fired ; care must be taken to prevent the escape of fume.
 
 X.] Chemistry. 247 
 
 When the phosphorus is burnt out, the tube is allowed to 
 cool, and is then weighed. 
 
 N.B. — The tube should be about f in. wide and 6 in. 
 long, drawn out at one end. Fibrous asbestos is carefully 
 pushed in to form a respirator, then a piece of phosphorus, 
 and then a \ in. plug of asbestos. The air is sucked through 
 by means of an aspirator with a screw clip, and it is well to 
 insert a wash bottle between it and the tube. 
 
 L. The gas left on allowing iron to rust in air is passed over 
 heated copper. 
 
 M. The extent to which finely divided copper increases in 
 weight when fully burnt is determined. 
 
 Experiments D and E come naturally after the discovery 
 is made that air is concerned in the rusting of iron, as the 
 question then arises whether the changes which iron and 
 copper undergo when heated are changes in which air is 
 concerned. On the otfier hand, assuming that it has been 
 previously ascertained that iron and copper gain in weight 
 when burnt, the question arises — ' What happens to iron in 
 rusting?' and experiment A naturally follows. 
 
 The use of phosphorus may be introduced by a reference 
 to matches. Matches take fire very easily — what is it that 
 takes fire? — phosphorus. Since, then, phosphorus takes fire 
 so easily, it may well be used in making experiments, espe- 
 cially such as are indicated under H, in which the burning 
 takes place in absence of water. 
 
 The final experiment suggested under H is an important 
 illustration of the manner in which side issues may be ad- 
 visedly or incidentally considered. In order to be sure that 
 nothing escapes from the flask during the burning of the 
 phosphorus, the teacher suggests that the flask with its con- 
 tents be carefully tared both before the phosphorus is burned 
 and afterwards when the flask is again cool. If it be found 
 that the weight does not change, what follows ? The teacher
 
 248 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 may ask — Does not something escape ? Does not the cooling 
 involve the escape of heat ? 
 
 In experiment / an answer is obtained to the question 
 whether phosphorus and iron, which apparently affect the air 
 similarly — in so far as the observation of the diminution in 
 bulk which the air suffers enables us to judge — actually with- 
 draw the same constituent. 
 
 Experiment K is made in order to ascertain if that which 
 disappears from the air when phosphorus is burnt becomes 
 affixed to the phosphorus. 
 
 Experiment L is an illustration of the value of a negative 
 result. It is difficult when heating copper in air to ascertain, 
 by observing the diminution in volume which the air under- 
 goes, whether it affects the air in the same way as iron 
 does ; but, obviously, if that which remains after iron has been 
 exposed in air be without action on copper, it follows that 
 the constituent withdrawn by the iron during rusting is that 
 which affects copper. 
 
 The isolation of the active constituent of air is next con- 
 sidered. 
 
 8. Attention having been called to the production in large 
 quantities of the substances formed on burning various metals 
 (iron scale, copper scale, litharge, red lead, zinc white), the attempt 
 should be made to separate the active constituent of air known to 
 be present in these by strongly heating them, such attempt being 
 based on the previous observation that some earthy substances 
 {e.g., chalk) lose in weight when strongly heated. 
 
 This paragraph is amplified in the following manner in the 
 section of the syllabus in which experiments are suggested. 
 
 The various solids obtained by binning metals (magnesium, 
 zinc, lead, copper, iron) in air — their appearance — their production 
 on a large scale — special behaviour of lead : litharge and red load, 
 how produced and converted into each other ; their behaviour 
 when heated strongly tested by the balance ; separation of gas
 
 X.] Chemistry. 249 
 
 on heating red lead ; discovery that this gas supports combustion, 
 and that it acts on copper as air does. Reproduction of air on 
 mixing this active gas with the inactive gas (nitrogen) left on 
 exposure of iron in air. Formation of an acid solution when the 
 solid formed on burning phosphorus is dissolved in water — ex- 
 planation of the name oxygen. Preparation of oxygen from 
 potassium chlorate ; combustion of various substances in it. 
 
 It stands to reason that the various ' earthy ' substances 
 formed on burning metals &c. contain the active constituent 
 of air — the question is how to separate it from them. A few 
 questions soon bring out the fact that many of the substances 
 — such as iron rust, iron scale and copper scale — may be 
 had in large quantity almost for the asking ; it may then be 
 stated that zinc is burnt in large quantities to make zinc 
 white, which is used as a paint, and that lead also is burnt 
 on a large scale — indeed in two ways, so as to form either 
 litharge or red lead. Attention to the special conditions 
 under which the two earths are formed from lead affords a 
 suggestive clue deserving of examination ; since both are 
 formed on heating lead in air, and the one is converted 
 into the other by heating, it is probable, taking previous 
 observations into account, that both consist of lead plus the 
 active constituent of air. Proceeding to study the change 
 of red lead into litharge as the easier to examine, and 
 working quantitatively in order to obtain precise informa- 
 tion, the student discovers that the red lead loses in weight : 
 something therefore is given off from it, probably a gas as 
 nothing is seen to escape ; the experiment is therefore so 
 modified as to permit of the collection of whatever escapes. 
 Of course, if it has been ascertained in previous experiments 
 that such a substance as chalk loses in weight when burnt, 
 the experiments with red lead are all the more easily appre- 
 ciated. 
 
 I believe the discovery of oxygen in such a manner to be
 
 250 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 an exercise of the highest educational value : whereas to tell 
 a student how Priestley first made oxygen is but to impart 
 interesting information. 
 
 9. It having been previously observed that when metals such 
 as iron and zinc dissolve in acids, a gas is given off which burns, 
 this gas should now be studied with the object of finding out what 
 happens when it burns. Having ascertained that it affords a liquid 
 when burnt, they should have compared this liquid with water — 
 which it resembles in obvious properties — by ascertaining its 
 density, freezing-point and boiling-point. Having thus discovered 
 that water is formed on burning the gas in question, they should 
 have been led to discover that oxygen is also concerned in its 
 formation, and to produce it from oxides such as those of lead 
 and copper. They should then have made quantitative experiments 
 from which they could infer the composition of water by weight. 
 The properties of water should have been contrasted with those 
 of its components, and the production of heat as a consequence of 
 the association of the two gases, and in other cases of association 
 consequent on and attending burning should have been thoroughly 
 grasped — in fact, at this stage, a full general understanding of 
 the nature of combustion should have been arrived at, and the 
 evolution of a definite amount of heat, as a consequence of the 
 formation of a definite amount of the compound substance, should 
 have been made thoroughly clear to them. 
 
 Our syllabus next recommends a course leading up to 
 the chemical study of Water. In studying water, the discovery 
 — already foreshadowed in the results obtained on burning 
 copper, for example, quantitatively — that combination takes 
 place in definite proportions is clearly brought home to the 
 student, wliilst, at the same time, the nature of combustion 
 is fully elucidated. 
 
 At the outset, however, the object is not to study water 
 but the interaction of acids and metals, introduced by some 
 such argument as the following : — So much having been learnt
 
 X.] Chemistry. 251 
 
 by studying, in a systematic and scientific manner, a simple 
 case of change, such as that which iron undergoes in rusting, 
 it is clearly desirable to subject other cases of change to a 
 similar examination. Thus, as I have said elsewhere, 
 
 after studying the corrosive action which acids exercise on various 
 metals, students will desire to know what happens when they 
 dissolve metals in acids. How should they find out? Treating 
 the matter as one requiring the exercise of the detective's tactics, 
 and students as a band of young detectives, the last thing to do 
 is to tell them, — the only possible greater sin being to chalk up 
 equations having no real meaning in their eyes in explanation 
 of what goes on — for in my opinion, at this stage, no students 
 in our new force should have the least conception of the meaning 
 of symbols, formulas and equations ; they should gain several 
 good-conduct stripes for other work of more immediate importance 
 to the force at large before being allowed to enter on such a beat. 
 
 Taking metals such as zinc and iron, and perhaps magnesium, 
 and acids such as vitriolic and muriatic, they would dissolve these 
 metals in the diluted acids, economising always by taking, in the 
 first instance, definite small quantities of acid and metal ; for 
 " waste not, want not " should be the maxim inculcated from the 
 very beginning in all such work, as it is of the essence of all truly 
 scientific practice. 
 
 But in order again to be in a position to report in the most 
 definite possible and unmistakable terms to headquarters, the 
 young detectives should be led to ascertain — than which nothing 
 is easier — exactly how much gas is given off in each case both 
 by definite quantities of each metal and an excess of acid and 
 definite quantities of acid and an excess of metal. They would 
 thus discover that the amount of gas varied with the metal, but 
 not with the acid, and other interesting quantitative relationships 
 would also be disclosed, throwing light on the origin of the gas 
 and the nature of the changes. 
 
 Proceeding next to examine the gas given off in each case, 
 having collected sufficient, they would test it. How? How had 
 gases been previously tested; what gases had been examined? 
 Only those from air, and of these it was known that only one
 
 252 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 allowed ordinary combustibles to burn in it. Testing the gas from 
 each metal and either acid in this way, in each case it is found 
 that it burns. The gas is therefore evidently different from both 
 constituents of air. "What more can be done with it?" asks the 
 inspector-teacher. To which the answer should come, " Surely, 
 sir, as all burning things we have studied have burnt at the 
 e.xpense of the oxygen in air, this gas probably does so likewise ; 
 and if so, it may be expected to give some product. We ought to 
 find out how it burns, and what is formed from it." "Good! I 
 leave you to set to work and follow out this clue. No better 
 suggestion could be made," says the inspector-teacher. They 
 soon find that the new gas will not burn in azote— the inactive 
 part of air, but will burn readily enough in oxygen. On arranging 
 an experiment to see what happens when it burns in air, in which 
 the gas is burnt from a jet placed inside a clean bell-jar full of 
 air standing in a dish containing water, it is noticed that as the 
 gas burns, the water gradually rises— proving that the air is used 
 up, as was to be expected. At the same time the cool upper 
 surface of the jar becomes " bedewed." " Hallo ! " remark the young 
 investigators, " evidently there is a liquid product formed. We 
 must get more of this and see what it is." Some of them may 
 have at some time noticed that when a clean kettle full of cold 
 water is first put over a gas flame, liquid condenses on its surface, 
 and may suggest that by burning the gas they are studying just 
 under a flask kept full of cold water, they will be able to collect 
 enough of the liquid for examination. Having fitted up an ap- 
 paratus which enables them to constantly generate the gas, they 
 do this, and at the end of perhaps half an hour have collected 
 sufficient liquid for examination. It looks like water. Is it water? 
 How can this be found out? Surely by comparing it with water ; 
 but how ? Well, what do we know of water ? We know that it 
 freezes in winter, and boils when made hot enough ; that the ice 
 melts at a particular temperature, and that the water boils at a 
 particular temperature. Some water is therefore frozen around 
 the bulb of a thermometer affixed by means of a loose cork near to 
 the bottom and in the axis of a small test tube, the freezing being 
 done by means of the penny iceman's mixture of ice and salt ; 
 when the water is frozen, the tube is detached by slightly warming
 
 X.] Chemistry. 253 
 
 it externally, leaving a cylinder of ice attached to the thermometer. 
 The temperature at which the ice melts is then noted. Then, 
 taking the liquid to be compared with water, this is in a similar 
 manner frozen around the thermometer bulb, and the ice is then 
 allowed to melt, taking care to collect the liquid from it in a test 
 tube held under it ; the melting-point agrees with that found for 
 water. Next, a little cotton wool is wrapped around the thermo- 
 meter bulb, and the thermometer is held in the axis of a test tube 
 in which a small quantity of water is briskly boiled. A similar 
 experiment is subsequently made with the liquid from the gas. 
 The two boiling points agree. There can be no doubt, then, that 
 water is produced when the inflammable gas burns, and as the gas 
 gives rise to water when burnt in oxygen that water in some way 
 contains these, two gases. The gas may in future — if we are 
 prepared to talk Greek, and Englishmen very often are — be termed 
 hydrogen, which means water producer. 
 
 Just consider what an important discovery is thus made, and 
 how much is learnt in making it. But who could imagine that the 
 study of what happens when the zinc worker dissolves some spelter 
 in spirit of salt would have led to the establishment of so remark- 
 able a fact as that water is composed of two gases — hydrogen and 
 oxygen? It is just in this way, however, that important discoveries 
 are almost always made. 
 
 I trust the examples cjuoted will suffice to make my meaning 
 clear — that it will be seen that instruction given on such lines 
 must have the effect of raising the intelligence of the student and 
 developing habits of self- helpfulness. That students so taught will 
 not only gain knowledge of facts, but also of method — of scientific 
 method, which is of far more importance. That they will learn 
 to work with a purpose and to devise experiments calculated to 
 afford definite information as to certain clearly defined issues ; to 
 work cautiously and exactly ; to observe carefully as well as to 
 make use of their observations ; and to be logical and guarded in 
 their judgments. 
 
 A typical earth is next studied. 
 
 10. Passing next to the study of earthy substances, chalk 
 should have been chosen for examination, on account of its
 
 254 TJic Aims and Practice of TeacJiiiig. [Chap. 
 
 resemblance to substances formed on burning metals such as 
 zinc, etc., in air. It should have been carefully contrasted with 
 lime, to bring out the fact that it is profoundly changed when 
 burnt. The conversion into lime should have been studied quan- 
 titatively. Its behaviour towards acids should then have been 
 examined, and the discovery made that the gas which escapes 
 is equal in amount to the loss which it suffers when burnt to 
 lime: this being suggestive of the conclusion that "chalk-stuff" 
 is composed of "lime-stuff" and the gas in question, experiments 
 should have been made to reproduce chalk-stuff from lime-stuff 
 and the gas. The discovery of the composition of chalk-stuff in 
 this manner should also involve the accidental discovery of the 
 formation of chalk-stuff on exposure of lime-water to air, and the 
 consequent discovery of the presence of "chalk-stuff gas" in air. 
 
 The following indicates more fully both the character of 
 these experiments and the order in which they are made with 
 most advantage. 
 
 Comparison of chalk (whitening) with lime — slaking of lime — 
 determination of the increase in weight — solubility of chalk and 
 lime ; preparation of lime water. Loss in weight when chalk is 
 strongly heated (quantities of about a gram may without difficulty be 
 " burnt " in a small porcelain crucible over a good Fletcher burner, 
 and still more easily over a blowpipe flame (a French petroleum 
 blowpipe burner is sold by Townson and Mercer which is admir- 
 ably adapted for this experiment), or in a muffle. Action of acids 
 on chalk — the gas incombustible — measurement of the amount 
 given off — comparison of its density with that of hydrogen, oxygen, 
 and nitrogen — determination of the weight given off on dissolving 
 chalk in acids. Exposure of lime in atmosphere of gas from chalk 
 and acid — its reconversion into chalk-stuff established by the be- 
 haviour of the product to acids, the change in weight which attends 
 the conversion, and the behaviour of the product on ignition. 
 Examination of the solid formed on exposing a considerable quan- 
 tity of lime water to the air — c.g.^ its behaviour towards acids, 
 determination of the extent to which it loses on ignition, and of 
 the amount of gas evolved on dissolving it in acid.
 
 X.] CJiemistry. 255 
 
 Although little need be said on this part of the syllabus, as 
 it is self-explanatory, the motive with which chalk is advisedly 
 chosen as the subject of examination at this stage may with 
 advantage be somewhat more fully explained. 
 
 The experiments previously made will have led students 
 to discover the nature of air and its functions ; to discover 
 what water is ; and to discover, in a measure, the nature and 
 origin of fire ; to complete the programme, it is desirable for 
 them to gain some knowledge of the fourth ' element ' of the 
 ancients — earth. Their experiments on the rusting and burning 
 of metals will have made them acquainted with a number 
 of substances which they know to be oxides closely resembling 
 the common earths. The question then arises whether these 
 latter may not be oxides, and it is from this point of view 
 that chalk should be studied. It is found to consist of two 
 substances, one of which presents all the characters of a 
 metallic oxide such as magnesium or zinc oxide. If desir- 
 able, the study of this substance may be continued at a later 
 stage. 
 
 With regard to the method of working and the nomen- 
 clature used —on which I lay great stress — I may quote the 
 following remarks from an address on ' Science teaching in 
 schools in Agricultural Districts.' 
 
 I have insisted on the importance of exercises in measuring 
 and weighing being introduced from the very outset of the course, 
 and let me now impress on you how desirable it is that, whenever 
 possible, a quantitative form should be given to the experiments — 
 and nothing is easier. Let me take as an example the action of 
 acids on chalk and limestones. If you demonstrate to a class that 
 gas is given off, or even allow your class to carry out such experi- 
 ments in test tubes, and then talk learnedly about carbon dioxide 
 or carbonic acid, a certain amount of information may be conveyed 
 which is interesting enough in its way ; but experience shows that 
 such work is of but slight value as mental discipline, and even that 
 knowledge of the facts is rarely retained, if ever correctly gained.
 
 256 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 Whereas, if you set your scholars singly or in small groups to 
 carefully weigh out quantities of about a gram of powdered 
 whitening, and then let them dissolve these in acid and measure 
 the amount of gas given off, a lesson is learnt which is an abiding 
 one : they soon find out that the action is of a definite character — 
 that " chalk-stuff," in fact, is characterised by yielding, when dis- 
 solved in acid, a certain number of cubic centimetres of gas per 
 100 grams, the gas having, as they subsequently ascertain, certain 
 peculiar properties ; and the volume of such gas which is evolved 
 becomes an infallible test for chalk-stuff, and later on enables an 
 estimate to be made of the amount of chalk-stuff in a soil. Chalk 
 being the name of a particular kind of rock, not of a definite 
 substance, 1 advisedly use the word " chalk-stufif " as descriptive 
 of the essential component of chalk and limestones, and I call the 
 gas from these " chalk-stufif gas " so long as it is not known what 
 the gas consists of The apparatus for these experiments is, as 
 you see, of the simplest possible character, and the whole operation 
 may be carried out within ten minutes by almost any one. I weigh 
 out the whitening in a cigarette paper : gathering the edges of the 
 paper together so as to form a little bag, I drop the bag into this 
 small wide-mouthed bottle — a 2-ounce acid-drop bottle — and then 
 pour in a little water, and cautiously sludge the chalk with this. 
 Now I pour acid into this little test-tube, which, as you see, can be 
 easily introduced into the acid-drop bottle without acid being spilt, 
 resting against the side just under the shoulder. A rubber stopper 
 carrying a short glass tube is now inserted, and connection estab- 
 lished by a length of narrow rubber tubing with the tube just 
 passing through the upper neck of a " tubulated " bottle holding 
 about two litres of water — that is to say, a bottle having a second 
 neck near to its bottom at the side. The bottom tubulus has fitted 
 into it a stopper through which passes a tube bent upwards at 
 a right angle and bent over at the upper end. The tubulated 
 bottle rests 'nine inches or so above the table on a stand, a 500 cc. 
 cylinder being placed to catch the water as it flows from the upper 
 end of the side tube when the acid is brought into contact with the 
 chalk by tilting the small bottle sufficiently to pour out the acid 
 from the little test-tube. The water which is thus collected is 
 obviously equal in volume to the gas which is given off. You see
 
 X . ] Chem is try. 257 
 
 that, including the weighing, the experiment is carried out in little 
 more than five minutes. Experiments of this kind, I venture to 
 think, are of the very highest value as training, besides teaching 
 lessons which are of importance. 
 
 Soda will have been among the common substances in 
 domestic use studied qualitatively at an early stage in the 
 course, and note will probably have been made of its peculiar 
 behaviour with acids ; attention being recalled to this, its 
 study at this stage will appear appropriate, especially if atten- 
 tion be called to the fact that it is derived from common salt, 
 and that chalk or limestone is used in its manufacture. It is 
 on this account, and also because of the educational value of 
 qualitative experiments on the interaction of soda and acids, 
 that the study of soda comes next in the syllabus. 
 
 Experiments similar to those made with chalk should have been 
 made with washing soda, involving the discovery that it contains 
 water of crystallization, and that it resembles chalk-stuff in compo- 
 sition. The definite manner in which it acts on acids should 
 have been established by titration experiments, its use in softening 
 water should also be referred to and examined into, and experi- 
 ments made to determine hardness by soap solution. 
 
 The nature of the experiments to be carried out is more 
 fully defined as follows : — 
 
 Examination of washing soda — conversion of the clear crystal 
 into a white powder — the loss in weight attending this change — 
 reconversion of the white powder into clear crystals by crystalliza- 
 tion from water — separation of liquid from the crystal, by distillation, 
 and its identification as water. 
 
 Action of acids on soda — examination and identification of the 
 gas — the amount given off — titration of soda solution by acid 
 solutions and discovery of the definite character of the action — 
 separation of product from solution by crystallization — the weight 
 of product formed. Production of chalk-stuiT on adding soda 
 solution to lime-water or to solution prepared from chalk and 
 an acid proved by carefully comparing the product with chalk- 
 
 S. T. 17
 
 258 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 stuff. Presence of chalk in natural waters — its deposition on 
 boiling— effect of adding soap solution to lime-water— measurement 
 of the amount of soap solution required to produce a permanent 
 lather in distilled water and natural waters before and after boiling. 
 
 The study of food materials comes last in our syllabus, 
 and ends with the discovery of data which make it possible 
 to understand that food is not only of value as contributing 
 the material from which our bodies are built up, but also — 
 and mainly — by serving as fuel : as the source of the oiergy 
 we expend in doing work. 
 
 11. Attention should then have been directed to the study of 
 common organic materials — sugar, starch, gluten (from flour), and 
 white of egg being taken as typical examples. The presence of 
 "coal-stuff" or carbon in all of these having been inferred from 
 their behaviour when incompletely burnt, the presence of hydrogen 
 and oxygen will be indicated by their yielding water when destruc- 
 tively distilled. 
 
 The manner in which the discovery of the composition of 
 ' chalk-stuff gas ' may be led up to, and the use to be subse- 
 quently made of the discovery, is sufficiently indicated in the 
 following paragraph — the last in the syllabus : — 
 
 12. The formation on burning carbon of the gas previously 
 obtained from chalk and found in the air having been discovered 
 by experiments in which carbon had been burnt in oxygen and the 
 product compared with the gases previously studied, its production 
 from carbonaceous substances generally should have been observed. 
 The composition of the gas should have been ascertained. The 
 conversion of sugar entirely into this gas and water on combustion 
 having been demonstrated, albumenoid substances should have 
 been burnt, and the discovery made of the presence in them of 
 nitrogen in addition. 
 
 To those who doubt the value of such work and the 
 possibility of carrying out such a scheme, I can only say: 
 try honestly to test it in practice. It will not be easy to
 
 X.J Chemistry. 259 
 
 succeed, but success is worth striving for. Teaching de- 
 signed to develop habits necessary for the individual, and 
 hence for the race, has hitherto, as a rule, been so con- 
 ducted in our schools that — as Prof Fitzgerald says — it stops 
 development along new lines. Nothing could be more fatal 
 to progress. The problem before us is to introduce a method 
 which shall favour development along new lines — there is but 
 one : the Jieuristic method ; and if this can be introduced into 
 schools, the problem is solved, as it is the method by which 
 all progress is effected. No opposition can prevent its ultimate 
 adoption — our task, however, is to secure its introduction with 
 the least possible delay. 
 
 »7-
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 BOTANY. . 
 
 It may be fairly contended that scientific instruction in 
 
 secondary schools should not be confined to the limits 
 
 of any one or two special ' sciences,' however 
 
 The necessity 
 
 for instruction well-adapted as means of general education, or 
 in natural uscful as branches of knowledge. No youth, it 
 
 science. ° ■' 
 
 may be argued, should leave a secondary school 
 at, say, sixteen years of age without some understanding of 
 such matters as the place of the earth in the solar system, the 
 phases of the moon, the meaning of the great coal deposits, 
 the phenomena which underlie the electric telegraph and the 
 steam-engine, the structure of the human body, and the ne- 
 cessity for pure air, pure water, wholesome food, personal 
 cleanliness, and regular exercise. These are matters which 
 fall under the domain of many ' sciences,' and a selection 
 of one, or even two, would leave out much of that general 
 knowledge, rudimentary and disconnected though it may be, 
 without which a youth is placed at considerable disadvantage 
 at his start in life. How this instruction may best be im- 
 parted it is not my present purpose to discuss. I may say, 
 however, that, althougli an intelligent youth would probably 
 acquire such knowledge for himself during his school years, 
 and although the ordinary class-teaching would materially
 
 Chap, xi.] Botany. 261 
 
 contribute to a pupil's fund of general information, it is doubtful 
 whether any secondary school can afford to leave the ' Science 
 of Common Things,' as it has been called, without a definite 
 place, however small, in the time-table. 
 
 Assuming then that this general knowledge fmds a place 
 in the school course, there is yet much to 
 be said for the more detailed and systematic The advant- 
 teaching of one or two special branches of as a subject for 
 science, and it is not difficult to account for 1!!°!!^^^^"^'* 
 
 ' treatment. 
 
 the frequent selection of Botany for this pur- 
 pose. As an experimental science it is considered a useful 
 means of cultivating the hand and eye, an object increasingly 
 sought in modern systems of education. Other subjects 
 equally serviceable in this respect are open to various ob- 
 jections. Chemistry, it is argued, is expensive to make 
 adequate provision for; Physics, at once expensive and diffi- 
 cult to teach to the young ; Zoology tends to become un- 
 cleanly and is otherwise impracticable ; Geology is largely 
 dependent upon locality; and P]otany is accordingly selected 
 as being at once inexpensive, easy to teach, comparatively 
 cleanly, and possible everywhere, except perhaps in schools 
 which are situate in the heart of large towns. Jn the making 
 of such a selection, the practical utility of Botany for Agri- 
 culture and Horticulture is sometimes, no doubt, a determining 
 factor, and it is certain that many parents are gratified to find 
 included in the curriculum of a school a subject the pursuit 
 of which may relieve the monotony of country life, and add a 
 new interest to foreign travel. 
 
 My object in this chapter is to endeavour to show how 
 Botany should, in my judgment, be taught so 
 as to give the best results — both as an instrument th?s'^c"aptlr 
 for the training of the mind, and as a means of 
 widening and deepening the knowledge of the young during 
 the years of school life.
 
 262 The Aims and Practice of Teaching, [Chap, 
 
 It may be well to state at this point that the secondary- 
 school of which I am here thmking is one 
 ofthe'taugM^^ which providcs instruction for boys and girls 
 between the age of ten or eleven as the lower 
 limit and sixteen or seventeen as the upper limit. Where 
 pupils remain until the age of eighteen or nineteen at a 
 school preparatory to the Universities, special arrangements 
 would have to be made other than those described in this 
 chapter. Again, it is implied in what is here said that the 
 teacher is so far free and untrammelled in his 
 thrtellhTr°^ work that he may frame for himself such a 
 scheme of instruction as best commends itself 
 to his judgment. For it will be found that the recommenda- 
 tions herein made will involve, for the school stage of Botany, 
 a remodelling of the syllabuses issued by certain examining 
 bodies, and adhered to by most of the popular text-books. 
 
 I would lay down in the very front of my proposals this 
 M th d to be pf'^'^ciple, that all the teaching of Botany in 
 pursued in the sccoudary school should be of a practical 
 
 cassteac ing. character. By this is meant that specimens of 
 plants or parts of plants should be provided, so that every 
 pupil may as far as possible have one such specimen entirely 
 to himself. The class should be seated at desks with flat 
 tops, and each pupil should be supplied with a pocket-knife 
 or scalpel, a pair of mounted needles, a tripod simple lens, 
 pencil and paper. The teacher, too, should have at his dis- 
 posal a low table and a blackboard. These arrangements 
 made, the teacher proceeds to gather from tlie pupils in their 
 own words a descrii)tion of the object under examination, 
 supplements it with additions of his own where the pupils 
 fail, draws its parts upon the blackboard for greater clearness, 
 requires each pupil to draw the same from his own specimen, 
 gives directions as to what dissections should be made, writes 
 down new terms upon the blackboard, and finally re{[uires a
 
 XI.] Botany. 263 
 
 reproduction of the whole at the end of the lesson, or in the 
 interval between it and the next. No text-book of Botany is 
 used in the class-room, and no book-work is prescribed by 
 way of preparation. 
 
 It will at once be seen that this is merely a continuation 
 of the system of ' object-lessons,' which has long 
 
 r , , • , ■ , , , • Extension of 
 
 found a place m the primary school, where it the system of 
 is destined in the future to have a still greater ' object les- 
 
 ° sons. 
 
 development. The chief difference is that, while 
 ' object-lessons ' have hitherto been more or less disconnected, 
 every lesson being complete in itself, the lessons in Botany 
 here contemplated would form a connected series, resulting, in 
 the course of a year or two, in a fair acquaintance with the 
 elements of the science. 
 
 Again, this method is represented at a later stage by the 
 laboratory practice of the student in a college. , ^ ^ 
 
 •^ ^ _ '-' Introductory 
 
 The difference here is that the lectures and to Laboratory 
 their illustrative accompaniments are often un- ^"^^"^ "^^' 
 avoidably separated in time, that the student employs the 
 compound microscope for his investigations, and that he is 
 left to a much greater extent to his own resources. There 
 is, however, the same verification of the statements of the 
 teacher as far as may be, and the same careful record of the 
 observations in the form of notes and drawings. The student 
 now begins, if ever, to observe and record on his own initiative. 
 
 The teaching in the secondary school should be inter- 
 mediate between the object-lesson of the primary school and 
 the laboratory practice of the college. The pupil is less in 
 leading-strings than in the primary stage, but more guided and 
 directed than in the later stage. 
 
 But just as there is no 'object-lesson' without the object, 
 so there should be no lesson in Botany without 
 
 •' The provi- 
 
 the specimen or the experiment. Diagrams, sion of actual 
 however truthfully coloured, and models, how- sp^<="^ens.
 
 264 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 ever cunningly executed, should not be allowed to usurp the 
 place of the actual specimens. The enlargements of objects 
 in diagrams and models are always confusing to the beginner, 
 so that, while a figure is useful when the object itself has been 
 seen and examined, it is often a most mischievous substitute. 
 It would indeed be possible for a teacher who was a ready 
 draughtsman to dispense altogether with printed diagrams in 
 teaching the earlier stages of the subject. When they are 
 used, however, it should be to recall the actual object, and 
 not to take its place from the first. 
 
 It is involved in this method of treating the science that 
 
 the only appropriate subjects for this stage are 
 
 sion of minute those which can be fairly illustrated in the way 
 
 anatomy from described. Thus it is not possible adequately 
 
 the course. . ' ■' 
 
 to deal with the structure of the vegetable cell, 
 the chemical and physical properties of the cell-wall and cell- 
 contents, cell-division and the histological differentiation of 
 tissues, the details of the process of fertilization, or the de- 
 velopment of the embryo, as all such subjects would involve 
 for their illustration the use of the compound microscope, and 
 imply an acquaintance with its methods which it is impossible 
 to attempt to teach to children in a school. It is here that 
 the plan proposed will diverge most widely from established 
 custom. Such subjects as have been enumerated are in- 
 cluded in official syllabuses of elementary Botany and occupy 
 many pages of most elementary text-books. It is not un- 
 common to find a book designed for school use 
 
 The method , . . , , ,, . , . 
 
 of most text- begm With the cell, passmg on to the tissues 
 books not ana- ^^-^^ ^^^ Organs, and finally devoting a compara- 
 tively small space to the grouping of plants into 
 their families. It has been said that a child in his own pro- 
 gress towards manhood lives through again the history of the 
 race. Now the history of Botany shows that the first thing 
 that engaged the attention of man was external morphology
 
 XI.] Botany. 265 
 
 and classification, and then, when his methods became more 
 perfect, internal anatomy and histology. So, too, it is the 
 plant as a whole that should first be presented to the atten- 
 tion of the child, then such parts as are visible to the un- 
 aided eye, and last of all the minute anatomy of the tissues 
 and cells. It cannot be too strongly urged that the study of 
 cell and tissue, if thrust upon the learner before 
 
 , r 1- 1 1 1 1 The mischie- 
 
 its tmie, IS not only of little value, but ham- vous effect of 
 pers him m his later progress. It burdens the ^^^ prevailing 
 
 ^ . method. 
 
 memory, and distracts attention from those parts 
 of the subject which might be made of real interest. It is 
 necessarily acquired solely by means of highly magnified 
 pictures, a process which is in direct opposition to the methods 
 of the experimental sciences. 
 
 It goes without saying that no microscopic organisms — 
 algae or fungi — are appropriate subjects of study . 
 
 in the school. On the other hand, there is no sionofaii 
 reason why organisms like ferns, mosses, sea- admkoTm^-'^ 
 weeds, and the larger fungi which can be readily croscopic 
 handled, should not be included in a school- 
 course, so far, that is to say, as their external differentiation 
 and general habit are concerned. It must puzzle a school- 
 boy to find a book on Botany silent about such a plant as a 
 mushroom, while it enlarges on plants much less familiar. 
 'Put yourself in his place' is an excellent maxim for the teacher. 
 
 Again, there is no reason why simple lessons on vegetable 
 physiology should not be included in such a 
 course. The exercises will, however, be of less sion of demon- 
 value in proportion as the pupils are unable to strations in 
 
 '■ '■ _ ^ ^ . physiology. 
 
 repeat the experiments of the teacher. It is a 
 matter of congratulation that we now possess in English a 
 book with the aid of which any teacher may arrange a series 
 of simple experiments to illustrate such subjects as helio- 
 tropism, geotropism, transpiration, respiration, and carbon-
 
 266 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 assimilation. A comparatively small outlay will provide all 
 the apparatus necessary. 
 
 Nor need the material for study be restricted to native 
 British plants and their products. No plants, 
 
 Theinclu- . ^ . . , ,, • , 
 
 sion of extra- native or foreign, should come amiss to the 
 British flowers teacher of Botany. Manv plants like the 
 
 and fruits. . ■' . ■ ^ 
 
 Dahlia, Fuchsia, Pelargonium, Sunflower, and 
 Laurel are as familiar to children as our indigenous flora, 
 and should be equally included. Again, Brazil nuts, almonds, 
 figs, dates, raisins, bananas, &c. are all serviceable botanical 
 specimens. 
 
 A word of warning on the use of technical terms will 
 
 not be out of place. There is little doubt 
 
 The use of ^ 
 
 technical that the frequent occurrence of difficult tech- 
 
 terms, nical terms in elementary books has been a 
 
 real hindrance to progress, and the number of such terms is 
 often in inverse ratio to the size of the book. The first 
 question should be, whether there is any real necessity for a 
 strange technical term at all. ' Salver-shaped ' is as good as 
 ' hypocrateriform,' 'funnel-shaped' as ' infundibuliform,' 'seed- 
 plants' as ' spermaphytes,' and so on. When, however, a 
 technical term is desirable, or is thoroughly established in 
 the language of the subject, care should always be taken 
 that the idea covered by the term should be made familiar 
 before the term is introduced. Take for example the term 
 'dicotyledon.' If the pupil be shown a germinating sycamore 
 with the pair of green leaves unfolding, he will realize the 
 propriety of the term 'seed-leaf to distinguish these from 
 the ordinary foliage-leaf. When the idea has become familiar 
 by the comparison of other cases, as the beech, ash, cabbage, 
 cress, &c. the term ' cotyledon ' may be trusted to make its 
 way, especially if its etymological meaning be discussed on 
 its introduction. 'Dicotyledon,' 'acotyledon,' 'monocotyledon' 
 follow thereupon without difficulty. Again, if it be established
 
 XI.] Botany. 267 
 
 that plants, like animals, require air for the sake of the 
 oxygen, the use of the term ' breathing ' might precede that 
 of ' respiration.' So, too, a leaf might be found to be shaped 
 like an arrow-head, and the term 'sagittate' be reached as a 
 relief from the less convenient compound 'arrowhead-shaped.' 
 Teachers should never fail to explain the origin of a technical 
 term, and to call attention to other words from the same 
 source. The lesson in Botany may thus be brought to bear 
 on the lesson in English, just as it may on the Drawing 
 lesson when parts are sketched, and on the lesson in Geo- 
 graphy when the native countries of our various familiar exotic 
 plants are ascertained. 
 
 It may be thought difficult, if not impossible, to pursue the 
 study of Botany in a school regularly through- 
 
 1 m, -1 • -1 rT-.i The subject 
 
 out the year. 1 his, however, is a mistake. 1 he may be pur- 
 sprinLf, summer and autumn will, in the country, ^"^'^ ^^^" '" 
 
 ^ *' . ' . •" winter. 
 
 supply ample specimens of flower and fruit for 
 examination, and the structure of flower and fruit will always 
 form a large part of the subject. Material, too, may be found 
 for study even in the dead of winter. Take for instance a 
 potato, which may be obtained at any season. The eyes, the 
 skin, the starchy interior may be examined ; a discussion of 
 its morphology, whether stem or root, follows; and then the 
 instructive phenomena attending its sprouting ; and all this 
 is good material for Botanical study. Again, a series of 
 sections sawn off a bough might form a suitable subject 
 for a lesson in the dead season. The pith, the rings of 
 growth, the medullary rays, the circular line of cleavage out- 
 side the wood, the stringy bast, the corky bark might be 
 observed, sketched and discussed. The contrast in structure 
 between an apple and an orange, a horse-chestnut and a sweet 
 chestnut, a raisin and a prune, a hazel-nut, a walnut, and a 
 Brazil nut, are all subjects for lessons when fresh material 
 may be difficult to get.
 
 268 TJie Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 With regard to those regions where Botany merges into 
 
 allied sciences, it is best at this stage to err 
 
 of^'^o^Jny to°" O" ^^^ ^^^^ of inclusion rather than exclusion. 
 
 aUied sciences The relations of the plant to the soil may ap- 
 
 to be empha- • i i i i- - i • • 
 
 sized. propriately lead to a digression on the origin 
 
 and composition of soils, on rich and poor 
 soils, and on the meaning of drainage and the manuring 
 and rotation of crops. The relation of the plant to the 
 air should lead to a digression on the composition of the 
 atmosphere ; the relations between animal and vegetable life 
 to the consideration of differences in the methods of nutrition 
 of plants and animals, and to an exposition of the entire 
 dependence of animals upon plants ; and so on. In the text- 
 books there is generally some hesitancy in trenching upon 
 the domain of a neighbouring science, but a teacher of the 
 subject in a school would do well to ignore the limits thus 
 artificially drawn for him, and rather to emphasize the inter- 
 dependence and dovetailing of the various sciences. 
 
 I now pass on to consider some of the aids to tlie suc- 
 
 Aidsto cessful teaching of IJotany in the manner which 
 
 teaching. J ii^ye attempted to describe. 
 
 The first requisite is obviously a collecting ground for the 
 
 The supply suppiy of fresh specimens of shoots, leaves, 
 of fresh ma- flowcrs, and fruit. Teachers whose schools are 
 
 terial. . . ,, -n - i , i 
 
 situate in the smaller towns will find that the 
 country lanes with their hedge-rows and ditches will afford a 
 sufficient supply of material during the greater part of the year. 
 If there be a fringe of sea-shore, a pond, a wood, or a common 
 fairly accessible, it would give an opportunity for the study of 
 the adaptations of plant life to special conditions. A teacher 
 intent upon his work will soon make himself acquainted with 
 the resources of the neighbourhood. A corner of a field to 
 which the refuse of the town has been carted is often an 
 interesting collecting-ground on account of the number of
 
 XI.] Botany. 269 
 
 escapes which it will afford — hemp, canary-grass, sunflowers, 
 tropoeolums, marigolds, caper-spurge, and tomatoes. A ballast- 
 heap near a harbour is always interesting. During inclement 
 weather a teacher will be able to obtain from the florist or 
 greengrocer at a trifling outlay sufficient material for the day's 
 lesson. During the winter season he will similarly be able 
 to purchase from the fruiterer specimens which may be turned 
 to useful purpose. 
 
 When in addition to such resources there is a shrubbery 
 or garden attached to the school, as for many other reasons 
 ought always to be the case, or when there is in the locality 
 a park, a nursery, a market-garden, or a greenhouse to 
 which the teacher may obtain access, it becomes less difticult 
 to secure a constant supply of good material. 
 
 A dated record of the specimens examined at each meeting 
 of the class ought to be carefully kept, as it will a record to 
 prove of value for reference during a second ^^ '^^'^'^ °^ 
 
 '■ ° material sup- 
 
 year. pUed. 
 
 A /tortus siccus or dried and mounted collection of the 
 plants of the neighbourhood should be formed p^ school 
 in connection with every school where Botany herbarium to 
 
 , . , , ... be established. 
 
 IS taught. By its means scholars might be 
 encouraged to identify plants which they collect on their 
 own initiative. Such a collection would moreover supply 
 material for lessons on specific, generic, and ordinal characters, 
 by bringing under the eye at one time a larger number of 
 related plants than would be possible were the teacher to 
 depend solely upon fresh material. Pupils should be en- 
 couraged to learn and to practise the method of drying and 
 preserving plants for themselves, and at the end of a vacation 
 their own contributions might help to extend the school 
 collection. 
 
 In connection with a herbarium, the teacher will find it 
 of great service to collect and dispose in boxes, in quantity,
 
 270 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 specimens which cannot be conveniently mounted on paper. 
 The samaras of the ash, ehn, and sycamore, the pappuses of 
 dandelion and thistle, and fruits and seeds of various kinds, 
 could be kept in this way, and utilised when required. 
 
 The storage of the herbarium may be made a model of neat 
 and orderly arrangement. Indeed it is better to dispense with 
 it altogether if it cannot be properly arranged and suitably 
 preserved from dust and injury. 
 
 It is sometimes convenient to preserve in spirit delicate 
 specimens, or those which are distorted in pressing and 
 drying. 
 
 It need hardly be said that an occasional excursion of the 
 class into the country lanes would prove an 
 sioilr^ ^""^""^ agreeable, and at the same time profitable, in- 
 terruption of the monotony of school-routine. 
 Roys and girls might thus be made aware, perhaps for the lirst 
 time, that there is much to learn — without the aid of books — 
 by observation and reflection outside as well as inside the walls 
 of a school. On such occasions plant-life should not be 
 permitted to engross the attention of the teacher. Other 
 departments of natural history should, as opportunity offers, 
 come in for a share of attention and comment. The mutual 
 dependence of flowers and insects is a never-failing source of 
 interest and discovery. A visit to a local museum of natural 
 history might be reserved for the dead season. 
 
 I have already alluded to a danger which is associated 
 
 The place of ^^'^'■'^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ diagrams and models. These 
 
 diagrams in aids have, however, their place in the system of 
 
 '"^' the teacher of Botany. It is a matter for regret 
 
 that many of the newer sets of diagrams, especially those which 
 come to this country from abroad, are too histological in their 
 treatment, and too wide in their range, to be altogether suit- 
 able for the stage of teaching under consideration. Indeed I 
 know as yet no better sets of diagrams for this purpose than
 
 XI.] Botany. 27 1 
 
 those of Professor Henslow, published in this country many 
 years ago, and those associated with the name of Professor 
 Oliver. 
 
 Of models of flowers and fruits I know of none to compare 
 with those supplied by Brendel, of Berlin. A 
 very useful selection for the secondary school j^odg^jg"^^ °^ 
 can be made from Brendel' s catalogue. One 
 or two compound microscopes for occasional use, and a few 
 standard books of reference, would complete the equipment of 
 accessory apparatus. 
 
 Taught in this way, children might, I think, be induced to 
 take a real living interest in the plant world 
 around them, and come face to face with Theadvant- 
 
 ' ages of the 
 
 problems of a totally different kind from those method here 
 which are presented in the other studies of the 
 school. One would then more rarely, I hope, hear the lament 
 * I have forgotten all the Botany I learnt at school,' or ' I 
 never could get over the hard names.' On the contrary, the 
 school study of Botany might be, as it ought to be, the 
 beginning of a lifelong interest in the subject. Should the 
 pupil pass on to the higher study of the subject, he would 
 find that his school-work had afforded the necessary experience 
 for the appreciation of the more advanced treatises, and that 
 careful observation with the naked eye or with a simple lens 
 is the best preparation for the intelligent use of the compound 
 microscope.
 
 272 TJie Aims and Practice of TeacJiing. [Chap. xi. 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 The following Books, &c., will be found useful where the school 
 teaching of Botany is conducted on the lines indicated in the fore- 
 going chapter : — 
 
 I. Class-books. 
 
 Naked-eye Botany, with illustrations and floral problems. 
 F. E. Kitchener, M.A., F.L.S. London : Percival and Co. 
 
 Object Lessons from Nature. Parts I. and II. L. C. Miall, 
 F.R.S. London : Cassell and Co. 
 
 Elementary Lessons in Botany. Daniel Oliver, F.R.S. 
 London : Macmillan and Co. 4.?. bd. 
 
 First Lessons in Botany. G. T. Bettany, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S. 
 London : Macmillan and Co. \s. 
 
 Primer of Botany. Sir J. U. Hooker, F.R.S. London : 
 Macmillan and Co. \s. 
 
 II. Books for Reference. 
 
 Natural History of Plants. Anton Kerner von Marilaun. 
 Translated by F. W. Oliver, M.A., D.Sc. London : Blackie and 
 Sons. 
 
 Text-book of Botany. S. H. Vines, F.R.S. London : Son- 
 nenschein and Co. 
 
 Practical Physiology of Plants. F. Darwin, F.R.S., and E. H. 
 Acton, M.A. Cambridge : University Press. 
 
 British Flora : G. Bentham, F.R.S., revised by Sir J. D. 
 Hooker, F.R.S. London : L. Reeve and Co. 
 
 III. niaij^rains. 
 
 Henslow's Diagrams, London. 
 
 Oliver's Illustrations of Botany, London. 
 
 Errera and Laurent's Planches de physiologic vdgdtale, Brussels. 
 
 JV. Models. 
 Those of R. Brendel. Berlin, W., .\usbacherstrasse 56.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Is it wise to teach Physiology at school? As knowledge 
 grows, the struggle amongst subjects for places in school- 
 curriculum and professional training increases in severity. 
 While, on the one hand, there is a demand for wider 
 knowledge, there is on the other a necessity for limiting 
 study to the subjects of greatest usefulness. Every subject 
 has to stand up and vouch for its own utility. Its value as 
 a means of education carries less weight now-a-days than 
 its value as an end. That it is itself a desirable possession 
 in after-life is reckoned as more to the point than the plea that 
 it fits the scholar both to acquire other possessions and to 
 enjoy them. 
 
 If this be the tendency of modern education, it may be 
 thought that Physiology runs but little risk of 
 failure in the competition for a place. Its education 
 usefulness is so well estabhshed that it is sure 
 to be taught unless there be hidden drawbacks to its teaching. 
 
 The subject is so wide that it lends itself to many kinds 
 of treatment, but whether it should be taught in schools at 
 all depends upon : (i) the kind of Physiology the teacher has 
 in view, and (2) the reasons for learning it which he urges^upon 
 his scholars. 
 
 s. T. 18
 
 274 
 
 The Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 It is a dangerous subject for many reasons. 
 Boys and girls, whatever their age, are naturally so self-con- 
 scious as to make it extremely undesirable that 
 im^ropeT °^ anything should be done to attract their attention 
 teaching. ^^ ^|^gjj. ^^^^ persons. The less they recognize 
 
 the existence of their bodies the better. To eat when hungry, 
 sleep when tired, run and jump when the excess of nutrition 
 over tissue-waste puts explosive energy into their limbs, should 
 be instinctive actions which require self-control to check rather 
 than effort to initiate. It is dangerous to call attention to 
 these actions lest they lose their spontaneity. Nor is it only 
 in children that there is a risk of the mechanism being 
 hampered in its action by the mere recognition of the fact 
 that it is a mechanism ; older people also are wise if they 
 avoid watching it at work. The bashfulness of the stomach- 
 to take a single example from among the organs of the body- 
 is one of its well-known attributes. It never does its work 
 efficiently when it is being watched. A chop in solitude and 
 silence is more difficult of digestion than a city-dinner in merry 
 company and amidst diverting surroundings. The kitchen-work 
 of the body is done better when the brain goes to sleep than 
 when the mind keeps a jealous eye upon this humble depart- 
 ment of the animal economy. 
 
 " Have you always had a good digestion?" was the natural 
 question with which a reporter opened his interview with the 
 centenarian Professor of Chemistry— M. Chevreul. What more 
 telling proof of the efficiency of this function could the aged 
 Professor adduce than the unstudied answer—" I have never 
 noticed"? Had it not worked well he assuredly would have 
 noticed ; but the not noticing contributed in no small degree 
 to its easy working. 
 
 To save boys and girls from doing the body harm through 
 ignorance is a great thing, but much may also be said in favour 
 of leaving them in ignorance for the body's sake.
 
 XII.] Physiology. 275 
 
 It may at any rate be safely asserted that, while it is 
 undesirable to call the attention of children to e ir . j 
 
 Self-study 
 
 the beating of their hearts, the drawing of their to be dis- 
 breath, the digestion of their food, it is more '=°"''^se 
 than undesirable, it is culpable, to say anything which will fix 
 their minds upon the more secret functions of the body and 
 thus to stimulate appetites from whose exactions they will 
 suffer sufficiently whatever precautions are taken to give them 
 the cold shoulder. Only those who have the responsible 
 charge of children know the difficulty of acting for the best 
 in these matters. On the one hand, much harm may result 
 from ignorance; on the other hand, more harm may be done 
 by instruction. Every honest boy suffers mental agony when 
 he discovers in himself desires which seem peculiar to himself 
 of all the human race, vicious, as he thinks, in tendency, and 
 proving him to be especially degraded. A few frank honest 
 words spoken without reserve by father or mother may take a 
 load off his young life. A little officious meddling may bind 
 his burden more firmly to him. That nothing should be done 
 by teachers of Physiology to enlighten children as to the 
 meaning of sex, or in any way to call attention to it, seems to 
 be too obvious for discussion. Not even the great claim of 
 modern education that it fits men and women to discharge all 
 the duties of citizenship justifies a different view. That parents 
 cannot do their duty to their children unless they are themselves 
 instructed in these matters is clear enough, but the lives of 
 children ought not to be spoilt in the expectation that they 
 may some day be parents and have children of their own. 
 Means must be found for enlightening them after they have 
 reached a safe age. 
 
 Those who urge the teaching of Physiology ought them- 
 selves to speak as physiologists who have given , . , 
 
 ^ 1^0 & Interdepend- 
 
 time and thought to the subject and realize in ence of mind 
 its full force the interdependence of mind and ^^^ '°°^^'
 
 276 TJic Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. 
 
 body. If this interaction is overlooked, it is easy to argue 
 with great show of reason that children need instruction to 
 enable them to direct the functions of the body, that there is 
 danger in leaving them to the unguided influence of their 
 instincts. We must, however, look at these questions as 
 observers of the animal economy as it is, not as idealists 
 building a body according to our own speculations ; and the 
 observation needs to be kept constantly before us that body 
 and mind seldom meddle with each other's business for good. 
 A healthy child has no body. It is simply a mind which 
 exhibits its personality in the class-room, the playing-field, and 
 the refectory. Let it find out that it has hands, and the easy 
 grace of their movement is lost. Let it discover that it has a 
 stomach, and food is put into it without appetite, or abstained 
 from when the system needs renewal. Call attention to the fact 
 that it is endowed with capabilities of continuing its race, and 
 from that moment the Nemesis which is born of death — the 
 urgent necessity to reproduce our kind — will awaken instincts 
 which are better left to slumber. 
 
 If all teaching of Physiology is to be stopped the moment 
 that there is danger of its calling attention to 
 knowledge is sclf, ouc of the chicf rcasons for which it is often 
 a dangerous advocated is swcpt away. For, without a know- 
 ledge of the organic functions of the body, 
 Physiology can do little to help men and women to take care 
 of themselves. One of the benefits which it is expected to 
 confer is the power of self-protection. It is su])posed to fit a 
 man to act as his own medical attendant. But even if the 
 whole field were open to us and a large allowance made in the 
 school time-table for instruction, we doubt whether this end 
 would be approached. "The best text-book of medicine is 
 Foster's Physiology'^ was the weighty although epigrammatic 
 summary of his advice concerning the selection of medical 
 text-books which a great London physician offered to the
 
 XII.] Physiology. 277 
 
 students assembled at his inaugural lecture. Heartily we 
 endorse this sentence, but how few there are who have the 
 time to read these five volumes of closely reasoned argument 
 or to remember the teeming observations upon which the 
 author bases his conclusions ! Constantly he leaves us in 
 doubt ; he has merely summed up the evidence so far as the 
 case has yet been heard ; we are in a position to appreciate 
 any further developments which may come under our own 
 observation. Probably seven years may be taken as the 
 average length of a medical student's training; but few would 
 dare to boast that in seven years they had mastered Foster's 
 Physiology. If they know the contents of every page, they will 
 be the first to allow that, instead of having simple rules by 
 which to try the various deviations from healthy action which 
 come before them, their training has only opened their eyes to 
 the difficulty of the subject. Not after many years of obser- 
 vation and reflection upon the working of the body in health 
 and in disease can they hope to feel that they understand its 
 physiology. And this is a subject in which inexpert experi- 
 ment may do much harm. A little knowledge of Physiology is 
 a dangerous thing. It is the parent of fads and sickly fancies. 
 Half the 'opathies and 'isms of those who assert themselves 
 strong-minded are begotten of ignorance. A lively intelligence 
 and a small stock of information will enable anyone who 
 thinks at all to find a plausible objection to every creed. It 
 needs a logical mind and well-stored memory to qualify a man 
 to appreciate the meaning of a mass of evidence and nicely to 
 appraise it. The peculiarity of our" subject is that its value 
 is thought to lie in its applications, and these applications 
 are not to indifferent objects but to the scholar himself This 
 fount is supposed to have healing virtues, and therefore it is 
 that we emphasize Pope's dictum, " drink deep or taste not 
 the Pierian spring." 
 
 Crede experto is a safe maxim in medicine, usually followed,
 
 278 TJie Aims and Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 we believe, by doctors themselves. When anything goes wrong 
 within, it is wise to place the " case" in the hands of an expert, 
 and to try and benefit not only by his advice but by the 
 discipline of following it. We cannot hope that a slight 
 acquaintance with Physiology will help in the least in the 
 treatment of illness. It may do much to prevent mischief, to 
 guard against the diseases which result from mismanagement, 
 but, for this, study is needed of those very branches of 
 Physiology which, for reasons already stated, we should exclude 
 from the school-curriculum. Even its value to adults may, as 
 we have just indicated, be much exaggerated. Certain it is 
 that the benefits to be derived from the practical application 
 of physiological knowledge do not override the drawbacks to 
 its acquisition by young people. 
 
 That it enables a child to control its functions, and that 
 it will be useful in after-life as a groundwork for household 
 medicine, are two reasons for teaching Physiology which might, 
 until examined, have been supposed to carry weight. The first 
 we disallow on the ground that it is more dangerous to call 
 attention to the functions of the body than to let them have 
 play unobserved, while, so far as the second reason goes, 
 we believe that medical treatment is best left to the doctors. 
 Has Physiology lost all claim to a place in the school curri- 
 culum because these two reasons for teaching it are disallowed ? 
 We think not. The study of Physiology has most valuable 
 qualities as a mental discipline, even though we go as far 
 as the facts warrant us in discrediting its utility. 
 
 In the first place, the human body is to many children 
 a perfect lUuebeard's chamber in its eftect upon 
 
 Use in ... 
 
 arousing their curiosity, and we hold it to be one of the 
 
 '" ^^^^ ' first duties of a teacher to take advantage of 
 
 such an instinctive liking for enquiry, and to cultivate from it a 
 love of learning in other, and, at first sight, less attractive 
 directions. An object-lesson upon such a subject as the blood-
 
 XII.] Physiology. 279 
 
 corpuscles and their work, or a sense-organ and the way in 
 which we use it, rivets attention at the time and stimulates 
 to future study. There is no sufficient reason for confining 
 the child's enterprise in investigating the world it lives in 
 to the general properties of matter and such study of animals 
 and plants as is usually defined by the term Natural History. 
 Its curiosity may fairly be gratified by telling it something 
 about the phenomena of its own bodily existence. Care should 
 indeed be taken to avoid reference to functions to which it 
 is undesirable to attract attention ; but, although these consti- 
 tute a long list of exceptions, there is plenty left which is free 
 from drawbacks. 
 
 It is not so much the teacher's business to supply the 
 furniture of life as to provide tools for making startin 
 it. Above all his mission fails if he does not point for other 
 provoke a desire to use the tools. For many ^" ^^'^^^' 
 young minds Physiology has an attractiveness possessed by few 
 other branches of natural science, and it has the unique 
 advantage of allowing the teacher to use it as a starting point 
 for teaching all other subjects. Physiology is the study of the 
 action of natural forces upon the body, and may be made the 
 excuse for lessons in chemistry, mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, 
 acoustics, and all other branches of physics ; and, indeed, it 
 cannot be understood without a knowledge of these sciences ; 
 while, for its illustration, the whole animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms need to be put under contribution, for there is no 
 modification in environment which does not result in altered 
 structure and mode of action. 
 
 Modern education is founded upon psychology. The 
 child's mind in its growth goes through many Evolution of 
 stages. We know that it is, in its development, Mind, 
 recapitulating — with many abbreviations and omissions it may 
 be, but without additions — the history of the race. The school- 
 master may, if he please, fancy himself face to face, not with a
 
 28o TJic Aims and Practice of TeacJiitig. [Chap. 
 
 class of little minds in progress of development, but with groups 
 of savages in various stages of civilization. Each stage has its 
 characteristics, of which he must take advantage if he wish to 
 get the best possible results. The first phase, so far as it 
 relates to natural science, is the phase of acquisitiveness, the 
 savage desire to possess, to collect — whether postage stamps, 
 eggs, butterflies, or minerals, it matters not. The boy plays 
 over again the laborious process of accumulation through which 
 generations of thrifty ancestors have passed. To their self- 
 restraint and watchfulness he owes his position in the world. 
 Like them he plans and works and makes his little sacrifices 
 to keep the credit side of the account in excess of the debit — a 
 string of horse-chestnuts is to him as precious a possession as a 
 field or a house was to them. This passion for collecting may 
 be turned to the best account. Collecting teaches observation 
 as no other occupation can: "This five-cent stamp belongs to a 
 different issue from that," "These two butterflies are not of the 
 same species," are conclusions based on careful comparison of 
 form and marks and colour. The proper care of a collection 
 is in itself a training in thrift and order, and may have a far- 
 reaching effect upon character. 
 
 The second phase in natural development is marked by a 
 desire to see what happens — to try experiments 
 ^^^^^ ' in physics and chemistry — to observe the habits 
 of animals and the circumstances of the lives of plants. It is 
 another form of observing, without the desire to possess as its 
 motive power. It leads most naturally to inductive reasoning. 
 Differences in action supply the reasons for difi"erences in form. 
 It even leads to the most difficult kind of induction — the 
 devising of experiments, the forecasting of phenomena which 
 have not as yet been observed. This phase of development 
 the teacher must on no account overlook. It is a faculty 
 which needs strengthening, and the time-table must make room 
 for any subject which brings it out. There are many who
 
 XII.] Physiology. 281 
 
 knoiv for one who can thi?ik. The great danger of natural 
 science — the weakness of the "modern side" — is due to the 
 credit which is assigned to the power of recollecting names and 
 facts. The boy who can remember most is reckoned the most 
 learned. It is easy to mark for facts, very difficult to assign a 
 value, in the early stages of training, to the argument by which 
 they are linked together. At the Universities it constantly 
 happens that boys who have taken entrance scholarships in 
 natural science are overhauled during the course of their three 
 years of preparation for "honours" by boys who when they 
 entered the University knew no science at all. As a mental 
 discipline the "modern side" is suitable for few. "Modern" 
 boys make a great show at the time of leaving Moderns 
 school. They know so much. Later on, when Classical 
 the stress of life begins to be felt, they find that ^^^ '°"" 
 they have not acquired the power of using their knowledge. 
 " Knowledge comes but wisdom lingers." At the University 
 they break down as soon as they reach the more abstruse parts 
 of their subjects, when facts are left behind and arguments are 
 based upon the laws derived from the analysis and grouping of 
 phenomena. Like a man who no longer sees solid ground 
 beneath his feet, they grow giddy. They have no chance of 
 distinguishing themselves in the higher branches of their 
 subjects. 
 
 Nevertheless the meagre results which often follow science- 
 training are due not to the science but to the Teaches to 
 training. Memory needs cultivation, and, for think, 
 this, facts and names and figures must be learnt. The power 
 of thinking can only be developed by the grouping and 
 explaining of facts. For this, even in its early phases, 
 Physiology is highly suitable. Structural features and functional 
 phenomena are pointed out ; the pupil at once asks the reasons 
 for these things. Wisely guided, he can be brought to find 
 the answer for himself Problems of all degrees of difficulty 
 s. T. 19
 
 282 TJic Aims mid Practice of TcacJiing. [Chap. 
 
 may be propounded. At the end, tlie meaning of moot-points 
 will need to be explained. Evidence for and against the 
 various explanations which have been formulated from time 
 to time must be placed in opposite scales, and the scholar 
 will perhaps be left with a desire to find the answers for 
 himself. 
 
 On the ground that it has a unique value in arousing 
 „ .,, interest, we recommend the teaching of ele- 
 
 Ease with ' _ o 
 
 which Physio- mcutary Physiology. It may be claimed, in the 
 ogy IS aug . ggcQn(j place, that it does more than most other 
 subjects to stimulate thought. A third argument in its favour 
 is the accessibility of its "material." The apparatus and 
 materials needed for the teaching of the natural sciences are 
 costly to acquire and often costly to house in a suitable way. 
 Museums and laboratories cannot always be had ; but what so 
 near as the human body ? It is due to the fact that it is about 
 the body that the subject owes its interest for many little minds. 
 While therefore Physiology is one of the most natural and 
 useful of subjects for object-lessons, we should not, in teaching 
 it, follow any of the text-books with which we are acquainted. 
 Attention should be aroused by asking what such and such an 
 organ is for. Say it is the ear, — for hearing. What is the 
 structure of the ear .'' Drum, ossicles, perilymph, endolymph, 
 organ of Corti, all need to be described. What is meant by 
 hearing ? Molecules, elasticity, pulsatile vibrations, conduction 
 of sound, noise, musical notes — a great part of the subject of 
 acoustics needs to be explained before this question can be 
 answered. How does the ear respond to sound? Many 
 lessons may be easily devised, which, while they take advan- 
 tage of the child's curiosity about its body, are quite free from 
 the objections set forth in the early part of this paper. But 
 from the first it must be taught as a pure science without any 
 thought of application. 
 
 This short cliapter treats tlie subject from a general point of
 
 XII.] Physiology. 283 
 
 view. Much might be added by any teacher famiUar with the 
 routine of school-work. The writer has had no such experience, 
 although on a good many occasions he has given extra lessons 
 or addresses to boys' schools. The lively interest which 
 Physiology excites is a sufficient proof of its attractiveness, 
 and it is for such extra work that we venture to think that 
 the subject should be reserved. Educational methods have 
 undergone a profound change. Johnson regretted that, even 
 in his day, the cane was going out of fashion; "But I hear 
 Sir that they learn less, so that what they gain at one end they 
 lose at the other." Latin, driven in with the cane, sums up 
 Johnson's theory of education ; and Johnson kept a school. 
 We know that he gave a good deal of thought to the theory of 
 education, albeit his practice was not successful, even with the 
 two Garricks for pupils. Could any subject be devised more 
 unattractive and useless than a dead language ? Language is 
 a means of communication. We set the boy to work from 
 morning to night at a language which he is not allowed to 
 think of as speech ! But the results ! I have no hesitation in 
 saying that, on the average, boys trained on the classical side 
 of our public schools make better men of science, of medicine, 
 of law, than the boys who come to the University from the 
 modern side ; for the classics develope the power of sustained 
 and orderly thinking. Some part of the credit for this most 
 desirable result must be attributed to the discipline of working 
 at a subject which offers in itself no temptations to work. No 
 advantages, from the school-boy point of view, are to be 
 derived from its study. It does not come near enough to his 
 own life to arouse his curiosity. His only motive for learning 
 his lesson is that his master tells him to do so ; and this we 
 think should always be sufficient. 
 
 If I may venture to generalize on so large a subject, the 
 school-curriculum should comprise lessons of two different 
 types. In the early part of the day, when the mind is
 
 284 TJie Aims and Practice of Teaching. [Chap. xii. 
 
 vigorous, the attractiveness of a subject is its drawback; but 
 for the hours when healthy limbs begin to fidget and attention 
 flags, lessons which the scholars like to learn should be kept 
 in reserve. 
 
 Few subjects are so attractive as Physiology, few can so 
 easily and inexpensively be made to serve for object-lessons. 
 Perhaps no other subject lends itself so readily to the incidental 
 teaching of other branches of natural science, or gives the 
 teacher a better chance of beguiling the scholars' feet along 
 difficult and laborious paths. 
 
 cambkidge: printed by j. and c. f. clay, at the university press.
 
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